,transcriber's ,notes ,text printed in italics has been transcribed between underscores1 small capitals have been changed to ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,illustration3 ,to ,face ,title4 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 #b ,illustration3 #c ,illustration3 #d ,culinary ,chemistry1 ,,exhibiting ,,the ,,scientific ,,principles ,,of ,,cookery1 ,,with ,,concise ,,instructions ,,for ,,preparing ,,good ,,and ,,wholesome ,,pickles1 ,,vinegar1 ,,conserves1 ,,fruit ,,jellies1 ,,marmalades1 ,,and ,,various ,,other ,,alimentary ,,substances ,,employed ,,in ,domestic ,economy1 ,,with ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,chemical ,,constitution ,,and ,,nutritive ,,qualities ,,of ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,food4 ,,with ,,copper ,,plates4 ,illustration ,,by ,,fredrick ,,accum1 ,operative ,chemist1 ,lecturer on ,practical ,chemistry1 on ,mineralogy1 and on ,chemistry applied to the ,arts and ,manufactures2 ,member of the ,royal ,irish ,academy2 ,fellow of the ,linnan ,society2 ,member of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 and of the ,royal ,society of ,arts ,berlin1 c4 c4 ,london3 ,,published ,,by ,r4 ,,ackermann1 #aja1 ,,strand2 #ahba4 ,,introduction4 ,the publications which ,i have presented to the world1 having been almost exclusively confined to subjects connected with the ,fine ,arts1 ,i feel it in some measure incumbent on me to explain the cause of my having undertaken to be the publisher of this volume4 ,it has arisen from a distressing event1 in which its very ingenious1 useful1 and elaborate ,author1 happened to be involved4 ,the work was in some degree of advancement1 when the sudden and most unexpected misfortune to which ,i have alluded1 threw him at once into a state of discouragement1 that gave a check to all his exertions4 ,i1 who had known him long1 and had every reason1 from a most intimate acquaintance1 to think well of him1 both in his private as well as professional character1 co-operated with many of his friends1 some of whom are in the superior ranks of life1 to encourage him in the renewal of his former energy--but ,i could succeed no further than in prevailing upon him to complete this little work on ,culinary ,philosophy1 which promised to be highly useful in some of the leading objects of ,domestic ,economy4 ,when it was ready for publication1 the prejudice which had been excited against him1 rendered his former publishers averse from presenting it to the public4 ,i therefore felt myself under a kind of indispensable engagement--nor am ,i ashamed of it1 as the work was brought to a state of publication by my interference1 though out of my usual line of business1 to become its publisher4 ,i accordingly1 under these circumstances1 made it my own by purchasing the copy-right4 ,nor1 from its scientific novelty1 and promised utility1 have ,i the least hesitation in presenting ,mr4 ,,accum',s ,work to the ,public4 ,r4 ,,ackermann4 ,,preface4 ,,london1 ,,compton ,,street1 ,,soho4 ,the following pages are intended to exhibit a popular view of the philosophy of cookery1 to enable the reader to understand the chemical principles1 by means of which alimentary substances are rendered palatable and nutritious4 ,the subject may appear frivolous2 but let it be remembered that it is by the application of the principles of philosophy to the ordinary affairs of life1 that science diffuses her benefits1 and perfects her claim to the gratitude of mankind4 ,the art of preparing good and wholesome food is1 undoubtedly1 a branch of chemistry2 the kitchen is a chemical laboratory2 all the processes employed for rendering alimentary substances fit for human sustenance1 are chemical processes2 and much waste of the materials1 as well as labour to the parties1 might often be spared1 were those who practise this art1 made acquainted with some simple chemical truths which invariably would lead to certain results4 ,i have1 in the first place1 premised1 as introductory to what follows1 some general observations on the various kinds of alimentary substances commonly used for food2 in which ,i have noticed their chemical constitution1 and comparative nutritive qualities4 ,after these preliminary statements1 ,i have proceeded to explain the summary processes of the culinary art1 as practised in the ,english kitchen1 to render obvious the chemical effects produced by the operations of roasting1 boiling1 stewing1 broiling1 frying1 and other means employed for dressing food4 ,i have given concise1 but accurate directions for preparing good and wholesome pickles1 and other condiments employed in domestic economy4 ,i have pointed out the rules to be attended to in the art of conserving recent fruits1 and other vegetable substances1 in the state of what are called preserves1 marmalades1 fruit jams1 and jellies1 to enable the reader to prepare those kinds of comfitures with economy and success4 ,i have given concise directions for preserving butcher's meat1 fish1 and fowl1 after being cooked1 to render them fit for sea store1 or domestic use1 at a future time4 ,i have stated the most approved processes for curing bacon1 hams1 smoked beef1 and salted fish2 to which ,i have added instructions for the choice of butcher's meat1 and the best methods of constructing pantries1 larders1 and meat safes4 ,i have pointed out the loss of weight which different kinds of meat suffers in the usual operations of cooking4 ,i have described the most approved methods for preserving recently gathered fruits in their natural state1 as nearly as possible1 with directions for constructing fruit rooms1 and the circumstances to be attended to in storing esculent roots and other vegetables4 ,i have animadverted on certain material errors1 sometimes committed through ignorance or negligence1 in the preparation of food1 and various delicacies of the table2 and ,i have also given hints that will be found useful1 with regard to the practice of making tea and coffee4 ,and lastly1 ,i have made some remarks on the construction of kitchen fire-places1 to which ,i have added designs1 exhibiting the most approved cooking apparatus1 calculated for the use of private families or public establishments4 ,in resuming the whole1 ,i have endeavoured 7and ,i hope with some degree of success17 to communicate to those to whom the superintendance of a family is entrusted1 such useful culinary information as may lead to beneficial consequences4 ,,fredrick ,,accum4 #ahba4 ,,contents4 ,cookery4 ,page ,preface iii ,contents ix ,cookery is a branch of chemical science #a ,observations on the ,food of ,man #f ,nations living wholly upon ,vegetable ,food #i ,nations living wholly upon ,animal ,food #aj ,singular kind of ,aliments of various ,nations #ab ,difference between an ,epicure and a ,glutton #ag ,importance of the ,art of ,cookery #bj ,dietetical remarks on the choice and quantity of ,food #ch ,extraordinary great ,eaters1 and observations on ,abstinence #dc ,remarks on the origin of the custom of ,eating ,flesh #di ,comparative ,alimentary ,effects of ,animal and ,vegetable ,food #ec ,observations on the various kinds of ,animal ,substances commonly used for food #ei ,observations on the various kinds of ,vegetable ,substances commonly used for food #gf ,general ,operations of ,cookery #gi ,roasting on a spit #hj ,roasting on a string #hf ,roasting in an open oven #hh ,roasting in a closed oven #hi ,broiling #ic ,frying #ii ,stewing #ajf ,boiling #aaa ,comparison of the ,chemical ,changes produced on ,animal and ,vegetable ,food1 in the different processes of cookery #aag ,comparative ,diminution of the ,weight of ,meat in ,cooking #abh ,primary1 or chief ,dishes of the ,english table #acb ,broth #acc ,soup #acg ,pies #ada ,puddings #ade ,made ,dishes #adf ,observations on ,made ,dishes #adh ,gravy #aed ,sauces #aeg ,thickening ,paste for broth1 soup1 gravy1 and made dishes #aff ,colouring for broth1 soup1 gravy1 and made dishes #afb ,stock1 for making extemporaneous broth1 soup1 or gravy #afc ,observations on the ,choice of ,meat #aff ,keeping of ,meat1 and best construction of ,larders1 ,pantries and ,meat ,safes #agf ,preservation of ,animal ,substances in a recent state #ahb ,pickling and ,dry ,salting of ,meat #ahc ,method of ,preparing ,bacon1 ,hams1 and ,hung ,beef #aic ,smoke-drying1 or ,curing of ,bacon1 ,hams1 and ,beef1 as practised in ,westphalia #aie ,method of ,curing ,hams1 ,beef1 and ,fish1 by means of ,pyro-ligneous acid #aig ,pickling of ,fish #bjd ,pickled ,mackerel #bjg ,pickled ,salmon #bjh ,collared ,eels #bji ,best method of ,preserving ,cooked ,butcher's ,meat1 ,fish1 or ,poultry #baj ,preservation of ,meat by ,potting #bah ,potted ,beef1 ,game1 or ,poultry #bai ,potted ,ham #bbj ,potted ,lobster #bba ,preservation of ,eggs #bbb ,preservative ,effect of ,frost1 on ,butcher's ,meat1 ,fish1 and ,fowl #bbc ,pickles4 ,pickled ,red ,cabbage #bcd ,pickled ,onions #bce ,pickled ,walnuts #bcf ,pickled ,cucumbers #bcg ,pickled ,red ,beet-root #bci ,pickled ,mushrooms #bci ,pickled ,artichoke #bdj ,sour ,kraut #bda ,mushroom ,catsup #bdd ,tomata ,catsup #bdf ,walnut ,catsup #bdg ,conserved ,fruits ,conservation of ,recent ,fruits without ,sugar #bdi ,conserved ,gooseberries #bdi ,conserved ,orlean ,plums #bdi ,conserved ,green ,gages #bdi ,conserved ,damsons #bdi ,conserved ,peaches #bdi ,conserved ,nectarines #bdi ,conserved ,bullaces #bdi ,conservation of ,recent ,fruits1 by means of ,sugar1 in a liquid state #beb ,conserved ,apricots1 by means of ,sugar #beb ,conserved ,plums #beb ,conserved ,damsons #beb ,conserved ,green ,gages #beb ,conserved ,peaches #beb ,conserved ,nectarines #beb ,conserved ,pine ,apples #bed ,conserved ,pears #bee ,conservation of ,recent ,fruits1 by means of ,sugar1 in a solid form #bef ,candied ,orange1 or ,lemon ,peel #bef ,marmalades1 ,jams1 ,,and ,fruit ,pastes4 ,black ,currant ,paste #bfj ,apricot ,paste #bfa ,peach ,paste #bfa ,plum ,paste #bfa ,cherry ,paste #bfa ,quince ,paste #bfa ,raspberry ,paste #bfb ,orange and ,lemon ,paste #bfb ,raspberry ,jam #bfc ,strawberry ,jam #bfc ,currant ,jam #bfc ,gooseberry ,jam #bfc ,mulberry ,jam #bfc ,apricot ,jam #bfd ,orange ,marmalade #bfe ,peach ,marmalade #bff ,pine ,apple ,marmalade #bfg ,apricot ,marmalade #bfg ,fruit ,jellies #bfh ,currant ,jelly #bfi ,raspberry ,jelly #bgj ,barberry ,jelly #bgj ,gooseberry ,jelly #bga ,apple ,jelly #bga ,quince and ,apricot ,jelly #bgb ,fruit ,syrups #bgb ,lemon ,syrup #bgd ,orange ,syrup #bgd ,mulberry ,syrup #bge ,raspberry and ,currant ,syrup #bge ,preservation and ,storing of ,fruit1 and ,principal requisites of a good ,fruit ,room #bgf ,preservation of recent esculent roots1 pot-herbs1 and other culinary vegetables #bhj ,vinegar4 ,method of ,making ,gooseberry ,vinegar #bhi ,raspberry ,vinegar #bia ,chilli ,vinegar #bib ,tarragon ,vinegar #bib ,mint ,vinegar #bib ,eschallot ,vinegar #bib ,burnet ,vinegar #bib ,tea4 ,natural ,history of the ,tea ,tree #bie ,observations on the art of ,making ,tea1 and singular effects of different kinds of ,tea ,pots on the ,infusion of ,tea #bii ,japanese ,method of ,making ,tea #cja ,coffee4 ,natural ,history of the ,coffee ,tree #cje ,best ,method of ,making ,coffee #cjh ,kitchen ,fire-places1 ,,and ,cooking ,utensils4 ,saucepans and ,stew ,pans #cbi ,preserving ,pans #ccj ,copper ,cooking ,utensils #cca ,wooden ,tubs #ccf ,cookery4 ,,cookery ,,is ,a ,,branch ,,of ,,chemical ,,science4 ,cookery1 or the art of preparing good and wholesome food1 and of preserving all sorts of alimentary substances in a state fit for human sustenance1 of rendering that agreeable to the taste which is essential to the support of life1 and of pleasing the palate without injury to the system1 is1 strictly speaking1 a branch of chemistry2 but1 important as it is both to our enjoyments and our health1 it is also one of the least cultivated branches of that science4 ,the culinary processes of roasting1 boiling1 baking1 stewing1 frying1 broiling1 the art of preserving meats1 bacon1 and hams2 the preparations of sauces1 pickles1 and other condiments2 the conserving of fruits2 the care and keeping of vegetables2 the making of jellies1 jams1 and marmalades1 are all founded upon the principles of this science1 and much waste of the material1 as well as labour to the parties might often be spared1 were those to whom the performance of such tasks is committed1 made acquainted with simple chemical truths which would invariably lead to certain results4 ,and1 besides1 the same knowledge would enable them to attain a much greater degree of perfection in curing and preserving all kinds of animal and vegetable aliments1 and in combining the three grand requisites of taste1 nutriment1 and salubrity1 in whatever manner they may be prepared4 ,and1 though this art is at present in rude hands1 as all branches of chemistry were originally1 there is no reason that it should remain so4 ,a kitchen is1 in fact1 a chemical laboratory2 the boilers1 stew-pans1 and cradle spit of the cook1 correspond to the digestors1 the evaporating basins1 and the crucibles of the chemist4 ,and numerous as the receipts of cookery are1 the general operations 7like the general process of chemistry7 are but few4 ,in some the object aimed at is1 to extract the constituent parts of the food1 so as to exhibit them in a separate state1 or to combine them with other substances1 to produce new compounds which differ widely from those from which they originated4 ,in others1 the qualities of the substances are simply altered by the action of fire1 to render them more palatable and nutritious4 ,from the multiplicity of circumstances to be attended to in this art1 the whole of which is founded upon the principles of chemistry1 we may easily see that it must be a very precarious one2 and1 there is reason to believe1 that among the variety of circumstances which produce diseases1 the improper modes of cooking food1 are often the primary cause4 ,will it be believed1 that in the cookery books which form the prevailing oracles of the kitchens in this part of the island1 there are express injunctions to 8boil greens with halfpence1 or verdigrise1 in order to improve their colour60#a ,that our puddings are frequently seasoned with laurel leaves1 and our sweatmeats almost uniformly prepared in copper vessels8#b ,why are we thus compelled to swallow a supererogatory quantity of poison which may so easily be avoided8 ,and why are we constantly made to run the risk of our lives by participating in custards1 trifles1 and blancmanges1 seasoned by a most deadly poison extracted from the prunus lourocerasus8#c ,verily1 where such detestable systems of cookery are practised1 we may exclaim with the sacred historian1 that there is 8,death in the ,pot40 #a ,the ,ladies ,library1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjc2 and also ,modern ,cookery1 #bnd ,edition1 p4 #id4 #b ,literary ,chronicle1 ,no4 xxii4 p4 #cdh1 #ahai4 #c ,philosophical ,magazine1 ,no4 cclviii4 vol4 #ed1 p4 #cag4 ,food badly cooked is wasted to no purpose4 ,it seems to have been a complaint familiar in the mouth of our ancestors1 and which we have too often seen reason to re-echo in the present day--8,that ,god sends good meat1 but the devil sends cooks40 ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,food ,,of ,,man4 ,no animal eats such variety of food as man2 he claims1 more justly than any other creature1 the title of omnivorous6 for since he is distinguished beyond all animals1 but the capability of living in the most distant parts of the globe1 under every variety of climate which the earth affords1 his food could not be confined exclusively to either the vegetable or animal kingdom1 because he inhabits regions that afford aliments widely different from each other4 ,cattle content themselves with green vegetables2 rapacious animals live on the flesh of other creatures4 ,those of the ,linnan order1 glires1#d live on grain and fruits2 each order of birds1 keeps1 in the same manner1 to one sort of food1 animal or vegetable4 ,fishes1 reptiles1 and insects1 also have each their peculiar and exclusive bill of fare1 beyond which even hunger will scarcely force them to wander4 ,but however various each class1 and order1 and species of animated nature may be in the choice of food1 man--all-devouring man1 will embrace the whole range of the creation1 8scarce a berry or a mushroom can escape him40 #d ,the hare1 rabbit1 guinea-pig1 c4 ,with the lion and the wolf he will eat of fresh slain animals2 with the dogs and the vulture he will feed on putrid flesh2#e with the ox and the guinea-pig he will devour raw vegetables1 under the name of salads2 with the squirrel and the mouse he will feast on nuts and grain2 with birds of prey he feeds on fowl of almost every species2 with fishes he feeds on fish2 and with insects and reptiles he sometimes lives on insects and reptiles4 ,nor is he satisfied even with this abundant variety1 but must go to the mineral kingdom for salt1 as a condiment before he can furnish out his meal4 #e ,every person knows in what a putrid state game is often eaten4 ,,nations ,,living ,,wholly ,,upon ,,vegetable ,,food4 ,the variety of alimentary substances used not only by individuals1 but among whole nations1 are prodigiously diversified1 and climate seems to have some effect in producing the diversity of taste1 though it must in a great measure depend upon the natural productions of particular countries1 their religion1 and their commercial intercourse4 ,a vegetable diet seems suitable to the hot countries under the ,equator1 and we accordingly find nations there1 who have completely adopted it1 and who abstain so much the more from all animal food1 in as much as it is an article of their religious faith4 ,potatoes1 chesnuts1 and the leguminous and cereal seeds1 satisfy the want of the ,alpine peasant1 and numerous tribes solely feed on vegetables and water4 ,in the most remote antiquity1 we read of whole nations in ,africa1 and of the ,indian priests1 who lived entirely on vegetable substances4 ,some wandering ,moors subsist almost entirely on gum senegal4 ,,nations ,,living ,,wholly ,,on ,,animal ,,food4 ,the nations which live on animal food are very numerous4 ,the ,ethiopeans1 ,scythians1 and ,arabians1 ate nothing but flesh4 ,the miserable inhabitants of ,new ,holland lived wholly on fish when that country was first discovered1 and other tribes on the ,arabian and ,persian gulph4 ,in the ,faro islands1 in ,iceland and ,greenland1 the food arises from the same source4 ,the shepherds in the province of ,caracas1 on the ,oronoko1 live wholly on flesh4 ,the ,tartars in ,asia1 and some savage nations in ,north ,america1 live on raw and half putrid flesh1 and some barbarous tribes eat their meat raw4 ,it appears to be the effect of climate and religion that makes the ,hindoo adopt vegetable rather than animal food2 it is the effect of natural production that makes the ,greenlander relish whale-blubber and train-oil4 ,it is to one or other of these causes that we must refer all such diversity of national tastes1 though it would be difficult in many cases to separate the influence of each4 ,we see the ,englishman enjoying his under-done roast beef and his plum-pudding2 the ,scotsman his hodge-podge and his haggis2 the ,frenchman his ragouts1 omlets1 and fricandeaus2 the ,german his sour-crout1 sausages1 and smoaked hams1 the ,italian his maccaroni2 and the ,tartar his horse-flesh4#f 8,de gustibus non est disputandum40--,there is no disputing about tastes4 ,they are too many1 and too various1 to be objects of rational discussion4 #f ,an article of food which has lately been seriously recommended by ,mr4 ,grey to ,europeans as a most advantageous measure of political economy4 ,,singular ,,kind ,,of ,,aliments ,,of ,,various ,,nations4 ,besides the before-mentioned diversities of national and individual taste for different kinds of substances1 used as aliments1 there are other kinds of food which we at least think more singular4 ,some of the tribes of ,arabs1 ,moors1 the ,californians1 and ,ethiopians1 eat tad-poles1 locusts1 and spiders4 ,in some places the flesh of serpents1 that of the coluber natrix for example1 is eaten2 and the viper is made into broth4 ,several other reptiles are used as food by the ,european settlers in ,america1 such as the rana bombina and rana taurina1 two species of toads4 ,in the ,east1 the lacerta scincus is considered a great luxury1 and also an approdisiac4 ,even the rattle snake has been eaten1 and the head boiled along with the rest of the body of the animal4 ,the horse1 ass1 and camel1 are eaten in several regions of the earth1 and the seal1 walruss1 and ,arctic bear1 have often yielded a supply to sailors4 ,on the singular taste of epicures it is not necessary to speak4 ,mcenas1 the prime minister of ,augustus1 and refined patron of ,horace1 had young asses served upon his table when he treated his friends2 and1 according to ,pliny1#g the ,romans delighted in the flavour of young and well fattened puppies4 ,this strange practice subsists still in ,china1 and among the ,esquimaux4 ,plump1 and well roasted bats1 laid upon a bed of olives1 are eaten in the ,levant as a dainty4 #g #b ,book #bi1 c4 #d4 ,the ,roman luxury1 garum1 which bore so high a price1 consisted of the putrid entrails of fishes1 7first of the garum17 stewed in wine1 and a similar dish is still considered as a great luxury1 in some parts of the ,east4 ,some modern epicures delight in the trail of the woodcock1 and even collect with care the contents of the intestines which distill from it in the process of roasting4 8,the ,irishman loves usquebah1 ,the ,scot loves ale called blue cap1 ,the ,welshman1 he loves toasted cheese1 ,and makes his mouth like a mouse trap40 ,,apicius1#h among other whimsical personages of ancient ,rome1 presented to his guests ragouts1 exclusively composed of tongues of peacocks and nightingales4 ,this celebrated epicure1 who instituted a gormandizing academy at ,rome1 having heard that shrimps and prawns of a superior flavour were to be met with on the coasts of ,africa than on the ,italian shore1 freighted a ship1 and sailed in search of these far famed marine insects4 ,this person spent more than 4#fj1jjj merely to vary the taste of culinary sauces4 #h ,three brothers of that name were celebrated at ,rome1 on account of their unparallelled love of good eating4 ,vitellus was treated by his brother with a dinner1 consisting of #b1jjj dishes of fish1 and #g1jjj of poultry--surely this is not doing things by halves4 ,a ,mr4 ,verditch de ,bourbonne#i is said to have bought #c1jjj carps for the mere sake of their tongues1 which were brought1 well seasoned and learnedly dressed1 to his table1 in one dish4 #i ,cours ,gastronomique4 ,,difference ,,between ,,an ,,epicure ,,and ,a ,,glutton4 ,however extravagant and whimsical the rational pleasures of the table may appear to a sober and sensible mind1 we must1 in justice to epicures1 cursorily observe1 that there exists a material difference between a gormand or epicure1 and a glutton4#aj ,the first seeks for peculiar delicacy and distinct flavour in the various dishes presented to the judgment and enjoyment of his discerning palate2 while the other lays aside nearly all that relates to the rational pleasures of creating or stimulating an appetite of the cates1 and looks merely to quantity2 this1 has his stomach in view1 and tries how heavy it may be laden1 without endangering his health4 #aj ,tabella ,cibaria1 a latin poem1 relating to the pleasures of ,gastronomy1 and the mysterious art of ,cooking1 page #ae4 8,the gormand never loses sight of the exquisite organs of taste1 so admirably disposed by ,providence in the crimson chamber1 where sits the discriminating judge1 the human tongue4 8,the glutton is anathematised in the ,scripture with those brutes quorum deus venter est4 ,the other appears guilty of no other sin than of too great1 and too minute1 an attention to refinement in commercial sensuality40 ,our neighbours on the other side of the channel1 so famous for indulging in the worship of ,comus1 consider the epicure again under two distinct views1 namely3 as a gormand1 or a gourmet4 ,the epicure or gormand is defined--a man having accidentally been able to study the different tastes of eatables1 does accordingly select the best food and the most pleasing to his palate4 ,his character is that of a practioner4 ,the gourmet speculates more than he practises1 and eminently prides himself in discerning the nicest degrees1 and most evanescent shades of goodness and perfection in the different subjects proposed to him4 ,he may be designated a man1 who1 by sipping a few drops out of the silver cup of the vintner1 can instantly tell from what country the wine comes1 and its age4 ,the glutton practices without any regard to theory4 ,the gormand1 or epicure1 unites theory with practice4 ,the gourmet is merely theoretical4 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,cookery4 ,as man differs from the inferior animals in the variety of articles he feeds upon1 so he differs from them no less in the preparation of these substances4 ,some animals1 besides man1 prepare their food in a particular manner4 ,the racoon 7ursus lutor7 is said to wash his roots before he eats them2 and the beaver stores his green boughs under water that their bark and young twigs may remain juicy and palatable4 ,the action of fire1 however1 has never been applied to use by any animal except man2 not even monkies1 with all their knacks of imitation1 and all their fondness for the comforts of a fire1 have ever been observed to put on a single billet of wood to keep up the fuel4 ,domesticated animals1 indeed1 are brought to eat1 and even to relish1 food which has been cooked by the action of heat4 ,the variety of productions introduced by our different modes of preparing and preserving food is almost endless2 and it appears particularly so when we compare the usages1 in this respect1 of various countries4 ,the savage of ,new ,south ,wales is scarcely more knowing in the preparation of food1 by means of fire1 than his neighbour1 the kangaroo1 if the anecdote told by ,turnbull be true1 that one of these savages plunged his hand into boiling water to take out a fish4 ,some writers have humorously designated man to be 8a cooking animal10 and he really is so4 ,it is one of the leading distinctions which ,providence has seen meet for wise purposes to establish1 when it was said that he might eat of the fruit of every tree1 and the flesh of every clean beast4 ,when we contemplate the aliments used by men in a civilized state of existence1 we soon become convinced that only a small part of our daily food can be eaten in its natural state4 ,many of the substances used as aliments1 are disagreeable1 and some even poisonous until they have been cooked4 ,few of them are to be had at all seasons1 although produced at others in greater abundance than can be consumed4 ,the importance of a proper and competent knowledge of the true and rational principles of cookery1 must be obvious1 when it is considered that there is scarcely an individual1 young or old1 in any civilized country1 who has not some time or other suffered severely from errors committed in the practice of this art4 8,a skilful and well directed cookery abounds in chemical preparations highly salutary4 ,there exists a salubrity of aliments suited to every age4 ,infancy1 youth1 maturity1 and old age1 each has its peculiar adapted food1 and that not merely applicable to the powers in full vigour1 but to stomachs feeble by nature1 and to those debilitated by excess40#aa #aa ,ude's ,cookery1 p4 #be4--;,ibid1 #bc4 ,without abetting the unnatural and injurious appetites of the epicure1 or the blameable indulgences of the glutton1 we shall not perhaps be far out in our reckoning1 if we assert1 that almost every person is an epicure in his own way4 ,there are amateurs in boiling potatoes1 as particular in the details1 as others in dressing beaf-stakes to the utmost nicety of a single turn4 ,lord ,blainey1 still more nice1 informs us1 that hams are not fit to be eaten unless boiled in ,champaign4 ,helluos are not confined to salmon's bellies1 but are to be found among the rudest peasants who love porridge or frumenty-- ,a salmon's belly1 ,helluo1 was thy fate2 ,the doctor call'd1 declares all help too late2 8,mercy60 cries ,helluo1 8mercy1 on my soul6 ,is there no hope8--,alas6 then bring the jowl40 ,pope's ,moral ,essays4 ,precision in mixing ingredients is as often and as closely laid down for the coarsest dish of the peasant as for the most guarded receipe of the ,lady ,bountiful of the village4 ,the pleasures of the table have always been highly appreciated and sedulously cultivated among civilized people of every age and nation2 and1 in spite of the ,stoic1 it must be admitted1 that they are the first which we enjoy1 the last we abandon1 and those of which we most frequently partake4 8,cookery is the soul of every pleasure1 at all times and to all ages4 ,how many marriages have been the consequence of a meeting at dinner2 how much good fortune has been the result of a good supper1 at what moment of our existence are we happier than at table8 there hatred and animosity are lulled to sleep1 and pleasure alone reigns40 ,pythagoras1 in his golden verses1 gives complete proof1 that he was particularly nice in the choice of food1 and carefully points out what will occasion indigestion and flatulency4 ,he is precise in commanding his disciples to 8abstain from beans40 ,apicius1 declares that he never knew a philosopher who refused to partake of a feast4 ,in later times1 ,dr4 ,johnson is well known to have been exceedingly fond of good dinners1 considering them as the highest enjoyment of human life4 ,the sentiments of our great moralist are a good answer to those who think the pleasures of the table incompatible with intellectual pursuits or mental superiority4 8,some people10 says the ,doctor1 8have a foolish way of not minding1 or pretending not to mind1 what they eat2 for my part1 ,i mind my belly very studiously1 and very carefully1 and ,i look upon it that he who does not mind his belly will hardly mind any thing else40 ,boswell1 his biographer1 says of him1 8,i never knew a man who relished good eating more than he did3 and when at table1 he was wholly absorbed in the business of the moment40 ,it was one of the objects which displeased him so much in his ,northern tour1 that the ,scots were rather ignorant of the more refined arts of cookery4 ,a lady in the ,isle of ,mull1 anxious to gratify him for once in a dinner1 had an excellent plum-pudding prepared1 at some expense1 and with the utmost care2 but1 to her great mortification1 the doctor would not taste it1 because1 he said1 8it is totally impossible to make a plum-pudding at all fit to eat in the ,isle of ,mull40 ,another instance of this philosopher's illiberal prejudice against ,scotch cookery1 may also be mentioned4 ,a lady1 at whose table the ,doctor was dining1 enquired how he liked their national dish1 the hotch potch1 of which he was then partaking4 8,good enough for hogs10 said the surly philosopher4 8,shall ,i help you to a little more of it80 retorted the lady4 ,to ,dr4 ,johnson we can add the names of two distinguished physicians1 ,darwin1 and ,beddoes1 both of whom were most outrageous in their published works against the pleasures of good living2 they followed however a very different practice1 from what they prescribed to others1 as none were more fond of good dinners than these guardians of health4 ,cardinal ,wolsey1 we should have thought1 would have had something else to mind than cooking and good eating4 ,but no person was more anxious than he1 even in the whirl of the immense public business which he had to transact1 to have the most skilful cooks2 for all ,europe was ransacked1 and no expense spared1 to procure culinary operators1 thoroughly acquainted with the multifarious operations of the spit1 the stew-pan1 and the rolling-pin4 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 has been most happy in the illustration of our ancient manners with respect to good eating1 in the character of ,athelstan1 in the ,romance of ,ivanhoe4 ,count ,rumford has not considered the pleasure of eating1 and the means that may be employed for increasing it1 as unworthy the attention of a philosopher1 for he says1 8the enjoyments which fall to the bulk of mankind1 are not so numerous as to render an attempt to increase them superfluous4 ,and even in regard to those who have it in their power to gratify their appetites to the utmost extent of their wishes1 it is surely rendering them a very important service to shew them how they may increase their pleasures without destroying their health40 ,in the olden time1 every man of consequence had his magister coquorum1 or master cook1 without whom he would not think of making a day's journey2 and it was often no easy matter to procure master cooks of talent4 ,by a passage of ,cicero#ab we are led to understand1 that among other miseries of life1 which constantly attended this consular personage and eloquent orator1 he laboured under the disappointment of not having an excellent cook of his own2 for1 he says1 8coquus meus1 prter jus fervens1 nihil potest imitari40 ,except hot broth1 my cook can do nothing cleverly4 #ab ,fam4 ix4 #bj4 ,the salary of the ,roman cooks was nearly #ajjj4ac ,mark ,antony1 hearing ,cleopatra1 whom he had invited to a splendid supper1 7and who was as great a gormand as she was handsome17 loudly praise the elegance and delicacy of the dishes1 sent for the cook1 and presented him with the unexpected gift of a corporate town4--,municipium4 #ac ,tabella ,cibaria1 ps4 #ai and #bj4 ,even in our own times great skill in cookery is so highly praised by many1 that a very skilful cook can often command1 in this metropolis1 a higher salary than a learned and pious curate4 ,his ,majesty's first and second cooks are esquires1 by their office1 from a period to which1 in the lawyer's phrase1 the memory of man is not to the contrary4 ,we are told by ,dr4 ,pegge1 that when ,cardinal ,otto1 the ,pope's ,legate1 was at ,oxford1 in the year #abdh1 his brother officiated as magister coquin1 an office which has always been held as a situation of high trust and confidence4 ,we might defend the art of cookery on another principle1 namely--on the axiom recognized in the ,malthusian ,political ,economy1 that he who causes two blades of grass to grow where only one grew before1 is a benefactor to his country and to human nature4 ,whether or not ,malthus is quite right in this1 we are not competent to decide2 we leave that to ,say1 ,godwin1 ,ricardo1 and#ad ,drummond4 ,but certainly it must in many cases be of the utmost consequence1 for families in particular1 when embarrassed in circumstances1 to make food go twice as far as without the art and aid of rational cookery it could do4 ,we would particularly press this remark1 as it is founded on numerous facts1 and places the art of cookery in a more interesting point of view than any of the other circumstances which we have been considering4 #ad ,principles of ,currency1 and ,elements of ,political ,economy--#ahbj4 ,cookery has often drawn down on itself the animadversions of both moralists1 physicians1 and wits1 who have made it a subject for their vituperations and their ridicule4 ,so early as the time of the patriarch ,isaac1 the sacred historian casts blame upon ,esau for being epicurean enough to transfer his birth-right for a mess of pottage4 ,jacob is blamed for making savoury meat with a kid for his father1 with a view to rob ,esau of the paternal blessing4 ,diogenes1 the ,cynic1 meeting a young man who was going to a feast1 took him up in the street and carried him home to his friends1 as one who was running into evident danger had he not prevented him4 ,the whole tribe1 indeed1 of the ,stoics and ,cynics1 laughed at cookery1 pretending1 in their vanity and pride1 to be above the desire of eating niceties4 ,lucian1 with his inexhaustible satire1 most effectually and humourously exposed these their pretences4 ,in our own times1 we have had writers of eminence who have attacked the use of a variety of food as a dreadful evil4 8,should we not think a man mad10 says ,addison1 8who at one meal will devour fowl1 flesh1 and fish2 swallow oil1 and vinegar1 salt1 wines1 and spices2 throw down sallads of twenty different herbs1 sauces of an hundred ingredients1 confections1 and fruits of numberless sweets and flavours8 ,what unnatural effects must such a medley produce in the body8 ,for my part1 when ,i behold a table set out in all its magnificence1 ,i fancy1 that ,i see gouts and dropsies1 fevers and lethargies1 and other innumerable distempers1 lying in ambuscade among the dishes40 ,all this1 and the like is1 no doubt1 very plausible1 and very fine1 and1 like many other fine speeches of modern reformers1 it is more fine than just4 ,it is indeed as good a theory as may be1 that cookery is the source of most1 or all1 of our distempers2 but withal it is a mere theory1 and only true in a very limited degree4 ,the truth is1 that it is not cookery which is to blame1 if we surfeit ourselves with its good dishes2 but our own sensual and insatiable appetite1 and gluttony1 which prompt us to seek their gratification at the expense even of our health4 ,savages1 whose cookery is in the rudest state1 are more apt to over-eat themselves than the veriest glutton of a luxurious and refined people2 a fact1 which of itself1 is sufficient to prove1 that it is not cookery which is the cause of gluttony and surfeiting4 ,the savage1 indeed1 suffers less from his gluttony than the sedentary and refined gormand2 for1 after sleeping1 sometimes for a whole day1 after gorging himself with food1 hunger again drives him forth to the chace1 in which he soon gets rid of the ill-effects of his overloaded stomach4 ,surely cookery is not to blame for the effects of gluttony1 indolence1 and sedentary occupations2 yet it does appear1 that all its ill effects are erroneously charged to the account of the refined art of cooking4 ,the defence of cookery1 however1 which we thus bring forward to repel misrepresentation1 applies only to the art of preparing good1 nutritious1 and wholesome food4 ,we cannot say one word in defence of the wretched and injurious methods but too often practised1 under the name of cookery1 and the highly criminal practices of adulterating food with substances deleterious to health4 ,on this subject we have spoken elsewhere4#ae #ae ,a treatise on adulterations of food1 and culinary poisons1 exhibiting the fraudulent sophistications of bread1 beer1 wine1 spirituous liquors1 tea1 coffee1 cream1 confectionary1 vinegar1 mustard1 pepper1 cheese1 olive oil1 pickles1 and other articles employed in domestic economy1 and methods of detecting them4--,third edition1 #ahba4 8,a good dinner#af is one of the greatest enjoyments of human life2 but the practice of cookery is attended with not only so many disgusting and disagreeable circumstances1 and even dangers1 that we ought to have some regard for those who encounter them for our pleasure40 #af ,the ,cook's ,oracle4--,preface1 p4 xxxv4 ,,dietetical ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,choice ,,and ,,quantity ,,of ,,food4 ,almost every person who can afford it1 eats more than is requisite for promoting the growth1 and renewing the strength and waste of his body4 ,it would be ridiculous to speak concerning the precise quantity of food necessary to support the body of different individuals4 ,such rules do not exist in nature4 ,the particular state or condition of the individual1 the variety of constitution1 and other circumstances1 must be taken into account4 ,if1 after dinner1 we feel ourselves as cheerful as before1 we may be assured that we have made a dietetical meal4 ,much has been said of temperance4 ,the fact is1 that there is an absolute determined standard of temperance1 the point of which must be fixed by every man's natural and unprovoked appetite1 while he continues in a state of health4 ,as long as a person who pursues a right habit of life1 eats and drinks no more than his stomach calls for and will bear1 without occasioning uneasiness of any kind to himself1 he may be said to live temperate4 ,the stomach revolts against the reverse of it2 indeed1 the stomach is the grand organ of the human system1 it is the conscience of the body1 and like that1 will become uneasy if all is not right within2 it speaks pretty plainly to those who lead an intemperate life4 8,we may compare10 says ,doctor ,kitchener1 8the human frame to a watch1 of which the heart is the main spring1 the stomach the regulator1 and what we put into it1 the key1 by which the machine is set a-going2 according to the quantity1 quality1 and proper digestion of what we eat and drink will be the action of the system3 and when a due proportion is preserved between the quantum of exercise and that of excitement1 all goes well4 ,if the machine be disordered1 the same expedients are employed for its re-adjustment1 as are used by the watch-maker2 it must be carefully cleaned and then judiciously oiled4 ,to affirm that such a thing is wholesome1 or unwholesome1 without considering the subject in all the circumstances to which it bears relation1 and the unaccountable idiosyncrasies of particular constitutions is1 with submission1 talking nonsense4 ,every man must consult his stomach2 whatever agrees with that perfectly well1 is wholesome for him1 whilst it continues to do so whenever natural appetite calls for food40 ,celsus spoke very right when he said that a healthy man ought not to tie himself up by strict rules1 nor to abstain from any sort of food2 that he ought sometimes to fast1 and sometimes to feast4 ,when applied to eating1 nothing is more true than the proverb-- 8,bonarum rerum consuetudo pessima est4--,,syrus4 8,the too constant use1 even of good things1 is hurtful40 ,it is certainly better to restrain ourselves1 so as to use1 but not to abuse1 our enjoyments2 and to this we may add the opinion of doctor ,fothergil1 which the experience of every individual confirms1 namely1 that 8the food we fancy most1 sits easiest on the stomach40 ,what has been so far stated on the choice and quantity of food to be taken at a time1 of course1 relates only to persons in a state of health2 the diet of the delicate1 the sickly1 and the infirm1 must be regulated by the physician1 and even the aged require particular kinds of food4 8,experience#ag has fully convinced me1 7says an eminent ,physiologist71 that the latter stages of human life1 are often abridged by unsuitable diet40 #ag ,carlisle on the disorders of ,old ,age1 ps4 #b and #bg4 ,this book exhibits an excellent view of the most suitable diet for aged1 weak1 and sickly people4 8,the most numerous tribe of disorders incident to advanced life1 spring from the failure or errors of the stomach1 and its dependancies1 and perhaps the first sources of all the infirmities of inability1 may be traced to effects arising from imperfectly digested food40 ,,extraordinary ,,great ,,eaters1 ,,and ,,observations ,,on ,,abstinence4 ,in some persons1 an extraordinary great appetite seems to be constitutional4 ,charles ,domery1 aged #ba years1 when a prisoner of war1 at ,liverpool1 consumed in one day #dlbs4 of ,raw ,cow's ,udder4 #ajlbs4 ,raw ,beef4 #blbs4 ,tallow ,candles4 ------ ,total #aflbs4 and five bottles of porter2 and although allowed the daily rations of ten men1 he was not satisfied4 ,another extraordinary instance has been recorded by ,baron ,percy3--,a soldier of the name of ,tarare1 who1 at the age of #ag1 could devour in the course of #bd hours1 a leg of beef weighing #bdlbs4 and thought nothing of swallowing the dinner dressed for fifteen ,german peasants4 ,but those men were remarkable not only for the quantity of food they consumed1 but also for its quality1 giving a preference to raw meat1 and even living flesh and blood4 ,domery1 in one year1 eat #agd cats1 dead and alive2 and ,tarare was strongly suspected of having eaten an infant4 ,man can sustain the privation of food for several days1 more or fewer in number1 according to circumstances--the old better than the young1 and the fat better than the lean4 ,the absolute want of drink can be suffered only a short time1 they have been strikingly described by ,mungo ,park and ,ali ,bey1 as experienced in their own persons4 ,the narratives of ship-wrecked mariners also prove1 with how very little food life may be supported for a considerable length of time2 and the history of those impostors who pretend to live altogether without food or drink1 display this adaptation of the wants of the body to its means of supply in a still more striking manner2 for1 even after the deception1 in such cases as that of ,ann ,moore1 is exposed1 it will be found that the quantity of aliment actually taken was incredibly small4 ,captain ,woodard has added to his interesting narrative many instances of the power of the human body to resist the effects of severe abstinence4 ,he himself and his five companions rowed their boat for seven days without any sustenance but a bottle of brandy1 and then wandered about the shores of ,celebes six more1 without any other food than a little water and a few berries4 ,robert ,scotney lived seventy-five days alone in a boat with three pounds and a half of meat1 three pounds of flour1 two hogsheads of water1 some whale oil1 and a small quantity of salt4 ,he also used an amazing quantity of tobacco4 ,six soldiers deserted from ,st4 ,helena in a boat1 on the #ajth of ,june #agii1 with twenty-five pounds of bread and about thirteen gallons of water4 ,on the #ahth1 they reduced their allowance to one ounce of bread and two mouthfuls of water1 on which they subsisted till the #bfth1 when their store was expended4 ,captain ,inglefield1 with eleven others1 after five days of scanty diet1 were obliged to restrict it to a biscuit divided into twelve morsels for breakfast1 and the same for dinner1 with an ounce or two of water daily4 ,in ten days1 a very stout man died1 unable to swallow1 and delirious4 ,lieutenant ,bligh and his crew lived forty-two days upon five day's provisions4 ,in the tenth volume of ,hufland's ,journal1 is related a very remarkable1 and well-authenticated case of voluntary starvation4 ,a recruit1 to avoid serving1 had cut off the fore-finger of his right hand4 ,when in hospital for the cure of the wound1 dreading the punishment which awaited him1 he resolved to starve himself2 and on the #bnd of ,august began obstinately to refuse all food or drink1 and persisted in this resolution to the #bdth of ,august4 ,during these twenty-two days he had absolutely taken neither food1 drink1 nor medicine1 and had no evacuation from his bowels4 ,he had now become very much emaciated1 his belly somewhat distended1 he had a violent pain in his loins1 his thirst was excessive1 and his febrile heat burning4 ,his behaviour had also become timid4 ,having been promised his discharge1 unpunished1 he was prevailed upon to take some sustenance1 but could not1 at first1 bear even weak soup and luke-warm drinks4 ,under proper treatment1 he continued to mend for eight days1 and his strength was returning1 when1 on the #ast of ,september1 he again refused food and got a wild look4 ,he took a little barley-water every four or five days to the #hth2 from that day to the #aath1 he took a little biscuit with wine2 but again from the #aath ,september to the #ith ,october1 a period of twenty-eight days1 he neither took food1 drink1 nor had any natural evacuation4 ,from the #ith to the #aath he again took a little nourishment1 and began to recruit2 but1 on the #aath1 he finally renewed his resolution to starve himself1 and persevered until his death1 which took place on the #bast ,november1 after a total abstinence of #db days4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,custom ,,of ,,eating ,,flesh4 ,we are told1 that in the first ages of the world1 men lived upon acorns1 berries1 and such fruits as the earth spontaneously produced1 and that in the ,shepherd state of society1 milk1 obtained from flocks and herds1 came into use4 ,soon afterwards the flesh of wild animals was added to the food1 and the juice of grape to the drink of the human species4 ,hogs were the first animals1 of the domestic kind1 that were eaten by men1 for they held it ungrateful to eat the animals that assisted them in their labour4 8,we are happy to find1 7says the author of an elegant poem#ah7 that it was not on account of the solidity1 wholesomeness1 delicacy1 and other excellent qualities of his flesh1 that the ox was worshipped on the banks of the ,nile1 and in the gorgeous temples of ,memphis2 for1 although professedly friends to gastronomy1 moderated by a decided aversion to any thing like sensuality1 we are of opinion that man is less fit to feed upon carnal than vegetable substance40 #ah ,tabella ,cibaria1 p4 #cc4 8,the noble horse1 fierce and unsubdued1 was still roaming with all the roughness and intractability of original freedom1 in his native groves1 who already domesticated1 the honest steer had willingly lent the strength of his powerful shoulders to the laborious strife of the plough4 ,this had not only raised altars to him under the name of ,,apis1 but even placed him among the first constellations of the ,zodiac above the watchful eyes of the ,chaldeans4 ,in the reign of ,erichtonius1 fourth king of ,athens1 ,diomus was offering to ,jupiter the first fruits of the earth4 ,whilst the priests were busied apart in preparing some necessaries to the solemnity1 an ox1 passing by1 browsed of all that had been gathered on the altar for the sacrifice4 ,diomus1 in his disappointment and passion1 slew him on the spot4 ,the ,gods1 instead of countenancing his religious zeal1 sent forth immediately all the horrors of a pestilence upon the ,athenians1 which did not cease until they had instituted a festival called 8,the ,death of the ,ox40#ai #ai ,nonius de re ,cibaria4 8,porphyrius traces the custom of eating meat to ,pygmalion1 king of ,tyre1 in ,phnicia4 ,although the ,jews were allowed to eat the flesh of the immolated beasts1 in the golden age1 man had not found courage and appetite enough to eat the flesh of an innocent animal2 but soon after1 this cruelty extended to nearly all quadrupeds1 except those who were carnivorous4 ,tradition states1 that ,prometheus was the first who killed a bullock1 ,ceres a pig1 and ,bacchus a goat1 for the uses of their tables4 ,it is obvious that pigs1 by turning up the new-sown fields for the sake of the grain1 and goats browzing the tender sprouts of the vine-tree1 were respectively inimical to ,ceres and ,bacchus4 ,as for the killing of the first bullock by ,prometheus1 we leave to other commentators to explain40 ,,comparative ,,alimentary ,,effects ,,of ,,animal ,,and ,,vegetable ,,food4 ,animal food alone is ill adapted to form the whole of our aliment4 ,the inquiries of physiologists have determined1 that animal food is highly stimulant1 and like all other stimulants1 after the excitement has been brought to its acm1 debility must by necessity succeed4 ,this1 however1 is not so much the case where fresh meat is used as when the meat is salted2 but this may be1 because our examples1 with regard to fresh meat1 are less marked than in the case of salted provision4 ,for few instances occur in which fresh meat forms the whole food1 exclusive altogether of fruits or other vegetable aliment4 ,salted meat often constitutes a great proportion of the food in long sea voyages1 in the long dreary winters in ,lapland1 and amongst the inhabitants of besieged towns4 ,when this practice is continued for any length of time1 oppression and langour begin to be felt1 indigestion is brought on1 and hurried breathing and a quick pulse on taking the slightest exercise1 the gums become soft and spongy1 the breath becomes ftid1 and the limbs swoln4 ,such are the dreadful effects produced by salted provisions1 when a proper proportion of vegetable food is not used along with them4 ,the fact is1 that nations1 whose food is entirely vegetable1 are less active and energetic than those whose diet is more nutritive4 ,the inhabitants of ,ireland1 in the most humble walks of life1 for example1 who live almost exclusively on potatoes1 are said to be more indolent and sluggish1 when compared with their neighbours in ,england1 who would think such diet to be no better than a prison allowance of bread and water4 ,in the ,east1 where rice forms the great article of food with some tribes1 the people are far from being robust or able to undergo much fatigue in labour or in war4 ,the striking fact1 that the ,english soldiers and sailors surpass all those of other nations in bravery and hardihood1 is sufficient1 we think1 to demonstrate the effect of a considerable proportion of animal food4--,for1 though it be said1 that a great number of our soldiers are ,irishmen1 yet our argument holds good1 since1 all these when in the army1 or navy1 live exactly in the same manner as the ,english themselves4 ,the change of diet1 indeed1 is in these brave men very obvious2 for the ,irish and ,scots soldiers are often more hardy than the ,english2 not as it is supposed because they have been innured to greater hardships in their youth1 but because their diet being more generous than it was at that period1 its effects become more obvious than in those who have always had animal food4 ,when we examine the structure of the digestive organs of the inferior animals which live wholly on vegetable food1 we find that they are very differently constituted from man1 and much more so from the animals of prey4 ,if the organs for digestion of the ruminant animals are more complicated1 it should seem to follow1 that vegetable aliment is more difficult to digest2 otherwise1 nature1 who never works in vain1 would not have provided for them such a series of stomachs4 ,hence we infer1 that since man has not this apparatus peculiar to ruminant animals1 it must be plain that nature did not intend him to live exclusively on vegetables4 ,if we consider the human teeth1 we shall be led to the same conclusion1 for they are not either like the teeth of ruminant animals or those of beasts of prey1 but intermediate between the two4 ,we have incisor teeth like animals of the order glires3 such as the hare1 the rabbit1 and the guinea-pig2 canin teeth like those of the order fer3 such as the dog1 the tiger1 and the lion2 and grinders1 like herbivorous quadrupeds3 such as the horse1 the sheep1 and the cow4 ,food1 then1 composed of animal and vegetable substances1 seems to be the best adapted for our organs of mastication and digestion1 though it would not be easy to say precisely what proportions of these are most agreeable to the intentions of nature4 ,we may safely conclude1 however1 that the vegetable food ought to exceed the animal in quantity4 ,the direction given by ,dr4 ,fothergill is the most judicious we have met with4 8,i have only0 says he 8one short caution to give4 ,those who think it necessary to pay any attention to their health at table1 should take care that the quantity of bread1 of meat1 of pudding1 and of greens1 should not compose each of them a meal1 as if some were only thrown in to make weight2 but they should carefully observe1 that the sum of all together do not exceed due bounds1 or encroach upon the first feeling of satiety40 ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,animal ,,substances ,,commonly ,,used ,,for ,,food4 ,of the different classes of animals used for food1 quadrupeds compose the greatest proportion1 and there is no part of their bodies which does not contain nutritive parts1 and that has not been used as food in some way or other4 ,even bones affords an alimentary jelly fit for human food4 ,the largest portion of our aliment1 however1 is derived from the voluntary muscles of animals1 or what is more strictly called1 the flesh1 consisting of all the red fibrous substance which covers the bones4 ,it should seem that this is both the most nourishing and the most easily digested of animal substances4 ,the red colour arises from the blood of minute vessels which run in every direction among the fibres2 but whether this is the cause of the red muscle being more nutritious is not well ascertained4 ,thence the flesh of quadrupeds is more largely consumed than of any other class of animals2 and1 indeed1 those in common use in most parts of ,europe possesses all the alimentary properties in the highest perfection4 ,all animal flesh seems more or less stimulating2 and1 in general1 the more so the darker its colour is--but it does not absolutely follow that it is also more nutritious4 ,there is a considerable difference in the qualities of muscular flesh1 according to the size of the animal1 and also according to its activity4 ,the small mountain sheep1 for example1 which has to encounter fatigue to procure its food1 has flesh of a different quality and flavour from the large and lazy creature1 which feeds luxuriously and fattens rapidly1 in the rich pastures of the plain country4 ,the beef of the western islands also1 is more esteemed1 on account of the same circumstance1 than that of the fat and brawny oxen which we see in the ,london market4 ,it is for this reason1 we have no doubt1 that the flesh of the horse1 the rhinocerus1 and elephant1 is not used as food except in cases when other food is not to be procured4 ,in the circumstance of activity altering the qualities of flesh1 we may be allowed to instance the superiority of venison to beef1 in flavour and tenderness1 and easiness of digestion4 ,the age of animals is another circumstance which has great influence on the qualities of their flesh4 ,the flesh of young animals is composed of less rigid fibres1 and has fewer vessels which carry red blood running through it1 and besides1 it has less of the peculiar flavour of its particular species than the flesh of older animals4 ,gelatine is more abundant in the young1 and fibrin in the old2 hence the former is more bland and tender4 ,veal and lamb1 for example1 are more tender and gelatinous than beef or mutton2 sucking pigs1 chickens1 and ducklings1 are also much more delicate than the grown animals4 ,the beef of an old cow1 however well fed1 is quite tough and unpalatable1 while that of a very young heifer is much relished4 ,although1 however1 very young animals be so much more tender1 yet they are insipid and flabby4 ,in the case of pork1 age is not required1 as in other sorts of butcher meat1 to mellow the fibre4 ,it is an aliment containing much nourishment2 but to some palates its flavour is disagreeable1 though by most people it is relished4 ,it was much used by the ancient athlet1 as half raw beef steaks are now by our men of the fancy4 ,sucking pigs are killed when three weeks old2 and for pork1 pigs are killed from six to twelve months old4 ,it requires them to be older for making brawn4 ,the flesh of young venison is not so good as when four years old or more2 though that of the fawn is very tender and succulent4 ,but even in the ftal state1 the flesh of animals1 if recently taken from a healthy mother1 may be used4 ,in the ,london market the ftus of the cow is regularly sold to the pastry-cooks for the purpose of making mock turtle soup1 of which it often forms the principal portion4 ,veal1 however1 is reckoned not so good when killed before it be eight or ten weeks old4 ,the most remarkable quality of flesh of this kind is1 its almost wholly dissolving in boiling water1 forming in the warm state a bland and gelatinous soup1 and when cold1 concreting into a tremulous transparent jelly4 ,it is less animalized1 or more properly speaking1 contains less animal fibre than almost any other flesh2 hence its tendency to become ascescent when made into broth and jelly1 which is not the case with beef or mutton broth4 ,the parts of older animals1 which contain a larger portion of gelatine1 are in this respect similar to young flesh4 ,cow-heel and sheep's-head are well known instances4 ,it may be remarked that such food is less nutritious1 and unless very much boiled1 is less digestible than muscular flesh2 but as it is also more light and less stimulating1 it is frequently given to delicate people who cannot take any thing stronger4 ,tripe is intermediate between what we have just described and the muscular flesh of grown animals1 insomuch as there is in the stomach of ruminant animals a considerable proportion of vessels1 transmitting red blood1 and of muscular fibres1 and accordingly it is to be inferred that tripe is more nutritive2 it is certain it is more palatable and savory4 ,as to other parts of animals1 which are abundantly furnished with red blood1 though destitute of muscle1 we cannot speak so decidedly4 ,some of the glands are coarse and rank flavoured1 from the peculiar secretions which they produce1 and are only used by poor persons2 others are esteemed as delicacies1 and seem not to be unwholesome4 ,as examples of the latter1 we may mention sweet bread or pancreas1 one of the glands belonging to the digestive organs2 and the liver of some species of birds1 and of young quadrupeds4 ,the liver of the goose reckoned a great delicacy in ,sicily1 and they have there a a method of enlarging this organ while the bird is alive1 but it is so cruel1 that ,brydon1 who mentions it1 declines giving the particulars1 lest our epicures in ,england should have the inhumanity to give it a trial4 ,the spleen is an instance of the former case1 being strongly ill flavoured4 ,another circumstance which produces difference of quality in flesh1 is the sex of the animal1 the genital organs having in this respect a very remarkable influence1 as appears from the effect of destroying these by castration4 ,this renders the flesh of the male similar1 and in some cases1 as in mutton1 superior to that of the female1 which is always more tender1 and of finer fibre than that of the uncastrated male4 ,by destroying also the ovaries of the females1 their flesh is rendered more delicate1 though this operation is not often practised4 ,the sow is the animal which is most usually operated upon with this view2 the flesh of the uncastrated boar is very coarse and bad4 ,even in calves the difference is observable1 and veal is greatly improved by castrating the males4 ,the same practice greatly improves fowl1 as in capons4 ,venison is rank1 tough1 lean1 and ill flavoured1 and not fit to be eaten when killed during the rutting season1 in ,september and ,october2 and salmon1 when about to spawn1 are also bad1 and prohibited1 we believe1 by our laws1 to be caught or sold4 ,the mode of feeding animals1 designed for the table1 has also great influence on the quality of the flesh1 so much so1 that nice judges can distinguish whether mutton1 if from the same breed of sheep1 has been fed on grass or on turnips2 and can tell1 still more accurately1 on tasting the fat of pork1 whether the pigs have been fed on sour skimmed milk1 brewers grains1 or pease flour4 ,it was the practice sometime ago1 but now almost laid aside1 to feed calves and oxen on oil cake4 ,this did certainly fatten them1 but the fat was rather rancid in most cases1 and never of good flavour4 ,the truth seems to be1 that1 though generally1 the lean of fat animals is the most tender and palatable1 yet that this is not so much the case when the fat is rapidly produced by artificial management in the feeding4 ,sheep become very rapidly fat in the first stage of the rot1 in consequence1 perhaps1 of their desire for food being greatly increased by the disease2 and1 taking advantage of this1 it is said that some butchers are in the practice of producing rot artificially1 which is certainly very blameable4 ,some amateurs of mutton are fond of such as has died of a sort of colic1 called in the ,north braxy1 that produces a very peculiar flavour in the meat1 which is always1 however1 roasted1 and never stewed or boiled4 ,such tastes are1 to say the least of them1 surely unnatural4 ,it is1 perhaps1 owing to the different quality and quantity of food1 as much as any thing1 that the season of the year has an effect upon the flesh of animals2 the heat or cold of the weather1 and in some cases1 the periodical return of sexual attachment1 must also be taken int to be out of seasono account4 ,in the instances of veal and lamb1 the words1 in season1 and out of season1 refer1 perhaps1 more to plenty and scarceness than to any quality in the meat2 for as soon as any thing is so plentiful in the market as to cause a fall in the price1 and bring it within reach of the poor1 then the wealthy classes pronounce it to be out of season4 ,this is the case with some sorts of birds which migrate at certain times of the year1 the woodcock for example1 and are on that account to be valued when they can be procured4 ,such as breed here1 the solan goose for example1 can be procured in the young state before they take their flight to their unknown retreat4 ,it has been roundly asserted1 that there is no bird1 and no part of any birds1 which may not be safely used as food4 ,many species1 however1 are very oily1 tough1 or bad flavoured1 and it is not at least very desirable to eat any animal which feeds on prey or carrion2 even though this did not1 as it does1 taint their flesh4 ,the qualities of the flesh of birds differ very much1 both in the several species1 and in particular parts of the same bird4 ,the flesh of birds which live on grain1 is for the most part preferred to those which feed on insects or fish4 ,the pheasant1 the turkey1 as well as partridge1 and moor game1 are more esteemed than goose1 duck1 or woodcock4 ,many of the water birds1 however1 are preferred1 though from the nature of their food1 they are apt to taste strongly of fish1 and to become too fat and oily3 to remedy these defects1 skilful cooks sometimes bury them under ground for some days1 and carefully remove all the skin1 and as much as possible of the fat and oil from the inside1 before dressing them4 ,of the several sorts of birds1 those of larger size are coarser and more tough than the smaller sorts2 bustards1 and larks1 and ortolans1 for example1 than swans1 or turkeys1 and geese4 ,this difference is also rendered greater in proportion to their age4 ,with regard to the particular parts of the same birds1 the flesh of the wing1 and the part of the breast nearest the wing1 consisting of the muscles exerted in flying1 are more dry1 tender1 and of a whiter colour than the muscles of the leg4 ,this1 however1 is not the case with black game1 in which the more superficial of these muscles are dark-coloured1 while those deeper seated are pale2 and the same is sometimes seen in other birds4 ,the belly and the muscles of the thigh1 when young enough1 or when long kept and properly cooked1 are both palatable1 juicy1 and sufficiently tender4 ,the tendons of these muscles1 however1 are very tough1 and at a certain age become cartilaginous and even bony4 ,birds in a domestic state do not readily become fat1 if allowed to go at large2 for this purpose1 they should be confined in coops1 and supplied with as much wholesome food as they can eat4 ,poulterers even cram them with food4 ,domestic water fowls1 must1 while fattening1 be kept from the water1 otherwise they will acquire a strong fishy taste1 and besides1 will always remain lean4 ,in general1 over fatness may be considered as a sort of oleagenous dropsy1 and seldom or never is met with in a state of nature4 ,all the soft parts of fish contain gelatine and fibrous substance1 and are1 consequently1 in the edible sorts1 nutritious4 ,the fibrous portions are not1 except in a few species1 red1 like the muscular flesh of land animals1 but white and opake when dressed4 ,if cooked fish looks bluish and semi-transparent1 it is not in season4 ,it is fortunate for us1 that few if any poisonous fish are found in our seas1 being chiefly confined to the tropics4 ,the roe of the greater number of fishes is eaten3 caviar is the roe of the sturgeon4 ,cods sounds1 or the swim bladder of the larger cod1 are reckoned a great delicacy when properly preserved4 ,it is not usual for the skin of any animal to be eaten1 though the skin of some sorts of fish which are pulpy and gelatinous are relished--as the skin of calves head is used for mock turtle soup4 ,the flavour of fish depends greatly on their food1 which1 it is supposed1 is the main cause of the difference between fresh and salt water fish1 and between the same sorts of fish taken in different lakes and rivers1 and on different parts of the coast4 ,some shell fish1 such as muscles and cockles1 are occasionally found to disagree with some particular constitutions1 but it is not true that this arises from their feeding on copper banks2 some say1 that it is from the persons eating the beard or fibres1 by which the muscles attach themselves to the rocks1 which is not1 we think1 probable4 ,the limpet 7,patella vulgata71 the periwinkle 7turbo littoreus7 and whilk 7murex antiquus71 are used as food1 boiled by the common people in various districts of this country4 ,the crustaceous shellfish of sufficient size1 are very generally esculent4 ,these chiefly belong to the family of ,cancer4 ,hence1 several species of crabs1 both short and long tailed1 are eaten4 ,the lobster1 the crawfish1 the shrimp1 and the prawn belong to this class4 ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,vegetable ,,substances ,,commonly ,,used ,,for ,,food4 ,the vegetable substances used for food are1 if we include fruits1 much more numerous than those derived from the animal kingdom4 ,the chief of these1 however1 are the different sorts of grain and pulse1 the farina or flour of which1 contains a large proportion of starch1 gluten1 and mucilage1 and but little woody fibre1 and is consequently highly nutritious1 and easily digested4 ,to this class of plants we are also indebted for the food of the animals whose flesh is most generally used4 ,in pulse1 as well as in rye and oats1 there is1 besides the principles just mentioned1 a considerable portion of sugar1 which adds to their nutritive qualities4 ,we would class the different sorts of nuts1 next to grain and pulse1 in the proportion of nutriment which they afford2 starch and mucilage are their chief elements1 but these are combined with a kind of oil which is not of easy digestion1 and makes them disagree with most people when too liberally used4 ,almonds1 filberts1 walnuts1 and cocoa1 are the nuts in most request4 ,chocolate is a preparation of this kind1 which is very nutritious to those with whom it agrees4 ,next to grain1 pulse1 and nuts1 we may place the farinaceous roots1 potatoes1 carrots1 parsnips1 and ,jerusalem artichokes4 ,of these1 the first1 contains the most nourishment1 which depends on the great proportion of starch with which it abounds4 ,other pot-herbs possess little nourishment4 ,cabbage and greens1 for example1 are chiefly composed of fibre1 mucilage1 and water1 and the same is true of onions1 leeks1 celery1 lettuce1 and broccoli4 ,of fruits1 those which are most farinaceous and mucilaginous1 and which are sweet from the sugar contained in them1 are the most nutritious4 ,the pear should seem to answer this description the nearest1 but experience proves that this fruit is of less easy digestion than the apple1 whose greater acidity corrects the heavy quality of the saccharine matter with which the pear abounds4 ,,general ,,operations ,,of ,,cookery4 ,few of the substances which we use for food are consumed in the state in which they are originally produced by nature4 ,with the exception of some fruits and salads1 all of them undergo some preparation4 ,in most cases1 indeed1 this is indispensable2 for1 otherwise1 they would not only be less wholesome and nutritive1 but less digestible4 ,the preceding observations1 therefore1 are only applicable to the materials when cooked1 and not to the crude vegetables and raw flesh in the undressed state4 ,the general processes of cookery resolve themselves into the various modes of applying heat under different circumstances4 ,they are the following--roasting1 frying1 broiling1 baking1 stewing1 and boiling4 ,these operations not only soften the raw materials1 and render them alimentary1 but the chemical constitution of the cooked substance suffers also such alterations1 that its constituent parts can often no longer be recognised4 ,,roasting ,,on ,a ,,spit ,appears to be the most ancient process of rendering animal food eatable by means of the action of heat4 ,spits were used very anciently in all parts of the world1 and perhaps1 before the plain practice of hanging the meat to a string before the fire4 ,ere the iron age had taught men the use of metals1 these roasting instruments were made of wood2 and as we find it in ,virgil1#bj slender branches of the hazel tree were particularly chosen-- --------8,stabit sacer hircus ad aram 8,pinguiaque in verubus torrebimus extra colurnis40 ,the altar let the guilty goat approach1 ,and roast his fat limbs on the hazel broach40 #bj ,georgics ,,ii4 #ede4 ,roasting is the most simple and direct application of heat in the preparation of food4 ,the process is1 for the most part1 confined to animal substances1 though several fruits1 such as apples1 chesnuts1 and some roots1 are in this manner directly subjected to fire4 ,but in dressing animal food1 butcher's meat1 venison1 fowl1 and fish1 roasting is one of the most usual processes1 and it is1 we believe1 the best for rendering food nutritive and wholesome4 ,the chemical changes also which roasting induces1 are sufficiently slight1 as a careful analysis will procure from meat1 properly roasted1 nearly all the elements which are to be found in it in the raw state4 ,slight as the change is however in a chemical1 it is considerable in a culinary1 point of view4 ,the texture of the meat is more relaxed and consequently it is more tender2 it is also more sapid and high flavoured4 ,it is absolutely essential that the meat intended for roasting1 has been kept long enough for the fibres to become flaccid1 without which precaution the best meat does not become tender4 ,if the meat be frozen1 it should be thawed1 by putting it into cold water1 before it is put on the spit4 ,the process of roasting requires some care to conduct it properly4 ,the meat should be gradually turned before the fire1 in order to effect its uniform exposure to the rays of heat4 ,a covering of paper prevents the fat from taking fire1 and frequently basting the meat with gravy or melted fat1 prevents it from being scorched or becoming dry1 bitter1 and unpalatable4 ,it is necessary to be very careful in placing the meat to be roasted at a proper distance from the fire4 ,if it is put too near1 the surface will be scorched and burnt to a cinder1 while the inner portion will be quite raw2 and1 if it be too distant1 it will never have either the tenderness or the flavour it would have had by proper care4 ,at first1 it should be placed at some distance1 and afterwards be gradually brought nearer the fire1 to give the heat time to penetrate the whole piece equally2 and1 the larger the joint is1 the more gradually should this be done4 ,poultry1 in particular1 should be heated very gradually4 ,when the joint is of an unequal thickness1 the spit must be placed slanting1 so that the thinnest part is further removed from the fire4 ,the less the spit is made to pass through the prime part of the meat1 the better4 ,thus1 in a shoulder of mutton1 the spit is made to enter close to the shank-bone1 and passed along the blade-bone of the joint4 ,when the meat is nearly sufficiently roasted1 it is dusted over with a coating of flour2 this1 uniting with the fat and other juices exuded on the surface1 covers the joint with a brown crust1 glazed and frothy1 which gives to the eye a prelude of the palatable substance it encrusts4 ,the process1 as just described1 is very similar1 whatever may be the sort of meat roasted1 whether joints1 and the several species of fowl1 or game4 ,fish is not usually dressed in this way1 though the larger sorts are sometimes roasted4 ,those who relish eels and pike prefer them roasted to any other mode of dressing them4 ,it is a general practice to move the spit back when the meat is half done1 in order to clear the bottom part of the grate1 and to give the fire a good stirring1 that it may burn bright during the remainder of the process4 ,the meat is deemed sufficiently roasted when the steam puffs out of the joint in jets towards the fire4 ,to facilitate the process of roasting1 a metal screen1 consisting of a shallow concave reflector1 is placed behind the meat1 in order to reflect the rays of heat of the fire back again upon the meat4 ,this greatly hastens the process4 ,the screen is usually made of wood1 lined with tin4 ,it should be kept bright1 otherwise1 it will not reflect the rays of heat4 ,,roasting ,,on ,a ,,string ,is usually performed by means of the useful contrivance called a bottle jack1 a well-known machine1 so named from its form4 ,it only serves for small joints1 but does that better than the spit4 ,it is cheap and simple1 and the turning motion is produced by the twisting and untwisting of a string4 ,the sort of roasting machine1 called the ,poor ,man's ,spit1 is something of the same nature1 but still more simple4 ,the meat is suspended by a skein of worsted1 a twirling motion being given to the meat1 the thread is twisted1 and when the force is spent1 the string untwists itself two or three times alternately1 till the action being discontinued1 the meat must again get a twirl round4 ,when the meat is half done1 the lower extremity of the joint is turned uppermost1 and affixed to the string1 so that the gravy flows over the joint the reverse way it did before4 ,,roasting ,,in ,,an ,,open ,,oven4 ,a ,dutch or open oven is a machine for roasting small joints1 such as fowls1 c4 ,it consists of an arched box of tin open on one side1 which side is placed against the fire4 ,the joint being either suspended in the machine on a spit1 or by a hook1 or put on a low trevet placed on the bottom of the oven1 which is moveable4 ,the inside of the oven should be kept bright that it may reflect the heat of the fire4 ,this is the most economical and most expeditious method of roasting in the small way4 ,,roasting ,,in ,a ,,closed ,,oven4 ,roasting in a closed oven1 or baking1 consists in exposing substances to be roasted to the action of heat in a confined space1 or closed oven1 which does not permit the free access of air1 to cause the vapour arising from the roasted substance to escape as fast as it is formed1 and this circumstance materially alters the flavour of roasted animal substances4 ,roasters and ovens of the common construction are apt to give the meat a disagreeable flavour1 arising from the empyreumatic oil1 which is formed by the decomposition of the fat1 exposed to the bottom of the oven4 ,this inconvenience has been completely remedied in two ways1 by providing against the evil of allowing the fat to burn2 and secondly1 by carrying out of the oven by a strong current of heated air1 the empyreumatic vapours1 as fast as they are formed4 ,such are the different processes of roasting meat4 ,rationale4--,the first effect of the fire is to rarify the watery juices within its influence which make their escape in the form of steam4 ,the albuminous portion then coagulates in the same manner as the white of an egg does1 the gelatine and the osmazome#ba become detached from the fibrine1 and unite with a portion of the fat1 which also is liquified by the expansive property of heat4 ,the union of these form a compound fluid not to be found in the meat previously4 ,this is retained in the interstices of the fibres where it is formed by the brown frothy crust1 but flows abundantly from every pore when a cut is made into the meat with a knife4 ,in consequence of the dissipation of the watery juices1 the fibrous portion becomes gradually corrugated1 and1 if not attentively watched1 its texture is destroyed1 and it becomes rigid4 ,chemists prove that the peculiar odour and taste of roasted meat depends on the development of the principle which has been called osmazome1 or the animal extractive matter of the old chemist1 a substance which differs very much from every other constituent part of animal matter chemically1 in being soluble in alcohol--and to the senses1 in being extremely savoury or sapid4 ,it is upon this principle1 which seems to admit of considerable varieties1 that the peculiar grateful flavour of animal food1 7whether in the form of broth or roasted17 and of each of its kinds1 depends4 ,osmazome exists in the largest quantity in the fibrous organs1 or combined with fibrine in the muscles1 while the tendons and other gelatinous organs appear to be destitute of it4 ,the flesh of game1 and old animals1 contains it in greater quantity than that of young animals abounding in gelatine4 #ba ,derived from 1 smell1 and 1 broth4 ,the tenderness produced by roasting1 we account for1 from the expansion of the watery juices into steam1 loosening and dissevering the fibres one from another1 in forcing a passage through the pores to make their escape by4 ,this violence1 also1 must rupture all the finer network of the cellular membranes1 besides the smaller nerves and blood vessels which ramify so numerously through every hair's-breadth of animal substance4 ,this dissolution of all the minute parts of the meat1 which must take place before a particle of steam can escape1 will most clearly account both for the tenderness and the altered colour of roasted meat4 ,the action of heat1 also1 upon the more solid parts of the bundles of fibres1 will1 independent of the expansion of the juices1 cause them to enlarge their volume1 and consequently make the smaller fibres less firmly adhesive4 ,,broiling4 ,another process in which meat is subjected to the immediate action of fire is broiling1 which at first sight seems not to differ from roasting4 ,the effect on the meat is1 however1 considerably different4 ,the process consists in laying chops or slices of meat on clear burning coals1 or a gridiron placed over a clear fire4 ,it is indispensable that the chops or slices be moderately thin1 otherwise the outside will be scorched to a cinder before they are cooked within2 from one fourth to three fourths of an inch is a proper thickness4#bb ,it is also necessary that the fire be moderately brisk1 without smoke or flame1 lest the meat should acquire a smoky taste4 ,when a gridiron is used it ought to be thoroughly heated before the slices or chops are laid on it1 to prevent them from sticking to the bars4 ,in order to broil them equally1 they must be turned from time to time till the cook can easily pierce them with a fork or sharp skewer1 which is the test of them being sufficiently cooked4 ,it is improper1 however1 to cut into the chops to ascertain whether they are broiled enough1 because it lets out the gravy4 #bb ,it is recommended by cooks to previously beat the raw slices with a mallet1 but this practice is a bad one4 ,coke is the best fuel for broiling1 for it does not emit any smoke1 and gives a clear and moderate heat2 a mixture of coke and charcoal is exceedingly well calculated for the broiling process4 ,those gridirons of the usual appearance and form1 that have the bars fluted or hollowed on the upper side1 by which means1 the fat that comes from the meat that is cooked on them1 is prevented from falling into the fire1 and causing flame and smoke are the best2 for all the grease that runs down the bars is received into a small trough1 which prevents it from being wasted or lost4 ,the upright gridiron is a still better invention1 as the meat cooked on it1 is entirely free from smoke1 and the melted fat is still more easily saved1 and kept more clean4 ,rationale4--,the heat being very quickly and directly applied1 not gradually as in roasting and baking1 the surface of the meat is speedily freed from its watery juices1 and the fibres become corrugated1 forming a firm and crisp incrustation of fibre and fat4 ,this crust effectually prevents the escape of the juices from within2 namely1 the gelatine1 and the osmazome1 which are more rapidly expanded by the heat than in roasting1 and consequently must more violently dissever the small fibres among which they are lodged1 the effect1 however1 is more mechanical than chemical1 for it does not appear that any new combination is formed1 nor much disorganization produced4 ,accordingly1 it is found that broiled meat is more sapid1 and contains more liquid albumen1 gelatine1 and free osmazome1 than the same meat would do if boiled or roasted4 ,it is this greater degree of juicyness1 sapidity1 and tenderness1 that constitutes the peculiarity and perfection of this mode of cooking1 compared with roasting1 baking1 or frying in a pan4 ,every sort of meat1 however1 is not fit for broiling4 ,the chemistry of the process will point out the sorts best adapted for it4 ,the flesh1 for example1 of old animals1 which is deficient in gelatine and albumen1 would be too much dried by roasting4 ,the larger muscles1 also1 which abound in fibrous substance1 such as the rump of beef1 are well fitted for broiling4 ,the flesh of game is likewise less juicy and gelatinous1 and forms a very savoury dish when broiled4 ,the process is peculiarly fit for most sorts of fish1 which roasting or baking would render dry and shrivelled1 and in many cases boiling would make it too soft and pulpy4 ,fresh caught char1 and trout1#bc are in the highest perfection when dressed in this way4 #bc ,the best way of eating mackerel1 is to broil it in buttered paper upon the gridiron2 and1 when properly done1 to put fresh butter in the inside1 with chopped parsley1 pepper1 and salt1 which melts1 and adds an exceedingly good flavour to the fish4 ,on the other hand1 the flesh which abounds in watery juices and gelatine is not well adapted for broiling4 ,the flesh of all young animals is of this kind2 and accordingly lamb1 veal1 and sucking pig2 the flesh of the fawn and kid do not answer to be broiled but roasted4 ,the same is true of all the parts of an animal1 whatever be its age1 which abound more in gelatine1 albumen1 and fat1 than in red muscular fibre4 ,broiled beaf steaks were the established breakfast of the ,maids of ,honour of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,at an earlier period they gave strength and vigour to those who 8-----------------------------------drew 1 8,and almost joined the horns of the tough yew40 ,,frying4 ,frying is a process somewhat intermediate between roasting and boiling4 ,indeed1 in one sense1 it may be termed boiling1 as it is the application of heat to the substance to be cooked1 through the medium of melted fat1 raised to the boiling temperature4 ,the effect on the meat is very peculiar1 and easily distinguished from every other mode of cooking4 ,the meat is prepared in the same way as in broiling1 by cutting it into chops1 or slices1 of not more than half an inch or three quarters in thickness4 ,a sufficient quantity of mutton or beef suet1 butter1 lard1 or oil1 being melted in a pan1 and made boiling-hot1 the meat is laid in it4 ,it is not necessary that the meat be wholly immersed in the boiling fat2 if it be immersed in part1 it will be quite sufficient4 ,when flesh is the substance to be fried1 the pieces1 previously to their being put into the pan1 are sometimes brushed over with eggs and crumbs of stale bread1 flour1 or any other farinaceous substance4 ,this application may also be made when the meat is nearly cooked4 ,the intention of it is to cover the meat with a thin brown crust1 the savour of which increases the relish of the dish4 ,fish are1 for the most part1 treated in this manner when fried4 ,it answers well with trout1 whitings1 flounders1 and soles4 ,when this application is made to the meat previously to its being put into the pan1 the peculiar flavour of the meat is more effectually retained4 ,one of the best preparations for this purpose is oatmeal1 flour1 or crumbs of stale bread1 made into a liquid paste with the yolk and white of eggs4 ,vegetable1 as well as animal substances1 are subjected to this process1 though it is always at the expense of their wholesome and nutritive qualities2 and not always to the improvement of their taste and flavour4 ,as in the case of animal substances1 all the juices are1 by frying1 extracted from the vegetables2 with this difference1 however1 that their place is not supplied by the melted fat2 for the starch of the vegetables 7potatoes for example7 is rendered insoluble in water by the fat1 and exhibits a corneous appearance and texture4 ,fried potatoes are the most familiar instance of the process4 ,when cut into thin slices and fried in oil1 butter1 or lard1 they are rendered semi-transparent4 ,cabbage1 or the stalks1 leaves1 and fruits of other vegetable substances1 previously boiled and then fried1 shrink1 and become more easy to break1 in proportion as the water is driven off from them1 as this1 during their previous boiling1 dissolves the saccharine and amylaceous matter which rendered them supple and juicy4 ,these principles are much better prepared and improved by boiling2 they are very much deteriorated by the boiling fat in the frying pan4 ,the melted fat1 or oil1 should always be brought to the boiling point1 or nearly so4 ,the proper temperature is ascertained by putting into the fat a few sprigs of parsley1 a thin slice of turnip1 or a piece of bread1 and if any of these substances become crisp without acquiring a black colour1 the fat is hot enough for frying2 if it be made hotter1 it becomes blackened1 and the meat acquires a burnt and unpleasant flavour4 ,any sort of hard fat1 such as beef suet1 is the best fitted for frying meat2 because1 fat of this description can be brought to a higher temperature1 without suffering decomposition1 than either lard1 butter1 or oil4 ,there are1 however1 particular kinds of meat which answer better with some one or other of these than with any of the rest4 ,fish1 for example1 is best fried in oil4 ,a rich brown colour is communicated to the fried substance1 by pressing it1 when nearly cooked1 against the bottom of the pan4 ,the fire for frying should be kept sharp and clear1 to keep the melted fat at a sufficient high temperature1 and without this precaution the fried substance cannot be browned4 ,if the temperature of the fat is not hot enough1 the fried meat will be sodden4 ,fish cannot be fried of a good colour1 and crisp1 and firm texture1 unless the fat is boiling hot4 ,frying1 though one of the most common culinary occupations1 is one of those that is least commonly performed4 ,eggs are often fryed4 8,fresh butter1 hissing in the pan1 receives the yolk and white together in its burning bosom4 ,one minute or two and all the noise is over2 and1 sprinkled with pepper1 salt1 and a few drops of vinegar1 they appear perfectly fit for the table4 ,the salamander is often held over them1 and accelerates the culinary process40 ,rationale4--,the process of frying is considerably different from those which we have formerly been examining4 ,in frying1 the high temperature of the melted fat has the effect of extracting 7at least from the outer surface7 all the gelatine1 osmazome and albumen1 the place of which is1 in part1 supplied by the melted fat entering between the fibres1 and gradually filling up the interstices4 ,it is this circumstance which prevents the fibres of fried meat from becoming hard and dry1 and preserves them in a tender and supple state4 ,meat which has been fried1 shrinks more in bulk than when boiled or roasted1 in consequence of the melted fat having a stronger influence in dislodging the animal juices4 ,it is this also which gives the meat the structure which has not unaptly been compared to leather4 ,taste informs us1 independently of our rationale1 that fried meat is less gelatinous and less savoury than when simply boiled or roasted4 ,it is also less tender4 ,the gelatine and other juices of the animal fibre1 which are extracted during the process may be discovered1 after the melted matter in the pan is suffered to settle1 in the form of a rich1 brown1 savoury jelly1 which separates spontaneously from the rest of the substance4 ,,stewing4 ,stewing differs from roasting and broiling1 in the heat being applied to the substance through a small portion of a liquid medium2 and1 from boiling and frying1 in the process being conducted by means of an aqueous1 and not by means of an oily fluid4 ,it is necessary that the fire be moderate2 for a strong heat suddenly applied would be very injurious4 ,the liquids employed as the medium for applying the heat are usually water1 gravy1 or broth1 the quantity of which must be such as shall prevent the meat from burning and adhering to the pan4 ,it is not requisite that the liquid be made to boil in stewing4 ,it should only be raised nearly to a simmering heat1 which will retard the fluid being evaporated too quickly4 ,the closeness of the vessel will also prevent the waste of the liquid4 ,if it diminish too quickly1 it must1 from time to time1 be replenished4 ,the management of the fire in cooking1 is1 in all cases1 a matter of importance1 but in no case is it so necessary to be attended to as in preparing stews or made dishes2 not only the palatableness1 but even the strength or richness of all made dishes1 seems to depend very much upon the management of the heat employed in cooking them4 ,the most proper sorts of animal food for stewing1 are such as abound in fibrine1 and which are too dry or too tough for roasting4 ,when beef or mutton is rather old and too coarse flavoured1 and not tender enough for the spit or the gridiron1 it may1 by stewing1 be not only rendered tolerably palatable1 but even sometimes savoury and good4 ,but the stewing process is not confined to flesh of this sort2 for veal and other young flesh which abounds in gelatine1 when properly stewed1 is much relished4 ,the vegetables most usually stewed are carrots1 turnips1 potatoes1 pease1 beans1 and other leguminous seeds4 ,some fruits are also cooked in this way4 ,rationale4--,stewing is nothing else than boiling by means of a small quantity of an aqueous fluid1 and continuing the operation for a long time to render the substance tender1 to loosen its texture1 to render it more sapid1 and to retain and concentrate the most essential parts of animal or vegetable food4 ,if the stew-pan be close shut1 it is evident that none of the nutritive principles can escape1 and must either be found in the meat itself or in the liquid4 ,the water or gravy in which the meat is stewed1 being capable of dissolving the gelatine and albumen1 the greater part of them become separated during the simmering process4 ,now1 since the firm texture of the bundles of fibres of the meat is owing to the solid gelatine and albumen glueing them1 as it were1 together1 when they are dissolved and disengaged1 the meat must become greatly disorganized4 ,these principles1 as well as the fat and osmazome1 are partly disengaged from the meat1 and become united with the gravy4 ,it is to these1 indeed1 that the gravy owes all its richness and excellence4 ,the muscular fibres and the tendons acquire a gluey appearance and texture1 and the whole forms a savoury gelatinous stew1 gravy1 or soup4 ,no scorching or browning of the meat takes place if the process is properly conducted2 for the temperature to which it is exposed does not exceed the boiling point of water4 ,in the stewing of vegetables1 saccharine matter is formed1 the starch and mucilage are rendered soluble1 and of course1 set free the woody fibre1 which either floats through the liquid or adheres together very slightly4 ,it accordingly constitutes either a pasty fluid1 or converts the vegetables to a soft pulp2 sometimes their original shape being preserved entire1 and at other times not4 ,,boiling4 ,boiling is a much more common operation than any of those we have considered1 with the exception perhaps of roasting4 ,it consists1 as every body knows1 in subjecting the materials of food to the influence of heat1 through the medium of boiling water1 or of steam4 ,the water employed for boiling meat or pulse should be soft1 and the joint should be put on the fire immersed in cold water1 in order that the heat may gradually cause the whole mass to become boiled equally4 ,if the piece of meat is of an unequal thickness1 the thinner parts will be over-done before the more massy portion is sufficiently acted on by the boiling water4 ,salted meat requires to be very slowly boiled1 or simmered only1 for a quick and rapid ebullition renders salted provisions extremely hard4 ,frozen substances should be thoroughly thawed1 and this is best effected by immersing them in cold water4 ,count ,rumford has taken much pains to impress on the minds of those who exercise the culinary art1 the following simple but pratical1 important fact1 namely1 that when water begins only to be agitated by the heat of the fire1 it is incapable of being made hotter1 and that the violent ebullition is nothing more than an unprofitable dissipation of the water1 in the form of steam1 and a considerable waste of fuel4 ,from the beginning of the process to the end of it the boiling should be as gentle as possible4 ,causing any thing to boil violently in any culinary process1 is very ill-judged2 for it not only does not expedite1 in the smallest degree1 the process of cooking1 but it occasions a most enormous waste of fuel1 and by driving away with the steam many of the more volatile and more savoury particles of the ingredients1 renders the victuals less good and less palatable3 it is not by the bubbling up1 or violent boiling1 as it is called1 of the water that culinary operations are expedited4 ,one of the most essential conditions to be attended to in the boiling of meat is1 to skim the pot well1 and keep it really boiling1 the slower the better4 ,if the skimming be neglected1 the coagulated albuminous matter will attach itself to the meat1 and spoil the good appearance of it4 ,it is not necessary to wrap meat or poultry in a cloth1 if the pot be carefully skimmed4 ,the general rule of the best cooks is to allow from #bj to #cj minutes slow simmering to a pound of meat1 reckoning from the time the pot begins to boil4 ,the cover of the boiling pot should fit close1 to prevent the unnecessary evaporation of the water1 and the smoke insinuating itself under the edge of the cover1 and communicating to the boiled substance a smoky taste4 ,cooks often put a trevet1 or plate1 on the bottom of the boiling pot1 to prevent the boiled substance sticking to the pot4 ,rationale4--,when flesh or fish is boiled in an open vessel1 or one not closely covered1 the fibrous texture is rendered more tender3 at the same time its nutritive quality is not much diminished4 ,for the temperature of the water or steam1 never exceeding #bab1 is insufficient to produce the partial charring1 which roasting and broiling effect4 ,but1 as in stewing1 the gelatine1 albumen1 osmazome1 and fat1 are developed and disengaged1 and becoming united with the liquid in the vessel1 form a soup1 or broth4 ,the paler colour of boiled meat is owing to the blood being separated and diffused in the water4 ,in frying1 the boiling fat or oil enters into the interstices of the fibres1 which the disengaged animal juices have left empty4 ,in boiling1 in a similar way1 the hot water takes the place of the blood1 gelatine1 fat1 and albumen1 which have been dissolved and separated from the fibres4 ,the fibres are in this manner soaked and washed1 first by the boiling water1 and afterwards by the soup or broth which is formed1 till the whole texture assume a softened consistence1 and pale appearance4 ,it is this1 rather than any softening of the fibres themselves1 which seems to be the real effect produced1 unless1 with some1 we consider the fibres as nothing more than minute and close-set bundles of blood vessels4 ,this doctrine1 however1 the experience of every cook will disprove2 for if the boiling be long continued1 the fibres of the meat will alone remain1 and so far from becoming more soft and pulpy1 they will become dry and juiceless4 ,if indeed the boiling point of the water be artificially increased above #bab1 by pressure applied to the surface of the liquid1 the fibres may be reduced to a pulp1 quite homogeneous4 ,when this is done by ,papin's digester1 or by any other apparatus of the same kind1 and when the process under such circumstances is long continued1 the hardest bones may be converted into jelly4 ,it is only by boiling that the more gelatinous parts of flesh can be completely extracted unaltered from such parts as are cartilaginous1 ligamentous1 or tendinous4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,chemical ,,changes ,,produced ,,on ,,animal ,,and ,,vegetable ,,food1 ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,processes ,,of ,,cookery4 ,the principal operations of cookery which we have just examined and explained1 all agree in this1 that they effect some chemical change on the materials operated upon1 by which they are rendered more digestible1 more wholesome1 and consequently more nutritive4 ,in such of the operations as are performed by the direct application of heat to the flesh of animals1 namely1 roasting1 baking1 frying1 and broiling1 the meat loses the vapid and nauseous taste and odour which it possesses in a raw state1 and becomes savoury1 juicy1 and grateful to the taste4 ,these effects arise from the development of the gelatine and osmazome from the smaller vessels1 and their being rendered soluble2 while1 at the same time a portion of the fat is liquified1 and combines with them after they are disengaged4 ,the fibres again1 on the surface of the meat1 are partly scorched1 and form a crust1 which1 except in the interstices of the corrugations1 is impermeable1 and consequently prevents the savoury gravy that is disengaged from the fibres from oozing out or becoming evaporated4 ,it is thus only disengaged from its chemical union with the fibres1 and remains mechanically united with them in the meat1 after it is cooked1 as we see upon cutting into the fibrous portion4 ,the effect produced on the fat is somewhat different4 ,the direct application of fire to this portion of the meat soon melts part of the substance1 and raises it to the boiling point1 or nearly so2 the water which it contains is consequently given off in the form of steam1 and it carries with it a quantity of osmazome4 ,it is this which occasions the peculiar odour that arises from meat while roasting4 ,the vapid taste is also corrected by the empyreuma1 combined with a minute quantity of ammonia1 which is soon developed on the surface of the fat1 by the partial charring--not of the fat itself1 but of the cellular membrane in which it is enveloped4 ,this structure may easily be perceived on a slight examination of a piece of recent fat2 all the membranous or skinny portions being only the receptacles or nests for the fat itself4 ,and since these membranes are for the most part exceedingly thin and easily ruptured1 and since heat increases the volume of the fat which they contain1 the application of heat in roasting or broiling will soon make all the membranes burst which are within its influence1 and thus give a free passage for the juices to unite with each other4 ,there is1 according to these statements1 but little loss of the substance of meat when roasted or broiled1 and the chemical changes produced are so slight1 that nearly all its nutritive elements must be preserved and concentrated in the cooked meat4 ,when there is a watery medium used1 through which heat is applied to animal food1 as for example1 in the process of stewing or boiling1 a portion of the fat1 gelatine1 and osmazome1 is dissolved1 and mixes with the water4 ,nutritive matter is consequently lost1 or1 at least1 it is transferred from the meat to the broth or soup4 ,in the operation of stewing there is less of this transfer made2 and1 besides1 as the medium is scarcely kept at a boiling heat1 less of the nutritive juices are dissolved4 ,when1 however1 the broth or gravy in which meat is boiled is made use of1 as well as the meat itself1 boiling is the most economical practice2 for though nothing be added except the water1 this itself1 if it contains no nourishment1 at least fills the stomach1 and serves to diffuse more widely the nutritive juices of the meat which it holds in solution or in mixture4 ,but though boiling be thus the most economical practice1 it is not always to the taste of individuals1 or even of whole nations to use the broth or soup4 ,the ,english and ,irish1 for example1 rarely follow this practice1 while the ,scots1 ,french1 and ,germans1 prefer it to all other modes of cooking4 ,in general1 then1 it should seem1 that roasting as it is the simplest1 is also the best mode of rendering the flesh of animals fit for human food4 ,roasted meat is wholesome and highly nourishing2 and when there is not too much of the empyreumatic crust formed1 it is for the most part easily digested4 ,in these respects1 broiled meat differs little from such as is roasted4 ,what is fried is always less tender4 ,it is often found that roasted or broiled meat sits more easily on the stomach1 and is sooner digested by those whose digestive organs are feeble or diseased1 than fried or boiled meat1 or broths and stews4 ,the effects of the processes of cookery on vegetable substances1 though usually very slight and simple1 are in some instances both striking and unexpected4 ,for example1 some sorts of vegetables are extremely acrid and even poisonous in their crude state1 and altogether unfit for human food2 yet1 by simply boiling them in water1 they become bland1 sweet1 and wholesome4 ,several species of arum 7cuckoo-pint71 which are very acrid1 and would be dangerous to use raw1 become quite palatable pot-herbs when boiled4 ,their acrimony must reside in a very volatile principle1 which1 during the boiling1 makes its escape1 or is chemically altered2 but the nature of this principle has not yet been accurately investigated by chemists4 ,a more familiar example than this is found in onions1 leeks1 and garlick1 whose acrimony and strong odour can be almost destroyed1 or rather driven off by a sufficiently long application of heat1 either directly1 or through the medium of water4 ,many other instances could be given1 but we shall content ourselves with one more4 ,every body knows that potatoes1 in a raw state1 are nauseous and unpalatable4 ,it is not1 perhaps1 so generally known that the potatoe1 7solanum tuberosum17 belongs to the night-shade genus of plants1 which are all more or less poisonous4 ,if potatoes were used raw1 in any quantity1 they would be deleterious to man2 nor does it disprove this that cattle eat them with impunity1 as sheep and goats eat plants much more strongly poisonous to man1 such as hemlockdropwort1 oenanthe crocata2 and waterhemlock1 phelandrium aquaticum4 ,by boiling or roasting1 however1 all the unpalatable and all the unwholesome qualities of the potatoe are changed1 and it becomes farinaceous1 wholesome1 digestible1 and highly nutritious4 ,yet1 although this change is remarkable1 and could scarcely have been anticipated1 very little is lost and nothing is added to the potatoe by either roasting or boiling1 yet its immediate constituent parts have evidently suffered a very great chemical alteration1 chiefly1 in consequence it should seem1 from the farinaceous substance being acted on by water4 ,vegetables1 when used as food1 are most commonly boiled1 and seldom baked or roasted4 ,salads1 indeed1 are eaten raw1 without any application of heat4 ,the chemical action of heat on pot-herbs1 on esculent roots1 and leguminous seeds1 does not appear to be confined to the mere softening of their fibres1 or to the solution or coagulation of some of their juices and component parts2 for we have just now seen that their flavour1 and other sensible qualities1 as well as their texture1 suffer a remarkable chemical change1 which greatly improves their alimentary properties4 ,in the cooking of vegetables1 saccharine matter is often formed1 or mucilage and jelly extracted2 and the whole substance is on that account rendered more palatable1 wholesome1 and nourishing4 ,these effects are very well exemplified in the changes which take place in flour when converted into bread2#bd which differs materially from flour paste1 insomuch that the constituent parts of the unbaked dough can no longer be separated by the processes employed in chemical analysis4 #bd ,a treatise on the art of making good and wholesome bread of wheat1 oats1 rye1 barley1 and other farinaceous grain1 exhibiting the alimentary properties and chemical constitution of different kinds of bread corn1 and of the various substitutes used for bread1 in different parts of the world1 p4 #eh1 #ahba4 ,vegetable substances are most commonly boiled or baked2 or1 if occasionly fried or roasted1 there is always much water present1 which prevents the greater action of the fire from penetrating below the surface4 ,the universal effect of cookery by boiling upon vegetable substances1 is to dissolve in the water some of their constituents1 such as the mucilage and starch1 and to render those that are not properly soluble1 as the gluten and fibre1 softer and more pulpy4 ,,comparative ,,diminution ,,of ,,the ,,weight ,,of ,,meat ,,in ,,cooking4 ,it is evident1 that whether the heat be applied directly or indirectly for cooking animal food1 there must be a considerable diminution of weight4 ,in the cooking of animal substances in public institutions1 where the allowance of meat is generally weighed out in its raw state1 and includes bones1 and is served out cooked1 and sometimes without bone1 it is a matter of importance to ascertain nearly their relative proportions4 ,much1 no doubt1 depends upon the piece of the meat cooked1 and the degree of cookery1 and the attention bestowed on it4 ,persons who salt rounds of beef to sell by retail1 after it is boiled1 get #ai lbs4 of cold boiled beef from #be lbs4 raw2 but the meat is always rather underdone4 ,messrs4 ,donkin and ,gamble boiled in steam #ef lbs4 of captain's salt beef2 the meat1 when cold1 without the bones1 which amounted to #e lbs4 #f oz4 weighed only #ce lbs4 ,in another experiment1 #aac lbs4 of prime mess beef1 gave #i lbs4 #aj oz4 of bones1 and #dg lbs4 #h oz4 meat2 and in a third1 #bac lbs4 mess beef gave #ac lbs4 #h oz4 bones1 and #ajc lbs4 #aj oz4 meat2 or1 taken in the aggregate1 #cgb lbs4 of salt beef1 including bones1 furnish1 when boiled1 #ahf lbs4 #b oz41 without bone1 being about #ej per cent42 or1 disregarding the bone altogether1 salt meat loses1 by boiling1 about #dd4b per cwt4 or nearly half4 ,we are indebted to ,professor ,wallace 7of ,edinburgh7 for the detail of a very accurate and extensive experiment in a public establishment1 of which the results were1 that1 in pieces of #aj lbs4 weight1 each #ajj lbs4 of ,,beef lost1 on an average1 by boiling1 #bf4d2 baking1 #cj4b2 and roasting1 #cb4b3 ,,mutton1 the leg1 by boiling1 #ba4d2 by roasting the shoulder1 #ca4a2 the neck1 #cb4d2 the loin1 #ce4i4 ,hence1 generally speaking1 mutton loses1 by boiling1 about one-fifth of its original weight1 and beef about one-fourth2 again1 mutton and beef lose1 by roasting1 about one-third of their original weight4 ,the loss arises1 in roasting1 from the melting out of the fat and the evaporation of the watery part of the juices1 but the nutritious matters remain condensed in the solid meat when cooked2 but in boiling1 the loss arises partly from fat melted out1 but chiefly from gelatine and osmazome becoming dissolved in the water in which the meat is boiled2 there is1 therefore1 a real loss of nutritive matter in boiling1 unless the broth be used1 when this mode of cooking becomes the most economical4 ,,primary ,,or ,,chief ,,dishes ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,table4 ,the principal or chief dishes that are prepared for the ,english table1 what the scientific cooks for the marshals and generals of ,france would term dishes of the first order1 are few in number4 ,flesh1 fowl and fish1 roasted1 boiled or fried1 accompanied by some simple and easy made puddings and pies1 are the primary dishes of an ,english table4 ,soups and broths are less generally made use of2 and the flesh1 fowl and fish1 served up in made dishes1 are1 like the lord mayor in his state coach1 generally less noticed than the attendants4 ,,broth ,may be defined a weak decoction of meat1 slightly seasoned with the addition of aromatic herbs1 roots or spices1 in which the flavour of the meat greatly predominates4 ,to produce a high flavoured broth1 it is essential that the boiling of the meat be moderate1 and continued for some time2 the simmering should be done in a vessel nearly closed4 ,cooks consider it essential that the broth be clear2 the scum1 or albumen of the meat1 which becomes coagulated and rises to the surface during the boiling1 must therefore be removed from time to time4 ,the meat employed for broth 7and also for soup and gravy71 should be fresh1 for if in the slightest degree tainted or musty1 it infallibly communicates a very disagreeable taste to the broth2 besides1 fresh meat gives a more savoury broth than meat that has been kept for two or three days4 ,it is also advisable to score the meat and to cut it into slices1 or to bruise it with a mallet or cleaver4 ,two pounds of muscular beef scored and cut into slices1 affords a stronger and far more savoury broth1 than #c lbs4 of the same beef when boiled in one piece4 ,cooks usually allow for good broth1 one pound of muscular meat1 to two quarts of water1 and they suffer the fluid to simmer till reduced1 by evaporation1 to one pint1 or one pint and a half4 ,a second decoction may be made by again covering the meat with a less quantity of water1 and suffering it to boil1 taking care to supply the water from time to time as it becomes evaporated4 ,this reminds us of ,rabelais1 the humorous vicar of ,meudon1 who distinguishes1 in his jocose way1 two sorts of broths4 7,bouillon de ,prime17 prime-broth2 and broth good for hounds2 7,bouillon de levriers17 the meaning of which stands as follows4#be ,the first designates that premature delibation of broth which the young monks in the convent used to steal1 when they could1 from the kitchen1 in their way to the choir at the hour of 8,prime10 a service which was performed at about seven or eight in the morning1 when the porridge-pot1 with all its ingredients1 had been boiling for the space of one or two hours1 and when the broth1 full of eyes swimming gently on the golden surface1 had already obtained an interesting appearance and taste4 ,on the contrary1 greyhound's broth1 7,bouillon de levriers17 means that portion of the porridge which was served to the novices after an ample presumption in favour of the ,magnates of the monastery4 ,this was good for nothing1 and monks of inferior ranks were ready to throw it to the dogs4 #be ,tabella ,cibaria1 p4 #bc4 ,the flavouring ingredients1 which are usually the domestic pot-herbs and indigenous roots1 such as cellery1 carrots1 c4 should be added at the end of the process1 to prevent their aromatic substances becoming dissipated by long simmering4 ,dr4 ,kitchener#bf says1 8meat from which broth has been made1 is excellently well prepared for potting1 and is quite as good1 or better than that which has been boiled1 till it is dry40 #bf ,the ,cook's ,oracle1 p4 #ajc4 ,,soup4 ,soups are decoctions of meat which differ from broth1 in being more concentrated1 and usually also more complex in their composition4 ,they are in fact strong broths1 containing either farinaceous roots and seeds1 or other parts of vegetable substances4 ,the erudite editor of the 8,almanach des ,gourmands0#bg tells us1 that ten folio volumes would not contain the receipts of all the soups that have been invented in that grand school of good eating1 the ,parisian kitchen4 ,the author of ,apicius ,redivivus#bh says 8the general fault of our ,english soups seems to be the employment of an excess of spice1 and too small a portion of roots and herbs40 8,point des ,legumes1 point de ,cuisiniere10 is deservedly the common adage of the ,french kitchen4 ,a better soup may be made with a couple of pounds of meat1 and plenty of vegetables1 than our common cooks will make with four times that quantity of meat4 ,the great art of composing a rich soup consists in so proportioning the several flavouring ingredients1 that no particular taste predominates40--,one pound and a half of meat at least ought to be allowed for making a quart of soup4 ,the full flavour can only be obtained by long and slow simmering the meat1 during which time the vessel should be kept covered to prevent the evaporation of the fluid as much as possible4 #bg ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #cj4 #bh ,or the ,cook's ,oracle1 #b;d edit4 ,vol4 #ig4 ,the flavouring ingredients should not be added till ten or fifteen minutes before the soup is finished4 ,clear soups should be perfectly transparent1 and thickened soups1 should be of the consistence of cream4 ,the soup1 says a writer1 on ,cookery1 might be called the portal of the edifice of a ,french dinner1 either plain or sumptuous4 ,it is a sine qua non article4 ,it leads to the several courses constituting the essence of the repast1 and lays the unsophisticated foundation upon which the whole is to rest1 as upon a solid basis1 in the stomach4 ,it is1 perhaps1 the most wholesome food that can be used2 and the gaunt1 yet strong frame of the ,french soldiery1 has long experienced the benefit of it4 ,they vulgarly say1 8,c'est la soupe qui fait le ,soldat40 #8,it is the soup that makes the soldier4' ,partial to this mess1 they have it daily in barracks1 in their marches1 and in the camp2 and they often swallow a large bowl of broth and bread1 in the morning a few minutes before the trumpets calls them to the field of battle4 ,,pies ,are those dishes which consist either of meat1 or of fruit1 covered with a farinaceous crust1 enriched with butter or other fat1 and rendered fit for eating by baking4 ,the crust of the pie is usually made of two parts by weight of wheaten flour1 and one part of butter1 lard1 or other fat4 ,the flour is made into a stiff paste with cold water1 and rolled out on a board with a paste pin to the thickness of about one quarter of an inch1 the board being previously sprinkled over with flour to prevent the dough from sticking to the board4 ,about one-sixth part of the butter1 in pieces of the size of a nutmeg1 is put over the extended paste1 and the whole again dusted with flour2 the paste is then doubled up and rolled out as before4 ,a like portion of butter is again distributed over the paste1 which1 after being doubled up1 is rolled out1 and the same operation is repeated till the whole quantity of butter is thus incorporated with the flour4 ,part of the paste is then laid1 one quarter or half an inch in thickness1 over the inside of a deep dish in which the pie is to be baked1 and the meat1 cut in chops or slices1 is put into the dish1 together with the seasonings1 and a portion of water or gravy1 about one tea cup full1 to one pound of meat4 ,the contents of the basin are then covered with a lid1 made of the remainder of the paste1 rolled out rather thicker than the inside lining of the dish1 and the lid is made to adhere to the inside sheeting1 which should extend over the rim of the dish1 by pressing the top paste close upon the margin4 ,a few small holes are then made in the top crust1 and the pie is put in the oven4 ,the baking should be slow4 ,if the pie be put into a hot oven1 the crust becomes hard1 and many a cook is blamed for making bad pies1 when the fault really lies with the baker4 ,a light and flaky pie crust can only be produced by the judicious application in the manner stated1 of the butter1 or fatty matter4 ,by this means the butter is distributed1 in distinct layers1 through the mass of the pie crust4 ,the flour dusted over each layer prevents the paste forming one mass1 or1 as it is called1 becoming heavy4 ,the more frequently1 therefore1 the paste is rolled out with butter1 lard1 or other fat1 interposed between each layer1 provided the layers are dusted over with flour1 the more flaky will be the pie2 and hence1 also1 by increasing the quantity of butter1 to a certain limit1 the flakeness of the pie crust becomes increased4 ,pastry cooks usually allow from ten to twelve ounces of butter to one pound of flour for making a light puff paste1 such as they use for tarts and patties4 ,,puddings ,are of two kinds2 the first consists of a farinaceous dough1 containing a portion of butter or other fat1 inclosing any kind of meat or fruit1 and rendered eatable by boiling2 it may be termed a boiled pie4 ,the paste for a meat pudding is usually made with beef suet1 or marrow1 one part of it chopped as fine as possible1 and intimately mixed with four parts by weight of flour1 is made into a paste with water or milk4 ,with this paste1 a pudding mould or basin1 previously rubbed with butter within1 is lined1 and the meat is added to fill up the vacancy4 ,a lid of paste is now put over the meat1 and made to adhere to the margin of the dish4 ,the whole is then tied over with a wetted cloth1 dusted with flour to prevent the dough sticking to it1 and then boiled in water till the pudding is sufficiently cooked4 ,the other kind of pudding is a batter composed of eggs1 butter and flour1 or any other farinaceous substance1 occasionally enriched with the admixture of fruit1 sugar1 and spices1 and rendered eatable either by boiling in the manner stated1 or by baking in an oven4 ,,made ,,dishes1 ,so called to distinguish them from plain1 roasted1 boiled1 or fried meat2 are usually composed of flesh1 fish1 poultry1 or vegetables1 stewed with gravy1 butter1 cream1 or other savoury sauces4 ,the composition of made dishes is generally from printed or written receipts1 except when done by what are termed professed cooks1 who1 understanding completely their business1 follow their own judgment1 in aid of the receipt4 ,there is a mistake very common in supposing that there is a great difficulty in cooking such dishes1 though there is indeed much trouble2 but if a mistake is made1 it can in general be remedied1 which is not the case in the mere simple operations of roasting and boiling1 where a mistake is very often irreparable4 ,when we take a view of the chemical composition of made dishes1 we soon perceive that they are all compounds of animal and vegetable substances1 rendered sapid or agreeable to the palate by strong decoctions of meat1 gravy1 and spices1 of various descriptions2 all of them abound in animal gelatine and vegetable mucilage1 or farinaceous matter1 rendered soluble in water4 ,the quantity of spices is generally small1 8#bitheir presence should be rather supposed than perceived1 they are the invisible spirit of good cookery40 #bi ,dr4 ,kitchiner's ,cook's ,oracle1 p4 #dic4 ,,observations ,,on ,,made ,,dishes4 ,made dishes are sometimes very expensive1 and sometimes very economical1 for ragouts and fricassees are often much less expensive than the plain dishes made of the same material1 that is1 a given weight of meat will go farther than if plainly roasted or boiled4 ,french cookery consists nearly altogether of made dishes1 both with the rich and poor4 ,the rich have them to gratify the palate1 and the poor1 for the sake of economy4 ,many circumstances combine to prevent made dishes from becoming of very general or frequent use in ,england4 ,the care1 attention1 and length of time necessary for preparing them1 are incompatible with the domestic affairs and usages of life in this country1 where time is far more precious than in any other country2 it is for that reason1 most probably1 that all the operations of ,english cookery are such as can be performed expeditiously4 ,the ,english cooks1 both in the middling and lower ranks1 are generally in a hurry to get a dinner dressed4 ,the ,french cooks1 on the contrary1 begin in the morning early1 and even in the house of the simple ,bourgois1 the dinner begins to be cooked immediately after breakfast4 ,the superior expedition1 and inferior degree of skill which distinguish ,english from ,french cookery1 would be sufficient alone to give the former the preference in this country2 but there are a number of other circumstances that have the same tendency4 ,a good table is a study in ,france3 it is with the master a grand object in life1 and with the cooks a constant employment1 like our journeymen in a manufactory4 ,with us1 again1 the dinner is readily prepared1 and expeditiously eaten4 ,it is despatched like a piece of business in this country2 but in ,france1 and more or less all over the ,continent1 people dine as if they had a pleasure in dining2 they converse more during the repast than almost at any other time1 and they never hurry it over as if they were in haste to be done1 and as if they had business always on their mind1 and were reflecting on the saying1 so common and so true1 that 8time is money40 ,it is curious enough1 however1 to remark1 that the ,french1 who sit so long1 and enjoy themselves so leisurely at dinner1 rise1 immediately after the dessert1 from the table1 and are ready for business2 and that the ,english1 who hurry the dinner over1 pass whole hours over the bottle as if time were of no value4 ,such are the inconsistencies of mankind1 arising from different tastes and different circumstances4 ,the construction of our kitchen grates and fire places1 and the nature of the fuel we burn1 are unfavourable to the slow and regular simmering with which made dishes are prepared2 and1 at the same time1 that they are unfavourable for made dishes1 they are exactly what is wanted for ,english cookery4 ,the construction of the grates1 together with the nature of the fuel1 produce a fierce scorching fire1 so that the direct rays of heat may be made to impinge on the substance to be cooked4 ,in ,france1 roasting large joints is almost impracticable with the form and nature of the fire2 so that it does not appear that taste or will has been the only guide in the mode of cooking in either country2 but that the practices most suitable to circumstances have been a chief cause of the great difference of the manner of dressing victuals4 ,english medical men have always been at great pains to condemn made dishes as injurious to health2 but the ,french physicians have been of a different opinion1 and if experientia docet is a true proverb1 they ought to be the best judges3 but those who have been used to both1 will allow that they are less heavy1 and the stomach seems to be less encumbered after the ,french dinner on made dishes1 than the ,english one on single joints4 ,in made dishes1 where butcher's meat enters1 as although the chief ingredient is generally much more done1 to use the common phrase1 none of its nutritive substances are lost2 but as the arguments for and against the real things of one or the other is not to be determined by reason1 and has not been determined by experience1 it would be absurd to give an opinion on the subject4 ,it may be well enough1 however1 to observe1 that the dispute about what are the most healthy dishes1 probably arises from difference of tastes1 and from those things to which the stomach has not been accustomed1 not agreeing with it at first2 so that most people on finding it so1 if they can avoid doing it1 never repeat the experiment4 ,the case is the same with ,foreigners as with ,englishmen1 for their stomachs do not at first find our dishes agree with them4 ,,gravy4 ,when the muscular part of meat is gradually exposed to a very moderate heat1 sufficient to brown the outer fibres1 the gelatine1 osmazome1 and other animal juices of it1 become disengaged1 and separated in a liquid state1 and constitute a fluid of a brown colour1 possessing a highly savoury and grateful taste4 ,hence gravy is the soluble constituent or liquid part of meat1 which1 spontaneously1 exudes from flesh1 when gradually exposed to a continued heat sufficient to corrugate the animal fibre4 ,flavouring vegetables are often added1 and fried with the meat1 such as sliced onions1 carrots or cellery1 till they are tender1 together with some spices and the usual condiments4 ,to extract gravy1 the meat is cut into thin slices1 or it is scored1 and the fibres are bruised with a mallet4 ,it is then usually seasoned1 with pepper and salt1 and exposed in a pan containing a small quantity of butter1 or other fat1 7or without any fat17 to the action of a gradual heat1 just sufficient to brown the outer fibre strongly4 ,the juices of the meat1 which are thus during the frying process1 copiously disengaged1 are suffered to remain exposed to the action of heat till they have assumed the consistence of a thin cream1 and a brown colour4 ,a small portion of water is then added to re-dissolve the extracted mass1 and after the whole has been suffered to simmer with the spices and roots for a short time1 together with an additional quantity of water1 the liquid is strained off through a sieve4 ,if the gravy be intended for made dishes1 it is customary to give it the consistence of cream1 by means of thickening paste4 7,see p4 #afj47 ,the meat is capable of furnishing an additional quantity of gravy4 ,it is therefore covered with water and suffered to simmer for about one hour1 or till the fluid is reduced to one half its bulk4 ,one pound and a quarter of lean beef1 or one pound and a half of veal1 will afford one pint of strong gravy4 ,when broth1 soups1 or gravy1 are preserved from day to day1 in hot weather1 they should be warmed up every day1 and put into fresh scalded pans1 this renders them less liable to spoil4 ,,sauces4 8,the fundamental principle of all1 ,is what ingenious cooks1 the relish call2 ,for when the markets send in loads of food1 ,they all are tasteless till that makes them good40 ,dr4 ,king's ,art of ,cookery4 ,sauces are intended to heighten the taste and give a savoury flavour to a dish1 flesh1 fish1 fowl1 or vegetables4 ,in ,england there is little variety in those kind of relishes1 and it was observed by a foreigner1 with a good deal of wit1 and a great deal of truth1 8that the ,english had a great variety of forms of religion and no variety in their sauces2 whereas1 in ,france they had uniformity in the former1 and an infinite variety in the latter40 ,melted butter is the grand and chief basis of most ,english sauces4 ,melted butter and oysters1 melted butter and parsley1 melted butter and anchovies1 melted butter and eggs1 melted butter and shrimps1 melted butter and lobsters1 melted butter and capers1 are nearly all the sauces used in ,england4 ,besides these1 the following flavouring substances are in common use3 viz4 mushrooms1 onions1 spices1 sweet herbs1 wine1 soy1 and the usual condiments1 but melted butter1 gravy1 or some farinaceous mucilage1 form the basis of all sauces4 ,these substances combined in different proportions are quite sufficient to make an endless variety of picquant sauces1 as pleasant to the palate and stomach1 as the most compound foreign sauces in which every thing has the same taste1 and none its own taste4 ,the aim of the ,english cooks1 as far as it regards sauces1 appears to be to let every sauce display a decided character1 so as to taste only of the material from which it derives its name4 ,compound sauces are seldom employed1 but in the learned foreign dishes4 ,what has been observed1 relative to time used in the article1 of made dishes1 namely1 that it was in this country too valuable to be bestowed on eating1 or on preparing to eat1 applies also in the case of making sauces4 ,nothing can be made more easily than the ,english sauces1 but the variety of ,french sauces are great1 and much skill and time are necessary for preparing most of them4 ,,thickening ,,paste ,,for ,,broth1 ,,soup1 ,,gravy1 ,,and ,,made ,,dishes4 ,it is customary to thicken some dishes with a compound of two parts of flour and one of butter1 first made into a paste by heating slowly the ingredients in a pan1 till the mass acquires a yellow gold colour1 the flour and butter being stirred all the time to prevent the mass from burning to the bottom of the pan4 ,the substance thus obtained is called thickening1 or thickening paste1 for it is the basis employed by cooks for thickening soups1 gravies1 stews1 sauces1 and other dishes4 ,the mass readily combines with water2 a large table spoonful is sufficient to thicken a quart of meat broth4 ,besides this thickening paste1 other farinaceous substances are employed for that purpose1 such as bread raspings1 crumbs of stale bread1 biscuit powder1 potatoe mucilage1 oatmeal1 sago powder1 rice powder1 c4 ,a cow-heel1 on account of the vast quantity of gelatine with which it abounds1 is excellently well calculated for giving body to soups3 the cow-heel1 after being cracked1 is boiled with the broth or soup4 ,,colouring ,,for ,,broth1 ,,soup1 ,,gravies1 ,,and ,,made ,,dishes4 ,the substance employed for colouring soups1 gravies1 broths1 and other dishes1 requiring a brown colour1 is burnt sugar4 ,this imparts to the dish a fine yellowish brown tinge1 without giving any sensible flavour to the dish4 ,eight ounces of powdered lump sugar1 and two or three table spoonfuls of water1 are suffered to boil gently in an iron pan1 till the mass has assumed a dark brown colour1 which takes place when all the water is evaporated1 and the sugar begins to be partly charred by the action of the heat4 ,the mass is then removed from the fire1 and about a quarter of a pint of water is gradually added to effect a solution4 ,the fluid thus obtained is of a syrupy consistence1 and of a fine dark brown colour2 a small quantity gives to broth1 soup1 or gravy1 a bright orange colour1 without altering sensibly the flavour of the dish4 ,some cooks add to it mushroom catsup and port wine4 ,,stock ,,for ,,making ,,extemporaneous ,,broth1 ,,soup1 ,,or ,,gravy4 ,the name of stock is given to meat jelly produced from a decoction of meat1 so highly concentrated that the fluid1 when cold1 exhibits an elastic tremulous consistence4 ,the meat is slowly boiled in water1 with the customary seasonings1 as pot herbs1 or esculent roots1 and the decoction skimmed1 and continued to simmer till it is charged with a sufficient quantity of animal matter to form a jelly when cold2 this degree of concentration is known by removing1 from time to time1 a portion of the fluid1 and suffering it to cool4 ,when the decoction has been so far concentrated1 it is strained off through a sieve and suffered to repose1 that the insoluble part1 if any1 may subside4 ,when this has been effected1 the clear fluid is suffered to cool1 which causes the fatty matter it contains to become collected at the surface1 where it forms a cake or crust1 which is to be removed4 ,the substance underneath is a tremulous jelly2 it is called first stock1 or long broth1 7,le grand bouillon of the ,french kitchen74 ,if the jelly be not transparent it is re-melted by a gentle heat1 and clarified by the addition of the white of eggs added to it1 as soon as it is liquified4 ,this substance becoming coagulated at the boiling heat1 entangles with it the parts mechanically diffused through the jelly1 and rises to the top as a dense scum4 ,it may then be removed by a skimmer4 ,the name of second-stock 7,jus de buf of the ,french7 is given to a more concentrate jelly of meat made in a similar manner4 ,it is chiefly employed as the basis of all savoury made dishes and rich sauces1 whilst the former serves for making extemporaneous soups4 ,second stock is usually prepared in the following manner3--,put into a stew-pan about half a pound of lean bacon or ham1 a few carrots and onions1 two or three cloves1 about six or eight pounds of lean beef1 and a shin of beef of about the same weight1 break the bone1 and having scored the meat1 suffer it to simmer over a very gentle fire1 with about two quarts of first stock1 or better put it into an oven1 and suffer it to stew1 till the liquid assumes a light brown colour4 ,when this has taken place1 add to the mass six quarts of boiling water1 suffer it to boil up gently1 and remove the scum as it rises2 and suffer it to evaporate till reduced to about three quarts1 then strain it through a sieve1 and clarify it as before directed4 ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,choice ,,of ,,meat4 ,the flesh of animals which are suddenly killed when in high health1 so far as the palate is concerned1 is not yet fit for the table1 although fully nutritious and in perfection for making soup2 because sometime after the death1 the muscular parts suffer contraction--their fibres become rigid4 ,when this has taken place1 the flesh is not long in experiencing the commencement of those chemical changes which terminate in putrefaction2 and it is of the utmost importance1 in domestic economy1 to take care that all large joints of meat be in this intermediate state when they are cooked3 for no skill in the culinary art will compensate for negligence in this point1 as every one must have often experienced to his great disappointment4 ,the degree of inteneration may be known by the flesh yielding readily to the pressure of the finger1 and by its opposing little resistance to an attempt to bend the joint4 ,poultry also thus part readily with their feathers2 and it would be advisable to leave a few when the bird is plucked1 in order to assist in determining their state4 ,the following wholesome advice on this subject we copy from ,doctor ,kitchiner3#cj--8,when you order meat1 poultry1 or fish1 tell the tradesman when you intend to dress it1 and he will then have it in his power to serve you with provision that will do him credit1 which the finest meat1 c4 in the world1 will never do1 unless it has been kept a proper time to be ripe and tender4 ,if you have a well-ventilated larder1 in a shady1 dry situation1 you may make still surer1 by ordering in your meat and poultry1 such a time before you want it as will render it tender1 which the finest meat cannot be1 unless hung a proper time1 according to the season and nature of the meat1 c4 but always till it has made some very slight advance towards putrefaction40 #cj ,the ,cook's ,oracle4 ,ox-beef--when of a young animal1 has a shining oily smoothness1 a fine open grain1 and dark florid red colour4 ,the fat is splendish yellowish white4 ,if the animal has been fed upon oil cakes1 the fat has a golden yellow colour4 ,cow-,beef--is closer in the grain than ox-beef1 but the muscular parts are not of so bright a red colour4 ,in old meat there is a streak of cartilage or bone in the ribs1 called by butchers1 the crush-bone2 the harder this is1 the older has been the animal4 ,veal4--,the flesh of a bull calf is firmer1 but not in general so white as that of a cow calf4 ,exposures to the air for some time reddens the colour of the flesh4 ,veal is best of which the kidney is well covered with thick white hard fat4 ,mutton4--,a wether1 five years old1 affords the most delicate meat4 ,the grain of the meat should be fine1 and the fat white and firm4 ,the leg of a wether mutton is known by a round lump of fat on the insides of the thigh1 the leg of an ewe by the udder4 ,lamb4--,the flesh of fine lamb looks of a delicate pale red colour2 the fat is splendid white1 but it does not possess a great solidity4 ,grass ,lamb is in season from ,easter to ,michaelmas4 ,house ,lamb from ,christmas to ,lady-day4 ,pork4--,this species of meat of the best fed animals is particularly fine grained1 and may be bruised by forcibly pressing it between the fingers4 ,the skin of the young animal is thin2 the flesh of old pigs is hard and tough1 and the skin very thick4 ,the prime season for pork is from ,michaelmas to ,march4 ,the western pigs1 chiefly those of ,berks1 ,oxford1 and ,bucks1 possess a decided superiority over the eastern of ,essex1 ,suffolk1 and ,norfolk4 ,hare4--,to ascertain its age1 examine the first joint of the fore foot2 you will find a small knob1 if it is a leveret1 which disappears as the hare grows older2 then examine the ears2 if they tear easily1 the animal is young4 ,when newly killed1 the body is stiff2 as it grows stale1 it becomes flaccid4 ,venison--is of a darker colour than mutton4 ,if the fat be clear1 bright and thick1 and the cleft of the hoof smooth and close1 it is young1 but if the cleft is wide and tough1 it is old4 ,by pushing a skewer or knife under the bone which sticks out of a haunch or shoulder1 the odour of the skewer will tell whether the meat be fresh or tainted4 ,venison is best flavoured in the month of ,august1 the animal should not be killed till he is about four years old4 ,fowls--for boiling should be chosen as white as possible1 those which have black legs had better be roasted4 ,the season of perfection in poultry is just before they have quite come to their full growth4 ,chickens three months old are very delicate4 ,age makes a striking difference in the flesh of fowls1 since after the age of twelve months it becomes tougher4 ,the cock indeed1 at that age1 is only used for making soup4 ,pigeons--are in their greatest perfection in ,september1 there is then the most plentiful and best food for them2 their finest growth is just when they are full feathered4 ,when they are in the pen-feathers1 they are flabby2 when they are full grown1 and have flown some time1 they are hard4 ,pheasants--may be distinguished by the length and sharpness of their spurs1 which in the younger ones are short and blunt4 ,partridges--if old are always to be known during the early part of the season1 by their legs being of a pale blue1 instead of a yellowish brown colour3 8so that when a ,londoner receives his brace of blue legged birds in ,september1 he should immediately snap their legs and draw out the sinews1 by means of pulling off the feet1 instead of leaving them to torment him1 like so many strings1 when he would be wishing to enjoy his repast40 ,this remedy to make the legs tender1 removes the objection to old birds1 provided the weather will admit of their being sufficiently long kept4 ,if birds are overkept1 their eyes will be much sunk1 and the trail becomes soft1 and somewhat discoloured4 ,the first place to ascertain if they are beginning to be tainted1 is the inside of the bill4 ,fish1 and ,crimping of ,fish4--,both sea and river fish cannot be eaten too fresh4 ,the gills should be of a fine red colour1 the eyes glistening1 the scales brilliant1 and the whole fish should feel stiff and firm1 if soft or flabby the fish is old4 ,to improve the quality of fish1 they are sometimes subject to the process called crimping4 ,the operation has been examined by ,mr4 ,carlisle1 to whom we are indebted for the following particulars3 8,whenever the rigid contractions of death have not taken place1 this process may be practised with success4 ,the sea fish destined for crimping1 are usually struck on the head when caught1 which it is said protracts the term of the contractibility and the muscles which retain the property longest are those about the head4 ,many transverse sections of the muscles being made1 and the fish immersed in cold water1 the contractions called crimping takes place in about five minutes1 but if the mass be large1 it often requires #cj minutes to complete the process4 ,the crimping of fresh water fish is said to require hard water1 and the ,london fishmongers usually employ it40 ,mr4 ,carlisle found1 that by crimping1 the muscles subjected to the process have both their absolute weight1 and their specific gravity increased1 so that it appears1 that water is absorbed and condensation takes place4 ,it was also observed that the effect was greater in proportion to the vivaciousness of the fish4 ,from these observations1 it appears1 that the object of crimping is first to retard the natural stiffening of the muscles1 and then by the sudden application of cold water1 to excite it in the greatest possible degree1 by which means the flesh both acquires the desired firmness and keeps longer4 ,,on ,,keeping ,,of ,,meat1 ,,and ,,best ,,construction ,,of ,,larders1 ,,pantries ,,and ,,meat ,,safes4 ,larders1 pantries and safes1 for keeping meat1 should be sheltered from the direct rays of the sun1 and otherwise guarded against the influence of warmth4 ,all places where provisions are kept should be so constructed that a brisk current of cool air can be made to pass through them at command4 ,with this view it would be advisable to have openings on all sides of larders1 or meat safes1 which might be closed or opened according to the way from which the wind blows1 the time of the day1 or season of the year2 they should be kept1 too1 with the greatest attention to cleanliness4 ,it will be better also if the sides or walls of meat safes are occasionally scoured with soap1 or soap and slacked quicklime4 ,warm weather is the worst for keeping meat2 the south wind has long been noted as being hostile to keeping provisions4 ,juvenal1 in his #dth ,satire1 says3 8,now sickly autumn to dry frost give way1 ,cold winter rag'd and fresh preserved the prey2 ,yet with such haste the busy fisher flew1 ,as if hot south-wind corruption blew40 ,a joint of meat may be preserved for several days in the midst of summer by wrapping it in a clean linen cloth1 previously moistened with strong vinegar1 and sprinkled over with salt1 and then placing it in an earthenware pan1 or hanging it up1 and changing the cloth1 or ringing it out a-fresh1 and again steeping it in vinegar once a day1 if the weather be very hot4 ,the best meat for keeping is mutton1 and the leg keeps best1 and may with care1 if the temperature be only moderate1 be preserved without becoming tainted for about a week2 during frost a leg of mutton will keep a fortnight4 ,a shoulder of mutton is next to the leg the joint best calculated for keeping in warm weather4 ,the scrag end of a neck is very liable to become tainted2 it cannot be kept with safety during hot weather for more than two days4 ,the kernels1 or glands1 in the thick part of the leg should be dissected out1 because the mucous matter in which they abound speedily becomes putrid1 and then tends very much to infect the adjoining part4 ,the chine and rib-bones should be wiped1 and sprinkled over with salt and pepper1 and the bloody part of the neck should be removed4 ,in the brisket1 the commencement of the putrefactive process takes place in the breast1 and if this part is to be kept1 it is advisable to guard against it becoming tainted1 by sprinkling a little salt and pepper over it3 the vein1 or pipe near the bone of the inside of a chine of mutton should be cut out1 and if the meat is to be kept for some time1 the part close round the tail should be sprinkled with salt1 after having first cut out the gland or kernel4 ,in beef the ribs are less liable to become tainted than any other joint2 they may be kept in a cool pantry in the summer months for six days1 and ten days in winter4 ,the round of beef will not keep long1 unless sprinkled over with salt4 ,all the glands or kernels which it contains should be dissected out4 ,the brisket is still more liable to become tainted by keeping1 it cannot be kept sweet with safety more than three days in summer1 and about a week in winter4 ,lamb is the next in order for keeping1 though it is considered best to eat it soon1 or even the day after it is killed4 ,if it is not very young the leg will keep four or five days1 with care1 in a cool place in summer4 ,veal and ,pork--a leg will keep very well in summer for three or four days1 and a week in winter3--but the scrag end of veal or pork will not keep well above a day in summer1 and two or three days in winter4 ,the part that becomes tainted first of a leg of veal is where the udder is skewered back4 ,the skewer should be taken out1 and both that and the part beneath it wiped dry every day1 by which means it will keep good three or four days in warm weather4 ,the vein or pipe that runs along the chine of a loin of veal should be cut out1 as is usually done in mutton and beef4 ,the skirt of a breast of veal should likewise be taken off1 and the inside of the breast wiped1 scraped1 and sprinkled with salt4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,animal ,,substances ,,in ,a ,,recent ,,state4 ,as the supply of food is always subject to irregularities1 the preservation of the excess1 obtained at one time1 to meet the deficiency of another1 would soon engage the attention of mankind4 ,at first this method would be simple and natural1 and derived from a very limited observation1 but in the progress of society1 the wants and occupations of mankind would lead them to invent means1 by which the more perishable alimentary substances of one season1 might be reserved for the consumption of another1 or the superfluous productions of distant countries might be transported to others where they are more needed4 ,,pickling ,,and ,,dry ,,salting ,,of ,,meat4 ,common salt is advantageously employed as an antiseptic1 to preserve aliments from spontaneous decomposition1 and particularly to prevent the putrefaction of animal food4 ,in general1 however1 the large quantity of salt which is necessarily employed in this way1 deteriorates the alimentary properties of the meat1 and the longer it has been preserved1 the less wholesome and digestible does it become4 ,meat1 however1 which has not been too long preserved1 simply pickled1 or corned meat as it is called1 is but little injured or decomposed1 it is still succulent and tender1 easily digested1 nourishing and wholesome enough4 ,the property of salt to preserve animal substances from putrefaction is of the most essential importance to the empire in general1 and to the remote grazing districts in particular4 ,it enables the latter to dispose of their live stock1 and distant navigation is wholly dependant upon it4 ,all kinds of animal substances may be preserved by salt1 but beef and pork are the only staple articles of this kind4 ,in general1 the pieces of the animal best fitted for being salted are those which contain fewest large blood vessels1 and are most solid4 ,some recommend all the glands to be cut out1 they say1 that without this precaution meat cannot be preserved2 but this is a mistake1 a dry salter of eminence1 informs me1 that it is not essential1 provided the glands or kernels are properly covered with salt4 ,the salting may be performed either by dry rubbing1 or better by immersing the meat in a salt pickle4 ,cured in the former way the meat will keep longer1 but it is more altered in its valuable properties2 in the latter way it is more delicate and nutritious4 ,eight pounds of salt1 one pound of sugar1 and four ounces of saltpetre1 boiled for a few minutes with four gallons of water1 skimmed and allowed to cool1 forms a strong pickle1 which will preserve meat completely immersed in it4 ,to effect this1 which is essential1 either a heavy board1 or flat stone1 must be laid upon the meat4 ,the same pickle may be used repeatedly1 provided it be boiled up occasionally with additional salt to restore its strength1 diminished by the combination of part of the salt with the meat1 and by the dilution of the pickle by the juices of the meat extracted4 ,by boiling1 the albumen1 which would cause the pickle to spoil1 is coagulated1 and rises in the form of scum1 which must be carefully removed4 ,beef and pork1 although properly salted with salt alone1 acquire a green colour2 but if an ounce of saltpetre be added to each five pounds of salt employed1 the muscular fibre acquires a fine red tinge2 but this improvement in appearance is more than compensated by its becoming harder and harsher to the taste2 to correct which1 a proportion of sugar or molasses is often added4 ,but the red colour may be given if desired1 without hardening the meat1 by the addition of a little cochineal4 ,meat kept immersed in pickle rather gains weight4 ,in one experiment by ,messrs4 ,donkin and ,gamble1 there was a gain of three per cent4 and in another of two and a half2 but in the common way of salting1 when the meat is not immersed in pickle there is a loss of about one pound1 or one and a half in sixteen4 ,dry salting is performed by rubbing the surface of the meat all over with salt2 and it is generally believed that the process of salting is promoted if the salt be rubbed in with a heavy hand4 ,however this may be1 it is almost certain that very little salt penetrates1 except through the cut surfaces1 to which it should therefore be chiefly applied2 and all holes1 whether natural or artificial1 should be particularly attended to4 ,for each twenty-five pounds of meat1 about two pounds of coarse grained salt should be allowed1 and the whole1 previously heated1 rubbed in at once4 ,when laid in the pickling tub1 a brine is soon formed by the salt dissolved in the juice of the meat which it extracts1 and with this the meat should be wetted every day1 and a different side turned down4 ,in ten or twelve days it will be sufficiently cured4 ,for domestic use the meat should not be salted as soon as it comes from the market1 but kept until its fibre has become short and tender1 as these changes do not take place after it has been acted upon by the salt4 ,but in the provision trade1 8the expedition with which the animals are slaughtered1 the meat cut up and salted1 and afterwards packed1 is astonishing40#ca #ca ,wakefield's ,ireland1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #gej4 ,by salting the meat while still warm1 and before the fluids are coagulated1 the salt penetrates immediately1 by means of the vessels1 through the whole substance of the meat2 and hence meat is admirably cured at ,tunis1 even in the hottest season1 so that ,mr4 ,jackson1 in his ,reflections on the ,trade in the ,mediterranean1 recommends ships being supplied there with their provisions4 ,the following mixture of condiments is exceedingly well calculated for dry salting4 ,take a pound of black pepper1 a quarter of a pound of ,cayenne pepper1 and a pound of saltpetre1 all ground very fine2 mix these three well together1 and blend them alternately with about three quarts of very fine salt3 this mixture is sufficient for eight hundred weight of beef4 ,as the pieces are brought from the person cutting up1 first sprinkle the pieces with the spice1 and introduce a little into all the thickest parts2 if it cannot be done otherwise1 make a small incision with a knife4 ,the first salter1 after rubbing salt and spice well into the meat1 should take and mould the piece1 the same as washing a shirt upon a board2 this may be very easily done1 and the meat being lately killed1 is soft and pliable2 this moulding opens the grain of the meat1 which will make it imbibe the spice and salt much quicker than the common method of salting4 ,the first salter hands his piece over to the second salter1 who moulds and rubs the salt well into the meat1 and if he observes occasion1 introduces the spice2 when the second salter has finished his piece1 he folds it up as close as possible1 and hands it to the packer at the harness or salting tubs1 who must be stationed near him3 the packer must be careful to pack his harness tubs as close as possible4 ,all the work must be carried on in the shade1 but where there is a strong current of air1 the harness tubs in particular2 this being a very material point in curing the meat in a hot climate4 ,meat may be cured in this manner with the greatest safety1 when the thermometer1 in the shade1 is at #aaj1 the extreme heat assisting the curing4 ,a good sized bullock1 of six or seven hundred weight1 may be killed and salted within the hour4 ,the person who attends with the spice near the first salter1 has the greatest trust imposed upon him2 besides the spice1 he should be well satisfied that the piece is sufficiently salted1 before he permits the first salter to hand the piece over to the second salter4 ,all the salt should be very fine1 and the packer1 besides sprinkling the bottom of his harness tubs1 should be careful to put plenty of salt between each tier of meat1 which is very soon turned into the finest pickle4 ,the pickle will nearly cover the meat1 as fast as the packer can stow it away4 ,it is always a good sign that the meat is very safe when the packer begins to complain that his hands are aching with cold4 ,by this method there is no doubt but that the meat is perfectly cured in three hours from the time of killing the bullock3 the saltpetre in a very little time strikes through the meat2 however1 it is always better to let it lie in the harness tubs till the following morning1 when it will have an exceeding pleasant smell on opening the harness tubs2 then take it out and pack it in tight barrels1 with its own pickle4 ,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,bacon1 ,,hams1 ,,and ,,hung ,,beef4 ,meat1 when salted1 is sometimes dried1 when it gets the name of bacon1 ham1 or hung beef4 ,the drying of salt meat is effected either by hanging it in a dry and well-aired place1 or by exposing it at the same time to wood smoke1 which gives it a peculiar flavour1 much admired in ,westphalia hams and ,hamburgh beef1 and also tends to preserve it1 by the antiseptic action of the pyrolignic acid4 ,when meat is to be hung1 it need not be so highly salted4 ,the method of preparing bacon is peculiar to certain districts4 ,the following is the method of making bacon in ,hampshire and ,somersetshire3-- ,the season for killing hogs for bacon is between ,october and ,march4 ,the articles to be salted are sprinkled over with bay-salt1 and put for twenty-four hours in the salting trough1 to allow the adhering blood to drain away4 ,after this they take them out1 wipe them very dry1 and throw away the draining4 ,they then take some fresh bay-salt1 and heating it well in a frying-pan1 rub the meat very well with it1 repeating this every day for four days1 turning the sides every other day4 ,if the hog be very large1 they keep the sides in brine1 turning them occasionally for three weeks2 after which they take them out1 and let them be thoroughly dried in the usual manner4 ,,smoke-,,drying1 ,,or ,,curing ,,of ,,bacon1 ,,hams1 ,,and ,,beef1 ,,as ,,practised ,,in ,,westphalia4 ,the custom of fumigating hams with wood smoke is of a very ancient date1 it was well known to the ,romans1 and ,horace mentions it4#cb 8,fumos cum pede pern40 #cb ,sat4 ,,ii4 #b-aag4 ,several places on the ,continent are famous for the delicacy and flavour of their hams2 ,westphalia1 however1 is at the head of the list4 ,the method of curing bacon and hams in ,westphalia 7in ,germany7 is as follows3 ,families that kill one or more hogs a year1 which is a common practice in private houses1 have a closet in the garret1 joining to the chimney1 made tight1 to retain smoke1 in which they hang their hams and bacon to dry2 and out of the effect of the fire1 that they may be gradually dried by the wood smoke1 and not by heat4 ,the smoke of the fuel is conveyed into the closet by a hole in the chimney1 near the floor1 and a place is made for an iron stopper to be thrust into the funnel of the chimney1 to force the smoke through the hole into the closet4 ,the smoke is carried off again by another hole in the funnel of the chimney1 above the said stopper1 almost at the ceiling1 where it escapes4 ,the upper hole must not be too big1 because the closet must be always full of smoke1 and that from wood fires4 ,or the bacon and hams are simply placed in the vicinity of an open fire-place1 where wood is burned1 so as to be exposed to the smoke of the wood4 ,,method ,,of ,,curing ,,hams1 ,,beef1 ,,and ,,fish1 ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,pyro-,,ligneous ,,acid4 ,the following account of the preservative quality of pyro-ligneous#cc acid1 exhibited in a memoir by ,dr4 ,wilkinson to the ,bath ,society1 is highly important3-- #cc ,philosophical ,magazine1 #ahba1 ,no4 #bgc1 p4 #ab4 8,mr4 ,sockett having directed his attention to the smoking of hams with wood smoke1 either in a building erected for that purpose1 or in a chimney where wood alone is burned1 in addition to its considerable increase of flavour1 he considered it more effectually preserved from putrefaction by being1 what is commonly called1 smoke-dried4 ,mr4 ,sockett having ascertained by experiments1 that meat thus cured required less salt1 he was induced to suppose some antiseptic quality in the same1 and not attributable to the mere application of heat4 ,a neighbouring manufactory of pyro-ligneous acid afforded him an opportunity of trying a variety of experiments1 which convinced him of the correctness of the supposition of the antiseptic quality of wood smoke1 as the same effects as to flavour and preservation were produced in a superior degree without the aid of any increase of temperature1 which1 by drying1 diminishes the nutritious quality of meat thus exposed40 8,mr4 ,sockett ascertained1 that if a ham had the reduced quantity of salt usually employed for smoke-dried hams1 and was then exposed to smoke1 putrefaction soon took place when pyro-ligneous acid was not used2 even one half this reduced portion of salt is sufficient when it is used1 being applied cold1 and the ham is thus effectually cured without any loss of weight1 and retaining more animal juices40 8,the mode adopted was by adding about two table-spoonfuls of pyro-ligneous acid to the pickle for a ham of #aj or #ab lbs42 and when taken out of the pickle1 previous to being hung up1 painted over with the acid1 by means of a brush4 ,in many instances1 ,mr4 ,sockett has succeeded by brushing the ham over with the acid1 without adding any to the pickle4 ,the same mode answers equally well with tongues1 requiring a little more acid1 on account of the thickness and hardness of the integuments40 8,upon dried salmon it answers admirably2 brushing it over once or twice had a better effect than two months smoking in the usual way1 and without the same loss from rancidity4 ,from the result of a few experiments on herrings1 he is persuaded that this mode of curing might be most advantageously introduced in our fisheries1 so that herrings might be cured here superior to those imported from ,holland40 8,these experiments so satisfactorily demonstrating the antiseptic qualities of this acid1 where only small portions of salt were employed1 ,mr4 ,sockett was then induced to try the results of the application of this acid when no salt was employed3 he placed some beef steaks upon a plate1 and covered the bottom with the acid1 the steaks being daily turned2 and at the time of recording the experiment1 he noticed that they kept above six weeks without the least tendency to putrefaction3 this experiment was made in the middle of ,july #ahae40 8,not only ,mr4 ,sockett1 but many families in ,swansea1 and its vicinity1 practise1 with the greatest success1 this mode of curing hams1 tongues1 beef1 fish1 c40 8,this acid is very easily and cheaply prepared3 the first distilled product of the wood1 in that state denominated black acid1 answers the best when separated from its tar and naphtha4 ,more than #gj gallons of acid1 sufficiently strong1 are procured from a ton of wood2 a gallon is quite sufficient for #b cwt4 of pork1 beef1 and most animal substances1 with the addition of a comparatively small portion of salt1 not only affording a considerable saving in this article1 but also materially contributing to the increase of flavour and nutritive quality4 ,hams or beef cured this way require no previous soaking in water to being boiled1 and when boiled swell in size and are extremely succulent40 8,herrings ,mr4 ,sockett cures with very little salt4 ,being well dried1 as early after being caught as can be effected1 they are then dipped into a vat of the acid1 and when dry1 the same process repeated a few times1 suspending them like the manufacture of candles4 ,mr4 ,sockett entertains no doubt1 from the result of his experiments with herrings1 that the same process would answer for other kinds of fish1 as salmon1 cod1 c42 and hence1 when cooked1 may be salted according to each individual's taste40 8,i presume this acid would be found very useful on board any vessel fitted out for long voyages2 it appears from calculations on a small scale1 that one hogshead of this acid would suffice to cure six tons of fish1 in such a manner as to retain their nutritious quality2 and they could be cured on board when opportunities occurred of procuring them1 independent of its being an excellent substitute for common vinegar in many culinary purposes on board40 8,mr4 ,sockett recommends that fish1 as soon as practicable after taken1 should be a little rubbed with salt1 and laid upon a sloping board to drain1 and when dry1 to be dipped in the acid as before stated40 8,one great advantage attending this mode of curing hams or beef is1 that when hung up they are never attacked by the flies40 ,,pickling ,,of ,,fish4 ,fish may be preserved either by dry salting or in a liquid pickle4 ,the former method is employed to a great extent on the banks of ,newfoundland1 and in ,shetland4 ,when a liquid pickle is used1 the fish1 as fresh as possible1 are to be gutted1 or not1 and without delay plunged into the brine in quantity so as nearly to fill the reservoir1 and after remaining covered with the pickle five or six days1 they will be so completely impregnated with salt as to be perfectly fit to be re-packed in barrels1 with large-grained solid salt1 for the hottest climates and longest voyages4 ,the brine becomes frequently somewhat weaker at the top2 to remedy this1 some of the salt may be suspended in bags or otherwise1 just under the surface1 which will saturate whatever moisture may exude from the fish1 and thus the whole of the brine will continue fully saturated and of the most strength4 ,such brine1 although repeatedly used1 will not putrify1 nor the fish1 if kept under the surface1 become rancid4 ,by this process great quantities of herrings may be salted when salt or casks are not on the spot1 and the fish may remain for a great length of time immersed in this brine without the least injury4 ,from ,mr4 ,london's statement1 it appears that the brine ought always to contain a redundancy of salt2 and in such case there is not the least danger of the fish putrifying or growing rancid1 as the extra lumps of solid salt in the brine immediately act upon any watery or other liquors which proceed from the fish when inclosed in the cask4 ,for judging of the relative strength of different solutions of common salt1 ,mr4 ,london recommends a glass bottle1 with a ground-glass stopper1 to be filled with brine made from a solution of solid salt in water2 within this bottle are three glass bubbles1 of different specific gravities1 so graduated1 that supposing the temperature of the air to be at sixty degrees of ,fahrenheit's thermometer1 and only one bubble floats on the surface1 and that it indicates the specific gravity of the brine to be #a4aee1 containing about #bj parts salt1 and #hj of water1 which is insufficient to cure animal matters with certainty by immersion in it4 ,when the second bubble floats1 it indicates the specific gravity of the brine to be #a4ahj1 or about #bd parts salt1 and #gf parts water1 which may be used for the purpose of immersion4 ,this brine will fully answer the purpose in the hottest weather in most climates1 provided the meat or fish is always completely covered with the brine4 ,,pickled ,,mackerel4 ,after splitting the fish1 and having taken off their heads and part of the skin of the belly1 let them be laid in brine about three or four hours2 then put them in jars with the following pickle3--two pounds common salt1 two ounces saltpetre1 one ounce of sugar1 half ounce white pepper1 one drachm corriander seed1 pounded all well together2 sprinkle with this mixture the bottom of the jar2 then put on a layer of mackerel1 with the back downwards2 then a layer of the spices1 and then another of mackerel1 alternately1 till the jar is full2 press them down1 and cover them close4 ,in six months they will be ready for use4 ,,pickled ,,salmon4 ,split the fish down the middle1 and divide each half into six pieces4 ,make a brine of salt sufficient in quantity to cover the fish when placed in a saucepan4 ,season with bruised pepper1 mace1 and allspice1 and simmer the whole till the fish is done1 taking care not to boil the fish more than is barely sufficient4 ,then take out the pieces to cool1 and put them into a jar4 ,strain off the spice from the liquor in which the fish was boiled1 and add to it a like quantity1 by measure1 of vinegar1 and pour it over the fish4 ,when cold1 tie it over with paper1 and keep the fish submersed under the liquor1 by placing a weight on it4 ,,collared ,,eels4 ,skin and bone the eels2 season them with mace1 chopped eschalots1 pepper1 salt and pimento4 ,roll up the whole1 and tie it firmly with tape2 put it in a stew-pan with a pint of veal stock1 half pint of white wine1 and half as much vinegar2 and let them simmer till done4 ,then put them into a dish2 skim off the fat1 and season with salt4 ,clear the liquor by simmering it a few minutes1 with the white of two eggs1 and pass it through a cloth3 after which boil it till it becomes a thick jelly when cold4 ,then take the tape from the eels1 and pour the liquid transparent jelly over the fish4 ,,best ,,method ,,of ,,preserving ,,all ,,kinds ,,of ,,cooked ,,butcher',s ,,meat1 ,,fish1 ,,or ,,poultry4 ,of all the methods of preserving animal substances for domestic purposes1 or sea store1 the process found out by ,mr4 ,appert1 and pursued in this metropolis upon a large scale by ,messrs4 ,donkin and ,gamble1 is unquestionably the best4 ,it is as follows3 ,let the substance to be preserved be first par-boiled1 or rather somewhat more1 the bones of the meat being previously removed4 ,put the meat into a tin cylinder1 fill up the vessel with the broth1 and then solder on the lid1 furnished with a small hole4 ,when this has been done1 let the tin vessel1 thus prepared1 be placed in water and heated to the boiling point to complete the remainder of the cooking of the meat4 ,the hole in the lid is now closed perfectly1 by soldering1 whilst the air is rushing out4 ,the vessel is then allowed to cool1 and from the diminution of volume in the contents1 in consequence of the reduction of temperature1 both ends of the cylinder are pressed inwards and become concave4 ,the tin cases1 thus hermetically sealed1 are exposed in a test-chamber for at least a month1 to a temperature above what they are ever likely to encounter2 from #ij to #aaj ,fahrenheit4 ,if the process has failed1 putrefaction takes place1 and gas is evolved1 which in process of time will bulge out both ends of the case1 so as to render them convex instead of concave4 ,but the contents of whatever cases stand this test1 will infallibly keep perfectly sweet and good in any climate1 and for any length of time4 ,if there was any taint about the meat when put up1 it inevitably ferments1 and is detected in the proving process4 ,all kinds of animal food may be preserved in this way--beef1 mutton1 veal1 and poultry1 either boiled or roasted4 ,the testimonies in favour of the success of the process are of the most unexceptionable kind4 ,at ,messrs4 ,donkin and ,gamble's establishment the meat is put up in canisters of from #d lbs4 to #bj lbs4 weight each4 ,it is charged from #as4 #h;d4 to #cs4 a pound2 roast higher than boiled1 and veal dearer than mutton or beef4 ,the weight of the canister is deducted1 and nothing is charged for the canisters2 and it should be observed1 that these provisions being cooked1 and without bone1 render them equivalent to double the weight of meat in the raw state2 for it is certain1 that the waste in cooking1 together with the weight of bone1 are about one half4 ,captain ,neish took a quantity of provision1 thus prepared1 to ,india1 not one canister spoiled2 and one which he brought home contained beef in the highest state of preservation after two years1 and having been carried upwards of #ce1jjj miles in the warmest climates4 ,the commissioners for victualling the navy also examined some1 nearly four years old1 which had been in the ,mediterranean and ,quebec1 and found it as sound1 sweet1 and fresh1 as if it had been only yesterday boiled4 ,we are enabled to add the testimony of that distinguished navigator1 captain ,basil ,hall1 who has liberally communicated to us the result of his personal experience and observation1 which is as follows3--8,i can answer for the perfect preservation of a great number of cases which were in my possession during the voyage to ,china4 ,i had #hhl4 worth1 and not one failure4 ,at that time milk was preserved in bottles corked2 but tin cases have been substituted with very great effect1 as ,i have myself tried4 ,it is really astonishing how excellent the milk is2 and1 indeed1 every thing preserved in this way is good40 8,you must1 on examining the list of prices1 bear in mind1 that meat thus preserved eats nothing1 nor drinks--is not apt to get the rot1 or to die--does not tumble over-board1 nor get its legs broken1 or its flesh wore off its bones1 by knocking about the decks of a ship in bad weather--it takes no care in the keeping--it is always ready--may be eat cold or hot--and thus enables you to toss into a boat in a minute1 as many days' cooked provisions as you choose--it is not exposed to the vicissitudes of markets1 nor is it scourged up to a monstrous price 7as at ,st4 ,helena71 because there is no alternative4 ,besides these advantages1 it enables one to indulge in a number of luxuries1 which no care or expence could procure40 ,in this preservative process is displayed a singular and important fact with regard to the agency of oxygen in putrefaction4 ,the tin canisters being closed during the exposure to heat1 must necessarily contain with the included matter some portion of air2 and if heat were not applied1 or even if applied imperfectly1 putrefaction would take place4 ,this proves that the effect of the high temperature is to produce some kind of combination of the oxygen of the air with the animal or included matter1 not leading to putrefaction1 or even counter-acting it1 while by this combination it is effectually removed4 ,the air accordingly1 where the process is successful1 is deprived of oxygen2 but if the heat were not sufficiently prolonged1 and by far the greatest part of the air in the vessel not exhausted1 putrefaction soon comes on4 ,from experiments that have been made on this mode of preserving alimentary substances1 it has been proved1 that if the vessels were opened only for a short time and again closed1 without heat being applied1 the inclosed substances soon putrefied3 as they did also from mere exposure to the air4 ,but if1 after having been exposed even for an hour or two1 they were re-placed1 the vessels again treated as before1 and then the due degree of heat applied1 they could be preserved as at first4 ,and this repeated exposure to the air1 and removal of its operation by heating1 it appears from ,gay ,lussac's experiments1 can be renewed a number of times4 ,nay1 by occasional exposure to the heat of boiling water1 without the exclusion of the air1 he found the exemption from putrefaction to be attained4 ,the theory of these effects is not very apparent4 ,gay ,lussac supposes1 that the oxygen may combine with that principle analogous to gluten1 which excites fermentation1 and which may equally excite putrefaction2 that this by a kind of coagulation is separated by heat1 and thus rendered inert2 and that it is only that part of it which has suffered oxygenation which is capable of this coagulation2 it is thus removed1 while the exclusion of oxygen prevents the putrefaction from taking place1 which would otherwise be excited by the remainder4 ,but this is rather hypothetical and unsatisfactory4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,meat ,,by ,,potting4 ,the process of potting consists in reducing cooked animal substances to a pulp1 by beating the meat in a mortar1 and incorporating the mass with a portion of salt and spices4 ,the pulp is then put into a jar1 and covered with a thick coat of melted butter or lard1 to prevent the contact of air2 and the surface is further protected with a bladder-skin tied over the mouth of the jar4 ,the muscular part of meat is best suited for potting1 and the quantity of salt and spices ought to be rather liberal4 ,,potted ,,beef1 ,,game1 ,,or ,,poultry4 ,take three pounds of lean beef1 salt it twelve hours with half a pound of common salt1 and half an ounce of saltpetre2 divide it into pound pieces1 and put it into an earthen pan1 that will just hold it2 pour in half a pint of water2 cover it close with paste1 and set it in a very slow oven for four hours2 when it comes from the oven1 pour the gravy from it into a basin1 shred the meat fine1 moisten it with the gravy poured from the meat1 and pound it thoroughly in a marble mortar with fresh butter1 till it is as fine a paste as possible1 season it with black pepper and allspice1 or cloves pounded1 or grated nutmeg2 put it in pots1 press it down as close as possible2 put a weight on it1 and let it stand all night2 next day1 when it is quite cold1 cover it a quarter of an inch thick with clarified butter1 and tie it over with paper4 ,,potted ,,ham4 ,cut a pound of the lean of boiled ham into pieces1 pound it in a mortar with fresh butter1 in the proportion of about two ounces to a pound of the ham1 till it is a fine paste1 season it by degrees with pounded mace1 pepper1 and allspice2 put it close down in pots1 and cover it with clarified butter a quarter of an inch thick2 let it stand one night in a cool place1 and tie it over with paper4 ,veal may be potted in a similar manner4 ,,potted ,,lobster4 ,take the meat and eggs from the shell2 season it with powdered mace1 cloves1 nutmeg1 pepper1 salt1 and anchovy liquor4 ,pound the meat in a marble mortar1 and reduce the liquor1 by evaporation1 to a thick jelly2 then put it and the meat together1 with about one quarter of its weight of butter4 ,mix all together1 and press it into a small pot2 cover it with melted butter4 ,when it is cold1 put paper over the pots1 and set them in a dry place4 ,craw fish1 crabs1 shrimps1 and prawns1 may be potted in the same way4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,eggs4 ,eggs may be kept for three or four months1 or more1 if the pores of the shell be closed1 and rendered impervious to air by some unctuous application4 ,we generally anoint them with mutton-suet1 melted1 and set them on end1 wedged close together1 in bran1 stratum super stratum1 the containing box being closely covered4 ,another method of preserving eggs is1 to place them into a vessel containing lime water1 or more properly slacked quicklime diluted with water1 to the consistence of a thin cream1 taking care that the eggs are completely covered with this liquid4 ,the first mentioned process is1 however1 preferable1 and answers exceedingly well4 ,,preservative ,,effect ,,of ,,frost1 ,,on ,,butcher',s ,,meat1 ,,fish1 ,,and ,,fowl4 ,the preservative effect of frost on dead animal matter are of the utmost importance to the northern nations1 by enabling them to store up a sufficient stock of all manner of animal provisions for their winter supply1 and to receive stores from a great distance4 ,there is annually held at ,st4 ,petersburg and ,moscow what is called the frozen1 or winter market1 for the sale of provisions solidified by frost4 ,in a vast open square1 the bodies of many thousand animals are seen on all sides1 piled in pyramidal and quadrangular masses3 fish1 fowl1 butter1 eggs1 hogs1 sheep1 deer1 oxen1 all rendered solid by frost4 ,the different species of fish are strikingly beautiful2 they possess the lustre and brilliancy of colour which characterises the different species in a living state4 ,most of the larger kinds of quadrupeds are skinned1 and classed according to their species2 groups of many hundreds are piled upon their hind-legs1 one against another1 as if each were making an effort to climb over the back of his neighbour4 ,the motionless1 yet apparent animation of their seemingly struggling attitudes 7as if they had died a sudden death71 gives a horrid life to this singular scene of death4 ,the solidity of the frozen creatures1 is such1 that the natives chop and saw them up1 for the accommodation of the purchasers1 like wood4 ,these frozen provisions are the produce of countries very remote from each other4 ,siberia1 ,archangel1 and still more distant provinces1 furnish the merchandize which1 during the severity of the frost1 is conveyed hither on sledges4 ,in consequence of the multitude of these commodities1 and the short period allowed to the existence of the market1 they are cheaper than at any other time of the year1 and are1 therefore1 purchased in larger quantities1 to be stored1 as a winter stock4 ,when disposed in cellars1 they will keep1 with care1 for a considerable time during the cold season4 ,all the provisions which remain1 and are exposed to the temperate atmosphere1 speedily putrify2 but as the desertion of the frost is generally pretty well calculated1 almost to a day1 but little loss is suffered in this respect4 ,the same advantage is taken of the cold in ,canada1 and all other countries1 when the frost is sufficiently steady4 ,substances1 so long as they are hard frozen1 probably undergo no chemical change1 of which the most striking proof was afforded by the body of an animal1 probably antediluvian1 being found imbedded in a mass of ice at the mouth of the ,lena2 but in the act of freezing1 or of the subsequent thawing1 some alteration is produced1 which affects the nature of the substance4 ,this may be either merely mechanical1 from the particles of ice during their formation1 tearing asunder and separating the fibres1 or chemical1 by destroying the intimate union of the constituents of the fluids1 as in wine injured by having been frozen2 or by causing new combinations1 of which we have an example in the sweetness acquired by the potatoe4 ,captain ,scoresby1 contrary to popular belief1 states1 that 8the most surprising action of the frost1 on fresh provision1 is in preserving it a long time from putrefaction1 even after it is thawed and returns into a warm climate4#cd ,i have10 says he1 8eaten unsalted mutton and beef nearly five months old1 which has been constantly exposed to a temperature above the freezing point for four or five weeks in the outset1 and occasionally assailed by the septical influences of rain1 fog1 heat1 and electricity1 and yet it has proved perfectly sweet4 ,it may be remarked1 that unsalted meat that has been preserved four or five months in a cold climate1 and then brought back to the ,british coasts during the warmth of summer1 must be consumed very speedily after it is cut into1 or it will fail in a day or two4 ,it will seldom1 indeed1 keep sweet after being cooked above twenty or thirty hours40 #cd ,account of the ,arctic ,regions1 with a ,history and ,description of the ,northern ,whale ,fishery4 ,in freezing animal substances1 for the purpose of preserving them1 no other precaution is necessary than exposing them to a sufficient degree of cold4 8,animal substances10 says ,captain ,scoresby1 8requisite as food1 of all descriptions 7fish excepted71 may be taken to ,greenland and there preserved any length of time1 without being smoked1 dried1 or salted4 ,no preparation of any kind is necessary for their preservation2 nor is any other precaution requisite1 excepting suspending them in the air when taken on shipboard1 shielding them a little from the sun and wet1 and immersing them occasionally in sea-water1 or throwing sea-water over them after heavy rains1 which will effectually prevent putrescency on the outward passage2 and1 in ,greenland1 the cold becomes a sufficient preservation1 by freezing them as hard as blocks of wood4 ,the moisture is well preserved by freezing1 a little from the surface only evaporating2 so that if cooked when three1 four1 or five months old1 meat will frequently appear as profuse of gravy1 as if it had been but recently killed40 ,captain ,scoresby has not informed us why fish cannot be taken to ,greenland in a frozen state1 though this is a mode of preservation much used in ,russia and ,germany1 and even in this country4 ,some attention is necessary for thawing provisions which have been frozen4 8,when used1 the beef cannot be divided but by an axe or saw2 the latter instrument is preferred4 ,it is then put into cold water1 from which it derives heat by the formation of ice around it1 and soon thaws2 but if put into hot water1 much of the gravy is extracted1 and the meat is injured without being thawed more readily4 ,if an attempt be made to cook it before it is thawed1 it may be burnt on the outside1 while the centre remains raw1 or actually in a frozen state40 ,these observations1 which we have transcribed from ,captain ,scoresby1 an excellent observer1 agree with the directions of earlier writers4 ,thus ,krnitz says1#ce 8when fish taken under the ice are frozen1 lay them in cold water1 which thus draws the ice out of the fish1 so that it can be scraped off their scales4 ,they taste much better afterwards than when they are allowed to thaw in a warm room40 #ce ,encyclop4 ,vol4 ,x4 p4 #ehf4 ,pickles4 ,the antiseptic power of vinegar is employed with advantage in domestic economy for preserving from decay a variety of fruits1 roots1 leaves1 and other parts of vegetables1 which by a species of refinement and luxury1 are often considered as condiments to improve the relish of several kinds of food4 ,their qualities1 no doubt1 depends almost entirely on the vinegar1 spice1 or salt imbibed by them4 ,the art of preparing vinegar pickles consists in impregnating the vegetable substances with the strongest vinegar1 to which are usually added a portion of common salt1 and the most heating spices4 ,to effect this object1 the substance to be pickled is usually suffered to macerate1 or slightly boiled with the acid1 and afterwards kept infused in it1 together with spices and salt4 ,it is customary to impregnate the article to be pickled first in a strong brine of common salt2 but this is not absolutely necessary for the preservation of the pickled substance4 ,to facilitate the action of the vinegar or salt1 the articles to be pickled1 especially such as walnuts1 cucumbers1 c4 should be punctured with a large needle or fork4 ,to assist their preservation1 and to improve their flavour1 a variety of pungent and aromatic spices are added1 which vary according to the fancy of the cook2 pepper1 pimento1 cloves1 mace1 ginger1 capsicum1 and mustard1 are the spices usually employed4 ,for the preparation of acid pickles1 the vinegar prepared from wood1 as in itself containing no substance liable to a spontaneous decay1 is preferable to common malt vinegar1 although the contrary has been asserted1 because it is free from mucilage1 which promotes the spoiling of common vinegar1 and therefore the former is a better antiseptic than vinegar abounding in mucilage4 ,we prepare our home-made pickles with this acid1 and we are authorised to state that1 although kept for years1 they are inferior to none met with in commerce4 ,all pickles should be preserved in unglazed earthenware jars1 carefully corked1 and tied over with a bladder to exclude air4 ,the vinegar used for preparing them should always be heated in an unglazed earthenware pan1 it should never be suffered to boil1 but poured over the substance to be pickled1 just when it begins to simmer4 ,the spices may be simmered with the vinegar4 ,,pickled ,,red ,,cabbage4 ,put sliced red cabbage into a stone jar1 and strew amongst it common salt2 then heat vinegar nearly to a boiling point1 and pour it over the cabbage1 in a sufficient quantity to cover the sliced leaves4 ,it is customary to add long pepper1 allspice1 and ginger1 to the vinegar1 which impart to the pickle a pungent taste4 ,a small quantity of powdered cochineal is also frequently added1 with an intent to give to the cabbage a beautiful red colour2 the cochineal should be strewed amongst the sliced leaves previous to the infusion of the vinegar2 two drachms are sufficient to one pound of cabbage4 ,red beet root is employed for a similar purpose1 but the former pigment1 which is perfectly harmless1 is preferable4 ,when the pickle is cold1 it should be tied over with a bladder skin to exclude the air4 ,,pickled ,,onions4 ,for this pickle the small white round onions1 of the size of a child's playing marble1 are usually chosen4 ,having peeled off the exterior brown coat of the onions1 simmer them in water1 till their outer layers have acquired a semi-transparency1 7not longer71 then strain off the water1 and suffer the onions to dry2 put them into an unglazed earthen jar and pour over them so much colourless vinegar1 previously heated nearly to the boiling point1 as will cover them4 ,the seasoning spices usually added are white pepper1 ginger root1 white mustard seed1 mace1 and salt4 ,,pickled ,,walnuts4 ,take unripe walnuts2 run a large needle through each in several places2 suffer them to macerate for ten or twelve days1 in a strong brine of common salt4 ,when this has been done1 decant the brine1 transfer the walnuts into a stone jar1 and pour vinegar1 previously heated nearly to the boiling point1 over them1 in a sufficient quantity to cover them4 ,they may be seasoned with long pepper1 capsicum1 ginger1 mustard seed1 mace1 and pimento4 ,these substances should be simmered with the vinegar for a few minutes4 ,the walnuts will not be fit for use till when about six months old4 ,,pickled ,,cucumbers4 ,perforate fresh gathered cucumbers1 with a needle1 or fork1 put them into a stone jar1 and pour over them boiling hot vinegar4 ,season with salt1 pimento1 long pepper1 and ginger4 ,these substances should be simmered with the vinegar for a few minutes4 ,to this pickle is sometimes intentionally given a lively green colour1 by copper1 and numerous fatal consequences are known to have ensued from the use of such a practice4#cf #cf ,treatise on the ,adulteration of ,food and ,culinary ,poisons1 #ahba4--8,poisonous ,pickles40 ,if pickled cucumber1 or any other kind of vegetable pickle1 be wanted of a lively green colour1 it may readily be effected by soaking them when ready prepared1 for a few minutes1 first in tincture of turmeric1 and then in a diluted solution of the colouring matter of indigo1 dissolved in water4#cg ,this method of straining the pickle is perfectly harmless4 #cg ,this substance is called1 at the colour-shops1 intense 7not liquid blue1 which is quite a different preparation of ,indigo17 blue4 ,samphire1 ,french beans1 tomatoes1 capsicum pods1 nasturtium and raddish pods1 may be pickled in the same manner4 ,,pickled ,,red ,,beet-,,root4 ,boil the root till sufficiently done2 peel it and cut it into thin slices4 ,put it into a stone jar1 and pour over it white vinegar1 seasoned with long pepper1 horse-raddish1 cut into small slices1 allspice1 cloves1 and salt4 ,,pickled ,,mushrooms4 ,having peeled small button mushrooms1 put them in a strong brine of salt for three or four days2 strain off the brine1 and pour over them boiling hot vinegar3 season with long pepper1 ginger1 and mace4 ,,pickled ,,artichoke4 ,take large fresh gathered artichokes1 boil and simmer them till they are nearly tender1 remove the leaves and choke1 and put the bottom part of the artichoke in a salt brine for about forty-eight hours2 then strain off the brine1 put the artichoke into a jar1 and cover it with vinegar1 previously heated to the boiling point1 and seasoned with pepper1 salt1 eschalots1 and mace4 ,,sour ,,kraut4 ,m4 ,parmentier has given a minute description of a process of making sour kraut on the large scale4 ,the heads of white winter cabbages1 after removing the outer leaves1 are to be cut into fine shreds1 by means of a knife1 or with a plane1 and spread out to dry upon a cloth in the shade4 ,a cask is to be set on end1 with the head taken out4 ,if it formerly contained vinegar or wine1 so much the better1 as it will promote the fermentation1 and give the cabbage a more vinous taste2 if not1 the inside may be rubbed over with sour kraut liquor4 ,caraway seeds are to be mixed with the shreds of cabbage1 a good layer of salt is placed at the bottom of the cask1 and then cabbage shreds evenly packed1 to the depth of four or six inches4 ,the layers are regularly stamped down with a wooden stamper1 to half their original bulk4 ,the same process is to be repeated1 with additional layers of salt1 and shreds1 till the whole be packed4 ,they are then to be covered with a layer of salt1 or till the barrel be filled within two inches of the top1 over which the outside leaves of the cabbages are to be spread4 ,about two pounds of salt are required for twenty middling sized cabbages4 ,the head of the barrel1 which should have been previously well fastened together1 is lastly to be put within the barrel above the leaves1 and loaded with stones1 to prevent the mixture from rising during the fermentation4 ,the mass thus compressed subsides1 and the cabbage gives out its juice1 which rises to the surface1 it is green1 muddy1 and ftid4 ,it is to be drawn off by a spigot placed two or three inches from the bottom1 and re-placed by fresh brine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following notice may serve to remind the reader of the time when the various articles for preparing pickles are in season4 ,nasturtium pods fit for pickling1 are in season in the middle of ,july4 ,onions1 by the middle and end of ,july4 ,cucumbers1 the latter part of ,july and ,august4 ,capsicum pods1 the end of ,july and beginning of ,august4 ,tomatas1 or ,love ,apples1 the end of ,july and ,august4 ,cauliflower1 in ,july and ,august4 ,artichokes1 in ,july and ,august4 ,radish pods1 in ,july4 ,french ,beans1 in ,july4 ,mushrooms1 in ,september4 ,red ,cabbage1 in ,august4 ,samphire1 in ,august4 ,,mushroom ,,catsup4 ,the name of catsup is given to several kinds of liquid pickles1 made of savoury vegetable substances1 such as mushrooms1 walnuts1 c4 ,the following method of preparing mushroom catsup is copied from the ,cook's ,oracle3-- ,take full grown mushrooms2 put a layer of them at the bottom of a deep earthen pan1 and sprinkle them with salt1 then another layer of mushrooms1 put some more salt on them1 and so on1 alternately1 salt and mushrooms2 let them remain two or three hours1 by which time the salt will have penetrated the mushrooms1 and rendered them easy to break2 mash them well and let them remain for a couple of days1 stirring them up1 and mashing them well each day2 then pour them into a stone jar1 and to each quart add half an ounce of whole black pepper2 stop the jar very close1 set it in a stew-pan of boiling water1 and keep it simmering for two hours at least4 ,take out the jar1 and pour off the juice clear from the sediment through a hair sieve into a stewpan 7without squeezing the mushrooms72 let it boil up1 skim it1 and pour it into a dry jar2 let it stand till next day1 then pour it off as gently as possible1 through a tammis1 or flannel bag1 7so as not to disturb the sediment at the bottom of the jar47 ,bottle it in pints or half pints2 for it is best to keep it in such quantities as are soon used3 in each pint1 put a dozen berries of black pepper1 the same of allspice1 and a table-spoonful of brandy4 ,,tomata ,,catsup4 ,mash a gallon of ripe tomatas2 add to it one pound of salt1 press out the juice1 and to each quart add a quarter of a pound of anchovies1 two ounces of eshallots1 and an ounce of ground black pepper2 simmer the mixture for a quarter of an hour2 then strain it through a sieve1 and put to it a quarter of an ounce of pounded mace1 the same quantity of allspice1 ginger1 and nutmeg1 and half a drachm of cochineal2 let the whole simmer for twenty minutes1 and strain it through a bag3 when cold1 bottle it3 ,or1 put tomatas into an earthen pan1 and bake them very slowly in an oven4 ,rub the pulp through a hair sieve1 to separate the seeds and skins4 ,to every pound1 by weight1 of the pulp1 add a pint and a quarter of vinegar1 with a drachm of mace1 ginger1 cloves1 allspice1 and one ounce each of white pepper1 and minced eshallot4 ,simmer them for half an hour1 and strain off the liquid4 ,,walnut ,,catsup4 ,take #bh lbs4 of unripe walnuts when quite tender1 reduce them to a pulp in a marble mortar2 add to the mass two gallons of vinegar2 let it stand three or four days2 to each gallon of liquor1 put a quarter of a pound of minced eshallots1 half an ounce of bruised cloves1 the same of mace and black pepper1 one tea-spoonful of ,cayenne pepper1 and a quarter of a pound of salt3 give it a boil up1 and strain it through a flannel4 ,conserved ,fruits4 ,the preserving of the pulpy fruits employed in housekeeping for making fruit pies1 tarts and puddings1 so as to render them fit for that purpose1 when they cannot be procured in their recent state1 is an object of considerable importance in every well regulated family4 ,the expence of sugar is frequently urged as a reason for not conserving fruits in housekeeping1 and to this may be added the uncertainty of success from the strong fermentable quality of many fruits1 if the sugar has not been very liberally added4 ,they may indeed be conserved for a length of time without sugar1 by baking them in an oven1 and then closely stopping them up2 but if the cork becomes dry1 the atmospheric air exchanges place with what is impregnated by the fruit1 which then soon becomes mouldy2 some pulpy fruits may be conserved in good condition by the following method1 for years1 or even it is probable for a longer period1 in hot climates4 ,,conservation ,,of ,,recent ,,fruits ,,without ,,sugar4 ,the following fruits may be conserved without sugar4 ,the more juicy fruits of the berry kind1 such as currants1 mulberries1 strawberries1 raspberries1 are not well calculated for this process4 ,,method ,,of ,,conserving ,,gooseberries1 ,orlean ,plums ,green ,gages ,damsons ,peaches ,nectarines ,bullaces4 ,let the fruit be clean picked1 and not too ripe1 put it into wide-mouthed1 or what are called gooseberry bottles1 let the bottles be filled as full as they can be packed1 and stick the corks lightly into them2 then place them upright in a saucepan of water1 heated gradually to about #ajj or #agj ,f4 that is1 until the water feels very hot to the finger1 but does not scald4 ,let this degree of heat be kept up for half an hour1 then remove the bottles one by one1 and fill them up to within half an inch of the cork with boiling water2 when cold let the cork be fitted very close1 and lay the bottles on their sides1 that the cork may be kept moist by the water4 ,to prevent fermentation and mould1 the bottles must be turned once or twice a week for the first month or two1 and once or twice a month afterwards4 ,when applied to use1 some of the liquor first poured off may serve to be put into the pie1 or pudding1 instead of water1 and the remainder being boiled up with a little sugar1 makes a rich and agreeable syrup4 ,the fruit ought not be cracked by the heat2 some trials were made by keeping the bottles in a heat of #aij for three quarters of an hour1 but the fruit was reduced nearly to a pulp4 ,it is also advisable that the fruit be not quite ripe1 nor should it be bruised4 ,some fruits may be preserved in a succulent state by being kept in water1 without boiling4 ,this is practised in regard to the cranberry3 it also succeeds with the smaller kinds of apples4 ,all pulpy fruits1 such as damsons1 plums1 c41 if gathered when not quite ripe1 and not wounded1 may likewise be preserved1 by putting them into dry bottles1 so as to exclude the air1 by sealing over the cork1 and then burying them in a trench1 with the cork downwards4 ,,conservation ,,of ,,recent ,,fruits1 ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,sugar1 ,,in ,a ,,liquid ,,state4 ,a great number of fruits in their natural state may be conserved in a fluid1 transparent syrup1 of such a consistence as will prevent them from spoiling4 ,this method of conserving fruits requires some care2 for if they are too little impregnated with sugar1 they do not keep1 and if the syrup is too concentrated1 the sugar crystallizes1 and thus spoils the conserved fruit4 ,,method ,,of ,,conserving ,,apricots ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,sugar4 ,plums ,damsons ,green ,gages ,peaches ,nectarines4 ,take apricots1 not too ripe1 cut a small slit near the stem end of the fruit1 and push out the stone2 simmer them in water till nearly half done1 then peel them1 and simmer them again for about twenty minutes in a syrup1 made of two parts by measure of water1 and one part by weight of loaf sugar4 ,when this has been done1 put them aside for about twelve hours2 strain off the syrup1 and to one pint of it add four ounces of lump sugar1 simmer the fruit again for about ten minutes in this concentrated syrup2 skim off the impurities that rise to the surface1 and repeat the simmering of the fruit in the syrup three or four times2 and1 lastly1 put the apricots into pots1 and cover them with a syrup made of seven ounces1 by measure1 of water1 and one pound of loaf sugar4 ,tie over or cork the jar to exclude the air4 ,,conserved ,,pine ,,apples4 ,break off the top and stalk of the pine apple1 cut the fruit into slices1 about one-fifth of an inch in thickness2 put the slices into an earthenware jar1 at the bottom of which has been previously put a layer of powdered lump sugar1 about one-eighth of an inch in thickness4 ,place on this stratum of sugar1 a layer of the slices of the fruit1 then put another layer of sugar1 and so on2 lastly1 put the jar up to the neck into a saucepan of boiling water1 and keep the water boiling for about half an hour1 or till the sugar is completely dissolved1 taking care to remove the scum that rises on the surface4 ,tie over the mouth of the jar with a wet bladder1 or keep it well corked4 ,,conserved ,,pears4 ,put peeled pears in a stone pan with water1 let them simmer till they are soft1 skim them1 and when cold simmer them for about ten minutes in a syrup made of three parts by measure1 of water1 and one by weight of loaf sugar1 let them remain in the syrup till the next day2 then pour off the syrup from the pears1 simmer them again for about ten minutes1 and repeat the simmering in the syrup three or four times successively4 ,they are usually coloured red by powdered cochineal1 a small portion of which is added during the boiling process4 ,some persons add cinnamon1 and other spices1 and a portion of port wine4 ,if the pears be not intended to keep1 they may be simmered till done in a syrup1 composed of one pound of sugar and three pints and a half of water4 ,,conservation ,,of ,,recent ,,fruits1 ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,sugar1 ,,in ,a ,,solid ,,form4 ,the name of candied fruits1 or comfits1 is given to such substances as are preserved by means of sugar in a solid state1 so that the whole substance is impregnated and covered with sugar1 in a crystalline1 or solid state4 ,,candied ,,orange1 ,,or ,,lemon ,,peel4 ,soak ,seville orange peel1 well cleaned from the pulp in several waters1 till it loses its bitterness2 cut it into thin slips1 simmer them in a syrup composed of two parts1 by weight1 of lump sugar1 and one of water1 and continue the simmering till they are become tender1 and nearly transparent4 ,then take them out1 put them aside for about twenty-four hours2 and simmer them again in a sufficient quantity of a syrup composed of six ounces1 by measure1 of water1 and one pound of loaf sugar1 and continue the simmering till the sugar candies about the pan and peel4 ,now lay them separately on a wire sieve to drain2 sift finely powdered sugar over them1 whilst still hot1 and put them to dry in a warm stove4 ,candied lemon peel may be prepared in the same manner4 ,marmalades1 ,jams1 ,,and ,fruit ,pastes4 ,marmalades1 ,fruit ,jams1 and ,pastes1 are compositions of the pulpy matter of recent ,fruits1 or other vegetable substances1 so combined into a mass with sugar1 as will cause them to suffer as little alteration as possible in their native qualities4 ,these comfitures are therefore in reality solid extracts of the pulpy matter of fruit conserved by means of sugar4 ,the evaporation of the mass is most conveniently performed in broad hollow vessels2 the larger the surface of the vessel1 the sooner will the aqueous parts exhale4 ,when the pulpy matter begins to grow thick1 great care is necessary to prevent its burning4 ,this accident is almost unavoidable if the quantity be large1 and the fire applied1 as usual1 under the pan2 it may be effectually prevented1 by pouring the mass1 when it has acquired the consistence of syrup1 into shallow earthen pans1 and placing those in an oven with its door open1 moderately heated2 which1 acting uniformly on every part of the liquid1 will soon reduce it to any degree of consistence required4 ,this may likewise be done1 and more securely1 by setting the evaporating vessels in boiling water2 but the evaporation is in this way very tedious4 ,the application of steam by means of what is called a preserving pan1 is the best contrivance for preparing jams1 fruit pastes1 and all other culinary preparations1 which are liable to become injured by a degree of heat exceeding that of boiling water4 ,,black ,,currant ,,paste4 ,mash the currants in a bowl or marble mortar1 so as to break all the berries without materially bruising the seeds2 put the mass into a saucepan1 and heat it nearly to the boiling point2 then rub it through a sieve to separate the seeds4 ,to one pint measure of the pulpy juice1 add one pound and a half of loaf sugar1 let the mixture simmer gently over the fire1 and keep stirring it to prevent it burning at the bottom of the pan4 ,continue the simmering till the mass1 when cold1 assumes the consistence of a stiff1 or almost solid paste1 which may be readily known by placing from time to time a tea spoonful of it on a cold plate4 ,when the mass has acquired the proper consistence1 pour it out on a marble slab1 or earthenware plate1 and continue the further exsiccation by putting it in a stove1 or on a hot hearth4 ,,apricot ,,paste1 ,peach ,paste ,plum ,paste ,cherry ,paste ,quince ,paste4 ,take ripe apricots1 boil them till quite soft1 mash them1 and rub the mass through a splinter sieve1 put the pulp into a pan1 and to every pound put half a pound of powdered loaf sugar2 put it again on the fire to simmer till the paste drops off easily from the spoon1 then take it from the fire and pour it on a slab4 ,peach1 quince1 plum1 and cherry paste1 may be prepared in the same manner4 ,,raspberry ,,paste4 ,mash the raspberries1 and having heated the mass in a saucepan1 pass it through a splinter sieve2 simmer the mass gently to the consistence of a paste1 and to every pound and a quarter of the pulp1 add one pound and a half of powdered loaf sugar1 and proceed as before directed4--,see black currant paste4 ,,orange ,,and ,,lemon ,,paste4 ,squeeze out the juice of ,seville oranges1 and boil the rinds in water till they are tender enough to be crushed between the finger2 scoop out the pulp of the fruit1 and put it aside2 pound the rind1 in a mortar1 to form a smooth mass1 pass it through a splinter sieve2 add to it the juice1 and keep it on the fire till the mass acquires the consistence of a paste2 then take it off1 weigh it1 and to every pound and a quarter add two pounds of powdered loaf sugar2 mix and finish it like black currant paste4 ,see page #bfj4 ,lemon paste is made in a like manner4 ,,raspberry ,,jam4 ,strawberry ,jam ,currant ,jam ,gooseberry ,jam ,mulberry ,jam4 ,having mashed the raspberries1 put them into a saucepan1 and make them boiling hot2 rub the pulp through a coarse splinter sieve1 and to a pint1 by measure1 add one pound of powdered loaf sugar2 simmer the mixture with a gentle heat till the mass has acquired the consistence of a stiff paste1 and comes off from the bottom of the pan1 taking care to stir the mixture continually with a wooden spatula when it begins to thicken4 ,put the jam into pots1 which should be perfectly dry1 for the least damp spoils it4 ,when quite cold1 tie it over4 ,strawberry1 currant1 gooseberry1 and mulberry jam1 may be prepared in a like manner4 ,,apricot ,,jam4 ,take ripe apricots1 cut them into pieces1 and remove the stones2 mash the fruit in a marble mortar1 to form it into a smooth pulp2 heat it over the fire1 and when nearly boiling hot1 rub it through a splinter sieve2 add to one pint1 by measure1 of the pulp1 one pound of powdered sugar2 stir the mixture together1 and suffer it to simmer over the fire till it comes clear from the bottom of the pan1 taking care to stir the mixture all the time4 ,,orange ,,marmalade4 ,marmalades scarcely differ from jams4 ,this name is applied to those comfitures which are composed of the firmer fruits1 such as quinces1 pine-apples1 c42 whereas jams are made of the more juicy1 esculent berries1 such as strawberries1 currants1 mulberries1 c4 ,cut the oranges into pieces1 remove the pulp1 squeeze it through a sieve1 and measure it4 ,boil the rind in water till it is quite soft1 then clear it from the interior side of the white pulpy mass1 so that nothing but the thin outer yellow rind is left4 ,to every pint of the pulpy juice add three-quarters of a pound of coarsely powdered loaf sugar1 and add also the rind of the yellow orange1 cut into thin slips4 ,let the whole simmer1 till a sample1 when taken out of the saucepan1 and suffered to cool on a plate1 exhibits the consistence of a semi-fluid mass4 ,,peach ,,marmalade4 ,peel the peaches and take out the stones1 simmer them till half done1 then drain them1 reduce them to a pulp1 and squeeze the mass through a coarse splinter sieve4 ,weigh the pulp1 and to every pound add twelve ounces of powdered loaf sugar2 simmer the mass till it has acquired a stiff pasty consistence4 ,,pine ,,apple ,,marmalade4 ,cut the fruit into small pieces1 pound it in a mortar1 and pass the mass through a coarse splinter sieve2 weigh the pulp1 and add to every pound three-quarters of a pound of powdered loaf sugar1 and six ounces of water1 and simmer it as before described4 ,,apricot ,,marmalade4 ,boil ripe apricots in water till they can be crushed between the fingers1 then take them out1 extract the stones1 reduce the fruit to a pulp1 and pass the mass through a sieve2 weigh the pulp1 and to every pound take three-quarters of a pound of loaf sugar2 simmer it till it hangs on the spoon1 like a stiff jelly4 ,quince marmalade may be prepared in a like manner4 ,,fruit ,,jellies ,are compounds of the juices of fruits combined with sugar1 concentrated by boiling to such a consistence1 that the liquid1 upon cooling1 assumes the form of a tremulous glue4 ,in the preparation of jellies1 care must be taken not to boil it too long1 as it looses by this means the property of gelatinising1 and assumes the form of mucilage1 the danger of this is greatest when the quantity of sugar is too small to absorb the water of the juice4 ,fruit jellies should not be kept in glazed earthenware pots1 because they act1 or dissolve a portion of the glaze4 ,they should 7and all other comfitures7 be covered with paper dipped in brandy1 and the pots should be tied over with paper4 ,,currant ,,jelly4 ,mash the currants1 and pass them through a splinter sieve1 put the pulp on the fire1 stir it with a spoon till it begins to boil1 then strain the mass through a flannel bag to render the juice clear2 measure it1 and to a pint put one pound and a half of loaf sugar1 and let it simmer very gently1 till you see1 by dipping a spoon or skimmer in the jelly1 and again raising it1 the jelly forms a web upon it1 which1 if simmered enough1 will remain on the skimmer4 ,then take it off the fire1 let it stand a few minutes till the scum has collected on the surface1 remove it and put the clear fluid into pots4 ,when quite cold1 cut pieces of writing paper to the size of the brim of the pots1 steep the paper in brandy and place it on the jelly4 ,,raspberry ,,jelly4 ,the juice of this fruit does not gelatinize readily on account of the quantity of mucilage which it contains2 hence1 for preparing a jelly by means of this fruit1 it is necessary to add to one part of raspberries at least two parts of red or white currant juice4 ,the jelly may then be obtained by following the directions stated for making currant jelly4 ,,barberry ,,jelly4 ,pick the barberries from the stalks1 mash them1 and having heated the mass in a saucepan throw it into a flannel bag1 to strain off the juice4 ,to one pint of the clear juice add one pound and a half of loaf sugar1 simmer it with a gentle heat till it gelatinizes4 ,,gooseberry ,,jelly4 ,take two quarts of bruised gooseberries1 simmer the mass with one pint and a half of water for about a quarter of an hour1 then put it into a flannel bag to strain off the juice1 and to one pint add one pound and a half of lump sugar2 simmer it1 as stated under the article currant jelly4 ,,apple ,,jelly4 ,pare four pounds of russettins or any other sub-acid apples1 cut them into small pieces1 and boil them in two quarts of water1 till they become quite soft1 then put them into a sieve1 strain off the liquid1 and run it through a flannel bag to render it clear2 measure it1 and to one pint of the liquid add one pound and a half of sugar1 and finish the jelly as before directed4 ,see ,currant ,jelly4 ,,quince ,,and ,,apricot ,,jelly ,may be prepared in a similar manner4 ,,fruit ,,syrups4 ,a weak syrup has a tendency to ferment and quickly become sour if kept in a temperate degree of heat2 it is therefore not calculated to prevent the natural fermentation of vegetable juices1 which always increase its tendency to corrupt4 ,pharmaceutists have ascertained that a solution1 prepared by dissolving two parts of double refined sugar in one of water1 or any watery fluid1 and boiling the solution a little1 forms a syrup1 which neither ferments nor crystallizes2 and this proportion may be considered as the basis of all syrups1 and seems to be the degree of boiling syrup called smooth by the confectioners4 ,after having squeezed the fruit for the syrup1 leave the mass for several days undisturbed3 a slight fermentation takes place1 this will separate the mucilage and thick parenchyma which rendered the juice viscid4 ,by degrees these matters subside1 and very often the liquor appears perfectly clear4 ,this liquor may be separated by decantation3 put the remaining matter under the press1 and by these means a juice not so clear as the preceding is obtained1 but which easily becomes clear spontaneously1 especially if put into bottles immediately on its being expressed1 and suffered to ferment during some days2 by this means a transparent juice of the fruit is obtained4 ,,lemon ,,syrup4 ,take a pint of fresh lemon juice1 add to it two pounds of lump sugar2 simmer it for a few minutes1 and remove the scum till the surface is quite clean1 then add an ounce of thin cut lemon-peel2 let them all simmer very gently for a few minutes1 and strain it through a flannel4 ,when cool1 bottle1 and keep it in a cool place4 ,,orange ,,syrup4 ,squeeze the oranges1 and strain the juice from the pulp2 to a pint of the juice1 add two pounds of sugar2 give it a boil1 skim it well1 strain it through a flannel1 and let it stand till cold1 and then bottle it4 ,,mulberry ,,syrup4 ,take ,mulberry juice strained1 rendered clear by having suffered it to ferment1 as directed page #bgc1 one pint2 add to it refined sugar1 two pounds2 simmer the sugar in the juice1 and proceed as directed4--,see ,currant ,syrup4 ,,raspberry ,,and ,,currant ,,syrup ,may be prepared in a like manner4 ,,preservation ,,and ,,storing ,,of ,,fruit1--,,principal ,,requisites ,,of ,a ,,good ,,fruit ,,room4 ,in storing fruits1 care should be taken not to bruise them4 ,pears1 apples1 and all other summer fruit should be placed on shelves singly in a dry and well aired room1 and not on moss1 hay1 or straw1 as is often done1 because they thereby contract a very disagreeable flavour4 ,it is better to lay the fruit on a clean shelf1 covered with a sheet of common writing paper2 brown paper gives them a flavour of pitch4 ,the finer large kinds of pears should not be allowed to touch one another1 but should be laid single and distinct4 ,apples1 and all kinds of pears1 should be laid thin2 never tier above tier1 which causes them to sweat1 and undergo a kind of fermentation1 which renders them mealy4 ,a great deal of the preservation of summer fruit depends on the manner of gathering them4 ,after having prepared the fruit-room1 a fine day is to be chosen1 and1 if possible1 after two or three preceding days of dry weather1 and about two in the afternoon the fruit is to be gathered1 and deposited in baskets of a moderate size1 taking care that none of it receive any bruise or blemish1 for the injured part soon rots and spoils the sound fruit in contact with it4 ,as the summer fruits ripen more quickly after they are pulled1 only a few days' consumption should be gathered at once4 ,autumn apples and pears should be gathered about eight days before they are ripe1 and indeed some kinds never become fit for eating on the tree4 ,if they have been necessarily gathered in wet weather1 or early in the morning1 they should be exposed a day to the sun to dry1 and they should on no account be wiped1 which rubs off the bloom1 as it is called1 which1 when allowed to dry1 on some fruits1 constitutes a natural varnish1 closing up the pores1 and preventing the evaporation of the juices4 ,fine pears may be preserved by passing a thread through the stack1 and having sealed up the end of the stack with a drop of sealing wax1 to hang them up separately in a cone of paper1 suspended by the thread4 ,grapes keep much better when hanging than when laid upon a table1 and it is advisable also to seal the cut end with a drop of sealing wax2 or they may be hung by the stack1 or by the point of the bunch1 as the grapes are thus less pressed against each other2 but it is in both cases necessary to visit them from time to time1 and to cut off with a pair of scissors every berry that is mouldy or spoiled4 ,more artificial modes of preserving grapes in a succulent state are sometimes used1 and become necessary for their transportation to distant countries4 ,they are often packed with bran and saw dust4 ,if intended for transportation they should not be quite ripe4 ,the principal requisites of a good fruit room are great dryness and equality of temperature1 and the power of excluding light4 ,it should be furnished with a number of shallow trays1 supported on a rack or stand one above another4 ,it should have openings to admit fresh air during fine weather4 ,it should be warmed during frost4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,recent ,,esculent ,,roots1 ,,pot-,,herbs1 ,,and ,,other ,,culinary ,,vegetables4 ,when it is necessary to keep vegetables a few days before they are made use of1 care should be taken that they receive as little injury as possible from keeping4 ,the rules are simple and easy3--vegetables of different sorts should not be left in the same bundle1 or basket2 they should not be washed till they are about to be used2 but if they have got flaccid1 or dry-shrivelled1 and wrinkly1 7not otherwise17 they should be immersed in water3 but to prevent them becoming so1 the best method is not to expose them to the sun or air1 but to keep them in a cool1 dark1 damp place1 not scattered about1 but close together1 though not in great quantities1 lest they heat1 and a sort of fermentation begins1 which destroys the quality altogether4--,strong scented vegetables should be kept apart from those that are inodorous4 ,leeks or cellery will quickly spoil a whole basketful of cauliflower1 sallads1 or the finer vegetables4 ,another general rule1 as already stated1 is1 that they should not be kept in water when fresh1 or refreshed by sprinkling them with water1 7as is often practised17 till they are to be used1 for the flavour is thereby greatly injured4 ,it is only when they have become flaccid that they should be immersed in water to restore their crispness before they are cooked1 otherwise they will be tough and unpalatable2 this is to be done1 when the size of the vegetable admits of it1 as cauliflower1 sallad1 cellery1 c41 by cutting off a piece of the stalk and setting the fresh surface1 thus exposed1 in water1 which will be absorbed2 in other cases the whole vegetable must be immersed in water4 ,most vegetable substances being more or less succulent1 their full proportion of fluids is necessary for their retaining that state of crispness or plumpness which they have when growing4 ,on being cut or gathered the exhalation from their surface continues1 while1 from the open vessels of the cut surface1 there is often great exudation or evaporation1 and thus their natural moisture is diminished1 and the tender leaves become flaccid1 and the thicker masses or roots lose their plumpness4 ,this is not only less pleasant to the eye1 but is a real injury to the nutritious powers of the vegetable2 for in this flaccid and shrivelled state its fibres are less easily divided in chewing1 and the water which exists in vegetable substances1 in the form of their respective natural juices1 is directly nutritious4 ,the first care in the preservation of succulent vegetables1 therefore1 is to prevent them from losing their natural moisture4 ,in regard to the tender succulent vegetables this is not altogether possible2 because there is a constant exhalation from their surface1 while the supply of moisture is cut off4 ,the principle of preserving them1 then1 is to retard and diminish the exhalation4 ,even growing vegetables become flaccid in a hot sun1 because the exhalation is then greater than the supply2 and exposure to the sun is absolutely ruinous to all the more delicate vegetables4--,the operation of heat and air is slower but similar4 ,succulent vegetables should1 therefore1 be kept in a cool1 shady1 and damp place4 ,common sense will suggest what is best1 when it is known that to keep vegetables fresh for a short time1 the best way is to hinder them from becoming too dry1 and therefore to keep them from heat and air1 and to avoid crushing or bruising them4 ,if they become frozen in the cold of winter1 they should be immersed in cold water for an hour or two1 and the water should be changed once or twice4 ,the earthy mould should never be washed from potatoes1 or any other sort of roots1 till they are to be dressed4 ,when potatoes1 turnips1 carrots1 or any other roots are to be preserved for a length of time1 they should be covered with earth1 or straw and mats1 to preserve them both from the air and the action of frost1 which is peculiarly hurtful to all vegetable substances4 ,sweet herbs1 or savoury pot-herbs should be gathered in a dry day4 ,cleanse them well from dirt and dust1 cut off the roots1 separate the bunches into smaller ones1 and hang them across a line in the kitchen1 where there is a moderate heat1 which will dry them in an excellent manner3 when perfectly dry1 put them in bags1 and lay them by on a shelf in the kitchen1 they will keep good for twelve months1 and be ready in the moment when wanted3 or rub off the stalks1 put them through a coarse hair sieve1 and put the powder into stopped bottles2 by this means their flavour is still better preserved4--,they are in the highest state of perfection just before they begin to flower2 the first and last crop have neither the fine flavour nor the perfume of those which are gathered in the height of the season2 that is when the greater part of the crop of each species is ripe at the same period4 99 99 99 99 99 ,basil is in the best state for drying from the middle and end of ,august4 ,knotted ,marjoram1 from the beginning of ,july1 and during the whole month4 ,winter ,savory1 the latter end of ,july1 and throughout ,august4 ,summer ,savory1 the latter end of ,july1 and throughout ,august4 ,thyme1 ,lemon-,thyme1 and ,orange-,thyme1 during ,june and ,july4 ,mint1 the latter part of ,june1 and during ,july4 ,sage1 in ,august and ,september4 ,tarragon1 in ,june1 ,july1 ,august4 ,vinegar4 ,vinegar may be made in the small way from grapes1 gooseberries1 or other sub-acid fruits1 with the addition of a portion of ,muscovado sugar1 honey1 or malt wort4 ,in this country vinegar is prepared from a wort obtained by the infusion of malted grain2 the fermentation being excited by yeast4 ,this vinegar is inferior in strength and purity to that from wine1 and is more liable to become mouldy1 or suffer the putrefactive fermentation4 ,and this appears to be owing to the presence of a large portion of glutinous matter4 ,to make vinegar for domestic use1 fit for keeping1 it is essential that the fluid employed for that purpose should contain in every gallon at least three pounds of sugar2 to allow some access of air to the vessel in which it is kept1 and to keep it in a temperature rather higher than that of the atmosphere in this climate1 that is about #ge to #hj ,fahr4 ,it is also essential1 where a liquor already fermented is employed1 to add a portion of yeast2 for though any fermented liquor1 if kept in a moderate temperature in an open vessel1 will spontaneously run sour1 or become changed to vinegar1 this change is too gradual to produce this acid in perfection1 and the first acetified portion turns mouldy before the last has become sour3 but where the substance employed has not yet undergone fermentation1 the whole process of the vinous and subsequent acetous fermentation will go on uninterruptedly with the same ferment which at first set it in action1 which happens1 for example1 in the making vinegar from malt1 or from fruit1 sugar1 and water4 ,,method ,,of ,,making ,,gooseberry ,,vinegar4 ,take gooseberries1 when full ripe1 mash them in a tub or marble mortar1 and to every quart of the mashed fruit1 put three quarts of water1 stir the pulp well together1 let it stand #bd hours1 and press it through a coarse bag4 ,to every gallon of the strained liquor add four pounds of brown sugar1 or four pounds and a half of honey1 the latter is preferable2 put the mixture into a barrel1 which it should fill about three fourths1 and add to eight or nine gallons of it one pint of good ale yeast2 cover the bung hole of the cask with a slate1 to exclude dust1 and place the barrel in the sun in summer1 or a little away from a fire in winter4 ,the mixture will soon begin to ferment2 keep up the fermentation by keeping the liquor at the same temperature1 till the taste and odour indicate that the vinegar is complete4 ,when the liquor has become perfectly clear1 draw it off into bottles4 ,it will keep much better if it be heated nearly to the boiling point1 which is best accomplished by putting the bottles containing it in a saucepan with water1 and causing the water to boil for about one quarter of an hour4 ,when this has been done1 remove the bottles1 and when quite cold cork them4 ,earthenware bottles are much less liable to crack1 during this process1 than glass bottles4 ,,raspberry ,,vinegar4 ,take a pound of fine gathered red raspberries1 mash them in a wooden bowl1 or earthenware pan1 add to the pulp a pint and a half of vinegar2 make the mixture boiling hot1 and strain it through a flannel bag4 ,to every pint of liquor add a pound of lump sugar1 suffer it to simmer in an earthen pipkin for about five minutes1 and remove the scum as it rises4 ,when cold put it into dry bottles4 ,or1 better mash the raspberries1 suffer them to ferment till the juice separates from the pulpy matter2 then add to a pint of the mass a pint and a half of vinegar1 let it simmer for a few minutes1 and strain it through a flannel4 ,,chilli ,,vinegar4 ,tarragon ,vinegar ,mint ,vinegar ,eschallot ,vinegar ,burnet ,vinegar ,put an ounce of red chillies1 7capsicum7 cut into small pieces1 into a bottle containing a pint of vinegar1 stop the bottle close1 and suffer the chillies to macerate for eight or ten days1 and then strain off the clear infusion4 ,tarragon1 mint1 or burnet vinegar may be made in a similar way1 by suffering four ounces of fresh gathered tarragon1 mint1 or burnet1 7or three ounces7 eschallots1 to macerate for eight or ten days in a quart of vinegar4 ,tea4 ,the dried leaves of the tea plant1 a commodity with which we are so well acquainted1 and which affords a beverage so generally used in this country1 must excite curiosity to know something of its natural history1 or the nature of the plant from which it is obtained4 ,the precise period when tea was first made known in ,europe cannot be ascertained2 it is said that some ,dutch adventurers1 seeking for such objects as might fetch a high price in ,china1 and hearing of the general use there of a beverage from a plant of that country1 made them fall upon the idea of trying whether not an ,european plant might be relished by the ,chinese1 and become an article of commerce among them1 and accordingly they introduced to them the herb ,sage1 the adventurers accepting in return the ,chinese tea1 which they brought to ,europe4 ,the ,european herb did not continue long in use in ,china1 but the consumption of tea has been amazingly increasing in ,europe ever since4 ,it is generally said1 that it was first imported from ,holland into ,england1 about #afff1 by lord ,arlington and lord ,ossory1 who brought it into fashion among people of quality4 ,but it was used in coffee-houses before this period1 as it appears by an act of parliament made in #affj1 in which a duty of #h;d4 was laid on every gallon of the infusion sold in these places4 ,in #afff it was sold in ,london for #fjs4 per pound1 though it did not cost more than #bs4 #f;d4 or #cs4 #f;d4 at ,batavia4 ,it continued at this price till #agjj4 ,in #agae green tea began to be used2 and as great quantities were then imported1 the price was lessened1 and the practice of drinking tea descended to the lower ranks4 ,in #agbj1 the ,french began to send tea to us by a clandestine commerce4 ,since that period the demand has been increasing yearly1 and it has become almost a necessary of life in several parts of ,europe1 even among the lowest as well as the highest ranks4 ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,tea ,,tree4 ,the tea tree 7,polyandria ,monogynia7 is a native of ,china1 ,japan1 and ,tonquin1 it has never been found growing wild in any other country4 ,linnus says1 that there are two species of this plant1 the ,bohea1 or black1 and the ,viridis1 or green tea4 ,the green has much longer leaves than the black1 it is a more hardy plant2 and1 with very little protection1 bears the severity of our winters4 ,the tea is planted in ,china round borders of fields1 without regard to the soil4 ,the tree attains the height of ten or twelve feet1 and is an evergreen3 the leaves1 which are the only valuable part of it1 are about an inch and a half long1 and resemble those of sweet brier4 ,the flowers are something like the wild white-rose2 the seeds are round1 and blackish1 about the size of a large pea4 ,as tea is a most important article of commerce to the ,chinese1 they bestow the greatest possible care upon its cultivation4 ,the people of ,china and ,japan take as much pains to procure tea1 of excellent quality1 as the ,europeans do to obtain good wine2 they generally keep it a year before they use it4 ,tea is propagated by seeds1 which are put into holes about five inches deep1 at regular distances from each other2 from six to twelve being sown together1 as it is supposed that only a small number grow4 ,when the tree is three years old1 the leaves are fit to be gathered2 and the men who collect them wear gloves that the flavour may not be injured4 ,they do not pull them by handfuls1 but pick them off one by one1 taking great care not to break the leaves1 and although this appears to be a very tedious process1 each person gathers from ten to fifteen pounds a day4 ,the tea leaves are collected at three different seasons3 what are first procured1 while the leaves are very young1 are called imperial tea1 being generally reserved for the court and people of rank1 because they are considered as of the finest quality4 ,the last gathering1 when the leaves have attained their full growth1 is the coarsest tea of all1 and is used by the common people4 ,the leaves are first exposed to the steam of boiling water1 after which they are put on plates of copper1 and held over a fire until they become dry and shriveled2 they are then taken off the plates with a shovel1 and spread upon mats1 some of the labourers taking a small quantity at a time in their hands1 which they roll in one direction1 while others are continually employed in stirring those on the mats1 in order that they may cool the sooner1 and retain their shriveled appearance4 ,the adulteration of tea#ch has been practised in this country to an enormous extent4 #ch ,adulteration of ,food and ,culinary ,poisons1 and ,methods of ,detecting them4--,see article ,tea4--#ahba4 ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,making ,,tea1 ,,and ,,singular ,,effects ,,of ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,tea ,,pots1 ,,on ,,the ,,infusion ,,of ,,tea4 ,it has been long observed1 that the infusion of tea1 made in silver or polished metal tea-pots1 is stronger than that which is produced in black1 or other kinds of earthenware pots4 ,this remark is explained on the principles1 that polished surfaces retain heat much better than dark rough surfaces1 and that1 consequently1 the caloric being confined in the former case1 must act more powerfully than in the latter4 ,it is further certain1 that the silver or metal pot1 when filled a second time1 produces worse tea than the earthenware vessel2 and that it is advisable to use the earthenware pot1 unless a silver or metal one can be procured sufficiently large to contain1 at once1 all that may be required4 ,these facts are readily explained1 by considering that the action of heat1 retained by the silver vessel1 so far exhausts the herb1 as to leave very little soluble substance for a second infusion2 whereas1 the reduced temperature of the water in the earthenware pot1 by extracting only a small portion at first1 leaves some soluble matter for the action of a subsequent infusion4 ,the reason for pouring boiling water into the teapot1 before the infusion of the tea is made1 is1 that the vessel1 being previously warm1 may abstract less heat from the mixture1 and thus admit a more powerful action4 ,neither is it difficult to explain the fact1 why the infusion of tea is stronger if only a small quantity of boiling water be first used1 and more be added some time afterwards1 for if we consider that only the water immediately in contact with the herb can act upon it1 and that it cools very rapidly1 especially in earthenware vessels1 it is clear that the effect will be greater where the heat is kept up by additions of boiling water1 than where the vessel is filled at once1 and the fluid suffered gradually to cool4 ,when the infusion has once been completed1 it is found that any further addition of the herb only affords a very small increase in the strength1 the water having cooled much below the boiling point1 and consequently acting very slightly4 ,,japanese ,,method ,,of ,,making ,,tea4 ,the people of ,japan reduce their tea to a fine powder1 which they dilute with warm water until it has acquired the consistence of a thin soup4 ,their manner of serving tea is as follows3--,they place before the company the tea-equipage1 and the caddy in which this powder is contained2 they fill the cups with warm water1 and taking from the caddy as much powder as the point of a knife can contain1 throw it into each of the cups1 and stir it1 until the liquor begins to foam2 it is then presented to the company1 who sip it while it is warm4 ,according to ,du ,halde1 this method is not peculiar to the ,japanese2 it is also used in some of the provinces of ,china4 ,coffee4 ,the beverage which we call coffee1 is said to have been drank in ,ethiopia from time immemorial4 ,the ,galla1 a wandering nation of ,africa1 in their excursions on ,abyssinia1 being obliged to traverse immense deserts1 and being also desirous of falling on the ,abyssinians1 without warning1 that they may be incumbered as little as possible with baggage1 carry nothing with them to eat1 but coffee roasted1 till it can be pulverised1 and then mixed with butter into balls2 one of these1 about the size of a billiard ball1 is said to keep them during a whole day's fatigue4#ci #ci ,bruce's ,abyss4 ,,ii4 #bbf4 ,the liquor1 called coffee1 was introduced into ,adea1 in ,arabia1 from ,persia1 about the middle of the #aeth century4 ,not long after it reached ,mecca1 ,medina1 c4 and ,grand ,cairo4 ,hence it continued its progress to ,damascus and ,aleppo1 and in #aeed became known at ,constantinople4 ,it is not certain at what time the use of coffee passed from ,constantinople to the ,western part of ,europe4 ,thevenot1 a ,french traveller into the ,east1 at his return in #afeg1 brought with him coffee to ,paris4 ,in the year #afga1 a coffee-house was opened at ,marseilles4 ,soon after coffee-rooms were opened at ,paris4 ,the first mention of coffee in our statute books was #affj4 ,in the year #afhh1 ,mr4 ,ray affirms1 that ,london might rival ,grand ,cairo in the number of its coffee-houses4#dj #dj ,miller's ,gardener's ,dictionary4 ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,coffee ,,tree4 ,the tree which produces coffee contains ten species1 chiefly natives of the ,east ,indies1 ,south ,america1 and the ,polynesian isles4 ,the only species1 however1 that we have to notice in the present work is the coffee ,arabica1 of which there are two varieties1 though both are sold in our shops as ,turkey coffee1 and possess similar qualities4 ,the tree seldom rises more than #af or #ah feet high1 with an erect main stem1 covered with a lightish brown bark3 the leaves are oblong-ovate1 and pointed2 the flowers are set in clusters2 they are of a pure white1 and possess a very pleasant odour1 but their duration is very transient4 ,the fruit resembles a cherry1 and grows in clusters1 ranged along the branches under the axill of the leaves1 which are of a laurel hue1 but rather longer than a laurel leaf4 ,it is an ever-green1 and makes a beautiful appearance at every season in the year1 but particularly when it is in flower4 ,the coffee tree has of late years been much cultivated in ,america1 but the coffee which has been thence brought to ,europe has been very little esteemed4 ,this great difference in the goodness many have attributed to the soil in which it grows1 and therefore have supposed it impossible for the inhabitants of the ,british islands ever to cultivate this commodity to any real advantage2 but this is certainly a mistake1 as is affirmed by several persons of credit1 who have resided abroad1 who say1 that the berries which they have gathered from the trees and roasted themselves1 were as well flavoured as any of the coffee brought from ,mocha2 so that the fault is in the drying1 and bringing over2 for if in the drying of the berries they be laid in rooms near the sugar-works1 or near the house where rum is distilled1 the berries soon imbibe the surrounding effluvia1 which will greatly alter their flavour4 ,in like manner the coffee brought in the same ships with rum and sugar1 were the coffee ever so good1 would hereby be entirely altered4 ,raw coffee materially becomes ameliorated by age4 ,it should be kept in bags1 or vessels permeable to air1 and in a dry1 or rather warm place4 ,,best ,,method ,,of ,,making ,,coffee4 ,the general use of tea among us1 has caused the inhabitants of ,great ,britain to be in general far inferior than their neighbours on the continent in the art of preparing the beverage called coffee4 ,the coloured water commonly drank in ,england under this name1 is as much the object of derision to foreigners1 as their soup maigre is to us2 hence a lively ,french writer says1 8,the ,english do not care about the quality of coffee1 if they can but get enough of it40 ,coffee certainly is almost universally made stronger on the other side of the channel than it is here4 ,count ,rumford1 in the eighteenth of his ,essays has entered into a minute1 elaborate1 and useful analysis of the powers of coffee1 and the best means of infusing it for dietetic purposes4 ,he remarks1 that among the numerous luxuries of the table1 unknown to our forefathers1 coffee may be considered as one of the most valuable4 ,its taste is very agreeable1 and its flavour uncommonly so2 but its principal excellence depends on its salubrity1 and on its exhilarating quality4 ,it excites cheerfulness1 without intoxication2 and the pleasing flow of spirits which it occasions1 lasts many hours1 and is never followed by sadness1 languor1 or debility4 ,it diffuses over the whole frame a glow of health1 and a sense of ease and well-being which is extremely delightful3 existence is felt to be a positive enjoyment1 and the mental powers are awakened1 and rendered uncommonly active4 ,after some other judicious observations on the valuable properties of coffee1 and the uncertainty of the result in the common methods of preparing it1 the ,count proceeds with his subject4 ,different methods have been employed in making coffee2 but the preparation of the grain is nearly the same in all of them4 ,it is first roasted in an iron pan1 or in a hollow cylinder made of sheet-iron1 over a brisk fire2 and when1 from the colour of the grain1 and the peculiar fragrance which it acquires in this process1 it is judged to be sufficiently roasted1 it is taken from the fire1 and suffered to cool4 ,when cold1 it is ground in a mill to a coarse powder1 and preserved for use4 ,great care must be taken in roasting coffee1 not to roast it too much2 as soon as it has acquired a deep cinnamon colour1 it should be taken from the fire1 and cooled2 otherwise1 much of its aromatic flavour will be dissipated1 and its taste becomes disagreeably bitter4 ,in order that coffee may be perfectly good1 and very high flavoured1 not more than half a pound of the grain should be roasted at once2 for when the quantity is greater1 it becomes impossible to regulate the heat in such a manner as to be quite certain of a good result4 ,the progress of the operation1 and the moment most proper to put an end to it1 may be judged and determined with great certainty1 not only by the changes which take place in the colour of the grain1 but also by the peculiar fragrance which will first begin to be diffused by it when it is nearly roasted enough4 ,if the coffee in powder is not well defended from the air1 it soon loses its flavour1 and becomes of little value2 and the liquor is never in so high perfection as when the coffee is made immediately after the grain has been roasted4 ,boiling-hot water extracts from coffee1 which has been properly roasted and ground1 an aromatic substance of an exquisite flavour1 together with a considerable quantity of astringent matter1 of a bitter but very agreeable taste2 but this aromatic substance1 which is supposed to be an oil1 is extremely volatile1 and is so feebly united to the water that it escapes from it into the air with great facility4 ,if a cup of the very best coffee1 prepared in the highest perfection1 and boiling hot1 be placed on a table1 in the middle of a large room1 and suffered to cool1 it will in cooling fill the room with its fragrance2 but the coffee1 after having become cold1 will be found to have lost a great deal of its flavour4 ,if it be again heated1 its taste and flavour will be still further impaired2 and after it has been heated and cooled two or three times1 it will be found to be quite vapid and disgusting4 ,the fragrance diffused through the air is a sure indication that the coffee has lost some of its volatile parts2 and as that liquor is found to have lost its peculiar flavour1 and also its exhilarating quality1 there can be no doubt but that both these depend on the preservation of those volatile particles which escape into the air with such facility4 ,in order that coffee may retain all those aromatic particles which give to that beverage its excellent qualities1 nothing more is necessary than to prevent all internal motions among the particles of that liquid2 by preventing its being exposed to any change of temperature1 either during the time employed in preparing it or afterwards1 till it is served up4 ,this may be done by pouring boiling water on the coffee in powder2 and as all kinds of agitation is very detrimental to coffee1 not only when made1 but also while it is making1 it is evident that the method formerly practised1 that of putting the ground coffee into a coffee-pot with water1 and boiling them together1 must be very defective1 and must occasion a very great loss4 ,but that is not all1 for the coffee which is prepared in that manner can never be good1 whatever may be the quantity of ground coffee that is employed4 ,the liquor may no doubt be very bitter1 and it commonly is so2 and it may possibly contain something that may irritate the nerves1--but the exquisite flavour and exhilarating qualities of good coffee will be wanting4 ,coffee may easily be too bitter1 but it is impossible that it should ever be too fragrant4 ,the very smell of it is reviving1 and has often been found to be useful to sick persons1 and especially to those who are afflicted with violent head-aches4 ,in short1 every thing proves that the volatile aromatic matter1 whatever it may be1 that gives flavour to coffee1 is what is most valuable in it1 and should be preserved with the greatest care1 and that in estimating the strength or richness of that beverage1 its fragrance should be much more attended to than either its bitterness or its astringency4 ,one pound avoirdupois1 of good ,mocha coffee1 which1 when properly roasted and ground1 weighs only thirteen ounces1 serves for making fifty-six full cups of very excellent coffee4 ,the quantity of ground coffee for one full cup1 should not be less than #ajh grains troy1 which is rather less than a quarter of an ounce4 ,this coffee1 when made1 fills a coffee-cup of the common size quite full4 ,in making coffee1 several circumstances must be carefully attended to3 in the first place1 the coffee must be ground fine1 otherwise the hot water will not have time to penetrate to the centres of the particles2 it will merely soften them at their surfaces1 and passing rapidly between them1 will carry away but a small part of those aromatic and astringent substances on which the goodness of the liquor entirely depends4 ,in this case the grounds of the coffee are more valuable than the insipid wash which has been hurried through them1 and afterwards served up under the name of coffee4 ,formerly1 the ground coffee being put into a coffee-pot1 with a sufficient quantity of water1 the coffee-pot was put over the fire1 and after the water had been made to boil a certain time1 the pot was removed from the fire1 and the grounds having had time to settle1 or having been fined down with isinglass1 the clear liquor was poured off1 and immediately served up in cups4 ,this was a bad practice of making coffee4 ,from the results of several experiments made by ,count ,rumford1 to ascertain what proportion of the aromatic and volatile particles in the coffee escape1 and are left in this process1 he found that it amounted to considerably more than half4 ,when coffee is made in the most advantageous manner1 the ground coffee is pressed down in a cylindrical vessel a1 7fig4 #d1 plate facing the title page71 which has its bottom pierced with many small holes1 so as to form a metal strainer2 a proper quantity of boiling hot water being poured cautiously on this layer of coffee in powder1 the water penetrates it by degrees1 and after a certain time begins to filter through it4 ,this gradual percolation brings continually a succession of fresh particles of hot water into contact with the ground coffee2 and when the last portion of the water has passed through it1 every thing capable of being dissolved by the water will be found to be so completely washed out of it1 that what remains will be of no kind of value4 ,it is1 however1 necessary to the complete success of this operation1 that the coffee should be ground to a powder sufficiently fine4 ,in order that the coffee may be perfectly good1 the stratum of ground coffee1 on which the boiling water is poured1 must be of a certain thickness1 and it must be pressed together with a certain degree of force1 by means of the presses b1 7fig4 #d47 ,if it be too thin1 or not sufficiently pressed together1 the water will pass through it too rapidly2 and if the layer of ground coffee be too thick1 or if it be too much pressed together1 the water will be too long in passing through it1 and the taste of the coffee will be injured4 ,count ,rumford recommends1 as of importance1 that the surface of the coffee be rendered quite level after it is put into the strainer before any attempt is made to press it together1 that the water1 in percolating1 may act equally on every part4 ,when the coffee is made1 the strainer1 or cylindrical vessel a is removed1 and the lid of it is made to serve as the lid for the coffee pot4 ,the following table shews the diameters and heights of the cylindrical vessels1 or strainers1 to be used in making the following quantities of coffee3-- ,quantity of ,coffee to ,diameter of ,height of be made at once4 the ,strainer4 the ,strainer4 ,in ,inches4 ,in ,inches4 #a cup #a #e #b cups #b #e #c or #d cups #b #e #e or #f cups #c #e #g or #h cups #d #e #i or #aj cups #d #e #aa or #ab cups #e #e ,metal coffee pots should be kept as bright as possible2 for1 when the external surface is kept clean and bright1 the pot will be less cooled by the surrounding cold bodies than when its metallic splendour is impaired by neglecting to clean it2 pots for making coffee in the manner stated in the preceding pages1 may now be had in most of the tinmen's shops of this metropolis4 ,kitchen ,fire-places1 ,,and ,cooking ,utensils4 ,the judicious use and proper application of fuel are objects of particular moment in domestic economy1 especially in the culinary art4 ,coal is an article of primary necessity among all ranks of people1 and as it cannot be procured without great expense1 the consumption of it in cookery with the smallest possible waste is an object deserving the attention of every family4 ,so numerous are the varieties of kitchen fire-places which have been invented to save fuel1 that there is hardly an ironmonger in this metropolis who does not claim the merit of possessing a patent for an apparatus of this description4 ,the pretended improvements of a great many patent kitchen fire-places for cooking1 unfortunately consist in increasing the quantity of iron work1 to their evident defect4 ,the bare inspection of others again1 will at once convince the impartial observer1 that they cannot answer the intended purpose2 most of them are furnished with numerous doors and apertures1 solely introduced to facilitate the cleaning of the flues2 and the reader may rest assured1 that whenever recourse is had to such expedients1 it is a sure sign that the construction of the fire-place or apparatus is extremely defective4 ,when the combustion of the fuel is perfect1 there is little soot produced--for a rapid accumulation of it1 indicates an imperfect combustion1 and consequently a waste of fuel4 ,the evil in the cases which we have observed1 originates in the circuitous direction and awkward angular distortions of the flues for heating the baking closets1 or the vessels for boiling4 ,the fire grate is indeed comparatively small in all of them1 and this their apparent recommendation is what misleads the purchaser1 who on inspecting the apparatus is told1 that he will be enabled to roast1 bake1 boil or stew1 with a small quantity of fuel4 ,but if we consider the mass of iron-work requiring to be heated by the small fire-place1 the saving of coals will prove wholly imaginary1 and the purchaser 7we speak from experience7 will soon become convinced that the simplest and most economical employment of fuel1 for the purpose of cooking in a family not exceeding eight or ten persons1 unquestionably consists of a common fire-grate fitted with a boiler placed either at the back or at one side of the grate1 for supplying hot water1 or for generating steam1 having at the other side a hollow chest or oven1 7forming the other hob of the grate17 to be heated by the ignited coals lying laterally against it1 in the grate2 such an apparatus appears to be one of the most eligible contrivances of a cooking grate for a moderate sized family1 where economy of coal is an object4 ,kitchen ranges of this kind may be seen in most of the ironmongers shops of this metropolis4 ,the figure on the title page exhibits a kitchen grate of this kind4 ,the fire-place for roasting is1 as usual1 in the middle of the grate4 ,at the right side of it1 is a boiler1 furnished with a cock2 on the left hand side1 is the baking closet1 as shewn in the design4 ,the cast-iron hearth1 upon which the stew-pans and kettles are put1 is furnished with a moveable plate1 directly over the fire-place4 ,this contrivance is convenient for causing 7when the plate is removed7 the fire to act in a direct manner upon a vessel placed over the opening as occasion may require4 ,the small door in front1 above the fire bars1 serves for throwing on the fuel4 ,the door shown under the bars of the fire-place is furnished with a register1 for regulating the heat4 ,the door under the boiler1 on the right hand side1 and that under the baking closet1 on the left hand1 serve to keep in the heat4 ,for cleaning the flues1 a moveable cast iron slider is fitted in front1 below the boiler1 and another below the baking closet1 as shown in the design4--,the upper part of the flues are cleaned in the usual manner1 above the iron hearth4 where a small door is provided for that purpose to get admission to the flues4 ,for larger families1 where the operations of cooking are multifarious1 an horizontal iron plate or hearth1 7,see fig4 #b1 plate facing the title page17 at one end heated by a fire-place1 so that the flame may traverse in a serpentine direction underneath the hearth1 before it reaches the throat of the chimney1 is very convenient and economical4 ,upon this hearth or iron plate1 which is provided with holes1 fitted with stoppers1 7and which in fact resembles the sand bath of the chemists71 the cooking utensils for boiling and stewing are placed2 and as the different parts of the plate become unequally heated1 the hottest part being of course over the fire-grate1 and the least heated at the farthest extremity of the flue1 near its communication with the chimney1 the cook has the advantage of placing the pans and kettles1 which require a strong and lasting heat1 at the precise spot where they will be soonest heated2 and those farthest from the source of heat1 which require only a moderate degree of warmth4 ,to economise the heat of the iron plate1 a small oven is sometimes placed at the extremity of the flue of the fire-place1 which heats the plate4 ,it is convenient for a variety of culinary purposes requiring a very gentle heat1 or if it be wanted for baking meat1 or bread1 a small fire-grate fixed underneath it1 will render it extremely fit for those purposes4 ,the front wall which supports the iron plate or hearth1 should be constructed of brick-work1 not of iron1 as the former retains the heat very effectually1 whereas the latter enables it to pass into the kitchen1 to the great annoyance of the cook4 ,the open fire-place1 connected with this cooking hearth1 is furnished at the left hand side with a baking closet1 and at the right hand side is a steam boiler for heating the vessels a a4 ,underneath of these is another hot closet1 likewise heated by steam4 ,mr4 ,marriott1 an ingenious ironmonger in ,fleet-street1 has greatly improved the construction of kitchen ranges2 the design exhibited1 on the title page of this ,treatise1 is copied from an apparatus of his construction4 ,fig4 #a1 is a ,dutch oven2 a description of it has been given1 page #hh4 ,,stewpans ,,and ,,saucepans ,should not be made with flat bottoms1 but rounded a little at the edges--they must by no means be made with corners that are square like tin vessels1 for such can never be completely cleaned1 and do not wear near so long--that is the sides should not be soldered to the bottom with a square joint1 as sand and grease that lodge there can never be completely got out4 ,these utensils should be scoured on the outside round the rim1 and a little way down the sides1 but not low on the sides or on the bottom1 as that only wears them without any sort of advantage4 ,for small families1 we recommend tin saucepans1 as being lightest and safest2 and if proper care is taken of them1 and they are well dried after they are cleaned1 are by far the cheapest1 for the cost of a new tin saucepan is little more than the expense of tinning a copper one4 ,the covers of the boiling pots should fit close1 not only to prevent unnecessary evaporation of the water1 but to guard against the smoke of the fire insinuating itself under the edge of the lid4 ,,preserving ,,pans4 ,the best sort are those which are heated by means of steam1 the temperature of which can never be such as to burn1 or cause adherence to the bottom of the pan4--,fig4 #c1 exhibits a steam preserving-pan2 the steam enters from a common steam-boiler1 at the extremity a1 and passes between the pan1 which is double1 as shown in the design4 ,the condensed water may1 from time to time1 be drawn off by the cock and pipe b4 ,,copper ,,cooking ,,utensils4 ,copper cooking utensils are attended with so much danger1 that the use of them ought to be laid entirely aside4 ,they have not only occasioned many fatal accidents1 7which have been made public71 but they have injured the health of great numbers1 where the slower1 but not less dangerous effect has not been observed4 ,if not kept very clean and bright1 they become covered with verdigris1 for all fat1 oily1 or buttery substances corrode copper2 and if they are kept clean and bright1 the rubbing or scraping that takes place when making stews1 or cooking dishes that require stirring1 and remaining a considerable time on the fire1 always wears off some of the metal which impregnates the food1 and has a deleterious effect4 ,the inexcusable negligence of persons who make use of copper vessels has been productive of mortality1 so much more terrible1 as they have exerted their action on a great number of persons at once4 ,though1 after all1 a single dose be not mortal1 yet a quantity of poison1 however small1 when taken at every meal1 must produce more fatal effects than are generally apprehended2 and different constitutions are differently affected by minute quantities of substances that act powerfully on the system4 ,some years ago1 the death of several persons was occasioned1 at ,salt-hill1 by the cook sending a ragout to the table which she had kept from the preceding day in a copper vessel1 badly tinned4 ,another instance of death occasioned by the eating of pickles1 prepared in copper vessels1 is mentioned by ,dr4 ,percival4#da #da ,see a ,treatise on the ,adulteration of ,food and ,culinary ,poisons1 and ,methods of ,detecting them1 p4 #bdi4 ,dr4 ,johnson gives an account of the melancholy catastrophe of three men being poisoned1 after excruciating sufferings1 in consequence of eating food cooked in an unclean copper vessel1 on board the ,cyclops frigate2 and1 besides these1 thirty-three men became ill from the same cause4 ,if1 however1 copper utensils are to be used1 they should be employed with the precautions as used in ,france1 where the tinning of the vessels on the inside is done as regularly as the shoeing of horses in a farm-yard4--,if the least occasion is thought to exist1 the vessel is immediately tinned2 but to prevent all risk1 it is generally done once a month with stew-pans that are in daily use4 ,moreover1 the victuals are never stirred with any thing of metal1 but with a wooden spoon1 or flat stick made for the purpose4 ,the following wholesome advice on this subject is given to cooks by ,dr4 ,kitchiner4 8,stewpans and soup-kettles should be examined every time they are used2 these1 and their covers1 must be kept perfectly clean and well tinned1 not only on the inside1 but about a couple of inches on the outside2 so much mischief arises from their getting out of repair2 and1 if not kept nicely tinned1 all your work will be in vain2 the broths and soups will look green and dirty1 and taste bitter and poisonous1 and will be spoiled both for the eye and palate1 and your credit will be lost2 and1 as the health1 and even the life1 of the family depends upon this1 the cook may be sure her employer had rather pay the tinman's bill than the doctor's40 ,various kinds of food used in domestic economy are liable to become impregnated with lead4 ,the glazing of the common cream-coloured earthen ware1 which is composed of an oxyd of lead1 readily yields to the action of vinegar and saline compounds2 and therefore the jars and pots of this kind of stoneware1 should not be used for marmalades and other conserves4 ,pickles should in no case be deposited in cream-coloured glazed earthenware pots4 ,the baking of fruit tarts in cream-coloured earthenware is no less objectionable ,all kinds of food which contain free vegetable acids1 or saline preparations1 attack utensils covered with a glaze1 in the composition of which lead enters as a component part4 ,wooden ,tubs lined with lead1 should not1 as they often are1 be used for salting meat1 as the salt brine corrodes the lead1 and all compounds of this metal are dangerous to health4 ,,finis4 ,c4 ,,green1 #ae1 ,,leicester ,,street1 ,,leicester ,,square4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,the language from the source document1 including inconsistencies and unusual spellings1 has been retained1 except as listed below4 ,missing accents in ,french words and phrases have not been added4 ,page #adj1 ,before the trumpets calls 4443 as printed in the source document4 ,page #cjd1 444 in ,adea1 in ,arabia1 4443 possibly an error for 444 in ,aden1 in ,arabia1 4444 ,changes made ,footnotes have been moved to immediately underneath the text element to which they belong4 ,some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected silently4 ,page xiii3 page number #cef changed to #ccf ,page #g3 rabit changed to rabbit ,page #af3 ,gastronomque changed to ,gastronomique ,page #bd3 ,the pleasure of the table changed to ,the pleasures of the table ,page #ach3 8 added before ,point des ,legumes 444 ,page #adj3 qui fail le ,soldat changed to qui fait le ,soldat ,page #aeh3 parsly changed to parsley ,page #afa3 gelantine changed to gelatine ,page #bjj-bjd3 several opening and closing quote marks inserted ,page #bjb3 vogages changed to voyages ,page #bfa3 ,chery ,paste changed to ,cherry ,paste ,page #bfb3 ,,orange ,,and ,,lemom ,,paste changed to ,,orange ,,and ,,lemon ,,paste ,page #cbe3 covenient changed to convenient