,,galileo ,,galilei4 99 99 99 99 99 #b vols4 ,demy #hvo4 ,cloth1 #cbs4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,of ,,art ,,in ,,france4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,mark ,,pattison4 ,with ,nineteen ,steel ,engravings4 99 99 99 99 99 #b vols4 ,demy #hvo4 ,cloth1 #bds4 ,,the ,,civilization ,,of ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,italy4 ,by ,,jacob ,,burckhardt4 ,authorized ,translation by ,s4 ,g4 ,c4 ,,middlemore4 8,the whole of the first part of ,dr ,burckhardt's work deals with what may be called the ,political ,preparation for the ,renaissance4 ,it is impossible here to do more than express a high opinion of the compact way in which the facts are put before the reader4444 ,the second volume of ,dr4 ,burckhardt's work is1 we think1 more full and complete in itself1 more rich in original thought1 than the first4 ,his account of the causes which prevented the rise of a great ,italian drama is very clear and satisfying40--,saturday ,review4 ,,london3 ,c4 ,,kegan ,,paul ,,co41 #a1 ,,paternoster ,,square4 ,,galileo ,,galilei ,,and ,,the ,,roman ,,curia4 ,,from ,,authentic ,,sources4 ,,by ,,karl ,,von ,,gebler4 ,,translated1 ,,with ,,the ,,sanction ,,of ,,the ,,author1 ,,by ,,mrs4 ,,george ,,sturge4 ,illustration ,,london3 ,c4 ,,kegan ,,paul ,,co41 #a1 ,,paternoster ,,square4 #ahgi4 ,,letter ,,to ,,the ,,translator4 ,,madam1-- ,it is the desire of every author1 every prosecutor of research1 that the products of his labours1 the results of his studies1 should be widely circulated4 ,this desire arises1 especially in the case of one who has devoted himself to research1 not only from a certain egotism which clings to us all1 but from the wish that the laborious researches of years1 often believed to refute old and generally-received errors1 should become the common property of as many as possible4 ,the author of the present work is no exception to these general rules2 and it therefore gives him great pleasure1 and fills him with gratitude1 that you1 ,madam1 should have taken the trouble to translate the small results of his studies into the language of ,newton1 and thus have rendered them more accessible to the ,english nation4 ,but little more than two years have elapsed since the book first appeared in ,germany1 but this period has been a most important one for researches into the literature relating to ,galileo4 ,in the year #ahfi ,professor ,domenico ,berti obtained permission to inspect and turn to account the ,acts of ,galileo's ,trial carefully preserved in the ,vatican1 and in #ahgf he published a portion of these important documents1 which essentially tended to complete the very partial publication of them by ,henri de ,l',epinois1 in #ahfg4 ,in #ahgg ,m4 de ,l',epinois and the present writer were permitted to resuscitate the famous volume1 which again lay buried among the secret papal archives2 that is1 to inspect it at leisure and to publish the contents in full4 ,it was1 however1 not only of the greatest importance to become acquainted with the ,vatican ,,ms4 as a whole1 and by an exact publication of it to make it the common property of historical research2 it was at least of equal moment to make a most careful examination of the material form and external appearance of the ,acts4 ,for the threefold system of paging had led some historians to make the boldest conjectures1 and respecting one document in particular1--the famous note of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1--there was an apparently well-founded suspicion that there had been a later falsification of the papers4 ,while1 on the one hand1 the knowledge gained of the entire contents of the ,vatican ,,ms41 for the purpose of my own publication of it1#a only confirmed1 in many respects1 my previous opinions on the memorable trial2 on the other hand1 a minute and repeated examination of the material evidence afforded by the suspicious document1 which1 up to that time1 had been considered by myself and many other authors to be a forgery of a later date1 convinced me1 contrary to all expectation1 that it indisputably originated in #afaf4 ,this newly acquired experience1 and the appearance of many valuable critical writings on the trial of ,galileo since the year #ahgf1 rendered therefore a partial revision and correction of the ,german edition of this work1 for the ,english and an ,italian translation1 absolutely necessary4 ,all the needful emendations have accordingly been made1 with constant reference to the literature relating to the subject published between the spring of #ahgf and the spring of #ahgh4 ,i have also consulted several older works which had escaped my attention when the book was first written4 ,may the work then1 in its to some extent new form1 make its way in the ,british ,isles1 and meet with as friendly a reception there as the ,german edition has met with in ,austria and ,germany4 ,to you1 ,madam1 ,i offer my warm thanks for the care with which you have executed the difficult and laborious task of translation4 ,accept1 ,madam1 the assurance of my sincere esteem4 ,,karl ,,von ,,gebler4#b ,,meran1 #ast ,april1 #ahgh4 ,,note ,,by ,,the ,,translator4 ,the ,vatican ,manuscript alluded to in the foregoing letter1 and constantly referred to in the text1 was published by the author in the autumn of #ahgg1 under the title of 8,die ,acten des ,gallileischen ,processes1 nach der ,vaticanischen ,handschrift1 von ,karl von ,gebler40 ,cotta1 ,stuttgard4 ,this1 with some introductory chapters1 was intended to supersede the ,appendix to the original work1 and to form a second volume1 when a new ,german edition should be called for4 ,it did not1 however1 appear to me that any purpose would be served by reprinting all the ,latin and ,italian documents of the ,vatican ,,ms4 in this country1 as students who wish to consult them can easily procure them as published in the original languages in ,germany1 and ,i hope for a wider circle of readers than that composed exclusively of students4 ,i therefore proposed to ,herr von ,gebler to give the ,history1 ,description1 and ,estimate of the ,vat4 ,,ms41 etc41 in an ,appendix1 together with a few of the more important documents2 to this1 with some suggestions1 as for instance1 that some of the shorter documents should be given as notes to the text1 he fully agreed1 with the remark that ,i must know best what would suit my countrymen4 ,the ,appendix1 therefore1 differs somewhat both from the original ,appendix and from the introductory portions of the new volume1 for these also were revised for the ,translation4 ,the translations from ,latin and ,italian documents have been made from the originals by a competent scholar1 and all the more important letters and extracts from letters of ,galileo have been compared with the ,italian4 ,the ,table of ,contents1 headings to and titles of the chapters1 and ,index1 none of which exist in the original1 have been added by myself4 ,,jane ,,sturge4 ,,sydenham1 ,november1 #ahgh4 ,,biographical ,,notice ,,of ,,the ,,author4 ,,abridged ,,from ,,the 8,,augsburger ,,allgemeine ,,zeitung0 ,,of #f,,th ,,december1 #ahgh4 ,the author of this work died at ,gratz on the #gth of ,september1 #ahgh4 ,in devoting a few lines to his memory we have not a long and distinguished career to describe1 for a brief span of life was all that was granted him1 but to the last moment he sought to turn it to the best account4 ,the present work has enjoyed a wide circulation in ,germany1 but few of its readers could have known anything of the author but his name4 ,the protracted studies which form the basis of it1 the skilful handling of documentary material which seemed to betray the practised historian1 must have suggested a man of ripe years1 whose life had been passed in study1 as the author2 no one certainly would have sought him among the young officers of a cavalry regiment1 whose tastes generally lie in any direction rather than that of historical research4 ,karl von ,gebler was the son of ,field-marshal ,wilhelm von ,gebler1 and was born at ,vienna in #ahej4 ,although early destined for the military career1 he laid the foundations of a superior education in the grammar schools4 ,having passed through the gymnasium1 in #ahfi he joined the #gth regiment of the line as a private1 and before long attained the rank of lieutenant in the #dth regiment of ,dragoons4 ,being an excellent draftsman and skilled in military surveying1 he was often employed on the general's staff in drawing maps4 ,in addition to his extensive knowledge of military affairs1 he had many of the accomplishments befitting his calling2 he was an excellent shot and a bold rider4 ,but the duties of a cavalry officer were soon too limited for his active mind and intellectual tastes1 and he sought also to win his spurs on the fields of literature4 ,he occupied his leisure in translating the work of a ,french staff officer1 8,success in ,war10 to which he made some additions4 ,he also published 8,the ,true ,portrait of a ,royal ,hero of the #ahth ,century10 in a newspaper2 and finally1 8,historic ,sayings40 ,a night ride1 undertaken in the performance of his official duties1 from which he returned at daybreak to exercise at the riding school1 brought on severe hemorrhage and inflammation of the lungs4 ,the two physicians who attended him gave him up2 in a consultation at his bedside1 prudently held in ,latin1 they gave him twenty-four hours to live4 ,one of them having taken leave1 the other returned to the patient1 who1 with quiet humour1 greeted him with the classic words1 8,morituri te salutant60 ,the worthy doctor found1 to his horror1 that the patient had understood all that had passed1 and had no easy task to persuade him that his case was not so bad after all4 ,he had1 however1 in consequence of some local circumstances1 already ordered the coffin4 ,gebler's constitution surmounted the danger2 by the spring he was able to join his parents at ,gratz4 ,but his health had sustained so severe a shock that he was compelled to abandon the military career4 ,his parents removed to ,gries1 near ,botzen1 for the sake of a milder climate on his account4 ,here he revived wonderfully2 he seemed to have taken a new lease of life1 and devoted himself altogether to literary pursuits4 ,the critical studies before mentioned of the assumed historic sayings of great men1 and among them of ,galileo's famous dictum1 8,e pur si muove10 brought him into closer acquaintance with this hero of science4 ,he accumulated so large a material for a biographical sketch of the great ,italian1 that the limits of an essay seemed too narrow1 and he resolved to undertake a more comprehensive work on the subject1 which he thought would fill up a gap in ,german literature4 ,in the autumn of #ahge the work1 which had occupied him four years1 was completed4 ,it was not a little gratifying to the young author that one of the first publishers in ,germany1 ,cotta1 of ,stuttgard1 undertook the publication on very favourable terms1 and brought it out in #ahgf4 ,it met with great approval1 and brought him into association with many eminent literary men in ,italy and ,germany4 ,galileo's own country was foremost in recognition of his services4 ,the academies of ,padua and ,pisa1 and the ,accadmia dei ,lincei sent him special acknowledgments1 and ,king ,victor ,emmanuel rewarded him with the order of the ,crown of ,italy4 ,before this work was finished he had removed with his father1 having in the meanwhile lost his mother1 to ,meran1 and during the first year of his residence there his health improved so much that he was able to take part in social life1 and to enlarge the sphere of his labours and influence4 ,society in this little town owed much in many ways to the intellectual and amiable young officer4 ,whenever a good and noble cause required support1 his co-operation might be reckoned on4 ,in common with many other lovers of art and antiquity1 he took a lively interest in the preservation and restoration of the ,maultasch-,burg1 which promises to be one of the chief sights of ,meran4 ,unhappily he did not live to see the completion of the work4 ,with increase of health his zest for work increased also1 and he addressed himself to a great historical task4 ,the subject he selected was the ,maid of ,orleans4 ,the preliminary studies were difficult in a place destitute of all aids to learning4 ,his researches were not confined to the collection of all the printed material2 in #ahgf he had planned to search out the documentary sources wherever they were to be found1 but before this he made close studies in the field of psychology and mental pathology4 ,the work of ,ruf on the subject1 the learned chaplain of a lunatic asylum1 attracted his attention1 and he entered into communication with the author4 ,ruf's great experience and philosophical acquirements were of great service to ,gebler in his preliminary studies on ,joan of ,arc4 ,but the project was not to be carried out4 ,just as he was about to write the second chapter1 an essay of ,berti's at ,rome occasioned him to enter on fresh studies on ,galileo4 ,domenico ,berti1 who had examined the original ,acts of ,galileo's trial1 though1 as his work shows1 very superficially1 spoke contemptuously of the ,german savans1 comparing them with blind men judging of colours1 as none of them had seen the original ,acts in the ,vatican4 ,this had special reference to the document of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 which the ,german writers on the subject1 and ,gebler among them1 declared to be a forgery4 ,being a man of the strictest love of truth1 this reproach induced him1 in spite of his health1 which had again failed1 in ,may1 #ahgg1 to go to ,rome1 where he obtained access to the ,vatican4 ,for ten weeks1 in spite of the oppressive heat1 he daily spent fourteen hours in the ,papal ,archives1 studying and copying with diplomatic precision the original ,acts of ,galileo's trial4 ,as the result of his labours1 he felt constrained to declare the document in question to be genuine4 ,actuated only by the desire that truth should prevail1 in the second part of his work1 written at ,rome1 he without hesitation withdrew the opinion he had previously advocated as an error4 ,his first work had made a flattering commotion in the literary world1 but the additional publication called forth a still more animated discussion of the whole question1 which the readers of this journal will not have forgotten4 ,gebler took part in it himself1 and1 then suffering from illness1 wrote his reply from a sick bed4 ,his sojourn in ,rome had sadly pulled him down4 ,on his return home1 in ,july1 #ahgg1 he had lost his voice and was greatly reduced4 ,but in ,october of the same year he once more roused himself for a journey to ,italy4 ,the object of the previous one was to follow his hero in yellow and faded historic papers1 but this time the task he had set himself was to pursue the tracks of ,galileo in all the cities and places in any way connected with his memory4 ,the result of these travels was an article in the ,deutsche ,rundschau1 ,no4 #g1 #ahgh1 8,on the ,tracks of ,galileo40 ,in this paper ,gebler again dispels some clouds in which ,galileo's previous biographers had enveloped him4 ,we in these less romantic days are quite willing to dispense with the shudder at the stories of the dungeon1 etc41 and are glad to know that ,galileo was permitted to enjoy a degree of comfort during his detention not often granted to those who come into collision with the world4 8,on the ,tracks of ,galileo0 was ,gebler's last literary work4 ,his strength of will and mental powers at length succumbed to his incurable malady4 ,the mineral waters of ,gleichenberg1 which he had been recommended to try1 did him more harm than good4 ,he wrote thence to a friend1 8,i am in a pitiable condition1 and have given up all hope of improvement40 ,unfortunately he was right4 ,he had overtasked his strength4 ,his zeal for science had hastened his end1 and he may well be called one of her victims4 ,his last days were spent at ,gratz1 where his boyhood had been passed1 and he rests beside his only brother4 ,both were the pride and joy of their father1 now left alone4 ,in appearance ,karl von ,gebler was distinguished and attractive looking4 ,no one could escape the charm of the freshness and originality of his mind1 in spite of constant ill health4 ,the refined young student1 with the manners of a man of the world1 was a phenomenon to his fellow-workers in the learned world4 ,we have heard some of them say that they could not understand how ,gebler could have acquired the historian's craft1 the technical art of prosecuting research1 without having had any special critical schooling4 ,the writer of these lines will never forget the hours spent with this amiable and1 in spite of his success1 truly modest young man in his snug study4 ,the walls lined with books1 or adorned with weapons1 betrayed at a glance the character and tastes of the occupant1 while a pendulum clock dating from the time of ,galileo recalled his work on the first observer of the vibrations of the pendulum to mind4 ,he always liked to wind up the venerable timepiece himself1 and took a pleasure in its sonorous tones4 ,when ,i once more entered the study after his death1 the clock had run down1 the pendulum had ceased to vibrate1 it told the hour no more4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,german ,,edition4 ,while ,italy and ,france possess an ample literature relating to ,galileo1 his oft-discussed fate and memorable achievements1 very little has been written in ,germany on this hero of science2 and it would almost seem as if ,copernicus and ,kepler had cast the founder of mechanical physics into the shade4 ,german literature does not possess one exhaustive work on ,galileo4 ,this is a great want1 and to supply it would be a magnificent and thankworthy enterprise4 ,it could only1 however1 be carried out by a comprehensive biography of the famous astronomer1 which1 together with a complete narrative of his life1 should comprise a detailed description and estimate of his writings1 inventions1 and discoveries4 ,we do not feel ourselves either called upon or competent to undertake so difficult a task4 ,our desire has been merely to fill up a portion of the gap in ,german literature by this contribution to the ,life of ,galileo1 with a hope that it may be an incentive to some man of learning1 whose studies qualify him for the task1 to give our nation a complete description of the life and works of this great pioneer of the ideas of ,copernicus4 ,we have also set ourselves another task2 namely1 to throw as much light as possible1 by means of authentic documents1 on the attitude ,galileo assumed towards the ,roman curia1 and the history of the persecutions which resulted from it4 ,to this end1 however1 it appeared absolutely necessary to give1 at any rate in broad outline1 a sketch of his aims and achievements as a whole4 ,for his conflict with the ecclesiastical power was but the inevitable consequence of his subversive telescopic discoveries and scientific reforms4 ,it was necessary to make the intimate connection between these causes and their historical results perfectly intelligible4 ,in the narration of historical events we have relied1 as far as possible1 upon authentic sources only4 ,among these are the following3-- #a4 ,galileo's correspondence1 and the correspondence relating to him between third persons4 7,albri's 8,opere di ,galileo ,galilei40 ,vols4 ii41 iii41 vi41 vii41 viii41 ix41 x41 xv41 and ,suppl41 in all #a1efd letters47 #b4 ,the constant reports of ,niccolini1 the ,tuscan ambassador at ,rome1 to his ,government at ,florence1 during and after ,galileo's trial4 7,thirty-one despatches1 from ,august #aeth1 #afcb1 to ,december #crd1 #afcc47 #c4 ,the ,acts of the ,trial1 from the ,,ms4 originals in the ,vatican4 #d4 ,the collection of documents published1 in #ahgj1 by ,professor ,silvestro ,gherardi4 ,thirty-two extracts from the original protocols of the sittings and decrees of the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office4#c #e4 ,some important documents published by the ,jesuit ,father ,riccioli1 in his 8,almagestum novum1 ,bononi1 #afea40d ,we have also been careful to acquaint ourselves with the numerous ,french and ,italian ,lives of ,galileo1 from the oldest1 that of his contemporary1 ,gherardini1 to the most recent and complete1 that of ,henri ,martin1 #ahfi2 when admissible1 we have cautiously used them1 constantly comparing them with authentic sources4 ,as the part of the story of ,galileo of which we have treated is that which has been most frequently discussed in literature1 and from the most widely differing points of view1 it could not fail to be of great interest to us to collect and examine1 as far as it lay in our power1 the views1 opinions1 and criticisms to be found in various treatises on the subject4 ,we offer our warm thanks to all the possessors of private1 and custodians of public libraries1 who have most liberally and obligingly aided us in our project4 ,one more remark remains to be made4 ,party interests and passions have1 to a great extent1 and with but few exceptions1 guided the pens of those who have written on this chapter of ,galileo's life4 ,the one side has lauded him as an admirable martyr of science1 and ascribed more cruelty to the ,inquisition than it really inflicted on him2 the other has thought proper to enter the lists as defender of the ,inquisition1 and to wash it white at ,galileo's expense4 ,historical truth contradicts both4 ,whatever may be the judgment passed on the present work1 to one acknowledgment we think we may1 with a good conscience1 lay claim3 that1 standing in the service of truth alone1 we have anxiously endeavoured to pursue none other than her sublime interests4 ,,karl ,,von ,,gebler4 ,,meran1 ,november1 #ahge4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,part ,i4 ,,galileo',s ,,early ,,years1 ,,his ,,important ,,discoveries1 ,,and ,,first ,,conflict ,,with ,,the ,,roman ,,curia4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,early ,,years ,,and ,,first ,,discoveries4 ,birth at ,pisa4--,parentage4--,his ,father's ,writings on ,music4--,galileo destined to be a ,cloth ,merchant4--,goes to the ,convent of ,vallombrosa4--,begins to study ,medicine4--,goes to the ,university of ,pisa4--,discovery of the ,synchronism of the ,pendulum4--,stolen ,lessons in ,mathematics4--,his ,hydrostatic ,scales4--,professorship at ,pisa4--,poor ,pay4--,the ,laws of ,motion4--,john de' ,medici4--,leaves ,pisa4--,professorship at ,padua4--,writes various ,treatises4--,the ,thermoscope4--,letter to ,kepler4--,the ,copernican ,system4--8,de ,revolutionibus orbium ,clestium0 #c ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,telescope ,,and ,,its ,,revelations4 ,term of ,professorship at ,padua renewed4--,astronomy4--,a ,new ,star4--,the ,telescope4--,galileo not the ,inventor4--,visit to ,venice to exhibit it4--,telescopic ,discoveries4--,jupiter's ,moons4--,request of ,henry ,,iv4--8,sidereus ,nuncius40--,the ,storm it raised4--,magini's attack on ,galileo4--,the ,ring of ,saturn4--,an ,anagram4--,opposition of the ,aristotelian ,school4--,letter to ,kepler #af ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,removal ,,to ,,florence4 ,galileo's ,fame and ,pupils4--,wishes to be freed from ,academic ,duties4--,projected ,works4--,call to ,court of ,tuscany4--,this change the source of his ,misfortunes4--,letter from ,sagredo4--,phases of ,venus and ,mercury4--,the ,solar ,spots4--,visit to ,rome4--,triumphant ,reception4--,letter from ,cardinal del ,monte to ,cosmo ,,ii4--,the ,inquisition4--,introduction of ,theology into the ,scientific ,controversy4--8,dianoja ,astronomica40--,intrigues at ,florence #bg ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,astronomy ,,and ,,theology4 ,treatise on ,floating ,bodies4--,controversy with ,scheiner about the ,solar ,spots4--,favourable reception of ,galileo's ,work on the subject at ,rome4--,discussion with the ,grand ,duchess ,christine4--,the ,bible brought into the controversy4--,ill-fated ,letter to ,castelli4--,caccini's ,sermon against ,galileo4--,lorini denounces the ,letter to the ,holy ,office4--,archbishop ,bonciani's attempts to get the original ,letter4--8,opinion0 of the ,inquisition on it4--,caccini summoned to give evidence4--,absurd accusations4--,testimony of ,ximenes and ,attavanti in ,galileo's favour #db ,,chapter ,v4 ,,hopes ,,and ,,fears4 ,galileo's ,fears4--,allayed by letters from ,rome4--,foscarini's ,work4--,blindness of ,galileo's ,friends4--,his ,apology to the ,grand ,duchess ,christine4--,effect produced by it4--,visit to ,rome4--,erroneous opinion that he was cited to appear4--,caccini begs pardon4--,galileo defends the ,copernican ,system at ,rome4--,his mistake in so doing #ei ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,inquisition ,,and ,,the ,,copernican ,,system1 ,,and ,,the ,,assumed ,,prohibition ,,to ,,galileo4 ,adverse 8,opinion0 of the ,inquisition on ,galileo's ,propositions4--,admonition by ,bellarmine1 and assumed ,absolute ,prohibition to treat of the ,copernican ,doctrines4--,discrepancy between ,notes of #beth and #bfth ,february4--,marini's ,documents4--,epinois's ,work on ,galileo4--,wohlwill first doubts the ,absolute ,prohibition4--,doubts confirmed by ,gherardi's ,documents4--,decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 on the ,copernican ,system4--,attitude of the ,church4--,was the ,absolute ,prohibition ever issued to ,galileo8--,testimony of ,bellarmine in his favour4--,conclusions #gf ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,evil ,,report ,,and ,,good ,,report4 ,galileo still lingers at ,rome4--,guiccardini tries to effect his ,recall4--,erroneous idea that he was trying to get the ,decree repealed4--,intrigues against him4--,audience of ,pope ,paul ,v4--,his friendly assurances4--,his ,character4--,galileo's return to ,florence #ia ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,controversy ,,on ,,comets4 ,studious ,seclusion4--,waiting for the ,correction of the ,work of ,copernicus4--,treatise on ,tides4--,sends it to ,archduke ,leopold of ,austria4--,the ,letter which accompanied it4--,the three ,comets of #afah4--;,galileo's ,opinion of ,comets4--,grassi's ,lecture on them4--,guiducci's ,treatise on them1 inspired by ,galileo4--,grassi's 8,astronomical and ,philosophical ,scales40--,galileo's ,reply4--,paul ,v4--,his ,death4--,death of ,cosmo ,,ii4--,gregory ,,xv4--8,il ,saggiatore0 finished4--,riccardi's 8,opinion0 on it4--,death of ,gregory ,,xv4--,urban ,,viii4 #ih ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,maffeo ,,barberini ,,as ,,urban ,,viii4 ,his ,character4--,taste for ,letters4--,friendship for ,galileo when ,cardinal4--,letters to him4--,verses in his honour4--,publication of 8,il ,saggiatore0 with ,dedication to the ,pope4--,character of the ,work4--,the ,pope's approval of it4--,inconsistency with the assumed ,prohibition #ajh ,,chapter ,x4 ,,papal ,,favour4 ,galileo goes to ,rome to congratulate ,urban ,,viii4 on his ,accession4--,favourable reception4--,scientific discussions with the ,pope4--,urban refuses to ,revoke the ,decree of #eth ,march4--,nicolo ,riccardi4--,the ,microscope4--,galileo not the ,inventor4--,urban's favours to ,galileo on leaving ,rome4--,galileo's reply to ,ingoli4--,sanguine hopes4--,grassi's hypocrisy4--,spinola's harangue against the ,copernican ,system4--,lothario ,sarsi's reply to 8,il ,saggiatore40--,galileo writes his 8,dialogues0 #aad ,,part ,,ii4 ,,publication ,,of ,,the 8,,dialogues ,,on ,,the ,,two ,,principal ,,systems ,,of ,,the ,,world10 ,,and ,,trial ,,and ,,condemnation ,,of ,,galileo4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the 8,,dialogues0 ,,on ,,the ,,two ,,systems4 ,origin of the 8,dialogues40--,their popular style4--,significance of the name ,simplicius4--,hypothetical treatment of the ,copernican ,system4--,attitude of ,rome towards ,science4--,thomas ,campanella4--,urban ,,viii4's duplicity4--,galileo takes his ,,ms4 to ,rome4--,riccardi's corrections4--,he gives the ,imprimatur on certain conditions4--,galileo returns to ,florence to complete the ,work #abg ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,imprimatur ,,for ,,the 8,,dialogues40 ,death of ,prince ,cesi4--,dissolution of the ,accadmia dei ,lincei4--,galileo advised to print at ,florence4--,difficulties and delays4--,his impatience4--,authorship of the ,introduction4--,the ,imprimatur granted for ,florence4--,absurd accusation from the style of the ,type of the ,introduction #ach ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the 8,,dialogues0 ,,and ,,the ,,jesuits4 ,publication of the 8,dialogues40--,applause of ,galileo's friends and the learned world4--,the hostile party4--,the ,jesuits as leaders of learning4--,deprived of their monopoly by ,galileo4--,they become his bitter foes4--,having the ,imprimatur for ,rome and ,florence1 ,galileo thought himself doubly safe4--,the three dolphins4--,scheiner4--,did 8,simplicius0 personate the ,pope8--,conclusive arguments against it4--,effect of the accusation4--,urban's motives in instituting the ,trial #aea ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,absolute ,,prohibition ,,of #afaf4 ,symptoms of the coming ,storm4--,the ,special ,commission4--,parade of forbearance4--,the ,grand ,duke intercedes for ,galileo4--,provisional ,prohibition of the 8,dialogues40--,niccolini's ,interview with the ,pope and unfavourable reception4--,report of it to ,cioli4--,magalotti's ,letters4--,real object of the ,special ,commission to find a pretext for the ,trial4--,its discovery in the assumed ,prohibition of #afaf4--,report of the ,commission1 and charges against ,galileo #afc ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,summons ,,to ,,rome4 ,niccolini's attempt to avert the ,trial4--,the ,pope's ,parable4--,the ,mandate summoning ,galileo to ,rome4--,his grief and consternation4--,his ,letter to ,cardinal ,barberini4--,renewed order to come to ,rome4--,niccolini's fruitless efforts to save him4--,medical ,certificate that he was unfit to travel4--,castelli's hopeful view of the case4--,threat to bring him to ,rome as a ,prisoner4--,the ,grand ,duke advises him to go4--,his powerlessness to protect his servant4--,galileo's mistake in leaving ,venice4--,letter to ,elia ,diodati #age ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,galileo',s ,,arrival ,,at ,,rome4 ,galileo reaches ,rome in ,february1 #afcb4--;,goes to the ,tuscan ,embassy4--,no notice at first taken of his coming4--,visits of ,serristori4--,galileo's hopefulness4--,his ,letter to ,bocchineri4--,niccolini's audience of the ,pope4--,efforts of the ,grand ,duke and ,niccolini on ,galileo's behalf4--,notice that he must appear before the ,holy ,office4--,his dejection at the news4--,niccolini's advice not to defend himself #aia ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,trial ,,before ,,the ,,inquisition4 ,the first hearing4--,galileo's submissive attitude4--,the events of ,february1 #afaf4--;,galileo denies knowledge of a special ,prohibition4--,produces ,bellarmine's certificate4--,either the ,prohibition was not issued1 or ,galileo's ignorance was feigned4--,his conduct since #afaf agrees with its non-issue4--,the ,inquisitor assumes that it was issued4--8,opinions0 of ,oregius1 ,inchofer and ,pasqualigus4--,galileo has ,apartments in the ,palace of the ,holy ,office assigned to him4--,falls ill4--,letter to ,geri ,bocchineri4--,change of tone at second hearing hitherto an enigma4--,now explained by letter from ,firenzuola to ,cardinal ,fr4 ,barberini4--,galileo's ,confession4--,his ,weakness and ,subserviency #bja ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,trial ,,continued4 ,galileo allowed to return to the ,embassy4--,his hopefulness4--,third hearing4--,hands in his ,defence4--,agreement of it with previous events4--,confident hopes of his friends4--,niccolini's fears4--,decision to examine ,galileo under threat of ,torture4--,niccolini's audience of the ,pope4--,informed that the ,trial was over1 that ,galileo would soon be ,sentenced1 and would be ,imprisoned4--,final ,examination4--,sent back to 8locum suum40--,no evidence that he suffered ,torture1 or was placed in a prison cell #bag ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,sentence ,,and ,,recantation4 ,the ,sentence in full4--,analysis of it4--,the ,copernican ,system had not been pronounced heretical by 8,infallible0 authority4--,the special ,prohibition assumed as fact4--,the ,sentence illegal according to the ,canon ,law4--,the ,holy ,office exceeded its powers in calling upon ,galileo to recant4--,the ,sentence not unanimous4--,this escaped notice for two hundred and thirty-one ,years4--,the ,recantation4--,futile attempts to show that ,galileo had really altered his opinion4--,after the ,sentence1 ,imprisonment exchanged for ,banishment to ,trinita de' ,monti4--,petition for leave to go to ,florence4--,allowed to go to ,siena #bcj ,,chapter ,x4 ,,current ,,myths4 ,popular ,story of ,galileo's ,fate4--,his ,eyes put out4--8,e pur si ,muove40--,the ,hair ,shirt4--,imprisonment4--,galileo only detained twenty-two ,days at the ,holy ,office4--,torture4--,refuted in #ahth ,century4--,torture based on the words 8examen rigorosum40--,this shown to be untenable4--,assertion that the ,acts have been falsified refuted4--,false ,imputation on ,niccolini4--,conclusive ,evidence against ,torture4--,galileo not truly a 8,martyr of ,science0 #bdi ,,part ,,iii4 ,,galileo',s ,,last ,,years4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,galileo ,,at ,,siena ,,and ,,arcetri4 ,arrival at ,siena4--,request to the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany to ask for his release4--,postponed on the advice of ,niccolini4--,endeavours at ,rome to stifle the ,copernican ,system4--,sentence and ,recantation sent to all the ,inquisitors of ,italy4--,letter to the ,inquisitor of ,venice4--,mandate against the publication of any new ,work of ,galileo's1 or new ,edition4--,curious ,arguments in favour of the old ,system4--,niccolini asks for ,galileo's release4--,refusal1 but permission given to go to ,arcetri4--,anonymous accusations4--,death of his ,daughter4--,request for permission to go to ,florence4--,harsh refusal and threat4--,letter to ,diodati4--,again at work4--,intervention of the ,count de ,noailles on ,galileo's behalf4--,prediction that he will be compared to ,socrates4--,letter to ,peiresc4--,publication of ,galileo's ,works in ,holland4--,continued efforts of ,noailles4--,urban's fair speeches #bfg ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,failing ,,health ,,and ,,loss ,,of ,,sight4 ,galileo's ,labours at ,arcetri4--,completion of the 8,dialoghi delle nuove ,scienze40--,sends it to the ,elzevirs at ,leyden4--,method of taking ,longitudes at ,sea4--,declined by ,spain and offered to ,holland4--,discovery of the ,libration and ,titubation of the ,moon4--,visit from ,milton4--,becomes blind4--,letter to ,diodati4--,on a hint from ,castelli1 petitions for his ,liberty4--,the ,inquisitor to visit him and report to ,rome4--,permitted to live at ,florence under restrictions4--,the ,states-,general appoint a ,delegate to see him on the ,longitude question4--,the ,inquisitor sends word of it to ,rome4--,galileo not to receive a ,heretic4--,presents from the ,states-,general refused from fear of ,rome4--,letter to ,diodati4--,galileo supposed to be near his end4--,request that ,castelli might come to him4--,permitted under restrictions4--,the new 8,dialoghi0 appear at ,leyden1 #afch4--,they founded ,mechanical ,physics4--,attract much notice4--,improvement of health4--,in #afci goes to ,arcetri again1 probably not voluntarily #bhd ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,last ,,years ,,and ,,death4 ,refusal of some ,favour asked by ,galileo4--,his pious ,resignation4--,continues his scientific ,researches4--,his pupil ,viviani4--,failure of attempt to renew ,negotiations about ,longitudes4--,reply to ,liceti and ,correspondence with him4--,last discussion of the ,copernican ,system in reply to ,rinuccini4--,sketch of its contents4--,pendulum ,clocks4--,priority of the discovery belongs to ,galileo4--,visit from ,castelli4--,torricelli joins ,viviani4--,scientific discourse on his ,deathbed4--,death1 #hth ,jan41 #afdb4--,proposal to deny him ,christian ,burial4--,monument objected to by ,urban ,,viii4--,ferdinand ,,ii4 fears to offend him4--,buried quietly4--,no ,inscription till thirty-two years later4--,first ,public ,monument erected by ,viviani in #afic4--,viviani directs his heirs to erect one in ,santa ,croce4--,erected in #agch4--,rome unable to put down ,copernican ,system4--,in #ageg ,benedict ,,xiv4 permits the clause in ,decree forbidding books which teach the new ,system to be expunged4--,in #ahbj permission given to treat of it as true4--,galileo's work and others not expunged from the ,index till #ahce #bii ,,appendix4 ,i4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,vatican ,,manuscript #cai ,,ii4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,vatican ,,manuscript #ccj ,,iii4 ,,estimate ,,of ,,the ,,vatican ,,manuscript #ccd ,,iv4 ,,gherardi',s ,,collection ,,of ,,documents #cda ,v4 ,,decree ,,of #e,,th ,,march1 #afaf #cde ,,vi4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,sentence ,,and ,,recantation #cdg ,,works ,,consulted4#e ,,alb,,ri 7,eugenio73 8,le opere di ,galileo ,galilei40 ,prima edizione completa condotta sugli autentici manoscritti ,palatini4 ,firenze1 #ahdb-ahef4 998,sul ,processo di ,galileo4 ,due ,lettere in risposta al giornale ,s'opinione40 ,firenze1 #ahfd4 ,,anonym3 8,der heilige ,stuhl gegen ,galileo ,galilei und das astronomische ,system des ,copernicus40 ,historisch-politische ,bltter fr das katholische ,deutschland2 herausgegeben von ,g4 ,phillips und ,g4 ,grres4 ,siebenter ,band4 ,mnchen1 #ahda4 8,galileo ,galilei4 ,sein ,leben und seine ,bedeutung fr die ,entwickelung der ,naturwissenschaft40 ,die ,fortschritte der ,naturwissenschaft in biographischen ,bildern4 ,drittes ,heft4 ,berlin1 #ahef4 8,galileo ,galilei40 ,die ,grenzboten4 ,,xxiv4 ,jahrgang4 ,i4 ,semester4 ,nr4 #bd4 #ahfe4 99,,arduini 7,carlo73 8,la ,primogenita di ,galileo ,galilei rivelata dalle sue lettere40 ,florence1 #ahfd4 ,,barbier 7,antoine ,alexandre73 8,examen critique et complment des dictionnaires historiques les plus rpandus40 ,paris1 #ahbj4 ,article ,galile4 99,,berti 7,prof4 ,domenico73 8,la venuta di ,galileo ,galilei a ,padova4 ,studii4 ,atti del ,reale ,istituto ,veneto di scienze1 lettere ed arti1 dal ,novembre #ahgj all' ottobre #ahga40 ,tomo decimosesto1 seria terza1 dispensa quinta1 ottava1 nono e decima4 ,venezia1 #ahgj1 #ahga4 998,copernico e le vicende del ,sistema ,copernicano in ,italia nella seconda met del secolo ,,xvi4 e nella prima del secolo ,,xvii40 ,roma1 #ahgf4 8,il ,processo originale di ,galileo ,galilei1 pubblicato per la prima volta40 ,roma1 #ahgf4 8,la ,critica moderna e il ,processo contro ,galileo ,galilei40 7,nuova ,antologia1 ,gennajo1 #ahgg ,firenze47 ,,bouix 7,l',abb73 8,la condamnation de ,galile4 ,lapsus des crivains1 qui l'opposent la doctrine de l'infaillibilit du ,pape40--,revue des ,sciences ecclsiastiques4 ,arras-,paris1 fvrier et mars1 #ahff4 ,,cantor 7,professor ,dr4 ,moritz73 8,galileo ,galilei40 ,zeitschrift fr ,mathematik und ,physik4 #i4 ,jahrgang4 #c4 ,heft4 ,leipzig1 #ahfd4 8,recensionen ber die #ahgj erschienenen ,schriften ,wohlwill's und ,gherardi's ber den ,galilei'schen ,process40 ,zeitschrift fr ,mathematik und ,physik4 #af4 ,jahrgang4 #a4 ,heft4 #ahga4 ,,caspar 7,dr4 ,r473 8,galileo ,galilei4 ,zusammenstellung der ,forschungen und ,entdeckungen ,galilei's auf dem ,gebiete der ,naturwissenschaft1 als ,beitrag zur ,geschichte der neueren ,physik40 ,stuttgart1 #ahed4 ,,chasles 7,prof4 ,philarte73 8,galileo ,galilei1 sa vie1 son procs et ses contemporains d'aprs les documents originaux40 ,paris1 #ahfb4 99,,combes 7,louis73 8,galile et ,l',inquisition ,romaine40 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,,delambre 7,jean ,baptiste ,joseph73 8,histoire de l'astronomie ancienne40 ,paris1 #ahba4 ,,eckert 7,professor ,dr473 8,galileo ,galilei1 dessen ,leben und ,verdienste um die ,wissenschaften40 ,als ,einladung zur ,promotionsfeier des ,pdagogiums4 ,basel1 #aheh4 ,,epinois 7,henri de ,l'73 8,galile1 son procs1 sa condamnation d'aprs des documents indits40 ,extrait de la ,revue des questions historiques4 ,paris1 #ahfg4 998,les ,pices du ,procs de ,galile1 prcdes d'un avant-propos40 ,rome1 ,paris1 #ahgg v4 ,palm socit ,gnrale de ,librairie ,catholique4 998,la ,question de ,galile1 les faits et leurs consquences40 ,paris ,palm1 #ahgh4 ,,figuier 7,louis73 8,galile40 ,vies des savants illustres du dix-septime sicle4 ,paris1 #ahfi4 ,,friedlein 7,rector73 8,zum ,inquisitionsprocess des ,galileo ,galilei40 ,zeitschrift fr ,mathematik und ,physik4 #ag4 ,jahrgang4 #c4 ,heft4 #ahgb4 ,,gherardi 7,prof4 ,silvestro73 8,il ,processo ,galileo riveduto sopra documenti di nuova fonte40 ,rivista ,europea4 ,anno #a4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,firenze1 #ahgj4f 8,sulla ,dissertazione del dott4 ,emilio ,wohlwill4 ,il processo di ,galileo ,galilei40 ,estratto della ,rivista ,europea4 ,firenze1 #ahgb4 99,,gilbert 7,prof4 ,ph473 8,le ,procs de ,galile d'aprs les ,documents contemporains40 ,extrait de la ,revue ,catholique tomes ,i41 ,,ii4 ,louvains1 #ahfi4 ,,govi 7,gilberto73 8,intorno a certi manuscritti apocrifi di ,galileo40 ,torino1 #ahfi4 ,estr4 dagli ,atti della ,accadmia delle ,scienze di ,torino ,vol4 ,v4 ,adunanza del #ba ,nov4 #ahfi4 8,intorno a tre lettere di ,galileo ,galilei tratte dall' archivio dei ,gonzaga40 ,bollettino di bibliografia e di storia delle scienze matematiche e fisiche pubblicato da ,b4 ,boncompagni4 ,tomo ,,iii4 ,roma1 #ahgj4 ,,govi 7,gilberto73 8,il ,s4 ,offizio1 ,copernico e ,galileo a proposito di un opuscolo postumo del ,p4 ,olivieri sullo stesso argomento40 ,torino1 #ahgb4 99,,grisar 7,prof4 ,h4 ,s4 ,j473 8,der ,galilei'sche ,process auf der neuesten ,actenpublicationen historisch und juristisch geprft40 ,zeitschrift fr ,kath4 ,theol4 ,,ii4 ,jahrgang1 pp4 #fe-abh4 ,innsbruck4 ,,jagemann3 8,geschichte des ,lebens und der ,schriften des ,galileo ,galilei40 ,neue ,auflage4 ,leipzig1 #aghg4 ,,libri3 8,galileo ,galilei1 sein ,leben und seine ,werke40 ,aus dem ,franzsischen mit ,anmerkungen von ,f4 ,w4 ,carov4 ,siegen und ,wiesbaden1 #ahdb4 ,,marini 7,mgr4 ,marino73 8,galileo e l'inquisizione40 ,memorie storico-critiche4 ,roma1 #ahej4 ,,martin 7,henri ,th473 8,galile1 les droits de la science et la mthode des sciences physiques40 ,paris1 #ahfh4 ,,nelli 7,gio4 ,batista ,clemente de73 8,vita e commercio letterario di ,galileo ,galilei40 ,losanna 7,firenze71 #agic4 ,,olivieri 7,p4 ,maurizio-,benedetto ,ex4 generale dei domenicani e ,commissario della ,s4 ,rom4 ed ,univer4 ,inquisizione73 8,di ,copernico e di ,galileo scritto postumo ora per la prima volta messo in luce sull' autografo per cura d'un religioso dello stesso istituto40 ,bologna1 #ahgb4 ,,parchappe 7,dr4 ,max73 8,galile1 sa vie1 ses dcouvertes et ses travaux40 ,paris1 #ahff4 99,,pieralisi 7,sante1 ,sacerdote e ,bibliotecario della ,barberiniana73 8,urbano ,,viii4 e ,galileo ,galilei3 ,memorie ,storiche40 ,roma1 #ahge4 ,tipografia poliglotta della ,l4 ,p4 di ,propaganda ,fide4 998,correzioni al libro ,urbano ,,viii4 ,galileo ,galilei proposte dall' autore ,sante ,pieralisi con osservazione sopra il processo originale di ,galileo ,galilei pubblicato da ,domenico ,berti40 ,settembre1 #ahgf4 ,,reitlinger 7,prof4 ,edmund73 8,galileo ,galilei40 ,freie ,blicke4 ,populrwissenschaftliche ,aufstze4 ,berlin1 #ahge4 ,,reumont 7,alfred von73 8,galilei und ,rom40 ,beitrge zur italienischen ,geschichte4 #a ,bd4 ,berlin1 #ahec4 ,,reusch 7,professor ,dr4 ,f4 ,h473 8,der ,galilei'sche ,procesz40 ,ein ,vortrag4 ,historische ,zeitschrift2 herausgegeben von ,prof4 ,heinrich von ,sybel4 #ag4 ,jahrgang4 #ahge4 #c4 ,heft4 ,,rezzi 7,m4 ,domenica73 8,sulla invenzione del microscopio1 giuntavi una notizia delle ,considerazioni al ,tasso attribuite a ,galileo ,galilei40 ,roma1 #aheb4 99,,riccardi 7,prof4 ,cav4 ,pietro73 8,di alcune recenti memorie sul processo e sulla condanna del ,galilei4 ,nota e ,documenti aggiunti alla bibliografia ,galileiana40 ,modena1 #ahgc4 ,,riccioli 7,p4 ,jo4 ,bapt473 8,almagestum novum40 ,bonioniae1 #afea4 ,,rosini 7,m4 ,giovanni73 8,per l'inaugurazione solenne della statua di ,galileo40 ,orazione4 ,pisa1 #ahci 7#b ,oct74 ,,rossi 7,prof4 ,giuseppe73 8,del ,metodo ,galileiano40 ,bologna1 #ahgg4 99,,scartazzini 7,dr4 ,t4 ,a473 8,der ,process des ,galileo ,galilei40 ,unsere ,zeit4 ,jahrgang #ac4 ,heft #g and #ah4 998,il processo di ,galileo ,galilei e la moderna critica tedesca40 ,revista ,europea1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,part ,v41 ,vol4 ,v4 ,parts ,i and ,,ii41 #a and #af ,jan4 #ahgh4 99,,schneemann 7,p4 ,s4 ,j473 8,galileo ,galilei und der ,rmische ,stuhl40 ,stimmen aus ,maria ,laach4 ,kath4 ,blttern4 ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,feb4 ,mar4 ,april1 #ahgh4 ,,snell 7,dr4 ,carl73 8,ueber ,galilei als ,begrnder der mechanischen ,physik und ber die ,methode derselben40 ,jena1 #ahfd4 ,,targioni ,,tozzetti3 8,notizie degli aggrandimenti delle scienze fisiche in ,toscana40 ,firenze1 #aghj4 7,contains in ,vol4 ii43 8,vita di ,galileo scritta da ,nic4 ,gherardini407 ,,venturi 7,cav4 ,giambattista73 8,memorie e lettere inedite finora o disperse di ,galileo ,galilei40 ,modena1 #ahah-ahba4 ,,viviani3 8,raconto istorico della vita di ,galileo ,galilei40 7,enthalten im ,,xv4 ,bande der ,opere di ,galileo ,galilei4 ,prima edizione completa4 ,firenze1 #ahef47 ,,vosen 7,dr4 ,christian ,hermann73 8,galileo ,galilei und die ,rmische ,berurtheilung des ,copernicanischen ,systems40 ,broschrenverein ,nr4 #e4 ,frankfurt am ,m4 #ahfe4 ,,wohlwill 7,dr4 ,emil73 8,der ,inquisitionsprocess des ,galileo ,galilei4 ,eine ,prfung seiner rechtlichen ,grundlage nach den ,acten der ,rmischen ,inquisition40 ,berlin1 #ahgj4 998,ist ,galilei gefoltert worden8 ,eine kritische ,studie40 ,leipzig1 #ahgg4 8,zum ,inquisitionsprocesz des ,galileo ,galilei40 ,zeitschrift fr ,mathematik und ,physik4 #ag4 ,jahrgang4 #b4 ,heft4 #ahgb4 99,,wolynski 7,dott4 ,arturio73 8,lettere inedite a ,galileo ,galilei40 ,firenze1 #ahgb4 998,relazione di ,galileo ,galilei colla ,polonia esposte secondo i documenti per la maggior parte non pubblicati40 ,firenze1 #ahgc4 8,la ,diplomazia ,toscana e ,galileo ,galilei40 ,firenze1 #ahgd4 ,,part ,i4 ,,galileo',s ,,early ,,years1 ,,his ,,important ,,discoveries1 ,,and ,,first ,,conflict ,,with ,,the ,,roman ,,curia4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,early ,,years ,,and ,,first ,,discoveries4 ,birth at ,pisa4--,parentage4--,his ,father's ,writings on ,music4--,galileo destined to be a ,cloth ,merchant4--,goes to the ,convent of ,vallombrosa4--,begins to study ,medicine4--,goes to the ,university of ,pisa4--,discovery of the ,isochronism of the ,pendulum4--,stolen ,lessons in ,mathematics4--,his ,hydrostatic ,scales4--,professorship at ,pisa4--,poor ,pay4--,the ,laws of ,motion4--,john de' ,medici4--,leaves ,pisa4--,professorship at ,padua4--,writes various ,treatises4--,the ,thermoscope4--,letter to ,kepler4--,the ,copernican ,system4--8,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,clestium40 ,the same memorable day is marked by the setting of one of the most brilliant stars in the firmament of art and the rising of another in the sphere of science1 which was to enlighten the world with beams of equal splendour4 ,on the #ahth ,february1 #aefd1 ,michael ,angelo ,buonarotti closed his eyes at ,rome1 and ,galileo ,galilei first saw the light at ,pisa4 ,he was the son of the ,florentine nobleman1 ,vincenzo ,galilei1 and of ,julia1 one of the ancient family of the ,ammanati of ,pescia1 and was born in wedlock1 as the documents of the church clearly attest4#g ,his earliest years were spent at ,pisa1 but his parents soon returned to ,florence1 which was their settled home4 ,here he received his early education4 ,his father had distinguished himself by his writings on the theory of music1 particularly the mathematical part of it4#h ,they were not merely above mediocrity1 but aimed at innovation1 and if they did not achieve reform1 it was to be attributed to the conservative spirit then reigning in ,italy1 which asserted itself in every department of life1 and especially in the spheres of art and science4 ,galileo's father had no property4 ,his income was but scanty1 and the fates had endowed him with a numerous family instead of with fortune4#i ,under these untoward circumstances he at first destined the little ,galileo1 as is related by ,gherardini1 his earliest biographer1 to a career by no means distinguished1 though advantageous in a material point of view1 and one that conferred much of their wealth on the ,florentines1 so that it was held in high esteem--he was to be a cloth dealer4 ,but the young noble first received the education befitting his station1 that is1 a very mediocre teacher instructed him in the ,humanities4#aj ,fortunately for the clever young scholar1 he was handed over to the pious brethren of the convent of ,vallombrosa for further education4 ,here he at once made rapid progress4 ,he acquired great facility in the classics4 ,his thorough study of the masterpieces of antiquity was of the greatest advantage to him4 ,he doubtless thereby laid the foundation of the admirable style to which he afterwards1 in some measure1 owed his brilliant successes4 ,galileo had a great variety of talent4 ,besides ardent pursuit of the solid branches of learning1 he had considerable skill in drawing and music1 in which he afterwards attained so much perfection that his judgment was highly esteemed1 even by great artists4#aa ,he played the lute himself with the skill of a master4 ,he also highly appreciated poetry4 ,his later essays on ,dante1 ,orlando ,furioso1 and ,gerusalemme ,liberata1 as well as the fragment of a play1 bear witness to his lively interest in belles lettres4 ,but from his earliest youth he showed the greatest preference for mechanics4 ,he made little machines with an ingenuity and skill which evinced a really unusual talent for such things4#ab ,with these abilities his father must soon have arrived at the conclusion that his son was born for something better than for distributing wool among the people1 and resolved to devote him to science2 only it was necessary that the branch of it to which he turned his attention should offer a prospect of profit4 ,medicine was decided on as the most likely to be lucrative1 although it may not seem the one most suited to his abilities4 ,on #eth ,november1 #aeha1 ,galileo1 then just seventeen1 entered the ,university of ,pisa4#ac ,even here the young medical student's independent ideas and aims made way for themselves4 ,at that time any original ideas and philosophical views not derived from the dogmas of ,aristotle were unheard of4 ,all the theories of natural science and philosophy had hitherto been referred to theology4 ,it had been held to be the ,alpha and ,omega of all human knowledge4 ,but now the period was far advanced in which it was felt to be necessary to cast off the narrow garments fashioned by religion1 though at first the will to do so exceeded the power4 ,a stir and ferment agitated men's minds4 ,a period of storm and stress had begun for the study of nature and the philosophical speculation so closely connected with it4 ,men did not as yet possess energy and ability for direct advance1 so they turned with real fanaticism to ancient learning1 which1 being independent1 and not based on religious notions1 afforded them satisfaction4 ,under these circumstances recurrence to the past was real progress4 ,unconditional surrender to the ideas of others1 entire adoption of opinions1 some of which were not too well verified1 might suit mediocrity1 but it could not suffice for the powerful mind of ,galileo1 who was striving to find out the truth for himself4 ,the genius of the young student rebelled fiercely against rigid adherence to an antiquated standpoint4 ,to the horror of the followers of ,aristotle1 who were quite taken aback at such unheard-of audacity1 he resolutely attacked in public disputations many oracular dicta of their great master hitherto unquestioned1 and this even then made him many enemies1 and acquired for him the epithet of 8the ,wrangler40#ad ,two circumstances occur during ,galileo's student years1 which1 in their main features1 are not without historical foundation1 although in detail they bear an anecdotal impress4 ,one1 which is characteristic of ,galileo's observant eye1 shows us the student of nineteen devoutly praying in the ,cathedral at ,pisa2 but he seems to have soon wearied of this occupation1 for he dreamily fixed his eye on the ,maestro ,possenti's beautiful lamp1 hanging from an arch1 which1 in order to light it more readily1 had been moved out of its vertical position and then left to itself4 ,the oscillations were at first considerable1 became gradually less and less1 but notwithstanding the varying distances1 they were all performed in the same time1 as the young medical student discovered to a nicety by feeling his pulse4 ,the isochronism of the vibrations of the pendulum was discovered6#ae ,the other story refers to ,galileo's first mathematical studies4 ,gherardini relates that he was scarcely acquainted with the elements of mathematics up to his twentieth year1 which1 by the by1 seems almost incredible4 ,but while he was diligently studying medicine at ,pisa1 the court of ,tuscany came there for some months4 ,among the suite was ,ostilio ,ricci1 governor of the pages1 a distinguished mathematician and an old friend of the ,galilei family2 ,galileo1 therefore1 often visited him4 ,one morning when he was there1 ,ricci was teaching the pages4 ,galileo stood shyly at the door of the schoolroom1 listening attentively to the lesson2 his interest grew greater and greater2 he followed the demonstration of the mathematical propositions with bated breath4 ,strongly attracted by the science almost unknown to him before1 as well as by ,ricci's method of instruction1 he often returned1 but always unobserved1 and1 ,euclid in hand1 drank deeply1 from his uncomfortable concealment1 of the streams of fresh knowledge4 ,mathematics also occupied the greater part of his time in the solitude of his study4 ,but all this did not satisfy his thirst for knowledge4 ,he longed to be himself taught by ,ricci4 ,at last he took courage1 and1 hesitatingly confessing his sins of curiosity to the astonished tutor1 he besought him to unveil to him the further mysteries of mathematics1 to which ,ricci at once consented4 ,when ,galileo's father learnt that his son was devoting himself to ,euclid at the expense of ,hippocrates and ,galen1 he did his utmost to divert him from this new1 and as it seemed to him1 unprofitable study4 ,the science of mathematics was not then held in much esteem1 as it led to nothing practical4 ,its use1 as applied to the laws of nature1 had scarcely begun to be recognised4 ,but the world-wide mission for which ,galileo's genius destined him had been too imperiously marked out by fate for him to be held back by the mere will of any man4 ,old ,vincenzo had to learn the unconquerable power of genius in young ,galileo1 and to submit to it4 ,the son pursued the studies marked out for him by nature more zealously than ever1 and at length obtained leave from his father to bid adieu to medicine and to devote himself exclusively to mathematics and physics4#af ,the unexpected successes won by the young philosopher in a very short time in the realm of science1 soon showed that his course had now been turned into the proper channel4 ,galileo's father1 who1 almost crushed with the burden of his family1 could with difficulty bear the expense of his son's residence at the ,university1 turned in his perplexity to the beneficence of the reigning ,grand ,duke1 ,ferdinand de' ,medici1 with the request that1 in consideration of the distinguished talents and scientific attainments of ,galileo1 he would grant him one of the forty free places founded for poor students at the ,university4 ,but even then there were many who were envious of ,galileo in consequence of his unusual abilities and his rejection of the traditional authority of ,aristotle4 ,they succeeded in inducing the ,grand ,duke to refuse poor ,vincenzo's petition1 in consequence of which the young student had to leave the ,university1 after four years' residence1 without taking the doctor's degree4#ag ,in spite of these disappointments1 ,galileo was not deterred1 on his return home1 from continuing his independent researches into natural phenomena4 ,the most important invention of those times1 to which he was led by the works of ,archimedes1 too little regarded during the ,middle ,ages1 was his hydrostatic scales1 about the construction and use of which he wrote a treatise1 called 8,la ,bilancetta40 ,this1 though afterwards circulated in manuscript copies among his followers and pupils1 was not printed until after his death1 in #afee4 ,galileo now began to be everywhere spoken of in ,italy4 ,the discovery of the movement of the pendulum as a measurement of time1 the importance of which was increasingly recognised1 combined with his novel and intellectual treatment of physics1 by which the phenomena of nature were submitted1 as far as possible1 to direct proof instead of to the a priori reasoning of the ,aristotelians1 excited much attention in all scientific circles4 ,distinguished men of learning1 like ,clavius at ,rome1 with whom he had become acquainted on his first visit there in #aehg1ah ,michael ,coignet at ,antwerp1 ,riccoboni1 the ,marquis ,guidubaldo del ,monte1 etc41 entered into correspondence with him4#ai ,intercourse with the latter1 a distinguished mathematician1 who took the warmest interest in ,galileo's fate1 became of the utmost importance to him4 ,it was not merely that to his encouragement he owed the origin of his excellent treatise on the doctrine of centres of gravity1 which materially contributed to establish his fame1 and even gained for him from ,del ,monte the name of an 8,archimedes of his time10 but he first helped him to secure a settled and honourable position in life4 ,by his opportune recommendation in #aehi1 the professorship of mathematics at the ,university of ,pisa1 just become vacant1 was conferred on ,galileo1 with an income of sixty scudi4#bj ,it is indicative of the standing of the sciences in those days that1 while the professor of medicine had a salary of two thousand scudi1 the professor of mathematics had not quite thirty kreuzers#ba a day4 ,even for the sixteenth century it was very poor pay4 ,moreover1 in accordance with the usage at the ,italian ,universities1 he was only installed for three years2 but in ,galileo's needy circumstances1 even this little help was very desirable1 and his office enabled him to earn a considerable additional income by giving private lessons4 ,during the time of his professorship at ,pisa he made his grand researches into the laws of gravitation1 now known under the name of 8,galileo's ,laws10 and wrote as the result of them his great treatise 8,de ,motu ,gravium40 ,it then had but a limited circulation in copies1 and did not appear in print until two hundred years after his death1 in ,albri's 8,opere complete di ,galileo ,galilei40 ,aristotle1 nearly two thousand years before1 had raised the statement to the rank of a proposition1 that the rate at which a body falls depends on its weight4 ,up to ,galileo's time this doctrine had been generally accepted as true1 on the mere word of the old hero of science1 although individual physicists1 like ,varchi in #aedd1 and ,benedetti in #aefc1 had disputed it1 maintaining that bodies of similar density and different weight fall from the same height in an equal space of time4 ,they sought to prove the correctness of this statement by the most acute reasoning1 but the idea of experiment did not occur to any one4 ,galileo1 well aware that the touchstone of experiment would discover the vulnerable spot in ,aristotelian infallibility1 climbed the leaning tower of ,pisa1 in order thence to prove by experiment1 to the discomfiture of the ,peripatetic school1 the truth of the axiom that the velocity with which a body falls does not depend on its weight but on its density4#bb ,it might have been thought that his opponents would strike sail after this decisive argument4 ,aristotle1 the master1 would certainly have yielded to it--but his disciples had attained no such humility4 ,they followed the bold experiments of the young professor with eyes askance and miserable sophistries1 and1 being unable to meet him with his own weapons of scientific research1 they eagerly sought an opportunity of showing the impious and dangerous innovator the door of the aula4 ,an unforeseen circumstance came all at once to their aid in these designs4 ,an illegitimate son of the half-brother of the reigning ,grand ,duke1--the relationship was somewhat farfetched1 but none the less ominous for ,galileo--,john de' ,medici1 took an innocent pleasure in inventing machines1 and considered himself a very skilful artificer4 ,this ingenious semi-prince had constructed a monster machine for cleaning the harbour of ,leghorn1 and proposed that it should be brought into use4 ,but ,galileo1 who had been commissioned to examine the marvel1 declared it to be useless1 and1 unfortunately1 experiment fully confirmed the verdict4 ,ominous head-shakings were seen among the suite of the deeply mortified inventor4 ,they entered into alliance with the ,peripatetic philosophers against their common enemy4 ,there were cabals at court4 ,galileo1 perceiving that his position at ,pisa was untenable1 voluntarily resigned his professorship before the three years had expired1 and migrated for the second time home to ,florence4#bc ,his situation was now worse than before1 for about this time1 #bnd ,july1 #aeia1 his father died after a short illness1 leaving his family in very narrow circumstances4 ,in this distress the ,marquis del ,monte again appeared as a friend in need4 ,thanks to his warm recommendation to the ,senate of the ,republic of ,venice1 in the autumn of #aeib the professorship of mathematics at the ,university of ,padua1 which had become vacant1 was bestowed on ,galileo for six years4#bd ,on #gth ,december1 #aeib1 he entered on his office with a brilliant opening address1 which won the greatest admiration1 not only for its profound scientific knowledge1 but for its entrancing eloquence4#be ,his lectures soon acquired further fame1 and the number of his admirers and the audience who eagerly listened to his1 in many respects1 novel demonstrations1 daily increased4 ,during his residence at ,padua1 ,galileo displayed an extraordinary and versatile activity4 ,he constructed various machines for the service of the republic1 and wrote a number of excellent treatises1 intended chiefly for his pupils4#bf ,among the larger works may be mentioned his writings on the laws of motion1 on fortification1 gnomonics 7the making of sun-dials71 mechanics1 and on the celestial globe1 which attained a wide circulation even in copies1 and were some of them printed long afterwards--the one on fortification not until the present century2#bg others1 including the one on gnomonics1 are unfortunately lost4 ,on the wide field of inventions two may be specially mentioned1 one of which was not fully developed until much later4 ,the first was his proportional circle1 which1 though it had no special importance as illustrative of any principle1 had a wide circulation from its various practical uses4 ,ten years later1 in #afjf1 ,galileo published an excellent didactic work on this subject1 dedicated to ,cosmo de' ,medici1 and in #afjg a polemical one against ,balthasar ,capra1 of ,milan1 who1 in a treatise published in #afjg1 which was nothing but a plagiarism of ,galileo's work disfigured by blunders1 gave himself out as the inventor of the instrument4 ,galileo's reply1 in which he first exhibited the polemical dexterity afterwards so much dreaded1 excited great attention even in lay circles from its masterly satire4#bh ,the other invention was a contrivance by which heat could be more exactly indicated4 ,over zealous biographers have therefore hastened to claim for their hero the invention of the thermometer1 which1 however1 is not correct1 as the instrument1 which was not intended to measure the temperature1 could not be logically called a thermometer1 but a thermoscope1 heat indicator4 ,undoubtedly it prepared the way by which improvers of the thermoscope arrived at the thermometer4#bi ,before proceeding further with ,galileo's researches and discoveries1 so far as they fall within our province1 it seems important to acquaint ourselves with his views about the ,copernican system4 ,from a letter of his to ,mazzoni1 of #cjth ,may1 #aeig1cj it is clear that he considered the opinions of ,pythagoras and ,copernicus on the position and motion of the earth to be far more correct than those of ,aristotle and ,ptolemy4 ,in another letter of #dth ,august of the same year to ,kepler1 he thanks him for his work1 which he had sent him1 on the ,mysteries of the ,universe1#ca and writes as follows about the ,copernican system3-- 8,i count myself happy1 in the search after truth1 to have so great an ally as yourself1 and one who is so great a friend of the truth itself4 ,it is really pitiful that there are so few who seek truth1 and who do not pursue a perverse method of philosophising4 ,but this is not the place to mourn over the miseries of our times1 but to congratulate you on your splendid discoveries in confirmation of truth4 ,i shall read your book to the end1 sure of finding much that is excellent in it4 ,i shall do so with the more pleasure1 because ,i have been for many years an adherent of the ,copernican system1 and it explains to me the causes of many of the appearances of nature which are quite unintelligible on the commonly accepted hypothesis4 ,i have collected many arguments for the purpose of refuting the latter2 but ,i do not venture to bring them to the light of publicity1 for fear of sharing the fate of our master1 ,copernicus1 who1 although he has earned immortal fame with some1 yet with very many 7so great is the number of fools7 has become an object of ridicule and scorn4 ,i should certainly venture to publish my speculations if there were more people like you4 ,but this not being the case1 ,i refrain from such an undertaking40#cb ,in an answer from ,grtz1 of #acth ,october of the same year1 ,kepler urgently begs him to publish his researches into the ,copernican system1 advising him to bring them out in ,germany if he does not receive permission to do so in ,italy4#cc ,in spite of this pressing request of his eminent friend1 however1 ,galileo was not to be induced to bring his convictions to the light yet1 a hesitation which may not appear very commendable4 ,but if we consider the existing state of science1 which condemned the ,copernican system as an unheard of and fantastic hypothesis1 and the religious incubus which weighed down all knowledge of nature irrespective of religious belief1 and if1 besides all this1 we remember the entire revolution in the sphere both of religion and science involved in the reception of the ,copernican system1 we shall be more ready to admit that ,galileo had good reason to be cautious4 ,the ,copernican cause could not be served by mere partisanship1 but only by independent fresh researches to prove its correctness1 indeed its irrefragability4 ,nothing but the fulfilment of these conditions formed a justification1 either in a scientific or moral point of view1 for taking part in overturning the previous views of the universe4 ,before the powerful mind of ,copernicus ventured to question it1 our earth was held to be the centre of the universe1 and about it all the rest of the heavenly bodies revolved4 ,there was but one 8world10 and that was our earth2 the whole firmament1 infinity1 was the fitting frame to the picture1 upon which man1 as the most perfect being1 held a position which was truly sublime4 ,it was an elevating thought that you were on the centre1 the only fixed point amidst countless revolving orbs6 ,the narrations in the ,bible1 and the character of the ,christian religion as a whole1 fitted this conception exceedingly well2 or1 more properly speaking1 were made to fit it4 ,the creation of man1 his fall1 the flood1 and our second venerable ancestor1 ,noah1 with his ark in which the continuation of races was provided for1 the foundation of the ,christian religion1 the work of redemption2--all this could only lay claim to universal importance so long as the earth was the centre of the universe1 the only world4 ,then all at once a learned man makes the annihilating assertion that our world was not the centre of the universe1 but revolved itself1 was but an insignificant part of the vast1 immeasurable system of worlds4 ,what had become of the favoured status of the earth8 ,and this indefinite number of bodies1 equally favoured by nature1 were they also the abodes of men8 ,the bare possibility of a number of inhabited worlds could but imperil the first principles of ,christian philosophy4 ,the system of the great ,copernicus1 however1 thanks to the anonymous preface to his famous work1 8,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,clestium10 had not1 up to this time1 assumed to be a correct theory1 but only a hypothesis1 which need not be considered even probable1 as it was only intended to facilitate astronomical calculations4 ,we know now that this was a gigantic mistake1 that the immortal astronomer had aimed at rectifying the ,ptolemaic confusion1 and was fully convinced of the correctness of his system2 we know that this unprincipled ,introduction is by no means to be attributed to ,copernicus1 but to ,andreas ,osiander1 who took part in publishing this book1 which formed so great an epoch in science1 and whose anxious soul thereby desired to appease the anticipated wrath of the theologians and philosophers4 ,and we know further that the founder of our present system of the universe1 although he handled the first finished copy of his imperishable work when he was dying1 was unable to look into it1 being already struck by paralysis1 and thus never knew of ,osiander's weak-minded ,introduction1 which had prudently not been submitted to him4#cd ,a few days after receiving a copy of the great work of his genius1 ,copernicus died1 on #bdth ,may1 #aedc2 and his system1 for which he had been labouring and striving all his life1 was1 in consequence of ,osiander's sacrilegious act1 reduced to a simple hypothesis intended to simplify astronomical calculations6 ,as such it did not in the least endanger the faith of the ,church4 ,even ,pope ,paul ,,iii41 to whom ,copernicus had dedicated his work1 received it 8with pleasure40 ,in #aeff a second edition appeared at ,basle1 and still it did not excite any opposition from the ,church4 ,it was not till #afaf1 when it had met with wide acceptance among the learned1 when its correctness had been confirmed by fresh facts1 and it had begun to be looked upon as true1 that the ,roman curia felt moved to condemn the work of ,copernicus until it had been corrected 7donec corrigantur74 ,having thus rapidly glanced at the opposition between the ,copernican system and the ,ptolemaic1 which forms the prelude to ,galileo's subsequent relations with ,rome1 we are at liberty to fulfil the task we have set ourselves1 namely1 to portray 8,galileo and the ,roman ,curia40 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,telescope ,,and ,,its ,,revelations4 ,term of ,professorship at ,padua renewed4--,astronomy4--,a ,new ,star4--,the ,telescope4--,galileo not the ,inventor4--,visit to ,venice to exhibit it4--,telescopic ,discoveries4--,jupiter's ,moons4--,request of ,henry ,,iv4--8,sidereus ,nuncius40--,the ,storm it raised4--,magini's attack on ,galileo4--,the ,ring of ,saturn4--,an ,anagram4--,opposition of the ,aristotelian ,school4--,letter to ,kepler4 ,the first six years of ,galileo's professorship at ,padua had passed away1 but the senate were eager to retain so bright a light for their ,university1 and prolonged the appointment of the professor1 whose renown was now great1 for another six years1 with a considerable increase of salary4#ce ,as we have seen1 he had for a long time renounced the prevailing views about the universe2 but up to this time he had discussed only physical mathematical questions with the ,peripatetic school1 the subject of astronomy had not been mooted4 ,but the sudden appearance of a new star in the constellation of ,serpentarius1 in ,october1 #afjd1 which1 after exhibiting various colours for a year and a half1 as suddenly disappeared1 induced him openly to attack one of the ,aristotelian doctrines hitherto held most sacred1 that of the unchangeableness of the heavens4 ,galileo demonstrated1 in three lectures to a numerous audience1 that this star was neither a mere meteor1 nor yet a heavenly body which had before existed but had only now been observed1 but a body which had recently appeared and had again vanished4#cf ,the subject1 though not immediately connected with the ,copernican question1 was an important step taken on the dangerous and rarely trodden path of knowledge of nature1 uninfluenced by dogmatism or petrified professorial wisdom4 ,this inviolability of the vault of heaven was also conditioned by the prevailing views of the universe4 ,what wonder then that most of the professors who had grown grey in the ,aristotelian doctrine 7,cremonio for instance1 ,coressio1 ,lodovico delle ,colombo1 and ,balthasar ,capra7 were incensed at these opinions of ,galileo1 so opposed to all their scientific prepossessions1 and vehemently controverted them4 ,the spark1 however1 which was to set fire to the abundant inflammable material1 and to turn the scientific and religious world1 in which doubt had before been glimmering1 into a veritable volcano1 the spark which kindled ,galileo's genius and made him for a long time the centre of that period of storm and stress1 was the discovery of the telescope4 ,we will not claim for ,galileo1 as many of his biographers have erroneously done1 priority in the construction of the telescope4 ,we rely far more on ,galileo's own statements than on those of his eulogists1 who aim at effect4 ,galileo relates with perfect simplicity at the beginning of the 8,sidereus ,nuncius10 published at ,venice in #afaj1 that he had heard about ten months ago that an instrument had been made by a ,dutchman1 by means of which distant objects were brought nearer and could be seen very plainly4 ,the confirmation of the report by one of his former pupils1 a ,french nobleman1 ,jean ,badovere of ,paris1 had induced him to reflect upon the means by which such an effect could be produced4 ,by the laws of refraction he soon attained his end4 ,with two glasses fixed at the ends of a leaden tube1 both having one side flat and the other side of the one being concave and of the other convex1 his primitive telescope1 which made objects appear three times nearer and nine times larger1 was constructed4 ,but now1 having 8spared neither expense nor labour10 he had got so far as to construct an instrument which magnified an object nearly a thousand times1 and brought it more than thirty times nearer4#cg ,although1 therefore1 it is clear from this that the first idea of the telescope does not belong to ,galileo1 it is equally clear that he found out how to construct it from his own reflection and experiments4 ,undoubtedly also the merit of having made great improvements in it belongs to him1 which is shown by the fact that at that time1 and long afterwards1 his telescopes were the most sought after1 and that he received numerous orders for them from learned men1 princes and governments in distant lands1 ,holland1 the birthplace of the telescope1 not excepted4#ch ,but the idea which first gave to the instrument its scientific importance1 the application of it to astronomical observations1 belongs not to the original inventor but to the genius of ,galileo4 ,this alone would have made his name immortal4#ci ,a few days after he had constructed his instrument1 imperfect as it doubtless was1 he hastened with it to ,venice1 having received an invitation1 to exhibit it to the doge and senate1 for he at once recognised its importance1 if not to the full extent4 ,we will now let ,galileo speak for himself in a letter which he wrote from ,venice to his brother-in-law1 ,benedetto ,landucci3-- 8,you must know then that about two months ago a report was spread here that in ,flanders a spy-glass had been presented to ,prince ,maurice1 so ingeniously constructed that it made the most distant objects appear quite near1 so that a man could be seen quite plainly at a distance of two miglia4 ,this result seemed to me so extraordinary that it set me thinking2 and as it appeared to me that it depended upon the theory of perspective1 ,i reflected on the manner of constructing it1 in which ,i was at length so entirely successful that ,i made a spy-glass which far surpasses the report of the ,flanders one4 ,as the news had reached ,venice that ,i had made such an instrument1 six days ago ,i was summoned before their highnesses the signoria1 and exhibited it to them1 to the astonishment of the whole senate4 ,many noblemen and senators1 although of a great age1 mounted the steps of the highest church towers at ,venice1 in order to see sails and shipping that were so far off that it was two hours before they were seen steering full sail into the harbour without my spy-glass1 for the effect of my instrument is such that it makes an object fifty miglia off appear as large and near as if it were only five40#dj ,galileo further relates in the same letter that he had presented one of his instruments to the senate1 in return for which his professorship at ,padua had been conferred on him for life1 with an increase of salary to one thousand florins4#da ,on his return to ,padua he became eagerly engrossed in telescopic observation of the heavens4 ,the astonishing and sublime discoveries which were disclosed to him must in any case have possessed the deepest interest for the philosopher who was continually seeking to solve nature's problems1 and were all the more so1 since they contributed materially to confirm the ,copernican theory4 ,his observations were first directed to the moon1 and he discovered that its surface was mountainous1 which showed at all events that the earth's satellite was something like the earth itself1 and therefore by no means restored it to the aristocratic position in the universe from which it had been displaced by ,copernicus4 ,the milky way1 as seen through the telescope1 revealed an immense number of small stars4 ,in ,orion1 instead of the seven heavenly bodies already known1 five hundred new stars were seen2 the number of the ,pleiades1 which had been fixed at seven1 rose to thirty-six2 the planets showed themselves as disks1 while the fixed stars appeared as before1 as mere bright specks in the firmament4 ,but the indefatigable observer's far most important discovery1 in its bearing on the ,copernican theory1 was that of the moons of ,jupiter1 in ,january #afaj4 ,as they exhibited motions precisely similar to those which ,copernicus had assumed for the whole solar system1 they strongly fortified his theory4 ,it was placed beyond all doubt that our planet was not the centre of all the heavenly bodies1 since ,jupiter's moons revolved round him4 ,the latter was brought1 so to speak1 by the discovery of his attendants1 into relations with the earth which1 considering the prevailing views1 were humiliating enough1 and the more so since ,jupiter had four satellites while the earth had only one4 ,there remained1 however1 the consoling assurance that he and they revolved round our abode6 ,in honour of the reigning house of his native country1 and as an acknowledgment of favours received from it 7for since the accession of ,cosmo ,,ii4#db ,galileo had been in high favour71 he called ,jupiter's moons 8,medicean stars40 ,the urgent solicitude of the ,french court to gain1 by ,galileo's aid1 a permanent place on the chart of the heavens1 is very amusing4 ,thus1 on #bjth ,april1 #afaj1 he received a pressing request1 8in case he discovered any other fine star1 to call it after the great star of ,france1 ,henry ,,iv41 then reigning1 the most brilliant in the whole universe1 and to give it his proper name of ,henry rather than that of the family name of ,bourbon40 ,galileo communicated this flattering request1 as he seems to have considered it1 with much satisfaction to the secretary of the ,tuscan court1 ,vincenzo ,giugni1 in a letter from ,padua1 on #beth ,june1 #afaj1dc as an evidence of the great importance attached to his telescopic discoveries4 ,he added that he did not expect to find any more planets1 as he had already made many very close observations4 ,galileo published by degrees all the discoveries he had made at ,padua1 of which we have only noticed the most important1 in the work before mentioned1 the 8,sidereus ,nuncius02 it was dedicated to the ,grand ,duke1 ,cosmo ,,ii41 and the first edition appeared at ,venice1 in ,march1 #afaj4 ,although the unexpected discoveries which ,galileo had made with his telescope had confirmed his opinion that the system of ,copernicus was the only one consistent with the facts of nature1 had indeed made it his absolute conviction1 he had not yet ventured to defend it in his works4 ,he contented himself with stating bare facts1 without showing their relation to the ideas of ,copernicus1 leaving this to the learning and insight of the reader4 ,moreover1 the logical inferences from ,jupiter's moons must surely stare every thoughtful man in the face1 and so indeed they did in a way very unwelcome to the scientific conservatives4 ,the storm raised by ,galileo's latest announcements was tremendous4 ,people heard with amazement the extraordinary things which the new invention had brought to light1 and paid a just tribute of admiration to the man to whose labours it was due4 ,but these discoveries were so directly opposed to the traditional natural philosophy1 still regarded as the highest wisdom1 that the 8,sidereus ,nuncius0 had met with many opponents4 ,it must however be borne in mind that at the time of its first publication very few of the learned were in a position to convince themselves with their own eyes of the correctness of the appearances seen with the telescope1 simply because they had not the instrument at hand4 ,from this cause1 even ,kepler did not see the satellites of ,jupiter till #cjth ,august1 #afaj4 ,but men so free from jealousy and prejudice as ,kepler 7who1 on reading the 8,sidereus ,nuncius10 at once recognised the truth of the discoveries1 and said with enthusiasm that 8,galileo had in this book given evidence of the divinity of his genius0#dd71 have at all times been rare4 ,at first1 therefore1 the majority of the learned world shook their heads incredulously about the phenomena announced by the 8,nuncius10 especially in ,italy1 where envy lent its aid to bring an armed opposition into the field4 ,little did it at first avail that ,kepler1 renowned as the first astronomer in ,germany1 was on the side of the 8,sidereus ,nuncius02 for in ,may of the same year he had a reprint of the work issued at ,prague1 with an introduction in which he expressed his entire conviction of the truth of the telescopic discoveries made known by it1 and answered all objections4#de ,in vain4 ,these new discoveries were too revolutionary to be believed4 ,even upright and estimable scientific men1 like ,welser in ,augsburg1 and ,clavius at ,rome1 did not give credit to ,galileo's statements until they learnt better by their own observations4 ,the latter1 who was the first mathematician in ,rome in his day1 even said 8he laughed at the pretended satellites of ,jupiter2 you must construct a telescope which would first make them and then show them40 ,let ,galileo hold his own opinions1 and he 7,clavius7 would hold his4#df ,but the leader of an unworthy agitation in ,italy against ,galileo was a man who assumed this attitude from very different motives from the sacred service of science4 ,this was the well-known ,professor ,magini1 astronomer at the university of ,bologna1 who1 next to ,galileo1 enjoyed the highest reputation for learning in ,italy4 ,he could not brook that his famous countryman should all at once obtain the highest fame with seven-league boots1 leaving a pigmy like himself far behind1 by means of the discoveries made known in his 8,sidereus ,nuncius40 ,he must not only be refuted1 the refutation must be circulated as widely as possible4 ,but the most repulsive feature in ,magini's conduct towards ,galileo is his double-facedness4 ,he never openly ventured with any work into the arena himself1 but incited others all the more from behind concealment4#dg ,even if we do not1 with ,martin ,hasdal and ,alexander ,sertini1 accuse him of being exactly the instigator of the famous libel 8,peregrinatio contra ,nuncium ,sidereum10 published by his assistant1 ,martin ,horky1 against ,galileo in #afaj1 which excited the indignation of all the right-minded learned world1 we cannot acquit him of complicity with him1 and of having had a hand1 more or less1 in that pamphlet4 ,the suspicion is strongly confirmed by the ostentation with which ,magini1 when told of the publication of the 8,peregrinatio10 drove the author1 with disgust and ridicule1 out of his house1 and took occasion to assert on all hands that he had nothing whatever to do with the shameful act of his famulus1 an assertion in strange contradiction with the excuse afterwards made by ,horky to ,kepler4#dh ,by ,kepler's advice ,galileo did not do him the honour of answering4 ,the task was undertaken by ,wedderburn1 a ,scotchman1 formerly a pupil of ,galileo's1 and ,antonio ,roffeni1 professor of philosophy at the university of ,bologna2 the former at ,padua during the same year1 the latter at ,bologna in #afaa4di ,meanwhile1 in ,july1 #afaj1 ,galileo had observed a new appearance in the heavens by means of his telescope1 the ring of ,saturn4 ,in consequence1 however1 of the imperfection of the instrument1 it did not appear like a ring1 but ,saturn looked like a triple star4 ,galileo1 who on the one hand did not wish to make the new discovery public until he had sufficiently observed it1 yet feared on the other that some one might claim priority1 at once communicated it in a letter from ,padua1 #cjth ,july1 #afaj1ej to his influential friend ,belisario ,vinta1 chief secretary of state to ,cosmo ,,ii41 but urgently begged him to keep it a secret4 ,but even this did not seem sufficient to secure his right to the first observation of ,saturn1 so he announced it to his friends in the following absurd anagram3-- ,,smajsmrmjlmepoetalevnjpvnenvgttavjras4 ,kepler puzzled for a long time over this enigma1 and at last only made out the barbaric line1 8,salve umbistineum geminatum ,martia proles10 which he incorrectly applied to the planet ,mars4 ,at length1 after repeated requests1 and after ,julian de' ,medici1 ,tuscan ambassador at the ,imperial court1 had been charged by the ,emperor to ask for a solution1 he complied with the illustrious wish1 and in a letter to ,julian of #acth ,november1 #afaj1ea gave the following startling explanation3-- ,altissimum ,planetam tergeminum observavi4 ,the learned and semi-learned world of ,italy had not yet had time to become reconciled to the surprising discoveries announced in the 8,sidereus ,nuncius0 of ,march in the same year1 when the asserted triple nature of ,saturn contravened the prevailing idea that there was nothing new to be discovered in the heavens4 ,the recognition of ,galileo's telescopic discoveries made way very slowly4 ,from the first he spared no pains in popularising them4 ,he did this repeatedly in public lectures1 and with so much success that he could write to ,vinta3 8even the most exalted personages1 who have been most vehement in attacking my doctrines1 at length gave up the game for lost1 and acknowledged1 coram populo1 that they were not only convinced but ready to defend them against those philosophers and mathematicians who ventured to attack them40#eb ,but it was only at the ,university of ,padua that ,galileo could report such rapid progress2 and until the ,maginis1 ,clavios1 and others were convinced by their own eyes1 and confirmed to their own party the truth of ,galileo's disclosures1 he had to sustain a hard struggle with incredulity1 malice1 and peripatetic fanaticism4 ,some rabid ,aristotelians went so far as to say that ,galileo's telescope was so constructed as to show things that did not exist6 ,nor did it mend the matter much when he offered #aj1jjj scudi to any one who should construct so cunning an instrument4#ec ,others resolutely refused even to look through the telescope1 giving it as their firm conviction that they would not be able to see appearances which ,aristotle had not said a word about in all his books6 ,the answer that ,aristotle was not acquainted with the telescope1 and could not have known anything of telescopic appearances1 rebounded without effect from the petrified infallibility of ,aristotelian wisdom4 ,nor must it be supposed that these short-sighted conservatives only numbered a few would-be savans of the ,peripatetic school2 on the contrary1 celebrities like ,cesare ,cremonino da ,cento1 and ,julius ,libri1 denied ,galileo's discoveries a priori4#ed ,when ,libri died in ,december1 #afaj1 without having been willing to look through a telescope1 and protesting against ,galileo's 8absurdities10 ,galileo wrote in a letter of #agth ,december that this rigid opponent of his 8absurdities10 as he was never willing to look at them from earth1 might perhaps see them on his way to heaven6#ee ,some passages from a letter of ,galileo's to ,kepler1 of #aith ,august1 #afaj1 will best show how some of these men of science turned away with a righteous awe from the inconvenient recognition of the truth4 ,galileo writes among other things3-- 8,you are the first and almost the only person who1 even after but a cursory investigation1 has1 such is your openness of mind and lofty genius1 given entire credit to my statements4444 ,we will not trouble ourselves about the abuse of the multitude1 for against ,jupiter even giants1 to say nothing of pigmies1 fight in vain4 ,let ,jupiter stand in the heavens1 and let the sycophants bark at him as they will4444 ,in ,pisa1 ,florence1 ,bologna1 ,venice1 and ,padua many have seen the planets2 but all are silent on the subject and undecided1 for the greater number recognise neither ,jupiter nor ,mars and scarcely the moon as planets4 ,at ,venice one man spoke against me1 boasting that he knew for certain that my satellites of ,jupiter1 which he had several times observed1 were not planets because they were always to be seen with ,jupiter1 and either all or some of them1 now followed and now preceded him4 ,what is to be done8 ,shall we side with ,democritus or ,heraclitus8 ,i think1 my ,kepler1 we will laugh at the extraordinary stupidity of the multitude4 ,what do you say to the leading philosophers of the faculty here1 to whom ,i have offered a thousand times of my own accord to show my studies1 but who with the lazy obstinacy of a serpent who has eaten his fill have never consented to look at planets1 nor moon1 nor telescope8 ,verily1 just as serpents close their ears1 so do these men close their eyes to the light of truth4 ,these are great matters2 yet they do not occasion me any surprise4 ,people of this sort think that philosophy is a kind of book like the neid or the ,odyssey1 and that the truth is to be sought1 not in the universe1 not in nature1 but 7,i use their own words7 by comparing texts6 ,how you would laugh if you heard what things the first philosopher of the faculty at ,pisa brought against me in the presence of the ,grand ,duke1 for he tried1 now with logical arguments1 now with magical adjurations1 to tear down and argue the new planets out of heaven40#ef ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,removal ,,to ,,florence4 ,galileo's ,fame and ,pupils4--,wishes to be freed from ,academic ,duties4--,projected ,works4--,call to ,court of ,tuscany4--,this change the source of his ,misfortunes4--,letter from ,sagredo4--,phases of ,venus and ,mercury4--,the ,solar ,spots4--,visit to ,rome4--,triumphant ,reception4--,letter from ,cardinal del ,monte to ,cosmo ,,ii4--,the ,inquisition4--,introduction of ,theology into the ,scientific ,controversy4--8,dianoja ,astronomica40--,intrigues at ,florence4 ,galileo's fame1 especially through his telescopic discoveries1 and partly also through the exertions of his noisy opponents1 had long extended beyond the narrow bounds of ,italy1 and the eyes of all central ,europe were directed to the great astronomer4 ,numbers of pupils flocked to him from all countries1 so that no lecture room in ,padua was large enough to hold them4 ,there were some distinguished personages among them1 such as the ,archduke ,ferdinand of ,austria1 the ,landgrave ,philip of ,hesse1 the princes of ,alsace1 ,mantua1 etc41 who mostly came to attend the lectures of the versatile master on fortification4 ,it is1 however1 another fable of over zealous biographers to state that even ,gustavus ,adolphus1 the hero of the thirty years' war1 went to school for some months to ,galileo4#eg ,this close occupation1 with lectures and private lessons of all kinds1 took him too much away from his own studies1 and after twenty years' professorship ,galileo longed for a post in which he could prosecute his own researches1 and devote himself to the completion of his works1 free from academic duties4 ,a letter from ,padua1 even in the spring of #afji1eh shows his longing for this salaried leisure4 ,but he is aware that the republic can never offer him such a post1 8for it would not be suitable to receive a salary from a free state1 however generous and magnanimous1 without serving the public for it2 because if you derive benefit from the public1 you have the public to please1 and not a mere private person40 ,he also mentions that he can only hope for such a favour from some absolute sovereign2 but it must not be supposed that he wishes for an income without doing anything for it2 he was in possession of various inventions1 was almost daily making new ones1 and should make more if he had the necessary leisure4 ,galileo adds that it has always been his intention 8to offer them to his own sovereign and natural lord before any other1 that he may dispose of them and the inventor according to his pleasure2 and if it seemed good to his serene highness to accept it1 to present him not only with the jewel but with the casket also40 ,this first attempt of ,galileo's1 however1 to gain a footing at the court of ,tuscany seems to have been unsuccessful4 ,at any rate in the extant correspondence of this period there is not a word more on the subject2 and a few months later1 after the construction of the telescope1 he thankfully accepted the chair of mathematics at ,padua offered to him for life by the republic4 ,but this invention and the consequent discoveries had meanwhile acquired such vast importance1 and had1 as we have seen1 raised such a storm in the whole educated world1 that it now appeared very desirable to the court of ,tuscany to attach to itself for ever the man on whom the eyes of scientific ,europe were fixed4 ,the first steps towards this end were taken when ,galileo went to ,florence in the ,easter recess of #afaj to show his telescopic discoveries to ,cosmo ,,ii41 especially the stars which bore the name of the reigning house4 ,we afterwards find ,galileo entering eagerly into the negotiations which followed4 ,in the letter to ,vinta before mentioned1 of ,may #gth1 #afaj1 he presses for a decision1 for1 he says1 observing that day after day goes by1 he was determined to set a definite purpose before him in the ordering of the life that may be left to him1 and to devote all his powers to perfect the fruits of his previous efforts and studies1 from which he might look for some fame4 ,he then mentions the conditions on which he at present serves the republic1 perhaps in order that they might be guided by it at ,florence2 but what he lays most stress on is that it is of the utmost moment to him that leisure should be assured him for the completion of his labours1 by his being freed from the obligation to give public lectures2 but it will always confer on him the highest honour to give lectures to his sovereign1 to whom also he will dedicate all his writings4 ,the same letter is also of the highest interest as giving us an insight into the scientific projects he was then cherishing4 ,he communicates to the ,tuscan secretary of state the works the completion of which lies so near his heart4 ,he says3-- 8,the works which ,i have to finish are chiefly two books de systemate1 seu constitutione universi1 a vast project full of philosophy1 astronomy1 and geometry2 three books de motu locali1 an entirely new science1 for no other inquirer1 ancient or modern1 has discovered any of the wonderful phenomena which ,i show to be present in natural and induced motion2 ,i may therefore with perfect justice call it a new science discovered by me from its first principles2 three books on mechanics1 two relating to the demonstration of the principles and fundamental propositions1 one containing the problems2 although others have treated of the same subject1 what has been hitherto written upon it is neither as to extent nor in other respects a fourth part of what ,i am writing4 ,i have also various smaller works in view on matters connected with nature1 such as de sono et voce1 de visu et coloribus1 de maris stu1 de compositione continui1 de animalium motibus1 and others4 ,i am also thinking of writing some books for the soldier1 not only to cultivate his mind1 but to teach him by select instruction all those things connected with mathematics which it would be an advantage to him to know1 as1 for instance1 castrametation1 military tactics1 fortification1 sieges1 surveying1 estimate of distances1 artillery1 the use of various instruments1 etc40#ei ,we regard with astonishment the wonderful versatility which we find displayed in ,galileo's works4 ,and amongst them are not only all the larger ones announced in the above letter2 his important telescopic discoveries and his ceaselessly active mind led him far to surpass the bounds he had set himself1 for he was the first to infuse conscious life into the slumbering idea of the ,copernican system4 ,this memorable letter of ,galileo's soon brought the court of ,tuscany to a decision4 ,fourteen days later1 #bbnd ,may1 ,vinta wrote to him1 as a preliminary1 that the ,grand ,duke seemed well disposed to recall him to his native country and to grant all his wishes4#fj ,he promised to inform ,galileo as soon as it was all settled4 ,on #eth ,june he wrote that ,cosmo ,,ii4 was willing to nominate him as first philosopher and mathematician of the ,university of ,pisa1 with an annual stipend of #ajjj ,florentine scudi1 without any obligation to live at ,pisa or to give lectures4 ,vinta requested ,galileo to let him know whether he agreed to these conditions1 in order that he might have the necessary application drawn up in ,galileo's name1 as well as the decree and rescript2 the time of their publication shall be left to ,galileo1 and meanwhile all shall be kept secret4#fa ,galileo wished particularly that nothing should be known at ,venice of these negotiations1 which did not place his gratitude to the republic which had shown him so much favour in the best light1 until all was decided and therefore irrevocable4 ,having declared himself entirely satisfied with the proposed conditions1 in a letter to the secretary of state1 the only alteration being that he should like not only to be first mathematician at ,pisa1 but also first mathematician and philosopher to the ,grand ,duke himself1#fb the decree summoning him to the court of ,tuscany in this twofold capacity was issued on #abth ,july1 #afaj4 ,notwithstanding all the great advantages which this new post secured to him1 it was a very bad exchange for ,galileo from the free republican soil to the doubtful protection of a princely house which1 although very well disposed towards him1 could never offer so decided an opposition to the ,roman curia as the republic of ,venice4 ,it was indeed the first step which precipitated ,galileo's fate4#fc ,in the ,venetian republic full liberty of doctrine was really enjoyed1 in religious ,tuscany it was only nominal4 ,in ,venice politics and science were secure from ,jesuitical intrigues2 for when ,pope ,paul ,v4 thought proper to place the contumacious republic under an interdict in ,april1 #afjf1 the ,jesuit fathers had been compelled to quit the soil of ,venice 8for ever40#fd ,in ,tuscany1 on the contrary1 where they felt quite at home1 their influence weighed heavily on everything affecting their own interests1 and especially therefore on politics and science4 ,had ,galileo never left the pure1 wholesome air of the free city for the stifling ,romish atmosphere of a court1 he would have escaped the subsequent persecutions of ,rome2 for the republic which1 not long before1 had been undaunted by the papal excommunication of their doge and senate1 would assuredly never have given up one of its university professors to the vengeance of the ,inquisition4 ,at the beginning of ,september1 #afaj1 ,galileo1 to the no small displeasure of the ,paduans1 left their university1 at which eighteen years before he had found willing reception and support when his longer tarriance at ,pisa had become impossible2 deserted his noble friends1 ,fra ,paolo ,sarpi1 ,francesco ,sagredo1 and others2 and proceeded to the capital of the court of ,tuscany on the lovely banks of the ,arno1 where at first1 it is true1 much honour was done him1 but where afterwards envy1 jealousy1 narrowness1 ill will1 and fanaticism combined together to his destruction4 ,one of his most devoted friends1 ,francesco ,sagredo1 foresaw it4 ,when ,galileo left ,venice he was in the ,east1 in the service of the republic1 and did not return till the spring of #afaa1 when he wrote a remarkable letter to his friend at ,florence4 ,after having heartily expressed his regret at not finding ,galileo on his return home1 he states his doubts about the step his friend had taken4 ,he asks1 among other things1 8where will he find the same liberty as in the ,venetian territory8 ,and notwithstanding all the generous qualities of the young ruler1 which permitted the hope that ,galileo's merits will be justly valued1 who can promise with any confidence that1 if not ruined1 he may not be persecuted and disquieted on the surging billows of court life1 by the raging storms of envy80 ,it is evident from another passage in the letter that ,galileo's behaviour had made a bad impression at ,venice1 where they had not long before raised his salary to a thousand florins1 and conferred his professorship on him for life2 towards the end of the letter ,sagredo lets fall the ominous words that he 8was convinced that as ,galileo could not regain what he had lost1 he would take good care to hold fast what he had gained40#fe ,only a month after ,galileo's arrival at ,florence he made a fresh discovery in astronomy which eventually contributed to confirm the ,copernican theory1 namely1 the varying crescent form of the planet ,venus4 ,with this the important objection to the new system seemed to be removed1 that ,venus and ,mercury did not exhibit the same phases of light as the moon1 which must be the case if the earth moved1 for they would vary with her position in the universe4 ,galileo communicated this appearance1 which entailed conclusions so important1 and which he therefore wished to investigate more thoroughly before making it known1 to his friend and correspondent ,julian de' ,medici at ,prague1 in an alphabetical enigma1 as in the case of the singular appearance of ,saturn4 ,it was as follows3 8,hc immatura a me jam frustra leguntur o y40#ff ,having fully convinced himself by nearly three months' observations that ,venus and ,mars exhibited phases similar to those of the moon1 he made it known in two letters of #cjth ,december#fg to ,father ,clavius1 at ,rome1 and to his former distinguished pupil ,benedetto ,castelli1 abbot of the congregation of ,monte ,cassino1 in ,brescia2 and in a letter of #ast ,january1 #afaa1 he sent the following solution of the anagram to ,julian de' ,medici3-- 8,cynthi figuras mulatur mater amorum40 ,in this letter he draws the important conclusions1 first that none of the planets shine by their own light1 and secondly 8that necessarily ,venus and ,mercury revolve round the sun2 a circumstance which was surmised of the other planets by ,pythagoras1 ,copernicus1 ,kepler1 and their followers1 but which could not be proved by ocular demonstration1 as it could now in the case of ,venus and ,mercury4 ,kepler and the other ,copernicans may now be proud to have judged and philosophised correctly1 and it may well excite disgust that they were regarded by the generality of men of book learning as having little understanding and as not much better than fools40#fh ,at this time ,galileo was also eagerly occupied with a phenomenon which was to be a further confirmation of the ,copernican view of the universe1 the spots on the sun4 ,by attentively observing their motions on the sun's disk he afterwards discovered the sun's motion on its own axis1 a fatal blow to the ,ptolemaic system4 ,although to science it may be quite indifferent whether ,galileo1 or ,fabricius1 or the ,jesuit father ,scheiner first espied the spots on the sun 7for they all lay claim to the discovery71 for us it has its importance1 because the bitter contention between ,galileo and ,scheiner on the subject materially contributed to set the stone rolling which1 in its fall1 was no less disastrous to the moral greatness of ,galileo than to the erudition of ,rome4 ,in consideration of the intense interest excited by ,galileo's 8epoch-making0 discoveries1 the ,roman curia1 which still held it to be one of its most important duties to guard mankind as much as possible from precocious knowledge1 was of course eager to learn more about them1 and above all1 of the conclusions which the discoverer drew from them4 ,it must also have appeared of great importance to ,galileo to acquaint the ,roman savans and dignitaries of the ,church with his scientific achievements1 for the authority and influence then exercised by them over the free progress of science made their opinions of the utmost moment to him4 ,they must1 if possible1 be first made to see the premises with their own eyes1 that they might afterwards be able to comprehend and assent to the conclusions4 ,galileo clearly saw this1 as appears from a letter of #aeth ,january1 #afaa1 to ,vinta#fi 7who was then with the court at ,pisa71 in which he urgently begs permission for a visit to the papal residence4 ,the request was not only immediately granted1 but the court placed a litter at his disposal1 undertook to defray all his expenses1 and directed the ,tuscan ambassador at ,rome to prepare quarters for him at the embassy and to entertain him during the whole of his stay4#gj ,meanwhile1 however1 ,galileo was attacked by an illness which delayed his journey for nearly two months4 ,on #bbnd ,march he received a cordial letter of introduction#ga from ,michel ,angelo the younger to ,cardinal ,barberini1 afterwards ,urban ,,viii41 and on the next day he set out provided with his most convincing arguments1 namely several excellent telescopes4 ,he was received with the greatest honour4 ,his triumphs were really extraordinary1 so great that they were sure to secure for him numerous personal enemies in addition to the opponents of his doctrines4 ,he exhibited the oft discussed appearances to cardinals and learned men through the telescope1 and1 whenever he could1 dispelled their doubts by the incontrovertible evidence of their own eyes4 ,people could not refuse to believe this1 and ,galileo's success in the papal city was complete4 ,of still greater importance1 however1 was the opinion given on #bdth ,april by four scientific authorities of the ,roman ,college1 on the character 8of the new astronomical discoveries of an excellent astronomer10 at the request of ,cardinal ,robert ,bellarmine4 ,this commission1 consisting of the learned fathers ,clavius1 ,griemberger1 ,malcotio1 and ,lembo1 confirmed what they had long denied and ridiculed1 convinced by the evidence of their own senses of the truth of the facts maintained by ,galileo4#gb ,by this opinion of the papal experts his discoveries received1 to a certain extent1 the sanction of the ,church1 and became acknowledged truths4 ,the care with which the mention of ,galileo's name is avoided both in the request and the opinion is remarkable4 ,attentions of all sorts were heaped upon the astronomer4 ,pope ,paul ,v4 granted him a long audience and graciously assured him of his unalterable good will1 which however did not remain quite unaltered in the sequel4 ,the highest dignitaries of the ,church testified their admiration2 the ,accadmia dei ,lincei 7of the ,lynxes71 founded six years before by ,prince ,cesi1 made the renowned guest a member2 when he took his departure at the beginning of ,june he left behind him in the metropolis of catholicism as many sincere friends and admirers as envious foes1 the fate of all really great men4 ,a letter from ,cardinal del ,monte of #cast ,may1 #afaa1 to ,cosmo ,,ii41 best shows how successful ,galileo's visit to ,rome was4 ,he writes with real enthusiasm3-- 8,galileo has during his stay at ,rome given great satisfaction1 and ,i think he must have felt it no less himself1 for he had the opportunity of showing his discoveries so well that to all clever and learned men in this city they seemed no less true and well founded than astonishing4 ,were we still living under the ancient republic of ,rome1 ,i verily believe there would have been a column on the ,capitol erected in his honour4 ,it appeared to me to be my duty to accompany his return with this letter1 and to bear witness to your ,highness of the above1 as ,i feel assured that it will be agreeable to you1 since your ,highness entertains such gracious good will towards your subjects1 and to distinguished men like ,galileo40#gc ,but the watchful ,inquisition had already directed its attention to the man who had made such portentous discoveries in the heavens4 ,how far this had gone we unfortunately do not exactly know4 ,the only well authenticated indication we possess is the following notice in the protocols of the sittings of the ,holy ,congregation3 8,feria iii4 die1 #ag ,maii1 #afaa4 ,videatur an in ,processu ,doctoris ,csaris ,cremonini sit nominatus ,galilaeus ,philosophi ac ,mathematic ,professor40#gd ,this is the first time that the name of ,galileo occurs in the papers of the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office1 and it was in the midst of the applause which greeted him in the eternal city4 ,whether1 and in what way1 this official query was answered is not to be found in the documents of the ,inquisition4 ,but it looks ominous that there should be an inquiry about a connection between ,galileo and ,cremonini who was undergoing a trial4 ,the causes and course of the trial of ,cremonini by the ,inquisition are not yet known4 ,all that is known is that he was ,professor of the philosophy of ,aristotle at the ,university of ,padua2 and it appears from the letters of ,sagredo to ,galileo1 that his lectures and writings had given rise to suspicions of atheism4 ,for the rest1 ,cremonini was all his life one of ,galileo's most decided enemies4 ,the very triumphs of ,galileo and his telescopic discoveries were the causes1 to a great extent1 of those ceaseless and relentless persecutions which were to restrict his labours and embitter his life4 ,the ,aristotelians perceived with rage and terror the revolutionary discoveries of this dangerous innovator were surely1 if slowly1 gaining ground4 ,every one of them1 with its inevitable logical consequences1 pulled down some important stone in the artistic structure of their views of nature2 and unless some measures were taken to arrest the demolition1 it was clear that the venerable edifice must fall and bury the inmates beneath the ruins4 ,this must be averted at any price1 even at the price of knowledge of the acts of nature4 ,if ,galileo's reformed physics offered no point of attack1 his astronomy did2 not indeed in the honourable contest of scientific discussion1 but by bringing theology into the field against science4 ,galileo had never openly proclaimed his adoption of the earth's double motion1 but the demonstration of his telescopic observations alone sufficed to make it one of the burning questions of the day4 ,what were the phases of ,venus and ,mercury1 the motions of the solar spots1 and above all ,jupiter and his moons1 this little world within our large one1 as ,galileo afterwards called it himself1#ge but telling proofs of the truth of the ,copernican theory8 ,the question of the two systems had been hitherto an exclusively scientific one4 ,how else could the famous philosopher and astronomer ,nicholas of ,casa1 who taught the double motion of the earth in the fifteenth century1 have gained a cardinal's hat8 ,how could the ,german1 ,widmanstadt1 have explained his theory1 which was based upon the same principles1 to ,pope ,clement ,,vii4 in #aecc8 ,how could learned men like ,celio ,calganini1 ,wurteis1 and others1 have given public lectures on the subject in ,italy in the second half of the sixteenth century8 ,neither ,casa1 however1 nor ,widmanstadt1 ,calganini1 ,wurteis1 nor even ,copernicus1 had ventured openly to declare war with the school of ,aristotle1 nor to overthrow by the crushing evidence of experiment the dogmas of natural science based upon philosophy and a priori arguments alone4 ,these learned men had been tolerated because they fought with the same weapons as the followers of ,ptolemy1 logic and philosophy4 ,they did not possess the powerful lever of direct evidence1 because they were not acquainted with the telescope4 ,but ,galileo1 with his fatal system of demonstration by observation of nature1 was far too dangerous a foe4 ,peripateticism was no match for the home thrusts of arguments obvious to the senses1 and its defenders were well aware that if they would not yield their position they must call in some other ally than mere science4 ,and they adopted the means best adapted for putting a temporary drag on the wheels of truth1 and for ruining ,galileo2 in order to prop up the failing authority of ,aristotle they called in the inviolable authority of ,holy ,scripture6 ,this dragging of the ,bible into what had previously been a purely scientific controversy1 a proceeding which proved so fatal to ,galileo1 must not however1 as has been done by several authors1 be attributed solely to party considerations or even personal motives4 ,this is absolutely false4 ,greatly as these factors were concerned in it1 it must be admitted that at first they were only incidentally mixed up with it4 ,the multitude of the learned1 who still adhered entirely to the old system of the universe1 and regarded the theories of ,copernicus 7not yet based on ocular demonstration7 as mere fantasies1 were really aghast at the telescopic discoveries of ,galileo which threatened to overturn all their previous beliefs4 ,the learned1 and still more the semi-learned1 world of ,italy felt the ground tremble beneath their feet2 and it seemed to them as if the foundations of all physics1 mathematics1 philosophy1 and religion1 were1 with the authority of ,aristotle1 which had reigned for two thousand years1 being borne to the grave4 ,this did not present itself to them as progress but as sacrilege4 ,a young fanatic1 the monk ,sizy 7the same who seven years later was broken on the wheel for political crimes at ,paris71 was the first to transfer what had been a purely scientific discussion to the slippery arena of theology4 ,at the beginning of #afaa he published at ,venice a work called 8,dianoja ,astronomica0#gf in answer to the 8,sidereus ,nuncius10 in which he asserted that the existence of the moons of ,jupiter was incompatible with the doctrines of ,holy ,scripture4 ,he appropriately dedicated his book to that semi-prince of the blood1 ,john de' ,medici1 who was known to be the mortal enemy of ,galileo4 ,the author1 as we learn from his own work1 was one of those contemptible men who carefully abstained from even looking through a telescope1 although firmly convinced that the wonders announced by ,galileo were not to be seen4 ,galileo did not vouchsafe to defend himself from this monkish attack any more than from ,horky's libel the year before4 ,he contented himself with writing on the back of the title page of the copy still preserved in the ,national ,library at ,florence the following lines from ,ariosto3-- 8,soggiunse il duca3 ,non sarebbe onesto ,che io volessi la battaglia torre1 ,di quel che m' offerisco manifesto1 ,quando ti piaccia1 innanci agli occhi torre40#gg ,but ,galileo's envious foes at once consorted with the1 at all events1 honourable fanatics of the old school1 and eagerly seized the opportunity of pursuing their miserable designs 8to the glory of ,god and imperilled religion40 ,it was in ,florence itself1 in the palace of the ,tuscan ,archbishop ,marzimedici1 who had once studied under ,galileo at ,pisa1 that secret consultations were held1 presided over by this prelate1 how the inconvenient philosopher and his revolutionary system might best be ruined4 ,they even then went so far as to request a preacher to hurl at ,galileo from the pulpit the accusation1 more dangerous than any other in the sixteenth century1 that he was attacking the ,bible with his doctrines4 ,but for this time these pious gentlemen had gone to the wrong man1 for the priest1 seeing through the foul purpose of the commission1 declined it4 ,galileo had not the slightest knowledge of the secret conspiracy which was plotting against him1 and was first roused from the security into which he had been lulled by the brilliant success of his visit to ,rome by a letter from his friend there1 ,cigoli the painter1 of #afth ,december1 #afaa4gh ,but he did not at first attach to these communications the importance they deserved1 and it was not until several months afterwards that he addressed himself to ,cardinal ,conti1 who was very friendly to him1 to ask how far the ,holy ,scriptures did really favour the ,aristotelian views of the universe1 and whether the ,copernican system contradicted them4 ,conti answered him in a letter of #gth ,july1 #afab1gi that the statements of ,holy ,scripture were rather against the ,aristotelian principle of the unchangeableness of the heavens than in favour of it1 for all the fathers had held the contrary opinion4 ,but the case was different with the doctrine of the earth's revolution round the sun1 as held by the ,pythagoreans1 ,copernicus and others4 ,this certainly did not seem to agree with ,holy ,scripture1 unless it was assumed that it merely adopted the customary mode of expression4 ,but1 added the cardinal1 that was a method of interpretation to be employed only in case of the greatest necessity4 ,diego di ,zuiga had indeed explained in this way1 conformably with the ,copernican opinions1 the passage in which ,joshua commanded the sun to stand still2 but the explanation was not generally admitted4 ,father ,lorini also1 professor of ecclesiastical history at ,florence1 afterwards a ringleader of the base intrigues against ,galileo and an informant against him1 wrote to him #eth ,november1 #afab1hj to deny a report that he had publicly preached against ,galileo4 ,he only confessed to having given it as his opinion1 in a conversation about the two systems1 that the ,view of this ,ipernic1 or whatever his name might be1 appeared to be contrary to ,holy ,scripture4 ,galileo wrote in a letter of #eth ,january1 #afac1ha to ,prince ,cesi3 8,the good man is so well acquainted with the author of these doctrines that he calls him ,ipernic4 ,you can see how and by whom poor philosophy suffers40 ,it appears also from the same letter that ,galileo was now well aware of the intrigues being carried on against him in ,florence1 for he says among other things3 8,i thank you and all my dear friends very much for your anxiety for my protection against the malice which is constantly seeking to pick quarrels even here1 and the more so since the enemy is so near at hand2 but as they are but few in number1 and their #8league1' as they call it among themselves1 is but of limited extent1 ,i laugh at it40 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,astronomy ,,and ,,theology4 ,treatise on ,floating ,bodies4--,controversy with ,scheiner about the ,solar ,spots4--,favourable reception of ,galileo's work on the subject at ,rome4--,discussion with the ,grand ,duchess ,christine4--,the ,bible brought into the controversy4--,ill-fated ,letter to ,castelli4--,caccini's ,sermon against ,galileo4--,lorini denounces the ,letter to the ,holy ,office4--,archbishop ,bonciani's attempts to get the original ,letter4--8,opinion0 of the ,inquisition on it4--,caccini summoned to give evidence4--,absurd accusations4--,testimony of ,ximenes and ,attavanti in ,galileo's favour4 ,while the storm which was to burst over ,galileo's head was thus slowly gathering1 he was making important progress in the departments of physics and mechanics4 ,his treatise on the motion of floating bodies led to very important results4#hb ,in it he again took the field against the ,peripatetic philosophers1 and refuted the assertion of ,aristotle that the floating or partial immersion of bodies in water depended chiefly on their form1 for by his approved method of studying the open book of nature he clearly showed the error of that opinion4 ,in this work ,galileo laid the foundations of hydrostatics as mostly held to this day4 ,the old school rose up once more to refute him1 as a matter of course2 but their polemics cut a pitiful figure1 for the champions of antiquated wisdom had in their impotence mostly to content themselves with wretched sophisms as opposed to ,galileo's hard facts1 and as a last resort to insist on the authority of ,aristotle4 ,the combatants who took the field with various writings to defend the ,peripatetic school against these fresh attacks of ,galileo were the professors ,giorgio ,corressio1 ,tommaso ,palmerini1 ,lodovico delle ,colombo1 in #afab1 and in #afac ,vincenzo di ,grazia4 ,corressio was answered by ,benedetto ,castelli2 but the work1 which is preserved in ,,ms4 in the ,national ,library at ,florence1 was not published1 out of pity for his opponent who1 in the meantime1 had been overtaken by severe misfortune4 ,although professing to be a ,roman ,catholic1 he was discovered to belong to the ,greek ,non-,uniat church1 which entailed the loss of his professorship at the ,university of ,pisa4 ,galileo intended himself to answer ,palmerini1 but while he was doing so ,palmerini died1 and not wishing to fight a dead man1 he laid his reply aside4 ,the lame objections of the other two received a brilliant refutation in a work published in #afae by ,castelli4 ,from the original ,,ms41 however1 in the ,national ,library at ,florence1 which is mostly in ,galileo's handwriting1 it is evident that he was the real author4#hc ,during the same year in which he had so alarmed the ,peripatetics by the treatise on floating bodies1 he was much occupied with the controversy with the ,jesuit father1 ,scheiner1 before mentioned1 professor of mathematics at ,ingolstadt1 about the solar spots and the priority of their discovery4 ,in three letters to ,welser of ,augsburg 7published there in #afab7 he had claimed for himself1 under the pseudonym of 8,apelles10 the earliest observation of these appearances1 and explained them conformably to the traditional opinions4 ,he propounded the ingenious idea that these spots were a multitude of little planets1 passing over the sun's disk as they revolved round the earth4 ,by this clever explanation he secured the applause of all the ,peripatetic school1 and proclaimed himself the decided foe of ,galileo4 ,challenged to do so by ,welser1 ,galileo replied in three letters addressed to him1 in which 8,apelles0 came off but poorly4#hd ,galileo convincingly refuted his opponent's explanation of the spots1 and brilliantly defended his own right to the priority of their discovery by appealing to witnesses to whom he had made it known in #afaj4 ,these letters1 together with ,scheiner's1 were published in ,march1 #afac1 under the title 8,history and ,explanation of the ,solar ,spots10#he with a fine portrait of ,galileo1 and a dedication to his illustrious friend ,salviati1 of the 8,accadmia dei ,lincei40 ,the publication of this work was of especial significance1 because it was the first in which ,galileo decidedly takes the side of the ,copernican system4 ,this accounts for the extraordinary sensation made by these essays4 ,the controversy on the two systems came more and more to the front4 ,and yet1 notwithstanding all this1 no theological scruples seem at first to have been felt at ,rome1 even in the highest ecclesiastical circles4 ,on the contrary1 we find the cardinals ,maffeo ,barberini#hf 7afterwards ,pope ,urban ,,viii471 and ,federigo ,borromeo1#hg thanking ,galileo in the most friendly terms for sending them his work1 and expressing their sincere admiration for the researches described in it4 ,and ,battista ,agucchia1 then one of the first officials at the court of ,rome1 and afterwards secretary of ,pope ,gregory ,,xv41 in a similar letter of thanks1#hh not only fully endorsed these opinions1 but expressed his firm belief that they would in time be universally acknowledged1 although now they had many opponents1 partly from their novelty and remarkable character1 and partly from the envy and obstinacy of those who had from the first maintained the contrary view4 ,the scientific circles of the university town of ,pisa were far less friendly to the ,copernican ideas than the higher ecclesiastics at the papal residence4 ,father ,castelli1 who in ,october of the same year was called to the chair of mathematics at this university1 reports in a letter of #fth ,november1#hi in which he tells ,galileo what reception he had met with from the heads of the college1 that the proveditor of the university1 ,mgr4 d',elci1 had expressly forbidden him at his first interview to treat in his lectures of the double motion of the earth1 or even to take occasion in any digression to mention it as probable6 ,an accidental circumstance1 however1 was the immediate cause of turning the controversy into the channel which proved so fatal to ,galileo4 ,one day in ,december1 #afac1 ,castelli and several other learned men were guests at the ,grand ,duke's table at ,pisa1 where the court was then staying4 ,the conversation turned chiefly on the remarkable phenomena of the ,medicean stars1 whose veritable existence in the heavens ,boscaglia1 professor of physics at the university1 was constrained with a heavy heart to confirm1 in answer to a question of the ,grand ,duke's mother1 ,christine4 ,castelli eagerly seized the opportunity of applauding ,galileo's splendid discovery4 ,boscaglia1 a ,peripatetic of the purest water1 could not master his displeasure1 and whispered meanwhile to the ,grand ,ducal mother that all ,galileo's telescopic discoveries were in accord with the truth1 only the double motion of the earth seemed incredible1 nay impossible1 as the ,holy ,scriptures were clearly opposed to it4 ,the repast was then over1 and ,castelli took leave2 but he had scarcely left the palace when he saw ,christine's porter hastening after him and calling him back4 ,he obeyed1 and found the whole company still assembled in the ,grand ,duke's apartments4 ,christine now began1 after a few introductory remarks1 to attack the ,copernican doctrines1 appealing to ,holy ,scripture4 ,castelli at first made some humble attempts to avoid bringing the ,bible into the controversy2 but as this was of no avail he resolutely took the theological standpoint1 and defended the modern views of the universe so impressively and convincingly that nearly all present1 even the ,grand ,duke and his consort1 took his side1 and the ,duchess dowager alone made any opposition4 ,boscaglia1 however1 who had been the cause of the unedifying scene1 took no part whatever in the discussion4 ,castelli hastened to apprise ,galileo of this incident1 but remarked expressly in his striking letter that it appeared to him that the ,grand ,duchess ,christine had merely persisted in opposition1 in order to hear his replies4#ij ,this then was the provocation to that famous letter of ,galileo's to his friend and pupil ,castelli1 in which for the first time theological digressions occur1 and which therefore1 although by no means intended for publication1 was to be eagerly turned to account by his opponents1 and to form the groundwork of the subsequent trial4 ,from what has been related it will be seen that the reproach often brought against ,galileo that it was he who first introduced the theological question into the scientific controversy about the two systems is entirely unwarranted4 ,on the contrary1 these explanations to ,castelli1 of #bast ,december1 bear telling testimony to the indignation which ,galileo felt in seeing the ,scriptures involved in a purely scientific discussion1 and that the right of deciding the question should even be accorded to them4 ,he sharply defines the relation in which the ,bible stands to natural science1 marking the limits which it can only pass at the expense of the healthy understanding of mankind4 ,as a good ,catholic he fully admits that the ,scriptures cannot lie or err1 but thinks that this does not hold good of all their expositors4 ,they will involve themselves in sad contradictions1 nay1 even in heresies and blasphemy1 if they always interpret the ,bible in an absolutely literal sense4 ,thus1 for instance1 they must attribute to ,god hands1 feet1 and ears1 human feelings such as anger1 repentance1 hatred1 and make ,him capable of forgetfulness and ignorance of the future4 8,as therefore10 continues ,galileo1 8the ,holy ,scriptures in many places not only admit but actually require a different explanation from what seems to be the literal one1 it seems to me that they ought to be reserved for the last place in mathematical discussions4 ,for they1 like nature1 owe their origin to the ,divine ,word2 the former as inspired by the ,holy ,spirit1 the latter as the fulfilment of the ,divine commands2 it was necessary1 however1 in ,holy ,scripture1 in order to accommodate itself to the understanding of the majority1 to say many things which apparently differ from the precise meaning4 ,nature1 on the contrary1 is inexorable and unchangeable1 and cares not whether her hidden causes and modes of working are intelligible to the human understanding or not1 and never deviates on that account from her prescribed laws4 ,it appears to me therefore that no effect of nature1 which experience places before our eyes1 or is the necessary conclusion derived from evidence1 should be rendered doubtful by passages of ,scripture which contain thousands of words admitting of various interpretations1 for every sentence of ,scripture is not bound by such rigid laws as is every effect of nature40 ,galileo goes on to ask3 if the ,bible1 in order to make itself intelligible to uneducated persons1 has not refrained from placing even its main doctrines in a distorted light1 by attributing qualities to ,god which are unlike ,his character and even opposed to it1 who will maintain that in speaking incidentally of the earth or the sun it professes to clothe its real meaning in words literally true8 ,proceeding on the principle that the ,bible and nature are both irrefragable truths1 ,galileo goes on to draw the following conclusions4 8,since two truths can obviously never contradict each other1 it is the part of wise interpreters of ,holy ,scripture to take the pains to find out the real meaning of its statements1 in accordance with the conclusions regarding nature which are quite certain1 either from the clear evidence of sense or from necessary demonstration4 ,as therefore the ,bible1 although dictated by the ,holy ,spirit1 admits1 from the reasons given above1 in many passages of an interpretation other than the literal one2 and as1 moreover1 we cannot maintain with certainty that all interpreters are inspired by ,god1 ,i think it would be the part of wisdom not to allow any one to apply passages of ,scripture in such a way as to force them to support1 as true1 conclusions concerning nature the contrary of which may afterwards be revealed by the evidence of our senses or by necessary demonstration4 ,who will set bounds to man's understanding8 ,who can assure us that everything that can be known in the world is known already8 ,it would therefore perhaps be best not to add1 without necessity1 to the articles of faith which refer to salvation and the defence of holy religion1 and which are so strong that they are in no danger of having at any time cogent reasons brought against them1 especially when the desire to add to them proceeds from persons who1 although quite enlightened when they speak under ,divine guidance1 are obviously destitute of those faculties which are needed1 ,i will not say for the refutation1 but even for the understanding of the demonstrations by which the higher sciences enforce their conclusions4 ,i am inclined to think that the authority of ,holy ,scripture is intended to convince men of those truths which are necessary for their salvation1 and which being far above man's understanding cannot be made credible by any learning1 or any other means than revelation by the ,holy ,spirit4 ,but that the same ,god who has endowed us with senses1 reason1 and understanding1 does not permit us to use them1 and desires to acquaint us in any other way with such knowledge as we are in a position to acquire for ourselves by means of those faculties1 that it seems to me ,i am not bound to believe1 especially concerning those sciences about which the ,holy ,scriptures contain only small fragments and varying conclusions2 and this is precisely the case with astronomy1 of which there is so little that the planets are not even all enumerated40 ,having emphatically declared that thus dragging the ,bible into a scientific controversy was only a subterfuge of his opponents1 who1 feeling that they could not successfully fight him on his own ground1 had entrenched themselves behind an unassailable bulwark1 ,galileo proceeds to discuss the well known passage in ,joshua which the ,aristotelians were fond of adducing to demonstrate the contradictions between the modern views and ,holy ,scripture4 ,his object is to beat his adversaries with their own weapons1 by showing that if this passage is taken literally1 and ,god really arrested the sun in his course in answer to ,joshua's prayer1 and thus prolonged the day1 it makes the incorrectness1 nay the impossibility1 of the ,ptolemaic system quite clear1 while the ,copernican agrees with it very well4 ,according to the ,ptolemaic ideas1 ,galileo goes on1 the sun has two motions1 the annual one from west to east1 and the daily one from east to west4 ,being diametrically opposed to each other1 they cannot both be the sun's own motions4 ,the annual motion is the one which belongs to it2 the other originates in the primum mobile1 which carries the sun round the earth in twenty-four hours and occasions day and night4 ,if therefore ,god desired to prolong the day 7supposing the ,ptolemaic system to be the right one7 ,he must have commanded1 not the sun but the primum mobile1 to stand still4 ,now1 as it is stated in the ,bible that ,god arrested the sun in its course1 either the motions of the heavenly bodies must be different from what ,ptolemy maintained them to be1 or the literal meaning must be departed from1 and we must conclude that the ,holy ,scriptures1 in stating that ,god commanded the sun to stand still1 meant the primum mobile1 but1 accommodating themselves to the comprehension of those who are scarcely able to understand the rising and setting of the sun1 said just the opposite of what they would have said to scientifically educated people4 ,galileo also says that it was highly improbable that ,god should have commanded the sun alone to stand still1 and have allowed the other stars to pursue their course1 as all nature would have been deranged by it without any occasion1 and his belief was that ,god had enjoined a temporary rest on the whole system of the universe1 at the expiration of which all the heavenly bodies1 undisturbed in their mutual relations1 could have begun to revolve again in perfect order3 doubtless his inmost conviction1 although to us it sounds like irony4 ,at the close of this long letter he explains how the literal sense of the passage accords with the ,copernican system4 ,by his discovery of the solar spots the revolution of the sun on its axis is demonstrated2 moreover it is also very probable that the sun is the chief instrument of nature1 the heart of the universe so to speak1 and not only1 as is known with certainty1 is the source of light to the planets revolving round it1 but also lends them their motion4 ,if1 further1 we accept with ,copernicus a revolution of the earth1 at any rate a diurnal motion on its own axis1 it would certainly suffice merely to stop the sun in his course1 in order to bring the whole system to a standstill1 and thus to prolong the day without disordering nature4#ia ,castelli saw nothing ominous in this exhaustive reply to the ,grand ,duchess ,christine's objections1 and took care to give it a wide circulation by means of numerous copies4 ,galileo's enemies1 however1 eagerly grasped the dangerous weapon thus guilelessly placed in their hands by his friend4 ,they ingeniously gave a meaning to the epistle which exactly adapted it to their purpose4 ,they turned ,galileo's emphatic opinion that the ,scriptures had no business in a scientific controversy into the reproach that he assailed the universal authority of the ,bible2 by making ,joshua's miracle the subject of his disquisitions he laid himself open to the cutting remark that the statements of ,holy ,scripture must be protected from the arbitrary interpretations of profane laymen4 ,gherardini1 the worthy bishop of ,fiesole1 who was apparently entirely unaware of the existence of ,copernicus1 was so enraged about the system that ,galileo had defended that he publicly insulted him1 and threatened to bring the matter before the ,grand ,duke4 ,he could only be pacified by being informed that the founder of that system was not any man then living in ,tuscany1 but a ,german who had died seventy years before1 and that his work had been dedicated to ,pope ,paul ,,iii41 and had been graciously accepted by him4 ,meanwhile1 the league formed in ,florence against ,galileo had found in ,father ,caccini1 a ,dominican monk1 the right tool for setting on foot the long-desired scandal4 ,he had had some experience in misuse of the pulpit1 for he had before this got up a scene in church at ,bologna4 ,and as the favourable moment for action had now arrived1 ,caccini appeared as ,galileo's first public accuser by thundering out a fierce sermon against the astronomer and his system on the fourth ,sunday after ,advent1 #afad1 in the church of ,santa ,maria ,novella1 at ,florence4 ,he showed his wit by selecting as the two texts for his philippic the tenth chapter of ,joshua and the first chapter of ,acts4 ,he began with the words3 ,viri ,galili quid statis aspicientes in clum3 8,ye men of ,galilee1 why stand ye gazing up into heaven80 ,astronomy was thus happily introduced into the pulpit4 ,the furious preacher asserted that the doctrine taught by ,galileo in ,florence1 of the earth's revolution round the sun1 was quite irreconcilable with the ,catholic religion1 since it glaringly contradicted several statements in ,holy ,scripture1 the literal meaning of which1 as adopted by the fathers1 was opposed to it4 ,and1 as he further asserted that no one was permitted to interpret the ,bible in any other sense than that adopted by the fathers1 he as good as denounced the doctrine as heretical4 ,the sermon ended with a coarse attack on mathematicians in general1 whose science he called an invention of the devil2 and with a wish that they should be banished from all ,christian states1 since all heresies proceeded from them4 ,as was to be expected1 the affair caused a great sensation4 ,father ,luigi ,maraffi1 a ,dominican monk distinguished for his learning1 who was all his life an admirer of ,galileo1 told him in a letter of #ajth ,january1 #afae1ib how heartily he regretted this miserable exhibition4 ,he said1 among other things3 8,i have been extremely annoyed at the scandal which has taken place1 and the more so because the author of it is a brother of my order2 for1 unfortunately1 ,i have to answer for all the stupidities 7tutte le bestialit7 which thirty or forty thousand brothers may and do actually commit40 ,this sentence has caused all ,galileo's biographers who mention this letter1 with the exception of ,nelli1#ic to conclude that ,maraffi was the general of the order of ,dominicans2 yet a glance at the ,scriptores ,ordinis ,prdicatorum1 etc41 edited by the ,fathers ,quetif and ,echard1 would have shown them that from #afab to #afbi ,father ,seraphin ,secco1 of ,pavia1 was general1 and was succeeded by ,nicholas ,ridolfi4#id ,perhaps1 however1 ,father ,maraffi bore the title of a preacher of the ,dominican order1 which fully explains his letter to ,galileo4#ie ,galileo thought of complaining to the ecclesiastical authorities of the insult which had been offered him1 and of demanding satisfaction4 ,but ,prince ,cesi1 whom he consulted about it1 strongly advised him1 if any steps were taken against ,caccini1 to keep himself entirely out of the affair and to avoid all mention of the ,copernican theory2 for ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 the first authority of the sacred college1 had told him 7,cesi7 that he held the opinion to be heretical1 and that the principle of the earth's double motion was undoubtedly contrary to ,holy ,scripture4 ,in this complicated state of affairs the prince recommended that several mathematicians should complain of the public insults to the science of mathematics and its disciples4 ,but he gave another express warning to leave the ,copernican system entirely alone1 or they might take occasion at ,rome to consult whether the further spread of this opinion was to be permitted or condemned4 ,cesi added that in that case it would very likely be condemned1 as the ,peripatetic school was in the majority there1 and its opponents were generally hated2 besides1 it was very easy to prohibit and suspend4#if ,although ,galileo took this hint1 and the affair of ,caccini was prudently allowed to drop1 it must be regarded as the first impetus to all the later persecutions of ,galileo4 ,the questionable merit of having brought ,galileo's affairs before the tribunal of the ,inquisition belongs to ,father ,lorini1 a friend of ,caccini1 and brother of the same order4 ,galileo's fatal letter to ,castelli had fallen into his hands2 and when1 later on1 thanks to ,caccini's zeal1 a great ferment began about it in monkish circles at ,florence1 ,lorini was moved to send a denunciation of the letter and a copy of it secretly to the ,holy ,office at ,rome4 ,the whole statement1 which was addressed to ,cardinal ,mellini1 ,president of the ,congregation of the ,index1 is couched in a most artful and miserable style4 ,the denunciator1 too cowardly and too cunning to mention ,galileo by name 7for he still had powerful friends even among the highest dignitaries of the ,church71 only speaks of the 8,galileists0 in general1 8who maintain1 agreeably to the doctrine of ,copernicus1 that the earth moves and the heavens stand still40 ,he even ascribes the enclosed letter to ,copernicus1 in order to leave the honoured philosopher quite out of the question4 ,lorini goes on to say3 8all the fathers of this 7his own7 devout convent of ,st4 ,mark find many passages in this letter which are suspicious1 or presumptuous1 as when it says that many expressions of ,holy ,scripture are indefinite2 that in discussions about natural phenomena the lowest place must be assigned to them2 that the commentators have often been mistaken in their interpretations2 that the ,holy ,scriptures should not be mixed up with anything but matters of religion2 that in nature philosophical and astronomical evidence is of more value than holy and ,divine 7which passages your reverence#ig will find underlined by me in the said letter1 of which ,i send an exact copy72 and1 finally1 that when ,joshua commanded the sun to stand still1 we must only understand that the command was addressed to the primum mobile1 as this itself is the sun40 ,in these statements ,lorini perceives great peril for the ,church2 he is indignant 8that they 7the ,galileists7 should explain the ,holy ,scriptures after their own fashion1 and differently from the usual interpretation of the fathers1 and should defend an opinion which the ,holy ,scriptures appear to be entirely opposed to4444 ,they tread the entire philosophy of ,aristotle1 of which scholastic philosophy has made so much use1 under foot10 he exclaims3 8in short1 to show how clever they are1 they 7the ,galileists7 say a thousand shameless things and scatter them abroad in our city1 which holds fast to the ,catholic faith1 both from its own good spirit and the watchfulness of our august rulers40 ,he feels moved to inform the cardinal of all this1 that he may keep an eye on it1 and that if any remedy seems called for he may take the necessary measures4 ,after this ominous hint he hypocritically adds3 8,i1 who hold that all those who call themselves ,galileists are orderly men and good ,christians1 but a little over wise and self conceited in their opinions1 declare that ,i am actuated by nothing in this business but zeal for the sacred cause40 ,after this assurance he begs that this letter of his1 78,i do not say the enclosed letter107 he hastens to add in a parenthesis1 8may be kept secret and considered merely a friendly exchange of opinion between servant and master10 and not as a legal deposition4#ih ,in conclusion1 he expressly mentions the celebrated sermon of ,caccini1 probably in order that he might be called as a witness against ,galileo1 an object which1 as we shall see1 was attained4 ,in consequence of this denunciation the ,holy ,office felt itself called upon at once to institute a secret inquiry about the astronomer4 ,as ,lorini had only been able to show a copy of ,galileo's letter to ,castelli in confirmation of his accusations1 it appeared to the ,inquisition to be of great importance to obtain possession of the original1 written and signed by ,galileo4 ,to attain this end the worthy gentlemen acted on the principle that 8the end sanctifies the means40 ,cardinal ,mellini1 under date of #bfth ,february1 ordered the secretary of the ,holy ,congregation to write to the ,archbishop of ,pisa and the ,inquisitor there1 that they were to procure that document 8in a skilful manner40 ,on the very next day the order was despatched4#ii ,it happened that a few days later ,castelli1 who had returned from a short stay at ,florence to ,pisa1 paid a visit to the archbishop1 ,francesco ,bonciani4 ,he seized the opportunity of executing his commission4 ,with this end in view he began by adjuring the father1 who was quite taken aback by such an exhortation1 to give up certain extravagant opinions1 particularly that of the revolution of the earth1 adding that it would be to his salvation1 while to hold them would be to his ruin1 for those opinions 7to say nothing of their folly7 were dangerous1 repulsive1 and mischievous1 for they were directly opposed to ,holy ,scripture4 ,the philosophical arguments with which the archbishop tried to convert ,castelli to orthodox astronomy rose to a climax in the profound remark that as all things 7creatura7 had been created for the use and benefit of man1 it was obvious that the earth could not move like a star4#ajj ,after giving this affectionate counsel to ,castelli he offered the same for ,galileo1 and declared himself ready to demonstrate to all the world the folly of that opinion4 ,but1 in order to do it successfully1 he must first acquaint himself thoroughly with ,galileo's arguments2 and1 therefore 7and now comes the gist of the matter7 he urgently begs ,castelli to let him see ,galileo's apologetic letter4 ,fortunately it was no longer in ,castelli's possession1 for he had returned it to the author4 ,for not only did he not in the least perceive the trap that was laid for him1 but was so innocent as to inform ,galileo of the request and warmly to second it4#aja ,but ,galileo had suspicions1 and delayed to reply4 ,the archbishop was annoyed1 and reported in two letters to ,rome1 of #hth and #bhth of ,march1#ajb that ,castelli was convinced that he only wanted to see the letter out of curiosity1 and as the common friend of both had written to ,galileo2 still ,galileo had not sent it4 ,bonciani therefore asks 8whether he shall be more open with ,castelli80 ,but this time cunning did not attain its end2 at the repeated urgency of ,castelli1#ajc ,galileo at last sent him a mere copy without signature1 and with the express reservation that he was not to let it go out of his hands4 ,from a letter of ,castelli's#ajd to ,galileo we learn that in obedience to this injunction ,castelli read it to the archbishop in presence of several canons1 and that he diplomatically concealed his annoyance at the failure of his intrigue1 and put a good face on it1 for ,castelli adds with great satisfaction that the archbishop had highly praised ,galileo's demonstrations1 and lauded to the ecclesiastics present the modesty and reverence for ,holy ,scripture therein displayed4 ,so ,cardinal ,mellini had to content himself with a copy of ,galileo's criminated epistle1 to lay before the consultor of the ,holy ,office for his opinion4 ,he pronounced that some words and phrases occurred in the document that were unsuitable2 but1 although at first sight they looked ill1 they were capable of being taken in a good sense1 and were not of that nature that they could be said to deviate from ,catholic doctrine4#aje ,meanwhile a papal mandate had been issued1 under date of #aith ,march1 to summon ,caccini as a witness1 as being specially well informed about ,galileo's errors4#ajf ,he appeared before the holy tribunal the very next day1 and eloquently poured forth his accusations2 but1 although upon oath1 he did not adhere very strictly to truth4 ,for not only did he denounce the opinion of ,copernicus as quasi heretical1 being opposed to all scholastic theology and to the customary interpretation of many passages of ,scripture1 and assert that these doctrines were to be found both in the letter to ,castelli and in the purely scientific treatise on the solar spots1 but added the far more serious charge that he had heard that ,galileo maintained the three following propositions3 8,god is not a self existent being1 but an accident2 ,god is sentient because the ,divine sentiments reside in ,him2 the miracles said to be performed by the saints are not real miracles40 ,he further says that ,galileo is at any rate 8suspicious in religious matters10 because he belongs to 8a certain ,accadmia dei ,lincei10 and corresponds with the godless ,fra ,paolo ,sarpi at ,venice1 and with many dissolute ,germans4 ,more absurd deductions from real facts can hardly be conceived4 ,to make a hotbed of heresy out of an academy founded by ,prince ,cesi1 a man of known piety1 and to place ,galileo's religion in doubt on account of his scientific correspondence with magnates of science like ,sarpi1 ,welser1 ,kepler1 etc41 was almost like madness4#ajg ,in confirmation of his damaging statements ,caccini appealed to the testimony of a ,dominican1 ,ferdinand ,ximenes1 and a young nobleman1 ,attavanti4 ,both of them were afterwards called in ,november of the same year4 ,it then came out that ,caccini was not only an eavesdropper but a bad listener4 ,attavanti1 who moreover was far more a disciple of the ,dominicans than of ,galileo1 had once had a discussion with ,ximenes1 in their convent of ,santa ,maria ,novella1 about the proposition concerning the nature of the ,godhead1 but it originated entirely in scholasticism and had nothing to do with ,galileo4 ,caccini1 listening behind a partition1 caught something of the conversation2 and1 thinking that ,attavanti was a well instructed follower of ,galileo1 and was merely repeating what he had taught him1 explained the fragments of the disputation in his own fashion1 and formed them into these stupid accusations4 ,it also appeared from the evidence of ,ximenes and ,attavanti that neither of them knew of anything suspicious about ,galileo1 except that he propounded the doctrine of the double motion of the earth4#ajh ,after the favourable testimony of ,ximenes and ,attavanti the evidence of ,caccini was only so far of importance that it gave rise to an inquiry into the 8,history and ,explanation of the ,solar ,spots40#aji ,this1 and the oft discussed letter to ,father ,castelli then1 were the grounds upon which ,galileo's enemies based the accusation of philosophical and theological error4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,hopes ,,and ,,fears4 ,galileo's ,fears4--,allayed by letters from ,rome4--,foscarini's work4--,blindness of ,galileo's ,friends4--,his ,apology to the ,grand ,duchess ,christine4--,effect produced by it4--,visit to ,rome4--,erroneous opinion that he was cited to appear4--,caccini begs pardon4--,galileo defends the ,copernican system at ,rome4--,his mistake in so doing4 ,galileo knew no more than the rest of the world of the secret proceedings of the ,inquisition against him and his system4 ,he had only discovered that some ,dominican monks wanted to make use of his letter to ,castelli to effect the condemnation of the ,copernican doctrines1 and that they were spreading all sorts of calumnies against him based upon it4 ,fearing that the copy of it on which they relied might have been tampered with1 he sent a correct copy on #afth ,february1 #afae1 to his sincere friend ,mgr4 ,dini at ,rome1 with a request that he would forward it to the mathematician1 ,father ,griemberger1 and perhaps even to ,cardinal ,bellarmine4 ,galileo observed in the accompanying letter that he had written the one to ,castelli 8currente calamo10 that since then he had made many researches into the subject therein discussed1 and announced the speedy completion of a larger work1 in which he should carry out his reasoning far more in detail2 as soon as it was finished he would send it to ,mgr4 ,dini4 7,this was his great ,apology to the ,grand ,duchess ,christine47 ,in conclusion1 he bitterly complains that his enemies were daily increasing in number1 and1 in order to injure him the more1 were spreading the strange report among the people that he was the founder of the system of the double motion of the earth1 which gave rise to incidents like that with ,bishop ,gherardini4#aaj ,the philosopher1 who it is evident was a good deal discomfited1 received in reply consolatory assurances from ,mgr4 ,dini and others of his ecclesiastical friends4 ,but they earnestly advised him to treat the subject of the ,copernican system purely from the mathematical1 physical point of view1 and carefully to avoid religious discussion4 ,this hint came rather late in the day1 and could not now be of much use to ,galileo1 when his doctrines were already attacked as heretical1 although secretly at that time1 and the accusation was based on the purely scientific work on the solar spots4 ,war had been declared with the ,copernican system in the name of the ,bible4 ,galileo's letters to ,mgr4 ,dini of #afth ,february and #bhth ,march1#aaa plainly show how unwillingly he had been driven into the theological field by his opponents4 ,after he had in the second letter decidedly rejected ,dini's suggestion that he should treat the ,copernican system merely as a hypothesis1 he added that it had been his earnest desire to keep strictly to his part as a man of science1 and not to be compelled to defend his astronomical system against religious scruples4 ,he entirely agrees with those who say that the task of bringing natural science into agreement with ,holy ,scripture should be left to theologians1 and shows that he has been compelled to defend himself on this dangerous ground4 ,he says besides that his letter to ,castelli was not originally intended to go any farther1 and regrets that ,castelli had had copies made of it without his knowledge4 ,it is a noteworthy circumstance that at the very time when the secret denunciation had been laid before the tribunal of the ,inquisition at ,rome1 all the letters and reports which ,galileo received from ,rome1 even from trustworthy friends1 ,mgrs4 ,dini1 ,ciampoli1 and ,prince ,cesi1 were calculated to allay his anxious fears4 ,none of those persons1 although in influential positions1 and likely it would seem to have been better informed1 knew1 as appears from their correspondence with ,galileo1 anything of the proceedings which were being instituted at ,rome against him and the ,copernican system4 ,the ,inquisition knew well enough how to keep its secrets4 ,on #bhth ,february#aab ,mgr4 ,ciampoli writes confidently to ,galileo that1 notwithstanding all the inquiries he had made1 he could learn nothing of any measures against him or the new doctrines2 he sets down the whole rumour to the incautious talk of some hot-headed fellow4 ,on #gth ,march#aac ,dini tells ,galileo that ,cardinal ,bellarmine had said 8he did not think that the work of ,copernicus would be prohibited1 and the worst that would happen would be that some addition would be made to it1 stating that this theory was only accepted to explain phenomena1#aad or some such phrase1 and with this reservation ,galileo would be able to discuss the subject whenever he had occasion40 ,under the same date ,prince ,cesi tells ,galileo that a work had just been published by a ,dominican monk1 which brilliantly defended the opinion of ,copernicus and made it agree with ,holy ,scripture4 ,he adds that the work could not have appeared more opportunely4#aae ,but what seems the most strange are the express and repeated assurances of the cardinals ,barberini1 ,del ,monte1 and ,bellarmine1 to ,galileo1 through ,dini and ,ciampoli1 that so long as he did not go beyond the province of physics and mathematics1 nor enter into any theological interpretations of ,scripture1 he had nothing to fear4#aaf ,how could ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 who had not long before expressly stated to ,prince ,cesi that the new system was not compatible with the doctrines of ,holy ,scripture1 and who1 as a member of the ,inquisition1 must have been aware of the transactions which had been going on about ,galileo since #eth ,february1 give these assurances so directly opposed to the truth8 ,and yet these three prelates afterwards gave many proofs of good will towards ,galileo4 ,how then is their ambiguous conduct to be explained8 ,it was simply that they were friendly to ,galileo1 but not to his doctrines4 ,they certainly desired to shield his person1 and afterwards honestly endeavoured to do so even under most difficult circumstances2 but the system he defended1 which endangered the faith of the ,church1 must be suppressed at all hazards4 ,in order to this end it appeared advisable to keep it a secret from ,galileo that the statement of ,copernicus that the earth moved was assailed from the theological standpoint1 until the ,holy ,office had issued the interdict against its circulation and defence4 ,it was thus that they prudently rounded the rocks which the dreaded dialectics of the clever ,tuscan had exposed to view4 ,and the nearer the period was drawing when the verdict of the ,church was to be pronounced on the ,copernican theory1 and the more eagerly the secret inquiries about ,galileo were being prosecuted1 the more confident became the tone of the letters of his friends from the very city where this ominous web was being woven4 ,it seems as if all ,galileo's trusty adherents had been struck with blindness1 for we should not be justified in doubting the sincerity of a ,dini1 a ,ciampoli1 and a ,cesi1 men who afterwards proved by their actions their true friendship for the great astronomer4 ,on #bjth ,march the evidence of ,caccini was taken1 and on the #bast ,ciampoli communicates to ,galileo the consoling observations of the cardinals ,del ,monte and ,bellarmine mentioned above4 ,ciampoli also adds to these comforting assurances by telling him that ,foscarini's work was no doubt in great danger of being prohibited by the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office to take place next month1 but only because it meddled with matters concerning ,holy ,scripture4 ,he goes on to say with real satisfaction that he can only confirm his previous information1 and that all this noise originated with four or five persons who are hostile to ,galileo2 he and ,dini had taken all possible pains to find out this assumed agitation1 but had discovered absolutely nothing4 ,he repeats this most decidedly in a letter of a week later2#aag and in another of #afth ,may#aah he cannot at all understand what has so disconcerted ,galileo1 and adds that it was no longer doubtful that the ,copernican doctrine would not be prohibited1 and expresses his conviction that it would be a great satisfaction to every one if ,galileo would come to ,rome for a time1 and the more so because he had heard that many of the ,jesuits were secretly of ,galileo's opinion1 and were only keeping quiet for the present4 ,a private note enclosed in a letter from ,prince ,cesi to ,galileo1 of ,june #bjth1 is equally sanguine4 ,he tells him that ,foscarini's work1 of which a new and enlarged edition is to appear immediately1 has had great success at ,rome1 and that the opponents of ,galileo and of the new system are much cast down about it2 he adds that neither the author of that treatise nor the doctrines in question are in any danger1 if only a little prudence is exercised4 ,cesi even thinks that the new edition1 in which the author refutes all the objections to his work1 will satisfy the ecclesiastical authorities1 convince opponents1 and put an end to the whole business4 8,then10 continues the prince confidently1 8when every difficulty is removed and attack rendered impossible1 the doctrine will be so fully permitted and recognised1 that everybody who wishes to maintain it will be at liberty to do so1 as in all other purely physical and mathematical questions40#aai ,this is the last letter we have from ,galileo's friends of this period4 ,from this date to the time of his stay in ,rome1 in #afaf1 there are no letters to him extant4 ,this is the more to be regretted1 as the gap occurs at a very interesting juncture4 ,perhaps after the ,copernican doctrines were condemned ,galileo may have destroyed this correspondence out of regard for his friends1 for it may have contained allusions to very delicate matters4 ,meanwhile1 after having been repeatedly urged to it by ,mgr4 ,dini1#abj he had completed his great apologetic treatise1 in the form of a letter to the ,grand ,duchess ,dowager1 ,christine4 ,as it accurately defines the standpoint which ,galileo desired to take as a natural philosopher and sincere ,catholic1 with respect to the ,church of ,rome1 it seems necessary to give a sketch of its contents4 ,galileo begins with the motive of his ,apology4 ,several years ago he had made many discoveries in the heavens1 the novelty of which1 and the vast consequences they involve1 which are opposed to many of the principles of the modern ,aristotelian school1 have incensed no small number of professors against him1 as if he had placed these phenomena in the heavens with his own hands in order to overturn nature and science4 ,placing a greater value on their own opinions than on truth1 these men had taken upon themselves to deny the existence of these discoveries1 whereas if they had only consented to observe them1 they would have been convinced4 ,instead of this1 they assailed the new discoveries with empty arguments1 and worst mistake of all1 interwove them with passages of ,scripture which they did not understand4 ,but when the majority of the scientific world was convinced with its own eyes1 so that it was impossible any longer to doubt the truth of these phenomena1 their opponents tried to consign them to oblivion by obstinate silence2 and when that did not avail they took another course4 ,galileo says that he should pay no more heed to these attacks than to former ones1 at which1 confident of the final result1 he had always laughed1 but they seek to cast an aspersion on him which he dreads more than death4 ,his opponents1 knowing that he favoured the opinion of the double motion of the earth1 and thereby attacked the ,ptolemaic and ,aristotelian principles1 and perceiving since the universal recognition of his observations that they could never combat him successfully on the field of natural philosophy1 are trying now to make a shield for their false statements out of a fictitious piety and the authority of ,holy ,scripture4 ,they have therefore first tried to spread the opinion that the views he defends are opposed to the ,bible1 and therefore heretical and worthy of condemnation4 ,they then easily found some one to denounce them from the pulpit1 and he hurled his anathemas not only at the ,copernican doctrines1 but against mathematicians in general4 ,they also gave out that the modern views of the system of the universe would shortly be pronounced heretical by the highest authorities4 ,galileo then points out that ,copernicus1 the originator of these doctrines1 was not only a good ,catholic1 but a priest highly esteemed by the ,roman curia1 both for his learning and piety4 ,he had dedicated his famous work3 8,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,clestium10 to ,pope ,paul ,,iii41 and no one had felt any scruples about his doctrines1 although some ill-disposed persons want to have the book pronounced heretical1 without ever having read1 to say nothing of studied it4 ,as an adherent of the ,copernican theory1 ,galileo now feels compelled1 in order to justify himself1 to discuss in detail these arguments from ,scripture brought forward by his opponents1 and he hopes to prove that he is animated by a greater zeal for true religion than his adversaries2 for he by no means demands that the book should not be condemned1 but that it should not be condemned without being understood or even looked at4 ,before proceeding to discuss these arguments1 he protests that he will not only always be ready publicly to rectify the errors he may from ignorance have fallen into on religious matters in this treatise1 but that it was not in the least his intention to enter into dispute with any one on such subjects2 it is rather his desire1 by these remarks1 to incite others to deliberations useful to the ,church4 ,as to the decision about the ,copernican system1 we must bow to the opinions of the ecclesiastical authorities1 and should it be adverse to him1 let his work be torn up and burnt1 for he had neither wish nor intention to promote results that were not catholic and pious4 ,after this long and cautious introduction1 ,galileo comes to the matter itself1--the discussion of the principles of exegesis of ,scripture with respect to natural science4 ,he employs the same arguments as in his letter to ,castelli1 only more in detail1 and cites several passages from ,st4 ,augustine in support of his views1 as to how far questions of natural philosophy should be left to the understanding and to science4 ,he also quotes a saying of ,cardinal ,baronius3 8,the ,holy ,spirit intended to teach us how to go to heaven1 and not how the heavens go40 ,galileo then illustrates by examples how derogatory it will be to the dignity of ,holy ,scripture if every unauthorised scribbler is permitted to adduce passages from it in support of his views1 which he often does not interpret rightly2 and experience shows the futility of this method of proof4 ,he then turns to the claim of theologians to enforce upon others in scientific discussions opinions which they hold to agree with passages of ,scripture1 while maintaining that they are not bound to explain the scientific phenomena which are opposed to their decisions4 ,in support of this they affirm that theology is the queen of all the sciences1 and need not condescend to accommodate herself to the teachings of other sciences far beneath her3 they must submit to her as their sovereign1 and modify their conclusions accordingly4 ,this leads ,galileo to some considerations which he will here set forth1 that he may learn the opinions of others more expert on such questions than he is1 and to whose decisions he is always ready to bow4 ,he is in doubt whether some ambiguity has not crept in for want of more precision in defining why theology is entitled to be called a queen4 ,it must either be because all that is taught by other sciences is comprised in and explained by theology1 only in a higher sense2 or because theology treats of a subject which far surpasses in importance all the subjects of which profane science treats4 ,but even the theologians themselves will hardly maintain that the title belongs to theology in the first sense2 for no one can say that geometry1 astronomy1 music1 and medicine1 are better treated of in ,scripture than in the writings of ,archimedes1 ,ptolemy1 ,boccius1 and ,galen4 ,it appears then that the royal prerogative of theology must be derived from some other source4 ,galileo here remarks3-- 8,if then theology occupies herself solely with the highest problems1 maintains her throne by reason of the supreme authority conferred on her1 and does not condescend to the lower sciences as not affecting salvation1 the professors of theology should not assume authority on subjects which they have not studied4 ,for this is just as if an absolute ruler should demand1 without being a physician or an architect1 that people should treat themselves1 or erect buildings1 according to his directions1 to the great peril of poor sick people and obvious ruin of the edifices40 ,galileo then demonstrates the vast difference between doctrinal and exact sciences1 and says that in the latter opinions cannot be changed to order4 ,supported by the authority of ,st4 ,augustine1 he maintains that opinions on natural science which have been proved to coincide with actual facts cannot be set aside by passages of ,scripture1 but these must be explained so as not to contradict the indisputable results of observation4 ,those1 therefore1 who desire to condemn an opinion in physics must first show that it is incorrect4 ,but it must be made the subject of close investigation1 and then a different result will often be obtained from the one desired4 ,many learned men who intended to refute the ,copernican theory have been changed1 by examination1 from opponents to enthusiastic defenders of it4 ,in order to banish it from the world1 as many desired1 it would not be enough to shut the mouth of any one individual1 it would be necessary to prohibit not only the writings of ,copernicus and his followers1 but astronomy altogether4 ,but to suppress his work now1 when new discoveries are daily confirming his theory1 after it has been quietly submitted to for so many years1 appears to ,galileo like opposition to truth itself2 and to permit the book and condemn the doctrine would be still more pernicious to the souls of men1 for it would allow them the opportunity of convincing themselves of the truth of an opinion which it was a sin to believe4 ,to forbid astronomy altogether would be like rejecting hundreds of passages of ,scripture which teach us how the glory of ,god is revealed in all ,his works1 which are best to be studied in the open book of nature4 ,galileo then applies these general principles to the ,copernican theory4 ,according to many1 it ought to be pronounced erroneous because it is opposed to the apparent meaning of many passages in the ,bible1 while the opposite opinion is to be believed de fide4 ,he sharply defines two kinds of scientific questions3 those on which all man's researches can only lead to probability and conjecture1 as for instance1 whether the stars are inhabited or not2 and those on which1 by experience1 observation1 and inevitable deduction1 we either have attained certainty or may safely reckon on doing so1--as whether the earth or the heavens move4 ,in the first case1 ,galileo is decidedly of opinion that it behoves us to be guided by the literal sense of ,scripture2 in the second1 he repeats what he has said before1 that two truths can never contradict each other4 ,the ,bible speaks of the sun as moving and of the earth as standing still to accommodate itself to the understanding of the people1 and not to confuse them1 otherwise they might refuse to believe the dogmas which are absolutely de fide4 ,for the same reason the fathers have spoken about things not appertaining to salvation1 more in accordance with usage than actual facts1 and he confirms this by quotations from ,st4 ,jerome and ,st4 ,thomas4 ,even the general agreement of the fathers in the interpretation of any passage of ,scripture of scientific import should1 in ,galileo's opinion1 only confer authority on it when the question has been discussed by many fathers with knowledge of both sides4 ,but this is not the case with the question of the double motion of the earth1 for it had not come up at all at that time1 and it could not occur to the holy fathers to dispute it1 for the current opinion was in entire agreement with the literal meaning of the ,bible4 ,it was not enough to say that the fathers had all believed that the earth stood still1 and that therefore it was to be held de fide1 for it was very possible that they never investigated it1 and only held it as generally current4 ,if they had done so and found it deserving of condemnation1 they would have said so1 but it had never been discovered that they had4 ,the writings of ,diego di ,zuiga show1 on the contrary1 that when some theologians began to consider the ,copernican theory1 they did not find it erroneous or contrary to ,scripture4 ,moreover1 no argument could be drawn from an unanimous opinion of the fathers1 for some of them spoke of the sun as stationary1 others of the primum mobile4 ,galileo declares himself ready to sign an opinion of wise and well informed theologians on the ,copernican theory4 ,since no investigation of it was instituted by the ancient fathers1 it might be done now by theologians fitted for it1 who1 after they had carefully examined all the scientific arguments for and against1 would establish on a firm footing what was dictated to them by ,divine inspiration4 ,he once more lays great stress on the need of first convincing one's self of the actual facts of nature under the guidance of science1 and then proceeding to interpret texts of ,scripture4 ,he is indignant with those who1 from malice or blinded by party interest1 say that the ,church should draw the sword without delay1 since she possesses the power4 ,as if it was always desirable to do whatever was in our power6 ,he shows that the fathers were not of that opinion1 but agreed with him1 and exclaims to these wranglers3 8,try first to refute the arguments of ,copernicus and his followers1 and leave the task of condemning them to those to whom it belongs2 but do not hope to find among the fathers1 who were as discreet as they were far-seeing1 or in the wisdom of ,him who cannot err1 those hasty conclusions to which you are led by personal interests and passions4 ,it is doubtless true that concerning these and similar statements which are not strictly de fide1 his ,holiness the ,pope has absolute authority to approve or condemn2 but it is not in the power of any human being to make them true or false1 or other than they de facto are40 ,this lengthy treatise concludes with a disquisition on the passage in the book of ,joshua1 which he treats in the same way as in the letter to ,castelli4 ,notwithstanding all the care ,galileo exercised in this apology#aba not to give any handle to his enemies1 it contained far too many liberal and merely human principles not to do the author more harm than good in the eyes of the orthodox party1 both on religious and scientific questions4 ,his opponents saw this plainly enough1 and agitated against him all the more vehemently at ,rome4 ,ominous reports reached the astronomer1 who was anxious enough before2 but he could not any how learn anything definite about these attacks1 only so much eked out1 that something was brewing against him1 and that it was intended to interdict the ,copernican theory4 ,galileo thought he could best meet these intrigues by his personal appearance at ,rome2 he wanted to learn what the accusations against him were1 and to show that there was nothing in them2 he desired energetically to defend the new system1 to aid truth in asserting her rights4 ,so1 early in ,december1 #afae1 provided with cordial letters of introduction from the ,grand ,duke1 he set out for ,rome4#abb ,some older authors1 and recently ,henri ,martin1#abc have repeated as a fact the report circulated at the time by ,galileo's enemies1#abd that this visit to ,rome was by no means so voluntary as he thought fit to give out4 ,martin appeals in support of this view to a letter of ,mgr4 ,querenghi to ,cardinal ,alexander d',este1 of #ast ,january1 #afaf1abe in which he says that the philosopher had been cited to appear at ,rome1 that he might explain how he made his doctrines1 which entirely contradict ,holy ,scripture1 agree with it4 ,martin also states that the ,tuscan ambassador at ,rome1 in a despatch of #aath ,september1 #afcb1 announced that a document had been discovered in the books of the ,holy ,office1 which showed that ,galileo had been summoned to ,rome in #afaf2 and finally1 this otherwise excellent biographer of ,galileo adds some grounds of probability which1 however1 are not conclusive4 ,besides1 these arguments1 in the face of other facts1 are not valid4 ,even if ,galileo's contemporary letters from ,rome1 in which he repeatedly expresses his satisfaction that he had come there1#abf are not relied upon1 and are regarded merely as a consistent carrying out of the fiction1 his statement on his trial of #abth ,april1 #afcc1 bears clear witness that ,martin is in error4 ,being asked if he came at that time to ,rome of his own accord1 or in consequence of a summons1 he answered3 8,in the year #afaf ,i came to ,rome of my own accord1 without being summoned40#abg ,it was impossible that he should then have persisted in the assumed fiction1 for he could not have denied before the ,inquisition a summons issued by itself seventeen years before1 since it would certainly have been entered in their registers4#abh ,according to the statement of the ,tuscan ambassador mentioned above1 such a document had been discovered one year previously in the protocols of the ,holy ,office4 ,but in the face of the question put at the examination this does not seem very credible4 ,moreover1 in none of the documents now open to historical research relating to the transactions of #afaf1 is there any such record to be found1 nor anything to indicate that this visit of ,galileo's to ,rome did not originate with himself4 ,neither does the flattering reception he met with at all agree with the assumed secret summons4 ,nevertheless1 his correspondence with ,picchena1 successor in office to ,vinta1 though very cautious1 shows that notwithstanding the comforting assurances he had received from his friends at ,rome1 he found that a zealous agitation was going on1 not only against the doctrines he advocated1 but against himself4#abi ,in another letter of #hth ,january1 #afaf1 he says he sees every day what a good idea it was to come here1 for he had found so many snares laid for him that it would have been quite impossible not to be caught by one or other of them1 and he would not have been able to extricate himself for a long time1 perhaps never1 or only with the greatest difficulty4 ,he is confident that he shall now very soon destroy the traps of his enemies1 and be able to justify himself in a way that will bring all their unworthy calumnies to light4 ,they have spread the false report that he was in disgrace at the grand ducal court in consequence of the enormity of his offence1 and that the proceedings against him had the ,grand ,duke's entire approval4 ,now1 as the cordial introductions given him by ,cosmo ,,ii4 proved precisely the contrary1 the assertions of his enemies would lose all credit1 and he would be believed all the more1 so that he should be able to justify himself completely4#acj ,judging1 however1 from a letter written fourteen days later to the ,tuscan ,secretary of ,state1 ,galileo had not found it so easy to defend himself as he anticipated4 ,indeed it seems to have been a very complicated business4 ,a passage from the letter above mentioned will give an idea of it3-- 8,my business is far more difficult1 and takes much longer owing to outward circumstances1 than the nature of it would require2 because ,i cannot communicate directly with those persons with whom ,i have to negotiate1 partly to avoid doing injury to any of my friends1 partly because they cannot communicate anything to me without running the risk of grave censure4 ,and so ,i am compelled1 with much pains and caution1 to seek out third persons1 who1 without even knowing my object1 may serve as mediators with the principals1 so that ,i may have the opportunity of setting forth1 incidentally as it were1 and at their request1 the particulars of my interests4 ,i have also to set down some points in writing1 and to cause that they should come privately into the hands of those whom ,i wish should see them2 for ,i find in many quarters that people are more ready to yield to dead writing than to living speech1 for the former permits them to agree or dissent without blushing1 and then finally to yield to the arguments used--for in such discussions we have no witnesses but ourselves1 whereas people do not so readily change their opinions if it has to be done publicly40#aca ,galileo at length succeeded by his strenuous efforts in freeing himself from all false accusations and in refuting the slanders of ,caccini4 ,his affairs took so favourable a turn that the monk found it advisable to pay an obsequious visit of several hours to ,galileo1 humbly begged pardon for his previous conduct1 offered any satisfaction in his power1 and assured ,galileo that the agitation going on was not in any way to be laid at his door4#acb ,but he could not refrain from trying to prove that the ,copernican doctrines were erroneous1 in which however he had no more success than in convincing ,galileo of his sincerity1 for he wrote to ,picchena that he had found in ,caccini 8great ignorance and a mind full of venom40#acc ,but ,galileo had only performed half his task by the happy adjustment of the difficulties affecting himself2 the more important and grander part of it1 the preservation of the ,copernican system from the interdict of the ,church1 had yet to be accomplished4 ,his letter of #fth ,february to ,picchena tells him of the favourable turn in his own affairs1 as well as of the noble purposes by which he was animated4 ,he writes3-- 8,my business1 so far as it concerns myself1 is completed2 all the exalted personages who have been conducting it have told me so plainly1 and in a most obliging manner1 and have assured me that people are fully convinced of my uprightness and honour1 and of the devilish malice and injustice of my persecutors4 ,as far as this point is concerned1 therefore1 ,i might return home without delay1 but there is a question concerning my own cause which does not concern myself alone1 but all those who1 during the last eighty years1 have advocated in printed works or private letters1 in public lectures or private conversations1 a certain opinion1 not unknown to your ,grace1 on which they are now proposing to pronounce judgment4 ,in the conviction that my assistance may be of use in the investigation of the matter1 as far as a knowledge of those truths is concerned which are proved by the science to which ,i have devoted myself1 ,i neither can nor ought to neglect to render this assistance1 while ,i shall thereby follow the dictates of my conscience and ,christian zeal40#acd ,this was magnanimous1 and ,galileo was entitled1 as few others were1 to appear as the advocate of science4 ,but unfortunately his warm and perhaps too solicitous efforts for the ,copernican cause had a result precisely opposite to the one he intended4 ,he was still under the great delusion that the ,roman curia must above all things be convinced of the correctness of the ,copernican doctrines4 ,he therefore sought out scepticism on the subject everywhere in the eternal city1 combated it eagerly and apparently with signal success4 ,in many of the first houses in ,rome1 such as the ,cesarini's1 ,ghislieri's1 and others1 he unfolded before numerous audiences his views about the construction of the universe4 ,he always began these discourses by carefully enumerating all the arguments for the ,ptolemaic system1 and then proved that they were untenable by the telling arguments with which his own observations had so abundantly supplied him2 and as he not seldom added the biting sarcasm of his wit to serious demonstration1 thus bringing the laugh on his side1 he prepared signal defeats for the orthodox views of nature4#ace ,but by this method he obviously took a false standpoint4 ,he would not see that the ,romanists cared far more for the authority of ,scripture than for the recognition of the laws of nature2 that his system1 running counter to orthodox interpretation of the ,bible1 was opposed to the interests of the ,church4 ,and as his tactics were founded upon a purely human way of looking at things1 and he erroneously imagined that the true system of the universe would be of greater importance1 even to the servants of the ,church1 than her own mysteries1 it was but a natural consequence of these false premises that1 instead of attaining his end1 he only widened his distance from it4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,inquisition ,,and ,,the ,,copernican ,,system1 ,,and ,,the ,,assumed ,,prohibition ,,to ,,galileo4 ,adverse ,opinion of the ,inquisition on ,galileo's ,propositions4--,admonition by ,bellarmine1 and assumed ,absolute ,prohibition to treat of the ,copernican ,doctrines4--,discrepancy between ,notes of #beth and #bfth ,february4--,marini's documents4--,epinois's ,work on ,galileo4--,wohlwill first doubts the ,absolute ,prohibition4--,doubts confirmed by ,gherardi's ,documents4--,decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 on the ,copernican system4--,attitude of the ,church4--,was the ,absolute ,prohibition ever issued to ,galileo8--,testimony of ,bellarmine in his favour4--,conclusions4 ,the ,inquisition1 perhaps still incensed by ,galileo's active propagandism1 even among the learned world of ,rome1 and by his brilliant defence of the new system1 now hastened to bring to a conclusion the transactions which had been going on for a considerable time against it4 ,a decree of #aith ,february1 #afaf1 summoned the ,qualifiers of the ,holy ,office 7they were not judges exactly1 but had to give their opinion as experts7 and required them to give their opinion on the two following propositions in ,galileo's work on the solar spots3-- ,i4 ,the sun is the centre of the world1 and immovable from its place4 ,,ii4 ,the earth is not the centre of the world1 and is not immovable1 but moves1 and also with a diurnal motion4#acf ,in accordance with the papal decree1 these theologians met four days afterwards1 at #i a4m4 on #bcrd ,february1 and published the result of their deliberations the next day1 as follows3-- ,the first proposition was unanimously declared to be false and absurd philosophically1 and formally heretical1 inasmuch as it expressly contradicts the doctrines of ,holy ,scripture in many passages1 both if taken in their literal meaning and according to the general interpretation and conceptions of the holy ,fathers and learned theologians4 ,the second proposition was declared unanimously 8to deserve the like censure in philosophy1 and as regards theological truth1 to be at least erroneous in the faith40#acg ,the ,vatican ,,ms4 reports the further steps taken against ,galileo as the chief advocate of the ,copernican system1 as follows3-- 8,thursday1 #beth ,february1 #afaf4 ,the ,lord ,cardinal ,mellini notified to the ,reverend ,fathers the ,assessors and the ,commissary of the ,holy ,office1 that the censure passed by the theologians upon the propositions of ,galileo--to the effect particularly that the sun is the centre of the world1 and immovable from its place1 and that the earth moves1 and also with a diurnal motion--had been reported2 and ,his ,holiness has directed the ,lord ,cardinal ,bellarmine to summon before him the said ,galileo1 and admonish him to abandon the said opinion2 and in case of his refusal to obey1 that the ,commissary is to intimate to him1 before a notary and witnesses1 a command to abstain altogether from teaching or defending this opinion and doctrine1 and even from discussing it2 and if he do not acquiesce therein1 that he is to be imprisoned40#ach ,this is followed in the ,vatican ,,ms4 by a record intended to look like an official report on the course of the proceedings ordained above4 ,every unbiassed reader will expect to find in it either that ,galileo refused to obey the admonitions of the cardinal1 and that the ,commissary-,general of the ,inquisition then issued the other strict injunction1 or that ,galileo immediately submitted1 in which case the official of the ,inquisition would not have had to interfere4 ,instead of this we find the following document1 couched half in a narrative tone1 half like the report of a notary3-- 8,friday1 the #bfth4--,at the ,palace1 the usual residence of the ,lord ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 the said ,galileo having been summoned and brought before the said ,lord ,cardinal1 was1 in presence of the ,most ,revd4 ,michael ,angelo ,segnezzio1 of the order of preachers1 ,commissary-,general of the ,holy ,office1 by the said ,cardinal warned of the error of the aforesaid opinion1 and admonished to abandon it2 and immediately thereafter1 before me and before witnesses1 the ,lord ,cardinal ,bellarmine being still present1 the said ,galileo was by the said ,commissary commanded and enjoined1 in the name of ,his ,holiness the ,pope1 and the whole ,congregation of the ,holy ,office1 to relinquish altogether the said opinion that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable1 and that the earth moves2 nor henceforth to hold1 teach1 or defend it in any way whatsoever1 verbally or in writing2 otherwise proceedings would be taken against him in the ,holy ,office2 which injunction the said ,galileo acquiesced in and promised to obey4 ,done at ,rome1 in the place aforesaid1 in presence of ,badino ,nores1 of ,nicosia1 in the kingdom of ,cyprus1 and ,augustino ,mongardo1 from a place in the ,abbacy of ,rottz1 in the diocese of ,politianeti1 inmates of the said ,cardinal's house1 witnesses40#aci ,the discrepancy between this record and that of #beth ,february is obvious3 that says that the ,pope had ordered that ,cardinal ,bellarmine should admonish ,galileo to renounce the opinions of ,copernicus1 and only in case he should refuse1 was the ,commissary to issue the order to him to abstain from teaching1 defending1 or discussing those opinions4 ,here in the report of the #bfth we read1 that 8immediately after0 the admonition of the cardinal1 the ,commissary issued this stringent order1 and with the significant modification1 8nor to hold1 teach1 or defend it in any way whatsoever40 ,in this report of the proceedings it is not expressly stated whether ,galileo at first refused or not1 but1 according to the wording of the report1 it is almost impossible that he could have done so1 since it represents that the ,cardinal's admonition was followed immediately by the absolute prohibition from the ,commissary4 ,but such a mode of procedure was by no means in accordance with the papal ordinance1 and would rather have been an arbitrary deviation from it4 ,until within the last ten years1 in all the works1 great or small1 which treat of ,galileo's trial1 we find this absolute prohibition which he was said to have received related as an established historical fact4 ,it was the sole legal ground on which the indictment was based against ,galileo sixteen years later1 and he was condemned and sentenced by his judges by an ostentatious appeal to it4 ,up to #ahej not a single document had been seen by any of the authors who wrote so confidently of the stringent prohibition of #afaf1 which confirmed its historical truth4 ,and yet it could but exist among the inaccessible archives relating to the trial of ,galileo1 since the ,inquisitors relied upon it in #afcc1 and it was the pole and axis of the famous trial4 ,and what the world had accepted in good faith on the somewhat doubtful veracity of the ,inquisition was at length1 apparently confirmed by the testimony of ,mgr4 ,marino ,marini1 prefect of the ,vatican ,archives4 ,in that year he published at ,rome a book entitled1 8,galileo e l',inquisizione1 ,memorie storico-critiche10 which1 as the author stated1 was founded upon the original documents of the trial4 ,it actually contained many 8extracts0 from the original protocols2 and founded upon documentary materials accessible only to the author1 it was encircled with the convenient halo of inviolability4 ,and for nearly twenty years no serious objection was raised to it4 ,many historians did shake their heads and say that the work of the right reverend gentleman was as much like a glorification of the ,inquisition as one egg to another1 and some were not much impressed by the author's high-flown assertion that 8the entire publication of the documents would only redound to the glory of the ,inquisition10#adj but drily remarked that it was really a great pity that ,mgr4 ,marini had allowed so splendid an opportunity to slip of performing a great service alike to history and the ,church1 while the fragments produced were of little value to either one or the other4 ,none of this served to refute a single sentence of the apology in question4 ,it became1 on the contrary1 notwithstanding its obvious partizanship1 the chief source for subsequent narratives of the trial4 ,and it could not fail to be so2 for even taking this partizanship into account1 how could the dates given be doubted8 ,could any one suspect a misrepresentation of the whole subject8 ,did suspicions of an arbitrary use and distortion of the documents at the author's command seem justified8 ,assuredly not4 ,besides1 the papal archivist appealed with apparent scrupulous exactness to the ,roman ,,ms4 ,although1 therefore1 the light thrown by ,marini on the trial of ,galileo seemed to be one-sided1 the correctness of his facts in general admitted of no doubt4 ,among these the special prohibition of #afaf played a conspicuous part4 ,it is laid before the reader as beyond all question1 and fully confirmed by documents4 ,the author1 however1 prudently refrained from publishing these 8documents0 verbatim1--the reports of the ,vatican ,,ms4 of #beth and #bfth ,february4 ,the discrepancy between them would then have come to light4 ,that was to be avoided1 and so ,marini1 by the approved method of rejecting all that did not suit his purpose1 concocted from the two reports a story of the assumed prohibition to ,galileo so precise as to leave nothing to be desired4#ada ,in #ahfg ,henri de ,l',epinois surprised the learned world with his work1 8,galile1 son ,procs1 sa ,condemnation d'aprs des ,documents indits40 ,he reproduced for the first time in full the most important documents which had been at ,marini's command4 ,it now came to light how unjustifiably he had used them4 ,epinois printed the important reports of #beth and #bfth ,february verbatim4 ,but the story of the prohibition of #afaf had so firmly rooted itself in history1 that neither ,epinois himself nor the next ,french historian1 ,henri ,martin1 who published a comprehensive work on ,galileo based on the published documents1 thought of disturbing it4 ,it was not until #ahgj that doubts began to be entertained1 in ,germany and ,galileo's own country1 simultaneously and independently1 of the authenticity of the prohibition of #afaf4 ,in ,germany it was ,emil ,wohlwill who first shook this belief after careful and unbiassed investigation of the ,roman ,,ms4 published by ,epinois1 by his excellent treatise3 8,der ,inquisitions ,process des ,galileo ,galilei4 ,eine ,prfung seiner rechtlichen ,grundlage nach den ,acten der ,rmischen ,inquisition40 7,the ,trial of ,galileo ,galilei4 ,an ,examination into its ,legal ,foundation by the ,acts of the ,roman ,inquisition47 ,and just when ,german learning was seeking to prove by keen critical discussion the untenableness of the usual narrative1 the document was published in ,italy which raised ,wohlwill's conjectures to certainty4 ,up to #ahgj the conclusion that ,galileo did not for a moment resist the cardinal's admonition1 but submitted at once1 could only be drawn1 as it was drawn by ,wohlwill1 partly from the wording of the report of the proceedings of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 partly from ,galileo's sincere ,catholic sentiments1 for he was to the end1 from conviction1 a true son of the ,church4 ,however much there might be to justify the conclusion1 therefore1 it was founded only on probability1 was confirmed by no documents1 and was therefore open to assault4 ,it was attacked by ,friedlein in a review of ,wohlwill's brochure4#adb ,but when ,friedlein was trying to prove that ,galileo must have resisted the cardinal's admonitions1 and only submitted to the peremptory threats of the official of the ,inquisition1 the document had been already published in ,italy which placed the question beyond doubt4 ,this is an extract of the protocol of the sitting of the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office of #crd ,march1 #afaf1 and forms part of the collection of documents published by ,professor ,silvestro ,gherardi in the ,rivista ,europea1 #ahgj4 ,it is as follows3-- 8#crd ,march1 #afaf4 8,the ,lord ,cardinal ,bellarmine having reported that ,galileo ,galilei1 mathematician1 had in terms of the order of the ,holy ,congregation been admonished to abandon 7deserendam7 disserendam 7discuss7 was the word originally written the opinion he has hitherto held1 that the sun is the centre of the spheres and immovable1 and that the earth moves1 and had acquiesced therein2 and the decree of the ,congregation of the ,index having been presented1 prohibiting and suspending respectively the writings of ,nicholas ,copernicus 7,de ,revolutionibus orbium clestium44447 of ,diego di ,zuiga on ,job1 and of ,paolo ,antonio ,foscarini1 ,carmelite ,friar--,his ,holiness ordered this edict of prohibition and suspension respectively1 to be published by the ,master of the ,palace40#adc ,this document1 as ,gherardi justly perceived1 is of far greater importance than merely for the evidence it affords that ,galileo at once submitted to the ,cardinal's admonition2 it permits the conclusion1 almost to a certainty1 that a proceeding like that described in the note of #bfth ,february never took place4 ,it is clear from the above that ,cardinal ,bellarmine was giving a report of the proceedings of #bfth ,february at a private sitting of the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office under the personal presidency of the ,pope4 ,his report agrees precisely with the papal ordinance of #beth ,february3 he had admonished ,galileo to give up the ,copernican doctrines1 and he had consented4 ,this was to all appearance the end of the business4 ,the cardinal does not say a word about the stringent proceedings said to have taken place in his presence before notary and witnesses4 ,and yet this part of it would have been of far greater importance than the first4 ,it may perhaps be said that it was not the cardinal's business to report the doings of the ,commissary of the ,inquisition4 ,but the objection is not valid2 for in the first place the conditions did not exist which would have justified the interference of the ,commissary1 and in the second1 his report would certainly also have been given at the sitting where the proceedings of #bfth ,february were reported4 ,but in the note of #crd ,march there is not a trace of the report of ,brother ,michael ,angelo ,segnitius de ,lauda4 ,it is1 however1 so incredible that no communication should be made to the ,congregation about the most important part of the proceedings of #bfth ,february1 and that ,cardinal ,bellarmine should not have made the slightest reference to it in his report1 that this document of #crd ,march1 #afaf1 discovered by ,professor ,gherardi1 would be sufficient of itself to justify the suspicion that the course of the proceedings on #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 was not at all that reported in the note relating to it in the ,vatican ,,ms41 but was in accordance with the papal ordinance of #beth ,february1 and ended with the cardinal's admonition4 ,let us see now whether the ensuing historical events agree better with this suspicious note4 ,two days after the sitting of #crd ,march1 in accordance with the order of ,paul ,v41 the decree of the ,congregation of the ,index on writings and books treating of the ,copernican system was published4 ,it ran as follows3-- 8,and whereas it has also come to the knowledge of the said ,congregation1 that the ,pythagorean doctrine--which is false and altogether opposed to ,holy ,scripture--of the motion of the earth1 and the quiescence of the sun1 which is also taught by ,nicholas ,copernicus in ,de ,revolutionibus orbium ,clestium1 and by ,diego di ,zuiga in 7his book on7 ,job1 is now being spread abroad and accepted by many--as may be seen from a certain letter of a ,carmelite ,father1 entitled1 ,letter of the ,rev4 ,father ,paolo ,antonio ,foscarini1 ,carmelite1 on the opinion of the ,pythagoreans and of ,copernicus concerning the motion of the earth1 and the stability of the sun1 and the new ,pythagorean system of the world1 at ,naples1 printed by ,lazzaro ,scorriggio1 #afae3 wherein the said father attempts to show that the aforesaid doctrine of the quiescence of the sun in the centre of the world1 and of the earth's motion1 is consonant with truth and is not opposed to ,holy ,scripture4 ,therefore1 in order that this opinion may not insinuate itself any further to the prejudice of ,catholic truth1 the ,holy ,congregation has decreed that the said ,nicholas ,copernicus1 ,de ,revolutionibus orbium1 and ,diego di ,zuiga1 on ,job1 be suspended until they be corrected2 but that the book of the ,carmelite ,father1 ,paolo ,antonio ,foscarini1 be altogether prohibited and condemned1 and that all other works likewise1 in which the same is taught1 be prohibited1 as by this present decree it prohibits1 condemns1 and suspends them all respectively4 ,in witness whereof the present decree has been signed and sealed with the hands and with the seal of the most eminent and ,reverend ,lord ,cardinal of ,st4 ,cecilia1 ,bishop of ,albano1 on the #eth day of ,march1 #afaf40add ,in this decree1 as is strikingly pointed out by ,emil ,wohlwill1 a distinction is drawn between two classes of writings3 those which advocate the positive truth of the ,copernican system--which are absolutely interdicted and condemned2 and those to which1 by some modifications1 a hypothetical character can be given--these are to be suspended until the needful corrections have been made4 ,this indicated the precise attitude which the ,church thought to take with regard to the ,copernican system4 ,as a mere working hypothesis it was not dangerous to the ,roman ,catholic religion2 but as irrefragable truth it shook its very foundations4 ,they were1 therefore1 determined at ,rome that it should not make way as truth--it was to be tabooed1 banished1 and if possible stifled2 but as a mathematical hypothesis1 the use of which was obvious even to the ,romish savans1 it might be allowed to stand4 ,the cardinal's admonition and the decree are in logical agreement with this intention4 ,galileo was to 8renounce0 the opinions of ,copernicus1 that is he was not to maintain them as established fact2 as a hypothesis1 like the rest of the world he might retain them4 ,but according to the document of #bfth ,february1 entire silence was enjoined upon ,galileo upon the subject of the double motion of the earth1 for in the injunction neither to hold1 teach1 or defend it in any way 7quovis modo71 the hypothetical treatment was obviously included4 ,perhaps it may be said that they wanted to get rid of the most distinguished and therefore most dangerous defender of the ,copernican system1 who by his telescopic discoveries had made the controversy a burning question of the day4 ,but this conjecture does not stand the test of close investigation1 for ,galileo's work on the solar spots1 which was based upon the sun's being stationary1 was not placed upon the index of forbidden or suspicious books4 ,and in all the proceedings of the curia against him at that period1 the friendly feeling for him personally1 of powerful patrons in the ,church1 is obvious1 and it makes any specially rigorous action against him very improbable4 ,we have also other indications that this categoric prohibition to ,galileo had not then been1 de facto1 issued4 ,his letters of this epoch afford the strongest evidence4 ,we cannot expect to find in them precise information about the proceedings of #bfth ,february1 as it was contrary to the rules of the ,inquisition to make public its secret orders1 under the severest penalties2 but they contain no trace of the deep depression which would have been caused by the stringent orders of the ,holy ,office against him personally4 ,on the contrary1 he writes on the #fth ,march 7the day following the issue of the decree7 to ,picchena3 8,i did not write to you1 most revered sir1 by the last post1 because there was nothing new to report2 as they were about to come to a decision about that affair which ,i have mentioned to you as a purely public one1 not affecting my personal interests1 or only so far as my enemies very inopportunely want to implicate me in it40 ,he goes on to say that he alludes to the deliberations of the ,holy ,office about the book and opinions of ,copernicus2 and mentions with evident satisfaction1 that the purpose of ,caccini and his party to have that doctrine denounced as heretical and contrary to the faith had not been attained1 for the ,holy ,office had simply stated that it did not agree with ,holy ,scripture1 and therefore only prohibited the books which maintained1 ex professo1 that the ,copernican doctrine was not contrary to the ,bible4 ,galileo then tells him more particularly what the decree contained1 and that the correction of the works of ,copernicus and ,zuiga was entrusted to ,cardinal ,gaetaori4 ,he emphatically states that the alterations will be confined to such passages as aim to prove the agreement of the modern system with ,scripture1 and 8here and there a word1 as when ,copernicus calls the earth a star40 ,he adds3 8,i have1 as will be seen from the nature of the case1 no interest in the matter1 and should not1 as ,i said before1 have troubled myself about it1 had not my enemies drawn me into it40 ,he means by this that the prohibition to try and make the doctrine of the double motion square with ,scripture was indifferent to him2 he would never have concerned himself with theology if he had not been driven to it4 ,he then goes on3 8,it may be seen from my writings in what spirit ,i have always acted1 and ,i shall continue to act1 so as to shut the mouth of malice1 and to show that my conduct in this business has been such that a saint could not have shown more reverence for the ,church nor greater zeal40#ade ,in the next letter to ,picchena1 six days later1 ,galileo repeats what he has said about the correction of the work of ,copernicus1 and says emphatically that it is clear that no further restrictions will be imposed4 ,from a reply from ,galileo's faithful friend1 ,sagredo1 to letters unfortunately not extant1 it is evident that he had by no means expressed himself as cast down by the issue of the affair4 ,sagredo writes in the best of spirits3 8,now that ,i have learnt from your valued letters the particulars of the spiteful1 devilish attacks on and accusations against you1 and the issue of them1 which entirely frustrates the purposes of your ignorant and malicious foes1 ,i1 and all the friends to whom ,i have communicated your letters and messages1 are quite set at rest40#adf ,it is clear1 then1 from ,galileo's correspondence1 that he took the decree of the ,inquisition pretty coolly1 and speaks with satisfaction of the trifling alterations to be made in ,copernicus's work4 ,how could the man1 who was forbidden to 8hold1 teach1 or defend0 the repudiated doctrine 8in any way10 write in this style8 ,a document issued by ,cardinal ,bellarmine himself1 relating to these transactions1 is of the utmost importance to the assertion that no such prohibition had ever been issued to ,galileo4 ,after the publication of the decree of #eth ,march he remained three months at ,rome4 ,his enemies took advantage of this to spread a false report that he had been obliged formally to recant1 and absolutely to abjure his opinion4 ,galileo seems to have been indignant at this2 he pacified his adherents who sent anxious inquiries to their master1 and complained bitterly of the unscrupulousness of his enemies1 for whom no means of injuring him were too bad4 ,but in order to confute these calumnies and guard himself against them in future1 before leaving ,rome he begged a certificate from ,cardinal ,bellarmine to prove the falsity of this perfidious fiction4 ,this dignitary consented1 and wrote the following declaration3-- 8,we1 ,robert ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 having heard that it is calumniously reported that ,signor ,galileo ,galilei has in our hand abjured1 and has also been punished with salutary penance1 and being requested to state the truth as to this1 declare1 that the said ,signor ,galileo has not abjured1 either in our hand1 or the hand of any other person here in ,rome1 or anywhere else1 so far as we know1 any opinion or doctrine held by him1 neither has any salutary penance been imposed upon him2 but only the declaration made by the ,holy ,father and published by the sacred ,congregation of the ,index1 has been intimated to him1 wherein it is set forth that the doctrine attributed to ,copernicus1 that the earth moves round the sun1 and that the sun is stationary in the centre of the world1 and does not move from east to west1 is contrary to the ,holy ,scriptures1 and therefore cannot be defended or held4 ,in witness whereof we have written and subscribed these presents with our hand this #bfth day of ,may1 #afaf40adg ,wohlwill has clearly shown the discrepancies between this document and that of #bfth ,february2 he has pointed out that even if1 as ,martin thinks1 8the secrets of the ,inquisition had to be kept at any price1 even at the expense of truth10#adh it would not have put forth so downright a lie in optima forma as the cardinal's testimony contained1 if the assumed prohibition had really been given to ,galileo by the ,commissary-,general of the ,inquisition4 ,this prohibition might easily have been passed over in silence1 while the calumnious reports might have been refuted4 ,but the cardinal was not content with that1 and stated expressly that ,galileo had 8only0 been personally informed of the decree of the ,congregation of the ,index about the ,copernican system4 ,while this attestation of ,bellarmine's glaringly contradicts the second part of the note of #bfth ,february1 it not only entirely accords with the papal ordinance of the #beth1 but also with ,bellarmine's report of the proceedings of #bfth ,february in the private sitting of the ,congregation of #crd ,march4 ,this proves that the cardinal certified nothing more nor less than what had actually taken place4 ,it leads therefore to the following conclusions3-- #a4 ,galileo did not receive any prohibition1 except the cardinal's admonition not to defend nor hold the ,copernican doctrine4 #b4 ,entire silence on the subject was therefore not enjoined upon him4 #c4 ,the second part of the note in the ,vatican ,,ms4 of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 is therefore untrue4 ,these three facts are indisputable1 and the subsequent course of historical events will confirm them step by step1 while it can by no means be made to tally with the assumed strict injunction of the ,commissary-,general4 ,next however1 the question immediately arises1 ,through whose means did the falsehood get into the acts of the trial1 and was it bona or mala fide8 ,historical research can only partially answer this question4 ,all these notifications were entered by a notary of the ,inquisition1 and probably that of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 also4 ,did he1 perhaps merely from officious zeal1 enter a note of an official proceeding as having actually taken place1 which undoubtedly was to have taken place under certain circumstances1 but in their absence did not occur1 or even were not to be permitted at all in consequence of papal instructions8 ,or was the notary simply the tool of a power which had long been inimical to ,galileo1 and which1 incensed at the failure for the time of its schemes against him1 sought to forge secret fetters for future use by the entry of the fictitious note8 ,we have no certain knowledge of the motives and influences which gave rise to the falsification2 as however we can scarcely believe in the officious zeal of1 or independent falsification by1 the notary himself1 the conjecture gains in probability that we are concerned with a lying1 perfidious trick of ,galileo's enemies1#adi which1 as we shall see later on1 signally fulfilled its purpose4 ,wohlwill1 ,gherardi1 ,cantor1 and we ourselves have long been of opinion that this note originated1 not in #afaf1 but in #afcb1 in order to legalise the trial of ,galileo4 ,but after having repeatedly and very carefully examined the original acts of the trial1 preserved among the papal secret archives1 we were compelled to acknowledge that the material nature of the document entirely excludes the suspicion of a subsequent falsification4#aej ,the note was not falsified in #afcb2 no1 in #afaf probably1 with subtle and perfidious calculation1 a lie was entered which was to have the most momentous consequences to the great astronomer4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,evil ,,report ,,and ,,good ,,report4 ,galileo still lingers at ,rome4--,guiccardini tries to effect his recall4--,erroneous idea that he was trying to get the ,decree repealed4--,intrigues against him4--,audience of ,pope ,paul ,v4--,his friendly assurances4--,his ,character4--,galileo's return to ,florence4 ,galileo had humbly submitted1 had witnessed the issue of the decree of #eth ,march by the august council2 he knew that the only correct doctrine of the system of the universe had been reduced to the shadow of a hypothesis1 and yet he could not make up his mind to leave the capital of the hierarchy where such a slap in the face had been given to science4 ,the story told in most works on ,galileo1 that though he had submitted to the ,holy ,office he afterwards used his utmost endeavours to effect a reversal of the decree1 is another of the firmly rooted and ineffaceable mistakes of history4 ,it originated in the reports of the ,tuscan ambassador1 ,guiccardini1 to the ,grand ,duke4#aea ,this diplomatist1 who was no great friend of ,galileo's1 found himself in an awkward position2 he had been1 on the one hand1 enjoined by his sovereign to support ,galileo as far as it lay in his power1 while on the other he knew that the influential female members of the house of ,medici were very anxious to maintain the good relations of ,tuscany with the ,holy ,see2 and he tried to extricate himself from this dilemma by urgently seeking to effect the recall of the inconvenient guest to ,florence4 ,this object runs through all the ambassador's despatches to ,cosmo ,,ii4 ,he could not depict in colours too glaring the passion1 fanaticism1 and pertinacity with which1 in spite of all advice to the contrary1 ,galileo defended the ,copernican cause at ,rome1 though he was thereby doing it more harm than good4 ,the long report of ,guiccardini to the ,grand ,duke1 of #dth ,march1 #afaf1aeb held to be authentic by most of ,galileo's biographers1 is couched in this tone4 ,among other things a dramatic scene is narrated which was the immediate cause of the condemnation of the ,copernican system4 ,cardinal ,orsini1 one of ,galileo's warmest friends1 to whom the ,grand ,duke had sent an autograph letter of introduction1 had spoken to the ,pope in favour of ,galileo in the consistory of #bnd ,march4 ,the ,pope replied that it would be well if he would persuade ,galileo to give up this opinion4 ,orsini then tried to urge the ,pope further1 but he cut him short1 saying that he had handed over the whole affair to the ,holy ,office4 ,no sooner had ,orsini retired than ,bellarmine1 the celebrated ,jesuit theologian1 was summoned to the ,pope1 and in the conversation that ensued it was determined that this opinion of ,galileo's was erroneous and heretical4 ,guiccardini must have been greatly misinformed to send reports so incorrect to his court4 ,as we have seen1 on #aith ,february the ,qualifiers of the ,holy ,office were summoned to pronounce an opinion on the ,copernican doctrines1 and as the result ,galileo was summoned seven days later to appear before ,bellarmine1 who informed him of the decree1 and admonished him to renounce the prohibited doctrine4 ,but all this seems to have escaped the acuteness of the ,tuscan ambassador4 ,he supposes that the catastrophe had been brought about by a fit of papal anger6 ,on #dth ,march he only knows what was known the next day to all the world--by the decree of the ,congregation of the ,index--that the writings of ,copernicus and other authors on the subject of the double motion were to be partly condemned1 partly corrected1 and partly prohibited4 ,guiccardini in this despatch represented1 on the one hand1 the difficulties into which the imprudent astronomer 8might0 bring himself by his vehemence1 and on the other the embarrassment in which those who took his part would be placed2 he reminded the ,grand ,duke of the attitude which his house had at all times assumed in the past towards such attacks on the ,church of ,god1 and of the services it had rendered to the ,inquisition1 adding that he 8could not approve that we should expose ourselves to such annoyances and dangers without very good reason1 and a different prospect from that of great damage40 ,the most potent argument1 however1 which he saved for the close of his long epistle of #dth ,march1 as the climax1 was the endeavour to inspire ,cosmo ,,ii4 with the fear that his brother1 ,cardinal ,carlo de' ,medici1 who was just coming to ,rome1 would compromise himself by his relations with ,galileo4 ,from ,galileo's correspondence with ,picchena1 we learn in contradiction to this despatch what it was that induced him to linger at ,rome after the issue of the decree of #eth ,march4 ,he did not wish to return to ,florence under the impressions produced by the alarming reports of ,guiccardini and the rumours spread by many of his opponents4 ,it is evident that he was aware of what was said of him from a passage in a letter to ,picchena of #fth ,march4 ,after expressing a fear that somebody not friendly to him might represent his affairs to the ,tuscan ,secretary of ,state and others in a false light1 he entreats ,picchena to maintain1 until his return1 the good opinion of him which his sincerity deserves4 ,he is convinced that the arrival of ,cardinal de' ,medici will relieve him from the need of uttering one word of self-justification1 as he will hear at once what an excellent reputation he enjoyed at the ,court of ,rome4 ,he then goes on1 as if directly refuting ,guiccardini's accusations3-- 8,then your ,grace will learn1 above all1 with what composure and moderation ,i have conducted myself1 and what regard ,i have had for the honour and good repute of those who have eagerly tried to injure mine and certainly your ,grace will be surprised4 ,i say this to you1 most honoured sir1 in case any false accusations of the kind should reach your ears from any quarter2 and ,i hope that credit will be given to a party not adverse to me1 so that a more just understanding may be arrived at40 ,meanwhile ,galileo's position became more favourable1 because the ,pope received the submissive philosopher very graciously on #aath ,march1 and gave him an audience which lasted three-quarters of an hour4 ,he seized the opportunity of speaking to ,paul ,v4 of the intrigues of his enemies1 and of some of the false accusations against him2 to which the ,pope replied that he was well aware of the rectitude and sincerity of his sentiments4 ,and when ,galileo1 in conclusion1 expressed his fears of the perpetual persecutions of relentless malice1 the ,pope consoled him by saying that he need not fear1 for he was held in so much esteem by himself and the whole ,congregation1 that they would not listen to these calumnies1 and as long as he occupied the chair of ,st4 ,peter1 ,galileo might feel himself safe from all danger4 ,paul ,v4 also repeatedly expressed his readiness to show his favour by his actions4 ,galileo hastened on the very next day to make known the favourable result of this audience to ,picchena1 the ,secretary of ,state1 in a long letter4#aec ,the effect of it1 however1 was quite different from what he probably expected4 ,the ,court of ,tuscany1 which had been not a little disquieted by ,guiccardini's alarming despatch1 thought it a good opportunity to press upon ,galileo1 now that his fame was so brilliantly re-established1 to leave ,rome and return to ,florence4 ,this was the tenor of ,picchena's reply of #bjth ,march4#aed ,their highnesses1 evidently still under the impression of ,guiccardini's letter1 implored ,galileo to be quiet1 and no longer to discuss this dangerous subject1 but to return4 ,encouraged by the ,pope's friendly words1 however1 ,galileo showed no disposition to take these plain hints1 and we learn from his further correspondence that his tarriance at ,rome was fully approved by the ,tuscan ,court4 ,thus we read in a letter of #bfth ,march3 8,as to my return1 unless his ,highness wishes it otherwise1 ,i shall1 in accordance with your commands1 await the arrival of his ,reverence the ,cardinal40 ,and further on3 8,after the arrival of the ,cardinal ,i shall stay here as long as his ,highness or the ,cardinal pleases40#aee ,to the great annoyance of ,guiccardini1 ,galileo remained three months longer at ,rome--beneath those skies which1 according to the ambassador1 must prove dangerous to him in consequence of his vehement temperament1 8especially at a time when the ruler of the eternal city hates science and polite scholars1 and cannot endure these innovations and subtleties40 ,this portrait of ,paul ,v4 was undoubtedly a correct one4 ,he cared very little for learning1 and displayed a harsh and sometimes savage character2 while the inviolability of the dogmas of the ,church1 ecclesiastical privileges1 and blind obedience to the faith1 were supreme in his eyes4 ,we will just remind our readers that it was ,paul ,v4 who1 just after his elevation to the papacy1 had a poor wretch1 named ,piccinardi1 beheaded1 because1 for his private amusement1 he had written a biography of ,clement ,,viii41 in which he was not very aptly compared with the ,emperor ,tiberius1 although the work was not intended for publication1--a sentence which occasioned great consternation4 ,at a time1 therefore1 when the tiara was worn by a man of this character1 the atmosphere of ,rome might certainly have been dangerous to an ardent explorer in the fields of natural science4 ,but as ,galileo did not suffer any sort of papal persecution during his stay there1 it is obvious that the character drawn of him by ,guiccardini was very much exaggerated4 ,this also refutes the constantly reiterated fable that ,galileo was eagerly trying to get the decree of #eth ,march repealed4 ,the vehement agitation imputed to him by the ambassador1 and this bold attempt1 would have been speedily followed by penalties4 ,but history knows nothing at this period of misunderstandings between ,galileo and the ,church2 indeed we possess a document which entirely contradicts the reports of ,guiccardini4 ,this is a letter from ,cardinal del ,monte to the ,grand ,duke at the time of ,galileo's departure from ,rome1 written expressly 8to bear witness that he was leaving with the best reputation and the approval of all who have had transactions with him2 for it has been made manifest how unjust the calumnies of his enemies have been40 ,the cardinal adds1 8that having conversed much with ,galileo1 and being intimate with those who were cognisant of all that had taken place1 he could assure his ,highness that there was not the least imputation attaching to the philosopher40#aef ,but to return to the course of events4 ,the ,tuscan ambassador continued to send disquieting letters to the ,grand ,duke about ,galileo in order that he might be recalled4 ,he wrote in a despatch of #acth ,may3 8 444 ,galileo seems disposed to emulate the monks in obstinacy1 and to contend with personages who cannot be attacked without ruining yourself2 we shall soon hear at ,florence that he has madly tumbled into some abyss or other40#aeg ,cosmo ,,ii41 not a little alarmed by these gloomy prognostications of his ambassador1 and really in care for the revered philosopher1 at length issued the order for his long-desired return4 ,picchena then wrote the following drastic letter to ,galileo1 on #bcrd ,may3-- 8,you have had enough of monkish persecutions1 and know now what the flavour of them is4 ,his ,highness fears that your longer tarriance at ,rome might involve you in difficulties1 and would therefore be glad if1 as you have so far come honourably out of the affair1 you would not tease the sleeping dog any more1 and would return here as soon as possible4 ,for there are rumours flying about which we do not like1 and the monks are all powerful4 ,i1 your servant1 would not fail to warn you1 and to inform you1 as in duty bound1 of the wishes of our ruler1 wherewith ,i kiss your hand40#aeh ,galileo complied without delay with ,cosmo's wishes1 and set out on his homeward journey on the #dth of the following month4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,controversy ,,on ,,comets4 ,studious ,seclusion4--,waiting for the ,correction of the ,work of ,copernicus4--,treatise on ,tides4--,sends it to ,archduke ,leopold of ,austria4--,the ,letter which accompanied it4--,the three ,comets of #afah4--;,galileo's ,opinion of ,comets4--,grassi's ,lecture on them4--,guiducci's ,treatise on them inspired by ,galileo4--,grassi's 8,astronomical and ,philosophical ,scales40--,galileo's ,reply4--,paul ,v4--,his ,death4--,death of ,cosmo ,,ii4--,gregory ,,xv4--8,il ,saggiatore0 finished4--,riccardi's 8,opinion0 on it4--,death of ,gregory ,,xv4--,urban ,,viii4 ,seven years passed by1 during which ,galileo lived a secluded and studious life in the ,villa ,segni1 at ,bellosguardo1 near ,florence1 without publishing any new work4 ,how could he do so8 ,the acceptance and further application of the ,copernican system was the mainspring of all his scientific pursuits1 of which1 multifarious as they were1 the principle of the double motion of the earth was both foundation and keystone4 ,the general permission to employ the theory as a working hypothesis was of little service to him4 ,the lofty structure of correct knowledge of our universe could not be raised on a pedestal of sand2 it required the imperishable marble of truth4 ,galileo was compelled to withhold the results of his researches until1 perchance1 some altered state of things should change the mind of the papal court1 at present so inimical to the ,copernican cause4 ,the publication of any researches in accordance with the ,copernican system appeared especially dangerous1 until the promised corrections had been made in the famous work of the ,canon of ,frauenburg1 which had been temporarily placed on the ,index4 ,these corrections would give more precise information as to how they wished the new doctrine handled at ,rome1 what limits had been set by ecclesiastical despotism to researches into nature4 ,galileo watched with great anxiety the labours of the papal censors1 and tried to hasten them through his friend ,prince ,cesi4#aei ,this eager interest in the earliest possible publication of the corrections is another thing which does not accord with the assumed stringent prohibition of ,february #bfth4 ,what difference would it have made to ,galileo whether any facilities were offered for the discussion of the ,copernican theory or not1 if absolute silence on the subject had been enjoined on him8 ,during this period1 when he could not venture to have the results of his various researches published1 he was careful to make them known to some friends of science by means of long letters1 numerous copies of which were then circulated in ,europe4 ,very few of them1 unfortunately1 have come down to us1 but there is one of them that deserves special notice4 ,it indicates precisely ,galileo's position3 on the one hand he feels constrained to make way for the recognition of the truth2 but on the other1 as a good ,catholic1 and from regard to his personal safety1 he does not wish to clash with ecclesiastical authority4 ,this letter1 too1 adds weight to the conclusion that there was no prohibition enjoining absolute silence on the ,copernican theory on ,galileo4 ,during his last stay at ,rome1 at the suggestion of ,cardinal ,orsini1 he had written a treatise on the tides in the form of a letter to that dignitary1 dated ,january #hth1#afj in which he expressed his firm conviction1 erroneously as we now know1 that this phenomenon could only be explained on the theory of the double motion of the earth4 ,he represented it as an important confirmation of the truth of it4 ,in ,may1 #afah1 he sent a copy of this treatise to the ,archduke ,leopold of ,austria1 who was friendly to him1 and was a brother of the ,grand ,duchess4 ,but as since it was written the decree of ,march #eth had been issued1 which only permitted discussion of the subject as a hypothesis1 ,galileo thought it advisable to add a sort of accompaniment to his treatise1 in which he took the utmost pains to comply with the conditions imposed by the ,church on her dutiful and orthodox son4 ,he wrote3-- 8,with this ,i send a treatise on the causes of the tides1 which ,i wrote rather more than two years ago at the suggestion of his ,eminence ,cardinal ,orsini1 at ,rome1 at the time when the theologians were thinking of prohibiting ,copernicus's book and the doctrine enounced therein of the motion of the earth1 which ,i then held to be true1 until it pleased those gentlemen to prohibit the work1 and to declare that opinion to be false and contrary to ,scripture4 ,now1 knowing as ,i do1 that it behoves us to obey the decisions of the authorities1 and to believe them1 since they are guided by a higher insight than any to which my humble mind can of itself attain1 ,i consider this treatise which ,i send you merely to be a poetical conceit1 or a dream1 and desire that your ,highness may take it as such1 inasmuch as it is based on the double motion of the earth1 and indeed contains one of the arguments which ,i have adduced in confirmation of it4 ,but even poets sometimes attach a value to one or other of their fantasies1 and ,i likewise attach some value to this fancy of mine4 ,now1 having written the treatise1 and having shown it to the ,cardinal above-mentioned1 and a few others1 ,i have also let a few exalted personages have copies1 in order that in case any one not belonging to our ,church should try to appropriate my curious fancy1 as has happened to me with many of my discoveries1 these personages1 being above all suspicion1 may be able to bear witness that it was ,i who first dreamed of this chimera4 ,what ,i now send is but a fugitive performance2 it was written in haste1 and in the expectation that the work of ,copernicus would not be condemned as erroneous eighty years after its publication4 ,i had intended at my convenience1 and in the quiet1 to have gone more particularly into this subject1 to have added more proofs1 to have arranged the whole anew1 and to have put it into a better form4 ,but a voice from heaven has aroused me1 and dissolved all my confused and tangled fantasies in mist4 ,may therefore your ,highness graciously accept it1 ill arranged as it is4 ,and if ,divine love ever grants that ,i may be in a position to exert myself a little1 your ,highness may expect something more solid and real from me40#afa ,on reading such passages one really does not know which to be the most indignant at1--the iron rule by which a privileged caste repressed the progress of science in the name of religion1 or the servility of one of the greatest philosophers of all times in not scorning an unworthy subterfuge in order to disseminate a grain of supposed truth in the world without incurring personal danger4 ,but in spite of all precautions1 in spite of 8chimeras10 8fictions10 8fantasies10 and even 8the voice from heaven10 the circulation of this treatise1 based upon the theory of the double motion1 would have been an infringement of the assumed absolute prohibition to ,galileo1 while1 thanks to the ingenious accompaniment1 it in no way clashed with the decree of #eth ,march4 ,galileo's conduct shows plainly enough that he humbly submitted to the ecclesiastical ordinance1 but there is not a trace of the prohibition to discuss the doctrine 8in any way40 ,little1 however1 as ,galileo desired to engage1 thus hampered1 in any perilous controversies1 the next time it was nature herself who enticed him into the field in which his genius and his polemical ingenuity acquired for him both splendid triumphs and bitter foes4 ,in ,august1 #afah1 three comets appeared in the heavens1 and the brilliant one in the constellation of the ,scorpion strongly attracted the attention of astronomers4 ,although it was visible until ,january1 #afai1 ,galileo had very little opportunity of observing it1 as he was confined to his bed by a severe and tedious illness4#afb ,but he communicated his views on comets to several of his friends1 and among others to the ,archduke ,leopold of ,austria1 who had come to see the sick philosopher4#afc ,he did not consider them to be real heavenly bodies1 but merely atmospheric appearances1 columns of vapour which rise from earth to the skies1 to a very considerable height1 far beyond the moon1 and become temporarily visible to the inhabitants of the earth1 in the well-known form of a comet1 by the refraction of the sun's rays4 ,as he judged comets to be without substance1 and placed them on a par with mock suns and the aurora borealis1 he concluded that they could have no parallax determinations4 ,in the same year1 #afai1 a ,jesuit1 ,father ,grassi1 delivered a lecture on the three comets in the ,roman ,college1 in which he gave out that such phenomena were not mere appearances1 but real heavenly bodies2 copies of this lecture were widely circulated1 and ,galileo was strongly urged by his adherents to publish his opinion4 ,he was prudent enough to evade for the time a fresh controversy1 which1 in the existing critical state of affairs1 might bring him into danger1 and apparently took no part in the scientific feud which was brewing4 ,but he induced his learned friend and pupil1 ,mario ,guiducci1 consul of the ,academy at ,florence1 to publish a treatise on comets4 ,numerous alterations and additions1 however1 which are found in the original ,,ms4 in the ,palatina ,library at ,florence1 attest that he had a direct share in the editorship4#afd ,the opinions hitherto held by philosophers and astronomers on this subject were discussed1 and the author's own--that is ,galileo's--expounded4 ,grassi's views were sharply criticised1 and he was reproachfully asked why he had passed over ,galileo's recent astronomical discoveries in silence4 ,grassi1 who recognised the real originator of the work1 in the reply which he issued a few months later entirely ignored the pupil1 that he might the more vigorously attack the master4 ,under the pseudonym of ,lothario ,sarsi ,sigensano1 he published a pamphlet against ,galileo1 entitled1 8,the ,astronomical and ,philosophical ,scales40#afe ,it is written with caustic bitterness1 and is a model of ,jesuitical malice and cunning4 ,the comet question was for the time a secondary matter with ,grassi1 and he begins with a personal attack on ,galileo1 by disputing the priority of several of his most important discoveries and inventions1 and reproaching him1 with pious indignation1 with obstinate adherence to a doctrine condemned by theologians4 ,up to this point he is only angry and spiteful1 but as he goes on he becomes cunning4 ,he sets up for a warm defender of the ,peripatetic physics1 and attacks the ,copernican system1 and its advocate ,galileo1 to compel him either to ignominious silence or dangerous demonstrations4 ,under pretext of meeting ,guiducci's reproach that he 7,grassi7 had taken ,tycho as his authority1 he asks whether it would have been better to follow the system of ,ptolemy1 which had been convicted of error1 or that of ,copernicus1 which every ,god-fearing man must abhor1 and his hypothesis1 which had just been condemned8 ,in discussing the causes of the movements of comets1 it seemed to him that the arguments were insinuated on which the forbidden doctrines were based4 8,away60 he exclaims in righteous indignation1 8with all such words so offensive to truth and to every pious ear6 ,they were prudent enough certainly scarcely to speak of them with bated breath1 and not to blazon it abroad that ,galileo's opinion was founded upon this pernicious principle40 ,thus attacked1 ,galileo prepared to defend himself4 ,the greatest caution was necessary1 for ,grassi was backed by the powerful party of the ,jesuits1 who made a great boast of this work4#aff ,the letters of this period from ,prince ,cesi and ,galileo's ecclesiastical friends at ,rome show that they were very anxious that he should not make the influential order of ,jesuits his enemies by a direct collision with them4 ,but as they saw the absolute necessity of a reply1 they gave him all sorts of good advice1 how to parry the attack without incurring their hatred4 ,they were of opinion that he should not honour an adversary concealed behind a pseudonym with a reply written by himself1 but should depute the task to a pupil1 or1 if he intended to conduct his defence in person1 clothe his reply in the form of a letter instead of a treatise1 not addressed to ,sarsi himself1 but to one of his own party4#afg ,he decided for the latter2 and adopting a hint from ,mgr4 ,ciampoli1#afh he addressed the reply to ,mgr4 ,cesarini1 one of his most devoted friends and dauntless defenders4 ,but the completion of this afterwards famous rejoinder was delayed for two years1 and its publication1 which1 according to custom with all works by members of the ,accadmia dei ,lincei1 was undertaken by the ,society1 was delayed fully another year owing to the scruples of ,prince ,cesi and other 8lynxes40 ,galileo's procrastination is to be explained partly by his continued ill health1 but more so by the position of affairs at ,rome as well as in ,tuscany1 which was by no means encouraging for a contest with a ,jesuit4 ,the imperious ,paul ,v4 was still the reigning ,pope1 and his good will towards ,galileo would certainly only have lasted so long as he was entirely submissive4 ,his dialectic reply1 which was pervaded by cutting irony aimed at a father of the order of ,jesuits1 even sometimes making him appear ridiculous1 could not have been much to the taste of a ,pope to whom the inviolability of the ,church and her ministers was all in all4 ,it is characteristic of this pontiff that1 as appears from the negotiations with ,james ,i41 he seriously claimed the right of deposing kings1 and called every attempt to make him relinquish this claim 8a heretical proceeding10 and pronounced the writings of some ,venetian ecclesiastics who disputed it1 to be worse than ,calvinistic4 ,just as this stern pontiff was gathered to his fathers 7#afth ,january1 #afba71 in consequence of an attack of apoplexy on the occasion of the celebration of the victory on the ,weissenberg1 and the good-natured and infirm old man1 ,gregory ,,xv41 ascended the papal chair1 ,galileo sustained a blow which was most disastrous to him4 ,this was the death1 on #bhth ,february1 #afba1 of his kind protector and patron1 ,cosmo ,,ii4 ,the protection of an energetic prince who sincerely respected him1 which he had hitherto enjoyed1 was replaced by the uncertain favour of a feminine government1 as the widowed ,grand ,duchess1 whose tendencies were thoroughly ,romish1 assumed the regency for ,ferdinand ,,ii41 who was still in his minority4 ,under these circumstances ,galileo was but little inclined to bring out his reply2 and perhaps the time when they were founding the ,propaganda at ,rome1 and enrolling ,loyola and ,xavier among the saints1 did not seem very opportune4 ,from the new ,pope personally there was nothing to fear4 ,the phlegmatic little man1 who was so bowed down by age and sickness that those about him often feared to lay complicated business matters before him1 lest he should entirely break down1 was certainly not likely to inspire awe2 besides1 ,gregory had expressed himself to ,ciampoli very favourably of ,galileo4#afi ,but the ,pope's infirmities made it all the more necessary to proceed with caution2 for they allowed the ,romish administration to exercise full sway4 ,and the man who guided it with almost sovereign authority was the ,pope's nephew1 ,cardinal ,lodovico ,lodovisi1 a former pupil and therefore zealous friend of the ,jesuits4 ,nevertheless ,galileo's adherents1 and especially his clerical friends at ,rome1 considered it absolutely necessary to publish his reply as soon as possible1 with the precautions before mentioned1 because his opponents construed his silence into a triumph for ,grassi and the ,aristotelian school4#agj ,prince ,cesi1 ,mgrs4 ,cesarini and ,ciampoli--the latter of whom meanwhile had become ,secretary of the ,papal ,briefs to ,gregory ,,xv41 a post which he also held under his successor1 ,urban ,,viii41 until he fell into disgrace about ,galileo--urged him repeatedly to finish his reply4#aga ,francesco ,stelluti1 a member of the ,accadmia dei ,lincei1 a learned friend of ,galileo's1 did indeed at this time 7,june1 #afbb7 bring out a work against 8,lothario ,sarsi10 but he only defended ,guiducci1 and studiously avoided touching on the reproaches cast on ,galileo1 in order not to anticipate him4#agb ,at length1 in ,october of the same year1 ,galileo sent the ,,ms4 of his celebrated work1 8,il ,saggiatore0 7,the ,assayer71 to ,mgr4 ,cesarini1 at ,rome4#agc ,for five months it passed from hand to hand among the members of the ,accadmia dei ,lincei1 who carefully criticised it1 and with ,galileo's consent1 altered the passages which might possibly have been taken advantage of by his enemies to renew their intrigues against him4 ,the ,jesuits meanwhile had got wind of the completion of the reply1 and did their utmost to get hold of one of the numerous copies of the ,,ms42 but ,cesarini1 ,cesi1 ,ciampoli1 and the other 8,lynxes10 took good care of them1 well knowing that if the ,jesuits once made acquaintance with this crushing reply1 they would use every endeavour to prevent its receiving the imprimatur4#agd ,this was granted on #bnd ,february1 #afbc1 by the supreme authorities of the censorship1 not only without hesitation1 but they spoke of the work in very favourable and flattering terms4 ,the opinion--which was drawn up by ,father ,nicolo ,riccardi1 a former pupil of ,galileo's1 who will often be mentioned in the sequel1 then examiner1 and afterwards even ,magister ,sacrii ,palatii--was as follows3-- 8,by command of the ,master of the ,palace ,i have read the work1 #8,il ,saggiatore1' and not only have ,i detected nothing in it which is contrary to good morals1 or deviates from the divine truth of our religion1 but ,i have found in it such beautiful and manifold observations on natural philosophy1 that ,i think our age will not have to boast merely of having been the inheritor of the labours of earlier philosophers1 but also of having been the discoverer of many secrets of nature which they were not able to penetrate1 thanks to the subtle and solid researches of the author1 whose contemporary ,i think myself happy to be1 for now the gold of truth is no longer weighed wholesale and with the steelyard1 but with the delicate scales used for gold40#age ,the commencement of the printing was again delayed till the beginning of ,may1#agf and then proceeded but slowly1 for it was not until #bgth ,may that ,ciampoli sent the first two sheets of the 8,saggiatore0 to the author1 in order to prove to him the falseness of a report which had meanwhile gained currency1 that the printing of the work had been prohibited4#agg ,an event then took place which seemed likely to produce a great change in ,galileo's relations with ,rome2 indeed in the whole attitude of ecclesiastical authority towards the free progress of science4 ,at all events1 as we shall see1 ,galileo flattered himself with this hope1 and not without some justification4 ,on #hth ,july1 #afbc1 ,gregory ,,xv4 succumbed to age and infirmity in the second year of his pontificate4 ,the man who at the age of fifty-five was now elevated to the papacy1 not only did not in the least resemble his immediate predecessors1 but his tendencies were in striking contrast to theirs4 ,he was previously ,cardinal ,maffeo ,barberini1 and now ascended the papal throne as ,urban ,,viii4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,maffeo ,,barberini ,,as ,,urban ,,viii4 ,his ,character4--,taste for ,letters4--,friendship for ,galileo when ,cardinal4--,letters to him4--,verses in his honour4--,publication of 8,il ,saggiatore10 with ,dedication to the ,pope4--,character of the ,work4--,the ,pope's approval of it4--,inconsistency with the assumed ,prohibition4 ,scarcely any ,pope has left to posterity so accurate a delineation of his character and aims in his own trenchant utterances as ,urban ,,viii4 ,when shown the marble monuments of his predecessors1 he proudly observed that he 8would erect iron ones to himself40 ,and the fortress of ,castelfranco on the ,bolognese frontier 7called1 in honour of his ,holiness1 ,fort ,urbino71 the new breastworks of the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo1 the ,vatican ,library turned into an arsenal1 the new manufactory of arms at ,tivoli1 and finally the costly harbour of ,civita ,vecchia1 are so many silent testimonies to the cherished desire of this pontiff to transform the eternal city into an inviolable symbol in stone of the temporal power of the ,pope1 and to accredit himself as a true medival vicegerent of ,christ with the two-edged sword of the world4 ,his athletic physique and iron energy were ever the vigorous executors of his ideas4 ,in his self-sufficiency he disdained to take counsel with the ,sacred ,college1 saying that he 8knew better than all the cardinals put together10 and boldly set himself above all ancient constitutions1 alleging the unheard of reason that 8the sentence of a living ,pope was worth more than all the decrees of a hundred dead ones40 ,and finally1 to leave his flock1 the ,christian peoples1 in no manner of doubt about his pastoral humility1 he revoked the resolve of the ,romans never again to erect a monument to a ,pope in his lifetime1 saying1 8such a resolution could not apply to a ,pope like himself40 ,the desire for unlimited temporal power rises like a column out of the life of ,urban ,,viii4 ,still it is not destitute of the embellishments of art1 poetry1 and love of learning4 ,it is no fiction that this imperious pontiff found pleasure in turning passages of the ,old and ,new ,testaments into ,horatian metre1 and the song of ,simeon into two sapphic strophes6 ,his numerous and often cordial letters to ,galileo bear witness also of his interest in science and its advocates2 but if these scientific or poetic tastes clashed for a moment with the papal supremacy1 the patron of art and science had to give place at once to the ecclesiastical ruler1 who shunned no means1 secret or avowed1 of making every other interest subservient to his assumption of temporal and spiritual dominion4 ,it is simply a psychological consequence of these traits of character1 that arbitrary caprice1 the twin brother of despotic power1 often played an intolerable part in his treatment of those who came in contact with him4#agh ,this then was the character of the new head of the ,catholic ,church1 on whom ,galileo placed great hopes for the progress of science in general1 and the toleration of the ,copernican system in particular1 though they were to result in bitter disappointment4 ,yet to all appearance he was justified in hailing this election1 for not only was ,urban ,,viii4 a refreshing contrast to his immediate predecessors1 who cared little for art or science1 but as ,cardinal ,maffeo ,barberini1 he had for years shown the warmest friendship for and interest in ,galileo4 ,many letters from this dignitary to ,galileo which have come down to us bear witness to this4#agi ,thus he wrote to him from ,bologna on #eth ,june1 #afab3 8,i have received your treatise on various scientific questions1 which have been raised during my stay here1 and shall read them with great pleasure1 both to confirm myself in my opinion1 which agrees with yours1 and1 with the rest of the world1 to enjoy the fruits of your rare intellect40#ahj ,the words1 8in order to confirm10 etc41 have led some not very careful writers to conclude that1 at all events when cardinal1 ,urban ,,viii4 was a follower of ,copernicus4 ,but this is quite beside the mark4 ,for the work in question was the one on floating bodies1 with which1 though the ,peripatetics got the worst of it1 neither ,ptolemy or ,copernicus had anything to do4 ,a little more attention would have saved ,philarete ,chasles and others from such erroneous statements4 ,another letter to ,galileo from the cardinal1 #bjth ,april1 #afac1 after the publication of his work on the solar spots1 shows the interest he took in the astronomer and his achievements4 ,he writes3-- 8,your printed letters to ,welser have reached me1 and are very welcome4 ,i shall not fail to read them with pleasure1 again and again1 which they deserve4 ,this is not a book which will be allowed to stand idly among the rest2 it is the only one which can induce me to withdraw for a few hours from my official duties to devote myself to its perusal1 and to the observation of the planets of which it treats1 if the telescopes we have here are fit for it4 ,meanwhile ,i thank you very much for your remembrance of me1 and beg you not to forget the high opinion which ,i entertain for a mind so extraordinarily gifted as yours40#aha ,but the cardinal had not confined himself to these assurances of esteem and friendship in his letters1 but had proved them by his actions in #afae and #afaf1 by honestly assisting to adjust ,galileo's personal affairs when brought before the ,inquisition4 ,and ,maffeo ,barberini attributed the success then achieved in no small degree to his own influence1 and used even to relate with satisfaction when ,pope1 that he had at that time assisted ,galileo out of his difficulties4 ,but here we must remind those authors who represent ,barberini1 when cardinal1 as a ,copernican1 in order to paint his subsequent attitude as ,pope in darker hues than history warrants1 that although in #afae and #afaf he exerted himself for ,galileo personally1 he in no way sought to avert the condemnation of the system4 ,in #afbj1 however1 ,barberini gave ,galileo a really enthusiastic proof of his esteem4 ,he celebrated his discoveries in some elegant and spirited verses1 in which astronomy was allied with morality1 and he sent them to ,galileo1 under date of #bhth ,august1 with the following letter3-- 8,the esteem which ,i always entertain for yourself and your great merits has given occasion to the enclosed verses4 ,if not worthy of you1 they will serve at any rate as a proof of my affection1 while ,i purpose to add lustre to my poetry by your renowned name4 ,without wasting words1 then1 in further apologies1 which ,i leave to the confidence which ,i place in you1 ,i beg you to receive with favour this insignificant proof of my great affection40#ahb ,when this dignitary1 who was generally regarded as a friend and protector of science1 had ascended the papal chair1 the 8,accadmia dei ,lincei0 hastened to dedicate 8,il ,saggiatore0 to his ,holiness1 in order to spoil the sport of the author's enemies beforehand4 ,to the annoyance of ,galileo's opponents and delight of his friends1 by the end of ,october1 #afbc1 8,il ,saggiatore0 appeared4 ,this work is a masterpiece of ingenuity2 for the author not only dexterously avoids falling into the snares laid for him by ,father ,grassi1 but prepares signal defeats for him4 ,galileo takes his attack on him1 8,the ,astronomical and ,philosophical ,scales10 paragraph by paragraph1 throws light on each1 and disputes or confutes it4 ,and it is done in so sparkling and spirited a style1 and the reasoning1 pervaded by cutting sarcasm1 is so conclusive1 that 8,il ,saggiatore0 certainly deserves to be called a model of dialectic skill4 ,our limits preclude going further into its scientific contents4 ,for our purpose it will suffice to say that ,galileo took occasion in it to lash many errors in ,grassi's work unmercifully1 and thereby incurred the eternal hatred of the all powerful ,jesuit party4 ,thus it was to a great extent the purely scientific 8,saggiatore0 which subsequently conjured up the tragic element in ,galileo's fate4 ,another interesting point in the work is the way in which ,galileo replies to ,grassi's interpellations about the system of the universe4 ,admirable as is the ingenuity with which he performs this ticklish task1 one cannot sympathise with the denial of his inmost convictions4 ,he parries the provocations of his adversary by demonstrating that the ,ptolemaic and ,copernican doctrines had nothing to do with the controversy about comets1 and that this question was only raised by 8,sarsi0 in order to attack him 7,galileo74 ,he adds the ambiguous remark3 8,as to the ,copernican hypothesis1 ,i am fully convinced that if we ,catholics had not to thank the highest wisdom for having corrected our mistake and enlightened our blindness1 we should never have been indebted for such a benefit to the arguments and experiences of ,tycho40#ahc ,he then shows that the ,copernican system1 8which1 as a pious ,catholic1 he considers entirely erroneous and completely denies10 perfectly agrees with the telescopic discoveries1 which cannot be made to agree at all with the other systems4 ,but since1 in spite of all this caution1 a defence of the new system might have been detected in these statements1 ,galileo hastens to the conciliatory conclusion1 that since the ,copernican theory is condemned by the ,church1 the ,ptolemaic no longer tenable in the face of scientific research1 while that of ,tycho is inadequate1 some other must be sought for4 ,notwithstanding all this fencing1 however1 no one can fail to see in 8,il ,saggiatore0 an underhand defence of the ,copernican system1 as is evident from the passages quoted4 ,such a vague discussion of it as this1 however1 did not compromise ,galileo according to the decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf2 but 8,il ,saggiatore0 would have directly contravened the assumed absolute injunction to silence on that system of #bfth ,february1 and ,galileo would certainly not have ventured to write in this style if the ,commissary-,general of the ,holy ,office had1 in #afaf1 solemnly forbidden him to discuss the said doctrine in any way whatever 7quovis modo74 ,this is another proof that this famous prohibition was not issued to ,galileo in the form in which it occurs in the archives of #bfth ,february4 8,il ,saggiatore0 was1 indeed1 denounced to the ,inquisition in #afbe1 by ,galileo's opponents1 as containing a concealed endorsement of the ,copernican system1 and a motion was made in the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office to prohibit it1 or at any rate to have it corrected2 but it was not carried1 and the party only prepared a defeat for themselves4 ,in consequence of the denunciation1 a cardinal was charged to investigate the matter1 and to report upon it4 ,he selected ,father ,guevara1 ,general of the ,theatines1 to assist him1 who1 after careful examination of the work in question1 spoke in high praise of it1 recommended it most warmly to the cardinal1 and even gave him a written statement1 in which he explained that the opinion of the earth's motion1 even if it had been maintained1 would not have appeared to him a reason for condemning it4#ahd ,even ,urban ,,viii41 who1 we must suppose1 was perfectly acquainted with the proceedings of #afaf1 does not appear to have had any scruples about 8,il ,saggiatore10 for he had it read aloud to him at table1 immediately after its publication1#ahe and1 as ,galileo was assured1 enjoyed it highly4#ahf ,,chapter ,x4 ,,papal ,,favour4 ,galileo goes to ,rome to congratulate ,urban ,,viii4 on his ,accession4--,favourable ,reception4--,scientific discussions with the ,pope4--,urban refuses to ,revoke the ,decree of #eth ,march4--,nicolo ,riccardi4--,the ,microscope4--,galileo not the ,inventor4--,urban's favours to ,galileo on leaving ,rome4--,galileo's reply to ,ingoli4--,sanguine hopes4--,grassi's hypocrisy4--,spinola's harangue against the ,copernican ,system4--,lothario ,sarsi's reply to 8,il ,saggiatore40--,galileo writes his 8,dialogues40 ,on the accession of ,urban ,,viii4 ,galileo formed a project of offering his congratulations to the new ,pope at ,rome1 and of using all his personal influence on the occasion to obtain toleration for the ,copernican system1 now no longer opposed by the weighty influence of ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 for he had died two years before4 ,but he first consulted his friends at ,rome1 whether he would be well received1 and especially by his ,holiness4 ,he wrote among other things to ,prince ,cesi1 on #ith ,october1 #afbc3 8,i have in my head plans of no small importance for the learned world1 and perhaps can never hope for so wonderful a combination of circumstances to ensure their success1 at least so far as ,i am able to conduce to it40#ahg ,cesi1 who well understood ,galileo's mode of speaking1 confirmed him in his intentions in his answer of #bast ,october1 and urged him to carry out his project speedily4 8,it is necessary for you to come1 and you will be very welcome to his ,holiness10 wrote the ,prince4#ahh ,thomas ,rinuccini1 brother of the ,archbishop of ,fermo1 of whom ,galileo made the same inquiries1 replied as commissioned by the new ,pope's nephew1 ,cardinal ,francesco ,barberini1 that ,urban ,,viii4 would always be pleased to receive him1 and told him that he had had a long audience of the ,pope himself three days ago1 of which he reported to ,galileo3-- 8,i swear to you that nothing pleased his ,holiness so much as the mention of your name4 ,after ,i had been speaking of you for some time1 ,i told him that you1 esteemed sir1 had an ardent desire to come and kiss his toe1 if his ,holiness would permit it1 to which the ,pope replied that it would give him great pleasure1 if it were not inconvenient to you1 and if the journey would not be injurious to your health2 for great men like you must spare themselves1 that they may live as long as possible40#ahi ,galileo now resolved to go to ,rome as soon as he could1 but his uncertain health and the unprecedentedly bad weather1 which had laid whole tracts of land under water1 delayed his departure4 ,his friends at ,rome wrote meanwhile again and again1 encouraging him to set out1 for the ,pope1 ,cardinal ,barberini1 and all his exalted patrons and numerous adherents were longing for his presence2#aij and ,mgr4 ,ciampoli assured him that he 8would find that his ,holiness had a special personal affection for him40#aia ,at length1 on the #ast ,april1 ,galileo was able to set out1 although the state of his health was still such that he could only perform the journey in a litter4 ,he reached ,aquasparta on #hth ,april1 spent a fortnight with ,prince ,cesi in his fine place there1 and discussed the affairs which lay so near his heart with his learned and influential friend4 ,he did not arrive in ,rome till towards the end of ,april4 ,the long-expected guest would have been sure of a distinguished reception1 even without the ,grand ,duchess ,christine's letter#aib of recommendation to her son1 ,cardinal de' ,medici4 ,every one was aware of the favour which the new ,pope entertained for the great astronomer4 ,his old adherents1 therefore1 received him with greater delight than ever2 and his enemies1 for the time1 only ventured to clench their fists behind his back4 ,his letters of this period express the great satisfaction which this flattering reception afforded him4#aic ,the prospect did not indeed look quite so favourable for his cause4 ,within six weeks he had had six long audiences of ,urban ,,viii41 had been most affably received by him1 and had found opportunity to lay before him all his arguments in defence of the ,copernican system2#aid but he would not be convinced1 and in one of these discussions tried to turn the tables1 and to convince the advocate of the modern system of its incorrectness1 in which he met with no success4 ,and not only did ,urban1 in spite of his esteem for ,galileo1 turn a deaf ear to his arguments1 but he would not grant his petition for toleration of the new doctrine2 on this point he was quite inexorable4 ,in vain did ,galileo obtain the support of several of the cardinals who were friendly to him1 to gain permission from the supreme ruler of ,christendom to teach the ,copernican system as true4 ,the ,pope said to ,cardinal ,hohenzollern1 who1 at ,galileo's request1 warmly took up the question1 and had observed in a conversation on it with ,urban1 that great caution was required in dealing with it1 8that the ,church neither had condemned nor ever would condemn the doctrine as heretical1 but only as rash40#aie ,this language was1 as ,henri ,martin justly observes1#aif more than wanting in precision2 for in the first place the ,church had never condemned it at all1 either as 8heretical0 or 8rash10 for the ,qualifiers of the ,holy ,office never mean the 8,church02 and in the second place1 this commission had1 in #afaf1 not condemned this opinion as 8rash10 but 8foolish and absurd philosophically1 and formally heretical10 and this without the papal confirmation1 so that no condemnation by the ,church could be said to exist4 ,galileo1 finding that ,urban1 with all his friendly feeling towards him personally1 would never be persuaded to revoke the decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 resolved to return home after a stay of six weeks at ,rome4 ,there was little to be gained by remaining longer4 ,as soon as the attitude which ,urban intended to assume towards the prohibited doctrine became evident1 ,galileo's clerical adherents as far as possible avoided expressing themselves on the subject1 and the moderate party among the ,romanists merely advised him to take care that his scientific speculations did not contradict ,holy ,scripture4 ,father ,nicolo ,riccardi1 who was much attached to ,galileo and took a great interest in his subsequent trial1 was very ingenious in maintaining a safe neutrality between the two systems4 ,this good man1 to whom from his eloquence1 or as others said because he was so fat1 the ,king of ,spain had given the nickname of 8,il ,padre ,mostro10 prudently agreed neither with the ,ptolemaic nor the ,copernican system1 but contented himself with a view as peculiar as it was convenient4 ,he saw no difficulty in the stars being moved1 as we see them to be moved in the vault of heaven1 by angels1 a proceeding which demanded nothing on our part but wonder and admiration4#aig ,meanwhile ,galileo's stay at ,rome had been of essential service to science1 although in quite a different way from that which he intended on his arrival4 ,in #afbb a certain ,jacob ,kuppler1 from ,cologne1 came to ,rome with a microscope made by a relative of his1 a ,dutchman of the name of ,drebbel1 in order to lay the new discovery1 of which ,drebbel claimed to be the inventor1#aih before the papal government4 ,kuppler1 however1 died before he had an opportunity of exhibiting his instrument to the court4 ,soon afterwards many other microscopes were sent to ,rome1 where1 however1 no one knew how to use the complicated instrument4 ,galileo not only at once perceived its use1 but greatly improved it4#aii ,he afterwards sent many of these improved instruments to his friends1 and before long his microscopes were in as great request as his telescopes4#bjj ,in order to rectify a mistake that has been often repeated1 that ,galileo was the inventor of this instrument of such vast importance to science1 we mention here that he never claimed this merit himself2 it was his eulogist1 ,viviani1 who first claimed it for him1 and his thoughtless followers have repeated it4 ,galileo had indeed1 as he mentions in his 8,il ,saggiatore10 discovered a method of using the telescope to magnify objects as early as #afaj1 but it required an over-zealous biographer to claim ,galileo as the inventor of the microscope from this4 ,it was1 however1 he who1 in #afbd1 brought the microscope to a degree of perfection on which for a long time no advance was made4 ,urban ,,viii4 heaped favours of all sorts on ,galileo before his departure4 ,he promised him a pension for his son1#bja three days afterwards he sent him a splendid picture1 then again two medals--one of silver1 the other of gold1 and quite a number of ,agnus ,dei#bjb2 poor consolation1 it is true1 for the disappointment of the great expectations with which he came to ,rome4 ,however1 he did not return to ,florence entirely without hope4 ,although there could be no longer any expectation of a public revocation of the famous decree1 he was fain to believe that it would not be rigidly kept to1 and thought that1 supported by his papal patron1 he should be able ingeniously to circumvent it4 ,he was far from thinking that the fetters placed by the ecclesiastical power on the free course of the ,copernican doctrine were removed1 but he was of opinion that they were considerably loosened4 ,and ensuing events1 as well as all the news which ,galileo received from his friends at ,rome1 were calculated to confirm the idea4 ,the ,pope1 wishing to give a strong official proof of his favour1 had himself addressed a letter to the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 in which1 to the no small chagrin of ,galileo's enemies1 he had not only done full justice to his services to science1 but had laid special stress on his religious sentiments4 ,in this letter of #gth ,june1 #afbd1 ,urban first mentioned ,galileo's great discoveries1 8the fame of which will shine on earth so long as ,jupiter and his satellites shine in heaven40 ,and after declaring that he felt a true fatherly affection for so great a man1 his ,holiness continued3-- 8,we have observed in him not only the literary distinction1 but also the love of religion and all the good qualities worthy of the papal favour4 ,when he came to congratulate us on our accession1 we embraced him affectionately1 and listened with pleasure to his learned demonstrations which add fresh renown to ,florentine eloquence4 ,we desire that he should not return to his native country without having received by our generosity manifold proofs of our papal favour4444 ,and that you may fully understand to what extent he is dear to us1 we wish to give this brilliant testimony to his virtues and piety4 ,we are anxious to assure you that we shall thank you for all the kindness that you can show him1 by imitating or even surpassing our fatherly generosity40#bjc ,with his hopes raised still higher by these unusually gracious words of his papal patron1 ,galileo ventured1 soon after his return from ,rome1 to reply to a refutation of the ,copernican system1 which in #afaf had been addressed to him as its most distinguished advocate in the then favourite form of a public letter1 by a certain ,ingoli1 then a lawyer at ,ravenna1 and afterwards secretary of the ,propaganda at ,rome4 ,ingoli1 though an adherent of the old system1 was at the same time a sincere admirer of ,galileo1 so that his arguments against the theory of the double motion of the earth were characterised by great objectivity4 ,after the events of #afaf1 ,galileo had wisely refrained from answering it2 in #afah1 however1 it had been done by another corypheus of science1 ,kepler1 in his 8,extracts from the ,astronomy of ,copernicus10#bjd in which he valiantly combated ,ingoli's objections4 ,but the latter did not consider himself beaten1 and replied in a letter addressed to a chamberlain of ,paul ,v4 ,now1 after the lapse of eight years1 ,galileo thought that1 protected by the favour of ,urban ,,viii41 he might venture on a reply to ,ingoli4 ,but he again took care in writing it not to come into collision with the decree of #eth ,march4 ,with the assumed imperious prohibition of ,february1 #afaf1 this step of ,galileo's can be no more made to agree than his sending his treatise on the tides to the ,archduke ,leopold of ,austria1 #afah1 or the publication of 8,il ,saggiatore40 ,galileo undertakes1 in the reply to ,ingoli1 to defend the ,copernican doctrine under a double pretext4 ,on the one hand1 he says he wishes to show that1 as he had given currency to the new system of the universe before it was condemned by ecclesiastical authority1 he had not been the defender of an improbable or unreasonable idea2 on the other hand1 he wishes to prove to the ,protestant ,copernicans in ,germany1 that in ,catholic ,italy the views of their great countryman had not been rejected from ignorance of their great probability1 8but from reverence for ,holy ,scripture1 as well as zeal for religion and our holy faith40 ,after this ingenious introduction1 and an assurance that he had no intention whatever of representing the forbidden doctrine as true1 he proceeds with equal politeness and vigour to refute all ,ingoli's objections4#bje ,in spite of this diplomatic introduction1 however1 his friends at ,rome1 well aware of the malice of his enemies1 and having had but a few months before to defend 8,il ,saggiatore10 urgently dissuaded him from having this rather warm defence of a forbidden doctrine printed4#bjf ,he gave heed to their warnings1 and so this reply was only circulated in numerous copies among the learned world in ,italy4 ,meanwhile the reports which ,galileo was constantly receiving from his friends at ,rome tended to increase his confidence in the favourable influence which ,urban's personal liking for him1 and his taste for art and science1 were likely to exercise on tolerance of the ,copernican system4 ,thus his devoted adherent ,guiducci1 in several letters of #fth1 #acth and #bdth ,september1 #afbd1bjg told him1 that through the mediation of the ,jesuit father1 ,tarquinio ,galuzzi1 he had had several interviews with ,galileo's former bitter adversary1 ,father ,grassi1 who had said that ,galileo's theory that the phenomena of the tides were to be attributed to the double motion of the earth 8was very ingenious10 and that when the truth of these opinions was unanswerably established1 the theologians would bestir themselves to alter the interpretation of those passages of ,scripture which refer to the earth as being stationary6 ,the guileless ,guiducci added confidentially1 quite taken with this ,jesuit's amiability1 that he had not noticed any great aversion to the new system in ,grassi1 indeed he did not despair of estranging 8,lothario ,sarsi0 from ,ptolemy4 ,two months later1 however1 the same correspondent told ,galileo that a violent harangue had been delivered in the ,jesuit ,college at ,rome against the adherents of the new doctrine1 by ,father ,spinola1 and some time afterwards he sent him a copy of it2#bjh but as it attacked all those who did not profess to be followers of an antiquated ,peripateticism1 it made but little impression on ,galileo1 and that little was entirely effaced when ,mgr4 ,ciampoli wrote to him1 on #bhth ,december1 #afbe1 that he had acquainted the ,pope with several passages of his reply to ,ingoli1 and that he had highly approved them4#bji ,before long ,guiducci found out how bitterly he had been deceived in ,grassi1 and what a miserable game he had been playing with him as ,galileo's friend4 ,the memory of the favours by which the ,pope had distinguished the great ,tuscan when at ,rome had scarcely died away when ,grassi threw aside the mask1 and 8,lothario ,sarsi0 exhibited himself in a new and revised edition1 fulminating rage and venom against ,galileo and his system4 ,notwithstanding the hypocritical moderation exhibited to ,guiducci1 he had not forgotten the mortifying defeat which 8,il ,saggiatore0 had subjected him to1 and1 though circumstances had prevented him from defending himself at once1 he had by no means given up the intention of doing so4 ,two years having elapsed since ,galileo's visit to ,rome1 ,grassi thought he might venture1 under pretext of a reply to 8,il ,saggiatore10 to publish a new attack on its author4 ,it was entitled1 in bad ,latin3 8,ratio ponderum ,libr et ,simbell1 etc4 ,autore ,lothario ,sarsi ,sigensano40 ,it contained many personal accusations against ,galileo1 and the work altogether was characterized by a blind hatred1 which repeatedly led the author into very foolish statements4 ,for instance1 ,grassi tried incidentally to prove by very ingenious arguments that ,galileo's physics would lead to the denial of the real presence in the ,lord's ,supper6#baj ,but the enraged ,jesuit went still further1 and gave his readers pretty plainly to understand that since ,galileo agreed on many questions of physics with ,epicurus1 ,telesius1 and ,cardanus1 he must also approve their godlessness1 which strange assertion1 however1 he did not venture to sustain by any evidence4 ,to ,galileo it seemed an encouraging sign of the times that it was considered desirable to seek a publisher for these accusations from a member of the ,roman ,college away from the papal residence4 ,grassi's effusions came out at ,paris in #afbf1 and at ,naples in #afbg4 ,the very unfavourable reception of the work at ,rome1 except among a few pettifogging enemies of ,galileo1 also tended to confirm him in his unfortunately mistaken opinion that ,rome1 under the pontificate of ,urban ,,viii41 would have little or nothing to object to in the rich harvest promised by the researches of ,copernicus and ,kepler1 as well as by his own discoveries in the field of science4 ,he thought he could reckon on papal tolerance1 if only the defence of the new system were so circumspectly handled as not to clash with the oft-mentioned decree of the ,congregation4 ,on this assumption he had resolved1 immediately after his return from ,rome1 to carry out the great work which he had long projected1 and which1 from the vast scientific knowledge it displayed1 combined with a brilliant style1 was to meet with greater success and favour than had ever been attained by any scientific work4 ,this was his 8,dialogues on the ,two ,principal ,systems of the ,world40 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,publication ,,of ,,the 8,,dialogues ,,on ,,the ,,two ,,principal ,,systems ,,of ,,the ,,world10 ,,and ,,trial ,,and ,,condemnation ,,of ,,galileo4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the 8,,dialogues0 ,,on ,,the ,,two ,,systems4 ,origin of the 8,dialogues40--,their ,popular ,style4--,significance of the name ,simplicius4--,hypothetical treatment of the ,copernican ,system4--,attitude of ,rome towards ,science4--,thomas ,campanella4--,urban ,,viii4's ,duplicity4--,galileo takes his ,,ms4 to ,rome4--,riccardi's ,corrections--,he gives the ,imprimatur on certain ,conditions4--,galileo returns to ,florence to complete the ,work4 ,it is a curious fact that the very work which was destined to be one of the most powerful levers in obtaining general recognition for the true order of the universe originated in what we now know to be an erroneous idea4 ,the famous book1 8,dialogues on the ,two ,principal ,systems of the ,world1 the ,ptolemaic and ,copernican10#baa arose out of the treatise on the tides which ,galileo wrote at ,rome1 in #afaf1 at the suggestion of ,cardinal ,orsini4#bab ,the important influence of these 8,dialogues10 both on science and the subsequent fate of the author1 obliges us to discuss them more particularly4 ,the book contains a great deal more than is promised by the title2 for the author included in it1 in connection with the discussion of the two systems1 nearly all the results of his researches and discoveries in science1 extending over nearly fifty years4 ,he also endeavoured to write in a style which should be adapted not for the learned world alone1 but which would be both intelligible and attractive to every educated person2 and in this he attained complete success1 for he wished by means of this book to extend as widely as possible a knowledge of the true order of nature4 ,the form of the work was most happily chosen4 ,the results of the researches of a lifetime were not given to the reader in a work redolent of the pedantry of the professor's chair1 in which scientific demonstrations drag on with wearisome monotony1 but in the lively form of dialogue1 which admitted of digressions and gave the author scope for displaying his seductive eloquence1 his rare skill in dialectics and biting sarcasm--in short1 for his peculiarly brilliant style4 ,the dialogue is carried on by three interlocutors1 two of whom adduce the scientific reasons for the double motion of the earth1 while the third honestly tries to defend the opinions of the ,aristotelian school with all the scientific means at his disposal1 and as these did not suffice1 with the arts of sophistry also4 ,if he has but little success1 the fault lies with the cause he advocates4 ,galileo gave to the defenders of the ,copernican system the names of his two famous pupils and friends1 neither of them then living1 ,filipo ,salviati1 of ,florence1 and ,giovan ,francesco ,sagredo1 senator of ,venice1 thereby erecting a better monument to them than he could have done in marble4 ,salviati is the special advocate of the ,copernican theory4 ,sagredo takes the part of an educated layman1 intelligent1 impartial1 and desirous to learn4 ,the advocate of the ,ptolemaic system was called briefly ,simplicius1 a pseudonym over which the learned have often puzzled their heads4 ,did he give this name of simpleton satirically to the champion of the ancient system1 or was it merely an allusion to ,simplicius1 the commentator of ,aristotle1 as ,galileo stated in his 8,avviso al lettore80 ,the selection of this name is characteristic of the ambiguous attitude which the author maintains in his 8,dialogues40 ,the sarcastic vein is obvious throughout1 but is ingeniously concealed behind a mask intended to inspire confidence4 ,salviati conducts the arguments for the ,copernican theory with such convincing force and clearness1 and annihilates so completely all the objections of the unfortunate ,simplicius1 that no unbiassed reader can fail to perceive the scientific superiority of the modern theory to the old4 ,and as ,galileo conscientiously puts in the mouth of the ,peripatetic philosopher every possible argument in favour of the ,aristotelian cause1 as well as the objections to the other side1 the total defeat of its advocate is a victory all the more brilliant for the immortal ,canon of ,frauenburg4 ,the condition that the ,copernican doctrine is only to be employed as a hypothesis is ostensibly fully complied with4 ,if ,salviati or ,sagredo demonstrate to ,simplicius the untenableness of some ,ptolemaic axiom1 or add an important stone to the ,copernican structure1 ,galileo hastens to interpolate some remark to weaken the impression4 ,it must be confessed1 however1 that the agreement of this 8hypothesis0 with all the phenomena of nature is as clear as daylight2 and when1 for instance1 it is said that the final decision in the present controversy rests neither with mathematics and physics1 nor with philosophy and logic1 but solely with a 8higher insight10 or when ,salviati repeatedly asserts that he does not in the least wish to maintain the truth of the ,copernican doctrine1 but applies the word 8possibly0 to it1 or speaks of it as a 8fantasia0 or 8vanissima chimera10 the reader cannot fail to perceive that these prudent reservations1 which always occur at critical passages1 are made with the sole purpose of rendering the publication of the work possible4 ,the preface and conclusion have no logical agreement with the contents of the 8,dialogues10 and owe their origin to the same motive4 ,in the preface the ecclesiastical prohibition of #afaf to teach that the earth moves1 is actually called a 8salutary edict0 7un salutifero editto76 ,the reader learns further1 to his no small astonishment1 that the purpose of this comprehensive work is to refute the wholly unfounded opinion which has gained much credit abroad1 that this adverse judgment of ,rome was not the result of mature deliberation1 but merely of the hasty impulse of judges who were not qualified to decide on these questions of natural science4 ,galileo asserts that his zeal did not permit him to keep silence in face of those audacious accusations1 and that being in possession of all the circumstances connected with that prudent decision1 he felt constrained to bear witness to the truth before all the world4 ,in bringing forward here all his speculations on the ,copernican doctrine1 he wished to show that at ,rome1 where he had taken part in the consultations1 they had been fully aware of all the arguments which could be adduced in favour of the new doctrine4#bac ,on the origin of this singular introduction1 a point on which divergent and often unwarranted opinions prevail1 we shall enter in detail in its right place4 ,the conclusion of the work1 which is divided into four 8days10 agrees no better with the rest of the contents than the preface4 ,although the ,copernicans everywhere gain the day1 ,galileo takes care1 for very good reasons1 not to draw any conclusions from it on the fourth day4 ,the discussion ends apparently without coming to any result4 ,salviati disclaims any wish to force an opinion on any one which seemed to him a 8chimera0 or a 8paradox40 ,addressing himself to ,sagredo1 he remarks that ,sagredo had often agreed with the opinions he had expressed1 but he thinks that this was often more from their originality than their conclusiveness4 ,having therefore thanked him for his 8polite indulgence10 he apologises to ,simplicius for the eagerness of his language1 and assures him that he had no intention of offending him1 but rather of inducing him to communicate his sublime ideas 7671 which would certainly be instructive to himself4 ,in conclusion1 they agree to meet again for a final discussion4#bad ,did ,galileo really intend to add a fifth day8 ,martin thinks it probable1 8for10 he says1 8,galileo might at that period still have hoped that the ecclesiastical authorities would tolerate the new system during his lifetime1 especially should some new discovery1 as1 for instance that of a small annual parallax of the fixed stars1 afford certain proof in favour of his system4 ,in that case ,galileo would have been at last allowed to express his opinions without reserve40#bae ,we think it very possible1 indeed probable1 that ,galileo did intend to add a fifth day at a favourable opportunity1 in which he would have given the result of the previous discussions2 but he certainly was not waiting for 8some new discovery40 ,it was his firm conviction that none was wanted1 since his telescopic observations amply proved the truth of his theory2 neither would the most convincing discovery have enabled him to express his views without reserve1 for they had by no means been condemned by the clergy from want of proof1 but as 8foolish and absurd philosophically and formally heretical40 ,we are quite aware that certain writers who have assumed the task of defending the action of the curia against ,galileo1 maintain that the ecclesiastical party objected to the new system because its accordance with the phenomena of nature had not been sufficiently proved4#baf ,but even were this granted1 in view of the opposition raised on scientific grounds and the rooted attachment to old opinions1 every unbiassed person must demur to the assumption that in the attitude of ,rome towards the ,copernican question the interests of science had any influence whatever4 ,it could not be an advantage to science to trammel free discussion4 ,the subsequent harsh proceedings against ,galileo1 when seventy years of age1 the hostile and peremptory attitude which ,rome maintained towards him until his death1 as well as towards the new system and all discussion of it1 bear ample testimony1 in our opinion1 that the clergy had the interests of science very little at heart1 and that their sole desire was to maintain the foundation-stone in its place on which the ingenious structure of the ,christian ,catholic philosophy was raised2 namely1 the doctrine that mother earth is the centre of the universe4 ,in ,december1 #afbi1 ,galileo had completed his ill-fated work on the two systems1 except the introduction and a few finishing strokes4 ,he announced this to his friends in sundry letters1#bag and told ,prince ,cesi in two letters of #bdth ,december1 #afbi1 and #acth ,january1 #afcj1 that he intended coming to ,rome to see to the printing of the 8,dialogues40#bah ,the prince in his reply expressed entire approval of the project1 and encouraged ,galileo to set out for ,rome very soon1 8where he would have no further trouble about the proofs than to give such orders as he pleased40#bai ,altogether the position of affairs seemed remarkably favourable for the publication of the 8,dialogues40 ,galileo's devoted adherent1 ,castelli1 had been summoned to ,rome in #afbd by ,urban ,,viii41 and enjoyed great consideration with the powerful family of ,barberini1 to whose youngest scion1 ,taddeo1 he gave instruction in mathematics4 ,this long-tried friend informed ,galileo in a letter of #fth ,february1#bbj that ,father ,riccardi1 who meanwhile had been raised to the office of chief censor of the press 7,magister ,sacri ,palatii7 had promised his ready assistance in ,galileo's affairs4 ,castelli also expressed his conviction that1 as far as ,riccardi was concerned1 he would find no difficulty4 ,another piece of information in the same letter1 however1 was not quite so satisfactory2 the personage second in importance at the papal court1 ,urban's brother1 ,cardinal ,antonio ,barberini1 had1 when ,castelli told him of the completion of the 8,dialogues10 said nothing particular against the theory itself1 so far as it was treated as a hypothesis1 but had made the just remark that the earth1 if it revolved round the sun1 must be a star1 an idea 8which was too far opposed to theological truth40 ,castelli appeased the cardinal by assuring him that ,galileo had weighty arguments against this1 and it is characteristic of the prevailing confusion of ideas on astronomical subjects1 that ,barberini thought this possible1 and that ,castelli wrote to ,galileo that he would not find it hard to steer clear of this rock4 ,another instance of the trammels placed by religion on the advancement of science4 ,a second letter of ,castelli's to ,galileo of #afth ,march1 #afcj1 contains far more important and encouraging intelligence4 ,according to this1 ,thomas ,campanella#bba had told the ,pope at an audience1 that a short time before he had tried to convert some ,german nobles to the ,catholic faith1 that he had found them favourably disposed1 but when they heard of the prohibition of the ,copernican system1 they were so indignant that he could do nothing more with them4 ,to this ,urban replied3 8,it never was our intention2 and if it had depended upon us1 that decree would not have been passed40#bbb ,these pregnant words1 coolly uttered by ,urban1 when repeated to ,galileo were well calculated to mislead him into infringing the decree1 in the spirit if not in the letter4 ,they seem1 however1 to have been at least as incorrect as the reply reported on the same subject to ,cardinal ,hohenzollern in #afbd4 ,urban entirely forgot that he had not interceded in any way in #afaf for the astronomical system threatened with condemnation4 ,and his conduct showed that he must have been a party to it4 ,we need only call to mind how inexorable he had been on the question in #afbd to ,galileo himself1 and how sternly he afterwards allowed proceedings to be taken against him4 ,urban could only have acted in this way because he was convinced of the danger of the ,copernican system to the ,christian philosophy4 ,and he was far too shrewd not to perceive how the modern views threatened a religion based upon ancient astronomy4 ,his remark to ,campanella1 therefore1 was nothing but smooth words1 and this is fully confirmed by subsequent events4 ,but they could not fail to inspire ,galileo with confidence that under ,urban ,,viii4 an ingenious circumvention of the decree would give no offence at the ,vatican4 ,besides this1 ,castelli reported in the same letter that ,mgr4 ,ciampoli1 who was also well informed1 was firmly convinced that ,galileo's personal appearance at ,rome would immediately remove any difficulty that might occur about publishing the 8,dialogues40#bbc ,another letter from ,castelli of #fth ,april urged him to set out for the papal residence1 where1 to quote the words of ,ciampoli1 8they were longing for him more than for a lady love40#bbd ,full of hope from these promising reports1 on #crd ,may ,galileo arrived at ,rome with the ,,ms4 of his 8,dialogues40 ,and events during his two months' stay seemed to realise his expectations4 ,soon after his arrival he had a long audience of ,urban ,,viii41 and wrote on #ahth ,may in high spirits to ,florence3--8,his ,holiness has begun to treat my affairs in a way that permits me to hope for a favourable result40#bbe ,riccardi also met ,galileo1 as was to be expected from ,castelli's letters1 in the most obliging way4 ,galileo showed him his work with the express request that he would examine it closely4 ,the papal censor1 however1 could not but perceive1 with all his personal regard for ,galileo1 that in his 8,dialogues0 he had by no means always kept1 de facto1 within the limits of hypothetical treatment of the ,copernican system1 and in some parts had far exceeded them4 ,he decided1 therefore1 both as his official duty and in the interest of ,galileo himself1 to have the book altered to the hypothetical standpoint4 ,many corrections were to be made1 and both preface and conclusion were to be altered so as to agree with them4 ,riccardi intrusted the first task to his official assistant1 ,father ,rafael ,visconti1 who seemed well qualified for it in his capacity of professor of mathematics4 ,he executed it with equal prudence and ingenuity1 improved many passages1 and finally approved the work thus revised4 ,the middle of ,june had meanwhile arrived1 and ,galileo was anxious to leave ,rome on account of the heat4 ,but ,riccardi wished to look through the 8,dialogues0 once more after they had been revised by ,visconti1 before giving them his imprimatur4 ,galileo represented that this second revision was not customary1 and succeeded in inducing ,riccardi to grant permission for the printing for ,rome4#bbf ,on the other hand1 ,galileo undertook to fashion the beginning and end of the work in accordance with a plan of the supreme authorities of the censorship4 ,there were also still a few passages to be personally discussed with the author2 and as he was unable to stay longer at ,rome without danger to his health1 which was already beginning to suffer1 it was agreed that he should return in the autumn1 and meanwhile#bbg he would prepare the index and the dedication to the ,grand ,duke1 and revise the preface and conclusion4 ,the main condition1 however1 under which ,riccardi gave the book his imprimatur1 was that after its final completion it should be submitted to him2 and in order to avoid loss of time1 he engaged to look it through sheet by sheet1 and to send each at once to press after inspection4 ,as was usual in the case of members of the ,accadmia dei ,lincei1 the work was to be published in the name of this society1 and the president1 ,prince ,cesi1 was to see it through the press4 ,so at the end of ,june#bbh ,galileo returned to ,florence with his ,,ms4 and the ecclesiastical imprimatur1 which was granted bona fide for ,rome without reserve4 ,there were indeed sundry conditions attached to it1 to be arranged privately2 but they seemed to present so little difficulty1 that a few days after he left on #bith ,june1 ,niccolini reported to ,cioli that ,signor ,galileo left last ,wednesday1 perfectly satisfied1 and with his affairs quite settled4#bbi ,but events were now at hand which long deferred ,galileo's ardent desire to see the results of his unwearied researches and labours speedily given to the world1 and which involved complications afterwards taken advantage of by his enemies to effect the ruin of their great opponent4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,imprimatur ,,for ,,the 8,,dialogues40 ,death of ,prince ,cesi4--,dissolution of the ,accadmia dei ,lincei4--,galileo advised to print at ,florence4--,difficulties and ,delays4--,his ,impatience4--,authorship of the ,introduction4--,the ,imprimatur granted for ,florence4--,absurd ,accusation from the style of the ,type of the ,introduction4 ,six weeks had scarcely elapsed after ,galileo's return from ,rome1 when he received from his friend ,francesco ,stelluti the startling intelligence of the death of his influential patron1 ,prince ,cesi1 who had been snatched away on #ast ,august by an attack of fever1 after a few days' illness4#bcj ,this was a great blow to ,galileo4 ,it was not only that he lost in the prince an adherent1 as influential as he was devoted1 but his death just then was of the greatest moment on account of the 8,dialogues40 ,there was1 perhaps1 no one so well qualified to forward their publication as ,cesi1 who1 as president of the ,accadmia dei ,lincei1 seemed just the man for it4 ,the ,academy1 deprived of its strongest support1 was gradually dissolved1 after the hand was wanting which knew how to weave its multitudinous threads into a firm and solid fabric4 ,only the third week after the prince's death1 ,galileo felt the first effects of his heavy loss4 ,in a letter of #bdth ,august1 ,castelli urgently advised him 8for many most weighty reasons which he did not wish just then to commit to paper1 to have the work printed at ,florence1 and as soon as possible40#bca ,castelli added that he had inquired of ,father ,visconti whether this would present any difficulties1 to which he had replied that there was nothing to prevent1 and he 7,visconti7 desired above all things that the work should see the light4 ,galileo was the more ready to fall in with this proposition because the plague1 which had made fearful ravages in ,north ,italy1 had now made its appearance in ,tuscany1 and the precautionary measures taken by the neighbouring ,states made all intercourse with them1 and especially with the ,states of the ,church1 very tedious and often impossible4 ,galileo therefore at once took the needful steps for publishing his book at ,florence4 ,he applied to the ,inquisitor-,general of the city1 to the ,vicar-,general1 and to the political authorities for permission1 and it was granted without hesitation on #aath ,september1 #afcj4bcb ,galileo next addressed himself to ,riccardi2 represented to him the great obstacles to publishing the work at ,rome1 and therefore asked permission to publish it at ,florence4 ,this was the beginning of troubles4 ,the chief of the ,roman censorship at first roundly refused1 and when ,galileo urged his request again1 he informed him through the ,tuscan ambassador at the papal court1 ,francesco ,niccolini1 that the work must be sent in for final revision as agreed upon1 without which he should never have consented to the publication4 ,castelli also wrote to ,galileo on #bast ,september1#bcc as commissioned by ,riccardi1 that as his coming himself to ,rome1 as originally agreed upon1 was rendered impossible by the outbreak of the plague1 he had better send the manuscript to ,riccardi1 in order that he and ,mgr4 ,ciampoli might make the final corrections4 ,castelli said further that ,riccardi was still very favourably disposed to ,galileo1 and that when his work had undergone this censorship1 he could send it to press in ,florence as well as anywhere else4 ,after this ,galileo made inquiries whether1 under present circumstances1 a large packet of ,,mss4 could be sent safely over the border4 ,but he was everywhere met with a negative1 and the remark that mere letters scarcely passed4 ,in vain he applied to the postmaster1 in vain he appealed to the ,grand ,ducal secretary of state1 ,bali ,cioli1 for help2 no means could be devised1 under the strict close of the frontiers1 whereby the bulky work could be transmitted to ,rome with any prospect of safety4 ,greatly disconcerted1 ,galileo represented this state of things to ,riccardi1 and offered to send1 at any rate1 the preface and conclusion of the 8,dialogues10 that the ecclesiastical authorities might alter these important parts of the work as seemed good to them1 and said that he was willing to designate the ,copernican views mentioned in the book as mere chimeras1 paralogisms1 dreams1 and fantasies1 which1 as is well known1 was afterwards actually done4 ,as to the final revision1 ,galileo proposed that ,riccardi should entrust it to some one at ,florence4 ,exceedingly annoyed by all these obstacles to an early publication of his 8,dialogues10 ,galileo at the same time asked the ,tuscan ambassador1 ,niccolini1 and his wife1 who were well disposed towards him1 to try and induce ,riccardi1 whom he had often seen at their house1 to accept this proposal4 ,and what friends and colleagues of the chief censor and other eminent men had failed in1 was accomplished by the delicate mediation of a lady4 ,on #aith ,october1 #afcj1 ,caterina ,niccolini wrote to ,galileo1 that the ,padre ,maestro1 who was heartily devoted to him1 would obligingly excuse him from sending the whole work2 let him send the introduction and conclusion1 but on condition that the whole ,,ms4 should be revised before publication by some competent person at ,florence1 and by a theologian empowered by the ecclesiastical authorities1 who must belong to the ,benedictine order4 ,father ,riccardi proposed ,father ,clement for the task4 ,the ambassador's wife added1 however1 commissioned by the ,master of the ,palace1 that if this choice were not agreeable to ,galileo1 he might himself propose a suitable person1 who would be empowered to act4#bcd ,and1 in fact1 ,father ,clement was not to ,galileo's taste1 and he proposed ,father ,hyacinthe ,stephani1 counsellor to the ,holy ,inquisition at ,florence1 who was approved by ,riccardi4 ,this ecclesiastic revised the work very thoroughly1 and--so at least ,galileo reports#bce--was moved to tears at many passages by the humility and reverent obedience which the author had displayed4 ,having made some insignificant corrections1 suggested by extra caution1 he gave the 8,dialogues0 his approval1 and declared that the famous author should be begged to publish them rather than have obstacles placed in his way4 ,riccardi1 notwithstanding his friendship for ,galileo1 seems to have been of a different opinion4 ,the preface and conclusion had been sent1 but he had allowed weeks and months to pass without letting ,galileo hear anything of them1 to say nothing of sending them back4 ,castelli once wrote to ,galileo that he had met ,riccardi1 and that he had told him that these portions were now quite in order1 and that he would send them to ,galileo immediately2 but months again went by without his fulfilling his promise4 ,galileo was in despair1 and on #gth ,march1 #afca1 addressed a long letter to ,bali ,cioli1 in which he first related the course of the negotiations respecting the 8,dialogues0#bcf in detail1 and then asked for the powerful intervention of his ,highness the ,grand ,duke1 at ,rome1 to bring the business to a conclusion1 so that he 7,galileo7 might enjoy while he lived these fruits of the labours of over fifty years4 ,little did ,galileo foresee what dire results these 8fruits0 were to bring4 ,on #hth ,march his request was granted1 and he was informed that ,niccolini1 at ,rome1 would be commissioned in the name of the ,grand ,duke to hasten as much as possible the termination of the negotiations with the ,master of the ,palace4#bcg ,galileo was all the more pleased with the success of this attempt1 because meanwhile1 weary of the long delays1 he had begun to have his 8,dialogues0 printed4 ,this is confirmed by a letter from him of #bjth ,march to his learned friend1 ,cesare ,marsili1 in which he says that six sheets of his work1 which would consist of fifty or more1 were finished4#bch ,we may here remark that this proceeding of ,galileo's has been the subject of severe and unjustifiable blame on the part of some authors actuated by party spirit4 ,it seems the less called for1 since ,galileo made no secret of the printing having been begun1 and he was not reproached for it at the subsequent trial before the ,inquisition4 ,he quite supposed that after ,father ,stephani had inspected and sanctioned the work1 all the conditions were fulfilled4 ,he therefore considered ,riccardi's consent to the publication in ,florence as certain4 ,it never occurred to him that after all this he would raise new difficulties4 ,a report of ,niccolini's of #aith ,april to ,cioli#bci confirmed him in this supposition1 and rejoiced his heart1 as there seemed to be an immediate prospect of an end to these tiresome negotiations4 ,niccolini wrote that he and his wife had a little while before had a long conversation with ,father ,riccardi about ,galileo's affairs1 which had resulted in his promising to grant permission for the publication1 but with the addition of a declaration1 for his own protection1 which he was to forward to ,niccolini in a few days4 ,on the #bhth ,niccolini received it1 but instead of its containing the promised imprimatur1 it required new clauses and imposed fresh conditions on the publication4 ,the chief censor indeed acknowledged1 at the beginning of this letter1 that he had given the imprimatur to the work1 but stated that it was only with the reservation that the author should make some alterations as agreed upon1 and send his book to ,rome to be published1 where with the help of ,mgr4 ,ciampoli all difficulties would have been overcome4 8,father ,stephani10 continues ,riccardi1 8has no doubt subjected the book to a conscientious revision2 but as he was not acquainted with the ,pope's views1 he had no power to give any approval which would enable me to sanction the printing without incurring the danger both to him and myself that unpleasantnesses might arise1 if things were still found contrary to the proscriptions40 ,riccardi then asserts that he had no greater desire than to serve the ,grand ,duke1 but he considers that it must be done so as to prevent any danger to his ,highness's reputation4 ,and this would not be the case if he gave his imprimatur1 as it was not his province to give it for ,florence1#bdj while it would be secured by his assuring himself that everything was in accordance with the commands of his ,holiness4 8,when ,i have inspected the beginning and end of the work10 he continued1 8,i shall easily discover what ,i want to know1 and will then give a certificate that ,i have approved the whole work40 ,this sentence is1 to say the least1 very obscure4 ,riccardi had had these two portions of the work in his possession for months1 and could long before have discovered from them what he wanted to know4 ,or had he not condescended to look at them8 ,this seems scarcely credible1 and is in direct opposition to what he said to ,castelli months before4 ,but a desire to spin the matter out is evident enough from this obscure sentence as well as the rest of the letter4 ,the ,master of the ,palace then proposed1 if it were still impossible to forward the work1 to send the ordinances of his ,holiness to the ,inquisitor at ,florence1 in order that he1 after assuring himself that they had been complied with1 might give the imprimatur4 ,when ,niccolini expressed his suspicions that these delays had been caused by some intrigues of ,galileo's enemies1 ,riccardi assured him that no one but friends of the famous astronomer had spoken to him on the subject1 and that there really had been no cabal of any sort4#bda ,when ,galileo received the news of this letter1 which1 contrary to all his expectations1 once more removed all hope of an end of these transactions into the far future1 he could not repress his ill humour4 ,this is plain enough from a letter to ,cioli of #crd ,may4 ,he begins with the tart remark3 8,i have read what the ,father ,master of the ,palace has written about the publication of the #8,dialogues1' and perceive1 to my great vexation1 that after keeping me for nearly a year without coming to any conclusion1 he means to pursue the same course with his ,holiness1 namely1 to delay and spin out everything with empty words1 which it is not easy to put up with40 ,he then bitterly complains that this letter of ,riccardi's1 instead of the promised imprimatur1 contains nothing but fresh delays on the pretext of conditions with which he had complied several months before1 and in such a way as to prove to his ,holiness and all who were willing to be convinced that he had done so4 8,and since ,i perceive10 he continues bitterly1 8that my affairs are afloat on a vast and boundless ocean1 while the publication of my book is of the utmost importance to me1 as ,i wish to see the fruits of my labours secured1 ,i have been considering various ways by which it might be accomplished2 but the authorization of his ,holiness is indispensable for all40 ,galileo then says that in order to come to some result it might be of the highest importance some day1 and that as soon as possible1 to be summoned to appear before his ,highness1 with the ,inquisitor and ,father ,stephani4 ,he would like to show them the work with all the corrections from the hands of ,fathers ,riccardi1 ,visconti1 and ,stephani1 in order that1 in the first place1 they might see how trivial the alterations were1 and in the second1 how submissively and reverently he had designated all the evidence and arguments which appeared to confirm an opinion not approved by the authorities1 as dreams1 chimeras1 and nullities4 ,he concludes by saying3 8,those present will then perceive how true and just my doctrines are1 and that ,i have never entertained other views or opinions than those held by the most venerable and holy fathers of the ,church40#bdb ,the ,grand ,duke1 ,ferdinand ,,ii41 however1 with all his good will towards his chief mathematician1 was by no means inclined to interfere personally in the matter4 ,he was desirous to use all the influence he possessed to bring about a decision at ,rome1 but it no more occurred to him now to exercise his rights as sovereign ruler1 than it did afterwards when he gave up the infirm philosopher1 at nearly seventy years of age1 to the ,roman tribunal4 ,galileo's suggestion1 therefore1 that the ,grand ,duke should1 to some extent1 take the initiative was by no means acceptable1 and was not followed4 ,the summons to the ,inquisitor and ,father ,stephani to appear with ,galileo before the ,grand ,duke never came2 ,niccolini1 however1 made fresh efforts to bring about a solution of the question at ,rome4 ,he went to the ,master of the ,palace and strongly represented to him that through the dedication the ,grand ,duke himself was greatly interested in the publication of this work1 at the head of which his exalted name was placed4#bdc ,galileo finally succeeded1 on #bdth ,may1 in inducing ,riccardi to address a letter to ,fra ,clemente ,egidio1 the ,inquisitor at ,florence1 in which he left it entirely to him1 after examining the work1 to grant permission for the publication or not4 ,the ,master of the ,palace again expressly mentioned in this letter that he had given the authorization to print1 but with the reservation that the necessary alterations should be made1 and that after further revision it should go to press in ,rome1 which conditions1 however1 had not been able to be fulfilled owing to the plague4 ,the most interesting parts of the letter for us are the hints which ,riccardi gives the ,inquisitor1 in the course of it1 as to the ,pope's views on the subject1 which are to guide him in sanctioning the work4 ,title as well as contents are only to relate to the mathematical aspects of the ,copernican system1 and so that 8the absolute truth of this view is never conceded1 but made to appear as mere hypothesis1 and without reference to ,scripture40#bdd 8,it must also be explained10 continued ,riccardi1 8that this work is only written to show that all the arguments which can be adduced in favour of this view were well known2 that therefore the sentence of #afaf was not to be attributed to ignorance at ,rome1 and the beginning and end of the book must agree with this statement1 which portions1 properly arranged1 ,i will send from here4 ,by observance of these precautions the work will meet with no obstacles at ,rome1 and your reverence will be able to gratify the author1 as well as to serve his ,highness1 who has shown so warm an interest in the matter40#bde ,the ,inquisitor replied on #cast ,may that he would act in accordance with the received instructions4 ,he says further that he had given the ,,ms4 to ,stephani1 as a very eminent man and counsellor of the ,holy ,office1 to be revised again1 and this time in accordance with the papal instructions2 also that ,galileo consented most willingly to all the corrections4#bdf ,but it would almost appear as if ,riccardi had again repented of the steps he had taken for the final settlement of the business1 for weeks and months passed before ,fra ,clemente ,egidio received the preface and conclusion4 ,not till ,niccolini1 at ,galileo's request1 had repeatedly urged him to send them1 could he be induced to do so1 after a further delay of two months1 and then1 as the ambassador graphically describes the situation1 not 8till formally pulled by the hair40#bdg ,in the letter of #aith ,july1 #afca1 which accompanied them1 ,riccardi empowered the author to alter the style of the revised introduction as he pleased1 and to ornament it rhetorically1 but so that the sense should remain the same4 ,as to the conclusion1 he made the vague remark that it must be based upon the same argument as the beginning4#bdh ,this seems to be the place to enter into the oft discussed question of the real authorship of this remarkable introduction4 ,some1 who rely upon the letter of ,riccardi's above quoted1 attribute it to him2 others even maintain that it owes its origin to ,urban ,,viii4 himself2 while1 on the other hand1 some are of opinion that ,galileo had the chief share in it1 though assuredly only because he considered that it would secure his object--permission to publish the 8,dialogues40 ,all these opinions contain some truth1 contradictory as they seem2 the truth lies between them4 ,after careful examination of the documents relating to the subject1 the historical facts appear to be as follows3-- ,when ,galileo was at ,rome in the early part of the summer of #afcj1 in order to submit his 8,dialogues0 to the ,roman censorship1 an introduction was sketched for him1 which he was to complete at ,florence1 and on his intended return to ,rome in the autumn to lay it and the whole manuscript before the ,master of the ,palace for final revision4#bdi ,from the good understanding which then existed between ,riccardi1 ,mgr4 ,ciampoli1 and ,galileo1 and from the contents of the introduction1 we may conclude with certainty that the sketch was made with ,galileo's concurrence1 or even that the main idea of it was his own4 ,for on close examination we find that the idea on which the whole introduction turns--namely1 that it was by no means ignorance of the scientific arguments in favour of the ,copernican system which led to the verdict of #afaf--;is precisely the same as that stated by ,galileo in his reply to ,ingoli in #afbd4bej ,as we are aware1 since the plague prevented ,galileo from returning to ,florence or sending the whole ,,ms41 he sent the introduction and conclusion to the chief censor1 who kept them for months1 and did not return them to the ,inquisitor at ,florence till #aith ,july4 ,from ,riccardi's letter we learn two facts3 firstly1 that he had only concerned himself with the introduction1 leaving the conclusion to the author with the vague remark we have quoted2 and secondly1 that ,galileo's preface must have undergone considerable alterations by the chief censor1 as he gave him leave to alter the style but not the sense4 ,there can be no more doubt that the ,pope had some hand in the final composition of the preface than that it was not penned by himself4 ,riccardi appeals in both his ex officio letters to the ,inquisitor of #bdth ,may and #aith ,july1 to the 8views0 and commands of his ,holiness2 and when the great storm afterwards burst1 the ,master of the ,palace loudly asserted that in ,galileo's affairs he had always and in everything acted in concert with the papal secretary1 ,mgr4 ,ciampoli1 and the latter appealed decidedly to special commands of ,urban's4#bea ,riccardi and ,ciampoli indeed paid for this indiscretion with the loss of their posts1 but ,cantor has aptly remarked on the subject that1 8evidence of the falsity of a statement was never yet afforded by the fact of the witnesses being compelled to silence or suffering punishment40#beb ,with the arrival at last of the preface and conclusion1 all the obstacles which had threatened the continuation of the printing of the 8,dialogues0 were removed4 ,stephani1 who was charged by the ,inquisitor at ,florence to undertake the final censorship1 was not the man to place difficulties in the way of the appearance of the book4 ,he took great care1 however1 that the ,pope's commands as to the treatment of the ,copernican doctrines should1 as far as the letter went1 be strictly obeyed4 ,the 8,dialogues10 from beginning to end1 were opposed to the spirit both of the decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 and the papal ordinances1 and there was great naivet in the idea that the fine-spun preface and the various little diplomatic arts which ,galileo employed in the course of his work could disguise its real meaning from the learned world4 ,but that was not ,stephani's affair2 for the ,,ms4 as a whole had been sanctioned by ,father ,visconti and had received the imprimatur for ,rome from the authorities of the censorship4 ,the delay about the preface1 which1 according to ,riccardi's orders1 was to be printed before the book1 had two results out of which ,galileo's enemies afterwards tried to make capital for their intrigues1 and which must therefore find mention here4 ,the printing had been long in hand and was proceeding when the preface arrived4 ,it was therefore necessary to print it on a separate sheet1 which1 according to ,riccardi's orders1 was placed at the beginning of the book4 ,for technical reasons1 also1 it was printed in different type from the rest of the work4 ,from these two insignificant circumstances1 ,galileo was afterwards reproached with having by the outward form destroyed the inner connection between the introduction and the book2 and with having thus1 to some extent1 intended to indicate that it had nothing to do with the 8,dialogues40#bec ,this was at the time when one party was setting every lever in motion to find cause for accusation against ,galileo4 ,the book itself1 which appeared with the double imprimatur of the ecclesiastical censorship of ,rome and ,florence1 afforded no legal ground for it4 ,we will not1 however1 anticipate the historical course of these memorable events1 but will carefully follow them step by step4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the 8,,dialogues0 ,,and ,,the ,,jesuits4 ,publication of the 8,dialogues40--,applause of ,galileo's ,friends and the ,learned ,world4--,the hostile ,party4--,the ,jesuits as ,leaders of ,learning4--,deprived of their ,monopoly by ,galileo4--,they become his bitter ,foes4--,having the ,imprimatur for ,rome and ,florence1 ,galileo thought himself doubly safe4--,the ,three ,dolphins4--,scheiner4--,did 8,simplicius0 personate the ,pope8--,conclusive ,arguments against it4--,effect of the ,accusation4--,urban's ,motives in instituting the ,trial4 ,by the beginning of ,january1 #afcb1 the printing of the 8,dialogues0 was so far advanced1 that on the #crd ,galileo had the satisfaction of telling his friend1 ,cesare ,marsili1 at ,bologna1 that the work would be completed in ten or twelve days4#bed ,it did not1 however1 appear till ,february4 ,on the twenty-second of that month ,galileo presented his book to the ,grand ,duke1 to whom it was dedicated1 and to the other members of the house of ,medici4#bee ,on the twenty-third he sent at first thirty-two copies to ,cesare ,marsili4#bef ,he had a large number of copies handsomely bound for his powerful friends and patrons at ,rome1 but they could not be despatched immediately1 since1 owing to the continued prevalence of the plague1 they would have had to be purified in the quarantine houses1 which might have injured them4 ,it was not till ,may that two unbound copies reached the papal residence in a roundabout way4#beg ,one of these came into the hands of ,cardinal ,francesco ,barberini1 who lent it to ,father ,castelli4 ,in a letter to ,galileo of #bfth ,september1 #afca1beh he had vowed that1 after the appearance of the 8,dialogues10 he would read no other book but that and the ,breviary2 and in a letter of #bith ,may1#bei he now expressed to the author his admiration of his work1 which surpassed all his expectations4 ,shortly afterwards1 ,count ,filippo ,magalotti1 who was on very friendly terms with ,galileo1 and from his relationship to the ,barberinis1 was an influential personage1 imported eight copies from ,florence1 and1 as charged by the author1 presented one copy each to ,cardinal ,antonio ,barberini1 to the ,tuscan ambassador ,niccolini1 ,father ,riccardi1 ,mgr4 ,serristori1 counsellor of the ,holy ,office1 and the ,jesuit ,father ,leon ,santi4#bfj ,while these few copies were being eagerly devoured by impatient readers at ,rome1 and passed rapidly from hand to hand1 the book had been circulating in the rest of ,italy in spite of the difficulties of communication4 ,the applause which this famous work called forth from all men of independent minds was unexampled1 and was only equalled by the bitterness and consternation it excited among the scientific conservatives4 ,the learned world of ,italy was divided into two hostile camps3 that of ,ptolemy on the one side1 that of ,copernicus-,galileo on the other4 ,in the one were to be found progress1 recognition of truth1 free independent thought and research2 in the other blind worship of authority and rigid adherence to the old school4 ,and the latter party was far the most numerous2 it was also reinforced by those1 of whom there were a considerable number1 who opposed the great reformer of science from interested motives4 ,besides this1 the academic corporations were not favourable to him1 because he so dangerously revolutionised the modern methods of teaching4 ,the university of his native city seemed especially adverse to him4 ,it had carried its animosity so far a few years before as to try to deprive him of the income which he enjoyed as its first mathematician by the ,grand ,ducal decree of #abth ,july1 #afbj1 though1 thanks to the energetic remonstrances of some influential patrons1 the attempt was not successful4#bfa ,in addition to all this there is another consideration1 which played a much larger part in the sad story of ,galileo's trial than is generally supposed4 ,the clergy1 and especially the ,jesuits1 had hitherto had a monopoly of science4 ,everybody knows how assiduously it had been cultivated in ancient times in the cells and schools of the convents1 and that the ecclesiastical orders were the guardians and disseminators of learning1 while among both populace and nobles ignorance flourished like a weed4 ,when by the natural law of progress the nations of ,europe emerged from the simplicity of childhood into the storm and stress period of youth2 when inventions1--especially printing1--and above all the discovery of ,america1 began to spread knowledge and culture among the masses1 it was once more the servants of ,rome who1 justly estimating the spirit of the age1 placed themselves1 so to speak1 in the van of the intellectual movement1 that they might guide its course4 ,the strongest evidence that the ,church was in exclusive possession of the highest mental powers is afforded by the ,reformation2 for the first stirrings of doubt1 of critical1 philosophical speculation1 arose in the bosoms of the ,roman ,catholic clergy4 ,all the reformers1 from ,abelard and ,arnold of ,brescia1 to ,huss and ,luther1 sprang1 without exception1 from among them4 ,just at the juncture when the split into two creeds threatened to divide the joints and marrow of the supreme power of the ,church1 the man appeared who most effectually contributed to restore it by founding a new ecclesiastical order1 with a very peculiar organisation4 ,this was ,ignatius ,loyola4 ,and if we seek for the explanation of the profound influence gained by this corporation in all parts of the world1 and every grade of society1 we shall find it in four factors3 the highest enthusiasm for the common cause2 willing obedience to the central authority--the general for the time being2 utter unscrupulousness as to means2 and the supremacy which knowledge always confers4 ,far from occupying themselves1 like the ,protestant clergy1 exclusively with theology1 there was no branch of knowledge that was not cultivated by these champions of the ,church2 indeed they stood for a century at the summit of learning4#bfb ,and now1 in the most recent epoch of that stigmatised century1 ,galileo the layman steps forth upon the arena of the science of the heavens and the earth1 and teaches the astonished world truths before which the whole edifice of scholastic sophistry must fall to the ground4 ,the ,jesuit monopoly of the education of youth and of teaching altogether1 became day by day more insecure1 and the influence of the society was threatened in proportion4 ,was it to be wondered at that the pious fathers strained every nerve in this final conflict for mastery1 and in the attempt to prevent their world-wide mission of educating the people from being torn from their hands8 ,this explains why the reformers of science appeared just as dangerous to them as those of religion2 and they resisted the former1 as they had done the latter1 with all the resources at their command4 ,galileo1 as one of the most advanced pioneers of science1 was in the highest degree inconvenient to the ,jesuits2 members of their order had also repeatedly measured lances with the great man in scientific discussion--,fathers ,grassi and ,scheiner1 for instance--with very unfortunate results1 by no means calculated to make the ,society of ,jesus more favourable to him4 ,but now that his 8,dialogues on the ,two ,systems of the ,world0 had appeared1 which1 as every intelligent man must perceive1 annihilated with its overwhelming mass of evidence the doctrines of the old school1 and raised the modern system upon its ruins1 the ,jesuits set every lever in motion1 first to suppress this revolutionary book1 and then to compass the ruin of the author4 ,riccardi himself remarked to ,count ,magalotti at that time3 8,the ,jesuits will persecute ,galileo with the utmost bitterness40#bfc ,besides1 they found welcome allies in the overwhelming majority of the rest of the clergy4 ,with them the theological considerations we have mentioned formed the motive4 ,and the louder the applause with which the independent scientific world greeted ,galileo's latest remarkable work1 the fiercer burnt the flame of ecclesiastical hate4 ,there can be no doubt that the full significance of the 8,dialogues0 had not been apprehended by any of the censors to whom they had been submitted4 ,this is obvious from the fact that they seriously thought that the diplomatic preface1 and a few phrases in the work itself1 would suffice to make it appear innocuous4 ,the commotion made by the book in the scientific and theological world convinced them of their mistake4 ,meanwhile1 ,galileo in ,florence gave himself up to unmixed delight at the brilliant success of his 8,dialogues40 ,his learned friends and followers1 such as ,fra ,bonaventura ,cavalieri1 ,giovan ,batista ,baliani1 ,castelli1 ,fra ,fulgenzio ,micanzio1 ,alfonzo ,antonini1 ,campanella1 and many others1 expressed to him in repeated letters1 and often with genuine enthusiasm1 their admiration of his splendid work1#bfd not one of them had any foreboding that it was to bring its grey-headed author before the bar of the ,inquisition2 and ,galileo himself least of all4 ,he expected violent opposition from his scientific opponents1 and was prepared to engage in the contest1 but he considered himself quite secure from ecclesiastical persecution4 ,had not influential personages at ,rome1 ,cesi1 ,mgr4 ,ciampoli1 ,cesarini1 and ,castelli1 been urging him for years to finish his work1 the tendency of which they well knew8#bfe ,and when it was at last complete1 it was these same friends1 as well meaning as they were influential1 who had done their best to forward the publication4 ,besides1 the book had appeared not only with the imprimatur and under the protection of the ,inquisition at ,florence1 as prescribed1 and with the permission of the political authorities of the city1 but ,galileo could show also the imprimatur of the ,pater ,magister ,sacri ,palatii1 which was not at all usual with works not printed at ,rome4#bff ,he considered this a double security2 ,jesuitism1 on the contrary1 contrived afterwards to forge an indictment out of this unusual circumstance4 ,not a word had appeared in print without having been read by the organs of papal scrutiny and having received the sanction of the ,church4 ,might not the author well look forward to the publication of his work with perfect tranquillity1 and feel himself secure from any collision with the ecclesiastical authorities8 ,undoubtedly1 if he had not made the solemn promise sixteen years before1 8entirely to renounce the opinion that the sun is the centre of the universe1 and is stationary1 and that the earth on the contrary moves1 and neither to hold the same1 nor in any way to teach or defend it in speaking or writing40 ,galileo's proceedings at this time1 as before and after1 prove that he was totally unaware of this assumed prohibition2 anyhow1 he pays not the slightest attention to it4 ,he sends copies of his work to the most eminent persons at ,rome2 is delighted at its immense success2 arms himself for defence against the indignant ,aristotelians1 but never thinks of a conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities1 which1 sincere ,catholic as he was1 would have given him great pain apart from consequences4 ,even in ,june and ,july there were some ill-disposed persons1 to the great annoyance of ,riccardi1 zealously trying to discover something in the book which could be formulated into an accusation against the author4 ,the title page was adorned with a drawing of three dolphins1 one with the tail of another in its mouth1 with an insignificant motto above it4#bfg ,this illustration was impugned because it had not been submitted to ecclesiastical approbation1 and they expatiated with more malice than wit upon the meaning of the mysterious device4 ,it was a great relief to ,riccardi's mind when it was pointed out by ,count ,magalotti that the same illustration appeared on almost all the works which issued from the press of ,landini at ,florence1 where the 8,dialogues0 had been printed4 ,this bait1 then1 had not taken1 and ,galileo's foes1 worthy members of the ,society of ,jesus1 had to find some other mode of ensnaring him4 ,they now brought against him the twofold reproach1 that the preface was printed in different type from the rest of the book1 which was true2 and that several weighty arguments which the ,pope had brought against the ,copernican system in conversation with ,galileo1 though they might perhaps have been adduced in the ,,ms41 were not in the printed book2 this was a lie4#bfh ,the truth however at once came to light1 for these 8weighty arguments0 were reduced to one1 which was brought forward at the conclusion of the 8,dialogues40 ,but ,jesuitism1 as we shall soon see1 drew very singular conclusions from the very natural circumstance that it was mentioned by ,simplicius1 the defender of ,ptolemy4 ,the brethren of ,father ,grassi and ,father ,scheiner1#bfi--the latter of whom had been for a few months at ,rome1 and was greatly incensed at the 8,dialogues10--well knew how to lay hold of the ,pope by his most vulnerable points1 his personal vanity and boundless ambition1 which made him feel every contradiction like an attack on his authority4 ,they were assiduous in confirming ,urban in his opinion that the ,copernican doctrine endangered the dogmas of the ,christian ,catholic faith in the highest degree1 and now represented that the publication of the 8,dialogues0 was an incalculable injury to the ,church4 ,besides this1 they persuaded the ,pope that in his latest work ,galileo had again1 though this time under concealment1 entered into theological interpretations of ,holy ,scripture4 ,they thus stigmatised him as a rebel against the papal decrees1 who had only obtained the licence from ,riccardi by cunning devices1--a misrepresentation of the facts which1 however1 did not fail of its effect on ,urban4 ,this is conclusively proved by the despatches of ,niccolini to ,cioli of #eth and #aath ,september1 #afcb1 of which we shall have to speak more particularly4#bgj ,the crowning point of the intrigues of ,galileo's foes was1 however1 the cunning assertion that by ,simplicius no other was intended than ,urban ,,viii4 himself2 and they actually made him believe it4 ,one would scarcely have thought this possible with this shrewd ,pope1 who was so well-disposed towards ,galileo2 but it is beyond all question that it was so1 and it put him in a boundless rage4 ,it is decidedly indicated by his attitude towards ,galileo at the trial1 especially at the beginning of it4 ,at that time it put him in such ill humour to be spoken to about ,galileo1 that all who interested themselves for him agreed that it was better not to confer with ,urban himself1 but with ,cardinal ,barberini or the ministers4#bga ,the repeated attempts also made by ,galileo and his friends1 even years afterwards1 to convince ,urban that it had never entered his head to insult him1 and that it was a cunning slander1 prove that for a long time the ,pope had taken ,simplicius for his counterfeit4 ,as this manifest falsehood is revived by certain writers1 even at this time of day1 as having been ,galileo's real intention1 it seems necessary to throw a little more light on it4 ,the telling remarks which ,albri makes on the subject might well suffice to show the absurdity of the imputation4 ,he says that in the first place the attachment and devotion always shown by ,galileo towards ,urban1 to the sincerity of which numerous letters bear witness1 exclude all idea of so perfidious an act2 and in the second1 that it was ,galileo's own interest to retain the goodwill of his powerful patron1 and not frivolously to fritter it away4#bgb ,but we pass from this argument ad absurdum to one ad concretum4 ,simplicius is said to be ,urban ,,viii4 ,but not appropriately1 for he was no such headstrong ,peripatetic as is represented by ,simplicius2 had he been so1 it was impossible that in #afbd he should have enjoyed having 8,il ,saggiatore0 read to him at table1 that cutting satire on the ,aristotelian wisdom in general1 and the wisdom of ,father ,grassi in particular2 and that in the next year he should have been so much pleased with ,galileo's reply to ,ingoli4 ,galileo's enemies founded their assertion on the circumstance that at the end of the work ,simplicius employs an argument which the ,pope himself had brought forward in repeated conversations in #afbd with ,galileo1 and on the weight of which he plumed himself not a little4#bgc ,it consisted of the reflection1 undoubtedly more devout than scientific1 that ,god is all-powerful1 so that all things are possible to ,him1 and that therefore the tides could not be adduced as a necessary proof of the double motion of the earth without limiting ,his omnipotence4 ,this pious objection is received by both ,salviati and ,sagredo with the utmost reverence4 ,the former calls it heavenly and truly admirable1 and the latter thinks that it forms a fitting conclusion to the discussion1 which opinion is acted upon4#bgd ,the ,pope's argument is thus by no means made to appear ridiculous1 but quite the contrary4 ,as to the main point1 ,simplicius says expressly that 8he had this argument from a very eminent and learned personage40 ,if this means ,urban ,,viii41 it is plain that ,simplicius cannot be ,urban ,,viii4 ,q4,e4,d4#bge ,in writing his 8,dialogues10 ,galileo found himself in a difficult position4 ,as he brought forward all the arguments of the disciples of ,ptolemy against the new system1 the vain pontiff would have been sorely offended if he had not introduced his4 ,but who should mention it1 if not ,simplicius8 ,galileo might think that ,urban would not perhaps like to see his argument treated as the original suggestion of ,simplicius1 who did not appear in a brilliant light1 and devised the expedient of making him quote it1 as that of 8a very eminent and learned personage10 whereby he would imagine that he had steered clear of every obstacle4 ,but there was no security against calumny4 ,how little idea ,galileo could have had of making ,urban ridiculous under the guise of ,simplicius appears also from the fact that in #afcf1 when seeking full pardon from the ,pope1 and when he would be most anxious not to irritate him1 he had just completed his famous work1 8,dialogues on the ,modern ,sciences10 in which ,simplicius again plays the part of defender of the ancient principles2 and that he published it in #afch1 just when1 in view of the unfavourable answer of #afcf1 he was begging at least for the favour of being nursed at ,florence4 ,there can be no doubt that this suspicion materially contributed to injure ,galileo's cause4 ,pieralisi1 indeed1 makes an assertion as novel as it is untenable1 that this bold slander was first heard of in #afce1 and therefore not until after the famous trial2 and in his book1 8,urban ,,viii4 and ,gal4 ,galilei10#bgf he devotes a chapter of forty-six pages to prove this latest novelty4 ,but all his arguments are upset by the following passage by ,galileo in a letter to his friend ,micanzio on #bfth ,july1 #afcf3-- 8,i hear from ,rome that his ,eminence ,cardinal ,antonio ,barberini and the ,french ambassador have seen his ,holiness and tried to convince him that ,i never had the least idea of perpetrating so sacrilegious an act as to make game of his ,holiness1 as my malicious foes have persuaded him1 and which was the primary cause of all my troubles40#bgg ,pieralisi is acquainted with these words1 and seeks to weaken their indisputable force as evidence in a lengthy disquisition2 but an impartial critic only sees in this the apologist of ,urban ,,viii41 who desires1 at all hazards1 to shield him from the suspicion of having been actuated in the matter of ,galileo's trial by personal motives1 which will always be recognised in history as a fact1 though it is also an exaggeration of some historians to maintain that it was the actual starting-point of the whole process1 ,urban having wished to revenge himself for this assumed personal insult4#bgh ,no1 it had its effect1 but was not the chief motive4 ,the ,jesuits had inspired the ,pope with the opinion that the 8,dialogues0 were eminently dangerous to the ,church1 more dangerous and abhorrent even than the writings of ,luther and ,calvin1#bgi and he was highly incensed at the representation that ,galileo had shamefully outwitted ,father ,riccardi1 ,mgr4 ,ciampoli1 and even his ,holiness himself1 in obtaining the licence4 ,offended majesty1 the determination to guard the interests of the ,church and the authority of the ,bible1 indignation at ,galileo's assumed cunning1 and annoyance at having been duped by it1--these were the motives which impelled ,urban ,,viii4 to the deed called the institution of the trial of the ,inquisition against ,galileo4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,absolute ,,prohibition ,,of #afaf4 ,symptoms of the ,coming ,storm4--,the ,special ,commission4--,parade of ,forbearance4--,the ,grand ,duke intercedes for ,galileo4--,provisional ,prohibition of the 8,dialogues40--,niccolini's ,interview with the ,pope and unfavourable ,reception4--,report of it to ,cioli4--,magalotti's ,letters4--,real ,object of the ,special ,commission to find a ,pretext for the ,trial4--,its ,discovery in the ,assumed ,prohibition of #afaf4--,report of the ,commission and ,charges against ,galileo4 ,as we have seen1 even during the months of ,june and ,july a ferment had already begun in certain circles at ,rome about the 8,dialogues40 ,complaints and accusations were rife1 the ,pope was artfully worked upon--these were the first portents of the heavy storm which was to break over ,galileo's head4 ,the ,master of the ,palace went about ,rome in great fear for himself as well as for ,galileo1 and told his troubles to ,count ,magalotti4#bhj ,at the beginning of ,august1 ,riccardi begged him to deliver up the eight copies of the 8,dialogues0 which ,magalotti had brought to ,rome1 with the assurance that he would return them in ten days at the latest4 ,it was not in ,magalotti's power to grant this request1 the books having1 as we know1 long ago passed into other hands4#bha ,a few days later the first thunderclap broke over ,galileo4 ,his publisher1 ,landini1 at ,florence received instructions1 though for the time they were only provisional1 forbidding the further sale of the 8,dialogues40 ,the succeeding scenes of the melancholy drama quickly followed4 ,a special commission was instituted at ,rome by order of the ,pope to investigate the whole affair4 ,urban afterwards repeatedly stated with great emphasis to ,niccolini1 that it was out of regard for the ,grand ,duke1 as well as for ,galileo1 that the very unusual measure was taken of not referring his cause directly to the ,holy ,office1 but to a separate congregation4#bhb ,it is altogether a characteristic trait in all the proceedings of the ,roman curia against ,galileo1 that there was a parade of great consideration for and forbearance towards him although strictly within the limits of their real intentions4 ,even the favour ostensibly shown to him of referring his cause to a preliminary commission1 composed of theologians and mathematicians1 was not so great in reality as it was trumpeted to be at the ,vatican4 ,it was composed of persons by no means favourable to him1 and all the endeavours of ,niccolini and other powerful friends of ,galileo to have influential persons who were friendly to him put on the commission1 such as ,fathers ,castelli and ,campanella1 were frustrated by the ,pope4 ,it occasioned a dangerous threat to be held over the undaunted ,campanella1 who energetically exerted himself in the matter4#bhc ,meanwhile disquieting rumours had reached ,florence1 and ,galileo recognised with terror his dangerous position1 though not to its full extent2 this perhaps was as yet foreseen by no one4 ,he appealed in full confidence to his friendly young sovereign for protection1 and found a willing ear4 ,on the #bdth ,august a note on this business was sent to ,niccolini1 by order of the ,grand ,duke4 ,it is clear that ,ferdinand's efforts to assist ,galileo were sincere from the circumstance that1 although the letter was written in ,cioli's name1 ,galileo was the author of it1 as appears from the original draft in his handwriting in the ,palatina ,library at ,florence4 ,the ,grand ,duke in this letter expresses his surprise that a book which had been laid before the supreme authorities at ,rome by the author in person1 had been carefully read there again and again1 as well as afterwards at ,florence1 and at the author's request had been altered as seemed good to the authorities1 and had finally received the imprimatur both there and here1 should now after two years be considered suspicious and be prohibited4 ,the astonishment of his ,highness was the greater1 because he knew that neither of the main opinions treated of were positively confirmed1 but only the reasons for and against brought together2 and this was done1 as his ,highness knew for certain1 for the benefit of the ,holy ,church itself1 in order that on subjects which in their nature are difficult to understand1 those with whom the decision rests may see1 with less expenditure of time and trouble1 on which side the truth lies1 and bring it into agreement with ,holy ,scripture4 ,the ,grand ,duke was of opinion that this opposition must be directed rather against the person of the author than against his book1 or this or that opinion1 ancient or modern4 ,in order1 however1 to convince himself of the merits or misdemeanours of his servant1 his ,highness desires that that which is granted in all disputes and before all tribunals should be permitted to him1--to defend himself against his accusers4 ,the ,grand ,duke therefore urges that the accusations brought against the work1 which have caused it to be prohibited1 may be sent here for the author1 who stands firmly on his innocence1 to see them4 ,he is so convinced that all this originates in the calumnies of envious and malicious persecutors1 that he has offered his sovereign to leave the country and renounce his favour unless he can palpably prove how pious and sincere his sentiments on these subjects have always been and still are4 ,the letter concludes with the commission1 by the ,grand ,duke's orders1 to take the necessary steps towards the fulfilment of his most reasonable request4#bhd ,on the same day on which this despatch went off1 a mandate was issued from ,rome1 which not only confirmed the provisional prohibition of the 8,dialogues10 but requested ,landini to send all the copies in stock to ,rome4 ,he replied that all the copies had been delivered to the purchasers4 ,niccolini on receipt of the ,grand ,duke's order hastened to carry it out1 but met with more bitter and obstinate opposition than either he or the ,tuscan court had expected4 ,on #dth ,september1 when the ambassador was about to execute his mission at the ,vatican1 the ,pope met him bluntly with the words3 8,your ,galileo has ventured to meddle with things that he ought not1 and with the most important and dangerous subjects which can be stirred up in these days40 ,niccolini remarked that the philosopher had not published his work without the approval of the ,church1 to which the ,pope angrily rejoined that ,galileo and ,ciampoli had deceived him1 especially ,ciampoli1 who had dared to tell him that ,galileo would be entirely guided by the papal commands1 and that it was all right2 he had not either seen or read the work1 and this was all he had known about it4 ,his ,holiness then made bitter complaints against the ,master of the ,palace1 adding1 however1 that he had been deceived himself1 for he had been enticed by fair speeches to approve the book1 and by more fair speeches to allow it to be printed at ,florence1 without at all complying with the form prescribed by the ,inquisitor1 and with the name of the ,roman censor of the press1 who had nothing whatever to do with works which did not appear at ,rome4 ,niccolini then ventured to say1 that he knew that a special congregation was appointed to try this affair1 and as it might happen 7as was the case7 that there might be persons on it unfavourable to ,galileo1 he humbly petitioned that ,galileo might have an opportunity of justifying himself4 ,urban answered curtly3 8,in these affairs of the ,holy ,office1 nothing is ever done but to pronounce judgment1 and then summon to recant40 8,does it not then appear to your ,holiness10 answered the ambassador1 8that ,galileo should be informed beforehand of the objections to1 scruples and criticisms respecting his book1 and of the points to which the ,holy ,office takes exception80 8,the ,holy ,office10 replied the ,pope1 angrily1 8as ,i told you before1 does not proceed in that way1 and does not take that course1 nor does it ever give such information beforehand3 it is not the custom4 ,besides1 ,galileo knows well enough what the objections are1 if he only chooses to know1 because we have talked to him about it1 and he has heard them all from ourself40 ,niccolini now urged that the work was dedicated to the ,grand ,duke1 and written by one of his most eminent servants2 he hoped1 therefore1 that ,galileo would be treated with indulgence4 ,urban replied that he had even prohibited books dedicated to himself1 and that in matters where it was a question of endangering religion1 the ,grand ,duke also was bound1 as a ,christian prince1 to co-operate in enforcing penalties4 ,niccolini had therefore better write plainly to his ,highness that he 7the ,pope7 warned him not to meddle with things which he could not come out of with honour4 ,the undaunted ambassador now expressed his conviction that his ,holiness would not allow them to go so far as entirely to prohibit the book1 which had received sanction1 without at least hearing ,galileo4 ,but ,urban replied1 that this was the least that could happen to him1 and he had better take care that he was not summoned before the ,holy ,office4 ,the ,pope then assured ,niccolini that the preliminary commission was composed of theologians and men well versed in science1 all grave and pious men1 who would weigh every particular1 word for word1 for it was a question of the most godless business which could ever be discussed4 ,he also charged the ambassador to tell his sovereign that the doctrine was in the highest degree sinful2 everything would be maturely considered2 his ,highness had better not interfere1 and must be on his guard4 ,in conclusion1 the ,pope not only imposed the strictest secrecy on ,niccolini as to what he had been told1 but desired that the ,grand ,duke also should be charged to keep the secret1 adding that he 8had acted with great consideration for ,galileo1 by having impressed upon him what he knew before1 and by not referring his affairs1 as he ought to have done1 to the ,holy ,office1 but to a specially-appointed congregation40 ,urban added the bitter remark that his behaviour towards ,galileo had been far better than ,galileo's towards him1 for he had deceived him4 ,in the narration of the whole of this interesting conversation between the ,pope and the ,tuscan ambassador1 we have given an almost literal translation of the ,italian original of ,niccolini's report of it to ,cioli1 of #eth ,september1 #afcb4bhe ,urban's last angry expression caused ,niccolini to remark in his despatch that he found 8ill will here too2 and as for the ,pope1 he could not be more against poor ,galileo than he was40 ,he then said that he had communicated ,cioli's letter of #bdth ,august to the ,master of the ,palace1 and that ,riccardi thought they would hardly condemn the 8,dialogues0 altogether1 but only alter some passages which really were objectionable4 ,he had also offered1 as far as he could do so without incurring censure or transgressing rules1 to inform the ambassador at once of what was going to be done1 adding however1 that he must be cautious1 for he had already felt the lash in this matter4 ,he then complained that they had not acted in accordance with his letter to the ,inquisitor1 that the introduction was printed in different type from the rest of the work1 and that the conclusion did not agree with the introduction4 ,towards the end of the despatch1 ,niccolini says that 8it will be better to act without any temper in this business1 and rather to negotiate with the ministers and ,cardinal ,barberini than with the ,pope himself1 because he obstinately persists that it is a hopeless case1 and if you dispute it1 or threaten anything1 or are defiant1 his ,holiness lets fall hard words and has no respect for anybody40 ,the conclusion of ,cioli's reply of #aith ,september to this ominous despatch of ,niccolini's gives us an insight into the attitude which the ,tuscan ,government1 even at that time1 desired to assume towards the papal chair in this unfortunate business4 ,cioli writes3-- 8,his ,highness has heard the letters of your excellency of the #dth and #eth1 and by this affair of ,signor ,mariano and that of ,signor ,galileo he was placed in so much difficulty that ,i do not know how it will be4 ,i know well that his ,holiness will never have to blame the ministers for giving bad advice40#bhf ,two letters from ,count ,magalotti1#bhg who was usually well informed1 arrived almost at the same time as this despatch4 ,both bear the date of #dth ,september2 one is to ,mario ,guiducci1 the other to ,galileo1 who in a letter of #bcrd ,august1 which is lost1 had expressed his anxiety to ,magalotti lest his work should be pronounced suspicious1 and the ,copernican doctrine condemned as heretical by the authorities4 ,magalotti's news was1 on the whole1 reassuring4 ,according to the opinions of persons who are generally present at the sittings of the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office1 he thought he could assure ,galileo that it would never go so far as for the ,copernican system to be condemned by the supreme authority4#bhh ,he thought1 with ,riccardi1 that they would not entirely prohibit the 8,dialogues10 but only correct them1 so as to sustain the decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf4 ,he also urgently advised1 like ,niccolini1 that they should arm themselves with the utmost patience1 and rather confer with ,cardinal ,barberini than with ,urban1 8for reasons which it is not necessary to discuss here40 ,neither ,galileo himself1 nor ,magalotti1 nor his other friends1 ever thought of any personal danger to him2 ,niccolini and the ,grand ,duke might perhaps have been more sharp-sighted1 but they were bound to silence4 ,the threads1 however1 of this great intrigue can only be disentangled by the later historian1 who has watched the progress of the whole melancholy drama4 ,two facts are perfectly obvious to the attentive observer3 the first1 that at ,rome1 with the ,pope at their head1 they were determined to bring ,galileo to trial before the ,inquisition2 and the second1 that they did not yet clearly see how it was to be done with some shadow of justice4 ,to find this out was the real purpose of the appointment of the special congregation1 which ,urban had boasted of as a signal act of forbearance towards ,galileo4 ,all the objections to the book were subjects rather for accusation against the censors who had sanctioned it than against the author1 who had submitted it to them1 altered it1 and again submitted the alterations4 ,the responsibility for the publication really rested not with the author1 but with those who had sanctioned it4 ,the ,pope's accusation1 however1 that ,galileo had coaxed them to give the permission by fair speeches1 was too indefinite to institute a trial upon1 and neither did the irregular quotation of the imprimatur of the ,master of the ,palace1 nor the typographical difference between the preface and the rest of the book offer sufficient ground for a legal prosecution4 ,in this difficult case1 therefore1 it required all the ,romish craft and legal sophistry at command1 to find a pretext for bringing ,galileo to trial before the ,inquisition1 which should1 at any rate according to ,romish principles1 justify it in the eyes of the world4 ,the preliminary commission appointed by ,urban ,,viii4 was to perform this by no means easy task in brilliant style4 ,it was certainly very much lightened by a discovery in the acts of the trial of ,galileo in #afaf1 which was evidently a surprise to them--the note of #bfth ,february1 #afaf4 ,what vast importance they at once thought fit to assign to this annotation without signature1 we learn from a despatch of ,niccolini's to ,cioli1 of #aath ,september4#bhi ,niccolini refers in it to a recent interview with the ,master of the ,palace4 ,he had again strongly advised that nothing be done in a hurry1 and that time must be gained1 for the ,pope was firmly convinced that religion was really imperilled1 for the work did not treat of mathematics1 but of ,holy ,scripture1 religion1 and faith1 and the orders respecting the printing of the work had not been complied with1 for the opinion of the author was not merely indicated1 but expressed in many places in the most decided and unsuitable manner4 ,after ,riccardi had assured the ambassador that all efforts to get ,campanella and ,castelli put on the preliminary commission had failed1 but that he 7,riccardi7 would do his best to defend ,galileo1 both from friendship for him1 and to serve his ,highness1 and because he had given the permission to print1 he confided to ,niccolini1 under seal of profound secrecy1 as of the highest importance1 8that it had been discovered in the books of the ,holy ,office1 that sixteen years ago1 it having been heard that ,galileo entertained that opinion1 and disseminated it in ,florence1 he was summoned to ,rome1 and forbidden by ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 in the name of the ,pope and the ,holy ,office1 to hold that opinion1 and this alone is enough to ruin him entirely40#bij ,this communication of ,riccardi's contains an obvious mis-statement1 namely1 that any document had been found showing that ,galileo had been summoned to ,rome in #afaf4 ,as we have seen1#bia all the historical documents show that he was not summoned1 but that his visit was entirely voluntary4 ,this verbal statement of ,riccardi's1 unsupported by any document1 is of no value as evidence1 compared with the letters of ,galileo of that period1 and his depositions afterwards before his judges1 who were accurately informed of all the previous proceedings4 ,the second part of his communication to ,niccolini is also far from precise4 ,he does indeed say that ,galileo1 in #afaf1 had in the name of the ,pope and the ,holy ,congregation been forbidden 7prohibito71 8il poter tenere questo opinione10 but according to the father's account this prohibition was communicated to him by ,cardinal ,bellarmine4 ,riccardi is evidently not precisely instructed1 and does not know that1 according to the notification of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 ,galileo received an absolute prohibition before notary and witnesses4 ,we shall see the part this 8document0 was destined to play in the proceedings against ,galileo4 ,the preliminary commission had just then1 after about a month's session1 completed its labours1 and submitted to the ,pope a long memorial on the ,galileo affair4 ,the document begins with a concise statement of the course of the negotiations about the publication of the 8,dialogues10 and then the three following indictments were brought against the author3-- 7#a7 ,galileo has transgressed orders in deviating from the hypothetical treatment by decidedly maintaining that the earth moves and the sun is stationary4 7#b7 ,he has erroneously ascribed the phenomena of the tides to the stability of the sun and the motion of the earth1 which do not exist2 7#c7 and he has further been deceitfully silent about the command laid upon him by the ,holy ,office1 in the year #afaf1 which was as follows3 8,to relinquish altogether the said opinion that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable1 and that the earth moves2 nor henceforth to hold1 teach1 or defend it in any way whatsoever1 verbally or in writing1 otherwise proceedings would be taken against him by the ,holy ,office1 which injunction the said ,galileo acquiesced in and promised to obey40 ,then follows the remark3 8,it must now be considered what proceedings are to be taken1 both against the person of the author and against the printed book40 ,yet the nature of these proceedings is not in any way discussed in the document1 but it now refers more in detail in five counts to the historical events1 from the time when the 8,dialogues0 were submitted in ,rome in #afcj1 to the publication in ,florence in #afcb4 ,a sixth count considers that the following points in the 8,dialogues0 themselves must be laid to the author's account3-- 8#a4 ,that without orders and without making any communication about it1 he put the imprimatur of ,rome on the title page4 8#b4 ,that he had printed the preface in different type1 and rendered it useless by its separation from the rest of the work2 further1 that he had put the saving clause at the end in the mouth of a simpleton1 and in a place where it is hard to find2 that it is but coolly received by the other interlocutor1 so that it is only cursorily touched upon1 and not fully discussed4 8#c4 ,that he had very often in the work deviated from the hypothesis1 either by absolutely asserting that the earth moves1 and that the sun is stationary1 or by representing the arguments upon which these views rest as convincing and necessarily true1 or by making the contrary appear impossible4 8#d4 ,that he had treated the subject as undecided1 and as if he were waiting for1 though he does not expect1 explanation4 8#e4 ,that he contemns authors who are of a contrary opinion1 and those whom ,holy ,church chiefly employs4 8#f4 ,that he perniciously asserts and sets forth that1 in the apprehension of geometrical matters1 there is some equality between the ,divine and human mind4 8#g4 ,that he had represented it to be an argument for the truth that ,ptolemaics go over to the ,copernicans1 but not vice versa4 8#h4 ,that he had erroneously ascribed the tides in the ocean to the stability of the sun and the motion of the earth1 which do not exist40 ,the special commission1 however1 by no means draws the conclusion from all these errors and failings1 that the 8,dialogues0 should be prohibited1 but says3 8,all these things could be corrected1 if it was thought that the book to which such favour should be shown were of any value40 ,immediately after this follows the seventh point1 saying that 8the author had transgressed the mandate of the ,holy ,office of #afaf1 #8that he should relinquish the said opinion1' etc4--down to1 #8and promised to obey4'0#bib ,herewith the memorial of the preliminary commission concludes4 ,it draws no conclusions from the facts adduced1 but leaves that to his ,holiness the ,pope4 ,the last count confirms ,galileo's chief offence3 he is guilty of having disobeyed a special mandate of the ecclesiastical authorities1 has broken a solemn promise made before a notary and witnesses4 ,such a crime1 according to inquisitorial usage1 demanded severe punishment4 ,the perfidy of #afaf had signally triumphed4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,summons ,,to ,,rome4 ,niccolini's ,attempt to avert the ,trial4--,the ,pope's ,parable4--,the ,mandate summoning ,galileo to ,rome4--,his ,grief and ,consternation4--,his ,letter to ,cardinal ,barberini4--,renewed ,order to come to ,rome4--,niccolini's fruitless ,efforts to save him4--,medical ,certificate that he was unfit to ,travel4--,castelli's hopeful ,view of the ,case4--,threat to bring him to ,rome as a ,prisoner4--,the ,grand ,duke advises him to go4--,his ,powerlessness to protect his ,servant4--,galileo's ,mistake in leaving ,venice4--,letter to ,elia ,diodati4 ,only a few days later1 on #aeth ,september1 the ,pope informed the ,tuscan ambassador through one of his secretaries1 ,pietro ,benessi1 that he 7,urban7 hereby notified to him1 out of esteem for his ,highness the ,grand ,duke1 that he could do no less than hand ,galileo's affairs over to the ,inquisition4 ,at the same time the strictest secrecy as to this information was enjoined both on the ,grand ,duke and ,niccolini1 with a threat that otherwise they would be proceeded against according to the statutes of the ,holy ,office4#bic ,niccolini was astounded by this news1 and hastened1 two days afterwards1 to the ,pope1 to make a final attempt to avert the danger of a trial before the ,inquisition for ,galileo4 ,but his urgent though respectful solicitations met with no response4 ,urban indeed said that 8,signor ,galileo was still his friend1--but that opinion had been condemned sixteen years before40 ,he then expatiated1 as he had so often done before1 on the danger of the doctrine1 and ended by saying that ,galileo's book was in the highest degree pernicious4 ,when ,niccolini remarked that he thought the 8,dialogues0 might be altered to the prescribed form1 instead of being prohibited altogether1 the ,pope answered affably by telling him a parable about ,cardinal ,alciato4 ,a manuscript was submitted to him with the request that1 in order not to spoil the fair copy1 he would mark the places requiring alteration with a little wax4 ,the cardinal returned it without any marks at all4 ,the author thanked him1 and expressed his satisfaction that he had not found anything to find fault with1 as there was not a single mark2 but the cardinal replied that he had not used any wax1 for if he had1 he must have gone to a wax chandler's1 and dipped the whole work into melted wax in order to amend it thoroughly4#bid ,thus had ,cardinal ,alciato enlightened the unfortunate author in his day1 and ,urban enlightened ,niccolini by quoting the story1 to which he could only reply with a forced smile1 that nevertheless he 8hoped his ,holiness would allow them to treat ,galileo's work as indulgently as possible40 ,niccolini's efforts had been in vain1 and measures were laid with almost breathless haste to deliver ,galileo up to the ,inquisition4 ,this was finally effected in the sitting of the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office of #bcrd ,september1 #afcb1 when it was pronounced that he had transgressed the prohibition of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 and concealed it when he obtained the imprimatur4 ,in a document of the ,vatican ,manuscript we have the papal mandate which followed this sentence4 ,it runs as follows3-- 8#bcrd ,september1 #afcb4 ,his ,holiness charges the ,inquisitor at ,florence to inform ,galileo1 in the name of the ,holy ,office1 that he is to appear as soon as possible in the course of the month of ,october1 at ,rome before the ,commissary-,general of the ,holy ,office4 ,he must also obtain a promise from ,galileo to obey this order1 which the ,inquisitor is to give him in the presence of a notary and witnesses1 but in such a way that ,galileo may know nothing about them1 so that if he refuse and do not promise to obey1 they may1 if necessary1 bear witness to it40#bie ,on #ast ,october the ,inquisitor carried out this order1 which ,galileo had to certify by the following attestation3-- #ast ,october1 #afcb1 at ,florence4 8,i1 ,galileo ,galilei1 certify that on the day indicated the order has been delivered to me by the honourable ,father ,inquisitor of this city1 by command of the ,holy ,congregation of the ,holy ,office at ,rome1 to go to ,rome in the course of the present month1 ,october1 and to present myself before the ,father ,commissary of the ,holy ,office1 who will inform me what ,i have to do4 ,i will willingly obey the order in the course of this month ,october4 ,and in testimony thereto ,i have written these presents40 8,i1 ,galileo ,galilei wrote manu propria40#bif ,this mandate to present himself before the ,inquisition quite overwhelmed ,galileo1 as is evident from his correspondence of that period4 ,he was totally unprepared for it4 ,scarcely recovered from a severe complaint in the eyes1 which had lasted several months and had prevented him from using them1 otherwise suffering in health1 and at an advanced age1 he was now to go to ,rome in the midst of the plague1 which had broken out again with increased virulence1 and entailed strict quarantine regulations1 in order to give account of himself before the dread tribunal4 ,no wonder that it dismayed him1 and in spite of his promise 8willingly to obey the order in the course of this month1 ,october10 we find him making every effort to get out of it4 ,on #fth ,october he wrote in the greatest excitement to ,cioli1 who was just then with the ,grand ,duke at ,siena1 that he was in the greatest consternation at this summons to appear before the ,inquisition at ,rome1 and as he was well aware of the importance of the matter1 he would come to ,siena to lay his schemes and plans before his ,highness1 for he had more than one in his head1 and to consult him about the steps to be taken4#big ,this journey1 however1 was not undertaken1 as the court soon returned to ,florence4 ,galileo's deep depression is most evident from a long letter of #acth ,october addressed to a cardinal of the ,barberini family1#bih which was to reach him through ,niccolini4 ,galileo remarks first that he and his friends had foreseen that his 8,dialogues0 would find opponents1 but he had never imagined that the envious malice of some persons would go so far as to persuade the authorities that they were not worthy to see the light4 ,he goes on to say that the summons before the ,inquisition at ,rome had caused him the deepest grief1 for he feared that such a proceeding1 usual only in the case of serious delinquents1 would turn the fruits of all his studies and labours during many years1 which had lent no little repute to his name with the learned all over the world1 into aspersions on his fair fame4 8,this vexes me so much10 continues ,galileo1 8that it makes me curse the time devoted to these studies in which ,i strove and hoped to deviate somewhat from the beaten track generally pursued by learned men4 ,i not only repent having given the world a portion of my writings1 but feel inclined to suppress those still in hand1 and to give them to the flames1 and thus satisfy the longing desire of my enemies to whom my ideas are so inconvenient40 ,after this desperate cry from his oppressed soul1 he expresses his conviction that1 burdened with seventy years and many bodily sufferings1 increased by constant sleeplessness1 he shall not reach the end of this tedious journey--made more arduous by unusual difficulties--alive4 ,impelled by the instinct of self-preservation common to all men1 he ventures to ask the good offices of the cardinal4 ,he begs him to represent his pitiable condition to the wise fathers in ,rome1 not to release him from giving account of himself1 which he is most anxious to do1 as he is sure that it will only tend to his advantage1 but only that it may be made easier for him to obey4 ,there are two ways of doing this4 ,one is for him to write a minute and conscientious vindication of all that he has said1 written1 or done since the day when the conflict began on ,copernicus's book and his new system4 ,he is certain that his sincerity and his pure1 zealous1 and devout attachment to the holy ,church and its supreme head1 would be so obvious from this statement1 that every one1 if he were free from passion and party malice1 must confess that he had behaved so piously and like a good ,catholic1 that not even any of the fathers of the ,church to whom the epithet holy is applied1 could have shown more piety4 ,he asserts and will indisputably prove1 by all the works he has written on this subject1 that he has only entered into the controversy out of zeal for the holy ,church1 with the intention of imparting to her servants that knowledge which one or other of them might wish to possess1 and which he had acquired by long study1 as it treated of subjects difficult to understand and different from the learning generally cultivated4 ,he will also show how many opinions contained in the writings of the fathers of the ,church had been an encouragement to him1 and how he was 8finally confirmed in his intention by hearing a short but holy and admirable address1 which came unexpectedly1 like an echo of the ,holy ,spirit1 from the lips of a personage eminent in learning and revered for his sanctity of life40 ,but for the present he will not give this admirable saying1 nor the speaker's name1 as it does not seem prudent or suitable to involve any one in the present affair which concerns him personally alone4#bii ,having in a touching manner begged that what he should write may be read1 and declared that should his vindication not give satisfaction on all points he will reply in detail to objections1 he proceeds to the second means of averting the journey to ,rome4 ,he only wishes that his adversaries would be as ready to commit to paper what they have perhaps verbally and ad aures said against him1 as he was to defend himself in writing4 ,if they will not accept his written vindication1 and still insist upon a verbal one1 there was an ,inquisitor1 ,nuncius1 archbishop1 and other high officials of the ,church at ,florence1 whose summons he was quite ready to obey4 ,he says3--8,it appears to me that things of much greater importance are decided by this tribunal4 ,and it is not likely that under the keen and watchful eyes of those who examined my book with full liberty to omit1 to add1 and to alter as seemed good to them1 errors so weighty could escape that the authorities of this city should be incompetent to correct or punish them40 ,this passage again clearly indicates that ,galileo knew nothing whatever of the prohibition of #afaf2 that he had no idea of having broken his word to the ecclesiastical authorities4 ,his only thought is of a revision of his work as the result of a conviction that it contained errors4#cjj ,the letter to the cardinal concludes with the following assurance3--8,if neither my great age1 nor my many bodily infirmities1 nor the deep concern ,i feel1 nor the wearisomeness of a journey under the present most unfavourable circumstances1 are considered sufficient reasons1 by this high and sacred tribunal1 for granting a dispensation1 or at least a delay1 ,i will undertake the journey1 esteeming obedience more than life40#cja ,niccolini could not deliver this letter to the cardinal immediately1 as he was just then absent from ,rome4 ,he received however1 at the same time1 an urgent petition from another quarter4 ,michael ,angelo the younger wrote to this dignitary1 with whom he was on friendly terms1 and entreated him1 out of consideration for the philosopher's age and infirmities1 to use his powerful influence to get his affairs settled at ,florence4#cjb ,but there was a long delay before ,galileo's letter was delivered to the cardinal4 ,the ambassador wished first to consult ,castelli1 whom the ,grand ,duke had appointed as his counsel in ,galileo's affairs1 whether it was to be delivered4 ,niccolini had doubts about these explanations1 and expressed them both in a letter to ,galileo of #bcrd ,october1#cjc and in a despatch to ,cioli of the #bdth4#cjd ,in the former ,niccolini says that he thinks ,galileo's letter is more calculated to incense them against him than to pacify them1 and the more he asserted that he could defend his work the more it would be thought that it ought to be condemned4 ,he thinks that a delay will be granted to the accused of his journey to ,rome1 but that he will not be released from it on any consideration4 ,niccolini gave him the following friendly hint as to the attitude he should maintain3 8,it appears desirable not to enter into any defence of things which the ,congregation do not approve1 but to submit and to recant what the cardinals may desire2 for to speak as a ,christian1 one must not maintain anything1 but what they1 as the highest tribunal1 that cannot err1 please40#cje ,by such conduct the ambassador hopes for an easier solution of the question2 not1 however1 without its coming to an actual trial1 and ,galileo may even be somewhat restricted in his personal liberty4 ,he has great doubts about the passage referring to an 8admirable address1 which came unexpectedly like an echo of the ,holy ,spirit from the lips of a personage eminent in learning and revered for his sanctity of life10 as he thinks that if the letter is handed to the cardinal1 he will hand it to the ,congregation1 and the cardinals may request to be informed who this personage is4 ,at all events he would like first to consult ,castelli1 who was not just then at ,rome4 ,the result of the consultation was1 however1 to deliver the letter to ,barberini4 ,niccolini reported to ,galileo on #fth ,november1#cjf that he had received it in a very friendly spirit1 and was altogether very kindly disposed towards him4 ,the ambassador does not doubt that a delay will at any rate be granted1 that ,galileo may make the journey to ,rome with less inconvenience4#cjg ,we learn from a document in ,gherardi's archives1 that ,galileo's petitions were discussed at a sitting of the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office held on #aath ,november1 in presence of the ,pope1 but that he would not grant them1 and decreed that ,galileo must obey1 and ordered that the ,inquisitor at ,florence should be written to that he might compel ,galileo to come to ,rome4#cjh ,niccolini1 meanwhile1 was unwearied in trying to get ,galileo's proposals accepted4 ,he went to ,cardinal ,ginetti1 who was a member of the ,congregation and in high favour with the ,pope1 and to ,mgr4 ,boccabella1 assessor of the ,holy ,office1 and represented to both ,galileo's great age1 his failing health1 and the peril to his life of a journey through quarantine and plague4 ,but as both prelates1 on whom as members of the ,holy ,office strict secrecy was imposed1 8only heard what he had to say1 and answered nothing10 ,niccolini went to the ,pope himself1 to make one more attempt4 ,having as he thought put the imperious pontiff into the best of humours1 by assuring him that the unfortunate savant was ready to render prompt obedience to every command1 he laid all the circumstances before him1 and used all his eloquence to awaken pity for the infirm old man4 ,but in vain4 ,niccolini asked at last whether his ,holiness had not seen ,galileo's letter to ,cardinal ,barberini2 and he said he had1 but in spite of all that the journey to ,rome could not be dispensed with4 8,your ,holiness incurs the danger10 replied ,niccolini1 8considering ,galileo's great age1 of his being tried neither in ,rome nor ,florence2 for ,i assure your ,holiness that he may die on the way under all these difficulties combined with so much anxiety40 8,he can come very slowly 7pian piano7 in a litter1 with every comfort1 but he really must be tried here in person4 ,may ,god forgive him for having been so deluded as to involve himself in these difficulties1 from which we had relieved him when we were cardinal40 ,this was the ,pope's stern reply to the ambassador's urgent representations4 ,and when he remarked that it was the sanction given to the book here which had occasioned all this1 because from the signature1 and the orders given to the ,inquisitor at ,florence1 they felt quite secure1 and had proceeded without scruple1 ,urban broke out into violent complaints about the conduct of ,father ,riccardi and ,mgr4 ,ciampoli1 and repeated that it was a question of a most pernicious doctrine4#cji ,niccolini1 seeing that his efforts were in vain retired1 but only to hasten to ,cardinal ,antonio ,barberini1 and to entreat him to take up the cause of this persecuted man4 ,but the cardinal made the pertinent excuse that he could not act against the ,pope's will1 but he would procure all possible relaxation of the strict quarantine regulations for ,galileo4 ,niccolini could not even obtain any definite promise of delay2 and1 much discomfited and with profound sorrow1 he communicated the results of his sincere and unwearied endeavours in a letter to ,galileo of #acth ,november1 #afcb1 and a despatch to ,cioli of the same date4#caj ,a few days after the receipt of this bad news1 on #aith ,november1 ,galileo was summoned before the ,inquisitor at ,florence for the second time1 in accordance with the papal mandate of #aath ,november4 ,he sent the following report of it on #bjth ,november1 to ,rome3-- 8,i have again summoned ,galileo ,galilei1 who said that he was perfectly willing to go to ,rome1 and only hesitated on account of his advanced age1 his evident ill health1 the circumstance that he was under medical treatment1 and many other things4 ,i then charged him to comply with the order to go to ,rome1 and in presence of a notary and two witnesses gave him a respite of one month4 ,he again appeared quite willing1 but ,i do not know whether he will go4 ,i told him what ,i had received40#caa ,on #ith ,december the papal orders were issued to the ,inquisitor at ,florence1 as soon as the month had elapsed1 to compel ,galileo to set out for ,rome4#cab ,niccolini wrote to ,cioli on the #aath#cac and to ,galileo on the #abth#cad ,december1 that he had again tried to procure a longer respite1 but had found it impossible4 ,he moreover strongly advised ,galileo to set out as soon as possible1 and stay for at least twenty days' quarantine somewhere within the territory of ,siena1 as this prompt obedience would be greatly to his advantage at ,rome4 ,but the time appointed had nearly elapsed1 and ,galileo made no preparations for starting4 ,shortly before it terminated1 in accordance with his instructions1 the ,inquisitor at ,florence sent his vicar to him4 ,on #ahth ,december the ,inquisitor sent the following report to ,rome3-- 8,my vicar found ,galileo ,galilei in bed4 ,he told him he was quite willing to come1 but in these times he had no heart for it2 besides1 just now1 owing to having been attacked by sudden illness1 he was not in a condition to set out4 ,he has sent me the enclosed medical certificate4 ,so that ,i have not failed to do my duty40#cae ,the medical certificate1 dated #agth ,december1 gives a clear idea of the physical condition of this much-tried man1 and we therefore give it in full4 ,it is signed by the doctors ,vettorio de ,rossi1 ,giovanni ,ronconi1 and ,pietro ,cervieri1 and is as follows3-- 8,we1 the undersigned physicians1 certify that we have examined ,signor ,galileo ,galilei1 and find that his pulse intermits every three or four beats1 from which we conclude that his vital powers are affected1 and at his great age much weakened4 ,to the above are to be ascribed frequent attacks of giddiness1 hypochondriacal melancholy1 weakness of the stomach1 sleeplessness1 and flying pains about the body1 to which others also can testify4 ,we have also observed a serious hernia with rupture of the peritoneum4 ,all these symptoms are worthy of notice1 as under the least aggravation they might evidently become dangerous to life40#caf ,but much importance does not seem to have been attached to this certificate at ,rome2 and in a despatch of #bfth ,december1 ,niccolini expressed his fears to ,cioli lest the ecclesiastical authorities at ,florence should receive extreme orders4#cag ,castelli also1 in a letter of #beth ,december1 urged his old master to set out4#cah ,but in this1 as in all his letters of this period1 he shows that he had no idea of the real moment to ,galileo of the proceedings going on at ,rome1 and he was altogether ill informed about the course things were taking4#cai ,probably great reserve was maintained towards this faithful adherent of ,galileo1 who was also to be his advocate4 ,castelli always consoled him with the assurance that1 to the best of his belief1 the final decision of the holy tribunal would never be against him4#cbj ,even in his letter of #beth ,december1 ,castelli says that he only considers it necessary for ,galileo to set out for ,rome1 because he entertained a singular notion that ,galileo's cunning persecutors desired nothing more than that he should not come to ,rome1 in order that they might decry him as an obstinate rebel2 for he had not committed any crime against the ,holy ,office6 ,it is plain that the worthy ,father ,castelli was not very sharp-sighted1 as he had abundantly proved before by giving up the original of the celebrated letter of ,galileo's to him of #bast ,december1 #afac4 ,on #cjth ,december1 the fears mentioned by ,niccolini in his despatch of #bfth ,december were realised4 ,on that day a papal mandate was issued to the ,inquisitor of ,florence1 which said that neither his ,holiness nor the ,holy ,congregation could or would tolerate such evasions2 it must therefore be proved whether ,galileo's state was really such that he could not come to ,rome without danger to his life4 ,his ,holiness and the ,holy ,congregation would therefore send a commissioner1 with a physician1 to ,florence1 who would visit ,galileo and make a true and trustworthy report on his condition1 and if he were in a state to travel1 bring him a prisoner in irons to ,rome 7carceratum et ligatum cum ferris74 ,if1 out of consideration for his health1 or other danger to life1 his coming must be postponed1 as soon as he had recovered and the danger was over1 he was to be brought a prisoner in irons to ,rome4 ,the document concluded with the remark that the papal commissioner and the physician would travel at ,galileo's expense1 because he had not obeyed the command to appear at ,rome when his condition would have permitted it4#cba ,to avert these extreme measures from being actually carried out1 the ,grand ,duke told ,cioli to write to ,galileo on #aath ,january1 #afcc1 that he 7,ferdinand7 took a sincere interest in the affair1 and regretted that he was unable to spare him the journey1 but it was at last necessary that he should obey the supreme authorities4 ,in order that he might perform the journey more comfortably1 he would place one of the grand ducal litters and a trustworthy guide at his disposal1 and would also permit him to stay at the house of the ambassador1 ,niccolini1 supposing that he would1 within a month1 be released from ,rome4#cbb ,the pitiful impotence of an ,italian ruler of that day in face of the ,roman hierarchy is obvious in this letter4 ,his sovereign does not dare to protect the philosopher--the greatest of whom ,italy can boast--from papal persecution1 but was obliged to give him up to the dreaded ,inquisition4 ,it must not1 however1 be supposed that the young ,ferdinand1 then only twenty-two1 because he had been brought up in the strictest ,romish fashion by the two ,grand ,duchesses and ,cioli1 acted otherwise than any other ,italian ruler would have done in the like situation4 ,not one of them would have had courage1 nor have been independent enough of ,rome1 to put an energetic veto on a papal mandate like this4 ,the ,venetian ,republic1 in which it had been established as an axiom by ,paolo ,sarpi that 8the power of rulers is derived immediately from ,god1 and spiritual as well as temporal things are subject to it10 was the only ,state of ,italy which would have asserted its sovereignty and would never have delivered up one of its officials to the ,roman will4 ,galileo now suffered a bitter penalty for his former thankless conduct to the ,free ,state4 ,the grand ducal orders had to be unconditionally obeyed2 and as any further delay might entail the worst consequences1 ,galileo fixed #bjth ,january for his departure4#cbc ,before setting out1 however1 on the #aeth of the month1 he addressed a long letter to the celebrated jurist and advocate in the parliament of ,paris1 ,elia ,diodati 7not to be confounded with ,johannes ,diodati1 the translator of the ,bible71 who corresponded with the most learned men of the time1 and took a lively interest in ,galileo's studies and fate4 ,some parts of this letter show how well this strictly theistic1 or more properly1 ,roman ,catholic savant1 knew how to bring the modern astronomy into agreement with ,christian philosophy and the ,bible1 and this from real conviction1 for this letter to his friend at ,paris was quite private4 ,from this we may conclude that even his celebrated demonstrations to ,father ,castelli1 of #bast ,december1 #afac1 and the still more elaborate ones to the ,grand ,duchess ,christine1 #afae1 were the result of honest conviction1 and were not1 as his enemies maintained1 mere dialectic fencing1 intended to bring ,scripture and the ,copernican theory into agreement4 ,we give these interesting passages of the letter as well as those which refer to ,galileo's unhappy situation3-- 8,i am sorry that the two books of ,morin#cbd and ,fromond#cbe did not reach me till six months after the publication of my #8,dialogues1' because otherwise ,i should have had an opportunity of saying much in praise of both1 and of giving some consideration to a few particular points1 especially to one in ,morin and to another in ,fromond4 ,i am quite astonished that ,morin should attach so great a value to astrology1 and that he should pretend to be able1 with his conjectures 7which seem to me very uncertain7 to establish its truth4 ,it will really be a wonderful thing1 if1 as he promises1 he raises astrology by his acuteness to the first rank among human sciences1 and ,i await such a startling novelty with great curiosity4 ,as to ,fromond1 who proves himself to be a man of much mind1 ,i could have wished not to see him fall into1 in my opinion1 a grave though wide-spread error2 namely1 in order to refute the opinions of ,copernicus1 he first hurls scornful jests at his followers1 and then 7which seems to me still more unsuitable71 fortifies himself by the authority of ,holy ,scripture1 and at length goes so far as to call those views on these grounds nothing less than heretical4 ,that such a proceeding is not praiseworthy seems to me to admit of very easy proof4 ,for if ,i were to ask ,fromond1 who made the sun1 the moon1 the earth1 and the stars1 and ordained their order and motions1 ,i believe he would answer1 they are the creations of ,god4 ,if asked who inspired ,holy ,scripture1 ,i know he would answer1 the ,holy ,spirit1 which means ,god likewise4 ,the world is therefore the work and the ,scriptures are the word of the same ,god4 ,if asked further1 whether the ,holy ,spirit never uses words which appear to be contrary to things as they really are1 and are only so used to accommodate them to the understandings of rude1 uncultivated people1 ,i am convinced that he would reply1 in agreement with the holy fathers1 that such is the usage of ,scripture1 which1 in a hundred passages1 says things for the above reason1 that if taken literally1 are not only heresies1 but blasphemies1 since they impute to ,god1 anger1 repentance1 forgetfulness1 etc4 ,but if ,i were to ask ,fromond1 whether ,god1 in order to accommodate ,himself to the understanding of the multitude1 ever alters ,his creations1 or whether nature1 which is ,god's handmaid1 and is not changeable at man's desire1 has not always observed1 and does not still maintain1 her usual course in respect to motion1 form1 and relative positions of the various parts of the universe--,i am certain that he would answer1 the moon has always been spherical1 although for a long period the people thought she was flat2 he would say1 in fine1 that nothing ever changes in nature to accommodate itself to the comprehension or notions of men4 ,but if it be so1 why1 in our search for knowledge of the various parts of the universe1 should we begin rather with the words than with the works of ,god8 ,is the work less noble or less excellent than the word8 ,if ,fromond1 or any one else1 had settled that the opinion that the earth moves is a heresy1 and if afterwards1 demonstration1 observation1 and necessary concatenation should prove that it does move1 into what embarrassment he would have brought himself and the holy ,church4 ,but if1 on the contrary1 the works are indisputably proved to vary from the literal meaning of the words1 and we give the ,scriptures the second place1 no detriment to ,scripture results from this4 ,since1 in order to accommodate themselves they often ascribe1 even to ,god ,himself1 entirely false conditions1 why should we suppose that in speaking of the earth or the sun they should keep to such strict laws1 as not to attribute conditions to these creations1 out of regard for the ignorance of the masses1 which are opposed to fact8 ,if it be true that the earth moves and the sun stands still1 it is no detriment to ,holy ,scripture1 since it speaks of things as they appear to the people4 8,many years ago1 when the stir about ,copernicus was beginning1 ,i wrote a letter#cbf of some length1 in which1 supported by the authorities of numerous fathers of the ,church1 ,i showed what an abuse it was to appeal so much to ,holy ,scripture in questions of natural science1 and ,i proposed that in future it should not be brought into them4 ,as soon as ,i am in less trouble1 ,i will send you a copy4 ,i say1 in less trouble1 because ,i am just now going to ,rome1 whither ,i have been summoned by the ,holy ,office1 which has already prohibited the circulation of my #8,dialogues4' ,i hear from well-informed parties that the ,jesuit fathers have insinuated in the highest quarters that my book is more execrable and injurious to the ,church than the writings of ,luther and ,calvin4 ,and all this although1 in order to obtain the imprimatur1 ,i went in person to ,rome1 and submitted the manuscript to the ,master of the ,palace1 who looked through it most carefully1 altering1 adding1 and omitting1 and even after he had given it the imprimatur1 ordered that it should be examined again at ,florence4 ,the reviser here1 finding nothing else to alter1 in order to show that he had gone through it carefully1 contented himself with substituting some words for others1 as1 for instance1 in several places1 #8,universum' for #8,nature1' #8quality' for #8attribute1' #8sublime spirit' for #8divine spirit1' excusing himself to me for it by saying that he foresaw that ,i should have to do with fierce foes and bitter persecutors1 as has indeed come to pass40#cbg ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,galileo',s ,,arrival ,,at ,,rome4 ,galileo reaches ,rome in ,february1 #afcb4--;,goes to the ,tuscan ,embassy4--,no ,notice at first taken of his ,coming4--,visits of ,serristori4--,galileo's ,hopefulness4--,his ,letter to ,bocchineri4--,niccolini's ,audience of the ,pope4--,efforts of the ,grand ,duke and ,niccolini on ,galileo's behalf4--,notice that he must appear before the ,holy ,office4--,his ,dejection at the ,news4--,niccolini's ,advice not to defend himself4 ,on #bjth ,january this palsied old man set out1 borne in a litter1 on his arduous journey to ,rome4#cbh ,near ,ponte a ,centino1 on the frontiers of the ,states of the ,church1 in the unhealthy flats of the vale of ,paglia1 he had to submit to a long quarantine1 which1 in spite of ,niccolini's repeated efforts1 had only been shortened two days4#cbi ,he could not resume his journey for twenty days1 but arrived at length1 on #acth ,february1 at ,rome1 in good preservation1 and alighted at the hotel of the ,tuscan ,embassy1 where he was most kindly received by ,niccolini4 ,on the next day ,niccolini informed ,cioli that 8,signor ,galilei arrived yesterday evening in good health at this house40 ,he mentioned further that ,galileo had already called on ,mgr4 ,boccabella1 not as an official personage1 as he had resigned his office of assessor to the ,holy ,office a fortnight ago1 but as a friend who showed great interest in his fate1 and to take his advice as to the conduct to be observed4 ,galileo had already introduced himself to the new assessor4 ,niccolini concluded his despatch by saying that to-morrow1 in the course of the forenoon1 he would introduce ,galileo to ,cardinal ,barberini1 and ask him for his kind mediation with his ,holiness1 and beg him1 in consideration of ,galileo's age1 his reputation1 and his ready obedience1 to allow him to remain at the hotel of the embassy1 and not to be taken to the ,holy ,office4#ccj ,this request was tacitly granted for the time being1 and afterwards officially confirmed4 ,to ,galileo's great surprise1 no notice was taken of his presence at ,rome for some time4 ,cardinal ,barberini gave him a friendly hint1 not at all ex officio1 that he had better keep very retired in the ambassador's house1 not receive any one1 nor be seen out of doors1 as any other conduct might very likely be to his disadvantage4#cca ,of course the savant1 anxious as he was1 scrupulously obeyed the admonition1 and awaited the event in quiet retirement1 though with great impatience4 ,not the smallest instruction was issued by the ,holy ,office2 to all appearance it did not in the least concern itself about the arrival of the accused which it had urged so strenuously4 ,but it was appearance only4 ,for only two days after he came1 ,mgr4 ,serristori1 counsellor to the ,holy ,office 7the same to whom a year before ,count ,magalotti had1 by ,galileo's wish1 presented one of the eight copies of the 8,dialogues0 brought to ,rome71 called several times on ,galileo1 but always said expressly that his visits were entirely of a private character and originated with himself4 ,but as he always discussed ,galileo's cause very particularly1 there is good reason to think that he was acting under orders from the ,holy ,office1 who wanted to discover the present sentiments and defensive arguments of the dreaded dialectician1 that they might act accordingly at the trial1--a measure entirely in accordance with the traditional practice of the ,holy ,office4 ,niccolini put this construction on the ,monsignore's visits1#ccb but not so ,galileo4 ,for although he perceived that in all probability they were 8approved or suggested by the ,holy ,congregation10 he was far from thinking any evil1 and was delighted that this officer of the ,inquisition1 his 8old friend and patron10 should 8cleverly give him an opportunity of saying something by way of expressing and confirming his sincere devotedness to the holy ,church and her ministers10 and that he apparently listened to it all with great approval4#ccc ,he thinks this course pursued by the ,inquisition 8may be taken to indicate the beginning of mild and kindly treatment1 very different from the threatened cords1 chains1 and dungeons20#ccd indeed1 while he assumes that these conferences are held at the instigation of the authorities1 8and for the purpose of gaining some general information10 he thankfully acknowledges 8that in this case they could not proceed in any way more favourable to him or less likely to make a sensation40#cce ,however1 in the sequel he was to discover soon enough1 that they cared nothing whatever about making a sensation at ,rome1 and that even in this respect they did not spare him in the least4 ,at this period1 as his letters show1 ,galileo was very hopeful4 ,on #aith ,february he wrote to ,cioli1 that to all appearance the threatened storm had passed1 so that he did not allow his courage to sink as if shipwreck were inevitable1 and there were no hope of reaching the haven2 and the more so as1 obedient to his instructor1 in the midst of stormy billows he-- 8,was taking his course with modest sail set40#ccf ,this instructor was ,niccolini1 who strongly advised ,galileo 8to be always ready to obey and to submit to whatever was ordered1 for this was the only way to allay the irritation of one who was so incensed1 and who treated this affair as a personal one40#ccg ,it is clear that by this personal persecutor no other than ,urban ,,viii4 can be intended4 ,the same cheerful confidence is expressed in a letter of ,galileo's of #beth ,february to ,geri ,bocchineri4 ,one passage in it deserves special attention4 ,it is as follows3-- 8,we0 7,niccolini and ,galileo7 8hear at last that the many and serious accusations are reduced to one1 and that the rest have been allowed to drop4 ,of this one ,i shall have no difficulty in getting rid when the grounds of my defence have been heard1 which are meanwhile being gradually brought1 in the best way that circumstances allow1 to the knowledge of some of the higher officials1 for these are not at liberty to listen freely to intercession1 and still less to open their lips in reply4 ,so that in the end a favourable issue may be hoped for40#cch ,a despatch of ,niccolini's to ,cioli of two days later explains the nature of this chief accusation3-- 8,although ,i am unable to say precisely what stage ,galileo's affair has reached1 or what may happen next1 as far as ,i can learn the main difficulty consists in this--that these gentlemen maintain that in #afaf he was ordered neither to discuss the question nor to converse about it4 ,he says1 on the contrary1 that those were not the terms of the injunction1 which were that that doctrine was not to be held nor defended4 ,he considers that he has the means of justifying himself1 because it does not at all appear from his book that he does hold or defend the doctrine1 nor that he regards it as a settled question1 as he merely adduces the reasons hinc hinde4 ,the other points appear to be of less importance and easier to get over40#cci ,it is in the highest degree significant that ,galileo--as is evident from ,niccolini's report above--from the first decidedly denies ever having received an injunction not to discuss the ,copernican theory in any way2 all that he knows is that it is not to be held nor defended2 that is1 all that he knows fully agrees with the note of #beth ,february1 #afaf2 and with the decree of the ,congregation of #eth ,march1 #afaf4 ,accordingly he does not consider that he has gone beyond the orders of the authorities1 and thinks that he can prove it even from the book itself4 ,on #bgth ,february the ,tuscan ambassador had a long audience of the ,pope1 officially announced ,galileo's arrival at ,rome1 and expressed the hope that as he had shown his readiness to submit to the papal judgment and the enlightened opinion of the ,congregation1 the ,pope would now be convinced of his devout reverence for spiritual things1 especially in reference to the matter in hand4 ,the ,pope found it convenient not to take any notice of this indirect question1 and replied that he had shown ,galileo a special and unusual favour in allowing him to stay at ,niccolini's house instead of in the buildings of the ,holy ,office2 and he had only done so because he was a distinguished official of the ,grand ,duke's1 and it was out of respect for his ,highness that he had granted this exceptional favour to his subject4 ,in order to enhance its value1 ,urban also told the ambassador that even a noble of the house of ,gonzaga1 a relative of ,ferdinand's1 had not only been placed in a litter and brought under escort to ,rome by command of the ,holy ,office1 but had been taken at once to the ,castle and kept there for a long time1 until the trial was ended4 ,niccolini hastened to acknowledge the greatness of the favour1 expressed his warmest thanks for it1 and ventured to plead that in consideration of ,galileo's age and infirm health the ,pope would order that the trial should come on soon1 so that he might return home as soon as possible4 ,urban replied that the proceedings of the ,holy ,office were generally rather tedious1 and he really did not know whether so speedy a termination could be looked for1 as they were still engaged with the preliminaries of the trial4 ,urban had by this time become warm1 and went off into complaints of ,ciampoli and the rest of his evil counsellors2 he also remarked that although ,galileo had expressly stated in his 8,dialogues0 that he would only discuss the question of the double motion of the earth hypothetically1 he had1 in adducing the arguments for it1 spoken of it as settled1 and as if he agreed with it4 ,in conclusion the ,pope said3 ,moreover1 ,galileo had acted contrary to the injunction given him in #afaf by ,cardinal ,bellarmine in the name of the ,holy ,congregation4 ,niccolini mentioned in defence of ,galileo all that he had told him about this accusation1 but the ,pope adhered obstinately to his opinion4 ,the ambassador came away from this audience with the scant consolation that1 at all events1 ,urban's personal embitterment against ,galileo was a little appeased4#cdj ,we may remark here that what the ,pope said about the proceeding of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 is just as inaccurate as ,riccardi's communication to ,niccolini was at that time4#cda ,both ,niccolini and the ,grand ,duke were unwearied in their good offices for ,galileo4 ,the former urgently commended his case to ,cardinal ,antonio ,barberini1 senr41 who said he was exceedingly well disposed to ,galileo1 and regarded him as a very eminent man2 but added that it was a dangerous question1 which might easily introduce some fantastic religious doctrines into the world1 and especially at ,florence1 where men's wits were so subtle and over curious4#cdb ,the ,grand ,duke1 at ,galileo's request1 sent letters of introduction to the ,cardinals ,scaglia and ,bentivoglio 7the well-known statesman and historian71 who1 as ,niccolini had learnt1 were members of the ,congregation4#cdc ,ferdinand also thanked the ,pope1 in an official letter through ,cioli to ,niccolini1 for the favour of allowing ,galileo to stay at the embassy1 ending with a request that the business might be concluded as soon as possible4#cdd ,when ,niccolini delivered this message to ,urban on #acth ,march1 he told him that it would be absolutely necessary to summon ,galileo to the ,holy ,office as soon as the trial came on1 because it was the usage and it could not be departed from4 ,niccolini again urged ,galileo's health1 his age1 and willingness to submit to any penalties2 but ,urban replied1 8,it would not do to act otherwise4 ,may ,god forgive ,galileo for having intruded into these matters concerning new doctrines and ,holy ,scripture1 when it is best to keep to universally recognised opinions4 ,may ,god help ,ciampoli1 also1 about these new notions1 as he seemed to have a leaning towards them1 and to be inclined to the modern philosophy40 ,the ,pope then expressed his regret at having to 8subject ,galileo1 who had been his friend1 with whom he had often held confidential intercourse1 and eaten at the same table1 to these annoyances2 but it was in the interests of religion and faith40 ,niccolini remarked1 that when ,galileo was heard he would be able1 without difficulty1 to give satisfactory explanations of everything2 to which ,urban replied3 8,he would be heard when the time came2 but there was one argument which had never been answered1 namely1 that ,god was omnipotent1 and therefore everything was possible to ,him2 but if so1 why should we impose any necessity upon ,him80 ,this was1 as we know1 the argument brought forward by ,urban in his intimate conversation with ,galileo in #afbd1 and which at the end of the 8,dialogues0 he had put into the mouth of ,simplicius as originating 8with a very exalted and learned personage40 ,niccolini prudently replied that he did not understand these matters1 but he had heard it said of ,galileo that he did not hold the doctrine of the earth's double motion as true1 but said that it could not be denied that as ,god could have created the world in a thousand ways1 ,he could have created it in this way4 ,urban replied with some irritation3 8,it is not for man to impose necessity upon ,god40 ,niccolini1 who saw that the ,pope was getting angry1 tried to pacify him by saying that ,galileo was here on purpose to obey and to recant everything which could be injurious to religion4 ,he then adroitly turned the subject1 and returned to the request that his ,holiness would have compassion on ,galileo1 and allow him to remain at the embassy4 ,urban merely replied that he would have special apartments assigned to ,galileo1 the best and most comfortable in the ,holy ,office4 ,with this ,niccolini had to be content4 ,in concluding the despatch of #acth ,march to ,cioli1 in which he reported this interview1 he says3--#cde 8,when ,i returned home ,i told ,galileo in part the conversation with his ,holiness1 but not for the present1 that it was intended to summon him to the ,holy ,office1 because ,i am convinced that this news would cause him the deepest concern1 and he would be in the greatest anxiety till the time came4 ,i have thought all the more that it was best to act thus1 as no further particulars are as yet known about his citation2 for the ,pope told me in reference to the speedy settlement of the business1 that he did not know what hope there was of it1 but that all that was possible would be done40 ,meanwhile1 ,ferdinand ,,ii41 in spite of the increasingly unpromising aspect of affairs1 continued indefatigably to sustain his ambassador's efforts4 ,the latter and ,galileo1 in two letters of #aith ,march1#cdf asked the ,grand ,duke to send letters of recommendation to the eight other cardinals who composed the ,holy ,congregation1 like those he had sent to their eminences ,bentivoglio and ,scaglia1 lest they should feel themselves slighted1 and the ,grand ,duke readily granted the request4#cdg ,the prelates1 however1 received these letters with mixed feelings1 and excused themselves from answering them1 as it was forbidden them in their capacity as members of the ,holy ,office2 some even hesitated to receive the letters at all1 and it was not till ,niccolini pointed out that ,cardinal ,barberini and others had received them1 that they consented to do so4#cdh ,these letters had evidently produced the happiest effect with the ,cardinals ,scaglia and ,bentivoglio4 ,they united1 as ,niccolini reported on the #aith to ,cioli1 in protecting ,galileo4 ,scaglia even read the celebrated 8,dialogues10 and1 which was more to the purpose1 that he might1 with the help of ,castelli1#cdi who was best qualified to do it1 explain the offending passages in a conciliatory spirit4 ,all this time ,galileo1 as is evident from his letters1 was entertaining the most confident hopes of the favourable issue of his cause1 and the final triumph of truth over falsehood4#cej ,neither he nor his indefatigable friends1 ,niccolini and ,castelli1 could1 it is true1 learn anything definite about the actual state of the trial4 ,the members of the ,congregation1 who alone could have given any information1 kept the secrets of the ,inquisition very close1 as indeed they were bound to do under the heaviest penalties4 ,the month of ,march passed by before the ,holy ,tribunal opened any direct official intercourse with ,galileo4 ,april was now come1 and with it the storm which had been so long gathering burst over his head4 ,on the #gth1 ,niccolini went to ,cardinal ,barberini by his desire1 and was informed on behalf of the ,pope and the ,congregation1 that1 in order to decide ,galileo's cause1 they could not avoid citing him to appear before the ,holy ,office1 and as it was not known whether it could be all settled in the course of two hours1 perhaps it would be necessary to detain him there4 ,barberini continued that 8out of respect for the house in which ,galileo had been staying1 and for ,niccolini as grand ducal ambassador1 and in consideration of the good understanding which had always existed between his ,highness and the papal chair1 especially in matters relating to the ,inquisition1 they had not failed to inform him 7,niccolini7 of this beforehand1 not to be wanting in respect for a prince so zealous for religion40 ,after ,niccolini had warmly thanked the cardinal for the attention shown by the ,pope and the ,congregation to the ,grand ,duke1 and to himself as his ambassador1 he pleaded ,galileo's age and health1--he had again been suffering severely from a fresh attack of the gout1--and finally the deep grief he would feel1 and earnestly begged that his eminence would consider whether it would not be possible to permit him to return every evening to sleep at the embassy4 ,as to secrecy1 the strictest silence might be enjoined on him under threat of the severest penalties4 ,but the prelate was not of opinion that such a permission was to be expected2 he proffered1 however1 every comfort for ,galileo that could be desired1 and said that he would neither1 as was customary with accused persons1 be treated as a prisoner1 nor be placed in a secret prison2 he would have good rooms1 and perhaps even the doors would not be locked4 ,niccolini reported this notification to ,cioli on #ith ,april1#cea and added the following interesting information3-- 8,this morning ,i also conversed with his ,holiness on the subject1 after having expressed my thanks for the communication made to me2 the ,pope again gave vent to his displeasure that ,galileo should have discussed this subject1 which appears to him to be very serious1 and of great moment to religion4 ,signor ,galileo thinks1 nevertheless1 that he can defend his statements on good grounds2 but ,i have warned him to refrain from doing so1 in order not to prolong the proceedings1 and to submit to what shall be prescribed to him to believe respecting the motion of the earth4 ,he has fallen into the deepest dejection1 and since yesterday has sunk so low that ,i am in great concern for his life40 ,from this1 then1 we learn that up to #hth ,april ,galileo was still intending to defend his opinions before the ,holy ,tribunal2 and that it was only on the urgent expostulation of the ambassador1 whom he knew to be his sincere friend1 that he gave up all idea of opposition1 and resolved upon entire and passive submission4 ,how hard it was for him to yield is evident from the concluding sentence of ,niccolini's despatch4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,trial ,,before ,,the ,,inquisition4 ,the ,first ,hearing4--,galileo's submissive ,attitude4--,the ,events of ,february1 #afaf4--;,galileo denies ,knowledge of a ,special ,prohibition4--,produces ,bellarmine's ,certificate4--,either the ,prohibition was not issued1 or ,galileo's ,ignorance was feigned4--,his ,conduct since #afaf agrees with its non-issue4--,the ,inquisitor assumes that it was issued4--,opinions of ,oregius1 ,inchofer1 and ,pasqualigus4--,galileo has ,apartments in the ,palace of the ,holy ,office assigned to him4--,falls ill4--,letter to ,geri ,bocchineri4--,change of ,tone at second ,hearing hitherto an ,enigma4--,now explained by ,letter from ,firenzuola to ,cardinal ,fr4 ,barberini4--,galileo's ,confession4--,his ,weakness and ,subserviency4 ,on #abth ,april ,galileo appeared in great distress of mind1 for his first hearing in the ,palace of the ,inquisition1 before the ,commissary-,general of the ,holy ,office1 ,father ,vincenzo ,maccolani da ,firenzuola1 and the fiscal attorney of the ,holy ,tribunal1 ,father ,carlo ,sincero4 ,in all his answers to the ,inquisitor1 he is actuated by one idea--that of shortening the proceedings and averting a severe sentence by submissive acquiescence4 ,this resigned attitude must be borne in mind in order to form a correct judgment of his depositions before the dread tribunal4#ceb ,according to the rules of the ,inquisition1 an oath is administered to the accused that he will speak the truth1 and he is then asked whether he knows or conjectures the reason of his citation4 ,galileo replied that he supposed he had been summoned to give an account of his last book4 ,he was then asked whether he acknowledged the work shown him1 8,dialogo di ,galileo ,galilei1 ,linceo10 which treats of the two systems of the world1 as entirely his own2 to which he replied after a close examination of the copy1 that he acknowledged all that it contained to have been written by himself4 ,they then passed to the events of #afaf4 ,the ,inquisitor wishes to know whether ,galileo was at that time in ,rome1 and for what reason4 ,he deposed that he certainly came to ,rome in that year1 and because he had heard that scruples were entertained about the ,copernican opinions1 and he wished to know what opinion it was proper to hold in this matter1 in order to be sure of not holding any but holy and ,catholic views4 ,this deposition seems to be a misrepresentation of the real state of the case2 for we know that he went to ,rome with a twofold purpose in #afaf3 on the one hand1 to frustrate the intrigues of his enemies1 ,fathers ,lorini1 ,caccini1 and their coadjutors2 and on the other1 to avert the threatened prohibition of the ,copernican doctrines by his scientific demonstrations4 ,the motive of his journey to ,rome is not in any way altered by the fact that he did not succeed in his object1 and that he then submitted to the admonition of ,cardinal ,bellarmine of #bfth ,february1 and to the decree of #eth ,march4 ,the ,inquisitor asked whether he came at that time to ,rome of his own accord1 or in consequence of a summons4 8,in the year #afaf ,i came of my own accord to ,rome1 without being summoned10 was the decided answer4 ,the conferences were then spoken of1 which ,galileo had at that time with several cardinals of the ,holy ,office4 ,he explained that these conferences took place by desire of those prelates1 in order that he might instruct them about ,copernicus's book1 which was difficult for laymen to understand1 as they specially desired to acquaint themselves with the system of the universe according to the ,copernican hypothesis4 ,the ,inquisitor then asked what conclusion was arrived at on the subject4 ,galileo3 8,respecting the controversy which had arisen on the aforesaid opinion that the sun is stationary1 and the earth moves1 it was decided by the ,holy ,congregation of the ,index1 that such an opinion1 considered as an established fact1 contradicted ,holy ,scripture1 and was only admissible as a conjecture 7ex suppositione71 as it was held by ,copernicus40#cec ,inquisitor3 8,was this decision then communicated to you1 and by whom80 ,galileo3 8,this decision of the ,holy ,congregation of the ,index was made known to me by ,cardinal ,bellarmine40 ,inquisitor3 8,you must state what his ,eminence ,cardinal ,bellarmine told you about the aforesaid decision1 and whether he said anything else on the subject1 and what80 ,galileo3 8,signor ,cardinal ,bellarmine signified to me that the aforesaid opinion of ,copernicus might be held as a conjecture1 as it had been held by ,copernicus1 and his eminence was aware that1 like ,copernicus1 ,i only held that opinion as a conjecture1 which is evident from an answer of the same ,signor ,cardinal to a letter of ,father ,paolo ,antonio ,foscarini1 provincial of the ,carmelites1 of which ,i have a copy1 and in which these words occur3 #8,it appears to me that your reverence and ,signor ,galileo act wisely in contenting yourselves with speaking ex suppositione1 and not with certainty4' ,this letter of the cardinal's is dated #abth ,april1 #afae4ced ,it means1 in other words1 that that opinion1 taken absolutely1 must not be either held or defended40 ,galileo was now requested to state what was decreed in ,february1 #afaf1 and communicated to him4 ,galileo3 8,in the month of ,february1 #afaf1 ,signor ,cardinal ,bellarmine told me that as the opinion of ,copernicus1 if adopted absolutely1 was contrary to ,holy ,scripture1 it must neither be held nor defended1 but that it might be held hypothetically1 and written about in this sense4 ,in accordance with this ,i possess a certificate of the said ,signor ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 given on #bfth ,may1 #afaf1 in which he says that the ,copernican opinion may neither be held nor defended1 as it is opposed to ,holy ,scripture1 of which certificate ,i herewith submit a copy40#cee ,inquisitor3 8,when the above communication was made to you1 were any other persons present1 and who80 ,galileo3 8,when ,signor ,cardinal ,bellarmine made known to me what ,i have reported about the ,copernican views1 some ,dominican fathers were present1 but ,i did not know them1 and have never seen them since40 ,inquisitor3 8,was any other command communicated to you on this subject1 in the presence of those fathers1 by them or any one else1 and what80 ,galileo3 8,i remember that the transaction took place as follows3 ,signor ,cardinal ,bellarmine sent for me one morning1 and told me certain particulars which ,i was to bring to the ears of his ,holiness before ,i communicated them to others4#cef ,but the end of it was that he told me that the ,copernican opinion1 being contradictory to ,holy ,scripture1 must not be held nor defended4 ,it has escaped my memory whether those ,dominican fathers were present before1 or whether they came afterwards2 neither do ,i remember whether they were present when the ,signor ,cardinal told me the said opinion was not to be held4 ,it may be that a command was issued to me that ,i should not hold nor defend the opinion in question1 but ,i do not remember it1 for it is several years ago40 ,inquisitor3 8,if what was then said and enjoined upon you as a command were read aloud to you1 would you remember it80 ,galileo3 8,i do not remember that anything else was said or enjoined upon me1 nor do ,i know that ,i should remember what was said to me1 even if it were read to me4 ,i say freely what ,i do remember1 because ,i do not think that ,i have in any way disobeyed the injunction1 that is1 have not by any means held nor defended the said opinion that the earth moves and the sun is stationary40 ,the ,inquisitor now tells ,galileo that the command which was issued to him before witnesses contained3 8that he must neither hold1 defend1 nor teach that opinion in any way whatsoever40#ceg ,will he please to say whether he remembers in what way and by whom this was intimated to him4 ,galileo3 8,i do not remember that the command was intimated to me by anybody but by the cardinal verbally2 and ,i remember that the command was1 not to hold nor defend4 ,it may be that1 #8and not to teach' was also there4 ,i do not remember it1 neither the definition #8in any way whatsoever' 7quovis modo71 but it may be that it was2 for ,i thought no more about it1 nor took any pains to impress the words on my memory1 as a few months later ,i received the certificate now produced1 of the said ,signor ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 of #bfth ,may1 in which the injunction given me1 not to hold nor defend that opinion1 is expressly to be found4 ,the two other definitions of the said injunction which have just been made known to me1 namely1 not to teach1 and in any way1 ,i have not retained in my memory1 ,i suppose1 because they are not mentioned in the said certificate1 on which ,i rely1 and which ,i have kept as a reminder40 ,galileo thus repeats for the fifth time that he is only aware of the injunction which agrees with the decree of the ,congregation of the ,index of #eth ,march1 #afaf4 ,he can likewise only remember that ,cardinal ,bellarmine told him of the decree of the ,holy ,congregation2 that a command was issued to him1 as the ,inquisitor asserts1 he is not aware2 but true to his resolve to make no direct contradiction1 he says3 8,it may be1 but ,i do not remember it40 ,but the ,inquisitor treats the issue of the 8command0 as an established fact2 and ,galileo1 to whom it may have appeared somewhat indifferent whether he was merely informed of the decree of the ,congregation1 or whether a command in conformity with it was issued to him before witnesses1 submissively adopts this assumption of the ,inquisitor4 ,he then informs ,galileo 8that this command issued to him before witnesses contained that he must not in any way hold1 defend1 nor teach that opinion40 ,galileo1 to whom the two additions1 8in any way whatever0 and 8nor teach10 sound new1 entrenches himself behind his stereotyped answer1 8,i do not remember it40 ,then he appeals to the certificate given him by ,cardinal ,bellarmine on #bfth ,may1 #afaf1 which does not mention either of these two definitions4 ,to the repeated query who intimated the command to him1 he invariably replies3 8,cardinal ,bellarmine40 ,he obviously supposes that the ,inquisitor regards the cardinal's communication as the command4 ,galileo's depositions do not contain a word from which it can be inferred that 7as the document of #bfth ,february reports71 after the cardinal's communication1 any further instruction was given him by the ,father ,commissary of the ,inquisition in the name of the ,pope and the ,holy ,congregation1 under threat of a trial before the ,inquisition4 ,but it is incredible that this most important proceeding should have entirely escaped ,galileo's memory4 ,there are but two alternatives3 either it did not take place1 and1 of course1 ,galileo cannot remember it2 or his ignorance is feigned4 ,galileo's attitude before the ,inquisition is such that the latter supposition does not seem altogether unjustifiable2 but we must assume with ,wohlwill1 who has analysed the trial with great judicial acumen1 and whom we have followed on many points discussed above1 that ,galileo would only have availed himself of such a lie and misrepresentation1 if it would have helped him before the tribunal of the ,inquisition4 ,but the advantage of denying any actual proceeding of #bfth ,february is by no means evident4 ,on the contrary1 ,galileo must have seen--supposing him to make false depositions--from the ,inquisitor's questions that he had the protocol of #bfth ,february before him4 ,of what avail then could a fiction be in face of this document8 ,of none whatever4 ,it would rather injure his cause by stamping him as a liar4 ,wohlwill has pointed out that it would have been a masterpiece of cunning to play out the comedy of assumed ignorance from beginning to end of the trial in so consistent a manner1 never contradicting himself1 as appears from ,galileo's depositions4 ,his simplest replies would then have formed parts of a complex tissue of falsehood1 and it would be astonishing that throughout the whole course of the trial he should never for a moment deviate from his difficult part4 ,while the complexity of such a mode of defence renders the assumption of ,galileo's denial1 to say the least1 improbable1 there are other more weighty arguments to show that he states before his judges all that he knows about the proceedings in #afaf4 ,these arguments consist of all ,galileo's statements and actions with which we are acquainted1 during the seventeen years from #afaf-afcb1 and they form the strongest evidence for the credibility of his depositions4 ,we recur first1 simply to the letters of the time of the first trial1 in which there is not only no trace of the assumed absolute prohibition1 but ,galileo openly expresses his satisfaction that his enemies have not succeeded in obtaining an entire prohibition of the ,copernican theory1 and he again and again mentions that the hypothetical discussion of it still remains open4 ,and the attitude maintained by him during the seventeen years towards the new system is in entire conformity with the decree of the ,congregation of the ,index of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 which was in force for everybody1 but not with the categorical prohibition of the ,commissary-,general of the ,holy ,office4 ,this is shown by his eagerness to get his work on ,copernicus published in the very year #afaf2 by his sending the treatise on the tides to the ,archduke ,leopold of ,austria1 in #afah2 by the discussion of the ,copernican theory in his 8,il ,saggiatore10 in #afbc2 by his efforts in #afbd to get the clause of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 abolished by the new1 and1 as he thought1 more tolerant ,pope 7there is no trace that he tried to get any special prohibition to himself revoked72 by his reply to ,ingoli of the same date1 which treated exclusively of the marked defence of the ,copernican theory2 and finally1 by the writing of the famous 8,dialogues0 themselves1 in which he made every endeavour not to come into collision with the published decree of #afaf1 while the very authorship of the work would have infringed an absolute command to silence on the ,copernican system4 ,we now go back to the first hearing of ,galileo4 ,although his statements1 in spite of his submissiveness1 obviously contradict the assertion of the ,inquisitor1 that he had1 in #afaf1 received an injunction not to hold1 teach1 or defend the ,copernican opinions in any way1 the ,inquisitor does not take the least pains to solve the enigma4 ,everything is also omitted on the part of the judges which might have cleared up the point2 for example1 to summon the witnesses1 whose names are on the note of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 and confront them with the accused4 ,and as no attempt is made to account for his ignorance of the prohibition1 and it is simply taken for granted1 it must be allowed that ,galileo's judges1 to say the least1 were guilty of a great breach of judicial order1 in using1 without any close examination1 a paper as a valid document on the trial1 which was destitute of nearly all the characteristics of one1 namely1 the signatures of the accused1 of the notary and witnesses1 and in spite of three contradictory depositions of the accused4 ,no special arguments are needed to prove that this breach of order did not proceed from mere carelessness4 ,and so1 immediately after the accused has declared that he does not remember any command but that intimated to him by ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 we find the ,inquisitor asking him3 ,whether1 after the aforesaid command was issued to him1 he had received any permission to write the book which he had acknowledged to be his1 and which he afterwards had printed8 ,galileo3 8,after receiving the command aforesaid1 ,i did not ask permission to write the book acknowledged by me to be mine1 because ,i did not consider that in writing it ,i was acting contrary to1 far less disobeying1 the command not to hold1 defend1 or to teach the said opinion40 ,the ,inquisitor now asks to be informed whether1 from whom1 and in what way1 ,galileo had received permission to print the 8,dialogues40 ,galileo briefly relates the whole course of the negotiations which preceded the printing4 ,as his narrative agrees entirely with what we know1 it is not reproduced here4 ,the ,inquisitor then asks3 ,whether1 when asking permission to print his book1 he had told the ,master of the ,palace about the command aforesaid1 which had been issued to him by order of the ,holy ,congregation8 ,galileo3 8,i did not say anything about that command to the ,master of the ,palace when ,i asked for the imprimatur for the book1 for ,i did not think it necessary to say anything1 because ,i had no scruples about it2 for ,i have neither maintained nor defended the opinion that the earth moves and the sun is stationary in that book1 but have rather demonstrated the opposite of the ,copernican opinion1 and shown that the arguments of ,copernicus are weak and not conclusive40 ,with this deposition1 the last part of which is quite incorrect1 the first hearing closed4 ,silence having been imposed on ,galileo on oath on subjects connected with his trial1 he was taken to an apartment in the private residence of the fiscal of the ,holy ,office in the buildings of this tribunal4 ,here he enjoyed 7as appears from his own letters and ,niccolini's reports7 kind and considerate treatment4 ,on #afth ,april he wrote to ,geri ,bocchineri3-- 8,contrary to custom1 three large and comfortable rooms have been assigned to me1 part of the residence of the fiscal of the ,holy ,office1 with free permission to walk about in the spacious apartments4 ,my health is good1 for which1 next to ,god1 ,i have to thank the great care of the ambassador and his wife1 who have a watchful eye for all comforts1 and far more than ,i require40#ceh ,illustration ,niccolini had been permitted to board ,galileo1 and his servants took the meals to his rooms1 so that ,galileo could keep his own servant about him1 and he was even allowed to sleep in the buildings of the ,holy ,office4#cei ,no obstacle was placed in the way of free correspondence between ,galileo and ,niccolini4 ,the former wrote to his exalted friend and patron daily1 and he replied1 openly expressing his opinions1 without exciting any observation4#cfj ,while1 therefore1 as far as his material situation was concerned1 nothing but favours unheard of in the annals of the ,inquisition were shown him1 nothing was left undone to find the best method of effecting his moral ruin4 ,at the beginning of ,april1 when the actual trial was to come on1 his faithful friend and advocate1 ,father ,castelli1 who was as well versed in theology as he was in mathematics1 was sent away from ,rome and not recalled until ,galileo1 who had been meanwhile condemned1 had left the city4#cfa ,three days after the first examination the three counsellors of the ,inquisition1 ,augustine ,oregius1 ,melchior ,inchofer1 and ,zacharias ,pasqualigus delivered their opinions about the trial of ,galileo4 ,oregius declared that 8in the book superscribed #8,dialogues of ,galileo ,galilei1' the doctrine which teaches that the earth moves and that the sun is stationary is maintained and defended40 ,inchofer's statements 7he drew up two7 declared that 8,galileo had not only taught and defended that view1 but rendered it very suspicious that he was inclined to it1 and even held it to this day40 ,both these attestations were supported by a memorial1 in which the opinions given were founded on passages quoted from the 8,dialogues40#cfb ,the first sought to prove that ,galileo in his book had treated the stability of the sun and its central position in the universe1 not as a hypothesis1 but in a definite manner2 the second1 that in it ,galileo had taught1 defended1 and held the doctrine of the earth's motion round the sun4 ,zacharias ,pasqualigus gave in three opinions4 ,in the first he expresses his view that ,galileo1 by the publication of his 8,dialogues10 had infringed the order given him by the ,holy ,office not in any way to hold the ,copernican ,opinion1 nor to teach nor defend it in writing or speaking1 in respect to teaching and defending1 and it was very suspicious that he held it4 ,in his second opinion1 ,pasqualigus argues1 by quoting passages from the 8,dialogues10#cfc that although in the beginning of the book ,galileo had stated that he should treat the doctrine of the double motion only as a hypothesis1 he had in the course of it departed from hypothetical language1 and sought to prove it by decisive arguments4 ,finally1 in his third opinion1 ,pasqualigus recurs to the special prohibition of #afaf1 and argues at length that ,galileo has overstepped it both as regards teaching and defending1 and is very strongly open to the suspicion of holding it4#cfd ,by these declarations ,galileo's cause was as good as decided4 ,his transgression of the command of the ,holy ,office1 and particularly of the special prohibition of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 was proved beyond a doubt4 ,of his guilt there could be no question--neither could there be any of the penalty4 ,the prolonged deprivation of exercise in the open air1 which had been so essential to the old man's health1#cfe combined with great mental agitation1 at length threw him on a sick bed4 ,he wrote on #bcrd ,april to ,geri ,bocchineri3-- 8,i am writing in bed1 to which ,i have been confined for sixteen hours with severe pains in my loins1 which1 according to my experience1 will last as much longer4 ,a little while ago ,i had a visit from the commissary and the fiscal who conduct the inquiry4 ,they have promised and intimated it as their settled intention to set me at liberty as soon as ,i am able to get up again1 encouraging me repeatedly to keep up my spirits4 ,i place more confidence in these promises than in the hopes held out to me before1 which1 as experience has shown1 were founded rather upon surmises than real knowledge4 ,i have always hoped that my innocence and uprightness would be brought to light1 and ,i now hope it more than ever4 ,i am getting tired of writing1 and will conclude40#cff ,the second examination of ,galileo took place on #cjth ,april4 ,it has hitherto astounded all those who have studied this famous trial2 for while at the close of his first depositions1 ,galileo decidedly denied having defended the ,copernican system in his 8,dialogues10 and even asserted that he had done just the contrary1 at the second hearing1 almost without waiting for the ,inquisitor's questions1 he makes a humble declaration1 which1 roundabout as it is1 contains a penitent confession that he had defended it in his book4 ,the cause of this change in ,galileo is explained by a most interesting letter from the ,commissary-,general of the ,inquisition1 ,father ,vincenzo ,maccolani da ,firenzuola1 who was at that time with the ,pope in the ,castle of ,gandolfo1 to ,cardinal ,francesco ,barberini4 ,this letter of #bhth ,april1 #afcc1 first published in full by ,pieralisi1 the learned librarian of the ,barberiana at ,rome1 whom we have so often quoted1 is as follows3#cfg-- 8,in compliance with the commands of his ,holiness1 ,i yesterday informed the most eminent ,lords of the ,holy ,congregation of ,galileo's cause1 the position of which ,i briefly reported4 ,their ,eminences approved of what has been done thus far1 and took into consideration1 on the other hand1 various difficulties with regard to the manner of pursuing the case1 and of bringing it to an end4 ,more especially as ,galileo has in his examination denied what is plainly evident from the book written by him2 since in consequence of this denial there would result the necessity for greater rigour of procedure and less regard to the other considerations belonging to this business4 ,finally ,i suggested a course1 namely1 that the ,holy ,congregation should grant me permission to treat extra-judicially with ,galileo1 in order to render him sensible of his error1 and bring him1 if he recognises it1 to a confession of the same4 ,this proposal appeared at first sight too bold1 not much hope being entertained of accomplishing this object by merely adopting the method of argument with him2 but upon my indicating the grounds upon which ,i had made the suggestion1 permission was granted me4 ,that no time might be lost1 ,i entered into discourse with ,galileo yesterday afternoon1 and after many arguments and rejoinders had passed between us1 by ,god's grace ,i attained my object1 for ,i brought him to a full sense of his error1 so that he clearly recognised that he had erred1 and had gone too far in his book4 ,and to all this he gave expression in words of much feeling1 like one who experienced great consolation in the recognition of his error1 and he was also willing to confess it judicially4 ,he requested1 however1 a little time in order to consider the form in which he might most fittingly make the confession1 which1 as far as its substance is concerned1 will1 ,i hope1 follow in the manner indicated4 ,i have thought it my duty at once to acquaint your ,eminence with this matter1 having communicated it to no one else2 for ,i trust that his ,holiness and your ,eminence will be satisfied that in this way the affair is being brought to such a point that it may soon be settled without difficulty4 ,the court will maintain its reputation3 it will be possible to deal leniently with the culprit2 and whatever the decision arrived at1 he will recognise the favour shown him1 with all the other consequences of satisfaction herein desired4 ,to-day ,i think of examining him in order to obtain the said confession2 and having1 as ,i hope1 received it1 it will only remain to me further to question him with regard to his intention1 and to impose the prohibitions upon him2 and that done1 he might have the house#cfh assigned to him as a prison1 as hinted to me by your ,eminence1 to whom ,i offer my most humble reverence4 ,rome1 #bhth ,april1 #afcc4 ,your ,eminence's humble and most obedient servant1 ,,fra ,,vinc ,,da ,,firenzuola40 ,the second hearing did not take place on the #bhth1 as ,firenzuola proposed1 but not till the #cjth1 perhaps on account of ,galileo's indisposition4 ,he had again to take an oath that he would speak the truth1 after which he was requested to state what he had to say4 ,he then began the following melancholy confession3-- 8,in the course of some days' continuous and attentive reflection on the interrogations put to me on the #afth of the present month1 and in particular as to whether1 sixteen years ago1 an injunction was intimated to me by order of the ,holy ,office1 forbidding me to hold1 defend1 or teach #8in any manner1' the opinion that had just been condemned1--of the motion of the earth and the stability of the sun1--it occurred to me to re-peruse my printed dialogue1 which for three years ,i had not seen1 in order carefully to note whether1 contrary to my most sincere intention1 there had1 by inadvertence1 fallen from my pen anything from which a reader or the authorities might infer not only some taint of disobedience on my part1 but also other particulars which might induce the belief that ,i had contravened the orders of the ,holy ,church4 ,and being1 by the kind permission of the authorities1 at liberty to send about my servant1 ,i succeeded in procuring a copy of my book1 and having procured it ,i applied myself with the utmost diligence to its perusal1 and to a most minute consideration thereof4 ,and as1 owing to my not having seen it for so long1 it presented itself to me1 as it were1 like a new writing and by another author1 ,i freely confess that in several places it seemed to me set forth in such a form that a reader ignorant of my real purpose might have had reason to suppose that the arguments adduced on the false side1 and which it was my intention to confute1 were so expressed as to be calculated rather to compel conviction by their cogency than to be easy of solution4 ,two arguments there are in particular--the one taken from the solar spots1 the other from the ebb and flow of the tide--which in truth come to the ear of the reader with far greater show of force and power than ought to have been imparted to them by one who regarded them as inconclusive1 and who intended to refute them1 as indeed ,i truly and sincerely held and do hold them to be inconclusive and admitting of refutation4 ,and1 as excuse to myself for having fallen into an error so foreign to my intention1 not contenting myself entirely with saying that when a man recites the arguments of the opposite side with the object of refuting them1 he should1 especially if writing in the form of dialogue1 state these in their strictest form1 and should not cloak them to the disadvantage of his opponent1--not contenting myself1 ,i say1 with this excuse1--,i resorted to that of the natural complacency which every man feels with regard to his own subtleties and in showing himself more skilful than the generality of men1 in devising1 even in favour of false propositions1 ingenious and plausible arguments4 ,with all this1 although with ,cicero #8avidior sim gloriae quam satis est1' if ,i had now to set forth the same reasonings1 without doubt ,i should so weaken them that they should not be able to make an apparent show of that force of which they are really and essentially devoid4 ,my error1 then1 has been--and ,i confess it--one of vainglorious ambition1 and of pure ignorance and inadvertence4 ,this is what it occurs to me to say with reference to this particular1 and which suggested itself to me during the re-perusal of my book40#cfi ,after making this humiliating declaration1 ,galileo was allowed immediately1 to withdraw4 ,no questions were put to him this time4 ,but he must have thought that he ought to go still further in the denial of his inmost convictions1 further even than ,father ,firenzuola had desired in his extra-judicial interview1 further than the ,inquisition itself required4 ,he did not consider the penitent acknowledgment of the 8error0 into which he had fallen in writing his 8,dialogues0 sufficient4 ,the ,inquisition was to be conciliated by the good resolution publicly to correct it4 ,he therefore returned at once to the court where the sacred tribunal was still sitting1 and made the following undignified proposition3-- 8,and in confirmation of my assertion that ,i have not held and do not hold as true the opinion which has been condemned1 of the motion of the earth and the stability of the sun1--if there shall be granted to me1 as ,i desire1 means and time to make a clearer demonstration thereof1 ,i am ready to do so3 and there is a most favourable opportunity for this1 seeing that in the work already published1 the interlocutors agree to meet again after a certain time to discuss several distinct problems of nature1 connected with the matter discoursed of at their meetings4 ,as this affords me an opportunity of adding one or two other #8days1' ,i promise to resume the arguments already adduced in favour of the said opinion1 which is false and has been condemned1 and to confute them in such most effectual method as by the blessing of ,god may be supplied to me4 ,i pray1 therefore1 this sacred tribunal to aid me in this good resolution1 and to enable me to put it in effect40#cgj ,it is hard to pass an adverse judgment on such a hero of science2 and yet the man who repeatedly denies before his judges the scientific convictions for which he had striven and laboured for half a century1 who even proposes in a continuation of his monumental work on the two chief systems of the world to annihilate all the arguments therein adduced for the recognition of the only true system1 can never be absolved by the historical critic from the charge of weakness and insincere obsequiousness4 ,it was1 however1 the century the opening of which had been ominously marked by the funeral pile of ,giordano ,bruno1 and but eight years before1 the corpse of ,marc',antonio de ,dominis1--the famous ,archbishop of ,spalato1 who had died suddenly in the prisons of the ,engelsburg during his trial before the ,inquisition1--had1 after the sentence of the ,holy ,tribunal1 been taken from its resting place and publicly burnt in ,rome1 together with his heretical writings4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,trial ,,continued4 ,galileo allowed to return to the ,embassy4--,his ,hopefulness4--,third ,hearing4--,hands in his ,defence4--,agreement of it with previous ,events4--,confident ,hopes of his ,friends4--,niccolini's ,fears4--,decision to examine ,galileo under threat of ,torture4--,niccolini's ,audience of the ,pope4--,informed that the ,trial was over1 that ,galileo would soon be sentenced1 and would be imprisoned4--,final ,examination4--,sent back to 8locum suum40--,no ,evidence that he suffered ,torture or was placed in a ,prison ,cell4 ,on the day on which the second hearing had taken place1 at ,firenzuola's suggestion to the ,pope1 ,galileo was permitted1 in consideration of his age and infirmities1 to return to the hotel of the ,tuscan ambassador1 on oath not to leave it1 not to hold any intercourse with any one but the inmates of the house1 to present himself before the ,holy ,office whenever summoned1 and to maintain the strictest silence about the course of the trial4#cga ,on the very next day ,niccolini wrote to ,cioli with great satisfaction3 8,signor ,galileo was yesterday sent back to my house when ,i was not at all expecting him1 and although the trial is not yet ended40#cgb ,the ,tuscan ,secretary of ,state replied on #dth ,may1 with the curt observation3 8,his ,highness was much pleased at the liberation of ,signor ,galileo10 and immediately adds the ill-humoured and unworthy remark3 8,it appears to me that ,i must remind your ,excellency that when ,i wrote to you to entertain ,signor ,galileo at the embassy1 the time specified was one month1 and the expenses of the remaining time must fall upon himself40#cgc ,niccolini replied with ill-concealed indignation3 8,it would not become me to speak of this subject to ,galileo while he is my guest2 ,i would rather bear the expense myself1 which only comes to fourteen or fifteen scudi a month1 everything included2 so that if ,galileo should remain here the whole summer1 that is six months1 the outlay for him and his servant would amount to about from ninety to a hundred scudi40#cgd ,galileo1 who had no idea that his generous protector1 ,niccolini1 had even had to go into unpleasant questions about his support1 was entertaining the most confident hopes of a successful and speedy termination of his trial4 ,although his letters of this period are unfortunately not extant1#cge we see from the answers of his correspondents what sanguine accounts he sent them4 ,geri ,bocchineri wrote on #abth ,may3 8,i have for a long time had no such consolatory news as that which your letter of the #gth brought me4 ,it gives me well-founded hopes that the calumnies and snares of your enemies will be in vain2 and in the end1 the annoyances involved in the defence1 maintenance1 and perhaps even increase1 of your reputation1 can be willingly borne1 as you undoubtedly have borne them1 since you have gained far more than you have lost by the calamity that has fallen upon you6 ,my pleasure is still more enhanced by the news that you expect to be able to report the end of the affair in the next letter40#cgf ,but many a post day was to pass over1 many a letter from ,galileo to be received1 before his trial was to come to the conclusion he so little anticipated4 ,on #ajth ,may he was summoned for the third time before the ,holy ,tribunal1 where ,father ,firenzuola1 the ,commissary-,general of the ,inquisition1 informed him that eight days were allowed him in which to write a defence if he wished to submit one4 ,but ,galileo handed it in at once1#cgg from which we may conclude that he had been informed of this proceeding beforehand4 ,it was as follows3-- 8,when asked if ,i had signified to the ,reverend ,father1 the ,master of the ,sacred ,palace1 the injunction privately laid upon me1 about sixteen years ago1 by order of the ,holy ,office1 not to hold1 defend1 or #8in any way' teach the doctrine of the motion of the earth and the stability of the sun1 ,i answered that ,i had not done so4 ,and not being questioned as to the reason why ,i had not intimated it1 ,i had no opportunity to add anything further4 ,it now appears to me necessary to state the reason1 in order to demonstrate the purity of my intention1 ever foreign to the employment of simulation or deceit in any operation ,i engage in4 ,i say1 then1 that as at that time reports were spread abroad by evil-disposed persons1 to the effect that ,i had been summoned by the ,lord ,cardinal ,bellarmine to abjure certain of my opinions and doctrines1 and that ,i had consented to abjure them1 and also to submit to punishment for them1 ,i was thus constrained to apply to his ,eminence1 and to solicit him to furnish me with an attestation1 explaining the cause for which ,i had been summoned before him2 which attestation ,i obtained1 in his own handwriting1 and it is the same that ,i now produce with the present document4#cgh ,from this it clearly appears that it was merely announced to me that the doctrine attributed to ,copernicus of the motion of the earth and the stability of the sun must not be held or defended1 and 444 ,here the ,,ms4 is defaced beyond this general announcement affecting every one1 any other injunction in particular was intimated to me1 no trace thereof appears there4 ,having1 then1 as a reminder1 this authentic attestation in the handwriting of the very person who intimated the command to me1 ,i made no further application of thought or memory with regard to the words employed in announcing to me the said order not to hold or defend the doctrine in question2 so that the two articles of the order--in addition to the injunction not to #8hold' or #8defend' it--to wit1 the words #8nor to teach it' #8in any way whatsoever'--which ,i hear are contained in the order intimated to me1 and registered--struck me as quite novel and as if ,i had not heard them before2 and ,i do not think ,i ought to be disbelieved when ,i urge that in the course of fourteen or sixteen years ,i had lost all recollection of them1 especially as ,i had no need to give any particular thought to them1 having in my possession so authentic a reminder in writing4 ,now1 if the said two articles be left out1 and those two only be retained which are noted in the accompanying attestation1 there is no doubt that the injunction contained in the latter is the same command as that contained in the decree of the ,sacred ,congregation of the ,index4 ,whence it appears to me that ,i have a reasonable excuse for not having notified to the ,master of the ,sacred ,palace the command privately imposed upon me1 it being the same as that of the ,congregation of the ,index4 ,seeing also1 that my book was not subject to a stricter censorship than that made binding by the decree of the ,index1 it will1 it appears to me1 be sufficiently plain that ,i adopted the surest and most becoming method of having it guaranteed and purged of all shadow of taint1 inasmuch as ,i handed it to the supreme ,inquisitor at the very time when many books dealing with the same matters were being prohibited solely in virtue of the said decree4 ,after what ,i have now stated1 ,i would confidently hope that the idea of my having knowingly and deliberately violated the command imposed upon me1 will henceforth be entirely banished from the minds of my most eminent and wise judges2 so that those faults which are seen scattered throughout my book have not been artfully introduced with any concealed or other than sincere intention1 but have only inadvertently fallen from my pen1 owing to a vainglorious ambition and complacency in desiring to appear more subtle than the generality of popular writers1 as indeed in another 444 ,,ms4 defaced deposition ,i have confessed3 which fault ,i shall be ready to correct by writing whenever ,i may be commanded or permitted by your ,eminences4 ,lastly1 it remains for me to pray you to take into consideration my pitiable state of bodily indisposition1 to which1 at the age of seventy years1 ,i have been reduced by ten months of constant mental anxiety and the fatigue of a long and toilsome journey at the most inclement season--together with the loss of the greater part of the years of which1 from my previous condition of health1 ,i had the prospect4 ,i am persuaded and encouraged to do so by the clemency and goodness of the most eminent lords1 my judges2 with the hope that they may be pleased1 in answer to my prayer1 to remit what may appear to their entire justice 444 to such sufferings as adequate punishment--out of consideration for my declining age1 which too1 ,i humbly commend to them4 ,and ,i would equally commend to their consideration my honour and reputation1 against the calumnies of ill-wishers1 whose persistence in detracting from my good name may be inferred from the necessity which constrained me to procure from the ,lord ,cardinal ,bellarmine the attestation which accompanies this40#cgi ,this touching appeal to the mercy of the judges of the ,holy ,office can scarcely be read without feelings of the profoundest pity for the unhappy old man1 who1 in the evening of his days1 felt compelled by dread of the stake to deny his scientific convictions4 ,in looking at the defence in a judicial light1 in spite of mistrust in the truthfulness of the accused1 for which there is some justification1 it must be allowed that his statements about the proceedings of sixteen years before1 agree entirely with all his letters and actions from #afaf to #afcb4 ,in view of this state of the case1 ,galileo's remark in his defence that 8he had received that certificate from the very person who had intimated the command to him10 possesses increased significance4 ,his whole defence is intended to convince the judges that the two particulars 8not to teach0 and 8in any way0 were unknown to him up to the day of his first hearing1 or1 as he says1 to avoid direct contradiction1 8he had lost all recollection of them40 ,he obviously thinks that the gravity of the indictment lies in these words4 ,but he seems to be absolutely ignorant of their having been issued to him after the previous admonition of the ,cardinal1 by the ,commissary-,general of the ,inquisition1 with the threat that 8otherwise they would proceed against him in the ,holy ,office10 indeed1 by the above remark he decidedly contradicts it4 ,apologists of the ,inquisition at any price1 of the stamp of ,mgr4 ,marini1 do not fail to adopt the only means left to them1 and call ,galileo's defence 8childish evasions unworthy of so great a man1 which are sure signs of guilt40#chj ,we are of opinion1 on the contrary1 that the confident hopes of a favourable issue of his trial1 by which1 as appears from the replies of his correspondents and ,niccolini's despatches1 ,galileo was animated up to the last moment1 by no means comport with consciousness of guilt4 ,after his defence had been received1 and the same obligations imposed on him on oath as after the second hearing1 he was allowed to return to the embassy4 ,the nearer the time approached when the old man's illusions were to be dispelled1 the more sanguine was the intelligence he sent to his friends4 ,he reminds one of a consumptive patient1 full of hope when in the last stage of his disorder4 ,galileo receives in reply to his letters the congratulations of his friends on the1 as they suppose1 doubtless favourable issue of his trial4 ,cardinal ,capponi writes on #bast ,may1 that he had never expected anything else4#cha ,bocchineri1 ,guiducci1 ,agguinti1 ,cini1 and others heartily express their satisfaction2#chb the ,archbishop of ,siena1 ,ascanio ,piccolomini1 ,galileo's devoted friend1 invites him1 in expectation of his speedy dismissal from ,rome1 to come and see him at ,siena1 that he may await the extinction of the plague at ,florence4#chc ,galileo accepts the friendly invitation1 and informs ,bocchineri that he intends to go to ,siena immediately after the end of the trial4#chd ,archbishop ,piccolomini even offers his impatiently expected guest a litter for the journey4#che ,a favour granted to ,galileo just at the last1 on the urgent solicitation of ,niccolini1 and quite unheard of in the annals of the ,inquisition1 might have increased these confident hopes4 ,he was permitted to take the air for the sake of his health in the gardens of the ,castle of ,gandolfo1 to which1 however1 he was always conveyed in a half-closed carriage1 as he was not to be seen in the streets4#chf ,niccolini1 however1 did not share the hopes of his famous guest1 and for very good reasons4 ,he had had an audience1 on #bast ,may1 of the ,pope and ,cardinal ,barberini1 who had told him in answer to his inquiries when the trial might be expected to end1 that it would probably be concluded in the congregation to take place in about a fortnight4 ,after reporting this in his despatch to ,cioli of #bbnd ,may1 ,niccolini continues3 8,i very much fear that the book will be prohibited1 unless it is averted by ,galileo's being charged1 as ,i proposed1 to write an apology4 ,some #8salutary penance' will also be imposed upon him1 as they maintain that he has transgressed the command communicated to him by ,cardinal ,bellarmine in #afaf4 ,i have not yet told him all this1 because ,i want to prepare him for it by degrees1 in order not to distress him4 ,it will also be advisable to observe silence about this in ,florence1 that he may not hear it from his friends there2 and the more so1 as it may turn out otherwise40#chg ,it was indeed 8to turn out otherwise10 but in a way that even ,niccolini did not in the least suspect4 ,a momentary lull now took place in ,galileo's trial--the preparation for the great catastrophe that was to take all the world by surprise4 ,sultry silence reigned for four weeks4 ,no one1 not even ,niccolini1 could learn anything about the progress of the affair2 the thunderbolt had already fallen which was to crush the accused before it was known to anyone beyond the ,holy ,congregation4 ,his fate had been sealed in a private meeting of it presided over by the ,pope4 ,unfortunately we have no written notes of the proceedings of this highly interesting sitting4 ,from two documents1 which agree entirely in essentials1 we simply know what the decrees were which minutely prescribed the final proceedings to be taken against ,galileo4 ,one of these documents is derived from the ,vatican collection of the acts of ,galileo's trial2 the other is reproduced in ,gherardi's collection of documents1 and belongs to the ,,ms4 originals of the decrees drawn up in the sittings of the ,holy ,congregation in the archives of the ,inquisition4 ,it is decreed in both documents#chh which agree almost verbatim3 ,to try ,galileo as to his intention1 and under threat of torture2 if he kept firm1 he was to be called upon to recant before a plenary assembly of the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office1 condemned to imprisonment according to the judgment of the ,holy ,congregation1 and ordered in future not to discuss1 either in writing or speaking1 the opinion that the earth moves and the sun is stationary1 nor yet the contrary opinion1 under pain of further punishment for contumacy2 further1 the work1 8,dialogo di ,galileo ,galilei1 ,linceo10 was to be prohibited4 ,and in order to make this known everywhere1 copies of the sentence were to be sent to all papal envoys1 and all inquisitors into heretical crimes1 and specially to the ,inquisitor of ,florence1 who was to proclaim it in a full conclave of the ,congregation1 and read it publicly to a majority of the professors of mathematics summoned for the purpose4 ,it is noteworthy that it was expressly decreed that ,galileo was to be enjoined1 8nor yet to discuss the contrary opinion10 the ,ptolemaic4 ,they obviously accredited the clever dialectician with the skill1 under pretext of defending the old system1 of demonstrating exactly the contrary4 ,it therefore seemed most prudent to impose absolute silence on him on this delicate subject4 ,two days after the course of the proceedings had been secretly determined on1 the ,pope gave audience to ,niccolini1 who once more came to beg for a speedy termination of the trial4 ,urban ,,viii4 said that it had already been terminated1 and that within the next few days ,galileo would be summoned before the ,holy ,office to hear his sentence4 ,the ambassador1 who was terrified at this unexpected intelligence1 hastened to implore his ,holiness1 out of respect for his ,highness the ,grand ,duke1 to mollify the severity which the ,holy ,congregation might perhaps have thought it necessary to exercise2 and added obligingly that the great complaisance shown to the ,grand ,duke in the matter of ,galileo was fully appreciated1 and that the ,grand ,duke was only awaiting the end of the business to express his gratitude in person4 ,the ,pope replied1 with equal suavity1 that his ,highness need not take this trouble1 as he had readily granted every amelioration to ,galileo out of affection for him2 but as to his cause1 they could do no less than prohibit that opinion1 because it was erroneous and contrary to ,holy ,scripture1 dictated ex ore ,dei2 as to his person1 he would1 according to usage1 be imprisoned for a time1 because he had transgressed the mandate issued to him in #afaf4 8,however10 added ,urban1 8after the publication of the sentence we will see you again1 and we will consult together so that he may suffer as little distress as possible1 since it cannot be let pass without some demonstration against his person40 ,in reply to ,niccolini's renewed urgent entreaties that his ,holiness would extend his accustomed mercy to the pitiable old man of seventy1 the ,pope said that 8he would at any rate be sent for a time to some monastery1 as for instance1 ,st4 ,croce2 for he really did not know precisely what the ,holy ,congregation might decree 78671 but it was unanimous and nemine discrepante in intending to impose a penance on ,galileo40 ,the very same day the ambassador sent a detailed despatch about this audience to ,cioli1#chi and remarked at the end that he had simply informed ,galileo of the approaching end of the trial1 and of the prohibition of his book1 but had said nothing about the personal punishment1 in order not to trouble him too much at once2 the ,pope had also enjoined this1 that ,galileo might not distress himself yet1 and 8because perhaps in the course of the proceedings things might take a better turn40 ,galileo's trial now proceeded strictly according to the programme settled by the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office under the papal presidency4 ,on the evening of ,monday1 #bjth ,june1 ,galileo received a summons from the ,holy ,office to appear the next day4#cij ,in this final hearing the accused was to be questioned1 under threat of torture1 about his intention1 that is1 as to his real conviction concerning the two systems4 ,on the morning of the #bast ,galileo appeared before his judges4 ,after he had taken the usual oath1 and had answered in the negative the query whether he had any statement to make1 the examiner began as follows3-- ,interrogated whether he holds or has held1 and how long ago1 that the sun is the centre of the world and that the earth is not the centre of the world1 and moves1 and also with a diurnal motion2 ,he answered3 8,a long time ago1 i4e41 before the decision of the ,holy ,congregation of the ,index1 and before the injunction was intimated to me1 ,i was indifferent1 and regarded both opinions1 namely1 that of ,ptolemy and that of ,copernicus1 as open to discussion1 inasmuch as either one or the other might be true in nature2 but after the said decision1 assured of the wisdom of the authorities1 ,i ceased to have any doubt2 and ,i held1 as ,i still hold1 as most true and indisputable1 the opinion of ,ptolemy1 that is to say1 the stability of the earth and the motion of the sun40 ,being told that from the manner and connection in which the said opinion is discussed in the book printed by him subsequently to the time mentioned--nay1 from the very fact of his having written and printed the said book1 he is presumed to have held this opinion after the time specified2 and being called upon to state the truth as to whether he holds or has held the same2 ,he answered3 8,as regards the writing of the published dialogue1 my motive in so doing was not because ,i held the ,copernican doctrine to be true1 but simply thinking to confer a common benefit1 ,i have set forth the proofs from nature and astronomy which may be adduced on either side2 my object being to make it clear that neither the one set of arguments nor the other has the force of conclusive demonstration in favour of this opinion or of that2 and that therefore1 in order to proceed with certainty we must have recourse to the decisions of higher teaching1 as may be clearly seen from a large number of passages in the dialogue in question4 ,i affirm1 therefore1 on my conscience1 that ,i do not now hold the condemned opinion1 and have not held it since the decision of the authorities40 ,being told that from the book itself and from the arguments adduced on the affirmative side1--namely1 that the earth moves and that the sun is immovable1--it is presumed1 as aforesaid1 that he holds the opinion of ,copernicus1 or at least that he held it at that time2 and that therefore1 unless he make up his mind to confess the truth1 recourse will be had against him to the appropriate remedies of the law2 ,he answered3 8,i do not hold1 and have not held this opinion of ,copernicus since the command was intimated to me that ,i must abandon it2 for the rest1 ,i am here in your hands1--do with me what you please40 ,being once more bidden to speak the truth1 otherwise recourse will be had to torture1 the terrified old man answered with the resignation of despair3 8,i am here to obey1 and ,i have not held this opinion since the decision was pronounced1 as ,i have stated40 ,in the protocol of the trial the concluding sentence follows immediately after this last answer of ,galileo's3 8,and as nothing further could be done in execution of the decree 7of #afth ,june71 his signature was obtained to his deposition1 and he was sent back to his place40#cia ,there is not in this document1 nor in any other extant1 the slightest trace that torture was actually applied to ,galileo1 as has long and even recently been fabled4 ,since the publication of it by ,epinois has acquainted us with the decree of #afth ,june1 none such can be expected ever to be found4 ,in that decree the course of the final legal proceedings was precisely indicated4 ,but it was only the threat of torture that was prescribed1 after which recantation and sentence of imprisonment were to follow4 ,the execution of this threat1 then1 would have been a gross1 and under the circumstances1 incredible violation of the decrees of the ,holy ,office itself4 ,moreover1 the assumed torture of ,galileo is opposed1 as we shall see by and by1 to various historical facts4 ,when the whole course of the trial is unrolled before our eyes1 we shall go more deeply into the region of fable and malicious fabrication4 ,but as we pursue the path of history1 we come upon an error which ,mgr4 ,marini's peculiar mode of interpretation has given rise to4 ,he takes the concluding words of the protocol of the trial of #bast ,june1 8remissus fuit ad locum suum10 to mean that ,galileo was sent back to the ,tuscan embassy4#cib ,now1 it is indisputable1 from a despatch of ,niccolini's to ,cioli of #bfth ,june1 #afcc1 that after the hearing of the #bast ,june1 the accused was detained in the buildings of the ,holy ,office1 and did not leave them till the #bdth4#cic ,we have no information whatever as to the treatment he met with this time in the buildings of the ,holy ,office4 ,was he put into the apartments he had occupied before1 or was he confined in a prisoner's cell8 ,from the considerate treatment in outward things which ,galileo met with during his trial at ,rome1 it may perhaps be concluded that he never was thrown into the dungeons of the ,inquisition4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,sentence ,,and ,,recantation4 ,the ,sentence in full4--,analysis of it4--,the ,copernican ,system had not been pronounced heretical by 8,infallible0 ,authority4--,the ,special ,prohibition assumed as ,fact4--,the ,sentence illegal according to the ,canon ,law4--,the ,holy ,office exceeded its powers in calling upon ,galileo to recant4--,the ,sentence not unanimous4--,this escaped notice for two hundred and thirty-one ,years4--,the ,recantation4--,futile attempts to show that ,galileo had really altered his ,opinion4--,after the ,sentence1 ,imprisonment exchanged for ,banishment to ,trinita de' ,monti4--,petition for leave to go to ,florence4--,allowed to go to ,siena4 ,on ,wednesday1 #bbnd ,june1 #afcc1 in the forenoon1 ,galileo was conducted to the large hall used for melancholy proceedings of this kind1 in the ,dominican ,convent of ,st4 ,maria sopra la ,minerva1 where1 in the presence of his judges and a large assemblage of cardinals and prelates of the ,holy ,congregation1 the following sentence was read to him3-- ,,we1 ,gasparo del titolo di ,s4 ,croce in ,gierusalemme ,borgia2 ,fra ,felice ,centino del titolo di ,s4 ,anastasia1 detto d',ascoli2 ,guido del titolo di ,s4 ,maria del ,popolo ,bentivoglio2 ,fra ,desiderio ,scaglia del titolo di ,s4 ,carlo detto di ,cremona2 ,fra ,antonio ,barberino detto di ,s4 ,onofrio2 ,laudivio ,zacchia del titolo di ,s4 ,pietro in ,vincola detto di ,s4 ,sisto2 ,berlingero del titolo di ,s4 ,agostino1 ,gessi2 ,fabricio del titolo di ,s4 ,lorenzo in pane e perna1 ,verospi1 chiamato ,prete2 ,francesco di ,s4 ,lorenzo in ,damaso ,barberino1 e ,martio di ,s4 ,maria ,nuova ,ginetti ,diaconi2 by the grace of ,god1 cardinals of the ,holy ,roman ,church1 ,inquisitors ,general1 by the ,holy ,apostolic see specially deputed1 against heretical depravity throughout the whole ,christian ,republic4 ,whereas you1 ,galileo1 son of the late ,vincenzo ,galilei1 ,florentine1 aged seventy years1 were in the year #afae denounced to this ,holy ,office for holding as true the false doctrine taught by many1 that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable1 and that the earth moves1 and also with a diurnal motion2 for having disciples to whom you taught the same doctrine2 for holding correspondence with certain mathematicians of ,germany concerning the same2 for having printed certain letters1 entitled 8,on the ,solar ,spots10 wherein you developed the same doctrine as true2 and for replying to the objections from the ,holy ,scriptures1 which from time to time were urged against it1 by glossing the said ,scriptures according to your own meaning3 and whereas there was thereupon produced the copy of a document in the form of a letter1 purporting to be written by you to one formerly your disciple1 and in this divers propositions are set forth1#cid following the hypothesis of ,copernicus1 which are contrary to the true sense and authority of ,holy ,scripture3 ,this ,holy ,tribunal being therefore desirous of proceeding against the disorder and mischief thence resulting1 which went on increasing to the prejudice of the ,holy ,faith1 by command of his ,holiness and of the most eminent ,lords ,cardinals of this supreme and universal ,inquisition1 the two propositions of the stability of the sun and the motion of the earth were by the theological 8,qualifiers0 qualified as follows3 ,the proposition that the sun is the centre of the world and does not move from its place is absurd and false philosophically and formally heretical1 because it is expressly contrary to the ,holy ,scripture4 ,the proposition that the earth is not the centre of the world and immovable1 but that it moves1 and also with a diurnal motion1 is equally absurd and false philosophically1 and theologically considered1 at least erroneous in faith4 ,but whereas it was desired at that time to deal leniently with you1 it was decreed at the ,holy ,congregation held before his ,holiness on the #beth ,february1 #afaf1 that his ,eminence the ,lord ,cardinal ,bellarmine should order you to abandon altogether the said false doctrine1 and1 in the event of your refusal1 that an injunction should be imposed upon you by the ,commissary of the ,holy ,office1 to give up the said doctrine1 and not to teach it to others1 nor to defend it1 nor even discuss it2 and failing your acquiescence in this injunction1 that you should be imprisoned4 ,and in execution of this decree1 on the following day1 at the ,palace1 and in the presence of his ,eminence1 the said ,lord ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 after being gently admonished by the said ,lord ,cardinal1 the command was intimated to you by the ,father ,commissary of the ,holy ,office for the time before a notary and witnesses1 that you were altogether to abandon the said false opinion1 and not in future to defend or teach it in any way whatsoever1 neither verbally nor in writing2 and upon your promising to obey you were dismissed4 ,and in order that a doctrine so pernicious might be wholly rooted out and not insinuate itself further to the grave prejudice of ,catholic truth1 a decree was issued by the ,holy ,congregation of the ,index1 prohibiting the books which treat of this doctrine1 and declaring the doctrine itself to be false and wholly contrary to sacred and divine ,scripture4 ,and whereas a book appeared here recently1 printed last year at ,florence1 the title of which shows that you were the author1 this title being3 8,dialogue of ,galileo ,galilei on the ,two ,principal ,systems of the ,world1 the ,ptolemaic and the ,copernican02 and whereas the ,holy ,congregation was afterwards informed that through the publication of the said book1 the false opinion of the motion of the earth and the stability of the sun was daily gaining ground2 the said book was taken into careful consideration1 and in it there was discovered a patent violation of the aforesaid injunction that had been imposed upon you1 for in this book you have defended the said opinion previously condemned and to your face declared to be so1 although in the said book you strive by various devices to produce the impression that you leave it undecided1 and in express terms as probable3 which however is a most grievous error1 as an opinion can in no wise be probable which has been declared and defined to be contrary to ,divine ,scripture3 ,therefore by our order you were cited before this ,holy ,office1 where1 being examined upon your oath1 you acknowledged the book to be written and published by you4 ,you confessed that you began to write the said book about ten or twelve years ago1 after the command had been imposed upon you as above2 that you requested licence to print it1 without however intimating to those who granted you this licence that you had been commanded not to hold1 defend1 or teach in any way whatever the doctrine in question4 ,you likewise confessed that the writing of the said book is in various places drawn up in such a form that the reader might fancy that the arguments brought forward on the false side are rather calculated by their cogency to compel conviction than to be easy of refutation2 excusing yourself for having fallen into an error1 as you alleged1 so foreign to your intention1 by the fact that you had written in dialogue1 and by the natural complacency that every man feels in regard to his own subtleties1 and in showing himself more clever than the generality of men1 in devising1 even on behalf of false propositions1 ingenious and plausible arguments4 ,and a suitable term having been assigned to you to prepare your defence1 you produced a certificate in the handwriting of his ,eminence the ,lord ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 procured by you1 as you asserted1 in order to defend yourself against the calumnies of your enemies1 who gave out that you had abjured and had been punished by the ,holy ,office2 in which certificate it is declared that you had not abjured and had not been punished1 but merely that the declaration made by his ,holiness and published by the ,holy ,congregation of the ,index1 had been announced to you1 wherein it is declared that the doctrine of the motion of the earth and the stability of the sun is contrary to the ,holy ,scriptures1 and therefore cannot be defended or held4 ,and as in this certificate there is no mention of the two articles of the injunction1 namely1 the order not 8to teach0 and 8in any way10 you represented that we ought to believe that in the course of fourteen or sixteen years you had lost all memory of them2 and that this was why you said nothing of the injunction when you requested permission to print your book4 ,and all this you urged not by way of excuse for your error1 but that it might be set down to a vainglorious ambition rather than to malice4 ,but this certificate produced by you in your defence has only aggravated your delinquency1 since although it is there stated that the said opinion is contrary to ,holy ,scripture1 you have nevertheless dared to discuss and defend it and to argue its probability2 nor does the licence artfully and cunningly extorted by you avail you anything1 since you did not notify the command imposed upon you4 ,and whereas it appeared to us that you had not stated the full truth with regard to your intention1 we thought it necessary to subject you to a rigorous examination1 at which 7without prejudice1 however1 to the matters confessed by you1 and set forth as above1 with regard to your said intention7 you answered like a good ,catholic4 ,therefore1 having seen and maturely considered the merits of this your cause1 together with your confessions and excuses above mentioned1 and all that ought justly to be seen and considered1 we have arrived at the underwritten final sentence against you3-- ,invoking1 therefore1 the most holy name of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ and of ,his most glorious ,mother1 and ever ,virgin ,mary1 by this our final sentence1 which sitting in judgment1 with the counsel and advice of the ,reverend ,masters of sacred theology and ,doctors of both ,laws1 our assessors1 we deliver in these writings1 in the cause and causes presently before us between the magnificent ,carlo ,sinceri1 ,doctor of both ,laws1 ,proctor ,fiscal of this ,holy ,office1 of the one part1 and you ,galileo ,galilei1 the defendant1 here present1 tried and confessed as above1 of the other part1--we say1 pronounce1 sentence1 declare1 that you1 the said ,galileo1 by reason of the matters adduced in process1 and by you confessed as above1 have rendered yourself in the judgment of this ,holy ,office vehemently suspected of heresy1 namely1 of having believed and held the doctrine--which is false and contrary to the sacred and divine ,scriptures--that the sun is the centre of the world and does not move from east to west1 and that the earth moves and is not the centre of the world2 and that an opinion may be held and defended as probable after it has been declared and defined to be contrary to ,holy ,scripture2 and that consequently you have incurred all the censures and penalties imposed and promulgated in the sacred canons and other constitutions1 general and particular1 against such delinquents4 ,from which we are content that you be absolved1 provided that first1 with a sincere heart1 and unfeigned faith1 you abjure1 curse1 and detest the aforesaid errors and heresies1 and every other error and heresy contrary to the ,catholic and ,apostolic ,roman ,church in the form to be prescribed by us4 ,and in order that this your grave and pernicious error and transgression may not remain altogether unpunished1 and that you may be more cautious for the future1 and an example to others1 that they may abstain from similar delinquencies--we ordain that the book of the 8,dialogues of ,galileo ,galilei0 be prohibited by public edict4 ,we condemn you to the formal prison of this ,holy ,office during our pleasure1 and by way of salutary penance1 we enjoin that for three years to come you repeat once a week the seven penitential ,psalms4 ,reserving to ourselves full liberty to moderate1 commute1 or take off1 in whole or in part1 the aforesaid penalties and penance4 ,and so we say1 pronounce1 sentence1 declare1 ordain1 condemn and reserve1 in this and any other better way and form which we can and may lawfully employ4 ,so we the undersigned ,cardinals pronounce4 ,f4 ,cardinalis de ,asculo4 ,g4 ,cardinalis ,bentiuolus4 ,fr4 ,cardinalis de ,cremona4 ,fr4 ,antonius ,cardinalis ,s4 ,honuphrij4 ,b4 ,cardinalis ,gypsius4 ,fr4 ,cardinalis ,verospius4 ,m4 ,cardinalis ,ginettus4#cie ,before proceeding to narrate the consequences of this sentence to the culprit 7namely1 his recantation and punishment71 this seems to be the place to subject this memorable document to a critical review1 to show how far the sentence pronounced on ,galileo had a legal basis1 even on ,romish principles4 ,to this end it will be necessary to follow the construction of the sentences step by step1 for only in this way can a correct opinion be formed of the accordance of this cunningly devised structure with the actual state of things4 ,the sentence begins with a condensed historical review of the transactions of #afae1 obviously based on the denunciations of ,lorini1 and the evidence of ,caccini of #bjth ,march1 #afae4 ,immediately afterwards follows the well-known opinion of the theological ,qualifiers on the principles of ,copernicus4 ,this is plainly to justify the measures taken in consequence by the ecclesiastical authorities against his doctrine and its most distinguished advocate4 ,for immediately after follows1 first a recapitulation of the report registered in the ,vatican ,,ms4 of the events of #beth and #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 and then the decree of the ,congregation of the ,index of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 8by which those books were prohibited which treat of the aforesaid doctrine1 and the same was declared to be false and entirely contrary to ,holy and ,divine ,scripture40 ,the sentence then comes to the occasion of the trial of ,galileo1 namely1 his 8,dialogues10--and states3 firstly1 that by this book he had transgressed the special prohibition of #afaf2cif secondly1 that his statement therein1 which is almost incredible1 that he had left the ,copernican view undecided and as only probable1 is a 8gross error10 since a doctrine cannot in any way be probable 7probalis7 which has already been found and declared to be 8contrary to ,holy ,scripture40 ,the first point1 from the standpoint of the ,inquisition1 which treated the note of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 as an authentic document1 is certainly correct2 the second1 even according to the maxims of ,rome1 is not to the purpose4 ,according to these maxims a proposition can only be made into a dogma by 8infallible0 authority1 namely1 by the ,pope speaking ex cathedra1 or by an cumenical ,council2 and on the other hand1 it is only by the same method that an obligation can be laid upon the faithful to consider an opinion heretical4 ,but a decree of the ,congregation of the ,index does not entail the obligation2 for1 although by virtue of the authority conferred on it1 it can enforce obedience and inflict punishment1 its decrees are not 8infallible40 ,they can1 however1 be made so1 according to ecclesiastical views1 either by the subsequent express confirmation of the ,pope by a brief in his name1 as supreme head of the ,christian ,catholic ,church2 or by the decree of the ,congregation being originally provided with the clause3 8,sanctissimus confirmavit et publicari mandavit40 ,but the decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 is neither confirmed by a subsequent brief1 nor does it contain that special formula2 and1 therefore1 in spite of this decree1 which declared the opinion of ,copernicus to be 8false and contrary to ,holy and ,divine ,scripture10 it might still be considered as undecided1 and even probable1 because the decree might be fallible1 and did not entail the obligation to adopt its sentence as an article of faith4#cig ,this must also have been the view of the ecclesiastical authorities of the censorship1 who had given ,galileo's book the imprimatur1 and thereby1 as ,h4 ,martin justly remarks1#cih relieved the author of responsibility1 not in anything relating to the assumed special prohibition1 but concerning the accordance of the work with the published decree4 ,point #b1 therefore1 seems as unjustifiable as it is untenable4 ,the sentence now gives a brief rsum of the confessions made by ,galileo during the examination1 which are employed to confirm his guilt4 ,the twofold reproach is urged against him1 as of special weight1 that he began to write his 8,dialogues0 after the issue of the assumed prohibition1 and that he said nothing about it in obtaining the imprimatur of the censors2 thus the special prohibition was treated as an established fact--on the one hand1 his disobedience to an injunction of the ecclesiastical authorities was proved1 and on the other1 the imprimatur was obtained on false pretences1 and was null and void4 ,after a rather weak recapitulation of the declaration so unedifying to posterity1 made by ,galileo at his second hearing1 the sentence proceeds to the discussion of an authentic document which formed the chief defence of the accused3 the certificate given him in #afaf by ,cardinal ,bellarmine4 ,the authors of the sentence had at this point a delicate and difficult task to perform4 ,the object was to uphold the inviolability of the 8note0 of #bfth ,february1 #afaf--this main support of the whole indictment--and by no means to make this attestation appear at variance with the actual circumstances1 or it would have become an important argument in favour of the accused4 ,nay1 to avoid this rock1 material for the accusation had to be found in the words of the certificate itself4 ,and thus we find this document1 which1 as ,wohlwill pertinently remarks1#cii by the words 8but only0 directly denies the assumed stringent prohibition of #afaf1 singularly enough1 thanks to the sophistry of the ,roman lawyers1 forming a weighty argument in the sentence for the ,inquisitors3 8,but this certificate10 it says1 8produced by you in your defence1 has only aggravated your delinquency2 since although it is there stated that the said opinion is contrary to ,holy ,scripture1 you have nevertheless dared to discuss and defend it1 and to argue its probability40 ,but as here they again had to refer to the protecting imprimatur of the ecclesiastical censors1 they hasten to add3 8nor does the licence1 artfully and cunningly extorted by you1 avail you anything1 since you did not notify the command imposed upon you40 ,one cannot help drawing the conclusion1 that if the attestation of ,cardinal ,bellarmine is accepted as true1 8the command imposed0 did not exist1 and of course could not be communicated by ,galileo to the censors4 ,in the clause of the sentence referring to the attestation1 a passage is dexterously interwoven1 which ascribes the decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 to the ,pope2 while1 as we know1 it belongs officially to the ,congregation alone4 ,the words are these3 8,but merely that the declaration made by his ,holiness 7fatta da nostro ,signore71 and published by the ,holy ,congregation of the ,index1 had been announced to you40 ,undoubtedly ,pope ,paul ,v4 wished the decree made and privately instigated it1 as ,urban ,,viii4 did the sentence against ,galileo2 and in this sense the former may be attributed to the one and the latter to the other1 and the condemnation of the ,copernican theory to both4 ,but in this they acted as private persons1 and as such they were not 7nor would they now be71 according to theological rules1 8infallible40 ,the conditions which would have made the decree of the ,congregation1 or the sentence against ,galileo1 of dogmatic importance1 were1 as we have seen1 wholly wanting4 ,both ,popes had been too cautious to endanger this highest privilege of the papacy by involving their infallible authority in the decision of a scientific controversy2 they therefore refrained from conferring their sanction1 as heads of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 on the measures taken1 at their instigation1 by the ,congregation 8to suppress the doctrine of the revolution of the earth40 ,thanks to this sagacious foresight1 ,roman ,catholic posterity can say to this day1 that ,paul ,v4 and ,urban ,,viii4 were in error 8as men0 about the ,copernican system1 but not 8as ,popes40 ,for us there remains the singular deduction1 that the sentence on ,galileo rests again and again1 even on the principles of the ecclesiastical court itself1 on an illegal foundation4 ,after a brief mention of the rigid examination of #bast ,june1 the sentence comes to formulate the judgment more particularly4 ,according to this ,galileo is1 7#a7 8in the judgment of this ,holy ,office1 vehemently suspected of heresy1 namely1 of having believed and held the doctrine which is false and contrary to the ,sacred and ,divine ,scriptures 444 and that an opinion may be held and defended as probable after it has been declared and defined to be contrary to ,holy ,scripture20 7#b7 and that consequently he has incurred all the censures and penalties imposed in the sacred canons against such delinquents4 8,from which we are content that you be absolved1 provided that first you abjure1 curse1 and detest the aforesaid errors and heresies in the form to be supplied by us40 ,point #a1 according to ,romish regulations about making an opinion an article of faith1 in its relation to heresy appears to be illegal and incorrect4 ,galileo had not laid himself open to suspicion of heresy because he had inclined to a doctrine discovered to be contrary to ,scripture by the fallible ,congregation of the ,index4 ,point #b must also1 therefore1 be illegal1 which says that ,galileo had 8consequently0 incurred all the censures and penalties adjudged to such criminals by the canon law4 ,galileo could never have been legally condemned on suspicion of heresy from his 8,dialogues40 ,in the first place1 because neither he nor any other ,catholic was bound by the decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 to regard the confirmation of the old system or the rejection of the new as an article of faith2 in the second place1 because the imprimatur of the ecclesiastical authorities relieved him from all responsibility4 ,but he could be condemned for disobedience to the assumed special prohibition of #bfth ,february1 #afaf4 ,in the sentence this forms the only legal basis of the indictment and condemnation4 ,how far this prohibition is historically credible1 we think we have sufficiently demonstrated in the course of our work4 ,and when we consider the penalties which follow from this sentence1 based partly upon incorrect1 and partly upon false accusations1 we find that the ,inquisition1 by compelling ,galileo to recant with a threat of other and severer penalties1 far exceeded its powers4 ,the ,holy ,tribunal was empowered to punish the 8disobedience0 of the philosopher with imprisonment and ecclesiastical penances1 and to forbid him to discuss the opinion in writing or speaking1 but it had no authority to extort from ,galileo1 or any one else1 such a confession on an opinion which had not been defined by 8infallible0 authority4 ,this is openly admitted even by high theological authority3 8,in fact an excess of authority and an injustice did take place20 8but10 the reverend gentleman hastens to add1 8certainly not from malice1 but from a mistake10#djj--;a lenient opinion which we are unable to share4 ,whether any scruples were expressed1 or any dissentient voices heard in this ecclesiastical court about the manifold illegalities in the proceedings against the famous accused1 we do not know1 no notes having come down to us of the private discussions and transactions of the ,holy ,tribunal4 ,but there is one fact which leads us to conclude that all the judges did not consent to this procedure1 and that the sentence was not unanimous3 at the head of the sentence ten ,cardinals are enumerated as judges1 but the document is signed by seven only1 and besides this there is the express remark3 8,so we1 the undersigned cardinals1 pronounce06 ,singularly enough1 two hundred and thirty-one years passed by1 during which much that is valuable was written about ,galileo1 and a great deal more that was fabulous1 before this significant circumstance was noticed by any author4 ,the merit of having first called attention to it belongs to ,professor ,moritz ,cantor1 in #ahfd4dja ,the three cardinals who did not sign were1 ,caspar ,borgia1 ,laudivio ,zacchia1 and ,francesco ,barberini1 the ,pope's nephew1 whom we have repeatedly found to be a warm patron and protector of ,galileo4 ,professor ,berti offers as an explanation of the absence of the three signatures1 that the ,congregation in the name of which the sentence was passed consisted of ten members1 but that at the last sitting seven only were present1 so that seven only could sign1 and adds1 as it appears to us unwarrantably1 8that it by no means follows that the three absentees were of a contrary opinion40#djb ,pieralisi does not find the matter so simple1 and devotes seven large pages to account for the absence of the three prelates from the ,congregation4 8,cardinal ,borgia10 he says1 8was on very bad terms with ,urban ,,viii41 because he had addressed the ,pope in a loud voice in a consistory1 and the ,pope had imperiously told him to be quiet and to go away40#djc ,but it has been proved that even after this scene the cardinal appeared at the consistories up to #abth ,february1 #afce1 although there were complaints that he took walks in ,rome instead of attending the sittings of the ,propaganda and the ,holy ,office4 ,but it is not likely that this cardinal1 whose name stands at the head of the sentence1 would have absented himself from the final sitting without some good reason4 ,pieralisi thinks that he was more friendly to ,galileo than the other cardinals1 an opinion for which there is no evidence and which proves nothing4 ,even ,pieralisi confesses that he can find no reason for the absence of ,cardinal ,zacchia1 but assigns the following motive for that of ,cardinal ,francesco ,barberini3 8,he probably wished to uphold the right enjoyed by the cardinal nephews1 and afterwards by the secretaries of state1 of sometimes abstaining from voting in order to reserve to themselves greater freedom in the treatment of public1 private1 and political affairs40 ,the insufficiency of this explanation is too obvious to need comment4 ,pieralisi himself comes to the conclusion that these dignitaries did not wish to append their signatures to the famous sentence1 which is much the same thing as the conjecture that they did not agree to it4 ,in accordance with this sentence1 certainly not passed unanimously by the members of the ,holy ,tribunal1 which forms one of the foulest blots in the melancholy annals of the ,inquisition1 ,galileo was compelled immediately after hearing it to make the following degrading recantation1 humbly kneeling1 before the whole assembly3-- 8,i1 ,galileo ,galilei1 son of the late ,vincenzo ,galilei1 ,florentine1 aged seventy years1 arraigned personally before this tribunal1 and kneeling before you1 most ,eminent and ,reverend ,lord ,cardinals1 ,inquisitors general against heretical depravity throughout the whole ,christian ,republic1 having before my eyes and touching with my hands1 the holy ,gospels swear that ,i have always believed1 do now believe1 and by ,god's help will for the future believe1 all that is held1 preached1 and taught by the ,holy ,catholic and ,apostolic ,roman ,church4 ,but whereas--after an injunction had been judicially intimated to me by this ,holy ,office1 to the effect that ,i must altogether abandon the false opinion that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable1 and that the earth is not the centre of the world1 and moves1 and that ,i must not hold1 defend1 or teach in any way whatsoever1 verbally or in writing1 the said doctrine1 and after it had been notified to me that the said doctrine was contrary to ,holy ,scripture--,i wrote and printed a book in which ,i discuss this doctrine already condemned1 and adduce arguments of great cogency in its favour1 without presenting any solution of these2 and for this cause ,i have been pronounced by the ,holy ,office to be vehemently suspected of heresy1 that is to say1 of having held and believed that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable1 and that the earth is not the centre and moves3-- ,therefore1 desiring to remove from the minds of your ,eminences1 and of all faithful ,christians1 this strong suspicion1 reasonably conceived against me1 with sincere heart and unfeigned faith ,i abjure1 curse1 and detest the aforesaid errors and heresies1 and generally every other error and sect whatsoever contrary to the said ,holy ,church2 and ,i swear that in future ,i will never again say or assert1 verbally or in writing1 anything that might furnish occasion for a similar suspicion regarding me2 but that should ,i know any heretic1 or person suspected of heresy1 ,i will denounce him to this ,holy ,office1 or to the ,inquisitor and ordinary of the place where ,i may be4 ,further1 ,i swear and promise to fulfil and observe in their integrity all penances that have been1 or that shall be1 imposed upon me by this ,holy ,office4 ,and1 in the event of my contravening1 7which ,god forbid67 any of these my promises1 protestations1 and oaths1 ,i submit myself to all the pains and penalties imposed and promulgated in the sacred canons and other constitutions1 general and particular1 against such delinquents4 ,so help me ,god1 and these ,his holy ,gospels1 which ,i touch with my hands4 ,i1 the said ,galileo ,galilei1 have abjured1 sworn1 promised1 and bound myself as above2 and in witness of the truth thereof ,i have with my own hand subscribed the present document of my abjuration1 and recited it word for word at ,rome1 in the ,convent of ,minerva1 this twenty-second day of ,june1 #afcc4 ,i1 ,galileo ,galilei1 have abjured as above with my own hand40#djd ,certain ,catholic writers express the hope1 at the expense of truth1 for the sake of ,galileo's salvation and honour1 that he really had1 from conviction1 renounced the opinion which he had been labouring for and advocating up to old age4 ,indeed1 the super-,catholic author of an essay1 called 8,the ,holy ,see against ,galileo ,galilei and the ,astronomical ,system of ,copernicus10#dje does not hesitate to say3 8,probably the physical absurdities of his 7,galileo's7 doctrine had achieved a victory for the voice of reason and religion40#djf ,undoubtedly there were many physical difficulties in the way of a general acceptance of the new doctrines 7especially the prevailing incorrect ideas about the specific gravity of the air71#djg and they were only finally overcome by the discovery of the law of gravitation by the genius of ,newton2 but they were not so great as to prevent men1 like ,kepler1 ,descartes1 ,gassendi1 ,diodati1 ,philip ,landsberg1 ,joachim ,rhticus1 and others1 and above all1 the great ,italian reformer of physics and astronomy1 from1 even at that time1 recognising the truth of the new theory4 ,it does not appear1 either1 that the author of that article had much faith in his own conjecture1 for he proceeds to a demonstration1 from opposite premises1 which was for a time much in vogue with the ,jesuitical defenders of the ,inquisition against ,galileo1 and which must therefore be briefly mentioned4 ,this was nothing less than an attempt to show that even if ,galileo held the ,copernican system to be the only true one1 he could1 thanks to the wording of the formula of recantation1 utter it without doing violence to his conscience2 or1 what is now known to be truth4#djh ,galileo swore that he never had believed and never would believe 7#a7 8that the sun was the centre of the earth and immovable40 ,that he could easily do1 says our author1 for1 in relation to the fixed stars1 the sun by no means forms the centre2 and heavy bodies on the earth fall towards its centre and not towards the sun1 which1 also1 in this sense1 was not the centre6 ,there was no difficulty for ,galileo in recanting that the sun was immovable1 for he had himself concluded from the motion of the spots that it revolved on its own axis4#dji ,as to the earth1 he abjured it as an error 7#b7 that 8the earth is not the centre20 quite right1 for it is the centre for heavy bodies3 and it was not said--8the centre of the universe20 7#c7 8that the earth moves20 vast efforts of sophistry were necessary to make this desperately precise proposition square with the arguments of this curious casuist4 ,he therefore says1 that as1 according to the wording1 it is not the diurnal motion of the earth that is in question1 this proposition has quite a different meaning1 in which1 on the one hand1 it must be said that the earth is immovable1 and on the other1 that it is only motion through the air from one place to another that is excluded4 ,the earth may certainly1 both in relation to its physical conformation and in contrast to what goes on upon it1 be called immovable6#daj ,at the time when these lines were written1 in #ahge1 the author of this article in the 8,historisch-politischen ,blttern0 was unknown to us4 ,afterwards1 through the liberality of the ,bavarian ,government1 among other works relating to ,galileo in the ,royal ,library1 the following were lent to us3--7#a7 8,di ,copernico e di ,galileo1 scritto postumo del ,p4 ,maurizio-,benedetto ,olivieri1 ,ex4 generale dei domenicani e ,commissario della ,s4 ,rom4 ed ,univ4 ,inquisizione ora per la prima volta messo in luce sull' autografo per cura d'un religioso dello stesso istituto4 ,bologna1 #ahgb02 7#b7 8,il ,s4 ,officio1 ,copernico e ,galileo a proposito di un opusculo postumo del ,p4 ,olivieri sullo stesso argomento apunti di ,gilberto ,govi4 ,torino1 #ahgb40 ,to our no small surprise we found1 on reading the former1 that it had by no means 8seen the light0 for the first time in #ahgb1 but had appeared thirty-one years before in a literal ,german translation1 as the article above mentioned in the 8,historisch-politischen ,blttern10 with a few insignificant alterations1 and a different title1 the old one being given in a note4 ,neither the editor of the first ,italian work of ,olivieri1 the ,dominican monk1 ,fra4 ,tommaso ,bonora1 nor the author of the above rejoinder1#daa ,gilberto ,govi1 had1 as appears from what they say1 the least idea of this singular fact4 ,in ,germany1 ,professor ,clemens of ,bonn1 was universally believed to be the author of this article1 which excited great attention2 so firmly was it held1 that ,professor ,moritz ,cantor1 in a notice of the present work1 gave no credence to our discovery1 but stated in his critique1 8,the anonymous writer was not ,olivieri1 but ,professor ,clemens of ,bonn40#dab ,upon this we sent ,professor ,cantor the essay from the 8,historisch-politischen ,blttern0 and ,bonora's work for examination1 when he was constrained to be convinced by the sight of his own eyes4 ,the wretched attempt thus to clear the ,inquisition1 by ,olivieri's method1 of the reproach of having extorted an oath from ,galileo entirely against his convictions1 is unworthy of refutation4 ,by impartial posterity the oath is and must be regarded as perjury1 and is all the more repulsive because the promise was coupled with it that1 8if he met with a heretic1 or person suspected of heresy10 he would denounce him to the authorities of the ,church2 that is1 the master would denounce his disciples--for by a 8heretic1 or any one suspected of heresy10 the adherents of the ,copernican system must be chiefly understood--to the persecution of the ,inquisition6 ,the taking of this degrading oath may1 under the circumstances1 be excused1 but it never can be justified4 ,after this painful act of world-wide interest had been completed1 ,galileo was conducted back to the buildings of the ,holy ,office4 ,now that he and the ,copernican system had been condemned with becoming solemnity by the ,holy ,office1 ,urban ,,viii4 magnanimously gave the word for mercy2 that is1 ,galileo was not1 as the sentence prescribed1 detained in the prisons of the ,inquisition1 but a restricted amount of liberty was granted him4 ,the ,roman curia never entirely let go its hold upon him as long as he lived4 ,on the day after the sentence was passed1 the ,pope exchanged imprisonment for temporary banishment1 to the villa of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany at ,trinita de' ,monti1 near ,rome1#dac whither ,niccolini conducted his unfortunate friend on the evening of #bdth ,june1 as we find from the despatch before quoted from him to ,cioli of #bfth of the month4#dad ,we learn from the same source that while ,galileo took the prohibition of his book1 of which he was aware beforehand1 with tolerable composure1 the unexpected proceedings of the ,holy ,office against him personally1 affected him most deeply4 ,niccolini did his best to rouse him from his deep depression1 but at first with little success4#dae ,galileo longed to leave ,rome1 where he had suffered so much1 and therefore addressed the following petition to ,urban ,,viii43-- 8,most ,holy ,father6 ,galileo ,galilei most humbly begs your ,holiness to exchange the place assigned to him for his prison near ,rome1 for some other in ,florence1 which may appear suitable to your ,holiness1 in consideration of his poor health1 and also because the petitioner is expecting a sister with eight children from ,germany1 to whom no one can afford help and protection so well as himself4 ,he will receive any disposition of your ,holiness as a great favour40#daf ,but in the ,vatican the opinion prevailed that to allow ,galileo to return to ,florence already would be a superfluity of indulgence4 ,the ,pope said to ,niccolini3 8,we must proceed gently1 and only rehabilitate ,galileo by degrees40#dag ,still ,urban was disposed to grant the ambassador's request1 and to alter the penalty so far as to allow the exile to go to ,siena1 to the house of the ,archbishop ,ascanio ,piccolomini1 whom we know as a warm friend of ,galileo's4 ,niccolini's urgent entreaties succeeded in obtaining a papal decree of #cjth ,june1 ordering ,galileo to go by the shortest route to ,siena1 to go to the ,archbishop's at once1 to remain there1 and strictly to obey his orders2 and he was not to leave that city without permission from the ,congregation4#dah ,galileo was informed of this decree on #bnd ,july by the ,commissary-,general of the ,inquisition1 ,father ,vincenzo ,maccolani di ,firenzuola1 in person4#dai ,on #ajth ,july1 ,niccolini reported to ,cioli3 8,signor ,galileo set out early on ,wednesday1 #fth ,july1 in good health1 for ,siena1 and writes to me from ,viterbo1 that he had performed four miles on foot1 the weather being very cool40#dbj ,,chapter ,x4 ,,current ,,myths4 ,popular ,story of ,galileo's ,fate4--,his ,eyes put out4--8,e pur si ,muove40--,the ,hair ,shirt4--,imprisonment4--,galileo only detained twenty-two ,days at the ,holy ,office4--,torture4--,refuted in #ahth ,century4--,torture based on the words1 8examen rigorosum40--,this shown to be untenable4--,assertion that the ,acts have been falsified refuted4--,false ,imputation on ,niccolini4--,conclusive ,evidence against ,torture4--,galileo not truly a 8,martyr of ,science40 ,before following ,galileo's fate to the end1 so far as his relations with the curia are concerned1 it seems desirable to glance at the fables and exaggerations1 mostly originating in malice and fierce partisanship1 which1 in defiance of the results of the latest historical research1 are not only circulated among the public at large1 but introduced1 to some extent1 even in works which profess to contain history4 ,according to these legends1 ,galileo languishes during the trial in the prisons of the ,inquisition2 when brought before his judges1 he proudly defends the doctrine of the double motion2 he is then seized by the executioners of the ,holy ,office1 and subjected to the horrors of torture2 but even then--as heroic fable demands--he for a long time remains steadfast2 under pain beyond endurance he promises obedience1 that is1 the recantation of the ,copernican system4 ,as soon as his torn and dislocated limbs permit1 he is dragged before the large assembly of the ,congregation1 and there1 kneeling in the penitential shirt1 with fierce rage in his heart1 he utters the desired recantation4 ,as he rises he is no longer able to master his indignation1 and fiercely stamping with his foot1 he utters the famous words3 8,e pur si muove60 ,he is1 therefore1 thrown into the dank dungeons of the dreaded tribunal1 where his eyes are put out6 ,the blinding of ,galileo is a creation of the lively popular mind1 which1 with its love of horrors1 embellishes tragical historical events by fictitious additions of this kind1 just suited to the palates of people accustomed to coarse diet4 ,galileo's subsequent loss of sight may have given rise to the fable1 which first appeared in the 8,history of ,astronomy0 by ,estevius4#dba ,it is not known who was the inventor of the assumed exclamation1 8,e pur si muove10 which sounds well1 and has become a 8winged word20 but besides not being historic1 it very incorrectly indicates the old man's state of mind2 for he was morally completely crushed4 ,professor ,heis1 who has devoted a treatise to the origin of this famous saying1 thinks that he has discovered its first appearance in the 8,dictionnaire ,historique10 ,caen1 #aghi2dbb ,professor ,grisar tells us1 however1 in his studies on the trial of ,galileo1 that in the 8,lehrbuch der philosophischen ,geschichte10 published at ,wrzburg1 #aggd1 fifteen years earlier1 by ,fr4 ,n4 ,steinacher1 the following edifying passage occurs3-- 8,galileo was neither sufficiently in earnest nor steadfast with his recantation2 for the moment he rose up1 when his conscience told him that he had sworn falsely1 he cast his eyes on the ground1 stamped with his foot1 and exclaimed1 #8,e pur si muove4'0#dbc ,besides the fact that these words are not attributed to ,galileo by any of his contemporaries1 not even the best informed1 the fallacy of the whole story is obvious2 for the witnesses of this outbreak1 his judges1 in fact1 would assuredly not have allowed so audacious a revocation of his recantation to escape unpunished2 it is1 indeed1 impossible to conjecture what the consequences would have been2 the recusant would certainly not have been released two days afterwards from the buildings of the ,holy ,office4 ,although this dramatic scene is not mentioned as worthy of credit by any modern historian1#dbd it is different with the hair shirt in which ,galileo is said to have performed the humiliating act4 ,libri1 ,cousin1 ,parchappe1 and very recently ,louis ,combes1#dbe all gravely relate that the philosopher had to recant 8en chemise40 ,the official document1 although it goes very much into detail as to the way in which the oath was performed1 says nothing of the shirt1 and these authors should have said nothing either4 ,the doubtful source in which this fable originated is an anonymous and very confused note on a ,,ms4 in1 the ,magliabechiana ,library at ,florence1 where among other nonsense we find3 8the poor man 7,galileo71 appeared clad in a ragged shirt1 so that it was really pitiable40#dbf ,we agree with ,epinois1#dbg that history requires more authentic testimony than that of an anonymous note4 ,but upon what testimony1 then1 do a large number of authors speak with much pathos of the imprisonment which ,galileo had to undergo8 ,no sort of documents are referred to as evidence of the story2 this is quite intelligible1 for none exist4 ,or is the rhetorical phrase1 8,galileus nunc in vinculis detinetur10#dbh contained in a letter of ,may1 #afcc1 from ,rome1 from ,holstein to ,peiresc1 to be taken as evidence that ,galileo was really languishing in the prisons of the ,inquisition8 ,one glance at the truest historical source for the famous trial1--the official despatches of ,niccolini to ,cioli1 from #aeth ,august1 #afcb1 to #crd ,december1 #afcc1 from which we have so freely quoted1--would have convinced any one that ,galileo spent altogether only twenty-two days 7#ab-cjth ,april1 and afterwards #ba-bdth ,june1 #afcc7 in the buildings of the ,holy ,office2 and even then1 not in a prison cell with grated windows1 but in the handsome and commodious apartment of an official of the ,inquisition4 ,but such writers do not seem to have been in the habit of studying authorities2 thus1 for example1 in the 8,histoire des ,hrsies10 by ,p4 ,domenico ,bernini1 and in the 8,grande ,dictionnaire ,bibliographique0 of ,moreri1 we find it stated that ,galileo was imprisoned five or six years at ,rome6 ,monteula1 in his 8,histoire des ,mathematiques10 and ,sir ,david ,brewster1 in his 8,martyrs of ,science10 reduce the period1 perhaps from pity for the poor 8martyr10 to one year2 ,delambre1 however1 felt no such compassion1 and says in his 8,histoire de l',astronomie ,ancienne10 that ,galileo was condemned to an imprisonment which lasted 8several years06 ,such an error is the more surprising from the last celebrated author1 as we know that trustworthy extracts from the original acts of the ,vatican ,,ms4 were in his hands4#dbi ,even in a very recent work1 ,drager's 8,geschichte der ,conflicte zwischen ,religion und ,wissenschaft10 ,leipzig1 #ahge 78,history of the ,conflicts between ,religion and ,science071 it is seriously stated that ,galileo was detained three years in the prisons of the ,inquisition6 ,thus we see that the fable of ,galileo's imprisonment has been adopted by several authors without any historical foundation1 and this is to a far greater extent the case with the famous story of the torture to which he is said to have been subjected4 ,as it has held its ground1 although only sporadically1 even up to the most recent times1#dcj it seems incumbent on us to go more deeply into this disputed question4 ,curiously enough1 it is towards the end of the eighteenth century that we find the first traces of this falsehood1 and from the fact that three savans1 ,frisi1#dca ,brenna1#dcb and ,targioni1#dcc who wrote lives of ,galileo at that time1 raised a protest against it4 ,although they were not then able1 as we are now1 to base their arguments upon the ,acts of the trial1 they had even then authentic materials in their hands--the despatches between ,niccolini and ,cioli1#dcd then recently published by ,fabroni--which rendered it utterly improbable that the old man had been placed upon the rack4 ,these materials were thoroughly turned to account eighty years later by ,t4 ,b4 ,biot1 in his essay1 8,la verit sur le procs de ,galilei40#dce ,he clearly showed from the reports of the ambassador that ,galileo had neither suffered torture during his first stay in the buildings of the ,holy ,office1 from #ab-cjth ,april1 when he daily wrote to ,niccolini1#dcf and was in better health when he returned to the embassy than when he left it2#dcg nor during the three days of his second detention1 from #ba-bdth ,june1 at the end of which he was conducted by ,niccolini1 on the evening of the #bdth1 to the ,villa ,medici4#dch ,on #fth ,july he set out thence1 8in very good health10 for ,siena1 and in spite of his advanced age performed four miles on foot for his own pleasure1#dci which an infirm old man of seventy1 if he had suffered torture a fortnight before1 would surely not have been able to do4 ,but all these plain indications go for nothing with some historians1 whose judgment is warped by partisanship1 and who are not willing to give up the notion that ,galileo did suffer the pangs of torture4 ,and so we find this myth1 at first mentioned by a few authors as a mere unauthentic report1 assuming a more and more distinct form1 until it is brought forward1 with acute and learned arguments1 as1 to say the least1 very probable1 by ,libri1 ,brewster1 ,parchappe1 ,eckert1 and others4 ,these writers base their assertion on the following passage in the sentence3-- 8,and whereas it appeared to us that you had not stated the full truth with regard to your intention1 we thought it necessary to subject you to a rigorous examination 7examen rigorosum71 at which 7without prejudice however1 to the matters confessed by you1 and set forth as above with regard to your said intention7 you answered like a good ,catholic40 ,these writers assert1 on the one hand1 that the expression 8examen rigorosum10 in the vocabulary of the ,inquisition could mean nothing but torture2 and on the other1 they take the expression that ,galileo had 8answered as a good ,catholic0 under examen rigorosum1 to mean that they had extorted from him a confession as to his intention1 and conclude that torture had been resorted to4 ,but on closer scrutiny of the wording of the passage1 the meaning appears to be exactly the contrary2 for the sentence in parenthesis says plainly that ,galileo had 8answered as a good ,catholic0 8without prejudice0 to his previous depositions or the conclusions which his judges had previously arrived at as to his intention1 and which ,galileo persistently denied4 ,his ,catholic answer consisted in his repeated assurance that he did not hold the opinion of ,copernicus1 and had not held it after the command to renounce it had been intimated to him4 ,the ,inquisition could but call this a ,catholic answer1 as ,galileo thereby entirely renounced the condemned doctrine4#ddj ,we turn now to the other assertion of these writers1 that 8examen rigorosum0 means torture4 ,this is in a general sense correct1 if by torture the actual application of it is not intended4 ,but they take the passage in the sentence for decisive evidence that torture was actually carried out1 in which they are mistaken1 as the following passage from the 8,sacro ,arsenale0 undoubtedly proves3 8,if the culprit who was merely taken to the torture chamber1 and there undressed1 or also bound1 without however being lifted up1 confessed1 it was said that he had confessed under torture and under examen rigorosum40#dda ,the last expression then by no means always implies the actual application of torture4 ,dr4 ,wohlwill knows this passage1 and the sentence therefore only proves to him that ,galileo was taken into the torture chamber2 what took place there1 whether the old man was actually tortured1 or whether they contented themselves with urging him to speak the truth1 and threatening him with the instruments they were showing him 7a degree of torture called territio realis71 appears shrouded in mystery to ,dr4 ,wohlwill4 ,in spite of his acquaintance with the literature of the ,inquisition1 he has fallen into a mistake4 ,he thinks that the territio realis was the first degree of torture4#ddb ,but this was not the case4 ,limborch's work1 8,historia ,inquisitionis10 with which ,wohwill does not seem to be acquainted1 contains definite information on the point4 ,he says that there were five grades of torture1 which followed in regular order1 and quotes the following passage verbatim from ,julius ,clarus3 8,know then that there are five degrees of torture3 ,first1 the threat of the rack2 second1 being taken into the torture chamber2 third1 being undressed and bound2 fourth1 being laid upon the rack2 fifth1 turning the rack40#ddc ,the territio realis was therefore by no means the first degree of torture2 the first was the threat of torture1 still outside the torture chamber in the ordinary court1 called territio verbalis1#ddd which proceeding we find in the examination of ,galileo on #bast ,june4 ,the expression 8examen rigorosum0 in the sentence1 appears therefore1 taking it to indicate torture in a general sense1 fully justified by historical facts4 ,it would be more difficult to prove that 8examen rigorosum0 in the sentence meant actual torture1 or territio realis4 ,according to the rules of the ,holy ,office1 a number of strict regulations were prescribed for the procedure1 which began with taking the accused into the torture chamber1 and the neglect of any one of them made the whole examination null and void4 ,the most important were as follows3 ,first1 a short final examination had to take place outside the torture chamber1 at which the accused was told that he had better confess1 or recourse will be had to torture4 7,this took place precisely according to the rules of the ,holy ,office at ,galileo's trial at the examination on #bast ,june47 ,if the accused persisted1 and if in a special ,congregation for this case the necessity of recourse to torture had previously been agreed upon#dde 7this must have taken place in the ,congregation of #afth ,june71 the judge had to order the removal of the accused1 to the torture chamber by a special formal decree1 as follows3--8,tunc ,d4,d4 sedentes 444 visa pertinacia et obstinatione ipsius constitati1 visoque et mature considerato toto tenore processus 444 decreverunt1 ipsum constituum esse torquendum tormento funis pro veritate habendo4444 ,et ideo mandaverunt ipsum constitutum duci ad locum tormentorum40#ddf ,second1 a notary of the ,inquisition had to be present in the torture chamber1 and the judges had to see 8that he noted down not only all the answers of the accused1 but all his expressions and movements1 every word that he uttered on the rack1 even every sigh1 cry1 and groan40#ddg ,third1 within twenty-four hours after his release from the torture chamber1 the accused had to ratify all his utterances under the torments of the rack1 or under threat of them1 in the usual court4 ,otherwise the whole proceeding was null and void4#ddh ,of all these documents1 which must have existed if actual torture had been employed1 or even if ,galileo had been taken into the torture chamber1 there is not a trace in the ,acts of the trial in the ,vatican4 ,dr4 ,wohlwill#ddi and ,dr4 ,scartazzini#dej assert1 with more boldness than evidence1 that most of these documents did exist1 but that afterwards1 and in the present century1 as the whole of the documents have been tampered with for a special purpose1 these compromising papers have been withdrawn6 ,the ,vatican ,,ms4 contains one document which1 one would think1 is indisputable evidence that only the territio verbalis was employed against ,galileo4 ,we allude to the ,protocol of the last examination of #bast ,june4 ,up to the final answer of the accused the questions of the ,inquisitor agree verbatim with the formula of examination which the 8,sacro ,arsenale0 gives for questioning as to the ,intention2#dea but when1 if it was intended to proceed to torture or even to take ,galileo into the torture chamber1 the decree about it should follow1 we find instead the concluding sentence3 8,et cum nihil aliud posset haberi in executionem decreti habita eius subscriptione remissus fuit ad locum suum40 ,this is1 up to the words 8in executionem decreti10 the usual concluding sentence of the last examination when it ended without torture4#deb ,these exceptional words refer to the decree of #afth ,june1 #afcc1 which minutely described the judicial proceedings to be taken against ,galileo1 and by which certainly the threat of torture1 but by no means actual recourse to it1 was ordained by the ,pope and the ,sacred ,congregation4#dec ,the concluding sentence of the last examination of ,galileo being on the one hand in exact agreement with the decree of #afth ,june1 and on the other being a precise and definite statement1 is a strong proof of the correctness of the opinion long defended by calm and impartial historians1 like ,albri1 ,reumont1 ,biot1 ,cantor1 ,bouix1 ,troussart1 ,reusch1 and even the passionate opponent of ,rome1 ,prof4 ,chasles1 that ,galileo's feeble frame was never subjected to the horrors of torture4 ,wohlwill also acknowledges the force of this concluding sentence--if it be genuine4 ,he thinks these words are a falsification in the present century1 while originally ,galileo's last answer was followed by the necessary decree for proceeding to torture1 and then by the protocol about the proceedings in the torture chamber4 ,dr4 ,scartazzini goes even further than ,wohlwill1 and maintains that not only the concluding sentence1 but the whole protocol of the examination of #bast ,june1 as now found in the ,vatican ,,ms41 is a later falsified insertion4 ,we shall see why he thinks so by and by4 ,we may remark in passing1 from our own experience1 that it is always venturesome to affirm that there are falsifications in a ,,ms4 without even having seen it1 to say nothing of having examined it4 ,thus1 for instance1 a glance at the original shows on material grounds that there can be no suspicion of falsification or later insertion in the protocol of #bast ,june4 ,both pages on which it is written1 fols4 #deb1 #dec1 are second pages to fols4 #dac and #dad1 on which the protocol of ,galileo's trial of #abth ,april begins4 ,a later insertion is therefore an impossibility4 ,besides1 the protocol of #bast ,june ends in the middle of fol4 #dce ro1 and1 after a space of scarcely two fingers' breadth follows an annotation of #cjth ,june1 #afcc1 in exactly the same handwriting as the annotations of #afth ,june1 #afcc1 #bcrd ,september1 #ith and #cjth ,december1 #afcb4 ,this really seems to render the bold conjecture of falsification wholly untenable4 ,the unquestioned genuineness of ,galileo's signature1 which concludes this as well as all the other protocols1 is also a guarantee of its authenticity4 ,dr4 ,scartazzini has taken advantage of our information that this signature1 unlike all ,galileo's others1 is in a very trembling hand1 to assert that it is not genuine4 ,we are of opinion that a forger would have taken every pains to make the signature as much like the others as possible1 and certainly would not have written in remarkably trembling characters4 ,no2 this signature1 which is unmistakably like the rest1 reflects his fearful agitation1 and is by no means a forgery of the nineteenth century4 ,let us see now why ,dr4 ,scartazzini insists that not only the concluding sentence1 but the whole protocol of #bast ,june1 is a falsification4 ,the reason is not far to seek4 ,as we have seen1 according to the rules of the ,inquisition1 if ,galileo had really suffered torture1 or if they had only proceeded to territio realis against him1 within twenty-four hours of leaving the torture chamber he would have had to confirm the depositions made there1 in the ordinary court4 ,but the passing of the sentence and the recantation took place on the #bbnd1 on the day therefore on which the tortured ,galileo would have had to ratify these depositions1 and not till after this could the sentence be legally drawn up4 ,dr4 ,scartazzini sees plainly enough that ,galileo's ratification1 the drawing up and passing of the sentence1 and the recantation1 could not possibly all have taken place in one morning4 ,but he finds his way out of this cul-de-sac in a remarkably simple manner2 he boldly asserts that the date is false1 that the last examination was not on #bast ,june1 but earlier1 perhaps on the #agth6 ,the whole protocol1 therefore1 must be false4 ,of course ,dr4 ,scartazzini has not a shadow of evidence to give for his assertion4 ,he contents himself with the singular reason that the papal decree of #afth ,june did not admit of a delay of five or six days1 but would be at once carried out4#ded ,this arbitrary assertion is contradicted by the official report of ,niccolini to ,cioli of #bfth ,june1 #afcc1 in which he says that ,galileo was summoned on ,monday evening to the ,holy ,office1 and went on ,tuesday morning to learn what was wanted of him2 he was detained there1 and taken on ,wednesday to the ,minerva4#dee ,the dates given by ,niccolini agree precisely with those of the protocol of ,galileo's last hearing1 which is assumed to be false6 ,in face of this evidence1 so conclusive for any serious historian1 ,dr4 ,scartazzini remarks3 8the ,tuscan ambassador's memory must have failed him1 whether involuntarily or voluntarily40#def ,we leave all comment on this kind of historical evidence to the reader4 ,but we must raise a decided protest1 in the name of impartial history1 against the way in which ,dr4 ,scartazzini1 in order to lend some probability to the above remark1 afterwards tries to make out that ,niccolini had repeatedly sent romances to ,florence1 in order to represent to the ,grand ,duke1 who was so anxious about ,galileo1 how much he 7,niccolini7 had exerted himself for him1 and had actually achieved4 ,thus ,dr4 ,scartazzini comes to the conclusion1 which must excite the ire of every right-minded person1 that 8the ,tuscan ambassador1 ,niccolini1 is a liar40#deg ,niccolini then1 ,galileo's noblest1 most devoted1 and indefatigable friend1 who was at his side in every difficulty1 and certainly did more for him at ,rome than was ordered at ,florence1 and perhaps even more than was approved1--this historical figure1 worthy of our utmost reverence1--was a liar6 ,happily it is with ,dr4 ,scartazzini alone that the odium of the accusation rests2 in the annals of history1 the name of ,niccolini stands untarnished1 and every ,italian1 every educated man1 will think with gratitude of the man who nobly and disinterestedly stood by the side of ,galileo ,galilei at the time of his greatest peril4 ,honour be for ever to his memory6 ,we give1 in conclusion1 one more instance of a curious kind of evidence that ,galileo really was subjected to torture4 ,professor ,eckert thinks he knows with 8almost geometrical certainty that ,galileo suffered torture during the twenty-four hours which he spent before the ,inquisition40 ,in proof of this assertion the author says3 8,in conclusion1 the two hernias which the unfortunate old man had after his return is a proof that he must have endured that kind of torture called il tormento della corda40#deh ,this shrewd conclusion falls to the ground in face of the medical certificate of #agth ,december1 #afcb1 wherein among the rest we find3 8,we have also observed a serious hernia1 with rupture of the peritoneum40#dei ,and further1 this certificate affords indisputable evidence that both his age#dfj and his state of health1 in consequence of the rupture1 were sufficient to protect him against torture according to the rules of the ,holy ,office4#dfa ,galileo would have had to be professionally examined by a physician and surgeon1 and1 according to their written report1 he would either have been subjected to torture1 or a dispensation would have been granted against it1 and all this would have been minutely recorded in the ,acts of the trial4#dfb ,it is needless to say that among these papers there is not a trace either of any protest of ,galileo's1 nor of the certificates of the physicians of the ,holy ,office2 and that according to the protocol of the hearing of #bast ,june1 it never went so far1 and the ,pope himself1 as the decree of #afth ,june undoubtedly proves1 never intended that it should4 ,no1 ,galileo never suffered bodily torture1 nor was he even terrified by being taken into the torture chamber and shown the instruments2 he was only mentally stretched upon the rack1 by the verbal threat of it in the ordinary judgment hall1 while the whole painful procedure1 and finally the humiliating public recantation1 was but a prolonged torture for the old man in his deep distress4 ,libri1 ,brewster1 and other rhetorical authors have desired to stamp ,galileo as a 8martyr of science0 in the full sense of the words4 ,but this will not do for two reasons1 as ,henri ,martin#dfc justly points out4 ,in the first place1 ,galileo did not suffer torture2 and in the second1 a true martyr1 that is1 a witness unto blood1 never under any circumstances1 not even on burning coals1 abjures his opinions1 or he does not deserve the name4 ,for the sake of ,galileo's moral greatness1 his submission may be regretted1 but at all events greater benefit has accrued from it to science1 than if1 in consequence of a noble steadfastness which we should have greeted with enthusiasm1 he had perished prematurely at the stake or had languished in the dungeons of the ,inquisition4 ,it was after the famous trial that he presented the world with his immortal 8,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze40 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,galileo',s ,,last ,,years4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,galileo ,,at ,,siena ,,and ,,arcetri4 ,arrival at ,siena4--,request to the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany to ask for his release4--,postponed on the advice of ,niccolini4--,endeavours at ,rome to stifle the ,copernican ,system4--,sentence and ,recantation sent to all the ,inquisitors of ,italy4--,letter to the ,inquisitor of ,venice4--,mandate against the ,publication of any ,new ,work of ,galileo's or ,new ,edition4--,curious ,arguments in favour of the ,old ,system4--,niccolini asks for ,galileo's release4--,refusal1 but permission given to go to ,arcetri4--,anonymous accusations4--,death of his ,daughter4--,request for permission to go to ,florence4--,harsh refusal and threat4--,letter to ,diodati4--,again at work4--,intervention of the ,count de ,noailles on his behalf4--,prediction that he will be compared to ,socrates4--,letter to ,peiresc4--,publication of ,galileo's ,works in ,holland4--,continued efforts of ,noailles4--,urban's fair speeches4 ,galileo arrived safely at ,siena on #ith ,july1 and was most heartily welcomed by ,ascanio ,piccolomini4#dfd ,but neither his devoted kindness1 nor stimulating converse with his friend1 who was well versed in science1 and the learned ,alessandro ,marsili1 who lived at ,siena1 could make him forget that he was still a prisoner of the ,inquisition1 and that his residence there was compulsory4 ,he longed for liberty1 the highest earthly good1 and next to this for ,florence1 which had become a second home to him4 ,in order to attain this fervent desire1 on #bcrd ,july he addressed a letter to ,cioli1#dfe with an urgent request that his ,highness the ,grand ,duke1 to please whom ,urban ,,viii4 had done so much1 would be graciously pleased to ask the ,pope1 on whose will alone it depended1 for his release4 ,only five days afterwards1 ,galileo received tidings from ,cioli that ,ferdinand ,,ii4 had in the kindest manner consented to make the attempt1 and that ,niccolini was already commissioned to petition at the ,vatican1 in the name of the ,grand ,duke1 for a full pardon for his chief philosopher4#dff ,but the ambassador had good reasons for thinking that it was too soon1 and that it would certainly be in vain to ask for ,galileo's entire release1 and replied to this effect to ,cioli1 adding the advice not to do anything in it till autumn4#dfg ,it was therefore decided at ,florence1 in consideration of ,niccolini's doubts and his intimate knowledge of affairs at ,rome1 not to intervene with the ,pope in favour of ,galileo for two months1 which decision was communicated by ,bocchineri to the prisoner at ,siena in a letter of #acth ,august4#dfh ,while ,galileo was bearing his banishment in ,siena1 which ,ascanio ,piccolomini did all in his power to ameliorate1 with resignation1 and was even diligently at work on his 8,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze10 war was being waged with great vigour against the ,copernican doctrine at ,rome1 and the utmost efforts were being made to stifle it in ,catholic countries in general1 and in ,italy in particular4 ,urban ,,viii4 first visited with severe punishment all those dignitaries of the ,church who1 in virtue of their official position1 had conduced to the publication of the 8,dialogues40 ,father ,riccardi was deprived of his office1 and the ,inquisitor at ,florence was reprimanded for having given permission to print the work4#dfi ,in accordance with a decree passed in the sitting of the ,congregation of #afth ,june1 #afcc1 the sentence on1 and recantation of1 ,galileo were sent to all the nunciatures of ,europe1 as well as to all archbishops1 bishops1 and inquisitors of ,italy4 ,the form in which this commission was issued to the ecclesiastical dignitaries is of great historical interest4 ,one of the letters which accompanied the decree and ordered its publication has been preserved to us by ,father ,polacco in his 8,anti-,copernicus ,catholicus10 published at ,venice in #afdd4dgj ,it was addressed to the ,inquisitor at ,venice1 and was as follows2 the rest were probably similar3-- ,most ,reverend ,father1-- ,although the treatise of ,nicholas ,copernicus1 #8,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,celestium1' had been suspended by the ,congregation of the ,index1 because it was therein maintained that the earth moves1 but not the sun1 but that it stands still in the centre of the world 7which opinion is contrary to ,holy ,scripture72 and although many years ago1 ,galileo ,galilei1 ,florentine1 was forbidden by the ,congregation of this ,holy ,office to hold1 defend1 or teach the said opinion in any way whatsoever1 either verbally or in writing2 the said ,galileo ventured nevertheless to write a book signed ,galileo ,galilei ,linceus2 and as he did not mention the said prohibition1 he extorted licence to print1 and did then actually have it printed4 ,he stated1 in the beginning1 middle1 and end of it1 that he intended to treat the said opinion of ,copernicus hypothetically1 but he did it in such a manner 7though he ought not to have discussed it in any way7 as to render himself very suspicious of adhering to this opinion4 ,being tried on this account1 and in accordance with the sentence of their ,eminences1 my ,lords1 confined in the prison of the ,holy ,office1 he was condemned to renounce this opinion1 to remain in prison during their ,eminences' pleasure1 and to perform other salutary penances2 as your ,reverences will see by the subjoined copy of the sentence and abjuration1 which is sent to you that you may make it known to your vicars1 and that you and all professors of philosophy and mathematics may have knowledge of it2 that they may know why they proceeded against the said ,galileo1 and recognise the gravity of his error in order that they may avoid it1 and thus not incur the penalties which they would have to suffer in case they fell into the same4 ,your ,reverences1 as brother1 ,cardinal of ,st4 ,onufrius4 ,rome1 #bnd ,july1 #afcc4 ,again it is worthy of note1 that even in this letter it was deemed necessary to lay special stress on the circumstance that ,galileo had acted contrary to a special prohibition issued several years before4 ,but then1 to be sure1 this formed the only legal ground for the proceedings against him4 ,from a letter from ,guiducci to ,galileo from ,florence of #bgth ,august1#dga we learn the manner in which the publication had taken place there1 on the #abth4 ,both the documents were read aloud in a large assembly of counsellors of the ,holy ,office1 canons and other priests1 professors of mathematics and friends of ,galileo1 such as ,pandolfini1 ,aggiunti1 ,rinuccini1 ,peri1 and others1 who had been invited to the ceremony4 ,this proceeding was followed in all the more important cities of ,italy1 as well as in the larger ones of ,catholic ,europe4 ,it is characteristic of the great split which existed in the scientific world about the ,copernican system1 that ,professor ,kellison1 ,rector of the ,university of ,douai1 wrote in reply to a letter of the ,nuncio at ,brussels1 who had sent the sentence and recantation of ,galileo to that academy3 8,the professors of our university are so opposed to that fanatical opinion 7phanatic opinioni71 that they have always held that it must be banished from the schools4444 ,in our ,english college at ,douai this paradox has never been approved1 and never will be40#dgb ,the ,roman curia1 however1 did not confine itself to trying to frighten all good ,catholics from accepting the ,copernican doctrine by as wide a circulation as possible of the sentence against ,galileo2 but in order to suppress it altogether as far as might be1 especially in ,italy1 all the ,italian ,inquisitors received orders neither to permit the publication of a new edition of any of ,galileo's works1 nor of any new work4#dgc ,on the other hand1 the ,aristotelians1 who had been very active since the trial1 were encouraged to confute the illustrious dead1 ,copernicus and ,kepler1 and the now silenced ,galileo1 with tongue and pen4 ,thus in the succeeding decades the book market was flooded with refutations of the ,copernican system4#dgd ,in fighting truth with falsehood very curious demonstrations were sure now and then to come to light on the part of the adherents of the wisdom of the ancients4 ,we will here only mention a book dedicated to ,cardinal ,barberini1 which appeared in #afcc3 8,difesa di ,scipione ,chiaramonti da ,cesena al suo ,antiticone1 e libro delle tre nuove stelle1 dall' opposizioni dell',autore de' due massimi sistemi ,tolemaico e ,copernicano10 in which such sagacious arguments as the following are adduced against the doctrine of the double motion of the earth3-- 8,animals1 which move1 have limbs and muscles2 the earth has no limbs or muscles1 therefore it does not move4 8,it is angels who make ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 the ,sun1 etc41 turn round4 ,if the earth revolves1 it must also have an angel in the centre to set it in motion2 but only devils live there1 it would therefore be a devil who would impart motion to the earth4 8,the planets1 the sun1 the fixed stars1 all belong to one species2 namely1 that of stars--they therefore all move or all stand still4 8,it seems1 therefore1 to be a grievous wrong to place the earth1 which is a sink of impurity1 among the heavenly bodies1 which are pure and divine things40#dge ,but although ,galileo was condemned to silence1 there were courageous and enlightened men who1 in spite of the famous sentence of the ,inquisition1 not only rejected such absurdities but made energetic advance along the new paths4 ,at the ,vatican1 however1 they seemed disposed1 as we shall soon see1 to make ,galileo answerable for the defence of the ,copernican system in ,italy4 ,for instance1 at the beginning of ,november the ,tuscan ambassador thought the time was come to take steps for obtaining pardon for ,galileo with some prospect of success2 and at an audience of the ,pope on #abth ,november he asked1 on behalf of the ,grand ,duke1 for the prisoner's release4 ,urban replied somewhat ungraciously1 that he would see what could be done1 and would consult with the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office2 but he remarked that it had come to his ears that some people were writing in defence of the ,copernican system4 ,niccolini hastened to assure him that ,galileo was not in the least implicated in it1 and that it was done entirely without his knowledge4 ,urban answered drily1 that he had not been exactly informed that ,galileo had anything to do with it1 but he had better beware of the ,holy ,office4 ,in spite of reiterated urgent entreaty1 ,niccolini could get nothing more definite about ,galileo's release than the above evasive promise1 and he communicated the doubtful success of his mission to ,cioli in a despatch of #acth ,november1#dgf in rather a depressed state of mind4 ,urban was not disposed to grant a full pardon to ,galileo1 and therefore made a pretext of the ,congregation to the ambassador1 as if the decision depended upon it1 whereas it rested entirely with himself4 ,niccolini1 however1 still persisted in his efforts4 ,he went to ,cardinal ,barberini and other members of the ,holy ,office1 warmly recommending him to their protection4#dgg ,meanwhile an indisposition of the ,pope1 which lasted fourteen days1 delayed the decision1 as the ,congregation did not venture to come to any without his concurrence4 ,at length he made his appearance in the sitting of the ,congregation of #ast ,december1 and through the mediation of ,cardinal ,barberini1 the petition for ,galileo's release was at once laid before him4#dgh ,it was refused2 but he was to be permitted to retire to a villa at ,arcetri1 a miglio from ,florence1 where he was to remain until he heard further2 he was not to receive any visits1 but to live in the greatest retirement4#dgi ,niccolini informed him of this amelioration of his circumstances in a letter of #crd ,december1#dhj with the expression of great regret that he could not at present obtain his entire liberation4 ,he added that the ,pope had charged him to say that ,galileo might go to ,arcetri at once1 that he might receive his friends and relations there1 but not in large numbers at one time1 as this might give rise to the idea that he was giving scientific lectures4 ,a few days after the receipt of this letter ,galileo set out for ,arcetri4#dha ,no sooner had he reached his villa1 called 8il ,giojello10 which was pleasantly situated1 than he made it his first care to thank ,cardinal ,barberini warmly for his urgent intercession1 which had1 however1 only effected this fresh alleviation of his sad fate4#dhb ,some rhetorical historians make ,galileo's two daughters leave the ,convent of ,st4 ,matteo1 which was certainly within gunshot of 8,giojello10 in order to tend their old and suffering father with childlike and tender care2 a touching picture1 but without any historical foundation4 ,on the contrary1 it was really one of ,galileo's greatest consolations to pay frequent visits to his daughters1 to whom he was tenderly attached1 at ,st4 ,matteo1 when permitted to do so by the ,holy ,office4 ,it was also a great satisfaction to him that on a very early day after his arrival at ,arcetri the ,grand ,duke came from ,florence1 and paid the convict of the ,inquisition a long visit4#dhc ,but while ,galileo was once more partaking of some pleasures1 the implacable malice of his enemies never slumbered4 ,there were even some who would have been glad to know that he was for ever safe in the dungeons of the ,inquisition4 ,as1 however1 he gave them no pretext on which they could1 with any shadow of justice1 have seized him1 they had recourse to the most disgraceful means--to lying1 anonymous denunciation1 in which his enlightened and therefore disliked friend1 the ,archbishop ,ascanio ,piccolomini1 was ingeniously involved4 ,on #ast ,february1 #afcd1 the following communication1 without signature1 was received at the ,holy ,office at ,rome from ,siena3-- ,most ,reverend ,sirs1-- ,galileo has diffused in this city opinions not very ,catholic1 urged on by this ,archbishop1 his host1 who has suggested to many persons that ,galileo had been unjustly treated with so much severity by the ,holy ,office1 and that he neither could nor would give up his philosophical opinions which he had defended with irrefragable and true mathematical arguments2 also that he is the first man in the world1 and will live for ever in his works1 to which1 although prohibited1 all modern distinguished men give in their adherence4 ,now since seeds like these1 sown by a prelate of the ,church1 might bring forth evil fruit1 a report is made of them4#dhd ,although this cowardly denunciation did not bear any immediate consequences either to ,piccolomini or ,galileo1 events which took place soon after show most clearly the unfavourable impression it produced at the ,vatican4 ,galileo1 who was very unwell1 asked permission of the ,pope1 through the mediation of his faithful friend ,niccolini1 to move into ,florence for the sake of the regular medical treatment which he required1 and which he could not well have at the villa outside the city4#dhe ,as if to dye his tragic fate still darker1 just while he was awaiting the result of ,niccolini's efforts1 his favourite daughter ,polissena1 or by her conventual name ,marie ,celeste1 was taken so ill that her life was soon despaired of4 ,it was on one of the last days of ,march that ,galileo was returning to his villa with a physician from a visit to his dying daughter at the ,convent of ,st4 ,matteo1 in deep depression of spirits4 ,on the way the physician had prepared him for the worst by telling him that the patient would scarcely survive till the morning1 which proved to be the case4 ,on entering his house in anguish of soul1 he found the messenger of the ,inquisition there1 who in the name of the ,holy ,office gave him a strict injunction to abstain from all such petitions in future1 unless he desired to compel the ,inquisition to imprison him again4 ,this unmerciful proceeding had been ordered by a papal mandate of #bcrd ,march4#dhf ,the ,inquisitor at ,florence reported on it on #ast ,april to ,cardinal ,barberini1 as follows3-- 8,i have communicated to ,galileo what was commanded by your ,eminence4 ,he adduced as an excuse that he had only done it on account of a frightful rupture4 ,but the villa he lives in is so near the city that he can easily have the physicians and surgeons there1 as well as the medicines he requires40#dhg ,a passage in a letter from ,galileo to ,geri ,bocchineri at ,florence1 of #bgth ,april1 shows that the excuse was no empty pretext1 and that he urgently needed to have medical aid always at hand4 ,he says3-- 8,i am going to write to you about my health1 which is very bad4 ,i suffer much more from the rupture than has been the case before2 my pulse intermits1 and ,i have often violent palpitation of the heart2 then the most profound melancholy has come over me4 ,i have no appetite1 and loathe myself2 in short1 ,i feel myself perpetually called by my beloved daughter4 ,under these circumstances ,i do not think it advisable that ,vincenzo should set out on a journey now1 as events might occur at any time which might make his presence desirable1 for besides what ,i have mentioned1 continued sleeplessness alarms me not a little40#dhh ,a letter to ,diodati at ,paris1 from ,galileo1 of #beth ,july1 is also of great interest2 an insight may be gained from it1 not only into his melancholy state of mind1 but it also contains some remarkable indications of the motives for the fierce persecution on the part of ,rome4 ,we give the portions of the letter which are important for our subject3-- 8,i hope that when you hear of my past and present misfortunes1 and my anxiety about those perhaps still to come1 it will serve as an excuse to you and my other friends and patrons there 7at ,paris71 for my long delay in answering your letter1 and to them for my entire silence1 as they can learn from you the unhappy turn which my affairs have taken4 ,according to the sentence pronounced on me by the ,holy ,office1 ,i was condemned to imprisonment during the pleasure of his ,holiness1 who was pleased1 however1 to assign the palace and gardens of the ,grand ,duke near the ,trinit dei ,monti1 as my place of imprisonment4 ,as this was in ,june of last year1 and ,i had been given to understand that if ,i asked for a full pardon after the lapse of that and the following month1 ,i should receive it1 ,i asked meanwhile1 to avoid having to spend the whole summer and perhaps part of the autumn there1 to be allowed1 on account of the season1 to go to ,siena1 where the ,archbishop's house was assigned to me as a residence4 ,i staid there five months1 when this durance was exchanged for banishment to this little villa1 a miglio from ,florence1 with a strict injunction not to go to the city1 and neither to receive the visits of many friends at once1 nor to invite any4 ,here1 then1 ,i was living1 keeping perfectly quiet1 and paying frequent visits to a neighbouring convent1 where two daughters of mine were living as nuns2 ,i was very fond of them1 especially of the eldest1 who possessed high mental gifts1 combined with rare goodness of heart1 and she was very much attached to me4 ,during my absence1 which she considered very perilous for me1 she fell into a profound melancholy1 which undermined her health1 and she was at last attacked by a violent dysentery1 of which she died after six days' illness1 just thirty-three years of age1 leaving me in the deepest grief1 which was increased by another calamity4 ,on returning home from the convent1 in company with the doctor who visited my sick daughter shortly before her death1 and who had just told me that her situation was desperate1 and that she would scarcely survive till the next day1 as indeed it proved1 ,i found the ,inquisitor's ,vicar here1 who informed me of a mandate from the ,holy ,office at ,rome1 which had just been communicated to the ,inquisitor in a letter from ,cardinal ,barberini1 that ,i must in future abstain from asking permission to return to ,florence1 or they would take me back there 7to ,rome71 and put me in the actual prison of the ,holy ,office4 ,this was the answer to the petition1 which the ,tuscan ambassador had presented to that tribunal after ,i had been nine months in exile6 ,from this answer it seems to me that1 in all probability1 my present prison will only be exchanged for that narrow and long-enduring one which awaits us all4 ,from this and other circumstances1 which it would take too long to repeat here1 it will be seen that the fury of my powerful persecutors continually increases4 ,they have at length chosen to reveal themselves to me2 for about two months ago1 when a dear friend of mine at ,rome was speaking of my affairs to ,father ,christopher ,griemberger1 mathematician at the college there1 this ,jesuit uttered the following precise words3--#8,if ,galileo had only known how to retain the favour of the fathers of this college1 he would have stood in renown before the world1 he would have been spared all his misfortunes1 and could have written what he pleased about everything1 even about the motion of the earth4' ,from this you will see1 honoured ,sir1 that it is not this opinion or that which has brought1 and still brings about my calamities1 but my being in disgrace with the ,jesuits4 ,i have also other proofs of the watchfulness of my persecutors4 ,one is that a letter from some foreigner1 ,i do not know from whom1 addressed to me at ,rome1 where he supposed me still to be1 was intercepted1 and delivered to ,cardinal ,barberini4 ,it was fortunate for me1 as was afterwards written to me from ,rome1 that it did not purport to be an answer to one from me1 but a communication containing the warmest praises of my 8,dialogues40 ,it was seen by many persons1 and1 as ,i hear1 copies of it were circulated at ,rome4 ,i have also been told that ,i might see it4 ,to add to all this1 there are other mental disquietudes and many bodily sufferings oppressing me at the age of over seventy years1 so that the least exertion is a torment and a burden to me4 ,in consideration of all this1 my friends must be indulgent to me for omissions which look like neglect1 but really arise from inability40#dhi ,this deep dejection1 however1 could not last long with a man of so active a mind as ,galileo4 ,the impulse which had been implanted in him to investigate the problems of nature was too strong to be repressed by either mental or bodily sufferings4 ,so far from it1 it was this which1 ever re-asserting itself with its normal energy1 helped him to bear them with resignation1 and he often forgot his painful situation in his scientific speculations4 ,thus1 but a few months after his daughter's death1 we find him rousing himself and eagerly at work again on his masterpiece1 the 8,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze40#dij ,he also resumed his extensive scientific correspondence1 of which unfortunately1 and especially of the following year1 #afce1 the letters of his correspondents only have mostly come down to us4#dia ,while the prisoner of ,arcetri was thus eagerly fulfilling his great mission to his age1 his friends were exerting themselves in vain to obtain at least an extension of his liberty4 ,the ,count de ,noailles1 ,french ambassador at ,rome1 had once attended ,galileo's lectures at ,padua1 and had become so enthusiastic an adherent1 that he afterwards told ,castelli that he must see ,galileo once more before leaving ,italy1 even if he walked fifty miles on purpose4#dib ,he therefore united his efforts with ,niccolini's to obtain some amelioration for ,galileo4 ,but in vain4 ,at an audience which ,niccolini had on #hth ,december1 #afcd1 ,urban said indeed that he esteemed ,galileo very highly1 and was well disposed towards him2 but all remained as before4#dic ,in the year #afcd the band of dauntless men1 who again and again ventured to attempt to obtain ,galileo's liberty from the papal chair1 was increased by the celebrated officer of state and man of learning1 ,fabri von ,peiresc4 ,like ,noailles1 he had attended ,galileo's lectures at ,padua1#did had since been one of his most ardent admirers1 and had long maintained friendly intercourse with ,cardinal ,francesco ,barberini4 ,peiresc now interceded eagerly with this prelate for ,galileo1 and even ventured openly to say1 in a long and pressing letter of #eth ,december1 #afcd1 to ,barberini3--#die 444 8,really such proceedings will be considered very harsh1 and far more so by posterity than at present1 when no one1 as it appears1 cares for anything but his own interests4 ,indeed1 it will be a blot upon the brilliance and renown of the pontificate of ,urban ,,viii41 unless your ,eminence resolves to devote your special attention to this affair44440 ,on #bnd ,january1 #afce1 ,barberini wrote a long letter in reply1#dif in which he was prolix enough on many subjects1 but about ,galileo he only made the dry remark1 towards the end of the letter1 that he would not fail to speak to his ,holiness about it1 but ,peiresc must excuse him if1 as a member of the ,holy ,office1 he did not go into the subject more particularly4 ,in spite of this1 however1 only four weeks later1 ,peiresc again urged ,barberini1 in a letter of #cast ,january1#dig to exert his powerful influence on behalf of ,galileo4 ,peiresc justified his zeal by saying1 8that it arose as much from regard for the honour and good name of the present pontificate1 as from affection for the venerable and famous old man1 ,galileo2 for it might well happen1 by a continuance of the harsh proceedings against him1 that some day posterity would compare them with the persecutions to which ,socrates was subjected40#dih ,galileo1 who had received copies of these letters1 thanked ,peiresc most warmly in a letter of #bast ,february1 #afce1 for his noble though fruitless efforts1 and added the following remarkable words3-- 8,as ,i have said1 ,i do not hope for any amelioration1 and this because ,i have not committed any crime4 ,i might expect pardon and favour if ,i had done wrong1 for wrong-doing affords rulers occasion for the exercise of clemency and pardon1 while towards an innocent man under condemnation1 it behoves them to maintain the utmost severity1 in order to show that they have proceeded according to law4 ,but believe me1 revered sir1 and it will console you to know it1 this troubles me less than would be supposed1 for two grounds of consolation continually come to my aid3 one of these is1 that in looking all through my works1 no one can find the least shadow of anything which deviates from love and veneration for the ,holy ,church2 the other is my own conscience1 which can only be fully known to myself on earth and to ,god in heaven4 ,he knows that in the cause for which ,i suffer1 many might have acted and spoken with far more learning and knowledge1 but no one1 not even among the holy fathers1 with more piety and greater zeal for the ,holy ,church1 nor altogether with purer intentions4 ,my sincerely religious1 pious spirit would only be the more apparent if the calumnies1 intrigues1 stratagems1 and deceptions1 which were resorted to eighteen years ago to deceive and blind the authorities1 were brought to the light of day40#dii ,if the issue of the assumed stringent prohibition of #afaf were admitted1 this letter would be a piece of hypocrisy as glaring as it was purposeless2 for in that case ,galileo would not have been an innocent man under condemnation1 who had committed no crime1 and his conscience could not have consoled him in his painful situation4 ,what he wrote to ,peiresc about his religious spirit was also quite true1 ,galileo really was a truly religious man2 his own revolutionary discoveries had not for a moment given rise to any doubts in his mind of supernatural mysteries as taught by the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,all his letters1 even to his most intimate friends1 proclaim it indisputably4 ,he also perfectly well knew how to make his researches and their results agree with the dogmas of his religion1 as is clear from his explanations to ,castelli1 ,mgr4 ,dini1 and the ,grand ,duchess ,christine4 ,the strangest contradictions were continually arising from this blending of a learned man striving to search out the truths of nature1 and a member of the only true ,church bound in the fetters of illusive credulity4 ,thus1 at the end of #afcc1 he did not hesitate to act in opposition to his solemn oath1 literally construed1 by secretly sending a copy of his condemned and prohibited 8,dialogues0 to ,diodati1 at ,paris1 that they might be translated into ,latin1 and thus be more widely circulated4 ,in #afce the work really appeared in a ,latin translation1 from the press of the ,elzevirs1 in ,holland1 edited by a ,strasburg professor1 ,mathias ,bernegger1 in order that no suspicion might rest upon ,galileo of having had anything to do with it4#ejj ,such an act was very improper for a pious ,catholic1 and ,galileo really was one4 ,in the following year1 however1 he told his old friend1 ,fra ,fulgenzio ,micanzio1 at ,venice1 with great delight1 that ,bernegger had brought out by the same publishers the ,apology to the ,grand ,duchess ,christine of #afae1 in ,italian with a ,latin translation4 ,the secret translator1 concealed under the pseudonym of ,ruberto ,robertini ,borasso1 was also ,diodati4#eja ,in a letter to ,micanzio1 as well as in another of #abth ,july1 ,galileo expressed an ardent wish that a large number of copies of it might be introduced into ,italy1 8to shame his enemies and calumniators40#ejb ,as we know1 this letter to the ,grand ,duchess contained nothing but a theological apology for the ,copernican system1 so that what gratified ,galileo so much in its publication1 was that the world would now learn that he1 who had been denounced as a heretic1 had always been an orthodox ,christian1 into whose head it had never entered1 as his enemies gave out1 to attack the holy faith4 ,martin is quite justified in saying that 8the reputation of a good ,christian and true ,catholic was as dear to ,galileo as that of a good astronomer40#ejc ,while ,galileo was enjoying the twofold satisfaction of seeing his 8,dialogues0 attain a wider circulation 7they had meanwhile been translated into ,english71#ejd and yet of being acknowledged as a pious subject of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 the ,count de ,noailles continued his efforts at ,rome1 before his approaching departure from ,italy1 to obtain pardon for ,galileo4 ,castelli1 who1 in consequence of his too great devotion to ,galileo and his system1 had been banished for three years from ,urban's presence1 had at length1 by the end of #afce1 been taken into favour again1#eje and reported faithfully to ,galileo all the steps taken to procure his liberty4 ,the utmost caution had been exercised in order to attain this end4#ejf ,count ,noailles and ,castelli had persuaded ,cardinal ,antonio ,barberini1 in repeated interviews1 that nothing had been further from ,galileo's intention than to offend or make game of ,urban ,,viii41 upon which the cardinal1 at the request of the ,french ambassador1 promised to intercede with his papal brother for ,galileo4 ,on #aath ,july ,noailles made the same assurances to the ,pope at an audience1 whereupon he exclaimed3 8,lo crediamo1 lo crediamo60 7,we believe it71 and again said that he was personally very well disposed to ,galileo1 and had always liked him2 but when ,noailles began to speak of his liberation1 he said evasively that this affair was of the greatest moment to all ,christendom4 ,the ,french diplomatist1 who knew ,urban's irritable temper1 did not think it advisable to press him further1 and consoled himself for the time1 even after this cool reply1 with the thought that the brother cardinal had promised to use his good offices for ,galileo4 ,castelli informed ,galileo in a letter of #abth ,july#ejg of all this1 and advised him to write a letter of thanks to ,cardinal ,antonio for his kind intercession1 which he at once did4#ejh ,noailles placed all his hopes on a farewell audience with the ,pope1 in which he meant to ask for ,galileo's pardon4 ,on #hth ,august he drove for the last time to the ,vatican4 ,urban was very gracious1 and when ,galileo's affairs were introduced he even promised at last to bring the subject before the ,holy ,congregation4#eji ,noailles told ,cardinal ,antonio of this most favourable result with joyful emotion1 who said at once3 8,good6 good6 and ,i will speak to all the cardinals of the ,holy ,congregation40#eaj ,they were apparently justified in entertaining the most sanguine hopes1 but the future taught them that all this was nothing but fair speeches with which ,urban had taken leave of the ,french ambassador4 ,for there can be no doubt that if the ,pope1 with his absolute power1 had been in earnest about ,galileo's liberation1 the ,congregation would not have been slow to comply with his wishes4 ,galileo1 however1 remained as before1 a prisoner in his villa at ,arcetri1 which he had meanwhile bought1 and the papal favour1 of which a promise had been held out1 was limited to allowing him1 at the end of ,september1 to accept an invitation from the ,grand ,duke to visit him at his ,villa ,mezzomonte1 three miles from ,florence1#eaa and on #afth ,october to leave his place of exile for one day to greet the ,count de ,noailles1 at ,poggibonsi1 in passing through it on his way to ,france4#eab ,this was the extent of the papal clemency for the present1 and it was not till the old man was quite blind and hopelessly ill1 with one foot in the grave1 that any humane feeling was awakened for him at the ,vatican4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,failing ,,health ,,and ,,loss ,,of ,,sight4 ,galileo's ,labours at ,arcetri4--,completion of the 8,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze40--,sends it to the ,elzevirs at ,leyden4--,method of taking ,longitudes at ,sea4--,declined by ,spain and offered to ,holland4--,discovery of the ,libration and ,titubation of the ,moon4--,visit from ,milton4--,becomes ,blind4--,letter to ,diodati4--,on a hint from ,castelli petitions for his ,liberty4--,the ,inquisitor to visit him and report to ,rome4--,permitted to live at ,florence under ,restrictions4--,the ,states-,general appoint a ,delegate to see him on the ,longitude ,question4--,the ,inquisitor sends word of it to ,rome4--,galileo not to receive a ,heretic4--,presents from the ,states-,general refused from fear of ,rome4--,letter to ,diodati4--,galileo supposed to be near his ,end4--,request that ,castelli might come to him4--,permitted under ,restrictions4--,the new 8,dialoghi0 appear at ,leyden1 #afch4--,they founded ,mechanical ,physics4--,attract much ,notice4--,improvement of ,health4--,in #afci goes to ,arcetri again1 probably not voluntarily4 ,galileo was unceasingly active in his seclusion at ,arcetri4 ,in the year #afcf he completed his famous 8,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze40#eac ,he also exerted himself1 like a loving father who wishes to see his children provided for before he dies1 about the preservation and republication of his works which were quite out of print4 ,but all these efforts were frustrated by envy1 ecclesiastical intolerance1 and the unfavourable times4 ,his cherished scheme of bringing out an edition of his collected works could neither be carried out by the ,french mathematician1 ,carcavy1 who had warmly taken up the subject1#ead nor by the ,elzevirs through the mediation of ,micanzio4#eae ,he had also to give up his project of dedicating his 8,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze0 to the ,german ,emperor1 ,ferdinand ,,ii41 and of publishing them at ,vienna1 as he learnt from his friend and former pupil there1 ,giovanni ,pieroni1 that his implacable foes1 the ,jesuits1 were all-powerful2 that ,ferdinand himself was entirely under their influence2 and moreover that his bitterest foe1 ,father ,scheiner1 was just then at ,vienna4#eaf ,in the following year1 however 7#afcg71 ,pieroni succeeded by his prudent and untiring efforts1 during the temporary absence of ,scheiner1 in obtaining a licence for ,galileo's latest work1#eag and afterwards one at ,olmtz also2 but meanwhile he had sent the ,,ms4 by ,micanzio#eah to be printed by the ,elzevirs at ,leyden1 and1 under the circumstances described by ,pieroni1 he did not prefer to bring out his book at a place where his bitterest enemies were in power4 ,he was at this time also deeply interested in a subject which originated as far back as #afaj4 ,it had occurred to him soon after the discovery of ,jupiter's moons1 by a series of observations of them1 to make astronomical calculations and tables which would enable him to predict every year their configurations1 their relative positions and occasional eclipses with the utmost precision2 this would furnish the means of ascertaining the longitude of the point of observation at any hour of the night1 which appeared to be of special importance to navigation4 ,for hitherto the eclipses of the sun and moon had had to be employed for the purpose1 which1 however1 on account of their rarity and the want of precise calculation1 were neither entirely to be relied on nor sufficient4 ,galileo had offered his discovery1--the practical value of which he overrated1--in #afab1 to the ,spanish ,government1 and in #afaf tedious negotiations were carried on about it1 which however led to no result1 were then postponed till #afbj1 and in #afcj entirely given up4#eai ,now 7,august1 #afcf17 as he heard that the ,dutch merchants had even offered a premium of thirty thousand scudi to any one who should invent a sure method of taking longitudes at sea1 he ventured1 without the knowledge of the ,inquisition1 to offer his invention to the ,protestant ,states-,general4 ,diodati at ,paris was the mediator in these secret and ceremonious negotiations4 ,on #aath ,november1 ,galileo's offer was entertained in the most flattering manner in the ,assembly of the ,states-,general1 and a commission was appointed1 consisting of the four savans1 ,realius1 ,hortensius1 ,blavius1 and ,golius1 to examine into the subject and report upon it4#ebj ,while ,galileo was impatiently waiting for the decision that was never come to1 he made his last great telescopic discovery1 although suffering much in his eyes1 that of the libration and titubation of the moon1 about which he wrote his remarkable letter to ,alfonso ,antonini1 bearing the signal date3 8,della mia carcere di ,arcetri li #aj febbrajo #afcg40eba ,the complaint in ,galileo's eyes grew rapidly worse4 ,by the end of ,june the sight of the right eye was gone1 and that of the other diminished with frightful rapidity from a constant discharge4#ebb ,but in spite of this heavy calamity1 combined with his other sufferings1 his interest in science did not diminish for a moment4 ,even at this sad time we find him carrying on a brisk correspondence with the learned men of ,germany1 ,holland1 ,france1 and ,italy1 continuing his negotiations with the ,states-,general with great zest1#ebc as well as occupying himself perpetually with astronomy and physics4 ,he was indeed often obliged to employ the hand of another2#ebd but his mind worked on with undiminished vigour1 even though he was no longer able to commit to paper himself the ideas that continually occupied him4 ,on #bnd ,september he received a visit from his sovereign1 who came to console and encourage him in his pitiable situation4#ebe ,a few months later an unknown young man1 of striking appearance from his handsome face and the unmistakable evidences which genius always exhibits1 knocked at the door of the solitary villa at ,arcetri3 it was ,milton1 then twenty-nine years of age1 who1 travelling in ,italy1 sought out the old man of world-wide fame to testify his veneration4#ebf ,in ,december of the same year ,galileo became permanently quite blind1 and informed ,diodati of his calamity on #bnd ,january1 #afch1 in the following words3-- 8,in reply to your very acceptable letter of #bjth ,november1 ,i inform you1 in reference to your inquiries about my health1 that ,i am somewhat stronger than ,i have been of late1 but alas6 revered sir1 ,galileo1 your devoted friend and servant1 has been for a month totally and incurably blind2 so that this heaven1 this earth1 this universe1 which by my remarkable observations and clear demonstrations ,i have enlarged a hundred1 nay1 a thousand fold beyond the limits universally accepted by the learned men of all previous ages1 are now shrivelled up for me into such narrow compass that it only extends to the space occupied by my person40#ebg ,up to the time when ,galileo entirely lost his sight1 absolutely nothing had been able to be done for his liberation at ,rome4 ,even the faithful ,castelli wrote on #abth ,september1 to ,galileo's son ,vincenzo1 that he had not been able to do anything whatever for his father2 but he piously adds1 8,i do not fail every morning at holy mass to pray the ,divine ,majesty to comfort him1 to help him1 and to grant him ,his ,divine grace40#ebh ,this precisely indicates the hopeless state of ,galileo's affairs4 ,just then1 during the first few days of ,december of the same year1 darkness closed round him for ever2 and not long afterwards1 #abth ,december1 ,castelli suddenly wrote to him1 that he had been given to understand that ,galileo had not been forbidden in #afcd to send petitions direct to the ,holy ,office1 but only through other persons4#ebi ,when the decided papal rescript of #bcrd ,march1 #afcd1ecj is compared with this curious interpretation of it1 there can be no doubt that it was intended to enable the curia to take a more lenient view without direct collision with a former mandate4 ,galileo at once sent ,castelli's letter to the ,tuscan ,court1 with a request for instructions1 as he did not wish to do anything without the concurrence of his sovereign4#eca ,he was informed that he had better draw up a petition to the ,holy ,office1 and get it handed in at ,rome through ,castelli4#ecb ,the latter had meanwhile informed himself under what formalities ,galileo should make his request1 and sent him on #aith ,january1 #afch1ecc a draught of the petition1 with the remark that it must be sent1 together with a medical certificate1 direct to the assessor of the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office2 this ,galileo immediately did4 ,the petition was as follows3-- 8,galileo ,galilei1 most humble servant of your most worthy ,eminence1 most respectfully showeth that whereas1 by command of the ,holy ,congregation1 he was imprisoned outside ,florence four years ago1 and after long and dangerous illness1 as the enclosed medical certificate testifies1 has entirely lost his eyesight1 and therefore stands in urgent need of medical care3 he appeals to the mercy of your most worthy ,eminences1 urgently intreating them in this most miserable condition and at his advanced age to grant him the blessing of his liberty40 ,the utmost caution was exercised at ,rome before granting this petition4 ,no confidence was placed in the medical certificate2 but the ,inquisitor-,general of ,florence1 ,father ,fanano1 was instructed to visit ,galileo and to make an exact report of his health1 and whether it was to be feared1 if he lived at ,florence1 that he would promote the propagation of his errors4#ecd ,fanano at once conscientiously executed his commission1 and on #acth ,february1 #afch1 sent the following report to ,cardinal ,francesco ,barberini3-- 8,in order the better to execute his ,holiness's commission1 ,i went myself1 accompanied by a strange physician1 an intimate friend of mine1 to see ,galileo1 quite unexpectedly1 at his villa at ,arcetri1 to find out the state he was in4 ,my idea was not so much by this mode of proceeding to put myself in a position to report on the nature of his ailments1 as to gain an insight into the studies and occupations he is carrying on1 that ,i might be able to judge whether he was in a condition1 if he returned to ,florence1 to propagate the condemned doctrine of the double motion of the earth by speeches at meetings4 ,i found him deprived of his eyesight1 entirely blind2 he hopes for a cure1 as the cataract only formed six months ago1 but at his age of seventy the physician considers it incurable4 ,he has besides a severe rupture1 and suffers from continual weariness of life and sleeplessness1 which as he asserts1 and it is confirmed by the inmates of his house1 does not permit him one hour's sound sleep in the twenty-four4 ,he is besides so reduced that he looks more like a corpse than a living man4 ,the villa is a long way from the city1 and the access is inconvenient1 so that ,galileo can but seldom1 and with much inconvenience and expense1 have medical aid4#ece ,his studies are interrupted by his blindness1 though he is read to sometimes2 intercourse with him is not much sought after1 as in his poor state of health he can generally only complain of his sufferings and talk of his ailments to occasional visitors4 ,i think1 therefore1 in consideration of this1 if his ,holiness1 in his boundless mercy1 should think him worthy1 and would allow him to live in ,florence1 he would have no opportunity of holding meetings1 and if he had1 he is so prostrated that ,i think it would suffice1 in order to make quite sure1 to keep him in check by an emphatic warning4 ,this is what ,i have to report to your ,eminence40#ecf ,this report at last opened the eyes of ,urban ,,viii4 as to ,galileo's real condition4 ,the cry of distress from the blind old man1 approaching dissolution1 was too well justified to be wholly ignored1 and a partial hearing was given to it at all events1 at a sitting of the ,congregation held on #beth ,february1 under the presidency of the ,pope4#ecg ,but a full release1 in spite of the information that ,galileo was more like a corpse than a living man1 still appeared too dangerous to be ventured on4 ,on #ith ,march ,galileo received from the ,inquisitor-,general1 ,father ,fanano1 the following communication3-- 8,his ,holiness is willing to allow you to remove from your villa to the house which you own in ,florence1 in order that you may be cured of your illness here4 ,but on your arrival in the city you must immediately repair1 or be taken1 to the buildings of the ,holy ,office1 that you may learn from me what ,i must do and prescribe for your advantage40#ech ,galileo availed himself of the permission to return to his little house1 ,via della ,costa1 at ,florence1 on the very next day4 ,here the ,inquisitor-,general1 as charged by the ,holy ,office1 informed him1 8for his advantage10 of the order1 not to go out in the city under pain of actual imprisonment for life and excommunication1 and not to speak with any one whomsoever of the condemned opinion of the double motion of the earth4#eci ,it was also enjoined upon him not to receive any suspicious visitors4 ,it is characteristic of the mode of proceeding of the ,inquisition1 that ,fanano set ,galileo's own son1 who was nursing him with the tenderest affection1 to watch over him4 ,the ,inquisitor enjoined upon ,vincenzo to see that the above orders were strictly obeyed1 and especially to take care that his father's visitors never stayed long4 ,he remarks1 in a report to ,francesco ,barberini of #ajth ,march1 that ,vincenzo could be trusted1 8for he is very much obliged for the favour granted to his father to be medically treated at ,florence1 and fears that the least offence might entail the loss of it2 but it is very much to his own interest that his father should behave properly and keep up as long as possible1 for with his death a thousand scudi will go1 which the ,grand ,duke allows him annually40 ,in the opinion of the worthy ,father ,fanano1 then1 the son must be anxious for his father's life for the sake of the thousand scudi6 ,in the same letter the ,inquisitor assured ,barberini that he would himself keep a sharp look out that his ,holiness's orders were strictly obeyed1 which1 as we shall soon see1 he did not fail to do4 ,galileo's confinement in ,florence was so rigorous that at ,easter a special permission from the ,inquisition was required to allow him to go to the little ,church of ,san ,giorgio1 very near his house1 to confess1 to communicate1 and to perform his ,easter devotions1#edj and even this permission only extended expressly to the ,thursday1 ,good ,friday1 ,saturday1 and ,easter ,sunday4#eda ,on the other hand1 as appears from the dates of his letters1#edb he was allowed1 during ,june1 ,july1 and ,august1 to go several times to and fro between his villa at ,arcetri and ,florence4 ,galileo was now once more to discover how rigidly he was watched by the ,inquisition4 ,his negotiations with the ,states-,general1 in spite of the urgent intercession of such men as ,diodati1 ,hortensius1 ,hugo ,grotius1 ,realius1 ,constantine ,huyghens 7,secretary of the ,prince of ,orange1 and father of the celebrated ,christian ,huyghens71 and others1 had not led to any result4 ,his proposed method of taking longitudes at sea1 well worked out as it was theoretically1 presented many difficulties in practical application4 ,his methods of precisely determining the smallest portions of time1 and of overcoming the obstacles occasioned by the motion of the vessel1 did not prove to be adequate4#edc ,he had endeavoured1 in a long letter to ,realius of #fth ,june1 #afcg1edd to dismiss or refute all the objections that had been made2 but this did not suffice1 and although the ,states-,general acknowledged his proposal in the main in the most handsome terms1 even accepted it1 and offered him a special distinction 7of which presently71 it appeared necessary to have some personal consultation on the subject with the inventor4 ,for this purpose1 ,hortensius1 who had also a great desire to make ,galileo's acquaintance1 was to go to ,florence4#ede ,the ,inquisitor-,general heard that a delegate was coming from ,germany to confer with ,galileo on the subject4 ,he at once reported this on #bfth ,june to ,rome1#edf whence he received instructions under date of #acth ,july from the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office1 that ,galileo must not receive the delegate if he were of a heretical religion1 or from a heretical country1 and the ,inquisitor will please communicate this to ,galileo2 on the other hand1 there was nothing to prevent the interview if the person came from a ,catholic country1 and himself belonged to the ,catholic religion2 only1 in accordance with the previous regulations1 the doctrine of the double motion of the earth must not be spoken of4#edg ,a few days after the ,inquisitor had delivered his instructions to ,galileo1 the ,german merchants of the name of ,ebers residing in ,florence1 presented him in the name of the ,dutch ,government with a very flattering letter1 and a heavy gold chain1 as a recognition of his proposals and a pledge of the ultimate adjustment of the negotiations4 ,the envoys of the ,states-,general found ,galileo very ill in bed1 his blinded eyes continually running and very much inflamed4 ,he felt the gold chain1 which he could not see1 and had the letter read to him4 ,he then handed the chain back to the merchants1 on the plea that he could not keep it now1 as the negotiations had been interrupted by his illness and loss of sight1 and he did not at all know whether he should ever be in a position to carry them through4#edh ,the real motive1 however1 was nothing but fear of the ,inquisition1#edi and as the sequel showed1 he was quite right4 ,fanano sent a report on #beth ,july of all these circumstances to ,cardinal ,barberini at ,rome4 ,it is so characteristic that we cannot refrain from giving it3-- 8,the person who was to come to see ,galileo has neither appeared in ,florence1 nor is likely to appear1 so far as ,i am informed2 but ,i have not yet been able to learn whether in consequence of some hindrance on the journey or from some other cause4 ,i know1 however1 that presents for ,galileo and a letter to him have come to some merchants here4 ,a highly estimable person1 who is in my confidence1 and has spoken with the person who has the presents and letter in charge1 told me that both bear the seal of the ,dutch ,government2 the presents are in a case1 and may be gold or silver work4 ,galileo has steadily refused to accept either the letter or the presents1 whether from fear of incurring some danger1 on account of the warning ,i gave him on the first news of the expected arrival of an envoy1 or whether because he really could not perfect his method of taking longitudes at sea1 and is not in a state to do it2 for he is now quite blind1 and his head is more in the grave than fit for mathematical studies4 ,insurmountable difficulties had also occurred in the use of the instruments indicated by him4 ,besides1 it is said here1 that if he had fully brought his plan to perfection1 his ,highness 7,ferdinand ,,ii4 of ,tuscany7 would never have permitted it to pass into the hands of renegades1 heretics1 or enemies of the allies of his house4 ,this is what ,i have to report to your ,eminence40#eej ,the news that ,galileo had not accepted the distinction offered him by the ,dutch ,government gave great satisfaction at ,rome2 and ,urban ,,viii4 even charged the ,inquisitor at ,florence1 by a mandate of #eth ,august1 to express to ,galileo the gratification of the ,holy ,congregation at his conduct in this affair4#eea ,about this time he was sunk so low1 physically as well as mentally1 that he and every one thought his dissolution was at hand4 ,in a letter to ,diodati of #gth ,august1 in which he told him of his interview with the ,german merchants at ,florence1 he expressed the fear that 8if his sufferings increased as they had done during the last three or four days1 he would not even be able to dictate letters40#eeb ,he added1 perhaps in reference to the ,inquisitor's intimation of #acth ,july3 8,it would be a fruitless undertaking if ,signor ,hortensius were to take the trouble to come and see me1 for if he found me living 7which ,i do not believe71 ,i should be quite unable to give him the least satisfaction40 ,his profound vexation about the regulations imposed upon him in this matter by the ,roman curia is very evident in a letter to ,diodati of #adth ,august4 ,he writes3-- 8,as ill luck would have it1 the ,holy ,office came to know of the negotiations ,i was carrying on about the geographical longitude with the ,states-,general1 which may do me the greatest injury4 ,i am extremely obliged to you for having induced ,signor ,hortensius to give up his intended journey1 and thereby averted some calamity from me which would probably have been in store for me if he had come4 ,it is indeed true that these negotiations ought not to do me any harm1 for the just and obvious reasons that you mention1 but rather to bring me fame and honour1 if my circumstances were but like those of other men1 that is1 if ,i were not pursued by misfortune more than others4 ,but having been often and often convinced by experience of the tricks fate plays me1 ,i can but expect from its obstinate perfidy1 that what would be an advantage to any one else will never bring anything but harm to me4 ,but even in this bitter adversity ,i do not lose my peace of mind1 for it would be but idle audacity to oppose inexorable destiny40#eec ,galileo1 who thought his hours were numbered1 dictated his will on #bast ,august1 in the presence of a notary and witnesses1 and directed that he should be buried in the family vault of the ,galilei in the ,church of ,santa ,croce at ,florence4#eed ,on #hth ,september the ,grand ,duke paid the dying astronomer1 as was supposed1 a visit of two hours1 and himself handed him his medicine4#eee ,it had been for a long time a cherished wish of ,galileo's to have with him during the evening of his days his most devoted and favourite disciple1 ,father ,castelli4#eef ,but the professorship which he held at ,rome made the attainment of this wish difficult4 ,as it was now supposed that a speedy death would deprive the world of the great philosopher1 the ,grand ,duke requested through ,niccolini at ,rome that ,castelli might come to ,florence1 for a few months at least1 that he might yet receive from the lips of his dying master many ideas of importance for science1 which he might not perhaps confide to any but his trusted friend4#eeg ,after some difficulties were surmounted1 he actually received the papal consent1 but only on condition that a third person should always be present during the conversations with ,galileo4#eeh ,early in ,october ,castelli arrived in ,florence1 where the ,inquisitor-,general1 as charged by the ,holy ,office1 gave him permission to visit ,galileo1 with the express prohibition1 under pain of excommunication1 to converse with him on the condemned doctrine of the earth's double motion4#eei ,the permission1 however1 to visit ,galileo seems to have been very limited1 for ,castelli repeatedly wrote to ,cardinal ,francesco ,barberini1 with the most urgent entreaties to obtain an extension of it for him from the ,pope4 ,castelli protests in this letter that he would rather lose his life than converse with ,galileo on subjects forbidden by the ,church4 ,he gives as a reason for the need of more frequent interviews that he had received from the ,grand ,duke the twofold charge to minister to ,galileo in spiritual matters1 and to inform himself fully about the tables and ephemerides of the ,medicean stars1 because the ,prince ,giovanni ,carlo1 ,lord ,high ,admiral1 was to take this discovery to ,spain4#efj ,the cardinal replied that in consideration of these circumstances1 ,urban ,,viii4 granted permission for more frequent visits to ,galileo1 under the known conditions2#efa but the official permission1 was not issued until about ,november4#efb ,nothing is known in history1 however1 of the ,lord ,high ,admiral's having ever taken ,galileo's method of taking longitudes to the ,peninsula4 ,during the same year 7#afch71 the ,elzevirs at ,leyden issued ,galileo's famous work3 8,discourses on and ,demonstrations of ,two ,new ,sciences appertaining to ,mechanics and ,motion40#efc ,this work1 known under the abridged title1 8,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze10 was dedicated to the ,count de ,noailles1 in grateful remembrance of the warm interest which he had always shown in the author4#efd ,it is the most copious and best of all ,galileo's writings1 and he himself valued it more highly than any of the others4#efe ,in it he created the new sciences of the doctrine of cohesion in stationary bodies1 and their resistance when torn asunder2 also that of phoronomics1 and thereby opened up new paths in a field of science that had been lying fallow4 ,he must1 indeed1 be regarded as the real founder of mechanical physics4 ,it is not our province to enter farther into the contents of this work1 or its importance for science4 ,it has1 however1 some significance in our historical review of ,galileo's relations with the curia1 for it excited immense attention in all learned circles1 and increasingly attracted the notice of the scientific world to the prisoner of the ,inquisition4 ,this was by no means agreeable to the ,romanists1 who would have been glad to see him sink into oblivion4 ,galileo now again received communications from all countries1 some of them expressing the highest admiration of his new work1 and others asking more information on many of the theories expounded4 ,and we now behold the shattered old man of seventy-four1 only partially recovered from his severe illness1 carrying on an extensive correspondence full of the most abstruse problems in physics and mathematics4#eff ,in ,january1 #afci1 as his health had so far improved as to allow the hope to be indulged that he might be spared some time longer1 he returned to his villa at ,arcetri1 not to leave it again alive4 ,was this move a voluntary one8 ,we have no document which finally settles the question4 ,but we hold ourselves justified in doubting it4 ,not only because it is difficult to reconcile a voluntary return to ,arcetri with his previous efforts to obtain permission to reside in ,florence1 but there is a later letter from him bearing the expressive date3 8,from the ,villa ,arcetri1 my perpetual prison and place of exile from the city40#efg ,and when the wife of ,buonamici1 who was distinguished for her mental powers1 gave him a pressing invitation to ,prato1 which is only four miles from ,florence1 he reminds her in his reply of #fth ,april1 #afda1 that 8he was still a prisoner here for reasons which her husband was well aware of02 he then presses her to visit him at ,arcetri1 adding3 8,do not make any excuses1 nor fear that any unpleasantness may accrue to me from it1 for ,i do not trouble myself much how this interview may be judged by certain persons1 as ,i am accustomed to bearing many heavy burdens as if they were quite light40#efh ,from such utterances it is clear that ,galileo had little pleasure in residing at ,arcetri1 and that therefore his second banishment from ,florence was not voluntary1 but was the result of a papal order4#efi ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,last ,,years ,,and ,,death4 ,refusal of some ,favour asked by ,galileo4--,his pious ,resignation4--,continues his scientific ,researches4--,his pupil ,viviani4--,failure of attempt to renew ,negotiations about ,longitudes4--,reply to ,liceti and ,correspondence with him4--,last ,discussion of the ,copernican ,system in reply to ,rinuccini4--,sketch of its ,contents4--,pendulum ,clocks4--,priority of the discovery belongs to ,galileo4--,visit from ,castelli4--,torricelli joins ,viviani4--,scientific discourse on his ,deathbed4--,death1 #hth ,jan41 #afdb4--,proposal to deny him ,christian ,burial4--,monument objected to by ,urban ,,viii4--,ferdinand ,,ii4 fears to offend him4--,buried quietly4--,no ,inscription till thirty-two years later4--,first ,public ,monument erected by ,viviani in #afic4--,viviani directs his ,heirs to erect one in ,santa ,croce4--,erected in #agch4--,rome unable to put down ,copernican ,system4--,in #ageg ,benedict ,,xiv4 permits the ,clause in ,decree forbidding ,books which teach the new ,system to be expunged4--,in #ahbj permission given to treat of it as true4--,galileo's ,work and others not expunged from the ,index till #ahce4 ,we now come to the last three years of ,galileo's life4 ,from two documents published by ,professor ,gherardi1#egj we learn that in #afci ,galileo once more asked at ,rome for some favours not specified1 but that they were absolutely refused by the ,pope4 ,from this time ,galileo came no further into direct contact with the ,roman curia4 ,he had been compelled to give up all hope of any amelioration of his lot from the implacable ,urban ,,viii4 ,so he ended his days quietly and resigned1 as the prisoner of the ,inquisition1 in his villa at ,arcetri4 ,castelli also1 who 7as his letters to ,galileo of #afci bear witness7#ega had warmly exerted himself on his behalf with ,cardinal ,barberini and other influential persons1 had probably come to the conclusion that nothing more could be done for his unfortunate friend1 for from this time we find nothing in his letters to ,galileo but scientific disquisitions and spiritual consolations4#egb ,this indicates the two interests which occupied the latest period of ,galileo's life--deep piety and scientific meditations4 ,his utter hopelessness and pious resignation are very clearly expressed in the brief sentence he used often to write to ,castelli3 8,piace cosi a ,dio1 dere piacere cosi ancora a ,noi40#egc 7,if it please ,god1 it ought also to please us47 ,he never omitted in any letter to his old friend and pupil to commend himself in conclusion to his prayers1#egd and in his letter of #crd ,december1 #afci1 he added3 8,i remind you to persevere in your prayers to the all-merciful and loving ,god1 that ,he will cast out the bitter hatred from the hearts of my malicious and unhappy persecutors40 ,the lofty genius with which nature had endowed ,galileo never displayed itself in so striking and surprising a manner as during these last three years4 ,no sooner were his physical sufferings in some measure relieved1 than he occupied himself in scientific speculations1 the results of which he partly communicated to his great pupil and subsequent biographer1 ,viviani1 by word of mouth1 and partly dictated them to some of those about him4 ,the society of young ,viviani1 then eighteen years of age1 who1 by permission of the ,inquisition1 spent the last two years and a half of the old master's life near him1#ege was the greatest comfort to him1 and he conceived a fatherly affection for the talented youth4 ,we owe it partly to the assistance and stimulus given by ,viviani that the aged ,galileo worked on to the end in improving and enlarging his 8,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze10 made a number of additions1 and added new evidence of great importance to science in two supplementary dialogues4#egf ,during this last period of his life also1 he again took up the negotiations with the ,states-,general1 broken off by his severe illness in #afch4 ,after he became blind he had given up all his writings1 calculations1 and astronomical tables relating to the ,medicean stars1 to his old pupil1 ,father ,vincenzo ,renieri1 in order that he might carry them further2 he was well adapted for the task1 and executed it with equal skill and zeal4#egg ,the new ephemerides were just about to be sent to ,hortensius1 when ,diodati informed ,galileo of his sudden death in a letter of #bhth ,october1 #afci4egh ,the three other commissioners charged by the ,states-,general with the investigation of ,galileo's proposal having also died one after another1 in quick succession1 it was difficult to resume the negotiations4 ,the interest of the ,netherlanders in ,galileo's scheme 7perhaps from its acknowledged imperfection7 had also evidently cooled1 and his proposal to replace the commissioners was not carried out1 although he offered to send ,renieri to ,holland to give all needful explanations by word of mouth4 ,galileo's death then put an end to these fruitless negotiations4#egi ,at the beginning of #afdj ,fortunio ,liceti1 a former pupil of ,galileo's1 published a book on the phosphorescent ,bolognian stone4 ,in the fiftieth chapter of this work he treats of the faint light of the side of the moon not directly illuminated by the sun1 and rejects the view advocated by ,galileo in his 8,sidereus ,nuntius10 that it arises from a reflection of the sun's rays striking our earth1 which the earth reflects to our satellite1 who again reflects them to us4 ,galileo was undecided whether it were not best to take no notice of ,liceti's objections1 the scientific value of which he did not estimate very highly1 when a letter from ,prince ,leopold de' ,medici1 brother of the reigning ,grand ,duke1 relieved him of his doubts4#ehj ,this prince1 who has gained a permanent name in the history of science by founding the celebrated 8,accadmia del ,cimento10 invited ,galileo to give him his views on ,liceti's objections4#eha ,this challenge sufficed to rouse all the blind old man's dialectic skill1 though he was then seventy-six and bowed down by mental and bodily sufferings4 ,he dictated a reply1 in the form of a letter to ,prince ,leopold1 which occupies fifty large pages in the extant edition of his 8,opere10 and in fire1 spirit1 mastery of language1 and crushing argument1 it is quite a match for the most famous controversial works of his manhood4#ehb ,a most interesting direct correspondence then ensued between ,galileo and ,liceti1 which was carried on from ,june1 #afdj1 to ,january1 #afda1 in which not this question only was discussed1 but ,galileo took occasion to express his opinions1 with great spirit and learning1 on the modern ,peripatetic school and philosophy1 on ,aristotle himself1 and his fanatical followers4 ,these letters of the venerable hero of science are characterised by ostensible politeness pervaded by cutting irony1 which makes them instructive and stimulating reading4#ehc ,ten months before his death1 thanks to an indiscreet question from one of his former pupils1 a last opportunity occurred of speaking of the ,copernican system4 ,francesco ,rinuccini1 ,tuscan resident at ,venice1 and afterwards ,bishop of ,pistoja1 having apparently forgotten that the master had solemnly abjured that opinion1 and had even been compelled to promise to denounce its adherents wherever he met with them to the ,inquisition1 informed him in a letter of #bcrd ,march1 #afda1ehd that the mathematician ,pieroni asserted that he had discovered by means of the telescope a small parallax of a few seconds in some of the fixed stars1 which would place the correctness of the ,copernican system beyond all question4 ,rinuccini then goes on to say1 in the same breath1 that he had lately seen the manuscript of a book about to appear1 which contained an objection to the new doctrine1 and made it appear very doubtful4 ,it was this3 because we see exactly one half of the firmament1 it follows inevitably that the earth is the centre of the starry heavens4 ,rinuccini begs ,galileo to clear up these doubts for him1 and to help him to a more certain opinion4 ,this was the impulse to ,galileo's letter of #bith ,march1 #afda1ehe which1 as ,alfred ,von ,reumont truly says1#ehf whether jest or mask1 had better never have been written4 ,there is no doubt that it must not be taken in its literal sense4 ,precisely the same tactics are followed as in the letter which accompanied the 8,treatise on the ,tides10 to the ,grand ,duke of ,austria in #afah1 and in many passages of the 8,dialogues on the ,two ,systems40 ,galileo conceals his real opinions behind a thick veil1 through which the truth is only penetrable by the initiated4 ,the cautious course he pursued in this perilous answer to ,rinuccini is as clever as it is ingenious1 and appears appropriate to his circumstances2 but it does not produce a pleasant impression1 and for the sake of the great man's memory1 one would prefer to leave the subject untouched4 ,we will now examine this interesting letter more closely4 ,when we call to mind the disquisitions on the relation of ,scripture to science1 which ,galileo wrote to ,castelli in #afac1 and to the ,grand ,duchess ,christine in #afae1 the very beginning is a misrepresentation only excusable on the ground of urgent necessity4 ,he says3 8,the incorrectness of the ,copernican system should not in any case be doubted1 especially by us ,catholics1 for the inviolable authority of ,holy ,scripture is opposed to it1 as interpreted by the greatest teachers of theology1 whose unanimous declaration makes the stability of the earth in the centre1 and the revolution of the sun round it1 a certainty4 ,the grounds on which ,copernicus and his followers have maintained the contrary fall to pieces before the fundamental argument of the ,divine omnipotence4 ,for since this is able to effect by many1 aye1 endless means1 what1 so far as we can see1 only appears practicable by one method1 we must not limit the hand of ,god and persist obstinately in anything in which we may have been mistaken4#ehg ,and as ,i hold the ,copernican observations and conclusions to be insufficient1 those of ,ptolemy1 ,aristotle1 and their followers appear to me far more delusive and mistaken1 because their falsity can clearly be proved without going beyond the limits of human knowledge40#ehh ,after this introduction ,galileo proceeds to answer ,rinuccini's question4 ,he treats that argument against the ,copernican system as delusive1 and says that it originates in the assumption that the earth stands still in the centre1 and by no means from precise astronomical observation4 ,he refutes1 therefore1 the scientific objection to the new doctrine4 ,speaking of the assumed discovery of ,pieroni1 he says1 that if it should be confirmed1 however small the parallax may be1 human science must draw the conclusion from it that the earth cannot be stationary in the centre4 ,but in order to weaken this dangerous sentence1 he hastens to add1 that if ,pieroni might be mistaken in thinking that he had discovered such a parallax of a few seconds1 those might be still more mistaken who think they can observe that the visible hemisphere never varies1 not even one or two seconds2 for such an exact and certain observation is utterly impossible1 partly from the insufficiency of the astronomical instruments1 and partly from the refraction of the rays of light4 ,as will be seen1 ,galileo takes great care to show the futility of the new arguments brought into the field against the ,copernican system4 ,it therefore seems very strange that some writers1 and among them the well-known ,italian historian1 ,cesare ,cantu1 suppose from this letter that at the close of his life ,galileo had really renounced the prohibited doctrine from profound conviction6#ehi ,the introduction1 and many passages thrown in in this cautious refutation1 must1 as ,albri and ,henri ,martin justly observe1 be regarded as fiction1 the author having the ,inquisition in view2 it had recently given a striking proof of its watchfulness by forbidding the author of a book called 8,de ,pitagorea animarum transmigratione10 to apply the epithet 8clarissimus0 to ,galileo1 and it had only with great difficulty been persuaded to permit 8notissimus ,galileus06#eij ,a short time before the close of ,galileo's brilliant scientific career1 in spite of age1 blindness1 and sickness1 he once more gave striking evidence of the genius which could only be quenched by death4 ,it will be remembered that the inadequacy of his proposed chronometer had been the chief obstacle to the acceptance by the ,states-,general of his method of taking longitudes at sea4 ,now1 in the second half of the year #afda1 it occurred to him1 as is confirmed beyond question by ,viviani1 who was present1#eia though the idea is generally ascribed to ,christian ,huyghens1 of adding a pendulum to the then very imperfect clocks1 as regulator of their motion4 ,as this was sixteen years before ,huyghens made known his invention of pendulum clocks1 priority indisputably belongs to ,galileo4 ,but it was only permitted to the blind master to conceive the great idea--he was not to carry it out4 ,it was his intention to employ the eyes and hands of his son ,vincenzo1 a very clever mechanician1 to put his idea in practice1 and he told him of his plan4 ,vincenzo was to make the necessary drawings according to his father's instructions1 and to construct models accordingly4 ,but in the midst of these labours ,galileo fell ill1 and this time he did not recover4#eib ,his faithful pupil1 ,castelli1 who probably foresaw the speedy dissolution of the revered old man1 came to see him about the end of ,september1 #afda4 ,in ,october1 on the repeated and urgent invitation of ,galileo1 ,torricelli joined ,castelli and ,viviani1 not to leave the ,villa ,arcetri until they left it with ,galileo's coffin4 ,torricelli was then thirty-three1 and the old master had discerned his eminent talents from a treatise on the theory of motion which he had sent him4#eic ,castelli was not permitted to stay till the close4 ,at the beginning of ,november he had to return to ,rome1 leaving ,galileo1 ,torricelli1 and ,viviani eagerly occupied with the completion of the 8,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze40 ,on #eth ,november ,galileo was attacked by an insidious hectic fever1 which slowly but surely brought him to the grave4#eid ,violent pains in his limbs threw him on a sick bed1 from which he did not rise again4 ,in spite of all these sufferings1 which were augmented by constant palpitation of the heart and almost entire sleeplessness1 his active mind scarcely rested for a moment1 and he spent the long hours of perpetual darkness in constant scientific conversation and discussions with ,torricelli and ,viviani1 who noted down the last utterances of the dying man with pious care4 ,as they chiefly related to the 8,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze10 they are to be found in the two supplementary ,dialogues added to that work4 ,on #hth ,january1 #afdb1 the year of ,newton's birth1 having received the last sacraments and the benediction of ,urban ,,viii41 ,galileo breathed his last1 at the age of nearly seventy-eight years4 ,his son ,vincenzo1 his daughter-in-law ,sestilia ,bocchineri1 his pupils ,torricelli and ,viviani1 and the parish priest1 were around his bed4#eie ,and when ,vincenzo closed his father's sightless eyes for their last long sleep1 they gave not a thought at ,rome to the severe loss sustained by science by ,galileo's death1 but only prepared in hot haste to guard the interests of the ,church1 and as far as it lay in their power1 to persecute the ,csar of science even beyond the grave4 ,the aim was now1 as far as possible1 to extinguish his memory1 with which so many perils for ,rome were bound up4 ,even around his bier the struggle began4 ,some pettifogging theologians went so far as to wish that ,christian burial should be denied him1 and that his will should be declared null and void1 for a man condemned on suspicion of heresy1 and who had died as a prisoner of the ,inquisition1 had no claim to rest in consecrated ground1 nor could he possess testamentary rights4 ,a long consultation of the ecclesiastical authorities in ,florence1 and two circumstantial opinions from them were required to put these fanatics to silence4 ,immediately after ,galileo's death his numerous pupils and admirers made a collection for a handsome monument to the famous ,tuscan4 ,the ,inquisitor1 ,fanano1 at once sent word of this to ,rome1 and received a reply by order of the ,pope1 dated #bcrd ,january1 that he was to bring it in some way to the ears of the ,grand ,duke that it was not at all suitable to erect a monument to ,galileo1 who was sentenced to do penance by the tribunal of the ,holy ,office and had died during that sentence2 good ,catholics would be scandalised1 and the reputation of the ,grand ,duke for piety might suffer4 ,but if this did not take effect1 the ,inquisitor must see that there was nothing in the inscription insulting to the reputation of the holy tribunal1 and exercise the same care about the funeral sermon4#eif ,besides this1 ,urban ,,viii4 seized the next opportunity of giving the ,tuscan ambassador to understand that 8it would be a bad example for the world if his ,highness permitted such a thing1 since ,galileo had been arraigned before the ,holy ,office for such false and erroneous opinions1 had also given much trouble about them at ,florence1 and had altogether given rise to the greatest scandal throughout ,christendom by this condemned doctrine40#eig ,in the despatch in which ,niccolini reported these remarks of the ,pope to his ,government1 he advised that the matter be postponed1 and reminded them that the ,pope had had the body of the ,duchess ,matilda1 of ,mantua1 removed from the ,carthusian convent there1 and buried at ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 without saying a word to the ,duke about it beforehand1 excusing himself afterwards by saying that all churches were papal property1 and therefore all the bodies buried in them belonged to the clergy6 ,if1 therefore1 they did not wish to incur the danger of perhaps seeing ,galileo's bones dragged away from ,florence1 all idea must be given up for the present of suitably celebrating his memory4 ,niccolini received an official reply that there had been a talk of erecting a monument to ,galileo1 but that his ,highness had not come to any decision1 and proper regard would certainly be paid to the hints received from the ,pope4#eih ,the weak ,ferdinand ,,ii4 did not venture to act in the least against the heartless ,pope's wishes4 ,even ,galileo's desire in his will to be buried in the vault of his ancestors in the ,church of ,santa ,croce1 at ,florence1 was not respected4 ,his mortal remains were placed in a little obscure room1 in a side chapel belonging to the ,church1 called 8the ,chapel of the ,novitiate40 ,he was buried according to the desire of ,urban ,,viii41 very quietly1 without any pomp4 ,no monument nor inscription marked his resting place2 but though ,rome did all she could to obliterate the memory of the famous philosopher1 she could not effect that the immortal name of ,galileo ,galilei should be buried in the grave with his lifeless remains4 ,it was not till thirty-two years later1 when ,urban ,,viii4 had long been in his grave1 and more lenient views were entertained about ,galileo at the ,vatican1 that ,fra ,gabriel ,pierozzi1 ,rector of the ,novices of the ,convent of ,santa ,croce1 ventured to adorn ,galileo's grave with a long bombastic inscription4#eii ,in #afic ,viviani1 whose greatest pride it was to sign himself 8,discpolo ultimo di ,galileo10 erected the first public monument to his immortal master4 ,the front of his handsome house in the ,via ,san ,antonio was made to serve for it1 for he placed the bronze bust of ,galileo1 after the model of the famous sculptor1 ,giovanni ,caccini1 over the door4 ,a long eulogy on ,galileo was engraved over and on both sides of it4#fjj ,but ,viviani was not content with thus piously honouring the memory of the master2 in his last will he enjoined on his heirs to erect a splendid monument to him1 which was to cost about #djjj scudi1 in the ,church of ,santa ,croce4#fja ,decades1 however1 passed after ,viviani's death before his heirs thought of fulfilling his wishes4 ,at length1 in #agcd1 the preliminary steps were taken by an inquiry from the ,convent of ,santa ,croce1 whether any decree of the ,holy ,congregation existed which would forbid the erection of such a monument in the ,church8 ,the ,inquisitor at ,florence immediately inquired of the ,holy ,office at ,rome whether it would be permitted thus to honour a man 8who had been condemned for notorious errors40#fjb ,the opinion of the counsellors of the ,holy ,office was taken4 ,they said that there was nothing to prevent the erection of the monument1 provided the intended inscription were submitted to the ,holy ,congregation1 that they might give such orders about it as they thought proper4#fjc ,this opinion was confirmed by the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office on #afth ,june1 #agcd4fjd ,and so the pompous monument to ,galileo1 which displayed the tastelessness of the age1 and was not completed till four years later1 could be raised in the ,church of ,santa ,croce1 this pantheon of the ,florentines1 where they bury their famous dead1 and of which ,byron finely sings in 8,childe ,harold03-- 8,in ,santa ,croce's holy precincts lie ,ashes which make it holier1 dust which is ,even in itself an immortality1 ,though there were nothing save the past1 and this1 ,the particle of those sublimities ,which have relapsed to chaos3--here repose ,angelo's1 ,alfieri's bones1 and his1 ,the starry ,galileo1 with his woes2 ,here ,machiavelli's earth returned to whence it rose40#fje ,on #abth ,march1 #agcg1 ,galileo's remains were removed1 in presence of all the professors of the ,university of ,florence1 and many of the learned men of ,italy1 with great solemnity and ecclesiastical pomp1 from their modest resting-place to the new mausoleum in a more worthy place in the ,church of ,santa ,croce itself1 and united with those of his last pupil1 ,viviani4#fjf ,it had long been perceived at ,rome that1 in spite of every effort1 it was vain to try to bury the ,copernican system with ,galileo in the grave4 ,it could no longer greatly concern the ,roman curia that ,galileo's memory was held in high honour1 when the cause for which he suffered had decidedly gained the victory4 ,it was by a singular freak of nature that in the very same year which closed the career of this great observer of her laws1 another who was to complete the work begun by ,copernicus and carried on by ,galileo1 entered upon his4 ,he it is1 as we all know1 who gave to science those eternal forms now recognised as firmly established1 and whose genius1 by the discovery of the law of gravitation1 crowned the edifice of which ,copernicus laid the foundations and which ,galileo upreared4 ,during the lifetime of the latter1 and the period immediately succeeding his death1 the truth of the system of the earth's double motion was recognised by numerous learned men2 and in #afif1 when ,newton published his immortal work1 8,philosophi naturalis principia ,mathematica10 it became thoroughly established4 ,all the scientific world who pursued the paths of free investigation accepted the ,copernican system1 and only a few ossified devotees of the old school1 in common with some theological philosophers1 still raised impotent objections to it1 which have been continued even up to this day by some wrong-headed people4#fjg ,at ,rome they only accommodated themselves to the new system slowly and reluctantly4 ,in #ageg1 when it was no longer doubted by any one but a few fanatics1 the ,congregation of the ,index thought the time was come for proposing to ,pope ,benedict ,,xiv4 to expunge the clause from the decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 prohibiting all books which teach that the sun is stationary and the earth revolves4 ,this enlightened pontiff1 known as a patron of the arts and sciences1 entirely agreed1 and signified his consent on #aath ,may1 #ageg4fjh ,but there still remained on the ,index the work of ,copernicus1 8,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,clestium10 ,diego di ,zuiga's 8,commentary on the ,book of ,job0 7these two works1 however1 only 8donec corrigantur10 but this was quite worthless for strict ,catholics as far as the work of ,copernicus was concerned1 as since the announcement of these 8corrections0 by the decree of #aeth ,may1 #afbj1 no new edition had appeared71 ,foscarini's 8,lttera spra l'opinione de i ,pittagorici e del ,copernico della mobilit della ,terra et stabilit del ,sole1 e il nuove ,pittagorico ,sistma del ,mondo10 ,kepler's 8,epitome astronomi ,copernic10 and finally1 ,galileo's 8,dialogo sopra i due ,massimi ,sistmi del ,mondo40 ,this last work had indeed been allowed to appear in the edition of ,galileo's collected works1#fji undertaken at ,padua in #agdd1 which had received the prescribed ecclesiastical permission2 but the editor1 the ,abbot ,toaldo1 had been obliged expressly to state in an introduction that the theory of the double motion can and must be regarded only as a mathematical hypothesis1 to facilitate the explanation of certain natural phenomena4 ,besides this1 the 8,dialogues on the ,two ,principal ,systems0 had to be preceded by the sentence on and recantation of ,galileo1 as well as by an ,essay 8,on the ,system of the ,universe of the ,ancient ,hebrews10 by ,calmet1 in which the passages of ,scripture bearing on the order of the world were interpreted in the traditional ,catholic fashion4#faj ,the celebrated ,french astronomer ,lalande1 as he himself relates1#faa tried in vain when at ,rome1 in #agfe1 to get ,galileo's works expunged from the ,index4 ,the ,cardinal ,prefect of the ,congregation of the ,index objected that there was a sentence of the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office in existence which must first be cancelled1 but this was not done1 and all remained as before2 and even in the edition of the ,index of #ahai1 strange to say1 the five works mentioned above were to be found as repudiated by the ,roman curia6 ,it then happened in the following year1 #ahbj1 that ,canon ,joseph ,settele1 professor of optics and astronomy at the ,archive-gymnasium at ,rome1 wrote a lesson book1 8,elementi d'astronomia10 in which the ,copernican system1 in accordance with the results of science1 was treated ex professo4 ,the ,master of the ,palace1 ,philip ,anfossi1 to whom in his capacity of chief censor of the press the book was submitted1 demanded under appeal to the decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 still in force1 that the doctrine of the double motion should be only treated hypothetically1 and refused the imprimatur until the ,,ms4 had been altered4 ,canon ,settele1 however1 was not disposed to make himself ridiculous in face of the whole scientific world by compliance with these antiquated conditions1 and appealed to ,pope ,pius ,,vii41 who referred the matter to the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office4 ,here at last some regard was had to the times1 and in the sitting of #afth ,august1 #ahbj1 it was decided that ,settele might treat the ,copernican system as established1 which was approved by ,pius ,,vii4 without hesitation4 ,father ,anfossi could not1 after this decision1 prevent the work from publication as it was1 but he resolutely pointed out the contradiction between this permission and the decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 and published a treatise entitled3 8,can any one who has made the ,tridentine ,confession1 defend and teach as a thesis1 and as an absolute truth and not a mere hypothesis1 that the earth revolves and the sun is stationary80#fab ,this gave rise to discussions in the ,college of ,cardinals of the ,holy ,inquisition as to the attitude to be adopted by ecclesiastical authority towards the ,copernican system1 which had been universally adopted for more than a century4 ,in the sitting of #aath ,september1 #ahbb1 they finally agreed1 with express reference to the decree of the ,index ,congregation of #ajth ,may1 #ageg1 and #afth ,august1 #ahbj1 8that the printing and publication of works treating of the motion of the earth and the stability of the sun1 in accordance with the general opinion of modern astronomers is permitted at ,rome40#fac ,this decree was ratified by ,pius ,,vii4 on #beth ,september4 ,but full thirteen years more went by until1 in #ahce1 when the new edition of the catalogue of prohibited books appeared1 the five works in which the theory of the double motion was maintained and defended were expunged from the list4 ,it was not until #ahce1 therefore1 that the last trace was effaced of the memorable warfare so long and resolutely waged by ecclesiastical power against the superior insight of science4 ,if it is denied to history to surround the head of ,galileo1 the greatest advocate of the new system1 with the halo of the martyr1 ready to die for his cause1 posterity will ever regard with admiration and gratitude the figure of the man1 who1 though he did not heroically defend the truth1 was1 by virtue of his genius1 one of her first pioneers1 and had to bear for her sake an accumulation of untold suffering4 ,,appendix4 ,i4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,vatican ,,manuscript4#fad ,we know next to nothing of the history of the ,vatican ,,ms4 up to the time when ,napoleon ,i4 took possession of the papal city4 ,during this period1 when proud ,rome had sunk so low as to be a department of ,france1 in #ahaa1 by the mandate of the then ruler of the world1 the treasures of the ,vatican archives were removed from ,rome to ,paris4 ,among them was the volume containing the ,acts of ,galileo's trial4 ,it is not known how ,napoleon's special attention came to be directed to them2 but it is certain that he requested ,alexander ,barbier1 then ,state ,librarian1 to furnish him with a detailed report about them4#fae ,barbier handed it to the ,minister of ,worship and ,instruction4 ,he also proposed that the whole of the documents should be printed1 in the interests of historical truth1 in the original ,latin and ,italian1 with a ,french translation4 ,the proposal was approved by the ,emperor1 and the volume was handed over to ,barbier that he might have the translation made4 ,when the convulsions of #ahad had swept ,napoleon out of ,paris1 and transported him to ,elba1 and the ,bourbons again ruled ,france1 the ,roman curia repeatedly took steps to regain possession of the volume4 ,after the return of ,pius ,,vii4 to ,rome in #ahad1 after his compulsory residence at ,fontainebleau1 ,mgr4 ,marini was staying at ,paris as ,papal ,commissary1 in order to demand from the new ,french ,government the restitution of the archival treasures taken by ,napoleon from the ,holy ,see4 ,he first applied for the ,acts of ,galileo's trial to the ,minister of the ,interior1 who referred him to the ,count de ,blacas1 ,minister of the ,royal ,household4#faf ,he assured ,marini that he would have a search instituted in the royal library4#fag ,he wrote on the same day to ,barbier charging him to search for the documents1 and to report to him on their historical value4#fah ,barbier's answer is too characteristic not to be given4 8,a ,son ,excellence le ,ministre de la ,maison du ,roi1 ,paris1 #e ,decembre1 #ahad4 ,monseigneur1 ,je m'empresse de rpondre la lettre par laquelle votre ,excellence me fait l'honneur de me demander s'il existe1 dans le dpt gnral des bibliothques de ,s4,m4 ou dans l'une de ses ,bibliothques particulires1 des pices qui faisaient partie des ,archives ,pontificales et qui sont reclames par le garde de ces ,archives1 savoir le procs de ,galile4 ,il y a plus de trois aus que je possde le procs de ,galile4 ,rien n'est plus clbre que ce procs dans l'histoire des ,sciences et dans celle de l',inquisition4 ,aussi s'en est on occup avec un grand zle jusqu' ces derniers temps2 ce qui est probablement cause qu' aprs l'avoir examin avec tante l'attention qu'il merite1 je n'y ai remarqu ancun dtail qui ne soit connu 7sic74 ,l'importance de ce recueil consiste donc principalement dans la runion des pices qui ont motiv1 dans le ,,xvii sicle1 la condamnation d'un habile astronome1 pour une opinion qui est gnralement enseigne aujourd'hui dans toutes les coles1 mme ecclsiastiques4 ,je suis1 ,monseigneur1 etc41 ,,barbier40#fai ,it is clear that ,barbier expected to find support in the ,acts of the trial for the assumed torture of ,galileo2 and as they reported nothing of the kind1 and could not report anything consistently with the facts of history1 the librarian entirely overlooked the vast importance of the papers4 ,after this report ,count ,blacas felt no scruple about letting the ,papal ,commissary have them4 ,on #aeth ,december the minister wrote a note to ,barbier1 asking him for the volume of documents1 that he might himself hand it to ,marini4#fbj ,he also wrote to the ,papal ,commissary that the documents had been found1 and that it would give him great pleasure to deliver them to him4#fba ,marini accordingly went three times to the minister's hotel1 and once to the ,tuileries1 but without success4 ,he therefore begged1 in a letter of #bhth ,january1 #ahae1 to have a day and hour appointed for an audience4#fbb ,to his dismay he received in reply a letter from ,count ,blacas of #bnd ,february1 #ahae1 saying that the ,king himself wished to look through the trial of ,galileo1 that the ,,ms4 was in his majesty's cabinet1 and therefore could not be given up immediately1 but it should be done as soon as the ,king had returned it4#fbc ,marini was therefore on the track of the documents1 though he did not get them4 ,but only twenty-four days after he received this explanation the famous hundred days occurred1 and ,louis ,,xviii4 left his palace in the darkness of night for ,ghent4 ,napoleon had scarcely set out for ,st4 ,helena1 and the legitimate sovereign made his entry into ,paris1 than we find the ,papal ,commissary again eagerly trying to get back the precious ,,ms4#fbd ,but what must have been his dismay when he was informed by ,count ,pradel1 temporary successor of ,count ,blacas1 on #fth ,november1 #ahae1 that the documents were no longer to be found in the ,king's cabinet1 and that it was not known what had become of them4#fbe ,further efforts were fruitless4 ,all that he could get from the ,french ,government was the doubtful promise that the papers should be restored when found4 ,two years later1 in ,august1 #ahag1 he again attacked ,count ,pradel on the subject1#fbf and was assured that they were not in the cabinet of the royal palace2 he might have a search made among the archives in the ,louvre1 they might have been put aside there4#fbg ,marini suspected that the papers had been purloined1 and asked the minister of police1 ,count ,decazes1 to help him in his search4 ,he1 however1 referred him to the ,minister ,of the ,interior1#fbh that is1 to the place where he had begun his inquiries three years before4 ,afterwards he applied to the president of the ministry1 the ,duke of ,richelieu1 and to the influential ,m4 de ,lain1 but with no more success than before4 ,in #ahbj ,venturi applied to ,delambre1 ,secretary of the ,academy of ,sciences1 with the request to get for him1 if possible1 extracts from and copies of the ,acts of the trial1 as he was urgently in want of them for the second volume of his 8,memorie e lettere inedite fuora o disperse di ,galileo ,galilei40 ,delambre eagerly took up the question4 ,some light is thrown on the steps he took by the following note to ,barbier of #bgth ,june1 only published a few months ago3-- 8,le secretaire perptuel de l',acadmie pour les ,sciences ,mathmatiques est venu pour avoir l'honneur de converser avec ,m4 ,barbier1 sur un article intressant de biographie astronomique1 le procs de ,galile et les pices originales dont ,m4 ,barbier a t longtemps dpositaire4 ,il desire cette conversation pour lui-mme et pour ,m4 ,venturi1 etc41 ,delambre40#fbi ,three days later ,delambre wrote to ,venturi that the original ,acts certainly had been at ,paris some years ago1 but had disappeared1 and it was not now known whether they were still there or had been taken away4 ,he told him that during the ,empire the publication and translation of the documents had been projected1 but political events had prevented it from being carried out2 the extracts1 however1 then made1 and the ,french translation which had been begun1 were in existence4 ,these1 which ,m4 ,barbier had placed at ,delambre's disposal1 he sent to ,venturi4 ,delambre expressed his great regret that the material which he could obtain was not complete2 but he consoled himself with the opinion that by the publication of the documents in ,riccioli's 8,almagestum novum10 #afea1 and in the first volume of ,venturi's work1 nothing essential would be wanting2 and 8that unfortunate business1 which would be ridiculous if it were not so repulsive1 is now as widely known as can be desired40 ,delambre1 as it seems1 was only concerned with the clearing up of the torture question2 and as the fragments which had come to his knowledge contained no evidence of torture1 and as he might have been informed by ,barbier that there was no trace of it in any of the papers1 he wrote as above in calm conviction to ,venturi4 ,eight years afterwards ,count ,dar1 who was intending to bring out his work on astronomy1 made inquiries of ,barbier about the existence of the ,acts of ,galileo's trial4 ,the information he received must have been wholly unsatisfactory1 as appears from the following letter from the ,count to ,barbier of #afth ,october1 #ahbh3-- 8,j'ai reu ,monsieur 444 les deux lettres que vous m'avez fait l'honneur de m'crire4 ,j'ai trouv1 joint la seconde1 le billet de ,m4 l'abb ,denina#fcj qui prouve que la traduction du procs de ,galile a exist au moins en partie4 ,du reste1 nous en avions dj la preuve par l'extrait de ,m4 ,delambre4 ,je suis persuad que le procs existe quelque part ,paris1 et ce me semble1 il doit se trouver dans quelque bibliothque du roi1 peut tre mme aux ,archives de la liste civile4 ,j'en parlerai a ,m4 le baron de la ,bouillerie4 ,recevez1 etc41 ,,dar40#fca ,but ,dar's further inquiries seem to have been unsuccessful2 anyhow1 the long-sought-for volume remained concealed for seventeen years longer4 ,in #ahde ,gregory ,,xvi4 requested ,pelegrino ,rossi1 ,french ambassador at ,rome1 who was devoted to the papacy1 to use his influence to get the ,acts restored1 if they should be discovered at ,paris4 ,this shows that it was disbelieved at ,rome that they could not be found4 ,at first ,rossi's urgent mediation only obtained the assurance from ,louis ,philippe that the ,pope's cherished wish should be fulfilled1 provided that the papers should be found1 but on the express condition that they should be published entire at ,rome4 ,and as the curia1 of course1 promised to comply1 the ,,ms4 which had been mysteriously concealed for thirty-one years was 8found0 and restored4 ,in #ahdh-i1 when the ,papal ,see was attacked by the revolutionary spirit which pervaded ,europe1 the fugitive ,pope1 ,pius ,,ix41 confided the hardly-won documents to the prefect of the ,secret ,archives1 ,marino ,marini4 ,he not only took good care of them1 but took the opportunity of fulfilling the obligation to the ,french ,government incurred on their restoration4 ,on #abth ,april1 #ahej1 the ,pope returned from ,gaeta to his capital under the protection of ,french bayonets1 and his thoughts must soon have recurred to these documents1 for on #hth ,may of the same year he presented them to the ,vatican ,library4 ,in the same year1 also1 ,marini's work1 8,galileo ,galilei e l',inquizione10 appeared at ,rome1 intended to be the fulfilment of the ,french conditions4 ,we purposely say 8intended to be10 for they were not really so at all4 ,the entire contents of the ,vatican ,,ms4 were thereby by no means given to the public1 but such a sight of it as the editor thought proper1 and which was1 as far as possible1 an apology for the ,inquisition4 ,instead of the full original text of the ,acts1 the world only received disjointed extracts1 arbitrary fragments--in many instances nothing at all4 ,perhaps it was perceived at head-quarters that a comparison of ,marini's work with the documents would bring strange things to light1 for they were suddenly removed from the too public ,vatican ,library and placed among the papal archives4 ,and for a long time there seemed to be no disposition to place these important historical materials at the disposal of independent historians4 ,thus we learn from ,albri1 editor of 8,le ,opere di ,galileo ,galilei10 ,florence1 #ahdb-ahef1 in #af vols1 in which all the materials for the history of ,galileo are collected1 that ,marini had made obliging offers to him about the ,vatican ,,ms42 but his death put an end to the hopes thus raised1 and ,albri had to content himself with reproducing the extracts and documents given by ,venturi and ,marini4 ,it is obvious that the ,,ms4 was not accessible to him1 or he would surely have included the ,acts in his great work4 ,professor ,moritz ,cantor1 who asked to see them ten years later1 met with no better success4 ,he complains bitterly in his essay1 8,galileo ,galilei10 that the attempts he made through the good offices of an eminent savant1 with ,father ,theiner1 keeper of the ,secret ,archives1 had been without avail4 ,however1 though neither ,albri nor ,cantor attained their wish1 ,henri de ,l',epinois1 a few years later1 was more successful4 ,in the introduction to his work1 8,galile1 son procs sa ,condemnation10 #ahfg1 he relates that in a conversation with ,theiner at ,rome1 he expressed his regret at the inadequacy of ,marini's book1 and his desire to see the subject of ,galileo's trial cleared up4 ,theiner liberally responded to this appeal by placing the documents at his disposal4 ,but ,epinois had only just made hasty copies of the most important1 and indices of others1 when he was compelled by urgent private affairs to return to ,france4 ,the copies of the ,vatican ,,ms4 which he took with him were therefore in many respects inaccurate and incomplete1 and even the indices left much to be desired4 ,nevertheless1 historical research will always be indebted to ,epinois for publishing his notes1 in spite of their shortcomings1 which were best known to himself4#fcb ,the melancholy picture of ,galileo's trial was first presented in faithful outline1 and it became possible to weave the story with approximate accuracy4 ,many details1 however1 were still wanting2 and though the fictitious stories of many writers were considerably checked by ,epinois's communications1 some scope was still left for them4 ,what was wanted was the entire publication of the ,vatican ,,ms41 and if possible with diplomatic precision4 ,nine years again went by1 during which ,epinois seems to have found no opportunity of completing his work4 ,meanwhile1 ,professor ,domenico ,berti asked for the favour of a sight of the papers1 and in #ahgf he was engaged in ,theiner's room in copying the documents4#fcc ,in the same year his work1 8,il ,processo ,originale di ,galileo ,galilei10 appeared1 bearing upon the title page the unwarranted addition1 8publicato per la prima volta da ,domenico ,berti40 ,epinois had been the first to publish the ,vatican ,,ms41 though only partially2 the words would only have been correct if ,berti had published them complete4 ,this he professes to have done1#fcd but as five documents are wanting1 and the contents of fifty others only shortly given1 it cannot be regarded as complete4 ,besides these unfortunate lapses1 ,berti's publication is very disappointing to the historian4 ,instead of giving the reader as good an idea as possible of this interesting ,,ms41 the documents are taken out of all connection1 and given numbers and superscriptions of which there is not a trace in the original1 and the marking of the folios is omitted4 8,improvement0 of the orthography1 punctuation1 etc41 is consistently carried out4 ,one of the numberings is quite left out 7the oldest1 upper paging71 and1 following ,epinois1 he reads the second incorrectly4 ,in the same year in which ,berti's book appeared1 ,sante ,pieralisi received an invitation from high quarters to inspect the volume4 ,he accepted the flattering offer with no small satisfaction1 but does not seem to have known how to turn it to account4 ,he confined himself to comparing the most important documents in ,epinois and ,berti with the originals1 and to giving a list1 by no means complete1 of their deviations from them4#fce ,in consequence of the controversy as to the genuineness of the document of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 we resolved in the spring of #ahgg to attempt to get a sight of the papers1 our sole reason being the desire to see for ourselves whether external evidence was for or against falsification1 or whether any certain conclusions could be drawn from it4 ,we had then no idea whatever of publishing the ,vatican ,,ms4 ourselves1 as we at that time considered ,berti's publication of it to be nearly complete4 ,through the good offices of the ,austrian ambassador1 we were promised that when we came to ,rome1 ,cardinal ,simeoni1 ,secretary of ,state1 would permit us to see the documents4 ,two days afterwards we were on our way to ,rome1 and soon had the volume in our hands4 ,as we turned over the pages with a curiosity easy to be imagined1 and compared it with ,berti's publication1 we discovered1 to our no small surprise1 its many omissions and inaccuracies4 ,the idea then occurred to us of making a copy of all the documents in the collection with the greatest possible precision4 ,not the least 8improvement0 should be made2 the text should be reproduced exactly1 with its peculiar orthography1 accentuation1 and punctuation1 its abbreviations1 errors1 and special marks1 so far as it was possible by means of typography4 ,we made known our intention to the first prefect of the ,vatican ,library1 ,mgr4 ,martinuzzi1 to whom ,cardinal ,simeoni had referred us2 he not only made not the slightest objection1 but showed great interest in our project4 ,during our long daily tarriance in the ,vatican afterwards1 he was most obliging1 and heaped attentions upon us which lightened the labour4 ,we might have been engaged about three weeks in copying the ,,ms41 sending the pages copied during the day to ,messrs4 ,cotta1 at ,stuttgard1 to be printed1 when we were surprised one morning by a visit in the ,vatican from ,m4 de ,l',epinois4 ,he told us that he had been two months at ,rome1 and had undertaken a correction of ,berti's book from the original4 ,we informed him of our enterprise1 which he spoke of as 8quite a different thing02 and when we returned his call1 he again spoke of a correction of ,berti1 and regretted that he had not copied the whole ,,ms4 ,of any intention of publishing it complete he said not a word4 ,we therefore contentedly went on with our work2 the copying was nearly finished and the printing in progress1 when one afternoon on our return from the ,vatican we found a letter from ,epinois1 in which he said that he had not had time to call on us again1 and informed us of the speedy appearance of his complete publication of the ,vatican ,,ms41 and that we should receive a copy in a few days4 ,this announcement was most surprising4 ,we went at once to seek ,m4 de ,l',epinois1 but learnt that he had left ,rome early that morning4 ,our work was too far advanced to be given up1 and so we went on1 in the hope that even now there might be some little place in the world for it4 ,by the time ,epinois's book reached us the copying was finished1 and we were correcting the proofs by the originals4 ,it was not without value1 even for our enterprise1 for we compared our proofs with it line by line and word by word1 made notes of deviations1 and then went to the ,vatican to see which was right4 ,we readily acknowledge that in this way we discovered and corrected many errors which had crept into our copy4 ,the variations which still exist are all well known to us1 and are left1 either because ,epinois is mistaken1 or we consider our reading to be the best4 ,this is not the place for a criticism of his work2 we will only bear witness1 after comparing it with the original1 to its accuracy4 ,,ii4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,vatican ,,manuscript4 ,the ,acts of the two trials of ,galileo1 of #afae-af and #afcb-cc1 which are stitched together1 and to which several other documents are added relating to the surveillance of ,galileo until his death1 and the erection of his monument1 form a pretty thick quarto volume1 twenty-two centimeters broad and thirty high4 ,it is done up in a loose sheet of white paper1 which can lay no claim to veneration from age1 and is in an equally loose green pasteboard cover1 which may boast of historic antiquity1 as may also the faded and frail red strings by which the volume is fastened4 ,the cover is too short and too narrow1 so that the edges get mercilessly rubbed4 ,in this way1 unfortunately1 many a letter1 word and even signature in these precious papers have been lost1 and it is high time to protect them from further injury4 ,the documents are only slightly fastened together in places1 and you can see from the outside how far the ,acts of the first trial extend4 ,this slight fastening also enables you to see that all the blank pages1 of which there are #aid1 are partly reverse sides1 partly second pages of documents1 and it may easily be discovered to which document each blank page belongs4 ,in some cases these second pages have been cut away1 as appears from the broad piece left4 ,the suspicion from this that important documents have been withdrawn seems inadmissible1 for the pages cut out1 as is seen from those left1 which correspond with the rest1 belonged to finished documents1 and the abstraction of a document would certainly not have been betrayed by leaving a broad strip behind4 ,the paging is in the greatest confusion4 ,on the title page1 in the right hand corner1 are the figures #idi1 and under them #ccf4 ,the historical introduction1 by an unknown hand1 prefixed to the papers1 is numbered #ccg-cdj4 ,the first document bears the double paging #iej #cda1 the upper number being struck through4 ,on folio #iea #cdb a third paging begins with #a1 on the right hand lower edge4 ,the triple numbering goes on regularly to #iei #cej #i4 ,after #iib #chc #da the uppermost and oldest paging is discontinued4 ,folios #chd-chf1 blank pages of the ,acts of the first trial1 only bear the double paging1 probably because1 being blank1 they were not paged until the papers of both trials were put together4 ,the double paging may be thus explained4 ,the old numbering comprises all the documents belonging to #afaf2 and as it is to be seen on the title page1 as well as the words3 8,ex archivo ,s4 ,offij10 and ,vol4 #aaha1 it is clear that these documents were originally comprised in a volume of the ,archives of the ,holy ,office numbered #aaha4 ,the ,acts of the second trial1 #afcb-cc1 must have belonged to another volume1 as appears from the paging1 as the first document bears the number #chg1 but the number of the volume is not traceable4 ,when the ,acts of #afaf and #afcb-cc were bound together1 in order to form a continuous paging1 the old numbers of the first trial were struck through1 and the paging continued backwards1 reckoning from the first folio of the second trial4 ,the ,introduction helps to determine the time when the two parts were united4 ,it only extends to the mention of ,galileo's defence2 it is clear1 therefore1 that it was written after #ajth ,may 7the date of the defence71 and before #bast ,june1 the date of the last examination1 while the numbering1 which is that of the second paging only1 shows that the union had taken place4 ,the title page also is included in the second paging4 ,we may therefore conclude that the authorship of the ,introduction and the joining of the ,acts up to #ajth ,may1 #afcc1 is to be attributed to the same person4 ,the object of this report undoubtedly was to give the ,pope and ,congregation1 before their final verdict on ,galileo2 a rsum of the whole affair from its beginning4 ,the united ,acts were the vouchers4 ,the drawing up of such a rsum was part of the ordinary proceeding in every trial before the ,inquisition1 and it had to be circulated among the cardinals and qualifiers before the final sitting#fcf4 ,as in ,galileo's case this final sitting took place on #afth ,june1 under the personal presidency of the ,pope1 it is in exact agreement with this that both the summary and paging referred to in it only extend to the events of #afth ,june4 ,as to the addition of the further documents1 it may be observed that after the papers were put together the collection ended with six second pages1 of which four1 #ddh1 #ddi1 #dej1 #dea1 belonged to the opinion of ,pasqualigus2 and two1 #deb1 #dec1 to the protocol of the examination of ,galileo of #abth ,april1 #afcc4 ,the annotation about the decree of #afth ,june1 #afcc1 was written on the reverse side of the last second page1 #dea1 forming part of the above-named document1 and the three previous pages were left blank4 ,the protocol on the ,constitute of ,galileo of #bast ,june was written on the blank sheets of #abth ,april4 ,on the remaining space 7half of #dec and the reverse side7 two notes were made--the first about the mandate of #cjth ,june1 to send the sentence and recantation to all ,inquisitors1 etc41 and the permit to ,galileo to go to ,siena2 the second note reports that ,firenzuola issued the order to ,galileo on #bnd ,july4 ,the rest of the documents which the ,vatican ,,ms4 now contains must have been added as they came in1 or when there were several to be added4 ,the paging was1 of course1 continuously carried out4 ,the last document but one of the collection is a short historical summary of the process4 ,berti says that this must have been drawn up at least a year after its conclusion1#fcg but ,pieralisi#fch has pointed out that he should have said1 at least a century4 ,the origin of it is plain3 when the inquiry of ,fra ,paolo ,antonio ,ambr999999 of #hth ,june1 #agcd1 came in as to the erection of a monument in ,santa ,croce1 this rsum was drawn up to put the cardinals1 who might not know much about it1 in possession of the chief facts of ,galileo's trial4 ,in the ,vatican ,,ms4 the sheet of paper containing the rsum is stitched to the letter of ,fra4 ,ambr999999 and the decision of the cardinals written on the fourth page4 ,if any doubts remain that this summary was written in #agcd1 they will disappear on comparing it with the extracts1 published by ,gherardi1 of the protocol of the sitting of #afth ,june of that year4 ,in this we find1 within parentheses1 the most important part of the summary1 followed by the decision of the cardinals1 in almost verbatim translation from ,italian into ,latin4 ,the date and purpose of the summary are therefore made clear4 ,,iii4 ,,estimate ,,of ,,the ,,vatican ,,manuscript4 ,we now proceed to the examination of the documents contained in this famous volume4 ,they differ in historical value1 for they are not all as ,professor ,berti says1#fci original documents1 but often copies1 and more or less cursory annotations4 ,those only can be considered original documents which have autograph signatures2 as all the letters in the ,,ms4 with one exception1#fdj the protocol of the examination of ,caccini1 and the protocols of the examinations of ,galileo2 those of the depositions of ,ximenes and ,attavanti are copies sent by the ,inquisitor at ,florence to the ,holy ,office1 and there is therefore no question of their authenticity4 ,the rest of the ,,ms4 consists mainly of annotations on the decrees relating to the trial1 decrees and mandates of the ,pope and ,holy ,congregation1 or notices of their execution4 ,but the original ,acts corresponding with these annotations are not comprised in the ,vatican ,,ms4 ,moreover1 a careful examination of the ,vatican ,acts with ,gherardi's ,documents shows1 that especially after the conclusion of the trial till ,galileo's death1 many papal decrees were issued of which there is no mention in the ,vatican ,,ms4 ,so far as this1 therefore1 it must be looked upon as an incomplete source4 ,but on the other hand1 there is no doubt that the ,acts of the trial itself lie before us altogether4 ,dr4 ,emil ,wohlwill1 of ,hamburg1 has recently expressed the suspicion that a short time before the ,,ms4 was removed from the ,archives of the ,holy ,office to ,france1 the ,acts of the trial underwent alterations with a special purpose1 in the expectation that the ,archives would be robbed1 and that after the return of the volume in #ahdf1 through ,mgr4 ,marino ,marini1 ,prefect of the ,papal ,archives1 these alterations were completed6#fda ,wohlwill takes all the preliminary report--the origin of which is clear1 and in accordance with the rules of the ,inquisition--for a forgery intended to influence 8readers outside the ,vatican40 ,he also thinks that the opinion of the qualifier of the ,holy ,office at the head of the ,acts is a later addition4 ,the object of this no one can make out1 and ,dr4 ,wohlwill himself can give no satisfactory reason for it4 ,as he had only ,epinois's first edition of the ,vatican ,,ms4 7#ahfg71 and ,berti's imperfect publication in his hands1 he often draws incorrect conclusions4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that ,dr4 ,wohlwill's bold conjectures turn out to be phantoms on an actual examination of the papers1 and this will certainly be confirmed by ,epinois1 ,berti1 ,pieralisi1 and all who have seen them4 ,this is not the place to refute ,wohlwill's suspicions1 as we have done so elsewhere4#fdb ,it only remains for us to give the material evidence which indisputably proves that the annotation of #bfth ,february neither is nor can be a later falsification4 ,as is well known1 before we had inspected these documents we had fully adopted the suspicion1 expressed by ,dr4 ,wohlwill in ,germany1 and ,professor ,gherardi in ,italy1 that the 8document0 of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 was of a later origin1 in order to afford a pretext1 according to the ideas of the time1 for bringing the inconvenient author of the 8,dialogues on the ,two ,systems0 to trial for disobedience to an order of the ,sacred ,congregation1 though the work seemed to be protected by the ecclesiastical imprimatur4 ,we confess that we went to ,rome with but little hope of finding external evidence for or against the genuineness of the document4 ,it had been long in ,professor ,berti's hands1 and he had defended it with learned dialectics1 while the controversy would have been closed by adducing material evidence4 ,it seemed to us1 therefore1 sufficient inducement to undertake a journey to ,rome1 if it should enable us to confirm1 on external grounds1 that the document was not a falsification1 even though its genuineness might not be capable of demonstration4 ,contrary to all our expectations1 after a repeated1 careful1 and we may say1 entirely objective examination1 we must pronounce that the suspicion of a later origin is not tenable4 ,now for the reasons4 ,the note of #bfth ,february begins on the same page as that of the #beth1 and they are in precisely the same ink and handwriting4 ,as1 however1 in case of a forgery1 the perpetrator would not have been so unskilful as to add a note in different ink and writing under another sixteen years old1 but would have written both on another sheet1 and carefully incorporated them with the ,acts1 we had to find out whether it was possible that the pages on which the notes are found 7folios #cgh vo4 and #cgi ro471 could have been afterwards added to the ,acts4 ,this was found to be impossible4 ,it is excluded by two circumstances4 #a4 ,folios #cgh vo4 and #cgi ro4 are second pages to existing documents2 and folio #cgh belongs to #cgg1 on which is written the famous opinion of the ,qualifiers of the ,holy ,office on the two propositions of ,galileo1 taken from the work on the ,solar ,spots4 ,folio #cgi again belongs to folio #ceg1 which is a page of the protocol of the examination of ,caccini4 #b4 ,in this collection of the ,acts of the trial1 all the paper on which the documents of the ,holy ,office were written at ,rome1 bears the same watermark1--a dove in a circle1--which is not found on any of the paper of later date4 ,this mark is distinctly visible on the folios bearing the notes of #beth and #bfth ,february4 ,as from this evidence the idea of a later insertion of the papers had to be given up1 there was still one suspicion left--that the two notes had been written in #afcb on blank sheets of ,acts of #afaf1 of which there are so many1 and the authentic notice of #beth ,february removed4 ,but this hypothesis could not be maintained in face of the fact that1 as a scrupulous comparison showed1 several other annotations of #afaf are in the same hand as those of #beth and #bfth ,february1 while it is not to be found in any document of the later trial4 ,in the face of these decisive facts it seems no longer justifiable to maintain that the note of #bfth ,february is a later falsification4 ,nevertheless1 ,professor ,moritz ,cantor1 of ,heidelberg1 has conjectured1 and ,dr4 ,scartazzini has told us for certain1 how the 8falsifiers0 went to work4 ,in the ,revista ,europa1 vol4 iv4 part v41 #ast ,december1 #ahgg1 ,dr4 ,scartazzini propounds his theory with an effrontery which is most convincing to a layman and astounding to the initiated4 ,and yet it is entirely upset by one simple practical observation4 ,his theory is that the page on which the genuine protocol of the proceedings of #bfth ,february was written was cut out1 that this was concealed by folding the edge the other way1 while space was found for the existing forgery by transposing blank sheets4 ,now for our observation3 ,dr4 ,scartazzini quotes only the second paging1 which was done after the assumed forgery1 and it therefore permitted a transposition of pages according to the pleasure--not of the forger1 but of ,dr4 ,scartazzini4 ,in #afcb there was a regular numbering from #idi-iib1 originating in #afaf1 and no transposition of the ,acts could have been made on ,scartazzini's plan1 without entirely disturbing it4 ,his theory therefore belongs to the realm of impossibilities4 ,but firmly as it is now established that the document of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 is not a later forgery1 it is equally certain that the proceedings did not take place in the rigid manner described in that annotation4 ,in the course of this work we have become acquainted with the various reasons which conclusively prove that the annotation contains a downright untruth1 exaggeration1 or misrepresentation4 ,to all these reasons one more may now be added4 ,had the course of events been that recorded in the annotation1 so important an act would have been made into a protocol1 and would have been signed by ,galileo1 the notary1 and witnesses4 ,only a document of this kind would have afforded conclusive evidence on another trial4 ,we learn from another document of the trial that such a proceeding was a part of the precautionary measures of the ,inquisition1 in order that the accused might not be able to deny what had happened4 ,when on #ast ,october1 #afcb1 ,galileo was summoned before the ,inquisitor at ,florence1 who issued the command to him to present himself at ,rome in the course of the month1 ,galileo had to state in writing that he had received the order and would obey it2 no sooner had he left the room than it was entered by a notary and witnesses who had been concealed in an adjoining apartment1 and affirmed under ,galileo's signature that they had been present when he 8promised1 wrote1 and signed the above40#fdc ,if these measures were so strictly observed in the case of this much less important act1 we may be tolerably certain that they would not have been omitted in the far more important one of #afaf1 if the stringent command had really been issued to ,galileo by the ,commissary-,general in the name of the ,pope and the ,holy ,congregation1 before notary and witnesses1 to maintain henceforth absolute silence1 in speaking and writing1 about the ,copernican system4 ,such a document would have furnished the ,holy ,office with legal grounds for bringing ,galileo to trial in case of his breaking his word1 and for punishing his disobedience2 in short1 for subjecting him to the consequences of this categorical injunction4 ,did such a protocol ever exist8 ,as we doubted the fact of the stringent intimation1 we did not believe that such a document ever had existed4 ,nevertheless1 when at ,rome1 we eagerly sought to discover whether1 contrary to all expectation1 this most important document was extant1 or to learn anything about it4 ,it might perhaps be in the ,archives of the ,holy ,inquisition1 in which1 in #ahdh1 ,professor ,gherardi had found such valuable notes about the trial of ,galileo4 ,we therefore addressed a memorial to the then ,secretary of ,state1 ,cardinal ,simeoni1 in which we made a concise statement of the present state of the researches relating to ,galileo's trial1 remarking that though the suspicion of a falsification was not tenable1 the correctness of the note of #bfth ,february seemed doubtful1 and could only be acknowledged as trustworthy if either the original protocol1 or some confirmatory notice1 were discovered in the ,archives of the ,inquisition4 ,in the course of four weeks we received the following reply3-- 8,illmo ,signore1 ,in sequito della richiesta fattasi da ,v4 ,s4 ,illma di avere dei documenti relativi a ,galileo1 mi recai a premura di commetterne le opportune indagini4 ,praticatesi le pi diligenti ricerche1 vengo informato non esistere affatto negli ,archivi i documenti che si desideravano4 ,nel portare ci a sua notizia1 ho il piacere di dichiararle i sensi della mia distinta stima-- ,di ,v4 ,s4 ,illma1 ,affmo per servirla1 ,,giovanni ,,card4 ,,simeoni4 ,roma #bj ,luglio1 #ahgg40 ,by this decisive information it is established that now1 at any rate1 no other document is extant relating to the proceedings of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 than the well-known annotation4 ,was this also the case in #afcb1 when ,galileo was arraigned for disobedience and signally punished8 ,the history of the trial1 the otherwise incomprehensible attitude of the ,interrogator towards ,galileo1 are strongly in favour of an affirmative answer4 ,from his first examination to his defence1 ,galileo persistently denies having received any other command than the warning of ,cardinal ,bellarmine1 neither to hold nor defend the ,copernican doctrine1 while the ,interrogator maintains that a command was issued to him before a notary and witnesses 8not in any way to hold1 teach1 or defend that doctrine40 ,the contradiction is obvious4 ,in confirmation of his deposition1 ,galileo brings an autograph certificate from ,cardinal ,bellarmine which fully agrees with it4 ,one would then have expected to see the ,interrogator spare no pains to convict ,galileo on this turning-point of the trial4 ,the production of a legal protocol about the proceeding of #bfth ,february would have cleared up the whole affair and annihilated ,galileo's defence4 ,but as it was not produced1 and the ,interrogator1 singularly enough1 omits all further inquiry into ,galileo's ignorance of the absolute prohibition1 and simply takes it for granted1 we may conclude that in #afcc no other document existed about the ,act of #bfth ,february than this note without signature4 ,it must therefore be admitted by the historical critic that one of the heaviest charges against ,galileo was raised on a paper of absolutely no legal value1 and that sentence for 8disobedience0 was passed entirely on the evidence of this worthless document4 ,,iv4 ,,gherardi',s ,,collection ,,of ,,documents4 ,in the course of this work we have always acknowledged the authenticity of the documents first published by ,gherardi in his 8,il ,processo ,galileo3 ,riveduto ,sopra documenti di nuove fonte10 in the ,rivista ,europea1 vol4 iii41 #ahgj1 and our story has in many cases been based on them4 ,it behoves us1 therefore1 to give the reasons which place their authenticity beyond question4 ,these are to be found1 first1 in the origin of the collection2 secondly1 by comparing the documents with others universally acknowledged to be authentic4 ,on the first point we refer to the professor's account prefixed to the documents4 ,in ,december1 #ahdh1 he came to ,rome1 and was at first1 though only for a short time1 deputy to the parliament summoned by ,pius ,,ix41 then held1 in quick succession1 the offices of member of the assembly for framing a constitution1 ,secretary of ,state1 and finally ,minister of ,instruction to the ,revolutionary ,government4 ,these offices greatly facilitated ,gherardi's historical researches1 and he pursued them with ardour even amidst the turmoil of revolution4 ,his attention was specially directed to the discovery of the original documents of ,galileo's trial4 ,even in ,december1 #ahdh1 he found opportunity to make a search in the ,archives of the ,palace of the ,inquisition1 which was carefully guarded by the soldiers and agents of the ,provisional ,government to save these historical treasures from the fury of the mob4 ,gherardi had hoped to get a sight of the complete collection of the ,acts1 which had two years before been brought back from ,paris4 ,but this hope was not fulfilled1 for as we know1 during the ,revolution1 these documents were in the hands of ,mgr4 ,marino ,marini1 ,prefect of the ,secret ,archives4 ,so ,gherardi had to content himself with seeking more or less evident traces of the trial among the ,archives left in the greatest confusion and partly hastily plundered by the fugitive custodians4 ,it was not without difficulty that he discovered1 what was before unknown1 that the ,acts of the ,inquisition were divided into two classes3 the first contains the protocols of the sittings and decrees of the ,holy ,congregation1 sometimes in full and sometimes merely extracts4 ,the folios containing these were marked ,decreta4 ,the second class contains the protocols of the examinations of accused persons and witnesses1 all ,acts relating to trials1 and finally the sentences passed4 ,these folios were marked ,processus4 ,there was a third register marked ,rubricelle1 which served as an index to everything relating to any person or cause4 ,as there were not nearly so many gaps in the ,decreta as in the ,processus1 ,gherardi turned his attention1 the ,rubricelle in hand1 to the former4 ,he began to make extracts from the documents relating to ,galileo's trial1 and had already made ten1 when he came upon a collection of papers containing thirty-two of such extracts1 all relating to the trial4 ,to these papers was added an extract from a letter from ,count ,blacas1 from ,prague1 of #bjth ,january1 #ahce1 in which he stated that he had repeatedly1 but without success1 instituted a search for the ,acts of ,galileo's trial1 which had been detained at ,paris since #ahae1 and that nothing would give him greater pleasure1 should they come into his hands1 than to deliver them to his ,holiness1 but this was not a suitable time to renew the demand for them4 ,it is clear from this letter that the curia made at least one attempt to regain possession of the ,vat4 ,,ms4 between #ahbj and #ahde1 and ,gherardi concludes from the circumstance that this letter was found with the said collection that a copy of it had been sent to the ,count1 perhaps to show him that it was desired to put all the papers relating to ,galileo's cause together--a project intended to urge the ,count to renewed efforts for their recovery4 ,be that as it may1 the important thing is that ,gherardi1 having convinced himself of the entire agreement of his ten extracts 7the most important71 with the corresponding ones in the collection1 concluded that the other twenty-two were correct1 and did not make any more extracts4 ,in ,april1 #ahdi1 in spite of the precautions taken1 the ,archives of the ,inquisition seemed no longer safe from the mob1 and were removed1 with other ecclesiastical libraries1 to the ,apollinarius church1 where ,gherardi was again able to look at them4 ,but it was but for a moment1 as he decidedly declined all responsibility for a collection of such immense historical value4 ,moreover1 the advance of the ,french army to ,rome to effect the restoration of ,pius ,,ix41 would have left him but little time for historical researches4 ,on #dth ,july1 in consequence of the capitulation of the municipal council1 the ,french ,general ,ouidinot marched at the head of his troops into 8liberated0 ,rome1 while ,garibaldi left it on the other side with his #djjj volunteers1 and with him all the patriots who had specially distinguished themselves in the service of the ,republic during its short existence4 ,among these was ,gherardi1 who turned his steps towards ,genoa1 where he lived for his studies during his exile4 ,on leaving ,rome he had only been able to take ten extracts with him1 and had now to wait for an opportunity of completing them by those in the ,archives of the ,inquisition1 and he waited patiently twenty-one years4 ,in #ahgj the time at length came4 ,he gives us no further particulars as to how he succeeded in getting the collection into his hands again1 but simply says that he did so1 and no longer delayed to give this valuable historical material to the world4 ,the history of ,gherardi's ,documents is of itself a pledge of their authenticity1 and it is absolutely confirmed by comparing them with the corresponding documents of the ,vatican ,,ms4 ,we have compared them line for line and word for word1 and have found that they contain nothing ,whatever that in the least diverges from those ,acts4 ,on the contrary1 they throw light on and complete them1 and in some cases agree with them verbatim--perhaps the best possible proof of the authenticity of both4 ,v4 ,,decretvm#fdd #ihi4 ,fol4 #chj ro4 #ch ,sacr ,congregationis ,illustrissimorum ,s4,r4,e4 ,cardinalium1 ,s4,d4,n4 ,,pavlo ,papa ,v4 ,sanctq4 ,sede ,apostolica ad ,indicem ,librorum1 eorumdemq2 permissionem1 prohibitionem1 expurgationem1 et impressionem1 in vniuersa ,republica ,christiana specialiter deputatorum1 vbiqu publicandum4 ,cvm ab aliquo tempore citra1 prodierint in lucem inter alios nonnulli ,libri1 varias hreses1 atq2 errores continentes1 ,ideo ,sacra ,congregatio ,illustrissimorum ,s4 ,r4 ,e4 ,cardinalium ad indicem deputatorum1 n ex eorum lectione grauiora in dies damna in tota ,republica ,christiana oriantur1 eos omnin damnandos1 atque prohibendos esse voluit2 ,sicuti prsenti ,decreto pnitus damnat1 et prohibet vbicumq2 et quouis idiomate impressos1 aut imprimendos4 ,mandans1 vt nullus deinceps cuiuscumque gradus1 et conditionis1 sub pnis in ,sacro ,concilio ,tridentino1 et in ,indice ,librorum prohibitorum contentis1 eos audeat imprimere1 aut imprimi curare1 vel quomodocumque apud se detinere1 aut legere2 ,et sub ijsdem pnis quicumque nunc illos habent1 vel habuerint in futurum1 locorum ,ordinarijs1 se ,inquisitoribus1 statim prsentis ,decreti notitia exhibere teneantur1 ,libri autem sunt infrascripti1 videlicet4 ,theologi ,calvinistar ,libri tres1 auctore ,conrado ,schlufferburgio4 ,scotanus ,rediuiuvs1 siue ,comentarius ,erotematicus in tres prio- res libros1 codicis1 4 ,grauissim qustionis ,christianarum ,ecclesiarum in ,occidentis'1 prfertim partibus ab ,apostolicis temporibus ad nostram vsque tatem continua successione1 4 statu3 historica explicato1 ,au- ctore ,jacobo ,vsserio ,sacr ,theologi in ,dulbiniensi#fde ,academia apud ,hybernos professore4 ,federici ,achillis ,ducis ,vuertemberg4 ,consultatio de ,pincipatu inter ,provincias ,europ habita ,tubingi in ,illustri ,collegio ,anno ,christi #afac4 ,donnelli ,enucleati1 siue ,commentarium ,hugonis ,donelli1 de ,iure ,ciuili in compendium ita redactorum 4 ,et quia etiam ad notitiam prfat ,sacr ,congregationis peruenit1 falsam illiam doctrinam ,pithagoricam1 diuinq2 scriptur omnino aduersantem1 de mobilitate ,terr1 et immobilitate ,solis1 quam ,nicolaus ,copernicus de reuolutionibus orbium clestium1 et ,didacus ,astunica in ,job etiam docent1 iam diuulgari et multis recipi2 sicuti videre est ex quadam epistola impressa cuiusdam ,patris ,carmelit1 cui titulus1 ,lettera del ,r4 ,padre ,maestro ,paolo ,antonio ,foscarini ,carmelitano1 sopra l'opinione de ,pittagorici1 e del ,copernico1 della mobilit della ,terra1 e stabilit del ,sole1 et il nuouo ,pittagorico ,sistema del ,mondo1 in ,napoli per ,lazzaro ,scoriggio #afae4 in qua dictus ,pater ostendere conatur1 prfatam doctrinam de immobilitate ,solis in centro ,mundi1 et mobilitate ,terr1 consonam esse1 veritati1 et non aduersari ,sacr ,scriptur3 ,ideo n vlteris huiusmodi opinio in perniciem ,catholic veritatis serpat1 censuit dictos ,nicolaum ,copernicum de reuolutionibus orbium1 et ,didacum ,astvnica in ,job1 suspendendos esse donec corrigantur4 ,librum ver ,patris ,pauli ,antonij ,foscarini ,carmelit omnin prohibendum1 atque damnandum2 aliosq2 omnes ,libros pariter idem docentes prohibendos1 ,prout prsenti ,decreto omnes respectiu prohibet1 damnat1 atque suspendit4 ,in quorum fidem prsens ,decretum manu1 et sigillo ,illustrissimi ,reuerendissimi ,d4 ,cardinalis ,s4 ,ccili ,epi ,albane signatum1 et munitum fuit die #e4 ,martij #afaf4 ,p4 ,episc4 ,albanen4 ,card4 ,s4 ,ccili4 ,locus sigilli4 ,registr4 fol4 #ij4 ,f4 ,franciscus ,magdalenus ,capiferreus ,ord4 ,prdic4 ,secret4 ,,rome1 ,ex ,typographia ,camer ,apostolic4 ,m4,,dcxvi4 ,,vi4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,sentence ,,and ,,recantation4#fdf ,we give the ,sentence and ,recantation as given by ,giorgio ,polacco in his work1 8,anticopernicus ,catholicus seu de terr ,statione1 et de salis motu1 contra systema ,copernicanum1 ,catholic ,assertionis10 pp4 #fg-gf1 ,venice1 #afdd4 ,everything indicates that these are the only authentic copies of the originals1 while the opinion adopted by many authors that the ,latin texts published by ,p4 ,riccioli in his 8,almagestum ,novum10 #afea1 are the originals1 is not tenable on close examination1 for it is obvious that they are translated from the ,italian4 ,according to the rules of the ,inquisition1 sentences and recantations were written in the mother tongue1#fdg that they might be generally understood4 ,p4 ,olivieri1 ,general of the ,dominicans and ,commissary of the ,inquisition1 also says in his posthumous work1 8,di ,copernico e di ,galileo10 ,bologna1 #ahgb1 p4 #fb1 8,we find the history of it1 etc41 in the sentence passed on ,galileo1 which is given in many works in a ,latin translation4 ,i take it from ,venturi1 who gives it in the ,italian original40 ,professor ,berti1 in his 8,il ,processo originale di ,galileo ,galilei10 etc41 pp4 #adc-aea1 has given the ,sentence and ,recantation in a ,latin text which agrees precisely with ,riccioli's1 even in some misprints4 ,he says that they are taken from some ,,ms4 copies in the ,archivio del ,santo1 at ,padua1 and thinks that they are the very copies sent by the ,cardinal of ,st4 ,onufrio1 at the command of the ,pope1 to the ,inquisitor at ,padua in #afcc4 ,incited by this remark1 when at ,padua we went to inspect these valuable ,,mss4 ,but what was our surprise on being told that these documents had already been sought for in vain at the request of ,dr4 ,wohlwill1 and that no one remembered to have seen them4 ,professor ,berti will perhaps have the goodness to clear the matter up4 ,the documents were probably only exact copies of ,riccioli's text4 ,,sentenza4 ,noi ,gasparo del titolo di ,s4 ,croce in ,gierusalemme ,borgia4 ,fra ,felice ,centino del titolo di ,s4 ,anastasis1 detto d',ascoli4 ,guido del titolo di ,s4 ,maria del ,popolo ,bentivoglio4 ,fra ,desiderio ,scaglia del titolo di ,s4 ,carlo detto di ,cremona4 ,fra ,antonio ,barberina detto di ,s4 ,onofrio4 ,laudivi ,zacchia del titolo di ,s4 ,pietro in ,vincola detto di ,s4 ,sisto4 ,berlingero del titolo di ,s4 ,agostino1 ,gessi4 ,fabricio del titolo di ,s4 ,lorenzo in pane e perna4 ,verospi1 chiamato ,prete4 ,francesco di ,s4 ,lorenzo in ,damaso ,barberino1 e ,martio di ,s4 ,maria ,nuova ,ginetti ,diaconi4 ,perla misericordia di ,dio della ,s4 ,r4 ,e4 ,cardinali in tutta la repubblica cristiana contra l'eretica pravit ,inquisitori ,generali della ,s4 ,sede ,apostolica specialmente deputati4 ,essendo che tu ,galileo1 figliolo del qu4 ,vincenzo ,galilei ,fiorentino dell' et tua d' anni #gj fosti denonciato del #afae in questo ,s4 ,officio1 che tenessi come vera la falsa dottrina da molti insegnata1 che il ,sole sia centro del mondo et immobile1 e che la terra si muova anco di moto diurno3 ,che avevi alcuni discepoli1 a' quali insegnavi la medesima dottrina3 ,che circa l' istessa tenevi corrispondenza con alcuni ,matematici di ,germania3 ,che tu avevi dato alle stampe alcune lettere intitolate delle ,macchie ,solari1 nelle quali spiegavi l' istessa dottrina1 come vera3 ,et che all' obbiezioni1 che alle volte ti venivano fatte1 tolte dalla ,sacra ,scrittura rispondevi glossando detta ,scrittura conforme al tuo senso4 ,e successivamente fu presentata copia d' una scrittura sotto forma di lettera1 quale si diceva essere stata scritta da te ad un tale gi tuo discepolo1 ed in essa seguendo la posizione di ,copernico1 si contengono varie proposizioni contro il vero senso1 ed autorit della sacra ,scrittura4 ,volendo per ci questo ,s4 ,tribunale provvedere al disordine ed al danno1 che di qu proveniva1 et andava crescendosi con pregiudizio della ,santa ,fede2 d' ordine di ,nostro ,signore1 e degli ,emin4 ,signori ,cardinali di questa suprema1 et universale ,inquisizione1 furono dalli ,qualificatori ,teologi qualificate le due proposizioni della stabilit del ,sole e del moto della terra2 cio4 ,che il ,sole sia centro del ,mondo1 et immobile di moto locale1 proposizione assurda e falsa in filosofia1 e formalmente eretica per essere espressamente contraria alla sacra ,scrittura4 ,che la terra non sia centro del mondo1 n immobile1 ma che si move etiandio di moto diurno1 parimenti proposizione assurda1 e falsa in filosofia1 e considerata in teologia1 ad minus erronea in fide4 ,ma volendosi per allora proceder teco con benignit1 fu decretato nella ,s4 ,congregazione tenuta avanti ,nostro ,signore #be ,febbraro #afaf4 ,che l' ,eminentissimo ,signor ,cardinale ,bellarmino ti ordinasse che tu dovessi onninamente lasciare la detta dottrina falsa1 e ricusando tu di ci fare1 che dal ,commissario del ,s4 ,uffizio ti dovesse esser fatto precetto di lasciar la detta dottrina1 e che non potessi insegnarla ad altri1 n difenderla1 n trattarne2 al qual precetto non acquietandoti1 dovessi esser carcerato2 et in esecuzione dell' istesso decreto1 il giorno seguente nel ,palazzo1 et alla presenza del suddetto ,eminentissimo ,signore ,cardinale ,bellarmino1 dopo essere stato dall' istesso ,signor ,cardinale benignamente avvisato et ammonito1 ti fu dal ,padre ,commissario del ,santo ,uffizio di quel tempo fatto precetto1 con notaro e testimonii1 che onninamente dovessi lasciar la detta falsa opinione1 e che nell' avvenire tu non la potessi1 n difendere1 n insegnare in qual si voglia modo1 n in voce1 n in scritto2 et avendo tu promesso d' obbedire fosti licenziato4 ,et acciocch si togliesse affatto cos perniciosa dottrina1 e non andasse pi oltre serpendo1 in grave pregiudizio della cattolica verit1 usci decreto della ,sacra ,congregazione dell' ,indice1 col quale furono proibiti i libri1 che trattano di tal dottrina1 et essa dichiarata falsa1 et onninamente contraria alla sacra e divina ,scrittura4 ,et essendo ultimamente comparso qu un libro stampato in ,fiorenza l' anno prossimo passato1 la cui inscrizione mostra che tu ne fossi l' autore1 dicendo il titolo3 ,dialogo di ,galileo ,galilei delli due massimi sistemi del ,mondo1 ,tolemaico e ,copernicano4 ,et informata appresso la sacra ,congregazione1 che con l' impressione di detto libro ogni giorno pi prendeva piede la falsa opinione del moto della terra1 e stabilit del ,sole2 fu il detto libro diligentemente considerato1 e in esso trovata apertamente la transgressione del suddetto precetto che ti fu fatto1 avendo tu nel medesimo libro difesa la detta opinione gi dannata1 et in faccia tua per tale dichiarata1 avvenga che tu in detto libro con varii raggiri ti studii di persuadere1 che tu la lasci1 come idecisa et espressamente probabile4 ,il che pure errore gravissimo1 non potendo in modo niuno essere probabile un' opinione dichiarata e definita per contraria alla ,scrittura divina4 ,che perci d' ordine nostro fosti chiamato a questo ,santo ,uffizio1 nel quale con tuo giuramento esaminato riconoscesti il libro come da to composto1 e dato alle stampe4 ,confessasti1 che dieci o dodici anni sono in circa1 dopo essersi fatto il precetto come sopra1 cominciasti a scrivere detto libro4 ,che chiedesti la facolt di stamparlo1 senza1 per significare a quelli che ti diedero simile facolt1 che tu avessi precetto di non tenere1 difendere1 n insegnare in qualsivoglia modo tal dottrina4 ,confessasti parimenti che la scrittura di detto libro in pi luoghi distesa in tal forma1 che il lettore potrebbe formar concetto1 che gli argomenti portati per la parte falsa fossero in tal guisa pronunciati1 che pi tosto per la loro efficacia fossero potenti a stringere1 che facili ad esser sciolti2 scusandoti d' esser incorso in errore tanto alieno1 come dicesti1 dalla tua intenzione1 per aver scritto in ,dialogo1 e per la natural compiacenza1 che ciascuno ha delle proprie sottigliezze1 e del mostrarsi pi arguto del comune degli uomini1 in trovar1 anco per le proposizioni false1 ingegnosi et apparenti discorsi di probabilit4 ,et essendoti stato assegnato termine conveniente a far le tue difese producesti una fede scritta di mano dall' ,eminentissimo signor ,cardinale ,bellarmino da te procurata come dicesti1 per difenderti dalle calunnie de tuoi nemici1 da' quali ti veniva opposto1 che avevi abiurato1 e fossi stato penitenziato dal santo ,offizio4 ,nella qual fede si dice1 che tu non avevi abiurato n meno eri stato penitenziato1 ma che ti era solo stata denunciata la dichiarazione fatta da ,nostro ,signore e pubblicata dalla santa ,congregazione dell' ,indice1 nella quale si contiene1 che la dottrina del moto della terra1 e della stabilit del ,sole sia contraria alle sacre ,scritture1 e per non si possa difendere1 n tenere2 e che perci non si facendo menzione in detta fede delle due particole del precetto1 cio docere1 et quovis modo si deve credere che nel corso di quattordici o sedici anni1 ne avessi perso ogni memoria2 e che per questa stessa cagione avevi taciuto il precetto1 quando chiedesti licenza di poter dare il libro alle stampe4 ,e tutto questo dicevi non per scusar l' errore1 ma perch sia attribuito non a malizia1 ma a vana ambizione4 ,ma da detta fede prodotta da te in tua difesa restasti maggiormente aggravato1 mentre dicendosi in essa1 che detta opinione contraria alla sacra ,scrittura1 hai nondimeno ardito di trattarne1 di difenderla1 e persuaderla probabile2 n ti suffraga la licenza da te artificiosamente1 e callidamente estorta1 non avendo notificato il precetto che avevi4 ,e parendo a noi1 che non avevi detta intieramente la verit circa la tua intenzione1 giudicassimo esser necessario venir contro di te al rigoroso esame1 nel quale 7senza per pregiudizio alcuno delle cose da te confessate1 e contro di te dedotte come di sopra1 circa la detta tua intenzione7 rispondesti cattolicamente4 ,per tanto visti1 et maturamente considerati i meriti di questa tua causa1 con le suddette tue confessioni1 e scuse1 e quanto di ragione si doveva vedere e considerare1 siamo venuti contro di te all' infrascritta difinitiva sentenza4 ,invocato dunque il ,santissimo ,nome di ,nostro ,signore ,ges ,cristo1 e della sua gloriosissima ,madre sempre ,vergine ,maria1 per questa nostra difinitiva sentenza1 la quale sedendo pro tribunali1 di ,conseglio e parere dei ,reverendi ,maestri di sacra ,teologia1 et ,dottori dell' una e l' altra legge nostri ,consultori1 proferiamo in questi scritti1 nella causa e cause vertenti avanti di noi tra il ,magnifico ,carlo ,sinceri dell' una e dell' altra legge ,dottore1 ,procuratore fiscale di questo ,santo ,offizio per una parte1 e te ,galileo ,galilei reo1 qu presente processato1 e confesso come sopra dall' altra4 ,diciamo1 pronunciamo1 sentenziamo1 dichiariamo1 che tu ,galileo suddetto per le cose dedotte in processo1 e da te confessate1 come sopra1 ti sei reso a questo ,santo ,offizio veementemente sospetto d' eresia1 cio d' aver creduto1 e tenuto dottrina falsa1 e contraria alle sacra1 e divine ,scritture1 che il ,sole sia centro della terra1 e che non si muova da oriente ad occidente1 e che la terra si muova1 e non sia centro del mondo2 e che si possa tenere difendere per probabile una opinione dopo d' esser stata dichiarata1 difinita per contraria alla sacra ,scrittura2 e conseguentemente sei incorso in tutte le censure1 e pene da' ,sacri ,canoni1 et altre ,constituzioni generali1 et particolari1 contro simili delinquenti imposte1 e promulgate4 ,dalle quali siamo contenti1 che sii assoluto1 pur che prima con cuor sincero1 et fede non finta avanti di noi abiuri1 maledichi1 et detesti li suddetti errori1 et eresie1 e qualunque altro errore1 et eresia contraria alla cattolica et apostolica ,romana ,chiesa1 nel modo che da noi ti sar dato4 ,et acciocch questo tuo grave1 e pernicioso errore1 e transgressione non resti del tutto impunito1 e sii pi cauto nell' avvenire2 et esempio agli altri1 che s'astenghino da simili delitti4 ,ordiniamo che per pubblico editto sia proibito il libro de' ,dialoghi di ,galileo ,galilei4 ,ti condanniamo al carcere formale di questo ,s4 ,offizio per tempo ad arbitrio nostro1 e per penitenze salutari t'imponiamo1 che per tre anni a venire dichi una volta la settimana li sette ,salmi ,penitenziali4 ,riservando a noi facolt di moderare1 mutare1 o levar in tutto o in parte le suddette pene1 e penitenze4 ,e cosi diciamo1 pronunciamo1 sentenziamo1 dichiariamo1 ordiniamo1 condenniamo1 e riserviamo in questo1 et in ogni altro miglior modo1 e forma1 che di ragione potemo1 e dovemo4 ,ita pronunciamus nos ,cardinales infrascripti4 ,f4 ,cardinalis ,de ,asculo4 ,g4 ,cardinalis ,bentiuolus4 ,f4 ,cardinalis ,de ,cremona4 ,fr4 ,antonius ,cardinalis ,s4 ,honuphrij4 ,b4 ,cardinalis ,gypsius4 ,f4 ,cardinalis ,verospius4 ,m4 ,cardinalis ,ginettus4 ,,abjura ,,di ,,galileo4 ,io ,galileo ,galilei figlio de q4 ,vincenzo ,galilei da ,fiorenza dell' et mia d' anni #gj constituito personalmente in judicio1 et inginocchio avanti di voi ,eminentissimi1 e ,reverendissimi ,signori ,cardinali in tutta la ,christiana ,republica contro l'heretica pravit ,generali ,inquisitori havendo avanti gli occhi miei li ,sacrosanti ,evangeli1 quali sono con le proprie mani1 giuro che sempre ho creduto1 credo adesso1 e con l'aiuto di ,dio creder per l' avenire1 tutto quello1 che tiene1 predica1 et insegna la ,santa ,cattolica1 et ,apostolica ,romana ,chiesa4 ,ma perche da questo ,s4 ,officio per haverio doppo d' essermi stato con precetto dall' istesso giuridicamente intimato1 che omninamente dovessi lasciare la falsa opinione1 ,che il ,sole sia centro del ,mondo1 et immobile1 e che la terra non sia ,centro1 e che si muova1 e che non potessi tenere1 difendere1 ne insegnare in qual si voglia modo1 ne in voce1 ne in scritto la detta falsa dottrina1 e dop dessermi stato notificato1 che detta dottrina contraria alla ,sacra scrittura1 scritto1 e dato alle stampe un libro nel quale tratto l' istessa dottrina gi dannata et apporto ragioni con molta efficacia a favor d'essa1 senza apportar alcuna solutione1 son stato giudicato vehementemente sospetto d'heresia1 cio d'haver tenuto1 e creduto1 che il ,solo sia centro del ,mondo1 et immobile1 e che la terra non sia centro1 e si muova4 ,per tanto volendo io levare dalle menti dell' ,eminenze ,vostre1 e d' ogni fedel ,christiano1 questa vehemente sospittione1 contro di me ragionevolmente conceputa1 con cuor sincero1 e fede non finta1 abiuro1 maledico1 e detesto li sudetti errori1 et heresie1 e generalmente ogni e qualunque altro errore1 e setta contraria alla sudetta ,santa ,chiesa2 ,e giuro che per l' avenire1 non dir mai pi1 ne asserir in voce1 in scritto cose tali1 per le quali si possi haver di me simil sospittione2 ma se conoscero alcuno heretico1 che sia sospetto d'heresia lo denuntiar questo ,santo ,officio vero all' ,inquisitore1 et ordinario del luogo1 ove me trovero4 ,giuro anco1 e promesso d'adempire1 et ossevra re intieramente1 tutte le penitenze1 che mi sono state1 mi saranno da questo ,santo ,officio imposte4 ,et contravenendo io ad alcuna delle dette mie promesse1 proteste1 giuramenti 7il che ,dio non voglia7 mi sottopongo a tutte le pene1 e castighi1 che sono da ,sacri ,canoni1 et altri ,constitutioni ,generali1 e particolari contro simili delinquenti imposte1 e promulgate2 ,cosi ,dio m' aiuti1 e questi suoi santi ,evangelij1 che tocco con le proprie mani4 ,io ,galileo ,galilei sopradetto ho abiurato1 giurato1 e promesso1 e mi sono obligato come sopra1 et in fede del vero di propria mia mano h sottoscritto la presente ,cedola di mia abiuratione1 e recitata di parola in parola in ,roma nel ,convento della ,minerva questo di #bb ,giugno #afcc4 ,io ,galileo ,galilei h abiurato come di sopra di mano propria4 ,,footnotes #a 8,die ,acten des ,gallileischen ,processes1 nach der ,vaticanischen ,handschrift1 von ,karl von ,gebler40 ,cotta1 ,stuttgard1 #ahgg4 #b ,the above letter is adapted from a draft of one addressed to the ,italian ,translator1 the letter to myself not having1 unfortunately1 been sent before the ,author's death1 nor found among his papers afterwards4 ,he had written but a few weeks before that he would send it shortly1 and as it would probably have been almost exactly similar to the above1 ,i have availed myself of it1 the ,author's father having sent me a copy with the necessary alterations and authorised its use4--,,tr4 #c ,see ,appendix ,,iv4 #d ,riccioli1 vol4 i4 part ii4 pp4 #dif-ejj4 #e ,in the references the name only of the author is given4 ,albri's 8,opere0 is designated ,op4 ,those marked 99 are new for the ,english translation4 #f ,this is the writing referred to when ,gherardi is quoted4 #g ,compare ,nelli1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bd1 #be1 and ,opere xv4 p4 #chd4 ,the strange mistake1 which is without any foundation1 that ,galileo was an illegitimate child1 was set afloat soon after his death by ,johann ,victor ,rossi 7,janus ,nicius ,erythrus7 in his 8,pinacotheca ,illustrium ,virorum10 ,cologne1 ,amsterdam1 #afdc-afdh1 and afterwards carelessly and sometimes maliciously repeated4 ,salviati has published the marriage certificate of #eth ,july1 #aefc1 of ,vincenzio di ,michel ,angelo di ,giovanni ,galilei and ,giulia degli ,ammanati ,pescia4 #h ,many of these essays1 which have never been printed1 are among the valuable unpublished ,,mss4 in the ,national ,library at ,florence4 #i ,galileo had a younger brother1 ,michel ,angelo1 and three sisters1 ,virginia1 ,elenor1 and ,livia4 ,the former married a certain ,benedetto ,landucci1 the latter ,taddeo ,galetti4 ,galileo was very kind to his brother and sisters all his life1 assisted them in many ways1 and even made great sacrifices for their sakes4 #aj ,nelli1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bf1 #bg4 #aa ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 p4 #ccj2 and ,op4 vi4 p4 #ah4 #ab ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 p4 #cbh4 #ac ,the correctness of this date is indisputable1 as according to ,nelli1 vol4 i4 p4 #bi1 it was found in the university registers4 ,it is a pity that ,albri1 editor of the 8,opere complete di ,galileo ,galilei10 ,florence1 #ahdb-ahef1 relied for the date on ,viviani1 who is often wrong4 #ad ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 p4 #cca2 also ,jagemann1 p4 #e4 #ae ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 p4 #ccb2 also ,nelli1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #gbb1 #gbc4 #af ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 p4 #ccd4 #ag ,nelli1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cb1 #cc4 #ah ,that ,galileo had been in ,rome before #hth ,january1 #aehh1 a fact hitherto unknown to his biographers1 is clear from the letter of that date addressed from ,florence to ,clavius4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #a-c47 #ai ,see their letters to ,galileo4 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #a-ac47 #bj ,about #ac4--,,tr4 #ba ,about #g;d4 #ajj kreuzers the ,austrian florin4 #bb ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 p4 #ccf2 and ,nelli1 vol4 i4 p4 #dd4 #bc ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 pp4 #ccf1 #ccg2 ,nelli1 vol4 i4 pp4 #df1 #dg2 ,venturi1 vol4 i4 p4 #aa4 #bd ,see the decree of installation of #bfth ,sept4 7,op4 xv4 p4 #chh47 #be ,op4 viii4 p4 #ah2 ,nelli1 vol4 i4 p4 #ea4 #bf ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 pp4 #ccg and #chi4 #bg ,published by ,venturi1 #ahah1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bf-gd4 #bh ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 pp4 #cci1 #cdj4 #bi ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 pp4 #ccg1 #cch4 #cj ,op4 ii4 pp4 #a-f4 #ca 8,prodromus ,dissertationum ,cosmographicarum40 #cb ,op4 vi4 pp4 #aa1 #ab4 #cc ,op4 viii4 pp4 #ba-bd4 #cd ,see ,humboldt's 8,cosmos10 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cde1 #cdf1 and #dig-dii4 #ce ,op4 xv4 p4 #cij4 ,his salary at first was #gb ,florentine zecchini #ah1 and rose by degrees to #djj zecchini #ajj4 7,op4 viii4 p4 #ah1 note #c47 #cf ,some fragments of these lectures are extant1 and are included by ,albri in the ,op4 v4 part ii4 #cg ,op4 iii4 78,astronomicus ,nuncius10 pp4 #fj1 #fa47 ,in his 8,saggiatore0 also he relates the circumstance in precisely the same way1 only adding that he devised the construction of the telescope in one night1 and carried it out the next day4 #ch ,nelli1 pp4 #ahf1 #ahg4 #ci ,history has acknowledged the optician ,hans ,lipperhey1 of ,middelburg1 to be the inventor of the telescope4 ,compare the historical sketch in 8,das neue ,buch der ,erfindungen10 etc41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bag-bbj4 7,leipzig1 #ahfe47 ,the instrument received its name from ,prince ,cesi1 who1 on the advice of the learned ,greek scholar ,demiscianus1 called it a 8teleskopium40 #dj ,op4 vi4 pp4 #ge-gg4 #da ,see the decree of the senate1 #beth ,aug41 #afji 7,op4 xv4 pp4 #cib-cic47 #db ,cosmo ,,ii4 showed all his life a sincere attachment to his old teacher1 ,galileo4 ,from #afje1 before ,cosmo was reigning prince1 ,galileo had regularly given him mathematical lessons during the academical holidays at ,florence1 and had thereby gained great favour at the court of ,tuscany4 #dc ,op4 vi4 pp4 #ajg-aaa4 #dd ,see the letter of ,martin ,hasdal from ,prague1 of #aeth ,april1 #afaj1 to ,galileo 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #eh-fj72 also a letter from ,julian de' ,medici1 ,tuscan ambassador at the ,imperial court1 to ,galileo1 from ,prague1 #aith ,april1 #afaj4 7,wolynski1 8,lettere inedite10 etc41 p4 #bj47 #de ,this reprint bore the following superscription3 8,joannis ,kepleri ,mathematici ,csarei ,dissertatio cum ,nuncio ,sidereo nuper ad mortales misso a ,galilaeo ,galilaeo ,mathematico ,patavino40 ,comp4 ,venturi1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ii-abj4 #df ,op4 vi4 p4 #aba1 note #a4 #dg ,compare the letters of ,martin ,hasdal1 ,alexander ,sertini1 and ,kepler to ,galileo in #afaj4 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #fj-fc1 #fe-fh1 #hb-he1 #hh1 #hi1 #aja1 #aac-aag47 #dh ,see the letter which ,kepler wrote about it to ,galileo on #beth ,oct4 #afaj4 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #aac-aag47 #di ,wedderburn's reply was called3 8,quatuor ,problematum1 qu ,martinius ,horky contra ,nuncium ,sidereum de quatuor ,planetis novis proposuit02 ,roffeni's1 8,epistola apologetica contra ccam peregrinationem cujusdam furiosi ,martini cognomine ,horky editam adversus1 ,nuncium ,sidereum40 #ej ,op4 vi4 pp4 #aad1 #aae4 #ea ,op4 vi4 p4 #abg4 #eb ,may #gth1 #afaj4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #ic-ii47 #ec ,op4 vi4 p4 #afe4 #ed ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 p4 #cdc4 #ee ,op4 vi4 p4 #abi4 #ef ,op4 vi4 pp4 #aaf-aah4 ,ponsard in his drama1 8,galileo10 of which a third edition appeared at ,paris in #ahgc1 in which he mostly turns history upside down1 in ,act i4 sc4 iii4 and iv4 takes off capitally the proud and silly opposition of the ,aristotelians4 #eg ,comp4 ,op4 xv4 p4 #cig1 note #aa1 also ,venturi1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ai1 #bj4 ,jagemann 7p4 #eb7 even believes 8that ,gustavus ,adolphus1 who created an entirely new science of warfare which set all ,europe in consternation and terror1 had derived his wonderful knowledge from ,galileo06 #eh ,op4 vi41 #ga-ge4 ,it is unfortunately unknown to whom this letter was addressed2 but1 as appears from the contents1 it must have been to some one high in office at the court of ,tuscany4 #ei ,it is not known that these last mentioned treatises ever appeared4 ,as not the least trace of them is to be found1 and yet numerous particulars have come down to us of other works afterwards lost1 it may be concluded that these essays were never written4 #fj ,op4 viii4 pp4 #fc1 #fd4 #fa ,op4 viii4 pp4 #gc1 #gd4 #fb ,op4 vi4 p4 #aab4 #fc ,libri justly says1 p4 #ch3 8this mistake was the beginning of all his misfortunes40 #fd ,in a letter from ,galileo to his brother ,michel ,angelo1 of ,may #aath1 #afjf1 he describes the somewhat comical scene of the nocturnal deportation of the ,jesuits from the city of ,lagunes4 7,op4 vi4 p4 #cb47 #fe ,op4 viii4 p4 #adf-aej4 #ff #aath ,dec41 #afaj4 7,op4 vi4 p4 #abh47 #fg ,op4 vi4 pp4 #acj-acc and #acd-acf4 #fh ,op4 vi4 pp4 #acg1 #ach4 #fi ,op4 vi4 p4 #aci1 #adj4 #gj ,op4 vi4 p4 #adj1 note #a4 ,see also ,vinta's answer to ,galileo1 #bjth ,jan4 #afaa 7,wolynski1 8,lettere inedite10 p4 #bg72 also the ,grand ,duke's letter to his ambassador at ,rome1 ,giovanni ,niccolini1 of #bgth ,feb41 #afaa 7,wolynski1 8,la ,diplomazia ,toscana e ,gal4 ,galilei10 p4 #aj74 #ga ,pieralisi has first published this letter in his work 8,urban ,,viii4 and ,galileo ,galilei10 p4 #da4 #gb ,see1 for ,bellarmine's request and the opinion1 ,op4 viii4 pp4 #afj-afb4 #gc ,op4 viii4 p4 #ade4 #gd ,gherardi's ,collection of ,documents3 ,doc4 i4 #ge ,op4 vi4 p4 #bgd4 #gf ,the full title was3 8,dianoja ,astronomica1 ,optica1 ,physica1 qua ,siderei ,nuncii rumor de quatuor ,planetis a ,galilaeo ,galilaeo ,mathematico celeberrimo1 recens perspicilli cujusdam ope conspectis1 vanus redditur4 ,auctore ,francisco ,sitio ,florentino40 #gg ,op4 vi4 p4 #id1 note #a2 and xv4 8,bibliografia ,galileiana10 p4 vi4 #gh ,this letter reports the facts above mentioned4 7,op4 viii4 p4 #ahh47 #gi ,op4 viii4 pp4 #bbb-bbd4 #hj ,op4 viii4 pp4 #bda1 #bdb4 #ha ,op4 vi4 pp4 #aid-aig4 #hb 8,discorso al ,serenissimo ,d4 ,cosimo ,,ii41 ,gran-,duca di ,toscana intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'aqua o che in quella si muovano40 #hc ,op4 viii4 p4 #bca1 note #b2 ,nelli1 p4 #cah2 ,venturi1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aie1 #aif4 #hd ,dated #dth ,may1 #adth ,august1 and #ast ,december1 #afab4 #he 8,istoria e ,dimostrazioni intorno alle ,macchie ,solari1 e loro accidenti comprese in tre lettere scritte al ,sig4 ,marco ,velsero da ,galileo ,galilei40 #hf ,letter of #bjth ,april1 #afac4 7,op4 viii4 p4 #bfb47 #hg ,letter of #bfth ,may1 #afac4 7,op4 viii4 p4 #bga47 #hh ,letter of #hth ,june1 #afac4 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #bgd1 #bge47 #hi ,op4 viii4 pp4 #bij1 #bia4 #ij ,op4 viii4 pp4 #bia-bic4 #ia ,op4 ii4 pp4 #f-ac4 #ib ,op4 viii4 pp4 #ccg1 #cch4 #ic ,vol4 i4 p4 #cig4 #id ,comp4 ,govi1 p4 #dg4 #ie ,epinois1 8,la ,question de ,galilei10 p4 #dc4 #if ,op4 viii4 pp4 #ccg-cdc4 #ig ,the title of 8,eminence0 was first given to cardinals by ,pope ,urban ,,viii4 in #afcj4 #ih ,see ,lorini's ,denunciations1 fol4 #cdb1 ,vat4 ,,ms4 ,according to ,epinois this letter was of the #eth1 but ,gherardi publishes a document which shows it to have been of the #gth4 7,gherardi's ,collection of ,documents1 ,doc4 ii47 #ii ,vat4 ,,ms4 #cdg vo42 also ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 ii4 #ajj ,see ,castelli's letter to ,galileo1 #abth ,march1 #afae1 in which this visit is described4 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #ceh1 #cei47 #aja ,in the letter before quoted of #abth ,march4 #ajb ,marini1 pp4 #hd-hf1 and ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #cdi1 #cej4 #ajc ,op4 viii4 p4 #cfe4 #ajd ,op4 viii4 pp4 #cfi1 #cgj4 #aje ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #cda4 #ajf ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #ceb ro42 and ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 iii4 #ajg ,compare the text of ,caccini's evidence4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #cec ro4-#ceh vo47 #ajh ,see the protocol of both these examinations4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #cga ro4-#cgc vo47 #aji ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #cge vo41 and ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 v4 #aaj ,op4 ii4 pp4 #ac-ag4 #aaa ,op4 ii4 pp4 #ag-bf4 #aab ,op4 viii4 pp4 #cej-cec4 #aac ,op4 viii4 pp4 #ced-cef4 #aad ,as we should say1 8as a working hypothesis40 ,,tr4 #aae ,this was the work which was condemned and absolutely prohibited by the ,congregation of the ,index a year later3 8,lettera del ,r4 ,p4 ,maestro ,paolo ,antonio ,foscarini1 ,carmelitano1 sopra l'opinione de i ,pittagorici e del ,copernico della mobilit della ,terra e stabilit del ,sole1 e il nuovo ,sisteme del ,mondo40 7,for ,cesi's letter1 ,op4 viii4 pp4 #cef-ceh47 #aaf ,see ,dini's letter to ,galileo1 ,march #adth1 #afae 7,op4 viii4 p4 #cfj72 and of ,august #ahth1 #afae 7,wolynski1 8,lettere ,inedite10 p4 #cd72 and ,ciampoli's of ,march #bast 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #cff1 #cfg47 #aag ,op4 viii4 p4 #cfh4 #aah ,op4 viii4 pp4 #cgf1 #cgg4 #aai ,op4 viii4 pp4 #cgh1 #cgi4 #abj ,see his letter to ,galileo1 ,may #afth1 #afae4 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #cgf1 #cgg47 #aba ,op4 ii4 pp4 #bf-fd4 ,it did not appear in print until twenty-one years later1 in ,strasburg4 #abb ,see the letters of ,cosmo ,,ii41 ,november #bhth1 to his ambassador ,guicciardini1 at ,rome1 to ,cardinal del ,monte1 ,paolo ,giordano ,orsini1 and ,abbot ,orsini2 also to ,cardinal ,orsini1 of ,december #bnd4 7,wolynski3 8,la ,diplomazia ,toscana e ,gal4 ,galilei10 pp4 #ah-bj47 #abc ,page #fi4 #abd ,compare the letters of ,sagredo from ,venice of #aath ,march and #bcrd ,april1 #afaf1 to ,galileo at ,rome4 7,op4 ,suppl4 pp4 #ajg-aac4 ,also ,nelli1 vol4 i4 p4 #dad47 #abe ,op4 viii4 p4 #chc4 #abf ,see his letters of #abth ,dec41 #afae1 and #hth ,jan41 #afaf1 to the ,tuscan ,secretary of ,state1 ,curzio ,picchena1 at ,florence4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #baa1 #bab1 #bad1 #bae47 #abg ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dad vo4 #abh ,compare also ,wohlwill1 p4 #hf1 note #a4 #abi ,see his letters to ,picchena of #bfth ,dec41 #afae1 and #ast ,jan41 #afaf4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #bac1 #bad47 #acj ,op4 vi4 pp4 #bae1 #baf4 #aca #bcrd ,jan41 #afaf4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #bah1 #bai47 #acb ,letter to ,picchena1 #fth ,feb4 7,op4 vi4 p4 #bbb47 #acc ,letter to ,picchena4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #bbe-bbg47 #acd ,op4 vi4 pp4 #bba-bbc4 #ace ,see the letter of ,mgr4 ,queringhi1 from ,rome1 of #bjth ,january1 #afaf1 to ,cardinal ,alessandro d',este4 7,op4 viii4 p4 #chc47 #acf ,che il sole sij centre del mondo1 et per consequenza imobile di moto locale4 ,che la ,terra non centro del mondo1 ne imobile1 ma si move secondo se tutta etia di moto diurno4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #cgf ro47 #acg ,sol est centr mundi1 et omnino imobilis motu locali2 ,censura3 ,omnes dixerunt dicta proposition e stult et absurdam in ,philosophia1 et formaliter heretic1 quatenus contradicit expresse sententijs sacre scripture in multis locis4 ,secund proprietate verbor1 et secund commun exposition1 et sens4 ,sanct4 ,patr4 et ,theologor doctor4 ,terra non est centr4 mundi1 nec imobilis1 sed secund se tota1 movetur et moto diurno4 ,censura3 ,omnes dixerunt1 hanc proposition recip eand censura in ,philosophia2 et spectando veritat ,theologic1 at minus e in fide erronea4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 folio #cgg ro47 #ach ,die ,jovis1 #beth ,februarij1 #afaf4 ,ill4 ,d4 ,card4 ,millinus notificavit ,r4,r4 pp4 ,d4,d4 ,asseos4 et ,commiss4 ,s4 ,officij1 quod relata censura ,p4,p4 ,theologor ad proposit4 ,gallilei ,mathem41 q4 ,sol sit centr mundi1 et imobilis motu locali1 et ,terra moveatur et motu diurno2 ,s4 ordinavit ,ill4 ,d4 ,card4 ,bellarm41 ut vocet cor se d4 ,galileum1 eumq4 moneat ad deserendas d4 oponem1 et si recusaverit parere1 ,p4 ,comiss4 cora ,noto 7,notario7 et ,testibus faciat illi preceptum1 ut o 7omnino7 abstineat hui 7huiusmodi7 doctrina1 et oponem docere1 aut defendere1 seu de ea tractare1 si vero n acquieverit1 carceretur4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 folio #cgh vo47 #aci ,die ,veneris1 #bfth eiusdem4 ,in ,palatio solite habit3 d3 ,ill3 ,d4 ,card3 ,bellarm4 et in msionib4 ,dom4 sue ,ill3 ,idem ,ill3 ,d4 ,card3 vocato suprad4 ,galileo1 ipsoq4 cor ,d4 sua ,ill3 exnte 7existente7 in pntia adm4 ,r4 p4 ,fs ,michaelis ,angeli ,seghitij de ,lauda ord4 ,pred4 ,comissarij qualis s4 officij pred4 ,galile monuit de errore suprad oponis1 et ut illa deserat1 et successive1 ac ictinenti in mei 1 et ,testi pnte t adhuc eodem ,ill4 ,d4 ,card4 suprad4 ,p4 ,comiss4 pred4 ,galileo adhuc ibidem pnti1 et ,constituto precepit1 et ordinavit 444 ,here the ,,ms4 is defaced4 ,two words are wanting1 the second might be nome 7nomine72 the first began with a p 7proprie87 but is quite illegible4 ,s4 ,d4 ,n4 ,pape et totius ,congreg4 s4 officij1 ut suprad4 oponione q4 sol sit c3 trum mundi1 et imobilis1 et ,terra moveatur omnino relinquat1 nec e de ,cetero qvis m teneat1 doceat1 aut defendat1 verbo1 aut scriptis1 als 7alias7 co ips procedetur 7in7 ,s4 offo41 cui precepto ,idem ,galileus aequievit1 et parere promisit4 ,sub4 quib4 actum ,rome ubi subra pntibus ibid ,r4,d4 ,badino ,nores de ,nicosia ,regno ,cypri1 et ,augustino ,mongardo de loco ,abbatie ,rose1 dioc4 ,politiane 7,poletianensis7 familiarib4 d4 ,ill4 ,d4 ,card4 ,testibus4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 folio #cgi ro1 #cgi vo47 #adj ,marini1 p4 #db4 #ada ,marini1 pp4 #ic1 #id1 and #ada4 #adb ,in the ,zeitschrift fr mathematischen u4 naturwissenschaftlichen ,unterricht1 #ast series1 part iv41 pp4 #ccc-cdj4 ,see the controversy between ,dr4 ,wohlwill and ,dr4 ,friedlein in the ,zeitschrift fr ,mathematik1 etc41 #agth series4 ,part ii41 pp4 #i-ca2 part iii41 pp4 #da-de2 part v41 pp4 #ha-ih4 #adc ,feria ,v4 die ,,iii4 ,martii1 #afaf4 ,facta relatione per ,illumum4 ,d4 ,card4 ,bellarminum quod ,galilaeus ,galilei mathematicus monitus de ordine ,sacrae ,congregationis ad deserendam 7prima stava scritto chiarissimamente1 disserendam7 opinionem quam hactenus tenuit quod sol sit centrum spherarum1 et immobilis1 terra autem mobilis1 acquievit2 ac relato ,decreto ,congregationis ,indicis1 qualiter 7o1 variante1 quod7 fuerunt prohibita et suspensa respective scripta ,nicolai ,cupernici 7,de revolutionibus orbium clestium44447 ,didaci a ,stunica1 in ,job1 et ,fr4 ,pauli ,antonii ,foscarini ,carmelit1 ,s,smus4 ordinavit publicari ,edictum1 ,a4 ,p4 ,magistro ,s4 ,palatii hujusmodi suspensionis et prohibitionis respective4 7,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 vi47 #add ,see this decree in full1 ,appendix1 p4 #cde4 #ade ,op4 vi4 pp4 #bca-bcc4 #adf ,op4 ,suppl4 #aji-aab4 #adg ,noi ,roberto ,cardinale ,bellarmino havendo inteso che il ,sig ,galileo ,galilei sia calumniato1 imputato di havere abiurato in mano nra1 et anco di essere stato perci penitenziato di penitenzie salutari2 et essendo ricercati della verit diciamo1 che il suddetto ,s4 ,galileo no ha abiurato i mano nra n di altra qua in ,roma ne meno altro luogo che noi sappiamo alcuna sua opinione o dottrina1 n manco h ricevuto penitenzie salutarj1 n d'altra sorte1 ma solo1 ql' stata denunziata la dichiarazione fatta da ,nro ,sig3 e publicata dalla ,sacra ,congreg3 dell'indice1 nella quale si cotiene che la dottrina attribuita al ,copernico che la terra si muova intorno al sole1 e che il sole stia nel centro del ,mdo senza muoversi da oriente ad occidente sia ctraria alle sacre scritture1 e per n si possa difendere n tenere4 ,et in fede di ci habbiamo scritta1 e sotto-scritta la preste di nra propria mano questo di #bf di ,maggio1 #afaf4 ,il me desimo di sopra1 ,roberto ,card4 ,bellarmino4 7,vat4 ,,ms41 #dbc ro and #dbg ro47 #adh ,martin1 pp4 #gi1 #hj4 #adi ,prof4 ,riccardi has stated this conjecture in the ,introduction 7p4 #ag7 to his valuable collection of documents relating to the trial of ,galileo1 published in #ahgc4 #aej ,for the particulars1 see ,appendix1 8,estimate of the ,vat4 ,,ms40 #aea ,pietro ,guiccardini had relieved his predecessor1 ,giovanni ,sicculini1 of his post on #adth ,may1 #afaa1 when ,galileo was still at ,rome4 ,guiccardini remained there till #bgth ,november1 #afba4 #aeb ,op4 vi4 pp4 #bbg-bcj4 #aec ,see ,galileo's letter to ,picchena1 from ,rome1 of #abth ,march4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #bcc-bce47 #aed ,wolynski's 8,lettere inedite10 etc41 p4 #cf4 #aee ,op4 vi4 pp4 #bce-bcg4 #aef ,op4 viii4 p4 #che4 #aeg ,op4 vi4 p4 #bch1 note #b4 ,see these despatches verbatim in ,wolynski's 8,la ,diplomazia ,toscana e ,gal4 ,galilei10 p4 #bb4 #aeh ,op4 vi4 p4 #bch1 note #b4 #aei ,see letter from ,cesi to ,galileo4 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #chi1 #cij47 #afj ,op4 ii4 pp4 #chg-djf4 #afa ,op4 vi4 pp4 #bgh-bha4 #afb ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 p4 #cej4 #afc ,nelli1 vol4 i4 p4 #dcb4 #afd ,op4 iv4 p4 #af4 ,this appears also from a letter from ,galileo of #aith ,june1 #afai1 to ,cardinal ,maffeo ,barberini1 afterwards ,pope ,urban ,,viii41 accompanying the treatise4 7,see this letter in 8,pieralisi10 pp4 #fc1 #fd2 and 8,guitoloni et ,gal4 ,galilei10 ,livorno1 #ahgb1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfc47 #afe 8,libra ,astronomica ac ,philosophica qua ,galili ,galili opiniones de cometis a ,mario ,guiduccio in ,florentina ,academia exposit1 atque in lucem nuper edit examinatur a ,lothario ,sarsi ,sigensano40 7,op4 iv4 pp4 #fc-aba47 #aff ,see the letter of ,mgr4 ,ciampoli of #fth ,december1 #afai1 to ,galileo4 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #dcj1 #dca47 #afg ,compare the letters of ,stelluti 7#bgth ,january1 #afbj7 to ,prince ,cesi1 #dth ,march and #ahth ,may1 #afbj2 and from ,mgr4 ,ciampoli1 #ahth ,may1 #afbj1 to ,galileo4 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #dcf-dci1 and #dda-ddc47 #afh ,see his letter of #abth and #agth ,july1 #afbj1 to ,galileo4 7,op4 viii4 p4 #ddg2 ,wolynski1 8,lettere inedite10 etc41 p4 #ei47 #afi ,see ,ciampoli's letter to ,galileo1 #bgth ,may1 #afbc4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #cj47 #agj ,compare ,cesarini's letters to ,galileo of #bcrd ,june1 #afba1 and #gth ,may1 #afbb4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #e and #ah47 #aga ,see his letters to ,galileo in #afba and #afbb4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #aa-ad and #af-ah2 and ,wolynski1 8,lettere10 etc41 p4 #fe47 #agb 8,scandaglio della ,libra ,astronomica e ,filosofica di ,lothario ,sarsi nella controversia delle ,comete1 e particolarmente delle tre ultimamente vedute l'anno #afah1 di ,giovanni ,battista ,stelluti da ,fabriano dottor di ,legge40 #agc 8,il ,saggiatore1 nel quale con bilancia esquisita e quista si ponderano le cose contenute nella ,libra ,astronomica e ,filosofica di ,lothario ,sarsi ,sigensano40 #agd ,see ,cesarini's letter to ,galileo1 #abth ,january1 #afbc4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #bb-bd47 #age ,op4 ix4 p4 #bf4 #agf ,see ,ciampoli to ,galileo1 #fth ,may1 #afbc4 7,wolynski1 8,lettere10 etc41 p4 #fh47 #agg ,see ,ciampoli's ,letter to ,galileo1 #bgth ,may1 #afbc4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #cj47 #agh ,see ,ranke3 8,die rmischen ,ppste10 etc41 vol4 ii4 p4 #eca1 etc4 #agi ,see ,op4 viii4 pp4 #agc1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bfb1 #dbg2 ix4 p4 #ca4 #ahj ,op4 viii4 p4 #bjf4 #aha ,op4 viii4 p4 #bfb4 #ahb ,op4 viii4 p4 #dea4 ,pieralisi in his work1 8,urban ,,viii4 and ,galileo ,galilei10 ,rome1 #ahge1 pp4 #bb1 #bg1 gives ,barberini's ode1 which is in ,latin1 and consists of nineteen strophes1 as well as a commentary on it1 which has not been printed by ,campanella4 ,see also pp4 #fe1 #ff1 ,galileo's reply to ,barberini1 in which he expresses his warm thanks and his admiration of the poetry4 ,this is not in ,albri's work4 #ahc ,op4 iv41 8,saggiatore10 p4 #agb4 #ahd ,see for these transactions the letter of ,mario ,guiducci1 from ,rome1 to ,galileo1 of #ahth ,april1 #afbe4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #gh-hj47 #ahe ,cesarini's letter to ,galileo1 #bhth ,october1 #afbc4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #dc1 #dd47 #ahf ,rinuccini's letters to ,galileo1 #crd ,november and #bnd ,december1 #afbc4 7,op4 ,suppl4 p4 #aed2 and ix4 p4 #ej47 #ahg ,op4 vi4 pp4 #bhi1 #bij4 #ahh ,op4 ix4 pp4 #db1 #dc4 #ahi ,letter of #bjth ,october4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #dj1 #da47 #aij ,see ,rinuccini's letter to ,galileo of #bnd ,december1 #afbc2 and ,guiducci's of #ahth ,december4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #dh-ec47 #aia ,compare ,ciampoli's letter to ,galileo of #afth ,march1 #afbd4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #ee47 #aib ,op4 ix4 p4 #ef4 #aic ,compare his letter from ,rome of #hth ,june to ,cesi1 who was then at ,aquasparta4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #bie-big47 #aid ,ibid4 #aie 444 8,fu da ,s4 ,santita risposto come ,s4 ,chiesa non l'avea dannata1 ne era per dannarla per eretica1 ma solo per temeraria40 ,comp4 ,galileo's letter to ,cesi1 #hth ,june4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #bie-big47 #aif ,page #ib4 #aig ,comp4 ,galileo's letter to ,cesi1 #hth ,june1 before mentioned4 #aih ,history has assigned the merit of this valuable discovery to ,zacharias ,jansen1 a spectacle maker of ,middelburg1 from whose workshop the first microscope went forth near the end of the #afth century1 probably in #aeij4 #aii ,rezzi1 pp4 #h-aj and #cf-dj4 #bjj ,op4 vi4 p4 #big2 ix4 p4 #fd4 #bja ,galileo was never married1 but he had a son who was legitimised in #afai by ,cosmo ,,ii41 and two daughters1 by ,marina ,gamba1 of ,venice4 ,his daughters took the veil in the ,convent of ,s4 ,matteo1 at ,arcetri4 ,the mother of his children afterwards married a certain ,bartolucci1 with whom ,galileo subsequently entered into friendly correspondence1 which was quite in accordance with the state of morals and manners in ,italy at that period4 ,the pension of sixty dollars was granted in #afbg1 but owing to the religious exercises attached as a condition1 ,galileo's son did not accept it4 ,it was then transferred to a nephew1 but1 as he proved unworthy of it1 to ,galileo himself1 with an increase of forty dollars1 but with the condition1 as it was derived from two ecclesiastical benefices1 that he should adopt the tonsure1 to which he consented4 ,he drew the pension which thus irregularly accrued to him as long as he lived4 #bjb ,op4 vi4 p4 #bie4 #bjc ,op4 ix4 pp4 #fj1 #fa2 ,pieralisi1 pp4 #ge1 #gf4 #bjd ,this work was placed upon the ,index of prohibited books by a decree of #ajth ,march1 #afai4 #bje ,op4 ii4 pp4 #fd-aae4 #bjf ,see ,guiducci's letter to ,galileo from ,rome1 #ahth ,april1 #afbe4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #gh-hj47 #bjg ,op4 ix4 pp4 #fe-ga2 ,suppl4 pp4 #afb-afd4 #bjh ,see ,guiducci's letters to ,galileo of #hth1 #aeth1 and #bbnd ,november1 #bast and #bgth ,december1 #afbd2 and #dth ,january1 #afbe4 7,op4 ,suppl4 pp4 #afh-agh47 #bji ,op4 ix4 p4 #ig4 #baj ,op4 iv4 pp4 #dhf1 #dhg4 #baa 8,dialogo di ,galileo3 dove nei congressi di quattro giornate si discorre sopra i due ,massimi ,sistemi del ,mondo ,tolemaico e ,copernicano1 proponendo indeterminatamente le ragioni filosofiche e naturali tanto per l'una parte1 che par l'altra40 #bab ,comp4 ,galileo's letters of #gth ,dec41 #afbd1 and #abth ,jan1 #afcj1 to ,cesare ,marsili 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #cjj and #cee72 also ,cesi's letter to ,galileo1 #abth ,oct41 #afbd 7,op4 ix4 p4 #ga74 #bac ,op4 i4 78,dialogo di ,galileo ,galilei10 etc471 pp4 #aa1 #ab4 #bad ,op4 i4 pp4 #eja-ejc4 #bae ,martin1 p4 #ii4 #baf ,comp4 for example the essay3 8,der ,heilige ,stuhl gegen ,galileo ,galilei u4 das astronomische ,system des ,copernicus02 also ,marini1 pp4 #gj-gc4 #bag ,op4 vi4 pp4 #ccc-ccf4 #bah ,ibid4 pp4 #ccc and #ccf4 #bai ,op4 ix4 p4 #afg4 #bbj ,ibid4 pp4 #agc-age4 #bba ,this celebrated ,dominican monk1 who in #aeii had been condemned by ,spanish despotism to imprisonment for life1 ostensibly for having taken part in the insurrection in ,calabria1 but in fact for his liberal opinions1 had been released by ,urban ,,viii4 in #afbf1 under pretext of a charge of heresy4 ,after having been detained for three years for appearance's sake1 in the palace of the ,holy ,office1 he had1 after #afbi1 been at large in ,rome4 ,campanella was one of ,galileo's most zealous adherents1 and1 so far as his imprisonment permitted1 he had corresponded with him for years4 ,a letter of his to ,galileo of #hth ,march1 #afad1 is noteworthy 7,op4 viii4 pp4 #cje-cjg71 in which he entreats him to leave all other researches alone and to devote himself solely to the decisive question of the system of the universe4 ,in conclusion he makes the singular offer to cure ,galileo1 who was then lying ill1 by means of 8the astrological medicine06 ,in #afaf1 when the ,copernican theory had been denounced by the ,inquisition as heretical1 the ,inquisitor ,cardinal ,gaetani applied to ,campanella1 who was widely known for his learning1 to give his opinion on the relation of the system to ,holy ,scripture4 ,in compliance with this demand1 ,campanella wrote a brilliant apology for ,galileo1 in which the expert theologian and mathematician brought the system into agreement with the ,bible4 ,but even the zealous demonstrations of the imprisoned philosopher did not avail to avert the decree of the ,sacred ,congregation4 #bbb 8,non fu mai nostra intenzione1 e se fosse toccato a noi non si sarrebe fatto quel decreto40 7,op4 ix4 p4 #agf47 #bbc ,op4 ix4 pp4 #agf1 #agg4 #bbd 8,che lei desiderata piu che qualsivoglia amatissima donzella40 7,op4 ix4 p4 #agh47 #bbe ,op4 ix4 p4 #ahh4 #bbf ,in the narration of this most important transaction we have followed the memorial which1 later on1 at the beginning of the trial of ,galileo1 was handed to the ,pope by the preliminary commission4 ,this is an authentic document1 agreeing as far as it relates to these transactions with ,galileo's correspondence4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #bgd-bgg2 ,suppl4 pp4 #bcc-bce47 ,it is inconceivable how ,albri 7,op4 ,suppl4 p4 #bch1 note #b7 can have fallen into the mistake of supposing that ,galileo had not received the imprimatur at all1 though he himself publishes documents which prove the contrary2 as1 for instance1 the letter of ,visconti to ,galileo of #afth ,june1 #afcj 7,suppl4 p4 #bce72 ,galileo's to ,cioli of #gth ,march1 #afca 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #cgd-cgf72 a letter of ,riccardi's to the ,tuscan ambassador at ,rome1 ,niccolini1 of #bhth ,april1 #afca 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #bdc1 #bdd72 and finally1 a letter from ,niccolini to ,cioli of ,sep41 #afcb 7,op ix4 pp4 #dbj-dbc74 ,martin also expresses his surprise at this error of ,albri's 7p4 #ajb1 note #b74 #bbg ,op4 ix4 pp4 #aic and #bje4 #bbh ,op4 vi4 p4 #cdf1 note #b4 #bbi ,wolynski1 8,la ,diplomazia ,toscana e ,gal4 ,galilei10 p4 #ce4 #bcj ,op4 ix4 pp4 #aih1 #aii4 #bca ,ibid4 pp4 #bja1 #bjb4 #bcb ,op4 vi4 p4 #cge4 ,in the first edition of the 8,dialogues10 this permission to print is to be seen at the beginning of the book4 ,they are also reproduced in the ,latin translation of the work 7,strasburg1 #afce1 in #dto74 #bcc ,op4 ix4 pp4 #bje1 #bjf4 #bcd ,see ,caterina ,niccolini's letter to ,galileo4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #bji47 #bce ,op4 vi4 p4 #cge4 #bcf ,in the history of these negotiations we have to a great extent followed ,galileo's narrative4 7,op4 vi4 pp4 #cgd-cgg47 ,besides this1 we have made use of two authentic documents1 the memorial of the preliminary commission1 before mentioned1 to the ,pope 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #chg ro4-#chi vo471 and the protocol of the trial of ,galileo1 #abth ,april1 #afcc 7,vat4 ,,ms4 #dac ro4-#dai ro47 #bcg ,compare the letter of ,geri ,bocchineri1 private secretary at the ,court of ,tuscany1 to ,galileo 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #bbe1 #bbf71 and the letter of ,cioli to ,niccolini of #hth ,march1 in which the latter is charged1 in the name of the ,grand ,duke1 to support ,galileo's cause to the utmost with the ,master of the ,palace4 7,wolynski1 8,la ,diplomazia ,toscana10 etc41 p4 #ci47 #bch ,op4 vi4 pp4 #cgg1 #cgh4 #bci ,op4 ix4 pp4 #bdb1 #bdc4 #bdj ,the ,roman censorship only granted licences to works published at ,rome itself4 #bda ,see this letter from ,riccardi to ,niccolini4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #bdc1 #bdd47 #bdb ,op4 iv4 pp4 #chb-bhd4 #bdc ,see ,niccolini to ,galileo1 #beth ,may1 #afca4 7,wolynski1 8,lettere inedite10 etc41 p4 #hc47 #bdd 444 8,si che non mai si conceda la verita assoluta ma solamente la hipotetica1 e senza la ,scrittura1 a questa opinione 4440 #bde ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #cij ro4 #bdf ,ibid4 fol4 #cij vo4 #bdg ,letter of #aith ,july1 #afca4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #bdf47 #bdh ,see this important letter of ,riccardi's to the ,inquisitor at ,florence4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #cic ro47 #bdi ,see points #a and #c of the memorial which was handed to the ,pope at the first examination of ,galileo by the preliminary commission4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #chh47 #bej ,comp4 p4 #abj4 #bea ,marini1 p4 #abg4 ,pieralisi tries to convince the reader that ,ciampoli acted quite despotically in the matter2 and says that when ,riccardi refers to 8the ,pope10 it was not ,maffeo ,barberini1 but ,mgr4 ,ciampoli1 8,giovanni ,ciampoli non ,maffeo ,barberini era il ,papa06 p4 #aac1 a statement which1 considering ,urban's despotic character and the absence of historical proof1 appears very arbitrary4 #beb ,zeitschrift fr ,mathematik u4 ,physik4 #ith ,series1 ,part #c1 p4 #ahd4 #bec ,marini1 pp4 #aaf1 #aag2 ,op4 ,suppl4 pp4 #cbd1 #cbe4 #bed ,op4 vi4 p4 #chi4 #bee ,ibid4 p4 #cij4 #bef ,ibid4 #beg ,op4 ix4 p4 #bga4 #beh ,ibid4 p4 #bec4 #bei ,op4 ix4 pp4 #bgj-bgb4 #bfj ,op4 ,suppl4 p4 #cai4 #bfa ,comp4 ,nelli1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ejd1 #eje2 ,op4 vi4 p4 #ajd1 note #b2 ix4 pp4 #afc-afe1 #aib2 ,suppl4 p4 #bcd4 #bfb ,comp4 on this subject the chapters on 8,die ,gesellschaft ,jesu0 in 8,kulturgeschichte in ihrer natrlichen ,entwicklung bis zur ,gegenwart10 by ,fr4 v4 ,hellwald1 ,augsburg1 #ahgd1 pp4 #fia-iff4 #bfc 444 8,i ,gesuiti lo persequiterano acerbissimamente40 7,see ,magalotti's letter to ,mario ,guiducci1 from ,rome1 of #gth ,aug41 #afcb4 ,op4 ,suppl4 p4 #cba7 #bfd ,see their letters4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #bfd-bfg1 #bgj-bgb1 #bgf-bhb47 #bfe ,see their letters to ,galileo4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #be1 #gb1 #ig1 #aff-afh1 #agd-agg1 #baj1 #bee2 ,suppl4 p4 #aha47 #bff ,on the reverse side of the title page of the 8,dialogues0 stands3-- 8,imprimatur1 si videbitur ,rever4 ,p4 ,magistro ,sacri ,palatii ,apostolici4 ,a4 ,episcopus ,bellicastensis ,vices gerens4 ,imprimatur4 ,fr4 ,nicolaus ,ricardus1 ,sacri ,apostolici ,palatii ,magister4 ,imprimatur ,florenti2 ordinibus consuetis servatis4 #aa ,septembris #afcj4 ,petrus ,nicolinus ,vic4 ,gen4 ,florenti4 ,imprimatur4 ,die #aa ,septembris #afcj4 ,fra ,clemens ,egidius ,inquisit4 ,gen4 ,florenti4 ,stampisi4 ,a4 di #ab di ,settembre #afcj4 ,niccol dell',altella40 #bfg ,it is reproduced in ,venturi1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aag4 #bfh ,see on all this the two detailed letters of ,count ,magalotti to ,mario ,guiducci1 from ,rome1 of #gth ,august and #dth ,september1 #afcb4 7,op4 ,suppl4 pp4 #cah-cbi47 #bfi ,scheiner had two years before published a work called 8,rosa ,ursina10 in which he again fiercely attacked ,galileo1 and stoutly maintained his unjustifiable claims to the first discovery of the solar spots4 ,galileo did not directly answer him in his 8,dialogues10 but dealt him some side blows1 and stood up for his own priority in the discovery with weighty arguments4 ,castelli1 in a letter to ,galileo of #aith ,june1 #afcb 7,op4 ix4 p4 #bgd71 gives an amusing description of ,scheiner's rage4 ,when a priest from ,siena praised the book in his presence at a bookseller's1 and called it the most important work that had ever appeared1 ,scheiner left the shop1 pale as death1 and trembling with excitement in every limb4 ,but he did not always thus curb his rage4 ,the natural philosopher1 ,torricelli1 who afterwards became famous1 a pupil of ,castelli's1 reported to ,galileo1 in a letter of #aath ,september1 #afcb 7,op4 ix4 p4 #bhg71 a conversation he had had with ,scheiner about the 8,dialogues40 ,although he shook his head about them1 he had concurred in ,torricelli's praise1 but could not help remarking that he found the frequent digressions tedious2 and no wonder1 for they often referred to himself1 and he always got the worst of it4 ,he broke off the conversation by saying that 8,galileo had behaved very badly to him1 but he did not wish to speak of it40 ,in a letter of #bcrd ,february1 #afcc1 to ,gassendi 7,op4 ix4 p4 #bge71 ,scheiner is less reserved4 ,rage and fury evidently guided his pen1 and he complains bitterly that ,galileo had dared in his work to 8lay violent hands0 on the 8,rosa ,ursina40 ,scheiner was doubtless one of the most zealous in instituting the trial against ,galileo1 although ,targioni 7vol4 i4 p4 #aac1 note a7 overshoots the mark in making him his actual accuser4 #bgj ,op4 ix4 pp4 #dbj-dbe4 #bga ,see ,magalotti's letter to ,guiducci of #dth ,september1 #afcb 7,op4 ,suppl4 p4 #cbd72 and ,niccolini's report to ,cioli of #eth ,september 7,op4 ix4 p4 #dbb74 #bgb ,op4 ix4 p4 #bga1 note #a4 #bgc ,comp4 ,niccolini's report to ,cioli of #acth ,march1 #afcc4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #dcg47 #bgd ,op4 i4 8,dialogo di ,galileo ,galilei10 etc41 p4 #ejb4 #bge ,this point has been recently thoroughly discussed by ,henri ,martin4 ,comp4 pp4 #aei-afh4 #bgf ,pages #cd-ch1 etc4 #bgg 444 8,che fu il primo motere di tutti i miei travagli40 7,op4 vii4 p4 #ga47 #bgh ,this erroneous idea is found among a large number of historians2 for instance1 ,biot 7,journal des ,savans1 ,july-,oct4 #aheh71 pp4 #dfd1 #dfe2 ,philarte ,chasles1 pp4 #abi1 #acj1 #bjh2 ,reumont1 p4 #ccf2 and ,parchappe1 p4 #bjf4 ,epinois 7pp4 #ef1 #eg7 and ,martin 7pp4 #aei-afh7 have merely given the importance to this circumstance which it deserves1 for it really was of great moment in the course of the trial4 #bgi 8 444 ,e da buona banda intendo i ,padri ,gesuiti aver fatto impressione in testa principalissima che tal mio libro piu esecrando e piu pernicioso per ,santa ,chiesa1 che le scritture di ,lutero e di ,calvino 4440 7,letter from ,galileo to ,elia ,diodati of #aeth ,jan41 #afcc1 ,op4 vii4 p4 #ai4 ,comp4 also his letter to ,king ,ladislaus of ,poland1 ,op4 vii4 p4 #aij47 #bhj ,see the letter of ,magalotti to ,guiducci1 before mentioned1 of #gth ,august1 #afcb4 7,op4 ,suppl4 pp4 #cah-cbc47 #bha ,op4 ,suppl4 p4 #cai4 #bhb ,see the despatches of ,niccolini to ,cioli of #eth and #ahth ,sep41 #afcb4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #dbb and #dbf47 #bhc ,see ,campanella's letters to ,galileo of #cast ,august and #beth ,sep41 #afcb4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #bhd and #bid47 #bhd ,op4 vii4 pp4 #c1 #d4 #bhe ,op4 ix4 pp4 #dbj-dbc4 #bhf ,il ,serenissimo ,padrone ha sentito le lettere di ,v4 ,e4 de #d et #e1 et per questa materia del ,sig4 ,mariano e per quella del ,sig4 ,galileo resta in tanta alterazione chio non so come le cose passarano2 so bene che ,s4 ,santita non havera mai cagione di dolessi de ministri ni de mali consigli lora4 7,wolynski1 8,la ,diplomazia ,toscana10 etc41 p4 #de47 #bhg ,op4 ,suppl4 pp4 #cbd-ccj4 #bhh ,it never did in fact come to this2 for the supreme authority is the ,pope1 speaking ex cathedra1 or an cumenical ,council4 #bhi ,op4 ix4 pp4 #dbc-dbe4 #bij 444 8,ma sopra tutte le cose dice1 con la solita confidenza e segretezza1 essersi trovato ne' libri del ,s4 ,offizio1 che circa a #af anni sono essendosi sentito che il ,signor ,galilei aveva questa opinione1 e la seminara in ,fiorenza1 e che per questo essendo fatto venire a ,roma1 gli fu proibito in nome del ,papa e del ,s4 ,offizio dal ,signor ,cardinale ,bellarmino il poter tenere questa opinione1 e che questo solo bastante per rovinarlo affatto40 #bia ,comp4 pp4 #ga1 #gb4 #bib ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #chg ro4-#chi vo4 #bic ,see ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli of #ahth ,september1 #afcb4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #dbe-dbh47 #bid ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli1 #ahth ,september1 #afcb4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #dbe-dbh47 #bie ,vat4 ,,ms4 p4 #cid vo4 #bif ,after ,galileo's signature follow the autograph attestations of the notary and witnesses1 of whose presence ,galileo knew nothing4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #cih ro47 #big ,op4 vii4 p4 #f4 #bih ,the address does not indicate which of the ,cardinals ,barberini1 but it is clear from ,niccolini's despatch of #acth ,november1 #afcb1 to ,cioli1 that it was to ,cardinal ,antonio1 jun41 nephew of the ,pope1 and not1 as ,albri assumes1 to ,cardinal ,antonio1 sen41 the ,pope's brother4 #bii ,there is no clue whatever as to who this personage was4 ,from what ,galileo says1 it must have been some high ecclesiastical dignitary4 #cjj ,on this point also a passage in a letter of ,campanella's to ,galileo of #bbnd ,october1 #afcb 7,op4 ix4 p4 #cjc71 is worth mentioning4 ,he says3 8,they are doing all they possibly can here in ,rome1 by speaking and writing1 to prove that you have acted contrary to orders40 #cja ,op4 vii4 pp4 #g-ac4 #cjb ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #djc ro4 #cjc ,op4 ix4 pp4 #cjd-cjf4 #cjd ,ibid4 pp4 #dbh1 #dbi4 #cje ,niccolini was mistaken if he thought that this tribunal was1 according to ecclesiastical notions1 infallible4 #cjf ,op4 ix4 p4 #caa4 #cjg ,see ,niccolini to ,cioli1 #fth ,november4 7,wolynski1 8,la ,diplomazia10 etc41 p4 #ej47 #cjh ,gherardi's ,collection of ,documents1 ,doc4 vii4 #cji ,the cup of papal wrath had by this time been emptied on ,ciampoli's head4 ,he had been deprived of his important office as ,secretary of the ,papal ,briefs1 and in order to remove him from ,rome he was made ,governor of ,montalto1 and entered on his post at the end of ,november4 7,see the letters of ,castelli to ,galileo4 ,op4 ix4 pp4 #cjf1 #cac-caf47 #caj ,for these documents1 from which the above narrative is taken1 see ,op4 ix4 pp4 #cab1 #cac and #dbi1 #dcj4 #caa ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dja ro4 #cab ,gherardi's ,documents1 and ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #djb vo4 #cac ,op4 ix4 pp4 #dcj1 #dca4 #cad ,ibid4 pp4 #cah1 #cai4 #cae ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #djf ro4 #caf ,ibid4 pp4 #djg ro4 #cag ,op4 ix4 p4 #dca4 #cah ,ibid4 pp4 #cai1 #cbj4 #cai ,see ,castelli's ,letters to ,galileo of #bnd and #afth ,oct41 #afcb4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #bie-bih1 and #bii-cja47 #cbj ,see his letters4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #cjf1 #cjg1 and #cac-cae47 #cba 8#cjth ,dec4 #afcb1 a ,nativitate4 ,sanctissimus mandavit ,inquisitori rescribi quod ,sanctitas ,sua et ,sacra ,congregatio nullatenus potest et debet tolerare hujusmodi subterfugia et ad effectum verificandi an revera in statu tali reperiatur quod non possit ad urbem absque vitae periculo accedere4 ,sanctissimus et ,sacra ,congregatio transmittet illuc commissarium una cum medicum qui illum visitent ut certam et sinceram relationem faciant de statu in quo reperitur1 et si erit in statu tali ut venire possit illum carceratum et ligatum cum ferris transmittat4 ,si vero causa sanitatas et ob periculum vitae transmissio erit differenda1 statim postquam convaluerit et cessante periculo carceratus et ligatus ac cum ferris transmittat4 ,commissiarius autem et medici transmittantur ejus sumptibus et expensis quid se in tali statu et temporibus constituit et tempore oportuno ut ei fuerat preceptum venire et facere contempsit40 7,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 x42 and ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dji vo47 #cbb ,op4 ix4 pp4 #cbb1 #cbc4 ,this last observation of the ,grand ,duke's1 only meaning that he reckoned on a speedy release for ,galileo1 afterwards gave ,cioli occasion1 as we shall see by-and-by1 for a most mean act towards ,galileo4 #cbc ,it is incomprehensible how many of ,galileo's biographers1 even ,parchappe 7p4 #baf7 and ,h4 ,martin 7p4 #abj71 who had ,albri's work at command1 fix the #aeth as the date4 ,and yet we have a letter of ,galileo's to the ,cardinal de ,medici of the #aeth ,jan4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #ae1 #af71 asking if he had any commissions1 in which he expressly mentions 8the #bjth instant0 as the day of his departure4 #cbd 8,famosi et antiqui problematis de telluris motu vel quiete hactenus optata solutio3 ad ,em4 ,card4 ,richelium ,ducem et ,franci ,parem4 ,a4 ,jo4 ,bapt4 ,morino apud ,gallos et ,bellajocensibus ,francopolitano ,doct4 ,med4 atque ,paris4 ,mathematum professore4 ,terra stat in ternum2 ,sol oritur et occidit4 ,eccles4 ,cap4 ,i4 ,parisiis apud tuctorem juxta ,pontem novum #afca1 in #dj40 #cbe 8,liberti ,fromondi in ,acad4 ,lovaniensi ,s4 ,theolog4 ,doctoris et ,professoris ordinarii4 ,ant4-,aristarchus1 sive orbis terr immobilis4 ,liber unicus1 in quo decretum ,s4 ,congreg4 ,s4 ,r4 ,e4 ,cardinalium anno #afaf1 adversus ,pythagorico-,copernicanos editum defenditur4 ,antverpi ex officina ,plantiniana #afca1 in #dj40 #cbf ,the letter to the ,grand ,duchess ,christine4 #cbg ,op4 vii4 pp4 #af-bj4 #cbh ,the ,inquisitor informed the ,holy ,office1 two days later1 that ,galileo had left ,florence on the #bjth4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #daa ro42 and ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xii47 #cbi ,comp4 ,niccolini's letter to ,galileo of #eth ,feb41 #afcc4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #cbg47 #ccj ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli of #adth ,feb4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #dcb47 #cca ,see ,niccolini's despatches to ,cioli of #afth and #aith ,feb4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #dcb1 #dcc47 #ccb ,see ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli of #aith ,feb4 #ccc ,see ,galileo's letter to ,cioli of #aith ,feb4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #bj-bb47 #ccd ,ibid4 #cce ,comp4 ,galileo's letter to ,geri ,bocchineri of #beth ,feb4 7,op4 vii4 p4 #bc47 #ccf ,op4 vii4 pp4 #bj-bb4 #ccg ,see ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli of #aith ,feb4 #cch ,op4 vii4 p4 #bb4 #cci ,op4 ix4 #dcd4 #cdj ,in the account of this conversation we have followed ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli of #bgth ,feb4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #dcd-dcf47 #cda ,comp4 pp4 #aga1 #agb4 #cdb ,op4 ix4 pp4 #dcd-dcf4 #cdc ,ibid4 pp4 #ccj-ccb4 #cdd ,op4 vii4 p4 #bg2 and ix4 p4 #dcf2 also ,wolynski1 8,la ,diplomazia10 etc41 p4 #eg4 #cde ,op4 ix4 pp4 #dcf-dch4 #cdf ,op4 ix4 p4 #dch2 and vii4 p4 #bbh4 #cdg ,see ,geri ,bocchineri's ,letters to ,galileo and ,cioli1 both of #bfth ,march1 #afcc3 the former1 ,wolynski1 8,lettere inedite10 etc41 p4 #hi2 the latter1 ,op4 ix4 p4 #ccf4 #cdh ,op4 ix4 p4 #dda4 #cdi ,op4 ix4 p4 #cch4 #cej ,see ,galileo's letters to ,g4 ,bocchineri of #eth and #abth1 and to ,cioli of #abth and #aith ,march4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #bd-bh47 #cea ,op4 ix4 pp4 #dch1 #dci4 #ceb ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dac vo4 #dai ro4 #cec ,we have before stated that ,copernicus did not at all consider his doctrine a hypothesis1 but was convinced of its actual truth4 ,it was ,osiander's politic introduction which had given rise to the error which was then generally held4 #ced ,prof4 ,berti has first published this interesting letter in full in his 8,copernico e le vicende ,sistema ,copernicano in ,italia10 pp4 #aba-abe4 #cee ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dbc ro4 #cef ,no explanation is to be found anywhere of this mysterious notification4 ,the protocols of the trial show that none took place before the ,inquisitor4 ,these 8particulars10 therefore1 as they are not mentioned again in the course of the trial1 and play no part in it1 may have been chiefly of a private nature4 #ceg ,these are the precise words of this ominous passage in the annotation of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 which appear to have been considered absolutely decisive by the ,inquisitor4 #ceh ,op4 vii4 p4 #bi4 ,the rest of the letter is about family affairs4 #cei ,comp4 ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli of #afth ,april4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #ddj1 #dda47 ,during our stay in ,rome in the spring of #ahgg1 ,leone ,vincenzo ,sallua1 the ,father ,commissary-,general of the ,holy ,office1 was kind enough to show us the apartments occupied by ,galileo in the ,palace of the ,inquisition4 ,the rooms are all large1 light1 and cheerful1 and on one side you enjoy the prospect of the majestic dome of ,st4 ,peter's1 and on the other of the beautiful gardens of the ,vatican4 ,it is worthy of note that all the rooms assigned to ,galileo and his servant are entirely shut off by a single door1 so that but one key was required to make the inmates of these handsome apartments prisoners4 ,with all its consideration for ,galileo's person1 the ,inquisition never forgot a certain prudence which had perhaps become a second nature to it4 ,we prefix a little ground plan of the rooms1 made by ourselves on the spot4 #cfj ,see despatch of #bcrd ,april4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #dda47 #cfa ,see ,op4 ix4 pp4 #ccd1 #cci1 #cde1 #cdf1 #ced1 #cee4 ,pieralisi tries to palliate even this act1 but without much success4 7,comp4 pp4 #acd1 #ace47 #cfb ,thanks to the kindness of ,prof4 ,riccardi1 of ,modena1 in whose valuable library there is1 among other treasures1 a copy of ,galileo's 8,dialogues0 of #afcb1 ,i was enabled to compare ,inchofer's quotations with a copy of the very edition which was in the hands of the consultators of the ,holy ,office4 ,i am able to state that ,inchofer quotes them verbatim1 or makes faithful extracts without altering the sense4 ,the last quotation only1 #be1 is a little confused4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dci vo47 #cfc ,pasqualigus seldom cites verbatim1 but makes short quotations2 and in comparing them with ,galileo's works1 ,i have found the sense given correctly4 #cfd ,see all these opinions and the arguments1 ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dbi ro4 #ddg ro4 #cfe ,there is a passage in a letter of ,galileo's to ,geri ,bocchineri of #beth ,february1 #afcc1 in which he says3 8,the cessation of all bodily exercise which1 as you know ,i am accustomed to take for the benefit of my health1 and of which ,i have now been deprived for nearly forty days1 begins to tell upon me1 and particularly to interfere with digestion1 so that the mucus accumulates2 and for three days violent pains in the limbs have occasioned great suffering1 and deprived me of sleep4 ,i hope strict diet will get rid of them40 7,op4 vii4 p4 #bc47 ,since this time two months had elapsed without ,galileo's having been in the open air4 ,even the ,inquisitors saw1 as we shall find1 that a change must be made in the regulations1 if they did not wish to endanger his life4 #cff ,op4 vii4 p4 #cj4 #cfg ,pages #aig1 #aih4 #cfh ,niccolini's4 #cfi ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dai ro4 #dbj vo4 #cgj ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dbj vo4 #dba ro4 #cga ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dba vo4 #cgb ,op4 ix4 pp4 #dda1 #ddb4 #cgc ,wolynski1 8,la ,diplomazia ,toscana10 etc41 p4 #fa4 #cgd ,see ,niccolini to ,cioli1 #aeth ,may1 #afcc4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #ddb47 #cge ,galileo's letters between #bcrd ,april and #bcrd ,july1 just the most interesting time1 are entirely wanting1 which can scarcely be altogether accidental4 #cgf ,op4 ix4 p4 #cec4 #cgg ,see the protocol of the hearing of #ajth ,may1 #afcc4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dbb ro47 #cgh ,at his first hearing ,galileo had only been able to show a copy of this certificate1 but now produced the original4 #cgi ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dbe vo4 #chj ,comp4 ,marini1 pp4 #ih-ajj4 #cha ,op4 ix4 p4 #ceg4 #chb ,see their letters 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #cee-cfd2 and ,suppl4 pp4 #cej1 #cea74 #chc ,see his letters to ,galileo 7,op4 ,suppl4 pp4 #bdh-bej74 #chd ,op4 ix4 p4 #cei4 #che ,ibid4 p4 #cfe4 #chf ,see ,niccolini's despatches to ,cioli of #bith ,may4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #ddc47 #chg ,op4 ix4 pp4 #ddb1 #ddc4 #chh 8,feria ,v4 ,die ,,xvi4 ,junii #afcc4 ,galilaei de ,galileis ,florentini in hoc ,s4 ,off4 carcerati et ob ejus adversam valetudinem ac senectutem cum praecepto de non discedendo de domo electae habitationis in urbe1 ac de se repraesentando toties quoties sub poenis arbitrio ,sacrae ,congregationis habilitati proposita causa relato processu et auditis notis1 ,s4 decrevit ipsum ,galilaeum interrogandum esse super intentione et comminata ei tortura1 et si sustinuerit1 previa abjuratione de vehementi in plena ,congregatione ,s4 ,off4 condemnandum ad carcerem arbitrio ,sac4 ,congregationis1 ,injunctum ei ne de cetero scripto vel verbo tractet ampluis gnovis modo de mobilitate terr1 nec de stabilitate solis et e contra sub poena relapsus4 ,librum vero ab eo conscriptum cuititutus est ,dialogo di ,galileo ,galilei ,linceo 7publice cremandum fore 7sic7 ma cassato7 prohibendum fore4 ,praeterea ut haec omnibus innotescant exemplaria ,sententiae ,decretumque perinde transmitti jussit ad omnes nuntios apostolicos1 et ad omnes haereticae pravitatis ,inquisitores1 ac praecipue ad ,inquisitorem ,florentiae qui eam sententiam in ejus plena ,congregatione1 ,consultoribus accersitis1 etiam et coram plerisque ,mathematicae ,artis ,professoribus publice legatur40 7,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xiii42 and ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dea vo47 ,it was then apparently at first determined publicly to burn ,galileo's book1 and it was not till after the decree had been committed to writing that it was altered4 ,at whose instigation this was done1 whether at that of the ,pope1 or in consequence of the remonstrances of some more lenient members of the ,congregation1 such as the ,cardinals ,barberini1 ,borgia1 and ,zacchia1 cannot be decided4 #chi ,op4 ix4 pp4 #ddc1 #ddd1 from which the above account is taken4 #cij ,see ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli1 #bfth ,june4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #ddd1 #dde47 #cia ,et cu nihil aliud posset haberi in executione decreti habita eius subscriptione remissus fuit ad locum suum4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dec ro47 #cib 8,cio al palazzo del ,ministro di ,toscana10 says ,marini1 p4 #fb4 #cic ,the passage in ,niccolini's despatch is as follows3 8,il ,signor ,galilei fu chiamato lunedi 7#bj7 sera al ,s4 ,uffizio1 ove si trasferi martedi 7#ba7 mattina conforme all' ordine1 per sentire qual che potessero desiderare da lui1 ed essendo ritenuto1 fu condotto mercoledi 7#bb7 alla ,minerva avanti alli ,sig4 ,cardinali e ,prelati della ,congregazione1 dove non solamente gli fu letta la sentenza1 ma fatto anche abiurare la sua opinione1 444 la qual condannazione gli ful subito permutata da ,s4 ,b4 in una relegazione o confine al giardino della ,trinita de' ,monti1 dore io lo condussi venerdi 7#bd7 sera44440 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #ddd1 #dde47 #cid ,galileo's letter to ,castelli of #bast ,december1 #afac4 #cie ,appendix ,,vi4 #cif ,it is very remarkable that ,jagemann1 in his book on ,galileo1 which appeared in #aghd 7,new ,ed4 #aghg1 pp4 #hf1 #ie71 doubts the fact of such a special prohibition4 ,of course he is acquainted only with the sentence published by ,riccioli1 and surmises that he invented the passage in which the special prohibition is mentioned1 8in order to justify the harsh proceedings of the ,court of ,rome under ,urban ,,viii40 ,so that ninety years ago1 without anything to go by but the wording of the sentence1 ,jagemann suspected that this strict prohibition was never issued to ,galileo1 and says1--8,neither does this decree agree with the information given above on all points10 i4e41 in letters of ,galileo and ,guiccardini of #afaf4 #cig ,compare the excellent essay3 8,la ,condemnation de ,galile4 ,lapsus des crivains qui l'opposent a la doctrine de l'infallibilit du ,pape10 von ,abb ,bouix4 ,also ,pieralisi1 pp4 #aba-aca2 and ,gilbert's 8,la ,procs de ,galile10 pp4 #ai-cj4 ,we may remark here1 that according to these principles the doctrine of ,copernicus was not made heretical by the sentence of the ,inquisition1 because the decree never received the ,pope's official ratification4 ,to confirm this statement we subjoin some remarks by theological authorities4 ,gassendi remarks in his great work1 8,de motu impresso a motore translato0 7,epist4 ii4 t4 iii4 p4 #eai71 published nine years after the condemnation of ,galileo1 on the absence of the papal ratification in the sentence of the ,holy ,tribunal1 and that therefore the negation of the ,copernican theory was not an article of faith4 ,as a good priest he recognises the high authority of a decision of the ,congregation1 and subjects his personal opinions to it4 ,father ,riccioli1 in his comprehensive work1 8,almagestum novum10 published nine years after ,gassendi's1 reproduces ,gassendi's statement word for word 7t4 i41 pars4 #b1 p4 #dhi71 and entirely concurs in it1 even in the book which was meant to refute the ,copernican theory at all points 7pp4 #die1 #dif1 and #ejj74 ,father ,fabri1 a ,french ,jesuit1 afterwards ,grand ,penitentiary at ,rome1 says in a dissertation published there in #affa against the 8,systema ,saturnium10 of ,huyghens 7p4 #di71 that as no valid evidence can be adduced for the truth of the new system1 the authorities of the ,church are quite right in interpreting the passages of ,holy ,scripture relating to the system of the universe literally2 8but10 he adds1 8if ever any conclusive reasons are discovered 7which ,i do not expect71 ,i do not doubt that the ,church will say that they are to be taken figuratively10 a remark which no priest would have made about a doctrine pronounced heretical by infallible authority4 ,caramuel1 a ,spanish ,benedictine1 who also discussed the future of the ,copernican theory1 defines the position still more clearly than ,fabri4 ,in his 8,theologia fundamentalis10 published at ,lyons in #afgf 7t4 i41 pp4 #ajd-aaj71 after defending the decree and sentence of the ,congregation1 he discusses the attitude which the ,church will take in case the system should prove indisputably true4 ,in the first place he believes this will never happen1 and if it does1 it could never be said that the ,church of ,rome had been in error1 as the doctrine of the double motion of the earth had never been condemned by an cumenical ,council1 nor by the ,pope speaking ex cathedra1 but only by the tribunal of cardinals4 ,it is interesting to find that ,descartes1 ,galileo's contemporary1 put the same construction on the matter4 ,he wrote on #ajth ,january1 #afcd1 to ,father ,mersenne3 8,as ,i do not see that this censure has been confirmed either by a ,council or the ,pope1 but proceeds solely from the congregation of the cardinals1 ,i do not give up hope that it will not happen to the ,copernican theory as it did to that about the antipodes1 which was formerly condemned in the same way40 7,panthon littraire1 uvres philosophiques de ,descartes1 p4 #ede47 #cih ,page #ada4 #cii ,page #fj4 #djj ,abb ,bouix1 p4 #bbi4 #dja ,zeitschrift fr ,math4 und ,physik4 #ith series4 ,part #c1 pp4 #aid1 #aie4 #djb 8,i ,cardinale ,inquisitori componenti la ,congregazione1 in cui nome la sentenza fatta1 erano in numero di dieci4 ,nell' ultima ,congregazione se ne trovarono presenti solo sette2 quindi sette solo sono sottoscritti4 ,da cio non pu in nessuna maniera desumersi che i tre mancanti fossero di parere contrario40 78,processo originale10 etc41 p4 #adi1 note #a47 #djc 8,urbano ,,viii4 e ,galileo ,galilei10 pp4 #bah-bbd4 #djd ,appendix ,,vi4 #dje ,vol4 vii4 of the 8,historisch-politischen ,bltter fr das ,catholische ,deutschland40 ,munich1 #ahda4 #djf ,ibid4 p4 #egh4 #djg ,the reproach which the apologists of the ,inquisition are fond of bringing against ,galileo1 that he knew nothing about the specific gravity of the air1 is incorrect1 as appears from his letter to ,baliani of #abth ,march1 #afac 7published for the first time in #ahfd by ,signor ,giuseppe ,sacchi1 director of the library at ,brera1 where the autograph letter is to be seen71 in which ,galileo describes a method he had invented for determining the specific gravity of the air4 #djh ,see the essay before mentioned1 p4 #ehc4 #dji ,ibid4 pp4 #ehj1 #eha4 #daj ,ibid4 pp4 #eha1 #ehb4 #daa ,it carefully refutes the assertion made by ,father ,olivieri1 that the ,holy ,office had prohibited the ,copernican doctrine from being demonstrated as true1 and condemned its famous advocate1 ,galileo1 because it could not then be satisfactorily proved scientifically1 and ,galileo had supported it with arguments scientifically incorrect4 ,if we can believe the ex-general of the ,dominicans1 the ,inquisition in #afaf and #afcc was only the careful guardian of science6 #dab ,augsburger ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 ,beilage1 ,no4 #ic1 #bnd ,aug1 #ahgf4 #dac ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xv4 #dad ,compare p4 #bbh1 note #c4 #dae ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli1 #crd ,july1 #afcc4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #dde47 #daf ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dec ro4 #dag ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli of #crd ,july4 #dah ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dec ro4 and #ded vo4 #dai ,ibid4 fol4 #dec vo4 #dbj ,op4 ix4 p4 #ddg4 #dba ,fabroni1 8,vit ,italorum40 ,pisa1 #aggh1 vol4 i4 p4 #add4 #dbb ,heis1 8,das ,unhistorische des dem ,galilei in dem ,munde gelegten3 #8,e pur si muove4'0 ,munich1 #ahfh4 #dbc 8,der ,galileischen ,process auf ,grund der neuesten ,actenpublicationen historisch und juristisch geprtf40 ,von ,prof4 ,h4 ,grisar1 ,s4 ,j4 ,zeitschrift fr ,kathol4 ,theologie4 #bnd series4 ,innsbrck1 #ahgh4 #dbd ,ferry1 author of the article 8,galile0 in 8,dictionnaire de ,conversation10 ,paris1 #ahei1 undoubtedly believes the story4 ,but the man who makes ,galileo be born at ,florence1 study at ,venice1 and become ,professor at ,padua directly afterwards1 thinks that ,galileo did nothing more for science after his condemnation1 and1 that 7in #ahei7 his works were still on the ,index1 can hardly be reckoned among historians4 #dbe ,louis ,combes's 8,gal4 et ,l',inquisition ,romaine10 ,paris1 #ahgf1 is a pamphlet of no scientific value whatever1 distinguished by astounding ignorance of the ,galileo literature4 ,the author complains that the original documents relating to the trial are buried among the secret papal archives1 and that nothing more is known of them than what ,mgr4 ,marini has thought fit to communicate6 ,the publication1 then1 of the most important documents of the ,vat4 ,,ms41 by ,epinois1 #ahfg1 seems to have escaped the notice of ,m4 ,louis ,combes6 #dbf ,nelli1 vol4 ii4 p4 #efb1 note #b4 #dbg ,page #fi1 note #b4 #dbh ,venturi1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahb2 ,nelli1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ecg4 #dbi ,see ,appendix3 ,history of the ,vat4 ,,ms4 #dcj ,see ,dr4 ,emil ,wohlwill's 8,ist ,galileo gefoltert worden40 ,leipzig1 #ahgg4 #dca 8,elogio del ,galilei40 ,livorno1 #agge4 #dcb ,in ,fabroni1 8,vit ,italorum10 i4 #dcc 8,notizie degli aggrandimenti delle scienze fosiche in ,toscana40 i4 ,firenze1 #aghj4 #dcd 8,lettere inedite di uomini illustri40 ,firenze1 #aggc-ge4 #dce ,journal des ,savans3 ,july1 ,aug41 ,sep41 ,oct41 #aheh4 #dcf ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli1 #beth ,april4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #dda47 #dcg ,niccolini to ,cioli1 #crd ,may4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #ddb47 #dch ,niccolini to ,cioli1 #bfth ,june4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #ddd1 #dde47 #dci ,niccolini to ,cioli1 #ajth ,july4 7,ibid4 p4 #ddg47 #ddj ,even ,wohlwill allows1 p4 #bi1 that the opinion that 8,catholic answer0 means answer under torture is not tenable4 #dda 8,il ,reo1 che solamente condotto al luogo della tortura quivi spogliato1 pur anco legato senza per esser alzato1 confessa dicesi haver confessato ne' tormenti1 e nell' esamina rigorosa40 78,sacro ,arsenale overo ,prattica dell' ,officio della ,santa ,inquisitione40 ,bologna1 #ahfe1 ,mesini's ed4 p4 #dab47 #ddb ,page #be4 #ddc 8,gradus torturae olim adhiberi soliti fuerunt quinque1 qui certo ordine fuerunt inflicte1 quos describit ,julius ,clarus #8in pract crim4' ,fin4 qu4 #fd1 versic4 #8,nunc de gradibus1' ubi ita ait1 #8,scias igitur1 quod quinque sunt gradus torturae2 scilicet ,primo1 minae de torquendo4 ,secundo3 conductio ad locum tormentorum4 ,tertio1 spoliato et ligatura4 ,quarto1 elevation in eculeo4 ,quinto1 squassatio40 7,philippi a ,limborch ,s4,s4 ,theologiae inter ,remonstrantes ,professoris1 ,historia ,inquisitionis4 ,amstelodami apud ,henricum1 ,westenium1 #afib1 p4 #cbb47 #ddd ,prof4 ,p4 ,grisar also remarks in his critique of ,wohlwill's last work 7,zeitschrift fr ,kath4 ,theol4 ii4 ,jahrgang1 p4 #ahh71 that in the language of the old writers on criminal law1 the territio verbalis was often included in the expression torture1 and appeals to ,julius ,clarus1 ,sentent4 crimin4 lib4 #e1 ,fin4 qu4 #hd1 nr #ca2 ,francof4 #agjf1 p4 #cah2 ,sigism4 ,scaccia1 de judiciis1 lib4 #b4 c4 #h4 nr #bgf2 ,francof4 #affi1 p4 #bfi4 #dde 8,sacro ,arsenale10 p4 #aee4 #ddf ,ibid4 pp4 #aeg1 #afa1 #afe4 #ddg ,ibid4 p4 #aeg2 ,salleles1 8,de materiis tribunalium ,s4 ,inquisitionis10 reg4 #cfa1 nos4 #aaj1 #aag4 #ddh ,ibid4 p4 #daj2 ,limborch1 p4 #cbe4 #ddi ,in his brochure1 8,ist ,galilei gefoltert worden40 #dej 8,il ,processo di ,galileo ,galilei e la ,moderna ,critica ,tedesca10 ,,iii4 ,revista ,europea1 vol4 v41 fasc4 ii41 #ahgh4 #dea ,page #bad4 #deb 8,sacro ,arsenale10 pp4 #fb1 #fd4 #dec ,the passage in the decree is3 8,s4 decrevit ipsum 7,galileo7 interrogandum esse super intentione1 etiam comminata ei tortura et si sustenuerit1 previa abiuratione de vehementi in plena ,congregatione ,s4,o4 condemnandum ad carcerem10 etc4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 ,fol4 #dea vo47 ,wohlwill says that the first part of this decree has had about as many interpretations as authors who have quoted it4 ,this may in no small degree be due to the fact that it was not known whether the original reading was et or ac sustinuerit4 ,as it is now decided in favour of et1 perhaps an agreement may be come to1 and the more so as several students of ,galileo's trial have adopted a translation which agrees as to the meaning1 to which we ourselves1 now that the et is unquestionable1 adhere4 ,h4 ,martin1 ,pro4 ,reusch1 ,dr4 ,scartazzini1 ,pro4 ,p4 ,grisar1 ,epinois in his latest work1 and the present writer1 translate3 8,his ,holiness ordained that he 7,galileo7 was to be examined as to his intention1 to be threatened with torture1 and if he kept firm 7to his previous depositions7 after abjuration de vehementi1 he was to be sentenced to imprisonment by the whole ,congregation of the ,holy ,office10 etc4 ,whatever may be thought of the translation1 one thing is certain1 that by this decree the threat of torture was ordained1 but assuredly not its execution4 #ded 8,il ,processo di ,gal4 ,gal410 etc43 ,revista ,europea1 vol4 v41 fasc4 ii4 p4 #bcb1 #ahgh4 #dee ,op4 ix4 pp4 #ddd1 #dde4 #def 8,il ,processo di ,gal4 ,gal410 etc43 ,revista ,europea1 vol4 v41 fasc4 ii41 #afth ,january1 #ahgh1 p4 #bcc4 #deg ,ibid4 p4 #bdg4 #deh 8,galileo ,galilei2 dessen ,leben10 etc41 ,basle1 #aheh1 p4 #af4 #dei ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #djg4 #dfj 8,farinacci1 de indiciis et tortura10 a4 #da4 #dfa ,th4 del ,bene1 8,de officio ,s4 ,inquisitionis10 vol4 i4 p4 #egd4 #dfb 8,sacro ,arsenale10 pp4 #aga1 #agb4 #dfc ,page #aig4 #dfd ,op4 ix4 p4 #cgb4 #dfe ,op4 vii4 pp4 #ca1 #cb4 #dff ,comp4 the letters of ,cioli and ,geri ,bocchineri to ,galileo of #bhth ,july4 7,op4 ix4 pp4 #bgh1 #bgi47 #dfg ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli of #gth ,august4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #ddg47 #dfh ,op4 ix4 pp4 #chc1 #chd4 #dfi ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #dgf vo4 and #dic ro42 also ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xviii4 #dgj ,page #fh4 #dga ,op4 ix4 pp4 #cij-cib4 #dgb ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #edd4 #dgc ,op4 x4 pp4 #ge-gg1 #ha2 ,suppl4 pp4 #cfb1 #cfc4 #dgd ,henri ,martin 7pp4 #chf-chh7 gives an interesting list of works published against the ,copernican system between #afca and #afch1 up therefore to the time of ,newton4 #dge ,venturi1 vol4 ii4 p4 #abg4 #dgf ,op4 ix4 pp4 #ddg1 #ddh4 #dgg ,comp4 ,niccolini's despatch to ,cioli1 #crd ,dec4 7,op4 ix4 p4 #ddh47 #dgh ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #ecd ro4 #dgi ,vat4 ,,ms41 fol4 without paging after #ecd2 also ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xx4 #dhj ,op4 ix4 pp4 #djg1 #djh4 #dha ,at the close of this year two documents were published which have often been used as historical sources for the story of ,galileo's trial2 namely1 7#a7 a narration by ,francesco ,buonamici of the famous trial2 and 7#b7 an assumed letter of ,galileo's to his friend and correspondent1 ,father ,vincenzo ,renieri1 intended to give a concise history of the trial4 ,the first has been pronounced by historical research to be quite worthless1 even if not1 as ,h4 ,martin 7p4 #ahe7 thinks1 a forgery2 the second as decidedly apocryphal1 so that neither are mentioned here4 7,comp4 ,op4 ix4 pp4 #ddi-deb2 vii4 pp4 #dj-dc2 and the valuable treatise by ,g4 ,guasti3 8,le relazioni di ,galileo con alcuni ,pratesi a proposito del ,falso ,buonamici scopalto del ,signor ,h4 ,martin40 ,archivo ,storico ,italiano4 ,firenze1 #ahgc1 vol4 xvii47 #dhb ,see ,galileo's letter to ,barberini1 #agth ,december1 #afcc4 7,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #eda ro47 #dhc ,op4 x4 pp4 #b and #aa4 #dhd ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #edg4 #dhe ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #edi4 #dhf ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #eej vo42 and ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xxii4 #dhg ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #eea ro4 #dhh ,op4 vii4 p4 #dd4 #dhi ,op4 vii4 pp4 #df-ea4 #dij ,op4 x4 pp4 #ff-fi2 #ga-gd2 vii4 pp4 #ef1 #eg4 #dia ,op4 vii4 pp4 #eb-eh2 x4 #da-acd2 ,suppl4 pp4 #bga-bgh4 #dib ,castelli's letter to ,galileo1 #bnd ,dec41 #afcd4 7,op4 x4 p4 #fd47 #dic ,castelli's letter to ,galileo1 #ith ,dec41 #afcd4 7,op4 x4 p4 #fe47 #did ,comp4 ,peiresc's letters to ,galileo1 #bfth ,jan41 #afcd 7,op4 x4 pp4 #h-aa71 and to ,card4 ,barberini1 #eth ,dec41 #afce 7,op4 x4 p4 #id74 #die ,op4 x4 pp4 #id-if4 ,in ,albri the date of this letter is wrongly given as #afce2 ,pieralisi has found the original of it in the ,barberiana1 with date #eth ,dec41 #afcd4 7,pieralisi1 pp4 #cjd-caj47 #dif ,op4 x4 pp4 #if-ih4 ,in ,albri this letter is dated #afcf instead of #afce4 #dig ,op4 x4 pp4 #ih1 #ii4 ,date wrongly given in ,albri as #acth instead of #cast ,jan4 ,see ,pieralisi1 pp4 #cac-cag4 #dih ,these words were written in a truly prophetic spirit2 for such a parallel was actually drawn by ,voltaire in 7vol4 iv4 p4 #ade7 his 8,essai sur les murs et l'esprit des nations1 et sur les principaux faits de l'histoire1 depuis ,charlemagne jusqu ,louis ,,xiii40 #dii ,op4 ,suppl4 pp4 #cfa-cfc4 #ejj ,op4 x4 pp4 #be-cc2 vii4 pp4 #eb1 #ec1 and #abh4 #eja ,op4 x4 pp4 #bi-cc2 vii4 p4 #adj4 #ejb ,op4 vii4 pp4 #fe1 #ff1 and #fg1 #fh2 also ,galileo's letter to ,bernegger1 #aeth ,july1 #afcf4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #fi1 #gj47 #ejc ,page #bbb4 #ejd ,comp4 ,galileo's letter to ,giovanni ,buonamici1 #afth ,august1 #afcf4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #aci1 #adj47 #eje ,see ,castelli's letter to ,galileo of #bnd ,june1 #afce1 in which he says that 8he had at last been again permitted to kiss his ,holiness's toe40 7,op4 x4 pp4 #ajj47 #ejf ,comp4 the letters of ,castelli and the ,count de ,noailles to ,galileo of #aith ,april and #fth ,may1 #afcf4 7,op4 x4 pp4 #adi1 #aej1 and #aec47 #ejg ,op4 x4 pp4 #aei1 #afj4 #ejh ,op4 x4 pp4 #afa and #afc4 #eji ,see ,castelli's letter to ,galileo1 #ith ,august4 7,op4 x4 pp4 #afc1 #afd47 #eaj ,ibid4 #eaa ,op4 ,suppl4 p4 #bhj4 #eab ,op4 x4 p4 #agb4 #eac ,comp4 ,galileo's letters to ,micanzio at ,venice of #bast and #bhth ,june #afcf4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #fc-ff47 #ead ,op4 x4 pp4 #hh1 #hi1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aaf-aah1 #aia1 #aib2 vii4 pp4 #acb1 #aed1 #aee4 #eae ,op4 x4 pp4 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afe1 #agj1 #aga1 #bac2 vii4 #fc1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh1 #ga1 #ach1 #bec4 #eaf ,op4 x4 pp4 #ff-fi1 #ajh-aaa1 #abg-acj4 #eag ,pieroni to ,galileo1 #ith ,july1 #afcg4 7,op4 x4 pp4 #bbb-bbf47 #eah ,comp4 ,op4 vii4 pp4 #ach1 #aci1 #aeb1 #aec2 x4 pp4 #afg and #ahd4 #eai ,comp4 ,op4 vi4 pp4 #bch-bgf1 #cch-cdf4 #ebj ,op4 vii4 pp4 #gc-ic1 and #acf1 #acg4 #eba ,op4 iii4 pp4 #agf-ahc4 #ebb ,comp4 ,galileo's letter to ,diodati of #dth ,july1 #afcg4 7,op4 vii4 p4 #ahj47 #ebc ,comp4 ,op4 vii4 pp4 #afc-agd1 #aij-bjd2 x4 pp4 #bae-bah1 #bbh-bdh2 ,suppl4 pp4 #bhb-bhd4 #ebd ,op4 vii4 p4 #aic4 #ebe ,op4 x4 pp4 #bca1 #bcb4 #ebf 444 8,here ,i found and called upon the celebrated ,galileo1 now become old and a prisoner of the ,inquisition10 says ,milton4 ,unfortunately we know nothing more of this interesting meeting4 7,comp4 ,reumont1 p4 #dje47 #ebg ,op4 vii4 p4 #bjg4 ,see on ,galileo's total blindness1 8,sull'epoca vera e la durata della cecit del ,galileo10 ,nota del ,angelo ,secchi3 7,estratta dal ,giornale ,arcadico1 ,tomo liv nuova serie72 and 8,sull' nella epoca della completa cecit del ,galileo10 ,risposta di ,paolo ,volpicelli al chiaris e ,r4 ,p4 ,a4 ,secchi1 ,roma1 #ahfh4 #ebh ,op4 x4 p4 #bcb4 #ebi ,op4 x4 pp4 #bdh1 #bdi4 #ecj ,comp4 p4 #bge1 note #a4 #eca ,galileo's letter to ,guerrini1 an official at the ,tuscan ,court1 #aith ,december4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #bjd1 #bje47 #ecb ,guerrini to ,galileo1 #bjth ,december4 7,op4 x4 pp4 #bdi1 #bej47 #ecc ,op4 x4 pp4 #bed1 #bee4 #ecd ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xxiii4 #ece ,this passage directly contradicts the remark on this subject in the report of ,fra ,clemente1 the ,inquisitor1 of #ast ,april1 #afcd2 his successor1 ,fra ,fanano1 seems to have been more favourable to ,galileo4 #ecf ,op4 x4 pp4 #bhj1 #bha4 #ecg ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xxiv4 #ech ,op4 x4 p4 #bhf4 #eci ,fanano's letter to ,cardinal ,f4 ,barberini of #ajth ,march1 #afch4 7,op4 x4 p4 #bhg47 #edj ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xxv4 #eda ,letter of the ,vicar of the ,holy ,office at ,florence to ,galileo1 of #bhth ,march1 #afch4 7,op4 x4 p4 #bib47 #edb ,op4 vii4 pp4 #baa-baf4 #edc ,see letters from ,hortensius and ,realius to ,galileo of #bfth ,jan4 and #crd ,mar4 #afcg 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #ie-ii1 #ajj-ajb72 letter from ,const4 ,huyghens to ,diodati1 #acth ,april1 #afcg 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #aaa-aac74 #edd ,op4 vii4 pp4 #afc-agd4 #ede ,op4 vii4 pp4 #aha-ahi4 #edf ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #eed ro4 #edg ,vat4 ,,ms2 fol4 #eee vo42 and ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xxvi4 #edh ,on all this see ,galileo's letter to ,diodati of #gth ,aug41 #afch4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #bad-baf47 #edi ,comp4 ,nelli1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #fgh1 #fgi1 and ,venturi1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhe4 #eej ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #eec ro42 and ,op4 x4 #cjd1 #cje1 where it is dated #bcrd instead of #beth ,july4 #eea ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #eef vo42 and ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xxvii4 #eeb ,op4 vii4 p4 #bae4 #eec ,op4 vii4 pp4 #baf-bah4 #eed ,op4 xv4 p4 #dja2 ,nelli1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hch4 #eee ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 p4 #cga4 #eef ,comp4 ,castelli's letters to ,galileo of #bith ,may and #cj ,july1 #afch4 7,op4 x4 pp4 #cjj1 #caj-cac47 #eeg ,cioli's despatch to ,niccolini of #ith ,sept41 #afch4 7,op4 x4 pp4 #cac1 #cad47 #eeh ,niccolini's despatches to ,cioli of #aeth and #beth ,sept4 7,wolynski1 8,la ,diplomazia ,toscana10 etc41 pp4 #fh1 #fi47 #eei ,fanano's letter to ,card4 ,barberini of #dth ,oct4 7,op4 x4 p4 #cad47 #efj ,see ,castelli's letters to ,card4 ,f4 ,barberini of #bnd1 #ith1 and #afth ,oct41 in ,pieralisi1 pp4 #bia-bif2 and another of #bcrd ,oct41 #afch1 on an unnumbered page between fols4 #eeb and #eec of the ,vat4 ,,ms4 p4 #age4 #efa ,see ,card4 ,barberini's letters to ,castelli of #afth and #cjth ,oct4 7,pieralisi1 pp4 #bid1 #bie1 and #bih47 #efb ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #eeg vo4 #efc 8,discorsi e ,dimostrazione ,matematiche intorno a due ,scienze attenenti alla ,meccanica e ai ,movimenti ,locali4 ,con una ,appendice del ,centro di gravita di alcuni ,solidi40 #efd ,see ,galileo's letter to the ,count de ,noailles of #fth ,march1 #afch1 and his answer of #bjth ,july4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #bji-baa1 and x4 pp4 #cjh-caj47 #efe ,comp4 ,op4 vii4 pp4 #dd1 #df1 #eg1 #gj4 #eff ,op4 vii4 pp4 #bah-bbf2 x4 pp4 #caf1 #cag1 #cbj1 #cba4 #efg 8,dalla ,villa ,arctri1 mio continuato carcere ed esilio dalla citt40 7,letter from ,galileo to ,cassiano dal ,pozzo in ,rome1 of #bjth ,jan41 #afda1 ,op4 vii4 p4 #cea7 #efh ,op4 vii4 pp4 #cfd1 #cfe4 #efi ,pieralisi thinks 78,urbano ,,viii4 and ,galileo ,galilei10 p4 #bfd7 that it was left to ,galileo's option during the last few years to reside either at ,arcetri or ,florence1 and that his preference for his villa led him to choose the former2 a statement for which ,pieralisi has no proof to offer1 and which is strongly opposed to what we have mentioned above4 #egj ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,docs4 xxviii4 and xxix4 #ega ,castelli's letters to ,galileo of #bith ,jan41 #abth ,feb41 #afci4 7,op4 x4 pp4 #cbe1 #cbf1 and #cbh1 #cbi47 #egb ,op4 x4 pp4 #cdj-cdh1 #cef1 #ceg1 #cfc-cfe1 #cfg1 #cfh1 #che-chg1 #cib-cid1 #cif1 #cig1 #djg1 #djh2 ,suppl4 pp4 #bhg-bij4 #egc ,op4 x4 pp4 #bhj and #cjh4 #egd ,comp4 his letters to ,castelli of #hth and #aith ,aug41 #ast and #crd ,sep41 #crd and #ahth ,dec41 #afci4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #bcb-bcf1 #bch1 #bci1 and #bdb1 #bdc47 #ege ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 p4 #cfj4 #egf ,op4 vii4 pp4 #bch1 #bci2 xiii4 pp4 #bfg-ccb2 xv4 pp4 #ceh-cfj4 #egg ,see his letters to ,galileo in #afci and #afdj4 7,op4 x4 pp4 #ccf1 #cci1 #cdj1 #cej1 #cea1 #cfb1 #cfc1 #chb1 #chc1 #djb1 #dai1 #dbj2 also xv4 7,viviani71 pp4 #cef1 #ceg47 #egh ,op4 vii4 pp4 #bdj1 #bda4 #egi ,comp4 ,op4 vii4 pp4 #bdc-bed4 ,in #afdh ,renieri was intending to bring out ,galileo's calculations about the satellites of ,jupiter1 and their application to navigation1 which he had completed by long years of labour1 when his death occurred after a short illness4 ,the papers were then lost1 but were afterwards discovered by ,albri1 who arranged them and incorporated them in the 8,opere di ,galileo ,galilei10 v4 #ehj ,comp4 ,galileo's letter to ,daniele ,spinola of #aith ,man1 #afdj4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #bef-beh47 #eha ,letter from ,prince ,leopold de' ,medici to ,galileo1 #aath ,mar41 #afdj4 7,op4 vii4 p4 #bed47 #ehb ,op4 vii4 pp4 #bfa-caj2 iii4 pp4 #aij-bcg4 #ehc ,see this correspondence4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #cag-ccc1 #ccf-cej1 #ceb-ceh47 ,liceti published a large book in #afdb1 in reply to ,galileo's letter to ,prince ,leopold de' ,medici4 ,the latter1 in which ,galileo had made some alterations1 was1 with his consent1 printed with ,liceti's reply4 #ehd ,op4 vii p4 #cfj4 #ehe ,op4 vii4 pp4 #cfa-cfc4 #ehf ,page #dai4 #ehg ,this is precisely the same argument1 only in other words1 brought forward by ,simplicius at the end of the 8,dialogues on the ,two ,chief ,systems40 7,comp4 p4 #afj47 #ehh ,this passage calls the passage in 8,il ,saggiatore0 to mind1 where ,galileo speaks of ,copernicus1 ,ptolemy1 and ,tycho4 #ehi ,see 8,allgemeine ,weltgeschichte10 by ,cesare ,cantu4 ,freely rendered for ,catholic ,germany1 from the #gth edition1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,m4 ,brhl1 p4 #edj4 #eij ,comp4 ,renieri's letter to ,galileo of #fth ,march1 #afda4 7,op4 x4 pp4 #djh1 #dji47 #eia ,see his letter of #bjth ,august1 #afei1 to ,prince ,leopold de' ,medici4 7,op4 xiv4 pp4 #cci-cef47 #eib ,seven years after ,galileo's death1 ,vincenzo was occupied in constructing the first pendulum clock after these drawings and models1 when he suddenly fell ill and died4 ,for all this see ,albri's excellent essay3 8,dell'orologio a pendolo di ,galileo ,galilei e di due recenti divinazioni del meccanismo da lui imaginato40 7,op4 ,suppl4 pp4 #ccc-ceh2 ,nelli1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #fhh-gch47 #eic ,comp4 ,torricelli's letters to ,galileo of #aeth ,march1 #bgth ,april1 #ast and #bith ,june1 #agth ,august1 and #bhth ,september1 #afda4 7,op4 x4 pp4 #dab1 #dac1 #dag1 #dah1 #dbj1 #dba1 #dbc-dbf1 #dcb1 #dcc47 ,also ,galileo's letter to ,torricelli of #bgth ,september1 #afda4 7,op4 vii4 pp4 #cfe-cfg47 #eid ,see ,rinuccini's letter to ,prince ,leopold de' ,medici1 #aeth ,november1 #afda4 7,op4 x4 #dcf1 #dcg47 #eie ,for this and the preceding1 see ,op4 xv4 7,viviani71 pp4 #cfj1 #cfa2 and ,nelli1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #hci1 #hdj4 #eif ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xxx4 #eig ,niccolini's despatch to the ,tuscan ,secretary of ,state of #beth ,january1 #afdb4 7,op4 xv4 pp4 #djc1 #djd47 #eih ,despatch of the ,tuscan ,secretary ,condi to ,niccolini of #bith ,january1 #afdb 7,op4 xv4 p4 #djd47 #eii ,op4 xv4 p4 #dje4 #fjj ,see for more on the subject1 ,nelli1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #hej-hfg4 #fja ,nelli1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #hgd-hgf4 #fjb ,letter of the ,inquisitor ,fra ,paolo ,ambr4 of #hth ,june1 #agcd1 to the ,college of ,cardinals at ,rome4 7,see ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #eeh ro47 #fjc ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #efa vo4 #fjd ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #efa vo41 and ,gherardi's ,documents1 ,doc4 xxxii4 #fje ,canto iv41 stanza liv4 #fjf ,see the document about the exhumation4 7,op4 xv4 pp4 #djg-dji47 #fjg ,for instance1 ,dr4 ,carl ,schffer1 in his brochure3 8,die ,bewegungen der ,himmelskrper4 ,neue and unbewegliche ,beweise1 dass unsere ,erde im ,mittelpunkte des ,weltalls steht1 und die ,sonne1 ,mond und ,sterne sich um dieselbe bewegen40 ,brunswick1 #ahed4 78,the ,motions of the ,heavenly ,bodies4 ,new and indisputable proofs that our ,earth is the centre of the ,universe1 and that ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars1 revolve round it074 #fjh ,habito verbo cum ,sanctissimo1 omittatur decretum1 quo prohibentur omnes libri docentes immobilitatem solis1 et mobilitatem terr4 7,olivieri1 p4 #id1 or 8,hist4-polit4 ,bltter10 p4 #ehe47 #fji 8,opere di ,galileo ,galilei divise in quattro ,tomi1 in questa nuova edizione accresciute di molte cose inedite40 ,in ,padova1 #agdd4 8,nella stamperia del ,seminario appresso ,gio4 ,manfr10 ,tomi iv4 in #d4 #faj ,comp4 ,olivieri1 p4 #if1 or 8,hist4-polit4 ,bltter10 p4 #ehg1 and ,op4 xv4 ,bibliografia ,galileiana1 pp4 xxvi41 xxvii4 #faa 8,trait d'astronomie0 ,paris1 #agib1 p4 #dba4 #fab 8,se possa difendersi ed insegnore1 non come semplice ipotesi ma come verissima1 e come tesi1 la mobilit della terra e la stabilit del sole da chi ha fatta la professione di fede di ,pio ,,iv4 quaestione teologico-morale40 #fac 8,dichiarono permessa in ,roma la stampa e la publicazione operum tractantium de mobilitate terrae et immobilitate solis1 juxta communem modernorum astronomorum opinionem40 7,olivieri1 p4 #ig1 or 8,hist4-polit4 ,bltter10 p4 #ehh47 #fad ,somewhat abridged1 as are also the ,description and ,estimate of the ,vat4 ,,ms4--,,tr4 #fae ,see for this and what immediately follows1 8,le ,manuscrit ,original du ,procs de ,galile10 par ,l4 ,sandret4 ,revue des ,questions historiques1 #a ,oct41 #ahgg1 pp4 #eea-eei4 #faf ,marini1 p4 #add4 #fag ,ibid4 pp4 #add1 #ade4 #fah ,see ,sandret's ,essays before cited1 p4 #eec4 #fai ,ibid4 pp4 #eec1 #eed4 #fbj ,sandret1 p4 #eed4 #fba ,marini1 pp4 #ade1 #adf4 #fbb ,marini1 p4 #adf1 #adg2 ,sandret1 pp4 #eed4 #fbc ,marini1 p4 #adg2 ,sandret1 p4 #eee4 #fbd ,marini1 p4 #adg4 #fbe ,marini1 p4 #adg4 #fbf ,ibid4 p4 #adh4 #fbg ,ibid4 p4 #adh4 #fbh ,ibid4 p4 #aea4 #fbi ,sandret1 p4 #eef1 note #a4 #fcj ,denina was at ,paris from #ahje till his death in #ahac1 and may therefore have seen the ,acts1 which were in ,paris from #ahaa1 as well as the translation which was begun4 #fca ,sandret1 pp4 #eef1 #eeg4 #fcb ,revue des questions historiques1 ,paris1 ,july1 #ahfg4 #fcc 444 8e avemmo fra le mani il desiderato volume nella stanza del padre ,theiner test rapito dolorosamente ai vivi40 78,il ,processo ,originale10 etc41 p4 x47 #fcd 8,egli adunque per la prima volta che i due processi ,galeleiani sono publicati nella loro integrit40 ,page xii4 #fce ,see 8,correzioni al libro ,urbano ,,viii4 e ,galileo ,galilei proposte dall' autore ,sante ,pieralisi con osservazioni sopra il ,processo ,originale di ,galileo ,galilei publicato da ,domenico ,berti40 ,roma1 #cj ,settembre1 #ahgf1 pp4 #i-af4 #fcf 8,quando si havra a terminare qualche causa al ,s4 ,off4 appartenente converra1 che prima ai formi il caso in cui brevemente si ristringano ineriti della causa e tutti i punti substantiale del processo1 etc4444 ,poscia mandatalo a ciascuno de ,sig ,consultori entrera con esso loro opportunamente nella ,congregatione10 etc4 78,sacro ,arsenale10 etc4 ,bologna1 #affe4 ,masini's ed41 pp4 #cde1 #cdf74 #fcg 8,il ,processo originale di ,gal4 ,galilei10 etc4 ,rome1 #ahgf1 p4 #ach1 note #a4 #fch 8,correzioni al libro ,urbano ,,viii4 e ,gal4 ,galilei10 etc4 ,rome1 #ahgf1 pp4 #dd-df4 #fci 8,il ,processo originale di ,gal4 ,galilei10 etc41 p4 v4 #fdj ,the ,denunciation of ,lorini4 ,the signature1 however1 obviously once existed1 but being on the edge of the paper has been effaced in the course of time4 #fda 8,ist ,galilei gefoltert worden40 ,von ,emil ,wohlwill4 ,leipzig1 #ahgg4 #fdb 8,ist ,galilei gefoltert worden40 ,gegenbetrachtungen von ,k4 v4 ,gebler4 ,die ,gegenwart4 #fdc ,vat4 ,,ms4 fol4 #cih ro4 #fdd ,this decree is given in a printed copy in the volume containing the ,vat4 ,,ms4 ,we give it on a reduced scale4 #fde ,misprint for ,dubliniensi4 #fdf ,abridged4 ,,tr4 #fdg ,csar ,carena3 8,de officio ,sanctissime ,inquisitionis et modo procedendi in causis fidei40 ,cremona1 #afda1 p4 #daf4 ,,index4 ,accadmia dei ,lincei1 #cf1 #ajf1 #acf4 ,dissolution of1 #ach4 ,alciato1 ,cardinal1 #agf4 ,anagram on ,ring of ,saturn1 #bd4 ,on ,crescent form of ,venus1 #cc4 ,apology to ,grand ,duchess ,christine1 #fd-gj4 ,aristotle1 #f1 #aj4 ,astronomical and ,philosophical ,scales1 the1 #ajb4 ,barberini1 ,antonio1 #acb4 ,cardinal1 #ce1 #aib1 #aii1 #bda1 #bdb4 ,maffeo1 #dd4 ,as ,urban ,,viii41 #ajh-aac4 ,bellarmine1 ,cardinal1 #ce1 #fa1 #fb1 #gg1 #gh4 ,his ,certificate to ,galileo1 #hh1 #bje1 #bai4 ,boccabella1 #aia4 ,bocchineri1 ,geri1 ,galileo's ,letters to1 #bji1 #bab4 ,letter to ,niccolini1 #bah4 ,bonciani1 #ee1 #ef4 ,borgia1 ,caspar1 #bda1 #bdb4 ,boscaglia1 #de4 ,bruno ,giordano1 #baf4 ,caccini1 #ea-ec1 #eg1 #eh1 #gc1 #gd1 #bjb4 ,campanella1 ,thomas1 #acc1 #afd1 #aga1 #ahj4 ,capra1 ,balthazar1 #ab1 #ag4 ,castelli1 #cc1 #dc-df1 #ee1 #acb-acd1 #ach1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #baj1 #bhb1 #bif4 ,cesi1 ,prince1 #da1 #eb1 #ec1 #fb1 #fc1 #aad1 #acb1 #acf4 ,death of1 #ach4 ,cioli1 #adj1 #ada1 #add1 #afi1 #aic1 #aid1 #bag4 ,clavius1 #bb1 #cc1 #ce4 ,colombo1 ,lodovico delle1 #dc4 ,comets of #afah1 #aja4 ,galileo's opinion on1 #aja4 ,conti1 ,cardinal1 #dj4 ,copernicus1 #ac4 ,his 8,revolutionibus ,orbium ,clestium10 #ad1 #ge4 ,osiander's ,introduction to1 #ae4 ,copernican ,system1 #ab-ad1 #cg1 #dj4 ,refutations of1 #bgj1 #bga4 ,galileo's last ,discussion of1 #cjc4 ,corressio1 ,giorgio1 #dc4 ,cosmo ,,ii41 de' ,medici1 #bj1 #ba1 #cj1 #ic4 ,death of1 #aje4 ,cremonini1 #cf1 #cg4 ,decree of #eth ,march1 #afaf1 #hd4 ,appendix1 #cde4 8,de ,motu ,gravium10 #i4 ,dialogues on the ,two ,systems1 #abg-aca4 ,imprimatur for1 #ace-aej1 #aef4 ,introduction to1 #adg1 #adh4 ,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,scienze1 #bhd1 #big4 8,dianoja ,astronomica10 #ci4 ,dini1 #ei-fd4 ,diodati1 ,elia1 ,galileo's ,letters to1 #ahh1 #bgf1 #bid4 ,dominis1 ,marc' ,antonio de1 #baf4 ,ferdinand ,,ii41 de' ,medici1 #ade4 ,letter to the ,pope1 #afd1 #afe4 ,good ,offices for ,galileo1 #aif-aih4 ,visits him at ,arcetri1 #bgc4 ,at ,florence1 #bie4 ,firenzuola1 ,maccolani da1 #bja1 #bag1 #bah1 #bdh4 ,letter to ,card4 ,barberini1 #bac-bae4 ,foscarini on the ,copernican ,system1 #fa1 #fc4 ,,galileo ,,galilei4 ,birth at ,pisa1 #c4 ,early years1 #d4 ,goes to ,university of ,pisa1 #e4 ,studies ,medicine1 #e4 ,discovery of ,isochronism of ,pendulum1 #f4 ,first study of ,mathematics1 #g4 ,professor at ,pisa1 #i4 ,resigns1 #aa4 ,professor at ,padua1 #aa1 #af1 #ai4 ,writes ,treatises1 #aa4 ,inventions1 #ab4 ,makes a ,telescope1 #ag4 ,exhibits it at ,venice1 #ah4 ,telescopic ,discoveries1 #ai1 #bj4 ,magini's attack1 #bb1 #bc4 ,letter to ,kepler1 #bf4 ,galileo's ,pupils1 #bg4 ,letter to ,vinta1 #bi4 ,removal to ,florence1 #ca4 ,first ,visit to ,rome1 #ce1 #cf4 ,first ,notice by ,inquisition1 #cf4 ,treatise on ,floating ,bodies1 #db4 ,letter to ,castelli1 #df-ej4 ,denounced to ,inquisition1 #ec4 ,apology to ,grand ,duchess ,christine1 #fd-gj4 ,visit to ,rome in #afaf1 #gj-ge4 ,admonished to renounce the ,copernican ,system1 #gg4 ,assumed special ,prohibition to treat of it1 #gg-hd4 ,lingers at ,rome1 #ia-ig4 ,goes to ,bellosguardo1 #ih4 ,work on ,tides1 #ii1 #ajj4 ,his opinion of ,comets1 #aja4 ,grassi's attack1 #ajb4 8,il ,saggiatore10 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaa-aac4 ,visit to ,rome in #afbd1 #aad1 #aae4 ,attempts to get ,decree of #afaf repealed1 #aae-aag4 ,galileo's ,children1 #aah4 ,reply to ,ingoli1 #abj4 ,dialogues on ,two ,systems1 #abg-ace4 ,negotiations about the ,imprimatur1 #aci-aej4 ,publication of the ,dialogues1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,accusations1 #aeg1 #agd4 ,summons to ,rome1 #age4 ,letter to ,antonio ,barberini1 #agh-ahj4 ,threat to bring him in chains to ,rome1 #ahf4 ,arrival at ,rome1 #aia4 ,the ,trial1 #bja-bbi4 ,confession1 #bad-baf4 ,defence1 #bai1 #bbj4 ,sentence1 #bcj-bcd4 ,recantation1 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,sent to ,trinita de' ,monti1 #bdg4 ,goes to ,siena1 #bdh4 ,current ,myths1 #bdi-bfc4 ,his ,eyes not put out1 #bej4 8,e pur si muove10 #bej1 #bea4 ,the ,hair ,shirt1 #bea4 ,imprisonment1 #beb4 ,torture ,refuted1 #bec-bfc4 ,life at ,siena1 #bfg-bgc4 ,goes to ,arcetri1 #bgb1 #bgc4 ,his daughters1 #bgc4 ,anonymous denunciation1 #bfd4 ,petition to go to ,florence refused1 #bgd1 #bge4 ,death of his daughter1 #bge4 ,letter to ,diodati1 #bgf4 ,his works translated into ,latin1 #bhj1 #bha4 ,labours at ,arcetri1 #bhd1 #bhe4 ,method of taking ,longitudes1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,becomes blind1 #bhg4 ,goes to ,florence1 #bij4 ,strict ,surveillance1 #bij1 #bia4 ,return to ,arcetri1 #bih4 ,last ,years1 #bii-cae4 ,letter to ,rinuccini1 #cjd1 #cje4 ,last illness and death1 #cjg4 ,persecutions after death1 #cjh4 ,private ,funeral1 #cji4 ,remains removed to ,santa ,croce1 #caj4 ,his ,works on the ,index till #ahce1 #cae4 ,galilei1 ,julia1 #c4 ,galilei1 ,vincenzo1 #c1 #d1 #aa4 ,galilei1 ,vincenzo1 son of ,galileo1 #aia1 #cjf4 ,gherardi1 ,silvestro1 #hb1 #hc1 #ij4 ,govi ,gilberto1 his work on ,galileo1 #bdf4 ,grassi1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc4 ,his ,lecture on ,comets1 #ajb4 ,grazia1 ,vincenzo di1 #dc4 ,gregory ,,xv41 #aje4 ,death of1 #ajg4 ,griemberger1 #ce1 #ei4 ,guiccardini1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 #ie4 ,guiducci1 #aba1 #abb4 ,his ,treatise on ,comets1 #ajb4 ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france1 #bj4 8,il ,saggiatore10 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaa1 #aac4 ,ingoli on the ,copernican ,system1 #abj4 ,inquisition first notices ,galileo1 #cf4 ,jesuits1 the1 and ,galileo1 #aec-aee1 #bgg4 ,kepler1 #ac1 #ba1 #bc1 #bd1 #abj4 ,kuppler1 ,jacob1 #aag4 8,la ,bilancetta10 #h4 ,landini1 #aeg1 #afc1 #aff4 ,lembo1 #ce4 ,leopold of ,austria1 ,archduke1 #ii1 #aja4 ,l',epinois1 ,henri de1 #ha4 ,appendix1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cbh4 ,libri1 ,julius1 #be4 ,liceti1 ,fortunio1 #cja1 #cjb4 ,longitudes at ,sea1 method of taking1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #bib1 #bie1 #cja4 ,lorini1 #da1 #ec-ee1 #bjb4 8,lothario ,sarsi ,sigensano10 #ajb4 ,magalotti1 ,count1 #aeb1 #aee1 #aeg1 #afc1 #afi4 ,magini1 #bb1 #bc4 ,malcotio1 #ce4 ,mandate summoning ,galileo to ,rome1 #agf4 ,maraffi1 #ea1 #eb4 ,marini ,marino1 #hj1 #ha4 ,marsili1 #aea4 ,medicean ,stars1 #bj4 ,medici1 ,julian de'1 #bd1 #cc4 ,john de'1 #aj1 #ci4 ,cosmo ,,ii4 de'1 see ,cosmo4 ,ferdinand ,,ii4 de'1 see ,ferdinand4 ,mellini1 #ee1 #ef4 ,michael ,angelo1 #c4 ,the younger1 #ce1 #aha4 ,microscope1 the1 #aag1 #aah4 ,monte1 ,cardinal del1 #i1 #aa1 #cf1 #if4 ,myths about ,galileo refuted1 #bdi-bfc4 ,newton #bdd1 #caa4 ,niccolini1 #acf1 #adj1 #adb1 #ade1 #aha1 #aia1 #aic1 #aid1 #aie1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bji1 #bag1 #bah1 #bbe1 #bdh4 ,intercession for ,galileo1 #aff-afh4 ,attempts to avert the ,trial1 #age1 #agf1 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,asks for ,galileo's ,pardon1 #bgb4 ,accusations against1 #bfa1 #bfb4 ,noailles1 ,count de1 #bgh1 #bhb1 #bhc4 ,note of #beth ,february1 #afaf1 #gg4 ,of #bfth ,february1 #afaf1 #gh4 ,olivieri ,benedetto's work on ,galileo1 #bdf4 ,opinion of the ,holy ,office on ,galileo's ,propositions1 #gf4 ,orsini1 #ib1 #ii4 ,osiander1 ,andreas1 #ae4 ,padua1 ,university of1 #aa1 #af1 #ai4 ,palmerini1 #dc4 ,paul ,,iii41 #ae4 ,paul ,v41 #ce1 #id1 #ie1 #ajd1 #bci4 ,death of1 #aje4 ,peiresc1 ,fabri de1 #bgh4 ,letter from ,galileo to1 #bgi4 ,pendulum ,clocks1 #cjf4 ,picchena1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #ic1 #id1 #if4 ,letter to1 #hf1 #hg4 ,piccolomini1 ,ascanio1 #bdh1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bgd4 ,pieralisi1 #afa1 #afb1 #bac1 #bdb4 ,pisa1 ,experiments from ,leaning ,tower of1 #aj4 ,university of1 #e4 ,pius ,,vii41 #cad4 ,plan of ,galileo's rooms in ,palace of ,inquisition1 #bji4 ,prohibition1 ,special1 to ,treat of ,copernican ,system1 #gh1 #hi1 #ij1 #aac4 ,discovery of1 #afc1 #aga1 #agb4 ,protocol of #crd ,march1 #afaf1 #hb4 ,querenghi1 #ga1 #ge4 ,recantation1 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,publication of1 #bfh4 ,letter ordering it1 #bfi4 ,riccardi1 #aag1 #acb1 #ace1 #aci1 #adc1 #ade1 #adf1 #adh1 #aeg1 #aga1 #agb1 #bfh4 ,ricci1 ,ostilio1 #g4 ,ring of ,saturn1 #bd4 ,rinuccini's ,inquiries of ,galileo1 #cjc4 ,galileo's reply to1 #cjd1 #cje4 8,sacro ,arsenale10 #bee1 #beh4 ,sarpi1 ,paolo1 #cb4 ,sagredo1 ,francesco1 #cb4 ,salviati1 #dd4 ,scartazzini1 ,dr41 #bei-bfb4 ,scheiner1 #dc4 ,his 8,rosa ,ursina10 #aeh4 ,sentence on ,galileo1 #bcj-bcd4 ,analysis of1 #bcd-bdb4 ,serristori1 #aib4 ,settele's ,astronomy1 #cac4 8,sidereus ,nuncius10 #ag1 #ba1 #bd4 8,simplicius10 did he personate ,urban ,,viii48 #aei-afb4 ,sincero1 ,carlo1 #bja4 ,sizy1 #ci4 ,solar ,spots1 #cd4 ,work on1 #dd1 #eh4 ,special ,commission on ,galileo's cause1 #afd4 ,its ,memorial to the ,pope1 #agb-agd4 ,stelluti's reply to ,lothario ,sarsi ,sigensano1 #ajf4 ,stephani1 #ada1 #adb1 #ade4 ,telescope1 the1 #af-be4 ,inventor of1 #ah4 ,thermoscope1 the1 #ab4 ,trial of ,galileo1 #bja-bbi4 ,torricelli1 #cjf4 ,torture1 question of1 #bec-bfc4 ,urban ,,viii41 #ajg1 #ahc1 #bbe1 #bci1 #bdh4 ,character of1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,friendship for ,galileo1 #aji-aaa4 ,favours to him1 #aah1 #aai4 ,change of tone1 #aei4 ,vatican ,,ms41 ,history of1 ,appendix1 #cai4 ,description of1 #ccj4 ,estimate of1 #ccd4 ,venice1 ,republic of1 #ca1 #cb4 ,exhibition of ,telescope at1 #ah4 ,venus1 ,crescent form of1 #cb1 #cc4 ,vinta1 ,belisario1 #bd1 #cd4 ,viviani1 #cjj1 #caj4 ,wedderburn1 #bc4 ,welser1 #bb1 #dc4 ,wohlwill1 ,emil1 #ha1 #hh1 #ij1 #beg1 #bei4 ,zacchia1 ,cardinal1 #bda1 #bdb4 ,zuiga1 ,diego di1 #da1 #hd1 #cab4 ,,recent ,,biographies4 #b ,vols41 large post #hvo1 price #bds4 ,,niccolo ,,machiavelli ,,and ,,his ,,times4 ,by ,,professor ,,villari1 ,author of 8,life of ,savonarola10 etc4 ,,translated ,,by ,,linda ,,villari4 8,the whole work promises to be one of the most permanently valuable contributions to the history of the ,renaissance in ,italy1 and ,english students may be congratulated on the appearance of the translation by the hand of ,madame ,villari1 herself an ,english author40--,academy4 8,professor ,villari prefaces his ,life of ,machiavelli with an elaborate historical introduction4444 ,as a sketch of the ,renaissance it is admirable4 ,it is a masterpiece of condensation2 the arrangement of the mass of materials leaves little to desire1 and its style is singularly lucid40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 99 99 99 99 99 ,demy #hvo1 cloth1 price #ads4 ,,william ,,harvey3 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,blood4 ,by the late ,r4 ,,willis1 ,m4,d41 ,author of 8,servetus and ,calvin40 ,,with ,,portrait ,,of ,,harvey1 ,,after ,,faithorne4 8,his 7,dr4 ,willis's7 book will doubtless find numerous readers1 and we trust that some at least may be led by it to study the much praised and little read works of ,william ,harvey40--,saturday ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,demy #hvo1 cloth1 price #afs4 ,,servetus ,,and ,,calvin3 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,an ,,important ,,epoch ,,in ,,the ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,reformation4 ,by the late ,r4 ,,willis1 ,m4,d4 8,dr4 ,willis has collected in this monograph a good store of interesting matter which is not accessible to most readers without considerable trouble1 and has come so near making it a good book that one would be glad to escape the duty of criticism40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 99 99 99 99 99 ,second ,edition1 crown #hvo1 price #hs4 #f;d4 ,,life ,,and ,,letters ,,of ,,james ,,hinton4 ,edited by ,,ellice ,,hopkins4 ,,with ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,,gull1 ,,bart42 ,,and ,,portrait ,,engraved ,,on ,,steel ,,by ,c4 ,h4 ,,jeens4 8#8,the ,life of ,james ,hinton1' the first aural surgeon of his time1 presents a striking study of character1 and will be instructive in its simpler outlines to readers who are unable to follow the deeper and somewhat mystic course of philosophical thought traced in his #8,letters4'0--,saturday ,review4 8,miss ,hopkins has executed a difficult task with great tact4 ,she shows a hearty appreciation of her subject1 and her work is well done40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 99 99 99 99 99 ,c4 ,,kegan ,,paul ,,co41 #a1 ,,paternoster ,,square4 ,,recent ,,publications4 #b vols41 ,second ,edition1 post #hvo1 cloth1 price #cbs4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,creation4 ,by ,,professor ,,ernst ,,haeckel4 ,,translation ,,revised ,,by ,,professor ,e4 ,,ray ,,lankester1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,with ,,coloured ,,plates ,,and ,,genealogical ,,trees ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,groups ,,of ,,both ,,plants ,,and ,,animals4 8,the ,author has discharged a most difficult task with conscientious skill and marvellous ability40--,science ,gossip4 8,a rich mine of facts for all biological students40--,examiner4 99 99 99 99 99 #b vols41 large post #hvo1 cloth1 price #cbs4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,man4 ,a ,,popular ,,exposition ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,points ,,of ,,human ,,ontogeny ,,and ,,phylogeny4 ,by ,,prof4 ,,ernst ,,haeckel1 ,author of 8,the ,history of ,creation10 etc4 ,,with ,,numerous ,,illustrations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 ,,freedom ,,in ,,science ,,and ,,teaching4 ,a ,,reply ,,to ,,professor ,,virchow ,,on ,,the ,,freedom ,,of ,,science ,,in ,,the ,,modern ,,state4 ,by ,,professor ,,ernst ,,haeckel4 ,authorised ,translation1 with ,introduction by ,professor ,,huxley1 ,f4,r4,s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,square #hvo1 cloth1 price #aes4 ,,manual ,,of ,,the ,,geology ,,of ,,ireland4 ,by ,g4 ,,henry ,,kinahan1 ,m4,r4,i4,a41 ,etc41 of ,her ,majesty's ,geological ,survey4 ,with #h ,plates1 #bf ,woodcuts1 and a ,map of ,ireland1 ,geologically ,coloured4 8,his volume is1 unquestionably1 a distinct gain to our geological literature--the work of a man who possesses great knowledge of his subject1 and is capable of imparting his knowledge with clearness and force40--,academy4 8,whether considered upon its scientific or upon its literary merits1 the work must be pronounced admirably done40--,land and ,water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,square #hvo1 cloth1 price #is4 ,,flowers ,,and ,,their ,,unbidden ,,guests4 ,by ,,dr4 ,a4 ,,kerner1 ,prof4 of ,botany in the ,university of ,innsbruck4 ,,translation ,,edited ,,by ,w4 ,,ogle1 ,m4,d4 ,and a ,prefatory ,letter by ,,charles ,,darwin1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,with ,,illustrations4 8,in the description accompanying the admirable plates at the end of his book1 ,dr4 ,kerner explains succinctly and clearly the contrivances of nature in the instances named1 and in innumerable others scarcely less marked or interesting1 for compassing an end so essential to the perpetuation of vegetable life40--,saturday ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,square #hvo1 cloth1 price #is4 ,,etna3 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,mountain ,,and ,,its ,,eruptions4 ,by ,g4 ,f4 ,,rodwell1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,with ,,maps ,,and ,,illustrations4 8,mr4 ,rodwell's #8,etna' is a pleasantly written and well illustrated volume1 sufficiently technical to be useful to the scientific student1 yet for the most part sufficiently popular to be read with relish by the most unscientific40--,academy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,c4 ,,kegan ,,paul ,,co41 #a1 ,,paternoster ,,square4