,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4 ,the precise location of footnote #bef is speculative since it is not indicated in the original4 ,italics are represented thus italic4 ,the ,sexes in ,science and ,history ,an ,inquiry into the ,dogma of ,woman's ,inferiority to ,man ,by ,eliza ,burt ,gamble ,a revised edition of 8,the ,evolution of ,woman0 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,new ,york and ,london ,the ,knickerbocker ,press #aiaf ,,copyright1 #ahic ,under the title ,the ,evolution of ,woman1 by ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,,copyright1 #aiaf for the revised edition1 by ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,the ,knickerbocker ,press1 ,new ,york ,,preface ,,to ,,new ,,edition ,this volume is a revised edition of ,the ,evolution of ,woman published by ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons in #ahid4 ,in this later work much added evidence appears going to prove the correctness of the theory advanced in the former work4 ,in it the subject of sex-development has been brought down to the present time and in this later investigation it is found that each and every fact connected with the biological and sociological development of the last twenty years is in strict accord not only with the facts set forth in ,the ,evolution of ,woman but with the conclusions therein arrived at4 ,in the concluding chapters of this volume the results of the separate development of the two diverging lines of sex demarcation are set forth4 ,i have endeavoured to show that present conditions are the legitimate outcome of the ascendency gained during the later ages of human history by the egoistic or destructive agencies over the higher or constructive forces developed in human nature4 ,e4 ,b4 ,g4 ,,preface ,,to ,,first ,,edition ,after a somewhat careful study of written history1 and after an investigation extending over several years of all the accessible facts relative to extant tribes representing the various stages of human development1 ,i had reached the conclusion1 as early as the year #ahhb1 that the female organism is in no wise inferior to that of the male4 ,for some time1 however1 ,i was unable to find any detailed proof that could consistently be employed to substantiate the correctness of this hypothesis4 ,in the year #ahhe1 with no special object in view other than a desire for information1 ,i began a systematized investigation of the facts which at that time had been established by naturalists relative to the development of mankind from lower orders of life4 ,it was not1 however1 until the year #ahhf1 after a careful reading of ,the ,descent of ,man1 by ,mr4 ,darwin1 that ,i first became impressed with the belief that the theory of evolution1 as enunciated by scientists1 furnishes much evidence going to show that the female among all the orders of life1 man included1 represents a higher stage of development than the male4 ,although at the time indicated1 the belief that man has descended from lower orders in the scale of being had been accepted by the leading minds both in ,europe and ,america1 for reasons which have not been explained1 scientists1 generally1 seemed inclined to ignore certain facts connected with this theory which tend to prove the superiority of the female organism4 ,scarcely considering at the outset whether my task would eventually take the form of a magazine article1 or whether it would be extended to the dimensions of a book1 ,i set myself to work to show that some of the conclusions of the savants regarding the subject of sex-development are not in accord with their premises4 ,while writing the first part of this volume1 and while reasoning on the facts established by scientists in connection with the observations which have been made in these later years relative to the growth of human society and the development of human institutions1 it seemed clear to me that the history of life on the earth presents an unbroken chain of evidence going to prove the importance of the female2 and1 so struck was ,i by the manner in which the facts of science and those of history harmonize1 that ,i decided to embrace within my work some of the results of my former research4 ,i therefore set about the task of tracing1 in a brief manner1 the growth of the primary characters observed in the two diverging sex-columns1 according to the facts and principles enunciated in the theory of natural development4 ,it is not perhaps singular1 during an age dominated by theological dogmatism1 and in which no definite knowledge relative to the development of life on the earth had been gained1 that man should have regarded himself as an infinitely superior being4 ,neither is it remarkable that woman1 who was supposed to have appeared later on the scene of action than did her male mate1 and who owed her existence to a surgical operation performed upon him1 should have been regarded simply as an appendage1 a creature brought forth in response to the requirements of the masculine nature4 ,the above doctrines when enunciated by theologians need cause little surprise1 but with the dawn of a scientific age it might have been expected that the prejudices resulting from those doctrines might disappear4 ,when1 however1 we turn to the most advanced scientific writings of the present century1 we find that the prejudices which throughout thousands of years have been gathering strength are by no means eradicated1 and any discussion of the sex question is still rare in which the effects of these prejudices may not be traced4 ,even ,mr4 ,darwin1 notwithstanding his great breadth of mental vision and the important work which he accomplished in the direction of original inquiry1 whenever he had occasion to touch on the mental capacities of women1 or more particularly on the relative capacities of the sexes1 manifested the same spirit which characterizes the efforts of an earlier age2 and throughout his entire investigation of the human species1 his ability to ignore certain facts which he himself adduced1 and which all along the line of development tend to prove the superiority of the female1 is truly remarkable4 ,we usually judge of a man's fitness to assume the rle of an original investigator in any branch of human knowledge1 by noting his powers of observation and generalization1 and by observing his capacity to perceive connections between closely related facts2 also1 by tracing the various processes by which he arrives at his conclusions4 ,the ability1 however1 to collect facts1 and the power to generalize and draw conclusions from them1 avail little1 when brought into direct opposition to deeply rooted prejudices4 ,the indications are strong that the time has at length arrived when the current opinions concerning sex capacity and endowment demand a revision1 and when nothing short of scientific deductions1 untainted by the prejudices and dogmatic assumptions of the past1 will be accepted4 ,as has been stated1 the object of this volume is to set forth the principal data brought forward by naturalists bearing on the subject of the origin and development of the two lines of sexual demarcation1 and by means of the facts observed by explorers among peoples in the various stages of development1 to trace1 so far as possible1 the effect of such differentiation upon the individual1 and upon the subsequent growth of human society4 ,e4 ,b4 ,g4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface ,,to ,,second ,,edition iii ,,preface ,,to ,,first ,,edition v ,,part ,i ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,evolution ,,chapter ,i4--,,development ,,of ,,the ,,organism #c ,,ii4--,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,sex ,,differences #ad ,,iii4--,,male ,,organic ,,defects #ce ,,iv4--,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,social ,,instincts ,,and ,,the ,,moral ,,sense #fc ,v4--,,the ,,supremacy ,,of ,,the ,,male #gd ,,part ,,ii ,,prehistoric ,,society ,i4--,,method ,,of ,,investigation #ie ,,ii4--,,the ,,relations ,,of ,,the ,,sexes ,,among ,,early ,,mankind #ajd ,,iii4--,,the ,,gens ,,women ,,under ,,gentile ,,institutions #abc ,,iv4--,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,marriage #aei ,v4--,,the ,,mother-,,right #bjc ,,vi4--,,theories ,,to ,,explain ,,wife-,,capture #bae ,,part ,,iii ,,early ,,historic ,,society ,i4--,,early ,,historic ,,society ,,founded ,,on ,,the ,,gens #bdc ,,ii4--,,women ,,in ,,early ,,historic ,,times #bfi ,,iii4--,,ancient ,,sparta #bhe ,,iv4--,,athenian ,,women #cah ,v4--,,roman ,,law1 ,,roman ,,women1 ,,and ,,christianity #cdg ,,vi4--,,the ,,renaissance #cfg ,,vii4--,,conclusion #chj ,,index #djc ,the ,sexes in ,science and ,history ,,part ,i ,the ,theory of ,evolution ,,chapter ,i ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,organism ,sex is not only the basic fact underlying physical life but it is also the fundamental principle involved in the origin and development of religion4 ,throughout the history of mankind1 the ,god-idea has ever been1 male or female1 according to the relative importance of the two sex principles in human affairs4 ,scientists declare that they are now able to trace the development of the two diverging lines of sex-demarcation from the time of their separation1 or from the time when these principles were confined within one and the same individual4 ,in order to understand the origin of sex1 it becomes necessary to recall1 briefly1 the theory of the development of life on the earth as set forth by the savants4 ,as science deals only with matter1 a mechanical theory of the universe is inevitable4 ,as science is wholly materialistic1 it is perfectly consistent in its declaration that the senses and the intellect constitute the only means whereby truth may be discovered4 ,modern philosophy1 on the other hand1 which deals less with matter itself than with the causes which underlie the development of matter1 affirms that a character has been developed in human beings which in its capacity to discern truth1 far transcends the intellect4 ,that character is intuition4 ,but as we are dealing only with scientific observations1 philosophical speculations do not here concern us4 ,the fundamental idea1 which must necessarily lie at the bottom of all natural theories of development1 is that of a gradual development of all 7even the most perfect7 organisms out of a single1 or out of a very few1 quite simple1 and quite imperfect original beings1 which came into existence1 not by supernatural creation1 but by spontaneous generation4#a #a ,haeckel1 ,history of ,creation1 #ahhd1 vol4 i41 p4 #ge4 ,according to the theory of evolution as elaborated by scientists1 the history of man begins with small animated particles1 or ,monera1 which appeared in the primeval sea4 ,these marine specks were albuminous compounds of carbon1 generated by the sun's heat1 which made their appearance as soon as the mists which enveloped the earth were sufficiently cleared away to permit the rays of the sun to penetrate them and reach the surface of the globe4 ,concerning the origin of the principle of life which these particles contained1 or regarding the development of organic bodies from inorganic substances1 the more timid among naturalists declare that in the present state of human knowledge it is impossible to know anything1 while others of them1 more bold1 or more confident of the latent powers of the human intellect1 after having elaborated a natural or mechanical explanation for the development of all organic forms1 are not disposed to accept a supernatural theory for the beginning of life4 ,for example1 since organic structures represent the development of matter according to laws governing the chemical1 molecular1 and physical forces inherent in it1 it is believed that the gulf separating organic and inorganic substances is not so difficult to span as has hitherto been supposed4 ,among those who hold this view may be ranked the celebrated naturalist1 ,ernst ,haeckel4 ,regarding the phenomena of life this writer observes3 8,we can demonstrate the infinitely manifold and complicated physical and chemical properties of the albuminous bodies to be the real cause of organic or vital phenomena40#b ,indeed1 in whatever manner the vital force within them originated1 naturalists agree that from these particles have been derived all the forms1 both animal and vegetable1 which have ever existed upon the earth4 #b ,history of ,creation1 vol4 i41 p4 #cca4 ,as speculations concerning the origin of matter lie without the domain of natural or scientific inquiry1 they form no part of the investigations of the naturalist4 ,so far as is known1 matter is eternal1 and all that may be learned concerning it must be gleaned by observing the changes1 chemical and molecular1 through which it is manifested4 ,by those who have observed the laws which govern the manifold changes in matter1 the fact is declared that the various manifestations in form and substance constitute the only creation of which we may have any knowledge2 and1 moreover1 that the genesis of existence is going on as actively in our time as at any previous period in the history of matter4 ,so far as human knowledge extends1 no particle of matter has ever been created and none ever destroyed4 ,this continuous process of transmutation of substance and change of form1 in other words the phenomena designated ,life1 may have been in operation during all the past1 and may continue forever4 ,as all speculations concerning the origin of matter have been unavailing1 so all attempts to solve the problem of the origin of life have proved futile4 ,the experiments recently carried on in the ,rockefeller ,institute1 in which by means of chemical processes detached organs from the bodies of animals have been made to perform their normal functions1 are interesting and instructive1 but these experiments furnish no clue to the origin of the force which animates living organic matter4 ,why the nucleated cells which we call a heart should pulsate whilst those which we call a liver should secrete bile1 nobody knows4 ,that all life on the earth has been derived from one1 or at most from a few original forms1 is said to be proved by ontogeny1 or the history of the germ1 which in its development passes through a number of the forms which mark the ascending scale of life4 ,through the study of comparative anatomy1 the fact has been discovered that the individuals composing the various orders of the great vertebrate series are all moulded 8on the same general plan02 that up to a certain stage in the development of the several germs--for instance those of the man1 the ape1 the horse1 the dog1 etc41--they are not distinguishable the one from the other1 and that it is only at a later stage of development that they take on the peculiarities belonging to their own special kind4 ,the number and variety of forms which appear in the animal and vegetable world make it difficult to conceive of the idea that all have sprung from one1 or at most from a few original types1 yet the chain of evidence in support of this theory seems quite complete4 ,natural ,selection1 by which it is demonstrated that organized matter must move forward simply through the chemical and physical forces inherent in it1 furnishes a key to all the phenomena of life1 both animal and vegetable1 which have ever appeared on the earth4 ,natural ,selection1 we are told1 depends for its operation on the interaction of two processes or agencies1 namely1 ,inheritance and ,adaptation4 ,through ,inheritance germs receive from their parents a plastic form which1 as all development is a function of external physical conditions1 is itself nothing more than a 8manifestation of the remains of antecedent physical impressions40 ,this inherited form causes them to go forward in a predestined course1 while through ,adaptation there is a constant tendency to change that predestined form imposed upon them by their parents to one better suited to their changing physical conditions4 ,according to the theory of ,natural ,selection1 organic structures vary to meet the requirements of changed conditions2 or1 when existing circumstances are such that they are forced into new and unusual modes of life1 they branch off into different directions2 thus new varieties are formed1 or possibly new species4 ,such portions of a group1 however1 as remain sheltered from conditions unsuited to their present line of development1 retain their ancient forms4 ,this change of structure by which organisms or portions of organic bodies are modified so as to perform more complicated functions1 or those better suited to their environment1 is denominated differentiation2 hence the degree of differentiation attained by a structure determines the stage of development which it has reached4 ,but to return to our single-celled animal--the simplest form of life on the earth4 ,except that by the action of the surrounding forces its surface has become somewhat hardened1 this little animal is the same throughout1 in other words1 it is homogeneous4 ,the hardening of the outer portion constitutes the first process of differentiation1 and therefore the first step in the order of progress4 ,comparing the simplest form of life1 the little carbon-sac found in the sea1 with the germ from which animals and plants are derived1 ,haeckel says3 ,originally every organic cell is only a single globule of mucus1 like a ,moneron1 but differing from it in the fact that the homogeneous albuminous substance has separated itself into two different parts1 a firmer albuminous body1 the cell-kernel 7nucleus71 and an external1 softer albuminous body1 the cell-substance or body 7protoplasma74#c #c ,history of ,creation1 #ahhd1 vol4 i41 p4 #ahg4 ,from its body1 which1 when at rest1 is nearly spherical1 it is almost constantly casting forth certain 8finger-like processes0 which are as quickly withdrawn1 only to reappear on some other portion of its surface4 ,the small particles of albuminous matter with which it comes in contact adhere to it1 or are drawn into its semi-fluid body by displacement of the several albuminous particles of which it is composed1 and are there digested1 being 8absorbed by simple diffusion40 ,its only activity consists in supplying itself with nourishment1 and even during this process it is said to display a negative or passive quality rather than real action4 ,the particles absorbed that are not assimilated1 are expelled through the surface of the body in the same manner as they are taken into it4 ,at first1 we are told1 our animal is only a simple cell1 in fact that it is not a perfect cell1 for as yet the cell-kernel or nucleus has not been separated from the cell-substance or protoplasm4 ,when its limit of size has been reached it multiplies by self-division1 or by simply breaking into parts1 each part performing the same functions of nutrition and propagation as its predecessor4 ,later1 however1 when a parent cell bursts1 the newly developed cells no longer separate from it1 but1 by cohering to it and to each other1 form a cluster of nucleated cells1 while around this aggregation of units is formed a wall4 ,still its food is absorbed4 ,subsequently1 however1 a mouth and prehensile organs for seizing its food are developed1 and the divisions between the cells are converted into channels or pipes through which nourishment is conveyed to every part of the body4 ,in process of time1 limbs for locomotion appear1 together with bones for levers1 and muscles for moving them4 ,finally1 a brain and a heart are evolved1 and although at first the heart appears as only a simple pulsating vessel1 later this animal finds itself the possessor of a perfect system of digestion1 circulation1 and excretion1 by which food1 after having been changed into blood and arated or purified by processes carried on in the system1 is pumped to every part of the body4 ,with the formation of different chemical combinations1 and the development1 through increasing specialization of the various kinds of tissues1 and finally of the various organs1 that intimate relationship observed between the parts in homogeneous and less differentiated structures no longer exists2 hence1 in response to the demand for communication between the various organs1 numberless threads or fibres begin to stretch themselves through the muscles1 and collecting in knots or centres in the brain and spine1 establish instantaneous communication between the different parts1 and convey sensation and feeling throughout the entire organism4 ,a division of labour has now been established1 and each organ1 being in working order and fashioned for its own special use1 performs its separate functions independently1 although its activity is co-ordinated with that of all other organs in the structure4 ,this far in the history of life on the earth sex has not been developed1 or1 more correctly stated1 as the two sexes have not been separated1 our animal is still androgynous or hermaphrodite--the reproductive functions being confined in one and the same individual4 ,within this little primeval animal1 the progenitor of the human race1 lay not only all the possibilities which have thus far been realized by mankind1 but within it were embodied also the 8promise and potency0 of all that progress which is yet to come1 and of which man himself1 in his present undeveloped state1 may have only a dim foreshadowing4 ,from the time of the appearance of life on the earth to that of the separation of the sexes1 myriads of centuries may have intervened4 ,only when through a division of labour these elements became detached1 and the special functions of each were confided to two distinct and separate individuals1 did the independent history of the female and male sexes begin4 ,no fact is more patent1 at the present time1 than that sex constitutes the underlying principle throughout nature4 ,although it may not be said of the simplest forms of life that sexual difference has been established1 yet we are assured that among the ciliated ,infusorians 8male and female nuclear elements have been distinguished40 ,this primitive condition1 however1 is supposed to be rather a state antecedent to sex than a union of sexes in one organism4 ,among all the higher orders of life1 whether animal or vegetable1 the sex elements1 female and male1 are recognized as the two great factors in creation4 ,as1 among all the animals in which there has been a separation of sexes1 there has been established a division of labour1 the consequent specialization of organs and the differentiation of parts form the true line of demarcation in the march of the two diverging columns4 ,doubtless in the future1 when our knowledge of the history of life on the earth has become more extended1 it will be found that it is only by tracing the processes of differentiation throughout the two entire lines of development that we may hope to unravel all the mysteries bound up in the problem of sex1 or to understand the fundamental differences in character and constitution caused by this early division of labour4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,sex ,,differences ,we have observed that1 according to naturalists1 the earliest forms of life which appeared on the earth were androgynous or hermaphrodite1 that the two elements necessary for reproduction were originally confined within one and the same individual within which were carried on all the functions of reproduction4 ,later1 however1 a division of labour arose1 and these two original functions became detached1 after which time the reproductive processes were carried on only through the commingling of elements prepared by1 or developed within1 two separate and distinct individuals4 ,as the belief is entertained by our guides in this matter that greater differentiation1 or specialization of parts1 denotes higher organization1 it is believed that the division of labour by which the germ is prepared by one individual and the sperm by another individual1 as is the case at the present time with all the higher orders of life1 constitutes an important step in the line of progress4 ,here this line of argument ceases1 and1 until very recent times1 concerning the course of development followed by each sex little has been heard4 ,this silence on a subject of such vital importance to the student of biology is not perhaps difficult to understand2 the conclusion1 however1 is unavoidable that the individual which must nourish and protect the germ1 and by processes carried on within her own body provide nourishment for the young during its prenatal existence1 and sometimes for years after birth1 must have the more highly specialized organism1 and must1 therefore1 represent the higher stage of development4 ,indeed1 it is admitted by scientists that the advance from the egg-layers to the milk-givers indicates one of the most important steps in the entire line of development2 and yet the peculiar specialization of structure necessary for its accomplishment was for the most part carried on within the female organism4 ,concerning the origin of sex in the individual organism little seems to be known2 as a result1 however1 of observations on the development of the reproductive organs in the higher vertebrates1 and especially in birds1 it is believed that there exists a 8strict parallelism between the individual and the racial history10--that the three main stages in the development of the chick1 viz43 7#a7 germi-parity1 7#b7 hermaphroditism1 and 7#c7 differentiated unisexuality1 correspond to the three great steps of historic evolution4 ,by a careful investigation of the facts connected with the development of unisexual forms1 we are enabled to discover the early beginnings of the characteristics which distinguish the two sexes throughout their entire course4 ,we are told that with animals which have their sexes separate1 in addition to strictly sexual difference the male possesses certain organs of sense or locomotion1 of which the female is quite destitute1 or has them more highly developed1 in order that he may readily find or reach her2 or again the male has special organs of prehension for holding her securely4 ,these latter organs1 of infinitely diversified kinds1 graduate into those which are commonly ranked as primary4#d #d ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #bjg4 ,the female1 on the other hand1 in addition to those sexual characters which are strictly primary1 has 8organs for the nourishment or protection of her young1 such as the mammary glands of mammals1 and the abdominal sacks of the marsupials40 ,in addition to these she is frequently provided with organs for the defence of the community2 for instance1 8the females of most bees are provided with a special apparatus for collecting and carrying pollen1 and their ovipositor is modified into a sting for the defence of the larv and the community40 ,we are assured by ,mr4 ,darwin that many similar cases could be given4#e #e ,ibid41 p4 #bjh4 ,here1 then1 with almost the first or primary step toward sexual differentiation1 may be observed the establishment of that peculiar bias which upon investigation will be seen to extend all along the two lines of sexual demarcation1 and which 7to anticipate the conclusions of our argument71 as soon as mankind is reached1 appears in the male as extreme egoism or selfishness1 and in the female as altruism or care for other individuals outside of self4 ,we are assured1 however1 that it is not alone to the reproductive organs and their functions that we are to look for the chief differences in the constitution and character of the sexes4 ,neither is it entirely to ,natural ,selection that we are to seek for the causes which underlie the specialization peculiar to the two diverging lines of sexual demarcation2 in addition to primary sexual divergences1 there are also 8secondary sexual characters0 which are of great importance to their possessor4 ,indeed1 from the prominence given to ,sexual ,selection by ,mr4 ,darwin1 it would seem that it played a part in the development of males quite equal to that of ,natural ,selection itself4 ,now the difference between ,natural ,selection and ,sexual ,selection is that1 whereas1 in the former1 characters are developed and preserved which are of use to the individual in overcoming the unfavourable conditions of environment1 by the latter1 only those characters are acquired and preserved which assist the individual in overcoming the obstacles to reproduction2 or1 to use ,mr4 ,darwin's own language3 ,sexual ,selection depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over others of the same sex and species solely in respect of reproduction4444 ,where the males have acquired their present structure1 not from being better fitted to survive in the struggle of existence1 but from having gained an advantage over other males1 and from having transmitted this advantage to their male offspring alone1 sexual selection must here have come into action4444 ,a slight degree of variability leading to some advantage1 however slight1 in reiterated deadly contests would suffice for the work of sexual selection2 and it is certain that secondary sexual characters are eminently variable4 ,just as man can give beauty1 according to his standard of taste1 to his male poultry1 or more strictly can modify the beauty originally acquired by the parent species1 can give to the ,sebright bantam a new and elegant plumage1 an erect and peculiar carriage--so it appears the female birds in a state of nature1 have by a long selection of the more attractive males1 added to their beauty or other attractive qualities4#f #f ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 pp4 #bji-baa4 ,thus1 according to ,mr4 ,darwin1 it is through a long selection by females of the more attractive males that the present structure of the latter has been acquired4 ,if1 in a short time1 a man can give elegant carriage and beauty to his bantams1 according to his standard of beauty1 he can see no reason to doubt that female birds1 by selecting during thousands of generations the most melodious or beautiful males1 according to their standard of beauty1 might produce a marked effect4 ,he says3 ,to sum up on the means through which1 as far as we can judge1 sexual selection has led to the development of secondary sexual characters4 ,it has been shown that the largest number of vigorous offspring will be reared from the pairing of the strongest and best armed males1 victorious in contests over other males1 with the most vigorous and best-nourished females1 which are the first to breed in the spring4 ,if such females select the more attractive1 and at the same time vigorous males1 they will rear a larger number of offspring than the retarded females1 which must pair with the less vigorous and less attractive males4444 ,the advantage thus gained by the more vigorous pairs in rearing a larger number of offspring has apparently sufficed to render sexual selection efficient4#g #g ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #bbj4 ,although the belief is common among naturalists that the appearance of secondary sexual characters belonging to males is greatly influenced by female choice1 a majority of writers upon this subject are not in sympathy with ,mr4 ,darwin's theory concerning the origin of these variations4 ,it is believed by them that ,sexual ,selection 8may account for the perfecting1 but not for the origin1 of these characters40 ,it is useless1 however1 to rehearse the opinions of the various writers who have dealt with this subject4 ,it is perhaps sufficient to state that the great beauty of males has usually been accepted as evidence of their superiority over the females4 ,in his chapter1 8,the ,male generally more ,modified than the ,female10 ,mr4 ,darwin remarks3 8,appearances would indicate that not the male which is most attractive to the female is chosen1 but the one which is least distasteful40 ,he says that the aversion of female birds for certain males renders the season of courtship one of great anxiety and discomfiture1 not only to many of the more poorly endowed aspirants1 but to those also which are more magnificently attired--that the pairing ground becomes a field of battle1 upon which1 while parading their charms to the best advantage1 is sacrificed much of the gorgeous plumage of the contestants4 ,on the wooing ground are displayed for the admiration and approval of the females1 all the physical attractions of the males1 as well as the mental characters correlated with them1 namely1 courage1 and pugnacity or perseverance4 ,according to ,mr4 ,darwin1 with the exception of vanity1 no other quality is in any considerable degree manifested by male birds1 but to such an extent has love of display been developed in many of them1 notably the pea-fowl1 that1 8in the absence of females of his own species1 he will show off his finery before poultry and even pigs40 ,we are assured that the higher we ascend in the animal kingdom the more frequent and more violent become two desires in the male3 8the desire of appearing beautiful1 and that of driving away rivals40 ,according to ,mr4 ,darwin's theory of development1 because of the indifference of the female among the lower orders of life to the processes of courtship1 it has been necessary for the male to expend much energy or vital force in searching for her--in contending with his rivals for possession of her person1 and in performing various acts to please her and secure her favours4 ,while excessive eagerness in courtship is the one all-absorbing character of male fishes1 birds1 and mammals1 we are assured that with the females1 pairing is not only a matter of indifference1 but that courtship is actually distasteful to them1 and1 therefore1 that the former must resort to the various means referred to in order to induce the latter to submit to their advances4 ,we are informed that the female is sometimes charmed through the power of song2 that at other times she is captivated by the diversified means which have been acquired by male insects and birds for producing various sounds resembling those proceeding from certain kinds of musical instruments2 and not unfrequently she is won by means of antics or love dances performed on the ground or in the air4 ,on the pairing-ground1 combs1 wattles1 elongated plumes1 top-knots1 and fancy-coloured feathers are paraded for the admiration and approval of the females4 ,led by the all-absorbing instinct of desire1 the males display their charms with elaborate care and to the best effect2 and this is done in the presence of the females4444 ,to suppose that the females do not appreciate the beauty of the males1 is to admit that their splendid decorations1 and all their pomp and display1 are useless2 and this is incredible4#h #h ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #dif4 ,topknots1 gaudy feathers1 elongated plumes among birds1 huge tusks1 horns1 etc41 among mammals1 the mane of the lion1 and the beard of man1 may be noticed among the many characters which have been acquired through ,sexual ,selection4 ,although the immense teeth1 tusks1 horns1 and various other weapons or appendages which ornament the males of many species of mammals1 have all been developed through ,sexual ,selection for contending with their rivals for the favours of the females1 it is observed that the 8most pugnacious and best armed males seldom depend for success on their ability to drive away or kill their rivals10 but that their special aim is to 8charm the female40 ,mr4 ,darwin quotes from a 8good observer10 who believes that the battles of male birds 8are all a sham1 performed to show themselves to the greatest advantage before the admiring females who assemble around40#i #i ,ibid41 p4 #cfg4 ,in ,the ,descent of ,man is quoted the following from ,mr4 ,belt1 who1 after describing the beauty of the ,florisuga mellivora1 says3 ,i have seen the female sitting on a branch1 and two males displaying their charms in front of her4 ,one would shoot up like a rocket1 then suddenly expanding the snow-white tail1 like an inverted parachute1 slowly descend in front of her1 turning round gradually to show off back and front4444 ,the expanded white tail covered more space than all the rest of the bird1 and was evidently the grand feature in the performance4 ,whilst one male was descending1 the other would shoot up and come slowly down expanded4 ,the entertainment would end in a fight between the two performers2 but whether the most beautiful or the most pugnacious was the accepted suitor1 ,i know not4#aj #aj ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #ddc4 ,audubon1 who spent a long life in observing birds1 has no doubt that the female deliberately chooses her mate4 ,of the woodpecker he says the hen is followed by half a dozen suitors1 who continue performing strange antics 8until a marked preference is shown for one40 ,of the red-winged starling it is said that she is pursued by several males 8until1 becoming fatigued1 she alights1 receives their addresses1 and soon makes a choice40#aa ,mr4 ,darwin quotes further from ,audubon1 who says that among the ,virginia goat-suckers1 no sooner has the female 8made her choice than her approved gives chase to all intruders1 and drives them beyond his dominions40 #aa ,ibid41 p4 #daf4 ,it is said that among mammals the male depends almost entirely upon his strength and courage to 8charm the female40 ,with reference to the struggles between animals for the possession of the females1 ,mr4 ,darwin says3 ,this fact is so notorious that it would be superfluous to give instances4 ,hence the females have the opportunity of selecting one out of several males1 on the supposition that their mental capacity suffices for the exertion of a choice4#ab #ab ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #bab4 ,we are assured that among nearly all the lower orders of life the female exhibits a marked preference for certain individuals1 and that an equal degree of repugnance is manifested towards others1 but that the male1 whose predominant character is desire1 8is ready to pair with any female40 ,on this subject ,mr4 ,darwin remarks3 8,the general impression seems to be that the male accepts any female40 ,he says it frequently occurs that while two males are fighting together to win the favours of a female1 she goes away with a third for whom she has a preference4 ,mr4 ,darwin quotes from ,captain ,bryant1 who says of a certain species of seals3 ,many of the females on their arrival at the island where they breed1 appear desirous of returning to some particular male1 and frequently climb the outlying rock to overlook the rookeries1 calling out and listening as if for a familiar voice4 ,then changing to another place they do the same again4#ac #ac ,ibid41 p4 #ebc4 ,little seems to be known of the courtship of animals in a state of nature4 ,among domesticated species1 however1 many observations have been made by breeders going to prove that the female exerts a choice in pairing4 ,concerning dogs1 ,mr4 ,darwin quotes from ,mr4 ,mayhew1 who says3 8,the females are able to bestow their affections2 and tender recollections are as potent over them as they are known to be in other cases where higher animals are concerned40 ,of the affection of female dogs for certain males the same writer says it 8becomes of more than romantic endurance10 that they manifest a 8devotion which no time can afterwards subdue40 ,on concluding his chapter on choice in pairing among quadrupeds1 ,mr4 ,darwin remarks3 ,it is improbable that the unions of quadrupeds in a state of nature should be left to mere chance4 ,it is much more probable that the females are allured or excited by particular males1 who possess certain characters in a higher degree than other males4#ad #ad ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #ebe4 ,as the female among birds selects her partner1 he thinks it would be a strange anomaly if among quadrupeds1 which stand higher in the scale and have higher mental powers1 she did not also exert a choice4#ae #ae ,it should be noted1 in passing1 that1 according to this reasoning1 the female of the human species would also be likely to exercise her will power in the selection of a mate4 ,evidences are indeed at hand going to prove that until a comparatively recent time in the history of the human race women controlled the sexual relation4 ,as will be shown in ,part ,,ii41 during the primitive ages of human existence the position of woman was much higher than was that occupied by man4 ,during the earlier ages1 and under more natural conditions1 women selected their mates1 and among the human species1 as among the lower orders1 it became necessary for the male to please the female if he would win her favours2 hence1 through ,sexual ,selection1 it is believed1 was acquired the greater size of man4 ,because of the indifference of the female to the attentions of the male1 in order to carry on the processes of reproduction1 it was necessary among the lower orders that the male become eager in his pursuit of her1 and as a result of this eagerness excessive passion was developed in him4 ,as the most eager would be the most successful in propagating1 they would leave the greatest number of offspring to inherit their characters--namely1 in males1 passion and pugnacity correlated with the physical qualities acquired through ,sexual ,selection4 ,on the subject of the acquirement of secondary sexual characters1 ,mr4 ,darwin says3 8,the great eagerness of the males has thus indirectly led to their much more frequently developing secondary sexual characters40 ,indeed1 by all naturalists1 the fact is recognized that the appearance of these characters is closely connected with the reproductive function4 ,later experiments have confirmed the observations of ,mr4 ,darwin concerning the intelligence of the female among the lower orders of life4 ,among these experiments are those recently made by ,professor ,harper1 of the ,department of ,biology1 in the ,northwestern ,university4 ,professor ,harper announces that in all the experiments conducted by him1 the female animal showed a greater degree of perception1 or intelligence1 than the male4 ,he says3 8,in all my experiments1 ,i found that the female displayed a remarkable quickness in grasping ideas which the male after numerous sluggish efforts finally accomplished40 ,professor ,harper declared that these facts regarding animals apply with equal force to human beings4 ,regarding the power of the female to appreciate the beauty of the males1 ,mr4 ,darwin says3 ,no doubt this implies powers of discrimination and taste on the part of the female which will at first appear extremely improbable2 but by the facts to be adduced hereafter1 ,i hope to be able to show that the females actually have these powers4#af #af ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #baa4 ,in commenting on the fact that the female ,argus pheasant appreciates the exquisite shading of the ball-and-socket ornaments1 and the elegant patterns on the wing-feathers of the male1 ,mr4 ,darwin writes3 ,he who thinks that the male was created as he now exists1 must admit that the great plumes which prevent the wings from being used for flight1 and which are displayed at courtship and at no other time1 in a manner quite peculiar to this species1 were given to him as ornaments4 ,if so he must likewise admit that the female was created and endowed with the capacity for appreciating such ornaments4 ,every one who admits the principle of evolution1 and yet feels great difficulty in believing the high taste implied by the beauty of the males1 and which generally coincides with our own standard1 should reflect that the nerve cells of the brain in the highest as in the lowest members of the vertebrate series are derived from those of the common progenitor of this great kingdom4 ,in referring to the remarkable patterns displayed on the male ,argus pheasant1 designs which have been developed through ,sexual ,selection1 ,mr4 ,darwin says3 ,many will declare that it is utterly incredible that a female bird should be able to appreciate fine shading and exquisite patterns4 ,it is undoubtedly a marvellous fact that she should possess this almost human degree of taste4 ,he who thinks that he can safely gauge the discrimination and taste of the lower animals may deny that the female ,argus pheasant can appreciate such refined beauty2 but he will then be compelled to admit that the extraordinary attitudes assumed by the male during the act of courtship1 by which the wonderful beauty of his plumage is fully displayed1 are purposeless2 and this is a conclusion which ,i1 for one1 will never admit4#ag #ag ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #djj4 ,here1 then1 in the female bird we see developed in a remarkable degree the power of discrimination1 the exercise of taste1 a sense of beauty1 and the ability to choose--qualities which the facts brought forward by scientists show conclusively to have been acquired by the female and by her transmitted to her offspring4 ,regarding males1 outside the instinct for self-preservation1 which1 by the way1 is often overshadowed by their great sexual eagerness1 no distinguishing characters have been acquired and transmitted1 other than those which have been the result of passion1 namely1 pugnacity and perseverance4 ,this excessive eagerness which prompts them to parade their charms whenever such display is likely to aid them in the gratification of their desires is developed only in the male line4 ,according to the law of heredity1 those modifications of the male which have been the result of ,sexual ,selection appear only in the sex in which they originated4 ,it will be well for us to remember that according to ,mr4 ,darwin's theory of pangenesis1 sexes do not differ much in constitution before the power of reproduction is reached1 but that after this time the undeveloped atoms or gemmules which are cast off from each varying part in the one sex would be much more likely to possess the proper affinities for uniting with the tissues of the same sex1 and thus becoming developed1 than with those of the opposite sex4#ah #ah ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #bcb4 ,we are given to understand that secondary sexual characters are extremely variable1 also that variability denotes low organization2 secondary sexual characters indicate that the various organs of the structure have not become specialized for the performance of their legitimate functions4 ,highly specialized forms are not variable4 ,to sum up the argument thus far3 ,it has been observed that through the separation of the sexes1 and the consequent division of labour1 there have been established two diverging lines of development4 ,while the male pheasant has been inheriting from his male progenitors fantastic ball-and-socket ornaments1 and huge wings which are utterly useless for their legitimate purpose1 the female1 in the meantime1 has been receiving as her inheritance only those peculiarities of structure which tend toward uninterrupted development4 ,within her have been stored or conserved all the gain which has been effected through ,natural ,selection1 and as a result of greater specialization of parts1 there have been developed certain peculiarities in her brain nerve-cells1 by which she is enabled to exercise functions requiring a considerable degree of intelligence4 ,although this power of choice1 which we are given to understand is exercised by the female throughout the various departments of the vertebrate kingdom 7evidences of it having been observed among creatures even as low in the organic scale as fishes71 implies a degree of intelligence far in advance of that manifested by males1 it is admitted that the qualities which bespeak this superiority1 namely1 the power to exercise taste and discrimination1 constitute a 8law almost as general as the eagerness of the male40#ai #ai ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #bbb4 ,we are assured by ,mr4 ,darwin that in the economy of nature those ornaments of the male ,argus pheasant which serve no other purpose than to please the female and secure her favours1 and which have been acquired at great expense of vital force1 are of the 8highest importance to him10 and that his success in captivating the female 8has more than compensated him for his greatly impeded power of flight and his lessened capacity for running40 ,yet it is plain that his compensation for this immense expenditure of vital force has not lain in the direction of higher specialization1 but that while by the acquirement of these characters the processes of reproduction have doubtless been aided1 the injury to the male constitution has been deep and lasting4 ,upon this subject ,mr4 ,darwin himself says3 ,the development1 however1 of certain structures--of the horns1 for instance1 in certain stags--has been carried to a wonderful extreme2 and in some cases to an extreme which1 as far as the general conditions of life are concerned1 must be slightly injurious to the male4#bj #bj ,ibid41 p4 #bbg4 ,he thinks1 however1 that ,natural ,selection will determine that such characters shall not be acquired by the victorious males if they would be highly injurious1 either by expending too much of their vital powers or by exposing them to any great danger4 ,according to ,mr4 ,darwin1 as these characters enable them to leave a more numerous progeny1 their advantages are in the long run greater than those derived from more perfect adaptation to their conditions of life4 ,it is plain1 however1 that this advantage1 although it enables them to gratify their desires1 and at the same time to perpetuate their species1 does not imply higher development for the male organism4 ,we have been assured by our guides in these matters that in the processes of evolution there is no continuous or unbroken chain of progress1 that growth or change does not necessarily imply development1 but1 on the contrary1 only as a structure becomes better fitted for its conditions1 and only as its organs become more highly specialized for the performance of all the duties involved in its environment1 may it be said to be in the line of progress4 ,if this be true1 particular attention should be directed to the fact that as secondary sexual characters do not assist their possessor in overcoming the unfavourable conditions of his environment1 they are not within the line of true development1 but1 on the contrary1 as their growth requires a great expenditure of vital force1 and1 as is the case among birds1 they often hinder the free use of the legs in running and walking1 and entirely destroy the use of the wings for flight1 they must be detrimental to the entire structure4 ,for the reason that females have managed to do without them1 the plea that the great tusks1 horns1 teeth1 etc41 of mammals have been acquired for self-defence1 is scarcely tenable4 ,on the subject of the relative expenditure of vital force in the two lines of sexual demarcation1 ,mr4 ,darwin remarks3 ,the female has to expend much organic matter in the formation of her ova1 whereas the male expends much force in fierce contests with his rivals1 in wandering about in search of the female1 in exerting his voice1 pouring out odoriferous secretions1 etc4444 ,in mankind1 and even as low down in the organic scale as in the ,lepidoptera1 the temperature of the body is higher in the male than in the female1 accompanied in the case of man by a slower pulse4#ba ,yet he concludes3 8,on the whole the expenditure of matter and force by the two sexes is probably nearly equal1 though effected in very different ways and at different rates40#ba #ba ,the ,descent of ,man1 p4 #bbd4 ,however1 as has been observed1 the force expended by the male in fierce contests with his rivals1 in wandering about in search of the female1 and in his exertions to please her when found1 does not constitute the only outlay of vitality to which he is subjected2 but in addition to all this1 there still remains to be considered that force which has been expended in the acquirement of characters which1 so far as his own development is concerned1 are useless and worse than useless2 namely1 in birds1 combs1 wattles1 elongated plumes1 great wings1 etc41 and in mammals great horns1 tusks1 and teeth--appendages which lie outside the line of true development1 and1 as we have seen1 are of no avail except to aid in the processes of reproduction and to assist him in the gratification of his desires2 in fact1 as these excrescences hinder him in the performance of the ordinary functions of life1 they may be regarded in the light of actual hindrances to higher development4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,male ,,organic ,,defects ,we have observed that through the great sexual ardour developed at puberty within the male of the lower species1 numberless variations of structure have been acquired1 characters which1 as they are the result of undeveloped atoms cast off from the varying parts in his progenitors1 denote low organization4 ,we have seen also that these characters require for their growth an immense amount of vital force1 which1 had the development of the male been normal1 would have been expended in perfecting the organism1 or would have been utilized in fitting it to overcome the adverse conditions of his environment4 ,secondary sexual characters1 being so far as males are concerned1 wholly the result of eagerness in courtship1 cannot appear before the time for reproduction arrives1 and as it is a law of heredity that peculiarities of structure which are developed late in life1 when transmitted to offspring1 appear only in the sex in which they originated1 these variations of structure are confined to males4 ,according to ,mr4 ,darwin's theory little difference exists between the sexes until the age of reproduction arrives4 ,it is at this time1 the time when the secondary sexual characters begin to assert themselves1 that the preponderating superiority of the male begins to manifest itself4 ,although1 according to ,mr4 ,darwin1 variability denotes low organization and shows that the various organs of the body have not become specialized to perform properly their legitimate functions1 it is to characters correlated with and dependent upon these varying parts that the male has ultimately become superior to the female4 ,if these characters1 namely1 pugnacity1 perseverance1 and courage have been such important factors in establishing male superiority1 too much care may not be exercised in analyzing them and in tracing their origin and subsequent development4 ,sexual ,selection resembles artificial selection save that the female takes the part of the human breeder4 ,she represents the intelligent factor or cause in the operations involved4 ,if this be true1 if it is through her will1 or through some agency or tendency latent in her constitution that ,sexual ,selection comes into play1 then she is the primary cause of the very characters through which man's superiority over woman has been gained4 ,as a stream may not rise higher than its source1 or as the creature may not surpass its creator in excellence1 it is difficult to understand the processes by which man1 through ,sexual ,selection1 has become superior to woman4 ,he who admits the principle of ,sexual ,selection will be led to the remarkable conclusion that the nervous system not only regulates most of the existing functions of the body1 but has indirectly influenced the progressive development of various bodily structures and certain mental qualities4 ,courage1 pugnacity1 perseverance1 strength and size of body1 weapons of all kinds1 musical organs1 both vocal and instrumental1 bright colours1 and ornamental appendages have all been indirectly gained by the one sex or the other1 through the exertion of choice1 the influence of love and jealousy1 and the appreciation of the beautiful in sound1 colour1 or form2 and these powers of the mind manifestly depend on the development of the brain4#bb #bb ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #fag4 ,while the female has been performing the higher functions in the processes of reproduction1 through her force of will1 or through her power of choice1 she has also been the directing and controlling agency in the development of those characters in the male through which1 when the human species was reached1 he was enabled to attain a limited degree of progress4 ,since the origin of secondary sexual characters is so clearly manifest1 perhaps it will be well for us at this point to examine also their actual significance1 that we may be enabled to note the foundation upon which the dogma of male superiority rests4 ,although the gay colouring of male birds and fishes has usually been regarded as an indication of their superiority over their sombre-coloured mates1 later investigations are proving that these pigments represent simply unspecialized material1 and an effort of the system to cast out the waste products which have accumulated as a result of excessive ardour in courtship4 ,the same is true of combs1 wattles1 and other skin excrescences2 they show a feverish condition of the skin in the over-excited males1 whose temperature is usually much higher than is that of females4 ,we are assured that the skin eruptions of male fishes at the spawning season 8seem more pathological than decorative40#bc ,in the processes of reproduction1 the undeveloped atoms given off from each varying part are reproduced only in the male line4 #bc ,geddes and ,thomson1 ,the ,evolution of ,sex1 #ahij1 p4 #bd4 ,the beautiful colouring of male birds and fishes1 and the various appendages acquired by males throughout the various orders below man1 and which1 so far as they themselves are concerned1 serve no other useful purpose than to aid them in securing the favours of the females1 have by the latter been turned to account in the processes of reproduction4 ,the female made the male beautiful that she might endure his caresses4 ,from the facts elaborated by our guides in this matter1 it would seem that the female is the primary unit of creation1 and that the male functions are simply supplemental or complementary4 ,parthenogenesis among many of the lower forms of life would seem to favour this view4 ,we are given to understand that under conditions favouring katabolism1 the males among ,rotifera wear themselves out1 under which conditions the females become katabolic enough to do without them4 ,among the common ,rotifera1 the males are almost always very different from the females1 and much smaller4 ,sometimes they seem to have dwindled out of existence altogether1 for only the females are known4 ,in other cases1 though present1 they entirely fail to accomplish their proper function of fertilization1 and1 as parthenogenesis obtains1 are not only minute1 but useless4#bd #bd ,the ,evolution of ,sex1 #ahij1 p4 #bj4 ,so long as food is plentiful1 the females continue to raise parthenogenetic offspring1 but with the advent of hard times1 when food is scarce or of a poor quality1 the parthenogenetic series is interrupted by the appearance of males4 ,although1 unaided by the male1 the female of certain species is able to reproduce1 he has never been able to propagate without her co-operation4 ,concerning the conditions which underlie the production of females and males we have the following from ,the ,evolution of ,sex1 by ,geddes and ,thomson3 ,such conditions as deficient or abnormal food1 high temperature1 deficient light1 moisture1 and the like1 are obviously such as would tend to induce a preponderance of waste over repair--a katabolic habit of body1--and these conditions tend to result in the production of males4 ,similarly1 the opposed set of factors1 such as abundant and rich nutrition1 abundant light and moisture1 favour constructive processes1 i4e41 make for an anabolic habit1 and these conditions result in the production of females4#be #be ,the ,evolution of ,sex1 p4 #ej4 ,among the lower orders of animal life1 notably insects1 we are assured that an excess of females denotes an excess of formative force1 and that an excess of males indicates a deficiency on the part of the parents4 ,in the case of bees1 the queen1 which is the highest development1 is produced only under the best circumstances of nutrition1 while the birth of the drone1 which is the lowest result of propagation1 is preceded by extremely low conditions4 ,the working bee which1 being an imperfect female1 may not be impregnated1 will1 however1 give birth to parthenogenetic offspring1 such offspring always being male4 ,in the case of ,aphides1 the sex depends on the conditions of nutrition4 ,during the summer months while food is plentiful and nutritious1 females are parthenogenetically produced1 but with the return of autumn and the attendant scarcity of food1 together with the low temperature1 only males are brought forth4 ,in seasons in which food is abundant1 ,cladocera and ,aphides lose the power to copulate2 they nevertheless multiply parthenogenetically at a marvellous rate of increase1 giving birth to generation after generation of parthenogenetic females1 so long as the environment remains favourable1 but giving birth1 as soon as the conditions of life become less favourable1 to males and to females which require fertilization4#bf #bf ,prof4 ,w4 ,k4 ,brooks1 ,pop4 ,science ,monthly1 vol4 xxvi41 p4 #cbg4 ,it is stated also that if caterpillars are shut up and starved before entering the chrysalis stage1 the butterflies which make their appearance are males1 while the highly nourished caterpillars are sure to come out females4 ,in the case of moths unnutritious food produces only males4 ,experiments show that when tadpoles are left to themselves the average number of females is about fifty-seven in the hundred1 but that under favourable conditions the percentage of females is greatly increased4 ,the following is the result of one series of observations by ,yung4 ,in the first brood1 by feeding one set with beef1 the percentage of females was raised from fifty-four to seventy-eight2 in the second1 with fish1 the percentage rose from sixty-one to eighty-one1 which in the third set1 when the nutritious flesh of frogs was supplied1 only eight males were produced to ninety-two females4#bg #bg ,geddes and ,thomson1 ,the ,evolution of ,sex1 #ahij1 p4 #db4 ,it is stated that although scarcity of food is an important factor in determining the appearance of males1 temperature also plays an important part in their production4 ,kurg having found a few males in midsummer in pools which were nearly dried up was induced to attempt their artificial production4 ,so successful was he1 that 8he obtained the males of forty species1 in all of which the males had previously been unknown40 ,he proved that any unfavourable change in the water causes the production of males1 which appear as it dries up1 as its chemical constitution changes1 when it acquires an unfavourable temperature1 or1 in general1 when there is a decrease in prosperity4 ,from which observations and many others quoted from ,dring1 ,professor ,brooks concludes that 8among animals and plants1 as well as in mankind1 a favourable environment causes an excess of female births1 and an unfavourable environment an excess of male births40#bh ,according to ,rolph1 also1 the percentage of females increases with the increase of favourable conditions of temperature and food4 #bh ,popular ,science ,monthly1 vol4 xxvi41 p4 #cbh4 ,among insects the males appear first1 thus showing that less time is required to develop them from the larval state4 ,of this ,mr4 ,darwin says3 8,throughout the great class of insects the males almost always are the first to emerge from the pupal state1 so that they generally abound for a time before any female can be seen40#bi #bi ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #bab4 ,recent observations show that among the human species nutrition plays a significant part in determining sex4 ,statistics prove that in towns and in well-to-do families there is a preponderance of girls1 while in the country1 and among the poor1 more boys are born2 also1 that immediately following epidemics1 wars1 and famines1 there is an excess of male births4 ,on examination1 it was found that in ,saxony 8the ratio of boy-births rose and fell with the price of food1 and that the variation was most marked in the country40#cj #cj ,w4 ,k4 ,brooks1 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 vol4 xxvi41 p4 #cbf4 ,that the female represents a higher development than the male is proved throughout all the various departments of nature4 ,among plants1 staminate flowers open before pistillate1 and are much more abundant1 and less differentiated from the leaves1 showing that they are less developed1 and that slighter effort1 a less expenditure of force1 is necessary to form the male than the female4 ,a male flower represents an intermediate stage between a leaf and a perfect1 or we might say1 a female flower1 and the germ which produces the male would1 in a higher stage1 produce the female4#ca ,in reference to the subject of the relative positions of the female and male flowers in the ,sedges1 ,mr4 ,meehan observes3 #ca ,thomas ,meehan1 ,native ,flowers and ,ferns1 vol4 i41 p4 #dg4 ,in some cases the spike of the male flowers terminates the scape2 in others the male flowers occupy the lower place2 in others1 again they have various places on the same spike4 ,it will be generally noted that this is associated together with lines of nutrition1--those evidently favoured by comparative abundance sustaining the female flowers4 ,to this ,mr4 ,meehan adds3 ,and this is indeed a natural consequence1 for1 as vitality exists so much longer in the female than the male flowers1 which generally die when the pollen has matured1 it is essential that they should have every advantage in this respect4#cb #cb ,native ,flowers and ,ferns1 vol4 i41 p4 #ci4 ,the most perfect and vigorous specimens of coniferous trees are of the female kind4 ,in its highest and most luxuriant stage the larch bears only female blossoms1 but so soon as its vigour is lost male flowers appear1 after which death soon ensues4 ,in ,the ,evolution of ,sex1 by ,geddes and ,thomson1 is the following3 ,in phraseology which will presently become more intelligible and concrete1 the males live at a loss1 are more katabolic1--disruptive changes tending to preponderate in the sum of changes in their living matter or protoplasm4 ,the females1 on the other hand1 live at a profit1 are more anabolic1--constructive processes predominating in their life1 whence indeed the capacity of bearing offspring4#cc #cc ,the ,evolution of ,sex1 #ahij1 p4 #bf4 ,among the lower orders of animals1 there appears an excess of males1 and among the higher forms of life1 man included1 the fact that the male is the result of the cruder1 less developed germ1 has been clearly shown1 not alone by the facts brought forward by ,mr4 ,darwin1 but by those enunciated by all reliable writers on this subject4 ,as a result of the excessive eagerness in males1 and the consequent expenditure of vital force among the lower orders of life to find the female and secure her favours1 they are generally smaller in size1 with a higher body temperature and shorter life4 ,among the higher orders1 the human species1 for instance1 although man is larger than woman1 he is still shorter lived1 has less endurance1 is more predisposed to organic diseases1 and is more given to reversion to former types1 facts which show that his greater size is not the result of higher development4 ,it is noted that the liability to assume characters proper to lower orders belongs in a marked degree to males of all the higher species--man included4 ,doubtless man's greater size 7a modification which has been acquired through ,sexual ,selection7 has been of considerable value to him in the struggle for existence to which he has been subjected1 but the indications are already strong that after a certain stage of progress has been reached1 even this modification of structure will prove useless1 if not an actual hindrance to him4 ,on mechanical principles1 every increase of size requires more than a corresponding increase of strength and endurance to balance the activities and carry on the vital processes1 yet such have been the conditions of man's development1 that his excess of strength does not compensate for his greater size and weight1 while his powers of endurance fall below those of women4 ,although the conditions of the past have required a vast expenditure of physical energy1 the activities of the future will make no such demand4 ,nature's forces directed by the human will and intellect are already lessening the necessity for an excessive outlay of bodily strength4 ,it may be truly said that electricity and the innumerable mechanical devices now in use have well nigh supplanted the necessity for great physical exertion4 ,even war1 should it be continued1 which is not likely1 will be conducted without it4 ,destructive weapons based upon high-power explosives require little physical effort for their manipulation4 ,the pugilist represents the departing glory of male physical strength4 ,we are informed by ,mr4 ,darwin that by a vast number of measurements taken of various parts of the human body in different races1 during his ,novara ,expedition1 it was found that the men in almost every case presented a greater range of variations than women1 and1 as ,mr4 ,wood has carefully attended to the variations of the muscles of man1 ,mr4 ,darwin quotes from him that 8the greatest number of abnormalities in each subject is found in males40 ,he adduces also the testimony of several others who have practically investigated this subject1 all of whom agree in their statements that variations in the muscles are more frequent in males than in females4 ,these variations usually consist in a reversion to lower types--a reversion in which muscles proper to lower forms of life make their appearance4 ,in an examination of forty male subjects1 there was in nineteen of them a rudimentary muscle found which is designated as the ischio-pubic1 and in three others of the forty was observed a ligament which represents this muscle2 but1 in an examination by the same person of thirty female subjects1 in only two of them was this muscle developed on both sides1 whilst in three others the rudimentary ligament was present4 ,thus while we observe that about fifty-five per cent4 of the males examined were possessed of muscles proper to lower orders1 in only about seventeen per cent4 of the females under observation did this reversion appear4 ,in a single male subject1 seven muscular variations proper to apes were indicated4 ,numberless cases might be cited in which reversions and abnormalities have been developed only in the male line4 ,of the porcupine men of the ,lambert family who lived in ,london last century1 ,haeckel says3 ,edward ,lambert1 born in #agag1 was remarkable for a most unusual and monstrous formation of the skin4 ,his whole body was covered with a horny substance1 about an inch thick1 which rose in the form of numerous thorn-shaped and scale-like processes1 more than an inch long4 ,this monstrous formation on the outer skin1 or epidermis1 was transmitted by ,lambert to his sons and grandsons1 but not to his granddaughters4#cd #cd ,history of ,creation1 #ahhd1 vol4 i41 p4 #agh4 ,according to the testimony of those who have made a study of the various abnormalities in the human organism1 the ears of men present a greater range of variations than do those of women1 and the cases in which supernumerary digits appear in males are as two to one1 compared with females presenting the same structural defect4 ,of one hundred and fifty-two cases of this kind tabulated by ,burt ,wilder1 eighty-six were males and thirty-nine females1 the sex of the remaining twenty-seven being unknown4 ,mr4 ,darwin wishes us to remember1 however1 that 8women would more frequently endeavour to conceal a deformity of this kind than men40 ,although it is quite natural for women to abhor abnormalities and deformities1 it is to be doubted if they would succeed for any considerable length of time in concealing the deformity of an organ which1 like the hand1 is usually uncovered1 and which in waking hours1 is in almost constant use4 ,one of the principal characters which distinguishes the human animal from the lower orders is the absence of a natural covering for the skin4 ,that mankind have descended from hair-covered progenitors is the inevitable conclusion of all those who accept the theory of the evolution of species1 the straggling hairs which are scattered over the body of man being the rudiments of a uniform hairy coat which enveloped his ancestors4 ,we are informed that a hairy covering for the body1 pointed ears which were capable of movement1 and a tail provided with the proper muscles1 were among the undoubted characters of the antecedents of the human race4 ,in addition to these1 among the males1 were developed great canine teeth which were used as weapons against their rivals4 ,as the lack of a hairy coat for the body constitutes one of the principal characteristics which distinguishes man from the lower animals1 it would seem that a knowledge of the order of time in which the two sexes became divested of their natural covering would serve as a hint to indicate their relative stages of development4 ,in a paper read some years ago at a meeting of the ,anthropological ,institute in ,london1 ,miss ,bird 7,mrs4 ,bishop7 the well-known traveller1 gave a description of the ,ainos1 a race of people found chiefly in the island of ,yezo1 and who1 it is thought probable1 were the original inhabitants of ,japan4 ,the peculiarity of this people is1 that the men are covered with a thick coat of black hair4 ,the women1 we are told1 8are not hairy like the men10 but 8have soft brown skins40 ,upon this subject of hairiness1 ,mr4 ,darwin says3 ,as the body of woman is less hairy than that of man1 and as this character is common to all races1 we may conclude that it was our female semi-human ancestors who were first divested of hair1 and that this occurred at an extremely remote period before the several races had diverged from a common stock4 ,after our female ancestors had acquired the new character1 nudity1 they must have transmitted it to their own sex1 and by continually selecting their mates from among the least hairy1 in process of time males too would become divested of their animal covering4 ,whether or not our semi-human ancestors were subjected to the scorching heat of the torrid zone1 nudity must have been better suited to their improved condition1 not wholly1 however1 because of its greater beauty and comfort1 but because it was a condition better suited to cleanliness2 and1 as the hairy coat had become a useless appendage1 or was not necessary to their changed conditions1 it disappeared from the bodies of females1 while doubtless for ages it was retained upon the bodies of males4 ,that hairiness denotes a low stage of development1 ,mr4 ,darwin incautiously admits1 yet in dealing with this subject he is not disposed to carry his admission to its legitimate conclusion by treating its appearance on the body of man as a test in determining the comparative development of the female and male organisms4 ,idiots1 who1 by the way1 are more numerous among males than among females1 are frequently covered with hair1 and by the acquirement of other characters more often revert to lower animal types4 ,mr4 ,darwin assures us that around sores of long standing stiff hairs are liable to appear1 thus showing that hair on the body is indicative of undeveloped tissues and low constitutional conditions4 ,the same writer1 however1 does not neglect to inform us that the loss of man's hairy covering was rather an injury to him than otherwise2 but whether or not the diminution in the quality of prehension in his toes1 the loss of his canines1 and the disappearance of his tail have likewise proved detrimental to him1 ,mr4 ,darwin fails to state4 ,the fact that throughout the vertebrate kingdom males possess rudiments of the various parts appertaining to the reproductive system which properly belong to females1 is regarded as evidence that some remote progenitor of this kingdom must have been hermaphrodite1 or androgynous1 especially as it has been ascertained that at a very early embryonic period both sexes possess true male and female glands4 ,as high in the scale of life as the mammalian class1 males are said to possess rudiments of a uterus1 while at the same time mammary glands are plainly manifest2 which fact would seem to show that in the high state of development indicated by this great class1 male organs have not through the processes of differentiation become specialized for the performance of their legitimate functions4 ,in reference to the subject of atavism ,mr4 ,darwin cites as a case of reversion to a former type1 an instance in which a man was the possessor of two pairs of mamm4 ,it is true that instances have been observed in which characters peculiar to males have been developed in females4 ,this phenomenon1 however1 seldom appears among individuals of the higher orders1 and among the lower forms of life where it occurs1 it is always manifested under low circumstances of nutrition or in cases of old age1 disease1 or loss of vitality4 ,instances are cited in which hens1 after they have become old or diseased1 have taken on characters peculiar to males4 ,in all 8old-settled0 countries women are in excess of men1 and this is true1 notwithstanding the fact that more boys are born than girls4 ,regarding the excess of the male over female births1 ,mr4 ,darwin quotes from ,professor ,faye1 who says3 ,a still greater preponderance of males would be met with1 if death struck both sexes in equal proportion in the womb and during birth4 ,but the fact is1 that for every one hundred still-born females1 we have in several countries from #acd4f to #add4i still-born males4#ce _/ ,statistics show that during the first four or five years of life1 more male children die than female4 #ce ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahhg1 p4 #bdc4 ,although whenever throughout ,mr4 ,darwin's ,descent of ,man he has been pleased to deal with the subject of structural variations1 he has given us to understand that they are injurious to the constitution1 and although he has shown that their appearance is much more frequent in men than in women1 yet he does not seem to realize whither his admissions are leading him4 ,he has proved by seemingly well-established facts that the female organism is freer from imperfections than the male1 and therefore that it is less liable to derangements2 also1 that being more highly specialized1 it is less susceptible to injury under unfavourable conditions2 yet1 in attempting to explain the reason why so many more male than female infants succumb to the exigencies of birth1 he expresses the opinion that the size of the body and 8especially of the head0 being greater in males1 they would be 8more liable to be injured during parturition40 ,among the reasons urged by ,mr4 ,darwin to account for the excess of women over men in all 8old-settled0 countries1 is that of the exposure of grown men to various dangers1 and their tendency to emigrate4 ,doubtless there is more emigration among men than among women1 still men do not usually emigrate to a wilderness and rarely to sparsely settled countries4 ,when men emigrate from one civilized country1 they usually go to another civilized country2 yet in all old-settled countries women are in excess of men4 ,while the dangers to which men are exposed because of their greater physical activity have been many1 and the accidents liable to occur from their harder struggle for existence more numerous than those to which women have been subjected1 still it would seem that the danger to female life1 incident to the artificial relations of the sexes under our present semi-civilized conditions1 is more than an offset for that to which men are liable4 ,the fact must be borne in mind1 however1 that the diseases and physical disabilities of women1 at the present time1 although dangerous to health and life1 are not organic1 and will therefore disappear as soon as through higher conditions they are allowed the free expression of their own will in matters pertaining to the sexual relation4 ,as the diseases peculiar to the female constitution are not caused by structural defects1 but1 on the contrary1 are due to the overstimulation of the animal instincts in her male mate1 or1 to the disparity between her stage of development and his1 they have not materially injured her constitution nor shortened her average duration of life1 neither have they lessened her capacity for improvement4 ,with reference to the women of ,greenland1 ,cranz says that while they remain with their parents they are well off2 but from twenty years of age till death1 their life is one series of anxieties1 wretchedness1 and toil1 yet1 in spite of all their cares1 toils1 and vexations the women commonly arrive at a greater age than the men4#cf #cf ,history of ,greenland1 vol4 i41 p4 #aeb4 ,that the imperfections of the male organism are already beginning to interpose themselves between man and many of the occupations and activities of advancing civilization1 is only too apparent4 ,sight1 far more than any other sense1 is the most intellectual1 yet in the development of the visual organs it has been proved that men are especially deficient4 ,dr4 ,andrew ,willson assures us that 8colour-blindness is a condition which is certainly capable of transmission to the progeny4 ,in one family the males alone were affected through seven generations40 ,in an examination which was carried on some years ago under the supervision of ,dr4 ,jeffries1 among the pupils of the ,boston schools1 in which were #ad1dfi boys and young men1 and #ac1deh girls and young women1 it was found that about one male in every twenty-five was colour-blind1 while the same defect among the girls and young women was extremely rare1 only #j4jff per cent4 of them being thus affected4#cg #cg ,pop4 ,science ,monthly1 vol4 xix41 p4 #efg4 ,at a convention held in the city of ,chicago for the purpose of organizing an association for educational reform1 the teacher of drawing in the ,st4 ,paul schools made a statement that 8four per cent4 of all male pupils were colour-blind1 while only one-tenth of one per cent4 of female pupils were so affected40 ,no explanation was offered for this strange fact2 indeed1 it was pronounced a mystery1 8even oculists and surgeons having given it up as impenetrable40 ,that defective vision is beginning to interfere with the activities of men1 is shown by the fact that in many instances1 in later times1 colour tests have been required to determine fitness of applicants for positions in various departments of commercial enterprise4 ,in this country1 during the last fifty years1 much attention has been given to the subject of visual defects in seamen1 railroadmen1 and other persons occupying positions of responsibility in which unimpaired vision is an important qualification4 ,in response to a request sent by the ,german ,government through its minister to the ,surgeon-,general of the ,united ,states ,army1 for statistical and other information on the subject of colour-blindness1 ,mr4 ,charles ,e4 ,pugh1 ,general ,manager of the ,pennsylvania ,railroad1 in ,september1 #ahhd1 sent to ,william ,thomson1 ,m4,d41 surgical expert for the same company1 the following statement3 ,total number examined on lines east of ,erie #be1aeh ,colour-blind #dha ,defective vision #ffa ,of this report ,dr4 ,thomson says3 ,the apparently small percentage of colour-blind in this table may be ascribed to the non-application of men who knew their deficiency1 and to the fact that men in the service1 knowing their defect1 would leave the road before examination1 and thus escape detection1 and be enabled to gain employment on other roads where no examinations are required4#ch #ch ,pop4 ,science ,monthly1 vol4 xxxi41 p4 #gif4 ,in several departments of the national government1 attempts have been made to guard against the dangers resulting from imperfect sight4 ,in the examination of recruits1 the ,war ,department at ,washington1 some years ago1 issued orders that bits of coloured pasteboard1 or 8test cards0 be used for determining the power of individuals to distinguish objects at a distance1 while worsteds of various hues were employed to ascertain their ability to distinguish colour4 ,in the ,treasury and ,naval ,departments were ordered similar examinations1 in which the power to distinguish colour was a necessary qualification in the case of all persons seeking employment therein4 ,in the examinations ordered by navigation and railroad companies to protect themselves and the public against disaster resulting from imperfect vision in their employees1 tests have been made4 ,among the requirements imposed by law1 applying to engineers1 brakemen1 and firemen1 in the ,state of ,connecticut1 are the following3 8,unobstructed visual field1 normal visual acuteness1 and freedom from colour-blindness40 ,if ,dr4 ,jeffries's investigation in the ,boston public schools and the report of the officers of the ,pennsylvania ,railroad are to serve as a criterion in judging of the extent to which impaired vision is developed in men1 or if among them one in every twenty-five is defective in the colour sense1 the inference seems unavoidable that the proportion of them unfitted for railroad and steamboat service1 for military duty1 and for various important government positions1 must be large4 ,hence1 by these tests alone may be observed something of the extent to which1 under the higher conditions which are approaching1 the imperfect development in men of this one organ 7the eye7 may cripple their energies and check those activities which1 in many instances1 are best suited to their tastes and inclinations4 ,nor is this defective vision developed in men a peculiarity which is confined within the limits of our own country4 ,in ,europe1 investigations analogous to those instituted in ,america have been followed by the same or similar results4 ,until a comparatively recent time this subject has received little or no attention1 for the reason that the processes of civilization and the various activities of life have not1 hitherto1 demanded a correct or highly developed colour sense2 but with the requirements of more highly civilized conditions1 in vocations demanding more diversified and complicated physical and mental activities1 it is plain that man1 because of this organic imperfection1 must labour under continuous disadvantages4 ,then add to defective vision his lack of physical endurance1 his liability to various organic affections caused by structural defects1 and his abnormal appetites which are constantly demanding for their gratification the things which are injurious to his mental and physical constitution1 and we are enabled to judge1 to some extent1 of the obstacles against which1 in the struggle for existence1 the future man will find himself obliged to contend4 ,not only is man's sense of sight less perfectly developed than is woman's1 but his sense of touch is less acute4 ,the hand1 directed as it is by the brain1 is the most completely differentiated member of the human structure4 ,it may almost be said of the hand1 that it assists the brain in performing its functions4 ,the female hand1 however1 is capable of delicate distinctions which the male has no means of determining4 ,a dispatch from ,washington says of the women of the ,treasury ,department3 ,so superior is their skill in handling paper money that they accomplish results that would be utterly unattainable without them4 ,it has been found by long experience that a counterfeit may go through half the banks in the country without being detected1 until it comes back1 often torn and mutilated1 into the hands of the ,treasury women4 ,then it is certain of detection4 ,they shut their eyes and feel of a note if they suspect it4 ,if it feels wrong1 in half a minute they point out the incongruities of the counterfeit4 ,although throughout the ascending scale of life1 the female has been expending all her energy in the performance of her legitimate functions--functions which1 as we have seen1 are of a higher order than those performed by the male1 through causes which will be discussed farther on in these pages1 within the later centuries of human existence--she has been temporarily overcome by the destructive forces developed in the opposite sex1 forces which are without the line of true development1 and which through overstimulation and encouragement have overleaped the bounds of normal activity1 and have therefore become disruptive and injurious4 ,during the past five thousand years1 woman's reproductive functions have been turned into means of subsistence1 and under the peculiar circumstances of her environment1 her 8struggle for existence0 has involved physical processes far more disastrous to life and health than are those to which man has been subjected4 ,owing to the peculiar condition of woman's environment1 there has been developed within her more delicate and sensitive organism an alarming degree of functional nervousness2 yet1 with the gradual broadening of her sphere of activity1 and the greater exercise of personal rights1 this tendency to nervous derangement is gradually becoming lessened4 ,that there is reserve force in woman sufficient to overcome the evil results of the supremacy of the animal instincts during the last five thousand or six thousand years of human existence1 from present indications seems more than likely4 ,commenting on the subject of nervousness1 and the degree in which it is manifested in civilized countries1 and especially among civilized women1 ,dr4 ,beard says3 ,women1 with all their nervousness--and1 in civilized lands1 women are more nervous1 immeasurably1 than men1 and suffer more from general and special nervous diseases--yet live quite as long as men1 if not somewhat longer2 their greater nervousness and far greater liability to functional diseases of the nervous system being compensated for by their smaller liability to acute and inflammatory disorders1 and various organic nervous diseases1 likewise1 such as the general paralysis of insanity4#ci #ci ,american ,nervousness1 p4 #bjg4 ,according to ,maudsley women 8seldom suffer from general paralysis40 ,this disease is frequently inherited1 and is sometimes the result of alcoholic and other excesses4#dj #dj ,maudsley1 ,physiology and ,pathology of the ,mind1 p4 #cfj4 ,regarding the dangers to which women are exposed by excessive and useless maternity1 ,dr4 ,beard remarks3 ,the large number of cases of laceration at childbirth and the prolonged and sometimes even life-enduring illness resulting from them1 are good reasons for the terror which the processes of parturition inspires in the minds of ,american women today4 ,however1 that the dangers incident to parturition1 and the excessive nervousness which characterizes civilized women1 are not necessary adjuncts of civilization1 but1 on the contrary1 are a result of the unchecked disruptive forces developed in man1 and the consequent drain on the vital energies of woman1 will be seen1 so soon as through the cultivation of the higher faculties developed in and transmitted through females1 the lower nature of males has finally been brought within its legitimate bounds4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,social ,,instincts ,,and ,,the ,,moral ,,sense ,man is pre-eminently a social animal4 ,he seeks companionship and depends largely upon his fellows for security and happiness4 ,nor is this dependence upon others confined to the human species4 ,association1 or combination of interests1 is manifested throughout the entire organic scale4 ,from ,mr4 ,darwin's reasoning it is evident that he regards association as the basic principle underlying progress4 ,he also thinks that combination is impossible without sympathy or a desire for the welfare of others outside of self4 ,he is certain that associated animals have a feeling of affection for the group and that 8they sympathize with one another in times of distress and danger40#da #da ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #ajb4 ,this writer thinks that an animal like the gorilla1 which possessing great size and strength is able to defend itself against all its enemies1 would not become social and therefore would be unable to advance4 ,and this too1 notwithstanding the fact that such an animal has already developed pugnacity1 courage1 and perseverance1 the characters which are regarded as the source of the remarkable mental endowment of man4 ,we have seen that the greater size of the male is the result of ,sexual ,selection and is therefore a secondary sexual character4 8,all the secondary sexual characters of man are highly variable40#db ,in dealing with this subject we must not lose sight of the fact that variability denotes low organization4 ,it shows that the organs of the body have not become specialized to perform their legitimate functions4 #db ,the ,descent of ,man1 #ahgg1 p4 #eei4 ,among monogamous animals difference in size between the sexes is slight1 but among polygamous species the male is considerably larger than the female1 this difference being correlated with numerous variations of structure4 ,among early races males were considerably in excess of females so it was customary for the former to fight desperately to win the favour of the latter in much the same manner as their animal progenitors had fought to secure their mates4 ,these struggles were enacted in the presence of the females1 they always choosing the strongest and best endowed leaving the weaker and uglier members of the group unmated and therefore unable to propagate their misfortunes4 ,this exercise of choice by the female in pairing is the primary fact in the history of human progress4 ,the appalling effects of the withdrawal from women of this fundamental prerogative will be referred to later in these pages4 ,that pugnacity1 courage1 and perseverance are the result of man's strong sexual nature is shown wherever this subject is touched upon in ,the ,descent of ,man4 ,special attention is directed to the fact that eunuchs are deficient in these qualities4 ,that the greater size and strength of the male1 together with courage1 pugnacity1 and perseverance1 have been of great value to him in deciding the contests between rivals in courtship is quite true4 ,it is clear1 however1 that these characters are in no wise responsible for the origin and development of the higher faculties4 ,even ,mr4 ,darwin's premises1 when carried to their legitimate conclusions1 furnish sufficient evidence to prove that the social instincts and the moral sense have been developed quite independently of these characters4 ,according to the reasoning of the savants it is only through that specialization of organs which has resulted in the separation of the sex elements1 and the consequent division of functions1 that the social instincts have originated1 and that it is to processes involved in such specialization1 or differentiation1 that the higher faculties and the moral sense have arisen4 ,it is indeed plain from their reasoning that matter1 or perhaps ,i should say the force inherent in matter1 had to be raised to a certain dynamic order before the peculiar quality of brain and nerve necessary for the development of these faculties could be manifested through it4 ,as there are different kinds of matter1 so there are different modes of force1 in the universe2 and as we rise from the common physical matter in which physical laws hold sway up to chemical matter and chemical forces1 and from chemical matter again up to living matter and its modes of force1 so do we rise in the scale of life from the lowest kind of living matter with its corresponding force or energy1 through different kinds of histological elements1 with their corresponding energies or functions1 up to the highest kind of living matter and corresponding mode of force with which we are acquainted1 viz41 nerve element and nerve force4 ,but1 when we have got to nerve element and nerve force1 it behooves us not to rest content with the general idea1 but to trace1 with attentive discrimination1 through the nervous system the different kinds of nervous cells1 and their different manifestations of energy4 ,so also shall we obtain the groundwork for a true conception of the relations of mind and the nervous system4#dc #dc ,maudsley1 ,physiology and ,pathology of the ,mind1 p4 #fj4 ,we have seen that the nervous system not only regulates most of the existing functions of the body1 but that it has indirectly influenced the development of various bodily structures and certain mental qualities1 and that these powers of mind depend on the development of the brain4 ,by our guides in this matter1 we are assured that the most important difference observed between man and the lower animals is the conscience2 hence1 if we would understand how it has been possible for man to rise to his present position1 we must know something of the processes involved in the development of the social instincts1 through which have originated conscience and a desire for the welfare of others outside of self4 ,the importance of these instincts in the development of conscience is thus set forth by ,mr4 ,darwin3 ,any animal whatever1 endowed with well-marked social instincts1 the parental and filial affections being here included1 would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience1 as soon as its intellectual faculties had become as well1 or nearly as well1 developed as in man4 ,sympathy1 we are told1 is the foundation-stone of the social instincts4 ,from facts which are everywhere presented among the forms of life below man1 it is evident that sympathy was developed at an early stage of animal life4 ,it is doubtless strongly manifested in our ape-like progenitors1 and it was probably this instinct which subsequently led to a community of interest and the coherence of the tribe4 ,in a consideration1 therefore1 of this question of sex development and the origin of the progressive principle1 if1 as we are assured1 sympathy constitutes the foundation-stone of the social instincts1 and if it is to these instincts that we are to look for the origin of the moral sense1 or conscience-- a faculty which constitutes the fundamental difference between the human species and the lower orders of life--the question naturally arises3 ,in which of the two diverging lines of sexual demarcation has arisen sympathy1 or an interest in the well-being of others8 ,for an answer to our question we must look carefully to the facts connected with the development of the sexes within one of which have been acquired characters tending toward the welfare of society1 or of individuals outside of self2 within the other1 characters looking only toward selfish gratification4 ,within the former1 the maternal instinct predominates2 within the latter1 passion4 ,mr4 ,darwin admits that 8parental and filial affection lies at the base of the social instincts10 and gives as his opinion that this quality is the result of ,natural ,selection--that those individuals which bestowed upon their offspring the greatest care and attention1 would survive and multiply at the expense of others in which this instinct was less developed4 ,therefore1 in pursuing the inquiry of sex-function and sex-development1 a question of considerable significance is at this point suggested3 ,within which parent is observed the greater tendency to bestow care and attention upon offspring8 ,we are assured that 8the animal family is especially maternal40 ,so soon as a female bird has laid her eggs1 she is animated only by one desire2 neither the promise of abundant food nor the fear of bullets is able to divert her purpose4 ,although the males among the more highly developed birds assist in rearing the family1 amongst various species it is only the female which cares for the young4 ,the male duck has no interest in his progeny1 neither has the male eider4 ,of the male turkeys ,mr4 ,letourneau says that they do much worse3 they often devour the eggs of their females1 and thus oblige the latter to hide them4 ,female turkeys join each other with their young ones for greater security1 and thus form troops of from sixty to eighty individuals1 led by the mothers1 and carefully avoiding the old males1 who rush on the young ones and kill them by violent blows on the head with their beaks4#dd #dd ,the ,evolution of ,marriage and the ,family1 p4 #bi4 ,the males of various other species1 jealous of the attentions of the mothers during the time that their efforts are directed toward the maintenance of their brood1 often kill their young4 ,regarding the subject of paternal care1 ,mr4 ,letourneau observes3 8,it is important to notice that amongst birds1 the fathers devoid of affection generally belong to the less intelligent1 and are most often polygamous40 ,by observing the habits of cuckoos the fact has been ascertained that among them the maternal instinct is almost entirely lacking4 ,of the cuckoo it has been remarked that it is a 8discontented1 ill-conditioned1 passionate1 in short1 decidedly unamiable bird40 ,its note is typical of its habits and character4 ,the same abruptness1 insatiability1 eagerness1 the same rage1 are noticeable in its whole conduct4 ,the cuckoos are notoriously unsociable1 even in migration individualistic4 ,they jealously guard their territorial 8preserves10 and verify in many ways the old myth that they are sparrow-hawks in disguise4 ,the parasitic habit is consonant with their general character4 ,the species consist predominantly of males4 ,the preponderance is probably about five to one2 though one observer makes it five times greater4 ,in so male a species1 it is not surprising to find degenerate maternal instincts4#de #de ,geddes and ,thomson1 ,the ,evolution of ,sex1 p4 #bgf4 ,regarding spiders and the greater number of insects1 we are told that the males entirely neglect their young2 it is in the female that the care for offspring first awakens4 ,and this is natural1 for the eggs have been formed in her body2 she has laid them1 and has been conscious of them2 they form1 in a way1 an integral part of her individuality4444 ,with insects maternal forethought sometimes amounts to a sort of divining prescience which the doctrine of evolution alone can explain4#df #df ,letourneau1 ,the ,evolution of ,marriage and the ,family1 p4 #bb4 ,among the males of mammals below man the love of offspring seems to be almost entirely wanting4 ,we must here remark1 that whatever the form of sexual association among mammals1 the male has always much less affection for his young than the female4 ,even in monogamous species1 when the male keeps with the female1 he does so more as chief than as father4 ,at times he is inclined to commit infanticide and to destroy the offspring1 which1 by absorbing all the attention of his female1 thwart his amours4 ,thus1 among the large felines1 the mother is obliged to hide her young ones from the male during the first few days after birth1 to prevent his devouring them4#dg #dg ,the ,evolution of ,marriage and the ,family1 p4 #cd4 ,the fact is obvious that among the orders of life below man but little paternal affection has been developed1 and with a more extended knowledge of the past history of the human race comes the assurance that under earlier conditions of society1 and in fact1 until a comparatively recent time1 little notice was taken of the paternal relation--that kinship and all the rights of succession were reckoned through the mother4 ,in other words1 motherhood was the primary bond by which society was bound together4 ,although under higher conditions of civilized life1 males have at length come to manifest much interest in the well-being of their offspring1 yet that paternal affection is not a primary instinct is shown by the fact that such interest1 even at the present time1 extends only to those individuals born in wedlock4 ,men are solicitous only for the welfare of those who are to succeed to their names and fortunes2 hence1 although in later times the paternal instinct has been considerably re-enforced1 it is plain that the interest of fathers for their offspring has in the past been largely the result of custom1 association1 pride1 desire for self-perpetuation or duplication1 or some other form of self-aggrandizement4 ,mr4 ,darwin says3 8,the feeling of pleasure from society is probably an extension of the parental or filial affections1 since the social instinct seems to be developed by the young remaining for a long time with their parents40#dh ,although ,mr4 ,darwin does not admit it1 from his reasoning it is plain that the maternal instinct is the root whence sympathy has sprung1 and that it is the source whence the cohesive quality in the tribe originated4 ,regarding the importance of association or combination in early groups ,mr4 ,darwin remarks3 #dh ,the ,descent of ,man1 p4 #aje4 ,when two tribes of primeval man1 living in the same country1 came into competition1 if 7other circumstances being equal7 the one tribe included a great number of courageous1 sympathetic1 and faithful members1 who were always ready to warn each other of danger1 to aid and defend each other1 this tribe would succeed better and conquer the other4444 ,selfish and contentious people will not cohere1 and without coherence nothing can be effected4 ,a tribe rich in the above qualities would spread and be victorious over other tribes4444 ,thus the social and moral qualities would tend slowly to advance and be diffused throughout the world4#di #di ,the ,descent of ,man1 p4 #acj4 ,since1 then1 it has been proved by scientists that without an association of interests and the coherence of the tribe the social instincts must have remained weak1 and since it has been shown by them that without concerted action the higher faculties1 including the moral sense1 could not have been developed2 and since1 furthermore1 the influences which have led to this development are those growing out of the maternal instincts1 may we not conclude that all of those qualities which make man pre-eminently a social animal--his love of society1 his desire for the good-will of his kind1 his perception of right and wrong1 and1 finally1 that sympathy which at last gradually extending beyond the limits of race and country proclaims the brotherhood of man and the unity of life on the earth--all these characteristics1 are but an extension of maternal affection1 an outgrowth of that early bond between mother and child1 which1 while affecting the entire line of development1 still remains unchanged and unchangeable4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,supremacy ,,of ,,the ,,male ,an unprejudiced review of the facts relative to the differentiation of the two sexes1 as set forth by naturalists1 reveals not only the primary principles involved in human progress1 but shows also the source whence these principles originated4 ,these facts serve also to explain that 8mental superiority0 of man over woman observed by ,mr4 ,darwin and others in the present stage of human growth4 ,notwithstanding the superior degree of development which1 according to the facts elaborated by scientists1 must belong to the female in all the orders of life below mankind1 ,mr4 ,darwin would have us believe that so soon as the human species appeared on the earth the processes which for untold ages had been in operation were reversed1 and that through courage and perseverance1 or patience1 qualities which were the result of extreme selfishness1 or which were acquired while in pursuit of animal gratification1 man finally became superior to woman4 ,the following furnishes an example of ,mr4 ,darwin's reasoning upon this subject4 ,he says3 ,the chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shown by man's attaining to a higher eminence1 in whatever he takes up1 than can woman--whether requiring deep thought1 reason1 or imagination1 or merely the use of the senses and the hands4 ,if two lists were made of the most eminent men and women in poetry1 painting1 sculpture1 music 7inclusive both of composition and performance71 history1 and philosophy1 with half-a-dozen names under each subject1 the two lists would not bear comparison4444 ,now1 when two men are put into competition1 or a man with a woman1 both possessed of every mental quality in equal perfection1 save that one has higher energy1 perseverance1 and courage1 the latter will generally become more eminent in every pursuit1 and will gain the ascendency4 ,he may be said to possess genius--for genius has been declared by a great authority to be patience2 and patience1 in this sense1 means unflinching1 undaunted perseverance4#ej #ej ,the ,descent of ,man1 p4 #efd4 ,doubtless1 for the purpose of strengthening his position1 ,mr4 ,darwin quotes the following from ,john ,stuart ,mill3 8,the things in which man most excels woman are those which require most plodding and long hammering at single thoughts40 ,and in summing up the processes by which man has finally gained the ascendency over woman he concludes3 ,thus man has ultimately become superior to woman4 ,it is1 indeed1 fortunate that the law of the equal transmission of characters to both sexes prevails with mammals2 otherwise it is probable that man would have become as superior in mental endowment to woman1 as the peacock is in ornamental plumage to the peahen4#ea #ea ,the ,descent of ,man1 p4 #efe4 ,notwithstanding this conclusion of ,mr4 ,darwin1 in view of the facts elaborated by himself1 we cannot help thinking that it is indeed fortunate that the law of the equal transmission of characters to both sexes prevails with mammals1 otherwise it is probable that man would never have had any higher ambition than the gratification of his animal instincts1 and would never have risen above those conditions in which he struggled desperately for the possession of the female4 ,all the facts which have been observed relative to the acquirement of the social instincts and the moral sense prove them to have originated in the female constitution1 and as progress is not possible without these characters1 it is not difficult to determine within which of the sexes the progressive principle first arose4 ,even courage1 perseverance1 and energy1 characters which are denominated as thoroughly masculine1 since they are the result of ,sexual ,selection1 have been and still are largely dependent on the will or choice of the female4 ,in his zeal to prove the superiority of man over woman1 and while emphasizing energy1 perseverance1 and courage as factors in development1 ,mr4 ,darwin seems to have overlooked the importance of the distinctive characters belonging to the female organism1 viz41 perception and intuition1 combined with greater powers of endurance1 the first two of which1 under the low conditions occasioned by the supremacy of the animal instincts1 have thus far had little opportunity to manifest themselves4 ,a fairer statement relative to the capacities of the two sexes and their ability to succeed might have been set forth as follows3 ,when a man and a woman are put in competition1 both possessed of every mental quality in equal perfection1 save that one has higher energy1 more patience1 and a somewhat greater degree of physical courage1 while the other has superior powers of intuition1 finer and more rapid perceptions1 and a greater degree of endurance 7the result of an organism freer from imperfections71 the chances of the latter for gaining the ascendency will doubtless be equal to those of the former as soon as the animal conditions of life are outgrown1 and the characters peculiar to the female constitution are allowed expression4 ,mr4 ,darwin's quotation from ,j4 ,stuart ,mill1 that the things in which man excels woman are those which require most plodding and long hammering at single thoughts1 is evidently true1 and corresponds with the fundamental premises in the theory of development as set forth by all naturalists4 ,the female organism is not a plodding machine1 neither is the telephone nor the telegraph1 yet these latter devices accomplish the work formerly done by the stagecoach much more rapidly1 and in a manner better suited to civilized conditions4 ,so soon as women are freed from the unnatural restrictions placed upon them through the temporary predominance of the animal instincts in man1 their greater powers of endurance1 together with a keener insight and an organism comparatively free from imperfections1 will doubtless give them a decided advantage in the struggle for existence4 ,while patience is doubtless a virtue1 and while during the past ages of human experience it has been of incalculable value to man1 it will not1 under higher conditions1 be required in competing for the prizes of life4 ,woman's rapid perceptions1 and her intuitions which in many instances amount almost to second sight1 indicate undeveloped genius1 and partake largely of the nature of deductive reasoning2 it is reasonable to suppose therefore that as soon as she is free1 and has for a few generations enjoyed the advantages of more natural methods of education and training1 and those better suited to the female constitution1 she will be able to trace the various processes of induction by which she reaches her conclusions4 ,she will then be able to reason inductively up to her deductive conceptions4 ,the worthlessness of ,mr4 ,darwin's comparison between men and women in performing the various activities of life is already clearly apparent4 ,although less than half a century has elapsed since ,the ,descent of ,man was written women are already successfully competing with men in nearly all the walks of life both high and low1 and this too notwithstanding the fact that these occupations have heretofore been regarded as belonging exclusively to men4 ,we have seen that ,mr4 ,darwin mentions music as a vocation in which man's superiority over woman is manifested1 yet already in the ,united ,states1 there is not one male musician who would be willing to match his skill against that of any one of the four best woman performers4 ,it is a well understood fact that neither individuals nor classes which upon every hand have been thwarted and restrained1 either by unjust and oppressive laws1 or by the tyranny of custom1 prejudice1 or physical force1 have ever made any considerable progress in the actual acquirement of knowledge or in the arts of life4 ,mr4 ,darwin's capacity for collecting and formulating facts seems not to have materially aided him in discerning the close connection existing at this stage of human progress between the masculinized conditions of human society and the necessary opportunities to succeed in the higher walks of life2 in fact1 he seems to have forgotten that all the avenues to success have for thousands of years been controlled and wholly manipulated by men1 while the activities of women have been distorted and repressed in order that the 8necessities0 of the male nature might be provided for4 ,besides1 it seems never to have occurred to him that as man has still not outgrown the animal in his nature1 and as the intellectual and moral age is only just beginning to dawn1 the time is not yet ripe for the direct expression of the more refined instincts and ideas peculiar to the female organism1 and1 as thus far1 only that advancement has been made which is compatible with the supremacy of the lower instincts1 woman's time has not yet come4 ,although women are still in possession of their natural inheritance1 a finer and more complex organism comparatively free from imperfections1 and although1 as a result of this inheritance1 their intuitions are still quicker1 their perceptions keener1 and their endurance greater1 the drain on their physical energies1 caused by the abnormal development of the reproductive energies in the opposite sex1 has1 during the ages of man's dominion over her1 been sufficient to preclude the idea of success in competing with men for the prizes of life4 ,although an era of progress has begun1 ages will doubtless be required to eradicate abuses which are the result of constitutional defects1 and especially so as the prejudices and feelings of mankind are for the most part in harmony with such abuses4 ,if we examine the subject of female apparel1 at the present time1 we shall observe how difficult it is to uproot long-established prejudices which are deeply rooted in sensuality and superstition2 and this is true notwithstanding the fact that such prejudices may involve the comfort and even the health of half the people1 and seriously affect the welfare of unborn generations4 ,an examination of the influences which have determined the course of modern fashions in woman's clothing will show the truth of this observation4 ,of all the senses which have been developed1 that of sight is undoubtedly the most refined1 and when in the human species it is cultivated to a degree which enables its possessor to appreciate the beautiful in ,nature and in ,art1 we are perhaps justified in designating it as the intellectual sense4 ,in point of refinement1 the sense of hearing comes next in order1 yet among creatures as low in the scale of being as birds1 we find that females not only appreciate the beautiful1 but that they are charmed by pleasing and harmonious sounds1 and that if males would win their favour it must be accomplished by appeals through these senses to the higher qualities developed within them4 ,although the female of the human species1 like the female among the lower orders of life1 is capable of appreciating fine colouring1 and to a considerable extent the beautiful in form1 the style of dress adopted by women is not an expression of their natural ideas of taste and harmony4 ,on the contrary1 it is to ,sexual ,selection that we must look for an explanation of the incongruities and absurdities presented by the so-called female fashions of the past and present4 ,the processes of ,sexual ,selection1 which1 so long as the female was the controlling agency in courtship1 worked on the male1 have in these later ages been reversed4 ,for the reason that the female of the human species has so long been under subjection to the male1 the styles of female dress and adornment which have been adopted1 and which are still in vogue1 are largely the result of masculine taste4 ,woman's business in life has been to marry1 or1 at least1 it has been necessary for her1 in order to gain her support1 to win the favour of the opposite sex4 ,she must1 therefore1 by her charms1 captivate the male4 ,with the progress of civilization and since women as economic and sexual slaves have become dependent upon men for their support1 no male biped has been too stupid1 too ugly1 or too vicious to take to himself a mate and perpetuate his imperfections4 ,this unchecked freedom of the male to multiply his defects is responsible for present conditions4 ,as for thousands of years women have been dependent on men not only for food and clothing but for the luxuries of life as well1 it is not singular that in the struggle for life to which they have been subjected they should have adopted the styles of dress which would be likely to secure to them the greatest amount of success4 ,when we remember that the present ideas of becomingness or propriety in woman's apparel are the result of ages of sensuality and servitude1 it is not remarkable that they are difficult to uproot1 and especially so as many of the most pernicious and health-destroying styles involve questions of female decorum as understood by a sensualized age4 ,mr4 ,darwin calls attention to the fact that women 8all over the world0 adorn themselves with the gay feathers of male birds4 ,since the beautiful plumage of male birds has been produced according to female standards of taste1 and since it is wholly the result of innate female ideas of harmony in colour and design1 it is not perhaps remarkable that women1 recognizing the original female standards of beauty1 should desire to utilize those effects which have been obtained at so great an expenditure of vital force to the opposite sex1 especially as men are pleased with such display1 and1 as under present conditions of male supremacy1 the female of the human species is obliged to captivate the male in order to secure her support4 ,ever since the dominion of man over woman began a strict censorship over her dress has been maintained4 ,although in very recent times women are beginning to exercise a slight degree of independence in the matter of clothes1 still1 because of existing prejudices and customs they have not yet been able to adopt a style of dress which admits of the free and unrestricted use of the body and limbs4 ,it is believed that woman1 the natural tempter of man1 if left to her own sinful devices1 would again as of old attempt to destroy that inherent purity of heart and cleanliness of life which characterize the male constitution4 ,woman's ankles and throat seem to be the most formidable foes against which innocent man has to contend1 so the concealment of these offending members is deemed absolutely necessary for his protection and safety4 ,ecclesiastics1 a class whose duty it has ever been to regulate and control the movements of women1 seem to think that the ankles and throats of women were intended not for the use and convenience of their possessors but as snares to entrap holy men4 ,it would thus appear that the present fashions for female apparel have a deeper significance than we have been in the habit of ascribing to them4 ,we are still living under conditions peculiar to a sensual age1 and have not yet outgrown the requirements which condemn women to a style of dress which hinders the free movements of the body and which checks all the activities of life4 ,in one way the woman of the present time may be said to resemble the male ,argus pheasant1 whose decorations1 although they serve to please his mate1 greatly hinder his power of motion and the free use of his body and limbs4 ,when we consider that apparel is but one1 and a minor one1 of the strictures under which women have laboured during the later era of human existence and when we consider all the ignoble and degrading uses to which womanhood has been subjected1 the wonder is not that women have failed in the past to distinguish themselves in the various fields of intellectual labour in which men have achieved a limited degree of success1 but that they have had sufficient energy and courage left to enable them even to attempt anything so far outside the boundary of their prescribed 8sphere10 or that they have been able to transmit to their male offspring those powers through which they have gained their present stage of progress4 ,with regard to ,mr4 ,darwin's comparison of the intellectual powers of the two sexes1 and his assertion that man attains to a higher eminence in whatever he takes up than woman--that1 for instance1 he surpasses her in the production of poetry1 music1 philosophy1 etc41 the facts at hand suggest that if within mankind no higher motives and tastes had been developed than those derived from selfishness and passion1 there would never have arisen a desire for poetry1 music1 philosophy1 or science1 or1 in fact1 for any of the achievements which have been the result of the more exalted activities of the human intellect4 ,however1 because of the subjection of the higher faculties developed in mankind1 the poetry1 music1 and painting of the past betray their sensuous origin and plainly reveal the stage of advancement which has been reached1 while history1 philosophy1 and even science1 judging from ,mr4 ,darwin's methods1 have not yet wholly emerged from the murky atmosphere of a sensuous age4 ,it will be well for us to remember that the doctrine of the ,survival of the ,fittest does not imply that the best endowed1 physically or otherwise1 have always succeeded in the struggle for existence4 ,by the term ,survival of the ,fittest we are to understand a natural law by means of which those best able to overcome the unfavourable conditions of their environment survive and are able to propagate their successful qualities4 ,we must bear in mind that neither the growth of the individual nor that of society has proceeded in an unbroken or uninterrupted line2 on the contrary1 during a certain portion of human existence on the earth1 the forces which tend toward degeneration have been stronger than whose which lie along the line of true development4 ,we are assured that the principles of construction and destruction are mutually employed in the reproductive processes1 that continuous death means continuous life1--the katabolic or disruptive tendencies of the male being necessary to the anabolic or constructive habits of the female4 ,as it is in reproduction1 so has it been through the entire course of development4 ,side by side1 all along the line1 these two tendencies have been in operation2 the grinding1 rending1 and devouring processes which we denominate ,natural ,selection1 alongside those which unite1 assimilate1 and protect4 ,as a result of the separation of the sexes there have been developed on the one side extreme egoism1 or the desire for selfish gratification2 on the other1 altruism1 or a desire for the welfare of others outside of self4 ,hence1 throughout the later ages of human existence1 since the egoistic principles have gained the ascendency1 may be observed the unequal struggle for liberty and justice1 against tyranny1 and the oppressors of the masses of the human race4 ,from present appearances it would seem1 that the disruptive or devouring forces have always been in the ascendency4 ,the philosophy of history however1 teaches the contrary4 ,with a broader view of the origin and development of the human race1 and the unexpected light which within the last few years has been thrown upon prehistoric society and the grandeur of past achievement1 a close student of the past is able to discern a faint glimmering of a more natural age of human existence1 and is able to observe in the present intense struggles for freedom and equality1 an attempt to return to the earlier and more natural principles of justice and liberty1 and so to advance to a stage of society in which selfishness1 sensuality1 and superstition no longer reign supreme4 ,the status of women always furnishes an index to the true condition of society1 one or two superficial writers to the contrary notwithstanding4 ,for this phenomenon there is a scientific reason1 namely3 society advances just in proportion as women are able to convey to their offspring the progressive tendencies transmissible only through the female organism4 ,it is plain1 therefore1 that mankind will never advance to a higher plane of thinking and living until the restrictions upon the liberties of women have been entirely removed1 and until within every department of human activity1 their natural instincts1 and the methods of thought peculiar to them be allowed free expression4 ,the following is from ,mr4 ,buckle's lecture on 8,the ,influence of ,women on the ,progress of ,knowledge03 ,i believe and ,i hope before we separate to convince you1 that so far from women exercising little or no influence over the progress of knowledge1 they are capable of exercising1 and have actually exercised an enormous influence2 that this influence1 is1 in fact1 so great that it is hardly possible to assign limits to it2 and that great as it is1 it may with advantage be still further increased4 ,i hope1 moreover1 to convince you that this influence has been exhibited not merely from time to time in rare1 sudden1 and transitory ebullitions1 but that it acts by virtue of certain laws inherent in human nature2 and that1 although it works as an undercurrent below the surface1 and is therefore invisible to hasty observers1 it has already produced the most important results1 and has affected the shape1 the character1 and the amount of our knowledge4 ,through the processes involved in the differentiation of sex and the consequent division of functions1 it has been possible during the past six thousand or seven thousand years 7a mere tithe of the time spent by mankind upon the earth7 for women to become enslaved1 or subjected to the lower impulses of the male nature4 ,through the capture of women for wives1 through the exigencies of warfare1 the individual ownership of land1 and the various changes incident to a certain stage of human existence1 the finer sensibilities which characterize women have been overshadowed1 and the higher forces which originated within them and which are transmitted in the female line1 have been temporarily subdued by the great sexual ardour inherent in the opposite sex2 it is not1 therefore1 singular that the degree of progress attained should appear to be wholly the result of male activity and acumen4 ,yet1 notwithstanding the degradation to which women in the position assigned them by physical force have been obliged to submit1 their capacity for improvement has suffered less from the influences and circumstances of their environment than has that of men4 ,as the higher faculties are transmitted through women equally to both sexes1 in the impoverishment of their inheritance on the female side1 men have suffered equally with women1 while1 through their male progenitors1 they have inherited appetites and habits 7the result of a ruder and less developed structure7 which weaken and degrade the entire constitution4 ,doubtless1 so soon as women have gained sufficient strength to enable them to maintain their independence1 and after the higher faculties rather than the animal propensities rule supreme1 men1 through the imperfections in their organism1 and the appetites acquired through these imperfections1 will1 for a considerable length of time1 find themselves weighted in the struggle for supremacy1 and this1 too1 by the very characters which under lower conditions are now believed to have determined their success4 ,it is not unlikely1 however1 that through ,sexual ,selection the characters or qualities unfavourable to the higher development of man will in time be eliminated4 ,the mother is the natural guardian and protector of offspring2 therefore1 so soon as women are free they will doubtless select for husbands only those men who1 by their mental1 moral1 and physical endowments are fitted to become the fathers of their children4 ,only those women will become mothers who hope to secure to their offspring immunity from the giant evils with which society is afflicted4 ,in this way1 and this way only1 may these evils be eradicated4 ,under purer conditions of life1 when by the higher powers developed in the race the animal propensities have become somewhat subdued by man1 we may reasonably hope that the 8struggle for existence10 which is still so relentlessly waged1 will cease1 that man will no longer struggle with man for place or power1 and that the bounties of earth will no longer be hoarded by the few1 while the many are suffering for the necessities of life2 for are we not all members of one family1 and dependent for all that we have on the same beneficent parent--,nature8 ,although the two principles1 the constructive and destructive1 are closely allied1 the higher faculties have been acquired only through the former--the highest degree of progress is possible only through union or co-operation1 or1 through the uniting and binding force1 maternal love from which has been developed1 first1 sympathy among related groups1 and later an interest which is capable of extending itself not only to all members of the human race1 but to every sentient creature4 ,there is1 therefore1 little wonder that for thousands of years of human existence1 the female principle was worshipped over the entire habitable globe as the source of all light and life--the ,creator and ,preserver of the ,universe4 ,we are only on the threshold of civilization4 ,mankind may as yet have no just conception of their possibilities1 but so soon as1 through the agencies now in operation for the advancement of the race1 the 8necessities0 of the male nature no longer demand and secure the subjection of women and the consequent drain on the very fountain whence spring the higher faculties1 a great and unexpected impetus will be given to progress4 ,the fact that a majority of women have not yet gained that freedom of action necessary to the absolute control of their own persons1 nor acquired a sufficient degree of independence to enable them to adopt a course of action in their daily life which they know to be right1 shows the extent to which selfishness1 twin brother to sensuality1 has clouded the conscience and warped the judgment in all matters pertaining to human justice4 ,so closely has women's environment been guarded that in addition to all the restrictions placed upon their liberties1 a majority of them are still dependent for food and clothing on pleasing the men1 who still hold the purse-strings4 ,yet ,mr4 ,darwin1 the apostle of original scientific investigation1 concludes3 8,if men are capable of decided prominence over women in many subjects1 the average mental powers in men must be above those of women40 ,,part ,,ii ,prehistoric ,society ,,chapter ,i ,,method ,,of ,,investigation ,if the theory of the development of the human race1 or more particularly that of the two diverging lines of sex demarcation as set forth in the foregoing chapters be correct1 it is plain that by it a new foundation is laid for the study of mankind4 ,if1 contrary to the generally accepted idea1 within the female organism have been developed those elements which form the basis of human progress1 or1 if the higher faculties are transmitted through the mother1 henceforth all examinations into primitive conditions and all research into the causes which underlie existing institutions must be carried on with reference to this particular fact4 ,only through a thorough understanding of the principles or forces which govern human development1 and a just appreciation of the source whence these principles have sprung1 may we hope to gain a clear understanding of the past history of the race1 or to perceive the true course to be pursued toward further development4 ,through the investigation of facts revealed in the records of ,geology1 and through the study of comparative ,embryology and ,anatomy1 or through an understanding of ,zology and ,anthropology1 man has well-nigh solved the problem of his origin1 or has almost proved his connection with and development from the lower orders of life1 but of the countless ages which intervened between the era of our ape-like progenitors and the dawn of organized society1 little may be known without a correct knowledge of the inheritance received by mankind from creatures lower in the scale of being4 ,only by a careful study of the constitutional bias acquired throughout the entire line of development1 are we enabled to note the motives or forces by which primitive society was controlled1 or to form a just conclusion relative to the early conditions of human society and its subsequent progress4 ,through the attention which in these later years has been directed toward surviving tribes in the so-called middle and later stages of savagery1 and in the three successive periods of barbarism1 have doubtless been revealed many of the processes by which mankind have reached their present condition4 ,much of the information1 however1 which has been obtained by these inquiries still lacks that accuracy in detail demanded by exact science2 but1 so soon as the array of facts which the last half-century has brought to bear upon this subject shall have been correctly interpreted1 logically arranged1 intelligently classified1 and without prejudice brought into line with the truths involved in the theory of natural development1 there will doubtless be approximated a system of truth which will furnish a safe and trustworthy foundation for a more thorough research into the history of the human race4 ,although the facts relative to existing undeveloped races1 which have been laid before the reading public through the patience and industry of investigators in this particular branch of inquiry1 have been of incalculable value as furnishing a foundation for a correct understanding of the origin of the customs1 manners1 ceremonies1 governments1 languages1 and systems of consanguinity and affinity of a primitive race1 and although without these efforts little knowledge of the early history of mankind could be obtained1 yet1 as a majority of the theories built upon these observations have been based on long-established prejudices relative to the earliest conditions surrounding human society and the forces by which it was controlled1 many false conclusions have been the inevitable result4 ,we have seen that owing to the ascendency which the masculine element in human society gained during the period designated as the ,latter ,status of barbarism1 the popular ideas evolved since that time concerning the origin and development of government1 social usages1 religion1 and law1 have been in accordance with the then established assumption that within the male organism lies not only the active1 aggressive element1 but the progressive principle as well4 ,it is not1 therefore1 singular that at the present time all the lines of investigation which are being directed toward man in a primitive state1 or which are being conducted for the avowed purpose of ascertaining the successive steps by which our social1 civil1 and religious institutions have been reared1 should continue to be carried on under the a priori assumption that the male organism is by nature superior to that of the female4 ,as in all the theories relative to the development of species the male is the principal factor1 so in the theories brought forward to explain the development of human institutions the female has played only an insignificant part2 but1 as all later facts bearing upon this subject furnish indisputable evidence of the early importance of the female element1 not only among the lower orders of life but under earlier human conditions as well1 we may reasonably expect from these data the establishment1 in the not distant future1 of a complete chain of evidence in support of a more rational and consistent theory of development than has yet been put forth1 not only of the origin of the higher faculties1 but of the organization of human society and the growth of its various institutions4 ,as1 hitherto1 all the theories advanced relative to the evolution of the human race and the establishment of society on a political and territorial basis have been founded on preconceived notions of the superiority of the characters peculiar to the male1 it is believed1 or at least assumed1 that the ascendency gained by man over woman during the ,latter ,status of barbarism constitutes a regular1 orderly1 and necessary step in the direct line of progress2 and1 as under masculine supremacy1 a certain degree of advancement has been possible1 it is assumed that the nobler animal1 man1 having gained the ascendency over the weaker animal1 woman1 his progress in the future is to increase in a sort of geometrical ratio1 while she1 still bound by physical disabilities and weighted by the baneful effects of past limitations and restrictions1 must continue far in the rear of her better endowed and more thoroughly equipped male mate4 ,however1 in this conception of the facts of biology1 woman is not left without a crumb of comfort2 for1 in the forlorn and helpless condition to which it condemns her1 she is given to understand that if for many successive generations girls be constantly trained in masculine methods1 they may eventually be able to admire1 and possibly in a measure to comprehend1 some of the less stupendous mental achievements of their brothers2 but1 according to the savants1 any attempt on the part of women to compete with men in the higher walks of life must result in increased physical weakness1 in the immediate degeneration of the female sex1 and in disaster and ruin to the entire race4 ,when we remember that investigations into the conditions surrounding primitive society have for the most part been conducted under the influence of prejudices similar to those which have prompted the above assumptions1 it is not singular that in a majority of cases in which the early status of women has been discussed1 and in which the organization of society1 the fundamental principles of government1 the origin of the institution of marriage1 the monogamic family1 and the growth of the god-idea1 have been the topics under discussion1 the conclusions arrived at have been not wholly warranted by the facts at hand4 ,in an investigation of the subject of human development1 we must bear in mind the fact that all the principal existing institutions have sprung from germs of thought which originated under primitive conditions of the race4 ,government1 language1 marriage1 the modern family1 and our present system of the accumulation and distribution of wealth1 have all been evolved from the necessities of early human existence1 or from primitive ideas conceived according to the peculiar bias which had been given to the female and male organisms prior to the appearance of mankind upon the earth1 and which have since been developed in accordance with the laws which govern human growth4 ,with their reasoning faculties still undeveloped1 and1 according to our guides1 wholly destitute of a moral sense1 human beings at the outset of their career could have had no guiding principle other than those instincts which they inherited from their mute progenitors4 ,therefore1 in order fully to understand the status of the human race as it emerged from its animal conditions1 we must bear in mind the nature of the inheritance which it had received during its passage from a formless lump of carbon1 or an infinitesimal jelly dot in the primeval sea1 to a creature endowed with sympathy1 affection1 courage1 and perseverance4 ,we must not lose sight of the fact that passion1 the all-absorbing quality developed in males belonging to the orders lower in the scale of being1 must have been conveyed without diminution or material change to man4 ,neither must we forget that those qualities in the female which had been developed for the protection of the germ1 and by which she was enabled to hold in check the abnormally developed appetites of the male1 were still in operation4 ,that ,nature disdains arbitrary rules1 and that she pays little heed to the proprieties established by man1 are facts everywhere to be observed among the lower orders of life4 ,she nevertheless jealously guards the germ and the young of the species4 ,the mother is the natural guardian of prenatal and infant life1 and as such1 under natural conditions1 is usually able to control the sexual relation4 ,failing to note the fact that among the orders of life below mankind the female chooses her mate1 and failing also to observe that through the natural adjustment of the sexual relations his instincts are checked by her will1 nearly if not all the writers upon this subject have declared that women and men at the outset of the human career lived in a state of 8lawlessness0 or 8promiscuity10 similar no doubt to that which at the present time would prevail in a community in which women were utterly devoid of influence1 and in which there were no laws regulating the intercourse of the sexes4 ,by the most trustworthy writers on the subject of the primitive conditions of the human race1 it is believed that the most archaic organization of society was that founded on the basis of sex1 but1 as in the infancy of the race1 prior to the inauguration of the system based on sex1 and during the long ages which were spent merely in gaining a subsistence1 no organized form of society existed1 it is held that the order which is observed among creatures lower in the scale of life was suspended1 and that the universal law which had hitherto regulated the relations of the sexes1 and which throughout the ages of life on the earth had held in check the lower instincts of the male1 became immediately inoperative4 ,here the common ground of belief ceases1 and each writer branches off upon his own peculiar line of argument1 appropriating and arranging the facts observed by explorers and investigators in the various lines of inquiry according to his own preconceived notions1 or as best suits the particular scheme of development which he essays to establish4 ,in the following pages the attempt will be made to show that the facts which in these later years have been brought to light concerning the development of the human race are in strict accord with the facts as enunciated by scientists relative to the development of the orders of life below man1 and that together they form a connected chain of evidence going to prove not only that the higher faculties had their origin in the female but that the progressive principle has also been confided to her4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,relations ,,of ,,the ,,sexes ,,among ,,early ,,mankind ,we have seen that an investigation of the instincts and habits of creatures lower in the scale is necessary to an understanding of the relations which must have existed between the sexes among primitive races4 ,among birds and mammals1 the greater differentiation of the nervous system and the higher pitch of the whole life is associated with the development of what pedantry alone can refuse to call love4 ,not only is there often partnership1 co-operation1 and evident affection beyond the limits of the breeding period1 but there are abundant illustrations of a high standard of morality1 of all the familiar sexual crimes of mankind1 and every shade of flirtation1 courtship1 jealousy1 and the like4 ,there is no doubt that in the two highest classes of animals at least1 the physical sympathies of sexuality have been enhanced by the emotional1 if not also intellectual1 sympathies of love4#eb #eb ,geddes and ,thomson1 ,the ,evolution of ,sex1 p4 #bff4 ,it has been observed that among the orders of life below mankind1 except among polygamous species1 the female chooses the individual which is best endowed--the one whose beauty appeals to her sthetic taste1 or which through his stronger development is best fitted to assist her in the office of reproduction4 ,among the more intelligent species of birds1 genuine affection has been observed1 strict monogamy and life-long unions having been established between mated pairs4 ,among others1 although the conjugal bond is not life-lasting1 so long as the mother-bird is caring for her brood1 constancy to one another is the undeviating rule4 ,we are assured that with the female ,illinois parrot1 8widowhood and death are synonymous10 and that 8when a wheatear dies1 his companion survives him scarcely a month40#ec #ec ,letourneau1 ,the ,evolution of ,marriage and the ,family1 p4 #bg4 ,all eagles are monogamous4 ,golden eagles live in couples and remain attached to one another for a hundred or more years1 without even changing their domicile4#ed ,the conjugal unions of bald-headed eagles1 although they are under no 8legal restrictions10 last until the death of one of the partners4 ,among birds1 although incubation rests with the mother1 the father usually assists his companion4 ,he not only takes her place if she desires to leave the nest for a moment1 but also provides her with food4#ee ,so perfect is the bird family life that ,brehm declares that 8real genuine marriage can only be found among birds40#ef ,upon this subject we are informed that 8examples of wandering fancy are for the most part rare among the birds1 the majority of whom are monogamous1 and even superior to most men in the matter of conjugal fidelity40#eg #ed ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 ,natural ,history1 p4 #bfb4 #ee ,westermarck1 ,the ,history of ,human ,marriage1 p4 #aa4 #ef ,brehm1 ,bird-,life4 #eg ,letourneau1 ,the ,evolution of ,marriage and the ,family1 p4 #bg4 ,concerning mammals1 it is observed that although polygamy is frequent 8it is far from being the conjugal regime universally adopted2 monogamy is common1 and is sometimes accompanied by so much devotion that it would serve as an example to human monogamists40#eh ,bears1 weasels1 whales1 and many other animals choose their mates and go in pairs4 ,several kinds of monkeys are strictly monogamous4#ei ,chimpanzees are sometimes polygamous and sometimes monogamous4 ,it is stated what when a strong male has succeeded in driving away the other males of the group1 the females1 although in a position to subjugate him1 are nevertheless kind and even tender toward him4 ,they are doubtless too much occupied with their legitimate functions to rebel1 but so soon as the young of the horde are grown1 the usurper is driven from their midst4 ,a little observation will show us that even among polygamous species1 it is affection rather than strength which keeps the members of a group together4 ,although among most of the lower orders the female exercises a choice in the selection of her mate1 still among animals of polygamous habits the female is said to manifest genuine affection for the father of her offspring4 #eh ,ibid41 p4 #ce4 #ei ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 p4 #eij4 ,the polygamic regime of animals is far from extinguishing affectionate sentiments in the females towards their husband and master4 ,the females of the guanaco lamas1 for example1 are very faithful to their male4 ,if the latter happens to be wounded or killed1 instead of running away1 they hasten to his side1 bleating and offering themselves to the shots of the hunter in order to shield him1 while1 on the contrary1 if a female is killed1 the male makes off with all his troop2 he only thinks of himself4#fj #fj ,letourneau1 ,the ,evolution of ,marriage and the ,family1 p4 #cb4 ,although among animals a stray male will sometimes drive away or kill all the other males of the group1 and himself become the common mate of all the females1 they peaceably accepting the situation1 so far as ,i can find1 female insects1 birds1 and mammals1 although they generally control the sexual relation1 have never been given to polyandry2 the reason for this can be explained only through a careful analysis of the fundamental bias of the female constitution4 ,we must bear in mind that although among the orders of life below mankind the male is ready to pair with any female1 she1 on the other hand1 when free to choose1 can be induced to accept the attentions only of the one which by his courage1 bravery1 or personal beauty has won her favours4 ,we have noted the fact that in the earliest ages of the human race this choice was exercised by women1 but we have no reason to believe that anything resembling 8promiscuity0 ever prevailed among primitive races4 ,it is true that under earlier conditions the institution of marriage as it exists at the present time had not appeared2 yet the law which had been impressed on the higher organism of the female1 until overcome by males through means which will be treated of later in these pages1 had sufficed to keep the animal instincts under subjection1 or at least on a level with those of the lower species which structurally had been left behind4 ,from facts to be gathered1 not alone from among the lower orders1 but from observations among human beings as well1 it would seem that any degree of affection for more than one individual at the same time is contrary to the female nature4 ,a female insect1 or bird1 which feels a preference for a particular mate will pair with no other1 hence1 among orders where the female instincts control the relations between the sexes1 8lawlessness0 or promiscuity would not prevail4 ,a little observation and reflection1 ,i think1 will show us that the affection of the female is a character differing widely from the sex instinct of the male--that1 while selfishness constitutes the underlying principle of the latter1 the former involves not only care for the young and the unity of the group1 but1 when human conditions are reached1 it involves also country1 civilization1 and the ultimate brotherhood of mankind4 ,if we bear in mind the conditions surrounding the orders of life from which the human race has sprung1 and if we remember the nature of the characters inherited by mankind from these orders1 together with the important fact that the lower instincts among them were under subjection to the higher faculties1 we shall be enabled to see that the more degraded of the extant savage tribes cannot represent the primitive race as it emerged from the animal type4 ,mr4 ,tylor must have been mindful of the altruistic character of early races when he remarked3 8,without some control beyond the mere right of the stronger1 the tribe would break up in a week1 whereas in fact savage tribes last on for ages40#fa #fa ,anthropology1 p4 #dje4 ,concerning the relations of the sexes under unorganized society nothing may be known from actual observation1 as1 at the present time1 no tribe or race is to be found under absolutely primitive conditions4 ,perhaps from no extant people is there so little information in reference to the earliest human state to be gleaned as from the lowest existing races4 ,among many of these tribes the rules which it has been necessary to establish for the regulation of the relations between the sexes are rigorously enforced1 while among others a laxity prevails which would seem to indicate an almost total lack of those higher instincts which are observed among nearly all the lower orders of beings4 ,the following fact1 however1 in regard to these races1 has been observed3 the more primitive they are1 or the less they have come in contact with civilization1 the more strictly do they observe the rules which have been established for the governance of the sexual relation4 ,on this subject ,mr4 ,parkyns says3 ,i don't believe that there exists a nation1 however high in the scale of civilization1 that can pick a hole in the character of the lowest1 without being in danger of finding one nearly1 if not quite1 as big in its own4 ,the vices of the savage are1 like his person1 very much exposed to view4 ,our own nakedness is not less unseemly than his1 but is carefully concealed under the convenient cloak which we call 8civilization10 but which ,i fear he1 in his ignorance1 poor fellow1 might1 on some occasions1 be led to look upon as hypocrisy4#fb #fb ,life in ,abyssinia1 vol4 ii41 p4 #aeb4 ,in the ,west ,indian ,islands where ,columbus landed1 lived tribes which are represented as having been 8the most gentle and benevolent of the human race40 ,regarding these ,mr4 ,tylor remarks3 ,schomburgk1 the traveller1 who knew the warlike ,caribs well in their home life1 draws a paradise-like picture of their ways1 where they have not been corrupted by the vices of the white men2 he saw among them peace and cheerfulness and simple family affection1 unvarnished friendship1 and gratitude not less true for not being spoken in sounding words2 the civilized world1 he says1 has not to teach them morality1 for1 though they do not talk about it1 they live in it4#fc #fc ,tylor1 ,anthropology1 p4 #djf4 ,the men who with ,captain ,cook first visited the ,sandwich ,islands reported the natives as modest and chaste in their habits2 but1 later1 after coming in contact with the influences of civilization1 modesty and chastity among them were virtues almost entirely unknown4 ,the same is true of the people of ,patagonia4 ,barrow says of the ,kaffir woman that she is 8chaste and extremely modest10 and we are told that among this people banishment is the penalty for incontinence for both women and men4 ,of the reports which from time to time come from the aborigines of certain portions of ,australia relative to the lewdness of the women1 ,mr4 ,brough ,smyth says that they are irreconcilable with the severe penalties imposed for unchastity in former times amongst the natives of ,victoria4#fd ,this writer is of the opinion that the lewd practices reported are modern1 and that they are the result of communication with the poor whites4 ,we are assured that the women of ,nubia are virtuous1 that public women are not tolerated in the country4#fe ,also that in ,fiji adultery is one of the crimes generally punished with death4#ff #fd ,quoted by ,westermarck1 ,history of ,human ,marriage1 p4 #fa4 #fe ,burckhardt's ,travels in ,nubia1 p4 #adf4 #ff ,seeman1 ,a ,mission to ,viti1 p4 #aia4 ,marsden observes that in ,sumatra 8the old women are very attentive to the conduct of the girls1 and the male relations are highly jealous of any insults that may be shown them40#fg ,the same writer says that prostitution for hire is unknown in the country2 adultery is punishable by fine1 but the crime is rare4 ,regarding the conduct of men toward women he remarks3 8,they preserve a degree of delicacy and respect toward the sex which might justify their retorting on many of the polished nations of antiquity the epithet of barbarism40#fh #fg ,history of ,sumatra1 p4 #bcj4 #fh ,ibid41 p4 #bbf4 ,crantz says that among the ,greenlanders single persons have rarely any connection4#fi ,according to the testimony of ,st4 ,boniface1 the punishment for unchastity among the early ,germans was death to the man1 while the woman was driven naked through the streets4#gj #fi ,history of ,greenland1 vol4 i41 p4 #ade4 #gj ,epistle of ,st4 ,boniface to ,ethelbald4 ,among the ,central ,asian ,turks we are assured that a fallen girl is unknown4 ,mr4 ,westermarck1 quoting from ,klemm1 states that although among the ,kalmucks and gypsies the girls take pride in having gallant affairs1 they are 8dishonoured if they have children previous to marriage40 ,the same writer quotes also from ,winwood ,reade1 who says that among the ,equatorial ,africans 8a girl who disgraces her family by wantonness is banished from her clan2 and1 in cases of seduction1 the man is severely flogged40#ga #ga ,history of ,human ,marriage1 p4 #fb4 ,mr4 ,westermarck adduces much testimony going to show that the 8lawlessness0 of lower races is due not to inherent vicious tendencies1 but to the evil associations of civilized peoples4 ,he is of the opinion that the licentiousness among many of the ,south ,sea ,islanders owes its origin to the intercourse of the natives with ,europeans2 and of the tribes who once inhabited the ,adelaide ,plains1 quoting from ,mr4 ,edward ,stephens who went to ,australia half a century ago1 he says3 ,those who speak of the natives as a naturally degraded race1 either do not speak from experience1 or they judge them by what they have become when the abuse of intoxicants and contact with the most wicked of the white race have begun their deadly work4 ,as a rule1 to which there are no exceptions1 if a tribe of blacks is found away from the white settlement1 the more vicious of the white men are most anxious to make the acquaintance of the natives1 and that1 too1 solely for purposes of immorality4444 ,i saw the natives and was much with them before those deadly immoralities were well known 444 and ,i say it fearlessly1 that nearly all their evils they owed to the white man's immorality and to the white man's drink4#gb #gb ,the ,history of ,human ,marriage1 p4 #fh4 ,we are informed that wherever certain vices prevail among the lower races in ,america1 ,africa1 or ,asia1 they have been carried to them by the whites4 ,were it necessary to do so1 scores of examples could be adduced going to show that among primitive tribes1 until corrupted by our later civilization1 chastity is the universal rule4 ,although many of the writers who have dealt with this subject have discoursed freely on the laxity of the conjugal bond among so-called primitive tribes1 and the lawlessness which characterizes lower races in their sexual relations1 they have failed to account satisfactorily for some of the customs and usages which appear connected with many of the early forms of marriage1--forms which would seem to indicate a degree of modest reserve on the part of these peoples which fail to comport with the popular theory concerning their lawlessness and innate indecency4 ,we have seen that although among the orders of life below mankind there are no arbitrary laws governing the relations of the sexes1 there nevertheless exists a system of natural marriage which in no wise resembles promiscuity4 ,now it was under this natural system controlled by the higher instincts developed within the female organism1 that the extreme 8lawlessness0 indicated by the savants prevailed--lawlessness seeming to denote that state of female independence in which women were personally free1 or in which they were not held in actual bondage as captive wives4 ,in the reasoning of many of our guides in this matter it is implied1 if not actually asserted1 that the freedom of women which is now known to have prevailed in earlier times denotes a state of laxity in morals1 a condition of society directly contrary to the facts which they themselves have recorded relative to existing tribes under less advanced conditions of life1 and which would seem to argue for these peoples a sense of decency which among the masses in civilized countries is almost entirely wanting4 ,at the dawn of human existence1 had no higher instincts been developed than passion1 or the desire for selfish gratification1 whence could have arisen this reserve1 and these ideas of chastity and modesty which are observed among many of the less developed peoples1 notably those which have not come in contact with the higher races8 ,upon this subject ,mr4 ,tylor remarks3 8,yet even among the rudest clans of men1 unless depraved by vice or misery and falling to pieces1 a standard of family morals is known and lived by40#gc #gc ,anthropology1 chap1 xvi41 p4 #dje4 ,observing the habits of the lower animals1 ,mr4 ,darwin cannot believe that promiscuous intercourse prevailed among the early races of mankind4 ,at a very early period1 before man attained to his present rank in the scale1 many of his conditions would be different from what now obtains amongst savages4 ,judging from the analogy of the lower animals he would then either live with a single female1 or be a polygamist4#gd #gd ,the ,descent of ,man1 p4 #eid4 ,we have much evidence going to prove that the marriage contracts among the lower races are well kept4 ,according to ,cook1 in ,tahiti1 although nothing more is necessary for the consummation of a valid marriage than an agreement between the parties1 these contracts are usually well kept4 ,in case of the disaffection of either party1 a divorce is easily obtained4 ,we are assured1 however1 that although the ,tahiti women have the undisputed right to dissolve the marriage contract at will1 they are nevertheless 8as faithful to their husbands as in any part of the world40 ,the ,veddahs1 who are ranked among the most primitive races1 are a strictly monogamous people4#ge ,of the extreme modesty of married pairs among many of the lower races we have much proof4 ,among the ,fijians1 husbands and wives do not usually spend the night together1 except as it were by stealth1 and it is said to be contrary to their ideas of delicacy that they should sleep under the same roof4#gf ,wholly from a sense of reserve or modesty1 the ,arab wife remains for months1 possibly for a whole year1 with her mother before taking up her abode in her husband's tent4 ,the extreme delicacy of the customs regulating the behaviour of married pairs in ancient ,sparta are well understood4 ,according to ,xenophon and ,strabo1 it was the custom1 not only among the ,spartans but among the ,cretans also1 for married pairs to meet clandestinely4 ,the same custom prevailed in ancient ,lycia4 ,lafitau says that among the ,north ,american ,indians the husband visits his wife only by stealth4#gg #ge ,ibid41 p4 #eia4 #gf ,seeman1 ,a ,mission to ,viti1 p4 #aia4 #gg ,quoted by ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 p4 #hb4 ,it is stated by trustworthy authorities that among various tribes1 during the period of gestation and lactation1 the person of the wife is sacred2 that the rule of chastity1 or continence1 between married pairs1 during this season1 is absolutely inviolate4 ,in ,fiji1 women furnish natural nourishment to their children for three or four years1 during which time their persons are respected4 ,the relatives of the women take it as a public insult if any child should be born before the customary three or four years have elapsed1 and they consider themselves in duty bound to avenge it in an equally public manner4 ,mr4 ,seeman says3 ,i heard of a white man1 who1 being asked how many brothers and sisters he had1 frankly replied1 8ten40 8,but that could not be10 was the rejoinder of the natives1 8one mother could scarcely have so many children40 ,when told that these children were born at annual intervals1 and that such occurrences were common in ,europe1 they were very much shocked1 and thought it explained sufficiently why so many white people were 8mere shrimps40 ,after childbirth1 among the ,fijians1 husband and wife separate and live apart for three and even four years1 8so that no other baby may interfere with the time considered necessary for suckling the children1 in order to make them strong and healthy40#gh #gh ,seeman1 ,a ,mission to ,viti1 p4 #aia4 ,through such wise regulations as these1 governing the sexual relations1 the drain on the vital forces observed among the women of civilized countries is avoided1 and it was doubtless to these rules and others of a similar character that women1 throughout untold ages of human existence1 were enabled to maintain a position of independence and supremacy4 ,we are informed that among the ,fijians the birth of a child is cause for a perfect jubilee2 that parental and filial affection is among the manifest virtues of this people4 ,after referring to the truthfulness and honesty of the ,dyaks of ,borneo1 ,mr4 ,wallace says that 8in several matters of morality they rank above most uncivilized1 and even above many civilized1 nations4 ,they are temperate in food and drink1 and the gross sensuality of the ,chinese and ,malays is unknown among them40#gi ,although the usual checks to population are absent among the ,dyaks--namely1 starvation1 disease1 war1 infanticide1 and vice1--still the women in the ,dyak tribe rarely had more than three or four children4 ,in a village in which there were one hundred and fifty families1 in only one of them were there six children1 and only six with five children4 #gi ,the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,in whatever direction we turn1 evidences are abundant going to prove that under simpler and more natural conditions1 and before corrupted by our later civilization1 mankind were governed largely by the instincts developed within the female constitution1 and that long after her supremacy over the male was lost1 the effects of these purer conditions were manifest in the customs1 forms1 and usages of the people4 ,from the evidence at hand it seems more than likely that many of the extant tribes have at some remote period been civilized1 and that through some natural catastrophe1 the unfavourable conditions of climate and soil1 or some other equally disadvantageous cause1 they have again sunk to a low plane of existence from which they have been unable to rise4 ,from available facts one is almost led to believe that at a period in the remote past1 and while living under purer conditions1 a high stage of civilization was reached1 a civilization which in many respects was equal if not superior to that of the present4 ,be this as it may1 whenever the environment of a people is such that after having reached a certain stage it is unable to advance1 it does not remain stationary1 but on the contrary follows a line of retrogression2 or1 whenever the conditions of a race or tribe are such that the higher faculties which tend towards progress lie dormant1 the lower forces which incline toward retrogression and which are peculiarly active in low organisms still continue in operation4 ,although the social arrangement of the native ,australians seems to be founded on classes based on sex--the earliest form of society--still we find them practising polygamy and monogamy side by side1 at the same time securing their wives by capture in exactly the same fashion as did the early ,greeks and ,romans4 ,it is apparent1 therefore1 that although this people have not been able to advance in the arts of life1 as far as the relations of the sexes are concerned they have taken about the same course as have all the other tribes and races in which the supremacy of the male has been gained4 ,for unknown reasons1 during thousands of years1 the developing agencies have been quiescent1 hence no check to the animal instincts has been interposed2 the ,australians have therefore departed widely from the conditions which surrounded early human society--conditions under which the maternal instincts developed in the lower orders of life were still sufficiently strong to guard the constructive processes and to continue the chain of uninterrupted progress4 ,as among the lowest existing tribes--peoples which during countless ages have been unable to advance--only the ruder elements in the human composition have been developed1 it is plain that from these tribes little if any information concerning an earlier or more natural age1 when the animal instincts were controlled by the higher characters developed in human nature1 may be obtained2 but from those peoples within the several successive stages of development whose environment has been such as to admit of some degree of improvement in the arts of life1 and in whom therefore the higher characters developed in their mute progenitors have not been in a state of retrogression1 may be obtained a clue to many of the processes by which our present social fabric has been raised4 ,among such peoples will be retained certain symbols1 habits1 and traditions representing former modes of life1 from which may be reconstructed much of the previous history of the race4 ,for instance1 by means of the symbol of wife-capture1 a form of marriage which is universal among tribes in a certain stage of development1 has been furnished much trustworthy information relative to the institution of marriage and the development of the modern family4 ,it matters not that the origin of these symbols is so remote that their true significance is lost by the peoples who practise them1 they nevertheless repeat with unerring fidelity the past experiences of the race and reveal the origin of later institutions4 ,as the various tribes and races of mankind have probably sprung from a common progenitor1 and as the 8nerve cells in the brain of all classes and orders have had the same origin10 their development1 although not identical as to time and manner of detail1 has been similar in outline and in general results2 so it is thought that a correct knowledge of the development of any tribe or race from savagery to civilization must necessarily involve the general history of all the tribes and races of mankind4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,gens--,,women ,,under ,,gentile ,,institutions ,the earliest form of organized society was that into classes founded on the basis of sex1#hj under which the right of individuals to intermarry was restricted to one-fourth of the group4 ,this division of the early race1 and the regulations prohibiting conjugal relations with three-fourths the members of the related community1 is thought to represent the first coercive abridgment or formal restriction of the then existing conjugal rights1 and was inaugurated for the purpose of averting the evil effects arising from intercourse between near relations4 ,of this early form of society1 however1 and of the ages during which no organized form existed1 little may be known except that which is suggested by the instincts and habits of the highest animals1 and that which may be inferred from an investigation of the next higher organization1 that into gentes on the basis of kin4 ,although untold ages intervened between the ancient division of society into classes founded on the basis of sex1 and the higher and more important organization into gentes on the basis of kin1 this last-named plan for the further development of mankind became universal at a comparatively early stage of human history4 #hj ,morgan1 ,ancient ,society1 p4 #eb4 ,by an investigation of the fundamental principles of the gens1 we shall be enabled to observe the similarity existing between the instincts which governed early human action and those which controlled the highest orders of life below mankind4 ,all facts bearing on the primitive conditions of the human race1 which in these later times have been brought to light through the investigations directed toward peoples in the various stages of development1 only serve to emphasize the importance of the altruistic principle in the formation of organized society and in the establishment of human institutions4 ,although the gens is the earliest form of organized society of which we have any accurate knowledge1 still as within it were encysted the germs of all the principles of justice and equality which our better human nature is beginning again to recognize1 and which must characterize a higher stage of progress1 a knowledge of its underlying principles is necessary to a correct understanding1 not only of the past development of the race and all the existing human institutions1 but of the course to be pursued toward the future advancement of mankind4 ,of the gens1 ,mr4 ,morgan says3 ,the gentile organization opens to us one of the oldest and most widely prevalent institutions of mankind4 ,it furnished the nearly universal plan of government of ancient society1 ,asiatic1 ,european1 ,african1 ,american1 and ,australian4 ,it was the instrumentality by means of which society was organized and held together4 ,commencing in savagery1 and continuing through the three sub-periods of barbarism1 it remained until the establishment of political society1 which did not occur until after civilization had commenced4 ,the ,grecian gens1 phratry1 and tribe1 the ,roman gens1 curia1 and tribe find their analogues in the gens1 phratry1 and tribe of the ,american aborigines4 ,in like manner1 the ,irish sept1 the ,scottish clan1 the phrara of the ,albanians1 and the ,sanskrit ganas1 without extending the comparison further are the same as the ,american-,indian gens1 which has usually been called a clan4 ,as far as our knowledge extends1 this organization runs through the entire ancient world upon all the continents1 and it was brought down to the historical period by such tribes as attained to civilization4444 ,gentile society wherever found is the same in structural organization and in principles of action2 but changing from lower to higher forms with the progressive advancement of the people4 ,these changes give the history of the development of the same original conceptions4#ha #ha ,ancient ,society1 pp4 #fb1 #fc4 ,early society1 as observed under gentile institutions1 was established on purely personal and social relations1 or1 on the basis of the relations of the individual to the rest of the community1 a community in which each member could trace her or his origin back to the head of the gens who was a woman4 ,under gentile institutions1 or until the latter stage of barbarism was reached1 each individual1 female and male1 constituted a unit in an aggregation or community whose interests were identical1 and as such1 to a certain extent1 was held responsible for the safety and general welfare of every member composing the group4 ,extreme egoism1 as it is the outgrowth of a later age1 was unknown2 and sympathy1 the chief promoter of the well-being of mankind1 a sprout from the well-established root1 maternal affection1 was the predominant characteristic of these primitive groups and the bond which held society together4 ,although the manner of reckoning descent had been changed from the female to the male line1 the purely social organization of the gens1 on the basis of kin1 was1 as has been observed1 in operation at the beginning of our present civilization1 at which time political society supervened1 and individuals were no longer recognized through their relations to a gens or tribe1 but through their relations to the state1 county1 township1 or deme1 to which institutions they must henceforward look for protection and for the redress of injuries done either to person or property4 ,although1 until a comparatively recent time1 the writers who have dealt with the subject of primitive society have been of the opinion that the tribe constituted the earliest organization of society1 and that the gens and the family followed1 later investigations show conclusively that the gens1 next to the remote and obscure division into classes1 represents the oldest and most widely spread form of organized society1 and that it was through segmentation or division of this archaic group that the tribe was formed4 ,the natural way in which a tribe is formed is from a family or group1 which in time increases and divides into many households1 still recognizing one another as kindred1 and this kinship is so thoroughly felt to be the tie of the whole tribe1 that even when there has been a mixture of tribes1 a common ancestor is often invented to make an imaginary bond of union4#hb #hb ,tylor1 ,anthropology1 p4 #dje4 ,the gens1 until a comparatively recent time in the history of the human race1 was composed of a female ancestor1 all her children and all the children of her daughters1 but not of her sons4 ,the sons' children and their descendants belonged to the gens of their respective mothers4 ,the family1 as it appears at the present time1 was unknown4 ,the gens was founded on thoroughly democratic principles1 each individual composing the group1 both female and male1 having a voice in the regulation and management of all matters pertaining to the general government of the community4 ,any injury done to a gentilis was a wrong committed against the entire gens of which she or he was a member1 hence to her or his kinsmen each individual looked for protection and for redress of personal wrongs4 ,the fundamental doctrine of tribal life is unity of blood4 ,although the early groups1 under the system of female descent1 were united by the actual bond of kinship as traced through mothers1 later1 when descent came to be traced through fathers1 kinship was to a considerable extent feigned4 ,kinship1 under the system of male descent1 meant not that the blood of the great father actually flowed in the veins of all the members of the group1 but that under a pretence of unity of blood1 they were bound together by common duties and responsibilities from which no one of them could escape4 ,by the terms of the compact1 every member must stand by her or his own clan4 ,in fact1 in all their movements1 they must act as one individual2 their interests were identical and the quarrel of any member of the group became the quarrel of all counted within the bond of kinship4 ,if homicide were committed1 they judged and punished the culprit1 but if one of their number was slain by an outsider1 the law of blood-feud1 which demanded blood in return1 was immediately put into execution4 ,of the gens ,mr4 ,morgan says3 ,within its membership the bond of kin was a powerful element for mutual support4 ,to wrong a person was to wrong his gens2 and to support a person was to stand behind him with the entire array of this gentile kindred4#hc #hc ,ancient ,society1 p4 #gf4 ,although in the later ages of gentile government1 all the members of a group were not necessarily bound by blood1 from the nature of the rights conferred1 and the obligations imposed1 the bond uniting them was doubtless stronger than that which now unites mere kindred4 ,of this tie uniting early groups ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer says3 ,all the members of a totem clan regard each other as kinsmen or brothers and sisters1 and are bound to help and protect each other4 ,the totem bond is stronger than the bond of blood or family in the modern sense4#hd #hd ,totemism1 p4 #eg4 ,as ,arabia1 at the time of ,mohammed1 was still under gentile organization1 there is perhaps at the present day no country which affords a better opportunity for the study of several of the successive stages of human development4 ,at the time indicated1 the entire ,arabian peninsula was composed of a multitude of groups varying in civilization1 which were bound together by common privileges1 obligations1 and responsibilities and by a real or pretended bond of kinship traced through males4 ,in early ,arabia a group bound together by a real or feigned unity of blood was the type or unit of society4 ,sometimes a confederation of these smaller groups was formed1 but so strong was the bond between the more closely related groups that they soon broke up into their original units4 ,the genealogists assert that these groups which were patriarchal tribes founded on male descent are subdivisions of an original stock4 ,at the time of the ,prophet the ,arabians claimed to trace their descent from two brothers the sons of ,wil4 ,prof4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith informs us1 however1 that the name of one of these 8brothers0 is a feminine appellation and that it is the designation of a tribe and not of a person4 ,he says3 8,the gender shows that the tribal name existed before the mythical ancestor was invented10 and adds3 8,the older facts down to the time of ,al-,farazdac personify ,taghlib as the daughter not the son of ,wil4 ,it is not unlikely that the mythical legend of ,taghlib and ,bakr originated at a time when the female principle in human affairs and in the ,deity was beginning to give place to the male40#he #he ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 p4 #ad4 ,within the traditions of the oldest races of which we have any account1 are evidences of a desperate struggle between two races or between the followers of two opposing principles4 ,in all parts of ,arabia 8these two races maintained their ancestral traditions of bitter and persistent feud40 ,although in ,arabia1 in the time of the ,prophet1 descent was traced in the male line1 the evidence is almost unlimited1 going to show that it was not always so1 but1 on the contrary1 that at an earlier age1 relationships were reckoned through women1 mothers being the recognized heads of families and tribal groups4 ,in his work on ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,r4 ,smith says3 ,if a kinship tribe derives its origin from a great father1 we may argue with confidence that it had the rule that children were of their father's tribe and kin2 while on the other hand if we find1 in a nation organized on the principle of unity of tribal blood1 tribes which trace their origin to a great mother instead of a great father1 we can feel sure that at some time the tribe followed the rule that the children belong to the mother and are of her kin4 ,now among the ,arabs the doctrine of the unity of tribal blood is universal1 as appears from the universal prevalence of the blood-feud4 ,and yet among the ,arab tribes we find no small number that refer their origin to a female eponym4 ,hence it follows that in many parts of ,arabia kinship was once reckoned not in the male but in the female line4 ,in reply to the suggestion that the several families of polygamous fathers might be designated by the names of their several mothers1 ,professor ,smith observes3 ,the point before us1 however1 is not the use of the mother's name by individuals for purposes of distinction1 but the existence of kindred groups whose members conceive that the tie of blood which unites them into a tribe is derived from and limited by descent from a common ancestress4 ,that the existence of such a group proves kinship through women to have been once the rule is as certain as that the existence of patronymic groups is evidence of male kinship4 ,in most cases of the kind the female eponym is mythical1 no doubt1 and the belief in her existence is a mere inference from the rule of female kinship within the tribe1 just as mythical male ancestors are inferred from a rule of male kinship4 ,but even if we suppose the ancestress to be historical1 the argument is much the same1 for where the bond of maternity is so strong that it binds together the children of the same mother as a distinct kindred group against the other children of their father1 there also we may be sure that the children of one mother by different fathers will hold together and not follow their father4 ,and this is the principle of female kinship4#hf #hf ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 pp4 #bf1 #bg4 ,it is stated that the designation of tribal unity by a feminine appellation 8is not an arbitrary fiction of later facts10 but that it is 8one of the old standing figures of ,semitic speech40 ,in ,hebrew1 em1 which means mother1 means also stock1 race1 or community4 ,the name for a tribal group in ,arabia was hayy1 a term which indicates life4 ,it is observed that in ,hebrew and ,arabic hayy is used in the same sense4 8,hawwa is simply a phonetic variation of hayy with a feminine termination10 and 8,eve1 or ,hawwa1 is so called because she is the mother of all living1 or1 more literally1 of every hayy40 ,we are given to understand that1 originally1 there was no rule of reckoning kinship in ,arabia except by the female line1 and that the change in descent from the female to the male line affected society to its very roots4 ,there seems to be little1 if any1 doubt that a system of reckoning descent through women once prevailed throughout all the tribes and races of mankind4 ,in ,greece1 as late as the beginning of the historic period1 traces of this early custom are to be observed1 and1 indeed1 at the present time1 among many peoples1 evidences of it are still extant4 ,the fact that throughout an earlier age of human existence descent and all the rights of succession were traced through women1 is at the present time so well established as to require no detailed proofs to substantiate it4 ,noting this custom among early races1 and observing also the natural conclusions to be drawn from such a state of society1 a few writers who have dealt with the subject of primitive races have taken much pains to show that it does not naturally follow that under these usages the influence of women was supreme2 and their theories to explain this 7to them7 no doubt singular phenomenon show the extent to which prejudice and long-established habits of thought have influenced their investigations4 ,on this subject ,c4 ,staniland ,wake remarks3 ,there is strong reason for believing that the practice of tracing kinship in the female line was very widely observed from a very early period1 but this is very different from the establishment of the supremacy of women4 ,where this was found it was due to the development of the gentile institution and the female kinship which accompanied it1 on which1 indeed1 that institution was founded4#hg #hg ,marriage and ,kinship1 p4 #af4 ,if1 however1 during the earlier ages of human existence a system of kinship through women had been established which was able to produce the gentile institution1 or1 if this institution1 which was 8founded0 on female kinship and dependent upon it1 was able through untold ages to direct all the processes of evolution1 even though no other evidence were at hand to prove it1 then women's influence must have been well-nigh supreme4 ,so deeply intrenched has become the idea of woman's subjection that it is impossible for many male writers to contemplate a state of society in which women are not dominated and controlled by men4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's theory to explain the universal system of kinship traced through woman involves the same idea of woman's subserviency to man1 especially in the sexual relation1 and is an illustration of the reasoning usually employed in dealing with this subject4 ,although 8the very lowest races now existing1 ,fuegians1 ,australians1 and ,andamanese1 show us that1 however informally they have originated1 sexual relations of a more or less enduring kind exist10 he is certain that among the earliest races a state of 8lawlessness0 must have prevailed and that 8promiscuity0 must have been the rule among them2 and this too notwithstanding the fact that among the lower orders of life from which man has descended1 and among the earliest races of mankind the female chooses her mate and refuses to pair with any individual except the one of her choice4 ,to account for the universal system of reckoning descent through the female1 ,mr4 ,spencer says that as the connection between mother and child is more 8obvious0 than that existing between the father and his offspring the custom arose of reckoning descent through females4#hh ,the fact is observed that maternal affection without which organized society would have been impossible1 and which alone can explain the system of kinship traced through women1 is entirely ignored by ,mr4 ,spencer4 #hh ,sociology vol4 i41 p4 #ffe4 ,noting the reasoning employed by many writers to prove that in the earliest ages of human existence1 the maternal bond was ignored1 and that the child was accounted as being related only to the group1 ,mr4 ,darwin remarks3 ,but it seems almost incredible that the relationship of the child to its mother should ever be completely ignored1 especially as the women in most savage tribes nurse their infants for a long time1 and as the lines of descent are traced through the mother alone1 to the exclusion of the father4#hi #hi ,descent of ,man1 p4 #ehh4 ,we must bear in mind that under archaic usages not only did mothers nurse their infants two1 three1 and even four years1 but that maternity was the bond which held together related groups and the source whence proceeded all property rights and tribal honours2 also1 that under the system of female kinship1 male parentage was known but habitually disregarded4 ,notwithstanding all this1 ,mr4 ,spencer can see no reason for concluding that in the most primitive groups there were no 8individual possessions of women by men40#ij #ij ,sociology1 vol4 i41 p4 #ffe4 ,the late ,sir ,a4 ,smith1 who had travelled widely in ,south ,africa and was acquainted with the habits of savages there and elsewhere1 expressed the strongest opinion that 8no race exists in which woman is considered as the property of the community40#ia ,the reasoning employed by ,mr4 ,spencer to disprove the early supremacy of women seems scarcely to justify his lofty pretensions to intellectual greatness4 #ia ,quoted by ,darwin1 ,descent of ,man1 p4 #ehh4 ,in a state of society in which women were the recognized heads of families and eponymous groups where children took the mother's name1 and in which all rights of succession were traced through them1 it is reasonable to suppose that female influence was in the ascendency over that of the male1 and especially so as primitive human beings were largely controlled by instincts inherited from the orders of life in which the female chooses her mate and controls the sex-functions4 ,a knowledge of the customs and tribal usages of the ,iroquois ,indians throws much light on the early position of women4 ,when this tribe first came under the observation of ,europeans it was in the first stage of barbarism1 and as the manner and order of development of the various races of mankind are said to be substantially the same1 and as many of the facts connected with the history of this truly interesting people through nearly three ethnical periods are accessible1 it is thought that by it1 as well as by the ,arabians1 is afforded an excellent opportunity for the study of the general history of mankind during these periods4 ,to ,mr4 ,morgan we are indebted for the results of a thorough research into the customs1 manners1 and laws of this people4 ,through a knowledge of the rights1 privileges1 and obligations which were conferred and imposed on the members of the ,iroquois gens while in the second state of barbarism1 we are enabled to perceive the principles of true democracy upon which gentile institutions are based2 and this is important1 for the reason that later in this work ,i intend to trace the decline of those principles of liberty and equality established under female influence and to show the reasons for the subsequent rise of monarchy1 aristocracy1 and slavery4 ,the rights1 privileges1 and obligations of the ,iroquois tribe of ,indians1 as enunciated by ,mr4 ,morgan1 are as follows3 ,the right of electing its sachem and chiefs4 ,the right of deposing its sachem and chiefs4 ,the obligation not to marry in the gens4 ,mutual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members4 ,reciprocal obligations of help1 defence1 and redress of injuries4 ,the right of bestowing names upon its members4 ,the right of adopting strangers into the gens4 ,common religious rites4 ,a common burial place4 ,a council of the gens4#ib #ib ,ancient ,society1 p4 #ga4 ,as this writer truly remarks3 8,these functions and attributes gave vitality as well as individuality to the organization1 and protected the personal rights of its members40 ,eligibility to the office of chief was based on personal merit1 and continuance in office depended on the acknowledged fitness of the individual occupying it4 ,the qualifications required for this office were personal bravery1 ability to lead1 and eloquence in council4 ,the chief exercised no kingly authority over the tribe by which he was appointed2 on the contrary1 his personality was respected and his counsels heeded1 not because of his official prerogatives1 but on account of the qualities by which his character was dignified2 therefore so soon as he proved himself unworthy of the trust confided to him he was deposed by the same agency which had elected him4 ,hence may be observed the truly democratic character of the gens4 ,concerning the position occupied by women1 and the influence which they exerted in the management of the clan1 ,ashur ,wright1 who was for many years missionary to the ,senecas1 in #ahgc1 wrote to ,mr4 ,morgan the following3 ,as to their family system when occupying the old long houses1 it is probable that some one clan predominated1 the women taking in husbands1 however1 from the other clans2 and sometimes1 for a novelty1 some of their sons bringing in their young wives until they felt brave enough to leave their mothers4 ,usually the female portion ruled the house1 and were doubtless clannish enough about it4 ,the stores were in common2 but woe to the luckless husband or lover who was too shiftless to do his share of the providing4 ,no matter how many children or whatever goods he might have in the house1 he might at any time be ordered to pick up his blanket and budge2 and after such orders it would not be healthful for him to attempt to disobey4 ,the house would be too hot for him2 and1 unless saved by intercession of some aunt or grandmother1 he must retreat to his own clan2 or1 as was often done1 go and start a new matrimonial alliance in some other4 ,the women were the great power among the clans1 as everywhere else4 ,they did not hesitate1 when occasion required1 8to knock off the horns10 as it was technically called1 from the head of a chief1 and send him back to the ranks of the warriors4 ,the original nomination of the chiefs also always rested with them4#ic #ic ,ancient ,society1 p4 #dee4 ,in the ,lower ,status of barbarism we find intermarriage within the gens prohibited1 and the obligation not to marry those accounted as kin as strong as a religious duty4 ,although during the latter ages of savagery the idea of property was slightly developed1 it is thought that it lay nascent until the latter part of the first period of barbarism4 ,indeed1 until the first stage of barbarism was reached1 the idea of personal possession had gained only a slight foothold in the mental constitution of mankind4 ,egoism1 selfishness1 or the desire to better one's individual condition at the expense of the rest of the gens was unknown4 ,all lands were controlled by the group1 and as the property of early society consisted for the most part of personal effects and proprietary rights in communal houses and gardens1 one of the most fruitful causes for dissensions in more advanced stages of society was avoided4 ,under primitive conditions1 quarrels arising over disputed ownership within the gens were unknown1 and liberty1 equality1 and fraternity1 the cardinal virtues and principles of early society were able to flourish undisturbed by the as yet unheard of vices inherent in the excessive desire for property4 ,in reference to some of the small uncivilized communities which he visited1 ,mr4 ,wallace says that each man respects the rights of his fellow1 and any infraction of these rights rarely or never takes place4 ,in such a community all are nearly equal4 ,there are none of those wide distinctions of education and ignorance1 wealth and poverty1 master and servant1 which are the product of our civilization2 there is none of that widespread division of labour1 which1 while it increases wealth1 produces also conflicting interests2 there is not that severe competition and struggle for existence or for wealth which the dense population of civilized countries inevitably creates4#id #id ,the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,under the archaic rule of the gens1 at the death of a male1 whether married or single1 his possessions descended to his sister's children2 while at the death of a female1 her property1 including her personal effects1 was distributed among her sisters and her children and the children of her daughters1 but the children of her sons were not included among her heirs4 ,the sons' children belonged to the gentes of their respective mothers1 and as descent and all the relationships to which rights of succession were attached were traced only in the female line1 and as property until the middle of the ,second ,status of barbarism was strictly confined to the gens in which it originated1 children could receive nothing from their fathers4 ,wives and husbands1 as they belonged to separate gentes1 received nothing from one another4 ,in later times1 when tribal honours were confined within certain families or groups1 as descent and property rights were all traced in the female line1 each male was dependent upon his female blood relations1 not only for his common inherited privileges in the gens1 but for any civil or military distinction to which he might attain4 ,where female kinship prevails1 a ,rajah's son may become a hodman1 taking the state of his mother--while the son of the ,rajah's sister mounts the throne4#ie #ie ,mc,lennan1 ,studies in ,ancient ,history1 p4 #ajc4 ,among the ,rocch tribe1 a people among which descent is traced in the female line1 a man goes on marriage to live with his wife and her mother1 of whose family he is a subordinate member4#if #if ,c4 ,staniland ,wake1 ,marriage and ,kinship1 p4 #cjf4 ,a ,rocch man goes1 on his marriage1 like the beena husband of ,ceylon1 to live with his wife and her mother2 on his marriage1 all his property is made over to his wife1 and on her death her heirs are her daughters4#ig #ig ,studies in ,ancient ,history1 p4 #ajc4 ,for the same reason that wives and husbands were debarred from sharing in each other's property1 their bodies1 or more properly speaking1 their bones1 were separated at death1 as were also the bones of father and child4 ,the bones of the children always rested beside those of the mother4 ,it was impious to mix the bones of unrelated persons4 ,to such an extent was the ,motherright recognized under archaic usages that the child belonged exclusively to the mother and her relations1 the father having no recognized proprietary right to his offspring4 ,indeed1 so lightly was the paternal relation regarded that the father was supposed to have little if any interest in his own children4 ,although the bond between a man and his offspring was weak1 toward his sister's children1 as they belonged to the same gens with himself1 a considerable degree of manly interest was manifested2 indeed1 it has been stated that about the same solicitude was evinced by him for their welfare1 as was shown at a later time by fathers for the members of their own household4 ,observing the care manifested for a sister's children among various tribes1 certain writers have declared that the relationship existing between a child and its mother's brother is more important than any other--that the brother is practically the head of his sister's family4 ,however1 if we bear in mind the relative positions of the sexes in primitive groups1 that women controlled their homes1 and that all the rights of succession were traced through them1 we shall doubtless be led to the conclusion that mothers themselves were the real heads of their own families1 and that although they may have delegated to their brothers1 who until marriage were permitted to reside with them1 certain manly offices1 they nevertheless reserved to themselves the exclusive right to the control and management of their own households4 ,as the land belonged to the gens1 and as the gentes were controlled by women1 mothers were absolutely independent4 ,each child received a name soon after birth1 but at the age of sixteen or eighteen this name was discarded and another adopted4 ,special rights were thus conferred and specified obligations were imposed4 ,on receipt of this name1 the incumbent took upon himself all the duties and responsibilities devolving upon a member of the group and by it was entitled to all its rights and privileges4 ,the greatest precautions were taken with respect to the adoption of names4 ,the office of naming the different members belonged to the female relations and the chiefs4 ,we are informed that the mother might1 if she chose1 transfer her child to another gens4 ,this was accomplished by simply giving it the name of the gens in which she desired its adoption4 ,it is claimed that among the ,shawnees and ,delawares the mother claimed the right to transfer her child to another gens than her own4#ih ,it would seem from this1 that among certain tribes1 the mother1 if she desires1 may transfer her child to the gens of its father4 ,it is observed1 however1 that the transference of a child from its mother's gens is a 8wide departure from archaic usages1 and exceptional in practice40 #ih ,morgan1 ,ancient ,society1 p4 #gi4 ,it has been shown that under early usages wealth was never transferred from the gens in which it originated2 but later1 when property began to be claimed by individuals1 and wealth was amassed in the hands of males1 it is not unlikely that mothers1 considering only the future welfare of their children1 in case the father was rich and powerful1 would occasionally take advantage of their established privileges to remove their children to his gens1 in order that they might share in his possessions4 ,something of the humanity practised in early groups may be observed in the custom of adoption1 which1 at a certain stage in their development1 prevailed among them4 ,in the earlier ages of gentile institutions1 women and children taken prisoners in war1 were usually adopted into some gens4 ,adoption not only conferred gentile rights1 but also the nationality of the tribe4 ,a person adopted into a gens was treated ever afterwards as though born within the group4 8,slavery which in the ,upper ,status of barbarism became the fate of the captive1 was unknown among tribes in the ,lower ,status in the aboriginal period40#ii #ii ,morgan1 ,ancient ,society1 p4 #hj4 ,according to ,mariner3 ,it is customary in the ,tonga ,islands for women to be what they call mothers to children or grown-up young persons who are not their own1 for the purpose of providing them1 or seeing that they are provided1 with all the conveniences of life4#ajj #ajj ,quoted by ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 p4 #if4 ,according to ,mr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,wood1 among the ,kaffirs1 although the men inherit the property1 their influences being in the ascendency1 every woman has someone who acts as her father whether her own father be living or not4 ,kaffir law provides for the protection of all women1 and so long as a male relation lives a girl has a protector4 ,it goes even farther than this1 and protects women who have been bereft of all their male relations4 ,for such as these provision is made for their adoption into other groups1 in which case1 although they are received as dependents1 they are protected as daughters4#aja #aja ,uncivilized ,races of the ,world1 vol4 i41 p4 #gh4 ,this practice of adoption is observed among various peoples4 ,among certain tribes in which descent is traced through women1 a woman offers her breast to the person she is adopting1 this being the strongest symbol of the unity of blood4 ,thus may be noted the fact that the fundamental idea1 or principle1 of tribal life is maternity1 or the maternal instinct--that the uniting force which binds a child to its mother is the one which is supposed to unite the various members of a primitive group4 ,so strongly has the maternal instinct as a binding principle taken root1 that among certain peoples even where the manner of reckoning descent and the rights of succession have been changed from the female to the male line1 whenever an individual wishes to be adopted into a gens he takes the hand of the leader of the group and sucking one of his fingers1 declares himself to be his child by adoption2 henceforth the new father is bound to assist him as far as he can4#ajb ,adoption 8by the imitation of nature0 was practised by the ,romans down to the time of ,augustus4 #ajb ,parkyns1 ,life in ,abyssinia1 vol4 i41 p4 #agd4 ,it has been observed that under the matriarchal system the mother was the only recognized parent1 hence1 when the father began to assume the rights and prerogatives which had hitherto belonged only to her1 in order to make valid his claim1 it was thought proper for him to go through various of the preliminaries attendant on childbirth4 ,of all the forms practised among lower races there is none1 perhaps1 which is more singular than is that of putting the father instead of the mother to bed in the event of the birth of a child4 ,concerning this custom1 ,mr4 ,tylor quotes from ,klemm the following3 ,among the ,arawaks of ,surinam1 for some time after the birth of his child the father must fell no tree1 fire no gun1 hunt no large game2 he may stay near home1 shoot little birds with a bow and arrow1 and angle for little fish2 but his time hanging heavy on his hands1 the most comfortable thing he can do is to lounge in his hammock4#ajc #ajc ,early ,history of ,mankind1 p4 #bif4 ,mr4 ,tylor quotes also from the ,jesuit missionary1 ,dobrizhoffer1 who gives the following account of the ,abipones3 ,no sooner do you hear that the wife has borne a child1 than you will see the ,abipone husband lying in bed1 huddled up with mats and skins1 lest some ruder breath of air should touch him1 fasting1 kept in private1 and for a number of days abstaining religiously from certain viands2 you would swear it was he who had had the child4 ,the custom of putting the father to bed when a child is born is called la couvade1 and traces of it are yet to be found in ,france4 ,it is also practised among the ,basques1 and according to ,c4 ,staniland ,wake1 was anciently observed in ,corsica1 among the ,iberians of ,spain1 and in the country south of the ,black ,sea4 ,it is still practised in ,southern ,india1 in ,yunnan1 in ,borneo1 in ,kamchatka1 and in ,greenland4 ,it is said also to be in use among the various tribes in ,south ,america4#ajd ,the persistency of this practice shows the importance formerly attached to the maternal functions1 and1 as has been suggested1 was doubtless inaugurated at a time when descent was being changed from the female to the male line4 #ajd ,marriage and ,kinship1 p4 #bfb4 ,it was perhaps in the latter part of the ,middle ,status of barbarism that descent and the rights of succession began to be traced through males4 ,when1 through causes which will be noticed later in this work1 property began to accumulate in the hands of men1 children became the recognized heirs of their fathers and the foundation for the present form of the family was laid4 ,however1 long after descent began to be reckoned through males1 absolute paternity was not necessary to fatherhood4 ,during the earlier ages of male supremacy1 fatherhood1 like brotherhood1 was a loose term and signified simply the head of a house1 or the 8lord0 or owner of the mother4 ,it mattered little whether a man had previously lent his wife to a friend1 or whether he had shared her favours with several brothers1 all the children 8born on his bed0 belonged to him and were of his family4 ,later in these pages will be observed the fact that the change in reckoning descent1 which occurred at a comparatively late period in the history of the human race1 is directly connected with the means of subsistence4 ,so long as land was held in common by the members of the gens1 and so long as women were able to manage the means of support1 their independence was secure1 and they were able to exercise absolute control over their own persons1 their homes1 and their offspring4 ,under these conditions men were obliged to please the women if they would win their favours4 ,from facts which have been demonstrated by various writers on the subject of the early conditions of the human race1 it is more than probable that women were the original tillers of the soil1 and that1 during the first period of barbarism1 while the hunters and warriors were engaged in war and the chase1 occupations best suited to their taste1 women first discovered the art of producing farinaceous food through cultivation1 and through this discovery a hitherto exclusive diet of fish and game was changed for a subsistence in part vegetable4 ,it is conjectured also that the first domestication of animals was brought about through a probable 8freak of fancy40 ,that individuals among these animals were first caught by hunters1 conveyed by them to their homes1 and there tamed through the tenderness and sympathy of women1 is considered more than likely4 ,there are1 however1 so far as ,i know1 no actual facts upon which to base such a conclusion4 ,the increase of subsistence through horticulture and the domestication of animals marks an important era in the history of mankind4 ,by this means the human race was enabled to spread itself over distant areas1 and through the improved condition of nutrition alone1 by which the physical conditions were improved and the mental energies strengthened1 the arts of life were multiplied and the course of human activities directed into higher and more important channels4 ,indeed1 through the numerous benefits derived from the one source of increased and improved subsistence1 the entire mode of life was changed or materially modified4 ,the religious idea1 which subsequently comprehended a complicated system of mythology based on phallic worship1 at this early age1 consisted simply of a recognition of the bounties of earth4 ,the principal office connected with the religious ceremonies of the ,iroquois tribe of ,indians1 at the stage of development in which it was first known to ,europeans1 seems to have been 8,keeper of the ,faith10 a position occupied alike by both sexes4 ,the ,keepers of the ,faith were chosen by the wise members of the group2 they were censors of the people1 with power to report the evil deeds of persons to the council4 8,with no official head1 and none of the marks of a priesthood1 their functions were equal40#aje ,for the most part1 their religious services consisted of festivals held at stated seasons to celebrate the return of the bounties of ,nature4 ,a notable fact in connection with this subject is1 that during the earlier ages of barbarism the religious idea was thoroughly monotheistic1 and idolatry was unknown1 religious worship1 for the most part1 consisting of a ceremony of thanksgiving1 with invocations to the ,great ,mother-,nature to continue to them the blessings of life4 ,as altruism waned and egoism advanced1 however1 supernaturalism1 or a belief in unseen forces1 became more and more pronounced1 until1 in the ,latter ,status of barbarism1 when the supremacy of man had become complete1 the gens became merely the 8centre of religious influence and the source of religious development40 #aje ,morgan1 ,ancient ,society1 p4 #hb4 ,the earlier governmental functions were administered through a council of chiefs elected by the gentes4 ,the thoroughly democratic character of the gens may be observed in the fact that any member1 female or male1 who desired to communicate with the council on matters of public interest1 might express her or his opinion either in person or through an orator of her or his own selection4#ajf ,hence1 we observe that government originated in the gens1 which was a pure democracy4 #ajf ,morgan1 ,ancient ,society1 p4 #aag4 ,regarding the council of the gens1 ,mr4 ,morgan remarks3 ,it was a democratic assembly because every adult male and female member had a voice upon all questions brought before it4 ,it elected and deposed its sachem and chiefs1 it elected ,keepers of the ,faith1 it condoned or avenged the murder of a gentilis1 and it adopted persons into the gens4 ,it was the germ of the higher council of the tribe1 and of that still higher of the confederacy1 each of which was composed exclusively of chiefs as representatives of the gentes4444 ,all the members of an ,iroquois gens were personally free1 and they were bound to defend each other's freedom2 they were equal in privileges and in personal rights1 the sachem and chiefs claiming no superiority2 and they were a brotherhood bound together by the ties of kin4 ,liberty1 equality1 and fraternity1 though never formulated1 were cardinal principles of the gens4 ,these facts are material because the gens was the unit of a social and governmental system1 the foundation upon which ,indian society was organized4444 ,at the epoch of ,european discovery the ,american ,indian tribes generally were organized in gentes with descent in the female line4 ,the gens was the basis of the phratry1 of the tribe1 and of the confederacy of tribes4#ajg #ajg ,morgan1 ,ancient ,society1 p4 #he4 ,from the foregoing it would seem that the gens--the earliest organization of society of which we have any accurate knowledge--was founded on the 8mother-right0 or on the supremacy of women4 ,we are assured that the gentile organization is not confined to the ,latin1 ,grecian1 and ,sanskrit-speaking tribes1 but that it has been found 8in other branches of the ,aryan family of nations1 in the ,semitic1 ,uralian1 and ,turanian families1 among the tribes of ,africa and ,australia1 and of the ,american aborigines40#ajh #ajh ,ibid41 p4 #fd4 ,a tribe was composed of several gentes1 the chiefs of which formed the council4 ,this council was invested with the power to declare war and to regulate terms of peace1 to receive embassies and make alliances2 it was in fact authorized to perform all the governmental functions of the tribe4 ,the duties performed by the council of chiefs may be regarded as the first attempt at representative government4 ,in process of time1 as the affairs of the tribe became more complicated1 a need arose for a recognized head1 one who when the council was not in session could lead in the adjustment of matters pertaining to the general interest of the group4 ,in response to this demand1 one of the sachems was invested with a slight degree of authority over the other chiefs4 ,hence arose the military chieftain of the ,latter ,status of barbarism4 ,that the powers delegated to the incumbent of this office differed widely from those of a modern monarch1 is shown in the fact that as he had been elected by the members of the group he could by them be deposed4 ,we have seen that the powers exercised by sachem and chief were alike transmitted through women4 ,the mother is the natural guardian of the family2 so soon therefore as the actions of the leaders of the group were not in accord with those principles of equality and justice which had characterized society since its organization1 they were deposed1 or1 as in the case of the ,senecas described by ,ashur ,wright1 they had their 8horns knocked off0 through the influence of women4 ,at the head of the family1 or gens1 producing and controlling the principal means of subsistence1 and forming the line of descent and inheritance1 women1 until the closing ages of the ,middle ,status of barbarism1 were without doubt the leading spirits1 and thus far the progress of mankind had been in strict accord with those principles which since the separation of the sexes had governed development4 ,in process of time1 however1 the simple form of government which has been described was found inadequate to meet the demands arising from the more complicated requirements of increasing numbers and the general growth of society2 therefore1 during the opening ages of the ,latter ,status of barbarism1 a form of government was evolved which was better suited to their changed conditions4 ,when the idea of a coalescence of tribes1 or of a combination of forces for common defence had taken root1 and when under such confederation the council of chiefs had become co-ordinated with a military leader for the general management and defence of the community1 it was thought that an important step had been taken in progressive governmental functions4 ,yet1 along with the higher development of the governmental idea is to be observed also a growing tendency toward the usurpation of power4 ,scarcely was the office of military chieftain created1 than we find the people inaugurating measures with which to protect themselves against encroachments upon their liberties1 and devising means whereby they might be enabled to check the personal ambition of their leaders4 ,the extreme egoism developed within the male constitution was already manifesting itself in the excessive greed for gain1 and in the inordinate thirst for military glory2 hence1 as a safeguard against usurpation1 in the earliest stages of the ,latter ,status of barbarism1 we find the tribe electing two military chieftains instead of one1 two leaders invested with equal powers and responsibilities and subjected to the same restrictions and limitations in the exercise of authority4 ,the ,spartan government upon its first appearance in history is characterized by the existence of two war-chieftains1 who1 by historians of later ages1 have been designated as kings2 a closer investigation1 however1 of the functions performed by them shows that they were lacking in nearly all the prerogatives which characterize a modern sovereign4 ,so jealously had the rights of the people been guarded that the basileus or war-chief of the ,latter ,status of barbarism1 who is said to represent the germ of our present king1 emperor1 and president1 had not succeeded in drawing to himself the powers exercised by a monarch of modern times4 ,the selection of a military leader1 during the ,latter ,status of barbarism1 doubtless represents the first differentiation of the civil from the military functions of government1 and indicates a virtual acknowledgment of the fact that society had outgrown the primary and more simple form of government administered by the council of chiefs4 ,the third stage in the development of the idea of government was represented by a council of chiefs1 a military commander1 and an assembly of the people4 ,in this further growth of the administrative functions may be discovered the same solicitude for individual liberty and the rights of the community which had characterized the former stage of development1 and also the fact that still greater precautions were deemed necessary to insure the people against tyranny and the usurpation of their established rights4 ,the council of chiefs1 although representing a pure democracy1 and co-ordinated with two military chieftains1 between whom was an equal division of power and responsibility1 was found to be an insufficient safeguard against despotism2 hence the measures devised for the management of the confederacy must henceforth be subjected to an ,assembly of the ,people1 which1 although of itself unable to originate or propound any plan of government1 was invested with the power to accept or reject any measures offered for adoption by the council4 ,the gens was able to carry mankind through to the opening ages of civilization1 at which time the council of chiefs was transformed into a senate1 and the ,assembly of the ,people assumed the form of the popular assembly1 from which have been derived our present ,congress and the two houses of the ,english ,parliament4 ,by a careful study of the growth of government1 it is discerned that liberty1 fraternity1 and equality were the original and natural inheritance of the human family1 and that tyranny1 injustice1 and oppression are excrescences which subsequently fastened themselves upon human institutions through the gradual rise of the egoistic principle developed in human nature4 ,we have seen that until the beginning of the ,latter ,status of barbarism1 the gens constituted a sovereign power in the tribe2 women controlled the gens1 and sachem and chief were alike invested with the authority necessary for leadership because they could trace their descent to some female ancestor who was the acknowledged head of the people1 and whose influence and patronage must have extended over all the individuals included within the recognized bond of kinship4 ,with the deposing power in the hands of women1 and with the precautions which were taken by them against injustice or usurpation of rights1 it is plain that unless some unusual or unprecedented circumstances had come into play1 they never could have lost that supremacy which1 as the natural result of their development1 had been maintained by females since the separation of the sexes4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,marriage ,i will be master of what is mine own2 ,she is my goods1 my chattels2 she's my house1 ,my household stuff1 my field1 my barn1 ,my horse1 my ox1 my ass1 my everything4 ,the ,taming of the ,shrew4 ,it is an obvious fact that so far as her sex relations are concerned the position of civilized woman is lower than that of the female animal4 ,the question which presents itself at this stage of our inquiry is3 ,what were the causes which led to the overthrow of female supremacy or what were the processes by which man gained the undisputed right to the control of woman's person8 ,by contrasting the industrial position of women under gentile institutions with that of later times1 after they had become the sexual slaves of men1 it will be seen that the question of economics is deeply involved in this change4 ,although the early independence of women is now recognized1 the fact of their industrial supremacy is for the most part ignored4 ,indeed the part performed by woman in originating and developing human industries is seldom referred to by those dealing with this subject4 ,as the activities best suited to the tastes of primitive man were confined to war and the chase1 those occupations and pursuits which were necessary for the preservation of the group were carried on by women4 ,the reason for this is obvious4 ,fathers were not regarded as being related to their offspring4 ,the mother was the only recognized parent4 ,as the land was held in common1 women were economically free4 ,they were absolutely independent of men for their support4 ,under these conditions the importance of women's position may be easily perceived4 ,not only did women establish the first industries1 but they invented and constructed the tools and implements by which these industries were carried on4 ,women were the first tillers of the soil4 ,it was they who conceived the idea of preserving seeds whereby farinaceous food might be produced4 ,corn was not only raised by them but by them it was ground and further prepared for use4 ,they built clay granaries in which to store their food products and tamed the cat to protect them4 ,implements for tilling the soil1 and devices for grinding the grain were invented by women4 ,they were the first architects and the first builders4 ,they first conceived the idea of making cloth with which to protect the body4 ,they were the first spinners and the first weavers4 ,they invented the first spindles and the first looms4 ,their attempts at decoration were the beginning of art4 ,as these pioneers in industry were without means of transportation other than their backs1 some of the difficulties which they encountered may be readily perceived4 ,it must be borne in mind that for primitive women there was no accumulated store of knowledge and no previous race-experiences2 neither were there any established rules or precedents to guide them4 ,all methods and utilities had to be worked out by woman's unaided brain4 ,when the conditions under which these pioneers in industry laboured are considered1 and when one reflects on the obstacles which must have presented themselves at every step along their untried pathway1 it would almost seem that their early achievements were quite as remarkable as are those which have since been accomplished by men4 ,the fact is observed that woman assumed the rle of protector and provider1 not as is commonly asserted because she was compelled by man to become a beast of burden1 but because she was the recognized guardian not only of infant life but of the public welfare4 ,later1 after the primitive groups began to coalesce to form the tribe1 after wife-capture became prevalent and men thereby secured the right to the control and ownership of individual women1 a right which they still claim1 then and not till then did women become beasts of burden4 ,then and not till then did man gain the right to the control of woman's person4 ,it is now known that wife-capture is the origin of our present form of marriage1 and that the establishment of the family with man at its head rests on the same basis4 ,it is also known that through forcible marriage and the economic conditions which it entailed1 woman became a dependent1 a mere appendage to her male mate4 ,the dominion of man and the assumed inferiority of woman are the direct results of the authority which he was able to exercise over her in the marital relation4 ,we have seen that prior to the decline of female influence women taken prisoners in war were not regarded as the legitimate property of their captors4 ,on the contrary1 female captives were adopted into the gens and invested with the same status of personal independence enjoyed by the original members of the group4 ,later1 however1 female prisoners began to be regarded as the special booty of their captors1 and as belonging exclusively to them2 and although in primitive times marriage outside the limits of related groups was prohibited1 owing to the esteem in which military chieftains came to be held1 this claim was at length allowed them4 ,any courageous young warrior1 conscious of his popularity1 might gather about him a band of his clansmen and march against a neighbouring tribe1 the women taken prisoners during such expeditions being the special prizes of their captors4 ,these prisoners were entitled to none of the privileges of the community into which they were taken2 and as the hostility felt toward unrelated tribes had become so strong as to be shared by women1 the captive woman could no longer look for pity even from her own sex4 ,from this time in the history of the race may be traced the decline of woman's power and the subjection of the natural female impulses4 ,as1 at this stage1 within the limits of their own tribe1 women held the balance of power in their own hands1 and as they still exercised unqualified control over their own persons1 the acknowledged ownership of one woman1 who1 being a 8stranger10 was without power or influence1 would be an object much to be desired1 and one for which a warrior would not hesitate to brave the dangers of a hostile camp4 ,hence1 female captives were in demand1 and the women of warring tribes were sought after singly and in groups4 ,in process of time wars for wives became general and under the new regime women had the fear of captivity constantly before their view as a condition more to be dreaded than death4 ,in the ,mahabharata of ,india it is stated that formerly 8women were unconfined and roved about at their pleasure1 independent40 ,finally1 marriage was instituted and a woman was bound to a man for life4 ,one of the eight forms of legalized marriage in the code of ,manu was that of capture de facto and was called ,racshasa4 ,this particular form of conjugal union was practised exclusively by the military classes1 among which1 the women taken in battle were the acknowledged booty of their captors4 ,a definition of this kind of marriage is as follows3 8,the seizure of a maiden by force from her house while she weeps and calls for assistance1 after her kinsmen and friends have been slain in battle or wounded1 and their houses broken open1 is the marriage called ,racshasa40 ,capture as the prescribed form of marriage for warriors may be traced through thousands of years and among various peoples4 ,of the three legalized forms of marital union in ,rome1 that by capture was the one in use among the plebeians1 the patricians at the same time practising ,confarreatio and ,usus4 ,in ,arabia1 as late as ,mohammed's time1 the carrying off of women was recognized as a legal form of marriage4#aji #aji ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 p4 #gc4 ,that capture constituted a legal form of marriage among the ,israelites1 or that women taken captives in war were appropriated as sexual slaves1 is shown by their religious history1 in which the instructions given to the ,lord's chosen people after they had taken a city was to 8smite every male thereof with the edge of the sword3 ,but the women1 and the little ones1 and the cattle1 and all that is in the city0 they were to take unto themselves4 ,this1 it will be noticed1 is to be done 8unto the cities which are very far off10 and which 8are not of the cities of these nations40#aaj #aaj ,deuteronomy1 chap4 xx41 #ac1 #ad1 #ae4 ,when the ,israelites #ab1jjj strong marched against the ,midianites1 they were commanded by ,moses to slay all the males1 adults and children1 and all the women except the virgins4 ,these virgins of whom there were #cb1jjj were to be spared and utilized as wives by the victorious ,israelites4 ,the fact will be noted that these women had been taken from their own people1 hence they were wholly without influence or power4 ,they were dependents and therefore subject to the will of their masters4 ,they were sexual slaves or wives4 ,in ,australia1 among the ,north ,american ,indians1 the tribes of the ,amazon and the ,orinoco1 in ,hindustan and ,afghanistan1 marriage by actual capture is still practised1 and many of the details connected with the modus operandi have been given by various writers4 ,the following from ,sir ,george ,gray1 relative to this form of marriage as it exists at the present time among some of the native ,australian tribes1 is quoted by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan4 ,although a woman give no encouragement to her admirers1 many plots are laid to carry her off1 and in the encounters which result from these1 she is almost certain to receive some violent injury1 for each of the combatants orders her to follow him1 and in the event of her refusing1 throws a spear at her4 ,the early life of a young woman at all celebrated for beauty is generally one continued series of captivity to different masters1 of ghastly wounds1 of wanderings in strange families1 of rapid flights1 of bad treatment from other females1 amongst whom she is brought a stranger by her captor2 and rarely do you see a form of unusual grace and elegance1 but it is marked and scarred by the furrows of old wounds2 and many a female thus wanders several hundred miles from the home of her infancy1 being carried off successively to distant and more distant points4#aaa #aaa ,studies in ,ancient ,history1 p4 #dj4 ,in an account describing the search for wives by the natives of ,sydney1 ,collins says3 ,the poor wretch is stolen upon in the absence of her protectors4 ,being first stupefied with blows1 inflicted with clubs or wooden swords1 on the head1 back1 and shoulders1 every one of which is followed by a stream of blood1 she is then dragged through the woods by one arm1 with a perseverance and violence that it might be supposed would displace it from its socket4 ,this outrage is not resented by the relations of the female1 who only retaliate by a similar outrage when they find an opportunity4 ,this is so constantly the practice among them that even the children make it a play game1 or exercise4#aab #aab ,quoted by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 p4 #ajh4 ,by various travellers and explorers1 the fact has been observed that certain symbols representing force in their marriage ceremonies are in use among nearly if not all extant tribes which have reached a certain stage of growth4 ,to such an extent1 in an earlier age1 has the forcible carrying-off of women prevailed1 that among most of these tribes a valid marriage may not be consummated without the appearance of force in the nuptial ceremonies4 ,in reference to these symbols1 we have the following passage from ,mr4 ,mc,lennan3 ,meantime1 we observe that1 whenever we discover symbolical forms1 we are justified in inferring that in the past life of the people employing them1 there were corresponding realities2 and if1 among the primitive races which we examine1 we find such realities as might naturally pass into such forms on an advance taking place in civility1 then we may safely conclude 7keeping within the conditions of a sound inference7 that what these now are1 those employing the symbols once were4#aac #aac ,studies in ,ancient ,history1 p4 #e4 ,among primitive tribes1 the area controlled by each was small1 therefore vigilance in maintaining their possessions was one of their chief duties1 and hostility to surrounding tribes a natural condition4 ,subsequently1 however1 when friendly relations began to be established with hitherto hostile tribes1 they are found entering into negotiations to furnish each other with wives4 ,it was at this time that marriage by sale or contract was instituted1 an arrangement by which the elder men in the tribe could be accommodated with foreign wives1 at the same time that their own daughters and sisters became to them a source of revenue4 ,in ,uganda many men obtain wives by exchanging daughters and sisters with each other4 ,of this practice ,c4 ,staniland ,wake says3 ,this is not an unusual mode of proceeding in different parts of the world4 ,the perpetuation of the monopoly of women enjoyed to a great extent by the older men of the tribe among the ,australians is1 according to ,mr4 ,howitt1 encouraged by those having sisters or daughters to exchange with each other for wives4#aad #aad ,marriage and ,kinship1 p4 #bjg4 ,not unfrequently actual capture is practised side by side with fiction--violent seizure being in active operation among the same tribes at the same time with the symbol1 the frequency of actual violence depending partly on the extent to which hostility prevails between the tribes1 and partly on the degree of 8uniformity established by usage in the prices paid for wives40 ,among certain tribes1 when a dispute arises concerning the price to be paid for a bride1 if the man is able to seize the woman and carry her off to his tent1 the law recognizes her as his wife and nothing is left for the relations to do in the matter but to accept his terms as to the price4 ,the peoples among which actual capture is at present practised1 and those among which wives are procured by sale or contract1 represent two different stages in the development of the institution of marriage1 and it is owing to this fact that the symbols used among the latter may be traced to the realities in which they originated4 ,of the ,bedouins of ,mt4 ,sinai1 ,burckhardt says that marriage is a matter of sale and purchase1 in which the inclination of the girl is disregarded4 ,the young maid comes home in the evening with the cattle4 ,at a short distance from the camp she is met by the future spouse and a couple of his young friends1 and carried off by force to her father's tent4 ,if she entertains any suspicion of their designs she defends herself with stones1 and often inflicts wounds on the young men1 even though she does not dislike the lover1 for1 according to custom1 the more she struggles1 bites1 kicks1 cries1 and shrieks1 the more she is applauded ever after by her own companions4#aae #aae ,quoted by ,e4 ,j4 ,wood1 ,the ,wedding ,day1 etc41 p4 #fj4 ,in reference to the ,mezeyne ,arabs the same writer observes that a similar custom prevailed within the limits of the ,sinai ,peninsula1 but not among the other tribes of that province4 ,a girl having been wrapped in the ,abba at night1 is permitted to escape from her tent1 and fly into the neighbouring mountains4 ,the bridegroom goes in search of her next day1 and remains often many days before he can find her out1 while her female friends are apprised of her hiding-place1 and furnish her with provisions4 ,if the husband finds her at last 7which is sooner or later1 according to the impression that he has made upon the girl's heart71 he is bound to consummate the marriage in the open country1 and to pass the night with her in the mountains4 ,the next morning the bride goes home to her tent1 that she may have some food2 but again runs away in the evening and repeats these flights several times1 till she finally returns to her tent4 ,she does not go to live in her husband's tent until she is far advanced in pregnancy2 if she does not become pregnant1 she may not join her husband till a full year from the wedding-day4#aaf #aaf ,quoted by ,e4 ,j4 ,wood1 ,the ,wedding ,day1 etc41 p4 #fj4 ,cranz says that in ,greenland 8some females1 when a husband is proposed to them will fall into a swoon1 elope to a desert place1 or cut off their hair4444 ,in the latter case they are seldom troubled with further addresses40 ,the refractory bride is dragged forcibly into her suitor's house1 where she sits for several days disconsolate1 with dishevelled hair1 and refuses nourishment4 ,when friendly exhortations are unavailing1 she is compelled by force and even with blows to receive her husband4 ,should she elope1 she is brought back and treated more harshly than before4#aag #aag ,history of ,greenland1 vol4 i41 p4 #adf4 ,wherever friendly relations have been established between the tribe of the wife and that of the husband1 he pays a price to her relatives for the privilege of removing her to his camp4 ,this purchase price1 together with the simulated hatred of the woman's friends1 signifies a sacrifice on the part of the wife and her family4 ,in ,nubia when a man marries he presents his wife with a wedding-dress1 and gives her also a pledge for three or four hundred piastres1 half of which sum is paid her in case of a divorce4 ,divorces1 however1 are very rare4#aah #aah ,burckhardt1 ,travels in ,nubia1 p4 #cd4 ,among the ,circassians1 after the preliminaries have been settled by the parents1 the lover meets his bride-elect by night in some secluded spot1 and with the assistance of two or three of his best friends seizes her and carries her away4 ,sometimes the pretended capture takes place in the midst of a noisy feast4 ,the woman is usually conducted into the presence of a mutual friend1 where1 on the following day1 her friends1 simulating anger1 seek her and demand a reason for her abduction4 ,although the affair is usually settled at once by the bridegroom paying the accustomed price for his bride1 custom requires that there shall be still further manifestations of anger on the part of her friends2 so1 on the following day1 all the relatives of the bride1 armed with sticks1 proceed to the place where the bride is in waiting1 there to meet the bridegroom and his friends who have come to carry off the bride4 ,a sham fight ensues1 in which the bridegroom and his party are always victorious4 ,among certain of the ,arabian tribes the bridegroom must force his bride to enter his tent1 and in ,france1 as late as the seventeenth century1 a similar custom prevailed4 ,in describing a wedding dance in ,abyssinia1 ,parkyns observes3 ,this dance is performed by men armed with shields and lances1 who with bounds1 feints1 and springs attack others armed with guns1 so as to approach them1 and at the same time avoid their fire1 while the gunners make similar demonstrations1 and at last fire off their guns either in the air or into the earth1 and then1 drawing their swords1 flourish them about as a finish4 ,finally the bridegroom fires off a gun and immediately rushes across to where the bride and her female relations are stationed4#aai #aai ,life in ,abyssinia1 vol4 ii41 p4 #di4 ,tylor informs us that a ,scandinavian warrior generally sought to gain his bride by force1 that he conceived it beneath his dignity to win her by pacific means4 ,that the affair might appear more heroic1 he waited until the object of his choice was about to wed another1 and was actually on her way to the nuptial ceremony1 when with his friends he would surprise the wedding cortege1 seize the bride1 and carry her off4 ,it has been said of ,scandinavian marriages that they were matters of deep anxiety to the friends both of the bride and groom1 who1 until the wedding was over1 remained at home in suspense fearing an attack of the kind already mentioned4 ,it was customary for a party of young men to station themselves at the church door1 and1 as soon as the ceremony was completed1 to carry the news to the homes of the wedded pair4 8,within a few generations the same old practice was kept up in ,wales1 where the bridegroom and his friends1 mounted and armed as for war1 carried off the bride10 and in ,ireland they used even to hurl spears at the bride's people1 though at such a distance that no one was hurt4#abj #abj ,anthropology1 p4 #djd4 ,in the ,amazon valley the bride is always carried away by violence4 ,among the ,zulus1 although a purchase price is paid for a woman1 custom requires that a wife1 after having been captured1 shall make three attempts to return to her own home4 ,of the marriage customs in ancient ,sparta1 ,plutarch says3 8,in their marriages the bridegroom carried off the bride by violence40#aba ,in ,rome we have the familiar example of the ,sabine women1 who were captured or carried off by force4 #aba ,lycurgus4 ,a notable fact in connection with the subject of capture is1 that the mother of the bride1 or1 in case the mother is dead1 the nearest female relative1 is the individual who assumes the part of the principal defender in this ceremony4 ,she it is who attempts to rescue the bride1 and who more than any other mourns the fate of the captured wife4 ,among primitive peoples1 with the exception of the symbol of wife-capture in marriage ceremonies1 there is perhaps none more significant than that typifying the hatred of the mother for the captor of her daughter4 ,customs indicating estrangement or1 actual aversion to sons-in-law1 usually1 if not always1 accompany marriage by capture4 ,the fact that the change in the relative positions of the sexes1 as indicated by the sadica and ba'al forms of marriage in ,arabia1 was not easily or speedily accomplished1 is apparent not only in the symbols of wife-capture everywhere practised among peoples in a certain stage of development1 but is strongly suggested also by the aversion found to exist among these same peoples between mothers-in-law and sons-in-law1 whether appearing as a reality or as a symbol4 ,among the ,arawaks of ,south ,america1 it is unlawful for the son-in-law to look upon the face of his mother-in-law4 ,if they live in the same house a partition separates them1 and if by chance they must enter the same boat1 she must precede him so as to keep her back toward him4 ,among the ,caribs1 all the women talk with whom they will1 but the husband dare not converse with his wife's relations except on extraordinary occasions4#abb ,mr4 ,tylor refers to the fact that #abb ,quoted by ,tylor1 ,early ,history of ,mankind1 p4 #bij4 ,in the account of the ,floridian expedition of ,alvar ,nuez1 commonly known as ,cabeca de ,vaca1 or ,cow's ,head1 it is mentioned that the parents-in-law did not enter the son-in-law's house1 nor he theirs1 nor his brother-in-law's1 and if they met by chance1 they went a buckshot out of their way1 with their heads down and eyes fixed on the ground1 for they held it a bad thing to see or speak to one another4 ,it is observed by ,richardson1 an author quoted by ,tylor1 that among the ,crees1 while an ,indian lives with his wife's family1 his mother-in-law must not speak to or look at him4 ,in some portions of ,australia1 8the mother-in-law does not allow the son-in-law to see her1 but hides herself if he is near1 and if she has to pass him makes a circuit1 keeping carefully concealed within her cloak40 ,among some of the tribes in ,central ,africa1 from the moment a marriage is contracted1 the lover may not behold the parents of his future bride4 ,when a young man wishes to marry a girl1 he dispatches a messenger to negotiate with her parents regarding the presents required and the number of oxen demanded4 ,this being arranged1 he may not again look upon the father and mother of his intended wife2 8he takes the greatest care to avoid them1 and if by chance they perceive him they cover their faces as if all ties of friendship were broken40 ,we are told1 however1 that this indifference is only feigned1 that they feel the same friendship as before1 and in conversation extol one another's merit4 ,mr4 ,caillie says that this custom extends beyond the relations2 if the lover is of a different camp1 he must avoid all the inhabitants of the lady's camp1 except a few intimate friends who are permitted to assist him in his love-making4 ,a little tent is set up for him in the neighbourhood1 under which he is to remain during the day4 ,if he has occasion to cross the camp he must cover his face4 ,he may not see the face of his intended throughout the day1 but at nightfall he may creep silently to her tent and remain with her until the dawn4 ,these clandestine visits are continued for a month or two when the marriage is solemnized4 ,at the wedding festival the women collect round the bride singing her praises and extolling her virtues4#abc #abc ,travels through ,central ,africa1 vol4 i41 p4 #id4 ,gubernatis is authority for the statement that1 in many parts of ,italy the bride is compelled to go through the process of weeping on her wedding-day1 also for the fact that one of the marriage customs prevalent in ,sardinia is identical with that which appeared among the plebeians at ,rome1 namely1 the pretence of tearing the bride from the arms of her mother4#abd #abd ,see ,mc,lennan's ,studies in ,ancient ,history1 p4 #ahi4 ,from the facts which have been obtained relative to the practice of wife-capture1 it is only natural to suppose that the mother of the captured wife would be her chief ally and defender2 that such has been the case seems to be clearly shown by the symbols of distrust and aversion everywhere manifested between mothers-in-law and sons-in-law among the various existing uncivilized races4 ,the practice of wife-capture exists either as a reality or as a symbol entering into the marriage ceremonies among the tribes of ,central ,africa1 the ,indians of ,north and ,south ,america1 in ,australia1 in ,new ,zealand1 in ,arabia1 in the hill tracts of ,india1 among the ,fuegians1 and in the islands of the ,pacific ,ocean1 and wherever this system is found the symbol of hatred between mother-in-law and son-in-law also prevails4 ,the simulated anger and sham violence connected with marriage ceremonies among friendly peoples1 which are so far removed from a time when actual capture was practised as to be ignorant of the true significance of these symbols1 show the extent to which marriage is based on the idea of force on the one side and unwilling submission on the other4 ,as the numerous ,arabian clans in the time of ,mohammed represented the varying stages of advancement from the second period of barbarism to civilization1 the constitution of ,arab society at that time affords an excellent opportunity for observing the growth of the institution of marriage1 and the various processes by which the former supremacy of women was overthrown4 ,one of the principal objects of war at the time of the ,prophet is said to have been the capture of women for wives1 a practice which was recognized as lawful4 ,under ,islam the custom of forcibly carrying off women for wives was universal and was carried on side by side with the system of marriage by contract or sale4 ,the position of the captured woman1 however1 differed somewhat from that of the purchased wife4 ,the former1 having been forcibly carried away from her home1 lost the protection of her friends1 while the purchased wife1 although she relinquished the authority which had formerly been exercised by women within the gens1 and although she surrendered her person to her 8lord10 did not forfeit her right to the protection of her own family in case of abuse4 ,although in ,arabia1 under the form of marriage by sale or contract1 the wife lost the right to the control of property belonging to her own gens1 she did not1 as in ,rome1 forfeit her claim to the protection of her kindred4 ,if she received ill treatment within the home of her husband1 her relatives1 who were still her natural protectors1 were bound to redress her wrongs4 ,in ,rome1 on the contrary1 under a system representing a later stage in the development of marriage1 the wife was adopted into the stock of her husband whose rights over her person were supreme1 at the same time that her kindred renounced the right to interfere in her behalf4 ,it is to the fact1 that in early ,arabia the wife never relinquished her hold upon her own relations1 that we are to look for an explanation of the high social position of ,arabian women4 ,we are assured that it is 8an old ,arab sentiment1 and not ,moslem10 that women are entitled to the highest respect1 and that as mothers of the tribe they 8are its most sacred trust40 ,according to ,professor ,w4 ,r4 ,smith in ,mohammed's time1 in addition to the two forms of marriage mentioned1 namely1 that by capture and that by sale or contract1 there existed also a more ancient form known as the sadica--a form of conjugal union which was a remnant of the matriarchal system4 ,by observing the facts connected with this last-named institution1 we shall be enabled to understand something of the position occupied by women during the earlier ages of human existence before wife-capture became prevalent4 ,among certain tribes just prior to ,islam1 upon the event of marriage1 the man presented the woman with a sum of money1 which offering was simply an acknowledgment of the favour which she was conferring upon him4 ,the husband went to live with the wife in her tent1 and as the contract was for no specified length of time1 he was at liberty to go whenever he tired of the conditions imposed on him by his wife and her relations4 ,any children1 however1 that were born as a result of this union belonged to the mother and became members of her hayy4 ,if she desired him to go1 she simply turned the tent around1 8so that if the door had faced east it now faced west1 and when the man saw this he knew that he was dismissed and did not enter40 ,in relation to these marriage customs ,professor ,smith says3 8,here1 therefore1 we have the proof of a well-established custom of that kind of marriage which naturally goes with female kinship in the generation immediately before ,islam40 ,of this kind of marriage the same writer observes3 ,the mot marriage was a purely personal contract1 founded on consent between a man and a woman1 without any intervention on the part of the woman's kin4444 ,now the fact that there was no contract with the woman's kin--such as was necessary when the wife left her own people and came under the authority of her husband--and that1 indeed1 her kin might know nothing about it1 can have only one explanation3 in mot marriage the woman did not leave her home1 her people gave up no rights which they had over her1 and the children of the marriage did not belong to the husband4 ,mot marriage1 in short1 is simply the last remains of that type of marriage which corresponds to a law of mother-kinship1 and ,islam condemns it1 and makes it 8the sister of harlotry10 because it does not give the husband a legitimate offspring1 i4 e41 an offspring that is reckoned to his own tribe and has rights of inheritance within it4#abe #abe ,prof4 ,w4 ,r4 ,smith1 ,kinship and ,marriage1 p4 #fi4 ,before the separation of the ,hebrews and ,aramans1 the wife remained within her own tent where she received her husband1 the children of such unions taking her name and becoming her heirs4 ,this kind of conjugal union is known to have been in existence in many portions of the world4 ,in ,ceylon it is designated as the beena marriage4 ,in ancient ,arabia1 not only did women control their own homes1 but they owned flocks and herds1 and were absolutely independent of male relations4 ,as late as the fourteenth century of our era1 although the women of certain ,arabian tribes were willing to marry strangers1 they never followed them to their homes4 ,among the ,bedouins it is a rare thing for a woman at marriage to leave her home and kindred4 ,when a woman marries a man he settles among her kinsmen1 and1 as she presents him with a spear and a tent by way of dowry1 it would seem that he is expected to join her relations and assist in the common defence4 ,the marks of authority under gentile rule are the possession of a tent and a lance2 yet we find that these are the objects which1 under matriarchal usages1 the wife tenders her husband when he enters her family2 the first doubtless as a symbol of her protection1 the second as indicating her authority and the services which he is expected to render her and her people4 ,until a late period in ,rome it was the custom1 during the solemnities of marriage1 to pass a lance over the head of the wife in token of the power which the husband was about to gain over her4#abf #abf ,ortolan1 ,history of ,roman ,law1 p4 #hj4 ,under the two types of marriage--namely1 mot and ba'al--the positions of women were so diametrically opposed that both could not continue1 hence when under the pressure brought to bear upon them1 women began to accept the ba'al form of marriage within their own hayy1 mot unions were doomed4 ,of the more ancient form of marriage in ,arabia1 under which the woman chooses her mate1 evidences of which are still extant in that country1 and that by capture under which she becomes the slave of her lord1 ,professor ,smith says3 ,there is then abundant evidence that the ancient ,arabs practised marriage by capture4 ,and we see that the type of marriage so constituted is altogether different from those unions of which the mot is a survival1 and kinship through women the necessary accompaniment4 ,in the one case the woman chooses and dismisses her husband at will1 in the other she has lost the right to dispose of her person and so the right of divorce lies only with the husband2 in the one case the woman receives the husband in her own tent1 among her own people1 in the other she is brought home to his tent and people2 in the one case the children are brought up under the protection of the mother's kin and are of her blood1 in the other they remain with the father's kindred and are of his blood4 ,all later ,arabic marriages under the system of male kinship1 whether constituted by capture or by contract1 belong to the same type2 in all cases1 as we shall presently see in detail1 the wife who follows her husband and bears children who are of his blood has lost the right freely to dispose of her person2 the husband has authority over her and he alone has the right of divorce4 ,accordingly the husband1 in this kind of marriage1 is called not in ,arabia only1 but also among the ,hebrews and ,aramans1 the woman's 8lord0 or 8owner10 and wherever this name for husband is found we may be sure that marriage is of the second type1 with male kinship1 and the wife bound to the husband and following him to his home4#abg #abg ,kinship and ,marriage1 p4 #ge4 ,notwithstanding the humane enactments of ,mohammed in the interest of women1 their position steadily declined1 such enactments having been overbalanced by the establishment of marriages of dominion1 by the growing idea that sadica or mot marriages were not respectable1 and that women could not depend upon their relations to take their part against their husbands4 ,the history of religion shows that its growth has always followed the same course as have the ideas concerning the relative importance of the sexes4 ,the god-idea and the fundamental doctrines of religion are always found to be in harmony with the established principles and ideas relative to sex domination and superiority4 ,the religion of ,mohammed was essentially masculine1 all its principles being in strict accord with male supremacy2 it is not1 therefore1 singular that when the weight of religion was added to the already growing tendency toward ba'al marriages that sadica marriages were doomed4 ,in ,arabia1 as elsewhere1 the duties of the purchased wife were specific4 ,the present which under the older form of marriage had been given to the bride as a love-token1 or as an acknowledgment of the husband's devotion to her1 subsequently took the form of a purchase price1 and was claimed by her father and brothers as a compensation for the loss sustained by the group through the removal of her offspring1 whose services belonged to their mother's people4 ,in other words1 the husband paid a price to the wife's relations for the right to raise children by her which should belong exclusively to his kin--children which should she remain within her own home would belong to her kindred4 ,the wife was therefore removed to the husband's hayy1 where1 so far as the sexual relation was concerned1 his rights over her were supreme4 ,we have observed that wherever the possessions of the gens continued to be the property of all its members1 and were controlled by women1 the man at marriage went to live with the woman2 so soon1 however1 as men began to claim the soil1 and property began to accumulate in their hands1 the wife went to reside with her husband and his family as a dependent4 ,among various tribes1 the form of marriage in use depends on the means of the contracting parties2 if the man is able to pay to the woman's father or brothers the full price charged for her1 she goes to him as his slave--she is his property as much as is his dog or his gun2 if1 however1 he is unable to pay the amount charged1 he goes to live with her and her family1 and becomes their slave4 ,in ,japan1 among the higher classes1 upon the marriage of the eldest son1 his bride accompanies him to his paternal home2 but1 on the other hand1 when the eldest daughter marries1 her husband takes up his abode with her parents4 ,eldest daughters always retain their own names1 which their husbands are obliged to assume4 ,as the wife of an eldest son becomes a member of her husband's family1 and the husband of an eldest daughter joins the family of his wife and assumes her name1 the eldest son of a family may not marry the eldest daughter of another family4 ,regarding the younger members of the household1 if the husband's family provides the house1 the wife takes his name1 while if the bride's family furnishes the home the bridegroom assumes the name of the wife4#abh #abh ,quoted by ,c4 ,s4 ,wake from ,morgan's ,system1 etc41 p4 #dbh4 ,in the marriage customs of various nations1 and in their ideas relative to the ownership and control of the home1 may be observed something more than a hint of the principal causes underlying the decline of female power4 ,wherever women remain within their own homes1 or with their own relations1 they are mistresses of the situation2 but when they follow the fathers of their children to their homes1 they become dependents and wholly subject to the will and pleasure of their husbands4 ,it is plain1 however1 that under a system of marriage by sale or contract1 although a woman might exercise little influence in the home of her husband1 so long as her relations stood ready to defend her she would enjoy an immunity from abuse4 ,the fact that a woman can count upon her relations for protection against her husband1 shows plainly that in a certain stage of marriage by contract or sale1 women are not the abject slaves which they have been represented to be4 ,although in the ,fiji ,islands a man may seize a woman and take her to his home1 she does not remain with him unless agreeable to her inclinations4#abi #abi ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 p4 #eih4 ,amongst the ,abipones1 a man1 on choosing a wife bargains with her parents about the price4 ,but it frequently happens that the girl rescinds what has been agreed upon between the parents and the bridegroom1 obstinately rejecting the very mention of marriage4#acj #acj ,ibid41 p4 #eih4 ,among the ,charruas of ,south ,america1 divorce is quite optional4 ,in ,sumatra1 if a man carries off a virgin against her will1 he incurs a heavy fine1 or if a man carries off a woman under pretence of marriage1 8he must lodge her immediately with some reputable family40#aca #aca ,marsden1 ,history of ,sumatra1 p4 #aic4 ,although in the earlier ages of marriage by sale or contract1 daughters were regarded as the property of their fathers1 still that stage had not been reached at which women were accounted simply as sexual slaves4 ,the ,arabs practised marriage by sale or contract1 yet they jealously watched over their women1--they 8defended them with their lives and eagerly redeemed them when they were taken captive40 ,they thought it better to bury their daughters than to give them in marriage to unworthy husbands4#acb ,according to the testimony of ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 ,kaffir women are very tenacious about their relations1 probably1 it is thought1 for the reason that husbands are more respectful toward wives who have friends near them1 than they are to those who have no relations at hand to take their part4#acc ,usually among the ,kaffirs1 according to ,mr4 ,shooter1 although a man pays a price to the parents of the woman whom he wishes to marry1 the affair is by no means settled2 on the contrary1 he must undergo the closest scrutiny by her before she will consent to accept him4 ,bidding him stand1 she surveys first one side of him1 then the other1 the relations in the meantime standing about awaiting her decision4 ,upon this subject ,mr4 ,wood remarks3 8,this amusing ceremony has two meanings3 the first that the contract of marriage is a voluntary act on both sides2 and the second1 that the intending bridegroom has as yet no authority over her40#acd #acb ,professor ,smith1 ,kinship and ,marriage1 p4 #gi4 #acc ,uncivilized ,races1 etc41 p4 #gh4 #acd ,ibid41 p4 #gi4 ,although under the system of marriage by sale or contract a woman has a voice in the selection of her husband1 and although she can count on her kinsmen to protect her against abuse1 still1 practically1 the contract brings the wife under the same condition as a captured wife2 she follows her husband to his home1 where1 as a dependent1 he exercises control over her person and her children4 ,in ,arabia prior to the time of the ,prophet the wife could claim the protection of her kindred against her husband1 yet the principle underlying marriage by contract and that by capture was the same1 except that under the former the husband paid a price for the woman's sexual subjection1 while under the latter1 not only in sexual matters1 but in all others as well1 he was her 8lord0 and master4 ,the ,prophet says3 8,i charge you with your women1 for they are with you as captives 7awn740 ,professor ,smith informs us that according to the lexicons awn is actually used in the same sense as married women generally4#ace ,for long ages after ba'al marriages had been established1 so degrading was the office of wife that women of rank were considered too great to marry4 #ace ,kinship and ,marriage1 p4 #gg4 ,after relating some interesting accounts of certain practices in common with the custom of capture among the ,brazilian tribes1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock says3 ,this view also throws some light on the remarkable subordination of the wife to the husband1 which is so characteristic of marriage1 and so curiously inconsistent with all our avowed ideas2 moreover it tends to explain those curious cases in which ,hetair were held in greater estimation than those women who were1 as we should consider1 properly and respectably married to a single husband4 ,the former were originally fellow-countrywomen and relations2 the latter captives and slaves4#acf #acf ,origin of ,civilization1 p4 #abg4 ,with the development of the egoistic principle1 or when selfishness and the love of gain became the rule of action1 the protection of her kindred1 which in an earlier age a woman could count on against her husband1 was withdrawn1 and daughters came to be looked upon as a legitimate source of gain to their families4 ,on this subject ,c4 ,staniland ,wake remarks3 ,women by marriage became slaves1 and it was the universal practice for a man who parted with his daughter to be a slave to require a valuable consideration for her4 ,moreover1 as a man can purchase as many slaves as he likes1 so he can take as many wives as he pleases4#acg #acg ,c4 ,staniland ,wake1 ,marriage and ,kinship1 p4 #aii4 ,thus arose polygamy4 ,in ,rome1 in the ,latter ,status of barbarism and the opening ages of civilization1 woman1 at marriage1 forfeited all the privileges belonging to her as a member of her own family1 while within that of her husband no compensatory advantages were granted her4 ,even a proprietary right in her own children was denied her1 and from a legal point of view the wife became the daughter of her husband1 and not unfrequently the ward of her own son4 ,after the power gained by man over woman during the latter ages of barbarism had reached its height1 the family was based not on the marriage of a woman and a man1 but upon the power of a man over a woman and her offspring1 or upon the absolute authority of the male parent4 ,in ,rome a man's wife and children were members of his family not because they were related to him but because they were subject to his control4 ,at this stage in the development of the family1 the father had the power of 8uncontrolled corporal chastisement0 and of life and death over his children4#ach ,if it was his will to do so1 he could even sell them4 ,indeed1 a son's freedom from paternal tyranny could be gained only by the actual sale of his person by his father4 ,relating to the control exercised by the father over his children1 it is observed that he had the right 8during their whole life to imprison1 scourge1 keep to rustic labour in chains1 to sell or slay1 even though they may be in the enjoyment of high state offices40#aci ,if a father granted freedom to his son1 that son was no longer a member of his family4 #ach ,maine1 ,ancient ,law1 p4 #acc4 #aci ,ortolan1 ,history of ,roman ,law1 p4 #ajg4 ,that1 with the exception of force1 there is no quality in the male constitution capable of binding together the various individuals born of the same father1 is apparent from the past history of the human race4 ,mr4 ,parkyns1 referring to the character of the ,abyssinians1 observes that the worst point in the constitution of their society is the want of affection among relations1 8even though they be children of one father40 ,he says that the animosities which keep the tribes in a constant state of warfare do not exist among the offspring of the same mother and father1 but1 as the children of polygamous fathers are more numerous than own brethren1 fraternal affection is a rare thing4#adj ,a comparison between the family group under archaic usages at a time when woman's influence was in the ascendency1 and the ,roman family under the older ,roman law1 will serve to show the wide difference existing between the altruistic and egoistic principles as controlling agencies in the home and in society4 #adj ,life in ,abyssinia1 p4 #aef4 ,a significant fact in connection with this subject is here suggested1 that1 although for untold ages women were leaders of the gens1 so long as their will was supreme1 no human right was ever invaded1 and no legitimate manly prerogative usurped2 but1 on the contrary1 all were equal1 and the principles of a pure democracy were firmly grounded4 ,liberty and justice had not at that time been throttled by the extreme selfishness inherent in human nature4 ,although the processes by which women at a certain stage of human development lost their independence were gradual1 they are by no means difficult to trace4 ,the history of human marriage as gathered from the various tribes and races in the several stages of growth shows the primary idea of the office of wife to have been that of sexual slavery1 and discloses the fact that it was the desire for foreign women who1 shorn of their natural independence1 could be controlled1 which caused the overthrow of female supremacy4 ,as during the earlier ages of human existence the women of the group were absolutely independent of men for the means of support1 they were able to so control their own movements4 ,only foreign women--captives stolen from their homes and friends--taken singly or in groups could be subjugated or brought into the wifely relation4 ,indeed1 until the systematic practice of capturing women from hostile tribes for sexual purposes had been inaugurated1 and the subsequent agency of repression--namely1 ownership of the soil by males1 had followed as a natural consequence1 the usurpation by man of the natural rights and privileges of woman was impossible4 ,the male members of the group had not at that time the power to sell their sisters and other female relations1 but1 on the contrary1 defended them manfully against the assaults of hostile tribes4 ,the foreign captor1 the wife-catcher1 was an enemy who was both feared and hated1 and upon him were showered the maledictions of the entire group upon which the assault had been made4 ,in retaliation for his offence1 the men who had been bereft of a sister must in their turn commit a like depredation2 thus1 through the removal of women1 the men of early groups gradually gained control of the common possessions at the same time that they were being supplied with foreign wives over whom they exercised absolute control4 ,in process of time1 when wealth began to accumulate in the hands of men1 and when friendly relations began to be established between neighbouring tribes1 foreign wives1 without influence1 were received in exchange for the free-born women of a man's own clan2 henceforward a resort to capture was unnecessary4 ,distant tribes1 however1 were still liable to attack4 ,wars were waged against the men1 who were sometimes slain1 sometimes taken prisoners1 the invaders taking possession of the lands and compelling the women to accept the position of wife to them4 ,finally1 negotiations were entered into whereby women were uniformly taken from their homes to become wives in alien groups4 ,later1 the ba'al form of marriage came to prevail within the tribe4 ,professor ,smith1 quoting from the advice given by an ,arab to his son1 says3 8,do not marry in your own hayy1 for that leads to ugly family quarrels10 to which he adds1 there was a real inconsistency in the position of a woman who was at once her husband's free kinswoman and his purchased wife4 ,it was better to have a wife who had no claims of kin and no brethren near to take her part4#ada #ada ,kinship and ,marriage1 p4 #aje4 ,under earlier conditions of the human race women as bearers and protectors of the young were regarded as the natural land-owners2 hence1 they did not leave their own homes to follow the fathers of their children4 ,the woman who left her own relations for the hayy of her husband could no longer exercise control over the possessions of her own gens1 neither could she at a later period inherit property from her kindred for the reason that her interests were identical with those of her children and her children belonged to another clan4 ,as property could not be transferred from the group in which it originated1 she was disinherited4 ,through marriage women gave up their natural right to the soil1 and consequently to independence4 ,a knowledge of the facts connected with the origin of the institution of marriage1 reveals the fact that women lost their influence and power1 not because of their weakness1 but because they were foreigners and dependents in the homes of their husbands4 ,the statement was made at the beginning of this chapter that the origin of marriage and the establishment of the family with man at its head involve the subject of economies4 ,when property began to accumulate in the hands of men1 when women were forced to relinquish their right to the soil and thus to become dependent on men for their support1 their slavery was inevitable4 ,later1 when through the exigencies of the situation1 woman went without protest to the home of her master1 there to become a pensioner upon his bounty1 her slavery was complete4 ,in process of time1 women bound to foreign tribes by the children which they had borne1 began to accommodate themselves to the situation1 and even to claim an interest in the home of their adoption1 whereupon friendly relations began to be established between the tribe of the mother and that of the father4 ,hence may be observed the fact that the maternal instinct was the agency by which the barriers between unrelated groups were gradually broken down1 and by which a spirit of friendliness was established between hitherto hostile tribes4 ,as the coherence of the group and the combination of the gentes to form the tribe had been possible only by means of this instinct1 so the confederacy of tribes to form the nation was accomplished in the same manner4 ,the change from female supremacy to male dominion is among the most important of the evolutionary processes4 ,from the facts underlying the development of human society1 and especially those underlying the two diverging lines of sex-demarcation1 it is evident that evolution does not proceed in an undeviating line toward progress4 ,it is perceived1 that seeming retrogressions always involve a gain--a gain which could have been accomplished in no other way4 ,among the benefits derived from this change in the positions of the sexes was the development of altruism in man4 ,when fathers began to take an interest in their own offspring1 to care for them and to become responsible for their welfare1 an important step had been taken toward the establishment of the principle of brotherhood among mankind4 ,the evolutionary processes indicate a constant tendency toward the solidarity of the race1 they may be said to represent a resistless force ever drawing the human family together in a closer bond of union and sympathy4 ,under female supremacy1 combination1 or association of interests1 was confined to the gens4 ,the extension of these interests which resulted from the new order was necessary before humanity could proceed on its onward course4 ,these changes could not have taken place under the early system based on the supremacy of women4 ,the facts brought out by scientists going to prove that the progressive principle is confided to the female are accentuated by those connected with the origin and subsequent development of marriage and the family4 ,that within the female lie the elements of progress is clearly indicated1 not only in the position which the female occupied among the orders of life lower in the scale of being1 and during the earlier ages of human history1 but also by her career as the slave of man4 ,simply by means of the characters developed within the female constitution1 without material resources1 and deprived of recognized influence1 women have been able to a certain extent1 to dignify the family and the home4 ,it is more than likely that in the not distant future1 even the institution of marriage1 through which women have been degraded1 will become so purified and elevated that its results1 instead of being a menace to higher conditions will constitute a continuous source of progress and a promise of still higher achievement4 ,before this may be accomplished1 mothers must be absolutely free and wholly independent of the opposite sex for the means of support4 ,marriage must be a co partnership in which neither sex has the right to control the other4 ,although our present system of marriage took its rise in the practice of forcing women into the marital relation1 it must be borne in mind that it was not inaugurated for the purpose of establishing monogamy4 ,on the contrary1 the privileges of the captor remained the same within his tribe as before the foreign woman was stolen4 ,the theft was committed for no other purpose than to augment the hitherto restricted range of sexual liberties1 and to give to the father absolute dominion over the individuals born in his house4 ,the system of marriage in vogue at the present time has never restricted men to the possession of a single woman4 ,monogamy1 as established under male supremacy1 means one husband for one woman1 while a man may have as many women as he is able or willing to support4 ,as women are still dependent upon men for the necessities of life1 the supply of the former is regulated by the demands of the latter4 ,marriage still retains its original meaning and significance1 namely1 the ownership and control of women4 ,with the exception of physical force all the ceremonies1 customs1 ideas1 and usages of primitive marriage have been preserved4 ,when a woman marries she is 8given0 to her husband by her father or some other male relative4 ,she promises to obey her master and accepts a ring as a badge of her dependence upon him4 ,she relinquishes her own name and family1 accepting as her own the name and family of her husband4 ,she follows him to his home where1 as she is supported by his bounty1 she is subject to his will and pleasure4 ,until women are economically free they will remain sexual slaves4 ,of all the forms of human slavery which have ever been devised there has probably never been one so degrading as is that which has been practiced within the marital relation1 nor one in which the extrication of the enslaved has been a matter of such utter hopelessness4 ,the present struggle of women for freedom shows how deeply rooted is the instinct which demands their subjection4 ,the descent of woman has encompassed the lowest depths of human degradation1 but the end of the long and weary road which she has traversed is nearly reached4 ,already the evolutionary processes which are to release her from bondage are in operation4 ,from available facts relative to the development of early mankind1 it is certain that it must have required centuries upon centuries of time to subjugate women and bring them into harmonious relations with men while occupying a position of sexual slavery2 first1 physical force1 second1 dependence1 and third the substitution of masculine opinions for the instincts and ideas which are peculiar to the female constitution4 ,this accomplished the processes were begun which were to rivet the chains by which they were bound and by means of which women themselves in their weakened condition were to acquiesce in their own degradation4 ,religion was the means employed4 ,apollo1 according to ,greek mythology1 issued an edict declaring that man is superior to woman and must rule1 and ,athene herself finally accepted the edict4 ,through religion1 women came to regard themselves simply as appendages to men1 as tools or instruments for their pleasure and gratification1 and as possessing no inherent right either to liberty or happiness4 ,religion has its root in sex4 ,as we have already seen the creative force has ever been regarded as masculine or feminine according to the relative importance of the two sexes in human society and in the reproductive processes4 ,so long as woman's influence and power were in the ascendency the mother was the only recognized parent4 ,she was the creator of offspring4 ,later1 the abstract idea of female reproductive power was manifested in the female deities4 ,it required thousands upon thousands of years to subdue women4 ,it also required millenniums to dethrone the female deities4 ,when1 with the rise of male power1 man began to assume the rle of parent1 he assumed also all the functions which had formerly belonged to woman4 ,as has been noted in another portion of this work he even went to bed when a child was born4 ,with this change in the physical relations of the sexes1 the creative principle soon began to assume a masculine aspect4 ,male deities began to appear associated with the goddesses4 ,in process of time1 as male power increased1 the god-idea became wholly masculine4 ,the ,jewish god is a personified idea of male power and reproductive energy4 ,this subject will be referred to later in these pages4 ,thus the ancient plan of government which was the outgrowth of the free maternal instinct1 and which had guided humanity on its course for thousands of years1 finally succumbed to a system based on physical force4 ,when we remember the conditions surrounding early society we may well believe that civilization was gained1 not because of the fact that male power succeeded in gaining the ascendency over female influence1 but in spite of it4 ,given a combination of circumstances involving the supremacy of the lower instincts in mankind1 and the individual ownership of land1 the subjection of women1 monarchy1 and slavery1 with all their attendant evils1 namely1 poverty1 disease1 crime1 and misery were sure to follow4 ,when we consider the fundamental bias of the two diverging lines of sexual demarcation1 it is not perhaps singular that the strong sexual nature which has prompted males to vigorous physical action should for a time have gained the ascendency over the higher qualities peculiar to females2 yet the material progress achieved under the inspiration and direction of agencies like this will not1 in a more enlightened stage of existence1 be regarded as embodying the results of the best efforts of human activity1 or as representing the highest capabilities of the race4 ,probably no one will deny that the accumulation of wealth by individuals1 and the subsequent change in the relative positions of the sexes1 were necessary steps toward the establishment of society on a political or territorial basis1 or toward the breaking up of kindred groups and the acknowledgment of the idea of the unity of the entire human family4 ,neither will the proposition be contradicted that the evils attending these changes namely1 monarchy1 slavery1 and the inordinate love of gain have been unavoidable adjuncts to the development of the race2 yet1 who will doubt that under higher conditions1 as the animal recedes in the distance1 these blots on the records of human history will be regarded not as regular steps in the advancement of mankind1 but as by-paths which1 owing to the peculiar bias which had been given to the male organism among the lower forms of life1 the human race has been obliged to take in order to reach civilization8 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,mother-,,right ,among the most conspicuous of the writers who have dealt with the subject of primitive society are ,herr ,bachofen1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 and ,mr4 ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan4 ,in #ahfa1 the first-named of these writers1 a ,swiss jurist1 published an extensive work on the early condition of society1 entitled ,das ,mutter-recht 7,the ,motherright71 in which was first given to the world the fact that prior to the establishment of a system of kinship through males1 there everywhere existed a system based on female supremacy1 under which descent was reckoned through women4 ,bachofen was first led to a belief in a former state of society in which women were the recognized leaders through the evidence which everywhere underlies the traditions and mythologies of extant nations4 ,upon investigation he found indisputable evidence going to prove that every family of the human race had undergone the same processes of development or growth1 and that among all peoples female influence was once supreme4 ,according to ,bachofen's theory1 as there were at this early stage of human existence no 8laws0 regulating the intercourse between the sexes1 human beings lived in a state of lawlessness1 or hetairism4 ,recognizing the difference in the reproductive instinct as manifested in the two sexes1 he says that becoming disgusted with their manner of living women rebelled1 and rising in arms1 conquered their male persecutors by sheer superiority in military skill2 and that after they had overthrown the degrading practices of communal or lawless marriage1 they established monogamy in its stead1 under which system woman became the recognized head of the family4 ,children1 although they had hitherto succeeded to the father's name1 were now called after the mother1 and all rights of inheritance were thereafter established in the female line4 ,not only did women take upon themselves the exercise of domestic authority and control1 but1 acting under a strong religious impulse1 they seized the reins of popular government and completed their title to absolute dominion by wielding the political sceptre as well1 thus declaring themselves unconditional masters of the situation4 ,at this juncture in human affairs1 the belief began to be entertained that motherhood was divine while the paternal office was regarded only in the light of a human relation4 ,thus1 through religion1 women were raised from a state of hetairism1 or sexual slavery1 to a position of independence and self-respect4 ,but that which was gained through a supernatural impulse they were destined subsequently to lose through the same source2 for1 when in ,greece1 the doctrine was promulgated that the spirit of the child is derived from its father1 paternity at once assumed a divine character1 and1 as under the new order1 the functions of the mother were only to clothe the spirit1 or simply to act as 8nurse0 to the heaven-born production of the father1 women lost their supremacy1 and under the new rgime1 maternity and womanhood again trailed in the dust4 ,according to ,bachofen1 however1 the cause of mothers did not at once cease to be the subject of contention and conflict1 but ever and anon fresh battles and renewed struggles proclaimed the discontent and uneasiness of women and heralded the fact that the contest for supremacy had not yet ended4 ,but1 in process of time1 as resistance proved ineffectual1 mothers themselves gradually succumbed to the new idea of the divine character of the father1 and1 without further murmuring or complaint1 accepted gracefully the position of nurse to his children4 ,the father now became the recognized head of the family1 and men at once seized the reins of government4 ,descent was henceforth traced in the male line1 and children took the father's instead of the mother's name2 in fact all relationships to which rights of succession were attached were thereafter traced through fathers only4 ,the complete and final triumph of males having been established by the all-powerful authority of ,roman jurisprudence1 the conflict between the sexes was ended forever4 ,thus1 according to ,bachofen1 was the supremacy of women gained and lost4 ,through a profound study of the traditions1 legends1 symbols1 and mythologies of antiquity1 this writer was enabled to discover the fact that at an earlier age in human history women were the recognized leaders of mankind2 that their influence and authority were supreme over both the family and the community1 and that all relationships to which rights of succession were attached were traced through them4 ,in attempting to account for this early period of gynecocracy 7the existence of which to ,bachofen's mind no doubt presented a singular and intricate problem7 it first became necessary to set forth a theory concerning a former condition of society out of which such a state could have been evolved4 ,but as at the time ,das ,mutter-recht made its appearance1 the theory of the development of the human species from pre-existing orders had not been adopted by scientists1 and as many of the various means at present employed for obtaining a knowledge of primitive races had not been brought into requisition1 even the vast learning of ,bachofen did not suffice to furnish a satisfactory solution of the problem4 ,we have seen that in addition to the discovery that at an early age in human experience female influence was supreme1 he had arrived at the conclusion that the natural instincts of women differ from those of men2 yet1 notwithstanding this1 so accustomed had he become to the predominance of the masculine instincts in every branch of human activity as to be unable to conceive of a state of society in which the characters belonging to females could have controlled the sexual relations4 ,evidently he was unable to connect these two facts1 or to perceive that that tendency or quality required for the protection of the germ and the species1 and which so early characterized the female sex1 had constituted the most primitive influence by which the human race had been governed4 ,as in the earliest ages of human existence no arbitrary laws regulating marriage and the relations of the sexes had been in operation1 he could discern no condition under which society could have existed other than that of 8lawlessness0 or 8hetairism0--a condition under which women were slaves1 and men ruled supreme4 ,as ,herr ,bachofen was doubtless unaware of the fact that the human animal is a descendant from creatures lower in the scale of life1 the idea of connecting his history with theirs had probably by him never been thought of2 therefore1 judging primitive society1 not by the instincts and the natural laws governing them which mankind had inherited from their progenitors1 but1 on the contrary1 measuring them by the standards of later ages when the grosser or disruptive elements had gained dominion over the finer or constructive qualities in human nature1 he was unable to discern any way in which the conditions of female supremacy everywhere indicated in the traditions and mythologies of antiquity could have originated1 except in an uprising of women1 and a resort to arms for the protection of their womanly dignity4 ,in referring to the military exploits of the women of ,lycia1 and1 in fact1 of various portions of ,africa and ,asia1 at a comparatively late stage in human history1 ,bachofen says that the importance of ,amazonianism as opposed to ,hetairism for the elevation of the feminine sex1 and through them of mankind1 cannot be doubted4 ,there seems to be considerable evidence going to prove that there have been times in the past history of the race in which women were brave in war and valiant in defending their rights4 ,indeed1 the accounts given of the struggles of the ,amazons in maintaining their independence against surrounding nations--notably1 the ,greeks--are tolerably well authenticated4#adb #adb ,concerning one of the encounters of this warlike people1 the following has been recounted by ,plutarch 7,theseus73 8,and it appears to have been no slight or womanish enterprise2 for they could not have encamped in the town1 or joined battle on the ground about the ,pynx and the ,museum1 or fallen in so intrepid a manner upon the city of ,athens1 unless they had first reduced the country round about4 ,it is difficult1 indeed1 to believe 7though ,hellanicus has related it7 that they crossed the ,cimmerian ,bosphorus upon the ice2 but that they encamped almost in the heart of the city is confirmed by the names of places1 and by the tombs of those that fell40 ,although the fact seems to be well substantiated that in certain portions of the earth1 and at various periods in the history of the race1 women have maintained their independence and protected their interests by force of arms1 it seems quite as certain that actual warfare carried on by them has been confined to peoples among which male supremacy had but recently been gained1 and among which a resort to arms represented the last act of desperation to which they were driven to maintain their dignity and honour4 ,we have reason to believe1 however1 that even these cases have been exceptional2 at least1 from the facts at hand1 we have no reason for thinking that at any stage in the history of women's career1 armed resistance to masculine authority has been uniform or protracted among them4 ,according to scientists1 among the lower orders of life1 males are considerably in the excess of females1 and among less developed races men are more numerous than women4 ,it has been shown in a former portion of this work that the advancement of civilization is characterized by a corresponding increase in the number of women among the adult population2 hence their evident lack of numbers among primitive peoples1 to say nothing of their probable aversion to war and bloodshed1 would at once preclude the idea that their dominion was achieved through armed resistance to a foe so superior in numbers and in fighting qualities4 ,by a natural law governing propagation-- a law which determines the numerical proportion of the sexes1 and which creates an excess in the number of that sex best suited to its environment1 primitive women1 had they relied on physical force1 would have had little chance to maintain their independence4 ,in a former portion of this work it has been observed that it was neither to lack of numbers nor to their want of physical force that women were divested of their power2 that it was not through their weakness1 but through the peculiar course which the development or growth of males had taken1 that under certain conditions women became enslaved4 ,not merely from the facts laid down by naturalists regarding the peculiar development of the male1 but from later researches into the conditions and causes which have influenced progress1 it is plain that no restrictions on the range of sexual liberties could have originated in males4 ,hence the demand for a more refined state of society must have begun with females4 ,this fact seems to have been perceived by ,bachofen1 but1 as according to his reasoning1 at an early period of human existence1 women were slaves1 exercising none of the powers necessary to personal control1 it is difficult to conceive of any manner in which it was possible for them to rise to the social position and moral dignity ascribed to them in ,das ,mutter-recht4 ,according to the theory set forth by this writer1 however1 religion was the cause of the important change which at this time took place in the positions of the sexes4 ,although1 according to him1 the religion which prevailed during the ages of 8lawlessness0 was of a low 8telluric chthonic0 type1 it was nevertheless the cause1 or at least one of the causes which led to the abandonment of promiscuity and the establishment of the monogamic family4 ,it will doubtless be remembered1 however1 that this age of lawlessness or hetairism which ,bachofen has described1 represents a very early stage of human existence1 in which1 according to his reasoning1 the baser instincts ruled supreme2 nevertheless1 within it1 he would have us believe that a religious system had been evolved capable of lifting women from a state of degradation to which they had been consigned by nature1 or at least to which they had always been committed1 to a position of influence and womanly dignity in which they were able to assume supreme control over the forces by which they had been enslaved4 ,with sexual desire as the controlling influence in human affairs1 and with women in bondage to this power1 it is difficult to conceive of any manner in which such a religion could have arisen4 ,as all religious systems are believed to represent growths1 and to indicate a result of the degree of progress attained1 it is evident that had a religion appeared at this early age which was capable of elevating women from a condition of degradation1 as indicated by the early state described by ,bachofen it could not have been the result of natural development1 but1 on the contrary1 must have proceeded directly from a divine source2 in which event it would doubtless have remained upon the earth still further to aid development and bless the race4 ,such1 however1 was not the outcome of this remarkable but premature religion2 for it is asserted by this writer that what women gained by religion they afterward lost through the same source--that in ,greece1 the loss first came through the oracle of ,apollo1 which declared the father to be the real parent of the child4 ,bachofen assures us1 also1 that through the ,bacchanalian excesses which followed the dominion of males in ,greece1 hetairism was again restored1 and through this means gynecocracy reappeared4 ,from this it would seem that although under the earliest stage of hetairism women were without power and wholly under the control of men1 with the return1 at a later age1 of a like state of society1 the basis was at once laid for female supremacy4 ,it is evident that ,herr ,bachofen's confusion arises from a misconception of the early importance of women4 ,although perhaps more than any other writer upon this subject he has been able to recognize the true bias of the female constitution1 yet1 as he has mistaken the relative positions of women and men at the outset of the human career1 and as he has been unable to perceive the previously developed influences which governed these relations1 he has failed to furnish a satisfactory solution of the problem of the early supremacy of women1 which from the evidence adduced1 not only by the traditions and mythologies of past ages1 but by later developments in ethnology1 may not be doubted4 ,prior to the appearance of mankind on the earth1 had there been developed within the female no higher element than that which characterized the male1 and had she appeared on the scene of human action as the willing and natural tool of her less-developed male mate1 it is plain that she would have been unable to elevate herself to the position of dignity which ,bachofen assigns her1 and which1 until a comparatively recent period in the human career1 she had occupied4 ,as among the orders of creation below mankind the structural organism of the male has been materially changed through his efforts to please the female and secure her favours1 it is evident that under earlier and more natural conditions of human life1 the appetites developed within him were still largely controlled by her will4 ,from logical conclusions to be drawn from the hypotheses of naturalists1 it is not likely that at the outset of human life those restrictions on the nature of the male imposed by the female throughout the animal kingdom were suddenly withdrawn1 or that the destructive elements which all along the line of progress had been in abeyance to the higher powers developed in organized matter1 were immediately and without good cause put in absolute command over the constructive forces of life4 ,with a better knowledge of the past history of mankind1 comes the assurance that such was not the case1 but1 on the contrary1 that for thousands of years women were the ruling spirits in human society2 that the cohesive quality--sympathy1 which is the result of the maternal instinct1 and which conserves the highest interests of offspring1 was the underlying principle which governed human groups--in fact1 that it was the principle which made organization possible and progress attainable4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,theories ,,to ,,explain ,,wife-,,capture ,the prevalence of wife-capture and the extent to which the symbol of force in marriage ceremonies appears among tribes and races in the various stages of development1 have given rise to numerous speculations and theories relative to the origin of these 8singular phenomena40 ,notable among the works dealing with this subject are ,primitive ,marriage1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan1 and the ,origin of ,civilization1 by ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 both of which works followed closely the publication of ,das ,mutter-recht by ,herr ,bachofen4 ,as at the time these works were published the fact of man's descent from the lower orders of life had not been established1 and as nothing was then known of the origin and development of organized society it is not remarkable that theories concerning the early relations of the sexes should prove worthless except perhaps to show the extent to which established prejudices may warp the judgment and dwarf the intellectual faculties even of those who are honestly seeking after truth4 ,the avowed object of ,mr4 ,mc,lennan's volume was to trace the origin of wife-capture which is found to exist either as a legal symbol in marriage ceremonies1 or as a stern reality among peoples which have not yet reached civilized conditions4 ,this writer declares3 8,in the whole range of legal symbolism there is no symbol more remarkable than that of capture in marriage ceremonies40 ,after setting forth numerous examples to prove the prevalence of wife-capture among uncivilized tribes and races1 and after denouncing as absurd the theories relative to the symbol of force entering into the marriage ceremonies in ,sparta and in ,rome1 ,mr4 ,mc,lennan observes3 ,the question now arises1 what is the meaning and what the origin of a ceremony so widely spread that already on the threshold of our inquiry the reader must be prepared to find it connected with some universal tendency of mankind8 ,mr4 ,mc,lennan's answer to his own query is as follows3 ,we believe the restriction on marriage to be connected with the practice in early times of female infanticide which rendering women scarce led at once to polyandry within the tribe and the capture of women from without4 ,in another portion of this work it has been shown that although marriage was restricted within the gens1 the earliest form of organized society1 this restriction did not extend to the tribe4 ,marriage was forbidden among closely related groups4 ,the gentes coalesced to form the tribe4 ,although a man might not marry within his own gens1 he was not forbidden to marry within the tribe4 ,in ,mr4 ,morgan's work on ,primitive ,society1 published in #ahga1 are to be found the systems of consanguinity and affinity of #aci tribes and races representing1 numerically1 four-fifths of the entire human family4 ,these systems show conclusively that the restrictions on marriage observed in the gens did not extend to the tribe4 ,the author of ,primitive ,marriage has evidently mistaken a rule of the gens for a binding tribal decree4 ,mr4 ,mc,lennan's theory relative to female infanticide is found to be equally fallacious4 ,noting the numerical difference in the two sexes among lower races1 he says that as subsistence was scarce1 and as war was the natural and constant condition of primitive groups1 only those of their members would be spared who could contribute to the defence of the tribe1 or who would be able to aid in the supply of subsistence4 ,males were possessed of strength1 they were by organization and inclination adapted to war and the chase1 and could therefore be depended upon to assist in defending the tribe against the assaults of its enemies and in securing the necessary food for its requirements4 ,on the other hand1 women being worthless in war and in the chase were regarded as useless appendages1 and as they constituted a source of weakness to the tribe1 large numbers of them were destroyed at birth4 ,through this practice the balance of the sexes was greatly disturbed1 and wives could be obtained only by means of stealth or a resort to force4 ,thus in process of time1 the stealing of women became a legitimate practice1 and each warrior depended on his skill in this particular direction to provide himself with a wife4 ,finally the children of these alien women began to intermarry and thus the necessity for wife-capture no longer existed1 and the practice of stealing women for wives was superseded by a system through which wives from other tribes were habitually obtained either by gift or sale4 ,thereafter the symbol of wife-capture was retained in marriage ceremonies4 ,with a better understanding of peoples in a less developed state of society1 it is found that infanticide has been less prevalent among them than was formerly supposed2 that when through scarcity of food it has been practised it has not been confined to females1 neither has it been carried on by tribes in the lowest stages of barbarism4 ,regarding this custom in ,arabia1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,r4 ,smith says that our authorities 8seem to represent the practice of infanticide as having taken a new development not very long before the time of ,mohammed40 ,this writer declares that the chief motive for infanticide was 8scarcity of food which must always have been felt in the desert40 ,much has been written in the attempt to explain the practice of infanticide which to some extent seems to have prevailed during a certain stage of human development2 but with the exception of those cases in which children of both sexes were slain because of scarcity of food1 the one cause1 namely1 the dread of capture1 is sufficient to explain this unnatural practice4 ,although to a considerable extent1 men had come to depend on foreign tribes for their wives1 they nevertheless found little pleasure in furnishing their quota of women in return1 and as mothers doubtless preferred the death of their female children to the degradation and suffering which was inevitable in case of capture1 female infanticide no doubt seemed the wisest and in fact the only expedient4 ,the blood-tie of ancient society which bound together all those born of the women of the group irrespective of their fathers1 must have emphasized the influence of mothers in the matter of infanticide4 ,it is not reasonable to suppose that the law of sympathy which had united the members of a clan by a bond stronger than that which binds together the members of a modern family was reversed without some deeper cause than has thus far been assigned for it4 ,it is indeed difficult to believe1 in opposition to all the facts before us1 that a practice which involved the destruction of the female members of the group would have gained the sanction of the tribe to such an extent that it would have become an established rule among them4 ,regarding the destruction of female infants among early races1 ,mr4 ,darwin remarks3 ,they would not at that period have lost one of the strongest of all instincts common to all lower animals1 namely the love of their young offspring1 and consequently they would not have practised female infanticide4#adc #adc ,descent of ,man1 p4 #eid4 ,another reason why female infanticide could not have prevailed to any considerable extent is seen in the fact that any diminution in the number of females1 would have involved a scarcity of warriors1 thus weakening their means of defence4 ,from available facts it is quite evident that the practice of female infanticide throws no light on wife-capture4 ,mr4 ,mc,lennan declares that women among rude tribes are usually depraved and inured to scenes of depravity from their earliest infancy2 hence when property began to amass in the hands of men1 in order to assure paternity1 it became necessary1 that women be brought under subjection4 ,as the female1 when free1 is unwilling to pair with individuals for whom she feels no affection1 and as under earlier conditions of human society women chose their mates1 and so long as they remained together were true to them1 it is reasonable to suppose that paternity was known1 or at least that it might have been readily determined4 ,mr4 ,morgan informs us that the 8,turanian1 ,ganownian1 and ,malayan systems of consanguinity show conclusively that kinship through males was recognized as constantly as kinship through females10 that a man had brothers and sisters1 grandfathers and grandmothers traced through males as well as through females4 ,although under gentile institutions descent and all rights of succession were traced through mothers1 kinship through fathers was easily ascertained4 ,hence it is plain that ,mr4 ,mc,lennan's assumption that women were enslaved in order to assure paternity1 that they became subject to the dominion and control of men so that fathers might not be compelled to support children not their own1 is not supported by the evidence at hand4 ,that it was through capture1 the forcible carrying away of women at first singly and later in groups to foreign tribes1 in which as aliens and dependents they were shorn of their right to the soil1 that males were first enabled to arrogate to themselves the individual right to property is a fact which has been overlooked by ,mr4 ,mc,lennan4 ,from the facts at hand relative to the earliest social regulation of mankind1 that into classes on the basis of sex1 it is evident that it was inaugurated for no other purpose than the restriction of the marital relation--a restriction to prevent the pairing of near relations4 ,yet ,mr4 ,mc,lennan would have us believe that 8the law compelling marriage outside the recognized limit of near relationship originated in no innate or primary feeling against marriage with kinsfolk40 ,the repugnance of females among the lower orders of life to pairing with those individuals which were distasteful to them1 or for which they felt no genuine affection1 has already been referred to in these pages4 ,at the earliest dawn of human life there probably existed within woman a naturally acquired aversion to pairing with near relations1 yet doubtless many ages elapsed before an idea of kinship sufficiently definite to be incorporated into an arbitrary law for the government of the group was formulated2 but in due course of time1 with the further development of the higher characters1 the idea of relationship began to take shape1 whereupon was inaugurated a movement which doubtless represents one of the most important steps ever taken toward human advancement4 ,as the female among all the orders of life1 when free1 is unwilling to pair with individuals for which she feels no affection1 and as the sex-instinct has ever been restricted or held in abeyance by her1 and as according to the savants1 it was through the efforts of women that from time to time during the earlier ages of human existence the range of conjugal rights was abridged1 it is reasonable to suppose that it was woman who first objected to the pairing with near relations4 ,the statement of ,mr4 ,mc,lennan that the women of primitive races were depraved1 that they were inured to scenes of depravity from their earliest infancy is not borne out by facts4 ,it has been shown in another portion of this work that the most trustworthy writers1 those who have personally investigated tribes and races in the various stages of development1 agree that chastity was an unvarying rule among them1 that before they were corrupted by civilization1 a condition of morals existed nowhere to be found among the so-called higher races4 ,after referring to a state of advanced social existence in which every person knowing what is right would feel an irresistible impulse toward right-living1 ,mr4 ,wallace remarks that among peoples low in the scale of development 8we find some approaches to such a perfect social state40 ,he observes3 8,it is not too much to say that the mass of our population have not at all advanced beyond the savage code of morals1 and have in many cases sunk below it40 ,most of the reports which come to us regarding the immorality of lower races are brought by missionaries1 who1 although unacquainted with the language1 customs1 and habits of thought of the peoples whose countries they visit1 nevertheless feel called upon to furnish lengthy reports of those benighted races which are 8utterly destitute of ,christian training40 ,as the restrictions on marriage among early peoples were limited to closely related groups1 it is evident that the capture of wives was not carried on because of any established law of exogamy1 neither was it practised because of the scarcity of women resulting from female infanticide nor because of a desire for recognized paternity4 ,wife-capture arose from a demand for foreign women1 aliens1 who1 torn from their homes and deprived of the protection of their own kinsfolk1 had no alternative but sexual slavery4 ,these women were much more desirable than the free-born women of a man's own tribe4 ,after having created a false and wholly unwarrantable hypothesis1 an hypothesis in which exogamy and endogamy1 two principles which as applied to tribes never existed1 play a conspicuous part1 ,mr4 ,mc,lennan has thrust nearly all the facts which he has observed relative to primitive society into false positions and forced them to do duty in bolstering up his thoroughly imaginative theory to account for the origin of wife-capture4 ,it is perhaps needless to say that the whole subject1 so far as his contribution is concerned1 is as much a mystery as before he attempted a solution of the problem4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 like ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan1 assumes that the earliest organization of society was that of the tribe1 and that a man was first regarded as belonging only to a group4 ,subsequently1 as the maternal bond is stronger than that which unites a father to his offspring1 kinship with his mother and her relations was established4 ,in course of time he was accounted as a descendant of his father only1 and lastly he became equally related to both parents4 ,numerous illustrations are cited by this writer1 going to show that among certain peoples descent is still reckoned in the female line1 and that all the rights of succession1 both as regards property and tribal honours1 are traced through women4 ,in his ,origin of ,civilization the fact is noted that in ,guinea1 when a wealthy man dies1 his property passes by inheritance1 not to his sons1 but to the children of his sister4 ,he quotes also from ,pinkerton's ,voyages to show that the town of ,loango is governed by four chiefs who are sons of the king's sisters1 and from ,caillie who observes that in ,central ,africa the sovereignty remains always in the same family1 but that the son never succeeds to his father's position4 ,these and numerous other instances1 similar in character1 are cited from various parts of the world1 going to prove that a system of descent and inheritance through women was once general throughout the races of mankind4 ,with ,herr ,bachofen and ,mr4 ,mc,lennan1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock is of the opinion that the earliest conjugal unions of the human race were communal4 ,communal marriage was founded on the supremacy of males1 or1 was based on the undisputed right of men to the control of women4 ,according to this writer1 communal marriage was succeeded by individual marriage through capture4 ,although ,lubbock coincides with ,mc,lennan in the belief that under certain circumstances infanticide has been practised by the lower races1 he does not agree with him as to the extent to which it has prevailed among them2 neither is he of the opinion that it was confined to the female sex4 ,on the contrary1 he cites trustworthy authority to prove that boys were as frequently disposed of as were girls4 ,although with ,mc,lennan1 ,lubbock recognizes the prevalence of wife-capture and the principle of exogamy1 yet1 according to the theory of the former1 marriage by capture arose from exogamy1 while1 according to the latter1 exogamy arose from marriage by capture4 ,lubbock accounts for wife-capture by the following theory3 ,as under the communal system1 women of the tribe were the 8common property0 of the men of the group1 no individual male among them would have attempted to appropriate one of these women to himself1 for the reason that such appropriation would have been regarded as an infringement on the rights of the remaining males in the community4 ,a warrior1 however1 upon capturing a woman from a hostile people1 might claim her as his rightful possession1 and hold her as against all the other members of the tribe4 ,since the women of the group were so emphatically the common property of the men1 the exclusive right to one of them in progressive tribes which had reached a state of friendliness would involve a symbol of capture to make valid such a claim4 ,this symbol1 according to ,lubbock1 has no reference to those from whom the woman has been stolen1 but is intended to bar the rights of other members of the tribe into which she is brought4 ,he thinks that 8the exclusive possession of a wife could only be legally acquired by a temporary recognition of the pre-existing communal rights10 and cites the account given by ,herodotus of the custom existing in ,babylonia1 where every woman once during her lifetime must present herself at the temple1 there to accept the proposals of the first man who requests her to follow him4 ,although ,lubbock declares that the symbol of violence in marriage ceremonies 8can only be explained by the hypothesis that the capture of wives was once a stern reality10 he claims not to believe that the early conditions under which men were compelled to capture their wives by violence1 or do without them1 were in any degree the result of feminine will in the matter4 ,in referring to the fallacious theory of ,mr4 ,mc,lennan1 that the capture of women for wives arose from the practice of female infanticide1 which1 by producing a scarcity of women1 created a necessity for marriage without the limits of the tribe1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 although seemingly unable to recognize the actual force which was in operation to prevent the 8appropriation0 of women by men1 has nevertheless shown himself able to perceive the reason why foreign women were captured1 and what the tendency in males was which demanded their presence4 ,after referring to the fact that no male could appropriate to himself a female belonging to the tribe1 he says3 ,women taken in war were1 on the contrary1 in a different position4 ,the tribe1 as a tribe1 had no right to them1 and men surely would reserve to themselves exclusively their own prizes4 ,these captives then would naturally become wives in our own sense of the term4 ,foreign women would become dependents1 their captors having the undisputed right to the control of their persons4 ,at the outset1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock finds himself confronted with the fact that a system of reckoning descent through women once prevailed over the habitable globe4 ,according to his own reasoning1 this system presupposes a condition of society under which property rights and all rights of succession were traced through women1 still we find him offering the following belief concerning the matter4 8,i believe1 however1 that communities in which women have exercised the supreme power are rare and exceptional1 if1 indeed1 they ever existed at all40 ,were we not already acquainted with the prejudices of most of the writers who have thus far dealt with this subject1 in view of the facts everywhere represented going to prove that a system of gynecocracy once prevailed over the entire earth1 this 8belief0 of ,mr4 ,lubbock would be truly remarkable1 especially when we learn the reason given by him for his conclusion4 ,he says3 ,we do not find in history1 as a matter of fact1 that women do assert their rights1 and savage women would1 ,i think1 be peculiarly unlikely to uphold their dignity in the manner supposed4#add #add ,origin of ,civilization1 p4 #ii4 ,it is quite true that it is not observed 8in history0 that women assert their rights4 ,it has been shown1 however1 that prior to the historic age1 through capture and the individual ownership of land1 women had become dependent upon men and wholly subject to their control4 ,after thousands of years of subjection to male influence1 the movements of women1 who are still dependent upon men1 furnish little satisfactory information regarding the character of free women at a time before they had succumbed to the exigencies of brute force1 and the unbridled appetites of their male masters4 ,slaves seldom assert their rights1 or1 if they do1 of what avail is it8 ,were we in possession of no other facts in support of the theory of an early age of female supremacy than that all relationships to which rights of succession were attached were formerly traced through women1 the evidence in its favour would be sufficient to prove it true1 but this manner of reckoning descent represents only one of the many indications of such an age which ,lubbock himself has been constrained to record2 yet1 because--during the historic age--an age throughout which the masculine element has ruled supreme1 women have not asserted their rights1 this writer feels inclined to ignore all the evidence bearing upon the subject1 at the same time declaring that women could not have 8upheld their dignity in the manner supposed02 that the female1 on gaining human conditions1 could not have exercised the instincts inherited by her from her dumb progenitors4 ,if the females among insects1 birds1 and many species of mammals are able to control the relations between themselves and their male mates1 why should it not be inferred that the female of the human species would still be able to uphold the natural dignity of the female sex8 ,as an argument in support of his theory that the influence of women was never supreme1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock alludes to the position of ,australian women as being one of 8complete subjection10 and as the native ,australians represent perhaps the lowest existing stage of human society1 he doubtless thinks his argument unassailable4 ,however1 that the position of ,australian women cannot be taken as a reliable guide in estimating primitive womanhood is shown by the writer's own reasoning when he says3 ,it must not be assumed1 however1 that the condition of primitive man is correctly represented by even the lowest of existing races4 ,the very fact that the latter have remained stationary1 that their manners1 habits1 and mode of life have continued almost unaltered for generations1 has created a strict1 and often complicated1 system of customs1 from which the former was necessarily free1 but which has in some cases gradually acquired even more than the force of law4#ade #ade ,origin of ,civilization1 p4 #b4 ,yet we find him comparing primitive women with this race which for thousands upon thousands of years1 because of its environment1 or through some cause which is not understood1 has been unable to advance4 ,while this writer perceives clearly that foreign women were much more desirable for wives than those belonging to a man's own tribe1 he has not been able to discover the reason why this was so1 but1 continuing to babble about the 8rights0 of the men of the group1 overlooks the fact that native-born women were free1 and as only those women who had first been torn from their friends and shorn of their independence could at this stage of human existence be forced into the position of wife1 it became necessary to secure them by violence from surrounding tribes4 ,he is not blind to the fact that it was a desire to extend the limit of conjugal liberties on the part of males which prompted wife-capture2 yet he would have us believe that although women were absolutely independent of men1 and although they were the recognized heads of families1 and the source whence originated all the privileges of the gens1 it was in no degree owing to their influence that the conjugal liberties of males were restricted within the tribe1 but1 on the contrary1 that this restriction was enforced out of regard for the 8proprietary rights0 of the men of the group4 ,he says3 8,we must remember that under the communal system the women of the tribe were all common property4 ,no one could appropriate one of them to himself without infringing on the general rights of the tribe40 ,as well might we say of the female bird for whose favours the male fights until overcome by exhaustion and loss of blood1 that she belongs to him1 or that he may appropriate her1 as to say that the men of early groups could 8appropriate0 women4 ,from all the facts relative to the condition of early society1 it is plain that if either sex could with propriety be designated as property it must have been the male4 ,it is evident that women were stolen from distant tribes for the express purpose of sexual slavery1 a position to which free1 native-born women could not be dragged2 therefore1 when ,lubbock assures us that these foreign women naturally 8became wives in our own sense of the term10 we may be sure that he is neither unmindful of the origin of our present social system1 nor of the true significance attached to the position of wife4 ,indeed1 he informs us that the 8origin of marriage was independent of all sacred and social conditions10 and proves the same by actually producing the evidence4 ,he has no hesitancy in declaring that marriage is a masculine institution1 established in the interest 7or supposed interest7 of males2 that it was 8founded not on the rights of the woman1 but of the man10 and that there was not on the woman's part even the semblance of consent4 ,in fact he declares that he regards it as an illustration of the good old plan that 8he should take who has the power1 and he should keep who can40 ,he says also that it had nothing to do with mutual affection or sympathy1 that it was invalidated by no appearance of consent1 and that it was symbolized not by any demonstration of warm affection on the one side and tender devotion on the other1 but by brutal violence and unwilling submission4 ,to prove that the connection between force and marriage is deeply rooted1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 like ,mr4 ,mc,lennan1 has furnished numerous examples of peoples among whom marriage by actual capture still prevails1 as well as many among which the system has passed into a mere symbol4 ,he is quite certain that the complete subjection of the woman in marriage furnishes an explanation to those examples in barbarous life in which women are looked upon as being too great to marry--and cites the case of ,sebituane1 chief of the ,bechuanas1 who told his daughter1 ,mamochisne1 that all the men were at her disposal--8she might take any one1 but ought to keep none40 ,this instance1 together with numberless others which might be cited1 proves that long after the practice of appropriating solitary women for sexual purposes had become general1 the position of wife was considered too degrading to be occupied by women of rank4 ,attention has been called to ,lubbock's idea concerning the 8rights0 of the males of the group4 ,we have seen that it is his opinion that the exclusive possession of a woman could only be legally acquired by a temporary recognition of the pre-existing communal rights1 and that the account in ,herodotus of the debasement of ,babylonian women was cited by him as evidence to prove his position4 ,he seems1 however1 to forget that this custom1 which was practised in various nations1 is a religious rite1 and was inaugurated at a time when the adoration of the sun1 as the source of all life and light1 had degenerated into the most degrading phallic worship4 ,to those who have given attention to the growth of the god-idea1 the supposed cases of 8expiation for marriage10 cited by ,lubbock1 are to be explained by the peculiar practices inaugurated under fire and passion worship at a time long subsequent to the establishment of ba'al marriages4 ,in his chapter on 8,the ,origin of ,marriage by ,capture10 this writer says3 ,that marriage by capture has not arisen from female modesty1 is1 ,i think1 evident1 not only because we have no reason to suppose that such a feeling prevails especially among the lower races of man2 but also1 firstly1 because it cannot explain the mock resistance of the relatives2 and1 secondly1 because the very question to be solved is why it became so generally the custom to win the female not by persuasion but by force4#adf #adf ,origin of ,civilization1 p4 #ajf4 ,that female modesty may not account for marriage by capture will scarcely be disputed2 it is not impossible1 however1 that disgust1 or aversion1 on the part of women1 may1 in a measure1 serve to explain it4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock should bear in mind that 8choice0 in the matter of pairing was an early prerogative of the female2 that true affection1 a character differing widely from the sex instinct developed in the male was necessary before she could be induced to accept the attentions of the male4 ,while the women among primitive peoples abhorred strangers or foreigners1 it may scarcely be said of them that they were too modest to accept them as suitors4 ,evidently1 modesty is not the term to be employed in this connection4 ,in seeking a reason to explain why force rather than persuasion was used in the consummation of early marriages1 we have to remember the wide difference existing between the position of free women and that of those who were obliged to accept the ba'al form of marriage4 ,if1 as we have reason to believe1 as late as the beginning of the second or ,middle ,status of barbarism1 instead of following the father of her children to his house as his slave1 a woman remained in a home owned1 or at least controlled jointly by herself1 her mother1 her sisters1 and her daughters1 it is plain that a state of female independence existed which was incompatible with female subjection4 ,add to this the fact that a woman's children belonged exclusively to herself1 or to her family1 and that all hereditary honours and rights of succession were traced through females1 and we have a set of circumstances which would seem sufficient to explain why force was necessary to bring women into the marital relation4 ,that the capture of women for wives arose because the independence of free women was a bar to the gratification of the lower instincts in man1 can1 in the presence of all the facts at hand1 scarcely be doubted2 and that women submitted to the position of wife only when obliged to do so1 or when deprived of liberty and dragged from home and friends1 is only too apparent4 ,while modesty as a cause for capture may not account for the resistance of the relations1 the sacrifice of a daughter may serve to explain even this knotty point4 ,if the capture of a free and independent girl from her mother by a band of marauders from a hostile tribe for purposes of the most degrading slavery1 cannot account for the resistance of the mother-in-law1 among most of the so-called lower races1 then indeed it is difficult to conjecture any provocation or any set of circumstances which can account for it4 ,this writer's assertion that it is 8contrary to all experience that female delicacy diminishes with civilization10 proves conclusively that he regards the slight degree of reserve which he is pleased to accredit to women in modern times1 as a result of civilization--a civilization1 too1 which he evidently considers as wholly the result of masculine achievement2 in other words1 he doubtless thinks that the degree of self-respect observed among women at the present time is the result not of the innate tendencies in the female constitution1 but of masculine tuition and training1 an assumption which1 when viewed by the light which in recent years has been thrown upon the development of the two diverging sex columns1 is as absurd as it is arrogant and false4 ,some time will doubtless elapse before ,sir ,john ,lubbock and the class of writers which he represents will be willing to admit that civilization has been possible only because of the checks to the animal nature of the male1 which are the natural result of the maternal instinct4 ,with a system1 however1 under which for six thousand years every womanly instinct has been smothered1 and under which female activity has been utilized in the service of the strong sex instinct developed in males1 the outward expression of female delicacy has doubtless diminished2 and1 in their weakened mental and physical condition1 women1 dependent not only for all the luxuries but the necessities of life as well1 upon pleasing the men1 have doubtless given them1 blinded as they have become by the conditions of their own peculiar development1 some reason for believing that within the female as within the male1 passion has been the ruling characteristic4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 as well as other writers who have dealt with this subject1 should bear in mind the fact that female delicacy is a subject which can be satisfactorily discussed only in relation to free and independent women2 hence the degree of its manifestation at any time during the past six thousand years may bear little testimony concerning the natural tendencies of women1 or the condition of society under a system where female influence was in the ascendency4 ,to those individuals whose minds are not clouded by prejudice1 the fact will doubtless be apparent1 that the valuable information which has been presented by three of the foremost writers on the subject of the early relations of the sexes and the origin of marriage1 instead of serving as evidence to substantiate the fallacious theories which they have propounded1 is found to lie in a direct line with the facts and principles which have been put forward by scientists in the theory of natural development4 ,a review of the theories set forth by these three writers shows that about the only point on which they agree is the lawlessness1 or promiscuity1 of early races4 ,as they have all started out with a false premise1 it is not singular that none of them has succeeded in setting forth a consistent and reasonable hypothesis to account either for the symbol of wife-capture1 or for the early supremacy of women4 ,,part ,,iii ,early ,historic ,society ,,chapter ,i ,,early ,,historic ,,society ,,founded ,,on ,,the ,,gens ,the result of recent research into the early organization of society1 the growth of the governmental idea1 and the development of the family1 among tribes in the ascending scale1 serve to throw new and unexpected light upon the customs1 ideas1 institutions1 and legends of early historic peoples4 ,upon investigation it is observed that the construction of ,greek and ,roman society corresponds exactly with that of existing tribes occupying a lower plane in the scale of development1 and that all the institutions of these nations1 although in a higher state of advancement1 involve the same original principles and ideas4 ,that the ,greek and ,roman tribes before reaching civilization had passed through exactly the same processes of development as have been witnessed in the ascending scale among the ,north ,american ,indians1 the ,arabians1 and all other extant peoples1 is shown not alone by the manner in which early society was organized and held together1 but by the similarity observed in their myths1 legends1 traditions1 institutions1 and social usages4 ,whether or not a more advanced stage of civilization had been attained by the progenitors of the ,greeks and ,romans is a question that does not here concern us2 for1 if at any time prior to the appearance of these peoples in history1 a higher plane of life had been reached1 it is reasonable to suppose that such a state was gained under gentile forms of society1 especially as their various institutions at the beginning of the historic period represent them as still to a considerable extent governed by the ideas peculiar to the gens4 ,the earliest authentic accounts which we have of the ,greeks represent them as composed of the ,doric tribes1 who were ,hellenes1 and the ,ionians1 who were of ,pelasgic origin4 ,the ,dorians were a conservative people1 exclusive in their tastes and intolerant of innovations1 while the ,ionians1 who occupied the seacoasts and the adjacent islands1 were restless1 fond of novelty1 and not averse to intercourse with surrounding nations4 ,of the original inhabitants of ,rome1 it is observed that they consisted of wandering tribes1 bands of outlaws1 and refugees from various countries4 ,concerning the true origin of these peoples1 however1 and of the history of their earliest settlements1 they themselves were evidently ignorant1 and the fragmentary accounts of them which have been preserved to us1 when viewed independently of the light reflected upon them by recent investigation1 furnish but a dim picture in the outline of which the most prominent figures appear only as indistinct shadows or as objects without definite shape4 ,it is true there was no lack of myths and traditions which had come down to the ,greeks and ,romans as genuine history1 and which were doubtless regarded by them as trustworthy accounts of their ancestors4 ,theseus who united the ,attic tribes1 and ,romulus who founded ,rome1 were heroes in whom the divine and human were so nicely adjusted and so evenly balanced that the history of their earthly career presents no shade of error either in public or in private life4 ,indeed1 both had sprung from immortal sources1 and their exploits were such as might be expected from the mythical heroes of a forgotten age4 ,although ,greek society when it first came under our observation was under gentile organization1 the gens had passed out of its archaic stage4 ,this ancient institution1 which had carried humanity through to civilization1 was gradually losing its vitality2 it had lost its efficiency as a governing agency1 and was about to give place to political institutions4 ,with the facts at present accessible regarding peoples in the lower and middle stages of barbarism1 the various steps in the growth of government as administered in the upper or latter stage of barbarism are clearly observed2 also by close attention to the conditions surrounding extant peoples in the latter stage of barbarism and the opening ages of civilization1 the processes involved in the transfer of society from gentile to political institutions are easily traced1 together with the principal ideas and motives underlying the growth of all the institutions belonging to early historic nations4 ,until civilization was reached the gens constituted the unit of organized society4 ,this fact1 however1 until a comparatively recent time1 seems to have been overlooked4 ,without attempting to explain the origin of the gens and phratry as they existed in ,greece1 ,mr4 ,grote observes3 8,the legislator finds them pre-existing1 and adapts or modifies them to answer some national scheme40 ,unacquainted as this writer evidently was with the construction of primitive society1 he failed to observe that originally1 in ,greece1 all the powers of the legislator himself were derived from and circumscribed by the gens4 ,indeed1 that this organization upon which the superstructure of ,grecian society rested was the original source whence proceeded all social privileges and all military rights and obligations1 is a condition which until a comparatively recent time has been overlooked4 ,while discussing the relations of the family to the gens1 the gens to the phratry1 and the phratry to the tribe1 ,mr4 ,grote says3 8,the basis of the whole was the house1 hearth1 or family--a number of which1 greater or less1 composed the gens1 or genos40#adg #adg ,history of ,greece1 vol4 iii41 p4 #ed4 ,mr4 ,morgan has shown1 however1 that the family could not have constituted the basis of the gens1 for the reason that the heads of families belonged to separate gentes4 ,we are assured that the gens is much older than the monogamic family1 and therefore that the latter could not have formed the basis of the gentile organization2 but even had the family preceded the gens in order of development1 as its members belonged to different gentes it could not have constituted the unit of the social series4 ,in order to gain a clear understanding of the processes and principles involved in the early ,grecian form of government1 it first becomes necessary briefly to review the various steps in the growth of the governmental functions through two ethnical periods4 ,the tribe is a community of related individuals possessed of equal rights and privileges1 and bound by equal duties and responsibilities4 ,it has been shown that in the ,lower ,status of barbarism the government consisted of only one power--a council of chiefs elected by the people4 ,during the ,middle ,status of barbarism two powers appear1--the civil and military functions have become separated1 the duties of a military commander being co-ordinated with those of a council of chiefs4 ,the military commander1 however1 has not succeeded in drawing to himself the powers of a ruler or king4 ,in the ,second ,status of barbarism tribes have not begun to confederate4 ,a single tribe1 its members bound together by the tie of kinship and united by common rights and responsibilities1 owning their lands in common1 and each contributing his share toward the common defence1 so long as it was able to maintain its independence1 had little need for an elaborate form of government4 ,as yet no strifes engendered by envy and extreme selfishness had arisen to disturb the simplicity of their lives1 or to check the development of those early principles of liberty and fraternity which were the natural inheritance of the gens4 ,a council of chiefs elected by the gentes and receiving all its powers from the people had thus far performed all the duties of government4 ,after the ,upper ,status of barbarism is reached we find confederated tribes dwelling together in walled cities surrounded by embankments1 and a state of affairs existing which called for a further differentiation of the functions of government1 and a redistribution of the powers and responsibilities of the people4 ,in process of time1 with the accumulation of property in masses in the hands of the few1 and the consequent rise of an aristocracy1 a government founded on wealth1 or on a territorial basis1 rather than on the personal relations of an individual to his gens1 was demanded2 and1 finally1 those principles1 rights1 and privileges which constitute a pure democracy1 and which had always formed the basis of gentile institutions were gradually ignored2 that personal influence which was originally exercised by each and every gentilis being transferred to a privileged class--a class which controlled the wealth1 and at the head of which was the military commander or basileus4 ,such was the condition of ,grecian society as it first appears in history4 ,a comparison instituted by ,mr4 ,morgan between the ,iroquois gens and that of the ,greeks shows the former at the time when it first came under ,european observation to have been in the archaic stage1 with descent and all the rights of succession traced in the female line2 while the latter1 at the time designated as the heroic age1 had not only changed the manner of reckoning descent from the female to the male line1 but was evidently about to give place to political society which1 instead of being founded on kinship1 was based on property and territory1 or upon a man's relations to the township or deme in which he resided4 ,while the ,iroquois tribe of ,indians represents the gens in its original vitality1 the ,greeks appear to have reached a stage at which the archaic form of government instituted on the basis of kin was found inadequate to meet their necessities2 hence the confusion arising from disputed authority1 at the almost interminable struggle between the various classes which had arisen1 and the evident disaffection and unrest manifest among the entire ,grecian people during the ages intervening between ,codrus1 nearly eleven hundred years ,b4,c41 and ,clisthenes1 five hundred years later4 ,that degree of jealousy with which individual liberty was guarded during the earlier ages of historic ,greece1 that thirst for freedom1 and that restlessness under tyranny which characterized the ,grecian people throughout their entire career1 are explained by the fact that prior to the age of ,clisthenes they were under gentile institutions1 the fundamental principles of which were liberty1 equality1 and justice4 ,from all the facts which may be gathered bearing upon this subject1 it is evident that although at the beginning of the historic period the ,greeks had lost much of that independence which belonged to an earlier stage of human development1 their institutions still partook of the character of a democracy4 ,of the similarity of the customs and institutions of early historic ,greece and those of a more primitive age we have ample evidence4 ,in ancient ,greece1 as among the ,iroquois tribe of ,indians1 8property was vested absolutely in the clan1 and could not be willed away from it40#adh ,not only did the members of a clan hold their property in common1 but they were obliged to help1 defend1 support1 and even avenge those of their number who required their assistance4 ,young females bereft of near relations were either furnished with husbands or provided with suitable portions4 ,descent must still have been reckoned in the female line1 for foreigners admitted to citizenship were not members of any clan1 neither were their descendants1 unless born of women who were citizens4 ,citizens were enrolled in the clan and phratry of their mothers4#adi #adh ,george ,rawlinson1 book v41 essay ii4 #adi ,ibid4 ,in the administration of the government1 however1 are to be noted a few important changes4 ,the complications which had arisen as a result of the individual ownership of property1 the change in the reckoning of descent from the female to the male line which followed1 and the growth of the aristocratic element1 had produced a corresponding change in the control and management of the government4 ,solicitude for the common weal1 although still felt by the great mass of the people1 had among the rulers given place to extreme egoism1 and that association and combination of interests1 which since the dawn of organized society had characterized the gens1 was rapidly giving way before the love of dominion1 the thirst for power1 and the greed of gain--characters which in process of time came to represent the mainspring of human action4 ,with the changes which took place in the conditions of the people1 it is seen that the administrative functions became still further differentiated4 ,co-ordinate with the ,greek basileus or war-chief are to be observed not only a council of chiefs who were the heads of the gentes1 but also an assembly of the people1 these three governmental functions corresponding in a general way to our ,president1 ,senate1 and ,house of ,representatives4 ,the ,ecclesia or general assembly at ,sparta was originally composed of all the free males who dwelt within the city4 ,although this body originated no measures1 it was invested with authority to adopt or reject any proposed legislation or plan of action devised by the chiefs4 8,all changes in the constitution or laws1 and all matters of great public import1 as questions of peace or war1 of alliances1 and the like1 had to be brought before it for decision40#aej ,thus may be observed the precautions which during the latter stages of barbarism had been taken to guard the rights of the people1 and to insure them against individual and class usurpation4 #aej ,george ,rawlinson1 book v41 essay i4 ,curtius assures us that the ,dorian people did not feel as if they were placed in a foreign state1 but they were the citizens of their own--not merely the objects of legislation1 but also participants in it1 for they only obeyed such statutes as they themselves had agreed to4#aea #aea ,history of ,greece1 book ii41 chap4 i4 ,although ,mr4 ,grote would have us believe that the assembly of the people was simply a 8listening agora10#aeb it is plain that it was originally invested with sufficient power to protect the people against despotism4 ,in the further differentiation of the administrative functions the powers of the subordinate officers are all drawn from the sum of the powers invested in the three principal branches of the government1 the ill-defined duties of each giving rise to those unabated dissensions and fierce and unrelenting strifes which in course of time became such a fruitful source of devastation and bloodshed4 #aeb ,vol4 ii41 p4 #cdh4 ,from what is known at the present time regarding ,greek society prior to the age of ,theseus1 it is not at all likely that it was organized on monarchial principles1 or that any form of government prevailed in ,greece other than that of a military democracy4 ,it is true that by most of the writers who have dealt with the subject of the government of the early ,greeks1 the basileus has been designated as king1 and that he has been invested by them with all the insignia of a modern monarch4 ,in later times1 however1 with a better understanding of the principles underlying early society1 this view of the matter is seen to be false4 ,mr4 ,morgan1 a writer who as we have seen has given much attention to the constitution of gentile society1 informs us that in the ,lower and also in the ,middle ,status of barbarism the office of chief was elective or during good behaviour1 8for this limitation follows from the right of the gens to depose from office40#aec #aec ,ancient ,society1 p4 #bfb4 ,when descent was in the female line this office descended either to a brother of the deceased chief or to a sister's son1 but later1 when descent began to be traced in the male line1 the eldest son was usually elected to succeed his father4 ,upon this subject ,mr4 ,morgan says further3 ,it cannot be claimed1 on satisfactory proof1 that the oldest son of the basileus took the office1 upon the demise of his father1 by absolute hereditary right4444 ,the fact that the oldest1 or one of the sons1 usually succeeded1 which is admitted1 does not establish the fact in question2 because by usage he was in the probable line of succession by a free election from a constituency4 ,the presumption on the face of ,grecian institutions is against succession to the office of basileus by hereditary right2 and in favour either of a free election1 or of a confirmation of the office by the people through their recognized organization1 as in the case of the ,roman rex4 ,with the office of basileus transmitted in the manner last named1 the government would remain in the hands of the people4 ,because without an election or confirmation he could not assume the office2 and because1 further1 the power to elect or confirm implies the reserved right to depose4#aed #aed ,ancient ,society1 p4 #bfb4 ,there is no lack of evidence at the present time going to prove that all these early tribes were originally organized on thoroughly democratic principles1 and that there never was any dignity conferred on the leader of the early ,grecian hosts answering to the present definition of king2 also that prior to the time of ,romulus1 no chieftain of the ,latin tribes was ever invested with sufficient authority to have constituted him an imperial ruler4 ,the term basileus1 as applied to a leader of a military democracy in the early ages of ,grecian history1 doubtless implies simply the war-chief of the primitive tribe1 an officer chosen from among the chiefs of the gentes as a leader of the hosts in battle1 but as claiming no civil functions1 and as possessing no authority outside the office of military chieftain4 ,the ,homeric writings1 which contain the earliest direct information which we have of the ,greeks1 and in which are doubtless mirrored forth a tolerably correct picture of the customs1 institutions1 and manners of this people1 when read by the light of more recently developed facts relative to the early constitution of society1 are invested with new interest1 and a fresh charm and a new significance are added to every detail connected with the narrative4 ,as to the extent of authority attached to the office of military leader among the ,greeks1 ,homer has given us a fair illustration in the person of ,agamemnon--8shepherd of the people40 ,that the position of this chieftain differs widely from that occupied by the king of succeeding ages is apparent4 ,at the outset we find the injured ,achilles1 after he has taunted the chieftain with being the 8greediest of men10 addressing him in the following language3 ,ha1 thou mailed in impudence ,and bent on lucre6 ,who of all the ,greeks ,can willingly obey thee1 on the march1 ,or bravely battling with the enemy6#aee #aee ,the ,iliad1 book i41 ,bryant's translation4 ,then ,pelides takes up the strain and with opprobrious words thus addresses the son of ,atreus3 ,wine-bibber with the forehead of a dog ,and a deer's heart4 ,thou never yet hast dared ,to arm thyself for battle with the rest1 ,nor join the other chiefs prepared to lie ,in ambush1--such thy craven fear of death4 ,better it suits thee1 midst the mighty host ,of ,greeks1 to rob some warrior of his prize ,who dares withstand thee4#aef #aef ,the ,iliad1 book i41 ,bryant's translation4 ,even the brawler ,thersites1 ,squint-eyed1 with one lame foot1 and on his back ,a lump1 and shoulders curving towards the chest1 dares to insult this chief--this king as he is represented by most modern writers1 and to his face taunt him with his injustice towards ,achilles4 ,to ,agamemnon he says3 ,of what dost thou complain2 what wouldst thou more1 ,atrides8 ,in thy tents are heaps of gold2 ,thy tents are full of chosen damsels1 given ,to thee before all others1 by the ,greeks1 ,whene'er we take a city4 ,dost thou yet ,hanker for gold1 brought by some ,trojan knight1 ,a ransom for his son1 whom ,i shall lead-- ,i1 or some other ,greek--a captive bound8 ,or dost thou wish1 for thy more idle hours1 ,some maiden1 whom thou mayst detain apart8 ,ill it beseems a prince like thee to lead ,the sons of ,greece1 for such a cause as this1 ,into new perils4 ,o ye coward race6 ,ye abject ,greeklings1 ,greeks no longer1 haste ,homeward with all the fleet1 and let us leave ,this man at ,troy to win his trophies here1 ,that he may learn whether the aid we give ,avails him aught or not1 since he insults ,achilles1 a far braver man than he4#aeg #aeg ,book ii4 ,it is true ,ulysses smote ,thersites as he upbraided him for this insult to ,agamemnon4 ,it is plain1 however1 that the chastisement was of a private nature4 ,it seems not to have been a crime openly to berate their chief4 ,indeed the position of 8shepherd of the people0 was not one of such dignity that any warrior among the hosts might not with impunity freely speak his mind concerning him1 or to his face confront him with improper behaviour4 ,when ,agamemnon compared unfavourably the valour of ,diomed with that of his father1 ,tydeus1 ,sthenelus1 the honoured son of ,capaneus1 hesitated not to remind the chief of his folly1 and to his face upbraid him4 8,atrides1 speak not falsely when thou knowest the truth so well40#aeh #aeh ,book iv4 ,regarding the office of king1 ,mr4 ,morgan says3 ,modern writers1 almost without exception1 translate basileus by the term king1 and basileia by the term kingdom1 without qualification1 and as exact equivalents4 ,i wish to call attention to this office of basileus1 as it existed in the ,grecian tribes1 and to question the correctness of this interpretation4 ,there is no similarity whatever between the basileia of the ancient ,athenians and the modern kingdom or monarchy4444 ,constitutional monarchy is a modern development1 and essentially different from the basileia of the ,greeks4 ,the basileia was neither an absolute nor a constitutional monarchy2 neither was it a tyranny nor a despotism4 ,the question then is1 what was it8 ,mr4 ,morgan's answer to the question is as follows3 ,the primitive ,grecian government was essentially democratical1 reposing on gentes1 phratries1 and tribes organized as self-governing bodies1 and on the principles of liberty1 equality1 and fraternity4 ,this writer says further3 ,our views upon ,grecian and ,roman questions have been moulded by writers accustomed to monarchical government and privileged classes1 who were perhaps glad to appeal to the earliest known governments of the ,grecian tribes for a sanction of this form of government1 as at once natural1 essential1 and primitive4#aei #aei ,ancient ,society1 p4 #bdg4 ,we have noted the precautions which during the second and latter periods of barbarism were necessary to keep in check the increasing thirst for power1 and it may not be doubted that through the growth of the aristocratic tendency during the latter ages of the existence of the gens1 the office of basileus gave to its incumbent a degree of distinction closely allied to that of king4 ,in the eleventh century ,b4,c4 upon the death of ,codrus1 so necessary had it become to check the continually increasing power of the military chieftains that the office was abolished and the archonship established in its place2 but as an election or confirmation was necessary before the duties of either office could be entered upon1 it is plain that at the period referred to a democratic form of government still prevailed4 ,now archon is the term which had been applied to the chief of the early gentes at a time when fraternity1 liberty1 and equality were the cardinal virtues of society2 and the abolition of the office of basileus1 to which had become attached a considerable degree of power1 was doubtless an attempt on the part of the people to return to the simpler and purer methods of government which had formerly prevailed2 but the institution known as the ,agora1 ,ecclesia1 or ,appella1 which had proved the great bulwark of safety to early democratic institutions1 had1 through the strengthening of the aristocratic element1 become gradually weakened1 hence the nobles were in a position to draw to themselves not only much of the power originally exercised by the military commander1 but that also which had formerly belonged to the assembly of the people4 ,we have observed that not only among the ,greeks of the heroic age1 but among the tribes and nations which preceded them1 as far back in the history of the past as the close of the second stage of barbarism1 there had always been an assembly of the people whose duty it was to guard the rights of the tribe1 to protect it against usurpation1 and to keep down the rising tendency toward imperialism4 ,of this institution1 ,mr4 ,rawlinson says3 8,thus at ,athens1 as elsewhere1 in the heroic times1 there was undoubtedly the idea of a public assembly consisting of all freemen40#afj #afj ,george ,rawlinson1 book v41 essay ii4 ,theseus1 basileus1 or military chieftain of the ,athenian tribes1 a personage who belongs to the legendary period1 was the first to perceive the insufficiency of gentile institutions to meet the needs of the people4 ,although the primary idea involved in the establishment of political society was the transference of the original governmental functions from the gens to a territorial limit1 so deeply had the instincts1 ideas1 and associations connected with the personal government of the gens taken root that several centuries were required to accomplish the change4 ,to establish the deme or township1 in which1 irrespective of kinship or personal ties1 all its inhabitants 7except slaves7 should be enrolled as citizens1 with rights1 privileges1 and duties adjusted according to the amount of property owned by each1 and which should be a unit of the larger and more important institution--the ,state1--was an undertaking the mastery of which although seemingly simple1 nevertheless involved intricacies and obstacles of such magnitude as to baffle all attempts of the ,greeks from the time of ,theseus to that of ,clisthenes1 at which time political society was established1 and the gens1 shorn of its utility and power1 remained only as the embodiment of certain social ideas1 or survived as a religious centre1 over which their eponymous ancestor1 as hero or god1 still presided4 ,the age of ,theseus could not have been later than #ajej ,b4,c41 and the final overthrow of gentile government did not1 as we have seen1 occur until the age of ,clisthenes1 five hundred years later4 ,throughout the intervening time between ,theseus and ,clisthenes little real advancement is noted among the ,greeks2 none1 perhaps1 except that connected with the growth of the idea of government as indicated by the change from gentile to political institutions1 and even this growth1 when we observe that nearly five centuries and a half were required to establish it1 or to substitute the deme or township in the place of the gens as the unit in the governmental series1 can scarcely be regarded as evidence of remarkable genius1 or as indicating a notable degree of ingenuity4 ,in the transference of society1 however1 from gentile to political institutions may be observed a progressive principle1 inasmuch as by it the limits of the gens and tribe were gradually broken down or obliterated1 and the enlarged conception of the state established in their stead4 ,after the age of ,clisthenes an isolated community bound together by kinship1 and with interests extending no further than the tribe of which it was a part1 no longer constituted the fundamental basis upon which the superstructure of society was to rest2 but1 on the contrary1 the deme or township1 with all its free inhabitants1 of whatsoever tribe or gens1 was to become the recognized unit in organized society4 ,prior to the age of ,theseus1 ,attica was divided into petty states1 each with a council-house of its own4 ,according to the testimony of ,thucydides1 from the time of ,cecrops to ,theseus the population of ,athens had always inhabited independent cities1 with their own guild-halls and magistrates2 and at such times as they were not in fear of any danger they did not meet with the king to consult with him1 but themselves severally conducted their own government1 and took their own counsel4#afa #afa ,thucydides1 ,the ,history of ,peloponnesian ,war4 ,the basileus or war-chief exercised no civil functions1#afb and his services were never called into requisition except in times of danger4 #afb ,morgan1 ,ancient ,society1 p4 #bej4 ,theseus upon receiving the office of military chieftain 8persuaded0 the people in the adjacent country to remove to the city4#afc ,according to ,plutarch he 8settled all the inhabitants of ,attica in ,athens and made them one people in one city40#afd ,he persuaded them to abolish their independent city governments and to establish in their stead1 at ,athens1 a council-house which would be common to all4 ,thus1 under his direction1 the ,attic peoples coalesced1 or were united under one government4 ,theseus1 we are told1 divided the people into three classes1 irrespective of gentes1 on the basis of property and social position4 ,the chiefs of the several gentes with their families1 and the citizens who through their great wealth had become influential1 constituted the first class2 the second class were the husbandmen1 and the third the mechanics4 ,all the principal offices both of the government and the priesthood were in the hands of the nobles or the moneyed and aristocratic classes4 ,thucydides refers to the fact that 8when ,greece was becoming more powerful1 and acquiring possessions of money still more than before1 tyrannies were established in the cities40#afe #afc ,thucydides1 book ii41 #ad4 #afd ,theseus4 #afe ,book i41 #ac4 ,upon this subject ,mr4 ,rawlinson says3 ,all important political privilege is engrossed by the ,eupatrids1 who consist of a certain number of 8clans0 claiming a special nobility1 but not belonging to any single tribe1 or distinguishable from the ignoble clans1 otherwise than by the possession of superior rank and riches4 ,the rest of the citizens constitute an unprivileged class1 personally free1 but with no atom of political power1 and are roughly divided1 according to their occupation1 into yeoman-farmers and artisans4 ,the union of the ,eupatrids in the same tribes and phratries with the ,geomori and ,demiurgi1 seems to show that the aristocracy of ,athens was not original1 like that of ,rome1 but grew out of an earlier and more democratical condition of things--such1 in fact1 as we find depicted in the ,homeric poems4444 ,thus at ,athens1 as elsewhere1 in the heroic times1 there was undoubtedly the idea of a public assembly1 consisting of all free-men2 but this institution seems entirely to have disappeared during the centuries which intervened between ,codrus and ,solon4#aff #aff ,rawlinson1 book v41 essay ii4 ,during the three hundred years which followed the death of ,codrus1 nothing of great importance is observed concerning the growth of ,grecian institutions4 ,doubtless their development was characterized only by the strengthening of the aristocracy and the stimulation of those egoistic principles which are essential in the establishment of an oligarchy4 ,that in course of time the power attached to the office of archon also became a menace to the people's liberties is shown in the fact that in the first year of the seventh ,olympiad1 ,b4,c41 #geb1 the life archonship was brought to a close and the term of office reduced to ten years4 ,although the office was still limited to the family of ,codrus1 the incumbent became amenable to the elders or chiefs for his acts4 ,however1 that this movement was not wholly in the interest of the masses of the people is shown in the fact that during the following thirty years the ,eupatrids1 or members of the aristocratic party1 had drawn to themselves all the power belonging to the archonship4 ,it is observed that during the reign of the fourth decennial archon1 a pretext having been found to depose him1 the reigning family or gens was declared as having forfeited its right to rule and the office was thrown open to all ,eupatrids4 ,nine archons from among the aristocratic party1 with all the powers formerly belonging to the supreme archon1 conveyed to them1 were chosen as a governing board1#afg and were to continue in office for one year4 ,selected by and from among the ,eupatrids1 their legislation was wholly in the interest of the wealthy and privileged classes4 #afg ,rawlinson1 book v41 essay ii4 ,from #fhd ,b4,c4 to #fbd ,b4,c41 the aristocratic party exercised unlimited control over the ,athenian state1 and during the entire sixty years used their great power to crush out even a semblance of free institutions4 ,the thirst for power among them was equalled only by their greed for gain2 hence while wielding the former1 they gratified their cupidity by gathering into their own coffers almost the entire wealth of the nation4 ,with the machinery of legislation turned against them1 the middle and lower classes were soon robbed even of their means of support4 ,most of the land was mortgaged1 and the persons of the owners held by the ,eupatrids for debt4 ,men sold their children and their sisters to satisfy the demands of creditors1#afh and such was the inequality existing between various classes that dissensions arose on every hand1 and a general state of confusion1 disorder1 and discontent prevailed4 ,thus may be observed some of the processes by which the early principles of fraternity1 liberty1 and justice were overthrown4 #afh ,ibid4 ,at length the sufferings of the people caused by the injustice and rapacity of their rulers became unbearable1 and by means of various signs of discontent1 notably that of a popular demand for written laws1 it became evident that a crisis had been reached4 ,the ,eupatrids1 pretending to heed the popular demand1 elected ,draco1 one of their number1 to the office of archon1 with the understanding that a code of written laws defining the rights of the several classes be prepared4 ,as the ,greeks of the ,draconian and ,solonic age were but a few centuries removed from a time when individual liberty and equality had constituted the cardinal principles upon which society was founded1 we may believe that that spirit of personal independence and self-respect which had been inherited from gentile institutions1 although it had perhaps slumbered1 had never been crushed2 therefore1 a condition of subjection or slavery1 although for a time endured1 could not be willingly accepted as a settled fact4 ,as the laws prepared by ,draco tended only to aggravate the abuses of which the people complained1 it is quite evident that no reform was intended2 the ,eupatrids1 however1 had mistaken the temper of the people1 and the fact soon became manifest1 even to the members of the governing classes themselves1 that certain concessions must be made to the popular demand for justice4 ,an idea of the rapacity1 greed1 dishonesty1 and cupidity which prevailed at this stage of ,greek life may be obtained from the writings of ,theognis1 a poet of ,grecian ,mega1 who lived about five hundred and seventy years ,b4,c4 ,among his ,maxims appear the following3 ,now at length a sense of shame hath perished among mankind1 but shamelessness reigns over the earth4 ,everyone honours a rich man but dishonours a poor3 ,and in all men there is the same mind4444 ,no one of the present race of men doth the sun look down upon1 being entirely good and moderate4444 ,when ,i am flourishing1 friends are many2 but should any calamity have chanced upon me1 few retain a faithful spirit4 ,for the multitude of men there is this virtue only1 namely1 to be rich3 ,but of the rest1 ,i wot1 there is no use4 ,the fact is obvious that already in the history of the ,greeks the love of property and the rise of the aristocratic spirit had gained such a foothold that a democracy was no longer desired by the more influential citizens1 and that it was the moneyed classes and the aristocratic party who were growing restless under institutions which acknowledged the equality of all free-born citizens4 ,doubtless the power which had been hitherto exercised by the gentes had already been drawn to the moneyed classes2 still1 this attempt to organize society into classes on the basis of property and station was perhaps the first regulated movement openly to curtail the hitherto recognized power of the individual members of the gens1 and doubtless constituted the first formulated step towards the subsequent removal of this ancient institution from its original position as the unit in the governmental series4 ,from accessible facts to be gathered relative to early ,greek society1 it is plain that individual liberty perished with the gens1 and that monarchy1 aristocracy1 and slavery were the natural results of the decline of the altruistic principles upon which early society was founded4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,women ,,in ,,early ,,historic ,,times ,as it is claimed that the history of the natural growth of society is represented by the extant tribes in the varying stages of advancement from savagery to civilization1 and as upon our first acquaintance with the ,greeks we find them just emerging from barbarism and preparing to enter upon a civilized career1 we may naturally expect to find in their various traditions1 customs1 forms of marriage1 etc41 some hint of that influence which1 but little more than one ethnical period before1 had been exercised by women1 and some clue to the processes involved in the change from female to male supremacy4 ,from the facts which are gradually coming to light concerning society in the early historic period1 it is observed that the extant mythoses and traditions of the ancients contain a mixture of history1 mythology1 and astrology4 ,until a comparatively recent time no attempt has been made to separate the former from the latter two4 ,herodotus opens his account of the ,greeks with a story of the capture of women4 ,the ,phnicians1 the great maritime people of that time1 had sent ships loaded with merchandise to ,argos4 ,when nearly all was disposed of there came down to the beach several women among whom was ,io1 child of ,ianchus the king4 ,as the women were standing by the stern of the ship attending to their purchases1 the foreign sailors rushed upon them and attempted to carry them off4 ,the most of them made their escape1 but a number were taken away and ,io amongst them4#afi #afi ,rawlinson1 book i41 #a4 ,doubtless beneath this myth is concealed a religious doctrine which had an historical basis4 ,the original version of the legend was that ,io who was carried to ,egypt by a god became the mother of a race of hero-kings2 but when the true significance of the early physiological1 religious myth was forgotten1 this one of ,io1 too1 after having become mutilated and distorted to suit a more degenerate time1 was accepted in a purely literal sense and made to do duty as actual history4 ,following this narrative in the history of ,herodotus is the story of ,europa who was carried away by the ,greeks4 ,in the next generation was enacted the seizure of ,helen by ,paris1 son of ,priam1 a deed which1 whether committed for revenge or lust1 is supposed to have constituted the sole cause of the ,trojan ,war--a struggle which continued for nine years4 ,helen had previously1 and while but a child1 according to ,plutarch1 been carried off by ,theseus1 founder of ,athens1 and borne away to ,egypt4 ,indeed it would seem from the accounts of this hero that his exploits were instigated for the most part by a desire to possess himself of women4 ,even later in the history of the ,greeks we find that ,pausanius1 ,king of ,sparta1 upon the defeat of the barbarians1 received as his share of the booty1 ten specimens of the following articles3 8women1 horses1 talents1 and camels40 ,the familiar story of the seizure of the ,sabine women by the ,romans is regarded as a probable myth or as a doubtful fact2 yet1 when we remember that not far distant in the past1 capture constituted the only form of marriage1 the acts of violence committed on women are invested with a fresh interest1 for by them we are enabled to trace the identity of the processes of development between historic nations and the tribes occupying a lower position in the scale of advancement4 ,although ,homer traces genealogies through fathers1 the fact will doubtless be observed that two generations generally suffice to carry men back to an unknown or divine progenitor4 ,indeed many of the ,greeks of ,homer's time sprang directly from gods4 ,tlepolemus was of the stock of ,hercules4 ,priam and his sons were descendants of ,zeus1 and many of the noblest ,greeks derived their origin from ,mars4 ,helen also was the descendant of ,zeus4 ,a tradition from ,varro in reference to the decline of woman's power in ,athens is as follows3 ,in the age of ,cecrops two wonders sprang from the earth at the same time1 one of which was the olive tree1 the other water4 ,the king in terror dispatched a messenger to ,delphi to ascertain what he was to do in the matter4 ,the oracle in response answered that the olive tree signified ,minerva 7,athene71 and the water ,neptune 7,poseidon72 and that it was optional with the ,burgesses after which of the two they would name their town4 ,cecrops convened an assembly of the ,burgesses1 both men and women1 for it was customary then for the women to take part in the public counsels4 ,the men voted for ,poseidon1 the women for ,athene1 and as there were more women than men by one1 ,athene conquered4 ,thereupon ,poseidon became enraged1 and immediately the sea flowed over all the land of ,athens4 ,to appease the god the ,burgesses were compelled to impose a three-fold punishment upon their wives3 ,they were to lose their votes2 the children were to receive no more the mother's name2 and they themselves were no longer to be called ,athenians after the goddess4 ,we are assured that prior to the struggle between ,athene and ,poseidon for the mastery in ,athens1 children in ,attica and ,lycia were named after their mothers1 and that the people as a body were called after the goddess4 ,formerly the women were actual ,burgesses but after the decision that the office of father in the processes of reproduction is superior to that of the mother the women lost their position as ,burgesses and became only the wives of ,burghers4 ,it is the vote of ,athene herself which decides that the child is the production of the father4 ,the ancient ,attic traditions are full of references to female supremacy4 ,indeed1 ,herr ,bachofen is certain that he has found proof of female descent and supremacy not only among the early ,greek tribes but in every branch of the ,indo-,germanic family4 ,the ,grecian tribes were named after women1 as were also the ancient cities of ,greece4 ,the founders of these cities and the eponymous leaders of the various peoples were women who had been 8carried off by gods40 ,sarpedon and ,minos who quarrelled over the government of ,lycia were the sons of ,europa#agj who had been carried off from ,tyre on the ,phnician coast4 ,thebe1 the eponymous leader of the ,thebans1 and ,egina1 the founder of ,egina1 were sisters4 ,therefore when the oracle commanded the ,thebans to seek succour from their nearest of kin1 they applied to the ,eginetans1 thereby proving that at that time relationships were still traced through women4 #agj ,herodotus1 book i41 #agc4 ,the ,greek tradition of the ,scythian nation is as follows3 ,as ,hercules was passing through the country he came to a district called the ,woodland4 ,while he slept1 the mares which he had loosed from his chariot wandered away1 and while in quest of them he came to a cave in which dwelt a being with the head of a woman and the body of a serpent1 probably a goddess representing the two creative principles throughout nature4 ,upon being asked by ,hercules if she had seen his mares1 she replied1 8yes10 but that unless he would remain with her she would not yield them to him1 whereupon he consented to do her bidding4 ,later1 as she questioned him as to his wishes concerning the three sons which she had borne him1 she said3 8,wouldst thou wish that ,i should settle them here in this land whereof ,i am mistress1 or shall ,i send them to thee80 ,hercules placed in her hand a bow with instruction that the son which when grown to manhood should bend it in a certain way should remain as king of the land4 ,scythes1 the youngest son of the goddess1 was the successful competitor4 ,from this time gods1 not goddesses1 are in the possession of the country4#aga ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,lybia 7,africa7 are named after women1 and in nearly all the earliest traditions1 a woman1 either divine or human1 appears as the eponymous leader of the people4 #aga ,herodotus1 book v41 #hj4 ,the tradition respecting the daughters of ,danas fleeing from their native land to avoid the hateful caresses of the sons of ,egyptus1 doubtless refers to a time when relationships were beginning to be traced through males1 and when under the ba'al form of marriage they were beginning to claim the right to control the women of their own group4 ,egyptus and ,danas were brothers1 the former of whom had fifty sons1 the latter fifty daughters4 ,upon the sons of ,egyptus demanding that their cousins unite with them in marriage1 the women immediately fled by sea to ,argos and placed themselves under the protection of ,pelasgus4 ,although hotly pursued by their tormentors1 they reached ,argos in safety2 the following is their supplication as set forth by schylus3 ,on this moist shore1 drive them into the deep1 ,with all their flying streamers and quick oars1 ,there let them meet the whirlwind's boisterous rage1 ,thund'rings and lightnings1 and the furious blasts ,that harrow up the wild tempestuous waves1 ,and perish in the storm1 ere they ascend ,our kindred bed1 and seize against our will ,what nature and the laws of blood deny4#agb #agb ,the ,supplicants4 ,after having reached ,argos and after having besought ,pelasgus to espouse their cause1 he says3 ,if by your country's laws ,egyptus' sons1 ,as next of blood1 assert a right in you1 ,who should oppose them8 ,it behooves thee then ,by your own laws to prove such claim unjust4 ,to which they make answer3 ,ah6 never may ,i be perforce a thrall ,to man4 ,by heaven-directed flight ,i break ,the wayward plan of these detested nuptials4 ,arm justice on thy side1 and with her aid1 ,judge with what sanctity the gods demand4 ,the reply of ,pelasgus is as follows3 ,no easy province3 ,make not me your judge1 ,great though my power1 it is not mine to act1 ,i told thee so1 without my people's voice ,assenting4 ,it is plain that these lines refer to a time when woman was not 8a thrall to man40 ,it relates also to a time when the basileus or chief could not act without the consent of his people4 ,that in the earliest traditions and accounts of the ,greeks1 women occupy a much more exalted position than they do four or five centuries later1 is a fact which can be explained only by the truths which have been set forth in the foregoing pages2 namely1 the capture of women for wives1 at first singly and finally in groups4 ,we have seen that during the period designated as the ,latter ,status of barbarism1 wars were frequently undertaken upon no other pretext than that of securing women for wives4 ,cities were attacked and destroyed1 the men murdered1 and the women carried away captives4 ,property both landed and personal was seized and held by the conquerors1 and as these captured women were strangers1 aliens1 and dependents in the countries to which they were taken1 they became simply sexual slaves1 or wives1 and in process of time sank to the position in which we find them under ,solon1 the lawgiver of ,athens4 ,the difference in the sentiments entertained toward women during ,homer's time and those which had come to prevail among the ,greeks in the sixth century1 ,b4,c41 may be observed in the following lines from schylus1 and also in a quotation from ,the ,iliad1 which follows4 ,at the siege of ,thebes1 when the women1 fearing captivity more than death1 appeared before the sacred images to pray for protection1 ,etiocles the chief1 trembling with fear1 and himself praying loudly to ,jove1 to ,earth1 and 8all the guardian gods10 being displeased with the attitude of the female supplicants1 and doubtless eager to exercise his authority over women thus displays his contempt for them3 ,it is not to be borne1 ye wayward race2 ,is this your best1 is this the aid you lend ,the ,state1 the fortitude with which you steel ,the souls of the besieged1 thus falling down ,before these images to wail1 and shriek ,with lamentations loud8 ,wisdom abhors you4 ,nor in misfortune1 nor in dear success1 ,be woman my associate4 ,if her power ,bears sway1 her insolence exceeds all bounds1 ,but if she fears1 woe to that house and city4 ,and now1 by holding counsel with weak fear1 ,you magnify the foe1 and turn our men ,to flight3 thus are we ruined by ourselves4 ,this ever will arise from suffering women ,to intermix with men4 ,but mark me well1 ,whoe'er henceforth dares disobey my orders1 ,be it man or woman1 old or young1 ,vengeance shall burst upon him1 the decree ,stands irreversible1 and he shall die4 ,war is no female province1 but the scene ,for men3 hence home2 nor spread your mischiefs here1 ,hear you1 or not8 ,or speak ,i to the deaf8#agc #agc ,the ,seven ,chiefs against ,thebes4 ,from this scene pictured by schylus five centuries and a quarter ,b4,c41 let us return to the siege of ,troy1 three centuries earlier1 and listen to ,homer4 ,during the thickest of the fight ,helenus1 approaching ,eneas and ,hector1 his brother1 thus addresses the latter3 ,but1 ,hector1 thou depart ,to ,troy and seek the mother of us both ,and bid her call the honoured ,trojan dames1 that at the fane of ,pallas they may supplicate for mercy in behalf of the wives and little ones of the defenders of ,troy4 ,whereupon the noble ,hector calls aloud3 ,o valiant sons of ,troy1 and ye allies ,summoned from far6 ,be men1 my friends2 call back ,your wonted valour1 while ,i go to ,troy ,to ask the aged men1 our counselors1 ,and all our wives1 to come before the gods ,and pray and offer sacrifice4#agd #agd ,the ,iliad1 book vi41 ,bryant's translation4 ,after referring to the generally conceded fact that in ,europe the spread of civilization has been commensurate with the influence exercised by women1 ,mr4 ,buckle expresses himself as being unable to account for the seeming inconsistencies which are presented by a comparison of the position occupied in ,greece by the women of ,homer's time1 and that as pictured by the laws1 usages1 and social customs in the age of ,plato and his contemporaries4 ,although the ,greeks during the ages which intervened between ,homer and ,plato had made many notable improvements in the arts of life1 and in various branches of speculative and practical knowledge1 women had evidently lost ground1 8their influence being less than it was in the earlier and more barbarous period depicted by ,homer40#age #age ,the ,influence of ,women on the ,progress of ,knowledge4 ,the fact will doubtless be borne in mind that at the time ,mr4 ,buckle penned these words comparatively little concerning the construction or organization of primitive society was known4 ,that one ethnical period and a half prior to the earliest age of the historic ,greeks1 woman's influence was supreme in the family and in the gens1 that descent was reckoned in the female line1 and that all rights of succession were traced through mothers1 are facts with which this writer was evidently unacquainted2 hence1 we are not surprised that in contemplating a social phenomenon like that presented by the diminution of woman's influence during the ages between ,homer and ,plato1 he should have been at a loss to account for it1 and that he should have declared that the 8causes of these inconsistencies would form a curious subject for investigation40 ,mr4 ,lecky1 also1 in referring to the same subject1 says3 ,a broad line must1 however1 be drawn between the legendary or poetical period1 as reflected in ,homer and perpetuated in the tragedians1 and the later historical period4 ,it is one of the most remarkable1 and to some writers one of the most perplexing1 facts in the moral history of ,greece1 that in the former and ruder period women had undoubtedly the highest place1 and their type exhibited the highest perfection4#agf #agf ,european ,morals1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bie4 ,of marriage in the legendary period of ,greek history1 ,mr4 ,grote says3 ,we find the wife occupying a station of great dignity and influence1 though it was the practice for the husband to purchase her by valuable presents to her parents4444 ,she even seems to live less secluded and to enjoy a wider sphere of action than was allotted to her in historical ,greece4444 ,a large portion of the romantic interest which ,grecian legend inspires is derived from the women4#agg #agg ,history of ,greece1 vol4 ii41 p4 #hc4 ,from the facts which have been brought to light in relation to the position occupied by women in the age in which ,homer wrote1 it may be observed that much of the seeming inconsistency noticed by ,mr4 ,buckle1 ,mr4 ,lecky1 ,mr4 ,grote1 and others1 between the picture of ,greek life as it appeared at this time1 and that noticed six or seven centuries later in the age of ,plato1 may be easily explained4 ,the triumph of the male over the female in human society as exemplified amongst the earliest ,greeks1 was of such a recent date that the influence of women was not wholly extinct1 and the deference due them had not entirely given place to that lofty contempt and biting scorn which characterized the treatment of women by ,greek men at a later stage of their career4 ,although later in the history of this people1 mothers were not regarded as related to their own children1 and although in the age of ,homer relationships had begun to be reckoned through fathers1 in many places this writer reveals to us the fact that the bond between mother and child was stronger than that between father and child1 or that the tie between sisters and brothers of the same mother was closer than that between the children of the same father4 ,in ,apollo's address before the assembled gods1 in which he advocates the ransoming of the body of ,hector by ,priam and his sons1 ,homer puts the following words into the mouth of the oracle3 ,a man may lose his best-loved friend1 a son1 ,or his own mother's son1 a brother dear4#agh #agh ,the ,iliad1 book xxiv41 ,derby's translation4 ,numerous illustrations might be drawn from ,the ,iliad as proof of the fact that the tie between mother and child was still regarded as more binding than that between father and child4 ,homer doubtless represents an age in which the manner of reckoning descent was in dispute1 certain tribes acknowledging only the tie between children born of the same mother1 others only the bond between those of the same father1 while still others acknowledge both1 though with a preference for either one or the other4 ,in the ,eumenides of schylus the idea of male descent is put forth as a new doctrine4 ,orestes1 who has murdered his mother1 ,clytemnestra1 asks3 8,do you call me related to my mother80 ,although reproaches and imprecations are heaped upon him for his inhumanity1 it is found that the new doctrine in which the father is represented as the only real parent1 has many adherents--that the gods have concurred in it1 ,athene herself having succumbed to the new faith4 ,no one1 ,i think1 who is acquainted with the recently developed facts relative to human growth1 can carefully read ,the ,iliad without observing the similarity existing between the position occupied by the women of ,greece in ,homer's time1 and that of the women among the tribes and races in a somewhat lower stage of development4 ,on board the 8roomy ships0 of the ,greeks1 the prizes parcelled out to the chiefs were women4 ,we observe that even the daughters of influential and wealthy priests1 like the oracle of ,apollo1 might be 8carried off0--an act for which there was absolutely no redress except perhaps an appeal to the gods4 ,briseis also was a captured prize assigned to ,achilles by the ,greek warriors4 ,notwithstanding the fact that wives were still captured1 we frequently find women possessed of both wealth and influence4 ,helen1 although the wife of ,meneluas1 had vast treasure which she was able to take away with her when she was carried off by ,paris--treasure over which neither of her husbands seems to have had any control4 ,laotho1 the aged wife of ,priam1 had gold and brass of her own with which to ransom her sons1#agi and ,andromache1 the wife of ,hector1 who came to ,ilium from 8among the woody slopes of ,placos10 brought with her not only wealth but sufficient influence to secure for her the respect of the king's household4#ahj #agi ,the ,iliad1 book xxii4 #ahj ,ibid41 book vi4 ,we have seen that in an earlier age1 at a time when women were free1 wives had to be captured from foreign tribes2 but later1 after the ba'al form of marriage had become established1 wives were for the most part selected from the ranks of native-born women1 while foreign women were usually utilized as concubines4 ,it is true that in the ,homeric age1 foreign women sometimes became the wedded wives of their captors1 but unless they possessed great wealth1 or unless they were the daughters of kings1 they were unable to command that degree of consideration due to those who were native-born4 ,the practice1 during the early history of the ,greeks1 of securing foreign women for concubines is doubtless the source whence sprang the custom among the ,athenians of later times1 of importing all classes of 8kept women0 from other countries1 ,athenian women only being reserved for wives4 ,during the latter stage of barbarism a marked change in the government and in the fundamental principles regulating human conduct had taken place4 ,a review of the facts connected with the history of ,greek society during the ages between ,homer and ,solon shows that coeval with the decline of the cardinal principles of the gens1 namely1 justice1 equality1 and fraternity1 there had been also a corresponding change in the relations of the sexes2 that during the time in which egoism or selfishness had gained the ascendancy over the early altruistic principles developed in human society1 woman's influence had steadily declined4#aha #aha ,a similar change had taken place in the god-idea4 ,jove was no longer the 8terrible virgin0 who 8breathes out on crime1 misery1 and death10 but1 on the contrary1 had come to represent a male god who had given birth to ,minerva4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,ancient ,,sparta ,although in the writings commonly ascribed to ,homer is to be observed a fairly correct picture of many phases of ,greek life1 the earliest authentic historical accounts which we have of this people are perhaps those of ,aristotle and ,plutarch4 ,in the accounts given of the ,lacedmonians by the last named of these writers1 the fact is shown that male influence among the ,spartans of the time of ,lycurgus had not reached that state of intense and overshadowing domination in which we find the ,athenians of the ,solonic period submerged4 ,the early ,dorians were ever ready to uphold the ancient customs as opposed to innovations4 ,in the management of public affairs they trusted to the ties of relationship rather than to political organization based on property4 ,the policy of the ,athenians1 on the contrary1 as enunciated by ,pericles1 was that 8it is not the country and the people1 but movable and personal property1 in the proper sense of the word1 which make states great and powerful40 ,the one policy was essentially ,doric1 the other ,ionic4#ahb #ahb ,mller1 ,history and ,antiquity of the ,doric ,race1 book i41 #i1 #ac4 ,the exact time at which ,lycurgus occupied the position of lawgiver to the ,spartans is not known1 but it is claimed by ,xenophon that he lived shortly after the age of ,homer4 ,if the accounts of the ,lacedmonians which have come down to us in connection with the name of this legislator belong to that early age1 if scarcely one ethnical period had elapsed since woman's influence was supreme in the home and in the group1 we would naturally expect to find in their customs1 usages1 and regulations for the management of society1 certain traces of a former state of female independence1 and a hint1 at least1 of those principles of liberty and equality in the establishment of the commonwealth which were the result of female influence2 especially would this be true as we are informed that the ,spartans were a conservative people1 clinging to the prejudices of more ancient times4 ,a glance at ,spartan institutions at the time indicated1 furnishes ample proof of the fact that the ,lacedmonians were still to a considerable extent living under conditions which had been established under the archaic rule of the gens4 ,the ,spartan senate as reconstructed by ,lycurgus was composed of thirty members including the two kings or military leaders4#ahc ,these chiefs were the heads of the several gentes4 ,the ,ecclesia1 or assembly of the people1 8contained originally all the free males who dwelt within the city were of a legal age40#ahd ,hence may be observed the fact that the constitution of the state was the same as that in the ,upper ,status of barbarism2 yet the spectacle of a double monarchy 7notwithstanding the fact that it has been designated as a kind of irresponsible generalship7#ahe shows that the power attached to the office of basileus had become a menace to the liberties of the people2 hence this equal division of responsibility and authority4 #ahc ,grote1 ,history of ,greece1 vol4 ii41 p4 #cde4 #ahd ,rawlinson1 book v41 essay i4 #ahe ,aristotle1 ,politics1 book iii41 ,jowett's translation4 ,the ,spartan men were warriors who had subjugated the country1 making serfs of the original inhabitants4 ,in the time of ,lycurgus these gentlemen soldiers constituted an aristocratic class who spent their lives in the performance of public duties1 leaving the cultivation of the soil to the serfs4 ,helots1 the name given to the serfs1 signifies 8captives40 ,they were the slave population of ,laconia4#ahf ,the manufacturers and tradespeople of the towns and country districts around ,sparta were free1 but had been deprived of their political rights4 ,it is evident from these facts that although the constitution of the state had not been changed1 the division of the people into classes1 a division which since the latter part of the ,second ,status of barbarism had been threatened1 had through spoliation and conquest already taken place4 ,add to this the fact that property had passed into the hands of private individuals1 and we shall observe that the conditions had already become favourable for the development of that thirst for wealth and power which characterizes monarchial institutions4 #ahf ,rawlinson1 book v41 essay i4 ,if we carefully note the early condition of ,spartan society1 and studiously observe the processes involved in the growth of human institutions1 we shall be enabled to perceive the nature of the 8load0 under which the ,spartans 8groaned0 in the time of ,lycurgus4 ,the fact has been noted that1 throughout an entire ethnical period1 human ingenuity had been taxed to the utmost to subdue or keep in check the growing tendency toward usurpation and tyranny1 and the spectacle of a double monarchy1 or of two military chieftains as they appeared in ancient ,sparta1 indicates an attempt on the part of the people to divide the power which had become attached to this office1 and which was doubtless already menacing the popular rights4 ,in addition to the turmoil and strife engendered by the thirst for power were the turbulence and frequent insurrections of the serfs1 who1 it will be remembered1 had previously been free1 and who were therefore restless and impatient under the tyranny of their ,spartan masters4 ,although wealth had greatly increased in ,sparta during the ages immediately preceding the ,lycurgan system1 yet that the disorders which prevailed were in no wise attributable to luxury and enervation is shown in the fact as given by ,aristotle1 that the men during their frequent campaigns had become inured to the rigours and hardships of a soldier's life4 ,he says3 ,for1 during the wars of the ,lacedmons1 first against the ,argives1 and afterwards against the ,arcadians and ,messenians1 the men were long away from home1 and on the return of peace1 they gave themselves into the legislator's hands1 already prepared by the discipline of a soldier's life 7in which there were many elements of virtue71 to receive his enactments4#ahg #ahg ,politics1 book ii4 ,it is indeed plain that the state of disorder which prevailed at ,sparta in the time of ,lycurgus can be accounted for in no other way than that the people were no longer able to keep in check the constantly increasing egoism and selfishness developed within the governing classes4 ,the extent to which all wise regulations are attributed to the governing head is plainly apparent in the view taken of the management of ,sparta which ,herodotus and ,plutarch ascribe to ,lycurgus1 but which in the very nature of the case must have originated from other sources4 ,it is in no wise probable that ,lycurgus instituted any such radical changes in the constitution of the state as have been ascribed to him by the above writers1 for1 as we have seen1 prior to his appearance as lawgiver the government was administered by a military chieftain or basileus1 a senate1 and an assembly of the people4 ,in order to strengthen their authority1 the kings had made common cause with the assembly of the people1 and through this means had drawn to themselves nearly all the powers originally vested in that body2 while the senate1 destitute of support1 had gradually yielded up its functions to them4 ,before accepting the statements of these writers1 attributing to ,lycurgus that almost unparalleled degree of genius by means of which was originated an entirely new set of institutions1 all the accessible facts relative to these institutions should without prejudice be closely scrutinized1 especially as they involve principles and actions which could scarcely have been forced upon a people through an arbitrary stretch of power in the hands of a single individual4 ,doubtless the principal changes in the government inaugurated by ,lycurgus were1 first1 the importance which he caused to be attached to the assembly of the people1 and second1 the restoration of the senate4 ,by strengthening this body1 which was originally composed of the heads of the gentes1 the gentile organization was in a measure restored to its original dignity4 ,the extreme anxiety felt in the time of ,lycurgus lest the people's rights be invaded1 is shown in the fact that the three administrative functions of the government were supplemented by five ephors chosen annually as agents of the people1 whose chief prerogative it was to scrutinize the acts of the chief magistrate and other guardians of the commonwealth4 ,although the office of the ephors is much older than the ,lycurgan legislation1#ahh it had previously been abolished1 or had sunk into disuse4 ,the ephors of ,lycurgus were 8probably appointed for the special purpose of watching over the ,lycurgan discipline1 and punishing those who neglected it40#ahi #ahh ,curtius1 ,history of ,greece1 book ii41 chap4 i4 #ahi ,rawlinson1 book v41 essay i4 ,later1 however1 when through the greed for gain and the inordinate thirst for power1 the ephors in their turn had drawn to themselves the greater share of the powers belonging to the state1 the military commander1 or so-called king1 became responsible to them for his conduct even while directing the army in the field4 ,he received his orders from them1 and although in cases of emergency he was authorized to exercise the power of life and death1 according to ,xenophon1 they could accuse the king and compel him to defend his acts or suffer the penalty of death4 ,by a gradual process of usurpation the ephors had1 8by the time of ,thucydides1 completely superseded the king as the directors of affairs at ,sparta40 ,the fact has been observed that the authority of the senate1 a body which in earlier times had been composed of the heads of the genets1 who were elected by all the people1 and who held their office only during good behaviour1 had1 in the time of ,lycurgus1 through the growth of the monarchial and aristocratic party become weakened2 and that1 as the kings had drawn to themselves the powers formerly belonging to the popular assembly1 the people were no longer represented1 but had been obliged to surrender their independence to the authority of the military leaders4 ,it is altogether likely1 therefore1 that the load under which the ,spartans are said to have groaned1 and from which ,lycurgus is supposed to have released them1 was the undue assumption of power by the basileus and the aristocratic party2 and that the chief service which he lent to the state was the sanction which he gave to those principles of equality and liberty which had been recognized and practised at a time when the gens as the unit of human society was still in its original vitality and strength1 and when woman's influence was therefore in the ascendency4 ,most modern writers agree in the opinion that ,lycurgus instituted no fundamental changes in the constitution of the state2 indeed all the accessible facts relative to this subject go to prove that the attempt at legislative reform in the time of this lawgiver did not begin with him2 but1 on the contrary1 that all along the line of development1 for an entire ethnical period1 there had been a struggle between the people on the one hand and the constantly increasing power exercised by their rulers on the other4 ,concerning the measures instituted by ,lycurgus1 and the way in which the political power was distributed by him1 we are assured that it was according to a ,rhetra of this legislator given under the direction of the ,pythian ,apollo3 ,build a temple to ,jupiter ,hellanius and ,minerva ,hellania2 divide the tribes1 and institute thirty obas2 appoint a council1 with its princes2 convene the assembly between ,babyca and ,cnacion2 propose this1 and then depart2 and let there be a right of decision and power to the people4#aij #aij ,mller1 ,history and ,antiquity of the ,doric ,race1 book iii41 chap4 v4 ,by this decree the assembly was invested with authority to reject or accept any proposed measures of the council and princes4 ,later1 however1 when the chiefs and the military leaders would draw to themselves a portion of the power which had been delegated to the people1 we find subjoined to the original document of the priestess the following clause3 8,but if the people should follow a crooked opinion1 the elders and the princes shall dissent40 ,or1 according to ,plutarch3 8,if the people attempt to corrupt any law1 the senate and chiefs shall retire10 meaning that 8they shall dissolve the assembly and annul the alterations40#aia #aia ,lycurgus4 ,according to the testimony of ,plutarch1 when ,lycurgus entered upon the duties of lawgiver he went to ,crete1 and while there examined the laws of that people2 those of them which he considered wise and suited to the needs of a commonwealth and which were based on principles involving the highest interests of the people1 he incorporated into his system4 ,now the ,cretans were a branch of the ,doric stock1#aib and as among them descent and rights of succession were still traced through women1 it would seem that they had preserved much of that simplicity of manner which characterizes primitive society4 ,upon his return from ,crete ,lycurgus made an equal division of the land1 and as he could not induce the people to surrender their treasures1 he prohibited the use of gold and silver currency and substituted iron in its place4 ,to a great quantity and weight of this metal he assigned a slight value1 so that to lay up a small amount of wealth a whole room was required1 and for the removal of a moderate sum of money a yoke of oxen must be employed4 ,when this became current many kinds of injustice ceased in ,lacedmonia4 8,who would steal or take a bribe1 who would defraud or rob1 when he could not conceal the booty1 when he could neither be dignified by the possession of it1 nor if cut in pieces be served by its use80#aic ,there is little evidence in support of the statement of ,plutarch that ,lycurgus attempted to establish a community of goods among the ,spartans4 ,although he caused the landed possessions which had been parcelled out to individuals to be returned to the state1 too much interest had already become attached to personal possessions to have made a division of this kind of wealth possible4 #aib ,aristotle's ,politics1 book ii4 #aic ,plutarch's ,lycurgus4 ,a legislator may not enact laws with the expectation of seeing them enforced which are not in accord with the temper of the people1 and the degree of success which attended the legislation ascribed to ,lycurgus proves that the great mass of the people were in sympathy with many of the measures which he proposed for the government of ,sparta4 ,it is plain that the object of the person or persons1 whom history has named ,lycurgus1 was a return to the simpler manners and purer customs of a more primitive age1 which the growth of the aristocratic spirit and the accumulation of wealth in masses in the hands of the few threatened entirely to subvert2 and1 as a community of goods was at this time impossible1 he1 or they1 sought to level the distinctions between rich and poor by exalting virtue and moral excellence above the mere possession of wealth and hereditary titles4 ,it is the opinion of some writers that although ,lycurgus did not inaugurate a new set of institutions1 nor materially change the constitution of the state1 the great service which he rendered to the ,spartans was the remarkable system of discipline which he is supposed to have inaugurated4 ,of this ,mr4 ,rawlinson says3 8,it must always remain one of the most astonishing facts in history1 that such a system was successfully imposed upon a state which had grown up without it40#aid ,of the fact1 however1 that the state had not grown up without it there is ample evidence4 ,on this subject ,curtius remarks3 ,it is certain that the ,spartan discipline in many respects corresponds to the primitive customs of the ,dorians1 and that by constant practice1 handed down from generation to generation1 it grew into the second nature of the members of the community4#aie #aid ,book i41 essay i4 #aie ,history of ,greece1 book ii41 chap4 i4 ,from the facts at hand it is quite evident that ,lycurgus did not originate that system of discipline through which it is claimed ,spartan greatness was achieved4 ,the fact has been noted that when he entered upon the duties of lawgiver he sailed for ,crete1 and1 8having been struck with admiration of some of their laws10 he resolved to make use of them in ,sparta4#aif ,as the discipline of ,lycurgus constitutes the principal feature of the government ascribed to him1 and as his models were for the most part drawn from the ,cretans1 it is only reasonable to suppose that this remarkable system was itself1 in part at least1 copied from them4 ,it appears that among the ,cretans1 as among all peoples among whom female influence is in the ascendency1 the children belonged to the mother1 and that women owned1 or at least controlled1 their own households2 they did not1 therefore1 follow the fathers of their children to their homes4 ,in ,crete1 8the young ,dorians were left in the houses of their mothers till they grew up into youths40#aig ,as ,cretan mothers had charge of their sons until they were grown up1 it is not unlikely that the discipline which ,lycurgus attempted to copy was a system inaugurated under matriarchal usages1 but which in ,sparta in the time of ,lycurgus may have become somewhat relaxed4 ,however1 that the primitive discipline of the ,dorian people was not extinct among the ,spartans of this time is observed in the warlike character of the males1 and in the express testimony of ,aristotle that ,spartan men had become inured to hardships by means of their frequent campaigns4 ,to restore1 or rather to intensify this discipline1 seems to have been the object of ,lycurgus2 yet that he lacked greatly in judgment is shown by the measures which he put into execution4 ,we are informed that #aif ,plutarch's ,lycurgus4 #aig ,curtius1 ,history of ,greece1 book ii41 chap4 i4 ,spartan boys were as early as their eighth year taken into public training1 and assigned their places in their respective divisions1 where they had to go through all the exercises introductory to military service1 and accustom their bodies to endurance and exercise1 in exact obedience to the forms acquired by the state through its officers4#aih #aih ,ibid4 ,this interference with the natural development of the ,spartan youth was not without its effect upon his character2 and especially so as the policy adopted was such as to narrow his mental horizon1 and confine his ideas within the scope of ,spartan possibilities4 ,from all the evidence to be gathered about the individual whom historians call ,lycurgus1 it would appear that he was a fanatic1 who1 doubtless feeling deeply the disorders which had fastened themselves upon society1 attempted to manage not only the affairs of the state1 but to impose his authority also upon individual conduct4 ,of the position occupied by women at the time when ,lycurgus is said to have been lawgiver at ,sparta1 there seems to be much evidence going to show that they were in the possession of a remarkable degree of liberty1 and that they were possessed of great power and influence4 ,we have seen that while the men of ,sparta were away from their homes engaged in warfare1 the country had become wealthy and prosperous4 ,not only was the land controlled by women1 but nearly two-fifths of it was theirs by actual possession4#aii ,therefore1 when ,aristotle informs us that when ,lycurgus 8wanted to bring the women under his laws1 they resisted1 and he gave up the attempt10#bjj we are by no means surprised4 ,indeed1 ,aristotle himself says that this license of the ,lacedmonian women existed from the earliest times1 and was only what might be expected4#bja ,it is altogether likely that in the time of ,lycurgus1 ,spartan women had not been brought under subjection to male authority4 #aii ,politics1 vol4 ii41 p4 #i4 #bjj ,ibid4 #bja ,ibid4 ,according to the accounts given by ,aristotle and ,plutarch1 under regulations made by ,lycurgus1 the men dined on the plainest fare at the public table1 or mess1 while the women remained within their own homes4 ,that a considerable degree of success crowned this legislator's efforts to control the conduct and private life of men1 from the facts at hand may not be doubted2 among the women1 however1 the case seems to have been altogether different4 ,of the ,spartans1 ,aristotle says3 8,in the days of their greatness many things were managed by their women4 ,but what difference does it make whether women rule1 or the rulers are ruled by women40#bjb ,because1 however1 the ,spartan women preferred to remain within their own homes1 and refused to allow their private affairs to be controlled by ,lycurgus1 ,aristotle accuses them 8of intemperance and luxury40 ,he says3 #bjb ,politics4 ,for a husband and a wife1 being each a part of every family1 the state may be considered as about equally divided into men and women2 and1 therefore1 in those states in which the condition of the women is bad1 half the city may be regarded as having no laws4 ,and this is what has actually happened at ,sparta1 the legislator wanted to make the whole state temperate1 and he has carried out his intentions in the case of the men1 but he has neglected the women1 who live in every sort of intemperance and luxury4#bjc #bjc ,ibid4 ,so far1 however1 from the ,spartan women refusing to concur in those movements which were in operation to make the whole state hardy and temperate1 we have ample evidence going to prove that it was women themselves who in former times had encouraged the healthful and moderate exercise of body and limb among the youth of both sexes4 ,indeed1 from natural inferences to be drawn from the facts at hand1 it is probable that these exercises which had originated among the primitive ,dorians1 while under the matriarchal system1 had not only been encouraged1 but practised1 by women while their husbands and fathers were absent on their campaigns4 ,we have seen that1 according to ,aristotle1 women refused to unite in those movements in operation in the time of ,lycurgus for the strengthening and general improvement of the youth4 ,plutarch1 on the contrary1 ascribes all the physical strength and vigour of mind possessed by ,spartan women to the wise regulations of ,lycurgus2 and1 notwithstanding the fact that1 according to his own testimony1 they were possessed of great liberty and power1 he imputes to this legislator the inauguration of all those practices for the promotion of perfect freedom among women which were so salutary in producing or continuing a healthful state of public morals4 ,it is plain that the position occupied by ,spartan women presented difficulties to the minds of ,aristotle and ,plutarch which they were wholly unable to explain4 ,with regard to the supposition of ,plutarch that the exercises performed by the young women of ,sparta while in a nude or semi-nude condition were inaugurated by ,lycurgus1 it is too unreasonable for serious consideration4 ,it is to be doubted if there has ever existed1 either in ancient or modern times1 a legislator1 who1 unaided and alone1 and simply through a stretch of arbitrary power1 has been able to regulate the dress1 amusements1 bodily exercise1 and general movements of women in possession of a reasonable degree of personal freedom and liberty of action4 ,respecting the wise regulations instituted by ,lycurgus for the management of women1 ,plutarch says3 ,in order to take away the excessive tenderness and delicacy of the sex1 the consequence of a recluse life1 he accustomed the virgins occasionally to be seen naked as well as the young men1 and to dance and sing in their presence on certain festivals4#bjd #bjd ,lycurgus4 ,perhaps throughout the entire narrative of ,plutarch concerning ,lycurgus and his laws1 there is nothing so absolutely devoid of reason as this4 ,if1 as he assures us1 women were possessed of that excessive tenderness and delicacy which are the result of a recluse life2 and if1 as he supposes1 they had hitherto been trained according to masculine ideas of female modesty and decorum1 it is greatly to be doubted if the laws of ,lycurgus1 or even the lightnings of ,zeus could have driven these virgins into the presence of the opposite sex under the conditions named4 ,doubtless the ,spartan people had not at this stage of their career departed so far from the customs of a gynecocracy that women were unable to exercise absolute control over their persons4 ,being free from the domination of the opposite sex1 all those exercises and habits of body in use to increase their own vigour and that of the entire race had doubtless been instigated by women1 or at least had been instituted at a time when female influence was in the ascendency4 ,concerning the position occupied by the women of ,sparta1 ,plutarch says they had assumed to themselves great liberty and power 8on account of the frequent expeditions of their husbands1 during which they were left sole mistresses at home1 and so gained an undue deference and improper titles40#bje #bje ,lycurgus4 ,it is evident that this writer was unacquainted with the fact that at a time not far distant in the past from the age of ,lycurgus1 the influence of women in the family and in the gens had been supreme2 hence1 like others who have attempted to deal with the subject of primitive peoples1 he was unable to conceive of a condition of society in which women's natural instincts played a conspicuous part in regulating the social customs and in formulating the laws by which they were governed4 ,the extreme modesty and sensitiveness which are observed as a characteristic of both sexes in the marriage relation1 and the reserve of the youths at festivals in which young women are reported to have appeared naked1 may not be ascribed to the laws of ,lycurgus1 but on the other hand appear as direct results of those checks upon the animal instincts in the male which the former strength and independence of women had imposed4#bjf #bjf ,as to the exercises of the virgins1 and their appearing naked1 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller1 in his ,history and ,antiquities of the ,doric ,race observes3 8,the female sex underwent in this respect the same education as the male1 though 7as has been above remarked7 only the virgins4 ,they had their own gymnasia1 and exercised themselves1 either naked or lightly clad1 in running1 wrestling1 or throwing the quoit or spear4 ,it is highly improbable that youths or men were allowed to look on1 since in the gymnasia of ,lacedmon no idle bystanders were permitted2 every person was obliged either to join the rest1 or withdraw40--,book iv41 ch4 v4-viii4 ,at a later age1 for instance that of ,plutarch1 the spectacle of young maidens appearing on occasions of public festivity in a single garment1 loose1 and reaching a little below the knee1 would have been associated with ideas of disgrace and shame2 but1 under a condition of society in which the animal instincts had not wholly gained the ascendency over the higher faculties1 or in which the characters peculiar to women had not been overshadowed or subdued by the grosser elements developed in human nature1 such a proceeding might not1 as we have seen1 be inconsistent with the purest motives and the highest aims4 ,something of the extent to which the influence of women was exerted to stimulate bravery and courage in the opposite sex is shown in the description by ,plutarch of the festivals in which the young people appeared before each other in a semi-nude state to practise the popular games of strength and skill4 ,concerning these festivals this writer remarks that the young women engaged in little raillery upon those who lacked skill1 or who had not done their best1 while 8on such as deserved them they sang encomiums1 thus exciting in the young men a useful emulation and love of glory40 ,plutarch observes also that 8those who were praised for their bravery and celebrated among the virgins went away perfectly happy1 while their satirical glances were no less cutting than serious admonitions40#bjg #bjg ,lycurgus4 ,these facts indicate something of the extent to which female influence still survived in ancient ,sparta1 and reveal plainly the fact that although in the time of ,lycurgus the coarser instincts developed in human nature had made considerable headway1 they had not totally eclipsed the finer characters peculiar to women1 as was the case at a later period of ,grecian history--more particularly among the ,athenians4 8,as for the virgins appearing naked10 ,plutarch himself assures us1 there was nothing disgraceful in it1 because everything was conducted with modesty1 and without one indecent word or action4 ,nay1 it caused a simplicity of manner and an emulation for the best habit of body2 their ideas too were naturally enlarged while they were not excluded from their share of bravery and honour4 ,regarding the commingling of the sexes among the ,spartans1 ,mr4 ,grote says3 ,when we read the restrictions which ,spartan custom imposed upon the intercourse even between married persons1 we shall conclude without hesitation that the public intermixture of the sexes led to no such liberties between persons not married1 as might be likely to arise from it under other circumstances4#bjh #bjh ,history of ,greece1 vol4 ii41 p4 #che4 ,it was a ,dorian who first threw aside his heavy girdle during the ,olympian contests and ran naked to the goal4 ,in an allusion to this incident1 and also to the custom of ,spartan virgins appearing in a semi-nude state in the presence of the opposite sex during the performance of their gymnastic feats1 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller says that a display of the naked form when all covering was unnecessary and inconvenient was quite in keeping with the character and temper of the ,dorians4#bji #bji ,history and ,antiquity of the ,doric ,race1 book iv41 ch4 ii41 p4 #a4 ,concerning the style of dress adopted by the ,doric virgins1 it is said to have consisted of a loose woollen garment called a himation4 ,it was without sleeves and was fastened over the shoulders with large clasps4 ,the himation was completely joined only on one side1 the other side being left loose and fastened with a buckle or clasp4 ,doubtless this adjustment of the gown was to enable the wearer to open it and throw it back1 thereby securing greater freedom to the limbs while running and wrestling4 ,this simple garment reached only to the calf of the leg1 and was worn sometimes with a girdle1 sometimes without4 ,the pure state of morals in ,sparta furnishes an explanation of that peculiar style of dress among women which has elicited so much comment among later writers1 and which has stamped the ,spartan women as creatures especially 8devoid of modesty40 ,true modesty was evidently one of the leading characteristics of this people among both sexes1 but the simulation of it1 which1 by the way1 is usually practised just in proportion as the lower propensities have gained the ascendency over the higher faculties1 was doubtless absent in ,spartan society4#baj #baj ,we have the authority of ,tacitus respecting the customs1 character1 and style of dress of the ancient ,germans4 ,among this people1 as is well known1 the influence of women was in the ascendency over that of men1 and the state of public morals was exactly that which might be expected4 ,respecting the dress of women1 this writer says they 8do not lengthen their upper garment into sleeves but leave exposed the whole arm1 and part of the breast0 7,germania1 chap4 xvii474 ,it is observed1 however1 that chastity was the characteristic virtue of this people among both sexes4 ,the marriage bond was strict and severe1 and we are informed that among the ,saxons the women themselves inflicted the penalty for adultery4 ,from an epistle of ,st4 ,boniface1 ,archbishop of ,mentz1 to ,ethelbald1 ,king of ,england1 we have the following3 8,in ancient ,saxony 7now ,westphalia71 if a virgin pollute her father's house1 or a married woman prove false to her vows1 sometimes she is forced to put an end to her own life by the halter1 and over the ashes of her burned body her seducer is hanged40 ,an illustration of the state of public morals in ancient ,sparta may be observed in the following dialogue4 ,a stranger once asked a ,spartan what penalty their law attached to adultery4 ,the reply was3 8,my friend1 there are no adulterers in our country40 ,upon being further interrogated1 8,but what if there should be one80 the ,spartan replied3 8,why then1 he must forfeit a bull so large that he might drink of the ,eurotus from the top of ,mount ,taygetus40 ,when the stranger asked3 8,how can such a bull be found80 the man answered with a smile1 8,how can an adulterer be found in ,sparta80#baa #baa ,plutarch's ,lycurgus4 ,commenting on the relative position of ,doric and ,athenian women1 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller says3 ,the domestic relation of the wife to her husband among the ,dorians was in general the same as that of the ancient western nation1 described by ,homer as universal among the ,greeks1 and which existed at ,rome till a late period2 the only difference being that the peculiarities of the custom were preserved by the ,dorians more strictly than elsewhere4 ,amongst the ,dorians of ,sparta1 the wife was honoured by her husband with the title of mistress 7a gallantry belonging to the north of ,greece1 and also practised by the ,thessalians71 which was used neither ironically nor unmeaningly4 ,nay1 so strange did the importance which the ,lacedmonian women enjoy1 and the influence which they exercised as the managers of their household1 and mothers of families1 appear to the ,greeks1 at a time when the prevalence of ,athenian manners prevented a due consideration for national customs1 that ,aristotle supposed ,lycurgus to have attempted1 but without success1 to regulate the lives of women as he had regulated that of the men2 and the ,spartans were frequently censured for submitting to the yoke of their wives4 ,it has been truly said that nowhere else in ,greece do we find traces of that power exercised by women over their sons when arrived at manhood observed among ,spartan mothers4 ,when a woman of another country said to ,gorgo1 the wife of ,leonidas1 8,you of ,lacedmon are the only women in the world that rule the men10 she replied1 8,we are the only women that bring forth men40#bab #bab ,plutarch's ,lycurgus4 ,with our present knowledge respecting the influence and independence of the ,spartan women1 it is folly for certain writers to assert that married women were confined within the house and that only virgins appeared in public4 ,there is some evidence going to prove that at ,crete1 at ,sparta1 and at ,olympia1 women were not only spectators at the ,olympian games1 but that they engaged personally in the chariot contests4 ,according to an inscription in ,della ,cella1 it is shown that women presided over the public gymnastic exercises in that town4 ,one very important fact going to show whence proceeded the reforms of ,lycurgus is that the mandates of the oracle were supreme4 ,the oracles controlled the rulers1 but women always controlled or interpreted the oracles4 ,the celebrated ,rhetra of ,lycurgus1 in which unlimited authority is given to the people to reject or adopt the proposals of the king1 was given according to the direction of the ,pythian ,apollo1 whose mandates were interpreted by women4 ,in an earlier age the chiefs of the gentes were elected by all the people1 and they held their office by virtue of their relationship to the leader of the gens1 who was a woman4 ,that the honour due to women was still recognized in ,sparta is shown in the following from ,plutarch in relation to the election of senators4 ,the person who had received the loudest acclamations was declared duly elected1 whereupon he was crowned with a garland1 and a number of young men followed him about to extol his virtues4 ,the women sang his praises and blessed his life and conduct4 ,two portions were set before him1 one of which he carried to the gates of the public hall1 where the women were in waiting to receive him4 ,to the one for whom he had the greatest esteem he presented the portion1 saying3 8,that which ,i received as a mark of honour ,i give to you40 ,the woman thus honoured 8was conducted home with great applause by the rest of the women40#bac #bac ,plutarch's ,lycurgus4 ,spartan men were forbidden to marry foreign women1 hence1 contrary to the customs of surrounding nations at this early period1 wives as well as husbands were native-born4 ,all were ,spartans1 which fact probably accounts in a measure for the exalted position occupied by women4 ,both in ,sparta and in ,crete the form of marriage was by capture2 thus1 although in the time of ,lycurgus the ,spartan men and women both belonged to the same stock1 it is plain that originally they were of different tribes4 ,of capture as practised in ,sparta1 ,mller says that it was clearly an ancient national custom1 founded on the idea that 8the young woman could not surrender her freedom and virgin purity1 unless compelled by the violence of the stronger sex40#bad ,according to ,plutarch1 after the arrangements for the wedding had been completed1 the bridegroom rushed in1 seized the bride from among her assembled friends1 and bore her away4 #bad ,history and ,antiquity of the ,doric ,race1 book iv41 chap4 iv4 ,the ,dorian stock alone seems to have preserved the ancient customs1 and among these peoples1 wherever they are found1 woman's influence is in the ascendency4 ,according to ,herodotus and ,aristotle1 the ,spartans1 the ,cretans1 and the ,lycians were related4 ,the people of ,crete still preserved their ancient usages1 hence may be observed the reason why ,lycurgus visited that country in quest of information before enunciating the laws which were to restore order among the ,spartans4 ,in ,lycia1 as in ,crete1 woman's influence must still have been considerable4 ,of the ,lycians ,herodotus says3 ,their customs are partly ,cretan1 partly ,carian4444 ,they take the mother's and not the father's name4 ,ask a ,lycian who he is1 and he answers by giving his own name1 that of his mother1 and so on in the female line4 ,moreover1 if a free woman marry a man who is a slave1 their children are full citizens2 but if a free man marry a foreign woman1 or live with a concubine1 even though he be the first person in the state1 the children forfeit all the rights of citizenship4#bae #bae ,book i4 ,on the manner of reckoning descent through women which prevailed in ,lycia1 ,curtius remarks that the usage extends far beyond the territory commanded by the ,lycian nationality4 ,it is still extant in ,india2 it was practised in ancient ,egypt1 among the ,etruscans1 and among the ,cretans1 who were closely related to the ,lycians4 ,this writer observes that if ,herodotus regards the usage in question as thoroughly peculiar to the ,lycians1 it must have maintained itself longest among them of all the nations related to the ,greeks1 as is also proved by the ,lycian inscriptions4#baf #baf ,history of ,greece1 book i41 ,ward's translation4 ,as the ,sabines who united with the ,romans in founding ,rome claimed relationship with the ,dorians1 we may reasonably expect to find among them somewhat of that womanly influence which characterized the ,spartans1 and some hint among their customs of an earlier age of female independence4 ,although the ,sabine women did not 8voluntarily0 assume the position of wives to the ,romans but were captured by them1 when the two nations united1 the ,sabines were regarded rather in the light of conferring honour upon ,rome than as detracting from its dignity4 ,of the early ,romans1 ,ortolan says3 ,the connubium1 or right of marriage1 did not exist between males and females of different cities unless by special agreement between those cities4 ,thus it was that the primitive ,romans1 according to tradition1 were compelled to resort to ambuscade and force in order to carry off their first wives4#bag #bag ,history of ,roman ,law1 p4 #gi4 ,the ,roman family1 like the ,roman state1 began with slavery4 ,of the ,romans it has been said that they acquired their territory1 their property1 and even their wives by the lance4 ,with them the lance became the symbol of property1 and even had a place in their judicial procedure4 ,their slaves were booty1 their wives were booty1 and their children1 begotten of them1 the fruit of their possessions4#bah #bah ,ortolan's ,history of ,roman ,law1 p4 #db4 ,the right of fathers1 under ,romulus1 to sell their sons1 upon the accession of ,numa the ,sabine ruler1 to the office of lawgiver1 was withdrawn1 and the reason given for it was consideration for women4 ,according to ,plutarch1 ,numa 8reckoned it a great hardship1 that a woman should marry a man as free1 and then live with him as a slave40#bai #bai ,numa and ,lycurgus compared4 ,in the life of ,numa by ,plutarch we have a hint of a former age of universal freedom4 ,it was one of this ruler's institutions1 that once a year the slaves should be entertained along with their masters at a public feast1 there to enjoy the fruits 8which they had helped to produce40 ,the same writer assures us that some are of the opinion that this is a remnant of that equality which was in existence in the times of ,saturn1 when there was neither master nor slave1 but all were upon the same footing4 ,plutarch quotes from ,macrobius1 who says that this feast was celebrated in ,italy long before the building of ,rome4 ,from all the facts to be gathered relative to the relations of the sexes in the age of ,numa1 it is plain that that freedom of action exercised by women in a former age among the ,dorians1 was rapidly declining1 and that the early independence which has characterized the ,sabine women was beginning to bring upon them the condemnation of their ,roman lords4 ,this is shown in the fact that it soon became ,numa's arduous task to institute certain restrictions on their former liberties4 ,in a comparison between ,lycurgus and ,numa1 ,plutarch1 in referring to this subject1 observes3 ,numa's strictures as to virgins tended to form them to that modesty which is the ornament of their sex2 but the great liberty which ,lycurgus gave them1 brought upon them the censure of the poets1 particularly ,ibycus4 ,the grossness which had been developed during the four or five hundred years following the age of ,lycurgus1 and the jealousy with which the movements of women had come to be regarded1 are illustrated by the following stanza from ,euripides3 ,these quit their homes1 ambitious to display1 ,amidst the youths1 their vigour in the race1 ,or feats of wrestling1 whilst their airy robe ,flies back and leaves their limbs uncovered4#bbj #bbj ,quoted by ,plutarch4 ,it is evident that not only in private life1 but in their desire for public activity also1 the independence of the ,sabine women failed to comport with the ideas already in vogue among their ,roman husbands regarding the 8proper sphere0 of women4 ,consequently their behaviour was thought to be too bold and too masculine1 in particular to their husbands2 for they considered themselves as absolute mistresses in their houses2 nay1 they wanted a share in affairs of state1 and delivered their sentiments with great freedom concerning the most weighty matters4#bba #bba ,numa and ,lycurgus compared4 ,a woman even appeared in the ,forum to plead her own cause1 whereupon the grave senators ordered that the oracles be consulted that the true import of the singular phenomenon might be revealed4#bbb #bbb ,ibid4 ,plutarch1 who lived in the first century of the ,christian era1 after having recounted these misdemeanours1 assures us that 8what is recorded of a few infamous women is a proof of the obedience and meekness of ,roman matrons in general40#bbc #bbc ,ibid4 ,doubtless1 in ,plutarch's time1 ,roman women had lost much of that influence which characterized the female sex in an earlier age2 it is not1 therefore remarkable that by this writer the ,sabine women should have been regarded as too forward and as altogether infamous4 ,that their conduct was not all that could be desired by the outlaws and bandits who founded ,rome1 and who had stolen them for wives1 is evident2 and the regulations of their rulers respecting them show plainly that much judicious training and a vast amount of repression were required before they were fitted for the peculiar duties devolving upon them as sexual slaves4 ,we are told by ,plutarch that the regulations established by ,lycurgus1 instead of encouraging that licentiousness of the women which prevailed at a later period1 operated to render adultery unknown amongst them2 yet this writer forgets to mention the fact that in ,sparta1 in the time of this ruler1 there was no demand for prostitution by a class who held all the wealth and power1 and who were therefore in a position to regulate this matter to suit their own tastes and inclinations4 ,on the contrary1 the female sex was free1 not only in the matter of sexual relations1 but in the exercise of all their natural tendencies1 and in the direction of all their movements4 ,the idea of sex1 which among later and more thoroughly sensualized nations became first and foremost1 among the ,dorians1 so far as equal rights1 obligations1 and duties were concerned1 was ignored or left to nature to regulate4 ,plutarch1 like most writers who have dealt with the relations of the sexes1 fails to observe the fact that just to the extent in the past history of mankind to which women have been free and independent1 licentiousness has disappeared1 and that just in proportion as the influence of women has declined1 in just such proportion have shame1 profligacy1 disease1 and infamy prevailed4 ,to produce a state of society in which the animal instincts ruled supreme1 and in which passion was the recognized god1 women had first to become physically dependent and mentally enslaved4 ,for so long a time have women been judged by masculine standards1 it is not perhaps remarkable that male writers of these later times can discern in the simplicity and chastity existing among the ,dorians1 in the age of ,lycurgus1 no evidence of a former era of female independence4 ,neither is it singular1 as for so many ages women have been subject to the pleasure and control of the opposite sex1 that we should be repeatedly told by writers who have dealt with the usages of the ,spartans1 that their women were 8permitted0 to do this1 and 8allowed0 to do that1 although the facts in the case prove that in all their movements they were guided by their own wills1 exercised either directly1 or through the oracles of the gods4 ,when the customs of the ancient ,dorians are viewed without prejudice1 the fact will doubtless be observed that they originated not in a depraved and licentious state of society1 but1 on the contrary1 that they were the direct result of that freedom of action which characterizes purity of life and a high standard of thought and action4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,athenian ,,women ,according to ,wilford1 the ,greeks were the descendants of the ,yavanas of ,india4 ,this writer observes that the ,pandits insist that the words ,yavana and ,yoni are derived from the same root1 ,yu1 and that when the ,ionians emigrated they adopted this name to distinguish themselves as adorers of the female1 in opposition to a strong sect of male worshippers which had been driven from the mother country4#bbd ,under the constantly increasing importance of the male1 however1 both in human affairs and in the god-idea1 they subsequently became ashamed of their religious title and sought to abandon it4 ,of the aversion felt in ,greece for this name ,herodotus says3 #bbd ,see ,hargrave ,jennings1 ,phallicism4 ,the ,athenians and most of the ,ionic states over the world went so far in their dislike of the name as actually to lay it aside2 and even at the present day the greater number of them seems to me to be ashamed of it4#bbe #bbe ,book i4 ,whenever in early historic times a country was subjugated1 the conquerors either murdered or enslaved the men1 and utilized the women for wives1 or sexual slaves4 ,the ,ionians who1 according to ,herodotus1 sailed from ,attica1 without women1 took for wives native ,carians whose fathers they had slain2 hence these captives made a law1 which they bound themselves by an oath to observe1 and which they handed down to their daughters after them1 that 8none should ever sit at meat with her husband1 or call him by his name2 because the invaders slew their fathers1 their husbands1 and their sons1 and then forced them to become their wives40#bbf ,the terms of the oaths sworn by them at the time of the capture seem1 subsequently1 to have been enforced by their imperious masters4 #bbf ,book i4 ,as these women were foreigners they were entitled to little or no respect from their captors4 ,however1 as they were to become the mothers of ,greek citizens1 they must necessarily be 8protected10 or1 in other words1 they must be kept in seclusion4 ,in the time of ,solon1 rape committed on a free-born woman was punishable by fine4#bbg #bbg ,plutarch1 ,solon4 ,from that stage in the history of ,greek tribes1 at which through capture and appropriation of the soil by individuals women began to lose that influence which they had exercised under matriarchal usages1 to the time of ,solon1 the lawgiver of ,athens1 when they had finally descended to the lowest level of misery and sexual degradation1 may be observed a corresponding tendency gradually developing itself among the people towards selfishness1 usurpation of power1 and the slavery of the masses4 ,in the age of ,solon the limit of human wretchedness seems to have been reached1 and as the human race is never at a standstill1 it must at this time have either become extinct1 or have begun gradually to lift itself from the condition of disgrace and ruin into which it had fallen4 ,the character of ,solon1 as gathered from the facts at hand regarding him1 reflects in a measure the true condition of society at that time4 ,although vain and morally weak1 he was in a certain sense humane2 his humanity1 however1 extended only to those of his own sex4 ,a large proportion of the women of ,athens were imported foreigners1 and were therefore so degraded that they had no rights which any one1 even a lawgiver1 was bound to protect4 ,after his appointment to the archonship1 ,solon's first act was to cancel the debts against the lands and persons of the ,athenians1 and to establish a law that in future no man should accept the body of his debtor for security4#bbh ,many who had been previously banished or driven out of the country for debt1 and had remained so long from their native land as to forget their ,attic dialect1 were recalled as freemen1 while others1 who at home had suffered slavery1 were released and given their freedom4 #bbh ,plutarch1 ,solon4 ,perhaps1 however1 in no position in life will a vain1 morally weak man display to better advantage the defects in his character than in his attempts to legislate for women2 and under no circumstances will his true inwardness of purpose stand more truly revealed than in his efforts to 8regulate0 the relations of the sexes4 ,a brief notice of ,solon's laws concerning women proves him to have been no exception to the generally observed rule4 ,it is recorded of him that in his extreme solicitude lest their movements should not comport with his ideas of female propriety and decorum1 he regulated their journeyings1 and laid down rules respecting their mournings1 sacrifices1 and the number of gowns which they were to take with them when they went out of town4 ,the provision for their journey and even the size of the basket in which it was to be conveyed were subjects not unworthy the attention of the great ,athenian lawgiver4 ,women's mode of travel by night was also prescribed as was also their conduct at funerals and various places of amusement4 ,in fact all their actions were subjected to that meddlesome espionage and control which characterize a weak and sensuous age4 ,indeed1 we have something more than a hint of the degraded position occupied by women1 in the fact that a man might not be allowed to sell a daughter or a sister 8unless she were taken in an act of dishonour before marriage10 in which case her accuser might sell her person for individual gain2 and this1 too1 notwithstanding the fact that he1 as well as nearly every other man in ,athens1 was steeped in infamy4 ,the measure adopted by ,solon for the regulation of prostitution1 and his division of women into classes for the convenience of all conditions of men1 indicate clearly the disgrace and shamelessness which characterized the ,athenians at this stage of their career1 and depict with unerring fidelity the depth of horror into which womanhood had been dragged4 ,the condition of public morals during the three hundred years following the age of ,solon is plainly indicated not only in the laws but in the mythologies of ,greece and ,rome4 ,prostitution was enjoined by religion and when ,draco1 suddenly shocked by the degeneracy of his time1 affixed the penalty of death to rape1 seduction1 and adultery1 it has been said that by the performance of the prescribed religious rites within the temple1 the 8rigour of his edicts was considerably softened40 ,the restraint imposed upon the ,athenians by the ,draconian regulations was1 however1 of short duration2 for when ,solon1 the successor of ,draco1 assumed the position of archon1 he at once legally established a sufficient number of houses of prostitution at ,athens to supply the demand1 filling them with female slaves who had been taken captives in war1 or who had been otherwise provided by the munificence of the government4 ,but you did well for every man1 ,o ,solon2 ,for they do say you were the first to see ,the justice of a public-spirited measure1 ,the ,saviour of the ,state4#bbi #bbi ,philemon4 ,quoted by ,athenus1 book xiii4 ,by this time1 so degraded had womanhood become1 that the traffic in female captives for sexual purposes was regarded as a legitimate business1 and the revenue accruing from their services was considered a lawful source of gain to the state1 its use being devoted to the rearing of temples and to the carrying out of the various projects connected with religious worship4 ,that the ,athenians of this period were wholly given over to luxury and licentiousness is shown by the fact that at their bacchanalian feasts1 the troops of women who were in attendance and who had been provided for the occasion by the generosity of the state1 performed all their duties under direct and explicit instruction of the government 8to disobey no order of a guest02 for which wise regulations ,solon received the praise and commendation of ,athenian men4 ,in a former portion of this work the fact has been noted that until well into the ,latter ,status of barbarism all women were protected2 that among the ,kaffirs1 the ,fiji ,islanders1 and various other peoples occupying a lower stage in the order of growth1 women1 although divested of their former influence1 are still jealously guarded by the gens to which they belong2 and that when maidens are bereft of home and near relatives1 they are adopted into some other gens within the tribe where they are invested with the same rights as are its own members4 ,therefore when contemplating the social condition of the ,athenians five or six hundred years ,b4,c41 we are naturally led to inquire3 ,what were the causes which during one ethnical period had produced so marked a change in the position of the female sex8 ,for an answer to our question we must recall the facts set forth in this volume relative to the capture of wives1 together with the feeling of hatred entertained by early society for alien women4 ,in the time of ,pericles1 an age when ,athens was at the height of its prosperity1 the women of the city were divided into five classes as regarded their duties and uses4 ,the first of these consisted of wives1 who1 for the most part1 were kept in seclusion and allowed to exist solely for the purpose of propagating ,greek citizens4 ,these women were without influence1 possessing no rights or privileges beyond the will of their 8lords02 while to such an extent were they considered merely in the light of household furniture that they were not permitted to appear in public1 nor to sit at table with their masters4 ,the following dialogue between ,socrates and ,ischomachus1 a man who had managed his household in such a manner as to be 8pointed out as a model for all ,athens10 perhaps serves as a correct picture of the relations existing between husband and wife in the ,periclean age4 8,i should like to know this particular from you10 said ,socrates1 8whether you yourself educated your wife so as to make her what she ought to be1 or whether you received her from her parents with a knowledge of her duties80--8,and how could ,i have received her so educated1 ,socrates1 when she came to me not fifteen years old1 and had lived up to that time under the strictest surveillance that she might see as little as possible1 and hear as little as possible1 and inquire as little as possible80 ,of the five classes to which reference has been made1 wives only were native-born1 and as this particular class had specific duties to perform1 severe penalties were attached to the crimes of seduction and rape when committed upon ,athenian women4 ,the remaining four classes were arranged according to the dignity of their associates1 the highest in rank and repute being the hetairai1 the members of which comprised the only free women in ,athens4 ,themselves philosophers and stateswomen1 their associates among males were of the same rank or station4 ,they constituted a highly intellectual class1 and as such were able to control not only their own movements1 but to exercise a remarkable influence upon literature1 art1 and the affairs of state4 ,because of the important position occupied by these women1 they will be referred to later in this work4 ,the next in rank were the auletrides1 or flute-players4 ,many of the most fashionable of these were slaves who had been brought to ,greece by speculators4 ,we are informed that female musicians were a usual accompaniment to an ,athenian banquet1 and that flute-playing became an essential feature in the worship of several of their deities2 hence1 the services of this particular class were in demand1 not only to heighten the enjoyment of social intercourse1 but to stimulate and encourage religious enthusiasm4 ,at public gatherings1 after the dinner was over1 and while the wine was flowing freely1 these women made their appearance in a semi-nude condition1 dancing and keeping time to the music by the graceful motion of their beautifully moulded figures4 ,while the enthusiasm was at its height they were sold to the highest bidder4 ,fist fights1 or hand-to-hand encounters for the possession of these female flute-players1 were not uncommon occurrences in the best society in ,athens4#bcj #bcj ,athenus1 book xiii41 ,these scenes were performed under the sanction of religion and law2 they therefore serve to reveal the true inwardness of the ,greek character at this stage of development4 ,it is reported that the finest houses in ,alexandria were inscribed with the names of famous ,greek auletrides4 ,of all the flute-players of ,greece1 ,lamia is said to have been the most successful4 ,for fifteen or twenty years she was the delight of the entire city of ,alexandria and of ,king ,ptolemy4 ,finally1 when the city was taken by ,demetrius of ,macedon1 ,lamia was taken also4 ,when she demanded that an immense tax be levied on the city of ,athens for her benefit1 it is recorded that although the people murmured at the amount1 they nevertheless found it to their interest to deify her and erect a temple in her honour4 ,according to the testimony of ,plutarch1 ,lamia raised money on her own authority to provide an entertainment for the king4#bca #bca ,demetrius4 ,the fourth class consisted of concubines1 or purchased slaves who were in the service of ,athenian gentlemen 7874 ,this appendage to the ,greek family was a member of the household of her master where she was kept with the full knowledge of the wife1 the latter occupying a position little if any superior to that of her rival4 ,indeed1 as the purchased slave could be disposed of whenever the fancy or caprice of her master so dictated1 and another installed in her place1 it is reasonable to suppose that so long as she did remain1 she was the object of quite as much attention as was the wife4 ,the lowest class1 or those who were allowed the least freedom of action1 were those known as the dicteriades4 ,they were compelled to reside at a designated place1 and were forbidden to be seen upon the streets by day4 ,nothing of a personal nature was allowed to interfere with the duties which were imposed upon them by their imperious masters4 ,their only duty was to obey4 ,by this time we are prepared to appreciate1 to a certain extent1 the moral aspect of ,greek society during the years intervening between the age of ,solon and that of ,pericles1 a period of about a century and a half4 ,that all women1 wives and concubines1 native-born and foreign1 had been dragged to the lowest depths of disgrace and shame and that they were classified and arranged to meet the demands of those who through the unchecked tendencies inherent in the male nature had reached the lowest level of infamy to which it is possible for living creatures to descend1 are facts which are only too plainly shown by those whose duty it has been to record the events connected with the history of the ,greeks4 ,although under ,draco1 the predecessor of ,solon1 the political degradation of the citizens of ,greece may be said to have reached its height1 and although the uprising of the masses against the usurpation of power by the few marks an era in the history of the ,greeks1 it was not until the dawn of the ,periclean age that women had gained sufficient freedom to enable them to exercise any direct influence on thought1 or on the principles underlying human conduct4 ,we must bear in mind the fact that for five or six centuries the inferiority of women had been systematically and religiously taught4 ,ever since the rule of ,cecrops1 at which time doubtless the manner of reckoning descent began to be changed from the female to the male line1 woman's influence in ,athens had gradually declined4 ,the religio-physiological doctrine that in the office of reproduction the mother plays only an insignificant part had not only been proclaimed by ,apollo but had been sanctioned also by ,athene4 ,it is recorded of ,cecrops that 8he instituted marriage and established a new religion40 ,just here may be observed the key to the gradually declining position of the female element in the deity1 and to the finally accepted dogma that the female is inferior to the male4 ,through the private ownership of land and the consequent dependency of women upon men1 the way had been paved for this assumption--an assumption which had the effect to create in ,ionian men the supreme and lofty contempt for women which is observed throughout their literature and laws4 ,from the age of ,solon to that of ,pericles1 the overwhelming degree of superiority assumed by ,athenian men over women had uprooted in the former every vestige of restraint1 at the same time that it had deprived them of the last trace of that respect for womanhood which under earlier and more natural conditions had been entertained4 ,it has been frequently remarked that women took little or no part in the intellectual development of ,greece2 that during the most rapid progress of ,greek men1 there was no corresponding improvement in the position occupied by ,greek women4 ,from what is recorded relative to ,athenian women from the time of ,cecrops to that of ,solon1 one would scarcely expect to find them competing with men for the prizes of life4 ,later1 however1 that a considerable number of them did assert their independence1 and that1 defying the customs and traditions by which they were bound1 did prove themselves the equals of men1 may not be doubted4 ,there probably has never been a time since the dominion of man began when the more sensitive and better endowed among women have not secretly rebelled against the tyranny exercised over them1 and1 throughout the ages1 whenever an opportunity has been offered1 large numbers of these women1 have never failed to make known their discontent4 ,greek women were no exception to this rule4 ,their first step toward liberty was to free themselves from the galling chain imposed upon them by marriage1 a position in which1 as has been shown1 wives were simply household slaves1 tools of their imperious and degenerate masters4 ,greek women1 in the ,periclean age1 simply assumed the control of their persons and by so doing provoked the maledictions of future ages1 ages in which sensualism still reigned supreme4 ,for reasons which have already been explained1 the foremost women in ,greece1 and in fact all women who during the ,periclean age were engaged in art1 literature1 philosophy1 and statesmanship1 belonged to the class known as the hetairai1 a term which1 through the excessive growth or sensuality and superstition1 subsequently became a term of reproach4 ,whatever may have been the importance of the services rendered by these women to society1 such services would have been ignored1 or1 if not altogether ignored1 would have been reflected upon1 or appropriated by1 the opposite sex4 ,to say that the hetairai were free is equal to saying that they have been misunderstood1 hence the calumnies which for more than two thousand years have been heaped upon them4 ,that the hetairai of ,greece in the ,periclean age included a class of women who were the intellectual compeers of the ablest statesmen and philosophers is a fact which may not by those who have paid close attention to this subject be denied4 ,that they taught rhetoric and elocution1 that they lectured publicly and established schools of philosophy at the same time that they wielded a powerful influence on the state and on the drift of current thought are facts which medival scholasticism has not been able to conceal4 ,i think one may not investigate the various schools of philosophy which arose during the fourth and fifth centuries ,b4,c41 without noting the peculiarly altruistic principles involved in them1 and this1 too1 notwithstanding the fact that1 hitherto1 extreme selfishness or egoism had constituted the prevailing character observed in ,athenian society4 ,according to the principles of the ,cyrenaics1 the virtuous man is not necessarily he who is in the possession of pleasure but he who is able to proceed rightly in quest of pleasure4 8,virtue is the only possible and sane way to happiness40 ,the most eminent members of the ,cyrenaics were ,arete the daughter of ,aristippus and her son ,aristippus the younger1 surnamed the mother-taught4#bcb ,the fundamental doctrine of the ,cyrenes seems to have been that right-living or virtue constitutes the only good4 8,the essence of virtue lies in self-control4 ,enjoyment sought as an end is evil40 #bcb ,ueberweg1 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 i41 p4 #ie4 ,we are informed by ,ueberweg that there exists an early monograph on ,arete by ,j4 ,c4 ,eck 7,leipzig1 #aggf74 8,virtue is capable of being taught1 and when once acquired cannot be lost4 ,what is good is honourable1 and what is bad is disgraceful40 ,on examination it is found that one of the most eminent members of this school is ,hipparchia4 ,that she is not a mere listener1 imbibing the ideas of others1 is shown in the fact that she lectured publicly and argued strongly before the philosophers of ,athens4 ,the founder of the ,cynic school of philosophy is said to have been ,antisthenes1 the son of a ,thracian mother4 ,one of the sayings of this philosopher is1 that 8virtue is the same in a man as in a woman40#bcc #bcc ,diogenes ,lartius1 ,life of ,hipparchia4 ,that the question of the position of women was a theme for discussion in the age under consideration is shown in a 8sophism0 proposed by ,hipparchia to ,theodorus4 ,once when she went to sup with ,lysimachus1 she said to ,theodorus3 8,what ,theodorus could not be called wrong for doing1 that same thing ,hipparchia ought not to be called wrong for doing40#bcd #bcd ,diogenes ,lartius1 ,life of ,hipparchia1 iii4 ,when we take into consideration the fact that ,hipparchia was intimately associated with ,crates1 a man for whom she entertained the tenderest affection1 and when we remember that they were both engaged in teaching a philosophy which 8recognized virtue as the supreme end of life10 the conversation at the house of ,lysimachus between ,hipparchia and ,theodorus1 as set forth by ,diogenes ,lartius will be seen to admit of a different interpretation than that which commonly prevails4 ,of the ,epicureans it has been observed that they were a sort of ,pythagorean brotherhood1 consisting of both men and women4 ,the scandalous tongue of antiquity was never more virulent than it was in the case of ,epicurus1 but1 as far as we can judge1 the life of the ,garden joined to urbanity and refinement a simplicity which would have done no discredit to a ,stoic2 indeed1 the ,stoic ,seneca continually refers to ,epicurus not less as a model for conduct1 than as a master of sententious wisdom4 ,among the most distinguished members of this school were ,themistia1 to whom ,cicero refers in his speech against ,pisa as a 8sort of female ,solon10 and ,leontium1 who ventured to attack ,theophrastus in an essay characterized1 as we are assured1 by much elegance of style4#bce #bce ,mayor1 ,ancient ,philosophy1 pp4 #aha1 #ahb4 ,no school of philosophy arose in ,athens with which there was not closely connected the name of one or another of the illustrious women of the time4 ,zeno1 the founder of the ,stoic philosophy1 was the pupil of ,crates1 the companion of ,hipparchia4 ,aspasia was the 8clever preceptress of ,socrates10#bcf the sage who sat for the portrait of the ,stoic philosophy4 ,according to the ,stoic philosophy1 the supreme end of life is virtue1 i4 e41 8a life conformed to nature40 ,the degree of self-restraint taught by ,socrates is shown in the following lines3 #bcf ,athenus4 ,is it not the duty of every man to consider that temperance is the foundation of every virtue1 and to establish the observance of it in his mind before all things8 ,for who1 without it1 can either learn anything good1 or sufficiently practice it8 ,who1 that is a slave to pleasure1 is not in an ill condition both as to his body and his mind8 ,it appears to me1 by ,juno1 that a free man ought to pray that he may never meet with a slave of such a character1 and that he who is a slave to pleasure should pray to the gods that he may find well-disposed masters2 for by such means only can a man of that sort be saved4#bcg #bcg ,xenophon1 ,memorabilia of ,socrates4 ,when the ablest statesmen and the first philosophers of ,greece united in sounding the praises of ,alcibiades1 the genius of ,aspasia commanded equal recognition4 ,not only did ,socrates and ,pericles receive instruction and inspiration from this gifted woman1 but we are assured that she lectured publicly and that her 8acquaintances took their wives with them to hear her discourse40#bch ,indeed 8,pericles threw all ,greece into confusion on account of ,aspasia1 not the young one1 but that one who associated with the wise ,socrates40#bci #bch ,plutarch1 ,pericles4 #bci ,athenus1 book xiii4 ,it is not to be imagined that ,aspasia excelled in light and amorous discourses4 ,her discourses1 on the contrary1 were not more brilliant than solid4 ,it was believed by the most intelligent ,athenians1 and amongst them ,socrates himself1 that she composed the celebrated funeral oration pronounced by ,pericles in honour of those that were slain in the ,samian ,war4#bdj #bdj ,plutarch1 ,pericles4 ,it is recorded of her that many ,athenians resorted to her lecture-room on account of her skill in the art of speaking4 ,not only did she teach rhetoric1 philosophy1 and the proper relations of the sexes1 but so renowned was she for statesmanship that ,pericles is said to have surrendered to her the government of ,athens then at the height of its glory and renown4 ,on this subject ,plutarch remarks3 8,some1 indeed1 say that ,pericles made his court to ,aspasia only on account of her wisdom and political abilities40 ,it has been said that the expedition against the ,samians was merely to gratify ,aspasia4 ,the ,milesians and ,samians who had been at war were ordered to lay down their arms4 ,when they refused to obey1 ,pericles1 in company with ,aspasia1 sailed with a fleet to ,samos and abolished the oligarchical form of government4 ,although he was offered large sums of money1 he 8treated the ,samians in the manner he had resolved on2 and having established a popular government in the island1 he returned to ,athens40#bda #bda ,plutarch1 ,pericles4 ,plutarch1 quoting from schines1 says that ,lysicles1 who was 8of a mean1 ungenerous disposition1 by his intercourse with ,aspasia after the death of ,pericles1 became the most considerable man in ,athens40#bdb ,notwithstanding the scandalous reports which have come down to us of this woman's character1 in view of the facts which it has been impossible for sex-prejudice to conceal1 we are constrained to ask3 8,what manner of woman was this who was able to control statesmen1 impart instruction to world-renowned philosophers1 and leave a name which even bigotry1 envy1 and malice may not efface from the history of human events80 #bdb ,ibid4 ,in seeking for an explanation of the exalted character of ,aspasia1 we have something more than a hint in the fact that she is reported to have 8trod in the steps of ,thargelia10 a woman who by her exceeding brilliancy had gained the sovereignty of ,thessaly4 ,indeed1 we have found a key to the entire situation when we learn that this ,thargelia1 in whose steps ,aspasia trod1 8was descended from the ancient ,ionians10#bdc a people who1 originally worshipped the female principle1 and who still preserved the customs peculiar to the matriarchal system1 under which it will be remembered women1 as aliens1 did not follow the fathers of their children to their homes4 ,so soon as these facts are understood1 we are not in the least surprised to learn that ,aspasia discountenanced the institution of marriage as it existed in ,athens4 ,neither is it remarkable1 when we remember that the underlying principles involved in the philosophy which she taught were justice and equity1 that she should be found using her great influence1 as in the case of the ,milesians and ,samians1 in substituting democracies in the place of oligarchies2 nor that1 in an age when women had come to be regarded simply as the tools and slaves of men1 she should be found teaching the dignity of womanhood to her own sex1 and the principles of equality to males4 #bdc ,plutarch1 ,pericles4 ,according to ,xenophon1 ,aspasia's efforts were to a great extent directed to the duties of husbands and wives2 indeed1 her foremost object seems to have been to educate ,athenian women4 ,during the ,periclean age the position of women was one of the leading topics discussed in ,athens4 ,socrates says to his companions that he has been of the opinion 8of a long time that the female sex are nothing inferior to ours1 excepting only in strength of body or perhaps steadiness of judgment40#bdd ,the coarse picture painted by ,aristophanes1 of women with beards going in male attire to the agora1 8to seize the administration of the state so as to do the state some good10#bde although a vulgar attempt to ridicule the female philosophers of ,athens1 furnishes something more than a hint of the fact that the ideas subsequently set forth in ,plato's ,republic had been openly discussed by the philosophers of the ,periclean age4 #bdd ,xenophon1 ,banquet4 #bde ,ecclesiazus4 ,that the word hetairai was originally employed in no mean or compromising sense is plain1 since ,sappho uses it in the sense of 8female companion 77 of the same rank and the same interests40 ,we are assured that these women were able to preserve a friendship 8free from trickery40 ,of them even 8,cynulcus does not venture to speak ill40#bdf ,they 8of all women are the only ones who have derived their name from friendship or from that goddess who is named by the ,athenians ,venus ,hetra40#bdg #bdf ,athenus1 xiii4 #bdg ,ibid4 8,accordingly1 even to this day10 observes ,athenus1 8free-born women and maidens call their associates and friends their 2 as ,sappho does where she says3 ,and now with tuneful voice ,i'll sing ,these pleasing songs to my companions4 ,and in another place she says3 ,niobe and ,latona were of old ,affectionate companions to each other40#bdh #bdh ,athenus1 xiii4 ,that medival scholasticism has not been able wholly to obscure the greatness of the ,greek hetairai is shown by the declaration of a renowned writer of modern times who says3 8,of all the poets who have appeared on the earth ,sappho was undoubtedly the greatest40 ,notwithstanding the aspersions which have been cast upon the name and fame of the hetairai of ,greece1 it is doubtful if the intelligent women of the present age who carefully examine the shreds and remnants concerning them which have withstood the envy of mediocrity1 and the bigotry of scholasticism1 will be brought to believe that the excesses which are foreign to the female nature1 and which belong to ruder and less highly developed structures1 were practised by these gifted women4 ,we must bear in mind that the hetairai were free1 and therefore that they were able to direct their movements according to the natural characters developed within the female1--characters which it will be remembered are correlated with the maternal instinct4 ,the licentiousness1 not only of ,greek and ,roman women1 but of those in certain portions of ,asia as well1 has been the favourite theme of many writers of past ages2 more especially has the lewdness of ,lydian and ,babylonian women been noted and commented upon4 ,after referring to the annual sale of women in ,babylonia1 ,herodotus says that the people have lately hit upon a very different plan to save their maidens from violence1 and prevent their being torn from them and carried to distant cities1 which is to bring up their daughters to be courtesans4 ,this is now done by all the poorer of the common people1 who since the conquest have been maltreated by their lords1 and have had ruin brought upon their families4#bdi #bdi ,book i4 ,it is recorded that the various classes of 8kept women0 in ,greece were foreigners1 that they were either bought or captured from surrounding countries4 ,as in the case of the ,lydians and ,babylonians1 they were doubtless carried from their homes at a tender age after having been reared to their profession4 ,many of the maidens thus taken to ,greece subsequently became philosophers1 statesmen1 and scholars1 whereupon they abandoned their former calling4 ,lysias mentions the fact that ,philyra gave up her former course when she was still quite young1 8and so did ,scione1 and ,hippaphesis1 and ,theoclea1 and ,psamathe1 and ,lagisca1 and ,anthea40#bej #bej ,athenus1 book xiii4 ,as special mention is made of a woman who 8did not cease to live a prostitute when she began to learn philosophy10#bea we may reasonably infer that it was usual for these women to abandon the calling to which they had been born and bred1 so soon as from such teachers as ,aspasia and ,hipparchia they began to imbibe principles of self-respect and womanly independence4 #bea ,ibid41 book xiii4 ,from the position occupied by the hetairai it is evident that by the philosophers of ,greece1 they were regarded with that respect which is ever due to cultured womanhood2 indeed1 from the evidence at hand we may believe that they were the most highly honoured citizens in ,athens4 ,all women in ,greece who prostituted themselves were forbidden to take sacred names2 yet of ,nemeas1 ,athenus says3 8,and we may wonder how it was that the ,athenians permitted a courtesan to have such a name1 which was that of a most honourable and solemn festival40#beb #beb ,ibid41 book xiii4 ,of ,glycera it is related that ,harpalus issued an edict that no one should present him with a crown1 unless the donor at the same time presented one to her4 ,he erected a statue to her and permitted her to dwell in the palace of ,tarsus where he allowed her 8to receive adoration from the people02 he permitted her also to bear the title of ,queen1 and 8to be complimented with other presents which are only fit for your own mother and your own wife40#bec #bec ,athenus1 book xiii4 ,timotheus1 who was a general of very high repute in the ,athenian army1 was the son of a courtesan2 we are informed1 however1 that she was 8a courtesan of very excellent character40#bed ,the great ,themistocles is said to have been the son of ,abrotonum1 a 8courtesan40 #bed ,ibid41 book xiii4 ,it is recorded that in response to an order issued by the people1 ,praxiteles made a solid gold statue of one of the hetairai1 which was consecrated in the temple of ,delphi4 ,certainly the deathless models of ,greek art formed by ,praxiteles and ,phidias are not representations of coarse and sensualized womanhood4 ,that these women were a power in ,athens during the ,periclean age may not1 in view of the facts recorded in relation to them1 be disputed4 ,of them it has been said3 ,none but they could gather round them of an evening the choicest spirits of the day1 and elicit1 in the freedom of unrestrained intercourse1 wit and wisdom1 flashing fancy and burning eloquence4 ,what wonder that the hetairai should have filled so prominent a part in ,greek society6 ,and how small a compensation to virtuous women to know their rivals could not stand at the altar when sacrifice was offered1 could not give birth to a citizen4 ,in this acknowledgment of the exalted position occupied by the ,greek hetairai the author1 like most writers upon the subject of the sexual relations1 measures virtue not by its antithesis to vice1 but by the established masculine standards which have been set up for women to conform to4 ,a ,greek wife's life may have been one continuous scene of subjection to the lowest appetites of a master for whom she may have had not the least degree of respect or affection1 and who regarded her only in the light of an instrument for his convenience and pleasure2 still such an one would doubtless be accounted as a 8virtuous0 woman in contradistinction to one of the hetairai whose position enabled her to control her own person and who was able to exercise her own will-power in protecting it against the excesses of ,greek men4 ,it is evident that this class of women more than any other in ,greece was able to direct its movements and manage its activities1 and1 therefore1 if we bear in mind the characters correlated in the female constitution with the maternal instinct1 we may be assured that among the entire population of ,athens1 the lives of these women were the most pure and the least addicted to excesses4 ,aspasia1 the philosopher and statesman2 ,hipparchia1 practical professor of ,cynic philosophy and one of the most voluminous and esteemed writers of her time2 ,thargelia1 the ,milesian1 whom ,xerxes employed at the court of ,thessaly1 and many others scarcely less renowned1 prove that through the exercise of that personal freedom enjoyed by the hetairai1 women had at length risen to that position in which they were able to exert a powerful influence1 not only on the affairs of state1 but upon the intellectual development of the ,athenians and the entire world4 ,to say that these women have been written about in an age in which male power and male influence have been in the ascendency1 is to say that they have been misunderstood and their movements misinterpreted4 ,because of the efforts put forth by scholastics for two thousand years to belittle or annul the importance of the services rendered by the hetairai1 they will doubtless for some time continue to be judged not by their intellectual vigour nor by what they accomplished1 but by the social position into which1 through the exigencies of masculine domination1 they had been jostled4 ,the fact has been observed that less than two centuries prior to the age of ,aspasia and ,socrates1 ,solon had given to the calling of prostitution the sanction of religion and law2 that he had purchased a sufficient number of young slaves from surrounding countries to satisfy the demands of the men of ,greece2 and that he had made the calling of these girls a source of public revenue for which services he had received the title of 8,saviour of the ,state40 ,we would scarcely expect1 therefore1 to find chastity among the prominent virtues of the ,periclean age4 ,i wish to emphasize the fact that by the conditions of society at that time1 the class designated as hetairai1 although they were in a certain sense free1 were practically prevented1 no matter what may have been their natural inclinations or aspirations1 from rising to a higher plane of moral action1 and furthermore that the existing conditions were wholly the result of the supremacy gained by the lower propensities over the higher forces developed in human nature4 ,had these gifted women accepted the position of wife1 ignorance and seclusion would have been their portion1 while their sexual degradation would have been none the less complete or perfect2 indeed it would have been all the more intolerable1 for the reason that the degradation of their persons1 which in the position of hetairai was sued for as a privilege1 in the position of wife would have been claimed as a right4 ,by most writers upon this subject the fact seems to have been overlooked1 or1 if observed1 has not been acknowledged1 that licentiousness among women during a certain period of ,greek life1 about which so much has been written1 was governed wholly by the demands of their masters2 in fact1 throughout the history of mankind since the ascendency of the male over the female has been gained1 the class which has controlled the means of support1 and within which has resided all the power to direct the activities of women1 has ever regulated the supply of victims to be offered upon the altar of lust2 and in all these regulations may be observed such an adjustment of women's 8duties0 to the 8necessities0 of the male nature1 that no alternative has been left them but submission4 ,,chapter ,v ,,roman ,,law1 ,,roman ,,women1 ,,and ,,christianity ,the far-reaching results of the various schools of philosophy which rose in ,greece during the ,periclean age will be noted in this chapter4 ,that the principles involved in this philosophy may not have been formulated by the hetairai of ,athens is doubtless true1 yet that the inception and development of these principles were largely due to the freedom of these gifted women seems probable1 especially when we remember the conditions under which this philosophy arose4 ,a glance at the principles involved in the ,stoic philosophy will show its thoroughly altruistic character4 ,the sum of its tenets was to 8live according to nature's laws10 to subordinate one's self to the welfare of one's family1 one's country1 and the entire race1 and to 8rise above the gross indulgences and pleasures of the vulgar0 to higher laws of thought and action2 it taught that to be just1 and to live according to the dictates of reason rather than to be governed by the promptings of blind passion and the desire of the appetites1 should be not only the duty but the highest pleasure of mankind4 ,possibly some of the minor precepts of the ,stoic philosophy were absurd2 no doubt in their desire for reform1 its founders set up a canon of conduct which was severe and impracticable2 but its fundamental principles1 the subjection of the animal in man to the reasoning faculties1 as applied to future ,roman law1 ,roman civilization1 and ,roman character1 served to produce specimens of manhood which the women of all subsequent ages should delight to honour4 ,so long as virtue is applauded and moral greatness is exalted1 the enactments of the ,roman jurisconsults in the interest of women1 prior to1 and during the time of the ,antonine ,csars1 will stand forth throughout the ages as the one single movement1 during thousands of years1 toward the removal of the legal disabilities of women4 ,when we remember that the ,stoic philosophy took root and flourished during an age of unparalleled profligacy which was stimulated and encouraged by the example of the most opulent and luxurious personages among the ,greeks1 and at a time when licentiousness had for centuries been sanctioned by religion and upheld by laws made by the men of ,greece1 it is quite evident that some potent influence1 which had hitherto been unfelt1 had been in operation to produce it4 ,in order to understand the influence which the ,stoic philosophy exerted on civilization1 and especially on the legal position of women1 we must first understand its effect upon ,roman law4 ,an inquiry into the changes which had been wrought in ,roman jurisprudence at the time of the ,antonine ,csars1 by engrafting upon it the underlying principles contained in the ,stoic philosophy1 discloses the fact that the emancipation of women had been practically accomplished in ,rome4 ,perhaps there is no subject which at the present time possesses greater interest for inquiring women than that concerning the status of their sex under the older ,roman law2 for1 by an understanding of woman's legal status1 as fixed under this institution at a time when man had gained the summit of his power over her1 is furnished a key whereby may be unlocked many of the mysteries surrounding the still extant social and legal disabilities of women4 ,the thoroughly egoistic character of the principles underlying the older ,roman law has been noticed in a former portion of this work4 ,we have seen that in ,rome the father1 who was the sole representative of the family1 had drawn to himself not only all the authority over the child which under the earlier gentile organization of society had been acknowledged as belonging exclusively to the mother1 but1 ignoring individual liberty1 and all the principles of personal freedom which had been established under the matriarchal system1 had proclaimed himself absolute sovereign over all within the agnatic bond4 ,the divine oracle of ,apollo1 which had enunciated the doctrine that the soul of the child is derived from the father1 had at the same time declared that the mother has to do only with furnishing the body4 ,thus the father1 as ,creator1 became the household god2 his authority1 as we have seen1 being supreme even to the exercise of the power of life and death over its members4 ,under ancient law1 the father1 as head of the household1 really constituted the family1 the remaining members being merely ciphers which1 from the peculiar position in which they were placed1 were without significance except as vassals under the strictest tutelage of their master4 ,under this august system of father-worship1 males as well as females had become enslaved4 ,the bondage of men1 however1 differed somewhat from the 8perpetual tutelage of women10 in the fact that they themselves in time might become heads of families1 and in that imperial position to assume the same authority and dominion over others as had been exercised over them4 ,women1 however1 could never become heads of families1 and therefore could never hope to be free4 ,so long as they remained single they were under the tutelage of their blood-relations1 or were subject to the authority of some individual whom the father1 before his death1 might choose to appoint over them as guardian4 ,thus arose the law known as the ,perpetual ,tutelage of ,women4 ,upon this subject ,sir ,henry ,maine says3 ,ancient law subordinates the woman to her blood-relations1 while a prime phenomenon of modern jurisprudence has been her subordination to her husband4 ,the history of the change is remarkable4 ,it begins far back in the annals of ,rome4 ,anciently1 there were three modes in which marriage might be contracted according to ,roman usage1 one involving a religious solemnity1 the other two the observance of certain secular formalities4 ,by the religious marriage of ,confarreation2 by the higher form of civil marriage1 which was called ,coemption2 and by the lower form1 which was termed ,usus1 the husband acquired a number of rights over the person and property of his wife1 which were on the whole in excess of such as are conferred on him in any system of modern jurisprudence4 ,but in what capacity did he acquire them8 ,not as ,husband1 but as ,father4 ,by the ,confarreation1 ,coemption1 and ,usus1 the woman passed in manum viri--that is1 in law she became the ,daughter of her husband4 ,she was included in his ,patria ,potestas4 ,she incurred all the liabilities springing out of it while it subsisted1 and surviving it when it had expired4 ,all her property became absolutely his and she was retained in tutelage after his death to the guardian whom he had appointed by will4#bee #bee ,ancient ,law1 p4 #adi4 ,on this subject of male supremacy in the family ,mr4 ,maine remarks3 ,the foundation of ,agnation is not the marriage of ,father and ,mother1 but the authority of the ,father4 ,all persons are ,agnatically bound together who are under the same ,paternal ,power1 or who have been under it1 or who might have been under it if their lineal ancestor had lived long enough to exercise his empire4#bef #bef ,ancient ,law1 p4 #add4 ,under this bond would be united all the children belonging to the head of the household and all the descendants of the sons1 but not of the daughters2 the daughters' children under this manner of reckoning descent belonged to the families of their respective fathers4 ,although under this system a man might adopt a stranger into his family1 and invest him with all the rights and privileges appertaining thereunto1 no descendant of a daughter could claim any of the rights of agnation4 ,under ,hindu law1 which is saturated with the primitive notions of family dependency1 in the genealogies1 the names of women are omitted altogether4 ,we are assured by ,mr4 ,maine that the exclusion of women from governmental functions certainly had its origin in agnation4 ,thus it is seen that paternity had come to involve the idea of a supreme ruler or potentate1 and that the overshadowing predominance of the male over the female had paved the way to the future worship of one all-powerful male deity4 ,we have seen that the principles involved in the ,stoic philosophy were justice1 equality1 and the subjection of the appetites to the dictates of reason and conscience4 ,so soon as ,greece was subjugated by ,rome1 the ablest of the ,romans espoused the principles embodied in this philosophy1 and notably among those who became interested in its tenets were the ,roman lawyers1 who began immediately to reconstruct the civil law upon the principles underlying this system4 ,that it is only through a return to the archaic and natural principles of justice and right living1 the acknowledgment of which at once establishes the proper relations of the sexes1 that women may ever hope to be free1 is plain to all those who have given attention to this subject4 ,this fact was evidently observed by the ,roman lawyers who1 through the persistency with which only those labour who are engaged in establishing a principle1 had so far succeeded in overcoming the prejudice against sex as to have established a legal code wherein was practically recognized the equality of women with men4 ,doubtless the ,romans were as tenacious of their ancient customs1 prejudices1 and long-established privileges as have been the people of any other country2 hence we may perhaps form a faint idea of the obstacles which presented themselves1 and of the devices which must have been resorted to by ,roman jurists in an endeavour to remove the existing legal restrictions upon the liberties of women4 ,mr4 ,maine informs us that ,gaius1 a celebrated jurist who lived in the age of the ,antonine ,csars1 devoted an entire volume to descriptions of the ingenious expedients devised by ,roman lawyers to evade the letter of the ancient law1 and that it was through this source that the fact finally became known that in the age of the ,antonine ,csars the legal disabilities of women had been practically annulled4 ,from the facts at hand it is observed that the object of the ,roman lawyers was to frame an edictal jurisprudence which should supersede the older law1 or which in effect should annul its power4 ,we are informed that the prtor was not only the chief equity judge1 but that he was also the common-law magistrate4 ,so soon1 therefore1 as the edict had passed through the necessary formalities enabling it to become a law1 the prtor's court began to apply it in place1 or by the side of the civil law1 8which was directly or indirectly repealed without any express enactment of legislation40 ,in reference to the legal status of women in the age of the ,antonine ,csars1 ,henry ,maine observes3 8,led by their theory of natural law1 the jurisconsults had at this time assumed the equality of the sexes as a principle of their code of equity40#beg #beg ,ancient ,law1 p4 #adi4 ,although the seed1 sown in ,greece during the ,periclean age when conveyed to ,rome1 produced a golden harvest1 the fact will doubtless be remembered that the ,roman lawyers had but just completed their work of establishing the legal equality of the sexes when the agencies which for years had been at work to destroy the ,empire culminated2 and finally1 when ,christianity1 in the person of ,constantine ascended the throne1 the results of four centuries of civilization were destroyed1 or for more than sixteen hundred years were practically annulled4 ,regarding the changes which had been wrought in the legal status of women in the age of the ,antonine ,csars1 we are informed that whereas under the older ,roman law a woman at marriage came under the ,patria ,potestas of her husband1 under the later law1 as influenced by the principles involved in the ,stoic philosophy1 she remained as a member of her own family1 or was placed under the protection of a guardian appointed by her parents1 whose jurisdiction over her1 although superior to that of her husband1 was not such as to interfere with her personal liberty2 thus1 the same as under matriarchal usages1 the situation of the ,roman woman1 whether married or single1 was one of great influence4 ,of this freedom exercised by women in the time of the ,antonine ,csars1 ,mr4 ,maine remarks3 ,but ,christianity tended somewhat from the very first to narrow this remarkable liberty4444 ,the latest ,roman ,law1 so far as it is touched by the ,constitutions of the ,christian ,emperors1 bears some marks of a reaction against the liberal doctrines of the great ,antonine jurisconsults4 ,and the prevalent state of religious sentiment may explain why it is that modern jurisprudence1 forged in the furnace of barbarian conquest1 and formed by the fusion of ,roman jurisprudence with patriarchal usage1 has absorbed1 among its rudiments1 much more than usual of those rules concerning the position of women which belong peculiarly to an imperfect civilization4#beh #beh ,ancient ,law1 p4 #aej4 ,concerning the influence of ecclesiasticism on that portion of ,roman jurisprudence relating particularly to women1 ,mr4 ,lecky observes3 ,wherever the canon law has been the basis of legislation1 we find laws of succession sacrificing the interests of daughters and of wives1 and a state of public opinion which has been formulated and regulated by these laws4 ,by means of a formulated ecclesiastical jurisprudence the complete inferiority of the sex was maintained1 and that generous public opinion1 which in ,rome had frequently rebelled against the injustice done to girls in depriving them of the greater portion of the inheritance of their fathers1 totally disappeared4 ,in comparing the ,roman law with the canon or ecclesiastical code1 the same writer says that the pagan laws during the ,empire were constantly repealing the old disabilities of women2 but that it was the aim of the canon law to substitute enactments which should entail on the female sex the greatest personal restrictions and the most stringent subordination4#bei #bei ,european ,morals1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ceh4 ,those who have paid attention to the history of the ,english ,common ,law1 which forms the basis of our present system of jurisprudence1 and who have noted the part played by ecclesiasticism in fixing the status of women therein1 will not be surprised at the attitude which the so-called ,christian ,church has assumed toward women4 ,referring to the ,common ,law1 an able writer has said3 ,this imperishable specimen of human sagacity is1 strange to say1 so grossly unjust toward women that a great writer upon that code has well observed that in it women are regarded not as persons but as things2 so completely were they stripped of all their rights1 and held in subjection to their proud and imperious masters4#bfj #bfj ,buckle's ,essays4 ,it has been remarked that in no one particular does the canon law depart so widely from the spirit of secular jurisprudence as in the view it takes of the relations created by marriage4 ,although the leaven of civilization preserved from ,roman institutions was the codified jurisprudence of ,justinian1 as the chapter of law relating to women was read by the light of canon law1 the altruistic principles which had characterized the later ,roman code soon became extinct4 ,upon this subject ,mr4 ,maine remarks3 ,this was in part inevitable since no society which preserves any tincture of ,christian institutions is likely to restore to married women the personal liberty conferred on them by the middle ,roman law4 ,and this is doubtless true for the reason that the entire ,christian superstructure rests on the dogma of female weakness and female depravity4 ,the doctrine of ,original ,sin1 which depends entirely on the story of the fruit-tree of ,genesis being taken in a literal sense1 had by canonists been accepted4 ,on her first appearance upon the scene of action1 woman is labouring under a curse pronounced upon her by an all-powerful male ,god for the mischief she had wrought on innocent man2 it is only reasonable1 therefore1 that human law should unite with the divine decree in establishing her complete and final degradation2 hence1 the return to the ancient ,hindu law and the older ,roman code for models of legislation concerning her4 ,on this subject ,mr4 ,maine remarks3 ,i do not know how the operation and nature of the ancient ,patria ,potestas can be brought so vividly before the mind as by reflecting on the prerogatives attached to the husband by the pure ,english ,common ,law1 and by recalling the rigorous consistency with which the view of a complete legal subjection on the part of the wife is carried by it1 where it is untouched by equity or statutes1 through every department of rights1 duties1 and remedies4#bfa #bfa ,ancient ,law1 p4 #aed4 ,,note4--,as the position of women among the early ,german hordes was one of great dignity and respect1 it may scarcely be argued that the sentiments embodied in the ,english ,common ,law relative to wives were in any degree the result of innate ,teutonic prejudice against the female sex4 _/ ,notwithstanding the efforts which for several centuries were put forth in ,rome to secure to women that independence which under the earlier ,roman law had been denied them1 in the code of ,justinian1 which was compiled in the early part of the sixth century1 no word respecting the remarkable degree of liberty which under the later ,roman law was accorded to women appears2 and but for the discovery of the manuscript of ,gaius1 to which reference has already been made1 we would never have become acquainted with the changes which had been wrought in this particular branch of ,roman jurisprudence4 ,in the ,justinian code1 instead of the humane edicts of the later1 or middle ,roman law1 appeared the ,canon or ecclesiastical law1 by means of which women were condemned to a state of servitude even more degrading than that which had been imposed on them by the older law4 ,had medival scholasticism succeeded in concealing from the world the information contained in the manuscript of ,gaius1 still there would have remained sufficient evidence left to prove that in the second century of the present era woman's freedom had been practically won4 ,that women themselves were claiming absolute legal equality with men may not be doubted4 ,honoria1 a ,roman matron1 first enunciated the principle3 ,taxation without representation is tyranny4#bfb ,cato's celebrated oration in which he passionately exclaims3 ,if you allow your women to be your equals how long will it be before they become your superiors8#bfc shows that a certain type of men were becoming alarmed over the growing independence of women4 #bfb ,roman ,history4 ,appian1 ,london1 #aiac4 #bfc ,the ,history of ,rome4 ,titus ,livius1 p4 #agb4 ,the freeing of women from the bondage entailed on them by the older ,roman law1 an achievement which had required more than three centuries to accomplish1 was a triumph for civilization unparalleled during the historic period4 ,that this triumph over tyranny was of short duration is shown in the sequel to this movement4 ,that the coming of ,jesus at a time when the principles of justice and equality were becoming the recognized rule of life among the better class of ,romans is not surprising4 ,no one may study ,greek philosophy without noting the similarity between it and the teachings of ,christ4 ,justice1 self-restraint1 and regard for the rights and feelings of others1 principles which when applied to ,roman law had liberated women from the tyranny of the past1 were also the principles taught by ,jesus4 ,it seems to have been the mission of the latter to convey these lofty doctrines to the multitude4 ,do unto others as you would have others do unto you was not however understood by the masses who knew no other rule of life than that of selfishness and ungoverned lust4 ,hence in process of time the new movement came to have no other effect than to add to the already established evils another quite as contemptible1 namely--hypocrisy4 ,among the earliest ,christians theological disputes were unknown4 ,original sin and the doctrine of a vicarious atonement whereby a man is 8saved0 not from sin but from the penalty for sin were unheard of4 ,to spread the simple principles enunciated by ,jesus and by so doing to kindle into life the divine spark in man1 seem to have constituted the object and aim of the earliest ,christians4 ,the activities necessary for the propagation of these principles were shared alike by both sexes4 ,women exhorted1 prophesied1 and prayed in the churches4 ,they baptized their own sex4 ,one of them wrote a gospel which1 so long as woman's influence continued1 was in use among the ,christians4 ,such were the conditions when ,paul1 a ,jew who had espoused the new religion1 first appeared on the scene4 ,an extant legend describes this man as small in stature and of ignoble bearing4 ,according to this legend ,paul was bald-headed and bow-legged4 ,as to his intellectual ability we have the following ,corinthians x41 #aj3 8,for his letters they were weighty and strong but his speech is of no account40 ,it is elsewhere recorded of him that 8his speech was contemptible40 ,from what is known of this man ,paul it is evident that he was domineering1 self-sufficient1 and aggressive4 ,he quarrelled with ,peter and was intolerant of the ideas of his associates4 ,his forceful character1 his untiring energy1 his zeal for the cause which he had espoused and above all his capacity for organization soon gained for him the leadership of the new movement4 ,nowhere is it recorded that during the earlier years of ,paul's ,christian career he attempted to discourage1 or curtail1 the activities of women4 ,on the contrary he refers to them as co-workers1 acknowledges them as prophets1 and praises their ministrations4 ,in his writings1 the name of ,priscilla occurs many times4 ,phbe1 ,claudia1 ,julia and others are regarded as worthy of mention by him4 ,as his influence and power increased1 however1 his egoism began to assert itself4 ,it is evident that ,paul's strong masculine nature could no longer tolerate a religion which might with some degree of consistency be regarded as a feminine movement4 ,the old doctrine enunciated by ,apollo during the reign of ,cecrops namely that man is a divine emanation while woman is only human must be revived4 ,the following from ,paul's writings shows that his aim was to crush the influence and power exercised by women1 and the means employed was to subject them to the dominion of their husbands4 ,the head of every man is ,christ2 and the head of every woman is the man and the head of ,christ is ,god4 ,for the man is not of the woman but the woman of the man4 ,neither was the man created for the woman but the woman for the man4 ,let your women keep silence in the churches1 for it is not permitted unto them to speak but they are commanded to be under obedience4 ,and if they would learn anything let them ask their husbands at home4 ,that women were no longer to be the equals and companions of their husbands but that they were to become sexual slaves is indicated by the command1 8,wives subject yourselves unto your husbands40 ,it must be remembered that these commands of ,paul were not1 as has been frequently asserted1 delivered to and about weak1 ignorant women devoid of influence1 but were directed against those whose position of equality in the new religion had not before been questioned1 and whose legal disabilities had at that time been well-nigh removed4 ,before the close of the second century1 the simple1 ethical teachings of ,jesus were forgotten4 ,christianity had disappeared and ,paulism had taken its place4 ,a century later1 after the ,empire had come under the control of so-called ,christian rule1 woman's influence1 as we have already seen1 entirely disappeared4 ,all that had been gained by means of the middle ,roman law had been annulled by the decrees of the ,canon law4 ,pauline ,christianity in the fourth century ,a4,d4 was an attempt to re-establish that form of ,paganism which had prevailed prior to the rise of ,greek philosophy4 ,this older religion1 which had its origin in ,sun worship1 or in the worship of the two fecundating principles throughout nature1 had as early as the ,periclean age ceased to claim the attention of the educated classes among the ,greeks4 schylus barely escaped being stoned to death for heresy1 and as is well known1 ,socrates the founder of the ,stoic philosophy was forced to drink of the fatal cup because of his unbelief in the prevailing superstitions4 ,not to destroy ,paganism itself but to exterminate the last vestige of ,greek philosophy was the task which the ,pauline ,christians had set themselves to perform4 ,jesus now became the new ,solar ,deity and all the forms observed under the older ,paganism were now attached to his worship4 ,he was born at the winter solstice1 or at the time when the sun had reached its zenith and was about to return4 ,he died and was buried1 but at the vernal equinox1 ,easter1 the time at which all nature is revived--he arose from the dead and became the ,saviour of mankind4 ,the entire ,christian calendar is copied from the ancient ,pagan worship4 ,a medal was struck on which appeared the figure of a man on a cross1 on the obverse side of which was the representation of a blazing sun4 ,christ was the new ,sun of ,righteousness1 the giver and preserver of life4 ,every page in the history of the ,pauline religion reveals its masculine origin4 ,the ,deities worshipped are a ,father and a ,son4 ,all the angels and archangels are men4 ,all extant ,gospels and ,epistles have been written and expounded by men4 ,it is true that in response to a popular demand in the fifth century for a recognition of the female principle1 the ,virgin ,mary1 an ancient ,deity1 reappeared4 ,the lateness of her coming1 however1 shows that she was an afterthought4 ,moreover1 it must be borne in mind that1 true to the ancient doctrine which was revived by ,paul relative to the divinity of man and the material nature of woman1 the ,mother of ,jesus was human while the ,father and the ,son were divine4 ,she was matter4 ,they were spirit4 ,among the discussions of the early ,pauline 8,fathers0 none was more important than these4 ,ought women to be allowed to learn the alphabet8 ,and has woman a soul8 ,it is recorded that a few of these pious leaders entertained the opinion that because of the great power and goodness of the ,almighty 8women may possibly be permitted to rise as men at the resurrection40 ,as we have seen1 to destroy ,greek philosophy was the slogan of the new movement4 ,the destruction of the ,alexandrian library by a fanatical mob led by ,archbishop ,theophilus is an example of the fury with which all institutions not directly connected with the new religion were attacked4 ,as is well known1 this library contained the accumulated knowledge of a highly civilized people1 extending over a period of several thousands of years4 ,among the priceless treasures stored in this library were the records of astronomical observations scientifically registered during a period of not less than three thousand years4 ,the lectures delivered by ,hypatia in ,alexandria during the latter part of the fourth century were the last attempt made to stem the tide of fanaticism which was destined to sweep over a large portion of the habitable globe4 ,the fate of ,hypatia who was foully murdered by a mob led by ,st4 ,cyril was a forecast of the fate which awaited any and all who should henceforth dare to think or act independently of the new religion4 ,when ,greek philosophy was no longer taught1 the principles of equality and liberty which had been incorporated into the middle ,roman law were annulled or practically forgotten2 and when the doctrine of woman's inferiority and total depravity became crystallized not only in religion but in law and in all the customs of the time1 women sank to a degree of degradation never before witnessed in the history of mankind4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,renaissance ,if the theory that the higher faculties and the moral sense originated in the female and that these qualities are by her transmitted to offspring1 then the conditions existing in the first half of the sixteenth century are easily explained2 or if1 as is clearly proved by the facts brought out by scientists1 woman represents the constructive and combining element in human society without which organized society would have been impossible1 the degeneracy observed after thirteen hundred years during which time women were wholly without influence and power is exactly what might be expected4 ,indeed it is not singular that with the disintegrating or destructive forces in command over the conserving or constructive elements that war and religion should have become the business of the world and that a state of society should have prevailed which was in strict accord with these conditions4 ,however1 that the constructive element was not dead is shown by the mental and moral unrest which began to manifest itself in the latter half of the sixteenth century4 ,women began to learn the alphabet and in a weak way to demand concessions hitherto denied them4 ,many men of genius who like the jurisconsults of ,rome had not been submerged by the degeneracy of their time defied their persecutors and secretly promulgated the scientific theories which were to revolutionize human thought4 ,the demand for freedom of conscience and for the release of the intellect and reason from the domination of bigotry and superstition constituted one of the first steps toward reform4 ,galileo1 ,bruno1 ,copernicus1 and ,harvey are notable examples of the revolt against the intellectual tyranny which prevailed4 ,it is not a little singular that at this time the throne of ,england was occupied by a woman and that her reign should have been the most brilliant that that country has ever enjoyed4 ,it has frequently been said that the success of ,elizabeth's reign was due not to her greatness but to that of the statesmen whom she called about her4 ,but even were this true1 which it is not1 it would not detract from her greatness4 ,the innate qualities developed within ,queen ,elizabeth1 namely genius and intuition1 can alone explain the brilliancy of her reign4 ,it is to be doubted if the progressive principle has ever been wholly dead4 ,that even during the darkest period of the ,middle ,ages the constructive element was still alive in ,europe is shown in the fact that as early as the year #abae the idea of individual human liberty had already been formulated4 ,in the ,magna ,charta wrested from ,king ,john at ,runnymede appears the following3 ,no freeman shall be taken or imprisoned or dispossessed or outlawed or banished1 or in any way destroyed1 nor will we go upon him or upon him send except by the legal judgment of his peers1 or by the law of the land4 ,to no one will we sell2 to no one will we deny or delay right or justice4 ,although a few attempts were made during the sixteenth century to better the conditions of the masses of the people1 as all the institutions for the perpetuation of the slavery of the masses were firmly established1 little was accomplished in this direction4 ,that reforms move slowly is shown in the fact that as late as the beginning of the nineteenth century of the ,christian era1 the greater portion of the human race was in a state of bondage4 ,slavery existed in every quarter of the globe4 ,in ,russia1 in #ahee1 there were forty-eight millions of serfs1 and in ,austria and ,prussia the peasantry were nearly all slaves4 ,in ,hungary nine millions of human beings belonged to a subject class4 ,although no slaves were owned in ,england1 slavery still existed in her colonies4 ,in the ,west ,indies the whip was freely used1 and prior to the year #ahbj no voice had been raised against the flogging of women on the plantations4 ,in ,scotland1 down to the last year of the eighteenth century1 colliers and salters were slaves and bound to their service for life1 being bought and sold with the works at which they laboured4 ,although ,america had put down the slave-trade1 she still owned slaves1 and continued to traffic in them until the year #ahfc4 ,the history of legislation during the historic period shows that it has ever been in the interest of the rich against the poor1 the strong against the weak4 ,in ,france1 at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 liberty was extinct4 8,the rich man could purchase for money the power to destroy those whom he hated40#bfd #bfd ,robert ,mackenzie1 ,the ,nineteenth ,century1 p4 #i4 ,the lawmakers of the age which we are considering were gentlemen landowners1 and as such were able to exercise their cupidity in a degree which precluded all idea of justice to the poorer classes4 ,the abuses of government1 the corn-laws1 the enormous tax on salt and on the various necessities of life1 show somewhat of the extent to which the poor were systematically robbed by the rich4 ,the law passed in #acej1 at ,bannockburn1 regulating the movements of the ,british workingmen1 and which prohibited combinations among them1 was in force until #ahbd4 ,the evident object of this law was to repress the labourer and deprive him of his just earnings4 ,although this enactment was known to be oppressive1 the working-classes were not possessed of sufficient influence to cause its repeal4 ,in ,england1 women with their children worked in coal pits1 and in the darkness1 on hands and feet1 dragged about wagons fastened to their waists by chains4 ,of this ,mr4 ,mackenzie says3 ,children of six were habitually employed4 ,their hours of labour were fourteen to sixteen daily4 ,the horrors among which they lived induced disease and early death4 ,law did not seem to reach to the depths of a coal-pit1 and the hapless children were often mutilated and occasionally killed with perfect impunity by the brutalized miners among whom they laboured4 ,there was no machinery to drag the coals to the surface1 and women climbed long wooden stairs with baskets of coal upon their backs4 ,in the factories1 also1 as late as #ahcb children of six years of age worked from thirteen to fifteen hours daily4 ,if they fell asleep they were flogged4 ,sometimes through exhaustion they fell upon the machinery and were injured--possibly crushed1--an occurrence which caused little concern to any except the mothers1 who had learned to bear their pangs in silence4 ,these children1 who were stunted in size and disposed to various acute diseases1 were also scrofulous and consumptive4 ,in #ahcb the recruiting surgeon could find no men to suit his purpose in the manufacturing districts4 ,throughout ,europe1 the prevailing idea concerning the management of criminals seems to have been vengeance4 ,one would scarcely believe1 except on trustworthy authority1 that at the beginning of the nineteenth century the ,english criminal law recognized #bbc capital offences4 ,indeed1 so strong was the feeling in favour of severity that ,edmund ,burke said he could obtain the assent of the ,house of ,commons to any law imposing the penalty of death4 ,if one shot a rabbit he was hanged2 if he injured ,westminster ,bridge he was hanged2 if he appeared disguised on a public road he was hanged1 and so on4 ,the hanging of small groups was a common occurrence--children of ten years being sometimes among the condemned4#bfe #bfe ,robert ,mackenzie1 ,the ,nineteenth ,century1 p4 #gg4 ,a visit to the ,five-,sided ,tower in ,nuremberg1 in which are still preserved various instruments of human torture1 will give an idea of the extreme cruelty practised upon political offenders and heretics a century ago4 ,the 8,holy ,alliance0 of ,austria1 ,prussia1 and ,russia1 which was formed ostensibly to insure peace and establish justice1 but which in reality was entered into to suppress free speech1 check the growing liberties of the people1 and strengthen the belief in the 8divine right of kings10 shows the obstacles which had to be overcome before any principle of justice and humanity could take root4 ,the history of industrial and economic conditions since the beginning of the eighteenth century is largely the history of the common people4 ,the change from the ,feudal system to that of the wage-earning rgime may not1 as far as the working class is concerned1 be regarded as an unmixed blessing4 ,under ,feudalism the 8lord of the soil0 was responsible for the maintenance and well-being of his vassals1 while under the wage system the 8captains of industry0 assume no such responsibility4 ,if the labourer chooses to accept the terms offered well and good1 if he refuses he may starve2 it is a matter of no concern to the employer1 for1 are there not plenty of labourers who stand ready to take his place8 ,that the labourer was no less a slave under the wage-earning system than he had been under ,feudalism is shown in the fact that under the first named as well as under the latter he had not the right of free contract4 ,he must take what was offered him or starve4 ,as is well known the repression of the mental activities and the low physical condition which for more than thirteen centuries had prevailed1 prevented the seed sown in the sixteenth century from taking root among the masses of the people4 ,their instincts were those of the slave and two centuries were required to waken them from their lethargy4 ,finally1 however1 even among the class mentioned the constructive forces began to assert themselves4 ,free thought and to a certain extent free speech were established4 ,with the further development of liberal ideas a belief in the ,divine ,right of ,kings and in the principles underlying monarchial institutions became somewhat weakened4 ,a few attempts were even made to establish republics4 ,because of the glimmering light of scientific truth put forth in the sixteenth century1 ecclesiastical authority was no longer supreme4 ,although many important steps had been taken to free men from the thraldom of the past1 so firmly had the idea of woman's inferiority been established that no thought of including her in the new rgime was ever entertained4 ,justice1 equality1 and liberty are subjects upon which man descants loudly and long4 ,he talks glibly of his free institutions and even designates a number of his one-sided governments as republics1 and this too notwithstanding the fact that women are still denied representation in the governments to which they owe allegiance1 and that a large proportion of men are still within the grasp of economic slavery2 all of which shows the extent to which the moral sense and the judgment have been dwarfed by prejudice and selfishness4 ,democracy is still a meaningless term--an ideal yet to be realized4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century such were the conditions surrounding women that an attempt on their part to extricate themselves from their legal and social bondage would have proved utterly futile4 ,at that time women had practically no legal rights2 even the right to control their own bodies was denied them4 ,as woman was dependent upon man for support her sex-functions were controlled by him and the children which she bore belonged exclusively to him4 ,he constituted the family--wife and children did not count4 ,to a considerable extent these conditions still prevail4 ,masculine law1 masculine religion1 and masculine ideas concerning the duties and uses of the female sex had made of woman a nondescript--a creature neither male nor female4 ,her mental constitution had become atrophied1 the diluted reflections of men's opinions having been substituted for the natural feminine instincts and ideas4 ,among the great mass of women the original feminine type had disappeared4 ,in process of time1 however1 women began slowly to awaken from the hideous nightmare which threatened to destroy the last remaining vestige of the instincts and ideas peculiar to the female constitution4 ,in the beginning of the nineteenth century some of the educational advantages enjoyed by men began to be appropriated by women4 ,thus began the unrest which now extends over the entire earth4 ,about seventy years ago a movement was started by women to secure for themselves the right to self-government4 ,immediately all the prejudice which characterizes a sex-aristocracy was aroused4 ,ridicule1 calumny1 and even personal abuse were directed against all those who were intelligent enough or fearless enough to stem the tide of popular indignation4 ,for forty years1 little or no progress was made toward securing the right of self-government for women4 ,as late as #ahgj a woman who openly avowed herself a suffragist was regarded not only as 8bold and unwomanly0 but as a dangerous person4 ,the most strenuous opposition to the movement came from the clergy and the flocks over which they presided4 ,whenever church women were asked to consider the question of the equality of the sexes their unvarying reply was3 8,my bible forbids it40 ,now that the history of ,pauline ,christianity is better understood its attitude toward the freedom of women needs no further explanation4 ,when the then existing mental conditions are recalled and especially when the religious prejudices of the time are considered the attitude manifested toward the proposed enfranchisement of women is not perhaps remarkable4 ,although forty years ago biological science was in its infancy enough facts had at that time been discovered clearly to indicate the position which ,nature intended woman to occupy4 ,by the scientists of that time1 however1 the logical and unavoidable inferences to be drawn from these facts were wholly ignored4 ,during the ages of man's undisputed supremacy so deeply rooted had the idea of woman's inferiority become that these newly discovered facts concerning her development could not be accepted--the old prejudices could not at once be uprooted4 ,we have already observed that whenever and wherever ,mr4 ,darwin and other scientists of his time felt called upon to compare the relative importance of men and women such comparison has invariably been to the disadvantage of the latter and this too notwithstanding the fact that the evidence which they themselves have elaborated warrants no such conclusions4 ,forty years ago the doctrine that woman has no independent existence1 but that she is simply an appendage to man1 was everywhere accepted and taught not only by ecclesiastics but by scientists as well4 ,woman was only a 8rib0 taken from the side of man4 ,none of the doctrines elaborated for the guidance of women was so explicit as those relating to the duties of wives4 ,the cause for this is obvious4 ,earlier in this work the fact has been noted that our present form of marriage originated in force--that no other principle was involved in it than coercion on the one side and unwilling submission on the other4 ,so long as the original idea underlying marriage is retained1 or so long as woman is recognized as the property of her husband and subject to his control1 no matter what may be achieved by individual women1 the belief in the inferiority of women as a class will continue4 ,in other words so long as women remain economic slaves dependent upon their husband for support so long will their status remain unchanged4 8,she is my goods1 my chattels1 my household stuff40 ,there are in this country at the present time more than nine millions of women engaged in earning their own livelihood4 ,many of these women have families dependent upon them for support4 ,the disadvantages under which they labour are realized when we remember that their competitors are their political and economic superiors and are therefore able to a considerable extent to dictate the conditions under which these women work2 yet notwithstanding these unfavourable conditions this change in woman's environment represents an important step in the evolutionary processes4 ,by it women are learning that only through independence is self-respect possible4 ,we have already seen that whenever during the historic period1 women have had an opportunity to rise they have never failed to rebel against the conditions imposed upon them4 ,the women of ,athens during the ,periclean age1 the ,spartan women under ,lycurgus1 and the women of ,rome during the time of the ,antonine ,csars are notable examples of this fact4 ,even the ,chinese women are claiming the right to govern themselves4 ,in these later years they are unbinding their feet and in other ways are defying the forces which in the past have prevented them from asserting their independence4 ,the various examples of revolt among women have hitherto been carried on by single nations or by countries widely separated from one another4 ,at the present time1 however1 the women of the entire world have risen to demand the freedom of their sex4 ,however much those who favour the subjection of women may deplore this movement even the most stupid among them will surely not fail to recognize its importance4 ,the history of human society during the last four hundred years has for the most part been a struggle between the constructive elements developed in human society and the destructive or disintegrating forces which are the result of the unchecked egoism or selfishness developed in man during the ages in which woman has been subject to his will4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,conclusion ,scientific investigation has proved the great age of the earth and the enormous length of time which has elapsed since the first appearance of human beings upon its surface4 ,concerning the career of man during the countless millions of years which followed his advent upon the earth1 little is known down to a comparatively recent time--a time commonly designated as the historic period4 ,when considering the past one is inclined to ask the question3 8,does the history of mankind represent an unbroken line of progress1 or1 on the contrary1 does it reflect a series of alternating periods of development and decay80 ,we have observed that in recent times through the study of tribes and races in the various stages of development much has been learned concerning the origin of organized society and the development of human institutions4 ,we have also seen that through the legends1 traditions1 and myths of the earliest historic peoples much reliable information has been gained regarding the conditions which prevailed at a still earlier period of human existence4 ,notwithstanding the proofs which in recent times have been obtained relative to the law of periodicity which has thus far regulated human progress the idea prevails that in our own time mental activity has reached a stage never before witnessed4 ,it is assumed that throughout the entire history of mankind material and intellectual development has never attained to such colossal proportions4 ,it is evident that our egoism has obscured our normal vision4 ,we lack perspective4 ,there is no evidence to prove that the present brain capacity of human beings exceeds that of the earliest ages of human history1 neither is there any proof that the moral sense has been in the least reinforced4 ,the lofty moral and spiritual precepts which abound in the ,upanishads have never been surpassed--possibly never equalled4 ,we are heirs of all the ages4 ,the accumulated knowledge of the past is responsible for present achievements4 ,those who have made a study of tribes and races in the various stages of development find much evidence going to prove that extant savage tribes do not represent man as he first emerged from the animal type1 but1 on the contrary1 that they are the degenerate descendants of an extinct civilized race differing little from our own4 ,if this be true1 if human development which thus far seems to have been wholly material contain within itself the seeds of its own destruction1 would it not be wise for the present generation to examine existing conditions in order to ascertain if we too have not already entered upon the path of degeneracy or decay8 ,possibly this will be regarded as a pessimistic suggestion1 but as has already been observed1 a comparison between the conditions existing in prehistoric times and those which prevail under the present so-called civilized rgime fully justifies this suggestion4 ,those persons who have acquainted themselves with the available facts underlying the growth of organized society and the development of existing institutions1 and who have co-ordinated these facts with the present situation are able to trace not only the growth of the destructive principle in human affairs but are able to forecast with a considerable degree of accuracy the results which must inevitably follow4 ,without a knowledge of the past it is impossible to understand or interpret the present4 ,we are living in a remarkable age4 ,it is to be doubted if throughout the entire historic period there has been a time when passing events moved so swiftly or when they assumed the magnitude of those now taking place4 ,causes which were set up during prehistoric times have reached a climax4 ,the inevitable results from those causes are upon us4 ,in order to compare the past and the present it becomes necessary briefly to recall some of the already recorded facts relative to existing conditions under early organized society4 ,when human beings lived closer to nature and before the natural checks to the lower or disintegrating forces had been withdrawn1 the basic principles underlying human action were equality and liberty4 ,no member of a communal group could claim any right or privilege not enjoyed by all4 ,there was no poverty and no crime4 ,disease as we know it was unknown4 ,as the lands were held in common1 women were absolutely free and independent4 ,they chose their mates and were responsible for the well-being of their offspring4 ,as women controlled the sexual relation and themselves regulated prenatal conditions1 the children inherited strong bodies and healthy minds4 ,dissensions over property did not occur1 and jealousy and a desire for personal aggrandizement had not been developed4 ,the religious worship of primitive people consisted for the most part in invocations to the ,great ,mother1 the fructifying principle throughout nature1 from whom were derived all earthly benefits4 ,later the ,great ,mother came to be worshipped under various appellations1 namely1 ,cybele1 or ,astarte1 in ,asia ,minor1 ,athene in ,greece1 ,minerva in ,rome1 and ,isis or ,neith in ,egypt4 ,finally1 as is well known1 these goddesses were dethroned by an all-powerful male ,god1 an anthropomorphic deity whose chief attribute was virile might4 ,this change in the god-idea was coincident with1 and dependent upon1 a corresponding change in the relations of the sexes which took place at a certain period in human history4 ,the god-idea is now and ever has been in strict accord with the existing conceptions concerning the relative importance of the sex-functions in human beings4 ,during thousands of years of life on 8earth0 the mother was the only recognized parent4 ,as the giver of life and the protector of offspring she was regarded as the ,creator and ,preserver of the race4 ,she represented the constructive element in human society4 ,later1 however1 when man began to contest the supremacy of woman1 her hitherto unquestioned prerogatives began to be claimed by him4 ,it was at this juncture in human affairs that the contention arose over the relative importance of the sexes in the processes of reproduction4 ,not only in the traditions and legends of early historic peoples but in their histories as well there is much evidence given to prove that this contention was as fierce as that which at the present time is going on between the sexes4 ,as a result of this contention both female and male gods were worshipped4 ,those who recognized the mother as the giver of life continued to worship the female principle1 while those who accepted the new doctrine enunciated by ,apollo1 namely1 that the soul of the child is derived from the father and the mother is only a nurse to his heaven-born offspring1 accepted the new religion4 ,when the dominion of man over woman was complete the female principle throughout nature and in the god-idea was practically unrecognized or wholly ignored4 ,throughout the historic period male power has been supreme not only on the earth but also in heaven4 ,classical history is not wanting in references to this change in the relations of the sexes and in the god-idea which took place at a certain stage of human development4 ,we are informed that in ,greece1 probably about #aajj years ,b4,c41 ,cecrops 8instituted marriage and established a new religion40 ,the new religion instituted by ,cecrops was the doctrine that the father is the only parent1 that the soul of the child is derived from him1 and that the mother performs simply the office of nurse to his offspring4 ,woman was no longer the creator or giver of life4 ,she was matter while man1 who was henceforth to be her lord and master1 was spirit4 ,marriage as instituted by ,cecrops was the natural and inevitable outcome of the new religion4 ,it was the first attempt of the ,greek tribes to legalize and control the sex-functions of women4 ,the deeper one delves into the mysteries of the past the more apparent does it become that the sexual degradation of women is deeply rooted in religion4 ,for untold ages early organized society proceeded along the line of uninterrupted evolutionary progress4 ,although humanity was traversing an unknown path the arts of life steadily increased4 ,the production of farinaceous food by means of which an exclusive meat diet was avoided was an achievement of the utmost importance to the race4 ,the idea of government which at first included only the members of related groups was extended to the tribe and even to the nation4 ,equality1 freedom1 and justice constituted the fundamental principles of early organized society4 ,finally1 however1 through causes which have already been set forth in these pages1 this system gradually gave place to a regime founded on selfishness1 or egoism4 ,at this time in human affairs related groups could no longer defend themselves against the aggressions of powerful hostile foes2 jealousies arose and alien tribes began to make war upon one another1 the stronger appropriating the lands of the weaker and making slaves of the people4 ,the women of the subjugated groups became the sexual slaves of the conquerors4 ,as native women were free1 foreign women who could be controlled were greatly in demand4 ,therefore frequent attacks were made on foreign groups for the sole purpose of 8carrying off0 the women4 ,the lands which had been held in common by all the members of the tribe were now parcelled out among individual chieftains4 ,the prestige given to these 8lords of the soil10 and the advantage gained by them through the control of the natural resources and the means of subsistence1 soon gave rise to a privileged class--a class which in process of time became masters of the masses of the people4 ,when wars for conquest and spoliation became general and when the communal system under which the principles of liberty and equality had been established gave place to a system founded on force the entire habitable globe became a battle-ground upon which each and every individual struggled fiercely with every other individual not only for place and power1 but for the means of subsistence as well4 ,when the principles of democracy established under gentile institutions gave place to a system of governmental control under which only the rights of the few were recognized1 and when the unchecked disruptive forces had gained the ascendency over the constructive elements developed in human nature1 the degeneracy of the race began4 ,it is not difficult to trace the steps by which this degeneracy has been accomplished4 ,although we of the present boast of our material achievements1 and although we arrogate to ourselves a most remarkable degree of intelligence1 enlightenment1 and even culture1 it is evident that we have not risen above a plane of the grossest materialism1 and that in the truly human qualities1 those which distinguish man from the animal1 we are sadly deficient4 ,that in these later days the moral sense has become atrophied is shown in the fact that our present tooth and claw system1 under which each individual must array himself against every other individual in his struggle for existence1 is regarded as a practical exemplification of the principle of the 8,survival of the ,fittest40 ,according to this interpretation1 not those who are best endowed1 physically1 mentally1 and morally are the fittest to survive1 but on the contrary those who are best able to appropriate to themselves the opportunities and advantages which belong to others4 ,in other words it is claimed that by the ,survival of the ,fittest is meant the survival of those who because of their material advantages are able to exploit their fellowmen4 ,a few of the processes involved in the control of the many by the few have already been mentioned4 ,to maintain the authority of the privileged class and to strengthen their hold on the liberties of the people1 ,monarchy1 ,aristocracy1 and ,ecclesiasticism were established and the ,divine ,right of ,kings proclaimed4 ,intrenched behind these mighty bulwarks the position of the usurpers has been impregnable4 ,through enforced ignorance and superstition the 8common people0 came to regard their situation not only as natural and unavoidable but as representing the will of the ,almighty4 ,if they were faithful to their masters in this world1 in the world to come they would be furnished with free transport to ,fields ,elysian4 ,strange to relate this belief still prevails4 ,at the present time the principle of human freedom is still struggling for recognition1 but the great mass of human beings1 although boasting of their civilization and enlightenment1 continue to uphold the principle that the few should rule the many4 ,they regard their rulers as superior beings whose authority may not be questioned4 ,at the present time we have before us the dismal spectacle of half a dozen hereditary monarchs who with their satellites claim the right to rule over nearly the whole of ,europe and a large portion of ,asia4 ,twenty-five millions of men are now engaged in a deadly conflict to further the commercial and territorial interests of their masters4 ,when we compare present conditions with those which existed under early organized society at a time when every individual member of a group was equal in responsibility and power with every other member of the same group we are enabled to perceive the path which mankind has taken on its onward course4 ,when one reflects on the peculiar trend of human development one may feel no surprise over the fact that at this juncture in human affairs there should arise a ruler in whom the desire for world-dominion is clearly apparent4 ,that such a potentate has already appeared is shown in the following from ,emperor ,william ,,ii4 of ,germany4 8,on me as ,germany's ,emperor the spirit of ,god has descended4 ,i am ,his weapon1 ,his sword1 his vicegerent4 ,woe unto the disobedient4 ,death to the unbeliever40 ,here it is observed that this ruler aspires not only to earthly dominion but also to divine recognition4 ,to strangle the growing principles of liberty and to establish a system founded on force under which the individual was to become only an instrument to do the bidding of his lord and master was doubtless the original object of those who instigated the present war4 ,during the ages since the establishment of the authority of the few over the many1 the latter until a comparatively recent time have offered little resistance to the tyranny exercised over them4 ,mentally dwarfed the proletariat have not yet reached the degree of intelligence necessary for a combination of interests4 ,they have therefore remained like dumb driven cattle subject only to the will of their masters4 ,about sixty years ago through the efforts of a few leaders who had begun to realize the situation1 a certain degree of unrest began to manifest itself among them1 and forty years later the proletariat succeeded in establishing an international organization ostensibly for their own benefit as opposed to the interests of the ruling class4 ,they1 however1 lacked solidarity4 ,the natural tendency of their sex toward separateness or disintegration was not easily overcome4 ,this is shown in the case of the present ,european conflict4 ,when the war broke out instead of standing together they at once hastened to obey the mandates of their respective rulers1 and with no higher idea than patriotism or nationality they at once began their brutal assault upon one another4 ,it was evident from the beginning that the ,german socialists1 they who had been the most conspicuous in the international movement1 were first1 last1 and all the time ,germans and that after all they were actuated only by one desire1 namely1 national aggrandizement4 ,so lacking are men in the principle of solidarity1 and so deeply rooted within them is the idea of separateness1 that it is to be doubted if1 without the aid of woman1 they will ever be able to free themselves from the tyranny of the past4 ,in very recent times a foe has arisen which threatens to be a greater menace to the liberties of the masses of the people than were the foes by which they were originally enslaved4 ,i refer to the money power1 or plutocracy4 ,during the last few years1 through the application of scientific methods to industry1 and through mechanical inventions by means of which the power and efficiency of labour have been greatly increased1 the accumulation of wealth has reached a point never before witnessed in the history of the world1 yet strange to relate1 along with this enormous increase in wealth there has been a corresponding increase in poverty and crime4 ,this immense wealth has not been shared by those who produced it but has gone into the pockets of those who exploit labour for profits4 ,along with this enormous increase in wealth is observed a general lowering of standards both in private and public life4 ,there are in this country alone ten millions of people who are deprived of the necessary food1 clothing1 and shelter to insure a healthful existence4 ,in the public schools of ,new ,york ,city it is reported that six hundred thousand children are victims of malnutrition4 ,in winter thousands of hungry men and women go up and down the streets of our large cities begging for an opportunity to earn a living4 ,our jails and prisons are filled to overflowing4 ,our almshouses and insane asylums are insufficient to meet the demands4 ,imbecility and other forms of mental degeneracy are increasing at an alarming rate4 ,epilepsy and other congenital diseases prevail among all classes and conditions of the people4 ,five-sixths of the children born are diseased at birth4 ,the basic principle underlying our present economic system is profits4 ,to secure large profits labour must be cheap and plentiful1 and that labour may be cheap and plentiful an enormous population must be produced4 ,in order to produce this enormous population women must be enslaved4 ,although existing conditions are such as to make life a curse instead of a blessing1 the cry for 8babies1 more babies0 is heard on every hand1 and this notwithstanding the fact that a large proportion of the children born die before the age of five because this environment is unfavourable to life4 ,the clamour for an ever increasing birth-rate never ceases4 ,it is believed that ,providence alone is responsible for human ills4 ,poverty and disease are accepted as natural and unavoidable evils4 ,the fears expressed lest the human race fail to perpetuate itself would be pathetic were the reason for these fears less obvious4 ,when we reflect that the labour market must be constantly supplied with cheap labour1 and that millions of soldiers must be produced to protect the commercial and territorial interests of the ruling class the true inwardness of this insatiate cry for constantly increasing numbers is revealed4 ,ecclesiasticism1 the faithful ally of ,plutocracy1 mindful of the fact that its strength lies in an excess of numbers1 has ever jealously guarded the injunction to increase and multiply4 ,no doctrine of the so-called ,christian church has been so fondly cherished and so faithfully preserved as has that of the subjection of women4 ,woman's glorification under the ,christian system has been exactly commensurate with her obedience to man4 ,no offering from her to the ,almighty is so acceptable as unrestrained reproductive energy4 ,the report of a declining birth-rate in any country of the globe is a signal for instant alarm1 but although publicists and politicians have attempted to control the birth-rate not only by threats and promises but by legal enactments regulating marriage1 still it is observed that in all countries of ,europe1 with the exception of ,ireland1 ,bulgaria1 and ,roumania1 the birth-rate during the last twenty-five years has steadily declined4 ,although numberless causes have been suggested to account for this phenomenon1 and although various remedies have been proposed to lessen this 8evil10 the actual cause underlying the declining birth-rate of our time remains unrecognized4 ,politicians1 publicists1 and ecclesiastics all refuse to acknowledge the obvious fact that the increasing economic independence of women is alone responsible for this phenomenon4 ,notwithstanding the fact that during the last twenty-five years marked progress is observed in the social and economic conditions of women1 still the sexual position of the great mass of women has steadily declined4 ,the fact that so far as her sex relations are concerned civilized woman occupies a lower position than that occupied by the female animal has already been noted in these pages4 ,the traffic in women is carried on in every country on the earth4 ,the existing sexual conditions are the direct result of the overstimulation of the disruptive characters inherited by man from his male progenitors among the lower orders of life1 characters which among animals have been checked by the constructive forces developed in the female4 ,our sexual conditions and our present economic and industrial situation loudly proclaim the degeneracy of our time4 ,when the principles of equality and liberty1 which were established by early organized society1 gave place to a system founded on force and the control of the many by the few1 and when through the subjection of women the natural checks to the disruptive tendencies developed in the male were withdrawn1 the conditions now existing in so-called civilized society were foreshadowed4 ,a crisis has been reached in human affairs4 ,the old regime has run its course and is about to disappear4 ,a new era is about to dawn on the human race4 ,the war which is now devastating ,europe1 and which will doubtless spread over the entire earth1 is the beginning of the end4 ,the effects of the causes which were set up in prehistoric times have reached their full measure of development and can no more be postponed or averted than can the thunderbolt which follows an electrical explosion4 ,a thoroughly material civilization founded on selfishness and sensuality must be destroyed root and branch before the higher planes of activity for which humanity is destined may be reached4 ,the present conflict therefore should not be regarded simply as a horrible calamity but as a necessary preliminary to these higher conditions4 ,if the birth of the new regime can come only through blood and tears1 if only through the throes of war is deliverance possible1 then it is not only unwise but useless to bewail the present crisis4 ,through the cleansing process involved in the present revolution1 humanity will doubtless return to the legitimate path of evolutionary development4 ,either liberty and justice1 the cardinal principles underlying early organized society will be re-established or the processes of disruption will complete the work of degeneration now so well under way4 ,in the transformation which is to take place it is not likely that a vestige of the institutions which have produced the present regime will remain4 ,the conflict now going on between the higher and lower forces developed in human life represents the struggle of ,omnipotent ,life for higher expression in matter4 ,it has been shown in this work that during the development of life on the earth two forces have been steadily at work1 the one a conserving1 cohesive element1 the other a disruptive1 disintegrating energy4 ,the one tends toward combination or solidarity1 the other toward separateness or individual sufficiency4 ,the one is constructive1 the other destructive4 ,had the constructive processes in human society been allowed their legitimate expression the scenes now being enacted in ,europe would have been impossible4 ,the principal force which has been employed in the development of our present civilization has been male energy4 ,in the past this enormous force has been necessary to subdue the earth and make of it a suitable habitation for civilized humanity4 ,in later times1 however1 the discovery of hitherto unknown forces in nature1 the application of scientific methods to industry1 and the invention of mechanical devices for the lessening of human toil have done away with the necessity for an excess of human brawn4 ,in other words the excessive male energy which has in the past been required for the development of our present civilization has become not only useless but an actual hindrance to further progress4 ,as this enormous power is no longer needed for useful purposes it has been turned into channels of wantonness and destruction4 ,it has become disruptive and dangerous to a degree which may be appreciated when we reflect on the present conditions not only in ,europe1 but over the entire earth4 ,among the cleansing processes involved in the present crisis is the elimination of a considerable number of the useless elements described above--elements which being no longer necessary for the maintenance of the common good have become a menace to society4 ,according to our narrow human conceptions by which passing events are regarded only in relation to their present effects1 the eliminating processes now going on are cruel and inhuman4 ,nature1 however1 pays little heed to human suffering1 but although she ignores human misery she will nevertheless demand an exact accounting for the deeds of selfishness and ignorance which are responsible for the present disorder4 ,she will inaugurate no scheme of salvation2 no 8,vicarious ,atonement0 will be provided to save mankind from the consequences of their own folly4 ,the struggle now going on in nearly every quarter of the globe marks the beginning of the eliminating process4 ,the useless elements in human society are wearing themselves out1 destroying themselves by their own rashness and folly4 ,impelled by a desire which they do not understand and which they are unable to resist1 these victims of a decaying civilization rush madly on to destruction4 ,those men who voluntarily seek war represent a dissatisfied or discontented class4 ,true to the primitive instincts of the race they crave the peculiar excitement which war brings4 ,it is not unlikely that many of them understand instinctively that something is wrong with the present regime1 but they seem not to be able to analyse the situation4 ,doubtless very many of those engaged in the present ,european struggle are actuated by patriotism4 ,they want to maintain the existing territorial boundaries presided over by their respective rulers4 ,they desire also to retain the institutions1 social1 political1 economic1 and religious which have grown up under a system where the few control the many4 ,evidently the idea of human liberty has not yet dawned upon them4 ,if universal freedom awaits the birth of the new regime1 which is being heralded by the present upheaval1 then it is plain that the men in the trenches are quite unmindful of the significance of the conflict in which they are engaged4 ,the belligerent countries of ,europe may consent to a truce and there may be a lull in the universal unrest1 but there will be no genuine peace until the principle of human liberty has been established on a firm and lasting basis4 ,that the removal of these superfluous men from their usual vocations will not materially interfere with the useful industries of ,europe is shown in the fact that although #be1jjj1jjj of them have been called to the war their withdrawal from the industrial field has not greatly disturbed the industrial situation1 and this too notwithstanding the fact that many new occupations have been created by the war4 ,the work formerly done by these men has been largely taken up by women4 ,it should be borne in mind that under the new conditions which are approaching1 the constructive element developed in human society is again to assume command over the destructive forces which have been in control since the beginning of the historic period4 ,as this element has been confided to women and as it is by them transmitted to offspring1 it is not difficult to forecast the position which the women of the future will occupy4 ,the institution of marriage as it now exists will disappear4 ,only the most robust among women will propagate the race4 ,these women1 as did the women under early organized society1 will choose their mates4 ,they will exercise absolute control over the sex-functions4 ,thus will be avoided the terrible consequences which have resulted from the present form of marriage4 ,the numerical preponderance of women over men under the new regime is probable4 ,nor will the devastating processes of war be wholly responsible for this condition4 ,science informs us that not only among the lower orders of life but among human beings as well1 certain conditions of nutrition produce more females than males4 ,the more nutritious and wholesome the food the greater the excess of females over males4 ,under higher conditions1 when the laws of health and life are better understood and especially when the subject of proper nutrition has received the attention which its importance deserves1 it is not unreasonable to suppose that the excess of female births over those of males will be considerable4 ,although there have doubtless been long lapses of time during which the human race has seemed to go backward1 it is believed that the trend of humanity is now and ever has been upward4 ,if1 as is believed1 human events move in cycles1 if the civilizations which have risen in the past represent a spiral1 each of these civilizations reaching a higher stage of development than its predecessor1 then it may be inferred that the era which is now dawning will surpass in grandeur anything which the world has ever witnessed4 ,if1 as many persons believe1 a stage of development has been reached in which human beings are to be endowed with a sixth sense1 if the intuitive faculties which are closely allied to the constructive element and which mark a still greater distinction between man and the animal are to come into play it may be assumed that the mental and spiritual faculties will reach a stage of development scarcely dreamed of in our own time4 ,humanity will have come into its own1 the animal in man will have been left behind4 ,the co-ordination of science and history not only illumines the past and explains the present1 but the inevitable results of the natural sequence of events point unerringly to the conditions which must prevail in the future4 ,the philosophy of history proves to the earnest seeker after truth that the door of the future is not wholly closed4 ,,index ,a ,abipones1 their customs1 #adh2 independence of women among1 #ahf ,abrotonum1 #cdb ,adoption1 among early races1 #add1 #ade1 #cbd2 symbol of1 #adf1 #adg ,affection in primitive groups1 #abf ,agamemnon1 #bef ,agnation1 #cea ,ainos1 #di ,altruism1 its development in the female1 #ag1 #fg1 #hf2 its development in society1 #abd1 #adj ,amazonianism1 #bjh ,andromache1 #bhc ,arabia1 organization of society in1 #abi1 #agg2 marriage in1 #agi1 #aha1 #ahb ,arawaks1 their customs1 #adg1 #agd ,archonship1 #bei2 its close1 #bfd ,areta1 #ccb ,aristocracy1 its growth among the ,greeks1 #bea1 #bfe-bfg ,aristophanes1 his picture of female philosophers1 #cch ,aspasia1 preceptress of ,socrates1 #ccd2 her genius1 her teachings1 #ccg-cch ,assembly of the people1 #aef2 development of the1 #bea2 its duties1 #bei2 its disappearance in ,greece1 #bfd2 its powers among the ,spartans1 #bic ,atavism1 #eb ,athene1 her decision concerning paternity1 #bgb ,athenian men1 their policy1 #bhe2 ashamed of their name1 #cah2 their wives ,carians1 #cai2 their moral degradation1 #cbc-cbf ,athenian women1 imported foreigners1 #cai2 their degradation1 #cbc2 their division into classes #cbd2 decline of influence among1 #cbi2 their reputed licentiousness1 #cci ,auletrides1 #cbe ,australians1 #bcj ,b ,babylonian women1 #bcd1 #cdj ,basileus1 germ of present king1 #aef2 does not correspond to modern monarch1 #aef1 #bee1 #beg2 elected by a constituency1 #bec2 abolition of the office of1 #bei ,birds1 their courtships1 #bj-ba2 aversion of females for certain males among1 #bj2 the female among1 chooses her mate1 #bj1 #bc1 #be1 #ajh2 efforts of the male to please the female among1 #ba2 eagerness of the male among1 #ba1 #bf1 #cj2 powers of the female among1 #bg2 inheritance of the female among1 #bi2 inheritance of the male among1 #bi2 constancy of the female among1 #ajh ,burgesses1 #bgb ,c ,captives1 not enslaved in early groups1 #ade2 as sexual slaves1 #afc1 #bgf ,cecrops1 #bfb1 #bgb1 #cbi1 #cfb ,chastity of early races1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aad1 #cjf ,clisthenes1 #bdi1 #bfa ,codrus1 #bdi1 #bei1 #bfd ,colour-blindness1 #ee ,common law1 the1 woman's position under1 #ceg ,communal marriage1 #bbe ,concubines1 #cbg ,couvade1 la1 its extent1 #adh ,crates1 #ccd ,cuckoos1 character of1 #fi ,cynic philosophy1 the1 its principles1 #ccb ,d ,danas1 daughters of1 #bgd ,deme1 establishment of1 #bdi1 #bfj ,democracy1 of early races1 #abg2 of the early ,greeks1 #bej-bea2 decay of1 #bfd-bfe1 #bfg2 in ancient ,italy1 #cac ,descent1 traced through men1 #abh1 #ace1 #bha2 in ,arabia1 #aca2 in ,greece1 #acc ,descent1 traced through women1 #ada1 #adb1 #aeg1 #bbb2 its universality1 #bbh1 #caa2 among the ,iroquois ,indians1 #bdi2 law of1 #bec2 in ,lycia1 #caj ,desires1 primary1 of the male1 #bj ,dicteriades1 #cbg ,differentiation1 #h1 #aj1 #af1 #fe ,diseases of women1 #fa2 not constitutional1 #ed ,dorians1 their conservatism1 #bhe ,draco1 #bff2 his laws1 #cbb ,e ,early ,christianity1 #cfa ,ecclesia1 #bea ,ecclesiasticism1 its effect on the position of women1 #cef-ceg ,egoism1 its development in males1 #ag1 #hf2 not pronounced among earliest races1 #abe1 #adj2 its development in later ages1 #aee ,england in the nineteenth century1 #cgj ,epicureans1 #ccc ,eupatrids1 their cupidity1 #bfd ,evolution1 individual and historic1 #ae ,f ,family1 the1 not the basis of the gens1 #bdf ,female1 conditions which produce the1 #ci ,fijians1 their customs1 #aaf-aag2 parental affection among1 #aah ,foreign women1 as wives1 #ahh1 #aib1 #bai2 as concubines1 #bhc1 #cbg1 #cdh ,france1 marriage customs in1 #agb2 in the nineteenth century1 #cgj ,g ,gaius1 #cec ,genealogies traced through fathers1 #bga ,gentile organization1 the1 universality of1 #abd2 principles established by1 #abd2 democratic character of1 #abg1 #ach1 #aci1 #aeb2 unity of1 #abh2 government under1 #acg1 #aeb1 #aef1 #bdg2 property belonging to1 #adj2 altruistic character of1 #adj1 #aeg2 in ,greece1 #bde2 its decay1 #bfj2 its final overthrow1 #bfa2 in ,athens1 #bfb ,glycera1 #cda ,government1 development of1 #bdh ,greek society1 its construction1 #bdc1 #bde ,h ,hairy covering for the body1 #di-ea ,hand1 the female1 #ei ,hercules1 tradition of1 #bgc ,hetairai1 a term of reproach1 #cbi2 their renown1 #ccj2 origin of the word1 #cch2 honoured citizens1 #cda2 judged by masculine standards1 #cdd ,hindu law1 #ceb ,i ,infanticide1 ,mc,lennan's theory of1 #bag2 not practised by early races1 #bbj2 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's theory of1 #bbf-bbg ,insects1 nutrition determines sex1 #dj2 males appear first1 #db ,iroquois ,indians1 #acg ,j ,justinian ,code1 #ceg1 #cei ,l ,lamia1 #cbf ,lance1 symbol of property1 #aha1 #cab ,leontium1 #ccd ,life1 origin of1 #d2 earliest forms hermaphrodite1 #aa1 #ae ,lydian women1 #cdj ,lysicles1 #ccf ,m ,magna ,charta1 #cfi ,man1 shorter-lived than woman1 #de1 #ec2 imperfections in the organization of1 #ee-ei2 superior to woman1 ,darwin's theory1 #ge2 assumes the duties of maternity1 #adg2 superior to woman according to edict of ,apollo1 #aii ,marriage1 origin of1 #afa2 in ,india1 #afc2 ,racshasa1 #afc2 in ,arabia1 #afd1 #agi1 #aha1 #ahb2 by ,confarreatio and ,usus1 #afd1 #cea2 among the ,israelites1 #afe2 in ,afghanistan1 #afe2 in ,greenland1 #agj2 in ,nubia1 #aga2 in ,sparta1 #agc2 sadica1 #agi2 beena1 #ahj2 mot1 #aha2 ba'al1 #aha1 #ahh1 #aic2 laws of ,mohammed1 #ahc1 #ahh2 in ,japan1 #ahe2 in ,rome1 #ahi2 of the future1 #cii2 rise of the present system of1 #aig2 ceremonies among the ,spartans1 #caj ,matter1 conservation of1 #f ,mother-in-law1 the1 her aversion to sons-in-law1 #agd1 #bcf ,n ,names1 adoption of1 #add ,nemeas1 #cda ,o ,ontogeny1 #g ,oracles of the ,greeks controlled by women1 #cji ,organization of society1 #abc ,p ,pangenesis1 #bi ,parthenogenesis1 #ch1 #dj ,paternal affection1 absence of1 among lower orders1 #fi1 #ga2 not a primary character1 #ga2 absence of1 among lower races1 #adi2 absence of1 among the ,romans1 #ahi1 #aia ,pericles1 #cce ,perpetual tutelage of women1 #cej ,political society1 establishment of1 #bdi1 #bfj-bfa ,polyandry1 not practised among lower orders1 #ajg ,polygamy1 rise of1 #ajf1 #ahi ,poverty of the masses in ,greece1 #bff ,primitive races1 promiscuity among1 #ajg1 #aae1 #baa2 chastity of1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aaf1 #cjf1 #cjg2 morality of1 #aab1 #aae1 #aah2 humanity of1 #ade ,property1 control of1 #adj1 #bba2 inheritance of1 #ada2 in early ,greece1 #bej ,protection of women in early groups1 #aab1 #aag1 #adf1 #agh1 #ahf ,q ,quadrupeds1 constancy of the female among1 #bd-be1 #ajf-ajg2 unions of1 not left to chance1 #be ,r ,religion of ,mohammed1 #ahc ,religious idea1 #aej1 #baa ,reversion1 #dh1 #eb ,rights of ,roman fathers1 #aia1 #cac ,roman family1 the1 #cab1 #cdi1 #ceb ,roman lawyers1 #ceb-cec ,roman society1 its constitution1 #bdc ,roman women1 #agh1 #ahi1 #cad ,rotifera1 #ch ,s ,sabine women1 capture of1 #cab ,st4 ,paul1 #cfa ,selection1 natural1 #g ,selection1 sexual1 ,darwin's theory of1 #ah2 compared with artificial selection1 #cf2 processes of1 reversed1 #hb2 lower characters eliminated through1 #ij ,sexes1 origin of1 #aa1 #ad-ae2 numerical proportion of1 #ci1 #dc1 #eb ,slavery1 #ade2 its extent in the nineteenth century1 #cfi ,socialism1 #cij ,socrates1 #ccd-cce ,solon1 his legislation1 #cbj-cba2 his character1 #cbj1 #cbb ,spartan women1 their power1 #bih1 #cjh2 they controlled the land1 #bih2 they resisted the laws of ,lycurgus1 #bii2 they originated the exercises of the youth1 #cjj1 #cjb2 their dress1 #cjc1 #cje2 their influence1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #caj1 #cfa ,spartans1 their government1 #aef2 democratic character of their institutions1 #beb-bec2 their senate1 #bhf2 their morality1 #cjb1 #cjd2 adultery unknown among them1 #cjg1 #caf2 election of senators among the1 #cji1 #caj ,stoic philosophy1 the1 its principles1 #ccd1 #cdg-cdh2 its effect on ,roman law1 #cdh ,struggles for mates1 #bb-bc1 #fd ,survival of the fittest1 #chh ,symbols in marriage ceremonies1 among the ,circassians1 #aga2 in ,abyssinia1 #agb2 in ,arabia1 #agb2 in ,scandinavia1 ,wales1 and ,ireland1 #agc2 in ,central ,africa1 #age2 in ,italy1 #agf2 as explained by ,mc,lennan1 #baf ,sympathy1 development of1 #fg ,t ,thargelia1 #ccg ,themistia1 #ccd ,themistocles1 #cdb ,theseus1 #bfj1 #bga2 united the ,attic tribes1 #bfb ,timotheus1 #cdb ,tribe1 the1 its formation1 #abf1 #aec2 growth of the governmental idea within1 #bdg ,tribes named after women1 #bgc ,tyrannies established among the ,greeks1 #bfc ,u ,union of tribes in ,athens1 #bfb ,unisexual forms1 development of1 #ae ,v ,variability denotes low organization1 #cf ,variations in the human body1 #dg-dh ,vital force1 expenditure of1 #cb ,w ,wife-capture1 among the ,israelites1 #afd2 among the ,arabians1 #agg2 its extent1 #agg2 ,mc,lennan's theory to account for1 #bae2 ,lubbock's theory of1 #bbd-bbg2 among the ,spartans1 #caj ,women1 in excess of men1 #eb2 of ,greenland1 #ed2 their intuitions1 #gh2 their apparel1 #hj2 of ,australia1 #aaa2 among the ,kaffirs1 #aaa1 #adf1 #ahg2 of early ,german tribes1 #aab2 of ,nubia1 #aaa2 of ,sumatra1 #aab2 of ,tahiti1 #aaf2 among the ,fijians1 #aag1 #ahf2 among the ,north ,american ,indians1 #aci2 head of the family1 #aci1 #add1 #aed2 of ,arabia1 #agh-agi1 #ahh2 of ,rome1 #agh1 #aij2 in ,japan1 #ahe2 among the ,abipones1 #ahf2 among the ,greeks1 #bgb1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bgi1 #bhc2 under the ancient ,roman law1 #cej2 under the middle ,roman law1 #ceb-ced ,y ,yavanas1 #cah ,z ,zeno1 #ccd ,zulus1 marriage customs among1 #agc