,the ,golden ,bough1 ,a ,study in ,magic and ,religion ,the ,golden ,bough ,a ,study in ,magic and ,religion ,by ,,sir ,james ,george ,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge ,professor of ,social ,anthropology in the ,university of ,liverpool4 ,third ,edition4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,part ,i ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings ,vol4 ,,ii ,macmillan and ,co41 ,limited ,st4 ,martin's ,street1 ,london #aiag ,third ,edition ,march #aiaa ,reprinted ,july #aiaa1 #aiac1 #aiag ,,contents ,chapter ,,viii4--,departmental ,kings of ,nature ,pp4 #a-f ,the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi probably a departmental king of nature2 ,kings of ,rain in ,africa2 ,kings of ,fire and ,water in ,cambodia4 ,chapter ,,ix4--,the ,worship of ,trees ,pp4 #g-eh #a4 ,tree-spirits--,great forests of ancient ,europe2 tree-worship practised by all ,aryan races in ,europe2 trees regarded as animate2 tree-spirits1 sacrifices to trees2 trees sensitive to wounds2 apologies for cutting down trees2 bleeding trees2 trees threatened to make them bear fruit2 attempts to deceive spirits of trees and plants2 trees married to each other2 trees in blossom and rice in bloom treated like pregnant women2 trees tenanted by the souls of the dead2 trees as the abode1 not the body1 of spirits2 ceremonies at felling trees2 propitiating tree-spirits in house-timber2 sacred trees the abode of spirits2 sacred groves4 #b4 ,beneficent ,powers of ,tree-spirits--,tree-spirit develops into anthropomorphic deity of the woods2 tree-spirits give rain and sunshine2 tree-spirits make crops to grow2 the ,harvest ,may and kindred customs2 tree-spirits make herds and women fruitful2 green boughs protect against witchcraft2 influence of tree-spirits on cattle among the ,wends1 ,esthonians1 and ,circassians2 tree-spirits grant offspring or easy delivery to women4 ,chapter ,x4--,relics of ,tree-worship in ,modern ,europe ,pp4 #ei-if ,may-trees in ,europe1 especially ,england2 ,may-garlands in ,england2 ,may customs in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,greece2 ,whitsuntide customs in ,russia2 ,may-trees in ,germany and ,sweden2 ,midsummer trees and poles in ,sweden2 village ,may-poles in ,england and ,germany2 tree-spirit detached from tree and represented in human form1 ,esthonian tale2 tree-spirit represented simultaneously in vegetable and human form2 the ,little ,may ,rose2 the ,walber2 ,green ,george2 double representation of tree-spirit by tree and man among the ,oraons2 double representation of harvest-goddess ,gauri2 ,w4 ,mannhardt's conclusions2 tree-spirit or vegetation-spirit represented by a person alone2 leaf-clad mummers 7,green ,george1 ,little ,leaf ,man1 ,jack-in-the-,green1 etc472 leaf-clad mummers called ,kings or ,queens 7,king and ,queen of ,may1 ,whitsuntide ,king1 etc472 ,whitsuntide ,bridegroom and ,bride2 ,midsummer ,bridegroom and ,bride2 the ,forsaken ,bridegroom or ,bride2 ,st4 ,bride in ,scotland and the ,isle of ,man2 ,may ,bride or ,whitsuntide ,bride4 ,chapter ,,xi4--,the ,influence of the ,sexes on ,vegetation ,pp4 #ig-aai ,the marriage of the ,king and ,queen of ,may intended to promote the growth of vegetation by homoeopathic magic2 intercourse of the sexes practised to make the crops grow and fruit-trees to bear fruit2 parents of twins supposed to fertilise the bananas in ,uganda2 relics of similar customs in ,europe2 continence practised in order to make the crops grow2 incest and illicit love supposed to blight the fruits of the earth by causing drought or excessive rain2 traces of similar beliefs as to the blighting effect of adultery and incest among the ancient ,jews1 ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,irish2 possible influence of such beliefs on the institution of the forbidden degrees of kinship2 explanation of the seeming contradiction of the foregoing customs2 indirect benefit to humanity of some of these superstitions4 ,chapter ,,xii4--,the ,sacred ,marriage ,pp4 #abj-agj #a4 ,diana as a ,goddess of ,fertility--,dramatic marriages of gods and goddesses as a charm to promote vegetation2 ,diana as a goddess of the woodlands2 sanctity of holy groves in antiquity2 the breaking of the ,golden ,bough a solemn rite1 not a mere piece of bravado2 ,diana a goddess of the teeming life of nature1 both animal and vegetable2 deities of woodlands naturally the patrons of the beasts of the woods2 the crowning of hunting dogs on ,diana's day a purification for their slaughter of the beasts of the wood2 as goddess of the moon1 especially the yellow harvest moon1 ,diana a goddess of crops and of childbirth2 as a goddess of fertility ,diana needed a male partner4 #b4 ,the ,marriage of the ,gods--,marriages of the gods in ,babylonia and ,assyria2 marriage of the god ,ammon to the ,queen of ,egypt2 ,apollo and his prophetess at ,patara2 ,artemis and the ,essenes at ,ephesus2 marriage of ,dionysus and the ,queen at ,athens2 marriage of ,zeus and ,demeter at ,eleusis2 marriage of ,zeus and ,hera at ,plataea2 marriage of ,zeus and ,hera in other parts of ,greece2 the god ,frey and his human wife in ,sweden2 similar rites in ancient ,gaul2 marriages of gods to images or living women among uncivilised peoples2 custom of the ,wotyaks2 custom of the ,peruvian ,indians2 marriage of a woman to the ,sun among the ,blackfoot ,indians2 marriage of girls to fishing-nets among the ,hurons and ,algonquins2 marriage of the ,sun-god and ,earth-goddess among the ,oraons2 marriage of women to gods in ,india and ,africa2 marriage of women to water-gods and crocodiles2 virgin sacrificed as a bride to the jinnee of the sea in the ,maldive ,islands4 #c4 ,sacrifices to ,water-spirits--,stories of the ,perseus and ,andromeda type2 water-spirits conceived as serpents or dragons2 sacrifices of human beings to water-spirits2 water-spirits as dispensers of fertility2 water-spirits bestow offspring on women2 love of river-spirits for women in ,greek mythology2 the ,slaying of the ,dragon at ,furth in ,bavaria2 ,st4 ,romain and the ,dragon at ,rouen4 ,chapter ,,xiii4--,the ,kings of ,rome and ,alba ,pp4 #aga-aid #a4 ,numa and ,egeria--,egeria a nymph of water and the oak1 perhaps a form of ,diana2 marriage of ,numa and ,egeria a reminiscence of the marriage of the ,king of ,rome to a goddess of water and vegetation4 #b4 ,the ,king as ,jupiter--,the ,roman king personated ,jupiter and wore his costume2 the oak crown as a symbol of divinity2 personation of the dead by masked men among the ,romans2 the kings of ,alba as personifications of ,jupiter2 legends of the deaths of ,roman kings point to their connexion with the thunder-god2 local ,jupiters in ,latium2 the oak-groves of ancient ,rome2 ,latian ,jupiter on the ,alban ,mount2 woods of ,latium in antiquity2 ,latin worship of ,jupiter like the ,druidical worship of the oak2 sacred marriage of ,jupiter and ,juno2 ,janus and ,carnathe ,flamen ,dialis and ,flaminica as representatives of ,jupiter and ,juno2 marriage of the ,roman king to the oak-goddess4 ,chapter ,,xiv4--,the ,king's ,fire ,pp4 #aie-bjf ,sacred marriage of the ,fire-god with a woman2 legends of the birth of ,latin kings from ,vestal ,virgins impregnated by the fire2 ,vestal ,virgins as wives of the ,fire-god2 the ,vestal fire originally the fire on the king's hearth2 the round temple of ,vesta a copy of the old round hut of the early ,latins2 rude pottery used in ,roman ritual2 superstitions as to the making of pottery2 sanctity of the storeroom at ,rome2 the temple of ,vesta with its sacred fire a copy of the king's house4 ,chapter ,,xv4--,the ,fire-drill ,pp4 #bjg-bbf ,vestal fire at ,rome rekindled by the fire-drill2 use of the fire-drill by savages2 the fire-sticks regarded by savages as male and female2 fire-customs of the ,herero2 sacred fire among the ,herero maintained in the chief's hut by his unmarried daughter2 the ,herero chief as priest of the hearth2 sacred ,herero fire rekindled by fire-sticks1 which are regarded as male and female1 and are made from the sacred ancestral tree2 the sacred ,herero hearth a special seat of the ancestral spirits2 sacred fire-sticks of the ,herero represent deceased ancestors2 sacred fire-boards as family deities among the ,koryaks and ,chuckchees4 ,chapter ,,xvi4--,father ,jove and ,mother ,vesta ,pp4 #bbg-beb ,similarity between the fire-customs of the ,herero and the ancient ,latins2 rites performed by the ,vestals for the fertility of the earth and the fecundity of cattle2 the ,vestals as embodiments of ,vesta1 a mother-goddess of fertility2 the domestic fire as a fecundating agent in marriage ritual2 newborn children and the domestic fire2 reasons for ascribing a procreative virtue to fire2 fire kindled by friction by human representatives of the ,fire-father and ,fire-mother2 fire kindled by friction by boy and girl or by man and woman2 human fire-makers sometimes married1 sometimes unmarried2 holy fire and virgins of ,st4 ,brigit in ,ireland2 the oaks of ,erin2 virgin priestesses of fire in ancient ,peru and ,mexico2 the ,agnihotris or fire-priests of the ,brahmans2 kinds of wood employed for fire-sticks in ,india and ancient ,greece4 ,chapter ,,xvii4--,the ,origin of ,perpetual ,fires ,pp4 #bec-bfe ,custom of perpetual fires probably originated in motives of convenience2 races reported to be ignorant of the means of making fire2 fire probably used by men before they knew how to kindle it2 savages carry fire with them as a matter of convenience2 ,prometheus the fire-bringer2 perpetual fires maintained by chiefs and kings2 fire extinguished at king's death4 ,chapter ,,xviii4--,the ,succession to the ,kingdom in ,ancient ,latium ,pp4 #bff-cbc ,the sacred functions of ,latin kings in general probably the same as those of the ,roman kings2 question of the rule of succession to the ,latin kingship2 list of ,alban kings2 list of ,roman kings2 ,latin kingship apparently transmitted in female line to foreign husbands of princesses2 miraculous births of kings explained on this hypothesis2 marriage of princesses to men of inferior rank in ,africa2 traces of female descent of kingship in ,greece2 and in ,scandinavia2 reminiscence of such descent in popular tales2 female descent of kingship among the ,picts1 the ,lydians1 the ,danes1 and the ,saxons2 traces of female kinship or mother-kin among the ,aryans1 the ,picts1 and the ,etruscans2 mother-kin may survive in royal families after it has been superseded by father-kin among commoners2 the ,roman kings plebeians1 not patricians2 the first consuls at ,rome heirs to the throne according to mother-kin2 attempt of ,tarquin to change the line of succession from the female to the male line2 the hereditary principle compatible with the elective principle in succession to the throne2 combination of the hereditary with the elective principle in succession to the kingship in ,africa and ,assam2 similar combination perhaps in force at ,rome2 personal qualities required in kings and chiefs2 succession to the throne determined by a race2 custom of racing for a bride2 contests for a bride other than a race2 the ,flight of the ,king 7,regifugium7 at ,rome perhaps a relic of a contest for the kingdom and the hand of a princess2 confirmation of this theory from the practice of killing a human representative of ,saturn at the ,saturnalia2 violent ends of ,roman kings2 death of ,romulus on the ,nonae ,caprotinae 7#gth ,july71 an old licentious festival like the ,saturnalia for the fertilisation of the fig2 violent deaths of other ,roman kings2 succession to ,latin kingship perhaps decided by single combat2 ,african parallels2 ,greek and ,italian kings may have personated ,cronus and ,saturn before they personated ,zeus and ,jupiter4 ,chapter ,,xix4--,st4 ,george and the ,parilia ,pp4 #cbd-cdh ,the early ,italians a pastoral as well as agricultural people2 the shepherds' festival of the ,parilia on #bast ,april2 intention of the festival to ensure the welfare of the flocks and herds and to guard them against witches and wolves2 festival of the same kind still held in ,eastern ,europe on #bcrd ,april1 ,st4 ,george's ,day2 precautions taken by the ,esthonians against witches and wolves on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 when they drive out the cattle to pasture for the first time2 ,st4 ,george's ,day a pastoral festival in ,russia2 among the ,ruthenians1 among the ,huzuls of the ,carpathians2 ,st4 ,george as the patron of horses in ,silesia and ,bavaria2 ,st4 ,george's ,day among the ,saxons and ,roumanians of ,transylvania2 ,st4 ,george's ,day a herdsman's festival among the ,walachians1 ,bulgarians1 and ,south ,slavs2 precautions taken against witches and wolves whenever the cattle are driven out to pasture for the first time1 as in ,prussia and ,sweden2 these parallels illustrate some features of the ,parilia2 ,st4 ,george as a personification of trees or vegetation in general2 ,st4 ,george as patron of childbirth and love2 ,st4 ,george seems to have displaced an old ,aryan god of the spring1 such as the ,lithuanian ,pergrubiusk4 ,chapter ,,xx4--,the ,worship of the ,oak ,pp4 #cdi-cge #a4 ,the ,diffusion of the ,oak in ,europe--,jupiter the god of the oak1 the sky1 and thunder2 of these attributes the oak is probably primary and the sky and thunder secondary2 ,europe covered with oak forests in prehistoric times2 remains of oaks found in peat-bogs2 ancient lake dwellings built on oaken piles2 evidence of classical writers as to oak forests in antiquity2 oak-woods in modern ,europe4 #b4 ,the ,aryan ,god of the ,oak and the ,thunder--,aryan worship of the oak and of the god of the oak2 ,zeus as the god of the oak1 the thunder1 and the rain in ancient ,greece2 ,jupiter as the god of the oak1 the thunder1 and the rain in ancient ,italy2 ,celtic worship of the oak2 ,donar and ,thor the ,teutonic gods of the oak and thunder2 ,perun the god of the oak and thunder among the ,slavs2 ,perkunas the god of the oak and thunder among the ,lithuanians2 ,taara the god of the oak and thunder among the ,esthonians2 ,parjanya1 the old ,indian god of thunder1 rain1 and fertility2 gods of thunder and rain in ,america1 ,africa1 and the ,caucasus2 traces of the worship of the oak in modern ,europe2 in the great ,european god of the oak1 the thunder1 and the rain1 the original element seems to have been the oak4 ,chapter ,,xxi4--,dianus and ,diana ,pp4 #cgf-chg ,recapitulation3 rise of sacred kings endowed with magical or divine powers2 the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi seems to have personified ,jupiter the god of the oak and to have mated with ,diana the goddess of the oak2 ,dianus 7,janus7 and ,diana originally dialectically different forms of ,jupiter and ,juno2 ,janus 7,dianus7 not originally a god of doors2 double-headed figure of ,janus 7,dianus7 derived from a custom of placing him as sentinel at doorways2 parallel custom among the negroes of ,surinam2 originally the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi represented ,dianus 7,janus71 a duplicate form of ,jupiter1 the god of the oak1 the thunder1 and the sky4 ,,index ,pp4 #chi-dag ,,chapter ,,viii ,,departmental ,,kings ,,of ,,nature ,the preceding investigation has proved that the same ,sidenote3 ,departmental kings of nature4 union of sacred functions with a royal title which meets us in the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi1 the ,sacrificial ,king at ,rome1 and the magistrate called the ,king at ,athens1 occurs frequently outside the limits of classical antiquity and is a common feature of societies at all stages from barbarism to civilisation4 ,further1 it appears that the royal priest is often a king1 not only in name but in fact1 swaying the sceptre as well as the crosier4 ,all this confirms the traditional view of the origin of the titular and priestly kings in the republics of ancient ,greece and ,italy4 ,at least by shewing that the combination of spiritual and temporal power1 of which ,graeco-,italian tradition preserved the memory1 has actually existed in many places1 we have obviated any suspicion of improbability that might have attached to the tradition4 ,therefore we may now fairly ask1 ,may not the ,king of the ,wood have had an origin like that which a probable tradition assigns to the ,sacrificial ,king of ,rome and the titular ,king of ,athens8 ,in other words1 may not his predecessors in office have been a line of kings whom a republican revolution stripped of their political power1 leaving them only their religious functions and the shadow of a crown8 ,there are at least two reasons for answering this question in the negative4 ,one reason is drawn from the abode of the priest of ,nemi2 the other from his title1 the ,king of the ,wood4 ,if his predecessors had been kings in the ordinary sense1 he would surely have been found residing1 like the fallen kings of ,rome and ,athens1 in the city of which the sceptre had passed from him4 ,this city must have been ,aricia1 for there was none nearer4 ,but ,aricia was three miles off from his forest sanctuary by the lake shore4 ,if he reigned1 it was not in the city1 but in the greenwood4 ,again his title1 ,king of the ,wood1 hardly allows us to suppose that he had ever been a king in the common sense of the word4 ,more likely he was a king of nature1 and of a special side of nature1 namely1 the woods from which he took his title4 ,if we could find instances of what we may call departmental kings of nature1 that is of persons supposed to rule over particular elements or aspects of nature1 they would probably present a closer analogy to the ,king of the ,wood than the divine kings we have been hitherto considering1 whose control of nature is general rather than special4 ,instances of such departmental kings are not wanting4 ,sidenote3 ,kings of rain in ,africa4 ,on a hill at ,bomma near the mouth of the ,congo dwells ,namvulu ,vumu1 ,king of the ,rain and ,storm4#a ,of some of the tribes on the ,upper ,nile we are told that they have no kings in the common sense2 the only persons whom they acknowledge as such are the ,kings of the ,rain1 ,mata ,kodou1 who are credited with the power of giving rain at the proper time1 that is in the rainy season4 ,before the rains begin to fall at the end of ,march the country is a parched and arid desert2 and the cattle1 which form the people's chief wealth1 perish for lack of grass4 ,so1 when the end of ,march draws on1 each householder betakes himself to the ,king of the ,rain and offers him a cow that he may make the blessed waters of heaven to drip on the brown and withered pastures4 ,if no shower falls1 the people assemble and demand that the king shall give them rain2 and if the sky still continues cloudless1 they rip up his belly1 in which he is believed to keep the storms4 ,amongst the ,bari tribe one of these ,rain ,kings made rain by sprinkling water on the ground out of a handbell4#b ,sidenote3 ,priesthood of the ,alfai4 ,among tribes on the outskirts of ,abyssinia a similar office exists and has been thus described by an observer4 8,the priesthood of the ,alfai1 as he is called by the ,barea and ,kunama1 is a remarkable one2 he is believed to be able to make rain4 ,this office formerly existed among the ,algeds and appears to be still common to the ,nuba negroes4 ,the ,alfai of the ,barea1 who is also consulted by the northern ,kunama1 lives near ,tembadere on a mountain alone with his family4 ,the people bring him tribute in the form of clothes and fruits1 and cultivate for him a large field of his own4 ,he is a kind of king1 and his office passes by inheritance to his brother or sister's son4 ,he is supposed to conjure down rain and to drive away the locusts4 ,but if he disappoints the people's expectation and a great drought arises in the land1 the ,alfai is stoned to death1 and his nearest relations are obliged to cast the first stone at him4 ,when we passed through the country1 the office of ,alfai was still held by an old man2 but ,i heard that rain-making had proved too dangerous for him and that he had renounced his office40#c ,sidenote3 ,kings of ,fire and ,water in ,cambodia4 ,in the backwoods of ,cambodia live two mysterious sovereigns known as the ,king of the ,fire and the ,king of the ,water4 ,their fame is spread all over the south of the great ,indo-,chinese peninsula2 but only a faint echo of it has reached the ,west4 ,down to a few years ago no ,european1 so far as is known1 had ever seen either of them2 and their very existence might have passed for a fable1 were it not that till lately communications were regularly maintained between them and the ,king of ,cambodia1 who year by year exchanged presents with them4 ,the ,cambodian gifts were passed from tribe to tribe till they reached their destination2 for no ,cambodian would essay the long and perilous journey4 ,the tribe amongst whom the ,kings of ,fire and ,water reside is the ,chrais or ,jaray1 a race with ,european features but a sallow complexion1 inhabiting the forest-clad mountains and high tablelands which separate ,cambodia from ,annam4 ,their royal functions are of a purely mystic or spiritual order2 they have no political authority2 they are simple peasants1 living by the sweat of their brow and the offerings of the faithful4 ,according to one account they live in absolute solitude1 never meeting each other and never seeing a human face4 ,they inhabit successively seven towers perched upon seven mountains1 and every year they pass from one tower to another4 ,people come furtively and cast within their reach what is needful for their subsistence4 ,the kingship lasts seven years1 the time necessary to inhabit all the towers successively2 but many die before their time is out4 ,the offices are hereditary in one or 7according to others7 two royal families1 who enjoy high consideration1 have revenues assigned to them1 and are exempt from the necessity of tilling the ground4 ,but naturally the dignity is not coveted1 and when a vacancy occurs1 all eligible men 7they must be strong and have children7 flee and hide themselves4 ,another account1 admitting the reluctance of the hereditary candidates to accept the crown1 does not countenance the report of their hermit-like seclusion in the seven towers4 ,for it represents the people as prostrating themselves before the mystic kings whenever they appear in public1 it being thought that a terrible hurricane would burst over the country if this mark of homage were omitted4 ,probably1 however1 these are mere fables such as commonly shed a glamour of romance over the distant and unknown4 ,a ,french officer1 who had an interview with the redoubtable ,fire ,king in ,february #ahia1 found him stretched on a bamboo couch1 diligently smoking a long copper pipe1 and surrounded by people who paid him no great deference4 ,in spite of his mystic vocation the sorcerer had no charm or talisman about him1 and was in no way distinguishable from his fellows except by his tall stature4 ,another writer reports that the two kings are much feared1 because they are supposed to possess the evil eye2 hence every one avoids them1 and the potentates considerately cough to announce their approach and to allow people to get out of their way4 ,they enjoy extraordinary privileges and immunities1 but their authority does not extend beyond the few villages of their neighbourhood4 ,like many other sacred kings1 of whom we shall read in the sequel1 the ,kings of ,fire and ,water are not allowed to die a natural death1 for that would lower their reputation4 ,accordingly when one of them is seriously ill1 the elders hold a consultation and if they think he cannot recover they stab him to death4 ,his body is burned and the ashes are piously collected and publicly honoured for five years4 ,part of them is given to the widow1 and she keeps them in an urn1 which she must carry on her back when she goes to weep on her husband's grave4 ,sidenote3 ,supernatural powers of the ,kings of ,fire and ,water4 ,we are told that the ,fire ,king1 the more important of the two1 whose supernatural powers have never been questioned1 officiates at marriages1 festivals1 and sacrifices in honour of the ,yan or spirit4 ,on these occasions a special place is set apart for him2 and the path by which he approaches is spread with white cotton cloths4 ,a reason for confining the royal dignity to the same family is that this family is in possession of certain famous talismans which would lose their virtue or disappear if they passed out of the family4 ,these talismans are three3 the fruit of a creeper called ,cui1 gathered ages ago at the time of the last deluge1 but still fresh and green2 a rattan1 also very old but bearing flowers that never fade2 and lastly1 a sword containing a ,yan or spirit1 who guards it constantly and works miracles with it4 ,the spirit is said to be that of a slave1 whose blood chanced to fall upon the blade while it was being forged1 and who died a voluntary death to expiate his involuntary offence4 ,by means of the two former talismans the ,water ,king can raise a flood that would drown the whole earth4 ,if the ,fire ,king draws the magic sword a few inches from its sheath1 the sun is hidden and men and beasts fall into a profound sleep2 were he to draw it quite out of the scabbard1 the world would come to an end4 ,to this wondrous brand sacrifices of buffaloes1 pigs1 fowls1 and ducks are offered for rain4 ,it is kept swathed in cotton and silk2 and amongst the annual presents sent by the ,king of ,cambodia were rich stuffs to wrap the sacred sword4 ,sidenote3 ,gifts sent by the ,kings of ,fire and ,water to the ,king of ,cambodia4 ,in return the ,kings of ,fire and ,water sent him a huge wax candle and two calabashes1 one full of rice and the other of sesame4 ,the candle bore the impress of the ,fire ,king's middle finger1 and was probably thought to contain the seed of fire1 which the ,cambodian monarch thus received once a year fresh from the ,fire ,king himself ,this holy candle was kept for sacred uses4 ,on reaching the capital of ,cambodia it was entrusted to the ,brahmans1 who laid it up beside the regalia1 and with the wax made tapers which were burned on the altars on solemn days4 ,as the candle was the special gift of the ,fire ,king1 we may conjecture that the rice and sesame were the special gift of the ,water ,king4 ,the latter was doubtless king of rain as well as of water1 and the fruits of the earth were boons conferred by him on men4 ,in times of calamity1 as during plague1 floods1 and war1 a little of this sacred rice and sesame was scattered on the ground 8to appease the wrath of the maleficent spirits40 ,contrary to the common usage of the country1 which is to bury the dead1 the bodies of both these mystic monarchs are burnt1 but their nails and some of their teeth and bones are religiously preserved as amulets4 ,it is while the corpse is being consumed on the pyre that the kinsmen of the deceased magician flee to the forest and hide themselves for fear of being elevated to the invidious dignity which he has just vacated4 ,the people go and search for them1 and the first whose lurking place they discover is made ,king of ,fire or ,water4#d ,these1 then1 are examples of what ,i have called departmental kings of nature4 ,but it is a far cry to ,italy from the forests of ,cambodia and the sources of the ,nile4 ,and though ,kings of ,rain1 ,water1 and ,fire have been found1 we have still to discover a ,king of the ,wood to match the ,arician priest who bore that title4 ,perhaps we shall find him nearer home4 ,footnote #a3 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango-,kste1 ii4 #bcj4 ,footnote #b3 8,excursion de ,m4 ,brun-,rollet dans la rgion suprieure du ,nil10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 ,i,vme ,srie1 iv4 7#aheb7 pp4 #dba-dbc2 ib4 viii4 7#ahed7 pp4 #chg sq42 ,brun-,rollet1 ,le ,nil ,blanc et le ,soudan 7,paris1 #ahee71 pp4 #bbg sqq4 ,as to the rain-making chiefs of this region see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cde sqq4 ,as to the distress and privations endured by these people in the dry season1 see ,e4 de ,pruyssenaere1 8,reisen und ,forschungen im ,gebiete des ,weissen und ,blauen ,nil10 ,petermann's ,mittheilungen1 ,ergnzungsheft ,no4 #ej 7,gotha1 #ahgg71 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #c3 ,w4 ,munzinger1 ,ostafrikanische ,studien 7,schaffhausen1 #ahfd71 p4 #dgd4 ,footnote #d3 ,mgr4 ,cunot1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xiii4 7#ahda7 p4 #adc2 ,h4 ,mouhot1 ,travels in the ,central ,parts of ,indo-,china 7,london1 #ahfd71 ii4 #ce2 ,a4 ,bastian1 8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,gebirgsstmme in ,kambodia10 ,zeitschrift der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin1 i4 7#ahff7 p4 #cg2 ,j4 ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du ,cambodge 7,paris1 #ahhc71 i4 #dcb-dcf2 ,e4 ,aymonier1 8,notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des ,cambodgiens10 in ,cochinchine ,franaise3 ,excursions et reconnaissances1 ,no4 #af 7,saigon1 #ahhc71 pp4 #agb sq42 id41 ,notes sur le ,laos 7,saigon1 #ahhe71 p4 #fj2 ,le ,capitaine ,cupet1 8,chez les populations sauvages du ,sud de l',annam10 ,tour du monde1 ,no4 #afhb1 ,april #a1 #ahic1 pp4 #aic-bjd2 id41 in ,mission ,pavie1 ,indo-,chine #ahgi-ahie1 ,gographie et voyages1 iii4 7,paris1 #aijj7 pp4 #big-cah2 ,tournier1 ,notice sur le ,laos ,franais 7,hanoi1 #aijj71 pp4 #aaa sq42 ,a4 ,lavalle1 8,notes ethnographiques sur diverses tribus du ,sud-,est de l',inde-,chine10 ,bulletin de l'cole ,franaise d',extrme-,orient1 i4 7,hanoi1 #aija7 pp4 #cjc sq4 ,mgr4 ,cunot mentions only the ,king of ,fire4 ,bastian speaks as if the ,king of ,fire was also the ,king of ,water4 ,both writers report at second hand4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,trees #a4 ,tree-spirits ,sidenote3 ,great forests of ancient ,europe4 ,in the religious history of the ,aryan race in ,europe the worship of trees has played an important part4 ,nothing could be more natural4 ,for at the dawn of history ,europe was covered with immense primaeval forests1 in which the scattered clearings must have appeared like islets in an ocean of green4 ,down to the first century before our era the ,hercynian forest stretched eastward from the ,rhine for a distance at once vast and unknown2 ,germans whom ,caesar questioned had travelled for two months through it without reaching the end4#e ,four centuries later it was visited by the ,emperor ,julian1 and the solitude1 the gloom1 the silence of the forest appear to have made a deep impression on his sensitive nature4 ,he declared that he knew nothing like it in the ,roman empire4#f ,in our own country the wealds of ,kent1 ,surrey1 and ,sussex are remnants of the great forest of ,anderida1 which once clothed the whole of the south-eastern portion of the island4 ,westward it seems to have stretched till it joined another forest that extended from ,hampshire to ,devon4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,ii4 the citizens of ,london still hunted the wild bull and the boar in the woods of ,hampstead4 ,even under the later ,plantagenets the royal forests were sixty-eight in number4 ,in the forest of ,arden it was said that down to modern times a squirrel might leap from tree to tree for nearly the whole length of ,warwickshire4#g ,the excavation of ancient pile-villages in the valley of the ,po has shewn that long before the rise and probably the foundation of ,rome the north of ,italy was covered with dense woods of elms1 chestnuts1 and especially of oaks4#h ,archaeology is here confirmed by history2 for classical writers contain many references to ,italian forests which have now disappeared4#i ,as late as the fourth century before our era ,rome was divided from central ,etruria by the dreaded ,ciminian forest1 which ,livy compares to the woods of ,germany4 ,no merchant1 if we may trust the ,roman historian1 had ever penetrated its pathless solitudes3 and it was deemed a most daring feat when a ,roman general1 after sending two scouts to explore its intricacies1 led his army into the forest and1 making his way to a ridge of the wooded mountains1 looked down on the rich ,etrurian fields spread out below4#aj ,in ,greece beautiful woods of pine1 oak1 and other trees still linger on the slopes of the high ,arcadian mountains1 still adorn with their verdure the deep gorge through which the ,ladon hurries to join the sacred ,alpheus2 and were still1 down to a few years ago1 mirrored in the dark blue waters of the lonely lake of ,pheneus2 but they are mere fragments of the forests which clothed great tracts in antiquity1 and which at a more remote epoch may have spanned the ,greek peninsula from sea to sea4#aa ,sidenote3 ,tree-worship practised by all the ,aryan races in ,europe4 ,from an examination of the ,teutonic words for 8temple0 ,grimm has made it probable that amongst the ,germans the oldest sanctuaries were natural woods4#ab ,however this may be1 tree-worship is well attested for all the great ,european families of the ,aryan stock4 ,amongst the ,celts the oak-worship of the ,druids is familiar to every one1#ac and their old word for a sanctuary seems to be identical in origin and meaning with the ,latin nmus1 a grove or woodland glade1 which still survives in the name of ,nemi4#ad ,sacred groves were common among the ancient ,germans1 and tree-worship is hardly extinct amongst their descendants at the present day4#ae ,how serious that worship was in former times may be gathered from the ferocious penalty appointed by the old ,german laws for such as dared to peel the bark of a standing tree4 ,the culprit's navel was to be cut out and nailed to the part of the tree which he had peeled1 and he was to be driven round and round the tree till all his guts were wound about its trunk4#af ,the intention of the punishment clearly was to replace the dead bark by a living substitute taken from the culprit2 it was a life for a life1 the life of a man for the life of a tree4 ,at ,upsala1 the old religious capital of ,sweden1 there was a sacred grove in which every tree was regarded as divine4#ag ,the heathen ,slavs worshipped trees and groves4#ah ,the ,lithuanians were not converted to ,christianity till towards the close of the fourteenth century1 and amongst them at the date of their conversion the worship of trees was prominent4 ,some of them revered remarkable oaks and other great shady trees1 from which they received oracular responses4 ,some maintained holy groves about their villages or houses1 where even to break a twig would have been a sin4 ,they thought that he who cut a bough in such a grove either died suddenly or was crippled in one of his limbs4#ai ,proofs of the prevalence of tree-worship in ancient ,greece and ,italy are abundant4#bj ,in the sanctuary of ,aesculapius at ,cos1 for example1 it was forbidden to cut down the cypress-trees under a penalty of a thousand drachms4#ba ,but nowhere1 perhaps1 in the ancient world was this antique form of religion better preserved than in the heart of the great metropolis itself4 ,in the ,forum1 the busy centre of ,roman life1 the sacred fig-tree of ,romulus was worshipped down to the days of the empire1 and the withering of its trunk was enough to spread consternation through the city4#bb ,again1 on the slope of the ,palatine ,hill grew a cornel-tree which was esteemed one of the most sacred objects in ,rome4 ,whenever the tree appeared to a passer-by to be drooping1 he set up a hue and cry which was echoed by the people in the street1 and soon a crowd might be seen running helter-skelter from all sides with buckets of water1 as if 7says ,plutarch7 they were hastening to put out a fire4#bc ,sidenote3 ,tree-worship among the ,finnish-,ugrian peoples4 ,among the tribes of the ,finnish-,ugrian stock in ,europe the heathen worship was performed for the most part in sacred groves1 which were always enclosed with a fence4 ,such a grove often consisted merely of a glade or clearing with a few trees dotted about1 upon which in former times the skins of the sacrificial victims were hung4 ,the central point of the grove1 at least among the tribes of the ,volga1 was the sacred tree1 beside which everything else sank into insignificance4 ,before it the worshippers assembled and the priest offered his prayers1 at its roots the victim was sacrificed1 and its boughs sometimes served as a pulpit4 ,no wood might be hewn and no branch broken in the grove1 and women were generally forbidden to enter it4 ,the ,ostyaks and ,woguls1 two peoples of the ,finnish-,ugrian stock in ,siberia1 had also sacred groves in which nothing might be touched1 and where the skins of the sacrificed animals were suspended2 but these groves were not enclosed with fences4#bd ,near ,kuopio1 in ,finland1 there was a famous grove of ancient moss-grown firs1 where the people offered sacrifices and practised superstitious customs down to about #afej1 when a sturdy veteran of the ,thirty ,years' ,war dared to cut it down at the bidding of the pastor4 ,sacred groves now hardly exist in ,finland1 but sacred trees to which offerings are brought are still not very uncommon4 ,on some firs the skulls of bears are nailed1 apparently that the hunter may have good luck in the chase4#be ,the ,ostyaks are said never to have passed a sacred tree without shooting an arrow at it as a mark of respect4 ,in many places they hung furs and skins on the holy trees in the forest2 but having observed that these furs were often appropriated and carried off by unscrupulous travellers1 they adopted the practice of hewing the trunks into great blocks1 which they decked with their offerings and preserved in safe places4 ,the custom marks a transition from the worship of trees to the worship of idols carved out of the sacred wood4 ,within their sacred groves no grass or wood might be cut1 no game hunted1 no fish caught1 not even a draught of water drunk4 ,when they passed them in their canoes1 they were careful not to touch the land with the oar1 and if the journey through the hallowed ground was long1 they laid in a store of water before entering on it1 for they would rather suffer extreme thirst than slake it by drinking of the sacred stream4 ,the ,ostyaks also regarded as holy any tree on which an eagle had built its nest for several years1 and they spared the bird as well as the tree4 ,no greater injury could be done them than to shoot such an eagle or destroy its nest4#bf ,sidenote3 ,trees are regarded by the savage as animate4 ,but it is necessary to examine in some detail the notions on which the worship of trees and plants is based4 ,to the savage the world in general is animate1 and trees and plants are no exception to the rule4 ,he thinks that they have souls like his own1 and he treats them accordingly4 8,they say10 writes the ancient vegetarian ,porphyry1 8that primitive men led an unhappy life1 for their superstition did not stop at animals but extended even to plants4 ,for why should the slaughter of an ox or a sheep be a greater wrong than the felling of a fir or an oak1 seeing that a soul is implanted in these trees also80#bg ,similarly1 the ,hidatsa ,indians of ,north ,america believe that every natural object has its spirit1 or to speak more properly1 its shade4 ,to these shades some consideration or respect is due1 but not equally to all4 ,for example1 the shade of the cottonwood1 the greatest tree in the valley of the ,upper ,missouri1 is supposed to possess an intelligence which1 if properly approached1 may help the ,indians in certain undertakings2 but the shades of shrubs and grasses are of little account4 ,when the ,missouri1 swollen by a freshet in spring1 carries away part of its banks and sweeps some tall tree into its current1 it is said that the spirit of the tree cries while the roots still cling to the land and until the trunk falls with a splash into the stream4 ,formerly the ,indians considered it wrong to fell one of these giants1 and when large logs were needed they made use only of trees which had fallen of themselves4 ,till lately some of the more credulous old men declared that many of the misfortunes of their people were caused by this modern disregard for the rights of the living cottonwood4#bh ,the ,iroquois believed that each species of tree1 shrub1 plant1 and herb had its own spirit1 and to these spirits it was their custom to return thanks4#bi ,the ,wanika of ,eastern ,africa fancy that every tree1 and especially every coco-nut tree1 has its spirit2 8the destruction of a cocoa-nut tree is regarded as equivalent to matricide1 because that tree gives them life and nourishment1 as a mother does her child40#cj ,in the ,yasawu islands of ,fiji a man will never eat a coco-nut without first asking its leave--8,may ,i eat you1 my chief80#ca ,among the ,thompson ,indians of ,british ,columbia young people addressed the following prayer to the sunflower root before they ate the first roots of the season3 8,i inform thee that ,i intend to eat thee4 ,mayest thou always help me to ascend1 so that ,i may always be able to reach the tops of mountains1 and may ,i never be clumsy6 ,i ask this from thee1 ,sunflower-,root4 ,thou art the greatest of all in mystery40 ,to omit this prayer would have made the eater of the root lazy1 and caused him to sleep long in the morning4 ,we are not told1 but may conjecture1 that these ,indians ascribed to the sunflower the sun's power of climbing above the mountain-tops and of rising betimes in the morning2 hence whoever ate of the plant1 with all the due formalities1 would naturally acquire the same useful properties4 ,it is not so easy to say why women had to observe continence in cooking and digging the root1 and why1 when they were cooking it1 no man might come near the oven4#cb ,the ,dyaks ascribe souls to trees1 and do not dare to cut down an old tree4 ,in some places1 when an old tree has been blown down1 they set it up1 smear it with blood1 and deck it with flags 8to appease the soul of the tree40#cc ,siamese monks1 believing that there are souls everywhere1 and that to destroy anything whatever is forcibly to dispossess a soul1 will not break a branch of a tree1 8as they will not break the arm of an innocent person40#cd ,these monks1 of course1 are ,buddhists4 ,but ,buddhist animism is not a philosophical theory4 ,it is simply a common savage dogma incorporated in the system of an historical religion4 ,to suppose with ,benfey and others that the theories of animism and transmigration current among rude peoples of ,asia are derived from ,buddhism1 is to reverse the facts4 ,buddhism in this respect borrowed from savagery1 not savagery from ,buddhism4#ce ,according to ,chinese belief1 the spirits of plants are never shaped like plants but have commonly the form either of human beings or of animals1 for example bulls and serpents4 ,occasionally at the felling of a tree the tree-spirit has been seen to rush out in the shape of a blue bull4#cf ,in ,china 8to this day the belief in tree-spirits dangerous to man is obviously strong4 ,in southern ,fuhkien it deters people from felling any large trees or chopping off heavy branches1 for fear the indwelling spirit may become irritated and visit the aggressor or his neighbours with disease and calamity4 ,especially respected are the green banyan or ch'ng1 the biggest trees to be found in that part of ,china4 ,in ,amoy some people even show a strong aversion from planting trees1 the planters1 as soon as the stems have become as thick as their necks1 being sure to be throttled by the indwelling spirits4 ,no explanation of this curious superstition was ever given us4 ,it may account to some extent for the almost total neglect of forestry in that part of ,china1 so that hardly any except spontaneous trees grow there40#cg ,sidenote3 ,particular sorts of trees tenanted by spirits2 sacrifices to tree-spirits4 ,sometimes it is only particular sorts of trees that are supposed to be tenanted by spirits4 ,at ,grbalj in ,dalmatia it is said that among great beeches1 oaks1 and other trees there are some that are endowed with shades or souls1 and whoever fells one of them must die on the spot1 or at least live an invalid for the rest of his days4 ,if a woodman fears that a tree which he has felled is one of this sort1 he must cut off the head of a live hen on the stump of the tree with the very same axe with which he cut down the tree4 ,this will protect him from all harm1 even if the tree be one of the animated kind4#ch ,the silk-cotton trees1 which rear their ,sidenote3 ,silk-cotton trees in ,west ,africa4 enormous trunks to a stupendous height1 far out-topping all the other trees of the forest1 are regarded with reverence throughout ,west ,africa1 from the ,senegal to the ,niger1 and are believed to be the abode of a god or spirit4 ,among the ,ewe-speaking peoples of the ,slave ,coast the indwelling god of this giant of the forest goes by the name of ,huntin4 ,trees in which he specially dwells--for it is not every silk-cotton tree that he thus honours--are surrounded by a girdle of palm-leaves2 and sacrifices of fowls1 and occasionally of human beings1 are fastened to the trunk or laid against the foot of the tree4 ,a tree distinguished by a girdle of palm-leaves may not be cut down or injured in any way2 and even silk-cotton trees which are not supposed to be animated by ,huntin may not be felled unless the woodman first offers a sacrifice of fowls and palm-oil to purge himself of the proposed sacrilege4 ,to omit the sacrifice is an offence which may be punished with death4#ci ,sidenote3 ,sycamores in ancient ,egypt4 ,everywhere in ,egypt on the borders of the cultivated land1 and even at some distance from the valley of the ,nile1 you meet with fine sycamores standing solitary and thriving as by a miracle in the sandy soil2 their living green contrasts strongly with the tawny hue of the surrounding landscape1 and their thick impenetrable foliage bids defiance even in summer to the noonday sun4 ,the secret of their verdure is that their roots strike down into rills of water that trickle by unseen sluices from the great river4 ,of old the ,egyptians of every rank esteemed these trees divine1 and paid them regular homage4 ,they gave them figs1 raisins1 cucumbers1 vegetables1 and water in earthenware pitchers1 which charitable folk filled afresh every day4 ,passers-by slaked their thirst at these pitchers in the sultry hours1 and paid for the welcome draught by a short prayer4 ,the spirit that animated these beautiful trees generally lurked unseen1 but sometimes he would shew his head or even his whole body outside the trunk1 but only to retire into it again4#dj ,people in ,congo set calabashes of palm-wine at the foot of certain trees for the trees to drink when they are thirsty4#da ,the ,sidenote3 ,sacred trees in ,africa1 ,syria1 and ,patagonia4 ,wanika of ,eastern ,africa pay special honour to the spirits of coco-nut palms in return for the many benefits conferred on them by the trees4 ,to cut down a coco-nut palm is an inexpiable offence1 equivalent to matricide4 ,they sacrifice to the tree on many occasions4 ,when a man in gathering the coco-nuts has fallen from the palm1 they attribute it to the wrath of the tree-spirit1 and resort to the oddest means of appeasing him4#db ,the ,masai particularly reverence the subugo tree1 the bark of which has medical properties1 and a species of parasitic fig which they call retete4 ,the green figs are eaten by boys and girls1 and older people propitiate the tree by pouring the blood of a goat at the foot of the trunk and strewing grass on the branches4#dc ,the natives of the ,bissagos ,islands1 off the west coast of ,africa1 sacrifice dogs1 cocks1 and oxen to their sacred trees1 but they eat the flesh of the victims and leave only the horns1 fastened to the trees1 for the spirits4#dd ,in a ,turkish village of ,northern ,syria there is a very old oak-tree which the people worship1 burning incense to it and bringing offerings as they would to a shrine4#de ,in ,patagonia1 between the ,rio ,negro and the ,rio ,colorado1 there stands solitary an ancient acacia-tree with a gnarled and hollow trunk4 ,the ,indians revere it as the abode of a spirit1 and hang offerings of blankets1 ponchos1 ribbons1 and coloured threads on it1 so that the tree presents the aspect of an old clothes' shop1 the tattered1 weather-worn garments drooping sadly from the boughs4 ,no ,indian passes it without leaving something1 if it be only a little horse-hair which he ties to a branch4 ,the hollow trunk contains offerings of tobacco1 beads1 and sometimes coins4 ,but the best evidence of the sanctity of the tree are the bleached skeletons of many horses which have been killed in honour of the spirit2 for the horse is the most precious sacrifice that these ,indians can offer4 ,they slaughter the animal also to propitiate the spirits of the deep and rapid ,sidenote3 ,sacrifices to trees4 rivers which they have often to ford or swim4#df ,the ,kayans of ,central ,borneo ascribe souls to the trees which yield the poison they use to envenom their arrows4 ,they think that the spirit of the tasem tree 7,antiaris toxicaria7 is particularly hard to please2 but if the wood has a strong and agreeable scent1 they know that the man who felled the tree must have contrived by his offerings to mollify the peevish spirit4#dg ,in some of the ,louisiade ,islands there are certain large trees under which the natives hold their feasts4 ,these trees seem to be regarded as endowed with souls2 for a portion of the feast is set aside for them1 and the bones of pigs and of human beings are everywhere deeply imbedded in their branches4#dh ,among the ,kangra mountains of the ,punjaub a girl used to be annually sacrificed to an old cedar-tree1 the families of the village taking it in turn to supply the victim4 ,the tree was cut down not very many years ago4#di ,on ,christmas ,eve it is still customary in some parts of ,germany to gird fruit-trees with ropes of straw on which the sausages prepared for the festival have lain4 ,this is supposed to make the trees bear fruit4 ,in the ,mark of ,brandenburg the person who ties the straw round the trees says1 8,little tree1 ,i make you a present1 and you will make me one40 ,the people say that if the trees receive gifts1 they will bestow gifts in return4 ,the custom1 which is clearly a relic of tree-worship1 is often observed on ,new ,year's night or at any time between ,christmas and ,twelfth ,night4#ej ,sidenote3 ,trees supposed to be sensitive and to feel wounds4 ,if trees are animate1 they are necessarily sensitive and the cutting of them down becomes a delicate surgical operation1 which must be performed with as tender a regard as possible for the feelings of the sufferers1 who otherwise may turn and rend the careless or bungling operator4 ,when an oak is being felled 8it gives a kind of shriekes or groanes1 that may be heard a mile off1 as if it were the genius of the oake lamenting4 ,e4 ,wyld1 ,esq41 hath heard it severall times40#ea ,the ,ojebways 8very seldom cut down green or living trees1 from the idea that it puts them to pain1 and some of their medicine-men profess to have heard the wailing of the trees under the axe40#eb ,trees that bleed and utter cries of pain or indignation when they are hacked or burned occur very often in ,chinese books1 even in ,standard ,histories4#ec ,old peasants in some parts of ,austria still believe that forest-trees are animate1 and will not allow an incision to be made in the bark without special cause2 they have heard from their fathers that the tree feels the cut not ,sidenote3 ,apologies offered to trees for cutting them down4 less than a wounded man his hurt4 ,in felling a tree they beg its pardon4#ed ,it is said that in the ,upper ,palatinate also old woodmen still secretly ask a fine1 sound tree to forgive them before they cut it down4#ee ,so in ,jarkino the woodman craves pardon of the tree he fells4#ef ,before the ,ilocanes of ,luzon cut down trees in the virgin forest or on the mountains1 they recite some verses to the following effect3 8,be not uneasy1 my friend1 though we fell what we have been ordered to fell40 ,this they do in order not to draw down on themselves the hatred of the spirits who live in the trees1 and who are apt to avenge themselves by visiting with grievous sickness such as injure them wantonly4#eg ,when the ,tagalogs of the ,philippines wish to pluck a flower1 they ask leave of the genius 7nono7 of the flower to do so2 when they are obliged to cut down a tree they beg pardon of the genius of the tree and excuse themselves by saying that it was the priest who bade them fell it4#eh ,among the ,tigre-speaking tribes in the north of ,abyssinia people are afraid to fell a green and fruit-bearing tree lest they incur the curse of ,god1 which is heard in the groaning of the tree as it sinks to the ground4 ,but if a man is bold enough to cut down such a tree1 he will say to it1 8,thy curse abide in thee10 or he will allege that it was not he but an elephant or a rhinoceros that knocked it down4#ei ,amongst the ,hos of ,togoland1 in ,west ,africa1 when a man wishes to make palm-wine he hires woodmen to fell the trees4 ,they go into the palm-wood1 set some meal on the ground and say to the wood1 8,that is your food4 ,the old man at home sent us to cut you down4 ,we are still children who know nothing at all4 ,the old man at home has sent us40 ,they say this because they think that the wood is a spirit and that it is angry with them4#fj ,before a ,karo ,batak cuts down a tree1 he will offer it betel and apologies2 and if in passing the place afterwards he should see the tree weeping or1 as we should say1 exuding sap1 he hastens to console it by sprinkling the blood of a fowl on the stump4#fa ,the ,basoga of ,central ,africa think that when a tree is cut down the angry spirit which inhabits it may cause the death of the chief and his family4 ,to prevent this disaster they consult a medicine-man before they fell a tree4 ,if the man of skill gives leave to proceed1 the woodman first offers a fowl and a goat to the tree2 then as soon as he has given the first blow with the axe1 he applies his mouth to the cut and sucks some of the sap4 ,in this way he forms a brotherhood with the tree1 just as two men become blood-brothers by sucking each other's blood4 ,after that he can cut down his tree-brother with impunity4#fb ,an ancient ,indian ritual directs that in preparing to fell a tree the woodman should lay a stalk of grass on the spot where the blow is to fall1 with the words1 8,o plant1 shield it60 and that he should say to the axe1 8,o axe1 hurt it not60 ,when the tree had fallen1 he poured melted butter on the stump1 saying1 8,grow thou out of this1 ,o lord of the forest1 grow with a hundred shoots6 ,may we grow with a thousand shoots60 ,then he anointed the severed stem and wound a rope of grass round it4#fc ,sidenote3 ,bleeding trees4 ,again1 when a tree or plant is cut it is sometimes thought to bleed4 ,some ,indians dare not cut a certain plant1 because there comes out a red juice which they take for the blood of the plant4#fd ,in ,samoa there was a grove of trees which no one dared hew down4 ,once some strangers tried to do so1 but blood flowed from the tree1 and the sacrilegious strangers fell ill and died4#fe ,down to #ahei there stood a sacred larch-tree at ,nauders in the ,tyrol which was thought to bleed whenever it was cut2 moreover people fancied that the steel pierced the woodman's body to the same depth that it pierced the tree1 and that the wound on his body would not heal until the bark closed over the scar on the trunk4 ,so sacred was the tree that no one would gather fuel or cut timber near it2 and to curse1 scold1 or quarrel in its neighbourhood was regarded as a crying sin which would be supernaturally punished on the spot4 ,angry disputants were often hushed with the warning whisper1 8,don't1 the sacred tree is here40#ff ,sidenote3 ,trees threatened in order to make them bear fruit4 ,but the spirits of vegetation are not always treated with deference and respect4 ,if fair words and kind treatment do not move them1 stronger measures are sometimes resorted to4 ,the durian-tree of the ,east ,indies1 whose smooth stem often shoots up to a height of eighty or ninety feet without sending out a branch1 bears a fruit of the most delicious flavour and the most disgusting stench4 ,the ,malays cultivate the tree for the sake of its fruit1 and have been known to resort to a peculiar ceremony for the purpose of stimulating its fertility4 ,near ,jugra in ,selangor there is a small grove of durian-trees1 and on a specially chosen day the villagers used to assemble in it4 ,thereupon one of the local sorcerers would take a hatchet and deliver several shrewd blows on the trunk of the most barren of the trees1 saying1 8,will you now bear fruit or not8 ,if you do not1 ,i shall fell you40 ,to this the tree replied through the mouth of another man who had climbed a mangostin-tree hard by 7the durian-tree being unclimbable71 8,yes1 ,i will now bear fruit2 ,i beg you not to fell me40#fg ,so in ,japan to make trees bear fruit two men go into an orchard4 ,one of them climbs up a tree and the other stands at the foot with an axe4 ,the man with the axe asks the tree whether it will yield a good crop next year and threatens to cut it down if it does not4 ,to this the man among the branches replies on behalf of the tree that it will bear abundantly4#fh ,odd as this mode of horticulture may seem to us1 it has its exact parallels in ,europe4 ,on ,christmas ,eve many a ,south ,slavonian and ,bulgarian peasant swings an axe threateningly against a barren fruit-tree1 while another man standing by intercedes for the menaced tree1 saying1 8,do not cut it down2 it will soon bear fruit40 ,thrice the axe is swung1 and thrice the impending blow is arrested at the entreaty of the intercessor4 ,after that the frightened tree will certainly bear fruit next year4#fi ,so at the village of ,ucria in ,sicily1 if a tree obstinately refuses to bear fruit1 the owner pretends to hew it down4 ,just as the axe is about to fall1 a friend intercedes for the tree1 begging him to have patience for one year more1 and promising not to interfere again if the culprit has not mended his ways by then4 ,the owner grants his request1 and the ,sicilians say that a tree seldom remains deaf to such a menace4 ,the ceremony is performed on ,easter ,saturday4#gj ,in ,armenia the same pantomime is sometimes performed by two men for the same purpose on ,good ,friday4#ga ,in the ,abruzzi the ceremony takes place before sunrise on the morning of ,st4 ,john's ,day 7,midsummer ,day74 ,the owner threatens the trees which are slow to bear fruit4 ,thrice he walks round each sluggard repeating his threat and striking the trunk with the head of an axe4#gb ,in ,lesbos1 when an orange-tree or a lemon-tree does not bear fruit1 the owner will sometimes set a looking-glass before the tree2 then standing with an axe in his hand over against the tree and gazing at its reflection in the glass he will feign to fall into a passion and will say aloud1 8,bear fruit1 or ,i'll cut you down40#gc ,when cabbages merely curl their leaves instead of forming heads as they ought to do1 an ,esthonian peasant will go out into the garden before sunrise1 clad only in his shirt1 and armed with a scythe1 which he sweeps over the refractory vegetables as if he meant to cut them down4 ,this intimidates the cabbages and brings them to a sense of their duty4#gd ,sidenote3 ,attempts to deceive the spirits of trees and plants4 ,if ,european peasants thus know how to work on the fears of cabbages and fruit-trees1 the subtle ,malay has learned how to overreach the simple souls of the plants and trees that grow in his native land4 ,thus1 when a bunch of fruit hangs from an aren palm-tree1 and in reaching after it you tread on some of the fallen fruit1 the ,galelareese say that you ought to grunt like a wild boar in order that your feet may not itch4 ,the chain of reasoning seems weak to a ,european mind1 but the natives find no flaw in it4 ,they have observed that wild boars are fond of the fruit1 and run freely about among it as it lies on the ground4 ,from this they infer that the animal's feet are proof against the itch which men suffer through treading on the fruit2 and hence they conclude that if1 by grunting in a natural and life-like manner1 you can impress the fruit with the belief that you are a pig1 it will treat your feet as tenderly as the feet of his friends the real pigs4#ge ,again1 pregnant women in ,java sometimes take a fancy to eat the wild species of a particular plant 7,colocasia antiquorum71 which1 on account of its exceedingly pungent taste1 is not commonly used as food by human beings1 though it is relished by pigs4 ,in such a case it becomes the husband's duty to go and look for the plant1 but before he gathers it he takes care to grunt loudly1 in order that the plant may take him for a pig1 and so mitigate the pungency of its flavour4#gf ,again1 in the ,madiun district of ,java there grows a plant of which the fruit is believed to be injurious for men1 but not for apes4 ,the urchins who herd buffaloes1 and to whom nothing edible comes amiss1 eat this fruit also2 but before plucking it they take the precaution of mimicking the voices of apes1 in order to persuade the plant that its fruit is destined for the maw of these creatures4#gg ,once more1 the ,javanese scrape the rind of a certain plant 7,sarcolobus narcoticus7 into a powder1 with which they poison such dangerous beasts as tigers and wild boars4 ,but the rind is believed not to be a poison for men4 ,hence the person who gathers the plant has to observe certain precautions in order that its baneful quality may not be lost in passing through his hands4 ,he approaches it naked and creeping on all fours to make the plant think that he is a ravenous beast and not a man1 and to strengthen the illusion he bites the stalk4 ,after that the deadly property of the rind is assured4 ,but even when the plant has been gathered and the powder made from it in strict accordance with certain superstitious rules1 care is still needed in handling the powder1 which is regarded as alive and intelligent4 ,it may not be brought near a corpse1 nor may a corpse be carried past the house in which the powder is kept4 ,for if either of these things were to happen1 the powder1 seeing the corpse1 would hastily conclude that it had already done its work1 and so all its noxious quality would be gone4#gh ,the ,indians of the ,upper ,orinoco extract a favourite beverage from certain palm-trees which grow in their forests4 ,in order to make the trees bear abundance of fruit the medicine-men blow sacred trumpets under them2 but how this is supposed to produce the desired effect does not appear4 ,the trumpets 7botutos7 are objects of religious veneration2 no woman may look on them under pain of death4 ,candidates for initiation into the mystery of the trumpets must be men of good character and celibate4 ,the initiated members scourge each other1 fast1 and practise other austerities4#gi ,sidenote3 ,trees married to each other4 ,the conception of trees and plants as animated beings naturally results in treating them as male and female1 who can be married to each other in a real1 and not merely a figurative or poetical sense of the word4 ,the notion is not purely fanciful1 for plants like animals have their sexes and reproduce their kind by the union of the male and female elements4 ,but whereas in all the higher animals the organs of the two sexes are regularly separated between different individuals1 in most plants they exist together in every individual of the species4 ,this rule1 however1 is by no means universal1 and in many species the male plant is distinct from the female4 ,the distinction appears to have been observed by some savages1 for we are told that the ,maoris 8are acquainted with the sex of trees1 etc41 and have distinct names for the male and female of some trees40#hj ,the ,sidenote3 ,artificial fertilisation of the date-palm4 ancients knew the difference between the male and the female date-palm1 and fertilised them artificially by shaking the pollen of the male tree over the flowers of the female4#ha ,the fertilisation took place in spring4 ,among the heathen of ,harran the month during which the palms were fertilised bore the name of the ,date ,month1 and at this time they celebrated the marriage festival of all the gods and goddesses4#hb ,different from this true and fruitful marriage of the palm are the false and barren marriages of plants which play a part ,sidenote3 ,marriages of trees in ,india4 in ,hindoo superstition4 ,for example1 if a ,hindoo has planted a grove of mangos1 neither he nor his wife may taste of the fruit until he has formally married one of the trees1 as a bridegroom1 to a tree of a different sort1 commonly a tamarind-tree1 which grows near it in the grove4 ,if there is no tamarind to act as bride1 a jasmine will serve the turn4 ,the expenses of such a marriage are often considerable1 for the more ,brahmans are feasted at it1 the greater the glory of the owner of the grove4 ,a family has been known to sell its golden and silver trinkets1 and to borrow all the money they could in order to marry a mango-tree to a jasmine with due pomp and ceremony4#hc ,according to another account of the ceremony1 a branch of a bar tree is brought and fixed near one of the mango trees in the grove to represent the bar or bridegroom1 and both are wrapt round with the same piece of cloth by the owner of the grove and his wife4 ,to complete the ceremony a bamboo basket containing the bride's belongings and dowry on a miniature scale is provided2 and after the ,brahman priest has done his part1 vermilion1 the emblem of a completed marriage1 is applied to the mango as to a bride4#hd ,another plant which figures as ,sidenote3 ,marriage of the holy basil4 a bride in ,hindoo rites is the tulasi or ,holy ,basil 7,ocymum sanctum74 ,it is a small shrub1 not too big to be grown in a large flower-pot1 and is often placed in rooms2 indeed there is hardly a respectable ,hindoo family that does not possess one4 ,in spite of its humble appearance1 the shrub is pervaded by the essence of ,vishnu and his wife ,lakshmi1 and is itself worshipped daily as a deity4 ,the following prayer is often addressed to it3 8,i adore that tulasi in whose roots are all the sacred places of pilgrimage1 in whose centre are all the deities1 and in whose upper branches are all the ,vedas40 ,the plant is especially a woman's divinity1 being regarded as an embodiment of ,vishnu's wife ,lakshmi1 or of ,rama's wife ,sita1 or of ,krishna's wife ,rukmini4 ,women worship it by walking round it and praying or offering flowers and rice to it4 ,now this sacred plant1 as the embodiment of a goddess1 is annually married to the god ,krishna in every ,hindoo family4 ,the ceremony takes place in the month ,karttika or ,november4 ,in ,western ,india they often bring an idol of the youthful ,krishna in a gorgeous palanquin1 followed by a long train of attendants1 to the house of a rich man to be wedded to the basil2 and the festivities are celebrated with great pomp4#he ,again1 as the wife of ,vishnu1 the holy basil is married to the ,salagrama1 a black fossil ammonite which is regarded as an embodiment of ,vishnu4 ,in ,north-,western ,india this marriage of the plant to the fossil has to be performed before it is lawful to taste of the fruit of a new orchard4 ,a man holding the fossil personates the bridegroom1 and another holding the basil represents the bride4 ,after burning a sacrificial fire1 the officiating ,brahman puts the usual questions to the couple about to be united4 ,bride and bridegroom walk six times round a small spot marked out in the centre of the orchard4#hf ,further1 no well is considered lucky until the ,salagrama has been solemnly wedded to the holy basil1 which stands for the garden that the well is intended to water4 ,the relations assemble2 the owner of the garden represents the bridegroom1 while a kinsman of his wife personates the bride4 ,gifts are given to the ,brahmans1 a feast is held in the garden1 and after that both garden and well may be used without danger4#hg ,the same marriage of the sacred fossil to the sacred plant is celebrated annually by the ,rajah of ,orchha at ,ludhaura4 ,a former ,rajah used to spend a sum equal to about thirty thousand pounds1 being one-fourth of his revenue1 upon the ceremony4 ,on one occasion over a hundred thousand people are said to have been present at the rite1 and to have been feasted at the expense of the ,rajah4 ,the procession consisted of eight elephants1 twelve hundred camels1 and four thousand horses1 all mounted and elegantly caparisoned4 ,the most sumptuously decorated of the elephants carried the fossil god to pay his bridal visit to the little shrub goddess4 ,on such an occasion all the rites of a regular marriage are performed1 and afterwards the newly-wedded couple are left to repose together in the temple till the next year4#hh ,on ,christmas ,eve ,german peasants used to tie fruit-trees together with straw ropes to make them bear fruit1 saying that the trees were thus married4#hi ,sidenote3 ,trees in blossom and rice in bloom treated like pregnant women4 ,in the ,moluccas1 when the clove-trees are in blossom1 they are treated like pregnant women4 ,no noise may be made near them2 no light or fire may be carried past them at night2 no one may approach them with his hat on1 all must uncover in their presence4 ,these precautions are observed lest the tree should be alarmed and bear no fruit1 or should drop its fruit too soon1 like the untimely delivery of a woman who has been frightened in her pregnancy4#ij ,so in the ,east the growing rice-crop is often treated with the same considerate regard as a breeding woman4 ,thus in ,amboyna1 when the rice is in bloom1 the people say that it is pregnant and fire no guns and make no other noises near the field1 for fear lest1 if the rice were thus disturbed1 it would miscarry1 and the crop would be all straw and no grain4#ia ,the ,javanese also regard the bloom on the rice as a sign that the plant is pregnant2 and they treat it accordingly1 by mingling in the water that irrigates the fields a certain astringent food prepared from sour fruit1 which is believed to be wholesome for women with child4#ib ,in some districts of ,western ,borneo there must be no talk of corpses or demons in the fields1 else the spirit of the growing rice would be frightened and flee away to ,java4#ic ,the ,toboongkoos of ,central ,celebes will not fire a gun in a ricefield1 lest the rice should be frightened away4#id ,the ,chams of ,binh-,thuan1 in ,cochin-,china1 do not dare to touch the rice in the granary at mid-day1 because the rice is then asleep1 and it would be both rude and dangerous to disturb its noonday slumber4#ie ,in ,orissa growing rice is 8considered as a pregnant woman1 and the same ceremonies are observed with regard to it as in the case of human females40#if ,in ,poso1 a district of ,central ,celebes1 when the rice-ears are beginning to form1 women go through the field feeding the young ears with soft-boiled rice to make them grow fast4 ,they carry the food in calabashes1 and grasping the ears in their hands bend them over into the vessels that they may partake of the strengthening pap4 ,the reason for boiling the rice soft is that the ears are regarded as young children who could not digest rice cooked in the usual way4#ig ,the ,tomori of ,central ,celebes feed the ripening rice by touching it with the contents of a broken egg4#ih ,when the grain begins to form1 the people of ,gayo1 a district of northern ,sumatra1 regard the rice as pregnant and feed it with a pap composed of rice-meal1 coco-nut1 and treacle1 which they deposit on leaves in the middle and at the corners of the field4 ,and when the crop is plentiful and the rice has been threshed1 they give it water to drink in a pitcher1 which they bury to the neck in the heap of grain4#ii ,sidenote3 ,trees supposed to be tenanted by the souls of the dead4 ,sometimes it is the souls of the dead which are believed to animate trees4 ,the ,dieri tribe of ,south ,australia regard as very sacred certain trees which are supposed to be their fathers transformed2 hence they speak with reverence of these trees1 and are careful that they shall not be cut down or burned4 ,if the settlers require them to hew down the trees1 they earnestly protest against it1 asserting that were they to do so they would have no luck1 and might be punished for not protecting their ancestors4#ajj ,some of the ,philippine ,islanders believe that the souls of their ancestors are in certain trees1 which they therefore spare4 ,if they are obliged to fell one of these trees1 they excuse themselves to it by saying that it was the priest who made them do it4 ,the spirits take up their abode1 by preference1 in tall and stately trees with great spreading branches4 ,when the wind rustles the leaves1 the natives fancy it is the voice of the spirit2 and they never pass near one of these trees without bowing respectfully1 and asking pardon of the spirit for disturbing his repose4 ,among the ,ignorrotes1 in the district of ,lepanto1 every village has its sacred tree1 in which the souls of the dead forefathers of the hamlet reside4 ,offerings are made to the tree1 and any injury done to it is believed to entail some misfortune on the village4 ,were the tree cut down1 the village and all its inhabitants would inevitably perish4#aja ,the natives of ,bontoc1 a province in the north of ,luzon1 cut down the woods near their villages1 but leave a few fine trees standing as the abode of the spirits of their ancestors 7anitos72 and they honour the spirits by depositing food under the trees4#ajb ,the ,dyaks believe that when a man dies by accident1 as by drowning1 it is a sign that the gods mean to exclude him from the realms of bliss4 ,accordingly his body is not buried1 but carried into the forest and there laid down4 ,the souls of such unfortunates pass into trees or animals or fish1 and are much dreaded by the ,dyaks1 who abstain from using certain kinds of wood1 or eating certain sorts of fish1 because they are supposed to contain the souls of the dead4#ajc ,once1 while walking with a ,dyak through the jungle1 ,sir ,hugh ,low observed that his companion1 after raising his sword to strike a great snake1 suddenly arrested his arm and suffered the reptile to escape4 ,on asking the reason1 he was told by the ,dyak that the bush in front of which they were standing had been a man1 a kinsman of his own1 who1 dying some ten years before1 had appeared in a dream to his widow and told her that he had become that particular bamboo-tree4 ,hence the ground and everything on it was sacred1 and the serpent might not be interfered with4 ,the ,dyak further related that in spite of the warning given to the woman in the vision1 a man had been hardy enough to cut a branch of the tree1 but that the fool had paid for his temerity with his life1 for he died soon afterwards4 ,a little bamboo altar stood in front of the bush1 on which the remnants of offerings presented to the spirit of the tree were still visible when ,sir ,hugh ,low passed that way4#ajd ,in ,corea the souls of people who die of the plague or by the roadside1 and of women who expire in childbed1 invariably take up their abode in trees4 ,to such spirits offerings of cake1 wine1 and pork are made on heaps of stones piled under the trees4#aje ,in ,china it has been customary from time immemorial to plant trees on graves in order thereby to strengthen the soul of the deceased and thus to save his body from corruption2 and as the evergreen cypress and pine are deemed to be fuller of vitality than other trees1 they have been chosen by preference for this purpose4 ,hence the trees that grow on graves are sometimes identified with the souls of the departed4#ajf ,among the ,miao-,kia1 an aboriginal race of ,southern and ,western ,china1 a sacred tree stands at the entrance of every village1 and the inhabitants believe that it is tenanted by the soul of their first ancestor and that it rules their destiny4 ,sometimes there is a sacred grove near a village1 where the trees are suffered to rot and die on the spot4 ,their fallen branches cumber the ground1 and no one may remove them unless he has first asked leave of the spirit of the tree and offered him a sacrifice4#ajg ,among the ,maraves of ,southern ,africa the burial-ground is always regarded as a holy place where neither a tree may be felled nor a beast killed1 because everything there is supposed to be tenanted by the souls of the dead4#ajh ,trees supposed to be inhabited by spirits of the dead are reported to be common in ,southern ,nigeria4#aji ,thus in the ,indem tribe on the ,cross ,river every village has a big tree into which the souls of the villagers are believed to pass at death4 ,hence they will not allow these trees to be cut1 and they sacrifice to them when people are ill4#aaj ,other natives of the ,cross ,river say that the big tree of the village is 8their ,life10 and that anybody who breaks a bough of it will fall sick or die unless he pays a fine to the chief4#aaa ,some of the mountaineers on the north-west coast of ,new ,guinea think that the spirits of their ancestors live on the branches of trees1 on which accordingly they hang rags of red or white cotton1 always in the number of seven or a multiple of seven2 also1 they place food on the trees or hang it in baskets from the boughs4#aab ,among the ,buryats of ,siberia the bones of a deceased shaman are deposited in a hole hewn in the trunk of a great fir1 which is then carefully closed up4 ,thenceforth the tree goes by the name of the shaman's fir1 and is looked upon as his abode4 ,whoever cuts down such a tree will perish with all his household4 ,every tribe has its sacred grove of firs in which the bones of the dead shamans are buried4 ,in treeless regions these firs often form isolated clumps on the hills1 and are visible from afar4#aac ,the ,lkungen ,indians of ,british ,columbia fancy that trees are transformed men1 and that the creaking of the branches in the wind is their voice4#aad ,in ,croatia1 they say that witches used to be buried under old trees in the forest1 and that their souls passed into the trees and left the villagers in peace4#aae ,a tree that grows on a grave is regarded by the ,south ,slavonian peasant as a sort of fetish4 ,whoever breaks a twig from it hurts the soul of the dead1 but gains thereby a magic wand1 since the soul embodied in the twig will be at his service4#aaf ,this reminds us of the story of ,polydorus in ,virgil1#aag and of the bleeding pomegranate that grew on the grave of the fratricides ,eteocles and ,polynices at ,thebes#aah4 ,similar stories are told far away from the classic lands of ,italy and ,greece4 ,in an ,annamite tale an old fisherman makes an incision in the trunk of a tree which has drifted ashore2 but blood flows from the cut1 and it appears that an empress with her three daughters1 who had been cast into the sea1 are embodied in the tree4#aai ,on the ,slave ,coast of ,west ,africa the negroes tell how from the mouldering bones of a little boy1 who had been murdered by his brother in the forest1 there sprang up an edible fungus1 which spoke and revealed the crime to the child's mother when she attempted to pluck it4#abj ,sidenote3 ,trees sometimes conceived not as the body but merely as the abode of spirits4 ,in most1 if not all1 of these cases the spirit is viewed as incorporate in the tree2 it animates the tree and must suffer and die with it4 ,but1 according to another and probably later opinion1 the tree is not the body1 but merely the abode of the tree-spirit1 which can quit it and return to it at pleasure4 ,the inhabitants of ,siaoo1 an island of the ,sangi group in the ,east ,indies1 believe in certain sylvan spirits who dwell in forests or in great solitary trees4 ,at full moon the spirit comes forth from his lurking-place and roams about4 ,he has a big head1 very long arms and legs1 and a ponderous body4 ,in order to propitiate the wood-spirits people bring offerings of food1 fowls1 goats1 and so forth to the places which they are supposed to haunt4#aba ,the people of ,nias think that1 when a tree dies1 its liberated spirit becomes a demon1 which can kill a coco-nut palm by merely lighting on its branches1 and can cause the death of all the children in a house by perching on one of the posts that support it4 ,further1 they are of opinion that certain trees are at all times inhabited by roving demons who1 if the trees were damaged1 would be set free to go about on errands of mischief4 ,hence the people respect these trees1 and are careful not to cut them down4#abb ,on the ,tanga coast of ,east ,africa mischievous sprites reside in great trees1 especially in the fantastically shaped baobabs4 ,sometimes they appear in the shape of ugly black beings1 but as a rule they enter unseen into people's bodies1 from which1 after causing much sickness and misery1 they have to be cast out by the sorcerer4#abc ,the ,warramunga tribe of ,central ,australia believe that certain trees are the abode of disembodied human spirits waiting to be born again4 ,no woman will strike one of these trees with an axe1 lest the blow might disturb one of the spirits1 who might come forth from the tree and enter her body4#abd ,in the ,galla region of ,east ,africa1 where the vegetation is magnificent1 there are many sacred trees1 the haunts of jinn4 ,most of them belong to the sycamore and maple family1 but they do not all exhale an equal odour of sanctity4 ,the watsa1 with its edible fruit1 is least revered2 people climb it to get the fruit1 and this disturbs the jinn1 who naturally do not care to linger among its boughs4 ,the gute tubi1 which has no edible fruit1 is more sacred4 ,every ,galla tribe has its sacred tree1 which is always one individual of a particular species called lafto4 ,when a tree has been consecrated by a priest it becomes holy1 and no branch of it may be broken4 ,such trees are loaded with long threads1 woollen bands1 and bracelets2 the blood of animals is poured on their roots and sometimes smeared on their trunks1 and pots full of butter1 milk1 and flesh are placed among the branches or on the ground under them4 ,in many ,galla tribes women may not tread on the shadow of sacred trees or even approach the trees4#abe ,sidenote3 ,ceremonies at felling trees4 ,not a few ceremonies observed at cutting down haunted trees are based on the belief that the spirits have it in their power to quit the trees at pleasure or in case of need4 ,thus when the ,pelew ,islanders are felling a tree1 they conjure the spirit of the tree to leave it and settle on another4#abf ,the wily negro of the ,slave ,coast1 who wishes to fell an ashorin tree1 but knows that he cannot do it so long as the spirit remains in the tree1 places a little palm-oil on the ground as a bait1 and then1 when the unsuspecting spirit has quitted the tree to partake of this dainty1 hastens to cut down its late abode4#abg ,the ,alfoors of ,poso1 in ,central ,celebes1 believe that great trees are inhabited by demons in human form1 and the taller the tree the more powerful the demon4 ,accordingly they are careful not to fell such trees1 and they leave offerings at the foot of them for the spirits4 ,but sometimes1 when they are clearing land for cultivation1 it becomes necessary to cut down the trees which cumber it4 ,in that case the ,alfoor will call to the demon of the tree and beseech him to leave his abode and go elsewhere1 and he deposits food under the tree as provision for the spirit on his journey4 ,then1 and not till then1 he may fell the tree4 ,woe to the luckless wight who should turn a tree-spirit out of his house without giving him due notice6#abh ,when the ,toboongkoos of ,central ,celebes are about to clear a piece of forest in order to plant rice1 they build a tiny house and furnish it with tiny clothes and some food and gold4 ,then they call together all the spirits of the wood1 offer them the little house with its contents1 and beseech them to quit the spot4 ,after that they may safely cut down the wood without fearing to wound themselves in so doing4#abi ,before the ,tomori of ,central ,celebes fell a tall tree they lay a quid of betel at its foot1 and invite the spirit who dwells in the tree to change his lodging2 moreover1 they set a little ladder against the trunk to enable him to descend with safety and comfort4#acj ,the ,sundanese of the ,eastern ,archipelago drive golden or silver nails into the trunk of a sacred tree for the sake of expelling the tree-spirit before they hew down his abode4#aca ,they seem to think that1 though the nails will hurt him1 his vanity will be soothed by the reflection that they are of gold or silver4 ,in ,rotti1 an island to the south of ,timor1 when they fell a tree to make a coffin1 they sacrifice a dog as compensation to the tree-spirit whose property they are thus making free with4#acb ,before the ,gayos of ,northern ,sumatra clear a piece of forest for the purpose of planting tobacco or sugar-cane1 they offer a quid of betel to the spirit whom they call the ,lord of the ,wood1 and beg his leave to quarter themselves on his domain4#acc ,the ,mandelings of ,sumatra endeavour to lay the blame of all such misdeeds at the door of the ,dutch authorities4 ,thus when a man is cutting a road through a forest and has to fell a tall tree which blocks the way1 he will not begin to ply his axe until he has said3 8,spirit who lodgest in this tree1 take it not ill that ,i cut down thy dwelling1 for it is done at no wish of mine but by order of the ,controller40 ,and when he wishes to clear a piece of forest-land for cultivation1 it is necessary that he should come to a satisfactory understanding with the woodland spirits who live there before he lays low their leafy dwellings4 ,for this purpose he goes to the middle of the plot of ground1 stoops down1 and pretends to pick up a letter4 ,then unfolding a bit of paper he reads aloud an imaginary letter from the ,dutch ,government1 in which he is strictly enjoined to set about clearing the land without delay4 ,having done so1 he says3 8,you hear that1 spirits4 ,i must begin clearing at once1 or ,i shall be hanged40#acd ,when the ,tagales of the ,philippines are about to fell a tree which they believe to be inhabited by a spirit1 they excuse themselves to the spirit1 saying3 8,the priest has ordered us to do it2 the fault is not ours1 nor the will either40#ace ,there is a certain tree called rara which the ,dyaks believe to be inhabited by a spirit4 ,before they cut down one of these trees they strike an axe into the trunk1 leave it there1 and call upon the spirit either to quit his dwelling or to give them a sign that he does not wish it to be meddled with4 ,then they go home4 ,next day they visit the tree1 and if they find the axe still sticking in the trunk1 they can fell the tree without danger2 there is no spirit in it1 or he would certainly have ejected the axe from his abode4 ,but if they find the axe lying on the ground1 they know that the tree is inhabited and they will not fell it2 for it must surely have been the spirit of the tree in person who expelled the intrusive axe4 ,some sceptical ,europeans1 however1 argue that what casts out the axe is strychnine in the sap rather than the tree-spirit4 ,they say that if the sap is running1 the axe must necessarily be forced out by the action of heat and the expansion of the exuding gutta2 whereas if the axe remains in the trunk1 this only shews that the tree is not vigorous but ready to die4#acf ,before they cut down a great tree1 the ,indians in the neighbourhood of ,santiago ,tepehuacan hold a festival in order to appease the tree and so prevent it from hurting anybody in its fall4#acg ,in the ,greek island of ,siphnos1 if woodmen have to fell a tree which they regard as possessed by a spirit1 they are most careful1 when it falls1 to prostrate themselves humbly and in silence lest the spirit should chastise them as it escapes4 ,sometimes they put a stone on the stump of the tree to prevent the egress of the spirit4#ach ,in some parts of ,sumatra1 so soon as a tree is felled1 a young tree is planted on the stump1 and some betel and a few small coins are also placed on it4#aci ,the purpose of the ceremony seems plain4 ,the spirit of the tree is offered a new home in the young tree planted on the stump of the old one1 and the offering of betel and money is meant to compensate him for the disturbance he has suffered4 ,similarly1 when the ,maghs of ,bengal were obliged by ,europeans to cut down trees which the natives believed to be tenanted by spirits1 one of them was always ready with a green sprig1 which he ran and placed in the middle of the stump when the tree fell1 8as a propitiation to the spirit which had been displaced so roughly1 pleading at the same time the orders of the strangers for the work40#adj ,in ,halmahera1 however1 the motive for placing a sprig on the stump is said to be to deceive the spirit into thinking that the fallen stem is still growing in its old place4#ada ,the ,gilyaks insert a stick with curled shavings on the stump of the tree which they have felled1 believing that in this way they give back to the dispossessed tree-spirit his life and soul4#adb ,german woodmen make a cross upon the stump while the tree is falling1 in the belief that this enables the spirit of the tree to live upon the stump4#adc ,before the ,katodis fell a forest tree1 they choose a tree of the same kind and worship it by presenting a coco-nut1 burning incense1 applying a red pigment1 and begging it to bless the undertaking4#add ,the intention1 perhaps1 is to induce the spirit of the former tree to shift its quarters to the latter4 ,in clearing a wood1 a ,galelareese must not cut down the last tree till the spirit in it has been induced to go away4#ade ,when the ,dyaks fell the jungle on the hills1 they often leave a few trees standing on the hill-tops as a refuge for the dispossessed tree-spirits4#adf ,sailing up the ,baram river in ,sarawak you pass from time to time a clearing in the forest where manioc is cultivated4 ,in the middle of every one of these clearings a solitary tree is always left standing as a home for the ejected spirits of the wood4 ,its boughs are stripped off1 all but the topmost1 and just under its leafy crown two cross-pieces are fastened from which rags dangle4#adg ,similarly in ,india1 the ,gonds allow a grove of typical trees to remain as a home or reserve for the woodland spirits when they are clearing away a jungle4#adh ,the ,mundaris have sacred groves which were left standing when the land was cleared1 lest the sylvan gods1 disquieted at the felling of the trees1 should abandon the place4#adi ,the ,miris in ,assam are unwilling to break up new land for cultivation so long as there is fallow land available2 for they fear to offend the spirits of the woods by hewing down trees needlessly4#aej ,on the other hand1 when a child has been lost1 the ,padams of ,assam think that it has been stolen by the spirits of the wood2 so they retaliate on the spirits by felling trees till they find the child4 ,the spirits1 fearing to be left without a tree in which to lodge1 give up the child1 and it is found in the fork of a tree4#aea ,sidenote3 ,propitiating tree-spirits in house-timber4 ,even when a tree has been felled1 sawn into planks1 and used to build a house1 it is possible that the woodland spirit may still be lurking in the timber1 and accordingly some people seek to propitiate him before or after they occupy the new house4 ,hence1 when a new dwelling is ready the ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes kill a goat1 a pig1 or a buffalo1 and smear all the woodwork with its blood4 ,if the building is a lobo or spirit-house1 a fowl or a dog is killed on the ridge of the roof1 and its blood allowed to flow down on both sides4 ,the ruder ,tonapoo in such a case sacrifice a human being on the roof4 ,this sacrifice on the roof of a lobo or temple serves the same purpose as the smearing of blood on the woodwork of an ordinary house4 ,the intention is to propitiate the forest-spirits who may still be in the timber2 they are thus put in good humour and will do the inmates of the house no harm4 ,for a like reason people in ,celebes and the ,moluccas are much afraid of planting a post upside down at the building of a house2 for the forest-spirit1 who might still be in the timber1 would very naturally resent the indignity and visit the inmates with sickness4#aeb ,the ,bahaus or ,kayans of central ,borneo are of opinion that tree-spirits stand very stiffly on the point of honour and visit men with their displeasure for any injury done to them4 ,hence after building a house1 whereby they have been forced to illtreat many trees1 these people observe a period of penance for a year1 during which they must abstain from many things1 such as the killing of bears1 tiger-cats1 and serpents4 ,the period of taboo is brought to an end by a ceremony at which head-hunting1 or the pretence of it1 plays a part4 ,the ,ooloo-,ayar ,dyaks on the ,mandai river are still more punctilious in their observance of taboos after building a house4 ,the length of the penance depends chiefly on the kind of timber used in the construction of the dwelling4 ,if the timber was the valuable ironwood1 the inmates of the house must deny themselves various dainties for three years4 ,but the spirits of humbler trees are less exacting4#aec ,when the ,kayans have felled an ironwood tree in order to cut it up into planks for a roof1 they will offer a pig to the spirits of the tree1 hoping thus to prevent the spirits from molesting the souls of persons assembled under the roof4#aed ,sidenote3 ,sacred trees the abode of spirits4 ,thus the tree is regarded1 sometimes as the body1 sometimes as merely the house of the tree-spirit2 and when we read of sacred trees which may not be cut down because they are the seat of spirits1 it is not always possible to say with certainty in which way the presence of the spirit in the tree is conceived4 ,in the following cases1 perhaps1 the trees are regarded as the dwelling-place of the spirits rather than as their bodies4 ,the ,sea ,dyaks point to many a tree as sacred because it is the abode of a spirit or spirits1 and to cut one of these down would provoke the spirit's anger1 who might avenge himself by visiting the sacrilegious woodman with sickness4#aee ,the ,battas of ,sumatra have been known to refuse to cut down certain trees because they were the abode of mighty spirits who would resent the injury4#aef ,one of the largest and stateliest of the forest trees in ,perak is known as toallong2 it has a very poisonous sap which produces great irritation when it comes into contact with the skin4 ,many trees of this species have large hollow knobs on their trunks where branches have been broken off4 ,these knobs are looked upon by the ,malays as houses of spirits1 and they object strongly to cut down trees that are thus disfigured1 believing that the man who fells one of them will die within the year4 ,when clearings are made in the forest these trees are generally left standing to the annoyance and expense of planters4#aeg ,the ,siamese fear to cut down any very fine trees lest they should incur the anger of the powerful spirits who inhabit them4#aeh ,the ,en1 a tribe of ,upper ,burma1 worship the spirits of hills and forests1 and over great tracts of country they will not lay out fields for fear of offending the spirits4 ,they say that if a tree is felled a man dies4#aei ,in every ,khond village a large grove1 generally of sl trees 7,shorea robusta71 is dedicated to the forest god1 whose favour is sought by the sacrifice of birds1 hogs1 and sheep1 together with an offering of rice and an addled egg4 ,this sacred grove is religiously preserved4 ,the young trees are occasionally pruned1 but not a twig may be cut for use without the formal consent of the village and the ceremonial propitiation of the god4#afj ,in some parts of ,berar the holy groves are so carefully preserved1 that during the annual festivals held in them it is customary to gather and burn solemnly all dead and fallen branches and trees4#afa ,the ,larka ,kols of ,india believe that the tops of trees are the abode of spirits who are disturbed by the felling of the trees and will take vengeance4#afb ,the ,parahiya1 a ,dravidian tribe of ,mirzapur1 think that evil spirits live in the sl1 ppal1 and mahua trees2 they make offerings to such trees and will not climb into their branches4#afc ,in ,travancore demons are supposed to reside in certain large old trees1 which it would be sacrilegious and dangerous to hew down4 ,a rough stone is generally placed at the foot of one of these trees as an image or emblem1 and turmeric powder is rubbed on it4#afd ,some of the ,western tribes of ,british ,new ,guinea dread certain female devils who inhabit large trees and are very dangerous4 ,trees supposed to be the abode of these demons are treated with much respect and never cut down4#afe ,near ,old ,calabar there is a ravine full of the densest and richest vegetation1 whence a stream of limpid water flows purling to the river4 ,the spot was considered by a late king to be hallowed ground1 the residence of ,anansa1 the tutelary god of ,old ,calabar4 ,the people had strict orders to revere the grove1 and no branch of it might be cut4#aff ,among the ,bambaras of the ,upper ,niger every village has its sacred tree1 generally a tamarind1 which is supposed to be the abode of the fetish and is carefully preserved4 ,the fetish is consulted on every important occasion1 and sacrifices of sheep1 dogs1 and fowls1 accompanied with offerings of millet and fruits1 are made under the sacred tree4#afg ,in the deserts of ,arabia a modern traveller found a great solitary acacia-tree which the ,bedouins believed to be possessed by a jinnee4 ,shreds of cotton and horns of goats hung among the boughs and nails were knocked into the trunk4 ,an ,arab strongly dissuaded the traveller from cutting a branch of the tree1 assuring him that it was death to do so4#afh ,the ,yourouks1 who inhabit the southern coasts of ,asia ,minor and the heights of ,mount ,taurus1 have sacred trees which they never cut down from fear of driving away the spirits that own them4#afi ,the old ,prussians believed that gods inhabited tall trees1 such as oaks1 from which they gave audible answers to enquirers2 hence these trees were not felled1 but worshipped as the homes of divinities4 ,amongst the trees thus venerated by them was the elder-tree4#agj ,the ,samagitians thought that if any one ventured to injure certain groves1 or the birds or beasts in them1 the spirits would make his hands or feet crooked4#aga ,down to the nineteenth century the ,esthonians stood in such awe of many trees1 which they considered as the seat of mighty spirits1 that they would not even pluck a flower or a berry on the ground where the shadow of the trees fell1 much less would they dare to break a branch from the tree itself4#agb ,sidenote3 ,sacred groves4 ,even where no mention is made of wood-spirits1 we may generally assume that when trees or groves are sacred and inviolable1 it is because they are believed to be either inhabited or animated by sylvan deities4 ,in ,central ,india the bar tree 7,ficus ,indica7 and the pipal 7,ficus religiosa7 are sacred1 and every child learns the saying that 8it is better to die a leper than pluck a leaf of a pipal1 and he who can wound a bar will kick his little sister40#agc ,in ,livonia there is a sacred grove in which1 if any man fells a tree or breaks a branch1 he will die within the year4#agd ,the ,wotyaks have sacred groves4 ,a ,russian who ventured to hew a tree in one of them fell sick and died next day4#age ,the heathen ,cheremiss of ,south-,eastern ,russia have sacred groves1 and woe to him who dares to fell one of the holy trees4 ,if the author of the sacrilege is unknown1 they take a cock or a goose1 torture it to death and then throw it on the fire1 while they pray to the gods to punish the sinner and cause him to perish like the bird4#agf ,near a chapel of ,st4 ,ninian1 in the parish of ,belly1 there stood more than a century and a half ago a row of trees1 8all of equal size1 thick planted for about the length of a butt10 which were 8looked upon by the superstitious papists as sacred trees1 from which they reckon it sacrilege to take so much as a branch or any of the fruit40#agg ,so in the island of ,skye some two hundred and fifty years ago there was a holy lake1 8surrounded by a fair wood1 which none presumes to cut02 and those who ventured to infringe its sanctity by breaking even a twig either sickened on the spot or were visited afterwards by 8some signal inconvenience40#agh ,sacrifices offered at cutting down trees are doubtless meant to appease the wood-spirits4 ,in ,gilgit it is usual to sprinkle goat's blood on a tree of any kind before felling it4#agi ,the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa hold the mugumu or mugomo tree1 a species of fig1 sacred on account of its size and fine appearance2 hence they do not ruthlessly cut it down like all other trees which cumber a patch of ground that is to be cleared for tillage4 ,groves of this tree are sacred4 ,in them no axe may be laid to any tree1 no branch broken1 no firewood gathered1 no grass burnt2 and wild animals which have taken refuge there may not be molested4 ,in these sacred groves sheep and goats are sacrificed and prayers are offered for rain or fine weather or in behalf of sick children4 ,the whole meat of the sacrifices is left in the grove for ,god 7,ngai7 to eat2 the fat is placed in a cleft of the trunk or in the branches as a tit-bit for him4 ,he lives up in the boughs but comes down to partake of the food4#ahj #b4 ,beneficent ,powers of ,tree-,spirits ,sidenote3 ,transition of tree-spirit into anthropomorphic deity of the woods4 ,when a tree comes to be viewed1 no longer as the body of the tree-spirit1 but simply as its abode which it can quit at pleasure1 an important advance has been made in religious thought4 ,animism is passing into polytheism4 ,in other words1 instead of regarding each tree as a living and conscious being1 man now sees in it merely a lifeless1 inert mass1 tenanted for a longer or shorter time by a supernatural being who1 as he can pass freely from tree to tree1 thereby enjoys a certain right of possession or lordship over the trees1 and1 ceasing to be a tree-soul1 becomes a forest god4 ,as soon as the tree-spirit is thus in a measure disengaged from each particular tree1 he begins to change his shape and assume the body of a man1 in virtue of a general tendency of early thought to clothe all abstract spiritual beings in concrete human form4 ,hence in classical art the sylvan deities are depicted in human shape1 their woodland character being denoted by a branch or some equally obvious symbol4#aha ,but this change of shape does not affect the essential character of the tree-spirit4 ,the powers which he exercised as a tree-soul incorporate in a tree1 he still continues to wield as a god of trees4 ,this ,i shall now attempt to prove in detail4 ,i shall shew1 first1 that trees considered as animate beings are credited with the power of making the rain to fall1 the sun to shine1 flocks and herds to multiply1 and women to bring forth easily2 and1 second1 that the very same powers are attributed to tree-gods conceived as anthropomorphic beings or as actually incarnate in living men4 ,sidenote3 ,trees supposed to give rain and sunshine4 ,first1 then1 trees or tree-spirits are believed to give rain and sunshine4 ,when the missionary ,jerome of ,prague was persuading the heathen ,lithuanians to fell their sacred groves1 a multitude of women besought the ,prince of ,lithuania to stop him1 saying that with the woods he was destroying the house of god from which they had been wont to get rain and sunshine4#ahb ,the ,mundaris in ,assam think that if a tree in the sacred grove is felled the sylvan gods evince their displeasure by withholding rain4#ahc ,in order to procure rain the inhabitants of ,monyo1 a village in the ,sagaing district of ,upper ,burma1 chose the largest tamarind-tree near the village and named it the haunt of the spirit 7nat7 who controls the rain4 ,then they offered bread1 coco-nuts1 plantains1 and fowls to the guardian spirit of the village and to the spirit who gives rain1 and they prayed1 8,o ,lord nat have pity on us poor mortals1 and stay not the rain4 ,inasmuch as our offering is given ungrudgingly1 let the rain fall day and night40 ,afterwards libations were made in honour of the spirit of the tamarind-tree2 and still later three elderly women1 dressed in fine clothes and wearing necklaces and earrings1 sang the ,rain ,song4#ahd ,in ,cambodia each village or province has its sacred tree1 the abode of a spirit4 ,if the rains are late the people sacrifice to the tree4#ahe ,in time of drought the elders of the ,wakamba in ,east ,africa assemble and take a calabash of cider and a goat to a baobab-tree1 where they kill the goat but do not eat it4#ahf ,when ,ovambo women go out to sow corn they take with them in the basket of seed two green branches of a particular kind of tree 7,peltophorum africanum ,sond471 one of which they plant in the field along with the first seed sown4 ,the branch is believed to have the power of attracting rain2 hence in one of the native dialects the tree goes by the name of the 8rain-bush40#ahg ,to extort rain from the tree-spirit a branch is sometimes dipped in water1 as we have seen above4#ahh ,in such cases the spirit is doubtless supposed to be immanent in the branch1 and the water thus applied to the spirit produces rain by a sort of sympathetic magic1 exactly as we saw that in ,new ,caledonia the rain-makers pour water on a skeleton1 believing that the soul of the deceased will convert the water into rain4#ahi ,there is hardly room to doubt that ,mannhardt is right in explaining as a rain-charm the ,european custom of drenching with water the trees which are cut at certain popular festivals1 as midsummer1 ,whitsuntide1 and harvest4#aij ,sidenote3 ,tree-spirits supposed to make the crops grow4 ,again1 tree-spirits make the crops to grow4 ,amongst the ,mundaris every village has its sacred grove1 and 8the grove deities are held responsible for the crops1 and are especially honoured at all the great agricultural festivals40#aia ,the negroes of the ,gold ,coast are in the habit of sacrificing at the foot of certain tall trees1 and they think that if one of these were felled all the fruits of the earth would perish4#aib ,before harvest the ,wabondi of ,east ,africa sacrifice a goat to the spirit that lives in baobab-trees2 the blood is poured into a hole at the foot of one of the trees4 ,if the sacrifice were omitted the spirit would send disease and death among the people4#aic ,the ,gallas dance in couples round sacred trees1 praying for a good harvest4 ,every couple consists of a man and woman1 who are linked together by a stick1 of which each holds one end4 ,under their arms they carry green corn or grass4#aid ,swedish peasants stick a leafy branch in each furrow of their corn-fields1 believing that this will ,sidenote3 ,the ,harvest-,may4 ensure an abundant crop4#aie ,the same idea comes out in the ,german and ,french custom of the ,harvest-,may4 ,this is a large branch or a whole tree1 which is decked with ears of corn1 brought home on the last waggon from the harvest-field1 and fastened on the roof of the farmhouse or of the barn1 where it remains for a year4 ,mannhardt has proved that this branch or tree embodies the tree-spirit conceived as the spirit of vegetation in general1 whose vivifying and fructifying influence is thus brought to bear upon the corn in particular4 ,hence in ,swabia the ,harvest-,may is fastened amongst the last stalks of corn left standing on the field2 in other places it is planted on the corn-field and the last sheaf cut is attached to its trunk4#aif ,the ,harvest-,may of ,germany has its counterpart in the eiresione of ancient ,greece4#aig ,the eiresione was a branch of olive or laurel1 bound about with ribbons and hung with a variety of fruits4 ,this branch was carried in procession at a harvest festival and was fastened over the door of the house1 where it remained for a year4 ,the object of preserving the ,harvest-,may or the eiresione for a year is that the life-giving virtue of the bough may foster the growth of the crops throughout the year4 ,by the end of the year the virtue of the bough is supposed to be exhausted and it is replaced by a new one4 ,following a similar train of thought some of the ,dyaks of ,sarawak are careful at the rice harvest to take up the roots of a certain bulbous plant1 which bears a beautiful crown of white and fragrant flowers4 ,these roots are preserved with the rice in the granary and are planted again with the seed-rice in the following season2 for the ,dyaks say that the rice will not grow unless a plant of this sort be in the field4#aih ,sidenote3 ,customs like the ,harvest-,may in ,india and ,africa4 ,customs like that of the ,harvest-,may appear to exist in ,india and ,africa4 ,at a harvest festival of the ,lhoosai of ,south-,eastern ,india the chief goes with his people into the forest and fells a large tree1 which is then carried into the village and set up in the midst4 ,sacrifice is offered1 and spirits and rice are poured over the tree4 ,the ceremony closes with a feast and a dance1 at which the unmarried men and girls are the only performers4#aii ,among the ,bechuanas the hack-thorn is very sacred1 and it would be a serious offence to cut a bough from it and carry it into the village during the rainy season4 ,but when the corn is ripe in the ear the people go with axes1 and each man brings home a branch of the sacred hack-thorn1 with which they repair the village cattle-yard4#bjj ,according to another authority1 it is a rule with the ,bechuanas that 8neither the hook-thorn nor the milk-tree must be cut down while the corn is on the ground1 for this1 they think1 would prevent rain4 ,when ,i was at ,lattakoo1 though ,mr4 ,hamilton stood in much need of some milk-tree timber1 he durst not supply himself till all the corn was gathered in40#bja ,many tribes of ,south-,eastern ,africa will not cut down timber while the corn is green1 fearing that if they did so1 the crops would be destroyed by blight1 hail1 or early frost4#bjb ,the heathen ,cheremiss1 in the ,russian ,government of ,kasan1 will not fell trees1 mow grass1 or dig the ground while the corn is in bloom4#bjc ,again1 the fructifying power of the tree is put forth at seed-time as well as at harvest4 ,among the ,aryan tribes of ,gilgit1 on the north-western frontier of ,india1 the sacred tree is the ,chili1 a species of cedar 7,juniperus excelsa74 ,at the beginning of wheat-sowing the people receive from the rajah's granary a quantity of wheat1 which is placed in a skin mixed with sprigs of the sacred cedar4 ,a large bonfire of the cedar wood is lighted1 and the wheat which is to be sown is held over the smoke4 ,the rest is ground and made into a large cake1 which is baked on the same fire and given to the ploughman4#bjd ,here the intention of fertilising the seed by means of the sacred cedar is unmistakable4 ,sidenote3 ,fertilising virtue attributed to trees4 ,in all these cases the power of fostering the growth of crops1 and1 in general1 of cultivated plants1 is ascribed to trees4 ,the ascription is not unnatural4 ,for the tree is the largest and most powerful member of the vegetable kingdom1 and man is familiar with it before he takes to cultivating corn4 ,hence he naturally places the feebler and1 to him1 newer plant under the dominion of the older and more powerful4 ,sidenote3 ,tree-spirits make herds to multiply and women to bring forth4 ,again1 the tree-spirit makes the herds to multiply and blesses women with offspring4 ,the sacred ,chili or cedar of ,gilgit was supposed to possess this virtue in addition to that of fertilising the corn4 ,at the commencement of wheat-sowing three chosen unmarried youths1 after undergoing daily washing and purification for three days1 used to start for the mountain where the cedars grew1 taking with them wine1 oil1 bread1 and fruit of every kind4 ,having found a suitable tree they sprinkled the wine and oil on it1 while they ate the bread and fruit as a sacrificial feast4 ,then they cut off the branch and brought it to the village1 where1 amid general rejoicing1 it was placed on a large stone beside running water4 8,a goat was then sacrificed1 its blood poured over the cedar branch1 and a wild dance took place1 in which weapons were brandished about1 and the head of the slaughtered goat was borne aloft1 after which it was set up as a mark for arrows and bullet-practice4 ,every good shot was rewarded with a gourd full of wine and some of the flesh of the goat4 ,when the flesh was finished the bones were thrown into the stream and a general ablution took place1 after which every man went to his house taking with him a spray of the cedar4 ,on arrival at his house he found the door shut in his face1 and on his knocking for admission1 his wife asked1 #8,what have you brought8' ,to which he answered1 #8,if you want children1 ,i have brought them to you2 if you want food1 ,i have brought it2 if you want cattle1 ,i have brought them2 whatever you want1 ,i have it4' ,the door was then opened and he entered with his cedar spray4 ,the wife then took some of the leaves1 and pouring wine and water on them placed them on the fire1 and the rest were sprinkled with flour and suspended from the ceiling4 ,she then sprinkled flour on her husband's head and shoulders1 and addressed him thus1 #8,ai ,shiri ,bagerthum1 son of the fairies1 you have come from far6' ,shiri ,bagerthum1 #8the dreadful king1' being the form of address to the cedar when praying for wants to be fulfilled4 ,the next day the wife baked a number of cakes1 and taking them with her1 drove the family goats to the ,chili stone4 ,when they were collected round the stone1 she began to pelt them with pebbles1 invoking the ,chili at the same time4 ,according to the direction in which the goats ran off1 omens were drawn as to the number and sex of the kids expected during the ensuing year4 ,walnuts and pomegranates were then placed on the ,chili stone1 the cakes were distributed and eaten1 and the goats followed to pasture in whatever direction they showed a disposition to go4 ,for five days afterwards this song was sung in all the houses3-- #8,dread ,fairy ,king1 ,i sacrifice before you1 ,how nobly do you stand6 you have filled up my house1 ,you have brought me a wife when ,i had not one1 ,instead of daughters you have given me sons4 ,you have shown me the ways of right1 ,you have given me many children4'0#bje ,sidenote3 ,fertilising virtue attributed to trees4 ,here the driving of the goats to the stone on which the cedar had been placed is clearly meant to impart to them the fertilising influence of the cedar4 ,in ,northern ,india the ,emblica officinalis is a sacred tree4 ,on the eleventh of the month ,phalgun 7,february7 libations are poured at the foot of the tree1 a red or yellow string is bound about the trunk1 and prayers are offered to it for the fruitfulness of women1 animals1 and crops4#bjf ,again1 in ,northern ,india the coco-nut is esteemed one of the most sacred fruits1 and is called ,sriphala1 or the fruit of ,sri1 the goddess of prosperity4 ,it is the symbol of fertility1 and all through ,upper ,india is kept in shrines and presented by the priests to women who desire to become mothers4#bjg ,in the town of ,qua1 near ,old ,calabar1 there used to grow a palm-tree which ensured conception to any barren woman who ate a nut from its branches4#bjh ,in ,sidenote3 ,influence of ,may-trees on cattle4 ,europe the ,may-tree or ,may-pole is apparently supposed to possess similar powers over both women and cattle4 ,thus in some parts of ,germany on the first of ,may the peasants set up ,may-trees or ,may-bushes at the doors of stables and byres1 one for each horse and cow2 this is thought to make the cows yield much milk4#bji ,of the ,irish we are told that 8they fancy a green bough of a tree1 fastened on ,may-day against the house1 will produce plenty of milk that summer40#baj ,in ,suffolk there was an old custom1 observed in most farm-houses1 that any servant who could bring in a branch of hawthorn in blossom on the first of ,may was entitled to a dish of cream for breakfast4#baa ,similarly1 8in parts of ,cornwall1 till certainly ten years ago1 any child who brought to a dairy on ,may morning a piece of hawthorn in bloom1 or a piece of fresh bracken1 long enough to surround the earthenware bowl in which cream is kept1 was given a bowl of cream40#bab ,on ,may ,day ,english milkmaids used to dance with garlands on their pails4 ,one ,may morning long ago ,pepys on his way to ,westminster saw many of them dancing thus to the music of a fiddle while pretty ,nel ,gwynne1 in her smock sleeves and bodice1 watched them from the door of her lodgings in ,drury-lane4#bac ,sidenote3 ,may-tree or ,may-bush a protection against witchcraft4 ,however in these and similar ,european customs it seems that the influence of the tree1 bush1 or bough is really protective rather than generative2 it does not so much fill the udders of the cows as prevent them from being drained dry by witches1 who ride on broomsticks or pitchforks through the air on the ,eve of ,may ,day 7the famous ,walpurgis ,night7 and make great efforts to steal the milk from the cattle4 ,hence the many precautions which the prudent herdsman must take to guard his beasts at this season from the raids of these baleful creatures4 ,for example1 on ,may morning the ,irish scatter primroses on the threshold1 keep a piece of red-hot iron on the hearth1 or twine branches of whitethorn and mountain-ash or rowan about the door4 ,to save the milk they cut and peel boughs of mountain-ash 7rowan71 and bind the twigs round the milk-pails and the churn4#bad ,according to a writer of the sixteenth century1 whose description is quoted by ,camden1 the ,irish 8account every woman who fetches fire on ,may-day a witch1 nor will they give it to any but sick persons1 and that with an imprecation1 believing she will steal all the butter the next summer4 ,on ,may day they kill all the hares they find among their cattle1 supposing them the old women who have designs on the butter4 ,they imagine the butter so stolen may be recovered if they take some of the thatch hanging over the door and burn it40#bae ,in the north-east of ,scotland pieces of rowan-tree and woodbine1 or of rowan alone1 used to be placed over the doors of the cow-houses on ,may ,day to keep the witches from the kine2 and a still better way of attaining the same object was to tie a cross of rowan-tree wood with a scarlet thread to each animal's tail4#baf ,the ,highlanders of ,scotland believe that on ,beltane eve1 that is the night before ,may ,day1 the witches go about in the shape of hares and suck the milk from the cows4 ,to guard against their depredations tar was put behind the ears of the cattle and at the root of the tail1 and the house was hung with rowan-tree4#bag ,for the same reason the ,highlanders say that the peg of the cow-shackle and the handle and cross of the churn-staff should always be made of rowan1 because that is the most potent charm against witchcraft4#bah ,in the ,isle of ,man on ,may ,day1 old style1 people carried crosses of rowan in their hats and fastened ,may-flowers over their doors as a protection against elves and witches1 and for the same purpose they tied crosses of rowan to the tails of the cattle4 ,also women washed their faces in the dew early on ,may morning in order to secure good luck1 a fine complexion1 and immunity from witches4 ,further1 the break of day on that morning was the signal for setting the ling or gorse on fire1 which was done for the sake of burning out the witches1 who are wont to take the shape of hares4 ,in some places1 indeed1 as in the ,lezayre parish1 the practice was to burn gorse in the hedge of every field to drive away the witches1 who are still feared in the ,isle of ,man4#bai ,in ,norway and ,denmark branches of rowan are ,sidenote3 ,precautions against witchcraft on ,may ,day and ,walpurgis ,night4 similarly used to protect houses and cattle-stalls against witches on ,walpurgis ,night1 and there1 too1 it is thought that the churn-staff should be made of rowan4#bbj ,in ,germany a common way of keeping witches from the cattle on ,walpurgis ,night is to chalk up three crosses on the door of the cowhouse4#bba ,branches of buckthorn stuck in the muck-heaps on the eve of ,may ,day answer the same purpose4#bbb ,in ,silesia the precautions taken at this season against witches are many and various2 for example1 pieces of buckthorn are nailed crosswise over the door of the cowhouse2 pitchforks and harrows1 turned upside down1 with the prongs pointing outwards1 are placed at the doors2 and a sod of fresh turf from a meadow is laid before the threshold and strewed with marsh-marigolds4 ,before the witches can pass the threshold1 they must count every blade of grass in the turf and every petal of the marigolds2 and while they are still counting the day breaks and their power is gone4 ,for the same reason little birch-trees are set up at the house-door1 because the witches cannot enter the house till they have counted all the leaves2 and before they have done the sum it is broad daylight1 and they must flee away with the shadows4#bbc ,on ,walpurgis ,night the ,germans of ,moravia put knives under the threshold of the cowhouse and twigs of birch at the door and in the muck-heap to keep the witches from the cows4#bbd ,for the same purpose the ,bohemians at this season lay branches of gooseberry bushes1 hawthorn1 and wild rose-trees on the thresholds of the cowhouses1 because the witches are caught by the thorns and can get no farther4#bbe ,we now see why thorny trees and bushes1 whether hawthorn1 buckthorn1 or what not1 afford protection against witchcraft3 they serve as prickly hedges through which the witches cannot force their way4 ,but this explanation clearly does not apply to the mountain-ash and the birch4 ,sidenote3 ,influence of tree-spirits on cattle among the ,wends1 ,esthonians1 and ,circassians4 ,on the second of ,july some of the ,wends used to set up an oak-tree in the middle of the village with an iron cock fastened to its top2 then they danced round it1 and drove the cattle round it to make them thrive4#bbf ,some of the ,esthonians believe in a mischievous spirit called ,metsik1 who lives in the forest and has the weal of the cattle in his hands4 ,every year a new image of him is prepared4 ,on an appointed day all the villagers assemble and make a straw man1 dress him in clothes1 and take him to the common pasture-land of the village4 ,here the figure is fastened to a high tree1 round which the people dance noisily4 ,on almost every day of the year prayer and sacrifice are offered to him that he may protect the cattle4 ,sometimes the image of ,metsik is made of a corn-sheaf and fastened to a tall tree in the wood4 ,the people perform strange antics before it to induce ,metsik to guard the corn and the cattle4#bbg ,the ,circassians regard the pear-tree as the protector of cattle4 ,so they cut down a young pear-tree in the forest1 branch it1 and carry it home1 where it is adored as a divinity4 ,almost every house has one such pear-tree4 ,in autumn1 on the day of the festival1 the tree is carried into the house with great ceremony to the sound of music and amid the joyous cries of all the inmates1 who compliment it on its fortunate arrival4 ,it is covered with candles1 and a cheese is fastened to its top4 ,round about it they eat1 drink1 and sing4 ,then they bid the tree good-bye and take it back to the courtyard1 where it remains for the rest of the year1 set up against the wall1 without receiving any mark of respect4#bbh ,sidenote3 ,tree-spirits grant offspring or an easy delivery to women4 ,in the ,tuhoe tribe of ,maoris 8the power of making women fruitful is ascribed to trees4 ,these trees are associated with the navel-strings of definite mythical ancestors1 as indeed the navel-strings of all children used to be hung upon them down to quite recent times4 ,a barren woman had to embrace such a tree with her arms1 and she received a male or a female child according as she embraced the east or the west side40#bbi ,the common ,european custom of placing a green bush on ,may ,day before or on the house of a beloved maiden probably originated in the belief of the fertilising power of the tree-spirit4#bcj ,in some parts of ,bavaria such bushes are set up also at the houses of newly-married pairs1 and the practice is only omitted if the wife is near her confinement2 for in that case they say that the husband has 8set up a ,may-bush for himself40#bca ,among the ,south ,slavonians a barren woman1 who desires to have a child1 places a new chemise upon a fruitful tree on the eve of ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,next morning before sunrise she examines the garment1 and if she finds that some living creature has crept on it1 she hopes that her wish will be fulfilled within the year4 ,then she puts on the chemise1 confident that she will be as fruitful as the tree on which the garment has passed the night4#bcb ,among the ,kara-,kirghiz barren women roll themselves on the ground under a solitary apple-tree1 in order to obtain offspring4#bcc ,some of the hill-tribes of ,india have a custom of marrying the bride and bridegroom to two trees before they are married to each other4 ,for example1 among the ,mundas the bride touches with red lead a mahw-tree1 clasps it in her arms1 and is tied to it2 and the bridegroom goes through a like ceremony with a mango-tree4#bcd ,the intention of the custom may perhaps be to communicate to the newly-wedded pair the vigorous reproductive power of the trees4#bce ,lastly1 the power of granting to women an easy delivery at child-birth is ascribed to trees both in ,sweden and ,africa4 ,in some districts of ,sweden there was formerly a brdtrd or guardian-tree 7lime1 ash1 or elm7 in the neighbourhood of every farm4 ,no one would pluck a single leaf of the sacred tree1 any injury to which was punished by ill-luck or sickness4 ,pregnant women used to clasp the tree in their arms in order to ensure an easy delivery4#bcf ,in some negro tribes of the ,congo region pregnant women make themselves garments out of the bark of a certain sacred tree1 because they believe that this tree delivers them from the dangers that attend child-bearing4#bcg ,the story that ,leto clasped a palm-tree and an olive-tree or two laurel-trees1 when she was about to give birth to the divine twins ,apollo and ,artemis1 perhaps points to a similar ,greek belief in the efficacy of certain trees to facilitate delivery4#bch ,footnote #e3 ,caesar1 ,bell4 ,gall4 vi4 #be4 ,footnote #f3 ,julian1 ,fragm4 #d1 ed4 ,hertlein1 pp4 #fjh sq4 ,on the vast woods of ,germany1 their coolness and shade1 see also ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #e4 ,footnote #g3 ,ch4 ,elton1 ,origins of ,english ,history 7,london1 #ahhb71 pp4 #c1 #ajf sq41 #bbd4 ,footnote #h3 ,w4 ,helbig1 ,die ,italiker in der ,poebene 7,leipsic1 #ahgi71 pp4 #be sq4 ,footnote #i3 ,h4 ,nissen1 ,italische ,landeskunde1 i4 7,berlin1 #ahhc7 pp4 #dca sqq4 ,footnote #aj3 ,livy1 ix4 #cf-ch4 ,the ,ciminian mountains 7,monte ,cimino7 are still clothed with dense woods of majestic oaks and chestnuts4 ,modern writers suppose that ,livy has exaggerated the terrors and difficulties of the forest4 ,see ,g4 ,dennis1 ,cities and ,cemeteries of ,etruria1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #adf-adi4 ,footnote #aa3 ,c4 ,neumann und ,j4 ,partsch1 ,physikalische ,geographie von ,griechenland 7,breslau1 #ahhe71 pp4 #ceg sqq4 ,i am told that the dark blue waters of the lake of ,pheneus1 which still reflected the sombre pine-forests of the surrounding mountains when ,i travelled in ,arcadia in the bright unforgetable autumn days of #ahie1 have since disappeared1 the subterranean chasms which drain this basin having been1 whether accidentally or artificially1 cleared so as to allow the pent-up waters to escape4 ,the acres which the peasants have thereby added to their fields will hardly console future travellers for the loss of the watery mirror1 which was one of the most beautiful1 as it was one of the rarest1 scenes in the parched land of ,greece4 ,footnote #ab3 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ,ed41 i4 #ec sqq42 ,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der indo-germanischen ,altertumskunde 7,strasburg1 #aija71 s4v4 8,tempel10 pp4 #hee sqq4 ,footnote #ac3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bdi sqq42 ,maximus ,tyrius1 ,dissert4 viii4 #h4 ,footnote #ad3 ,o4 ,schrader1 op4 cit4 pp4 #heg sq4 ,footnote #ae3 ,tacitus1 ,germania1 #i1 #ci1 #dj1 #dc2 id41 ,annals1 ii4 #ab1 iv4 #gc2 id41 ,hist4 iv4 #ad2 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ,ed41 pp4 #eda sqq42 ,bavaria ,landes- und ,volkeskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 iii4 #ibi sq4 ,footnote #af3 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,rechtsalterthmer1 pp4 #eai sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus 7,berlin1 #ahge71 pp4 #bf sqq4 ,footnote #ag3 ,adam of ,bremen1 ,descriptio insularum ,aquilonis1 #bg 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 vol4 cxlvi4 col4 #fdd74 ,footnote #ah3 ,l4 ,leger1 ,la ,mythologie slave 7,paris1 #aija71 pp4 #gc-ge1 #ahh-aij4 ,footnote #ai3 ,mathias ,michov1 8,de ,sarmatia ,asiana atque ,europea10 in ,simon ,grynaeus's ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum 7,paris1 #aecb71 pp4 #dee sq4 wrongly numbered #dde1 #ddf2 ,martin ,cromer1 ,de origine et rebus gestis ,polonorum 7,basel1 #aefh71 p4 #bda2 ,fabricius1 ,livonicae historiae compendiosa series 7,scriptores rerum ,livonicarum1 ii4 7,riga and ,leipsic1 #ahdh7 p4 #dda74 ,footnote #bj3 ,see ,c4 ,btticher1 ,der ,baumkultus der ,hellenen 7,berlin1 #ahef72 ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd4 ,ed41 i4 #aje-aad4 ,footnote #ba3 ,the ,classical ,review1 xix4 7#aije7 p4 #cca1 referring to an inscription found in ,cos some years ago4 ,footnote #bb3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xv4 #gg2 ,tacitus1 ,ann4 xiii4 #eh4 ,the fig-tree is represented on ,roman coins and on the great marble reliefs which stand in the ,forum4 ,see ,e4 ,babelon1 ,monnaies de la ,rpublique romaine1 ii4 #ccf sq42 ,r4 ,lanciani1 ,ruins and ,excavations of ,ancient ,rome 7,london1 #ahig71 p4 #beh2 ,e4 ,petersen1 ,vom alten ,rom 7,leipsic1 #aijj71 pp4 #bf1 #bg4 ,footnote #bc3 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #bj4 ,footnote #bd3 ,k4 ,rhamm1 8,der heidnische ,gottesdienst des finnischen ,stammes10 ,globus1 lxvii4 7#ahie7 pp4 #cdc1 #cdh4 ,this article is an abstract of a ,finnish book ,suomen suvun pakanillinen jumalen palvelus1 by ,j4 ,krohn 7,helsingfors1 #ahid74 ,footnote #be3 8,heilige ,haine und ,bume der ,finnen10 ,globus1 lix4 7#ahia7 pp4 #cej sq4 ,footnote #bf3 ,p4 ,s4 ,pallas1 ,reise durch verschiedene ,provinzen des russischen ,reichs 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #agga-aggf71 iii4 #fj sq4 ,footnote #bg3 ,porphyry1 ,de abstinentia1 i4 #f4 ,this was an opinion of the ,stoic and ,peripatetic philosophy4 ,footnote #bh3 ,washington ,matthews1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,hidatsa ,indians 7,washington1 #ahgg71 pp4 #dh sq4 ,footnote #bi3 ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,league of the ,iroquois 7,rochester1 #ahea71 pp4 #afb1 #afd4 ,footnote #cj3 ,j4 ,l4 ,krapf1 ,travels1 ,researches1 and ,missionary ,labours during an ,eighteen ,years' ,residence in ,eastern ,africa 7,london1 #ahfj71 p4 #aih4 ,footnote #ca3 ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 in a letter to the author dated ,november #c1 #ahih4 ,footnote #cb3 ,j4 ,teit1 8,the ,thompson ,indians of ,british ,columbia10 p4 #cdi 7,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 vol4 i4 part iv474 ,footnote #cc3 ,c4 ,hupe1 8,over de godsdienst1 zeden enz4 der ,dajakkers10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nerlands ,indi1 #ahdf 7,batavia71 dl4 iii4 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #cd3 ,de la ,loubere1 ,du royaume de ,siam 7,amsterdam1 #afia71 i4 #chb4 ,compare ,mgr4 ,bruguire1 in ,annales de l',association de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 v4 7#ahca7 p4 #abg4 ,footnote #ce3 ,the ,buddhist conception of trees as animated often comes out in the ,jatakas4 ,for examples see ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des ,veda1 pp4 #bei sqq42 ,the ,jtaka1 bk4 xii4 ,no4 #dfe1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #if sqq4 7,english translation edited by ,e4 ,b4 ,cowell74 ,footnote #cf3 ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the ,religious ,system of ,china1 iv4 7,leyden1 #aija7 pp4 #bgb sqq4 ,footnote #cg3 ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the ,religious ,system of ,china1 v4 7,leyden1 #aijg7 p4 #ffc4 ,footnote #ch3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,volksglaube und religiser ,brauch der ,sdslaven 7,mnster i4 ,w41 #ahij71 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #ci3 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #di sqq4 ,compare id41 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast 7,london1 #ahhg71 pp4 #cd sqq42 ,missions ,catholiques1 ix4 7#ahgg7 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #dj3 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne des peuples de l',orient classique3 les origines 7,paris1 #ahie71 pp4 #aba sq4 ,footnote #da3 ,merolla1 8,voyage to ,congo10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #bcf4 ,footnote #db3 ,c4 ,c4 von der ,decken1 ,reisen in ,ost-,afrika 7,leipsic and ,heidelberg1 #ahfi-ahga71 i4 #baf4 ,the writer does not describe the mode of appeasing the tree-spirit in the case mentioned4 ,as to the ,wanika beliefs1 see above1 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #dc3 ,sir ,harry ,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate 7,london1 #aijb71 ii4 #hcb4 ,footnote #dd3 ,j4 ,b4 ,l4 ,durand1 ,voyage au ,sngal 7,paris1 #ahjb71 p4 #aai4 ,footnote #de3 ,s4 ,j4 ,curtiss1 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,to-day 7,chicago1 #aijb71 p4 #id4 ,footnote #df3 ,a4 d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans l',amrique ,mridionale 7,paris and ,strasburg1 #ahci-ahdc71 ii4 #aeg1 #aei sq4 ,footnote #dg3 ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,in ,centraal-,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijj71 i4 #adf4 ,footnote #dh3 ,h4 ,h4 ,romilly1 ,from my ,verandah in ,new ,guinea 7,london1 #ahhi71 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #di3 ,d4 ,c4 ,j4 ,ibbetson1 ,outlines of ,panjab ,ethnography 7,calcutta1 #ahhc71 p4 #abj4 ,footnote #ej3 ,w4 von ,schulenberg1 8,volkskundliche ,mittheilungen aus der ,mark10 ,verhandlungen der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr ,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und ,urgeschichte 7#ahif71 p4 #ahi4 ,compare ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,nord-deutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 p4 #djg1 #adb2 ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #dfc1 #bjh2 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus ,westfalen1 ii4 pp4 #ajh sq41 #cbf1 #cbg1 p4 #aaf1 #cef1 #ceh2 ,a4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 i4 pp4 #dfd sq41 #f2 ,k4 ,bartsch1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,meklenburg1 ii4 #bbh sq42 ,w4 ,kolbe1 ,hessische ,volks-,sitten und ,gebruche1 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #bi2 ,r4 ,andree1 ,braunschweiger ,volkskunde 7,brunswick1 #ahif71 p4 #bcd2 ,r4 ,wuttke1 ,schsische ,volkskunde #bnd ,ed41 7,dresden1 #aija71 p4 #cgj4 ,the custom has been discussed by ,u4 ,jahn1 ,die deutschen ,opfergebruche bei ,ackerbau und ,viehzucht 7,breslau1 #ahhd71 pp4 #bad-bbj4 ,he comes to the conclusion1 which ,i cannot but regard as erroneous1 that the custom was in origin a rational precaution to keep the caterpillars from the trees4 ,compare the marriage of trees1 below1 pp4 #bd sqq4 ,footnote #ea3 ,j4 ,aubrey1 ,remaines of ,gentilisme and ,judaisme 7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #bdg4 ,footnote #eb3 ,peter ,jones1 ,history of the ,ojebway ,indians1 p4 #ajd4 ,footnote #ec3 ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,religious ,system of ,china1 iv4 #bgd4 ,footnote #ed3 ,a4 ,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus sterreichisch-,schlesien 7,troppau1 #ahfe-fg71 ii4 #cj4 ,footnote #ee3 ,p4 ,wagler1 ,die ,eiche in alter und neuer ,zeit1 ii4 7,berlin1 #ahia7 p4 #ef note #a4 ,footnote #ef3 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 #aed2 compare id41 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 ii4 #deg sq41 iii4 #bea sq41 iv4 #db sq4 ,footnote #eg3 ,j4 de los ,reyes y ,florentino1 8,die religiosen ,anschauungen der ,ilocanen 7,luzon710 ,mittheilungen der k4 k4 ,geograph4 ,gesellschaft in ,wien1 xxxi4 7#ahhh7 p4 #eef4 ,footnote #eh3 ,f4 ,gardner1 8,philippine 7,tagalog7 ,superstitions10 ,journal of ,american ,folk-lore1 xix4 7#aijf7 p4 #aia4 ,these superstitions are translated from an old and rare work ,la ,pratica del ministerio1 by ,padre ,tomas ,ortiz 7,manila1 #agac74 ,footnote #ei3 ,th4 ,nldeke1 8,tigre-,texte10 ,zeitschrift fr ,assyriologie1 xxiv4 7#aiaj7 p4 #bih1 referring to ,e4 ,littmann1 ,publications of the ,princeton ,expedition to ,abyssinia 7,leyden1 #aiaj74 ,footnote #fj3 ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #cid-cif4 ,footnote #fa3 ,j4 ,h4 ,neumann1 8,de tndi in verband met ,si ,dajang10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xlviii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #abd sq4 ,footnote #fb3 ,from a letter of the ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 written in ,busoga1 #bast ,may1 #aijh4 ,footnote #fc3 ,satapatha-,brhmana1 translated by ,j4 ,eggeling1 ,part ,,ii4 pp4 #afe sq4 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxvi472 ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des ,veda1 pp4 #bef sq4 ,footnote #fd3 ,de la ,loubere1 ,du royaume de ,siam 7,amsterdam1 #afia71 i4 #chc4 ,footnote #fe3 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #fc4 ,footnote #ff3 ,i4 v4 ,zingerle1 8,der heilige ,baum bei ,nauders10 ,zeitschrift fr deutsche ,mythologie und ,sittenkunde1 iv4 7#ahei71 pp4 #cc sqq4 ,according to ,lucan 7,pharsal4 iii4 #dbi-dca71 the soldiers whom ,caesar ordered to cut down the sacred oak-grove of the ,druids at ,marseilles believed that the axes would rebound from the trees and wound themselves4 ,footnote #fg3 ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 pp4 #aih sq4 ,as to the durian-tree and its fruit1 see ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,the ,malay ,archipelago #fth ,ed41 7,london1 #ahgg71 pp4 #gd sqq4 ,footnote #fh3 ,w4 ,g4 ,aston1 ,shinto 7,london1 #aije71 p4 #afe4 ,footnote #fi3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,volksglaube und religiser ,brauch der ,sdslaven1 p4 #cd2 ,a4 ,strausz1 ,die ,bulgaren 7,leipsic1 #ahih71 p4 #ceb4 ,compare ,r4 ,f4 ,kaindl1 8,aus der ,volksberlieferung der ,bojken10 ,globus1 lxxix4 7#aija7 p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #gj3 ,g4 ,pitr1 ,spettacoli e feste popolari 7,palermo1 #ahha71 p4 #bba2 id41 ,usi e costumi1 credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano1 iii4 7,palermo1 #ahhi7 p4 #aaa2 ,g4 ,vuillier1 8,chez les magiciens et les sorciers de la ,corrze10 ,tour du monde1 ,n4,s4 v4 7#ahii7 p4 #eab4 ,footnote #ga3 ,m4 ,tchraz1 8,notes sur la mythologie ,armnienne10 ,transactions of the ,ninth ,international ,congress of ,orientalists 7,london1 #ahic71 ii4 #hbg4 ,compare ,m4 ,abeghian1 ,der armenische ,volksglaube 7,leipsic1 #ahii71 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #gb3 ,g4 ,finamore1 ,credenze1 usi1 e costumi abruzzesi 7,palermo1 #ahij71 pp4 #afb sq4 ,footnote #gc3 ,georgeakis et ,pineau1 ,folk-lore de ,lesbos 7,paris1 #ahid71 p4 #ced4 ,footnote #gd3 ,boecler-,kreutzwald1 ,der ,ehsten aberglubische ,gebruche1 ,weisen und ,gewohnheiten 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahed71 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #ge3 ,m4 ,j4 van ,baarda1 8,fabelen1 ,verhalen1 en ,overleveringen der ,galelareezen10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 xlv4 7#ahie7 p4 #eaa4 ,footnote #gf3 ,a4 ,g4 ,vorderman1 8,planten-animisme op ,java10 ,teysmannia1 ,no4 #b1 #ahif1 pp4 #ei sq42 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 ix4 7#ahif7 p4 #age4 ,footnote #gg3 ,a4 ,g4 ,vorderman1 op4 cit4 p4 #fj2 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 ix4 7#ahif7 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #gh3 ,a4 ,g4 ,vorderman1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fa-fc4 ,footnote #gi3 ,a4 de ,humboldt1 ,voyage aux rgions quinoxiales du ,nouveau ,continent1 ii4 7,paris1 #ahai7 pp4 #cfi sq41 #dbi sq4 ,footnote #hj3 ,elsdon ,best1 8,maori ,nomenclature10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #aig4 ,footnote #ha3 ,herodotus1 i4 #aic2 ,theophrastus1 ,historia plantarum1 ii4 #h4 #d2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xiii4 #ca1 #cd sq4 ,in this passage ,pliny states that naturalists distinguished the sexes of all trees and plants4 ,on ,assyrian monuments a winged figure is often represented holding an object which looks like a pine-cone to a palm-tree4 ,the scene has been ingeniously and with great probability explained by ,professor ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor as the artificial fertilisation of the date-palm by means of the male inflorescence4 ,see his paper in ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archaeology1 xii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #chc-cic4 ,on the artificial fertilisation of the date-palm1 see ,c4 ,ritter1 ,vergleichende ,erdkunde von ,arabien 7,berlin1 #ahdg71 ii4 #haa1 #hbg sq4 ,footnote #hb3 ,d4 ,chwolsohn1 ,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahef71 ii4 #cf1 #bea4 ,mohammed forbade the artificial fertilisation of the palm1 probably because of the superstitions attaching to the ceremony4 ,but he had to acknowledge his mistake4 ,see ,d4 ,s4 ,margoliouth1 ,mohammed and the ,rise of ,islam1 p4 #bcj 7a passage pointed out to me by ,dr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,verrall74 ,footnote #hc3 ,sir ,w4 ,h4 ,sleeman1 ,rambles and ,recollections of an ,indian ,official 7,westminster1 #ahic71 i4 #ch sq42 compare ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 xiii41 ,central ,provinces1 part i4 p4 #ib4 ,footnote #hd3 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 lxxii41 part iii4 7,calcutta1 #aijd7 p4 #db4 ,footnote #he3 ,j4 ,a4 ,dubois1 ,murs1 institutions et crmonies des peuples de l',inde 7,paris1 #ahbe71 ii4 #ddh sq42 ,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,life and ,thought in ,india1 pp4 #ccc-cce2 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folklore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #aaj sq4 ,according to another account1 it is ,vishnu1 not ,krishna1 to whom the holy plant is annually married in every pious ,hindoo family4 ,see ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 xviii41 ,baroda1 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #hf3 ,sir ,henry ,m4 ,elliot1 ,memoirs on the ,history1 ,folklore1 and ,distribution of the ,races of the ,north-western ,provinces of ,india1 edited by ,j4 ,beames 7,london1 #ahfi71 i4 #bcc sq4 ,footnote #hg3 ,w4 ,crooke1 op4 cit4 i4 #di4 ,footnote #hh3 ,sir ,w4 ,h4 ,sleeman1 ,rambles and ,recollections of an ,indian ,official 7,westminster1 #ahic71 i4 #adg-adi1 #age4 ,the ,salagrama is commonly perforated in one or more places by worms or1 as the ,hindoos believe1 by the legendary insect ,vajrakita or by ,vishnu himself4 ,the value of the fossil shell depends on its colour1 and the number of its convolutions and holes4 ,the black are prized as gracious embodiments of ,vishnu2 the violet are shunned as dangerous avatars of the god4 ,he who possesses a black ,salagrama keeps it wrapped in white linen1 washes and adores it daily4 ,a draught of the water in which the shell has been washed is supposed to purge away all sin and to secure the temporal and eternal welfare of the drinker4 ,these fossils are found in ,nepaul1 in the upper course of the river ,gandaka1 a northern tributary of the ,ganges4 ,hence the district goes by the name of ,salagrami1 and is highly esteemed for its sanctity2 a visit to it confers great merit on a man4 ,see ,sonnerat1 ,voyage aux ,indes ,orientales et la ,chine 7,paris1 #aghb71 i4 #agc sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,dubois1 ,murs1 institutions et crmonies des peuples de l',indie 7,paris1 #ahbe71 ii4 #ddf-ddh2 ,sir ,w4 ,h4 ,sleeman1 op4 cit4 i4 #adh sq41 with the editor's notes2 ,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,thought and ,life in ,india1 pp4 #fi sq42 ,g4 ,watt1 ,dictionary of the ,economic ,products of ,india1 vi4 ,part ,,ii4 7,london and ,calcutta1 #ahic7 p4 #chd2 ,w4 ,crooke1 op4 cit4 ii4 #afd sq42 ,indian ,antiquary1 xxv4 7#ahif7 p4 #adf2 ,g4 ,oppert1 ,on the ,original ,inhabitants of ,bharatavarsa or ,india 7,westminster and ,leipsic1 #ahic71 pp4 #ccg-cei2 id41 8,note sur les ,slagrmas10 ,comptes rendus de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres 7,paris1 #aijj71 pp4 #dgb-dhe4 ,the shell derives its name of ammonite from its resemblance to a ram's horn1 recalling the ram-god ,ammon4 ,footnote #hi3 ,die gestriegelte ,rockenphilosophie 7,chemnitz1 #agei71 pp4 #bci sq42 ,u4 ,jahn1 ,die deutschen ,opfergebruche bei ,ackerbau und ,viehzucht1 pp4 #bad sqq4 ,see above1 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #ij3 ,van ,schmid1 8,aanteekeningen nopens de zeden1 gewoonten en gebruiken1 etc41 der bevolking van de eilanden ,saparoea1 etc40 ,tijdschrift voor ,nerlands ,indi1 #ahdc 7,batavia71 dl4 ii4 p4 #fje2 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 #aef4 ,footnote #ia3 ,g4 ,w4 ,w4 ,c4 ,baron van ,hovell1 ,ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de ,oeliasers 7,dordrecht1 #ahge71 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #ib3 ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 8,het animisme bij de volken van het ,indischen archipel10 ,de ,indische ,gids1 ,june #ahhd1 p4 #ieh2 id41 ,handleiding voor de vergelijkende ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch ,indi 7,leyden1 #ahic71 pp4 #edi sq4 ,footnote #ic3 ,e4 ,l4 ,m4 ,khr1 8,schetsen uit ,borneo's ,westerafdeeling10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 xlvii4 7#ahig7 pp4 #eh sq4 ,footnote #id3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de ,toboengkoe en de ,tomori10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 p4 #bba4 ,footnote #ie3 ,d4 ,grangeon1 8,les ,cham et leur superstitions10 ,missions ,catholiques1 xxviii4 7#ahif7 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #if3 ,indian ,antiquary1 i4 7#ahgb7 p4 #agj4 ,footnote #ig3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den ,poso-,alfoer10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xxxix4 7#ahie7 pp4 #bb1 #ach4 ,footnote #ih3 ,id41 8,eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de ,toboengkoe en ,tomori10 ib41 xliv4 7#aijj7 p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #ii3 ,c4 ,snouck ,hurgronje1 ,het ,gajland en zijne ,bewoners 7,batavia1 #aijc71 pp4 #cdd1 #cde4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,s4 ,gason1 8,the ,dieyerie ,tribe10 ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 p4 #bhj2 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 8,the ,dieri and other kindred ,tribes of ,central ,australia10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xx4 7#ahia7 p4 #hi4 ,footnote #aja3 ,f4 ,blumentritt1 8,der ,ahnencultus und die religise ,anschauungen der ,malaien des ,philippinen-,archipels10 ,mittheilungen der ,wiener ,geogr4 ,gesellschaft 7#ahhb71 pp4 #aei sq42 id41 ,versuch einer ,ethnographie der ,philippinen 7,gotha1 #ahhb71 pp4 #ac1 #bi 7,petermann's ,mittheilungen1 ,ergnzungsheft1 ,no4 #fg72 ,j4 ,mallat1 ,les ,philippines 7,paris1 #ahdf71 i4 #fc sq4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,a4 ,schadenberg1 8,beitrge zur ,kenntnis der im ,innern ,nordluzons lebenden ,stmme10 ,verhandlungen der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr ,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und ,urgeschichte 7#ahhh71 p4 #dj4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,f4 ,grabowsky1 8,der ,tod1 etc41 bei den ,dajaken10 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 ii4 7#ahhi7 p4 #aha4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,h4 ,low1 ,sarawak 7,london1 #ahdh71 p4 #bfd4 ,footnote #aje3 ,mrs4 ,bishop1 ,korea and her ,neighbours 7,london1 #ahih71 i4 #ajf sq4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,religious ,system of ,china1 ii4 #dfb sqq41 iv4 #bgg sq4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,la ,mission lyonnaise d'exploration commerciale en ,chine #ahie-ahig 7,lyons1 #ahih71 p4 #cfa4 ,footnote #ajh3 8,der ,muata ,cazembe und die ,vlkerstmme der ,maravis1 ,chevas1 ,muembas1 ,lundas und andere von ,sd-,afrika10 ,zeitschrift fr allgemeine ,erdkunde1 vi4 7#ahef7 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #aji3 ,major ,a4 ,g4 ,leonard1 ,the ,lower ,niger and its ,tribes 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #bih sqq4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,ch4 ,partridge1 ,cross ,river ,natives 7,london1 #aije71 pp4 #bgb sq4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,ch4 ,partridge1 op4 cit4 pp4 #e1 #aid1 #bje sq4 ,footnote #aab3 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 8,de ,westen ,noordkust van ,nederlandsch ,nieuw-,guinea10 ,tijdschrift van het kon4 ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 x4 7#ahic7 p4 #aii4 ,footnote #aac3 8,shamanism in ,siberia and ,european ,russia10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxiv4 7#ahie7 p4 #acf4 ,footnote #aad3 ,fr4 ,boas1 in ,sixth ,report on the ,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 p4 #bh 7separate reprint from the ,report of the ,british ,association for #ahij74 ,footnote #aae3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,volksglaube und religiser ,brauch der ,sdslaven1 p4 #cf4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #aag3 ,aeneid1 iii4 #bb sqq4 ,footnote #aah3 ,philostratus1 ,imagines1 ii4 #bi4 ,footnote #aai3 ,a4 ,landes1 8,contes et lgendes annamites10 ,no4 #i1 in ,cochinchine franaise3 excursions et reconnaissances1 ,no4 #bj 7,saigon1 #ahhe71 p4 #caj4 ,footnote #abj3 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,yoruba-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast of ,west ,africa1 pp4 #acd-acf4 ,footnote #aba3 ,b4 ,c4 ,a4 ,j4 van ,dinter1 8,eenige geographische en ethnographische aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland ,siaoe10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xli4 7#ahii7 pp4 #cgi sq4 ,footnote #abb3 ,e4 ,modigliani1 ,un ,viaggio a ,nas 7,milan1 #ahij71 p4 #fbi4 ,footnote #abc3 ,o4 ,baumann1 ,usambara und seine ,nachbargebiete 7,berlin1 #ahia71 pp4 #eg sq4 ,footnote #abd3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #afb1 #ccj sq4 ,footnote #abe3 ,ph4 ,paulitschke1 ,ethnographie ,nordost-,afrikas3 ,die geistige ,cultur der ,dankil1 ,galla und ,soml 7,berlin1 #ahif71 pp4 #cd sq4 ,on the ,galla worship of trees1 see further ,mgr4 ,massaja1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xxx4 7#aheh7 p4 #ej2 ,coulbeaux1 8,au pays de ,menelik10 ,missions ,catholiques1 xxx4 7#ahih7 p4 #dah4 ,footnote #abf3 ,j4 ,kubary1 8,die ,religion der ,pelauer10 in ,a4 ,bastian's ,allerlei aus ,volks- und ,menschenkunde1 i4 #eb2 id41 ,beitrge zur ,kenntnis des ,karolinen ,archipels1 iii4 7,leyden1 #ahie7 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #abg3 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,yoruba-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast1 p4 #aae4 ,footnote #abh3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den ,poso-,alfoer10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xl4 7#ahif7 pp4 #bh sq4 ,footnote #abi3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de ,toboengkoe en de ,tomori10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 pp4 #bbj sq4 ,footnote #acj3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdb4 ,footnote #aca3 ,j4 ,habbema1 8,bijgeloof in de ,preanger-,regentschappen10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 xli4 7#aijj7 pp4 #aac1 #aae4 ,footnote #acb3 ,g4 ,heijmering1 8,zeden en ,gewoonten op het eiland ,rottie10 ,tijdschrift voor ,nerlands ,indi 7#ahdd71 dl4 i4 p4 #ceh4 ,footnote #acc3 ,c4 ,snouck ,hurgronje1 ,het ,gajland en zijne ,bewoners 7,batavia1 #aijc71 p4 #cea4 ,footnote #acd3 ,th4 ,a4 ,l4 ,heyting1 8,beschrijving der onder-afdeeling ,groot-mandeling en ,batang-natal10 ,tijdschrift van het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 xiv4 7#ahig7 pp4 #bhi sq4 ,footnote #ace3 ,f4 ,blumentritt1 ,versuch einer ,ethnographie der ,philippinen 7,gotha1 #ahhb71 p4 #ac 7,petermanns ,mittheilungen1 ,ergnzungheft1 ,no4 #fg74 ,see above1 pp4 #ah sq4 ,footnote #acf3 ,crossland1 quoted by ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 i4 #bhf2 compare ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxi4 7#ahib7 p4 #aad4 ,footnote #acg3 8,lettre du cur de ,santiago ,tepehuacan son vque10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 ,i,ime4 ,srie1 ii4 7#ahcd7 pp4 #ahb sq4 ,footnote #ach3 ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 ,the ,cyclades1 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #aci3 ,a4 ,l4 ,van ,hasselt1 ,volksbeschrijving van ,midden-,sumatra 7,leyden1 #ahhb71 p4 #aef4 ,footnote #adj3 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #hg4 ,footnote #ada3 ,i4 ,m4 van ,baarda1 8le de ,halma-heira10 ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie de ,paris1 iv4 7#ahic7 p4 #edg4 ,footnote #adb3 ,l4 ,sternberg1 8,die ,religion der ,gilyak10 ,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft1 viii4 7#aije7 p4 #bdf4 ,footnote #adc3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #add3 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 vii4 7#ahdc7 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #ade3 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 #ag4 ,footnote #adf3 ,j4 ,perham1 8,sea ,dyak ,religion10 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #aj 7,dec4 #ahhb71 p4 #bag2 ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 i4 #ahd4 ,footnote #adg3 ,w4 ,kkenthal1 ,forschungsreise in den ,molukken und in ,borneo 7,frankfort1 #ahif71 pp4 #bfe sq4 ,footnote #adh3 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxv4 7#ahif7 p4 #agj4 ,footnote #adi3 ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal1 pp4 #ahf1 #ahh2 compare ,a4 ,bastian1 ,vlkerstmme am ,brahmaputra1 p4 #i4 ,footnote #aej3 ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 op4 cit4 p4 #cc2 ,a4 ,bastian1 op4 cit4 p4 #af4 ,compare ,l4 ,a4 ,waddell1 8,the ,tribes of the ,brahmaputra ,valley10 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 lxix4 7#aija7 ,part ,,iii4 p4 #af2 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #acb sq4 ,footnote #aea3 ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 op4 cit4 p4 #be2 ,a4 ,bastian1 op4 cit4 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,het koppensnellen der ,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes en zijne beteekenis10 ,verslagen en ,mededeelingen der konink4 ,akademie van ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling ,letterkunde1 ,,iv4 ,reeks1 iii4 7#ahii7 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #aec3 ,a4 ,w4 ,niewenhuis1 ,in ,centraal-,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijj71 i4 #adf2 id41 ,quer durch ,borneo1 i4 7,leyden1 #aijd7 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #aed3 ,id41 8,tweede ,reis van ,pontianak naar ,samarinda10 ,tijdschrift van het konink4 ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,,ii4 ,serie1 xvii4 7#aijj7 p4 #dbg4 ,footnote #aee3 ,j4 ,perham1 8,sea ,dyak ,religion10 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #aj 7,december #ahhb71 p4 #bag2 ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 i4 #ahd4 ,footnote #aef3 ,b4 ,hagen1 8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,battareligion10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxviii4 #ecj1 note4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,e4 ,young1 ,the ,kingdom of the ,yellow ,robe 7,westminster1 #ahih71 pp4 #aib sq4 ,footnote #aei3 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott and ,j4 ,p4 ,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of ,upper ,burma and the ,shan ,states1 ,part ,i4 vol4 i4 7,rangoon1 #aijj7 pp4 #eah sq4 ,footnote #afj3 ,captain ,macpherson1 in ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #aab #dbh4 ,footnote #afa3 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #ia4 ,footnote #afb3 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 i4 #acd4 ,the authority quoted by ,bastian calls the people ,curka ,coles4 ,as to the ,larka ,kols1 see ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal1 pp4 #agg sqq4 ,footnote #afc3 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,tribes and ,castes of the ,north-,western ,provinces and ,oudh1 iv4 #acj4 ,footnote #afd3 ,s4 ,mateer1 ,the ,land of ,charity 7,london1 #ahga71 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #afe3 ,b4 ,a4 ,hely1 in ,annual ,report on ,british ,new ,guinea for #ahid-ie1 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #aff3 ,t4 ,j4 ,hutchinson1 ,impressions of ,western ,africa 7,london1 #aheh71 pp4 #acj sq4 ,footnote #afg3 ,gallieni1 8,mission dans le ,haut ,niger et ,sgou10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 viiime ,srie1 v4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #egg sq4 ,footnote #afh3 ,ch4 ,m4 ,doughty1 ,travels in ,arabia ,deserta 7,cambridge1 #ahhh71 i4 #cfe4 ,footnote #afi3 ,th4 ,bent1 8,the ,yourouks of ,asia ,minor10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xx4 7#ahia7 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #agj3 ,erasmus ,stella1 8,de ,borussiae antiquitatibus10 in ,simon ,grynaeus's ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum 7,paris1 #aecb71 p4 #eaj2 ,j4 ,lasicius 7,lasiczki71 8,de diis ,samagitarum caeterorumque ,sarmatarum10 in ,respublica sive ,status regni ,poloniae1 ,lituaniae1 ,prussiae1 ,livoniae1 etc4 7,leyden1 #afbg71 pp4 #bii sq42 ,m4 ,c4 ,hartknoch1 ,alt und neues ,preussen 7,frankfort and ,leipsic1 #afhd71 p4 #abj4 ,lasiczki's work has been reprinted by ,w4 ,mannhardt1 in ,magazin herausgegeben von der lettisch-lite-rrischen ,gesellschaft1 xiv4 #hb sqq4 7,mitau1 #ahfh74 ,footnote #aga3 ,mathias ,michov1 in ,simon ,grynaeus's ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum 7,paris1 #aecb71 p4 #deg4 ,footnote #agb3 ,j4 ,g4 ,kohl1 ,die deutsch-russischen ,ostseeprovinzen 7,dresden and ,leipsic1 #ahda71 ii4 #bgg4 ,footnote #agc3 ,capt4 ,e4 ,c4 ,luard1 in ,census of ,india1 #aija1 xix4 7,lucknow1 #aijb7 p4 #gf4 ,footnote #agd3 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 i4 #dig2 compare id4 ii4 #edj1 #eda4 ,footnote #age3 ,max ,buch1 ,die ,wotjken 7,stuttgart1 #ahhb71 p4 #abd4 ,footnote #agf3 ,p4 v4 ,stenin1 8,ein neuer ,beitrag zur ,ethnographie der ,tscheremissen10 ,globus1 lviii4 7#ahij7 p4 #bjd4 ,footnote #agg3 ,j4 ,g4 ,dalyell1 ,darker ,superstitions of ,scotland 7,edinburgh1 #ahcd71 p4 #djj4 ,footnote #agh3 ,j4 ,g4 ,dalyell1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #agi3 ,j4 ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 p4 #aaf4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,h4 ,r4 ,tate1 8,further ,notes on the ,kikuyu ,tribe of ,british ,east ,africa10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxiv4 7#aijd7 p4 #bfc2 id4 8,the ,native ,law of the ,southern ,gikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa10 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 #ce 7,april #aiaj71 pp4 #bdb sq4 ,footnote #aha3 ,on the representations of ,silvanus1 the ,roman wood-god1 see ,h4 ,jordan in ,l4 ,preller's ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #cic note2 ,a4 ,baumeister1 ,denkmler des classischen ,altertums1 iii4 #affe sq4 ,a good representation of ,silvanus bearing a pine branch is given in the ,sale ,catalogue of ,h4 ,hoffmann1 ,paris1 #ahhh1 pt4 ii4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,aeneas ,sylvius1 ,opera 7,ble1 #aega71 p4 #dah wrongly numbered #dbj2 compare ,erasmus ,stella1 8,de ,borussiae antiquitatibus10 in ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum1 p4 #eaj4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott and ,j4 ,p4 ,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of ,upper ,burmah and the ,shan ,states1 ,part ,,ii4 vol4 iii4 7,rangoon1 #aija71 pp4 #fc sq4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,e4 ,aymonier1 in ,cochinchine franaise3 excursions et reconnaissances1 ,no4 #af 7,saigon1 #ahhc71 pp4 #age sq4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,l4 ,decle1 ,three ,years in ,savage ,africa 7,london1 #ahih71 p4 #dhi4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,h4 ,schinz1 ,deutsch-,sdwest-,afrika1 pp4 #bie sq4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bdh1 #bej1 #cji4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bhd4 ,footnote #aij3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus 7,berlin1 #ahge71 pp4 #aeh1 #aei1 #agj1 #aig1 #bad1 #cea1 #ead4 ,footnote #aia3 ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #ahh4 ,footnote #aib3 ,villault1 ,relation des costes appelles ,guine 7,paris1 #affi71 pp4 #bff sq42 ,labat1 ,voyage du chevalier des ,marchais en ,guine1 isles voisines1 et ,cayenne 7,paris1 #agcj71 i4 #cch4 ,footnote #aic3 ,o4 ,baumann1 ,usambara und seine ,nachbargebiete 7,berlin1 #ahia71 p4 #adb4 ,footnote #aid3 ,c4 ,e4 ,x4 ,rochet d',hericourt1 ,voyage sur la cte orientale de la ,mer ,rouge dans le pays d',adel et le royaume de ,choa 7,paris1 #ahda71 pp4 #aff sq4 ,footnote #aie3 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4 #bff4 ,footnote #aif3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #aij sqq4 ,footnote #aig3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte 7,berlin1 #ahgg71 pp4 #bab sqq4 ,footnote #aih3 ,h4 ,low1 ,sarawak1 p4 #bgd2 id41 in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxv4 7#ahif7 p4 #aaa4 ,footnote #aii3 ,t4 ,h4 ,lewin1 ,wild ,races of ,south-,eastern ,india 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,j4 ,mackenzie1 ,ten ,years ,north of the ,orange ,river 7,edinburgh1 #ahga71 p4 #che4 ,footnote #bja3 ,j4 ,campbell1 ,travels in ,south ,africa1 ,second ,journey 7,london1 #ahbb71 ii4 #bjc4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,,ms4 notes2 compare id41 ,light in ,africa1 p4 #baj2 id41 in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xx4 7#ahia7 p4 #adj4 ,the ,nubas will not cut shoots of the nabac 7a thorn-tree7 during the rainy season 7,missions ,catholiques1 xiv4 7#ahhb7 p4 #dfj74 ,among some of the hill-tribes of the ,punjaub no one is allowed to cut grass or any green thing with an iron sickle till the festival of the ripening grain has been celebrated2 otherwise the field-god would be angry and send frost to destroy or injure the harvest 7,d4 ,c4 ,j4 ,ibbetson1 ,outlines of ,panjab ,ethnography1 p4 #aba74 ,footnote #bjc3 8,ueber die ,religion der heidnischen ,tscheremissen im ,gouvernement ,kasan10 ,zeitschrift fr allgemeine ,erdkunde1 ,n4 ,f4 iii4 7#aheg7 p4 #aej4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,j4 ,biddulph1 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 pp4 #ajc sq4 ,footnote #bje3 ,j4 ,biddulph1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ajf sq4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #ajb4 ,see also ,sir ,h4 ,m4 ,elliot1 ,memoirs on the ,history1 ,folk-lore1 and ,distribution of the ,races of the ,north-,western ,provinces of ,india1 edited by ,j4 ,beames1 ii4 #bag1 where1 however1 the object of the prayers is said to be the fruitfulness of the tree itself1 not the fruitfulness of women1 animals1 and cattle4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,w4 ,crooke1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ajf4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,th4 ,j4 ,hutchinson1 ,impressions of ,western ,africa1 p4 #abh4 ,footnote #bji3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #afa2 ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 p4 #cig2 ,a4 ,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus sterreichisch-,schlesien1 ii4 #bhf4 ,footnote #baj3 ,w4 ,camden1 ,britannia1 ed4 ,r4 ,gough 7,london1 #aggi71 iii4 #fei4 ,camden's authority is ,good1 a writer of the sixteenth century4 ,footnote #baa3 ,county ,folk-lore3 ,suffolk1 collected and edited by ,lady ,eveline ,camilla ,gurdon 7,london1 #ahic71 p4 #aag4 ,footnote #bab3 ,mr4 ,e4 ,f4 ,benson1 in a letter to the author dated ,december #ae1 #ahib4 ,footnote #bac3 ,memoirs of ,samuel ,pepys1 ,esq41 edited by ,lord ,braybrooke1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahbh71 ii4 #bji1 under ,may #ast1 #affg4 ,footnote #bad3 ,lady ,wilde1 ,ancient ,legends1 ,mystic ,charms1 and ,superstitions of ,ireland 7,london1 #ahhg71 i4 #aif sq4 ,if an ,irish housewife puts a ring of rowan-tree or quicken1 as it is also called1 on the handle of the churn-dash when she is churning1 no witch can steal her butter 7,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 ,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland 7,london1 #aijc71 i4 #bcf sq474 ,footnote #bae3 ,w4 ,camden1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #baf3 ,w4 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of the ,north-east of ,scotland 7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #ahh4 ,footnote #bag3 ,j4 ,g4 ,campbell1 ,witchcraft and ,second ,sight in the ,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland1 p4 #bgj1 compare ib41 pp4 #g sqq4 ,footnote #bah3 ,j4 ,g4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aa sq4 ,in ,germany also the rowan-tree is a charm against witchcraft 7,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube1 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #ajf1 #ade74 ,footnote #bai3 ,sir ,john ,rhys1 8,the ,coligny ,calendar10 ,proceedings of the ,british ,academy1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #ee sq4 of the offprint4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers #bnd ,ed41 7,gtersloh1 #ahhf71 pp4 #agh sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,germanische ,mythen 7,berlin1 #aheh71 pp4 #ag sq4 ,footnote #bba3 ,j4 ,d4 ,h4 ,temme1 ,die ,volkssagen der ,altmark 7,berlin1 #ahci71 p4 #he2 ,e4 ,sommer1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,sachsen und ,thringen 7,halle1 #ahdf71 p4 #adi2 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus ,westfalen1 ii4 p4 #aed1 #dcb1 p4 #aee1 #dcf2 ,a4 ,schleicher1 ,volkstmliches aus ,sonnenberg 7,weimar1 #aheh71 p4 #aci2 ,a4 ,peter1 ,volksthmliches aus sterreichisch-,schlesien 7,troppau1 #ahfe-fg71 ii4 #beb2 ,r4 ,eisel1 ,sagenbuch des ,voigtlandes 7,gera1 #ahga71 p4 #baj2 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #baj2 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien1 i4 7,leipsic1 #aijc7 p4 #aji4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers1 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #aff4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,p4 ,drechsler1 op4 cit4 i4 #aji sq4 ,compare ,a4 ,peter1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,w4 ,mller1 ,beitrge zur ,volkskunde der ,deutschen in ,mhren 7,vienna and ,olmtz1 #ahic71 p4 #cbd4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #agd4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,j4 ,b4 ,holzmayer1 8,osiliana10 ,verhandlungen der gelehrten ,estnischen ,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vii4 ,no4 #b 7,dorpat1 #ahgb71 pp4 #aj sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #djg sq4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,potocki1 ,voyage dans les steps d',astrakhan et du ,caucase 7,paris1 #ahbi71 i4 #cji4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,w4 ,foy1 in ,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft1 x4 7#aijg7 p4 #eea4 ,for details of the evidence see ,w4 ,h4 ,goldie1 ,m4,d41 8,maori ,medical ,lore10 ,transactions and ,proceedings of the ,new ,zealand ,institute1 xxxvii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #ic-ie4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #afc sqq4 ,to his authorities add for ,france1 ,a4 ,meyrac1 ,traditions1 coutumes1 lgendes et contes des ,ardennes1 pp4 #hd sqq42 ,l4 ,f4 ,sauv1 ,folk-lore des ,hautes-,vosges1 pp4 #aca sq42 ,brenger-,fraud1 ,superstitions et survivances1 v4 #cji sq42 ,ch4 ,beauquier1 ,les ,mois en ,franche-,comt 7,paris1 #aijj71 pp4 #fi-gb2 ,f4 ,chapiseau1 ,le ,folk-lore de la ,beauce et du ,perche 7,paris1 #aijb71 ii4 #aji-aaa2 for ,silesia1 ,f4 ,tetzner1 8,die ,tschechen und ,mhrer in ,schlesien10 ,globus1 lxxviii4 7#aijj7 p4 #cdj2 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien1 i4 #aab sq42 for ,moravia1 ,w4 ,mller1 ,beitrge zur ,volkskunde der ,deutschen in ,mhren1 p4 #bf2 for ,sardinia1 ,r4 ,tennant1 ,sardinia and its ,resources 7,rome and ,london1 #ahhe71 pp4 #ahe sq4 ,in ,brunswick the custom is observed at ,whitsuntide 7,r4 ,andree1 ,braunschweiger ,volkskunde1 p4 #bdh74 ,footnote #bca3 ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 i4 #cgc4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,volksglaube und religiser ,brauch der ,sdslaven1 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,w4 ,radloff1 ,proben der ,volkslitteratur der nrdlichen ,trkischen ,stmme1 v4 #b 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahhe74 ,footnote #bcd3 ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #aid2 a similar custom is practised among the ,kurmis1 ibid41 p4 #cai4 ,among the ,mundas the custom seems now to have fallen into disuse 7,h4 ,h4 ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal3 ,ethnographic ,glossary1 ii4 #ajb74 ,footnote #bce3 ,the explanation has been suggested by ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke 7,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxviii4 7#ahii7 p4 #bdc74 ,there are other facts1 however1 which point to a different explanation1 namely1 that the practice is intended to avert possible evil consequences from bride or bridegroom4 ,for example1 8the superstition regarding a man's third marriage1 prevalent in ,barr and1 ,i believe in other parts of ,india1 is not despised by the ,vlams4 ,a third marriage is unlucky4 ,should a man marry a third wife1 it matters not whether his former wives be alive or not1 evil will befall either him or that wife4 ,no father would give his girl to a man whose third wife she would be4 ,a man therefore1 who has twice entered the married state and wishes to mate yet once again1 cannot obtain as a third wife any one who has both the wit and the tongue to say no2 a tree has neither1 so to a tree he is married4 ,i have not been able to discover why the tree1 or rather shrub1 called in ,marth ru'i and in ,hindstn madar 7,asclepias gigantea71 is invariably the victim selected in ,barr1 nor do ,i know whether the shrub is similarly favoured in other parts of ,india4 ,the ceremony consists in the binding of a mangal stra round the selected shrub1 by which the bridegroom sits1 while turmeric-dyed rice 7akata7 is thrown over both him and the shrub4 ,this is the whole of the simple ceremony4 ,he has gone through his unlucky third marriage1 and any lady whom he may favour after this will be his fourth wife0 7,captain ,wolseley ,haig1 8,notes on the ,vlam ,caste in ,brr10 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 lxx4 part iii4 7#aija7 p4 #bh74 ,again1 the ,vellalas of ,southern ,india 8observe a curious custom 7derived from ,brhmans7 with regard to marriage1 which is not unknown in other communities4 ,a man marrying a second wife after the death of his first has to marry a plantain tree1 and cut it down before tying the tli1 and1 in case of a third marriage1 a man has to tie a tli first to the erukkan 7arka3 ,calotropis gigantea7 plant4 ,the idea is that second and fourth wives do not prosper1 and the tree and the plant are accordingly made to take their places40 7,mr4 ,hemingway1 quoted by ,e4 ,thurston1 ,castes and ,tribes of ,southern ,india1 vii4 #chg74 ,tying the tali to the bride is the common ,hindoo symbol of marriage1 like giving the ring with us4 ,as to these ,indian marriages to trees see further my ,totemism and ,exogamy1 i4 #cb sq41 iv4 #baj sqq42 ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #beb1 iii4 #ab1 #ij1 #efb1 iv4 #cif2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #aaj2 ,d4 ,c4 ,j4 ,ibbetson1 ,settlement ,report of the ,karnal ,district1 p4 #aee2 ,h4 ,h4 ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 i4 #eca2 ,capt4 ,e4 ,c4 ,luard1 in ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 xix4 #gf2 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,tribes and ,castes of the ,north-,western ,provinces and ,oudh1 ii4 #cfc2 id41 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #aae-aba4 ,i was formerly disposed to connect the custom with totemism1 but of this there seems to be no sufficient evidence4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #ea sq4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,merolla1 8,voyage to ,congo10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #bcf sq4 ,footnote #bch3 ,c4 ,btticher1 ,der ,baumkultus der ,hellenen 7,berlin1 #ahef71 pp4 #cj sq4 ,,chapter ,x ,,relics ,,of ,,tree-,,worship ,,in ,,modern ,,europe ,sidenote3 ,may-trees in ,europe4 ,from the foregoing review of the beneficent qualities commonly ascribed to tree-spirits1 it is easy to understand why customs like the ,may-tree or ,may-pole have prevailed so widely and figured so prominently in the popular festivals of ,european peasants4 ,in spring or early summer or even on ,midsummer ,day1 it was and still is in many parts of ,europe the custom to go out to the woods1 cut down a tree and bring it into the village1 where it is set up amid general rejoicings2 or the people cut branches in the woods1 and fasten them on every house4 ,the intention of these customs is to bring home to the village1 and to each house1 the blessings which the tree-spirit has in its power to bestow4 ,hence the custom in some places of planting a ,may-tree before every house1 or of carrying the village ,may-tree from door to door1 that every household may receive its share of the blessing4 ,out of the mass of evidence on this subject a few examples may be selected4 ,sidenote3 ,may-trees and ,may-bushes in ,england4 ,sir ,henry ,piers1 in his ,description of ,westmeath1 writing in #afhb says3 8,on ,may-eve1 every family sets up before their door a green bush1 strewed over with yellow flowers1 which the meadows yield plentifully4 ,in countries where timber is plentiful1 they erect tall slender trees1 which stand high1 and they continue almost the whole year2 so as a stranger would go nigh to imagine that they were all signs of ale-sellers1 and that all houses were ale-houses40#bci ,in ,northamptonshire a young tree ten or twelve feet high used to be planted before each house on ,may ,day so as to appear growing2 flowers were thrown over it and strewn about the door4#bdj 8,among ancient customs still retained by the ,cornish1 may be reckoned that of decking their doors and porches on the first of ,may with green boughs of sycamore and hawthorn1 and of planting trees1 or rather stumps of trees1 before their houses40#bda ,in the north of ,england it was ,sidenote3 ,may garlands in ,england4 formerly the custom for young people to rise a little after midnight on the morning of the first of ,may1 and go out with music and the blowing of horns into the woods1 where they broke branches and adorned them with nosegays and crowns of flowers4 ,this done1 they returned about sunrise and fastened the flower-decked branches over the doors and windows of their houses4#bdb ,at ,abingdon in ,berkshire young people formerly went about in groups on ,may morning1 singing a carol of which the following are two of the verses3-- 8,we've been rambling all the night1 ,and sometime of this day2 ,and now returning back again1 ,we bring a garland gay4 ,a garland gay we bring you here2 ,and at your door we stand2 ,it is a sprout well budded out1 ,the work of our ,lord's hand40#bdc ,at the towns of ,saffron ,walden and ,debden in ,essex on the first of ,may little girls go about in parties from door to door singing a song almost identical with the above and carrying garlands2 a doll dressed in white is usually placed in the middle of each garland4#bdd ,similar customs have been and indeed are still observed in various parts of ,england4 ,the garlands are generally in the form of hoops intersecting each other at right angles4 ,thus on ,may morning the girls of the neighbouring villages used to flock into ,northampton bringing their garlands1 which they exhibited from house to house4 ,the skeleton of the garland was formed of two hoops of osier or hazel crossing each other at right angles1 and so twined with flowers and ribbons that no part of them could be seen4 ,in the centre of the garlands were placed gaily dressed dolls1 one1 two1 or three in number according to the size of the garland4 ,the whole was fixed to a staff about five feet long1 by which it was carried4 ,in shewing their garlands the children chanted some simple ditties and received in return pennies1 which furnished forth a feast on their return to their homes4 ,a merry dance round the garland concluded the festivity4#bde ,at ,uttoxeter groups of children carry garlands of flowers about the town on ,may ,day4 8,the garlands consist of two hoops1 one passing through the other1 which give the appearance of four half-circles1 and they are decorated with flowers and evergreens1 and surmounted with a bunch of flowers as a sort of crown1 and in the centre of the hoops is a pendant orange and flowers40 ,one or more of the children carry a little pole or stick upright with a bunch of flowers fastened to the top4 ,they are themselves decorated with flowers and ribbons1 and receive pence from the houses which they visit4#bdf ,at ,watford in ,hertfordshire1 groups of children1 almost entirely girls1 go about the streets from door to door on ,may ,day singing some verses1 of which two agree almost verbally with those which1 as we have seen1 are sung at ,abingdon in ,berkshire4 ,they are dressed in white1 and adorned with gay ribbons and sashes of many hues4 8,two of the girls carry between them on a stick what they call #8the garland1' which in its simplest form1 is made of two circular hoops1 intersecting each other at right angles2 a more elaborate form has1 in addition1 smaller semicircles inserted in the four angles formed by the meeting of the hoops at the top of #8the garland4' ,these hoops are covered with any wild-flowers in season1 and are further ornamented with ribbons4 ,the #8garland' in shape reminds me of the #8,christmas' which used to form the centre of the ,christmas decorations in ,yorkshire some few years ago1 except that the latter had a bunch of mistletoe inside the hoops40#bdg ,a similar custom was observed at ,bampton-in-the-,bush in ,oxfordshire down to about the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,the garland consisted of two crossed hoops covered with moss1 flowers1 and ribbons4 ,two girls1 known as the ,lady and her ,maid1 bore the garland between them on a stick2 and a boy called the ,lord1 who carried a stick dressed with ribbons and flowers1 collected contributions from the spectators4 ,from time to time the ,lady sang a few lines and was then kissed by the ,lord4#bdh ,at ,sevenoaks in ,kent the children carry boughs and garlands from door to door on ,may ,day4 ,the boughs consist of sticks carried upright with bunches of leaves and wild-flowers fastened to the top4 ,the garlands are formed of two hoops interlaced cross-wise and covered with blue and yellow flowers from the woods and hedges4 ,sometimes the garlands are fastened to the end of a stick carried perpendicularly1 sometimes they hang from the middle of a stick borne horizontally by two children4#bdi ,in the streets of ,cambridge little girls regularly make their appearance every ,may ,day with female dolls enclosed in hoops1 which are covered with ribbons and flowers4 ,these they shew to passers-by1 inviting them to remember the ,may ,lady by paying a small sum to her bearers4#bej ,at ,salisbury girls go through the streets on ,may ,day in pairs1 carrying between them on a stick a circular garland or hoop adorned with flowers and bows2 they visit the shops asking for money4 ,a similar custom is observed at ,wilton a few miles from ,salisbury4#bea ,at ,cawthorne in ,yorkshire 8on the first of ,may the school-children came with hoops to beg for artificial flowers2 these my mother's maid used to sew on to the hoops1 which with ribbons and other decorations1 were used in decking out a tall ,may-pole planted in the village40#beb ,it appears that a hoop wreathed with rowan and marsh marigold1 and bearing suspended within it two balls1 is still carried on ,may ,day by villagers in some parts of ,ireland4 ,the balls1 which are sometimes covered with gold and silver paper1 are said to have originally represented the sun and moon4#bec ,sidenote3 ,may customs in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,greece4 ,in some villages of the ,vosges ,mountains on the first ,sunday of ,may young girls go in bands from house to house1 singing a song in praise of ,may1 in which mention is made of the 8bread and meal that come in ,may40 ,if money is given them1 they fasten a green bough to the door2 if it is refused1 they wish the family many children and no bread to feed them4#bed ,in the ,french department of ,mayenne1 boys who bore the name of ,maillotins used to go about from farm to farm on the first of ,may singing carols1 for which they received money or a drink2 they planted a small tree or a branch of a tree4#bee ,among the ,germans of ,moravia on the third ,sunday before ,easter1 which goes by the name of ,laetare ,sunday1 it is customary in some places for young girls to carry a small fir-tree about from door to door1 while they sing songs1 for which they receive presents4 ,the tree is tricked out with many-coloured ribbons1 and sometimes with flowers and dyed egg-shells1 and its branches are twined together so as to form what is called a crown4#bef ,in ,corfu the children go about singing ,may songs on the first of ,may4 ,the boys carry small cypresses adorned with ribbons1 flowers1 and the fruits of the season4 ,they receive a glass of wine at each house4 ,the girls carry nosegays4 ,one of them is dressed up like an angel1 with gilt wings1 and scatters flowers4#beg ,sidenote3 ,whitsuntide customs in ,russia4 ,on the ,thursday before ,whitsunday the ,russian villagers 8go out into the woods1 sing songs1 weave garlands1 and cut down a young birch-tree1 which they dress up in woman's clothes1 or adorn with many-coloured shreds and ribbons4 ,after that comes a feast1 at the end of which they take the dressed-up birch-tree1 carry it home to their village with joyful dance and song1 and set it up in one of the houses1 where it remains as an honoured guest till ,whitsunday4 ,on the two intervening days they pay visits to the house where their #8guest' is2 but on the third day1 ,whitsunday1 they take her to a stream and fling her into its waters10 throwing their garlands after her4 8,all over ,russia every village and every town is turned1 a little before ,whitsunday1 into a sort of garden4 ,everywhere along the streets the young birch-trees stand in rows1 every house and every room is adorned with boughs1 even the engines upon the railway are for the time decked with green leaves40#beh ,in this ,russian custom the dressing of the birch in woman's clothes shews how clearly the tree is personified2 and the throwing it into a stream is most probably a rain-charm4 ,in some villages of ,altmark it was formerly the custom for serving-men1 grooms1 and cowherds to go from farm to farm at ,whitsuntide distributing crowns made of birch branches and flowers to the farmers2 these crowns were hung up in the houses and left till the following year4#bei ,sidenote3 ,may-trees in ,germany and ,sweden4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,zabern in ,alsace bands of people go about carrying ,may-trees4 ,amongst them is a man dressed in a white shirt1 with his face blackened2 in front of him is carried a large ,may-tree1 but each member of the band also carries a smaller one4 ,one of the company bears a huge basket in which he collects eggs1 bacon1 and so forth4#bfj ,in some parts of ,sweden on the eve of ,may ,day lads go about carrying each a bunch of fresh-gathered birch twigs1 wholly or partially in leaf4 ,with the village fiddler at their head1 they make the round of the houses singing ,may songs2 the burden of their songs is a prayer for fine weather1 a plentiful harvest1 and worldly and spiritual blessings4 ,one of them carries a basket in which he collects gifts of eggs and the like4 ,if they are well received they stick a leafy twig in the roof over the cottage door4#bfa ,sidenote3 ,midsummer trees and poles in ,sweden4 ,but in ,sweden midsummer is the season when these ceremonies are chiefly observed4 ,on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john 7the twenty-third of ,june7 the houses are thoroughly cleansed and garnished with green boughs and flowers4 ,young fir-trees are raised at the doorway and elsewhere about the homestead2 and very often small umbrageous arbours are constructed in the garden4 ,in ,stockholm on this day a leaf-market is held at which thousands of ,may-poles 7,maj ,stnger71 from six inches to twelve feet high1 decorated with leaves1 flowers1 slips of coloured paper1 gilt egg-shells strung on reeds1 and so on1 are exposed for sale4 ,bonfires are lit on the hills1 and the people dance round them and jump over them4 ,but the chief event of the day is setting up the ,may-pole4 ,this consists of a straight and tall spruce-pine tree1 stripped of its branches4 8,at times hoops and at others pieces of wood1 placed cross-wise1 are attached to it at intervals2 whilst at others it is provided with bows1 representing1 so to say1 a man with his arms akimbo4 ,from top to bottom not only the #8,maj ,stng' 7,may-pole7 itself1 but the hoops1 bows1 etc41 are ornamented with leaves1 flowers1 slips of various cloth1 gilt egg-shells1 etc42 and on the top of it is a large vane1 or it may be a flag40 ,the raising of the ,may-pole1 the decoration of which is done by the village maidens1 is an affair of much ceremony2 the people flock to it from all quarters1 and dance round it in a great ring4#bfb ,midsummer customs of the same sort used to be observed in some parts of ,germany4 ,thus in the towns of the ,upper ,harz ,mountains tall fir-trees1 with the bark peeled off their lower trunks1 were set up in open places and decked with flowers and eggs1 which were painted yellow and red4 ,round these trees the young folk danced by day and the old folk in the evening4 ,many people disguised themselves1 and dramatic representations were given1 amongst others mock executions1 at which the sufferer's hat was knocked off instead of his head4 ,at the village of ,lerbach in these fir-clad mountains children would gather together on ,midsummer ,day1 each with a tiny fir-tree1 which they made to revolve from left to right in the direction of the sun1 while they sang 8,the maiden turned herself about10 or 8,oh1 thou dear ,summertime6 ,oh1 thou dear ,summertime60#bfc ,in some parts of ,bohemia also a ,may-pole or midsummer-tree is erected on ,st4 ,john's ,eve4 ,the lads fetch a tall fir or pine from the wood and set it up on a height1 where the girls deck it with nosegays1 garlands1 and red ribbons4 ,it is afterwards burned4#bfd ,sidenote3 ,village ,may-poles in ,england4 ,it would be needless to illustrate at length the custom1 which has prevailed in various parts of ,europe1 such as ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 of setting up a village ,may-tree or ,may-pole on ,may ,day4#bfe ,a few examples will suffice4 ,the puritanical writer ,phillip ,stubbes in his ,anatomie of ,abuses1 first published at ,london in #aehc1 has described with manifest disgust how they used to bring in the ,may-pole in the days of good ,queen ,bess4 ,his description affords us a vivid glimpse of merry ,england in the olden time4 8,against ,may1 ,whitsonday1 or other time1 all the yung men and maides1 olde men and wives1 run gadding over night to the woods1 groves1 hils1 and mountains1 where they spend all the night in plesant pastimes2 and in the morning they return1 bringing with them birch and branches of trees1 to deck their assemblies withall4 ,and no mervaile1 for there is a great ,lord present amongst them1 as superintendent and ,lord over their pastimes and sportes1 namely1 ,sathan1 prince of hel4 ,but the chiefest jewel they bring from thence is their ,may-pole1 which they bring home ,sidenote3 ,bringing in the ,may-pole4 with great veneration1 as thus4 ,they have twentie or fortie yoke of oxen1 every oxe having a sweet nose-gay of flouers placed on the tip of his hornes1 and these oxen drawe home this ,may-pole 7this stinkyng ydol1 rather71 which is covered all over with floures and hearbs1 bound round about with strings1 from the top to the bottome1 and sometime painted with variable colours1 with two or three hundred men1 women and children following it with great devotion4 ,and thus beeing reared up1 with handkercheefs and flags hovering on the top1 they straw the ground rounde about1 binde green boughes about it1 set up sommer haules1 bowers1 and arbors hard by it4 ,and then fall they to daunce about it1 like as the heathen people did at the dedication of the ,idols1 whereof this is a perfect pattern1 or rather the thing itself4 ,i have heard it credibly reported 7and that viva voce7 by men of great gravitie and reputation1 that of fortie1 threescore1 or a hundred maides going to the wood over night1 there have scaresly the third part of them returned home againe undefiled40#bff ,of the ,cornish people their historian ,borlase says3 8,from towns they make excursions1 on ,may eve1 into the country1 cut down a tall elm1 bring it into town with rejoicings1 and having fitted a straight taper pole to the end of it1 and painted it1 erect it in the most publick part1 and upon holidays and festivals dress it with garlands of flowers1 or ensigns and streamers40#bfg ,in ,northumberland1 down apparently to near the end of the eighteenth century1 young people of both sexes used to go out early on ,may morning to gather the flowering thorn and the dew off the grass1 which they brought home with music and acclamations2 then1 having dressed a pole on the green with garlands1 they danced about it4 ,the dew was considered as a great cosmetic1 and preserved the face from wrinkles1 blotches1 and the traces of old age4 ,a syllabub made of warm milk from the cow1 sweet cakes1 and wine was prepared for the feast2 and a kind of divination1 to discover who should be wedded first1 was practised by dropping a marriage-ring into the syllabub and fishing for it with a ladle4#bfh ,at ,padstow in ,cornwall1 when shipbuilding was a thriving industry of the port1 the shipwrights used to erect a tall ,may-pole at the top of ,cross ,street in the middle of a cross inlaid with stone4 ,the pole was gaily decorated with spring flowers and so forth4 ,but the custom has long been abandoned4 ,a great feature of the celebration of ,may ,day at ,padstow used to be the ,hobby ,horse1 that is1 a man wearing a ferocious mask1 who went dancing and singing before the chief houses1 accompanied by a great flower-bedecked crowd of men and women1 while the men fired pistols loaded with powder in all directions4#bfi ,sidenote3 ,village ,may-trees and ,may-poles in ,germany4 ,in ,swabia on the first of ,may a tall fir-tree used to be fetched into the village1 where it was decked with ribbons and set up2 then the people danced round it merrily to music4 ,the tree stood on the village green the whole year through1 until a fresh tree was brought in next ,may ,day4#bgj ,in ,saxony 8people were not content with bringing the summer symbolically 7as king or queen7 into the village2 they brought the fresh green itself from the woods even into the houses3 that is the ,may or ,whitsuntide trees1 which are mentioned in documents from the thirteenth century onwards4 ,the fetching in of the ,may-tree was also a festival4 ,the people went out into the woods to seek the ,may 7majum quaerere71 brought young trees1 especially firs and birches1 to the village and set them up before the doors of the houses or of the cattle-stalls or in the rooms4 ,young fellows erected such ,may-trees1 as we have already said1 before the chambers of their sweethearts4 ,besides these household ,mays1 a great ,may-tree or ,may-pole1 which had also been brought in solemn procession to the village1 was set up in the middle of the village or in the market-place of the town4 ,it had been chosen by the whole community1 who watched over it most carefully4 ,generally the tree was stripped of its branches and leaves1 nothing but the crown being left1 on which were displayed1 in addition to many-coloured ribbons and cloths1 a variety of victuals such as sausages1 cakes1 and eggs4 ,the young folk exerted themselves to obtain these prizes4 ,in the greasy poles which are still to be seen at our fairs we have a relic of these old ,may-poles4 ,not uncommonly there was a race on foot or on horseback to the ,may-tree--a ,whitsuntide pastime which in course of time has been divested of its goal and survives as a popular custom to this day in many parts of ,germany4 ,in the great towns of our land the custom has developed into sport1 for our spring races are in their origin nothing but the old ,german horse-races1 in which the victor received a prize 7generally a red cloth7 from the hand of a maiden1 while the last rider was greeted with jeers and gibes by the assembled community40#bga ,the custom of the ,may-tree is observed by the ,wends of ,saxony1 as well as by the ,germans4 ,the young men of the village choose the slimmest and tallest tree in the wood1 peel it and set it up on the village green4 ,its leafy top is decked with cloths and ribbons presented by the girls4 ,here it stands1 towering high above the roofs1 till ,ascension ,day1 or in many places till ,whitsuntide4 ,when it is being taken down1 the young folk dance round it1 and the youth who catches and breaks off the leafy crown of the falling tree is the hero of the day4 ,holding the green boughs aloft he is carried shoulder-high1 with music and joyous shouts1 to the ale-house1 where the dance is resumed4#bgb ,at ,bordeaux on the ,sidenote3 ,may-poles and ,may-trees in ,france4 first of ,may the boys of each street used to erect in it a ,may-pole1 which they adorned with garlands and a great crown2 and every evening during the whole of the month the young people of both sexes danced singing about the pole4#bgc ,down to the present day ,may-trees decked with flowers and ribbons are set up on ,may ,day in every village and hamlet of gay ,provence4 ,under them the young folk make merry and the old folk rest4#bgd ,the ,red ,karens of ,sidenote3 ,may-poles among the ,karens of ,burma4 ,upper ,burma hold a festival in ,april1 at which the chief ceremony is the erection of a post on ground set apart for the purpose in or near each village4 ,a new post is set up every year2 the old ones are left standing1 but are not renewed if they fall or decay4 ,omens are first drawn from chicken bones as to which tree will be the best to fell for the post1 which day will be the luckiest1 and so on4 ,a pole some twenty or thirty feet long is then hewn from the tree and ornamented with a rudely carved capital4 ,on the lucky day all the villagers assemble and drag the pole to the chosen spot4 ,when it has been set up1 the people dance 8a rude sort of ,may-pole dance0 to the music of drums and gongs4 ,much pork is eaten and much liquor drunk on this festive occasion4#bge ,sidenote3 ,permanent ,may-poles4 ,in all these cases1 apparently1 the custom is or was to bring in a new ,may-tree each year4 ,however1 in ,england the village ,may-pole seems as a rule1 at least in later times1 to have been permanent1 not renewed annually4#bgf ,villages of ,upper ,bavaria renew their ,may-pole once every three1 four1 or five years4 ,it is a fir-tree fetched from the forest1 and amid all the wreaths1 flags1 and inscriptions with which it is bedecked1 an essential part is the bunch of dark green foliage left at the top 8as a memento that in it we have to do1 not with a dead pole1 but with a living tree from the greenwood40#bgg ,we can hardly doubt that originally the practice everywhere was to set up a new ,may-tree every year4 ,as the object of the custom was to bring in the fructifying spirit of vegetation1 newly awakened in spring1 the end would have been defeated if1 instead of a living tree1 green and sappy1 an old withered one had been erected year after year or allowed to stand permanently4 ,when1 however1 the meaning of the custom had been forgotten1 and the ,may-tree was regarded simply as a centre for holiday merry-making1 people saw no reason for felling a fresh tree every year1 and preferred to let the same tree stand permanently1 only decking it with fresh flowers on ,may ,day4 ,but even when the ,may-pole had thus become a fixture1 the need of giving it the appearance of being a green tree1 not a dead pole1 was sometimes felt4 ,thus at ,weverham in ,cheshire 8are two ,may-poles1 which are decorated on this day 7,may ,day7 with all due attention to the ancient solemnity2 the sides are hung with garlands1 and the top terminated by a birch or other tall slender tree with its leaves on2 the bark being peeled1 and the stem spliced to the pole1 so as to give the appearance of one tree from the summit40#bgh ,thus the renewal of the ,may-tree is like the renewal of the ,harvest-,may2#bgi each is intended to secure a fresh portion of the fertilising spirit of vegetation1 and to preserve it throughout the year4 ,but whereas the efficacy of the ,harvest-,may is restricted to promoting the growth of the crops1 that of the ,may-tree or ,may-branch extends also1 as we have seen1 to women and cattle4 ,lastly1 ,sidenote3 ,the ,may-tree burnt at the end of the year4 it is worth noting that the old ,may-tree is sometimes burned at the end of the year4 ,thus in the district of ,prague young people break pieces of the public ,may-tree and place them behind the holy pictures in their rooms1 where they remain till next ,may ,day1 and are then burned on the hearth4#bhj ,in ,wrtemberg the bushes which are set up on the houses on ,palm ,sunday are sometimes left there for a year and then burnt4#bha ,the eiresione 7the ,harvest-,may of ,greece7 was perhaps burnt at the end of the year4#bhb 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,tree-spirit detached from the tree and represented in human form4 ,so much for the tree-spirit conceived as incorporate or immanent in the tree4 ,we have now to shew that the tree-spirit is often conceived and represented as detached from the tree and clothed in human form1 and even as embodied in living men or women4 ,the evidence for this anthropomorphic representation of the tree-spirit is largely to be found in the popular customs of ,european peasantry4 ,these will be described presently1 but before examining them we may notice an ,esthonian folk-tale which illustrates the same train of thought very clearly4 ,once upon a time1 so runs ,sidenote3 ,esthonian story of a tree-elf4 the tale1 a young peasant was busy raking the hay in a meadow1 when on the rim of the horizon a heavy thunder-cloud loomed black and angry1 warning him to make haste with his work before the storm should break4 ,he finished in time1 and was wending his way homeward1 when under a tree he espied a stranger fast asleep4 8,he will be drenched to the skin10 thought the good-natured young fellow to himself1 8if ,i allow him to sleep on40 ,so he stepped up to the sleeper and shaking him forcibly roused him from his slumber4 ,the stranger started up1 and at sight of the thunder-cloud1 which now darkened the sky1 he blenched1 fumbled in his pockets1 and finding nothing in them wherewith to reward the friendly swain1 he said1 8,this time ,i am your debtor4 ,but the time will come when ,i shall be able to repay your kindness4 ,remember what ,i tell you4 ,you will enlist4 ,you will be parted from your friends for years1 and one day a feeling of homesickness will come over you in a foreign land4 ,then look up1 and you will see a crooked birch-tree a few steps from you4 ,go to it1 knock thrice on the trunk1 and ask1 #8,is the ,crooked ,one at home8' ,the rest will follow40 ,with these words the stranger hastened away and was out of sight in a moment4 ,the peasant also went his way1 and soon forgot all about the matter4 ,well1 time went by and part of the stranger's prophecy came true4 ,for the peasant turned soldier and served in a cavalry regiment for years4 ,one day1 when he was quartered with his regiment in the north of ,finland1 it fell to his turn to tend the horses while his comrades were roistering in the tavern4 ,suddenly a great yearning for home1 such as he had never known before1 came over the lonely trooper2 tears started to his eyes1 and dear visions of his native land crowded on his soul4 ,then he bethought him of the sleeping stranger in the wood1 and the whole scene came back to him as fresh as if it had happened yesterday4 ,he looked up1 and there1 strange to tell1 he was aware of a crooked birch-tree right in front of him4 ,more in jest than in earnest he went up to it and did as the stranger had bidden him4 ,hardly had the words1 8,is the ,crooked ,one at home80 passed his lips when the stranger himself stood before him and said1 8,i am glad you have come4 ,i feared you had forgotten me4 ,you wish to be at home1 do you not80 ,the trooper said yes1 he did4 ,then the ,crooked ,one cried into the tree1 8,young folks1 which of you is the fleetest80 ,a voice from the birch replied1 8,father1 ,i can run as fast as a moor-hen flies40 8,well1 ,i need a fleeter messenger to-day40 ,a second voice answered1 8,i can run like the wind40 8,i need a swifter envoy10 said the father4 ,then a third voice cried1 8,i can run like the thought of man40 8,you are after my own heart4 ,fill a bag full of gold and take it with my friend and benefactor to his home40 ,then he caught the soldier by the hat1 crying1 8,the hat to the man1 and the man to the house60 ,the same moment the soldier felt his hat fly from his head4 ,when he looked about for it1 lo6 he was at home in the old familiar parlour wearing his old peasant clothes1 and the great sack of money stood beside him4 ,yet on parade and at the roll-call he was never missed4 ,when the man who told this story was asked1 8,who could the stranger be80 he answered1 8,who but a tree-elf80#bhc ,sidenote3 ,tree-spirit represented simultaneously in vegetable and human form4 ,there is an instructive class of cases in which the tree-spirit is represented simultaneously in vegetable form and in human form1 which are set side by side as if for the express purpose of explaining each other4 ,in these cases the human representative of the tree-spirit is sometimes a doll or puppet1 sometimes a living person2 but whether a puppet or a person1 it is placed beside a tree or bough2 so that together the person or puppet1 and the tree or bough1 form a sort of bilingual inscription1 the one being1 so to speak1 a translation of the other4 ,here1 therefore1 there is no room left for doubt that the spirit of the tree is actually represented in human form4 ,thus in ,bohemia1 on the fourth ,sunday in ,lent1 young people throw a puppet called ,death into the water2 then the girls go into the wood1 cut down a young tree1 and fasten to it a puppet dressed in white clothes to look like a woman2 with this tree and puppet they go from house to house collecting gratuities and singing songs with the refrain3-- 8,we carry ,death out of the village1 ,we bring ,summer into the village40#bhd ,here1 as we shall see later on1 the 8,summer0 is the spirit of vegetation returning or reviving in spring4 ,in some parts of our own country children go about asking for pence with some small imitations of ,may-poles1 and with a finely-dressed doll which they call the ,lady of the ,may4#bhe ,in these cases the tree and the puppet are obviously regarded as equivalent4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,little ,may ,rose4 ,at ,thann1 in ,alsace1 a girl called the ,little ,may ,rose1 dressed in white1 carries a small ,may-tree1 which is gay with garlands and ribbons4 ,her companions collect gifts from door to door1 singing a song3-- 8,little ,may ,rose turn round three times1 ,let us look at you round and round6 ,rose of the ,may1 come to the greenwood away1 ,we will be merry all4 ,so we go from the ,may to the roses40 ,in the course of the song a wish is expressed that those who give nothing may lose their fowls by the marten1 that their vine may bear no clusters1 their tree no nuts1 their field no corn2 the produce of the year is supposed to depend on the gifts offered to these ,may singers4#bhf ,here and in the cases mentioned above1 where children go about with green boughs or garlands on ,may ,day singing and collecting money1 the meaning is that with the spirit of vegetation they bring plenty and good luck to the house1 and they expect to be paid for the service4 ,in ,russian ,lithuania1 on the first of ,may1 they used to set up a green tree before the village4 ,then the rustic swains chose the prettiest girl1 crowned her1 swathed her in birch branches and set her beside the ,may-tree1 where they danced1 sang1 and shouted 8,o ,may6 ,o ,may60#bhg ,in ,brie 7,isle de ,france7 a ,may-tree is set up in the midst of the village2 its top is crowned with flowers2 lower down it is twined with leaves and twigs1 still lower with huge green branches4 ,the girls dance round it1 and at the same time a lad wrapt in leaves and called ,father ,may is led about4#bhh ,in the small towns of the ,franken ,wald ,sidenote3 ,the ,walber4 mountains in ,northern ,bavaria1 on the second of ,may1 a ,walber tree is erected before a tavern1 and a man dances round it1 enveloped in straw from head to foot in such a way that the ears of corn unite above his head to form a crown4 ,he is called the ,walber1 and used to be led in procession through the streets1 which were adorned with sprigs of birch4#bhi ,sidenote3 ,green ,george in ,carinthia4 ,amongst the ,slavs of ,carinthia1 on ,st4 ,george's ,day 7the twenty-third of ,april71 the young people deck with flowers and garlands a tree which has been felled on the eve of the festival4 ,the tree is then carried in procession1 accompanied with music and joyful acclamations1 the chief figure in the procession being the ,green ,george1 a young fellow clad from head to foot in green birch branches4 ,at the close of the ceremonies the ,green ,george1 that is an effigy of him1 is thrown into the water4 ,it is the aim of the lad who acts ,green ,george to step out of his leafy envelope and substitute the effigy so adroitly that no one shall perceive the change4 ,in many places1 however1 the lad himself who plays the part of ,green ,george is ducked in a river or pond1 with the express intention of thus ensuring rain to make the fields and meadows green in summer4 ,in some places the cattle are crowned and driven from their stalls to the accompaniment of a song3-- 8,green ,george we bring1 ,green ,george we accompany1 ,may he feed our herds well4 ,if not1 to the water with him40#bij ,here we see that the same powers of making rain and fostering the cattle1 which are ascribed to the tree-spirit regarded as incorporate in the tree1 are also attributed to the tree-spirit represented by a living man4 ,sidenote3 ,green ,george among the gypsies4 ,among the gypsies of ,transylvania and ,roumania the festival of ,green ,george is the chief celebration of spring4 ,some of them keep it on ,easter ,monday1 others on ,st4 ,george's ,day 7the twenty-third of ,april74 ,on the eve of the festival a young willow tree is cut down1 adorned with garlands and leaves1 and set up in the ground4 ,women with child place one of their garments under the tree1 and leave it there over night2 if next morning they find a leaf of the tree lying on the garment1 they know that their delivery will be easy4 ,sick and old people go to the tree in the evening1 spit on it thrice1 and say1 8,you will soon die1 but let us live40 ,next morning the gypsies gather about the willow4 ,the chief figure of the festival is ,green ,george1 a lad who is concealed from top to toe in green leaves and blossoms4 ,he throws a few handfuls of grass to the beasts of the tribe1 in order that they may have no lack of fodder throughout the year4 ,then he takes three iron nails1 which have lain for three days and nights in water1 and knocks them into the willow2 after which he pulls them out and flings them into a running stream to propitiate the water-spirits4 ,finally1 a pretence is made of throwing ,green ,george into the water1 but in fact it is only a puppet made of branches and leaves which is ducked in the stream4#bia ,in this version of the custom the powers of granting an easy delivery to women and of communicating vital energy to the sick and old are clearly ascribed to the willow2 while ,green ,george1 the human double of the tree1 bestows food on the cattle1 and further ensures the favour of the water-spirits by putting them in indirect communication with the tree4 ,sidenote3 ,double representation of the tree-spirit by tree and man among the ,oraons4 ,an example of the double representation of the spirit of vegetation by a tree and a living man is reported from ,bengal4 ,the ,oraons have a festival in spring while the sl-trees are in blossom1 because they think that at this time the marriage of earth is celebrated and the sl flowers are necessary for the ceremony4 ,on an appointed day the villagers go with their priest to the ,sarna1 the sacred grove1 a remnant of the old sl forest in which a goddess ,sarna ,burhi1 or woman of the grove1 is supposed to dwell4 ,she is thought to have great influence on the rain2 and the priest arriving with his party at the grove sacrifices to her five fowls1 of which a morsel is given to each person present4 ,then they gather the sl flowers and return laden with them to the village4 ,next day the priest visits every house1 carrying the flowers in a wide open basket4 ,the women of each house bring out water to wash his feet as he approaches1 and kneeling make him an obeisance4 ,then he dances with them and places some of the sl flowers over the door of the house and in the women's hair4 ,no sooner is this done than the women empty their water-jugs over him1 drenching him to the skin4 ,a feast follows1 and the young people1 with sl flowers in their hair1 dance all night on the village green4#bib ,here1 the equivalence of the flower-bearing priest to the goddess of the flowering tree comes out plainly4 ,for she is supposed to influence the rain1 and the drenching of the priest with water is1 doubtless1 like the ducking of the ,green ,george in ,carinthia and elsewhere1 a rain-charm4 ,thus the priest1 as if he were the tree goddess herself1 goes from door to door dispensing rain and bestowing fruitfulness on each house1 but especially on the women4 ,in some parts ,sidenote3 ,double representation of the harvest-goddess ,gauri by a bundle of plants and an unmarried girl4 of ,india the harvest-goddess ,gauri1 the wife of ,siva1 is represented both by an unmarried girl and by a bundle of the wild flowering balsam plant touch-me-not 7,impatiens sp471 which is tied up in a mummy-like figure with a woman's mask1 dress1 and ornaments4 ,before being removed from the soil to represent the goddess the plants are worshipped4 ,the girl is also worshipped4 ,then the bundle of plants is carried and the girl who personates the goddess walks through the rooms of the house1 while the supposed footprints of ,gauri herself are imprinted on the floor with red paste4 ,on entering each room the human representative of ,gauri is asked1 8,gauri1 ,gauri1 whither have you come and what do you see80 and the girl makes appropriate replies4 ,then she is given a mouthful of sweets and the mistress of the house says1 8,come with golden feet and stay for ever40 ,the plant-formed effigy of ,gauri is afterwards worshipped as the goddess herself and receives offerings of rice-cakes and pancakes4 ,on the third day it is thrown into a river or tank2 then a handful of pebbles or sand is brought home from the spot and thrown all over the house and the trees to bring good luck to the house and to protect the trees from vermin4 ,a remarkable feature of the ceremonies is that the goddess ,gauri is supposed to be secretly followed by her husband ,siva1 who remains hidden under the fold of her garment and is represented by a l1 covered by a coco-nut and filled with rice1 which is carefully measured4 ,after the image of ,gauri has been thrown into the river or tank1 the rice in the l representing ,siva is carefully measured again1 in order to see whether the quantity has increased or decreased1 and according to the result an abundant or a scanty harvest is prognosticated4#bic ,hence it appears that the whole ritual aims at ensuring a plentiful crop of rice4 ,in this case the spirit of vegetation thus represented in duplicate by a living girl and the effigy of a woman is a harvest goddess1 not a tree-spirit1 but the principle is the same4 ,sidenote3 ,w4 ,mannhardt's summary of the evidence4 ,without citing more examples to the same effect1 we may sum up the results of the preceding pages in the words of ,mannhardt3 8,the customs quoted suffice to establish with certainty the conclusion that in these spring processions the spirit of vegetation is often represented both by the ,may-tree and in addition by a man dressed in green leaves or flowers or by a girl similarly adorned4 ,it is the same spirit which animates the tree and is active in the inferior plants and which we have recognised in the ,may-tree and the ,harvest-,may4 ,quite consistently the spirit is also supposed to manifest his presence in the first flower of spring and reveals himself both in a girl representing a ,may-rose1 and also1 as giver of harvest1 in the person of the ,walber4 ,the procession with this representative of the divinity was supposed to produce the same beneficial effects on the fowls1 the fruit-trees1 and the crops as the presence of the deity himself4 ,in other words1 the mummer was regarded not as an image but as an actual representative of the spirit of vegetation2 hence the wish expressed by the attendants on the ,may-rose and the ,may-tree that those who refuse them gifts of eggs1 bacon1 and so forth1 may have no share in the blessings which it is in the power of the itinerant spirit to bestow4 ,we may conclude that these begging processions with ,may-trees or ,may-boughs from door to door 7#8bringing the ,may or the summer'7 had everywhere originally a serious and1 so to speak1 sacramental significance2 people really believed that the god of growth was present unseen in the bough2 by the procession he was brought to each house to bestow his blessing4 ,the names ,may1 ,father ,may1 ,may ,lady1 ,queen of the ,may1 by which the anthropomorphic spirit of vegetation is often denoted1 shew that the idea of the spirit of vegetation is blent with a personification of the season at which his powers are most strikingly manifested40#bid ,sidenote3 ,tree-spirit or vegetation-spirit represented by a person alone4 ,thus far we have seen that the tree-spirit or the spirit of vegetation in general is represented either in vegetable form alone1 as by a tree1 bough1 or flower2 or in vegetable and human form simultaneously1 as by a tree1 bough1 or flower in combination with a puppet or a living person4 ,it remains to shew that the representation of him by a tree1 bough1 or flower is sometimes entirely dropped1 while the representation of him by a living person remains4 ,in this case the representative character of the person is generally marked by dressing him or her in leaves or flowers2 sometimes too it is indicated by the name he or she bears4 ,sidenote3 ,green ,george in ,russia4 ,thus in some parts of ,russia on ,st4 ,george's ,day 7the twenty-third of ,april7 a youth is dressed out1 like our ,jack-in-the-,green1 with leaves and flowers4 ,the ,slovenes call him the ,green ,george4 ,holding a lighted torch in one hand and a pie in the other1 he goes out to the corn-fields1 followed by girls singing appropriate songs4 ,a circle of brushwood is then lighted1 in the middle of which is set the pie4 ,all who take part in the ceremony then sit down around the fire and divide the pie among them4#bie ,in this custom the ,green ,george dressed in leaves and flowers is plainly identical with the similarly disguised ,green ,george who is associated with a tree in the ,carinthian1 ,transylvanian1 and ,roumanian customs observed on the same day4 ,again1 ,sidenote3 ,whitsuntide customs in ,russia4 we saw that in ,russia at ,whitsuntide a birch-tree is dressed in woman's clothes and set up in the house4 ,clearly equivalent to this is the custom observed on ,whit-,monday by ,russian girls in the district of ,pinsk4 ,they choose the prettiest of their number1 envelop her in a mass of foliage taken from the birch-trees and maples1 and carry her about through the village4 ,in a district of ,little ,russia they take round a 8poplar10 represented by a girl wearing bright flowers in her hair4#bif ,at ,whitsuntide in ,holland poor women used to go about begging with a little girl called ,whitsuntide ,flower 7,pinxterbloem1 perhaps a kind of iris72 she was decked with flowers and sat in a waggon4 ,in ,north ,brabant she wears the flowers from which she takes her name and a song is sung3-- 8,whitsuntide ,flower1 ,turn yourself once round40#big ,sidenote3 ,may customs in ,france4 ,all over ,provence on the first of ,may pretty little girls are dressed in white1 decked with crowns and wreaths of roses1 and set on seats or platforms strewn with flowers in the streets1 while their companions go about begging coppers for the ,mayos or ,mayes1 as they are called1 from the passers-by4#bih ,in some parts of the ,ardennes on ,may ,day a small girl1 clad in white and wearing a chaplet of flowers on her head1 used to go from house to house with her play-mates1 collecting contributions and singing that it was ,may1 the month of ,may1 the pretty month of ,may1 that the wheat was tall1 the hawthorn in bloom1 and the lark carolling in the sky4#bii ,sidenote3 ,the ,little ,leaf ,man4 ,in ,ruhla 7,thringen7 as soon as the trees begin to grow green in spring1 the children assemble on a ,sunday and go out into the woods1 where they choose one of their play-mates to be the ,little ,leaf ,man4 ,they break branches from the trees and twine them about the child till only his shoes peep out from the leafy mantle4 ,holes are made in it for him to see through1 and two of the children lead the ,little ,leaf ,man that he may not stumble or fall4 ,singing and dancing they take him from house to house1 asking for gifts of food such as eggs1 cream1 sausages1 and cakes4 ,lastly1 they sprinkle the ,leaf ,man with water and feast on the food they have collected4#cjj ,at ,rllshausen on the ,sidenote3 ,leaf-clad mummers at ,whitsuntide4 ,schwalm1 in ,hesse1 when afternoon service is over on ,whitsunday1 the schoolboys and schoolgirls go out into the wood and there clothe a boy from head to foot in leaves so that nobody would know him4 ,he is called the ,little ,whitsuntide ,man4 ,a procession is then formed4 ,two boys lead their leaf-clad playfellow2 two others precede him with a basket2 and two girls with another basket bring up the rear4 ,thus they go from house to house singing hymns or popular songs and collecting eggs and cakes in the baskets4 ,when they have feasted on these1 they strip their comrade of his verdant envelope on an open place in front of the village4#cja ,in some parts of ,rhenish ,bavaria at ,whitsuntide a boy or lad is swathed in the yellow blossom of the broom1 the dark green twigs of the firs1 and other foliage4 ,thus attired he is known as the ,quack and goes from door to door1 whirling about in the dance1 while an appropriate song is chanted and his companions levy contributions4#cjb ,in the ,fricktal1 ,switzerland1 at ,whitsuntide boys go out into a wood and swathe one of their number in leafy boughs4 ,he is called the ,whitsuntide-lout 7,pfingstlmmel71 and being mounted on horseback with a green branch in his hand he is led back into the village4 ,at the village-well a halt is called and the leaf-clad lout is dismounted and ducked in the trough4 ,thereby he acquires the right of sprinkling water on everybody1 and he exercises the right specially on girls and street urchins4 ,the urchins march before him in bands begging him to give them a ,whitsuntide wetting4#cjc ,sidenote3 ,jack-in-the-,green in ,england4 ,in ,england the best-known example of these leaf-clad mummers is the ,jack-in-the-,green1 a chimney-sweeper who walks encased in a pyramidal framework of wickerwork1 which is covered with holly and ivy1 and surmounted by a crown of flowers and ribbons4 ,thus arrayed he dances on ,may ,day at the head of a troop of chimney-sweeps1 who collect pence4#cjd ,the ceremony was witnessed at ,cheltenham on the second of ,may #ahib1 by ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rouse1 who has described in detail the costume of the performers4 ,they were all chimney-sweeps of the town4 ,jack-in-the-,green or the ,bush-carrier was enclosed in a wooden framework on which leaves were fastened so as to make a thick cone about six feet high1 topped with a crown1 which consisted of two wooden hoops placed crosswise and covered with flowers4 ,the leafy envelope was unbroken except for a single opening through which peered the face of the mummer4 ,from time to time in their progress through the streets the performers halted1 and three of them1 dressed in red1 blue1 and yellow respectively1 tripped lightly round the leaf-covered man to the inspiring strains of a fiddle and a tin whistle on which two of their comrades with blackened faces discoursed sweet music4 ,the leader of the procession was a clown fantastically clad in a long white pinafore or blouse with coloured fringes and frills1 and wearing on his head a beaver hat of the familiar pattern1 the crown of which hung loose and was adorned with ribbons and a bird or a bundle of feathers4 ,large black rings surrounded his eyes1 and a red dab over mouth and chin lent a pleasing variety to his countenance4 ,he contributed to the public hilarity by flapping the yellow fringe of his blouse with quaint gestures and occasionally fanning himself languidly4 ,his efforts were seconded by another performer1 who wore a red fool's cap1 all stuck with flowers1 and a white pinafore enriched with black human figures in front and a black gridiron-like pattern1 crossed diagonally by a red bar1 at the back4 ,two boys in white pinafores1 with similar figures1 or stars1 on the breast1 and a fish on the back1 completed the company4 ,formerly there used to be a man in woman's clothes1 who personated the clown's wife4#cje ,in some parts also of ,france a young fellow is encased in a wicker framework covered with leaves and is led about4#cjf ,in ,frickthal1 in the ,swiss ,sidenote3 ,the ,whitsuntide ,basket in ,switzerland4 canton of ,aargau1 a similar frame of basketwork is called the ,whitsuntide ,basket4 ,as soon as the trees begin to bud1 a spot is chosen in the wood1 and here the village lads make the frame with all secrecy1 lest others should forestall them4 ,leafy branches are twined round two hoops1 one of which rests on the shoulders of the wearer1 the other encircles his calves2 holes are made for his eyes and mouth2 and a large nosegay crowns the whole4 ,in this guise he appears suddenly in the village at the hour of vespers1 preceded by three boys blowing on horns made of willow bark4 ,the great object of his supporters is to set up the ,whitsuntide ,basket on the village well1 and to keep it and him there1 despite the efforts of the lads from neighbouring villages1 who seek to carry off the ,whitsuntide ,basket and set it up on their own well4#cjg ,in the neighbourhood of ,ertingen 7,wrtemberg7 a ,sidenote3 ,the ,lazy ,man in ,wrtemberg4 masker of the same sort1 known as the ,lazy ,man 7,latzmann71 goes about the village on ,midsummer ,day2 he is hidden under a great pyramidal or conical frame of wickerwork1 ten or twelve feet high1 which is completely covered with sprigs of fir4 ,he has a bell which he rings as he goes1 and he is attended by a suite of persons dressed up in character--a footman1 a colonel1 a butcher1 an angel1 the devil1 the doctor1 and so on4 ,they march in ,indian file and halt before every house1 where each of them speaks in character1 except the ,lazy ,man1 who says nothing4 ,with what they get by begging from door to door they hold a feast4#cjh ,in the class of cases of which the foregoing are specimens it is obvious that the leaf-clad person who is led about is equivalent to the ,may-tree1 ,may-bough1 or ,may-doll1 which is carried from house to house by children begging4 ,both are representatives of the beneficent spirit of vegetation1 whose visit to the house is recompensed by a present of money or food4 ,sidenote3 ,leaf-clad representative of vegetation sometimes called a ,king or ,queen4 ,often the leaf-clad person who represents the spirit of vegetation is known as the king or the queen2 thus1 for example1 he or she is called the ,may ,king1 ,whitsuntide ,king1 ,queen of ,may1 and so on4 ,these titles1 as ,mannhardt observes1 imply that the spirit incorporate in vegetation is a ruler1 whose creative power extends far and wide4#cji ,sidenote3 ,may-,kings at ,whitsuntide in ,germany and ,bohemia4 ,in a village near ,salzwedel a ,may-tree is set up at ,whitsuntide and the boys race to it2 he who reaches it first is king2 a garland of flowers is put round his neck and in his hand he carries a ,may-bush1 with which1 as the procession moves along1 he sweeps away the dew4 ,at each house they sing a song1 wishing the inmates good luck1 referring to the 8black cow in the stall milking white milk1 black hen on the nest laying white eggs10 and begging a gift of eggs1 bacon1 and so on4#caj ,at the village of ,ellgoth in ,silesia a ceremony called the ,king's ,race is observed at ,whitsuntide4 ,a pole with a cloth tied to it is set up in a meadow1 and the young men ride past it on horseback1 each trying to snatch away the cloth as he gallops by4 ,the one who succeeds in carrying it off and dipping it in the neighbouring ,oder is proclaimed ,king4#caa ,here the pole is clearly a substitute for a ,may-tree4 ,in some villages of ,brunswick at ,whitsuntide a ,may ,king is completely enveloped in a ,may-bush4 ,in some parts of ,thringen also they have a ,may ,king at ,whitsuntide1 but he is dressed up rather differently4 ,a frame of wood is made in which a man can stand2 it is completely covered with birch boughs and is surmounted by a crown of birch and flowers1 in which a bell is fastened4 ,this frame is placed in the wood and the ,may ,king gets into it4 ,the rest go out and look for him1 and when they have found him they lead him back into the village to the magistrate1 the clergyman1 and others1 who have to guess who is in the verdurous frame4 ,if they guess wrong1 the ,may ,king rings his bell by shaking his head1 and a forfeit of beer or the like must be paid by the unsuccessful guesser4#cab ,at ,wahrstedt in ,brunswick the boys at ,whitsuntide choose by lot a king and a high-steward 7fstje-meier74 ,the latter is completely concealed in a ,may-bush1 wears a wooden crown wreathed with flowers1 and carries a wooden sword4 ,the king1 on the other hand1 is only distinguished by a nosegay in his cap1 and a reed1 with a red ribbon tied to it1 in his hand4 ,they beg for eggs from house to house1 threatening that1 where none are given1 none will be laid by the hens throughout the year4 ,in this custom the high-steward appears1 for some reason1 to have usurped the insignia of the king4#cac ,at ,hildesheim1 in ,hanover1 five or six young fellows go about on the afternoon of ,whit-,monday cracking long whips in measured time and collecting eggs from the houses4 ,the chief person of the band is the ,sidenote3 ,the ,leaf ,king4 ,leaf ,king1 a lad swathed so completely in birchen twigs that nothing of him can be seen but his feet4 ,a huge head-dress of birchen twigs adds to his apparent stature4 ,in his hand he carries a long crook1 with which he tries to catch stray dogs and children4#cad ,in some parts of ,bohemia on ,whit-,monday the young fellows disguise themselves in tall caps of birch bark adorned with flowers4 ,one of them is dressed as a king and dragged on a sledge to the village green1 and if on the way they pass a pool the sledge is always overturned into it4 ,arrived at the green they gather round the king2 the crier jumps on a stone or climbs up a tree and recites lampoons about each house and its inmates4 ,afterwards the disguises of bark are stripped off and they go about the village in holiday attire1 carrying a ,may-tree and begging4 ,cakes1 eggs1 and corn are sometimes given them4#cae ,at ,grossvargula1 near ,langensalza1 in ,sidenote3 ,the ,grass ,king4 the eighteenth century a ,grass ,king used to be led about in procession at ,whitsuntide4 ,he was encased in a pyramid of poplar branches1 the top of which was adorned with a royal crown of branches and flowers4 ,he rode on horseback with the leafy pyramid over him1 so that its lower end touched the ground1 and an opening was left in it only for his face4 ,surrounded by a cavalcade of young fellows1 he rode in procession to the town hall1 the parsonage1 and so on1 where they all got a drink of beer4 ,then under the seven lindens of the neighbouring ,sommerberg1 the ,grass ,king was stripped of his green casing2 the crown was handed to the ,mayor1 and the branches were stuck in the flax fields in order to make the flax grow tall4#caf ,in this last trait the fertilising influence ascribed to the representative of the tree-spirit comes out clearly4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,pilsen 7,bohemia7 a conical hut of green branches1 without any door1 is erected at ,whitsuntide in the midst of the village4 ,to this hut rides a troop of village lads with a king at their head4 ,he wears a sword at his side and a sugar-loaf hat of rushes on his head4 ,in his train are a judge1 a crier1 and a personage called the ,frog-flayer or ,hangman4 ,this last is a sort of ragged merryandrew1 wearing a rusty old sword and bestriding a sorry hack4 ,on reaching the hut the crier dismounts and goes round it looking for a door4 ,finding none1 he says1 8,ah1 this is perhaps an enchanted castle2 the witches creep through the leaves and need no door40 ,at last he draws his sword and hews his way into the hut1 where there is a chair1 on which he seats himself and proceeds to criticise in rhyme the girls1 farmers1 and farm-servants of the neighbourhood4 ,when this is over1 the ,frog-flayer steps forward and1 after exhibiting a cage with frogs in it1 sets up a gallows on which he hangs the frogs in a row4#cag ,in the neighbourhood of ,plas the ceremony differs in some points4 ,the king and his soldiers are completely clad in bark1 adorned with flowers and ribbons2 they all carry swords and ride horses1 which are gay with green branches and flowers4 ,while the village dames and girls are being criticised at the arbour1 a frog is secretly pinched and poked by the crier till it quacks4 ,sentence of death is passed on the frog by the king2 the hangman beheads it and flings the bleeding body among the spectators4 ,lastly1 the king is driven from the hut and pursued by the soldiers4#cah ,the pinching and beheading of the frog are doubtless1 as ,mannhardt observes1#cai a rain-charm4 ,we have seen that some ,indians of the ,orinoco beat frogs for the express purpose of producing rain1 and that killing a frog is a ,european rain-charm4#cbj ,sidenote3 ,may-,queens and ,whitsuntide ,queens4 ,often the spirit of vegetation in spring is represented by a queen instead of a king4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,libchowic 7,bohemia71 on the fourth ,sunday in ,lent1 girls dressed in white and wearing the first spring flowers1 as violets and daisies1 in their hair1 lead about the village a girl who is called the ,queen and is crowned with flowers4 ,during the procession1 which is conducted with great solemnity1 none of the girls may stand still1 but must keep whirling round continually and singing4 ,in every house the ,queen announces the arrival of spring and wishes the inmates good luck and blessings1 for which she receives presents4#cba ,in ,german ,hungary the girls choose the prettiest girl to be their ,whitsuntide ,queen1 fasten a towering wreath on her brow1 and carry her singing through the streets4 ,at every house they stop1 sing old ballads1 and receive presents4#cbb ,in the south-east of ,ireland on ,may ,day the prettiest girl used to be chosen ,queen of the district for twelve months4 ,she was crowned with wild flowers2 feasting1 dancing1 and rustic sports followed1 and were closed by a grand procession in the evening4 ,during her year of office she presided over rural gatherings of young people at dances and merry-makings4 ,if she married before next ,may ,day1 her authority was at an end1 but her successor was not elected till that day came round4#cbc ,the ,may ,queen is common in ,france#cbd and familiar in ,england4 ,thus at the adjoining ,sidenote3 ,the ,may ,queen in ,warwickshire4 villages of ,cherrington and ,stourton in south ,warwickshire1 the ,queen of ,may is still represented on ,may ,day by a small girl dressed in white and wearing a wreath of flowers on her head4 ,an older girl wheels the ,queen in what is called a mail-cart1 that is1 a child's perambulator on two wheels4 ,another girl carries a money-box4 ,four boys bear the ,may-pole1 a conical framework formed of a high tripod with a central shaft4 ,the whole structure is encased in a series of five hoops1 which rise one above the other1 diminishing in size from bottom to top with the tapering of the cone4 ,the hoops1 as well as the tripod and the central shaft1 are all covered with whatever flowers happen to be in bloom1 such as marsh-marigolds1 primroses1 or blue-bells4 ,to the top of the central shaft is fastened a bunch of the flower called crown-imperial1 if it is in season4 ,the lowest hoop is crossed by two bars at right angles to each other1 and the projecting ends of the bars serve as handles1 by which the four boys carry the ,may-pole4 ,each of the bearers has a garland of flowers slung over his shoulder4 ,thus the children go from house to house1 singing their songs and receiving money1 which goes to provide a treat for them in the afternoon4#cbe ,sidenote3 ,spirit of vegetation represented simultaneously by a ,king and ,queen or a ,bridegroom and ,bride4 ,again the spirit of vegetation is sometimes represented by a king and queen1 a lord and lady1 or a bridegroom and bride4 ,here again the parallelism holds between the anthropomorphic and the vegetable representation of the tree-spirit1 for we have seen above that trees are sometimes married to each other4#cbf ,at ,halford in south ,warwickshire the children go from house to house on ,may ,day1 ,sidenote3 ,whitsuntide ,king and ,queen4 walking two and two in procession and headed by a ,king and ,queen4 ,two boys carry a ,may-pole some six or seven feet high1 which is covered with flowers and greenery4 ,fastened to it near the top are two cross-bars at right angles to each other4 ,these are also decked with flowers1 and from the ends of the bars hang hoops similarly adorned4 ,at the houses the children sing ,may songs and receive money1 which is used to provide tea for them at the school-house in the afternoon4#cbg ,in a ,bohemian village near ,kniggrtz on ,whit-,monday the children play the king's game1 at which a king and queen march about under a canopy1 the queen wearing a garland1 and the youngest girl carrying two wreaths on a plate behind them4 ,they are attended by boys and girls called groomsmen and bridesmaids1 and they go from house to house collecting gifts4#cbh ,a regular feature in the popular celebration of ,whitsuntide in ,silesia used to be1 and to some extent still is1 the contest for the kingship4 ,this contest took various forms1 but the mark or goal was generally the ,may-tree or ,may-pole4 ,sometimes the youth who succeeded in climbing the smooth pole and bringing down the prize was proclaimed the ,whitsuntide ,king and his sweetheart the ,whitsuntide ,bride4 ,afterwards the king1 carrying the ,may-bush1 repaired with the rest of the company to the ale-house1 where a dance and a feast ended the merry-making4 ,often the young farmers and labourers raced on horseback to the ,may-pole1 which was adorned with flowers1 ribbons1 and a crown4 ,he who first reached the pole was the ,whitsuntide ,king1 and the rest had to obey his orders for that day4 ,the worst rider became the clown4 ,at the ,may-tree all dismounted and hoisted the king on their shoulders4 ,he nimbly swarmed up the pole and brought down the ,may-bush and the crown1 which had been fastened to the top4 ,meantime the clown hurried to the ale-house and proceeded to bolt thirty rolls of bread and to swig four quart bottles of brandy with the utmost possible despatch4 ,he was followed by the king1 who bore the ,may-bush and crown at the head of the company4 ,if on their arrival the clown had already disposed of the rolls and the brandy1 and greeted the king with a speech and a glass of beer1 his score was paid by the king2 otherwise he had to settle it himself4 ,after church time the stately procession wound through the village4 ,at the head of it rode the king1 decked with flowers and carrying the ,may-bush4 ,next came the clown with his clothes turned inside out1 a great flaxen beard on his chin1 and the ,whitsuntide crown on his head4 ,two riders disguised as guards followed4 ,the procession drew up before every farmyard2 the two guards dismounted1 shut the clown into the house1 and claimed a contribution from the housewife to buy soap with which to wash the clown's beard4 ,custom allowed them to carry off any victuals which were not under lock and key4 ,last of all they came to the house in which the king's sweetheart lived4 ,she was greeted as ,whitsuntide ,queen and received suitable presents--to wit1 a many-coloured sash1 a cloth1 and an apron4 ,the king got as a prize1 a vest1 a neckcloth1 and so forth1 and had the right of setting up the ,may-bush or ,whitsuntide-tree before his master's yard1 where it remained as an honourable token till the same day next year4 ,finally the procession took its way to the tavern1 where the king and queen opened the dance4 ,sometimes the ,whitsuntide ,king and ,queen succeeded to office in a different way4 ,a man of straw1 as ,sidenote3 ,king and ,queen of ,may4 large as life and crowned with a red cap1 was conveyed in a cart1 between two men armed and disguised as guards1 to a place where a mock court was waiting to try him4 ,a great crowd followed the cart4 ,after a formal trial the straw man was condemned to death and fastened to a stake on the execution ground4 ,the young men with bandaged eyes tried to stab him with a spear4 ,he who succeeded became king and his sweetheart queen4 ,the straw man was known as the ,goliath4#cbi ,near ,grenoble1 in ,france1 a king and queen are chosen on the first of ,may and are set on a throne for all to see4#ccj ,at ,headington1 near ,oxford1 children used to carry garlands from door to door on ,may ,day4 ,each garland was borne by two girls1 and they were followed by a lord and lady--a boy and girl linked together by a white handkerchief1 of which each held an end1 and dressed with ribbons1 sashes1 and flowers4 ,at each door they sang a verse3-- 8,gentlemen and ladies1 ,we wish you happy ,may2 ,we come to shew you a garland1 ,because it is ,may-day40 ,on receiving money the lord put his arm about his lady's waist and kissed her4#cca ,at ,fleuriers in ,switzerland on the seventh of ,may #ahdc a ,may-bridegroom 7poux de ,mai7 and his bride were escorted in a procession of over two hundred children1 some of whom carried green branches of beech4 ,a number of ,may ,fools were entrusted with the delicate duty of going round with the hat4 ,the proceeds of their tact and industry furnished a banquet in the evening1 and the day ended with a children's ball4#ccb ,in some ,saxon villages at ,whitsuntide a lad and a lass used to disguise themselves and hide in the bushes or high grass outside the village4 ,then the whole village went out with music 8to seek the bridal pair40 ,when they found the couple they all gathered round them1 the music struck up1 and the bridal pair was led merrily to the village4 ,in the evening they danced4 ,in some places the bridal pair was called the prince and the princess4#ccc ,sidenote3 ,whitsuntide ,bridegroom and ,bride in ,denmark4 ,in a parish of ,denmark it used to be the custom at ,whitsuntide to dress up a little girl as the ,whitsun-bride 7pinse-bruden7 and a little boy as her groom4 ,she was decked in all the finery of a grown-up bride1 and wore a crown of the freshest flowers of spring on her head4 ,her groom was as gay as flowers1 ribbons1 and knots could make him4 ,the other children adorned themselves as best they could with the yellow flowers of the trollius and caltha4 ,then they went in great state from farmhouse to farmhouse1 two little girls walking at the head of the procession as bridesmaids1 and six or eight outriders galloping ahead on hobby-horses to announce their coming4 ,contributions of eggs1 butter1 loaves1 cream1 coffee1 sugar1 and tallow-candles were received and conveyed away in baskets4 ,when they had made the round of the farms1 some of the farmers' wives helped to arrange the wedding feast1 and the children danced merrily in clogs on the stamped clay floor till the sun rose and the birds began to sing4 ,all this is now a thing of the past4 ,only the old folks still remember the little ,whitsun-bride and her mimic pomp4#ccd ,sidenote3 ,midsummer ,bridegroom and ,bride in ,sweden and ,norway4 ,we have seen that in ,sweden the ceremonies associated elsewhere with ,may ,day or ,whitsuntide commonly take place at ,midsummer4#cce ,accordingly we find that in some parts of the ,swedish province of ,blekinge they still choose a ,midsummer's ,bride1 to whom the 8church coronet0 is occasionally lent4 ,the girl selects for herself a ,bridegroom1 and a collection is made for the pair1 who for the time being are looked on as man and wife4 ,the other youths also choose each his bride4#ccf ,a similar ceremony seems to be still kept up in ,norway1 for a correspondent writes to me as follows in reference to the ,danish custom of the ,whitsun-bride3 8,it may interest you to know that on ,june #bc1 #ahic1 ,i witnessed at ,ullensvang1 ,hardanger1 ,norway1 a ceremony almost exactly the same as that described in your book4 ,wild flowers are scarce there1 and the bride wore the usual metal crown1 the attendants for the most part wearing the pretty ,hardanger costume4 ,the dancing took place in an unlighted barn1 as the farmer was afraid of fire4 ,there were plenty of boys at the dance1 but so far as ,i can remember1 none in the procession4 ,the custom is clearly dying out1 and the somewhat reluctant bridegroom was the subject of a good deal of chaff from his fellows40#ccg ,in ,sardinia the ,midsummer couples are known as the ,sweethearts of ,st4 ,john1 and their association with the growth of plants is clearly brought out by the pots of sprouting grain which form a principal part of the ceremony4#cch ,sidenote3 ,forsaken ,bridegroom or ,bride of ,may or ,whitsuntide4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,brianon 7,dauphin7 on ,may ,day the lads wrap up in green leaves a young fellow whose sweetheart has deserted him or married another4 ,he lies down on the ground and feigns to be asleep4 ,then a girl who likes him1 and would marry him1 comes and wakes him1 and raising him up offers him her arm and a flag4 ,so they go to the alehouse1 where the pair lead off the dancing4 ,but they must marry within the year1 or they are treated as old bachelor and old maid1 and are debarred the company of the young folk4 ,the lad is called the bridegroom of the month of ,may 7le fianc du mois de ,may74 ,in the alehouse he puts off his garment of leaves1 out of which1 mixed with flowers1 his partner in the dance makes a nosegay1 and wears it at her breast next day1 when he leads her again to the alehouse4#cci ,like this is a ,russian custom observed in the district of ,nerechta on the ,thursday before ,whitsunday4 ,the girls go out into a birch-wood1 wind a girdle or band round a stately birch1 twist its lower branches into a wreath1 and kiss each other in pairs through the wreath4 ,the girls who kiss through the wreath call each other gossips4 ,then one of the girls steps forward1 and mimicking a drunken man1 flings herself on the ground1 rolls on the grass1 and feigns to fall fast asleep4 ,another girl wakens the pretended sleeper and kisses him2 then the whole bevy trips singing through the wood to twine garlands1 which they throw into the water4 ,in the fate of the garlands floating on the stream they read their own4#cdj ,here the part of the sleeper was probably at one time played by a lad4 ,in these ,french and ,russian customs we have a forsaken bridegroom1 in the following a forsaken bride4 ,on ,shrove ,tuesday the ,slovenes of ,oberkrain drag a straw puppet with joyous cries up and down the village2 then they throw it into the water or burn it1 and from the height of the flames they judge of the abundance of the next harvest4 ,the noisy crew is followed by a female masker1 who drags a great board by a string and gives out that she is a forsaken bride4#cda ,viewed in the light of what has gone before1 the awakening of the forsaken sleeper in these ceremonies probably represents the revival of vegetation in spring4 ,but it is not easy to assign their respective parts to the forsaken bridegroom and to the girl who wakes him from his slumber4 ,is the sleeper the leafless forest or the bare earth of winter8 ,is the girl who wakens him the fresh verdure or the genial sunshine of spring8 ,it is hardly possible1 on the evidence before us1 to answer these questions4 ,the ,oraons of ,bengal1 it may be remembered1 celebrate the marriage of earth in the springtime1 when the sl-tree is in blossom4#cdb ,but from this we can hardly argue that in the ,european ceremonies the sleeping bridegroom is 8the dreaming earth0 and the girl the spring blossoms4 ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,bride in ,scotland and the ,isle of ,man4 ,in the ,highlands of ,scotland the revival of vegetation in spring used to be graphically represented on ,st4 ,bride's ,day1 the first of ,february4 ,thus in the ,hebrides 8the mistress and servants of each family take a sheaf of oats1 and dress it up in women's apparel1 put it in a large basket1 and lay a wooden club by it1 and this they call ,briid's bed2 and then the mistress and servants cry three times1 #8,briid is come1 ,briid is welcome4' ,this they do just before going to bed1 and when they rise in the morning they look among the ashes1 expecting to see the impression of ,briid's club there2 which if they do1 they reckon it a true presage of a good crop and prosperous year1 and the contrary they take as an ill omen40#cdc ,the same custom is described by another witness thus3 8,upon the night before ,candlemas it is usual to make a bed with corn and hay1 over which some blankets are laid1 in a part of the house1 near the door4 ,when it is ready1 a person goes out and repeats three times1 444 #8,bridget1 ,bridget1 come in2 thy bed is ready4' ,one or more candles are left burning near it all night40#cdd ,similarly in the ,isle of ,man 8on the eve of the first of ,february1 a festival was formerly kept1 called1 in the ,manks language1 ,laa'l ,breeshey1 in honour of the ,irish lady who went over to the ,isle of ,man to receive the veil from ,st4 ,maughold4 ,the custom was to gather a bundle of green rushes1 and standing with them in the hand on the threshold of the door1 to invite the holy ,saint ,bridget to come and lodge with them that night4 ,in the ,manks language1 the invitation ran thus3--#8,brede1 ,brede1 tar gys my thie tar dyn thie ayms noght4 ,foshil jee yn dorrys da ,brede1 as lhig da ,brede e heet staigh4' ,in ,english3 #8,bridget1 ,bridget1 come to my house1 come to my house to-night4 ,open the door for ,bridget1 and let ,bridget come in4' ,after these words were repeated1 the rushes were strewn on the floor by way of a carpet or bed for ,st4 ,bridget4 ,a custom very similar to this was also observed in some of the ,out-,isles of the ancient kingdom of ,man40#cde ,in these ,manx and ,highland ceremonies it is obvious that ,st4 ,bride1 or ,st4 ,bridget1 is an old heathen goddess of fertility1 disguised in a threadbare ,christian cloak4 ,probably she is no other than the ,celtic goddess ,brigit1 who will meet us again later on4#cdf ,sidenote3 ,may ,bride or ,whitsuntide ,bride4 ,often the marriage of the spirit of vegetation in spring1 though not directly represented1 is implied by naming the human representative of the spirit1 8the ,bride10 and dressing her in wedding attire4 ,thus in some villages of ,altmark at ,whitsuntide1 while the boys go about carrying a ,may-tree or leading a boy enveloped in leaves and flowers1 the girls lead about the ,may ,bride1 a girl dressed as a bride with a great nosegay in her hair4 ,they go from house to house1 the ,may ,bride singing a song in which she asks for a present1 and tells the inmates of each house that if they give her something they will themselves have something the whole year through2 but if they give her nothing they will themselves have nothing4#cdg ,in some parts of ,westphalia two girls lead a flower-crowned girl called the ,whitsuntide ,bride from door to door1 singing a song in which they ask for eggs4#cdh ,at ,waggum in ,brunswick1 when service is over on ,whitsunday1 the village girls assemble1 dressed in white or bright colours1 decked with flowers1 and wearing chaplets of spring flowers in their hair4 ,one of them represents the ,may ,bride1 and carries a crown of flowers on a staff as a sign of her dignity4 ,as usual the children go about from cottage to cottage singing and begging for eggs1 sausages1 cakes1 or money4 ,in other parts of ,brunswick it is a boy clothed all in birch leaves who personates the ,may ,bride4#cdi ,in ,bresse in the month of ,may a girl called la ,marie is tricked out with ribbons and nosegays and is led about by a gallant4 ,she is preceded by a lad carrying a green ,may-tree1 and appropriate verses are sung4#cej ,footnote #bci3 ,quoted by ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #bdf 7ed4 ,bohn74 ,footnote #bdj3 ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs 7,london1 #ahgf71 p4 #bed4 ,footnote #bda3 ,w4 ,borlase1 ,the ,natural ,history of ,cornwall 7,oxford1 #ageh71 p4 #bid4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,j4 ,brand1 op4 cit4 i4 #bab sq4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,popular ,british ,customs1 p4 #bcc4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,r4 ,chambers1 ,book of ,days 7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahhf71 i4 #egh2 ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bcg sq4 ,footnote #bde3 ,w4 ,hone1 ,every ,day ,book 7,london1 ,n4,d471 ii4 #fae sq42 ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 pp4 #bea sq4 ,at ,polebrook in ,northamptonshire the verses sung by the children on their rounds include two which are almost identical with those sung at ,abingdon in ,berkshire4 ,see ,dyer1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bee sq4 ,the same verses were formerly sung on ,may ,day at ,hitchin in ,hertfordshire 7,hone1 ,every ,day ,book1 i4 #efg sq42 ,dyer1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bdj sq474 ,footnote #bdf3 ,dyer1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfc4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,percy ,manning1 in ,folk-lore1 iv4 7#ahic7 pp4 #djc sq4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,id41 in ,folk-lore1 viii4 7#ahig7 p4 #cjh4 ,customs of the same sort are reported also from ,combe1 ,headington1 and ,islip1 all in ,oxfordshire 7,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 pp4 #bfa sq474 ,see below1 pp4 #ij sq4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,dyer1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdc4 ,footnote #bej3 ,w4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rouse1 in ,folk-lore1 iv4 7#ahic7 p4 #ec4 ,i have witnessed the ceremony almost annually for many years4 ,many of the hoops have no doll1 and ribbons or rags of coloured cloth are more conspicuous than flowers in their decoration4 ,footnote #bea3 ,j4 ,p4 ,emslie1 in ,folk-lore1 xi4 7#aijj7 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #beb3 ,memoirs of ,anna ,maria ,wilhelmina ,pickering1 edited by her son1 ,spencer ,pickering 7,london1 #aijc71 pp4 #afj sq4 ,footnote #bec3 ,lady ,wilde1 ,ancient ,cures1 ,charms1 and ,usages of ,ireland 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #aja sq4 ,at the ancient ,greek festival of the ,daphnephoria or 8,laurel-bearing0 a staff of olive-wood1 decked with laurels1 purple ribbons1 and many-coloured flowers1 was carried in procession1 and attached to it were two large globes representing the sun and moon1 together with a number of smaller globes which stood for the stars4 ,see ,proclus1 quoted by ,photius1 ,bibliotheca1 p4 #cba1 ed4 ,bekker4 ,footnote #bed3 ,e4 ,cortet1 ,essai sur les ftes religieuses 7,paris1 #ahfg7 pp4 #afg sqq4 ,footnote #bee3 ,revue des traditions populaires1 ii4 7#ahhg7 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #bef3 ,w4 ,mller1 ,beitrge zur ,volkskunde der ,deutschen in ,mhren 7,wien und ,olmtz1 #ahic71 pp4 #cai sq41 #cee-cei4 ,footnote #beg3 ,folk-lore1 i4 7#ahij7 pp4 #eah sqq4 ,footnote #beh3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people #bnd ,ed41 7,london1 #ahgb71 pp4 #bcd sq4 ,footnote #bei3 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen und ,mrchen 7,berlin1 #ahdc71 p4 #cae4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #bce4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,l4 ,lloyd1 op4 cit4 pp4 #beg sqq4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,h4 ,prhle1 ,harzbilder 7,leipsic1 #ahee71 pp4 #ai sq4 ,compare id41 in ,zeitschrift fr deutsche ,mythologie und ,sittenkunde1 i4 7#ahec7 pp4 #ha sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,germanische ,mythen1 pp4 #eab sqq42 ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche 7,leipsic1 #ahdh71 p4 #cij1 #hj4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen 7,prague1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #cjh sq4 ,a fuller description of the ceremony will be given later4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,for the evidence see ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #bcd sqq42 ,w4 ,hone1 ,every ,day ,book1 i4 #edg sqq41 ii4 #egd sqq42 ,r4 ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 i4 #egd sqq42 ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 pp4 #bbh sqq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #afh sqq4 ,footnote #bff3 ,phillip ,stubbes1 ,the ,anatomie of ,abuses1 p4 #adi 7,f4 ,j4 ,furnivall's reprint74 ,in later editions some verbal changes were made4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,w4 ,borlase1 ,natural ,history of ,cornwall 7,oxford1 #ageh71 p4 #bid4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,w4 ,hutchinson1 ,view of ,northumberland 7,newcastle1 #aggh71 ii4 ,appendix1 pp4 #ac sq42 ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 p4 #beg4 ,footnote #bfi3 8,padstow #8,hobby ,hoss1'0 ,folklore1 xvi4 7#aije7 pp4 #ei sq4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben 7,stuttgart1 #aheb71 p4 #cif4 ,footnote #bga3 ,e4 ,mogk1 in ,r4 ,wuttke's ,schsische ,volkskunde #bnd ,ed41 7,dresden1 #aija71 pp4 #cji sq4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,m4 ,rentsch1 in ,r4 ,wuttke's op4 cit4 p4 #cei4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,a4 ,de ,nore1 ,coutumes1 mythes et traditions des provinces de ,france 7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 p4 #acg4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,brenger-,fraud1 ,superstitions et survivances 7,paris1 #ahif71 v4 #cjh sq4 ,compare id41 ,reminiscences populaires de la ,provence1 pp4 #ba sq41 #bf1 #bg4 ,footnote #bge3 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott and ,j4 ,p4 ,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of ,upper ,burma and the ,shan ,states1 part i4 vol4 i4 7,rangoon1 #aijj7 p4 #ebi4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,w4 ,hone1 ,every ,day ,book1 i4 #edg sqq42 ,r4 ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 i4 #ega4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 i4 #cgb4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,w4 ,hone1 ,every ,day ,book1 ii4 #eig sq4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,prothero tells me that about the year #ahge he saw a permanent ,may-pole decked with flowers on ,may ,day on the road between ,cambridge and ,st4 ,neot's1 not far from the turning to ,caxton4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,see above1 pp4 #dg sq4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bag2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #eff4 ,footnote #bha3 ,a4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben 7,freiburg im ,breisgau1 #ahfa-ahfb71 ii4 #gd sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #eff4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,aristophanes1 ,plutus1 #ajed2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 pp4 #bbb sq4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,boecler-,kreutzwald1 ,der ,ehsten aberglubische ,gebruche1 ,weisen und ,gewohnheiten1 pp4 #aab-aad4 ,some traits in this story seem to suggest that the return of the trooper to his old home was1 like that of the war-broken veteran in ,campbell's poem1 only a soldier's dream4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #hf sqq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #aef4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,r4 ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 i4 #egc4 ,compare the ,cambridge custom1 described above1 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cab4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cac4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,ibid4 p4 #cad4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 iii4 #ceg2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cab sq4 ,the word ,walber probably comes from ,walburgis1 which is doubtless only another form of the better known ,walpurgis4 ,the second of ,may is called ,walburgis ,day1 at least in this part of ,bavaria4 ,footnote #bij3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cac sq4 ,footnote #bia3 ,h4 von ,wlislocki1 ,volksglaube und religiser ,brauch der ,zigeuner 7,mnster i4 ,w41 #ahia71 pp4 #adh sq4 ,footnote #bib3 ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bfa4 ,footnote #bic3 ,b4 ,a4 ,gupte1 8,harvest ,festivals in honour of ,gauri and ,ganesh10 ,indian ,antiquary1 xxxv4 7#aijf7 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #bid3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cae sq4 ,footnote #bie3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,russian ,folk-tales1 p4 #cde4 ,as to ,green ,george see above1 pp4 #ge sq4 ,footnote #bif3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bcd4 ,footnote #big3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cah2 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 ii4 #feg4 ,footnote #bih3 ,a4 de ,nore1 ,coutumes1 mythes et traditions des provinces de ,france1 pp4 #ag sq42 ,brenger-,fraud1 ,rminiscences populaires de la ,provence1 pp4 #a sq4 ,footnote #bii3 ,a4 ,meyrac1 ,traditions1 coutumes1 lgendes et contes des ,ardennes 7,charleville1 #ahij71 pp4 #gi-hb4 ,the girl was called the ,trimouzette4 ,a custom of the same general character was practised down to recent times in the ,jura 7,brenger-,fraud1 ,rminiscences populaires de la ,provence1 p4 #ah74 ,footnote #cjj3 ,f4 ,a4 ,reimann1 ,deutsche ,volksfeste im neunzehnten ,jahrhundert 7,weimar1 #ahci71 pp4 #aei sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cbj2 ,a4 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen1 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #cja3 ,w4 ,kolbe1 ,hessische ,volks-,sitten und ,gebruche im ,lichte der heidnischen ,vorzeit 7,marburg1 #ahhh71 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 iv4 #b1 pp4 #cei sq4 ,similarly in the ,dpartement de l',ain 7,france7 on the first of ,may eight or ten boys unite1 clothe one of their number in leaves1 and go from house to house begging 7,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cah74 ,footnote #cjc3 ,e4 ,hoffmann-,krayer1 8,fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen ,volksbrauch10 ,schweizerisches ,archiv fr ,volkskunde1 xi4 7#aijg7 p4 #beb4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cbb2 ,w4 ,hone1 ,every-,day ,book1 i4 #ehc sqq42 ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 pp4 #bcj sq4 ,footnote #cje3 ,w4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rouse1 8,may-,day in ,cheltenham10 ,folk-lore1 iv4 7#ahic7 pp4 #ej-ec4 ,on ,may ,day #ahia ,i saw a ,jack-in-the-,green in the streets of ,cambridge4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cbc4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cbc2 ,h4 ,herzog1 ,schweizerische ,volksfeste1 ,sitten und ,gebruche 7,aarau1 #ahhd71 pp4 #bdh sq4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,a4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 #aad sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cbe4 ,footnote #cji3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cad sq4 ,footnote #caj3 ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 p4 #chj4 ,footnote #caa3 ,f4 ,tetzner1 8,die ,tschechen und ,mhrer in ,schlesien10 ,globus1 lxviii 7#aijj7 p4 #cdj4 ,footnote #cab3 ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #chc sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #cac3 ,r4 ,andree1 ,braunschweiger ,volkskunde 7,brunswick1 #ahif71 pp4 #bdi sq4 ,footnote #cad3 ,k4 ,seifart1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen1 ,schwnke und ,gebruche aus ,stadt und ,stift ,hildesheim1 ,zweite ,auflage 7,hildesheim1 #ahhi71 pp4 #ahj sq4 ,footnote #cae3 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #bfj sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cdb sq4 ,footnote #caf3 ,f4 ,a4 ,reimann1 ,deutsche ,volksfeste im neunzehnten ,jahrhundert1 pp4 #aeg-aei2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cdg sq42 ,a4 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen 7,vienna1 #ahgh71 p4 #bjc4 ,footnote #cag3 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #bec sqq4 ,footnote #cah3 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #bfb2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cec sq4 ,footnote #cai3 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cee4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bib1 #bic4 ,footnote #cba3 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 p4 #ic2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #cdd4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cdc sq4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 pp4 #bgj sq4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cdd sqq42 ,e4 ,cortet1 ,ftes religieuses1 pp4 #afj sqq42 ,d4 ,monnier1 ,traditions populaires compares1 pp4 #bhb sqq42 ,brenger-,fraud1 ,rminiscences populaires de la ,provence1 pp4 #ag sq42 ,ch4 ,beauquier1 ,les ,mois en ,franche-,comt 7,paris1 #aijj71 pp4 #fe-fi4 ,in ,franche-,comt she seems to be generally known as l'pouse1 8the spouse40 ,footnote #cbe3 ,from information given me by ,mabel ,bailey1 in the service of ,miss ,a4 ,wyse of ,halford4 ,my informant's father is a native of ,stourton1 and she herself has spent much of her life there4 ,i conjecture that the conical flower-bedecked structure may once have been borne by a mummer concealed within it4 ,compare the customs described above1 pp4 #hb sq4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,above1 pp4 #bd sqq4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,from information given me by ,miss ,a4 ,wyse of ,halford4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalendar aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #bfe sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dbb4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien1 i4 7,leipsic1 #aijc7 pp4 #abe-abi4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,d4 ,monnier1 ,traditions populaires compares 7,paris1 #ahed71 p4 #cjd2 ,e4 ,cortet1 ,ftes religieuses1 p4 #afa2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dbc4 ,footnote #cca3 ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #bcc sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dbd4 ,we have seen 7p4 #fb7 that a custom of the same sort used to be observed at ,bampton-in-the-,bush in ,oxfordshire4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,e4 ,hoffmann-,krayer1 8,fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen ,volksbrauch10 ,schweizerisches ,archiv fr ,volkskunde1 xi4 7#aijg7 pp4 #beg sq4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,e4 ,sommer1 ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,sachsen und ,thringen 7,halle1 #ahdc71 pp4 #aea sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #dca sq4 ,the custom is now obsolete 7,e4 ,mogk1 in ,r4 ,wuttke's ,schsische ,volkskunde1 #bnd ,ed41 ,dresden1 #aija1 p4 #cji74 ,footnote #ccd3 ,h4 ,f4 ,feilberg1 in ,folk-lore1 vi4 7#ahie7 pp4 #aid sq4 ,footnote #cce3 ,see above1 p4 #fe4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 p4 #beg4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,crofts1 in a letter to me dated ,february #c1 #aija1 #i ,northwich ,terrace1 ,cheltenham4 ,footnote #cch3 ,for details see ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #bjb sq4 ,footnote #cci3 ,this custom was told to ,w4 ,mannhardt by a ,french prisoner in the war of #ahgj-ga 7,baumkultus1 p4 #dcd74 ,footnote #cdj3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #dcd sq4 ,footnote #cda3 ,ibid4 p4 #dce4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,see above1 pp4 #gf sq4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,m4 ,martin1 ,description of the ,western ,islands of ,scotland 7,london1 #afgc #agjc71 p4 #aai2 id4 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4 #fac2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dcf4 ,according to ,martin1 the ceremony took place on ,candlemas ,day1 the second of ,february4 ,but this seems to be a mistake4 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,campbell1 ,witchcraft and ,second ,sight in the ,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland1 pp4 #bdg sq4 ,the ,rev4 ,james ,macdonald1 of ,reay in ,caithness1 was assured by old people that the sheaf used in making ,briid's bed was the last sheaf cut at harvest 7,j4 ,macdonald1 ,religion and ,myth1 p4 #ada74 ,later on we shall see that the last sheaf is often regarded as embodying the spirit of the corn1 and special care is therefore taken of it4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,john ,ramsay of ,ochtertyre1 ,scotland and ,scotsmen in the ,eighteenth ,century1 edited by ,alex4 ,allardyce 7,edinburgh1 #ahhh71 ii4 #ddg4 ,at ,ballinasloe in ,county ,galway it is customary to fasten a cross of twisted corn in the roof of the cottages on ,candlemas ,day4 ,the cross is fastened by means of a knife stuck through a potato1 and remains in its place for months1 if not for a year4 ,this custom 7of which ,i was informed by ,miss ,nina ,hill in a letter dated ,may #e1 #ahih7 may be connected with the ,highland one described in the text4 ,footnote #cde3 ,j4 ,train1 ,historical and ,statistical ,account of the ,isle of ,man 7,douglas1 ,isle of ,man1 #ahde71 ii4 #aaf4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,see below1 pp4 #bdj sqq4 ,brigit is the true original form of the name1 which has been corrupted into ,breed1 ,bride1 and ,bridget4 ,see ,douglas ,hyde1 ,a ,literary ,history of ,ireland 7,london1 #ahii71 p4 #ec1 note #b4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen und ,mrchen1 pp4 #cah sqq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dcg4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dch4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,r4 ,andree1 ,braunschweiger ,volkskunde 7,brunswick1 #ahif71 p4 #bdh4 ,footnote #cej3 ,d4 ,monnier1 ,traditions populaires compares1 pp4 #bhc sq42 ,e4 ,cortet1 ,ftes religieuses1 pp4 #afb sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #dci sq4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,sexes ,,on ,,vegetation ,sidenote3 ,the marriage of the ,king and ,queen of ,may intended to promote the growth of vegetation by homoeopathic magic4 ,from the preceding examination of the spring and summer festivals of ,europe we may infer that our rude forefathers personified the powers of vegetation as male and female1 and attempted1 on the principle of homoeopathic or imitative magic1 to quicken the growth of trees and plants by representing the marriage of the sylvan deities in the persons of a ,king and ,queen of ,may1 a ,whitsun ,bridegroom and ,bride1 and so forth4 ,such representations were accordingly no mere symbolic or allegorical dramas1 pastoral plays designed to amuse or instruct a rustic audience4 ,they were charms intended to make the woods to grow green1 the fresh grass to sprout1 the corn to shoot1 and the flowers to blow4 ,and it was natural to suppose that the more closely the mock marriage of the leaf-clad or flower-decked mummers aped the real marriage of the woodland sprites1 the more effective would be the charm4 ,accordingly we may assume with a high degree of probability that the profligacy which notoriously attended these ceremonies#cea was at one time not an accidental excess but an essential part of the rites1 and that in the opinion of those who performed them the marriage of trees and plants could not be fertile without the real union of the human sexes4 ,at the present day it might perhaps be vain to look in civilised ,europe for customs of this sort observed for the explicit purpose of promoting the growth of vegetation4 ,but ruder races in other parts of the world have consciously employed the intercourse of the sexes as a means to ensure the fruitfulness of the earth2 and some rites which are still1 or were till lately1 kept up in ,europe can be reasonably explained only as stunted relics of a similar practice4 ,the following facts will make this plain4 ,sidenote3 ,intercourse of the sexes practised in order to make the crops grow4 ,for four days before they committed the seed to the earth the ,pipiles of ,central ,america kept apart from their wives 8in order that on the night before planting they might indulge their passions to the fullest extent2 certain persons are even said to have been appointed to perform the sexual act at the very moment when the first seeds were deposited in the ground40 ,the use of their wives at that time was indeed enjoined upon the people by the priests as a religious duty1 in default of which it was not lawful to sow the seed4#ceb ,the only possible explanation of this custom seems to be that the ,indians confused the process by which human beings reproduce their kind with the process by which plants discharge the same function1 and fancied that by resorting to the former they were simultaneously forwarding the latter4 ,in the month of ,december1 when the alligator pears begin to ripen1 the ,indians of ,peru used to hold a festival called ,acatay mita in order to make the fruit grow mellow4 ,the festival lasted five days and nights1 and was preceded by a fast of five days during which they ate neither salt nor pepper and refrained from their wives4 ,at the festival men and boys assembled stark naked in an open space among the orchards1 and ran from there to a distant hill4 ,any woman whom they overtook on the way they violated4#cec ,in some parts of ,java1 at the season when the bloom will soon be on the rice1 the husbandman and his wife visit their fields by night and there engage in sexual intercourse for the purpose of promoting the growth of the crop4#ced ,in the ,leti1 ,sarmata1 and some other groups of islands which lie between the western end of ,new ,guinea and the northern part of ,australia1 the heathen population regard the sun as the male principle by whom the earth or female principle is fertilised4 ,they call him ,upu-lera or ,mr4 ,sun1 and represent him under the form of a lamp made of coco-nut leaves1 which may be seen hanging everywhere in their houses and in the sacred fig-tree4 ,under the tree lies a large flat stone1 which serves as a sacrificial table4 ,on it the heads of slain foes were and are still placed in some of the islands4 ,once a year1 at the beginning of the rainy season1 ,mr4 ,sun comes down into the holy fig-tree to fertilise the earth1 and to facilitate his descent a ladder with seven rungs is considerately placed at his disposal4 ,it is set up under the tree and is adorned with carved figures of the birds whose shrill clarion heralds the approach of the sun in the ,east4 ,on this occasion pigs and dogs are sacrificed in profusion2 men and women alike indulge in a saturnalia2 and the mystic union of the sun and the earth is dramatically represented in public1 amid song and dance1 by the real union of the sexes under the tree4 ,the object of the festival1 we are told1 is to procure rain1 plenty of food and drink1 abundance of cattle and children and riches from ,grandfather ,sun4 ,they pray that he may make every she-goat to cast two or three young1 the people to multiply1 the dead pigs to be replaced by living pigs1 the empty rice-baskets to be filled1 and so on4 ,and to induce him to grant their requests they offer him pork and rice and liquor1 and invite him to fall to4 ,in the ,babar ,islands a special flag is hoisted at this festival as a symbol of the creative energy of the sun2 it is of white cotton1 about nine feet high1 and consists of the figure of a man in an appropriate attitude4#cee ,among the ,tangkhuls of ,manipur1 before the rice is sown and when it is reaped1 the boys and girls have a tug-of-war with a tough rope of twisted creeper4 ,great jars of beer are set ready1 and the strictness of their ordinary morality is broken by a night of unbridled licence4#cef ,it would be unjust to treat these orgies as a mere outburst of unbridled passion2 no doubt they are deliberately and solemnly organised as essential to the fertility of the earth and the welfare of man4 ,sidenote3 ,intercourse of the sexes practised in order to make trees bear fruit4 ,the same means which are thus adopted to stimulate the growth of the crops are naturally employed to ensure the fruitfulness of trees4 ,the work known as ,the ,agriculture of the ,nabataeans contained apparently a direction that the grafting of a tree upon another tree of a different sort should be done by a damsel1 who at the very moment of inserting the graft in the bough should herself be subjected to treatment which can only be regarded as a direct copy of the operation she was performing on the tree4#ceg ,in some parts of ,amboyna1 when the state of the clove plantation indicates that the crop is likely to be scanty1 the men go naked to the plantations by night1 and there seek to fertilise the trees precisely as they would impregnate women1 while at the same time they call out for 8,more cloves60 ,this is supposed to make the trees bear fruit more abundantly4#ceh ,in ,java when a palm tree is to be tapped for wine1 the man who proposes to relieve the tree of its superfluous juices deems it necessary to approach the palm in the character of a lover and a husband1 as well as of a son4 ,when he comes upon a palm which he thinks suitable1 he will not begin cutting at the trunk until he has intimated as delicately as he can the reasons which lead him to perform that surgical operation1 and the ardent affection which he cherishes for the tree4 ,for this purpose he holds a dialogue with the palm1 in which he naturally speaks in the character of the tree as well as in his own4 8,o mother endang-reni60 he begins1 8for the sake of you ,i have let myself be drenched by the rain and scorched by the sun2 long have ,i sought you6 ,now at last have ,i found you4 ,how ardently have ,i longed for you6 ,often before have you given me the breast4 ,yet ,i still thirst4 ,therefore now ,i ask for four potfuls more40 8,well1 fair youth10 replies the tree1 8,i have always been here4 ,what is the reason that you have sought me80 8,the reason ,i have sought you is that ,i have heard you suffer from incontinentia urinae40 8,so ,i do10 says the tree4 8,will you marry me80 says the man4 8,that ,i will10 says the tree1 8but first you must plight your troth and recite the usual confession of faith40 ,on that the man takes a rattan leaf and wraps it round the palm as a pledge of betrothal1 after which he says the creed3 8,there is no ,god but ,allah1 and ,mohammed is his prophet40 ,the maidenly and orthodox scruples of the tree having thus been satisfied1 he embraces it as his bride4 ,at first he attaches only a small dish to the trunk to receive the juices which exude from the cut in the bark2 a large dish might frighten the tree4 ,in fastening the dish to the palm he says1 8,bok-endang-reni6 your child is languishing away for thirst4 ,he asks you for a drink40 ,the tree replies1 8,let him slake his thirst6 ,mother's breasts are full to overflowing40#cei ,we have already seen that in some parts of ,northern ,india a mock marriage between two actors is performed in honour of a newly-planted orchard1#cfj no doubt for the purpose of making it bear fruit4 ,in the ,nicobar ,islands a pregnant woman is taken into the gardens in order to impart the blessing of fertility to the plants4#cfa ,sidenote3 ,in ,uganda parents of twins are supposed to fertilise the plantains4 ,the ,baganda of ,central ,africa believe so strongly in the intimate relation between the intercourse of the sexes and the fertility of the ground that among them a barren wife is generally sent away because she is supposed to prevent her husband's garden from bearing fruit4 ,on the contrary1 a couple who have given proof of extraordinary fertility by becoming the parents of twins are believed by the ,baganda to be endowed with a corresponding power of increasing the fruitfulness of the plantain-trees1 which furnish them with their staple food4 ,some little time after the birth of the twins a ceremony is performed1 the object of which clearly is to transmit the reproductive virtue of the parents to the plantains4 ,the mother lies down on her back in the thick grass near the house and places a flower of the plantain between her legs2 then her husband comes and knocks the flower away with his genital member4 ,further1 the parents go through the country1 performing dances in the gardens of favoured friends1 apparently for the purpose of causing the plantain-trees to bear fruit more abundantly4 ,the same belief in the fertilising power of such parents probably explains why in ,uganda the father of twins is inviolable and may go into anybody's garden and take the produce at will4 ,to distinguish him from the common herd his hair is cut in a special way1 and he wears little bells at his ankles which tinkle as he walks4 ,his sacred character is further manifested by a rule which he must observe after the round of visits has been paid1 and the dances in the gardens are over4 ,he has to remain at home until the next time that the army goes forth to battle1 and in the interval he may neither dress his hair nor cut his finger-nails4 ,when war has been proclaimed1 his whole body is shaved and his nails cut4 ,the clipped hair and nails he ties up in a ball1 which he takes with him to the war1 along with the bark cloth which he wore at the dances4 ,when he has killed a foe1 he crams the ball into the dead man's mouth1 ties the bark-cloth round his neck1 and leaves them there on the battlefield4#cfb ,apparently the ceremony is intended to rid him of the peculiar sanctity or state of taboo which he contracted by the birth of twins1 and to facilitate his return to ordinary life4 ,for1 to the mind of the savage1 as we shall see later on1 sanctity has its dangers and inconveniences1 and the sacred man may often be glad to divest himself of it by stripping himself of those separable parts of his person--the hair and nails--to which the holy contagion is apt to cling4 ,sidenote3 ,relics of similar customs in ,europe4 ,in various parts of ,europe customs have prevailed both at spring and harvest which are clearly based on the same crude notion that the relation of the human sexes to each other can be so used as to quicken the growth of plants4 ,for example1 in the ,ukraine on ,st4 ,george's ,day 7the twenty-third of ,april7 the priest in his robes1 attended by his acolytes1 goes out to the fields of the village1 where the crops are beginning to shew green above the ground1 and blesses them4 ,after that the young married people lie down in couples on the sown fields and roll several times over on them1 in the belief that this will promote the growth of the crops4 ,in some parts of ,russia the priest himself is rolled by women over the sprouting crop1 and that without regard to the mud and holes which he may encounter in his beneficent progress4 ,if the shepherd resists or remonstrates1 his flock murmurs1 8,little ,father1 you do not really wish us well1 you do not wish us to have corn1 although you do wish to live on our corn40#cfc ,in ,england it seems to have been customary for young couples to roll down a slope together on ,may ,day2 on ,greenwich-hill the custom was practised at ,easter and ,whitsuntide1#cfd as it was till lately practised near ,dublin on ,whitmonday4#cfe ,when we consider how closely these seasons1 especially ,may ,day and ,whitsuntide1 are associated with ceremonies for the revival of plant life in spring1 we shall scarcely doubt that the custom of rolling in couples at such times had originally the same significance which it still has in ,russia2 and when further we compare this particular custom with the practice of representing the vernal powers of vegetation by a bridal pair1 and remember the traditions which even in our own country attach to ,may ,day1#cff we shall probably do no injustice to our forefathers if we conclude that they once celebrated the return of spring with grosser rites1 of which the customs ,i have referred to are only a stunted survival4 ,indeed1 these rites in their grossest form are said to be still observed in various parts of ,holland at ,whitsuntide4#cfg ,in some parts of ,germany at harvest the men and women1 who have reaped the corn1 roll together on the field4#cfh ,this again is probably a mitigation of an older and ruder custom designed to impart fertility to the fields by methods like those resorted to by the ,pipiles of ,central ,america long ago and by the cultivators of rice in ,java at the present time4 ,in ,poso1 when the rice-crop is not thriving1 the farmer's wife sets bowls of rice and betel in various parts of the field2 then she lies down1 draws her petticoat over her head1 and pretends to fall asleep4 ,but one of her children thereupon mimics the crowing of a cock1 and at the sound she gets up1 8because a new day has dawned40 ,the intention of this ceremony1 which the natives could not or would not explain to the ,dutch missionary who reports it1 may be to place the woman at the disposal of the god of the field4 ,we are expressly told that there is a special god of the rice-fields named ,puwe-wai1 and that the ceremony in question is performed in his honour4#cfi ,sidenote3 ,continence practised in order to make the crops grow4 ,to the student who cares to track the devious course of the human mind in its gropings after truth1 it is of some interest to observe that the same theoretical belief in the sympathetic influence of the sexes on vegetation1 which has led some peoples to indulge their passions as a means of fertilising the earth1 has led others to seek the same end by directly opposite means4 ,from the moment that they sowed the maize till the time that they reaped it1 the ,indians of ,nicaragua lived chastely1 keeping apart from their wives and sleeping in a separate place4 ,they ate no salt1 and drank neither cocoa nor chicha1 the fermented liquor made from maize2 in short the season was for them1 as the ,spanish historians observe1 a time of abstinence4#cgj ,to this day some of the ,indian tribes of ,central ,america practise continence for the purpose of thereby promoting the growth of the crops4 ,thus we are told that before sowing the maize the ,kekchi ,indians sleep apart from their wives1 and eat no flesh for five days1 while among the ,lanquineros and ,cajaboneros the period of abstinence from these carnal pleasures extends to thirteen days4#cga ,so amongst some of the ,germans of ,transylvania it is a rule that no man may sleep with his wife during the whole of the time that he is engaged in sowing his fields4#cgb ,the same rule is observed at ,kalotaszeg in ,hungary2 the people think that if the custom were not observed the corn would be mildewed4#cgc ,similarly a ,central ,australian headman of the ,kaitish tribe strictly abstains from marital relations with his wife all the time that he is performing magical ceremonies to make the grass grow2 for he believes that a breach of this rule would prevent the grass seed from sprouting properly4#cgd ,in some of the ,melanesian islands1 when the yam vines are being trained1 the men sleep near the gardens and never approach their wives2 should they enter the garden after breaking this rule of continence the fruits of the garden would be spoilt4#cge ,in the ,motu tribe of ,new ,guinea1 when rain has fallen plentifully and there is promise of a good crop of bananas1 one of the chief men becomes holy or taboo1 and must live apart from his wife and eat only certain kinds of food4 ,he bids the young men beat the drum and dance1 8in order that by so doing there may be a large harvest4 ,if the dancing is not given1 there will be an end to the good growth2 but if it is continued1 all will go well4 ,people come in from other villages to assist1 and will dance all night40#cgf ,in the ,mekeo district of ,british ,new ,guinea1 when a taboo has been put on the coco-nuts and areca-nuts to promote their growth1 some fourteen or fifteen men act as watchmen to enforce the taboo4 ,every evening they go round the village armed with clubs and wearing masks or so covered with leaves that nobody would know them4 ,all the time they are in office they may not chew betel nor drink coco-nut water1 lest the areca-nuts 7which are eaten with betel7 and the coco-nuts should fail4 ,moreover1 they may not live with their wives2 indeed1 they may not even look at a woman1 and if they pass one they must keep their eyes on the ground4#cgg ,among the ,kabuis of ,manipur1 before the rice is sown and when it is reaped1 the strictest chastity has to be observed1 especially by the religious head of the village1 who1 besides always taking the omens on behalf of the villagers1 is the first to sow and the first to reap4#cgh ,some of the tribes of ,assam believe that so long as the crops remain ungarnered1 the slightest incontinence might ruin all4#cgi ,in the incense-growing region of ,arabia in antiquity there were three families charged with the special care of the incense-trees4 ,they were called sacred1 and at the time when they cut the trees or gathered the incense they were forbidden to pollute themselves with women or with the contact of the dead2 the observance of these rules of ceremonial purity was believed to increase the supply of incense4#chj ,apparently the incense itself was deemed holy1 for on being gathered it was deposited in the sanctuary of the ,sun1 where the merchants inspected and purchased it4#cha ,with ancient ,greek husbandmen it was a maxim that olives should always be planted and gathered by pure boys and virgins2 the uncommon fruitfulness of the olive-trees at ,anazarbus in ,cilicia was attributed to their being tended by young and innocent children4 ,in default of such workers1 the olive-gatherer had to swear that he had been faithful to his own wife2 for his fidelity was believed to ensure an abundant crop of fruit the following year4#chb ,sidenote3 ,illicit love supposed to blight the fruits of the earth4 ,again1 the sympathetic relation supposed to exist between the commerce of the sexes and the fertility of the earth manifests itself in the belief that illicit love tends1 directly or indirectly1 to mar that fertility and to blight the crops4#chc ,such a belief prevails1 for example1 among the ,karens of ,burma4 ,they imagine that adultery or fornication has a powerful influence to injure the harvest4 ,hence if the crops have been bad for a year or two1 and no rain falls1 the villagers set down the dearth to secret sins of this kind1 and say that the ,god of heaven and earth is angry with them on that account2 and they all unite in making an offering to appease him4 ,further1 whenever adultery or fornication is detected1 the elders decide that the sinners must buy a hog and kill it4 ,then the woman takes one foot of the hog1 and the man takes another1 and they scrape out furrows in the ground with each foot1 and fill the furrows with the blood of the hog4 ,next they scratch the ground with their hands and pray3 8,god of heaven and earth1 ,god of the mountains and hills1 ,i have destroyed the productiveness of the country4 ,do not be angry with me1 do not hate me2 but have mercy on me1 and compassionate me4 ,now ,i repair the mountains1 now ,i heal the hills1 and the streams and the lands4 ,may there be no failure of crops1 may there be no unsuccessful labours1 or unfortunate efforts in my country4 ,let them be dissipated to the foot of the horizon4 ,make thy paddy fruitful1 thy rice abundant4 ,make the vegetables to flourish4 ,if we cultivate but little1 still grant that we may obtain a little40 ,after each has prayed thus1 they return to the house and say they have repaired the earth4#chd ,the ,battas of ,sumatra think that if an unmarried woman is big with child1 it is necessary to give her in marriage at once1 even to a man of lower rank2 for otherwise the people will be infested by tigers1 and the crops in the field will not yield an abundant return4 ,the crime of incest1 in their opinion1 would blast the whole harvest if the wrong were not speedily repaired4 ,epidemics and other calamities that affect the whole people are almost always traced by them to incest1 by which is to be understood any marriage that conflicts with their customs4#che ,sidenote3 ,dyak belief that lewdness may cause bad weather and spoil the crops4 ,similar views are held by various tribes of ,borneo4 ,thus when the rain pours down steadily day after day and week after week1 and the crops are rotting in the fields1 the ,dyaks of ,borneo come to the conclusion that some one has been indulging in fleshly lusts2 so the elders lay their heads together and adjudicate on all cases of incest and bigamy1 and purify the earth with the blood of pigs1 which appears to possess in a high degree the valuable property of atoning for moral guilt4 ,for three days the villages are tabooed and all labour discontinued2 the inhabitants remain at home1 and no strangers are admitted4 ,not long ago the offenders1 whose lewdness had thus brought the whole country into danger1 would have been punished with death or at least slavery4 ,a ,dyak may not marry his first cousin unless he first performs a special ceremony called bergaput to avert evil consequences from the land4 ,the couple repair to the water-side1 fill a small pitcher with their personal ornaments1 and sink it in the river2 or instead of a jar they fling a chopper and a plate into the water4 ,a pig is then sacrificed on the bank1 and its carcase1 drained of blood1 is thrown in after the jar4 ,next the pair are pushed into the water by their friends and ordered to bathe together4 ,lastly1 a joint of bamboo is filled with pig's blood1 and the couple perambulate the country and the villages round about1 sprinkling the blood on the ground4 ,after that they are free to marry4 ,this is done1 we are told1 for the sake of the whole country1 in order that the rice may not be blasted4#chf ,the ,bahaus or ,kayans1 a tribe in the interior of ,borneo1 ,sidenote3 ,kayan belief that adultery or fornication spoils the harvest4 believe that adultery is punished by the spirits1 who visit the whole tribe with failure of the crops and other misfortunes4 ,hence in order to avert these calamities from the innocent members of the tribe1 the two culprits1 with all their possessions1 are put in quarantine on a gravel bank in the middle of the river2 then in order thoroughly to disinfect them1 pigs and fowls are killed1 and with the blood priestesses smear the property of the guilty pair4 ,finally the two are set on a raft1 with sixteen eggs1 and allowed to drift down the stream4 ,they may save themselves by swimming ashore1 but this is perhaps a mitigation of an older sentence of death by drowning4 ,young people shower long grass-stalks1 which stand for spears1 at the shamefaced and dripping couple4#chg ,the ,blu-u ,kayans of the same region similarly imagine that an intrigue between an unmarried pair is punished by the spirits with failure of the harvest1 of the fishing1 and of the hunt4 ,hence the delinquents have to appease the wrath of the spirits by sacrificing a pig and some rice4#chh ,sidenote3 ,incest and seduction supposed to be a cause of bad weather and failure of crops in ,celebes4 ,among the ,macassars and ,bugineese of ,southern ,celebes incest is a capital crime4 8,in the ,bugineese language this misdeed is called spa-tna1 which1 literally translated1 signifies that the ground 7tna7 which has been polluted with the blood of such a person must above all be shunned 7spa74 ,when we remember how afraid of evil spirits a native is in passing even a spot that has been stained with innocent blood1 we can easily conceive what passes in his mind at the thought of the blood of one who has been guilty of such a crime4 ,when the rivers dry up and the supply of fish runs short1 when the harvest and the produce of the gardens miscarry1 when edible fruits fail1 and especially when sickness is rife among the cattle and horses1 as well as when civil strife breaks out and the country suffers from any other widespread calamity1 the native generally thinks that earth and air have been sullied with the blood of persons who have committed incest4 ,the blood of such people should naturally not be shed4 ,hence the punishment usually inflicted on them is that of drowning4 ,they are tied up in a sack and thrown into the sea4 ,yet they get with them on their journey to eternity the necessary provisions1 consisting of a bag of rice1 salt1 dried fish1 coco-nuts and so on1 not forgetting three quids of betel40#chi ,among the ,tomori of ,central ,celebes a person guilty of incest is throttled2 no drop of his blood may fall on the ground1 for if it did1 the rice would never grow again4 ,the union of uncle and niece is regarded by these people as incest1 but it can be expiated by an offering4 ,a garment of the man and one of the woman are laid on a copper vessel2 the blood of a sacrificed animal1 either a goat or a fowl1 is allowed to drip on the garments1 and then the vessel with its contents is suffered to float down the river4#cij ,among the ,tolalaki1 another tribe of ,central ,celebes1 persons who have defiled themselves with incest are shut up in a basket and drowned4 ,no drop of their blood may be spilt on the ground1 for that would hinder the earth from ever bearing fruit again4#cia ,when it rains in torrents1 the ,galelareese of ,halmahera say that brother and sister1 or father and daughter1 or in short some near relations are having illicit relations with each other1 and that every human being must be informed of it1 for then only will the rain cease to descend4 ,the superstition has repeatedly caused blood relations to be accused1 rightfully or wrongfully1 of incest4 ,the people also regard other alarming natural phenomena1 for instance a violent earthquake or the eruption of a volcano1 as consequences of crimes of the same sort4 ,persons charged with such offences are brought to ,ternate2 it is said that formerly they were often drowned on the way or1 on being haled thither1 were condemned to be thrown into the volcano4#cib ,sidenote3 ,breaches of sexual morality supposed to prevent rain and so to blight the fruits of the earth in ,africa4 ,in some parts of ,africa1 also1 it is believed that breaches of sexual morality disturb the course of nature1 particularly by blighting the fruits of the earth4 ,thus the negroes of ,loango suppose that the intercourse of a man with an immature girl is punished by ,god with drought and consequent famine1 until the culprits atone for their sin by dancing naked before the king and an assembly of the people1 who throw hot gravel and bits of glass at the pair4 ,for example1 in the year #ahih1 it was discovered that a long drought was caused by the misconduct of three girls1 who were with child before they had passed through what is called the paint-house1 that is1 before they had been painted red and secluded for a time in token that they had attained to the age of puberty4 ,the people were very angry and tried to punish or even kill the girls4#cic ,amongst the ,bavili of ,loango1 it is believed that if a man breaks the marriage law by marrying a woman of his mother's clan1 ,god will in like manner punish the crime by withholding the rains in their due season4#cid ,similar notions of the blighting influence of sexual crime appear to be entertained by the ,nandi of ,british ,east ,africa1 for amongst them a girl who has been gotten with child by a warrior1 may never look inside of a granary for fear of spoiling the corn4#cie ,among the ,basutos likewise 8while the corn is exposed to view1 all defiled persons are carefully kept from it4 ,if the aid of a man in this state is necessary for carrying home the harvest1 he remains at some distance while the sacks are filled1 and only approaches to place them upon the draught oxen4 ,he withdraws as soon as the load is deposited at the dwelling1 and under no pretext can he assist in pouring the corn into the baskets in which it is preserved40#cif ,the nature of the defilement which thus disqualifies a man for handling the corn is not mentioned1 but probably it would include unchastity4 ,we may conjecture that it was for a similar reason that the ,basoga of ,central ,africa used to punish severely the seduction of a virgin4 8,if a man was convicted of such a crime1 and the woman's guilt was discovered1 he and she were sent at night time to ,kaluba's village1 where they were tied to a tree4 ,this tall spreading incense-tree was thought to be under the protection of a spirit called ,kakua ,kambuzi4 ,next morning the erring couple were discovered by people in the surrounding plantations1 who released them4 ,they were then allowed to settle near the tree of the protecting spirit40 ,this practice of tying the culprits to a sacred tree may have been thought to atone for their crime and so to ensure the fertility of the earth which they had imperilled4 ,the notion perhaps was to deliver the criminals into the power of the offended tree-spirit2 if they were found alive in the morning1 it was a sign that he had pardoned them4 8,curiously enough1 the ,basoga also held in great abhorrence anything like incest amongst domestic animals--that is to say1 they greatly disapproved of intercourse between a bull calf and its mother-cow1 or between a bull and a cow that were known to be brother and sister4 ,if this occurred1 the bull and cow were sent by night to a fetish tree and tied there4 ,the next morning the chief of the district appropriated the animals and turned them to his own use40#cig ,following out the same train of thought1 the ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes ingeniously employ ,sidenote3 ,incest of animals employed as a rain-charm in ,africa4 the incest of animals as a rain-charm4 ,for they believe that the anger of the gods at incest or bestiality manifests itself in the form of violent storms1 heavy rain1 or long drought4 ,accordingly they think that it is always in their power to enrage the gods by committing incest and so to procure rain when it is needed4 ,however1 they abstain from perpetrating the crime among themselves1 first1 because it would be necessary to put the culprits to death1 and second1 because the storms thus raised would be so furious that they would do more harm than good4 ,but they fancy that the incest1 real or simulated1 of animals is a lighter offence1 which by discomposing1 without exasperating1 the higher powers will disturb the balance of nature just enough to improve the weather4 ,a ceremony of this sort was witnessed by a missionary4 ,rain was wanted1 and the headman of the village had to see that it fell4 ,he took his measures accordingly4 ,attended by a crowd he carried a cock and a little sow to the river4 ,here the animals were killed1 laid side by side in an intimate embrace1 and wrapped tightly up in a piece of cotton4 ,then the headman engaged in prayer4 8,o gods above and gods below10 said he1 8if you have pity on us1 and will that we eat food this year1 give rain4 ,if you will not give rain1 well we have here buried a cock and a sow in an intimate embrace40 ,by which he meant to say1 8,be angry at this abomination which we have committed1 and manifest your anger in storms40#cih ,these examples suffice to prove that among many savage races breaches of the marriage laws are thought to blast the fruits of the earth through excessive rain or excessive drought4 ,similar notions of the disastrous effects of sexual crimes may ,sidenote3 ,similar notions of the blighting effect of sexual crime may be detected among the civilised races of antiquity1 for example1 among the ,jews4 be detected among some of the civilised races of antiquity1 who seem not to have limited the supposed sterilising influence of such offences to the fruits of the earth1 but to have extended it also to women and cattle4#cii ,thus among the ,hebrews we read how ,job1 passionately protesting his innocence before ,god1 declares that he is no adulterer2 8,for that10 says he1 8were an heinous crime2 yea1 it were an iniquity to be punished by the judges3 for it is a fire that consumeth unto ,destruction1 and would root out all mine increase40#djj ,in this passage the ,hebrew word translated 8increase0 commonly means 8the produce of the earth20#dja and if we give the word its usual sense here1 then ,job affirms adultery to be destructive of the fruits of the ground1 which is just what many savages still believe4 ,this interpretation of his words is strongly confirmed by two narratives in ,genesis1 where we read how ,sarah1 ,abraham's wife1 was taken into his harem by a king who did not know her to be the wife of the patriarch1 and how thereafter ,god visited the king and his household with great plagues1 especially by closing up the wombs of the king's wives and his maid-servants1 so that they bore no children4 ,it was not till the king had discovered and confessed his sin1 and ,abraham had prayed ,god to forgive him1 that the king's women again became fruitful4#djb ,these narratives seem to imply that adultery1 even when it is committed in ignorance1 is a cause of plague and especially of sterility among women4 ,again1 in ,leviticus1 after a long list of sexual crimes1 we read3#djc 8,defile not ye yourselves in any of these things3 for in all these the nations are defiled which ,i cast out from before you3 and the land is defiled3 therefore ,i do visit the iniquity thereof upon it1 and the land vomiteth out her inhabitants40 ,this passage appears to imply that the land itself was somehow physically tainted by sexual transgressions so that it could no longer support the inhabitants4 ,sidenote3 ,blighting effect attributed to incest by the ancient ,greeks and ,irish4 ,it would seem that the ancient ,greeks and ,romans entertained similar notions as to the wasting effect of incest4 ,according to ,sophocles the land of ,thebes suffered from blight1 from pestilence1 and from the sterility both of women and of cattle under the reign of ,oedipus1 who had unwittingly slain his father and wedded his mother1 and the ,delphic oracle declared that the only way to restore the prosperity of the country was to banish the sinner from it1 as if his mere presence withered plants1 animals1 and women4#djd ,no doubt the poet and his hearers set down these public calamities in great part to the guilt of parricide1 which rested on ,oedipus2 but they can hardly have failed to lay much also of the evil at the door of his incest with his mother4 ,again1 in ancient ,italy1 under the ,emperor ,claudius1 a ,roman noble was accused of incest with his sister4 ,he committed suicide1 his sister was banished1 and the emperor ordered that certain ancient ceremonies traditionally derived from the laws of ,king ,servius ,tullius should be performed1 and that expiation should be made by the pontiffs at the sacred grove of ,diana1#dje probably the famous ,arician grove1 which has furnished the starting-point of our enquiry4 ,as ,diana appears to have been a goddess of fertility in general and of the fruitfulness of women in particular1 the atonement made at her sanctuary for incest may perhaps be accepted as evidence that the ,romans1 like other peoples1 attributed to sexual immorality a tendency to blast the fruits both of the earth and of the womb4 ,this inference is strengthened by a precept laid down by grave ,roman writers that bakers1 cooks1 and butlers ought to be strictly chaste and continent1 because it was most important that food and cups should be handled either by persons under the age of puberty1 or at all events by persons who indulged very sparingly in sexual intercourse2 for which reason if a baker1 a cook1 or a butler broke this rule of continence it was his bounden duty to wash in a river or other running water before he applied himself again to his professional duties4 ,but for all such duties the services of a boy or of a virgin were preferred4#djf ,the ,celts of ancient ,ireland similarly believed that incest blighted the fruits of the earth4 ,according to legend ,munster was afflicted in the third century of our era with a failure of the crops and other misfortunes4 ,when the nobles enquired into the matter1 they were told that these calamities were the result of an incest which the king had committed with his sister4 ,in order to put an end to the evil they demanded of the king his two sons1 the fruit of his unholy union1 that they might consume them with fire and cast their ashes into the running stream4 ,however1 one of the sons1 ,corc by name1 is said to have been purged of his inherited taint by being sent out of ,ireland to an island1 where a ,druid purified him every morning1 by putting him on the back of a white cow with red ears1 and pouring water over him1 till one day the cow jumped into the sea and became a rock1 no doubt taking the sin of ,corc's father away with her4 ,after that the boy was brought back to ,erin4#djg ,sidenote3 ,belief in the blighting effect of incest may have helped to institute the forbidden degrees4 ,thus the belief that incest or sexual crime in general has power to blast the fruits of the earth is widespread and probably goes back to a very remote antiquity2 it may long have preceded the rise of agriculture4 ,we may conjecture that in its origin the belief was magical rather than religious2 in other words1 that the blight was at first supposed to be a direct consequence of the act itself rather than a punishment inflicted on the criminal by gods or spirits4 ,conceived as an unnatural union of the sexes1 incest might be thought to subvert the regular processes of reproduction1 and so to prevent the earth from yielding its fruits and to hinder animals and men from propagating their kinds4 ,at a later time the anger of spiritual beings would naturally be invoked in order to give a religious sanction to the old taboo4 ,if this was so1 it is possible that something of the horror which incest has excited among most1 though by no means all1 races of men1 sprang from this ancient superstition and has been transmitted as an instinct in many nations long after the imaginary ground of it had been forgotten4 ,certainly a course of conduct which was supposed to endanger or destroy the general supply of food and therefore to strike a blow at the very life of the whole people1 could not but present itself to the savage imagination as a crime of the blackest dye1 fraught with the most fatal consequences to the public weal4 ,how far such a superstition may in the beginning have operated to prevent the union of near kin1 in other words1 to institute the system of prohibited degrees which still prevails among the great majority of mankind1 both savage and civilised1 is a question which deserves to be considered by the historians of marriage4#djh ,sidenote3 ,explanation of the seeming contradiction in the foregoing customs4 ,if we ask why it is that similar beliefs should logically lead1 among different peoples1 to such opposite modes of conduct as strict chastity and more or less open debauchery1 the reason1 as it presents itself to the primitive mind1 is perhaps not very far to seek4 ,if rude man identifies himself1 in a manner1 with nature2 if he fails to distinguish the impulses and processes in himself from the methods which nature adopts to ensure the reproduction of plants and animals1 he may leap to one of two conclusions4 ,either he may infer that by yielding to his appetites he will thereby assist in the multiplication of plants and animals2 or he may imagine that the vigour which he refuses to expend in reproducing his own kind1 will form as it were a store of energy whereby other creatures1 whether vegetable or animal1 will somehow benefit in propagating their species4 ,thus from the same crude philosophy1 the same primitive notions of nature and life1 the savage may derive by different channels a rule either of profligacy or of asceticism4 ,sidenote3 ,indirect benefit of some of these superstitious customs4 ,to readers bred in a religion which is saturated with the ascetic idealism of the ,east1 the explanation which ,i have given of the rule of continence observed under certain circumstances by rude or savage peoples may seem far-fetched ,sidenote3 ,the ascetic view of chastity not understood by the savage4 and improbable4 ,they may think that moral purity1 which is so intimately associated in their minds with the observance of such a rule1 furnishes a sufficient explanation of it2 they may hold with ,milton#dji that chastity in itself is a noble virtue1 and that the restraint which it imposes on one of the strongest impulses of our animal nature marks out those who can submit to it as men raised above the common herd1 and therefore worthy to receive the seal of the divine approbation4 ,however natural this mode of thought may seem to us1 it is utterly foreign and indeed incomprehensible to the savage4 ,if he resists on occasion the sexual instinct1 it is from no high idealism1 no ethereal aspiration after moral purity1 but for the sake of some ulterior yet perfectly definite and concrete object1 to gain which he is prepared to sacrifice the immediate gratification of his senses4 ,that this is or may be so1 the examples ,i have cited are amply sufficient to prove4 ,they shew that where the instinct of self-preservation1 which manifests itself chiefly in the search for food1 conflicts or appears to conflict with the instinct which conduces to the propagation of the species1 the former instinct1 as the primary and more fundamental1 is capable of over-mastering the latter4 ,in short1 the savage is willing to restrain his sexual propensity for the sake of food4 ,another object for the sake of which he consents to exercise the same self-restraint is victory in war4 ,not only the warrior in the field but his friends at home will often bridle their sensual appetites from a belief that by so doing they will the more easily overcome their enemies4#daj ,the fallacy of such a belief1 like the belief that the chastity of the sower conduces to the growth of the seed1 is plain enough to us2 yet perhaps the self-restraint which these and the like beliefs1 vain and false as they are1 have imposed on mankind1 has not been without its utility in bracing and strengthening the breed4 ,for strength of character in the race as in the individual consists mainly in the power of sacrificing the present to the future1 of disregarding the immediate temptations of ephemeral pleasure for more distant and lasting sources of satisfaction4 ,the more the power is exercised the higher and stronger becomes the character2 till the height of heroism is reached in men who renounce the pleasures of life and even life itself for the sake of keeping or winning for others1 perhaps in distant ages1 the blessings of freedom and truth4 ,footnote #cea3 ,see above1 p4 #fg1 and below1 p4 #ajd4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des nations civilises du ,mexique et de l',amrique ,centrale 7,paris1 #aheg-ahei71 ii4 #efe2 ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ii4 #gai sq41 iii4 #ejg2 ,o4 ,stoll1 ,die ,ethnologie der ,indianerstmme von ,guatemala 7,leyden1 #ahhi71 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #cec3 ,p4 ,j4 de ,arriaga1 ,extirpacion de la idolatria del ,piru 7,lima1 #afba71 pp4 #cf sq4 ,footnote #ced3 ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 8,het animisme bij de volken van den ,indischen ,archipel10 ,de ,indische ,gids1 ,june #ahhd1 p4 #ieh4 ,footnote #cee3 ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 pp4 #ccg1 #cgb-cge1 #daj sq42 ,g4 ,w4 ,w4 ,c4 ,baron van ,hovell1 in ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxxiii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #bjd sq41 #bjf sq42 id41 in ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 viii4 7#ahie7 p4 #acd2 ,j4 ,a4 ,jacobsen1 ,reisen in die ,inselwelt des ,banda-,meeres 7,berlin1 #ahif71 pp4 #abc1 #abe2 ,j4 ,h4 de ,vries1 8,reis door eenige eilandgroepen der ,residentie ,amboina10 ,tijdschrift van het konink4 ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 xvii4 7#aijj7 pp4 #eid1 #fab1 #fae sq4 ,the name of the festival is variously given as porke1 porka1 porka1 and purka4 ,in the island of ,timor the marriage of the ,sun-god with ,mother ,earth is deemed the source of all fertility and growth4 ,see ,j4 ,s4 ,g4 ,gramberg1 8,eene maand in de ,binnenlanden van ,timor10 ,verhandelingen van het ,bataviaasch ,genootschap van ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 xxxvi4 #bjf sq42 ,h4 ,sondervan1 8,timor en de ,timoreezen10 ,tijdschriftvan het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 dl4 v4 7#ahhh71 ,afdeeling meer uitgebreide artikelen1 p4 #cig4 ,footnote #cef3 ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 8,the ,native ,tribes of ,manipur10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxi4 7#aija7 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,maimonides1 translated by ,d4 ,chwolsohn1 ,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus1 ii4 #dge4 ,it is not quite clear whether the direction1 which ,maimonides here attributes to the heathen of ,harran1 is taken by him from the beginning of ,the ,agriculture of the ,nabataeans1 which he had referred to a few lines before4 ,the first part of that work appears to be lost1 though other parts of it exist in manuscript at ,paris1 ,oxford1 and elsewhere4 ,see ,d4 ,chwolsohn1 op4 cit4 i4 #fig sqq4 ,the book is an early ,mohammedan forgery2 but the superstitions it describes may very well be genuine4 ,see ,a4 von ,gutschmid1 ,kleine ,schriften1 ii4 #efh-gac4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,g4 ,w4 ,w4 ,c4 ,baron van ,hovell1 ,ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de ,oeliasers 7,dordrecht1 #ahge71 pp4 #fb sq4 ,footnote #cei3 ,j4 ,kreemer1 8,tiang-drs0 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xxvi4 7#ahhb71 pp4 #abh-acb4 ,this and the preceding custom have been already quoted by ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken 78,het animisme bij de volken van den ,indischen ,archipel10 ,de ,indische ,gids1 ,june #ahhd1 pp4 #ifb sq42 and ,handleiding voor de vorgelijkende ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi 7,leyden1 #ahic71 p4 #eej74 ,footnote #cfj3 ,above1 p4 #bf4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,w4 ,svoboda1 8,die ,bewohner des ,nikobaren-,archipels10 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 v4 7#ahib7 pp4 #aic sq4 ,for other examples of a fruitful woman making trees fruitful1 see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #adj sq4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,further ,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #cb-ce1 #ch1 #hj4 ,the ,peruvian custom described above 7vol4 i4 p4 #bff7 may in like manner have been intended to promote the growth of beans through the fertilising influence of the parents of twins4 ,on the contrary among the ,bassari of ,togo1 in ,western ,africa1 women who have given birth to twins may not go near the farm at the seasons of sowing and reaping1 lest they should destroy the crop4 ,only after the birth of another child does custom allow them to share again the labour of the fields4 ,see ,h4 ,klose1 ,togo unter deutscher ,flagge 7,berlin1 #ahii71 p4 #eaj4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #dhj sq42 id41 ,mythologische ,forschungen 7,strasburg1 #ahhd71 p4 #cda4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #aha4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,my informant is ,prof4 ,w4 ,ridgeway4 ,the place was a field at the head of the ,dargle vale1 near ,enniskerry4 ,footnote #cff3 ,see above1 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,g4 ,w4 ,w4 ,c4 ,baron van ,hovell1 in ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 viii4 7#ahie7 p4 #acd note4 ,the custom seems to go by the name of dauwtroppen or 8dew-treading40 ,as districts or places in which the practice is still kept up the writer names ,south ,holland1 ,dordrecht1 and ,rotterdam4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,l4 ,strackerjan1 ,aberglaube und ,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg 7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 ii4 p4 #gh1 #cfa2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dha2 id41 ,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #cdj4 ,compare ,th4 ,siebs1 8,das ,saterland10 ,zeitschrift fr ,volkskunde1 iii4 7#ahic7 p4 #bgg4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den ,poso-,alfoer10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xxxix4 7#ahie7 p4 #ach1 ibid4 xl4 7#ahif7 pp4 #af sq4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,g4 ,f4 ,oviedo y ,valdes1 ,histoire du ,nicaragua 7published in ,ternaux-,compans' ,voyages1 relations et mmoires originaux1 etc471 ,paris1 #ahdj1 pp4 #bbh sq42 ,a4 de ,herrera1 ,general ,history of the ,vast ,continent and ,islands called ,america 7,stevens's translation1 ,london1 #agbe-bf71 iii4 #bih4 ,footnote #cga3 ,c4 ,sapper1 8,die ,gebruche und religisen ,anschauungen der ,kekchi-,indianer10 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 viii4 7#ahie7 p4 #bjc4 ,abstinence from women for several days is also practised before the sowing of beans and of chilis1 but only by ,indians who do a large business in these commodities 7ibid4 p4 #bje74 ,footnote #cgb3 ,a4 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische ,sitten und ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen ,siebenbrgens 7,hermannstadt1 #ahhj71 p4 #g4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,r4 ,temesvary1 ,volksbruche und ,aberglauben in der ,geburtshilfe und der ,pflege der ,neugebornen in ,ungarn 7,leipsic1 #aijj71 p4 #af4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #bic4 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #hh4 ,footnote #cge3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,j4 ,chalmers1 ,pioneering in ,new ,guinea 7,london1 #ahhg71 p4 #aha4 ,the word which ,i have taken to mean 8holy or taboo0 is helaga4 ,mr4 ,chalmers does not translate or explain it4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann says that the word 8conveys something of the idea of #8sacred1' #8set apart1' #8charged with virtue'0 7,the ,melanesians of ,british ,new ,guinea1 p4 #aja1 note #b74 ,footnote #cgg3 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,head-hunters 7,london1 #aija71 pp4 #bgj-bgb1 #bge sq4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 8,the ,native ,tribes of ,manipur10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxi4 7#aija7 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 8,the genna amongst the ,tribes of ,assam10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvi4 7#aijf7 p4 #id4 ,footnote #chj3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xii4 #ed2 ,solinus1 xxxiii4 #f sq41 p4 #aff1 ed4 ,th4 ,mommsen 7first edition74 ,footnote #cha3 ,theophrastus1 ,histor4 plant4 ix4 #d4 #e sq4 ,footnote #chb3 ,palladius1 ,de re rustica1 i4 #f4 #ad2 ,geoponica1 ix4 #c4 #e sq4 ,footnote #chc3 ,with what follows compare ,psyche's ,task1 chapter iv4 pp4 #ca sqq41 where ,i have adduced the same evidence to some extent in the same words4 ,footnote #chd3 ,f4 ,mason1 8,on dwellings1 works of art1 laws1 etc41 of the ,karens10 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 xxxvii4 7#ahfh7 ,part ii4 pp4 #adg sq4 ,compare ,a4 ,r4 ,m',mahon1 ,the ,karens of the ,golden ,chersonese 7,london1 #ahgf71 pp4 #ccd sq4 ,footnote #che3 ,j4 ,b4 ,neumann1 8,het ,pane- en ,bila-stroomgebied op het eiland ,sumatra10 ,tijdschrift van het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 dl4 iii4 ,afdeeling1 meer uitgebreide artikelen1 ,no4 #c 7#ahhf71 pp4 #ead sq42 ,m4 ,joustra1 8,het leven1 de zeden en gewoonten der ,bataks10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xlvi4 7#aijb7 p4 #daa4 ,footnote #chf3 ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 8,low's natives of ,borneo10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxi4 7#ahib7 pp4 #aac sq41 #acc1 xxii4 7#ahic7 p4 #bd2 id41 ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 i4 #dja4 ,compare ,rev4 ,j4 ,perham1 8,petara1 or ,sea ,dyak ,gods10 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #h1 ,december #ahha1 p4 #aej2 ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 i4 #ahj4 ,according to ,archdeacon ,perham1 8,every district traversed by an adulterer is believed to be accursed of the gods until the proper sacrifice has been offered40 ,in respectable ,dyak families1 when an unmarried girl is found with child and the father is unknown1 they sacrifice a pig and sprinkle the doors with its blood to wash away the sin 7,spenser ,st4 ,john1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east1 #bnd ,ed41 i4 #fd74 ,in ,ceram a person convicted of unchastity has to expiate his guilt by smearing every house in the village with the blood of a pig and a fowl4 ,see ,a4 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 7,berlin1 #ahhd7 p4 #add4 ,footnote #chg3 ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijd-aijg71 i4 #cfg4 ,footnote #chh3 ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo1 ii4 #ii2 id41 ,in ,centraal ,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijj71 ii4 #bgh4 ,footnote #chi3 ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 8,over de d's of gewoonten der ,makassaren en ,boegineezen10 ,verslagen en ,mededeelingen der koninklijke ,akademie van ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling ,letterkunde1 ,derde ,reeks1 ,,ii4 7,amsterdam1 #ahhe7 p4 #ahb4 ,the similar ,roman penalty for parricide 7,digest1 xlviii4 #i4 #i2 ,valerius ,maximus1 i4 #a4 #ac2 ,j4 ,e4 ,b4 ,mayor's note on ,juvenal ,sat4 viii4 #bad7 may have been adopted for a similar reason4 ,but in that case the scourging which preceded the drowning can hardly have been originally a part of the punishment4 ,footnote #cij3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de ,toboengkoe en de ,tomori10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 p4 #bce4 ,footnote #cia3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,van ,posso naar ,mori10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #cib3 ,m4 ,j4 van ,baarda1 8,fabelen1 ,verhalen en ,overleveringen der ,galelareezen10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 xlv4 7#ahie7 p4 #ead4 ,in the ,banggai ,archipelago1 to the east of ,celebes1 earthquakes are explained as punishments inflicted by evil spirits for indulgence in illicit love 7,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de ,clercq1 ,bijdragen tot de ,kennis der ,residentie ,ternate 7,leyden1 #ahij71 p4 #acb74 ,footnote #cic3 ,o4 ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique 7,amsterdam1 #afhf71 p4 #cbf2 ,r4 ,e4 ,dennett1 ,at the ,back of the ,black ,man's ,mind 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #ec1 #fg-ga4 ,footnote #cid3 ,r4 ,e4 ,dennett1 op4 cit4 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #cie3 ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi1 their ,language and ,folk-lore 7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #gf4 ,footnote #cif3 ,rev4 ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos 7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #beb4 ,footnote #cig3 ,sir ,harry ,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate 7,london1 #aijb71 ii4 #gah sq4 ,footnote #cih3 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,regen lokken en regen verdrijven bij de ,toradja's van ,midden ,celebes10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xliv4 7#aija7 p4 #d4 ,footnote #cii3 ,probably a similar extension of the superstition to animal life occurs also among savages1 though the authorities ,i have consulted do not mention it4 ,a trace1 however1 of such an extension appears in a belief entertained by the ,khasis of ,assam1 that if a man defies tribal custom by marrying a woman of his own clan1 the women of the tribe will die in childbed and the people will suffer from other calamities4 ,see ,colonel ,p4 ,r4 ,t4 ,gurdon1 ,the ,khasis 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #id1 #abc4 ,footnote #djj3 ,job xxxi4 #aa sq4 7,revised ,version74 ,footnote #dja3 4 ,see ,hebrew and ,english ,lexicon1 by ,f4 ,brown1 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 and ,ch4 ,a4 ,briggs 7,oxford1 #aijf71 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #djb3 ,genesis xii4 #aj-bj1 xx4 #a-ah4 ,footnote #djc3 ,leviticus xviii4 #bd sq4 ,footnote #djd3 ,sophocles1 ,oedipus ,tyrannus1 #bb sqq41 #ie sqq4 ,footnote #dje3 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 xii4 #d and #h4 ,footnote #djf3 ,columella1 ,de re rustica1 xii4 #b sq41 appealing to the authority of ,m4 ,ambivius1 ,maenas ,licinius1 and ,c4 ,matius4 ,see on this subject below1 p4 #bje4 ,footnote #djg3 ,g4 ,keating1 ,history of ,ireland1 translated by ,j4 ,o',mahony 7,new ,york1 #aheg71 pp4 #ccg sq42 ,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 ,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland 7,london1 #aijc71 ii4 #eab sq42 ,j4 ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom 7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahhh71 pp4 #cjh sq4 ,footnote #djh3 ,compare ,totemism and ,exogamy1 iv4 #aec sqq4 ,footnote #dji3 8,next 7for hear me out now1 readers7 that ,i may tell ye whither my younger feet wandered2 ,i betook me among those lofty fables and romances which recount in solemn cantos the deeds of knighthood founded by our victorious kings1 and from hence had in renown over all ,christendom4 ,there ,i read it in the oath of every knight that he should defend to the utmost expense of his best blood1 or of his life1 if it so befell him1 the honour and chastity of virgin or matron2 from whence even then ,i learned what a noble virtue chastity sure must be1 to the defence of which so many worthies1 by such a dear adventure of themselves1 had sworn2 and if ,i found in the story afterward any of them by word or deed breaking that oath1 ,i judged it the same fault of the poet as that which is attributed to ,homer1 to have written indecent things of the gods4 ,only this my mind gave me1 that every free and gentle spirit1 without that oath1 ought to be born a knight1 nor needed to expect the gilt spur or the laying of a sword upon his shoulder to stir him up both by his counsel and his arm1 to secure and protect the weakness of any attempted chastity0 7,milton1 8,apology for ,smectymnuus10 ,complete ,collection of the ,historical1 ,political1 and ,miscellaneous ,works of ,john ,milton 7,london1 #agch71 vol4 i4 p4 #aaa74 ,footnote #daj3 ,for examples of chastity observed at home by the friends of the absent warriors1 see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #abh1 #aca1 #acc4 ,examples of chastity observed by the warriors themselves in the field will be given in the second part of this work4 ,meanwhile see ,the ,golden ,bough1 #bnd ,ed41 i4 #cbh1 note #b4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,sacred ,,marriage #a4 ,diana as a ,goddess of ,fertility ,sidenote3 ,dramatic marriages of gods and goddesses as a charm to promote vegetation4 ,in the last chapter we saw that according to a widespread belief1 which is not without a foundation in fact1 plants reproduce their kinds through the sexual union of male and female elements1 and that on the principle of homoeopathic or imitative magic this reproduction can be stimulated by the real or mock marriage of men and women1 who masquerade for the time being as spirits of vegetation4 ,such magical dramas have played a great part in the popular festivals of ,europe1 and based as they are on a very crude conception of natural law1 it is clear that they must have been handed down from a remote antiquity4 ,we shall hardly1 therefore1 err in assuming that they date from a time when the forefathers of the civilised nations of ,europe were still barbarians1 herding their cattle and cultivating patches of corn in the clearings of the vast forests1 which then covered the greater part of the continent1 from the ,mediterranean to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,but if these old spells and enchantments for the growth of leaves and blossoms1 of grass and flowers and fruit1 have lingered down to our own time in the shape of pastoral plays and popular merry-makings1 is it not reasonable to suppose that they survived in less attenuated forms some two thousand years ago among the civilised peoples of antiquity8 ,or1 to put it otherwise1 is it not likely that in certain festivals of the ancients we may be able to detect the equivalents of our ,may ,day1 ,whitsuntide1 and ,midsummer celebrations1 with this difference1 that in those days the ceremonies had not yet dwindled into mere shows and pageants1 but were still religious or magical rites1 in which the actors consciously supported the high parts of gods and goddesses8 ,now in the first chapter of this book we found reason to believe that the priest who bore the title of ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi had for his mate the goddess of the grove1 ,diana herself4 ,may not he and she1 as ,king and ,queen of the ,wood1 have been serious counterparts of the merry mummers who play the ,king and ,queen of ,may1 the ,whitsuntide ,bridegroom and ,bride in modern ,europe8 and may not their union have been yearly celebrated in a theogamy or divine marriage8 ,such dramatic weddings of gods and goddesses1 as we shall see presently1 were carried out as solemn religious rites in many parts of the ancient world2 hence there is no intrinsic improbability in the supposition that the sacred grove at ,nemi may have been the scene of an annual ceremony of this sort4 ,direct evidence that it was so there is none1 but analogy pleads in favour of the view1 as ,i shall now endeavour to shew4 ,sidenote3 ,diana a goddess of the woodlands4 ,diana was essentially a goddess of the woodlands1 as ,ceres was a goddess of the corn and ,bacchus a god of the vine4#daa ,her sanctuaries were commonly in groves1 indeed every grove was sacred to her1#dab and she is often associated with the forest god ,silvanus in dedications4#dac ,we must not ,sidenote3 ,sanctity of holy groves in antiquity4 forget that to the ancients the sanctity of a holy grove was very real and might not be violated with impunity4 ,for example1 in ,attica there was a sanctuary of ,erithasean ,apollo1 and it was enacted by law that any person caught in the act of cutting trees in it1 or carrying away timber1 firewood1 or fallen leaves1 should be punished with fifty stripes1 if he was a slave1 or with a fine of fifty drachms1 if he was a freeman4 ,the culprit was denounced by the priest to the king1 that is1 to the sacred official or minister of state who bore the royal title4#dad ,similarly it was the duty of the sacred men at ,andania1 in ,messenia1 to scourge slaves and fine freemen who cut wood in the grove of the ,great ,goddesses4#dae ,in ,crete it was forbidden1 under pain of curses and fines1 to fell timber1 sow corn1 and herd or fold flocks within the precinct of ,dictaean ,zeus4#daf ,in ,italy like customs prevailed4 ,near ,spoletium there was a sacred grove from which nothing might be taken1 and in which no wood might be cut except just so much as was needed for the annual sacrifice4 ,any person who knowingly violated the sanctity of the grove had to expiate his offence by sacrificing an ox to ,jupiter1 and to pay besides a fine of three hundred pence4#dag ,in his treatise on farming ,cato directs that before thinning a grove the ,roman husbandman should offer a pig as an expiatory sacrifice to the god or goddess of the place1 and should entreat his or her favour for himself1 his children1 and his household4#dah ,the ,fratres ,arvales or ,brethren of the ,tilled ,fields were a ,roman college of twelve priests1 who performed public religious rites for the purpose of making the crops to grow1 and they wore wreaths of ears of corn as a badge of their office4#dai ,their sacrifices were offered in the grove of the goddess ,dia1 situated five miles down the ,tiber from ,rome4 ,so hallowed was this grove1 which is known to have included laurels and holly-oaks1 that expiatory sacrifices of sows and lambs had to be offered when a rotten bough fell to the ground1 or when an old tree was laid low by a storm or dragged down by a load of snow on its branches4 ,and still more elaborate expiation had to be made with the slaughter of sows1 sheep1 and bulls when any of the sacred trees were struck by lightning and it was necessary to dig them up by the roots1 split them1 burn them1 and plant others in their room4#dbj ,at the annual festival of the ,parilia1 which was intended to ensure the welfare of the flocks and herds1 ,roman shepherds prayed to be forgiven if they had entered a hallowed grove1 or sat down under a sacred tree1 or lopped a holy bough in order to feed a sick sheep on the leaves4#dba ,sidenote3 ,sense of the divinity of woods shared by polite ,roman writers4 ,nor was this sense of the indwelling divinity of the woods confined to the simple rustics who1 tending their flocks in the chequered shade1 felt the presence of spirits in the solemn stillness of the forest1 heard their voices in the sough of the wind among the branches1 and saw their handiwork in the fresh green of spring and the fading gold of autumn4 ,the feeling was shared by the most cultivated minds in the greatest age of ,roman civilisation4 ,pliny says that 8the woods were formerly the temples of the deities1 and even now simple country folk dedicate a tall tree to a god with the ritual of the olden time2 and we adore sacred groves and the very silence that reigns in them not less devoutly than images that gleam with gold and ivory40#dbb ,similarly ,seneca writes3 8,if you come upon a grove of old trees that have shot up above the common height and shut out the sight of the sky by the gloom of their matted boughs1 you feel there is a spirit in the place1 so lofty is the wood1 so lone the spot1 so wondrous the thick unbroken shade40#dbc ,sidenote3 ,the breaking of the ,golden ,bough a rite of solemn significance1 not a mere piece of bravado4 ,thus the ancients1 like many other people in various parts of the world1 were deeply impressed with the sanctity of holy groves1 and regarded even the cutting of a bough in them as a sacrilege which called for expiation4 ,if therefore a candidate for the priesthood of ,diana at ,nemi had to break a branch of a certain tree in the sacred grove before he could fight the ,king of the ,wood1 we may be sure that the act was a rite of solemn significance1 and that to treat it as a mere piece of bravado1 a challenge to the priest to come on and defend his domain1 would be to commit the commonest of all errors in dealing with the past1 that1 namely1 of interpreting the customs of other races and other generations by reference to modern ,european standards4 ,in order to understand an alien religion the first essential is to divest ourselves1 as well as we can1 of our own familiar prepossessions1 and to place ourselves at the point of view of those whose faith and practice we are studying4 ,to do this at all is difficult2 to do it completely is perhaps impossible2 yet the attempt must be made if the enquiry is to progress instead of returning on itself in a vicious circle4 ,sidenote3 ,diana not a mere goddess of trees1 but1 like ,artemis1 a personification of the teeming life of nature1 both animal and vegetable4 ,but whatever her origin may have been1 ,diana was not always a mere goddess of trees4 ,like her ,greek sister ,artemis1 she appears to have developed into a personification of the teeming life of nature1 both animal and vegetable4 ,as mistress of the greenwood she would naturally be thought to own the beasts1 whether wild or tame1 that ranged through it1 lurking for their prey in its gloomy depths1 munching the fresh leaves and shoots among the boughs1 or cropping the herbage in the open glades and dells4 ,thus she might come ,sidenote3 ,a deity of the woods is naturally the patron of the beasts in the woods1 both game and cattle4 to be the patron goddess both of hunters and herdsmen1#dbd just as ,silvanus was the god not only of woods1 but of cattle4#dbe ,similarly in ,finland the wild beasts of the forest were regarded as the herds of the woodland ,god ,tapio and of his stately and beautiful wife4 ,no man might slay one of these animals without the gracious permission of their divine owners4 ,hence the hunter prayed to the sylvan deities1 and vowed rich offerings to them if they would drive the game across his path4 ,and cattle also seem to have enjoyed the protection of those spirits of the woods1 both when they were in their stalls and while they strayed in the forest4#dbf ,so in the belief of ,russian peasants the spirit ,leschiy rules both the wood and all the creatures in it4 ,the bear is to him what the dog is to man2 and the migrations of the squirrels1 the field-mice1 and other denizens of the woods are carried out in obedience to his behests4 ,success in the chase depends on his favour1 and to assure himself of the spirit's help the huntsman lays an offering1 generally of bread and salt1 on the trunk of a tree in the forest4 ,in ,white ,russia every herdsman must present a cow to ,leschiy in summer1 and in the ,government of ,archangel some herdsmen have won his favour so far that he even feeds and tends their herds for them4#dbg ,similarly the forest-god of the ,lapps ruled over all the beasts of the forest2 they were viewed as his herds1 and good or bad luck in hunting depended on his will4#dbh ,so1 too1 the ,samagitians deemed the birds and beasts of the woods sacred1 doubtless because they were under the protection of the sylvan god4#dbi ,before the ,gayos of ,sumatra hunt deer1 wild goats1 or wild pigs with hounds in the woods1 they deem it necessary to obtain the leave of the unseen ,lord of the forest4 ,this is done according to a prescribed form by a man who has special skill in woodcraft4 ,he lays down a quid of betel before a stake which is cut in a particular way to represent the ,lord of the ,wood1 and having done so he prays to the spirit to signify his consent or refusal4#dcj ,sidenote3 ,the crowning of hunting dogs on ,diana's day was probably a purificatory ceremony to cleanse them from the guilt of having killed game1 the creatures of the goddess4 ,we have seen that at ,diana's festival it was customary to crown hunting dogs1 to leave wild beasts in peace1 and to perform a purificatory ceremony for the benefit of young people4#dca ,some light is thrown on the meaning of these customs by a passage in ,arrian's treatise on hunting4 ,he tells us that a good hound is a boon conferred by one of the gods upon the huntsman1 who ought to testify his gratitude by sacrificing to the ,huntress ,artemis4 ,further1 ,arrian goes on to say3 8,it is right that after a successful chase a man should sacrifice and dedicate the first-fruits of his bag to the goddess1 in order to purify both the hounds and the hunters1 in accordance with old custom and usage40 ,he tells us that the ,celts were wont to form a treasury for the goddess ,artemis1 into which they paid a fine of two obols for every hare they killed1 a drachm for every fox1 and four drachms for every roe4 ,once a year1 on the birthday of ,artemis1 they opened the treasury1 and with the accumulated fines purchased a sacrificial victim1 it might be a sheep1 a goat1 or a calf4 ,having slain the animal and offered her share to the ,huntress ,artemis1 they feasted1 both men and dogs2 and they crowned the dogs on that day 8in order to signify10 says ,arrian1 8that the festival was for their benefit40#dcb ,the ,celts to whom ,arrian1 a native of ,bithynia1 here refers were probably the ,galatians of ,asia ,minor2 but doubtless the custom he describes was imported by these barbarians1 along with their native tongue#dcc and the worship of the oak1#dcd from their old home in ,central or ,northern ,europe4 ,the ,celtic divinity whom ,arrian identifies with ,artemis may well have been really akin both to her and to the ,italian ,diana4 ,we know from other sources that the ,celts revered a woodland goddess of this type2 thus ,arduinna1 goddess of the forest of the ,ardennes1 was represented1 like ,artemis and ,diana1 with a bow and quiver4#dce ,in any case the custom described by ,arrian is good evidence of a belief that the wild beasts belong to the goddess of the wilds1 who must be compensated for their destruction2 and1 taken with what he says of the need of purifying the hounds after a successful chase1 the ,celtic practice of crowning them at the annual festival of ,artemis may have been meant to purge them of the stain they had contracted by killing the creatures of the goddess4 ,the same explanation would naturally apply to the same custom observed by the ,italians at the festival of ,diana4 ,sidenote3 ,cattle crowned to protect them from witchcraft4 ,but why1 it may be asked1 should crowns or garlands cleanse dogs from the taint of bloodshed8 ,an answer to this question is indicated by the reason which the ,south ,slavonian peasant assigns for crowning the horns of his cows with wreaths of flowers on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 the twenty-third of ,april4 ,he does it in order to guard the cattle against witchcraft2 cows that have no crowns are regarded as given over to the witches4 ,in the evening the chaplets are fastened to the door of the cattle-stall1 and remain there throughout the year4 ,a herdsman who fails to crown his beasts is scolded and sometimes beaten by his master4#dcf ,the ,german and ,french custom of crowning cattle on ,midsummer ,day#dcg probably springs from the same motive4 ,for on ,midsummer ,eve1 just as on ,walpurgis ,night1 witches are very busy holding their nocturnal assemblies and trying to steal the milk and butter from the cows4 ,to guard against them some people at this season lay besoms crosswise before the doors of the stalls4 ,others make fast the doors and stop up the chinks1 lest the witches should creep through them on their return from the revels4 ,in ,swabia all the church bells used to be kept ringing from nine at night till break of day on ,midsummer morning to drive away the infernal rout from honest folk's houses4 ,south ,slavonian peasants are up betimes that morning1 gather the dew from the grass1 and wash the cows with it2 that saves their milk from the hellish charms of the witches4#dch ,sidenote3 ,similarly the crowning of hunting dogs may have been meant to protect them against the angry spirits of the beasts they had killed4 ,now when we observe that garlands of flowers1 like hawthorn and other green boughs1#dci avail to ward off the unseen powers of mischief1 we may conjecture that the practice of crowning dogs at the festival of a huntress goddess was intended to preserve the hounds from the angry and dangerous spirits of the wild beasts which they had killed in the course of the year4 ,fantastical as this explanation may sound to us1 it is perfectly in accordance with the ideas of the savage1 who1 as we shall see later on1 resorts to a multitude of curious expedients for disarming the wrath of the animals whose life he has been obliged to take4 ,thus conceived1 the custom in question might still be termed a purification2 but its original purpose1 like that of many other purificatory rites1 would be not so much to cleanse moral guilt1 as to raise a physical barrier against the assaults of malignant and mischievous spirits4#ddj ,sidenote3 ,conceived as the moon1 ,diana was also a goddess of crops and of childbirth4 ,but ,diana was not merely a patroness of wild beasts1 a mistress of woods and hills1 of lonely glades and sounding rivers2 conceived as the moon1 and especially1 it would seem1 as the yellow harvest moon1 she filled the farmer's grange with goodly fruits1 and heard the prayers of women in travail4#dda ,in her sacred grove at ,nemi1 as we have seen1 she was especially worshipped as a goddess of childbirth1 who bestowed offspring on men and women4#ddb ,thus ,diana1 like the ,greek ,artemis1 with whom she was constantly identified1 may be described as a goddess of nature in general and of fertility in particular4#ddc ,we need not wonder1 therefore1 that in her sanctuary on the ,aventine she was represented by an image copied from the many-breasted idol of the ,ephesian ,artemis1 with all its crowded emblems of exuberant fecundity4#ddd ,hence too we can understand why an ancient ,roman law1 attributed to ,king ,tullius ,hostilius1 prescribed that1 when incest had been committed1 an expiatory sacrifice should be offered by the pontiffs in the grove of ,diana4#dde ,for we know that the crime of incest is commonly supposed to cause a dearth2#ddf hence it would be meet that atonement for the offence should be made to the goddess of fertility4 ,sidenote3 ,as a goddess of fertility ,diana had herself to be fertile1 and for that purpose needed a male partner4 ,now on the principle that the goddess of fertility must herself be fertile1 it behoved ,diana to have a male partner4 ,her mate1 if the testimony of ,servius may be trusted1 was that ,virbius who had his representative1 or perhaps rather his embodiment1 in the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi4#ddg ,the aim of their union would be to promote the fruitfulness of the earth1 of animals1 and of mankind2 and it might naturally be thought that this object would be more surely attained if the sacred nuptials were celebrated every year1 the parts of the divine bride and bridegroom being played either by their images or by living persons4 ,no ancient writer mentions that this was done in the grove at ,nemi2 but our knowledge of the ,arician ritual is so scanty that the want of information on this head can hardly count as a fatal objection to the theory4 ,that theory1 in the absence of direct evidence1 must necessarily be based on the analogy of similar customs practised elsewhere4 ,some modern examples of such customs1 more or less degenerate1 were described in the last chapter4 ,here we shall consider their ancient counterparts4 #b4 ,the ,marriage of the ,gods ,sidenote3 ,marriages of the gods in ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,at ,babylon the imposing sanctuary of ,bel rose like a pyramid above the city in a series of eight towers or stories1 planted one on the top of the other4 ,on the highest tower1 reached by an ascent which wound about all the rest1 there stood a spacious temple1 and in the temple a great bed1 magnificently draped and cushioned1 with a golden table beside it4 ,in the temple no image was to be seen1 and no human being passed the night there1 save a single woman1 whom1 according to the ,chaldean priests1 the god chose from among all the women of ,babylon4 ,they said that the deity himself came into the temple at night and slept in the great bed2 and the woman1 as a consort of the god1 might have no intercourse with mortal man4#ddh ,as ,bel at ,babylon was identified with ,marduk1 the chief god of the city1#ddi the woman who thus shared his bed was doubtless one of the 8wives of ,marduk0 mentioned in the code of ,hammurabi4#dej ,at ,calah1 which was for some time the capital of ,assyria before it was displaced by ,nineveh1#dea the marriage of the god ,nabu appears to have been annually celebrated on the third of the month ,iyyar or ,airu1 which corresponded to ,may4 ,for on that day his bed was consecrated in the city1 and the god entered his bedchamber1 to return to his place on the following day4 ,the ceremonies attending the consecration of the couch are minutely described in a liturgical text4 ,after the appropriate offerings had been presented1 the officiating priestess purified the feet of the divine image with a sprig of reed and a vessel of oil1 approached the bed thrice1 kissed the feet of the image1 then retired and sat down4 ,after that she burned cedar wood dipped in wine1 set before the image the heart of a sheep wrapped in a cloth1 and offered libations4 ,aromatic woods were consecrated and burnt1 more libations and offerings were made1 tables were spread for various divinities1 and the ceremony ended with a prayer for the ,king4 ,the god also went in procession to a grove1 riding in a chariot beside his charioteer4#deb ,sidenote3 ,marriage of the god ,ammon to the ,queen of ,egypt4 ,at ,thebes in ,egypt a woman slept in the temple of ,ammon as the consort of the god1 and1 like the human wife of ,bel at ,babylon1 she was said to have no commerce with a man4#dec ,in ,egyptian texts she is often mentioned as 8the divine consort10 and usually she was no less a personage than the ,queen of ,egypt herself4 ,for1 according to the ,egyptians1 their monarchs were actually begotten by the god ,ammon1 who assumed for the time being the form of the reigning king1 and in that disguise had intercourse with the queen4 ,the divine procreation is carved and painted in great detail on the walls of two of the oldest temples in ,egypt1 those of ,deir el ,bahari and ,luxor2 and the inscriptions attached to the paintings leave no doubt as to the meaning of the scenes4 ,the pictures at ,deir el ,bahari1 which represent the begetting and birth of ,queen ,hatshopsitou1 are the more ancient1 and have been reproduced with but little change at ,luxor1 where they represent the begetting and birth of ,king ,amenophis ,,iii4 ,the nativity is depicted in about fifteen scenes1 which may be grouped in three acts3 first1 the carnal union of the god with the queen2 second1 the birth2 and third1 the recognition of the infant by the gods4 ,the marriage of ,ammon with the queen is announced by a prologue in heaven2 ,ammon summons his assessors1 the gods of ,heliopolis1 reveals to them the future birth of a new ,pharaoh1 a royal princess1 and requests them to make ready the fluid of life and of strength1 of which they are masters4 ,then the god is seen approaching the queen's bedchamber2 in front of him marches ,thoth1 with a roll of papyrus in his hand1 who1 to prevent mistakes1 recites the official names of the queen1 the spouse of the reigning king 7,thothmes ,i4 at ,deir el ,bahari1 ,thothmes ,,iv4 at ,luxor71 the fairest of women4 ,then ,thoth withdraws behind ,ammon1 lifting his arm behind the god in order to renew his vital fluid at this critical moment4 ,next1 according to the inscription1 the mystery of incarnation takes place4 ,ammon lays aside his godhead and becomes flesh in the likeness of the king1 the human spouse of the queen4 ,the consummation of the divine union follows immediately4 ,on a bed of state the god and the queen appear seated opposite each other1 with their legs crossed4 ,the queen receives from her husband the symbols of life and strength1 while two goddesses1 ,neit and ,selkit1 the patronesses of matrimony1 support the feet of the couple and guard them from harm4 ,the text which encloses the scene sets forth clearly the reality of this mystic union of the human with the divine4 8,thus saith ,ammon-,ra1 king of the gods1 lord of ,karnak1 he who rules over ,thebes1 when he took the form of this male1 the ,king of ,upper and ,nether ,egypt1 ,thothmes ,i4 7or ,thothmes ,,iv471 giver of life4 ,he found the queen then when she lay in the glory of her palace4 ,she awoke at the fragrance of the god1 and marvelled at it4 ,straightway his ,majesty went towards her1 took possession of her1 placed his heart in her1 and shewed himself to her in his divine form4 ,and upon his coming she was uplifted at the sight of his beauty1 the love of the god ran through all her limbs1 and the smell of the god and his breath were full of the perfumes of ,pounit4 ,and thus saith the royal spouse1 the royal mother ,ahmasi 7or ,moutemouaa71 in presence of the majesty of this glorious god1 ,ammon1 lord of ,karnak1 lord of ,thebes1 #8,twice great are thy souls6 ,it is noble to behold thy countenance when thou joinest thyself to my majesty in all grace6 ,thy dew impregnates all my limbs4' ,then1 when the majesty of the god had accomplished all his desire with her1 ,ammon1 the lord of the two lands1 said to her3 #8,she who is joined to ,ammon1 the first of the nobles1 verily1 such shall be the name of the daughter who shall open thy womb1 since such is the course of the words that came forth from thy mouth4 ,she shall reign in righteousness in all the earth1 for my soul is hers1 my heart is hers1 my will is hers1 my crown is hers1 truly1 that she may rule over the two lands1 that she may guide the souls of all living4'0 ,sidenote3 ,nativity of the divine ,egyptian kings represented on the monuments4 ,after the begetting of the divine child--for we must remember that the kings and queens of ,egypt were regarded as divinities in their lifetime--another series of scenes represents the fashioning of its body and its birth4 ,the god ,khnoumou1 who in the beginning of time moulded gods and men on his potter's wheel1 is seen seated at his wheel modelling the future king or queen and their doubles--those spiritual duplicates or external souls which were believed to hover invisible about both men and gods all through life4 ,in front of ,khnoumou kneels ,hiqit1 the frog-headed goddess1 8the great magician02 she is holding out to the newly-created figures the symbol of life1 the crux ansata 1 in order that they may breathe and live4 ,another scene represents the birth4 ,at ,deir el ,bahari the queen has already been delivered1 and is presenting her daughter to several goddesses1 who have acted the part of midwives4 ,at ,luxor the double of the royal infant is born first2 the goddesses who serve as nurses have him in their arms1 and the midwives are preparing to receive the real child4 ,behind the queen are the goddesses who watch over childbirth1 led by ,isis and ,nephthys2 and all around the spirits of the ,east1 the ,west1 the ,north1 and the ,south are presenting the symbol of life or uttering acclamations4 ,in a corner the grotesque god ,bes and the female hippopotamus ,api keep off all evil influence and every malignant spirit4 ,sidenote3 ,these representations probably copied from the life4 ,we shall probably not err in assuming1 with some eminent authorities1 that the ceremonies of the nativity of the ,pharaohs1 thus emblazoned on the walls of ,egyptian temples1 were copied from the life2 in other words1 that the carved and painted scenes represent a real drama1 which was acted by masked men and women whenever a queen of ,egypt was brought to bed4 8,here1 as everywhere else in ,egypt10 says ,professor ,maspero1 8sculptor and painter did nothing but faithfully imitate reality4 ,theory required that the assimilation of the kings to the gods should be complete1 so that every act of the royal life was1 as it were1 a tracing of the corresponding act of the divine life4 ,from the moment that the king was ,ammon1 he wore the costume and badges of ,ammon--the tall hat with the long plumes1 the cross of life1 the greyhound-headed sceptre--and thus arrayed he presented himself in the queen's bedchamber to consummate the marriage4 ,the assistants also assumed the costume and appearance of the divinities whom they incarnated2 the men put on masks of jackals1 hawks1 and crocodiles1 while the women donned masks of cows or frogs1 according as they played the parts of ,anubis1 ,khnoumou1 ,sovkou1 ,hathor1 or ,hiqit2 and ,i am disposed to believe that the doubles of the new-born child were represented by as many puppets as were required by the ceremonies4 ,some of the rites were complicated1 and must have tired excessively the mother and child who underwent them2 but they are nothing to those that have been observed in similar circumstances in other lands4 ,in general1 we are bound to hold that all the pictures traced on the walls of the temples1 in which the person of the king is concerned1 correspond to a real action in which disguised personages played the part of gods40#ded ,sidenote3 ,human wives of ,ammon in the decline of ,egypt4 ,in the decline of ,egypt from the eleventh century onward1 the wives of ,ammon at ,thebes were called on to play a conspicuous part in the government of the country4 ,the strong grip of the ,pharaohs was relaxed and under their feeble successors the empire crumbled away into a number of petty independent states4 ,in this dissolution of the central authority the crafty high priests of ,ammon at ,thebes contrived to usurp regal powers and to reign far and wide in the name of the deity1 veiling their rescripts under the guise of oracles of the god1 who1 with the help of a little jugglery1 complacently signified his assent to their wishes by nodding his head or even by speech4 ,but curiously enough under this pretended theocracy the nominal ruler was not the priest himself1 but his wife1 the earthly consort of ,ammon4 ,thus ,thebes became for a time a ghostly principality governed ostensibly by a dynasty of female popes4 ,their office was hereditary1 passing by rights from mother to daughter4 ,but probably the entail was often broken by the policy or ambition of the men who stood behind the scenes and worked the religious puppet-show by hidden wires to the awe and astonishment of the gaping vulgar4 ,certainly we know that on one occasion ,king ,psammetichus ,first foisted his own daughter into the ,holy ,see by dedicating her to ,ammon under a hypocritical profession of gratitude for favours bestowed on him by the deity4 ,and the female pope had to submit to the dictation with the best grace she could assume1 protesting her affection for the adopted daughter who had ousted her own daughter from the throne4#dee ,sidenote3 ,human concubines of ,ammon in ,roman times4 ,at a later period1 when ,egypt lay under the heel of ,rome1 the character of 8the divine consort0 of ,ammon at ,thebes had greatly changed4 ,for at the beginning of our era the custom was to appoint a young and beautiful girl1 the scion of one of the noblest houses1 to serve ,ammon as his concubine4 ,the ,greeks called these maidens ,pallades1 apparently after their own virgin goddess ,pallas2 but the conduct of the girls was by no means maidenly1 for they led the loosest of lives till puberty4 ,then they were mourned over and given in marriage4#def ,their graves were shown near ,thebes4#deg ,the reason why their services ended at puberty may have been that as concubines of the god they might not bear children to mortal fathers2 hence it was deemed prudent to terminate their relations with the divinity before they were of an age to become mothers4 ,it was an ,egyptian doctrine that a mortal woman could conceive by a god1 but that a goddess could not conceive by a mortal man4#deh ,the certainty of maternity and the uncertainty of paternity suggest an obvious and probably sufficient ground for this theological distinction4 ,sidenote3 ,apollo and his prophetess at ,patara4 ,apollo was said to spend the winter months at ,patara in ,lycia and the summer months in the island of ,delos1 and accordingly he gave oracles for one half of the year in the one place1 and for the other half in the other4#dei ,so long as he tarried at ,patara1 his prophetess was shut up with him in the temple every night4#dfj ,at ,ephesus there was a college ,sidenote3 ,the ,essenes of ,artemis at ,ephesus4 of sacred men called ,essenes or ,king ,bees who held office for a year1 during which they had to observe strict chastity and other rules of ceremonial purity4#dfa ,how many of them there were at a time we do not know1 but there must have been several1 for in ,ephesian inscriptions they are regularly referred to in the plural4 ,they cannot have been bound to lifelong celibacy1 for in one of the inscriptions an ,essen mentions his wife4#dfb ,possibly they were deemed the annual husbands of ,artemis1 the great many-breasted goddess of fertility at ,ephesus1 whose association with the bee is vouched for by the figures of bees which appear commonly both on her statues and on the coins of ,ephesus4#dfc ,if this conjecture is right1 the ,king ,bees and their bee-goddess ,artemis at ,ephesus would be closely parallel to the ,king of the ,wood and his woodland-goddess ,diana at ,nemi1 as these latter are interpreted by me4 ,the rule of chastity imposed on the ,king ,bees during their year of office would be easily explicable on this hypothesis4 ,as the temporary husbands of the goddess they would be expected for the time being to have no intercourse with mortal women1 just as the human wives of ,bel and ,ammon were supposed to have no commerce with mortal men4 ,sidenote3 ,marriage of ,dionysus to the ,queen at ,athens4 ,at ,athens the god of the vine1 ,dionysus1 was annually married to the ,queen1 and it appears that the consummation of the divine union1 as well as the espousals1 was enacted at the ceremony2 but whether the part of the god was played by a man or an image we do not know4 ,attic law required that the ,queen should be a burgess and should never have known any man but her husband4 ,she had to offer certain secret sacrifices on behalf of the state1 and was permitted to see what no foreign woman might ever behold1 and to enter where no other ,athenian might set foot4 ,she was assisted in the discharge of her solemn functions by fourteen sacred women1 one for each of the altars of ,dionysus4 ,the old ,dionysiac festival was held on the twelfth day of the month ,anthesterion1 corresponding roughly to our ,february1 at the ancient sanctuary of ,dionysus in the ,marshes1 which was never opened throughout the year save on that one day4 ,at this festival the ,queen exacted an oath of purity and chastity from the fourteen sacred women at the altar4 ,possibly her marriage was celebrated on the same day1 though of that we have no positive evidence1 and we learn from ,aristotle that the ceremony took place1 not at the sanctuary in the marshes1 but in the old official residence of the ,king1 known as the ,cattle-stall1 which stood near the ,prytaneum or ,town-hall on the north-eastern slope of the ,acropolis4#dfd ,but whatever the date of the wedding1 its object can hardly have been any other than that of ensuring the fertility of the vines and other fruit-trees1 of which ,dionysus was the god4 ,thus both in form and in meaning the ceremony would answer to the nuptials of the ,king and ,queen of ,may4 ,again1 the story1 dear to poets and artists1 of the forsaken and sleeping ,ariadne1 waked and wedded by ,dionysus1 resembles so closely the little drama acted by ,french peasants of the ,alps on ,may ,day1#dfe that1 considering the character of ,dionysus as a god of vegetation1 we can hardly help regarding it as the reflection of a spring ceremony like the ,french one4 ,in point of fact the ,sidenote3 ,dionysus and ,ariadne4 marriage of ,dionysus and ,ariadne was believed by ,preller to have been acted every spring in ,crete4#dff ,his evidence1 indeed1 is inconclusive1 but the view itself is probable4 ,if ,i am right in comparing the two1 the chief difference between the ,french and the ,greek ceremonies appears to have been that in the former the sleeper was a forsaken bridegroom1 in the latter a forsaken bride2 and the group of stars in the sky1 in which fancy saw ,ariadne's wedding crown1#dfg may have been only a translation to heaven of the garland worn by the ,greek girl who played the ,queen of ,may4 ,sidenote3 ,marriage of ,zeus with ,demeter at ,eleusis4 ,if at ,athens1 and probably elsewhere1 the vine-god was married to a queen in order that the vines might be loaded with clusters of grapes1 there is reason to think that a marriage of a different kind1 intended to make the fields wave with yellow corn1 was annually celebrated not many miles off1 beyond the low hills that bound the plain of ,athens on the west4 ,in the great mysteries solemnised at ,eleusis in the month of ,september the union of the sky-god ,zeus with the corn-goddess ,demeter appears to have been represented by the union of the hierophant with the priestess of ,demeter1 who acted the parts of god and goddess4 ,but their intercourse was only dramatic or symbolical1 for the hierophant had temporarily deprived himself of his virility by an application of hemlock4 ,the torches having been extinguished1 the pair descended into a murky place1 while the throng of worshippers awaited in anxious suspense the result of the mystic congress1 on which they believed their own salvation to depend4 ,after a time the hierophant reappeared1 and in a blaze of light silently exhibited to the assembly a reaped ear of corn1 the fruit of the divine marriage4 ,then in a loud voice he proclaimed1 8,queen ,brimo has brought forth a sacred boy ,brimos10 by which he meant1 8,the ,mighty ,one has brought forth the ,mighty40 ,the corn-mother in fact had given birth to her child1 the corn1 and her travail-pangs were enacted in the sacred drama4#dfh ,this revelation of the reaped corn appears to have been the crowning act of the mysteries4 ,thus through the glamour shed round these rites by the poetry and philosophy of later ages there still looms1 like a distant landscape through a sunlit haze1 a simple rustic festival designed to cover the wide ,eleusinian plain with a plenteous harvest by wedding the goddess of the corn to the sky-god1 who fertilised the bare earth with genial showers4 ,sidenote3 ,marriage of ,zeus and ,hera at ,plataea4 ,but ,zeus was not always the sky-god1 nor did he always marry the corn-goddess4 ,if in antiquity a traveller1 quitting ,eleusis and passing through miles of olive-groves and corn-fields1 had climbed the pine-clad mountains of ,cithaeron and descended through the forest on their northern slope to ,plataea1 he might have chanced to find the people of that little ,boeotian town celebrating a different marriage of the great god to a different goddess4 ,the ceremony is described by a ,greek antiquary whose note-book has fortunately preserved for us not a few rural customs of ancient ,greece1 of which the knowledge would otherwise have perished4 ,every few years the people of ,plataea held a festival which they called the ,little ,daedala4 ,on the day of the festival they went out into an ancient oak forest1 the trees of which were of gigantic girth4 ,there they set some boiled meat on the ground1 and watched the birds that gathered round it4 ,when a raven was observed to carry off a piece of the meat and perch on an oak1 the people followed it and cut down the tree4 ,with the wood of the tree they made an image1 dressed it as a bride1 and placed it on a bullock-cart with a bridesmaid beside it4 ,it seems then to have been drawn to the banks of the river ,asopus and back to the town1 attended by a piping and dancing crowd4 ,after the festival the image was put away and kept till the celebration of the ,great ,daedala1 which fell only once in sixty years1 and was held by all the people of ,boeotia4 ,on this occasion all the images1 fourteen in number1 that had accumulated from the celebrations of the ,little ,daedala were dragged on wains in procession to the river ,asopus1 and then to the top of ,mount ,cithaeron4 ,there an altar had been constructed of square blocks of wood fitted together1 with brushwood heaped over it4 ,animals were sacrificed by being burned on the altar1 and the altar itself1 together with the images1 was consumed by the flames4 ,the blaze1 we are told1 rose to a prodigious height and was seen for many miles4 ,to explain the origin of the festival a story ran that once upon a time ,hera had quarrelled with ,zeus and left him in high dudgeon4 ,to lure her back ,zeus gave out that he was about to marry the nymph ,plataea1 daughter of the river ,asopus4 ,he had a fine oak cut down1 shaped and dressed as a bride1 and conveyed on a bullock-cart4 ,transported with rage and jealousy1 ,hera flew to the cart1 and tearing off the veil of the pretended bride1 discovered the deceit that had been practised on her4 ,her rage now turned to laughter1 and she became reconciled to her husband ,zeus4#dfi ,sidenote3 ,resemblance of the ,plataean ceremony to the spring and midsummer festivals of modern ,europe4 ,the resemblance of this festival to some of the ,european spring and midsummer festivals is tolerably close4 ,we have seen that in ,russia at ,whitsuntide the villagers go out into the wood1 fell a birch-tree1 dress it in woman's clothes1 and bring it back to the village with dance and song4 ,on the third day it is thrown into the water4#dgj ,again1 we have seen that in ,bohemia on ,midsummer ,eve the village lads fell a tall fir or pine-tree in the wood and set it up on a height1 where it is adorned with garlands1 nosegays1 and ribbons1 and afterwards burnt4#dga ,the reason for burning the tree will appear afterwards2 the custom itself is not uncommon in modern ,europe4 ,in some parts of the ,pyrenees a tall and slender tree is cut down on ,may ,day and kept till ,midsummer ,eve4 ,it is then rolled to the top of a hill1 set up1 and burned4#dgb ,in ,angoulme on ,st4 ,peter's ,day1 the twenty-ninth of ,june1 a tall leafy poplar is set up in the market-place and burned4#dgc ,near ,launceston in ,cornwall there is a large tumulus known as ,whiteborough1 with a fosse round it4 ,on this tumulus 8there was formerly a great bonfire on ,midsummer ,eve2 a large summer pole was fixed in the centre1 round which the fuel was heaped up4 ,it had a large bush on the top of it4 ,round this were parties of wrestlers contending for small prizes40 ,the rustics believed that giants were buried in such mounds1 and nothing would tempt them to disturb their bones4#dgd ,in ,dublin on ,may-morning boys used to go out and cut a ,may-bush1 bring it back to town1 and then burn it4#dge ,sidenote3 ,all such ceremonies were originally magical rites intended to bring about the effects which they dramatically represented4 ,probably the ,boeotian festival belonged to the same class of rites4 ,it represented the marriage of the powers of vegetation--the union of the oak-god with the oak-goddess#dgf--;in spring or midsummer1 just as the same event is represented in modern ,europe by a ,king and ,queen or a ,lord and ,lady of the ,may4 ,in the ,boeotian1 as in the ,russian1 ceremony the tree dressed as a woman stands for the ,english ,may-pole and ,may-queen in one4 ,all such ceremonies1 it must be remembered1 are not1 or at least were not originally1 mere spectacular or dramatic exhibitions4 ,they are magical rites designed to produce the effect which they dramatically set forth4 ,if the revival of vegetation in spring is mimicked by the awakening of a sleeper1 the mimicry is intended actually to quicken the growth of leaves and blossoms2 if the marriage of the powers of vegetation is simulated by a ,king and ,queen of ,may1 the idea is that the powers thus personated will really be rendered more productive by the ceremony4 ,in short1 all these spring and midsummer festivals fall under the head of homoeopathic or imitative magic4 ,the thing which people wish to bring about they represent dramatically1 and the very representation is believed to effect1 or at least to contribute to1 the production of the desired result4 ,in the case of the ,daedala the story of ,hera's quarrel with ,zeus and her sullen retirement may perhaps without straining be interpreted as a mythical expression for a bad season and the failure of the crops4 ,the same disastrous effects were attributed to the anger and seclusion of ,demeter after the loss of her daughter ,proserpine4#dgg ,now the institution of a festival is often explained by a mythical story1 which relates how upon a particular occasion those very calamities occurred which it is the real object of the festival to avert2 so that if we know the myth told to account for the historical origin of the festival1 we can often infer from it the real intention with which the festival was celebrated4 ,if1 therefore1 the origin of the ,daedala was explained by a story of a failure of crops and consequent famine1 we may infer that the real object of the festival was to prevent the occurrence of such disasters2 and1 if ,i am right in my interpretation of the festival1 the object was supposed to be effected by dramatically representing the marriage of the divinities most concerned with the production of trees and plants4 ,the marriage of ,zeus and ,hera was acted at annual festivals in various parts of ,greece1#dgh and it is at least a fair conjecture that the nature and intention of these ceremonies were such as ,i have assigned to the ,plataean festival of the ,daedala2 in other words1 that ,zeus and ,hera at these festivals were the ,greek equivalents of the ,lord and ,lady of the ,may4 ,homer's glowing picture of ,zeus and ,hera couched on fresh hyacinths and crocuses1#dgi like ,milton's description of the dalliance of ,zephyr with ,aurora1 8as he met her once a-,maying10 was perhaps painted from the life4 ,sidenote3 ,the god ,frey and his human wife in ,sweden4 ,the sacred marriage of ,zeus and ,hera had1 as was natural1 its counterpart among the northern kinsfolk of the ,greeks4 ,in ,sweden every year a life-size image of ,frey1 the god of fertility1 both animal and vegetable1 was drawn about the country in a waggon attended by a beautiful girl who was called the god's wife4 ,she acted also as his priestess in his great temple at ,upsala4 ,wherever the waggon came with the image of the god and his blooming young bride1 the people crowded to meet them and offered sacrifices for a fruitful year4 ,once on a time a ,norwegian exile named ,gunnar ,helming gave himself out to be ,frey in person1 and rode about on the sacred waggon dressed up in the god's clothes4 ,everywhere the simple folk welcomed him as the deity1 and observed with wonder and delight that a god walked about among men and ate and drank just like other people4 ,and when the months went by1 and the god's fair young wife was seen to be with child1 their joy waxed greatly1 for they thought1 8,surely this is an omen of a fruitful season40 ,it happened that the weather was then so mild1 and the promise of a plenteous harvest so fair1 that no man ever remembered such a year before4 ,but one night the god departed in haste1 with his wife and all the gold and silver and fine raiment which he had got together2 and though the ,swedes made after him1 they could not catch him4 ,he was over the hills and far away in ,norway4#dhj ,similar ceremonies appear to have been observed by the ,sidenote3 ,similar customs in ,gaul4 peasantry of ,gaul in antiquity2 for ,gregory of ,tours1 writing in the sixth century of our era1 says that at ,autun the people used to carry about an image of a goddess in a waggon drawn by oxen4 ,the intention of the ceremony was to ensure the safety of the crops and vines1 and the rustics danced and sang in front of the image4#dha ,the old historian identifies the goddess with ,cybele1 the ,great ,mother goddess of ,phrygia1 and the identification would seem to be correct4 ,for we learn from another source that men wrought up to a pitch of frenzy by the shrill music of flutes and the clash of cymbals1 sacrificed their virility to the goddess1 dashing the severed portions of themselves against her image4#dhb ,now this religious castration was a marked feature of the ,phrygian worship of ,cybele1 but it is alien to ,western modes of thought1 although it still finds favour with a section of the barbarous1 fanatical1 semi-,oriental peasantry of ,russia4#dhc ,but whether of native or of ,eastern origin the rites of the goddess of ,autun closely conformed to those of the great ,phrygian goddess and appear to have been1 like them1 a perverted form of the ,sacred ,marriage1 which was designed to fertilise the earth1 and in which eunuchs1 strange as it may seem1 personated the lovers of the goddess4#dhd ,sidenote3 ,the custom of marrying gods to images or to living persons is found also among uncivilised peoples4 ,thus the custom of marrying gods either to images or to human beings was widespread among the nations of antiquity4 ,the ideas on which such a custom is based are too crude to allow us to doubt that the civilised ,babylonians1 ,egyptians1 and ,greeks inherited it from their barbarous or savage forefathers4 ,this presumption is strengthened when we find rites of a similar kind in vogue among the lower races4 ,thus1 for example1 we are told that once upon a ,sidenote3 ,custom of the ,wotyaks4 time the ,wotyaks of the ,malmyz district in ,russia were distressed by a series of bad harvests4 ,they did not know what to do1 but at last concluded that their powerful but mischievous god ,keremet must be angry at being unmarried4 ,so a deputation of elders visited the ,wotyaks of ,cura and came to an understanding with them on the subject4 ,then they returned home1 laid in a large stock of brandy1 and having made ready a gaily decked waggon and horses1 they drove in procession with bells ringing1 as they do when they are fetching home a bride1 to the sacred grove at ,cura4 ,there they ate and drank merrily all night1 and next morning they cut a square piece of turf in the grove and took it home with them4 ,after this1 though it fared well with the people of ,malmyz1 it fared ill with the people of ,cura2 for in ,malmyz the bread was good1 but in ,cura it was bad4 ,hence the men of ,cura who had consented to the marriage were blamed and roughly handled by their indignant fellow-villagers4 8,what they meant by this marriage ceremony10 says the writer who reports it1 8it is not easy to imagine4 ,perhaps1 as ,bechterew thinks1 they meant to marry ,keremet to the kindly and fruitful ,mukylin1 the ,earth-wife1 in order that she might influence him for good40#dhe ,this carrying of turf1 like a bride1 in a waggon from a sacred grove resembles the ,plataean custom of carting an oak log as a bride from an ancient oak forest2 and we have seen ground for thinking that the ,plataean ceremony1 like its ,wotyak counterpart1 was intended as a charm to secure fertility4 ,when wells are dug in ,bengal1 a wooden image of a god is made and married to the goddess of water4#dhf ,sidenote3 ,custom of the ,peruvian ,indians4 ,often the bride destined for the god is not a log or a clod1 but a living woman of flesh and blood4 ,the ,indians of a village in ,peru have been known to marry a beautiful girl1 about fourteen years of age1 to a stone shaped like a human being1 which they regarded as a god 7huaca74 ,all the villagers took part in the marriage ceremony1 which lasted three days1 and was attended with much revelry4 ,the girl thereafter remained a virgin and sacrificed to the idol for the people4 ,they shewed her the utmost reverence and deemed her divine4#dhg ,the ,blackfoot ,indians of ,north ,sidenote3 ,marriage of a woman to the ,sun among the ,blackfoot ,indians4 ,america used to worship the ,sun as their chief god1 and they held a festival every year in his honour4 ,four days before the new moon of ,august the tribe halted on its march1 and all hunting was suspended4 ,bodies of mounted men were on duty day and night to carry out the orders of the high priest of the ,sun4 ,he enjoined the people to fast and to take vapour baths during the four days before the new moon4 ,moreover1 with the help of his council1 he chose the ,vestal who was to represent the ,moon and to be married to the ,sun at the festival4 ,she might be either a virgin or a woman who had had but one husband4 ,any girl or woman found to have discharged the sacred duties without fulfilling the prescribed conditions was put to death4 ,on the third day of preparation1 after the last purification had been observed1 they built a round temple of the ,sun4 ,posts were driven into the ground in a circle2 these were connected with cross-pieces1 and the whole was covered with leaves4 ,in the middle stood the sacred pole1 supporting the roof4 ,a bundle of many small branches of sacred wood1 wrapped in a splendid buffalo robe1 crowned the summit of the temple4 ,the entrance was on the east1 and within the sanctuary stood an altar on which rested the head of a buffalo4 ,beside the altar was the place reserved for the ,vestal4 ,here1 on a bed prepared for her1 she slept 8the sleep of war10 as it was called4 ,her other duties consisted in maintaining a sacred fire of fragrant herbs1 in presenting a lighted pipe to her husband the ,sun1 and in telling the high priest the dream she dreamed during 8the sleep of war40 ,on learning it the priest had it proclaimed to the whole nation to the beat of drum4#dhh ,every year about the middle of ,march1 when the season for fishing with the drag-net began1 the ,sidenote3 ,marriage of girls to fishing nets among the ,hurons and ,algonquins4 ,algonquins and ,hurons married their nets to two young girls1 aged six or seven4 ,at the wedding feast the net was placed between the two maidens1 and was exhorted to take courage and catch many fish4 ,the reason for choosing the brides so young was to make sure that they were virgins4 ,the origin of the custom is said to have been this4 ,one year1 when the fishing season came round1 the ,algonquins cast their nets as usual1 but took nothing4 ,surprised at their want of success1 they did not know what to make of it1 till the soul or genius 7oki7 of the net appeared to them in the likeness of a tall well-built man1 who said to them in a great passion1 8,i have lost my wife and ,i cannot find one who has known no other man but me2 that is why you do not succeed1 and why you never will succeed till you give me satisfaction on this head40 ,so the ,algonquins held a council and resolved to appease the spirit of the net by marrying him to two such very young girls that he could have no ground of complaint on that score for the future4 ,they did so1 and the fishing turned out all that could be wished4 ,the thing got wind among their neighbours the ,hurons1 and they adopted the custom4 ,a share of the catch was always given to the families of the two girls who acted as brides of the net for the year4#dhi ,sidenote3 ,sacred ,marriage of the ,sun-god and ,earth-goddess among the ,oraons4 ,the ,oraons of ,bengal worship the ,earth as a goddess1 and annually celebrate her marriage with the ,sun-god ,dharm at the time when the sl tree is in blossom4 ,the ceremony is as follows4 ,all bathe1 then the men repair to the sacred grove 7sarn71 while the women assemble at the house of the village priest4 ,after sacrificing some fowls to the ,sun-god and the demon of the grove1 the men eat and drink4 8,the priest is then carried back to the village on the shoulders of a strong man4 ,near the village the women meet the men and wash their feet4 ,with beating of drums and singing1 dancing1 and jumping1 all proceed to the priest's house1 which has been decorated with leaves and flowers4 ,then the usual form of marriage is performed between the priest and his wife1 symbolizing the supposed union between ,sun and ,earth4 ,after the ceremony all eat and drink and make merry2 they dance and sing obscene songs1 and finally indulge in the vilest orgies4 ,the object is to move the mother earth to become fruitful40#dij ,thus the ,sacred ,marriage of the ,sun and ,earth1 personated by the priest and his wife1 is celebrated as a charm to ensure the fertility of the ground2 and for the same purpose1 on the principle of homoeopathic magic1 the people indulge in a licentious orgy4 ,among the ,sulka of ,new ,britain1 at the village of ,kolvagat1 a certain man has charge of two stone figures which are called respectively 8,our grandfather0 7ngur es7 and 8,our grandmother0 7ngur pei74 ,they are said to be kept in a house built specially for the purpose4 ,fruits of the field are offered to them and left beside them to rot4 ,when their guardian puts the two figures with their faces turned towards each other1 the plantations are believed to flourish2 but when he sets them back to back1 there is dearth and the people suffer from eruptions on the skin4#dia ,this turning of the two images face to face may be regarded as a simple form of ,sacred ,marriage between the two divine powers represented by them1 who are clearly supposed to control the fertility of the plantations4 ,sidenote3 ,marriage of women to gods in ,india and ,africa4 ,at the village of ,bas ,doda1 in the ,gurgaon district of ,north-,western ,india1 a fair is held on the twenty-sixth of the month ,chait and the two following days4 ,we are told that formerly girls of the ,dhinwar class used to be married to the god at these festivals1 and that they always died soon afterwards4 ,of late years the practice is said to have been discontinued4#dib ,in ,behar during the month of ,sawan 7,august7 crowds of women1 calling themselves ,nagin or 8wives of the snake10 go about for two and a half days begging2 during this time they may neither sleep under a roof nor eat salt4 ,half the proceeds of their begging is given to ,brahmans1 and the other half spent in salt and sweet-meats1 which are eaten by all the villagers4#dic ,amongst the ,ewe-speaking peoples of the ,slave ,coast in ,west ,africa human wives of gods are very common4 ,in ,dahomey they swarm1 and it has even been estimated that every fourth woman is devoted to the service of some deity4 ,the chief business of these female votaries is prostitution4 ,in every town there is at least one seminary where the handsomest girls1 between ten and twelve years of age1 are trained4 ,they stay for three years1 learning the chants and dances peculiar to the worship of the gods1 and prostituting themselves to the priests and the inmates of the male seminaries4 ,at the end of their noviciate they become public harlots4 ,but no disgrace attaches to their profession1 for it is believed that they are married to the god1 and that their excesses are caused and directed by him4 ,strictly speaking1 they should confine their favours to the male worshippers at the temple1 but in practice they bestow them indiscriminately4 ,children born of such unions belong to the deity4 ,as the wives of a god1 these sacred women may not marry4 ,but they are not bound to the service of the divinity for life4 ,some only bear his name and sacrifice to him on their birthdays4#did ,amongst these polygamous ,west ,african gods the sacred python seems to be particularly associated with the fertility of the earth2 for he is invoked in excessively wet1 dry1 and barren seasons1 and the time of year when young girls are sought out to be his brides is when the millet is beginning to sprout4#die ,sidenote3 ,women married to water-gods4 ,it deserves to be remarked that the supernatural being to whom women are married is often a god or spirit of water4 ,thus ,mukasa1 the god of the ,victoria ,nyanza lake1 who was propitiated by the ,baganda every time they undertook a long voyage1 had virgins provided for him to serve as his wives4 ,like the ,vestals they were bound to chastity1 but unlike the ,vestals they seem to have been often unfaithful4 ,the custom lasted until ,mwanga was converted to ,christianity4#dif ,the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa worship the snake of a certain river1 and at intervals of several years they marry the snake-god to women1 but especially to young girls4 ,for this purpose huts are built by order of the medicine-men1 who there consummate the sacred marriage with the credulous female devotees4 ,if the girls do not repair to the huts of their own accord in sufficient numbers1 they are seized and dragged thither to the embraces of the deity4 ,the offspring of these mystic unions appears to be fathered on ,god 7,ngai72 certainly there are children among the ,akikuyu who pass for children of ,god4#dig ,in ,kengtung1 one of the principal ,shan states of ,upper ,burma1 the spirit of the ,nawng ,tung lake is regarded as very powerful1 and is propitiated with offerings in the eighth month 7about ,july7 of each year4 ,a remarkable feature of the worship of this spirit consists in the dedication to him of four virgins in marriage4 ,custom requires that this should be done once in every three years4 ,it was actually done by the late king or chief 7,sawbwa7 in #ahic1 but down to #aija the rite had not been performed by his successor4 ,the following are the chief features of the ceremony4 ,the virgins who are to wed the spirit of the lake must be of pure ,hkn race4 ,orders are sent out for all the ,hkn of the valley to attend4 ,from the unmarried women of suitable age1 ten are selected4 ,these are as beautiful as may be1 and must be without spot or blemish4 ,four maidens out of the ten are chosen by lot1 and carefully dressed in new garments4 ,a festival is held1 usually at the house of the ,chief ,minister1 where the girls sit on a raised platform4 ,four old women1 thought to be possessed by spirits1 enter and remain as long as the feast lasts4 ,during this time anything they may want1 such as food1 betel1 or cheroots1 is handed to them by the four girls4 ,apparently the old women pass for representatives of the spirit1 and hence they are waited on by the maidens destined to be his wives4 ,dotage1 blindness1 or any great infirmity of age seems to be accounted possession by a spirit for the purposes of this function4 ,when the feast is over1 the maidens are formally presented to the spirit1 along with the various sacrifices and offerings4 ,they are next taken to the chief's residence1 where strings are tied round their wrists by the ministers and elders to guard them against ill-luck4 ,usually they sleep a night or two at the palace1 after which they may return to their homes4 ,there seems to be no objection to their marrying afterwards4 ,if nothing happens to any of the four1 it is believed that the spirit of the lake loves them but little2 but if one of them dies soon after the ceremony1 it shews that she has been accepted by him4 ,the spirit is propitiated with the sacrifice of pigs1 fowls1 and sometimes a buffalo4#dih ,sidenote3 ,egyptian custom of drowning a girl as a sacrifice to the ,nile4 ,in this last custom the death of the woman is regarded as a sign that the god has taken her to himself4 ,sometimes1 apparently1 it has not been left to the discretion of the divine bridegroom to take or leave his human bride2 she was made over to him once for all in death4 ,when the ,arabs conquered ,egypt they learned that at the annual rise of the ,nile the ,egyptians were wont to deck a young virgin in gay apparel and throw her into the river as a sacrifice1 in order to obtain a plentiful inundation4 ,the ,arab general abolished the barbarous custom4#dii ,it is said that under the ,tang dynasty the ,chinese used to marry a young girl to the ,yellow ,river once a year by drowning her in the water4 ,for this purpose the witches chose the fairest damsel they could find and themselves superintended the fatal marriage4 ,at last the local mandarin1 a man of sense and humanity1 forbade the custom4 ,but the witches disregarded his edicts and made their preparations for the usual murder4 ,so when the day was come1 the magistrate appeared on the scene with his soldiers and had all the witches bound and thrown into the river to drown1 telling them that no doubt the god would be able to choose his bride for himself from among them4#ejj ,the princes of ,koepang1 a state in the ,east ,indian island of ,timor1 deemed themselves descended from crocodiles2 and on ,sidenote3 ,girls sacrificed as brides of crocodiles4 the coronation of a new prince a solemn sacrifice was made to the crocodiles in presence of the people4 ,the offerings consisted of a pig with red bristles and a young girl prettily dressed1 perfumed1 and decked with flowers4 ,she was taken down to the bank of the river and set on a sacred stone in a cave4 ,then one of the prince's guards summoned the crocodiles4 ,soon one of the beasts appeared and dragged the girl down into the water4 ,the people thought that he married her1 and that if he did not find her a maid he would bring her back4#eja ,on festal occasions in the same state a new-born girl was sometimes dedicated to a crocodile1 and then1 with certain ceremonies of consecration1 brought up to be married to a priest4#ejb ,it is said that once1 when the inhabitants of ,cayeli in ,buru--another ,east ,indian island--were threatened with destruction by a swarm of crocodiles1 they ascribed the misfortune to a passion which the prince of the crocodiles had conceived for a certain girl4 ,accordingly1 they compelled the damsel's father to dress her in bridal array and deliver her over to the clutches of her crocodile lover4#ejc ,sidenote3 ,virgin sacrificed as a bride to a jinnee of the sea in the ,maldive ,islands4 ,a usage of the same sort is reported to have prevailed in the ,maldive ,islands before the conversion of the inhabitants to ,islam4 ,the famous ,arab traveller ,ibn ,batutah has described the custom and the manner in which it came to an end4 ,he was assured by several trustworthy natives1 whose names he gives1 that when the people of the islands were idolaters there appeared to them every month an evil spirit among the jinn1 who came from across the sea in the likeness of a ship full of burning lamps4 ,the wont of the inhabitants1 as soon as they perceived him1 was to take a young virgin1 and1 having adorned her1 to lead her to a heathen temple that stood on the shore1 with a window looking out to sea4 ,there they left the damsel for the night1 and when they came back in the morning they found her a maid no more1 and dead4 ,every month they drew lots1 and he upon whom the lot fell gave up his daughter to the jinnee of the sea4 ,in time there came to them a ,berber named ,abu 'lberecat1 who knew the ,coran by heart4 ,he lodged in the house of an old woman of the isle of ,mahal4 ,one day1 visiting his hostess1 he found that she had gathered her family about her1 and that the women were weeping as if there were a funeral4 ,on enquiring into the cause of their distress1 he learned that the lot had fallen on the old woman1 and that she had an only daughter1 who must be slain by the evil jinnee4 ,abu 'lberecat said to the old dame1 8,i will go this night instead of thy daughter40 ,now he was quite beardless4 ,so when the night was come they took him1 and after he had performed his ablutions1 they put him in the temple of idols4 ,he set himself to recite the ,coran2 then the demon appeared at the window1 but the man went on with his recitation4 ,no sooner was the jinnee within hearing of the holy words than he dived into the sea4 ,when morning broke1 the old woman and her family and the people of the island came1 according to their custom1 to carry away the girl and burn her body4 ,they found the stranger repeating the ,coran1 and took him to their king1 whose name was ,chenourazah1 and made him relate his adventure4 ,the king was astonished at it4 ,the ,berber proposed to the king that he should embrace ,islam4 ,chenourazah said to him1 8,tarry with us till next month2 if thou shalt do what thou hast done1 and shalt escape from the evil jinnee1 ,i will be converted40 ,the stranger abode with the idolaters1 and ,god disposed the king's heart to receive the true faith4 ,so before the month was out he became a ,mussalman1 he and his wives and his children and the people of his court4 ,and when the next month began1 the ,berber was conducted to the temple of idols2 but the demon did not appear1 and the ,berber set himself to recite the ,coran till break of day4 ,then the ,sultan and his subjects broke the idols and demolished the temple4 ,the people of the island embraced ,islam and sent messengers to the other isles1 and their inhabitants were converted likewise4 ,but by reason of the demon many of the ,maldive ,islands were depopulated before their conversion to ,islam4 ,when ,ibn ,batutah himself landed in the country he knew nothing of these things4 ,one night1 as he was going about his business1 he heard of a sudden people saying in a loud voice1 8,there is no ,god but ,god10 and 8,god is great40 ,he saw children carrying copies of the ,coran on their heads1 and women beating on basins and vessels of copper4 ,he was astonished at what they did1 and he said1 8,what has happened80 ,they answered1 8,dost thou not behold the sea80 ,he looked towards the sea1 and beheld in the darkness1 as it were1 a great ship full of burning lamps and cressets4 ,they said to him1 8,that is the demon4 ,it is his wont to shew himself once a month2 but after we have done that which thou hast seen1 he returns to his place and does us no manner of harm40#ejd ,sidenote3 ,the story based on the phosphorescence of the sea4 ,it occurred to me that this myth of the demon lover may have been based on some physical phenomenon1 electrical1 lunar1 or otherwise1 which is periodically seen at night in the ,maldive ,islands4 ,accordingly ,i consulted ,professor ,j4 ,stanley ,gardiner1 our foremost authority on the archipelago4 ,his answer1 which confirms my conjecture1 runs thus3 8,a peculiar phosphorescence1 like the glow of a lamp hidden by a roughened glass shade1 is occasionally visible on lagoon shoals in the ,maldives4 ,i imagine it to have been due to some single animal with a greater phosphorescence than any at present known to us4 ,a periodical appearance at some phase of the moon due to reproduction is not improbable and has parallels4 ,the myth still exists in the ,maldives1 but in a rather different form40 ,he adds that 8a number of these animals might of course appear on some shoal near ,male10 the principal island of the group4 ,to the eyes of the ignorant and superstitious such a mysterious glow1 suddenly lighting up the sea in the dusk of the evening1 might well appear a phantom ship1 hung with burning lamps1 bearing down on the devoted islands1 and in the stillness of night the roar of the surf on the barrier reef might sound in their ears like the voice of the demon calling for his prey4#eje #c4 ,sacrifices to ,water-spirits ,sidenote3 ,stories of the ,perseus and ,andromeda type4 ,ibn ,batutah's narrative of the demon lover and his mortal brides closely resembles a well-known type of folk-tale1 of which versions have been found from ,japan and ,annam in the ,east to ,senegambia1 ,scandinavia1 and ,scotland in the ,west4 ,the story varies in details from people to people1 but as commonly told it runs thus4 ,a certain country is infested by a many-headed serpent1 dragon1 or other monster1 which would destroy the whole people if a human victim1 generally a virgin1 were not delivered up to him periodically4 ,many victims have perished1 and at last it has fallen to the lot of the king's own daughter to be sacrificed4 ,she is exposed to the monster1 but the hero of the tale1 generally a young man of humble birth1 interposes in her behalf1 slays the monster1 and receives the hand of the princess as his reward4 ,in many of the tales the monster1 who is sometimes described as a serpent1 inhabits the water of a sea1 a lake1 or a fountain4 ,in other versions he is a serpent or dragon who takes possession of the springs of water1 and only allows the water to flow or the people to make use of it on condition of receiving a human victim4#ejf ,sidenote3 ,water-spirits conceived as serpents or dragons4 ,it would probably be a mistake to dismiss all these tales as pure inventions of the story-teller4 ,rather we may suppose that they reflect a real custom of sacrificing girls or women to be the wives of water-spirits1 who are very often conceived as great serpents or dragons4 ,elsewhere ,i have cited many instances of this belief in serpent-shaped spirits of water2#ejg here it may be worth while to add a few more4 ,thus the ,warramunga of ,central ,australia perform elaborate ceremonies to appease or coerce a gigantic1 but purely mythical water-snake who is said to have destroyed a number of people4#ejh ,some of the natives of western ,australia fear to approach large pools1 supposing them to be inhabited by a great serpent1 who would kill them if they dared to drink or draw water there by night4#eji ,the ,indians of ,new ,granada believed that when the mother of all mankind1 named ,bachue1 was grown old1 she and her husband plunged into the ,lake of ,iguague1 where they were changed into two enormous serpents1 which still live in the lake and sometimes shew themselves4#eaj ,the ,oyampi ,indians of ,french ,guiana imagine that each waterfall has a guardian in the shape of a monstrous snake1 who lies hidden under the eddy of the cascade1 but has sometimes been seen to lift up its huge head4 ,to see it is fatal4 ,canoe and ,indians are then dragged down to the bottom1 where the monster swallows all the men1 and sometimes the canoe also4 ,hence the ,oyampis never name a waterfall till they have passed it1 for fear that the snake at the bottom of the water might hear its name and attack the rash intruders4#eaa ,the ,huichol ,indians of ,mexico adore water4 ,springs are sacred1 and the gods in them are mothers or serpents1 that rise with the clouds and descend as fructifying rain4#eab ,the ,tarahumares1 another ,indian tribe of ,mexico1 think that every river1 pool1 and spring has its serpent1 who causes the water to come up out of the earth4 ,all these water-serpents are easily offended2 hence the ,tarahumares place their houses some little way from the water1 and will not sleep near it when they are on a journey4 ,whenever they construct weirs to catch fish1 they take care to offer fish to the water-serpent of the river2 and when they are away from home and are making pinole1 that is1 toasted maize-meal1 they drop the first of the pinole into the water as an offering to the serpents1 who would otherwise try to seize them and chase them back to their own land4#eac ,in ,basutoland the rivers ,ketane and ,maletsunyane tumble1 with a roar of waters and a cloud of iridescent spray1 into vast chasms hundreds of feet deep4 ,the ,basutos fear to approach the foot of these huge falls1 for they think that a spirit in the shape of a gigantic snake haunts the seething cauldron which receives the falling waters4#ead ,sidenote3 ,sacrifices of human beings to water-spirits4 ,the perils of the sea1 of floods1 of rapid rivers1 of deep pools and lakes1 naturally account for the belief that water-spirits are fickle and dangerous beings1 who need to be appeased by sacrifices4 ,sometimes these sacrifices consist of animals1 such as horses and bulls1#eae but often the victims are human beings4 ,thus at the mouth of the ,bonny ,river there is a dangerous bar on which vessels trading to the river have been lost4 ,this is bad for business1 and accordingly the negroes used to sacrifice a young man annually to the spirit of the bar4 ,the handsomest youth was chosen for the purpose1 and for many months before the ceremony he lodged with the king4 ,the people regarded him as sacred or ju-ju1 and whatever he touched1 even when he passed casually through the streets1 shared his sanctity and belonged to him4 ,hence whenever he appeared in public the inhabitants fled before him1 lest he should touch their garments or anything they might be carrying4 ,he was kept in ignorance of the fate in store for him1 and no one might inform him of it under pain of death4 ,on an appointed day he was taken out to the bar in a canoe and induced to jump into the water4 ,then the rowers plied their paddles and left him to drown4 ,a similar ceremony used to be performed at the ,new ,calabar ,river1 but the victim was a culprit4 ,he was thrown into the water to be devoured by the sharks1 which are there the principal fetish or ju-ju4#eaf ,the chiefs of ,duke ,town1 on the same coast of ,guinea1 were wont to make an annual offering to the river4 ,a young woman of a light colour1 or an albino1 was chosen as the victim4 ,on a set day they decked her with finery1 took her down to ,parrot ,island1 and with much ceremony plunged her in the stream4 ,the fishermen of ,efiat1 at the mouth of the river1 are said still to observe the rite in order to ensure a good catch of fish4#eag ,the ,king of ,dahomey used to send from time to time a man1 dressed out with the insignia of office1 to ,whydah to be drowned at the mouth of the river4 ,the intention of the sacrifice was to attract merchant ships4#eah ,when a fisherman has been carried off by a crocodile1 some of the natives on the banks of ,lake ,tanganyika take this for a sign that the spirit deems himself slighted1 since he is obliged to come and find victims for himself instead of having them presented to him4 ,hence the sorcerers generally decide that a second victim is wanted2 so1 having chosen one1 they bind him hand and foot and fling him into the lake to feed the crocodiles4#eai ,the crater of the volcano ,tolucan in ,mexico encloses two lakes of clear cold water1 surrounded by gloomy forests of pine4 ,here1 in the eighteenth month of the ,toltec year1 answering to ,february1 children beautifully dressed and decked with flowers and gay feathers used to be drowned as an offering to ,tlaloc1 the god of the waters1 who had a fine temple on the spot4#ebj ,the ,chams of ,annam have traditions of a time when living men were thrown into the sea every year in order to propitiate the deities who looked after the fishing1 and when children of good family were drowned in the water-channels in order that the rice-fields might be duly irrigated4#eba ,sidenote3 ,water-spirits conceived as beneficent beings who dispense fertility4 ,this last instance brings out a more kindly aspect of the water-spirits4 ,if these beings are dreaded by the fisherman and the mariner who tempt the angry sea1 and by the huntsman who has to swim or ford the rushing rivers1 they are viewed in a different light by the shepherd and the husbandman in hot and arid lands1 where the pasture for the cattle and the produce of the fields alike depend on the supply of water1 and where prolonged drought means starvation and death for man and beast4 ,to men in such circumstances the spirits of the waters are beneficent beings1 the dispensers of life and fertility1 whether their blessings descend as rain from heaven or well up as springs of bubbling water in the parched desert4 ,in the ,semitic ,east1 for example1 where the rainfall is precarious or confined to certain seasons1 the face of the earth is bare and withered for most of the year1 except where it is kept fresh by irrigation or by the percolation of underground water4 ,here1 accordingly1 the local gods or ,baalim had their seats originally in spots of natural fertility1 by fountains and the banks of rivers1 in groves and tangled thickets and green glades of mountain hollows and deep watercourses4 ,as lords of the springs and subterranean waters they were supposed to be the sources of all the gifts of the land1 the corn1 the wine and the oil1 the wool and the flax1 the vines and the fig-trees4#ebb ,sidenote3 ,water-spirits conceived as bestowing offspring on women4 ,where water-spirits are thus conceived as the authors of fertility in general1 it is natural that they should be held to extend the sphere of their operations to men and animals2 in other words1 that the power of bestowing offspring on barren women and cattle should be ascribed to them4 ,this ascription comes out clearly in a custom observed by ,syrian women at the present day4 ,some of the channels of the ,orontes are used for irrigation1 but at a certain season of the year the streams are turned off and the dry bed of the channels is cleared of mud and any other matter that might clog the flow of the water4 ,the first night that the water is turned on again1 it is said to have the power of procreation4 ,accordingly barren women take their places in the channel1 waiting for the embrace of the water-spirit in the rush of the stream4#ebc ,again1 a pool of water in a cave at ,juneh enjoys the same reputation4 ,the people think a childless couple who bathe in the water will have offspring4#ebd ,in ,india many wells are supposed to cure sterility1 which is universally attributed to the agency of evil spirits4 ,the water of seven wells is collected on the night of the ,diwali or feast of lamps1 and barren women bathe in it in order to remove their reproach4 ,there is a well in ,orissa where the priests throw betel-nuts into the mud4 ,childless women scramble for the nuts1 and she who finds them will be a happy mother before long4 ,for the same reason1 after childbirth an ,indian mother is taken to worship the village well4 ,she walks round it in the course of the sun and smears the platform with red lead1 which may be a substitute for blood4 ,a ,khandh priest will take a childless woman to the meeting of two streams1 where he makes an offering to the god of births and sprinkles the woman with water in order to rid her of the influence of the spirit who hinders conception4#ebe ,in the ,punjaub a barren woman who desires to become a mother will sometimes be let down into a well on a ,sunday or ,tuesday night during the ,diwali festival4 ,after stripping herself of her clothes and bathing in the water1 she is drawn up again and performs the chaukpurna ceremony with incantations taught by a wizard4 ,when this ceremony has been performed1 the well is supposed to run dry2 its quickening and fertilising virtue has been abstracted by the woman4#ebf ,the ,indian sect of the ,vallabhacharyas or ,maharajas believe that bathing in a sacred well is a remedy for barrenness in women4#ebg ,in antiquity the waters of ,sinuessa in ,campania were thought to bless childless wives with offspring4#ebh ,to this day ,syrian women resort to hot springs in order to obtain children from the saint or jinnee of the waters4#ebi ,in ,scotland the same fertilising virtue used to be1 and probably still is1 ascribed to certain springs4 ,wives who wished to become mothers formerly resorted to the well of ,st4 ,fillan at ,comrie1 and to the wells of ,st4 ,mary at ,whitekirk and in the ,isle of ,may4#ecj ,in the ,aran ,islands1 off the coast of ,galway1 women desirous of children pray at ,st4 ,eany's ,well1 by the ,angels' ,walk1 and the men pray at the rag well by the church of the ,four ,comely ,ones at ,onaght4#eca ,child's ,well in ,oxford was supposed to have the virtue of making barren women to bring forth4#ecb ,near ,bingfield in ,northumberland there is a copious sulphur spring known as the ,borewell4 ,on the ,sunday following the fourth day of ,july1 that is about ,midsummer ,day1 according to the old style1 great crowds of people used to assemble at the well from all the surrounding hamlets and villages4 ,the scene was like a fair1 stalls for the sale of refreshments being brought and set up for the occasion4 ,the neighbouring slopes were terraced1 and seats formed for the convenience of pilgrims and visitors4 ,barren women prayed at the well that they might become mothers4 ,if their faith was strong enough1 their prayers were heard within the year4#ecc ,sidenote3 ,love of river-spirits for women in ,greek mythology4 ,in ,greek mythology similar ideas of the procreative power of water meet us in the stories of the loves of rivers for women and in the legends which traced the descent of heroes and heroines from river-gods4#ecd ,in ,sophocles's play of ,the ,trachinian ,women ,dejanira tells how she was wooed by the river ,achelous1 who came to her father and claimed her hand1 appearing in the likeness now of a bull1 now of a serpent1 and now of a being with the body of a man and the front of an ox1 while streams of water flowed from his shaggy beard4 ,she relates1 too1 how glad she was when ,hercules presented himself and vanquished the river-god in single combat and took her to wife4#ece ,the legend perhaps preserves a reminiscence of that custom of providing a water-god with a human wife which has been practised elsewhere4 ,the motive of such a custom may have varied with the particular conception which happened to prevail of the character of the water-god4 ,where he was supposed to be a cruel and destructive being1 who drowned men and laid waste the country1 a wife would be offered simply to keep him in good humour1 and so prevent him from doing mischief4 ,but where he was viewed as the procreative power on whom the fertility of the earth and the fecundity of men and animals depended1 his marriage would be deemed necessary for the purpose of enabling him to discharge his beneficent functions4 ,this belief in the amorous character of rivers comes out plainly in a custom which was observed at ,troy down to classical times4 ,maidens about to marry were wont to bathe in the ,scamander1 saying as they did so1 8,scamander1 take my virginity40 ,a similar custom appears to have been observed at the river ,maeander1 and perhaps in other parts of the ,greek world4 ,occasionally1 it would seem1 young men took advantage of the practice to ravish the girls1 and the offspring of such a union was fathered on the river-god4#ecf ,the bath which a ,greek bride and bridegroom regularly took before marriage appears to have been intended to bless their union with offspring through the fertilising influence of the water-nymphs4#ecg ,thus it would appear that in many parts of the world a custom has prevailed of sacrificing human beings to water-spirits1 and that in not a few cases the ceremony has taken the form of making over a woman to the spirit to be his wife1 in order either to pacify his fury or to give play to his generative powers4 ,where the water-spirit was regarded as female1 young men might be presented to her for a similar purpose1 and this may be the reason why the victims sacrificed to water-spirits are sometimes males4 ,among civilised peoples these customs survive for the most part only in popular tales1 of which the legend of ,perseus and ,andromeda1 with its mediaeval counterpart of ,st4 ,george and the ,dragon1 is the most familiar example4 ,but occasionally they appear to have left traces of themselves in ceremonies and pageants4 ,thus at ,furth in ,bavaria a ,sidenote3 ,midsummer custom of slaying the dragon at ,furth in ,bavaria4 drama called the ,slaying of the ,dragon used to be acted every year about ,midsummer1 on the ,sunday after ,corpus ,christi ,day4 ,crowds of spectators flocked from the neighbourhood to witness it4 ,the scene of the performance was the public square4 ,on a platform stood or sat a princess wearing a golden crown on her head1 and as many silver ornaments on her body as could be borrowed for the purpose4 ,she was attended by a maid of honour4 ,opposite her was stationed the dragon1 a dreadful monster of painted canvas stretched on a wooden skeleton and moved by two men inside4 ,from time to time the creature would rush with gaping jaws into the dense crowd of spectators1 who retreated hastily1 tumbling over each other in their anxiety to escape4 ,then a knight in armour1 attended by his men-at-arms1 rode forth and asked the princess what she did 8on this hard stone10 and why she looked so sad4 ,she told him that the dragon was coming to eat her up4 ,on that the knight bade her be of good cheer1 for that with his sword he would rid the country of the monster4 ,with that he charged the dragon1 thrusting his spear into its maw and taking care to stab a bladder of bullock's blood which was there concealed4 ,the gush of blood which followed was an indispensable part of the show1 and if the knight missed his stroke he was unmercifully jeered and taunted by the crowd4 ,having despatched the monster with sword and pistol1 the knight then hastened to the princess and told her that he had slain the dragon who had so long oppressed the town4 ,in return she tied a wreath round his arm1 and announced that her noble father and mother would soon come to give them half the kingdom4 ,the men-at-arms then escorted the knight and the princess to the tavern1 there to end the day with dance and revelry4 ,bohemians and ,bavarians came from many miles to witness this play of the ,slaying of the ,dragon1 and when the monster's blood streamed forth they eagerly mopped it up1 along with the blood-soaked earth1 in white cloths1 which they afterwards laid on the flax-fields1 in order that the flax might thrive and grow tall4 ,for the 8dragon's blood0 was thought to be a sure protection against witchcraft4#ech ,this use of the blood suffices to prove that the ,slaying of the ,dragon at ,furth was not a mere popular spectacle1 but a magical rite designed to fertilise the fields4 ,as such it probably descended from a very remote antiquity1 and may well have been invested with a character of solemnity1 if not of tragedy1 long before it degenerated into a farce4 ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,romain delivers ,rouen from a dragon4 ,more famous was the dragon from which1 according to legend1 ,st4 ,romain delivered ,rouen1 and far more impressive was the ceremony with which1 down to the ,french ,revolution1 the city commemorated its deliverance4 ,the stately and beautiful edifices of the ,middle ,ages1 which still adorn ,rouen1 formed a fitting background for a pageant which carried the mind back to the days when ,henry ,,ii4 of ,england and ,richard ,cur-de-,lion1 ,dukes of ,normandy1 still had their palace in this ancient capital of their ancestral domains4 ,legend ran that about the year #ebj ,a4,d4 a forest or marsh near the city was infested by a monstrous beast in the shape of a serpent or dragon1 which every day wrought great harm to ,rouen and its neighbourhood1 devouring man and beast1 causing boats and mariners on the river ,seine to perish1 and inflicting other woes innumerable on the commonwealth4 ,at last the archbishop1 ,st4 ,romain1 resolved to beard the monster in his den4 ,he could get none to accompany him but a prisoner condemned to death for murder4 ,on their approach the dragon made as though he would swallow them up2 but the archbishop1 relying on the divine help1 made the sign of the cross1 and at once the monster became so gentle that he suffered the saint to bind him with his stole and the murderer to lead him like a lamb to the slaughter4 ,thus they went in procession to a public place in ,rouen1 where the dragon was burnt in the presence of the people and its ashes cast into the river4 ,the murderer was pardoned for his services2 and the fame of the deed having gone abroad1 ,st4 ,romain1 or his successor ,st4 ,ouen1 whose memory is enshrined in a church of dreamlike beauty at ,rouen1 obtained from ,king ,dagobert in perpetuity a privilege for the archbishop1 dean1 and canons of the cathedral1 to wit1 that every year on ,ascension ,day1 the anniversary of the miracle1 they should ,sidenote3 ,in memory of this deliverance the archbishop and chapter of ,rouen were annually allowed to pardon a malefactor on ,ascension ,day4 pardon and release from prison a malefactor1 whomsoever they chose1 and whatever the crime of which he had been guilty4 ,this privilege1 unique in ,france1 was claimed by the chapter of the cathedral as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century2 for in #abaj1 the governor of the castle of ,rouen having boggled at giving up a prisoner1 the chapter appealed to ,king ,philip ,augustus1 who caused an enquiry to be made into the claim4 ,at this enquiry nine witnesses swore that never in the reigns of ,henry ,,ii4 and ,richard ,cur-de-,lion1 ,dukes of ,normandy1 had there been any difficulty raised on the point in question4 ,henceforward the chapter seems to have enjoyed the right without opposition down to #agij1 when it exercised its privilege of mercy for the last time4 ,next year the face of things had changed2 there was neither archbishop nor chapter at ,rouen4 ,a register of the names of the prisoners who were pardoned1 together with an account of their crimes1 was kept and still exists4 ,only a few of the names in the thirteenth century are known1 and there are many gaps in the first half of the fourteenth century2 but from that time onward the register is nearly complete4 ,most of the crimes appear to have been murder or homicide4 ,sidenote3 ,ceremony of the annual pardon and release of a prisoner at ,rouen4 ,the proceedings1 on the great day of pardon1 varied somewhat in different ages4 ,the following account is based in great part on a description written in the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 and published at ,rouen in #aehg4 ,fifteen days before ,ascension ,day the canons of the cathedral summoned the king's officers to stop all proceedings against criminals detained in prison4 ,afterwards1 on the ,monday of ,rogations1 two canons examined the prisoners and took their confessions1 going from prison to prison till ,ascension ,day4 ,on that day1 about seven o'clock in the morning1 all the canons assembled in the chapter-house and invoked the grace of the ,holy ,spirit by the hymn ,veni creator ,spiritus1 and other prayers4 ,also they made oath to reveal none of the depositions of the criminals1 but to hold them sacred under the seal of confession4 ,the depositions having been taken and the commissioners heard1 the chapter1 after due deliberation1 named him or her among the prisoners who was to receive the benefit of the privilege4 ,a card bearing the prisoner's name and sealed with the seal of the chapter was then sent to the members of parliament1 who were sitting in full assembly1 clad in their red robes1 in the great hall of the palace to receive the nomination of the prisoner and to give it legal effect4 ,the criminal was then released and pardoned4 ,immediately the minster bells began to ring1 the doors of the cathedral were flung open1 the organ pealed1 hymns were sung1 candles lit1 and every solemnity observed in token of joy and gladness4 ,further1 in presence of the conclave all the depositions of the other prisoners were burnt on the altar of the chapter-house4 ,then the archbishop and the whole of the clergy of the cathedral went in procession to the great square known as the ,old ,tower near the river1 carrying the shrines and reliquaries of the minster1 and accompanied by the joyous music of hautboys and clarions4 ,apparently the ,old ,tower occupies the site of the ancient castle of the ,dukes of ,normandy1 and the custom of going thither in procession came down from a time when the prisoners were detained in the castle-dungeons4 ,in the square there stood1 and still stands1 a platform of stone raised high above the ground and approached by flights of steps4 ,thither they brought the shrine 7fierte7 of ,st4 ,romain1 and thither too was led the pardoned prisoner4 ,he ascended the platform1 and after confessing his sins and receiving absolution he thrice lifted the shrine of ,st4 ,romain1 while the innumerable multitude assembled in the square cried aloud1 each time the shrine was lifted1 8,noel6 ,noel6 ,noel60 which was understood to mean 8,god be with us60 ,that done1 the procession re-formed and returned to the cathedral4 ,at the head walked a beadle clad in violet1 who bore on a pole the wicker effigy of the winged dragon of ,notre ,dame1 holding a large fish in its mouth4 ,the whispers and cries excited by the appearance of the monster were drowned in the loud fanfares of cornets1 clarions1 and trumpets4 ,behind the musicians1 who wore the liveries of the ,master of the ,brotherhood of ,notre ,dame with his arms emblazoned on an ensign of taffeta1 came the carved silver-gilt shrine of ,notre ,dame4 ,after it followed the clergy of the cathedral to the number of two hundred1 clad in robes of violet or crimson silk1 bearing banners1 crosses1 and shrines1 and chanting the hymn ,de resurrectione ,domini4 ,then came the archbishop1 giving his blessing to the great multitude who thronged the streets4 ,the prisoner himself walked behind1 bareheaded1 crowned with flowers1 carrying one end of the litter which supported the shrine of ,st4 ,romain2 the fetters he had worn hung from the litter2 and with him paced1 with lighted torches in their hands1 the men or women who1 for the last seven years1 had in like manner received their pardon4 ,another beadle1 in a violet livery1 marched behind bearing aloft on a pole the wicker effigy of the dragon 7,gargouille7 destroyed by ,st4 ,romain2 in its mouth the dragon sometimes held a live animal1 such as a young fox1 a rabbit1 or a sucking pig1 and it was attended by the ,brotherhood of the ,gargouillards4 ,the clergy of the thirty-two parishes of ,rouen also took part in the procession1 which moved from the ,old ,tower to the cathedral amid the acclamations of the crowd1 while from every church tower in the city the bells rang out a joyous peal1 the great ,georges d',amboise thundering above them all4 ,after mass had been performed in the cathedral1 the prisoner was taken to the house of the ,master of the ,brotherhood of ,st4 ,romain1 where he was magnificently feasted1 lodged1 and served1 however humble his rank4 ,next morning he again presented himself to the chapter1 where1 kneeling in the presence of a great assembly1 he was severely reproved for his sins and admonished to give thanks to ,god1 to ,st4 ,romain1 and to the canons for the pardon he had received in virtue of the privilege4 ,sidenote3 ,history and meaning of the privilege of the ,fierte or shrine of ,st4 ,romain at ,rouen4 ,what was the origin and meaning of this remarkable privilege of the ,fierte1 as the shrine of ,st4 ,romain was called8 ,its history has been carefully investigated by ,a4 ,floquet1 ,chief ,registrar of the ,royal ,court of ,rouen1 with the aid of all the documentary evidence1 including the archives both at ,rouen and ,paris4 ,he appears to have shewn conclusively that the association of ,st4 ,romain with the custom is comparatively late4 ,we possess a life of the saint in ,latin verse1 dating from the eighth century1 in which the miracles said to have been wrought by him are set forth in a strain of pompous eulogy4 ,yet neither in it nor in any of the other early lives of ,st4 ,romain and ,st4 ,ouen1 nor in any of the older chronicles and martyrologies1 is a single word said about the destruction of the dragon and the deliverance of the prisoner4 ,it is not till #acid that we meet for the first time with a mention of the miracle4 ,moreover1 the deliverance of the prisoner can hardly have been instituted in honour of ,st4 ,romain1 else it would have taken place on the twenty-third of ,october1 the day on which the ,church of ,rouen celebrates the translation of the saint's bones to the cathedral4 ,st4 ,romain died in #fch1 and his bones were transferred to the cathedral of ,rouen at the end of the eleventh or the beginning of the twelfth century4 ,further1 ,floquet has adduced strong grounds for believing that the privilege claimed by the chapter of ,rouen of annually pardoning a condemned criminal on ,ascension ,day was unknown in the early years of the twelfth century1 and that it originated in the reign of ,henry ,i4 or ,stephen1 if not in that of ,henry ,,ii4 ,he supposes the ceremony to have been in its origin a scenic representation of the triumph of ,christ over sin and death1 the deliverance of the condemned prisoner symbolising the deliverance of man from the yoke of corruption1 and bringing home to the people in a visible form the great mystery which the festival of the ,ascension was instituted to commemorate4 ,such dramatic expositions of ,christian doctrine1 he points out1 were common in the ,middle ,ages4 ,sidenote3 ,suggested origin of the custom4 ,plausible as is this solution of the problem1 it can scarcely be regarded as satisfactory4 ,had this been the real origin of the privilege1 we should expect to find the ,ascension of ,christ either plainly enacted1 or at least distinctly alluded to in the ceremony2 but this1 so far as we can learn1 was not so4 ,again1 would it not savour of blasphemy to represent the sinless and glorified ,redeemer by a ruffian stained with the blackest crimes8 ,moreover1 the part played by the dragon in the legend and in the spectacle seems too important to allow us to explain it away1 with ,floquet1 as a mere symbol of the suppression of paganism by ,st4 ,romain4 ,the tale of the conquest of the dragon is older than ,christianity1 and cannot be explained by it4 ,at ,rouen the connexion of ,st4 ,romain with the story seems certainly to be late1 but that does not prove the story itself to be late also4 ,judging from the analogy of similar tales elsewhere1 we may conjecture that in the ,rouen version the criminal represents a victim annually sacrificed to a water-spirit or other fabulous being1 while the ,christian saint has displaced a pagan hero1 who was said to have delivered the victim from death and put an end to the sacrifice by slaying the monster4 ,thus it seems possible that the custom of annually pardoning a condemned malefactor may have superseded an older practice of treating him as a public scapegoat1 who died to save the rest of the people4 ,in the sequel we shall see that such customs have been observed in many lands4 ,it is not incredible that at ,rouen a usage of this sort should have survived in a modified shape from pagan times down to the twelfth century1 and that the ,church should at last have intervened to save the wretch and turn a relic of heathendom to the glory of ,god and ,st4 ,romain4 ,but this explanation of the famous privilege of the ,fierte is put forward with a full sense of the difficulties attending it1 and with no wish to dogmatise on so obscure a subject4#eci ,footnote #daa3 ,speaking of the one ,god who reveals himself in many forms and under many names1 ,augustine says3 8,ipse in aethere sit ,jupiter1 ipse in are ,juno1 ipse in mare ,neptunus 444 ,liber in vineis1 ,ceres in frumentis1 ,diana in silvis10 etc4 7,de civitate ,dei1 iv4 #aa74 ,footnote #dab3 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #ccb3 8,nam1 ut diximus1 et omnis quercus ,jovi est consecrata1 et omnis lucus ,dianae40 ,footnote #dac3 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 #ajje2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ,nos4 #cbff-cbfh4 ,footnote #dad3 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge inscriptionum ,graecarum1 #bnd ,ed41 ,no4 #efh2 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d'inscriptions grecques1 ,no4 #fhf2 ,e4 ,s4 ,roberts1 ,introduction to ,greek ,epigraphy1 ii41 ,no4 #aci4 ,footnote #dae3 ,dittenberger1 op4 cit4 ,no4 #fec1 lines #gi sqq42 ,ch4 ,michel1 op4 cit41 ,no4 #fid4 ,as to the grove see ,pausanias1 iv4 #cc4 #d sq4 ,footnote #daf3 ,dittenberger1 op4 cit41 ,no4 #ibi1 lines #hj sqq4 ,compare id4 ,no4 #efi2 ,pausanias1 ii4 #bh4 #g4 ,footnote #dag3 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ,no4 #diaa4 ,footnote #dah3 ,cato1 ,de agri cultura1 #aci4 ,footnote #dai3 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 v4 #he1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xviii4 #f4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,g4 ,henzen1 ,acta ,fratrum ,arvalium 7,berlin1 #ahgd71 pp4 #acf-adc2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ii41 ,nos4 #ejdb1 #ejdc1 #ejde1 #ejdf1 #ejdh4 ,footnote #dba3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #gdi-gee4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xii4 #c4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,seneca1 ,epist4 iv4 #ab4 #c4 ,see further ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #ajh sqq4 ,for evidence of the poets he refers to ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #ccb sqq42 ,tibullus1 i4 #a4 #aa2 ,ovid1 ,amores1 iii4 #a4 #a sq4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,on ,diana as a huntress see ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ,nos4 #cbeg-cbff4 ,for indications of her care for domestic cattle see ,livy1 i4 #de2 ,plutarch1 ,quaestiones ,romanae1 #d2 and above1 vol4 i4 p4 #g4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,virgil1 ,aen41 viii4 #fjj sq41 with ,servius's note4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,m4 ,a4 ,castren1 ,vorlesungen ber die finnische ,mythologie 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahec71 pp4 #ib-ii4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,p4 v4 ,stenin1 8ber den ,geisterglauben in ,russland10 ,globus1 lvii4 7#ahij71 p4 #bhc4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,j4 ,abercromby1 ,the ,pre- and ,proto-historic ,finns 7,london1 #ahih71 i4 #afa4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,mathias ,michov1 8,de ,sarmatia ,asiana atque ,europea10 in ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum1 p4 #deg4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,c4 ,snouck ,hurgronje1 ,het ,gajland en zijne ,bewoners 7,batavia1 #aijc71 pp4 #cea1 #cei4 ,footnote #dca3 ,see vol4 i4 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,arrian1 ,cynegeticus1 #cc sq4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,the ,galatians retained their ,celtic speech as late as the fourth century of our era1 for ,jerome says that in his day their language hardly differed from that of the ,treveri1 a ,celtic tribe on the ,moselle1 whose name survives in ,treves4 ,see ,jerome1 ,commentar4 in ,epist4 ad ,galatas1 lib4 ii4 praef4 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 vol4 xxvi4 col4 #ceg74 ,footnote #dcd3 ,see below1 p4 #cfc4 ,footnote #dce3 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ,no4 #dfcc2 ,ihm1 in ,pauly-,wissowa's ,real-,encyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 ii4 #faf1 s4v4 8,arduinna02 compare id4 i4 #ajd1 s4v4 8,abnoba40 ,footnote #dcf3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,volksglaube und religiser ,brauch der ,sdslaven 7,mnster i4 ,w41 #ahij71 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,j4 ,h4 ,schmitz1 ,sitten und ,bruche1 ,lieder1 ,sprchwrter und ,rthsel des ,eifler ,volkes 7,treves1 #ahef-aheh71 i4 #db sq42 ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 pp4 #cic sq42 ,ch4 ,beauquier1 ,les ,mois en ,franche-,comt 7,paris1 #aijj71 p4 #ij4 ,in ,sweden and parts of ,germany cattle are crowned on the day in spring when they are first driven out to pasture1 which is sometimes at ,whitsuntide 7,a4 ,kuhn1 ,die ,herabkunft des ,feuers1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #afc sq42 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 pp4 #bdf sq42 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen und ,mrchen1 pp4 #cae sq41 #cbg sq42 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien1 i4 #abc74 ,amongst the ,romans cattle were crowned at the ,ambarvalia 7,tibullus1 ii4 #a4 #g sq42 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 i4 #ffc72 and asses and mill-stones were crowned at ,vesta's festival on the ninth of ,june 7,propertius1 v4 #a4 #ba2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #caa sq474 ,the original motive of all these customs may have been the one indicated in the text4 ,perhaps the same explanation might be found to apply to certain other cases of wearing wreaths or crowns4 ,footnote #dch3 ,tettau und ,temme1 ,die ,volkssagen ,ostpreussens1 ,litthauens und ,westpreussens1 pp4 #bfc sq42 ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 p4 #cib2 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,das festliche ,jahr1 p4 #aha2 id41 ,calendrier belge1 i4 #dbc sq42 ,a4 ,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 i4 p4 #bgh1 #dcg2 ,r4 ,eisel1 ,sagenbuch des ,voigtlandes1 p4 #baj2 ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem inneren und usseren ,leben der ,ehsten1 p4 #cfc2 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,volksglaube und religiser ,brauch der ,sdslaven1 p4 #abh4 ,footnote #dci3 ,see above1 pp4 #eb-ee4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,in ,nepaul a festival known as ,khich ,pj is held1 at which worship is offered to dogs1 and garlands of flowers are placed round the necks of every dog in the country 7,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india1 ,westminster1 #ahif1 ii4 #bba74 ,but as the custom is apparently not limited to hunting dogs1 the explanation suggested above would hardly apply4 ,footnote #dda3 ,catullus1 xxxiv4 #i-bj2 ,cicero1 ,de natura deorum1 ii4 #bf4 #fh sq42 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 v4 #fh sq4 ,it deserves to be remembered that ,diana's day was the thirteenth of ,august1 which in general would be the time when the splendid harvest moon was at the full4 ,indian women in ,peru used to pray to the moon to grant them an easy delivery4 ,see ,p4 ,j4 de ,arriaga1 ,extirpacion de la idolatria del ,piru 7,lima1 #afba71 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,in like manner the ,greeks conceived of the goddess ,earth as the mother not only of corn but of cattle and of human offspring4 ,see the ,homeric ,hymn to ,earth 7,no4 #cj74 ,footnote #ddd3 ,strabo1 iv4 #a4 #d and #e1 pp4 #agi sq4 ,the image on the ,aventine was copied from that at ,marseilles1 which in turn was copied from the one at ,ephesus4 ,footnote #dde3 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 xii4 #h4 ,the ,romans feared that the marriage of ,claudius with his paternal cousin ,agrippina1 which they regarded as incest1 might result in some public calamity 7,tacitus1 ,annals1 xii4 #e74 ,footnote #ddf3 ,see above1 pp4 #ajg sqq4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bj sq41 #dj4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,herodotus1 i4 #aha sq4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 pp4 #aag sq42 ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,babylonian ,mythology and ,religion1 pp4 #ah1 #ba4 ,footnote #dej3 ,h4 ,winckler1 ,die ,gesetze ,hammurabis #bnd ,ed41 7,leipsic1 #aijc71 p4 #ca #ahb4 ,the expression is translated 8votary of ,marduk0 by ,mr ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns 7,babylonian and ,assyrian ,laws1 ,contracts1 and ,letters1 ,edinburgh1 #aijd1 p4 #fj74 8,the votary of ,marduk is the god's wife vowed to perpetual chastity1 and is therefore distinct from the devotees of ,itar4 ,like the ordinary courtesan1 these formed a separate class and enjoyed special privileges0 7,s4 ,a4 ,cook1 ,the ,laws of ,moses and the ,code of ,hammurabi1 ,london1 #aijc1 p4 #adh74 ,footnote #dea3 ,m4 ,jastrow1 op4 cit4 pp4 #db sq4 ,footnote #deb3 ,c4 ,johnston in ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 xviii4 ,first ,half 7#ahig71 pp4 #aec-aee2 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1 ,assyrian and ,babylonian ,literature 7,new ,york1 #aija71 p4 #bdi4 ,for the equivalence of ,iyyar or ,airu with ,may see ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4 8,months10 iii4 coll4 #caic sq4 ,footnote #dec3 ,herodotus1 i4 #ahb4 ,footnote #ded3 ,g4 ,maspero1 in ,journal des ,savants1 anne #ahii1 pp4 #dja-djf2 ,a4 ,moret1 ,du caractre religieux de la royaut ,pharaonique 7,paris1 #aijb71 pp4 #dh-gc2 ,a4 ,wiedemann1 ,herodots zweites ,buch 7,leipsic1 #ahij71 pp4 #bfh sq4 ,m4 ,moret shares the view of ,prof4 ,maspero that the pictures1 or rather painted reliefs1 were copied from masquerades in which the king and other men and women figured as gods and goddesses4 ,as to the ,egyptian doctrine of the spiritual double or external soul 7,ka71 see ,a4 ,wiedemann1 ,the ,ancient ,egyptian ,doctrine of the ,immortality of the ,soul 7,london1 #ahie71 pp4 #aj sqq4 ,footnote #dee3 ,a4 ,erman1 ,die gyptische ,religion 7,berlin1 #aije71 pp4 #ge1 #afe sq42 compare id41 gypten und gyptisches ,leben im ,altertum1 pp4 #djj sq4 ,as to the ghostly rule of the high priests of ,ammon at ,thebes see further ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne des peuples de l',orient classique1 les premires mles des peuples 7,paris1 #ahig71 pp4 #eei sqq42 ,j4 ,h4 ,breasted1 ,a ,history of the ,ancient ,egyptians 7,london1 #aijh71 pp4 #cej sq41 #ceg sq42 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,geschichte der ,religion im ,altertum1 i4 7,gotha1 #ahif71 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #def3 ,strabo1 xvii4 #a4 #df1 p4 #haf4 ,footnote #deg3 ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,bibliotheca1 i4 #dg4 ,footnote #deh3 ,plutarch1 ,quaestiones conviviales1 viii4 #a4 #f sq42 id41 ,numa1 #d4 ,footnote #dei3 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iv4 #adc4 ,compare ,horace1 ,odes1 iii4 #fb sqq4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,herodotus1 i4 #ahb4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,pausanias1 viii4 #ac4 #a4 ,as to the meaning of the title ,essen see ,callimachus1 ,hymn to ,zeus1 #af2 ,hesychius1 ,suidas1 and ,etymologicum ,magnum1 s4v4 4 ,the ancients mistook the ,queen bee for a male1 and hence spoke of ,king bees4 ,see ,aristotle1 ,histor4 animal4 v4 #ba sq41 ix4 #dj1 pp4 #eec1 #fbc sqq41 ed4 ,bekker2 id41 ,de animalium generatione1 iii4 #aj1 p4 #gfj1 ed4 ,bekker2 ,aelian1 ,nat4 animal4 i4 #aj1 v4 #aj sq42 ,virgil1 ,georg4 iv4 #ba1 #fh2 ,w4 ,walter-,tornow1 ,de apium mellisque apud veteres significatione 7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #cj sqq4 ,the ,essenes or ,king ,bees are not to be confounded with the nominal kings 7,basileis7 of ,ephesus1 who probably held office for life4 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,j4 ,t4 ,wood1 ,discoveries at ,ephesus1 ,inscriptions from the ,temple of ,diana1 pp4 #b1 #ad2 ,inscriptions from the ,augusteum1 p4 #d2 ,inscriptions from the ,city and ,suburbs1 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,see ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,coins of ,ephesus 7,london1 #ahhj71 and above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cg sq4 ,modern writers sometimes assert that the priestesses of the ,ephesian ,artemis were called ,bees4 ,certain other ,greek priestesses were undoubtedly called ,bees1 and it seems not improbable that the priestesses of the ,ephesian ,artemis bore the same title and represented the goddess in her character of a bee4 ,but no ancient writer1 so far as ,i know1 affirms it4 ,see my note on ,pausanias1 viii4 #ac4 #a4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,demosthenes1 ,contra ,neaer4 #gc-gh1 pp4 #acfi-acga2 ,aristotle1 ,constitution of ,athens1 iii4 #e2 ,hesychius1 s4vv4 and 2 ,etymologicum ,magnum1 s4v4 2 ,pollux1 viii4 #ajh2 ,k4 ,f4 ,hermann1 ,gottesdienstliche ,alterthmer1 #bnd ,ed41 #cb4 #ae1 #eh4 #aa sqq42 ,aug4 ,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt ,athen im ,altertum 7,leipsic1 #ahih71 pp4 #cia sqq4 ,from ,demosthenes1 l4c41 compared with ,thucydides1 ii4 #ae1 it seems certain that the oath was administered by the ,queen at the time and place mentioned in the text4 ,formerly it was assumed that her marriage to ,dionysus was celebrated at the same place and time2 but the assumption as to the place was disproved by the discovery of ,aristotle's ,constitution of ,athens1 and with it the assumption as to the time falls to the ground4 ,as the ,greek months were commonly named after the festivals which were held in them1 it is tempting to conjecture that the sacred marriage took place in the ,marriage ,month 7,gamelion71 answering to our ,january4 ,but more probably that month was named after the sacred marriage of ,zeus and ,hera1 which was celebrated at ,athens and elsewhere4 ,see below1 p4 #adc4 ,this is the view of ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher 7,juno und ,hera1 p4 #gc1 n4 #bag7 and ,aug4 ,mommsen 7,feste der ,stadt ,athen1 p4 #chc74 ,from the name ,cattle-stall1 applied to the scene of the marriage1 ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison ingeniously conjectured that in the rite ,dionysus may have been represented as a bull 7,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek ,religion1 p4 #ecg74 ,the conjecture was anticipated by ,prof4 ,u4 von ,wilamowitz-,moellendorff1 ,aristoteles und ,athen 7,berlin1 #ahic71 ii4 #db4 ,dionysus was often conceived by the ,greeks in the form of a bull4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,above1 pp4 #ib sq4 ,footnote #dff3 ,l4 ,preller1 ,ausgewhlte ,aufstze 7,berlin1 #ahfd71 pp4 #bic-bif2 compare his ,griechische ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 ed4 ,c4 ,robert1 i4 #fha sqq4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,hyginus1 ,astronomica1 i4 #e4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,tertullian1 ,ad nationes1 ii4 #g1 8,cur rapitur sacerdos ,cereris si non tale ,ceres passa est80 ,asterius ,amasenus1 ,encomium in sanctos martyres1 in ,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xl4 col4 #cbd1 7at ,eleusis7 1 1 2 1 2 ,psellus1 ,quaenam sunt ,graecorum opiniones de daemonibus1 p4 #ci4 ed4 ,j4 ,f4 ,boissonade1 1 1 1 444 4 4 ' 1 1 1 1 7compare ,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 v4 #bj-bc72 ,schol4 on ,plato1 ,gorgias1 p4 #dig c1 7the ,eleusinian mysteries7 1 1 2 ,hippolytus1 ,refutatio omnium haeresium1 v4 #h1 pp4 #afb1 #afd1 ed4 ,duncker and ,schneidewin1 7,god71 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 ,in combining and interpreting this fragmentary evidence ,i have followed ,mr4 ,p4 ,foucart 7,recherches sur l'origine et la nature des mystres d',eleusis1 ,paris1 #ahie1 pp4 #dh sq42 id41 ,les ,grands ,mystres d',eleusis1 ,paris1 #aijj1 p4 #fi71 and ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison 7,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek ,religion1 pp4 #edi sqq474 ,in antiquity it was believed that an ointment or plaster of hemlock applied to the genital organs prevented them from discharging their function4 ,see ,dioscorides1 ,de materia medica1 iv4 #gi2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxv4 #aed4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,b4 ,bradbury1 ,downing ,professor of ,medicine in the ,university of ,cambridge1 informs me that this belief is correct4 8,although conium hemlock is not used as an anaphrodisiac at the present day1 there can be no doubt that it has this effect4 ,when rubbed into the skin it depresses sensory nerve-endings and is absorbed4 ,after absorption it depresses all sympathetic nerve-cells4 ,both these effects would tend to diminish organic reflexes such as aphrodisia0 7,dr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,dixon1 ,pharmacological ,laboratory1 ,cambridge74 ,pausanias seems to imply that the hierophant was forbidden to marry 7ii4 #ad4 #a74 ,it may have been so in his age1 the second century of our era2 but an inscription of the first century ,b4,c4 shews that at that time it was lawful for him to take a wife4 ,see ,p4 ,foucart1 ,les ,grands ,mystres d',eleusis1 pp4 #bf sqq4 7extract from the ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 vol4 xxxvii474 ,footnote #dfi3 ,pausanias1 ix4 #c2 ,plutarch1 quoted by ,eusebius1 ,praepar4 ,evang4 iii4 #a sq4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,above1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #dga3 ,above1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #agg4 ,footnote #dgc3 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #agg sq4 ,footnote #dgd3 ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 i4 #cah sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #dge3 ,w4 ,hone1 ,every ,day ,book1 ii4 #eie sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,with regard to ,zeus as an oak-god see below1 pp4 #ceh sq4 ,hera appears with an oak-tree and her sacred bird the peacock perched on it in a group which is preserved in the ,palazzo degli ,conservatori at ,rome4 ,in the same group ,pallas is represented with her olive-tree and her owl2 so that the conjunction of the oak with ,hera cannot be accidental4 ,see ,w4 ,helbig1 ,fhrer durch die ffentlichen ,sammlungen klassischen ,altertmer in ,rom #bnd ,ed41 7,leipsic1 #ahii71 i4 #cig1 ,no4 #ehg4 ,footnote #dgg3 ,pausanias1 viii4 #db4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,at ,cnossus in ,crete1 ,diodorus ,siculus1 v4 #gb2 at ,samos1 ,lactantius1 ,instit4 i4 #ag 7compare ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 vi4 #g72 at ,athens1 ,photius1 ,lexicon1 s4v4 2 ,etymologicum ,magnum1 s4v4 1 p4 #dfh4 #eb4 ,a fragment of ,pherecydes relating to the marriage of ,zeus and ,hera came to light some years ago4 ,see ,grenfell and ,hunt1 ,new ,classical and other ,greek and ,latin ,papyri 7,oxford1 #ahig71 p4 #bc2 ,h4 ,weil1 in ,revue des tudes grecques1 x4 7#ahig7 pp4 #a-i4 ,the subject has been discussed by ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher 7,juno und ,hera1 ,leipsic1 #ahge1 pp4 #gb sqq474 ,from the wide prevalence of the rite he infers that the custom of the sacred marriage was once common to all the ,greek tribes4 ,footnote #dgi3 ,iliad1 xiv4 #cdg sqq4 ,hera was worshipped under the title of ,flowery at ,argos 7,pausanias1 ii4 #bb4 #a2 compare ,etymol4 ,magn4 s4v4 1 p4 #ajh1 line #dh71 and women called ,flower-bearers served in her sanctuary 7,pollux1 iv4 #gh74 ,a great festival of gathering flowers was celebrated by ,peloponnesian women in spring 7,hesychius1 s4v4 1 compare ,photius1 ,lexicon1 s4v4 74 ,the first of ,may is still a festival of flowers in ,peloponnese4 ,see ,folk-lore1 i4 7#ahij7 pp4 #eah sqq4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 i4 #agf2 ,p4 ,herrmann1 ,nordische ,mythologie 7,leipsic1 #aijc71 pp4 #aih sqq41 #bag1 #ebj1 #ebi2 ,e4 ,h4 ,meyer1 ,mythologie der ,germanen 7,strasburg1 #aijc71 pp4 #cff sq4 ,the procession of ,frey and his wife in the waggon is doubtless the same with the procession of ,nerthus in a waggon which ,tacitus describes 7,germania1 #dj74 ,nerthus seems to be no other than ,freya1 the wife of ,frey4 ,see the commentators on ,tacitus1 l4c41 and especially ,k4 ,mllenhoff1 ,deutsche ,altertumskunde1 iv4 7,berlin1 #aijj7 pp4 #dfh sq4 ,footnote #dha3 ,gregory of ,tours1 ,de gloria confessorum1 #gg 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 lxxi4 col4 #hhd74 ,compare ,sulpicius ,severus1 ,vita ,s4 ,martini1 #ab3 8,quia esset haec ,gallorum rusticis consuetudo1 simulacra daemonum candido tecta velamine misera per agros suos circumferre dementia40 ,footnote #dhb3 8,passio ,sancti ,symphoriani10 chs4 #b and #f 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 v4 #adfc1 #adff74 ,footnote #dhc3 ,these crazy wretches castrate men and mutilate women4 ,hence they are known as the ,skoptsy 78mutilated074 ,see ,n4 ,tsakni1 ,la ,russie sectaire1 pp4 #gd sqq4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,as to this feature in the ritual of ,cybele1 see ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #bai sqq4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,max ,buch1 ,die ,wotjken 7,stuttgart1 #ahhb71 p4 #acg4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,e4 ,a4 ,gait1 in ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 vi4 part i4 p4 #aij4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,p4 ,j4 de ,arriaga1 ,extirpacion de la idolatria del ,piru 7,lima1 #afba71 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,father ,lacombe1 in ,missions ,catholiques1 ii4 7#ahfi7 pp4 #cei sq4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcf1 p4 #aji1 and #afci1 p4 #ie 7,canadian reprint72 ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 v4 #bbe2 ,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en ,amrique 7,paris1 #ahgj71 pp4 #adj-adb4 ,footnote #dij3 ,rev4 ,f4 ,hahn1 8,some ,notes on the ,religion and ,superstitions of the ,oros10 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 lxxii4 part iii4 7,calcutta1 #aijd7 p4 #ab4 ,for another account of the ceremonies held by the ,oraons in spring see above1 pp4 #gf sq4 ,footnote #dia3 ,p4 ,rascher1 8,die ,sulka10 ,archiv fr ,anthropologie1 xxix4 7#aijd7 p4 #bag4 ,footnote #dib3 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #aah4 ,footnote #dic3 ,w4 ,crooke1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ach4 ,footnote #did3 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast1 pp4 #aci-adb4 ,footnote #die3 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #eh sq4 ,footnote #dif3 ,sir ,harry ,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate 7,london1 #aijb71 ii4 #fgg4 ,footnote #dig3 ,from notes sent to me by ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 #bast ,may #aijh4 ,footnote #dih3 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott and ,j4 ,p4 ,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of ,upper ,burma and the ,shan ,states1 part ii4 vol4 i4 7,rangoon1 #aija7 p4 #dci4 ,footnote #dii3 ,e4 ,w4 ,lane1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,modern ,egyptians 7,paisley and ,london1 #ahie71 chap4 xxvi4 p4 #ejj4 ,the authority for the statement is the ,arab historian ,makrizi4 ,footnote #ejj3 ,the ,north ,china ,herald1 #dth ,may #aijf1 p4 #bce4 ,footnote #eja3 ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 8,het animisme bij de volken van den ,indischen ,archipel10 ,de ,indische ,gids1 ,june #ahhd1 p4 #iid 7referring to ,veth1 ,het eiland ,timor1 p4 #ba72 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 ii4 7,berlin1 #ahhe7 p4 #h4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,a4 ,bastian1 op4 cit4 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #ejc3 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 i4 7,berlin1 #ahhd7 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,voyages d',ibn ,batoutah1 texte arabe1 accompagn d'une traduction1 par ,c4 ,defrmery et ,b4 ,r4 ,sanguinetti 7,paris1 #ahec-aheh71 iv4 #abf-acj4 ,footnote #eje3 ,the ,thanda ,pulayans1 on the west coast of ,india1 think that the phosphorescence on the surface of the sea indicates the presence of the spirits of their ancestors1 who are fishing in the backwaters4 ,see ,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india1 p4 #bic4 ,similarly the ,sulkas of ,new ,britain fancy that the mysterious glow comes from souls bathing in the water4 ,see ,p4 ,rascher1 8,die ,sulka10 ,archiv fr ,anthropologie1 xxix4 7#aijd7 p4 #baf4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,for a list of these tales1 with references to the authorities1 see my note on ,pausanias1 ix4 #bf4 #g4 ,to the examples there referred to add ,i4 ,v4 ,zingerle1 ,kinder- und ,hausmrchen aus ,tirol1 ,nos4 #h1 #ba1 #ce1 pp4 #ce sqq41 #ajj sqq41 #agh sqq42 ,g4 ,f4 ,abbott1 ,macedonian ,folk-lore1 pp4 #bgj sqq4 ,this type of story has been elaborately investigated by ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland 7,the ,legend of ,perseus1 ,london1 #ahid-ahif71 but he has not discussed the custom of the sacred marriage1 on which the story seems to be founded4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,note on ,pausanias1 ix4 #aj4 #e4 ,footnote #ejh3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #bbf sqq4 ,footnote #eji3 ,r4 ,salvado1 ,mmoires historiques sur l',australie 7,paris1 #ahed71 p4 #bfb4 ,footnote #eaj3 ,h4 ,ternaux-,compans1 ,essai sur l'ancien ,cundinamarca1 pp4 #f sq4 ,footnote #eaa3 ,h4 ,coudreau1 ,chez nos ,indiens 7,paris1 #ahie71 pp4 #cjc sq4 ,footnote #eab3 ,c4 ,lumholtz1 ,unknown ,mexico 7,london1 #aijc71 ii4 #eg4 ,footnote #eac3 ,c4 ,lumholtz1 op4 cit4 i4 #djb sq4 ,footnote #ead3 ,t4 ,i4 ,fairclough1 8,notes on the ,basutos10 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 #ad1 ,january #aije1 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #eae3 ,to the examples given in my note on ,pausanias viii4 #g4 #b1 add ,ph4 ,paulitschke1 ,ethnographie ,nordost-,afrikas1 die geistige ,cultur der ,dankil1 ,galla und ,soml 7,berlin1 #ahif71 pp4 #df1 #ej2 8,de ,dajaks op ,borneo10 ,mededeelingen van wege het ,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1 xiii4 7#ahfi7 p4 #gb2 ,a4 ,d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans l',amrique ,mridionale1 ii4 #ic1 #afj 7see above1 pp4 #af sq472 ,f4 ,blumentritt1 8ber die ,eingeborenen der ,insel ,palawan und der ,inselgruppe der ,talamianen10 ,globus1 lix4 7#ahia7 p4 #afg2 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4 #df2 ,father ,guillem1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 lx4 7#ahhh7 p4 #beb4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,w4 ,f4 ,w4 ,owen1 ,narrative of ,voyages to explore the ,shores of ,africa1 ,arabia1 and ,madagascar 7,london1 #ahcc71 ii4 #ced sq4 ,footnote #eag3 ,h4 ,goldie1 ,calabar and its ,mission1 ,new ,edition 7,edinburgh and ,london1 #aija71 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #eah3 ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xxxiii4 7#ahfa7 p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #eai3 ,father ,guillem1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 lx4 7#ahhh7 p4 #bec4 ,footnote #ebj3 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des nations civilises du ,mexique et de l',amrique-,centrale1 i4 #cbg sq4 ,footnote #eba3 ,e4 ,aymonier1 8,les ,tchames et leurs religions10 ,revue de l'histoire des religions1 xxiv4 7#ahia7 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #if-ajd4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,to-day 7,chicago1 #aijb71 p4 #aag4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 op4 cit4 p4 #aai4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #ej sq41 #bbe sq4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 xvii41 ,punjab1 p4 #afd4 ,footnote #ebg3 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,tribes and ,castes of the ,north-,western ,provinces and ,oudh1 iv4 #dbe4 ,as to the sect of the ,maharajas1 see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #djf sq4 ,footnote #ebh3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxi4 #h4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,to-day1 pp4 #aaf sq42 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,h4 ,spoer1 8,the ,powers of ,evil in ,jerusalem10 ,folk-lore1 xviii4 7#aijg7 p4 #ee2 ,a4 ,jaussen1 ,coutumes des ,arabes au pays de ,moab 7,paris1 #aijh71 p4 #cfj4 ,footnote #ecj3 ,j4 ,m4 ,mackinlay1 ,folk-lore of ,scottish ,lochs and ,springs 7,glasgow1 #ahic71 p4 #aab4 ,footnote #eca3 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon and ,c4 ,r4 ,browne1 8,the ,ethnography of the ,aran ,islands10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,irish ,academy1 ii4 7#ahic71 p4 #hai4 ,footnote #ecb3 ,r4 ,c4 ,hope1 ,the ,legendary ,lore of the ,holy ,wells of ,england 7,london1 #ahic71 p4 #abb4 ,footnote #ecc3 ,r4 ,c4 ,hope1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ajg sq4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,see1 for example1 ,pausanias1 ii4 #ae4 #e1 v4 #g4 #b sq41 vi4 #bb4 #i1 vii4 #bc4 #a sq41 viii4 #dc4 #a1 ix4 #a4 #a sq41 ix4 #cd4 #f and #i4 ,footnote #ece3 ,sophocles1 ,trachiniae1 #f sqq4 ,the combat of ,hercules with the bull-shaped river-god in presence of ,dejanira is the subject of a red-figured vase painting4 ,see ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek ,religion #bnd ,ed41 7,cambridge1 #aijh71 ,fig4 #acc1 p4 #dcd4 ,footnote #ecf3 ,aeschines1 ,epist4 x4 ,the letters of ,aeschines are spurious1 but there is no reason to doubt that the custom here described was actually observed4 ,footnote #ecg3 ,see the evidence collected by ,mr4 ,floyd ,g4 ,ballentine1 8,some ,phases of the ,cult of the ,nymphs10 ,harvard ,studies in ,classical ,philology1 xv4 7#aijd7 pp4 #ig sqq4 ,footnote #ech3 ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 i4 #ajg-aaj1 ii4 #eej4 ,at ,ragusa in ,sicily an enormous effigy of a dragon1 with movable tail and eyes1 is carried in procession on ,st4 ,george's ,day 7,april #bcrd72 and along with it two huge sugar loaves1 decorated with flowers1 figure in the procession4 ,at the end of the festival these loaves are broken into little bits1 and every farmer puts one of the pieces in his sowed fields to ensure a good crop4 ,see ,g4 ,pitr1 ,feste patronali in ,sicilia 7,turin and ,palermo1 #aijj71 pp4 #cbc sq4 ,in this custom the fertility charm remains1 though the marriage ceremony appears to be absent4 ,as to the mummers' play of ,st4 ,george1 see ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1 ,the ,mediaeval ,stage 7,oxford1 #aijc71 i4 #bje sqq42 ,a4 ,beatty1 8,the ,st4 ,george1 or ,mummers'1 ,plays10 ,transactions of the ,wisconsin ,academy of ,sciences1 ,arts1 and ,letters1 xv4 part ii4 7,october1 #aijf7 pp4 #bgc-cbd4 ,a separate copy of the latter work was kindly sent to me by the author4 ,footnote #eci3 ,see ,f4 ,n4 ,taillepied1 ,recueil des ,antiquitez et singularitez de la ville de ,rouen 7,rouen1 #aehg71 pp4 #ic-aje2 ,a4 ,floquet1 ,histoire du privilge de ,saint ,romain 7#b vols4 #hvo1 ,rouen1 #ahcc74 ,briefer notices of the custom and legend will be found in ,a4 ,bosquet's ,la ,normandie romanesque et merveilleuse 7,paris and ,rouen1 #ahde71 pp4 #dje-dji2 and ,a4 de ,nore's ,coutumes1 mythes1 et traditions des provinces de ,france 7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 pp4 #bde-bej4 ,the gilt fierte1 or portable shrine of ,st4 ,romain1 is preserved in the ,chapter ,library of the ,cathedral at ,rouen1 where ,i saw it in ,may #aijb4 ,it is in the form of a chapel1 on the roof of which the saint stands erect1 trampling on the winged dragon1 while the condemned prisoner kneels in front of him4 ,this1 however1 is not the original shrine1 which was so decayed that in #aggf the ,chapter decided to replace it by another4 ,see ,floquet1 op4 cit4 ii4 #cch-cdf4 ,the custom of carrying the dragons in procession was stopped in #agec because of its tendency to impair the solemnity of the ceremony 7,floquet1 op4 cit4 ii4 #cja74 ,even more famous than the dragon of ,rouen was the dragon of ,tarascon1 an effigy of which used to be carried in procession on ,whitsunday4 ,see ,a4 de ,nore1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dg sqq4 ,as to other ,french dragons see ,p4 ,sbillot1 ,le ,folk-lore de ,france1 i4 7,paris1 #aijd7 pp4 #dfh-dgj4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,kings ,,of ,,rome ,,and ,,alba #a4 ,numa and ,egeria ,sidenote3 ,egeria at ,nemi a nymph of water and of the oak1 perhaps a form of ,diana4 ,from the foregoing survey of custom and legend we may infer that the sacred marriage of the powers both of vegetation and of water has been celebrated by many peoples for the sake of promoting the fertility of the earth1 on which the life of animals and men ultimately depends1 and that in such rites the part of the divine bridegroom or bride is often sustained by a man or woman4 ,the evidence may1 therefore1 lend some countenance to the conjecture that in the sacred grove at ,nemi1 where the powers of vegetation and of water manifested themselves in the fair forms of shady woods1 tumbling cascades1 and glassy lake1 a marriage like that of our ,king and ,queen of ,may was annually celebrated between the mortal ,king of the ,wood and the immortal ,queen of the ,wood1 ,diana4 ,in this connexion an important figure in the grove was the water-nymph ,egeria1 who was worshipped by pregnant women because she1 like ,diana1 could grant them an easy delivery4#edj ,from this it seems fairly safe to conclude that1 like many other springs1 the water of ,egeria was credited with a power of facilitating conception as well as delivery4 ,the votive offerings found on the spot1 which clearly refer to the begetting of children1#eda may possibly have been dedicated to ,egeria rather than to ,diana1 or perhaps we should rather say that the water-nymph ,egeria is only another form of the great nature-goddess ,diana herself1 the mistress of sounding rivers as well as of umbrageous woods1#edb who had her home by the lake and her mirror in its calm waters1 and whose ,greek counterpart ,artemis loved to haunt meres and springs4#edc ,the identification of ,egeria with ,diana is confirmed by a statement of ,plutarch that ,egeria was one of the oak-nymphs#edd whom the ,romans believed to preside over every green oak-grove2#ede for while ,diana was a goddess of the woodlands in general she appears to have been intimately associated with oaks in particular1 especially at her sacred grove of ,nemi4#edf ,perhaps1 then1 ,egeria was the fairy of a spring that flowed from the roots of a sacred oak4 ,such a spring is said to have gushed from the foot of the great oak at ,dodona1 and from its murmurous flow the priestess drew oracles4#edg ,among the ,greeks a draught of water from certain sacred springs or wells was supposed to confer prophetic powers4#edh ,this would explain the more than mortal wisdom with which1 according to tradition1 ,egeria inspired her royal husband or lover ,numa4#edi ,when we remember how very often in early society the king is held responsible for the fall of rain and the fruitfulness of the earth1 it seems hardly rash to conjecture that in the legend of the nuptials of ,numa and ,sidenote3 ,the legend of the nuptials of ,numa and ,egeria may be a reminiscence of a sacred marriage which the kings of ,rome contracted with a goddess of water and of vegetation4 ,egeria we have a reminiscence of a sacred marriage which the old ,roman kings regularly contracted with a goddess of vegetation and water for the purpose of enabling him to discharge his divine or magical functions4 ,in such a rite the part of the goddess might be played either by an image or a woman1 and if by a woman1 probably by the ,queen4 ,if there is any truth in this conjecture1 we may suppose that the ,king and ,queen of ,rome masqueraded as god and goddess at their marriage1 exactly as the ,king and ,queen of ,egypt appear to have done4#eej ,the legend of ,numa and ,egeria points to a sacred grove rather than to a house as the scene of the nuptial union1 which1 like the marriage of the ,king and ,queen of ,may1 or of the vine-god and the ,queen of ,athens1 may have been annually celebrated as a charm to ensure the fertility not only of the earth but of man and beast4 ,now1 according to some accounts1 the scene of the marriage was no other than the sacred grove of ,nemi1 and on quite independent grounds we have been led to suppose that in that same grove the ,king of the ,wood was wedded to ,diana4 ,the convergence of the two distinct lines of enquiry suggests that the legendary union of the ,roman king with ,egeria may have been a reflection or duplicate of the union of the ,king of the ,wood with ,egeria or her double ,diana4 ,this does not imply that the ,roman kings ever served as ,kings of the ,wood in the ,arician grove1 but only that they may originally have been invested with a sacred character of the same general kind1 and may have held office on similar terms4 ,to be more explicit1 it is possible that they reigned1 not by right of birth1 but in virtue of their supposed divinity as representatives or embodiments of a god1 and that as such they mated with a goddess1 and had to prove their fitness from time to time to discharge their divine functions by engaging in a severe bodily struggle1 which may often have proved fatal to them1 leaving the crown to their victorious adversary4 ,our knowledge of the ,roman kingship is far too scanty to allow us to affirm any one of these propositions with confidence2 but at least there are some scattered hints or indications of a similarity in all these respects between the priests of ,nemi and the kings of ,rome1 or perhaps rather between their remote predecessors in the dark ages which preceded the dawn of legend4#eea #b4 ,the ,king as ,jupiter ,sidenote3 ,the ,roman king seems to have personated ,jupiter and worn his costume4 ,in the first place1 then1 it would seem that the ,roman king personated no less a deity than ,jupiter himself4 ,for down to imperial times victorious generals celebrating a triumph1 and magistrates presiding at the games in the ,circus1 wore the costume of ,jupiter1 which was borrowed for the occasion from his great temple on the ,capitol2 and it has been held with a high degree of probability both by ancients and moderns that in so doing they copied the traditionary attire and insignia of the ,roman kings4#eeb ,they rode a chariot drawn by four laurel-crowned horses through the city1 where every one else went on foot2#eec they wore purple robes embroidered or spangled with gold2 in the right hand they bore a branch of laurel and in the left hand an ivory sceptre topped with an eagle2 a wreath of laurel crowned their brows2 their face was reddened with vermilion2 and over their head a slave held a heavy crown of massy gold fashioned in the likeness of oak leaves4#eed ,in this attire the assimilation of the man to the god comes out above all in the eagle-topped sceptre1 the oaken crown1 and the reddened face4 ,for the eagle was the bird of ,jove1 the oak was his sacred tree1 and the face of his image standing in his four-horse chariot on the ,capitol was in like manner regularly dyed red on festivals2 indeed1 so important was it deemed to keep the divine features properly rouged that one of the first duties of the censors was to contract for having this done4#eee ,the ,greeks sometimes painted red the face or the whole body of the wine-god ,dionysus4#eef ,these customs may have been a substitute for an older practice of feeding a god by smearing the face1 and especially the lips1 of his idol with the blood of a sacrificial victim4 ,many examples of such a practice might be adduced from the religion of barbarous peoples4#eeg ,as the triumphal procession always ended in the temple of ,jupiter on the ,capitol1 it was peculiarly appropriate that the head of the victor should be graced by a crown of oak leaves1 for not only was every oak consecrated to ,jupiter1#eeh but the ,capitoline temple of the god was said to have been built by ,romulus beside a sacred oak1 venerated by shepherds1 to which the king attached the spoils won by him from the enemy's general in battle4#eei ,we are expressly told that the oak crown was ,sidenote3 ,the oak crown as an emblem of ,jupiter and of the ,roman emperors4 sacred to ,capitoline ,jupiter2#efj a passage of ,ovid proves that it was regarded as the god's special emblem4 ,writing in exile on the shores of the ,black ,sea1 the poet sends the book which he has just composed to ,rome to be published there2 he personifies the volume and imagines it passing along the ,sacred ,way and up to the door of the emperor's stately palace on the ,palatine hill4 ,above the portal hung shining arms and a crown of oak leaves4 ,at the sight the poet starts3 8,is this1 quoth ,i1 the house of ,jove8 ,for sure to my prophetic soul the oaken crown was reason good to think it so40#efa ,the senate had granted ,augustus the right to have the wreath of oak always suspended over his door2#efb and elsewhere ,ovid counts this among the more than mortal honours bestowed on the emperor4#efc ,on the ,capitol at ,cirta there stood a silver image of ,jupiter wearing a silver crown of oak leaves and acorns4#efd ,similarly at ,dodona1 the most famous sanctuary of the oak in ,greece1 the image of ,zeus appears to have worn a chaplet of oak leaves2 for the god is constantly thus portrayed on coins of ,epirus4#efe ,and just as ,roman kings appear to have personated the oak-god ,jupiter1 so ,greek kings appear to have personated the oak-god ,zeus4 ,the legendary ,salmoneus of ,elis is certainly reported to have done so2#eff ,periphas1 an ancient king of ,athens1 is said to have been styled ,zeus by his people1 and to have been changed into an eagle by his jealous name-sake4#efg ,in ,homer kings are often spoken of as nurtured by ,zeus and divine4#efh ,indeed we are told that in ancient days every ,greek king was called ,zeus4#efi ,sidenote3 ,to the ,romans the breach between the human and the divine was not so wide as it seems to us4 ,thus we may fairly assume that on certain solemn occasions ,roman generals and magistrates personated the supreme god1 and that in so doing they revived the practice of the early kings4 ,to us moderns1 for whom the breach which divides the human and the divine has deepened into an impassable gulf1 such mimicry may appear impious1 but it was otherwise with the ancients4 ,to their thinking gods and men were akin1 for many families traced their descent from a divinity1 and the deification of a man probably seemed as little extraordinary to them as the canonisation of a saint seems to a modern ,catholic4 ,the ,romans in particular were quite familiar with the spectacle of men masquerading as spirits2 for at the funerals of great houses all the illustrious dead of the family were personated by men specially chosen for their resemblance to the departed4 ,these representatives wore ,sidenote3 ,roman custom of representing dead ancestors by masked men4 masks fashioned and painted in the likeness of the originals3 they were dressed in rich robes of office1 resplendent with purple and gold1 such as the dead nobles had worn in their lifetime3 like them1 they rode in chariots through the city preceded by the rods and axes1 and attended by all the pomp and heraldry of high station2 and when at last the funeral procession1 after threading its way through the crowded streets1 defiled into the ,forum1 the maskers solemnly took their seats on ivory chairs placed for them on the platform of the ,rostra1 in the sight of the people1 recalling no doubt to the old1 by their silent presence1 the memories of an illustrious past1 and firing the young with the ambition of a glorious future4#egj ,sidenote3 ,the kings of ,alba seem also to have claimed to represent ,jupiter4 ,according to a tradition which we have no reason to reject1 ,rome was founded by settlers from ,alba ,longa1 a city situated on the slope of the ,alban hills1 overlooking the lake and the ,campagna4#ega ,hence if the ,roman kings claimed to be representatives or embodiments of ,jupiter1 the god of the sky1 of the thunder1 and of the oak1 it is natural to suppose that the kings of ,alba1 from whom the founder of ,rome traced his descent1 may have set up the same claim before them4 ,now the ,alban dynasty bore the name of ,silvii or ,wood1 and it can hardly be without significance that in the vision of the historic glories of ,rome revealed to ,aeneas in the underworld1 ,virgil1 an antiquary as well as a poet1 should represent all the line of ,silvii as crowned ,sidenote3 ,the ,silvii and the ,julii4 with oak4#egb ,a chaplet of oak leaves would thus seem to have been part of the insignia of the old kings of ,alba ,longa as of their successors the kings of ,rome2 in both cases it marked the monarch as the human representative of the oak-god4 ,with regard to ,silvius1 the first king of the ,alban dynasty1 we are told that he got his name because he had been born or brought up in the forest1 and that when he came to man's estate he contested the kingdom with his kinsman ,julus1 whose name1 as some of the ancients themselves ,sidenote3 ,julus1 the little ,jupiter4 perceived1 means the ,little ,jupiter4 ,the people decided in favour of ,silvius1 but his rival ,julus was consoled for the loss of the crown by being invested with religious authority and the office of chief pontiff1 or perhaps rather of ,flamen ,dialis1 the highest dignity after the kingship4 ,from this ,julus or ,little ,jupiter1 the noble house of the ,julii1 and hence the first emperors of ,rome1 believed themselves to be sprung4#egc ,the legend of the dispute between ,silvius and ,julus may preserve a reminiscence of such a partition of spiritual and temporal powers in ,alba ,longa as afterwards took place in ,rome1 when the old regal office was divided between the ,consuls and the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites4#egd ,many more instances of such a schism will meet us later on4 ,that the ,julian house worshipped ,vejovis1 the ,little ,jupiter1 according to the ancient rites of ,alba ,longa1 is proved by the inscription on an altar which they dedicated to him at their ancestral home of ,bovillae1 a colony of ,alba ,longa1 situated at the foot of the ,alban hills4#ege ,the ,caesars1 the most illustrious family of the ,julian house1 took their name from their long hair 7caesaries71#egf which was probably in those early days1 as it was among the ,franks long afterwards1 a symbol of royalty4#egg ,sidenote3 ,the ,alban kings seem to have been expected to make thunder and rain for the good of their subjects4 ,but in ceding the pontificate to their rivals1 it would seem that the reigning dynasty of the ,silvii or ,woods by no means renounced their own claim to personate the god of the oak and the thunder2 for the ,roman annals record that one of them1 ,romulus1 ,remulus1 or ,amulius ,silvius by name1 set up for being a god in his own person1 the equal or superior of ,jupiter4 ,to support his pretensions and overawe his subjects1 he constructed machines whereby he mimicked the clap of thunder and the flash of lightning4 ,diodorus relates that in the season of fruitage1 when thunder is loud and frequent1 the king commanded his soldiers to drown the roar of heaven's artillery by clashing their swords against their shields4 ,but he paid the penalty of his impiety1 for he perished1 he and his house1 struck by a thunderbolt in the midst of a dreadful storm4 ,swollen by the rain1 the ,alban lake rose in flood and drowned his palace4 ,but still1 says an ancient historian1 when the water is low and the surface unruffled by a breeze1 you may see the ruins of the palace at the bottom of the clear lake4#egh ,taken along with the similar story of ,salmoneus1 king of ,elis1#egi this legend points to a real custom observed by the early kings of ,greece and ,italy1 who like their fellows in ,africa down to modern times may have been expected to produce rain and thunder for the good of the crops4#ehj ,the priestly king ,numa passed for an adept in the art of drawing down lightning from the sky4#eha ,mock thunder1 we know1 has been made by various peoples as a rain-charm in modern times2#ehb why should it not have been made by kings in antiquity8 ,sidenote3 ,the legends of the deaths of ,roman kings point to a close connexion between the king and the thunder-god4 ,in this connexion it deserves to be noted that1 according to the legend1 ,salmoneus1 like his ,alban counterpart1 was killed by a thunderbolt2 and that one of the ,roman kings1 ,tullus ,hostilius1 is reported to have met with the same end in an attempt to draw down ,jupiter in the form of lightning from the sky4#ehc ,aeneas himself1 the legendary ancestor both of the ,alban and the ,roman kings1 vanished from the world in a violent thunderstorm1 and was afterwards worshipped as ,jupiter ,indiges4 ,a mound of earth1 encircled with fine trees1 on the bank of the little river ,numicius was pointed out as his grave4#ehd ,romulus1 too1 the first king of ,rome1 ,sidenote3 ,death and deification of ,romulus4 disappeared in like manner4 ,it was the seventh of ,july1 and the king was reviewing his army at the ,goat's ,marsh1 outside the walls of the city4 ,suddenly the sky lowered and a tempest burst1 accompanied by peals of thunder4 ,soon the storm had swept by1 leaving the brightness and serenity of the summer day behind4 ,but ,romulus was never seen again4 ,those who had stood by him said they saw him caught up to heaven in a whirlwind2 and not long afterwards a certain ,proculus ,julius1 a patrician of ,alban birth and descent1 declared on oath that ,romulus had appeared to him clad in bright armour1 and announced that the ,romans were to worship him as a god under the name of ,quirinus1 and to build him a temple on the spot4 ,the temple was built and the place was henceforth known as the ,quirinal hill4#ehe ,in this legend it is significant that the annunciation of the king's divinity should be put in the mouth of a member of the ,julian house1 a native of ,alba2 for we have seen reason to believe that at ,alba the ,julii had competed with the ,silvii1 from whom ,romulus was descended1 for the kingship1 and with it for the honour of personating ,jupiter4 ,if1 as seems to be philologically possible1 the word ,quirinus is derived from the same root as quercus1 8an oak10 the name of the deified ,romulus would mean no more than 8the oak-god10 that is1 ,jupiter4#ehf ,thus the tradition would square perfectly with the other indications of custom and legend which have led us to conclude that the kings both of ,rome and of ,alba claimed to embody in their own persons the god of the sky1 of thunder1 and of the oak4 ,certainly the stories which associated the deaths of so many of them with thunderstorms point to a close connexion with the god of thunder and lightning4 ,a king who had been wont to fulminate in his lifetime might naturally be supposed at death to be carried up in a thunderstorm to heaven1 there to discharge above the clouds the same duties which he had performed on earth4 ,such a tale would be all the more likely to attach itself to the twin ,romulus1 if the early ,romans shared the widespread superstition that twins have power over the weather in general and over rain and wind in particular4#ehg ,that tempests are caused by the spirits of the dead is a belief of the ,araucanians of ,chili4 ,not a storm bursts upon the ,andes or the ocean which these ,indians do not ascribe to a battle between the souls of their fellow-countrymen and the dead ,spaniards4 ,in the roaring of the wind they hear the trampling of the ghostly horses1 in the peal of the thunder the roll of the drums1 and in the flashes of lightning the fire of the artillery4#ehh ,sidenote3 ,every ,latin town probably had its local ,jupiter4 ,thus1 if the kings of ,alba and ,rome imitated ,jupiter as god of the oak by wearing a crown of oak leaves1 they seem also to have copied him in his character of a weather-god by pretending to make thunder and lightning4 ,and if they did so1 it is probable that1 like ,jupiter in heaven and many kings on earth1 they also acted as public rain-makers1 wringing showers from the dark sky by their enchantments whenever the parched earth cried out for the refreshing moisture4 ,at ,rome the sluices of heaven were opened by means of a sacred stone1 and the ceremony appears to have formed part of the ritual of ,jupiter ,elicius1 the god who elicits from the clouds the flashing lightning and the dripping rain4#ehi ,and who so well fitted to perform the ceremony as the king1 the living representative of the sky-god8 ,sidenote3 ,many local ,jupiters in ,latium4 ,the conclusion which we have reached as to the kings of ,rome and ,alba probably holds good of all the kings of ancient ,latium3 each of them1 we may suppose1 represented or embodied the local ,jupiter4 ,for we can hardly doubt that of old every ,latin town or settlement had its own ,jupiter1 as every town and almost every church in modern ,italy has its own ,madonna2 and like the ,baal of the ,semites the local ,jupiter was commonly worshipped on high places4 ,wooded heights1 round which the rain-clouds gather1 were indeed the natural sanctuaries for a god of the sky1 the rain1 and the oak4 ,at ,rome he occupied one summit of the ,capitoline hill1 while the other summit was assigned to his wife ,juno1 whose temple1 with the long flight ,sidenote3 ,capitoline ,jupiter and ,juno4 of stairs leading up to it1 has for ages been appropriately replaced by the church of ,st4 ,mary 8in the altar of the sky0 7in ,araceli74#eij ,that both heights were originally wooded seems certain1 for down to imperial times the saddle which joins them was known as the place 8between the two groves40#eia ,virgil tells us that the hilltop where gilded temples glittered in his day had been covered of old by shaggy thickets1 the haunt of woodland elves and savage men1 8born of the tree-trunks and the heart of oak40#eib ,these thickets were probably composed of oaks1 for the oak crown ,sidenote3 ,the hills of ,rome once wooded with oaks4 was sacred to ,capitoline ,juno as well as to ,jupiter2#eic it was to a sacred oak on the ,capitol that ,romulus fastened the spoils1#eid and there is evidence that in early times oak-woods clothed other of the hills on which ,rome was afterwards built4 ,thus the ,caelian hill went originally by the name of the ,mountain of the ,oak ,grove on account of the thickets of oak by which it was overgrown1#eie and ,jupiter was here worshipped in his character of the oak-god2#eif one of the old gates of ,rome1 apparently between the ,caelian and the ,esquiline hills1 was called the ,gate of the ,oak ,grove for a similar reason2#eig and within the walls hard by was a ,chapel of the ,oak ,grove dedicated to the worship of the oak-nymphs4#eih ,these nymphs appear on coins of the ,accoleian family as three women supporting on their shoulders a pole from which rise leafy branches4#eii ,the ,esquiline hill seems also to have derived its name from its oaks4 ,after mentioning the ,chapel of the ,oak and other hallowed groves which still dotted the hill in his time1 the antiquary ,varro tells us that their bounds were now much curtailed1 adding with a sigh that it was no wonder the sacred old trees should give way to the modern worship of ,mammon4#fjj ,apparently the ,roman nobles of those days sold the ancient woods1 as their descendants sell their beautiful gardens1 for building-land4 ,to this list of oak-clad hills on the left bank of the ,tiber must be added the ,quirinal1 if ,quirinus1 who had a very ancient shrine on the hill1 was the oak-god4#fja ,under the ,aventine was a grove of evergreen oaks1#fjb which appears to have been no other than the grove of ,egeria outside the ,porta ,capena4#fjc ,the old grove of ,vesta1 which once skirted the foot of the ,palatine hill on the side of the ,forum1#fjd must surely have been a grove of oaks2 for not only does an oak appear growing beside the temple of ,vesta on a fine relief preserved in the gallery of the ,uffizi at ,florence1 but ,sidenote3 ,the sacred ,vestal fire fed with oak-wood4 charred embers of the sacred ,vestal fire have in recent years been discovered at the temple of ,vesta in the ,forum1 and a microscopic analysis of them has proved that they consist of the pith or heart of trunks or great branches of oak 7quercus74#fje ,the full significance of this discovery will appear later on4 ,when the plebeians seceded to the ,janiculum in the third century before ,christ1 the dictator ,q4 ,hortensius summoned a meeting of the people and passed a law in an oak grove1 which perhaps grew on the hill4#fjf ,in this neighbourhood there was a street called the ,street of the ,oak ,grove2 it is mentioned in an inscription found in its original position near the modern ,garibaldi bridge4#fjg ,on the ,vatican hill there stood an evergreen oak which was believed to be older than ,rome2 an inscription in ,etruscan letters on a bronze tablet proclaimed the sanctity of the tree4#fjh ,finally1 that oak woods existed at or near ,rome in the earliest times has lately been demonstrated by the discovery in the ,forum itself of a prehistoric cemetery1 which contains amongst other sepultures the bones of several young children deposited in rudely hollowed trunks of oak4#fji ,with all this evidence before us we need not wonder that ,virgil should speak of the primitive inhabitants of ,rome as 8born of the tree-trunks and the heart of oak10 and that the ,roman kings should have worn crowns of oak leaves in imitation of the oak-god ,jupiter1 who dwelt in his sacred grove on the ,capitol4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,alban kings may have imitated ,latian ,jupiter1 who dwelt on the top of the ,alban ,mount4 ,if the kings of ,rome aped ,capitoline ,jove1 their predecessors the kings of ,alba probably laid themselves out to mimic the great ,latian ,jupiter1 who had his seat above the city on the summit of the ,alban ,mountain4 ,latinus1 the legendary ancestor of the dynasty1 was said to have been changed into ,latian ,jupiter after vanishing from the world in the mysterious fashion characteristic of the old ,latin kings4#faj ,the sanctuary of the god on the top of the mountain was the religious centre of the ,latin ,league1 as ,alba was its political capital till ,rome wrested the supremacy from its ancient rival4 ,apparently no temple1 in our sense of the word1 was ever erected to ,jupiter on this his holy mountain2 as god of the sky and thunder he appropriately received the homage of his worshippers in the open air4 ,the massive wall1 of which some remains still enclose the old garden of the ,passionist monastery1 seems to have been part of the sacred precinct which ,tarquin the ,proud1 the last king of ,rome1 marked out for the solemn annual assembly of the ,latin ,league4#faa ,the god's oldest sanctuary on this airy mountain-top was a grove2#fab and bearing in mind not merely the special consecration of the oak to ,jupiter1 but also the traditional oak crown of the ,alban kings and the analogy of the ,capitoline ,jupiter at ,rome1 we may suppose that the trees in the grove were oaks4#fac ,we know that in antiquity ,mount ,algidus1 an outlying group of the ,alban hills1 was covered with dark forests of oak2#fad and among the tribes who belonged to the ,latin ,league in the earliest days1 and were entitled to share the flesh of the white bull sacrificed on the ,alban ,mount1 there was one whose members styled themselves the ,men of the ,oak1#fae doubtless on account of the woods among which they dwelt4 ,sidenote3 ,theophrastus's description of the woods of ,latium4 ,but we should err if we pictured to ourselves the country as covered in historical times with an unbroken forest of oaks4 ,theophrastus has left us a description of the woods of ,latium as they were in the fourth century before ,christ4 ,he says3 8,the land of the ,latins is all moist4 ,the plains produce laurels1 myrtles1 and wonderful beeches2 for they fell trees of such a size that a single stem suffices for the keel of a ,tyrrhenian ship4 ,pines and firs grow in the mountains4 ,what they call the land of ,circe is a lofty headland thickly wooded with oak1 myrtle1 and luxuriant laurels4 ,the natives say that ,circe dwelt there1 and they shew the grave of ,elpenor1 from which grow myrtles such as wreaths are made of1 whereas the other myrtle-trees are tall40#faf ,thus the prospect from the top ,sidenote3 ,the prospect from the ,alban ,mount in antiquity4 of the ,alban ,mount in the early days of ,rome must have been very different in some respects from what it is to-day4 ,the purple ,apennines1 indeed1 in their eternal calm on the one hand1 and the shining ,mediterranean in its eternal unrest on the other1 no doubt looked then much as they look now1 whether bathed in sunshine1 or chequered by the fleeting shadows of clouds2 but instead of the desolate brown expanse of the fever-stricken ,campagna1 spanned by its long lines of ruined aqueducts1 like the broken arches of the bridge in the vision of ,mirza1 the eye must have ranged over woodlands that stretched away1 mile after mile1 on all sides1 till their varied hues of green or autumnal scarlet and gold melted insensibly into the blue of the distant mountains and sea4 ,thus the ,alban ,mount was to the ,latins what ,olympus was to the ,greeks1 the lofty abode of the sky-god1 who hurled his thunderbolts from above the clouds4 ,the white steers which were here sacrificed to him in his sacred grove1 as in the ,capitol at ,rome1#fag remind us of the white bulls which the ,druids of ,gaul sacrificed under the holy oak when ,sidenote3 ,resemblance between the ,latin worship of ,jupiter and the ,druidical worship of the oak4 they cut the mistletoe2#fah and the parallel would be all the closer if1 as we have seen reason to think1 the ,latins worshipped ,jupiter originally in groves of oak4 ,other resemblances between ancient ,gaul and ,latium will meet us later on4 ,when we remember that the ancient ,italian and ,celtic peoples spoke languages which are nearly related to each other1#fai we shall not be surprised at discovering traces of community in their religion1 especially in what concerns the worship of the god of the oak and the thunder4 ,for that worship1 as we shall see presently1 belongs to the oldest stratum of ,aryan civilisation in ,europe4 ,sidenote3 ,sacred marriage of ,jupiter and ,juno4 ,but ,jupiter did not reign alone on the top of his holy mountain4 ,he had his consort with him1 the goddess ,juno1 who was worshipped here under the same title1 ,moneta1 as on the ,capitol at ,rome4#fbj ,as the oak crown was sacred to ,jupiter and ,juno on the ,capitol1#fba so we may suppose it was on the ,alban ,mount1 from which the ,capitoline worship was derived4 ,thus the oak-god would have his oak-goddess in the sacred oak grove4 ,so at ,dodona the oak-god ,zeus was coupled with ,dione1 whose very name is only a dialectically different form of ,juno2#fbb and so on the top of ,mount ,cithaeron he was periodically wedded to an oaken image of ,hera4#fbc ,it is probable1 though it cannot be positively proved1 that the sacred marriage of ,jupiter and ,juno was annually celebrated by all the peoples of the ,latin stock in the month which they named after the goddess1 the midsummer month of ,june4#fbd ,now on the first of ,june the ,roman pontiffs performed certain rites in the grove of ,helernus beside the ,tiber1 and on the same day1 and perhaps in the same place1 a nymph of the grove1 by name ,carna1 received offerings of lard and bean-porridge4 ,she was said to be a huntress1 chaste and coy1 who gave ,sidenote3 ,janus and ,carna4 the slip to her lovers in the depths of the wood1 but was caught by ,janus4 ,some took her to be ,diana herself4#fbe ,if she were indeed a form of that goddess1 her union with ,janus1 that is1 ,dianus1 would be appropriate2 and as she had a chapel on the ,caelian hill1 which was once covered with oak-woods1#fbf she may have been1 like ,egeria1 an oak-nymph4 ,further1 ,janus1 or ,dianus1 and ,diana1 as we shall see later on1 were originally mere doubles of ,jupiter and ,juno1 with whom they coincide in name and to some extent in function4 ,hence it appears to be not impossible that the rite celebrated by the pontiffs on the first of ,june in the sacred grove of ,helernus was the marriage of ,jupiter and ,juno under the forms of ,janus and ,diana4 ,it would be some confirmation of this view if we could be sure that1 as ,ovid seems to imply1 the ,romans were in the habit of placing branches of white thorn or buckthorn in their ,sidenote3 ,ancient use of white thorn or buckthorn to ward off witchcraft4 windows on the first of ,june to keep out the witches2#fbg for in some parts of ,europe precisely the same custom is observed1 for the same reason1 a month earlier1 on the marriage day of the ,king and ,queen of ,may4#fbh ,the ,greeks certainly believed that branches of white thorn or buckthorn fastened to a door or outside the house had power to disarm the malignant arts of sorcerers#fbi and to exclude spirits4 ,hence they hung up branches of it before the door when sacrifices were being offered to the dead1 lest any of the prowling ghosts should be tempted to revisit their old homes or to invade those of other people4#fcj ,when the atheist ,bion lay adying1 he not only caused sacrifices to be offered on his behalf to the gods whose existence he had denied1 but got an old hag to mumble incantations over him and to bind magical thongs about his arms1 and he had boughs of buckthorn and laurel attached to the lintel to keep out death4#fca ,however1 the evidence as to the rites observed by the ,romans on the first of ,june is too slight and dubious to allow us to press the parallel with ,may ,day4 ,sidenote3 ,at the sacred marriage of ,jupiter and ,juno in later times the parts of the deities may have been acted by the ,flamen ,dialis and the ,flaminica4 ,if at any time of the year the ,romans celebrated the sacred marriage of ,jupiter and ,juno1 as the ,greeks commonly celebrated the corresponding marriage of ,zeus and ,hera1#fcb we may suppose that under the ,republic the ceremony was either performed over images of the divine pair or acted by the ,flamen ,dialis and his wife the ,flaminica4 ,for the ,flamen ,dialis was the priest of ,jove2 indeed1 ancient and modern writers have regarded him1 with much probability1 as a living image of ,jupiter1 a human embodiment of the sky-god4#fcc ,in earlier times the ,roman king1 as representative of ,jupiter1 would naturally play the part of the heavenly bridegroom at the sacred marriage1 while his queen would figure as the heavenly bride1 just as in ,egypt ,sidenote3 ,the ,flamen and ,flaminica may have been the deputies of the king and queen4 the king and queen masqueraded in the character of deities1 and as at ,athens the queen annually wedded the vine-god ,dionysus4 ,that the ,roman king and queen should act the parts of ,jupiter and ,juno would seem all the more natural because these deities themselves bore the title of ,king and ,queen4#fcd ,even if the office of ,flamen ,dialis existed under the kings1 as it appears to have done1 the double representation of ,jupiter by the king and the flamen need not have seemed extraordinary to the ,romans of the time4 ,the same sort of duplication1 as we saw1 appears to have taken place at ,alba1 when the ,julii were allowed to represent the supreme god in the character of ,little ,jupiters1 while the royal dynasty of the ,silvii continued to wield the divine thunder and lightning4#fce ,and long ages afterwards1 history repeating itself1 another member of the ,julian house1 the first emperor of ,rome1 was deified in his lifetime under the title of ,jupiter1 while a flamen was appointed to do for him what the ,flamen ,dialis did for the heavenly ,jove4#fcf ,it is said that ,numa1 the typical priestly king1 at first himself discharged the functions of ,flamen ,dialis1 but afterwards appointed a separate priest of ,jupiter with that title1 in order that the kings1 untrammeled by the burdensome religious observances attached to the priesthood1 might be free to lead their armies to battle4#fcg ,the tradition may be substantially correct2 for analogy shews that the functions of a priestly king are too harassing and too incongruous to be permanently united in the same hands1 and that sooner or later the holder of the office seeks to rid himself of part of his burden by deputing to others1 according to his temper and tastes1 either his civil or his religious duties4 ,hence we may take it as probable that the fighting kings of ,rome1 tired of parading as ,jupiter and of observing all the elaborate ritual1 all the tedious restrictions which the character of godhead entailed on them1 were glad to relegate these pious mummeries to a substitute1 in whose hands they left the crosier at home while they went forth to wield the sharp ,roman sword abroad4 ,this would explain why the traditions of the later kings1 from ,tullus ,hostilius onwards1 exhibit so few traces of sacred or priestly functions adhering to their office4 ,among the ceremonies which they henceforward performed by deputy may have been the rite of the sacred marriage4 ,sidenote3 ,at the sacred marriage the ,king and ,queen of ,rome probably personated the god and goddess of the oak4 ,whether that was so or not1 the legend of ,numa and ,egeria appears to embody a reminiscence of a time when the priestly king himself played the part of the divine bridegroom2 and as we have seen reason to suppose that the ,roman kings personated the oak-god1 while ,egeria is expressly said to have been an oak-nymph1 the story of their union in the sacred grove raises a presumption that at ,rome in the regal period a ceremony was periodically performed exactly analogous to that which was annually celebrated at ,athens down to the time of ,aristotle4#fch ,the marriage of the ,king of ,rome to the oak-goddess1 like the wedding of the vine-god to the ,queen of ,athens1 must have been intended to quicken the growth of vegetation by homoeopathic magic4 ,of the two forms of the rite we can hardly doubt that the ,roman was the older1 and that long before the northern invaders met with the vine on the shores of the ,mediterranean their forefathers had married the tree-god to the tree-goddess in the vast oak forests of ,central and ,northern ,europe4 ,in the ,england of our day the forests have mostly disappeared1 yet still on many a village green and in many a country lane a faded image of the sacred marriage lingers in the rustic pageantry of ,may ,day4 ,footnote #edj3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ag sq4 ,footnote #eda3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #edb3 ,catullus1 xxxiv4 #i sqq4 ,footnote #edc3 ,wernicke1 in ,pauly-,wissowa1 ,real-,encyklopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 ii4 coll4 #acdc1 #acea4 ,footnote #edd3 ,plutarch1 ,de fortuna ,romanorum1 #i4 ,this statement would be strongly confirmed by etymology if we could be sure that1 as ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook has suggested1 the name ,egeria is derived from a root aeg meaning 8oak40 ,the name is spelt ,aegeria by ,valerius ,maximus 7i4 #b4 #a74 ,see ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 p4 #cff2 id4 8,the ,european ,sky-,god10 ,folk-lore1 xvi4 7#aije7 pp4 #bhc sq42 and as to the root aeg see ,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der indogermanischen ,atertumskunde 7,strasburg1 #aija71 p4 #afd4 ,footnote #ede3 ,festus1 s4v4 8,querquetulanae10 pp4 #bfj1 #bfa1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller4 ,footnote #edf3 ,see below1 p4 #chj4 ,footnote #edg3 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iii4 #dff4 ,footnote #edh3 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 ii4 #ed2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #bcb2 ,pausanias1 ix4 #b4 #aa1 x4 #bd4 #g2 ,lucian1 ,bis accusatus1 #a4 ,footnote #edi3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #eej3 ,see above1 pp4 #acj sqq4 ,footnote #eea3 ,the first1 ,i believe1 to point out a parallelism in detail between ,rome and ,aricia was ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook 7,classical ,review1 xvii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #cgf sqq472 but from the similarity he inferred the humanity of the ,arician priests rather than the divinity of the ,roman kings4 ,a fuller consideration of all the evidence has since led him1 rightly as ,i conceive1 to reverse the inference4 ,see his articles 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,the ,classical ,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #cfj-cge2 8,the ,european ,sky-,god10 ,folk-lore1 xvi4 7#aije7 pp4 #bfj-ccb4 ,in the first and second editions of this work ,i had suggested that the regifugium at ,rome may have been a relic of a rule of succession to the throne like that which obtained at ,nemi4 ,the following discussion of the religious position of the old ,latin kings owes much to ,mr4 ,cook's sagacity and learning1 of which he freely imparted to me4 ,footnote #eeb3 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 iii4 #fa sq41 iv4 #gd1 v4 #ce2 ,b4 ,g4 ,niebuhr1 ,history of ,rome1 ii4 #cf2 ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,history of ,rome1 ,new ,edition 7,london1 #ahid71 i4 #hc2 ,a4 ,j4 ,h4 ,greenidge1 ,roman ,public ,life 7,london1 #aija71 pp4 #dd sq4 ,but ,mommsen1 while he held that the costume of a ,roman god and of the ,roman king was the same1 denied that the king personated the god4 ,a truer historical insight is displayed by ,k4 ,o4 ,mller in his treatment of the subject 7,die ,etrusker1 ,stuttgart1 #ahgg1 i4 #cdh sq474 ,for a discussion of the evidence see ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,rmisches ,staatsrecht1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #cgb sq41 ii4 #e sq42 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 ii4 #eff sq41 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 #ejg sq42 id41 ,privatleben der ,rmer1 #bnd ,ed41 #edb sq42 ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 op4 cit4 i4 #cdd-cej1 ii4 #aih-bjj2 ,aust1 s4v4 8,juppiter10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 coll4 #fcc1 #gbe-gbh4 ,among the chief passages of ancient authors on the subject are ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ll4cc42 ,strabo1 v4 #b4 #b1 p4 #bbj2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 v4 #dj2 ,appian1 ,pun4 #ff2 ,zonaras1 ,annal4 vii4 #h and #ba2 ,livy1 i4 #h4 #a sq41 v4 #bc4 #d sq41 v4 #da4 #b1 x4 #g4 #i sq42 ,florus1 i4 #e4 #f2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 viii4 #aie1 xv4 #abg1 #acj1 #acg1 xxxiii4 #aa4 #aaa sq42 ,juvenal1 x4 #cf-dc2 ,ovid1 ,ex ,ponto1 ii4 #eg sq42 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #f4 #g-i2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,ecl4 vi4 #bb1 x4 #bg2 ,ael4 ,lampridius1 ,alexander ,severus1 #dj4 #h2 ,jul4 ,capitolinus1 ,gordiani tres1 #d4 #d2 ,aulus ,gellius1 v4 #f4 #e-g2 ,tertullian1 ,de corona militis1 #ac4 ,the fullest descriptions of a ,roman triumph are those of ,appian and ,zonaras 7vii4 #ba74 ,footnote #eec3 ,camillus triumphed in a chariot drawn by white horses like the sacred white horses of ,jupiter and the ,sun4 ,his ,republican contemporaries were offended at what they regarded as a too close imitation of the gods 7,livy1 v4 #bc4 #e sq42 ,plutarch1 ,camillus1 #g2 ,dio ,cassius1 lii4 #ac72 but the ,roman emperors followed his example1 or perhaps revived the old custom of the kings4 ,see ,dio ,cassius1 xliii4 #ad2 ,suetonius1 ,nero1 #be2 ,pliny1 ,panegyric1 #bb2 ,propertius1 v4 #a4 #cb2 ,ovid1 ,ars amat4 i4 #bad4 ,on the sanctity of white horses among various branches of the ,aryan stock1 see ,j4 von ,negelein1 8,die volksthmliche ,bedeutung der weissen ,farbe10 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xxxiii4 7#aija7 pp4 #fb-ff2 ,w4 ,ridgeway1 ,the ,origin and ,influence of the ,thoroughbred ,horse 7,cambridge1 #aije71 pp4 #aje1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #bid1 #bie1 #dai4 ,as to the horses of the ,sun1 see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cae sq4 ,footnote #eed3 ,tertullian1 ,de corona militis1 #ac1 8,coronant et publicos ordines laureis publicae causae magistratus vero insuper aureis4 ,praeferuntur etiam illis ,hetruscae4 ,hoc vocabulum est coronarum1 quas gemmis et foliis ex auro quercinis ob ,jovem insignes ad deducendas thensas cum palmatis togis sumunt40 ,the thensae were the sacred cars in which the images of the gods were carried at the procession of the ,circensian games 7see ,w4 ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities1 #crd ,ed41 s4v474 ,that the ,etruscan crown described by ,tertullian was the golden crown held by a slave over the head of a general on his triumph may be inferred from ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxiii4 #aa1 8,vulgoque sic triumphabant1 et cum corona ex auro ,etrusca sustineretur a tergo1 anulus tamen in digito ferreus erat aeque triumphantis et servi fortasse coronam sustinentis40 ,compare ,zonaras1 ,annal4 vii4 #ba2 ,juvenal1 x4 #ch sqq4 ,mommsen says that the triumphal golden crown was made in the shape of laurel leaves 7,rmisches ,staatsrecht1 i4 #crd ,ed41 #dbg72 but none of the ancient authors cited by him appears to affirm this1 with the exception of ,aulus ,gellius 7v4 #f4 #e-g1 8,triumphales coronae sunt aureae1 quae imperatoribus ob honorem triumphi mittuntur4 ,id vulgo dicitur aurum coronarium4 ,haec antiquitus e lauru erant1 post fieri ex aura coeptae074 ,gellius may have confused the wreath of real laurel which the general wore on his head 7,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxiii4 #abg1 #acj1 #acg7 with the golden crown which was held over him by a slave4 ,the two crowns are clearly distinguished by ,zonaras 7l4c471 though he does not describe the shape of the golden crown4 ,thus there is no good ground for rejecting the express testimony of ,tertullian that the golden crown was shaped like oak-leaves4 ,this seems to have been ,mommsen's own earlier opinion1 since he mentions 8a chaplet of oaken leaves in gold0 as part of the insignia of the ,roman kings 7,roman ,history1 ,london1 #ahid1 i4 #hc74 ,footnote #eee3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxiii4 #aaa sq42 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,ecl4 vi4 #bb1 x4 #bg4 ,footnote #eef3 ,pausanias1 ii4 #b4 #f1 vii4 #bf4 #aa1 viii4 #ci4 #f4 ,for other examples of idols painted red see my note on ,pausanias1 ii4 #b4 #f4 ,footnote #eeg3 ,for instances see ,fr4 ,kunstmann1 8,valentin ,ferdinand's ,beschreibung der ,serra ,leoa10 ,abhandlungen d4 histor4 ,classe d4 kn4 ,bayer4 ,akademie d4 ,wissenschaften1 ix4 7,munich1 #ahff7 p4 #aca2 ,j4 ,b4 ,labat1 ,relation historique de l'thiopie ,occidentale 7,paris1 #agcb71 i4 #bej2 ,gmelin1 ,reise durch ,sibirien1 ii4 #dgf2 8,ueber den religisen ,glauben und die ,ceremonien der heidnischen ,samojeden im ,kreise ,mesen10 ,zeitschrift fr allgemeine ,erdkunde1 ,n4,f4 viii4 7#ahfj7 p4 #ei2 ,e4 ,rae1 ,the ,white ,sea ,peninsula1 p4 #aej2 ,j4 ,b4 ,mller1 8,les ,murs et usages des ,ostiackes10 ,recueil de voiages au ,nord1 viii4 7,amsterdam1 #agbg7 pp4 #dad sq42 ,delamare1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xii4 7#ahdj7 p4 #dhb2 ,sahagun1 ,histoire gnrale des choses de la ,nouvelle-,espagne 7,paris1 #ahhj71 p4 #ahe2 ,j4 de ,velasco1 ,histoire du royaume de ,quito1 p4 #aba 7,ternaux-,compans1 ,voyages1 relations et mmoires1 xviii41 ,paris1 #ahdj72 ,e4 ,j4 ,payne1 ,history of the ,new ,world called ,america1 i4 #cgd n4 #a2 ,f4 ,b4 ,jevons1 ,introduction to the ,history of ,religion 7,london1 #ahif71 p4 #aeh4 ,often we are merely told that the blood is smeared or sprinkled on the image4 ,see ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast1 pp4 #db1 #gi2 id41 ,yoruba-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast1 pp4 #ajb1 #ajf2 ,a4 ,f4 ,mockler-,ferryman1 ,british ,nigeria 7,london1 #aijb71 p4 #bee2 ,fr4 ,kramer1 8,der ,gtzendienst der ,niasser10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal-1 ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxxiii4 7#ahij7 p4 #dif4 ,for more examples see my note on ,pausanias1 ii4 #b4 #f4 ,footnote #eeh3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xii4 #c2 ,phaedrus1 iii4 #ag4 #a sqq42 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #ccb1 and on ,ecl4 i4 #ag4 ,footnote #eei3 ,livy1 i4 #aj4 #d sqq4 ,footnote #efj3 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #ib4 ,footnote #efa3 ,ovid1 ,tristia1 iii4 #ca sqq4 ,footnote #efb3 ,dio ,cassius1 liii4 #ai4 ,footnote #efc3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 i4 #fjg sqq41 iv4 #iec sq4 ,tiberius refused a similar honour 7,suetonius1 ,tiberius1 #bf72 but ,domitian seems to have accepted it 7,martial1 viii4 #hb4 #g74 ,two statues of ,claudius1 one in the ,vatican1 the other in the ,lateran ,museum1 represent the emperor as ,jupiter wearing the oak crown 7,w4 ,helbig1 ,fhrer durch die ffentlichen ,sammlungen klassischer ,altertmer in ,rom1 #bnd ,ed41 i4 ,nos4 #cab1 #fgc74 ,footnote #efd3 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 viii4 ,no4 #fiha4 ,footnote #efe3 ,j4 ,overbeck1 ,griechische ,kunstmythologie1 ,besonderer ,theil1 i4 #bcb sqq42 ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 i4 #ajg sq4 ,footnote #eff3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #caj4 ,footnote #efg3 ,antoninus ,liberalis1 ,transform4 #f4 ,for this and the two following passages of ,tzetzes ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook4 ,see further his articles1 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xvii4 7#aijc7 p4 #dji2 8,the ,european ,sky-god10 ,folk-lore1 xv4 7#aijd7 pp4 #bii sqq4 ,footnote #efh3 ,h4 ,ebeling1 ,lexicon ,homericum1 s4vv4 1 1 and 4 ,footnote #efi3 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,antehomerica1 #ajb sq43 1 4 id41 ,chiliades1 i4 #dgd3 ' 4 ,footnote #egj3 ,polybius1 vi4 #ec sq4 ,footnote #ega3 ,as to the situation1 see ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 i4 #ff2 ,h4 ,nissen1 ,italische ,landeskunde1 ii4 #ehb sq4 ,footnote #egb3 ,virgil1 ,aen4 vi4 #ggb4 ,i have to thank ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook for directing my attention to the ,alban kings and their interesting legends4 ,see his articles 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #cfc sq42 8,the ,european ,sky-god10 ,folk-lore1 xvi4 7#aije7 pp4 #bhe sqq4 ,footnote #egc3 ,virgil1 ,aen4 vi4 #gfj sqq41 with the commentary of ,servius2 ,livy1 i4 #c4 #f sqq42 ,ovid1 ,metam4 xiv4 #fji sqq42 id41 ,fasti1 iv4 #ci sqq42 ,festus1 s4v4 8,silvi10 p4 #cdj1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,aurelius ,victor1 ,origo gentis ,romanae1 #ae-ag2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 i4 #gj2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 in ,eusebius1 ,chronic4 i4 coll4 #bhe1 #bhg1 ed4 ,a4 ,schoene2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 vii4 #c;a and #c;b1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aaj-aab1 ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf 7,teubner edition72 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de magistratibus1 i4 #ba4 ,as to the derivation of the name ,julus1 see ,aurelius ,victor1 op4 cit4 #ae1 8,igitur ,latini ,ascanium ob insignem virtutem non solum ,jove ortum crediderunt1 sed etiam per diminutionem1 declinato paululum nomine1 primo ,jobum1 dein postea ,julum appellarant02 also ,steuding1 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon d4 griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #egd4 ,compare ,w4 ,m4 ,lindsay1 ,the ,latin ,language 7,oxford1 #ahid71 p4 #bej4 ,according to ,diodorus1 the priesthood bestowed on ,julus was the pontificate2 but the name ,julus or ,little ,jupiter suggests that the office was rather that of ,flamen ,dialis1 who was a sort of living embodiment of ,jupiter 7see below1 pp4 #aia sq471 and whose name of ,dialis is derived from the same root as ,julus4 ,on the ,julii and their relation to ,vejovis see ,r4 ,h4 ,klausen1 ,aeneas und die ,penaten1 ii4 #ajei sqq4 ,footnote #egd3 ,see above1 p4 #a1 and vol4 i4 p4 #dd4 ,footnote #ege3 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 xiv4 ,no4 #bchg2 ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #bfc sq4 ,on ,vejovis as the ,little ,jupiter see ,festus1 s4v4 8,vesculi10 p4 #cgi1 8,ve enim syllabam rei parvae praeponebant1 unde ,veiovem parvum ,iovem et vegrandem fabam minutam dicebant02 also ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #dbi-ddh4 ,at ,rome the sanctuary of ,vejovis was on the saddle between the two peaks of the ,capitoline hill 7,aulus ,gellius1 v4 #ab4 #a sq42 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #dbi sq472 thus he appropriately dwelt on the same hill as the ,great ,jupiter1 but lower down the slope4 ,on coins of the ,gargilian1 ,ogulnian and ,vergilian houses ,vejovis is represented by a youthful beardless head1 crowned with oak4 ,see ,e4 ,babelon1 ,monnaies de la ,rpublique ,romaine1 i4 #ecb1 ii4 #bff1 #ebi4 ,on other ,republican coins his head is crowned with laurel4 ,see ,e4 ,babelon1 op4 cit4 i4 #gg1 #eje-ejh1 ii4 #f1 #h4 ,circensian games were held at ,bovillae in honour of the ,julian family1 and ,tiberius dedicated a chapel to them there4 ,see ,tacitus1 ,annals1 ii4 #da1 xv4 #bc4 ,footnote #egf3 ,festus1 s4v4 8,caesar10 p4 #eg1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller4 ,other but less probable explanations of the name are suggested by ,aelius ,spartianus 7,helius1 ii4 #c sq474 ,footnote #egg3 ,as to the ,frankish kings see ,agathias1 ,hist4 i4 #c2 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,rechtsalterthmer1 pp4 #bci sqq42 ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 i4 #cfh sq4 ,footnote #egh3 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,roman4 i4 #ga2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 in ,eusebius1 ,chronic4 bk4 i4 coll4 #bhg1 #bhi1 ed4 ,a4 ,schoene2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 vii4 #c;a and #d1 ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf2 ,zonaras1 ,annal4 vii4 #a2 ,aurelius ,victor1 ,origo gentis ,romanae1 #ah2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 xiv4 #faf-fah2 id41 ,fasti1 iv4 #ej2 ,livy1 i4 #c4 #i4 ,the king is called ,romulus by ,livy1 ,remulus by ,ovid1 ,aremulus by ,aurelius ,victor1 ,amulius by ,zonaras1 ,amulius or ,arramulius by ,diodorus1 and ,allodius by ,dionysius4 ,a tale of a city submerged in the ,alban lake is still current in the neighbourhood4 ,see the ,english translators' note to ,niebuhr's ,history of ,rome1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #bjj4 ,similar stories are told in many lands4 ,see my note on ,pausanias1 vii4 #bd4 #f4 ,footnote #egi3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #caj4 ,footnote #ehj3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cdb sqq4 ,footnote #eha3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #adj1 xxviii4 #ac sq4 ,other writers speak only of ,numa's skill in expiating the prodigy or evil omen of thunderbolts4 ,see ,livy1 i4 #bj4 #g2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #bhe-cdh2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #ae2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 v4 #a-d4 ,footnote #ehb3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bdh1 #bea4 ,footnote #ehc3 ,apollodorus1 i4 #i4 #g2 ,virgil1 ,aen4 vi4 #eib sqq42 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #adj1 xxviii4 #ad 7referring to the first book of ,l4 ,piso's ,annals72 ,livy1 i4 #ca4 #h2 ,aurelius ,victor1 ,de viris illustribus1 #d2 ,zonaras1 ,annal4 vii4 #f4 ,according to another account ,tullus ,hostilius was murdered by his successor ,ancus ,martius during a violent storm 7,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 iii4 #ce2 ,zonaras1 l4c474 ,footnote #ehd3 ,livy1 i4 #b4 #f2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 xiv4 #eih-fjh2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 iii4 #ef2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 i4 #fd2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 i4 #bei2 ,aurelius ,victor1 ,origo gentis ,romanae1 #ad4 ,only the last writer mentions the thunderstorm4 ,footnote #ehe3 ,livy1 i4 #af2 ,cicero1 ,de legibus1 i4 #a4 #c2 id41 ,de re publica1 i4 #af4 #be1 ii4 #aj4 #bj2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 ii4 #dge-eab2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #bg sq42 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 ii4 #ef and #fc2 ,zonaras1 ,annal4 vii4 #d2 ,aurelius ,victor1 ,de viris illustribus1 #b2 ,florus1 ,epitoma1 i4 #a4 #af-ah4 ,from ,cicero 7,de legibus1 i4 #a4 #c7 we learn that the apparition of ,romulus to ,proculus ,julius took place near the spot where the house of ,atticus afterwards stood1 and from ,cornelius ,nepos 7,atticus1 #ac4 #b7 we know that ,atticus had an agreeable villa and shady garden on the ,quirinal4 ,as to the temple of ,quirinus see also ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 v4 #ea2 ,festus1 pp4 #bed1 #bee1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xv4 #abj4 ,as to the site of the temple and the question whether it was identical with the temple dedicated by ,l4 ,papirius ,cursor in #bic ,b4,c4 7,livy1 x4 #df4 #g2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 vii4 #bac7 see ,o4 ,richter1 ,topographie der ,stadt ,rom1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #bhf sqq42 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen 7,munich1 #aijd71 pp4 #add sqq4 ,footnote #ehf3 ,see ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #cfh sq42 id4 8,the ,european ,sky-god10 ,folk-lore1 xvi4 7#aije7 p4 #bha4 ,but a serious argument against the proposed derivation of ,quirinus from quercus is that1 as ,i am informed by my learned philological friend the ,rev4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,h4 ,moulton1 it is inconsistent with the much more probable derivation of ,perkunas from quercus4 ,see below1 p4 #cfg1 note #c4 ,footnote #ehg3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bfb sqq4 ,footnote #ehh3 ,j4 ,i4 ,molina1 ,geographical1 ,natural1 and ,civil ,history of ,chili 7,london1 #ahji71 ii4 #ib sq4 ,the savage ,conibos of the ,ucayali river in eastern ,peru imagine that thunder is the voice of the dead 7,w4 ,smyth and ,f4 ,lowe1 ,journey from ,lima to ,para1 ,london1 #ahcf1 p4 #bdj72 and among them when parents who have lost a child within three months hear thunder1 they go and dance on the grave1 howling turn about 7,de ,st4 ,cricq1 8,voyage du ,prou au ,brsil10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie1 ivme srie1 vi41 ,paris1 #ahec1 p4 #bid74 ,the ,yuracares of eastern ,peru threaten the thunder-god with their arrows and defy him when he thunders 7,a4 ,d',orbigny1 ,l',homme amricain1 i4 #cfe71 just as the ,thracians did of old 7,herodotus1 iv4 #id74 ,so the ,kayans of ,borneo1 on hearing a peal of thunder1 have been seen to grasp their swords for the purpose of keeping off the demon who causes it 7,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,in ,centraal ,borneo1 i4 #adj sq41 #adf sq474 ,footnote #ehi3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #caj2 and for the connexion of the rite with ,jupiter ,elicius see ,o4 ,gilbert1 ,geschichte und ,topographie der ,stadt ,rom im ,altertum1 ii4 #aed sq42 ,aust1 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #feg sq4 ,as to the connexion of ,jupiter with the rain-making ceremony 7aquaelicium71 the combined evidence of ,petronius 7,sat4 #dd7 and ,tertullian 7,apologeticus1 #dj7 seems to me conclusive4 ,footnote #eij3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 i4 #fcg sq41 vi4 #ahc sqq42 ,livy1 vii4 #bh4 #d sq42 ,cicero1 ,de divinatione1 i4 #de4 #aja2 ,solinus1 i4 #ba4 ,although the temple was not dedicated until #cdd ,b4,c41 the worship of the goddess of the hill appears to have been very ancient4 ,see ,h4 ,jordan1 ,topographie der ,stadt ,rom im ,altertum1 i4 #b1 pp4 #aji sq42 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,lexikon d4 griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 coll4 #eib sq4 ,footnote #eia3 ,livy1 i4 #h4 #e2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #dcj2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 ii4 #ae4 ,footnote #eib3 ,virgil1 ,aen4 viii4 #cad-cah1 #cdg-ced4 ,footnote #eic3 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #ib4 ,footnote #eid3 ,livy1 i4 #aj4 #e4 ,footnote #eie3 ,mons ,querquetulanus2 see ,tacitus1 ,annals1 iv4 #fe4 ,footnote #eif3 ,a monument found at ,rome represents ,jupiter beside an oak1 and underneath is the dedication3 ,jovi ,caelio4 ,see ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ,no4 #cjhj4 ,footnote #eig3 ,porta ,querquetulana or ,querquetularia2 see ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #cg2 ,festus1 pp4 #bfj1 #bfa1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller4 ,footnote #eih3 ,festus1 ll4cc42 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 v4 #di4 ,footnote #eii3 ,e4 ,babelon1 ,monnaies de la ,rpublique ,romaine1 i4 #ii sq4 ,footnote #fjj3 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 v4 #di1 where1 however1 8alii ab aesculetis0 is a conjecture of ,c4 ,o4 ,mller's4 ,i do not know what authority ,o4 ,richter has for reading aesculis consitae 78planted with oaks07 for excultae in this passage 7,topographie der ,stadt ,rom1 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #cjb1 n4 #d74 ,modern topographers prefer to derive the name from ex-colere in the sense of 8the hill outside the city0 7,o4 ,richter1 l4c42 ,o4 ,gilbert1 ,geschichte und ,topographie der ,stadt ,rom im ,altertum1 i4 #aff sq474 ,footnote #fja3 ,see above1 p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #fjb3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #bie sq4 ,footnote #fjc3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ah2 and for the identification1 ,o4 ,gilbert1 ,geschichte und ,topographie der ,stadt ,rom im ,altertum1 ii4 #aeb sqq42 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 p4 #cff4 ,footnote #fjd3 ,cicero1 ,de divinatione1 i4 #de1 #aja4 ,footnote #fje3 ,g4 ,boni1 in ,notizie degli ,scavi1 ,may #aijj1 pp4 #afa1 #agb2 id41 ,aedes ,vestae1 p4 #ad 7extract from the ,nuova ,antologia1 #ast ,august #aijj74 ,copies of these and other papers containing ,commendatore ,boni's account of his memorable excavations and discoveries were kindly given me by him during my stay in ,rome in the winter of #aijj-aija4 ,that the fire in question was a sacrificial one is proved by the bones1 potsherds1 and rude copper money found among the ashes4 ,commend4 ,boni thinks that the charred remains of the wood prove that the fire was extinguished1 probably by libations1 and that therefore it cannot have been the perpetual holy fire of ,vesta1 which would have burned up completely all the fuel4 ,but a new fire was annually lit on the first of ,march 7,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #adc sq42 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ab4 #f71 which may imply that the old fire was ceremonially extinguished1 as often happens in such cases4 ,footnote #fjf3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #cg4 ,footnote #fjg3 ,o4 ,richter1 ,topographie der ,stadt ,rom1 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #fjh3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bcg4 ,the inscription was probably not in the ,etruscan language1 but only in an archaic alphabet like that employed in the inscription on the pyramidal stone which has been found under the ,black ,stone in the ,forum4 ,footnote #fji3 ,g4 ,boni1 8,bimbi ,romulei10 ,nuova ,antologia1 #afth ,february #aijd1 pp4 #e sqq4 7separate reprint72 ,e4 ,burton-,brown1 ,recent ,excavations in the ,roman ,forum 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #aej4 ,footnote #faj3 ,festus1 s4v4 8,oscillantes10 p4 #aid1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller4 ,footnote #faa3 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 iv4 #di2 ,a4 ,schwegler1 ,rmische ,geschichte1 i4 #cda2 ,h4 ,nissen1 ,italische ,landeskunde1 ii4 #ehj4 ,it is to be observed that ,dionysius does not here speak of the dedication of a temple to ,jupiter2 when he describes the foundation of the temple of ,capitoline ,jupiter by ,tarquin 7iv4 #ei and #fa7 his language is quite different4 ,the monastery1 founded in #aggg by ,cardinal ,york1 the last of the ,stuarts1 has now been converted into a meteorological station and an inn 7,k4 ,baedeker1 ,central ,italy and ,rome1 #acth ,ed41 p4 #djj74 ,it is fitting enough that the atmospheric phenomena should be observed by modern science on the spot where they were worshipped by ancient piety4 ,footnote #fab3 ,livy1 i4 #ca4 #c4 ,footnote #fac3 ,according to tradition1 the future site of ,alba ,longa was marked out by a white sow and her litter1 which were found lying under evergreen oaks 7,virgil1 ,aen4 viii4 #dc71 as ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook has pointed out 7,classical ,review1 xviii4 #cfc74 ,the tradition seems to shew that the neighbourhood of the city was wooded with oaks4 ,footnote #fad3 ,see below1 p4 #chj4 ,footnote #fae3 ,querquetulani4 ,see ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 iii4 #fi2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 v4 #fa4 ,as to the white bulls sacrificed at the great ,latin festival and partaken of by the members of the ,league1 see ,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 ii4 #fh2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 iv4 #di4 ,compare ,cicero1 ,pro ,plancio1 ix4 #bc2 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 vi4 #be4 ,footnote #faf3 ,theophrastus1 ,histor4 plant4 v4 #h4 #c4 ,footnote #fag3 ,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 ii4 #fh2 ,livy1 xxii4 #aj4 #g2 ,ovid1 ,ex ,ponto1 iv4 #d4 #ca2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #adf2 ,horace1 ,carmen ,saeculare1 #di4 ,footnote #fah3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bej sq4 ,footnote #fai3 8,italic and ,keltic are so closely bound together by important phonetic and morphological affinities that they are sometimes spoken of as one branch0 of ,aryan speech 7,j4 ,h4 ,moulton1 ,two ,lectures on the ,science of ,language1 ,cambridge1 #aijc1 p4 #f1 note74 8,the connection of the ,celtic and ,italic languages is structural4 ,it is much deeper than that of ,celts and ,teutons1 and goes back to an earlier epoch4 ,celts and ,latins must have dwelt together as an undivided people in the valley of the ,danube1 and it must have been at a much later time--after the ,umbrians and ,latins had crossed the ,alps--that the contact of ,celts and ,teutons came about0 7,isaac ,taylor1 ,the ,origin of the ,aryans1 p4 #aib2 compare id4 p4 #beg74 ,see also ,p4 ,giles1 ,manual of ,comparative ,philology #bnd ,ed41 7,london1 #aija71 p4 #bf4 ,footnote #fbj3 ,livy1 xlii4 #g4 #a1 xlv4 #ae4 #aj4 ,compare ,dio ,cassius1 xxxix4 #bj4 #a4 ,the temple on the ,alban ,mount was dedicated in #afh ,b4,c41 but the worship was doubtless far older4 ,footnote #fba3 ,see above1 pp4 #agf1 #ahd4 ,footnote #fbb3 ,strabo1 vii4 #g4 #ab1 p4 #cbi2 ,hyperides1 ,or4 iii4 coll4 #ce-cg1 pp4 #dc sq41 ed4 ,blass2 ,g4 ,curtius1 ,griech4 ,etymologie1 #eth ,ed41 p4 #bcf2 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,juno und ,hera 7,leipsic1 #ahge71 pp4 #ag sq42 id41 ,lexikon d4 griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 coll4 #egf1 #egh sq4 ,see below1 p4 #cha4 ,footnote #fbc3 ,see above1 pp4 #adj sqq4 ,footnote #fbd3 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,juno und ,hera1 pp4 #fd sqq42 id41 ,lexikon d4 griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #ege sq41 #eia sqq4 ,at ,falerii the image of ,juno was annually carried in procession from her sacred grove1 and in some respects the ceremony resembled a marriage procession 7,ovid1 ,amores1 iii4 #ac2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 i4 #ba74 ,the name of ,june was ,junius at ,rome1 ,junonius at ,aricia1 ,laurentum and ,lavinia1 and ,junonalis at ,tibur and ,praeneste 7,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #ei-fc2 ,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #ab4 #cj74 ,the forms ,junonius and ,junonalis are recognised by ,festus 7p4 #ajc1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller74 ,their existence among the ,latins seems to render the derivation of ,junius from ,juno quite certain1 though that derivation is doubted by ,mr4 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler 7,roman ,festivals of the ,period of the ,republic1 pp4 #ii sq474 ,footnote #fbe3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #aja-afh2 ,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #ab4 #ca-cc2 ,tertullian1 ,ad nationes1 ii4 #i2 ,varro1 quoted by ,nonius ,marcellus1 ,de compendiosa doctrina1 p4 #cij1 ed4 ,l4 ,quicherat4 ,there was a sacred beechen grove of ,diana on a hill called ,corne near ,tusculum 7,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bdb74 ,but ,corne has probably no connection with ,carna4 ,the grove of ,helernus was crowded with worshippers on the first of ,february 7,ovid1 ,fasti1 ii4 #fg1 where ,helerni is a conjectural emendation for ,averni or ,asyli74 ,nothing else is known about ,helernus1 unless with ,merkel 7in his edition of ,ovid's ,fasti1 pp4 cxlviii4 sq47 we read ,elerno for ,eterno in ,festus1 p4 #ic1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller4 ,in that case it would seem that black oxen were sacrificed to him4 ,from the association of ,carna with ,janus it was inferred by ,merkel 7l4c47 that the grove of ,helernus stood on or near the ,janiculum1 where there was a grove of oaks 7see above1 p4 #ahf74 ,but the language of ,ovid 7,fasti1 ii4 #fg7 points rather to the mouth of the ,tiber4 ,footnote #fbf3 ,see above1 p4 #ahe4 ,footnote #fbg3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #abi-afh4 ,a ,roman bride on the way to her husband's house was preceded by a boy bearing a torch of buckthorn 7spina alba1 ,festus1 s4v4 8,patrimi10 p4 #bde1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,varro1 quoted by ,nonius ,marcellus1 ,de compendiosa doctrina1 s4v4 8,fax10 p4 #aaf1 ed4 ,l4 ,quicherat74 ,the intention probably was to defend her from enchantment and evil spirits4 ,branches of buckthorn were also thought to protect a house against thunderbolts 7,columella1 ,de re rustica1 x4 #cdf sq474 ,footnote #fbh3 ,see above1 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #fbi3 ,dioscorides1 ,de arte medica1 i4 #aai4 ,footnote #fcj3 ,scholiast on ,nicander1 ,theriaca1 #hfa4 ,footnote #fca3 ,diogenes ,laertius1 ,vitae philosophorum1 iv4 #ed-eg4 ,footnote #fcb3 ,see above1 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #fcc3 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #aaa 2 ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #bja2 ,f4 ,b4 ,jevons1 ,plutarch's ,romane ,questions1 p4 lxxiii42 ,c4 ,julian1 in ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des antiquits grecques et romaines1 ii4 #aaef sqq4 ,footnote #fcd3 ,cicero1 ,de re publica1 iii4 #ac4 #bb2 ,virgil1 ,aen4 x4 #aab2 ,horace1 ,sat4 ii4 #a4 #db sq42 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #cg2 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 v4 #f4 #g2 ,livy1 v4 #ba4 #b1 v4 #bc4 #g2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxv4 #aae2 ,flavius ,vopiscus1 ,probus1 xii4 #g2 ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #bje1 #bhd2 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,lexikon d4 griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #fjj sqq4 ,footnote #fce3 ,see above1 pp4 #agi sq4 ,footnote #fcf3 ,cicero1 ,philippics1 ii4 #dc4 #aaj2 ,suetonius1 ,divus ,julius1 #gf2 ,dio ,cassius1 xliv4 #f4 ,the coincidence has been pointed out by ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook 7,classical ,review1 xviii4 #cga74 ,footnote #fcg3 ,livy1 i4 #bj4 #a sq4 ,footnote #fch3 ,numa was not the only ,roman king who is said to have enjoyed the favours of a goddess4 ,romulus was married to ,hersilia1 who seems to have been a ,sabine goddess4 ,ovid tells us how1 when the dead ,romulus had been raised to the rank of a god under the name of ,quirinus1 his widow ,hersilia was deified as his consort4 ,thus1 if ,quirinus was a ,sabine oak-god1 his wife would be an oak-goddess1 like ,egeria4 ,see ,ovid1 ,metam4 xiv4 #hbi-hea4 ,compare ,livy1 i4 #aa4 #b2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #ad4 ,on ,hersilia as a goddess see ,a4 ,schwegler1 ,rmische ,geschichte1 i4 #dgh1 note #aj2 ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #cgb4 ,again1 of ,king ,servius ,tullius we read how the goddess ,fortuna1 smitten with love of him1 used to enter his house nightly by a window4 ,see ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #efi sqq42 ,plutarch1 ,quaestiones ,romanae1 #cf2 id41 ,de fortuna ,romanorum1 #aj4 ,however1 the origin and nature of ,fortuna are too obscure to allow us to base any conclusions on this legend4 ,for various more or less conjectural explanations of the goddess see ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals of the ,period of the ,republic1 pp4 #afa-agb4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,king',s ,,fire ,sidenote3 ,sacred ,marriage of the ,fire-god with a woman4 ,thus far we have dealt mainly with those instances of the ,sacred ,marriage in which a human being is wedded to the divine powers of vegetation or water4 ,now we pass to the consideration of a different class of cases1 in which the divine bridegroom is the fire and his bride a human virgin4 ,and these cases are particularly important for our present enquiry into the early ,latin kingship1 since it appears that the old ,latin kings were commonly supposed to be the offspring of the fire-god by mortal mothers4 ,the evidence which points to this conclusion is as follows4 ,sidenote3 ,legend of the birth of ,king ,servius ,tullius from the fire4 ,first1 let us take the legend of the birth of ,king ,servius ,tullius4 ,it is said that one day the virgin ,ocrisia1 a slave-woman of ,queen ,tanaquil1 the wife of ,king ,tarquin the elder1 was offering as usual cakes and libations of wine on the royal hearth1 when a flame in the shape of the male member shot out from the fire4 ,taking this for a sign that her handmaiden was to be the mother of a more than mortal son1 the wise ,queen ,tanaquil bade the girl array herself as a bride and lie down beside the hearth4 ,her orders were obeyed2 ,ocrisia conceived by the god or spirit of the fire1 and in due time brought forth ,servius ,tullius1 who was thus born a slave1 being the reputed son of a slave mother and a divine father1 the fire-god4 ,his birth from the fire was attested in his childhood by a lambent flame which played about his head as he slept at noon in the king's palace4#fci ,this story1 as others have pointed out before1#fdj seems clearly to imply that the mother of ,servius was a ,vestal ,virgin charged with the care and worship of the sacred fire in the king's house4 ,now1 in ,promathion's ,history of ,italy1 cited by ,plutarch1 a similar tale was told of the birth of ,romulus himself4 ,it is ,sidenote3 ,legend of the birth of ,romulus from the fire4 said that in the house of the ,king of ,alba a flame like to the male organ of generation hung over the hearth for many days4 ,learning from an oracle that a virgin should conceive by this phantom and bear a son of great valour and renown1 the king bade one of his daughters submit to its embraces1 but she disdained to do so1 and sent her handmaid instead4 ,angry at her disobedience1 her father ordered both the maidens to be put to death4 ,but ,vesta appeared to him in a dream1 forbade the execution1 and commanded that both the girls should be imprisoned until they had woven a certain web1 after which they were to be given in marriage4 ,but the web was never finished1 for as fast as they wove it by day1 other maidens1 in obedience to the king's orders1 unwove it at night4 ,meantime the handmaiden conceived by the flame of fire1 and gave birth to ,romulus and ,remus4#fda ,in this legend1 as in the story of the birth of ,servius ,tullius1 it is plain that the mother of the future ,king of ,rome was both a slave and a priestess of ,vesta4 ,orthodox ,roman tradition always admitted that she was a ,vestal1 but naturally enough represented her as the king's daughter rather than his slave4 ,the god ,mars1 it was said1 got her with child as she drew water in his sacred grove4#fdb ,however1 when we compare this legend with the similar story of the birth of ,servius1 we may suspect that ,promathion has preserved1 though perhaps in a perverted form1 an old feature of the ,latin kingship1 namely1 that one of the king's parents might be1 and sometimes was1 a slave4 ,whether that was so or not1 such tales at least bear witness to an old belief that the early ,roman kings were born of virgins and of the fire4 ,similarly ,caeculus1 the founder of ,praeneste1 passed for a ,sidenote3 ,legend of the birth of ,caeculus from the fire4 son of ,vulcan4 ,it was said that his mother conceived him through a spark1 which leapt from the fire and struck her as she sat by the hearth4 ,she exposed the child near a temple of ,jupiter1 and he was found there beside a fire by some maidens who were going to draw water4 ,in after-life he proved his divine birth by working an appropriate miracle4 ,when an infidel crowd refused to believe that he was the son of a god1 he prayed to his father1 and immediately the unbelievers were surrounded with a flame of fire4#fdc ,more than this1 the whole of the ,alban dynasty appear to have traced their descent from a ,vestal1 for the wife of ,king ,latinus1 their legendary ancestor1 was named ,amata#fdd or ,beloved1 and this was the regular title bestowed on a ,vestal after her election1#fde a title which cannot be fully understood except in the light of the foregoing traditions1 which seem to shew that the ,vestals were regularly supposed to be beloved by the fire-god4 ,moreover1 fire is said to have played round the head of ,amata's daughter ,lavinia1#fdf just as it played round the head of the fire-born ,servius ,tullius4 ,as the same prodigy was reported of ,julus or ,ascanius1 the son of ,aeneas1#fdg we may suspect that a similar legend was told of his miraculous conception at the hearth4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,vestal ,virgins seem to have been regarded as the wives of the fire-god4 ,now we may take it as certain that the ,romans and ,latins would never have traced the descent of their kings from ,vestal ,virgins unless they had thought that such a descent1 far from being a stain1 was1 under certain circumstances1 highly honourable4 ,what the circumstances were that permitted a ,vestal to become a mother1 not only with impunity but with honour and glory1 appear plainly from the stories of the birth of ,caeculus1 ,romulus1 and ,servius ,tullius4 ,if she might not know a mortal man1 she was quite free1 and indeed was encouraged1 to conceive and bear a son to the fire-god4 ,in fact the legends suggest that the ,vestals were regularly regarded as the fire-god's wives4 ,this would explain why they were bound to chastity during their term of service3 the bride must be true to her divine bridegroom4 ,and the theory of chastity could be easily reconciled with the practice of maternity by allowing a man to masquerade as the fire-god at a sacred marriage1 just as in ,egypt the king disguised himself as the god ,ammon when he wedded the queen1#fdh or as among the ,ewe tribes the priest poses as the python-god when he goes in to the human brides of the serpent4#fdi ,thus the doctrine of the divine birth of kings presents no serious difficulty to people who believe that a god may be made flesh in a man1 and that a virgin may conceive and bear him a son4 ,of course the theory of the divine motherhood of the ,vestals applies only to the early regal and therefore prehistoric period4 ,under the ,republic the demand for kings had ceased1 and with it1 therefore1 the supply4 ,yet a trace of the old view of the ,vestals as virgin mothers lingered down to the latest times in the character of ,vesta herself1 their patroness and type2 for ,vesta always bore the official title of ,mother1 never that of ,virgin4#fej ,we may surmise that a similar belief and practice once obtained in ,attica4 ,for ,erichthonius1 king of ,athens1 is said to have been a son of the fire-god ,hephaestus by the virgin goddess ,athena3 the story told of his miraculous birth from the ground1 which had been impregnated by the seed of the fire-god1 is clearly a later version devised to save the virginity of his mother4#fea ,the perpetual lamp of ,athena1 which burned in the ,erechtheum or house of ,erechtheus 7who was identical with ,erichthonius7 on the acropolis of ,athens1#feb may have answered to the perpetual fire of ,vesta at ,rome2 and it is possible that the maidens called ,arrephoroi or ,errephoroi1 who dwelt close to the ,erechtheum1#fec may at one time have personated ,athena and passed1 like the ,vestals1 for wives of the fire-god4 ,sidenote3 ,rationalistic theory of the duties of the ,vestals rejected4 ,it has1 indeed1 been held that the ,vestals were of old the king's daughters1 who were kept at home and forbidden to marry for no other reason than that they might devote themselves to the domestic duties of drawing water1 mopping the house1 tending the fire1 and baking cakes4#fed ,but this rationalistic theory could hardly explain the superstitious horror which the infidelity of a ,vestal always excited in the ,roman mind4 ,customs which begin in reason seldom end in superstition4 ,it is likely1 therefore1 that the rule of chastity imposed on the ,vestals was based from the first on a superstition rather than on a mere consideration of practical convenience4 ,the belief that the ,vestals were the spouses of the fire-god would explain the rule4#fee ,we have seen that the practice of marrying women to gods has been by no means uncommon4 ,if the spirit of the water has his human wife1 why not the spirit of the fire8 ,indeed1 primitive man has a special reason for thinking that the fire-god should always be married4 ,what that reason is1 ,i will now try to explain4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,vestal fire of later times was a continuation of the fire on the king's hearth4 ,but first it is necessary to apprehend clearly that the ,vestal fire of republican and imperial ,rome was strictly the successor or continuation of the fire which in the regal period had burned on the king's hearth4 ,that it was so appears plainly from the stories of the birth of ,romulus and ,servius ,tullius1 which shew that ,vesta was believed to be worshipped at the royal fireside by maidens who were either the king's daughters or his slaves4 ,this conclusion is amply confirmed by a study of the temple of ,vesta and the adjoining edifices in the ,roman ,forum4 ,for the so-called temple of the goddess never was1 strictly speaking1 a temple at all4 ,this fact we have on the authority of ,varro himself1 the greatest of ,roman antiquaries4#fef ,the little round building in which the sacred fire always burned was merely a copy of the round hut in which the king1 like his ,sidenote3 ,the round temple of ,vesta a copy of the ancient ,italian hut4 subjects1 had dwelt in days of old4 ,tradition preserved a memory of the time when its walls were made of wattled osiers and the roof was of thatch2#feg indeed1 with that peculiar clinging to the forms of the past which is characteristic of royalty and religion1 the inmost shrine continued down even to late times to be fashioned of the same simple materials4#feh ,the hut of ,romulus1 or what passed for it1 constructed of wood1 reeds1 and straw1 was always preserved and carefully repaired in the original style4 ,it stood on the side of the ,palatine hill facing the ,circus ,maximus4#fei ,a similar hut1 roofed with thatch1 was in like manner maintained on the ,capitoline hill1 and traditionally associated with ,romulus4#ffj ,the so-called temple of ,vesta in historical times stood not on any of the hills1 but in the ,forum1 at the northern foot of the ,palatine4 ,its situation in the flat ground is quite consistent with the view that the building represents the king's house of early1 though not of the very earliest1 times2 for1 according to tradition1 it was built by ,numa in this position between the ,palatine and the ,capitol1 at the time when he united the two separate towns on these hills and turned the low swampy ground between them into their common place of assembly4 ,here1 too1 beside the temple of ,vesta1 the king built himself a house1 which was ever afterwards known as the ,regia or palace2 formerly he had dwelt on the ,quirinal4#ffa ,in after-times this old palace of the kings was perhaps the official residence of their successor1 the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites4#ffb ,adjoining it was the house of the ,vestals1#ffc at first1 no doubt1 a simple and unpretentious edifice1 but afterwards a stately pile gathered round a spacious open court which must have resembled the cloister of a mediaeval monastery4 ,we may assume that the kernel of this group of buildings was the round temple of ,vesta1 and that the hearth in it1 on which burned the sacred fire1 was originally the hearth of the king's house4 ,that the so-called temple was built on the model of the round huts of the old ,latins is proved by the discoveries made at an ancient necropolis near ,albano4 ,the ashes of the dead were here deposited in urns1 which are shaped like ,sidenote3 ,hut-urns found at ,albano and ,rome4 little round huts with conical roofs1 obviously in order that the souls of the dead might live in houses such as they had inhabited during life4 ,the roofs of these miniature dwellings are raised on cross-beams1 sometimes with one or more holes to let out the smoke4 ,the door is fastened by a crossbar1 which is passed through a ring on the outside and tied to the two side-posts4 ,in some of these hut-urns the side-posts are duplicated1 or even triplicated1 for the sake of ornament2 and it is probable that the ring of columns which encircled the little temple of ,vesta in historical times was merely an extension of the door-posts of the prehistoric hut4 ,the necropolis in which these urns were found must be very ancient1 since it was buried under the streams of lava vomited by the ,alban ,mountain in eruption4 ,but the mountain has not been an active volcano within historical times1 unless1 indeed1 the showers of stones and the rain of blood often recorded as ominous prodigies by ,roman writers may be explained as jets of pumice and red volcanic dust discharged by one of the craters4#ffd ,the prehistoric burial-ground lately discovered in the ,roman ,forum has yielded several hut-urns of precisely the same shape as those of the ,alban cemetery4 ,hence we may infer with tolerable certainty that the earliest ,latin settlers both on the ,alban hills and at ,rome dwelt in round huts built of wattle and dab1 with peaked roofs of thatch4#ffe ,sidenote3 8,numa's crockery10 the primitive earthenware vessels used by the ,vestals4 ,if further evidence were needed to convince us that the round temple of ,vesta merely reproduced a ,roman house of the olden time1 it might be supplied by the primitive vessels of coarse earthenware in which the ,vestals always presented their offerings1 and which1 in memory of the artlessness of an earlier age1 went by the name of 8,numa's crockery40#fff ,a ,greek historian1 writing when ,rome was at the height of her power and glory under ,augustus1 praises the ,romans for the austere simplicity with which1 in an age of vulgar wealth and ostentation1 they continued to honour the gods of their fathers4 8,i have seen10 said he1 8meals set before the gods on old-fashioned wooden tables1 in mats and earthenware dishes1 the food consisting of barley loaves and cakes and spelt and firstfruits and such-like things1 all plain and inexpensive and free from any touch of vulgarity4 ,and ,i have seen libations offered1 not in vessels of silver and gold1 but in little earthen cups and jugs2 and ,i heartily admired a people which thus walked in the ways of their fathers1 not deviating from the ancient rites into extravagance and display40#ffg ,specimens of this antique pottery have come to light of late years at the house of the ,vestals1 the temple of ,vesta1 and other religious centres in the ,forum2#ffh others had been found previously on the ,esquiline hill and in the necropolis of ,alba ,longa4#ffi ,we may conjecture that if the ,romans continued to serve the gods their meals in simple earthenware dishes long after they themselves quaffed their wine from goblets of crystal and gold or from murrhine cups with their cloudy iridescent hues of purple and white1#fgj they did so1 not from any principle of severe good taste1 but rather from that superstitious fear of innovation which has embalmed in religious ritual1 as in amber1 so many curious relics of the past4 ,the old forms and materials of the vessels were consecrated by immemorial usage and might not be changed with impunity4 ,indeed1 in the ritual of the ,arval ,brothers the holy pots themselves appear to have been an object of worship4#fga ,specimens of these pots have been found on the site of the sacred grove where the ,brothers performed their quaint service1 and they shed an interesting light on the conservatism of the ,roman religion4 ,some of them are moulded in the most primitive fashion by ,sidenote3 ,rude pottery used by the ,arval ,brothers4 the hand without any mechanical appliance4 ,but most of them belong to a stage of art1 later indeed than this rude beginning1 yet earlier than the invention of the potter's wheel4 ,in order to give the vessels their proper shape and prevent the sides from collapsing1 wooden hoops were inserted in them1 and the marks made by these hoops in the soft clay may still be seen on the inside of most of the pots found in the grove4 ,we may suppose that when the potter's wheel came into universal use1 the old art of making pottery by the hand was lost2 but as religion would have nothing to do with pots made in the new-fangled way1 the pious workman had to imitate the ancient ware as well as he could1 eking out his imperfect skill with the aid of wooden hoops4#fgb ,perhaps the fictores ,vestalium and the fictores ,pontificum1 of whom we read in inscriptions1#fgc were those potters who1 combining a retrograde art with sound religious principles1 provided the ,vestals and ,pontiffs with the coarse crockery so dear to gods and to antiquaries4 ,if that was so1 they may have had in the exercise of their craft to observe some such curious rules as are still ,sidenote3 ,savage superstitions as to the making of pottery4 observed in similar circumstances by the savage ,yuracares1 a tribe of ,indians living dispersed in the depths of beautiful tropical forests1 at the eastern foot of the ,bolivian ,andes4 ,we are told by an explorer that 8the manufacture of pottery is not an everyday affair with this superstitious people1 and accordingly they surround it with singular precautions4 ,the women1 who alone are entrusted with the duty1 go away very solemnly to look for the clay1 but they do so only when there is no crop to be gathered4 ,in the fear of thunder they betake themselves to the most sequestered spots of the forest in order not to be seen4 ,there they build a hut4 ,while they are at work they observe certain ceremonies and never open their mouth1 speaking to each other by signs1 being persuaded that one word spoken would infallibly cause all their pots to break in the firing2 and they do not go near their husbands1 for if they did1 all the sick people would die40#fgd ,among the ,ba-,ronga of ,south ,africa pottery is made by women only1 and they prefer to employ a child under puberty to light the fire in which the pots are to be baked1 because the child has pure hands and the pots are therefore less likely to crack in the furnace than if the woman lit the fire herself4#fge ,if the reader objects that ,roman potters cannot have been trammelled by superstitions like those which hamper the savage potters of ,america and ,africa1 ,i would remind him of the rules laid down by grave ,roman writers for the moral guidance of cooks1 bakers1 and butlers4 ,after mentioning a number of these writers by name1 ,columella informs us that 8all of them are of opinion that he who engages in any one of these occupations is bound to be ,sidenote3 ,chastity required in persons who handle dishes and food4 chaste and continent1 since everything depends on taking care that neither the dishes nor the food should be handled by any one above the age of puberty1 or at least by any one who is not exceedingly abstemious in sexual matters4 ,therefore a man or woman who is sexually unclean ought to wash in a river or running water before he touches the contents of the storeroom4 ,that is why there should be a boy or a maid to fetch from the storeroom the things that are needed40#fgf ,when ,roman cooks1 bakers1 and butlers were expected to be so strict in the service of their human masters1 it might naturally be thought that the potters should be not less so whose business it was to fashion the rude yet precious vessels meet for the worship of the gods4 ,sidenote3 ,sanctity of the storeroom 7penus7 and of the ,penates in a ,roman house4 ,if the storeroom 7penus7 of a ,roman house was deemed so holy that its contents could only be handled by persons ceremonially clean1 the reason was that the ,penates or gods of the storeroom dwelt in it4#fgg ,the domestic hearth1 where the household meals were cooked in the simple days of old1 was the natural altar of the ,penates2#fgh their images1 together with those of the ,lares1 stood by it and shone in the cheerful glow of the fire1 when the family gathered round it in the evening4#fgi ,thus in every house ,vesta1 the goddess of the hearth1 was intimately bound up with the ,penates or gods of the storeroom2 indeed1 she was reckoned one of them4#fhj ,now the temple of ,vesta1 being nothing more than a type of the oldest form of ,roman house1 naturally had1 like an ordinary house1 its sacred storeroom1 and its ,penates or gods of the storeroom4#fha ,hence if in every common house strict chastity was1 theoretically at least1 expected of all who entered the storeroom1 we can well understand why such an obligation should have been laid on the ,vestals1 who had in their charge the holiest of all storerooms1 the chamber in which were popularly supposed to be preserved the talismans on which the safety of the state depended4#fhb ,sidenote3 ,thus the temple of ,vesta1 with its perpetual fire and its sacred storeroom1 was merely a copy of the ,roman king's house4 ,thus on the whole we may regard it as highly probable that the round temple of ,vesta in the ,forum1 with its sacred storeroom and perpetual fire1 was merely a survival1 under changed conditions1 of the old house of the ,roman kings1 which again may have been a copy of the still older house of the kings of ,alba4 ,both were modelled on the round huts of wattled osiers in which the early ,latins dwelt among the woods and hills of ,latium in the days when the ,alban ,mountain was still an active volcano4 ,hence it is legitimate to compare the old legends of the royal hearth with the later practice in regard to the hearth of ,vesta1 and from the comparison to explain1 if we can1 the meaning both of the legends and of the practice4 ,footnote #fci3 ,plutarch1 ,de fortuna ,romanorum1 #aj2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 iv4 #a sq42 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #fbg-fcf2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #bda1 xxxvi4 #bjd2 ,livy1 i4 #ci2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 ii4 #fhc2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 v4 #ah4 ,according to the ,etruscan annals1 ,servius ,tullius was an ,etruscan by name ,mastarna1 who came to ,rome with his friend ,caeles ,vibenna1 and1 changing his name1 obtained the kingdom4 ,this was stated by the ,emperor ,claudius in a speech of which fragments are engraved on a bronze tablet found at ,lyons4 ,see ,tacitus1 ,annals1 ed4 ,orelli1 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #cdb4 ,as the emperor wrote a history of ,etruria in twenty books 7,suetonius1 ,divus ,claudius1 #db7 he probably had some authority for the statement1 and the historical1 or at least legendary1 character of ,mastarna and ,caeles ,vibenna is vouched for by a painting inscribed with their names1 which was found in #aheg in an ,etruscan tomb at ,vulci4 ,see ,g4 ,dennis1 ,cities and ,cemeteries of ,etruria1 #crd ,ed41 ii4 #ejf sq4 ,but from this it by no means follows that the identification of ,mastarna with ,servius ,tullius was correct4 ,schwegler preferred the ,roman to the ,etruscan tradition 7,rmische ,geschichte1 i4 #gbj sq471 and so1 after long hesitation1 did ,niebuhr 7,history of ,rome1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #chj sqq474 ,it is fair to add that both these historians wrote before the discovery of the tomb at ,vulci4 ,footnote #fdj3 ,a4 ,schwegler1 ,rmische ,geschichte1 i4 #gae2 ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 ii4 #cdd4 ,footnote #fda3 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #b4 ,footnote #fdb3 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 i4 #gf sq42 ,livy1 i4 #c sq42 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #c2 ,zonaras1 ,annal4 vii4 #a2 ,justin1 xliii4 #b4 #a-c4 ,footnote #fdc3 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #fgh4 ,footnote #fdd3 ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #cdc4 ,footnote #fde3 ,aulus ,gellius1 i4 #ab1 #ad and #ai4 ,compare ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 ii1 #afa1 #cdd4 ,there was a very ancient worship of ,vesta at ,lavinium1 the city named after ,amata's daughter ,lavinia1 the ancestress of the ,alban kings4 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #fdf3 ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #ga-gg4 ,footnote #fdg3 ,virgil1 ,aen4 ii4 #fhj-fhf4 ,we may compare the halo with which the vainglorious and rascally artist of genius1 ,benvenuto ,cellini1 declared his head to be encircled4 8,ever since the time of my strange vision until now10 says he1 8an aureole of glory 7marvellous to relate7 has rested on my head4 ,this is visible to every sort of men to whom ,i have chosen to point it out2 but those have been very few4 ,this halo can be observed above my shadow in the morning from the rising of the sun for about two hours1 and far better when the grass is drenched with dew4 ,it is also visible at evening about sunset4 ,i became aware of it in ,france at ,paris2 for the air in those parts is so much freer from mist1 that one can see it there far better manifested than in ,italy1 mists being far more frequent among us40 ,see ,the ,life of ,benvenuto ,cellini1 translated by ,j4 ,addington ,symonds #crd ,ed41 7,london1 #ahhi71 pp4 #bgi sq4 ,footnote #fdh3 ,see above1 pp4 #aca sqq4 ,footnote #fdi3 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,ewe-speaking peoples of the ,slave ,coast of ,west ,africa1 p4 #fj4 ,see above1 pp4 #adi sq4 ,footnote #fej3 ,see below1 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #fea3 ,apollodorus iii4 #ad4 #f2 ,schol4 on ,homer1 ,iliad1 ii4 #edg2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,chiliades1 v4 #ffi sq42 ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 xviii4 #ab4 ,footnote #feb3 ,pausanias i4 #bf4 #f sq42 ,strabo ix4 #a4 #af1 p4 #cif2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #i2 id41 ,sulla1 #ac4 ,as to the identity of ,erechtheus and ,erichthonius see my note on ,pausanias1 i4 #ah4 #b 7vol4 ii4 p4 #afi74 ,footnote #fec3 ,pausanias1 i4 #bg4 #c1 with my note4 ,footnote #fed3 ,the theory was formerly advocated by me 7,journal of ,philology1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #aed sqq47 ,as to the duties of the ,vestals see ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #cdb sqq4 ,footnote #fee3 ,this explanation was first1 so far as ,i know1 given by me in my ,lectures on the ,early ,history of the ,kingship 7,london1 #aije71 p4 #bba4 ,it has since been adopted by ,mr4 ,e4 ,fehrle 7,die kultische ,keuschheit im ,altertum1 ,giessen1 #aiaj1 pp4 #baj sqq474 ,footnote #fef3 ,aulus ,gellius1 xiv4 #g4 #g4 ,compare ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #aec1 ix4 #d4 ,footnote #feg3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #bfa sq4 ,footnote #feh3 ,festus1 s4v4 8penus10 p4 #bej1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller1 where for saepius we must obviously read saeptus4 ,footnote #fei3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 i4 #aii1 iii4 #ahc sq42 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 i4 #gi4 #aa4 ,for the situation of the hut see also ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #bj4 ,footnote #ffj3 ,conon1 ,narrationes1 #dh2 ,vitruvius1 ii4 #a4 #e1 p4 #ce1 ed4 ,rose and ,mller-,strbing2 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ae4 #aj4 ,compare ,virgil1 ,aen4 viii4 #fec sq4 ,as to the two huts on the ,palatine and the ,capitol see ,a4 ,schwegler1 ,rmische ,geschichte1 i4 #cid2 ,l4 ,jahn on ,macrobius1 l4c4 ,footnote #ffa3 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 ii4 #ff2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #aa and #ad2 ,solinus1 i4 #ba2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #bfc sqq42 id41 ,tristia1 iii4 #a4 #bi sq42 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 xv4 #da4 ,footnote #ffb3 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 viii4 #cfc4 ,festus1 however1 distinguishes the old royal palace 7,regia7 from the house of the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites 7s4v4 8,sacram viam10 pp4 #bij1 #bic1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller74 ,in classical times the ,regia was the residence or office of the ,pontifex ,maximus2 but we can hardly doubt that formerly it was the house of the ,rex ,sacrorum4 ,see ,o4 ,gilbert1 ,geschichte und ,topographie der ,stadt ,rom im ,altertum1 i4 #bbe1 #bce sq41 #cda1 #cdd4 ,as to the existing remains of the ,regia1 the temple of ,vesta1 and the house of the ,vestals1 see ,o4 ,richter1 ,topographie der ,stadt ,rom1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #hh sqq42 ,ch4 ,huelsen1 ,die ,ausgrabungen auf dem ,forum ,romanum #bnd ,ed41 7,rome1 #aijc71 pp4 #fb sqq41 #hh sqq42 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,burton-,brown1 ,recent ,excavations in the ,roman ,forum 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #bf sqq4 ,footnote #ffc3 ,dio ,cassius1 liv4 #bg1 who tells us that ,augustus annexed the house of the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites to the house of the ,vestals1 on which it abutted4 ,footnote #ffd3 ,many such phenomena are noted by ,julius ,obsequens in his book of prodigies1 appended to ,w4 ,weissenborn's edition of ,livy1 vol4 x4 #b1 pp4 #aic sqq4 7,berlin1 #ahha74 ,footnote #ffe3 ,w4 ,helbig1 ,die ,italiker in der ,poebene1 pp4 #ej-ee2 ,e4 ,burton-,brown1 ,recent ,excavations in the ,roman ,forum1 pp4 #cj1 #aeb1 #aed4 ,for pictures of these hut-urns see ,g4 ,boni in ,notizie degli ,scavi1 ,may #aijj1 p4 #aia1 fig4 #eb2 id41 in ,nuova ,antologia1 ,august #aijj1 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #fff3 ,valerius ,maximus1 iv4 #d4 #aa2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #caj2 ,acron on ,horace1 ,odes1 i4 #ca1 quoted by ,g4 ,boni in ,notizie degli ,scavi1 ,may #aijj1 p4 #agi2 ,cicero1 ,paradoxa1 i4 #b2 id41 ,de natura deorum1 iii4 #ag4 #dc2 ,persius1 ,sat4 ii4 #ei sq42 ,juvenal1 ,sat4 vi4 #cdb sqq4 ,footnote #ffg3 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 ii4 #bc4 ,on earthenware vessels used in religious rites see also ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxv4 #ajh1 8,in sacris quidem etiam inter has opes hodie non murrinis crystallinisve1 sed fictilibus prolibatur simpulis02 ,apuleius1 ,de magia1 #ah1 8,eadem paupertas etiam populo ,romano imperium a primordio fundavit1 proque eo in hodiernum diis immortalibus simpuvio et catino fictili sacrificat40 ,footnote #ffh3 ,g4 ,boni in ,notizie degli ,scavi1 ,may #aijj1 p4 #agi2 ,e4 ,burton-,brown1 ,recent ,excavations in the ,roman ,forum1 pp4 #bc sq41 #da4 ,footnote #ffi3 ,w4 ,helbig1 ,die ,italiker in der ,poebene1 pp4 #hb sqq4 ,footnote #fgj3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxvii4 #ba sq4 ,footnote #fga3 ,g4 ,henzen1 ,acta ,fratrum ,arvalium 7,berlin1 #ahgd71 pp4 #bf1 #cj2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ,no4 #ejci2 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 #def4 ,footnote #fgb3 ,w4 ,helbig1 ,die ,italiker in der ,poebene1 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #fgc3 ,g4 ,wilmanns1 ,exempla inscriptionum ,latinarum1 ,nos4 #caa1 #ihf1 #acbf1 #acca2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ,nos4 #def1 #ccad1 #dibf1 #dicc1 #dicf1 #didb1 #didc4 ,modern writers1 following ,varro 7,de lingua ,latina1 vii4 #dd1 8fictores dicti a fingendis libis071 explain these fictores as bakers of sacred cakes4 ,see ,ch4 ,a4 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 pp4 #ajhd sq42 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 #bdi4 ,they may be right1 but it is to be observed that ,varro does not expressly refer to the fictores of the ,vestals and ,pontiffs1 and further1 that in ,latin fictor commonly means a potter1 not a baker1 for which the regular word is pistor4 ,footnote #fgd3 ,a4 d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans l',amrique ,mridionale1 iii4 7,paris and ,strasburg1 #ahdd7 p4 #aid4 ,much of d',orbigny's valuable information as to this tribe was drawn from the manuscript of ,father ,lacueva1 a ,spanish ,franciscan monk of wealthy family and saint-like character1 who spent eighteen or twenty years among the ,yuracares in a vain attempt to convert them4 ,with regard to the crops mentioned in the text1 these savages plant banana-trees1 manioc1 sugar-cane1 and vegetables round about their huts1 which they erect in clearings of the forest4 ,see d',orbigny1 op4 cit4 iii4 #aif sq4 ,footnote #fge3 ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 8,les ,conceptions physiologiques des ,bantou ,sud-,africains et leurs tabous10 ,revue d',ethnographie et de ,sociologie1 i4 7#aiaj71 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #fgf3 ,columella1 ,de re rustica1 xii4 #d4 #b sq4 ,footnote #fgg3 ,cicero1 ,de natura deorum1 ii4 #bg4 #fh4 ,footnote #fgh3 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 xi4 #baa4 ,footnote #fgi3 ,horace1 ,epodes1 ii4 #fe sq42 ,martial1 iii4 #eh4 #c sq42 ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 ii4 #aje sqq41 #aee sqq4 ,see also ,a4 ,de-,marchi1 ,il ,culto privato di ,roma antica1 i4 7,milan1 #ahif7 p4 #fg1 with plate iii4 ,footnote #fhj3 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 iii4 #d4 #aa2 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1 pp4 #ade sq4 ,footnote #fha3 ,festus1 s4v4 8penus10 pp4 #bej1 #bea1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 xv4 #da2 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 #beb sq4 ,footnote #fhb3 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 ii4 #ff2 ,livy1 xxvi4 #bg4 #ad2 ,j4 ,marquardt1 op4 cit4 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 #bej sq4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,fire-,,drill ,sidenote3 ,mode of rekindling the ,vestal fire at ,rome by means of the fire-drill4 ,in historical times1 whenever the ,vestal fire at ,rome happened to be extinguished1 the virgins were beaten by the pontiff2 after which it was their custom1 apparently with the aid of the pontiff1 to rekindle the fire by drilling a hole in a board of lucky wood till a flame was elicited by friction4 ,the new fire thus obtained was carried into the temple of ,vesta by one of the virgins in a bronze sieve4#fhc ,as this mode of producing fire is one of the most primitive known to man1 and has been commonly employed by many savage ,sidenote3 ,use of the fire-drill by savages4 tribes down to modern times1#fhd we need have no difficulty in believing that its use in the worship of ,vesta was a survival from prehistoric ages1 and that whenever the fire on the hearth of the ,latin kings went out it was regularly relit in the same fashion4 ,in its simplest form the fire-drill1 as the apparatus has been appropriately named by ,professor ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 consists of two sticks1 the one furnished with a point and the other with a hole4 ,the point of the one stick is inserted into the hole of the other1 which is laid flat on the ground1 while the operator holds the pointed stick upright in position and twirls it rapidly between his hands till the rubbing of the two sticks against each other produces sparks and at last a flame4 ,sidenote3 ,many savages regard the two sticks of the fire-drill as male and female1 and the rubbing of the two together as a sexual union4 ,many savages see in this operation a resemblance to the union of the sexes1 and have accordingly named the pointed stick the man and the holed stick the woman4 ,thus we are told that among the ,thompson ,indians of ,british ,columbia 8fire was obtained by means of the fire-drill1 which consisted of two dried sticks1 each over a foot in length1 and rounded off to less than an inch in diameter4 ,one stick was sharpened at one end2 while the other was marked with a couple of notches close to each other--one on the side1 and the other on top4 ,the sharpened end of the first stick was placed in the top notch of the other stick1 and turned rapidly between the straightened palms of both hands4 ,the heat thus produced by the friction of the sticks caused sparks to fall down the side notch upon tinder placed underneath1 which1 when it commenced to smoke1 was taken in the hands1 and blown upon until fanned into a flame4 ,the tinder was dry grass1 the shredded dry bark of the sagebrush1 or cedar-bark4 ,the sharpened stick was called the #8man1' and was made of black-pine root1 tops of young yellow pine1 heart of yellow-pine cones1 service-berry wood1 etc4 ,the notched stick was called the #8woman1' and was generally made of poplar-root4 ,however1 many kinds of wood were used for this purpose4 ,when hot ashes or a spark fell upon the tinder1 they said1 #8,the woman has given birth4'0#fhe ,the ,hopi ,indians kindle fire ceremonially by the friction of two sticks1 which are regarded respectively as male and female4 ,the female stick has a notch in it and is laid flat on the floor2 the point of the male stick is inserted in the notch of the female stick and is made to revolve rapidly by twirling the stick between the hands4 ,pollen is added as a male symbol1 and the spark is caught in a tinder of shredded cedar bark4#fhf ,the ,urabunna tribe of ,central ,australia1 who also make fire by means of the fire-drill1 call the upright piece 8the child-stick10 while they give to the horizontal or notched piece the name of 8the mother-stick0 or 8the mother of the fire40#fhg ,so in the ,murray ,islands1 ,torres ,straits1 the upright stick is called the child 7werem71 and the horizontal stick the mother 7apu74 ,in ,mabuiag1 ,torres ,straits1 on the other hand1 the vertical stick is known as the male organ 7ini71 and the horizontal stick as the hole 7sakai74#fhh ,sidenote3 ,the fire-drill among the ,arabs4 8,the ancient ,bedouins kindled fire by means of the fire-drill1 which was composed of a horizontal stick1 the zenda1 and an upright stick1 the zend4 ,the science of language furnishes us with many parallels for this mode of regarding the two parts as male and female2 the two parts of the lock are distinguished in like manner2 the spark is then the child1 tifl2 compare also our ,german ,schraubenmutter1 ,muttergewinde4 ,the sticks for making fire by friction are not taken from the same tree2 on the contrary1 they choose one as hard and tough as possible1 and the other soft1 which allows the hard one to fit into it more easily and catches fire the quicker on account of its loose texture4 ,the soft wood was naturally the horizontal stick1 the zenda1 which the ,arabs made out of ,calotropis procera 7'oshar71 while for the upright stick they used a hard branch of markh40#fhi ,sidenote3 ,the fire-drill in ,africa4 ,the ,ngumbu of ,south ,cameroons1 in ,west ,africa1 formerly made fire by rubbing two sticks against each other4 ,of the sticks the one1 called the male nschio1 was put into a hole of the other1 which was called the female nschio4#fij ,in ,east ,africa the ,masai men make fire by drilling a hole in a flat piece of wood with a hard pointed stick4 ,they say that the hard pointed stick is a man and that the flat piece of wood is his wife4 ,the former is cut from ,ficus sycomorus and ,ekebergia sp41 the latter from any fibrous tree1 such as ,kigelia africana1 ,cordia ovalis1 or ,acacia albida4 ,the women get their fire from the one which has thus been kindled by the men4#fia ,the ,nandi similarly produce fire by rapidly drilling a hard pointed stick into a small hole in a flat piece of soft wood4 ,the hard stick is called the male 7kirkit7 and the piece of soft wood the female 7kket74 ,among the ,nandi1 as apparently among the ,masai1 fire-making is an exclusive privilege of the men of the tribe4#fib ,the ,baganda of ,central ,africa also made fire by means of the fire-drill2 they called the upright stick the male1 and the horizontal stick the female4#fic ,among the ,bantu tribes of south-eastern ,africa1 8when the native ,africans use special fire1 either in connection with sacrifice or the festival of first-fruits1 it is produced by a doctor1 and in the following manner3--,two sticks1 made of the ,uzwati tree1 and called the #8husband and wife1' are given to him by the chief4 ,these sticks are prepared by the magicians1 and are the exclusive property of the chief1 the #8wife' being the shorter of the two4 ,the doctor cuts a piece off each stick1 and proceeds to kindle fire in the usual manner1 by revolving the one rapidly between the palms of his hands1 while its end rests in a small hollow dug in the side of the other4 ,after he has obtained fire1 he gives it to his attendant1 who gets the pots in order1 and everything ready for cooking the newly-reaped fruits4 ,the sticks are handed back to the chief by the doctor--no other hand must touch them--and put away till they are required next season4 ,they are regarded as in a measure sacred1 and no one1 except the chief's personal servant1 may go to the side of the hut where they are kept4 ,after being repeatedly used for fire-making1 the doctor disposes of what remains1 and new ones are made and consecrated by the magician4 ,a special pot is used for the preparation of the feast1 and no other than it may be set on a fire produced from the #8husband and wife4' ,when the feast is over1 the fire is carefully extinguished1 and the pot placed along with the sticks1 where it remains untouched for another year40#fid ,but even for the purposes of daily life these tribes still kindle fire in this manner1 if they happen to be without matches4 8,a native takes two special sticks1 made of a light wood4 ,one of these he points3 this is called the male stick4 ,he then makes a conical hole in the centre of the other stick1 which is called the female4 ,placing the female stick on the ground1 he holds it firmly by his feet--a native finds no difficulty in this1 as he can easily pick things off the ground with his toes if his hands are full4 ,he then places the pointed stick into the conical hole1 and slowly twirls the male stick between his hands4 ,he does this while using a good deal of pressure1 and the wood becomes powdered1 lying round the revolving point in a little heap of dust4 ,when he thinks he has made sufficient of the wood dust1 he twirls the stick very fast1 and in a moment the powder bursts into flame1 which he uses to set fire to some dried grass40#fie ,sidenote3 ,fire-customs of the ,herero4 ,the ,damaras or ,herero of ,damaraland1 in south-western ,africa1 maintain sacred fires in their villages1 and their customs and beliefs in this respect present a close resemblance to the ,roman worship of ,vesta4 ,fortunately the ,herero fire-worship has been described by a number of independent witnesses1 and as their accounts agree substantially with each other1 we may assume that they are correct4 ,the people are a tall1 finely-built race of nomadic herdsmen belonging to the ,bantu stock1 who seem to have migrated into their present country from the north and east about a hundred and fifty or two hundred years ago4 ,the desert character of the country and its seclusion from the outer world long combined to preserve the primitive manners of the inhabitants4#fif ,in their native state the ,herero are a purely pastoral people1 possessing ,sidenote3 ,the ,herero a pastoral people4 immense herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats1 which are the pride and joy of their hearts1 almost their idols4 ,they subsist chiefly on the milk of their herds1 which they commonly drink sour4 ,of the flesh they make but little use1 for they seldom kill any of their cattle1 and never a cow1 a calf1 or a lamb4 ,even oxen and weathers are only slaughtered on solemn and festal occasions1 such as visits1 burials1 and the like4 ,such slaughter is a great event in a village1 and young and old flock from far and near to partake of the meat4#fig ,their huts are of a round ,sidenote3 ,huts and villages of the ,herero4 beehive shape1 about ten feet in diameter4 ,the framework consists of stout branches1 of which the lower ends are rammed into the ground1 while the upper ends are bent together and tied with bark4 ,a village is composed of a number of these round huts arranged in a circle about the calves' pen as a centre and surrounded by an artificial hedge of thorn-bushes4#fih ,at night the cattle are driven in through the hedge and take up their quarters in the open space round the calves' pen4#fii ,sidenote3 ,sacred fire of the ,herero village maintained in or before the hut of the chief's principal wife4 ,the hut of the great or principal wife of the chief1 built and furnished in a more elaborate style than the rest1 regularly stands to the east of the calves' pen1 in the direction of sunrise1 so that from its position we can always learn approximately the season of the year when the village was founded4 ,the chief or headman of the village has no special hut of his own2 he passes the day in the hut of the great wife1 and the night commonly in one of the huts of his other wives in the northern semicircle4 ,between the house of the great wife and the calves' pen1 but somewhat nearer to the pen1 is a large heap of ashes on which1 in good weather1 a small1 faintly glimmering fire may be seen to burn at any time of the day4 ,the heap of ashes is the sacred hearth 7okuruo72 the fire is the holy fire 7omurangere or omurangerero7 of the village4 ,the open space between the sacred hearth and the house of the great wife is known as the holy ground or the holy house 7otyizero74#gjj ,betwixt the hearth and the calves' fold stands a great withered branch of the omumborombonga 7,combretum primigenum71 the sacred tree of the ,herero1 from which they believe that both they and their cattle are descended4 ,when a branch of this tree cannot be obtained its place is taken by a bough of the omwapu tree 7,grevia spec47#gja ,at night and in rainy weather the fire is transferred to the hut of the great wife1 where it is carefully kept alight4#gjb ,according to another account1 the fire is regularly preserved in the house1 and a brand is only brought out into the open air when the cattle are being milked at morning and evening in order that in presence of the fire the cow may be healthy and give much milk4#gjc ,the custom in this respect perhaps varies in different villages1 and may be determined in some measure by the climate4 ,the sacred fire is regarded as the centre of the village2 from it at evening the people fetch a light to kindle the fire on their own hearths1 for every householder has his own private hearth in front of his hut4 ,at the holy hearth are kept the most sacred possessions of the tribe1 to wit1 the bundle of sticks which represent their ancestors2 here sacrifices are offered and enchantments performed2 here the flesh of the victims is cooked2 here is the proper place of the chief2 here the elders assemble in council1 and judgment is given2 here strangers are received and ambassadors entertained4 ,at the banquets held on solemn occasions all may partake of the flesh1 whether they be friends or foes2 the stranger's curse would rest on the churl who should refuse him his just share2 and this curse the ,herero dreads above everything because he believes its effect to be infallible4 ,so great is the veneration felt by the natives for the sacred hearth1 with its hallowed bough1 that they dare not approach it without testifying the deepest respect4 ,they take off their sandals1 throw themselves on the ground1 and pray their great ancestor 7,tate ,mukuru7 to be gracious to them4 ,the horns of the oxen slaughtered at festivals lie beside the hearth2 the chief sits on the largest pair when he is engaged in performing his magical rites4 ,near the fire1 too1 is a stone on which none but the chief has the right to sit4#gjd ,sidenote3 ,the sacred fire among the ,herero is watched and fed by the chief's eldest unmarried daughter1 who performs other priestly duties4 ,the duty of maintaining the sacred fire and preserving it from extinction is entrusted to the eldest unmarried daughter of the chief by his great wife2 if he has no daughter1 the task devolves on the unmarried girl who is next of kin to him4 ,she bears the title of ondangere1 derived from the name of the sacred fire 7omurangere74#gje ,besides keeping up the fire she has other priestly functions to discharge4 ,before the men start on a dangerous expedition1 she rubs the holy ashes on their foreheads4#gjf ,when a woman brings her new-born infant to the sacred hearth to receive its name1 the maiden priestess or ,vestal1 as we may call her1 sprinkles water on both mother and child4#gjg ,every morning1 when the cattle walk out of the fold1 she besprinkles the fattest of them with a brush dipped in water4#gjh ,when an ox dies by accident at the village1 she lays a piece of wood on its back1 praying at the same time for long life1 plenty of cattle1 and so forth4 ,moreover1 she ties a double knot in her apron for the dead beast1 for a curse would follow if she neglected to do so4#gji ,lastly1 when the site of the village is changed1 the priestess walks at the head of the people and of the herds1 carrying a firebrand from the old sacred hearth and taking the utmost care to keep it alight4#gaj ,the chief or headman of the village is also the priest2 ,sidenote3 ,the ,herero chief acts as a priest4 he alone may perform religious ceremonies except such as fall within the province of the ,vestal priestess1 his daughter4 ,in his capacity of priest he keeps the sacred bundle of sticks which represent the ancestors1 and at sacrifices he offers meat to them that they may consecrate it4 ,when the old village is abandoned1 it is his duty to carry1 like ,aeneas quitting the ruins of ,troy1#gaa these rude penates to the new home4 ,however1 it is deemed enough if he merely places the holy bundle on his back1 and then hands it to a servant1 who carries it for him4 ,as a priest he introduces the newborn children to the spirits of the ancestors at the sacred hearth1 and gives the infants their names2 and as a priest he has a cow to himself1 whose milk no one else may drink4 ,this milk is kept in vessels which differ from the ordinary milk vessels1 not only in shape and size1 but also in being marked with the badge of his paternal clan4 ,when a man goes forth from the village with his family and servants to herd the cattle on a distant pasture1 or to found another village1 he takes with him a burning brand from the sacred hearth wherewith to kindle the holy fire in his new home4 ,by ,sidenote3 ,fire taken from the chief's hearth by the founder of a new village4 doing so he acknowledges himself the vassal of the chief from whose hearth he took the fire4 ,in this way a single village may give out swarm after swarm1 till it has become the metropolis or capital of a whole group of villages1 the inhabitants of which recognise the supremacy of the parent community1 and regard themselves as all sitting round its sacred fire4 ,it is thus that a village may grow into a tribe and its headman into a powerful chief1 who1 by means of marriage alliances and the adhesion of weaker rivals1 may extend his sway over alien communities1 and so gradually acquire the rank and authority of a king4#gab ,the political evolution of the ,herero has indeed stopped short of this final stage2 but among the more advanced branches of the ,bantu race1 such as the ,zulus and the ,matabeles1 it is possible that the kingship has developed along these lines4 ,sidenote3 ,the combined office of chief and priest among the ,herero descends in the male line4 ,the possession of the sacred fire and of the ancestral sticks1 carrying with it both political authority and priestly dignity1 descends in the male line1 and hence generally passes from father to son4 ,in any case1 whether the deceased had a son or not1 the double office of chief and priest must always remain in his paternal clan 7oruzo74 ,if it should happen that the clan becomes extinct by his death1 the ,sidenote3 ,a chief's sacred hearth abandoned for some time after his death4 sacred fire is put out1 the hearth destroyed1 no brand is taken from it1 and the sticks representing the ancestors are laid with the dead man in the grave4 ,but should there be an heir1 as usually happens1 he takes a fire-brand from the sacred hearth and departs with all the people to seek a new home1 abandoning the old village for years4 ,in time1 however1 they return to the spot1 rebuild the huts on the same sites1 and inhabit them again4 ,but in the interval none of the kinsmen of the deceased may approach the deserted village under pain of incurring the wrath of the ghost4 ,when the return at last takes place1 and the people have announced their arrival to the dead chief at his grave1 which is generally in the cattle-pen1 they make a new fire by the friction of the two sacred fire-sticks on the old hearth2 for it is not lawful to bring with them a brand from their last settlement4#gac ,sidenote3 ,the sacred ,herero fire rekindled by the fire-drill4 ,if the sacred fire should go out through the neglect of the priestess1 a sudden shower of rain1 or any other accident1 the ,herero deem it a very evil omen4 ,the whole tribe is immediately summoned and large offerings of cattle are made as an expiation4 ,then the fire is relit by means of the friction of two sacred fire-sticks1 which have been handed down from father to son4 ,every chief possesses such fire-sticks1 and keeps them tied up with the bundle of holy sticks that represent the ancestors4 ,one of the fire-sticks is pointed1 the other has a hole in the middle1 and sometimes also a notch cut round it4 ,in the notch some fungus or rotten wood is placed as tinder4 ,the holed stick is held fast on the ground by the knees of the operator1 who inserts the point of the other stick in the hole and twirls it rapidly between the palms of his hands in the usual way4 ,as soon as a spark is emitted it catches the tinder1 which can then easily be blown up into a flame4 ,thus it is from the tinder1 we are told1 and not from the sticks1 that the flame is elicited4 ,in this fashion1 if everything is very dry1 as it generally is in ,hereroland1 the native gets fire in about a minute4 ,the names applied to the two sticks indicate that the pointed stick 7ondume7 is regarded as male and the holed stick 7otyiya7 as female1 and that the process of making fire by the friction of the two is compared to the intercourse of the sexes4 ,as to the wood of which the fire-sticks are made accounts differ4 ,according to ,dr4 ,h4 ,schinz the holed or female stick is of a soft wood1 the pointed or male stick of a hard wood1 generally of the ,sidenote3 ,the male fire-stick made of the sacred omumborombonga tree4 sacred omumborombonga tree 7,combretum primigenum74 ,according to ,mr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,bttner1 neither of the sticks need be of a special tree1 and any wood that happens to be at hand may be employed for the purpose2 only the wood of the thorny acacias1 which abound in the country1 appears to be unsuitable4#gad ,probably the rule mentioned by ,dr4 ,schinz is the original one1 and if in some places the wood of the sacred tree has ceased to be used to light the holy fire1 the reason may be simply that the tree does not grow there1 and that accordingly the people are obliged to use such wood as they can find4 ,we have seen that a branch of the sacred omumborombonga tree is regularly planted beside the village hearth1 but that in default of it the people have to put up with a bough of another kind of tree1 the omuwapu 7,grevia spec74#gae ,such substitutions were especially apt to be forced on the ,herero in the southern part of the country1 where the omumborombonga tree is very rare and forests do not exist1 the larger trees growing singly or in clumps4 ,in the north1 on the other hand1 vegetation is much richer1 and regular woods are to be found4 ,here1 in particular1 the omumborombonga tree is one of the ornaments of the landscape4 ,it grows only beside water-courses1 and generally stands solitary1 surpassing a tall oak in height1 and rivalling it in girth2 indeed1 so thick is the trunk that were it hollowed out a family could lodge in it4 ,unlike most trees in the country it is thornless4 ,whole forests of it grow to the eastward of ,hereroland1 in the direction of ,lake ,ngami4 ,so close is the grain and so heavy the wood that some of the early explorers gave it the name of the 8iron tree40#gaf ,hence it is well adapted to form the upright stick of the fire-drill1 for which a hard wood is required4 ,sidenote3 ,herero tradition of the origin of men and cattle from the sacred omumborombonga tree4 ,the ,herero have a tradition that in the beginning they and their cattle and all four-footed beasts came forth from the omumborombonga tree in a single day1 whereas birds1 fish1 and creeping things sprang from the rain4 ,however1 slightly different versions of the ,herero genesis appear to be current4 ,as to the origin of men and cattle from the tree1 public opinion is unanimous2 but some dissenters hold that sheep and perhaps goats1 but certainly sheep1 issued from a flat rock in the north of the country4 ,for some time past1 unfortunately1 the tree has ceased to be prolific2 it is of no use waiting beside it in the hope of capturing such oxen and sheep as it might bear4 ,yet still the ,herero testify great respect for the tree which they regard as their ancestor 7omukuru74 ,to injure it is deemed a sacrilege which the ancestor will punish sooner or later4 ,in passing it they bow reverently and stick a bunch of green twigs or grass into the trunk or throw it down at the foot4 ,they address the tree1 saying1 8,u-zera tate mukururume1 ,thou art holy1 grandfather60 and they even enter into conversation with it1 giving the answers themselves in a changed voice4 ,they hardly dare to sit down in its shadow4 ,all this reverence they display for every tree of the species4#gag ,sidenote3 ,migration from one country to another sometimes involves a change of sacred tree4 ,on the whole1 then1 we may infer that so long as the ,herero dwelt in a land where their ancestral tree abounded1 they made the male fire-stick from its wood2 but that as they gradually migrated from a region of tropical rains and luxuriant forests to the arid mountains1 open grass lands1 and dry torrid climate of their present country1#gah they had in some places to forgo its use and to take another tree in its stead4 ,similarly the ,aryan invaders of ,greece and ,italy were obliged1 under a southern sky1 to seek substitutes for the sacred oak of their old northern home2 and more and more1 as time went on and the deciduous woods retreated up the mountain slopes1 they found what they sought in the laurel1 the olive1 and the vine4 ,zeus himself had to put up with the white poplar at his great sanctuary of ,olympia in the hot lowlands of ,elis2#gai and on summer days1 when the light leaves of the poplar hardly stirred in the languid air and the buzz of the flies was more than usually exasperating1 he perhaps looked wistfully away to the ,arcadian mountains1 looming blue in the distance through a haze of heat1 and sighed for the shadow and the coolness of their oak woods4 ,sidenote3 ,the worship of the chief's fire a form of ancestor-worship4 ,thus it appears that the sanctity ascribed by the ,herero to the chief's fire springs from a custom of kindling it with the wood of their ancestral tree2 in fact1 the cult of the fire resolves itself into a form of ancestor-worship4 ,for the religion of the ,herero1 like that of all ,bantu peoples1 is first and foremost a propitiation of the spirits of their forefathers conceived as powerful beings able and willing to harm them4 ,from youth to death the ,herero live in constant dread of their ancestors 7ovakuru1 plural of omukuru71 who1 sometimes seen and sometimes unseen1 return to earth and play their descendants many a spiteful trick4 ,they glide into the village1 steal the milk1 drive the cattle from the fold1 and waylay women4 ,more than that1 they can inflict disease and death1 decide the issue of war1 and send or withhold rain at pleasure4 ,they are the cause of every vexation and misfortune1 and the whole aim of the living is by frequent sacrifices to mollify and appease the dead4#gbj ,sidenote3 ,the sacred hearth a special seat of the ancestral spirits4 ,now the sacred hearth seems to be in a special sense the seat of the worship paid to the ancestral spirits4 ,here the head of the family sits and communes with his forefather1 giving himself the answers he thinks fit4#gba ,hither the newborn child is brought with its mother to be introduced to the spirits and to receive its name1 and the chief1 addressing his ancestors1 announces1 8,to you a child is born in your village2 may this village never come to an end60#gbb ,hither the bride is conducted at her marriage1 and a sheep having been sacrificed1 its flesh is placed on the holy bushes at the hearth4#gbc ,hither the sick are carried to be commended to the care of their ghostly kinsmen1 and as the sufferer is borne round and round the fire his friends chant3-- 8,see1 ,father1 we have come here1 ,with this sick man to you1 ,that he may soon recover40#gbd ,sidenote3 ,sacred sticks representing the deceased ancestors of the ,herero4 ,but the most tangible link between the worship of the fire and the worship of the dead is furnished by the sacred sticks representing the ancestors1 which are kept in a bundle together with the two sticks used for kindling the fire by friction4 ,each of these rude idols or ,lares1 as we may call them1 8symbolises a definite ancestor of the paternal clan1 and1 taken together1 they may be regarded as the most sacred possession of a family4 ,they stand in the closest relation to the holy hearth1 or rather to the priestly dignity1 and must therefore always remain in the same paternal clan40#gbe ,these sticks 8are cut from trees or bushes which are dedicated to the ancestors1 and they represent the ancestors at the sacrificial meals1 for the cooked flesh of the victims is always set before them first4 ,many people always keep these sticks1 tied up in a bundle with straps and hung with amulets1 in the branches of the sacrificial bushes which stand on the sacred hearth 7okuruo74 ,the sacrificial bush serves to support the severed pieces of the victim1 and thus in a measure represents an altar or table of sacrifice40#gbf ,when after an absence of years the people return to a village where a chief died and was buried1 a new fire is kindled by friction on the old hearth1 the flesh of the first animal slaughtered here is cooked in a particular vessel1 and the chief hands a portion of it to every person present4 8,an image1 consisting of two pieces of wood1 supposed to represent the household deity1 or rather the deified parent1 is then produced1 and moistened in the platter of each individual4 ,the chief then takes the image1 and1 after affixing a piece of meat to the upper end of it1 he plants it in the ground1 on the identical spot where his parent was accustomed to sacrifice4 ,the first pail of milk produced from the cattle is also taken to the grave2 a small quantity is poured on the ground1 and a blessing asked on the remainder40 ,each clan1 the writer adds1 has a particular tree or shrub consecrated to it1 and of this tree or shrub the two sticks representing the deceased are made4#gbg ,sidenote3 ,the sacred sticks representing the ancestors are probably the fire-sticks which were used to kindle fresh fire in the village after a death4 ,in these accounts the sacred sticks which stand for the ancestors1 and to which the meat of sacrifices is first offered1 are distinguished1 expressly or implicitly1 from the sacred sticks which are used to make the holy fire4#gbh ,other writers1 however1 identify the two sets of sticks4 ,thus we are told that the ,herero 8make images of their ancestors as follows4 ,they take the two sticks with which they make fire and tie them together with a fresh wisp of corn4 ,then they worship this object as their ancestor4 ,they may approach it only on their knees4 ,for hours together they sit before it and talk with it4 ,if you ask them where they imagine their ancestors to be1 since they cannot surely be these sticks1 they answer that they do not know4 ,the sticks are kept in the house of the great wife40#gbi ,again1 another writer defines the ondume or male fire-stick as a 8stick representing an omukuru1 i4e4 ancestor1 deity1 with which and the otyiza the holy fire is made40#gcj ,again1 the ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 in describing the ceremonies observed at the return to a deserted village where an ancestor 7omukuru7 is buried1 tells us that they bring no fire with them1 8but holy fire must now be obtained from the omukuru4 ,this is done with the ondume and the otyiza4 ,the meaning of these two words plainly shows that the first represents the omukuru1 and the other his wife40#gca ,the same excellent authority defines the ozondume as 8sticks which represent the ovakuru1 i4e4 ancestors1 deities02#gcb and ozondume is simply the plural of ondume1 the male fire-stick4#gcc ,hence it appears highly probable that the sticks representing the ancestors are1 in fact1 nothing but the male fire-sticks1 each of which was cut to make a new fire on the return to the old village after a chiefs death4 ,the stick would be an appropriate emblem of the deceased1 who had been in his lifetime the owner of the sacred fire1 and who now after his death bestowed it on his descendants by means of the friction of his wooden image4 ,and the symbolism will appear all the more natural when we remember that the male fire-stick is generally made from the ancestral tree1 that the process of fire-making is regarded by the ,herero as the begetting of a child1 and that their name for the stick1 according to the most probable etymology1 signifies 8the begetter40 ,such sticks would be far too sacred to be thrown away when they had served their immediate purpose of kindling a new fire1 and thus in time a whole bundle of them would accumulate1 each of them recalling1 and in a sense representing1 one of the great forefathers of the tribe4 ,when the old sticks had ceased to be used as fire-lighters1 and were preserved merely as memorials of the dead1 it is not surprising that their original function should be overlooked by some ,european observers1 who have thus been led to distinguish them from the sticks by which the fire is actually produced at the present day4#gcd ,amongst the ,sidenote3 ,sacred fire-boards among the ,koryaks and ,chuckchees of north-eastern ,asia4 ,koryaks of north-eastern ,asia1 when the sacred fire-boards1 roughly carved in human form1 are so full of holes that they can no longer be used for the purpose of kindling fire1 they are still kept as holy relics in a shrine near the door of the house2 and a stranger who observed the respect with which they are treated1 but who did not know their history1 might well mistake them for figures of worshipful ancestors and never guess the practical purpose which they once served as fire-lighters4 ,a ,koryak family regards its sacred fire-board not only as the deity of the household fire1 the guardian of the family hearth1 but also as the guardian of the reindeer1 and they call it the 8master of the herd40 ,it is supposed to protect the reindeer from wolves and from sickness and to prevent the animals from straying away and being lost4 ,when a reindeer is slaughtered1 the sacred fire-board is taken out and smeared with the blood4 ,the maritime ,koryaks1 who do not live by reindeer1 regard the sacred fire-board as the master of the underground house and the helper in the hunt of sea-mammals4 ,they call it 8father0 and feed it from time to time with fat1 which they smear on its mouth4#gce ,among the neighbouring ,chuckchees in the north-eastern extremity of ,asia similar ideas and customs obtain in respect of the fire-boards4 ,these are roughly carved in human form and personified1 almost deified1 as the supernatural guardians of the reindeer4 ,the holes made by drilling in the board are deemed the eyes of the figure and the squeaking noise produced by the friction of the fire-drill in the hole is thought to be its voice4 ,at every sacrifice the mouth of the figure is greased with tallow or with the marrow of bones4 ,when a new fire-board is made1 it is consecrated by being smeared with the blood of a slaughtered reindeer1 and the owner says1 8,enough6 ,take up your abode here60 ,then the other fire-boards are brought to the same place and set side by side on the ground4 ,the owner says1 8,ho6 these are your companions4 ,see that ,i always find easily every kind of game60 ,next he slaughters another reindeer and says1 8,hi6 ,since you are one of my young men1 go and drive the herd hither60 ,then after a pause he asks the fire-board1 8,have you brought it80 to which in the name of the fire-board he answers1 8,i have40 ,thereupon1 speaking in his own person1 he says1 8,then catch some reindeer6 ,it seems that you will keep a good watch over the herd4 ,there1 from the actual chief of the fire-boards1 you may learn wisdom40 ,these sacred fire-boards are often handed down from generation to generation as family heir-looms4 ,during the calving-season they are taken from their bag and placed behind the frame in the outer tent in order that they may protect the dams4#gcf ,sidenote3 ,the evolution of a fire-god or fire-goddess4 ,these ,koryak and ,chuckchee customs illustrate the evolution of a fire-god into the patron deity of a family and his representation in human form by the board which is used in fire-making4 ,as the fire-board is that part of the kindling apparatus which is commonly regarded as female in contradistinction to the drill1 which is regarded as male1 we can easily understand why the deity of the fire should sometimes1 as at ,rome1 be conceived as a goddess rather than as a god2 whereas if the drill itself were viewed as the essential part of the apparatus we should expect to find a fire-god and not a fire-goddess4 ,footnote #fhc3 ,festus1 s4v4 8,ignis10 p4 #ajf1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller3 8,ignis ,vestae si quando interstinctus esset1 virgines verberibus afficiebantur a pontifice1 quibus mos erat tabulam felicis materiae tamdiu terebrare1 quousque exceptum ignem cribro aeneo virgo in aedem ferret40 ,in this passage it is not clear whether quibus refers to the virgins alone or to the virgins and the pontiff together2 but the strict grammatical construction is in favour of the latter interpretation4 ,the point is not unimportant1 as we shall see presently4 ,from a passage of ,plutarch 7,numa1 #i7 it has sometimes been inferred that the ,vestal fire was rekindled by sunlight reflected from a burning-glass4 ,but in this passage ,plutarch is describing a ,greek1 not a ,roman1 mode of making fire1 as has been rightly pointed out by ,professor ,m4 ,h4 ,morgan 78,de ignis eliciendi modis apud antiquos10 ,harvard ,studies in ,classical ,philology1 i4 7#ahij7 pp4 #ef sqq474 ,in this memoir ,professor ,morgan has collected and discussed the passages of ,greek and ,latin writers which refer to the kindling of fire4 ,footnote #fhd3 ,see ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,early ,history of ,mankind1 #crd ,ed41 pp4 #bch sqq4 ,more evidence might easily be given4 ,see1 for example1 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 pp4 #ae sq42 ,c4 ,lumholtz1 ,among ,cannibals1 p4 #aia2 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 #ggj-ggc2 ,maximilian ,prinz zu ,wied-,newied1 ,reise nach ,brasilien1 ii4 #ah sq42 ,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 ,among the ,indians of ,guiana1 pp4 #beg-bei2 ,k4 von den ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,zentral-,brasiliens1 pp4 #bbc sqq42 ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 i4 #cge sqq42 ,a4 ,maass1 ,bei liebenswrdigen ,wilden1 ein ,beitrag zur ,kenntniss der ,mentawai-,insulaner 7,berlin1 #aijb71 pp4 #aad1 #aaf2 ,mgr4 ,le ,roy1 8,les ,pygmes10 ,missions ,catholiques1 xxix4 7#ahig71 p4 #acg2 ,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aijf71 pp4 #dfd-dgj2 ,w4 ,a4 ,reed1 ,negritos of ,zambales 7,manila1 #aijd71 p4 #dj4 ,footnote #fhe3 ,j4 ,teit1 8,the ,thompson ,indians of ,british ,columbia10 pp4 #bjc1 #bje 7,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 vol4 i4 part #d74 ,footnote #fhf3 ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes1 8,the ,lesser ,new-fire ,ceremony at ,walpi10 ,american ,anthropologist1 ,n4,s4 iii4 7#aija7 p4 #dde4 ,footnote #fhg3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #fba4 ,footnote #fhh3 ,for this information ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,s4 ,h4 ,ray4 ,footnote #fhi3 ,g4 ,jacob1 ,altarabisches ,beduineneben #bnd ,ed41 7,berlin1 #ahig71 p4 #ia4 ,in his ,arabic-,english ,lexicon1 book i4 p4 #abeg1 ,e4 ,w4 ,lane gives the following account of the subject3 8zand1 a piece of stick or wood1 for producing fire2 the upper one of the two pieces of stick1 or wood1 with which fire is produced3 444 and zanda is the appellation of the lower one thereof1 in which is the notch or hollow1 or in which is a hole4444 ,one end of the zand is put into the fard 7notch7 of the zanda1 and the zand is then rapidly twirled round in producing fire4444 ,the best kind of zand is made of 'afr and the best kind of zanda of markh40 ,it will be observed that the two writers differ as to markh wood1 ,jacob saying that it is used to make the upright 7male7 stick1 and ,lane that it is used to make the horizontal 7female7 stick4 ,my learned friend ,professor ,a4 ,a4 ,bevan1 who directed my attention to both passages and transliterated for me the ,arabic words in ,lane1 has kindly consulted the original authorities on this point and informs me that ,lane is right4 ,footnote #fij3 ,l4 ,concradt1 8,die ,ngumbu in ,sdkamerun10 ,globus1 lxxxi1 7#aijb7 p4 #ced4 ,footnote #fia3 ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,masai 7,oxford1 #aije71 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #fib3 ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi 7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #he4 ,footnote #fic3 ,letter of the ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 dated ,mengo1 ,uganda1 #crd ,august #aijd4 ,footnote #fid3 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,light in ,africa #bnd ,ed41 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #baf sq4 ,footnote #fie3 ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #ea sq4 ,footnote #fif3 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero 7,gtersloh1 #aijf71 pp4 #di sqq41 #ec sqq4 ,compare ,josaphat ,hahn1 8,die ,ovaherero10 ,zeitschrift der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin1 iv4 7#ahfi7 pp4 #bbg sqq42 ,h4 ,schinz1 ,deutsch-,sdwest-,afrika 7,oldenburg and ,leipsic1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #adb sq42 ,e4 ,dannert1 ,zum ,rechte der ,herero 7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #a sqq4 ,the people call themselves ,ovaherero 7plural72 the singular form is ,omuherero4 ,the name ,damaras was given them by the ,english and ,dutch4 ,under the influence of the missionaries most of the heathen customs described in the text seem now to have disappeared4 ,see ,p4 ,h4 ,brincker1 8,character1 ,sitten1 und ,gebruche1 speciell der ,bantu ,deutsch-,sdwest-afrikas10 ,mittheilungen des ,seminars fr ,orientalische ,sprachen zu ,berlin1 iii4 7#aijj7 ,dritte ,abtheilung1 p4 #gb4 ,footnote #fig3 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami 7,london1 #ahef71 p4 #bcj2 ,j4 ,chapman1 ,travels in the ,interior of ,south ,africa 7,london1 #ahfh71 i4 #cbe2 ,j4 ,hahn1 8,die ,ovaherero10 ,zeitschrift der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin1 iv4 7#ahfi7 pp4 #bdd-bdg1 #bej2 ,c4 ,j4 ,bttner1 ,das ,hinterland von ,walfischbai und ,angra ,pequena 7,heidelberg1 #ahhd71 pp4 #bbh sq42 ,h4 ,schinz1 ,deutsch-,sdwest-,afrika1 pp4 #aeh-afa2 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 pp4 #cb sqq41 #aac4 ,footnote #fih3 ,francis ,galton1 ,narrative of an ,explorer in ,tropical ,south ,africa #crd ,ed41 7,london1 #ahij71 p4 #aaf2 ,j4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 iv4 7#ahfi71 p4 #bdg2 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #aee2 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 pp4 #aaa sq4 ,footnote #fii3 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #aei4 ,footnote #gjj3 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aee-aeg2 compare ,j4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 iv4 7#ahfi7 p4 #dii2 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 p4 #gh2 ,e4 ,dannert1 ,zum ,rechte der ,herero1 pp4 #d sq4 ,at first sight ,dr4 ,schinz's account appears to differ slightly from that given by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 who says3 8,in the werfts of the ,ovaherero1 the houses of the chief are on the eastern side4 ,next to these1 towards the west1 follow1 one after another1 the holy house 7otyizero71 the place of the holy fire 7okuruo71 and the kraal i4e4 the calves' pen 7otyunda72 thus the otyizero is on the east1 and the otyunda on the west side of the okuruo0 78,some ,customs of the ,ovaherero10 ,south ,african ,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 7#ahgi7 p4 #fb74 ,but it seems clear that by the chief's house ,mr4 ,viehe means what ,dr4 ,schinz calls the house of the great wife2 and that what ,mr4 ,viehe calls the holy house is the open space between the sacred hearth and the house of the great wife or chief4 ,that space is described as the holy ground by ,dr4 ,schinz1 who uses that phrase 78der geweihte ,boden07 as the equivalent of the native otyizero4 ,thus the two writers are in substantial agreement with each other4 ,on the other hand ,dr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,hahn gives the name of otyizero or sacred house to 8the chief house of the chief1 in front of which is the place of the holy fire40 ,he adds that 8the chief has several houses1 according to the number of wives1 each wife having her own hut0 7,south ,african ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 p4 #fb1 note #a47 ,the name otyizero seems to be derived from zera1 8sacred10 8taboo40 ,see ,g4 ,viehe1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ci1 #da1 #dc2 ,rev4 ,e4 ,dannert1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 pp4 #fc1 #fe1 #aje1 and the editor's note1 ib4 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #gja3 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #aee4 ,footnote #gjb3 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 p4 #bbc2 ,j4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 iv4 7#ahfi7 p4 #ejj2 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #afe4 ,footnote #gjc3 ,h4 ,brincker1 ,wrterbuch und kurzgefasste ,grammatik des ,otjiherero 7,leipsic1 #ahhf71 s4v4 8okuruo02 id4 8,pyrolatrie in ,sdafrika10 ,globus1 lxvii4 7,january #ahie7 p4 #ig2 ,meyer1 quoted by ,j4 ,kohler1 8,das ,recht der ,herero10 ,zeitschrift fr vergleichende ,rechtswissenschaft1 xiv4 7#aijj7 p4 #cae4 ,footnote #gjd3 ,j4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 iv4 7#ahfi7 pp4 #dii sq42 ,rev4 ,h4 ,beiderbecke1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 p4 #hd2 ,c4 ,g4 ,bttner1 8,ueber ,handwerke und technische ,fertigkeiten der ,eingeborenen in ,damaraland10 ,ausland1 #gth ,july #ahhd1 p4 #ebb2 ,p4 ,h4 ,brincker1 in ,mittheilungen des ,seminars fr ,orientalische ,sprachen zu ,berlin1 iii4 7#aijj7 ,dritte ,abtheilung1 p4 #ge2 id41 ,wrterbuch des ,otjiherero1 s4v4 8okuruo02 id41 8,pyrolatrie in ,sdafrika10 ,globus1 lxvii4 7,january #ahie7 p4 #ig2 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahc2 ,meyer1 l4c4 ,footnote #gje3 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbc2 ,j4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 iv4 7#ahfi7 p4 #ejj2 ,rev4 ,e4 ,dannert1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 p4 #ff2 ,rev4 ,h4 ,beiderbecke1 ibid4 p4 #hc1 note #d2 ,c4 ,g4 ,bttner1 l4c42 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #afe2 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 pp4 #gh sq42 ,e4 ,dannert1 ,zum ,rechte der ,herero1 p4 #e4 ,according to ,meyer 7l4c47 and ,e4 ,dannert 7,zum ,rechte der ,herero1 p4 #e71 if the chief's eldest daughter marries1 the duty of tending the fire passes to his eldest wife4 ,this statement is at variance with all the other testimony on the subject1 and for reasons which will appear presently ,i regard it as improbable4 ,at least it can hardly represent the original custom4 ,footnote #gjf3 ,rev4 ,h4 ,beiderbecke1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 p4 #hd4 ,footnote #gjg3 ,rev4 ,e4 ,dannert1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 p4 #ff2 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #afh4 ,footnote #gjh3 ,francis ,galton1 op4 cit4 p4 #aae4 ,footnote #gji3 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 p4 #bbc4 ,footnote #gaj3 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 l4c42 ,j4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 iv4 7#ahfi7 p4 #ejj2 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #afg4 ,footnote #gaa3 ,virgil1 ,aen4 ii4 #gag sqq41 #gdg4 ,footnote #gab3 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 p4 #bbd2 ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 7#ahgi7 p4 #dc2 ,rev4 ,e4 ,dannert1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 p4 #fg2 ,c4 ,g4 ,bttner1 l4c42 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aff1 #afg1 #ahf2 ,meyer1 quoted by ,j4 ,kohler1 op4 cit4 p4 #cae2 ,p4 ,h4 ,brincker1 in ,mittheilungen des ,seminars fr ,orientalische ,sprachen zu ,berlin1 iii4 7#aijj7 ,dritte ,abtheilung1 pp4 #ge sq42 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 p4 #hj2 ,e4 ,dannert1 ,zum ,rechte der ,herero 7,berlin1 #aijf71 p4 #e4 ,footnote #gac3 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 pp4 #bbh sq42 ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 op4 cit4 i4 7#ahgi7 pp4 #fa sq42 ,c4 ,g4 ,bttner1 l4c42 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afe1 #ahj4 ,the ,herero have a curious twofold system of paternal clans 7otuzo1 plural2 oruzo1 singular7 and maternal clans 7omaanda1 plural2 eanda1 singular74 ,every person inherits an oruzo from his father and an eanda from his mother4 ,see my ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 #ceg sqq4 ,footnote #gad3 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 pp4 #bbc sq42 ,j4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 iv4 7#ahfi7 p4 #ejj2 ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 op4 cit4 i4 7#ahgi7 pp4 #ci1 #fa2 ,c4 ,g4 ,bttner1 l4c42 ,h4 ,brincker1 ,wrterbuch des ,otji-herero1 s4vv4 ondume and otjija2 id4 8,character1 ,sitten1 und ,gebruche1 speciell der ,bantu ,deutsch-,sdwest-afrikas10 ,mittheilungen des ,seminars fr ,orientalische ,sprachen zu ,berlin1 iii4 7#aijj7 ,dritte ,abtheilung1 p4 #ge2 id4 8,pyrolatrie in ,sdafrika10 ,globus1 lxvii4 7,january1 #ahie7 p4 #if2 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afe sq42 ,j4 ,kohler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cje1 #cae2 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 pp4 #gi sq4 ,according to ,dr4 ,schinz1 the meaning of the names applied to the fire-sticks has been much disputed2 he himself adopts the view given in the text1 and supports it by weighty reason which1 taken along with analogous designations in many other parts of the world1 may be regarded as conclusive4 ,he tells us that otyiza means pudendum muliebre1 and this is actually the name of the holed stick according to ,mr4 ,viehe 7ll4cc471 though ,dr4 ,schinz gives otyia as the name4 ,i have followed ,dr4 ,brincker in accepting otyiya 7otjija7 as the correct form of the word4 ,further1 ,dr4 ,schinz derives ondume1 the name of the pointed stick1 from a verb ruma1 meaning 8to have intercourse with a woman40 ,moreover1 he reports that the ,ai ,san ,bushmen1 near ,noihas1 in the ,kalahari desert1 call the vertical fire-stick tau doro and the horizontal fire-stick gai doro1 where tau is the masculine prefix and gai the feminine4 ,finally1 a ,herero explained to him the significance of the names by referring in an unmistakable manner to the corresponding relations in the animal kingdom4 ,that the two sticks are regarded as male and female is positively affirmed by ,mr4 ,viehe1 ,mr4 ,meyer 7quoted by ,j4 ,kohler71 and ,dr4 ,brincker4 ,footnote #gae3 ,see above1 pp4 #bac sq4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,viehe says that the omuwapu tree 8acts a very important part in almost all the religious ceremonies0 of the ,herero 7op4 cit4 i4 #de74 ,probably it is only used where the omumborombonga cannot be had4 ,footnote #gaf3 ,j4 ,hahn1 8,das ,land der ,herero10 ,zeitschrift der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin1 iii4 7#ahfh7 pp4 #bjj1 #bac1 #bad sq42 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 pp4 #bah1 #bba2 id41 ,the ,okavango ,river 7,london1 #ahfa71 pp4 #ba sq42 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #gag3 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 p4 #bba2 ,francis ,galton1 op4 cit4 p4 #aae2 ,j4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 iii4 7#ahfh7 p4 #bae1 iv4 7#ahfi7 p4 #dih1 note2 ,rev4 ,h4 ,beiderbecke1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 pp4 #ib sq42 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahb sq42 ,meyer1 quoted by ,j4 ,kohler1 op4 cit4 p4 #big2 ,p4 ,h4 ,brincker1 in ,mittheilungen des ,seminars fr ,orientalische ,sprachen zu ,berlin 7#aijj71 ,dritte ,abtheilung1 p4 #gc2 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 pp4 #ge sq41 #gg2 ,e4 ,dannert1 ,zum ,rechte der ,herero1 pp4 #c sq4 ,footnote #gah3 ,on the evidence for this migration see ,j4 ,chapman1 ,travels in the ,interior of ,south ,africa1 i4 #cbe-cbg2 ,j4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 iii4 7#ahfh7 pp4 #bbg sqq4 ,as to the physical features and climate of ,hereroland1 see ,j4 ,hahn1 8,das ,land der ,ovaherero10 ,zeitschrift der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin1 iii4 7#ahfh7 pp4 #aic sqq42 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 pp4 #i sqq41 #ai sqq4 ,footnote #gai3 ,pausanias1 v4 #ac4 #c1 v4 #ad4 #b4 ,on the substitution of the poplar for the oak1 see ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook in ,folk-lore1 xv4 7#aijd7 pp4 #big sq4 ,footnote #gbj3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 8,some ,customs of the ,ovaherero10 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 7#ahgi7 pp4 #fd-ff2 ,rev4 ,h4 ,beiderbecke1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 p4 #ia2 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahc sq42 ,p4 ,h4 ,brincker1 in ,mittheilungen des ,seminars fr ,orientalische ,sprachen zu ,berlin1 iii4 7#aijj7 ,dritte ,abtheilung1 pp4 #hi sq42 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 pp4 #gd1 #ge1 #gg4 ,apparently it is only a powerful or eminent man who becomes an omukuru after his death4 ,or rather1 perhaps1 though all dead men become ovakuru1 only the strong and brave are feared and worshipped4 ,footnote #gba3 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahc4 ,footnote #gbb3 ,rev4 ,e4 ,dannert1 8,customs of the ,ovaherero at the ,birth of a ,child10 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 pp4 #ff sq4 ,compare ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 op4 cit4 i4 7#ahgi7 p4 #da2 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #afh4 ,footnote #gbc3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 7#ahgi7 pp4 #di sq4 ,footnote #gbd3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 op4 cit4 i4 #ea4 ,footnote #gbe3 ,h4 ,schinz1 op4 cit4 p4 #aff4 ,compare ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #gbf3 ,j4 ,hahn1 op4 cit4 iv4 7#ahfi7 p4 #ejj1 note4 ,footnote #gbg3 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,lake ,ngami1 pp4 #bbh sq4 ,the ceremony is described more fully by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 8,some ,customs of the ,ovaherero10 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 7#ahgi7 pp4 #fa sq41 from whose account some of the details in the text are borrowed4 ,footnote #gbh3 ,the distinction is made also by ,mr4 ,j4 ,irle4 ,according to him1 while the fire-sticks are called ozondume 7plural of ondume71 the sticks which represent the ancestors are called ozohongue and are made from the omuvapu bush4 ,in every chief's house there is a bundle of about twenty of these ancestral sticks4 ,when a chief dies1 the sticks are wrapped in a portion of the sacred bull 7omusisi7 which is slaughtered on this occasion1 and a new stick is added to the bundle4 ,at the same time ,mr4 ,irle tells us that the fire-sticks 7ozondume7 also represent the ancestors and are made like them from the omuvapu bush4 ,see ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 pp4 #gg1 #gi4 ,footnote #gbi3 ,bensen1 quoted by ,j4 ,kohler1 8,das ,recht der ,herero10 ,zeitschrift fr vergleichende ,rechtswissenschaft1 xiv4 7#aijj7 p4 #cje4 ,footnote #gcj3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 or his editor1 op4 cit4 i4 7#ahgi7 p4 #ci4 ,the otyiza 7otyiya7 is the female fire-stick4 ,see above1 p4 #bah note #a4 ,footnote #gca3 ,rev4 ,g4 ,viehe1 in 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 7#ahgi7 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #gcb3 ,ibid4 p4 #dc1 compare p4 #ej4 ,footnote #gcc3 ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero1 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #gcd3 ,i have assumed that the ancestral sticks1 whatever their origin1 represent only men4 ,this is plainly implied by ,dr4 ,brincker1 who tells us that 8each of these sticks represents the male member of generation and in the ,bantu sense a personality1 which stands for the presence of the deceased chief on all festive occasions and especially at religious ceremonies0 78,character1 ,sitten1 und ,gebruche1 speciell der ,bantu ,deutsch-,sdwestafrikas10 ,mittheilungen des ,seminars fr ,orientalische ,sprachen zu ,berlin1 iii4 7#aijj7 ,dritte ,abtheilung1 p4 #gd74 ,in savage society women are of too little account for their ghosts to be commonly worshipped4 ,speaking of the ,bantu peoples1 a writer who knows them well observes3 8,this lack of respect for old women is a part of the natives' religious system1 and is connected with their conception of a future life1 in which women play a subordinate part1 their spirits not being able to cause much trouble1 and therefore not being of much account0 7,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir1 p4 #bc74 ,footnote #gce3 ,w4 ,jochelson1 8,the ,koryak10 pp4 #cb-cf 7,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 vol4 vi41 ,leyden and ,new ,york1 #aijh74 ,footnote #gcf3 ,w4 ,bogaras1 8,the ,chukchee ,religion10 pp4 #cdi-cec 7,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 vol4 vii4 part ii41 ,leyden and ,new ,york1 #aijd74 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,father ,,jove ,,and ,,mother ,,vesta ,sidenote3 ,similarity between the fire-customs of the ,herero and the ancient ,latins4 ,the reader may remember that the preceding account of the fire-customs of the ,herero was introduced for the sake of comparison with the ,latin worship of ,vesta4 ,the points of similarity between the two will now be indicated4 ,in the first place we have seen reason to hold that the ever-burning ,vestal fire at ,rome was merely a survival of the fire on the king's hearth4 ,so among the ,herero the sacred fire of the village is the chief's fire1 which is kept burning or smouldering in his house by day and by night4 ,in ,rome1 as in ,hereroland1 the extinction of the fire was regarded as an evil omen1 which had to be expiated by sacrifices1#gcg and new fire was procured in primitive fashion by twirling the point of one stick in the hole of another4 ,the ,roman fire was fed with the wood of the sacred oak tree1 just as the ,african fire is kindled with the wood of the sacred omumborombonga tree4 ,beside both were kept the images of the ancestors1 the ,lares at ,rome1 the ozondume in ,hereroland4 ,the king's house which sheltered the fire and the images was originally in ,italy what the chief's hut still is in ,hereroland1 a circular hut of osiers1 not as ancient dreamers thought1 because the earth is round1#gch nor yet because a circle is the symbol of rest1 but simply because it is both easier and cheaper to build a round hut than a square4#gci ,sidenote3 ,the ,roman ,vestals1 or some of them1 appear to have been originally the king's daughters4 ,further1 in ,rome the sacred fire was tended1 as it still is in ,hereroland1 by unmarried women1 and as the ,herero priestesses are the chiefs daughters1 so1 we may conjecture1 it was with some at least of the ,vestals among the ancient ,latins4 ,the ,roman ,vestals appear to have been under the patria potestas of the king1 and1 in republican times1 of the ,pontifex ,maximus1 who succeeded to some of the king's functions4#gdj ,but if they were under the patria potestas of the king1 they must have been either his wives or daughters2 as virgins they cannot have been his wives2 it remains1 therefore1 that they were his daughters4 ,various circumstances confirm this view4 ,their house at ,rome1 as we saw1 always adjoined the ,regia1 the old palace of the kings2 they were treated with marks of respect usually accorded to royalty2#gda and the most famous of all the ,vestals1 the mother of ,romulus1 was said to be a daughter of the ,king of ,alba4#gdb ,the custom of putting an unfaithful ,vestal to death by immuring her in a subterranean chamber#gdc may have been adopted in order to avoid the necessity of taking the life of a princess by violence2#gdd for1 as we shall learn later on1 there is a very widespread reluctance to spill royal blood4 ,sidenote3 ,rites performed by the ,vestals for the fertility of the earth and the fecundity of cattle4 ,amongst the ,herero the chief's daughter who tends the holy fire has also to perform certain priestly rites1 which have for their object the prosperity and multiplication of the cattle4#gde ,so1 too1 it was with the ,roman ,vestals4 ,on the fifteenth of ,april every year pregnant cows were sacrificed to the ,earth goddess2 the unborn calves were torn from their mothers' wombs1 the chief ,vestal burned them and kept their ashes for use at the shepherds' festival of the ,parilia4 ,this sacrifice of pregnant cows was a fertility charm designed1 by a curious application of homoeopathic magic1 to quicken both the seed in the ground and the wombs of the cows and the ewes4#gdf ,at the ,parilia1 held on the twenty-first of ,april1 the ,vestals mixed the ashes of the unborn calves with the blood of a horse which had been sacrificed in ,october1 and this mixture they distributed to shepherds1 who fumigated their flocks with it as a means of ensuring their fecundity and a plentiful supply of milk4#gdg ,sidenote3 ,the ,vestals were probably regarded as embodiments of ,vesta1 who was a mother-goddess1 the bestower of offspring on cattle and women4 ,strange as at first it may seem to find holy virgins assisting in operations intended to promote the fertility of the earth and of cattle1 this reproductive function accords perfectly with the view that they were of old the wives of the fire-god and the mothers of kings4 ,on that view1 also1 we can understand why down to imperial times the ,vestals adored the male emblem of generation1#gdh and why ,vesta herself1 the goddess of whom they were the priestesses and probably the embodiments1 was worshipped by the ,romans not as a virgin but as a mother4#gdi ,she was sometimes identified with ,venus4#gej ,like ,diana1 with whom she was identified at ,nemi1 she appears to have been a goddess of fecundity1 who bestowed offspring both on cattle and on women4 ,that she was supposed to multiply cattle is indicated by the ceremonies which the ,vestals performed in ,april2 that she made women to be mothers is hinted at not obscurely by the legends of the birth of the old ,latin kings4#gea ,the ancient ,aryan practice of leading a bride thrice round the hearth of her new home#geb may have been intended not merely to introduce her to the ancestral spirits who had their seats there1 but also to promote conception1 perhaps by allowing one of these very spirits to enter into her and be born again4 ,when the ancient ,hindoo bridegroom led his bride round the fire1 he addressed the fire-god ,sidenote3 ,custom of leading a bride round the fire perhaps a fertility charm4 ,agni with the words1 8,mayst thou give back1 ,agni1 to the husband the wife together with offspring40#gec ,when a ,slavonian bride enters her husband's house after marriage she is led thrice round the hearth2 then she must stir the fire with the poker1 saying1 8,as many sparks spring up1 so many cattle1 so many male children shall enliven the new home40#ged ,at ,mostar1 in ,herzegovina1 the bride seats herself on a bag of fruit beside the hearth in her new home and pokes the fire thrice4 ,while she does so1 they bring her a small boy and set him on her lap4 ,she turns the child thrice round in order that she may give birth to male children4#gee ,still more clearly does belief in the impregnation of a woman by fire come out in another ,south ,slavonian custom4 ,when a wife wishes to have a child1 she will hold a vessel full of water beside the fire on the hearth1 while her husband knocks two burning brands together so that the sparks fly out4 ,when some of them have fallen into the vessel1 the woman drinks the water which has thus been fertilised by the fire4#gef ,the same belief seems still to linger in ,england2 for there is a ,lincolnshire saying that if a woman's apron is burned above the knee by a spark or red-hot cinder flying out of a fire1 she will become a mother4#geg ,thus the superstition which gave rise to the stories of the birth of the old ,roman kings holds its ground to this day in ,europe1 even in our own country4 ,so indestructible are the crude fancies of our savage forefathers4 ,thus we may safely infer that the old practice of leading a bride formally to or round the hearth was designed to make her fruitful through the generative virtue ascribed to the fire4 ,the custom is not confined to peoples of the ,aryan stock1 for it is observed also by the ,esthonians and the ,wotyaks of ,russia#geh and1 as we have seen1 by the ,herero of ,south ,africa4#gei ,it expresses in daily life the same idea which is embodied in the myths of the birth of ,servius ,tullius and the other ,latin kings1 whose virgin mothers conceived through contact with a spark or tongue of fire4#gfj ,sidenote3 ,new-born children brought to the hearth as a mode of introducing them to the ancestral spirits4 ,accordingly1 where beliefs and customs of this sort have prevailed1 it is easy to understand why new-born children should be brought to the hearth1 and why their birth should there be solemnly announced to the ancestors4 ,this is done by the ,herero1#gfa and in like manner on the fifth or seventh day after a birth the ancient ,greeks used to run naked round the hearth with the new-born babe in their arms4#gfb ,this ,greek ceremony may perhaps be regarded as merely a purification1 in other words as a means of keeping at bay the demons who lie in wait for infants4 ,certainly in other parts of the world a custom has prevailed of passing a newly born child backwards and forwards through the smoke of the fire for the express purpose of warding off evil spirits or other baleful influences4#gfc ,yet on the analogy of the preceding customs we may conjecture that a practice of solemnly bringing infants to the domestic hearth has also been resorted to as a mode of introducing them to the spirits of their fathers4#gfd ,in ,russia the old belief that the souls of the ancestors were somehow in the fire on the hearth has left traces of itself down to the present time4 ,thus in the ,nijegorod ,government it is still forbidden to break up the smouldering faggots in a stove1 because to do so might cause the ancestors to fall through into hell4 ,and when a ,russian family moves from one house to another1 the fire is raked out of the old stove into a jar and solemnly conveyed to the new one1 where it is received with the words1 8,welcome1 grandfather1 to the new home60#gfe ,sidenote3 ,reasons why a procreative virtue was ascribed to fire4 ,but why1 it may be asked1 should a procreative virtue be attributed to the fire1 which at first sight appears to be a purely destructive agent8 and why in particular should the ancestral spirits be conceived as present in it8 ,two different reasons perhaps led savage philosophers to these conclusions4 ,in the first place the common mode of making fire by means of the fire-drill has suggested1 as we have seen1 to many savages the notion that fire is the child of the fire-sticks1 in other words that the rubbing of the fire-sticks together is a sexual union which begets offspring in the shape of a flame4 ,this of itself suffices to impress on the mind of a savage the idea that a capacity of reproduction is innate in the fire1 and consequently that a woman may conceive by contact with it4 ,strictly speaking1 he ought perhaps to refer this power of reproduction not to the fire but to the fire-sticks2 but savage thought is in general too vague to distinguish clearly between cause and effect4 ,if he thinks the matter out1 as he may do if he is more than usually reflective1 the savage will probably conclude that fire ,sidenote3 ,the process of making fire by friction seems to the savage an act of generation4 exists unseen in all wood1 and is only elicited from it by friction1#gff so that the spark or flame is the child1 not so much of the fire-sticks1 as of the parent fires in them4 ,but this refinement of thought may well be above the reach even of a savage philosopher4 ,the second reason which seems to have led early man to associate the fire with the souls of his ancestors was a superstitious veneration for the ancestral tree which furnished either the fuel for the sacred fire or the material out of which he carved one or both of the fire-sticks4 ,among the ,herero1 as we ,sidenote3 ,again1 the fire was associated with the ancestors through the sacred ancestral tree which furnished either the fuel or the fire-sticks4 saw1 the male fire-stick commonly is1 or used to be1 made out of the holy omumborombonga tree1 from which they believe that they and their cattle sprang in days of old4 ,hence nothing could be more natural than that they should regard the fire produced by the friction of a piece of the ancestral tree1 as akin to themselves1 the offspring of the same mighty forefather1 to wit1 the sacred tree4 ,similarly1 the ,vestal fire at ,rome was fed with the wood of the oak1 the sacred tree of ,jupiter1 and the first ,romans are described as 8born of the tree trunks and the heart of oak40#gfg ,no wonder1 then1 that the ,latin kings1 who claimed to represent ,jupiter1 and in that capacity masqueraded in his costume and made mock thunder1 should have prided themselves on being sprung from a fire which was fed with the wood of the god's holy tree2 such an origin was only another form of descent from the oak and from the god of the oak1 ,jupiter himself4 ,sidenote3 ,esthonian marriage custom4 ,the theory that impregnation by fire is really impregnation by the wood of the tree with which the fire is kindled1 derives some confirmation from a custom which is observed at marriage by some of the ,esthonians in the neighbourhood of ,oberpahlen4 ,the bride is escorted to a tree1 which is thereupon cut down and burned4 ,when the fire blazes up1 she is led thrice round it and placed between three armed men1 who clash their swords over her head1 while the women sing a song4 ,then some coins are thrown into the fire1 and when it has died out they are recovered and knocked into the stump of the tree1 which was cut down to serve as fuel4#gfh ,this is clearly a mode of rewarding1 first the fire1 and next the tree1 for some benefit they have conferred on the bride4 ,but in early society husband and wife desire nothing so much as offspring2 this therefore may very well be the benefit for which the ,esthonian bride repays the tree4 ,sidenote3 ,the conception of the ,fire-mother intimately bound up with that of the female fire-stick in the fire-drill4 ,thus far we have regarded mainly the paternal aspect of the fire1 which the ,latins mythically embodied in ,jupiter1 that is literally ,father ,jove1 the god of the oak4 ,the maternal aspect of the fire was for them represented by ,mother ,vesta1 as they called her2 and as the ,roman king stood for ,father ,jove1 so his wife or daughter--the practice on this point appears to have varied--stood for ,mother ,vesta4 ,sometimes1 as we have seen1 the ,vestal virgins1 the priestesses or rather incarnations of ,vesta1 appear to have been the daughters1 not the wives1 of the king4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there are grounds for thinking that the wife of ,king ,latinus1 the legendary ancestor of the ,latins1 was traditionally regarded as a ,vestal1#gfi and the analogy of the ,flamen ,dialis with his wife the ,flaminica1 as ,i shall shew presently1 points also to a married pair of priestly functionaries concerned with the kindling and maintenance of the sacred fire4 ,however that may have been1 we may take it as probable that the notion of the fire-mother was intimately associated with1 if it did not spring directly from1 the female fire-stick of the fire-drill1 just as the conception of the fire-father was similarly bound up with the male fire-stick4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,fire-father and the ,fire-mother represented by a priest and priestess who together made the sacred fire by means of the fire-drill4 ,further1 it seems that these mythical beings1 the fire-father and the fire-mother1 were represented in real life by a priest and a priestess1 who together made the sacred fire1 the priest appropriately twirling the pointed male stick1 while the priestess held fast on the ground the holed female stick1 ready to blow up into a flame the spark which fell on the tinder4 ,in the composite religion of ,rome1 formed like the ,roman state by the fusion of several tribes1 each with its own gods and priests1 such pairs of fire-priests may at first have been duplicated4 ,in one or more of the tribes which afterwards made up the ,roman commonwealth the function of kindling the holy fire of oak was perhaps assigned to the ,flamen ,dialis and his wife the ,flaminica1 the living representatives of ,jupiter and ,juno2 and if1 as some scholars think1 the name flamen comes from flare1 8to blow up10#ggj the derivation would fit well with this theory4 ,but in historical ,rome the duty of making the sacred fire lay with the ,vestal virgins and the chief pontiff4#gga ,the mode in which they shared the work between them is not described by ancient writers1 but we may suppose that one of the virgins held the board of lucky wood on the ground while the pontiff inserted the point of a peg into the hole of the board and made the peg revolve rapidly between the palms of his hands4 ,when the likeness of this mode of producing fire to the intercourse of the sexes had once struck people1 they would deem it unnatural1 and even indecent1 for a woman to usurp the man's function of twirling the pointed male stick4 ,but the ,vestals certainly helped to make fire by friction2 it would seem1 therefore1 that the part they took in the process can only have been the one ,i have conjecturally assigned to them4 ,at all events1 the conjecture is supported by the following analogies4 ,sidenote3 ,among the ,djakuns fire is made by the leader and his unmarried daughter4 ,the ,djakuns1 a wild tribe of the ,malay ,peninsula1 are in the habit of making fire by friction4 ,a traveller has described the custom as follows3 8,when a troop was on a journey and intended either to pitch a temporary camp1 or to make a longer settlement1 the first camp fire was kindled for good luck by an unmarried girl with the help of the fire-drill4 ,generally this girl was the daughter of the man who served the troop as leader4 ,it was deemed of special importance that on the first night of a settlement the fire of every band should be lit by the unmarried daughter of a leader4 ,but she might only discharge this duty if she had not her monthly sickness on her at the time4 ,this custom is all the more remarkable inasmuch as the ,djakuns in their migrations always carried a smouldering rope of bark with them40 8,when the fire was to be kindled1 the girl took the piece of soft wood and held it on the ground1 while her father1 or any other married man1 twirled the vertical borer upon it4 ,she waited for the spark to spring from the wood1 and fanned it into a flame either by blowing on it or by waving the piece of wood quickly about in her hand4 ,for this purpose she caught the spark in a bundle of teased bark and exposed it to a draught of air40 8,fire so produced was employed to kindle the other fires for that night4 ,they ascribed to it good luck in cooking and a greater power of keeping off tigers and so forth1 than if the first fire had been kindled by a spark from the smouldering bark rope40#ggb ,this account suggests a reason why a holy fire should be tended by a number of virgins3 one or more of them might at any time be incapacitated by a natural infirmity for the discharge of the sacred duty4 ,sidenote3 ,among the ,slavs of the ,balkans fire is made by a young girl and boy4 ,again1 the ,slavs of the ,balkan ,peninsula ascribe a healing or protective power to 8living fire10 and when an epidemic is raging in a village they will sometimes extinguish all the fires on the hearths and procure a 8living fire0 by the friction of wood4 ,at the present day this is done by various mechanical devices1 but the oldest method1 now almost obsolete1 is said to be as follows3--,a girl and a boy between the ages of eleven and fourteen1 having been chosen to make the fire1 are led into a dark room1 where they must strip themselves of all their clothes without speaking a word4 ,then two perfectly dry cylindrical pieces of lime-wood are given them1 which they must rub rapidly against each other1 turn about1 till they take fire4 ,tinder is then lit at the flame and used for the purpose of healing4 ,this mode of kindling the 8living fire0 is still practised in the ,schar ,mountains of ,old ,servia4 ,the writer who describes it witnessed some years ago the use of the sacred fire at the village of ,setonje1 at the foot of the ,homolye ,mountains1 in the heart of the great ,servian forest4 ,but on that occasion the fire was made in the manner described1 not by a boy and girl1 but by an old woman and an old man4 ,every fire in the village had previously been extinguished1 and was afterwards relit with the new fire4#ggc ,sidenote3 ,among the ,kachins fire is made by a man and woman jointly4 ,among the ,kachins of ,burma1 when people take solemn possession of a new house1 a new fire is made in front of it by a man and woman jointly4 ,a dry piece of bamboo is pegged down on the ground2 the two fire-makers sit down facing each other at either end of it1 and together rub another piece of bamboo on the horizontal piece1 one of them holding the wrists of the other and both pressing down firmly till fire is elicited4#ggd ,sidenote3 ,thus the conception of the fire-sticks as male and female is carried out by requiring the male stick to be worked by a man and the female stick to be worked by a woman4 ,in the first at least of these customs1 it is plain1 the conception of the fire-sticks as male and female has been logically carried out by requiring the male fire-stick to be worked by a man and the female fire-stick to be held by a woman4 ,but opinions seem to differ on the question whether the fire-makers ,sidenote3 ,but opinions differ as to whether the fire-makers should be married or single4 should be wedded or single4 ,the ,djakuns prefer that the man should be married and the woman unmarried2 on the other hand1 the ,slavs of the ,schar ,mountains clearly think it better that both should be single1 since they entrust the duty of making the fire to a boy and girl4 ,in so far as the man's part in the work is concerned1 some of our ,scottish ,highlanders agree with the ,djakuns at the other end of the world2 for the natives of ,lewis 8did also make use of a fire called ,tin-egin1 i4e4 a forced fire1 or fire of necessity1 which they used as an antidote against the plague or murrain in cattle2 and it was performed thus3 all the fires in the parish were extinguished1 and then eighty-one married men1 being thought the necessary number for effecting this design1 took two great planks of wood1 and nine of them were employed by turns1 who by their repeated efforts rubbed one of the planks against the other until the heat thereof produced fire2 and from this forced fire each family is supplied with new fire1 which is no sooner kindled than a pot full of water is quickly set on it1 and afterwards sprinkled upon the people infected with the plague1 or upon the cattle that have the murrain4 ,and this they all say they find successful by experiment3 it was practised in the main land1 opposite to the south of ,skie1 within these thirty years40#gge ,on the other hand1 the ,germans of ,halberstadt sided with the ,south ,slavs on this point1 for they caused the forced fire1 or need fire1 as it is commonly called1 to be made by two chaste boys1 who pulled at a rope which ran round a wooden cylinder4#ggf ,the theory and practice of the ,basutos in ,south ,africa were similar4 ,after a birth had taken place they used to kindle the fire of the hut afresh1 and 8for this purpose it was necessary that a young man of chaste habits should rub two pieces of wood quickly one against another1 until a flame sprung up1 pure as himself4 ,it was firmly believed that a premature death awaited him who should dare to take upon himself this office1 after having lost his innocence4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as a birth was proclaimed in the village1 the fathers took their sons to undergo the ordeal4 ,those who felt themselves guilty confessed their crime1 and submitted to be scourged rather than expose themselves to the consequences of a fatal temerity40#ggg ,sidenote3 ,reasons for entrusting the making of fire to unmarried boys and girls4 ,it is not hard to divine why the task of twirling the male fire-stick in the hole of the female fire-stick should by some people be assigned to married men4 ,the analogy of the process to the intercourse of the sexes furnishes an obvious reason4 ,it is less easy to understand why other people should prefer to entrust the duty to unmarried boys4 ,but probably the preference is based on a belief that chastity leaves the boys with a stock of reproductive energy which they may expend on the operation of fire-making1 whereas married men dissipate the same energy in other channels4 ,a somewhat similar train of thought may explain a rule of virginity enjoined on women who assist in the production of fire by holding the female fire-stick on the ground4 ,as a virgin's womb is free to conceive1 so1 it might be thought1 will be the womb of the female fire-stick which she holds2 whereas had the female fire-maker been already with child1 she could not be reimpregnated1 and consequently the female fire-stick could not give birth to a spark4 ,thus1 in the sympathetic connexion between the fire-sticks and the fire-makers we seem to reach the ultimate origin of the order of the ,vestal ,virgins3 they had to be chaste1 because otherwise they could not light the fire4 ,once when the sacred fire had gone out1 the ,vestal in charge of it was suspected of having brought about the calamity by her unchastity1 but she triumphantly repelled the suspicion by eliciting a flame from the cold ashes4#ggh ,ideas of the same primitive kind still linger among the ,french peasantry1 who think that if a girl can blow up a smouldering candle into a flame she is a virgin1 but that if she fails to do so1 she is not4#ggi ,in ancient ,greece none but persons of pure life were allowed to blow up the holy fire with their mouths2 a vile man who had polluted his lips was deemed unworthy to discharge the duty4#ghj ,sidenote3 ,the holy fire and virgins of ,st4 ,brigit in ,ireland4 ,the ,french superstition1 which ,i have just mentioned1 may well date from ,druidical times1 for there are some grounds for thinking that among the old ,celts1 as among their near kinsmen the ,latins1 holy fires were tended by virgins4 ,in our own country perpetual fires were maintained in the temple of a goddess whom the ,romans identified with ,minerva1#gha but whose native ,celtic name seems to have been ,brigit4 ,like ,minerva1 ,brigit was a goddess of poetry and wisdom1 and she had two sisters also called ,brigit1 who presided over leechcraft and smithcraft respectively4 ,this appears to be only another way of saying that ,brigit was the patroness of bards1 physicians1 and smiths4#ghb ,now1 at ,kildare in ,ireland the nuns of ,st4 ,brigit tended a perpetual holy fire down to the suppression of the monasteries under ,henry ,,viii42 and we can hardly doubt that in doing so they merely kept up1 under a ,christian name1 an ancient pagan worship of ,brigit in her character of a fire-goddess or patroness of smiths4 ,the nuns were nineteen in number4 ,each of them had the care of the fire for a single night in turn2 and on the twentieth evening the last nun1 having heaped wood on the fire1 used to say1 8,brigit1 take charge of your own fire2 for this night belongs to you40 ,she then went away1 and next morning they always found the fire still burning and the usual quantity of fuel consumed4 ,like the ,vestal fire at ,rome in the old days1 the fire of ,st4 ,brigit burned within a circular enclosure made of stakes and brushwood1 and no male might set foot inside the fence4 ,the nuns were allowed to fan the fire or blow it up with bellows1 but they might not blow on it with their breath4#ghc ,sidenote3 ,not to breathe on a holy fire4 ,similarly it is said that the ,balkan ,slavs will not blow with their mouths on the holy fire of the domestic hearth2#ghd a ,brahman is forbidden to blow a fire with his mouth2#ghe and among the ,parsees the priests have to wear a veil over their mouth lest they should defile the sacred fire by their breath4#ghf ,the custom of maintaining a perpetual fire was not peculiar ,sidenote3 ,other perpetual fires in ,ireland4 to ,kildare1 but seems to have been common in ,ireland1 for the native records shew that such fires were kept up in several monasteries1 in each of which a small church or oratory was set apart for the purpose4 ,this was done1 for example1 at the monasteries of ,seirkieran1 ,kilmainham1 and ,inishmurray4#ghg ,we may conjecture that these holy fires were merely survivals of the perpetual fires which in pagan ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,brigit's fire perhaps fed with oak-wood4 times had burned in honour of ,brigit4 ,the view that ,brigit was a fire-goddess is confirmed by the observation that in the ,christian calendar her festival falls the day before ,candlemas1 and the customs observed at that season by ,celtic peasantry seem to prove that she was a goddess of the crops as well as of fire4#ghh ,if that was so1 it is another reason for comparing her to ,vesta1 whose priestesses performed ceremonies to fertilise both the earth and the cattle4#ghi ,further1 there are some grounds for connecting ,brigit1 like ,vesta1 with the oak2 for at ,kildare her ,christian namesake1 ,st4 ,brigit1 otherwise known as ,st4 ,bride or ,st4 ,bridget1 built her church under an oak-tree1 which existed till the tenth century1 and gave its name to the spot1 for ,kildare is ,cilldara1 8the church of the oak-tree40#gij ,the 8church of the oak0 may well have displaced a temple or sanctuary of the oak1 where in ,druidical days the holy fire was fed1 like the ,vestal fire at ,rome1 with the wood of the sacred tree4 ,sidenote3 ,early ,irish monasteries built in oak groves4 ,we may suspect that a conversion of this sort was often effected in ,ireland by the early ,christian missionaries4 ,the monasteries of ,derry and ,durrow1 founded by ,st4 ,columba1 were both named after the oak groves amidst which they were built2 and at ,derry the saint spared the beautiful trees and strictly enjoined his successors to do the same4 ,in his old age1 when he lived an exile on the shores of the bleak storm-swept isle of ,iona1 his heart yearned to the home of his youth among the oak groves of ,ireland1 and he gave expression to the yearning in passionate verse3-- 8,that spot is the dearest on ,erin's ground1 ,for the treasures that peace and purity lend1 ,for the hosts of bright angels that circle it round1 ,protecting its borders from end to end4 8,the dearest of any on ,erin's ground1 ,for its peace and its beauty ,i gave it my love2 ,each leaf of the oaks around ,derry is found ,to be crowded with angels from heaven above4 8,my ,derry6 my ,derry6 my little oak grove1 ,my dwelling1 my home1 and my own little cell1 ,may ,god the ,eternal in ,heaven above ,send death to thy foes1 and defend thee well40#gia ,a feeling of the same sort came over a very different exile in a very different scene1 when growing old amid the turmoil1 the gaieties1 the distractions of ,paris1 he remembered the ,german oak woods of his youth4 8,ich hatte einst ein schnes ,vaterland4 ,der ,eichenbaum ,wuchs dort so hoch1 die ,veilchen nickten sanft4 ,es war ein ,traum40 ,sidenote3 ,virgin priestesses of fire among the ,incas of ,peru4 ,far from the oaks of ,erin and the saint's last home among the stormy ,hebrides1 a sacred fire has been tended by holy virgins1 with statelier rites and in more solemn fanes1 under the equinoctial line4 ,the ,incas of ,peru1 who deemed themselves the children of the ,sun1 procured a new fire from their great father at the solstice in ,june1 our ,midsummer ,day4 ,they kindled it by holding towards the sun a hollow mirror1 which reflected his beams on a tinder of cotton wool4 ,but if the sky happened to be overcast at the time1 they made the new fire by rubbing two sticks against each other2 and they looked upon it as a bad omen when they were obliged to do this1 for they said the ,sun must be angry with them1 since he refused to kindle the flame with his own hand4 ,the sacred fire1 however obtained1 was deposited at ,cuzco1 the capital of ,peru1 in the temple of the ,sun1 and also in a great convent of holy virgins1 who guarded it carefully throughout the year1 and it was an evil augury if they suffered it to go out4 ,these ,sidenote3 ,wives of the ,sun in ,peru4 virgins were regarded as the wives of the ,sun1 and they were bound to perpetual chastity4 ,if any of them proved unfaithful to her husband the ,sun1 she was buried alive1 like a ,roman ,vestal1 and her paramour was strangled4 ,the reason for putting her to death in this manner was probably1 as at ,rome1 a reluctance to shed royal blood2 for all these virgins were of the royal family1 being daughters of the ,incas or of his kinsmen4 ,besides tending the holy fire1 they had to weave and make all the clothes worn by the ,inca and his legitimate wife1 to bake the bread that was offered to the ,sun at his great festivals1 and to brew the wine which the ,inca and his family drank on these occasions4 ,all the furniture of the convent1 down to the pots1 pans1 and jars1 were of gold and silver1 just as in the temple of the ,sun1 because the virgins were deemed to be his wives4 ,and they had a golden garden1 where the very clods were of fine gold2 where golden maize reared its stalks1 leaves and cobs1 all of the precious metal2 and where golden shepherds1 with slings and crooks of gold1 tended golden sheep and lambs4#gib ,the analogy of these virgin guardians of the sacred flame furnishes an argument in favour of the view set forth in the preceding pages2 for if the ,peruvian ,vestals were the brides of the ,sun1 may not the ,roman ,vestals have been the brides of the ,fire8 ,sidenote3 ,virgin priestesses of fire in ,mexico and ,yucatan4 ,on the summit of the great pyramidal temple at ,mexico two fires burned continually on stone hearths in front of two chapels1 and dreadful misfortunes were supposed to follow if the fires were allowed to go out4 ,they were kept up by priests and maidens1 some of whom had taken a vow of perpetual virginity4 ,but most of these girls seem to have served only for a year or more until their marriage4 ,they offered incense to the idols1 wove cloths for the service of the temple1 swept the sacred area1 and baked the cakes which were presented to the gods but eaten by their priests4 ,they were clad all in white1 without any ornament4 ,a broom and a censer were their emblems4 ,death was the penalty inflicted on the faithless virgin who polluted by her incontinence the temple of the god4#gic ,in ,yucatan there was an order of ,vestals instituted by a princess1 who acted as lady-superior and was deified after her death under the title of the ,virgin of the ,fire4 ,the members enrolled themselves voluntarily either for life or for a term of years1 after which they might marry4 ,their duty was to tend the sacred fire1 the emblem of the sun4 ,if they broke their vow of chastity or allowed the fire to go out1 they were shot to death with arrows4#gid ,sidenote3 ,virgin priestesses of fire among the ,baganda4 ,amongst the ,baganda of ,central ,africa there used to be an order of ,vestal ,virgins 7bakaja7 who were attached to the temples of the gods4 ,their duties were to keep the fire of the god burning all night1 to see that there was a good supply of firewood1 and to watch that the suppliants did not bring to the deity anything that was tabooed to him4 ,these maidens are also said to have had charge of some of the vessels4 ,all of them were young girls2 no man might touch them2 and when they reached the age of puberty1 the god ordered them to be given in marriage4 ,the place of a girl who thus vacated office had to be supplied by another girl taken from the same clan4#gie ,sidenote3 ,resemblance between the ,flamen ,dialis of the ,romans and the ,agnihotri or fire-priest of the ,brahmans4 ,we have seen that some people commit the task of making fire by friction to married men2 and following the opinion of other scholars ,i have conjectured that in some of the ,latin tribes the duty of kindling and feeding the sacred fire may have been assigned to the ,flamen ,dialis1 who had always to be married2 if his wife died1 he vacated his office4#gif ,the sanctity of his fire is proved by the rule that no brand might be taken from his house except for the purpose of a sacrifice4#gig ,further1 the importance ascribed to the discharge of his duties is attested by another old rule which forbade him to be absent from his house in ,rome for a single night4#gih ,the prohibition would be intelligible if one of his duties had formerly been to superintend the maintenance of a perpetual fire4 ,however that may have been1 the life of the priest was regulated by a whole code of curious restrictions or taboos1 which rendered the office so burdensome and vexatious that1 in spite of the high honours attached to the post1 for a period of more than seventy years together no man was found willing to undertake it4#gii ,some of these restrictions will be examined later on4#hjj ,their similarity to the rules of life still observed in ,india by the ,brahmans who are fire-priests 7,agnihotris7 seems to confirm the view that the ,flamen also was originally a fire-priest4 ,the parallel between the two priesthoods would be all the more remarkable if1 as some scholars hold1 the very names ,brahman and ,flamen are philologically identical4#hja ,as to these ,brahmanical fire-priests or ,agnihotris we are told that the number of them nowadays is very limited1 because the ceremonies involve heavy expenditure1 and the rules which regulate them are very elaborate and difficult4 ,the offering of food to the fire at meals is1 indeed1 one of the five daily duties of every ,brahman2 but the regular fire-service is the special duty of the ,agnihotri4 ,in order that he may be ceremonially pure he is bound by certain obligations not to travel or remain away from home for any long time2 to sell nothing which is produced by himself or his family2 to pay little attention to worldly affairs2 to speak the truth2 to bathe and worship the deities in the afternoon as well as in the morning2 and to sacrifice to his deceased ancestors on the fifteenth of every month4 ,he is not allowed to take food at night4 ,he may not eat alkaline salt1 meat1 honey1 and inferior grain1 such as some varieties of pulse1 millet1 and the egg plant4 ,he never wears shoes nor sleeps on a bed1 but always on the ground4 ,he is expected to keep awake most of the night and to study the ,shstras4 ,he may have no connexion with1 nor unholy thoughts regarding1 any woman but his wife2 and he must abstain from every other act that involves personal impurity4#hjb ,with these rules we may compare some of the obligations laid on the ,flamen ,dialis4 ,in the old days1 as we saw1 he was bound never to be absent from his house for a single night4 ,he might not touch or even name raw meat1 beans1 ivy1 and a she-goat2 he might not eat leavened bread1 nor touch a dead body2 and the feet of his bed had always to be smeared with mud4#hjc ,this last rule seems to be a mitigation of an older custom of sleeping on the ground1 a custom which is still observed by the fire-priest in ,india1 as it was in antiquity by the priests of ,zeus at ,dodona4#hjd ,similarly the priest of the old ,prussian god ,potrimpo was bound to sleep on the bare earth for three nights before he sacrificed to the deity4#hje ,sidenote3 ,mode in which the ,agnihotri procures fresh fire by the friction of fire-sticks4 ,every ,agnihotri has a separate room in his house where the sacred fire is kept burning in a small pit of a cubit square4 ,should the fire chance to go out1 the priest must get fresh fire from another priest or procure it by the friction of fire-sticks 7arani74 ,these comprise1 first1 a block of sami wood 7,prosopis spicigera7 in which a small hole is made emblematical of the female principle 7sakti yoni71 and1 second1 an upright shaft which is made to revolve in the hole of the block by means of a rope4 ,the point in the drill where the rope is applied to cause it to revolve is called deva yoni4 ,two priests take part in the operation4 ,before they begin they sing a hymn in honour of the fire-god ,agni4 ,when the fire has been kindled they place it in a copper vessel and sprinkle it with powdered cow-dung4 ,when it is well alight1 they cover it with another copper vessel1 sprinkle it with drops of water1 and sing another hymn in honour of ,agni4 ,finally1 the new fire is consigned to the fire-pit4#hjf ,according to another description of the modern ,indian fire-drill1 the lower block is usually made of the hard wood of the khadira or khair tree 7,acacia catechu71 and it contains two shallow holes4 ,in one of these holes the revolving drill works and produces sparks by friction2 the other hole contains tinder which is ignited by means of the sparks4 ,this latter hole is known as the yoni1 the female organ of generation4 ,the upper or revolving portion of the drill is called the pramantha4 ,it consists of a round shaft of hard wood1 with a spike of softer wood inserted in its lower end4 ,one priest causes the shaft to revolve by pulling a cord1 while another priest presses the spike down into the hole in the block by leaning hard upon a flat board placed on the top of the shaft4 ,the spike is generally made of the peepul or sacred fig-tree4 ,when it has become charred by friction1 it is replaced by another4#hjg ,according to one account1 the fire is made in this fashion1 not by two priests1 but by the ,brahman and his wife2 she pulls the cord1 while he holds the borer in the hole and recites the spells necessary for the production of the fire4#hjh ,sidenote3 ,the ,indian fire-sticks made from the sacred fig and sami wood4 ,this practice of the modern ,agnihotri or fire-priest of ,india is in general accord with the precepts laid down in the ancient sacred books of his religion4 ,for these direct that the upper or male stick of the fire-drill should be made of the sacred fig-tree 7asvattha71 and the lower or female stick of sami wood 7,prosopis spicigera72 and they draw out the analogy between the process of fire-making and the intercourse of the sexes in minute detail4#hji ,it deserves to be ,sidenote3 ,the male fire-stick made by preference from a sacred fig-tree growing as a parasite on the female sami tree4 noted that the male fire-stick was cut by preference from a sacred fig-tree which grew as a parasite on a sami or female tree4 ,the reason for this preference is obvious to the primitive mind4 ,a parasite clasping a tree with its tendrils is conceived as a man embracing a woman1 hence a pair of fire-sticks made from a pair of trees thus interlaced will naturally possess the power of procreating fire by friction in an unusually high degree4#haj ,so completely1 in the ,hindoo mind1 does the process of making fire by friction blend with the union of the human sexes that it is actually employed as part of a charm to procure male offspring4#haa ,such a confusion of thought helps us to understand the part played by the domestic fire in the ritual of marriage and birth as well as in the legends of the miraculous origin of the ,latin kings4#hab ,in ancient ,india the male and the female fire-stick were identified with ,king ,pururavas and the nymph ,urvasi1 whose loves and sorrows formed the theme of a beautiful tale4#hac ,sidenote3 ,the ,greeks also preferred to make one of the fire-sticks from a parasitic plant4 ,like the ancient ,indians1 the ,greeks seem to have preferred that one of the two fire-sticks should be made from a parasitic or creeping plant4 ,they recommended that the borer of the fire-drill should be made of laurel and the board of ivy or another creeper1 apparently a kind of wild vine which grew like ivy upon trees2 but in practice both the borer and the board were sometimes made of other woods1 among which buckthorn1 the evergreen oak1 and the lime are particularly mentioned4#had ,when we consider the analogy of the ,indian preference for a borer made from a parasite1 and remember how deeply rooted in the primitive mind is the comparison of the friction of the fire-sticks to the union ,sidenote3 ,the reason for such a preference is the analogy of the union of the sexes4 of the sexes1 we shall hardly doubt that the ,greeks originally chose the ivy or wild vine for a fire-stick from motives of the sort which led the ,hindoos to select the wood of a parasitic fig-tree for the same purpose4 ,but while the ,hindoos regarded the parasite as male and the tree to which it clung as female1 the ,greeks of ,theophrastus's time seem to have inverted this conception1 since they recommended that the board1 which plays the part of the female in the fire-drill1 should be made of ivy or another creeper1 whereas the borer1 which necessarily represents the male1 was to be fashioned out of laurel4 ,this would imply that the ivy was a female and the laurel a male4 ,yet in ,greek1 on the contrary1 the word for ivy is masculine1 and the plant was identified mythologically with the male god ,dionysus2#hae whereas the word for laurel is feminine and the tree was identified with a nymph4 ,hence we may conjecture that at first the ,greeks1 like the ,hindoos1 regarded the clinging creeper as the male and the tree which it embraced as the female1 and that of old1 therefore1 they made the borer of the fire-drill out of ivy and the board out of laurel4 ,if this was so1 the reasons which led them to reverse the usage can only be guessed at4 ,perhaps practical convenience had a share in bringing about the change4 ,for the laurel is1 as the late ,professor ,h4 ,marshall ,ward kindly informed me1 a harder wood than the ivy1 and to judge by general1 though not universal1 practice most people find it easier to make fire by the friction of a hard borer on a soft board than by rubbing a hard board with a soft point4 ,this1 therefore1 would be a reason for making the borer of laurel and the board of ivy4 ,if such a change took place in the history of the ,greek fire-drill1 it would be an interesting example of superstition modified1 if not vanquished1 by utility in the struggle for existence4 ,footnote #gcg3 ,livy1 xxviii4 #aa4 #f sq42 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 ii4 #fg4 #e4 ,footnote #gch3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #bfe sqq42 ,festus1 p4 #bfb1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller4 ,footnote #gci3 ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir1 pp4 #aa sq4 ,on the diffusion of the round hut in ,africa ,sir ,h4 ,h4 ,johnston says3 8,the original form of house throughout all ,british ,central ,africa was what the majority of the houses still are--circular and somewhat like a beehive in shape1 with round walls of wattle and daub and thatched roof4 ,this style of house is characteristic of 7a7 all ,africa south of the ,zambezi2 7b7 all ,british ,central ,africa2 as much of the ,portuguese provinces of ,zambezia and ,moambique as are not under direct ,portuguese or ,muhammedan influence which may have introduced the rectangular dwelling2 7c7 all ,east ,africa up to and including the ,egyptian ,sudan1 where ,arab influence has not introduced the oblong rectangular building2 7d7 the ,central ,nigerian ,sudan1 much of ,senegambia1 and perhaps the ,west ,coast of ,africa as far east and south as the ,gold ,coast1 subject1 of course1 to the same limitations as to foreign influence0 7,british ,central ,africa1 ,london1 #ahig1 ,p4 #dec74 ,footnote #gdj3 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #bej1 #cda sq4 ,footnote #gda3 ,j4 ,marquardt1 op4 cit4 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #cdj sq42 ,journal of ,philology1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #aee sq4 ,footnote #gdb3 ,livy1 i4 #c sq42 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 i4 #gf sq42 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #c4 ,footnote #gdc3 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #aj2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 ii4 #fg4 #d1 viii4 #hi4 #e4 ,footnote #gdd3 ,the suggestion is due to ,mr4 ,m4 ,a4 ,bayfield 7,classical ,review1 xv4 #aija1 p4 #ddh74 ,he compares the similar execution of the princess ,antigone 7,sophocles1 ,antigone1 #ggc sqq474 ,however1 we must remember that a custom of burying people alive has been practised as a punishment or a sacrifice by ,romans1 ,persians1 and ,germans1 even when the victims were not of royal blood4 ,see ,livy1 xxii4 #eg4 #f2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 #ab2 ,plutarch1 ,marcellus1 #c2 id41 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #hc2 ,herodotus1 vii4 #aad2 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,rechtsalterthmer1 #crd ,ed41 pp4 #fid sq4 ,as to the objection to spill royal blood1 see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 i4 #ced sq4 ,footnote #gde3 ,see above1 p4 #bae4 ,footnote #gdf3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #fbi-fgb4 ,compare ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 vi4 #ae2 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #di4 ,footnote #gdg3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #gca-ghb4 ,see below1 p4 #cbf4 ,footnote #gdh3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 #ci2 8,quamquam religione tutatur et fascinus1 imperatorum quoque1 non solum infantium custos1 qui deus inter sacra ,romana ,vestalibus colitur40 ,footnote #gdi3 ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #dih2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #hbh2 ,g4 ,henzen1 ,acta fratrum ,arvalium1 pp4 #abd1 #adg2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ,nos4 #ejdg1 #ejdh4 ,ennius represented ,vesta as the mother of ,saturn and ,titan4 ,see ,lactantius1 ,divin4 inst4 i4 #ad4 ,footnote #gej3 ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 iv4 #aj4 ,footnote #gea3 ,see above1 pp4 #aie sqq4 ,footnote #geb3 ,grihya ,stras1 translated by ,h4 ,oldenberg1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cg1 #afh1 #bgi1 #bhc1 #chb1 #chd1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #df1 #aia1 #bfj2 ,m4 ,winternitz1 8,das altindische ,hochzeitsrituell10 pp4 #d1 #ef-fb 7,denkschriften der kaiserl4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften in ,wien1 xl41 ,vienna1 #ahib72 ,h4 ,zimmer1 ,altindisches ,leben1 p4 #cab2 ,g4 ,a4 ,grierson1 ,bihr ,peasant ,life 7,calcutta1 #ahhe71 p4 #cfh2 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,sitte und ,brauch der ,sdslaven1 pp4 #chf1 #dcf1 cp4 #dcj2 ,j4 ,lasicius1 8,de diis ,samagitarum caeterorumque ,sarmatarum10 in ,magazin herausgegeben von der ,lettisch-,literarischen ,gesellschaft1 xiv4 #ii2 ,j4 ,maeletius 7,maletius71 8,de sacrificiis et idolatria veterum ,borussorum ,livonum aliarumque vicinarum gentium10 in ,mitteilungen der ,litterarischen ,gesellschaft ,masovia1 viii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #aia1 #bjd 7this work is also reprinted under the name of ,j4 ,menecius in ,scriptores rerum ,livonicarum1 ii4 7,riga and ,leipsic1 #ahdh7 pp4 #chi-cib72 ,f4 ,woeste1 in ,zeitschrift fr deutsche ,mythologie und ,sittenkunde1 ii4 7#ahee7 p4 #ia2 ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 pp4 #dcc1 #ebb2 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus ,westfalen1 ii4 #ch2 ,j4 ,h4 ,schmitz1 ,sitten und ,sagen1 etc41 des ,eifler ,volkes1 i4 #fg2 ,montanus1 ,die deutsche ,volksfeste1 ,volksbruche und deutscher ,volksglaube1 p4 #he2 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,hochzeitsbuch 7,leipsic1 #ahga71 p4 #bbb2 ,l4 v4 ,schroeder1 ,die ,hochzeitsbruche der ,esten 7,berlin1 #ahhh71 pp4 #abg sqq42 ,e4 ,samter1 ,familienfeste der ,griechen und ,rmer 7,berlin1 #aija71 pp4 #ei-fb2 ,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der indogermanischen ,altertumskunde1 pp4 #cef sq4 ,this evidence proves that the custom has been practised by the ,indian1 ,slavonian1 ,lithuanian1 and ,teutonic branches of the ,aryan race1 from which we may fairly infer that it was observed by the ancestors of the whole family before their dispersion4 ,footnote #gec3 ,grihya-,stras1 translated by ,h4 ,oldenberg1 vol4 i4 p4 #bhc 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxix474 ,footnote #ged3 ,prof4 ,vl4 ,titelbach1 8,das heilige ,feuer bei den ,balkanslaven10 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 xiii4 7#aijj7 p4 #a4 ,footnote #gee3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,sitte und ,brauch der ,sdslaven 7,vienna1 #ahhe71 p4 #dcj4 ,footnote #gef3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 op4 cit4 p4 #eca4 ,footnote #geg3 ,this saying was communicated to me by ,miss ,mabel ,peacock in a letter dated ,kirton-in-,lindsey1 ,lincolnshire1 #cjth ,october #aije4 ,footnote #geh3 ,max ,buch1 ,die ,wotjken 7,stuttgart1 #ahhb71 pp4 #eb1 #ei2 ,l4 v4 ,schroeder1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abi1 #acb4 ,footnote #gei3 ,above1 pp4 #bba sq4 ,footnote #gfj3 ,as it is believed that fire may impregnate human beings1 so conversely some people seem to imagine that it may be impregnated by them4 ,thus ,mr4 ,t4 ,r4 ,glover1 ,fellow of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 writes to me 7#ahth ,june #aijf73 8,a curious and not very quotable instance of 7,i suppose7 ,sacred ,marriage was brought to my notice by ,mr4 ,brown of the ,canadian ,baptist ,mission to the ,telugus4 ,he said that in ,hindoo temples 7in ,south ,india chiefly87 sometimes a scaffolding is erected over a fire4 ,a man and a woman are got to copulate on it and allow the human seed to fall into the fire40 ,but perhaps this ceremony is only another way of conveying the fertilising virtue of the fire to the woman1 in other words1 of getting her with child4 ,footnote #gfa3 ,above1 pp4 #bae1 #bba4 ,footnote #gfb3 ,suidas1 ,harpocration1 and ,etymologicum ,magnum1 s4v4 2 ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 ,schol4 on ,plato1 ,theaetetus1 p4 #afj ,e4 ,on this custom see ,s4 ,reinach1 ,cultes1 mythes1 et religions1 i4 7,paris1 #aije7 pp4 #acg-ade4 ,he suggests that the running of the naked men who carried the babies was intended1 by means of sympathetic magic1 to impart to the little ones in after-life the power of running fast4 ,but this theory does not explain why the race took place round the hearth4 ,footnote #gfc3 ,the custom has been practised with this intention in ,scotland1 ,china1 ,new ,britain1 the ,tenimber and ,timorlaut ,islands1 and by the ,ovambo of ,south ,africa4 ,see ,pennant's 8,second ,tour in ,scotland10 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4 #chc2 ,miss ,c4 ,f4 ,gordon ,cumming1 ,in the ,hebrides1 ed4 #ahhc1 p4 #aja2 ,china ,review1 ix4 7#ahhj-ahha7 p4 #cjc2 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,im ,bismarck-,archipel1 pp4 #id sq42 ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua1 p4 #cjc2 ,h4 ,schinz1 ,deutsch-,sdwest-,afrika1 p4 #cjg4 ,a similar custom was observed1 probably for the same reason1 in ancient ,mexico and in ,madagascar4 ,see ,clavigero1 ,history of ,mexico1 translated by ,cullen1 i4 #ca2 ,w4 ,ellis1 ,history of ,madagascar1 i4 #aeb4 ,compare my note1 8,the ,youth of ,achilles10 ,classical ,review1 vii4 7#ahic7 pp4 #bic sq4 ,footnote #gfd3 ,compare ,e4 ,samter1 ,familienfeste der ,griechen und ,rmer 7,berlin1 #aija71 pp4 #ei-fb4 ,footnote #gfe3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,the ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 pp4 #abj sq4 ,ralston held that the ,russian house-spirit ,domovoy1 who is supposed to live behind the stove1 is the modern representative of an ancestral spirit4 ,compare ibid4 pp4 #hd1 #hf1 #aai4 ,footnote #gff3 ,evidence of this view will be adduced later on4 ,see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 iii4 #def4 ,footnote #gfg3 ,see above1 pp4 #ahe sq4 ,footnote #gfh3 ,l4 v4 ,schroeder1 ,die ,hochzeitsbruche der ,esten 7,berlin1 #ahhh71 pp4 #abi sq4 ,footnote #gfi3 ,see above1 p4 #aig4 ,footnote #ggj3 ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,history of ,rome1 ,new ,edition 7,london1 #ahid71 i4 #bae sq42 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #cbf2 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals of the ,period of the ,republic1 p4 #adg4 ,for another derivation of their name see below1 p4 #bdg4 ,footnote #gga3 ,see above1 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #ggb3 ,h4 ,vaughan ,stevens1 8,mitteilungen aus dem ,frauenleben der rang ,belendas1 der rang ,djkun und der rang ,lut10 bearbeitet von ,dr4 ,max ,bartels1 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xxviii4 7#ahif7 pp4 #afh sq4 ,the writer adds that any person1 boy1 man1 or woman 7provided she was not menstruous7 might light the fire1 if it were more convenient that he or she should do so4 ,thus the co-operation of a married man and an unmarried girl1 though apparently deemed the best1 was not the only permissible way of igniting the wood4 ,the good faith or at all events the accuracy of the late ,german traveller ,h4 ,vaughan ,stevens is not1 ,i understand1 above suspicion2 but ,mr4 ,nelson ,annandale1 joint author of ,fasciculi ,malayenses1 writes to me of him that 8he certainly had a knowledge and experience of the wild tribes of the ,malay region which few or none have excelled1 for he lived literally as one of themselves40 ,footnote #ggc3 ,prof4 ,vl4 ,titelbach1 8,das heilige ,feuer bei den ,balkanslaven10 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 xiii4 7#aijj7 pp4 #b-d4 ,the ceremony witnessed by ,prof4 ,titelbach will be described later on in this work4 ,kinglake rode through the great ,servian forest on his way from ,belgrade to ,constantinople1 and from his description 7,eothen1 ch4 ii47 we gather that it is chiefly composed of oak4 ,he says3 8,endless and endless now on either side the tall oaks closed in their ranks1 and stood gloomily lowering over us40 ,footnote #ggd3 ,ch4 ,gilhodes1 8,la ,culture matrielle des ,katchins 7,birmanie710 ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 p4 #fbi4 ,footnote #gge3 ,m4 ,martin's 8,description of the ,western ,islands of ,scotland10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4 #faa4 ,the first edition of ,martin's work was published in #agjc1 and the second in #agaf4 ,footnote #ggf3 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 i4 #ejd4 ,footnote #ggg3 ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 pp4 #bfg sq4 ,footnote #ggh3 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 ii4 #fh2 ,valerius ,maximus1 i4 #a4 #g4 ,footnote #ggi3 ,j4 ,lecur1 ,esquisses du ,bocage ,normand1 ii4 7,cond-sur-,noireau1 #ahhg7 p4 #bg2 ,b4 ,souch1 ,croyances1 prsages et traditions diverses 7,niort1 #ahhj71 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #ghj3 ,polybius1 xii4 #ac4 ,in ,darfur a curious power over fire is ascribed to women who have been faithful to their husbands4 8,it is a belief among the ,forians1 that if the city takes fire1 the only means of arresting the progress of the flames is to bring near them a woman1 no longer young1 who has never been guilty of intrigue4 ,if she be pure1 by merely waving a mantle1 she puts a stop to the destruction4 ,success has sometimes rewarded a virtuous woman0 7,travels of an ,arab ,merchant ,mohammed ,ibn-,omar ,el-,tounsy in ,soudan1 abridged from the ,french by ,bayle ,st4 ,john 7,london1 #ahed71 p4 #aab74 ,compare ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 8,notes on the ,for ,tribe of ,central ,africa10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 xiii4 7#ahhd-ahhf7 p4 #bcj4 ,footnote #gha3 ,solinus1 xxii4 #aj4 ,the ,celtic ,minerva1 according to ,caesar 7,de bello ,gallico1 vi4 #ag71 was a goddess of the mechanical arts4 ,footnote #ghb3 ,j4 ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom1 pp4 #gc-gg2 ,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 ,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland1 i4 #bfj sq4 ,footnote #ghc3 ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 ,the ,topography of ,ireland1 chaps4 xxxiv4-xxxvi41 translated by ,thomas ,wright2 ,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 ,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland1 i4 #ccd sq4 ,it is said that in the island of ,sena 7the modern ,sein71 off the coast of ,brittany1 there was an oracle of a ,gallic deity whose worship was cared for by nine virgin priestesses4 ,they could raise storms by their incantations1 and turn themselves into any animals they pleased 7,mela1 iii4 #dh72 but it is not said that they maintained a perpetual holy fire1 though ,ch4 ,elton affirms that they did 7,origins of ,english ,history1 p4 #bg74 ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach dismisses these virgins as a fable based on ,homer's description of the isle of ,circe 7,odyssey1 x4 #ace sqq471 and he denies that the ,gauls employed virgin priestesses4 ,see his article1 8,les ,vierges de ,sena10 ,revue ,celtique1 xviii4 7#ahig7 pp4 #a-h2 id41 ,cultes1 mythes1 et religions1 i4 7,paris1 #aije7 pp4 #aie sqq4 ,to me the nuns of ,st4 ,brigit seem to be most probably the successors of a ,celtic order of ,vestals4 ,that there were female ,druids is certain1 but it does not appear whether they were virgins4 ,see ,lampridius1 ,alexander ,severus1 #fj2 ,vopiscus1 ,aurelianus1 #dd2 id41 ,numerianus1 #ad sq4 ,footnote #ghd3 ,prof4 ,vl4 ,titelbach1 8,das heilige ,feuer bei den ,balkanslaven10 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 xiii4 7#aijj7 p4 #a4 ,footnote #ghe3 ,laws of ,manu1 iv4 #ec1 translated by ,g4 ,bhler 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxv4 p4 #acg74 ,footnote #ghf3 ,martin ,haug1 ,essays on the ,sacred ,language1 ,writings1 and ,religion of the ,parsees #crd ,ed41 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #bdc1 note #a4 ,strabo describes the mouth-veil worn by the ,magian priests in ,cappadocia 7xiv4 #c4 #ae1 p4 #gcc74 ,at ,arkon1 in the island of ,rgen1 there was a shrine so holy that none but the priest might enter it1 and even he might not breathe in it4 ,as often as he needed to draw in or give out breath1 he used to run out of the door lest he should taint the divine presence with his breath4 ,see ,saxo ,grammaticus1 ,historia ,danica1 bk4 xiv4 p4 #hbd1 ed4 ,p4 ,e4 ,mller 7p4 #cic of ,elton's ,english translation74 ,footnote #ghg3 ,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 ,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland1 i4 #cce sq42 ,standish ,h4 ,o',grady1 ,sylva ,gadelica1 translation 7,london1 #ahib71 pp4 #ae1 #af1 #da4 ,footnote #ghh3 ,see above1 pp4 #id sq4 ,footnote #ghi3 ,see above1 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #gij3 ,douglas ,hyde1 ,a ,literary ,history of ,ireland 7,london1 #ahii71 p4 #aeh4 ,the tradition of the oak of ,kildare survives in the lines1 8,that oak of ,saint ,bride1 which nor ,devil nor ,dane ,nor ,saxon nor ,dutchman could rend from her fane10 which are quoted by ,mr4 ,d4 ,fitzgerald in ,revue ,celtique1 iv4 7#ahgi-ahhj7 p4 #aic4 ,footnote #gia3 ,douglas ,hyde1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afi-aga4 ,at ,kells1 also1 ,st4 ,columba dwelt under a great oak-tree4 ,the writer of his ,irish life1 quoted by ,mr4 ,hyde1 says that the oak-tree 8remained till these latter times1 when it fell through the crash of a mighty wind4 ,and a certain man took somewhat of its bark to tan his shoes with4 ,now1 when he did on the shoes1 he was smitten with leprosy from his sole to his crown40 ,footnote #gib3 ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,royal ,commentaries of the ,yncas1 pt4 i4 bk4 iv4 chaps4 #a-c1 bk4 vi4 chaps4 #bj-bb 7vol4 i4 pp4 #bib-bii1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aee-afd1 ,markham's translation72 ,p4 de ,cieza de ,leon1 ,travels1 p4 #acd 7,markham's translation72 id41 ,second ,part of the ,chronicle of ,peru1 pp4 #he sq4 7,markham's translation72 ,acosta1 ,natural and ,moral ,history of the ,indies1 bk4 v4 chap4 #ae 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #cca-ccc1 ,hakluyt ,society74 ,professor ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor discredits ,garcilasso's description of these ,peruvian priestesses on the ground that it resembles ,plutarch's account of the ,roman ,vestals 7,numa1 #i sq47 too closely to be independent2 he thinks that 8the apparent traces of absorption from ,plutarch invalidate whatever rests on ,garcilasso de la ,vega's unsupported testimony40 ,see his ,researches into the ,early ,history of ,mankind1 #crd ,ed41 pp4 #bdi-bec4 ,in particular1 he stumbles at the statement that an unfaithful ,peruvian priestess was buried alive4 ,but that statement was made by ,cieza de ,leon1 who travelled in ,peru when ,garcilasso was a child1 and whose book1 or rather the first part of it1 containing the statement1 was published more than fifty years before that of ,garcilasso4 ,moreover1 when we understand that the punishment in question was based on a superstition which occurs independently in many parts of the world1 the apparent improbability of the coincidence vanishes4 ,as to the mode of kindling the sacred fire1 ,professor ,tylor understands ,plutarch to say that the sacred fire at ,rome was kindled1 as in ,peru1 by a burning-glass4 ,to me it seems that ,plutarch is here speaking of a ,greek1 not a ,roman usage1 and this is made still clearer when his text is read correctly4 ,for the words 1 should be altered to 4 ,see ,h4 ,pomtow in ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4 ,f4 li4 7#ahif7 p4 #cfe1 and my note on ,pausanias1 x4 #ai4 #d 7vol4 v4 p4 #cca74 ,thus ,plutarch gives two instances when a sacred fire was extinguished and had to be relit with a burning-glass2 but both instances are ,greek1 neither is ,roman4 ,the ,greek mode of lighting a sacred fire by means of a crystal is described also in the ,orphic poem on precious stones1 verses #agg sqq4 7,orphica1 ed4 ,e4 ,abel1 p4 #aae74 ,nor were the ,greeks and ,peruvians peculiar in this respect4 ,the ,siamese and ,chinese have also been in the habit of kindling a sacred fire by means of a metal mirror or burning-glass4 ,see ,pallegoix1 ,description du royaume ,thai ou ,siam1 ii4 #ee2 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 iii4 #eaf2 ,j4 ,h4 ,plath1 8,die ,religion und der ,cultus der alten ,chinesen10 ,abhandlungen der k4 bayer4 ,akademie der ,wissen1 i4 ,cl4 ix4 7#ahfc7 pp4 #hgf sq4 ,again1 the full description of the golden garden of the ,peruvian ,vestals1 which may sound to us fabulous1 is given by ,cieza de ,leon in a work 7the ,second ,part of the ,chronicle of ,peru7 which it is unlikely that ,garcilasso ever saw1 since it was not printed till #ahgc1 centuries after his death4 ,yet ,garcilasso's brief description of the garden agrees closely with that of ,cieza de ,leon1 differing from it just as that of an independent witness naturally would--namely1 in the selection of some other details in addition to those which the two have in common4 ,he says that the virgins 8had a garden of trees1 plants1 herbs1 birds and beasts1 made of gold and silver1 like that in the temple0 7vol4 i4 p4 #bih1 ,markham's translation74 ,thus the two accounts are probably independent and therefore trustworthy1 for a fiction of this kind could hardly have occurred to two romancers separately4 ,a strong confirmation of ,garcilasso's fidelity is furnished by the close resemblance which the fire customs1 both of ,rome and ,peru1 present to the well-authenticated fire customs of the ,herero at the present day4 ,there seems to be every reason to think that all three sets of customs originated independently in the simple needs and superstitious fancies of the savage4 ,on the whole1 ,i see no reason to question the good faith and accuracy of ,garcilasso4 ,footnote #gic3 ,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire des choses de la ,nouvelle ,espagne1 pp4 #aif sq41 #chf2 ,acosta1 ,natural and ,moral ,history of the ,indies1 bk4 v4 ch4 #ae 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #ccc sq41 ,hakluyt ,society72 ,a4 de ,herrera1 ,general ,history of the vast ,continent and ,islands of ,america1 iii4 #bji sq41 ,stevens's translation 7,london1 #agbe1 #agbf72 ,clavigero1 ,history of ,mexico1 i4 #bfd1 #bgd sq42 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des nations civilises du ,mexique et de l',amrique ,centrale1 i4 #bhi1 iii4 #ffa2 ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ii4 #bjd sqq41 #bde1 #ehc1 iii4 #dce sq4 ,however1 ,sahagun 7pp4 #ahf1 #aid71 ,acosta 7vol4 ii4 p4 #ccf7 and ,herrera seem to imply that the duty of maintaining the sacred fire was discharged by men only4 ,footnote #gid3 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 op4 cit4 ii4 #f2 ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1 op4 cit4 iii4 #dgc4 ,fire-worship seems to have lingered among the ,indians of ,yucatan down to about the middle of the nineteenth century1 and it may still survive among them4 ,see ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 8,the ,folk-lore of ,yucatan10 ,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #bdg sq4 ,footnote #gie3 ,letter of the ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 dated ,kampala1 ,uganda1 #ith ,april #aiji4 ,footnote #gif3 ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ae4 #bb2 ,ateius ,capito1 cited by ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #ej4 ,on the other hand1 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iv4 #bi1 says that the ,flamen might marry another wife after the death of the first4 ,but the statement of ,aulus ,gellius and ,ateius ,capito is confirmed by other evidence4 ,see ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 #cbi1 note #h4 ,as to the rule see my note1 8,the ,widowed ,flamen10 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #djg sqq4 ,footnote #gig3 ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ae4 #g2 ,festus1 p4 #ajf1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller4 ,footnote #gih3 ,livy1 v4 #eb4 #ac sq4 ,in later times the rule was so far relaxed that he was allowed to be absent from ,rome for two nights or even longer1 provided he got leave from the chief pontiff on the score of ill-health4 ,see ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ae4 #ad2 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 iii4 #ga4 ,footnote #gii3 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 iii4 #eh2 ,dio ,cassius1 liv4 #cf4 ,as to the honours attached to the office1 see ,livy1 xxvii4 #h4 #h2 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #aac4 ,footnote #hjj3 ,see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 i4 #bda sqq4 ,footnote #hja3 ,p4 ,kretschmer1 ,einleitung in die ,geschichte der griechischen ,sprache 7,gttingen1 #ahif71 pp4 #abg sqq42 ,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der indogermanischen ,altertumskunde1 pp4 #fcg sq4 ,for a different derivation of the name ,flamen see above1 p4 #bce4 ,being no philologer1 ,i do not pretend to decide between the rival etymologies4 ,my friend ,prof4 ,j4 ,h4 ,moulton prefers the equation ,flamen ,brahman1 which he tells me is philologically correct1 because if ,flamen came from flare we should expect a form like flator rather than flamen4 ,the form flator was used in ,latin1 though not in this sense4 ,footnote #hjb3 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,the ,tribes and ,castes of the ,north-,western ,provinces and ,oudh1 i4 #cj-cb4 ,compare ,monier ,williams1 ,religious ,thought and ,life in ,india1 pp4 #cfd1 #cfe1 #cib4 ,footnote #hjc3 ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ae4 ,footnote #hjd3 ,homer1 ,iliad1 xvi4 #bcc-bce2 ,sophocles1 ,trachiniae1 #aaff sq42 ,callimachus1 ,hymn to ,delos1 #bhd-bhf4 ,footnote #hje3 ,ch4 ,hartknoch1 ,selectae dissertationes historicae de variis rebus ,prussicis1 p4 #afc 7bound up with his edition of ,dsburg's ,chronicon ,prussiae1 ,frankfort and ,leipsic1 #afgi72 ,simon ,grunau1 ,preussischer ,chronik1 ed4 ,m4 ,perlbach1 i4 7,leipsic1 #ahgf7 p4 #ie4 ,footnote #hjf3 ,w4 ,crooke1 op4 cit4 i4 #ca-cc4 ,footnote #hjg3 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #aid sq4 ,footnote #hjh3 ,j4 ,c4 ,nesfield1 in ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 p4 #ab1 #gg4 ,footnote #hji3 ,rigveda1 iii4 #bi1 translated by ,r4 ,t4 ,h4 ,griffith 7,benares1 #ahhi-ahib71 vol4 ii4 pp4 #be-bg2 ,satapatha ,brhmana1 translated by ,j4 ,eggeling1 part i4 p4 #chi1 note #c1 part ii4 pp4 #ij sq41 part v4 pp4 #fh-gd2 ,hymns of the ,atharva-,veda1 translated by ,m4 ,bloomfield1 pp4 #ia1 #ig sq41 #ccd1 #dfj2 ,w4 ,caland1 ,altindisches ,zauberritual1 pp4 #aae sq42 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #dj1 #fd-gh1 #ahc-ahe2 ,h4 ,zimmer1 ,altindisches ,leben1 pp4 #eh1 #ei4 ,the sami wood is sometimes identified with the ,acacia ,suma 7,mimosa ,suma72 but the modern ,bengalee name of ,prosopis spicigera is shami or somi1 which seems to be conclusive evidence of the identity of ,prosopis spicigera with sami4 ,the ,prosopis spicigera is a deciduous thorny tree of moderate size1 which grows in the arid zones of the ,punjaub1 ,rajputana1 ,gujarat1 ,bundelcund1 and the ,deccan4 ,the heart of the wood is of a purplish brown colour and extremely hard4 ,it is especially valued for fuel1 as it gives out much heat4 ,see ,g4 ,watt1 ,dictionary of the ,economic ,products of ,india1 s4v4 8,prosopis spicigera40 ,for a reference to this work ,i am indebted to the kindness of the late ,professor ,h4 ,marshall ,ward4 ,footnote #haj3 ,a4 ,kuhn1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dj1 #ff1 #age4 ,footnote #haa3 ,hymns of the ,atharva-,veda1 translated by ,m4 ,bloomfield1 pp4 #ig sq41 #dfj2 ,w4 ,caland1 ,altindisches ,zauberritual1 pp4 #aae sq4 ,footnote #hab3 ,see above1 pp4 #aie sqq41 #bcj sqq4 ,footnote #hac3 ,rigveda1 x4 #ie1 translated by ,r4 ,t4 ,h4 ,griffith1 ,satapatha ,brhmana1 translated by ,j4 ,eggeling1 part v4 pp4 #fh-gd4 ,compare ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,literatur des alten ,indien 7,stuttgart and ,berlin1 #aijc71 pp4 #ec-ee4 ,on the story see ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #ga sqq42 ,f4 ,max ,mller ,selected ,essays on ,language1 ,religion1 and ,mythology 7,london1 #ahha71 i4 #djh sqq42 ,andrew ,lang1 ,custom and ,myth 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #fd sqq42 ,k4 ,f4 ,pischel and ,geldner1 ,vedische ,studien1 i4 7,stuttgart1 #ahhi71 pp4 #bdc-bie4 ,it belongs to the group of tales which describe the marriage of a human with an animal mate1 of a mortal with a fairy1 and often1 though not always1 their unhappy parting4 ,the story seems to have its roots in totemism4 ,see my ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 #eff sqq4 ,it will be illustrated more at length in a later part of ,the ,golden ,bough4 ,footnote #had3 ,homer1 ,hymn to ,mercury1 #ajh-aaa 7where a line has been lost2 see the note of ,messrs4 ,allen and ,sikes72 ,theophrastus1 ,histor4 plant4 v4 #i4 #f2 id41 ,de igne1 ix4 #fd2 ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 ,schol4 on ,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argon4 i4 #aahd2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bjh2 ,seneca1 ,nat4 ,quaest4 ii4 #bb2 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #ce-da2 ,h4 ,blumner1 ,technologie und ,terminologie der ,gewerbe und ,knste1 ii4 #ced-cef4 ,theophrastus gives the name of athragene to the plant which1 next to or equally with ivy1 makes the best board2 he compares it to a vine4 ,pliny 7l4c47 seems to have identified it with a species of wild vine4 ,according to ,sprengel1 the athragene is the ,clematis cirrhosa of ,linnaeus1 the ,french clmatite vrilles4 ,see ,dioscorides1 ed4 ,c4 ,sprengel1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fda4 ,as to the kinds of wood employed by the ,romans in kindling fire we have no certain evidence1 as ,pliny and ,seneca may have merely copied from ,theophrastus4 ,footnote #hae3 ,pausanias1 i4 #ca4 #f1 with my note4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,perpetual ,,fires ,sidenote3 ,the custom of maintaining a perpetual fire probably originated in the difficulty of making fire by friction4 ,whatever superstitions may have gathered about it in the course of ages1 the custom of maintaining a perpetual fire probably sprang from a simple consideration of practical convenience4 ,the primitive mode of making fire by the friction of wood is laborious at all times1 and it is especially so in wet weather4 ,hence the savage finds it convenient to keep a fire constantly burning or smouldering in order to spare himself the troubling of kindling it4 ,this convenience becomes a necessity with people who do not know how to make fire4 ,that there have been such tribes down to our own time is affirmed by witnesses whose evidence we have no reason to doubt4 ,thus ,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,man1 who resided eleven years in the ,andaman ,islands and was intimately acquainted with the natives1 tells us that1 being ignorant of ,sidenote3 ,some races said to be ignorant of the means of making fire4 the art of making fire1 they take the utmost pains to prevent its extinction4 ,when they leave a camp intending to return in a few days1 they not only take with them one or more smouldering logs1 wrapped in leaves if the weather be wet1 but they also place a large burning log or faggot of suitable wood in some sheltered spot1 where it smoulders for several days and can be easily rekindled when it is needed4 ,while it is the business of the women to gather the wood1 the duty of keeping up the fires both at home and in travelling by land or sea is not confined to them1 but is undertaken by persons of either sex who have most leisure or are least burdened4#haf ,the ,russian traveller1 ,baron ,miklucho-,maclay1 who lived among the natives of the ,maclay coast of northern ,new ,guinea at a time when they had hardly come into contact with ,europeans1 writes3 8,it is remarkable that here almost all the inhabitants of the coast possess no means whatever of making fire1 hence they always and everywhere carry burning or glowing brands about with them4 ,if they go in the morning to the plantation they carry a half-burnt brand from their hearth in order to kindle a fire at the corner of the plantation4 ,if they go on a longer journey into the mountains1 they again take fire with them for the purpose of smoking1 since their cigars1 wrapped in green leaves1 continually go out4 ,on sea voyages they usually keep glowing coals in a half-broken pot partly filled with earth4 ,the people who remain behind in the village never forget to keep up the fire40 ,they repeatedly told him that they had often to go to other villages to fetch fire when the fires in all the huts of their own village had chanced to go out4 ,yet the same traveller tells us that the mountain tribes of this part of ,new ,guinea1 such as the ,englam-,mana and ,tiengum-,mana1 know how to make fire by friction4 ,they partially cleave a log of dry wood with a stone axe and then draw a stout cord1 formed of a split creeper1 rapidly to and fro in the cleft1 till sparks fly out and set fire to a tinder of dry coco-nut fibres4#hag ,it is odd that the people of the coast should not have learned this mode of producing fire from their neighbours in the mountains4 ,the ,russian explorer's observations1 however1 have been confirmed by ,german writers4 ,one of them1 a ,mr4 ,hoffmann1 says of these people3 8,in every house care is taken that fire burns day and night on the hearth4 ,for this purpose they choose a kind of wood which burns slowly1 but glimmers for a long time and retains its glow4 ,when a man sets out on a journey or goes to the field he has always a glimmering brand with him4 ,if he wishes to make fire1 he waves the smouldering wood to and fro till it bursts into a glow40 ,on frequented paths1 crossways1 and so forth1 you may often see trunks of trees lying which have been felled for the purpose of being ignited and furnishing fire to passers-by4 ,such trees continue to smoulder for weeks4#hah ,similarly the dwarf tribes of ,central ,africa 8do not know how to kindle a fire quickly1 and in order to get one readily at any moment they keep the burning trunks of fallen trees in suitable spots1 and watch over their preservation like the ,vestals of old40#hai ,it seems to be at least doubtful whether these dwarfs of the vast and gloomy equatorial forests are acquainted with the art of making fire at all4 ,a ,german traveller observes that the care which they take to preserve fire is extremely remarkable4 8,it appears10 he says1 8that the pygmies1 as other travellers have reported1 do not know how to kindle fire by rubbing sticks against each other4 ,like the ,wambuba of the forest1 in leaving a camp1 they take with them a thick glowing brand1 and carry it1 often for hours1 in order to light a fire at their next halting place40#hbj ,sidenote3 ,fire kindled by natural causes was probably used by men long before they learned to make it for themselves4 ,whether or not tribes ignorant of the means of making fire have survived to modern times1 it seems likely that mankind possessed and used fire long before they learned how to kindle it4 ,in the violent thunderstorms which accompany the end of the dry season in ,central and ,eastern ,africa1 it is not uncommon for the lightning to strike and ignite a tree1 from which the fire soon spreads to the withered herbage1 till a great conflagration is started4 ,from a source of this sort a savage tribe may have first obtained fire1 and the same thing may have happened independently in many parts of the world4#hba ,other people1 perhaps1 procured fire from volcanoes1 the lava of which will1 under favourable circumstances1 remain hot enough to kindle shavings of wood years after an eruption has taken place4#hbb ,others again may have lit their first fire at the jets of inflammable gas which spring from the ground in various parts of the world1 notably at ,baku on the ,caspian1 where the flames burn day and night1 summer and winter1 to a height of fifteen or twenty feet4#hbc ,it is harder to conjecture how man first learned the great secret of making fire by friction4 ,the discovery was perhaps made by jungle or forest races1 who saw dry bamboos or branches thus ignited by rubbing against each other in a high wind4 ,fires are sometimes started in this way in the forests of ,new ,zealand4#hbd ,it has also been suggested that savages may have accidentally elicited a flame for the first time in the process of chipping flints over dry moss1 or boring holes with hard sticks in soft wood4#hbe ,sidenote3 ,many savages carry fire constantly with them as a matter of convenience4 ,but even when the art of fire-making has been acquired1 the process itself is so laborious that many savages keep fire always burning rather than be at the trouble of extracting it by friction4 ,this1 for example1 was true of the roving ,australian aborigines before they obtained matches from the whites4 ,on their wanderings they carried about with them pieces of smouldering bark or cones of the ,banksia tree wherewith to kindle their camp fires4#hbf ,the duty of thus transporting fire from one place to another seems commonly to have fallen to the women4 8,a stick1 a piece of decayed wood1 or more often the beautiful seed-stem of the ,banksia1 is lighted at the fire the woman is leaving2 and from her bag1 which1 in damp weather1 she would keep filled with dry cones1 or from materials collected in the forest1 she would easily1 during her journey1 preserve the fire got at the last encampment40#hbg ,another writer tells us that the ,australian native always had his fire-stick with him1 and if his wife let it go out1 so much the worse for her4 ,the dark brown velvety-looking core of the ,banksia is very retentive of fire and burns slowly1 so that one of these little fire-sticks would last a considerable time1 and a bag of them would suffice for a whole day4#hbh ,the ,tasmanians knew how to make fire by twirling the point of a stick in a piece of soft bark2 8but as it was difficult at times to obtain fire by this means1 especially in wet weather1 they generally1 in their peregrinations1 carried with them a fire-stick lighted at their last encampment40#hbi ,with them1 as with the ,australians1 it was the special task of the women to keep the fire-brand alight and to carry it from place to place4#hcj ,when the natives of ,materbert1 off ,new ,britain1 are on a voyage they carry fire with them4 ,for this purpose they press some of the soft fibrous husk of the ripe coco-nut into a coco-nut shell1 and then place a red-hot ember in the middle of it4 ,this will smoulder for three or four days1 and from it they obtain a light for their fires wherever they may land4#hca ,the ,polynesians made fire by the friction of wood1 rubbing a score in a board with a sharp-pointed stick till the dust so produced kindled into sparks1 which were caught in a tinder of dry leaves or grass4 ,while they rubbed1 they chanted a prayer or hymn till the fire appeared4 ,but in wet weather the task of fire-making was laborious1 so at such times the natives usually carried fire about with them in order to avoid the trouble of kindling it4#hcb ,the ,fuegians make fire by striking two lumps of iron pyrites together and letting the sparks fall on birds' down or on dry moss1 which serves as tinder4 ,but rather than be at the pains of doing this they carry fire with them everywhere1 both by sea and land1 taking great care to prevent its extinction4#hcc ,the ,caingua ,indians of ,paraguay make fire in the usual way by the fire-drill1 but to save themselves trouble they keep fire constantly burning in their huts by means of great blocks of wood4#hcd ,the ,indians of ,guiana also produce fire by twirling the point of one stick in the hole of another1 but they seldom need to resort to this laborious process1 for they keep fire burning in every house1 and on long journeys they usually carry a large piece of smouldering timber in their canoes4 ,even in walking across the savannah an ,indian will sometimes take a fire-brand with him4#hce ,the ,jaggas1 a ,bantu tribe in the ,kilimanjaro district of ,east ,africa1 keep up fire day and night in their huts on account of their cattle4 ,if it goes out1 the women fetch glowing brands from a neighbour's house2 these they carry wrapped up in banana leaves4 ,thus they convey fire for great distances1 sometimes the whole day long4 ,hence they seldom need to kindle fire1 though the men can make it readily by means of the fire-drill4#hcf ,the tribes of ,british ,central ,africa also know how to produce fire in this fashion1 but they do not often put their knowledge in practice4 ,for there is sure to be a burning brand on one or other of the hearths of the village from which a fire can be lit2 and when men go on a journey they take smouldering sticks with them and nurse the glowing wood rather than be at the trouble of making fire by friction4#hcg ,in the huts of the ,ibos on the lower ,niger burning embers are always kept and never allowed to go out4#hch ,and this is the regular practice among all the tribes of ,west ,africa who have not yet obtained matches4 ,if the fire in a house should go out1 a woman will run to a neighbour's hut and fetch a burning stick from the hearth4 ,hence in most of their villages fire has probably not needed to be made for years and years4 ,among domesticated tribes1 like the ,effiks or ,agalwa1 when the men are going out to the plantation they will enclose a burning stick in a hollow piece of a certain kind of wood1 which has a lining of its pith left in it1 and they will carry this 8fire-box0 with them4#hci ,sidenote3 ,the theft of fire by ,prometheus4 ,before the introduction of matches ,greek peasants used to convey fire from place to place in a stalk of giant fennel4 ,the stalks of the plant are about five feet long by three inches thick1 and are encased in a hard bark4 ,the core of the stalk consists of a white pith which1 when it is dry1 burns slowly like a wick without injury to the bark4#hdj ,thus when ,prometheus1 according to the legend1 stole the first fire from heaven and brought it down to earth hidden in a stalk of giant fennel1#hda he carried his fire just as every ,greek peasant and mariner did on a journey4 ,sidenote3 ,when people settled in villages1 it would be convenient to keep up a perpetual fire in the house of the head man4 ,when a tribe ceased to be nomadic and had settled in more or less permanent villages1 it would be a convenient custom to keep a fire perpetually burning in every house4 ,such a custom1 as we have seen1 has been observed by various peoples1 and it appears to have prevailed universally among all branches of the ,aryans4#hdb ,arnobius implies that it was formerly practised by the ,romans1 though in his own time the usage had fallen into abeyance4#hdc ,but it would be obviously desirable that there should be some one place in the village where every housewife could be sure of obtaining fire without having to kindle it by friction1 if her own should chance to go out4 ,the most natural spot to look for it would be the hearth of the head man of the village1 who would come in time to be regarded as responsible for its maintenance4 ,this is what seems to have happened not only among the ,herero of ,south ,africa and the ,latin peoples of ,italy1 but also among the ancestors of the ,greeks2 for in ancient ,greece the perpetual fire kept up in the ,prytaneum1 or town-hall1 was at first apparently the fire on the king's hearth4#hdd ,from this simple origin may have sprung the custom which in various parts of the world associates the maintenance of a perpetual fire with chiefly or royal dignity4 ,thus it was a distinguishing mark of the ,sidenote3 ,hence the maintenance of a perpetual fire came to be associated with chiefly or royal dignity4 chieftainship of one of the ,samoan nobility1 that his fire never went out4 ,his attendants had a particular name1 from their special business of keeping his fire ablaze all night long while he slept4#hde ,among the ,gallas the maintenance of a perpetual fire1 even when it serves no practical purpose1 is a favourite mode of asserting high rank1 and the chiefs often indulge in it4#hdf ,the ,chitom1 a grand pontiff in the kingdom of ,congo1 of whom we shall hear more hereafter1 kept up in his hut1 day and night1 a sacred fire1 of which he dispensed brands to such as came to ask for them and could pay for them4 ,he is said to have done a good business in fire1 for the infatuated people believed that it preserved them from many accidents4#hdg ,in ,uganda a perpetual sacred fire1 supposed to have come down to earth with the first man ,kintu1 is maintained by a chief1 who is put to death if he suffers it to be extinguished4 ,from this sacred fire the king's fire 7gombolola7 is lighted and kept constantly burning at the gate of the royal enclosure during the whole of his reign4 ,by day it burns in a small hut1 but at night it is brought out and set in a little hole in the ground1 where it blazes brightly till daybreak1 whatever the weather may be4 ,when the king journeys the fire goes with him1 and when he dies it is extinguished4 ,the death of a king is indeed announced to the people by the words1 8,the fire has gone out40 ,a man who bears a special title is charged with the duty of maintaining the fire1 and of looking after all the fuel and torches used in the royal enclosure4 ,when the king dies the guardian of his fire is strangled near the hearth4#hdh ,similarly in ,dageou1 a country to the west of ,darfur1 it is said that a custom prevailed of kindling a fire on the inauguration of a king and keeping it alight till his death4#hdi ,among the ,mucelis of ,angola1 when the king of ,amboin or ,sanga dies1 all fires in the kingdom are extinguished4 ,afterwards the new king makes new fire by rubbing two sticks against each other4#hej ,such a custom is probably nothing more than an extension of the practice of putting out a chief's own fire at his death4 ,similarly1 when a new ,muata ,jamwo1 a great potentate in the interior of ,angola1 comes to the throne1 one of his first duties is to make a new fire by the friction of wood1 for the old fire may not be used4#hea ,before the palace gate of the king of ,siam there burns1 or used to burn1 a perpetual fire1 which was said to have been lit from heaven with a fiery ball4#heb ,sidenote3 ,perpetual fire maintained by the chief called the ,great ,sun among the ,natchez ,indians4 ,among the ,natchez ,indians of the lower ,mississippi a perpetual fire1 supposed to have been brought down from the sun1 was maintained in a square temple which stood beside the hut of the supreme chief of the nation4 ,he bore the title of the ,great ,sun1 and believed himself to be a descendant or brother of the luminary his namesake4 ,every morning when the sun rose he blew three whiffs of his pipe towards it1 and raising his hands above his head1 and turning from east to west1 he marked out the course which the bright orb was to pursue in the sky4 ,the sacred fire in the temple was fed with logs of walnut or oak1 and the greatest care was taken to prevent its extinction2 for such an event would have been thought to put the whole nation in jeopardy4 ,eight men were appointed to guard the fire1 two of whom were bound to be always on watch2 and the ,great ,sun himself looked to the maintenance of the fire with anxious attention4 ,if any of the guardians of the fire failed to do his duty1 the rule was that he should be put to death4 ,when the great chief died his bones were deposited in the temple1 along with the bones of many attendants who were strangled in order that their souls might wait upon him in the spirit land4 ,on such an occasion the chief's fire was extinguished1 and this was the signal for putting out all the other fires in the country4 ,every village had also its own temple in which a perpetual fire was maintained under the guardianship of a subordinate chief4 ,these lesser chiefs also bore the title of ,suns1 but acknowledged the supremacy of the head chief1 the ,great ,sun4 ,all of these ,suns were supposed to be descended from a man and woman who had come down from the luminary from which they took their names4 ,there were female ,suns as well as male ,suns1 but they might not marry among themselves2 they had always to mate with a woman or a man of lower rank4 ,their nobility was transmitted in the maternal line2 that is1 the children of a female ,sun1 both sons and daughters1 were ,suns1 but the children of a male ,sun were not4 ,hence a chief was never succeeded by his own son1 but always by the son either of his sister or of his nearest female relation4 ,the ,natchez knew how to produce fire by means of the fire-drill2 but if the sacred fire in the temple went out1 they relit it1 not by the friction of wood1 but by a brand brought from another temple or from a tree which had been ignited by lightning4#hec ,in these customs of the ,natchez we have clearly fire-worship and sun-worship of the same general type which meets us again at a higher state of evolution among the ,incas of ,peru4 ,both sets of customs probably sprang originally from the perpetual fire on the chief's domestic hearth4 ,sidenote3 ,fire carried before chiefs and kings as a symbol of royalty4 ,when a perpetual fire has thus become a symbol of royalty1 it is natural that it should be carried before the king or chief on the march4 ,among the ,indians of the ,mississippi a lighted torch used to be borne in front of a chief1 and no commoner would dare to walk between a chief and his torch-bearer4#hed ,a sacred fire1 supposed to have descended from heaven1 was carried in a brazier before the ,persian kings1#hee and the custom was adopted as a badge of imperial dignity by later ,roman emperors4#hef ,the practice appears to have been especially observed in time of war4 ,amongst the ,ovambo of ,south ,africa the chief appoints a general to lead the army to battle1 and next to the general the greatest officer is he who carries a fire-brand at the head of the warriors4 ,if the fire goes out on the march1 it is an evil omen and the army beats a retreat4#heg ,when the king of ,monomotapa1 or ,benomotapa1 was at war1 a sacred fire was kept burning perpetually in a hut near his tent4#heh ,in old days it is said that the king of ,mombasa in ,east ,africa could put an army of eighty thousand men in the field4 ,on the march his guards were preceded by men carrying fire4#hei ,high above the tent of ,alexander the ,great hung a fiery cresset on a pole1 and 8the flame of it was seen by night1 and the smoke by day40#hfj ,when a ,spartan king was about to lead an army abroad he first sacrificed at home to ,zeus the ,leader4 ,then a man called the fire-bearer took fire from the altar and marched with it at the head of the troops to the frontier4 ,there the king again sacrificed to ,zeus and ,athena1 and if the omens were favourable1 he crossed the border1 preceded by the fire from the sacrifices1 which thenceforth led the way and might not be quenched4 ,to perform such sacrifices the king always rose very early in the morning1 while it was still dark1 in order to get the ear of the god before the enemy could forestall him4#hfa ,sidenote3 ,the custom of keeping up a perpetual fire during a king's reign and extinguishing it at his death1 might lead to a belief that his life was bound up with the fire4 ,a custom of maintaining a fire during a king's reign and extinguishing it at his death1 even if it did not originate in a superstition1 would naturally lend itself to a superstitious interpretation4 ,the distinction between the sign and the cause of an event is not readily grasped by a dull mind2 hence the extinction of the king's fire1 from being merely a signal of his death1 might come in time to be regarded as a cause of it4 ,in other words1 a vital connexion might be supposed to exist between the king and the fire1 so that if the fire were put out the king would die4 ,that a sympathetic bond of some sort united the king's life with the fire on his hearth was apparently believed by the ancient ,scythians4 ,for their most solemn oath was by the king's hearth1 and if any man who had taken this oath forswore himself1 they believed that the king would fall ill4#hfb ,the story of ,meleager1#hfc whose life was said to be bound up with a brand plucked from the fire on the hearth1 belongs to the same class of ideas1 which will be examined at large in a later part of this work4 ,wherever a superstition of this sort gathered round the king's hearth1 it is obvious that he would be moved to watch over the fire with redoubled vigilance4 ,on a certain day the ,vestal ,virgins at ,rome used to go to the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites1 the successor of the old ,roman kings1 and say to him1 8,watchest thou1 ,o ,king8 ,watch40#hfd ,the ceremony may have been a reminiscence or survival of a time when the king's life as well as the general safety was supposed to hang on the maintenance of the fire1 to the guardianship of which he would thus be impelled by the motive of self-preservation as well as of public duty4 ,when natives of the ,kei ,islands in the ,east ,indies are away on a long voyage1 a sacred fire is kept up the whole time of their absence by their friends at home4 ,three or four young girls are appointed to feed it and watch over it day and night with a jealous care lest it should go out2 its extinction would be deemed a most evil omen1 for the fire is the symbol of the life of the absent ones4#hfe ,this belief and this practice may help us to understand the corresponding beliefs and practices concerned with the maintenance of a perpetual fire at ,rome4 ,footnote #haf3 ,e4 ,h4 ,man1 ,on the ,aboriginal ,inhabitants of the ,andaman ,islands 7,london1 ,n4,d471 p4 #hb4 ,mr4 ,man's evidence is confirmed by a ,german traveller1 ,mr4 ,jagor1 who says of the ,andaman ,islanders3 8,the fire must never go out4 ,here also ,i am again assured that the ,andamanese have no means of making fire40 ,see ,verhandlungen der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr ,anthropologie1 #ahgg1 p4 7#ed7 7bound with ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ix474 ,i regret that on this subject ,i did not question ,mr4 ,a4 ,r4 ,brown1 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 who resided for about two years among the ,andaman ,islanders1 studying their customs and beliefs4 ,mr4 ,brown is now 7,december #aiaj7 in ,west ,australia4 ,footnote #hag3 ,n4 von ,miklucho-,maclay1 8,ethnologische ,bemerkungen ber die ,papuas der ,maclay-,kste in ,neu-,guinea10 ,natuurkundig ,tijdschrift voor ,nederlandsch ,indie1 xxxv4 7#ahge71 pp4 #hb1 #hc4 ,compare ,c4 ,hager1 ,kaiser ,wilhelms-,land und der ,bismarck-,archipel1 p4 #fi2 ,m4 ,krieger1 ,neu-,guinea1 p4 #aec4 ,the natives of the ,maclay ,coast are said to have traditions of a time when they were ignorant even of the use of fire2 they ate fruits raw1 which set up a disease of the gums1 filling their mouths with blood2 they had a special name for the disease4 ,see ,n4 von ,miklucho-,maclay1 in ,verhandlungen der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr ,anthropologie1 #ahhb1 p4 7#egg7 7bound with ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xiv474 ,the reports of people living in ignorance of the use of fire have hitherto proved1 on closer examination1 to be fables4 ,see ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,researches into the ,early ,history of ,mankind1 #crd ,ed41 pp4 #bbi sqq4 ,the latest repetition of the story that ,i know of is by an ,american naturalist1 ,mr4 ,titian ,r4 ,peale1 who confirms the exploded statement that down to #ahda the natives of ,bowditch ,island had not seen fire4 ,see ,the ,american ,naturalist1 xviii4 7#ahhd7 pp4 #bbi-bcb4 ,footnote #hah3 ,b4 ,hagen1 ,unter den ,papuas 7,wiesbaden1 #ahii71 pp4 #bjc sq4 ,mr4 ,hagen's account applies chiefly to the natives of ,astrolabe ,bay4 ,he tells us that for the most part they now use ,swedish matches4 ,footnote #hai3 ,g4 ,casati1 ,ten ,years in ,equatoria 7,london and ,new ,york1 #ahia71 i4 #aeg4 ,another writer says that these dwarfs 8keep fire alight perpetually1 starting it in some large tree1 which goes on smouldering for months at a time0 7,captain ,guy ,burrows1 ,the ,land of the ,pigmies 7,london1 #ahih71 p4 #aii74 ,footnote #hbj3 ,f4 ,stuhlmann1 ,mit ,emin ,pascha ins ,herz von ,afrika 7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #dea sq4 ,footnote #hba3 ,sir ,harry ,h4 ,johnston1 ,british ,central ,africa 7,london1 #ahig71 p4 #dci2 id41 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate 7,london1 #aijb71 ii4 #edj4 ,if we may trust ,diodorus ,siculus 7i4 #ac4 #c71 this was the origin of fire alleged by the ,egyptian priests4 ,among the ,winamwanga and ,wiwa tribes of ,east ,africa1 to the south of ,lake ,tanganyika1 8when lightning sets fire to a tree1 all the fires in a village are put out1 and fireplaces freshly plastered1 while the head men take the fire to the chief1 who prays over it4 ,it is then sent to all his villages1 the people of the villages rewarding his messengers40 ,see ,dr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,chisholm1 8,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,winamwanga and ,wiwa10 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 #cf 7,july #aiaj71 p4 #cfc4 ,the ,parsees ascribe peculiar sanctity to fire which has been obtained from a tree struck by lightning4 ,see ,d4 ,j4 ,karaka1 ,history of the ,modern ,parsis 7,london1 #ahhd71 ii4 #bac4 ,in ,siam and ,cambodia such fire is carefully preserved and used to light the funeral pyres of kings and others4 ,see ,pallegoix1 ,description du royaume ,thai ou ,siam1 i4 #bdh2 ,j4 ,moura1 ,le ,royaume du ,cambodge1 i4 #cfj4 ,footnote #hbb3 ,oscar ,peschel1 ,vlkerkunde #fth ,ed4 7,leipsic1 #ahhe71 p4 #ach4 ,mr4 ,man thinks it likely that the ,andaman ,islanders got their fire from one of the two volcanoes which exist in their island 7,on the ,aboriginal ,inhabitants of the ,andaman ,islands1 p4 #hb74 ,the ,creek ,indians of ,north ,america have a tradition that some of their ancestors procured fire from a volcano4 ,see ,a4 ,s4 ,gatschet1 ,a ,migration ,legend of the ,creek ,indians1 ii4 7,st4 ,louis1 #ahhh7 p4 #aa 7#dc74 ,footnote #hbc3 ,o4 ,peschel1 loc4 cit4 ,as to the fires of ,baku see further1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 p4 #aei4 ,footnote #hbd3 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #cfg2 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #aid2 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #ib1 #ajb4 ,lucretius thought that the first fire was procured either from lightning or from the mutual friction of trees in a high wind 7,de rerum natura1 v4 #ajia-aaja74 ,the latter source was preferred by ,vitruvius 7,de architectura1 ii4 #a4 #a74 ,footnote #hbe3 ,sir ,harry ,h4 ,johnston1 ll4cc4 ,professor ,k4 von den ,steinen conjectures that savages1 who already possessed fire1 and were wont to use tinder to nurse a smouldering brand into a blaze1 may have accidentally discovered the mode of kindling fire in an attempt to make tinder by rubbing two dry sticks or reeds against each other4 ,see ,k4 von den ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,zentral-,brasiliens1 pp4 #bai-bbh4 ,footnote #hbf3 ,j4 ,dumont ,d',urville1 ,voyage autour du monde et la recherche de la ,perouse1 i4 7,paris1 #ahcb7 pp4 #ie1 #aid2 ,scott ,nind1 8,description of the ,natives of ,king ,george's ,sound10 ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 i4 7#ahcb7 p4 #bf2 ,e4 ,j4 ,eyre1 ,journals of ,expeditions of ,discovery into ,central ,australia1 ii4 #ceg2 ,a4 ,oldfield1 8,the ,aborigines of ,australia10 ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,n4,s41 iii4 7#ahfe7 pp4 #bhc sq42 ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 p4 #ae2 ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xvii4 7#ahde7 pp4 #gf sq4 ,footnote #hbg3 ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #cif4 ,footnote #hbh3 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #efg4 ,other writers confirm the statement that the carrying of the fire-sticks is the special duty of the women4 ,see ,w4 ,stanbridge1 8,on the ,aborigines of ,victoria10 ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,n4,s41 i4 7#ahfa7 p4 #bia2 ,j4 ,f4 ,mann1 8,notes on the ,aborigines of ,australia10 ,proceedings of the ,geographical ,society of ,australasia1 i4 7#ahhe7 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #hbi3 ,melville1 quoted by ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,aborigines of ,tasmania 7,london1 #ahij71 p4 #ig4 ,it has sometimes been affirmed that the ,tasmanians did not know how to kindle fire2 but the evidence collected by ,mr4 ,ling ,roth 7op4 cit41 pp4 xii4 sq41 #if sq471 proves that they were accustomed to light it both by the friction of wood and by striking flints together4 ,footnote #hcj3 ,mr4 ,dove1 quoted by ,james ,bonwick1 ,daily ,life and ,origin of the ,tasmanians1 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #hca3 ,wilfred ,powell1 ,wanderings in a ,wild ,country 7,london1 #ahhc71 p4 #aif4 ,footnote #hcb3 ,captain ,j4 ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean 7,london1 #agii71 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #hcc3 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 ,natural ,history of ,man1 ii4 #ebb2 ,j4 ,g4 ,garson1 8,on the ,inhabitants of ,tierra del ,fuego10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xv4 7#ahhf74 p4 #ade2 ,mission scientifique du ,cap ,horn1 #ahhb-ahhc1 vii4 7,paris1 #ahia7 p4 #cde4 ,footnote #hcd3 ,j4 ,b4 ,ambrosetti1 8,los ,indios ,caingua del alto ,paran 7misiones710 ,boletino del ,instituto ,geografico ,argentino1 xv4 7#ahie7 pp4 #gjc sq4 ,footnote #hce3 ,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 ,among the ,indians of ,guiana1 pp4 #beg sq4 ,footnote #hcf3 ,a4 ,widenmann1 ,die ,kilimandscharo-,bevlkerung 7,gotha1 #ahii71 pp4 #fh sq4 7,petermann's ,mittheilungen3 ,ergnzungsheft1 ,no4 #abi74 ,footnote #hcg3 ,sir ,harry ,h4 ,johnston1 ,british ,central ,africa 7,london1 #ahig71 p4 #dch4 ,footnote #hch3 ,a4 ,f4 ,mockler-,ferryman1 ,up the ,niger 7,london1 #ahib71 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #hci3 ,miss ,mary ,h4 ,kingsley1 ,travels in ,west ,africa1 pp4 #eii sq4 ,footnote #hdj3 ,p4 de ,tournefort1 ,relation d'un voyage du ,levant 7,amsterdam1 #agah71 i4 #ic 7,lettre vi472 ,sibthorp1 in ,r4 ,walpole's ,memoirs relating to ,european and ,asiatic ,turkey 7,london1 #ahag71 pp4 #bhd sq42 ,w4 ,g4 ,clark1 ,peloponnesus 7,london1 #aheh71 p4 #aaa2 ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 ,the ,cyclades 7,london1 #ahhe71 p4 #cfe4 ,the giant fennel 7,ferula communis1 ,l47 is still known in ,greece by its ancient name1 hardly modified 7nartheka instead of narthex71 though ,w4 ,g4 ,clark says the modern name is kalami4 ,bent speaks of the plant as a reed1 which is a mistake4 ,the plant is described by ,theophrastus 7,histor4 plant4 vi4 #b4 #g sq474 ,footnote #hda3 ,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #ej-eb2 id41 ,theogony1 #efe-efg2 ,aeschylus1 ,prometheus ,bound1 #ajg-aaa2 ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 i4 #g4 #a2 ,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #add2 id41 ,astronomica1 ii4 #ae4 ,footnote #hdb3 ,see my article1 8,the ,prytaneum1 the ,temple of ,vesta1 the ,vestals1 ,perpetual ,fires10 ,journal of ,philology1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #afi-aga4 ,footnote #hdc3 ,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 ii4 #fg4 ,footnote #hdd3 ,see my article1 8,the ,prytaneum1 the ,temple of ,vesta1 the ,vestals1 ,perpetual ,fires10 ,journal of ,philology1 xiv4 7#ahhe7 pp4 #ade sqq4 ,footnote #hde3 ,g4 ,turner1 ,nineteen ,years in ,polynesia 7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #cbf4 ,footnote #hdf3 ,ph4 ,paulitschke1 ,ethnographie ,nordost-,afrikas1 die materielle ,cultur der ,dankil1 ,galla und ,soml 7,berlin1 #ahic71 p4 #ade4 ,footnote #hdg3 ,j4 ,b4 ,labat1 ,relation historique de l'thiopie ,occidentale1 i4 #bef sq4 ,footnote #hdh3 ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,further ,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #dc1 #ea sq42 id41 in a letter to me dated ,mengo1 ,uganda1 #crd ,august #aijd4 ,footnote #hdi3 ,w4 ,g4 ,browne1 ,travels in ,africa1 ,egypt1 and ,syria 7,london1 #agii71 p4 #cjf4 ,footnote #hej3 ,j4 ,j4 ,monteiro1 ,angola and the ,river ,congo 7,london1 #ahge71 ii4 #afg4 ,footnote #hea3 ,p4 ,pogge1 ,im ,reiche des ,muata ,jamwo 7,berlin1 #ahhj71 p4 #bcd4 ,footnote #heb3 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien1 iii4 #eae sq4 ,footnote #hec3 ,du ,pratz1 ,history of ,louisiana 7,london1 #aggd71 pp4 #ccj-ccd1 #cdf sq41 #cea-ceh2 ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 vi4 #agb sqq42 ,lafitau1 ,murs des sauvages ,ameriquains1 i4 #afg sq42 ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1 ,nouvelle dition1 vii4 7,paris1 #agha7 pp4 #g-af 7reprinted in ,recueil de voyages au nord1 ix4 ,amsterdam1 #agcg1 pp4 #c-ac72 8,relation de la ,louisianne10 ,recueil de voyages au ,nord1 v4 7,amsterdam1 #agcd7 pp4 #bc sq42 ,bossu1 ,nouveaux ,voyages aux ,indes ,occidentales 7,paris1 #agfh71 i4 #db-dd2 ,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en ,amrique 7,paris1 #ahgj71 pp4 #bbg sqq42 ,h4 ,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 v4 #fh4 ,the accounts differ from each other in some details4 ,thus ,du ,pratz speaks as if there were only two fire-temples in the country1 whereas the writer in the ,lettres difiantes says that there were eleven villages each with its fire-temple1 and that formerly there had been sixty villages and temples4 ,the account in the text is based mainly on the authority of ,du ,pratz1 who lived among the ,natchez on terms of intimacy for eight years1 from the end of #agah to #agbf4 ,footnote #hed3 ,hennepin1 ,nouvelle ,dcouverte d'un trs grand pays situ dans l',amrique 7,utrecht1 #afig71 p4 #cjf4 ,footnote #hee3 ,xenophon1 ,cyropaedia1 viii4 #c4 #ab2 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxiii4 #f4 #cd2 ,quintus ,curtius1 iii4 #c4 #g4 ,footnote #hef3 ,dio ,cassius1 lxxi4 #ce4 #e2 ,herodian1 i4 #h4 #d1 i4 #af4 #d1 ii4 #c4 #b1 ii4 #h4 #f1 vii4 #a4 #i1 vii4 #f4 #b4 ,footnote #heg3 ,h4 ,schinz1 ,deutsch-,sdwest-,afrika1 p4 #cbj4 ,footnote #heh3 ,o4 ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique 7,amsterdam1 #afhf71 p4 #cib4 ,footnote #hei3 ,o4 ,dapper1 op4 cit4 p4 #djj4 ,footnote #hfj3 ,quintus ,curtius1 v4 #b4 #g4 ,curtius represents this as a signal adopted by ,alexander1 because the sound of the bugle was lost in the trampling and hum of the great multitude4 ,but this maybe merely the historian's interpretation of an old custom4 ,footnote #hfa3 ,xenophon1 ,respublica ,lacedaemoniorum1 xiii4 #b sq42 ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 quoted by ,stobaeus1 ,florilegium1 xliv4 #da 7vol4 ii4 p4 #ahh ed4 ,meineke72 ,hesychius1 s4v4 4 ,footnote #hfb3 ,herodotus1 iv4 #fh4 ,footnote #hfc3 ,aeschylus1 ,choph4 #fjd sqq42 ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 i4 #h4 #b sq42 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #cd4 #f sq42 ,ovid1 ,metamorph4 viii4 #dde sqq42 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #aga and #agd4 ,footnote #hfd3 ,servius1 on ,virgil1 ,aen4 x4 #bbh4 ,footnote #hfe3 ,le ,p4 ,h4 ,geurtjens1 8,le ,crmonial des ,voyages aux les ,keij10 ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 pp4 #ccg sq4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,succession ,,to ,,the ,,kingdom ,,in ,,ancient ,,latium ,sidenote3 ,the ,vestal fire and the great priesthoods appear to have been institutions common to the whole ,latin race4 ,thus it appears that a variety of considerations combined to uphold1 if not to originate1 the custom of maintaining a perpetual fire4 ,the sanctity of the wood which fed it1 the belief in the generative virtue of the process by which it was kindled1 the supposed efficacy of fire in repelling the powers of evil1 the association of the hearth with the spirits of the dead and with the majesty or even the life of the king all worked together to invest the simple old custom with a halo of mystery and romance4 ,if this was so at ,rome we may assume that matters were not very different in the other ,latin towns which kept up a ,vestal fire4 ,these too had their kings of the ,sacred ,rites1 their flamens1 and their pontiffs1 as well as their ,vestal ,virgins4#hff ,all the great priesthoods of ,rome appear1 in fact1 to have had their doubles in the other ancient cities of ,latium2 all were probably primitive institutions common to the whole ,latin race4#hfg ,sidenote3 ,priestly or divine functions of the ,roman kings1 including the maintenance of the ,vestal fire4 ,accordingly1 whatever is true or probable of the ,roman priesthoods1 about which we know most1 may reasonably be regarded as true or probable of the corresponding priesthoods elsewhere in ,latium1 about which for the most part we know nothing more than the names4 ,now in regard to the ,roman king1 whose priestly functions were inherited by his successor the king of the ,sacred ,rites1 the foregoing discussion has led us to the following conclusions4 ,he represented and indeed personated ,jupiter1 the great god of the oak1 the sky1 and the thunder1 and in that character made rain1 thunder1 and lightning for the good of his subjects1 like many more kings of the weather in other parts of the world4 ,further1 he not only mimicked the oak-god by wearing an oak wreath and other insignia of divinity1 but he was married to an oak-nymph ,egeria1 who appears to have been merely a local form of ,diana in her character of a goddess of woods1 of waters1 and of childbirth4 ,moreover1 he was descended from the oak1 since he was born of a virgin who conceived by contact with a fire of sacred oak-wood4 ,hence he had to guard the ancestral fire and keep it constantly burning1 inasmuch as on its maintenance depended the continuance of the royal family4 ,only on certain stated occasions was it lawful and even necessary to extinguish the old fire in order to revive it in a purer and more vigorous form by the friction of the sacred wood4 ,this was done once a year on the first of ,march1#hfh and we may conjecture that it was also done by the new king on his accession to power2 for1 as we have seen1 it has been customary in ,sidenote3 ,but the fire was formally extinguished and rekindled on certain occasions1 perhaps on the death of the king4 various places to extinguish the king's fire at his death4#hfi ,among the ancient ,persians the perpetual sacred fire was put out on the death of a king and remained unlit until after his funeral4#hgj ,it is a common practice to extinguish the fire in any house where a death has taken place1#hga apparently from a fear that the ghost may scorch or singe himself at it1 like a moth at the flame of a candle2 and the custom of putting out the king's fire at his decease may in its origin have been nothing more than this4 ,but when the fire on the king's hearth came to be viewed as bound up in a mysterious fashion with his life1 it would naturally be extinguished at his death1 not to spare his fluttering ghost the risk and pain of falling into it1 but because1 as a sort of life-token or external soul1 it too must die at his death and be born again from the holy tree4 ,at all events1 it seems probable that whenever and from whatever cause it became necessary to rekindle the royal and sacred fire by the friction of wood1 the operation was performed jointly by the king and the ,vestals1 one or more of whom may have been his daughters or the daughters of his predecessor4 ,regarded as impersonations of ,mother ,vesta herself1 these priestesses would be the chosen vessels1 not only to bring to birth the seed of fire in working the fire-drill1 but also to receive the seed of the fire-god in their chaste wombs1 and so to become the mothers of fire-begotten kings4 ,sidenote3 ,what is true of the ,roman kings is probably true of the ,latin kings in general4 ,all these conclusions1 which we have reached mainly by a consideration of the ,roman evidence1 may with great probability be applied to the other ,latin communities4 ,they too probably had of old their divine or priestly kings1 who transmitted their religious functions1 without their civil powers1 to their successors the kings of the ,sacred ,rites4 ,sidenote3 ,what was the rule of succession to the ,latin kingship8 ,but we have still to ask1 ,what was the rule of succession to the kingdom among the old ,latin tribes8 ,we possess two lists of ,latin kings both professedly complete4 ,one is the list of the kings of ,alba1 the other is the list of the ,sidenote3 ,the list of the ,alban kings seems to imply that the kingship was hereditary in the male line4 kings of ,rome4 ,if we accept as authentic the list of the ,alban kings1 we can only conclude that the kingdom was hereditary in the male line1 the son regularly succeeding his father on the throne4#hgb ,but this list1 if it is not1 as ,niebuhr held1 a late and clumsy fabrication1 has somewhat the appearance of an elastic cord which ancient historians stretched in order to link ,aeneas to ,romulus4#hgc ,yet it would be rash to set these names wholly aside as a chronological stop-gap deliberately foisted in by later annalists4 ,in early monarchies1 before the invention of writing1 tradition is remarkably retentive of the names of kings4 ,the ,baganda of ,central ,africa1 for example1 remember the names of more than thirty of their kings in an unbroken chain of twenty-two generations4#hgd ,even the occurrence of foreign names among the ,alban kings is not of itself sufficient to condemn the list as a forgery2 for1 as ,i shall shew presently1 this feature is explicable by a rule of descent which appears to have prevailed in many ancient monarchies1 including that of ,rome4 ,perhaps the most we can say for the history of the ,alban kings is that their names may well be genuine1 and that some general features of the monarchy1 together with a few events which happened to strike the popular imagination1 may have survived in the memory of the people till they found their way into written history4 ,but no dependence can be placed either on the alleged years of their reigns1 or on the hereditary principle which is assumed to have connected each king with his predecessor4 ,when we come to the list of the ,roman kings we are on much firmer1 though still slippery ground4 ,according to tradition there were in all eight kings of ,rome1#hge and with regard to the five last of them1 at all events1 we can hardly doubt that they actually sat on the throne1 and that the traditional history of their reigns is1 in its main outlines1 correct4#hgf ,now it is very remarkable that though the first king of ,rome1 ,romulus1 is said to have been descended from the royal house of ,alba1 in which the kingship is represented as hereditary in the male line1 not one of the ,sidenote3 ,on the other hand none of the ,roman kings was immediately succeeded by his son1 but three were succeeded by their sons-in-law1 who were foreigners4 ,roman kings was immediately succeeded by his son on the throne4 ,yet several left sons or grandsons behind them4#hgg ,on the other hand1 one of them was descended from a former king through his mother1 not through his father1#hgh and three of the kings1 namely ,tatius1 the elder ,tarquin1 and ,servius ,tullius1 were succeeded by their sons-in-law1#hgi who were all either foreigners or of foreign descent4#hhj ,this ,sidenote3 ,this suggests that the kingship was transmitted in the female line and was held by foreigners who married the royal princesses4 suggests that the right to the kingship was transmitted in the female line1 and was actually exercised by foreigners who married the royal princesses4 ,to put it in technical language1 the succession to the kingship at ,rome and probably in ,latium generally would seem to have been determined by certain rules which have moulded early society in many parts of the world1 namely exogamy1 beena marriage1 and female kinship or mother-kin4 ,exogamy is the rule which obliges a man to marry a woman of a different clan from his own2 beena marriage is the rule that he must leave the home of his birth and live with his wife's people2#hha and female kinship or mother-kin is the system of tracing relationship and transmitting the family name through women instead of through men4#hhb ,if these principles regulated descent of the kingship among the ancient ,latins1 the state of things in this respect would be somewhat as follows4 ,the political and religious centre of each community would be the perpetual fire on the king's hearth tended by ,vestal ,virgins of the royal clan4 ,the king would be a man of another clan1 perhaps of another town or even of another race1 who had married a daughter of his predecessor and received the kingdom with her4 ,the children whom he had by her would inherit their mother's name1 not his2 the daughters would remain at home2 the sons1 when they grew up1 would go away into the world1 marry1 and settle in their wives' country1 whether as kings or commoners4 ,of the daughters who stayed at home1 some or all would be dedicated as ,vestal ,virgins for a longer or shorter time to the service of the fire on the hearth1 and one of them would in time become the consort of her father's successor4 ,sidenote3 ,this hypothesis explains some obscure features in the traditional history of the ,latin kings1 such as the stories of their miraculous birth4 ,this hypothesis has the advantage of explaining in a simple and natural way some obscure features in the traditional history of the ,latin kingship4 ,thus the legends which tell how ,latin kings were born of virgin mothers and divine fathers become at least more intelligible4 ,for1 stripped of their fabulous element1 tales of this sort mean no more than that a woman has been gotten with child by a man unknown2 and this uncertainty as to fatherhood is more easily compatible with a system of kinship which ignores paternity than with one which makes it all-important4 ,if at the birth of the ,latin kings their fathers were really unknown1#hhc the fact points either to a general looseness of life in the royal family or to a special relaxation ,sidenote3 ,the ,latin kings perhaps begotten at a ,saturnalia4 of moral rules on certain occasions1 when men and women reverted for a season to the licence of an earlier age4 ,such ,saturnalias are not uncommon at some stages of social evolution4 ,in our own country traces of them long survived in the practices of ,may ,day and ,whitsuntide1 if not of ,christmas4 ,children born of the more or less promiscuous intercourse which characterises festivals of this kind would naturally be fathered on the god to whom the particular festival was dedicated4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,roman festival of ,midsummer was a kind of ,saturnalia1 and was specially associated with the fire-born ,king ,servius ,tullius4 ,in this connexion it may not be without significance that a festival of jollity and drunkenness was celebrated by the plebeians and slaves at ,rome on ,midsummer ,day1 and that the festival was specially associated with the fire-born ,king ,servius ,tullius1 being held in honour of ,fortuna1 the goddess who loved ,servius as ,egeria loved ,numa4 ,the popular merrymakings at this season included foot-races and boat-races2 the ,tiber was gay with flower-wreathed boats1 in which young folk sat quaffing wine4#hhd ,the festival appears to have been a sort of ,midsummer ,saturnalia answering to the real ,saturnalia which fell at ,midwinter4 ,in modern ,europe1 as we shall learn later on1 the great ,midsummer festival has been above all a festival of lovers and of fire2 one of its principal features is the pairing of sweethearts1 who leap over the bonfires hand in hand or throw flowers across the flames to each other4 ,and many omens of love and marriage are drawn from the flowers which bloom at this mystic season4#hhe ,it is the time of the roses and of love4 ,yet the innocence and beauty of such festivals in modern times ought not to blind us to the likelihood that in earlier days they were marked by coarser features1 which were probably of the essence of the rites4 ,indeed1 among the rude ,esthonian peasantry these features seem to have lingered down to our own generation1 if not to the present day4 ,one other feature in the ,roman celebration of ,midsummer deserves to be specially noticed4 ,the custom of rowing in flower-decked boats on the river on this day proves that it was to some extent a water festival2 and1 as we shall learn later on1 water has always1 down to modern times1 played a conspicuous part in the rites of ,midsummer ,day1 which explains why the ,church1 in throwing its cloak over the old heathen festival1 chose to dedicate it to ,st4 ,john the ,baptist4#hhf ,sidenote3 ,but the uncertainty as to the paternity of the ,roman kings may only mean that in later times the names of their fathers were forgotten4 ,the hypothesis that the ,latin kings may have been begotten at an annual festival of love is necessarily a mere conjecture1 though the traditional birth of ,numa on the festival of the ,parilia1 when shepherds leaped across the spring bonfires1#hhg as lovers leap across the ,midsummer fires1 may perhaps be thought to lend it a faint colour of probability4 ,but it is quite possible that the uncertainty as to their fathers may not have arisen till long after the death of the kings1 when their figures began to melt away into the cloudland of fable1 assuming fantastic shapes and gorgeous colouring as they passed from earth to heaven4 ,if they were alien immigrants1 strangers and pilgrims in the land they ruled over1 it would be natural enough that the people should forget their lineage1 and forgetting it should provide them with another1 which made up in lustre what it lacked in truth4 ,the final apotheosis1 which represented the kings as not merely sprung from gods but as themselves deities incarnate1 would be much facilitated if in their lifetime1 as we have seen reason to think1 they had actually laid claim to divinity4 ,sidenote3 ,where descent is traced through women only1 girls of the highest rank may be married to men of humble birth1 even to aliens and slaves4 ,if among the ,latins the women of royal blood always stayed at home and received as their consorts men of another stock1 and often of another country1 who reigned as kings in virtue of their marriage with a native princess1 we can understand not only why foreigners wore the crown at ,rome1 but also why foreign names occur in the list of the ,alban kings4 ,in a state of society where nobility is reckoned only through women--in other words1 where descent through the mother is everything1 and descent through the father is nothing--no objection will be felt to uniting girls of the highest rank to men of humble birth1 even to aliens or slaves1 provided that in themselves the men appear to be suitable mates4 ,what really matters is that the royal stock1 on which the prosperity and even the existence of the people is supposed to depend1 should be perpetuated in a vigorous and efficient form1 and for this purpose it is necessary that the women of the royal family should bear children to men who are physically and mentally fit1 according to the standard of early society1 to discharge the important duty of procreation4 ,thus the personal qualities of the kings at this stage of social evolution are deemed of vital importance4 ,if they1 like their consorts1 are of royal and divine descent1 so much the better2 but it is not essential that they should be so4 ,sidenote3 ,in ,ashantee1 where the kingdom descends through women1 the rank of the king's father is not regarded4 ,the hypothesis which we have been led to frame of the rule of succession to the ,latin kingship will be confirmed by analogy if we can shew that elsewhere1 under a system of female kinship1 the paternity of the kings is a matter of indifference--nay1 that men who are born slaves may1 like ,servius ,tullius1 marry royal princesses and be raised to the throne4 ,now this is true of the ,tshi-speaking peoples of the ,gold ,coast in ,west ,africa4 ,thus in ,ashantee1 where the kingdom descends in the female line to the king's brothers and afterwards to the sons of his sister in preference to his own sons1 the sisters of the reigning monarch are free to marry or intrigue with whom they please1 provided only that their husband or lover be a very strong and handsome man1 in order that the kings whom he begets may be men of finer presence than their subjects4 ,it matters not how low may be the rank and position of the king's father4 ,if the king's sisters1 however1 have no sons1 the throne will pass to the king's own son1 and failing a son1 to the chief vassal or the chief slave4 ,but in the ,fantee country the principal slave succeeds to the exclusion of the son4 ,so little regard is paid by these people to the lineage1 especially the paternal lineage1 of their kings4#hhh ,yet ,ashantee has attained a barbaric civilisation as high perhaps as that of any negro state1 and probably not at all inferior to that of the petty ,latin kingdoms at the dawn of history4 ,sidenote3 ,traces of a similar state of things in ,uganda4 ,a trace of a similar state of things appears to survive in ,uganda1 another great ,african monarchy4 ,for there the queen dowager and the queen sister are1 or were1 allowed to have as many husbands as they choose1 without going through any marriage ceremony4 8,of these two women it is commonly said all ,uganda is their husband2 they appear to be fond of change1 only living with a man for a few days and then inviting some one else to take his place40 ,we are reminded of the legends of the lustful queen ,semiramis1 and the likeness may be more than superficial4 ,yet these women are not allowed1 under pain of death1 to bear children2 hence they practise abortion4#hhi ,both the licence and the prohibition may be explained if we suppose that formerly the kingdom descended1 as it still does in ,ashantee1 first to the king's brothers and next to the sons of his sisters4 ,for in that case the next heirs to the throne would be the sons of the king's mother and of his sisters1 and these women might accordingly be allowed1 as the king's sisters still are allowed in ,ashantee1 to mate with any handsome men who took their fancy1 in order that their offspring might be of regal part4 ,but when the line of descent was changed from the female to the male line1 in other words1 when the kings were succeeded by their sons instead of by their brothers or their sisters' sons1 then the king's mother and his sisters would be forbidden to bear children lest the descent of the crown to the king's own children should be endangered by the existence of rivals who1 according to the old law of the kingdom1 had a better right to the throne4 ,we may surmise that the practice of putting the king's brothers to death at the beginning of his reign1 which survived till ,uganda passed under ,english protection1#hij was instituted at the same time as the prohibition of child-bearing laid on the king's mother and sisters4 ,the one custom got rid of existing rivals2 the other prevented them from being born4 ,that the kingship in ,uganda was formerly transmitted in the female line is strongly indicated by the rule that the kings and the rest of the royal family take their totems from their mothers1 whereas all the other people of the country get their totems from their fathers4#hia ,sidenote3 ,in ,loango also1 where the blood royal is traced in the female line1 the princesses are free to cohabit with whom they please1 and their consorts are practically their slaves4 ,in ,loango the blood royal is traced in the female line1 and here also the princesses are free to choose and divorce their husbands at pleasure1 and to cohabit at the same time with other men4 ,these husbands are nearly always plebeians1 for princes and princesses1 who are very numerous and form a ruling caste in the country1 may not marry each other4 ,the lot of a prince consort is not a happy one1 for he is rather the slave and prisoner than the mate of his imperious princess4 ,in marrying her he engages never more to look at a woman during the whole time he cohabits with his royal spouse4 ,when he goes out he is preceded by guards who drive away all females from the road where he is to pass4 ,if in spite of these precautions he should by ill-luck cast his eyes on a woman1 the princess may have his head chopped off1 and commonly exercises1 or used to exercise1 the right4 ,this sort of libertinism1 sustained by power1 often carries the princesses to the greatest excesses1 and nothing is so much dreaded as their anger4 ,no wonder that commoners in general avoid the honour of a royal alliance4 ,only poor and embarrassed men seek it as a protection against their creditors and enemies4 ,all the children of such a man by such a wife are princes and princesses1 and any one of the princes may in time be chosen king2 for in ,loango the crown is not hereditary but elective4#hib ,thus it would seem that the father of the ,king of ,loango is nearly always a plebeian1 and often little better than a slave4 ,sidenote3 ,similar rights enjoyed by queens in ,central ,africa4 ,near the ,chambezi river1 which falls into ,lake ,bengweolo in ,central ,africa1 there is a small state governed by a queen who belongs to the reigning family of ,ubemba4 ,she bears the title of ,mamfumer or ,mother of ,kings4 8,the privileges attached to this dignity are numerous4 ,the most singular is that the queens may choose for themselves their husband among the common people4 ,the chosen man becomes prince-consort without sharing in the administration of affairs4 ,he is bound to leave everything to follow his royal and often but little accommodating spouse4 ,to shew that in these households the rights are inverted and that a man may be changed into a woman1 the queen takes the title of ,monsieur and her husband that of ,madame40#hic ,sidenote3 ,traces of female descent of the kingship in ancient ,greece4 ,at ,athens1 as at ,rome1 we find traces of succession to the throne by marriage with a royal princess2 for two of the most ancient kings of ,athens1 namely ,cecrops and ,amphictyon1 are said to have married the daughters of their predecessors4#hid ,this tradition is confirmed by the evidence1 which ,i shall adduce presently1 that at ,athens male kinship was preceded by female kinship4 ,sidenote3 ,with this rule of descent of the kingship males rule over different kingdoms in successive generations4 ,further1 if ,i am right in supposing that in ancient ,latium the royal families kept their daughters at home and sent forth their sons to marry princesses and reign among their wives' people1 it will follow that the male descendants would reign in successive generations over different kingdoms4 ,now this seems to have happened both in ancient ,greece and in ancient ,sweden2 from which we may legitimately infer that it was a custom practised by more than one branch of the ,aryan stock in ,europe4 ,take1 for instance1 the great house of ,aeacus1 the grandfather of ,achilles and ,ajax4 ,aeacus himself reigned in ,aegina1 but his descendants1 as has been justly observed1 8from the beginning went forth to other lands40#hie ,his son ,telamon migrated to the ,sidenote3 ,migrations of the male descendants of ,aeacus4 island of ,salamis1 married the king's daughter1 and reigned over the country4#hif ,telamon's son ,teucer1 in his turn1 migrated to ,cyprus1 wedded the king's daughter1 and succeeded his father-in-law on the throne4#hig ,again1 ,peleus1 another son of ,aeacus1 quitted his native land and went away to ,phthia in ,thessaly1 where he received the hand of the king's daughter1 and with her a third of the kingdom4#hih ,of ,achilles1 the son of ,peleus1 we are told that in his youth he was sent to the court of ,lycomedes1 ,king of ,scyros1 where he got one of the princesses with child4#hii ,the tradition seems to shew that ,achilles followed the custom of his family in seeking his fortune in a foreign land4 ,his son ,neoptolemus1 after him1 went away to ,epirus1 where he settled and became the ancestor of the kings of the country4#ijj ,sidenote3 ,migrations of the male descendants of ,tydeus and ,pelops4 ,again1 ,tydeus was a son of ,oeneus1 the ,king of ,calydon in ,aetolia1 but he went to ,argos and married the king's daughter4#ija ,his son ,diomede migrated to ,daunia in ,italy1 where he helped the king in a war with his enemies1 receiving as his reward the king's daughter in marriage and part of the kingdom4#ijb ,as another example we may take the family of the ,pelopidae1 whose tragic fortunes the ,greek poets never wearied of celebrating4 ,their ancestor was ,tantalus1 ,king of ,sipylus in ,asia ,minor4 ,but his son ,pelops passed into ,greece1 won ,hippodamia1 the daughter of the ,king of ,pisa1 in the famous chariot-race1 and succeeded his father-in-law on the throne4#ijc ,his son ,atreus did not remain in ,pisa1 but migrated to ,mycenae1 of which he became king2#ijd and in the next generation ,menelaus1 son of ,atreus1 went to ,sparta1 where he married ,helen1 the king's daughter1 and himself reigned over the country4#ije ,further1 it is very notable that1 according to the old lyric poets1 ,agamemnon himself1 the elder brother of ,menelaus1 reigned not at ,mycenae but in ,lacedaemon1 the native land of his wife ,clytaemnestra1 and that he was buried at ,amyclae1 the ancient capital of the country4#ijf ,sidenote3 ,these migrations not understood in later times4 ,various reasons are assigned by ancient ,greek writers for these migrations of the princes4 ,a common one is that the king's son had been banished for murder4 ,this would explain very well why he fled his own land1 but it is no reason at all why he should become king of another4 ,we may suspect that such reasons are afterthoughts devised by writers who1 accustomed to the rule that a son should succeed to his father's property and kingdom1 were hard put to it to account for so many traditions of kings' sons who quitted the land of their birth to reign over a foreign kingdom4 ,sidenote3 ,traces of similar migrations in ,scandinavian tradition4 ,in ,scandinavian tradition we meet with traces of similar customs4 ,for we read of daughters' husbands who received a share of the kingdoms of their royal fathers-in-law1 even when these fathers-in-law had sons of their own2 in particular1 during the five generations which preceded ,harold the ,fair-haired1 male members of the ,ynglingar family1 which is said to have come from ,sweden1 are reported in the ,heimskringla or ,sagas of the ,norwegian ,kings to have obtained at least six provinces in ,norway by marriage with the daughters of the local kings4#ijg ,sidenote3 ,a reminiscence of the transmission of the kingship through women is preserved in popular tales4 ,thus it would seem that among some ,aryan peoples1 at a certain stage of their social evolution1 it has been customary to regard women and not men as the channels in which royal blood flows1 and to bestow the kingdom in each successive generation on a man of another family1 and often of another country1 who marries one of the princesses and reigns over his wife's people4 ,a common type of popular tale1 which relates how an adventurer1 coming to a strange land1 wins the hand of the king's daughter and with her the half or the whole of the kingdom1 may well be a reminiscence of a real custom4#ijh ,sidenote3 ,where such customs prevail1 the kingship is an appanage of marriage with a princess4 ,where usages and ideas of this sort prevail1 it is obvious that the kingship is merely an appanage of marriage with a woman of the blood royal4 ,the old ,danish historian ,saxo ,grammaticus puts this view of the kingship very clearly in the mouth of ,hermutrude1 a legendary queen of ,scotland1 and her statement is all the more significant because1 as we shall see presently1 it reflects the actual practice of the ,pictish kings4 8,indeed she was a queen10 says ,hermutrude1 8and but that her sex gainsaid it1 might be deemed a king2 nay 7and this is yet truer71 whomsoever she thought worthy of her bed was at once a king1 and she yielded her kingdom with herself4 ,thus her sceptre and her hand went together40#iji ,wherever a custom of this sort is observed1 a man may clearly acquire the kingdom just as well by marrying the widow as the daughter of his predecessor4 ,this is what ,aegisthus did at ,mycenae1 and what ,hamlet's uncle ,feng and ,hamlet's successor ,wiglet did in ,denmark2 all three slew their predecessors1 married their widows1 and then sat peacefully on the throne4#iaj ,the tame submission of the people to their rule would be intelligible1 if they regarded the assassins1 in spite of their crime1 as the lawful occupants of the throne by reason of their marriage with the widowed queens4 ,similarly1 ,gyges murdered ,candaules1 ,king of ,lydia1 ,sidenote3 ,the ,lydian kingship apparently transmitted through women4 married his queen1 and reigned over the country4#iaa ,nor was this the only instance of such a succession in the history of ,lydia4 ,the wife of ,king ,cadys conspired against his life with her paramour ,spermus1 and though her husband recovered from the dose of poison which she administered to him1 he died soon afterwards1 and the adulterer married his leman and succeeded to the throne4#iab ,these cases excite a suspicion that in the royal house of ,lydia descent was traced in the female line1 and the suspicion is strengthened by the legendary character of ,omphale1 the ancestress of the dynasty4 ,for she is represented as a masculine but dissolute queen of the ,semiramis type1 who wore male attire and put all her favoured lovers to death1 while on the other hand her consort ,hercules was her purchased slave1 was treated with indignity1 and went about dressed as a woman4#iac ,this plainly implies that the queen was a far more powerful and important personage than the king1 as would naturally happen wherever it is the queen who confers royalty on her consort at marriage instead of receiving it from him4 ,the story that she prostituted the daughters of the ,lydians to their male slaves#iad is of a piece with the tradition that she herself married her slave ,hercules4 ,it may mean little more than that the ,lydians were indifferent to paternity1 and that the children of freewomen by slaves ranked as free4 ,such an indifference to fatherhood1 coupled with the ancient accounts of the loose morals of the ,lydian girls1 who were accustomed to earn a dowry by prostitution1#iae is a mark of the system of female kinship4 ,hence we may conjecture that ,herodotus was wrong in saying that from ,hercules to ,candaules the crown of ,lydia had descended for twenty-two generations from father to son4#iaf ,the old mode of transmitting the crown of ,lydia through women probably did not end with ,candaules4 ,at least we are told that his murderer and successor ,gyges1 like ,hercules1 the mythical founder of the dynasty1 gave himself and his kingdom into the hands of the woman he loved1 and that when she died he collected all the slaves from the country round about and raised in her memory a mound so lofty that it could be seen from every part of the ,lydian plain1 and for centuries after was known as the ,harlot's ,tomb4#iag ,sidenote3 ,marriage of ,canute with the widow of his predecessor4 ,when ,canute the ,dane had been acknowledged ,king of ,england1 he married ,emma1 the widow of his predecessor ,ethelred1 whose throne he had overturned and whose children he had driven into exile4 ,the marriage has not unnaturally puzzled the historians1 for ,emma was much older than her second husband1 she was then living in ,normandy1 and it is very doubtful whether ,canute had ever seen her before she became his bride4 ,all1 however1 becomes plain if1 as the cases of ,feng and ,wiglet seem to shew1 it was an old ,danish custom that marriage with a king's widow carried the kingdom with it as a matter of right4 ,in that case the young but prudent ,canute married the mature widow merely out of policy in order to clinch1 according to ,danish notions1 by a legal measure his claim to that crown which he had already won for himself by the sword4#iah ,among the ,saxons and their near kinsmen the ,varini it appears to have been a regular custom for the new king to marry his stepmother4 ,thus ,hermegisclus1 ,king of the ,varini1 on his deathbed enjoined his son ,radigis to wed his stepmother in accordance with their ancestral practice1 and his injunction was obeyed4#iai ,edbald1 ,king of ,kent1 married his stepmother after the death of his father ,ethelbert2#ibj and as late as the ninth century ,ethelbald1 ,king of the ,west ,saxons1 wedded ,judith1 the widow of his father ,ethelwulf4#iba ,such marriages are intelligible if we suppose that old ,saxon as well as old ,danish law gave the kingdom to him who married the late king's widow4 ,sidenote3 ,traces of the system of female kinship among the ,aryans4 ,to the view that the right to the ,latin kingship was derived from women and not from men1 it may be objected that the system of female kinship or mother-kin is unknown among the ,aryans1#ibb and that even if faint traces of it may be met with elsewhere1 the last place in the world where we should look for it would be ,rome1 the stronghold of the patriarchal family4 ,to meet this objection it is necessary to point to some facts which appear to be undoubted survivals among ,aryan peoples of a custom of tracing descent through the mother only4 ,sidenote3 ,female kinship among the ,athenians1 the ,epizephyrian ,locrians1 the ,cantabrians1 and the ,germans4 ,in ,attica tradition ran that of old the women were the common property of the men1 who coupled with them like beasts1 so that while every one knew his mother1 nobody knew who his father was4 ,this system of sexual communism was abolished by ,cecrops1 the first ,king of ,athens1 who introduced individual marriage in its place4#ibc ,little weight could be attached to this tradition1 if it were not supported to a certain extent by the ,attic usage which always allowed a man to marry his half-sister by the same father but not his half-sister by the same mother4#ibd ,such a rule seems clearly to be a relic of a time when kinship was counted only through women4 ,again1 the ,epizephyrian ,locrians in ,italy traced all ancestral distinction in the female1 not the male line4 ,among them the nobles were the members of the hundred houses from whom were chosen by lot the maidens to be sent to ,troy4#ibe ,for in order1 it is said1 to expiate the sacrilege committed by the ,locrian ,ajax when he violated ,cassandra in the sanctuary of ,athena at ,troy1 the cities of ,locris used annually to send to the ,trojan goddess two maidens1 whom the ,trojans slew1 and1 burning their bodies on the wood of certain trees which bore no fruit1 threw the ashes into the sea4 ,if the maidens contrived to escape they took refuge in the sanctuary of ,athena1 which they thenceforth swept and washed1 never quitting it except at night1 and always going barefoot1 shorn1 and clad in a single garment4 ,the custom is said to have been observed for a thousand years down to the fourth century before our era4#ibf ,among the ,locrians1 as elsewhere1 the system of female kinship would seem to have gone hand in hand with dissolute morals2 for there is reason to think that of old the ,locrians1 like the ,lydians and ,armenians1 had been wont to prostitute their daughters before marriage1 though in later times the custom fell into abeyance4#ibg ,the ,cantabrians of ,spain seem also to have had mother-kin2 for among them it was the daughters who inherited property and who portioned out their brothers in marriage4#ibh ,again1 the ancient ,germans deemed the tie between a man and his sister's children as close as that between a father and his children2 indeed some regarded the bond as even closer and more sacred1 and therefore in exacting hostages they chose the children of a man's sister rather than his own children1 believing that this gave them a firmer hold on the family4#ibi ,the superiority thus assigned to the maternal uncle over the father is an infallible mark of mother-kin1 either present or past1 as may be observed1 for instance1 in very many ,african tribes to this day1 among whom both property and political power pass1 not from father to son1 but from the maternal uncle to his nephews4#icj ,similarly1 in ,melanesia the close relation of the mother's brother to his nephew is maintained even where the system of relationship has become patriarchal4#ica ,amongst the ,germans in the time of ,tacitus1 it is true1 a man's heirs were his own children1#icb but the mother's brother could never have attained the position he held except under a system of maternal descent4 ,another vestige of mother-kin among a ,teutonic people appears to be found in the ,salic law4 ,for it was a custom with the ,salian ,franks that when a widow married again1 a price had to be paid to her family1 and in laying down the order in which her kinsmen were entitled to receive this payment the law gave a decided preference to the female over the male line2 thus the first person entitled to claim the money was the eldest son of the widow's sister4#icc ,sidenote3 ,among the ,picts the kingship was transmitted through women4 ,it is a moot point whether the ,picts of ,scotland belonged to the ,aryan family or not2#icd but among them the kingdom was certainly transmitted through women4 ,bede tells us that down to his own time1 in the early part of the eighth century1 whenever a doubt arose as to the succession1 the ,picts chose their king from the female rather than the male line4#ice ,the statement is amply confirmed by historical evidence4 ,for we possess a list of the ,pictish kings and their fathers which was drawn up in the reign of ,cenaed1 ,king of the ,scots1 towards the end of the tenth century2 and for the period from the year #ehc to the year #hdj the register is authenticated by the ,irish ,annals of ,tigernach and ,ulster4 ,now1 it is significant that in this list the fathers of the kings are never themselves kings2 in other words1 no king was succeeded on the throne by his son4 ,further1 if we may judge by their names1 the fathers of the ,pictish kings were not ,picts but foreigners--men of ,irish1 ,cymric1 or ,english race4 ,the inference from these facts seems to be that among the ,picts the royal family was exogamous1 and that the crown descended in the female line2 in other words1 that the princesses married men of another clan or even of another race1 and that their issue by these strangers sat on the throne1 whether they succeeded in a prescribed order according to birth1 or whether they were elected from among the sons of princesses1 as the words of ,bede might be taken to imply4#icf ,sidenote3 ,female kinship among the ,etruscans4 ,another ,european1 though apparently not ,aryan1 people among whom the system of female kinship appears to have prevailed were the ,etruscans4 ,for in ,etruscan sepulchral inscriptions the name of the mother of the deceased is regularly recorded along with or even without the name of the father2 and where the names of both father and mother are mentioned1 greater prominence is given to the mother's name by writing it in full1 whereas the father's name is1 in accordance with ,roman usage1 merely indicated by an initial4#icg ,the statement of ,theopompus that among the ,etruscans sexual communism was a recognised practice1 and that paternity was unknown1#ich may be only an exaggerated way of saying that they traced their descent through their mothers and not through their fathers4 ,yet apparently in ,etruria1 as elsewhere1 this system of relationship was combined with a real indifference to fatherhood and with the dissolute morals which that indifference implies2 for ,etruscan girls were wont to earn a dowry by prostitution4#ici ,in these customs the ,etruscans resembled the ,lydians1 and the similarity confirms the common opinion of antiquity1 which modern historians have too lightly set aside1 that the ,etruscans were of ,lydian origin4#idj ,however that may be1 in considering the vestiges of mother-kin among the ,latins1 we shall do well to bear in mind that the same archaic mode of tracing descent appears to have prevailed among the neighbouring ,etruscans1 who not only exercised a powerful influence on ,rome1 but gave her two1 if not three1 of her kings4#ida ,sidenote3 ,mother-kin may survive in the royal family after it has been exchanged for father-kin in all others4 ,it would be neither unnatural nor surprising if among the ancient ,latins mother-kin survived in the royal family after it had been exchanged for father-kin in all others4 ,for royalty1 like religion1 is essentially conservative2 it clings to old forms and old customs which have long vanished from ordinary life4 ,thus in ,uganda persons of royal blood still inherit their totems from their mothers1 while other people inherit them from their fathers4 ,so in ,denmark and ,scandinavia1 as we have seen1 the kingdom would appear to have been transmitted through women long after the family name and property had become hereditary in the male line among the people4 ,sometimes the difference in custom between kings and commoners is probably based rather on a distinction of race than on varying degrees of social progress2 for a dynasty is often a family of alien origin who have imposed their rule on their subjects by force of arms1 as the ,normans did on the ,saxons1 and the ,manchus on the ,chinese4 ,more rarely1 perhaps1 it may have happened that from motives of policy or superstition a ,sidenote3 ,sometimes a conquering race may have left a nominal kingship to members of the old royal house4 conquering tribe has left a nominal kingship to the members of the old royal house4 ,such a concession would be most likely to be made where the functions of the king were rather religious than civil1 and where the prosperity of the country was supposed to depend on the maintenance of the established relations between the people and the gods of the land4 ,in that case the new-comers1 knowing not how to appease and conciliate these strange deities1 might be glad to let the priestly kings of the conquered race perform the quaint rites and mumble the venerable spells1 which had been found to answer their purpose time out of mind4#idb ,in a commonwealth like the ,roman1 formed by the union of different stocks1 the royal family might thus belong either to the conquerors or to the conquered2 in other words1 either to the ,sidenote3 ,this perhaps happened at ,rome1 where many of the kings seem to have been plebeians4 patricians or to the plebeians4 ,but if we leave out of account ,romulus and ,tatius1 who are more or less legendary figures1 and the two ,tarquins1 who came of a noble ,etruscan house1 all the other ,roman kings appear from their names to have been men of plebeian1 not patrician1 families4#idc ,hence it seems probable that they belonged to the indigenous race1 who may have retained mother-kin1 at least in the royal succession1 after they had submitted to invaders who knew father-kin only4 ,sidenote3 ,the abolition of the monarchy at ,rome may have been a revolution whereby the patricians wrested the shadow of sovereignty from the plebeians and transferred it to themselves1 who already wielded the substance4 ,if that was so1 it confirms the view that the old ,roman kingship was essentially a religious office2 for the conquerors would be much more ready to leave an office of this sort in the hands of the conquered than a kingship of the type with which we are familiar4 8,let these puppets10 they might think1 8render to the gods their dues1 while we rule the people in peace and lead them in war40 ,of such priestly kings ,numa was the type4 ,but not all of his successors were willing to model themselves on his saintly figure and1 rejecting the pomps and vanities of earth1 to devote themselves to communion with heaven4 ,some were men of strong will and warlike temper1 who could not brook the dull routine of the cloister4 ,they longed to exchange the stillness and gloom of the temple or the sacred grove for the sunshine1 the dust1 and the tumult of the battlefield4 ,such men broke bounds1 and when they threatened to get completely out of hand and turn the tables on the patricians1 it was time that they should go4 ,this1 we may conjecture1 was the real meaning of the abolition of the kingship at ,rome4 ,it put an end to the solemn pretence that the state was still ruled by the ancient owners of the soil3 it took the shadow of power from them and gave it to those who had long possessed the substance4 ,the ghost of the monarchy had begun to walk and grow troublesome3 the revolution laid it for centuries4 ,sidenote3 ,at first the intention seems to have been to leave the annual kingship or consulship to the old royal family4 ,but though the effect of the revolution was to substitute the real rule of the patricians for the nominal rule of the plebeians1 the break with the past was at the outset less complete than it seems4 ,for the first two consuls were both men of the royal blood4 ,one of them1 ,l4 ,junius ,brutus1 was sister's son of the expelled ,king ,tarquin the ,proud4#idd ,as such he would have been the heir to the throne under a strict system of mother-kin4 ,the other consul1 ,l4 ,tarquinius ,collatinus1 was a son of the late king's cousin ,egerius4#ide ,these facts suggest that the first intention of the revolutionaries was neither to abolish the kingship nor to wrest it from the royal family1 but1 merely retaining the hereditary monarchy1 to restrict its powers4 ,to achieve this object they limited the tenure of office to a year and doubled the number of the kings1 who might thus be expected to check and balance each other4 ,but it is not impossible that both restrictions were merely the revival of old rules which the growing power of the kings had contrived for a time to set aside in practice4 ,the legends of ,romulus and ,remus1 and afterwards of ,romulus and ,tatius1 may be real reminiscences of a double kingship like that of ,sparta2#idf and in the yearly ceremony of the ,regifugium or ,flight of the ,king we seem to detect a trace of an annual1 not a life-long1 tenure of office4#idg ,the same thing may perhaps be true of the parallel change which took place at ,athens when the people deprived the ,medontids of their regal powers and reduced them from kings to responsible magistrates1 who held office at first for life1 but afterwards only for periods of ten years4#idh ,here1 too1 the limitation of the tenure of the kingship may have been merely the reinforcement of an old custom which had fallen into abeyance4 ,at ,rome1 however1 the attempt to maintain the hereditary principle1 if it was made at all1 was almost immediately abandoned1 and the patricians openly transferred to themselves the double kingship1 which thenceforth was purely elective1 and was afterwards known as the consulship4#idi ,sidenote3 ,the abolition of the monarchy at ,rome seems to have been hastened by an attempt of the last king to shift the succession from the female to the male line4 ,the history of the last king of ,rome1 ,tarquin the ,proud1 leads us to suspect that the offence which he gave by his ambitious and domineering character was heightened by an attempt to shift the succession of the kingship from the female to the male line4 ,he himself united both rights in his own person2 for he had married the daughter of his predecessor1 ,servius ,tullius1 and he was the son or grandson of ,tarquin the ,elder1#iej who preceded ,servius ,tullius on the throne4 ,but in asserting his right to the crown1 if we can trust ,roman history on this point1 ,tarquin the ,proud entirely ignored his claim to it through women as the son-in-law of his predecessor1 and insisted only on his claim in the male line as the son or grandson of a former king4#iea ,and he evidently intended to bequeath the kingdom to one of his sons2 for he put out of the way two of the men who1 if the succession had been through women in the way ,i have indicated1 would have been entitled to sit on the throne before his own sons1 and even before himself4 ,one of these was his sister's husband1 the other was her elder son4 ,her younger son1 the famous ,lucius ,junius ,brutus1 only escaped the fate of his father and elder brother by feigning1 like ,hamlet1 imbecility1 and thus deluding his wicked uncle into the belief that he had nothing to fear from such a simpleton4#ieb ,this design of ,tarquin to alter the line of succession from the female to the male side of the house may have been the last drop which filled his cup of high-handed tyranny to overflowing4 ,at least it is a strange coincidence1 if it is nothing more1 that he was deposed by the man who1 under a system of female kinship1 was the rightful heir1 and who in a sense actually sat on the throne from which he pushed his uncle4 ,for the curule chair of the consul was little less than the king's throne under a limited tenure4 ,sidenote3 ,the hereditary principle does not necessarily exclude the elective in the succession to a monarchy2 many ,african chieftainships or kingships are both hereditary and elective4 ,it has often been asked whether the ,roman monarchy was hereditary or elective4 ,the question implies an opposition between the two modes of succession which by no means necessarily exists4 ,as a matter of fact1 in many ,african tribes at the present day the succession to the kingdom or the chieftainship is determined by a combination of the hereditary and the elective principle1 that is1 the kings or chiefs are chosen by the people or by a body of electors from among the members of the royal family4 ,and as the chiefs have commonly several wives and many children by them1 the number of possible candidates may be not inconsiderable4 ,for example1 we are told that 8the government of the ,banyai is rather peculiar1 being a sort of feudal republicanism4 ,the chief is elected1 and they choose the son of the deceased chief's sister in preference to his own offspring4 ,when dissatisfied with one candidate1 they even go to a distant tribe for a successor1 who is usually of the family of the late chief1 a brother1 or a sister's son1 but never his own son or daughter4 ,when first spoken to on the subject1 he answers as if he thought himself unequal to the task and unworthy of the honour1 but1 having accepted it1 all the wives1 goods1 and children of his predecessor belong to him1 and he takes care to keep them in a dependent position40 ,among these people 8the children of the chief have fewer privileges than common free men4 ,they may not be sold1 but1 rather than choose any one of them for a chief at any future time1 the free men would prefer to elect one of themselves who bore only a very distant relationship to the family40#iec ,sidenote3 ,chiefs and kings in ,africa elected from several families in rotation4 ,sometimes the field of choice is extended still further by a rule that the chief may or must be chosen from one of several families in a certain order4 ,thus among the ,bangalas of the ,cassange ,valley in ,angola the chief is elected from three families in rotation4#ied ,and ,diagara1 a country bordering on ,senegambia1 is ruled by an absolute monarch who is chosen alternately from two families1 one of which lives in ,diapina and the other in ,badumar4#iee ,in the ,winamwanga tribe1 to the south of ,lake ,tanganyika1 8the first male child born to a chief after he succeeds to the chieftainship is the natural heir1 but many years ago there were two claimants to the throne1 whose supporters were about equal1 and to avoid a civil war the following arrangement was made4 ,one of them was allowed to reign1 but the other claimant or his son was to succeed him4 ,this was carried out1 so that now there are continually alternate dynasties40#ief ,so in the ,matse tribe of ,togoland in ,west ,africa1 there are two royal families descended from two women1 which supply a king alternately4 ,hence the palm forest which belongs to the crown is divided into two parts2 the reigning king has the right to one part1 and the representative of the other royal house has a right to the other part4#ieg ,among the ,yorubas in western ,africa the sovereign chief is always taken from one or more families which have the hereditary right of furnishing the community with rulers4 ,in many cases the succession passes regularly from one to a second family alternately2 but in one instance1 apparently unique1 the right of succession to the sovereignty seems to be possessed by four princely families1 from each of which the head chief is elected in rotation4 ,the principle of primogeniture is not necessarily followed in the election1 but the choice of the electors must always fall on one who is related to a former chief in the male line4 ,for paternal descent alone is recognised in ,yorubaland1 where even the greatest chief may take to wife a woman of the lowest rank4 ,sometimes the choice of the ruling chief is made by divine authority1 intimated to the people through the high priest of the principal god of the district4#ieh ,among the ,igaras1 on the lower ,niger1 the royal family is divided into four branches1 each of which provides a king in turn4 ,the capital and its district1 both of which bear the name of ,idah1 are always occupied by the reigning branch of the royal family1 while the three other branches1 not being allowed to live there1 retreat into the interior4 ,hence at the death of a king a double change takes place4 ,on the one hand the late reigning family1 with all their dependants1 have to leave the homes in which many of them have been born and brought up1 and to migrate to towns in the forest1 which they know only by name4 ,on the other hand1 the new reigning family come into the capital1 and their people settle in the houses occupied by their forefathers four reigns ago4 ,the king is generally elected by the leading men of his branch of the royal family2 they choose the richest and most powerful of their number4#iei ,sidenote3 ,among the ,khasis of ,assam1 also1 the succession to the kingdom is partly hereditary and partly elective4 ,again1 among the ,khasis of ,assam we meet with the same combination of the hereditary with the elective principle in the succession to the kingdom4 ,indeed1 in this people the kingship presents several features of resemblance to the old ,latin kingship as it appears to have existed at the dawn of history4 ,for a ,khasi king is the religious as well as the secular head of the state2 along with the sooth-sayers he consults the auspices for the public good1 and sometimes he has priestly duties to perform4 ,succession to the kingship always runs in the female line1 for the ,khasis have a regular system of mother-kin as opposed to father-kin2 hence it is not the king's sons1 but his uterine brothers and the sons of his uterine sisters who succeed him on the throne in order of birth4 ,but this hereditary principle is controlled by a body of electors1 who have the right of rejecting unsuitable claimants to the throne4 ,generally the electors are a small body composed of the heads of certain priestly clans2 but in some ,khasi states the number of the electors has been greatly increased by the inclusion of representative headmen of certain important lay clans1 or even by the inclusion of village headmen or of the chief superintendents of the village markets4 ,nay1 in the ,langrim state all the adult males regularly vote at the election of a monarch2 and here the royal family is divided into two branches1 a ,black and a ,white1 from either of which1 apparently1 the electors are free to choose a king4 ,similarly1 in the ,nobosohpoh state there are two royal houses1 a ,black and a ,white1 and the people may select the heir to the throne from either of them4#ifj ,sidenote3 ,thus the ,roman monarchy may have combined the hereditary with the elective principle4 ,thus the mere circumstance that all the ,roman kings1 with the exception of the two ,tarquins1 appear to have belonged to different families1 is not of itself conclusive against the view that heredity was one of the elements which determined the succession4 ,the number of families from whom the king might be elected may have been large4 ,and even if1 as is possible1 the electors were free to chose a king without any regard to his birth1 the hereditary principle would still be maintained if1 as we have seen reason to conjecture1 it was essential that the chosen candidate should marry a woman of the royal house1 who would generally be either the daughter or the widow of his predecessor4 ,in this way the apparently disparate principles of unfettered election and strict heredity would be combined2 the marriage of the elected king with the hereditary princess would furnish the link between the two4 ,under such a system1 to put it otherwise1 the kings are elective and the queens hereditary4 ,this is just the converse of what happens under a system of male kinship1 where the kings are hereditary and the queens elective4 ,in the later times of ,rome it was held that the custom had been for the people to elect the kings and for the senate to ratify the election4#ifa ,but we may suspect1 with ,mommsen1 that this was no more than an inference from the mode of electing the consuls4 ,the magistrates who1 under the republic1 represented the kings most closely were the dictator and the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites1 and neither of these was elected by the people4 ,both were nominated1 the dictator by the consul1 and the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites by the chief pontiff4#ifb ,accordingly it seems probable that under ,sidenote3 ,the king was probably nominated either by his predecessor or by an interim king4 the monarchy the king was nominated either by his predecessor or1 failing that1 by an interim king 7interrex7 chosen from the senate4#ifc ,now if1 as we have been led to think1 an essential claim to the throne was constituted by marriage with a princess of the royal house1 nothing could be more natural than that the king should choose his successor1 who would commonly be also his son-in-law4 ,if he had several sons-in-law and had omitted to designate the one who was to reign after him1 the election would be made by his substitute1 the interim king4 ,sidenote3 ,personal qualities which commended a man for marriage with a princess and succession to the throne4 ,the personal qualities which recommended a man for a royal alliance and succession to the throne would naturally vary according to the popular ideas of the time and the character of the king or his substitute1 but it is reasonable to suppose that among them in early society physical strength and beauty would hold a prominent place4#ifd ,we have seen that in ,ashantee the husbands or paramours of the princesses must always be men of fine presence1 because they are to be the fathers of future kings4 ,among the ,ethiopians in antiquity1 as among the ,ashantees and many other ,african tribes to this day1 the crown passed in the female line to the son of the king's sister1 but if there was no such heir they chose the handsomest and most valiant man to reign over them4#ife ,we are told that the ,gordioi ,sidenote3 ,fat kings4 elected the fattest man to the kingship1#iff nor is this incredible when we remember that in ,africa corpulence is still regarded as a great distinction and beauty1 and that both the chiefs and their wives are sometimes so fat that they can hardly walk4 ,thus among the ,caffres chiefs and rich men attain to an enormous bulk1 and the queens fatten themselves on beef and porridge1 of which they partake freely in the intervals of slumber4 ,to be fat is with them a mark of riches1 and therefore of high rank2 common folk cannot afford to eat and drink and lounge as much as they would like to do4#ifg ,the ,syrakoi in antiquity are reported to have bestowed the crown on the tallest man or on the man with ,sidenote3 ,long-headed kings and chiefs4 the longest head in the literal1 not the figurative1 sense of the word4#ifh ,they seem to have been a ,sarmatian people to the north of the ,caucasus1#ifi and are probably the same with the long-headed people described by ,hippocrates1 who says that among them the men with the longest heads were esteemed the noblest1 and that they applied bandages and other instruments to the heads of their children in infancy for the sake of moulding them into the shape which they admired4#igj ,such reports are probably by no means fabulous1 for among the ,monbuttu or ,mang-bettou of ,central ,africa down to this day 8when the children of chiefs are young1 string is wound round their heads1 which are gradually compressed into a shape that will allow of the longest head-dress4 ,the skull thus treated in childhood takes the appearance of an elongated egg40#iga ,similarly ,sidenote3 ,heads artificially moulded as a mark of high rank4 some of the ,indian tribes on the north-west coast of ,america artificially mould the heads of their children into the shape of a wedge or a sugar-loaf by compressing them between boards2 some of them regard such heads as a personal beauty1 others as a mark of high birth4#igb ,for instance1 8the practice among some of the ,salish seems to have had a definite social1 as well as aesthetic1 significance4 ,there appear to have been recognised degrees of contortion marking the social status of the individual4 ,for example slaves1 of which the ,salish kept considerable numbers1 were prohibited from deforming the heads of their children at all1 consequently a normal1 undeformed head was the sign and badge of servitude4 ,and in the case of the base-born of the tribes the heads of their children were customarily but slightly deformed1 while the heads of the children born of wealthy or noble persons1 and particularly those of chiefs1 were severely and excessively deformed40#igc ,sidenote3 ,among the ,bororos the best singers are the chiefs4 ,among the ,bororos of ,brazil at the present day the title to chieftaincy is neither corpulence nor an egg-shaped head1 but the possession of a fine musical ear and a rich baritone1 bass1 or tenor voice4 ,the best singer1 in fact1 becomes the chief4 ,there is no other way to supreme power but this4 ,hence in the education of the ,bororo youth the main thing is to train1 not their minds1 but their voices1 for the best of the tuneful quire will certainly be chief4 ,in this tribe1 accordingly1 there is no such thing as hereditary chieftainship2 for if the son of a chief has an indifferent ear or a poor voice1 he will be a commoner to the end of his days4 ,when two rival songsters are found in the same village1 they sing against each other1 and he who is judged to have acquitted himself best in the musical contest mounts the throne4 ,his defeated rival sometimes retires in a huff with his admirers and founds a new village4 ,once seated in the place of power1 the melodious singer is not only highly honoured and respected1 but can exact unconditional obedience from all1 and he gives his orders1 like an operatic king or hero1 in a musical recitativo4 ,it is especially at eventide1 when the sun has set and the labours of the day are over1 that he pours out his soul in harmony4 ,at that witching hour he takes up his post in front of the men's club-house1 and while his subjects are hushed in attention he bursts into sacred song1 passing from that to lighter themes1 and concluding the oratorio by chanting his commands to each individual for the next day4#igd ,when ,addison ridiculed the new fashion of the ,italian opera1 in which generals sang the word of command1 ladies delivered their messages in music1 and lovers chanted their billet-doux1 he little suspected that among the backwoods of ,brazil a tribe of savages in all seriousness observed a custom which he thought absurd even on the stage4#ige ,sidenote3 ,succession to the throne determined by a race4 ,sometimes apparently the right to the hand of the princess and to the throne has been determined by a race4 ,the ,alitemnian ,libyans awarded the kingdom to the fleetest runner4#igf ,amongst the old ,prussians1 candidates for nobility raced on horseback to the king1 and the one who reached him first was ennobled4#igg ,according to tradition the earliest games at ,olympia were held by ,endymion1 who set his sons to run a race for the kingdom4 ,his tomb was said to be at the point of the racecourse from which the runners started4#igh ,the famous story of ,pelops and ,hippodamia ,sidenote3 ,greek traditions of princesses whose hands were won in a race4 is perhaps only another version of the legend that the first races at ,olympia were run for no less a prize than a kingdom4 ,for ,oenomaus was king of ,pisa1 a town close to ,olympia2 and having been warned by an oracle that he would die by the hand of the man who married his daughter ,hippodamia1 he resolved to keep her a maid4 ,so when any one came a-wooing her1 the king made the suitor drive away in a chariot with ,hippodamia1 while he himself pursued the pair in another car drawn by fleet horses1 and1 overtaking the unlucky wight1 slew him4 ,in this way he killed twelve suitors and nailed their heads to his house1 the ruins of which were shewn at ,olympia down to the second century of our era4 ,the bodies of the suitors were buried under a lofty mound1 and it is said that in former days sacrifices were offered to them yearly4 ,when ,pelops came to win the hand of ,hippodamia1 he bribed the charioteer of ,oenomaus not to put the pins into the wheels of the king's chariot4 ,so ,oenomaus was thrown from the car and dragged by his horses to death4 ,but some say he was despatched by ,pelops according to the oracle4 ,anyhow1 he died1 and ,pelops married ,hippodamia and succeeded to the kingdom4#igi ,the grave of ,oenomaus was shown at ,olympia2 it was a mound of earth enclosed with stones4#ihj ,here1 too1 precincts were dedicated to ,pelops and ,hippodamia1 in which sacrifices were offered to them annually2 the victim presented to ,pelops was a black ram1 whose blood was poured into a pit4#iha ,other traditions were current in antiquity of princesses who were offered in marriage to the fleetest runner and won by the victor in the race4 ,thus ,icarius at ,sparta set the wooers of his daughter ,penelope to run a race2 ,ulysses won and wedded her4 ,his father-in-law is said to have tried to induce him to take up his abode in ,sparta2 which seems to shew that if ,ulysses had accepted the invitation he would have inherited the kingdom through his wife4#ihb ,so1 too1 the ,libyan ,king ,antaeus placed his beautiful daughter ,barce or ,alceis at the end of the racecourse2 her many noble suitors1 both ,libyans and foreigners1 ran to her as the goal1 and ,alcidamus1 who touched her first1 gained her in marriage4#ihc ,danaus1 also1 at ,argos is said to have stationed his many daughters at the goal1 and the runner who reached them first had first choice of the maidens4#ihd ,somewhat different from these traditions is the story of ,atalante1 for in it the wooers are said to have contended1 not with each other1 but with the coy maiden herself in a foot-race4 ,she slew her vanquished suitors and hung up their heads in the racecourse1 till ,hippomenes gained the race and her hand by throwing down the golden apples which she stooped to pick up4#ihe ,sidenote3 ,custom of racing for a bride among the ,kirghiz and ,calmucks4 ,these traditions may very well reflect a real custom of racing for a bride1 for such a custom appears to have prevailed among various peoples1 though in practice it has degenerated into a mere form or pretence4 ,thus 8there is one race1 called the #8,love ,chase1' which may be considered a part of the form of marriage among the ,kirghiz4 ,in this the bride1 armed with a formidable whip1 mounts a fleet horse1 and is pursued by all the young men who make any pretensions to her hand4 ,she will be given as a prize to the one who catches her1 but she has the right1 besides urging on her horse to the utmost1 to use her whip1 often with no mean force1 to keep off those lovers who are unwelcome to her1 and she will probably favour the one whom she has already chosen in her heart4 ,as1 however1 by ,kirghiz custom1 a suitor to the hand of a maiden is obliged to give a certain kalym1 or purchase-money1 and an agreement must be made with the father for the amount of dowry which he gives his daughter1 the #8,love ,chase' is a mere matter of form40#ihf ,similarly 8the ceremony of marriage among the ,calmucks is performed on horseback4 ,a girl is first mounted1 who rides off in full speed4 ,her lover pursues2 and if he overtakes her1 she becomes his wife1 and the marriage is consummated on the spot1 after which she returns with him to his tent4 ,but it sometimes happens that the woman does not wish to marry the person by whom she is pursued1 in which case she will not suffer him to overtake her2 and we were assured that no instance occurs of a ,calmuck girl being thus caught unless she has a partiality for her pursuer4 ,if she dislikes him she rides1 to use the language of ,english sportsmen1 #8neck or nothing1' until she has completely escaped1 or until the pursuer's horse is tired out1 leaving her at liberty to return1 to be afterwards chased by some more favoured admirer40#ihg ,the race for the bride is found also among the ,koryaks of north-eastern ,asia4 ,it takes place in a large tent1 round which many separate compartments called pologs are arranged in a continuous circle4 ,the girl gets a start and is clear of the marriage if she can run through all the compartments without being caught by the bridegroom4 ,the women of the encampment place every obstacle in the man's way1 tripping him up1 belabouring him with switches1 and so forth1 so that he has little chance of succeeding unless the girl wishes it and waits for him4#ihh ,among some of the rude indigenous tribes of the ,malay ,peninsula 8marriage is preceded by a singular ceremony4 ,an old man presents the future couple to the assembled guests1 and1 followed by their families1 he leads them to a great circle1 round which the girl sets off to run as fast as she can4 ,if the young man succeeds in overtaking her1 she becomes his mate2 otherwise he loses all rights1 which happens especially when he is not so fortunate as to please his bride40#ihi ,another writer tells us that among these savages1 when there is a river at hand1 the race takes place on the water1 the bride paddling away in one canoe and pursued by the bridegroom in another4#iij ,before the wedding procession starts for the ,sidenote3 ,caffre race for bride4 bridegroom's hut1 a ,caffre bride is allowed to make one last bid for freedom1 and a young man is told off to catch her4 ,should he fail to do so1 she is theoretically allowed to return to her father1 and the whole performance has to be repeated2 but the flight of the bride is usually a pretence4#iia ,sidenote3 ,the bride-race among ,teutonic peoples1 and its traces in modern ,europe4 ,similar customs appear to have been practised by all the ,teutonic peoples2 for the ,german1 ,anglo-,saxon1 and ,norse languages possess in common a word for marriage which means simply bride-race4#iib ,moreover1 traces of the custom survived into modern times4 ,thus in the ,mark of ,brandenburg1 down to the first half of the nineteenth century at least1 it was the practice for bride and bridegroom to run a race on their wedding day in presence of all the guests4 ,two sturdy men took the bride between them and set off4 ,the bridegroom gave them a start and then followed hot-foot4 ,at the end of the course stood two or three young married women1 who took from the bride her maiden's crown and replaced it by the matron's cap4 ,if the bridegroom failed to overtake his bride1 he was much ridiculed4#iic ,in other parts of ,germany races are still held at marriage1 but the competitors are no longer the bride and bridegroom4 ,thus in ,hesse at the wedding of a well-to-do farmer his friends race on horseback to the house of the bride1 and her friends similarly race on horseback to the house of the bridegroom4 ,the prize hangs over the gate of the farmyard or the door of the house4 ,it consists of a silken or woollen handkerchief1 which the winner winds round his head or fastens to his breast4 ,the victors have also the right to escort the marriage procession4#iid ,in ,upper ,bavaria1 down at least to some fifty years ago1 a regular feature of a rustic wedding used to be what was called the 8bride-race0 or the 8key-race40 ,it generally took place when the bridal party was proceeding from the church to the alehouse4 ,a course was marked out and two goals1 consisting of heaps of straw1 were set up at distances of three and four hundred yards respectively4 ,the strongest and fleetest of the young fellows raced barefoot1 clad only in shirt and trousers4 ,he who first reached the further goal received the first prize2 this was regularly a key of gilt wood1 which the winner fastened to his hat4 ,often1 as in some of the ,greek legends1 the bride herself was the goal of the race4 ,the writers who record the custom suggest that the race was originally for the key of the bridechamber1 and that the bridegroom ran with the rest4#iie ,in ,scotland also the guests at a rustic wedding used to ride on horseback for a prize1 which sometimes consisted of the bride's cake set up on a pole in front of the bridegroom's house4 ,the race was known as the broose4#iif ,at ,weitensfeld1 in ,carinthia1 a festival called the ,bride-race is still held every year4 ,it is popularly supposed to commemorate a time when a plague had swept away the whole people except a girl and three young men4 ,these three1 it is said1 raced with each other in order that the winner might get the maiden to wife1 and so repeople the land4 ,the race is now held on horseback4 ,the winner receives as the prize a garland of flowers called the ,bride-wreath1 and the man who comes in last gets a wreath of ribbons and pig's bristles4#iig ,it seems not impossible that this custom is a relic of a fair at which the marriageable maidens of the year were assigned in order of merit to the young men who distinguished themselves by their feats of strength and agility4 ,a practice of this sort appears to have prevailed ,sidenote3 ,assignment of brides to picked young men among the ,samnites4 among the ancient ,samnites4 ,every year the youths and maidens were tested publicly1 and the young man who was adjudged best had first choice of the girls2 the second best had the next choice1 and so on with the rest4#iih 8,they say10 writes ,strabo1 8that the ,samnites have a beautiful custom which incites to virtue4 ,for they may not give their daughters in marriage to whom they please1 but every year the ten best maidens and the ten best youths are picked out1 and the best of the ten maidens is given to the best of the ten youths1 and the second to the second1 and so on4 ,but if the man who wins one of these prizes should afterwards turn out a knave1 they disgrace him and take the girl from him40#iii ,the nature of the test to which the young men and women were subjected is not mentioned1 but we may conjecture that it was mainly athletic4 ,sidenote3 ,contests for a bride other than races4 ,the contests for a bride may be designed to try the skill1 strength1 and courage of the suitors as well as their horsemanship and speed of foot4 ,speaking of ,king's ,county1 ,ireland1 in the latter part of the eighteenth century1 ,arthur ,young says3 8,there is a very ancient custom here1 for a number of country neighbours among the poor people1 to fix upon some young woman that ought1 as they think1 to be married2 they also agree upon a young fellow as a proper husband for her2 this determined1 they send to the fair one's cabin to inform her that on the ,sunday following #8she is to be horsed1' that is1 carried on men's backs4 ,she must then provide whisky and cyder for a treat1 as all will pay her a visit after mass for a hurling match4 ,as soon as she is horsed1 the hurling begins1 in which the young fellow appointed for her husband has the eyes of all the company fixed on him3 if he comes off conqueror1 he is certainly married to the girl2 but if another is victorious1 he as certainly loses her1 for she is the prize of the victor4 ,these trials are not always finished in one ,sunday1 they take sometimes two or three1 and the common expression when they are over is1 that #8such a girl was goal'd4' ,sometimes one barony hurls against another1 but a marriageable girl is always the prize4 ,hurling is a sort of cricket1 but instead of throwing the ball in order to knock down a wicket1 the aim is to pass it through a bent stick1 the ends stuck in the ground40#ajjj ,in the great ,indian epic the ,mahabharata it is ,sidenote3 ,the ,indian ,svayamvara4 related that the hand of the lovely ,princess ,draupadi or ,krishna1 daughter of the ,king of the ,panchalas1 was only to be won by him who could bend a certain mighty bow and shoot five arrows through a revolving wheel so as to hit the target beyond4 ,after many noble wooers had essayed the task in vain1 the disguised ,arjun was successful1 and carried off the princess to be the wife of himself and his four brothers4#ajja ,this was an instance of the ancient ,indian practice of ,svayamvara1 in accordance with which a maiden of high rank either chose her husband from among her assembled suitors or was offered as the prize to the conqueror in a trial of skill4 ,the custom was occasionally observed among the ,rajputs down to a late time4#ajjb ,the ,tartar king ,caidu1 the cousin and opponent of ,cublay ,khan1 is said to have had a beautiful daughter named ,aijaruc1 or 8the ,bright ,moon10 who was so tall and brawny that she outdid all men in her father's realm in feats of strength4 ,she vowed she would never marry till she found a man who could vanquish her in wrestling4 ,many noble suitors came and tried a fall with her1 but she threw them all2 and from every one whom she had overcome she exacted a hundred horses4 ,in this way she collected an immense stud4#ajjc ,in the ,nibelungenlied the fair ,brunhild1 ,queen of ,iceland1 was only to be won in marriage by him who could beat her in three trials of strength1 and the unsuccessful wooers forfeited their heads4 ,many had thus perished1 but at last ,gunther1 ,king of the ,burgundians1 vanquished and married her4#ajjd ,it is said that ,sithon1 ,king of the ,odomanti in ,thrace1 had a lovely daughter1 ,pallene1 and that many ,sidenote3 ,hippoclides at ,sicyon1 and how he danced away his marriage4 men came a-wooing her not only from ,thrace but from ,illyria and the country of the ,don4 ,but her father said that he who would wed his daughter must first fight himself and pay with his life the penalty of defeat4 ,thus he slew many young men4 ,but when he was grown old and his strength had failed1 he set two of the wooers1 by name ,dryas and ,clitus1 to fight each other for the kingdom and the hand of the princess4 ,the combat was to take place in chariots1 but the princess1 being in love with ,clitus1 bribed his rival's charioteer to put no pins in the wheels of his chariot2 so ,dryas came to the ground1 and ,clitus slew him and married the king's daughter4#ajje ,the tale agrees closely with that of ,pelops and ,hippodamia4 ,both stories probably contain1 in a legendary form1 reminiscences of a real custom4 ,within historical times ,clisthenes1 tyrant of ,sicyon1 made public proclamation at the ,olympian games that he would give his daughter ,agariste in marriage to that suitor who1 during a year's trial1 should prove himself the best4 ,so many young men who prided themselves on their persons and on their lineage assembled at ,sicyon from all parts of the ,greek world4 ,the tyrant had a racecourse and a wrestling school made on purpose for them1 and there he put them through their paces4 ,of all the suitors none pleased him so much as ,hippoclides1 the handsomest and richest man of ,athens1 a scion of the old princely house of ,cypselus4 ,and when the year was up and the day had come on which the award was to be made1 the tyrant sacrificed a hundred oxen and entertained the suitors and all the people of ,sicyon at a splendid banquet4 ,dinner being over1 the wine went round and the suitors fell to wrangling as to their accomplishments and their wit4 ,in this feast of reason the gay ,hippoclides outshone himself and them all until1 flushed with triumph and liquor1 he jumped on a table1 danced to music1 and then1 as a finishing touch1 stood on his head and sawed the air with his legs4 ,this was too much4 ,the tyrant in disgust told him he had danced away his marriage4#ajjf ,sidenote3 ,the annual flight of the king 7regifugium7 at ,rome may have been a relic of his contest for the kingdom and for the hand of the princess4 ,thus it appears that the right to marry a girl1 and especially a princess1 has often been conferred as a prize in an athletic contest4 ,there would be no reason1 therefore1 for surprise if the ,roman kings1 before bestowing their daughters in marriage1 should have resorted to this ancient mode of testing the personal qualities of their future sons-in-law and successors4 ,if my theory is correct1 the ,roman king and queen personated ,jupiter and his divine consort1 and in the character of these divinities went through the annual ceremony of a sacred marriage for the purpose of causing the crops to grow and men and cattle to be fruitful and multiply4 ,thus they did what in more northern lands we may suppose the ,king and ,queen of ,may were believed to do in days of old4 ,now we have seen that the right to play the part of the ,king of ,may and to wed the ,queen of ,may has sometimes been determined by an athletic contest1 particularly by a race4#ajjg ,this may have been a relic of an old marriage custom of the sort we have examined1 a custom designed to test the fitness of a candidate for matrimony4 ,such a test might reasonably be applied with peculiar rigour to the king in order to ensure that no personal defect should incapacitate him for the performance of those sacred rites and ceremonies on which1 even more than on the despatch of his civil and military duties1 the safety and prosperity of the community were believed to depend4 ,and it would be natural to require of him that from time to time he should submit himself afresh to the same ordeal for the sake of publicly demonstrating that he was still equal to the discharge of his high calling4 ,a relic of that test perhaps survived in the ceremony known as the ,flight of the ,king 7regifugium71 continued to be annually observed at ,rome down to imperial times4 ,on the twenty-fourth day of ,february a sacrifice used to be offered in the ,comitium1 and when it was over the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites fled from the ,forum4#ajjh ,we may conjecture that the ,flight of the ,king was originally a race for an annual kingship1 which may have been awarded as a prize to the fleetest runner4 ,at the end of the year the king might run again for a second term of office2 and so on1 until he was defeated and deposed or perhaps slain4 ,in this way what had once been a race would tend to assume the character of a flight and a pursuit4 ,the king would be given a start2 he ran and his competitors ran after him1 and if he were overtaken he had to yield the crown and perhaps his life to the lightest of foot among them4 ,in time a man of masterful character might succeed in seating himself permanently on the throne and reducing the annual race or flight to the empty form which it seems always to have been within historical times4#ajji ,the rite was sometimes interpreted as a commemoration of the expulsion of the kings from ,rome2 but this appears to have been a mere afterthought devised to explain a ceremony of which the old meaning was forgotten4 ,it is far more likely that in acting thus the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites was merely keeping up an ancient custom which in the regal period had been annually observed by his predecessors the kings4 ,what the original intention of the rite may have been must probably always remain more or less a matter of conjecture4 ,the present explanation is suggested with a full sense of the difficulty and obscurity in which the subject is involved4 ,sidenote3 ,the theory is confirmed by the evidence that at the ,saturnalia a man used to personate the god ,saturn and to be put to death in that character4 ,thus1 if my theory is correct1 the yearly flight of the ,roman king was a relic of a time when the kingship was an annual office awarded1 along with the hand of a princess1 to the victorious athlete or gladiator1 who thereafter figured along with his bride as a god and goddess at a sacred marriage designed to ensure the fertility of the earth by homoeopathic magic4 ,now this theory is to a certain extent remarkably confirmed by an ancient account of the ,saturnalia which was discovered and published some years ago by a learned ,belgian scholar1 ,professor ,franz ,cumont of ,ghent4 ,from that account we learn that down to the beginning of the fourth century of our era1 that is1 down nearly to the establishment of ,christianity by ,constantine1 the ,roman soldiers stationed on the ,danube were wont to celebrate the ,saturnalia in a barbarous fashion which must certainly have dated from a very remote antiquity4 ,thirty days before the festival they chose by lot from among themselves a young and handsome man1 who was dressed in royal robes to resemble the god ,saturn4 ,in that character he was allowed to indulge all his passions to the fullest extent2 but when his brief reign of thirty days was over1 and the festival of ,saturn was come1 he had to cut his own throat on the altar of the god he personated4#ajaj ,we can hardly doubt that this tragic figure1 whom a fatal lot doomed to masquerade for a short time as a deity and to die as such a violent death1 was the true original of the merry monarch or ,king of the ,saturnalia1 as he was called1 whom a happier lot invested with the playful dignity of ,master of the ,winter ,revels4#ajaa ,in all probability the grim predecessor of the frolicsome ,king of the ,saturnalia belonged to that class of puppets who in some countries have been suffered to reign nominally for a few days each year merely for the sake of discharging a burdensome or fatal obligation which otherwise must have fallen on the real king4#ajab ,if that is so1 we may infer that the part of the god ,saturn1 who was commonly spoken of as a king1#ajac was formerly played at the ,saturnalia by the ,roman king himself4 ,and a trace of the ,sacred ,marriage may perhaps be detected in the licence accorded to the human representatives of ,saturn1 a licence which1 if ,i am right1 is strictly analogous to the old orgies of ,may ,day and other similar festivals4 ,it is to be observed that ,saturn was ,sidenote3 ,saturn the god of seed1 and the ,saturnalia a festival of sowing4 the god of the seed1 and the ,saturnalia the festival of sowing held in ,december1#ajad when the autumn sowing was over and the husbandman gave himself up to a season of jollity after the long labours of summer and autumn4#ajae ,on the principles of homoeopathic magic nothing could be more natural than that1 when the last seeds had been committed to the earth1 the marriage of the powers of vegetation should be simulated by their human representatives for the purpose of sympathetically quickening the seed4 ,in short1 no time could be more suitable for the celebration of the ,sacred ,marriage4 ,we have seen as a matter of fact that the sowing of the seed has often been accompanied by sexual orgies with the express intention of thereby promoting the growth of the crops4 ,at all events the view that the ,king's ,flight at ,rome was a mitigation of an old custom of putting him to death at the end of a year's tenure of office1 is confirmed by the practice of annually slaying a human representative of the divine king ,saturn1 which survived in some parts of the ,roman empire1 though not at ,rome itself1 down to ,christian times4 ,sidenote3 ,if the ,latin kings were begotten at the licentious festival of the ,saturnalia1 we could understand why their paternity was sometimes uncertain1 and why they might be of servile parentage4 ,this theory would throw light on some dark passages in the legends of the ,roman kingship1 such as the obscure and humble births of certain kings and their mysterious ends4 ,for if the sacred marriage took place at a licentious festival like the ,saturnalia1 when slaves were temporarily granted the privileges of freemen1#ajaf it might well be that the paternity of the children begotten at this time1 including those of the royal family1 was a matter of uncertainty2 nay1 it might be known that the king or queen had offspring by a slave4 ,such offspring of a royal father and a slave mother1 or of a royal mother and a slave father1 would rank as princes and princesses according as male or female kinship prevailed4 ,under a system of male kinship the union of the king with a slave woman would give birth to a ,servius ,tullius1 and1 according to one tradition1 to a ,romulus4 ,if female kinship prevailed in the royal family1 as we have seen reason to suppose1 it is possible that the stories of the birth of ,romulus and ,servius from slave mothers is a later inversion of the facts1 and that what really happened was that some of the old ,latin kings were begotten by slave fathers on royal princesses at the festival of the ,saturnalia4 ,the disappearance of female kinship would suffice to account for the warping of the tradition4 ,all that was distinctly remembered would be that some of the kings had had a slave for one of their parents2 and people living under a system of paternal descent would naturally conclude that the slave parent of a king could only be the mother1 since according to their ideas no son of a slave father could be of royal blood and sit on the throne4#ajag ,sidenote3 ,the violent ends of the ,roman kings4 ,again1 if ,i am right in supposing that in very early times the old ,latin kings personated a god and were regularly put to death in that character1 we can better understand the mysterious or violent ends to which so many of them are said to have come4 ,too much stress should not1 however1 be laid on such legends1 for in a turbulent state of society kings1 like commoners1 are apt to be knocked on the head for much sounder reasons than a claim to divinity4 ,still1 it is worth while to note that ,romulus is said to have vanished mysteriously like ,aeneas1 or to have been cut to pieces by the patricians whom he had offended1#ajah ,sidenote3 ,death of ,romulus on the seventh of ,july1 the ,nonae ,caprotinae1 at a festival resembling the ,saturnalia4 and that the seventh of ,july1 the day on which he perished1 was a festival which bore some resemblance to the ,saturnalia4 ,for on that day the female slaves were allowed to take certain remarkable liberties4 ,they dressed up as free women in the attire of matrons and maids1 and in this guise they went forth from the city1 scoffed and jeered at all whom they met1 and engaged among themselves in a fight1 striking and throwing stones at each other4 ,moreover1 they feasted under a wild fig-tree1 made use of a rod cut from the tree for a certain purpose1 perhaps to beat each other with1 and offered the milky juice of the tree in sacrifice to ,juno ,caprotina1 whose name appears to mean either the goddess of the goat 7caper7 or the goddess of the wild fig-tree1 for ,sidenote3 ,the ,nonae ,caprotinae seems to have been the festival of the fertilisation of the fig4 the ,romans called a wild fig-tree a goat-fig 7caprificus74 ,hence the day was called the ,nonae ,caprotinae after the animal or the tree4 ,the festival was not peculiar to ,rome1 but was held by women throughout ,latium4#ajai ,it can hardly be dissociated from a custom which was observed by ancient husbandmen at this season4 ,they sought to fertilise the fig-trees or ripen the figs by hanging strings of fruit from a wild fig-tree among the boughs4 ,the practice appears to be very old4 ,it has been employed in ,greece both in ancient and modern times1 and ,roman writers often refer to it4 ,palladius recommends the solstice in ,june1 that is ,midsummer ,day1 as the best time for the operation2 ,columella prefers ,july4#ajbj ,in ,sicily at the present day the operation is performed either on ,midsummer ,day 7the festival of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist7 or in the early days of ,july2#ajba in ,morocco and ,north ,africa generally it takes place on ,midsummer ,day4#ajbb ,the wild fig-tree is a male and the cultivated fig-tree is a female1 and the fertilisation is effected by insects1 which are engendered in the fruit of the male tree and convey the pollen to the blossom of the female4#ajbc ,thus the placing of wild figs1 laden with pollen and insects1 among the boughs of the cultivated fig-tree is1 like the artificial fertilisation of the date-palm1#ajbd a real marriage of the trees1 and it may well have been regarded as such by the peasants of antiquity long before the true theory of the process was discovered4 ,now the fig is an ,sidenote3 ,importance of the fig as an article of diet4 important article of diet in countries bordering on the ,mediterranean4 ,in ,palestine1 for example1 the fruit is not1 as with us1 merely an agreeable luxury1 but is eaten daily and forms indeed one of the staple productions of the country4 8,to sit every man under his vine1 and under his fig tree0 was the regular ,jewish expression for the peaceable possession of the ,holy ,land2 and in the fable of ,jotham the fig-tree is invited by the other trees1 next after the olive1 to come and reign over them4#ajbe ,when ,sandanis the ,lydian attempted to dissuade ,croesus from marching against the ,persians1 he represented to him that there was nothing to be gained by conquering the inhabitants of a barren country who neither drank wine nor ate figs4#ajbf ,an ,arab commentator on the ,koran observes that 8,god swears by these two trees1 the fig and the olive1 because among fruit-trees they surpass all the rest4 ,they relate that a basket of figs was offered to the prophet ,mohammed1 and when he had eaten one he bade his comrades do the same1 saying1 #8,truly1 if ,i were to say that any fruit had come down from ,paradise1 ,i would say it of the fig4'0#ajbg ,hence it would be natural that a process supposed to be essential to the ripening of so favourite a fruit should be the occasion of a popular festival4 ,we may suspect that the license allowed to slave women on this day formed part of an ancient ,saturnalia1 at which the loose behaviour of men and women was supposed to secure the fertilisation of the fig-trees by homoeopathetic magic4 ,sidenote3 ,at the festival of the seventh of ,july women were probably thought to be fertilised by the fig as well as to fertilise it4 ,but it is possible and indeed probable that the fertilisation was believed to be mutual2 in other words1 it may have been imagined1 that while the women caused the fig-tree to bear fruit1 the tree in its turn caused them to bear children4 ,this conjecture is confirmed by a remarkable ,african parallel4 ,the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa attribute to the wild fig-tree ,sidenote3 ,supposed fertilisation of barren women by the wild fig-tree among the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa4 the power of fertilising barren women4 ,for this purpose they apply the white sap or milk to various parts of the body of the would-be mother2 then1 having sacrificed a goat1 they tie the woman to a wild fig-tree with long strips cut from the intestines of the sacrificial animal4 8,this seems10 writes ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 who reports the custom1 8to be a case of the tree marriage of ,india4 ,i fancy there is an idea of ceremonial marriage with the ancestral spirits which are said to inhabit certain of these fig-trees2 in fact it supports the ,kamba idea of the spiritual husbands40#ajbh ,the belief in spiritual husbands1 ,sidenote3 ,belief of the ,akamba that the spirits of the dead live in wild fig-trees4 to which ,mr4 ,hobley here briefly refers1 is as follows4 ,the ,akamba of ,british ,east ,africa imagine that every married woman is at the same time the wife of a living man and also the wife of the spirit of some departed ancestor 7aimu74 ,they are firmly convinced that the fertility of a wife depends to a great extent on the attentions of her spiritual husband1 and if she does not conceive within six months after marriage they take it as a sign that her spiritual husband is neglecting her2 so they offer beer and kill a goat as a propitiatory sacrifice4 ,if after that the woman still remains barren1 they make a bigger feast and kill a bullock4 ,on the other hand1 if a wife is found to be with child soon after marriage1 they are glad and consider it a proof that she has found favour in the eyes of her ghostly husband4 ,further1 they believe that at death the human spirit quits the bodily frame and takes up its abode in a wild fig-tree 7mumbo72 hence they build miniature huts at the foot of those fig-trees which are thought to be haunted by the souls of the dead1 and they periodically sacrifice to these spirits4#ajbi ,accordingly1 we may conjecture1 though we are not told1 that amongst the ,akamba1 as among the ,akikuyu1 a barren woman sometimes resorts to a wild fig-tree in order to obtain a child1 since she believes that her spiritual spouse has his abode in the tree4 ,the ,akikuyu clearly attribute a special power of fertilisation to the milky sap of the tree1 since they apply it to various parts of the woman who desires to become a mother3 perhaps they regard it as the seed of the fig4 ,this may explain why the ,roman slave-women offered the milky juice of the tree to ,juno ,caprotina2 they may have intended thereby to add to the fecundity of the mother goddess4 ,and we can scarcely doubt that the rods which they cut from the wild fig-tree1 for the purpose apparently of beating each other1 were supposed to communicate the generative virtue of the tree to the women who ,sidenote3 ,supposed fertilisation of women by the wild banana-tree among the ,baganda4 were struck by them4 ,the ,baganda of ,central ,africa appear to ascribe to the wild banana-tree the same power of removing barrenness which the ,akikuyu attribute to the wild fig-tree4 ,for when a wife has no child1 she and her husband will sometimes repair to a wild banana-tree and there1 standing one on each side of the tree1 partake of the male organs of a goat1 the man eating the flesh and drinking the soup and the woman drinking the soup only4 ,this is believed to ensure conception after the husband has gone in to his wife4#ajcj ,here again1 as among the ,akikuyu1 we see that the fertilising virtue of the tree is reinforced by the fertilising virtue of the goat2 and we can therefore better understand why the ,romans called the male wild fig-tree 8goat-fig10 and why the ,messenians dubbed it simply 8he-goat40 ,sidenote3 ,the ,roman king may have celebrated a sacred marriage on the ,nonae ,caprotinae as a charm to make the fig-trees bear fruit4 ,the association of the death of ,romulus with the festival of the wild fig-tree can hardly be accidental1 especially as he and his twin-brother ,remus were said to have been suckled by the she-wolf under a fig-tree1 the famous ficus ,ruminalis1 which was shewn in the forum as one of the sacred objects of ,rome and received offerings of milk down to late times4#ajca ,indeed1 some have gone so far both in ancient and modern times as to derive the names of ,romulus and ,rome itself from this fig-tree 7ficus ,ruminalis72 if they are right1 ,romulus was 8the fig-man0 and ,rome 8the fig-town40#ajcb ,be that as it may1 the clue to the association of ,romulus with the fig is probably furnished by the old belief that the king is responsible for the fruits of the earth and the rain from heaven4 ,we may conjecture that on this principle the ,roman king was expected to make the fig-trees blossom and bear figs1 and that in order to do so he masqueraded as the god of the fig-tree and went through a form of sacred marriage1 either with his queen or with a slave-woman1 on the ,july day when the husbandmen resorted to a more efficacious means of producing the same result4 ,the ceremony of the sacred marriage need not have been restricted to a single day in the year4 ,it may well have been repeated for many different crops and fruits4 ,if the ,queen of ,athens was annually married to the god of the vine1 why should not the ,king of ,rome have annually wedded the goddess of the fig8 ,sidenote3 ,the marriage of the divine king or human god often followed by his death4 ,but1 as we have seen1 ,romulus1 the first king of ,rome1 is said to have perished on the day of this festival of the fig1 which1 if our hypothesis is correct1 was also the day of his ceremonial marriage to the tree4 ,that the real date of his death should have been preserved by tradition is very improbable2 rather we may suppose that the reason for dating his death and his marriage on the same day was drawn from some ancient ritual in which the two events were actually associated4 ,but we have still to ask1 ,why should the king's wedding-day be also the day of his death8 ,the answer must be deferred for the present4 ,all we need say now is that elsewhere the marriage of the divine king or human god has been regularly followed at a brief interval by his violent end4 ,for him1 as for others1 death often treads on the heels of love4#ajcc ,sidenote3 ,violent ends of ,tatius1 ,tullus ,hostilius1 and other ,roman kings4 ,another ,roman king who perished by violence was ,tatius1 the ,sabine colleague of ,romulus4 ,it is said that he was at ,lavinium offering a public sacrifice to the ancestral gods1 when some men to whom he had given umbrage despatched him with the sacrificial knives and spits which they had snatched from the altar4#ajcd ,the occasion and the manner of his death suggest that the slaughter may have been a sacrifice rather than an assassination4 ,again1 ,tullus ,hostilius1 the successor of ,numa1 was commonly said to have been killed by lightning1 but many held that he was murdered at the instigation of ,ancus ,marcius1 who reigned after him4#ajce ,speaking of the more or less mythical ,numa1 the type of the priestly king1 ,plutarch observes that 8his fame was enhanced by the fortunes of the later kings4 ,for of the five who reigned after him the last was deposed and ended his life in exile1 and of the remaining four not one died a natural death2 for three of them were assassinated and ,tullus ,hostilius was consumed by thunderbolts40#ajcf ,this implies that ,king ,ancus ,marcius1 as well as ,tarquin the ,elder and ,servius ,tullius1 perished by the hand of an assassin4 ,no other ancient historian1 so far as ,i know1 records this of ,ancus ,marcius1 though one of them says that the king 8was carried off by an untimely death40#ajcg ,tarquin the ,elder was slain by two murderers whom the sons of his predecessor1 ,ancus ,marcius1 had hired to do the deed4#ajch ,lastly1 ,servius ,tullius came by his end in circumstances which recall the combat for the priesthood of ,diana at ,nemi4 ,he was attacked by his successor and killed by his orders1 though not by his hand4 ,moreover1 he lived among the oak groves of the ,esquiline ,hill at the head of the ,slope of ,virbius1 and it was here1 beside a sanctuary of ,diana1 that he was slain4#ajci ,sidenote3 ,the succession to the ,latin kingshipmay sometimes have been decided by single combat4 ,these legends of the violent ends of the ,roman kings suggest that the contest by which they gained the throne may sometimes have been a mortal combat rather than a race4 ,if that were so1 the analogy which we have traced between ,rome and ,nemi would be still closer4 ,at both places the sacred kings1 the living representatives of the godhead1 would thus be liable to suffer deposition and death at the hand of any resolute man who could prove his divine right to the holy office by the strong arm and the sharp sword4 ,it would not be surprising if among the early ,latins the claim to the kingdom should often have been settled by single combat2 for down to historical times the ,umbrians regularly submitted their private disputes to the ordeal of battle1 and he who cut his adversary's throat was thought thereby to have proved the justice of his cause beyond the reach of cavil4#ajdj 8,any one who remembers how in the forests of ,westphalia the ,femgericht set the modern civil law at defiance down into the eighteenth century1 and how in the mountains of ,corsica and ,sardinia blood-revenge has persisted and persists to our own days1 will not wonder that hardly a century after the union of ,italy the ,roman legislation had not yet succeeded in putting down the last relics of this ancient ,italian or rather ,indo-,european mode of doing justice in the nests of the ,apennines40#ajda ,sidenote3 ,combats for the kingdom in ,africa4 ,a parallel to what ,i conceive to have been the rule of the old ,latin kingship is furnished by a ,west ,african custom of to-day4 ,when the ,maluango or king of ,loango1 who is deemed the representative of ,god on earth1 has been elected1 he has to take his stand at ,nkumbi1 a large tree near the entrance to his sacred ground4 ,here1 encouraged by one of his ministers1 he must fight all rivals who present themselves to dispute his right to the throne4#ajdb ,this is one of the many instances in which the rites and legends of ancient ,italy are illustrated by the practice of modern ,africa4 ,similarly among the ,banyoro of ,central ,africa1 whose king had to take his life with his own hand whenever his health and strength began to fail1 the succession to the throne was determined by a mortal combat among the claimants1 who fought till only one of them was left alive4#ajdc ,even in ,england a relic of a similar custom survived till lately in the coronation ceremony1 at which a champion used to throw down his glove and challenge to mortal combat all who disputed the king's right to the crown4 ,the ceremony was witnessed by ,pepys at the coronation of ,charles the ,second4#ajdd ,sidenote3 ,in ,greece and ,italy kings probably personated ,cronus and ,saturn1 the god of the seed1 before they personated ,zeus and ,jupiter1 the god of the oak4 ,in the foregoing enquiry we have found reason to suppose that the ,roman kings personated not only ,jupiter the god of the oak1 but ,saturn the god of the seed and perhaps also the god of the fig-tree4 ,the question naturally arises1 ,did they do so simultaneously or successively8 ,in other words1 did the same king regularly represent the oak-god at one season of the year1 the seed-god at another1 and the fig-god at a third8 or were there separate dynasties of oak-kings1 seed-kings1 and fig-kings1 who belonged perhaps to different stocks and reigned at different times8 ,the evidence does not allow us to answer these questions definitely4 ,but tradition certainly points to the conclusion that in ,latium and perhaps in ,italy generally the seed-god ,saturn was an older deity than the oak-god ,jupiter1 just as in ,greece ,cronus appears to have preceded ,zeus4 ,perhaps ,saturn and ,cronus were the gods of an old indigenous and agricultural people2 while ,jupiter and ,zeus were the divinities of a ruder invading race1 which swarmed down into ,italy and ,greece from the forests of central ,europe1 bringing their wild woodland deities to dwell in more fertile lands1 under softer skies1 side by side with the gods of the corn and the vine1 the olive and the fig4 ,if that was so1 we may suppose that before the irruption of these northern barbarians the old kings of ,greece and ,italy personated the gods of the fat field and fruitful orchard1 and that it was not till after the conquest that their successors learned to pose as the god of the verdant oak and the thundering sky4 ,however1 on questions so obscure we must be content to suspend our judgment4 ,it is unlikely that the student's search-light will ever pierce the mists that hang over these remote ages4 ,all that we can do is to follow the lines of evidence backward as far as they can be traced1 till1 after growing fainter and fainter1 they are lost altogether in the darkness4 ,footnote #hff3 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 #bcg1 #cba2 ,c4 ,julian1 in ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des antiquits grecques et romaines1 ii4 #aagc4 ,as to ,vesta and the ,vestals1 see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ac sq4 ,footnote #hfg3 ,c4 ,julian1 l4c4 ,footnote #hfh3 ,see above1 p4 #ahf note #a4 ,footnote #hfi3 ,above1 pp4 #bfa-bfc4 ,footnote #hgj3 ,diodorus ,siculus1 xvii4 #aad4 ,footnote #hga3 ,thus in some ,african tribes the household fire is put out after a death1 and afterwards relit by the friction of sticks 7,sir ,h4 ,h4 ,johnston1 ,british ,central ,africa1 p4 #dci2 ,l4 ,concradt1 8,die ,ngumbu in ,sdkamerun10 ,globus1 lxxxi1 7#aijb7 p4 #ceb74 ,in ,laos the fire on the hearth is extinguished after a death and the ashes are scattered2 afterwards a new fire is obtained from a neighbour 7,tournier1 ,notice sur le ,laos franais1 p4 #fh74 ,a custom of the same sort is observed in ,burma1 but there the new fire must be bought 7,c4 ,j4 ,f4 ,s4 ,forbes1 ,british ,burma1 p4 #id74 ,among the ,miris of ,assam the new fire is made by the widow or widower 7,w4 ,h4 ,furness1 in ,journal of the ,anthrop4 ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #dfb74 ,in ,armenia it is made by flint and steel 7,m4 ,abeghian1 ,der armenische ,volksglaube1 p4 #ga74 ,in ,argos fire was extinguished after a death1 and fresh fire obtained from a neighbour 7,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,graec4 #bd74 ,in the ,highlands of ,scotland all fires were put out in a house where there was a corpse 7,pennant's 8,tour in ,scotland10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4 #di74 ,amongst the ,bogos of ,east ,africa no fire may be lit in a house after a death until the body has been carried out 7,w4 ,munzinger1 ,sitten und ,recht der ,bogos1 p4 #fg74 ,in the ,pelew ,islands1 when a death has taken place1 fire is transferred from the house to a shed erected beside it 7,j4 ,s4 ,kubary1 8,die ,todtenbestattung auf den ,pelau-,inseln10 ,original-,mittheilungen aus der ,ethnologischen ,abtheilung der ,kniglichen ,museen zu ,berlin1 i4 #g74 ,in the ,marquesas ,islands fires were extinguished after a death 7,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,desgraz1 ,iles ,marquises1 p4 #bea74 ,among the ,indians of ,peru and the ,moors of ,algiers no fire might be lighted for several days in a house where a death had occurred 7,cieza de ,leon1 ,travels1 ,markham's translation1 p4 #cff2 ,dapper1 ,description de l',afrique1 p4 #agf74 ,the same custom is reported of the ,mohammedans of ,india 7,mandelsloe1 in ,j4 ,harris's ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 7,london1 #agdd7 p4 #ggj74 ,in the ,east ,indian island of ,wetter no fire may burn in a house for three days after a death1 and according to ,bastian the reason is the one given in the text1 to wit1 a fear that the ghost might fall into it and hurt himself 7,a4 ,bastian1 ,indonesien1 ii4 #fj74 ,for more evidence1 see my article 8,on certain ,burial ,customs10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xv4 7#ahhf7 p4 #ij4 ,footnote #hgb3 ,for the list of the ,alban kings see ,livy1 i4 #c4 #e-aa2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #ci-ef2 id41 ,metam4 xiv4 #fji sqq42 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 i4 #gj sq42 ,eusebius1 ,chronic4 bk4 i4 vol4 i4 coll4 #bgc1 #bge1 #bhe1 #bhg1 #bhi1 #bia1 ed4 ,a4 ,schoene2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 vii4 #crd ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf2 ,sextus ,aurelius ,victor1 ,origo gentis ,romanae1 #ag-ai2 ,zonaras1 ,annales1 vii4 #a4 ,footnote #hgc3 ,see ,b4 ,g4 ,niebuhr1 ,history of ,rome1 i4 #bje-bjg2 ,a4 ,schwegler1 ,rmische ,geschichte1 i4 #cci1 #cdb-cde4 ,however1 ,niebuhr admits that some of the names may have been taken from older legends4 ,footnote #hgd3 ,h4 ,m4 ,stanley1 ,through the ,dark ,continent 7,london1 #ahgh71 i4 #chj2 ,c4 ,t4 ,wilson and ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 ,uganda and the ,egyptian ,soudan 7,london1 #ahhb71 i4 #aig2 ,fr4 ,stuhlman1 ,mit ,emin ,pascha ins ,herz von ,afrika 7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #aib sq42 ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,farther ,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #be1 with plates i4 and ii42 ,sir ,harry ,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate1 ii4 #fha sq4 ,footnote #hge3 ,romulus and ,tatius reigned for a time together2 after ,romulus the kings were1 in order of succession1 ,numa ,pompilius1 ,tullus ,hostilius1 ,ancus ,marcius1 the elder ,tarquin1 ,servius ,tullius1 and ,tarquin the ,proud4 ,footnote #hgf3 ,see ,a4 ,schwegler1 ,rmische ,geschichte1 i4 #egi sq4 ,footnote #hgg3 ,according to one account1 ,romulus had a son and a daughter 7,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #ad74 ,some held that ,numa had four sons 7,plutarch1 ,numa1 #ba74 ,ancus ,marcius left two sons 7,livy1 i4 #ce4 #a1 i4 #dj2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 iii4 #gb sq41 iv4 #cd4 #c74 ,tarquin the ,elder left two sons or grandsons 7,livy1 i4 #df2 ,dionysius ,halic41 ,ant4 ,rom4 iv4 #f sq4 iv4 #bh74 ,footnote #hgh3 ,pompilia1 the mother of ,ancus ,marcius1 was a daughter of ,numa4 ,see ,cicero1 ,de re publica1 ii4 #ah4 #cc2 ,livy1 i4 #cb4 #a2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 ii4 #gf4 #e1 iii4 #ce4 #c1 iii4 #cf4 #b2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #ba4 ,footnote #hgi3 ,numa married ,tatia1 the daughter of ,tatius 7,plutarch1 ,numa1 #c and #ba72 ,servius ,tullius married the daughter of the elder ,tarquin 7,livy1 i4 #ci4 #d72 and ,tarquin the ,proud married ,tullia the daughter of ,servius ,tullius 7,livy1 i4 #db4 #a1 i4 #df4 #e74 ,footnote #hhj3 ,numa was a ,sabine from ,cures 7,livy1 i4 #ah2 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #c2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 ii4 #eh72 ,servius ,tullius1 according to the common account1 was the son of ,ocrisia1 a slave woman of ,corniculum 7,livy1 i4 #ci4 #e2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 iv4 #a471 but according to another account he was an ,etruscan 7see above1 p4 #aif note72 and ,tarquin the ,proud was a son of the elder ,tarquin1 who was an ,etruscan from ,tarquinii 7,livy1 i4 #cd2 ,cicero1 ,de re publica1 ii4 #ai sq41 #cd sq474 ,the foreign birth of their kings naturally struck the ,romans themselves4 ,see the speech put by ,livy 7i4 #ce4 #c71 in the mouth of the elder ,tarquin3 8,se non rem novam petere1 quippe qui non primus1 quod quisquam indignari mirarive posset1 sed tertius ,romae peregrinus regnum adfectet2 et ,tatium non ex peregrino solum sed etiam ex hoste regem factum1 et ,numam ignarum urbis non petentem in regnum ultro accitum3 se1 ex quo sui potens fuerit1 ,romam cum conjuge ac fortunis omnibus commigrasse40 ,and see a passage in a speech actually spoken by the ,emperor ,claudius3 8,quondam reges hanc tenuere urbem1 nec tamen domesticis successoribus eam tradere contigit4 ,supervenere alieni et quidem externi1 ut ,numa ,romulo successerit ex ,sabinis veniens1 vicinus quidem sed tunec externus10 etc4 ,the speech is engraved on bronze tablets found at ,lyons4 ,see ,tacitus1 ed4 ,baiter and ,orelli1 i4 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #hha3 8,in ,ceylon1 where the higher and lower polyandry co-exist1 marriage is of two sorts--,deega or ,beena--according as the wife goes to live in the house and village of her husbands1 or as the husband or husbands come to live with her in or near the house of her birth0 7,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan1 ,studies in ,ancient ,history 7,london1 #ahhf71 p4 #aja74 ,footnote #hhb3 ,the system of mother-kin1 that is1 of tracing descent through females instead of through males1 is often called the matriarchate4 ,but this term is inappropriate and misleading1 as it implies that under the system in question the women govern the men4 ,even when the so-called matriarchate regulates the descent of the kingdom1 this does not mean that the women of the royal family reign2 it only means that they are the channel through which the kingship is transmitted to their husbands or sons4 ,footnote #hhc3 ,ancient writers repeatedly speak of the uncertainty as to the fathers of the ,roman kings4 ,see ,livy1 i4 #d4 #b2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 ii4 #b4 #c2 ,cicero1 ,de re publica1 ii4 #ah4 #cc2 ,seneca1 ,epist4 cviii4 #cj2 ,aelian1 ,var4 ,hist4 xiv4 #cf4 ,footnote #hhd3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 vi4 #ggc-ghd2 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 vi4 #ag4 ,compare ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 ii4 #ahj sq4 ,footnote #hhe3 ,see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 iii4 #bff sqq41 #cbh sqq4 ,footnote #hhf3 ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #bjc sqq42 ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 iii4 #cah sq4 ,footnote #hhg3 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #c4 ,footnote #hhh3 ,t4 ,e4 ,bowdich1 ,mission from ,cape ,coast ,castle to ,ashantee1 ,new ,edition 7,london1 #ahgc71 pp4 #ahe1 #bjd sq42 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast1 pp4 #bhg1 #big sq42 id41 ,the ,yoruba-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #hhi3 ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,further ,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #cf1 #fg4 ,in ,benin 8the legitimate daughters of a king did not marry any one1 but bestowed their favours as they pleased40 7,mr4 ,c4 ,punch1 in ,h4 ,ling ,roth's ,great ,benin 7,halifax1 ,england1 #aijc71 p4 #cg74 ,footnote #hij3 ,c4 ,t4 ,wilson and ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 ,uganda and the ,egyptian ,soudan 7,london1 #ahhb71 i4 #bjj2 ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,further ,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #hia3 ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bg1 #fb4 ,mr4 ,roscoe says3 8,the royal family traces its pedigree through the maternal clan1 but the nation through the paternal clan40 ,but he here refers to the descent of the totem only4 ,that the throne descends from father to son is proved by the genealogical tables which he gives 7,plates ,i4 and ,,ii474 ,footnote #hib3 ,proyart's 8,history of ,loango10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 #egj1 #egi sq42 ,l4 ,degrandpr1 ,voyage la cte occidentale d',afrique 7,paris1 #ahja71 pp4 #aaj-aad2 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an der ,loango ,kste1 i4 #aig sqq4 ,time seems not to have mitigated the lot of these unhappy prince consorts4 ,see ,r4 ,e4 ,dennett1 ,at the ,back of the ,black ,man's ,mind 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #cf sq41 #acd4 ,mr4 ,dennett says that the husband of a princess is virtually her slave and may be put to death by her4 ,all the sisters of the ,king of ,loango enjoy these arbitrary rights over their husbands1 and the offspring of any of them may become king4 ,footnote #hic3 ,father ,guillem1 8,au ,bengouolo10 ,missions ,catholiques1 xxxiv4 7#aijb7 p4 #af4 ,the writer visited the state and had an interview with the queen1 a woman of gigantic stature1 wearing many amulets4 ,footnote #hid3 ,pausanias1 i4 #b4 #f4 ,footnote #hie3 ,pausanias1 ii4 #bi4 #d4 ,i have to thank ,mr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,chadwick for pointing out the following ,greek and ,swedish parallels to what ,i conceive to have been the ,latin practice4 ,footnote #hif3 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #gb4 #g4 ,according to ,apollodorus 7iii4 #ab4 #g71 ,cychreus1 ,king of ,salamis1 died childless1 and bequeathed his kingdom to ,telamon4 ,footnote #hig3 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #dej4 ,compare ,pausanias1 ii4 #bi4 #d4 ,footnote #hih3 ,apollodorus1 iii4 #ac4 #a4 ,according to ,diodorus ,siculus 7iv4 #gb4 #f71 the king of ,phthia was childless1 and bequeathed his kingdom to ,peleus4 ,footnote #hii3 ,apollodorus1 iii4 #ac4 #h2 ,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #if4 ,footnote #ijj3 ,pausanias1 i4 #aa4 #a sq42 ,justin1 xvii4 #c4 ,footnote #ija3 ,apollodorus1 i4 #h4 #e4 ,footnote #ijb3 ,antoninus ,liberalis1 ,transform4 #cg2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 xiv4 #dei sq41 #eaj sq4 ,compare ,virgil1 ,aen4 xi4 #bdc sqq4 ,footnote #ijc3 ,diodorus1 iv4 #gc2 ,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #hb-hd2 ,servius1 on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #g4 ,footnote #ijd3 ,thucydides1 i4 #i2 ,strabo1 viii4 #f4 #ai1 p4 #cgg4 ,footnote #ije3 ,apollodorus1 iii4 #aj4 #h4 ,footnote #ijf3 ,schol4 on ,euripides1 ,orestes1 #df2 ,pindar1 ,pyth4 xi4 #ca sq42 ,pausanias1 iii4 #ai4 #f4 ,footnote #ijg3 ,h4 ,m4 ,chadwick1 ,the ,origin of the ,english ,nation 7,cambridge1 #aijg71 pp4 #ccb sq4 ,in treating of the succession to the kingdom in ,scandinavia1 the late ,k4 ,maurer1 one of the highest authorities on old ,norse law1 also remarked that 8some ancient authorities 7,quellenberichte7 profess to know of a certain right of succession accorded to women1 in virtue of which under certain circumstances1 though they could not themselves succeed to the kingdom1 they nevertheless could convey it to their husbands40 ,and he cites a number of instances1 how one king 7,eysteinn ,halfdanarson7 succeeded his father-in-law 7,eirikr ,agnarsson7 on the throne2 how another 7,gudrodr ,halfdanarson7 received with his wife ,alfhildr a portion of her father's kingdom2 and so on4 ,see ,k4 ,maurer1 ,vorlesungen ber altnordische ,rechtsgeschichte1 i4 7,leipsic1 #aijg7 pp4 #bcc sq4 ,footnote #ijh3 ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent1 ,popular ,tales from the ,norse1 pp4 #aca sqq42 ,s4 ,grundtvig1 ,dnische ,volksmrchen1 ,first ,series 7,leipsic1 #ahgh71 pp4 #bhe sqq4 7,leo's ,german translation72 ,cavallius und ,stephens1 ,schwedische ,volkssagen und ,mrchen1 ,no4 #d1 pp4 #fb sqq4 7,oberleitner's ,german translation72 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ,no4 #fj2 ,kuhn und ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche1 pp4 #cdj sqq42 ,j4 ,w4 ,wolf1 ,deutsche ,hausmrchen1 pp4 #cgb sqq42 ,philo vom ,walde1 ,schlesien in ,sage und ,brauch1 pp4 #ha sqq42 ,i4 ,v4 ,zingerle1 ,kinder- und ,hausmrchen aus ,tirol1 ,no4 #h1 pp4 #ce sqq4 ,no4 #ce1 pp4 #agh sqq42 ,j4 ,haltrich1 ,deutsche ,volksmrchen aus dem ,sachsenlande in ,siebenbrgen1 #dth ed41 ,no4 #ae1 pp4 #ajc sqq42 ,j4 ,f4 ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales of the ,west ,highlands1 ,no4 #d1 vol4 i4 pp4 #gg sqq42 ,a4 ,schleicher1 ,litauische ,mrchen1 ,sprichwrte1 ,rtsel und ,lieder1 pp4 #eg sqq42 ,a4 ,leskien und ,k4 ,brugmann1 ,litauische ,volkslieder und ,mrchen1 ,no4 #ad1 pp4 #djd sqq42 ,basile1 ,pentamerone1 ,first day1 seventh tale1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ig sqq4 7,liebrecht's ,german translation72 ,e4 ,legrand1 ,contes populaires grecques1 pp4 #afi sqq42 ,j4 ,g4 von ,hahn1 ,griechische und albanesische ,mrchen1 ,no4 #ih1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aad sq42 ,a4 und ,a4 ,schott1 ,walachische ,maehrchen1 ,no4 #aj1 pp4 #adj sqq42 ,w4 ,webster1 ,basque ,legends1 pp4 #cf-ch2 ,a4 ,schiefner1 ,awarische ,texte 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahgc71 ,no4 #b1 pp4 #ba sqq42 ,j4 ,rivire1 ,contes populaires de la ,kabylie1 pp4 #aie-aig4 ,footnote #iji3 ,saxo ,grammaticus1 ,historia ,danica1 bk4 iv4 p4 #abf 7,elton's translation74 ,the passage occurs on p4 #aeh of ,p4 ,e4 ,mller's edition of ,saxo4 ,footnote #iaj3 ,the story of ,hamlet 7,amleth7 is told1 in a striking form1 by ,saxo ,grammaticus in the third and fourth books of his history4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,chadwick tells me that ,hamlet stands on the border-line between legend and history4 ,hence the main outlines of his story may be correct4 ,footnote #iaa3 ,herodotus1 i4 #g-ac4 ,footnote #iab3 ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 vi4 frag4 #di1 in ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #chj4 ,footnote #iac3 ,athenaeus1 xii4 #aa1 pp4 #eae ,f-#eaf ,b2 ,apollodorus1 ii4 #f4 #c2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #ca2 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de magistratibus1 iii4 #fd2 ,lucian1 ,dialogi deorum1 xiii4 #b2 ,ovid1 ,heroides1 ix4 #ee sqq42 ,statius1 ,theb4 x4 #fdf-fdi4 ,footnote #iad3 ,athenaeus1 l4c4 ,footnote #iae3 ,herodotus1 i4 #ic2 ,clearchus1 quoted by ,athenaeus1 xii4 #aa1 p4 #eaf ,a ,b4 ,the ,armenians also prostituted their daughters before marriage1 dedicating them for a long time to the profligate worship of the goddess ,anaitis 7,strabo1 xi4 #ad4 #af1 p4 #ecb sq474 ,the custom was probably practised as a charm to secure the fertility of the earth as well as of man and beast4 ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #cb sqq4 ,footnote #iaf3 ,herodotus1 i4 #g4 ,footnote #iag3 ,clearchus1 quoted by ,athenaeus1 xiii4 #ca1 p4 #egc ,a ,b4 ,footnote #iah3 ,see ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman1 ,history of the ,norman ,conquest of ,england1 i4 #crd ,ed41 #daj-dab1 #gcc-gcg4 ,i am indebted to my friend ,mr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,chadwick both for the fact and its explanation4 ,footnote #iai3 ,procopius1 ,de bello ,gothico1 iv4 #bj 7vol4 ii4 p4 #eic1 ed4 ,j4 ,haury74 ,this and the following cases of marriage with a stepmother are cited by ,k4 ,weinhold1 ,deutsche ,frauen #bnd ,ed41 7,vienna1 #ahhb71 ii4 #cei sq4 ,footnote #ibj3 ,bede1 ,historia ecclesiastica gentis ,anglorum1 ii4 #e4 #ajb2 compare i4 #bg4 #fc4 ,footnote #iba3 ,prudentius ,trecensis1 8,annales10 anno #heh1 in ,pertz's ,monumenta ,germaniae historica1 i4 #dea2 ,ingulfus1 ,historia1 quoted ibid4 ,footnote #ibb3 ,this is in substance the view of ,dr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,hearn 7,the ,aryan ,house-hold1 pp4 #aej-aee7 and of ,prof4 ,b4 ,delbrck 78,das ,mutterrecht bei den ,indogermanen10 ,preussische ,jahrbcher1 lxxix4 7#ahie7 pp4 #ad-bg74 ,footnote #ibc3 ,clearchus of ,soli1 quoted by ,athenaeus1 xiii4 #b4 p4 #eee ,d2 ,john of ,antioch1 in ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iv4 #edg2 ,charax of ,pergamus ib4 iii4 #fch2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #aaa2 id41 ,chiliades1 v4 #fej-ffe2 ,suidas1 s4v4 2 ,justin1 ii4 #f4 #g4 ,footnote #ibd3 1 1 1 1 1 ,philo ,judaeus1 ,de specialibus legibus1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cjc1 ed4 ,th4 ,mangey4 ,see also ,plutarch1 ,themistocles1 #cb2 ,cornelius ,nepos1 ,cimon1 #a2 ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,clouds1 #acga2 ,l4 ,beauchet1 ,histoire du droit priv de la ,rpublique ,athnienne1 i4 7,paris1 #ahig7 pp4 #afe sqq4 ,compare ,minucius ,felix1 ,octavius1 #ca4 ,footnote #ibe3 ,polybius1 xii4 #e4 ,footnote #ibf3 ,strabo1 xiii4 #a4 #dj1 pp4 #fjj sq42 ,plutarch1 ,de sera numinis vindicta1 #ab2 and especially ,lycophron1 ,cassandra1 #aada sqq41 with the scholia of ,j4 ,tzetzes1 who refers to ,timaeus and ,callimachus as his authorities4 ,footnote #ibg3 ,justin1 xxi4 #c4 #a-f4 ,footnote #ibh3 ,strabo1 iii4 #d4 #ah4 ,footnote #ibi3 ,tacitus1 ,germania1 #bj4 ,compare ,l4 ,dargun1 ,mutterrecht und ,raubehe und ihre ,reste im germanischen ,recht und ,leben 7,breslau1 #ahhc71 pp4 #ba sq4 ,footnote #icj3 ,a4 ,giraud-,teulon1 ,les ,origines du mariage et de la famille1 pp4 #bjf sqq42 ,a4 ,h4 ,post1 ,afrikanische ,jurisprudenz1 i4 #ac sqq42 ,sir ,harry ,h4 ,johnston1 ,british ,central ,africa1 p4 #dga2 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast1 pp4 #big sq42 id41 ,the ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast1 pp4 #bjg sqq4 ,much more evidence will be found in my ,totemism and ,exogamy4 ,footnote #ica3 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #ej1 note #b4 ,footnote #icb3 ,tacitus1 ,germania1 #bj4 ,footnote #icc3 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 #bhf sqq4 ,the reipus or payment made on the remarriage of a widow is discussed by ,l4 ,dargun1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ada-aeb4 ,footnote #icd3 ,w4 ,f4 ,skene held that the ,picts were ,celts4 ,see his ,celtic ,scotland1 i4 #aid-bbg4 ,on the other hand1 ,h4 ,zimmer supposes them to have been the pre-,celtic inhabitants of the ,british ,islands4 ,see his paper 8,das ,mutterrecht der ,pikten10 ,zeitschrift der ,savigny-,stiftung fr ,rechtsgeschichte1 xv4 7#ahid7 ,romanistische ,abtheilung1 pp4 #bji sqq4 ,footnote #ice3 8,cumque uxores ,picti non habentes peterent a ,scottis1 ea solum conditione dare consenserunt1 ut ubi res perveniret in dubium1 magis de feminea regum prosapia quam de masculina regem sibi eligerent2 quod usque hodie apud ,pictos constat esse servatum10 ,bede1 ,historia ecclesiastica gentis ,anglorum1 ii4 #a4 #g4 ,footnote #icf3 ,w4 ,f4 ,skene1 ,celtic ,scotland1 i4 #bcb-bce2 ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan1 ,studies in ,ancient ,history 7,london1 #ahhf71 pp4 #fh-gj2 ,h4 ,zimmer1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #icg3 ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 ,die ,etrusker 7,stuttgart1 #ahgg71 ii4 #cgf sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,bachofen1 ,die ,sage von ,tanaquil 7,heidelberg1 #ahgj71 pp4 #bhb-bij4 ,footnote #ich3 ' 444 1 1 ,athenaeus1 xii4 #ad1 p4 #eag ,d ,e4 ,footnote #ici3 8,non enim hic1 ubi ex ,tusco modo ,tute tibi indigne dotem quaeras corpore0 7,plautus1 ,cistellaria1 ii4 #c4 #bj sq474 ,footnote #idj3 ,herodotus1 i4 #id2 ,strabo1 v4 #b4 #b1 p4 #bai2 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 iv4 #ee2 ,timaeus1 cited by ,tertullian1 ,de spectaculis1 #e2 ,festus1 s4v4 8,turannos10 p4 #cee1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #b2 ,velleius ,paterculus1 i4 #a4 #d2 ,justin1 xx4 #a4 #g2 ,valerius ,maximus1 ii4 #d4 #d2 ,servius1 on ,virgil1 ,aen4 i4 #fg4 ,on the other hand1 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus held that the ,etruscans were an indigenous ,italian race1 differing from all other known peoples in language and customs 7,ant4 ,rom4 i4 #bf-cj74 ,on this much-vexed question1 see ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 ,die ,etrusker 7,stuttgart1 #ahgg71 i4 #fe sqq42 ,g4 ,dennis1 ,cities and ,cemeteries of ,etruria1 #crd ,ed41 i4 pp4 xxxiii4 sqq42 ,f4 ,hommel1 ,grundriss der ,geographie und ,geschichte des ,alten ,orients1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #fc sqq4 7in ,iwan von ,mller's ,handbuch der klassischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 vol4 iii474 ,footnote #ida3 ,it is doubtful whether ,servius ,tullius was a ,latin or an ,etruscan4 ,see above1 p4 #aie1 note #a4 ,footnote #idb3 8,all over ,india the hedge-priest is very often an autochthon1 his long residence in the land being supposed to confer upon him the knowledge of the character and peculiarities of the local gods1 and to teach him the proper mode in which they may be conciliated4 ,thus the ,doms preserve to the present day the animistic and demonistic beliefs of the aboriginal races1 which the ,khasiyas1 who have succeeded them1 temper with the worship of the village deities1 the named and localised divine entities1 with the occasional languid cult of the greater ,hindu gods4 ,the propitiation of the vague spirits of wood1 or cliff1 river or lake1 they are satisfied to leave in charge of their serfs0 7,w4 ,crooke1 ,natives of ,northern ,india1 ,london1 #aijg1 pp4 #ajd sq474 ,when the ,israelites had been carried away captives into ,assyria1 the new settlers in the desolate land of ,israel were attacked by lions1 which they supposed to be sent against them by the god of the country because1 as strangers1 they did not know how to propitiate him4 ,so they petitioned the king of ,assyria and he sent them a native ,israelitish priest1 who taught them how to worship the ,god of ,israel4 ,see #b ,kings xvii4 #bd-bh4 ,footnote #idc3 ,h4 ,jordan1 ,die ,knige im alten ,italien 7,berlin1 #ahhd71 pp4 #ae-be4 ,footnote #idd3 ,livy1 i4 #ef4 #g2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 iv4 #fh4 #a4 ,footnote #ide3 ,livy1 i4 #cd4 #b sq41 i4 #ch4 #a1 i4 #eg4 #f2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 iv4 #fd4 ,footnote #idf3 ,i owe to ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook the interesting suggestion that the double consulship was a revival of a double kingship4 ,footnote #idg3 ,as to the ,regifugium see below1 pp4 #cjh-caj4 ,footnote #idh3 ,pausanias1 iv4 #e4 #aj2 ,g4 ,gilbert1 ,handbuch der griech4 ,staatsalterthmer1 i4 #bnd ,ed41 #abb sq4 ,footnote #idi3 ,the two supreme magistrates who replaced the kings were at first called praetors4 ,see ,livy1 iii4 #ee4 #ab2 ,b4 ,g4 ,niebuhr1 ,history of ,rome1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #ebj sq42 ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,rmisches ,staatsrecht1 ii4 #crd ,ed41 #gd sqq4 ,that the power of the first consuls was1 with the limitations indicated in the text1 that of the old kings is fully recognised by ,livy 7ii4 #a4 #g sq474 ,footnote #iej3 ,it was a disputed point whether ,tarquin the ,proud was the son or grandson of ,tarquin the ,elder4 ,most writers1 and ,livy 7i4 #df4 #d7 among them1 held that he was a son4 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 on the other hand1 argued that he must have been a grandson2 he insists strongly on the chronological difficulties to which the ordinary hypothesis is exposed if ,servius ,tullius reigned1 as he is said to have reigned1 forty-four years4 ,see ,dionysius ,halic4 ,ant4 ,rom4 iv4 #f sq4 ,footnote #iea3 ,livy1 i4 #dh4 #b2 ,dionysius ,halic4 ,ant4 ,rom4 iv4 #ca sq4 and #df4 ,footnote #ieb3 ,livy1 i4 #ef2 ,dionysius ,halic4 ,ant4 ,rom4 iv4 #fg-fi1 #gg2 ,valerius ,maximus1 vii4 #c4 #b2 ,aurelius ,victor1 ,de viris illustribus1 x4 ,the murder of ,brutus's father and brother is recorded by ,dionysius2 the other writers mention the assassination of his brother only4 ,the resemblance between ,brutus and ,hamlet has been pointed out before4 ,see ,f4 ,york ,powell1 in ,elton's translation of ,saxo ,grammaticus's ,danish ,history 7,london1 #ahid71 pp4 #dje-daj4 ,footnote #iec3 ,d4 ,livingstone1 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa1 pp4 #fag sq4 ,many more examples are given by ,a4 ,h4 ,post1 ,afrikanische ,jurisprudenz 7,oldenburg and ,leipsic71 i4 #acd sqq4 ,footnote #ied3 ,d4 ,livingstone1 op4 cit4 p4 #dcd4 ,footnote #iee3 ,h4 ,hecquard1 ,reise an die ,kste und in das ,innere von ,west-,afrika 7,leipsic1 #ahed71 p4 #ajd4 ,this and the preceding example are cited by ,a4 ,h4 ,post1 l4c4 ,footnote #ief3 ,j4 ,a4 ,chisholm1 8,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,winamwanga and ,wiwa10 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 #cf 7,july #aiaj71 p4 #chd4 ,footnote #ieg3 ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #ghd sq4 ,footnote #ieh3 ,sir ,william ,mac,gregor1 8,lagos1 ,abeokuta1 and the ,alake10 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 #ab 7,july #aijd71 pp4 #dgj sq4 ,footnote #iei3 ,c4 ,partridge1 8,the ,burial of the ,atta of ,igaraland1 and the #8,coronation' of his ,successor10 ,blackwood's ,magazine1 ,september #aijd1 pp4 #cbi sq4 ,mr4 ,partridge kindly gave me some details as to the election of the king in a letter dated #bdth ,october #aijd4 ,he is ,assistant ,district ,commissioner in ,southern ,nigeria4 ,footnote #ifj3 ,major ,p4 ,r4 ,t4 ,gurdon1 ,the ,khasis 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #ff-ge4 ,footnote #ifa3 ,livy1 i4 #ag2 ,cicero1 ,de re publica1 ii4 #ag4 #ca4 ,footnote #ifb3 ,as to the nomination of the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites see ,livy1 xl4 #db2 ,dionysius ,halic4 ,ant4 ,rom4 v4 #a4 #d4 ,the latter writer says that the augurs co-operated with the pontiff in the nomination4 ,footnote #ifc3 ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,rmisches ,staatsrecht1 ii4 #crd ,ed41 #f-h2 ,a4 ,h4 ,j4 ,greenidge1 ,roman ,public ,life1 pp4 #de sqq4 ,mr4 ,greenidge thinks that the king was regularly nominated by his predecessor and only occasionally by an interim king4 ,mommsen holds that he was always nominated by the latter4 ,footnote #ifd3 ,compare ,lucretius1 v4 #aajh sqq43 8,condere coeperunt urbis arcemque locare ,praesidium reges ipsi sibi perfugiumque1 ,et pecus atque agros divisere atque dedere ,pro facie cujusque et viribus ingenioque2 ,nam facies multum valuit viresque vigentes40 ,footnote #ife3 ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 in ,stobaeus1 ,florilegium1 xliv4 #da 7,frag4 ,histor4 ,graec4 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #dfc74 ,other writers say simply that the tallest1 strongest1 or handsomest man was chosen king4 ,see ,herodotus1 iii4 #bj2 ,aristotle1 ,politics1 iv4 #d2 ,athenaeus1 xiii4 #bj1 p4 #eff c4 ,footnote #iff3 ,zenobius1 ,cent4 v4 #be4 ,footnote #ifg3 ,j4 ,shooter1 ,the ,kafirs of ,natal1 pp4 #d sq4 ,compare ,d4 ,livingstone1 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa1 p4 #ahf2 ,w4 ,max ,mller1 ,asien und ,europa 7,leipsic1 #ahic71 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #ifh3 ,zenobius1 ,cent4 v4 #be4 ,footnote #ifi3 ,strabo1 xi4 #ba1 p4 #dib4 ,footnote #igj3 ,hippocrates1 ,de aere locis et aquis 7vol4 i4 pp4 #eej sq4 ed4 ,khn74 ,footnote #iga3 ,captain ,guy ,burrows1 ,the ,land of the ,pigmies 7,london1 #ahih71 p4 #ie4 ,speaking of this tribe1 ,emin ,pasha observes3 8,the most curious custom1 however1 and one which is particularly observed in the ruling families1 is bandaging the heads of infants4 ,by means of these bandages a lengthening of the head along its horizontal axis is produced2 and whereas the ordinary ,monbutto people have rather round heads1 the form of the head in the better classes shows an extraordinary increase in length1 which certainly very well suits their style of hair and of hats40 ,see ,emin ,pasha in ,central ,africa1 being a ,collection of ,letters and ,journals 7,london1 #ahhh71 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #igb3 ,lewis and ,clark1 ,expedition to the ,sources of the ,missouri1 ch4 #bc1 vol4 ii4 #cbg sq4 7reprinted at ,london1 #aije72 ,d4 ,w4 ,harmon1 quoted by ,rev4 ,j4 ,morse1 ,report to the ,secretary of ,war of the ,united ,states on ,indian ,affairs 7,newhaven1 #ahbb71 ,appendix1 p4 #cdf2 ,h4 ,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 ii4 #cbe sq42 ,r4 ,c4 ,mayne1 ,four ,years in ,british ,columbia1 p4 #bgg2 ,g4 ,m4 ,sproat1 ,scenes and ,studies of ,savage ,life1 pp4 #bh-cj2 ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 i4 #ahj4 ,footnote #igc3 ,c4 ,hill-,tout1 ,the ,far ,west1 the ,home of the ,salish and ,dn 7,london1 #aijg71 p4 #dj4 ,as to the custom in general among these tribes1 see ibid4 pp4 #ch-da4 ,in ,melanesia the practice of artificially lengthening the head into a cone by means of bandages applied in infancy is observed by the natives of ,malikolo 7,malekula7 in the ,new ,hebrides and also by the natives of the south coast of ,new ,britain1 from ,cape ,roebuck to ,cape ,bedder4 ,see ,beatrice ,grimshaw1 ,from ,fiji to the ,cannibal ,islands 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #beh-bfj2 ,r4 ,parkinson1 ,dreissig ,jahre in der ,sdsee 7,stuttgart1 #aijg71 pp4 #bjd-bjf4 ,footnote #igd3 ,v4 ,fric and ,p4 ,radin1 8,contributions to the ,study of the ,bororo ,indians10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvi4 7#aijf7 pp4 #chh sq4 ,footnote #ige3 ,see ,the ,spectator1 ,nos4 #ah and #bj4 ,footnote #igf3 ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 in ,stobaeus1 ,florilegium1 xliv4 #da 7,fragmenta ,historic4 ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #dfc74 ,footnote #igg3 ,simon ,grunau1 ,preussische ,chronik1 ,tract4 ii4 cap4 iii4 #b1 p4 #ff1 ed4 ,m4 ,perlbach4 ,this passage was pointed out to me by ,mr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,chadwick4 ,footnote #igh3 ,pausanias1 v4 #a4 #d1 vi4 #bj4 #i4 ,footnote #igi3 ,apollodorus1 ,epitoma1 ii4 #d-i1 ed4 ,r4 ,wagner 7,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 ed4 ,r4 ,wagner1 pp4 #ahc sq472 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #gc2 ,pausanias1 v4 #a4 #f sq41 v4 #aj4 #f sq41 v4 #ad4 #g1 v4 #ag4 #g sq41 v4 #bj4 #f sq41 vi4 #ba4 #g-aa4 ,footnote #ihj3 ,pausanias1 vi4 #ba4 #c4 ,footnote #iha3 ,pausanias1 v4 #ac4 #a-f1 vi4 #bj4 #g4 ,footnote #ihb3 ,pausanias1 iii4 #ab4 #a1 #bj4 #aj sq4 ,footnote #ihc3 ,pindar1 ,pyth4 ix4 #aha-bbj1 with the ,scholia4 ,footnote #ihd3 ,pindar1 ,pyth4 ix4 #aie sqq42 ,pausanias1 iii4 #ab4 #b4 ,footnote #ihe3 ,apollodorus1 iii4 #i4 #b2 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #ahe2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 x4 #efj sqq4 ,footnote #ihf3 ,e4 ,schuyler1 ,turkistan 7,london1 #ahgf71 i4 #db sq4 ,this and the four following examples of the bride-race have been already cited by ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan1 ,studies in ,ancient ,history 7,london1 #ahhf71 pp4 #ae sq41 #aha-ahd4 ,he supposes them to be relics of a custom of capturing women from another community4 ,footnote #ihg3 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 ,travels in ,various ,countries1 i4 7,london1 #ahaj71 p4 #ccc4 ,in the fourth octavo edition of ,clarke's ,travels 7vol4 i41 ,london1 #ahaf71 from which ,mc,lennan seems to have quoted1 there are a few verbal changes4 ,footnote #ihh3 ,j4 ,mc,lennan1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahc sq41 referring to ,kennan's ,tent ,life in ,siberia 7#ahgj71 which ,i have not seen4 ,compare ,w4 ,jochelson1 8,the ,koryak0 7,leyden and ,new ,york1 #aijh71 p4 #gdb 7,memoir of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 vol4 vi474 ,footnote #ihi3 ,letter of the missionary ,bigandet1 dated ,march #ahdg1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xx4 7#ahdh7 p4 #dca4 ,a similar account of the ceremony is given by ,m4 ,bourien1 8,wild ,tribes of the ,malay ,peninsula10 ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,n4,s4 iii4 7#ahfe7 p4 #ha4 ,see further ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat and ,c4,o4 ,blagden1 ,pagan ,races of the ,malay ,peninsula 7,london1 #aijf71 ii4 #fh1 #gg sq41 #gi sq41 #hb sq4 ,footnote #iij3 ,j4 ,cameron1 ,our ,tropical ,possessions in ,malayan ,india 7,london1 #ahfe71 pp4 #aaf sq4 ,footnote #iia3 ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #bai4 ,footnote #iib3 ,middle ,high ,german brtlouf1 modern ,german ,brautlauf1 ,anglo-,saxon brydhlap1 old ,norse brudhlaup1 modern ,norse bryllup4 ,see ,grimm1 ,deutsches ,wrterbuch1 s4v4 8,brautlauf02 ,k4 ,weinhold1 ,deutsche ,frauen1 #bnd ,ed41 i4 #djg4 ,the latter writer supposes the word to refer merely to the procession from the house of the bride to the house of the bridegroom4 ,but ,grimm is most probably right in holding that originally it applied to a real race for the bride4 ,this is the view also of ,k4 ,simrock 7,deutsche ,mythologie1 #eth ,ed4 pp4 #eih sq474 ,another writer sees in it a trace of marriage by capture 7,l4 ,dargun1 ,mutterrecht und ,raubehe 7,breslau1 #ahhc71 p4 #acj74 ,compare ,k4 ,schmidt1 ,jus primae noctis 7,freiburg i4 ,b4 #ahha71 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #iic3 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen und ,mrchen 7,berlin1 #ahdc71 p4 #ceh4 ,footnote #iid3 ,w4 ,kolbe1 ,hessische ,volks-sitten und ,gebruche 7,marburg1 #ahhh71 pp4 #aej sq4 ,footnote #iie3 ,lentner and ,dahn1 in ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 i4 7,munich1 #ahfj7 pp4 #cih sq4 ,footnote #iif3 ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 ii4 #aec-aee 7,bohn's edition72 ,j4 ,jamieson1 ,dictionary of the ,scottish ,language1 s4v4 8,broose40 ,footnote #iig3 ,e4 ,herrmann1 8ber ,lieder und ,bruche bei ,hochzeiten in ,krnten10 ,archiv fr ,anthropologie1 xix4 7#ahia7 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #iih3 ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 quoted by ,stobaeus1 ,florilegium1 xliv4 #da2 ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #deg4 ,footnote #iii3 ,strabo1 v4 #d4 #ab1 p4 #bej4 ,footnote #ajjj3 ,arthur ,young1 8,tour in ,ireland10 in ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4 #hfj4 ,footnote #ajja3 ,mahabharata1 condensed into ,english by ,romesch ,dutt 7,london1 #ahih71 pp4 #ae sqq42 ,j4 ,c4 ,oman1 ,the ,great ,indian ,epics1 pp4 #aji sqq4 ,footnote #ajjb3 ,j4 ,d4 ,mayne1 ,a ,treatise on ,hindu ,law and ,usage #crd ,ed41 7,madras and ,london1 #ahhc71 p4 #ef2 ,the ,vikramnkadevacharita1 edited by ,g4 ,bhler 7,bombay1 #ahge71 pp4 #ch-dj2 ,a4 ,holtzmann1 ,das ,mahbharata und seine ,theile1 i4 7,kiel1 #ahie71 pp4 #ba sq42 ,j4 ,jolly1 ,recht und ,sitte1 pp4 #ej sq4 7in ,g4 ,bhler's ,grundriss der indo-arischen ,philologie74 ,footnote #ajjc3 ,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo41 ,yule's translation1 #bnd ,ed41 bk4 iv4 ch4 #d1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dfa-dfc4 ,footnote #ajjd3 ,the ,lay of the ,nibelungs1 translated by ,alice ,horton 7,london1 #ahih71 ,adventures vi4 and vii4 ,footnote #ajje3 ,parthenius1 ,narrat4 ,amat4 vi4 ,this passage was pointed out to me by ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 who has himself discussed the contest for the kingship4 ,see his article1 8,the ,european ,sky-god10 ,folk-lore1 xv4 7#aijd7 pp4 #cgf sqq4 ,footnote #ajjf3 ,herodotus1 vi4 #abf-acj4 ,it is to be observed that in this and other of the examples cited above the succession to the kingdom did not pass with the hand of the princess4 ,footnote #ajjg3 ,see above1 pp4 #fi1 #hd1 #ij sq4 ,these customs were observed at ,whitsuntide1 not on ,may ,day4 ,but the ,whitsuntide king and queen are obviously equivalent to the ,king and ,queen of ,may4 ,hence ,i allow myself to use the latter and more familiar titles so as to include the former4 ,footnote #ajjh3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 ii4 #fhe sqq42 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #fc2 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 #cbc sq42 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals of the ,period of the ,republic1 pp4 #cbg sqq4 ,footnote #ajji3 ,another proposed explanation of the regifugium is that the king fled because at the sacrifice he had incurred the guilt of slaying a sacred animal4 ,see ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals of the ,period of the ,republic1 pp4 #cbh sqq4 ,the best-known example of such a ritual flight is that of the men who slew the ox at the ,athenian festival of the ,bouphonia4 ,see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 ii4 #bid4 ,amongst the ,pawnees the four men who assisted at the sacrifice of a girl to ,ti-ra'-wa used to run away very fast after the deed was done and wash themselves in the river4 ,see ,g4 ,b4 ,grinnell1 ,pawnee ,hero ,stories and ,folk-,tales 7,new ,york1 #ahhi71 pp4 #cfe sq4 ,among the ancient ,egyptians the man whose duty it was to slit open a corpse for the purpose of embalming it fled as soon as he had done his part1 pursued by all the persons present1 who pelted him with stones and cursed him1 8turning as it were the pollution on him2 for they suppose that any one who violates or wounds or does any harm to the person of a fellow-tribesman is hateful0 7,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #ia4 #d74 ,similarly in the western islands of ,torres ,straits the man whose duty it was to decapitate a corpse for the purpose of preserving the skull was shot at with arrows by the relatives of the deceased as an expiation for the injury he had done to the corpse of their kinsman4 ,see ,reports of the ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4 7,cambridge1 #aijd7 pp4 #bdi1 #bea4 ,this explanation of the regifugium certainly deserves to be considered4 ,but on this as on so many other points of ancient ritual we can hardly hope ever to attain to certainty4 ,footnote #ajaj3 ,f4 ,cumont1 8,les ,actes de ,s4 ,dasius10 ,analecta ,bollandiana1 xvi4 7#ahig7 pp4 #e-af4 ,see further ,messrs4 ,parmentier and ,cumont1 8,le ,roi des ,saturnales10 ,revue de ,philologie1 xxi4 7#ahig7 pp4 #adc-aec2 ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 iii4 #ach sqq4 ,the tomb of ,st4 ,dasius1 a ,christian soldier who was put to death at ,durostorum in #cjc ,a4,d4 after refusing to play the part of ,saturn at the festival1 has since been discovered at ,ancona4 ,a ,greek inscription on the tomb records that the martyr's remains were brought thither from ,durostorum4 ,see ,f4 ,cumont1 8,le ,tombeau de ,s4 ,dasius de ,durostorum10 ,analecta ,bollandiana1 xxvii4 7#aijh7 pp4 #cfi-cgb4 ,professor ,a4 ,erhard of ,strasburg1 who has been engaged for years in preparing an edition of the ,acta ,martyrum for the ,berlin ,corpus of ,greek ,fathers1 informed me in conversation at ,cambridge in the summer of #aiaj that he ranks the ,acts of ,st4 ,dasius among the authentic documents of their class4 ,the plain unvarnished narrative bears indeed the stamp of truth on its face4 ,footnote #ajaa3 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 xiii4 #ae2 ,arrian1 ,epicteti dissert4 i4 #be4 #h2 ,lucian1 ,saturnalia1 #d4 ,footnote #ajab3 ,as to these temporary kings see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 ii4 #bd sqq4 ,footnote #ajac3 ,varro1 ,rerum rusticarum1 iii4 #a4 #e2 ,virgil1 ,aen4 viii4 #cbd2 ,tibullus1 i4 #c4 #ce2 ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 vii4 #ai4 ,compare ,wissowa1 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 iv4 #dcc sq4 ,footnote #ajad3 ,on ,saturn as the god of sowing and the derivation of his name from a root meaning 8to sow10 from which comes satus 8sowing10 see ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 v4 #fd2 ,festus1 s4v4 8,opima spolia10 p4 #ahf1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 vii4 #b1 #c4 #ac1 #ae2 ,wissowa1 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 iv4 #dbh4 ,the derivation is confirmed by the form ,saeturnus which occurs in an inscription 7,saeturni pocolom1 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscript4 ,latinae selectae1 ,no4 #biff74 ,as to the ,saturnalia see ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 ii4 #ae sqq42 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #ehf sqq42 ,dezobry1 ,rome au sicle d',auguste1 iii4 #adc sqq42 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals of the ,period of the ,republic1 pp4 #bfh sqq4 ,the festival was held from the seventeenth to the twenty-third of ,december4 ,i formerly argued that in the old days1 when the ,roman year began with ,march instead of with ,january1 the ,saturnalia may have been held from the seventeenth to the twenty-third of ,february1 in which case the festival must have immediately preceded the ,flight of the ,king1 which fell on ,february the twenty-fourth4 ,see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 iii4 #add sqq42 ,lectures on the ,early ,history of the ,kingship1 p4 #bff4 ,but this attempt to bring the ancient ,saturnalia into immediate juxtaposition to the ,king's ,flight breaks down when we observe1 as my friend ,mr4 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler has pointed out to me1 that the ,saturnalia fell in ,december under the ,republic1 long before ,caesar1 in his reform of the calendar1 had shifted the commencement of the year from ,march to ,january4 ,see ,livy1 xxii4 #a4 #ai sq4 ,footnote #ajae3 ,roman farmers sowed wheat1 spelt1 and barley in ,december1 flax up to the seventh of that month1 and beans up to the eleventh 7the festival of ,septimontium74 ,see ,palladius1 ,de re rustica1 xiii4 #a4 ,in the lowlands of ,sicily at the present day ,november and ,december are the months of sowing1 but in the highlands ,august and ,september4 ,see ,g4 ,pitr1 ,usi e costumi1 credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano1 iii4 7,palermo1 #ahhi7 pp4 #acb sqq4 ,hence we may suppose that in the ,roman ,campagna of old the last sowing of autumn was over before the middle of ,december1 when the ,saturnalia began4 ,footnote #ajaf3 ,this temporary liberty accorded to slaves was one of the most remarkable features of the ,saturnalia and kindred festivals in antiquity4 ,see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 iii4 #aci sqq4 ,footnote #ajag3 ,the learned ,swiss scholar1 ,j4 ,j4 ,bachofen long ago drew out in minute detail the parallel between these birth legends of the ,roman kings and licentious festivals like the ,roman ,saturnalia and the ,babylonian ,sacaea4 ,see his book ,die ,sage von ,tanaquil 7,heidelberg1 #ahgj71 pp4 #acc sqq4 ,to be frank1 ,i have not had the patience to read through his long dissertation4 ,footnote #ajah3 ,livy1 i4 #af2 ,dionysius ,halic4 ,ant4 ,rom4 ii4 #ef2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #bg2 ,florus1 i4 #a4 #af sq4 ,see above1 pp4 #aha sq4 ,footnote #ajai3 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 vi4 #ah2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #bi2 id41 ,camillus1 #cc2 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #aa4 #cf-dj4 ,the analogy of this festival to the ,babylonian ,sacaea was long ago pointed out by ,j4 ,j4 ,bachofen4 ,see his book ,die ,sage von ,tanaquil 7,heidelberg1 #ahgj71 pp4 #agb sqq4 ,footnote #ajbj3 ,aristotle1 ,hist4 anim4 v4 #cb1 p4 #eeg;b1 ed4 ,bekker2 ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 ii4 #h2 id41 ,de causis plantarum1 ii4 #i2 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 conviv4 vii4 #b4 #b2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xv4 #gi-ha1 xvi4 #aad1 xvii4 #bef2 ,palladius1 iv4 #aj4 #bh1 vii4 #e4 #b2 ,columella1 xi4 #b4 #ef2 ,geoponica1 iii4 #f1 x4 #dh4 ,as to the practice in modern ,greece and the fig-growing districts of ,asia ,minor1 see ,p4 de ,tournefort1 ,relation d'un voyage du ,levant 7,amsterdam1 #agah71 i4 #acj2 ,w4 ,r4 ,paton1 8,the ,pharmakoi and the ,story of the ,fall10 ,revue archologique1 ,,ivme ,srie1 ix4 7#aijg7 p4 #ea4 ,for an elaborate examination of the process and its relation to the domestication and spread of the fig-tree1 see ,graf zu ,solms-,laubach1 8,die ,herkunft1 ,domestication und ,verbreitung des gewhnlichen ,feigenbaums 7,ficus ,carica1 ,l4710 ,abhandlungen der ,kniglichen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften zu ,gttingen1 xxviii4 7#ahhb7 pp4 #a-ajf4 ,this last writer thinks that the operation was not practised by ,italian husbandmen1 because it is not mentioned by ,cato and ,varro4 ,but their silence can hardly outweigh the express mention and recommendation of it by ,palladius and ,columella4 ,theophrastus1 it is true1 says that the process was not in use in ,italy 7,hist4 ,plantarum1 ii4 #h4 #a71 but he can scarcely have had exact information on this subject4 ,caprificatio1 as this artificial fertilisation of fig-trees is called1 is still employed by the ,neapolitan peasantry1 though it seems to be unknown in northern ,italy4 ,pliny's account has no independent value1 as he merely copies from ,theophrastus4 ,the name 8goat-fig0 7caprificus7 applied to the wild fig-tree may be derived from the notion that the tree is a male who mounts the female as the he-goat mounts the she-goat4 ,similarly the ,messenians called the tree simply 8he-goat0 774 ,see ,pausanias1 iv4 #bj4 #a-c4 ,footnote #ajba3 ,g4 ,pitr1 ,usi e costumi1 credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano1 iii4 #aac4 ,footnote #ajbb3 ,budgett ,meakin1 ,the ,moors 7,london1 #aijb71 p4 #beh2 ,e4 ,doutt1 ,magie et religion dans l',afrique du ,nord 7,algiers1 #aijh71 p4 #efh4 ,footnote #ajbc3 ,a4 ,engler1 in ,v4 ,hehn's ,kulturpflanzen und ,hausthiere1 #gth ,ed41 7,berlin1 #aijb71 p4 #ii4 ,compare ,graf zu ,solms-,laubach1 op4 cit42 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4 8,fig-tree10 vol4 iv4 #aeai4 ,the ancients were well aware of the production of these insects in the wild fig-tree and their transference to the cultivated fig-tree4 ,sometimes instead of fertilising the trees by hand they contented themselves with planting wild fig-trees near cultivated fig-trees1 so that the fertilisation was effected by the wind1 which blew the insects from the male to the female trees4 ,see ,aristotle1 l4c42 ,theophrastus1 ,de causis plantarum1 ii4 #i2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xv4 #gi-ha2 ,palladius1 iv4 #aj4 #bh4 ,on subject of the fertilisation of the fig the late ,professor ,h4 ,marshall ,ward of ,cambridge kindly furnished me with the following note1 which will serve to supplement and correct the brief account in the text3--8,the fig is a hollow case full of flowers4 ,in the wild fig a small gall wasp 7,cynips psenes7 lays its eggs3 this kind of fig is still called ,caprificus4 ,the eggs hatch in the female flowers at the base of the hollow fig3 at the top1 near the ostiole observable on any ripe fig1 are the male flowers4 ,when the eggs hatch1 and the little insects creep through the ostiole1 the male flowers dust the wasp with pollen1 and the insect flies to another flower 7to lay its eggs71 and so fertilises many of the female flowers in return for the nursery afforded its eggs4 ,now1 the cultivated fig is apt to be barren of male flowers4 ,hence the hanging of branches bearing wild figs enables the escaping wasps to do the trick4 ,the ancients knew the fact that the propinquity of the ,caprificus helped the fertility of the cultivated fig1 but1 of course1 they did not know the details of the process4 ,the further complexities are1 chiefly1 that the fig bears two kinds of female flowers3 one especially fitted for the wasp's convenience1 the other not4 ,the ,caprificus figs are inedible4 ,in ,naples three crops of them are borne every year1 viz4 ,mamme 7in ,april71 ,profichi 7in ,june71 and ,mammoni 7in ,august74 ,it is the ,june crop that bears most male flowers and is most useful40 ,the suggestion that the festival of the seventh of ,july was connected with this horticultural operation is due to ,l4 ,preller 7,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #bhg74 ,footnote #ajbd3 ,see above1 pp4 #bd sq4 ,footnote #ajbe3 #a ,kings iv4 #be2 #b ,kings xviii4 #ca2 ,isaiah xxxvi4 #af2 ,micah iv4 #d2 ,zechariah iii4 #aj2 ,judges ix4 #aj sq42 ,h4 ,b4 ,tristram1 ,the ,natural ,history of the ,bible #ith ,ed4 7,london1 #ahih71 pp4 #cej sqq42 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4 8,fig ,tree10 vol4 ii4 #aeai sq4 ,footnote #ajbf3 ,herodotus1 i4 #ga4 ,footnote #ajbg3 ,zamachschar1 cited by ,graf zu ,solms-,laubach1 op4 cit4 p4 #hb4 ,for more evidence as to the fig in antiquity see ,v4 ,hehn1 ,kulturpflanzen und ,hausthiere1 #gth ,ed41 pp4 #id sqq4 ,footnote #ajbh3 ,letter of ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley to me1 dated ,nairobi1 ,british ,east ,africa1 ,july #bgth1 #aiaj4 ,this interesting information was given spontaneously and not in answer to any questions of mine4 ,footnote #ajbi3 ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 ,the ,ethnology of ,a-,kamba and other ,east ,african ,tribes 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4 #he1 #hi sq4 ,in ,british ,central ,africa 8every village has its #8prayer-tree1' under which the sacrifices are offered4 ,it stands 7usually7 in the bwalo1 the open space which ,mr4 ,macdonald calls the #8forum1' and is1 sometimes1 at any rate1 a wild fig-tree40 8,this is the principal tree used for making bark-cloth4 ,livingstone says1 #8,it is a sacred tree all over ,africa and ,india'2 and ,i learn from ,m4 ,auguste ,chevalier that it is found in every village of ,senegal and ,french ,guinea1 and looked on as #8a fetich-tree'0 7,miss ,a4 ,werner1 ,the ,natives of ,british ,central ,africa1 pp4 #fb sq474 ,footnote #ajcj3 ,from the unpublished papers of the ,rev4 ,john ,roscoe1 which he has kindly placed at my disposal4 ,footnote #ajca3 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 v4 #ed2 ,livy1 i4 #d4 #e2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 ii4 #daa sq42 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xv4 #gg2 ,festus1 pp4 #bff1 #bgj1 #bga1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 xiii4 #eh2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 viii4 #ij2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #d2 id41 ,quaestiones ,romanae1 #eg2 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquitates ,romanae1 iii4 #ga4 #e4 ,all the ,roman writers speak of the tree as a cultivated fig 7ficus71 not a wild fig 7caprificus71 and ,dionysius agrees with them4 ,plutarch alone 7,romulus1 #d7 describes it as a wild fig-tree 774 ,see also above1 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #ajcb3 ,festus1 p4 #bff1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,ettore ,pais1 ,ancient ,legends of ,roman ,history 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #ee sqq4 ,festus indeed treats the derivation as an absurdity1 and many people will be inclined to agree with him4 ,footnote #ajcc3 ,on the fifth of ,july a ceremony called the ,flight of the ,people was performed at ,rome4 ,some ancient writers thought that it commemorated the dispersal of the people after the disappearance of ,romulus4 ,but this is to confuse the dates2 for1 according to tradition1 the death of ,romulus took place on the seventh1 not the fifth of ,july1 and therefore after instead of before the ,flight of the ,people4 ,see ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 vi4 #ah2 ,macrobius1 ,sat4 iii4 #b4 #ad2 ,dionysius ,halicarn4 ,ant4 ,rom4 ii4 #ef4 #e2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #bi2 id41 ,camillus1 #cc2 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals of the ,period of the ,republic1 pp4 #agd sqq4 ,mr4 ,warde ,fowler may be right in thinking that some connexion perhaps existed between the ceremonies of the two days1 the fifth and the seventh2 and ,i agree with his suggestion that 8the story itself of the death of ,romulus had grown out of some religious rite performed at this time of year40 ,i note as a curious coincidence1 for it can hardly be more1 that at ,bodmin in ,cornwall a festival was held on the seventh of ,july1 when a ,lord of ,misrule was appointed1 who tried people for imaginary crimes and sentenced them to be ducked in a quagmire called ,halgaver1 which is explained to mean 8the goat's moor40 ,see ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular ,customs1 p4 #cci4 ,the 8goat's moor0 is an odd echo of the 8goat's marsh0 at which ,romulus disappeared on the same day of the year 7,livy1 i4 #af4 #a2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #bi2 id41 ,camillus1 #cc74 ,footnote #ajcd3 ,livy1 i4 #ad4 #a sq42 ,dionysius ,halicarn4 ,ant4 ,rom4 ii4 #eb4 #c2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #bc4 ,footnote #ajce3 ,dionysius ,halicarn4 ,ant4 ,rom4 iii4 #ce2 ,zonaras1 ,annales1 vii4 #f4 ,as to his reported death by lightning1 see above1 p4 #aha4 ,footnote #ajcf3 ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #bb4 ,i have pruned the luxuriant periods in which ,plutarch dwells1 with edifying unction1 on the righteous visitation of ,god which overtook that early agnostic ,tullus ,hostilius4 ,footnote #ajcg3 ,aurelius ,victor1 ,de viris illustribus1 v4 #e4 ,footnote #ajch3 ,livy1 i4 #dj2 ,dionysius ,halicarn4 ,ant4 ,rom4 iii4 #gc4 ,footnote #ajci3 ,livy1 i4 #dh2 ,dionysius ,halicarn4 ,ant4 ,rom4 iv4 #ch sq42 ,solinus1 i4 #be4 ,the reading ,virbium clivum 78the slope of ,virbius07 occurs only in the more recent manuscripts of ,livy3 the better-attested reading both of ,livy and ,solinus is ,urbium4 ,but the obscure ,virbium would easily and naturally be altered into ,urbium1 whereas the reverse change is very improbable4 ,see ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 in ,classical ,review1 xvi4 7#aijb7 p4 #chj1 note #c4 ,in this passage ,mr4 ,cook was the first to call attention to the analogy between the murder of the slave-born king1 ,servius ,tullius1 and the slaughter of the slave-king by his successor at ,nemi4 ,as to the oak-woods of the ,esquiline see above1 p4 #ahe4 ,footnote #ajdj3 ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 in ,stobaeus1 ,florilegium1 x4 #gj4 ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #deg4 ,footnote #ajda3 ,h4 ,jordan1 ,die ,knige im alten ,italien 7,berlin1 #ahhg71 pp4 #dd sq4 ,in this his last work ,jordan argues that the ,umbrian practice1 combined with the rule of the ,arician priesthood1 throws light on the existence and nature of the kingship among the ancient ,latins4 ,on this subject ,i am happy to be at one with so learned and judicious a scholar4 ,footnote #ajdb3 ,r4 ,e4 ,dennett1 ,at the ,back of the ,black ,man's ,mind 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #aa sq41 #aaa1 #aca sq41 #ace4 ,the word translated 8sacred ground0 7xibila1 plural bibila7 means properly 8sacred grove40 ,such 8sacred groves0 are common in this part of ,africa1 but in the 8sacred grove0 of the king of ,loango the tree beside which the monarch takes post to fight for the crown appears to stand solitary in a grassy plain4 ,see ,r4 ,e4 ,dennett1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aa sq41 #be1 #if sqq41 #aaj sqq4 ,we have seen that the right of succession to the throne of ,loango descends in the female line 7above1 pp4 #bgf sq471 which furnishes another point of resemblance between ,loango and ,rome1 if my theory of the ,roman kingship is correct4 ,footnote #ajdc3 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 #ecj4 ,my authority is the ,rev4 ,john ,roscoe1 formerly of the ,church ,missionary ,society in ,uganda4 ,footnote #ajdd3 ,memoirs of ,samuel ,pepys1 edited by ,richard1 ,lord ,braybrooke1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahbh71 i4 #aic sq4 7under ,april #bcrd1 #affa74 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,st4 ,,george ,,and ,,the ,,parilia ,sidenote3 ,the early ,italians were as much a pastoral as an agricultural people1 and their kings would be expected to ensure the safety and fecundity of the flocks and herds4 ,in the course of the preceding investigation we found reason to assume that the old ,latin kings1 like their brethren in many parts of the world1 were charged with certain religious duties or magical functions1 amongst which the maintenance of the fertility of the earth held a principal place4 ,by this ,i do not mean that they had to see to it only that the rain fell1 and that the corn grew and trees put forth their fruit in due season4 ,in those early days it is probable that the ,italians were quite as much a pastoral as an agricultural people1 or1 in other words1 that they depended for their subsistence no less on their flocks and herds than on their fields and orchards4 ,to provide their cattle with grass and water1 to ensure their fecundity and the abundance of their milk1 and to guard them from the depredations of wild beasts1 would be objects of the first importance with the shepherds and herdsmen who1 according to tradition1 founded ,rome2#ajde and the king1 as the representative or embodiment of the deity1 would be expected to do his part towards procuring these blessings for his people by the performance of sacred rites4 ,the ,greeks of the ,homeric age1 as we have seen1 thought that the reign of a good king not only made the land to bear wheat and barley1 but also caused the flocks to multiply and the sea to yield fish4#ajdf ,sidenote3 ,numa is said to have been born and ,rome to have been founded on the shepherds' festival of the ,parilia1 the twenty-first of ,april4 ,in this connexion1 accordingly1 it can be no mere accident that ,rome is said to have been founded and the pious king ,numa to have been born on the twenty-first of ,april1 the day of the great shepherds' festival of the ,parilia4#ajdg ,it is very unlikely that the real day either of the foundation of the city or of ,numa's birth should have been remembered1 even if we suppose ,numa to have been an historical personage rather than a mythical type2 it is far more probable that both events were arbitrarily assigned to this date by the speculative antiquaries of a later age on the ground of some assumed fitness or propriety4 ,in what did this fitness or propriety consist8 ,the belief that the first ,romans were shepherds and herdsmen would be reason enough for supposing that ,rome was founded on the day of the shepherds' festival1 or even that the festival was instituted to commemorate the event4#ajdh ,but why should ,numa be thought to have been born on that day of all days8 ,perhaps it was because the old sacred kings1 of whom he was the model1 had to play an important part in the ceremonies of the day4 ,the birthdays of the gods were celebrated by festivals2#ajdi the kings were divine or semi-divine2 it would be natural1 therefore1 that their birthdays should be identified with high feasts and holidays4 ,whether this was so or not1 the festival of the ,parilia presents so many points of resemblance to some of the popular customs discussed in these volumes that a brief examination of it may not be inappropriate in this place4#ajej ,sidenote3 ,the ,parilia1 a festival celebrated by shepherds and herdsmen in honour of ,pales1 for the safety and increase of their flocks and herds4 ,the spring festival of the twenty-first of ,april1 known as the birthday of ,rome1#ajea was deemed second in importance to none in the calendar4#ajeb ,it was held by shepherds and herdsmen for the welfare and increase of their flocks and herds4#ajec ,the pastoral deity to whom they paid their devotions was ,pales1 as to whose sex the ancients themselves were not at one4 ,in later times they commonly spoke of her as a goddess2 but ,varro regarded ,pales as masculine1#ajed and we may follow his high authority4 ,the day was celebrated with similar rites both in the town and the country1 but in its origin it must have been a strictly rural festival4 ,indeed1 it could hardly be carried out in full except among the sheepfolds and cattle-pens4 ,at some time of the day1 probably in the morning1 the people repaired to the temple of ,vesta1 where they received from the ,vestal ,virgins ashes1 blood1 and bean-straw to be used in fumigating themselves and probably their beasts4 ,the ashes were those of the unborn calves which had been torn from their mothers' wombs on the fifteenth of ,april2 the blood was that which had dripped from the tail of a horse sacrificed in ,october4#ajee ,both were probably supposed to exercise a fertilising as well as a cleansing influence on the people and on the cattle2#ajef for apparently one effect of the ceremonies1 in the popular opinion1 was to quicken the wombs of women no less than of cows and ewes4#ajeg ,at break of day the shepherd purified his sheep1 after sprinkling and sweeping the ground4 ,the fold was decked with leafy boughs1 and a great wreath was hung on the door4#ajeh ,the purification of the flocks apparently consisted in driving them over burning heaps of grass1 pine-wood1 laurel1 and branches of the male olive-tree4#ajei ,certainly at some time of ,sidenote3 ,the flocks purified by being driven through fire4 the day the sheep were compelled to scamper over a fire4#ajfj ,moreover1 the bleating flocks were touched with burning sulphur and fumigated with its blue smoke4#ajfa ,then the shepherd offered to ,pales baskets of millet1 cakes of millet1 and pails of warm milk4 ,next he prayed to the god that he would guard the fold from the evil powers1 including probably witchcraft2#ajfb that the flocks1 the men1 and the dogs might be hale and free from disease2 that the sheep might not fall a prey to wolves2 that grass and leaves might abound2 that water might be plentiful2 that the udders of the dams might be full of milk2 that the rams might be lusty1 and the ewes prolific2 that many lambs might be born2 and that there might be much wool at shearing4#ajfc ,this prayer the shepherd had to repeat four times1 looking to the east2 then he washed his hands in the morning dew4 ,after that he drank a bowl of milk and wine1 and1 warmed with the liquor1 leaped ever burning heaps of crackling straw4 ,this practice of jumping over a straw fire would seem to have been a principal part of the ceremonies3 at least it struck the ancients themselves1 for they often refer to it4#ajfd ,sidenote3 ,the shepherd's prayer4 ,the shepherd's prayer at the ,parilia is instructive1 because it gives us in short a view of the chief wants of ,sidenote3 ,the shepherd has to propitiate the tree-spirits and water-spirits4 the pastoral life4 ,the supplication for grass and leaves and water reminds us that the herdsman no less than the husbandman depends ultimately on vegetation and rain2 so that the same divine powers which cover the fields of the one with yellow corn may be conceived to carpet the meadows of the other with green grass1 and to diversify them with pools and rivers for the refreshment of the thirsty cattle4 ,and it is to be borne in mind that in countries where grass is less plentiful than under the rainy skies of northern ,europe1 sheep1 goats1 and cattle still subsist in great measure on the leaves and juicy twigs of trees4#ajfe ,hence in these lands the pious shepherd and goatherd cannot afford to ignore or to offend the tree-spirits1 on whose favour and bounty his flocks are dependent for much of their fodder4 ,indeed1 at the ,parilia the shepherd made elaborate excuses to these divine beings for any trespass he might unwittingly have committed on their hallowed domain by entering a sacred grove1 sitting in the shadow of a holy tree1 or lopping leafy branches from it with which to feed a sickly sheep4#ajff ,in like manner he craved pardon of the water-nymphs1 if the hoofs of his cattle had stirred up the mud in their clear pools2 and he implored ,pales to intercede for him with the divinities of springs 8and the gods dispersed through every woodland glade40#ajfg ,sidenote3 ,the ,parilia was perhaps the time when the flocks and herds were turned out for the first time in spring to graze in the open4 ,the ,parilia was generally considered to be the best time for coupling the rams and the ewes2#ajfh and it has been suggested that it was also the season when the flocks and herds1 after being folded and stalled throughout the winter1 were turned out for the first time to pasture in spring4#ajfi ,the occasion is an anxious one for the shepherd1 especially in countries which are infested with wolves1 as ancient ,italy was4#ajgj ,accordingly the ,italian shepherd propitiated ,pales with a slaughtered victim before he drove his flocks afield in spring2#ajga but it is doubtful whether this sacrifice formed part of the ,parilia4 ,none of the ancient authors who expressly describe the ,parilia mention the slaughter of a victim2 and in ,plutarch's day a tradition ran that of old no blood was shed at the festival4#ajgb ,but such a tradition seems to point to a contrary practice in after-times4 ,in the absence of decisive evidence the question must be left open2 but modern analogy1 as we shall see1 strongly supports the opinion that immediately at the close of the ,parilia the flocks and herds were driven out to graze in the open pastures for the first time after their long winter confinement4 ,on this view a special significance is seen to attach to some of the features of the festival1 such as the prayer for protection against the wolf2 for the brute could hardly do the sheep and kine much harm so long as they were safely pent within the walls of the sheepcote and the cattle-stall4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,roman kings had perhaps to discharge some important religious function at the ,parilia4 ,as the ,parilia is said to have been celebrated by ,romulus1 who sacrificed to the gods and caused the people to purify themselves by leaping over flames1#ajgc some scholars have inferred that it was customary for the king1 and afterwards for his successor1 the chief pontiff1 or the ,king of the ,sacred ,rites1 to offer sacrifices for the people at the ,parilia4#ajgd ,the inference is reasonable and receives some confirmation1 as we shall see presently1 from the analogy of modern custom4 ,further1 the tradition that ,numa was born on the day of the ,parilia may be thought to point in the same way1 since it is most naturally explicable on the hypothesis that the king had to discharge some important function at the festival4 ,still1 it must be confessed that the positive evidence for connecting the ,roman kings with the celebration of the twenty-first of ,april is slight and dubious4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,parilia intended to ensure the welfare of the cattle and to guard them against witches and wolves4 ,on the whole the festival of the ,parilia1 which probably fell at or near the time of turning out the cattle to pasture in spring1 was designed to ensure their welfare and increase1 and to guard them from the insidious machinations or the open attacks of their various enemies1 among whom witches and wolves were perhaps the most dreaded4 ,sidenote3 ,a celebration of the same sort is still held in eastern ,europe on the twenty-third of ,april1 the festival of ,st4 ,george1 the patron saint of cattle1 horses1 and wolves4 ,now it can hardly be a mere coincidence that down to modern times a great popular festival of this sort has been celebrated only two days later by the herdsmen and shepherds of eastern ,europe1 who still cherish a profound belief in witchcraft1 and still fear1 with far better reason1 the raids of wolves on their flocks and herds4 ,the festival falls on the twenty-third of ,april and is dedicated to ,st4 ,george1 the patron saint of cattle1 horses1 and wolves4 ,the ,esthonians say that on ,st4 ,george's morning the wolf gets a ring round his snout and a halter about his neck1 whereby he is rendered less dangerous till ,michaelmas4 ,but if the day should chance to be a ,friday at full moon1 or if before the day came round any person should have been so rash as to thump the dirty linen in the wash-tub with two beetles1 the cattle will run a serious risk of being devoured by wolves4 ,many are the precautions taken by the anxious ,esthonians ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken by the ,esthonians against wolves and witches on ,st4 ,george's ,day4 on this day to guard their herds from the ravening beasts4 ,thus some people gather wolf's dung on the preceding night1 burn it1 and fumigate the cattle with it in the morning4 ,or they collect bones from the pastures and burn them at a cross-road1 which serves as a charm against sickness1 sorcery1 and demons quite as well as against wolves4 ,others smoke the cattle with asa foetida or sulphur to protect them against witchcraft and noxious exhalations4 ,they think1 too1 that if you sew stitches on ,st4 ,george's morning the cubs of the wolves will be blind1 no doubt because their eyes are sewed up by the needle and thread4 ,in order to forecast the fate of their herds the peasants put eggs or a sharp weapon1 such as an axe or a scythe1 before the doors of the stalls1 and the animal which crushes an egg or wounds itself will surely be rent by a wolf or will perish in some other fashion before the year is out4 ,so certain is its fate that many a man prefers to slaughter the doomed beast out of hand for the sake of saving at least the beef4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,esthonians generally drive their cattle out to pasture for the first time on ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,as a rule the ,esthonians drive their cattle out to pasture for the first time on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 and the herdsman's duties begin from then4 ,if1 however1 the herds should have been sent out to graze before that day1 the boys who look after them must eat neither flesh nor butter while they are on duty2 else the wolves will destroy many sheep1 and the cream will not turn to butter in the churn4 ,further1 the boys may not kindle a fire in the wood1 or the wolf's tooth would be fiery and he would bite viciously4 ,by ,st4 ,george's ,day1 the twenty-third of ,april1 there is commonly fresh grass in the meadows4 ,but even if the spring should be late and the cattle should have to return to their stalls hungrier than they went forth1 many ,esthonian farmers insist on turning out the poor beasts on ,st4 ,george's ,day in order that the saint may guard them against his creatures the wolves4 ,on this morning the farmer treats the herdsman to a dram of brandy1 and gives him two copper kopecks as 8tail-money0 for every cow in the herd4 ,this money the giver first passes thrice round his head and then lays it on the dunghill2 for if the herdsman took it from his hand1 it would in some way injure the herd4 ,were this ceremony omitted1 the wolves would prove very destructive1 because they had not been appeased on ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,after receiving the 8tail-money0 some herdsmen are wont to collect the herd on the village common4 ,here they set up their crook in the ground1 place their hat on it1 and walk thrice round the cattle1 muttering spells or the ,lord's ,prayer as they do so4 ,the pastoral crook should be cut from the rowan or mountain-ash and consecrated by a wise man1 who carves mystic signs on it4 ,sometimes the upper end of the crook is hollowed out and filled with quicksilver and asa foetida1 the aperture being stopped up with resin4 ,some ,esthonians cut a cross with a scythe under the door through which the herd is to be driven1 and fill the furrows of the cross with salt to prevent certain evil beings from harming the cattle4 ,further1 it is an almost universal custom in ,esthonia not to hang bells on the necks of the kine till ,st4 ,george's ,day2 the few who can give a reason for the rule say that the chiming of the bells before that season would attract the wild beasts4#ajge ,sidenote3 ,sacrifices for horses offered on ,st4 ,george's ,day by the ,esthonians of ,dago4 ,in the island of ,dago down to the early part of the nineteenth century there were certain holy trees from which no one dared to break a bough2 in spite of the lack of wood in the island the fallen branches were allowed to rot in heaps on the ground4 ,under such trees the ,esthonians used to offer sacrifices on ,st4 ,george's ,day for the safety and welfare of their horses4 ,the offerings1 which consist of an egg1 a piece of money1 and a bunch of horse-hair tied up with a red thread1 were buried in the earth4#ajgf ,the custom is interesting because it exhibits ,st4 ,george in the two-fold character of a patron of horses and of trees4 ,in the latter capacity he has already met us more than once under the name of ,green ,george4#ajgg ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,george as the patron of wolves and cattle in ,russia2 the herds are driven out to pasture for the first time on his day4 ,in ,russia the saint is known as ,yegory or ,yury1 and here1 as in ,esthonia1 he is a patron of wolves as well as of flocks and herds4 ,many legends speak of the connexion which exists between ,st4 ,george and the wolf4 ,in ,little ,russia the beast is known as 8,st4 ,george's ,dog10 and the carcases of sheep which wolves have killed are not eaten1 it being held that they have been made over by divine command to the beasts of the field4#ajgh ,the festival of ,st4 ,george on the twenty-third of ,april has a national as well as an ecclesiastical character in ,russia1 and the mythical features of the songs which are devoted to the day prove that the saint has supplanted some old ,slavonian deity who used to be honoured at this season in heathen times4 ,it is not as a slayer of dragons and a champion of forlorn damsels that ,st4 ,george figures in these songs1 but as a patron of farmers and herdsmen who preserves cattle from harm1 and on whose day accordingly the flocks and herds are driven out to browse the fresh pastures for the first time after their confinement through the long ,russian winter4 8,what the wolf holds in its teeth1 that ,yegory has given10 is a proverb which shews how completely he is thought to rule over the fold and the stall4 ,here is one of the songs3-- 8,we have gone around the field1 ,we have called ,yegory 444 #8,o thou1 our brave ,yegory1 ,save our cattle1 ,in the field1 and beyond the field1 ,in the forest1 and beyond the forest1 ,under the bright moon1 ,under the red sun1 ,from the rapacious wolf1 ,from the cruel bear1 ,from the cunning beast4'0 ,a ,white-,russian song represents ,st4 ,george as opening with golden keys1 probably the sunbeams1 the soil which has been frost-bound all the winter3-- 8,holy ,jury1 the divine envoy1 ,has gone to ,god1 ,and having taken the golden keys1 ,has unlocked the moist earth1 ,having scattered the clinging dew ,over ,white-,russia and all the world40 ,in ,moravia they 8meet the ,spring0 with a song in which they ask ,green ,thursday1 that is1 the day before ,good ,friday1 what he has done with the keys1 and he answers3 8,i gave them to ,st4 ,george4 ,st4 ,george arose and unlocked the earth1 so that the grass grew--the green grass40 ,in ,white ,russia it is customary on ,st4 ,george's ,day to drive the cattle afield through the morning dew1 and in ,little ,russia and ,bulgaria young folk go out early and roll themselves in it4#ajgi ,in the ,smolensk ,government on this day the cattle are driven out first to the rye-fields and then to the pastures4 ,a religious service is held in the stalls before the departure of the herd and afterwards in the field1 where the stool which supported the holy picture is allowed to stand for several weeks till the next procession with the pictures of the saints takes place4 ,st4 ,george's ,day in this government is the herdsmen's festival1 and it is the term from which their engagements are dated4#ajhj ,and in the ,smolensk ,government1 when the herds are being sent out to graze on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 the following spell is uttered3-- 8,deaf man1 deaf man1 dost thou hear us80 8,i hear not40 8,god grant that the wolf may not hear our cattle60 8,cripple1 cripple1 canst thou catch us80 8,i cannot catch40 8,god grant that the wolf may not catch our cattle60 8,blind man1 blind man1 dost thou see us80 8,i see not40 8,god grant that the wolf may not see our cattle60#ajha ,sidenote3 ,in ,russia witches try to steal the milk of the cattle on the eve of ,st4 ,george4 ,but in the opinion of the ,russian peasant wolves are not the only foes of cattle at this season4 ,on the eve of ,st4 ,george's ,day1 as well as on the night before ,whitsunday and on ,midsummer ,eve1 witches go out naked in the dark and cut chips from the doors and gates of farmyards4 ,these they boil in a milk-pail1 and thus charm away the milk from the farms4 ,hence careful housewives examine their doors and smear mud in any fresh gashes they may find in them1 which frustrates the knavish tricks of the milk-stealing witch4 ,not to be baffled1 however1 the witches climb the wooden crosses by the wayside and chip splinters from them1 or lay their hands on stray wooden wedges4 ,these they stick into a post in the cattle-shed and squeeze them with their hands till milk flows from them as freely as from the dugs of a cow4 ,at this time also wicked people turn themselves by magic art into dogs and black cats1 and in that disguise they suck the milk of cows1 mares1 and ewes1 while they slaughter the bulls1 horses1 and rams4#ajhb ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,george's ,day among the ,ruthenians4 ,the ,ruthenians of ,bukowina and ,galicia believe that at midnight before ,st4 ,george's ,day 7the twenty-third of ,april7 the witches come in bands of twelve to the hills at the boundaries of the villages and there dance and play with fire4 ,moreover1 they cull on the mountains the herbs they need for their infernal enchantments4 ,like the ,esthonians and the ,russians1 the ,ruthenians drive their cattle out to pasture for the first time on ,st4 ,george's ,day2 hence during the preceding night the witches are very busy casting their spells on the cows2 and the farmer is at great pains to defeat their fell purpose4 ,with this intent many people catch a snake1 skin it1 and fumigate the cows with the skin on the eve of the saint's day4 ,to rub the udders and horns of the cows with serpent's fat is equally effective4 ,others strew meal about the animals1 saying1 8,not till thou hast gathered up this meal1 shalt thou take the milk from my cow ,so-and-so40 ,further1 sods of turf1 with thorn-branches stuck in them1 are laid on the gate-posts2 and crosses are painted with tar on the doors4 ,these precautions keep the witches from the cows4 ,if1 however1 a beast should after all be bewitched1 the farmer's wife drags a rope about in the dew on the morning of ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,then she chops it up small1 mixes salt with it1 and scatters the bits among the cow's fodder4 ,no sooner has the afflicted animal partaken of this compound than the spell is broken4#ajhc ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,george's ,day among the ,huzuls of the ,carpathians4 ,the ,huzuls of the ,carpathian ,mountains believe that when a cow gives milk tinged with blood1 or no milk at all1 a witch is the cause of it4 ,these maleficent beings play their pranks especially on the eve of ,st4 ,george's ,day and on ,midsummer ,eve1 but they are most dangerous at the former season1 for that night they and the foul fiends hold their greatest gathering or sabbath4 ,to steal the cows' milk they resort to various devices4 ,sometimes they run about in the shape of dogs and smell the cows' udders4 ,sometimes they rub the udders of their own cows with milk taken from a neighbour's kine2 then their own cows yield abundant milk1 but the udders of the neighbour's cows shrivel up or give only blood4 ,others again make a wooden cow on the spot where the real cows are generally milked1 taking care to stick into the ground the knife they used in carving the image4 ,then the wooden cow yields the witch all the milk of the cattle which are commonly milked there1 while the owner of the beasts gets nothing but blood from them4 ,sidenote3 ,precautions taken by the ,huzuls against the witches who try to steal milk on the eve of ,st4 ,george4 ,hence the ,huzuls take steps to guard their cows from the machinations of witches at this season4 ,for this purpose they kindle a great fire before the house on the eve of ,st4 ,george's ,day1 using as fuel the dung which has accumulated during the winter4 ,also they place on the gate-posts clods in which are stuck the branches consecrated on ,palm ,sunday or boughs of the silver poplar1 the wood of which is deemed especially efficacious in banning fiends4 ,moreover1 they make crosses on the doors1 sprinkle the cows with mud1 and fumigate them with incense or the skin of a snake4 ,to tie red woollen threads round the necks or tails of the animals is also a safeguard against witchcraft4 ,and in ,june1 when the snow has melted and the cattle are led to the high mountain pastures1 the herds have no sooner reached their summer quarters than the herdsman makes 8living fire0 by the friction of wood and drives the animals over the ashes in order to protect them against witches and other powers of evil4 ,the fire thus kindled is kept constantly burning in the herdsman's hut till with the chill of autumn the time comes to drive the herds down the mountains again4 ,if the fire went out in the interval1 it would be an ill omen for the owner of the pastures4#ajhd ,sidenote3 ,sacrifice for horses in ,silesia on ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,in some parts of ,silesia the might of the witches is believed to be at the highest pitch on ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,the people deem the saint very powerful in the matter of cattle-breeding and especially of horse-breeding4 ,at the ,polish village of ,ostroppa1 not far from ,gleiwitz1 a sacrifice for horses used to be offered at the little village church4 ,it has been described by an eye-witness4 ,peasants on horseback streamed to the spot from all the neighbouring villages1 not with the staid and solemn pace of pilgrims1 but with the noise and clatter of merrymakers hastening to a revel4 ,the sorry image of the saint1 carved in wood and about an ell high1 stood in the churchyard on a table covered with a white cloth4 ,it represented him seated on horseback and spearing the dragon4 ,beside it were two vessels to receive offerings of money and eggs respectively4 ,as each farmer galloped up1 he dismounted1 led his horse by the bridle1 knelt before the image of the saint1 and prayed4 ,after that he made his offering of money or eggs1 according to his means1 in the name of his horse4 ,then he led the beast round the church and churchyard1 tethered it1 and went into the church to hear mass and a sermon4 ,having thus paid his devotions to the saint1 every man leaped into the saddle and made for the nearest public-house as fast as his horse could lay legs to the ground4#ajhe ,sidenote3 ,festival of ,st4 ,george1 as the patron of horses1 at ,ertringen in ,bavaria4 ,at ,ertringen1 in ,south ,bavaria1 there is a chapel of ,st4 ,george1 where a festival of the saint used to be held on ,april the twenty-fourth down to the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,from the whole neighbourhood people streamed thither on horseback and in waggons to take part in the ceremony4 ,more than fourteen hundred riders are said to have been present on one occasion4 ,the foundation of the chapel was attributed to the monastery of ,holy ,cross ,vale 7,heiligkreuztal71 and the abbot and prior with their suite attended the festival in state mounted on white horses4 ,a burgher of ,ertringen had to ride as patron in the costume of ,st4 ,george1 whom he represented4 ,he alone bestrode a fiery stallion4 ,after the celebration of high mass the horses were blessed at the chapel4 ,then the procession of men on horseback moved round the common lands1 winding up at the parish church1 where it broke up4#ajhf ,in many villages near ,freiburg in ,baden ,st4 ,george is the patron of horses1 and in some parts of ,baden the saint's day 7,april the twenty-third7 is the season when cattle are driven out to pasture for the first time in spring4#ajhg ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,george's ,day among the ,saxons and ,roumanians of ,transylvania4 ,the ,saxons of ,transylvania think that on the eve of ,st4 ,george's ,day the witches ride on the backs of the cows into the farmyard1 if branches of wild rosebushes or other thorny shrubs are not stuck over the gate of the yard to keep them out4#ajhh ,beliefs and practices of this sort are shared by the ,roumanians of ,transylvania4 ,they hold that on ,st4 ,george's ,day the witches keep their sabbath in sequestered spots1 such as woodland glades1 deserted farm-steadings1 and the like4 ,in ,walachia green sods are laid on the window-sills and on the lintels of the doors to avert the uncanny crew4 ,but in ,transylvania the ,roumanians1 not content with setting a thorn-bush in the doorway of the house1 keep watch and ward all night beside the cattle or elsewhere1 to catch the witches who are at work stealing the milk from the cows4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 the day is above all the herdsman's festival4 ,it marks the beginning of spring2 the shepherds are preparing to start for the distant pastures1 and they listen with all their ears to some wiseacre who tells them how1 if the milk should fail in the udders of the sheep1 they have only to thrash the shepherd's pouch1 and every stroke will fall on the witch who is pumping the lost milk into her pails4#ajhi ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,george's ,day the herdsman's festival among the ,walachians4 ,the ,walachians look on ,st4 ,george's ,day as very holy2 for they are mainly a pastoral folk1 and ,st4 ,george is the patron of herds and herdsmen4 ,on that day also1 as well as on the day before and the day after1 the ,walachian numbers his herd1 beginning at one and counting continuously up to the total4 ,this he never does at any other time of the year4 ,on this day1 too1 he milks his sheep for the first time into vessels which have been carefully scoured and are wreathed with flowers4 ,then too a cake of white meal is baked in the shape of a ring1 and is rolled on the ground in sight of the herd2 and from the length of its course omens are drawn as to the good or bad luck of the cattle in their summer pastures4 ,if the herd is owned by several men1 they afterwards lay hold of the ring1 and break it among them1 and the one who gets the largest piece will have the best luck4 ,the milk is made into a cheese which is divided2 and the pieces of the cake are given to the shepherds4 ,in like manner the wreaths of flowers which crowned the pails are thrown into the water1 and from the way in which they float down-stream the shepherds presage good or evil fortune4#ajij ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,george's ,day among the ,bulgarians and ,south ,slavs4 ,the ,bulgarians seem to share the belief that cattle are especially exposed to the machinations of witches at this season1 for it is a rule with them not to give away milk1 butter1 or cheese on the eve of ,st4 ,george's ,day2 to do so1 they say1 would be to give away the profit of the milch kine4#ajia ,they rise very early on the morning of this day1 and wash themselves in the dew1 that they may be healthy4#ajib ,it is said1 too1 that a regular sacrifice is still offered on ,st4 ,george's ,day in ,bulgaria4 ,an old man kills a ram1 while girls spread grass on which the blood is poured forth4#ajic ,the intention of the sacrifice may be to make the herbage grow abundantly in the pastures4 ,amongst the ,south ,slavs the twenty-third of ,april1 ,st4 ,george's ,day1 is the chief festival of the spring4 ,the herdsman thinks that if his cattle are well on that day they will thrive throughout the year4 ,as we have already seen1#ajid he crowns the horns of his cows with garlands of flowers to guard them against witchcraft1 and in the evening the garlands are hung on the doors of the stalls1 where they remain until the next ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,early in the morning of that day1 when the herdsman drives the cows from the byres1 the housewife takes salt in one hand and a potsherd with glowing coals in the other4 ,she offers the salt to the cow1 and the beast must step over the smouldering coals1 on which various kinds of roses are smoking4 ,this deprives the witches of all power to harm the cow4 ,on the eve or the morning of the day old women cut thistles and fasten them to the doors and gates of the farm2 and they make crosses with cow's dung on the doors of the byres to ward off the witches4 ,many knock great nails into the doors1 which is thought to be a surer preventive even than thistles4 ,in certain districts the people cut thistles before sunrise and put some on each other's heads1 some on the fences1 the windows1 the doors1 and some in the shape of wreaths round the necks of the cows1 in order that the witches may be powerless to harm man and beast1 house and homestead1 throughout the year4 ,if1 nevertheless1 a witch should contrive to steal through the garden fence and into the byre1 it is all over with the cows4 ,a good housewife will also go round her house and cattle-stalls early in the morning of the fateful day and sprinkle them with holy water4 ,another approved means of driving the witches away is furnished by the froth which is shot from the spokes of a revolving mill-wheel2 for common-sense tells us that just as the froth flies from the wheel1 so the witches will fly from our house1 if only we apply the remedy in the right way4 ,and the right way is this4 ,on the eve of ,st4 ,george's ,day you must send a child to fetch froth from the mill1 three stones from three cross-roads1 three twigs of a blackberry bush1 three sprigs of beech1 and three shoots of a wild vine4 ,then you insert the plants in a buttered roll1 put the stones in the fire1 boil the froth1 toast the buttered roll over the glowing stones1 and speak these words3 8,the blackberry twigs gather together1 the beeches pull together1 but the foam from the wheel shakes all evil away40 ,do this1 and you may take my word for it that no witch will be able to charm away the milk from your cows4#ajie ,sidenote3 ,precautions of the same sort are taken against wolves and witches whenever the cattle are driven out to pasture for the first time in spring4 ,thus on the whole the festival of ,st4 ,george at the present day1 like the ,parilia of ancient ,italy1 is a ceremony intended to guard the cattle against their real and their imaginary foes1 the wolves and the witches1 at the critical season when the flocks and herds are driven out to pasture for the first time in spring4 ,precautions of the same sort are naturally taken by the superstitious herdsman whenever1 the winter being over1 he turns his herds out into the open for the first time1 whether it be on ,st4 ,george's ,day or not4 ,thus in ,prussia and ,lithuania1 when the momentous morning broke1 the herd-boy ran from house to house in the village1 knocked at the windows1 and cried3 8,put out the fire1 spin not1 reel not1 but drive the cattle out60 ,meantime the herdsman had fetched sand from the church1 which he strewed on the road by which the beasts must go from the farmyard4 ,at the same time he laid a woodcutter's axe in every doorway1 with the sharp edge outwards1 over which the cows had to step4 ,then he walked in front of them1 speaking never a word1 and paying no heed to the herd1 which was kept together by the herd-boys alone4 ,his thoughts were occupied by higher things1 for he was busy making crosses1 blessing the cattle1 and murmuring prayers1 till the pastures were reached4 ,the axe in the doorway signified that the wolf should flee from the herd as from the sharp edge of the axe3 the sand from the church betokened that the cattle should not disperse and wander in the meadows1 but should keep as close together as people in church4#ajif ,sidenote3 ,swedish observances at turning out the cattle to graze after their winter confinement4 ,in ,sweden the cattle are confined almost wholly to their stalls during the long and dreary northern winter2 and the first day in spring on which they are turned out into the forest to graze has been from time immemorial a great popular festival4 ,the time of its celebration depends more or less on the mildness or severity of the season4 ,for the most part it takes place about the middle of ,may4 ,on the preceding evening bonfires are kindled everywhere in the forest1 because so far as their flickering light extends the cattle will be safe from the attacks of wild beasts throughout the summer4 ,for the same reason people go about the woods that night firing guns1 blowing horns1 and making all kinds of discordant noises4 ,the mode of celebrating the festival1 which in some places is called the feast of flowers1 varies somewhat in different provinces4 ,in ,dalsland the cattle are driven home that day from pasture at noon instead of at evening4 ,early in the morning the herd-boy repairs with the herd to the forest1 where he decks their horns with wreaths of flowers and provides himself with a wand of the rowan or mountain-ash4 ,during his absence the girls pluck flowers1 weave them into a garland1 and hang it on the gate through which the cattle must pass on their return from the forest4 ,when they come back1 the herd-boy takes the garland from the gate1 fastens it to the top of his wand1 and marches with it at the head of his beasts to the hamlet4 ,afterwards the wand with the garland on it is set up on the muck-heap1 where it remains all the summer4 ,the intention of these ceremonies is not said1 but on the analogy of the preceding customs we may conjecture that both the flowers and the rowan-wand are supposed to guard the cattle against witchcraft4 ,a little later in the season1 when the grass is well grown in the forest1 most of the cattle are sent away to the ster1 or summer pastures1 of which every hamlet commonly has one or more4 ,these are clearings in the woods1 and may be many miles distant from the village4 ,in ,dalecarlia the departure usually takes place in the first week of ,june4 ,it is a great event for the pastoral folk4 ,an instinctive longing seems to awaken both in the people and the beasts4 ,the preparations of the women are accompanied by the bleating of the sheep and goats and the lowing of the cattle1 which make incessant efforts to break through the pens near the house where they are shut up4 ,two or more girls1 according to the size of the herd1 attend the cattle on their migration and stay with them all the summer4 ,every animal as it goes forth1 whether cow1 sheep1 or goat1 is marked on the brow with a cross by means of a tar-brush in order to protect it against evil spirits4 ,but more dangerous foes lie in wait for the cattle in the distant pastures1 where bears and wolves not uncommonly rush forth on them from the woods4 ,on such occasions the herd-girls often display the utmost gallantry1 belabouring the ferocious beasts with sticks1 and risking their own lives in defence of the herds4#ajig ,sidenote3 ,these modern parallels throw light on some features of the ,parilia4 ,the foregoing customs1 practised down to modern times by shepherds and herdsmen with a full sense of their meaning1 throw light on some features of the ,parilia which might otherwise remain obscure4 ,they seem to shew that when the ,italian shepherd hung green boughs on his folds1 and garlands on his doors1 he did so in order to keep the witches from the ewes2 and that in fumigating his flocks with sulphur and driving them over a fire of straw he sought to interpose a fiery barrier between them and the powers of evil1 whether these were conceived as witches or mischievous spirits4 ,sidenote3 ,green ,george a personification of a spirit of trees or of vegetation in general4 ,but ,st4 ,george is more than a patron of cattle4 ,the mummer who dresses up in green boughs on the saint's day and goes by the name of ,green ,george#ajih clearly personifies the saint himself1 and such a disguise is appropriate only to a spirit of trees or of vegetation in general4 ,as if to make this quite clear1 the ,slavs of ,carinthia carry a tree decked with flowers in the procession in which ,green ,george figures2 and the ceremonies in which the leaf-clad masker takes a part plainly indicate that he is thought to stand in intimate connexion with rain as well as with cattle4 ,this counterpart of our ,jack in the ,green is known in some parts of ,russia1 and the ,slovenes call him ,green ,george4 ,dressed in leaves and flowers1 he appears in public on ,st4 ,george's ,day carrying a lighted torch in one hand and a pie in the other4 ,thus arrayed he goes out to the cornfields1 followed by girls1 who sing appropriate songs4 ,a circle of brushwood is then lighted1 and the pie is set in the middle of it4 ,all who share in the ceremony sit down around the fire1 and the pie is divided among them4 ,the observance has perhaps a bearing on the cattle as well as on the cornfields1 for in some parts of ,russia when the herds go out to graze for the first time in spring a pie baked in the form of a sheep is cut up by the chief herdsman1 and the bits are kept as a cure for the ills to which sheep are subject4#ajii ,sidenote3 8,ringing out the grass0 on ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,at ,schwaz1 an old ,tyrolese town in the lower valley of the ,inn1 young lads assemble on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 which is here the twenty-fourth of ,april1 and having provided themselves with bells1 both large and small1 they go in procession ringing them to the various farms of the neighbourhood1 where they are welcomed and given milk to drink4 ,these processions1 which take place in other parts of the ,tyrol also1 go by the name of 8ringing out the grass0 7,grasausluten71 and it is believed that wherever the bell-ringers come1 there the grass grows and the crops will be abundant4 ,this beneficial effect appears to be ascribed to the power of the bells to disperse the evil spirits1 which are thought to be rampant on ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,for the same purpose of averting demoniac influence at this time1 people in ,salzburg and the neighbouring districts of ,upper ,austria go in procession round the fields and stick palm branches or small crosses in them2 also they fasten branches of the ,prunus ,padus1 ,l41 at the windows of the houses and cattle-stalls4#aajj ,in some parts of ,germany the farmer looks to the height of his corn on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 expecting that it should then be high enough to hide a crow4#aaja ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,george supposed to get barren women with child4 ,even when we have said that ,st4 ,george of ,eastern ,europe represents an old heathen deity of sheep1 cattle1 horses1 wolves1 vegetation1 and rain1 we have not exhausted all the provinces over which he is supposed to bear sway4 ,according to an opinion which appears to be widely spread1 he has the power of blessing barren women with offspring4 ,this belief is clearly at the root of the ,south ,slavonian custom1 described above1 whereby a childless woman hopes to become a mother by wearing a shirt which has hung all night on a fruitful tree on ,st4 ,george's ,eve4#aajb ,similarly1 a ,bulgarian wife who desires to have a child will strike off a serpent's head on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 put a bean in its mouth1 and lay the head in a hollow tree or bury it in the earth at a spot so far from the village that the crowing of the cocks cannot be heard there4 ,if the bean buds1 her wishes will be granted4#aajc ,sidenote3 ,love-charms practised among the ,slavs on ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,it is natural to suppose that a saint who can bestow offspring can also bring fond lovers together4 ,hence among the ,slavs1 with whom ,st4 ,george is so popular1 his day is one of the seasons at which youths and maidens resort to charms and divination in order to win or discover the affections of the other sex4 ,thus1 to take examples1 a ,bohemian way of gaining a girl's love is as follows4 ,you catch a frog on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 wrap it in a white cloth1 and put it in an ant-hill after sunset or about midnight4 ,the creature croaks terribly while the ants are gnawing the flesh from its bones4 ,when silence reigns again1 you will find nothing left of the frog but one little bone in the shape of a hook and another little bone in the shape of a shovel4 ,take the hook-shaped bone1 go to the girl of your choice1 and hook her dress with the bone1 and she will fall over head and ears in love with you4 ,if you afterwards tire of her1 you have only to touch her with the shovel-shaped bone1 and her affection will vanish as quickly as it came4#aajd ,again1 at ,ceklinj1 in ,crnagora1 maidens go at break of day on ,st4 ,george's morning to a well to draw water1 and look down into its dark depth till tears fill their eyes and they fancy they see in the water the image of their future husband4#aaje ,at ,krajina1 in ,servia1 girls who would pry into the book of fate gather flowers in the meadows on the eve of ,st4 ,george1 make them up into nosegays1 and give to the nosegays the names of the various lads whose hearts they would win4 ,late at night they place the flowers by stealth under the open sky1 on the roof or elsewhere1 and leave them there till daybreak4 ,the lad on whose nosegay most dew has fallen will love the girl most truly throughout the year4 ,sometimes mischievous young men secretly watch these doings1 and steal the bunches of flowers1 which makes sore hearts among the girls4#aajf ,once more1 in wooded districts of ,bohemia a ,czech maiden will sometimes go out on ,st4 ,george's ,eve into an oak or beech forest and catch a young wild pigeon4 ,it may be a ring-dove or a wood-pigeon1 but it must always be a male4 ,she takes the bird home with her1 and covers it with a sieve or shuts it up in a box that nobody may know what she is about4 ,having kept and fed it till it can fly1 she rises very early in the morning1 while the household is still asleep1 and goes with the dove to the hearth4 ,here she presses the bird thrice to her bare breast1 above her heart1 and then lets it fly away up the chimney1 while she says3-- 8,out of the chimney1 dove1 ,fly1 fly from here4 ,take me1 dear ,hans1 my love1 ,none1 none so dear4 8,fly to your rocks1 fair dove1 ,fly to your lea4 ,so may ,i get1 my love1 ,none1 none but thee40#aajg ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,george in ,syria esteemed a giver of offspring to childless women4 ,in the ,east1 also1 ,st4 ,george is reputed to be a giver of offspring to barren women1 and in this character he is revered by ,moslems as well as ,christians4 ,his shrines may be found in all parts of ,syria2 more places are associated with him than with any other saint in the calendar4 ,the most famous of his sanctuaries is at ,kalat el ,hosn1 in ,northern ,syria4 ,childless women of all sects resort to it in order that the saint may remove their reproach4 ,some people shrug their shoulders when the shrine is mentioned in this connexion4 ,yet many ,mohammedan women who desired offspring used to repair to it with the full consent of their husbands4 ,nowadays the true character of the place is beginning to be perceived1 and many ,moslems have forbidden their wives to visit it4#aajh ,such beliefs and practices ,sidenote3 ,the ,syrian ,st4 ,george may represent ,tammuz4 lend some colour to the theory that in the ,east the saint has taken the place of ,tammuz or ,adonis4#aaji ,sidenote3 ,in ,europe ,st4 ,george seems to have displaced an old ,aryan god of the spring1 such as the ,lithuanian ,pergrubius4 ,but we cannot suppose that the worship of ,tammuz has been transplanted to ,europe and struck its roots deep among the ,slavs and other peoples in the eastern part of our continent4 ,rather amongst them we must look for a native ,aryan deity who now masquerades in the costume of the ,cappadocian saint and martyr ,st4 ,george4 ,perhaps we may find him in the ,pergrubius of the ,lithuanians1 a people who retained their heathen religion later than any other branch of the ,aryan stock in ,europe4 ,this ,pergrubius is described as 8the god of the spring10 as 8he who makes leaves and grass to grow10 or more fully as 8the god of flowers1 plants1 and all buds40 ,on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 the twenty-third of ,april1 the heathen ,prussians and ,lithuanians offered a sacrifice to ,pergrubius4 ,a priest1 who bore the title of ,wurschait1 held in his hand a mug of beer1 while he thus addressed the deity3 8,thou drivest away the winter2 thou bringest back the pleasant spring4 ,by thee the fields and gardens are green1 by thee the groves and the woods put forth leaves40 ,according to another version1 the prayer ran as follows3 8,thou drivest the winter away1 and givest in all lands leaves and grass4 ,we pray thee that thou wouldst make our corn to grow and wouldst put down all weeds40 ,after praying thus1 the priest drank the beer1 holding the mug with his teeth1 but not touching it with his hands4 ,then without handling it he threw the mug backward over his head4 ,afterwards it was picked up and filled again1 and all present drank out of it4 ,they also sang a hymn in praise of ,pergrubius1 and then spent the whole day in feasting and dancing4#aaaj ,thus it appears that ,pergrubius was a ,lithuanian god of the spring1 who caused the grass and the corn to grow and the trees to burst into leaf4 ,in this he resembles ,green ,george1 the embodiment of the fresh vegetation of spring1 whose leaf-clad representative still plays his pranks on the very same day in some parts of ,eastern ,europe4 ,nothing1 indeed1 is said of the relation of ,pergrubius to cattle1 and so far the analogy between him and ,st4 ,george breaks down4 ,but our accounts of the old ,lithuanian mythology are few and scanty2 if we knew more about ,pergrubius we might find that as a god or personification of spring he1 like ,st4 ,george1 was believed to exert all the quickening powers of that genial season--in other words1 that his beneficent activity was not confined to clothing the bare earth with verdure1 but extended to the care of the teeming flocks and herds1 as well as to the propagation of mankind4 ,certainly it is not easy to draw a sharp line of division between the god who attends to cattle and the god who provides the food on which they subsist4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,roman equivalent of ,st4 ,george was ,pales1 who may have been personated by the king at the ,parilia4 ,thus ,pergrubius may perhaps have been the northern equivalent of the pastoral god ,pales1 who was worshipped by the ,romans only two days earlier at the spring festival of the ,parilia4 ,it will be remembered that the ,roman shepherds prayed to ,pales for grass and leaves1 the very things which it was the part of ,pergrubius to supply4 ,is it too bold to conjecture that in rural districts of ,italy ,pales may have been personated by a leaf-clad man1 and that in the early age of ,rome the duty of thus representing the god may have been one of the sacred functions of the king8 ,the conjecture at least suggests a reason for the tradition that ,numa1 the typical priestly king of ,rome1 was born on the day of the ,parilia4 ,footnote #ajde3 ,varro1 ,rerum rusticarum1 ii4 #a4 #i sq4 8,romanorum vero populum a pastoribus esse ortum quis non dicit80 etc4 ,amongst other arguments in favour of this view ,varro refers to the ,roman personal names derived from cattle1 both large and small1 such as ,porcius1 8pig-man10 ,ovinius1 8sheep-man10 ,caprilius1 8goat-man10 ,equitius1 8horse-man10 ,taurius1 8bull-man10 and so forth4 ,on the importance of cattle and milk among the ancient ,aryans see ,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der indogermanischen ,altertumskunde 7,strasburg1 #aija71 pp4 #eda sq41 #fhi sqq41 #iac sqq4 ,footnote #ajdf3 ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cff4 ,footnote #ajdg3 ,as to the foundation of ,rome on this date see ,varro1 ,rerum rusticarum1 ii4 #a4 #i2 ,cicero1 ,de divinatione1 ii4 #dg4 #ih2 ,festus1 s4v4 8,parilibus10 p4 #bcf1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xviii4 #bdg2 ,propertius1 v4 #d4 #gc sq42 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #hja-hjf2 id41 ,metam4 xiv4 #ggd sq42 ,velleius ,paterculus1 i4 #h4 #d2 ,eutropius1 i4 #a2 ,solinus1 i4 #ah2 ,censorinus1 ,de die natali1 xxi4 #f2 ,probus on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #a2 ,schol4 ,veronens4 on ,virgil1 l4c42 ,dionysius ,halicarnas1 ,ant4 ,rom4 i4 #hh2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #ab2 ,dio ,cassius1 xliii4 #db2 ,zonaras1 ,annales1 vii4 #c2 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 i4 #ad1 iv4 #ej4 ,as to the birth of ,numa1 see ,plutarch1 ,numa1 #c4 ,the festival is variously called ,parilia and ,palilia by ancient writers1 but the form ,parilia seems to be the better attested of the two4 ,see ,g4 ,wissowa1 s4v4 8,pales10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 iii4 #abgh4 ,footnote #ajdh3 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus 7,ant4 ,rom4 i4 #hh7 hesitates between these two views4 ,with truer historical insight ,plutarch 7,romulus1 #ab7 holds that the rustic festival was older than the foundation of ,rome4 ,footnote #ajdi3 ,see1 for example1 vol4 i4 above1 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #ajej3 ,for modern discussions of the ,parilia1 see ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #dac sqq42 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 #bjg sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 pp4 #cji-cag2 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals1 pp4 #gi-he2 ,g4 ,wissowa1 s4v4 8,pales10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 iii4 #abgf-abhj2 id41 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1 pp4 #afe sq4 ,footnote #ajea3 ,cicero1 ,de divinatione1 ii4 #dg4 #ih2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #hjf2 ,calendar of ,philocalus1 quoted by ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 op4 cit4 p4 #gi2 ,probus on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #a2 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #ab2 ,zonaras1 ,annales1 vii4 #c4 ,footnote #ajeb3 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 i4 #hh4 ,footnote #ajec3 ,festus1 s4v4 8,pales10 p4 #bbb1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,dionysius ,halic4 l4c4 ,footnote #ajed3 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #a4 ,see also ,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 iii4 #dj2 ,martianus ,capella1 i4 #ej4 ,footnote #ajee3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #fcg-fdj1 #gca-gcd2 ,propertius1 v4 #a4 #ai sq4 ,footnote #ajef3 ,see above1 p4 #bbi4 ,as to the sacrifice of the horse in ,october see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 ii4 #cae sqq4 ,footnote #ajeg3 ,tibullus1 ii4 #e4 #ia sq43-- 8,et fetus matrona dabit1 natusque parenti ,oscula comprensis auribus cripict40 ,footnote #ajeh3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #gce-gch4 ,in his account of the festival ,ovid mentions only shepherds and sheep2 but since ,pales was a god of cattle as well as of sheep 7,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 iii4 #bc71 we may suppose that herds and herdsmen equally participated in it4 ,dionysius 7l4c47 speaks of four-footed beasts in general4 ,footnote #ajei3 ,so ,mr4 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler understands ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #gce-gdb4 ,footnote #ajfj3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #hje sq4 ,footnote #ajfa3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #gci sq4 ,footnote #ajfb3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #gdg sq43-- 8,consule1 dic1 pecori pariter pecorisque magistris3 ,effugiat stabulis noxa repulsa meis40 ,with this sense of noxa compare id4 vi4 #abi sq41 where it is said that buckthorn or hawthorn 8tristes pellere posset a foribus noxas40 ,footnote #ajfc3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #gfc-ggd4 ,the prayer that the wolves may be kept far from the fold is mentioned also by ,tibullus 7ii4 #e4 #hh74 ,footnote #ajfd3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #ggi-ghb2 ,tibullus1 ii4 #e4 #hi sq42 ,propertius1 v4 #a4 #ai1 v4 #d4 #gg sq42 ,persius1 i4 #gb2 ,probus on ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #a4 ,footnote #ajfe3 ,i owe this observation to ,f4 ,a4 ,paley1 on ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #ged4 ,he refers to ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #dce1 ,ecl4 x4 #cj2 ,theocritus1 xi4 #gc sq42 to which may be added ,virgil1 ,georg4 iii4 #cjj sq41 #cbj sq42 ,horace1 ,epist4 i4 #ad4 #bh2 ,cato1 ,de re rustica1 #cj2 ,columella1 ,de re rustica1 vii4 #c4 #ba1 xi4 #b4 #hc and #ii-aja4 ,from these passages of ,cato and ,columella we learn that the ,italian farmer fed his cattle on the leaves of the elm1 the ash1 the poplar1 the oak1 the evergreen oak1 the fig1 and the laurel4 ,footnote #ajff3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #gdi-ged4 ,footnote #ajfg3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #geg-gfj4 ,footnote #ajfh3 ,columella1 ,de re rustica1 vii4 #c4 #aa4 ,in this respect the practice of ancient ,italian farmers would seem to have differed from that of modern ,english breeders4 ,in a letter 7dated #hth ,february #aijh7 my friend ,professor ,w4 ,somerville of ,oxford writes3 8,it is against all modern custom to arrange matters so that lambs are born five months after ,april #ba1 say the end of ,september40 ,and1 again1 in another letter 7dated #afth ,february #aijh7 he writes to me3 8,the matter of coupling ewes and rams in the end of ,april is very perplexing4 ,in this country it is only the ,dorset breed of sheep that will #8take' the ram at this time of the year4 ,in the case of other breeds the ewe will only take the ram in autumn1 say from ,july to ,november1 so that the lambs are born from ,january to ,may4 ,we consider that lambs born late in the season1 say ,may or ,june1 never thrive well40 ,footnote #ajfi3 ,the suggestion was made by ,c4 ,g4 ,heyne in his commentary on ,tibullus1 i4 #e4 #hh4 ,footnote #ajgj3 ,o4 ,keller1 ,thiere des classischen ,alterthums 7,innsbruck1 #ahhg71 pp4 #aeh sqq4 ,footnote #ajga3 ,calpurnius1 ,bucol4 v4 #af-bh4 ,footnote #ajgb3 ,plutarch1 ,romulus1 #ab4 ,footnote #ajgc3 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 #a4 #hh4 ,footnote #ajgd3 ,this is the view of ,j4 ,marquardt 7,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4 #bnd ,ed41 #bjg71 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler 7,roman ,festivals1 p4 #hc1 note #a74 ,footnote #ajge3 ,boecler-,kreutzwald1 ,der ,ehsten aberglubische ,gebruche1 ,weisen und ,gewohnheiten1 pp4 #hb-hd1 #aaf-aah2 ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem inneren und usseren ,leben der ,ehsten1 pp4 #ccb1 #cef-cfa2 ,holzmayer1 8,osiliana10 ,verhandlungen der gelehrten ,estnischen ,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vii4 7#ahgb7 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #ajgf3 ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 op4 cit4 p4 #dac4 ,footnote #ajgg3 ,see above1 pp4 #ge sq4 ,footnote #ajgh3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,russian ,folk-tales1 pp4 #cdd1 #cde4 ,footnote #ajgi3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 pp4 #bbi-bca4 ,in the island of ,rhodes also it is customary for people to roll themselves on the grass for good luck on ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,see ,mary ,hamilton1 ,greek ,saints and their ,festivals 7,edinburgh and ,london1 #aiaj71 p4 #aff4 ,footnote #ajhj3 ,olga ,bartels1 8,aus dem ,leben der weissrussischen ,landbevlkerung10 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xxxv4 7#aijc7 p4 #fei4 ,footnote #ajha3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 op4 cit4 p4 #chi4 ,french peasants of the ,vosges ,mountains believe that ,st4 ,george shuts the mouths of wild beasts and prevents them from attacking the flocks which are placed under his protection 7,l4 ,f4 ,sauv1 ,le ,folk-lore des ,hautes-,vosges1 p4 #abg74 ,footnote #ajhb3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cai sq4 ,footnote #ajhc3 ,r4 ,f4 ,kaindl1 8,zauberglaube bei den ,rutenen in der ,bukowina und ,galizien10 ,globus1 lxi4 7#ahib7 p4 #bhj4 ,footnote #ajhd3 ,r4 ,f4 ,kaindl1 ,die ,huzulen 7,vienna1 #ahid71 pp4 #fb sq41 #gh1 #hh sq42 id41 8,zauberglaube bei den ,huzulen10 ,globus1 lxxvi4 7#ahii7 p4 #bcc4 ,footnote #ajhe3 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien1 i4 7,leipsic1 #aijc7 pp4 #ajf sq4 ,the authority quoted for the sacrifice is ,tiede1 ,merkwrdigkeiten ,schlesiens 7#ahjd71 pp4 #abc sq4 ,it is not expressly said1 but we may assume1 that the sacrifice was offered on ,st4 ,george's ,day4 ,footnote #ajhf3 ,a4 ,birlinger1 ,aus ,schwaben 7,wiesbaden1 #ahgd71 ii4 #aff4 ,compare id41 ,volksthmliches aus ,schwaben1 ii4 #ba n4 #a4 ,footnote #ajhg3 ,e4 ,h4 ,meyer1 ,badisches ,volksleben im neunzehnten ,jahrhundert 7,strasburg1 #aijj71 pp4 #bai1 #djh4 ,footnote #ajhh3 ,j4 ,haltrich1 ,zur ,volkskunde der ,siebenbrger ,sachsen 7,vienna1 #ahhe71 p4 #bha4 ,footnote #ajhi3 ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,das ,jahr und seine ,tage in ,meinung und ,brauch der ,romnen ,siebenbrgens 7,hermannstadt1 #ahff71 pp4 #i1 #aa4 ,compare ,r4 ,f4 ,kaindl1 8,zur ,volkskunde der ,rumnen in der ,bukowina10 ,globus1 xcii4 7#aijg7 p4 #bhd4 ,it does not appear whether the shepherd's pouch 78,hirtentaschen07 in question is the real pouch or the plant of that name4 ,footnote #ajij3 ,a4 und ,a4 ,schott1 ,walachische ,maehrchen 7,stuttgart and ,tbingen1 #ahde71 pp4 #bii sq4 ,footnote #ajia3 ,a4 ,strausz1 ,die ,bulgaren 7,leipsic1 #ahih71 p4 #bhg4 ,footnote #ajib3 ,a4 ,strausz1 op4 cit4 p4 #ccg4 ,footnote #ajic3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 p4 #bcj4 ,footnote #ajid3 ,above1 pp4 #abf sq4 ,footnote #ajie3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,volksglaube und religiser ,brauch der ,sdslaven1 pp4 #abe-abg2 id41 ,kroatien und ,slavonien 7,vienna1 #ahhi71 pp4 #aje sq4 ,footnote #ajif3 ,w4 ,j4 ,a4 ,tettau und ,j4 ,d4 ,h4 ,temme1 ,die ,volkssagen ,ostpreussens1 ,litthauens und ,westpreussens 7,berlin1 #ahcg71 p4 #bfc4 ,footnote #ajig3 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1 pp4 #bdf-bea2 ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers1 #bnd ,ed41 pp4 #afc sq4 ,footnote #ajih3 ,see above1 pp4 #ge sq4 ,footnote #ajii3 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,russian ,folk-tales1 p4 #cde4 ,footnote #aajj3 ,marie ,andree-,eysn1 ,volkskundliches aus dem bayrisch-sterreichischen ,alpengebiet 7,brunswick1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ahj-ahb4 ,footnote #aaja3 ,e4 ,h4 ,meyer1 ,badisches ,volksleben im neunzehnten ,jahrhundert 7,strasburg1 #aijj71 p4 #dbc2 ,k4 ,freiherr von ,leoprechting1 ,aus dem ,lechrain 7,munich1 #ahee71 p4 #afh4 ,footnote #aajb3 ,see above1 pp4 #ef sq4 ,footnote #aajc3 ,a4 ,strausz1 ,die ,bulgaren1 pp4 #ccg1 #che sq4 ,there seems to be a special connexion between ,st4 ,george and serpents4 ,in ,bohemia and ,moravia it is thought that up to the twenty-third of ,april serpents are innocuous1 and only get their poison on the saint's day4 ,see ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen und ,mhren1 #cbf1 #ehj1 pp4 #ea1 #ha2 ,w4 ,mller1 ,beitrge zur ,volkskunde der ,deutschen in ,mhren1 p4 #cbc4 ,various other charms are effected by means of serpents on this day4 ,thus if you tear out the tongue of a live snake on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 put it in a ball of wax1 and lay the ball under your tongue1 you will be able to talk down anybody4 ,see ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1 op4 cit41 #egf1 #aafi1 pp4 #ha1 #aff4 ,footnote #aajd3 ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1 op4 cit4 #adfc1 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #aaje3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,sitte und ,brauch der ,sdslaven1 p4 #age4 ,footnote #aajf3 ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 op4 cit4 pp4 #age sq4 ,footnote #aajg3 ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-,kalender aus ,bhmen1 pp4 #aid sq42 ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1 op4 cit41 #eed1 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #aajh3 ,s4 ,j4 ,curtiss1 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,to-day1 pp4 #hc sq41 #aah sq4 ,footnote #aaji3 ,s4 ,baring-,gould1 ,curious ,myths of the ,middle ,ages1 pp4 #bgh sqq4 ,the authority for this identification is the nominal translator1 but real author1 of the work called ,the ,agriculture of the ,nabataeans4 ,see ,d4 ,a4 ,chwolson1 ber ,tammuz und die ,menschenverehrung bei den alten ,babyloniern 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahfj71 pp4 #ef sq4 ,although ,the ,agriculture of the ,nabataeans appears to be a forgery 7see above1 p4 #ajj1 note #b71 the identification of the oriental ,st4 ,george with ,tammuz may nevertheless be correct4 ,footnote #aaaj3 ,j4 ,maeletius 7,menecius71 8,de sacrificiis et idolatria veterum ,borussorum ,livonum aliarumque vicinarum gentium10 ,mitteilungen der ,litterarischen ,gesellschaft ,masovia1 ,heft #h 7,ltzen1 #aijb71 pp4 #ahe1 #ahg1 #bjj sq42 id4 in ,scriptores rerum ,livonicarum1 ii4 7,riga and ,leipsic1 #ahdh71 pp4 #chi1 #cij2 ,j4 ,lasicius1 8,de diis ,samagitarum caeterorumque ,sarmatarum10 ed4 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 in ,magazin herausgegeben von der ,lettisch-literrischen ,gesellschaft1 xiv4 7#ahfh7 pp4 #ie sq4 ,the first form of the prayer to ,pergrubius is from the ,latin1 the second from the ,german1 version of ,maeletius's 7,jan ,malecki's7 work4 ,the description of ,pergrubius as 8he who makes leaves and grass to grow0 78der lest wachssen laub unnd gras07 is also from the ,german4 ,according to ,m4 ,praetorius1 ,pergrubius was a god of husbandry 7,deliciae ,prussicae1 ,berlin1 #ahga1 p4 #be74 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,oak #a4 ,the ,diffusion of the ,oak in ,europe ,sidenote3 ,the ,latin kings represented ,jupiter1 the god of the oak1 the sky1 the thunder1 and the rain4 ,in a preceding chapter some reasons were given for thinking that the early ,latin kings posed as living representatives of ,jupiter1 the god of the oak1 the sky1 the rain1 and the thunder1 and that in this capacity they attempted to exercise the fertilising functions which were ascribed to the god4 ,the probability of this view will be strengthened if it can be proved that the same god was worshipped under other names by other branches of the ,aryan stock in ,europe1 and that the ,latin kings were not alone in arrogating to themselves his powers and attributes4 ,in this chapter ,i propose briefly to put together a few of the principal facts which point to this conclusion4 ,sidenote3 ,why should the god of the oak be also the god of the sky1 the thunder1 and the rain8 ,but at the outset a difficulty presents itself4 ,to us the oak1 the sky1 the rain1 and the thunder appear things totally distinct from each other4 ,how did our forefathers come to group them together and imagine them as attributes of one and the same god8 ,a connexion may be seen between the sky1 the rain1 and the thunder2 but what has any of them to do with the oak8 ,yet one of these apparently disparate elements was probably the original nucleus round which in time the others gathered and crystallised into the composite conception of ,jupiter4 ,accordingly we must ask1 ,which of them was the original centre of attraction8 ,if men started with the idea of an oak-god1 how came they to enlarge his kingdom by annexing to it the province of the sky1 the rain1 and the thunder8 ,if1 on the other hand1 they set out with the notion of a god of the sky1 the rain1 and the thunder1 or any one of them1 why should they have added the oak to his attributes8 ,the oak is terrestrial2 the sky1 the thunder1 and the rain are celestial or aerial4 ,what is the bridge between the two8 ,sidenote3 ,in the composite character of ,jupiter the oak is probably primary1 the sky1 the rain1 and the thunder secondary and derivative4 ,in the sequel ,i shall endeavour to shew that on the principle of primitive thought the evolution of a sky-god from an oak-god is more easily conceivable than the converse2 and if ,i succeed1 it becomes probable that in the composite character of ,jupiter the oak is primary and original1 the sky1 the rain1 and the thunder secondary and derivative4 ,sidenote3 ,europe covered with vast oak forests in prehistoric times4 ,we have seen that long before the dawn of history ,europe was covered with vast primaeval woods1 which must have exercised a profound influence on the thought as well as on the life of our rude ancestors who dwelt dispersed under the gloomy shadow or in the open glades and clearings of the forest4#aaaa ,now1 of all the trees which composed these woods the oak appears to have been both the commonest and the most useful4 ,the proof of this is drawn partly from the statements of classical writers1 partly from the remains of ancient villages built on piles in lakes and marshes1 and partly from the oak forests which have been found embedded in peat-bogs4 ,sidenote3 ,remains of oak forests found in peat-bogs4 ,these bogs1 which attain their greatest development in ,northern ,europe1 but are met with also in the central and southern parts of the ,continent1 have preserved as in a museum the trees and plants which sprang up and flourished after the end of the glacial epoch4 ,thus in ,scotland the peat1 which occupies wide areas both in the highlands and lowlands1 almost everywhere covers the remains of forests1 among which the commoner trees are pine1 oak1 and birch4 ,the oaks are of great size1 and are found at heights above the sea such as the tree would not now naturally attain to4 ,equally remarkable for their size are the pines1 but though they also had a wider distribution than at present1 they appear not to have formed any extensive forests at the lowest levels of the country4 ,still1 remains of them have been dug up in many lowland peat-mosses1 where the bulk of the buried timber is oak4#aaab ,when ,hatfield ,moss in ,yorkshire was drained1 there were found in it trunks of oak a hundred feet long and as black as ebony4 ,one giant actually measured a hundred and twenty feet in length1 with a diameter of twelve feet at the root and six feet at the top4 ,no such tree now exists in ,europe4#aaac ,sunken forests and peat occur at many places on the coasts of ,england1 especially on low shelving shores where the land falls away with a gentle slope to the sea4 ,these submerged areas were once mud flats which1 as the sea retreated from them1 gradually became clothed with dense forests1 chiefly of oak and ,scotch fir1 though ash1 yew1 alder1 and other trees sooner or later mingled with them4#aaad ,the great peat-bogs of ,ireland shew that there was a time when vast woods of oak and yew covered the country1 the oak growing on the hills up to a height of four hundred feet or thereabout above the sea1 while at higher levels deal was the prevailing timber4 ,human relics have often been discovered in these ,irish bogs1 and ancient roadways made of oak have also come to light4#aaae ,in the peat-bog near ,abbeville1 in the valley of the ,somme1 trunks of oak have been dug up fourteen feet thick1 a diameter rarely met with outside the tropics in the old ,continent4#aaaf ,sidenote3 ,former oak woods of ,denmark and ,scandinavia4 ,at present the woods of ,denmark consist for the most part of magnificent beeches1 which flourish here as luxuriantly as anywhere in the world4 ,oaks are much rarer and appear to be on the decline4 ,yet the evidence of the peat-bogs proves that before the advent of the beech the country was overspread with dense forests of tall and stately oaks4 ,it was during the ascendency of the oak in the woods that bronze seems to have become known in ,denmark2 for swords and shields of that metal1 now in the museum of ,copenhagen1 have been taken out of peat in which oaks abound4 ,yet at a still earlier period the oak had been preceded by the pine or ,scotch fir in the ,danish forests2 and the discovery of neolithic implements in the peat-bogs shews that savages of the ,stone ,age had their homes in these old pine woods as well as in the later forests of oak4 ,some antiquaries are of opinion that the ,iron ,age in ,denmark began with the coming of the beech1 but of this there is no evidence2 for aught we know to the contrary the beautiful beech forests may date back to the ,age of ,bronze4#aaag ,the peat-bogs of ,norway abound in buried timber2 and in many of them the trees occur in two distinct layers4 ,the lower of these layers consists chiefly of oak1 hazel1 ash1 and other deciduous trees2 the upper is composed of ,scotch firs and birches4 ,in the bogs of ,sweden also the oak forests underlie the pine forests4#aaah ,however1 it appears to be doubtful whether ,scandinavia was inhabited in the age of the oak woods4 ,neolithic tools have indeed been found in the peat1 but generally not deeper down than two feet or so2 hence one antiquary infers that in these bogs not more than two feet of peat has formed within historical times4#aaai ,but negative evidence on such a point goes for little1 as only a small portion of the bogs can have been explored4 ,sidenote3 ,the ancient lake dwellings of ,europe were built to a great extent on oaken piles4 ,unequivocal proof of the prevalence of the oak and its usefulness to man in early times is furnished by the remains of the pile villages which have been discovered in many of the lakes of ,europe4 ,in the ,british ,islands the piles and the platforms on which these crannogs or lake dwellings rested appear to have been generally of oak1 though fir1 birch1 and other trees were sometimes used in their construction4 ,speaking of the ,irish and ,scotch crannogs a learned antiquary remarks3 8,every variety of structure observed in the one country is to be found in the other1 from the purely artificial island1 framed of oak-beams1 mortised together1 to the natural island1 artificially fortified or enlarged by girdles of oak-piles or ramparts of loose stones40#aabj ,canoes hollowed out of trunks of oak have been found both in the ,scotch and in the ,irish crannogs4#aaba ,in the lake dwellings of ,switzerland and ,central ,europe the piles are very often of oak1 but by no means as uniformly so as in the ,british ,islands2 fir1 birch1 alder1 ash1 elm1 and other timber were also employed for the purpose4#aabb ,that the inhabitants of these villages subsisted partly on the produce ,sidenote3 ,the inhabitants of the lake dwellings subsisted partly on acorns4 of the oak1 even after they had adopted agriculture1 is proved by the acorns which have been found in their dwellings along with wheat1 barley1 and millet1 as well as beech-nuts1 hazel-nuts1 and the remains of chestnuts and cherries4#aabc ,in the valley of the ,po the framework of logs and planks which supports the prehistoric villages is most commonly of elm wood1 but evergreen oak and chestnut were also used2 and the abundance of oaks is attested by the great quantities of acorns which were dug up in these settlements4 ,as the acorns were sometimes found stored in earthenware vessels1 it appears that they were eaten by the people as well as by their pigs4#aabd ,sidenote3 ,evidence of classical writers as to the oak forests of ,europe4 ,the evidence of classical writers proves that great oak forests still existed down to their time in various parts of ,europe4 ,thus the ,veneti on the ,atlantic coast of ,brittany made their flat-bottomed boats out of oak timber1 of which1 we are told1 there was abundance in their country4#aabe ,pliny informs us that1 while the whole of ,germany was covered with cool and shady woods1 the loftiest trees were to be seen not far from the country of the ,chauci1 who inhabited the coast of the ,north ,sea4 ,among these giants of the forest he speaks especially of the oaks which grew on the banks of two lakes4 ,when the waves had undermined their roots1 the oaks are said to have torn away great portions of the bank and floated like islands on the lakes4#aabf ,the same ,sidenote3 ,the oak woods of ,germany4 writer speaks of the vast ,hercynian wood of ,germany as an oak forest1 old as the world1 untouched for ages1 and passing wonderful in its immortality4 ,so huge were the trees1 he says1 that when their roots met they were forced up above ground in the shape of arches1 through which a troop of horse could ride as through an open gate4#aabg ,his testimony as to the kind of trees which composed this famous forest is confirmed by its name1 which seems to mean no more than 8oak wood40#aabh ,in the second century before our era oak forests were still so common in the valley of the ,po that the herds of swine which browsed on the acorns sufficed to ,sidenote3 ,the oak woods of ancient ,italy and ,greece4 supply the greater part of the demand for pork throughout ,italy1 although nowhere in the world1 according to ,polybius1 were more pigs butchered to feed the gods1 the people1 and the army4#aabi ,elsewhere the same historian describes the immense herds of swine which roamed the ,italian oak forests1 especially on the coasts of ,tuscany and ,lombardy4 ,in order to sort out the different droves when they mingled with each other in the woods1 each swineherd carried a horn1 and when he wound a blast on it all his own pigs came trooping to him with such vehemence that nothing could stop them2 for all the herds knew the note of their own horn4 ,in the oak forests of ,greece this device was unknown1 and the swineherds there had harder work to come by their own when the beasts had strayed far in the woods1 as they were apt to do in autumn while the acorns were falling4#aacj ,down to the beginning of our era oak woods were interspersed among the olive groves and vineyards of the ,sabine country in central ,italy4#aaca ,among the beautiful woods which clothed the ,heraean mountains in ,sicily the oaks were particularly remarked for their stately growth and the great size of their acorns4#aacb ,in the second century after ,christ the oak forests of ,arcadia still harboured wild boars1 bears1 and huge tortoises in their dark recesses4#aacc ,sidenote3 ,the oak still the chief forest tree of ,europe4 ,even now the predominance of the oak as the principal forest tree of ,europe has hardly passed away4 ,thus we are told that among the leaf-bearing trees of ,greece1 as opposed to the conifers1 the oak still plays by far the most important part in regard both to the number of the individuals and the number of the species4#aacd ,and the ,british oak in particular 7,quercus robur7 is yet the prevailing tree in most of the woods of ,france1 ,germany1 and southern ,russia1 while in ,england the coppice and the few fragments of natural forest still left are mainly composed of this species4#aace ,sidenote3 ,in ,europe acorns have been used as human food both in ancient and modern times4 ,thus the old classical tradition that men lived upon acorns before they learned to till the ground#aacf may very well be founded on fact4 ,indeed acorns were still an article of diet in some parts of southern ,europe within historical times4 ,speaking of the prosperity of the righteous1 ,hesiod declares that for them the earth bears much substance1 and the oak on the mountains puts forth acorns4#aacg ,the ,arcadians in their oak-forests were proverbial for eating acorns1#aach but not the acorns of all oaks1 only those of a particular sort4#aaci ,pliny tells us that in his day acorns still constituted the wealth of many nations1 and that in time of dearth they were ground and baked into bread4#aadj ,according to ,strabo1 the mountaineers of ,spain subsisted on acorn bread for two-thirds of the year2#aada and in that country acorns were served up as a second course even at the meals of the well-to-do4#aadb ,in the same regions the same practice ,sidenote3 ,acorns as food in modern ,europe4 has survived to modern times4 ,the commonest and finest oak of modern ,greece is the ,quercus ,aegilops1 with a beautiful crown of leaves1 and the peasants eat its acorns both roasted and raw4#aadc ,the sweeter acorns of the ,quercus ,ballota also serve them as food1 especially in ,arcadia4#aadd ,in ,spain people eat the acorns of the evergreen oak 7,quercus ,ilex71 which are known as bellotas1 and are said to be much larger and more succulent than the produce of the ,british oak4 ,the duchess in ,don ,quixote writes to ,sancho's wife to send her some of them4 ,but oaks are now few and far between in ,la ,mancha4#aade ,even in ,england and ,france acorns have been boiled and eaten by the poor as a substitute for bread in time of dearth4#aadf ,and naturally the use of acorns as food for swine has also lasted into modern times4 ,it is on acorns that those hogs are fattened in ,estremadura which make the famous ,montanches hams4#aadg ,large herds of swine in all the great oak woods of ,germany depend on acorns for their autumn subsistence2 and in the remaining royal forests of ,england the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages still claim their ancient right of pannage1 turning their hogs into the woods in ,october and ,november4#aadh #b4 ,the ,aryan ,god of the ,oak and the ,thunder#aadi ,sidenote3 ,the many benefits received by the ancient ,aryans from the oak naturally led them to worship the tree4 ,thus we may conclude that the primitive ,aryans of ,europe lived among oak woods1 used oak sticks for the lighting of their fires1 and oak timber for the construction of their villages1 their roads1 their canoes1 fed their swine on acorns1 and themselves subsisted in part on the same simple diet4 ,no wonder1 then1 if the tree from which they received so many benefits should play an important part in their religion1 and should be invested with a sacred character4 ,we have seen that the worship of trees has been world-wide1 and that1 beginning with a simple reverence and dread of the tree as itself animated by a powerful spirit1 it has ,sidenote3 ,the worship of the tree itself gradually grew into a worship of the god of the tree1 but no sharp line of distinction can be drawn between the two4 gradually grown into a cult of tree gods and tree goddesses1 who with the advance of thought become more and more detached from their old home in the trees1 and assume the character of sylvan deities and powers of fertility in general1 to whom the husbandman looks not merely for the prosperity of his crops1 but for the fecundity of his cattle and his women4 ,where this evolution has taken place it has necessarily been slow and long4 ,though it is convenient to distinguish in theory between the worship of trees and the worship of gods of the trees1 it is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between them in practice1 and to say1 8,here the one begins and the other ends40 ,such distinctions1 however useful they may be as heads of classification to the student1 evade in general the duller wit of the tree worshipper4 ,we cannot therefore hope to lay our finger on that precise point in the history of the ,aryans when they ceased to worship the oak for its own sake1 and began to worship a god of the oak4 ,that point1 if it were ideally possible to mark it1 had doubtless been left far behind them by the more intelligent1 at least1 of our forefathers before they emerged into the light of history4 ,we must be content for the most part to find among them gods of whom the oak was an attribute or sacred adjunct rather than the essence4 ,if we wish to find the original worship of the tree itself we must go for it to the ignorant peasantry of to-day1 not to the enlightened writers of antiquity4 ,further1 it is to be borne in mind that while all oaks were probably the object of superstitious awe1 so that the felling of any of them for timber or firewood would be attended with ceremonies designed to appease the injured spirit of the tree1#aaej only certain particular groves or individual oaks would in general receive that measure of homage which we should term worship4 ,the reasons which led men to venerate some trees more than others might be various4 ,amongst them the venerable age and imposing size of a giant oak would naturally count for much4 ,and any other striking peculiarity which marked a tree off from its fellows would be apt to attract the attention1 and to concentrate on itself the vague superstitious awe of the savage4 ,we know1 for example1 that with the ,druids the growth of mistletoe on an oak was a sign that the tree was especially sacred2 and the rarity of this feature--for mistletoe does not commonly grow on oaks--would enhance the sanctity and mystery of the tree4 ,for it is the strange1 the wonderful1 the rare1 not the familiar and commonplace1 which excites the religious emotions of mankind4 ,sidenote3 ,the worship of the oak tree or of the oak god seems to have been common to all the ,aryans of ,europe4 ,the worship of the oak tree or of the oak god appears to have been shared by all the branches of the ,aryan stock in ,europe4 ,both ,greeks and ,italians associated the tree ,sidenote3 ,worship of the oak in ,greece2 its association with ,zeus4 with their highest god1 ,zeus or ,jupiter1 the divinity of the sky1 the rain1 and the thunder4#aaea ,perhaps the oldest and certainly one of the most famous sanctuaries in ,greece was that of ,dodona1 where ,zeus was revered in the oracular oak4#aaeb ,the thunder-storms which are said to rage at ,dodona more frequently than anywhere else in ,europe1#aaec would render the spot a fitting home for the god whose voice was heard alike in the rustling of the oak leaves and in the crash of thunder4 ,perhaps the bronze gongs which kept up a humming in the wind round the sanctuary#aaed were meant to mimick the thunder that might so often be heard rolling and rumbling in the coombs of the stern and barren mountains which shut in the gloomy valley4#aaee ,in ,boeotia1 as we have seen1 the sacred marriage of ,zeus and ,hera1 the oak god and the oak goddess1 was celebrated with much pomp by a religious federation of states4#aaef ,and on ,mount ,lycaeus in ,arcadia the character of ,zeus as god both of the oak and of the rain comes out clearly in the rain charm practised by the priest of ,zeus1 who dipped an oak branch in a sacred spring4#aaeg ,sidenote3 ,zeus as the rain god of the ,greeks4 ,in his latter capacity ,zeus was the god to whom the ,greeks regularly prayed for rain4 ,nothing could be more natural2 for often1 though not always1 he had his seat on the mountains where the clouds gather and the oaks grow4 ,on the acropolis at ,athens there was an image of ,earth praying to ,zeus for rain4#aaeh ,and in time of drought the ,athenians themselves prayed1 8,rain1 rain1 ,o dear ,zeus1 on the cornland of the ,athenians and on the plains40#aaei ,the mountains which lay round their city1 and to which they looked through the clear ,attic air for signs of the weather1 were associated by them with the worship of the weather-god ,zeus4 ,it was a sign of rain when1 away to sea1 a cloud rested on the sharp peak of ,aegina1 which cuts the sky-line like a blue horn4#aafj ,on this far-seen peak ,panhellenian ,zeus was worshipped1#aafa and legend ran that once1 when all ,greece was parched with drought1 envoys assembled in ,aegina from every quarter and entreated ,aeacus1 the king of the island1 that he would intercede with his father ,zeus for rain4 ,the king complied with the request1 and by sacrifices and prayers wrung the needed showers from his sire the sky-god4#aafb ,sidenote3 ,zeus as the god of fertility4 ,again1 it was a sign of rain at ,athens when clouds in summer lay on the top or the sides of ,hymettus1#aafc the chain of barren mountains which bounds the ,attic plain on the east1 facing the westering sun and catching from his last beams a solemn glow of purple light4 ,if during a storm a long bank of clouds was seen lowering on the mountain1 it meant that the storm would increase in fury4#aafd ,hence an altar of ,showery ,zeus stood on ,hymettus4#aafe ,again1 omens of weather were drawn when lightning flashed or clouds hung on the top of ,mount ,parnes to the north of ,athens2#aaff and there accordingly an altar was set up to sign-giving ,zeus4#aafg ,the climate of eastern ,argolis is dry1 and the rugged mountains are little better than a stony waterless wilderness4 ,on one of them1 named ,mount ,arachnaeus1 or the ,spider ,mountain1 stood altars of ,zeus and ,hera1 and when rain was wanted the people sacrificed there to the god and goddess4#aafh ,on the ridge of ,mount ,tmolus1 near ,sardes1 there was a spot called the ,birthplace of ,rainy ,zeus1#aafi probably because clouds resting on it were observed to presage rain4 ,the members of a religious society in the island of ,cos used to go in procession and offer sacrifices on an altar of ,rainy ,zeus1 when the thirsty land stood in need of refreshing showers4#aagj ,thus conceived as the source of fertility1 it was not unnatural that ,zeus should receive the title of the ,fruitful ,one1#aaga and that at ,athens he should be worshipped under the surname of the ,husbandman4#aagb ,sidenote3 ,zeus as the god of thunder and lightning4 ,again1 ,zeus wielded the thunder and lightning as well as the rain4#aagc ,at ,olympia and elsewhere he was worshipped under the surname of ,thunderbolt2#aagd and at ,athens there was a sacrificial hearth of ,lightning ,zeus on the city wall1 where some priestly officials watched for lightning over ,mount ,parnes at certain seasons of the year4#aage ,further1 spots which had been struck by lightning were regularly fenced in by the ,greeks and consecrated to ,zeus the ,descender1 that is1 to the god who came down in the flash from heaven4 ,altars were set up within these enclosures and sacrifices offered on them4 ,several such places are known from inscriptions to have existed in ,athens4#aagf ,sidenote3 ,the ,greek kings personified ,zeus1 as the ,italian kings personified ,jupiter4 ,thus when ancient ,greek kings claimed to be descended from ,zeus1 and even to bear his name1#aagg we may reasonably suppose that they also attempted to exercise his divine functions by making thunder and rain for the good of their people or the terror and confusion of their foes4 ,in this respect the legend of ,salmoneus#aagh probably reflects the pretensions of a whole class of petty sovereigns who reigned of old1 each over his little canton1 in the oak-clad highlands of ,greece4 ,like their kinsmen the ,irish kings1 they were expected to be a source of fertility to the land and of fecundity to the cattle2#aagi and how could they fulfil these expectations better than by acting the part of their kinsman ,zeus1 the great god of the oak1 the thunder1 and the rain8 ,they personified him1 apparently1 just as the ,italian kings personified ,jupiter4#aahj ,sidenote3 ,jupiter in ,italy as the god of the oak1 the thunder1 and the rain4 ,in ancient ,italy every oak was sacred to ,jupiter1 the ,italian counterpart of ,zeus2#aaha and on the ,capitol at ,rome the god was worshipped as the deity not merely of the oak1 but of the rain and the thunder4#aahb ,contrasting the piety of the good old times with the scepticism of an age when nobody thought that heaven was heaven1 or cared a fig for ,jupiter1 a ,roman writer tells us that in former days noble matrons used to go with bare feet1 streaming hair1 and pure minds1 up the long ,capitoline slope1 praying to ,jupiter for rain4 ,and straightway1 he goes on1 it rained bucketsful1 then or never1 and everybody returned dripping like drowned rats4 8,but nowadays10 says he1 8we are no longer religious1 so the fields lie baking40#aahc ,and as ,jupiter conjured up the clouds and caused them to discharge their genial burden on the earth1 so he drove them away and brought the bright ,italian sky back once more4 ,hence he was worshipped under the titles of the ,serene1 he who restores serenity4#aahd ,lastly1 as god of the fertilising showers ,sidenote3 ,jupiter as the god of fertility4 he made the earth to bring forth2 so people called him the ,fruitful ,one4#aahe ,sidenote3 ,the god of the oak and the thunder among the northern ,aryans4 ,when we pass from southern to central ,europe we still meet with the great god of the oak and the thunder among the barbarous ,aryans who dwelt in the vast primaeval forests4#aahf ,thus among the ,celts of ,gaul the ,druids esteemed nothing more sacred than the mistletoe and the oak on which it grew2 they chose groves of oaks for the scene of their solemn service1 and they performed none of their rites without oak leaves4#aahg 8,the ,celts10 says a ,greek writer1 8worship ,sidenote3 ,celtic worship of the oak4 ,zeus1 and the ,celtic image of ,zeus is a tall oak40#aahh ,the ,celtic conquerors who settled in ,asia in the third century before our era appear to have carried the worship of the oak with them to their new home2 for in the heart of ,asia ,minor the ,galatian senate met in a place which bore the pure ,celtic name of ,drynemetum1 8the sacred oak grove0 or 8the temple of the oak40#aahi ,indeed the very name of ,druids is believed by good authorities to mean no more than 8oak men40#aaij ,when ,christianity displaced ,druidism in ,ireland1 the churches and monasteries were sometimes built in oak groves or under solitary oaks1#aaia the choice of the site ,sidenote3 ,traces of sacred oaks in ,ireland4 being perhaps determined by the immemorial sanctity of the trees1 which might predispose the minds of the converts to receive with less reluctance the teaching of the new faith4#aaib ,but there is no positive evidence that the ,irish ,druids performed their rites1 like their ,gallic brethren1 in oak groves1#aaic so that the inference from the churches of ,kildare1 ,derry1 and the rest is merely a conjecture based on analogy4 ,in the religion of the ancient ,germans the veneration for sacred groves seems to have held the foremost place1#aaid and according to ,grimm the chief of their holy trees was the oak4#aaie ,it appears to have been especially dedicated to the ,sidenote3 ,the ,teutonic god of the oak and the thunder4 god of thunder1 ,donar or ,thunar1 the equivalent of the ,norse ,thor2 for a sacred oak near ,geismar1 in ,hesse1 which ,boniface cut down in the eighth century1 went among the heathen by the name of ,jupiter's oak 7robur ,jovis71 which in old ,german would be ,donares eih1 8the oak of ,donar40#aaif ,that the ,teutonic thunder god ,donar1 ,thunar1 ,thor was identified with the ,italian thunder god ,jupiter appears from our word ,thursday1 ,thunar's day1 which is merely a rendering of the ,latin dies ,jovis4#aaig ,thus among the ancient ,teutons1 as among the ,greeks and ,italians1 the god of the oak was also the god of the thunder4 ,moreover1 he was regarded as the great fertilising power1 who sent rain and caused the earth to bear fruit2 for ,adam of ,bremen tells us that 8,thor presides in the air2 he it is who rules thunder and lightning1 wind and rains1 fine weather and crops40#aaih ,in these respects1 therefore1 the ,teutonic thunder god again resembled his southern counterparts ,zeus and ,jupiter4 ,and like them ,thor appears to have been the chief god of the pantheon2 for in the great temple at ,upsala his image ,sidenote3 ,the worship of ,thor at ,upsala4 occupied the middle place between the images of ,odin and ,frey1#aaii and in oaths by this or other ,norse trinities he was always the principal deity invoked4#abjj ,beside the temple at ,upsala there was a sacred grove1 but the kinds of trees which grew in it are not known4 ,only of one tree are we told that it was of mighty size1 with great spreading branches1 and that it remained green winter and summer alike4 ,here too was a spring where sacrifices were offered4 ,they used to plunge a living man into the water1 and if he disappeared they drew a favourable omen4 ,every nine years1 at the spring equinox1 a great festival was held at ,upsala in honour of ,thor1 the god of thunder1 ,odin1 the god of war1 and ,frey1 the god of peace and pleasure4 ,the ceremonies lasted nine days4 ,nine male animals of every sort were sacrificed1 that their blood might appease the gods4 ,each day six victims were slaughtered1 of whom one was a man4 ,their bodies were fastened to the trees of the grove1 where dogs and horses might be seen hanging beside men4#abja ,sidenote3 ,perun1 the god of the oak and the thunder among the ,slavs4 ,amongst the ,slavs also the oak appears to have been the sacred tree of the thunder god ,perun1 the counterpart of ,zeus and ,jupiter4#abjb ,it is said that at ,novgorod there used to stand an image of ,perun in the likeness of a man with a thunder-stone in his hand4 ,a fire of oak wood burned day and night in his honour2 and if ever it went out the attendants paid for their negligence with their lives4#abjc ,perun seems1 like ,zeus and ,jupiter1 to have been the chief god of his people2 for ,procopius tells us that the ,slavs 8believe that one god1 the maker of lightning1 is alone lord of all things1 and they sacrifice to him oxen and every victim40#abjd ,sidenote3 ,perkunas1 the chief ,lithuanian god4 ,the chief deity of the ,lithuanians was ,perkunas or ,perkuns1 the god of thunder and lightning1 whose resemblance to ,zeus and ,jupiter has often been pointed out4#abje ,oaks were sacred to him1 and when they were cut down by the ,christian missionaries1 the people loudly complained that their sylvan deities were destroyed4#abjf ,perpetual fires1 kindled with the wood of certain oak-trees1 were kept up in honour of ,perkunas2 if such a fire went out1 it was lighted again by friction of the sacred wood4#abjg ,men sacrificed to oak-trees for good crops1 while women did the same to lime-trees2 from which we may infer that they regarded oaks as male and lime-trees as female4#abjh ,and in time of drought1 when they wanted rain1 they used to sacrifice a black heifer1 a black he-goat1 and a black cock to the thunder-god in the depths of the woods4 ,on such occasions the people assembled in great numbers from the country round about1 ate and drank1 and called upon ,perkunas4 ,they carried a bowl of beer thrice round the fire1 then poured the liquor on the flames1 while they prayed to the god to send showers4#abji ,thus the chief ,lithuanian deity presents a close resemblance to ,zeus and ,jupiter1 since he was the god of the oak1 the thunder1 and the rain4#abaj ,sidenote3 ,the god of the oak and the thunder among the ,esthonians4 ,wedged in between the ,lithuanians and the ,slavs are the ,esthonians1 a people who do not belong to the ,aryan family4 ,but they also shared the reverence for the oak1 and associated the tree with their thunder-god ,taara1 the deity of their pantheon1 whom they called 8,old ,father10 or 8,father of ,heaven40#abaa ,it is said that down to the beginning of the nineteenth century ,esthonians used to smear the holy oaks1 lime-trees1 and ash-trees with the fresh blood of animals at least once a year4#abab ,the following prayer to thunder is instructive1 because it shews how easily thunder1 through its association with rain1 may appear to the rustic mind in the character of a beneficent and fertilising power4 ,it was taken down from the lips of an ,esthonian peasant ,sidenote3 ,esthonian prayer to thunder4 in the seventeenth century4 8,dear ,thunder10 he prayed1 8we sacrifice to thee an ox1 which has two horns and four claws1 and we would beseech thee for the sake of our ploughing and sowing1 that our straw may be red as copper1 and our corn yellow as gold4 ,drive somewhere else all black1 thick clouds over great marshes1 high woods1 and wide wastes4 ,but to us ploughmen and sowers give a fruitful time and sweet rain4 ,holy ,thunder1 guard our fields1 that they may bear good straw below1 good ears above1 and good grain within40#abac ,sometimes in time of great drought an ,esthonian farmer would carry beer thrice round a sacrificial fire1 then pour it on the flames with a prayer that the thunder-god would be pleased to send rain4#abad ,sidenote3 ,parjanya1 the old ,indian god of thunder1 rain1 and fertility4 ,in like manner1 ,parjanya1 the old ,indian god of thunder and rain1 whose name is by some scholars identified with the ,lithuanian ,perkunas1#abae was conceived as a deity of fertility1 who not only made plants to germinate1 but caused cows1 mares1 and women to conceive4 ,as the power who impregnated all things1 he was compared to a bull1 an animal which to the primitive herdsman is the most natural type of the procreative energies4 ,thus in a hymn of the ,rigveda it is said of him3-- 8,the ,bull1 loud roaring1 swift to send his bounty1 lays in the plants the seed for germination4 ,he smites the trees apart1 he slays the demons3 all life fears him who wields the mighty weapon4 ,from him exceeding strong flees e'en the guiltless when thundering ,parjanya smites the wicked4 8,like a car-driver whipping on his horses1 he makes the messengers of rain spring forward4 ,far off resounds the roaring of the lion what time ,parjanya fills the sky with rain-cloud4 ,forth burst the winds1 down come the lightning-flashes3 the plants shoot up1 the realm of light is streaming4 ,food springs abundant for all living creatures what time ,parjanya quickens earth with moisture40#abaf ,in another hymn ,parjanya is spoken of as 8giver of growth to plants1 the god who ruleth over the waters and all moving creatures10 and it is said that 8in him all living creatures have their being40 ,then the poet goes on3-- 8,may this my song to sovran lord ,parjanya come near unto his heart and give him pleasure4 ,may we attain the showers that bring enjoyment1 and god-protected plants with goodly fruitage4 ,he is the ,bull of all1 and their impregner3 he holds the life of all things fixed and moving40#abag ,and in yet another hymn we read3-- 8,sing forth and laud ,parjanya1 son of ,heaven1 who sends the gift of rain3 ,may he provide our pasturage4 ,parjanya is the god who forms in kine1 in mares1 in plants of earth ,and womanhood1 the germ of life40#abah ,in short1 8,parjanya is a god who presides over the lightning1 the thunder1 the rain1 and the procreation of plants and living creatures4 ,but it is by no means clear whether he is originally a god of the rain1 or a god of the thunder4 ,for1 as both phenomena are always associated in ,india1 either of the two opinions is admissible1 if no deciding evidence comes from another quarter40#abai ,on this point something will be said presently4 ,here it is enough to have indicated the ease with which the notion of the thunder-god passes into1 or is combined with1 the idea of a god of fertility in general4 ,sidenote3 ,god of thunder1 rain1 and fertility among the ,iroquois4 ,the same combination meets us in ,heno1 the thunder-spirit of the ,iroquois4 ,his office was not only to hurl his bolts at evil-doers1 but to cool and refresh the ground with showers1 to ripen the harvest1 and to mature the fruits of the earth4 ,in spring1 when they committed the seeds to the soil1 the ,indians prayed to him that he would water them and foster their growth3 and at the harvest festival they thanked him for his gift of rain4#abbj ,the ,hos ,sidenote3 ,goddess of lightning1 rain1 and fertility among the ,hos4 of ,togoland in ,west ,africa distinguish two deities of the lightning1 a god ,sogble and a goddess ,sodza1 who are husband and wife and talk with each other in the sound of thunder4 ,the goddess has epithets applied to her which seem to shew that she is believed to send the rain and to cause the plants to grow4 ,she is addressed as 8,mother of men and beasts1 ship full of yams1 ship full of the most varied fullness40 ,further1 it is said to be she who blesses the tilled land4 ,moreover1 like the ,hindoo thunder-god ,parjanya1 who slays demons1 the ,ho thunder-goddess drives away evil spirits and witches from people's houses2 under her protection children multiply and the inmates of the house remain healthy4#abba ,the ,indians of the ,andes1 about ,sidenote3 ,gods of thunder1 rain1 and fertility among the ,indians of the ,andes and the ,abchases of the ,caucasus4 ,lake ,titicaca1 believe in a thunder-god named ,con or ,cun1 whom they call the 8lord0 or 8father0 of the mountains 7,ccollo-auqui74 ,he is regarded as a powerful being1 but irritable and difficult of access1 who dwells on the high mountains above the line of perpetual snow4 ,yet he gives great gifts to those who win his favour2 and when the crops are languishing for lack of rain1 the ,indians try to rouse the god from his torpor by pouring a small libation of brandy into a tarn below the snow-line2 for they dare not set foot on the snow lest they should meet the dreadful thunder-god face to face4 ,his bird is the condor as the eagle was the bird of the ,greek thunder-god ,zeus4#abbb ,similarly in time of drought the ,abchases of the ,caucasus sacrifice an ox to ,ap-hi1 the god of thunder and lightning1 and an old man prays him to send rain1 thunder1 and lightning1 telling him that the crops are parched1 the grass burnt up1 and the cattle starving4#abbc ,these examples shew how readily a thunder-god may come to be viewed as a power of fertility2 the connecting link is furnished by the fertilising rain which usually accompanies a thunder-storm4 ,sidenote3 ,traces of the worship of the oak in modern ,europe4 ,as might have been expected1 the ancient worship of the oak in ,europe has left its print in popular custom and superstition down to modern times4 ,thus in the ,french department of ,maine it is said that solitary oak-trees in the fields are still worshipped1 though the priests have sought to give the worship a ,christian colour by hanging images of saints on the trees4#abbd ,in various parts of ,lower ,saxony and ,westphalia1 as late as the first half of the nineteenth century1 traces survived of the sanctity of certain oaks1 to which the people paid a half-heathenish1 half-,christian worship4 ,in the principality of ,minden young people of both sexes used to dance round an old oak on ,easter ,saturday with loud shouts of joy4 ,and not far from the village of ,wormeln1 in the neighbourhood of ,paderborn1 there stood a holy oak in the forest1 to which the inhabitants of ,wormeln and ,calenberg went every year in solemn procession4#abbe ,another vestige of superstitious reverence for the oak in ,germany is the custom of passing sick people and animals through a natural or artificial opening in the trunk of an oak for the purpose of healing them of their infirmities4#abbf ,at a village near ,ragnit in ,east ,prussia there was an oak which1 down to the seventeenth century1 the villagers regarded as sacred1 firmly believing that any person who harmed it would be visited with misfortune1 especially with some bodily ailment4#abbg ,about the middle of the nineteenth century the ,lithuanians still laid offerings for spirits under ancient oaks2#abbh and old-fashioned people among them preferred to cook the viands for funeral banquets on a fire of oak-wood1 or at least under an oak-tree4#abbi ,on the rivulet ,micksy1 between the governments of ,pskov and ,livonia in ,russia1 there stood a stunted1 ,sidenote3 ,worship of the oak in modern ,russia4 withered1 but holy oak1 which received the homage of the neighbouring peasantry down at least to #ahgd4 ,an eye-witness has described the ceremonies4 ,he found a great crowd of people1 chiefly ,esthonians of the ,greek ,church1 assembled with their families about the tree1 all dressed in gala costume4 ,some of them had brought wax candles and were fastening them about the trunk and in the branches4 ,soon a priest arrived1 and1 having donned his sacred robes1 proceeded to sing a canticle1 such as is usually sung in the ,orthodox ,church in honour of saints4 ,but instead of saying as usual1 8,holy saint1 pray the ,lord for us10 he said1 8,holy ,oak ,hallelujah1 pray for us40 ,then he incensed the tree all round4 ,during the service the tapers on the oak were lighted1 and the people1 throwing themselves on the ground1 adored the holy tree4 ,when the pastor had retired1 his flock remained till late at night1 feasting1 drinking1 dancing1 and lighting fresh tapers on the oak1 till everybody was drunk and the proceedings ended in an orgy4#abcj ,sidenote3 ,ceremonial fires kindled by the friction of oak-wood4 ,another relic of the ancient sanctity of the oak has survived to modern times in the practice of kindling ceremonial fires by means of the friction of oak-wood4 ,this has been done1 either at stated seasons of the year or on occasions of distress1 by ,slavs1 ,germans1 and ,celts4#abca ,taken together with the perpetual sacred fires of oak-wood which we have found among the ,slavs1 the ,lithuanians1 and the ancient ,romans1#abcb the wide prevalence of the practice seems clearly to point back to a time when the forefathers of the ,aryans in ,europe dwelt in forests of oak1 fed their fires with oak-wood1 and rekindled them1 when they chanced to go out1 by rubbing two oaken sticks against each other4 ,sidenote3 ,in the great ,european god of the oak1 the thunder1 and the rain1 the original element seems to have been the oak4 ,from the foregoing survey of the facts it appears that a god of the oak1 the thunder1 and the rain was worshipped of old by all the main branches of the ,aryan stock in ,europe1 and was indeed the chief deity of their pantheon4#abcc ,it was natural enough that the oak should loom large in the religion of people who lived in oak forests1 used oak timber for building1 oak sticks for fuel1 and oak acorns for food and fodder2 but we have still to explain how they were led to associate the thunder and the rain with the oak in their conception of this great divinity4 ,from the nature of the case our solution of the problem must be conjectural2 we can only guess at the ,sidenote3 ,the clue to the development of a lightning-god out of an oak-god may have been the notion that the heavenly fire or lightning was made1 like the earthly fire1 by the friction of oak-wood4 train of thought which prompted our forefathers to link together things which to us seem so very different4 ,thunder and rain may indeed naturally be regarded as akin since the two so often occur together2 but the difficulty is to understand why the oak should be joined with them4 ,which of the three elements was the original nucleus about which the others afterwards clustered8 ,in our ignorance of the facts1 this question amounts to asking whether1 on the principles of savage thought1 it is easier to suppose that an original god of thunder and rain should afterwards add the oak-tree to his attributes1 or that1 on the contrary1 an old god of the oak should annex to himself the thunder and the rain8 ,in favour of the first of these suppositions it may be said that a god of thunder and rain might in time be regarded as a god of the oak1 because thunder and rain come from the sky1 and the oak reaches skyward and is often struck by lightning4#abcd ,but this train of thought is hardly likely to carry conviction even to the mind of a savage4 ,on the other hand1 it is not difficult to imagine how early man in ,europe might suppose the thunder1 or rather the lightning1 to be derived from the oak4 ,seeing that fire on earth was regularly kindled by the rubbing of oaken sticks together1 he might readily infer that fire in heaven was produced in like manner2 in other words1 that the flash of lightning was the spark elicited by some one who was lighting his fire in the usual fashion up aloft2 for the savage commonly explains natural phenomena by ideas drawn from the circle of his own daily life4 ,similarly1 people who are accustomed to make fire by means of flints sometimes suppose that lightning is produced in the same way4 ,this is reported of the ,armenians1#abce and it may be inferred of the many peoples who believe that the flint implements of prehistoric races are thunder-bolts4#abcf ,sidenote3 ,when an oak-god had once grown into a lightning-god1 he would easily develop into a god of the rain and the sky4 ,thus it is easy to conceive how a god of the oak1 viewed as the source of earthly fire1 should come to be regarded as a god of the lightning1 and hence1 by an easy extension of ideas1 as a god of thunder and rain4 ,accordingly we may provisionally assume that the great ,aryan gods who combine these various functions have been evolved in this fashion4 ,a further step in their promotion would be taken when the whole sky was assigned to their dominion4 ,the ,greeks and ,italians certainly advanced their ,zeus and ,jupiter to this lofty position2#abcg but there seems to be no evidence that the ,aryans of the north ever raised their corresponding deities to the rank of sky-gods in general4 ,it is commonly indeed assumed that the sky was the original province of all these deities1 or rather of the single ,aryan god from which they are descended4 ,but on this theory it is hard to see why the god of the sky should have taken up with the oak1 and not only that1 but should have clung to it even after he had1 in some places at least1 begun to sit very loose to his old home1 the vault of heaven4 ,surely his fidelity to the oak from the earliest to the latest times among all the different families of his ,european worshippers is a strong argument for regarding the tree as the primary1 not a secondary1 element in his composite nature4 ,footnote #aaaa3 ,see above1 pp4 #g sq4 ,footnote #aaab3 ,j4 ,geikie1 ,prehistoric ,europe 7,edinburgh1 #ahha71 pp4 #dbj sq41 #dhb sqq41 #die4 ,footnote #aaac3 ,r4 ,munro1 ,ancient ,scottish ,lake ,dwellings or ,crannogs 7,edinburgh1 #ahhb71 p4 #bff1 quoting ,alton's ,treatise on the ,origin1 ,qualities1 and ,cultivation of ,moss ,earth4 ,footnote #aaad3 ,j4 ,geikie1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dcb-dcf4 ,footnote #aaae3 ,j4 ,geikie1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dfa-dfc4 ,footnote #aaaf3 ,a4 von ,humboldt1 ,kosmos1 i4 7,stuttgart and ,tbingen1 #ahde7 p4 #bih4 ,the passage is mistranslated in the ,english version edited by ,e4 ,sabine4 ,footnote #aaag3 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 ,the ,geological ,evidence of the ,antiquity of ,man #dth ed41 7,london1 #ahgc71 pp4 #h1 #ag1 #dae sq42 ,sir ,john ,lubbock 7,lord ,avebury71 ,prehistoric ,times #eth ,ed41 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #bea1 #chg2 ,j4 ,geikie1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dhe-dhg4 ,footnote #aaah3 ,j4 ,geikie1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dhg sq4 ,footnote #aaai3 ,j4 ,geikie1 op4 cit4 p4 #dhi4 ,footnote #aabj3 ,r4 ,munro1 ,ancient ,scottish ,lake ,dwellings1 p4 #bj1 quoting the article 8,crannoges0 in ,chambers's ,encyclopdia4 ,footnote #aaba3 ,r4 ,munro1 op4 cit4 p4 #bc4 ,for more evidence of the use of oak in ,british crannogs1 see id41 op4 cit4 pp4 #f-h1 #bf1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #cc sq41 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #da1 #db1 #ea sq41 #ec1 #fa1 #fb1 #ig1 #abb1 #bjh1 #bfb1 #bia-bii2 id4 ,the ,lake ,dwellings of ,europe 7,london1 ,paris1 and ,melbourne1 #ahij71 pp4 #cej1 #cfd1 #cgb1 #cgg4 ,footnote #aabb3 ,f4 ,keller1 ,the ,lake ,dwellings of ,switzerland and other ,parts of ,europe #bnd ,ed41 7,london1 #ahgh71 i4 #cg1 #dh1 #fe1 #hg1 #ic1 #aje1 #aaj1 #abi1 #aef1 #ahf1 #aid1 #bja1 #bad1 #bfd1 #bfh1 #bhi1 #cjj1 #cbj1 #cge1 #chb1 #dcd1 #dch1 #ddj1 #ddd1 #ddf1 #dfe1 #fci4 ,footnote #aabc3 ,f4 ,keller1 op4 cit4 i4 #ccb1 #ccd1 #cge1 #ehf4 ,footnote #aabd3 ,w4 ,helbig1 ,die ,italiker in der ,poebene 7,leipsic1 #ahgi71 pp4 #ab1 #af sq41 #bf4 ,the bones of cattle1 pigs1 goats1 and sheep prove that these animals were bred by the people of the ,italian pile villages4 ,see ,w4 ,helbig1 op4 cit4 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #aabe3 ,strabo1 v4 #d4 #a1 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #aabf3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #e4 ,footnote #aabg3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #f 8,hercyniae silvae roborum vastitas 444 glandiferi maxime generis omnes1 quibus honos apud ,romanos perpetuus40 ,footnote #aabh3 ,h4 ,hirt1 8,die ,urheimat der ,indogermanen10 ,indogermanische ,forschungen1 i4 7#ahib71 p4 #dhj2 ,p4 ,kretschmer1 ,einleitung in die ,geschichte der griechischen ,sprache 7,gttingen1 #ahif71 p4 #ha2 ,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der ,indogermanischen ,altertumskunde1 s4v4 8,eiche10 p4 #afd4 ,this etymology assumes that ,hercynia represents an original ,perkunia1 and is connected with the ,latin quercus4 ,however1 the derivation is not undisputed4 ,see ,o4 ,schrader1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ajae sq4 ,footnote #aabi3 ,polybius1 ii4 #ae4 ,compare ,strabo1 v4 #a4 #ab1 p4 #bah4 ,footnote #aacj3 ,polybius1 xii4 #d4 ,footnote #aaca3 ,strabo1 v4 #c4 #a1 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #aacb3 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #hd4 ,footnote #aacc3 ,pausanias1 viii4 #bc4 #h sq4 ,for notices of forests and groves of oak in ,arcadia and other parts of ,greece1 see id4 ii4 #aa4 #d1 iii4 #aj4 #f1 vii4 #bf4 #aj1 viii4 #aa4 #a1 viii4 #be4 #a1 viii4 #db4 #ab1 viii4 #ed4 #e1 ix4 #c4 #d1 ix4 #bd4 #e4 ,the oaks in the ,arcadian forests were of various species 7id4 viii4 #ab4 #a74 ,footnote #aacd3 ,c4 ,neumann und ,j4 ,partsch1 ,physikalische ,geographie von ,griechenland 7,breslau1 #ahhe71 p4 #cgh4 ,footnote #aace3 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #ith ,ed41 xvii4 #fij4 ,footnote #aacf3 ,virgil1 ,georg41 i4 #g sq41 #adg-adi2 ,lucretius1 v4 #ici sq41 #ife2 ,tibullus1 ii4 #a4 #cg sq41 ii4 #c4 #fi2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 i4 #ajf2 id41 ,fasti1 i4 #fge sq41 iv4 #cii-djb2 ,juvenal1 xiv4 #ahb-ahd2 ,aulus ,gellius1 v4 #f4 #ab2 ,dionysius ,halicarnas4 ,ars rhetorica1 i4 #f1 vol4 v4 p4 #bcj1 ed4 ,reiske2 ,pollux1 i4 #bcd2 ,poryphry1 ,de abstinentia1 ii4 #e4 ,footnote #aacg3 ,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #bcb sq4 ,footnote #aach3 ,herodotus1 i4 #ff4 ,footnote #aaci3 ,pausanias1 viii4 #a1 #f4 ,according to ,pausanias it was only the acorns of the phegos oak which the ,arcadians ate4 ,footnote #aadj3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #ae4 ,footnote #aada3 ,strabo1 iii4 #c4 #g1 p4 #aee4 ,footnote #aadb3 ,pliny1 l4c4 ,footnote #aadc3 ,c4 ,neumann und ,j4 ,partsch1 ,physikalische ,geographie von ,griechenland1 p4 #cgi4 ,footnote #aadd3 ,c4 ,neumann and ,j4 ,partsch1 op4 cit41 p4 #chb1 note4 ,footnote #aade3 ,cervantes1 ,don ,quixote1 part ii4 ch4 #ej1 vol4 iv4 p4 #acc of ,h4 ,e4 ,watts's translation1 with the translator's note 7new edition1 ,london1 #ahie72 ,neumann und ,partsch1 op4 cit4 p4 #chj2 ,p4 ,wagler1 ,die ,eiche in alter und neuer ,zeit1 i4 7,wurzen1 #ahia7 p4 #ce4 ,the passage in ,don ,quixote was pointed out to me by my friend ,mr4 ,w4 ,wyse4 ,footnote #aadf3 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #ith4 ,ed41 xvii4 #fib4 ,footnote #aadg3 ,h4 ,e4 ,watts1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #aadh3 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 l4c4 ,footnote #aadi3 ,to avoid misapprehension1 ,i desire to point out that ,i am not here concerned with the evolution of ,aryan religion in general1 but only with that of a small1 though important part of it1 to wit1 the worship of a particular kind of tree4 ,to write a general history of ,aryan religion in all its many aspects as a worship of nature1 of the dead1 and so forth1 would be a task equally beyond my powers and my ambition4 ,still less should ,i dream of writing a universal history of religion4 ,the 8general work0 referred to in the preface to the first edition of ,the ,golden ,bough is a book of far humbler scope4 ,footnote #aaej3 ,for examples of such ceremonies1 see above1 pp4 #ah-bj1 #cd-ch4 ,footnote #aaea3 ,for evidence of these aspects of ,zeus and ,jupiter1 see ,l4 ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 i4 #dth ed41 #aae sqq42 id41 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #ahd sqq4 ,in former editions of this book ,i was disposed to set aside much too summarily what may be called the meteorological side of ,zeus and ,jupiter4 ,footnote #aaeb3 ,see my note on ,pausanias1 ii4 #ag4 #e2 ,p4 ,wagler1 ,die ,eiche in alter und neuer ,zeit1 ii4 7,berlin1 #ahia71 pp4 #b sqq42 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xvii4 7#aijc7 pp4 #agh sqq4 ,footnote #aaec3 ,aug4 ,mommsen1 ,delphika 7,leipsic1 #ahgh71 pp4 #d sq4 ,footnote #aaed3 ,strabo1 ,frag4 vii4 #c2 ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 2 ,suidas1 s4vv4 and 2 ,apostolius1 ,cent4 vi4 #dc2 ,zenobius1 ,cent4 vi4 #e2 ,nonnus ,abbas1 ,ad ,s4 ,gregorii orat4 ii4 contra ,julianum1 #ai 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xxxvi4 #ajde74 ,the evidence on this subject has been collected and discussed by ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook 78,the ,gong at ,dodona10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #e-bh74 ,the theory in the text is obviously consistent1 both with the statement that the sound of the gongs was consulted as oracular1 and with the view1 advocated by ,mr4 ,cook1 that it was supposed to avert evil influences from the sanctuary4 ,if ,i am right1 the bronze statuette which1 according to some accounts1 produced the sound by striking the gong with a clapper would represent ,zeus himself making his thunder4 ,footnote #aaee3 ,on the natural surroundings of ,dodona1 see ,c4 ,carapanos1 ,dodone et ses ruines 7,paris1 #ahgh71 pp4 #g-aj4 ,footnote #aaef3 ,above1 pp4 #adj sq4 ,footnote #aaeg3 ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cji4 ,on the oak as the tree of ,zeus1 see ,dionysius ,halicarn4 ,ars rhetorica1 i4 #f1 vol4 v4 p4 #bcj ed4 ,reiske2 ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,birds1 #dhj4 ,on this subject much evidence1 both literary and monumental1 has been collected by ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook in his articles 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xvii4 7#aijc7 pp4 #agd sqq41 #bfh sqq41 #djc sqq41 xviii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #ge sqq41 #cbg sq4 ,footnote #aaeh3 ,pausanias1 i4 #bd4 #c4 ,footnote #aaei3 ,marcus ,antoninus1 v4 #g4 ,footnote #aafj3 ,theophrastus1 ,de signis tempestatum1 i4 #bd4 ,footnote #aafa3 ,pausanias1 i4 #cj4 #d4 ,footnote #aafb3 ,pausanias1 ii4 #bi4 #g sq42 ,isocrates1 ,evagoras1 #ad2 ,apollodorus1 iii4 #ab4 #f4 ,aeacus was said to be the son of ,zeus by ,aegina1 daughter of ,asopus 7,apollodorus1 l4c474 ,isocrates says that his relationship to the god marked ,aeacus out as the man to procure rain4 ,footnote #aafc3 ,theophrastus1 ,de signis tempestatum1 i4 #bj1 compare #bd4 ,footnote #aafd3 ,theophrastus1 op4 cit4 iii4 #dc4 ,footnote #aafe3 ,pausanias1 i4 #cb4 #b4 ,footnote #aaff3 ,theophrastus1 op4 cit4 iii4 #dc and #dg4 ,compare ,aristophanes1 ,clouds1 #cbd sq42 ,photius1 ,lexicon1 s4v4 4 ,footnote #aafg3 ,pausanias1 i4 #cb4 #b4 ,footnote #aafh3 ,pausanias1 ii4 #be4 #aj4 ,as to the climate and scenery of these barren mountains1 see ,a4 ,philippson1 ,der ,peloponnes 7,berlin1 #ahia71 pp4 #dc sq41 #fe4 ,footnote #aafi3 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #dh4 ,footnote #aagj3 ,paton and ,hicks1 ,the ,inscriptions of ,cos 7,oxford1 #ahia71 ,no4 #chb2 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1 #bnd ,ed41 ,no4 #gce4 ,there were altars of ,rainy ,zeus also at ,argos and ,lebadea4 ,see ,pausanias1 ii4 #ai4 #h1 ix4 #ci4 #d4 ,footnote #aaga3 1 ,aristotle1 ,de mundo1 #g1 p4 #dja a1 ed4 ,bekker2 ,plutarch1 ,de ,stoicorum repugnantiis1 xxx4 #h4 ,footnote #aagb3 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,atticarum1 iii4 ,no4 #gg2 ,e4 ,s4 ,roberts1 ,introduction to ,greek ,epigraphy1 ii4 ,no4 #adb1 p4 #chg2 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d'inscriptions grecques1 ,no4 #fib2 ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 i4 #ff and #agb4 ,footnote #aagc3 ,hesiod1 ,theogony1 #ga sq42 ,l4 ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 i4 #aai4 ,footnote #aagd3 ,pausanias1 v4 #ad4 #g2 ,h4 ,roehl1 ,inscriptiones ,graecae antiquissimae 7,berlin1 #ahhb71 ,no4 #aja2 ,frnkel1 ,inschriften von ,pergamon1 i4 ,no4 #bcb2 ,joannes ,malalas1 ,chronographia1 viii4 p4 #aii1 ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf4 ,footnote #aage3 ,strabo1 ix4 #b4 #aa1 p4 #djd4 ,footnote #aagf3 ,pollux1 ix4 #da2 ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 ,etymologicum ,magnum1 p4 #cda4 #h sqq42 ,artemidorus1 ,onirocrit4 #aa4 #i2 ,pausanias1 v4 #ad4 #aj2 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1 #bnd ,ed41 ,no4 #egg1 with ,dittenberger's note4 ,footnote #aagg3 ,see above1 p4 #agg4 ,footnote #aagh3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #caj4 ,footnote #aagi3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cff4 ,footnote #aahj3 ,for more evidence that the old ,greek kings regularly personified ,zeus1 see ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,the ,european ,sky-god10 ,folk-lore1 xv4 7#aijd7 pp4 #bii sqq4 ,footnote #aaha3 ,virgil4 ,georg4 iii4 #ccb1 with ,servius's note2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xii4 #c4 ,footnote #aahb3 ,as to the oak of ,jupiter on the ,capitol and the god's oak crown1 see above1 p4 #agf4 ,with regard to the ,capitoline worship of ,thundering ,jupiter1 see ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #ba1 xxxiv4 #aj and #gi1 xxxvi4 #ej4 ,he was worshipped in many places besides ,rome as the god of thunder and lightning4 ,see ,festus1 p4 #bbi1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,apuleius1 ,de mundo1 xxxvii4 #cga2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptones ,latinae selectae1 ,nos4 #cjdd-cjec4 ,footnote #aahc3 ,petronius1 ,sat4 #dd4 ,that the slope mentioned by ,petronius was the ,capitoline one is made highly probable by a passage of ,tertullian 7,apologeticus #dj3 8,aquilicia ,jovi immolatis1 nudipedalia populo denuntiatis1 coelum apud ,capitolium quaeritis1 nubila de laquearibus exspectatis074 ,the church father's scorn for the ceremony contrasts with the respect1 perhaps the mock respect1 testified for it by the man in ,petronius4 ,the epithets ,rainy and ,showery are occasionally applied to ,jupiter4 ,see ,tibullus1 i4 #g4 #bf2 ,apuleius1 ,de mundo1 xxxvii4 #cga2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ,no4 #cjdc4 ,footnote #aahd3 ,h4 ,dessau1 op4 cit4 ,no4 #cjdb2 ,apuleius1 l4c4 ,footnote #aahe3 ,apuleius1 l4c41 8,plures eum ,frugiferum vocant02 ,h4 ,dessau1 op4 cit4 ,no4 #cjag4 ,footnote #aahf3 ,on this subject see ,h4 ,munro ,chadwick1 8,the ,oak and the ,thunder-god10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxx4 7#aijj7 pp4 #bb-db4 ,footnote #aahg3 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bdi4 ,footnote #aahh3 ,maximus ,tyrius1 ,dissert4 viii4 #h4 ,h4 ,d',arbois de ,jubainville supposed that by ,celts the writer here meant ,germans 7,cours de la littrature celtique1 i4 #aba sqq474 ,this was not the view of ,j4 ,grimm1 to whose authority ,d',arbois de ,jubainville appealed4 ,grimm says that what ,maximus ,tyrius affirms of the ,celts might be applied to the ,germans 7,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 i4 #ee71 which is quite a different thing4 ,footnote #aahi3 ,strabo1 xii4 #e4 #a1 p4 #efg4 ,as to the meaning of the name see 7,sir7 ,j4 ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom1 p4 #bba2 ,h4 ,f4 ,tozer1 ,selections from ,strabo1 p4 #bhd4 ,on the ,galatian language see above1 p4 #abf1 note #b4 ,footnote #aaij3 ,g4 ,curtius1 ,griech4 ,etymologie1 #eth ,ed41 pp4 #bch sq42 ,j4 ,rhys1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bba sq42 ,p4 ,kretschmer1 ,einleitung in die ,geschichte der griech4 ,sprache1 p4 #ha4 ,compare ,a4 ,vanicek1 ,griechisch-lateinisch4 etymologisches ,wrterbuch1 pp4 #cfh-cgj4 ,oak in old ,irish is daur1 in modern ,irish dair1 darach1 in ,gaelic darach4 ,see ,g4 ,curtius1 l4c42 ,a4 ,macbain1 ,etymological ,dictionary of the ,gaelic ,language 7,inverness1 #ahif71 s4v4 8,darach40 ,on this view ,pliny was substantially right 7,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bdi7 in connecting ,druid with the ,greek drus1 8oak10 though the name was not derived from the ,greek4 ,however1 this derivation of ,druid has been doubted or rejected by some scholars4 ,see ,h4 ,d',arbois de ,jubainville1 ,cours de la littrature celtique1 i4 7,paris1 #ahhc71 pp4 #aag sqq42 ,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der indogermanischen ,altertumskunde1 pp4 #fch sq4 ,footnote #aaia3 ,see above1 p4 #bdb4 ,footnote #aaib3 ,the ,gael's 8faith in druidism was never suddenly undermined2 for in the saints he only saw more powerful druids than those he had previously known1 and ,christ took the position in his eyes of the druid ' 4 ,irish druidism absorbed a certain amount of ,christianity2 and it would be a problem of considerable difficulty to fix on the point where it ceased to be druidism1 and from which onwards it could be said to be ,christianity in any restricted sense of that term0 7,j4 ,rhys1 ,celtic ,heathendom1 p4 #bbd74 ,footnote #aaic3 ,p4 ,w4 ,joyce1 ,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland1 i4 #bcf4 ,footnote #aaid3 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 i4 #ee sq4 ,tacitus often mentions the sacred groves of the ,germans1 but never specifies the kinds of trees of which they were composed4 ,see ,annals1 ii4 #ab1 iv4 #gc2 ,histor4 iv4 #ad2 ,germania1 #g1 #i1 #ci1 #dj1 #dc4 ,footnote #aaie3 ,j4 ,grimm1 op4 cit4 ii4 #edb4 ,footnote #aaif3 ,willibald's ,life of ,s4 ,boniface1 in ,pertz's ,monumenta ,germaniae historica1 ii4 #cdc sq42 ,j4 ,grimm1 op4 cit4 i4 pp4 #eh1 #adb4 ,footnote #aaig3 ,j4 ,grimm1 op4 cit4 i4 #aeg4 ,prof4 ,e4 ,maass supposes that the identification of ,donar or ,thunar with ,jupiter was first made in ,upper ,germany between the ,vosges mountains and the ,black ,forest4 ,see his work ,die ,tagesgtter 7,berlin1 #aijb71 p4 #bhj4 ,footnote #aaih3 ,adam of ,bremen1 ,descriptio insularum ,aquilonis1 #bf 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 cxlvi4 col4 #fdc74 ,footnote #aaii3 ,adam of ,bremen1 l4c4 ,footnote #abjj3 ,e4 ,h4 ,meyer1 ,mythologie des ,germanen 7,strasburg1 #aijc71 p4 #bij4 ,footnote #abja3 ,adam of ,bremen1 op4 cit4 #bf1 #bg1 with the ,scholia 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 cxlvi4 coll4 #fdb-fdd74 ,footnote #abjb3 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 i4 #adb sq42 ,l4 ,leger1 ,la ,mythologie slave 7,paris1 #aija71 pp4 #ed-gf4 ,footnote #abjc3 ,l4 ,leger1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eg sq41 translating ,guagnini's ,sarmatiae ,europaeae descriptio 7#aegh74 ,the passage is quoted in the original by ,chr4 ,hartknoch 7,alt- und neues ,preussen1 ,frankfort and ,leipsic1 #afhd1 p4 #acb71 who rightly assigns the work to ,strykowski1 not ,guagnini4 ,see ,w4 ,mannhardt1 in ,magazin herausgegeben von der ,lettisch-,literarischen ,gesellschaft1 xiv4 7#ahfh7 pp4 #aje sq4 ,footnote #abjd3 ,procopius1 ,de bello ,gothico1 iii4 #ad 7vol4 ii4 p4 #ceg1 ed4 ,j4 ,haury74 ,footnote #abje3 ,matthias ,michov1 8,de ,sarmatia ,asiana atque ,europea10 in ,simon ,grynaeus's ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum 7,paris1 #aecb71 p4 #deg2 id41 in ,j4 ,pistorius's ,polonicae historiae corpus 7,ble1 #aehb71 i4 #add2 ,martin ,cromer1 ,de origine et rebus gestis ,polonorum 7,ble1 #aefh71 p4 #bda2 ,j4 ,maeletius 7,menecius1 ,ian ,malecki71 8,de sacrificiis et idolatria veterum ,borussorum1 ,livonum1 aliarumque vicinarum gentium10 ,scriptores rerum ,livonicarum1 ii4 7,riga and ,leipsic1 #ahdh7 p4 #cij2 id41 in ,mitteilungen der ,litterarischen ,gesellschaft ,masovia1 ,heft #h 7,ltzen1 #aijb71 p4 #ahg2 ,chr4 ,hartknoch1 ,alt- und neues ,preussen 7,frankfort and ,leipsic1 #afhd71 pp4 #aca sqq42 ,s4 ,rostowski1 quoted by ,a4 ,brckner1 ,archiv fr slavische ,philologie1 ix4 7#ahhf7 pp4 #cb1 #ce2 ,m4 ,tppen1 ,geschichte der preussischen ,historiographie 7,berlin1 #ahec71 p4 #aij 78,perkunos ist in allen andern ,ueberlieferungen so gross und hehr1 wie nur immer der griechische und rmische ,donnergott1 und kein anderer der ,gtter darf sich ihm gleich stellen4 ,er ist der ,hauptgott1 wie nach andern ,berichten in ,preussen1 so auch in ,litthauen und ,livland072 ,schleicher1 8,lituanica10 ,sitzungsberichte der philosoph4-histor4 ,classe d4 kais4 ,akademie d4 ,wissen4 7,vienna71 xi4 7#ahec pub4 #ahed7 p4 #if2 ,h4 ,usener1 ,gtternamen 7,bonn1 #ahif71 p4 #ig4 ,footnote #abjf3 ,m4 ,praetorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae 7,berlin1 #ahga71 pp4 #ai sq42 ,s4 ,rostowski1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cd1 #ce4 ,on the sacred oaks of the ,lithuanians see ,chr4 ,hartknoch1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aag sqq42 ,tettau und ,temme1 ,volkssagen ,ostpreussens1 ,litthauens und ,westpreussens1 pp4 #ai-bb1 #ce-ch4 ,footnote #abjg3 ,m4 ,praetorius1 l4c42 ,s4 ,grunau1 ,preussische ,chronik1 ed4 ,m4 ,perlbach1 i4 7,leipsic1 #ahgf7 p4 #gh 7ii4 tract4 cap4 v4 #b74 ,the chronicler1 ,simon ,grunau1 lived as an itinerant ,dominican friar at the beginning of the sixteenth century in the part of ,prussia which had been ceded to ,poland4 ,he brought his history1 composed in somewhat rustic ,german1 down to #aebi4 ,his familiar intercourse with the lowest classes of the people enabled him to learn much as to their old heathen customs and superstitions2 but his good faith has been doubted or denied4 ,in particular1 his description of the images of the three gods in the great oak at ,romove has been regarded with suspicion or denounced as a figment4 ,see ,chr4 ,hartknoch1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abg sqq42 ,m4 ,toeppen1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abb sqq41 #aij sqq42 ,m4 ,perlbach's preface to his edition of ,grunau2 ,h4 ,usener1 ,gtternamen1 p4 #hc4 ,but his account of the sanctity of the oak1 and of the perpetual sacred fire of oak-wood1 may be accepted1 since it is confirmed by other authorities4 ,thus1 according to ,malecki1 a perpetual fire was kept up by a priest in honour of ,perkunas 7,pargnus7 on the top of a mountain1 which stood beside the river ,neuuassa 7,niewiaza1 a tributary of the ,niemen74 ,see ,malecki 7,maeletius1 ,menecius71 op4 cit41 ,scriptores rerum ,livonicarum1 ii4 #cia2 id41 ,mitteilungen der ,litterarischen ,gesellschaft ,masovia1 ,heft #h 7,ltzen1 #aijb71 p4 #ahg4 ,again1 the ,jesuit ,s4 ,rostowski says that the ,lithuanians maintained a perpetual sacred fire in honour of ,perkunas in the woods 7quoted by ,a4 ,brckner1 ,archiv fr slavische ,philologie1 ix4 7#ahhf7 p4 #cc74 ,malecki and ,rostowski do not mention that the fire was kindled with oak-wood1 but this is expressly stated by ,m4 ,praetorius1 and is1 besides1 intrinsically probable1 since the oak was sacred to ,perkunas4 ,moreover1 the early historian1 ,peter of ,dusburg1 who dedicated his chronicle of ,prussia to the ,grand ,master of the ,teutonic ,knights in #acbf1 informs us that the high-priest of the nation1 whom the ,prussians revered as a pope1 kept up a perpetual fire at ,romow1 which is doubtless the same with the ,romowo or ,romewo of ,grunau 7,preussische ,chronik1 pp4 #hj1 #ha1 compare p4 #fb1 ed4 ,m4 ,perlbach74 ,see ,p4 de ,dusburg1 ,chronicon ,prussiae1 ed4 ,chr4 ,hartknoch 7,frankfort and ,leipsic1 #afgi71 p4 #gi4 ,martin ,cromer says that the ,lithuanians 8worshipped fire as a god1 and kept it perpetually burning in the more frequented places and towns0 7,de origine et rebus gestis ,polonorum1 ,ble1 #aefh1 p4 #bda74 ,romow or ,romowo is more commonly known as ,romove4 ,its site is very uncertain4 ,see ,chr4 ,hartknoch1 ,alt- und neues ,preussen1 pp4 #abb sqq4 ,grunau's account of ,romove and its sacred oak1 with the images of the three gods in it and the fire of oak-wood burning before it1 is substantially repeated by ,alex4 ,guagnini4 ,see ,j4 ,pistorius1 ,polonicae historiae corpus 7,ble1 #aehb71 i4 #eb2 ,respublica sive status regni ,poloniae1 ,lituaniae1 ,prussiae1 ,livoniae1 etc4 7,leyden1 #afbg71 pp4 #cba sq4 ,i do not know whether the chronicler1 ,simon ,grunau1 is the same with ,simon ,grynaeus1 editor of the ,novus ,orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum1 which was published at ,paris in #aecb4 ,footnote #abjh3 ,s4 ,rostowski1 op4 cit4 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #abji3 ,d4 ,fabricius1 8,de cultu1 religione et moribus incolarum ,livoniae10 ,scriptores rerum ,livonicarum1 ii4 #dda4 ,malecki 7,maeletius7 also says that ,perkunas was prayed to for rain4 ,see ,mitteilungen der ,litterarischen ,gesellschaft ,masovia1 ,heft #h 7,ltzen1 #aijb71 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #abaj3 ,according to ,prof4 ,h4 ,hirt1 the name ,perkunas means 8the oak-god10 being derived from the same root querq1 which appears in the ,latin quercus 8oak10 the ,hercynian forest1 the ,norse god and goddess ,fjrygn1 and the ,indian ,parjanya1 the ,vedic god of thunder and rain4 ,see ,h4 ,hirt1 8,die ,urheimat der ,indogermanen10 ,indogermanische ,forschungen1 i4 7#ahib7 pp4 #dgi sqq42 id41 ,die ,indogermanen 7,strasburg1 #aije-aijg71 ii4 #ejg2 ,p4 ,kretschmer1 ,einleitung in die ,geschichte der griechischen ,sprache1 pp4 #ha sq4 ,the identity of the names ,perkunas and ,parjanya had been maintained long before by ,g4 ,bhler1 though he did not connect the words with quercus4 ,see his article1 8,on the ,hindu god ,parjanya10 ,transactions of the 7,london7 ,philological ,society1 #ahei1 pp4 #aed-afh4 ,as to ,parjanya1 see below1 pp4 #cfh sq4 ,footnote #abaa3 ,fr4 ,kreutzwald und ,h4 ,neus1 ,mythische und magische ,lieder der ,ehsten 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahed71 pp4 #af1 #bf1 #bg1 #ef1 #eg1 #ajd2 ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem inneren und usseren ,leben der ,ehsten1 pp4 #dbg1 #dch4 ,sometimes1 however1 a special thunder-god ,kou1 ,koo1 ,piker or ,pikne is distinguished from ,taara 7,tar74 ,see ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 op4 cit4 p4 #dbg2 ,kreutzwald und ,neus1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ab sq4 ,footnote #abab3 ,boecler-,kreutzwald1 ,der ,ehsten aberglubische ,gebruche1 ,weisen und ,gewohnheiten 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahed71 p4 #b4 ,footnote #abac3 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 i4 #adf4 ,footnote #abad3 ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 op4 cit4 p4 #dbg4 ,footnote #abae3 ,see above1 p4 #cfg1 note #c4 ,footnote #abaf3 ,rigveda1 ,book v4 ,hymn #hc1 ,r4 ,t4 ,h4 ,griffith's translation 7,benares1 #ahhi-ahib71 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bii sq4 ,footnote #abag3 ,rigveda1 ,book vii4 ,hymn #aja1 ,griffith's translation 7vol4 iii4 pp4 #abc sq474 ,footnote #abah3 ,rigveda1 ,book vii4 ,hymn #ajb1 ,griffith's translation 7vol4 iii4 p4 #abd74 ,on ,parjanya see further ,g4 ,bhler1 8,on the ,hindu god ,parjanya10 ,transactions of the 7,london7 ,philological ,society1 #ahei1 pp4 #aed-afh2 id4 in ,orient und ,occident1 i4 7#ahfb7 pp4 #bad-bbi2 ,j4 ,muir1 ,original ,sanscrit ,texts1 v4 #adj-adb2 ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des ,veda1 p4 #bbf2 ,a4 ,macdonnell1 ,vedic ,mythology1 pp4 #hc-he4 ,footnote #abai3 ,g4 ,bhler1 op4 cit4 p4 #afa4 ,footnote #abbj3 ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,league of the ,iroquois 7,rochester1 #ahea71 pp4 #aeg sq4 ,footnote #abba3 ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #dbd-dbg4 ,footnote #abbb3 ,e4 ,j4 ,payne1 ,history of the ,new ,world called ,america1 i4 7,oxford1 #ahib7 pp4 #djg sq4 ,footnote #abbc3 ,n4 ,seidlitz1 8,die ,abchasen10 ,globus1 lxvi4 7#ahid7 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #abbd3 ,p4 ,wagler1 ,die ,eiche in alter und neuer ,zeit1 ii4 7,berlin1 #ahia7 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #abbe3 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 i4 #ei4 ,footnote #abbf3 ,p4 ,wagler1 ,die ,eiche in alter und neuer ,zeit1 i4 7,wurzen1 #ahia7 pp4 #ba-bc4 ,for many more survivals of oak-worship in ,germany see ,p4 ,wagler1 op4 cit4 ii4 #dj sqq4 ,footnote #abbg3 ,m4 ,praetorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae 7,berlin1 #ahga71 p4 #af4 ,footnote #abbh3 ,j4 ,g4 ,kohl1 ,die deutsch-russischen ,ostseeprovinzen 7,dresden and ,leipsic1 #ahda71 ii4 #ca2 compare #cc4 ,footnote #abbi3 ,schleicher1 8,lituanica10 ,sitzungsberichte der philos4-histor4 ,classe der kais4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 xi4 7#ahec1 pub4 #ahed7 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #abcj3 ,james ,piggul1 steward of the estate of ,panikovitz1 in a report to ,baron de ,bogouschefsky1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 iii4 7#ahgd7 pp4 #bgd sq4 ,footnote #abca3 ,the evidence will be given later on1 when we come to deal with the fire-festivals of ,europe4 ,meantime ,i may refer the reader to ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,second ,edition1 iii4 #cdg sqq41 where1 however1 the statement as to the universal use of oak-wood in kindling the need-fire is too absolute1 exceptions having since come to my knowledge4 ,these will be noticed in the third edition of that part of ,the ,golden ,bough4 ,footnote #abcb3 ,see above1 pp4 #ahf1 #cfe1 #cff4 ,footnote #abcc3 ,the only positive evidence1 so far as ,i know1 that the ,celtic oak-god was also a deity of thunder and rain is his identification with ,zeus 7see above1 p4 #cfb74 ,but the analogy of the ,greeks1 ,italians1 ,teutons1 ,slavs1 and ,lithuanians may be allowed to supply the lack of more definite testimony4 ,footnote #abcd3 ,it is said to have been observed that lightning strikes an oak twenty times for once that it strikes a beech 7,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 iii4 #fd74 ,but even if this observation were correct1 we could not estimate its worth unless we knew the comparative frequency of oaks and beeches in the country where it was made4 ,the ,greeks observed that a certain species of oak1 which they called haliphloios1 or sea-bark1 was often struck by lightning though it did not grow to a great height2 but far from regarding it as thereby marked out for the service of the god they abstained from using its wood in the sacrificial rites4 ,see ,theophrastus1 ,histor4 plant4 iii4 #h4 #e2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bd4 ,footnote #abce3 ,m4 ,abeghian1 ,der armenische ,volksglaube1 p4 #ij4 ,footnote #abcf3 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,early ,history of ,mankind1 #crd ,ed41 pp4 #bbc-bbg4 ,for more evidence of this wide-spread belief see ,m4 ,baudrouin et ,l4 ,bonnemre1 8,les ,haches polies dans l'histoire jusqu'au ,x,i,xe sicle10 ,bulletins et ,mmoires de la ,socit d',anthropologie de ,paris1 ,ve ,srie1 v4 7#aijd7 pp4 #dif-edh2 ,lieut4 ,boyd ,alexander1 8,from the ,niger1 by ,lake ,chad1 to the ,nile10 ,the ,geographical ,journal1 xxx4 7#aijg7 pp4 #add sq42 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast1 pp4 #cg sq42 ,h4 ,seidel1 8,der ,yew'e ,dienst im ,togolande10 ,zeitschrift fr afrikanische und oceanischen ,sprachen1 iii4 7#ahig7 p4 #afa2 ,h4 ,klose1 ,togo unter deutscher ,flagge1 pp4 #aig sq42 ,l4 ,conradt1 8,die ,ngumbu in ,sdkamerun10 ,globus1 lxxxi4 7#aijb7 p4 #cec2 ,guerlach1 8,murs et superstitions des sauvages ,ba-hnars10 ,missions ,catholiques1 xix4 7#ahhg7 pp4 #ddb1 #ded2 ,j4 ,a4 ,jacobsen1 ,reisen in die ,inselwelt des ,banda-,meeres 7,berlin1 #ahif71 pp4 #di sq41 #bcb2 ,c4 ,ribbe1 8,die ,aru-,inseln10 ,festschrift des ,vereins fr ,erdkunde zu ,dresden 7,dresden1 #ahhh71 p4 #afe2 ,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india1 p4 #cea2 ,rev4 ,p4 ,o4 ,bodding1 8,ancient ,stone ,implements in the ,santal ,parganas10 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 lxx4 ,part iii4 7#aija7 pp4 #ag-bj2 ,e4 ,m4 ,gordon1 ,indian ,folk-tales 7,london1 #aijh71 p4 #ge2 ,county ,folk-lore1 ,,iii4 ,orkney and ,shetland ,islands1 collected by ,g4 ,f4 ,black 7,london1 #aijc71 p4 #aec2 ,p4 ,hermann1 ,nordische ,mythologie1 pp4 #cci sq41 #ceb2 ,m4 ,toeppen1 ,aberglauben aus ,masuren #bnd ,ed41 7,danzig1 #ahfg71 pp4 #db sq4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor has pointed out how natural to the primitive mind is the association of spark-producing stones with lightning 7,primitive ,culture1 #bnd ,ed41 ii4 #bfb74 ,footnote #abcg3 ,l4 ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 i4 #aaf sq42 id41 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #ahd sqq4 ,as to ,jupiter see in particular ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 vii4 #ai1 8,coelum enim esse ,jovem innumerabiliter et diligenter affirmant02 and ,ennius1 quoted by ,cicero1 ,de natura deorum1 ii4 #be1 #fe1 8,aspice hoc sublimen candens1 quem invocant omnes ,jovem40 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,dianus ,,and ,,diana ,sidenote3 ,recapitulation4 ,in this chapter ,i propose to recapitulate the conclusions to which the enquiry has thus far led us1 and drawing together the scattered rays of light1 to turn them on the dark figure of the priest of ,nemi4 ,sidenote3 ,rise of sacred kings1 who are supposed to be endowed with magical or divine powers4 ,we have found that at an early stage of society men1 ignorant of the secret processes of ,nature and of the narrow limits within which it is in our power to control and direct them1 have commonly arrogated to themselves functions which in the present state of knowledge we should deem superhuman or divine4 ,the illusion has been fostered and maintained by the same causes which begot it1 namely1 the marvellous order and uniformity with which ,nature conducts her operations1 the wheels of her great machine revolving with a smoothness and precision which enable the patient observer to anticipate in general the season1 if not the very hour1 when they will bring round the fulfilment of his hopes or the accomplishment of his fears4 ,the regularly recurring events of this great cycle1 or rather series of cycles1 soon stamp themselves even on the dull mind of the savage4 ,he foresees them1 and foreseeing them mistakes the desired recurrence for an effect of his own will1 and the dreaded recurrence for an effect of the will of his enemies4 ,thus the springs which set the vast machine in motion1 though they lie far beyond our ken1 shrouded in a mystery which we can never hope to penetrate1 appear to ignorant man to lie within his reach3 he fancies he can touch them and so work by magic art all manner of good to himself and evil to his foes4 ,in time the fallacy of this belief becomes apparent to him3 he discovers that there are things he cannot do1 pleasures which he is unable of himself to procure1 pains which even the most potent magician is powerless to avoid4 ,the unattainable good1 the inevitable ill1 are now ascribed by him to the action of invisible powers1 whose favour is joy and life1 whose anger is misery and death4 ,thus magic tends to be displaced by ,sidenote3 ,transition from magic to religion4 religion1 and the sorcerer by the priest4 ,at this stage of thought the ultimate causes of things are conceived to be personal beings1 many in number and often discordant in character1 who partake of the nature and even of the frailty of man1 though their might is greater than his1 and their life far exceeds the span of his ephemeral existence4 ,their sharply-marked individualities1 their clear-cut outlines have not yet begun1 under the powerful solvent of philosophy1 to melt and coalesce into that single unknown substratum of phenomena which1 according to the qualities with which our imagination invests it1 goes by one or other of the high-sounding names which the wit of man has devised to hide his ignorance4 ,accordingly1 so long as men look on their gods as beings akin to themselves and not raised to an unapproachable height above them1 they believe it to be possible for those of their own number who surpass their fellows to attain to the divine rank after death or even in life4 ,incarnate human deities of this latter sort may be said ,sidenote3 ,incarnate human deities4 to halt midway between the age of magic and the age of religion4 ,if they bear the names and display the pomp of deities1 the powers which they are supposed to wield are commonly those of their predecessor the magician4 ,like him1 they are expected to guard their people against hostile enchantments1 to heal them in sickness1 to bless them with offspring1 and to provide them with an abundant supply of food by regulating the weather and performing the other ceremonies which are deemed necessary to ensure the fertility of the earth and the multiplication of animals4 ,men who are credited with powers so lofty and far-reaching naturally hold the highest place in the land1 and while the rift between the spiritual and the temporal spheres has not yet widened too far1 they are supreme in civil as well as religious matters3 in a word1 they are kings as well as gods4 ,thus the divinity which hedges a king has its roots deep down in human history1 and long ages pass before these are sapped by a profounder view of nature and man4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi seems to have been one of these divine kings and to have mated with the divine ,queen of the ,wood1 ,diana4 ,in the classical period of ,greek and ,latin antiquity the reign of kings was for the most part a thing of the past2 yet the stories of their lineage1 titles1 and pretensions suffice to prove that they too claimed to rule by divine right and to exercise superhuman powers4 ,hence we may without undue temerity assume that the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi1 though shorn in later times of his glory and fallen on evil days1 represented a long line of sacred kings who had once received not only the homage but the adoration of their subjects in return for the manifold blessings which they were supposed to dispense4 ,what little we know of the functions of ,diana in the ,arician grove seems to prove that she was here conceived as a goddess of fertility1 and particularly as a divinity of childbirth4#abch ,it is reasonable1 therefore1 to suppose that in the discharge of these important duties she was assisted by her priest1 the two figuring as ,king and ,queen of the ,wood in a solemn marriage1 which was intended to make the earth gay with the blossoms of spring and the fruits of autumn1 and to gladden the hearts of men and women with healthful offspring4 ,sidenote3 ,virbius1 whom the ,king of the ,wood represented1 was probably a form of ,jupiter regarded as god of the greenwood1 and especially of the oak4 ,if the priest of ,nemi posed not merely as a king1 but as a god of the grove1 we have still to ask1 ,what deity in particular did he personate8 ,the answer of antiquity is that he represented ,virbius1 the consort or lover of ,diana4#abci ,but this does not help us much1 for of ,virbius we know little more than the name4 ,a clue to the mystery is perhaps supplied by the ,vestal fire which burned in the grove4#abdj ,for the perpetual holy fires of the ,aryans in ,europe appear to have been commonly kindled and fed with oak-wood1#abda and we have seen that in ,rome itself1 not many miles from ,nemi1 the fuel of the ,vestal fire consisted of oaken sticks or logs1 which in early days the holy maidens doubtless gathered or cut in the coppices of oak that once covered the ,seven ,hills4#abdb ,but the ritual of the various ,latin towns seems to have been marked by great uniformity2#abdc hence it is reasonable to conclude that wherever in ,latium a ,vestal fire was maintained1 it was fed1 as at ,rome1 with wood of the sacred oak4 ,if this was so at ,nemi1 it becomes probable that the hallowed grove there consisted of a natural oak-wood1 and that therefore the tree which the ,king of the ,wood had to guard at the peril of his life was itself an oak2 indeed it was from an evergreen oak1 according to ,virgil1 that ,aeneas plucked the ,golden ,bough4#abdd ,now the oak was the sacred tree of ,jupiter1 the supreme god of the ,latins4 ,hence it follows that the ,king of the ,wood1 whose life was bound up in a fashion with an oak1 personated no less a deity than ,jupiter himself4 ,at least the evidence1 slight as it is1 seems to point to this conclusion4 ,the old ,alban dynasty of the ,silvii or ,woods1 with their crown of oak leaves1 apparently aped the style and emulated the powers of ,latian ,jupiter1 who dwelt on the top of the ,alban ,mount4#abde ,it is not impossible that the ,king of the ,wood1 who guarded the sacred oak a little lower down the mountain1 was the lawful successor and representative of this ancient line of the ,silvii or ,woods4#abdf ,at all events1 if ,i am right in supposing that he passed for a human ,jupiter1 it would appear that ,virbius1 with whom legend identified him1 was nothing but a local form of ,jupiter1 considered perhaps in his original aspect as a god of the greenwood4#abdg ,sidenote3 ,diana and the oak4 ,the hypothesis that in later times at all events the ,king of the ,wood played the part of the oak god ,jupiter1 is confirmed by an examination of his divine partner ,diana4 ,sidenote3 ,diana1 the divine partner of the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi1 seems to have been especially associated with the oak4 ,for two distinct lines of argument converge to shew that if ,diana was a queen of the woods in general1 she was at ,nemi a goddess of the oak in particular4 ,in the first place1 she bore the title of ,vesta1 and as such presided over a perpetual fire1 which we have seen reason to believe was fed with oak wood4#abdh ,but a goddess of fire is not far removed from a goddess of the fuel which burns in the fire2 primitive thought perhaps drew no sharp line of distinction between the blaze and the wood that blazes4 ,in the second place1 the nymph ,egeria at ,nemi appears to have been merely a form of ,diana1 and ,egeria is definitely said to have been a ,dryad1 a nymph of the oak4#abdi ,elsewhere in ,italy the goddess had her home on oak-clad mountains4 ,thus ,mount ,algidus1 a spur of the ,alban hills1 was covered in antiquity with dark forests of oak1 both of the evergreen and the deciduous sort4 ,in winter the snow lay long on these cold hills1 and their gloomy oak-woods were believed to be a favourite haunt of ,diana1 as they have been of brigands in modern times4#abej ,again1 ,mount ,tifata1 the long abrupt ridge of the ,apennines which looks down on the ,campanian plain behind ,capua1 was wooded of old with evergreen oaks1 among which ,diana had a temple4 ,here ,sulla thanked the goddess for his victory over the ,marians in the plain below1 attesting his gratitude by inscriptions which were long afterwards to be seen in the temple4#abea ,on the whole1 then1 we conclude that at ,nemi the ,king of the ,wood personated the oak-god ,jupiter and mated with the oak-goddess ,diana in the sacred grove4 ,an echo of their mystic union has come down to us in the legend of the loves of ,numa and ,egeria1 who according to some had their trysting-place in these holy woods4#abeb ,sidenote3 ,in nature and in name ,dianus 7,janus7 and ,diana seem to be only dialectically different forms of ,jupiter and ,juno4 ,to this theory it may naturally be objected that the divine consort of ,jupiter was not ,diana but ,juno1 and that if ,diana had a mate at all he might be expected to bear the name not of ,jupiter1 but of ,dianus or ,janus1 the latter of these forms being merely a corruption of the former4 ,all this is true1 but the objection may be parried by observing that the two pairs of deities1 ,jupiter and ,juno on the one side1 and ,dianus and ,diana1 or ,janus and ,jana1 on the other side1 are merely duplicates of each other1 their names and their functions being in substance and origin identical4 ,with regard to their names1 all four of them come from the same ,aryan root ,,di1 meaning 8bright10 which occurs in the names of the corresponding ,greek deities1 ,zeus and his old female consort ,dione4#abec ,in regard to their functions1 ,juno and ,diana were both goddesses of fecundity and childbirth1 and both were sooner or later identified with the moon4#abed ,as to the true nature and functions of ,janus the ancients themselves were puzzled2#abee and where they hesitated1 it is not for us confidently to decide4 ,but the view mentioned by ,varro that ,janus was the god of the sky#abef is supported not only by the etymological identity of his name with that of the sky-god ,jupiter1 but also by the relation in which he appears to have stood to ,jupiter's two mates1 ,juno and ,juturna4 ,for the epithet ,junonian bestowed on ,janus#abeg points to a marriage union between the two deities2 and according to one account ,janus was the husband of the water-nymph ,juturna1#abeh who according to others was beloved by ,jupiter4#abei ,moreover1 ,janus1 like ,jove1 was regularly invoked1 and commonly spoken of1 under the title of ,father4#abfj ,indeed1 he was identified with ,jupiter not merely by the logic of a ,christian doctor1#abfa but by the piety of a pagan worshipper who dedicated an offering to ,jupiter ,dianus4#abfb ,a trace of his relation to the oak may be found in the oak-woods of the ,janiculum1 the hill on the right bank of the ,tiber1 where ,janus is said to have reigned as a king in the remotest ages of ,italian history4#abfc ,sidenote3 ,zeus and ,dione1 ,jupiter and ,juno1 ,dianus 7,janus7 and ,diana represent a single original pair of ,aryan deities1 which through purely dialectical differences of nomenclature gradually diverged from each other and came to be regarded as separate pairs of deities4 ,thus1 if ,i am right1 the same ancient pair of deities was variously known among the ,greek and ,italian peoples as ,zeus and ,dione1 ,jupiter and ,juno1 or ,dianus 7,janus7 and ,diana 7,jana71 the names of the divinities being identical in substance1 though varying in form with the dialect of the particular tribe which worshipped them4 ,at first1 when the peoples dwelt near each other1 the difference between the deities would be hardly more than one of name2 in other words1 it would be almost purely dialectical4 ,but the gradual dispersion of the tribes1 and their consequent isolation from each other1 would favour the growth of divergent modes of conceiving and worshipping the gods whom they had carried with them from their old home1 so that in time discrepancies of myth and ritual would tend to spring up and thereby to convert a nominal into a real distinction between the divinities4 ,accordingly when1 with the slow progress of culture1 the long period of barbarism and separation was passing away1 and the rising political power of a single strong community had begun to draw or hammer its weaker neighbours into a nation1 the confluent peoples would throw their gods1 like their dialects1 into a common stock2 and thus it might come about that the same ancient deities1 which their forefathers had worshipped together before the dispersion1 would now be so disguised by the accumulated effect of dialectical and religious divergencies that their original identity might fail to be recognised1 and they would take their places side by side as independent divinities in the national pantheon4#abfd ,sidenote3 ,this explanation of ,janus as equivalent to ,jupiter is more probable than the view that ,janus was originally nothing but the god of the door 7janua72 for the door 7janua7 seems rather to have been named after ,janus than he after it4 ,this duplication of deities1 the result of the final fusion of kindred tribes who had long lived apart1 would account for the appearance of ,janus beside ,jupiter1 and of ,diana or ,jana beside ,juno in the ,roman religion4#abfe ,at least this appears to be a more probable theory than the opinion1 which has found favour with some modern scholars1 that ,janus was originally nothing but the god of doors4#abff ,that a deity of his dignity and importance1 whom the ,romans revered as a god of gods#abfg and the father of his people1 should have started in life as a humble1 though doubtless respectable1 doorkeeper appears to me1 ,i confess1 very unlikely4 ,so lofty an end hardly consorts with so lowly a beginning4 ,it is more probable that the door 7janua7 got its name from ,janus than that he got his name from it4 ,this view is strengthened by a consideration of the word janua itself4 ,the regular word for door is the same in all the languages of the ,aryan family from ,india to ,ireland4 ,it is dur in ,sanscrit1 thura in ,greek1 ,tr in ,german1 door in ,english1 dorus in old ,irish1 and foris in ,latin4#abfh ,yet besides this ordinary name for door1 which the ,latins shared with all their ,aryan brethren1 they had also the name janua1 to which there is no corresponding term in any ,indo-,european speech4 ,the word has the appearance of being an adjectival form derived from the noun ,janus4 ,i conjecture that it may have been customary to set up an image or symbol of ,janus at the principal door of the house in order to place the entrance under the protection of the great god4 ,a door thus guarded might be known as a janua foris1 that is1 a ,januan door1 and the phrase might in time be abridged into janua1 the noun foris being understood but not expressed4 ,from this to the use of janua to designate a door in general1 whether guarded by an image of ,janus or not1 would be an easy and natural transition4#abfi ,sidenote3 ,the double-headed figure of ,janus may have originated in a custom of placing his image as guardian of doorways so as to face both ways1 outwards and inwards1 at the same time4 ,if there is any truth in this conjecture1 it may explain very simply the origin of the double head of ,janus1 which has so long exercised the ingenuity of mythologists4 ,when it had become customary to guard the entrance of houses and towns by an image of ,janus1 it might well be deemed necessary to make the sentinel god look both ways1 before and behind1 at the same time1 in order that nothing should escape his vigilant eye4 ,for if the divine watchman always faced in one direction1 it is easy to imagine what mischief might have been wrought with impunity behind his back4 ,sidenote3 ,this explanation is confirmed by the double-headed idols which the ,bush negroes of ,surinam set to guard the entrances of their villages4 ,this explanation of the double-headed ,janus at ,rome is confirmed by the double-headed idol which the ,bush negroes in the interior of ,surinam regularly set up as a guardian at the entrance of a village4 ,the idol consists of a block of wood with a human face rudely carved on each side2 it stands under a gateway composed of two uprights and a cross-bar4 ,beside the idol generally lies a white rag intended to keep off the devil2 and sometimes there is also a stick which seems to represent a bludgeon or weapon of some sort4 ,further1 from the cross-bar hangs a small log which serves the useful purpose of knocking on the head any evil spirit who might attempt to pass through the gateway4#abgj ,clearly this double-headed fetish at the gateway of the negro villages in ,surinam bears a close resemblance to the double-headed images of ,janus which1 grasping a stick in one hand and a key in the other1 stood sentinel at ,roman gates and doorways2#abga and we can hardly doubt that in both cases the heads facing two ways are to be similarly explained as expressive of the vigilance of the guardian god1 who kept his eye on spiritual foes behind and before1 and stood ready to bludgeon them on the spot4 ,we may1 therefore1 dispense with the tedious and unsatisfactory explanations which the wily ,janus himself fobbed off an anxious ,roman enquirer4#abgb ,in the interior of ,borneo the ,kenyahs generally place before the main entrance of their houses the wooden image of ,balli ,atap1 that is1 the ,spirit or ,god 7,balli7 of the ,roof1 who protects the household from harm of all kinds4#abgc ,but it does not appear that this divine watchman is provided with more than one face4 ,sidenote3 ,thus the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi seems to have personated the great ,aryan god of the oak1 ,jupiter or ,janus1 and to have mated with the oak-goddess ,diana4 ,to apply these conclusions to the priest of ,nemi1 we may suppose that as the mate of ,diana he represented originally ,dianus or ,janus rather than ,jupiter1 but that the difference between these deities was of old merely superficial1 going little deeper than the names1 and leaving practically unaffected the essential functions of the god as a power of the sky1 the thunder1 and the oak4 ,if my analysis of this great divinity is correct1 the original element in his composite nature was the oak4 ,it was fitting1 therefore1 that his human representative at ,nemi should dwell1 as we have seen reason to believe he did1 in an oak grove4 ,his title of ,king of the ,wood clearly indicates the sylvan character of the deity whom he served2 and since he could only be assailed by him who had plucked the bough of a certain tree in the grove1 his own life might be said to be bound up with that of the sacred tree4 ,thus he not only served but embodied the great ,aryan god of the oak2 and as an oak-god he would mate with the oak-goddess1 whether she went by the name of ,egeria or ,diana4 ,their union1 however consummated1 would be deemed essential to the fertility of the earth and the fecundity of man and beast4 ,further1 as the oak-god had grown into a god of the sky1 the thunder1 and the rain1 so his human representative would be required1 like many other divine kings1 to cause the clouds to gather1 the thunder to peal1 and the rain to descend in due season1 that the fields and orchards might bear fruit and the pastures be covered with luxuriant herbage4 ,the reputed possessor of powers so exalted must have been a very important personage2 and the remains of buildings and of votive offerings which have been found on the site of the sanctuary combine with the testimony of classical writers to prove that in later times it was one of the greatest and most popular shrines in ,italy4 ,even in the old days when the champaign country around was still parcelled out among the petty tribes who composed the ,latin ,league1 the sacred grove is known to have been an object of their common reverence and care4 ,and just as the kings of ,cambodia used to send offerings to the mystic kings of ,fire and ,water far in the dim depths of the tropical forest1 so1 we may well believe1 from all sides of the broad ,latian plain the eyes and footsteps of ,italian pilgrims turned to the quarter where1 standing sharply out against the faint blue line of the ,apennines or the deeper blue of the distant sea1 the ,alban ,mountain rose before them1 the home of the mysterious priest of ,nemi1 the ,king of the ,wood4 ,there1 among the green woods and beside the still waters of the lonely hills the ancient ,aryan worship of the god of the oak1 the thunder1 and the dripping sky lingered in its early1 almost ,druidical form1 long after a great political and intellectual revolution had shifted the capital of ,latin religion from the forest to the city1 from ,nemi to ,rome4 ,footnote #abch3 ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #f sq41 #ab2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #abd sq41 #abh sq41 #aga sqq4 ,footnote #abci3 ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ai sqq41 #dj sq4 ,footnote #abdj3 ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ab sq4 ,footnote #abda3 ,above1 pp4 #cfe1 #cff1 #cgb4 ,footnote #abdb3 ,above1 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote #abdc3 ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ac sq41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ahd1 #bff4 ,footnote #abdd3 ,virgil1 ,aen4 vi4 #bje sqq4 ,footnote #abde3 ,see above1 pp4 #agh sqq4 ,footnote #abdf3 ,this suggestion is due to ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook4 ,see his articles1 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #cfc sq42 and 8,the ,european ,sky-,god10 ,folk-lore1 xvi4 7#aije7 pp4 #bgg sq4 ,on the other hand see above1 pp4 #a sq4 ,footnote #abdg3 ,virbius may perhaps be etymologically connected with viridis1 8green10 and verbena1 8a sacred bough40 ,if this were so1 ,virbius would be 8the ,green ,one40 ,we are reminded of those popular personifications of the spring1 ,green ,george and ,jack in the ,green4 ,see above1 pp4 #ge sq41 #hb sq4 ,as to the proposed derivation from a root meaning 8green0 ,professor ,r4 ,s4 ,conway writes to me 7#ajth ,january #aijc73 8,from this meaning of the root a derivative in -bus would not strike me as so strange2 vir-bho might conceivably mean #8growing green4'0 ,in my ,lectures on the ,early ,history of the ,kingship 7pp4 #bhb sq47 ,i followed ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook in interpreting a passage of ,plautus 7,casina1 ii4 #e4 #bc-bi7 as a reference to the priests of ,nemi in the character of mortal ,jupiters4 ,but a simpler and more probable explanation of the passage has been given by ,dr4 ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell4 ,see ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,the ,european ,sky-god10 ,folk-lore1 xvi4 7#aije7 pp4 #cbb sqq42 ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 in ,the ,hibbert ,journal1 iv4 7#aijf7 p4 #icb4 ,footnote #abdh3 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ac1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cgh sq4 ,footnote #abdi3 ,above1 pp4 #aga sq4 ,footnote #abej3 ,horace1 ,odes1 i4 #ba4 #e sq41 iii4 #bc4 #i sq41 iv4 #d4 #e sq41 ,carmen ,saeculare1 #fi2 ,livy1 iii4 #be4 #f-h2 ,e4 ,h4 ,bunbury1 in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography1 s4v4 8,algidus40 ,footnote #abea3 ,festus1 s4v4 8,tifata10 p4 #cff1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,velleius ,paterculus1 ii4 #be4 #d2 ,e4 ,h4 ,bunbury1 op4 cit4 s4v4 8,tifata40 ,for more evidence of the association of ,diana with the oak1 see ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #cfi sq4 ,footnote #abeb3 ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ag sq41 vol4 ii pp4 #agb sq4 ,footnote #abec3 ,the original root appears plainly in ,diovis and ,diespiter1 the older forms of ,jupiter 7,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 v4 #ff2 ,aulus ,gellius1 v4 #ab74 ,the form ,dianus is attested by an inscription found at ,aquileia 7,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 v4 #ghc71 and the form ,jana by ,varro 7,rerum rusticarum1 i4 #cg4 #c7 and ,macrobius 7,saturn4 i4 #i4 #h74 ,in ,zeus1 ,dione1 ,jupiter1 and ,juno the old root ,,di appears in the expanded form ,,div4 ,as to the etymology of these names1 see ,ch4 ,ploix1 8,les ,dieux qui proviennent de la racine ,,div10 ,mmoires de la ,socit de ,linguistique de ,paris1 i4 7#ahfh7 pp4 #bac-bbb2 ,g4 ,curtius1 ,grundzge der griechischen ,etymologie1 #eth ,ed41 pp4 #bcf sq41 #faf sq42 ,a4 ,vanicek1 ,griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches ,wrterbuch1 i4 #cec sqq42 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,lexikon der griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #de sq41 #egh sq41 #fai2 ,s4 ,linde1 ,de ,jano summo ,romanorumdeo 7,lund1 #ahia71 pp4 #g sq42 ,j4 ,s4 ,speijer1 8,le ,dieu romain ,janus10 ,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1 xxvi4 7#ahib7 pp4 #cg-da2 ,h4 ,usener1 ,gtternamen1 pp4 #af1 #ce sq41 #cbf2 ,p4 ,kretschmer1 ,einleitung in die ,geschichte der griechischen ,sprache1 pp4 #gh sqq41 #ia1 #afa sq4 ,messrs4 ,speijer and ,kretschmer reject the derivation of ,janus from the root ,,di4 ,footnote #abed3 ,as to ,juno in these aspects1 see ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie1 #crd ,ed41 i4 #bga sqq42 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1 pp4 #aag sqq42 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,lexikon der griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #egh sqq4 ,as to ,diana1 see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ab1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #abd1 #abh sq4 ,footnote #abee3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 i4 #hi sqq42 ,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #i2 ,servius1 on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #faj2 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #a sq4 ,footnote #abef3 ,varro1 quoted by ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 vii4 #bh2 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #b4 ,compare ,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #i4 #aa4 ,see ,r4 ,agahd1 ,m4 ,terentii ,varronis rerum divinarum libri ,i4 ,,xiv4 ,,xv4 ,,xvi4 7,leipsic1 #ahih7 pp4 #aag sqq41 #bjc sq4 ,footnote #abeg3 ,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #i4 #ae1 i4 #ae4 #ai2 ,servius1 on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #faj2 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #a4 ,prof4 ,g4 ,wissowa thinks that sacrifices were offered to ,janus as well as to ,juno on the first of every month 7,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1 pp4 #ia sq472 but this view does not seem to me to be supported by the evidence of ,macrobius 7,sat4 i4 #i4 #af1 i4 #ae4 #ah sq471 to which he refers4 ,macrobius does not say that the first of every month was sacred to ,janus4 ,footnote #abeh3 ,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 iii4 #bi4 ,footnote #abei3 ,virgil1 ,aen4 xii4 #ach sqq42 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 ii4 #ehe sqq4 ,footnote #abfj3 ,cato1 ,de agri cultura1 #acd2 ,virgil1 ,aen4 viii4 #ceg2 ,horace1 ,epist4 i4 #af4 #ei1 compare ,sat4 ii4 #f4 #bj2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxvi4 #bh2 ,juvenal1 vi4 #cid2 ,martial1 x4 #bh4 #f sq42 ,aulus ,gellius1 v4 #ab4 #e2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 iii4 #bi2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae selectae1 ,nos4 #ccbj1 #ccbb1 #ccbc1 #ccbd1 #ccbe1 #ejdg2 ,g4 ,henzen1 ,acta fratrum ,arvalium1 p4 #add2 ,athenaeus1 xv4 #df1 p4 #fib ,d1 ,e4 ,footnote #abfa3 ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 vii4 #i sq4 ,footnote #abfb3 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 v4 ,no4 #ghc4 ,footnote #abfc3 ,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #g4 #ai2 ,servius1 on ,virgil1 ,aen4 viii4 #cai and #ceg2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 iii4 #bi2 ,athenaeus1 xv4 #df1 p4 #fib ,d4 ,as to the oak-woods of the ,janiculum1 see above1 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote #abfd3 ,as dialectal differences in the ancient ,italian languages seem to have created a multiplicity of deities1 so in the ,malay language they appear to have created a multiplicity of fabulous animals4 ,see ,r4 ,j4 ,wilkinson1 ,malay ,beliefs 7,london and ,leyden1 #aijf71 p4 #ef3 8,the wealth of ,malay nomenclature in the province of natural history is in itself a fruitful source of error4 ,the identity of different dialectic names for the same animal is not always recognized3 the local name is taken to represent the real animal1 the foreign name is assumed to represent a rare or fabulous variety of the same genus40 ,in these cases mythology might fairly enough be described as a disease of language4 ,but such cases cover only a small part of the vast mythical field4 ,footnote #abfe3 ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 who accepts in substance my theory of the original identity of ,jupiter and ,janus1 ,juno and ,diana1 has suggested that ,janus and ,diana were the deities of the aborigines of ,rome1 ,jupiter and ,juno the deities of their conquerors4 ,see his article1 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #cfg sq4 ,footnote #abff3 ,this is the opinion of ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher 7,lexikon der griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #dg71 ,mr4 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler 7,roman ,festivals of the ,period of the ,republic1 pp4 #bhb sqq471 and ,prof4 ,g4 ,wissowa 7,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1 p4 #if74 ,it is rejected for the reasons given in the text by ,ph4 ,buttmann 7,mythologus1 ii4 pp4 #gb1 #gi7 and ,s4 ,linde 7,de ,jano summo ,romanorum deo1 pp4 #ej sqq474 ,footnote #abfg3 ,he was so saluted in the ancient hymns of the ,salii4 ,see ,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #i4 #ad2 compare ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 vii4 #bf sq4 ,footnote #abfh3 ,g4 ,curtius1 ,grundzge der griechischen ,etymologie1 #eth ,ed411 p4 #beh2 ,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der indogermanischen ,altertumskunde1 p4 #hff4 ,footnote #abfi3 ,this theory of the derivation of janua from ,janus was suggested1 though not accepted1 by ,ph4 ,butmann 7,mythologus1 ii4 #gi sqq474 ,it occurred to me independently4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook also derives janua from ,janus1 but he would explain the derivation in a different way by supposing that the lintel and two side-posts of a door represented a triple ,janus4 ,see his article 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 p4 #cfi4 ,footnote #abgj3 ,k4 ,martin1 8,bericht ber eine ,reise ins ,gebiet des ,oberen-,surinam10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 xxxv4 7#ahhf7 pp4 #bh sq4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,a4 van ,gennep for pointing out this confirmation of my theory as to the meaning of the double-headed ,janus4 ,see his article 8,janus ,bifrons10 ,revue des traditions populaires1 xxii4 7#aijg7 pp4 #ig sq4 ,footnote #abga3 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #i4 #g1 8,sed apud nos ,janum omnibus praeesse januis nomen ostendit1 quod est simile 4 ,nam et cum clavi ac virga figuratur1 quasi omnium et portarum custos et rector viarum02 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 i4 #ie1 #ii1 8,sacer ancipiti mirandus imagine ,janus 444 tenens dextra baculum clavemque sinistra40 ,footnote #abgb3 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 i4 #hi sqq4 ,footnote #abgc3 ,c4 ,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1 8,the ,relations between ,men and ,animals in ,sarawak10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxi4 7#aija7 p4 #age4 ,,index ,abbas ,effendi1 i4 #djb ,abchases of the ,caucasus1 the1 ii4 #cgj ,abolition of the kingship at ,rome1 ii4 #bhi sqq4 ,abraham and ,sarah1 ii4 #aad ,acacia-tree worshipped1 ii4 #af ,achelous and ,dejanira1 ii4 #afa sq4 ,achilles1 ii4 #bgh ,acorns as food1 ii4 #cec1 #cee sq42 as fodder for swine1 #ced1 #cef ,adam of ,bremen1 ii4 #cfd ,adonis at ,byblus1 i4 #cj ---- and ,venus 7,aphrodite71 i4 #ba1 #be1 #dj1 #da ---- or ,tammuz1 ii4 #cdf ,adoption1 pretence of birth at1 i4 #gd sq4 ,adultery supposed to blight the fruits of the earth1 ii4 #ajg sq41 #aad ,aeacus1 ii4 #bgh1 #cei ,aegira1 priestess of ,earth at1 i4 #cha sq4 ,aegisthus1 ii4 #bha ,aeneas and the ,golden ,bough1 i4 #aa1 ii4 #cgi2 his disappearance in a thunderstorm1 #aha ,aeolus1 i4 #cbf ,aeschines1 spurious epistles of1 ii4 #afb n4 #b ,aesculapius brings ,hippolytus to life1 i4 #bj2 at ,cos1 ii4 #aj ,africa1 rise of magicians1 especially rain-makers1 to chieftainship and kingship in1 i4 #cdb sqq41 #ceb2 human gods in1 #cib sqq4 ---- ,north1 magical images in1 i4 #fe sq4 ,afterbirth 7placenta71 contagious magic of1 i4 #ahb-bja2 placed in tree1 #ahb1 #ahg1 #aij1 #aia1 #aid1 #aii2 part of child's spirit in1 #ahd2 regarded as brother or sister of child1 #ahi1 #aia1 #aib1 #aic2 regarded as a second child1 #aie2 seat of external soul1 #bjj sq4 ,agamemnon1 ii4 #bgi2 sceptre of1 i4 #cfe ,agni1 the fire-god1 ii4 #bdi ,agnihotris1 ,brahman fire-priests1 ii4 #bdg sqq4 ,agriculture of the ,nabataeans1 ii4 #ajj ,ainos1 i4 #fj ,akamba1 the1 ii4 #cag ,akikuyu1 the1 ii4 #dd1 #aej1 #caf1 #cag2 pretence of new birth among the1 i4 #ge sq41 #if sq4 ,alba ,longa1 the kings of1 ii4 #agh sqq41 #bfh sq4 ,alban ,hills1 i4 #b ---- ,mountain1 the1 ii4 #ahg sq41 #bjb ,albigenses1 the1 i4 #djg ,alcheringa1 legendary time1 i4 #ih ,alfai1 priesthood of the1 ii4 #c ,algidus1 ,mount1 ii4 #ahg1 #chj ,algonquins1 the1 ii4 #adg ,amata1 8,beloved10 title of ,vestals1 ii4 #aig2 ,amata1 wife of ,king ,latinus1 #aig ,amboyna1 ii4 #bh ,amenophis ,,iii41 birth of1 ii4 #aca sqq4 ,american ,indians1 power of medicine-men among the1 i4 #cee sqq4 ,amethyst1 i4 #afe ,ammon1 the god1 married to the ,queen of ,egypt1 ii4 #acj sqq42 human wives of the god1 #acj sqq42 costume of the god1 #acc2 ,king of ,egypt masqueraded as1 #acc2 at ,thebes1 high priests of1 #acd ,ammonite1 black fossil1 ii4 #bf1 #bg n4 #b ,amphictyon1 ii4 #bgg ,amulius ,sylvius1 ii4 #ahj ,anaitis1 ,oriental goddess1 i4 #af sq41 #cg n4 #b ,anatomie of ,abuses1 ii4 #ff ,anazarbus1 the olives of1 ii4 #ajg ,ancestor-worship among the ,bantu peoples1 ii4 #bba2 in relation to fire-worship1 #bba ,ancestors1 prayers to1 i4 #bhe1 #bhg1 #cde1 #ceb2 sacrifices to1 #cci2 souls of1 in trees1 ii4 #cj1 #ca1 #cb2 dead1 regarded as mischievous beings1 #bba2 represented by sacred fire-sticks1 #bbb sqq42 souls of1 in the fire on the hearth1 #bcb ,ancestral spirits worshipped at the hearth1 ii4 #bba sq4 ,ancestral tree1 fire kindled from1 ii4 #bba1 #bcc sq4 ,ancus ,martius1 his death1 ii4 #cbj ,andaman ,islanders1 ii4 #bec ,andania1 ii4 #abb ,anderida1 forest of1 ii4 #g ,andromeda and ,perseus1 ii4 #afc ,animals1 homoeopathic magic of1 i4 #aej sqq42 rain-making by means of1 #bhg sqq4 ,animism passing into polytheism1 ii4 #de ,anitos1 spirits of ancestors1 ii4 #cj ,anjea1 mythical being1 who causes conception in women1 i4 #ajj1 #ahd ,annals of ,tigernach and ,ulster1 ii4 #bhf ,annandale1 ,nelson1 ii4 #bcg n4 ,anointing weapon which caused wound1 i4 #bjb sqq4 ,antaeus1 ii4 #cjj ,antigone1 death of1 ii4 #bbh n4 #e ,antigonus1 i4 #cia n4 #a ,antimores of ,madagascar1 i4 #ced ,apaches1 land of the1 i4 #cjf ,apepi1 ,egyptian fiend1 i4 #fg ,apes thought to be related to twins1 i4 #bfe ,ap-hi1 god of thunder and lightning1 ii4 #cgj ,aphrodite and ,adonis1 i4 #be ---- ,askraia1 i4 #bf ,apollo1 i4 #chd1 #chf2 at ,delos1 #cb1 #cd sq42 at ,delphi1 #bh2 grave of1 at ,delphi1 #ce2 ,erithasean1 ii4 #aba2 at ,patara1 #ace ---- and ,artemis1 birthdays of1 i4 #cb ---- ,diradiotes1 i4 #cha ,apologies offered to trees for cutting them down1 ii4 #ah sq41 #cf sq4 ,apples at festival of ,diana1 i4 #ad1 #af ,april #aeth1 sacrifice on1 ii4 #bbi1 #cbf ---- #bast1 date of the ,parilia1 ii4 #cbe1 #cbf ---- #bcrd1 ,st4 ,george's ,day1 ii4 #ccj sqq4 ---- #bdth1 in some places ,st4 ,george's ,day1 ii4 #ccg1 #cdc ,arab charms1 i4 #aeb1 #aec1 #aeg1 #afe sq41 #aha1 #cjc ,arabs of ,moab1 i4 #bgf ,aratus1 sacrifices to1 i4 #aje ,araucanians of ,chili1 the1 ii4 #ahc ,arden1 forest of1 ii4 #g ,ardennes1 goddess of the1 ii4 #abf ,aren palm-tree1 ii4 #bb ,ariadne and ,dionysus1 ii4 #ach ,aricia1 i4 #c1 #d1 #aj1 ii4 #b2 8many ,manii at10 i4 #bb ,arician grove1 the sacred1 i4 #bj1 #bb1 ii4 #aae2 horses excluded from1 i4 #bj ,arikara ,indians1 i4 #aae ,aristotle1 ii4 #acg ,arkon1 in ,rgen1 ii4 #bda n4 #d ,armenia1 rain-making in1 i4 #bge sq4 ,arrephoroi at ,athens1 the1 ii4 #aii ,arrian1 on sacrifices to ,artemis1 ii4 #abe sq4 ,arrows shot at sacred trees1 ii4 #aa2 fire-tipped1 shot at sun during an eclipse1 i4 #caa ,artemis1 temple dedicated to her by ,xenophon1 i4 #g2 birthday of1 i4 #cb1 ii4 #abe2 the ,asiatic1 i4 #g2 at ,delos1 #bh2 of ,ephesus1 #g1 #cg sq41 ii4 #abh1 #acf2 a goddess of the wild life of nature1 i4 #ce sq42 sacrifices to1 ii4 #abe2 worshipped by the ,celts1 #abe sq42 ,saronian1 i4 #bf2 ,wolfish1 #bf sq4 ---- and ,apollo1 birthdays of1 i4 #cb2 and ,hippolytus1 #ai sq41 #bd sqq4 ---- ,parthenos1 i4 #cf ,arunta1 the1 of ,central ,australia1 i4 #ih2 magical ceremonies among1 #he sqq42 burial customs of the1 #ajb ,arval ,brothers1 the1 ii4 #bjc ,aryan god of the oak and thunder1 ii4 #cef sqq42 god of the sky1 #cgd sq4 ,aryans1 magical powers ascribed to kings among the1 i4 #cff sqq42 perpetual fires among the1 ii4 #bfj2 female kinship among the1 #bhc sqq4 ,ascanius or ,julus1 ii4 #aig ,ascension ,day1 ii4 #fi1 #aff ,ashantee1 licence accorded to king's sisters in1 ii4 #bgd sq4 ,ashes scattered as rain-charm1 i4 #cjd2 in magic1 #cad2 of unborn calves used in a fertility charm1 ii4 #bbi1 #cbf ,asia ,minor1 pontiffs in1 i4 #dg ,assimilation of rain-maker to water1 i4 #bfi sqq4 ,association of ideas1 magic based on a misapplication of the1 i4 #bba sq4 ,assumption of the ,virgin in relation to the festival of ,diana1 i4 #ad-af ,astarte at ,byblus1 i4 #cj ,atalante1 ii4 #cja ,athenian sacrifices to the ,seasons1 i4 #caj ,athens1 barrow of ,hippolytus at1 i4 #be2 new fire brought to1 #cb sq42 ,king and ,queen at1 #dd sq42 marriage of ,dionysus at1 ii4 #acf sq42 female kinship at1 #bgg ,atkinson1 ,j4 ,c41 i4 #aii ,atreus1 ii4 #bgi ,attacking the wind1 i4 #cbg sqq4 ,attica1 traces of female kinship in1 ii4 #bhd ,attis and ,cybele 7,mother of the ,gods71 i4 #ah1 #ba1 #dj1 #da ,atua1 ,polynesian term for god1 i4 #chg n4 #a ,august1 the ,ides 7#acth7 of1 ,diana's day1 i4 #ab1 #ad-ag ---- #aeth1 the day of the ,assumption of the ,virgin1 i4 #ad-af ,augustine on the one ,god1 i4 #aba n4 #a ,australia1 aboriginal paintings in1 i4 #hg n4 #a2 magic universally practised but religion nearly unknown among the aborigines of1 #bcd2 government of old men in aboriginal1 #ccd sq42 influence of magicians in aboriginal1 #ccd sqq4 ---- ,central1 magical ceremonies for the supply of food in1 i4 #he sqq4 ,australian aborigines1 magical images among the1 i4 #fb2 ceremonies of initiation among the1 #ib sqq42 contagious magic of teeth among the1 #agf2 magic of navel-string and afterbirth among the1 #ahc sq4 ,autun1 procession of goddess at1 ii4 #add ,auxesia and ,damia1 i4 #ci ,avebury1 ,lord1 i4 #bbe n4 ,aventine1 ,diana on the1 ii4 #abh ,baal1 prophets of1 cutting themselves1 i4 #beh ,baalim1 the1 lords of underground waters1 ii4 #aei ,babar ,archipelago1 i4 #gb1 #aca ,babaruda1 i4 #bgc ,babylon1 magical images in ancient1 i4 #ff sq42 sanctuary of ,bel at1 ii4 #abi sq4 ,babylonian kings1 divinity of the early1 i4 #dag ,bacchanals chew ivy1 i4 #chd ,bachofen1 ,j4 ,j41 ii4 #cac n4 #a1 #cad n4 #a ,bacon1 ,francis1 on anointing weapon that caused wound1 i4 #bjb ,badonsachen1 ,king of ,burma1 i4 #djj ,baganda1 the1 i4 #cie2 superstitions as to the navel-string and afterbirth 7placenta71 #aie sq42 their customs in regard to twins1 ii4 #ajb sq42 their belief in the influence of the sexes on vegetation1 #aja sq42 ,vestal ,virgins among the1 #bdf2 their list of kings1 #bfi ,bagba1 a fetish1 i4 #cbg ,bagishu1 i4 #ajc ,bahaus or ,kayans of ,borneo1 ii4 #dj1 #aji ,bakers1 ,roman1 required to be chaste1 ii4 #aae sq41 #bje ,balli ,atap1 ii4 #che ,baloi1 mythical beings1 i4 #agg ,bambaras1 the1 ii4 #db ,banana-tree1 wild1 supposed to fertilise barren women1 ii4 #cah ,bandicoot in rain-charm1 i4 #bhh ,bangalas1 the1 ii4 #bic ,banks' ,islanders1 i4 #cad ,bantu peoples1 ancestor-worship among the1 ii4 #bba ,banyai1 chieftainship among the1 ii4 #bib ,banyoro1 the1 ii4 #cbb2 king of the1 as rain-maker1 i4 #cdh ,baobab-trees1 ii4 #dg ,baptist1 ,st4 ,john the1 i4 #bgg ,bar-tree 7,ficus ,indica71 ii4 #be1 #dc ,barea1 the1 ii4 #c ,barenton1 fountain of1 i4 #cjf1 #cjg ,bari1 rain-making among the1 i4 #cdf sq4 ,barotse1 the1 i4 #cib sq4 ,barren women1 charms to procure offspring for1 i4 #gj sqq42 thought to sterilise gardens1 #adb2 fertilised by trees1 ii4 #ea1 #ef sq41 #caf sq42 thought to blight the fruits of the earth1 #ajb2 fertilised by water-spirits1 #aei sqq4 ,basilai at ,olympia1 i4 #df n4 #d ,basoga1 the1 ii4 #ai1 #aab ,basutos1 the1 i4 #ga1 #agg ,bath before marriage1 intention of1 ii4 #afb ,bathing as a rain-charm1 i4 #bgg sq4 ,battas or ,bataks of ,sumatra1 i4 #ga1 #cih sq41 ii4 #ajh ,battus1 ,king1 i4 #dg ,bayfield1 ,m4 ,a41 ii4 #bbh n4 #e ,bean1 sprouting of1 in superstitious ceremony1 i4 #bff ,beasts1 sacred1 in ,egypt held responsible for failure of crops1 i4 #ced ,bechuana charms1 i4 #aej sq4 ,bechuanas1 the1 i4 #cac ,bedouins1 fire-drill of the ancient1 ii4 #bji ,beech-woods of ,denmark1 ii4 #cea ,beena marriage1 ii4 #bga ,bees1 the ,king ,bees 7,essenes7 at ,ephesus1 ii4 #ace sq4 ,bel of ,babylon1 ii4 #abi ,belep1 the1 of ,new ,caledonia1 i4 #aej ,bell-ringing as a charm to dispel evil influences1 ii4 #cdc sq4 ,benefits conferred by magic1 i4 #bah sq4 ,benin1 king of1 as a god1 i4 #cif ,benvenuto ,cellini1 ii4 #aig n4 #f ,benzoni1 ,g41 i4 #eg n4 ,bes1 the god1 ii4 #acc ,betsileo1 the1 i4 #cig ,bevan1 ,professor ,a4 ,a41 ii4 #baj n4 ,bezoar stone in rain-charms1 i4 #cje ,bhagavati1 goddess of ,cochin1 i4 #bhj ,birch1 crowns of1 ii4 #fd2 leaves1 girl clad in1 #hj2 tree dressed in woman's clothes1 #fd2 a protection against witches1 #ed ,birth1 pretence of1 at adoption1 i4 #gd sq42 at return of supposed dead man1 #ge2 at circumcision1 #ge sq42 simulation of a new1 #chj sq42 from the fire1 ii4 #aie sqq4 ,birthday1 ,greek custom of sacrificing to a dead man on his1 i4 #aje ,birthdays of ,apollo and ,artemis1 i4 #cb 8,birthplace of ,rainy ,zeus10 ii4 #cfj ,black animals in rain-charms1 i4 #bej1 #bij sqq42 colour in magic1 #hc2 in rain-making ceremonies1 #bfi sq4 ,blackfoot ,indians1 i4 #aaf1 #aej2 their worship of the sun1 ii4 #adf sq4 ,bleeding trees1 ii4 #ah1 #bj1 #cc ,blighting effect of illicit love on the fruits of the earth1 ii4 #ajg sqq4 ,blindness1 charm to cause1 i4 #adg ,blood drawn from virgin bride1 i4 #id2 shed at circumcision and subincision1 uses of1 #ib1 #id sq42 sympathetic connexion between wounded person and his shed blood1 #bje2 used to imitate rain1 #bef1 #beg sq42 as a means of inspiration1 #cha sqq42 offered to trees1 ii4 #ac1 #af1 #cd1 #dd1 #dg2 of pigs in purificatory rites1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji2 of incestuous persons1 blighting effects attributed to the1 #aaj sq42 reluctance to spill royal1 #bbh2 smeared on sacred trees1 #cfg ,blood1 human1 in intichiuma ceremonies1 i4 #he1 sqq4 #ij1 sqq42 offered at grave1 #ij sq42 given to sick people1 #ia2 used to knit men together1 #ib ,blood-stone1 i4 #afe ,bloomfield1 ,professor ,m41 i4 #bbi ,boanerges1 i4 #bff ,bodio1 fetish king1 i4 #cec ,bogomiles1 the1 i4 #djg ,boiled meat offered to the ,seasons1 i4 #caj ,bones of dead in magic1 i4 #adh2 human1 buried as rain-charm1 #bhg2 burned as a charm against sorcery1 ii4 #ccj ,bonfires at midsummer1 ii4 #fe ,bongo1 the1 i4 #cdg ,boni1 ,g41 ii4 #ahf n4 #a ,borewell1 the1 ii4 #afa ,borlase1 ,w41 ii4 #fg ,born thrice1 said of ,brahmans1 i4 #cha ,borneo1 i4 #ei1 #gc2 beliefs as to the blighting effect of sexual crime in1 ii4 #ajh sqq4 ,bororos1 the1 ii4 #bih ,bough1 the ,golden1 plucked by ,aeneas1 i4 #aa1 ii4 #cgi2 the plucking of it not a piece of bravado1 #abc sq42 grew on an evergreen oak1 #cgi ,boughs1 green1 a charm against witches1 ii4 #eb-ee1 #abg4 ,see also ,branches ,bovillae1 ii4 #agi ,bradbury1 ,professor ,j4 ,b41 ii4 #aci n4 #a ,brahman1 derivation of name1 i4 #bbi ---- fire-priests1 ii4 #bdg sqq42 marriage ceremony1 i4 #afj2 householder1 temporary inspiration of1 i4 #chj sq4 ,brahmans deemed superior to the gods1 i #bbf2 divinity of the1 #djc sq42 thrice-born1 #cha ,branches dipped in water as a rain-charm1 i4 #bdh1 #bej1 #cji4 ,see also ,boughs ,brazil1 ,indians of1 power of medicine-men among the1 i4 #ceh sq4 ,breath1 holy fire not to be blown upon with the1 ii4 #bda ,brethren of the ,free ,spirit1 i4 #djh2 of the ,tilled ,fields 7,fratres ,arvales71 ii4 #abb ,brhaspati1 as a magician1 i4 #bda ,bride tied to tree at marriage1 ii4 #eg2 the ,whitsuntide1 #hi1 #if2 the ,may1 #ie2 race for a1 #cja sqq42 contests for a1 #cje sqq4 ---- of ,god1 the1 i4 #bgf ---- race among ,teutonic peoples1 ii4 #cjc sqq4 ,bridegroom of ,may1 ii4 #ia1 #ic ,bridget in ,scotland and the ,isle of ,man1 ii4 #id sq4 ,brigit1 a ,celtic goddess1 ii4 #ie1 #bdj sqq4 ,brimo and ,brimos1 ii4 #aci ,brincker1 ,dr4 ,p4 ,h41 ii4 #bbd n4 #d ,brooke1 ,rajah1 i4 #cfa ,brotherhood formed with trees by sucking their sap1 ii4 #ai sq4 ,brothers reviled by sisters for good luck1 i4 #bgi ,brown1 ,a4 ,r41 ii4 #bed n4 ,brown1 ,dr4 ,george1 i4 #cdj ,brunhild1 ,queen of ,iceland1 ii4 #cjf ,brutus1 ,l4 ,junius1 ii4 #bij1 #bia ,bryant1 ,jacob1 i4 #ccd ,buckthorn1 a protection against witches1 ii4 #ed1 #aia ,buddha1 images of1 drenched as a rain-charm1 i4 #cjh ,buddhas1 living1 i4 #daj sq4 ,buddhist animism not a philosophical theory1 ii4 #ac sq4 ,bhler1 ,g41 ii4 #cfg n4 #c1 #cfi ,bulgaria1 rain-making in1 i4 #bgd ,bull1 the thunder-god compared to a1 ii4 #cfh ,bull-roarer used as a wind-charm1 i4 #cbd ,bull's blood drunk as means of inspiration1 i4 #cha sq42 as ordeal1 i4 #chb n4 #a ,bulls1 white1 sacrificed1 ii4 #ahh sq4 ,bunjil ,kraura1 i4 #cbd ,bunsen1 on ,st4 ,hippolytus1 i4 #ba n4 #b ,burglars1 charms employed by1 to cause sleep1 i4 #adh sq4 ,burgundians and their kings1 i4 #cff ,burial alive1 punishment of unfaithful virgins1 ii4 #bdd ---- customs intended to ensure re-incarnation1 i4 #aja sqq4 ,burma1 magical images in1 i4 #fb sq4 ,burning of sacred trees or poles1 ii4 #ada sq4 ,burning-glass or mirror1 fire kindled by1 ii4 #bdc1 #bdd n4 #a ,buryats1 the1 ii4 #cb ,bush negroes of ,surinam1 ii4 #che ,bushmen1 i4 #abc ,butlers1 ,roman1 required to be chaste1 ii4 #aae sq41 #bje ,buttmann1 ,p41 i4 #dj n4 #b ,bttner1 ,c4 ,g41 ii4 #bah ,byblus1 ,astarte at1 i4 #cj ,cabbages1 charm to make cabbages grow1 i4 #acf sq4 ,cactus1 sacred1 telepathy in search for1 i4 #abc sq4 ,cadys1 ii4 #bha ,caeculus born from the fire1 ii4 #aig ,caelian hill at ,rome1 ii4 #ahe ,caesar1 ,julius1 his villa at ,nemi1 i4 #e ,caesars1 their name derived from caesaries1 ii4 #ahj ,caingua ,indians1 the1 ii4 #beh ,calah1 ancient capital of ,assyria1 ii4 #acj ,caland1 ,dr4 ,w41 i4 #bbi ,caldwell1 ,bishop ,r41 i4 #chb ,calica ,puran1 i4 #fc ,caligula1 his barges on the lake of ,nemi1 i4 #e2 and the priest of ,nemi1 #aa ,calmucks1 race for a bride among the1 ii4 #cja sq4 ,cambodia1 the regalia in1 i4 #cfe2 ,kings of ,fire and ,water in1 ii4 #c sqq4 ,cambridge1 ,may ,day custom at1 ii4 #fb ,camden1 ,w41 ii4 #ec4 ,camillus1 his triumph1 ii4 #agd n4 #b ,camphor1 taboos observed in search for1 i4 #aad sq42 telepathy in search for1 #abd sq4 ,candaules1 ii4 #bha1 #bhb ,candlemas1 ii4 #id ,cannibalism in ,australia1 i4 #ajf sq4 ,cantabrians1 mother-kin among the1 ii4 #bhe ,canute1 ,king of ,england1 his marriage with ,emma1 ii4 #bhb sq4 ,cape ,york ,peninsula in ,queensland1 i4 #ii1 #ajj ,capena1 the ,porta1 at ,rome1 i4 #ah ,capitol1 temple of ,jupiter on the1 ii4 #agd1 #agf1 #ahd ,caprificatio1 ii4 #cad n4 #b ,caprificus1 the wild fig-tree1 ii4 #cad sq4 ,car ,nicobar1 i4 #cad ,caribs1 war custom of the1 i4 #acd ,carna1 nymph1 ii4 #aij ,carpenter1 son of1 as a human god1 i4 #cgf ,carpet-snakes1 magical ceremony for the multiplication of1 i4 #ij ,castor and ,pollux1 i4 #di sq4 ,cat in rain-charm1 i4 #bhi1 #bia1 #cjh sq4 ,cat's cradle as a charm to catch the sun1 i4 #caf sq4 ,catlin1 ,g41 i4 #cef ,cato the ,elder on dedication of ,arician grove to ,diana1 i4 #bb1 #bc ,cato1 on expiation1 ii4 #abb ,cattle crowned1 ii4 #ge1 #abf sq41 #cci1 #cda2 charm to recover strayed1 i4 #bab2 influence of tree-spirits on1 ii4 #ee ---- stall1 the1 at ,athens1 ii4 #acg ,caul1 superstitions as to1 i4 #ahg sq41 #aij sq41 #aii sq4 ,caves1 prehistoric paintings of animals in1 i4 #hg n4 #a ,cecrops1 ii4 #bgg2 said to have instituted marriage1 #bhd ,cedar1 sacred1 ii4 #di1 #ej sq42 smoke of1 inhaled as mode of inspiration1 i4 #chc sq4 ---- tree1 girl annually sacrificed to1 ii4 #ag ---- wood burned as a religious rite1 ii4 #acj ,celebes1 i4 #aji2 magical virtue of regalia in1 #cfb sqq4 ,celtic divinity akin to ,artemis1 ii4 #abf ---- and ,italian languages akin1 ii4 #ahi ---- ,vestals1 ii4 #bda n4 #a ,celts1 their worship of the ,huntress ,artemis1 ii4 #abe sq42 their worship of the oak1 #cfb sq42 of ,gaul1 their harvest festival1 i4 #ag2 of ,ireland1 their belief in the blighting effect of incest1 ii4 #aaf ,ceos1 funeral customs in1 i4 #aje ,ceremonies1 initiatory1 of ,central ,australian aborigines1 i4 #ib sqq4 ,chadwick1 ,h4 ,m41 ii4 #bgh n4 #a1 #bhc n4 #a ,chaka1 the ,zulu despot1 i4 #cej ,champion at ,english coronation ceremony1 ii4 #cbb ,chams1 the1 i4 #abj1 #aca1 #add ,chariot in rain-charm1 i4 #cji ---- and horses dedicated to the sun1 i4 #cae ,charles ,,ii4 touches for scrofula1 i4 #cfh sq4 ,charms to ensure long life1 i4 #afh sq42 to prevent the sun from going down1 #caf sqq4 ,see also ,magic ,chastity observed for sake of absent persons1 i4 #abc1 #abd1 #abe1 #aca2 practised to make the crops grow1 ii4 #ajd sqq42 required of persons who handle dishes and food1 #aae sq41 #bje2 ,milton on1 #aah n4 #a2 as a virtue not understood by savages1 #aah2 observed by sacred men1 perhaps the husbands of a goddess1 #ace1 #acf2 observed by sacred women1 #acg2 required in those who make fire by friction1 #bch sq4 ,see also ,continence ,chauci1 the1 ii4 #cec ,cheremiss1 the1 ii4 #dd1 #di ,cherokees1 homoeopathic magic of plants among the1 i4 #add1 #adf sq42 homoeopathic magic of animals among the1 i4 #aee sq4 ,chibchas1 the1 i4 #daf ,chi-chi ,mama1 i4 #bgf ,chiefs1 supernatural power of1 in ,melanesia1 i4 #cch sqq42 as magicians1 especially rain-makers1 in ,africa1 #cdb sqq42 not allowed to leave their premises1 #cdi2 punished for drought and dearth1 #ceb sqq42 as priests1 ii4 #bae sq42 chosen from several families in rotation1 #bib sqq4 ,chilcotin ,indians1 i4 #cab ,child's ,well at ,oxford1 ii4 #afa ,childbirth1 ,diana as goddess of1 i4 #ab1 ii4 #abh ,children1 newborn1 brought to the hearth1 ii4 #bcb ,chili1 sacred cedar1 ii4 #di1 #ej sq4 ,china1 emperors of1 i4 #dg2 homoeopathic magic of city sites in1 #afi sq42 the ,emperor of1 superior to the gods1 #daf sq4 ,see also ,chinese ,chinchvad1 human gods at1 i4 #dje sq4 ,chinese1 magical images among the1 i4 #fj sq4 ---- belief in spirits of plants1 ii4 #ad ---- charms to ensure long life1 i4 #afh sq4 ---- emperor responsible for drought1 i4 #cee ---- empire1 incarnate human gods in the1 i4 #dab sqq4 ---- modes of compelling the rain-god to give rain1 i4 #big sqq4 ---- superstition as to placenta 7after-birth71 i4 #aid ,chingilli1 the1 i4 #ii ,chios1 kings of1 i4 #de ,chissumpe1 the1 i4 #cic ,chitom1 the1 a pontiff of ,congo1 ii4 #bfa ,christians1 pretenders to divinity among1 i4 #djg sqq4 ,christs1 ,russian sect of the1 i4 #djg sq4 ,chuckchees1 sacred fire-boards of the1 ii4 #bbe sq4 ,churinga1 in ,australia1 i4 #hh1 #aii1 #cce ,cimbrians1 the1 i4 #cca n4 #b ,ciminian forest1 ii4 #h ,circassians1 their custom as to pear-trees1 ii4 #ee sq4 ,circumcision1 pretence of new birth at1 i4 #gf1 #if sq42 uses of blood shed at1 #ib1 #id sq42 suggested origin of1 #if sq4 ,cithaeron1 ,mount1 ii4 #adj ,clans1 paternal and maternal1 of the ,herero1 ii4 #bag ,cleanliness promoted by contagious magic1 i4 #age1 #cdb ,clisthenes and ,hippoclides1 ii4 #cjg sq4 ,clitus and ,pallene1 ii4 #cjg ,clothes1 sympathetic connexion between a person and his1 i4 #bje-bjg ,clouds imitated by smoke1 i4 #bdi2 by stones1 i4 #bef2 by rain-maker1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfc ,clouds1 magicians painted in imitation of1 i4 #cbc ,clove-trees in blossom treated like pregnant women1 ii4 #bh ,cloves1 ceremony to make cloves grow ii4 #ajj ,clown in spring ceremonies1 ii4 #hb1 #hi ,clytaemnestra1 ii4 #bgi ,cockatoos1 ceremony for the magical multiplication of1 i4 #hi ,coco-nut sacred1 ii4 #ea ---- palms worshipped1 ii4 #af ,codrington1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,h41 quoted1 i4 #bbg sq41 #cch ,coligny calendar1 i4 #ag n4 #b ,collatinus1 ,l4 ,tarquinius1 ii4 #bij ,columella1 ii4 #cad2 quoted1 #bje ,combat1 mortal1 for the kingdom1 ii4 #cbb ,communism1 tradition of sexual1 ii4 #bhd ,compelling rain-gods to give rain1 i4 #bif sqq4 ,complexity of social phenomena1 i4 #ccb ,comrie1 ii4 #afa ,con or ,cun1 a thunder-god1 ii4 #cgj ,conception in women1 supposed cause of1 i4 #ajj2 caused by trees1 ii4 #ea1 #ef sq41 #caf-cah ,concord1 temple of1 at ,rome1 i4 #aa1 #ba n4 #b ,concordia1 nurse of ,st4 ,hippolytus1 i4 #ba n4 #b ,condor1 the bird of the thunder-god1 ii4 #cgj ,confession of sins1 i4 #bff ,conflicts1 sanguinary1 as rain-charm1 i4 #beh ,conquerors sometimes leave a nominal kingship to the conquered1 ii4 #bhh sq4 8,consort1 the divine10 ii4 #aca1 #ace ,consuls1 the first1 ii4 #bij ,consulship at ,rome1 institution of1 ii4 #bij sq4 ,contact or contagion in magic1 law of1 i4 #eb1 #ec ,contagious ,magic1 i4 #agd-bad2 of teeth1 #agf-ahb2 of navel-string and afterbirth 7placenta71 #ahb-bja2 of wound and weapon1 #bja sqq42 of footprints1 #bjg-bab2 of other impressions1 #bac sq4 ---- taboos1 i4 #aag ,contest for the kingship at ,whitsuntide1 ii4 #hi ,contests for a bride1 ii4 #cje sqq4 ,continence required in magical ceremonies1 i4 #hh2 required at rain-making ceremonies1 #beg1 #bei2 required of parents of twins1 #bff2 practised in order to make the crops grow1 ii4 #ajd sqq4 ,see also ,chastity ,conway1 ,professor ,r4 ,s41 ii4 #cgi n4 #e ,conybeare1 ,f4 ,c41 i4 #djg n4 #c ,cook1 ,a4 ,b41 i4 #bc n41 #dj n4 #c and #d1 #db n4 #a1 ii4 #agb n4 #c1 #agc n4 #b1 #agg n4 #f1 #agh n4 #c1 #ahg n4 #d1 #bbj n4 #c1 #bij n4 #c1 #cjg n4 #b1 #cba n4 #a1 #ceh n4 #d1 #cgi n4 #d and n4 #e1 #chj n4 #d1 #chc n4 #b ,cooks1 ,roman1 required to be chaste1 ii4 #aae sq41 #bje ,cora ,indians1 i4 #ee sq4 ,corc1 his purification1 ii4 #aaf ,corn1 defiled persons kept from the1 ii4 #aab2 reaped ear of1 displayed at mysteries of ,eleusis1 #ach sq4 ---- -mother1 the1 at ,eleusis1 ii4 #aci ---- -reaping in ,greece1 date of1 i4 #cb ,cornel-tree1 sacred1 ii4 #aj ,cornish customs on ,may ,day1 ii4 #eb1 #fg ,corp chre1 i4 #fh1 #fi ,corpus ,christi ,day1 ii4 #afc ,cos1 ,king of1 i4 #de ,crab in rain-charm1 i4 #bhi ,crannogs1 ii4 #ceb ,crannon in ,thessaly1 i4 #cji ,crawley1 ,e41 i4 #bja n4 #a ,crocodiles1 girls sacrificed to1 ii4 #aeb ,cronus and ,zeus1 ii4 #cbc ,crooke1 ,w41 i4 #djf n4 #a1 ii4 #eg n4 #d1 #bhh n4 #a ,cross ,river1 i4 #cdi ,crossbills in magic1 i4 #ha sq4 ,crown of oak leaves1 ii4 #age1 #agf sq41 #ahd ,crowning cattle1 ii4 #ge1 #abf sq41 #cci1 #cda ---- dogs1 custom of1 i4 #ad1 ii4 #abe sq41 #abg sq4 ,crowns1 magical virtue of royal1 i4 #cfd sq42 of birch at ,whitsuntide1 ii4 #fd2 or wreaths1 custom of wearing1 #abg n4 #b ,crows in magic1 i4 #hc ,crystals1 magic of1 i4 #agf2 used in rain-making1 #bed1 #bee1 #cjd1 #cde1 #cdf ,cumont1 ,professor ,franz1 ii4 #caj ,cup-and-ball as a charm to hasten the return of the sun1 i4 #cag ,curses1 public1 i4 #de2 supposed beneficial effects of1 i4 #bgi sqq4 ,cursing at sowing1 i4 #bha ---- fishermen and hunters for good luck1 i4 #bhj sq4 ,curtiss1 ,professor ,s4 ,i41 i4 #djb ,cuzco1 ii4 #bdc ,cybele1 ii4 #add sq42 and ,attis1 i4 #ah1 #ba1 #dj1 #da ,cyrene1 kingship at1 i4 #dg ,daedala1 festival of the1 ii4 #adj sq4 ,dainyal or ,sibyl1 i4 #chc ,dalai ,lama of ,lhasa1 i4 #daa sq4 ,damaras or ,herero1 their fire-customs1 ii4 #baa sqq4 ,damia and ,auxesia1 i4 #ci ,danaus1 ii4 #cja ,dance at giving of oracles1 i4 #cgi2 of milkmaids on ,may-day1 ii4 #eb ,dances of women while men are away fighting1 i4 #aca-acd2 as means of inspiration1 #djh n4 #a2 round sacred trees1 ii4 #dg1 #ee2 found the ,may-pole1 #fe1 #fi1 #gd sq42 on graves1 #ahc n4 #b ,dancing as a fertility charm1 i4 #acg sqq41 ii4 #ajf ,danes1 female descent of the kingship among the1 ii4 #bhb sq4 ,daphnephoria1 ii4 #fc n4 #b ,date-month1 the1 ii4 #be ---- -palm1 artificial fertilisation of the1 ii4 #bd sq4 ,dawn1 the rosy1 i4 #ccd ,day of ,stones1 i4 #bgi ,de ,groot1 ,j4 ,j4 ,m41 i4 #daf sq41 ii4 #ad ,dead1 hair offered to the1 i4 #ca2 pretence of new birth at return of supposed dead man1 #ge2 homoeopathic magic of the1 #adg sqq42 sacrifices to1 #afc2 making rain by means of the1 #bhd sqq42 trees animated by the souls of the1 ii4 #bi sqq42 the illustrious1 represented by masked men1 #agh2 thunder and lightning made by the1 #ahc2 spirits of the1 in wild fig-trees1 #cag ,death1 pretence of1 in magic1 i4 #hd2 infection of1 #adc2 at ebb tide1 #afg sq42 puppet called1 carried out of village1 ii4 #gc sq4 ,deceiving the spirits of plants and trees1 ii4 #bb sqq4 ,deir el ,bahari1 paintings at1 ii4 #aca1 #acc ,deities duplicated through dialectical differences in their names1 ii4 #chj sq4 ,dejanira and ,achelous1 ii4 #afa sq4 ,delivery1 easy1 granted to women by trees1 ii4 #eg sq4 ,delos1 graves of ,hyperborean maidens in1 i4 #bh1 #cc sqq42 ,apollo and ,artemis at1 #bh1 #cb-ce ,delphi1 ,apollo at1 i4 #bh2 new fire sent from1 #cb sq42 ,king of1 #de sq4 ,demeter and ,zeus1 their marriage at ,eleusis1 ii4 #ach sq4 ,demetrius ,poliorcetes deified at ,athens1 i4 #cij sq4 ,denmark1 ,whitsun bride in1 ii4 #ia sq42 the beech-woods of1 #cea ,dennett1 ,r4 ,e41 ii4 #bgg n4 #a ,dece1 a divine spirit1 i4 #daj ,departmental kings of nature1 ii4 #a sqq4 ,derry1 the oaks of1 ii4 #bdb sq4 ,devil-dancers1 i4 #chb ,dew on ,may morning1 custom of washing in the1 ii4 #ed1 #fg1 #cbg1 #cci2 rolling in the1 #ccc 8,dew-treading0 in ,holland1 ii4 #ajd n4 #b ,dhurma ,rajah1 i4 #daj ,,di1 ,aryan root meaning 8bright10 ii4 #cha ,dia1 grove of the goddess1 ii4 #abb ,dialectical differences a cause of the duplication of deities1 ii4 #chb sq4 ,diana1 her sanctuary at ,nemi1 i4 #b sqq42 as huntress at ,nemi1 #f2 as patroness of cattle1 #g1 ii4 #abd2 her priest at ,nemi1 i4 #h sqq42 the ,tauric1 #aj sq41 #bd2 as goddess of childbirth1 #ab1 ii4 #abh2 as ,vesta at ,nemi1 i4 #ac1 ii4 #chj2 in relation to vines1 i4 #ae sq42 the mate of the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi1 #dj1 #da1 ii4 #chj2 as a goddess of fertility1 #abj sqq42 in relation to animals of the woods1 #abd1 #abe sqq42 as the moon1 #abh2 the goddess of fruits1 #abh2 as a goddess of the oak at ,nemi1 #chj ---- and ,dianus1 ii4 #cgf sqq4 ---- 7,jana71 a double of ,juno1 ii4 #aij sq41 #cha sq4 8,diana's ,mirror10 i4 #a ,dianus 7,janus71 a double of ,jupiter1 ii4 #aij sq41 #cha sq4 ,diels1 ,professor ,h41 i4 #cij n4 #b ,dieri1 the1 i4 #ij1 #agg1 ii4 #bi2 rain-making ceremonies of the1 i4 #bee sqq4 ,dinka or ,denka nation1 i4 #cdg ,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #gd ,diomede1 ii4 #bgh2 at ,troezen1 i4 #bg2 sacred grove of1 #bg ,dione1 wife of ,zeus at ,dodona1 ii4 #ahi2 the old consort of ,zeus1 #cha1 #chb ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 quoted1 ii4 #bjb sq4 ,dionysus1 marriage of1 to the ,queen of ,athens1 ii4 #acf sq42 and ,ariadne1 #ach ,discovery of fire1 ii4 #bee sqq4 ,disease-makers in ,tana1 i4 #cda sq4 8,divine consort1 the10 ii4 #aca ,divinity of kings1 i4 #dh sqq42 among the ,hovas1 #cig2 among the ,malays1 #cih2 in great historical empires1 #dae sqq42 growth of the conception of the1 ii4 #cgf sqq4 ---- of the ,brahmans1 i4 #djc sq4 ,division of labour in relation to social progress1 i4 #dbj ,diwali1 the feast of lamps1 ii4 #afj ,dixon1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,e41 ii4 #aci n4 #a ,djakuns1 their mode of making fire1 ii4 #bcf ,djuldjul1 i4 #bgd ,dodola1 the1 i4 #bgc ,dodona1 oracular spring at1 ii4 #agb2 ,zeus at1 #agg2 ,zeus and ,dione at1 #ahi2 oracular oak at1 #ceh ,dog1 black1 sacrificed for rain1 i4 #bia2 used to stop rain1 #cjc ,dogs crowned1 i4 #ad1 ii4 #abe sq41 #abg sq4 ,dollar-bird associated with rain1 i4 #bhg sq4 ,domalde1 a ,swedish king1 i4 #cff sq4 ,donar or ,thunar1 the ,german thunder god1 ii4 #cfd ,doors1 ,janus as a god of1 ii4 #chc sq4 ,doreh1 in ,new ,guinea1 i4 #abe ,dos ,santos1 ,j41 i4 #cib ,double-headed fetish among the ,bush negroes of ,surinam1 ii4 #che2 ,janus1 explanation of1 ii4 #chd sq4 ,dragon1 rain-god represented as1 i4 #big2 or serpent of water1 ii4 #aee sqq42 of ,rouen1 destroyed by ,st4 ,romain1 #afd sqq42 the ,slaying of the1 at ,furth1 #afc sq4 ,dramas1 magical1 to promote vegetation1 ii4 #abj ,dramatic exhibitions sometimes originate in magical rites1 ii4 #adb2 weddings of gods and goddesses1 ii4 #aba ,draupadi or ,krishna1 ii4 #cjf ,dreams1 modes of counteracting evil1 i4 #agb sq4 ,drenching people with water as a rain-charm1 i4 #bej1 #bea1 #bfi sq41 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bgg sq41 ii4 #gg ,dropsy1 ancient ,greek mode of preventing1 i4 #gh ,drought supposed to be caused by unburied dead1 i4 #bhg2 and dearth1 chiefs and kings punished for1 #ceb sqq42 supposed to be caused by sexual crime1 ii4 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aac ,drowning as a punishment1 ii4 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa2 sacrifice by1 #cfd ,druids1 oak-worship of the1 ii4 #i2 of ,gaul1 their sacrifices of white bulls1 #ahi2 female1 #bda n4 #a2 venerate the oak and the mistletoe1 #ceh1 #cfb2 derivation of the name1 #cfc ,drums1 homoeopathic magic at the making of1 i4 #acd sq42 beaten as a charm against a storm1 #cbh ,drynemetum1 ii4 #cfc ,du ,pratz1 ii4 #bfc n4 #a ,dudul1 the1 i4 #bgd ,duplication of deities an effect of dialectical differences1 ii4 #chb sq4 ,durostorum1 martyrdom of ,st4 ,dasius at1 ii4 #caj n4 #a ,dwarf tribes of ,central ,africa1 ii4 #bee ,dyaks of ,borneo1 the1 i4 #gc1 #abg1 ii4 #ac2 the ,sea1 #abg ,ea1 the inventor of magic1 i4 #bdj ,eagle hunters1 taboos observed by1 i4 #aaf2 charms employed by1 #adi sq4 ---- -wood1 telepathy in search for1 i4 #abj ,eagles1 sacred1 ii4 #aa ,earth and ,sun1 marriage of the1 ii4 #ih sq41 #adh ---- goddess1 pregnant cows sacrificed to1 ii4 #bbi ,earthquakes supposed to be caused by incest1 ii4 #aaa ,ebb tide1 death at1 i4 #afg sq4 ,eclipse1 ceremonies at an1 i4 #caa sq4 ,economic progress a condition of intellectual progress1 i4 #bah ,egeria1 water nymph at ,nemi1 i4 #ag-ai1 #da1 ii4 #aga sq42 an oak-nymph1 #agb2 a double of ,diana1 #chj2 and ,numa1 i4 #ah1 ii4 #agb sqq41 #aic1 #chj ,egerius ,baebius or ,laevius1 i4 #bb ,eggs collected at spring ceremonies1 ii4 #fe1 #gh1 #ha1 #hd1 #he2 or egg-shells1 painted1 in spring ceremonies1 #fc1 #fe2 in purificatory rite1 #aji ,egypt1 magical images in ancient1 i4 #ff1 #fg sq42 magicians in ancient1 #bbe2 confusion of magic and religion in ancient1 #bcj sq42 kings of1 deified in their lifetime1 #dah sqq42 the ,queen of1 married to the god ,ammon1 ii4 #aca sq42 king of1 masquerading as ,ammon1 #acc ,egyptian kings and queens1 their begetting and birth depicted on the monuments1 ii4 #aca sqq4 ---- worship of sacred beasts1 i4 #bi sq4 ,egyptians1 the ancient1 worshipped men and animals1 i4 #chi sq42 sycamores worshipped by the ancient1 ii4 #ae ,eiresione1 ii4 #dh ,elder-tree1 ii4 #dc ,elective and hereditary monarchy1 combination of the two1 ii4 #bib sqq4 ,electric lights on mast-heads1 spears1 etc41 i4 #di sq4 ,elephant-hunters1 telepathy of1 i4 #abc ,eleusis1 mysteries of1 ii4 #ach sq4 ,elipandus of ,toledo1 i4 #djg ,elizabeth1 ,queen1 i4 #cfh ,emblica officinalis1 a sacred tree1 ii4 #ea ,emin ,pasha1 ii4 #big n4 #g ,empedocles1 his claim to divinity1 i4 #cij ,emus1 ceremony for the multiplication of1 i4 #he sq4 ,endymion1 ii4 #bii ,ephesian ,artemis1 ii4 #abh ,ephesus1 ,artemis of1 i4 #cg sq42 nominal kings at1 #dg2 the ,essenes or ,king ,bees at1 ii4 #ace sq4 ,epicurus1 sacrifices offered to1 i4 #aje ,erechtheum1 the1 ii4 #aii ,erechtheus and ,erichthonius1 ii4 #aii ,erhard1 ,professor ,a41 ii4 #caj n4 #a ,erichthonius1 i4 #ba2 and ,erechtheus1 ii4 #aii ,eruptions of volcanoes supposed to be caused by incest1 ii4 #aaa ,esquiline hill at ,rome1 ii4 #ahe ,esquimaux1 i4 #gj1 #aac1 #aba1 #caf1 #cbg ,essenes or ,king ,bees at ,ephesus1 i4 #dg n4 #b1 ii4 #ace sq4 ,esthonian folk-tale of a tree-elf1 ii4 #ga sqq42 marriage custom1 #bcd ,esthonians1 ,st4 ,george's ,day among the1 ii4 #ccj sqq42 their thunder-god ,taara1 #cfg ,etruscans1 female kinship among the1 ii4 #bhf sq4 ,eudanemi1 the1 at ,athens1 i4 #cbe n4 #a ,europe1 contagious magic of footprints in1 i4 #baj sq42 confusion of magic and religion in modern1 #bca-bcc2 forests of ancient1 ii4 #g sq42 relics of tree-worship in modern1 #ei sqq42 diffusion of the oak in1 #cdi sqq4 ---- ,south-,eastern1 rain-making ceremonies in1 i4 #bgb sqq4 ,euros1 magical ceremony for the multiplication of1 i4 #hi ,evelyn1 ,john1 i4 #cfi ,evergreen oak1 the ,golden ,bough grew on1 ii4 #cgi ---- trees in ,italy1 i4 #h ,evolution of kings out of magicians or medicine-men1 i4 #dbj sq42 industrial1 from uniformity to diversity of function1 #dba2 political1 from democracy to despotism1 #dba ,exaggerations of anthropological theories1 i4 #ccc ,exogamy1 ii4 #bga ,expiation for adultery or fornication1 ii4 #ajg sq42 for incest1 #aae1 #aaf ,external soul in afterbirth or navel-string1 i4 #bjj sq4 ,extinction of fires at king's death1 ii4 #bfa sqq41 #bfg2 in houses after any death1 #bfg sq4 ,ezekiel1 i4 #hg n4 #a ,falerii1 ,juno at1 ii4 #aij n4 #b ,falstaff1 death of1 i4 #afh ,families1 royal1 kings chosen from several1 ii4 #bib sqq4 ,fan tribe1 i4 #cdi ,farnell1 ,dr4 ,l4 ,r41 i4 #cf1 ii4 #cgi n4 #e ,fasting obligatory1 i4 #abd1 #aca ,father ,jove and ,mother ,vesta1 ii4 #bbg sqq4 ,fattest men chosen kings1 ii4 #big ,february1 first of1 ,st4 ,bride's day1 i4 #id sq4 ,fehrle1 ,e41 ii4 #aii n4 #e ,female descent of the kingship in ,rome1 ii4 #bgj sqq42 in ,africa1 #bgd sqq42 in ,greece1 #bgg sq42 in ,scandinavia1 #bgi sq42 in ,lydia1 #bha sq42 among ,danes and ,saxons1 #bhb sq4 ---- kinship in descent of the ,roman kingship1 ii4 #bga2 indifference to paternity of kings under female kinship1 #bgd sqq42 at ,athens1 #bgg2 indifference to paternity in general under1 #bhb2 among the ,aryans1 #bhc sqq4 ,see also ,mother-kin ,female slaves1 licence accorded to them on the ,nonae ,caprotinae1 ii4 #cac sq4 ,feng and ,wiglet1 ii4 #bha1 #bhc ,fennel1 fire carried in giant1 ii4 #bfj ,fertilisation1 artificial1 of the date palm1 ii4 #bd sq42 of the fig-tree1 #cad sq4 ---- of women by the wild fig-tree1 ii4 #caf2 by the wild banana-tree1 #cah ,fertilising virtue attributed to trees1 ii4 #di sqq41 #caf sqq4 ,fertility1 ,diana as a goddess of1 ii4 #abj sqq42 the thunder-god conceived as a deity of fertility1 #cfh sqq4 ,fictores ,vestalium1 fictores ,pontificum1 ii4 #bjd ,ficus ,ruminalis1 ii4 #cah ,fierte or shrine of ,st4 ,romain1 ii4 #afg1 #afh1 #agj n4 #a ,fig1 as an article of diet1 ii4 #cae sq4 ,fig-tree of ,romulus 7ficus ,ruminalis71 ii4 #aj1 #cah ---- artificial fertilisation 7caprificatio7 of the1 ii4 #cad sq4 ---- sacred1 ii4 #dd1 #ii1 #bdi1 #bej ---- the wild1 a male1 ii4 #cad sq42 supposed to fertilise women1 #caf sq42 haunted by spirits of the dead1 #cag ,fiji1 catching the sun in1 i4 #caf ,fijians1 gods of the1 i4 #chi ,finnish-,ugrian peoples1 sacred groves of the1 ii4 #aj sq4 ,finnish wizards and witches1 i4 #cbe ,fire in the worship of ,diana1 i4 #ab sq42 supposed to be subject to ,catholic priests1 #bca2 used to stop rain1 #beb sq42 as a charm to rekindle the sun1 #caa1 #cac2 of ,vesta at ,rome fed with oak wood1 ii4 #ahf2 birth from the1 #aie sqq42 the king's1 #aie sqq42 impregnation of women by1 #aie sqq41 #bcj sqq41 #bcd2 taken from sacred hearth to found a new village1 #baf2 on the hearth1 souls of ancestors in the1 #bcb2 reasons for attributing a procreative virtue to1 #bcc sq42 made jointly by man and woman or boy and girl1 #bce sqq42 custom of extinguishing fire and rekindling it by the friction of wood1 #bcg sq42 need-fire made by married men1 #bch2 holy1 not to be blown upon with the breath1 #bdj1 #bda2 tribes reported to be ignorant of the art of kindling1 #bec sqq42 discovery of1 by mankind1 #bee sqq42 carried about by savages1 #beg sqq42 kept burning in houses of chiefs and kings1 #bfj sqq42 carried before king or chief1 #bfc sq42 a symbol of life1 #bfe2 leaping over a1 #cbg1 #cbi ,fire and ,water1 ,kings of1 ii4 #c sqq4 ---- -bearer1 the1 i4 #cc ---- -boards1 sacred1 of the ,chuckchees and ,koryaks1 ii4 #bbe sq4 ---- customs of the ,herero or ,damaras1 ii4 #baa sqq42 compared to those of the ,romans1 ii4 #bbg sqq4 ---- -drill1 the1 ii4 #bjg sqq41 #bdh sqq41 #beh sq41 #bfc2 the kindling of fire by it regarded by savages as a form of sexual intercourse1 #bjh sqq41 #bah1 #bcc1 #bce sq41 #bci1 #bdi sq42 of the ,herero1 #bag sq4 ---- -god married to a human virgin1 ii4 #aie sqq4 ---- kindled by the friction of wood1 ii4 #bjg sqq41 #bce sqq41 #bdc1 #bdh sqq41 #beh sq41 #bfb1 #bfc1 #ccf1 #cff1 #cgb2 from ancestral tree1 #bba1 #bcc sq42 by natural causes1 #bef2 by lightning1 #bfc ---- 8living10 ii4 #bcg2 a charm against witchcraft1 #ccf ---- 8new10 ii4 #bcg2 sent from ,delos and ,delphi1 i4 #cb sq42 made at beginning of king's reign1 ii4 #bfb1 #bfg2 made at ,midsummer1 #bdc ---- -priests 7,agnihotris7 of the ,brahmans1 ii4 #bdg sqq4 ---- -sticks of fire-drill regarded as male and female1 ii4 #bjh sqq41 #bce1 #bch1 #bci1 #bdh sqq4 ---- -worship a form of ancestor-worship1 ii4 #bba ,fires ceremonially extinguished1 i4 #cc2 kept up for sake of absent persons1 #abj sq41 #abh1 #abi2 extinguished at death of kings1 ii4 #bfa sqq41 #bfg2 at any death1 #bfg sq42 ceremonial1 kindled by the friction of oak-wood1 #cgb ---- perpetual1 of ,vesta1 i4 #ac sq42 in ,ireland1 ii4 #bdj sqq42 in ,peru and ,mexico1 #bdc sqq42 origin of1 #bec sqq42 associated with royal dignity1 #bfa sqq42 of oak-wood1 #cfe1 #cff ,first-fruits1 dedication of1 i4 #cb ,fish1 magical ceremony for the multiplication of1 i4 #ij2 in rain-charm1 #bhh sq4 ,fishermen1 ,shetland1 i4 #fi ---- and hunters cursed for good luck1 i4 #bhj sq4 ,fishing and hunting1 homoeopathic magic in1 i4 #ajh sqq42 telepathy in1 #abj sqq4 ,fison1 ,rev4 ,lorimer1 i4 #caf1 #cca n4 #b1 #cgh1 #chi n4 #c1 ii4 #ac n4 #a ,fladda's chapel1 i4 #cbb ,flamen1 derivation of the name1 ii4 #bce1 #bdg ---- ,dialis1 the1 ii4 #agi1 #bce1 #bdf1 #bdg1 #bdh2 an embodiment of ,jupiter1 #aia sq4 ,flaminica1 the1 ii4 #aia1 #bce ,flax1 charms to make flax grow tall1 i4 #ach sq41 ii4 #hf1 #afd ,flight of the king 7,regifugium7 at ,rome1 ii4 #cjh sqq41 #caa n4 #d2 of sacrificer after the sacrifice1 #cji2 of the ,people at ,rome1 #cai n4 #a ,flint implements supposed to be thunderbolts1 ii4 #cgd ,floquet1 ,a41 ii4 #afh1 #afi ,flowers1 divination from1 ii4 #cde ,food1 homoeopathic magic for the supply of1 i4 #he sqq4 ,foods tabooed1 i4 #aag sqq4 ,footprints1 contagious magic of1 i4 #bjg-bab 8,forced fire0 or need-fire1 ii4 #bch ,foreigners marry princesses and receive the kingdom with them1 ii4 #bgj sqq4 ,foreskins removed at circumcision1 uses of1 i4 #ib sq41 #ie2 used in rain-making1 #bef sq4 ,forests of ancient ,europe1 ii4 #g sq4 ,fortuna and ,servius ,tullius1 ii4 #aic n4 #a1 #bgb ,forum at ,rome1 prehistoric cemetery in the1 ii4 #ahf1 #bjb ,foucart1 ,p41 ii4 #aci n4 #a ,fowler1 ,w4 ,warde1 ii4 #caa n4 #d1 #cai n4 #a1 #cbg n4 #b1 #cbi n4 #f1 #chc n4 #c ,fox in magic1 i4 #aea ,fratres ,arvales1 ii4 #abb ,free ,spirit1 ,brethren of the1 i4 #djh ,french peasants ascribe magical powers to priests1 i4 #bca-bcc ,frey1 the god of fertility and his human wife1 ii4 #adc sq42 his image and festival at ,upsala1 #cfd sq4 ,friction of wood1 fire kindled by1 ii4 #bjg sqq41 #bce sqq41 #bdc1 #bdh sqq41 #beh sq41 #bfb1 #bfc1 #ccf1 #cff1 #cgb ,frog1 magic of1 i4 #aea2 worshipped1 #bid sq42 love-charm made from the bone of a1 ii4 #cde ---- flayer1 the1 ii4 #hf ,frogs in relation to rain1 i4 #bib sqq4 ,froth from a mill-wheel as a charm against witches1 ii4 #cdj ,fruit-trees fertilised by women1 i4 #adj sq4 ,fruits blessed on day of ,assumption of the ,virgin1 i4 #ad sqq42 ,artemis and ,diana as patronesses of1 #ae sq4 ,fuegians1 the1 ii4 #beh ,fumigating flocks and herds as a charm against witchcraft1 ii4 #cbg1 #ccj1 #cce1 #ccf1 #cci1 #cdc ,furth in ,bavaria1 the ,slaying of the ,dragon at1 ii4 #afc sqq4 ,furtwngler1 ,a41 i4 #cji n4 #f ,futuna1 i4 #chh ,fylgia or guardian spirit in ,iceland1 i4 #bjj ,galatians1 their ,celtic language1 ii4 #abf n4 #b ,galelareesc1 the1 i4 #aaj1 #aac1 #aca1 #adc1 #ade1 ii4 #bb ,gallas1 kings of the1 i4 #dh2 sacred trees of the1 ii4 #cd ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ii4 #bdd n4 #a ,gardiner1 ,professor ,j4 ,stanley1 ii4 #aed ,gargouille or dragon destroyed by ,st4 ,romain1 ii4 #afg ,garlands on ,may ,day1 ii4 #fj sqq41 #ij sq4 ,gaul1 the ,druids of1 ii4 #ahi ,gauri1 harvest-goddess1 ii4 #gg sq4 ,gayos1 the1 ii4 #abe ,gennep1 ,a4 van1 ii4 #che n4 #a ,geomancy in ,china1 i4 #agj ,george1 ,green1 ii4 #ge1 #gf1 #gi ,germans1 worship of women among the ancient1 i4 #cia2 tree-worship among the ancient1 ii4 #h sq42 evidence of mother-kin among the1 #bhe2 worship of the oak among the ancient1 #cfc sq4 ,gerontocracy in ,australia1 i4 #cce ,gervasius of ,tilbury1 i4 #cja ,getae1 the1 i4 #cib ,ghosts in ,melanesia1 supposed powers of1 i4 #cch sq4 ,gilyaks1 the1 i4 #abb1 ii4 #ch ,girl annually sacrificed to cedar-tree1 ii4 #ag ,girls married to nets1 ii4 #adg2 sacrificed to crocodiles1 #aeb ,glory1 the ,hand of1 i4 #adi ,glover1 ,t4 ,r41 ii4 #bca n4 #f ,goat1 blood of1 drunk as means of inspiration1 i4 #chb1 #chc ,god1 ,bride of1 i4 #bgf2 savage ideas of1 different from those of civilised men1 #cge sq4 8,god-boxes10 i4 #cgh ,gods viewed as magicians1 i4 #bdj sqq41 #cge2 sacrifice themselves by fire1 #cae n4 #a2 conception of1 slowly evolved1 #cgc sq42 incarnate human1 #cgc sqq42 gods and men1 no sharp line of distinction between1 in ,fiji1 #chi2 and goddesses1 dramatic weddings of1 ii4 #aba2 the marriage of the1 #abi sqq42 married to women1 #abi sqq41 #adc sq41 #adf sq41 #adi sqq4 ,gold in magic1 i4 #hj sq4 ,golden ,bough plucked by ,aeneas1 i4 #aa1 ii4 #cgi2 the breaking of it not a piece of bravado1 i4 #abc sq42 grew on an evergreen oak1 ii4 #cgi ,golden lamb of ,mycenae1 i4 #cfe 8,golden summer10 the1 i4 #cb ,gonds1 their belief in reincarnation1 i4 #ajd sq4 ,gongs beaten in a storm1 i4 #cbh sq42 at ,dodona1 ii4 #ceh ,government of old men in aboriginal ,australia1 i4 #ccd sq4 ,grafting1 superstitious ceremony at1 ii4 #ajj ,granger1 ,professor ,f41 i4 #db n4 #a ,grasausluten1 ii4 #cdd ,grass ,king1 the1 ii4 #he sq4 ---- seed1 magical ceremony for the multiplication of1 i4 #hg sq42 continence at magical ceremony for growth of1 ii4 #aje ,graveclothes1 homoeopathic magic of1 in ,china1 i4 #afh sq4 ,graves1 rain-charms at1 i4 #bfh1 #bhf1 #bia2 trees planted on graves1 ii4 #ca2 dances on1 #ahc n4 #b2 of ,hyperborean maidens at ,delos1 i4 #bh1 #cc sqq4 ,great ,sun1 the1 title of chief1 ii4 #bfb1 #bfc ,greece1 priestly kings in1 i4 #dd sqq42 kings and chiefs sacred or divine in ancient1 #cff2 human gods in ancient1 #cij sq42 forests of1 ii4 #h2 female descent of kingship in ancient1 #bgh sq4 ,greek kings called ,zeus1 ii4 #agg1 #cfa ,greeks1 the modern1 rain-making ceremonies among1 i4 #bgb sq42 and ,romans1 rain-charms among the ancient1 #cji sq4 ,green boughs a charm against witches1 ii4 #eb-ee1 #abg1 #cdb sq4 ---- ,george1 ii4 #ge1 #gf1 #gi1 #cdc ---- ,thursday1 ii4 #ccc ,greenwich-hill1 custom of rolling down1 ii4 #ajc ,gregory of ,tours1 ii4 #add ,grimm1 ,j41 ii4 #h1 #cfb n4 #f1 #cfd ,grizzly bears supposed to be related to human twins1 i4 #bfd sq4 ,groves1 sacred1 ii4 #aj sq41 #dd2 ,arician1 i4 #bj1 #bb1 ii4 #aae2 in ,chios1 i4 #de2 in ancient ,greece and ,rome1 ii4 #aba sqq4 ,grunau1 ,simon1 ii4 #cff n4 #b ,guanches of ,teneriffe1 i4 #cjc ,guardian spirit associated with caul1 i4 #aii sq4 ,guaycurus1 the1 i4 #ccj ,gunkel1 ,h41 i4 #aja n4 #b ,gunnar ,helming1 ii4 #add ,gunputty1 elephant-headed god1 human incarnation of1 i4 #dje sq4 ,gyges1 ii4 #bha1 #bhb ,gypsies1 ,green ,george among the1 ii4 #ge sq4 ,gypsy ceremonies for stopping rain1 i4 #bie sq4 ,hack-thorn sacred1 ii4 #dh ,haddon1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,c41 i4 #bfb ,hahn1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,h41 ii4 #bac n4 #b ,haida ,indians1 i4 #gj1 #acc ,hair offered to gods and goddesses1 heroes and heroines1 i4 #bh sq42 offered to the dead1 #ca1 #ajb2 offered to rivers1 #ca2 clippings of1 used in magic1 #eg1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff2 charms to make hair grow1 #hc1 #ade1 #aec sq41 #aed2 loose as a charm1 #acf2 human1 used in rain-making1 #bea sq42 long1 a symbol of royalty1 ii4 #ahj ,hakea flowers1 ceremony for the multiplication of1 i4 #hf ,hakim ,singh1 i4 #dji ,halford in ,warwickshire1 ,may ,day customs at1 ii4 #hh sq4 ,hamlet1 ii4 #bha1 #bia ,hammer worshipped1 i4 #cag sq4 ,hammurabi1 code of1 ii4 #acj ,hand of ,glory1 i4 #adi ,hardy1 ,thomas1 i4 #acf ,hares as witches1 i4 #bab1 ii4 #ec ,harran1 the heathen of1 i4 #chc1 ii4 #be1 #ajj n4 #b ,harris1 ,j4 ,rendel1 i4 #ae n4 #a1 #ba n4 #b ,harrison1 ,miss ,j4 ,e41 ii4 #acg n4 #a1 #aci n4 #a ,hartland1 ,e4 ,s41 i4 #eb n4 #a1 ii4 #aef n4 #b ,harvest in ,greece1 date of1 i4 #cb ---- ,may1 the1 ii4 #dg sq4 ,hatshopsitou1 birth of ,queen1 ii4 #aca sqq4 ,hawaii1 insignia of royal family of1 i4 #chh n4 #c ,hawthorn on ,may ,day1 ii4 #eb1 #fj2 a protection against witches1 #ee1 #abg ,head-hunters1 rules observed by people at home in absence of1 i4 #abi ,headmen of totem clans in ,central ,australia1 i4 #cce ,heads1 custom of moulding heads artificially1 ii4 #big sq4 ,hearn1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,e41 ii4 #bhc n4 #e ,hearth1 the king's1 at ,rome1 ii4 #aie1 #bjj1 #bjf2 sacred1 of the ,herero1 #bac1 #bad2 the sacred1 seat of the ancestral spirits1 #bba2 custom of leading a bride round the1 #bcj1 #bca2 new-born children brought to the1 #bcb ,hearts of men and animals offered to the sun1 i4 #cae ,heaven1 vault of1 imitated in rain-charm1 i4 #bfa1 #bfb ,heavenly ,master1 the1 i4 #dac ,hebrew prohibition of images1 i4 #hg n4 #a ---- prophets1 their ethical religion1 i4 #bbc ,hebrews1 their notion of the blighting effect of sexual crime1 ii4 #aad sq4 ,hegel on magic and religion1 i4 #bce n4 #a1 #dbc sqq4 ,hehn1 ,v41 on evergreens in ,italy1 i4 #h n4 #d ,heimskringla1 ii4 #bhj ,heine1 ,h41 ,pilgrimage to ,kevlaar1 i4 #gg ,hekaerge and ,hekaergos1 i4 #cc1 #cd1 #ce ,helaga1 taboo1 ii4 #ajf n4 #b ,helbig1 ,w41 i4 #bj n4 #e ,helernus1 grove of1 ii4 #aij sq4 ,hellebore1 curses at cutting black1 i4 #bha ,hemlock as an anaphrodisiac1 ii4 #ach1 #aci n4 #a ,hemp1 charms to make hemp grow tall1 i4 #acg sq4 ,heno1 the thunder-spirit of the ,iroquois1 ii4 #cfi sq4 ,hera and ,hercules1 i4 #gd ,hercules1 sacrifice to1 i4 #bha ---- and ,achelous1 ii4 #afb ---- and ,hera1 i4 #gd ---- and ,omphale1 ii4 #bha ,hercynian forest1 the1 ii4 #g1 #ced2 etymology of the name1 #ced n4 #b ,hereditary and elective monarchy1 combination of the two1 ii4 #bib sqq4 ,herero or ,damaras1 their fire-customs1 ii4 #baa sqq4 ,hermutrude1 legendary queen of ,scotland1 ii4 #bha ,herodotus1 i4 #di1 #cca ,hersilia1 a ,sabine goddess1 ii4 #aic n4 #a ,heyne1 ,c4 ,g41 ii4 #cbi n4 #a ,hidatsa ,indians1 ii4 #ab ,hierapolis1 i4 #bi ,hierophant at ,eleusis temporarily deprived of his virility1 ii4 #ach ,highlands of ,scotland1 ,st4 ,bride's day in1 ii4 #id ,hindoo ,koosh1 sacred cedar of the1 i4 #chc2 the ,kafirs of the1 #che ---- ,trinity1 i4 #bbe ,hindoos1 magical images among the1 i4 #fc sqq4 ,hippoclides and ,clisthenes1 ii4 #cjg sq4 ,hippocrates1 sacrifices offered to1 i4 #aje ,hippodamia and ,pelops1 ii4 #bgi1 #bii sq4 ,hippolytus in relation to ,virbius at ,nemi1 i4 #ai sq42 offerings of hair to1 #bh ---- and ,artemis1 i4 #ai sq41 #bd sqq4 ---- ,saint1 martyrdom of1 i4 #ba ,hirn1 ,y41 i4 #eb n4 #a1 #ed n4 #a ,hirt1 ,professor ,h41 ii4 #cfg n4 #c ,hobby ,horse at ,padstow1 ii4 #fh ,hobley1 ,c4 ,w41 ii4 #caf ,hog's blood1 purifying virtue of1 i4 #ajg ,holed stone in magic1 i4 #cac ,holland1 ,whitsuntide customs in1 ii4 #ajd ,holy ,basil1 ii4 #bf ,homoeopathic taboos1 i4 #aaf2 magic for the making of rain1 #bdg sqq4 ,see also ,magic ,hopi ,indians1 the1 ii4 #bjh sq4 ,horse1 sacred1 i4 #cfd2 sacrificed at ,rome in ,october1 ii4 #bbi1 #cbf ,horses excluded from ,arician grove1 i4 #bj2 dedicated by ,hippolytus to ,aesculapius1 #ba n4 #b1 #bg2 branded with mark of wolf1 #bg2 in relation to ,diomede1 #bg2 sacrifice of white1 #bg2 sacrificed to the sun1 #cae sq42 sacrificed to trees1 ii4 #af2 sanctity of white1 #agd n4 #b2 sacrifices for1 on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 #ccb1 #ccf sq4 ,horus1 the golden1 i4 #dah ,hos1 the1 of ,togoland1 i4 #cif sq41 ii4 #ai1 #cgj ,hot water drunk as a charm1 i4 #abi ,house-timber1 homoeopathic magic of1 i4 #adf ,housebreakers1 charms employed by1 to cause sleep1 i4 #adh sq4 ,hovas1 divinity of kings among the1 i4 #cig ,howitt1 ,a4 ,w41 i4 #agf1 #bjg1 #bjh ,hubert and ,mauss1 ,messrs41 i4 #aaa n4 #b ,huichol ,indians1 i4 #ga1 #abc ,human gods1 i4 #cgc sqq4 ---- victims sacrificed to water-spirits1 ii4 #aeg sqq4 ,humboldt1 ,a4 von1 i4 #daf ,hunters employ contagious magic of footprints1 i4 #baa sq4 ,huntin1 a tree-god1 ii4 #ae ,hunting and fishing1 homoeopathic magic in1 i4 #ajh sqq42 telepathy in1 #abj sqq4 8,hurling0 for a bride1 ii4 #cje sq4 ,hurons1 the1 ii4 #adg2 reincarnation among the1 i4 #aje2 their mode of counteracting an evil dream1 #agb sq4 ,husbands1 spiritual1 ii4 #caf sq4 ,hut-urns of ancient ,latins1 ii4 #bja sq4 ,huts1 round1 of the ancient ,latins1 ii4 #bjj sqq42 in ,africa1 #bbg n4 #c ,huzuls1 the1 i4 #aac1 #acg2 their precautions against witches1 ii4 #ccf ,hymettus1 ii4 #cfj ,hyperborean maidens at ,delos1 i4 #cc ,ibn ,batutah1 ii4 #aec ,icarius1 ii4 #cjj ,iceland1 superstitions as to the caul in1 i4 #aii sqq4 ,iddah1 king of1 i4 #cif ,igaras1 succession to the kingship among the1 ii4 #bid ,illicit love supposed to blight the fruits of the earth1 ii4 #ajg sqq4 ,images1 ,hebrew prohibition of1 i4 #hg n4 #a ---- magical1 to injure people1 i4 #ee sqq42 to procure offspring1 #gj-gd2 to win love1 #gg ,impressions1 bodily1 contagious magic of1 i4 #bac sq4 ,incarnate human gods1 i4 #cgc sqq4 ,incarnation of gods in human form temporary or permanent1 i4 #cgf2 examples of temporary incarnation1 #cgf sqq42 examples of permanent incarnation1 #chf sqq42 mystery of1 #cif n4 #e ,incas1 the children of the ,sun1 i4 #dae ,incense1 fumes of1 inhaled to produce inspiration1 i4 #cgi1 #chd ---- -gatherers1 chastity of1 ii4 #ajf sq4 ,incest1 blighting effects attributed to1 ii4 #ajh1 #aaj sq41 #aac1 #aae sqq42 of domestic animals abhorred by the ,basoga1 #aab sq42 of animals employed as a rain-charm1 #aac ,india1 ancient1 confusion of magic and religion in1 i4 #bbh sq42 magical power of kings in1 #cff2 incarnate human gods in1 #cgf1 #djb sqq4 ,indifference to paternity of kings under female kinship1 ii4 #bgd sqq4 ,indra1 thunderbolt of1 i4 #bfi ,industrial evolution from uniformity to diversity of function1 i4 #dba ,infidelity of wife disastrous to absent husband1 i4 #abc1 #aca ,influence of the sexes on vegetation1 ii4 #ig sqq4 ,initiatory ceremonies of ,central ,australian aborigines1 i4 #ib sqq4 ---- rites of ,australian aborigines1 suggested explanation of1 i4 #ajf4 ,inquisition1 the1 i4 #djg1 #djh ,insects1 homoeopathic magic of1 i4 #aeb ,inspiration1 i4 #cgf sqq42 by incense1 #cgi2 by blood1 #cha sqq42 by sacred plant or tree1 #chc sqq42 of victims1 #chd sqq4 ,inspired or religious type of man-god1 i4 #bdd ---- priests and priestesses1 i4 #cgg sqq4 ,intellectual progress dependent on economic progress1 i4 #bah ,intercourse of the sexes practised to make the crops and fruits grow1 ii4 #ih sqq4 ,intichiuma1 magical totemic ceremonies in ,central ,australia1 i4 #he ,invulnerability1 charm to produce1 i4 #adf sq4 ,ireland1 perpetual fires in1 ii4 #bdj sqq4 ---- sacred oak groves in ancient1 #bdb sq4 ,irish kings1 magical virtues attributed to1 i4 #cfg ,irle1 ,j41 ii4 #bbc n4 #b ,iron1 homoeopathic magic of1 i4 #aei sq4 ,iroquois1 the1 ii4 #ab2 their thunder-god1 #cfi sq4 ,isle of ,man1 ,st4 ,bridget in the1 ii4 #id sq4 ---- of ,may1 ii4 #afa ,ivy chewed by ,bachanals1 i4 #chd2 in fire-making1 ii4 #bea sq4 ,jack-in-the-,green1 ii4 #hb ,jana1 another form of ,diana1 ii4 #cha1 #chb1 #chc ,jangam1 priest of the ,lingayats1 i4 #djd ,janiculum hill1 the1 ii4 #ahf ,janua1 derived from ,janus1 ii4 #chd ,janus1 as a god of doors1 ii4 #chc sq42 explanation of the two-headed1 #chd sq4 ---- and ,carna1 ii4 #aij ---- 7,dianus7 and ,diana1 doubles of ,jupiter and ,juno1 ii4 #aij sq41 #cha sq4 ,jaundice treated by homoeopathic magic1 i4 #gi sqq4 ,java1 ceremonies to procure offspring in1 i4 #gc2 ceremonies for preventing rain in1 #bgj sq4 ,jerome of ,prague1 i4 #cag ,jevons1 ,f4 ,b41 i4 #aje1 #bbe n4 ,jewitt1 ,j4 ,r41 i4 #bfd ,jinnee of the sea1 virgins married to1 ii4 #aec sq4 ,job's protest1 ii4 #aad ,johnson1 ,dr4 ,s41 i4 #cfh1 #cgj ,johnston1 ,sir ,h4 ,h41 ii4 #bbg n4 #c ,jordan1 ,h41 ii4 #cba n4 #c ,joubert1 quoted1 i4 #bbc n4 #b ,jove 7,father7 and ,mother ,vesta1 ii4 #bbg sqq4 ,jubainville1 ,h4 d',arbois de1 ii4 #cfb n4 #f ,judah1 idolatrous kings of1 i4 #cae ,jukagirs1 the1 i4 #abb ,julian1 the ,emperor1 ii4 #g ,julii1 the1 ii4 #agi1 #aib ,julus1 the ,little ,jupiter1 ii4 #agi1 #aig ,july the #gth1 the ,nonae ,caprotinae1 a ,roman festival1 ii4 #cac sqq4 ,june1 the first of1 a ,roman festival1 ii4 #aij ,juno on the ,capitol1 ii4 #ahd2 at ,falerii1 #aij n4 #b2 a duplicate of ,diana1 #cha sq4 ---- ,caprotina1 ii4 #cac1 #cag ---- ,moneta1 ii4 #ahi ,jupiter1 costume of1 ii4 #agd sq42 the ,roman kings in the character of1 #agd sqq42 ,capitoline1 #agf2 the ,little1 #agi1 #aib2 ,latian1 #ahg1 #cgi2 as god of the oak1 the thunder1 the rain1 and the sky1 #ceh1 #cfa sq42 as sky-god1 #cgd2 a duplicate of ,janus 7,dianus71 #cha sq4 ---- and ,juno1 doubles of ,janus and ,diana1 ii4 #aij sq42 sacred marriage of1 #aij ---- ,dianus1 ii4 #chb ---- ,elicius1 ii4 #ahc ---- ,indiges1 ii4 #aha ,jupiters1 many local1 in ,latium1 ii4 #ahd ,juturna1 a nymph1 ii4 #chb ,kachins of ,burma1 the1 ii4 #bcg ,kafirs of the ,hindoo ,koosh1 i4 #acc sq41 #che ,kaitish tribe of ,central ,australia1 i4 #hg ,kali1 the goddess1 i4 #chc ,kamilaroi1 the1 i4 #aja ,kangaroos1 ceremony for the multiplication of1 i4 #hg sq4 ,kara-,kirghiz1 ii4 #eg ,karens of ,burma1 i4 #bji2 their custom in regard to fornication and adultery1 ii4 #ajg sq4 ,karo-,bataks1 the1 of ,sumatra1 i4 #bgg ,kausika ,sutra1 i4 #bji1 #bbi ,kayans or ,bahaus of ,borneo1 i4 #cbh1 ii4 #aji ,kei ,islands1 i4 #abf1 #aca1 #ade ,kenyahs of ,borneo1 i4 #ei1 ii4 #che ,keremet1 a god of the ,wotyaks1 ii4 #ade sq4 ,kevlaar1 ,virgin ,mary of1 i4 #gg 8,key-race10 ii4 #cjd ,keys1 the golden1 ii4 #ccc ,khasis of ,assam1 succession to the kingdom among the1 ii4 #bid sq4 ,khnoumou1 the god1 ii4 #acb ,kidd1 ,dudley1 i4 #di n4 #c1 #cej1 ii4 #baa1 #bbd n4 #d ,kildare1 fire and nuns of ,st4 ,brigit at1 ii4 #bdj sq4 ,kimbugwe1 high official in ,uganda1 i4 #aif ,king1 ,j4 ,e41 i4 #aje n4 #d ,king gives oracles1 i4 #cgg2 the ,grass1 ii4 #he sq42 the ,leaf1 #he2 the ,roman1 as ,jupiter1 #agd sqq4 ---- and ,queen at ,athens1 i4 #dd sq4 ---- of ,sacred ,rites at ,rome1 i4 #dd1 ii4 #bja2 his flight1 #cji ---- of the ,saturnalia1 ii4 #caa ---- of the ,wood at ,nemi1 i4 #a sqq41 ii4 #a2 a mate of ,diana1 i4 #dj1 #da1 ii4 #chj2 a personification of the oak-god ,jupiter1 #cgh sqq4 ,see also ,priest of ,nemi ---- ,bees 7,essenes7 at ,ephesus1 ii4 #ace sq4 ,kingdom1 mortal combat for the1 ii4 #cbb2 in ancient ,latium1 succession to1 #bff sqq4 ,kings1 priestly1 i4 #dd sqq42 titular or sacred1 in ,greece1 #dd sqq42 ,teutonic1 #dg2 magicians as1 #ccb sqq42 as rain-makers in ,africa1 #cdh1 #cej sqq42 punished for drought and dearth1 #cec sqq42 among the ,aryans1 magical powers attributed to1 #cff sqq42 divinity of1 in great historical empires1 #dae sqq42 of nature1 ii4 #a sqq42 of rain1 #b2 ,roman1 as deities in a ,sacred ,marriage1 #agb sq41 #aib1 #aic sq42 ,greek1 called ,zeus1 #agg1 #cfa2 expected to make thunder1 #ahj sq42 the ,latin1 thought to be the sons of the fire-god by mortal mothers1 #aie sqq42 perpetual fire in houses of1 #bfa sq42 ,roman1 as personifications of ,jupiter1 #bff sq42 paternity of1 a matter of indifference under female kinship1 #bgd sqq42 sometimes of a different race from their subjects1 #bhh sq42 chosen from several royal families in rotation1 #bib sqq42 fat1 #big2 handsomest men1 #big2 long-headed1 #big2 sacred or divine1 development of1 #cgf sqq4 ,see also ,latin and ,roman ,kings' ,evil 7scrofula71 touching for the1 i4 #cfh sqq4 ---- fire1 the1 ii4 #aie sqq4 ---- ,race1 the1 ii4 #hd ---- sisters1 licence accorded to1 ii4 #bgd sqq4 ,kingship1 annual1 in ancient ,greece1 i4 #df ---- contest for the1 at ,whitsuntide1 ii4 #hi ---- descent of the1 in the female line1 at ,rome1 ii4 #bgj sqq42 in ,africa1 #bgd sqq42 in ,greece1 #bgg sq42 in ,scandinavia1 #bgi sq42 in ,lydia1 #bha sq42 among the ,danes and ,saxons1 #bhb sq4 ---- evolution of the sacred1 i4 #dbj sq4 ---- nominal1 left by conquerors to indigenous race1 ii4 #bhh sq4 ---- ,roman1 abolition of the1 ii4 #bhi sqq4 ---- the old ,roman1 a religious office1 ii4 #bhi ,kingsley1 ,miss ,mary ,h41 i4 #daa n4 #a ,kintu1 ii4 #bfa ,kirghiz1 8,love ,chase0 among the1 ii4 #cja ,knocking out of teeth as initiatory ceremony in ,australia1 i4 #ig sqq4 ,knots1 tying up the wind in1 i4 #cbf ,kolkodoons1 the1 i4 #ic ,kondhs1 their belief in reincarnation1 i4 #ajd ,koniags1 the1 i4 #aba ,koryaks1 sacred fire-boards of the1 ii4 #bbe2 race for a bride among the1 #cjb ,krishna1 i4 #djf2 marriage of1 to the ,holy ,basil1 ii4 #bf ,kunama1 the1 ii4 #c ,kvasir1 i4 #bda ,kwakiutl ,indians1 their superstitions as to twins1 i4 #bfc ,lac1 taboos observed in gathering1 i4 #aae ,lacueva1 ,father1 ii4 #bje n4 ,ladder to facilitate the descent of the sun1 ii4 #ii ,laetare ,sunday1 ii4 #fc ,laibon1 i4 #cdc ,lake-dwellings of prehistoric ,europe1 ii4 #ceb sq4 ,lakes1 gods of lakes married to women1 ii4 #aej sq4 ,lakshmi1 wife of ,vishnu1 ii4 #bf ,lamas1 transmigrations of the ,grand1 i4 #daj sqq4 ,lamb of ,mycenae1 the golden1 i4 #cfe ,lamb1 blood of1 as means of inspiration1 i4 #cha ,lambing1 time of1 ii4 #cbh n4 #d ,lamps1 dedication of burning1 i4 #ab sq4 ,lane1 ,e4 ,w41 ii4 #bji n4 #d ,language1 special1 for kings and persons of blood royal1 i4 #dja ,lapis manalis at ,rome1 i4 #caj ,larch-tree1 sacred1 ii4 #bj ,lares1 the1 ii4 #bjf ,latin confederacy1 the1 in relation to sacred ,arician grove1 i4 #bb sq4 ---- kings thought to be the sons of the fire-god by mortal mothers1 ii4 #aie sqq42 lists of1 #bfh sqq42 stories of their miraculous birth1 #bgb ,latinus1 changed into ,latian ,jupiter1 ii4 #ahg2 his wife a ,vestal1 #bce ,latium1 many local ,jupiters in1 ii4 #ahd2 in antiquity1 the woods of1 #ahh2 succession to the kingdom in ancient1 #bff sqq4 ,latuka1 rain-makers among the1 i4 #cdf1 #ced ,laurel chewed as means of inspiration1 i4 #chd2 in fire-making1 ii4 #bea sq4 ,lavinium1 worship of ,vesta at1 i4 #ad ,lazy ,man1 the1 ii4 #hc ,leaf-clad mummers1 ii4 #gd sqq41 #gh sqq42 mock marriage of1 ii4 #ig ,leaf ,king1 the1 ii4 #he ---- ,man1 the ,little1 ii4 #hj sq4 ,leafy bust at ,nemi1 portrait of the ,king of the ,wood1 i4 #da sq4 ,leaping over a fire1 ii4 #cbg1 #cbi ---- and dancing to make the crops grow high1 i4 #acg sqq4 ,lemnos1 new fire brought to1 i4 #cb ,lengua ,indians1 i4 #cac1 #ccj1 #cei ,lent1 fourth ,sunday in1 ii4 #gc1 #hg ,lerons of ,borneo1 i4 #ei ,leschiy1 a woodland spirit1 ii4 #abd sq4 ,leto1 ii4 #eh ,lvi1 ,professor ,sylvain1 i4 #bbh ,lhasa1 i4 #daa sq4 ,licence accorded to slaves at the ,saturnalia1 ii4 #cab2 to female slaves at the ,nonae ,caprotinae1 #cac sq4 ,lightning1 charm against1 i4 #hb2 imitation of1 #bdh1 #cjc2 thought to be the father of twins1 #bff2 wood of tree that has been struck by1 #cai2 fire kindled by1 ii4 #bfc2 ,african deities of1 #cgj2 supposed to be produced by means of flints1 #cgd2 ,zeus1 i4 #cc1 ii4 #cfa ,lime-trees sacred1 ii4 #cff1 #cfg ,lindus in ,rhodes1 i4 #bha ,lingayats1 the1 i4 #djd ,lithuanians1 the heathen1 i4 #cag1 ii4 #df2 tree-worship among the1 #i2 sacrifice to ,pergrubius1 #cdg2 the thunder-god ,perkunas of the1 #cfe sqq42 their reverence for oaks1 #cff1 #cga ,little ,jupiter1 the1 ii4 #agi1 #aib ---- ,leaf ,man1 ii4 #hj sq4 8,living fire10 ii4 #bcg2 as a charm against witchcraft1 #ccf ,lo ,bengula1 i4 #cea1 #ceb1 #cid ,loango1 king of1 revered as a god1 i4 #cif2 fights all rivals for his crown1 ii4 #cbb ---- licence of princesses in1 ii4 #bgf sq4 ,lobo1 spirit-house1 ii4 #ci ,local totem centres1 i4 #if ,locrians1 the ,epizephyrian1 ii4 #bhd sq4 8,longevity garments10 i4 #afi ,long-headed men chosen kings1 ii4 #big ,loon1 the bird1 associated with rain1 i4 #bhh ,lord of the ,wood1 ii4 #cf2 of ,misrule1 #cai n4 #a ---- and ,lady of the ,may1 ii4 #ij sq4 ,loucheux1 the1 i4 #cef ,love1 cure for1 i4 #afa2 illicit1 thought to blight the fruits of the earth1 ii4 #ajg sqq4 ,love-charms practised on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 ii4 #cde sq4 8,love ,chase0 among the ,kirghiz1 ii4 #cja ,lovers of goddesses1 their unhappy ends1 i4 #ci sq4 ,low1 ,sir ,hugh1 ii4 #cj1 #ca ,lubare1 god1 i4 #cie ,lucian on hair offerings1 i4 #bh ,lucius1 ,e41 i4 #ac n4 #a ,luxor1 paintings at1 ii4 #aca1 #acc ,lyall1 ,sir ,a4 ,c41 i4 #bbd n4 #a ,lycaeus1 ,mount1 ii4 #cei ,lycurgus1 king of ,thrace1 i4 #cff ,lydia1 female descent of kingship in1 ii4 #bha sq4 ,mabuiag1 i4 #ei1 #bfc1 #cbc ,macdonald1 ,rev4 ,j41 i4 #aaj1 ii4 #baj sq4 8,macdonald's disease1 the10 i4 #cgj n4 #c ,mac,gregor1 ,sir ,william1 i4 #ccg 8,macleod's ,fairy ,banner10 i4 #cfh ,macrobius1 ii4 #che n4 #b ,madagascar1 ,king of1 i4 #dg sq42 foods tabooed in1 #aag sq42 custom of women in ,madagascar while men are at war1 #aca2 modes of counteracting evil omens in1 #agc sq4 ,madness1 cure of1 i4 #afa ,maeander1 the river1 supposed to take the virginity of brides1 ii4 #afb ,magian priests1 ii4 #bda n4 #d ,magic1 principles of1 i4 #eb sqq42 negative1 #aaa sqq42 public and private1 #bad sq42 benefits conferred by1 #bah sq42 its analogy to science1 #bbj sq42 attraction of1 #bba2 fatal flaw of1 #bba sq42 based on a misapplication of the association of ideas1 #bba sq42 opposed in principle to religion1 #bbd2 older than religion1 #bcc sqq42 universality of belief in1 #bcd-bcf2 transition from magic to religion1 #bcg sqq41 ii4 #cgf sq42 the fallacy of1 not easy to detect1 i4 #bdb sq4 ,magic1 ,contagious1 i4 #eb-ed1 #agd-bad2 of teeth1 #agf-ahb2 of navel-string and afterbirth 7placenta71 #ahb-bja2 ofwound and weapon1 #bja sqq42 of foot-prints1 #bjg-bab2 of other impressions1 #bac sq4 ---- ,homoeopathic or ,imitative1 i4 #eb sqq42 in medicine1 #gh sqq42 for the supply of food1 #he sqq42 in fishing and hunting1 #ajh sqq42 to make plants grow1 #acf sqq42 of the dead1 #adg sqq42 of animals1 #aej sqq42 of inanimate things1 #aeg sqq42 to annul evil omens1 #agj-agd2 for the making of rain1 #bdg sqq4 ---- ,sympathetic1 i4 #ea sqq42 the two branches of1 #ed2 examples of1 #ee sqq4 ---- and religion1 i4 #bbj-bdc1 #bej1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #cdg1 #ceb2 confused together1 #bbf sqq42 their historical antagonism comparatively late1 #bbf2 ,hegel on1 #dbc sqq4 ,magical control of rain1 i4 #bdg sqq42 of the sun1 #caa sqq42 of the wind1 #cai sqq4 ---- dramas to promote vegetation1 ii4 #abj ---- origin of certain religious dramas1 ii4 #adb sq4 ---- type of man-god1 i4 #bdd ,magician1 public1 his rise to power1 i4 #bae sqq4 ,magician's progress1 the1 i4 #bad sqq41 #cce sqq4 ,magicians claim to compel the gods1 i4 #bbe2 gods viewed as1 #bdj sqq42 importance of rise of professional magicians1 #bde sqq42 as kings1 #ccb sqq42 develop into kings1 #dbj sq4 ,see also ,medicine-men ,mahabharata1 the1 ii4 #cjf ,maharajas1 a ,hindoo sect1 i4 #djf1 ii4 #afj ,maidu ,indians1 i4 #abb1 #ceg ,maillotins1 ii4 #fc ,maimonides1 i4 #adj1 ii4 #ajj n4 #b ,maize1 continence at sowing1 ii4 #aje ,makalakas1 the1 i4 #cid ,makatisses1 the1 i4 #ga ,makrizi1 i4 #beb1 ii4 #aea n4 #b ,malay charms1 i4 #eg sq4 ---- magic1 i4 #aaj sq41 #aad sq41 #abg ---- ,peninsula1 the wild tribes of the1 i4 #cfj ---- region1 divinity of kings in1 i4 #cih ,malays1 their superstitious veneration for their rajahs1 i4 #cfa2 regalia among the1 #cfb ,maldive ,islands1 ii4 #aec1 #aed ,malecki 7,maeletius1 ,menecius71 ,j41 ii4 #cff n4 #b ,man1 ,e4 ,h41 ii4 #bec 8,man1 the ,true10 i4 #dac ---- -god1 the two types of1 i4 #bdd sq42 notion of a man-god belongs to early period of religious history1 #cgd sq4 ,mana1 supernatural or magical power in ,melanesia1 i4 #aaa n4 #b1 #bbg1 #bbh n4 #a1 #cci ,mangaia1 i4 #cgh ,mania1 a bogey1 i4 #bb ,manii at ,aricia1 i4 #bb ,manius ,egerius1 i4 #bb ,manna1 ceremony for the magical multiplication of1 i4 #hh sq4 ,mannhardt1 ,w41 i4 #adj n4 #f1 ii4 #dg1 #gh sq41 #hd1 #hg ,mantras1 sacred texts1 i4 #djc sq4 ,manu1 the ,laws of1 i4 #cff1 #djb ,maoris1 the1 i4 #ga2 magic of navel-string and afterbirth among the1 #ahb sq42 their belief as to fertilising virtue of trees1 ii4 #ef ,maraves1 the1 i4 #cic1 ii4 #ca ,marcellus of ,bordeaux1 i4 #hd ,marduk1 chief ,babylonian god1 as a magician1 i4 #bdj sq42 his wives1 ii4 #acj ,marett1 ,r4 ,r41 i4 #aaa n4 #b ,marigolds1 magic of1 i4 #baa ,marquesas or ,washington ,islands1 human gods in the1 i4 #chf sq4 ,marriage to trees1 i4 #dj sq41 ii4 #eg2 of trees to each other1 #bd sqq42 mock1 of leaf-clad mummers1 #ig2 the ,sacred1 #aba sqq42 of the gods1 #abi sqq42 bath before1 #afb ,marsh-marigolds1 a protection against witches1 ii4 #ed2 on ,may ,day1 #fc ,martius1 ,c4 ,f4 ,phil4 von1 i4 #cei ,martyrdom of ,st4 ,hippolytus1 i4 #ba ,masai1 power of medicine-men among the1 i4 #cdc sq4 ,mashona1 the1 i4 #cic ,maskers1 representing the dead1 ii4 #agh ,maspro1 ,sir ,gaston1 i4 #bcj1 ii4 #acc sq4 8,mass of the ,holy ,spirit10 i4 #bca sq4 ,mass of ,saint ,scaire1 i4 #bcb sq4 ,master1 the ,heavenly1 i4 #dac ---- of ,sorrows1 i4 #bhj ,matabeles1 king of the1 i4 #dh2 as rain-maker1 #cea sq4 ---- magical effigies among the1 i4 #fc ,maternal uncle preferred to father1 mark of mother-kin1 ii4 #bhe ,maurer1 ,k41 ii4 #bhj n4 #a ,mauss and ,hubert1 ,messrs41 i4 #aaa n4 #b ,may ,bride1 the1 ii4 #ie1 #if ,may bridegroom1 ii4 #ia1 #ic ---- -bush1 ii4 #hd1 #he1 #hi1 #ij1 #adb ---- ,day1 celebration of1 ii4 #ei sqq42 licence of1 #fg1 #ajc sq4 ---- ,fools1 ii4 #ia ---- garlands1 ii4 #fj sqq41 #ij sq4 ---- ,king1 ii4 #he sq4 ---- ,lady1 the1 ii4 #fb ---- -poles1 ii4 #ei1 #fe sqq4 ---- ,queen1 ii4 #hd1 #hg sq4 ---- ,rose1 the ,little1 ii4 #gd ---- -trees1 ii4 #ei sq41 #fd1 #fh sq42 or may-poles1 fertilising virtue of1 #eb ,mayos or ,mayes1 ii4 #hj ,medicine-men 7magicians1 sorcerers71 power of1 among ,african tribes1 i4 #cdb sqq42 power of1 among the ,american ,indians1 #cee sqq42 progressive differentiation of1 #dbj sq42 develop into kings1 #dbj sq42 the oldest professional class1 #dbj4 ,see also ,magicians ,melampus and ,iphiclus1 i4 #aeh ,melanesia1 homoeopathic magic of stones in1 i4 #afd2 supernatural power of chiefs in1 #cch sqq4 ,merker1 ,captain ,m41 i4 #cdc ,merlin1 i4 #cjf ,messiah1 pretended1 i4 #dji ,metsik1 a forest spirit1 ii4 #ee ,mexican kings1 their oath1 i4 #cef ,mexicans1 human sacrifices of the ancient1 i4 #cad sq4 ,micah1 quoted1 i4 #bbc ,mice and rats1 teeth of1 in magic1 i4 #agh sqq4 ,midsummer1 new fire made at1 ii4 #bdb2 festival of1 #bgb sq4 ---- bonfires1 ii4 #fe1 #ada ---- ,bride1 ii4 #ib ---- customs1 ii4 #abg2 in ,sweden1 ii4 #fe ---- ,eve1 a witching time1 ii4 #abg ,mikado1 the1 an incarnation of the sun goddess1 i4 #dag ,miklucho-,maclay1 ,baron von1 ii4 #bec sq4 ,milk1 witches steal milk on ,walpurgis ,night or ,may ,day1 ii4 #eb sqq42 witches steal milk on ,midsummer ,eve1 #abg2 witches steal milk on ,eve of ,st4 ,george1 #ccd sqq2 not given away on ,st4 ,george's ,eve1 #cci ---- -pails wreathed with flowers1 ii4 #cch1 #cci ---- -stones1 i4 #afe ,milkmen of the ,todas sacred or divine1 i4 #djb sq4 ,milton on chastity1 ii4 #aah n4 #a ,minangkabauers of ,sumatra1 i4 #eh1 #adj ,miris of ,assam1 the1 ii4 #ci ,mirror or burning-glass1 fire made by means of1 ii4 #bdc1 #bde n4 ,mistletoe venerated by the ,druids1 ii4 #ceh1 #cfb ,moab1 ,arabs of1 i4 #bgf ,mock sun1 i4 #cad ,moffat1 ,dr4 ,r41 i4 #cea ,mohammed1 on the fig1 ii4 #caf ,mommsen1 ,th41 i4 #bc n4 #c1 ii4 #agd n4 #a1 #age n4 #a1 #bif ,monarchy in ancient ,greece and ,rome1 tradition of its abolition1 i4 #df2 rise of1 #baf sqq42 essential to emergence of mankind from savagery1 #bag2 hereditary and elective1 combination of the two1 ii4 #bib sqq4 ,money1 old ,italian1 i4 #bc ,montanus1 the ,phrygian1 i4 #djg ,montezuma1 i4 #daf ,moon1 singing to the1 i4 #abe2 charm to hasten the1 #cai2 in relation to child-birth1 ii4 #abh2 woman chosen to represent the1 #adf ,morbus regius1 jaundice1 i4 #cga n4 #d ,morgan1 ,professor ,m4 ,h41 ii4 #bjg n4 #a 8,mother of ,kings10 ii4 #bgg ---- of the ,gods1 i4 #ba ---- of the ,rain1 i4 #bgf ,mother-kin1 ii4 #bga2 in succession to ,roman kingship1 #bga2 among the ,aryans1 #bhc sqq42 superiority of maternal uncle to father under mother-kin1 #bhe4 ,see also ,female ,kinship ,mother's brother preferred to father1 mark of mother-kin1 ii4 #bhe ,motu1 the1 i4 #cag1 ii4 #ajf ,motumotu1 the1 i4 #cag1 #cbg1 #ccg2 or ,toaripi1 the1 in ,new ,guinea1 #abe ,moulton1 ,professor ,j4 ,h41 ii4 #ahb n4 #b1 #ahi n4 #c1 #bdg n4 #e ,moxos ,indians1 i4 #abc ,muata ,jamwo1 the1 ii4 #bfb ,mukasa1 god of the ,baganda1 ii4 #aej ,mller1 ,max1 i4 #ccc sq4 ,mulongo1 8twin10 name applied by the ,baganda to the navel-string1 i4 #aie1 #aif ,mummers dressed in leaves1 branches1 and flowers1 ii4 #gd sqq41 #gh sqq4 ,mundaris1 the1 ii4 #ci1 #df ,mundas1 the1 ii4 #eg ,munro1 ,dr4 ,r41 ii4 #ceb ,mura-muras1 i4 #bee sq4 ,mycenae1 golden lamb of1 i4 #cfe ,mysteries of ,eleusis1 ii4 #ach sq4 ,mytilene1 kings at1 i4 #de ,nabataeans1 ,agriculture of the1 ii4 #ajj ,nabu1 marriage of the god1 ii4 #acj ,nahak1 rubbish used in magic1 i4 #cda ,nails knocked into trees1 ii4 #cf1 #db2 a charm against witchcraft1 #cci sq4 ---- pegs1 or pins knocked into images1 i4 #fa1 #fd1 #fe1 #fh1 #fi ,nails1 parings of1 used in magic1 i4 #eg1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff ,names of kings changed to procure rain1 i4 #cee ,nandi1 power of medicine-men among the1 i4 #cdd ,nanja spots or local totem centres1 i4 #if1 #ig ,nat1 spirit1 ii4 #df ,natchez1 the1 i4 #bdi2 their perpetual fires1 ii4 #bfb sq4 8,nativity of the sun's walking-stick10 i4 #cab ,navarre1 rain-making in1 i4 #cjg sq4 ,navel-string1 contagious magic of1 i4 #ahb-bja2 regarded as brother or sister of child1 #ahf1 #ahi2 called the 8twin10 #aie2 seat of external soul1 #bjj sq4 ,navel-strings hung on trees1 ii4 #ef ,negative magic or taboo1 i4 #aaa sqq4 ,nemi1 the lake of1 i4 #a sqq42 sanctuary of ,diana at1 #b sqq42 the priest of1 #h sqq41 #dj1 #da1 ii4 #cgf1 #chf1 #chg ,neoptolemus1 ii4 #bgh ,nerthus1 procession of1 ii4 #add n4 #a ,nets1 marriage of girls to1 ii4 #adg ,new birth1 simulation of1 i4 #chj sq4 ---- -born children brought to the hearth1 ii4 #bcb ---- ,caledonia1 i4 #gh2 homoeopathic magic of stones in1 #afb sqq4 ---- ,caledonians1 the1 i4 #cab1 #cac1 #cad ---- fire1 ii4 #bcg2 made at ,midsummer1 #bdc2 made at beginning of a king's reign1 #bfb1 #bfg ---- ,guinea1 influence of magicians in1 i4 #ccg sq4 ---- ,year festival1 i4 #bea ,ngai1 god1 ii4 #dd1 #aej ,nias1 i4 #aji1 #adc ,nicholson1 ,general1 worshipped1 i4 #djd ,niebuhr1 ,b4 ,g41 ii4 #bfi ,nightingale in magic1 i4 #aed ,nile1 the ,upper1 rain-makers on the1 i4 #cde sqq42 the bride of the1 ii4 #aea ,nine animals sacrificed daily at a festival1 ii4 #cfe ---- years' festival at ,upsala1 ii4 #cfd sq4 ,noah's ark1 i4 #ccd ,nonae ,caprotinae1 ii4 #cad ,nootkas1 superstitions as to twins among the1 i4 #bfc sq4 ,norse trinities1 ii4 #cfd ,noses bored1 i4 #id ,numa1 his birthday1 ii4 #bgc2 a priestly king1 #bhi ---- and ,egeria1 i4 #ah1 ii4 #agb sq41 #aic1 #chj ,numa's birthday1 ii4 #cbe1 #cdh2 8,numa's crockery10 ii4 #bjb ,numbering the herds on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 ii4 #cch ,numicius1 the river1 ii4 #aha ,nuns of ,st4 ,brigit1 ii4 #bdj sq4 ,nurin1 i4 #bge1 #bgf ,nusku1 ,babylonian fire-god1 i4 #fg ,nyanza1 ,lake1 god of1 i4 #cie ,oak1 its diffusion in ,europe1 ii4 #cdi sqq42 worship of the1 #cdi sqq42 oracular1 at ,dodona1 #ceh2 worshipped in modern ,europe1 #cgj sqq4 ---- and thunder1 the ,aryan god of the1 ii4 #cef sqq42 sky1 rain1 and thunder1 god of the1 #cdi sq4 ---- evergreen1 in making fire1 ii4 #bea2 the ,golden ,bough grew on an1 #cgi ---- branch in rain charm1 i4 #cji ---- -god married to the oak-goddess1 ii4 #adb2 and oak-goddess1 marriage of1 #ahi2 how he became a god of lightning1 thunder1 and rain1 #cgb sqq4 ---- groves in ancient ,ireland1 ii4 #bdb sq4 ---- leaves1 crown of1 ii4 #age1 #agf sq41 #ahd ---- -nymphs at ,rome1 ii4 #agb1 #ahe ---- -tree guarded by the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi1 i4 #db ---- -trees1 sacrifices to1 ii4 #cff ---- -wood1 ,vesta's fire at ,rome fed with1 ii4 #ahf2 perpetual fire of1 #cfe1 #cff2 ceremonial fires kindled by the friction of1 #cgb ---- -woods on the site of ancient ,rome1 ii4 #ahd sqq4 ---- -worship of the ,druids1 ii4 #i ,oaken image dressed as a bride1 ii4 #adj sq4 ,oaks at ,troezen1 i4 #bf2 of ,ireland1 ii4 #cfc2 sacred among the old ,prussians1 #dc ,oaths on stones1 i4 #afj sq4 ,ocrisia1 ii4 #aie ,octopus in magic1 i4 #aef ,odin as a magician1 i4 #bda sq42 the ,norse god of war1 ii4 #cfd ,oedipus1 ii4 #aae ,oenomaus1 ii4 #cjj ,oesel1 island of1 i4 #cbi ,offspring1 charms to procure1 i4 #gj sqq4 ,ojebways1 magical images among the1 i4 #ee ,olaf1 ,king1 i4 #cfg ,old men1 government by1 in aboriginal ,australia1 i4 #ccd sq4 ,oldenberg1 ,professor ,h41 i4 #bbe n41 #bbh1 #bce n4 #a1 #bfi1 #bgj ,olives planted and gathered by pure boys and virgins1 ii4 #ajg ,olympia1 races for the kingdom at1 ii4 #bii sq4 ,omahas1 the1 i4 #bdi1 #cbj ,omens1 homoeopathic magic to annul evil omens1 i4 #agj-agd ,omphale and ,hercules1 ii4 #bha ,omumborombonga 7,combretum primigenum71 the sacred tree of the ,herero1 ii4 #bac sq41 #bah1 #bai sq41 #bcc ,omuwapu tree 7,grevia spec471 ii4 #bai ,opprobrious language levelled at goddess to please her1 i4 #bhj ,oracles given by king1 i4 #cgg ,oraons1 marriage of ,sun and ,earth among the1 ii4 #adh2 spring festival of the1 #gf sq4 ,oracular spring at ,dodona1 ii4 #agb ,ordeal of battle among the ,umbrians1 ii4 #cba ,orestes at ,nemi1 i4 #aj sq41 #ba n4 #b1 #bd2 at ,troezen1 #bf2 cured of his madness1 #afa ,orgies1 sexual1 as fertility charms1 ii4 #ih sqq4 ,orontes1 the river1 ii4 #afj ,osiris threatened by magicians1 i4 #bbe ,ostyaks1 tree-worship among the1 ii4 #aa ,ovambo1 the1 i4 #fc1 #bji1 ii4 #df ,ovid1 ii4 #agf1 #agg1 #aia2 on ,nemi1 i4 #d1 #ag ,pacific1 human gods in the1 i4 #chf sqq4 ,padstow1 custom of the ,hobby ,horse at1 ii4 #fh ,pages1 medicine-men1 i4 #ceh ,paint-house1 the1 ii4 #aaa ,paintings1 prehistoric1 of animals in caves1 i4 #hg n4 #a ,pais1 ,e41 i4 #bc n4 ,pales1 ii4 #cbf1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #cdh ,pallades1 female consorts of ,ammon1 ii4 #ace ,palladius1 ii4 #cad ,pallene1 daughter of ,sithon1 ii4 #cjg ,palm-tree1 ceremony of tapping it for wine1 ii4 #ajj sq4 ,see also ,date-palm ,panamara in ,caria1 i4 #bi ,paparuda1 i4 #bgc ,parasitic plants1 superstitions as to1 ii4 #bej1 #bea sq4 ,parilia1 the1 ii4 #abc1 #bbi1 #bgc2 a shepherds' festival1 #cbe sqq4 ,parjanya1 the ancient ,hindoo god of thunder and rain1 i4 #bgj1 ii4 #cfh sq4 ,parkinson1 ,r41 i4 #age ,parricide1 ,roman punishment of1 ii4 #aaj n4 #b ,parsees1 the1 ii4 #bda ,partheniai1 i4 #cf n4 #b ,parthenos as applied to ,artemis1 i4 #cf ,parthian monarchs brothers of the ,sun1 i4 #dag sq4 ,partridge1 ,c41 ii4 #cid n4 #b ,patara1 ,apollo at1 ii4 #ace ,paternity1 uncertainty of1 a ground for a theological distinction1 ii4 #ace2 of kings a matter of indifference under female kinship1 #bgd sqq41 #bhb ,patriarchal family at ,rome1 ii4 #bhc ,paulicians1 the1 i4 #djg ,payaguas1 the1 i4 #ccj ,payne1 ,e4 ,j41 i4 #dae n4 #b ,pear-tree as protector of cattle1 ii4 #ee ,peat-bogs of ,europe1 ii4 #cej sqq4 ,peking ,gazette1 i4 #cee ,peleus1 ii4 #bgh ,pelew ,islands1 human gods in1 i4 #chi ,pelopidae1 the1 ii4 #bgi ,pelops1 ii4 #bgi ---- and ,hippodamia1 ii4 #bii sq4 ,penates1 the1 ii4 #bje sq4 ,pennefather ,river in ,queensland1 i4 #ii1 #ajj ,peoples said to be ignorant of the art of kindling fire1 ii4 #bec sqq4 ,peperuga1 i4 #bgd ,pepys1 ,s41 i4 #cfi1 ii4 #eb1 #ccc ,pergrubius1 a ,lithuanian god of the spring1 ii4 #cdg sq4 ,periphas1 king of ,athens1 ii4 #agg ,perkunas or ,perkuns1 the ,lithuanian god of thunder and lightning1 ii4 #cfe sqq42 derivation of his name1 #cfg n4 #c ,perperia1 i4 #bgc ,perpetual fires1 origin of1 ii4 #bec sqq42 associated with royal dignity1 ii4 #bfa sqq4 ,perseus and ,andromeda1 ii4 #afc ,peru1 ,indians of1 i4 #bfe1 ii4 #adf2 the ,incas of1 #bdc sq4 ,perun1 the thunder-god of the ,slavs1 ii4 #cfe ,peruvian ,indians1 i4 #ef ---- ,vestals1 ii4 #bdc sqq4 ,pessinus1 i4 #dg ,peter of ,dusburg1 ii4 #cff n4 #b ,phaedra and ,hippolytus1 i4 #be ,pheneus1 lake of1 ii4 #h ,phigalia1 i4 #ca ,philostratus1 i4 #afg ,phosphorescence of the sea1 superstitions as to the1 ii4 #aed sq4 ,picts1 female descent of kingship among the1 ii4 #bhj sq41 #bhf ,piers1 ,sir ,henry1 ii4 #ei ,pig1 blood of1 drunk as a means of inspiration1 i4 #chb2 in purificatory rites1 ii4 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji2 expiatory sacrifice of1 #abb ,pigeon used in a love-charm1 ii4 #cde sq4 ,pile-villages in the valley of the ,po1 ii4 #h2 of ,europe1 #ceb sq4 ,pipal-tree 7ficus religiosa71 ii4 #dc ,pipiles1 the1 of ,central ,america1 ii4 #ih ,pity of rain-gods1 appeal to1 i4 #cjb sq4 ,placenta 7afterbirth7 and navel-string1 contagious magic of1 i4 #ahb-bja ,plantain-trees1 navel-strings of ,baganda buried at foot of1 i4 #aie ,plants1 homoeopathic magic to make plants grow1 i4 #acf sqq42 influenced homoeopathically by a person's act or state1 #aci sqq42 influence persons homoeopathically1 #add sqq42 sexes of1 ii4 #bd2 marriage of1 #bf sqq4 ,plataea1 festival of the ,daedala at1 ii4 #adj sq4 ,plato1 i4 #de1 #ajd ,plebeians1 the ,roman kings1 ii4 #bhi ,pleiades1 rising of the1 i4 #cb ,pliny the ,elder1 i4 #di2 on sacredness of woods1 ii4 #abc2 the ,younger1 i4 #f ,ploughing by women as a rain-charm1 i4 #bhb sq4 ,plover in connexion with rain1 i4 #bei1 #bfa ,plutarch1 i4 #bh1 #hj1 ii4 #agb1 #aif1 #cbj n4 #c1 #cbe n4 #c2 on ,numa and ,egeria1 i4 #ah ,pole-star1 homoeopathic magic of the1 i4 #aff ,political evolution from democracy to despotism1 i4 #dba ,polybius1 ii4 #ced ,polydorus1 ii4 #ca ,poplar1 the white1 at ,olympia1 a substitute for the oak1 ii4 #bbj ,porphyry1 i4 #cij1 ii4 #ab ,porta ,capena at ,rome1 i4 #ah ,porta ,querquetulana1 ii4 #ahe n4 #c ,poso in ,celebes1 i4 #cgi1 ii4 #bi ,potrimpo1 old ,prussian god1 ii4 #bdh ,pottery1 primitive1 employed in ,roman ritual1 ii4 #bjb sqq42 superstitions as to the making of1 #bjd sq4 ,pramantha1 ii4 #bdi ,prayers for rain1 ii4 #cei1 #cfb2 to ,thunder1 #cfg sq42 to an oak1 #cgb ,precautions against witches1 ii4 #eb sqq4 ,precious stones1 homoeopathic magic of1 i4 #afd sq4 ,pregnancy1 ceremony in seventh month of1 i4 #gb sq4 ,pregnant cows sacrificed to the ,earth goddess1 ii4 #bbi2 victims sacrificed to ensure fertility1 i4 #ada2 women employed to fertilise crops and fruit-trees1 i4 #adj sq4 ,pretenders to divinity among ,christians1 i4 #djg sqq4 ,priest drenched with water as a rain-charm1 ii4 #gg2 rolled on fields as fertility charm1 #ajc2 of ,diana at ,nemi1 i4 #h sqq4 ---- of ,nemi1 i4 #h sqq41 #dj1 #da1 ii4 #cgf1 #chf1 #chg4 ,see also ,king of the ,wood ,priestesses1 inspired1 i4 #cgi sq41 #cha sq4 ,priestly kings1 i4 #dd sqq4 ,priests1 magical powers attributed to priests by ,french peasants1 i4 #bca-bcc2 inspired1 #cgg sqq4 ,princesses married to foreigners or men of low birth1 ii4 #bgd sqq4 ,private magic1 i4 #bad sq4 ,procopius1 ii4 #cfe ,procreative virtue attributed to fire1 ii4 #bcc ,proculus ,julius1 ii4 #ahb ,progress1 intellectual1 dependent on economic progress1 i4 #bah2 social1 #dba ,promathion's ,history of ,italy1 ii4 #aif1 #aig ,prometheus1 ii4 #bfj ,prophetic powers conferred by certain springs1 ii4 #agb ,prophets1 the ,hebrew1 their ethical religion1 i4 #bbc ,propitiation essential to religion1 i4 #bbb ,prostitution before marriage1 practice of1 ii4 #bhb1 #bhe1 #bhg ,prothero1 ,g4 ,w41 ii4 #ga n4 #a ,provence1 magical powers attributed to priests in1 i4 #bcb ,prpats1 i4 #bgd ,prunus ,padus1 ,l41 ii4 #cdd ,prussians1 the old1 their worship of trees1 ii4 #dc ,prytaneum1 fire in the1 ii4 #bfj ,psylli1 the1 i4 #cca ,public magic1 i4 #bae ,purification by fire1 ii4 #cbg1 #cbi ,purificatory rites for sexual crimes1 ii4 #ajg sqq41 #aae1 #aaf ,pururavas and ,urvasi1 ii4 #bej ,pythagoras1 maxims of1 i4 #baa1 #bac sq4 ,pythaists at ,athens1 i4 #cc ,python1 sacred1 ii4 #aej ,quack1 the1 ii4 #ha ,quartz-crystals used in rain-making1 i4 #bed1 #bee1 #cjd ,queen of ,egypt married to the god ,ammon1 ii4 #aca sqq42 of ,athens married to ,dionysus1 #acf sq42 of ,may1 ii4 #hd1 #hg sq42 ,charlotte ,islands1 i4 #gj2 sister in ,uganda1 licence accorded to the ii4 #bge sq4 ,queensland1 rain-making in1 i4 #bed sq4 ,querquetulani1 ,men of the ,oak1 ii4 #ahh ,quirinal hill1 the1 ii4 #ahb1 #ahe ,quirinus1 ii4 #ahb1 #ahe1 #aic n4 #a ,quiteve1 the1 i4 #cib ,quivering of the body in a rain-charm1 i4 #bfj1 #cfa ,ra1 the ,egyptian sun-god1 i4 #dah1 #dai ,race1 the ,king's1 ii4 #hd2 succession to kingdom determined by a1 #bii sqq42 for a bride1 #cja sqq4 ,races at ,whitsuntide1 ii4 #fi1 #hd ,raccoons in rain-charm1 i4 #bhh ,rain1 extraction of teeth in connexion with1 i4 #ih sq42 the magical control of1 #bdg sqq42 made by homoeopathic or imitative magic1 #bdg sqq42 ,mother of the1 #bgf2 supposed to fall only as a result of magic1 #cec2 excessive1 supposed to be an effect of sexual crime1 ii4 #ajh1 #aac2 ,zeus as the god of1 #cei sq4 ,rain-bird1 i4 #bhg 8,rain-bush10 ii4 #df ---- -charm by ploughing1 i4 #bhb sq4 ---- ,country1 i4 #bei ---- -doctor1 i4 #bga ---- -god as dragon1 i4 #big ---- -gods compelled to give rain by threats and violence1 i4 #bif sqq42 appeal to the pity of the1 #cjb sq4 ,rain ,king1 i4 #bge1 ii4 #b ---- -maker among the ,arunta1 costume of the1 i4 #bfj2 assimilates himself to water1 #bfi sqq4 ---- makers1 their importance in savage communities1 i4 #bdg2 in ,africa1 their rise to political power1 #cdb sqq41 #ceb2 on the ,upper ,nile1 #cde sqq42 unsuccessful1 punished or killed1 #cde1 #ceb sqq4 ---- -making by means of the dead1 i4 #bhd sqq42 by means of animals1 #bhg sqq42 by means of stones1 #cjd sqq4 8,rain-stick10 i4 #bed 8,rain-stones10 i4 #bed1 #cje1 #cde1 #cdf ---- -temple1 i4 #bej ---- totem1 i4 #beh ,rainbow in rain-charm1 picture of1 i4 #beh ,rajahs among the ,malays1 supernatural powers attributed to1 i4 #cfa ,ramsay1 ,sir ,w4 ,m41 i4 #cf n4 #b ,rats and mice1 teeth of1 in magic1 i4 #agh sqq4 ,raven in wind-charm1 i4 #cbj ,raven's eggs in magic1 i4 #aed ,ray1 ,s4 ,h41 ii4 #bjh n4 #c ,red colour in magic1 i4 #gi1 #ha1 #hc ---- ,karens of ,burma1 ii4 #fi ---- woollen threads1 a charm against witchcraft1 ii4 #ccf ,reddening the faces of gods1 custom of1 ii4 #age sq4 ,regalia of ,malay kings1 i4 #cfb sq42 supernatural powers of1 #cih ,regia1 the king's palace at ,rome1 ii4 #bja ,regifugium at ,rome1 ii4 #bij2 perhaps a relic of a contest for the kingdom1 #cjh sqq4 ,regillus1 battle of ,lake1 i4 #ej ,reinach1 ,salomon1 i4 #bg n4 #f1 #hg n4 #a1 ii4 #bcb n4 #b1 #bda n4 #a ,reincarnation1 belief of the aboriginal ,australians in1 i4 #if1 #ii sq42 certain funeral rites perhaps intended to ensure1 #aja sqq4 ,religion defined1 i4 #bbb2 two elements of1 a theoretical and a practical1 #bbb sq42 opposed in principle to science1 #bbd2 transition from magic to1 #bcg sqq41 ii4 #cgf sq4 ---- and magic1 i4 #bbj-bdc1 #bej1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #cdg2 ,hegel on1 #dbc sqq4 ,religious dramas sometimes originate in magical rites1 ii4 #adb sq4 ,remulus1 ii4 #ahj ,renan1 ,e41 i4 #bcf n4 #a ,renouf1 ,sir ,p4 le ,p41 i4 #dah ,rex ,nemorensis1 i4 #aa ,rhetra1 i4 #chc ,rheumatism caused by magic1 i4 #bjg sq41 #bac ,rhodians worship the sun1 i4 #cae ,rhys1 ,sir ,john1 i4 #ag n4 #b1 ii4 #cfc n4 #d ,ribald songs in rain-charm1 i4 #bfg ,rice1 charm to make rice grow1 i4 #adj2 in bloom treated like pregnant woman1 ii4 #bh sq42 chastity at sowing1 #ajf ,ridgeway1 ,professor ,w41 ii4 #ajc ,rig ,veda1 i4 #bid2 quoted1 ii4 #cfh sq4 8,ringing out the grass10 ii4 #cdd ,rivers as lovers of women in ,greek mythology1 ii4 #afa sq4 ,rivers1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,r41 i4 #bcj n41 #djc n4 #a1 #dba n4 #a ,rivos1 harvest-god of ,celts in ,gaul1 i4 #ag ,rivros1 a ,celtic month1 i4 #ag n4 #b ,robertson1 ,sir ,george ,scott1 i4 #acc ,rock-crystals in rain-charms1 i4 #cde ,rogations1 ,monday of1 ii4 #aff ,rolling on the fields as a fertility charm1 ii4 #ajc2 at harvest1 ii4 #ajd ---- cakes on the ground for omens1 ii4 #cch ,roman fire-customs compared to those of the ,herero1 ii4 #bbg sqq4 ---- kings as deities in a ,sacred ,marriage1 ii4 #agb sq41 #aib1 #aic sq42 as personifications of ,jupiter1 #bff sq42 list of1 #bfi sq42 rule of succession among1 #bgj sq42 plebeians1 not patricians1 #bhi2 how nominated1 #bie sq42 their mysterious or violent ends1 #cab sqq42 their obscure birth1 #cab sq4 ---- kingship1 descent of1 in the female line1 ii4 #bgj sq42 abolition of the1 #bhi sqq42 a religious office1 #bhi ---- punishment of parricide1 #aaj n4 #b ,rome1 the kings of1 ii4 #aga sqq42 oak woods on the site of ancient1 #ahd sqq4 ,romove1 ,romow1 or ,romowo1 ii4 #cff n4 #b ,romulus1 fig-tree of1 ii4 #aj1 #cah2 legend of his birth from the fire1 #aif2 hut of1 #bjj2 death of1 #aha sq41 #cac ,roscher1 ,w4 ,h41 ii4 #acg n4 #a1 #chc n4 #c ,roscoe1 ,rev4 ,j41 ii4 #bgf n4 #b1 #cah n4 #a1 #cbb n4 #b ,rose1 the ,little ,may1 ii4 #gd ,rostowski1 ,s41 ii4 #cff n4 #b4 ,rouen1 ,st4 ,romain at1 ii4 #afd sqq4 ,roumania1 rain-making ceremonies in1 i4 #bgc sq4 ,round huts of the ancient ,latins1 ii4 #bjj sqq4 ,rouse1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,d41 i4 #ae n4 #c1 ii4 #hb ,rowan or mountain-ash used as a charm1 ii4 #cca ---- tree1 a protection against witches1 ii4 #ec1 #ed ,royalty conservative of old customs1 ii4 #bhh ,rukmini1 wife of ,krishna1 ii4 #bf ,runaway slave1 charm to bring back a1 i4 #cag ,runes1 the magic1 i4 #bda ,russia1 ,st4 ,george's ,day in1 ii4 #ccb sqq4 ,russian celebration of ,whitsuntide1 ii4 #fd1 #ic ---- sect of the ,christs1 i4 #djg sq4 ,sacred beasts in ,egypt1 i4 #bi sq4 ---- groves in ancient ,greece and ,rome1 ii4 #aba sqq4 ---- ,marriage1 the1 ii4 #abj sqq4 ---- men1 i4 #chf ---- sticks representing ancestors1 ii4 #bbb sqq4 ---- women1 i4 #cia ,sacrifices offered to regalia1 i4 #cfc1 #cfe2 to trees1 #cff ,sacrificial ,king at ,rome1 i4 #dd ,st4 ,anthony's fire treated by homoeopathic magic1 i4 #ha sq4 ---- ,bride in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 ii4 #id ---- ,bridget1 ii4 #id sq41 #bdb4 ,see ,st4 ,brigit ---- ,brigit1 holy fire and nuns of1 at ,kildare1 ii4 #bdj sqq4 ---- ,columba1 i4 #djg1 ii4 #bdb sq4 ---- ,dasius1 ii4 #caj n4 #a ---- ,eany's ,well1 ii4 #afa ---- ,fillan1 well of1 ii4 #afa ---- ,francis of ,paola1 i4 #cjj ---- ,george and the ,dragon1 ii4 #afc sq42 and the ,parilia1 #cbd sqq42 patron saint of cattle1 horses1 and wolves1 #ccj1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cch2 chapel of1 #ccg2 as a spirit of trees or vegetation1 #cdc sq42 as giver of offspring to women1 #cdd sqq42 in relation to serpents1 #cdd n4 #d2 in ,syria1 #cdf ---- ,george's ,day 7#bcrd ,april71 ii4 #ef1 #ge1 #gi1 #ajc1 #afd n4 #a1 #ccj sqq42 eve of1 a time when witches steal milk from the cows1 #ccd sqq4 ---- ,gervais1 spring of1 i4 #cjg ---- ,hippolytus1 i4 #ba ---- ,james1 i4 #bff2 quoted1 #bbc1 #bbd ,st4 ,john1 ,eve of1 in ,sweden1 ii4 #fe2 ,sweethearts of1 #ib ---- ,john the ,baptist1 day of1 i4 #cgg2 his ,midsummer festival1 ii4 #bgc ---- ,leonhard1 i4 #g sq4 ---- ,mary1 ,wells of1 ii4 #afa2 in ,araceli1 #ahd ---- ,ouen1 ii4 #afe1 #afh ---- ,paul1 i4 #djg ---- ,peter1 as giver of rain1 i4 #cjg ---- ,peter's ,day 7#bith ,june71 ii4 #ada ---- ,romain and the dragon of ,rouen1 ii4 #afd sqq42 the shrine 7fierte7 of1 #afg1 #afh1 #agj n4 #a ---- ,scaire1 ,mass of1 i4 #bcb sq4 ,saints1 violence done to images of saints in ,sicily to procure rain1 i4 #cjj2 images of saints dipped in water as a rain-charm1 #cjg sq4 ,sakai1 the1 i4 #cfj ,sakkalava1 the1 i4 #cig akvar song1 i4 #bfi sq4 ,sl trees1 ii4 #da2 and flowers1 #gf sq4 ,salagrama1 fossil ammonite1 ii4 #bf1 #bg n4 #b ,salic law1 re-marriage of widow under1 ii4 #bhe ,salmon1 twins thought to be1 i4 #bfc ,salmoneus1 ,king of ,elis1 i4 #caj1 ii4 #agg1 #aha ,salt1 abstinence from1 i4 #abd1 #bff1 ii4 #ih1 #aje1 #adi2 as a charm1 #cca ,samagitians1 the1 ii4 #abe2 their sacred groves1 #dc ,sami wood 7,prosopis spicigera71 ii4 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bej n4 ,samnites1 marriage custom of the1 ii4 #cje ,samoa1 gods of1 in animal and human form1 i4 #chi ,sandwich ,islands1 ,king of1 i4 #cgg4 ,see also ,hawaii ,santiago1 the horse of1 i4 #bfg ,sarah and ,abraham1 ii4 #aad ,sardinia1 ,midsummer customs in1 ii4 #ib ,satapatha-,brhmana1 i4 #chj ,saturn personified at the ,saturnalia1 ii4 #caj sq4 ---- and ,jupiter1 ii4 #cbc ,saturnalia1 ii4 #bgb2 as a fertility rite1 #ii2 how celebrated by ,roman soldiers on the ,danube1 #caj2 ,saturn personified at the1 #caj sq42 ,king of the1 #caa2 the festival of sowing1 #caa sq4 ,savile1 ,lord1 his excavations at ,nemi1 i4 #c n4 #b ,saxo ,grammaticus1 i4 #afj1 ii4 #bhj ,saxons1 marriage with a stepmother among the1 ii4 #bhc2 of ,transylvania1 #ccg ,scaloi1 i4 #bgd ,scamander1 the river1 supposed to take the virginity of brides1 ii4 #afb ,scandinavia1 female descent of the kingship in1 ii4 #bgi sq4 ,sceptre of ,agamemnon1 i4 #cfe ,schinz1 ,dr4 ,h41 ii4 #bac n4 #b1 #bah ,scotland1 magical images in1 i4 #fh-gj ,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 i4 #cbf ,scratching the person with the fingers forbidden1 i4 #bed ,scrofula1 kings thought to heal scrofula by their touch1 i4 #cfh sqq4 ,scythian kings1 their regalia1 i4 #cfe ,scythians put their kings in bonds1 i4 #ced ,sea1 virgins married to the jinnee of the1 ii4 #aec sq42 phosphorescence of the1 #aed sq4 ,seasons1 ,athenian sacrifices to the1 i4 #caj ,secret societies1 i4 #cdj ,semiramis1 ii4 #bge ,sena1 island of1 ii4 #bda n4 #a ,seneca1 on sacred groves1 ii4 #abc ,serpent1 dried1 in ceremony for stopping rain1 i4 #bie sq42 or dragon of water1 #aee sqq4 ,serpents in relation to ,st4 ,george1 ii4 #cdd n4 #d ,servia1 rain-making ceremony in1 i4 #bgc ,servius on ,virbius1 i4 #bj sq41 #dj ---- ,tullius1 laws of1 ii4 #aae1 #abi2 and ,fortuna1 #aic n4 #a1 #bgb2 legend of his birth from the fire1 #aie sq42 his death1 #cbj sq4 ,sewing forbidden1 i4 #aba1 #abh ,sexes1 influence of the1 on vegetation1 ii4 #ig sqq42 of plants1 #bd ,sexual communism1 tradition of1 ii4 #bhd ---- crime1 blighting effects attributed to1 ii4 #ajg sqq4 ---- intercourse practised to make the crops and fruits grow1 ii4 #ih sqq4 ---- orgies as a fertility charm1 ii4 #ih sqq4 ,shaking of victim as sign of its acceptance1 i4 #chd sq4 ,shans of ,burma1 i4 #abh ,sheaf of oats made up to represent ,st4 ,bride or ,bridget1 ii4 #id sq42 the last1 #id n4 #b ,sheep1 black1 sacrificed for rain1 i4 #bij ---- driven through fire1 ii4 #cbg ,shepherd's prayer1 ii4 #cbg sq4 ,shepherds' festival1 ancient ,italian1 ii4 #cbf sqq4 ,shetland1 witches in1 i4 #cbf ,shrew-mouse in magic1 i4 #hc ,shuswap ,indians1 i4 #bfe ,siam1 ,king of1 ii4 #bfb2 divinity of1 i4 #dja ,sibyl1 the1 and the ,golden ,bough1 i4 #aa ,sicily1 attempts to compel the saints to give rain in1 i4 #bii sq4 ,sick people passed through a hole in an oak1 ii4 #cga ,sickness1 homoeopathic magic for the cure of1 i4 #gh sqq4 ,silesia1 ,whitsuntide customs in1 ii4 #hi ,silk-cotton trees reverenced1 ii4 #ad sq4 ,silvanus1 forest god1 ii4 #aba1 #abd ,silver poplar a charm against witchcraft1 ii4 #ccf ,silvii1 the family name of the kings of ,alba1 ii4 #agh sqq41 #aib ,silvius1 first king of ,alba1 ii4 #agi ,similarity in magic1 law of1 i4 #eb1 #ec ,simplification1 danger of excessive simplification in science1 i4 #ccb sq4 ,singer1 the best1 chosen chief1 ii4 #bih sq4 ,sins1 confession of1 i4 #bff ,sinuessa1 waters of1 ii4 #afa ,sister's children preferred to man's own children1 mark of mother-kin1 ii4 #bhe ,sisters of king1 licence accorded to1 ii4 #bgd sqq4 ,siva1 i4 #djd1 ii4 #gg1 #gh ,skeat1 ,w4 ,w41 i4 #cfj sq4 ,skeleton in rain-charm1 i4 #bhd ,skene1 ,w4 ,f41 ii4 #bhf n4 #b ,skoptsy1 the1 a ,russian sect1 ii4 #ade n4 #b ,skulls1 ancestral1 used in magical ceremonies1 i4 #afc2 in rain-charm1 #bhe ,sky1 twins called the children of the1 i4 #bfg1 #bfh2 ,aryan god of the1 ii4 #cgd sq4 ,slave1 charm to bring back a runaway1 i4 #aeb1 #cag ---- priests at ,nemi1 i4 #aa ,slaves1 licence granted to1 at ,saturnalia1 ii4 #cab2 female1 licence accorded to1 at the ,nonae ,caprotinae1 #cac sq4 ,slavs1 tree-worship among the heathen1 ii4 #i2 the thunder-god ,perun1 of the1 #cfe ,sleep1 charms employed by burglars to cause1 i4 #adh sq4 8,sleep of war10 ii4 #adg ,smith1 ,w4 ,robertson1 i4 #cja n4 #b ,smiths sacred1 i4 #cdi ,smoke made as a rain-charm1 i4 #bdi2 of cedar inhaled as means of inspiration1 #chc sq42 as a charm against witchcraft1 ii4 #ccj ,snake-bites1 charms against1 i4 #aeb sq4 ---- skin a charm against witchcraft1 ii4 #cce ,snakes1 human wives of1 ii4 #adi1 #aej 8,sober0 sacrifices1 i4 #caa n4 #a ,social progress1 i4 #dbj ,sodza1 a lightning goddess1 ii4 #cgj ,sofala1 ,king of1 i4 #cib ,sogamozo1 the pontiff of1 i4 #daf ,sogble1 a lightning god1 ii4 #cgj ,solar myth theory1 i4 #ccc ,somerville1 ,professor ,w41 ii4 #cbh n4 #d ,sophocles1 ii4 #aae1 #afa ,sorcerers4 ,see ,magicians1 ,medicine-men ,sorcery4 ,see ,magic ,sorrows1 ,master of1 i4 #bhj ,soul1 external1 in afterbirth 7placenta7 or navel-string1 i4 #bjj sq4 ,souls ascribed to trees1 ii4 #ab sqq42 of ancestors supposed to be in fire on the hearth1 #bcb ,sowing1 curses at1 i4 #bha2 homoeopathic magic at1 #acf sqq42 sexual intercourse before1 ii4 #ih2 continence at1 #aje1 #ajf2 in ,italy and ,sicily1 time of1 #caa n4 #e ,sparks of fire supposed to impregnate women1 ii4 #aig1 #bca ,sparta1 the two kings of1 i4 #df sq42 their relation to ,castor and ,pollux1 #dh-ej ,spartan sacrifice of horses to the sun1 i4 #cae sq4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 i4 #hi1 #ajg n4 #d ,spieth1 ,j41 i4 #cig ,spinning forbidden1 i4 #aac sq4 ,spirit1 ,brethren of the ,free1 i4 #djh ,spiritual husbands1 ii4 #caf sq4 ,spittle1 divination by1 i4 #ii2 used in magic1 #eg ,spring1 oracular at ,dodona1 ii4 #agb ,springs troubled to procure rain1 i4 #cja2 which confer prophetic powers1 ii4 #agb ,squirting water as a rain-charm1 i4 #bdi sq41 #bgg sq4 ,star1 falling1 in magic1 i4 #hd ,stepmother1 marriage with a1 among the ,saxons1 ii4 #bhc ,stewart1 ,c4 ,s41 i4 #chg n4 #a ,sticks1 sacred1 representing ancestors1 ii4 #bbb sqq4 ,stone1 holed1 in magic1 i4 #cac ---- curlew in magic1 i4 #hj ---- throwing as a fertility charm1 i4 #ci ,stones tied to trees to make them bear fruit1 i4 #adj2 oaths upon1 #afj sq42 homoeopathic magic of1 #afj sqq42 employed to make fruits and crops grow1 #afb sqq42 precious1 homoeopathic magic of1 #afd sq42 the ,day of1 #bgi2 rain-making by means of1 #cjd sqq42 in charms to make the sun shine1 #cab1 #cac1 #cad2 put in trees to prevent sun from setting1 #cah2 in wind charms1 #cai1 #cbb sq4 ,storeroom 7penus71 sacred1 ii4 #bje sq4 ,strabo1 ii4 #cje ,stubbes1 ,p41 ii4 #ff ,subincision1 use of blood shed at1 i4 #ib1 #id sq4 ,succession to the chieftainship or kingship alternating between several families1 ii4 #bib sqq4 ---- to the kingdom1 in ancient ,latium1 ii4 #bff sqq42 determined by a race1 #bii sqq42 determined by mortal combat1 ii4 #cbb ,sulka1 the1 of ,new ,britain1 ii4 #adh ,sumatra1 i4 #eh1 #ga ,summer1 bringing in the1 ii4 #gd ,sun1 homoeopathic magic of setting1 i4 #afe sq42 supposed to send new teeth1 #aha2 magical control of the1 #caa sqq42 charms to cause the sun to shine1 #caa sqq42 eclipse of1 ceremonies at #caa1 #cab2 human sacrifices to the #cad sq42 chief deity of the ,rhodians1 #cae2 supposed to drive in chariot1 #cae2 caught by net or string1 #caf2 charms to prevent the sun from going down1 #caf sqq42 the father of the ,incas1 #dae2 ,parthian monarchs the brothers of the1 #dag sq42 sanctuary of the1 ii4 #ajg2 high priest of the1 #adf sq42 marriage of a woman to the1 #adf sq42 worshipped by the ,blackfoot ,indians1 #adf2 round temple of the1 #adg2 temple of the ,sun at ,cuzco1 #bdc2 virgins of the ,sun in ,peru1 #bdc sqq42 the ,great1 title of chief1 #bfb1 #bfc ---- and ,earth1 marriage of the1 ii4 #ih sq41 #adh ---- -god1 no wine offered to the1 i4 #caa ---- -god ,ra in ,egypt1 i4 #dah1 #dai ---- goddess1 i4 #dag ,superstitions as to the making of pottery1 ii4 #bjd sq4 ,svayamvara1 ii4 #cjf ,swami ,bhaskaranandaji ,saraswati1 i4 #djd ,swearing on stones1 i4 #afj sq4 ,sweden1 midsummer customs in1 ii4 #fe2 ,frey and his priestess in1 #adc sq42 customs observed in1 at turning out the cattle to graze for the first time in spring1 #cda sq4 ,swedes sacrifice their kings1 i4 #cff sq4 ,sweethearts of ,st4 ,john1 ii4 #ib ,swine1 herds of1 in ancient ,italy1 ii4 #ced ,sycamores worshipped1 ii4 #ae2 sacred among the ,gallas1 #cd ,sylvii or ,woods1 the kings of ,alba1 ii4 #cgi ,sympathetic ,magic1 i4 #ea sqq42 its two branches1 #ed2 examples of1 #ee sqq4 ,see also ,magic ,syria1 ,st4 ,george in1 ii4 #cdf ,taara1 the thunder-god of the ,esthonians1 ii4 #cfg ,taboo1 a negative magic1 i4 #aaa sqq4 ,taboos1 homoeopathic1 i4 #aaf2 contagious1 #aag2 on food1 #aag sqq42 laid on the parents of twins1 #bfb1 #bfc sq41 #bff2 observed after house-building1 ii4 #dj ,tacitus1 ii4 #bhe ,tagales1 the1 ii4 #cf ,tahiti1 kings of1 deified1 i4 #chh 8,tail-money10 ii4 #cca ,tli1 tying the1 ii4 #eg n4 #d ,tamarinds1 sacred1 ii4 #db1 #dd ,tammuz or ,adonis1 ii4 #cdf ,tana1 power of the disease-makers in1 i4 #cda ,tanaquil1 the ,queen1 ii4 #aie ,taoism1 religious head of1 i4 #dac sqq4 ,tapio1 woodland god1 ii4 #abd ,tarahumares of ,mexico1 i4 #bdi ,tarquin the ,elder1 ii4 #aie ---- the ,proud1 his attempt to shift the line of descent of the kingship1 ii4 #bia sq4 ,tasmanians1 the1 ii4 #beg ,tatius1 death of1 ii4 #cbj ,tauric ,diana1 i4 #aj sq41 #bd ,taylor1 ,isaac1 ii4 #ahi n4 #c ,teeth1 ceremony of knocking out teeth at initiation1 i4 #ig sqq42 extraction of teeth in connexion with rain1 #ih sq42 charms to strengthen1 #aec1 #aeg2 contagious magic of1 #agf-ahb2 of rats and mice in magic1 #agh sqq4 ,telamon1 ii4 #bgh ,telchines1 the1 of ,rhodes1 i4 #caj ,telepathy1 magical1 i4 #aai sqq42 in hunting and fishing1 #abj sqq42 in war1 #abf sqq42 in voyages1 #abf ,tertullian1 i4 #djg2 on the ,etruscan crown1 ii4 #age n4 #a ,teucer1 ii4 #bgh ,teutonic kings1 i4 #dg2 thunder god1 ii4 #cfd ,thargelion1 ,greek harvest month1 i4 #cb ,thebes1 the ,egyptian1 ii4 #acj1 #acd2 high priests of ,ammon at1 #acd ,theocritus1 witch in1 i4 #bjf ,theogamy1 divine marriage1 ii4 #aba ,theophrastus1 on the woods of ,latium1 ii4 #ahh ,theopompus1 ii4 #bhg ,thevet1 ,f4 ,a41 i4 #ceh ,thieves' candles1 i4 #adh1 #adi ,things1 homoeopathic magic of inanimate1 i4 #aeg sqq4 ,thistles1 a charm against witchcraft1 ii4 #cci1 #cdj ,thompson ,indians1 i4 #gj1 #acb2 the fire-drill of the1 ii4 #bjh ,thor1 the ,norse thunder god1 ii4 #cfd ,thorn-bushes as charms against witches1 ii4 #cch ,thoth1 ,egyptian god1 ii4 #aca ,threatening the thunder god1 ii4 #ahc n4 #b ,thrice born1 said of ,brahmans1 i4 #cha ,thrones1 sanctity of1 i4 #cfe ,thunder1 imitation of1 i4 #bdh2 kings expected to make1 ii4 #ahj sqq42 thought to be the roll of the drums of the dead1 #ahc2 rain1 sky1 and oak1 god of the1 #cdi sq42 ,esthonian prayer to1 #cfg sq4 ---- and oak1 the ,aryan god of the1 ii4 #cef sqq4 ,thunder-bird1 i4 #cji ---- god1 threatening the1 ii4 #ahc n4 #b2 conceived as a deity of fertility1 #cfh sqq4 ,thunderbolt of ,indra1 i4 #bfi ---- ,zeus1 ii4 #cfa ,thunderbolts1 kings killed by1 ii4 #aha2 flint implements regarded as1 #cgd ,thunderstorms1 disappearance of ,roman kings in1 ii4 #aha sqq4 ,thurston1 ,e41 i4 #ef n4 #c ,thyiads1 the1 i4 #df ,tibet1 the ,grand ,lamas of1 i4 #daa sq4 ,tides1 homoeopathic magic of the1 i4 #aff sqq4 ,tiele1 ,c4 ,p41 i4 #dai sq4 ,tifata1 ,mount1 ii4 #chj ,timber1 homoeopathic magic of house timber1 i4 #adf2 of houses1 tree-spirits propitiated in1 ii4 #ci sq4 ,timor1 telepathy of high-priest of1 in war1 i4 #abh sq4 ,tinneh ,indians1 the1 i4 #ceg ,toad in charm against storms1 i4 #cbe ,toaripi or ,motumotu1 the1 in ,new ,guinea1 i4 #abe1 #ccg ,toboongkoos1 the1 ii4 #ce ,todas1 the1 i4 #ef2 divine milkmen of the1 #djb sq42 magic and medicine among the1 #dba n4 #a ,togoland1 i4 #bfe ,tomori1 the1 of ,celebes1 ii4 #bi1 #ce1 #aaj ,tonga1 chiefs of1 believed to heal scrofula1 i4 #cga ,tonquin1 kings of1 responsible for drought and dearth1 i4 #cee ,tppen1 ,m41 ii4 #cfe n4 #e ,toradjas1 the1 i4 #aji1 #aad1 #abi1 #aei ,torres ,straits1 i4 #ei ,tortoise1 magic of1 i4 #aea1 #agj ,totem1 confusion between a man and his totem1 i4 #ajg sq4 ,totemism in ,central ,australia not a religion1 i4 #ajg sq4 ,totems in ,central ,australia1 magical ceremonies for the multiplication of1 i4 #he sqq42 custom of eating the1 #ajg ,touch-me-not 7,impatiens sp471 ii4 #gg ,touching for the ,king's ,evil 7scrofula71 i4 #cfh sqq4 ,transmigrations of human deities1 i4 #daj sqq4 ,tree1 life of child connected with1 i4 #ahd2 that has been struck by lightning1 #cai2 culprits tied to sacred1 ii4 #aab sq42 fire kindled from ancestral1 #bba2 spirit represented simultaneously in vegetable and human form1 ii4 #gc sqq4 ---- -spirits1 ii4 #g sqq42 in house-timber propitiated1 #ci sq42 beneficent powers of1 #de sqq42 give rain and sunshine1 #de sq42 make crops grow1 #dg sqq42 make cattle and women fruitful1 #ej sqq41 #ee sqq42 in human form or embodied in living people1 #ga sqq4 ,tree-worship among the ,european families of the ,aryan stock1 ii4 #i sqq42 in modern ,europe1 relics of1 #ei sqq4 ,trees1 marriage to1 i4 #dj sq41 ii4 #eg2 extracted teeth placed in1 i4 #ih2 burial in1 #ajb2 navel-strings placed in1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahe1 #ahf2 afterbirth 7placenta7 placed in1 #ahb1 #ahg1 #aij1 #aia1 #aid1 #aii2 worship of1 ii4 #g sqq42 regarded as animate1 #ab sqq42 sacrifices to1 #ae1 #af sq41 #cd1 #dd1 #df1 #dg2 sensitive1 #ah2 apologies offered to trees for cutting them down1 #ah sq41 #cf sq42 bleeding1 #ah1 #bj1 #cc2 threatened to make them bear fruit1 #bj sqq42 married to each other1 #bd sqq42 animated by the souls of the dead1 #bi sqq42 planted on graves1 #ca2 as the abode of spirits1 #cc sqq42 ceremonies at cutting down1 #cd sqq42 drenched with water as a rain-charm1 #dg2 grant women an easy delivery1 #eg sq4 ---- and plants1 attempts to deceive the spirits of1 ii4 #bb sqq4 ---- sacred1 ii4 #dj sqq42 smeared with blood1 #cfg ,trinity1 the ,hindoo1 i4 #bbe1 #djd2 the ,norse1 ii4 #cfd ,triumph1 the ,roman1 ii4 #agd ,troezen1 sanctuary of ,hippolytus at1 i4 #bd sq4 ,troy1 sanctuary of ,athena at1 ii4 #bhd 8,true ,man1 the10 i4 #dac ,trumpets1 sacred1 ii4 #bd ,tshi-speaking peoples of ,gold ,coast1 i4 #acb ,tullius ,hostilius1 killed by lightning1 ii4 #aha1 #cbj ,tumleo1 i4 #bac ,turner1 ,dr4 ,george1 i4 #cda ,turner's picture of 8,the ,golden ,bough10 i4 #a ,turning or whirling round1 custom of1 observed by mummers1 i4 #bgc1 #bge1 ii4 #gd1 #hj1 #ha1 #hg 8,twin10 name applied by the ,baganda to the navel-string1 i4 #aie1 #aif ,twins1 i4 #ade2 in war1 #di n4 #c2 taboos laid on parents of1 #bfb1 #bfc sq42 supposed to possess magical powers1 especially over the weather and rain1 #bfb-bfi2 supposed to be salmon1 #bfc2 thought to be related to grizzly-bears1 #bfd sq42 thought to be related to apes1 #bfe2 thought to be the sons of lightning1 #bff2 called the children of the sky1 #bfg1 #bfh2 water poured on graves of twins as a rain-charm1 #bfh2 customs of the ,baganda in regard to1 ii4 #ajb sq4 ,two-headed bust at ,nemi1 portrait of the ,king of the ,wood1 i4 #da sq4 ,tydeus1 ii4 #bgh ,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 i4 #ec n4 #a1 ii4 #bjh1 #bdd n4 #a1 #cgd n4 #b2 on fertilisation of date-palm1 #be n4 ,tyndarids 7,castor and ,pollux71 i4 #di ,uganda1 ,queen ,dowager and ,queen ,sister in1 ii4 #bge sq4 ,ulysses and ,aeolus1 i4 #cbf2 and ,penelope1 ii4 #cjj ,umbrians1 ordeal of battle among the1 ii4 #cba ,uncle1 maternal1 preferred to father1 mark of mother-kin1 ii4 #bhe ,upsala1 sacred grove at1 ii4 #i2 temple of ,frey at1 #add2 great temple and festival at1 #cfd sq4 ,urns1 funereal1 in shape of huts1 ii4 #bja sq4 ,urvasi and ,pururavas1 ii4 #bej ,vallabhacharyas1 the1 ,hindoo sect1 ii4 #afj ,varro1 ii4 #ahe1 #bjj1 #cbf1 #cha ,vatican hill1 the1 ii4 #ahf ,vaughan ,stevens1 ,h41 ii4 #bcf n4 #a ,vegetation1 influence of the sexes on1 ii4 #ig sqq42 spirit of1 represented by a king or queen1 ii4 #hd1 #hg1 #hh2 newly awakened in spring1 ii4 #gj2 brought to houses1 #gd2 represented by mummers dressed in leaves1 branches1 and flowers1 #gd sqq41 #gh sqq42 represented by a tree and a living man1 #gf2 represented in duplicate by a girl and an effigy1 #gh2 men and women masquerading as1 #abj ,vejovis1 the ,little ,jupiter1 ii4 #agi ,veleda1 deified woman1 i4 #cia ,veneti1 the1 ii4 #cec2 breeders of horses1 i4 #bg ,ventriloquism a basis of political power1 i4 #cdg ,venus 7,aphrodite7 and ,adonis1 i4 #ba1 #be1 #dj1 #da ,verrall1 ,a4 ,w41 ii4 #be n4 #b ,vesta1 her sacred fires in ,latium1 i4 #ac sq42 at ,rome1 the grove of1 ii4 #ahe2 called ,mother1 not ,virgin1 #aih2 round temple of1 #bjj sq42 as ,mother1 #bbg sqq42 a goddess of fecundity1 #bbi sq42 her fire at ,rome fed with oak wood1 ii4 #ahf ,vestal fire at ,rome a successor of the fire on the king's hearth1 ii4 #bjj sqq42 kindled by the friction of wood1 #bjg2 at ,nemi1 #cgh sq41 #chj2 ,virgins in ,latium1 i4 #ac sq42 become mothers by the fire1 ii4 #aif sq42 regarded as wives of the fire-god1 #aih1 #aii1 #bbi2 among the ,baganda1 #bdf ,vestals1 house of the1 ii4 #bja2 of the ,herero1 #bac1 #bad2 custom of burying alive unfaithful ,vestals1 #bbh2 adore the male organ1 #bbi2 rites performed by them for the fertility of the earth and the fecundity of cattle1 #bbi1 #cbf2 ,african1 #aej2 at ,rome the wives or daughters of the kings1 #bbh2 ,celtic1 #bda n4 #a2 ,peruvian1 #bdc sqq42 in ,yucatan1 #bde sq4 ,victims give signs of inspiration by shaking themselves1 i4 #chd sq4 ,victoria1 the late ,queen1 worshipped in ,orissa1 i4 #djd ,victoria ,nyanza1 god of the1 ii4 #aej ,viehe1 ,rev4 ,g41 ii4 #bac n4 #b1 #bbc sq4 ,vines blessed on the ,assumption of the ,virgin 7#aeth ,august71 i4 #ad sq4 ,violent deaths of the ,roman kings1 ii4 #cac sqq4 ,viracocha1 i4 #ef ,virbius1 the slope of1 i4 #d n4 #e1 ii4 #cba2 the mate of ,diana at ,nemi1 i4 #ai-ba1 #dj sq41 ii4 #abi2 etymology of the name1 #cgi n4 #e ,virgil1 ii4 #ahd1 #ahf1 #cgi2 an antiquary as well as a poet1 #agh ,virgin1 the ,assumption of the1 in relation to ,diana1 i4 #ad-af2 festival of the1 in the ,armenian ,church1 #af2 ,mary of ,kevlaar1 i4 #gg2 priestesses in ,peru1 ,mexico1 and ,yucatan1 ii4 #bdc sqq4 ,virginity offered to rivers1 ii4 #afb ,virility1 hierophant at ,eleusis temporarily deprived of his1 ii4 #acj2 sacrifice of1 to a goddess1 #add sq4 ,vishnu1 ii4 #bf ,vitellius at ,nemi1 i4 #e ,vituperation thought to cause rain1 i4 #bgh ,votive offerings at ,nemi1 i4 #d1 #f1 #ab1 #ai1 #bc ,voyages1 telepathy in1 i4 #abf ,vulcan1 father of ,caeculus1 ii4 #aig ,vulture1 magic of1 i4 #aea ,wagogo1 the1 i4 #abc ,wagtail1 the yellow1 in magic1 i4 #gi ,walber1 the1 ii4 #ge ,waldemar1 ,i41 ,king of ,denmark1 i4 #cfg ,wallace1 ,sir ,d4 ,mackenzie1 i4 #djg sq4 ,walos1 the1 of ,senegal1 i4 #cgj ,walpurgis ,night1 ii4 #eb1 #ed1 #ee1 #abg ,walton1 ,izaak1 i4 #cbf n4 #b ,war1 telepathy in1 i4 #abf sqq4 8,war1 the sleep of10 ii4 #adg ,ward1 ,professor ,h4 ,marshall1 ii4 #beb1 #cae n4 #a ,ward1 ,professor ,james1 i4 #dbc ,warramunga1 the1 i4 #ic1 #ie1 #ii ,wasps in magic1 i4 #aeb ,water sprinkled as rain-charm1 i4 #bdh sqq42 serpent or dragon of1 ii4 #aee sqq4 ---- and ,fire1 kings of1 ii4 #c sqq4 ---- -lilies1 charms to make water-lilies grow1 i4 #ie1 #ig1 #ih ---- nymphs1 fertilising virtue of1 ii4 #afb ---- -spirits1 propitiation of1 ii4 #gf2 sacrifices to1 #aee sqq42 as beneficent beings1 #aei2 bestow offspring on women1 #aei sqq4 ---- totem1 i4 #bei ,waterfalls1 spirits of1 ii4 #aef1 #aeg ,wax melted in magic1 i4 #gg ,wealth acquired by magicians1 i4 #cdg1 #cdh1 #cea1 #ceb ,weapon and wound1 contagious magic of1 i4 #bja sqq4 ,weaving and twining thread forbidden1 i4 #aca ,wellhausen1 ,j41 i4 #cjc ,wells cleansed as rain-charm1 i4 #bfg2 married to the holy basil1 ii4 #bf sq42 bestow offspring on women1 #afj sq4 ,wends1 their superstition as to oaks1 ii4 #ee ,werner1 ,miss ,a41 ii4 #cag n4 #a ,wernicke1 quoted1 i4 #ce sq4 ,wetting people with water as a rain-charm1 i4 #bej1 #bea1 #bfi sq41 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bgg sq41 ii4 #gg ,whale-fishing1 telepathy in1 i4 #aba ,whirling or turning round1 custom of1 observed by mummers1 i4 #bgc1 #bge1 ii4 #gd1 #hj1 #ha1 #hg ,whirlwind1 attacking the1 i4 #cbi sqq4 ,white bulls sacrificed1 ii4 #ahh sq4 ---- horses1 sacred1 ii4 #agd n4 #b ---- poplar1 the1 at ,olympia1 ii4 #bbj ---- thorn1 a charm against witches1 ii4 #aia ---- victims sacrificed for sunshine1 i4 #bia1 #bib ,whitekirk1 ii4 #afa ,whit-,monday1 the king's game on1 ii4 #hi1 #ajc ,whitsun-bride in ,denmark1 ii4 #ia sq4 ,whitsunday customs in ,russia1 ii4 #fd1 #ic2 races1 ii4 #fi1 #hd2 contest for the kingship at1 #hi2 custom of rolling on the fields at1 #ajc2 customs in ,holland1 #ajd ---- ,bride1 the1 ii4 #hi1 #if ---- ,basket1 the1 ii4 #hc ---- ,flower1 ii4 #hj ---- ,king1 ii4 #hd1 #hi1 #ij ---- -lout1 the1 ii4 #ha ---- ,man1 the ,little1 ii4 #ha ---- ,queen1 ii4 #hg1 #ij ,widow1 re-marriage of1 in ,salic law1 ii4 #bhe sq4 ,wiedemann1 ,a41 i4 #bcj sq4 ,wiglet and ,feng1 ii4 #bha1 #bhc ,wilhelmina1 a ,bohemian woman1 worshipped1 i4 #dji ,wilkinson1 ,r4 ,j41 ii4 #chc n4 #a ,william the ,third1 i4 #cfi ,willow tree on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 ii4 #gf ,wind1 magical control of the1 i4 #cai sqq42 charms to make the wind drop1 #cbj2 fighting and killing the spirit of the1 #cbg sqq4 ---- clan1 i4 #cbj ---- of the ,cross1 i4 #cbe ---- doctor1 i4 #cba ,winds tied up in knots1 i4 #cbf ,wine not offered to the sun-god1 i4 #caa ,wiradjuri tribe1 i4 #cce ,wissowa1 ,professor ,g41 i4 #bb n4 #e1 #bc n41 ii4 #chb n4 #a ,witches raising the wind1 i4 #cbb1 #cbf2 buried under trees1 ii4 #cb2 steal milk on ,may ,day or ,walpurgis ,night1 #eb sqq42 steal milk on ,midsummer ,eve1 #abg2 steal milk on ,eve of ,st4 ,george1 #ccd sqq42 precautions against1 #eb sqq42 as cats and dogs1 #ccd1 #cce ,witches' sabbath on the ,eve of ,st4 ,george1 ii4 #cce1 #cch ,witchetty grubs1 ceremony for the multiplication of1 i4 #he 8,wives of ,marduk10 ii4 #acj ,wizards who raise winds1 i4 #cbc sqq42 ,finnish1 #cbe ,wolves in relation to horses1 i4 #bg2 feared by shepherds1 ii4 #cbg1 #cbi1 #ccj sq41 #ccc1 #ccd1 #cdj1 #cda ,women1 fruitful1 supposed to fertilise crops and fruit-trees1 i4 #adj sq42 employed to sow the fields1 #ada sq42 ploughing as a rain-charm1 #bhb sq42 worshipped by the ancient ,germans1 #cia2 married to gods1 ii4 #abi sqq41 #adc sq41 #adf sq41 #adi sqq42 fertilised by water-spirits1 #aei sqq42 impregnated by fire1 #aie sqq41 #bcj sq42 alone allowed to make pottery1 #bjd sq4 ---- barren1 thought to sterilise gardens1 i4 #adb2 fertilised by trees1 ii4 #caf sqq4 ,wood1 fire kindled by the friction of1 ii4 #bjg sqq41 #bce sqq41 #bdc1 #bdh sqq41 #beh sq41 #bfb1 #bfc1 #ccf1 #cff1 #cgb ,wood1 the ,king of the1 i4 #a sqq42 ,lord of the1 ii4 #cf ,woods1 species of1 used in making fire by friction1 ii4 #bdh-beb ,wordsworth1 ,w41 i4 #ajd ,worship of trees1 ii4 #g sqq42 of the oak1 #cdi sqq4 ,wotyaks1 the1 ii4 #dc1 #ade1 #adf ,wound and weapon1 contagious magic of1 i4 #bja sqq4 ,wyse1 ,miss ,a41 ii4 #hh n4 #a ,wyse1 ,william1 i4 #aja n4 #b1 #aje n4 #e1 ii4 #cef n4 #c ,yakuts1 the1 i4 #cai ,yam vines1 continence at training1 ii4 #aje sq4 ,yegory or ,yury 7,st4 ,george71 ii4 #ccb1 #ccc ,yellow birds in magic1 i4 #gi sq4 ---- colour in magic1 i4 #gi sqq4 ---- ,river1 girls married to the1 ii4 #aeb ,ynglingar family1 ii4 #bgi ,yorubas1 the1 i4 #cfd2 chieftainship among the1 ii4 #bic sq42 rule of succession to the chieftainship among the1 #bic sq4 ,yucatan1 ,vestals in1 ii4 #bde sq4 ,yuracares1 the1 of ,bolivia1 ii4 #bjd ,zela1 i4 #dg ,zeus1 ,greek kings called1 ii4 #agg1 #cfa2 as god of the oak1 the rain1 the thunder1 and the sky1 #ceh sqq42 surnamed ,lightning1 #cfa2 surnamed ,thunderbolt1 #cfa2 as sky-god1 #cgd ---- and ,demeter1 their marriage at ,eleusis1 ii4 #ach sq4 ---- and ,dione1 at ,dodona1 ii4 #ahi ---- and ,hera1 sacred marriage of1 ii4 #adj sq41 #adb sq4 ---- at ,dodona1 ii4 #agg2 priests of1 #bdh ---- at ,panamara in ,caria1 i4 #bh ---- ,dictaean1 ii4 #abb ---- ,lightning1 i4 #cc ---- ,lycaeus1 i4 #cji ---- ,panhellenian1 ii4 #cei ---- ,rainy1 ii4 #cgf ---- ,showery1 ii4 #cfj ---- the ,descender1 ii4 #cfa ,zimmer1 ,h41 ii4 #bhf n4 #b ,zulus1 foods tabooed among the1 i4 #aah sq4 ,,the ,,end ,printed by ,r4 ,r4 ,,clark1 ,,limited1 ,edinburgh4 ,works by ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,the ,,golden ,,bough ,a ,,study ,,in ,,magic ,,and ,,religion ,third ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 #hvo4 ,part ,i4 ,,the ,,magic ,,art ,,and ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,kings4 #dth ,impression4 ,two volumes4 #bjs4 net4 ,,ii4 ,,taboo ,,and ,,the ,,perils ,,of ,,the ,,soul4 #crd ,impression4 ,one volume4 #ajs4 net4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,dying ,,god4 #crd ,impression4 ,one volume4 #ajs4 net4 ,,iv4 ,,adonis1 ,,attis1 ,,osiris4 #crd ,impression4 ,two volumes4 #bjs4 net4 ,v4 ,,spirits ,,of ,,the ,,corn ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,wild4 #bnd ,impression4 ,two volumes4 #bjs4 net4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,scapegoat4 ,one volume4 #ajs4 net4 ,,vii4 ,,balder ,,the ,,beautiful3 ,,the ,,fire-,,festivals ,,of ,,europe ,,and ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,soul4 #bnd ,impression4 ,two volumes4 #bjs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xii4 ,,bibliography ,,and ,,general ,,index4 #bjs4 net4 ,,times4--8,the verdict of posterity will probably be that ,the ,golden ,bough influenced the attitude of the human mind towards supernatural beliefs and symbolical rituals more profoundly than any other books published in the nineteenth century except those of ,darwin and ,herbert ,spencer40 ,,totemism ,,and ,,exogamy4 ,a ,treatise on ,certain ,early ,forms of ,superstition and ,society4 ,with ,maps4 ,four vols4 #hvo4 #ejs4 net4 ,,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,crawley in ,,nature4--8,that portion of the book which is concerned with totemism 7if we may express our own belief at the risk of offending ,prof4 ,frazer's characteristic modesty7 is actually #8,the ,complete ,history of ,totemism1 its ,practice and its ,theory1 its ,origin and its ,end4'444 ,nearly two thousand pages are occupied with an ethnographical survey of totemism1 an invaluable compilation4 ,the maps1 including that of the distribution of totemic peoples1 are a new and useful feature40 ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,kingship4 #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,athen,,um4--8,it is the effect of a good book not only to teach1 but also to stimulate and to suggest1 and we think this the best and highest quality1 and one that will recommend these lectures to all intelligent readers1 as well as to the learned40 ,,psyche',s ,,task1 ,a ,discourse concerning the ,influence of ,superstition on the ,growth of ,institutions4 ,second ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,to which is added 8,the ,scope of ,social ,anthropology40 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,outlook4--8,whether we disagree or agree with ,dr4 ,frazer's general conclusions1 he has provided us with a veritable storehouse of correlated facts1 for which1 and for the learning that has gone to their collection1 and for the intellectual brilliance that has gone to their arrangement1 we can never be sufficiently grateful40 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,ltd41 ,,london4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,and ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,dead4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,the ,belief among the ,aborigines of ,australia1 the ,torres ,straits ,islands1 ,new ,guinea1 and ,melanesia4 ,the ,gifford ,lectures1 ,st4 ,andrews1 #aiaa-aiab4 #hvo4 #ajs4 net4 ,,mr4 ,,edward ,,clodd in the ,,daily ,,chronicle4--8#8,if a man die1 shall he live again8' is a question asked chiliads before ,job put it1 and the generations of mankind repeat it4 ,in this profoundly interesting volume1 ,professor ,frazer1 out of the treasury of his knowledge1 and with consummate art of attractive presentment1 gives the answers devised by the ,lower ,races40 ,,folk-,,lore ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 #hvo4 ,in ,preparation4 ,,pausanias',s ,,description ,,of ,,greece4 ,translated with a ,commentary1 ,illustrations1 and ,maps4 ,second ,edition4 ,six vols4 #hvo4 #abfs4 net4 ,,athen,,um4--8,all these writings in many languages ,mr4 ,frazer has read and digested with extraordinary care1 so that his book will be for years the book of reference on such matters1 not only in ,england1 but in ,france and ,germany4 ,it is a perfect thesaurus of ,greek topography1 archology1 and art40 ,,studies ,,in ,,greek ,,scenery1 ,,legend ,,and ,,history4 ,selected from his ,commentary on ,pausanias by ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer4 ,globe #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,eversley ,series4 ,,guardian4--8,here we have material which every one who has visited ,greece1 or purposes to visit it1 most certainly should read and enjoy4444 ,we cannot imagine a more excellent book for the educated visitor to ,greece40 ,,letters ,,of ,,william ,,cowper4 ,chosen and ,edited1 with a ,memoir and a few ,notes1 by ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer4 ,two vols4 ,globe #hvo4 #ajs4 net4 ,eversley ,series4 ,,mr4 ,,clement ,,shorter in the ,,daily ,,chronicle4--8,the introductory ,memoir1 of some eighty pages in length1 is a valuable addition to the many appraisements of ,cowper that these later years have seen4444 ,dr4 ,frazer has given us two volumes that are an unqualified joy40 ,,essays ,,of ,,joseph ,,addison4 ,chosen and ,edited1 with a ,preface and a few ,notes1 by ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer4 ,two vols4 ,globe #hvo4 #ajs4 net4 ,eversley ,series4 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,ltd41 ,,london4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected4 ,typographical errors were silently corrected4 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book4 ,text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics74 ,footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are referenced4 ,sidenotes are placed in the text where1 in the original book1 they were in the left margin near the text4