,transcriber's ,notes ,text between underscores represents text printed in italics in the source document1 text between equal signs represents bold face text1 and text between tildes represents bold face and italic text4 ,superscript texts are represented by text4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,identification ,,of ,,the ,,larger ,,fungi ,,dedication ,to my parents who encouraged my interests in mushrooms and toadstools and my wife who1 later1 was sympathetic to my studies and assisted in the production of the manuscript4 ,hulton ,group ,keys ,,identification ,,of ,,the ,,larger ,,fungi by ,,roy ,,watling1 ,b4,sc41 ,ph4,d41 ,m4,i4,biol4 ,principal ,scientific ,officer1 ,royal ,botanic ,garden1 ,edinburgh ,editor of series3 ,antony ,r4 ,kenney1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 #aigc ,r4 ,watling ,a4 ,r4 ,kenney ,,isbn #j #gage #jeie #b ,first published #aigc by ,hulton ,educational ,publications ,ltd41 ,raans ,road1 ,amersham1 ,bucks4 ,reproduced and printed by photolithography and bound in ,great ,britain at ,the ,pitman ,press1 ,bath ,,preface ,this is one of a series of books intended to introduce field-biology to students1 particularly the sixth form and early university student4 ,the present work is ecologically biased in order to emphasise a rather neglected aspect of the higher fungi4 ,few books on fungi have ever been designed for students4 ,this book is aimed primarily at this level1 but if the interested amateur is assisted and encouraged by this same text my hopes will have been doubly achieved4 ,many amateurs interested in higher fungi wish only to name their collections1 or know approximately what they are before sampling them as an addition to their diet4 ,an understanding of our commoner species at an early age will allow the #8budding' mycologist to tackle the much needed study of the more critical forms4 ,mycology is still at a descriptive stage1 but it is hoped this will soon be changed and fungi of all kinds will be studied as part and parcel of courses in ecology4 ,it is of course quite impossible to cover all the species in such a small volume as this present one1 but it is hoped that the examples which have been carefully chosen are sufficiently common throughout the country for any student to collect them in a single season4 ,the examples1 except for very few1 in fact appear in the list of higher fungi found about the ,kindrogan ,field ,centre1 ,perthshire1 ,scotland1 compiled from the collections made by students attending my field course there4 ,the present work is arranged in three parts3 the agarics are dealt with first1 the non-agarics next1 both with particular reference to their major habitat preferences1 and lastly a catalogue of those more specialised habitats which are frequently encountered4 ,all parts are supported at the end by lists in tabular form of those species expected to be found in any one habitat4 ,keys to the major groups1 families and genera1 are included to widen the scope of the book and place the examples chosen and illustrated in the text in their position in classification4 ,in the description the synonymy has been very severely pruned and only covers the commonly seen names2 they are included as part of the general information under each species4 ,in order for the student to expand unfamiliar names a list of references is added at the end of the work4 ,the common names of the fungi1 whenever possible1 have been adopted from a list produced by ,dr ,large1 the author of ,the ,advance of the ,fungi1 an exciting tale of fungal parasites4 ,the authorities for the names of the fungi described have been reduced to accord with the minimum requirements set out by the ,code of ,botanical ,nomenclature4 ,after each description a list of references to coloured plates is given and while some of these illustrations are not of the highest quality they are adequate1 and1 more important1 they are widely available4 ,any technical terms appearing in the description are explained in the glossary1 although they have been kept to a minimum2 the difficulty of expressing colours has been overcome by consistently referring to one colour chart only1 7a chart designed originally for the use of mycologists and available from ,her ,majesty's ,stationery ,office74 ,i have not indicated the edibility of a particular species unless there is no doubt as to the edibility of it1 related species and those species with which it might be easily confused4 ,many fungi are notoriously difficult to identify and when one has approximately #c1jjj species of larger fungi in the country the task is even more difficult4 ,it would be folly therefore to indicate edibility for all the fungi described in a book such as this2 the golden rule which should be adopted is not to eat any of the fungi one collects in the woods and fields4 ,a fault of most popular treatments is that they are biased towards the human diet and selection of species is done on this basis2 in the present work selection of examples within the #bgj pages has been difficult and two factors have been particularly considered to ensure that 7i7 representatives of all the major groups of fungi and genera have been covered and 7ii7 a coverage has been attempted of all the common ecological niches4 ,i am fully aware that the taste of a fungus may be distinctive to that species or to a group of closely related species1 but it is only a spot character and the tasting of one's finds is neither necessary nor advisable2 indeed it is not used in this book4 ,the odour1 however1 has been indicated whenever distinctive4 ,,contents ,page ,preface #e ,introduction #i ,where to look #i ,collecting #aj ,examination #aa ,microscopic examination #ab ,key to major groups of ,larger ,fungi #ba ,a4 ,agarics and their relatives #bb ,key to major genera #bb 7i7 ,agarics of woodlands and copses #bg 7a7 ,mycorrhizal formers #bg 7b7 ,parasites #ei 7c7 ,saprophytes--,wood-inhabiting or lignicolous agarics #fd 7d7 ,saprophytes--,terrestrial agarics #gh 7ii7 ,agarics of pastures and meadows #ie 7a7 ,agarics of rough hill-pastures #ie 7b7 ,agarics of chalk-grassland rich uplands #ajh 7c7 ,agarics of meadows and valley-bottom grasslands #aad 7d7 ,fairy-ring formers #aah 7e7 ,agarics of urban areas--lawn and parkland agarics #abb 7f7 ,agarics of wasteland and hedgerows #abf ,b4 ,bracket fungi and their relatives #ace ,key to major genera #ace 7i7 ,pored and toothed fungi #adj 7a7 ,colonisers of tree trunks1 stumps and branches #adj 7b7 ,destroyers of timber in buildings #aed 7c7 ,colonisers of cones #aeh 7d7 ,terrestrial forms #afj 7ii7 ,cantharelles and related fungi #afb 7iii7 ,fairy-club fungi #aff 7iv7 ,resupinate fungi #agf ,c4 ,the ,jelly fungi--,key to major groups with examples #agi ,d4 ,the ,stomach fungi2 puff-balls and their relatives--,key to major groups with examples #ahf ,e4 ,cup fungi and allies #aih ,f4 ,specialised ,habitats #bjg 7i7 ,fungi of dung and straw heaps #bjg 7ii7 ,fungi of bonfire sites #baf 7iii7 ,fungi of bogs and marshes #bbb 7a7 ,sphagnum bogs #bbb 7b7 ,alder-carrs #bbf 7iv7 ,fungi of beds of herbaceous plants #bbg 7v7 ,fungi of moss-cushions #bcj 7vi7 ,heath and mountain fungi #bca 7a7 ,moorland fungi #bca 7b7 ,mountain fungi ,basidiolichens #bcf 7vii7 ,sand-dune fungi #bch 7viii7 ,subterranean fungi #bdc 7ix7 ,fungal parasites #bdf ,g4 ,appendix #bdi 7i7 ,species lists of specialised habitats #bdi 7ii7 ,glossary #bfj 7iii7 ,simple experiments with ,fairy-rings #bfd 7iv7 ,development of the ,agaric fruit-body #bff 7v7 ,references #bfi ,h4 ,index #bga ,cover transparency supplied by ,john ,markham1 ,f4 ,r4 ,p4 ,s41 ,f4 ,z4 ,s4 ,,introduction ,the term larger fungus refers to any fungus whose study does not necessarily require more than a low-powered lens to see most of the important morphological features4 ,using such a term cuts across the existing scientific classification1 for it includes the more obvious fungi bearing their spores on specialised reproductive cells called basidia1 fig4 #e1 and a few of those whose spores are produced inside specialised reproductive cells called asci4 ,the term is useful1 however1 even though it embraces a whole host of unrelated groups of fungi2 it includes the polypores1 fairy-clubs1 hedgehog-fungi1 puff-balls and elf-cups1 as well as the more familiar mushrooms and toadstools--or puddockstools as they are often called in ,scotland4 ,specimens of all these groups will find their way some time into the collecting baskets of the naturalist when he is out fungus-picking1 along with probably a few jelly-fungi and less frequently one or two species of the rather more distantly related group1 the morels4 ,the biggest proportion of the finds1 however1 on any one collecting day in the autumn1 when the larger fungi are in their greatest numbers1 will be of the mushrooms and toadstools2 these are1 collectively1 more correctly called the agarics4 ,the early botanists and pioneer mycologists of the nineteenth century recognised the fact that the fungi both large and small are ecologically connected to the herbaceous plants and trees among which they grow1 but many mycologists since have tended to neglect these early observations4 ,although the importance of the fungi in the economy of the woodland1 copse1 field and marsh is well-known1 mycologists and ecologists alike have been rather slow to appreciate that the fungi can be just as good indicators of soil conditions1 if not better1 than many other plants4 ,perhaps it is rash to attempt such a treatment as you find here because we know so little of the reasons why a particular fungus prefers one habitat to another4 ,however1 it is envisaged and hoped that1 if a framework is provided1 accurate field-notes can gradually be accumulated and many of the secrets yet to be uncovered explained4 ,where to look ,fungi can be found in most situations which are damp at some time of the year4 ,searching for fungi can begin as soon as the spring days become warm1 although even in the colder periods of winter several finds can be made4 ,in summer it gets very dry and this necessitates collecting in damper areas1 such as marshes1 alder-carrs1 swamps and moorland bogs4 ,after a heavy storm in summer1 on the edges of paths and roadsides1 woodland banks1 in clearings in woods and in gardens1 fungi can be collected within a few days of the rain1 but collecting normally reaches a climax in ,august-,september1 the precise date depending on the locality and the individual character of the particular year4 ,all woodlands are worth visiting1 particularly well-established woods with a mixture of trees4 ,pure pine-woods do not seem to be as good as pine-woods with scattered birch2 plantations are often disappointing except after heavy rain or late in the season1 even well into ,november in mild years4 ,pure birch and beech1 the latter particularly when on chalky soils1 are excellent areas to visit4 ,oak is possibly not as good but areas with willow and alder have many unique species4 ,the edge of woods1 sides of paths or clearings are usually more productive areas to search in than is the depth of the wood1 and a small plot of trees can be much more rewarding than a large expanse of woodland4 ,after some time one is able to judge the sort of place which will yield fungi4 ,rotten and burnt wood are very suitable substrates for they retain the moisture necessary for growth of fungi even in dry conditions1 so allowing fructification to take place4 ,grasslands including hill-pastures1 established sand-dunes1 etc41 are often excellent1 but of course they are much more dependent on the weather to produce favourable conditions for fungal development than woodland areas where the changes in the humidity and temperature are less extreme2 prolonged mist or mild showery weather favour the fruiting of the grassland fungi4 ,dung in both woods and fields is an excellent although ephemeral substrate2 many species of fungi characterise dung whilst others will grow in manured fields1 on straw-heaps or where man has distributed the habitat4 ,collecting ,the collecting of larger fungi should not be considered a haphazard pursuit2 careless collecting often results in many frustrating hours being spent on the identification of inadequate material1 which is also not suitable after for preservation as reference material4 ,a few good specimens are infinitely better than several poor ones2 one is always tempted to collect too much and then collections are inevitably discarded4 ,always try to select specimens showing all the possible stages of development from the smallest buttons to the expanded caps4 ,sometimes such a range is not possible and one must be satisfied with either a couple or only one fruit-body4 ,carefully dig up or cut from the substrate the entire fungus and handle it as little as possible4 ,a strong pen-knife or fern-trowel is admirable for the job4 ,the associated plants should be noted1 especially trees1 and if one is unable to identify the plants or woody debris retain a leaf or a piece of wood for later identification4 ,one should note in a field-notebook any features which strike one as of interest1 such as smell1 colour1 changes on bruising1 presence of a hairy or viscid surface4 ,for transporting home the specimens should be placed in tubes1 tins or waxed paper which are themselves kept in a basket4 ,the smallest specimen can go in the first1 the intermediate-sized forms in the tins or waxed paper and the larger ones laid in the basket or placed in large paper bags2 plastic bags are not suitable except for very woody fungi4 ,thus an assortment of tins1 tubes and various sizes of pieces of waxed paper are essential before setting out on a collecting trip4 ,the specimens should be placed in the waxed paper such that they can be wrapped once or twice and the ends twisted as if wrapping a sweet4 ,examination ,once home always aim at examining the specimens methodically4 ,the first necessity is to determine whether the fungus1 which has been collected1 has its spores borne inside a specialised reproductive cell 7ascus7 i4e4 ,ascomycete1 or on a reproductive cell 7basidium7 i4e4 ,basidiomycete4 ,by taking a small piece of the spore-bearing tissue1 mounting in water1 gently tapping it and examining under a low power of the microscope this can be easily ascertained4 ,the tapping out is best done with the clean eraser of a rubber-topped pencil4 ,there are several different shaped asci and basidia2 the latter structures are more important in our study because the ,ascomycetes are in the main composed of microscopic members4 ,the following procedure is necessary for the examination of your find3-- ,select a mature cap of an agaric from each collection1 cut off the stem and set the cap gills down on white paper1 or if the specimen is small or is a woody or toothed fungus1 or consists of a club or flattened irregular plate1 place the spore-bearing surface 7hymenium7 face down on a microscope glass slide4 ,the smaller specimens must be placed in tins with a drop of water on the cap to prevent drying out4 ,even with the larger specimens it is desirable to place a glass slide somewhere under the cap between the gills and the paper1 and if possible to enclose the species carefully in waxed paper or in a tin4 ,whilst you are waiting for the spore-print to form1 notes must be made on the more easily observable features2 one is not required at this stage to examine the microscopic characters4 ,all the characters which may change on drying must be noted immediately1 and these include colour1 stickiness1 shape1 smell and texture4 ,a sketch1 preferably in colour1 however rough1 can give much more information than many score words4 ,cut one fruit-body1 longitudinally down with a razor or scalpel or a sharp knife if the fruit-body is woody1 and sketch the cut surfaces1 fig4 #a;,a-,b4 ,these sketches and the rest of the collection notes should be made such that identification and future comparisons can be achieved4 ,thus always note the characters in the same order for each description4 ,a table of the important characters is provided here1 but this is meant as a guide not as a questionnaire4 ,the attachment of the gills1 pores or teeth to the fruit-bodies when once the fungus is in section should be always noted 7see p4 #bj74 ,the spore-print when complete should be allowed to dry under normal conditions and then the spore-mass scraped together into a small pile4 ,a microscope cover-slip should be placed on the top of the pile and lightly pressed down4 ,the colour of the spore-print 7or deposit7 can then be compared with a standard colour chart and the spores making up the print examined in water under a microscope4 ,microscopic examination ,when one is more experienced with fungi it will be found necessary to carry out many microscopic observations1 but when commencing the study it is necessary only to have an ordinary microscope2 a calibrated eyepiece-micrometer is an advantage as is an oil-immersion lens4 ,an examination of the spores is always necessary2 the examination of features such as the sterile cells on the gill and stem1 etc41 varies with the fungus under observation4 ,spores should if at all possible be taken from a spore-print and mounted on a microscope slide1 either in water or in a dilute aqueous solution of household ammonia4 ,although for mycologists it is often necessary to measure spores to within a micron 7m7 this book has been so arranged that one only really has to distinguish between a spore which is small 7up to #e m71 medium 7#e-aj m71 long 7#aj-ae m71 or large if globose and very long 7if over #ae m72 this is not strictly accurate1 but serves the purpose for an introductory text4 ,it is important to describe the character of the spore1 i4e4 ornamentations1 whether a hole 7germ-pore7 is present at one end and_/or a beak 7apiculus7 at the other 7fig4 #e74 ,with white or pale coloured spores it is useful to stain either the spore or the surrounding liquid with a dye--#aj cotton blue solution is admirable1 or a solution of #ae g iodine in #ajj ml of an aqueous mixture containing #e g of potassium iodine and #ajj g of chloral hydrate4 ,both these dyes must be accurately made up if the study of the fungi is to be taken at all seriously2 because some of the chemicals used above are not normally required by students1 a chemist must make up the reagents for you4 ,often the spores turn entirely or partially blue-black or pale blue or purplish red in the iodine solution--a useful character4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,dissection of a toadstool as recommended by the author4 ,for explanation see text4 ,material in good condition is always required and one of the first things the student needs to do is train himself to collect sufficient material in good condition4 ,the steps by which all the structures of the fungus used in the text can be observed are outlined below3-- ,fig4 #a shows the cuts required to furnish suitable sections in order to observe the various structures and patterns of tissue which are important4 #a4 ,carefully place the longitudinal section 7,,ab7 of the fruit-body which has been sketched gill-face down under a low power or dissecting microscope4 ,hairs or gluten on the cap1 if present1 will be made visible by focusing up and down 7figs4 #b and #c;,a7 and_/or those on the stem 7fig4 #c;,b74 ,when any part of the cut fruit-body is not being examined retain it in a chamber containing damp paper or moist moss2 this will assist the cells to retain their turgidity1 for they frequently collapse on drying and are difficult to observe except after performing often lengthy and special techniques4 ,if only one fruit-body is available1 then cut along ,,cd and mount in a tin box on a slide in order to obtain a spore-print 7otherwise see paragraph #f74 #b4 ,cut off a complete gill 7,e7 and quickly mount on a dry slide4 ,under the low power of a microscope1 the cystidia on the gill-margin will be visible 7fig4 #d72 it will be seen whether the spores are arranged in a particular pattern 7fig4 #e7 and whether the basidia are #b-spored or #d-spored4 ,in white-spored toadstools it is difficult sometimes to determine whether the basidia are #b- or #d-spored so one must confirm the observations by other techniques4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #e4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a section of the gill accompanied by a small piece of cap-tissue1 as in ,e1 will confirm the presence or absence of noticeable cystidia 7or hairs7 on the cap4 ,now mount the section bounded by ,,fg and ,,hi in a drop of water containing either a drop of washing-up liquid and_/or glycerine2 the soapy liquid helps to expel any water which may tend to cling to the gill-margin amongst the cystidia and the glycerine stops the mount from drying out whilst further sections for comparison are cut and examined4 ,it is at this time that the structure of the outermost layer of the cap can be examined1 e4g4 whether it is made up of a turf-like structure2 the presence or absence of cystidia on the cap can be also confirmed 7fig4 #g;,a-,c74 ,it is frequently necessary to tap the mount in order to spread the tissue slightly and expose the elements2 this can be done very efficiently by light pressure from the end of a pencil to which an eraser is attached4 ,cut off along line ,,jk to eliminate marginal cystidia from confusing the picture and mount both pieces separately4 #c4 ,cut out a wedge of tissue from the fruit-body 7,l7 so as to have several gills attached to some cap-tissue2 until one is familiar with the variability of facial and marginal cystidia1 carefully cut along the line ,,pq 7note3 the cut is made one-third of the distance from the cap margin1 thus eliminating the possibility of large numbers of marginal cystidia being examined in error for facial cystidia74 ,now make a second cut along the line of ,,rs so that finally a small block of tissue remains 7,m74 ,mount on a dry slide with the plane through ,,pq face down on the slide and observe under a low magnification1 to assess whether cystidia on the gill-face are present or absent1 and if present their general shape and whether numerous or infrequent 7fig4 #h74 ,mount in water_/washing-up mixture as outlined above and tap gently with the rubber attached to the end of a pencil2 evenly distributed pressure should be given4 ,if the gills appear to be too close then rotate the rubber a little whilst pressing in order to spread the tissue4 #d4 ,using a low power of a microscope and looking down into the plane ,,rs of the unmodified block ,m or a similar block1 one obtains by this simple technique a very accurate idea as to the structure of the trama of the gill 7fig4 #i74 ,the organisation of this tissue is very important in classification1 some groups of toadstools having what has been described as regular trama 7fig4 #i;,c71 others irregular 7fig4 #i;,d71 inverse 7fig4 #i;,b7 or divergent 7fig4 #i;,a74 ,this same tissue may be thick or sparse to wanting1 coloured or not4 ,such sections are often better than attempts at very thin sections unless very specialised techniques are used4 ,there are few satisfactory thicknesses between the two extremes2 the thick sections you can do and the very thin requiring expert techniques4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,fig4 #h4 ,fig4 #i4 ,fig4 #aj4 #e4 ,take out a small block of tissue ,t as indicated in the figure 7fig4 #a74 ,mount immediately and repeat as in #c4 ,this will allow the outer layer of the cap to be more clearly seen 7fig4 #g;,a-,c7 and also the structure of the flesh 7fig4 #aj74 ,the latter may be composed of a mixture of filaments and #8packets' or #8nests' of rounded cells 7i4e4 heteromerous71 or of filaments1 only some of which may be inflated 7i4e4 homoiomerous72 but when individual cells are swollen they never form distinct groups4 ,by very similar techniques it is possible to show that the more woody fungi can have flesh composed of one of four types of cells 7,corner1 #aicb73 these types depend on whether distinctly thickened cells 7plate #dg7 are present with the actively growing hyphae or not 7pp4 #adj-aej71 whether hyphae are present which bind groups of hyphae together1 etc4 7plate #df74 #f4 ,remove stem along line ,,cd and cut out small blocks of tissue as indicated 7,u1 ,v and ,w74 ,mount immediately and examine as in paragraph #c1 for cystidia1 etc4 7see fig4 #c74 ,whilst all these sections are being cut and processed a second fruit-body1 if available1 should be set to drop spores2 this is done by cutting off the cap from the stem and placing it either entirely or in part1 and with gill-edges down1 on a slide in a tin4 #g4 ,z is a #8scalp' of a cap2 a thin sliver from the cap is placed on a slide in a drop of water 7modified with washing-up liquid1 etc4 as above74 ,after placing a cover-slip over the tissue it is tapped gently2 this will show if the cap is composed of globose to elliptic elements or if it is composed of strictly filamentous units 7figs4 #f;,a ,b74 ,care must be taken not to reverse the section when transferring it to the mountant1 either by turning the scalpel or by allowing the surface tension of the liquid to pull the section upside down4 ,the construction of any veil fragments will also be seen in this mount1 and if a loose covering of veil is present this should be removed before observation so that it does not obscure the fundamental structures4 #h4 ,examine the stipe of the fruit-body used above under a low power or with a dissecting microscope in order to ascertain whether there are any remains of veil and_/or vegetative mycelium4 ,if found1 mount immediately in the solution containing iodine mentioned above and examine4 ,of course it is difficult to carry out the above system the first time and be successful in seeing everything1 indeed in being able to cut all the sections #a-h4 ,practice makes perfect1 so why not practise with a lb of mushrooms from the grocer before the autumn season starts4 ,in this way you will have overcome the difficulties without having to experiment with your collections4 ,,characteristics ,,for ,,the ,,identification ,,of ,,higher ,,fungi ,,with ,,caps ,locality ,g4 ,ref4 ,date ,habitat notes soil type p,h vegetational community solitary2 in troops or rings ,draw or preferably paint exterior and vertical section of fruit-body ,,macroscopic ,,characters ,,cap ,general characters3 diameter shape consistency colour3 when immature when mature when wet when dry ,surface dry1 moist1 greasy1 viscid1 glutinous1 peeling easily or not1 smooth1 matt1 polished1 irregularly roughened1 downy1 velvety1 scaly1 shaggy ,margin regular1 wavy incurved or not smooth1 rough1 furrowed striate or not ,veil1 if present colour abundance or scarcity distribution at margin1 whether appendiculate or dentate consistency1 whether filamentous1 membranous ,,gills1 or pores or teeth etc4 remote1 free1 adnate1 adnexed1 emarginate1 subdecurrent1 decurrent crowded or distant distinctly formed or not shape interveined or not easily separable from the cap-tissue or not consistency 7whether brittle1 pliable1 fleshy or waxy7 thickness width colour3 when immature at maturity number of different lengths or number of layers obvious features of gill-edge1 tube-edge1 e4g4 colour1 consistency ,,stem central1 eccentric or lacking shape dimensions3 length thickness hollow or not colour3 when immature when mature consistency 7whether fleshy1 stringy1 cartilaginous1 leathery or woody7 surface characters 7whether fibrillose1 dry1 viscid1 scaly or smooth7 characters of stem-base ,veil1 if present characters ,volva1 if present characters ,ring1 if present whether single or double whether membranous or filamentous whether persistent1 fugacious or mobile whether thick or thin whether apical1 median or basal ,,flesh colour in cap3 when wet when dry colour in stem3 when wet when dry colour changes if any when exposed to air presence or absence of milk-like or coloured fluid 7note3 colour when exuded on fruit-body immediately and after some time and when dabbed on to a clean cloth or paper handkerchief and exposed to the air74 ,,smell before and after cutting --relate to a common every day odour ,,microscopic ,,characters ,,basidiospores colour in mass colour under microscope4 shape size type of ornamentation1 if any size and shape of germ-pore1 if present iodine reaction of spore-mass3--blue-black to dark violet 7amyloid72 red-purple 7dextrinoid72 yellow-brown or brown 7non-amyloid7 ,,basidia number of sterigmata ,,cap-,,flesh type of constituent cells ,,gill-,,tissue type and arrangement of cells between adjacent hymenial faces ,,cap-,,surface type of cells composing the outermost layer--whether filaments or rounded cells ,,sterile ,,cells--,,cystidia presence or absence of sterile cells3-- on gill-edge on gill-margin on cap on stem shape1 estimation of size1 thick or thin-walled1 hyaline or not types of ornamentation1 etc4 ,key to the major classes of ,larger ,fungi ,spores borne externally on stalks on a clavate to cylindrical cell ,basidiomycotina ,spores produced within a clavate1 cylindrical or subglobose cell ,ascomycotina ,key to major groups based on character of basidium and fruit-body shape #a4 ,basidia either produced in a hymenium or in a mass1 and until maturity contained within a closed fruit-body ,gasteromycetes ,basidia produced in a layer of cells 7hymenium7 and exposed to the air before the maturity of the spores 7,hymenomycetes7 #b #b4 ,basidia simple1 a single cell 7fig4 #e7 7,homobasidiae7 #c ,basidia usually septate1 or if simple then fruit-body gelatinous and often collapsing to form a skin when dried 7,heterobasidiae7 #d #c4 ,fruit-body usually fleshy1 soft and easily decaying 7putrescent71 hymenium spread over the surface of gills1 ridges or within tubes ,agaricales 7p4 #bb7 ,fruit-body with hymenium smooth or spread-out on teeth1 ridges or plates or if within tubes then fruit-body tough and leathery ,aphyllophorales 7p4 #ace7 #d4 ,basidia divided #e ,basidia simple and apex drawn out into two long necks ,plate #fa 7p4 #ahe7 ,dacrymycetales 7p4 #ahj7 #e4 ,basidia divided transversely by one to three horizontal septae ,plate #fj 7p4 #ahc7 ,auriculariales 7p4 #ahb7 ,basidia divided into two or four cells by vertical septae ,plate #fa 7p4 #ahe7 ,tremellales 7p4 #ahd7 ,a4 ,,agarics ,,and ,,their ,,relatives ,key to major genera #a4 ,spores distinctly coloured in mass and coloured individually under the microscope #b ,spores not1 or faintly1 coloured in mass and hyaline under the microscope #be #b4 ,spores blackish or some shade of brown #h ,spores pinkish #c #c4 ,stem laterally attached to the cap or absent ,claudopus 7and some species of ,clitopilus7 ,stem centrally attached to the cap #d #d4 ,stem with a cup-like structure enveloping the base ,volvariella ,stem lacking any special structure at its base #e #e4 ,gills not attached to the stem 7free71 or with part attached to and descending down the stem 7decurrent7 #f ,gills attached to the stem but not descending down the stem #g #f4 ,gills remote to free from the stem ,pluteus ,gills distinctly attached and descending down the stem ,clitopilus 7see also ,eccilia p4 #ajb7 #g4 ,gills broadly attached to the stem 7adnate7 ,entoloma ,gills narrowly attached to the stem 7adnexed7 ,leptonia ,nolanea #h4 ,stem laterally attached to the cap ,crepidotus ,stem centrally attached to the cap #i #i4 ,spore-print some shade of brown #aj ,spore-print blackish to purplish black #ah #aj4 ,spore-print bright rust-brown #aa ,spore-print dull clay-brown or ochraceous #af #aa4 ,stem with the veil girdling the stem 7ring71 or cobweb-like 7cortina7 #ab ,stem without the veil girdling the stem or when present then easily lost #ac #ab4 ,stem with distinct ring or ring-zone ,pholiota related genera ,stem with cobweb-like veil or faint filamentous ring-zone ,cortinarius ,gymnopilus #ac4 ,gills attached to the stem but not descending down the stem 7adnexed to adnate7 #ad ,gills free of the stem1 or distinctly attached to and running down the stem 7decurrent71 and then often joined together at the apex of the stem or at their base #ae #ad4 ,cap-surface composed of rounded cells ,conocybe ,cap-surface composed of filamentous cells ,galerina #ae4 ,gills free of the stem and the whole fruit-body very fragile ,bolbitius ,gills attached to and running down the stem 7decurrent71 easily separable from the cap-tissue and frequently veined at apex of stem ,paxillus #af4 ,cap scaly1 fibrillose and roughened ,inocybe ,cap smooth1 greasy or viscid #ag #ag4 ,cap-surface composed of rounded cells ,agrocybe ,cap-surface composed of filamentous cells ,naucoria ,hebeloma #ah4 ,gills or complete fruit-body becoming liquefied ,coprinus ,neither the gills nor fruit-body collapsing into a slurry of cells #ai #ai4 ,gills free to remote from the stem or attached and descending down the stem 7decurrent7 #bj ,gills attached in some way to the stem but not descending down the stem 7adnate to adnexed7 #ba #bj4 ,gills decurrent2 stem possessing a cobweb-like veil ,gomphidius and ,chroogomphus ,gills remote or free2 stem possessing a usually persistent ring ,agaricus #ba4 ,gills distinctly spotted or distinctly mottled2 stem stiff but breaking with a snap when bent2 growing on dung or in richly manured areas ,panaeolus ,gills not spotted or distinctly mottled2 stem cartilaginous or not1 and fruit-body growing on dung or not #bb #bb4 ,gills broadly attached to the stem 7adnate7 and with a veil girdling the stem ,stropharia ,gills narrowly attached to the stem 7adnexed7 or with concave dentation near the stem 7sinuate71 or if adnate then lacking a ring #bc #bc4 ,gills with concave indentation near the stem 7sinuate7 and cap and stem with a cobweb-like veil ,hypholoma ,gills attached to the stem but lacking a distinct concave indentation near the stem #bd #bd4 ,stem stiff but breaking with a snap when bent2 edge of cap incurved at first and cap-surface composed of filamentous cells ,psilocybe ,stem fragile2 edge of cap straight even when young and cap-surface composed of rounded cells ,psathyrella #be4 ,fruit-body fleshy and readily decaying1 often firm but never tough #bf ,fruit-body tough and not easily decaying #dg #bf4 ,parasitic on other agarics ,nyctalis ,not parasitic on other agarics #bg #bg4 ,spore-bearing layer on fold-like often forked gills or simply on irregularities #bh ,spore-bearing layer 7hymenium71 on distinct well-formed gills #bi #bh4 ,spore-bearing layer on fold-like gills ,cantharellus ,spore-bearing layer on surface of irregularities ,craterellus #bi4 ,cap easily separable from the stem #cj ,cap not easily separable from the stem #ca #cj4 ,stem with girdling veil 7ring7 and_/or with a persistent cup-like structure at the base 7volva72 cap usually with warts or scales distributed on its surface ,amanita ,stem with a ring but lacking a volva2 cap surface powdery1 hairy or scaly ,lepiota related genera #ca4 ,cap1 stem and gills brittle2 stem never stiff and either exuding a milk-like juice or not2 spores with spines or warts which stain blue-black in solutions containing iodine #cb ,cap1 stem and gills soft or if stem stiff then snapping when bent2 gills never brittle #cc #cb4 ,fruit-body exuding a milk-like fluid ,lactarius ,fruit-body not exuding milk-like fluid ,russula #cc4 ,gills thick1 watery and lustrous 7waxy7 or with a bloom as if powdered with talc2 often brightly coloured #cd ,gills not waxy and rarely over #ae mm thick #cf #cd4 ,gills rather watery and lustrous 7waxy72 spores smooth #ce ,gills rigid not watery1 with powdery bloom2 spores with distinct spines ,laccaria #ce4 ,fruit-body with a distinct veil and growing in woods2 cap often viscid or pale coloured ,hygrophorus ,fruit-body lacking a veil and usually growing in fields2 cap usually brightly coloured and sometimes viscid ,hygrocybe #cf4 ,stem with girdling veil 7ring7 and_/or stem not attached to the centre of the cap 7eccentric7 #cg ,stem central and lacking a ring #ch #cg4 ,stem central and possessing a ring ,armillaria ,stem not centrally attached to the cap members of the #8,pleurotaceae' 7p4 #gd7 #ch4 ,stem fibrous #ci ,stem stiff only in the outer layers #db #ci4 ,gills with a concave indentation near the stem 7sinuate7 #dj ,gills attached to and descending down the stem 7decurrent7 #da #dj4 ,spores with warts which darken in solutions containing iodine ,melanoleuca ,spores not so colouring in solutions containing iodine ,tricholoma related genera #da4 ,spores with warts which darken in solutions containing iodine ,leucopaxillus ,spores not so colouring in solutions containing iodine ,tricholoma related genera #db4 ,gills thick and with rather blunt edges ,cantharellula ,hygrophoropsis ,gills thin and with distinct and sharp edges #dc #dc4 ,gills attached to and descending down the stem 7decurrent72 cap often depressed at the centre and sterile cells absent from the gills and the surface of the cap ,clitocybe ,omphalina ,gills attached to the stem but not descending down the stem 7adnate to adnexed7 or if descending then distinct sterile cells on the gills1 cap and stem #dd #dd4 ,cap-edge straight and usually striate when young2 cap thin and somewhat conical and gills descending down the stem or not ,mycena related genera ,cap-edge incurved1 non-striate and cap rather fleshy2 gills not descending down the stem #de #de4 ,stem dark and woolly at least in the lower half and the cap viscid2 fruit-bodies growing in clusters on tree-trunks ,flammulina ,stem not dark and woolly #df #df4 ,cap viscid and stem usually rooting2 fruit-body growing directly on wood or attached to wood by long strands or cords of mycelium 7rhizomorphs7 ,oudemansiella ,if cap viscid then fruit-body neither attached to wood by cords of mycelium nor stem with a rooting base ,collybia related genera #dg4 ,stem central and gills often interconnected by veins2 cap can be dried and later revived1 purely by moistening ,marasmius related genera ,stem not attached to the centre of the cap and fruit-body although persistent not easily revived to natural shape after once being dried #dh #dh4 ,spore-print blue-black with solutions containing iodine #di ,spore-print yellowish in solutions containing iodine #ej #di4 ,gills toothed or notched along the edges ,lentinellus ,gills even along their edges and not toothed ,panellus #ej4 ,gills appearing as if split down their middles ,schizophyllum ,gills not splitting #ea #ea4 ,gills notched or toothed along their edges ,lentinus ,gills even along their edges and not toothed ,panus #eb4 ,spore print yellowish1 purplish1 black or pink #ec ,spore-print some shade of brown1 but without purplish flush #ef #ec4 ,spore-print yellowish or pinkish #ed ,spore-print purplish brown or blackish #ee #ed4 ,spore-print yellowish ,gyroporus ,spore-print pinkish ,tylopilus #ee4 ,spore-print purplish brown ,porphyrellus ,spore-print blackish and spores ornamented ,strobilomyces #ef4 ,cap glutinous and stem with or without girdling veil 7ring72 within the tubes the sterile cells 7cystidia7 cluster together ,suillus ,cap at most viscid and then only in wet weather and sterile cells within the tubes individually placed #eg #eg4 ,stem-surface covered with distinct black or dark brown or white then darkening scales2 spore-print clay-brown with or without a flush of cinnamon-pinkish brown ,leccinum ,stem-surface covered completely or in part with a network or pattern of faint lines or pale yellow or red-rust but never black dots2 spore-print olivaceous buff ,boletus related genera 7i7 ,agarics of woodlands and copses 7a7 ,mycorrhizal formers ,leccinum scabrum 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,birch rough stalks or ,brown birch-bolete4 ,cap3 width #de-aej mm4 ,stem3 length #gj-bjj mm2 width #bj-cj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #a4 ,cap3 convex and becoming only slightly expanded at maturity1 pale brown1 tan or buff1 soft1 surface dry1 but in wet weather becoming quite tacky1 smooth or streaky-wrinkled and cap-margin not overhanging the tubes4 ,stem3 white1 buff or greyish1 roughened by scurfy scales which are minute1 pale and arranged in irregular lines at the stem-apex1 and enlarged and dark brown to blackish towards the base4 ,tubes3 depressed about the stem1 white becoming yellowish brown at maturity1 with small1 white pores which become buff at maturity and bruise distinctly yellow-brown or pale pinkish brown when touched4 ,flesh3 watery1 very soft in the cap lacking distinctive smell and either not changing on exposure to the air or only faintly becoming pinkish or pale peach-colour4 ,spore-print3 brown with flush of pinkish brown when freshly prepared4 ,spores3 very long1 spindle-shaped1 smooth1 pale honey-coloured under the microscope and more than #ad m in length 7#ad-bj m long #e-f m broad74 ,marginal cystidia3 numerous and flask-shaped4 ,facial cystidia3 sparse1 similar to marginal cystidia4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found in copses and woods containing birch trees1 or even accompanying solitary birches4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is recognised by the pale brown cap1 the white1 unchanging or hardly changing flesh and the cap-margin not overhanging the tubes4 ,there are several closely related fungi which also grow with birch trees but they need some experience in order to distinguish them4 ,this fungus was formerly placed in the genus ,boletus1 indeed it will be found in many books under this name4 ,species of ,leccinum are edible and considered delicacies in continental ,europe4 ,the majority can be separated from the other fleshy fungi with pores beneath the cap1 i4e4 boletes1 by the black to brown scaly stem and rather long1 elongate spores4 ,the scales on the stem give rise to the common name #8,rough stalks' which is applied to this whole group of fungi4 ,illustrations3 ,f #ci;,c2 ,hvass #bec2 ,,lh #abb2 ,,nb #aee2 ,,wd #hi4 ,suillus grevillei 7,klotzsch7 ,singer ,larch-bolete ,cap3 width #cj-ajj mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-bj mm2 length #ej-gj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #b4 ,cap3 convex or umbonate at first1 later expanding and then becoming plano-convex1 golden-yellow or rich orange-brown1 very slimy because of the presence of a pale yellow sticky fluid4 ,stem3 apex reddish and dotted or ornamented with a fine network1 cream-coloured about the centre because of the presence of a ring which soon collapses1 ultimately appearing only as a pale yellow zone2 below the ring the stem is yellowish or rusty brown1 particularly when roughly handled4 ,tubes3 adnate to decurrent1 deep yellow but becoming flushed wine-coloured on exposure to the air1 with angular and small sulphur-yellow pores which become pale pinkish brown to lilaceous or pale wine-coloured when handled4 ,flesh3 with no distinctive smell1 pale yellow immediately flushing lilaceous when exposed to the air1 but finally becoming dingy red-brown1 sometimes blue or green in the stem-base4 ,spore-print3 brown with distinct yellowish tint when freshly prepared4 ,spores3 long1 ellipsoid1 smooth and pale honey when under the microscope1 less than #ab m in length 7#h-aa m long #c-d m broad74 ,marginal cystidia3 in bundles and encrusted with amorphous brown1 oily material4 ,facial cystidia3 similar in shape and morphology to marginal cystidia4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found on the ground accompanying larch trees either singly or more often in rings or troops4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is easily recognised by the poorly developed ring1 overall golden-yellow colour and pale yellow viscidness on the cap which comes off on to the fingers when the fruit-body is handled4 ,there are several closely related fungi which also grow with coniferous trees1 e4g4 ,suillus luteus ,fries1 #8,slippery jack'1 but many need experience in order to identify them4 ,all these fungi were formerly placed in the genus ,boletus1 because of the fleshy fruit-body with pores beneath the cap4 ,the larch-bolete receives its common name from the close relationship of the fungus with the larch4 ,on drying ,s4 luteus and ,s4 grevillei may strongly resemble one another but the former can be distinguished when fresh by the chocolate brown1 sepia1 or purplish brown cap and the large whitish1 lilac-tinted ring4 ,illustration3 ,plate #a4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores borne within tubes ,illustration3 ,plate #b4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores borne within tubes ,species of ,suillus are edible and rank highly in continental cook-books1 although they have disagreeably gelatinous-slimy caps1 a character1 in fact1 which helps to separate them from other fleshy pore-fungi4 ,illustrations3 ,f #da;a2 ,hvass #beg2 ,,ml #ahg2 ,,nb #ajd2 ,,wd #hd4 ,boletus badius ,fries ,bay-coloured bolete ,cap3 width #gj-acj mm4 ,stem3 width #cd-cg mm2 length #aaj-abe mm4 7#cf-dj mm at base74 ,description3 ,plate #c4 ,cap3 hemispherical1 minutely velvety1 but soon becoming smooth and distinctly viscid in wet weather1 red-brown flushed with date-brown and darkening even more with age and in moist weather to become bay-brown4 ,stem3 similarly coloured to the cap but paler particularly at the apex1 smooth or with faint1 longitudinal furrows which are often powdered with minute1 dark brown dots4 ,tubes3 adnate or depressed about the stem1 lemon-yellow but immediately blue-green when exposed to the air and with angular1 rather large similarly coloured1 pores which equally rapidly turn blue-green when touched4 ,flesh3 strongly smelling earthy1 pale yellow but becoming pinkish in centre of the cap1 and blue in the stem and above the tubes when exposed to the air1 but finally becoming dirty yellow throughout4 ,spore-print3 brown with a distinct olivaceous flush4 ,spores3 long1 spindle-shaped1 smooth1 honey-coloured under the microscope and greater than #ab m in length 7#ac-ae m long #e m broad74 ,marginal cystidia3 numerous1 flask-shaped and slightly yellowish4 ,facial cystidia3 scattered and infrequent and similar to marginal cystidia in shape4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found in woods1 especially accompanying pine trees1 but often found fruiting on the site of former coniferous trees1 even years after the trunks or the stumps have been removed4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is recognised by the rounded1 red-brown cap1 coupled with the pale yellow flesh and greenish yellow tubes1 both of which become greenish blue when exposed to the air4 ,there are several species in the genus ,boletus which stain blue at the slightest touch or when the flesh is exposed to the air1 e4g4 ,b4 erythropus 7,fries7 ,secretan1 a common bolete with a dark olivaceous cap1 orange pores and red-dotted stem4 ,the flesh of some species of ,boletus1 e4g4 ,b4 edulis ,fries1 however1 remains unchanged or at most becomes flushed slightly pinkish4 ,although many people say they recognise ,b4 edulis1 the #8,penny-bun' bolete--a name derived from the colour of the cap1 there is some doubt as to whether the true ,b4 edulis is common in ,britain as we are led to believe4 ,b4 edulis and its relatives are highly recommended as edible 7see p4 #ce74 ,b4 badius is also edible1 but it is ill-advised to eat any bolete which turns blue when cut open4 ,illustrations3 ,b4 badius--,f #ch;c2 ,hvass #bdh 7not very good72 ,,lh #aia2 ,,nb #aji2 ,,wd #he4 ,b4 edulis3 ,f #db;a2 ,hvass #bdf2 ,,lh #aia2 ,,nb #adc4 ,general notes on ,boletes ,there are nearly seventy boletes recorded for the ,british ,isles and evidence of others which have as yet not been fully documented4 ,as a group they are characterised by being fleshy1 possessing a central stem and producing their spores within the tubes1 and not on gills as in the common mushroom4 ,it is the first character by which the boletes differ so markedly from the other pored fungi1 such as the #8,scaly ,polypore' 7see p4 #adj74 ,the boletes have long been classified in the genus ,boletus1 but instead of referring all the pored1 fleshy fungi to a single large genus several genera are now recognised4 ,the separation of these genera is based on differences in colour of the spore-print and differences in the anatomy of the tubes1 cap and stem1 etc41 e4g4 members of the genus ,suillus have colourless or pale coloured dots on the stem exuding a resin-like liquid in wet weather1 which is clear and glistening in some species but turbid and whitish in others1 gradually darkening and hardening so that the stem is ultimately covered in dark brown or reddish smears or spots2 members of the genus ,leccinum on the other hand never exude liquid and have coarse or fine roughenings on the stem which are usually dark1 but may commence white and ultimately darken depending on the species2 many species of ,boletus possess a very distinct raised network all over the stem1 whilst others have it present only in part1 or have minute1 often brightly coloured1 dots replacing it4 ,illustration3 ,plate #c4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores borne within tubes ,within this single1 yet not particularly large1 group of fungi1 several biological phenomena are demonstrable4 ,there is good evidence that the majority of ,british boletes are mycorrhizal2 several species are known to be associated only with one species of tree or group of closely related tree-species4 ,thus ,suillus grevillei and ,s4 aeruginascens 7,secretan7 ,singer grow in association with larch trees2 ,s4 luteus and ,boletus badius in contrast grow in association with pine trees2 ,leccinum scabrum with birch trees2 ,l4 aurantiacum 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray1 with poplar trees and ,l4 quercinum 7,pilt7 ,green ,watling1 with oak trees4 ,boletus edulis can be separated into several distinct subspecies which are associated with different trees2 the two commonest subspecies are those associated with birch and with beech trees4 ,it is well known that although present in this country during the warmer periods of the ,ice-,age1 larch neither survived the intense cold of the last advance of the ice nor migrated back into ,britain after the ice had melted4 ,thus all larches which we see in ,britain have been planted by man4 ,there is little doubt that mycelia of many fungi were introduced along with these plants very probably including the mycelium of the larch-bolete4 ,a similar pattern can be seen with other introduced trees1 although not to such a marked degree1 e4g4 spruce trees4 ,the beech tree1 however1 is native to the south of ,england1 unlike the larch returning to this country after the ice had melted2 it has been planted extensively outside its former range in northern areas of the ,british ,isles taking with it its associated fungi4 ,there is some evidence that some stocks of beech and fungi have been introduced from continental ,europe in comparatively recent times4 ,a parallel1 yet inexplicable association is found between the bolete ,suillus bovinus 7,fries7 ,o4 ,kuntze and its close relative ,gomphidius roseus 7,fries7 ,karsten where the mycelium of two fungi are found intertwined forming a close association6 ,parasitism although rare is also found amongst the boletes1 and an uncommon parasitism at that--a fungus on a fungus2 for example in ,britain although infrequent ,boletus parasiticus ,fries grows attached and ultimately replaces the spore-tissue of the common earth-ball 7,scleroderma1 see p4 #aib74 ,those fungi which grow on dead and decaying substrates are called saprophytes and although the greater number of higher fungi would be included in this class of organisms the character is infrequent amongst the boletes4 ,one ,british example of this type of fungus is the rare ,boletus sphaerocephalus ,barla which grows on woody debris4 ,chemists have long been interested in boletes1 for as noted above the flesh of some species when exposed to the atmosphere turns vivid colours1 a feature often incorporated into the ,latin name1 e4g4 ,boletus purpureus ,persoon1 from the purple colours produced whenever the fruit-body is handled4 ,the reaction appears to be an oxidation where in the presence of an enzyme and oxygen a pigmented substance or substances are produced4 ,what the significance of these colour-changes is in nature is as yet unknown2 however1 what is interesting is that many of the chemicals involved are unique and have only recently been analysed completely2 they are related to the quinones4 ,there is little doubt that it is this rapid and intense blueing of the flesh of many boletes that has lead to a belief that they are poisonous4 ,it is uncertain whether there are any truly toxic species of ,boletus but several have unpleasant smells and tastes which make them very unattractive4 ,boletus edulis is the important ingredient1 however1 which gives the distinctive taste to so-called dried mushroom soup4 ,thousands of fruit-bodies are collected annually in the forests of ,europe to be later dried and processed for incorporation into soup4 ,boletes appear to form an important part of the diet of several rodents and deer and in ,scandinavia in the diet of reindeer4 ,probably one of the most obscure of our ,british boletes is ,strobilomyces floccopus 7,fries7 ,karsten1 the #8,old ,man of the ,woods'4 ,it has a black1 white and grey woolly1 scaly cap and stem1 and the flesh distinctly reddens when exposed to the air4 ,the spores are almost spherical1 purple-black in colour and covered in a coarse network when seen under the microscope4 ,all these characters readily separate ,strobilomyces from all other ,european boletes2 however1 in ,australasia1 members of this and related genera form a very important part of the flora4 ,chroogomphus rutilus 7,fries7 ,o4 ,k4 ,miller ,pine spike-cap ,cap3 width #cj-aej mm4 ,stem3 width #aj-ah mm2 length #fj-abj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 convex with a pronounced often sharp umbo1 wine-coloured1 flushed with bronze-colour at centre and yellow or ochre at margin1 viscid but soon drying and then becoming paler and quite shiny4 ,stem3 yellowish orange1 apricot-coloured or peach-coloured1 streaked with dull wine-colour1 spindle-shaped or narrowed gradually to the apex from a more or less pointed base4 ,gills3 arcuate-decurrent1 distant1 at first greyish sepia then dingy purplish with paler margin1 but finally entirely dark purplish brown4 ,flesh3 lacking distinctive smell and reddish yellow or pale tan in the cap1 rich apricot- or peach-colour towards the stem-base4 ,spore-print3 purplish black4 ,spores3 very long1 spindle-shaped1 smooth1 olivaceous purple and greater than #bj m in length 7#bj-bc #f-g m74 ,marginal cystidia3 cylindrical to lance-shaped and up to #ajj #ae m4 ,facial cystidia3 similar to marginal cystidia4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found in pine woods1 usually solitary or in small groups4 ,fairly common throughout the ,british ,isles and characteristic of ,scots ,pine woods4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus can be distinguished by the purplish or wine-coloured cap and the gills being pigmented from youth4 ,there is only one other ,british species of this genus1 i4e4 ,c4 corallinus ,miller ,watling4 ,chroogomphus is separated from ,gomphidius by the flesh having an intense blue-black reaction when placed in solutions containing iodine1 and the gills being coloured from their youth4 ,in many books ,chroogomphus is placed in synonymy with the genus ,gomphidius4 ,however1 ,gomphidius glutinosus 7,fries7 ,fries1 ,g4 roseus 7,fries7 ,karsten and ,g4 maculatus ,fries all have whitish gills when immature which gradually darken1 and their flesh simply turns orange-brown in solutions of iodine4 ,g4 glutinosus is uniformly grey in colour and is most frequently found under spruce and other introduced conifers3 ,g4 roseus has a pale-pinkish coloured cap and white stem1 and grows with pine2 ,g4 maculatus grows under larch and is flushed lilaceous at first but becomes strongly spotted with brown when handled4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #aib2 ,,lh #bac2 ,,wd #hc;a4 ,illustration3 ,plate #d4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores blackish and borne on gills ,paxillus involutus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,brown roll-rim ,cap3 width #ej-abj mm4 ,stem3 width #h-ae mm2 height #cj-ge mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 at first convex with a strongly inrolled1 downy margin1 but then expanded and later frequently depressed towards the centre1 clay-coloured1 ochre or yellow-rust1 slightly velvety but becoming smooth or sticky particularly in wet weather and readily bruising red-brown when fresh4 ,stem3 central or slightly eccentric1 thickened upwards1 fibrillose-silky1 similarly coloured to the cap but typically streaked with red-brown particularly with age4 ,gills3 ochre or yellow-brown then rust and finally darker brown1 decurrent1 crowded1 often branched and united about the apex of the stem2 easily peeled from the flesh with the fingers and rapidly becoming red-brown on handling4 ,flesh3 thick1 soft and with slightly astringent smell and yellowish to brownish but becoming red-brown after exposure to the air4 ,spore-print3 rust-brown4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 ellipsoid1 smooth1 deep yellow-brown and rarely greater than #aj m in length 7#h-aj #e-f m74 ,marginal cystidia3 numerous lance-shaped or spindle-shaped4 ,facial cystidia3 scattered and similar in shape to marginal cystidia4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found on heaths and in mixed woods1 particularly where birch has or is now growing1 or even accompanying solitary birch trees4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is easily recognisable by the strongly inrolled1 woolly margin of the cap and yellow-brown gills which are easily separable from the cap-flesh4 ,p4 rubicundulus ,p4 ,d4 ,orton is similar but grows under alder and has yellow gills unchanging when handled and dark scales on the cap4 ,p4 atrotomentosus 7,fries7 ,fries and ,p4 panuoides 7,fries7 ,fries both grow on coniferous wood and have smaller spores2 the former is recognised by the dark brown to almost black shaggy stem and the latter by the shell-shaped cap devoid almost completely of a stem4 ,illustrations3 ,f #da;c2 ,hvass #ahi2 ,,lh #ahe2 ,,nb #aae2 ,,wd #gj4 ,illustration3 ,plate #e4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores brown and borne on gills ,cortinarius pseudosalor ,j4 ,lange ,cap3 width #fj-abe mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-be mm2 length up to #ahj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 bell-shaped or bluntly conical only slightly expanding with maturity1 smooth or wrinkled at centre but often furrowed at the margin1 slimy1 brown with a distinct olive flush when in fresh condition and becoming ochraceous brown and shiny when dry4 ,stem3 usually swollen to some degree about the middle1 slimy particularly towards the base1 whitish throughout when young except for a faint amethyst or violaceous flush in the lower part2 as the slime dries the stem becomes shiny and the outer surface breaks up into fibrillose scales or scaly1 irregular ring-zones4 ,flesh3 lacking distinct smell1 white with ochraceous flush in the cap1 white in the stem1 thick and soft in the cap but fibrous in the stem4 ,gills3 adnate1 broad1 rather thick1 frequently veined and distant1 ochraceous brown and finally deep rust-brown4 ,spore-print3 rust-colour4 ,spores3 long1 slightly almond-shaped in side view1 finely warted throughout and not less than #ab m in length 7#ac-ad #g-h m74 ,marginal cystidia3 ellipsoid or club-shaped1 hardly different from the surrounding undeveloped basidia4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found on the ground in copses and woods especially those containing beech4 ,general ,information3 ,recognised by the conical1 grooved cap and the slimy spindle-shaped stem with a distinct violaceous flush2 this fungus is often misnamed ,c4 elatior ,fries but this is a much less common fungus4 ,there are several closely related fungi1 but these grow with other tree-species and need much more experience to distinguish one from the other4 ,c4 pinicola ,p4 ,d4 ,orton is one such species growing in the litter under ,pinus sylvestris1 ,scots ,pine2 this species is fairly common in the remnant pine woods of ,northern ,scotland4 ,the large size1 sticky or glutinous cap and stem indicate that this fungus belongs to ,cortinarius1 subgenus ,myxacium4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #ade2 ,,lh #afb2 ,,nb #aai2 ,,wd #fj4 ,illustration3 ,plate #f4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores brown and borne on gills ,general notes on ,cortinarii ,the genus ,cortinarius is the largest genus of agarics in the ,british ,isles1 indeed in ,europe and ,north ,america--perhaps in the world4 ,it includes some of our most beautiful agarics1 yet it is one of the least satisfying to the mycologist because of the difficulties experienced in identifying collections--partly because many species are so seldom seen4 ,cortinarius contains just under two hundred and fifty recognisable ,british species1 although recent research has shown that many more are yet to be described from this country as new to science4 ,except for some very characteristic species the individual members within the genus ,cortinarius are often very difficult to separate one from the other2 however1 ,cortinarius is one of our least difficult genera to recognise in the field owing to the presence when mature of rust-coloured gills and a cobwebby veil which extends from the margin of the cap to the stem4 ,this structure is termed a cortina 7,fig4 #ad7 and in young specimens covers the gills with delicate filaments4 ,as the cap expands the cottony or cobwebby filaments are stretched and either disappear entirely or may collapse to form a ring-like zone of filaments on the stem4 ,in some species a second completely enveloping veil is also found1 and this veil is viscid in one distinct group of which ,c4 pseudosalor already described is a member4 ,the gills in the genus are variable in colour when young although constant for a single species2 they may be lilaceous purple1 orange1 brown1 red1 yellow-ochraceous or tan1 but ultimately in all members at maturity they become rust-colour4 ,the spores under the microscope are richly coloured1 yellow to red-brown and are frequently strongly warted2 in mass they are rust-brown and this character coupled with the presence of the cobweb-like veil characterises the genus4 ,within the genus ,cortinarius there is a wide range of characters varying from species with distinctly sticky caps and stems1 some with sticky caps and dry stems to those with both dry caps and stems4 ,a few species are very large and fleshy whilst others are quite slender and many of the latter rapidly change colour on drying out and are then said to be hygrophanous4 ,however1 although there is such a large spectrum of characters in a single genus the species all have in common the cortina and rust-coloured gills1 the latter often appearing as if powdered with rusty dust4 ,utilising the characters mentioned above this very large genus can be split into the following six sections1 called by the mycologist subgenera3 a4 ,large to medium sized fleshy agarics with viscid caps and stems--,myxacium b4 ,large1 fleshy agarics with viscid or tacky caps when fresh but dry stems--,phlegmacium c4 ,large to medium sized agarics with dry1 scaly or humid caps and dry stems which if orange tawny are robust--,cortinarius d4 ,medium1 rarely large1 agarics with dry1 silky to innately fibrillose caps1 slender stems and frequently with at least part of the fruit-body yellow1 orange or reddish--,dermocybe e4 ,medium to small agarics with silky fibrillose1 non-hygrophanous caps which may become tacky in wet weather and then usually with robust1 clavate-bulbous stems--,sericeocybe f4 ,small1 less frequently medium or large agarics1 all with distinctly hygrophanous caps--,hydrocybe4 ,in several continental books some or all of these divisions are recognised as distinct genera in their own right4 ,the subgenus ,telamonia which occurs in many texts was formerly thought to differ from ,hydrocybe in the presence of a universal veil2 the universal veil is a second veil which completely envelopes the fruit-body when it is young and is in addition to the cortina4 ,however1 the modern treatment would seem to suggest that the presence of the universal veil is not of the utmost importance and so the two subgenera are incorporated into one4 ,the name ,hydrocybe reflects the character of changing colour as it dries out because of the loss of water4 ,within each subgenus the species are distinguished by the colour of the young gills and of the cap1 the veil colour and texture1 and microscopic characters of the spores1 particularly their size4 ,the majority of species of ,cortinarius are mycorrhizal and like the boletes possess very specific relationships with tree species4 ,thus some are typical of coniferous woodland and others typical of deciduous woodland in general1 whilst others typify woods of a particular tree1 e4g4 beech1 oak1 birch1 pine1 larch4 ,some species are characteristic of woods on limestone or chalky soils 7calcareous7 whilst others are characteristic of woods on sandy1 heathy acidic soils4 ,for example1 ,cortinarius armillatus 7,fries7 ,fries which is found in damp woods and possesses one or more cinnabar-red or scarlet zones on the stem and red fibrils at the stem-base appears to be connected with birch4 ,several species are associated with native trees whilst others have undoubtedly been introduced from abroad4 ,they are very important in the economy of the woodland ecosystem4 ,one of the most beautiful and easily distinguished of our ,british species is ,cortinarius violaceus 7,fries7 ,fries which has uniformly deep violet-coloured stem and cap and coloured cystidia on the gill-margin1 a character unusual in ,cortinarius4 ,no species are known to be truly poisonous and many species are known to be edible1 but many are too small to be of any value4 ,some of the larger species are regarded as good to eat1 but frequently are too scarce4 ,thus the necessity for experience to recognise the different species1 coupled with their often unpleasant tastes make them an unimportant group of agarics for eating4 ,russula ochroleuca 7,secretan7 ,fries ,common yellow russula ,cap3 width #ej-ajj mm4 ,stem3 width #bj-ce mm2 length #ej-ajj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #g4 ,cap3 yellow-ochre or dull yellow becoming paler with age1 or flushed faintly greyish green1 convex but soon expanding and becoming flat or depressed in the centre1 smooth1 or granular when young and slightly tacky in wet weather1 faintly striate at the margin4 ,stem3 white at first then flushed slightly greyish1 smooth or wrinkled1 firm at first but quickly becoming soft and fragile4 ,flesh3 brittle1 firm at first then soft1 white1 yellow under cap-centre4 ,gills3 white at first then flushed pale cream-colour1 brittle1 adnexed to free1 rather distant4 ,spore-print3 faintly cream when freshly prepared4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 hyaline1 broadly ellipsoid or subglobose to almost globose1 coarsely ornamented with prominent warts which stain blue-black when mounted in solutions containing iodine and which are faintly interconnected by low ridges1 about #h #g m in size 7#i-aj #g-h m74 ,marginal cystidia3 prominent1 lance- to spindle-shaped and often filled with oily material4 ,facial cystidia3 similar in shape to marginal cystidia and projecting some distance from the gill-face4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,commonly found in mixed woods from summer until late autumn4 ,general ,information3 ,easily recognised by the ochre-yellow cap1 very pale cream-coloured spore-print and greying stem4 ,two other yellow-capped species of ,russula are commonly found4 ,r4 claroflava ,grove with yellow spore-print and blackening fruit-body which grows with birches in boggy places1 and ,r4 lutea 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray which is much smaller1 having a cap up to #ej mm and very deep egg-yellow gills and spore-print2 it grows in deciduous woods4 ,illustrations3 ,f #bb;a2 ,hvass #bbf2 ,,lh #aai2 ,,nb #acg2 ,,wd #di4 ,general notes on the genus ,russula ,a large genus with nearly one hundred distinct species in the ,british ,isles and several others yet unrecognised or undocumented4 ,this genus is composed generally of large toadstools often beautifully coloured1 indeed the majority have brightly coloured caps in reds1 purples1 yellows or greens depending on the species although a few are predominantly white bruising reddish brown or grey to some degree4 ,such large and distinctive fungi one would think would be the easiest members of our flora to identify1 unfortunately they are not4 ,they form a group quite isolated in their relations1 the only close relatives being members of the genus ,lactarius1 to be dealt with later 7see p4 #ej74 ,the flesh of members of both ,lactarius and ,russula contains groups of rounded cells1 a feature unique amongst agarics and explains why in ,russula the fruit-bodies1 cap and gills and sometimes the stem are brittle and easily break if crushed between the fingers4 ,the fruit-body does not exude a milky liquid when the flesh is broken4 ,the spore-print varies1 depending on the species involved1 from white to deep ochre and individual spores are covered in a coarse ornamentation which is composed of isolated warts or warts interconnected by raised lines1 or mixtures of both4 ,the ornamentation stains deep blue-black when the spores are mounted in solutions containing iodine and the pattern which is produced appears in many cases to be of a specific character4 ,the majority of the species1 if not all north-temperate species are mycorrhizal and the familiar host-tree fungus relationship can be recognised3-- ,r4 claroflava ,grove1 with birch in boggy places1 ,r4 emetica 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray with pine in wet places1 ,r4 betularum ,hora with birch in grassy copses and ,r4 sardonia ,fries with pines4 ,brief notes are here included giving the basic characters of eight common species1 but it must be appreciated the identification of many species within this genus is difficult4 ,r4 atropurpurea 7,krombholz7 ,britz4 ,blackish purple russula ,cap3 width #ej-ajj mm4 ,stem3 width #ad-be mm2 length #fj-hj mm4 ,cap3 deep reddish purple but becoming spotted with either cream-colour or white blotches4 ,stem3 white but becoming flushed greyish or stained brownish with age4 ,gills3 white then very pale yellow4 ,flesh3 white in cap and stem4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,on the ground in mixed woods and copses1 particularly those containing oak4 ,illustration3 ,plate #g4 ,fleshy but brittle fungi3 ,spores whitish and borne on gills ,russula cyanoxantha 7,secretan7 ,fries ,cap3 width #ej-aej mm4 ,stem3 width #aj-cj mm2 length #ej-ajj mm4 ,cap3 lilac1 bluish to purple often with green tints4 ,stem3 pure white4 ,gills3 pure white4 ,flesh3 white4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,common in deciduous woods1 especially beech-woods4 ,r4 emetica 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,emetic russula ,cap3 width #ej-ajj mm4 ,stem3 width #h-ae mm2 length #be-gj mm4 ,cap3 bright scarlet fading with age to become spotted pinkish1 slightly viscid when moist4 ,stem3 spongy1 fragile4 ,flesh3 white4 ,gills3 pure white4 ,spore-print3 pure white4 ,in pine woods usually in boggy areas4 ,r4 fellea 7,fries7 ,fries ,geranium-scented russula ,cap3 width #dj-ge mm4 ,stem3 width #aj-bj mm2 length #cj-ge mm4 ,cap3 tacky when fresh1 straw-coloured or pale tawny brown4 ,stem3 similarly coloured to the cap4 ,gills and flesh3 pale straw-colour and smelling of ,house ,geraniums 7i4e4 ,pelargoniums74 ,spore-print3 cream-coloured4 ,common under beech4 ,r4 foetens 7,fries7 ,fries ,foetid russula ,cap3 width #gj-agj mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-cj mm2 length #ej-ij mm4 ,cap3 slimy1 dingy yellow to tawny1 margin strongly furrowed and ornamented with raised bumps4 ,stem3 whitish then flushed or spotted with rust-brown4 ,gills3 straw-coloured1 often spotted brown with age and beaded with watery droplets when growing under moist conditions4 ,flesh3 white to cream1 brittle and with foetid-oily smell4 ,spore-print3 pale cream-colour4 ,common in deciduous woods4 ,r4 mairei ,singer ,cap3 width #cj-ge mm4 ,stem3 width #g-ae mm2 length #ce-gj mm4 ,cap3 scarlet red but developing creamy areas with age1 dry4 ,stem and gills3 white but with a distinct although faint greenish grey flush1 the former fairly firm4 ,flesh3 white4 ,spore-print3 pure white4 ,commonly accompanying beech1 even individual trees in gardens4 ,r4 nigricans 7,mrat7 ,fries ,blackening russula ,cap3 width #ge-bjj mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-ce mm2 length #be-ge mm4 ,cap3 cream-coloured then flushed sooty brown1 finally black as if scorched by proximity to bonfire4 ,stem3 white then dark brown4 ,gills3 pale ochre reddening when bruised1 thick and very distant4 ,flesh3 white slowly dull red on cutting then brown and finally changing soot-colour after some time4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,common in deciduous woods4 ,r4 xerampelina 7,secretan7 ,fries ,cap3 width #ej-adj mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-cj mm2 length #dj-fj mm4 ,cap3 deep blood-red or brownish red4 ,stem3 white with a flush of red towards the base4 ,gills3 cream then ochraceous4 ,flesh3 white staining brownish and smelling strongly of fish- or crab-paste1 and staining dark green when a crystal of green iron sulphate is rubbed into it4 ,spore-print3 deep cream-colour4 ,common in mixed woods2 a very variable fungus with many colour-forms1 but easily recognised by the green reaction with ferrous sulphate4 ,lactarius turpis 7,weinm47 ,fries ,ugly milk-cap ,cap3 width #fj-bjj mm4 ,stem3 width #aj-be mm2 length #dj-ge mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 firm1 convex usually with a central depression at maturity1 dark olive-brown or dark greyish olive with a yellow-tawny1 woolly margin when young which soon disappears1 and the whole cap becomes sticky with age and turns deep purple when a drop of household ammonia is placed on it4 ,stem3 short1 stout1 similarly coloured to the cap except for the distinctly ochraceous apex1 slimy and pitted4 ,gills3 crowded1 cream-coloured to pale straw-coloured1 but soon spotted with dirty brown1 particularly when bruised4 ,flesh3 white or greyish ochre exuding a milk-like liquid which lacks a distinct smell and is white and unchanging when exposed to the air4 ,spore-print3 pale pinkish buff4 ,spores3 subglobose or ellipsoid and covered in a network of strongly developed1 raised lines interconnected by finer ones1 both of which stain blue-black in solutions containing iodine1 generally #h #f m in size 7#g-h #f-g m74 ,marginal cystidia3 lance- or spindle-shaped and filled with oily contents4 ,facial cystidia3 similar to marginal cystidia4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in woods and copses1 or on heaths especially in boggy places but always where birch is growing4 ,general ,information3 ,easily recognised by the dull colours and purple reaction with alkali2 there is no ,british species with which ,l4 turpis can be mistaken4 ,the purple reaction is similar to that found in the familiar school laboratory reagent litmus1 for the compound found in ,l4 turpis turns purple in alkali and reddens in acidic solutions4 ,first discovered by ,harley in #ahic this reaction marked the beginning of a whole series of chemical studies on the agarics which has led to the discovery of many unique compounds4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #bad 7but too green72 ,,lh #bac2 ,,nb #aac2 ,,wd #ch4 ,general notes on the genus ,lactarius ,there is little doubt that the genus ,russula and the genus ,lactarius are closely related2 in fact they stand aside from the other agarics in the very important character mentioned on page #df4 ,in ,europe the easiest distinction between the two genera is that members of the genus ,lactarius exude a milk-like juice which may be white or variously coloured depending on the species involved 7e4g4 purple in ,l4 uvidus 7,fries7 ,fries1 yellow in ,l4 chrysorheus ,fries74 ,the cap1 stem and frequently the gills are brittle and when broken liberate the milk-like liquid2 when the fruit-body is dry1 however1 the presence of this liquid may be difficult to demonstrate4 ,the spores have a blue-black ornamentation under the microscope when mounted in iodine1 and although when in mass the colours are not as varied as those found in the genus ,russula there is every likelihood that they will play an important role in the classification of the group in the future4 ,the colour of the spore-print has been rather neglected1 although the genus includes some rather unusual fungi4 ,illustration3 ,plate #h4 ,fleshy and milking fungi3 ,spores whitish and borne on gills ,the odours of many species are very distinct and vary from the smell of coconut and spice to those of various flowers2 an odour commonly met with is termed #8oily rancid resembling butter which has become mouldy'2 in early books it was described as being the smell of bed-bugs6 ,the majority of the species are undoubtedly mycorrhizal3 thus ,l4 torminosus is found with birch1 ,l4 deliciosus and ,l4 rufus with conifers and ,l4 quietus with oak4 ,brief notes are given on additional species3-- ,l4 camphoratus 7,fries7 ,fries ,curry-centred milk-cap ,cap3 width #bj-ej mm4 ,stem3 length #bj-ej mm2 width #d-f mm4 ,cap and stem3 red-brown4 ,gills3 reddish brown4 ,flesh3 reddish buff with an aromatic odour resembling spices which becomes very strong when dried and exudes a pale thin milk-like liquid4 ,common in conifer woods and plantations4 ,l4 deliciosus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,saffron milk-cap ,cap3 width #ej-abj mm4 ,stem3 length #bj-fj mm2 width #ae-be mm4 ,cap3 viscid1 dirty greyish ochre with flush of tawny but soon becoming greenish with age4 ,stem3 dirty buff or greyish ochre1 spotted with green particularly with age or on handling4 ,gills3 orange-yellow bruising deep orange but becoming green with time4 ,flesh3 pinkish to apricot-coloured but becoming green with age and exuding a rich orange-red fluid which gradually becomes greyish green4 ,frequent in conifer woods and plantations4 ,l4 glyciosmus 7,fries7 ,fries ,coconut-scented milk-cap ,cap3 width #bj-ej mm4 ,stem3 length #cj-ej mm2 width #e-h mm4 ,cap3 usually with a central #8bump'1 greyish lilac1 dull and minutely scaly or velvety4 ,stem3 white to pale yellowish4 ,gills3 pale yellowish to flesh-coloured then flushed lilaceous4 ,flesh3 pale yellowish or flushed lilaceous1 smelling strongly of desiccated coconut and exuding a white unchanging milk-like liquid4 ,in woods and on heaths1 particularly where birch is growing4 ,l4 quietus 7,fries7 ,fries ,oak milk-cap ,cap3 width #cj-hj mm4 ,stem3 length #dj-hj mm2 width #aj-ae mm4 ,cap and stem3 milky cocoa-coloured1 zoned with reddish brown4 ,gills3 pale ochraceous then flushed red-brown4 ,flesh3 similar to gills1 smelling strongly of rancid oil1 and exuding a white1 thin milk-like liquid which becomes very1 very faintly yellow on exposure to the air4 ,common wherever oak is growing4 ,l4 rufus 7,fries7 ,fries ,rufous milk-cap ,cap3 width #ej-ij mm4 ,stem3 length #ej-ij mm2 width #aj-ae mm4 ,cap3 dark red-brown with a distinct1 usually sharp #8bump' in centre4 ,stem3 pale red-brown throughout or whitish at base4 ,gills3 pale reddish brown and exuding a white1 unchanging milk-like fluid4 ,in pine woods and less frequently with birches on acid heaths4 ,l4 torminosus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,woolly milk-cap ,cap3 width #dj-aej mm4 ,stem3 length #fj-ajj mm2 width #ae-cj mm4 ,cap3 pale strawberry-pink or pale salmon colour1 distinctly zoned1 slimy when wet at centre and strongly shaggy fibrillose at margin4 ,stem and gills3 pale strawberry colour4 ,flesh3 tinged salmon-pink and exuding a white unchangeable milk-like liquid4 ,frequent where birches grow4 ,amanita muscaria 7,fries7 ,hooker ,fly agaric ,cap3 width #ajj-age mm4 ,stem3 width #cj-dj mm2 length #aej-bge mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 bright scarlet to orange-red with scattered whitish or yellowish fragments of veil particularly towards the centre and hanging down from the margin1 viscid when moist1 striate at margin with age4 ,stem3 white1 striate above the soft easily torn1 although prominent1 ring which is white above and yellow below2 stem-base swollen and ornamented with patches of yellowish or white veil-fragments which form concentric rings or ridges of tissue4 ,gills3 white1 free1 crowded1 fairly thick1 minutely toothed at their edge4 ,flesh3 soft1 lacking distinctive smell1 or at times slightly earthy and white1 yellowish below cap-centre4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 long1 hyaline under the microscope1 ellipsoid1 smooth about #aj #g m in size 7#aj-ac #g-h m74 ,marginal cystidia3 composed of chains of swollen1 hyaline cells4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found in birch-woods1 less frequently collected in the vicinity of conifers2 wide-spread and fairly common1 but it is erratic in its appearance giving the impression of being absent from a locality until one season it suddenly fruits in profusion4 ,general ,information3 ,an easily recognised fungus because of its striking colour4 ,it is also very familiar and well-known because it appears so often on ,christmas cards1 and features commonly in illustrations in children's story-books4 ,the fungus contains a poison which formerly was used to kill flies--hence the common name of #8,fly agaric' and the scientific name from the latin name for the house-fly4 ,the red skin of the cap1 where the major amount of the poison resides1 was cut up with a little milk and sugar or honey2 flies attracted to this sweet concoction inadvertently ate the poison and later perished4 ,this fungus has a very well documented and long history and appears in the legends of many countries4 ,it is featured in ,greek mythology1 ,slavic and ,scandinavian folk-lore and indeed appears in the pre-history of ,indian tribes of ,n4,e4 ,asia4 ,it has even been connected with the formation of certain sects within the early ,christian church4 ,illustrations3 ,f4 frontispiece2 ,hvass #a2 ,,lh #aag2 ,,nb #aac2 ,,wd #b4 ,illustration3 ,plate #i4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills ,notes on the genus ,amanita ,the genus ,amanita contains many important mycorrhizal fungi including the #8,blusher'1 ,a4 rubescens 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray1 the #8,tawny grisette'1 ,a4 fulva ,secretan1 and the #8,false death-cap'1 ,a4 citrina ,s4 ,f4 ,gray4 ,the first grows on heaths and in woods with a variety of trees2 ,a4 fulva frequently grows with birch and ,a4 citrina with several leafy trees although its var4 alba 7,gillet7 ,e4 ,j4 ,gilbert appears to be confined to beech woods4 ,however1 there is some evidence that many members of the genus in drier more southern countries than ,britain1 are non-mycorrhizal4 ,in fact the genus as a whole may be southern-temperate in its distribution4 ,in the ,british ,isles the number of species of ,amanita recorded decreases as one goes north1 or the frequency of single species except for a few widespread forms falls off northwards4 ,in a few cases a more familiar southern species is replaced in similar habitats by another species1 e4g4 ,a4 phalloides 7,fries7 ,secretan is replaced by ,a4 virosa ,secretan the #8,destroying angel' in ,scotland1 and ,a4 citrina frequently in the north by ,a4 porphyria 7,fries7 ,secretan4 ,species of ,amanita are usually large conspicuous fungi and the genus contains some of our best known agarics4 ,one1 ,a4 muscaria 7,fries7 ,hooker has already been mentioned1 but the genus also includes the #8,death-cap' ,a4 phalloides and #8,caesar's mushroom' ,a4 caesarea 7,fries7 ,schweinitz1 a fungus not found in this country but considered to be superior in edibility to all other fungi2 thus edible and deadly poisonous species are found closely related and this simply emphasises how important it is not to eat the agarics one finds in the woods and fields except when accompanied by a #8real' expert4 ,deaths or near fatalities in ,europe and ,north ,america are recorded annually due to the eating of fungi belonging to this genus4 ,the poisonous qualities of the fungi in this genus--only a very small amount of poison is often sufficient to produce fatal results--has led to a close connection between these fungi and black magic and the supernatural4 ,this connection is even more emphasised when it is learnt that some have an intoxicating effect4 ,hence the long history mentioned earlier4 ,members of the genus ,amanita are characterised by their anatomy and certain macroscopic features2 the former is illustrated under ,a4 muscaria1 i4e4 the divergent gill-trama4 ,the main macroscopic character of note is the presence of a volva at the base of the stem and it is the details of this volva which helps to distinguish different species4 ,a4 phalloides has a distinct1 loose1 membranous sheath1 in ,a4 citrina the volva is reduced to a narrow rim around the bulbous stem and in ,a4 rubescens and ,a4 muscaria the volva is simply a series of concentric zones of woolly scales4 ,all the four species noted above possess a ring1 but ,a4 fulva the #8,tawny grisette' and ,a4 vaginata 7,fries7 ,vittadini the #8,grisette' only possess a volva2 this has lead to the use of the generic name ,amanitopsis in many books1 now no longer considered necessary4 ,the veil in ,amanita is probably the most highly developed amongst our common agarics and from ,appendix iv it can be seen how the scaly cap and stem originate and how the volva differs from the ring4 ,the volva and cap-scales constitute what has been called the universal veil and the ring which stretches from the cap margin to the stem has been termed the partial veil4 ,the spores of species of ,amanita are large and their shape and chemical reactions help to distinguish the different species within the genus4 ,one of the most interesting features1 however1 is that the spore-mass1 although usually described as white1 in many species is not white but flushed greenish grey1 etc4 ,the slight subtleties in colour of the spore-print assist in classification4 ,the following notes may be instructive in conjunction with the information above 7for common names see above74 7i7 ,possessing a ring on the stem3-- ,a4 citrina ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,cap3 width #ee-hj mm4 ,stem3 width #ah-bb mm2 length #gj-hj mm4 ,a lemon-yellow or whitish capped agaric with bulbous stem-base1 white patches of volva on cap and white stem with flesh strongly smelling of new potatoes4 ,spores3 almost globose and measuring #i-aj #g-h m4 ,a4 excelsa 7,fries7 ,kummer ,cap3 width #ge-adj mm4 ,stem3 width #bj-bh mm2 length #he-abj mm4 ,a greyish or brownish capped agaric with clavate stem-base1 grey patches of volva on the cap and white concentrically scaly stem with flesh unchanged on exposure to the air4 ,spores3 broadly ellipsoid and measuring #i-aj #h-i m4 ,a4 rubescens 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,cap3 width #gj-abj mm4 ,stem3 width #ab-be mm2 length #fe-ajj mm4 ,a reddish fawn or pinkish buff capped agaric with swollen stem-base1 pinkish or flesh-coloured patches of volva on cap and reddish concentrically scaly stem with flesh becoming reddish when exposed to the air4 ,spores3 ellipsoid and measuring #i-aj #e-f m4 ,a4 pantherina 7,fries7 ,secretan #8,panther' ,cap3 width #dh-ie mm4 ,stem3 width #ab-bj mm2 length #fe-ajj mm4 ,an olive-brown or smoky brown capped agaric with only slightly swollen stem-base1 white patches of volva on the cap and white concentrically scaly stem with unchanging flesh4 ,spores3 ellipsoid and measuring #h-ab #g m4 ,a4 phalloides 7,fries7 ,secretan ,cap3 width #gj-he mm4 ,stem3 width #ab-bj mm2 length #he-abj mm4 ,a greenish or yellow-olive capped agaric with stem sheathed in membranous volva1 white patches of volva on cap and smooth1 white stem with white flesh4 ,spores3 broadly ellipsoid and measuring #aj-ab #g m4 7ii7 ,lacking ring on stem3-- ,a4 fulva ,secretan ,cap3 width #dj-fj mm4 ,stem3 width #aj-ae mm2 length #ajj-aej mm4 ,a thin1 tawny-brown agaric with stem sheathed in membranous volva and pale tawny1 slightly scaly stem4 ,spores3 globose and #aj-ab m in diameter4 ,a4 vaginata 7,fries7 ,vittadini ,differs from ,a4 fulva in the cap being metallic grey or silvery in colour4 7b7 ,parasites ,armillaria mellea 7,fries7 ,kummer ,honey-fungus ,cap3 width #ej-aej mm4 ,stem3 width #aj-ab mm2 length #ge-aej mm4 ,description3 ,plate #aj4 ,cap3 at first convex then more or less flattened or slightly depressed1 very variable in colour1 yellowish1 olive1 buff1 sand-coloured or some shade of brown1 at first covered in small1 brownish or ochraceous scales which give the young cap a velvety aspect1 but gradually the scales disappear with age except at the cap-centre2 margin striate and usually paler than centre of the cap4 ,stem3 equal or swollen at base1 often several grouped together1 white at apex above a whitish1 rather thick1 ring which is flushed with olive-yellow or red-brown at its margin2 stem-base fibrillose1 whitish but finally red-brown at maturity4 ,gills3 adnate or slightly decurrent1 whitish then flushed flesh colour and developing brownish spots with age or in cold1 wet weather4 ,flesh3 with rather strong and unpleasant smell1 white or flushed pinkish in the cap1 brown and stringy in the stem4 ,spore-print3 very pale cream colour4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 hyaline1 ellipsoid1 less than #aj m in length 7#h-i #e-f m74 ,marginal cystidia3 variable1 hyaline1 cylindric and not well-differentiated4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus grows in troops or is found joined at the base to form clusters4 ,it is always attached to old trees1 trunks1 stumps and buried wood1 either directly or by its vegetative stage which darkens and aggregates to form strands resembling boot-laces which are called rhizomorphs4 ,general ,information3 ,this rather variable1 and therefore often perplexing1 fungus causes a destructive rot of trees and can travel long distances through the soil with the use of its rhizomorphs4 ,it commonly grows on several species of broad-leaved trees1 but can also colonise conifer trees4 ,it also attacks garden shrubs1 such as privet-hedges1 and is particularly destructive to ,rhododendrons causing a wilt of the whole shrub and subsequent death2 it has also been recorded as attacking potatoes4 ,the actively growing mycelium which can often be found growing under the bark of infected trees1 exhibits a luminosity if freshly exposed and placed in a darkened room4 ,the rhizomorphs of ,a4 mellea are highly specialised structures composed of mycelial threads some of which have become rather more differentiated than is normally found in the vegetative stage of other agarics4 ,illustrations3 ,f #bg;a2 ,hvass #bf2 ,,lh #ic2 ,,nb #ada2 ,,wd #d4 ,pholiota squarrosa 7,fries7 ,kummer ,shaggy ,pholiota ,cap3 width #ej-abj mm4 ,stem3 width #ag-be mm2 length #ie-abe mm4 ,description3 ,plate #aa4 ,cap3 convex1 but expanding and becoming flattened with a slight central umbo1 ochre-yellow to yellowish rust-colour and covered with dark brown recurved scales which are particularly dense at the centre4 ,stem3 variable in length and thickness depending on how it is attached to the substrate1 whether in a deep crack or wound1 or in a depression1 and how many specimens are in the cluster2 its colour is similar to that of the cap1 exhibits a small1 dark brown fibrillose1 torn ring or ring-zone and is ornamented with recurved red-brown scales below that ring4 ,gills3 broadly adnate with a decurrent tooth and crowded1 yellowish at first then rust-coloured4 ,flesh3 with strong1 pleasant but pungent smell1 yellowish brown1 soft in the cap1 fibrous in the stem4 ,spore-print3 rich rust-brown4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 pale brown under the microscope1 smooth1 ellipsoid1 and #f-h #d m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 spindle-shaped1 hyaline1 numerous4 ,facial cystidia3 flask-shaped with a small apical appendage and becoming rich yellow when immersed in solutions containing ammonia4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in clusters in woods1 gardens or parks1 on wood or at the base of the trunks of broad-leaved trees in summer and autumn4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aj4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills ,general ,information3 ,although rather a common easily recognisable and aesthetically pleasing fungus growing in its characteristic clusters at the base of trees1 it is a weak parasite entering the living tissue after invading decayed areas of the tree4 ,this is the reason why when branches are broken off trees by wind1 snow or storms1 they should be carefully trimmed to remove ragged edges and the wound treated with a protective tar to stop the entry of rain1 cold and fungus spores4 ,other more destructive fungi may enter a tree through such wounds2 ,p4 squarrosa frequently attacks mountain ash or rowan4 ,it is recognised by the dry scaly cap and stem which helps to distinguish it from the sticky capped ,p4 aurivella 7,fries7 ,kummer with similar habitat preferences but wider spores 7#f-i #d-e m74 ,p4 adiposa 7,fries7 ,kummer is found on beech trees and it1 too1 has a viscid cap1 but the spores are #e-f #c-d m in dimensions4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #acd2 ,,lh #adi2 ,,wd #ed4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aa4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores rust-brown and borne on gills 7c7 ,saprophytes--wood inhabiting or lignicolous agarics ,hypholoma fasciculare 7,fries7 ,kummer ,sulphur-tuft ,cap3 width #bj-ej mm4 ,stem3 width #f-ac mm2 length #dj-ajj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 sulphur-yellow1 flushed with sand-colour or red-brown at centre then ochraceous yellow throughout1 convex at first with margin incurved and clothed with fibrillose remnants of a yellow-olive veil1 but then becoming flattened and losing evidence of that veil4 ,stem3 equal or flexuous1 usually with several joined at base1 similarly coloured to the cap1 fibrillose streaky or with some fibrils from the veil stretching from the cap to the stem in young specimens4 ,gills3 sinuate and crowded1 at first sulphur-yellow then olive-green1 but finally with a flush of purple-brown4 ,flesh3 with rather strong and unpleasant smell1 yellow throughout4 ,spore-print3 purple-brown4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 ellipsoid or ovoid1 smooth1 purple-brown and less than #aj m in length 7#f-h #d m74 ,marginal cystidia3 flasked-shaped1 short1 cylindric and hyaline4 ,facial cystidia3 more swollen than marginal cystidia and with silvery contents which yellow in solutions containing ammonia4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,the sulphur-tuft grows in dense clusters on and around old stumps of broad-leaved trees1 and can be found throughout the year2 it also grows on conifers1 but less frequently4 ,general ,information3 ,it may be recognised by the greenish tint of the immature gills and of the young cap4 ,h4 capnoides 7,fries7 ,kummer grows on the wood of coniferous trees and has a much more ochraceous brown cap and stem than the sulphur-tuft and slightly larger spores--#g-h #d-e m4 ,h4 sublateritium 7,fries7 ,qulet grows on hardwoods but is bigger than ,h4 fasciculare and has a brick-coloured cap and very sturdy stem 7spores #f-g #c-d m74 ,illustrations3 ,f #cg;b2 ,hvass #agf2 ,,lh #adg2 ,,nb #ada2 ,,wd #gf4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ab4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores purplish brown and borne on gills ,flammulina velutipes 7,fries7 ,karsten ,velvet-shank ,cap3 width #bj-hj mm4 ,stem3 width #e-aj mm2 length #ce-fj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 bright sand-colour or slightly red-brown at centre1 convex at first then flattened with age1 smooth1 slimy because of the presence of a sticky elastic skin1 rather rubbery to the touch4 ,stem3 cylindrical or slightly swollen towards the base1 dark brown and densely hairy or velvety1 tough and rubbery to handle4 ,gills3 adnexed1 very unequal and somewhat distant1 pale yellow1 gradually becoming buff as the spores mature4 ,flesh3 with rather pleasant smell1 yellowish1 watery and soft4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 hyaline1 ellipsoid and about #h #c-d m in ,size 7#g-i #c-d m74 ,marginal cystidia3 hyaline1 elongate1 broadly flask-shaped4 ,facial cystidia3 similar to marginal cystidia4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found in clusters on old stumps1 fallen trunks and on the wounded parts of standing trees4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus can be recognised by the clustered habit1 the viscid1 bright tawny cap and the dark velvety stem4 ,this is one of the few agarics which occurs regularly late in the season1 even appearing in the winter1 although it can be seen growing in its familiar groups at almost any time of the year4 ,this fungus holds a rather isolated position in classification and was once placed in the genus ,collybia4 ,it may be found in several books under this last genus4 ,illustrations3 ,f #ah;b2 ,hvass #hj2 ,,lh #aji2 ,,nb #ada2 ,,wd #ba4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ac4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills ,mycena galericulata 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,bonnet mycena ,cap3 width #be-ej mm4 ,stem3 width #c-f mm2 length #ej-abe mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 conical or bell-shaped then expanding but retaining a central umbo1 never completely flattened1 smooth1 greyish1 pale sepia or dirty white and striate with darker lines from the margin to the centre4 ,stem3 similarly coloured to the cap1 smooth1 shiny1 tough and usually noticeably downy at base4 ,gills3 at first white flushed distinctly pale pink with age1 uncinate1 rather distant and sometimes with interconnecting veins4 ,flesh3 white with little or no distinctive smell4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 hyaline1 broadly ellipsoid1 smooth1 about #aj #g m in size 7#i-ab #f-h m7 and staining bluish grey when mounted in solutions containing iodine4 ,marginal cystidia3 club-shaped but the apex ornamented with blunt hairs of varying lengths4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,commonly found1 in all but the coldest months1 in woods1 parks or gardens1 often in dense clusters on stumps and fallen trunks of broad-leaved trees4 ,general ,information3 ,this is one of our commonest members1 and one of the largest in the genus ,mycena2 many species in this genus are quite small yet are nevertheless very important components of the woodland flora decomposing leaves1 twigs1 etc41 and contributing in this way to the recirculating of organic matter4 ,the name ,mycena is derived from the same ,greek word as that which refers to the country around the ancient city of ,mycenae in the plain of ,argos1 and from whence ,agamemnon came and gathered his forces to invade ,troy to reclaim ,helen his wife4 ,it has been suggested that this similarity in name came about through the necessity for an army stationed in ,argos1 early in the history of ,ancient ,greece1 to rely on the mushrooms found on the plains about to save the soldiers from starvation4 ,illustrations3 ,f #ag;a2 ,hvass #aai2 ,,lh #aji2 ,,nb #acc2 ,,wd #bf4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ad4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills ,pluteus cervinus 7,fries7 ,kummer ,fawn pluteus ,cap3 width #dj-ajj mm4 ,stem3 width #aj-ae mm2 length #ge-abe mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 conical1 rapidly expanding and then becoming plano-convex or flattened with only a slight but persistent umbo1 dark brown1 umber or vandyke brown1 viscid when wet and often with radiating fibrils4 ,stem3 white1 streaked to varying degrees with dark brown fibrils1 cylindrical or slightly swollen towards the base1 where it is attached to the substrate4 ,gills3 remote1 very crowded1 thin1 at first white then distinctly salmon-pink4 ,flesh3 with pleasant smell1 white and soft4 ,spore-print3 dull salmon-pink4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 very faintly buff under the microscope1 broadly ellipsoid and #g-h #e-f m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 flask-shaped1 the majority with three or four hooks at the distinctively thick-walled apex4 ,facial cystidia3 similar to marginal cystidia but sometimes intermixed with those lacking hooks4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus grows singly or in groups on old stumps and fallen trunks throughout the year except for the most wintry months2 it is commonest in autumn4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus may also grow on old sawdust heaps1 a habitat which is often very worth while examining in detail by the interested amateur during wet seasons4 ,in summer sawdust heaps dry out but after a good soaking1 which1 of course1 can be applied artificially by frequent watering with a hose or watering-can1 many interesting fungi develop4 ,on sawdust heaps containing conifer debris a larger species with black or dark brown edge to the gills is found--,p4 atromarginatus ,khner4 ,the peculiar pointed cystidia found on the gill-edge and on the gill-face of ,p4 cervinus were thought by some early mycologists to stop mites and insect larvae from crawling up between the gills and damaging the developing spores4 ,there is no evidence that this actually takes place in nature2 the real purpose of these obscure structures is unknown and has been little studied4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #abg2 ,,lh #aba2 ,,nb #ace2 ,,wd #ej4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ae4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores pinkish and borne on gills ,gymnopilus penetrans 7,fries7 ,murrill ,cap3 width #bj-ej mm4 ,stem3 width #d-g mm2 length #bj-ej mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 convex then becoming flattened at maturity1 dry1 slightly scaly1 golden tawny1 or rusty yellow and when young with the remnants of a rapidly disappearing yellow cortina hanging from the margin4 ,stem3 yellow above and red-brown or orange-tawny below and darkening on bruising2 veil forming a delicate fibrillose zone in the upper part of the stem which is soon lost on excessive handling4 ,gills3 adnate to slightly decurrent1 thin and crowded1 at first golden yellow1 but soon spotted rust colour4 ,flesh3 yellow and lacking distinctive smell4 ,spore-print3 rich orange-tawny4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 ellipsoid1 finely roughened and deep yellow brown under the microscope1 less than #aj m in length 7#g-h #e-d m74 ,marginal cystidia3 hyaline1 flask-shaped with long often slightly irregular neck4 ,facial cystidia3 similar to the marginal cystidia1 but often broader4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus is found on sticks or twigs or chips of coniferous wood1 particularly in plantations4 ,general ,information3 ,although it has only comparatively recently been recognised in ,britain it is very wide-spread4 ,it has been confused with1 indeed described under1 the name of the less-common fungus ,gymnopilus sapineus 7,fries7 ,maire which also grows in conifer woods2 it is easily distinguished1 however1 by its spotted gills4 ,both the fungi above can be found in books under the old name ,flammula1 from the bright colour of the caps of many of its constituent members1 but ,flammula has been used for a genus of flowering plants also and this has precedence4 ,illustrations3 ,f #bi;a2 ,hvass #aeb not very good2 ,,lh #age not very good2 ,,nb #aji4 ,illustration3 ,plate #af4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores rust-brown and borne on gills ,notes on the artificial family group #8,pleurotaceae'--the ,oyster mushrooms ,one of the common features of lignicolous fungi is the fact that they lack a distinct stem or if one is present it is attached to one side of the cap1 i4e4 lateral4 ,however1 in the past the correlation of the habitat with lack of stem has induced mycologists to define a single family to include all these forms4 ,after studying the anatomy and microscopic characters this grouping has been found to be entirely artificial and simply reflects how the morphology is tied up intimately with the ecology of a species4 ,in this one family members of the genera ,panus1 ,panellus1 ,lentinus1 ,lentinellus1 ,crepidotus1 ,pleurotellus1 and ,pleurotus have all been grouped together1 but some of the genera are more related to the polypores referred to later 7p4 #ace72 many of those with brown spores are better placed with ,cortinarius and some of those with white or cream-coloured spores are better placed close to ,mycena and ,tricholoma4 ,this leaves as a residue the genus ,pleurotus1 a genus which although rather heterogeneous contains one familiar member1 i4e4 the common ,oyster mushroom1 ,pleurotus ostreatus4 ,pleurotus ostreatus 7,fries7 ,kummer ,oyster mushroom ,grows up to #aej mm across4 ,cap3 flattened1 shell-shaped1 smooth or slightly cracked1 deep bluish grey1 gradually becoming brownish with age and finally dark buff4 ,stem3 absent or very short1 passing gradually into one side of the cap4 ,gills3 white flushing dirty yellow with age1 rather distant and deeply decurrent4 ,flesh3 white1 soft and with very pleasant smell4 ,spore-print3 pale lilac4 ,spores3 long1 hyaline1 oblong under the microscope and #aj-aa #d m in size4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common1 clustered in tiers on stumps1 trunks1 posts1 etc4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is not infrequent on old telephone-poles and forms white sheets of mycelium immediately under the bark of fallen trees4 ,although frequent in autumn it may be found throughout the year and is easily recognised by its size and bracket-like1 shell-shaped caps4 ,it surprisingly has a pale lilac spore-print and not as might be expected a white spore-print4 ,in the var4 columbinus ,qulet the young caps are a beautiful peacock-blue2 this variety frequently grows on poplars4 ,illustrations3 ,f #abe2 ,hvass #aji2 ,,lh #ajg2 ,,nb #abe2 ,,wd #ca4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ag4 ,wood-inhabiting1 fleshy but leathery fungi3 ,spores whitish or brownish and borne on gills--#8,pleurotaceae' ,panus torulosus 7,fries7 ,fries is a tough1 funnel-shaped1 yellowish cinnamon fungus with oblong-ellipsoid1 small1 hyaline spores measuring #e-f #c m and changing yellowish not bluish grey in iodine solutions4 ,panellus stipticus 7,fries7 ,karsten forms tiers of pale cinnamon-brown1 more or less kidney-shaped1 scurfy caps on old wood and has egg-shaped1 hyaline1 small spores measuring #d #b-c m which become bluish grey in iodine solutions4 ,lentinellus cochleatus 7,fries7 ,karsten forms irregular lobed and twisted1 flattened or funnel-shaped dirty brownish caps with a fragrant smell1 toothed gill-edges and almost spherical1 small1 hyaline spores measuring #e #d m which become bluish grey in iodine solutions4 ,lentinellus apparently has very close affinities to ,auriscalpium1 #8the ,ear pick fungus'1 7p4 #aeh7 both in the structure of the spores and the anatomy of the fruit-body4 ,lentinus lepideus 7,fries7 ,fries forms very tough fruit-bodies with convex or flattened1 pale yellowish caps and stems ornamented with dark tawny or brown scales4 ,the stem is often eccentric and buried in cracks or soft rotten wood on which it grows2 the spores are non-amyloid4 ,it grows on pine stumps but also on decaying or unprotected railway sleepers and wooden paving blocks1 joists1 etc41 made of conifer wood4 ,when the fungus fruits in a darkened environment1 such as a cellar1 the mushroom-like fruit-bodies are not produced but are replaced by slender branched structures similar to the #8,stag's horn' or #8,candle-snuff fungus' 7p4 #bjf71 or to certain of the ,fairy ,club fungi 7p4 #agb74 ,similar growths have been recorded for ,polyporus squamosus which grows on hard wood timber and is described in detail later 7p4 #adj74 ,crepidotus mollis 7,fries7 ,kummer ,soft slipper toadstool ,cap3 up to #de mm across and in tiers1 sessile1 shell-shaped or kidney-shaped1 smooth1 rubbery and brownish ochre in colour4 ,gills3 pale buff then cinnamon-brown and finally flushed snuff-brown1 thin and crowded4 ,flesh3 watery1 gelatinous beneath the skin of the cap and whitish buff4 ,spore-print3 warm brown4 ,spores3 ellipsoid1 smooth1 medium-sized1 pale buff under the microscope and #h-i #e-ee m in size4 ,easily recognised by the soft elastic cap which can be stretched without breaking1 the brown gills and pale buff spores4 7,see ,plate #di1 p4 #aec47 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #agg2 ,,nb #ade2 ,,wd #fi4 ,the artificiality of classifying all those agarics with both a spoon-shaped or bracket-shaped fruit-body1 and a reduced 7or lacking7 stem is further exemplified by the presence of similar genera in other groups of fungi4 ,for instance ,claudopus is typified by pink1 angular spores 7,plate #bh7 and ,clitopilus is characterised by longitudinally ridged spores1 i4e4 they are not angular in all optical sections but only when seen end on 7see p4 #aja74 ,an example of the former is ,c4 parasiticus 7,qulet7 ,ricken which grows on dead remains of woody fungi1 and of the latter ,c4 passackerianus 7,pilt7 ,singer which may invade mushroom beds4 ,both species are quite small though the last fungus is similarly coloured to the more familiar ,clitopilus prunulus 7,fries7 ,kummer1 #8,the ,miller'1 so common in woods and fields4 ,thus in the ,british ,isles agarics with eccentric stems may be found1 in the white1 brown and pink-spored groups--and in the tropics and subtropics the picture is completed by the existence of the genus ,melanotus in the black-spored agarics4 ,m4 bambusinus ,pat4 grows on bamboos and ,m4 musae 7,berk4 ,curt47 ,singer grows on dead leaves and debris of bananas2 the latter is also a probable agent in the decay of fibres in the tropics4 7d7 ,saprophytes--terrestrial agarics ,melanoleuca melaleuca 7,fries7 ,murrill ,cap3 width #dj-aaj mm4 ,stem3 width #ej-hj mm2 length #ej-ij mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 dark brown1 umber or vandyke when moist1 hygrophanous and becoming very much paler on drying almost tan1 convex then flattened sometimes umbonate1 smooth or wrinkled4 ,stem3 white or whitish covered in brownish fibrils which increase in number with age or after handling2 solid1 rather elastic and slightly swollen towards the base4 ,gills3 white1 broad1 crowded and as if cut out from behind before joining the stem4 ,flesh3 with pleasant smell1 soft1 white1 becoming brownish with age1 particularly in the stem4 ,spore-print3 very pale ivory-colour4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 ellipsoid1 hyaline under the microscope and roughened by distinct dots which become blue-black when mounted in solutions containing iodine1 #h #d-e m4 ,marginal cystidia3 spear- or sword-shaped1 roughened with crystals at the top and appearing as if barbed like fish-spines4 ,facial cystidia3 numerous and similar to marginal cystidia4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in autumn in woods2 also found in pastures4 ,general ,information3 ,a very common fungus which is rather confusing to the beginner because of its variation in colour1 brought about by the change in colour with change in content of water4 ,however1 this fungus can be easily recognised by the unusually ornamented cystidia found on the gill-faces and gill-margins4 ,this character and the fact that the spores possess amyloid ornamentation define in part the genus ,melanoleuca4 ,in many books this common fungus is found under the genus ,tricholoma2 however1 members of this latter genus have neither amyloid ornamented spores nor barbed cystidia4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #ajc2 ,,wd #ac4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ah4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills ,clitocybe infundibuliformis 7,weinm47 ,qulet ,common funnel-cap ,cap3 width #bj-fj mm4 ,stem3 width #h-ac mm2 length #ce-ge mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 yellowish ochre flushed slightly pinkish buff or cinnamon but later pale tan on ageing or drying1 funnel shaped4 ,stem3 colour like cap or slightly darker1 flexible but firm and solid4 ,gills3 white or faintly flushed buff1 decurrent and crowded4 ,flesh3 with pleasant slightly floral smell1 white1 soft and fairly thin4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 hyaline1 tear-drop shaped1 smooth1 #f-g #c-d m and not blueing when mounted in solutions containing iodine4 ,marginal cystidia3 little different from young basidia in dimension and shape1 although some may have a short apical prolongation4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,woods1 copses1 heaths and hill-pastures from summer to autumn4 ,general ,information3 ,an easily recognisable fungus because of its graceful stature1 thin1 funnel-shaped pinkish buff cap and tear-drop-shaped spores4 ,several ,clitocybe species grow in woodlands1 many of them appearing later in the season when colourful agarics are rarer4 ,the genus ,clitocybe is characterised by the fleshy cap with incurved margin when young1 fibrous1 fleshy stem and decurrent gills4 ,c4 clavipes 7,fries7 ,kummer has a smoky brown1 top-shaped cap1 fragile stem which also has a distinct swelling at its base1 and strong rather unpleasant smell4 ,c4 nebularis 7,fries7 ,kummer is similar1 but is pale cloudy grey1 has a less fragile stem and a fairly pleasant smell4 ,this species if often covered in a bloom which develops further as the fruit-body deteriorates4 ,the agaric ,volvariella surrecta 7,knapp7 ,singer is a rare parasite of ,c4 nebularis 7see p4 #bdg7 and it has been suggested that this bloom may in fact belong to this species4 ,however1 ,i have on several occasions tried to encourage the bloom to reproduce by keeping hoary looking fruit-bodies of ,c4 nebularis in a damp-chamber1 but as yet ,i have never been successful4 ,nevertheless1 it is an exercise which would be of great interest to continue and a source of great excitement if the small pink-spored agaric were produced4 ,c4 fragrans 7,fries7 ,kummer is a small1 sweetly aromatic-smelling species found in frondose woods1 and ,c4 langei ,hora1 is a mealy-smelling species of conifer plantations4 ,illustrations3 ,f #af;a2 ,hvass #ee2 ,,lh #ie2 ,,wd #af4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ai4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills ,hebeloma crustuliniforme 7,st ,amans7 ,qulet ,fairy-cake mushroom ,cap3 width #dj-hj mm4 ,stem3 width #h-ab mm2 length #ch-he mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 pale yellow buff or pale tan with a distinct reddish buff or cinnamon-brown tint1 darkening only slightly with age2 smooth1 at first tacky to the fingers1 but then dry and shiny at centre1 convex and hardly expanding4 ,stem3 cylindrical or slightly swollen towards the base1 whitish and with a flush of pinkish buff at apex1 and covered all over in small1 white scales4 ,gills3 sinuate1 crowded1 pale clay-colour or buff1 but finally dull dark yellow ochre except for the distinct white margins which are beaded in wet weather with droplets of liquid4 ,flesh3 whitish with a very strong smell of radishes4 ,spore-print3 dark clay-colour4 ,spores3 long1 slightly almond-shaped1 pale brown under the microscope1 distinctly warted and about #aa #f m in size 7#aj-ab #f-g m74 ,marginal cystidia3 cylindrical to skittle-shaped with slightly to distinctly swollen apex4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in autumn on the ground by pathsides and in woodland clearings4 ,general ,information3 ,recognisable by the uniform cinnamon or pinkish buff cap1 white woolly scales on the stem and distinctive1 strong smell of radish4 ,there is some evidence that this species may on occasions be mycorrhizal2 further field studies are required4 ,there are several closely related fungi which are difficult for the amateur to differentiate from ,h4 crustuliniforme2 there is no doubt that there are several species present in the ,british ,isles which do not appear in the ,check ,list of ,british ,agarics ,boleti2 in fact1 it would appear that there are several yet to be described as new to science4 ,although individual species are fairly difficult to delimit1 the genus ,hebeloma itself is easily recognised1 most members being medium sized with brown sinuate gills1 whitish1 yellowish1 or pinkish1 i4e4 pale1 caps and white-powdered stems4 ,the word #8crustulin' which appears in the ,latin name of ,h4 crustuliniforme is itself from the ,latin and means small cake1 referring to the cap-shape1 which remains fairly constant throughout the fungus' growth4 ,the common name is derived from this also4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bj4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores dull brown and borne on gills ,inocybe geophylla 7,fries7 ,kummer ,common white inocybe ,cap3 width #aj-be mm4 ,stem3 width #c-f mm2 length #cj-ej mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 conical with incurved margin then bell-shaped and retaining a distinct umbo even when mature1 silvery white then ivory and finally pale tan particularly centrally and silky fibrillose throughout4 ,stem3 slender1 cylindrical but for a small swelling at the base1 silky and shining with a few fibrils from a former cortina which may be brownish due to spores adhering to it at maturity4 ,gills3 adnexed to free1 crowded1 pale ochraceous becoming clay-coloured4 ,flesh3 white with smell of newly dug potatoes1 strong when fresh4 ,spore-print3 clay-colour4 ,spores3 medium sized1 ellipsoid or slightly ,french-bean-shaped1 smooth1 yellow-brown under the microscope and #i-aa #d-e m in size4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 flask- to spindle-shaped with distinctly thickened walls and frequently ornamented with crystals apically4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in troops in woodland clearings1 by pathsides or on the edges of ditches bordering woods4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is easily recognised by the very pale uniform colour1 the colour of the spore-print1 silky umbonate cap and small size4 ,the cortina connects the cap-margin and the stem and consists of a cobwebby structure which collapses at maturity4 ,a violet coloured variety1 var4 lilacina ,gillet is frequently found1 in fact1 even accompanying var4 geophylla2 it differs only in the lilac-colour of the cap and stem4 ,i4 geophylla is a member of the very large genus ,inocybe1 further members of which will be dealt with later 7see p4 #bch74 ,the genus is well defined with dull-yellow spore-print1 well differentiated sterile cells on the gill-edge 7and often on the gill-face7 and the cobweb-like veil1 or cortina1 stretching from the cap-margin to the stem and easily observed in young specimens4 ,the genus is split into three distinct groups3 those with smooth spores1 those with nodulose spores and those with subglobose spores ornamented with long projections4 ,i4 geophylla is included in the first group4 ,the group which includes the nodulose-spored members has been elevated to the rank of genus by some authors1 i4e4 ,astrosporina--a name referring to the spore-shape eg41 ,i4 asterospora4 ,illustrations3 ,f #ac;a 7too blue72 ,,lh #aee2 ,,nb #aci2 ,,wd #fe4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ba4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores dull brown and borne on gills ,laccaria laccata 7,fries7 ,cooke ,deceiver ,cap3 width #ab-bh mm4 ,stem3 width #d-h mm2 length #ae-fj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 hygrophanous1 reddish brown or brick-colour becoming ochraceous on drying1 but can be rapidly returned to the original colour by placing on the top a drop of water which is rapidly absorbed2 fragile1 convex at first then flattened or depressed about centre1 smooth or surface scaley1 striate at margin when moist4 ,stem3 similarly coloured to the cap1 fibrous1 cylindrical1 tough and usually with white woolly base4 ,gills3 adnate with or without a decurrent tooth1 thick1 distant and pinkish or pale reddish-brown1 powdered with white when mature4 ,flesh3 red-brown1 soft in the cap and fibrous in the stem4 ,spore-print3 pure white4 ,spores3 medium sized1 hyaline under the microscope and spherical1 #g-h m in diameter and beautifully spiny4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in troops in woodland1 copses1 on heaths2 in fact it may be found in nearly all possible habitats4 ,general ,information3 ,this is a very common agaric which in the future will probably be split into several distinct species2 unfortunately it is as variable as it is common1 hence the common name #8deceiver'2 it is often mistaken at first glance for many other species quite unrelated4 ,i have seen even the most experienced mycologist pick up rather unfamiliar specimens of ,laccaria laccata in mistake for a species of ,lactarius or a species of ,collybia1 etc4 ,i would hate to say more because ,i have been #8deceived' myself on more than one occasion4 ,l4 laccata appears to be a composite species1 but because of the difficulty in defining some of the characters the splitting of the species has not as yet been satisfactorily solved4 ,the smell1 however1 may well give a clue for some specimens smell very strongly of radish whilst others are odourless4 ,l4 proxima 7,boudier7 ,patouillard1 differs in having ellipsoid spores2 it is larger in stature and is common in wet places4 ,l4 amethystea 7,mrat7 ,murrill1 differs in the deep violet or amethyst-colour of the fruit-body and commonly grows in shaded woods4 ,l4 bicolor 7,maire7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton1 which is less frequent1 has lilaceous gills and violaceous mycelium at the base of the stem4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #ff2 ,,nb #acc2 ,,wd #bj4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bb4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills ,mycena sanguinolenta 7,fries7 ,kummer ,small bleeding mycena ,cap3 width #aj-ag mm4 ,stem3 width #b-d mm2 length #ej-hj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 bell-shaped or conical expanding only slightly with age and so remaining umbonate1 reddish-brown1 striate to the margin from the darker apex and blotched age with red-brown spots4 ,stem3 pale reddish brown1 very slender1 fragile1 woolly at the base and exuding a red-brown juice when broken4 ,gills3 adnate1 fairly distant1 whitish to flesh-colour with a dark red-brown edge and not noticeably becoming blotched with red-brown4 ,flesh3 with no distinctive smell1 reddish-brown and very thin4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium sized1 hyaline1 ellipsoid to pip-shaped1 smooth about #aj m long 7#i-aj #d-e m7 and becoming bluish grey when mounted in solutions containing iodine4 ,marginal cystidia3 awl-shaped1 pointed at the apex1 swollen below and filled with dark red-brown contents4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,solitary or in small groups on poorly kept lawns1 in woods and copses2 it is particularly frequent in the beds of needles found in pine woods4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is easily recognised by the slender habit1 reddish juice exuded when broken and habitat preferences4 ,mycena haematopus 7,fries7 ,kummer is larger and grows in tufts on wood1 but also has a red-brown juice which1 however1 spots the gills4 ,another very common species of ,mycena is ,m4 galopus 7,fries7 ,kummer which has a greyish or brownish cap and exudes a milk-like juice4 ,the related ,m4 leucogala 7,cooke7 ,saccardo is almost black 7see p4 #baf74 ,these agarics exuding juice when broken have a flesh composed of filaments1 a very different flesh-structure to species of ,lactarius 7see p4 #ej7 and although their spores are amyloid they do not turn blue-black in iodine because of the presence of amyloid crests and warts4 ,there are few additional species of agaric which exude a milk-like liquid1 but the majority of these are tropical or subtropical4 ,the second names or epithets for the four species mentioned above all refer to the #8latex'--sanguinolenta--bleeding1 haematopus blood-foot2 galopus1 milk-foot and leucogala1 white milk4 ,for notes on ,mycena one is referred to p4 #fh describing ,m4 galericulata 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray4 ,illustrations3 ,,wd #bh4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bc4 ,fleshy1 milking fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills ,collybia maculata 7,fries7 ,kummer ,spotted tough-shank ,cap3 width #hj-acj mm4 ,stem3 width #e-bj mm2 length #ej-aeh mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 white but soon becoming spotted with reddish-brown1 finally cream-colour with red-brown blotches1 convex then becoming flattened1 fleshy1 firm and tough4 ,stem3 white becoming streaked red-brown1 thickest in the middle1 longitudinally furrowed or striate and often narrowed downwards into a long irregular root embedded in the deep litter4 ,gills3 very crowded1 cream-coloured1 becoming spotted red-brown with age4 ,flesh3 with pleasant smell1 white and fibrous in the stem4 ,spore-print3 pinkish cream-colour4 ,spores3 small1 almost spherical1 hyaline under the microscope1 about #e m in diameter 7#d-e #e m7 and not blueing when placed in solutions containing iodine4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in troops in woods1 particularly beech but also found in pine woods and on heaths4 ,general ,information3 ,easily recognised by the crowded1 narrow1 cream coloured gills and the cap being entirely white when young1 but which rapidly becomes spotted red-brown as it develops4 #8,maculatus' means spotted and refers to the red-brown blotches which develop irregularly on the cap1 stem and gills as the fruit-body matures4 ,the genus ,collybia is characterised by the fruit-body being tough1 the cap-margin incurved at first and the spore-print white or whitish4 ,the common fungus ,c4 maculata has always been assumed to have a white spore-print but if a cap is placed on a piece of white paper gills-down and left for twelve hours there is a surprise in store for the careful observer4 ,illustrations3 ,f #ae;a2 ,hvass #gg2 ,,lh #aja2 ,,nb #ajc2 ,,wd #ba4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bd4 ,fleshy fungi with tough stem3 ,spores white to cream and borne on gills ,the specialised substrates of certain species of ,marasmius and related genera ,a whole series of very small fungi are found in woodland communities which appear to be closely related one to another because their caps are usually tough1 although membranous1 dry rapidly yet do not decay1 and1 moreover1 revive on remoistening4 ,their gills are also rather tough and their spores always white in mass4 ,they are placed in the genus ,marasmius4 ,collybia or ,marasmius peronatus 7,fries7 ,fries the #8wood woolly foot' is one of our larger more familiar agarics related to this group1 but whereas it grows on all kinds of leafy detritus1 even wood1 these small fungi appear to be very specific to the substrate on which they grow4 ,m4 androsaceus 7,fries7 ,fries grows both on heather and on pine-needles 7see p4 #bca74 ,cap3 whitish or pinkish buff4 ,stem3 black and hair-like4 ,spores3 pip-shaped and #g-i #c-d m4 ,m4 buxi ,fries grows on box leaves4 ,m4 epiphylloides 7,rea7 ,saccardo ,trotter grows on ivy leaves4 ,m4 graminum 7,libert7 ,berkeley grows on grass stems4 ,cap3 red-brown4 ,stem3 dark brown4 ,spores3 pip-shaped1 #h-ab #d-f m4 ,m4 hudsonii 7,fries7 ,fries grows on holly leaves4 ,m4 perforans 7,fries7 ,fries grows on pine needles 7now placed in the genus ,micromphale74 ,m4 undatus 7,berkeley7 ,fries grows on bracken stems4 ,cap3 reddish brown or greyish and wrinkled4 ,spores3 egg-shaped1 #h-i #f-g m4 ,except for their rather special requirements as to substrate preference1 these species have in common small size1 rather tough horny stems and cap composed of erect ornamented cells4 ,several agarics which grow on cones have also been placed in ,marasmius4 ,they are frequent in spring and early summer the fruit-bodies being attached by a very long rooting stem and cord of fluffy hyphae to buried cones in conifers4 ,the biology of these fungi is still unknown1 but the cones to which they are attached are always closed yet buried often several inches beneath the surface of the soil4 ,it is yet to be found whether the spores of the agaric infect the cones after they drop or whether the cones fall because they have become infected4 ,how do the cones become so deeply buried8 ,are squirrels or rodents involved8 ,all the species which grow on cones have brown or tawny caps and yellowish brown stems4 ,illustration3 ,plate #be4 ,fleshy fungi with wiry to tough stem3 ,spores white and borne on gills1 fruit-body frequently reviving when moistened ,strobilurus stephanocystis 7,hora7 ,singer has cystidia with rounded heads and grows on pine-cones4 ,s4 tenacellus 7,fries7 ,singer has pointed cystidia and grows on pine-cones4 ,s4 esculentus 7,fries7 ,singer has lance-shaped cystidia and grows on spruce cones4 ,baeospora myosura 7,fries7 ,singer is tough and pale-coloured and is similar in general characters to species of ,strobilurus1 but has amyloid spores and fruits on pine-cones in the autumn4 ,when discussing the specialised plant-substrates1 such as cones1 one must mention the small brown-spored1 pale buff coloured agaric ,tubaria dispersa 7,persoon7 ,singer1 or ,tubaria autochthona 7,berkeley ,broome7 ,saccardo1 which grows on the ground under hawthorns1 often in troops in summer and autumn1 attached to old hardened hawthorn berries4 7ii7 ,agarics of ,pastures and ,meadows 7a7 ,agarics of rough and hill pastures ,hygrocybe pratensis 7,fries7 ,donk ,butter mushroom ,cap3 width #bj-hj mm4 ,stem3 width #e-ab mm2 length #cj-gj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 convex then expanding to become plano-convex with a broad low umbo1 tan1 pale russet or even yellowish buff throughout or slightly darker at the centre4 ,stem3 gradually thickened upwards1 similarly coloured to the cap or paler if the cap is dark russet4 ,gills3 pale buff1 deeply decurrent and often connected up at their bases by veins4 ,flesh3 buff or pale tan1 thick and soft in the cap1 slightly fibrous in the stem4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 ellipsoid to egg-shaped1 hyaline under the microscope1 #g-h #e m in size and not becoming bluish grey in solutions containing iodine4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in pastures or on heaths from early summer to late autumn4 ,general ,information3 ,a fungus easily recognised by the uniform buff-colour of the stem1 cap and gills4 ,as one might expect from the common name it is edible2 it is held in high regard by many mushroom-pickers4 ,although #8pratensis' specifically means fields1 reflecting the habitat of the fungus1 this and related species can also be found on heaths and pastures often intermixed and forming a most interesting flora4 ,the following are perhaps the most commonly seen3 ,h4 lacma 7,fries7 ,orton ,watling and ,h4 cinerea 7,fries7 ,orton ,watling are similar in stature1 but metallic grey in colour except for the persistently yellow stem-base in ,h4 lacma4 ,h4 subradiata 7,secretan7 ,orton ,watling is flesh-coloured or brownish and ,h4 virginea 7,fries7 ,orton ,watling is white4 ,h4 nivea 7,fries7 ,orton ,watling and ,h4 russocoriacea 7,berkeley ,miller7 ,orton ,watling are much smaller1 the former white and odourless and the latter off-white with a very strong smell of incense4 ,illustrations3 ,f #ab;b2 ,hvass #ie2 ,,lh #gg2 ,,nb #cc2 ,,wd #cc4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bf4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on thick1 waxy gills ,hygrocybe psittacina 7,fries7 ,wunsche ,parrot hygrophorus ,cap3 width #ab-be mm4 ,stem3 width #c-h mm2 length #cj-fj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 very slimy with colourless sticky fluid1 deep bluish green when fresh1 but becoming more and more ochraceous-orange with age or completely fading out to a yellow ochre1 bell-shaped at first then expanded except for central umbo4 ,stem3 like the cap very slimy1 apple-green or bluish green throughout but becoming ochraceous like the cap except at the apex which is persistently green4 ,gills3 adnate yellow or apricot-coloured1 greenish towards their base1 broad1 distant and rather tough4 ,flesh3 whitish1 tinged green in the cap and yellow or apricot-colour in the stem4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 hyaline1 ellipsoid1 not blue-grey in solutions containing iodine and #h-i #d-e m in size4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in grassland and hill-pastures1 but it also occurs in copses and woodlands4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is easily recognised by the distinctive colours1 but it is rather deceptive for the cap and the stem soon become faded2 however1 the green colouration persists at the apex of the stem and it is by this that in the faded state the fungus can still be identified4 ,h4 laeta 7,fries7 ,kummer fades to similar colours but the cap is flesh-colour at first or sordid brown and the gills are flesh-coloured or greyish2 it prefers upland pastures and heathland3 its spores are smaller1 being #e-g #d m4 ,illustrations3 ,f #ab;a2 ,hvass #ib2 ,,lh #gi2 ,,nb #cc2 ,,wd #cd4 ,general notes on ,hygrophori ,hygrophori are some of our most colourful groups of agarics1 many are brightly coloured with caps in reds1 greens1 yellows1 oranges1 etc41 the colour often accentuated by the usually slimy aspect4 ,traditionally the genus ,hygrophorus has been split into three groups as follows3-- ,limacium with slimy cap1 adnate to decurrent gills and slimy or tacky stem which may also often be ornamented with dots1 especially towards the top4 ,camarophyllus with dry cap1 smooth and fibrous stem and decurrent gills4 ,hygrocybe with thin1 fragile1 sticky or moist cap1 smooth fibrillose stem and gills varying from free to decurrent4 ,the last two sections have been joined together into the single genus ,hygrocybe and all the members seem to be saprophytic or intimately associated with grassland communities4 ,the first section ,limacium now makes up the genus ,hygrophorus and its members are thought to be mycorrhizal with trees1 e4g4 ,h4 hypothejus 7,fries7 ,fries with pine1 the #8,herald of the winter' because it occurs at the end of the fungus season and ,h4 chrysaspis ,mtrod1 a whitish1 sickly-smelling fungus under beech4 ,results from examining the anatomy of the gills appears to confirm these divisions4 ,all the ,hygrophori have a homogeneous flesh1 white spores1 central1 fleshy stem and thick1 waxy gills2 microscopically this group of fungi can be recognised by the very long basidia4 ,the following are common examples of the genus ,hygrocybe3-- ,h4 calyptraeformis 7,berkeley ,broome7 ,fayod has a rose-pink1 conical cap which expands to become upturned at the edge with age4 ,h4 coccinea 7,fries7 ,kummer has a bright scarlet cap which becomes yellow-ochre on drying and a yellow base to a scarlet stem4 ,h4 conica 7,fries7 ,kummer has an orange to red stem and sharply conical cap which turns blackish with age and whose gills when cut exude a clear watery liquid4 ,h4 flavescens 7,kauffman7 ,singer has a slimy1 golden yellow cap and similarly coloured stem4 ,h4 chlorophana is similar1 but has a lemon-yellow cap and stem4 ,h4 punicea 7,fries7 ,kummer is a large and robust species1 similar in colour to ,h4 coccinea but with a white base to the stem4 ,h4 unguinosa 7,fries7 ,karsten has a smoky grey1 very slimy cap and stem4 ,h4 nitrata 7,persoon7 ,wunsche is as dull coloured as ,h4 unguinosa1 but is not slimy1 and in addition strongly smells of cleaning fluid or bleaching-powder4 ,it is one of three dull coloured1 strong bleaching-powder-smelling species found in ,britain4 ,h4 ovina is another1 but is darker than ,h4 nitrata and becomes red when bruised or cut4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bg4 ,fleshy brightly coloured fungi3 ,spores white and borne on thick1 waxy gills ,h4 metapodia 7,fries7 ,moser has a sooty brown fibrillose-streaky cap and stem4 ,the gills are distant and grey1 and the fruit-body may reach up to #ajj mm across4 ,it is probably the biggest of our native species of ,hygrocybe4 ,for completion examples of ,hygrophorus include3 ,h4 bresadolae ,qulet has a slimy orange-yellow cap1 yellow gills and yellow1 slimy1 smooth stem4 ,it is found under larch trees4 ,h4 chrysaspis ,mtrod has ivory white cap1 stem and gills which soon become flushed with rust-brown and finally the whole fruit-body becomes red-brown4 ,the stem is slimy and white dotted at the apex4 ,it grows in beech woods4 ,h4 hedrychii ,velenovsky has a slimy cream-coloured cap flushed with pale peach colour4 ,the gills and stem are cream and the latter slimy and dotted at the top4 ,it is found in pine woods4 ,h4 hypothejus 7,fries7 ,fries has an olive-brown slimy cap1 yellow stem and gills2 the stem is slimy and smooth4 ,it is found in pine woods and under pines on heaths4 ,h4 pustulatus 7,persoon7 ,fries has an ash-grey cap brownish towards its centre1 viscid white stem with dark grey dots at the apex and white gills4 ,h4 agathosmus 7,secretan7 ,fries is similar1 but smells strongly of bitter almonds4 ,both species are found in plantations4 ,species of the genus ,hygrophorus are infrequently encountered in ,britain1 although twenty species are recorded for the ,british ,isles4 ,they are ecologically distinct from members of the genus ,hygrocybe in preferring woodland communities to grassland areas2 they are probably mycorrhizal4 ,the anatomy of the fruit-body is also rather different to that found in ,hygrocybe2 the gill-trama is bilateral as in ,leccinum 7p4 #bg71 ,suillus 7p4 #bh71 ,boletus 7p4 #ca71 ,chroogomphus 7p4 #cf71 ,paxillus 7p4 #ch7 and ,amanita 7p4 #ed74 ,members of the genus ,hygrocybe have regular to irregular gill-tramas4 ,in fact1 although both genera are united into a single family1 the ,hygrophoraceae is based on one character common to both1 i4e4 the long basidium2 there is every indication that the genus ,hygrocybe has greater affinity to ,omphalina in the ,tricholomataceae 7p4 #bcb74 ,surprisingly enough in ,north ,america many of our familiar grassland species including ,h4 pratensis are to be found in deep shaded woodland6 ,angular1 pink-spored agarics--,rhodophyllaceae ,the name of the family refers to the pink gills and it unites all those fungi with a salmon-pinkish buff spore-print and whose spores are angular in all optical sections4 ,there are a few agarics1 e4g4 ,clitopilus prunulus 7,fries7 ,kummer with ridged spores which appear angular in end-on view1 but which are ellipsoid in both side and face views and so are considered less related4 ,the family ,rhodophyllaceae by some authorities contains one genus ,rhodophyllus1 more correctly called ,entoloma2 in the ,british ,isles five constituent genera are recognised1 but they will have to be more critically defined to make a more meaningful classification4 ,at the moment1 many of the species are poorly documented and it would appear that anatomical studies will assist in the future in the recognition of species-groups4 ,if one selects the eight most distinctive shaped spore-types exhibited in members of this family1 then when their spores are examined side-on a feature is available for correlation with the traditional field characters1 such as cap scaliness and gill-attachment4 ,the most distinctive spore-shape is ,type ,g1 found in ,nolanea staurospora ,bresadola1 which is probably the most common and widespread species of the family4 ,it grows in woodlands1 grassland and on lawns and will be dealt with later 7p4 #abb74 ,the other spore types are illustrated and range from irregularly rhomboid to elongate angular4 ,the majority of the members of this group grow in grassland1 hill-pastures and meadows and distinct communities containing members of this family and of the ,hygrophoraceae can be recognised4 ,it is not proposed to deal in detail with any individual members because they can be so easily confused with each other by the specialist let alone by the amateur4 ,however1 the genera as at present accepted are as follows3-- #a4 ,entoloma in its original sense contains agarics with fleshy caps1 fibrous stems and sinuate or adnexed gills1 e4g4 ,ent4 clypeatum 7,fries7 ,kummer with grey to yellow-brown cap1 found growing with members of the apple and rose-family in the summer and early autumn4 ,this genus corresponds to ,calocybe in the white-spored agarics 7p4 #aaj74 #b4 ,leptonia contains those agarics with rather thin caps whose margin is incurved1 cartilaginous stems and adnate to adnexed1 rarely decurrent1 gills and whose cap flesh is indistinct from that of the stem1 e4g4 ,lept4 serrulata 7,fries7 ,kummer with dark blue to violet-blue cap and dark blue edge to the gills4 ,this genus approaches the tough-shanks 7,collybia7 in the white-spored genera 7p4 #ij74 #c4 ,nolanea is characterised by agarics with delicate caps1 whose flesh is distinct from that of the stem and whose edge is straight and pressed against the fragile stem when young1 and the adnexed or adnate1 rarely decurrent1 gills1 e4g4 ,n4 staurospora 7see p4 #abb74 ,n4 cetrata 7,fries7 ,kummer with yellow-brown to tan-coloured cap is found from spring to autumn in conifer woodland1 especially plantations4 ,the genus corresponds to ,mycena in the white-spored agaric genera 7p4 #fh74 #d4 ,eccilia is a small genus containing agarics with thin1 membranous caps and distinctly decurrent gills1 e4g4 ,e4 sericeonitida ,p4 ,d4 ,orton with convex1 then umbilicate1 silky greyish brown cap4 ,this genus corresponds to ,omphalina in the white-spored agarics 7p4 #bcb74 #e4 ,claudopus has three ,british representatives1 all of which have a very small stem which may even be absent1 e4g4 ,c4 depluens 7,fries7 ,gillet grows on soil and ,c4 parasiticus 7,qulet7 ,ricken grows on old decaying fruit-bodies of woody fungi4 ,this genus corresponds to ,pleurotellus in the white-spored genera and to ,crepidotus in the brown-spored genera 7p4 #gg74 ,illustration3 ,plate #bh4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores pinkish and angular and borne on gills - ,rhodophyllaceae ,cystoderma amianthinum 7,fries7 ,fayod ,cap3 width #ae-ce mm4 ,stem3 width #d-h mm2 length #ae-cj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 pale ochraceous yellow to sand-colour1 convex then expanded1 with central umbo and often radially wrinkled-reticulate1 covered completely in powdery granules when fresh but these gradually disappear with age or on excessive handling4 ,stem3 slender1 white above a narrow1 easily lost ring which is composed of floccose1 ochraceous yellow granules which also clothe the lower part of the stem4 ,gills3 adnate1 cream-coloured and crowded4 ,flesh3 yellowish with a strong smell of new-mown hay4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 small to medium sized1 hyaline under the microscope1 smooth1 ellipsoid1 #e-g #c-d m and becoming blue-grey when mounted in solutions containing iodine4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,frequently found amongst grass on heaths1 in hill-pastures and in woodlands from summer to autumn4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is recognised by the gill-attachment and the powdery-scurfy cap formed by the breaking up of an enveloping veil composed of thick-walled1 rounded cells1 similar to those on the surface of the stem4 ,this fungus was formerly placed in the genus ,lepiota because of the ring but the veil in ,cystoderma amianthinum is formed in quite a different way to the ring in the true parasol mushrooms4 ,the gills are also adnate and not free as in the true species of ,lepiota 7see p4 #aab74 ,c4 carcharias 7,secretan7 ,fayod is found under similar conditions1 but is white or flesh-coloured4 ,c4 cinnabarinum 7,secretan7 ,fayod is also found in short grass and moss1 but has a cinnabar-red1 floccose cap and ,c4 granulosum 7,fries7 ,fayod is yellowish brown with non-amyloid spores and adnexed gills4 ,many authorities prefer to connect this small group of closely related species more to members of the ,tricholomataceae 7i4e4 the family which contains the ,wood ,blewits 7p4 #aca71 ,mycena 7p4 #fh1 etc47 than to the parasol mushrooms--,lepiota 7p4 #aab74 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #bc2 ,,lh #abi2 ,,nb #ajc2 ,,wd #h4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bi4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills ,hygrophoropsis aurantiaca 7,fries7 ,maire ,false chanterelle ,cap3 width #be-gj mm4 ,stem3 width #d-g mm2 length #be-ej mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 bright orange-yellow or apricot1 fleshy1 soft1 depressed at centre and with wavy1 incurved1 slightly downy margin4 ,stem3 yellow at apex1 rich red-brown or orange about the middle and sometimes dark brown at the very base4 ,gills3 decurrent1 deep orange1 thin1 crowded1 repeatedly forked and easily separable from the cap-tissue4 ,flesh3 yellowish1 pale in the cap1 darker in the stem4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium sized1 hyaline under the microscope1 ellipsoid or pip-shaped1 smooth1 #g-h #d m and red-brown when mounted in solutions of iodine4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in woodlands1 particularly with pines1 and on heaths or in rough hill-pastures4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is recognisable by the orange or yellow cap and stem and the decurrent gills4 ,it was formerly placed in ,cantharellus because of the colours1 white spores and the decurrent gills1 but it really differs in many other respects4 ,it is true1 however1 that it is frequently confused with the true ,chanterelle 7,cantharellus cibarius ,fries1 p4 #afb7 by those who do not inspect their specimens carefully4 ,the gills are thin1 plate-like as in other agarics and not fold-like as in ,cantharellus 7see p4 #afb74 ,the ,chanterelle is edible and sought after as a delicacy1 but there are varying reports as to the edibility of ,hygrophoropsis4 ,certainly it is not of the best quality and there is evidence for it causing upsets3 therefore it is best to take the name #8,false ,chanterelle' at face value and treat this fungus as truely false2 #8aurantiaca' means orange-coloured and refers to the colour of the fungus4 ,a pale form is frequently collected1 particularly in hill-pastures1 and is probably worthy of specific recognition4 ,the cap is ochraceous yellow to cream and the stem distinctly dark in the lower half4 ,there is some confusion as to the true position in classification of this fungus4 ,the anatomical details of the fruit-body parallel those of ,paxillus involutus 7,fries7 ,fries 7see p4 #ch7 although the spore-print is white4 ,there is little doubt that future research will answer this problem4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #ahc2 ,,lh #ahe2 ,,nb #ajc2 ,,wd #af4 ,illustration3 ,plate #cj4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills 7b7 ,agarics of chalk-grassland and rich uplands ,agaricus campestris ,fries ,field mushroom ,cap3 width #dj-ajj mm4 ,stem3 width #ab-bj mm2 length #dj-hj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 rounded then expanding to become plano-convex1 fleshy with the margin incurved at first1 initially pure white1 but soon becoming cream-colour and at maturity streaked brownish particularly at the centre4 ,stem3 white with a simple1 very thin1 white ring which becomes brownish on rubbing and is easily lost with age or by handling4 ,gills3 free1 pink but finally umber-brown at maturity4 ,flesh3 white1 flushed reddish when cut especially in the stem4 ,spore-print3 cigar-brown1 with hint of purple4 ,spores3 medium sized1 ellipsoid or egg-shaped1 smooth1 small1 #g-h #d-e m and dark brown under the microscope4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,basidia #d-spored4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,the field-mushroom grows amongst grass in pastures1 etc41 and also on old lawns where it may form fairy-rings4 ,general ,information3 ,this is the common wild1 edible mushroom for which many people have in the past unwisely substituted many quite unrelated species4 ,deaths have often been caused by lack of careful observation when selecting wild fungi for the table2 this only emphasises why white mushrooms found in fields should not be casually eaten4 ,a4 arvensis ,secretan the ,horse-mushroom is also edible1 but is much bigger 7up to #ahj mm71 creamy white and bruises slightly yellowish on handling2 it also has larger spores 7#g-aj #e m71 club-shaped cells on the gill-edge1 gills commencing white and not pink1 and the presence of a complex ring4 ,a4 xanthodermus ,genevier the #8,yellow-staining mushroom' has even smaller spores than the field mushroom1 i4e4 #e-f #d m and a rather strong1 unpleasant smell2 if eaten many people subsequently suffer from stomach-pains and this shows that even amongst those fungi which the scientist would call true mushrooms1 i4e4 those fungi in the genus ,agaricus1 there are some poisonous members4 ,thus it is always necessary to have wide experience before one collects fungi for eating and until this is achieved all specimens should be discarded4 ,illustrations3 ,field mushroom--,hvass #afc2 ,,lh #acc2 ,,nb #ca2 ,,wd #ga4 ,horse mushroom--,hvass #afj2 ,,lh #ace2 ,,wd #gb4 ,yellow-staining mushroom--,hvass #aei2 ,,wd #ga4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ca4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores purple-brown and borne on gills ,calocybe gambosum 7,fries7 ,singer4 ,st ,george's mushroom ,cap3 width #gj-ajj mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-be mm2 length #ej-gj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 creamy white1 ivory or light buff1 slightly darker at the centre with age1 fleshy1 rounded and with wavy margin1 finally expanding to become plane-convex2 the margin is incurved and slightly downy at first4 ,stem3 firm1 rather thick1 white at the top1 creamy or buff below and slightly downy when fresh4 ,gills3 sinuate to adnexed with a slight decurrent tooth1 white to pale buff4 ,flesh3 with a very strong smell of meal1 white and thick4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 small1 ellipsoid1 smooth1 hyaline under the microscope1 #e-f #c-d m and not becoming blue-grey with solutions containing iodine4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found amongst grass in base rich pastures1 often in fairly large rings from ,april to ,june and on golf-courses particularly those near the sea4 ,general ,information3 ,the common name refers to the early appearance of this agaric2 ,st ,george's ,day is ,april #bcrd1 and this mushroom is found about this time in favourable years1 its fruiting often extending into early ,june1 particularly if the fruiting is retarded by a cold and wet spring4 ,it is easily recognised by the pale colour of the cap1 strong mealy smell1 but particularly by its appearance in spring4 ,in each new year it is probably the first of the larger agarics to appear4 ,this species will be found in most books under the genus ,tricholoma1 but differs from typical members of this group in the anatomy and chemistry of the gill-tissues4 ,the ,latin name #8gambosum' is derived from #8gamba' meaning a hoof and this reflects the shape of the fleshy cap as it pushes up through the grass4 ,another much older name is ,tricholoma georgii 7,fries7 ,qulet which was used by ,clusius and is derived from the legend of ,st ,george4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #bh2 ,,lh #hc2 ,,wd #i4 ,illustration3 ,plate #cb4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills ,lepiota procera 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,parasol mushroom ,cap3 width #gj-bjj mm4 ,stem3 width #ab-bj mm2 length #ajj-bej mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 dull brown or greyish brown1 oval or rounded at first1 but later becoming bell-shaped1 finally expanding but for the central umbo and the surface breaking up into shaggy scales4 ,stem3 straight1 tapering upwards from a slightly bulbous base1 felty at first but then the surface breaking up into small patches which finally resemble the pattern of a snake-skin2 there is also a large1 thick1 white ring which is brown below and becomes loose on the stem4 ,gills3 remote1 white1 crowded and fairly broad4 ,flesh3 white1 thin1 soft4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 very long1 ellipsoid with a germ-pore1 hyaline under the microscope about #af #aj m 7#ad-ag #i-ab m71 and becoming reddish brown in solutions containing iodine4 ,marginal cystidia3 variable1 elongate balloon-shaped and hyaline4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found from summer until mid-autumn1 on the outskirts of copses1 in fields1 at edges of woodland or in woodland clearings2 it is sometimes found in very large rings4 ,general ,information3 ,when this fungus first appears through the soil it resembles a drum-stick with the margin of the unexpanded cap tightly hugging the stem4 ,it is an easily recognised fungus because of its straight and graceful stature with large cap and tall stem4 ,it is one of our best edible fungi and cannot be confused with any other agaric4 ,l4 rhacodes 7,vittadini7 ,qulet is not as elegant and has much smaller spores4 ,illustrations3 ,f #bf;a2 ,hvass #ae2 ,,lh #abe2 ,,nb #ca2 ,,wd #e4 ,illustration3 ,plate #cc4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores white and borne on gills 7c7 ,agarics of meadows and valley-bottom grasslands ,psilocybe semilanceata 7,secretan7 ,kummer ,liberty caps ,cap3 width #h-ad mm2 height up to #ah mm4 ,stem3 width #d-f mm2 length #ej-gj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 sharply conical1 in fact often with a very distinct apical point1 never or very rarely becoming expanded1 often fluted and puckered at the incurved margin1 smooth1 viscid1 pale buff or clay colour1 but soon flushed with greyish green at maturity and becoming free of the fibrils of veil which ornament the margin when young4 ,stem3 slender1 tough and smooth1 similarly coloured to the cap and sometimes blueing at the base when picked4 ,gills3 adnate to adnexed1 crowded1 purplish black except for white edge4 ,flesh3 white or pallid4 ,spore-print3 purple-brown4 ,spores3 long1 ellipsoid1 slightly lemon-shaped1 smooth and with a distinct germ-pore at one end and #ab-ad #g m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 bottle-shaped with an elongate tapering neck1 with thin walls which at most become pale honey in solutions containing ammonia1 unlike the cystidia of ,hypholoma 7p4 #fd74 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,commonly growing amongst grass in fields near farm-yards1 on heaths and by roadsides2 often it occurs in small troops4 ,general ,information3 ,psilocybe semilanceata is recognised by the uniquely shaped cap2 #8semilanceata' means half spear-shaped1 from the papilla at the top of the cap1 giving it a pointed aspect4 ,however1 the common name is more descriptive and comes from the fact that these caps resemble the helmets worn by ,french soldiers in the early part of the century4 ,this fungus was once very isolated amongst ,british agarics1 but now it has been united with a group of small purplish brown-spored fungi formerly placed in the genus ,deconica4 ,what is of more interest is the fact that unlike many ,british agarics the cap often does not expand fully in order to release the spores4 ,in this way it allows mycologists to hypothesise on how certain of the enclosed1 stalked ,gastromycetes evolved in some of the desert regions of the world4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #adi2 ,,nb #cc2 ,,wd #gh4 ,illustration3 ,plate #cd4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores purple-brown and borne on gills ,conocybe tenera 7,fries7 ,fayod ,brown cone-cap ,cap3 width #aj-bj mm4 ,stem3 width #c-f mm2 length #gj-ajj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 very hygrophanous1 sand colour1 orange-yellow or ochraceous brown tinted cinnamon when fresh but drying uniformly yellow-ochre1 thin1 fragile1 striate when moist1 but soon non-striate as water is lost from the cap4 ,stem3 tall1 slender and similarly coloured to the cap1 straight1 fragile1 minutely striate from the top to bottom with what appears to be minute powdery granules4 ,gills3 adnate then becoming free1 crowded1 ochraceous and finally cinnamon-rust in colour4 ,flesh3 russet when moist but rapidly becoming yellowish as the fruit-body dries4 ,spore-print3 rust-brown4 ,spores3 long1 ellipsoid1 with thick1 bright yellow-brown walls and distinct germ-pores at their ends when seen under the microscope1 and over #aj m in length 7#aa-ab #f m47 ,marginal cystidia3 pinheaded or skittle-shaped4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus grows in ones and twos1 more rarely in troops amongst grass4 ,general ,information3 ,this is one member of a whole complex group of ochraceous1 brown1 tawny or cinnamon-brown capped agarics which superficially appear to be the same1 but on closer examination the expert can split them into several distinct species4 ,the use of microscopic characters is essential and outside the scope of this book or the ordinary mushroom-picker's manual4 ,however1 the closely related ,c4 lactea 7,j4 ,lange7 ,mtrod can be more easily distinguished for it has a white or cream-coloured cap and stem4 ,it also has larger broadly ellipsoid spores1 measuring #ab-ad #f-i m1 but the same shaped cells on the gill-edge4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #aec2 ,,nb #ce2 ,,wd #fh4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ce4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores brown and borne on gills 7d7 ,fairy-ring formers ,many agarics grow in circles1 but not all of them produce zones in the vegetation4 ,it is the distinct zonation caused by the #8fairy-ring champignon' ,marasmius oreades 7,fries7 ,fries and related fungi which have given rise to the name of ,fairy-ring and which resulted in the foundation of many folk tales4 ,a fairy-ring can be divided into four distinct zones1 a central zone of fairly normally developed vegetation on the outside of which is a green1 actively growing zone of grass2 outside this is a zone composed of brown or dead vegetation4 ,the outermost zone again appears to be far more lush than the normal grass in the vicinity and it is in this last zone that the fruit-bodies of the fungus causing the pattern appear4 ,a generalised explanation of the zoning appears to be as follows3-- ,in the outermost zone the actively growing mycelium decomposes soil constituents and liberates nitrogenous material which is in turn taken up by the plant roots nearby and utilised for their growth4 ,in the penultimate zone the grass is dead1 probably not caused by a direct parasitic attack but by the mycelial threads filling the air-spaces in the soil and so inhibiting water flow4 ,this destruction of the delicate balance of water and air found in any soil induces drying out and gradual death of the plants whose roots permeate the soil4 ,behind the dead-zone is vegetation which shows increased vigour apparently due to plant-nutrients being released by the decaying mycelium and plant-material1 whose death has been caused by the presence of the fungus4 ,the innermost zone is not so stimulated4 ,with nothing more than graph and tracing paper1 a tape-measure1 note-book and pencil1 pieces of cane about four inches long1 and coloured dye or indian ink1 it is exciting to assess the annual radial growth of fairy-rings and to correlate these with environmental conditions4 ,this can be carried out on a school lawn or on a home lawn2 the method and further experiments are given in ,appendix iii4 ,illustration3 ,plate #cf4 ,fairy-ring fungus--,marasmius oreades ,marasmius oreades 7,fries7 ,fries ,fairy-ring champignon ,cap3 width #be-fj mm4 ,stem3 width #e-i mm2 length #cj-hj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 pinkish tan with slight flush of brown at centre1 hygrophanous and drying out buff-coloured or clay-coloured1 convex at first then expanding to become plane1 but for an obtuse umbo which is retained at the centre4 ,stem3 pale buff1 tough1 flexible and smooth4 ,gills3 adnexed1 pale cream colour or pinkish buff and fairly distant4 ,flesh3 whitish or pinkish tan1 smelling of cherry laurel 7cyanic74 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium sized1 hyaline1 pip-shaped1 smooth1 not staining bluish grey when mounted in solutions containing iodine and about #aj #f m in size 7#i-aa #e-f m74 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this agaric is very common from ,may to ,october on lawns and grass-verges4 ,general ,information3 ,m4 oreades forms well developed fairy-rings1 and is easily recognised by its tough nature1 pale colours and ability to revive after having been dried4 ,this ability to revive in moist weather even after the fruit-body has been dried by the sun or wind is a character which was used to distinguish members of the genus ,marasmius4 ,however1 this is a very subjective character and since microscopic techniques were introduced and used widely in the study of agarics the genus has been delimited rather more critically4 ,marasmius is close to ,collybia 7p4 #ij71 in fact many species appear in one book in one genus and in another book in the second genus2 ,m4 oreades itself is not a typical member of the genus4 ,marasmius seems to be a much more important genus in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world2 we have already mentioned how some of the small species of ,marasmius in ,europe grow only on leaves of a particular plant 7see p4 #ib74 ,m4 androsaceus 7,fries7 ,fries 7see p4 #bca7 is the horse-hair fungus4 ,illustrations3 ,f #ai;a2 ,hvass #ha2 ,,lh #aae2 ,,nb #ce2 ,,wd #bd 7not very good74 ,illustration3 ,plate #cg4 ,fleshy fungi reviving when moistened even after drying3 ,spores white and borne on gills 7e7 ,agarics of urban areas--lawn and parkland agarics ,nolanea staurospora ,bresadola ,cap3 width #bj-dj mm4 ,stem3 width #c-e mm2 length #de-gj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 bell-shaped at first then expanded1 hygrophanous1 date-brown1 striate when moist but pale fawn or tan and non-striate when dry1 and usually becoming quite silky-shiny4 ,stem3 slender1 fragile1 greyish brown1 silky fibrillose-striate and shiny4 ,gills3 almost free1 crowded and pale greyish brown when young1 but finally flesh coloured4 ,flesh3 brownish and smelling very strongly of meal when cut or broken between the fingers4 ,spore-print3 salmon-pink with flush of cinnamon4 ,spores3 medium sized1 fawn under the microscope1 star-shaped with #d-f prominent angles1 #i-aj #g-i m1 smooth and with no germ-pore4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,nolanea sericea 7,mrat7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,silky nolanea ,cap3 width #be-dj mm4 ,stem3 width #e-i mm2 length #be-ej mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 convex then flattened or with slight umbo1 umber-brown with a greyish cast which becomes accentuated as the cap dries out and finally becoming silky-shiny2 the margin is incurved and striate at first but on expanding it becomes non-striate with time4 ,stem3 short1 fibrillose1 greyish brown1 shining and white at the base1 very fragile and often snaps just above the soil-level when collected4 ,gills3 crowded1 adnate and pale greyish brown then pinkish brown4 ,flesh3 with a strong smell of new meal1 brownish becoming paler as it dries out4 ,spore-print3 salmon-pink4 ,spores3 medium sized1 smooth1 pale fawn under the microscope1 angular almost cubic and #aj-ac #h-i m in size4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,general ,information3 ,nolanea staurospora is very common amongst grass1 in many habitats such as on heaths1 and in woodlands and copses1 but it is particularly common in pastures and on lawns4 ,it is difficult to separate from close relatives on field-characters1 except for the strong mealy smell2 however1 it is recognised immediately by the spore-shape1 in fact stauro--means a cross and spora--spore6 ,illustration3 ,plate #ch4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores pinkish and angular1 and borne on gills ,because of the flattened cap and gill-shape ,n4 sericea 7,mrat7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton was first placed in ,entoloma1 but for a long time it was one of the smallest members of that genus4 ,the ,european species of ,nolanea have recently been critically analysed1 and now that closely related species to the silky ,nolanea have been found1 it appears better placed in ,nolanea although it is still found under ,entoloma in many books4 ,the ,latin word #8sericeum' means silky and refers to the silky cap and stem of this fungus which is a very noticeable feature when the fungus is collected in the dry state4 ,the common name which has been given to this fungus also refers to the silky nature of the fruit-body4 ,illustrations3 ,n4 staurospora--,,lh #aha2 ,,nd #ca2 ,,wd #eb4 ,n4 sericea--,,lh #aha2 ,,wd #eb4 ,panaeolus foenisecii 7,fries7 ,schroeter ,brown hay-cap ,cap3 width #ab-bh mm4 ,stem3 width #c-f mm2 length #dj-fj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 semiglobate to convex and hardly expanding even with age1 smooth1 expallent1 dull cinnamon-brown or dark tan-colour1 becoming clay-colour or pale cinnamon-colour from centre outwards on drying and so sometimes appearing as if it is zoned4 ,stem3 slender1 fragile1 smooth and pale cinnamon-brown1 except at apex where it is dotted with white2 it is usually more brownish below4 ,gills3 adnate1 crowded1 pale brown and mottled1 but becoming more uniformly umber-brown except for whitish margin4 ,flesh3 whitish or pale cinnamon colour4 ,spore-print3 purple-brown4 ,spores3 long1 lemon-shaped under the microscope1 dull brown1 warted all over but for the distinct germ-pore2 #ab-ae #g-h m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 variable spindle-shaped with flexuous neck and subcapitate apex1 about #e-f m wide4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common amongst short grass on lawns1 in pastures1 on grass-verges1 etc41 from ,may until ,october4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ci4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores purple-brown and born on gills ,general ,information3 ,p4 foenisecii is recognised under the microscope by the ornamented spores2 this character was used to separate this fungus in the new genus ,panaeolina4 ,however1 although the spore-print is not exactly black the stature1 mottled gills and anatomy conform closely with ,panaeolus sphinctrinus 7,fries7 ,qulet and ,p4 rickenii ,hora 7see p4 #baj and below respectively74 ,the same fungus has been placed in ,psilocybe 7see p4 #aad71 but it has little in common with members of that genus4 ,the word #8foenisecii' means hay-harvest1 reflecting the habitat of growing in fields4 ,this fungus is variable in colour depending on its state of turgidity2 it can be easily confused with other species of ,panaeolus when moist and with certain species of ,conocybe when dry4 ,p4 rickenii is an equally common agaric growing on similar or slightly less base-rich soil-types4 ,it has a distinctly bell-shaped reddish brown cap with a pale incurved margin which in wet weather is1 like the entire stem1 beaded with droplets of liquid4 ,this gives the fungus a glistening appearance when seen fresh and as it dries these droplets are lost and the cap becomes slightly zoned4 ,the stem is pale reddish-brown with a strong frosted appearance because of the minute hairs which cover it4 ,i have no doubt that the classification of these fungi will be assisted by careful analysis of the shapes of the hairs found in the different species4 ,illustrations3 ,panaeolina foenisecii--,,lh #ade2 ,,wd #gh4 ,panaeolus rickenii--,,lh #ade4 7f7 ,agarics of wasteland and hedgerows ,coprinus comatus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,lawyer's wig ,cap3 width #cj-fj mm2 height #hj-bjj mm4 ,stem3 width #aj-bj mm2 length #hj-bej mm4 ,description3 ,plate #dj4 ,cap3 at first cylindrical or oval then bell-shaped1 fleshy1 fragile1 white and covered with woolly1 whitish1 shaggy scales which have brown tips2 the centre of the cap is smooth and yellow to ochraceous whilst the margin becomes striate and lilaceous and finally black as the tissue liquefies 7autodigests7 and the margin rolls up to expose new areas of spore-bearing tissue4 ,stem3 tall1 white1 smooth and tapered towards the apex1 with a white ring which can easily move up and down the stem with handling1 and which soon disappears with age4 ,illustration3 ,plate #dj4 ,fleshy fungi becoming reduced to an inky mass3 ,spores black and borne on gills ,gills3 free at first1 white then pink and finally black1 becoming gradually dissolved into a black fluid from the base of the cap upwards4 ,flesh3 white1 thin1 except immediately in the central area of the cap4 ,spore-print3 blackish-purple4 ,spores3 long1 elongate-ellipsoid1 large and about #ac #e-h m in size1 7#ab-ae #g-i m74 ,marginal cystidia3 elongate club-shaped to balloon-shaped1 hyaline and thin-walled4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,grows in clusters on rich ground1 in gardens1 on sides of newly prepared roads and central reservations of motor-ways1 on path-sides1 in cultivated fields and on rubbish dumps2 it grows from spring to autumn and sometimes occurs in huge troops4 ,general ,information3 ,easily recognised by its size1 the shape of the cap with its scaly surface and from its resemblance to a #8judge's wig'2 it is frequently called the #8lawyer's wig' and whereas some common names are not very descriptive and one has to use a lot of imagination to conjure up what the common name implies1 in this case it is not so4 ,it is also known as the #8shaggy cap' or #8shaggy ink-cap'4 ,ink or inky cap is1 however1 a common name for many species of the genus ,coprinus 7see p4 #baa-d74 ,the unrelated ,lyophyllum decastes 7,fries7 ,singer and ,l4 connatum 7,fries7 ,singer are also common fungi growing on roadsides1 on soil and compost-heaps4 ,they too break through embankments1 soil1 paths1 etc41 producing large craters and mounds of debris4 ,illustrations3 ,coprinus comatus--,f #cd;b2 ,hvass #agb2 ,,lh #acg2 ,,nb #ce2 ,,wd #hb4 ,lyophyllum decastes--,,lh #ha2 ,,wd #ad4 ,lacrymaria velutina 7,fries7 ,konrad ,maublanc ,weeping widow ,cap3 width #de-ij mm4 ,stem3 width #h-ad mm2 length #ej-abe mm4 ,description3 ,plate #da4 ,cap3 convex then expanded with obtuse central umbo1 dull clay-brown or date-brown and at first covered with flattened1 woolly fibrils which are gradually lost with age2 the margin is incurved and fringed with remnants of the veil4 ,stem3 fragile1 pale dingy-coloured or clay-coloured at apex1 dull brown below the ring-zone which consists of white fibrils2 later in development these fibrils catch the spores and the stem becomes black and fibrillose-scaly1 particularly below the ring-zone4 ,illustration3 ,plate #da4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores blackish and borne on gills ,gills3 sinuate1 crowded and very dark brown or almost black with distinct white margin which is covered in tiny beads of liquid in moist weather4 ,flesh3 pale buff4 ,spore-print3 almost black4 ,spores3 long1 dark brown1 lemon-shaped and warted with distinct and prominent germ-pore and #aj-ab #f-g m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 club-shaped or with a distinctly rounded head4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common on the ground near newly built houses1 on roadsides1 tips and paths in woods1 either solitary or in groups2 it is also found in pastures4 ,general ,information3 ,the fibrillose scaly cap and stem and the almost black gills which frequently have liquid droplets at their edge separate this species from all other agarics and microscopically it can be easily recognised by the warted spores4 #8,velutina' means velvety and refers to the texture of the cap-surface1 of the young fruit-body4 ,the genus name ,lacrymaria refers to this peculiar1 but certainly not unique1 phenomenon1 of exuding liquid from cells on the gill-edge4 ,this has been compared with weeping and #8lacrymans' means weeping2 the common name reflects this also--weeping widow 7cf4 p4 #aed74 ,this fungus has had a chequered history1 for it is also known in some books as ,hypholoma lacrymabunda 7again meaning weeping7 or ,h4 velutina2 the anatomy of the fungus1 however1 is quite different to ,hypholoma 7e4g4 ,h4 fasciculare p4 #fd74 ,more recently it has found a place in ,psathyrella1 but it seems unsatisfactorily placed there because of the warty spores1 black spore-print and fibrillose cap-surface2 it warrants a separate genus1 i4e41 ,lacrymaria4 ,l4 pyrotricha 7,fries7 ,konrad ,maublanc is the only other ,british species of this genus but it has a bright orange cap colour2 it is rare4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #ahj2 ,,lh #ada2 ,,wd #hf4 ,lepista nuda 7,fries7 ,cooke ,wood blewits ,cap3 width #gj-ajj mm4 ,stem3 width #aj-ae mm2 length #gj-ajj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #db4 ,cap3 rounded then flattened or slightly depressed in the centre1 smooth1 bluish lilac1 or violaceous when young but gradually with age becoming reddish-brown1 with or without a flush of wine colour4 ,stem3 similarly coloured to the cap1 equal1 fleshy1 elastic1 fibrillose and streaky4 ,gills3 adnate with or without a decurrent tooth1 crowded1 lilac and easily separable from the cap-tissue by the fingers4 ,flesh3 bluish violaceous1 but drying out dirty buff in the base of the stem4 ,spore-print3 flesh-coloured4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 ellipsoid appearing smooth but very minutely roughened under the microscope1 although it is very difficult to see except with a good instrument 7#f-h #d-e m in size74 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,widespread in troops or small groups in copses and under hedgerows and not uncommon in flower-beds in gardens in late autumn and early winter especially on compost heaps and in rhubarb patches which have been mulched with piles of moribund leaves4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus was originally placed in ,tricholoma1 but due to differences in anatomy and the distinctly coloured and ornamented spores it has been placed along with #8common blewits' ,t4 personatum 7,fries7 ,kummer 7or better ,l4 saeva 7,fries7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton71 in the genus ,lepista4 ,this genus which is also called ,rhodopaxillus1 again referring to the pinkish spore-print1 is not found in many of the easily obtainable books4 ,one should look for the fungus under ,tricholoma1 from which it can be separated easily by the beautiful colour4 ,both the #8wood blewits' and #8common blewits' have been regularly sold in markets in ,england within the last fifty years4 ,they are edible and considered of high quality4 ,in their fresh state they are easily recognised1 but as they age they become browned and so resemble many other less desirable fungi4 ,illustrations3 ,f #ag;d2 ,hvass #di2 ,,lh #ia2 ,,nb #abe2 ,,wd #ab 7a bit too pastel74 ,illustration3 ,plate #db4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores pale pinkish and borne on gills ,agaricus bisporus 7,j4 ,lange7 ,pilt ,common mushroom ,cap3 width #dj-ajj mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-be mm2 length #ej-ge mm4 ,description3 ,plate #dc4 ,cap3 rounded gradually expanding to become plane1 whitish with numerous brown radiating fibrils and with the margin irregular because of fragments from the ring which are left there after expansion of the cap4 ,stem3 short1 cylindrical1 smooth1 bruising reddish-brown when handled and with a narrow ring which soon collapses and disappears4 ,gills3 free1 pink at first then purple-brown1 narrow and crowded4 ,flesh3 solid1 thick1 firm and slowly flushing brownish on cutting4 ,spore-print3 purple-brown4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 broadly ellipsoid1 purple-brown under the microscope1 less than #aj m long1 7#f-h #e-f m74 ,marginal cystidia3 club-shaped1 #aj-ab m at apex4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,basidia3 #b-spored4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,frequent on manure heaps1 straw heaps1 on road scrapings and around garden plants4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is recognised by the dark fibrils on the cap1 the #b-spored basidia easily seen with the low power of a microscope1 and the pink gills when young4 ,much confusion has existed over this fungus and its nearest relatives4 ,it is similar to the #8,cultivated mushroom'1 ,a4 hortensis 7,cooke7 ,pilt1 which is offered for sale in shops4 ,however1 it differs in several minor details and it may be that ,a4 bisporus is the fungus from which the cultivated mushroom developed1 very probably unconsciously by man1 but the history of the cultivated mushroom is very obscure4 ,the cultivated mushroom when bought in ,british shops is white but in the ,united ,states two varieties are sold1 one with the brownish fibrils predominating and a snow-white one where the fibrils do not darken2 the former is frequently found in ,europe4 ,the white form is sometimes found in gardens where spent-mushroom spawn is used as mulching around fruit-trees but it has a rounder cap than ,a4 bisporus4 ,the cultivated mushroom accounts for an annual income of #ad million in the ,british ,isles4 ,illustrations3 ,a4 hortensis--,,lh #acc 7as the forma albida72 ,,nb #ca2 ,,wd #ga4 ,a4 bisporus--,hvass #afa2 ,,lh #acc4 ,illustration3 ,plate #dc4 ,fleshy fungi3 ,spores purple-brown and borne on gills ,b4 ,,bracket-,,fungi ,,and ,,their ,,relatives ,key to major genera ,a group of fungi which includes the bracket fungi1 hedgehog fungi1 fairy-clubs and their relatives2 in the majority of species the margin continues to grow through the favourable part of the season and so often envelopes leaves1 grass1 etc4 #a4 ,spore-bearing layer 7hymenium7 quite smooth1 spread over veins or shallow pores2 fruit-body top-shaped1 fan-shaped or club-shaped1 or spread over the substrate 7resupinate7 #b ,spore-bearing layer lining the inner surface of tubes or borne on warts or spines #ag #b4 ,fruit-body club-shaped1 coral-shaped or distinctly funnel-shaped1 fan-like or resembling an agaric #c ,fruit-body resupinate or with poorly developed cap #aa #c4 ,fruit-body coral-like or club-shaped with clubs grouped or branched #d ,fruit-body resembling an agaric or funnel-shaped to fan-shaped #i #d4 ,fruit-body large1 branched with flattened and curled lobes and so resembling a cauliflower ,sparassis ,fruit-body of single or grouped clubs or if branched then not resembling a cauliflower1 the lobes being cylindrical or only slightly flattened and hardly bent #e #e4 ,fruit-body small arising from a seed-like structure or growing attached to dead herbaceous plant remains #f ,fruit-body medium to large1 simple or branched and usually growing on the ground2 one large species grows on wood #g #f4 ,fruit-body arising from a seed-like body embedded in the plant-tissue or found loose in the soil ,typhula ,fruit-body on dead plant-remains but seed-like structure absent ,pistillaria #g4 ,fruit-body much branched2 spores ornamented 7see also ,thelephora below7 ,ramaria ,fruit-body simple or if with well-developed branches then spores smooth #h #h4 ,fruit-body branched irregularly with many to few branches1 grey1 white or drab-coloured2 spores large1 subglobose and smooth ,clavulina ,fruit-body club-shaped or if branched then brightly coloured and spores not large and subglobose ,clavaria1 ,clavulinopsis ,clavariadelphus #i4 ,fruit-body resembling an agaric with spores borne on fold-like1 often forked and shallow ridges and veins1 and often brightly coloured ,cantharellus 7compare carefully with ,craterellus below7 ,fruit-body funnel-shaped or fan-shaped #aj #aj4 ,fruit-body often drab colour or greyed with smooth or slightly veined outer surface ,craterellus ,fruit-body wrinkled1 irregular or smooth and powdery1 lilaceous to chocolate-brown in colour ,thelephora #aa4 ,fruit-body sessile or resupinate and fleshy2 spores borne on veins united to form shallow pores #ab ,fruit-body resupinate or bracket-like1 and spore-surface veined or rugulose but lacking distinct pores #ac #ab4 ,spores colourless ,merulius ,spores brown ,serpula #ac4 ,spore-bearing layer containing long1 brown spines ,hymenochaete ,fruit-body lacking spines although often having encrusted sterile cells #ad #ad4 ,surface of fruit-body more or less radiately veined ,phlebia ,surface of fruit-body not radiately veined #ae #ae4 ,spores brown ,coniophora ,spores colourless #af #af4 ,flesh distinctly formed and fruit-body with or without a well formed cap ,stereum related genera ,flesh poorly differentiated and fruit-body lacking a cap members of the ,corticiaceae 7including ,peniophora ,hyphodontia p4 #agf7 #ag4 ,spores borne on teeth or spines #ah ,spore-bearing layer lining tubes or elongate pores #bb #ah4 ,fruit-body with central stem2 agaric-like but not attached to cones #ai ,fruit-body encrusting or bracket-like1 or with lateral stem if resembling an agaric #bj #ai4 ,fruit-body fleshy ,hydnum and related genera ,fruit-body rubbery or tough ,hydnellum and related genera #bj4 ,fruit-body growing attached to cones and cap with lateral stem ,auriscalpium ,fruit-body not on cones and distinct stem lacking #ba #ba4 ,spores borne on a series of radially arranged knotches resembling gills ,lentinellus ,spores borne on a resupinate layer of spines ,mycoacia and related genera #bb4 ,tubes free one from another ,fistulina ,tubes united to form a distinct tissue #bc #bc4 ,fruit-body perennial and exhibiting more than one layer of tubes #bd ,fruit-body annual although the fruit-body can persist in a dried depauperate form for several months #bg #bd4 ,spores brown #be ,spores colourless #bf #be4 ,large1 brown1 sterile cells present in the tubes2 spores simple ,phellinus ,cryptoderma ,brown1 sterile cells absent from tubes2 spores complex ,ganoderma #bf4 ,large woody fruit-body with crust-like top ,fomes ,medium sized to small1 fleshy-tough fruit-body with downy or crust-like top ,oxyporus1 ,fomitopsis ,heterobasidion #bg4 ,spores borne in labyrinth-like or elongate pores1 or cap either poorly developed or absent1 and only resupinate pore-surface present #bh ,spores borne in distinct pores on well-developed woody fruit-bodies #ca #bh4 ,spores borne in labyrinth-like pores ,daedalea ,daedaleopsis ,spores borne in elongate pores like very thick gills1 or fruit-body completely resupinate #bi #bi4 ,spore-layer lining elongate pores ,lenzites 7white7 ,gloeophyllum 7brown7 ,spore-layer consisting of a resupinate pore-layer #cj #cj4 ,pore-layer totally resupinate2 flesh very poorly developed ,fibuloporia and related genera ,fruit-body resupinate or developing ill-formed caps at the margin2 flesh well-developed and quite tough ,datronia1 ,gloeoporus ,bjerkandera #ca4 ,fruit-body with a distinct stem #cb ,fruit-body sessile or with a poorly developed stem1 or if merely with a basal swelling then pores bruising #cc #cb4 ,pores dark-coloured but spores pale-coloured in mass ,coltricia 7also see ,phaeolus below7 ,pores white or creamy1 foot often darkened or black1 and spores hyaline ,polyporus #cc4 ,pores brightly coloured1 red1 lilaceous or orange to apricot-colour #cd ,pores never as brightly coloured1 cream1 white1 grey or in some shade of brown #ce #cd4 ,pores red to orange-red ,pycnoporus ,pores lilac to violaceous1 or lilaceous orange to apricot colour ,hapalopilus 7orange-apricot7 ,hirschioporus 7lilaceous7 #ce4 ,pore-surface brown or dark grey and spores often colourless #cf ,pore-surface white or creamy1 or yellow2 spores hyaline #ch #cf4 ,pore-surface firm and grey ,bjerkandera ,pore-surface greenish yellow1 bruising brown or yellow-brown and darkening with age #cg #cg4 ,fruit-body lacking a stem1 rust-brown1 breaking easily1 cheesy and with silky sheen ,inonotus ,fruit-body with a broad basal hump1 fibrillose spongy with yellow margin to cap ,phaeolus #ch4 ,tubes forming a layer quite distinct from the flesh2 fruit-body fleshy and tough #ci ,tubes not forming a layer distinct from the flesh2 fruit-body woody or corky #dc #ci4 ,pore-surface bright yellow2 upper surface yellow or orange ,laetiporus ,pore-surface white #dj #dj4 ,fruit-body medium to large1 shell-shaped1 whitish brown or silvery grey on top2 on birch ,piptoporus ,fruit-body often frond-like1 infrequently shell-shaped and if on birch then small #da #da4 ,fruit-body fan- or frond-shaped1 composed of innumerable more or less complete caps joined together at their base or to half-way ,grifola ,meripilus ,fruit-body neither fan-shaped nor frond-shaped and compound #db #db4 ,fruit-body wholly pale-coloured white1 cream1 ivory1 etc4 ,tyromyces ,fruit-body except pores usually some shade of brown ,polyporus #dc4 ,cap thick1 corky or woody and pores medium or large ,trametes ,pseudotrametes ,cap thin but leathery and pores small ,coriolus 7i7 ,pored and toothed fungi 7a7 ,colonisers of tree trunks1 stumps and branches ,polyporus squamosus ,fries ,scaly polypore ,cap3 #ajj-cjj mm4 ,stem3 width #be-ej mm2 length #be-ge mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 fan-shaped or semicircular1 spreading horizontally with age1 ochre-yellow or straw-coloured with dark brown1 flattened scales in concentric zones which are much more dense at the centre4 ,stem3 short1 stout1 white at apex and netted with pale creamy buff about middle1 but dark brown or black towards the base and attached to the side of the cap4 ,tubes3 whitish to yellowish and decurrent with large1 angular1 irregularly fringed1 whitish or cream-coloured pores4 ,flesh3 with strong1 not very pleasant smell1 cream-coloured or white4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 long1 oblong or elongate ellipsoid1 hyaline under the microscope 7#aj-ae #d-e m7 and not blueing in solutions containing iodine4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,an easily recognisable fungus growing on stumps and old living trees1 especially of sycamore and elm where it often forms tiers of caps from late spring until autumn2 however1 they decompose rapidly and almost completely disappear by the next year when new fruit-bodies may appear in the same place1 a phenomenon which may take place for several consecutive seasons4 ,general ,information3 ,the genus ,polyporus is in most text-books1 a big and unwieldy genus joining together all fleshy1 annual fungi possessing tubes2 even the boleti 7see p4 #cb7 have been included6 ,many of these species are now considered less closely related one to another than previously thought4 ,boleti differ from polypores1 however1 in their less tough and distinctly putrescent fruit-body1 and in the fact that the margin of the cap extends but does not continue to grow during the life-cycle2 the margin of the polypore fruit-body is active and may burst into growth again when favourable weather conditions occur4 ,the #8,scaly polypore' has a flesh which consists of two types of hyphae3 7i7 hyphae of unlimited growth with abundant protoplasmic contents which stain easily and which collapse on drying2 and 7ii7 thick-walled1 strengthening hyphae which bind the thin walled hyphae together4 ,laetiporus sulphureus 7,fries7 ,murrill #8,sulphur polypore' has a single type of hyphae in the tubes1 i4e4 thin walled generative1 and only a few binding hyphae in the flesh4 ,it has an orange cap with a rather thick1 sulphur or chrome-yellow margin1 sulphur-yellow tubes and pores and yellow1 then pale buff1 flesh4 ,the spore-print is white and the spores hyaline1 pip-shaped and medium sized1 7#e-g #d-e m74 ,illustrations3 ,p4 squamosus--,f #dc;b2 ,hvass #bfg2 ,,lh #ge2 ,,nb #abi2 ,,wd #id4 ,l4 sulphureus--,hvass #bfh2 ,,lh #gc2 ,,nb #abi2 ,,wd #id4 ,illustration3 ,plate #dd4 ,woody fungi3 ,spores white and borne within tubes--fruit-body annual ,some common annual polypores ,piptoporus betulinus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,birch polypore ,cap3 #ge-bjj mm1 kidney-shaped or hoof-shaped1 smooth1 covered by a thin1 separable and greyish silvery or pale brownish skin2 cap-margin thick1 incurved and projects beyond the tubes4 ,stem3 rudimentary1 simply a small hump below which the fungus develops4 ,tubes1 pores and spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 sausage-shaped1 and thin-walled hyaline under the microscope and very narrow1 7#e-f #a-b m74 ,it grows on birch throughout the country where it causes a sap wood-rot which finally converts the inner timber to a red-brown friable mass4 ,the flesh1 which contains thickened binding hyphae1 is used for mounting insects and for sharpening knives1 hence the common name #8,razor-strop fungus'4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #bfi2 ,,lh #fg2 ,,nb #aag2 ,,wd #ic4 ,inonotus hispidus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,shaggy polypore ,cap3 #ajj-bej mm1 kidney-shaped1 yellow-brown to rust-brown1 but finally almost black1 at first covered with shaggy hairs1 but these tend to mat together with age4 ,stem3 absent4 ,tubes and flesh3 rust-colour2 pores at first yellow1 but finally red-brown4 ,spore-print3 yellow-brown4 ,spores3 medium sized 7#h-i #g-h m7 and globose under the microscope4 ,it grows on various broad leaved trees1 especially ash where it causes a spongy1 white heart-wood rot4 ,the flesh contains hyphae with thick1 brown walls4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #fc2 ,,wd #if4 ,illustration3 ,plate #de4 ,woody fungi--annual polypores ,phaeolus schweinitzii 7,fries7 ,patouillard ,cap3 #ajj-cjj mm1 bracket-shaped or tub-shaped1 dark brown with a knobbly1 velvety1 roughened and grooved surface2 margin at first golden yellow4 ,stem3 absent or short1 thick and brown4 ,tubes and pores3 greenish yellow4 ,flesh3 deep rust-brown4 ,spore-print3 greenish yellow4 ,spores3 medium sized1 greenish under the microscope1 ellipsoid and about #h #d m in size1 7#g-h #c-d m74 ,this fungus is found on conifers or near conifer stumps where it is attached to the roots2 it causes a brown cubical heart-wood rot2 the flesh of the fruit-body is composed of only one type of hyphae4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #fg2 ,,nb #aaa2 ,,wd #ie4 ,meripilus giganteus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,giant polypore ,cap3 #ge-ajj mm1 or even up to #bjj mm wide1 grouped and forming a tuft of caps up to #gej mm across4 ,the individual caps are fan-shaped1 pliable1 rather thin and yellow-brown to snuff-brown with their margins wavy and cream colour or yellowish4 ,stem3 replaced by a united mass of caps4 ,tubes1 pores and flesh3 white and very soft1 but becoming black on bruising4 ,spores3 small1 pip-shaped1 hyaline under the microscope and #e-f #d-e m4 ,this fungus is a common sight forming masses at the base of broad-leaved trees2 it is common on beech4 ,it is a soft1 fibrous polypore as a result of the lack in the flesh of thick-walled specialised hyphae4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #bgg2 ,,lh #gc2 ,,nb #abi2 ,,wd #ic4 ,the spores of all the annual polypores described above do not blue when placed in solutions containing iodine4 ,coriolus versicolor 7,fries7 ,qulet ,many zoned polypore ,cap3 #be-fj mm4 ,stem3 absent4 ,description3 ,plate #df4 ,cap3 semi-circular1 flattened1 thin1 tough and flexible when fresh with the surface velvety and marked with smoother1 paler concentric zones giving a pattern of yellow-brown1 grey or darker greenish grey zones2 the margin is thin and is the palest of the zones and may be wavy or lobed4 ,tubes3 white with small1 round and rough-edged to angular white or cream-coloured pores which become yellowish with age4 ,flesh3 white1 tough and continuous with the tube tissue and so not allowing one to detect any difference between the tissues4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium sized1 oblong and hyaline under the microscope1 and #f-h #b-c m2 not blueing in solutions containing iodine4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,very common on stumps1 trunks and fallen branches of various trees1 especially beech2 it is to be found throughout the year4 ,general ,information3 ,it is often associated with nodulose masses of fungal tissue which are covered in small poroid areas and are very confusing when found by the beginner2 they are simply growth-forms of ,coriolus versicolor2 such forms are frequently found on old house-timbers exposed to the weather1 particularly window frames where it forms a distinct rot4 ,its flesh consists of thin-walled hyphae and binding hyphae as in ,polyporus squamosus as well as an additional thick-walled type called skeletal hyphae4 ,it would appear that several polypores are capable of producing the amorphous growths mentioned above1 some of which contain hyphal fragments called conidia4 ,the bands of colour on the cap of the #8many zoned polypore' are retained after drying and from a group of fruit-bodies the most attractively zoned can be selected1 mounted on small pieces of wood or cardboard and fitted at the back with a pin4 ,such preparations make very attractive brooches and have been used even by modern designers to contrast with their fashion creations4 ,there are many pale tubed polypores growing on wood4 ,daedalea quercina ,fries #8,mazegill'1 grows on oak and has irregular maze-like pores2 ,lenzites betulina 7,fries7 ,fries1 grows on birch1 has tough plates which resemble the gills of an agaric4 ,datronia mollis 7,fries7 ,donk forms thick spreading resupinate patches on beech1 sometimes with irregular dark brown caps formed by the upturned margin4 ,several species of ,tyromyces occur in ,britain and are characterised by their white pores and tubes and the white or pale-coloured caps4 ,bjerkandera adusta 7,fries7 ,karsten has a grey pore-surface and is also frequently found on beech4 ,illustrations3 ,f #dd;a2 ,,lh #fi2 ,,nb #aag2 ,,wd #ea4 ,ganoderma europaeum ,steyaert ,common ganoderma ,cap3 #ajj-cej mm4 ,stem3 absent4 ,description3 ,plate #dg4 ,cap3 bracket-shaped1 rather flat at margin but humpy and irregular about the middle1 frequently concentrically zoned1 smooth and only slightly shiny2 its margin is whitish or pale greyish4 ,tubes3 red-brown or cinnamon-brown1 obscurely layered and with small1 white pores flushed with pale cinnamon-brown1 but deep red-brown when rubbed or with age4 ,flesh3 with a fragrant smell1 deep red brown and felty-fibrous4 ,spore-print3 dark cinnamon-brown4 ,spores3 long1 oval with truncate apex1 smooth1 but reticulate on the inner surface of the inner wall giving the spores a patterned appearance when seen under the microscope2 #aj-aa #f-g m in size4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus is common on various trees1 especially beech and can be found throughout the year4 ,general ,information3 ,this common ,ganoderma is perennial and distinguished from other polypore groups by the complex spores4 ,g4 applanatum 7,fries7 ,karsten is closely related1 but differs in the thinner fruit-body with a thin margin1 and the pale cinnamon-brown flesh2 the flesh of both species contains thick-walled binding and strengthening hyphae as well as the generative hyphae4 ,so sensitive are the pores to bruising that if a drawing or writing is executed on the lower surface with a pin1 needle or similar sharp instrument and the fungus dried1 the red-brown lines produced are retained and the pattern preserved4 ,several fungus paintings prepared in this way were made in the early part of the century1 many beautiful ones having originated in the eastern part of ,north ,america4 ,illustration3 ,plate #df4 ,woody fungi3 ,spores white and borne within tubes or on thickened plates ,fomes fomentarius whose important characters are described below has frequently been confused with ,ganoderma europaeum4 ,it is common growing on birch in ,scotland1 but is less frequent south of ,perth1 and then grows probably more frequently on beech which is similar to the pattern found on the continent of ,europe4 ,however1 it has grown in former periods in ,england on birch1 for it was found commonly amongst birch timbers in an excavation of an early ,mesolithic lake side village near ,scarborough1 ,yorkshire4 ,illustrations3 ,,nb #abe2 ,,wd #afj4 ,some perennial polypores4 ,plate #dh4 ,fomes fomentarius 7,fries7 ,kickx ,tinder fungus ,cap3 #ij-cjj mm1 hoof-shaped1 thick1 broadly attached to the substrate1 zoned with yellow-brown and shades of grey2 its margin is blunt and fawn or pale brownish4 ,tubes3 layered1 cinnamon-brown with pale cinnamon pores with a whitish bloom4 ,flesh3 cinnamon-brown or buff and woolly4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 elongate1 ellipsoid1 very long1 hyaline under the microscope1 #ae-ah #e-f m1 and not ornamented4 ,the flesh contains both thick- and thin-walled hyphae4 ,it grows on birch and less frequently on beech4 ,the flesh has been used in dentistry1 in manufacturing fancy articles1 such as mats1 and was the basis of the tinder used in flint-boxes4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #fe2 ,,nb #aag2 ,,wd #ajj4 ,phellinus igniarius 7,fries7 ,qulet #8,willow ,fomes'1 grows on willows and causes their heart-rot4 ,it is a rust-brown1 woody fungus with a hard crust and brown tubes and flesh4 ,the spore-print is white and composed of small1 spherical1 hyaline spores1 #e-f m in diameter4 ,the flesh contains thin- and thick-walled hyphae4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #fc2 ,,wd #ii4 ,illustration3 ,plate #dg4 ,woody ,fungi3 ,spores brown and borne within tubes--fruit-body perennial ,oxyporus populinus 7,fries7 ,donk1 grows on various sorts of broad-leaved trees1 particularly poplars and often becomes covered in mosses and algae4 ,it has a pale buff or cream-coloured cap1 white flesh1 pores1 tubes and spores4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #fg4 ,cryptoderma pini 7,fries7 ,imaz1 grows on conifers often several feet above the ground4 ,it has a woody1 deeply cracked upper surface1 dark red-brown flesh1 tubes and pores4 ,its spores are small1 broadly ellipsoid and brown4 ,heterobasidion annosum 7,fries7 ,brefeld ,root fomes ,variable1 sometimes possessing a cap1 sometimes resupinate except for the upturned margin1 flattened or shell-shaped1 red-brown to blackish at the centre but pale at the margin1 which when seen from below is always white4 ,the tubes are in layers and like the pores1 flesh and spore-print are white4 ,the spores are broadly ellipsoid1 small1 smooth1 hyaline and #d-e #d m4 ,the flesh is fairly tough as it contains both generative hyphae and skeletal hyphae4 ,it is frequent on the roots and lower parts of stems of many trees and shrubs causing a rapid heart-rot of conifers and extensive damage to young trees4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #fg2 ,,nb #aaa2 ,,wd #ih4 ,the spores of all the perennial polypores described above do not blue when placed in solutions containing iodine4 ,illustration3 ,plate #dh4 ,woody fungi3 ,spores borne within tubes--perennial polypores ,schizophyllum commune ,fries ,split-gill fungus ,cap3 #aj-be mm4 ,stem3 width #b-d mm2 length #b-d mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 greyish fawn becoming whitish when dry1 fan or kidney-shaped1 often lobed and covered in close-set hairs and with incurved margin4 ,stem3 absent or the cap simply narrows into a stem-like bump4 ,gills3 replaced by a series of grey-brown plates which when dry appear as if to split longitudinally and their edges roll back4 ,flesh3 brownish but drying whitish4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium sized1 oblong1 hyaline under the microscope1 not blueing in solutions containing iodine and #f-g #b-e m in size4 ,facial and marginal cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,grows on fallen branches1 trunks1 dead wood1 etc4 ,general ,information3 ,easily recognised by the #8gills' radiating from a point and becoming #8split' when dry4 ,specimens of ,schizophyllum sealed by ,a4 ,h4 ,r4 ,buller in a tube in #aiaa have been shown on remoistening to unroll their gills and shed variable spores1 after #eb years--probably a world record6 ,the split-gill is a rather unique ,british fungus which appears to be much more closely related to the polypores than to the agarics--although it has for a long time been associated with the ,oyster mushroom 7p4 #gd74 ,in fact1 the splitting gills are two adjacent shallow dishes with spores produced on their inner surfaces4 ,the cups separate on drying and therefore only superficially resemble gills splitting down the centre4 ,another fungus which can also be associated with the idea of cups is ,fistulina hepatica ,fries #8the ,beef-steak fungus'4 ,this fungus is a polypore in the widest sense4 ,it may grow up to #bej mm wide and is reddish-brown or liver-coloured with reddish tubes and pale flesh-coloured pores2 the tubes although free are aggregated together and can be easily separated individually with the fingers4 ,this fungus is edible although very strong in taste1 it produces a serious decay of oaks4 ,illustrations3 ,s4 commune--,,lh #aje2 ,,nb #abe2 ,,wd #fi4 ,f4 hepatica--,f #dc 7lower figure72 ,hvass #bgh2 ,,lh #ge2 ,,nb #abi2 ,,wd #aja4 ,illustration3 ,plate #di4 ,woody fungi3 ,spores white and borne on split-#8gills' 7b7 ,destroyers of timber in buildings ,serpula lacrymans 7,fries7 ,karsten ,dry-rot fungus ,description3 ,fruit-body3 usually widely spreading1 but sometimes forming a distinct bracket with the upper surface silvery or smokey grey1 flushed with lilac or rose or yellowish4 ,stem3 absent and replaced by a series of dirty white or greyish mycelial threads or strands which can be traced up to #ajj mm over the substrate4 ,flesh3 thin1 dirty yellowish and composed of only one type of hypha4 ,spores3 borne in shallow pores which are part of a complicated network of rust-brown folds and ridges4 ,spore-print3 rust-brown4 ,spores3 medium sized1 golden yellow1 thick-walled and broadly ellipsoid1 and #h-aj #e-f m in size4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,on worked wood in buildings and less commonly in timber-yards4 ,it can be found throughout the year4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus forms fan-like structures and strands of mycelium which pass along beams and joists and through plaster4 ,where there is a bad case of dry-rot1 the room or building will have an unpleasant musty smell and when actually growing the fungus exudes droplets of water on the mycelium and fruit-body1 i4e4 weeping1 hence the name #8lacrymans'--weepy4 ,it is a very important and destructive agent causing damage to floors and skirting boards1 to joists and beams4 ,it is a frequent pest of old houses and therefore of many of our cities4 ,this fungus does not appear to have been found in the wild in ,europe1 but there is a record from the ,himalayas4 ,there are1 however1 very closely related species found on soil or wood-detritus4 ,the ,dry-rot fungus darkens the wood and produces a rot which makes the wood crack into small cubes or rectangular blocks4 ,this fungus was formerly placed in ,merulius1 but this genus should be retained for hyaline-spored fungi1 e4g4 ,m4 tremellosus ,fries1 a species which grows even in winter on stumps of various trees in our woods4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #ec2 ,,wd #ajc4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ej4 ,dry-rot fungi--leathery and tough spores borne in shallow irregular pores ,coniophora puteana 7,fries7 ,karsten ,cellar or ,wet-rot fungus ,description3 ,fruit-body3 variable in size1 resupinate1 composed of one type of hypha only and with a sterile whitish cream or yellow margin4 ,spore-bearing tissue3 an irregularly wrinkled or humpy1 yellowish surface which then becomes olive-green or bronze-colour4 ,spore-print3 olivaceous brown4 ,spores3 olive-brown under the microscope1 smooth1 ellipsoid1 thick-walled and #ab-ad #h-i m in size4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus causes wet-rot in houses1 but may also be found on stumps and fallen trunks in woodland4 ,general ,information3 ,the fungus causes a discolouration of worked timber and induces longitudinal cracking with only a few lateral hair-like cracks unlike timber attacked by the dry-rot fungus 7see p4 #aed74 ,illustrations3 ,,wd #ajc4 ,fibuloporia vaillantii 7,fries7 ,bondarsev ,singer ,description3 ,fruit-body3 a resupinate layer of pores with cream-coloured or white sterile radiating margin4 ,spore-bearing tissue3 distributed within a series of small often shallow1 white or ivory tubes4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 smooth1 hyaline under the microscope1 oblong #e-g #c-d m4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,the dry-rot of houses1 particularly in roof-systems4 ,general ,information3 ,fibuloporia vaillantii is recognised by the white1 resupinate pore-surface and fairly tough nature due to the presence of strengthening hyphae4 ,just as the genus ,polyporus was found to be composed of several quite different elements 7see pp4 #adj-dd7 and has since been split up into a number of different genera1 the genus ,poria has also been fragmented2 one of the constituent genera is ,fibuloporia4 ,amyloporia xantha 7,fries7 ,bondarsev ,singer differs in having amyloid tissue and cystidia encrusted with crystals4 ,the flesh contains both simple hyphae and thickened structural hyphae4 ,it is yet another member of the large old unwieldy genus ,poria and causes decay of worked wood1 particularly the timbers of benching and staging in greenhouses4 ,a4 xantha has a sulphur-yellow pore-surface and is rather cheesy when handled4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ea4 ,wet and ,dry-rot fungi--leathery and tough and spores borne within shallow pores or on an uneven surface 7c7 ,colonisers of cones ,auriscalpium vulgare ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,ear-pick fungus ,cap3 #h-ab mm4 ,stem3 width #d-f mm2 length #dj-ge mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 kidney-shaped or semicircular1 thin1 date- or umber-brown1 hairy1 but paler towards the margin4 ,stem3 erect1 slender1 hairy1 particularly at the base1 and attached at the side of the cap 7excentric74 ,gills3 replaced by flesh-coloured1 then greyish brown spines4 ,flesh3 brown4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 small1 hyaline1 minutely spiny1 spherical1 #d-e m in diameter1 and becoming blue-grey in solutions containing iodine4 ,cystidia3 flask-shaped with oily contents4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus is always found on fallen pine-cones and occurs from early summer to autumn4 ,general ,information3 ,the ear-pick fungus is easily recognised by the slender1 elegant habit1 excentrically placed cap1 substrate preference and dark colours4 ,it cannot be confused with any other fungus4 ,recently it has been shown that the #8agaric' ,lentinellus cochleatus 7,fries7 ,karsten 7p4 #gf7 is more closely related to ,auriscalpium than this fungus is to other spine-bearing forms and ,lentinellus is to the other agarics4 ,both fungi possess thick-walled cells in the flesh and oil-containing hyphae2 they are placed in the family ,auriscalpiaceae4 ,another laterally stemmed ,hedgehog fungus differs in possessing distinctly gelatinised teeth and preference for conifer wood and not cones4 ,examination of the basidia of this fungus shows that it is more closely related to the jelly-fungi1 ,exidia and ,tremella 7p4 #ahd7 than to ,hedgehog fungi such as ,auriscalpium or ,hyndum repandum ,fries 7p4 #afj74 ,this false nature is reflected in the name of the genus to which it belongs1 ,pseudohydnum1 and the very gelatinous texture in the specific name #8gelatinosum'3 the fungus is ,pseudohydnum gelatinosum1 or as it used to be called ,tremellodon gelatinosum4 ,illustrations3 ,auriscalpium vulgare--,,wd #ajc4 ,pseudohydnum gelatinosum--,,wd #aje4 ,illustration3 ,plate #eb4 ,tough or leathery fungi3 ,spores white and borne on spines--,ear pick fungus 7d7 ,terrestrial forms ,hydnum repandum ,fries ,wood-hedgehog ,cap3 #ej-ge mm width4 ,stem3 width #aj-ag mm2 length #de-fe mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 rather thick1 fleshy1 pinkish buff or tan1 paler at its incurved and often lobed margin4 ,stem3 short1 stout and powdered with white roughenings and often attached to the cap to one side of the centre4 ,gills3 replaced by awl-shaped1 pinkish buff spines which are unequal in length and run down the top of the stem4 ,flesh3 white1 firm and with a pleasant smell4 ,spore-print3 whitish4 ,spores3 medium sized1 hyaline under the microscope1 smooth1 broadly ellipsoid1 #g #f-g m1 and not becoming bluish grey in solutions containing iodine4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,the #8wood-hedgehog' grows on the ground in mixed woods and is easily recognised by its colour and fleshy texture4 ,general ,information3 ,the closely related1 smaller1 red-brown species ,h4 rufescens ,persoon grows with conifers4 ,hydnum was formerly a genus which contained several entities1 now not considered closely related4 ,thus the following genera have been delimited in addition to those related to ,hydnum repandum and ,h4 rufescens1 and ,auriscalpium described on p4 #aeh4 ,sarcodon3 ,fruit-body fleshy3 spores brown and ornamented with irregular bumps1 e4g4 ,s4 imbricatum 7,fries7 ,karsten4 ,phellodon3 ,fruit-body tough and fibrous3 spores white and ornamented with small spines1 e4g4 ,p4 niger 7,fries7 ,karsten4 ,hydnellum3 ,fruit-body tough and fibrous3 spores brown and ornamented with irregular bumps and bosses1 e4g4 ,h4 scrobiculatum 7,secretan7 ,karsten4 ,bankera3 ,fruit-body fleshy3 spores white and ornamented with small spines1 e4g4 ,b4 fuliginoalbum 7,fries7 ,pouzar4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #bhj2 ,,lh #fa2 ,,nb #aec2 ,,wd #ec2 ,z #fa4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ec4 ,tough or leathery fungi3 ,spores whitish and borne on spines 7ii7 ,chanterelles and relatives ,cantharellus cibarius ,fries ,chanterelle ,cap3 #cj-ajj mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-be mm2 length #cj-gj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 convex then flattened1 irregularly wavy1 more or less top-shaped1 depressed and smooth or slightly roughened at centre1 egg-yellow or lemon-chrome with flush of orange and with the margin incurved at first4 ,stem3 short1 stout1 tapered downwards1 fleshy and similarly coloured to the cap4 ,gills3 replaced by irregularly branched yellow folds which may form a network near the margin and at the apex of the stem over which the folds run down irregularly 7decurrent74 ,flesh3 with pleasant1 fruity smell1 yellow but paler on drying4 ,spore-print3 pale cream-colour4 ,spores3 medium sized1 ellipsoid1 thin-walled1 smooth1 #h-aj #e-f m in size and not becoming bluish grey in solutions containing iodine4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,basidia3 #b-h spored4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,very common in troops in deciduous woods especially those with beech and oak4 ,general ,information3 ,easily recognised by its folds and absence of true gills beneath the cap and the overall yellow colour4 ,this fungus is the edible chanterelle of the continental market1 where it is considered of very high quality2 it can be purchased in this country in tins4 ,c4 friesii ,qulet is of a bright apricot colour with lilaceous or rose-coloured flesh4 ,the #8false chanterelle' ,hygrophoropsis aurantiaca 7,fries7 ,maire already discussed 7see p4 #ajf7 has true gills and is reddish orange in colour4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #ahb2 ,,lh #ei2 ,,nb #abc2 ,,wd #hc4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ed4 ,fleshy but firm fungi3 ,spores pale-coloured and borne on irregular folds 7,false gills7 ,craterellus cornucopioides 7,fries7 ,persoon ,horn of plenty ,cap3 #bb-hj mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-be mm2 length #be-hj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 funnel-shaped1 membranous to leathery1 but limp1 dark brown or almost black in wet weather1 but on drying becoming dull brown or sepia1 slightly scaly and with irregularly wavy margin4 ,stem3 short1 blackish and hollow4 ,gills3 absent1 replaced by a smooth to irregularly wrinkled1 ash-grey surface4 ,flesh3 sepia but drying out greyish ochre4 ,spore-print3 cream-colour4 ,spores3 medium sized1 hyaline under the microscope1 ellipsoid1 smooth1 #aj-aa #f-g m in size and not blueing in solutions containing iodine4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,basidia3 usually #b-spored4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,often in very large troops in woods1 especially under beech4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is recognised by the peculiar shape and dull colours which conceal it so well amongst the dead leaves and woodland debris2 in the shade of the tree-canopy it is easily overlooked4 ,craterellus sinuosus 7,fries7 ,fries is a much smaller species with dirty ochraceous fertile surface and brownish grey cap and stem4 #8,cornucopioides' means like 7oides7 a horn of plenty1 a familiar object in mediaeval paintings as part of heathen festivities full and overflowing either with fruit or wine1 or both6 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #ahf2 ,,lh #ei2 ,,nb #abc2 ,,wd #hc4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ee4 ,fleshy but leathery fungi3 ,spores pale-coloured and borne on irregular wrinkles 7iii7 ,fairy-club fungi ,clavulina rugosa 7,fries7 ,schroeter ,wrinkled club ,cap3 absent4 ,fruit-body3 length #ej-ajj mm2 width #g-ac mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 club-shaped1 simple with blunt apex or irregular blunt branches1 white or dirty cream colour1 often thickened upwards and marked with longitudinal wrinkles or grooves and the whole surface of the club bearing spores4 ,stem3 absent or extremely short4 ,flesh3 white4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spore3 medium sized1 broadly ellipsoid to subglobose1 hyaline under the microscope and not turning bluish grey in iodine solutions1 #i-aj #g-h m in size4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,basidia3 #b-spored4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,frequent on the ground in woods1 especially in the shade of beech trees or in conifer plantations4 ,general ,information3 ,two very closely related species are to be found in similar localities and are equally as common2 they are ,c4 cristata 7,fries7 ,schroeter with strongly branched white fruit-body1 each branch ending in pinkish or lavender-white1 divided1 sharply pointed branchlets and ,c4 cinerea 7,fries7 ,schroeter with irregular greyish or dark grey branches with a flush of violaceous4 ,these three species are very closely related2 in fact so many intermediates between the extreme morphological forms are known that some authorities have considered them simply forms of a single species4 ,all these species lack cystidia4 rugosa--wrinkled1 referring to the spore-bearing surface4 cristata--crested1 referring to the branchlets4 cinerea--ash-grey1 referring to the colour4 ,all these species are often found blackened by the growth of the microscopic fungus1 ,helminthosphaeria clavariae 7,tulasne7 ,fuckel4 ,illustrations3 ,c4 rugosa--,,lh #ee2 ,,wd #ajd4 ,c4 cristata--,,lh #ee2 ,,nb #aec2 ,,wd #ajd4 ,c4 cinerea--,,wd #ajd4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ef4 ,fleshy but firm fungi3 ,spores pale-coloured and borne on club-shaped fruit-bodies ,clavaria vermicularis ,fries ,white spindles ,cap3 absent4 ,fruit-body3 width #f-aj mm2 length #ej-he mm4 ,description3 ,plate #ef4 ,simple or very rarely branched1 but not forked below the soil-level1 densely tufted1 spindle-shaped1 pure white with sharp1 often slightly brownish1 tips1 when old it is wavy1 often twisted1 compressed and fragile4 ,stem3 absent4 ,flesh3 whitish4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 small1 pip-shaped1 smooth1 hyaline under the microscope1 #d-e #c m in size1 and not becoming bluish grey in iodine solutions4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in autumn amongst grass in fields1 less frequent in woods4 ,general ,information3 ,clavulinopsis fusiformis 7,fries7 ,corner1 #8,golden spindles' is similar to ,c4 vermicularis1 but forms dense tufts of canary-yellow1 very fragile clubs joined in #b's or #c's below the soil level2 the spores are also slightly different1 being almost globose1 hyaline under the microscope and #e-g m in diameter4 ,clavaria fumosa ,fries is similar to ,c4 vermicularis and forms tufts of very fragile mouse-grey clubs with brownish tips2 it produces elongate ellipsoid spores measuring #f-h #c-d m which are hyaline under the microscope4 ,c4 vermicularis and ,c4 fumosa differ from ,clavulinopsis in hyphal construction1 but the differences are rather difficult to demonstrate to the beginner4 ,clavulinopsis helvola favours similar habits to ,c4 fusiformis and although yellow in colour differs in the more orange-yellow colouration1 but more particularly in the spores being rounded1 #e-f m in diameter with large angular spines4 ,the earth-tongues1 i4e4 members of the family ,geoglossaceae which are also found in pastures belong to an unrelated group of fungi1 the ,ascomycetes4 ,if the clubs are crushed and examined under the microscope rows of sacs 7asci7 containing long thread-like ascospores are found--no basidia are to be seen4 ,illustrations3 ,clav4 fusiformis--,,wd #ajd4 ,c4 vermicularis--,,wd #ajd4 ,c4 fumosa--,hvass #cjc2 ,,wd #ajd4 ,clav4 helvola--,hvass #cjj2 ,,wd #aje4 ,illustration3 ,plate #eg4 ,club-shaped and coral fungi ,clavulinopsis corniculata 7,fries71 ,corner 7p4 #aga74 ,cap3 absent4 ,fruit-body3 complex2 width #bj-cj mm2 length #bj-dj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #eg4 ,fruit-body3 shape depending on the length of grass in which it grows but always branching strongly from its base1 composed of a dense compact tuft of egg-yellow or orange-tawny branches which are either irregular or of equal length and so they form a flattened top to the fruit-body complex1 the branchlets are slender1 forked #b- or #c-times1 with their apices narrowed or curved4 ,stem3 very downy at the base4 ,flesh3 pale yellow4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium sized1 hyaline under the microscope1 smooth1 spherical and #e-g m in diameter1 not becoming bluish grey in iodine solutions4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common amongst grass in fields or on grassy path sides in woodland4 ,general ,information3 ,clavulinopsis corniculata is recognised by the branched habit and the smooth spores2 ,ramaria ochraceo-virens is of similar form1 but has an overall duller colour and turns green on bruising1 grows in pinewoods and has finely roughened brownish spores4 ,calocera viscosa also has an erect1 bright golden or orange-yellow fruit-body which becomes more orange on drying4 ,it is repeatedly branched and usually has a long1 tough-rooting base4 ,however1 the spore-print is dirty yellowish and the fruit-body1 which grows on coniferous wood1 is viscid and elastic1 a character reflected in the name #8viscosa'4 ,microscopically the basidium of ,calocera is shaped like a tuning-fork and is not clavate as in ,clavulinopsis corniculata4 ,it appears to be more related to the jelly-fungi 7see p4 #ahj74 ,illustrations3 ,clavulinopsis corniculata--,,lh #ee2 ,,nb #f2 ,,wd #ajd4 ,calocera viscosa--,hvass #cjd2 ,,lh #bbe2 ,,nb #adi2 ,,wd #ajg4 ,typhula erythropus ,fries4 ,cap3 absent4 ,fruit-body up to #bj mm high4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 upper fertile portion club-shaped and not more than half the length1 white1 surmounting a reddish brown1 thread-like1 often wavy or twisted stem which is attached at its base to an ellipsoid bead-like structure1 called a sclerotium4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 oblong1 smooth1 hyaline under the microscope1 #f-g #b m in size and not becoming bluish grey in iodine solutions4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,not uncommon on dead leaves and twigs or dead herbaceous stems4 ,pistillaria micans ,fries4 ,cap3 absent4 ,fruit-body3 up to #aj mm high4 ,description3 ,club-shaped or oblong1 rose-pink hardly differentiated from the similarly coloured stem1 and arising at most from a small pad of filaments4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 broadly ellipsoid to pip-shaped1 smooth1 hyaline under the microscope1 about #aj #f m 7#h-aa #e-g m7 in size and not becoming bluish grey in iodine solutions4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,not uncommon on dead herbaceous stems and leaves1 especially those in damp places4 ,illustrations3 ,t4 erythropus ,,wd #aje4 ,p4 micans ,,wd #aje4 ,general notes on the club-fungi ,early mycologists believed that the club-shaped nature of the fruit-body was important in the classification of these fungi4 ,thus the ,earth ,tongues 7,geoglossum1 see ,plate #eg71 the ,stag's horn fungi and relatives 7,xylosphaera see p4 #bjd71 both ,ascomycete groups1 the ,dacrymycetales 7a group of jelly-fungi1 see p4 #ahj7 and the true fairy-clubs were all classified together4 ,it was the #8,father of ,mycology'1 the ,swede1 ,elias ,fries1 who in #ahba1 as in many other groups of fungi1 made an attempt to make some sense of the chaos4 ,by very careful observations1 and what is so amazing without using a microscope1 he was able to separate the tough stemmed and gelatinous stemmed groups from the more slender or coral-like ones4 ,fries was a very keen observer and noticed features which many modern authorities miss in the field because they rely too heavily on the microscope4 ,fries' system was used almost unchanged until the second half of this century2 its beauty was its simplicity in that it joined together in one group all those fungi with simple basidia and the spore-bearing tissue distributed all around a simple club or around the branches of a complex fruit-body resembling a coral4 ,however1 by a careful examination of the microscopic structures1 such as the spores and hyphae and the development of the fruit-body1 it has been found necessary to separate these fungi still further4 ,the ecology of the club-fungi has assisted in an understanding of these proposed divisions4 ,the larger many branched clavarias1 more correctly placed in the genus ,ramaria1 are to be found on bare soil in woodlands and plantations2 ,r4 ochraceo-virens is common in conifer plantations and can be recognised by the long ornamented spores1 which characterise this group of fungi1 and the fact that the sandy-coloured fruit-body becomes dark olive-green on bruising 7see p4 #agj74 ,clavariadelphus pistillaris is the largest of our simple club-fungi2 it may grow up to #bjj mm high and #ej mm wide4 ,this fungus has a wrinkled outer surface and sometimes the apex of the club becomes flattened and lacks basidia2 this suggests a possible relationship1 perhaps evolutionary1 to the primitive chanterelles 7see p4 #afb7--;also woodland fungi4 ,clavulina1 a complex group of dull or whitish1 branched fruit-bodies1 has been described earlier and the genus is characterised by the large spores and #b-spored basidia2 they are woodland fungi also4 ,the grassland species are often simple in structure belonging in the main to the genus ,clavulinopsis 7see p4 #agj7 and the now much reduced genus ,clavaria 7see p4 #afh74 ,although really complex1 some of these species of ,clavulinopsis are branched only below the soil level and thus appear as single clubs amongst the grass4 ,perhaps the single club has evolved especially to grow amongst blades of grass4 ,c4 corniculata1 however1 is well branched and the head is tight and compact and often flattened close to the ground4 ,the same fungus in woodland is more open and because of this it was thought to be a different species to the grassland form4 ,it is the simple club which dominates the form of those species which grow on herbaceous debris and grass-stems2 indeed several species of ,typhula cause diseases of grass particularly those of lawns where they have suffered damage because of cold or long periods under the snow4 ,some of these small fungi produce a small hard mass of fungal tissue about the size of a lupin seed 7called a sclerotium74 ,this is a resting body from which the club-shaped almost filament-like fruit-body later develops4 ,thelephora terrestris ,fries ,earth-fan ,cap3 absent4 ,fruit-body3 width #bj-dj mm2 height #cj-ej mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 erect1 fan-shaped or effused with upturned margin1 tough but thin and fibrous1 chocolate-brown or cocoa-coloured1 scaly from radiating fibrils and with fringed1 pale buff or wine-coloured margin4 ,gills3 absent and replaced by a wrinkled or irregularly granular1 dark lilaceous grey or cocoa-coloured surface4 ,flesh3 brown and thin4 ,spore-print3 purplish brown4 ,spores3 medium sized1 dark brown under the microscope1 warted-angular and #h-i #f-g m in size4 ,cystidia3 absent but basidia often filled with brown contents4 ,basidia3 #b-d spored4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,found on the ground in woods1 especially pine woods2 also on heathland growing up vegetation and incorporating it into the fruit-body's shape4 ,general ,information3 ,there is some evidence to suggest that this fungus can form mycorrhiza with pine trees under certain conditions4 ,although it may be easily passed over because it is perfectly camouflaged it is quite easy to recognise when collected4 ,t4 palmata 7,bulliard7 ,patouillard1 is a bigger1 less frequently seen species more coral-like in shape2 it also grows in pine woods4 ,when the fruit-body of ,t4 terrestris spreads over the soil or plant debris it resembles other members of the family to which it belongs1 i4e4 ,thelephoraceae2 species of ,tomentella4 ,they also have warty angular spores1 purplish brown colours1 and wrinkled or puckered spore-bearing surfaces4 ,tomentella spp41 however1 are resupinate or encrusting and so do not form caps1 even at the margin of the fruit-body4 ,tomentella is one of the many genera which were classed collectively as resupinate fungi because they lack a cap and form crusts4 ,this group #8the resupinates' consists of a whole series of quite unrelated fungi4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #ec2 ,,nb #dg4 ,illustration3 ,plate #eh4 ,club and ,fan-shaped fungi 7iv7 ,resupinate fungi ,when mycologists talk generally about #8resupinates' they are referring to a whole group of ,basidiomycetes whose spore-bearing layer is exposed1 the cap highly reduced or completely lacking1 and the fungus adhering to the surface of the substrate which may be soil1 wood1 grasses1 etc41 at the point which would have been the cap of an agaric4 ,probably members of the group are the most commonly seen yet it is one of the most commonly ignored groups of fungi--by naturalists and mycologists alike2 they form #8white wash' on old sticks1 dark coloured discolourations on trunks1 etc4 ,it is an entirely artificial group of many quite unrelated elements united on the common factor of having either a reduced or primitive fruit-body consisting only of a sheet of tissue4 ,however1 these same fungi have a uniting factor in that they frequent the same ecological sites1 e4g4 on muddy soil in bogs1 under overhangs of banks and stream sides1 undersides of logs1 trunks1 branches and twigs1 hidden in cracks of old stumps or spreading over carpets of conifer needles or dead leaves and sedges4 ,by studying the anatomy of the fruit-body and the characters of the spores certain relationships can be found which relate many of these fungi to several other groups of fungi we have dealt with in earlier chapters4 ,it is only possible to mention here the group as a whole for all the species really require very careful examination1 often necessitating several hours of microscope work4 ,they should be left by the beginner until more experience is obtained and advice of an expert easily available4 ,although the group mainly contains saprophytes1 a few are parasitic4 #8,silver-leaf disease' of almonds and fruit trees is caused by ,stereum 7chondrostereum7 purpureum 7,persoon7 ,fries2 it has a purple fruiting surface1 and greyish upper surface when ever this is formed at the margin4 ,there are several species of ,stereum in ,britain1 three species of which when handled in the fresh state stain red3 ,s4 sanguinolentum 7,a4 ,s47 ,fries1 a pale coloured species on conifer wood1 ,s4 rugosum 7,pers47 ,fries a similar coloured species on beech1 birch and especially hazel1 and ,s4 gausapatum ,fries an ochraceous yellow species on oak1 often forming a pocket rot of the timber4 ,however1 the commonest member of the genus is an orange-tawny coloured species with a greyish buff1 hairy cap1 ,s4 hirsutum 7,willd7 ,fries4 ,it grows on many trees of broad-leaved wood and can be found wherever twigs1 branches1 trunks or stumps have been lying out in the rain2 it does not bleed4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ei4 ,resupinate fungi ,those species of resupinate fungi which resemble members of this genus1 i4e4 those with a distinct tough1 although poorly developed1 cap1 are called stereoid4 #8,red thread disease' of grass which often causes unsightly red patches on lawns and school and corporation playing-fields is caused by ,corticium fuciforme 7,berkeley7 ,wakefield4 ,fungi belonging to this genus produce fruit-bodies which #8scramble' over the substrate2 for example1 if one searches old elder trees throughout the year one will certainly find a #8white wash' fungus of this type1 ,hyphodontia sambuci 7,pers47 ,j4 ,eriksson4 ,fungi with this type of fruit-body are called corticoid4 ,the two major types are illustrated along with some of the bizarre microscopic structures one finds in the resupinates2 such structures are useful in classification and identification1 and their beauty and intricacy make up for the surprisingly simple fruit-body shape and texture4 ,c4 ,,the ,,jelly ,,fungi ,key to the major groups ,the jelly fungi or ,hymenomycetous heterobasidiae is a complex group of fungi and not only includes our common jelly fungi but many microscopic forms some of which are parasitic4 ,the group is divided into three main divisions depending on the position of the cross-walls within the basidium1 or whether the basidium is in the shape of a tuning-fork4 ,they are probably not closely related one to another4 ,auriculariales 7,basidia divided into cells by transverse walls7 #a4 ,fruit-body lacking a cap and more or less forming a gelatinous coating on plant-debris ,helicobasidium ,fruit-body with more or less distinct cap1 gelatinous but tough #b #b4 ,fruit-body ear-like or cup-shaped2 upper surface with grey hairs and lower surface lilaceous brown or wine-coloured ,hirneola ,fruit-body at first cup-shaped but then spreading2 upper surface grey and hairy1 and lower surface purplish4 ,auricularia ,tremellales 7,basidia divided into cells by longitudinal walls7 #a4 ,fruit-body with distinct stem and spines on lower surface ,pseudohydnum ,fruit-body lacking a well-developed stem1 either reduced to a small lobe or entirely absent #b #b4 ,fruit-body flattened or disc-shaped1 often with warts or veins on the surface2 spores more or less sausage-shaped ,exidia ,fruit-body brain-like or with irregular bumps1 sometimes lobed or irregular and encrusting #c #c4 ,fruit-body brain-like or with bumps or bosses2 spores rounded or ovoid ,tremella ,fruit-body encrusting woody or herbaceous material2 spores ellipsoid ,sebacina ,dacrymycetales 7,basidia resembling the shape of a tuning-fork7 #a4 ,fruit-body club-shaped or coral-like ,calocera ,fruit-body top-shaped or with irregular bumps #b #b4 ,fruit-body top-shaped ,femsjonia ,fruit-body cushion- or brain-like1 or with irregular bumps ,dacrymyces ,dacrymyces stillatus ,nees ex ,fries ,fruit-body3 #c-f mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 cushion or brain-like1 often irregular1 lacking any evidence of stem1 yellow or orange1 gelatinous1 covered entirely by spore-bearing tissue4 ,spore-print3 yellowish4 ,spores3 long1 cylindrical or oblong1 and slightly curved and #ab-ae #e-f m in size2 they characteristically have #b to #d cross-walls dividing the interior of the spore 7see below74 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common on all sorts of old wood1 particularly on fence-posts1 wooden railway-sleepers and other worked timber outside1 e4g4 sides of summer-houses and garden sheds4 ,it is also found on twigs and branches in woods and copses4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is found throughout the year1 but it is much more obvious under damp conditions when it is strongly gelatinised and very soft2 when dry it almost disappears4 ,the tissue bearing the basidia 7perfect state7 is yellow1 when orange there is a predominance of asexually produced spores called arthrospores 7conidia74 ,d4 deliquescens is only another name for the same fungus4 ,there are several species of ,dacrymyces with which ,d4 stillatus can be confused1 but can only be separated with certainty by using a microscope4 ,the ,coral-spot fungus1 frequently found in gardens1 produces gelatinous1 pink protuberances on wood especially that of sycamore1 and may easily be mistaken for species of ,dacrymyces4 ,it consists entirely of asexually produced spores 7conidia7 of the ,ascomycete ,nectria cinnabarina4 ,the perfect state appears late in the year as grouped1 small1 blood-red flask-shaped fruit-bodies containing envelopes of spores4 ,it is quite unrelated to ,dacrymyces4 ,calocera viscosa 7,fries7 ,fries described earlier 7p4 #agj7 is closely related to ,dacrymyces4 ,the much smaller1 and probably equally as common1 ,calocera cornea 7,fries7 ,fries is simple1 club-shaped and yellow1 but darkens to become orange on drying4 ,it grows up to #aj mm high and occurs on all sorts of wood2 it is especially common on wet beech trunks4 ,it approaches ,dacrymyces more than the much larger ,c4 viscosa4 ,illustrations3 ,d4 deliquescens--,,lh #bbe2 ,,nb #adi2 ,,wd #ajg4 ,c4 cornea--,,wd #ajg4 ,hirneola auricula-judae 7,st ,amans7 ,berkeley ,jew's ear ,fruit-body3 width #bj-ge mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 cup or ear-shaped1 red-brown or deep wine-colour1 gelatinous with its upper surface1 velvety and clothed in greyish or olivaceous hairs4 ,spore-bearing layer3 reddish or purplish brown1 smooth or veined and translucent4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 very long1 hyaline under the microscope1 oblong1 curved and narrowed towards their base1 #af-ah #f-h m in size4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,on dead branches of all kinds and particularly common throughout the year on elder4 ,general ,information3 ,easily recognised by the wine-coloured1 cup-shaped or ear-shaped fruit-body2 it is often called ,auricularia judae in many books4 ,its ,latin name is reflected in the common name3--auricula ear and judae1 of a jew4 ,this fungus is supposed to be a reappearance1 as a warning to us all1 of ,judas1 who on betrayal of ,christ hung himself from an elder tree4 ,auricularia mesenterica 7,s4 ,f4 ,gray7 ,persoon1 #8,tripe-fungus'1 is bracket-shaped with a hairy upper surface and reddish purple or deep purple lower surface which when fresh has a greyish bloom due to the formation of the spores4 ,there are several fungi in the group ,auriculariales in ,britain1 but many of them are inconspicuous and are identified with difficulty except by the expert4 ,sebacina incrustans 7,fries7 ,tulasne is a common more obvious example of the resupinate forms4 ,it grows as a cream or ivory-coloured1 soft fruit-body encrusting twigs1 leaves1 grass and soil4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #bbe2 ,,nb #adi2 ,,wd #ajg4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fj4 ,jelly fungi ,exidia glandulosa 7,st ,amans7 ,fries ,witch's butter ,fruit-body3 width #ae-ej mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 sessile or shortly stalked1 blackish1 variable in shape1 rounded1 flattened1 disc-shaped or convolute1 gelatinous with its under surface tomentose and free from the substrate4 ,fruiting surface3 uppermost1 wavy and folded1 and with numerous wart-like projections4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 long1 hyaline1 cylindrical1 sausage-shaped and #ab-ae #e m in size4 ,cystidia3 absent4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,frequent in crowded groups on stumps1 logs and fallen branches of broad-leaved trees1 especially those of ash2 common throughout the year4 ,general ,information3 ,tremella foliacea 7,s4 ,f4 ,gray7 ,persoon and ,tremella mesenterica ,hooker are similar but more convoluted with leaf-like lobes4 ,the former is cinnamon brown and occurs on conifer wood and its spores are #g-i #e-g m1 whilst the latter is bright golden yellow or orange-yellow and occurs on broad-leaved trees4 ,t4 mesenterica has spores #g-h #e-f m1 often accompanied or replaced by small1 asexually produced spores4 ,glandulosa--means full of glands and refers to the glands of the upper surface of the ,witch's butter4 ,the convoluted fruit-body of the ,tremella spp4 is reflected in the word foliacea--leafy1 and mesenterica--middle intestine4 ,the last species is also often called the #8,yellow brain-fungus'4 ,illustrations3 ,exidia glandulosa--,,lh #bbe2 ,,nb #adi2 ,,wd #ajg4 ,tremella mesenterica--,,lh #bbe2 ,,nb #adi2 ,,wd #ajg4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fa4 ,jelly fungi ,d4 ,,the ,,stomach ,,fungi ,the ,gasteromycetes are a complex mixture of higher fungi united in virtue of their spores being enclosed in a fruit-body and not forcibly ejected from the basidium2 the group includes the puff-balls and their relatives4 ,key to some groups #a4 ,fruit-body growing beneath the surface of the soil 7hypogeous7 ,false truffles 7including ,hymenogaster1 ,rhizopogon7 ,fruit-body not growing beneath the soil-surface #b #b4 ,spores in a slimy mass on a specialised fruit-body arising from an egg-like structure ,stinkhorns 7,phallus ,mutinus7 ,spores powdery at maturity or in small capsules #c #c4 ,spores powdery at maturity and contained within the fruit-body #d ,spores enclosed in a small capsule or group of capsules in a cup-like structure1 resembling the eggs within the nest of a bird ,bird's nest fungi 7including ,crucibulum ,cyathus7 #d4 ,spores intermixed with threads within the fruit-body from which they are dispersed through a specialised pore at its apex ,puff-balls and ,earth-stars 7,lycoperdon ,geastrum7 ,spores not mixed with threads within the fruit-body and not dispersed through special structure but through cracks as the fruit-body weathers ,earth-,balls 7,scleroderma7 ,the ,gasteromycetes is an unnatural group of predominantly saprophytic higher fungi many of which are extremely grotesque and strange in their morphology4 ,instead of the spores being formed asymmetrically on the basidium as is found in the agarics1 the spores of members of this group are usually more or less symmetrically attached to their sterigmata or may even be seated directly 7sessile7 on the basidium4 ,the whole group1 even if unnatural1 can1 however1 be regarded under one heading as a biological unit4 ,until something better is suggested and supported by evidence the existence of this group is very convenient4 ,usually the basidia project into cavities within the fruit-body in which the spores themselves are released as the fruit-body gradually matures--hence the name ,gastero-mycetes3 #8stomach-fungi'4 ,in a few more advanced forms1 the puff-balls of temperate countries1 for instance1 the spores escape from these cavities through a pore or pores in the outer wall of the fruit-body1 and in the stinkhorns the spores are exposed as a sticky mass because the smell of the material in which they are held is attractive to flies4 ,in forms which have subterranean 7or hypogeous p4 #bdc7 fruit-bodies there is no special opening and here the spores are dispersed by insects and small mammals4 ,in the bird's nest fungi the spores are enclosed in separate packets within a saucer or cup-like open structure4 ,recently it has been shown by examination of the microscopic structure of the fruit-bodies and spores that certain genera of the ,gasteromycetes are more closely related to the agarics than many of them are between themselves4 ,it is believed that some of the ,gasteromycetes may have evolved from more familiar fungi by adaptation to arid or semi-arid conditions4 ,although this is not true for all the ,gasteromycetes within this one group of fungi1 a whole series of methods of overcoming the disadvantages connected with non-violent disposal of spores has evolved4 ,these methods include both changes in structure and ecology2 only a few have evolved a mycorrhizal relationship with higher plants4 ,lycoperdon pyriforme ,persoon ,stump puff-ball ,fruit-body3 width #bj-ej mm2 height #dj-ge mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 more or less pear-shaped1 pale brownish often with a slight hump on the top1 scurfy on the outside with tiny pointed granules which soon fall off or become rubbed off by abrasion1 particularly after careless handling4 ,stem3 consisting of rather small cells and connected at the base by long1 white1 branched cords of mycelium which permeate the substrate4 ,spore-mass3 white at first then greenish yellow and finally olive-brown and formed around a sterile column4 ,spores3 small1 olive1 minutely warted but appearing smooth under the student microscope2 #d m in diameter and intermixed with long1 olive coloured1 branched hyphal threads #d-e m broad and of irregular wall thickness4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this puff-ball grows in huge clusters on stumps and logs1 or can be traced to buried pieces of wood2 it occurs from summer to late autumn4 ,general ,information3 ,there are several species of ,lycoperdon in this country1 some quite small and several rather infrequent4 ,l4 pyriforme is the only one which grows on wood2 #8pyriforme' means pear-shaped and is derived from the shape of the fruit-body4 ,l4 perlatum ,persoon is also a common puff-ball2 it is pestle-shaped or top-shaped1 whitish or tan with minutely roughened1 globose spores measuring #d m in diameter4 ,the fruit-body is covered in a mixture of large and small1 fragile spines which leave a network when rubbed off4 ,it grows in woods and on heaths4 ,l4 foetidum ,bonorden is similar to ,l4 perlatum1 but the spines are umber or vandyke-brown2 it also grows both in woods and upland pastures1 particularly the latter4 ,illustrations3 ,l4 pyriforme--,hvass #caf2 ,,lh #bai2 ,,nb #aee2 ,,wd #aji4 ,l4 perlatum--,hvass #cae2 ,,lh #bag2 ,,nb #aee2 ,,wd #aaj4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fb4 ,puff-balls ,langermannia gigantea 7,persoon7 ,rostkovius ,giant puff-ball ,fruit-body3 diameter #cjj-dej mm 7-#a1jej mm74 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 round or slightly flattened on the top1 smooth or cracked into small scales1 white but becoming flushed yellowish with age and finally olive-brown when old1 frequently the outer layer dries and breaks away to expose the powdery spore-mass within4 ,stem3 absent or only present as a small cone of tissue4 ,spore-mass3 whitish1 cream-coloured and finally olive-brown4 ,spores3 small1 brownish1 minutely warted and spherical1 #d-e m in diameter and intermixed with thick-walled1 branched1 brown hyphae1 #c-e m broad4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,on the ground in copses1 at the edges of woods1 under hedges or on refuse tips1 and sometimes in gardens4 ,it may appear in the same place year after year1 and has been recorded growing beneath the rafters in houses4 ,general ,information3 ,when young it is white inside or cream-coloured before the spores have developed and can then be cut into slices and cooked4 ,i have seen it on sale in markets in ,n4 ,america and it is collected for food by many in ,europe4 ,its pumpkin-shape with a circumference of anything up to #a1jej mm makes this fungus easily recognisable4 ,the number of spores produced by a fruit-body measuring #djj #bhj mm has been calculated by ,a4 ,h4 ,r4 ,buller as #g1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj spores6 ,calvatia utriformis 7,fries7 ,jaap 7 ,c4 caelata 7,persoon7 ,morgan7 has a goblet-like shape and a distinct1 sterile base composed of large cells with a prominent membrane separating them from the spore-mass2 the spores are #d-e m diameter1 smooth and spherical4 ,c4 excipuliformis 7,fries7 ,perdeck 7 ,c4 saccata 7,vahl47 ,morgan7 is pestle-shaped with a well developed stem4 ,the spore-mass is composed of warted1 globose spores1 #d-e m in diameter4 ,bovista nigrescens ,persoon is very similar in shape to the ,giant puff-ball1 but is very much smaller2 it lacks a stalk1 being attached to the substrate only by mycelial cords4 ,it commences white1 but then darkens to become purplish brown at maturity when it also breaks from its moorings and rolls about in the wind4 ,the last three species are found on heaths1 in pastures or on the ground in woods4 ,illustrations3 ,c4 gigantea--,hvass #cab2 ,,lh #bag2 ,,nb #cga2 ,,wd #aji4 ,b4 nigrescens--,hvass #caa2 ,,lh #bai2 ,,nb #cg4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fc4 ,puff-,balls ,earth-stars and ,earth-balls ,the earth-stars1 i4e4 species of ,geastrum1 are closely related to the puff-balls1 but differ in having two very distinct and separate enclosing walls1 the outer one splitting at maturity to expose a #8puff-ball' within2 an example of the genus is ,g4 triplex ,jungh1 found in parks or under beech trees or ,g4 rufescens ,pers4 7illustrated7 in mixed woodland4 ,the outer skin splits in different ways in different species3 in some it splits like a star--hence the common name of ,earth-star1 in some the spore-mass is raised as if on stilts4 ,there are several species of ,geastrum recorded for ,britain1 but they are decidedly uncommon4 ,the ,earth-balls are1 however1 far from uncommon and may be met with from early summer until late autumn in any wood particularly those on sandy soils4 ,they are unrelated to the earth-stars4 ,earth-balls ,scleroderma citrinum ,persoon ,common earth-ball ,fruit-body3 diameter #be-ge mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 rounded or flattened on top1 sometimes lobed1 very firm1 yellow or clay colour1 scaly1 thick1 white within or pinkish1 if cut when immature1 and then purplish black as the spores mature4 ,stem3 absent or reduced to a small group of mycelial cords4 ,spore-mass3 purplish black4 ,spores3 medium to large1 dark brown1 #h-ac m in diameter and covered with a delicate network4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,on the ground in woods or on heaths4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is found in many books under the name of ,s4 aurantium4 ,s4 verrucosum ,persoon is closely related1 but has a stem-like rooting base and an umber brown spore-mass4 ,the spores are also slightly different2 they are #aj-ad m in diameter and ornamented with spines and ridges4 ,the earth-balls appear to have characters in common with the false truffles1 indeed sometimes they grow partially buried in the sandy soil of woods4 ,like the false truffles they have been used to adulterate pt as a cheap substitute for true truffles 7see p4 #bdd74 ,it is not wise1 however1 to eat earth-balls as there are cases of poisoning known4 ,although truffle-like1 they should be avoided except under the guidance of an expert1 as with agarics4 ,illustrations3 ,geastrum triplex--,hvass #cjg2 ,,lh #bba2 ,,nb #aee4 ,scleroderma citrinum--,hvass #cbj2 ,,lh #bbc2 ,,nb #aee2 ,,wd #aaa4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fd4 ,earth-balls and ,earth-stars ,stinkhorns ,phallus impudicus ,persoon ,common stinkhorn ,fruit-body3 ,egg3 #cj-fj mm in diameter--then ,cap3 #be-dj mm and ,stem3 width #ah-be mm2 length #ajj-aej mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 commencing as a white1 silky egg-like structure full of jelly in which is embedded a conical cap attached only at its apex to a cylindrical white1 spongy1 hollow stem4 ,cap3 covered in a slimy mass of dark olive-coloured spores at maturity4 ,stem3 cylindrical1 rapidly elongating1 white1 spongy and hollow4 ,spore-mass3 dark olive-green1 smelling strongly1 foetid4 ,spores3 small1 pale olive1 oblong and #c-e #b m in size4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common from summer to autumn on the ground in woods and in gardens4 ,general ,information3 ,easily recognised by its shape and evil smell which can be detected at some distance4 ,the unburst eggs are called #8witches eggs'4 ,under favourable conditions the egg bursts and the stem elongates carrying the cap and spore-mass with it4 ,the spore-mass is attractive to flies and they feed upon it2 spores stick to their feet and so are transported from one place to another4 ,the very similar ,p4 hadriani ,persoon is frequently found in sand-dunes2 it differs in having a lilaceous colour to the egg4 ,an interesting variety of the common stinkhorn is uncommonly found and differs in having a skirt-like frill beneath the cap4 ,the jelly in the egg is a water-store and is used by the fungus to expand rapidly4 ,mutinus caninus 7,persoon7 ,fries1 the #8,dogs stinkhorn'1 is found around old stumps or on piles of leaves4 ,it has the spore-mass covering an orange-red pear-shaped cap which is itself fused to the stem4 ,the stinkhorns and their allies appear to be commoner in warmer countries where they take on many bizarre shapes4 ,other than the three species noted above stinkhorns are rarely found in this country1 but when they are it would appear they have been introduced with foreign imports such as timber1 ornamental plants1 vegetables etc4 ,eggs of phalloids brought into the laboratory can be surrounded by wet tissues or blotting paper and then allowed to develop further in a dish or box4 ,provided the skin covering the spores is not broken or injured the fungus will not smell and therefore before it becomes unpleasant1 the whole mechanism of expansion can be studied4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #cbc2 ,,lh #bae2 ,,nb #aec2 ,,wd #ajh4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fe4 ,stinkhorns ,birds nest fungi ,crucibulum laeve 7de ,candolle7 ,kambly ,fruit-body3 diameter #h-ab mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 ochraceous brown or sand-colour1 downy and then smooth1 truncate1 cup-shaped with the cup at first closed by a yellowish membrane which finally splits to expose a group of pale brown or dingy whitish1 circular1 lens-shaped #8eggs' 7peridioles71 scattered on a shiny pale ochraceous interior4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 in packets within #8eggs'1 ellipsoid1 hyaline1 smooth and #h-aj #d-f m in size4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common in crowded groups on dead twigs1 fern stems1 straw and wheat stubble4 ,general ,information3 ,cyathus differs from ,crucibulum in the more complex fruit-body which consists of three layers1 and the peridioles forming on distinct stalks4 ,two species are frequently seen3 ,cyathus striatus ,persoon has a grey1 fluted inner surface to the cup and strongly hairy red-brown outer surface2 the spores measure #af-bb #i-aj m4 ,cyathus olla ,persoon has a smooth1 shiny1 grey surface and minutely silky1 yellowish grey outer surface4 ,c4 striatus is found on twigs1 and about dead stumps2 ,c4 olla is more frequent in gardens on herbaceous debris and dead pieces of perennial flowers--or even in plant pots4 ,sphaerobolus stellatus ,persoon is more distantly related and grows on decaying leaves1 bracken fronds1 partially buried twigs and dung4 ,it is an intriguing fungus because it possesses a remarkable spore-dispersal mechanism4 ,the inner layer of the fruit-body when ripe suddenly turns inside out catapulting the inner spore-mass to distances of anything up to #d1bjj mm1 that is a distance of #a1jjj times the size of the fruit-body4 ,the fruit-body is externally whitish or pale yellow1 but this layer splits into lobes like a star exposing the bright orange inner surface and pale spore-mass4 ,illustrations3 ,crucibulum laeve--,,lh #bbc2 ,,wd #aaa4 ,cyathus striatus--,,lh #bbc2 ,,wd #aaa4 ,sphaerobolus stellatus--,,lh #bbc2 ,,wd #aaa4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ff4 ,bird's nest fungi ,e4 ,,cup ,,fungi ,,and ,,allies ,general ,notes4 ,the ,ascomycetes differ from all the other fungi so far dealt with in that the spores develop enclosed in a microscopic envelope or sac--called the ascus4 ,usually eight spores are produced in each ascus and they are often dispersed violently into the air4 ,elf-cups and morels are typical ,ascomycetes1 but the group also includes innumerable minute forms of the microscopic fungi1 small discs1 minute flask-like structures1 some of which are parasitic on leaves and stems of higher plants4 ,in number the large species of ,ascomycetes are few when compared with the others and therefore can only be given but a mention in the present account4 ,when collected the ,ascomycetes can be distinguished from the ,basidiomycetes by simply examining a slice of the spore-producing tissue where the tell-tale asci will be seen 7see p4 #ba74 ,if the fruit-body is placed in a tin when collected and opened in a warm room all the mature asci explode at once producing a cloud of spores visible in the air immediately over the fruit-body4 ,aleuria aurantia 7,fries7 ,fuckel ,orange-peel fungus or ,scarlet elf-cup ,fruit-body3 diameter #be-ej mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 cup-shaped then undulating and becoming flattened1 irregular1 sometimes split and lacking a stem4 ,inner surface3 bright orange4 ,outer surface3 whitish and minutely downy4 ,flesh3 thin and white4 ,spores3 very long1 ellipsoid1 ornamented with a coarse network which projects at each end1 and #ag-bd #i-aa m in size2 eight contained in an elongate1 cylindric ascus4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common on bare soil in woods and open spaces1 on road verges1 between stone sets and on lawns4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fg4 ,cup-fungi ,peziza repanda ,persoon ,elf-cup ,fruit-body3 diameter #bj-ej mm4 ,description3 ,plate #fg4 ,fruit-body3 cup-shaped with white1 crenulate margin1 becoming expanded and undulating1 and lacking a stem4 ,inner surface3 light chestnut brown4 ,outer surface3 whitish or pale fawn and finely scurfy4 ,flesh3 whitish or fawn1 and appearing as if layered4 ,spores3 very long1 ellipsoid1 smooth and #ae-af #i-aj m in size2 eight contained in an elongate1 cylindrical ascus4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,on bare soil in woods1 farm-yards1 hedgerows1 etc4 ,general ,information3 ,there are many different species of ,peziza classified on the shape and ornamentation of the spores and colour of the fruit-body--see pp4 #baf and #bbj4 ,p4 badia is darker1 although similar in other ways2 it is found on pathsides in woods and has roughened spores4 ,morchella esculenta ,st ,amans ,common morel ,cap3 width #cj-dj mm2 length #ce-fj mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-be mm2 length #ej-hj mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 consisting of a head with a honeycomb-like arrangement of narrow ridges surrounding angular and often slightly elongated1 shallow pits1 on a cylindric or swollen stem4 ,cap3 brownish grey then reddish brown or ochraceous brown4 ,stem3 cylindrical or slightly enlarged at the base1 brittle1 hollow1 minutely scurfy and_/or furrowed4 ,flesh3 ochraceous4 ,spore-print3 cream4 ,spores3 very long1 broadly ellipsoid1 pale honey1 smooth but for some small granules at each end1 and #af-bc #aa-ad m in size2 eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,infrequent in gardens1 on river-banks1 sites of bonfires1 etc41 in spring4 ,illustrations3 ,f#g;c2 ,,lh #da2 ,,nb #da4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fh4 ,morels and related fungi ,gyromirta esculenta 7,persoon7 ,fries ,turban-fungus ,cap3 width #cj-dj mm2 length #ce-de mm4 ,stem3 width #ae-be mm2 length #ej-hj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #fh4 ,fruit-body3 consisting of a subglobose1 more or less lobed1 wrinkled and convoluted head on a short stem4 ,cap3 yellow-brown to reddish brown and becoming hollow or chambered4 ,stem3 flesh-coloured or creamy grey and powdery4 ,flesh3 yellow-buff1 darker in the cap4 ,spores3 very long1 ellipsoid1 usually containing two or more yellowish oil drops and #ah-bb #i-ab m in size2 eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus is found in the spring1 under conifers1 but also on railway embankments1 river banks1 etc4 ,this fungus is also known as the #8,lorel' or #8,elephant's ears'4 ,general ,information3 ,mitromorpha semilibera 7,fries7 ,lville differs from species of ,morchella in that the head is for its greater length free from the stalk4 ,it is frequently found in the spring in gardens1 tennis courts1 etc4 ,illustrations3 ,g4 esculenta--,f #f;d2 ,hvass #cbg2 ,,lh #ci4 ,helvella crispa ,fries ,common white helvella ,cap3 width #ah-bh mm4 ,stem3 width #h-ab mm2 length #dj-fe mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 consisting of a saddle-shaped cap on a short stem4 ,cap3 convoluted towards the centre1 two lobed1 wavy at the margin1 white or cream-coloured4 ,stem3 cylindric and hollow1 white or cream-coloured and unevenly and deeply longitudinally furrowed4 ,flesh3 thin and pale4 ,spores3 very long1 broadly ellipsoid1 with a large central oil drop and #ah-bj #aj-ac m in size2 eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,frequent in damp woods with deciduous trees1 from early summer until autumn4 ,general ,information3 ,plate #fh4 ,helvella lacunosa ,fries1 #8,slate grey ,helvella' is similar in stature but differs in being ash-grey or dark grey4 ,leptopodia elastica 7,st ,amans7 ,boudier is better placed in the genus ,helvella4 ,it differs in having a slender1 smooth1 cylindric stem and irregularly #b-c lobed1 yellow or tan-coloured cap4 ,cyathipodia macropus 7,fries7 ,dennis is sometimes placed in ,helvella4 ,it differs in having a grey cup-shaped cap on a long1 slender stem4 ,the spore-bearing tissue in the last species is the inner surface of the cup whilst in ,helvella and ,leptopodia it is on the outer surface of the saddle-like cap4 ,mitrula paludosa ,fries1 the #8,bog beacon'1 is a similar fungus growing in spring to early autumn on old leaves and detritus in swamps4 ,it is widespread and has a bright orange head on a white stem--as the common name might suggest4 ,it grows to a height of about #bj mm4 ,illustrations3 ,h4 crispa--,f #f;e2 ,hvass #cca2 ,,lh #da4 ,h4 lacunosa--,f #f;b2 ,hvass #ccj2 ,,lh #ci2 ,,nb #aec4 ,l4 elastica--,hvass #ccb2 ,,lh #ci4 ,c4 macropus--,f #f;a2 ,,lh #ci4 ,rhizina undulata ,pine fire fungus ,fruit-body3 width #bj-fj mm1 or several coalescing4 ,description3 ,plate #fi4 ,fruit-body3 chestnut-brown to rust colour with a distinct white or cream margin1 fleshy1 smooth1 concave and thrown up into irregular humps4 ,stem3 lacking1 but undersurface pale1 ochraceous1 and bearing numerous cylindrical branched1 whitish root-like structures1 #a-b mm thick4 ,flesh3 reddish brown1 tough and fibrous4 ,spores3 very1 very long1 spindle-shaped with two or more internal droplets1 with hyaline extensions at each end1 and #bb-dj #h-aa m in size2 eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,infrequent in pine woods but common at the sites of bonfires in pine woodlands4 ,daldinia concentrica 7,fries7 ,cesati de ,notaris ,cramp-balls ,fruit-body3 diameter #bj-dj mm #bj-fj mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 date-brown at first finally black or dark brownish black1 tough1 minutely pimply over entire surface although at first covered in a powdery dust of asexual spores 7conidia74 ,stem3 lacking4 ,flesh3 pale grey or buff1 concentrically zoned with darker purplish black layers below which are small1 black dots4 ,spores3 very long1 black1 ellipsoid with one flattened side and #ab-ag #f-i m in size2 eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common on old deciduous wood1 particularly of ash and beech4 ,general ,information3 ,these two fungi are unrelated2 the first is related to the disc-fungi1 like species of ,peziza1 whilst ,daldinia is related to the ,dead man's finger fungus4 ,rhizina undulata has been shown to be able to attack roots of pine or larch trees and cause death4 ,daldinia is a pure saprophyte rotting down wood into more simple compounds later to be incorporated into the soil-system4 ,the common name #8,cramp-balls' refers to the old belief that if one of the fruit-bodies is carried in the pocket it saves the possessor from cramp and rheumatism4 ,the other common name for the same fungus is #8,king ,alfred's cakes'4 ,the black colour of the fruit-body is like that of charred cakes--resembling the cakes in the legend which ,king ,alfred allowed to burn4 ,illustrations3 ,r4 undulata--,,lh #cg2 ,,nb #aaa4 ,d4 concentrica--,f #g;b2 ,,lh #dg2 ,,nb #adg4 ,xylosphaera polymorpha 7,mrat7 ,dumortier ,dead man's fingers ,fruit-body3 width #aj-bj mm2 length #cj-fj mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 more or less club-shaped1 irregularly or evenly lobed at apex1 at first light brown due to development of asexually produced spores 7conidia7 but finally almost black4 ,stem3 black and short4 ,flesh3 white1 fibrous and tough4 ,illustration3 ,plate #fi4 ,cup-fungi allies ,crust3 black1 thin1 pimply with the protruding tips of the perithecia1 and sometimes irregularly furrowed4 ,spores3 very long1 fusiform with one flattened side1 black and #bj-cb #e-i m in size2 eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,common either solitary or in clusters on dead stumps or on buried wood1 especially that of beech4 ,this fungus may be found throughout the year4 ,xylosphaera hypoxylon ,dumortier ,stag's horn fungus ,fruit-body3 width #d-h mm2 length #be-fj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #fi4 ,fruit-body3 slender1 subcylindrical to strap-shaped and usually forked repeatedly near the tip1 white at first due to production of conidia and then black or dark brown and covered in pimples4 ,stem3 black and hairy4 ,spores3 very long1 bean-shaped1 black and #aa-ad #e-f m in size2 eight in an elongate ascus4 ,general ,information3 ,another name for ,x4 hypoxylon is #8,candle-snuff fungus'4 ,other club-shaped ascomycetes include members of the genus ,geoglossum 7already mentioned p4 #agb7 and members of the genus ,cordyceps4 ,plate #fi4 ,cordyceps militaris 7,st ,amans7 ,link1 the #8,scarlet caterpillar fungus'1 produces orange-red or orange1 minutely roughened fruit-bodies up to #ej mm high1 which grow on larvae and pupae of moths buried in the soil4 ,it is not infrequent late in the autumn in pasture land4 ,c4 ophioglossoides 7,fries7 ,link produces long 7up to #ajj mm high7 yellow stemmed1 dark and rough headed fruit-bodies growing on the subterranean fungus ,elaphomyces--see p4 #bdd4 ,c4 capitata 7,fries7 ,link also grows on fungi beneath the soil surface but has a rounded head4 ,leotia lubrica ,persoon the #8,gum-drop fungus' is similarly coloured but grows on soil under trees and is gelatinous4 ,it grows in autumn and is quite common and in fact more related to the ,discomycetes than to ,cordyceps4 ,illustrations3 ,x4 polymorpha--,f #g;d2 ,,lh #dg2 ,,nb #adg4 ,x4 hypoxylon--,f #g;e2 ,,lh #dg2 ,,nb #adg4 ,c4 militaris--,,lh #dh4 ,f4 ,,specialized ,,habitats 7i7 ,fungi of dung and straw heaps ,bolbitius vitellinus 7,fries7 ,fries ,yellow cow-pat toadstool ,cap3 width #bj-dj mm4 ,stem3 width #b-e mm2 length #cj-fj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 chrome-yellow or lemon-yellow when young1 paling with age at margin to become cinnamon-buff1 bell-shaped but rapidly expanding to become plane or slightly umbonate1 smooth1 viscid but soon drying2 margin striate then radially grooved1 often split and the whole cap soon collapsing4 ,stem3 slender1 whitish1 cream colour to pale yellow1 at apex covered in small1 white floccose scales but downy at the base1 fragile and soon collapsing4 ,gills3 adnexed or free1 cinnamon-buff1 thin and crowded4 ,flesh3 yellowish1 very thin and lacking distinct smell4 ,spore print3 rust-brown4 ,spores3 long1 yellow-brown under the microscope1 ellipsoid with a very distinct germ-pore about #ac #h m in size 7#aa-ae #f-i m74 ,facial cystidia3 rare1 balloon-shaped4 ,marginal cystidia3 swollen1 flask-shaped with a variable1 elongate neck4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is common on horse droppings or other manures1 but it may also be found amongst grass in pastures and in sand-dunes1 and gardens on piles of rotting grass stems or straw4 ,it is easily recognised by the colour and rapid expansion of the cap and the sudden collapse of the whole fruit-body4 #8,vitellinus' means yolk of an egg and refers to the persistently bright yellow cap-centre1 so obvious even when the fruit-body collapses4 ,this collapsing is not one of autodigestion as described for members of the genus ,coprinus4 ,it is variable both in size and habitat1 and ,i even have records of the fungus growing within herbaceous stems4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #aec2 ,,wd #hj4 ,stropharia semiglobata 7,fries7 ,qulet ,dung-roundhead ,cap3 width #aj-ce mm4 ,stem3 width #d-g mm2 length #be-ej mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 hemispherical or slightly umbonate1 sometimes flattened and hardly expanding even with age1 very viscid1 smooth1 pale yellow-ochre or yellowish tan4 ,stem3 slender1 straight1 white then yellowish1 smooth1 viscid1 but then dry and shiny below an imperfectly formed1 thin ring4 ,gills3 adnate1 almost triangular in shape1 crowded1 dark brown to purplish black1 but with ochraceous areas at maturity4 ,flesh3 pale ochre4 ,spore-print3 purplish brown4 ,spores3 very long1 dark brown under the microscope1 smooth1 ellipsoid with large germ-pore and about #ah #aj m in size 7#ag-bj #i-aj m74 ,facial cystidia3 spindle-shaped1 thin-walled and filled with amorphous contents which become yellow in solutions containing ammonia4 ,marginal cystidia3 spindle-shaped or flask-shaped1 numerous1 thin-walled and typically yellowing as above4 ,general ,information3 #8,semiglobata' means hemispherical and refers to the shape of the cap of ,s4 semiglobata2 it is a very variable fungus in both size of the cap and the prominence of the ring4 ,the ,dung-roundhead grows only on dung which is acidic in its soil status1 whilst ,panaeolus semiovatus 7,fries7 ,lundell next described 7p4 #baj7 grows on slightly to distinctly base-rich dung4 ,this may explain why in ,britain the ,dung-roundhead is the commoner of the two species4 ,however1 ,p4 semiovatus was formerly placed in the genus ,stropharia because of its blackish spores and distinct ring4 ,the spores of ,stropharia in the mass are violaceous black whilst those of ,p4 semiovatus are brownish black4 ,under the microscope they are also differently coloured and have different chemical compositions as their reaction with dilute solutions of ammonia shows2 the spores of the first species turn purplish olive in ammonia and those of the second species become very dark brown4 ,illustrations3 ,f #cc;b2 ,hvass #aga2 ,,lh #aec2 ,,nb #ca2 ,,wd #ge4 ,illustration3 ,plate #gj4 ,dung-fungi ,mottle-gills--on dung from ,spring until ,autumn4 ,panaeolus semiovatus 7,fries7 ,lundell ,cap3 width #bj-gj mm4 ,stem3 width #e-aj mm2 length #hj-afj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 oval or bell-shaped1 not expanding1 dingy whitish or pale clay colour1 smooth1 slimy when moist1 but soon drying and then becoming shiny1 often wrinkled and cracked1 and ornamented with fragments of veil at the margin4 ,stem3 dull1 straight1 rather rigid1 tapering upwards1 white1 and striate at apex above a whitish erect and membranous1 often collapsing1 ring2 yellowish below the ring and whitish and cottony at the slightly swollen base4 ,gills3 adnate1 greyish then black1 mottled and crowded4 ,flesh3 whitish or pale ochre4 ,spore-print3 black4 ,spores3 very long1 very dark brown under the microscope with large obvious germ-pore and #ah #aj m 7#af-bj #i-aa m7 in size4 ,facial cystidia3 flask-shaped and with amorphous contents4 ,marginal cystidia3 numerous1 flask-shaped4 ,panaeolus sphinctrinus 7,fries7 ,qulet ,cap3 width #ae-ce mm4 ,stem3 width #c-f mm2 length #fj-ie mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 bell-shaped1 hardly expanding1 expallent1 dark grey to olivaceous black1 much paler when dry and zoned when half dry2 margin ornamented with a white fringe of veil fragments4 ,stem3 long1 slender1 straight1 rather rigid but fragile1 grey and completely powdered with white4 ,gills3 adnate1 crowded and grey then blackened1 mottled throughout except at the white fringed edge4 ,flesh3 reddish brown4 ,spore-print3 black4 ,spores3 long1 very dark brown under the microscope1 broadly lemon-shaped with large germ-pore1 smooth and #ad-ae #i-aj m in size 7#ad-ai #h-aj #aj-ab m74 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,marginal cystidia3 numerous1 cylindrical1 flexuous and hyaline4 ,general ,information3 ,p4 sphinctrinus is recognised by the overall grey colouration and very distinct white fringe to the cap-margin4 ,p4 campanulatus 7,fries7 ,qulet which is said to be common is in fact infrequent and many records really refer to ,p4 sphinctrinus4 ,the word semiovatus means half ovate and refers to the shape of the cap in ,p4 semiovatus4 ,sphinctrinus means banded1 referring to the zoned cap of the fungus when it is partially dry4 ,illustrations3 ,p4 semiovatus--,,lh #ade2 ,,wd #gg4 ,p4 sphinctrinus--,,nb #da2 ,,wd #gh4 ,coprinus cinereus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,dung-heap ink-cap ,cap3 width #bj-dj mm4 ,stem3 width #d-h mm2 length #ej-ajj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 oval then rapidly expanding1 covered at first in a mass of dense1 white or greyish woolly scales which break up into patches and finally leave the cap shiny1 brownish grey at centre and striate and dark grey at the margin4 ,stem3 white1 covered particularly towards the base with white1 woolly scales1 long1 fragile1 tapering upwards and at the base often elongated into a #8tap root' buried in the dung4 ,gills3 free1 white but then rapidly dissolving into a black liquid4 ,flesh3 thin and whitish4 ,spore-print3 violaceous black4 ,spores3 medium sized1 ellipsoid1 smooth with a distinct germ-pore and #aj-ab #e-f m in size4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,marginal cystidia3 inflated and large4 ,general ,information3 ,it is found on manure heaps1 on straw dung and on silage heaps3 very common throughout the year4 ,c4 macrocephalus 7,berkeley7 ,berkeley is very closely related to ,c4 cinereus1 but differs in having much larger spores over #ab-ae #g-i m1 a long cap and a stem which lacks a rooting base4 ,coprinus radiatus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray is smaller in stature and also differs in spore-size 7#aa-ad #f-g m74 ,c4 pseudoradiatus ,khner ,josserand is minute and has even smaller spores 7#g-i #d-e m74 ,the dung-heap ink-cap has long been used by scientists in genetic studies1 usually under the name of ,c4 lagopus 7,fries7 ,fries4 ,however1 this latter species1 although similar1 grows only on woodland detritus2 it has narrower spores4 ,the dung-heap ink-cap may be referred to in other books as ,c4 fimetarius ,fries or ,c4 macrorhizus 7,fries7 ,rea and whilst cinereus means grey referring to the colour1 fimetarius means dung--from the habitat1 and macrorhizus refers to the long rooting base found in some specimens4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #acg2 ,,nb #da2 ,,wd #ha4 ,the genus ,coprinus--or ,ink-caps ,the genus ,coprinus is easily recognised from all other agarics by the structure and development of the fruit-body4 ,in the field1 most species of the genus can be recognised by the gradual conversion of the gills1 and often the cap tissue into a black liquid resembling ink--hence the name inky-caps4 ,the conversion of the gills to an inky mass is called autodigestion and the process is complete within a few hours2 this mechanism enables spores to be dispersed immediately they have ripened4 ,unlike other agarics the spores are not shot off into the spaces between the gills1 but directly into the air4 ,the gills are parallel-sided in ,coprinus and not wedge-shaped as in more normal agarics1 and in order to achieve spore dispersal the gills must disintegrate2 ,coprini are very specialised4 ,coprinus is a large genus with over seventy members in the ,british ,isles1 many of which are strictly dung-loving4 ,it is impossible to give more than one example in full here1 for although many of the large species can be recognised on sight the smaller ones require the aid of a microscope4 ,the interested student must therefore refer to more advanced texts1 but in order to demonstrate the diversity of the ,coprini and how they are classified the following key to the sections of ,coprinus will be found useful4 #a4 ,cap naked of any veil fragments1 either smooth or covered in minute hairs #b ,cap covered when young by powdery or hairy veil1 particles of which either may persist on the cap until maturity or may disappear quickly #c #b4 ,cap completely naked--group ,nudi1 e4g4 ,c4 miser 7,karsten7 ,karsten ,cap with hairs giving it a frosted appearance--group ,setulosi1 e4g4 ,c4 ephemerus 7,fries7 ,fries1 ,c4 pellucidus ,karsten and ,c4 bisporus ,j4 ,lange #c4 ,veil on the cap composed under the microscope of rounded cells giving the cap a floccose powdery appearance--group ,vestiti1 e4g4 ,c4 patouillardii ,qulet1 ,c4 niveus 7,fries7 ,fries and ,c4 ephemeroides 7,fries7 ,fries ,veil on the cap composed under the microscope of elongate cells1 either like thin-hairs or strings of sausages #d #d4 ,veil on the cap composed under the microscope of strings of sausage-shaped cells--group ,lanatuli1 e4g4 ,c4 cinereus1 ,c4 pseudoradiatus1 ,c4 radiatus 7see p4 #baa7 ,veil on the cap composed under the microscope of thick- or thin-walled1 flexuous or straight1 filamentous1 hardly inflated cells--group ,impexi1 e4g4 ,c4 filamentifer ,khner1 ,c4 vermiculifer ,dennis4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ga4 ,dung-fungi--,the genus ,coprinus ,general notes on dung-loving fungi and their habitats ,dung fungi are highly satisfactory for demonstrating the diversity and morphology of a group of related organisms within a single ecological system1 as representatives of most of the major groups of fungi usually grow on dung after a period of incubation4 ,dung will always produce characteristic fungi whatever time of year it is collected4 ,dung is best incubated in a light place1 for example on a window sill1 in a warm room on layers of blotting paper or other absorbent material4 ,for rabbit-pellets and samples of similar size petri-dishes are ideal1 but for cow1 horse and similar types of dung large covered dishes such as casseroles or sandwich containers are very good4 ,samples should not be kept in airtight containers for long periods of time as under such conditions animal life present rapidly breaks down the dung and induces anaerobic conditions4 ,instead larvae and earthworms should be excluded from the sample as they decompose the dung and inhibit fungal growth but their activity can be reduced1 if causing a problem1 by spraying the sample lightly with a proprietary fly-kill aerosol4 ,by keeping the dung under constant observation during incubation a whole succession of fungi can be seen4 ,thus the first fungi to appear are the moulds which although numerous need a microscope for their identification4 ,the moulds are followed by a series of ,ascomycetes 7,sporormia ,sordaria with flask-shaped fruit-bodies and ,iodophanus1 ,coprobia and ,cheilymenia with disc-shaped fruit-bodies71 which are best sought with the use of a powerful hand-lens or a stereoscopic binocular microscope when their full beauty will be revealed4 ,however1 because they need the aid of instruments even to see them they cannot be considered larger fungi4 ,the fruit-bodies of the ,basidiomycetes are readily seen with the naked eye1 but a hand-lens is still very useful for observing features of the cap and stem1 particularly the veil characters4 ,the ,basidiomycetes usually conclude the succession of fungi found on dung and soon after this state the dung is colonised by mosses and higher plants and later it is fully incorporated into the soil4 ,illustration3 ,plate #gb4 ,dung-fungi3 ,cup fungi and allies ,dung is a very useful substrate for studying succession4 ,however1 equally interesting results can be obtained from observing the fungi which appear on a stump1 colonise a newly laid lawn1 or indeed those growing on refuse such as a cast-out rug2 microscopic and larger fungi are all to be found4 ,if the dung cannot be incubated immediately it should be dried quickly1 for most dung-fungi will survive such treatment and grow when the sample is remoistened4 ,the blotting-paper on which the dung is placed should be kept moist throughout the incubation period4 ,one large discomycete 7up to #hj mm across7 occurring on manure-heaps must1 however1 be mentioned1 this is ,peziza vesiculosa ,st ,amans 7see p4 #bjj72 the inner surface of this cup-fungus becomes detached from the flesh at maturity and forms blisters4 7ii7 ,fungi of bonfire-sites ,pholiota highlandensis 7,peck7 ,a4 ,h4 ,smith ,charcoal pholiota ,cap3 width #bj-ej mm4 ,stem3 width #d-h mm2 length #be-fj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #gc4 ,cap3 convex then flattened and slightly umbonate1 smooth1 very sticky at first1 but becoming shiny when dry1 orange-yellow to sand-colour2 the margin is first incurved and ornamented with filaments from the veil1 but these are soon lost4 ,stem3 dirty yellow1 darker towards the base1 cylindric or narrowed downwards and covered in small fibrillose scales4 ,gills3 clay-coloured then dull brown1 adnate and crowded4 ,flesh3 yellowish4 ,spore-print3 dull rust-brown4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 ellipsoid1 smooth1 dull brown under the microscope and #g-h #c-d m in size4 ,facial cystidia3 spindle-shaped with obtuse apex4 ,marginal cystidia3 similar to facial cystidia but usually smaller4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus which occurs from spring to autumn is recognised by the habitat1 colour of the fruit-body and the spore-size4 ,it is known in many books as ,flammula carbonaria 7,fries7 ,kummer1 but the genus ,flammula is no longer used for it refers to a flowering plant in the buttercup family4 ,p4 highlandensis is the same fungus as that referred to as ,pholiota carbonaria by ,european ,mycologists1 but this name cannot be used for it refers to an entirely different ,n4 ,american species4 #8,highlandensis'1 in fact1 refers to the locality where the present fungus was first found in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the true ,p4 carbonaria ,a4 ,h4 ,smith has only been found once in ,europe and this only recently in the south of ,england4 ,it differs in the reddish orange scales on the stem2 indeed it is a much brighter fungus than the common charcoal ,pholiota4 ,tephrocybe anthracophila 7,lasch7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,cap3 width #a-d mm4 ,stem3 width #a mm2 length #b-e mm4 ,description3 ,plate #gc4 ,cap3 blackish when wet1 drying sooty brown1 slightly depressed in the centre1 smooth1 and viscid4 ,stem3 sooty brown1 tough and smooth4 ,flesh3 sooty brown4 ,gills3 whitish then grey1 adnate and not very crowded4 ,spores3 medium sized1 subglobose1 #d-f #d-e m in diameter and minutely roughened4 ,spore-print3 white1 not blueing in solutions of iodine4 ,general ,information3 ,t4 atrata also grows on burnt soil and is very closely related1 but differs in its spores being broadly ellipsoid and smooth4 ,mycena leucogala also grows on burnt soil 7see p4 #hh74 ,illustrations3 ,t4 anthracophila--,,lh #hc4 ,t4 atrata--,,wd #d;b4 ,psathyrella pennata 7,fries7 ,pearson ,dennis ,bonfire brittle-cap ,cap3 width #aj-cj mm4 ,stem3 width #a-c mm2 length #cj-dj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 conical or bell-shaped then expanding and slightly umbonate1 whitish because of a coating of dense fibrils1 but soon becoming brownish as these are lost4 ,stem3 short1 stout1 white and densely floccose4 ,gills3 slightly adnate1 pale brownish grey with pink tinge1 then dark-brown4 ,spore-print3 purplish brown4 ,spores3 medium sized1 oval1 ellipsoid with an obvious germ-pore1 purplish brown under the microscope and #h-i #d-e m in size4 ,marginal facial cystidia3 flask-shaped1 hyaline with either a short or long neck4 ,the brown-spored ,hebeloma anthracophila ,maire is similar4 ,coprinus angulatus ,peck ,bonfire ink-cap ,cap3 width #d-be mm4 ,stem3 #a-c mm2 length #ae-cj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 dark red-brown at first1 then orange-brown1 especially at the margin and appearing as if frosted all over1 conical at first but rapidly expanding at the margin and becoming grey-brown1 strongly striate and deliquescent1 leaving finally only a central red-brown umbo4 ,stem3 white and minutely hairy4 ,gills3 free1 dirty whitish then black4 ,spore-print3 black-brown4 ,spores3 medium sized1 dark brown under the microscope1 lobed like the hat of a bishop and #h-aa #f-h #e-g m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 bottle-shaped1 very variable4 ,facial cystidia3 similar to marginal cystidia4 ,general ,information3 ,it must be noted that this fungus has spores which require three quite different measurements to describe the dimension4 ,another species of ,coprinus found on burnt soil is ,c4 lagopides ,karsten which resembles ,c4 cinereus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray 7p4 #baa72 it is typified1 however1 by the rounded spores4 ,illustration3 ,plate #gc4 ,fungi of bonfire-sites ,general notes on fungi of burnt sites ,several common fungi found at the sites of bonfires have their closest relatives amongst various groups of microscopic fungi more than amongst the large forms already discussed4 ,keeping a close watch at the site of a former bonfire day by day1 week by week and month by month is very rewarding and shows a further example1 like the dung habitat1 of a tightly knit community of various groups of fungi4 ,peziza repanda ,persoon has been discussed in detail above 7p4 #bjj72 its close relatives ,p4 petersii ,berkeley ,curtis 7brown with grey tints and with spores finely warted and measuring #aj-ab #e-f m71 ,p4 praetervisa ,bresadola 7violet or mauve and with spores finely warted and measuring #aa-ac #f-h m71 ,p4 violacea ,persoon 7dark violet with smooth spores measuring #ac-ae #g-i m7 and ,p4 echinospora ,karsten 7dark chocolate brown with spores densely warted and #ad-ah #g-aj m in size7 all grow on the sites of old bonfires or around charred root stumps4 ,rhizina undulata also found by charred stumps has been described on p4 #bjc4 ,these are large to medium sized disc-fungi1 but there are many much smaller species which cannot be dealt with here1 such as species of ,anthracobia and ,trichophaea4 ,pyrenomycetes are also found on charred wood and soil4 ,probably the commonest species of fungus met with is a pale reddish orange to rose-pink disc-fungus seated on a white mycelial mat2 this is ,pyronema omphalodes 7,st ,amans7 ,fuckel4 ,morchella esculenta ,st ,amans and ,m4 elata ,fries 7see p4 #bjj7 appear to grow on the sites of garden bonfires or where cinders have been spread on the soil surface4 ,the stimulus for fruiting appears to be due to the release of mineral nutrients during the process of burning4 ,competition from other fungi appears to be reduced so rapid colonisation by the bonfire fungi 7carbonicoles7 after the period of sterilisation ensures their development4 ,many similar fungi were found about bomb- and shell-craters on the continent during the two ,world ,wars4 ,one microscope fungus1 however1 must be mentioned when considering bonfires and that is ,neurospora sitophila ,shear ,dodge so much used in genetical studies4 ,it can be found as the conidial state on burnt soil and is called #8,baker's mould' because it is frequently found growing on refuse in the hot moist conditions of bakers' kitchens4 ,illustration3 ,plate #gd4 ,fungi of bonfire-sites 7iii7 ,fungi of bogs and marshes 7a7 ,sphagnum bogs ,hypholoma elongatum 7,fries7 ,ricken ,cap3 width #ab-bj mm4 ,stem3 width #c-e mm2 length #ej-hj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #ge4 ,cap3 bell-shaped but rapidly expanding to become plane1 honey-yellow with a greyish green tint1 slightly striate at the margin and also with a few remnants of a fibrillose veil when very young1 but these are soon lost4 ,stem3 slender1 smooth1 whitish at the apex and yellow-brown or honey-yellow below4 ,gills3 adnate and distant1 pale ochraceous honey-yellow then lilaceous grey and finally sepia4 ,flesh3 yellowish in the cap1 red-brown in the stem and lacking a distinct smell4 ,spore-print3 purplish brown4 ,spores3 long1 ellipsoid1 fairly thick-walled1 olivaceous brown under the microscope and with a small germ-pore1 smooth and #aj-ab #f-g m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 flask-shaped and hyaline4 ,facial cystidia3 flask-shaped with contents which turn yellowish in solutions containing ammonia4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus which appears from early summer to late autumn is recognised by the almost uniform ochraceous colour with hint of olive and its habit of growing in troops4 ,the word elongatum means elongated and refers to the shape of the stem which pushes up through the ,sphagnum and in order to disperse its spores it must elongate so that it just pushes up above the bog-surface4 ,h4 polytrichi is closely related to ,h4 elongatum but has a paler cap and stem and it grows in moss1 particularly ,polytrichum in woodlands2 the spores of ,h4 polytrichi are paler1 slightly narrower and slightly thinner1 but they have a much more distinct germ-pore4 ,both the above species have been formerly placed in ,psilocybe1 but they are more correctly classified in ,hypholoma along with the sulphur-tuft fungus 7see p4 #fd7 because of the cortina-like veil and specialised facial cystidia4 ,illustrations3 ,,wd #gh4 ,tephrocybe palustris 7,peck7 ,donk ,cap3 width #ab-cj mm4 ,stem3 width #c-e mm2 length #ej-ge mm4 ,description3 ,plate #ge4 ,cap3 bell-shaped then plane-convex1 but finally depressed at centre1 watery buff to greyish with flush of ochre or smoky grey1 striate to centre when moist1 but drying out non-striate and uniformly ochraceous buff4 ,stem3 thin1 rather long1 smooth1 similarly coloured to the cap or paler1 fragile and whitish woolly at the base4 ,gills3 dirty whitish1 adnate with a tooth and not very crowded4 ,flesh3 thin1 watery buff1 drying out ochraceous and with a strong smell of new meal4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium sized1 hyaline under the microscope1 oval1 not turning blue-grey in solutions of iodine1 and #f-g #d-e m in size4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus which grows from late spring to autumn is usually associated with a greying and finally a killing of the ,sphagnum1 noticeable from a distance even in the absence of the fruiting-bodies as paler patches in the rich green bog4 ,another agaric found only in ,sphagnum bogs is ,omphalina sphagnicola 7,berkeley7 ,moser with decurrent gills and long1 elongate1 hyaline spores4 ,at the margin of ,sphagnum bogs1 the fungus ,mycena bulbosa can be found attached to the base of tufts of rushes4 ,potting up a sward of ,sphagnum and retaining it in a warm greenhouse during winter favours the bog agarics to fruit when other larger fungi are not available4 ,mycena bulbosa 7,cejp7 ,khner ,cap3 width #c-f mm4 ,stem3 width #a mm2 length #aj-ae mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 dirty white1 greyish and very gelatinous4 ,stem3 very thin1 hyaline with a very distinct hairy1 basal disc4 ,gills3 crowded1 adnexed1 very short and whitish4 ,spore-print3 white1 but because it is so small it is often difficult to see4 ,spores3 medium sized1 hyaline under the microscope1 ellipsoid1 not blueing in solutions of iodine1 and #h-aj #d m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 clavate or ventricose1 hyaline and smooth4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,illustrations3 ,t4 palustris ,,lh #hc4 ,galerina paludosa 7,fries7 ,khner ,cap3 width #aj-bj mm4 ,stem3 width #c-e mm2 length #ej-ij mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 conico-convex expanding slightly but retaining the central umbo1 striate to half-way1 sand-colour to red-brown1 hygrophanous1 minutely floccose because of remnants of veil distributed over its surface1 but soon becoming smooth4 ,stem3 long1 buried amongst the ,sphagnum1 red-brown and flecked with white fibrils1 except at the finely hairy apex1 the fibrils typically form a distinct but easily lost ring4 ,gills3 almost horizontal1 adnate to subdecurrent1 pale at first and then rust-brown4 ,spore-print3 rust-brown4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 ovate to slightly lemon-shaped1 minutely warty1 honey-brown under the microscope and about #aj #f m in size1 7#i-aa #f-g m74 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,marginal cystidia3 hyaline1 almost cylindrical or bottle-shaped with an inflated base4 ,general ,information3 ,this species grows from spring to early autumn in ,sphagnum bogs2 several other species of ,galerina are also found in the same localities3-- 7i7 ,g4 sphagnorum 7,fries7 ,khner has a convex cap1 fibrillose silky and ochraceous brown stem1 but it lacks the ring-zone so typical of ,g4 paludosa4 ,the smell is like that of meal when crushed and the gills are emarginate4 7ii7 ,g4 tibiicystis 7,atkinson7 ,khner has a rapidly expanding cap which becomes plano-convex or depressed at maturity2 it also lacks a ring-zone1 but the stem in this species is finely hairy because of the presence of numerous pin-shaped cells which can be seen only with the aid of a lens4 ,the gills are broadly adnate4 ,illustrations3 ,g4 paludosa--,,lh #age4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ge4 ,fungi of marshes 7b7 ,alder-carrs ,naucoria escharoides 7,fries7 ,kummer ,cap3 width #ab-cj mm4 ,stem3 width #a-c mm2 length #be-de mm4 ,description3 ,plate #gf4 ,cap3 pale yellowish ochre1 but becoming darker ochraceous with age1 scurfy1 convex but then flattened1 or with its edge upturned2 the margin is slightly striate when moist4 ,stem3 slender1 pale to dirty yellowish ochre but darker brown at base1 slightly fibrillose1 particularly at first because of filaments from a veil1 but these are soon lost4 ,gills3 pale tan to brownish ochre with a paler1 floccose margin1 adnate and crowded4 ,flesh3 yellowish ochre but lacking a distinct smell4 ,spore-print3 clay-colour4 ,spores3 medium sized1 almond-shaped1 pale brown under the microscope1 warted and #aj-aa #e-f m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 swollen below1 but drawn out into a hair-like apex4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,general ,information3 ,although this is a common species growing in damp places under alder it is difficult except with an expert eye to separate it from several closely related species which are also found in similar places4 ,at present it is not known whether these fungi are favoured by the water-logged base-rich1 reducing soils found nowhere else except under alder1 or if they have a special relationship with the tree4 ,there is ample evidence that soil conditions in alder woods are rather different from those found in other woodlands1 but whatever the reason ,naucoria escharoides is only found under alder--in fact this species has been placed in the genus ,alnicola because of this character--cola meaning inhabitant and ,alnus the tree of that name4 ,willow-carrs have not been as extensively studied as alder-carrs but there is evidence that a store of mycological information is still to be obtained from these places4 ,several species of ,naucoria have been described from only willow-carrs1 while others are to be found under both alder and willows2 about eight species are known to grow under alder4 ,the word escharoides means scab-like and refers to the cap which when freshly collected is minutely scaly and appears scabby4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #afc2 ,,wd #fg4 7iv7 ,fungi of beds of herbaceous plants ,beds of herbaceous plants provide protection for many small agarics and collecting can be conducted in these situations from spring to early winter4 ,the buffered environments under the herbs is humid and relatively still1 and this allows the development of the small often delicate fruit-bodies of certain species to continue unimpeded4 ,nettle-beds or mixtures of nettle and dog's mercury have very rich floras under the shelter of their leaves and stems1 either on the bare soil or plant debris4 ,on herbaceous stems ,coprinus urticicola 7,berkeley ,broome7 ,buller ,cap3 width #d-g mm4 ,stem3 width #a mm2 length #aj-ae mm4 ,description3 ,plate #gf4 ,cap3 white then greyish1 globose at first and then expanding to become plane with upturned margin covered1 at first1 with scales from a veil which at the centre are white-tipped with ochre4 ,stem3 white and slightly downy4 ,spore-print3 brownish black4 ,spores3 elliptic-ovoid1 only slightly compressed with distinct germ-pore1 dark brown under the microscope and #f-h #e m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 ellipsoid to pyriform and hyaline4 ,facial cystidia3 elongate cylindric larger than marginal cystidia4 ,on bare soil ,leptonia babingtonii 7,bloxam7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,cap3 #e-ae mm4 ,stem3 width #a mm2 length #bj-ej mm4 ,description3 ,plate #gf4 ,cap3 grey to sepia or greyish brown entirely scaly-hairy1 at first1 but then fibrillose4 ,stem3 silvery grey to grey-sepia and silky fibrillose4 ,gills3 greyish pink4 ,spore-print3 greyish pink4 ,spores3 very long1 wavy angular in outline1 very pale honey under the microscope and #ad-bj #g-i m4 ,marginal cystidia3 club-shaped or balloon-shaped and hyaline4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,so very different to other species of ,leptonia is it that it should be classified in ,dr4 ,pilt's genus ,pouzaromyces4 ,conocybe mairei ,watling ,cap3 width #e-aj mm4 ,stem3 width #a mm2 length #aj-dj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 pale to deep ochraceous or buff1 minutely tomentose4 ,stem3 flexuous1 whitish or very pale ochraceous4 ,gills3 pale buff then ochraceous4 ,spore-print3 ochraceous4 ,spores3 medium sized1 ellipsoid or slightly almond-shaped with small germ-pore and #f-h #c-d m in size4 ,flammulaster granulosa 7,j4 ,lange7 ,watling ,cap3 #d-ae mm4 ,stem3 width #a mm2 length #aj-be mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 ochraceous to date-brown1 darker at the centre and granular scaly throughout4 ,stem3 similarly coloured to the cap and similarly roughened1 except for the slightly smoother paler apex4 ,spores3 ellipsoid to almond-shaped1 very pale brown under the microscope and #h-aj #d-e m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 cylindric-wavy1 hyaline4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,depending on the herbaceous constituents the fungus-flora will vary4 ,certain species are found on all sorts of herbaceous debris1 but others are much more specific to their substrate preferences4 ,beds of ,butterbur1 ,coltsfoot or ,impatiens are also good hunting places1 as are beds of sedges in fenland4 ,in many of these localities agarics with reduced fruit-bodies looking like disc-fungi are frequently seen4 ,we have already discussed the specific requirements of certain species of ,marasmius 7see p4 #ib74 ,illustration3 ,plate #gf4 ,fungi of alder-carrs and from under herbaceous plants 7v7 ,fungi of moss-cushions ,many small species grow amongst moss cushions on tree trunks1 tucked in crevices in walls or on the tops of old buildings4 ,however1 there is one genus of agarics1 i4e4 ,galerina which is probably more typical than any other of such situations4 ,there are many members of this genus whose small caps are found in the autumn pushing up through the moss plants4 ,plate #gh4 ,galerina hypnorum 7,fries7 ,khner ,cap3 width #d-f mm4 ,stem3 width #a mm2 length #bj-dj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 hemispherical or bell-shaped1 hygrophanous1 orange-yellow1 sand-colour1 smooth and striate almost to the cap-centre4 ,stem3 smooth and similarly coloured to the cap4 ,gills3 yellow-tawny then rust-coloured1 adnate emarginate1 rather broad and somewhat distant4 ,flesh3 thin1 yellow-tawny and with a smell of new meal4 ,spore-print3 rust-colour4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 almond-shaped1 golden yellow under the microscope1 slightly roughened and #aj-aa #f-g m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 flask-shaped or cylindrical with slight swelling at the apex4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,galerina mycenopsis 7,fries7 ,khner ,cap3 width #f-ae mm4 ,stem3 width #a mm2 length #cj-fj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 similarly coloured to ,g4 hypnorum1 but with a few white silky fibrils4 ,stem3 coloured as the cap1 but with white silky fibrils when young4 ,gills and flesh3 as in ,g4 hypnorum1 but it has no smell4 ,spore-print3 rust-colour4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 ellipsoid1 pale golden yellow under the microscope1 smooth and #i-aa #e-f m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 club-shaped1 cylindrical and with distinct rounded heads4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,general ,information3 ,g4 mniophila 7,lasch7 ,khner is similar to or slightly larger than ,c4 mycenopsis1 but differs in its dull honey-coloured cap and stem1 and distinctly roughened spores4 ,g4 calyptrata ,p4 ,d4 ,orton is small and has been long confused with ,g4 hypnorum2 it1 however1 is of a much brighter orange-colour1 with distinct white fibrils on the cap and has spores which have a distinct envelope1 sometimes separating as a loose covering4 ,g4 vittaeformis 7,fries7 ,moser is a red-brown fungus with #b-spored basidia1 facial cystidia1 minutely hairy stem1 and very rough spores2 it grows in moss in pastures as well as on moss-cushions4 7vi7 ,heath and mountain fungi 7a7 ,moorland fungi ,marasmius androsaceus 7,fries7 ,fries ,horse-hair toadstool ,cap3 width #e-ae mm4 ,stem3 width #a mm2 length #cj-fj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #gg4 ,cap3 whitish to pale smoke-brown with a distinct wine-coloured tinge1 membranous1 flattened1 or umbilicate and radially wrinkled4 ,stem3 thread-like1 black or very dark brown1 horny and usually springing from a black horse-hair-like mycelium4 ,gills3 whitish or dirty flesh-colour1 adnate and crowded4 ,flesh3 white in the pileus and black in the stem4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 pip-shaped1 not blueing in solutions containing iodine and measuring #g-i #c-d m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 oval or ellipsoid1 covered on the upper half with small pimple-like projections4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is common in troops from late summer until winter on dead and dying heather4 ,it is also found in woods on leaves and twigs1 particularly in plantations on conifer needles4 ,it is easily recognised by the dark horse-hair-like stem which becomes bent and twisted on drying and the small1 pinkish flesh-coloured cap4 ,the word androsaceus means1 and refers to1 the stem which resembles the tough and wiry fronds of some of the red algae1 such as ,ahnfeldtia which is found around our sea-shores4 ,illustrations3 ,,lh #aae2 ,,nb #dg2 ,,wd #bd4 ,omphalina ericetorum 7,fries7 ,m4 ,lange ,cap3 width #e-bj mm4 ,stem3 width #b mm2 length #aj-bj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 variable in colour1 straw-colour1 cream-colour1 bistre or grey1 convex then flat or slightly depressed1 radially grooved to the centre when moist2 the margin is scalloped4 ,stem3 slender1 similarly coloured to the cap1 except for a brownish wine-coloured zone at the very apex1 thickened upwards and smooth with a white and woolly base4 ,gills3 adnate to decurrent1 white then cream-colour or yellowish1 triangular in shape1 very distant and often connected by veins4 ,flesh3 pale cream-colour4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium sized1 hyaline under the microscope1 broadly ellipsoid1 or pip-shaped1 not becoming bluish grey in solutions of iodine1 #h-aj #e m in size4 ,marginal and facial cystidia3 absent4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is common and often in large troops on peaty ground in woods as well as in moorland and mountain regions4 ,in mountains ,o4 ericetorum must be carefully distinguished from some of the truly mountain species of ,omphalina dealt with on p4 #bcf4 ,o4 wynniae 7,berkeley ,broome7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton is similar but pale lemon-yellow and is found on stumps of conifers4 ,the word ericetorum refers to the habit of growing on heaths--,erica is the ,latin name for heath4 ,in many books this same fungus is called ,o4 umbellifera which reflects the shape of the cap--umbrella shaped4 ,illustrations3 ,hvass #aaf2 ,,lh #ii2 ,,nb #he2 ,,wd #bi4 ,entoloma helodes 7,fries7 ,kummer ,cap3 width #be-ge mm4 ,stem3 width #b-f mm2 length #be-ee mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 finely or minutely velvety at centre1 fibrillose or white silky as if frosted towards the margin1 sepia or bistre1 or mouse-grey1 dull-coloured but with a hint of violaceous brown4 ,stem3 equal or slightly thickened at the apex1 sometimes club-shaped1 thickened at the base1 greyish brown and pale cream-colour at the base4 ,flesh3 dark sepia in the cap1 whitish in the stem and smelling strongly of meal4 ,illustration3 ,plate #gg4 ,moorland fungi ,gills3 white or whitish at first then dirty pinkish brown1 adnate and emarginate4 ,spore-print3 dull salmon-pink4 ,spores3 medium to long1 angular1 ellipsoid-oblong1 slightly cinnamon-colour under the microscope and #i-ab #g-h m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 conspicuous1 spindle or bottle-shaped and with subcapitate apex4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,hypholoma ericaeum 7,fries7 ,khner ,cap3 width #ae-cj mm4 ,stem3 width #d-g mm2 length #ej-ajj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 fleshy1 convex1 later becoming flattened but remaining slightly umbonate at the centre1 viscid at first1 smooth and shining when dry1 bright reddish to sand-colour or brown4 ,stem3 slender1 yellow above1 brown below1 smooth and tough4 ,gills3 adnate or adnexed1 purplish black with a whitish margin and fairly crowded4 ,flesh3 yellowish or red-brown in the stem4 ,spore-print3 purple-brown4 ,spores3 long1 dark purple-brown1 broadly ellipsoid and #ab-ae #g-i m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 cylindrical or flask-shaped4 ,facial cystidia3 flask-shaped and filled with contents which become yellowish in solutions containing ammonia4 ,clavaria argillacea 7,persoon7 ,fries ,fruit-body3 height #bj-fj mm4 ,description3 ,fruit-body3 club-shaped1 blunt or rounded at the apex1 cylindrical or compressed and often grooved1 yellow ochraceous or buff4 ,stem3 distinct but short and yellowish4 ,flesh3 yellowish4 ,spore-print3 white4 ,spores3 medium-sized1 hyaline under the microscope1 smooth and #aj-aa #e-f m in size4 ,all these three species are typical of bare peaty soil1 or moss covered peat amongst or around ,heather or ,ling 7,calluna vulgaris7 bushes4 ,illustration3 ,plate #gh4 ,moorland1 moss-cushion and mountain fungi 7b7 ,mountain fungi and the so-called ,basidiolichens #8,basidiolichens4' ,plate #gh4 ,omphalina ericetorum 7,fries7 ,m4 ,lange has already been described 7p4 #bcb73 it grows on acidic soils and ascends into mountain areas where it frequently grows on algal scum which accumulates around ,sphagnum plants4 ,under these conditions the algal cells enter the base of the fungus and grow in the cavity of the stem and amongst those hyphae which constitute the base4 ,this association1 however1 appears to be much closer in the two lichens ,coriscium viride 7,acharius7 ,vain and ,botrydina vulgaris ,meneghini which have long been classified as species of lichen of unknown affinity because no perfect state was known4 ,coriscium viride consists of blue-green overlapping plates or scales with narrow rounded often paler margins and which dry out greenish brownish grey4 ,botrydina vulgaris1 in contrast1 consists of dark green1 gelatinous blobs drying out greenish brown4 ,coriscium is now considered to be an association of an algae and a ,basidiomycete1 the latter being the agaric1 ,omphalina hudsoniana 7,jennings7 ,bigelow1 which resembles ,o4 ericetorum but for the pinkish coloured stem4 ,botrydina may be a complex of several separate associations of an algae with different species of ,omphalina4 ,in the high mountains the association is with ,o4 luteovitellina 7,pilt ,nannfeldt7 ,m4 ,lange a small uniformly bright yellow agaric1 whilst in ,sphagnum bogs it is with ,o4 sphagnicola 7,berkeley7 ,moser4 ,myxomphalia maura 7,fries7 ,hora1 a fungus typical of burnt ground1 is also reported to take up this association in lowland woods and ,o4 velutina 7,qulet7 ,qulet appears to be capable of forming a loose relationship with algal cells also4 ,this is a most interesting association and research work is still at an early stage4 ,in the tropics and subtropical regions of the world1 similar associations are found on rotten and decomposing trunks and stumps4 ,in these examples the ,basidiomycetes are frequently fairy-clubs1 particularly species of ,multiclavula 7#8many small clubs'74 ,a few species of this genus may be found also in ,north temperate woodlands4 ,botrydina also grows in ,europe with ,stereum fasciatum 7,schw47 ,fries and ,athelia viride 7,bres47 ,parm4 7see p4 #agf71 and ,odontia bicolor 7,fries7 ,qulet is rarely collected without green algal cells buried in the thallus4 ,perhaps associations like this are much commoner than at first supposed4 ,probably the most remarkable of this group of poorly known organisms is ,cora pavonia 7,sw47 ,fries which produces masses of interlocking fans2 it is tropical and found in ,brazil4 ,mountain fungi3 general remarks ,there are several groups of mountain fungi1 some mycorrhizal formers1 some which prefer peaty soil and some which are associated with algae forming a loose relationship--the ,basidiolichens4 ,when the mountain top is covered with such dwarf willows as ,salix herbacea or ,s4 reticulata the leaves are cast each year1 woody tissue develops above and below the ground2 in fact all the processes taking place in our familiar woodlands are also taking place in these communities1 the only difference being that the trees are dwarf4 ,indeed it looks quite odd to see normal sized agarics growing amongst the woody stalks of dwarf trees1 the leaves of which are often one-tenth the size of the fruit-bodies1 but this is what happens4 ,the mycorrhizal formers in these conditions include species of ,russula 7e4g4 ,russula alpina ,mller ,schaeffer1 ,r4 xerampelina var4 pascua ,favre 7see p4 #de771 ,lactarius 7e4g4 ,lactarius lacunarum ,hora see p4 #ej71 ,cortinarius 7e4g4 ,c4 anomalus 7,fries7 ,fries see p4 #db7 and ,amanita 7e4g4 ,amanita nivalis ,greville see p4 #ef74 ,subterranean fungi are also found1 e4g4 ,elaphomyces see p4 #bdd1 and1 just as woodlands1 valley bottoms have a saprophytic ground flora of toadstools so do the high mountain #8woods'1 and many familiar fungi of the lowerland areas are to be found there also1 e4g4 ,mycena epipterygia 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray1 ,mycena olivaceo-marginata 7,massee7 ,massee 7see p4 #hh47 ,the barer tops of the mountains1 where large areas of moss are only to be found1 support species of ,hygrocybe1 e4g4 ,h4 lilacina 7,laestadius7 ,moser and ,h4 subviolacea 7,peck7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,watling 7see p4 #ig74 ,in the moist atmosphere on the hills in western ,scotland1 woodland-like floras containing familiar flowering plants are found on the mountain sides often much higher than in central ,scotland4 ,it is in such communities that typical woodland fungi are also to be found1 e4g4 ,nolanea cetrata 7,fries7 ,kummer 7see p4 #aja74 7vii7 ,sand-dune fungi ,inocybe dunensis ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,cap3 width #bg-ge mm4 ,stem3 width #d-aj mm2 length #ce-hj mm4 ,description3 ,cap3 convex then expanded1 usually broadly umbonate1 pale or dirty ochraceous paler at the margin1 reddish brown at the centre1 smooth1 radially fibrillose towards the margin and sometimes showing the remains of a pale greyish buff veil4 ,stem3 equal with marginate or rounded bulb at the base1 white or whitish1 then becoming discoloured pinkish or brownish1 powdered with white1 at first1 but finally silky4 ,gills3 free or narrowly adnate1 subcrowded1 whitish then clay-buff1 finally snuff-brown with whitish edge4 ,flesh3 white or whitish1 tinted ochraceous or dirty pinkish and with strong smell of rancid oil4 ,spore-print3 snuff-brown4 ,spores3 medium to long1 ellipsoid-oblong1 indistinctly nodulose or wavy-angular and #i-ab #f-g m in size4 ,facial cystidia3 swollen1 spindle-shaped with short1 broad neck1 thick-walled and crested with crystals4 ,marginal cystidia3 spindle-shaped and crested with crystals4 ,general ,information3 ,this fungus is often buried to half-way in the sand of slacks near dwarf willows 7,salix spp474 ,three other species of ,inocybe grow in dune-slacks ,i4 halophila ,heim1 ,i4 serotina ,peck and ,i4 devoniensis ,p4 ,d4 ,orton1 but all differ in their spores being smooth and elongate-cylindric4 ,astrosporina1 a name referring to the shape of the spore1 has been considered a genus of agarics in its own right and to this group ,i4 dunensis would belong4 ,however1 as the members show the same range of characters as those species with the smooth spores it seems unnecessary to split ,inocybe into two4 ,the cystidia in many species are unusual1 being crested with a bundle of crystals which have been reported as being calcium oxalate1 although even the simplest school-laboratory tests have been rarely applied to them 7see p4 #hd74 ,illustration3 ,plate #gi4 ,sand-dune fungi ,psathyrella ammophila 7,durieu ,lville7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,sand-dune brittle-cap ,cap3 width #bj-dj mm4 ,stem3 width #d-h mm2 length #dj-hj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #gi4 ,cap3 semiglobate to convex1 pale dingy clay-colour or dark tan to dirty brownish1 non-striate1 rather fleshy and usually sand covered4 ,stem3 deeply rooting in sand and club-shaped towards the base1 similarly coloured to the cap except for the whitish apex4 ,gills3 adnate1 subfuscous or dark dirt-brown4 ,flesh3 dirty buff and with no distinct smell4 ,spore-print3 pale snuff-brown with purplish flush4 ,spores3 long1 ovoid1 yellowish-grey brown under the microscope with a distinct germ-pore and #aj-ab #g m in size4 ,marginal cystidia3 balloon-shaped1 obtuse or somewhat bottle-shaped and hyaline4 ,facial cystidia3 sparse1 similar to the marginal cystidia1 voluminous4 ,general ,information3 ,this is a very distinct fungus found amongst stems of ,marram grass in sand-dune systems4 ,at first sight it appears as if it is growing in the bare sand1 but by careful excavation it usually is found attached to pieces of ,marram grass1 indeed the hyphae enter the roots of the grass1 but apparently do not kill them4 ,this fungus was first described in the genus ,psilocybe 7see p4 #aad7 because of its brownish purple spore-print1 but the cap-surface is composed of rounded cells and so is related to all the other species of ,psathyrella4 ,psathyrella flexispora ,wallace ,p4 ,d4 ,orton grows in similar habitats amongst ,ammophila and other seashore grasses4 ,it is easily recognised by the chocolate1 umber or date-brown cap and the peculiar shaped spores1 which look as if they have been slightly twisted during their development4 ,stropharia coronilla 7,fries7 ,qulet1 resembling a little mushroom 7i4e4 ,agaricus7 is also found in sand-dune systems and1 just as species of ,psathyrella1 it possesses purplish black spores4 ,however1 the cap is ochraceous yellow with a whitish margin formed of veil fragments4 ,the stem is white becoming yellow with age and possesses a narrow1 white striate ring4 ,the spores are ellipsoid and measure #h-i #d-e m and it has filamentous cells in the cap4 ,unlike ,p4 ammophila it is not confined to sand-dune systems but it is also to be found in pastures and on heaths4 ,illustration3 ,plate #hj4 ,sand-dune fungi ,conocybe dunensis ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,sand-dune brown cone cap4 ,cap3 width #aj-cj mm4 ,stem3 width #b-d mm2 length #dj-ajj mm4 ,description3 ,plate #hj4 ,cap3 conical then conico-expanded1 date-brown1 dull sand-colour or dark liver-colour1 drying buff or ochraceous1 expallent1 not or indistinctly striate when moist4 ,stem3 whitish or pale ochraceous then darker ochraceous or dirty brownish from the base up1 lower part whitish and buried in the sand4 ,flesh3 thin and pale ochraceous4 ,gills3 adnate1 whitish but soon pale honey and finally rusty honey4 ,spore-print3 rust-brown4 ,spores3 long1 ellipsoid or slightly amygdaliform1 golden brown under the microscope with large germ-pore and #ab-ad #g-h m in size4 ,facial cystidia3 absent4 ,marginal cystidia3 capitate4 ,general ,information3 ,c4 dunensis differs from ,c4 tenera in its dull colours 7see p4 #aaf7 and habitat preferences4 ,conocybe dunensis1 ,stropharia coronilla1 the two species of ,psathyrella are all dull-coloured4 ,however1 in the sand-dunes colourful agarics are also found4 ,the most common is ,hygrocybe conicoides 7,p4 ,d4 ,orton7 ,orton ,watling2 ,laccaria maritima 7,theodowicz7 ,moser is indeed an unusual but rewarding find4 #8,lac' as in ,laccaria is a red-brown resinous substrate produced by the lac-insect and resembles the cap colour of many species of the genus1 including ,l4 maritima1 ,l4 laccata and ,l4 proxima 7see p4 #hf74 ,all these fungi were formerly placed in ,clitocybe1 but they differ in the warted or spiny spores which at maturity give the rather thick gills the appearance of being heavily talced4 ,l4 maritima can be distinguished from all other species of ,laccaria by the elongated spores which are minutely spiny and not strongly warted as in ,l4 laccata4 ,hygrocybe conicoides 7,p4 ,d4 ,orton7 ,orton ,watling has a conical to conico-convex1 acutely umbonate cap with wavy-lobed margin2 it is scarlet or cherry-red1 discolouring blackish with age or on bruising4 ,the gills are at first chrome-yellow then become flushed red and the stem is yellow or greenish lemon becoming streaky blackish after handling4 ,the spores are #aj-ac #d-e m in size and slightly ,french bean-shaped4 ,it can be readily distinguished from close relatives1 e4g4 ,h4 conica 7,fries7 ,kummer by the gills soon turning reddish1 the reddish cap and the narrow spores4 7viii7 ,subterranean fungi ,general notes ,the adaptive habit of growing completely submerged beneath the surface of the ground has developed in all the major groups of fungi4 ,thus the simplest form related to the common bread-mould have taken up the character just as certain relatives of the disc-fungi 7discomycetes7 and of the flask-fungi 7pyrenomycetes74 ,in the higher fungi in several foreign countries even agarics1 polypores and stinkhorns have become hypogeous1 but in this country we have a very depauparate flora composed of some twenty-eight species of false 7,basidiomycete7 truffle4 ,the following key may assist in identifying the different groups of hypogeous fungi for some of these species are of commercial value and includes the ,french or ,perigord truffle1 ,tuber melanospermum ,vittadini which is used as a constituent of ,pt de ,foie ,gras1 and many of the fungi used as poor quality substitutes4 ,there is a long folk-history surrounding truffles and they have been utilised in the production of aphrodisiacs for centuries4 ,seeking them out was a difficulty and has been overcome in different countries in different ways4 ,thus in continental ,europe1 pigs have been used to sniff them out but on finding them the pigs cannot eat the truffles because of a ring placed through their nose4 ,in ,dorset a particular breed of dog was developed to do the same job--the ,dorset hounds4 ,a simple key would read as follows3-- #a4 ,spores produced on basidia #b ,spores produced in asci #d #b4 ,chambers throughout the inner tissue containing spores of approximately the same age #c ,chambers in the inner tissues containing spores found at different stages of development ,hymenogaster #c4 ,basidiospores brown or greenish brown under the microscope1 and black in mass ,melanogaster ,basidiospores colourless or pale honey colour under the microscope and ochraceous in mass ,rhizopogon #d4 ,asci globose1 irregularly arranged within the fruit-body and quickly breaking down to shed the spores ,elaphomyces ,asci globose or club-shaped and arranged in fertile areas which do not rapidly break down to shed the spores ,tuber relatives ,basidiomycetes ,rhizopogon roseolus 7,corda7 ,fries ,red truffle ,description3 ,fruit-body3 globular to tubiform and up to #fj mm broad1 partly covered in mycelial cords1 dirty white1 later reddish-tawny gradually reddish and finally olive-brown1 it soon becomes tawny on bruising when fresh and young4 ,spores3 medium sized1 narrowly ellipsoid1 smooth at first1 hyaline then pale olive under the microscope and measuring #h-aa #d m4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus is not uncommon on the edges of paths1 in pine woods just pushing up through the soil surface4 ,ascomycetes ,elaphomyces granulatus ,fries ,harts' truffle ,description3 ,fruit-body3 globose to ovoid1 #bj-dj mm broad1 pale ochraceous1 covered in small pyramidal warts1 and when it is cut it shows three layers1 an outer thin yellowish zone1 an inner thicker compact white zone and within this a purplish black area full of spores separated into chambers by bands of sterile white tissue2 the first two zones make up the #8rind'4 ,spores3 spherical1 blackish brown1 warty1 #bd-cb m in diameter2 eight contained in globose asci4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus is not uncommon in the surface layers of pine woods at the junction of needle debris and mineral soil4 ,e4 muricatus ,fries is similar1 but differs in the marbled flecked interior4 ,tuber aestivum ,vittadini ,english truffle ,description3 ,fruit-body3 subglobose except for basal flattening1 up to #hj mm broad1 covered in #e-f-sided pyramidal scales1 dark brown to violaceous1 white then greyish brown within1 separated by a network of veins radiating from the basal cavity4 ,spores3 very large1 ellipsoid1 light or yellowish brown and ornamented with a prominent network1 borne in two's and sixes in subglobose asci and variable in size1 #bj-dj #ae-cj m4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ha4 ,subterranean fungi and fungus-parasites ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus is to be found buried in the surface layers of soil in beech woods4 ,t4 rufum is smaller and smoother and the spores are not crested but simply minutely spiny4 ,illustrations3 ,r4 luteolus--,hvass #cbb2 ,,lh #bae4 ,el4 granulatus--,hvass #cbe2 ,,lh #di4 ,t4 aestivum--,,lh #dc4 ,melanogaster variegatus--,,lh #bae 7see p4 #bdc74 ,hymenogaster tener--,,lh #bae 7see p4 #bdc74 7ix7 ,fungal parasites ,nyctalis parasitica 7,fries7 ,fries ,pick-a-back-toadstool ,description3 ,plate #ha4 ,cap3 bell-shaped then becoming expanded1 silky dirty white1 but gradually grey with a flush of lilac with age4 ,stem3 slender1 white and smooth except for the base4 ,gills3 pallid but soon becoming brownish1 adnate or adnate with tooth1 thick and distant alternately long and short and contorted or united with age4 ,flesh3 dark brown4 ,spore-print3 buff4 ,spores3 small1 hyaline under the microscope1 ovoid1 #e-f #c-d m but usually replaced completely or in part by ovoid1 smooth1 thick-walled and pale brownish asexually produced spores 7chlamydospores7 measuring about #ae #aj m in size4 ,habitat ,distribution3 ,this fungus grows in clusters on old decaying specimens of various species of ,russula and ,lactarius 7,russulaceae7--see p4 #de4 ,general ,information3 ,n4 asterophora ,fries is closely related and also grows on decaying specimens of various species of ,russula1 particularly ,r4 nigricans 7,fries7 ,fries4 ,it differs1 however1 in the cap being fawn-coloured and very mealy when touched2 it is recognised by the poorly formed often developmentally hindered gills on which chlamydospores are formed4 ,unlike the smooth asexual spores in ,n4 parasitica this species has chlamydospores with conical1 blunt humps--i4e4 star-shaped2 asterophora in fact means #8,i bear stars'4 ,these fungi have been associated by some mycologists with the common chanterelle 7,cantharellus cibarius ,fries1 see p4 #afb7 in virtue of them possessing reduced fold-like gills4 ,however1 the fold-like gills are secondary in nature1 correlated with the active production of chlamydospores and the suppression of the formation of basidiospores4 ,the gills are not therefore of a primitive type4 ,the genus ,nyctalis is related to fungi such as ,tephrocybe palustris 7,peck7 ,donk 7see p4 #bbc74 ,there are several rather uncommon #8agaric-parasites' of agarics or other higher fungi1 e4g4 ,volvariella surrecta 7,knapp7 ,singer1 but their formal description must be left to other more advanced texts4 ,however1 the intriguing bolete1 ,boletus parasiticus ,fries1 which grows on ,scleroderma 7earth-balls7 in this country has been mentioned and figured previously 7p4 #ce ,plate #fd74 ,it is of interest to note that a close relative of ,b4 parasiticus in ,japan lives on another group of ,gasteromycetes4 ,illustrations3 ,n4 parasitica--,f #aa;a2 ,,lh #ha2 ,,wd #be4 ,n4 asterophora--,,lh #ha2 ,,wd #be4 ,general notes on ,fungicoles ,many beginners are confused on finding specimens which1 although appearing agaric-like1 are covered in long hairs or irregularly shaped bumps4 ,indeed many of these abnormalities are true agarics attacked by microscopic fungi1 and ,i know of one textbook on mushrooms and toadstools which includes such an abnormality amongst the discussion on the normal fruit-bodies4 ,thus ,sporadinia grandis ,link1 which is a primitive fungus1 attacks many fungi reducing them to a grey velvety mass of fungal filaments4 ,specimens of several species of ,mycena 7p4 #hh7 are common in autumn1 covered in whiskers with small nobbles on the top4 ,these whiskers are produced by the parasitic ,spinellus megalocarpus 7,corda7 ,karsten1 another primitive fungus--a phycomycete4 ,in some wet seasons the orange and green coloured ,lactarius deliciosus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray is to be found contorted and covered in small pinkish to lilac pimples of the ascomycete ,byssonectria lactaria 7,fries7 ,petch1 and other species of ,lactarius are attacked by ,byssonectria viridis 7,berkeley ,broome7 ,petch which converts the fruit-bodies into a hardened mass of green tissue4 ,in ,north ,america1 species of ,lactarius are frequently attacked by ,hypomyces lactifluorum 7,schweintz7 ,tulasne and the whole fungus is reduced to a contorted acidic-smelling mass of fungal tissue with vivid orange pimples or warts on the outer surface4 ,these parasitic fruit-bodies are eaten as a delicacy in their own right whereas the same consumer will be less enthusiastic about eating the same agaric before it is so deformed4 ,boletes particularly ,b4 subtomentosus ,fries1 ,b4 chrysenteron ,st ,amans and ,b4 edulis ,fries are frequently converted into yellow powdery masses due to the production of asexual spores of the fungus ,sepedonium chrysospermum ,fries2 the sexual stage occurs on the remains after they have collapsed into the soil surface--this stage is called ,apiocrea chrysosperma 7,tulasne7 ,sydow4 ,several closely related fungi in the genus ,hypomyces also attack agarics4 ,the yellow pustules found on the spore-bearing surface of the birch polypore ,piptoporus 7p4 #adb7 is ,hypocrea pulvinata ,fuckel2 it is only one of several lower fungi which grow on bracket fungi4 ,the genus ,cordyceps has been mentioned previously 7p4 #bjf7 and in the discussion it was indicated that certain hypogeous fungi are attacked by members of this genus4 ,white gelatinous pustules found amongst the fruit-bodies of ,stereum sanguinolentum 7p4 #agf7 have a hard white centre4 ,on examination these #8nuclei' are aborted structures of the stereum covered in the jelly-fungus ,tremella encephala ,persoon4 ,this fungus is apparently parasitic2 it is closely related to ,tremella foliacea and ,t4 mesenterica described on page #ahd4 ,g4 ,,appendix 7i7 ,species list of specialised habitats ,,introduction ,although some fungi prefer one type of woodland more than another many fungi are less specialised and may be found in all kinds of woods4 ,indeed many fungi which we usually associate with a woodland fungus flora can also be commonly seen in pastures and gardens1 e4g4 ,laccaria laccata 7,fries7 ,cooke1 ,hygrophoropsis aurantiaca 7,fries7 ,maire4 ,it is useful to consider the fungi of different woodland types separately1 but this in some cases is very difficult because some species are not exclusive2 indeed some species may grow in completely contrasting habitats1 e4g4 ,amanita muscaria 7,fries7 ,hooker in both birch and conifer woods1 or on contrasting substrates1 e4g4 ,fomes fomentarius 7,fries7 ,kickx on birch in ,scotland and beech on the continent of ,europe4 ,the picture becomes even more complex because frequently woods1 in fact1 often include several tree species growing in close proximity and it is then difficult to draw connections between a fungus and the tree with which it is truly growing--we know little or nothing except for mycorrhizal fungi1 why certain fungi prefer certain habitats4 ,a parallel example is that phenomenon seen in certain polypores which only attack twigs or branches and not stumps or trunks1 whilst others grow exclusively on stumps4 ,we know little of the reasons for these demarcations1 even when they occur within the same host4 ,mycology1 therefore1 offers to the beginner and the professional many opportunities in physiology and ecology4 ,in grassland areas it is difficult to know where to draw the line between one plant-community and another when listing species1 for although ecologically distinct both would come under the name grassland4 ,in the field1 however1 this is often very obvious and there is little doubt that fungi can give just as accurate an indication as to the soil-type1 as many mosses or vascular plants4 ,in sand-dune systems1 the mobile dunes offer a different ecological niche to that of the fixed dunes which in many ways resemble grasslands4 ,thus although the lists below are split into easily manageable units1 some flexibility must still be allowed4 ,it is meant only as a guide--and will differ in some cases from one place to another1 even within the ,british ,isles4 ,general ,woodland ,agaricus silvicola 7,vitt47 ,peck ,amanita citrina ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,a4 excelsa 7,fries7 ,kummer ,a4 rubescens 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,a4 vaginata 7,fries7 ,vittadini ,boletus calopus ,fries ,b4 erythropus 7,fries7 ,secretan ,b4 piperatus ,fries ,cantharellus infundibuliformis ,fries ,clitocybe clavipes 7,fries7 ,kummer ,c4 fragrans 7,fries7 ,kummer ,c4 nebularis 7,fries7 ,kummer ,c4 odora 7,fries7 ,kummer ,collybia butyracea 7,fries7 ,kummer ,c4 confluens 7,fries7 ,kummer ,c4 dryophila 7,fries7 ,kummer ,hebeloma crustuliniforme 7,st ,amans7 ,qulet ,hygrocybe strangulatus 7,orton7 ,moser ,hygrophoropsis aurantiaca 7,fries7 ,maire ,inocybe eutheles 7,berkeley ,broome7 ,qulet ,i4 fastigiata 7,fries7 ,qulet ,i4 geophylla 7,fries7 ,kummer ,laccaria laccata 7,fries7 ,cooke ,lactarius mitissimus 7,fries7 ,fries ,l4 piperatus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,l4 subdulcis 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,limacella glioderma 7,fries7 ,maire ,mycena filopes 7,fries7 ,kummer ,m4 galopus 7,fries7 ,kummer ,m4 pura 7,fries7 ,kummer ,m4 sanguinolenta 7,fries7 ,kummer ,m4 vitilis 7,fries7 ,qulet ,paxillus involutus 7,fries7 ,fries ,ripartites tricholoma 7,fries7 ,karsten ,russula adusta 7,fries7 ,fries ,r4 atropurpurea 7,krombholz7 ,britz4 ,r4 delica ,fries ,r4 foetens 7,fries7 ,fries ,r4 nigricans 7,mrat7 ,fries ,r4 ochroleuca 7,secretan7 ,fries ,r4 xerampelina 7,secretan7 ,fries ,tricholoma agyraceum 7,st ,amans7 ,gillet ,t4 orirubens ,qulet ,t4 saponaceum 7,fries7 ,kummer ,t4 sciodes 7,secretan7 ,martin ,t4 terreum 7,fries7 ,kummer ,t4 virgatum 7,fries7 ,kummer ,tylopilus felleus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,hydnum repandum ,fries ,phallus impudicus ,persoon ,scleroderma citrinum ,persoon ,s4 verrucosum ,persoon ,leotia lubrica ,persoon ,microglossum viride 7,fries7 ,gillet ,on wood ,armillaria mellea 7,fries7 ,kummer ,crepidotus variabilis 7,fries7 ,kummer ,hypholoma fasciculare 7,fries7 ,kummer ,h4 sublateritium 7,fries7 ,qulet ,pluteus cervinus 7,fries7 ,kummer ,calocera cornea 7,fries7 ,fries ,coriolus versicolor 7,fries7 ,qulet ,merulius tremellosus ,fries ,schizophyllum commune ,fries ,stereum hirsutum 7,fries7 ,fries ,s4 rugosum 7,fries7 ,fries ,lycoperdon pyriforme ,persoon ,coryne sarcoides 7,s4 ,f4 ,gray7 ,tulasne ,cudoniella acicularis 7,fries7 ,schroeter ,nectria cinnabarina 7,fries7 ,fries ,xylosphaera hypoxylon ,dumortier ,x4 polymorpha 7,mrat7 ,dumortier ,conifer ,woods characterised by species of ,suillus1 ,chroogomphus1 ,gomphidius1 several ,lactarius and ,russula spp4 ,agaricus sylvatica ,secretan ,amanita porphyria 7,fries7 ,secretan ,boletus badius ,fries ,b4 pinicola ,venturi ,chroogomphus rutilus 7,fries7 ,o4 ,k4 ,miller ,clitocybe flaccida 7,fries7 ,kummer ,c4 langei ,hora ,collybia distorta 7,fries7 ,qulet ,cortinarius callisteus 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 gentilis 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 mucosus 7,fries7 ,kickx ,c4 pinicola ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,c4 sanguineus 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 semisanguineus 7,fries7 ,gillet ,cystoderma amianthinum 7,fries7 ,fayod ,gomphidius glutinosus 7,fries7 ,fries ,g4 maculatus ,fries ,g4 roseus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,hygrophorus hypothejus 7,fries7 ,fries ,hypholoma marginatum 7,fries7 ,schroeter ,inocybe calamistrata 7,fries7 ,gillet ,lactarius camphoratus 7,fries7 ,fries ,l4 deliciosus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,l4 helvus 7,fries7 ,fries ,l4 rufus 7,fries7 ,fries ,leccinum vulpinum ,watling ,marasmius androsaceus 7,fries7 ,fries ,mycena adonis 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray 7 ,hemimycena7 ,m4 amicta 7,fries7 ,qulet ,m4 capillaripes ,peck ,m4 coccinea ,qulet ,m4 rubromarginata 7,fries7 ,kummer ,m4 vulgaris 7,fries7 ,kummer ,nolanea cetrata 7,fries7 ,kummer ,n4 cuneata ,bresadola ,rozites caperata 7,fries7 ,karsten ,russula caerulea ,fries ,r4 decolorans 7,fries7 ,fries ,r4 emetica 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,r4 erythropus ,peltereau ,r4 nauseosa 7,secretan7 ,fries ,r4 obscura ,romell ,r4 paludosa ,britz4 ,r4 queletii ,fries ,r4 sardonia ,fries ,tricholoma albobrunneum ,t4 flavovirens 7,fries7 ,lundell ,t4 focale 7,fries7 ,ricken ,t4 imbricatum 7,fries7 ,kummer ,t4 vaccinum 7,fries7 ,kummer ,ramaria ochraceo-virens 7,jungh47 ,donk ,r4 invallii 7,cotton ,wakef47 ,donk ,sarcodon imbricatum 7,fries7 ,karsten ,sparassis crispa 7,wulfen7 ,fries ,thelephora palmata 7,bulliard7 ,patouillard ,t4 terrestris ,fries ,geastrum pectinatum ,persoon ,hypogeous ,rhizopogon luteolus ,fries ,elaphomyces granulatus ,fries ,e4 muricatus ,fries ,on cones ,baeospora myosura 7,fries7 ,singer ,strobilurus esculentus 7,wulf4 ex ,fr47 ,singer ,s4 stephanocystis 7,hora7 ,singer ,s4 tenacellus 7,fries7 ,singer ,auriscalpium vulgare ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,on conifer wood ,gymnopilus penetrans 7,fries7 ,murrill ,hypholoma capnoides 7,fries7 ,kummer ,mycena alcalina 7,fries7 ,kummer ,lentinus tigrinus 7,fries7 ,fries ,paxillus atrotomentosus 7,fries7 ,fries ,p4 panuoides 7,fries7 ,fries ,pholiota flammans 7,fries7 ,kummer ,pleurotellus porrigens 7,fries7 ,singer 7 ,pleurocybella7 ,pluteus atromarginatus ,khner ,tricholompsis rutilans 7,fries7 ,singer ,xeromphalina campanella 7,fries7 ,maire ,calocera viscosa 7,fries7 ,fries ,dacrymyces stillatus ,nees ex ,fries ,pseudohydnum gelatinosum 7,fries7 ,karsten ,gloeophyllum sepiarium 7,fries7 ,karsten ,heterobasidion annosum 7,fries7 ,brefeld ,hirschioporus abietinus 7,fries7 ,donk ,laetiporus sulphureus 7,fries7 ,murrill ,phaeolus schweinitzii 7,fries7 ,patouillard ,stereum sanguinolentum 7,fries7 ,fries ,tremella encephala ,persoon ,t4 foliacea 7,persoon7 ,persoon ,tyromyces stipticus 7,fries7 ,kotlaba ,pouzar ,deciduous ,woods ,general ,amanita fulva ,secretan ,a4 inaurata ,secretan ,a4 virosa ,secretan ,boletus edulis ,fries ,b4 chrysenteron ,st ,amans ,b4 luridus ,fries ,b4 subtomentosus ,fries ,collybia peronata 7,fries7 ,kummer ,lactarius vellereus 7,fries7 ,fries ,russula cyanoxantha 7,secretan7 ,fries ,r4 grisea 7,secretan7 ,fries ,r4 heterophylla 7,fries7 ,fries ,r4 lutea 7,fries7 ,fries ,r4 ochroleuca 7,secretan7 ,fries ,tricholoma album 7,fries7 ,kummer ,t4 columbetta 7,fries7 ,kummer ,t4 saponaceum 7,fries7 ,kummer ,t4 sulphureum 7,fries7 ,kummer ,cantharellus cibarius ,fries ,clavulina cinerea 7,fries7 ,schroeter ,c4 cristata 7,fries7 ,schroeter ,hydnum repandum ,fries ,geastrum rufescens ,persoon ,lycoperdon perlatum ,persoon ,helvella crispa ,fries ,h4 elastica 7,st ,amans7 ,boudier ,h4 lacunosa ,fries ,disciotis venosa 7,persoon7 ,boudier ,paxina acetabulum 7,st ,amans7 ,kuntze ,peziza badia ,mrat ,p4 succosa ,berkeley ,on wood ,coprinus disseminatus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,c4 micaceus 7,fries7 ,fries ,crepidotus mollis 7,fries7 ,kummer ,galerina mutabilis 7,fries7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,gymnopilus junonius 7,fries7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,mycena galericulata 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,oudemansiella radicata 7,fries7 ,singer ,pholiota squarrosa 7,fries7 ,kummer ,pleurotoid fungi 7see p4 #gd7 ,psathyrella candolleana 7,fries7 ,r4 ,maire ,p4 hydrophilum 7,mrat7 ,maire ,coniophora puteana 7,fries7 ,karsten ,meripilus giganteus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,tremella mesenterica ,hooker ,beech ,woods ,amanita citrina var alba ,gillet ,boletus edulis ,fries ,b4 satanus ,lenz ,collybia fuscopurpurea 7,fries7 ,kummer ,coprinus picaceus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,cortinarius pseudosalor ,j4 ,lange ,c4 bolaris 7,fries7 ,fries ,hygrophorus chrysaspis ,mtrod ,laccaria amethystea 7,mrat7 ,murrill ,lactarius blennius 7,fries7 ,fries ,l4 pallidus 7,fries7 ,fries ,l4 tabidus ,fries ,marasmius cohaerens 7,fries7 ,cooke ,qulet ,m4 wynnei ,berkeley ,broome ,mycena capillaris 7,fries7 ,kummer 7on leaves7 ,m4 pelianthina 7,fries7 ,qulet ,russula alutacea 7,fries7 ,fries ,r4 fellea 7,fries7 ,fries ,r4 lepida ,fries ,r4 mairei ,singer ,r4 virescens 7,zantedschi7 ,fries ,tricholoma ustale 7,fries7 ,kummer ,clavariadelphus pistillaris 7,fries7 ,donk ,geaster triplex ,jungh ,g4 fimbriatum ,fries ,hypogeous ,melanogaster variegatus ,vittadini ,tuber aestivum ,vittadini ,on wood ,oudemansiella mucida 7,fries7 ,hhnel ,o4 radicata 7,fries7 ,singer ,panus torulosus 7,fries7 ,fries ,pholiota adiposa 7,fries7 ,kummer ,stropharia squamosa 7,fries7 ,qulet ,bjerkandera adusta 7,fries7 ,karsten ,datronia mollis 7,fries7 ,donk ,hiericium coralloides 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,lentinellus cochleatus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,pseudotrametes gibbosa 7,fries7 ,bond4 ,singer ,bulgaria inquinans ,fries 7a large dark brown1 gelatinous discomycete7 ,several pyrenomycetes are recorded and dealt with by ,j4 ,webster in a popular account published in ,the ,naturalist1 ,london #aiec1 pp4 #a-af4 ,birch ,woods ,amanita crocea 7,qulet7 ,khner ,romagnesi ,boletus edulis ,fries ,cortinarius armillatus 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 crocolitus ,qulet ,c4 hemitrichus 7,fries7 ,fries ,lactarius glaucescens ,crossland ,l4 glyciosmus 7,fries7 ,fries ,l4 lacunarum ,hora ,l4 torminosus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,l4 turpis 7,weinm47 ,fries ,l4 uvidus 7,fries7 ,fries ,l4 vietus 7,fries7 ,fries ,leccinum holopus 7,rostkovius7 ,watling ,l4 roseofractum ,watling ,l4 scabrum 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,l4 variicolor ,watling ,l4 versipellis 7,fries ,hk7 ,snell ,russula aeruginea ,lindblad ex ,fries ,r4 betularum ,hora ,r4 claroflava ,grove ,r4 gracillima ,j4 ,schaeffer ,r4 nitida 7,fries7 ,fries ,r4 pulchella ,borszczow ,r4 versicolor ,j4 ,schaeffer ,tricholoma fulvum 7,fries7 ,saccardo ,on wood ,fomes fomentarius 7,fries7 ,kickx ,lenzites betulina 7,fries7 ,fries ,piptoporus betulinus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,oak ,woods ,amanita phalloides 7,fries7 ,secretan ,boletus albidus ,rocques ,b4 appendiculatus ,fries ,b4 pulverulentus ,opatowski ,b4 reticulatus ,boudier ,b4 versicolor ,rostkovius ,gyroporus castaneus 7,fries7 ,qulet ,hygrophorus eburneus 7,fries7 ,fries ,lactarius chrysorheus ,fries ,l4 quietus 7,fries7 ,fries ,leccinum quercinum 7,pilt7 ,green ,watling ,russula vesca ,fries ,tricholoma acerbum 7,fries7 ,qulet ,hypogeous ,hymenogaster tener ,berkeley ,broome ,on wood ,mycena inclinata 7,fries7 ,qulet ,psathyrella obtusata 7,fries7 ,a4 ,h4 ,smith ,daedalea quercina ,persoon ,fistulina hepatica ,fries ,hymenochaete rubiginosa 7,fries7 ,lville ,peniophora quercina 7,fries7 ,cooke ,inonotus dryadeus 7,fries7 ,murrill ,stereum gausapatum 7,fries7 ,fries ,specific ,tree ,species ,alder ,lactarius obscuratus 7,lasch7 ,fries ,naucoria escharoides 7,fries7 ,kummer ,n4 scolecina 7,fries7 ,qulet ,on wood ,clavariadelphus fistulosus var4 contorta 7,fries7 ,corner ,exidia glandulosa 7,st ,amans7 ,fries ,inonotus radiatus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,plicaturiopsis crispa 7,fries7 ,reid ,ash ,on wood ,inonotus hispidus 7,fries7 ,karsten ,daldinia concentrica 7,fries7 ,cesati de ,notaris ,elder ,on wood ,hirneola auricula-judae 7,st ,amans7 ,berkeley ,hyphodontia sambuci 7,fries7 ,j4 ,eriksson ,elm ,on wood ,lyophyllum ulmarius 7,fries7 ,khner ,rhodotus palmatus 7,fries7 ,maire ,volvariella bombycina 7,fries7 ,singer ,rigidoporus ulmarius 7,fries7 ,imaz ,hazel ,lactarius pyrogalus 7,fries7 ,fries ,leccinum carpini 7,r4 ,schulzer7 ,reid ,on wood ,hymenochaete corrugata 7,fries7 ,lville ,sarcoscypha coccinea 7,fries7 ,lambotte 7red discomycete occurring in early spring7 ,hawthorn ,entoloma clypeatum 7,fries7 ,kummer ,on wood ,pholiota squarrosa 7,fries7 ,kummer ,phellinus pomaceus 7,persoon7 ,maire ,stereum purpureum 7,fries7 ,fries ,hornbeam ,lactarius circellatus ,fries ,leccinum carpini 7,r4 ,schulzer7 ,reid ,poplar ,lactarius controversus 7,fries7 ,fries ,leccinum aurantiacum 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,l4 duriusculum 7,schulzer7 ,singer ,mitromorpha hybrida 7,fries7 ,lville ,on wood ,agrocybe cylindracea 7,fries7 ,maire ,pholiota destruens 7,brondeau7 ,gillet ,bjerkandera fumosa 7,fries7 ,karsten ,oxyporus populinus 7,fries7 ,donk ,willow ,hebeloma leucosarx ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,h4 mesophaeum 7,persoon7 ,qulet ,h4 testaceum 7,fries7 ,qulet ,lactarius lacunarum ,hora ,on wood ,daedaleopsis rubescens 7,fries7 ,schroeter ,pluteus salicinus 7,fries7 ,kummer ,phellinus igniarius 7,fries7 ,qulet ,trametes suaveolens 7,fries7 ,fries ,grasslands ,agaricus arvensis ,secretan ,a4 campestris ,fries ,a4 macrosporus 7,moller ,schaeffer7 ,pilt ,agrocybe semiorbicularis 7,st ,amans7 ,fayod ,calocybe gambosum 7,fries7 ,singer ,c4 carneum 7,fries7 ,kummer ,cantharellula umbonata 7,fries7 ,singer ,clitocybe dealbata 7,fries7 ,kummer ,c4 ericetorum ,qulet ,c4 rivulosa 7,fries7 ,kummer ,clitopilus prunulus 7,fries7 ,kummer ,dermoloma atrocinereum 7,fries7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,d4 cuneifolium 7,fries7 ,singer ,entoloma porphyrophaeum 7,fries7 ,karsten ,hygrocybe aurantiosplendens ,r4 ,haller ,h4 berkeleyi 7,p4 ,d4 ,orton7 ,orton ,watling ,h4 chlorophana 7,fries7 ,karsten ,h4 coccinea 7,fries7 ,kummer ,h4 conica 7,fries7 ,kummer ,h4 calyptraeformis 7,berkeley ,broome7 ,fayod ,h4 flavescens 7,kauffman7 ,singer ,h4 marchii 7,bresadola7 ,singer ,h4 nivea 7,fries7 ,orton ,watling ,h4 nitrata 7,pers47 ,wunsche ,h4 obrussea 7,fries7 ,fries ,h4 pratensis 7,fries7 ,donk ,h4 psittacina 7,fries7 ,wunsche ,h4 punicea 7,fries7 ,kummer ,h4 reai 7,maire7 ,j4 ,lange ,h4 russocoriacea 7,berkeley ,miller7 ,orton ,watling ,h4 splendidissima 7,p4 ,d4 ,orton7 ,moser ,h4 unguinosa 7,fries7 ,karsten ,h4 virginea 7,fries7 ,orton ,watling ,lepiota procera 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,lepista luscina 7,fries7 ,singer ,l4 saeva 7,fries7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,leptonia griseocyanea 7,fries7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,l4 incana 7,fries7 ,gillet ,l4 sericella 7,fries7 ,barbier ,l4 serrulata 7,fries7 ,kummer ,leucoagaricus naucina 7,fries7 ,singer ,melanoleuca strictipes 7,karsten7 ,j4 ,schaeffer ,mycena flavoalba 7,fries7 ,qulet ,m4 leptocephala 7,fries7 ,gillet ,m4 fibula 7,fries7 ,khner ,m4 swartzii 7,fries7 ,a4 ,h4 ,smith ,nolanea papillata ,bresadola ,n4 sericea 7,mrat7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,n4 staurospora ,bresadola ,psathyrella atomata 7,fries7 ,qulet ,rhodocybe popinalis 7,fries7 ,singer ,clavaria fumosa ,fries ,c4 vermicularis ,fries ,clavulinopsis corniculata 7,fries7 ,corner ,c4 fusiformis 7,fries7 ,corner ,c4 helvola 7,fries7 ,corner ,bovista nigrescens ,persoon ,b4 plumbea ,persoon ,calvatia utriformis 7,fries7 ,jaap ,c4 excipuliformis 7,fries7 ,perdeck ,corynetes atropurpureus 7,fries7 ,durand ,geoglossum cookeianum ,nannfeldt ,g4 glutinosus ,fries ,g4 nigritun ,cooke ,trichoglossum hirsutum 7,fries7 ,boudier ,lawns3 ,wasteland3 ,hedgerows ,agaricus hortensis 7,cooke7 ,pilt ,a4 bisporus 7,j4 ,lange7 ,pilt ,a4 xanthodermus ,genevier ,agrocybe dura 7,fries7 ,singer ,a4 erebia 7,fries7 ,khner ,a4 praecox 7,fries7 ,fayod ,coprinus comatus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,c4 acuminatus 7,romagnesi7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,c4 atramentarius 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 micaceus 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 plicatilis 7,fries7 ,fries ,flammulaster granulosa 7,j4 ,lange7 ,watling ,lacrymaria velutina 7,fries7 ,konrad ,maublanc ,lepiota cristata 7,fries7 ,kummer ,l4 friesii 7,lasch7 ,qulet ,l4 rhacodes 7,vittadini7 ,qulet ,lepista nuda 7,fries7 ,cooke ,l4 sordida 7,fries7 ,singer ,lyophyllum connatum 7,fries7 ,singer ,l4 decastes 7,fries7 ,singer ,marasmius oreades 7,fries7 ,fries ,melanophyllum echinatum 7,fries7 ,singer ,mycena olivaceomarginata 7,massee7 ,massee ,m4 fibula 7,fries7 ,khner ,m4 swartzii 7,fries7 ,a4 ,h4 ,smith ,panaeolus fimicola 7,fries7 ,qulet ,p4 foenisecii 7,fries7 ,schroeter ,psathyrella gracilis 7,fries7 ,qulet ,p4 squamosa 7,karsten7 ,moser ,tubaria furfuracea 7,fries7 ,gillet ,t4 pellucida 7,fries7 ,gillet ,volvariella speciosa 7,fries7 ,singer ,langermannia gigantea 7,persoon7 ,lloyd ,aleuria aurantia 7,fries7 ,fuckel ,morchella esculenta ,st ,amans ,verpa conica ,persoon ,on herbaceous material ,coprinus urticicola 7,berkeley ,broome7 ,buller ,panaeolus subbalteatus 7,berkeley ,broome7 ,saccardo 7in middens7 ,crucibulum laeve 7de ,candolle7 ,kambly ,cyathus olla ,persoon ,helicobasidium brebissonii 7,desmazieres7 ,donk ,pistillaria micans 7,persoon7 ,fries ,p4 quisquilliaris ,fries 7on bracken stems7 ,in greenhouses ,lepiota rhacodes var4 hortensis ,pilt ,leucocoprinus cepaestipes 7,fries7 ,patouillard ,l4 birnbaummii 7,corda7 ,singer ,l4 brebissonii 7,godey7 ,locquin ,l4 denudatus 7,rabenhorst7 ,singer ,l4 lilacinogranulosus 7,henning7 ,locquin ,psilocybe cyanescens ,wakefield ,near out-buildings1 stables1 etc4 ,anthurus archeri 7,berkeley7 ,e4 ,fischer ,asteroe ruber ,la ,billardiere ,clathrus ruber ,persoon ,lysurus australiensis ,cooke ,massee ,queletia mirabilis ,fries ,specialised habitats 7a7 ,dung ,bolbitius vitellinus 7,fries7 ,fries ,conocybe coprophila 7,khner7 ,khner ,c4 pubescens 7,gillet7 ,khner ,c4 rickenii 7,j4 ,schaeffer7 ,khner ,coprinus cinereus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,c4 ephemeroides 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 macrocephalus 7,berkeley7 ,berkeley ,c4 patouillardii ,qulet ,c4 narcoticus 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 niveus 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 pellucidus ,karsten ,c4 pseudoradiatus ,khner ,josserand ,c4 radiatus 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,panaeolus semiovatus 7,fries7 ,lundell ,p4 sphinctrinus 7,fries7 ,qulet ,psathyrella coprobia 7,j4 ,lange7 ,a4 ,h4 ,smith ,psilocybe coprophila 7,fries7 ,kummer ,p4 merdaria 7,fries7 ,qulet ,stropharia semiglobata 7,fries7 ,qulet ,pyrenomycetes3 ,genera--,sordaria2 ,podospora2 ,sporormia2 ,delitschia4 ,discomycetes3 ,genera--,cheilymenia2 ,ascobolus2 ,coprobia4 ,a key to the common dung fungi is given in ,bull4 ,british ,myc4 ,society1 #aifh by ,watling ,richardson4 7b7 ,burnt patches ,aureoboletus cramesinus 7,secretan7 ,watling ,coprinus angulatus ,peck ,c4 lipophilus ,romagnesi ,heim ,hebeloma anthracophilum ,maire ,mycena leucogala 7,cooke7 ,saccardo ,myxomphalia maura 7,fries7 ,hora ,pholiota highlandensis 7,peck7 ,a4 ,h4 ,smith ,psathyrella pennata 7,fries7 ,pearson ,dennis ,tephrocybe anthracophila 7,lasch7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,t4 ambusta 7,fries7 ,donk ,t4 atrata 7,fries7 ,donk ,coltricia perennis 7,fries7 ,murrill ,anthracobia macrocystis 7,cooke7 ,boudier ,a4 maurilabra 7,cooke7 ,boudier ,a4 melaloma 7,fries7 ,boudier ,ascobolus carbonarius ,karsten ,geopyxis carbonaria 7,fries7 ,saccardo ,lamprospora astroidea 7,hazslinzky7 ,boudier ,peziza echinospora ,karsten ,p4 petersii ,berkeley ,curtis ,p4 praetervisa ,bresadola ,p4 violacea ,persoon ,pyronema omphalodes 7,st ,amans7 ,fuckel ,tricharia gilva ,boudier ,trichophaea woolhopeia 7,cooke ,phillips7 ,boudier 7c7 ,sand-dunes ,agaricus bernardii ,qulet ,a4 devoniensis ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,conocybe dunensis ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,eccilia nigella ,qulet ,hygrocybe conicoides ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,inocybe devoniensis ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,i4 dulcamara 7,persoon7 ,kummer ,i4 dunensis ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,i4 halophila ,heim ,i4 serotina ,peck ,laccaria maritima 7,theodowicz7 ,singer ,psathyrella ammophila 7,durieu ,lville7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,stropharia albocyanea 7,desmariezes7 ,qulet ,geaster striatum de ,candolle ,tulostoma brumale ,persoon ,vascellum depressum 7,bonorden7 ,smarda ,phallus hadriani ,persoon ,corynetes arenarius 7,rostrup7 ,durand ,peziza ammophila ,durieu ,montagne 7d7 ,heathland ,cystoderma amianthinum 7,fries7 ,fayod ,entoloma helodes 7,fries7 ,kummer ,e4 madidum 7,fries7 ,gillet ,galerina mniophila 7,lasch7 ,khner ,g4 praticola 7,moller7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton ,g4 vittaeformis 7,fries7 ,moser ,hygrophoropsis aurantiaca 7,fries7 ,maire ,hygrocybe cantharella 7,schweintz7 ,murrill ,h4 lacma 7,fries7 ,orton ,watling ,h4 laeta 7,fries7 ,kummer ,h4 ovina 7,fries7 ,khner ,h4 subradiata 7,secretan7 ,orton ,watling ,h4 turunda 7,fries7 ,karsten ,hypholoma ericaeum 7,fries7 ,khner ,h4 subericaeum 7,fries7 ,khner ,mycena epipterygia 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray ,m4 olivaceomarginata 7,massee7 ,massee ,omphalina velutina 7,qulet7 ,qulet ,clavaria argillacea 7,persoon7 ,fries ,lycoperdon foetidum ,bonorden 7e7 ,marshes ,cortinarius uliginosus ,berkeley ,coprinus friesii ,qulet 7on grass-stems7 ,c4 martinii ,p4 ,d4 ,orton 7on ,juncus7 ,entoloma sericatum 7,britz47 ,saccardo 7under birches7 ,galerina jaapii ,smith ,singer ,g4 paludosa 7,fries7 ,khner ,g4 sphagnorum 7,fries7 ,khner ,g4 tibiicystis 7,atkinson7 ,khner ,hygrocybe cantharella 7,schweinitz7 ,murrill ,h4 coccineocrenata 7,p4 ,d4 ,orton7 ,moser ,h4 turunda 7,fries7 ,karsten ,hypholoma elongatum 7,fries7 ,ricken ,h4 udum 7,fries7 ,khner ,laccaria proxima 7,boudier7 ,patouillard ,marasmius menieri ,boudier on ,typha ,mycena belliae 7,johnston7 ,p4 ,d4 ,orton on ,phragmites ,m4 bulbosa 7,cejp7 ,khner on ,juncus ,m4 integrella 7,fries7 ,s4 ,f4 ,gray on ,cladium ,omphalina ericetorum 7,fries7 ,qulet ,lange ,o4 oniscus 7,fries7 ,qulet ,o4 philonotis 7,lasch7 ,qulet ,o4 sphagnicola 7,berkeley7 ,moser ,pholiota myosotis 7,fries7 ,singer ,psathyrella sphagnicola 7,maire7 ,favre ,tephrocybe palustris 7,peck7 ,donk ,cudoniella clavus 7,fries7 ,dennis ,mitrula paludosa ,fries ,scutellinia scutellata 7,st ,amans7 ,lambotte 7with bright red disc and conspicuous brown hairs at the margin7 ,vibrissea truncorum ,fries 7an orange-capped fungus with a black stem7 7f7 ,mountain tops ,amanita nivalis ,greville ,cortinarius anomalus 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 cinnamomeus 7,fries7 ,fries ,c4 tabularis 7,fries7 ,fries ,russula alpina 7,blytt7 ,moller ,schaeffer ,r4 xerampelina var4 pascua ,favre 7g7 ,mossy areas on the ground1 rocks or stumps ,galerina hypnorum 7,fries7 ,khner ,g4 mniophila 7,lasch7 ,khner ,g4 mycenopsis 7,fries7 ,khner ,g4 praticola ,moller ,c4 unicolor 7,sommerf47 ,singer 7often on wood7 ,leptoglossum lobatus 7,fries7 ,ricken ,l4 retirugis 7,fries7 ,khner ,romagnesi ,mycena corticola 7,fries7 ,ricken 7on wood7 ,m4 hiemalis 7,fries7 ,qulet 7on wood7 ,m4 olida ,bresadola 7on wood7 ,omphalina rickenii ,hora ,cyphella muscigena 7,pers47 ,fries ,cyphellostereum levis 7,fries7 ,reid ,neottiella rutilans 7,fries7 ,dennis 7h7 ,hypogeous fungi ,melanogaster variegatus ,vittadini ,rhizopogon luteolus ,fries ,r4 rubescens ,tulasne ,elaphomyces granulatus ,fries ,e4 muricatus ,fries ,gyrocratera ploettneriana ,hennings ,hydnotrya tulasnei ,berkeley ,broome ,melanogaster variegatus ,vittadini ,tuber aestivum ,vittadini ,t4 rufum ,fries 7i7 ,on rotten fungi ,nyctalis asterophora ,fries ,n4 parasitica 7,fries7 ,fries ,collybia cirrhata 7,fries7 ,kummer ,c4 cookei 7,bresadola7 ,j4 ,d4 ,arnold ,c4 tuberosa 7,fries7 ,kummer 7ii7 ,glossary of technical terms ,specialised colours are placed in capitals ,adnate 7of the gills or tubes71 broadly attached to the stem at least for one quarter of their length4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,adnexed 7of the gills or tubes71 narrowly attached to the stem by less than one quarter of their length4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,amygdaliform 7of the spore71 almond-shaped4 ,amyloid 7of the spore-walls1 spore-ornamentation or hyphal walls71 greyish or bluish or blackish violet in solutions containing iodine4 ,apiculus 7of the spore71 the short peg-like structure at the basal end of the spore by which it is attached to the basidium4 ,see ,fig4 #e1 p4 #ae4 ,arcuate-decurrent 7of the gills or tubes71 curved and extending down the stem4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,ascus1 a clavate to cylindrical or subglobose cell in which the 7asco-7 spores are borne1 usually in eights4 ,basidium1 a clavate or subcylindrical cell on which the 7basidio-7 spores are borne1 externally on stalks4 ,see ,fig4 #e1 p4 #ae4 ,cap 7of the fruit-body71 that structure which bears the spore-bearing layers beneath it 7 pileus74 ,caespitose 7of the fruit-body71 aggregated into tufts4 ,,cinnamon-,,brown1 the colour of cinnamon powder obtainable from the grocer4 ,clavate 7of the stem1 or cystidia71 club-shaped4 ,convex 7of the cap71 curving outwards4 ,see ,plate #i1 p4 #ee4 ,cortex 7of the cap or stem71 outer layers of the tissue4 ,cortina1 a cobweb-like veil at first connecting the margin of the cap and stem1 but at maturity often only present as remnants on the stem and_/or cap-margin4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,cystidium1 a differentiated terminal cell usually on the surface and edges of the cap1 gill and stem3 facial cystidia occurring on the gill-face3 marginal cystidia occurring on the gill-margin4 ,see ,fig4 #d1 p4 #ae4 ,,date-,,brown1 the colour of packed dates4 ,decurrent 7of the gills and tubes71 with a part attached to and descending down the stem4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,deliquescent 7of the gills1 cap or entire fruit-body71 changing into a liquid at maturity4 ,depauperate poorly developed4 ,depressed 7of the cap71 having the central portion sunken1 and 7of the tubes7 sunken about the apex of the stem4 ,see ,plate #a1 p4 #bi4 ,dentate see toothed4 ,distant 7of the gills71 greater than their own thickness apart4 ,divergent 7of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section71 with the hyphae curving downwards and outwards on both sides of a central zone as if combed4 ,see ,fig4 #i;,a1 p4 #ag4 ,ellipsoid 7of the spores71 elliptic in outline in all planes4 ,emarginate 7of the gills71 notched near the stem4 ,see ,sinuate1 p4 #bfc4 ,excentric 7of the cap71 laterally placed on the stem4 ,expallent 7of the cap71 becoming paler when drying4 ,expanded 7of the cap71 opened out when mature4 ,see ,plate #aj1 p4 #fa4 ,fibrillose 7of the cap and stem-surfaces71 almost smooth but for distinct parallel longitudinal filaments 7fibrils74 ,fleshy 7of the fruit-body71 of a rather soft consistency3 readily decaying4 ,floccose1 with loose1 cottony surface2 diminutive--flocculose4 ,free 7of the gills and tubes71 not attached to the stem4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,frondose trees1 broad-leaved trees4 ,fruit-body1 the whole agaric 7toadstool or mushroom1 polypore1 etc471 as usually understood4 ,germ-pore1 a differentiated apical1 usually thin-walled portion of the spore4 ,see ,fig4 #e1 p4 #ae4 ,gill1 the structure on which the reproductive tissue is borne in agarics1 resembling plates4 ,globose 7of the spore71 round in outline in all planes4 ,glutinous 7of the cap or stem71 provided with a sticky jelly-like coating4 ,heteromerous 7of the cap and stem-flesh71 with discrete nests of rounded cells in a background of filamentous cells3 characterises members of the ,russulaceae4 ,see ,fig4 #aj;,b1 p4 #ag4 ,homoiomerous 7of the cap and stem-flesh71 not sharply differentiated into two types of cells1 although some may be swollen3 characterises agarics other than members of the ,russulaceae4 ,see ,fig4 #aj;,a1 p4 #ag4 ,hygrophanous 7of the cap71 translucent when wet1 opaque and often paler on drying4 ,hymenium1 the superficial layer of cells in which basidia occur4 ,see ,fig4 #i;,a-,d1 p4 #ag4 ,hyaline1 appearing as if clear glass4 ,hypogeous1 growing under ground4 ,hypha1 a fungus filament composed of a chain of several cells2 plural--hyphae2 adjective--hyphal4 ,inverse1 7of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section71 with the hyphae curving upwards and outwards on both sides of a central zone4 ,see ,fig4 #i;,b1 p4 #ag4 ,irregular 7of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section71 lacking any clear pattern as to hyphal arrangement4 ,see ,fig4 #i;,d1 p4 #ag4 ,mealy1 covered in powdery granules1 resembling meal4 ,mycelium1 a mass of fungus-filaments 7hyphae74 ,mycorrhiza1 a symbiotic association of a fungus and the roots of a higher plant4 ,non-amyloid 7of the spore-wall1 spore-ornamentation and hyphal walls71 remaining uncoloured or becoming yellowish in solutions containing iodine4 ,,ochraceous1 bright clay-colour3 colour of ochre 7yellow-brown74 ,,olivaceous ,,brown1 a dull clay-brown with an additional but distinct hint of dirty green4 ,plano-convex 7of the cap71 regularly rounded although almost flat4 ,see ,plate #ac1 p4 #fg--;adult fruit-body4 ,pruinose 7of the cap and stem-surfaces71 finely powdered4 ,pubescent 7of the cap and stem-surfaces71 with short1 soft hairs4 ,putrescent 7of the fruit-body71 soft and very easily decaying4 ,pyriform 7of the spore71 pear-shaped4 ,regular 7of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section71 with hyphae showing no distinct curvature and practically parallel to the gill-surfaces4 ,see ,fig4 #i;,c1 p4 #ag4 ,remote 7of the gills or tubes71 separate from the stem by a zone of cap-flesh4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,resupinate 7of the fruit-body71 spore-bearing tissue facing outward and attached to support by what would have been the cap had the fungus been a normal agaric4 ,ring1 a girdling veil on the stem4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,rugulose 7of a surface71 covered in small wrinkles4 ,,rust-,,brown1 the colour of rusty iron4 ,saprophyte 7of an organism71 using dead material for active growth4 ,scurfy 7of the cap and stem surfaces71 with small irregular loosely attached scales4 ,sessile 7of the fruit-bodies71 lacking a stem4 ,septate 7of the structural units of the fruit-body71 with cross-walls2 septum--cross-wall4 ,sinuate 7of the gills71 having a concave indentation of that part of the edge nearest the stem4 ,see ,plate #cb1 p4 #aaa4 ,,snuff-,,brown1 a dull dark clay-brown said to resemble the colour of snuff4 ,spore-print 7or deposit71 the mass of spores obtained by allowing the fruit-body to discharge its spores at maturity4 ,stem 7of the fruit-body71 that structure which supports the cap 7 stipe74 ,sterile1 a tissue or structure not involved in the reproductive process1 or failing to take part4 ,sterigma1 the point-like structure at the apex of the basidium actually bearing the spores4 ,striate 7of a surface71 having minute furrows or lines4 ,subdecurrent 7of the gills or the tubes71 having the gill-attachment extending slightly down the stem4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,,tawny1 sand-coloured4 ,tomentose 7of the cap and stem surfaces71 densely matted and woolly4 ,toothed 7of the gills or cap-margin71 as if with teeth 7 dentate74 ,trama 7of the gills71 the tissue between the layers bearing basidia 7hymenia74 ,umbilicate 7of the cap71 having a central1 small depression4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,umbonate 7of the cap71 provided with a broad1 flattened1 raised centre 7the umbo74 ,uncinate 7of the gills71 emarginate1 but with a long descending decurrent tooth because the cap does not expand4 ,see ,plate #ad1 p4 #fi4 ,veil1 a general term for the tissues which protect the whole or part of the developing fruit-body4 ,viscid 7of the cap or stem71 very slippery to the touch4 ,volva1 a persistent cup-like structure at the base of the stem4 ,see p4 #bfg4 ,waxy 7of the gills71 lustrous because they are thick and watery4 ,illustrations ,text-figures and line-drawings of the greater number of the fungi mentioned in the text have been included in the book4 ,it is impossible to supply colour pictures of a high quality in a book such as this without raising the price of the publication astronomically4 ,the plates in six easily obtainable popular books have been used to represent whenever possible the fungus described in the text1 as accurate colour illustrations are very useful in identification4 ,the titles of these books have been abbreviated for clarity4 ,abbreviations for illustrations used throughout the text ,f--,findlay1 ,w4 ,p4 ,k4 7#aifg71 ,wayside and ,woodland ,fungi1 ,london4 ,hvass--,hvass1 ,e4 ,h4 7#aifa71 ,mushrooms and ,toadstools in ,colour1 ,london4 ,,lh--,lange1 ,m4 ,hora1 ,f4 ,b4 7#aifc71 ,collins ,guide to ,mushrooms and ,toadstools1 ,london4 ,,nb--,nicholson1 ,b4 ,e4 ,brightman1 ,f4 ,h4 7#aiff71 ,oxford ,book of ,flowerless ,plants1 ,oxford4 ,,wd--,wakefield1 ,e4 ,dennis1 ,r4 ,w4 ,g4 7#aiej71 ,common ,british ,fungi1 ,london4 ,z--,zeitlmayr1 ,l4 7#aifh71 ,wild ,mushrooms1 ,london4 7iii7 ,fairy rings ,object3 ,to assess the annual radial growth of fairy-rings and to correlate this with any obvious environmental change4 ,materials3 ,graph and tracing papers1 tape-measures1 note-book1 pencil and rule1 small pieces of cane about four inches long and coloured dye 7e4g4 ,eosin solution1 ,janus ,green74 ,method3 ,select a fairy-ring on the school cricket pitch or hockey pitch1 school lawn1 local golf course or park at a time when the fruit-bodies are first visible4 ,carefully mark the centre of the ring by driving into the soil a piece of cane until the top is only just visible4 ,plot this point on graph paper and relate it to any prominent feature nearby1 e4g4 post1 tree or hedge4 ,carry out weekly observations throughout the fruiting season plotting the individual fruit-bodies on tracing paper1 which is trimmed so as to make a replica of the original graph-sheet4 ,a small dab of coloured dye placed on a fruit-body will assist one in recognising fruit-bodies from previous observations4 ,during the fruiting season observe and plot the zones of differently coloured vegetation--devise some method of describing 7and measuring7 these colours perhaps by comparison with a colour-chart1 printed or hand prepared4 ,continue observations on the ring at monthly or fortnightly intervals after the disappearance of the fruit-bodies1 and record subsequent changes in the vegetation for twelve months4 ,this project can be continued for several years and for different species of fungus4 ,weather conditions may be noted simultaneously with the growth observations1 or obtained from a reliable source of similar information close by4 ,in this way not only is the increase in ring size measured but the results can be considered in the light of climatic data2 fungal growth appears to be dependent on favourable weather conditions4 ,further experiments3 7i7 ,compare the effect that different species of agaric have on the same type of vegetation4 7ii7 ,observe selected fairy-rings for several seasons then either apply fertilisers1 particularly calcium-based fertilisers to the ring-area1 or mow the vegetation4 ,note increase in fruit-body production1 if any1 changes in period of fructification or increase in rate of ring development4 7iii7 ,prepare transects across the fairy-ring and observe the species of flowering plants and mosses present1 the differences between species in the two stimulated zones1 and the colonisation of the dead zone by annuals and later perennial grasses and herbs4 7iv7 ,to the soil from each zone apply simple soil-dilution plate-methods for the culture and isolation of soil fungi and bacteria4 ,compare the results with those obtained by similar methods from soil without the fairy-ring4 7iv7 ,development of the agaric fruit-body ,in the soil or substrate the hyphae of agarics frequently grow in close contact with each other1 indeed the intertwining of such hyphae to form small knots is common in many fungi4 ,in these intertwining hyphae1 those close together divide and branch1 later branching again to form a heap of tissue4 ,the fruit-body develops from1 or within1 this knot and at its earliest stage is usually covered by loosely branched and irregularly arranged hyphae4 ,to the unaided eye the primordium1 for this is what such a structure or early beginning is called1 appears to be enveloped in a mass of pale hyphal strands1 often giving the fruit-body a woolly appearance when seated on the soil1 wood1 herbaceous debris1 etc4 ,if more than one primordium develops in close proximity1 usually all but one abort early in development1 or they remain checked in formation at this stage until those close by have matured4 ,some species which grow on wood are caespitose1 that is clustered together1 and in these cases all or many more of the primordia develop fully and simultaneously4 ,often it is possible to search and find these primordia in the fields and woods1 and if they are examined under the low-power of a microscope it is possible to study how the fruit-body subsequently develops from its small beginnings and the part played by the ring and volva in the development determined4 ,thus the origin of the veil can be located1 its development followed as well as its disintegration4 ,when the fungus is grown in pure culture on sterile dung1 or soil1 or wood1 or simply on artificial media prepared in the laboratory the full sequence of events can be more easily followed4 ,this is how the professional mycologist conducts his observations4 ,by very careful studies it has been found in recent years that the development of the fruit-body1 the origin of the gills1 etc4 can assist in the classification of the higher fungi4 ,thus some species have no protective tissue around the developing gills 7gymnocarpic7 whilst others have one or even two1 simple or complex1 tissues around the developing gills or pores 7hemiangiocarpic74 ,it is these tissues which give rise to the ring1 volva1 cortina1 etc4 ,this most exciting part of the study of the higher fungi is illustrated in the accompanying figures 7,figs4 #ab #ac7 along with the various types of gill-attachment mentioned in the text 7,fig4 #aa ,a-,h74 ,if the agaric has two tissues surrounding it as the cap expands and matures1 first the outer tissue or skin breaks leaving pieces on the stem and_/or cap and then the second skin breaks as the cap expands still further4 ,the last skin leaves remnants on the stem and sometimes bits and pieces at the cap margin4 ,only now can the agaric shed its spores from the fully exposed gills4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ad 7v7 ,references ,a4 ,reference ,texts ,some references have already been given on p4 #bfd4 ,findlay1 ,hvass ,hvass1 ,lange ,hora1 ,nicholson ,brightman1 ,wakefield and ,dennis and ,zeitlmayr4 ,in addition to these the following texts are suggested3 ,henderson1 ,d4 ,m41 ,orton1 ,p4 ,d4 ,watling1 ,r4 7#aifi74 ,british ,fungus ,flora3 ,agarics and ,boleti3 ,introduction1 ,h4,m4,s4,o41 ,edinburgh4 ,hennig1 ,e4 7#aieh-fj74 ,handbuch fr ,pilzfreunde1 ,jena 7in ,german74 ,haas1 ,h4 7#aifi74 ,the ,young ,specialist looks at ,fungi1 ,london4 ,pilt1 ,a4 ,usak1 ,o4 7#aiea74 ,mushrooms1 ,london4 ,pilt1 ,a4 ,usak1 ,o4 7#aifa74 ,mushrooms and other fungi1 ,london4 ,ramsbottom1 ,j4 7#aiea74 ,handbook of ,larger fungi1 ,london4 ,ramsbottom1 ,j4 7#aiec74 ,mushrooms and ,toadstools1 ,new ,naturalist1 ,london4 ,romagnesi1 ,h4 7#aifc74 ,petit ,atlas des ,champignons1 ,bordas 7in ,french74 ,smith1 ,a4 ,h4 7#aifc74 ,mushroom ,hunters' ,field-guide1 ,michigan4 ,wakefield1 ,e4 ,m4 7#aied74 ,observer's book of ,common fungi1 ,london4 ,watling1 ,r4 7#aigj74 ,british ,fungus ,flora3 ,agarics ,boleti1 ,part ,i1 ,h4,m4,s4,o41 ,edinburgh4 ,b4 ,general ,texts ,talbot1 ,p4 ,m4 ,b4 7#aiga74 ,principles of ,fungal ,taxonomy1 ,london4 ,webster1 ,j4 7#aigj74 ,introduction to ,fungi1 ,cambridge4 ,c4 ,journals ,bulletin ,trimestriel de la ,socit ,mycologique de ,france1 ,paris4 7,official organ of the ,french ,mycological ,society47 ,coolia1 ,leiden4 7,official organ of the ,dutch ,mycological ,society47 ,mycologia1 ,new ,york4 7,official organ of the ,american ,mycological ,society47 ,schweizerische ,zeitschrift fr ,pilzkunde4 7,official organ of the ,swiss ,mycological ,society47 ,transactions of the ,british ,mycological ,society1 7,official organ of the ,british ,society3 ,hon4 ,sec4 ,dr ,b4 ,e4 ,wheeler1 ,imperial ,college of ,science and ,technology ,field ,station1 ,silwood ,park1 ,sunninghill1 ,ascot1 ,berks1 also publishes a ,bulletin intended for the amateur47 ,d4 ,advanced ,texts ,dennis1 ,r4 ,w4 ,g41 ,orton1 ,p4 ,d4 ,hora1 ,f4 ,b4 7#aifj74 ,new ,check ,list of ,british ,agarics and ,boleti1 suppl4 ,trans4 ,british ,mycological ,soc4 ,moser1 ,m4 7#aifg74 in ,gams ,kleine ,kryptogamenflora1 ,band ,i,ib ,stuttgart 7in ,german74 ,khner1 ,r4 ,romagnesi1 ,h4 7#aiec74 ,flore ,analytique des ,champignons ,suprieurs de ,france1 ,paris 7in ,french74 ,rea1 ,c4 7#aibb74 ,british ,basidiomycetae1 ,cambridge4 ,revue de ,mycologie 7journal7 ,paris 7in ,french74 ,,index ,numbers in bold italics refer to pages with illustrations4 ,latin ,names ,agaricales #ba ,agaricus #bc1 #bdj ,agaricus arvensis #ajh1 ,plate #ca 7#aji7 bisporus #acc1 ,plate #dc 7#acd7 campestris #ajh1 ,plate #ca 7#aji7 hortensis #acc1 ,plate #dc 7#acd7 xanthodermus #ajh ,agrocybe #bc ,aleurodiscus amorphus ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,aleuria aurantia #aih1 ,plate #fg 7#aii7 ,alnicola #bbf ,amanita #bd1 #ef1 #eg1 #ajj1 #bcg ,amanita caesarea #ef citrina #ef1 #eg citrina var4 alba #ef excelsa #eg fulva #ef1 #eg1 #eh muscaria #ed1 ,plate #i 7#ee71 #ef1 #eg1 #bdi nivalis #bcg pantherina #eh phalloides #ef1 #eg1 #eh porphyria #ef rubescens #ef1 #eg1 #eh vaginata #eg1 #eh virosa #ef ,amanitopsis #eg ,amyloporia xantha #aef ,anthracobia #bbj ,anthracobia macrocystis ,plate #gd 7#bba7 ,apiocrea chrysosperma #bdh ,aphyllophorales #ba1 #ace ,armillaria #be ,armillaria mellea #ei1 #fj1 ,plate #aj 7#fa7 ,astrosporina #hd1 #bch ,auricularia #agi ,auricularia judae #ahb mesenterica #ahb1 ,plate #fj 7#ahc7 ,auriculariales #ba1 #agi ,auriscalpiaceae #aeh ,auriscalpium #gf1 #acg1 #aeh1 #afj ,auriscalpium vulgare #aeh1 ,plate #eb 7#aei7 ,ascobolus carbonarius ,plate #gd 7#bba7 furfuraceus ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,ascophanus microsporus ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,asterostroma laxum ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,athelia viride #bcf ,baeospora myosura #id ,bankera #afj ,bankera fuliginoalbum #afj ,bjerkandera #ach ,bjerkandera adusta #adf ,bolbitius #bc ,bolbitius vitellinus #bjg1 ,plate #gj 7#bji7 ,boletus #bf1 #bh1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce1 #ajj ,boletus badius #ca1 #cb1 ,plate #c 7#cc71 #cd chrysenteron #bdh edulis #cb1 #cd1 #ce1 #bdh erythropus #cb parasiticus #ce1 ,plate #fd 7#aic71 #bdg purpureus #ce sphaerocephalus #ce subtomentosus #bdh ,botrydina vulgaris ,plate #gh 7#bce71 #bcf ,botryobasidium conspersum ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,botryohypochnus isabellinus ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,bovista nigrescens #aij ,byssonectria lateritia #bdg viridis #bdg ,calocera #agj1 #ahj ,calocera cornea ,plate #eg 7#afi71 #aha viscosa ,plate #eg 7#afi71 #agj1 #aha ,calocybe #aja ,calocybe gambosum #aaj1 ,plate #cb 7#aaa7 ,calvatia caelata #aij excipuliformis #aij1 ,plate #fc 7#aia7 saccata #aij utriformis #aij1 ,plate #fc 7#aia7 ,camarophyllus #ih ,cantharellus #bd1 #ajf1 #acf ,cantharellus cibarius #ajf1 #afb1 ,plate #ed 7#afc71 #bdf friesii #afb ,cantharellula #be ,chaetomium globosum ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,cheilymenia #bad ,cheilymenia stercorea ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,chondrostereum purpureum #agf ,chroogomphus #bc1 #cf1 #ajj ,chroogomphus corallinus #cf rutilus #cf1 ,plate #d 7#cg7 ,claudopus #bb1 #gg1 #ajb ,claudopus depluens #ajb parasiticus #gg1 #ajb ,clavariadelphus #acf ,clavariadelphus pistillaris #agb1 ,plate #eh 7#age7 ,clavaria #acf1 #agc ,clavaria argillacea #bcd1 ,plate #gh 7#bce7 fumosa #afh1 ,plate #ef1 7#afg7 vermicularis ,plate #ef 7#afg71 #afh ,clavulina #acf1 #agb ,clavulina cinerea #aff cristata #aff1 ,plate #ef 7#afg7 rugosa #aff1 ,plate #ef 7#afg7 ,clavulinopsis #acf1 #afh1 #agc ,clavulinopsis corniculata ,plate #eg 7#afi71 #agj1 #agc fusiformis ,plate #ef 7#afg71 #afh helvola ,plate #ef 7#afg71 #afh ,clitocybe #be1 #bdb ,clitocybe clavipes #hj1 #ha fragrans #hj infundibuliformis #hj1 ,plate #ai 7#ha7 langei #hj nebularis #hj ,clitopilus #bb1 #gg ,clitopilus passackerianus #gg prunulus #gg1 #aja ,collybia #bf1 #ff1 #hf1 #ij1 #ib1 #ajb1 #abj ,collybia maculata #ij1 ,plate #bd 7#ia7 peronata #ib ,coltricia #ach ,coniochaeta scatigena ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,coniophora #acf ,coniophora puteana #aef1 ,plate #ea 7#aeg7 ,conocybe #bc1 #abf ,conocybe dunensis #bdb1 ,plate #hj 7#bda7 lactea #aaf mairei #bbh1 ,plate #gf 7#bbi7 tenera #aaf1 ,plate #ce 7#aag71 #bdb ,coprinus #bc1 #abh1 #bjg1 #bab1 #bah1 ,plate #ga 7#bac7 ,coprinus angulatus #bah1 ,plate #gc 7#bai7 bisporus #bab cinereus #baa1 #bad1 #bah1 ,plate #ga 7#bac7 comatus #abf1 ,plate #dj 7#abg7 ephemerus #bab ephemeroides #bab filamentifer #bad fimetarius #baa lagopides #bah lagopus #baa macrocephalus #baa macrorhizus #baa miser #bab niveus #bab patouillardii #bab pellucidus #bab pseudoradiatus #baa1 #bad radiatus #baa1 #bad urticicola #bbg1 ,plate #gf 7#bbi7 vermiculifer #bad ,coprobia #bad ,coprobia granulata ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,cora pavonia #bcg ,cordyceps #bjf1 #bdh ,cordyceps capitata ,plate #fi 7#bje71 #bjf militaris ,plate #fi 7#bje71 #bjf ophioglossoides ,plate #fi 7#bje71 #bjf ,coriolus #aci ,coriolus versicolor #ade1 ,plate #df 7#adg7 ,coriscium viride ,plate #gh 7#bce71 #bcf ,corticium fuciforme #agh ,corticiaceae #acf ,cortinarius #bc1 #dj1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #gd1 #bcg ,cortinarius sp4 ,cortinarius #dc hydrocybe #dc phlegmacium #dc sericeocybe #dc telamonia #dc ,cortinarius anomalus #bcg armillatus #dc elatior #dj pinicola #dj pseudosalor #dj1 ,plate #f 7#da71 #db violaceus #dd ,craterellus #bd1 #acf ,craterellus cornucopoides #afd1 ,plate #ee 7#afe7 sinuosus #afd1 ,plate #ee 7#afe7 ,crepidotus #bb1 #gd1 #ajb ,crepidotus mollis ,plate #ag 7#ge71 #gg1 ,plate #di 7#aec7 ,cristella farinacea ,plate #ei 7#agg7 sulphurea ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,crucibulum #ahf1 #aif ,crucibulum laeve #aif1 ,plate #ff 7#aig7 ,cryptoderma #acg ,cryptoderma pini #aej1 ,plate #dh 7#aea7 ,cyathipodia macropus ,plate #fh 7#bja71 #bjc ,cyathus #ahf1 #aif ,cyathus olla #aif1 ,plate #ff 7#aig7 striatus #aif1 ,plate #ff 7#aig7 ,cystoderma amianthinum #ajd1 ,plate #bi 7#aje7 carcharias #ajd cinnabarinum #ajd granulosum #ajd ,dacrymyces #ahj1 #aha ,dacrymyces deliquescens #ahj stillatus #ahj1 ,plate #fa 7#ahe7 ,dacrymycetales #ba1 #ahj ,daedalea #acg ,daedalea quercina ,plate #df 7#ade7 ,daedaleopsis #acg ,daldinia #bjd ,daldinia concentrica #bjd1 ,plate #fi 7#bje7 ,datronia #ach ,datronia mollis #ade1 ,plate #df 7#adg7 ,deconica #aad ,eccilia #bb1 #ajb1 ,plate #bh 7#ajc7 ,eccilia sericeonitida #ajb ,elaphomyces ,plate #fi 7#bje71 #bjf1 #bcg1 ,plate #ha 7#bdc7 ,elaphomyces granulatus #bdd1 ,plate #ha 7#bdc7 muricatus #bdd1 ,plate #ha 7#bdc7 ,entoloma #bb1 #ajj1 #aja1 ,plate #bh 7#ajc71 #abd ,entoloma clypeatum #aja ,entoloma helodes #bcb1 ,plate #gg 7#bcc7 ,exidia #aeh1 #agi ,exidia glandulosa #ahd1 ,plate #fa 7#ahe7 ,femsjonia #ahj ,fibuloporia #ach1 #aef ,fibuloporia vaillantii #aef1 ,plate #ea 7#aeg7 ,fistulina #acg ,fistulina hepatica #aeb ,flammula #gb1 #bag ,flammula carbonaria #bag ,flammulaster granulosa #bbh1 ,plate #gf 7#bbi7 ,flammulina #be ,flammulina velutipes #ff1 ,plate #ac 7#fg7 ,fomes #acg ,fomes fomentarius #adh1 ,plate #dh 7#aea71 #bdi ,fomitopsis #acg ,galerina #bc1 #bbd1 #bcj ,galerina calyptrata #bca hypnorum #bcj1 #bca1 ,plate #gh 7#bce7 mniophila #bca mycenopsis #bcj1 #bca paludosa #bbd1 ,plate #ge 7#bbe7 sphagnorum #bbd1 ,plate #ge 7#bbe7 tibiicytis #bbd1 ,plate #ge 7#bbe7 vittaeformis #bcd1 ,plate #gh 7#bce7 ,ganoderma #acg1 #adf ,ganoderma applanatum #adf ,ganoderma europaeum #adf1 #adh1 ,plate #dg 7#adg7 ,gasteromycetes #ba1 #ahf1 #ahg ,geastrum #ahf1 #aib ,geastrum rufescens #aib1 ,plate #fd 7#aic7 triplex #aib ,geoglossaceae #afh ,geoglossum #agb1 #bjf ,geoglossum cookeianum ,plate #eg 7#afi7 ,geopyxis carbonaria ,plate #gd 7#bba7 ,gloeocystidium porosum ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,gloeophyllum #acg ,gloeoporus #ach ,gomphidius #bc1 #cd1 #cf ,gomphidius glutinosus #cf maculatus #cf roseus #ce1 #cf ,grifola #aci ,gymnopilus #bc ,gymnopilus penetrans #gb1 ,plate #af 7#gc7 ,gymnopilus sapineus #gb ,gyromitra esculenta ,plate #fe 7#bja71 #bjb ,gyroporus #bf ,hapalopilus #ach ,hebeloma #bc1 #hb ,hebeloma anthracophila #bah1 ,plate #gc 7#bai7 crustuliniforme #hb1 ,plate #bj 7#hc7 ,helicobasidium #agi ,helminthosphaeria clavariae #aff ,helvella #bjc ,helvella crispa #bjb1 ,plate #fh 7#bja7 lacunosa #bjc1 ,plate #fh 7#bja7 ,heterobasidion #acg ,heterobasidion annosum #aej1 ,plate #df 7#adg71 ,plate #dc 7#aea7 ,hirneola #agi ,hirneola auricula-judae #ahb1 ,plate #fj 7#ahc7 ,hirschioporus #ach ,hygrocybe #be1 #ic1 #ajj1 #bcg ,hygrocybe calyptraeformis #ih chlorophana #ih cinerea #ie coccinea #ih conica #ih1 ,plate #bg 7#ii71 #bdb conicoides #bdb1 ,plate #hj 7#bda7 flavescens #ih lacma #ie laeta #ig lilacina #bcg metapodia #ajj nitrata #ih nivea #ie ovina #ih pratensis #ie1 ,plate #bf 7#if71 #ajj ,hygrocybe psittacina #ig1 ,plate #bg 7#ii7 punicea #ih1 ,plate #bg 7#ii7 russocoriacea #ie subradiata #ie subviolacea #bcg unguinosa #ih virginea #ie ,hydnellum #acg1 #afj ,hydnellum scrobiculatum #afj1 ,plate #ec 7#afa7 ,hydnum #acg1 #afj ,hydnum repandum #aec1 #afj1 ,plate #ec 7#afa7 rufescens #afj ,hygrophoropsis #be ,hygrophoropsis aurantiaca #ajf1 ,plate #cj 7#aji71 #afb1 #bdi ,hygrophorus #be1 #ig1 #ih ,hygrophorus agathosmus #ajj bresadolae #ajj chrysaspis #ih1 ,plate #bg 7#ii71 #ajj hedrychii #ajj hypothejus #ajj pustulatus #ajj ,hygrophoraceae #aja1 ,plate #hj 7#bda7 ,hymenochaete #acf ,hymenogaster #ahf1 #bdc ,hymenomycetes #ba ,hymenomycetous heterobasidiae #agi ,hyphoderma setigera ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,hyphodontia #acf ,hyphodontia arguta ,plate #ei 7#agg7 sambucii ,plate #ei 7#agg71 #agh ,hypholoma #bd1 #acj1 #bbb ,hypholoma capnoides #fd elongatum #bbb1 ,plate #ge 7#bbe7 ericaeum #bcd1 ,plate #gh 7#bce7 fasciculare #fd1 ,plate #ab 7#fe7 #acj lacrymabunda #acj polytrichi #bbb sublateritium #fd velutina #acj ,hypocrea pulvinata #bdh ,hypocopra equorum ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,hypomyces #bdh ,hypomyces lactifluorum #bdg ,inocybe #bc1 #hd1 #bch ,inocybe asterospora #hd1 ,plate #ba 7#he7 devoniensis #bch1 ,plate #gi 7#bci7 dunensis #bch1 ,plate #gi 7#bci7 geophylla #hd var4 geophylla #hd1 ,plate #ba 7#he7 var4 lilacina #hd halophila #bch1 ,plate #gi 7#bci7 serotina #bch1 ,plate #gi 7#bci7 ,iodophanus #bad ,iodophanus carneus ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,inonotus #ach ,inonotus hispidus #adb1 ,plate #de 7#adc7 ,laccaria #bd1 #bdb ,laccaria amethystea #hf bicolor #hf laccata #hf1 ,plate #bb 7#hg71 #bdb1 #bdi maritima #bdb proxima #hf1 ,plate #bb 7#hg71 #bdb ,lacrymaria #acj ,lacrymaria pyrotricha #acj velutina #abh1 ,plate #da 7#abi71 #acj ,lactarius #df1 #ej1 #eb1 #hf1 #bcg1 #bdf1 #bdg ,lactarius camphoratus #eb chrysorheus #eb deliciosus #eb1 #bdg glyciosmus #ec lacunarum #bcg quietus #eb1 #ec rufus #eb1 #ec torminosus #eb1 #ec turpis #ej1 ,plate #h 7#ea7 uvidus #eb ,laetiporus #ach ,laetiporus sulphureus #adj1 ,plate #dd 7#ada71 ,plate #df 7#adg7 ,lamprospora astroidea ,plate #gd 7#bba7 ,langermannia gigantea #aij1 ,plate #fc 7#aia7 ,lasiobolus ciliatus ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,lasiosordaria coprophila ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,leccinum #bf1 #bh1 #cd1 #ajj ,leccinum aurantiacum #cd quercinum #cd scabrum #bg1 ,plate #a 7#bi71 #cd ,lentinellus #bf1 #gd1 #gf1 #acg1 #aeh ,lentinellus cochleatus ,plate #ag 7#ge71 #gf1 #aeh ,lentinus #bf1 #gd ,lentinus lepideus #gf ,lenzites #acg ,leotia lubrica #bjf ,lepiota #bd1 #ajd ,lepiota procera #aab1 ,plate #cc 7#aac7 rachodes #aab ,lepista nuda #aca1 ,plate #db 7#acb7 ,leptonia #bb1 #ajb1 ,plate #bh 7#ajc71 #bbg ,leptonia babingtonii #bbg1 ,plate #gf 7#bbi7 serrulata #ajb ,leptopodia elastica #bjc ,leucopaxillus #be ,limacium #ih ,lycoperdon #ahf1 #ahh ,lycoperdon perlatum #ahj1 ,plate #fb 7#ahi7 foetidum #ahh pyriforme #ahh1 ,plate #fb 7#ahi7 ,lyophyllum connatum #abh decastes #abh ,marasmius #bf1 #ib1 #abj1 #bbh ,marasmius androsaceus #ib1 #abj1 #bca1 ,plate #gg 7#bcc7 buxi #ib1 ,plate #be 7#ic7 epiphylloides #ib1 ,plate #be 7#ic7 graminum #ib1 ,plate #be 7#ic7 hudsonii #ib1 ,plate #be 7#ic7 oreades #aah1 ,plate #cf 7#aai71 #abj1 ,plate #cg 7#aba7 perforans #ib peronatus #ib undatus #ib ,melanogaster #bdc ,melanoleuca #be1 #gh ,melanoleuca melaleuca #gh1 ,plate #ah 7#gi7 ,melanotus #gg ,melanotus bambusinus #gg musae #gg ,meripilus #aci ,meripilus giganteus #add ,merulius #acf1 #aed ,merulius tremellosus #aed1 ,plate #ej 7#aee7 ,micromphale #ib ,mitromorpha semilibera ,plate #fh 7#bja71 #bjb ,mitrula paludosa #bjc ,monilia sp4 ,plate #gd 7#bae7 ,morchella #bjb ,morchella elata #bbj esculenta #bjj1 ,plate #fh 7#bja71 #bjb ,multiclavula #bcf ,mutinus #ahf ,mutinus caninus #aid1 ,plate #fe 7#aie7 ,mycena #be1 #fh1 #gd1 #hh1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #bdg ,mycena bulbosa #bbc1 ,plate #ge 7#bbe7 epipterygia #bcg galericulata #fh1 ,plate #ad 7#fi71 #hh galopus #hh haematopus #hh1 ,plate #bc 7#hi7 leucogala #hh1 #bag olivaceo-marginata #bcg sanguinolenta #hh1 ,plate #bc 7#hi7 ,mycoacia #acg ,myxomphalia maura #bcf ,naucoria #bc1 #bbf ,naucoria escharoides #bbf1 ,plate #gf 7#bbi7 ,nectria cinnabarina #ahj ,neurospora sitophila #bbj1 ,plate #gd 7#bae7 ,nolanea #bb1 #ajb1 ,plate #bh 7#ajc71 #abd ,nolanea cetrata #ajb1 #bcg sericea #abb1 ,plate #ch 7#abc71 #abd staurospora #aja1 #ajb1 #abb1 ,plate #ch 7#abc7 ,nyctalis #bd1 #bdg ,nyctalis asterophora ,plate #ha 7#bde71 #bdf parasitica ,plate #ha 7#bde71 #bdf ,odontia bicolor #bcf ,oedocephalum ,plate #gd 7#bae7 ,oidium conspersum ,plate #ei 7#aai7 ,omphalina #be1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #bcb ,omphalina ericetorum #bcb1 ,plate #g 7#bcc71 #bcf ,omphalina hudsoniana ,plate #gh 7#bce71 #bcf luteovitellina ,plate #gh 7#bce71 #bcf sphagnicola #bbc1 ,plate #ge 7#bbe71 #bcf umbellifera #bcb velutina #bcf wynniae #bcb ,oudemansiella #bf ,oxyporus #acg ,oxyporus populinus #aej1 ,plate #dh 7#aea7 ,panaeolina #abf ,panaeolina foenisecii #abd1 ,plate #ci 7#abe71 #abf ,panaeolus #bc1 #abf ,panaeolus campanulatus #baj rickenii #abf semiovatus #bjh1 ,plate #gj 7#bji71 #baj1 #baa sphinctrinus #abf1 ,plate #gj 7#bji71 #baj1 #baa ,panellus #bf1 #gd ,panellus stipticus ,plate #ag 7#ge71 #gf ,panus #bf1 #gd ,panus torulosus #gf ,paxillus #bc1 #ajj ,paxillus atrotomentosus #ch involutus #ch1 ,plate #e 7#ci71 #ajf panuoides #ch rubicundulus #ch ,peniophora #acf ,peniophora lycii ,plate #ei 7#agg7 polygonii ,plate #ei 7#agg7 quercina ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,peziza #bjj1 #bjd ,peziza badia ,plate #fg 7#aii71 #bjj echinospora #bbj petersii #bbj praetervisa #bbj1 ,plate #gd 7#bae7 repanda ,plate #fg 7#aii71 #bjj1 #bbj vesiculosa #baf1 ,plate #fg 7#aii7 violacea #bbj ,phaeolus #ach ,phaeolus schweinitzii ,plate #de 7#adc71 #add ,phallus #ahf ,phallus hadriani #aid impudicus #aid1 ,plate #fe 7#aie7 ,phellinus #acg ,phellinus igniarius #adh1 ,plate #dh 7#aea7 ,phellodon #afj ,phellodon niger #afj1 ,plate #ec 7#afa7 ,phlebia #acf ,phlebia gigantea ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,pholiota #bc1 #bag ,pholiota adiposa #fb aurivella #fb carbonaria #baf1 #bag1 ,plate #gc 7#bai7 highlandensis #baf1 #bag1 ,plate #gc 7#bai7 squarrosa #fj1 #fb1 ,plate #aa 7#fc7 ,piptoporus #ach1 #bdh ,piptoporus betulinus #adb1 ,plate #de 7#adc71 ,plate #df 7#adg7 ,pistillaria #ace ,pistillaria micans #aga ,pleurotellus #gd1 #ajb ,pleurotaceae #be1 #gd ,pleurotus #gd ,pleurotus ostreatus #gd1 ,plate #ag 7#ge7 ostreatus var4 columbinus #gf ,pluteus #bb ,pluteus atromarginatus #gj cervinus #gj1 ,plate #ae 7#ga7 ,podospora ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,podospora curvula ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,polyporus #ach1 #aci1 #adj1 #aef ,polyporus squamosus #gg1 #adj1 ,plate #dd 7#ada71 #ade ,poria #aef ,porphyrellus #bf ,pouzaromyces #bbg ,psathyrella #bd1 #acj1 #bdj1 #bdb ,psathyrella ammophila ,plate #gi 7#bci71 #bdj flexispora ,plate #gi 7#bci71 #bdj pennata #bah1 ,plate #gc 7#bai7 ,pseudohydnum gelatinosum #aeh1 ,plate #eb 7#aei71 #agi ,pseudotrametes #aci ,psilocybe #bd1 #abf1 #bbb1 #bdj ,psilocybe semilanceata #aad1 ,plate #cd 7#aae7 ,pycnoporus #ach ,pyronema omphalodes #bbj1 ,plate #gd 7#bba7 ,radulomyces confluens ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,ramaria #acf1 #agb ,ramaria ochraceo-virens ,plate #eg 7#afi71 #agj1 #agb ,rhizina undulata #bjc1 #bjd1 ,plate #fi 7#bje71 #bbj ,rhizopogon #ahf1 #bdc ,rhizopogon roseolus #bdd1 ,plate #ha 7#bde7 ,rhodopaxillus #aca ,rhodophyllaceae #aja ,rhodophyllaceae--spores ,plate #bh 7#ajc7 ,rhodophyllus #aja ,russula #bd1 #de1 #df1 #ej1 #bcg1 #bdf1 ,plate #ha 7#bde7 ,russula alpina #bcg atropurpurea #df betularum #df claroflava #de1 #df cyanoxantha #dh emetica #df1 #dh fellea #dh foetens #dh lutea #de mairei #di nigrescens #di ochroleuca #de1 ,plate #g 7#dg7 sardonia #df xerampelina #di xerampelina var4 pascua #bcg ,saccobolus versicolor ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,sarcodon #afj ,sarcodon imbricatum #afj1 ,plate #ec 7#afa7 ,schizophyllum #bf1 #aeb ,schizophyllum commune #aeb1 ,plate #di 7#aec7 ,scleroderma #ce1 #ahf1 #bdg ,scleroderma aurantium #aib1 #bdg citrinum #aib1 ,plate #fd 7#aic7 verrucosum #aib1 ,plate #fd 7#aic7 ,sebacina #agi ,sebacina incrustans #ahb ,sepedonium chrysospermum #bdh ,serpula #acf ,serpula lacrymans #aed1 ,plate #ej 7#aee7 ,sistotrema commune ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,sordaria #bad ,sparassis #ace ,sphaerobolus stellatus #aif1 ,plate #ff 7#aig7 ,spinellus megalocarpus #bdg ,sporodina grandis #bdg ,sporormia #bad1 ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,stereum #acf1 #agf ,stereum fasciatum #bcf gausapatum #agf hirsutum ,plate #ei 7#agg71 #agh purpureum #agf rugosum #agf sanguinolentum #agf1 #bdh ,strobilomyces #bf1 #ce ,strobilomyces floccopus #ce ,strobilurus #id ,strobilurus esculentus #id stephanocystis ,plate #be 7#ic71 #id tenacellus ,plate #be 7#ic71 #id ,stropharia #bc1 #bjh ,stropharia coronilla #bdj1 ,plate #hj 7#bda71 #bdb semiglobata #bjh1 ,plate #gj 7#bji7 ,suillus #bf1 #ca1 #cd1 #ajj ,suillus aeruginascens #cd bovinus #cd grevillei #bh1 ,plate #b 7#cj71 #ca1 #cd luteus #ca1 #cd ,tephrocybe anthracophila #bag1 ,plate #gc 7#bai7 atrata #bag1 ,plate #gc 7#bai7 palustris #bbc1 ,plate #ge 7#bbe71 #bdg ,thelephora #acf ,thelephora palmata #agd1 ,plate #eh 7#age7 terrestris #agd1 ,plate #eh 7#age7 ,thelephoraceae #agd ,tomentella #agd ,tomentella fusca ,plate #eh 7#age7 ,trametes #aci ,tremella #aeh1 #agi ,tremella encephala #bdh foliacea #ahd1 ,plate #fa 7#ahe71 #bdh mesenterica #ahd1 ,plate #fa 7#ahe71 #bdh ,tremellales #ba1 #agi ,tremellodon gelatinosum #aeh ,trichophaea #bbj ,trichophaea woolhopeia ,plate #gd 7#bba7 ,trichodelitschia bisporula ,plate #gb 7#bae7 ,tricholoma #be1 #gd1 #gh1 #aaj1 #aca ,tricholoma georgii #aaj personatum #aca ,tricholomataceae #ajd ,tubaria autochthona ,plate #be 7#ic71 #id dispersa #id ,tuber #bdc ,tuber aestivum #bdd1 ,plate #ha 7#bde7 melanospermum #bdc rufum ,plate #ha 7#bde71 #bdf ,tubulicrinis glebosus ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,tyromyces #aci1 #adf ,tylopilus #bf ,tylosperma asterophorum ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,typhula #ace1 #agc ,typhula erythropus #aga ,volvariella #bb ,volvariella surrecta #hj1 #bdg ,vuilleminia comedens ,plate #ei 7#agg7 ,xylosphaera #agb ,xylosphaera hypoxylon ,plate #fi 7#bje71 #bjf polymorpha #bjd1 ,plate #fi 7#bje7 ,common ,names ,agaric1 fly #ed ,amanita #ef ,basidiolichens #bcg ,blewits1 common #aca wood #ajd1 #aca ,blusher #ef ,bog-beacon #bjc ,boot-laces #ei ,boletes #cb bay-coloured #ca brown birch #bg larch #bh ,brittle-cap1 bonfire #bah sand-dune #bdj ,candle snuff #gf1 #bjf ,cap brown cone #aaf common funnel #hj death #ef false death #ef hay brown #ef ink1 see ,inky cap liberty #aad milk1 see ,milk cap shaggy #abh ,chanterelle1 common #ajf1 #afb1 #bdf false #ajf1 #afb ,clubs1 fairy #gf1 #ace1 #aff1 #agb wrinkled #aff ,cone cap1 sand dune brown #bdb ,cortinarii #db ,cramp balls #bjd ,cup1 elf #bjj scarlet elf #aic ,deceiver #hf ,destroying angel #ef ,earth-ball #ahf1 #aib common #aib ,earth fan #agd ,earth star #ahf1 #aib ,earth tongue #afh1 #agb ,elephant's ear #bjb ,fairy ring #aah1 ,plate #cf 7#aai71 #bfd champignon #abj ,fingers1 dead man's #bjd ,fomes1 root #aej willow #adh ,fungus beef steak #aeb bird's nest #ahf1 #ahg1 #aif bracket #ace candle snuff #gf1 #bjf cellar #aef cup #aih dry rot #aed ear pick #aeh gum drop #bjf hedgehog #ace1 #aeh honey #ei jelly #agi orange peel #aih pine fire #bjc resupinate #agf scarlet caterpillar #bjf silver leaf 7disease7 #agf stomach #ahf1 #ahg split gills #aeb subterranean #bdc tinder #adh tripe #ahb turban #bjb wet rot #aef white wash #agh yellow brain #ahd ,ganoderma1 common #adf ,grisette1 common #eg tawny #ef ,hedgehog1 wood #afj ,helvella1 slate grey #bjc ,herald of the ,winter #ih ,horn of ,plenty #afd ,hygrophorus1 parrot #ig ,hygrophori #ig ,inocybe1 common white #hd ,inky caps #bab bonfire #bah dung #baa shaggy #abh ,jew's ear #ahb ,judge's wig #abh ,king ,alfred's ,cakes #bjd ,lactarii #ej ,lawyer's wig #abf ,lorel #bjb ,marasmius #ib ,milk-caps #ej coconut-scented #ec curry-scented #eb oak #ec rufous #ec saffron #eb ugly #ej woolly #ec ,miller1 ,the #gg ,morel1 common #bjj ,mushroom butter #ie ,caesar's #ef common field #acc cultivated #acc fairy cake #hb field #ajh horse #ajh oyster #gd parasol #ajd1 #aab ,st4 ,george's #aaj soft slipper #gg yellow staining #ajh ,mycena1 bonnet #fh small bleeding #hh ,nolanea1 silky #abb ,old ,man of the ,woods #ce ,panther #eh ,pt de ,foie ,gras #bdc ,pholiota1 charcoal #baf shaggy #fj ,pluteus1 fawn #gj ,polypore birch #adb giant #add many-zoned #ade scaly #cb1 #adj shaggy #adb ,puff ball #ahf giant #aij stump #ahh ,roll-rim1 brown #ch ,rough ,stalk #bh birch #bg ,round head1 dung #bjh ,russula #de blackening #di common yellow #de emetic #dh foetid #dh geranium scented #dh ,shank1 spotted tough #ij velvet #ff ,slippery ,jack #ca ,spike cap1 pine #cf ,spindles golden #afh white #afh ,stag's horn #gf1 #agb1 #bjf ,stinkhorn #ahf1 #ahg1 #aid common #aid dog's #aid ,toadstool horse-hair #bca pick-a-back #bdf yellow cow pat #bjg ,truffle #bdc ,english #bdd false #ahf1 #bdc ,french #bdc ,hart's #bdd perigord #bdc red #bdd ,tuft1 sulphur #fd ,weeping widow #abh ,witch's butter #ahd ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent formatting1 spelling and hyphenation have been retained1 except as listed below4 ,the differences between the ,table of ,contents and the body text have not been standardised1 except as mentioned below4 ,the name ,lville may be a variant or misspelling of 7,joseph-,henri7 ,lveill4 ,page #aj1 where man has distributed the habitat3 possibly an error for 444 disturbed the habitat4 ,page #di1 changing soot-colour3 possibly an error for changing to soot-colour4 ,page #fh1 to reclaim ,helen his wife3 ,helen was his brother's wife4 ,page #hh1 blotched age3 there may be one or more words missing4 ,page #ajd1 ,many authorities prefer 4443 a closing parenthesis is missing4 ,page #ahg1 non-violent disposal of spores3 possibly an error for dispersal4 ,changes made3 ,illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs and some lists and tables4 ,some obvious minor misprints and typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,page #bb3 reference to key #bd changed to key #be ,page #bg3 width #gj-bjj mm2 length #bj-cj mm changed to length #gj-bjj mm2 width #bj-cj mm ,page #de3 ,stem3 changed to ,stem3 ,page #eb3 mm inserted after #bj-ej ,page #ie3 ,h4 subradiat changed to ,h4 subradiata2 ,page #ih3 ,h4 calytraeformis changed to ,h4 calyptraeformis ,page #aeh3 ,hyndum changed to ,hydnum ,page #agd3 #h-i #f-g m changed to #h-i #f-g m ,page #bjb3 ,marchella changed to ,morchella2 ,lveille changed to ,lville ,page #bjg3 7i7 added in section heading ,fungi of dung and straw heaps ,page #bab3 patoullardii changed to patouillardii ,page #bbb3 7a7 added in section heading ,sphagnum bogs ,page #bca3 7a7 added in section heading ,moorland fungi ,page #bcf3 7b7 added in section heading ,mountain fungi and the so-called ,basidiolichens ,page #bef3 ,g4 glutinosum changed to ,g4 glutinosus2 ,marchella changed to ,morchella ,page #beg3 ,hebeoloma anthracophilum changed to ,hebeloma anthracophilum2 ,tephrocybe arthracophila changed to ,tephrocybe anthracophila2 ,myxomphalina changed to ,myxomphalia ,page #bfb3 closing parenthesis added after fruit-body ,page #bfi1 ,bulletin ,trimestriel 444 formatted as other journals ,page #bgj3 ,flore ,analytique des ,champignons ,superiurs de ,france changed to ,flore ,analytique des ,champignons ,suprieurs de ,france ,index3 some entries moved to proper alphabetical order ,page #bga3 ,baespora changed to ,baeospora2 ,bjerkandera adjusta changed to ,bjerkandera adusta2 pantharina changed to pantherina ,page #bgc3 serioceocybe changed to sericeocybe ,page #bgd3 tibiicytis changed to tibiicystis ,page #bge3 chrysorhaeus changed to chrysorheus ,page #bgf3 ,myxomphalina changed to ,myxomphalia ,page #bgg3 vesciculosa changed to vesiculosa ,page #bhj3 ,pat de ,foi ,gras changed to ,pt de ,foie ,gras