,a ,,/ud5t',s ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,education ,,books ,,on ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,education ,by ,,dean ,,frank ,p4 ,,graves ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,education ,,9 ,,?ree ,,volumes ,vol4 ,i4 ,be=e ! ,middle ,ages ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,dur+ ! ,middle ,ages & ! ,transition to ,mod]n ,times ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,9 ,mod]n ,times ,,great ,,educators ,,( ,,?ree ,,c5turies ,,pet] ,,ramus ,,& ,,! ,,educational ,,re=mation ,,( ,,! ,,sixte5? ,,c5tury ,a ,,/ud5t',s ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,education ,a ,,/ud5t',s ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,education ,,by ,,frank ,,pi]repont ,,graves 7,,ph4,d41 ,,columbia7 ,,dean ,,( ,,! ,,s*ool ,,( ,,education ,,& ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,education ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,p5nsylvania ,new ,york ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company #aibb ,all rights res]v$ ,,copyright1 #aiae1 ,,by ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up & electrotyp$4 ,publi%$ ,july1 #aiae4 ,norwood ,press3 ,b]wick ,smi? ,co41 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,to ,,william ,,oxley ,,?ompson1 ,,ll4,d4 ,,presid5t ,,( ,,! ,,ohio ,,/ate ,,univ]sity ,,) ,,appreciative ,,memories ,,( ,,six ,,pleasant ,,ye>s ,,( ,,association ,,preface ,!re is a gr[+ conviction among ^? engag$ 9 tra9+ tea*]s t ! ,hi/ory ( ,education mu/ ju/ify itself4 ,x is believ$ t1 if ?is subject is to contribute to ! pr(essional equipm5t ( ! tea*]1 its mat]ial mu/ be select$ ) ref]5ce to 8 specific ne$s4 ,antiqu>ian int]e/s & encyclopdic complet5ess are allur+ & may 9 _! place prove praisewor?y & valuable1 b !y d n 9 !mselves supply any def9ite dem& 9 ! tra9+ ( tea*]s4 ,! greate/ s]vices t ! ,hi/ory ( ,education c p]=m = ! tea*] are to impel him to analyze 8 problems m completely & to ?r[ light ^u ! s*ool practices ) :i* he is himself conc]n$4 ,by pres5t+ a s]ies ( cle>-cut views ( pa/ conditions1 (t5 9 m>k$ contra/ to 8 own1 x %\ld make him consci\s t ! pres5t educational situation has to a l>ge degree be5 traditionally receiv$1 & x %\ld at ! same "t especially help him to und]/& ! orig9 & significance ( curr5t practices4 ,9 ?is way a /udy ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,education w disrupt ! tea*]'s complac5t acceptance ( ! pres5t1 & w enable him to recon/ruct 8 ideas 9 ! light ( ! peculi> conditions out ( :i* ! education ( 8 times has sprung4 ,:5ev] hi/orical records d n assi/ 9 su* an analysis & syn!sis ( pres5t day problems1 !y may be frankly dismiss$ f discussion4 ,?is conception ( ! subject1 ,i h myself1 ) mu* reluctance1 come to accept4 ,my own reg>d = ! classics1 philosophy1 & g5]al hi/ory z college discipl9es has caus$ me to view ) appreh5sion any disposition to curtail _! scope4 ,x n[ seems cle>1 h[ev]1 t ! mod]n t5d5cy to emphasize ! functional aspects ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,education is bo? necess>y & wise4 ,! pres5t "w1 !re=e1 is n a m]e cond5sation ( my ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,?ree ,volumes1 b has be5 v l>gely re-writt5 f ! new angle4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,i h s\ght to /ress educational in/itutions & practices1 r ?an !ories t did n f9d embodim5t 9 ! times4 ,?is has l$ to ! omission ( mu* t is uness5tial or m /rictly relat$ to philosophy1 g5]al hi/ory1 or lit]ature4 ,= example1 ev5 ! immortal "w ( ,plato & ,ari/otle has be5 epitomiz$2 ! entire subject ( my/icism & mo/ ( s*ola/icism h be5 dropp$2 ! ma/]pieces ( su* pure !ori/s z ,rabelais1 ,montaigne1 & ,mulca/]1 are b>ely m5tion$2 & ! v>i\s hi/orical epo*s are giv5 only s mu* detail z may be ne$$ to =m a social sett+ = ! educational movem5ts ( ^? p]iods4 ,secondly1 x has seem$ to me t our pres5t problems 9 education c be/ be analyz$ ?r\gh a k ( ! practices t h develop$ 9 mod]n times4 ,h5ce1 :ile ?is book includes an acc\nt ( all educational endeavor f ! day ( primitive man to ! pres5t1 some:at m ?an "o-half ! mat]ial is connect$ ) ! la/ two c5turies4 ,ev5 ! attractive p]iod ( ,hell5ic activity & ! fasc9at+ /ories ( mona/icism & ( *ivalry h be5 r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,b1 ?\gh mo/ ( ! *anges 9 ! e>li] half ( ! "w are 9 ! nature ( %ort5+1 or h to d ) m imm$iate connections1 "s topics1 notably ! developm5t ( comm]ce & cities 7,*apt] ,,xi7 & ! analysis ( =mal discipl9e 7,*apt] ,,xvi71 h seem$ to be s closely connect$ ) subsequ5t progress z to des]ve m adequate treatm5t4 ,f9ally1 s9ce ?is book is int5d$ *iefly = tea*]s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,i h believ$ x mo/ helpful to give consid]able space to ! discussion ( ,am]ican education4 ,! acc\nt ( ea* educational movem5t has includ$ at lea/ an attempt to trace its influ5ce ^u ! cont5t1 me?od1 & organization ( education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :ile ?ree *apt]s h be5 devot$ exclusively to ! rise ( educational sy/ems 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,my indebt$ness = _m valuable features 9 ?is book is heavy4 ,! idea ( an ,outl9e1 :i* appe>s at ! beg9n+ ( ea* *apt]1 0 fir/ sugge/$ to me by ! ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,elem5t>y ,education ( ,dean ,s4 ,c4 ,p>k] ( ! ,college ( ,education1 ,univ]sity ( ,*icago1 al?\gh ,i h adopt$ a diff]5t explanation ( its value4 ,pr(essor ,p>k] also read ?r\gh ! manuscript & s5t me a g5]al e/imate ( x4 ,pr(essors ,j4 ,h4 ,c\rsault ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,miss\ri1 ,a4 ,j4 ,jones ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,ma9e1 ,w4 ,h4 ,kilpatrick ( ,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,a4 ,r4 ,mead ( ,ohio ,wesleyan ,univ]sity1 & ,a4 ,l4 ,suhrie ( ! ,we/ ,*e/] 7,p5nsylvania7 ,/ate ,normal ,s*ool1 h all read ! manuscript ?r\gh ) exce$+ c>e & furni%$ me ) num]\s corrections & criticisms1 bo? p>ticul> & g5]al4 ,pr(essor ,t4 ,h4 ,briggs ( ,columbia ,univ]sity sugge/$ a numb] ( improvem5ts 9 ! *apt] ^u ,pres5t ,day ,t5d5cies 9 ,education 7,,xxvii74 ,! *apt] ^u ! ,educational ,influ5ces ( ! ,re=mation 7,,xiii7 has be5 reliev$ ( sev]al inaccuracies1 & possibly ( "s ,prote/ant bias1 ?r\gh ! assi/ance ( ! ,rev4 ,b5$ict ,guldn]1 ,s4 ,j41 ( ,/4 ,joseph's ,college1 & ( ,bro!r ,d5is ,edw>d1 ,f4 ,s4 ,c41 ,presid5t ( ,la ,salle ,college1 ,philadelphia4 ,i h also1 z usual1 be5 greatly aid$ by my wife1 ,hel5 ,wadswor? ,graves4 ,f4 ,p4 ,g4 ,,cont5ts ,,"p ,i ,,anci5t ,,times ,,*apt] ,i ,,page ,,! ,,e>lie/ ,,education #c ,! ,value ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,education4 ,its ,treatm5t 9 ,?is ,book4 ,primitive ,education4 ,ori5tal ,education4 ,india3 ,its ,religion & ,ca/es4 ,! ,h9du ,education4 ,effect ( ! ,h9du ,education4 ,india z ,typical ( ! ,ori5t4 ,jewi% ,education4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,education ,,( ,,! ,,greeks #aa ,progressive ,nature ( ,greek ,education4 ,sp>tan ,education3 ,its ,aim & ,e>ly ,/ages4 ,tra9+ 9 ,y\? & ,manhood3 ,results4 ,old ,a!nian ,education3 ,its ,aim & ,e>ly ,tra9+4 ,tra9+ = ! ,y\?4 ,effect ( ! ,old ,a!nian ,education4 ,causes & ,"* ( ! ,new ,a!nian ,education4 ,! ,sophi/s & ,_! ,tra9+4 ,_! ,extreme ,individualism4 ,! ,reaction>ies & ! ,m$iators4 ,! ,me?od ( ,socrates4 ,plato's ,sy/em ( ,education = ! ,?ree ,classes ( ,society4 ,! ,weakness ( ,plato's ,sy/em4 ,8 ,influ5ce ^u ,educational ,!ory & ,practice4 ,ari/otle's ,ideal ,/ate & ,education4 ,! ,p]man5t ,value ( ,8 ,"w4 ,! ,po/-,ari/otelian ,s*ools ( ,philosophy4 ,! ,s*ools ( ,rhetoric4 ,! ,hell5ic ,univ]sities4 ,ext5sion ( ,hell5ic ,culture4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,education ,,( ,,! ,,romans #cb ,roman ,education ,amalgamat$ ) ,greek4 ,e>ly ,education 9 ,rome4 ,! ,absorption ( ,greek ,culture4 ,! ,ludus4 ,gramm> ,s*ools4 ,rhetorical ,s*ools4 ,univ]sities4 ,subsidization ( ,education4 ,decay ( ,education4 ,influ5ce ( ,roman ,education4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,education ,,( ,,! ,,e>ly ,,*ri/ians #db ,! ,ideals ( ,e>ly ,*ri/ianity4 ,e>ly ,*ri/ian ,life z an ,education4 ,cate*um5al ,s*ools4 ,amalgamation ( ,*ri/ianity ) ,grco-,roman ,philosophy4 ,cate*etical & ,episcopal or ,ca!dral ,s*ools4 ,influ5ce ( ,grco-,roman ,culture ^u ,*ri/ianity4 ,rise ( ! ,mona/ic ,s*ools4 ,,"p ,,ii ,,! ,,middle ,,ages ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,mona/ic ,,education #ec ,! ,middle ,ages z a ,p]iod ( ,assimilation & ,repression4 ,! ,evolution & ,nature ( ,mona/icism4 ,b5$ict's #8,rule' & ! ,multiplication ( ,manuscripts4 ,amalgamation ( ,roman & ,iri% ,*ri/ianity4 ,! ,organization ( ! ,mona/ic ,s*ools4 ,! #8,sev5 ,lib]al ,arts' z ! ,curriculum4 ,! ,me?ods & ,texts4 ,effect ^u ,civilization ( ! ,mona/ic ,s*ools4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,*>lemagne',s ,,revival ,,( ,,education #fj ,condition ( ,education 9 ! ,eigh? ,c5tury4 ,high] ,education at ! ,palace ,s*ool4 ,educational ,improvem5t 9 ! ,mona/ic1 ,ca!dral1 & ,p>i% ,s*ools4 ,alcu9's ,educational ,"w at ,t\rs4 ,rabanus ,maurus1 ,erig5a1 & ,o!rs ,conc]n$ 9 ! ,revival4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,moslem ,,le>n+ ,,& ,,education #fe ,! ,hell5ization ( ,moslemism4 ,hell5iz$ ,moslemism 9 ,spa94 ,effect ^u ,europe ( ! ,moslem ,education4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,educational ,,t5d5cies ,,( ,,s*ola/icism #fi ,! ,nature ( ,s*ola/icism4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,s*ola/ic ,developm5t4 ,s*ola/ic ,education4 ,its ,value & ,influ5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,m$i,,val ,,univ]sities #gd ,! ,rise ( ,univ]sities4 ,! ,f\ndation ( ,univ]sities at ,sal]no1 ,bologna1 & ,p>is4 ,bologna & ,p>is z ! ,models = ,o!r ,univ]sities4 ,privileges ,grant$ to ! ,univ]sities4 ,organization ( ! ,univ]sities4 ,c\rse 9 ! ,f\r ,faculties4 ,! ,me?ods ( ,in/ruction4 ,exam9ations & ,degrees4 ,! ,value & ,influ5ce ( ! ,univ]sity ,tra9+4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,! ,,education ,,( ,,*ivalry #hc ,! ,developm5t ( ,feudalism4 ,! ,ideals ( ,*ivalry4 ,! ,?ree ,prep>atory ,/ages ( ,education4 ,! ,effects ( ,*ivalric ,education4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,burgh]1 ,,gild1 ,,& ,,*antry ,,s*ools #hh ,! ,rise ( ,comm]ce & ,indu/ry4 ,developm5t ( ,cities & ! ,burgh] ,class4 ,! ,gilds & ,indu/rial ,education4 ,gild ,s*ools4 ,burgh] ,s*ools4 ,*antry ,s*ools4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,new ,s*ools4 ,,"p ,,iii ,,! ,,transition ,,to ,,mod]n ,,times ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,humani/ic ,,education #ii ,! ,pass+ ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,r5aissance & ! ,revival ( ,le>n+4 ,causes ( ! ,awak5+ 9 ,italy4 ,! ,revival ( ! ,lat9 ,classics4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,greek ,s*ol>%ip4 ,! ,c\rt ,s*ools & ,vittor9o da ,feltre4 ,! ,c\rt ,s*ool at ,mantua4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,c\rt ,s*ools to ! ,univ]sities4 ,decad5ce ( ,italian ,humanism4 ,! ,spread & ,"* ( ,humanism 9 ! ,nor!rn ,c\ntries4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,humanism 9 ,france4 ,fr5* ,humani/ic ,educators & ,in/itutions4 ,humanism 9 ! ,g]man ,univ]sities4 ,! ,hi]onymians & ,_! ,s*ools4 ,erasmus1 ,lead] 9 ! ,humani/ic ,education ( ! ,nor?4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,gymnasiums3 ,melan*?on's ,"w4 ,/urm at ,/rassburg4 ,=malism 9 ! ,gymnasiums4 ,! ,humani/ic ,movem5t 9 ,engl&3 ,greek at ,ox=d & ,cambridge4 ,humanism at ! ,c\rt ,colet & ,8 ,s*ool at ,/4 ,paul's4 ,humanism 9 ! ,engli% ,gramm> ,s*ools4 ,engli% ,gramm> & ,public ,s*ools ,to-day4 ,! ,gramm> ,s*ools 9 ! ,am]ican ,colonies4 ,! ,aim & ,in/itutions ( ,humani/ic ,education4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,educational ,,influ5ces ,,( ,,! ,,re=mation #abd ,! ,relation ( ! ,re=mation to ! ,r5aissance4 ,! ,revolt & ,educational ,works ( ,lu!r4 ,lu!r's ,ideas on ,education4 ,! ,embodim5t ( ,lu!r's ,ideas 9 ,s*ools by ,8 ,associates4 ,! ,revolt & ,educational ,ideas ( ,zw+li4 ,calv9's ,revolt & ,8 ,enc\ragem5t ( ,education4 ,! ,colleges ( ,calv94 ,h5ry ,,viii's ,revolt & ,its ,effect ^u ,education4 ,f\ndation ( ! ,society ( ,jesus4 ,organization ( ! ,jesuits4 ,! ,jesuit ,colleges4 ,! ,jesuit ,me?ods ( ,tea*+4 ,value & ,influ5ce ( ! ,jesuit ,education4 ,! ,organization ( ! ,education ( ! ,port ,royali/s4 ,! ,port ,royal ,c\rse & ,me?od ( ,tea*+4 ,la ,salle & ! ,s*ools ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs4 ,! ,aim1 ,curriculum1 & ,me?od ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs' ,s*ools4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,s*ools ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs4 ,aim & ,cont5t ( ,education 9 ! ,re=mation4 ,effect ( ! ,re=mation ^u ,elem5t>y ,education4 ,effect ( ! ,re=mation ^u ! ,second>y ,s*ools4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,re=mation ^u ! ,univ]sities4 ,! ,lapse into ,=malism4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,e>ly ,,realism ,,& ,,! ,,innovators #aea ,! ,rise & ,nature ( ,realism4 ,humani/ic ,realism4 ,social ,realism4 ,! ,relations ( ,humani/ic to ,social ,realism4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ! ,innovators ^u ,education4 ,! ,ritt]akademi54 ,! ,academies ,9 ,engl&4 ,! ,academies 9 ,am]ica4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,s5se ,,realism ,,& ,,! ,,e>ly ,,sci5tific ,,movem5t #afb ,! ,developm5t ( ! ,sci5ces & ,realism4 ,bacon & ,8 ,inductive ,me?od4 ,bacon's ,educational ,sugge/ions & ,influ5ce4 ,rati*'s ,me?ods4 ,com5ius3 ,8 ,tra9+ & ,"w4 ,8 ,s]ies ( ,lat9 ,texts4 ,! ,great ,didactic4 ,8 ,encyclopdic ,arrangem5t ( ,k4 ,! ,me?od ( ,nature4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,com5ius ^u ,education4 ,reali/ic ,t5d5cies 9 ,elem5t>y ,s*ools4 ,second>y ,s*ools4 ,! ,univ]sities4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,=mal ,,discipl9e ,,9 ,,education #agi ,locke's ,"w & ,its ,v>i\s ,classifications4 ,locke's ,discipl9>y ,!ory 9 ,intellectual ,education4 ,discipl9>y ,attitude 9 ,moral & ,physical ,tra9+4 ,orig91 ,significance1 & ,influ5ce ( ! ,!ory ( ,=mal ,discipl9e4 ,opposition to ! ,discipl9>y ,!ory & ,m ,rec5t ,modification4 ,locke's ,real ,position on ,=mal ,discipl9e4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,education ,,9 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,colonies #ahg ,am]ican ,education a ,developm5t f ,european4 ,conditions 9 ,europe f ,:i* ,am]ican ,education ,sprang4 ,colonial ,s*ool ,organization3 ,! ,ari/ocratic ,type 9 ,virg9ia4 ,! ,p>o*ial ,s*ools 9 ,new ,ne!rl&s4 ,sect>ian ,organization ( ,s*ools 9 ,p5nsylvania4 ,t[n ,s*ools 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,education 9 ! ,o!r ,colonies4 ,,"p ,,iv ,,mod]n ,,times ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,gr[? ,,( ,,! ,,democratic ,,ideal ,,9 ,,education #bjc ,! ,revolt f ,absolutism4 ,! ,two ,epo*s 9 ! ,eighte5? ,c5tury4 ,voltaire & ! ,encyclop$i/s4 ,r\sseau & ,8 ,times4 ,r\sseau's ,works4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,page ,,naturalism ,,9 ,,education #baj ,! ,influ5ce ( ,r\sseau's ,naturalism4 ,naturali/ic ,basis ( ! ,emile4 ,! ,five ,books ( ! ,emile4 ,e/imate ( ! ,emile4 ,! ,sociological ,movem5ts 9 ,mod]n ,education4 ,! ,sci5tific ,movem5t 9 ,mod]n ,education4 ,! ,psy*ological ,movem5ts 9 ,mod]n ,education4 ,! ,spread ( ,r\sseau's ,doctr9es4 ,developm5t ( ,bas$['s ,educational ,re=ms4 ,text-books & ,o!r ,works4 ,c\rse & ,me?ods ( ! ,philan?rop9um4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,philan?rop9um4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,philan?ropy ,,9 ,,education #bcj ,recon/ructive ,t5d5cies ( ! ,eighte5? ,c5tury4 ,! ,rise ( ,*>ity ,s*ools 9 ,engl&4 ,! ,s*ools ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 ,o!r ,*>ity ,s*ools4 ,! ,*>ity ,s*ools ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 ,*>ity ,s*ools among ! ,p5nsylvania ,g]mans4 ,! #8,sunday ,s*ool' ,movem5t 9 ,great ,brita94 ,! #8,sunday ,s*ool' ,movem5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,value ( ! ,in/ruction 9 #8,sunday ,s*ools4' ,! ,s*ools ( ! ,two ,monitorial ,societies4 ,value ( ! ,monitorial ,sy/em 9 ,engl&4 ,results ( ! ,monitorial ,sy/em 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! #8,infant ,s*ools' 9 ,france4 ,! #8,infant ,s*ools' 9 ,engl&4 #8,infant ,s*ools' 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,importance ( ,philan?ropic ,education4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,! ,,p]iod ,,( ,,transition ,,9 ,,am]ican ,,education #bea ,evolution ( ,public ,education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,rise ( ! ,common ,s*ool 9 ,virg9ia4 ,simil> ,developm5ts 9 ! ,o!r ,s\!rn ,/ates4 ,evolution ( ,public ,education 9 ,new ,york4 ,new ,york ,city4 ,developm5t ( ,sy/ems ( ,education 9 ,p5nsylvania & ! ,o!r ,middle ,/ates4 ,decl9e ( ,education 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,developm5ts 9 ! ,o!r ,new ,engl& ,/ates4 ,! ,ext5sion ( ,educational ,organization to ! ,nor?we/4 ,condition ( ! ,common ,s*ools ,prior to ! ,awak5+4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,indu/rial ,,tra9+ ,,9 ,,education #bgf ,pe/alozzi z ! ,successor ( ,r\sseau4 ,pe/alozzi's ,philan?ropic & ,indu/rial ,ideals4 ,8 ,indu/rial ,s*ool at ,neuh( & ! ,leon>d & ,g]trude4 ,8 ,s*ool at ,/anz & ,beg9n+ ( ,8 ,obs]vational ,me?ods4 ,cont9uation ( ,8 ,me?ods at ,burgdorf1 & ,h[ ,g]trude ,tea*es ,h] ,*ildr54 ,! #8,in/itute' at ,yv]don & ! ,culm9ation ( ! ,pe/alozzian ,me?ods4 ,pe/alozzi's ,educational ,aim & ,organization4 ,8 ,g5]al ,me?od4 ,! ,p]man5t ,influ5ce ( ,pe/alozzi4 ,! ,spread ( ,pe/alozzian ,s*ools & ,me?ods ?r\gh ,europe4 ,pe/alozzianism 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,pe/alozzi's ,indu/rial ,tra9+ ,cont9u$ by ,fell5b]g4 ,! ,agricultural ,s*ool & ,o!r ,in/itutions at ,h(wyl4 ,indu/rial ,tra9+ 9 ! ,s*ools ( ,europe4 ,indu/rial ,in/itutions 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,developm5t ,,( ,,public ,,education ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates #cjb ,! ,?ird ,p]iod 9 ,am]ican ,education4 ,e>ly ,lead]s 9 ! ,common ,s*ool ,revival4 ,"w ( ,james ,g4 ,c>t]4 ,horace ,mann z ,secret>y ( ! ,massa*usetts ,bo>d4 ,! ,educational ,sugge/ions & ,a*ievem5ts ( ,mann4 ,h5ry ,b>n>d's ,"p 9 ! ,educational ,awak5+4 ,b>n>d z ,secret>y ( ! ,connecticut ,/ate ,bo>d4 ,commission] ( ,common ,s*ools 9 ,rhode ,isl&4 ,/ate ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,s*ools 9 ,connecticut4 ,b>n>d's ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,education4 ,fir/ ,unit$ ,/ates ,commission] ( ,education4 ,value ( ,b>n>d's ,educational ,collections4 ,educational ,developm5t 9 ,new ,engl& s9ce ! ,revival4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,awak5+ ^u ! ,middle ,/ates4 ,public ,education 9 ! ,we/4 ,organization ( ,/ate ,sy/ems 9 ! ,s\?4 ,developm5t ( ! ,am]ican ,sy/em ( ,education4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,developm5t ,,( ,,educational ,,practice #ccc ,froebel & ,h]b>t z ,disciples ( ,pe/alozzi4 ,! ,e>ly ,c>e] & ,writ+s ( ,h]b>t4 ,"w at ,knigsb]g & ,gtt+54 ,h]b>t's ,psy*ology4 ,! ,aim1 ,cont5t1 & ,me?od4 ,! ,value & ,influ5ce ( ,h]b>t's ,pr9ciples4 ,! ,ext5sion ( ,8 ,doctr9es 9 ,g]many4 ,h]b>tianism 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,froebel's ,e>ly ,life4 ,8 ,exp]i5ces at ,frank=t1 ,yv]don1 & ,b]l94 ,! ,s*ool at ,keilhau4 ,developm5t ( ! ,k9d]g>t54 ,froebel's ,fundam5tal ,concept ( #8,unity4' ,motor ,expression z ,8 ,me?od4 ,! ,social ,aspect ( ,education4 ,! ,k9d]g>t54 ,! ,value & ,influ5ce ( ,froebel's ,pr9ciples4 ,! ,spread ( ,froebelianism ?r\gh ,europe4 ,! ,k9d]g>t5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,relative ,influ5ce ( ,pe/alozzi1 ,h]b>t1 & ,froebel4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,mod]n ,,sy/ems #cgj ,national ,sy/ems ( ,education 9 ,europe & ,canada4 ,! ,beg9n+ ( ,/ate ,control 9 ,prussia4 ,educational ,a*ievem5ts ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great4 ,educational ,influ5ce ( ,z$litz4 ,f\ndation ( ! ,m9i/ry ( ,education & ,fur!r ,progress4 ,! ,elem5t>y ,sy/em4 ,! ,second>y ,sy/em4 ,high] ,education4 ,educational ,developm5t ,9 ,france4 ,! ,prim>y ,s*ool ,sy/em4 ,! ,second>y ,sy/em4 ,! ,in/itutions ( ,high] ,education4 ,c5traliz$ ,adm9i/ration ( ! ,fr5* ,education4 ,e>ly ,developm5t ( ,engli% ,education4 ,educational ,movem5ts 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury4 ,subsequ5t ,educational ,movem5ts4 ,developm5t ( ,education 9 ! ,dom9ion ( ,canada4 ,! ,public ,s*ool ,sy/em ( ,ont>io4 ,! ,sy/em ( ,ecclesia/ical ,s*ools 9 ,quebec4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,movem5t ,,& ,,! ,,curriculum #cig ,! ,developm5t ( ! ,natural ,sci5ces 9 ,mod]n ,times4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,inv5tions & ,discov]ies 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] & ,:at ,k is ( ,mo/ ,wor?4 ,advocacy ( ! ,sci5ces by ,huxley & ,o!rs4 ,! ,discipl9>y ,argum5t = ! ,sci5ces4 ,introduction ( ! ,sci5ces into ,educational ,in/itutions 9 ,g]many1 ,france1 ,engl&1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,int]relation ( ! ,sci5tific ) ! ,psy*ological & ,sociological ,movem5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii ,,pres5t ,,day ,,t5d5cies ,,9 ,,education #dah ,rec5t ,educational ,progress4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,indu/rial ,tra9+4 ,indu/rial ,s*ools 9 ,europe4 ,indu/rial ,tra9+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,comm]cial ,education 9 ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,rec5t ,emphasis ^u ,agricultural ,tra9+4 ,moral ,tra9+ 9 ! ,s*ools ,to-day4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,tra9+ = ,m5tal ,defectives4 ,education ( ! ,deaf & ,bl9d4 ,rec5t ,developm5t ( ,educational ,me?od2 ,dewey's ,exp]im5tal ,s*ool4 ,o!r ,exp]im5ts 9 ,me?od4 ,! ,montessori ,me?od4 ,! ,/ati/ical ,me?od & ,m5tal ,measurem5ts 9 ,education4 ,education & ! ,!ory ( ,evolution4 ,enl>g+ ,conceptions ( ! ,function ( ,education4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii ,,page ,,retrospect ,,& ,,prospect #dda ,! ,developm5t ( ,individualism4 ,! ,h>monization ( ! ,individual & ,society4 ,,index #ddg ,,illu/rations ,,plate ,,fig4 ,,opposite ,,page #a4 #a4 ,eld]s expla9+ to "y m5 ( an ,au/ralian tribe at ! #8initiatory c]emonies' #h #b4 ,a ,h9du s*ool 9 ! op5 air1 ) ! village s*oolma/] tea*+ boys to write on a /rip ( palm leaf ) an iron /ylus #h #b4 #c4 ,! pal/ra 9 education at ,a!ns #ad #d4 ,! didascaleum 9 education at ,a!ns #ad #c4 #e4 ,roman s*ool mat]ials #cf #f4 ,sc5e at a ludus or ,roman elem5t>y s*ool #cf #d4 #g4 ,a monk 9 ! scriptorium #ef #h4 ,a mona/ic s*ool #ef #e4 #i4 ,! temple ( wisdom2 an allegorical repres5tation ( ! m$ival c\rse ( /udy #gb #f4 #aj4 ,! lecture 9 m$ival univ]sities #hj #aa4 ,! disputation 9 m$ival univ]sities #hj #g4 #ab & #ac4 ,prelim9>ies & t]m9ation ( a combat 9 ! education ( *ivalry #hf #ad4 ,boys play+ t\rnam5t ) a #8qu9ta9' or dummy man #hf #h4 #ae4 ,appr5tice%ip tra9+ 9 a gild #ib #af4 ,gild s*ool at ,/rat=d1 :]e ,%akespe>e le>n$ #8little ,lat9 & less ,greek' #ib #i4 #ag4 ,great ,engli% ,public ,s*ools3 ,w9*e/] & ,eton #abj #aj4 #ah4 ,education ( ! ,jesuits3 ,jesuit ,college at ,reg5sburg & diagram ( a ,jesuit s*oolroom #acf #aa4 #ai4 ,s*ool ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs at ,r\5 #adf #bj4 ,a ,prote/ant s*ool 9 a ,g]man village ( ! sixte5? c5tury #adf #ab4 #ba4 ,a page f ! ,orbis ,pictus ( ,com5ius1 illu/rat+ a lesson on a trade #agj #ac4 #bb4 ,t[n s*ool at ,d$ham 7,massa*usetts7 ) wat*-t[]1 built 9 #afdh #aih #bc4 ,bo/on ,lat9 ,s*ool1 f\nd$ 9 #afce #aih #bd4 ,! build+s ( ,h>v>d ,college1 erect$ 9 #afge1 #afii1 & #agbj #aih #ad4 #be4 ,! *ild z a m9iature adult #bbh #bf4 ,a naturali/ic s*ool #bbh #ae4 #bg4 ,a monitorial s*oolroom #bdb #bh4 ,pupils recit+ to monitors #bdb #bi4 ,monitor inspect+ slates #bdb #af4 #cj4 ,a #8kit*5 s*ool' #bfh #ca4 ,a colonial #8summ] s*ool' #bfh #cb4 ,! fir/ #8academy' f\nd$ by ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 at ,philadelphia 9 #agej #bfh #ag4 #cc4 #8,fa!r' ,pe/alozzi at ,/anz #bhb #cd4 ,! #8table ( units' ( ,pe/alozzi #bhb #ah4 #ce4 ,c\rt ( ,fell5b]g's ,agricultural ,in/itute #bih #cf4 ,g5]al view ( ,fell5b]g's s*ools & work%ops #bih #ai4 #cg4 ,james ,g4 ,c>t] #cab #ch4 ,horace ,mann #cab #ci4 ,h5ry ,b>n>d #cab #dj4 ,francis ,w4 ,p>k] #cab #bj4 #da4 ,! fir/ high s*ool1 e/abli%$ at ,bo/on 9 #ahba #ccb #db4 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan 9 #ahee #ccb #ba4 #dc4 #8,! ,c>p5t]' f ,froebel's ,"m ,play #cfj #bb4 #dd4 ,jean ,jacques ,r\sseau #cfh #de4 ,johann ,he9ri* ,pe/alozzi #cfh #df4 ,johann ,fri$ri* ,h]b>t #cfh #dg4 ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,augu/ ,froebel #cfh ,9 text4 #dh4 ,diagram ( ,g]man education #chj ,9 text4 #di4 ,diagram ( ,fr5* education #cib ,9 text4 #ej4 ,diagram ( ,engli% education #cib #bc4 #ea4 ,*>les ,d>w9 #djd #eb4 ,h]b]t ,sp5ce #djd #ec4 ,?omas ,h4 ,huxley #djd #ed4 ,*>les ,w4 ,eliot #djd ,9 text4 #ee4 ,diagram ( vocational education ( boys 9 #dbd ,g]many #bd4 #ef4 ,indian h\se con/ruct$ 9 ,dewey's exp]im5tal s*ool #dcf #eg4 ,"p ( ! ,?orndike ,writ+ ,scale #dcf ,,=eword ,ea* *apt] 9 ?is book w be prefac$ by an ,outl9e1 or g5]aliz$ /atem5t ( ! ideas to be includ$ 9 x4 ,logically su* an epitome is ne$$ at ! beg9n+ z well z at ! end ( ! *apt]4 ,at ! beg9n+1 x s]ves z a hypo!tical or t5tative g5]alization ( ! facts2 at ! end1 z a conclusion ^: tru? has be5 te/$ 9 ! light ( ^! facts & accept$ ) conviction4 ,by hav+ ?is outl9e 9 m9d :5 he /udies ! facts1 ! /ud5t is enabl$ n only to see t ! g5]al /atem5ts are v]ifi$ & made m significant by ! details1 b at ! same "t to organize ! facts ) ref]5ce to ! g5]alization1 & !reby secure an easi] control ( !m1 &1 ?r\gh ! relation ( ea* to ! o!rs1 discov] a full] mean+ 9 !m all4 ,!n1 aft] ?is /udy ( ! details has e/abli%$ ! tru? ( ! outl9e & enri*$ its mean+1 he c review ! outl9e & fix x 9 m9d z ! conclusion ( ! *apt]4 ,,"p ,i ,,anci5t ,,times ,a ,,/ud5ts ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,education ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,e>lie/ ,,education ,,outl9e ,ev5 a brief survey ( ! hi/ory ( education may greatly broad5 "o's view4 ,/>t+ ) primitive man1 we f9d t 8 tra9+ aims only at ! necessities ( life1 & is acquir$ in=mally ?r\gh ! eld]s & ! m$ic9e-m54 ,9 ,ori5tal education1 ! next /age 9 progress1 illu/rat$ by ,india1 a traditional k is acquir$ ?r\gh memorit] & imitative me?ods4 ,:ile ,ori5tal1 ,jewi% education af=d$ great] developm5t ( individuality1 b x 0 late 9 organiz+ s*ools1 memorit] 9 me?ods1 & re/rict$ 9 cont5t4 ,?us all education be=e ! day ( ! ,greeks 0 l>gely non-progressive4 ,sid5ote3 ,bread? ( view obta9$ ,! ,value ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,education4--,! ,hi/ory ( ,education f ! e>lie/ times %\ld contribute l>gely to "o's bread? ( view & prove a /udy ( ! greate/ lib]al culture4 ,a record ( typical in/ances ( ! moral1 /hetic1 & intellectual developm5t ( man 9 all l&s & at all p]iods %\ld c]ta9ly enl>ge "o's vision & enable him to appreciate m fully ! "p t education has play$ 9 ! progress ( civilization4 ,su* cultural values may be f\nd ev5 9 a limit$ survey ( ! _w's educational developm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,space & p]spective "h giv5 to subject matt]4 ,its ,treatm5t 9 ,?is ,book4--,& ?is is all t w be und]tak5 "h4 ,=1 :ile valuable z a lib]al /udy1 ! ,hi/ory ( ,education f9ds its ju/ification *iefly 9 ! degree to :i* x functions 9 ! pr(essional tra9+ ( a tea*]1 & x w be necess>y 9 a brief treatise to omit or pass ov] ha/ily mu* t might be ( int]e/ & value 9 a m complete acc\nt ( ! developm5t ( civilization4 ,!re=e1 ! am\nt ( space & ! p]spective af=d$ ! v>i\s peoples1 epo*s1 & lead]s mu/ "h be det]m9$ 9 l>ge measure by ! "p !y h play$ 9 ! evolution ( educational in/itutions & practices1 & by ! light _! hi/ory %$s ^u ! aim1 organization1 cont5t1 & me?od ( education to-day4 ,at times1 too1 ! hi/ory ( a s+le epo*1 /ate1 or educational lead] w be select$ z a type1 to ! exclusion ( o!rs equally important1 & treat$ ) consid]able int5siv5ess1 in/ead ( describ+ all sides ( ! subject ) encyclopdic monotony4 ,n[ ! fir/ hi/orical epo* to leave a real impress ^u mod]n practice is t ( ,a!ns at its height4 ,h5ce a m]e /atem5t ( ! sali5t features ( education prec$+ t p]iod is all t c be af=d$ 9 ?is brief survey4 ,a detail$ acc\nt ( ! educational processes us$ by savage tribes1 ,ori5tal nations1 & ev5 ,juda may prove int]e/+ & important 9 o!r connections1 b x mu/ "h be l>gely curtail$4 ,sid5ote3 ,tra9+ ?r\gh eld]s & m$ic9e-m5 ties ! savage to ! pres5t4 ,primitive ,education4--,!re is little to be not$ 9 ! tra9+ ( ! "y among primitive peoples1 save t x is int5d$ l>gely = ! satisfaction ( imm$iate wants--food1 clo?+1 & %elt]4 ,naturally no su* actual in/itution z a s*ool has yet be5 evolv$1 b ! tra9+ is transmitt$ in=mally by ! p>5ts4 ,! me?od us$ is simply t ( example & imitation1 or1 m specifically1 #8trial & success4' ,b a m consci\s & =mal education is giv5 at pub]ty ?r\gh ! #8initiatory c]emonies' 7,fig4 #a74 ,9 ^! rites ! y\?s are def9itely in/ruct$ by ! old] m5 ab\t _! relation to ! spirits & ! totem animals1 subord9ation to ! eld]s1 ! relations ( ! sexes1 ! sacr$ness ( ! clansman's obligations1 & o!r traditional usages4 ,/rict sil5ce is enjo9$ ^u !m conc]n+ ?is in=mation1 & to impress x ^u _! m9ds1 & te/ _! endurance1 !y are requir$ to fa/ = sev]al days & are (t5 tortur$ & mutilat$4 ,z ! savage does n cle>ly di/+ui% betwe5 himself & ! tribe to :i* he belongs1 !re is practically no developm5t ( individuality1 & s9ce ! race has n yet le>n$ to treasure its exp]i5ce 9 writ+1 he has no record ( pa/ exp]i5ce & is virtually ti$ to ! pres5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,vocational tra9+ & class divisions ( ! ,ori5t4 ,ori5tal ,education4--,! nations ( ! anci5t ,ori5t--,egypt1 ,babylonia1 ,assyria1 ,*9a1 ,india1 & ,p]sia--may be said to repres5t ! next high] /age 9 civilization4 ,_! sy/ems ( education prep>e mo/ly = vocations1 & are n suffici5tly advanc$ to und]take a tra9+ = manhood or citiz5%ip4 ,b s9ce a division ( labor has n[ be5 evolv$1 ! tra9+ has become m cle>ly diff]5tiat$ & fits = specific occupations4 ,9 ?is way1 class divisions1 or ev5 ca/es1 h g5]ally aris5 9 society1 & ! "y p are educat$ accord+ to ! position 9 life !y desire1 or are requir$ to fill4 ,z an illu/ration ( ?is /age ( developm5t1 we may consid] some:at 9 detail ! social environm5t & education ( ,india4 ,sid5ote3 ,my/ic religion & ca/e sy/em 9 ,india4 ,india3 ,its ,religion & ,ca/es4--,9 ,india1 l>gely z a result ( ! debilitat+ climate1 !re 0 =mulat$ ab\t #abjj ,b4 ,c4 a dreamy philosophy1 accord+ to :i* no?+ except ,brahma1 ! "o univ]sal _s1 really exi/s4 ,:ile m5 w\ld seem to be tempor>ily all[$ a sep>ate exi/5ce ( _! own1 x 0 held t !y %\ld rema9 inactive z f> z possible & seek an ultimate absorption into ! great ,et]nal ,_s4 ,al?\gh some:at modifi$ by ! infusion ( ,buddhism1 betwe5 #ejj ,b4 ,c4 & #ejj ,a4 ,d41 & by ! ,briti% occupation ( ! p59sula dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ?is my/ic & /atic religion /ill dom9ates 9 ,india4 ,connect$ ) x is ! ca/e sy/em1 by :i* ! p are divid$ into f\r h]$it>y classes4 ,^! are 7#a7 ! brahm9s1 or sac]dotal class1 :i* includes all ^? tra9$ = law1 m$ic9e1 tea*+1 & o!r pr(essional occupations2 7#b7 ! w>riors1 or milit>y & adm9i/rative ca/e2 7#c7 ! indu/rial gr\p2 & 7#d7 ! sudras1 or m5ial ca/e4 ,altoge!r outside ! social ord] are ! p>iahs1 or outca/s4 ,! ca/e sy/em is exce$+ly /rict4 ,"o may fall into a l[] ca/e1 b he _c rise1 & loss ( ca/e by "o p]son 9 a family w degrade all ! re/4 ,sid5ote3 ,k ( sacr$ books & tra9+ 9 laws & traditions4 ,! ,h9du ,education4--,h5ce ,h9du education has always endeavor$ to fill ! pupils ) ! t5ets ( _! religion1 & s prep>e !m = absorption into ! ,inf9ite1 r ?an = activities 9 ?is life1 & to pres]ve ! ca/e sy/em & keep all )9 ! sph]e ( _! occupation4 ,! ?ree upp] ca/es are1 !re=e1 suppos$ to ga9 a k ( c]ta9 sacr$ works1 especially ! f\r ,v$as or books ( #8k1' ! six ,angas on philosophical & sci5tific subjects1 & ! ,code ( ,manu1 :i* is a collection ( traditional cu/oms2 b few1 outside ! brahm9 class1 are ev] all[$ to take advantage ( ?is opportunity4 ,! w>riors are expect$ to pay m att5tion to m>tial ex]cises1 & ! indu/rial ca/e to acquire ?r\gh appr5tice%ip ! arts necess>y = its h]$it>y occupations4 ,sudras1 p>iahs1 & wom5 are g5]ally all[$ no education4 ,except ! sudras1 all ! ca/es obta9 elem5t>y education f a /udy ( ! laws1 traditions1 & cu/oms ( ! c\ntry ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! family1 & m rec5tly ?r\gh village s*ools held 9 ! op5 air 7,fig4 #b74 ,! high] education is l>gely c>ri$ on 9 brahm9ic colleges1 call$ p>i%ads1 &1 z also 9 ! case ( ! elem5t>y "w1 ! tea*]s h to be brahm9s4 ,s9ce all le>n+ has be5 pres]v$ by tradition1 ! *ief me?ods ( in/ruction are ^? ( memoriz+ & imitation4 ,ev5 ! lat] texts are s writt5 z to be easily committ$1 & ! l9es are sung al\d by ! pupils until !y h memoriz$ !m4 ,writ+ is le>n$ by imitat+ ! tea*]'s copy on ! s& ) a /ick1 !n on palm leaves ) a /ylus 7,fig4 #b71 & f9ally on plane leaves ) ink4 ,sid5ote3 ,mu* traditional le>n+1 b no progress results4 ,effect ( ! ,h9du ,education4--,h5ce1 among ! ,h9dus education is =bidd5 to n9ety-five p] c5t ( ! population1 &1 z f> z x does exi/1 x is a m]e /uff+ ( ! memory4 ,x conc]ns itself b little ) m5tal culture or ) prep>ation = real liv+4 ,! brahm9s h h&$ d[n consid]able traditional le>n+1 gramm>1 phonetics1 rhetoric1 logic1 #8,arabic' notation1 algebra1 a/ronomy1 & m$ic9e1 b new k ( any sort is b>r$4 ,! ,h9dus /ill pl[ ) /icks ( wood1 & _! crops are h>ve/$ & ?re%$ by devices equally primitive4 ,!y bake bricks1 "w metals1 & weave clo?1 b ) ! same k9d ( appliances t 7 us$ by _! remote ance/ors4 ,until rec5tly1 !y h be5 greatly lack+ 9 ambition1 self-reliance1 & p]sonal responsibility1 & h n yet come to any feel+ ( solid>ity or national unity4 ,to !m prosp]ity & progress are =eign ideas4 ,sid5ote3 ,ori5tal education 9 bondage to ! pa/4 ,india z ,typical ( ! ,ori5t4--,! o!r c\ntries ( ! anci5t ,ori5t nev] fix$ _! social classes 9 s h>d & fa/ a mann]1 & h nev] includ$ s elaborate a philosophy among ! products ( _! culture4 ,b ,india may well be consid]$ broadly typical ( ! /age ( developm5t 9 ! ,ori5t4 ,c]ta9 common features appe> 9 ! education ( all ! nations !re4 ,9 ! sy/em ( ea*1 ! classes bel[ ! sac]dotal or prie/ly are giv5 little intellectual education1 & ! wom5 none at all1 b bo? are tra9$ by appr5tice%ip 9 _! vocations4 ,actual s*ools1 bo? elem5t>y & high]1 h be5 in/itut$2 & ! latt]1 except 9 ,*9a1 are conduct$ at temples or prie/ly colleges by memb]s ( ! sac]dotal class4 ,! educational cont5t is naturally traditional4 ,x is1 = ! mo/ "p1 ensur$ aga9/ *ange by be+ embalm$ 9 sacr$ books1 su* z ! ,v$as4 ,! educational me?od consi/s l>gely 9 ! memoriz+ ( ! te/ & imitation ( ! copy set1 & little attempt is made to give a reason = ! cu/oms & traditional k taught4 ,h5ce1 :ile individuality has begun to em]ge1 x is suppress$ by e ag5cy possible2 &1 al?\gh ^! peoples h l>gely ov]come ! primitive enslavem5t to nature & ! pres5t1 !y are completely 9 bondage to ! pa/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,eld]s expla9+ to "y m5 ( an ,au/ralian tribe at ! #8initiatory c]emonies4' 7,reproduc$ f ,sp5c] & ,gill5's ,across ,au/ralia47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,a ,h9du s*ool 9 ! op5 air1 ) ! village s*oolma/] tea*+ boys to write on a /rip ( palm leaf ) an iron /ylus4 ,reproduc$ f ,?+s z ,!y ,are by ,amy ,wilson-,c>mi*ael1 by p]mission ( ! ,flem+ ,h4 ,revell ,company47 ,sid5ote3 ,great] developm5t ( p]sonality1 ,sid5ote3 b ,ori5tal & non-progressive4 ,jewi% ,education4--,! ,jews are class$ among ! nations ( ! ,ori5t1 b !y =mulat$ l(ti] aims & h ex]t$ m influ5ce ^u mod]n ideals 9 education4 ,:ile _! !ology greatly develop$ 9 ! c\rse ( _! hi/ory1 f ! fir/ !y held to an e?ical conception ( ,god1 & ! *ief goal ( _! education 0 ! build+ ( moral & religi\s "*4 ,n until aft] ! ,babyloni% captivity 7#ehf-ecf ,b4 ,c471 h[ev]1 did !y e/abli% actual s*ools4 ,be=e t1 *ildr5 7 giv5 an in=mal tra9+ 9 ! traditions & obs]vances ( _! religion by _! p>5ts4 ,b !y br\ght back f ,babylon ! idea ( in/itutions = high] tra9+ & />t$ su* s*ools ?r\gh _! synagogues4 ,9 ! second c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ! f\nd+ ( elem5t>y s*ools also began1 & ev5tually ! ,jews made education well-nigh univ]sal4 ,! b5eficial effect ( ?is tra9+ is se5 9 ! respect %[n by ! ,jews = _! wom51 _! k9d treatm5t ( *ildr51 & _! rev]5ce = p>5ts4 ,! defects ( _! education appe> 9 ! /]eotyp$ & =mal way 9 :i* ! religi\s mat]ial came to be int]pret$1 & ! consequ5t ho/ility to sci5ce & art1 except z !y ?rew light on "s religi\s fe/ival or cu/om4 ,al?\gh appeal 0 made to v>i\s types ( memory1 sy/ems ( mnemonics devis$1 & o!r good p$agogical features sugge/$1 _! me?ods ( in/ruction 7 l>gely memorit]4 ,! ,jewi% sy/em ( education1 z a :ole1 af=d$ a great] developm5t ( p]sonality ?an t ( ! o!r ,ori5tal nations1 & ?r\gh x h be5 spread "s ( ! _w's mo/ exalt$ religi\s conceptions4 ,nev]!less1 x did n dep>t mu* f its traditions & ! pa/1 & to ?is ext5t x may be class$ ) ! tra9+ ( ! primitive tribes & ( ! ,ori5tal nations z pr$om9antly non-progressive4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,= g5]al works1 see ,graves1 ,f4 ,p41 ,hi/ory ( ,education be=e ! ,middle ,ages 7,macmillan1 #aiji71 *aps4 ,i-,,xi2 ,monroe1 ,p41 ,text-book 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,education 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *aps4 ,i-,,ii4 ,a g5]al int]pretation ( ! evolution ( education 9 savag]y & b>b>ism is also giv5 9 ,laurie1 ,s4 ,s41 ,pre-,*ri/ian ,education 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #aiji71 pp4 #a-bjg2 ,morgan1 ,l4 ,h41 ,anci5t ,society 7,holt1 #aijg71 ,"p ,i2 & ,taylor1 ,h4 ,o41 ,anci5t ,ideals 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 vol4 ,i1 *aps4 ,i-,v4 ,an illu/ration ( primitive tra9+ ( especial int]e/ to ,am]ican /ud5ts is f\nd 9 ,sp5c]1 ,f4 ,c41 ,education ( ! ,pueblo ,*ild 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,dep>tm5t ( ,philosophy & ,psy*ology1 vol4 #g1 no4 #a72 & a detail$ description ( ! pub]ty rites ( a v>iety ( savage tribes1 9 ,web/]1 ,h41 ,primitive ,secret ,societies1 7,macmillan1 #aijh71 *aps4 ,i-,v4 ,a m complete acc\nt ( ! ,h9du philosophy & education appe>s 9 ,dutt1 ,r4 ,c41 ,civilization ( ,india 7,d5t1 ,london71 & ,taylor1 ,h4 ,o41 ,anci5t ,ideals 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 vol4 ,i1 *aps4 ,,iii & ,,iv4 ,a sy/ematic /atem5t ( ! ,jewi% tra9+ has be5 adapt$ f a ,g]man "w1 9 ,leipzig]1 ,h4 ,m41 ,education ( ! ,jews 7,new ,york ,tea*]s ,college1 #ahij71 & a m detail$ acc\nt work$ out 9 ,spi]s1 ,b41 ,s*ool ,sy/em ( ! ,talmud 7,/ock1 ,london1 #ahih74 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,education ,,( ,,! ,,greeks ,,outl9e ,! ,sp>tan tra9+ 0 int5d$ to s]ve ! /ate by mak+ w>riors1 & little att5tion 0 paid to intellectual education4 ,at fir/ ! ,a!nian education 0 also ma9ly conc]n$ 9 s]v+ ! /ate4 ,= ! e>lie/ /age ( ! boy's education1 !re 7 s*ools ( two types1--"o = intellectual tra9+1 z well z "o = physical2 f fifte5 to eighte5 a m advanc$ physical tra9+ 0 giv52 & !n1 = two ye>s1 a prep>ation = milit>y life4 ,aft] ! ,p]sian w>s1 ! ,a!nians adopt$ ideals ( education af=d+ a l>g] recognition ( individualism4 ,! sophi/s introduc$ ! new educational practices1 & w5t to an extreme 9 _! individualism4 ,! sy/ematic philosoph]s1--,socrates1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle1 tri$ to m$iate ! outworn in/itutional education & ! extreme individualism4 ,socrates held t ! sophi/ic #8k' 0 only #8op9ion1' & t ! m univ]sal k c\ld be rea*$ 9 e p]son by /ripp+ (f 8 individuali/ic op9ion4 ,b ,plato ma9ta9$ t only ! intellectual class c\ld atta9 to k4 ,= !m he =mulat$ a new c\rse ( /udy1 9 addition to t 9 vogue1 consi/+ ( ma!matical subjects & dialectic4 ,ari/otle held t ! tra9+ = e "o be=e sev5 %\ld be bodily2 up to f\rte51 ! irrational s\l %\ld be tra9$2 & until tw5ty-"o1 ! rational4 ,:ile ,plato & ,ari/otle _h little effect ^u educational practice at ! "t1 !y h s9ce greatly influ5c$ education4 ,aft] ,ari/otle1 !re arose individuali/ic s*ools ( philosophy & =mal s*ools ( rhetoric1 & out ( !m univ]sities sprang up4 ,!n ,greek culture & education spread ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,sid5ote3 ,fir/ developm5t ( individuality appe>$ among ,greeks4 ,progressive ,nature ( ,greek ,education4--,real educational progress began ) ! ,greeks4 ,9 _! tra9+ gradually appe>$ consid]able reg>d = individuality4 ,!y 7 ! fir/ p ^: outlook seems to h be5 t[>d ! future r ?an ! pa/1 & !y fir/ made a s]i\s attempt to promote human developm5t 9 accordance ) a remote ideal progressively reveal$4 ,z a result1 !y n only gave a wond]ful impetus to educational practice 9 _! own "t1 b ev] s9ce !n ! _w has _h con/ant rec\rse to !m = inspiration & c\nsel4 ,:ile ?is intellectual emancipation did n appe> to any ext5t be=e its developm5t among ! ,a!nians 9 ! middle ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 well-plann$ sy/ems ( education exi/$ 9 ,greece sev]al c5turies be=e ?is & pav$ ! way = ! sy/em 9 ,a!ns dur+ ! ,age ( ,p]icles4 ,sid5ote3 ,s]vice to /ate ! object4 ,sid5ote3 ,exposure ( sickly infants4 ,sid5ote3 ,b>racks tra9+ ( boys4 ,sp>tan ,education3 ,its ,aim & ,e>ly ,/ages4--,among ! /ates ( anci5t ,greece1 ,sp>ta possess$ ! e>lie/ education ( :i* we h any ext5d$ in=mation4 ,its citiz5s dwelt 9 ! mid/ ( ho/ile peoples !y _h subjugat$1 & ?is made x necess>y to produce a race ( h>dy & patriotic w>riors4 ,/r5g?1 c\rage1 & ob$i5ce to ! laws 7 held z ! aim ( education4 ,! ,sp>tan educational sy/em 0 int5d$ to s]ve ! /ate1 & ! rights ( ! individual 7 giv5 little or no consid]ation4 ,/ate control began ) bir?4 ,! infant 0 imm$iately inspect$ by a c\ncil ( eld]s1 &1 if he 7 sickly or de=m$1 he 0 #8expos$' to die 9 ! m\nta9s2 b if he appe>$ physically promis+1 he 0 =mally adopt$ by ! /ate & left ) 8 "m = re>+ until sev54 ,at t age ! boys 7 plac$ 9 *>ge ( a /ate (fic] & ate & slept 9 a k9d ( public b>racks4 ,"h _! life became "o ( con/ant drill & discipl9e4 ,9 addition to h>d b$s1 scanty clo?+1 & little food1 !y 7 giv5 a grad$ c\rse 9 gymna/ics4 ,besides ball-play+1 danc+1 & ! p5ta?lum--runn+1 jump+1 ?r[+ ! discus1 ca/+ ! javel91 & wre/l+--! ex]cises includ$ box+1 & ev5 ! brutal pancratium1 9 :i* any means ( ov]com+ "o's antagoni/--kick+1 g\g+1 & bit+1 z well z wre/l+ & box+--0 p]mitt$4 ,sid5ote3 ,little intellectual or moral tra9+4 ,! ,sp>tan boys1 h[ev]1 receiv$ only a little in=mal tra9+ 9 ! way ( intellectual education4 ,!y simply committ$ to memory & *ant$ ! laws ( ,lycurgus & selections f ,hom]1 & !y li/5$ to ! conv]sation ( ! old] m5 dur+ ! meals at ! common table1 & 7 !mselves ex]cis$ 9 giv+ concise & s5sible answ]s to que/ions put to te/ _! wisdom4 ,e adult 0 also requir$ to *oose z 8 con/ant companion or #8he>]' a y\? to :om he might become an #8inspir]4' ,sid5ote3 ,milit>y tra9+4 ,tra9+ 9 ,y\? & ,manhood3 ,results4--,:5 a y\? rea*$ eighte51 he began ! di/9ctive /udy ( w>f>e4 ,= two ye>s he 0 tra9$ 9 ! use ( arms & skirmi%+1 & e t5 days _h 8 c\rage & 8 physique te/$ by be+ :ipp$ be=e ! alt> ( ,artemis4 ,!n he regul>ly ent]$ ! army1 & = t5 ye>s gu>d$ "s bord] =tress & liv$ ^u ! co>se/ ( f>e4 ,:5 he became ?irty1 he 0 consid]$ a man & =c$ to m>ry at once1 b ev5 !n he c\ld visit 8 wife only cl&e/9ely & 0 /ill oblig$ to live 9 common ) ! boys & assi/ 9 _! tra9+4 ,sid5ote3 ,simil> education ( girls4 ,! education ( wom5 0 v l t ( ! m54 ,:ile ! girls 7 all[$ to live at home1 !y 7 giv5 a simil> physical tra9+ 9 ! hope t !y w\ld become ! mo!rs ( /urdy sons4 ,?us ! ,sp>tan education 0 %ap$ entirely ) ref]5ce to ! welf>e ( ! /ate4 ,_! educational sy/em s]v$ well its purpose ( creat+ /rong w>riors & devot$ citiz5s1 b x fail$ to make = ! highe/ manhood4 ,sp>ta develop$ practically no art1 lit]ature1 or philosophy1 & produc$ little t t5d$ to promote civilization4 ,%e has left to ! _w little b examples ( h]oism & foolh>d9ess alike4 ,sid5ote3 ,two types ( s*ools3 7#a7 ! palae/ra1 furni%+ physical tra9+2 7#b7 ! didascaleum1 furni%+ music1 read+1 & writ+4 ,sid5ote3 ,! pa$agogus4 ,old ,a!nian ,education3 ,its ,aim & ,e>ly ,tra9+4--,= _m c5turies ! ,a!nian education 0 n unlike ! ,sp>tan 9 promot+ ! welf>e ( ! /ate )\t mu* consid]ation ( individual int]e/s4 ,b ev5 9 e>ly days ,a!ns felt t ! /ate 0 be/ s]v$ :5 ! individual secur$ ! mo/ complete p]sonal developm5t4 ,h5ce1 ! ,a!nian boys began to receive at sev5 ye>s ( age two k9ds ( tra9+1--7#a7 ! p5ta?lum & o!r physical ex]cises 9 ! palae/ra 7,fig4 #c7 or ex]cis+ gr\nd1 & 7#b7 s++ & play+ ^u ! flute or lyre1 & read+ & writ+ at ! didascaleum 7,fig4 #d47 or music s*ool4 ,aft] ! boy _h le>n$ 8 lett]s by trac+ !m 9 ! s&1 he 0 taught to copy v]ses & selections f well-kn[n au?ors1 at fir/ ^u wax-tablets ) a /ylus1 & lat] ^u p>*m5t ) p5 & ink4 ,x 01 moreov]1 necess>y = ! pupils 9 s++ to be taught ! rhy?m & melody1 & to und]/& ! poem s z to br+ out its mean+4 ,h5ce ! explanations & int]pretations giv5 by ! tea*]s br\ght 9 all ! le>n+ ( ! times1 & ! moral & intellectual value ( ! /udies mu/ h be5 mu* great] ?an w\ld be sugge/$ by ! meag]ness ( ! c\rse4 ,"s moral tra9+ & discipl9e 7 also giv5 ! boy by a slave call$ ! pa$agogus1 :o conduct$ him to s*ool & c>ri$ 8 lyre & o!r appurt5ances4 ,?is function>y 0 (t5 advanc$ 9 ye>s or incapacitat$ = o!r duties by physical disability4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--,! palae/ra4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--,! didascaleum4 7,reproduc$ f illu/rations tak5 f old vases by ,freeman 9 8 ,s*ools ( ,hellas47 ,sid5ote3 ,advanc$ physical tra9+ 9 gymnasia1 & ephebic c\rse 9 milit>y duties4 ,tra9+ = ! ,y\?4--,at fifte5 ! ,a!nian boy might take physical tra9+ ( a m advanc$ "* at "o ( ! ex]cis+ gr\nds j outside ,a!ns1 :i* 7 kn[n z gymnasia4 ,he 0 n[ p]mitt$ to g :]ev] he wi%$ & become acqua9t$ ) public life ?r\gh fir/-h& contact4 ,:5 eighte5 ! y\? took ! oa? ( loyalty to ,a!ns1 & = two ye>s z an ephebus or cadet cont9u$ 8 education ) a c\rse 9 milit>y duties4 ,! fir/ ye> he sp5t 9 ! neighborhood ( ,a!ns & =m$ "p ( ! city g>rison1 b 9 ! second ye> he 0 transf]r$ to "s =tress on ! fronti]4 ,at tw5ty ! "y man became a citiz51 b ev5 !n 8 tra9+ cont9u$ ?r\gh ! drama1 ar*itecture1 sculpture1 & art t 7 all ab\t him4 ,sid5ote3 ,wom5 giv5 little tra9+4 ,sid5ote3 ,resemblance ( old ,a!nian education to ,sp>tan4 ,effect ( ! ,old ,a!nian ,education4--,little att5tion 01 h[ev]1 giv5 by ! ,a!nians to ! education ( woman4 ,x 0 felt t h] duties dem&$ no k beyond ord9>y skill 9 h\sehold affairs4 ,) ?is exception1 ! ,a!nian education 0 sup]ior to ! ,sp>tan 9 all[+ great] opportunity = individual developm5t & 9 furni%+ a m r\nd$ tra9+4 ,nev]!less1 until ab\t ! middle ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 :ile diff]+ consid]ably 9 degree f ,sp>ta1 ,a!ns may be gr\p$ ) t c\ntry z adh]+ to ! #8old' education1 :]e ! individual 0 subord9at$ to ! good ( ! social :ole4 ,sid5ote3 ,extreme individualism 9 new ,a!nian education4 ,causes & ,"* ( ! ,new ,a!nian ,education4--,?is *>act]ization is1 ( c\rse1 9 contra/ to ,greek education 9 ! #8new' p]iod1 :i* is repres5t$ by ,a!ns alone4 ,?is lat] type ( education 0 probably some:at ! result ( ! gradual rise ( democratic ideals 9 ,a!ns1 b a m imm$iate set ( factors grew out ( ! ,p]sian w>s 7#dib-dgi ,b4 ,c474 ,?is ext5d$ conflict ) a p[]ful ,ori5tal p1 possess+ a well-organiz$ b widely diff]5t body ( traditions t5d$ to broad5 ! views ( ! ,a!nians greatly1 & ! ensu+ political & comm]cial int]c\rse ) a v>iety ( dep5d5t /ates & nations 9 ! ,delian ,league1 toge!r ) social contact ) ! =eign]s f e l& t 7 ?rong+ ! /reets ( ,a!ns1 l$ ev5 m directly to a recon/ruction ( practices & beliefs4 ,a rapid transition 9 ! old traditions took place & society seems = a "t to h be5 sadly disorganiz$4 ,! old 0 %att]$1 & :ile new ideals 7 be+ con/ruct$1 a grop+ ensu$4 ,al?\gh ! latitude giv5 ! individual 0 de/9$1 z always1 to produce progress 9 ! long run1 & 0 ( great ultimate s]vice to ! _w1 m imm$iately a l[ ebb 9 morals at ,a!ns result$4 ,individualism ran riot4 ,education reflect$ ! conditions ( ! p]iod4 ,its ideals became m & m individuali/ic4 ,! times dem&$ a tra9+ t w\ld promote ! happ9ess ( ! individual ) little consid]ation = ! welf>e ( ! /ate z a :ole4 ,! old education seem$ n>r[ & b>r5 ( cont5t2 & !re arose a desire = all sorts ( k t might contribute to "o's advancem5t1 :e!r x increas$ 8 social usefulness or n4 ,skill 9 debate & public speak+ 0 especially s\ght1 because ( ! unusual opportunity = p]sonal a*ievem5t 9 politics4 ,sid5ote3 ,/udy ( grammatical & rhetorical subtleties1 9 ! place ( ! old education4 ,! ,sophi/s & ,_! ,tra9+4--,to meet ^! new dem&s1 a set ( tea*]s kn[n z ! sophi/s came into prom95ce4 ,!y pr(ess$ to tra9 "y m5 = a political c>e]1 & "s ( !m ev5 claim$ to tea* any subject :atsoev]1 or h[ to def5d ei!r side ( an argum5t4 ,^! pret5sions1 toge!r ) _! *>g+ a fee = _! s]vices1 contr>y to ,a!nian cu/om1 s]i\sly (f5d$ ! m cons]vative ( ! citiz5s ( ,a!ns4 ,b _m ( ! fir/ sophi/s af=d$ an hone/ & c>eful tra9+4 ,! effect ( _! tea*+ 0 especially felt by ! adolesc5ts 9 ! gymnasium /age ( education1 s9ce !y 7 ambiti\s to di/+ui% !mselves politically4 ,! physical tra9+ t _h hi!rto dom9at$ ! gymnasium c\rse gave way to a /udy ( grammatical & rhetorical subtleties1 & :5ev] a sophi/ appe>$ 9 ! /reet1 m>ket-place1 or h\se1 ! "y m5 cr[d$ ab\t him to borr[ f 8 /ore ( exp]i5ce & wisdom1 & acquire 8 me?od ( argum5t4 ,to a less degree ! same influ5ce 0 felt 9 ! l[] s*ools & by ! cadets & y\ng] citiz5s4 ,! ex]cises ( ! palae/ra 7 no long] z rigor\s1 & exi/$ = ! sake ( individual heal? & pleasure r ?an = ! mak+ ( citiz5s4 ,! lit]>y "w ( ! didascaleum came to include1 besides ! ,hom]ic epics1 a wide range ( didactic1 reflective1 & lyric poetry1 ) a sup]abundance ( discussions4 ,9 music ! old patriotic & religi\s songs sung to ! simple ,doric airs & accompani$ ^u ! sev5-/r+$ lyre1 7 replac$ by rhy?ms ( great difficulty1 l ! ,lydian & ,phrygian1 & by complicat$ in/rum5ts ( all sorts4 ,sid5ote3 ,reaction f ! old subord9ation ( ! individual to ! /ate4 ,_! ,extreme ,individualism4--,all ?is inroad ^u ! "t honor$ curriculum %[s h[ fully ! sophi/s embodi$ ! individualism ( ! times4 ,al?\gh !y held no body ( doctr9e common to !m all1 !y 7 g5]ally at "o 9 _! position ( extreme individualism4 ,!y (t5 w5t s f> z to insi/ t !re c\ld n safely be any univ]sal crit]ia 9 k or morals2 t no satisfactory int]pretation ( life c\ld be made = all1 b t e fact & situation %\ld be subject to ! judgm5t ( ! individual4 ,no d\bt ! =mula attribut$ to ,protagoras1 8,man 7i4 e4 ! individual7 is ! measure ( all ?+s1 bo? ( ! se5 & ! unse510 w\ld h express$ ! attitude common to mo/ ( !m4 ,!y b c>ri$ to its legitimate conclusion ! complete reaction f ! old ideal ( subord9ation ( ! individual to ! /ate4 ,sid5ote3 ,! attitude ( ,py?agoras & ,ari/ophanes2 ,sid5ote3 & ( ,socrates1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle4 ,! ,reaction>ies & ! ,m$iators4--,mean:ile1 ! cons]vative elem5t 0 mak+ its usual attempt to adju/ ! unsettl$ conditions by sugge/+ a return to ! old4 ,v>i\s s*emes _h be5 advanc$1 ev5 be=e ! sophi/s _h come into prom95ce4 ,( ^! ! mo/ complete plan 0 t ( ,py?agoras 7ab\t #ehj-ejj ,b4 ,c474 ,by adopt+ an analogy f ! #8h>mony' ( ! cele/ial bodies & f ! relation ( ! p[]s 9 ! individual to ea* o!r1 he arrang$ a def9ite hi]>*y 9 society1 s t ea* memb] %\ld h 8 prop] place1 & complete h>mony & social ord] %\ld ensue4 ,z ! influ5ce ( ! sophi/s began to be felt1 lat] repres5tatives ( ! reaction>y movem5t1 su* z ! mat*less c>icaturi/1 ,ari/ophanes 7#dde-chj ,b4 ,c471 began to appe> & inveigh aga9/ ! new conditions4 ,b ! social process c nev] move backw>d1 & recon/ruction on "s high] plane 0 ne$$ to ov]come ! de/ructive t5d5cies ( ! times4 ,to furni% ?is1 0 ! task set !mselves by ,socrates1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle4 ,l ! sophi/s1 !y recogniz$ t ! traditional beliefs & sanctions1 ! old social ord]1 & ! =m] ideals & cont5t ( education1 _h be5 outliv$1 & t ! individual c\ld n f9d tru? & morality ?r\gh an in/itutional sy/em4 ,at ! same "t !y felt t ! extreme individualism ( ! sophi/s 0 too negative a basis ^u :i* to build1 & t a m socializ$ /&>d ( k & morality mu/ be s\ght4 ,sid5ote3 #8,k' v]sus #8op9ion'4 ,sid5ote3 ,! #8dialectic' ( ,socrates4 ,! ,me?od ( ,socrates4--,?is m$iat+ ef=t 0 begun by ,socrates 7#dfi-cii ,b4 ,c474 ,:ile he />t$ ) ! =mula ( ,protagoras1 he ma9ta9$ t ! #8man' indicat$ !reby 0 n ! individual1 b mank9d z a :ole4 ,x is n ! peculi> view ( any individual t repres5ts ! tru?1 b ! k t is ! same = ev]yone4 ,! =m]1 :i* ! sophi/s consid]$ #8k1' ,socrates held to be only #8op9ion1' & decl>$ t ! reason m5 ?9k s diff]5tly is because ea* sees b "o side ( ! tru?4 ,he believ$ t ev]yone c\ld get at univ]sal k by /ripp+ (f individual diff]5ces & lay+ b>e ! ess5tials ^u :i* all m5 are agre$4 ,he conceiv$ x to be ! mission ( ! philosoph] or tea*] to enable ! individual to d ?is1 & he endeavor$ to deal ) ! m9d ( all ^? ) :om he came 9 contact1 s t !y w\ld =m valid conclusions4 ,by 8 me?od1 kn[n z ! dialectic1 or #8conv]sational1' he fir/ enc\rag$ ! individual to make a def9ite /atem5t ( 8 belief1 & !n1 ?r\gh a set ( clev] que/ions1 caus$ ! p]son to develop 8 ?\ght1 until he became s involv$ 9 manife/ contradictions t he 0 =c$ to admit t 8 view _h be5 imp]fectly =m$4 ,he ?us caus$ ! individual to see t ! view he _h fir/ express$ 0 m]e #8op9ion' & b a s+le phase ( ! univ]sal tru?4 ,z ,socrates fur!r held t morality consi/s 9 "r k & made no di/9ction betwe5 ! k ( an action & ! impulse to p]=m x1 he /rove ?r\gh 8 me?ods ( develop+ k to h>monize ! individual welf>e ) t ( ! social gr\p4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ! ,republic gov]nm5t 0 to be by ! intellectual class4 ,sid5ote3 ,e>ly education4 ,sid5ote3 ,cadet tra9+4 ,plato's ,sy/em ( ,education = ! ,?ree ,classes ( ,society4--,b ! believ]s 9 ! old traditions & in/itutional morality felt t ,socrates 0 a!i/ic & immoral4 ,!y p]suad$ ,a!ns to give him ! hemlock1 & ?us de/roy$ ! man :o might h prov$ h] savior4 ,a pupil1 ,plato 7#dbg-cdg ,b4 ,c471 und]took to cont9ue 8 "w1 b 8 ari/ocratic bir? & temp]am5t caus$ him to und]e/imate ! intellig5ce ( ! masses4 ,he held t !y 7 incapable ( atta9+ to #8k'--t !y possess$ only #8op9ion4' ,9 8 mo/ fam\s dialogue1 ,! ,republic1 he endeavors to %[ t ! ideal /ate c exi/ only :5 ! entire control ( ! gov]nm5t is entru/$ to ! #8philosoph]s1' or intellectual class1 :o alone possess #8real k4' ,^? :o are to compose ! ?ree classes ( society ,plato w\ld h select$ dur+ ! educational process on ! basis ( _! ability4 ,= all boys up to eighte5 ye>s ( age he prescribes an education simil> to t 9 vogue 9 ! palae/ra1 didascaleum1 & gymnasium1 except t he w\ld some:at expurgate ! lit]>y elem5t1 & w\ld conf9e ! musical tra9+ to ! simpl] melodies & in/rum5ts4 ,! y\?s :o prove capable ( go+ beyond ?is l[] education are next to take up ! cadet tra9+ betwe5 eighte5 & tw5ty1 b ^? :o are incapable ( fur!r education are to be relegat$ to ! indu/rial class4 ,dur+ ! cadet p]iod are to be det]m9$ ^? capable ( go+ on ) ! high] education ( philosoph]s1 :ile ^? :o "h rea* _! limit become memb]s ( ! milit>y class4 ,sid5ote3 ,high] education = philosoph]s3 ,sid5ote3 7#a7 ma!matical subjects2 ,sid5ote3 7#b7 dialectic4 ,z ,a!nian education did n ext5d beyond ! tw5tie? ye>1 ,plato is "h oblig$ to inv5t a new c\rse ( /udy t w enable ! future philosoph]s to acquire ! habit ( speculation4 ,?is additional c\rse1 he decl>es1 %\ld also be grad$1 9 ord] t a fur!r te/ ( intellectual & moral qualities may be made4 ,ari?metic1 plane & solid geometry1 music1 & a/ronomy1 are to occupy ! fir/ t5 ye>s ( ! c\rse4 ,^! subjects1 h[ev]1 are n to be /udi$ = calculation or practical purposes ( any sort1 b entirely f ! /&po9t ( !ory or ! univ]sal relations und]ly+ !m1 s9ce only ?us c !y furni% a capacity = ab/ract ?\ght4 ,aft] ?is1 at ?irty1 ! "y m5 :o c g no fur!r1 are to be plac$ 9 ! m9or (fices ( ! /ate1 :ile ^? :o h %[n !mselves capable ( ! /udy ( dialectic1 g on ) t subject = five ye>s long]4 ,x !n becomes ! duty ( ^! highe/ philosoph]s to guide & control ! /ate until !y h rea*$ ! age ( fifty1 :5 !y may be all[$ to retire4 ,sid5ote3 ,return to subord9ation ( ! individual2 ,sid5ote3 neglect ( human w2 ,sid5ote3 failure to see all human traits 9 ea* individual2 ,sid5ote3 no means ( evolution4 ,! ,weakness ( ,plato's ,sy/em4--,?us1 :]e ,socrates f\nd ! basis ( univ]sal tru? 9 ev]yone1 ,plato held t only "o class ( p1 ! mo/ intellectual1 c\ld atta9 to real k4 ,he1 !re=e1 ma9ta9$ t ! philosoph]s %\ld absolutely guide ! conduct ( ! /ate1 & t education %\ld be organiz$ ) t 9 view4 ,plato's ideal /ate w\ld ?us become a sort ( intellectual olig>*y1 & 9 a way 0 a return to ! old pr9ciple ( subord9at+ ! individual to society4 ,! ,republic ?us q neglect$ human w z a factor 9 society & assum$ t m5 c be mov$ ab\t 9 life l pieces ^u ! *ess bo>d4 ,plato fail$ to see1 too1 t ea* individual really possesses all human *>act]i/ics4 ,! work]s h reason1 & ! philosoph]s h passions1 & a human be+ is n a man unless all ^! functions are 84 ,b ev5 if 8 s*eme _h be5 a happy "o1 ! treatise provid$ no me?od ( evolution f curr5t conditions1 & if x 7 fur!r grant$ t ?is ord] ( ?+s c\ld be e/abli%$ at once4 ,plato put ! ban ^u all innovation or *ange1 & s clos$ ! door to progress4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,laws (f]$ a m practical & traditional sy/em ( education4 ,h5ce ,! ,republic 0 view$ z a vision>y conception1 & _h no imm$iate effect ^u education or any o!r in/itution ( ,a!ns4 ,s 9 8 decl9+ ye>s1 )\t d5y+ ,! ,republic z ideal1 he wrote ! m practical dialogue kn[n z ,! ,laws4 ,9 x he weld$ elem5ts f ! educational sy/ems ( ,sp>ta & old] ,a!ns1 & rev]t$ to traditions & ideals n dissimil> to ! doctr9es ( ,py?agoras4 ,he replac$ ! philosoph]s ) prie/s1 an h]$it>y rul]1 a sup]9t5d5t ( education1 & v>i\s o!r (ficials2 & ! c\rse ( /udy rea*$ its height ) ! subject ( ma!matics1 :ile dialectic 0 n m5tion$4 ,sid5ote3 ,model = lat] ,utopias4 ,sid5ote3 ,! #8quadrivium' & #8=mal discipl9e4' ,8 ,influ5ce ^u ,educational ,!ory & ,practice4--,?us ! ef=ts ( ,socrates1 z cont9u$ by ,plato1 to obta9 ! b5efit ( ! gr[+ individualism = society & education )\t disrupt+ !m1 _h seem+ly come to naught4 ,nev]!less1 ,plato has _h consid]able influ5ce ^u ! ?\ght & practice ( m5 s9ce ! ,greek p]iod4 ,! ideal society :]e ev]y?+ is well manag$ & ev]yone is 9 ! position = :i* nature int5d$ him1 has ev] s9ce ! day ( ,! ,republic be5 a favorite !me = writ]s1 z witness ,m's ,utopia & ! ,new ,atlantis ( ,bacon4 ,a specific movem5t t %[s ! impress ( ,plato1 z we %all see lat]1 is ! =mulation ( ! m advanc$ /udies ( ! m$ival #8sev5 lib]al arts' "u ! "n ( ! #8quadrivium4' ,x is ev5 possible t ! :ole conception ( #8lib]al' /udies1 & s ! doctr9e ( #8=mal discipl9e' 7see p4 #ahb71 may be trac$ back to ,plato's idea t ! ma!matical subjects 9 ! c\rse = philosoph]s %\ld nev] be /udi$ f a practical po9t ( view4 ,on ! :ole1 ,plato has be5 a factor 9 educational !ory & practice t _c be ov]look$4 ,sid5ote3 ,!oretically a mon>*y1 b practically a democracy is be/4 ,ari/otle's ,ideal ,/ate & ,education4--,a m practical attempt to unify ! new ) ! old 9 ,a!nian society & education 0 made by ,ari/otle 7#chf-cbb ,b4 ,c471 ! pupil ( ,plato4 ,f 8 fa!r1 ! c\rt physician at ,mac$on1 & f 8 /udy "u ,plato1 ,ari/otle obta9$ an excell5t sci5tific tra9+1 :i* is evid5t 9 ! way he approa*es 8 problems4 ,x is 9 8 ,politics especially t he discusses ! ideal /ate & ! tra9+ ( a citiz54 ,8 me?od ( inve/igation to det]m9e ! nature ( ?is ideal /ate is inductive1 & be=e =mulat+ 8 conception ( x1 he makes a critical analysis ( ,plato's ,republic & ,laws1 & analyzes ! organization ( _m o!r /ates1 bo? ideal & actual4 ,he concludes t a mon>*y is !oretically ! be/ type ( gov]nm5t1 b t ! =m mo/ likely to be ex]cis$ = ! good ( ! gov]n$ is ! democracy4 ,he !n consid]s 9 detail ! be/ natural & social conditions = a /ate4 ,among ^! practical consid]ations is ! prop] education to make its citiz5s virtu\s4 ,sid5ote3 ,education necess>y = virtue4 ,sid5ote3 ,tra9+ ( ! body1-- ,sid5ote3 s5sible advice4 ,s9ce virtue is ( two k9ds1 moral or practical1 & intellectual or speculative1 & ! =m] is m]ely ! /epp+-/one to ! latt]1 ! education ne$$ = ! virtue ( ! /ate mu/ n1 l t ( ,sp>ta1 be purely a tra9+ = w> & practical affairs4 ,9 m>k+ (f ! p]iods ( education1 ,ari/otle holds t 8! c>e ( ! body ought to prec$e t ( ! s\l1 & ! tra9+ ( ! impulsive side ( ! s\l ought to come next2 nev]!less1 ! c>e ( x mu/ be = ! sake ( ! reason1 & ! c>e ( ! body = ! sake ( ! s\l40 ,! developm5t ( ! body he wi%es to />t ev5 be=e bir? by hav+ ! legislator 8consid] at :at age 8 citiz5s %\ld m>ry & :o are fit to m>ry40 ,also he deems x necess>y to sanction ! usage ( 8 "t ( #8expos+' 7see p4 #ac7 all de=m$ & weakly *ildr54 ,h[ev]1 8 advice conc]n+ ! food1 clo?+1 & ex]cise ( *ildr5 is humane & 9 keep+ ) ! be/ mod]n hygi5e4 ,sid5ote3 ,tra9+ ( ! irrational s\l1-- ,sid5ote3 gymna/ics1 music1 & lit]>y subjects4 ,! tra9+ ( ! body is a prep>ation = ! =mal s*ool+1 :i* is to la/ f sev5 to tw5ty-"o4 ,?is is divid$ into two p]iods by pub]ty1 ! fir/ to be devot$ to ! tra9+ ( ! impulsive or irrational side ( ! s\l1 & ! second to t ( ! rational side4 ,education1 he claims1 %\ld be public1 z 9 ,sp>ta1 = x is ! bus9ess ( ! /ate to see t its citiz5s are all r5d]$ virtu\s4 ,h[ev]1 ! indu/rial classes1 n be+ citiz5s1 h no ne$ ( education1 & wom5 are to be limit$ 9 ! scope ( _! tra9+4 ,! c\rse ( /udy = ! irrational p]iod is l>gely ! same z t 9 use at ,a!ns1--gymna/ics1 music1 & lit]>y subjects1 al?\gh he recomm5ds "s re=ms4 ,gymna/ics is int5d$ = self-control & beauty ( =m1 & ! mak+ ( nei!r a?letes nor w>riors %\ld be ! object1 s9ce ! tra9+ ( ! =m] exhau/s ! con/itution1 & t ( ! latt] is brutaliz+4 ,! lit]>y subjects1 :i* ) ,ari/otle includes draw+1 z well z read+ & writ+1 are n to be taught m]ely = utilit>ian reasons4 ,music is to be us$ n s mu* = relaxation or intellectual enjoym5t z = high] developm5t4 ,s9ce melodies t af=d pleasure are connect$ ) noble ideas1 & ^? :i* give u pa9 are jo9$ to debas$ ideas1 ! /udy ( music 8cultivates ! habit ( =m+ "r judgm5ts1 & ( tak+ delight 9 good dispositions & noble actions40 ,ano!r moral effect ( music is t x produces ka?>sis or #8purification'2 t is1 by ar\s+ 9 u pity & fe> = humanity at l>ge1 x lifts u out ( ourselves & af=ds a safe v5t = our emotions4 ,sid5ote3 ,tra9+ ( ! rational s\l1--ma!matical subjects1 dialectic1 & sci5ces4 ,su* 0 to be ! tra9+ = ! body & = ! irrational p]iod1 b h[ ,ari/otle w\ld h advis$ t ! education ( ! rational s\l be c>ri$ on c only be surmis$1 s9ce ! treatise breaks (f sudd5ly at ?is po9t4 ,x is probable t x w\ld h includ$ a high] tra9+ 9 ma!matical subjects & dialectic simil> to t advocat$ by ,plato1 &1 f ,ari/otle's own pr$ilections1 he w\ld h be5 likely also to add "s ( ! physical & biological sci5ces4 ,sid5ote3 ,some:at 9 bondage to 8 times4 ,sid5ote3 ,contribution to sci5ces1 =mulation ( laws ( ?\ght1 & inv5tion ( t]m9ology4 ,sid5ote3 ,=mulation ( ,*ur* doctr9e4 ,! ,p]man5t ,value ( ,8 ,"w4--,?us ,ari/otle1 l ,plato1 endeavor$ to "w out ! h>moniz+ ( individual ) social int]e/s by ! creation ( an ideal /ate1 & he simil>ly fail$ to answ] ! dem& ( ! times4 ,8 "w 0 mu* less vision>y ?an ,! ,republic1 b he did n fully recognize t ! day ( ! small isolat$ /ates ( ,greece1 ) _! n>r[ prescriptions = patriotism & social ord]1 _h pass$ =ev]4 ,h5ce he hop$ to a*ieve "s re=m by dep>t+ b little f exi/+ conditions & read+ a philosophy into !m1 & ?is bondage to ! times prev5t$ 8 educational sy/em f mak+ any advance beyond t ( ,plato4 ,b :ile ,ari/otle _h little effect ^u ! society ( ! times1 8 works h s9ce be5 consid]$ ( great value1 & ! me?ods t he =mulat$ h be5 mo/ important4 ,he n only />t$1 or made ! fir/ great contributions to a numb] ( sci5ces1 b he cry/alliz$ ! laws ( ?\ght itself4 ,also1 z in/rum5ts to assi/ 9 fa%ion+ ! v>i\s sci5ces1 ,ari/otle inv5t$ a complete sy/em ( t]m9ology1 & creat$ su* pairs z #8matt]' & #8=m1' #8mean' & #8extreme1' & #8cause' & #8effect1' & su* conv5i5t expressions z #8pr9ciple1' #8maxim1' #8habit1' & #8faculty4' ,a m important effect ( ,ari/otle's ideas has be5 t ^u ! =mulation ( doctr9e 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,aft] ! spread ( ,mohamm$anism1 :i* _h l>gely absorb$ ! ,ari/otelian pr9ciples1 ! ,*ur*1 ?\gh at fir/ bitt]ly oppos+ !m1 f9ally f\nd x impossible to suppress !m1 & began to clo! h] own doctr9e 9 _! dress4 ,! greate/ ( ! s*ola/ics began to /udy ,ari/otelianism1 & soon made x ! effective weapon ( ! ,*ur* by r$uc+ all human k to a f9i%$ ,ari/otelian sy/em ) !ology at ! top4 ,sid5ote3 ,triumph ( individualism4 ,! ,po/-,ari/otelian ,s*ools ( ,philosophy4--,b ! h>moniz+ attempt ( ,ari/otle 0 fruitless4 ,l ,socrates & ,plato1 he fail$ to reconcile ) ! old & settl$ ord] ! ev]-exp&+ movem5t t[>d individualism4 ,?us all ef=ts to control ! individuali/ic & dis9tegrat+ t5d5cies ( ! times 7 9 va91 & ! conque/ ( ! ,greek /ates by ,philip ( ,mac$on 7#ceh-cch ,b4 ,c47 0 only symptomatic ( ! complete collapse ( corporate life & ! inability to recon/ruct x successfully4 ,all possibility ( social unity disappe>$1 & philosophy no long] consid]$ ! individual f ! /&po9t ( memb]%ip 9 society4 ,x 0 occupi$ no fur!r ) ! h>monization ( ! individual & ! /ate1 b conc]n$ itself ) ! welf>e ( ! individual & ! art ( liv+4 ,individualism 0 completely triumphant1 & education 0 consid]$ simply z a means to p]sonal developm5t or happ9ess1 )\t reg>d to "o's fell[s4 ,! new !ories ( life & education 7 =mulat$ by su* s*ools ( philosophy z ! ,epicureans1 ,/oics1 & ,skeptics1 :i* kept !mselves f> remov$ f society4 ,none ( ^! #8s*ools' c\ld be s t]m$ 9 ! s5se ( (f]+ an education1 b r 9 ! mod]n usage ( a gr\p ( adh]5ts to c]ta9 tea*+s4 ,!y sp5t _! en]gy1 = ! mo/ "p1 9 int]pret+1 elaborat+1 & laud+ ! orig9al tea*+s ( ! f\nd]s1 & ) !m a /]eotyp$ dogmatism took ! place ( philosophy4 ,sid5ote3 ,=mal /udy & g5]al k4 ,! ,s*ools ( ,rhetoric4--,b ^! s*ools 7 n ! only outcome ( ! tea*+ ( ! sophi/s4 ,j z !y came ab\t gradually f ! speculative t5d5cies ( ! sophi/s z develop$ ?r\gh c]ta9 fam\s philosoph]s1 !re likewise grew up m directly f ! sophi/ic ef=ts to tra9 "y m5 9 rhetoric & public speak+ a multitude ( rhetorical s*ools4 ,9 ^! a =mal /udy 0 made ( oratory & ! k ( ! day4 ,_! pr(ess$ object 0 to make successful m5 ( ! _w1 &1 al?\gh !y at fir/ includ$ su* reputable & influ5tial s*ools z t ( ,isocrates 7#dcf-cch ,b4 ,c471 !y laid little claim to tea*+ any?+ solid or pr(\nd1 mu* less to =m+ any philosophic habits4 ,!y succe$$ 9 spread+ a popul> education among a p t _h lo/ all hope ( a political life1 b !y soon deg5]at$ into ! use ( n>r[ & =mal me?ods4 ,! lat] rhetoricians attempt$ to ha/5 oratorical tra9+ & prep>ation = life1 by tea*+ _! pupils ready-made spee*es & dialogues1 toge!r ) a g5]al k ( curr5t que/ions4 ,nev]!less1 ^! s*ools fl\ri%$ = sev]al c5turies & closely rivall$ ^? ( ! philosoph]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,orig9 ( ,univ]sity ( ,a!ns4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r univ]sities4 ,sid5ote3 ,philosophy & sci5ce at ,alex&ria4 ,! ,hell5ic ,univ]sities4--,f ^! two classes ( s*ools1 ! philosophical & ! rhetorical1 ! fame ( ,a!ns spread rapidly1 & f ! f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 onw>d ! numb] ( "y m5 f all ov] ! civiliz$ _w :o came !re to /udy /eadily increas$4 ,be=e ! close ( ! c5tury ! old cadet tra9+ ( ,a!ns 0 unit$ ) ?is intellectual education1 & !re sprang up a regul> in/itution or univ]sity1 :i* ! "y ,a!nians & /ud5ts f outside might att5d4 ,be=e long1 ! ,hell5ic _w boa/$ o!r univ]sities1 su* z ^? at ,rhodes1 ,p]gamon1 ,alex&ria1 & ,rome4 ,until almo/ #cjj ,a4 ,d4 ,a!ns rema9$ ! *ief intellectual c5t] ( civilization1 & attract$ /ud5ts f all p>ts ( ! ,roman ,empire4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 ! high] education !re t5d$ t[>d ! /udy ( rhetoric alone & artificiality grew apace4 ,9 consequ5ce1 ,alex&ria came to displace ,a!ns z ! c5t] ( culture1 & h] univ]sity became ! lead+ "o ( ! _w4 ,"h ! v>i\s philosophic & religi\s sects ga!r$ to /udy & discuss1 & ! ab/ract ,greek philosophy unit$ ) ! m concrete beliefs ( ! ,ori5t1 especially ,zoroa/rianism1 ,judaism1 & ,*ri/ianity4 ,?us !re fl\ri%$ "h ! v>i\s sy/ems ( religi\s philosophy kn[n collectively z #8,hell5i/ic1' su* z ,neopy?agoreanism1 ,neomazdeism1 ,philonism1 ,gno/icism1 & ,neoplatonism4 ,consid]ably be=e ?is1 too1 !re _h develop$ at ,alex&ria ! ,ptolemaic !ory ( ! univ]se4 ,o!r not$ inve/igations1 l ^? ( ,euclid 9 geometry1 ,ar*im$es 9 physics1 ,erato/h5es 9 a/ronomy1 & ,diophantus 9 algebra1 also bore witness to ! intellectual activity ( ?is univ]sity4 ,sid5ote3 ,spread ?r\gh ! ,ori5t ,sid5ote3 & ! ,roman _w4 ,ext5sion ( ,hell5ic ,culture4--,x c ?us be se5 t ! political d[nfall ( ,a!ns _h only prep>$ ! way = a l>g] intellectual influ5ce4 ,z ,alex&] ext5d$ 8 yoke ov] "o ,ea/]n c\ntry aft] ano!r1 he _h c>ri$ ) him all ! culture ( ,greece1 & )9 a c5tury ( 8 dea? ! :ole ,ori5t 0 dott$ ) ,greek gymnasia1 /adia1 & !at]s1 & saturat$ ) ,greek lit]ature1 art1 philosophy1 & education4 ,simil>ly ,rome1 :i* _h come some:at into contact ) ,greece be=e conqu]+ h]1 _h be5 t9ctur$ ) ,greek life & le>n+2 &1 aft] h] absorption ( ,mac$on & ,greece1 %e fell "u ! spiritual ?rall ( ! subjugat$ p4 ,! hi/ory ( ,greek civilization & education 0 s int]m+l$ ) ! ,roman t x c sc>cely be di/+ui%$ f x4 ,! ,greek s*ools ( philosophy & rhetoric 7 cont9u$ 9 ,rome1 ,roman y\?s made up a great body ( ! att5dance at ! univ]sities ( ,a!ns & ,alex&ria1 & ! ,roman emp]ors did mu* = ! support & ext5sion ( ! "w 9 ^! in/itutions4 ,h5ce f ! ,greeks h develop$ "s ( ! mo/ advanc$ intellectual & /hetic ideas t civilization has kn[n4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,be=e ! ,middle ,ages 7,macmillan1 #aiji71 *ap4 ,,xii2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *ap4 ,,iii4 ,see also ,laurie1 ,pre-,*ri/ian ,education 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #aijj71 pp4 #bjh-cah4 ,davidson1 ,t41 9 8 ,ari/otle 7,scribn]1 #ahif71 develops ! p]iods ( ,greek education 9 *ronological ord]1 & 8 ,education ( ! ,greek ,p 7,appleton1 #aijc7 gives ! social sett+ ( its developm5t4 ,a mo/ s*ol>ly & brilliant "w is ,freeman1 ,k4 ,j41 ,s*ools ( ,hellas 7,macmillan1 #aijg71 :i* is illu/rat$ by vase-sc5es & o!r reproductions ( ,greek education4 ,bosanquet1 ,b41 ,! ,education ( ! ,"y 9 ,plato's ,republic 7,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aijh71 ,nettle%ip1 ,r4 ,l41 ,!ory ( ,greek ,education 9 ,plato's ,republic 7,see ,evelyn ,abbott's ,hell5ica1 ,longmans1 ,gre51 #aijh71 & ,burnet1 ,j41 ,ari/otle on ,education 7,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press7 af=d a good int]pretation ( ! !ori/s m5tion$2 :ile ,capes1 ,w4 ,w41 9 ! ,univ]sity ,life 9 ,anci5t ,a!ns 7,h>p]1 #ahgg71 & ,wald51 ,j4 ,w41 9 ! ,univ]sities ( ,anci5t ,greece 7,scribn]1 #aiji71 furni% a lively description ( ! /ud5ts & pr(essors4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,education ,,( ,,! ,,romans ,,outl9e ,! contribution ( ! ,romans to progress 0 l>gely due to _! absorption ( ,greek culture1 b _! primitive tra9+ _h an influ5ce 9 itself4 ,?is 0 mo/ly civic & practical1 & 0 giv5 in=mally 9 ! family & ! =um4 ,?r\gh amalgamation ) ! ,greek1 ,roman education ma9ta9$ ?ree grades ( s*ools3 7#a7 ! elem5t>y s*ool or ludus1 7#b7 ! #8gramm>' s*ool1 & 7#c7 ! rhetorical s*ool4 ,beyond ! education ( ^! s*ools1 a "y ,roman might att5d a univ]sity4 ,s*ools 7 gradually subsidiz$ by ! emp]ors1 b education ev5tually det]iorat$ into a =mal qualification = s5atorial rank4 ,! practical ,romans1 h[ev]1 creat$ a univ]sal empire & legal sy/em1 a univ]sal religion1 & o!r in/itutions = mod]n society4 ,sid5ote3 ,until ,hell5iz$1 ,roman ideals 7 n>r[4 ,roman ,education ,amalgamat$ ) ,greek4--,! "n ( ,rome is /ill sugge/ive ( p[] & organization4 ,^! *>act]i/ics seem to h be5 innate2 b ! significance ( ,roman developm5t to ! hi/ory ( progress & education 0 l>gely due to ! fact t1 9 h] spread ov] ! civiliz$ _w1 ! ,et]nal ,city amalgamat$ ! ,greek civilization ) h] own4 ,until !n h] ideals ( life1 :ile effective 9 conque/1 _h be5 n>r[ & little adapt$ to ! developm5t ( individuality or ( cosmopolitanism4 ,unconsci\sly realiz+ ! ne$ ( broad] ideals1 %e absorb$ ^? ( ,greece4 ,b ,rome c\ld n be ,hell5iz$ )\t mak+ "s contributions to ! result f h] own g5ius1 & = t reason x is important to le>n some?+ ( ,roman civilization & education1 crude z !y 71 be=e !y came into contact ) ,greek culture4 ,sid5ote3 ,its civic & practical aim4 ,e>ly ,education 9 ,rome4--,9 ! e>ly days ,rome 0 animat$ by int5se patriotism & love = milit>y life1 & felt t ea* citiz5 0 b\nd to m]ge 8 id5tity 9 t ( ! /ate4 ,9 ! surr5d] ( individuality !y 71 to be sure1 n unlike ! ,sp>tans1 al?\gh !y believ$ t ?is subord9ation %\ld be br\ght ab\t volunt>ily r ?an by compulsion ( law & /ate organization4 ,b1 ) su* a love z !irs = m]e mat]ial a*ievem5t1 ! ,a!nian ideal ( a full & h>moni\s developm5t ( "o's :ole nature c\ld sc>cely be expect$ to make any appeal4 ,!y look$ n = h>mony1 proportion1 or grace1 b = /]n utility4 ,!y 7 s$ate1 grave1 & s]i\s1 & _! education 0 practical1 prosaic1 & utilit>ian4 ,sid5ote3 ,in=mal tra9+ 9 ! family & 9 public4 ,until ! ,greek in/itutions began to be adopt$1 s*ools did n exi/ 9 ,rome1 except possibly ! ludus or elem5t>y s*ool4 ,dur+ ?is pri/9e p]iod education consi/$ 9 a practical tra9+ 9 ,roman ideals & ev]yday liv+ conduct$ l>gely ?r\gh ! family4 ,9 *ildhood ! boys & girls alike 7 giv5 a physical & moral tra9+ by _! "m1 b1 z ! boy grew old]1 he w5t m 9 ! company ( 8 fa!r1 & le>n$ effici5cy 9 life in=mally ?r\gh 8 example & t ( ! old] m51 :ile ! girl 0 taught at home by h] "m4 ,if ! boy belong$ to a patrician family1 he might acquire mu* k conc]n+ ,roman cu/om & law by he>+ 8 fa!r advise & aid ! family cli5ts1 or #8dep5d5ts1' & by att5d+ banquets ) him4 ,he might also receive an appr5tice%ip tra9+ f 8 p>5t or "s o!r old] man 9 ! pr(ession ( soldi]1 advocate1 or /atesman4 ,9 case he 0 born 9 a less exalt$ /ation1 he might le>n 8 fa!r's occupation at ! f>m or %op4 ,! girl1 :atev] h] social /atus1 0 tra9$ by h] "m 9 ! dome/ic arts1 especially 9 sp9n+ & weav+ wool4 ,?r\gh _! p>5ts *ildr5 probably le>n$ to read & write2 & !y committ$ to memory /ories ( ,roman h]oes1 ballads1 m>tial & religi\s songs1 & ! ,twelve ,tables ( national laws1 aft] ^! _h be5 codifi$ 7#dea ,b4 ,c474 ,physical ex]cise 0 secur$ l>gely by games1 :i* 7 mo/ly 9 imitation ( future occupations1 & gymna/ics 7 employ$ simply z tra9+ = w>4 ,! usages ( home & public religion also play$ an important "p 9 ! education ( ! "y ,romans1 especially s9ce almo/ e activity 9 life 0 presid$ ov] by "s deity1 :om x 0 necess>y to propitiate :5 engag+ 9 x4 ,sid5ote3 ,practical & occupational "*4 ,?us education 9 e>ly ,rome 0 practical1 &1 to "s ext5t1 occupational4 ,x 0 int5d$ to produce effici5cy z fa!rs1 citiz5s1 & soldi]s4 ,x consi/$ 9 tra9+ ! y\?s to be heal?y & /rong 9 m9d & body1 & s$ate & simple 9 _! habits2 to rev]5ce ! gods1 _! p>5ts1 ! laws1 & in/itutions2 & to be c\rage\s 9 w>1 & famili> ) ! traditional agriculture1 or ! conduct ( "s bus9ess4 ,x did produce a nation ( w>riors & loyal citiz5s1 b x inevitably t5d$ to make !m calculat+1 selfi%1 ov]be>+1 cruel1 & rapaci\s4 ,!y nev] possess$ ei!r l(ty ideals or en?usiasm4 ,_! tra9+ 0 be/ adapt$ to a small /ate1 & became unsatisfactory :5 !y _h spread ov] ! entire ,italian p59sula4 ,! gold5 age ( valor & /]n virtue _h !n l>gely dep>t$1 & !y began unconsci\sly to seek a m univ]sal culture4 ,:ile su* a p reg>d$ ! ,greeks z vision>y1 j z ! ,greeks look$ ^u !m z b>b>ians1 !y felt in/9ctively t only by absorption ( ! ,hell5ic ideals c\ld _! cosmopolitan ambitions be c>ri$ out4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x 0 ?r\gh ! organization :i* ! ,romans 7 able to furni%1 t ! great ideals =mulat$ by ! ,greeks 7 de/9$ to be r5d]$ effective & to become a matt] ( value & conc]n to civilization ev] s9ce4 ,sid5ote3 ,spread ?r\gh ,alex&] & ,roman conque/s4 ,sid5ote3 ,! s*ools result+4 ,! ,absorption ( ,greek ,culture4--,!re 0 a gradual infiltration ( ,greek culture into ,rome f v e>ly days4 ,?is receiv$ a great impulse ?r\gh ! conque/s ( ,alex&] 7#ccd-cbc ,b4 ,c47 & ! absorption ( ,mac$on by ,rome 7#afh ,b4 ,c471 b x 0 n until ab\t half a c5tury aft] ,greece itself _h become a ,roman prov9ce 7#adf ,b4 ,c471 t ! ,greek educational ideals & in/itutions c be said to h be5 completely absorb$ by ,rome4 ,?is new type ( education 0 ?us well e/abli%$ e>ly 9 ! fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,x may be said to h rema9$ almo/ unmodifi$ until t[>d ! end ( ! second c5tury ,a4 ,d41 :5 political conditions at ,rome became mo/ un/able & ! p]iod ( deg5]acy set 94 ,dur+ ^! ?ree c5turies ( ,hell5iz$ ,roman education1 ?ree grades ( s*ools result$ f ! amalgamation4 ,!y 7 ! 7#a7 ludus or s*ool ( ! litt]ator1 z ! l[e/ s*ool 0 call$2 7#b7 ! #8gramm>' s*ool1 taught by a grammaticus or litt]atus2 & 7#c7 ! s*ools ( rhetoric & oratory1 :i* furni%$ a some:at high] education4 ,sid5ote3 ,its cont5t & me?ods4 ,! ,ludus4--,! ludus1 or l[e/ s*ool1 may possibly h exi/$ be=e ! process ( ,hell5ization ev5 began1 b if x did1 x mu/ h be5 int5d$ simply to supplem5t ! m in=mal tra9+ ( ! home4 ,:5ev] orig9at$1 x probably taught at fir/ only read+1 writ+1 & rudim5t>y calculation1 z 9 ! family1 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( hi/orical anecdotes1 ballads1 religi\s songs1 & ! ,twelve ,tables4 ,b z ! ,greek influ5ce crept 9 m & m1 ! lit]>y cont5t 0 some:at ext5d$4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c41 ,livius ,&ronicus translat$ ! ,odyssey into ,lat92 & a numb] ( epics1 dramas1 & epigrams 7 soon compos$ aft] ,greek models4 ,^! works1 9 :ole or "p1 7 introduc$ into ! curricula ( ! ludi & by ! beg9n+ ( ! fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c41 ! ,twelve ,tables _h be5 displac$ by ! ,lat9iz$ ,odyssey ( ,&ronicus4 ,! me?ods ( in/ruction 7 memorit] & imitative4 ,! names & alphabetic ord] ( ! lett]s 7 fir/ taught )\t any indication ( _! significance or ev5 %ape1 & all possible comb9ations ( syllables 7 committ$ be=e any words 7 le>n$4 ,read+ & writ+ 7 !n taught by dictation1 &1 9 trac+ ! lett]s on wax-tablets ) ! /ylus 7,fig4 #e71 ! h& ( ! pupil 0 at fir/ guid$ by ! tea*]4 ,calculation 0 le>n$ by c\nt+ on ! f+]s1 by means ( pebbles1 or ^u ! abacus1 & ev5tually sums 7 work$ ^u ! tablets4 ,illu/ration3 7a7 7b7 7c7 ,fig4 #e4--,s*ool mat]ials f wall pa9t+s3 7a7 ,wax tablet & capsa1 conta9+ rolls1 or books4 7b7 ,?ree /ili1 capsa1 & roll lean+ aga9/ x4 7c7 ,wax tablet1 ) /ilus ti$ to x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--,sc5e at a ludus or ,roman elem5t>y s*ool1 tak5 f a fresco f\nd at ,h]culaneum4 ,sid5ote3 ,discipl9e & tea*]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,slaves to accompany pupils4 ,sid5ote3 ,build+s4 ,me?ods s devoid ( int]e/ 7 naturally accompani$ by sev]e discipl9e4 ,! rod1 la%1 & :ip seem to h be5 9 frequ5t use1 & ! names ord9>ily appli$ to s*oolma/]s 9 ,lat9 lit]ature are sugge/ive ( h>%ness & brutality4 ,moreov]1 a fresco f\nd at ,h]culaneum depicts a boy held ov] ! %\ld]s ( ano!r1 ) ! ma/] beat+ ! victim ^u ! b>e back 7,fig4 #f74 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 no real qualifications 7 requir$ ( ! tea*]1 & 8 social /&+ 0 l[4 ,! ,greek cu/om ( hav+ ! boy accompani$ to & f s*ool by a slave t 0 o!rwise incapacitat$ by age or physical disability soon came to be imitat$ by ! ,romans4 ,:5 a special build+ 0 employ$ = ! s*ool1 x 0 usually a m]e boo? or v]&a1 & ! pupils sat on ! floor or ^u /ones4 ,sid5ote3 ,curriculum4 ,sid5ote3 ,me?ods & discipl9e4 ,sid5ote3 ,build+s4 ,gramm> ,s*ools4--,! #8gramm>' s*ool grew out ( ! increas+ lit]>y "w ( ! ludus4 ,b1 :ile (f]+ a m advanc$ c\rse1 x w\ld seem to belong 9 "p at lea/ to ! elem5t>y /age ( education1 especially z its "w 0 nev] %>ply divid$ f t ( ! ludus4 ,! "y ,roman might att5d bo? a ,greek & a ,lat9 gramm> s*ool1 b1 9 case he did1 usually w5t fir/ to ! =m]4 ,! curriculum 9 ea* consi/$1 accord+ to ,qu9tilian1 ( #8! art ( speak+ correctly' & #8! int]pretation ( ! poets1' or1 9 o!r words1 ( a tra9+ 9 gramm> & lit]ature4 #8,gramm>' may1 h[ev]1 h includ$ "s k ( philology & d]ivations1 z well z drill on ! p>ts ( spee*1 inflections1 syntax1 & prosody1 & practice 9 composition & p>agraph+4 ,! lit]>y tra9+ 0 obta9$ by writ+ p>aphrases ( ! be/ au?ors1 textual & lit]>y criticism1 comm5t>ies1 & ex]cises 9 diction & v]se-writ+4 ,"s o!r /udies1 l ari?metic1 geometry1 a/ronomy1 geography1 & music may also h be5 add$ 9 "t1 f ! sugge/ions ( ,plato1 b ! ,romans naturally gave !m a practical be>+4 ,"s gymna/ics1 mo/ly = milit>y tra9+1 7 (t5 9 ! c\rse4 ,! me?ods 9 ! gramm> s*ools 7 some:at bett] ?an ^? ( ! ludus1 b ! comm5t>y ( ! tea*] on ! text 0 usually tak5 d[n v]batim by ! pupil4 ,! discipl9e1 9 consequ5ce1 0 n mu* 9 advance ( t ( ! l[] s*ools4 ,b ! accommodations = ^! second>y s*ools 7 decid$ly sup]ior1 & ! build+s n only possess$ suitable seats = ! pupils & tea*]1 b 7 ev5 adorn$ ) pa9t+s & sculpture4 ,sid5ote3 ,pr(essional1 b broad tra9+4 ,rhetorical ,s*ools4--,! #8rhetorical' s*ools 7 a developm5t ( "w 9 debate t _h gradually gr[n up 9 ! gramm> s*ools4 ,! e>lie/ ( ^! in/itutions at ,rome 7 ,greek1 b by ! fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c41 !re _h aris5 a numb] 9 :i* ,lat9 0 us$4 ,:ile !y af=d$ a legal & =5sic tra9+1 & seem m pr(essional 9 _s ?an ! gramm> s*ools1 !y 7 by no means n>r[4 ,! orator 0 = ! ,roman ! typical man ( culture & education1 & he 0 suppos$ n only to h be5 tra9$ 9 eloqu5ce & law & hi/ory1 b to possess wide le>n+1 grace1 culture1 & k ( human emotions1 s\nd judgm5t1 & good memory4 ,besides a tra9+ 9 oratory1 ^! s*ools furni%$ a l+ui/ic & lit]>y education ( "s bread?4 ,!y may be consid]$ z belong+ p>tly to ! second>y & p>tly to ! high] /age ( education4 ,! y\?s 7 ex]cis$ fir/ 9 declamation on e?ical & political subjects1 :i* w\ld br+ 9 f9e di/9ctions 9 ,roman law & e?ics1 & lat] !y 7 giv5 practice 9 ?ree types ( spee*es1--delib]ative1 judicial1 & panegyric4 ,att5tion 0 giv5 to all ! v>i\s factors 9 mak+ a successful oration3 ! matt]1 arrangem5t1 /yle1 memoriz+1 & deliv]y4 ,sid5ote3 ,spread ?r\gh\t ! empire4 ,univ]sities4--,:5 ! "y ,roman _h complet$ 8 c\rse at a rhetorical s*ool1 he might1 if he 7 ambiti\s1 g to ! univ]sity at ,a!ns1 ,alex&ria1 or ,rhodes = a high] tra9+4 ,lat]1 a univ]sity also sprang up at ,rome1 & be=e long ^! in/itutions spread ?r\gh\t ! empire4 ,! ,greek influ5ce caus$ a l>ge numb] ( ^! in/itutions to be e/abli%$ 9 ! ,ea/1 b "s 7 also locat$ 9 ! ,we/4 ,! latt] gave m emphasis to practical subjects4 ,9 sev]al in/ances ! univ]sities f\nd _! nucleus 9 "o ( ! _m libr>ies t 7 />t$ ) books br\ght f ! sack+ ( ,greece & ,asia ,m9or4 ,sid5ote3 ,imp]ial control ( s*ools4 ,subsidization ( ,education4--,?us1 ?r\gh ! adoption ( ! in/itutions ( ! ,greeks1 ,roman education became ?or\ghly ,hell5iz$4 ,al?\gh all ! types ( s*ools spread ev]y:]e 9 ! empire1 !re 01 ( c\rse1 no su* ?+ z a real s*ool sy/em1 except z ! gov]nm5t gradually came to subsidize all s*ools4 ,?is ! diff]5t emp]ors accompli%$ 9 v>i\s ways1--by contribut+ to s*ool support1 pay+ a sal>y to c]ta9 tea*]s1 or grant+ !m exemption f taxation & milit>y s]vice1 or (f]+ s*ol>%ips to a giv5 numb] ( pupils4 ,z a result1 s*ools came to be e/abli%$ 9 _m cases = ! purpose ( gett+ ^! special privileges = ! tea*]s1 r ?an = promot+ education4 ,to /op ^! abuses1 ! emp]or 9 #dbe ,a4 ,d4 decre$ t he _h ! sole au?ority to e/abli% s*ools1 & t a p5alty w\ld be laid ^u anyone else assum+ ?is pr]ogative4 ,9 ?is way ! s*ools came fully into ! h&s ( ! imp]ial gov]nm5t1 & ! basis = ! idea ( public education 0 laid = ! fir/ "t 9 hi/ory4 ,sid5ote3 ,=mal & sup]ficial "*4 ,decay ( ,education4--,be=e ?is1 h[ev]1 ,roman education _h det]iorat$4 ,) ! political & moral decay t 7 obvi\s aft] ! second c5tury ,a4 ,d41 x became a m]e =m & m>k ( ! ari/ocracy4 ,! tra9+ 9 oratory 0 cont9u$1 because x 0 a necess>y qualification = ent]+ ! s5atorial class1 b x _h lo/ its real function1 s9ce !re 0 no long] any occasion = oratory :5 ! emp]or dom9at$ all ! gov]nm5t & law4 ,x 0 n int5d$ to furni% a tra9+ ( any value 9 life1 & ! c>eful lit]>y prep>ation 0 m & m %irk$4 ,:ile ! gramm>ians & rhetoricians 7 /ill held 9 high e/eem1 !y cont5t$ !mselves ) m]e display1 & w&]$ f t[n to t[n m = ! purpose ( ent]ta9+ ?an ( tea*+4 ,glitt]+ phrases1 epigrams1 & o!r artificialities took ! place ( in/ruction & argum5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,in/itutions furni%$ = ! ideals ( ,judea & ,greece4 ,influ5ce ( ,roman ,education4--,b ! ,roman education & civilization _h left _! impress ^u ! _w4 ,?is 0 accompli%$ by ! practical nature ( ! ,romans1 & by _! ability to make ab/ract ideals concrete & embody !m 9 in/itutions t h be5 useful to civilization & progress4 ,?r\gh !m 0 creat$ ! idea ( a univ]sal empire1 :i* has be5 influ5tial ?r\gh\t ! _w's hi/ory4 ,simil>ly1 ! concept ( law orig9at+ ) ! ,greek philosoph]s became 9 ! h&s ( ! ,romans ! great sy/em ( pr9ciples t und]lies & guides all our pres5t civilization4 ,& x 0 ! ,roman g5ius = organization t in/itutionaliz$ a despis$ religi\s sect & exp&$ x into ! position ( ! greate/ _w religion4 ,if ,judaism furni%$ ! _w ) exalt$ religi\s ideals1 & if f ,hell5ism came /rik+ intellectual & /hetic concepts1 ! in/itutions = realiz+ ^! ideals orig9at$ ) ,rome4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,be=e ! ,middle ,ages 7,macmillan1 #aiji71 *ap4 ,,xiii2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *ap4 ,,iv4 ,int]e/+ brief monographs on ! subject are ,cl>ke1 ,g41 ,education ( ,*ildr5 at ,rome 7,macmillan1 #ahif71 & ,wilk9s1 ,a4 ,s41 ,roman ,education1 7,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aije74 ,see also ! treatm5t 9 ,laurie1 ,pre-,*ri/ian ,education 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #aijj71 pp4 #cai-dcf4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,education ,,( ,,! ,,e>ly ,,*ri/ians ,,outl9e ,*ri/ianity accompli%$ mu* 9 ! re=m ( ! degrad$ ,roman society4 ,! e>lie/ education ( ! ,*ri/ians came ?r\gh _! #8o!rworldly' life1 b actual s*ools1 call$ #8cate*um5al1' be=e long furni%$ a moral & religi\s tra9+4 ,aft] ! amalgamation ( ,*ri/ianity ) ,grco-,roman philosophy1 #8cate*etical' s*ools furni%$ a high] tra9+4 ,:5 high] education came to be utiliz$ by ! bi%ops = tra9+ _! cl]gy1 in/itutions kn[n z #8episcopal' or #8ca!dral' s*ools 7 f\nd$4 ,lat]1 al?\gh opposition grew up among ! ,*ri/ians to ! culture ( ,greece & ,rome1 its impress 0 f\nd to h be5 left ^u ! doctr9es & organization ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,sid5ote3 ,impot5ce ( ,roman & o!r ideals4 ,sid5ote3 ,univ]sal appeal ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,! ,ideals ( ,e>ly ,*ri/ianity4--,! actual social conditions amid :i* ! religion ( ,*ri/ 0 born1 & :i* x 0 de/9$ to re=m1 7 mo/ degrad$4 ,! ,roman _w _h become sunk 9 vice & corruption4 ,! ,roman virtues ( patriotism1 brav]y1 & s]vice to ! /ate _h l>gely disappe>$ ) ! developm5t ( ! empire1 & 7 impot5t 9 *eck+ ! widespread depravity4 ,nor c\ld ! l(ty ,greek ?\ght accompli% mu*1 s9ce x 0 too intellectual & philosophic to t\* ! masses4 ,! debas$ ,ea/]n religions1 :i* ,rome _h admitt$ 9 h] easy-go+ skepticism1 7 /ill less productive ( good4 ,:ile ! m philosophic =ms ( ,judaism & ! ,roman developm5t ( ,/oicism t5d$ to raise ! tone ( morals & pave ! way = ,*ri/ianity1 n ev5 ^! =ces c\ld h accompli%$ a successful re=m 9 ,roman society1 )\t ! /imulus & wide appeal ( ! ,*ri/ian tea*+s4 ,*ri/ianity 0 ! e?ical & univ]sal religion ne$$ z a leav54 ,its tru?s 7 bas$ on fai? r ?an und]/&+1 & its appeal 0 to ! in/9ctive prompt+s & emotions r ?an to ! intellect4 ,?is made x democratic & enabl$ x to rea* ! masses1 = ev]ybody c feel & h fai?1 ev5 :]e he _c und]/&4 ,sid5ote3 ,segregation4 ,sid5ote3 #8,o!rworldl9ess4' ,e>ly ,*ri/ian ,life z an ,education4--,?us x came ab\t t1 :ile ! e>lie/ ,*ri/ians 7 )\t s*ools ( _! own & 7 l>gely illit]ate1 _! religion itself s]v$ z an education4 ,!y 7 practically depriv$ ( intellectual developm5t1 b !y receiv$ moral tra9+ ( a v high ord]4 ,! v di%onor & unpopul>ity ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 & ! segregation ( _! ,*ur* memb]%ip1 gave ! ,*ri/ian life itself all ! effect ( a species ( s*ool+4 ,! e>ly ,*ri/ians %[$ an extreme reaction to ! vici\s morals ( ! "t1 & endeavor$ to cultivate ! high] ideals inculcat$ by ! tea*+s ( ,*ri/4 ,!y _h ga!r$ f ! /atem5ts ( ! ,ma/] t he w\ld soon return & ?is _w w\ld come to an end4 ,!y1 !re=e1 conc]n$ !mselves entirely ) a prep>ation = #8,j]usalem ! gold5' & #8! life ev]la/+1' & ! ideal ( ?is mo/ primitive ,*ri/ian tra9+ may be describ$ z #8o!rworldly4' ,sid5ote3 ,cause ( _! organization4 ,sid5ote3 ,elem5t>y cont5t4 ,cate*um5al ,s*ools4--,e>ly 9 ! second c5tury1 h[ev]1 :5 ! ,*ur* began to ext5d itself rapidly1 x seem$ necess>y to insi/ ^u "s sort ( =mal in/ruction z prelim9>y to ,*ur* memb]%ip4 ,x 0 also deem$ wise to fix a p]iod ( probation aft] ! pr(ession ( "o's fai? 9 ,*ri/1 9 ord] t in=m]s might n be admitt$ to ! s]vices1 or ! ,*ur* disgrac$ by apo/asy or ! lapses ( ^? :o _h n well consid]$ ! /ep4 ,^! dem&s 7 met by ! gradual in/itution ( popul> in/ruction 9 ,*ri/ian pr9ciples = ! ,jewi% & pagan proselytes1 :o 7 kn[n z cate*um5s4 ,:ile "s ef=t 0 made to lift ! pupils ( ^! #8cate*um5al' s*ools f ! bondage ( ignorance1 !y 7 prim>ily tra9$ 9 ! ?+s ne$ful = _! s\ls' salvation1 & ! ideal ( ,*ri/ian education rema9$ prevail+ly #8o!rworldly4' ,! in/ruction 0 c>ri$ on 9 ! portico or o!r special portion ( ! *ur*2 & consi/$ 9 moral & religi\s tea*+s1 read+ & memoriz+ ! ,scriptures1 toge!r ) "s tra9+ 9 e>ly psalmody4 ,! c\rse usually la/$ ?ree ye>s1 & :ile "s di/9ction 0 made betwe5 ! g5]al division ( cate*um5s & ^? almo/ ready = baptism1 !re is little gr\nd = suppos+ t ! s*ools 7 divid$ into actual classes4 ,! meet+s 9 ! *ur* 7 held sev]al times a week1 or ev5 e day4 ,sid5ote3 ,grco-,roman tra9+ a worldly "o4 ,sid5ote3 ,union ( ! worldly & o!rworldly1-- ,sid5ote3 ,apologi/s ,sid5ote3 & ,gno/ics4 ,amalgamation ( ,*ri/ianity ) ,grco-,roman ,philosophy4--,b :ile ! ,*ri/ian ideals & tra9+ 7 develop+ & cry/alliz+1 ! ,greek philosophy 9 its ,roman =m 0 be+ cont9u$ & exp&$4 ,?is movem5t has be5 se5 to be v diff]5t f e>ly ,*ri/ianity 9 its g5]al purpose4 ,x conc]n$ itself *iefly ) life 9 ?is _w4 ,! problem x attempt$ to solve 0 h[ "o %\ld live s z to get ! mo/ satisfaction out ( life4 ,! ,hell5iz$ ,roman s*ools may1 !re=e1 be acc\nt$ z #8worldly' z ! ,*ri/ian s*ools 7 #8o!rworldly' 9 _! aim4 ,a g5]al feel+ ( ?is m>k$ diff]5ce 9 purpose & organization betwe5 ,*ri/ianity & ! contemporane\s ,grco-,roman culture 0 de/9$ to cause an opposition to pagan le>n+ to spr+ up among ! ,*ri/ians4 ,b = two or ?ree c5turies ?is is sc>cely noticeable1 especially 9 ! ,ea/]n empire1 :]e x 0 felt t philosophy 01 l ,*ri/ianity1 a se>* aft] tru?2 &1 z f> z x w5t1 confirm$ ! ,bible4 ,!re 0 ev5 a t5d5cy to unite ! two movem5ts4 ,z ! new religion spread ?r\gh\t ! ,roman _w1 & 0 compell$ to def5d itself aga9/ *>ges ( immorality1 a!ism1 & treason1 ! educat$ conv]ts attempt$ to set =? ! ,*ri/ian tea*+s 9 t]ms ( ,greek ?\ght1 & to solve speculative problems t _h nev] be5 consid]$ by ,jesus & 8 disciples4 ,! fir/ ,hell5iz+ ,*ri/ians are kn[n z ,apologi/s1 s9ce _! ef=ts 7 direct$ t[>d reconcil+ ,*ri/ianity ) ! ,grco-,roman philosophy4 ,9 g5]al1 !y m+l$ ,/oicism ) ! tea*+s ( ,jesus4 ,lat]1 o!r ,hell5i/ic philosoph]s unifi$ ,*ri/ian doctr9e ) ! pr9ciples ( ,py?agoras1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle4 ,p]haps ! mo/ extreme ( ^! philosophic positions )9 ,*ri/ianity 0 a comb9ation ) ,platonism kn[n z ,gno/icism1 :i* 0 int5d$ to be a sort ( esot]ic k & to %[ ! relation ( ,*ri/ianity to o!r religions & to ! univ]se4 ,sid5ote3 ,pupils 9 ! s*ool at ,alex&ria all[$ to /udy all ,greek subjects4 ,cate*etical & ,episcopal or ,ca!dral ,s*ools4--,9 ?is way1 dur+ ! second & ?ird c5turies1 all ! ,*ri/ians at ,alex&ria1 :i* _h become ! great seat ( ,hell5i/ic philosophy1 _h _! !ology t9ctur$ ) ,greek ?\ght4 ,be=e long1 a sort ( !ological1 or #8cate*etical' s*ool1 0 gradually organiz$ at ?is c5t]1 to c\nt]act ! hea!n s*ools !re & to af=d high] in/ruction = ,*ri/ian tea*]s & lead]s4 ,?is s*ool _h no build+ ( its own1 & ! /ud5ts met at ! tea*]'s h\se1 b !y 7 able to take advantage ( ! facilities at ! ,univ]sity ( ,alex&ria4 ,9 addition to a ?or\gh tra9+ 9 ! ,bible1 ! pupils 7 all[$ to /udy all types ( ,greek philosophy1 except ,epicureanism1 ! :ole range ( sci5ces1 classical ,greek lit]ature1 gramm>1 rhetoric1 & o!r high] subjects ( ! pagan s*ools1 b f a diff]5t po9t ( view4 ,?us ! ,grco-,roman & ! ,*ri/ian movem5ts _h =m$ an alliance 9 education1 & 9 ?is cate*etical s*ool we f9d an attempt$ union ( ! #8o!rworldly' ideal ) ! #8worldly4' ,sid5ote3 ,o!r cate*etical s*ools4 ,! be/ kn[n heads ( ?is s*ool at ,alex&ria 7 ,clem5t 7#aej-bae7 & ,orig5 7#ahe-bec74 ,!y 7 among ! mo/ not$ ( ! ,ea/]n ,fa!rs 9 ! philosophic int]pretation ( ,*ri/ianity1 & _! "w contribut$ n a little to h]etical doctr9e4 ,orig5 may ev5 h be5 expell$ = h]esy4 ,at any rate1 he op5$ a new s*ool ( ! same sort at ,cs>ea1 :]e he 0 k9dly receiv$4 ,o!r cate*etical s*ools sprang up rapidly at ,antio*1 ,edessa1 ,nisibis1 & else:]e ?r\gh\t ! ,ea/4 ,lat] ! accession ( ! foll[]s ( ,ne/orius1 ^: ,hell5iz$ !ology _h 9 #dca be5 proscrib$ by ! ,*ur* at ! ,c\ncil ( ,ephesus1 v greatly increas$ ! importance ( ^! cities z intellectual c5t]s4 ,9 addition to ! translations already !re1 ! ,ne/orian ,*ri/ians accumulat$ a l>g] range ( ! orig9al ,greek treatises on philosophy1 sci5ce1 & m$ic9e4 ,sid5ote3 ,bi%ops />t ,hell5ic s*ools = _! cl]gy4 ,b be=e ?is1 high] tra9+ ( ! ,hell5ic type came to be regul>ly us$ by ! bi%ops 9 tra9+ _! cl]gy1 & promotion 9 ! ,*ur* began to dep5d ^u hav+ _h ?is education4 ,s high] s*ools ( ?is sort 7 gradually in/itut$ 9 e bi%opric at ! see city1 & became kn[n ev5tually z #8episcopal' or #8bi%op's' s*ools1 or1 f _! location at ! bi%op's *ur*1 z #8ca!dral' s*ools4 ,^! ca!dral s*ools became ! mo/ important educational in/itutions ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,f !m 7 d]iv$ all ! s*ools ( ,we/]n ,europe1 b ! bi%op soon became too busy to att5d to !m himself & 0 =c$ to commit !m to v>i\s (ficials4 ,?us !y develop$ 9 "t into at lea/ ?ree types1--! #8gramm>' s*ool1 taught by "o ( ! ca!dral canons1 kn[n z ! s*ola/icus2 ! #8song' or music s*ool1 taught by ! cantor or prec5tor2 & ! #8*ori/]'s' s*ool1 :i* (f]$ a comb9ation ( ! tra9+ 9 ! two o!r s*ools4 ,?us ! ca!dral s*ools virtually took ! place ( ! old pagan s*ools support$ by ! ,roman emp]ors4 ,sid5ote3 ,gr[? ( opposition to ! ,grco-,roman culture4 ,influ5ce ( ,grco-,roman ,culture ^u ,*ri/ianity4--,h[ev]1 by ! c5tury aft] ! f\ndation ( ! cate*etical s*ool at ,alex&ria1 ! ,*ri/ians _h begun to gr[ suspici\s ( ,grco-,roman culture & ! #8worldly' ideal 9 education4 ,ev5 ! ,ea/]n or ,greek ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur* appe> to h cool$ consid]ably 9 _! attitude t[>d philosophy1 & ! ,we/]n or ,lat9 ,fa!rs 7 m pron\nc$ 9 _! opposition4 ,roman ,*ri/ians c\ld n =get ! immorality ( ^? :o _h be5 connect$ ) ?is culture1 nor ! abuse & insults t ^! pagans _h heap$ ^u !m4 ,!y felt1 too1 t ! "o great mission ( ! ,*ur* 0 e?ical1 & t ,*ri/'s second com+ 0 at h&1 & t all philosophy & le>n+ 7 some:at imp]t95t4 ,sid5ote3 ,b great influ5ce ( ,greece & ,rome ^u ,*ri/ian doctr9e & ,*ur* organization4 ,nev]!less1 despite ?is gr[? ( opposition to pagan philosophy1 primitive ,*ri/ianity c\ld n endure 9 its simplicity aft] x _h be5 9 contact ) ! advanc$ intellectual concepts ( ! ,greeks1 z modifi$ by ! organiz+ g5ius ( ! ,romans4 ,bo? ,greece & ,rome left a p]man5t impress ^u ,*ri/ianity2 &1 ?\gh dead1 !y yet live 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,! influ5ce ( ,greek philosophy is se5 9 ! =mulation ( a sy/em ( ,*ri/ian doctr9e4 ,?is appe>s 9 ! developm5t ( ! ,apo/les' ,cre$ dur+ ! second c5tury1 9 ! selection ( a canon ( sacr$ writ+s or ,new ,te/am5t dur+ ! ?ird c5tury1 & /ill m 9 ! ,nic5e ,cre$ 7#cbe71 :i* 0 n =mulat$ until ,*ri/ianity _h be5 l>gely ,hell5iz$4 ,simil>ly1 ! ,greek t5d5cy to attribute univ]sal validity to _! sacr$ writ+s1 & ! pomp1 c]emonies1 & my/]ies ( ! ,hell5ic wor%ip1 are m or less app>5t 9 ! v>i\s ecclesia/ical t5ets & usages4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,roman concepts ( adm9i/ration appe> 9 ! organization ( ! ,*ur*1 :i* seems to h closely p>allel$ ! ,roman civil polity4 ,by ! ?ird c5tury prie/s & bi%ops _h l>gely come to be simil>ly locat$1 & to correspond 9 control1 to ! ,roman di/rict & city magi/rates respectively4 ,& 9 #dde ! recognition ( ! supremacy ( ! ,bi%op ( ,rome e/abli%$ a visible head ( ! entire ,*ur*1 correspond+ to ! position ( ! emp]or on ! civic side4 ,sid5ote3 ,rev]sion to o!rworldl9ess4 ,rise ( ! ,mona/ic ,s*ools4--,?us x has be5 se5 h[ ! two great movem5ts ( ,grco-,roman culture & ,*ri/ian tea*+ arose indep5d5tly1 9 "t unit$ & lat] sep>at$1 al?\gh1 aft] sep>ation1 ! ,*ri/ian doctr9es 7 some:at affect$ by _! long association ) pagan philosophy4 ,ev5tually ! pagan s*ools 7 suppress$ by ! edict ( ,ju/9ian 9 #ebi ,a4 ,d41 & ! ,*ri/ian education 0 left alone 9 ! field4 ,x !n f\nd an additional means ( expression 9 ! #8mona/ic' s*ools1 9 :i* !re 0 naturally a t5d5cy to rev]t to an ascetic or #8o!rworldly' ideal1 & to leave intellectual atta9m5ts l>gely out ( consid]ation4 ,b ^! mona/ic in/itutions are to be gr\p$ ) m$ivalism & belong m di/9ctly to ! next *apt]4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,be=e ! ,middle ,ages 7,macmillan1 #aiji71 *ap4 ,,xii2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #bba-bdc4 ,= ! moral effect ( ,*ri/ianity1 see ,lecky1 ,w4 ,e4 ,h41 ,hi/ory ( ,european ,morals 7,appleton1 #ahfi71 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #a-ajj4 ,o!r places 9 ! *apt] w be illum9$ by read+ ,ay]1 ,j4 ,c41 ,jr41 ,cate*um5al ,s*ools & ,cate*etical ,s*ools 7,monroe ,cyclopdia ( ,education1 vol4 ,i72 ,dill1 ,d41 ,roman ,society 9 ! ,la/ ,c5tury ( ! ,we/]n ,empire 7,macmillan1 #ahii71 especially book ,v2 ,hat*1 ,e41 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,greek ,ideas & ,usages ^u ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* 7,hibb]t ,lectures1 #ahhh1 ,williams1 ,london1 #ahia72 ,hodgson1 ,g41 ,primitive ,*ri/ian ,education 7,cl>k1 ,ed9burgh1 #aijf72 & ,lea*1 ,a4 ,f41 ,bi%op's ,s*ools & ,ca!dral ,s*ools 7,monroe ,cyclopdia ( ,education1 vol4 ,i74 ,,"p ,,ii ,,! ,,middle ,,ages ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,mona/ic ,,education ,,outl9e ,dur+ ! ,middle ,ages ! ,g]man hordes absorb$ anci5t civilization "u ! au?oritative guidance ( ! ,*ur*1 & ! *ief means ( leav5+ ! b>b>ian lump 0 f\nd 9 ! ca!dral & mona/ic s*ools4 ,mona/]ies grew up to c\nt]act ! prevail+ worldl9ess4 ,to keep ! monks busy1 ,b5$ict prescrib$ ! copy+ ( manuscripts1 & ?is lit]>y "w r5d]$ s*ools necess>y4 ,9 ^! mona/ic s*ools 7 taught ! #8sev5 lib]al arts' by cate*etical me?ods4 ,?us mona/icism help$ pres]ve le>n+ & education1 al?\gh x 0 some:at ho/ile to ! classics & sci5ce4 ,sid5ote3 ,absorption ( ,greek1 ,roman & ,*ri/ian civilization4 ,! ,middle ,ages z a ,p]iod ( ,assimilation & ,repression4--,! ,middle ,ages may be reg>d$ z an era ( assimilation & ( repression4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! rude ,g]man hordes1 :o _h by ! six? c5tury ev]y:]e tak5 possession ( ! decad5t anci5t _w1 7 enabl$ dur+ ?is p]iod to rise gradually to su* a plane ( intellig5ce & a*ievem5t t !y c\ld absorb ! ,greek1 ,roman1 & ,*ri/ian civilization1 & become its c>ri]s to mod]n times4 ,on ! o!r h&1 t ?is absorption might take place1 x 0 necess>y t ! individual %\ld con=m to ! model set1 & x 0 inevitable t a bondage to au?ority1 conv5tion1 & in/itutions %\ld ensue4 ,sid5ote3 ,au?oritative attitude ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! ma9 p[] 9 effect+ ?is subs]vi5ce on ! "p ( m$ival society 0 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,= x 0 b natural dur+ ! p]iod ( assimilation t ! ,*ur*1 :i* _h become completely organiz$ & unlimit$ 9 p[]1 %\ld /& z ! *ief guide & s*oolma/] ( ! ,g]manic ho/s4 ,by ! decree ( ,ju/9ian 9 #ebi ,a4 ,d41 :i* clos$ ! pagan s*ools & m>ks ! beg9n+ ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ,*ri/ian education 0 left )\t a rival4 ,h5ce ! ca!dral & mona/ic s*ools became almo/ ! sole means ( leav5+ ! b>b>ian lump4 ,contr>y to ! view commonly accept$1 ! educational activities ( ! ca!dral in/itutions 7 m important & g5]al ?an ^? ( ! mona/ic s*ools4 ,b ! =m] h already be5 some:at discuss$1 & s mu* relat+ to ! c\rse & s]vices ( ! latt] w also apply to !m t we may n[ turn to a detail$ description ( ! mona/ic s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,reaction to prevail+ vice4 ,! ,evolution & ,nature ( ,mona/icism4--,to und]/& ^! s*ools1 x w be necess>y to exam9e ! movem5t out ( :i* !y arose4 ,mona/icism grew up ?r\gh ! corruption 9 ,roman society & ! desire ( ^? )9 ! ,*ur* = a deep] religi\s life4 ,*ri/ianity 0 no long] conf9$ to small extra-social gr\ps meet+ secretly1 b 0 repres5t$ 9 all walks ( society1 & m+l$ ) ! _w4 ,x _h become ?or\ghly secul>iz$1 & ev5 ! cl]gy _h 9 _m in/ances yield$ to ! prevail+ worldl9ess & vice4 ,sid5ote3 ,h]mits & mona/]ies4 ,sid5ote3 ,mona/icism 9 ! ,we/4 ,"u ^! circum/ances !re 7 ,*ri/ians :o felt t ! only hope = salvation re/$ 9 flee+ f ! _w & its temptations & tak+ refuge 9 an isolat$ life ( asceticism & devotion4 ,?is l$ ev5tually to ! f\ndation ( mona/]ies1 9 :i* ! monks liv$ ap>t 9 sep>ate cells1 b met = meals1 pray]s1 communion1 & c\nsel4 ,mona/icism />t$ 9 ,egypt1 b soon spread into ,syria & ,pale/9e1 & !n into ,greece1 ,italy1 & ,gaul4 ,b 9 ! ,we/ mona/icism gradually adopt$ m active pursuits & mild] discipl9e1 & ! monks turn$ to ! cultivation ( ! soil & ! pres]vation ( lit]ature4 ,sid5ote3 ,manual labor & read+ requir$4 ,sid5ote3 ,result+ lit]>y activities4 ,b5$ict's #8,rule' & ! ,multiplication ( ,manuscripts4--,^! mona/ic activities 7 especially cry/alliz$ & promot$ by ! ,b5$ict9e #8rule4' ,?is 0 a code =mulat$ by ,/4 ,b5$ict 9 #ebi = 8 mona/]y at ,monte ,cass9o 9 ,s\?we/ ,italy1 & x 0 g5]ally adopt$ by ! mona/]ies ( ,we/]n ,europe4 ,9 ! =ty-eigh? *apt] ( ! #8rule' he comm&$ t ! monks ea* day engage 9 manual labor = at lea/ sev5 h\rs & 9 sy/ematic read+ = at lea/ two h\rs4 ,! requirem5t ( daily read+ l$ to ! collection & reproduction ( manuscripts1 & ea* mona/]y soon _h a scriptorium1 or #8writ+-room1' 9 "o end ( ! build+ 7,fig4 #g74 ,mo/ ( ! works copi$ 7 ( a religi\s nature & 7 limit$ 9 numb]1 b ! monks 7 occasionally occupi$ ) ! ,lat9 classics1 & !y also became ! au?ors ( "s orig9al lit]ature1 :i* includ$ hi/ories ( ! ,*ur*1 ! mona/]ies1 & ! times1 z well z works ^u religi\s topics4 ,sid5ote3 ,especial pres]vation ( le>n+ 9 ,engli% mona/]ies4 ,amalgamation ( & ,iri% ,*ri/ianity4--,?is pres]vation ( le>n+ & developm5t ( lit]ature 0 especially app>5t 9 ! mona/]ies ( ,engl& ,x came ab\t ?r\gh ! amalgamation at ! ,c\ncil ( ,:itby1 9 #ffd1 ( ! ,roman ,*ur* 9 ,engl&1 ) ,iri% ,*ri/ianity1 :i* _h pres]v$ an unusually high ord] ( le>n+ aft] its isolation4 ,an imm5se en?usiasm = ! ,*ur*1 culture1 & lit]ature ( ,rome result$ f ?is m]g+ ( ! rival organizations1 & ! ,engli% mona/]ies1 su* z ,j>r[ & ,we>m\?1 & ca!dral s*ools1 l ,york1 became ! great educational c5t]s = ,europe4 ,sid5ote3 ,l5g? ( c\rse4 ,sid5ote3 ,types ( pupils4 ,! ,organization ( ! ,mona/ic ,s*ools4--,! lit]>y "w ( ! mona/]ies soon l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( regul> s*ools )9 _! walls 7,fig4 #h74 ,! c\rse 9 ^! mona/ic s*ools may (t5 h la/$ eight or t5 ye>s1 z boys ( t5 or ev5 less 7 sometimes receiv$1 & no "o c\ld become a regul> memb] ( ! ord] be=e he 0 eighte54 ,by ! n9? c5tury ! s*ools sometimes also admitt$ pupils :o nev] expect$ to ent] ! ord]4 ,^! latt] 7 call$ ext]ni 9 di/9ction to ! oblati1 :o 7 prep>+ to become monks4 ,"s tra9+ 0 also giv5 wom5 9 conv5ts = nuns1 su* z t e/abli%$ by ! si/] ( ,b5$ict4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,a monk 9 ! scriptorium4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,a mona/ic s*ool4 ,sid5ote3 ,evolution & scope ( ! trivium & quadrivium4 ,! #8,sev5 ,lib]al ,arts' z ! ,curriculum4--,! curriculum ( ! mona/ic s*ools 0 at fir/ elem5t>y & n>r[4 ,x includ$ only read+1 9 ord] to /udy ! ,bible2 writ+1 to copy ! sacr$ books2 & calculation1 = ! sake ( comput+ ,*ur* fe/ivals4 ,b aft] a :ile ! classical le>n+ 0 gradually introduc$ 9 t dry & cond5s$ =m ( ! #8sev5 lib]al arts'1 :i* 0 also us$ by ! ca!dral s*ools4 ,?is m$ival canon ( /udies 0 a gradual evolution f ,grco-,roman days4 ,! discrim9ation ( ^! lib]al subjects may be said to h begun ) ,plato1 ^: educational s*eme includ$ a high] gr\p ( /udies1 consi/+ ( ari?metic1 geometry1 music1 & a/ronomy2 & dur+ ! lat] days ( ,greece & ,rome ^! #8lib]al' subjects ( ,plato 7 comb9$ ) ! #8practical' /udies ( ! sophi/s1--gramm>1 rhetoric1 & dialectic4 ,^! #8sev5 lib]al arts' 7 def9itely fix$ dur+ ! fif? & six? c5turies ,a4 ,d41 ?r\gh sev]al treatises by su* writ]s z ,m>tianus ,capella1 ,bo?ius1 & ,cassiodorus2 & ! gramm>1 rhetoric1 & dialectic ev5tually became class$ z ! trivium or l[] /udies1 & ! ari?metic1 geometry1 music1 & a/ronomy z ! quadrivium or high] 7,fig4 #i74 ,:ile ?is curriculum 0 n a broad "o1 ! scope 0 mu* wid] ?an w\ld be suppos$4 #8,gramm>' 0 an introduction to lit]ature1 #8rhetoric' includ$ "s k ( law & hi/ory1 #8dialectic' pav$ ! way = metaphysics1 #8ari?metic' ext5d$ beyond m]e calculation1 #8geometry' embrac$ geography & survey+1 #8music' cov]$ a broad c\rse 9 !ory1 & #8a/ronomy' compreh5d$ "s physics & advanc$ ma!matics4 ,sid5ote3 ,dictation & memoriz+4 ,sid5ote3 ,donatus & ,priscian1 ,sid5ote3 ,ari/otle1 ,euclid1 ,bo?ius1 & ,ptolemy4 ,! ,me?ods & ,texts4--,! g5]al me?od ( tea*+ 9 ! mona/ic s*ools 0 t ( "q & answ]4 ,z copies ( ! v>i\s books 7 sc>ce1 ! in/ructor (t5 resort$ to dictation1 expla9+ ! mean+ z he read1 & ! pupils took ! passage d[n ^u tablets & committ$ x4 ,! read+ books prep>atory to ! /udy ( lit]ature1 _m ( :i* are /ill extant1 7 g5]ally arrang$ by ea* tea*]1 & c>eful att5tion 0 giv5 to ! etymological & lit]>y /udy ( ! au?ors to be read4 ,z to texts1 ! lead+ works ^u gramm> 7 at fir/ ! elem5t>y "w ( ,donatus 7f\r? c5tury7 & ! m advanc$ treatise ( ,priscian 7six? c5tury71 b by ! ?irte5? c5tury !re _h sprung up a s]ies ( simplifi$ gramm>s1 :i*1 = ! sake ( memoriz+1 7 (t5 writt5 9 v]se4 ,z rhetoric 0 no long] mu* conc]n$ ) declamation1 ,cic]o & ,qu9tilian 7 r>ely us$ z texts1 b v>i\s m$ival treatises ^u (ficial lett]s1 legal docum5ts1 & =ms came into use4 ,dialectic 0 /udi$ ?r\gh translations ( ! ,organon ( ,ari/otle1 ,euclid furni%$ ! text on geometry1 ! works ( ,bo?ius 7 g5]ally us$ = ari?metic & music1 & 9 a/ronomy adaptations ( ! treatises ( ,ari/otle & ,ptolemy became ! texts4 ,sid5ote3 ,ma9t5ance ( classical lit]ature & education4 ,effect ^u ,civilization ( ! ,mona/ic ,s*ools4--,?us mona/icism accompli%$ n a little = civilization4 ,:ile ! works produc$ 9 ! mona/]ies 7 uncritical & sup]/iti\s1 !y compose mo/ ( our hi/orical docum5ts & s\rces 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,&1 al?\gh mona/ic s*ools 7 decid$ly ho/ile to classical lit]ature z repres5t+ ! temptations ( ! _w1 & at all times _! rigid or?odoxy prev5t$ e possibility ( sci5ce & ! developm5t ( individualism1 !y1 toge!r ) ! ca!dral s*ools1 pres]v$ a consid]able am\nt ( ,grco-,roman culture4 ,)\t ! ca!dral & mona/ic s*ools1 ! ,lat9 & ,greek manuscripts & le>n+ c\ld sc>cely h surviv$ & h be5 available at ! ,r5aissance4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,hi/ory ( ,education dur+ ! ,middle ,ages & ! ,transition to ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *aps4 ,i-,,ii2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #bdc-bgd4 ,= ! evolution ( ! ascetic life1 see ,lecky1 ,hi/ory ( ,european ,morals 7,appleton1 #ahfi71 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aja-bgd2 = ! developm5t ( mona/icism1 ,taylor1 ,h4 ,o41 ,! ,classical ,h]itage ( ! ,middle ,ages 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap4 ,,vii1 & ,wi%>t1 ,a4 ,w41 ,a ,%ort ,hi/ory ( ,monks & ,mona/icism 7,br&t1 ,tr5ton1 #aijb74 ,! contribution ( ,iri% mona/icism is %[n 9 ,healy1 ,j41 ,insula ,sanctorum et ,doctorum 7,sealy1 ,dubl91 #ahig71 & ,zimm]1 ,h41 ,! ,iri% ,elem5t 9 ,m$ival ,culture 7,putnam1 #ahia74 ,succ9ct articles on ,abbey ,s*ools1 ,bi%op's ,s*ools1 ,*ur* ,s*ools1 & ,cloi/] ,s*ools by ,lea*1 ,a4 ,f4 7,monroe ,cyclopdia ( ,education1 vols4 ,i & ,,ii71 furni% ! mo/ accurate ideas ( mona/ic education z f> z x is kn[n4 ,an acc\nt ( ! mona/ic libr>ies is giv5 9 ,cl>k1 ,j4 ,w41 ,libr>ies 9 ! ,m$ival & ,r5aissance ,mona/]ies 7,macmillan & ,b[es1 ,cambridge1 #ahid71 & ,putnam1 ,g4 ,h41 ,books & ,_! ,mak]s dur+ ! ,middle ,ages 7,putnam1 #ahif74 ,! be/ acc\nt ( ,! ,sev5 ,lib]al ,arts 9 ,engli% is t by ,abelson1 ,p4 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,tea*]s ,college ,contributions1 ,no4 #aa1 #aijf74 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,*>lemagne',s ,,revival ,,( ,,education ,,outl9e ,le>n+ & s*ools _h by ! eigh? c5tury be5 sadly disrupt$1 &1 to re/ore !m1 ,*>lemagne invit$ ,alcu9 ( ,york to become 8 advis] 9 education4 ,alcu9 induc$ ,*>lemagne to conduct high] education at ! ,palace ,s*ool1 & to improve ! ca!dral1 mona/ic1 & p>i% s*ools4 ,ev5 aft] ,alcu9 retir$ f ! active direction ( education1 he cont9u$ 8 educational influ5ce1 b he became set & n>r[4 ,a broad] _s1 h[ev]1 appe>$ 9 8 pupils1 & intellectual /agnation nev] aga9 prevail$4 ,sid5ote3 ,decay ( le>n+4 ,sid5ote3 ,*>lemagne ,sid5ote3 & ,alcu94 ,condition ( ,education 9 ! ,eigh? ,c5tury4--,9 ! c\rse ( ! sev5? & eigh? c5turies m$ival education met ) consid]able retrogression4 ,! le>n+ ( ! six? c5tury 0 disappe>+1 ! copy+ ( manuscripts _h almo/ ceas$1 & ! ca!dral & mona/ic s*ools _h be5 sadly disrupt$4 ,! secul> cl]gy1 monks1 nobility1 & o!rs :o might h be5 expect$ to be tra9$1 at times seem ev5 to h lo/ ! art ( writ+1 al?\gh ! lead+ *ur*m5 mu/ g5]ally h ma9ta9$ _! k ( ecclesia/ical ,lat9 & "s acqua9tance ) ! classical au?ors & v>i\s compilations ( ! sev5 lib]al arts4 ,j be=e ?is "t ! ,franks _h succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ a supremacy ov] ! o!r b>b>ian tribes & _h spread _! rule ?r\gh :at is n[ ,france1 ,belgium1 & ,holl&1 & mo/ ( ,we/]n ,g]many4 ,"u a dyna/y ( vigor\s k+s1 !y n[ drove back ! ,moslems1 conqu]$ ! ,lomb>ds & ,saxons1 & subdu$ ! ,slavs & ,bohemians1 & f9ally ,*>lemagne 7#gdb-had7 ev5 plann$ to re-e/abli% ! ,we/]n ,roman ,empire "u 8 sov]eignty4 ,?is mon>* greatly /r5g!n$ & c5traliz$ 8 dom9ions by a numb] ( improvem5ts 9 ext]nal adm9i/ration1 b1 ev5 be=e 8 recognition z emp]or by ! pope 7#hjj71 he _h realiz$ t a g5u9e unity ( 8 p c\ld be br\ght ab\t only ?r\gh a mu* m effective & univ]sal education4 ,he _h a ke5 s5se ( ! un=tunate educational situation1 & made e ef=t to improve x4 ,to assi/ him 9 8 endeavors1 9 #ghb he call$ ,alcu9 7#gce-hjd7 f ! head%ip ( ! fam\s ca!dral s*ool at ,york 7see p4 #ef7 to be 8 *ief advis] 9 education4 ,sid5ote3 ,me?ods & curriculum4 ,high] ,education at ! ,palace ,s*ool4--,?r\gh ?is not$ s*ol> ,*>lemagne proce$$ to revive ! ca!dral1 mona/ic1 & p>i% s*ools1 & to increase ! importance ( ! #8,palace ,s*ool4' ,at ?is latt] s*ool ! great k+1 all 8 family1 & _m ( 8 relatives & intellectual fri5ds /udi$ "u ! ,saxon educator4 ,alcu9 mu/1 h[ev]1 h us$ a m discursive & less memorit] me?od ) 8 adult /ud5ts ?an ! =mal cate*etical plan employ$ 9 in/ruct+ ! y\?4 ,among ! subjects taught 7 gramm>1 includ+ "s /udy ( ! ,lat9 poets & ! writ+s ( ! ,*ur* ,fa!rs1 rhetoric1 dialectic1 ari?metic1 a/ronomy1 & !ology1 b ,alcu9 appe>s to h _h b little comm& ( ! ,greek le>n+4 ,*>lemagne himself seems to h become pr(ici5t 9 ,lat9 & o!r languages1 b1 9 spite ( /r5u\s ef=ts1 he began too late 9 life to tra9 8 h& to write4 ,sid5ote3 ,capitul>ies to abbots & bi%ops4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\rse 9 ! mona/ic1 ca!dral1 & village s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,free tuition4 ,educational ,improvem5t 9 ! ,ca!dral1 ,mona/ic1 & ,p>i% ,s*ools4--,) ! cop]ation ( ,alcu91 ,*>lemagne also did ev]y?+ 9 8 p[] to increase facilities & improve /&>ds 9 ! exi/+ types ( s*ools4 ,9 #ghg he issu$ an educational #8capitul>y' or decree to ! bi%ops & abbots1 8urg+ dilig5ce 9 ! pursuit ( le>n+ & ! selection ( tea*]s = ?is "w :o are able1 will+1 & zeal\s to le>n !mselves & to tea* o!rs40 ,two ye>s lat] he wrote a m urg5t capitul>y to ! bi%ops & abbots1 9 :i* he specifi$ ! subjects to be taught 9 ! ca!dral & mona/ic s*ools & ! c>e to be tak5 9 tea*+ !m4 ,s*ools seem to h be5 ev]y:]e e/abli%$ or reviv$ 9 ! v>i\s ca!drals1 mona/]ies1 & villages1 & ! in/ruction 9 sev]al places became fam\s4 ,all ^! s*ools came to (f] at lea/ a complete elem5t>y c\rse1 & "s add$ consid]able "w 9 high] education4 ,read+1 writ+1 computation1 s++1 & ! ,scriptures 7 taught fir/1 b1 beyond ?is1 in/ruction 9 gramm>1 rhetoric1 & dialectic 0 (t5 giv51 & at ! m not$ ca!dral & mona/ic s*ools ! quadrivium also appe>$ 9 ! c\rse4 ,! s*ools 9 ! villages1 "u ! c>e ( ! p>i% prie/s1 taught only ! rudim5ts1 ! ,"l's ,pray]1 ! ,cre$1 & ! ,psalms4 ,tuition 0 free 9 all s*ools = ^? int5d+ to become monks or prie/s1 b = ! high] "w a small fee 0 sometimes paid by ! laity4 ,x seems to h be5 g5]ally int5d$ t education %\ld be gratuit\s & op5 to all4 ,a lett] ( ! ,bi%op ( ,orleans requir$ x ( 8 cl]gy2 & ?r\gh a capitul>y 9 #hjb ,*>lemagne /rove to make x compulsory4 ,sid5ote3 ,aft] retirem5t ,alcu9's influ5ce cont9u$1 b he became n>r[4 ,alcu9's ,educational ,"w at ,t\rs4--,aft] f\rte5 ye>s ( /r5u\s s]vice1 ,alcu9 retir$ f ! active head%ip ( ! educational sy/em to ! abbacy ( ! mona/]y at ,t\rs4 ,b ev5 "h 8 educational "w did n cease4 ,he soon e/abli%$ a model h\se ( le>n+ & education1 :i!r flock$ ! mo/ brilliant y\?s 9 ! empire1 & s9ce !y rapidly became prom95t z tea*]s & *ur*m51 8 influ5ce ^u ! s*ools rema9$ fully z m>k$ z be=e4 ,he also wrote a numb] ( educational works1 mo/ly on ! sev5 lib]al arts1 & _h a l>ge correspond5ce ab\t education ) k+s & ! high] cl]gy4 ,alcu91 h[ev]1 0 by nature cons]vative1 & ) 8 retirem5t he became decid$ly set & n>r[4 ,8 fe> ( dialectic & ! m advanc$ views ( c]ta9 ,iri% s*ol>s is almo/ ludicr\s1 & 8 repudiation ( ! classic poets1 ev5 8 =m] favorite1 ,v]gil1 is pa!tic4 ,sid5ote3 ,8 pupils reta9$ 8 broad] _s4 ,rabanus ,maurus1 ,erig5a1 & ,o!rs ,conc]n$ 9 ! ,revival4--,=tunately1 ,alcu9's pupils1 :o at 8 dea? occupi$ practically all positions ( educational importance1 reta9$ 8 broad] _s4 ,?is 0 true 9 p>ticul> ( ,rabanus ,maurus 7#ggf-hef71 ^: lead]%ip caus$ ! mona/ic s*ool at ,fulda to become ! great c5t] ( le>n+4 ,rabanus wrote ev5 m prolifically ?an ,alcu9 ^u gramm>1 language1 & !ology1 b 0 n afraid to emphasize ! /udy ( classic lit]ature or ! new tra9+ 9 dialectic4 ,he also greatly exp&$ ! ma!matical subjects ( ! curriculum1 & t5d$ to ascribe all ph5om5a to natural laws4 ,rabanus1 9 8 turn1 influ5c$ a l>ge numb] ( pupils1 & a fur!r impetus 0 giv5 to ! movem5t by a cross-f]tilization ( ,iri% le>n+1 :i* 0 also introduc$1 especially ?r\gh ! ma/]%ip ( ,joannes ,scotus ,erig5a 7#haj-hgf7 at ! ,palace ,s*ool4 ,sid5ote3 ,p]man5t effects ( ! revival4 ,?us dur+ ! n9? c5tury & ! fir/ half ( ! t5? !re arose1 ?r\gh ! initiative ( ,*>lemagne & ,alcu91 a m>k$ revival 9 education1 & = sev]al g5]ations ! ca!dral & mona/ic s*ools en?usia/ically fo/]$ education & le>n+4 ,curricula 7 exp&$1 & _m fam\s s*ol>s appe>$4 ,:ile1 ow+ to ! weakness ( ,*>lemagne's successors & ! attacks ( ! ,nor?m51 le>n+ gradually fad$ once m1 intellectual /agnation nev] aga9 prevail$4 ,?r\gh ! revival ( ! great ,franki% mon>*1 classical le>n+ _h to "s ext5t be5 recall$ to cont95tal ,europe f its insul> asylum 9 ! extreme ,we/4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,,iii2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #bgd-bgi4 ,read also ,gasko91 ,c4 ,j4 ,c41 ,alcu91 ,8 ,life & ,8 ,"w 7,clay1 ,london1 #aijd71 or ,we/1 ,a4 ,f41 ,alcu9 & ! ,rise ( ,*ri/ian ,s*ools 7,scribn]1 #ahib71 & ,mull+]1 ,j4 ,b41 ,! ,s*ools ( ,*>les ! ,great 7,longmans1 ,london1 #ahgg74 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,moslem ,,le>n+ ,,& ,,education ,,outl9e ,moslemism amalgamat$ 9 ,syria ) ,greek philosophy & sci5ce1 & ! ,moslem cities !re became r5[n$ = _! le>n+4 ,! masses ( ! ,moslems 7 suspici\s ( ! ,greek le>n+1 h[ev]1 & ^? :o _h absorb$ ! ,hell5iz$ philosophy 7 driv5 f ! ,ori5t into ,spa91 :]e !y f\nd$ ,moori% colleges4 ,! ,moslems ?us /imulat$ le>n+ 9 ! ,*ri/ian s*ools1 & introduc$ ,ari/otle once m1 b1 aft] br++ le>n+ back1 ,moslemism itself rev]t$ to its primitive /age4 ,sid5ote3 ,illit]acy ( e>ly ,moslemism4 ,sid5ote3 ,le>n+ ( ! ,mohamm$an cities ( ,syria4 ,! ,hell5ization ( ,moslemism4--,"o ( ! mo/ important influ5ces 9 awak5+ m$ival ,europe 0 ! revival ( le>n+ & education t came ?r\gh ! adv5t ( ! ,moslems4 ,mohamm$1 ! f\nd] ( ,moslemism1 _h be5 almo/ illit]ate1 & ! ,koran1 or sacr$ book1 0 a curi\s jumble ( ,judai/ic1 ,*ri/ian1 & o!r religi\s elem5ts ) :i* ,mohamm$ _h become acqua9t$ dur+ 8 e>ly travels4 ,z long z ?is religion 0 conf9$ to ! ignorant & unreflect+ tribes ( ,arabia1 x s]v$ its purpose )\t modification4 ,b :5 x spread into ,syria & came 9 contact ) ,greek philosophy1 9 ord] to appeal to ! p !re1 x _h to be int]pret$ 9 ,hell5i/ic t]ms1 & dur+ ! eigh?1 n9?1 & t5? c5turies1 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! ,ne/orian s*ol>s 7see p4 #df71 ! ,mohamm$ans 7 engag$ 9 r5d]+ into ,arabic f ! ,syriac1 or f ! orig9al ,greek1 ! works ( ! great philosoph]s1 ma!maticians1 & physicians4 ,! ,mohamm$an cities ( ,syria soon became r5[n$ = _! le>n+4 ,9 !m arose su* s*ol>s z ,avic5na 7#ihj-ajcg71 :o wrote _m treatises on ma!matics & philosophy1 & a ,canon ( ,m$ic9e t rema9$ au?oritative = five c5turies4 ,simil>ly1 !re grew up a society call$ ! #8,bro!rs ( ,s9c]ity1' :i* 9 its c\rse ( /udy amalgamat$ ! ,moslem !ology ) ,hell5i/ic philosophy4 ,sid5ote3 ,av]ros & ! ,moori% colleges4 ,hell5iz$ ,moslemism 9 ,spa94--,b ! masses ( ! ,mohamm$ans 7 z suspici\s ( ! ,greek le>n+ z ! or?odox ,*ri/ians _h be51 & t[>d ! end ( ! elev5? c5tury ,hell5iz$ ,moslemism 0 driv5 f ! ,ori5t & f\nd a refuge 9 ,nor!rn ,africa & 9 ,spa94 ,"h ! advanc$ ,mohamm$ans became kn[n z #8,moors1' & _! works 7 de/9$ to h a pron\nc$ influ5ce ^u ! ,*ri/ians4 ,!re soon appe>$ su* s*ol>s z ,av]ros 7#aabf-aaih71 :o became ! au?oritative comm5tator on ,ari/otle = sev]al c5turies2 & ,moori% colleges 7 f\nd$ at ,cordova1 ,granada1 ,tol$o1 & else:]e4 ,9 ^! in/itutions1 :ile le>n+ 0 /ill at a l[ ebb 9 ! ,*ri/ian s*ools1 7 taught ari?metic1 geometry1 trigonometry1 a/ronomy1 physics1 biology1 m$ic9e1 surg]y1 jurisprud5ce1 logic1 & metaphysics4 ,arabic notation 0 also introduc$ 9 place ( ! cumb]some ,roman num]als & _m inv5tions & discov]ies 7 made4 ,sid5ote3 ,le>n+ /imulat$ 9 ,*ri/ian education4 ,effect ^u ,europe ( ! ,moslem ,education4--,^! s*ools & colleges ( ! ,moslems soon _h _! effect ^u ,*ri/ian education4 ,?r\gh _! influ5ce1 ,raymund1 ,ar*bi%op ( ,tol$o1 by ! middle ( ! twelf? c5tury _h ! *ief ,arabic treatises on philosophy translat$ into ,ca/ilian by a le>n$ ,jew1 & !n into ,lat9 by ! monks2 & ,fr$]ick ,,ii _h s*ol>s r5d] ! works ( ,av]ros into ,lat94 ,su* translations _h1 h[ev]1 pass$ ?r\gh sev]al m$ia--,greek1 ,syriac1 ,arabic1 ,ca/ilian1 ,lat9--& c\ld n be at all accurate4 ,b1 /imulat$ by ?is ta/e ( ,greek le>n+1 ! ,*ri/ians s\ght a m imm$iate v]sion1 & a half c5tury lat] :5 ! ,v5etians took ! city ( ,con/ant9ople1 ! works ( ,ari/otle 7 recov]$ 9 ! orig9al & translat$ directly into ,lat94 ,mean:ile ! or?odox ,mohamm$anism _h be5 com+ to ! front 9 ,spa9 & ov]:elm+ ! ,hell5iz$ =m1 & x 0 left to ,*ri/ian s*ools to cont9ue ! "w ( ! advanc$ ,moori% in/itutions4 ,moslemism _h return$ to its primitive /age1 b x _h help$ br+ back le>n+1 especially ! works ( ,ari/otle1 to ,*ri/5dom4 ,z ! classical le>n+ _h be5 re/or$ f ! ,we/ dur+ ! revival ( ,*>lemagne1 x n[ return$ f its refuge 9 ! ,ea/ ?r\gh ! com+ ( ! ,moslems4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,v2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #cca-ccd4 ,= a fur!r acc\nt ( ,s>ac5 education1 see ,coppe1 ,h41 ,hi/ory ( ! ,conque/ ( ,spa9 by ! ,arab-,moors 7,little1 ,br[n1 ,bo/on1 #ahha71 especially bk4 ,x2 ,davidson1 ,t41 ,! ,bro!rs ( ,s9c]ity 7,int]national ,j\rnal ( ,e?ics1 ,july1 #ahih71 & ,drap]1 ,j4 ,w41 ,hi/ory ( ! ,intellectual ,developm5t ( ,europe 7,h>p]1 #ahge71 vol4 ,i1 *aps4 ,,xi & ,,xiii1 & vol4 ,,ii1 *aps4 ,,ii & ,,iv4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,educational ,,t5d5cies ,,( ,,s*ola/icism ,,outl9e ,s*ola/icism 0 a peculi> me?od ( philosophic speculation 9 ! lat] m$ival p]iod4 ,at fir/1 s*ola/ic philosoph]s held t fai? mu/ prec$e reason1 b ev5tually reason itself t5d$ to become ! means ( te/+ ! tru?4 ,s*ola/ic education 0 organiz$ 9 ! mona/ic & episcopal s*ools1 & consi/$ 9 ! limit$ le>n+ ( ! times1 sy/ematiz$ on ! basis ( ,ari/otelian d$uction4 ,s*ola/icism 0 extreme 9 its discussions1 b x t5d$ to rationalize ! ,*ur* doctr9es4 ,sid5ote3 ,n a set ( doctr9es1 b a peculi> me?od4 ,! ,nature ( ,s*ola/icism4--,"o ( ! movem5ts t mo/ t5d$ to awak5 ! m$ival m9d1 especially dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! ,middle ,ages1 0 ! developm5t ( ! ,*ur* philosophy kn[n z #8s*ola/icism4' ,?is movem5t does n indicate any "o set ( doctr9es1 b is r a g5]al designation = ! peculi> me?ods & t5d5cies ( philosophic speculation t became prom95t )9 ! ,*ur* 9 ! elev5? c5tury1 came to _! height dur+ ! twelf? & ?irte5?1 & decl9$ rapidly ! foll[+ c5tury4 ,! "n is d]iv$ f doctor s*ola/icus1 :i* 0 ! title giv5 dur+ ! m$ival p]iod to ! au?oriz$ tea*]s 9 a mona/ic or episcopal s*ool1 = x 0 among ^! #8s*oolm5' t ! movem5t />t$ & develop$4 ,its mo/ /rik+ *>act]i/ics are ! n>r[ness ( its field & ! ?or\ghness ) :i* x 0 work$4 ,sid5ote3 ,anselm ,sid5ote3 & ,abel>d4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,s*ola/ic ,developm5t4--,! hi/ory ( s*ola/icism belongs prop]ly to ! field ( philosophy1 b its influ5ce 9 br++ on ! ,r5aissance & its effect ^u education make a brief consid]ation ( its developm5t necess>y "h4 ,x began z an ef=t to vanqui% h]esy 9 ! int]e/ ( ! ,*ur* dogmas1 :i* until late 9 ! ,middle ,ages x _h n g5]ally be5 necess>y to expla94 ,ev5 !n x 0 assum$ t ! ,*ur* 0 9 possession ( all f9al tru?1 :i* _h come to x by ,div9e revelation1 & 0 9 h>mony ) reason1 :5 fully und]/ood4 ,x 01 !re=e1 ! aim ( ! e>li] s*oolm5 to %[ h[ ^! doctr9es 7 consi/5t ) ea* o!r & 9 accordance ) reason4 ,at fir/1 z ) ,anselm 7#ajcc-aaji71 x 0 held t fai? mu/ prec$e reason1 & :]e reason 0 incapable ( p5etrat+ ! my/]ies ( reveal$ doctr9e1 x mu/ desi/ f its ef=ts4 ,b ! conviction gradually ga9$ gr\nd t human reason is reliable & t tru? c be rea*$ only ?r\gh inve/igation4 ,abel>d 7#ajgi-aadb7 decl>$ t ! only ju/ification ( a doctr9e is its reasonabl5ess1 t reason mu/ prec$e fai?1 & t x is n s9ful to d\bt4 ,sid5ote3 ,aqu9as1 ,scotus1 & ,occam4 ,a new epo* = s*ola/icism dawn$ 9 ! twelf? & ?irte5? c5turies ?r\gh contact ) ! ,greek philosophy ( ! ,moors 9 ,spa9 & ! subsequ5t recov]y ( "s orig9al treatises ( ,ari/otle 7see p4 #fg74 ,= a "t ! ,*ur* endeavor$ to suppress ! great philosoph]1 b1 fail+ to d s1 soon utiliz$ 8 works = its own def5se1 & ev5 made reason id5tical ) ,ari/otle1 ^: au?ority 0 n to be disput$4 ,a gr\p ( mo/ prom95t s*oolm5 arose1 &1 z a result ( ! discussions ( ,aqu9as 7#abbe-abgd71 ,duns ,scotus 7#abgd-acjh71 & ,william ( ,occam 7#abhj-acdg71 x came to be held t tru? is e/abli%$ by ! fiat ( ,god1 & t ecclesia/ical dogmas are1 consequ5tly1 n matt]s ( reason1 b purely ( fai?4 ,z a result ( ?is brea* betwe5 revelation & reason1 !re arose two types ( tru?1 & a t5d5cy to *oose t type :i* 0 support$ by reason4 ,sid5ote3 ,aim1 ,sid5ote3 cont5t1 ,sid5ote3 & me?od4 ,s*ola/ic ,education4--,! s*oolm5 7 ?us ?r\gh\t attempt+ to rationalize ! tea*+s ( ! ,*ur*1 & to pres5t !m 9 sci5tific =m4 ,z an education1 s*ola/icism aim$ also at furni%+ a tra9+ 9 dialectic & intellectual discipl9e t %\ld make ! /ud5t bo? ke5 & le>n$ 9 ! k ( ! times4 ,! s*ola/ic c\rse ( /udy1 :i* 0 giv5 at fir/ 9 ! mona/ic & episcopal s*ools & lat] 9 ! univ]sities1 consi/$ 9 ! beliefs ( ! ,*ur* & ! limit$ le>n+ ( ! times arrang$ 9 a sy/ematiz$ =m l>gely on ! d$uctive basis ( ! ,ari/otelian logic4 ,?is k c\ld all be gr\p$ "u ! head ( philosophical !ology4 ,! be/ illu/ration ( ! =mal & dogmatic way 9 :i* ^! doctr9es 7 usually pres5t$ c be f\nd 9 ! ,s5t5ti ( ,pet] ! ,lomb>d 7#aajj-aafj7 & ! ,summa ,!ologi ( ,aqu9as 7#abbe-abgd71 :i* 7 ! /&>d texts ( ! day ^u !ology4 ,! "w ( ,aqu9as has f\r ma9 p>ts1 "u ea* ( :i* is gr\p$ a numb] ( problems4 ,e problem is conc]n$ ) "s fundam5tal doctr9e1 & is fur!r divid$ into sev]al subtopics4 ,aft] ! problem has be5 /at$1 fir/ ! argum5ts & au?orities = ! v>i\s solutions o!r ?an ! or?odox "o are giv5 & refut$ 9 regul> ord]1 !n ! prop] solution ) its argum5ts is set =?1 & f9ally1 ! diff]5t objections to x are answ]$ 9 a simil>ly sy/ematic way4 ,pet] ! ,lomb>d's "w has a l arrangem5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,x sy/ematiz$ ,*ur* doctr9es1 & lib]at$ philosophy f !ology4 ,its ,value & ,influ5ce4--,z a :ole1 ! "w ( s*ola/ic education has be5 und]e/imat$4 ,x has be5 urg$ t x ru9$ all spiritual realities by its extreme sy/emization ( religion1 t x dealt ) m]e ab/ractions1 & t x indulg$ 9 ov]-subtle di/9ctions & v]bal quibbles4 ,b ! s*ola/ic argum5ts 7 n z purposeless or absurd z !y seem4 ,= example1 ! celebrat$ inquiry ( ,aqu9as z to ! numb] ( angels t c\ld /& on ! po9t ( a ne$le is simply an attempt to pres5t ! nature ( ! ,inf9ite 9 concrete =m4 ,x is ! *>act]i/ic ( reason+ be+s to analyze1 comp>e1 ab/ract1 & classify1 & :ile s*ola/icism may h c>ri$ its ab/ractions1 hair-splitt+s1 & sci5tific t]m9ology to an extreme1 x p]=m$ a great s]vice = k4 ,x f\nd a confus$ mass ( traditional & irrational doctr9es & practices1 made !m sy/ematic1 rational1 & sci5tific1 & greatly assi/$ accuracy 9 ?9k+4 ,! discussions ( ! s*oolm5 result$ 9 lib]at+ philosophy f !ology1 &1 )\t int5d+ x p]haps1 s*ola/ic education aid$ ! cause ( human reason aga9/ dogmatism & absolute au?ority4 ,x greatly /imulat$ intellectual int]e/s1 produc$ ! mo/ acute & subtle m9ds ( ! age1 & help$ to prep>e ! way = ! ,r5aissance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,! temple ( wisdom4 ,an allegorical repres5tation ( ! m$ival c\rse ( /udy reproduc$ f ! ,m>g>ita ,philosophica ( ,gregorius ,reis*1 ,freiburg1 #aejd4 ,donatus 7elem5t>y gramm>7 on ! fir/ floor2 ,priscian 7advanc$ gramm>7 on second2 ,ari/otle 7logic71 ,cic]o 7rhetoric71 & ,boe?ius 7ari?metic7 on ! ?ird2 ,py?agoras 7music71 ,euclid 7geometry71 & ,ptolemy 7a/ronomy7 on ! f\r?2 ,pl9y 7natural hi/ory7 & ,s5eca 7e?ics7 on ! fif?2 & ,pet] ! ,lomb>d 7!ology7 on top4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,,vi2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #bib-cac4 ,= a good acc\nt ( all ,! ,great ,s*oolm5 ( ! ,middle ,ages 7,hodd]1 ,london1 #ahha71 see ! "w ( ,t[ns5d1 ,w4 ,j42 = ! beg9n+s ( s*ola/icism1 ,mull+]1 ,j4 ,b41 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #ahhh71 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dg-fd2 = ! life & influ5ce ( ,abel>d1 ,compayr1 ,g41 ,abel>d 7,scribn]1 #ahic71 *ap4 ,i2 ,mc,cabe1 ,j41 ,abel>d 7,putnam1 #aija72 & ,ra%dall1 ,h41 ,! ,univ]sities ( ,europe 9 ! ,middle ,ages 7,ox=d1 ,cl>5don ,press1 #ahie71 vol4 ,i1 *ap4 ,,ii4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,m$i,,val ,,univ]sities ,,outl9e ,univ]sities began to spr+ up t[>d ! close ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,?r\gh local conditions1 a c\rse 9 m$ic9e arose at ,sal]no2 9 civil & canon law at ,bologna2 & 9 !ology at ,p>is4 ,bologna became ! patt]n = num]\s univ]sities 9 ! ,s\?2 & ,p>is = _m 9 ! ,nor?4 ,popes & sov]eigns grant$ privileges by *>t] to ! v>i\s univ]sities4 ,! t]m #8univ]sity' orig9ally signifi$ a #8corporation' ( /ud5ts & tea*]s1 & ! /ud5ts 7 usually gr\p$ accord+ to #8nations4' ,! tea*+ body 0 divid$ into f\r or five #8faculties4' ,! c\rse 9 arts includ$ ! sev5 lib]al arts & portions ( ,ari/otle2 9 civil & canon law1 ! ,corpus ,juris ,civilis ( ,ju/9ian & ! ,decree ( ,gratian respectively2 9 m$ic9e1 ! treatises ( ,greek & o!r m$ical writ]s2 & 9 !ology1 mo/ly ! ,s5t5ti ( ,pet] ! ,lomb>d4 ,! texts 7 read & expla9$ by ! lectur]s1 & a practical tra9+ 9 debate 0 furni%$4 ,:ile ! c\rses & me?ods 7 n>r[ & =mal1 ! m$ival univ]sity conta9$ ! g]m ( mod]n inquiry & did mu* to fo/] indep5d5ce ( ?\ght & action4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 g5]al a product ( all t 0 be/ 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,rise ( ,univ]sities4--,a mo/ important effect ^u subsequ5t education came ?r\gh ! f\ndation ( ! m$ival univ]sities4 ,^! in/itutions grew out ( ! old ca!dral & mona/ic s*ools1 b f\nd _! models l>gely 9 ! lib]al & pr(essional c\rses ( ! ,moori% colleges4 ,9 g5]al1 !y came into exi/5ce ?r\gh ! _m broad5+ influ5ces ( ! lat] ,middle ,ages4 ,_! rise 0 intimately connect$ ) ! /imulus ( ! ,moslem pres5tation ( ,greek philosophy & sci5ce1 ) ! int]e/ 9 dialectic & !ological discussions1 :i* l$ to ! developm5t ( s*ola/icism1 ) ! reaction f #8o!rworldl9ess' result+ f ! ideals ( *ivalry1 & ) ! gr[? ( cities & weal?1 & ! consequ5t emphasis ^u secul> int]e/s & k 7see *ap4 xi74 ,h[ev]1 :ile !y 7 all m or less ! product ( ! same factors1 no two sprang f exactly ! same set ( causes1 & special conditions play$ a "p 9 ! evolution ( ea* univ]sity4 ,sid5ote3 ,causes ( ! m$ical s*ool at ,sal]no4 ,! ,f\ndation ( ,univ]sities at ,sal]no1 ,bologna1 & ,p>is4--,! olde/ ( ^! in/itutions1 t at ,sal]no1 ne> ,naples1 0 simply a s*ool ( m$ic9e1 & orig9at$ ?r\gh ! survival ( ! old ,greek m$ical works 9 ,s\?we/]n ,italy1 & ?r\gh ! attraction ( ! m9]al spr+s & salubrity ( ?is p>ticul> place4 ,by ! middle ( ! elev5? c5tury ,sal]no 0 well kn[n z ! lead+ place = m$ical /udy4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 nev] *>t]$ z a regul> univ]sity1 al?\gh 9 #abca ,fr$]ick ,,ii recogniz$ x z ! s*ool ( m$ic9e = ! univ]sity he _h creat$ at ,naples "s sev5 ye>s e>li]4 ,sid5ote3 ,orig9 ( ! c\rses at ,bologna ,sid5ote3 9 civil law ,sid5ote3 & canon law4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,nor!rn ,italy became kn[n z a c5t] = ! /udy ( ,roman law4 ,! cities "h1 9 ord] to def5d _! indep5d5ce1 7 l$ to /udy ?is subject1 & endeavor$ to f9d "s special *>t]1 grant1 or edict f ! old ,roman emp]ors ^u :i* to base _! claims4 ,sev]al nor!rn c5t]s 7 r5[n$ = _! inve/igation ( ! ,roman civil law1 b e>ly 9 ! twelf? c5tury ,bologna became prem95t ?r\gh ! lectures ( ,irn]ius4 ,by him ! entire ,corpus ,juris ,civilis1 a compilation ( ,roman law made by em95t juri/s 9 ! six? c5tury at ! comm& ( ! emp]or ,ju/9ian1 0 collect$ & critically discuss$4 ,influ5c$ by ?is example1 a monk ( ,bologna1 nam$ ,gratian1 und]took to codify all edicts & =mulations ( popes & c\ncils 9 a conv5i5t text-book4 ,! ,decree ( ,gratian1 :i* result$1 0 almo/ imm$iately recogniz$ z ! au?ority ^u ! subject1 & canon law came to be /udi$ "h ) ! same ?or\ghness z civil law4 ,! univ]sity at ,bologna 0 regul>ly *>t]$ by ,fr$]ick ,b>b>ossa 9 #aaeh1 probably z a recognition ( ! s]vices ( its ma/]s 9 support ( 8 imp]ial claims1 & faculties ( arts1 m$ic9e1 & !ology 7 e/abli%$ at v>i\s times4 ,x 0 ?us ! fir/ real univ]sity1 & its reputation soon became widespread4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t ( lib]al arts & !ology at ,p>is4 ,next 9 ord] ( f\ndation came ! univ]sity at ,p>is1 :i* 0 by f> ! mo/ fam\s ( all4 ,! special int]e/ "h1 z 9 ?is "p ( ,europe g5]ally1 0 dialectic & s*ola/icism4 ,! univ]sity grew out ( ! ca!dral s*ool at ,notre ,dame1 :i* _h acquir$ consid]able reputation "u ! head%ip ( ,william ( ,*ampeaux1 ,abel>d1 & ,pet] ! ,lomb>d1 b x 0 n until #abjj1 aft] canon law & m$ic9e _h be5 add$ to ! lib]al arts & !ology1 t x receiv$ complete recognition by ! *>t] ( ,philip ,augu/us4 ,sid5ote3 #8,ma/]-univ]sities' 9 ! ,nor?1 b #8/ud5t-univ]sities' 9 ! ,s\?4 ,bologna & ,p>is z ! ,models = ,o!r ,univ]sities4--,sal]no1 z we h se51 0 n a real univ]sity1 & x did n reproduce its type2 b ,bologna1 & ev5 m ,p>is1 became ! "m ( univ]sities1 = _m o!r in/itutions 7 organiz$ aft] _! g5]al plans4 ,at ,bologna ! /ud5ts1 :o 7 usually mature m51 _h entire *>ge ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! univ]sity4 ,!y select$ ! ma/]s & det]m9$ ! fees1 l5g? ( t]m1 & "t ( beg9n+4 ,b 9 ,p>is1 :]e ! /ud5ts 7 y\ng]1 ! gov]nm5t 0 9 ! h&s ( ! ma/]s4 ,consequ5tly1 new f\ndations 9 ! ,nor?1 :]e ,p>is 0 ! type1 usually became #8ma/]-univ]sities1' :ile ^? ( ! ,s\? 7 #8/ud5t-univ]sities4' ,dur+ ! ?irte5? & f\rte5? c5turies x became fa%ionable = ! au?orities1 civil & ecclesia/ical1 to *>t] exi/+ organizations or to f\nd new in/itutions on "o ( ^! two plans1 & by ! "t ! ,r5aissance 0 well />t$ ab\t eighty univ]sities _h be5 e/abli%$ 9 ,europe4 ,n all ( ^! f\ndations 7 p]man5t1 h[ev]1 = "s ?irty h1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 become ext9ct1 & ^? :i* rema9 are mu* *ang$ 9 "*4 ,sid5ote3 ,protection & autonomy4 ,sid5ote3 immunity f taxation & milit>y s]vice1 & "r to lic5se ma/]s & to #8/rike'4 ,privileges ,grant$ to ! ,univ]sities4--,f ! "t ( ! e>lie/ (ficial recognition ( ! univ]sities1 a l>ge v>iety ( exemptions1 immunities1 & o!r special privileges 7 conf]r$ ^u ! organizations or ^u _! ma/]s & /ud5ts1 by ! *>t]s ( popes1 emp]ors1 k+s1 & municipalities4 ,! /ud5ts ( ! univ]sities 7 9 _m in/ances tak5 "u ! imm$iate protection ( ! sov]eign1 & 7 all[$ to be tri$ 9 special c\rts ( _! own1 indep5d5t ( civil jurisdiction1 & to possess complete autonomy 9 all _! int]nal affairs4 ,g5]ally ma/]s1 /ud5ts1 & _! reta9]s alike 7 reliev$ f all taxation & f milit>y s]vice4 ,likewise1 univ]sities 7 grant$ ! "r to lic5se ma/]s to lecture any:]e )\t fur!r exam9ation 7jus ubique doc5di71 & ! privilege ( #8/rik+' 7cessatio71 :5 univ]sity rights 7 infr+$4 ,if no r$ress 7 giv5 9 ! latt] case1 ! susp5sion ( lectures 0 foll[$ by emigration ( ! univ]sity to ano!r t[n4 ,?is c\ld easily be done1 s9ce none ( ! m$ival univ]sities _h build+s ( _! own1 & !re 0 no ne$ ( exp5sive libr>ies1 laboratories1 & o!r equipm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,w&]+ /ud5ts4 ,?r\gh su* special rights ! univ]sities obta9$ great p[] & became v indep5d5t4 ,soon ! lib]ty all[$ to /ud5ts deg5]at$ into recklessness & lic5se1 & !y became dissipat$ & qu>relsome4 ,?is is especially se5 9 ! life ( ! s-call$ #8w&]+ /ud5ts1' :o migrat$ f univ]sity to univ]sity1 begg+ _! way1 & 7 %iftless1 rollick+1 & vici\s4 ,! "o comp5sat+ feature ( su* deg5]acy 0 _! production ( jovial ,lat9 & ,g]man songs to voice _! appreciation ( =bidd5 pleasures & _! prote/ aga9/ re/ra9t4 ,sid5ote3 ,! #8univ]sity' a corporation4 ,sid5ote3 ,! nations1 ,sid5ote3 c\ncilors1 ,sid5ote3 faculties1 deans1 & rector4 ,organization ( ! ,univ]sities4--,! t]m univ]sitas1 or #8univ]sity1' did n imply orig9ally1 z (t5 claim$ s9ce1 an in/itution :]e #8ev]y?+' is taught1 b x 0 us$ ( any legal corporation1 & only 9 ! c\rse ( "t 0 x limit$ to an organization ( ma/]s & /ud5ts4 ,! phrase /udium g5]ale 0 also (t5 us$ ( a univ]sity1 to indicate a s*ool :]e ! /ud5ts f all p>ts ( civilization 7 receiv$1 & to contra/ x ) a /udium p>ticul>e1 :i* 0 conf9$ to pupils ( a limit$ neighborhood4 ,! =mation ( a univ]sity _h be5 prec$$ by ! organization ( #8nations1' or bodies ( /ud5ts gr\p$ accord+ to ! "p ( ,europe f :i* !y came1 b ^! nations soon began to comb9e = ! sake ( obta9+ great] privileges & p[]4 ,e ye> ea* nation *ose a #8c\ncilor1' :o 0 to repres5t x & gu>d its int]e/s4 ,on ! side ( ! ma/]s1 ! univ]sity became organiz$ into #8faculties1' ( :i* !re might be at lea/ f\r1--arts1 law1 m$ic9e1 & !ology2 & ea* faculty came to elect a #8dean' z its repres5tative4 ,! deans & ! c\ncilors jo9tly elect$ ! #8rector1' or head ( ! univ]sity4 ,sid5ote3 ,arts4 ,sid5ote3 ,law4 ,sid5ote3 ,m$ic9e4 ,sid5ote3 ,!ology4 ,c\rse 9 ! ,f\r ,faculties4--,! c\rse ( /udy to be (f]$ by ea* faculty 0 l>gely fix$ by papal decree or univ]sity legislation dur+ ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,! c\rse 9 arts1 :i* occupi$ six ye>s1 includ$ ! texts on ! lib]al arts m5tion$ = ! mona/ic s*ools 7see pp4 #ef f47 & sev]al ( ! treatises ( ,ari/otle1 z rapidly z !y 7 recov]$4 ,9 ! law c\rse1 ,corpus ,juris ,civilis 0 ! au?oriz$ text = civil law1 & ! ,decree ( ,gratian = canon law4 ,! faculty ( m$ic9e utiliz$ ! ,greek treatises by ,hippocrates 7c4 #dfj-cge ,b4 ,c47 & ,gal5 7c4 #acj-bjj ,a4 ,d471 ! ,canon ( ,avic5na 7see p4 #ff71 & ! works ( c]ta9 ,jewi% & ,sal]nitan physicians4 ,! /ud5ts ( !ology put mo/ ( _! "t ^u ! f\r books ( ,pet] ! ,lomb>d's ,s5t5ti 7,fig4 #i71 al?\gh ! ,bible 0 /udi$ incid5tally4 ,sid5ote3 ,lectures4 ,sid5ote3 ,debates4 ,! ,me?ods ( ,in/ruction4--,! tra9+ ( a m$ival /ud5t consi/$ n only 9 acquir+ ! subjects m5tion$1 b 9 le>n+ to debate ^u !m4 ,! acquisition ( ! subject-matt] 0 accompli%$ ?r\gh lectures1 :i* consi/$ 9 read+ & expla9+ ! text-book "u consid]ation 7,fig4 #aj74 ,beside ! text itself1 ! tea*] w\ld read all ! explanatory notes1 summ>ies1 cross-ref]5ces1 & objections to ! au?or's /atem5ts1 :i* (t5 q ov]%ad[$ ! orig9al1 & might ev5 add a comm5t>y ( 8 own4 ,! passage 0 read sl[ly & repeat$ :5ev] necess>y4 ,! :ole ex]cise 0 c>ri$ on 9 ,lat91 :i* _h to be le>n$ by ! /ud5t be=e com+ to ! univ]sity4 ,! tra9+ 9 debate 0 furni%$ by means ( =mal disputations1 9 :i* "o /ud5t1 or gr\p ( /ud5ts1 0 pitt$ aga9/ ano!r 7,fig4 #aa74 ,9 ^! conte/s1 :i* also 7 conduct$ 9 ,lat91 n only 7 au?orities cit$1 b ! debat]s might add argum5ts ( _! own4 ,?us1 comp>$ ) ! memoriz+ ( lectures1 debat+ af=d$ "s acut5ess & vigor ( intellect1 b by ! close ( ! fifte5? c5tury x _h become no long] reputable4 ,! aim came to be to w9 & to secure applause )\t reg>d to tru? or consi/5cy4 ,sid5ote3 ,ma/] or doctor4 ,sid5ote3 ,baccalaureate4 ,exam9ations & ,degrees4--,at ! close ( ! c\rse1 ! /ud5t 0 exam9$ 9 8 ability to def9e & dispute2 & if he pass$1 he 0 admitt$ to ! grade ( ma/]1 doctor1 or pr(essor4 ,^! degrees seem orig9ally to h be5 ab\t on a p> ) ea* o!r1 & signifi$ t ! c&idate 0 n[ ready to practice ! craft ( tea*+4 ,! baccalaureate 0 at fir/ n a real degree1 b simply p]mission to become a c&idate = ! lic5se to tea*4 ,dur+ ! ?irte5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 x came to be s\ght z an honor by _m n int5d+ to tea*1 & ev5tually became a sep>ate degree4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,m$ival ,univ]sities3 ,fig4 #aj4--,! lecture4 ,fig4 #aa4--,! disputation4 ,sid5ote3 ,meag] & au?oritative1 ,sid5ote3 b some:at productive ( inquiry & fre$om4 ,! ,value & ,influ5ce ( ! ,univ]sity ,tra9+4--,obvi\sly ! m$ival univ]sities _h mo/ ( ! defects ( _! times4 ,f a mod]n po9t ( view1 ! cont5t ( _! c\rse ( /udy 0 meag]1 fix$1 & =mal1 & ! me?ods ( tea*+ 7 /]eotyp$ & au?oritative4 ,!y l>gely neglect$ ! real lit]ature ( ! classical age1 & p]mitt$ b little t savor$ ( inve/igation or ?9k+4 ,yet ! univ]sities 7 a product ( ! gr[+ t5d5cies t lat] bur/ ! fett]s ( m$ivalism4 ,!y 7 a great enc\ragem5t to subtlety1 indu/ry1 & ?or\ghness1 & _! ef=ts t[>d philosophic speculation conta9$ ! g]ms ( ! mod]n _s ( inquiry & rationality4 ,!y 7 ev5 ( imm$iate assi/ance 9 promot+ fre$om ( discussion & advanc+ democracy1 & to _! arbitration 7 (t5 ref]r$ disputes betwe5 ! civil & ecclesia/ical p[]s4 ,?us !y aid$ greatly 9 advanc+ ! cause ( individualism & c>ry+ =w>d ! tor* ( civilization & progress4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,,ix2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #cac-cbg4 ,/&>d works on ! univ]sities 9 g5]al are ,laurie1 ,s4 ,s41 ,! ,rise & ,e>ly ,con/itution ( ,univ]sities 7,appleton1 #ahhf71 & ! m complete & accurate ,univ]sities ( ,europe 9 ! ,middle ,ages 7,ox=d1 ,cl>5don ,press1 #ahie71 by ,ra%dall1 ,h4 ,= a brief s\rce acc\nt ( ! privileges1 c\rses1 me?ods1 & /ud5t life ( univ]sities1 see ,norton1 ,a4 ,o41 ,read+s 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,education2 ,m$ival ,univ]sities 7,h>v>d ,univ]sity1 #aiji71 or ,munro1 ,d4 ,c41 ,! ,m$ival ,/ud5t 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #ahii74 ,= ! hi/ory ( individual univ]sities1 see ,compayr1 ,g41 ,abel>d & ! ,orig9 & ,e>ly ,hi/ory ( ,univ]sities 7,scribn]1 #ahic72 ,lyte1 ,h4 ,c4 ,m41 ,a ,hi/ory ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d 7,macmillan1 #ahhf72 ,mull+]1 ,j4 ,b41 ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge 7,longmans1 ,london1 #ahhh72 & ,pauls51 ,f41 ,! ,g]man ,univ]sities 7,macmillan1 #ahie2 ,scribn]1 #aijf74 ,,*apt] ,x ,,! ,,education ,,( ,,*ivalry ,,outl9e ,ow+ to ! weakness ( ! regul> sov]eignty aft] ,*>lemagne's day1 ! feudal sy/em sprang up1 & by ! middle ( ! twelf? c5tury x _h develop$ a code ( mann]s kn[n z *ivalry4 ,out ( ?is !re arose a tra9+ = knigh?ood 9 religion1 honor1 & gallantry4 ,be=e becom+ a knight1 ! boy 0 e>ly tra9$ at home1 !n at "s ca/le1 fir/ z #8page1' & lat] z #8squire4' ,?is *ivalric education produc$ _m contradictory results1 b x t5d$ to ref9e ! times & to c\nt]act #8o!rworldl9ess4' ,sid5ote3 ,dep5d5ce ^u a p[]ful neighbor became a regul> =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,feudalism4--,! m$ival education ?us f> describ$ has _h to d mo/ly ) ! s*ool+ ( ! ecclesia/ical & o!r select pr(essional classes4 ,q a diff]5t type ( tra9+ 0 t giv5 ! knight4 ,?is has g5]ally be5 kn[n z ! education ( *ivalry4 ,*ivalry is a "n = ! code ( mann]s 9 usage dur+ ! days ( ! feudal sy/em4 ,by ?is sy/em is meant an ord] ( society & gov]nm5t t gradually grew up 9 ! ,middle ,ages alongside ! regul> political organization1 & :51 "u ! successors ( ,*>lemagne1 ! mon>*y became weak1 t5d$ to be sub/itut$ = x4 ,"u feudalism small l&[n]s & freem5 lack+ l& _h come to dep5d ^u "s p[]ful neighbor = protection1 & ev5 to seek f him a dep5d5t t5ure ( l&4 ,!n1 9 "t1 ! lords acquir$ a species ( sov]eignty ov] _! t5ants1 & by ! t5? c5tury !re _h come to be a great social gulf betwe5 ! nobility1 :o own$ ! l& & liv$ 9 ca/les1 & ! peasantry1 :o till$ ! soil & support$ !m4 ,! only s]i\s bus9ess ( ! =m] 0 fight+ ) spe>1 sword1 or battle-axe1 9 _! own qu>rels or ^? ( _! feudal sup]iors4 ,to prep>e = ?is w>f>e1 mock combats may occasionally h be5 engag$ 9 z e>ly z ! t5? c5tury 7,fig4 #ab74 ,sid5ote3 ,religion1 honor1 & gallantry4 ,! ,ideals ( ,*ivalry4--,b by ! middle ( ! twelf? c5tury1 :5 ! old h]oic age _h laps$ into an age ( c\rtesy1 ) extravagant devotion to wom5 & romantic adv5ture z its *ief ideals1 ^! enc\nt]s 7 organiz$ into a def9ite species ( pa/ime call$ #8t\rnam5ts1' & soon deg5]at$ into m]e pageantry4 ,h5ce ! rules ( *ivalry became fix$ & =mal1 & ! art ( horseman%ip & ! managem5t ( ! lance & spe> 7 develop$ & settl$4 ,! ideals ( knightly conduct & education c\ld !n be /at$ z #8s]vice & ob$i5ce' to ,god1 z repres5t$ by ! organiz$ *ur*1 to "o's "l1 or feudal sup]ior1 & to "o's lady1 ^: favor ! knight wore 9 battle or t\rnam5t4 ,! ?ree rul+ motives ( *ivalric education 71 !re=e1 held to be #8religion1 honor1 & gallantry4' ,sid5ote3 ,tra9+ 7#a7 at home1 ,sid5ote3 7#b7 z a page1 ,sid5ote3 & ,sid5ote3 7#c7 z a squire4 ,sid5ote3 ,! knight+4 ,! ,?ree ,prep>atory ,/ages ( ,education4--,!re 7 ?ree p]iods 9 ! prep>atory tra9+ ( a knight4 ,fir/1 until ! *ild 0 sev5 or eight1 he 0 tra9$ 9 religion1 polit5ess1 & physique at home by 8 "m4 ,aft] ?is he became a #8valet' or #8page' at ! home ( a nobleman1 :o 0 g5]ally 8 fa!r's feudal sup]ior4 ,"h he p]=m$ p]sonal duties = 8 "l & lady1 & 8 education 0 conduct$ mo/ly by ! latt]4 ,he le>n$ ! game ( *ess1 acquir$ ! etiquette ( love & honor1 & 0 taught to play ! h>p & pipe & to s+1 to read & write1 & to compose 9 v]se4 ,outside ! ca/le1 ! pages 7 tra9$ 9 runn+1 wre/l+1 box+1 rid+1 & rudim5t>y tilt+ 7,fig4 #ad74 ,9 ! ?ird /age1 at f\rte5 or fifte5 ! y\? pass$ to ! grade ( #8squire1' &1 :ile he /ill att5d$ ! lady & c>v$ ! meat or h&$ ar\nd ! vi&s = ! gue/s1 8 *ief s]vice 0 to ! knight & 8 tra9+ came ?r\gh him4 ,he slept ne> him at night1 groom$ 8 horses1 kept 8 armor & weapons 9 condition1 & att5d$ him at ! t\rnam5t or ^u ! battlefield4 ,?r\gh ?is s]vice ! squire himself 0 practic$ 9 all ! w>like arts4 ,t[>d ! close ( ! p]iod ! embryo knight also *ose 8 lady-love1 & le>n$ to write v]ses & dance4 ,:5 ! squire became tw5ty-"o1 he 0 knight$ ) _m religi\s c]emonies4 ,aft] a season ( fa/+1 ! c&idate ent]$ ! *ur* 9 full armor & sp5t a night 9 vigil & holy m$itation4 ,9 ! morn+ he confess$1 _h 8 sword bless$ ^u ! alt> by ! prie/1 & took an oa? to def5d ! *ur*1 protect wom51 & succor ! poor4 ,he !n knelt be=e 8 "l1 :o laid 8 own sword ^u ! c&idate & dubb$ him knight4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\rage1 b cruelty2 ,sid5ote3 self-respect1 b pride2 ,sid5ote3 lib]ality1 b extravagance2 ,sid5ote3 & o!r anomalies4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\nt]action ( o!rworldl9ess4 ,! ,effects ( ,*ivalric ,education4--,su* 0 ! tra9+ ( ! knight 9 ! #8rudim5ts ( love1 w>1 & religion4' ,x conta9$ _m app>5t anomalies & contradictions1 & e virtue seems to h be5 balanc$ by a correlative vice4 ,! knights 7 recklessly c\rage\s 9 battle1 b _! ang] 0 ungov]nable & _! cruelty extreme4 ,a great self-respect 0 suppos$ to *>act]ize ! true knight1 b ?is (t5 react$ into an ov]we5+ pride4 ,likewise1 :ile ! knights 7 rat$ l>gely accord+ to _! lib]ality & hospitality1 ^! virtues deg5]at$ into a great love ( display & extravagance beyond measure4 ,aga91 al?\gh great respect = womanhood 0 inculcat$1 n mu* consid]ation c\ld be expect$ by ! woman b5ea? a c]ta9 rank4 ,simil>ly1 ! knightly ^w ( honor1 if accompani$ by c]ta9 =ms1 w\ld be held sacr$1 b %\ld ^! =ms be omitt$1 a decid$ brea* ( fai? 0 n uncommon4 ,z a :ole1 h[ev]1 ! *ivalric tra9+ _h a b5eficial effect ^u ! society ( ! times4 ,x help$ to organize ! turmoil & to ref9e ! b>b>ism ( m$ival ,europe1 & 0 an effective in/rum5t 9 rais+ ! position ( wom54 ,moreov]1 :ile ?is peculi> tra9+ 0 artificial & worldly1 by t v t5d5cy x did mu* to c\nt]act ! #8o!rworldly' ideal ( mona/icism & ! g5]al asceticism ( ! p]iod4 ,x enc\rag$ an activity 9 e>?ly affairs & a frank enjoym5t ( ?is life1 & ?us help$ to develop a /rik+ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,,vii2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #bhd-bia4 ,detail$ descriptions ( ! /ages ( *ivalric tra9+ c be f\nd 9 ,corni%1 ,f4 ,w41 ,*ivalry 7,sonn5s*e91 ,london1 #aija7 7,macmillan1 #aijh72 ,furnival1 ,f4 ,j41 ,e>ly ,education 9 ,engl& 7,=ewords to ,! ,babees ,book1 ,e>ly ,engli% ,text ,society1 ,orig9al ,s]ies1 vol4 #cb72 & ,mills1 ,c41 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,*ivalry 7,lea & ,blan*>d1 ,philadelphia1 #ahdd71 vol4 ,i1 *aps4 ,i-,v1 & vol4 ,,ii1 *ap4 ,,vii4 ,an +5i\s1 b uncritical recon/ruction ( ! life ( a knight 9 /ory =m1 is f\nd 9 ,gauti]1 ,l41 ,*ivalry1 *aps4 ,v-,,xx4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,education ( ,*ivalry3 ,figs4 #ab & #ac4--,prelim9>ies & t]m9ation ( a combat4 ,fig4 #ad4--;,boys play+ t\rnam5t ) a #8qu9ta91' or dummy oppon5t4 7,reproduc$ f ,/rutt1 ,sports & ,pa/imes ( ,engl&47 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,burgh]1 ,,gild1 ,,& ,,*antry ,,s*ools ,,outl9e ,9 ! lat] ,middle ,ages ! comm]ce ( ,europe 0 greatly increas$4 ,soon ! t[ns receiv$ a l>ge impulse f s]fs t flock$ into !m1 & be=e long an influ5tial #8burgh] class' arose4 ,!re also sprang up m]*ant & craft gilds1 :i* af=d$ an indu/rial tra9+ ?r\gh appr5tice%ip1 & a m =mal education ?r\gh #8gild s*ools4' ,z ! gilds m]g$ ) ! t[n1 ^! in/itutions became #8burgh] s*ools1' & af=d$ a practical education 9 read+1 writ+1 & reckon+4 ,v>i\s #8adv5ture1' #8*antry1' & o!r s*ools 7 also absorb$ by ! burgh] s*ools4 ,?us ^! in/itutions came to repres5t ! educational int]e/s ( ! indu/rial classes1 & pav$ ! way = ! civic control ( education4 ,sid5ote3 ,impulse caus$ by ,crusades & desire = luxuries4 ,! ,rise ( ,comm]ce & ,indu/ry4--,a mo/ important influ5ce 9 produc+ a transition f ! m$ival to mod]n times is f\nd 9 ! increase ( comm]ce dur+ ! lat] ,middle ,ages4 ,f ! ,roman days d[n1 trade _h nev] di$ out 9 ,we/]n ,europe1 especially ,italy1 despite ! injuries wr\ght by b>b>ian invasions1 z ! nobles _h always ne$ ( luxuries1 & ! ,*ur* ( articles ( utility 9 its s]vices4 ,b ! dem& = vessels & transports dur+ ! ,crusades1 & ! desire = ! preci\s /ones1 silks1 p]fumes1 drugs1 spices1 & porcela9 f ! ,ori5t aft]w>d1 gave a trem5d\s impulse to comm]cial & indu/rial activity4 ,! p ( ,europe began to ?9k ( :at articles o!rs outside _! own little gr\ps might want 9 ex*ange = ^! luxuries1 & to /rive to produce su* commodities4 ,!y also und]took !mselves to make "s ( ! new articles1 su* z light & gauzy cotton & l95 fabrics1 silks1 velvets1 & tape/ries4 ,?us ! means ( communication betwe5 ! ,european /ates 0 greatly facilitat$1 new comm]cial r\tes & new regions 7 op5$1 geographical k 0 increas$1 navigation 0 develop$1 m>itime & m]cantile affairs 7 organiz$1 manufactures & indu/ries 7 enl>g$1 curr5cy 0 increas$1 & =ms ( cr$it 7 improv$4 ,all ?is t5d$ t[>d a l>g] intellectual view & a p>tial dissipation ( prov9cialism & intol]ance4 ,sid5ote3 ,contribut$ to ! gr[? ( cities1 ,developm5t ( ,cities & ! ,burgh] ,class4--,! mo/ notewor?y consequ5ce ( ?is indu/rial & comm]cial awak5+ 0 ! gr[? ( t[ns & cities4 ,!re 0 little t[n life 9 ,we/]n ,europe dur+ ! ,middle ,ages be=e ! twelf? c5tury1 z ! old ,roman t[ns _h1 ?r\gh ! invasions ( ! ,g]mans1 l>gely dis9tegrat$1 & b few new organizations _h sprung up 9 _! place4 ,:ile "s t[ns /ill exi/$ 9 ,italy & ,s\!rn ,france1 mo/ ( ! p ( ,europe liv$ 9 ! c\ntry ^u feudal e/ates4 ,^! little communities 7 l>gely isolat$ & indep5d5t ( ! re/ ( ! _w4 ,!y produc$ among !mselves all t _! memb]s ne$$1 & little or no money 0 necess>y = _! crude =ms ( ex*ange4 ,_! life 0 unbrok5 9 its monotony1 !re 0 little opportunity = !m to bett] _! condition1 & _! indu/ries 7 c>ri$ on 9 a p]functory & wa/eful fa%ion4 ,b ) ! gr[? ( comm]ce & population1 ^! s]fs began to f9d x m pr(itable to "w 9 ! t[ns & comp5sate ! "l ( ! manor ) money r ?an "w1 & ! lords1 9 turn1 f\nd x ( advantage to accept money 9 lieu ( s]vices1 especially z _m ( !m _h be5 impov]i%$ by ! ,crusades4 ,great bodies ( s]fs flock$ to ! t[ns1 & new c5t]s sprang up ar\nd ! manorial e/ates & mona/]ies z manufactures1 trades1 & comm]ce increas$4 ,sid5ote3 & to ! developm5t ( a burgh] class4 ,feudalism ?us began to be ?reat5$ z e>ly z ! twelf? c5tury1 & )9 a hundr$ ye>s ! ext9ction ( s]fdom 0 assur$4 ,! p soon rebell$ aga9/ ! rule ( _! lords & ei!r expell$ !m altoge!r or secur$ f !m = a monet>y consid]ation a *>t] conf]r+ m lib]al rights & privileges4 ,by ^! *>t]s1 ! "l agre$ to recognize ! gild ( m]*ants1 & to p]mit ! p to gov]n !mselves4 ,z indu/ries1 trade1 & comm]ce cont9u$ to develop1 ! craftsm5 & m]*ants grew rapidly 9 weal? & importance4 ,!y 7 soon enabl$ to rival ! cl]gy 9 education1 & ! nobility 9 ! luxury ( _! dwell+s & liv+4 ,!y began to read1 & books 7 writt5 or adapt$ = _! ne$s4 ,! #8burgh] class' came to h a recogniz$ position by ! side ( ! cl]gy & nobility2 & ! k+1 9 ord] to reta9 _! support1 0 =c$ to take c\nsel ) !m4 ,?is developm5t ( indu/ry & comm]ce1 gr[? ( t[n & city life1 & rise ( a #8?ird e/ate' is "o ( ! mo/ notewor?y *anges ( ! late ,middle ,ages4 ,sid5ote3 ,/ages ( ,sid5ote3 7#a7 appr5tice ,sid5ote3 7#b7 j\rneyman1 & 7#c7 ma/]4 ,! ,gilds & ,indu/rial ,education4--,su* a new social attitude naturally gave rise to new =ms ( education4 ,an in=mal type ( tra9+ soon sprang up 9 connection ) ! developm5t ( #8gilds4' ,besides ! orig9al gild ( m]*ants1 ?r\gh :i* ! t[n _h pres5t$ a unit$ front & ga9$ its privileges1 sep>ate gilds = ! v>i\s crafts _h be5 e/abli%$ 9 ea* t[n4 ,^! craft gilds 7 ! sole repositories ( ! traditional lore ( ! vocations1 & became ! *ief *annel = transmitt+ x4 ,:ile _! numb] & v>iety diff]$ 9 ea* t[n1 all ! gilds s\ght to prev5t anyone :o _h n be5 regul>ly approv$ & admitt$ to ! corporation f practic+ ! trade he repres5t$4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is attempt at regulation1 indu/rial tra9+ 9 ! craft ( ea* gild grew up ?r\gh an appr5tice%ip sy/em4 ,?is 0 provid$ ^u a dome/ic basis4 ,! #8appr5tice' ent]$ ! h\sehold ( 8 #8ma/]1' & le>n$ ! craft "u 8 direction 7,fig4 #ae74 ,! "t necess>y = ?is v>i$ greatly 9 diff]5t crafts4 ,= example1 9 ,p>is x took two ye>s to le>n to become a cook1 eight ye>s an embroid]]1 & t5 ye>s a goldsmi?4 ,:ile ! appr5tice receiv$ no wages dur+ ?is p]iod1 he 0 "u ! protection ( ! gild1 & might appeal to ! organization aga9/ ill-treatm5t or defective tra9+4 ,at ! end ( 8 appr5tice%ip1 he became a #8j\rneyman' & c\ld e>n wages1 b only by work+ = a ma/]1 & n ?r\gh direct s]vice = ! public4 ,aft] an exam9ation by ! gild1 :i* might include ! pres5tation ( a #8ma/]piece1' or sample ( 8 "w1 ! j\rneyman ev5tually became a ma/]4 ,9 o!r ways1 ! organization regulat$ & protect$ its craft4 ,9 ord] t j\rneym5 & ma/]s might n become too num]\s1 all ma/]s1 save ^? on ! gov]n+ bo>d ( ! gild1 7 =bidd5 to take m ?an "o appr5tice4 ,! me?ods ( practic+ ea* trade & ! h\rs to be devot$ to x ea* day 7 specifi$1 & ! h&iwork ( ea* man c>efully scrut9iz$4 ,9 _m in/ances1 ! gild put its own /amp ^u good "w1 & might (t5 seize products t x consid]$ defective4 ,sid5ote3 ,a m =mal means ( education 0 in/itut$ ?r\gh prie/s ( ! gilds & end[m5ts4 ,gild ,s*ools4--,9 ?is way !re grew up a species ( indu/rial education1 ) ?ree def9ite /ages 9 its organization & ) inspection at e po9t4 ,be=e long1 too1 ! gilds develop$ a m =mal means ( education4 ,! exi/+ ecclesia/ical s*ools did n altoge!r meet ! ne$s ( ! gilds1 & !y und]took ! e/abli%m5t ( additional in/itutions = ?is purpose4 ,:]e ! gilds _h reta9$ "o or m prie/s to p]=m ! necess>y religi\s (fices = _! memb]s1 be=e long !y also utiliz$ ^! function>ies to keep a s*ool = ! b5efit ( _! own & sometimes o!r *ildr5 9 ! t[n4 ,lat]1 end[m5ts 7 furni%$ especially = a prie/ to tea* s*ool1 or an am\nt suffici5t = ! purpose 0 paid out ( ! common funds ( ! gild4 ,"s ( ^! gild s*ools1 l #8,m]*ant ,taylors'' ( ,london1 or ! ,gramm> ,s*ool at ,/rat=d-on-,avon1 :]e ,%akespe>e 0 educat$ 7,fig4 #af71 /ill survive z second>y in/itutions4 ,_m in/ances1 too1 are record$ :]e ! memb]s ( a c]ta9 gild 7 appo9t$ tru/ees ( a s*ool e/abli%$ by an individual1 & 7 grant$ ! "r ( appo9t+ & dismiss+ ! ma/]1 admitt+ ! pupils1 manag+ ! prop]ty1 & =mulat+ /atutes4 ,9 "s su* fa%ion ,colet lat] ve/$ ! managem5t ( ! fam\s ,/4 ,paul's s*ool 7see p4 #aah7 9 ! gild ( m]c]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,appr5tice%ip tra9+ 9 a gild4 7,! ma/] bootmak] & 8 wife1 two j\rneym51 & an appr5tice47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,gild s*ool & *ur* at ,/rat=d-on-,avon4 7,9 ?is #8gramm>' s*ool ,%akespe>e le>n$ #8little ,lat9 & less ,greek4'7 ,sid5ote3 ,gild s*ools absorb$ by ! burgh] s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,practical c\rse4 ,burgh] ,s*ools4--,z ! gild organizations gradually m]g$ ) ^? ( ! t[ns1 ! gild s*ools 7 g5]ally absorb$ 9 ! in/itutions kn[n z #8burgh]' or t[n s*ools4 ,at fir/ ^! burgh] s*ools 7 n v dissimil> to ^? e/abli%$ by ! ,*ur*1 except t !y 7 m conv5i5tly locat$1 b lat] v>i\s types ( v]nacul> s*ools arose to meet special practical dem&s1 especially writ+ & reckon+4 ,! ,lat9 burgh] s*ools 7 also some:at practical 9 _! c\rse1 & (t5 admitt$ "s pupils :o desir$ to le>n only to read1 write1 & reckon4 ,writ+ _h become an important vocation1 s9ce pr9t+ _h n yet be5 inv5t$2 & !re 0 a def9ite dem& = writ]s 9 public (fices1 private secret>ies1 lett] writ]s = ! illit]ate1 & tea*]s ( writ+4 ,reckon+ grew directly out ( ! new comm]cial life1 & 0 (t5 taught 9 ! writ+ s*ools4 ,x 0 n taught f ! /&po9t ( !ory or discipl9e1 z 0 ! ari?metic 9 ! ,lat9 s*ools1 b = ! sake ( practical calculation & bookkeep+4 ,b ev5 all ! facilities ( ! regul> ,lat9 & v]nacul> s*ools ( ! t[n 7 n suffici5t to meet ! dem& = a m practical education4 ,9 consequ5ce1 private #8adv5ture' s*ools1 taught by w&]+ tea*]s or by wom51 likewise (t5 sprang up1 & "s tea*]s 7 ev5 lic5s$ by ! t[n au?orities to tea* ! v]nacul>4 ,9 mo/ in/ances1 h[ev]1 ^! in/itutions 7 also comb9$ ) ! burgh] s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,arose f f\ndations = masses = ! dead4 ,*antry ,s*ools4--,ano!r type ( in/itution t came into prom95ce t[>d ! close ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 ! #8*antry s*ool4' ,s*ools ( ?is sort at fir/ arose out ( beque/s by weal?y p]sons to support prie/s :o %\ld #8*ant' masses = ! repose ( _! s\ls4 ,s9ce ^! religi\s duties did n absorb all ! "t ( ! prie/s1 !y 7 able to d "s tea*+4 ,& be=e long1 ! f\nd]s ( *antries !mselves came to direct t ! prie/s c>ry+ out _! w %\ld be requir$ to tea*4 ,(t5 two *antry prie/s 7 provid$1 "o to tea* a #8gramm>' s*ool1 & ! o!r a #8song' or v]nacul> s*ool4 ,f ! fir/ mo/ ( ^! *antry s*ools 7 free ( all tuition *>ges1 ! prie/ be+ reque/$ to 8tea* gratis1 )\t ask+ any?+ beyond 8 /ip5d = 8 pa9s10 b occasionally !y 7 gratuit\s only to ! *ildr5 ( 8 p>i%ion]s or to poor *ildr5 ^: p>5ts or gu>dians ask$ = ! privilege4 ,sid5ote3 ,pav$ ! way = a m secul>iz$ education4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,new ,s*ools4--,! *antry s*ools likewise 7 (t5 unit$ ) v>i\s o!r s*ools )9 a t[n1 & became jo9tly kn[n z #8burgh] s*ools4' ,_m new f\ndations ( a simil> nature 7 also made4 ,^! burgh] s*ools 7 l>gely controll$ & support$ by ! public au?orities1 al?\gh /ill g5]ally taught by ! prie/s4 ,!y came to repres5t ! int]e/s ( ! m]cantile & indu/rial classes1 & gave in/ruction 9 subjects ( m practical value ?an _h any ( ! s*ools hi!rto4 ,su* in/itutions sprang up ev]y:]e dur+ ! lat] ,middle ,ages4 ,!y 7 (t5 /rongly oppos$ by ! ecclesia/ical au?orities1 :o /ruggl$ h>d to aboli% !m or br+ !m "u control1 b !y cont9u$ to gr[ & hold _! own4 ,! numb] ( lay tea*]s 9 !m gradually increas$1 & ?us pav$ ! way = ! t5d5cy t[>d ! secul>ization & civic control ( education t appe>$ lat] on4 ,! new s*ools1 !re=e1 t arose 9 connection ) ! developm5t ( comm]ce & indu/ry & ! gr[? ( t[ns1 7 "o ( ! l>ge/ factors t l$ into ! broad5+ ( outlook kn[n z ! ,r5aissance4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,x2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #ccg-cci4 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization dur+ ! ,middle ,ages 7,scribn]1 #ahid71 furni%es an illum9at+ *apt] 7,,xii7 ^u ! ,gr[? ( ,comm]ce & ,its ,results4 ,! developm5t ( t[ns & gilds 9 v>i\s c\ntries ( ,europe is describ$ 9 detail by ,a%ley1 ,w4 ,j41 ,engli% ,economic ,hi/ory & ,!ory 7,putnam1 #ahib71 vol4 ,i1 *ap4 ,,ii2 ,gre51 ,alice ,s41 ,t[n ,life 9 ! ,fifte5? ,c5tury 7,macmillan1 #ahid72 ,gross1 ,c41 ,! ,gild ,m]*ant 7,ox=d1 ,cl>5don ,press1 #ahij72 ,/aley1 ,e41 ,! ,guilds ( ,flor5ce 7,me?u51 ,london1 #aijf72 & ,unw91 ,g41 ,! ,gilds & ,companies ( ,london 7,me?u51 ,london1 #aijh2 ,scribn]1 #aiji74 ,acc\nts ( ! new types ( s*ools are f\nd 9 ,lea*1 ,a4 ,f41 ,engli% ,s*ools at ! ,re=mation 7,con/able1 #ahif71 *aps4 #g-i2 ,nohle1 ,e41 ,hi/ory ( ! ,g]man ,s*ool ,sy/em 7,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,commission] ( ,education1 #ahig-ahih1 vol4 ,i71 pp4 #bb-bf2 & ,watson1 ,f41 ,engli% ,gramm> ,s*ools to #affj 7,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aiji71 *ap4 ,,vii4 ,,"p ,,iii ,,! ,,transition ,,to ,,mod]n ,,times ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,humani/ic ,,education ,,outl9e ,by ! f\rte5? c5tury !re appe>$ an intellectual awak5+1 kn[n z ! ,r5aissance4 ,x 0 accompani$ by a #8revival ( le>n+' & an education call$ #8humani/ic4' ,italy fir/ %[$ evid5ce ( ! new movem5t4 ,! *>act]i/ics ( ! ,r5aissance 7 embodi$ 9 ,petr>* & ,boccaccio1 b little 0 done ) ! ,greek classics until ,*rysoloras came f ,con/ant9ople4 ,! tyrants ( v>i\s cities (t5 _h humani/ic s*ools />t$ at _! c\rts4 ,( ^! ! mo/ typical 0 t "u ,vittor9o da ,feltre4 ,^! s*ools ev5tually =c$ ! univ]sities to admit ! humanities to _! c\rse4 ,b humanism gradually deg5]at$ into #8,cic]onianism4' ,humani/ic education also gradually spread to ! c\ntries nor? ( ,italy1 b x !re took on m ( a moral color4 ,9 ,france1 ! protection ( ,francis ,i enc\rag$ ! introduction ( humanism into educational in/itutions by v>i\s s*ol>s4 ,! ,g]man univ]sities likewise began to respond to humani/ic influ5ces4 ,! ,hi]onymians fir/ introduc$ ! classics into ! s*ools1 & ,erasmus1 :o 0 tra9$ by !m1 became ! lead] 9 humani/ic education4 ,?r\gh o!r humani/ic s*ools />t$ by ,/urm & o!rs1 ! #8gymnasium1' ! typical classical s*ool ( ,g]many1 0 evolv$1 & ! humani/ic education became fix$ & =mal4 ,9 ,engl& ! movem5t gradually develop$ at ,ox=d & ,cambridge1 & ,colet />t$ ,/4 ,paul's s*ool1 :i* became ! model = all second>y s*ools4 ,humanism 9 ,engl&1 h[ev]1 soon retrograd$ into a =malism1 & ! #8gramm>' & #8public' s*ools !re are little *ang$ to-day4 ,! fir/ second>y s*ools 9 ! ,am]ican colonies 7 model$ aft] ! gramm> s*ools ( ! "m c\ntry4 ,sid5ote3 ,m$ivalism conta9$ ! g]m ( its own emancipation4 ,! ,pass+ ( ! ,middle ,ages4--,x c n[ be se5 t a new _s _h crept into ,european civilization1 & t ! ,middle ,ages 7 pass+4 ,we h previ\sly not$ 7pp4 #ec;f47 t1 9 ord] to br+ ! ,g]man b>b>ians up to ! level ( ! pa/1 x 0 necess>y = ! ,*ur* to set an au?oritative /&>d & repress all v>iation on ! "p ( ! individual4 ,yet su* bondage ( ! human _s 0 unnatural1 & !re 7 p]iodic t5d5cies to rebel aga9/ ! sy/em4 ,9 fact1 m$ivalism conta9$ )9 itself ! g]m ( its own emancipation4 ,dur+ ! eigh? c5tury !re came ab\t a new political ord]1 :i* culm9at$ 9 ,*>lemagne's revival ( education4 ,:ile conditions 7 nev] aga9 z desp]ate aft] ?is /imulus1 ) ! disruption ( ,*>lemagne's empire ano!r decl9e set 94 ,b by ! ?irte5? c5tury a new revival1 mat]ial & intellectual1 _h also appe>$4 ,sev]al developm5ts gave evid5ce ( ! expansion )91 & assi/$ 9 produc+ x4 ,! broad5+ ( horizon ?r\gh contact ) ! ,moors1 ! developm5t ( s*ola/icism1 ! evolution ( univ]sities1 ! worldly appeal ( *ivalry1 & ! gr[? ( cities1 gilds1 & comm]ce 7 all help+ by accumulation to dispel ! m$ival _s4 ,sid5ote3 ,! g5]al t5d5cies ( ! ,awak5+ ,& by ! f\rte5? c5tury a new dawn _h be5 u%]$ 94 ,! p]iod t foll[$ 0 m>k$ by a g5]al intellectual & cultural progress t began to free m5 f _! bondage to ecclesia/icism & to induce !m to look at ! _w ab\t !m4 ,! adh]5ce to an #8o!rworldly' ideal1 ! re/riction ( le>n+1 ! reception ( ! tea*+s ( ! ,*ur* )\t inve/igation1 & ! con=mity ( ! individual 7 by ?is "t rapidly disappe>+4 ,su* t5d5cies 7 cle>ly be+ replac$ by a g5u9e joy 9 ! life ( ?is _w1 a broad] field ( k & ?\ght1 a desire to reason & deal ) all ideas m critically1 & enl>g$ ideals ( individualism4 ,! days ( m]e absorption & assimilation _h pass$4 ,sid5ote3 ,:ile ! ,r5aissance 0 caus$ by int]nal factors1 x 0 promot$ by ! ,revival ( ,le>n+4 ,sid5ote3 ,humani/s & humani/ic education4 ,! ,r5aissance & ! ,revival ( ,le>n+4--,?is trem5d\s wid5+ ( horizon has be5 g5]ally kn[n z ! ,r5aissance or #8new bir?4' ,! t]m is us$ to indicate t ! _s ( ! ,grco-,roman developm5t _h return$1 & t opportunity = expression 0 grant$ to ! individual once m4 ,b ?is p]iod is also appropriately kn[n z ! #8,revival ( ,le>n+4' ,=1 :ile ! awak5+ prec$$ & 0 caus$ by int]nal factors1 r ?an by ! recov]y ( classical lit]ature & le>n+1 intellectual fre$om 0 v greatly height5$ & =w>d$ aft] a re/oration ( ! classics once began4 ,! only food at h& t c\ld satisfy ! awak5$ intellig5ce ( ! times 0 ! lit]ature & culture ( ! classical peoples4 ,! discov]y t ! writ+s ( ! anci5t _w 7 fill$ ) a g5u9e vitality & virility1 & t ! old au?ors _h dealt ) _w problems 9 a pr(\nd & ma/]ly fa%ion1 & ) f> m vision ?an _h ev] be5 possible = ! m$ivali/s1 gave rise to an eag] desire & en?usiasm = ! classics t w5t beyond all b\nds4 ,a k ( classical lit]ature _h nev] altoge!r disappe>$1 & v>i\s works _h be5 pres]v$ by ! monks & o!rs4 ,to se>* out ! manuscripts ( ! ,lat9 & ,greek writ]s1 ! mona/]ies1 ca!drals1 & ca/les 7 n[ ransack$ f end to end4 ,! manuscripts f\nd 7 rapidly multipli$1 & ! greate/ pa9s tak5 to secure ! correct =m ( e passage4 ,! devotees ( ! new movem5t 7 g5]ally call$ #8humani/s1' & ! tra9+ embody+ ! classics has s9ce be5 t]m$ #8humani/ic education4' ,sid5ote3 ,political /orm c5t]4 ,sid5ote3 ,comm]cial activity4 ,sid5ote3 ,home ( ! classics4 ,causes ( ! ,awak5+ 9 ,italy4--,:ile ! g5]al t5d5cy t[>d an awak5+ 0 app>5t ?r\gh\t ,we/]n ,europe1 x fir/ became evid5t 9 ,italy4 ,?is 0 due to ! fact t ,italy 0 at ! "t a seat ( intellectual activity result+ f sev]al factors4 ,x 0 a /orm c5t] = civic & int]/ate qu>rels1 &1 z a result ( ?is political unre/1 ! citiz5s 7 kept con/antly on ! outlook = _! own safety & int]e/s1 & _! wits 7 greatly %>p5$4 ,ev5 ! exile1 into :i* "o civic faction or ano!r 0 con/antly =c$1 _h ! effect ( broad5+ _! vision & br++ out ! greate/ possibilities )9 !m4 ,aga91 ! comm]cial int]c\rse ( ! ,italian cities ) o!r c\ntries _h1 = v>i\s physiographic & hi/oric reasons1 become extraord9>ily active4 ,?is t5d$ to op5 ! m9ds ( ! ,italians1 break up _! old conceptions1 free !m ( prejudice1 & increase _! ?ir/ = le>n+4 ,fur!rmore1 ! gho/ ( ! classic ages /ill haunt$ its old home4 ,a k ( ! ,lat9 tongue _h nev] ceas$ to exi/ 9 ,italy1 & _m manuscripts ( ! ,lat9 & ,greek au?ors _h be5 pres]v$4 ,!re 0 only ne$$ an intellectual awak5+ suffici5t to %ake (f ! ?raldom to ! ,*ur* & produce an appreciation ( classical lit]ature & culture1 9 ord] to br+ back ?is _s ( ! pa/ into real pulsat+ life4 ,sid5ote3 ,petr>* embodi$ ! ,r5aissance _s1 ,sid5ote3 & 0 an en?usia/ on ! ,lat9 classics4 ,sid5ote3 ,8 influ5ce4 ,! ,revival ( ! ,lat9 ,classics4--,! e>lie/ ( ! great humani/s 0 ,petr>* 7#acjd-acgd74 ,9 him we f9d ! v embodim5t ( ! ,r5aissance _s4 ,he completely repudiat$ ! #8o!rworldly' ideal ( m$ivalism1 & 0 ke5ly aw>e ( ! beauties & joys ( ?is life4 ,he did n hesitate to attack ! mo/ ho>y ( traditions1 nor to rely ^u obs]vation1 inve/igation1 & reason4 ,he likewise felt a k9%ip ) ! ?9k]s & writ]s ( ! classic age1 :5 indep5d5ce & bread? 7 giv5 m scope1 & held t _! works mu/ be recov]$ be=e _! _s c\ld be cont9u$4 ,?is l$ to a trem5d\s en?usiasm = ! ,lat9 classics1 & he sp5t mu* ( 8 life 9 re/or+ anci5t culture4 ,he devot$ himself dur+ 8 ext5sive travels l>gely to collect+ manuscripts ( ! old ,lat9 writ]s1 :i* previ\sly _h be5 widely scatt]$1 & endeavor+ to repair 9 !m ! ravages ( "t4 ,& he inspir$ e "o he met ) a desire to ga!r & /udy ! works ( ! classic au?ors4 ,he also wrote a numb] ( ,lat9 works t 7 fill$ ) ! classic _s4 ,among !m 7 sev]al collections ( ,lett]s1 a "w ( erudition ,on ,fam\s ,m51 & an epic poem 9 honor ( ,scipio ,africanus t he call$ ,africa4 ,"s ( 8 lett]s 7 indit$ to ,cic]o1 ,hom]1 & o!r classical au?ors z if !y 7 /ill liv+4 ,aft] he _h be5 cr[n$ z poet laureate by ! ,univ]sity ( ,rome 9 #acda1 he sp5t mo/ ( 8 "t visit+ v>i\s ,italian cities & spread+ ! humani/ic _s4 ,( ! y\ng] s*ol>s & lit]>y m5 influ5c$ by him probably ! mo/ not$ 0 ,boccaccio 7#acac-acge74 ,?r\gh ,petr>* ?is y\?ful poet develop$ a p]fect passion = ! anci5t writ]s1 & devot$ ! re/ ( 8 life to classical culture4 ,he obta9$ a wide k ( ! ,lat9 writ]s1 & se>*$ out1 pres]v$1 & _h copi$ z _m manuscripts z possible4 ,sid5ote3 ,little 0 at fir/ kn[n ( ! ,greek classics4 ,sid5ote3 ,*rysoloras ,sid5ote3 & 8 pupils4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,greek ,s*ol>%ip4--,) all ?is revival ( ,lat9 lit]ature by ! ct]ie ( ,petr>*1 = "s "t !re 0 little done ) ! ,greek4 ,t language _h almo/ disappe>$ 9 ,europe1 & ! greate/ ,greek au?ors 7 kn[n only ?r\gh ,lat9 translations4 ,b a k ( ! ,greek language & lit]ature /ill p]si/$ 9 ! ,ea/]n empire1 & ! humani/s ( ,italy 71 ?r\gh ! works ( ! ,lat9 au?ors1 con/antly direct$ back to ! writ+s ( ! ,greeks4 ,!y became eag] to read !m 9 ! orig9al1 & sev]al humani/s began ! /udy ( ,greek4 ,nev]!less1 ,petr>* pa!tically confess$3 8,hom] is dumb to me1 :ile ,i am mo/ c]ta9ly deaf to him40 ,& :ile1 ) ! aid ( 8 ,greek tea*]1 ,boccaccio made a translation ( ,hom]1 x %[$ little real appreciation ( ! orig9al4 ,n until ,*rysoloras 7#acej-adae7 came z an envoy f ! ,ea/]n emp]or & 0 induc$ 9 #acif to settle 9 ,italy & tea* ,greek1 0 any sy/ematic tra9+ possible4 ,dur+ ! next sixte5 ye>s ?is man ( le>n+ taught 9 ! lead+ c5t]s1 e/abli%$ s*ools1 made translations ( ,greek au?ors1 & wrote a ,greek gramm>4 ,f 8 ef=ts sprang a numb] ( fam\s s*ol>s1 su* z ,v]g]io1 ,niccolo de' ,niccoli1 ,bruni1 & ,gu>9o da ,v]ona & 8 son4 ,^! m5 collect$ or copi$ hundr$s ( volumes1 />t$ libr>ies & s*ools1 made excell5t translations1 wrote treatises on humani/ic education1 & tra9$ a numb] ( humani/s1 :o became di/+ui%$ lat]4 ,sid5ote3 ,city tyrants fo/]$ humanism & />t$ c\rt s*ools4 ,! ,c\rt ,s*ools & ,vittor9o da ,feltre4--,a p[]ful support = ! "w ( ^! humani/s result$ f ! rivalry ( ! ,italian cities4 ,! pr9ces at ! head ( ^! c5t]s 7 (t5 usurp]s1 & dep5d$ l>gely ^u city pride to ma9ta9 _! p[]4 ,to appeal to ! classical en?usiasm ( _! p1 !y did ev]y?+ possible to propagate ! humani/ic movem5t & make _! cities illu/ri\s4 ,probably ! mo/ typical examples ( ^! humani/ic tyrants are f\nd among ! ,visconti at ,milan & ! ,m$ici at ,flor5ce4 ,9 "s in/ances ^! c\rt circles promot$ ! new le>n+ in=mally1 b (t51 :]e a s*ol> _h be5 tak5 into ! family ( a pr9ce z private tutor1 *ildr5 ( ! neighbor+ ari/ocracy 7 associat$ & a regul> s*ool 0 />t$4 #8,c\rt s*ools' ( ?is sort soon exi/$ at ,flor5ce1 ,v5ice1 ,padua1 ,pavia1 ,v]ona1 ,f]r>a1 & sev]al o!r cities1 b ! be/ kn[n ( all 0 t organiz$ by ,vittor9o da ,feltre 7#acgh-addf7 at ,mantua4 ,sid5ote3 ,types ( pupils4 ,sid5ote3 ,! aim 0 h>moni\s developm5t ( m9d1 body1 & morals4 ,! ,c\rt ,s*ool at ,mantua4--,vittor9o und]took ?is s*ool at =ty-five1 :5 he _h receiv$ ! be/ possible education ( ! times 9 ,lat91 ,greek1 & ma!matics1 & _h greatly di/+ui%$ himself z a tea*] & a man ( piety4 ,he receiv$ into ! s*ool n only ! royal pr9ces & ! scions ( ! lead+ ,mantuan families1 b1 by special p]mission1 ! sons ( 8 p]sonal fri5ds & promis+ boys ( e degree4 ,he dwelt ) 8 pupils1 & 0 mo/ /rict 9 8 selection ( ma/]s & ( att5dants1 t ! morals ( 8 pupils might be ( ! highe/4 ,likewise1 #8! fa!r ( 8 pupils1' z ,vittor9o held himself to be1 look$ out = _! food1 clo?+1 & heal?1 & %>$ 9 _! games1 int]e/s1 & pleasures4 ,x 0 8 int5tion to secure = 8 pupils t h>moni\s developm5t ( m9d1 body1 & morals t ! old ,greeks _h kn[n z a #8lib]al education1' b he emphasiz$ ! practical & social side ( ! individual's effici5cy1 & wi%$ to prep>e 8 pupils = a life ( activity & s]vice r ?an to create m]e rhetoricians & p$ants4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\rse & me?ods4 ,sid5ote3 ,classics & ma!matical subjects4 ,sid5ote3 ,physical & moral & religi\s tra9+4 ,?is he felt c\ld be accompli%$ l>gely ?r\gh a grammatical & lit]>y /udy ( ! ,greek & ,roman writ]s4 ,! pupils le>n$ f ! fir/ to conv]se 9 ,lat91 & !re 7 games ) lett]s = ! y\nge/ & simple ex]cises to tra9 !m 9 cle> articulation & prop] acc5t & emphasis4 ,be=e !y 7 t51 !y 7 also drill$ 9 memoriz+ & recit+ ) intellig5ce ! easi] portions ( ! classic au?ors4 ,?is elocution>y "w1 :i* 0 increas$ 9 l5g? & difficulty z ! boys grew old]1 gave !m an excell5t grasp ( vocabul>y1 rhy?m1 & /yle4 ,z !y advanc$1 ! pupils read a v>iety ( ,lat9 writ]s1 & soon took up a /udy ( ! ,greek au?ors & ( ! ,*ur* ,fa!rs4 ,! ma!matical subjects 7 also taught ) an enl>g$ scope1 especially 9 _! applications to draw+1 m5suration1 & survey+4 ,because ( ! lack ( books1 ! tea*+ 0 c>ri$ on l>gely by dictation4 ,vittor9o1 h[ev]1 c>efully /udi$ ! ability1 int]e/s1 & future c>e] ( 8 pupils1 & select$ ! subjects & me?ods be/ suit$ to ea* intellig5ce4 ,he ?us inaugurat$ a ?or\ghly ela/ic c\rse = ! s*ool4 ,physical & moral education 7 likewise insi/$ ^u q z fully z intellectual4 ,vittor9o introduc$ especially f5c+1 wre/l+1 danc+1 ball-play+1 runn+1 & leap+1 9 all ( :i* he 0 himself an exp]t1 b ! purpose ( ^! 0 to aid & /imulate ! m5tal p[]s4 ,he also by bo? precept & example inculcat$ piety1 rev]5ce1 & religi\s obs]vances4 ,he believ$1 moreov]1 t tru? & moral beauty c\ld be d]iv$ n only f ! ,*ri/ian au?ors1 b also1 by means ( expurgation1 f ! classic writ+s4 ,sid5ote3 ,rivalry & adoption ( ! new le>n+ by ! univ]sities4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,c\rt ,s*ools to ! ,univ]sities4--,! c\rt s*ool at ,mantua _h ?us a mo/ pot5t influ5ce ^u ! educational practice ( ! times1 & tra9$ a l>ge numb] ( di/+ui%$ ecclesia/ics1 /atesm51 s*ol>s1 & rul]s4 ,x d\btless 0 broadly typical ( ! c\rt s*ools & ( ! humani/ic education ( ,italy 9 g5]al4 ,^! c\rt s*ools1 :ile tak+ pupils v e>ly1 (t5 reta9$ !m until !y 7 tw5ty-"o1 & cov]$ z mu*1 if n m1 gr\nd ?an ! arts c\rse ( ! univ]sity4 ,!y 71 9 a way1 competitors ( ! old] in/itutions4 ,a /ud5t might1 = ! sake ( a degree1 g f a c\rt s*ool to a univ]sity1 b1 z a rule1 if :at he wi%$ 7 a g5]al c\rse1 he w\ld be satisfi$ ) ! great] pre/ige t came f be+ a pupil ( "o ( ! di/+ui%$ humani/s t ! c\rt s*ools 7 g5]ally able to reta9 at _! head4 ,9 fact1 ! want ( hospitality1 if n actual ho/ility1 ( univ]sities to ! new le>n+1 (t5 /imulat$ ! gr[? ( c\rt s*ools4 ,9 _m in/ances :]e ! univ]sity 0 especially cons]vative1 a c\rt s*ool 0 set up by its side z a pr(ess$ rival4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 ! humani/ic tra9+ crept into all ! univ]sities ( ,italy1 & ! classical lit]ature ( ! ,greeks & ,romans l>gely took ! place ( ! =m] gramm>1 rhetoric1 & dialectic4 ,be=e ! close ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 ,flor5ce1 ,padua1 ,pavia1 ,milan1 ,f]r>a1 ,rome1 & o!r cities _h admitt$ ! humanities to _! univ]sities1 & ! o!r univ]sity seats 7 n long 9 foll[+ _! example4 ,sid5ote3 ,humanism ev5tually became =maliz$ & l>gely a drill 9 gramm>4 ,sid5ote3 #8,cic]onianism4' ,decad5ce ( ,italian ,humanism4--,t[>d ! close ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 ?is lib]al education ( ! humani/s 9 ,italy began to be fix$ & =mal4 ,until ! middle ( ! c5tury ! ideals1 cont5t1 & mean+ ( ?is tra9+ 7 con/antly exp&+1 b aft] t !re 0 a gradual n>r[+ & h>d5+1 & dur+ ! e>ly ye>s ( ! sixte5? c5tury ! deg5]ation became complete4 ,z ! subject-matt] became in/itutionaliz$1 ! lit]ature ( ! ,greeks & ,romans fail$ m & m to be int]pret$ 9 t]ms ( life4 ,emphasis 0 plac$ ^u ! =m r ?an ! cont5t ( ! classical writ+s1 & grammatical drill 0 m & m emphasiz$ z a means ( =mal discipl9e4 ,be=e long ! c\rse 0 limit$ l>gely to ,cic]o1 & ! new le>n+ fell into t decad5t /ate kn[n z #8,cic]onianism4' ,x consi/$ simply 9 an attempt to tea* a p]fect /yle ) ,cic]o z a model1 & to give "o a conv]sational k ( ,cic]onian ,lat94 ,! /ructure1 metaphors1 & vocabul>y ( all ,lat9 writ+ _h to be copi$ f ! phrases ( ,cic]o1 & ! lit]ature ( ! day became little m ?an a sequ5ce ( model passages f t au?or4 ,sid5ote3 ,?r\gh ! inv5tion ( pr9t+ humanism leap$ ! ,alps4 ,! ,spread & ,"* ( ,humanism 9 ! ,nor!rn ,c\ntries4--,su* 0 ! effect ( ! ,r5aissance ^u education 9 ! c\ntry ( its bir?4 ,b ! humani/ic tra9+ c\ld n be conf9$ to ,italy4 ,by ! middle ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 ) ! inv5tion ( pr9t+1 ! texts ( ! classic au?ors 7 rapidly multipli$ & spread ev]y:]e4 ,! ,r5aissance & ! classic lit]ature leap$ ! ,alps1 & made _! way into ,france1 ! ,teutonic c\ntries1 ,engl&1 & else:]e4 ,at fir/1 humani/ic s*ol>s w&]$ into ! ,nor?1 soon o!rs 7 invit$ 9 l>ge numb]s by patrons ( le>n+1 &1 at l5g?1 /ud5ts f ! ,nor!rn c\ntries ?rong$ into ,italy = in/ruction4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! fifte5? c5tury ! humani/s outside ! p59sula became v num]\s1 & dur+ ! sixte5? c5tury ! movem5t came to its height 9 ! ,nor!rn l&s4 ,sid5ote3 ,less individual & m social 9 ! ,nor?4 ,sid5ote3 ,use ( ,greek & ,hebrew4 ,b ! "* & effects ( ! ,r5aissance & humanism 9 ! ,nor? diff]$ greatly f ^? 9 ! c\ntry ( _! orig94 ,! peoples ( ! ,nor?1 especially ^? ( ,g]manic /ock1 7 by nature m religi\s ?an ! brilliant & m]curial ,italians4 ,) !m ! ,r5aissance l$ less to a desire = p]sonal developm5t1 self-realization1 & individual a*ievem5t1 & took on m ( a social & moral color4 ,! prime purpose ( humanism became ! improvem5t ( society1 morally & religi\sly1 & ! classical revival po9t$ ! way to obta9+ a new & m exalt$ mean+ f ! ,scriptures4 ,?r\gh ! revival ( ,greek1 ,nor!rn s*ol>s1 especially ! ,g]man & ,engli%1 s\ght to get away f ! ecclesia/ical doctr9es & traditions1 & turn back to ! ess5ce ( ,*ri/ianity by /udy+ ! ,new ,te/am5t 9 ! orig9al4 ,?is sugge/$ a simil> insight into ! ,old ,te/am5t1 & an int]e/ 9 ,hebrew 0 !reby ar\s$4 ,9 consequ5ce1 to mo/ p 9 ! ,nor? a r5ew$ /udy ( ! ,bible became z important a feature ( humanism z an appreciation ( ! classics4 ,sid5ote3 ,exp$itions ( ,fr5* k+s into ,italy4 ,sid5ote3 ,francis ,i1 ,! ,developm5t ( ,humanism 9 ,france4--,9 ,france humanism appe>$ e>ly4 ,9 #adeh a pr(essor%ip ( ,greek 0 e/abli%$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 b ! humani/ic movem5t did n am\nt to mu* 9 ,france until x 0 /imulat$ by ! exp$itions ( ,*>les ,,viii 7#adid7 & ,l\is ,,xii 7#adih7 into ,italy4 ,^! und]tak+s ( ! mon>*s did n atta9 ! milit>y & political objects int5d$1 b ?r\gh !m ,france came into direct contact ) humanism at its s\rces1 & a def9ite impression 0 made ^u ,fr5* art1 lit]ature1 & education4 ,ev5 !n1 ow+ to ! cons]vatism ( ! univ]sity1 ! new le>n+ met at fir/ ) =midable opposition4 ,happily1 x f\nd an influ5tial patron 9 ! y\?ful ,francis ,i 7r4 #aeae-aedg74 ,sid5ote3 & ,budu4 ,sid5ote3 ,cord]ius1 & ,ramus4 ,sid5ote3 ,college ( ,guy5ne4 ,fr5* ,humani/ic ,educators & ,in/itutions4--,"u ! protection ( ,francis1 _m prom95t humani/ic s*ol>s & educators1 l ,budu 7#adfh-aedj71 appe>$1 classical manuscripts 7 collect$1 ,greek & ,lat9 au?ors 7 translat$1 treatises on humani/ic education 7 produc$1 & ! ,college ( ,france1 ) *airs ( ,greek1 ,hebrew1 & ,lat91 0 e/abli%$ 7#aecj74 ,humanism 0 also introduc$ into v>i\s colleges 9 ,p>is & ,bordeaux by su* s*ol>s & practical tea*]s z ,cord]ius 7#adgi-aefd7 & ,ramus 7#aeae-aegb71 & _m text-books & editions ( ! classics 7 publi%$4 ,soon mo/ ( ! s*ools ( ,france respond$ to ! new tra9+4 ,x w\ld h>dly be possible to consid] _m ( !m1 b a brief description ( ! c\rse & adm9i/ration 9 vogue at ! ,college ( ,guy5ne1 tak5 f an acc\nt ( "o ( its tea*]s1 may prove illum9at+4 ,?is college conta9$ t5 classes 9 second>y "w1 & two ye>s m 9 philosophy1 :i* p>tially ov]lapp$ ! faculty ( arts 9 ! univ]sity4 ,lat9 & religion 7 taught ?r\gh\t ! second>y s*ool1 & ,greek1 ma!matics1 rhetoric1 & declamation c\ld be tak5 9 ! la/ ?ree or f\r classes4 ,! pupils 7 introduc$ to ! rudim5ts ( ,lat9 ?r\gh ! v]nacul>1 & developm5tal me?ods & enliv5+ disputations 7 us$4 ,probably ! g5]al conditions "h 7 typical ( ! ,fr5* humani/ic s*ools ev]y:]e dur+ ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,sid5ote3 ,erfurt & o!r exi/+ univ]sities4 ,sid5ote3 ,new univ]sities4 ,humanism 9 ! ,g]man ,univ]sities4--,be=e humanism 0 well e/abli%$ 9 ,france1 h[ev]1 x _h also spread ?r\gh ! ,teutonic c\ntries4 ,by ! end ( ! sixte5? c5tury ! ,g]man univ]sities _h begun to adopt ! new le>n+4 ,9 #adid ,erfurt e/abli%$ a pr(essor%ip ( ,poetry & ,eloqu5ce1 :i* cov]$ ! field ( classic lit]ature1 & lectures on humani/ic subjects 7 be=e long giv5 9 ,leipzig1 ,heidelb]g1 ,tb+51 ,+old/adt1 & ,vi5na4 ,likewise1 a numb] ( new univ]sities1 ,witt5b]g1 ,m>burg1 ,knigsb]g1 & ,j5a1 7 />t$ ^u a humani/ic basis1 & be=e ! middle ( ! sixte5? c5tury humanism prevail$ 9 practically all ( ! ,g]man univ]sities4 ,sid5ote3 ,at fir/ in/ruction only 9 ,bible & v]nacul>1 ,sid5ote3 b humanism add$4 ,sid5ote3 ,wessel1 ,agricola1 ,reu*l91 ,sid5ote3 & ,sid5ote3 ,wimpfel+4 ,! ,hi]onymians & ,_! ,s*ools4--,! e>lie/ factor 9 ,g]manic humanism1 h[ev]1 appe>$ 9 ! education furni%$ by ! ,hi]onymians1 or ,bre?r5 ( ! ,common ,lot4 ,= ! in/ruction ( ! poor1 ?is ord] _h />t$ s*ools1 or e/abli%$ tea*]s 9 in/itutions already exi/+1 ?r\gh\t ! ,ne!rl&s1 ,g]many1 & ,france4 ,at fir/1 !y /ress$ in/ruction 9 ! ,bible & ! v]nacul>1 b1 z ! ,italian influ5ce began to be felt 9 ! upp] c\ntries1 !y broad5$ ! c\rse by ! addition ( classic lit]ature & ,hebrew1 & ! s*ools soon became recogniz$ c5t]s ( humanism & intellectual int]e/s4 ,! pupils t 7 tra9$ !re /r5g!n$ ! new le>n+ z tea*]s 9 ! univ]sities & s*ools ?r\gh\t ,g]many & ! ,ne!rl&s4 ,! fir/ educator ( importance to introduce humanism into ! ,hi]onymian tra9+ seems to h be5 ,wessel 7#adbj-adhi74 ,he 0 prem95tly int]e/$ 9 tea*+1 & among 8 e>lie/ pupils ( di/9ction 7 ,agricola 7#addc-adhe71 :o _h a mo/ pot5t influ5ce 9 introduc+ classics1 & ,reu*l9 7#adee-aebb71 :o taught ! classics & ,hebrew at v>i\s univ]sities1 & produc$ a monum5tal gramm> & lexicon ^u ! latt] subject4 ,an ev5 m notewor?y tea*] 0 ,wimpfel+ 7#adej-aebh71 :o became pr(essor1 dean1 & rector at ,heidelb]g4 ,he lectur$ ^u ! classical au?ors & ! ,*ur* ,fa!rs1 & wrote a numb] ( treatises ^u education1 9 :i* he held to ! attitude ( ,nor!rn humanism t all le>n+ is va9 :i* does n lead to ! advancem5t ( mank9d4 ,b1 :ile a true re=m]1 he nev] broke f ! ,*ur*4 ,sid5ote3 ,attitude ( ,erasmus4 ,sid5ote3 ,8 text-books1 ,sid5ote3 satires1 ,sid5ote3 & educational treatises4 ,erasmus1 ,lead] 9 ! ,humani/ic ,education ( ! ,nor?4--,a simil> attitude 0 held by ,erasmus 7#adfg-aeca71 ! greate/ ( ! humani/s tra9$ by ! ,hi]onymians4 ,:ile he 0 bitt]ly oppos$ to ! corruption & obscurantism ( ecclesia/ics1 he believ$ t ! rem$y lay1 n 9 a division ( ! ,*ur*1 b 9 ! /udy ( ! classics & ! ,*ur* ,fa!rs1 & 9 ! g5]al removal ( ignorance4 ,accord+ly1 to advance education1 he assi/$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ,lily's ,lat9 gramm>1 translat$ into ,lat9 ! ,greek gramm> ( ,!odore ( ,gaza1 & wrote a "w on ,lat9 composition1 call$ ,de ,copia ,v]borum et ,r]um1 & an elem5t>y text-book ( ,lat9 conv]sation on topics ( ! day1 kn[n z ,colloquies4 ,simil>ly1 he produc$ treatises on ! ,new ,te/am5t1 & popul>iz$ ! ,gospels & ,*ur* ,fa!rs ?r\gh p>aphrases4 ,ev5 bett] kn[n are ! satires t he wrote 9 ,lat9 to re=m ! abuses & foibles ( 8 times4 ,8 ,adages & ,praise ( ,folly m]cilessly scor$ ! absurdities & vices ( ! ,*ur* & ! prie/hood1 & 9 8 ,dialogue on ,cic]onianism he ridicul$ "s ( ! n>r[] t5d5cies into :i* humanism _h fall54 ,he also made direct contributions to educational !ory 9 8 ,lat9 treatises on ,! ,lib]al ,education ( ,*ildr51 ,! ,"r ,me?od ( ,/udy1 & ,c\rte\s ,mann]s 9 ,boys1 :i* are almo/ mod]n 9 "s ( _! recomm5dations4 ,le>n+1 morality1 religion1 & good mann]s1 he held1 mu/ be tra9$ toge!r1 & education mu/ be op5 to ev]yone1 accord+ to 8 or h] ability4 ,x %\ld be />t$ 9 infancy by ! mo!rs1 & read+1 writ+1 draw+1 & "s k ( famili> animals & objects taught by in=mal me?ods4 ,at sev5 ! boy is to be giv5 a ?or\gh tra9+ 9 ! ,scriptures1 ,*ur* ,fa!rs1 & ! classics1 & ! cont5t r ?an ! language & =m ( ^! works is to be /ress$4 ,sid5ote3 ,develop$ out ( old s*ools = b5efit ( municipalities4 ,sid5ote3 ,lat9 s*ools = ,electorate ( ,saxony4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,gymnasiums3 ,melan*?on's ,"w4--,x c ?us be se5 :at a pr(\nd effect ! humani/s tra9$ 9 ! ,hi]onymian s*ools _h ^u ! ,teutonic univ]sities & o!r educational in/itutions4 ,b !re sprang up ano!r set ( s*ools1 kn[n z ,gymnasi51 t 0 an ev5 m typical & la/+ in/itutional developm5t ( ! ,nor!rn ,r5aissance4 ,^! #8gymnasiums' grew l>gely out ( ! old ca!dral & upp] burgh] s*ools1 & 7 e/abli%$ = ! b5efit ( ! municipality1 r ?an = ,/ate & ,*ur*4 ,_! developm5t 0 gradual1 b !y 7 giv5 _! fir/ def9ite %ap+ by ,melan*?on 7#adig-aefj74 ,aft] a ?or\gh humani/ic tra9+ f 8 great-uncle1 ,reu*l91 & f ! univ]sities at ,heidelb]g & ,tb+51 t s*ol> _h become associat$ ) ,lu!r at ! ,univ]sity ( ,witt5b]g1 & 0 reque/$ by ! ,elector ( ,saxony 9 #aebh to organize ! s*ools 9 8 /ate4 ,! #8,lat9 ,s*ools1' :i* he plann$ = e t[n & village ( ! electorate1 7 divid$ into ?ree classes1 & ! "w 9 ,lat9 & religion 0 adapt$ to ! grade4 ,n ev5 ,greek or ,hebrew appe>$ 9 ! c\rse2 mu* less ! v]nacul>1 ma!matics1 sci5ce1 & hi/ory4 ,nev]!less1 x 0 f ^! municipal ,lat9 s*ools1 :5 ! c\rse _h be5 some:at modifi$ & exp&$1 t ! #8gymnasium' may be said to h sprung4 ,sid5ote3 ,piety1 k1 & eloqu5ce z ideals4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\rse ( ! t5 classes4 ,/urm at ,/rassburg4--,a fur!r /ep 9 fix+ ! type & ! fir/ use ( ! t]m #8gymnasium' are f\nd 9 ! case ( ! classical s*ool organiz$ by ,johann ,/urm 7#aejg-aehi7 at ,/rassburg 9 #aech4 ,"h dur+ 8 =ty-five ye>s z rector1 ,/urm work$ out a gymnasial c\rse ( t5 classes1 ^u :i* ! pupils ent]$ at six or sev5 ye>s ( age4 ,! aim ( ?is tra9+ he held to be #8piety1 k1 & eloqu5ce1' mean+ by ! la/ an ability to speak & write ,lat9 readily4 ,= #8piety1' ! ,lu!ran cate*ism 0 /udi$ 9 ,g]man = ?ree ye>s1 & 9 ,lat9 = ?ree ye>s long]4 ,! ,sunday ,s]mons 7 read 9 ! f\r? & fif? ye>s1 & ! ,lett]s ( ,j]ome also 9 ! fif? ye>1 :ile ! ,epi/les ( ,/4 ,paul 7 c>efully /udi$ f ! six? ye> ?r\gh ! re/ ( ! c\rse4 ,on ! #8k' & #8eloqu5ce' side1 ,lat9 gramm> 0 begun imm$iately & ! drill cont9u$ = f\r ye>s1 dur+ :i* ! pupil pass$ gradually f memoriz+ li/s ( words us$ 9 ev]yday life & read+ dialogues t embodi$ !m to ! translation ( ,cic]o & ! easi] ,lat9 poets4 ,9 ! f\r? ye> ex]cises 9 /yle 7 begun1 & ?is 0 accompani$ by a grammatical & lit]>y /udy ( ,cic]o1 ,v]gil1 ,plautus1 ,t]5ce1 ,m>tial1 ,horace1 ,sallu/1 & o!r au?ors1 toge!r ) lett] writ+1 declamation1 disputation1 & ! act+ ( plays4 ,greek 0 begun 9 ! fif? ye>1 & aft] ?ree ye>s ( grammatical tra9+1 ,demo/h5es1 ! dramati/s1 ,hom]1 & ,?ucydides 7 und]tak54 ,sid5ote3 ,=malism1 ,sid5ote3 b wide influ5ce4 ,=malism 9 ! ,gymnasiums4--,?is tra9+1 l t ( ! ,italian humani/s1 soon became set1 =mal1 & me*anical4 ,:ile o!r au?ors ?an ,cic]o 7 read1 ! object 0 to acquire an ability to read1 write1 & speak ,cic]onian ,lat91 & words1 phrases1 & expressions 7 c>efully committ$4 ,! ma9 emphasis ?r\gh\t 0 ^u =m1 ) little reg>d = cont5t1 & ! ,lat9 & ,greek 7 l>gely reg>d$ z an end 9 !mselves4 ,yet ! gymnasium ( ,/urm 0 an enorm\s success1 & 0 soon cr[d$ ) /ud5ts4 ,8 pupils became ! headma/]s ( all ! mo/ prom95t s*ools1 & ?r\gh 8 wide correspond5ce ) sov]eigns & educators1 ! c\rse ( /udy =mulat$ by ,/urm became a model n only = ,g]many1 b1 9 a s5se1 = ! re/ ( ,europe4 ,at any rate1 mo/ ( ! exi/+ second>y s*ools 9 ,g]many1 & _m f\nd$ lat]1 became gymnasiums4 ,! majority ( ! ,hi]onymian s*ools soon adopt$ ! gymnasial c\rse4 ,?is 0 also ! case ) ! ,fr/5s*ul51 or #8pr9ces' s*ools1' a type ( in/itution />t$ 9 #aedc by ,duke ,moritz ( ,saxony to tra9 well-prep>$ (ficials = ,*ur* & ,/ate at public exp5se1 & aft]w>d absorb$ into ! gymnasial sy/em4 ,& ! gymnasiums h to-day *ang$ b little f ,/urm's organization4 ,ow+ to ! lat] influ5ce ( realism1 ! addition ( ma!matics1 mod]n languages1 & ! natural sci5ces has some:at mitigat$ ! am\nt ( classics prescrib$1 b o!rwise ! ,g]man gymnasiums adh]e to _! =mal humanism z t5aci\sly z 9 ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,sid5ote3 ,grocyn & ,l9acre4 ,sid5ote3 ,erasmus1 ,colet1 & ,m4 ,sid5ote3 ,*eke & ,as*am4 ,! ,humani/ic ,movem5t 9 ,engl&3 ,greek at ,ox=d & ,cambridge4--,9 its nor?w>d m>* ! humani/ic education also effect$ pr(\nd *anges 9 ,engl&4 ,by ! middle ( ! fifte5? c5tury _m =m] /ud5ts ( ,ox=d began to /udy at v>i\s humani/ic c5t]s 9 ,italy4 ,b ! influ5ce ( su* innovators 0 sc>cely felt until ,grocyn & ,l9acre1 :o _h gone to ,flor5ce ab\t #adhh1 und]took to introduce ,greek into education ^u _! return home4 ,grocyn 7#addb-aeai7 became ! fir/ lectur] on ,greek at ,ox=d1 b he 0 greatly assi/$ 9 ! humani/ic tra9+ by ,l9acre 7#adfj-aebd71 al?\gh 8 lecture%ip 0 nom9ally on m$ic9e4 ,among _! pupils 7 ,erasmus1 ,m1 & ,colet4 ,humani/ic education did n rea* ,cambridge1 h[ev]1 until ! close ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 b1 ) ! progress ( ! sixte5?1 t univ]sity rapidly ov]took h] si/] in/itution4 ,! real developm5t began :5 ,erasmus1 :ile a pr(essor ( !ology at ,cambridge 7#aeaj-aead71 cons5t$ also to lecture ^u ,greek z a labor ( love4 ,erasmus 0 succe$$ by a numb] ( lectur]s1 & 9 #aedj ! new regius pr(essor%ip 0 held = f\r ye>s ea* by ! great tea*]s1 ,*eke 7#aead-aeeg7 & ,as*am 7#aeae-aefh74 ,sid5ote3 ,m & ,wolsey4 ,sid5ote3 ,as*am's ,s*olema/]4 ,humanism at ! ,c\rt4--,z ,*eke became private tutor to ,pr9ce ,edw>d & ,as*am to ,pr9cess ,elizabe?1 an ,hell5ic atmosph]e 0 soon promot$ 9 royal circles4 ,a p[]ful assi/ance to ! developm5t ( humanism 0 also f\nd at ! c\rt ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,m1 :o 0 especially close to ,c>d9al ,wolsey1 & s = a "t to ! k+1 ,h5ry ,,viii4 ,a numb] ( treatises ^u humani/ic education 7 writt5 by memb]s ( ! c\rt1 l ,m & ,vives2 :ile ,as*am produc$ 8 ,s*olema/]1 a well-kn[n "w on tea*+ ,lat9 & ,greek by #8d\ble translation4' ,?is fam\s me?od consi/$ 9 hav+ ! *ild translate a passage into ,engli%1 & !n1 aft] an h\r1 r5d] x back into ! orig9al & h ! ma/] comp>e x ) ! text4 ,sid5ote3 ,religi\s tra9+ comb9$ ) ! classics4 ,sid5ote3 ,influ5ce ^u o!r gramm> s*ools4 ,colet & ,8 ,s*ool at ,/ ,paul's4--,! humani/ic *anges 9 ,engli% education1 h[ev]1 7 n limit$ to ! univ]sities & ! c\rt4 ,! s*ools also felt ! effect ( ! new movem5t1 & ! mo/ important factor 9 br++ ?is ab\t 0 ! f\ndation ( ,/4 ,paul's ,s*ool 9 #aeji by ,colet4 ,?is s*ol> devot$ mo/ ( ! =tune left him by 8 fa!r to e/abli%+ a humani/ic s*ool 9 ,/4 ,paul's *ur*y>d1 d$icat$ to #8! *ild ,jesus4' ,! in/itution 0 ?us an outgr[? ( ,nor!rn humanism1 & comb9$ religi\s tra9+ ) a /udy ( ! classics4 ,9 connection ) c]ta9 ,lat9 au?ors & ,*ur* ,fa!rs1 ! pupils /udi$ ! cate*ism 9 ,engli%1 ! ,lat9 ,gramm> ( ,lily1 :o 0 ! fir/ headma/] ( ! s*ool1 & ! ,de ,copia ( ,erasmus4 ,/4 ,paul's s*ool tra9$ a long li/ ( brilliant s*ol>s1 lit]>y m51 cl]gy1 & /atesm51 & became ! imm$iate model = a ho/ ( o!r in/itutions4 ,!re 7 9 exi/5ce at ! "t ,/4 ,paul's 0 f\nd$ "s ?ree hundr$ #8gramm>' s*ools ( v>i\s types4 ,^! _h come d[n f ! ,middle ,ages1 & _! *ief purpose _h be5 ! tra9+ ( "y m5 = ! prie/hood4 ,_! curriculum 0 usually ( ! m$ival mona/ic type1 b !y soon felt ! influ5ce ( ! new s*ool4 ,^? :i* surviv$ ! g5]al dissolution ( ecclesia/ical f\ndations by ,h5ry ,,viii & ,edw>d ,,vi 7 gradually remodel$ on ! classical basis ( ,/4 ,paul's4 ,new s*ools 7 also e/abli%$ 9 accordance ) ! humani/ic ideals4 ,sid5ote3 ,soon became n>r[ & =mal4 ,humanism 9 ! ,engli% #8,gramm>' ,s*ools4--,b ! humanism ( ! #8gramm>' s*ools 9 ,engl&1 z 9 ,italy & ,g]many1 soon became n>r[ & =mal4 ,! purpose ( humani/ic education came to be n s mu* a real tra9+ 9 lit]ature z a practical comm& ( ,lat9 z a means ( communication 9 all l&s & ages4 ,accord+ly1 ! tra9+ became "o ( diction>ies1 gramm>s1 & phrase-books4 ,expressions & selections 7 cull$ f au?ors & treasur$ 9 notebooks1 & ! me?ods became l>gely memorit] & passive4 ,! =malism into :i* ! s*ools ( ,engl& _h ?us fall5 by ! sev5te5? c5tury is depict$ 9 ,br9sley's ,ludus lit]>ius3 or ! ,gramm> ,s*oole1 a "w int5d$ to ridicule & re=m ^! conditions4 ,x indicates t ! tra9+ 9 ,lat9 0 devot$ to drill 9 inflect+1 p>s+1 & con/ru+ a fix$ set ( texts4 ,lily's ,gramm> 0 memoriz$ by ! pupils1 & ref]5ces to x 7 glibly repeat$1 ) little und]/&+ ( _! mean+4 ,all conv]sation 0 bas$ ^u "s phrase-book1 l ! ,colloquies ( ,cord]ius1 & a ,lat9 !me _h to be gr\nd out ea* week4 ,sid5ote3 ,l>gely un*ang$4 ,sid5ote3 ,! great #8public' s*ools4 ,engli% #8,gramm>' & #8,public' ,s*ools ,to-day4--,al?\gh re=ms h s9ce be5 made 9 _m ( ^! directions1 ! organization & ! =mal humanism ( ! ,engli% #8gramm>' s*ool h be5 pres]v$ 9 pr9ciple ev5 to ?is day4 ,ma!matics1 mod]n languages1 & sci5ces h be5 add$1 & a #8mod]n side' has be5 e/abli%$ z an alt]nate = ! old c\rse1 b ! classics are /ill ! emphasiz$ feature1 &1 to a l>ge degree1 ! drill me?ods prevail4 ,b1 :ile x 0 orig9ally int5d$ t ! gramm> s*ools %\ld1 by means ( ! end[m5t1 be op5 to ri* & poor alike1 because ( ! great increase 9 exp5ses1 necess>y & unnecess>y1 !re are n[ n _m opportunities = any "o 9 ! l[] classes ( society to att5d a gramm> s*ool4 ,simil>ly1 a di/9ction has come to be drawn betwe5 #8gramm>' & #8public' s*ools1 al?\gh x is n a v cle> "o4 ,9 g5]al1 a #8public s*ool' has a m ari/ocratic & weal?i] patronage4 ,n9e #8great public s*ools' 7 recogniz$ by ! ,cl>5don ,commission 9 #ahfd1--,w9*e/] 7,fig4 #ag71 ,eton1 ,/4 ,paul's1 ,%rewsbury1 ,we/m9/]1 ,rugby1 ,h>r[1 ,m]*ant ,taylors'1 & ,*>t]h\se2 b sev]al o!r old s*ools & a numb] ( ! /rong] f\ndations ( ,victoria's reign are g5]ally admitt$1 & _m o!rs claim ! dignity ( ! "n t w\ld n be consid]$ eligible outside ( ! imm$iate locality4 ,sid5ote3 ,fir/ ,am]ican second>y s*ools model$ aft] ,engli%4 ,! #8,gramm>' ,s*ools 9 ! ,am]ican ,colonies4--,x 0 aft] ^! #8gramm>' s*ools ( ! "m c\ntry t ! fir/ second>y s*ools 9 ,am]ica 7 model$ & nam$4 ,9 _m in/ances ! fa!rs ( ! colonies1 su* z ,edw>d ,hopk9s1 ,william ,p5n1 & ,rog] ,williams1 _h be5 educat$ 9 ! gramm> s*ools ( ,engl&1 & naturally s\ght to model ! in/itutions 9 _! new home aft] !m z ne>ly z ! diff]5t conditions w\ld p]mit4 ,! ,bo/on ,lat9 7,gramm>7 ,s*ool 0 f\nd$ z e>ly z #afce 7,fig4 #bc71 & o!r t[ns ( ,massa*usetts1--,*>le/[n1 ,ipswi*1 ,salem1 ,dor*e/]1 ,newbury1 ,cambridge1 & ,roxbury1 also be=e long e/abli%$ gramm> s*ools4 ,simil>ly1 t[ns ( ,connecticut1 ,rhode ,isl&1 ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,virg9ia1 & ! o!r colonies1 _h 9 _m cases f\nd$ gramm> s*ools be=e ! close ( ! c5tury4 ,moreov]1 ! legislatures ( ,massa*usetts 7#afdg7 & ,connecticut 7#afej7 soon ord]$ t a #8gramm>' s*ool be e/abli%$ 9 e t[n hav+ "o hundr$ families4 ,! ,am]ican gramm> s*ools1 l _! prototypes1 7 second>y & su/a9$ no real relation to ! elem5t>y s*ools4 ,!y 7 mo/ly int5d$ to fit pupils = college1 al?\gh sometimes ! college _h n yet be5 e/abli%$1 & ?us to furni% a prelim9>y /ep to prep>ation = ! ,*ri/ian m9i/ry4 ,h5ce _! c\rse consi/$ *iefly 9 read+ ! classics & ! ,new ,te/am5t1 & us$ among its texts ,lily's ,gramm> & ! ,colloquies ( ,cord]ius4 ,& :ile ! hold ( =mal humanism ^u second>y education 0 some:at relax$ dur+ ! subsequ5t /ages ( ! #8academy' & ! #8high s*ool1' ! =mal classical tra9+ 0 consid]$ ! only means ( a lib]al education until well into ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,illu/ration3 a4 ,draw+ ( ,w9*e/] ,college & its inmates by ,w>d5 ,*&l] ( ,new ,college1 ,ox=d1 9 #adfj4 ,! picture reveals ! relation%ip ( ,w9*e/] to ! old mona/ic in/itutions1 be=e x became humani/ic4 ,illu/ration3 b4 ,eton ,college 9 #afhh1 f ! draw+ ( ,david ,loggan4 ,fig4 #ag4--;,great ,engli% ,public ,s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,int]e/s ( ?is life4 ,sid5ote3 ,m social & moral 9 ! ,nor?1 & m individual 9 ,italy4 ,! ,aim & ,in/itutions ( ,humani/ic ,education4--,x c n[ be se5 h[ f> ! ideals ( humanism _h dep>t$ f ^? ( ! m$ival p]iod4 ,! #8o!rworldly' aim1 ! mona/ic isolation1 & ! s*ola/ic discussions _h giv5 way to ! int]e/s ( ?is life1 p]sonal & social developm5t1 & a /udy ( ! classics4 ,9 ! ,nor? ! movem5t took on r a diff]5t color f :at x did 9 ! p59sula t gave x bir?4 ,:ile ,nor!rn humanism 0 n>r[] 9 n conc]n+ itself s mu* ) self-culture1 p]sonal expression1 & ! v>i\s opportunities ( life1 x _h a wid] vision ?r\gh int]e/+ itself 9 society z a :ole & 9 endeavor+ to advance morality & religion4 ,x 0 democratic & social 9 its tr5d1 :]e ,italian humanism 0 m ari/ocratic & individual4 ,sid5ote3 ,organization1 ,sid5ote3 cont5t1 ,sid5ote3 me?ods1 ,sid5ote3 & effect4 ,9 ,italy ! *ief educational in/itutions result+ f ! humani/ic movem5t 7 ! s*ools t arose at ! brilliant c\rts ( ! city tyrants4 ,^! in/itutions 7 sometimes connect$ ) ! univ]sities1 & gradually ! univ]sities !mselves 7 =c$ to admit ! new le>n+ to ! curriculum4 ,9 ! ,nor? a numb] ( new in/itutions--,hi]onymian s*ools1 pr9ces' s*ools1 gymnasiums1 & gramm> s*ools--7 develop$ f humanism1 & ! exi/+ in/itutions soon %[$ ! influ5ce ( ! movem5t1 b all ( !m /ress$ moral & religi\s /udies1 z well z classical4 ,ev]y:]e ! curriculum ( ! humani/ic f\ndations consi/$ mo/ly 9 ! ma/]y ( ,lat9 & ,greek1 b 9 ! ,nor? ! r5ewal ( ,greek meant also a /udy ( ! ,new & ,old ,te/am5ts & ! ,*ur* ,fa!rs4 ,:]e ! ,italian ,r5aissance re-creat$ ! lib]al education ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 ,cic]o & ,qu9tilian1 ! movem5t 9 its ,nor!rn spread f\nd 9 ! classical revival a means ( moral & religi\s tra9+4 ,b j z humanism 9 ,italy by ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury _h deg5]at$ into m]e ,cic]onianism1 s ! humani/ic education 9 ! ,nor?1 aft] ab\t a c5tury ( developm5t1 began to gr[ n>r[1 h>d1 & fix$4 ,by ! middle ( ! sixte5? c5tury ! _s ( criticism1 inve/igation1 & intellectual activity _h begun to abate1 & by ! op5+ ( ! sev5te5? humanism _h be5 completely =maliz$4 ,9 ! /udy ( ! classics all emphasis 0 plac$ ^u gramm>1 l+ui/ics1 & /yle2 =m 0 pref]r$ to cont5t2 & me?ods became memorit] & imitative4 ,humanism _h l>gely p]=m$ its mission1 & a new awak5+ 0 ne$$ to revivify education & society 9 g5]al4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *aps4 ,,xii-,,xiv2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *ap4 ,,vi4 ,an int]e/+ int]pretation ( ! ,r5aissance bo? 9 ,italy & ! ,nor? is f\nd 9 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization dur+ ! ,middle ,ages 7,scribn]1 #ahid71 *ap4 ,,xv4 ,an acc\nt ( ! movem5t1 includ+ its educational aspects 9 ,italy1 is f\nd 9 ,burckh>dt1 ,j41 ,civilization ( ! ,r5aissance 9 ,italy 7,sonn5s*e91 ,london1 #ahib2 ,macmillan71 vol4 ,i1 especially "p ,,iii2 ,symonds1 ,j4 ,a41 ,r5aissance 9 ,italy 7,holt1 ,scribn]71 vol4 ,,ii1 especially *aps4 ,,iii-,,viii2 or ,symonds' ,%ort ,hi/ory ( ! ,r5aissance 7,holt1 #ahid71 especially *aps4 ,i & ,,vii1 & ,,ix-,,xi4 ,woodw>d1 ,w4 ,h41 gives u a vivid acc\nt ( ! educational "w ( ,vittor9o da ,feltre & ,o!r ,humani/ ,educators 7,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #ahig71 & ( ,erasmus conc]n+ ,education 7,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aijd71 & ( ,education dur+ ! ,r5aissance 7,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aijf7 z a :ole4 ,pet] ,ramus & ! ,educational ,re=mation ( ! ,sixte5? ,c5tury 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 by ,graves1 ,f4 ,p41 furni%es "s idea ( conditions 9 ,france4 ,! ,italian ,r5aissance 9 ,engl& 7,columbia ,univ]sity ,press1 #aije71 especially *ap4 ,i1 is succ9ctly describ$ by ,e9/e91 ,l42 & an acc\nt ( ,colet & ,/4 ,paul's ,s*ool c be f\nd 9 ,b>n>d1 ,h41 ,engli% ,p$agogy1 second s]ies1 pp4 #di-aag4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,educational ,,influ5ces ,,( ,,! ,,re=mation ,,outl9e ,lu!r's educational positions are mo/ fully reveal$ 9 8 well-kn[n ,lett] & ,s]mon4 ,he holds t education %\ld prep>e = citiz5%ip1 & %\ld be /ate-support$1 & ^! recomm5dations 7 some:at embodi$ 9 actual s*ools by 8 associates4 ,zw+li 0 kill$ be=e he c\ld greatly influ5ce education1 b ! educational in/itutions ( ,calv9 spread rapidly ?r\gh ,switz]l&1 ,france1 ,ne!rl&s1 ,puritan ,engl&1 & ,scotl&4 ,9 ,engl& ,h5ry ,,viii & ,edw>d ,,vi confiscat$ ! prop]ty ( "s ?ree hundr$ mona/ic & o!r ecclesia/ical s*ools1 b subsequ5tly _m ( ^! 7 ref\nd$4 ,! ,jesuit colleges 7 organiz$ to ext5d ,ca?olic ,*ri/ianity4 ,! l[] colleges 7 humani/ic1 & ! high] taught #8philosophy' & !ology4 ,! tea*]s 7 tra9$1 & ! me?ods1 ?\gh memorit] & emulative1 7 effective4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,jesuit colleges 0 ph5om5al1 b !y h fail$ to meet new conditions4 ,! ,port ,royali/s held t reason 0 m important ?an memory1 b1 :ile _! #8little s*ools' /ress$ v]nacul>1 logic1 & geometry1 !y (f]$ no?+ beyond ! be/ elem5ts 9 ! education ( ! pa/4 ,elem5t>y & indu/rial education 0 giv5 an impulse = ! ,ca?olics by ! s*ools ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs4 ,!y also op5$ tra9+ s*ools = tea*]s1 & p]fect$ ! #8simultane\s' me?od4 ,among ! ,prote/ants & "s ,ca?olics 9 ,g]many1 ,holl&1 ,scotl&1 & c]ta9 ( ! ,am]ican colonies1 ! ,re=mation incl9$ t[>d univ]sal elem5t>y education & control ( ! s*ools by ! /ate4 ,! second>y s*ools 9 ,prote/ant c\ntries also came l>gely "u civic au?orities1 al?\gh ! cl]gy /ill taught & inspect$ !m2 :ile ,ca?olic second>y education 0 furni%$ mo/ly by ! ,jesuit colleges4 ,9 _m in/ances ! univ]sities turn$ ,prote/ant2 & new univ]sities1 ,prote/ant & ,ca?olic1 7 f\nd$4 ,sid5ote3 ,a s]ies ( revolts f ! ,*ur* accompani$ ,nor!rn humanism4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,re=mation to ! ,r5aissance4--,! s]ies ( revolts f ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 g5]ally kn[n collectively z ! #8,re=mation1' may be reg>d$ z closely connect$ ) ! ,r5aissance4 ,z %[n 9 ! la/ *apt]1 humanism 9 ! ,nor? l$ to a r5ew$ /udy ( ! ,scriptures & a re=m ( ecclesia/ical doctr9es & abuses1 & took on a moral & religi\s color4 ,re=m]s arose1 l ,wimpfel+ & ,erasmus1 :o1 :ile rema9+ )9 ! ,*ur*1 s\ght to purify x ( corruption & obscurantism4 ,b ! ,*ur* at fir/ /ubbornly resi/$ all ef=ts at int]nal re=m4 ,its imm5se weal?1 l>ge numb]s1 & tra9+ enabl$ x = a long "t to ?w>t ! _s ( ! age1 & a condition ( ecclesia/ical upheaval foll[$4 ,revolts aga9/ papal au?ority ensu$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe nor? ( ,italy1 & 7 furni%$ support by ! awak5$ intellectual & social conditions ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,! result 0 ! e/abli%m5t ( a *ur*1 or r a set ( *ur*es1 outside ( ,ca?olic ,*ri/ianity4 ,:ile ea* revolt _h "s peculi>ities ( its own1 !re 7 und]ly+ !m all c]ta9 g5]al causes t indicat$ _! relation to ! ,r5aissance4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 8 revolt1 ,lu!r reli$ ^u ! individuali/ic _s ( ! times4 ,! ,revolt & ,educational ,works ( ,lu!r4--,ev5 ! attitude ( ,m>t9 ,lu!r 7#adhc-aedf7 seems to h be5 b\nd up ) ! t5d5cies ( ! day4 ,app>5tly he _h at fir/ no idea ( break+ f ! ,*ur*1 & suppos$ t ! n9ety-five !ses he nail$ to ! *ur* door at ,witt5b]g 7#aeag7 7 q consi/5t ) ,ca?olic allegiance4 ,b ev5 be=e ?is he _h attack$ ,ari/otle & s*ola/icism ) great vigor1 appeal+ to primitive ,*ri/ianity & ! "r ( free ?\ght1 & ?us id5tifi$ himself 9 _s ) ! ,nor!rn ,r5aissance4 ,& two ye>s lat]1 9 8 conte/ ) ,eck1 :5 he 0 actually l$ to d5y ! au?ority ( bo? pope & c\ncil1 he 0 evid5tly rely+ ^u ! humani/ic & individuali/ic atmosph]e ( ! times4 ,sid5ote3 ,8 translation ( ! ,bible ,sid5ote3 & 8 cate*isms4 ,sid5ote3 ,8 ,lett] & ,s]mon4 ,:5 once he _h revolt$1 ,lu!r gave mu* ( 8 "t to promot+ ! re=m & education ( ! masses by writ+4 ,all 8 works1 :e!r religi\s or p$agogical1 7 cle>ly int5d$1 9 a broad s5se1 to be educational4 ,aft] 8 condemnation at ! ,diet ( ,worms 7#aeba71 :5 he _h tak5 refuge at ! ,w>tburg1 he und]took to awak5 ! m9ds & he>ts ( ! common p by a translation ( ! ,greek ,te/am5t4 ,contr>y to g5]al op9ion1 a l>ge numb] ( translations _h prec$$ t ( ,lu!r1 & _! popul>ity mu/ h prov$ sugge/ive to him1 b 8 edition 0 unusually close to ! colloquial language ( ! times4 ,a doz5 ye>s lat]1 he _h complet$ a translation ( ! entire ,bible1 :i* contribut$ greatly to education by gett+ ! masses to read & reflect4 ,= ! fur!r in/ruction ( ! p1 he also foll[$ ! fa%ion ( ! day 9 produc+ two cate*isms1 "o = adults & ! o!r = *ildr51 toge!r ) _m tracts1 addresses1 & lett]s1 fill$ ) allusions to ! organization & me?ods ( education4 ,b ! docum5ts :i* mo/ fully reveal 8 educational positions are 8 ,lett] to ! ,mayors & ,ald]m5 ( ,all ,cities ( ,g]many 9 behalf ( ,*ri/ian ,s*ools 7#aebd71 & 8 ,s]mon on ! ,duty ( ,s5d+ ,*ildr5 to ,s*ool 7#aecj74 ,sid5ote3 ,civic aim4 ,sid5ote3 ,indu/rial & academic tra9+4 ,sid5ote3 ,enl>g$ cont5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,rational me?ods4 ,lu!r's ,ideas on ,education4--,! purpose ( education1 ,lu!r ev]y:]e holds1 involves ! promotion ( ! ,/ate's welf>e q z mu* z t ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! s*ools 7 to make good citiz5s z well z religi\s m54 ,educational in/itutions %\ld1 on t acc\nt1 be ma9ta9$ at public exp5se = e "o1--ri* & poor1 high & l[1 boys & girls1 alike1 & att5dance %\ld be compell$ by ! civic au?orities4 ,realiz+ t "s pupils may f9d x h>d to give ! "t to s*ool1 ,lu!r plann$ t 8!y %\ld sp5d an h\r or two a day 9 s*ool1 & ! re/ ( ! "t 9 "w at home1 le>n "s trade & d :atev] is desir$1 s t /udy & "w may g on toge!r40 ,b he also desir$ a m academic c\rse 8= ! brighte/ pupils1 :o give promise ( becom+ accompli%$ tea*]s1 prea*]s1 & work]s40 ,9 any case1 ,lu!r naturally believ$ t ! *ief /udies %\ld be ! ,bible & ! cate*ism4 ,b1 z a ,nor!rn humani/1 he recomm5d$ ! anci5t languages--,lat91 ,greek1 & ,hebrew--= ! light !y w\ld ?r[ on ! ,scriptures & ! patri/ic writ]s4 ,he likewise approv$ ( rhetoric & dialectic1 :i* 7 v valuable subjects 9 ^? days ( controv]sy2 & he made a decid$ advance 9 advocat+ hi/ory1 natural sci5ce1 vocal & in/rum5tal music1 & gymna/ic ex]cises4 ,hi/ory is advis$1 n only1 z 0 common ) ! humani/s1 = ! sake ( illu/rat+ moral tru?1 b also = ! purpose ( und]/&+ social in/itutions4 ,! /udy ( nature 0 int5d$ to reveal 8! wond]s ( ,div9e ,goodness & ! omnipot5ce ( ,god40 ,gymna/ics he consid]$ ( value bo? = ! body & ! s\l1 & music a means ( 8driv+ away all c>e & melan*oly f ! he>t40 ,! me?ods he recomm5d$ 7 equally rational4 ,he w\ld utilize ! natural activity ( *ildr5 & n attempt to repress !m1 & w\ld make use ( concrete examples1 :]ev] possible4 ,languages he w\ld tea* less by gramm> ?an by practice4 ,?is belief 9 ! importance ( select+ ! prop] cont5t & me?od 9 education l$ him to rate ! function ( ! tea*] z high]1 if any?+1 ?an t ( ! prea*]4 ,sid5ote3 ,melan*?on & ,/urm4 ,sid5ote3 ,bug5hag5 9 ,nor!rn ,g]many4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r associates4 ,! ,embodim5t ( ,lu!r's ,ideas 9 ,s*ools by ,8 ,associates4--,^! recomm5dations ( ,lu!r 7 l>gely embodi$ 9 actual in/itutions by 8 associates4 ,! ye> aft] 8 ,lett] to ! ,mayors 0 publi%$1 ! ,prote/ants 7 reque/$ by ! ,c\nt ( ,mansfeld to e/abli% 9 ,lu!r's native t[n1 ,eisleb51 a s*ool t %\ld put 8 educational !ories into practice1 & ?is 0 p]=m$ by ,melan*?on4 ,! subsequ5t organization ( ,lat9 s*ools ?r\gh\t ! ,electorate ( ,saxony1 & ! f\ndation ( ! gymnasium ( ,/urm at ,/rassburg ^u ! ,prote/ant basis h already be5 t\*$ ^u 7pp4 #aad ff474 ,b ( fully z mu* importance 7 ! educational f\ndations ( ,bug5hag5 7#adhe-aeeh74 ,:ile engag$ 9 reorganiz+ ! *ur*es 9 ! cities & /ates ( ,nor!rn ,g]many1 by 8 g5]al #8*ur* ord]s' to ea*1 he made ample provision = s*ools ( ! ,lu!ran type4 ,= in/ance1 at ,hamburg 9 #aebj he organiz$ a s+le ,lat9 s*ool ) a rector & sev5 tea*]s1 toge!r ) a ,g]man s*ool = boys & "o = girls 9 e p>i%4 ,eight ye>s aft]w>d1 ! #8*ur* ord]s' ( ,brunswick provid$ two classical s*ools1 two v]nacul> s*ools = boys1 & f\r = girls1 s locat$ 9 ! city t all *ildr5 c\ld conv5i5tly rea* a s*ool4 ,)9 a half doz5 ye>s he made simil> requirem5ts = ,lbeck1 ,m9d51 ,gtt+51 ,soe/1 ,brem51 ,osnabrck1 & o!r cities1 & ?r\gh\t "s entire /ates ( ,g]many1 su* z ,hol/e9 & 8 own native du*y ( ,pom]ania4 ,! educational !ories ( ,lu!r 7 also put into practice 9 a numb] ( s*ools taught by ,trotz5dorf1 ,ne&]1 & o!r pupils ( ,melan*?on4 ,sid5ote3 ,sprang f ,nor!rn humanism4 ,sid5ote3 ,s*ools & c\rse simil> to ,lu!r's4 ,! ,revolt & ,educational ,ideas ( ,zw+li4--,! revolt "u ,zw+li 7#adhd-aeca7 0 m directly ! outcome ( ,nor!rn humanism ?an 0 t ( ,lu!r4 ,?r\gh ,erasmus & o!rs he _h come to believe t !re 0 little basis 9 ! ,bible = ! traditional !ology1 & he c>efully read ! acc\nts himself 9 ! orig9al ,greek & ,hebrew4 ,aft] he took *>ge ( ! ca!dral at ,zuri*1 he began 8 attack ^u ! dogmas & traditions ( ! ,*ur*1 &1 by secur+ ! support ( ! t[n1 manag$ 9 a fairly peaceful way to drop "o =m ( ! ,*ur* aft] ano!r1 until1 )9 five ye>s1 he _h aboli%$ ev5 ! mass4 ,zw+li likewise made ! ext5sion ( educational facilities a "p ( 8 re=m4 ,he f\nd$ a numb] ( humani/ic in/itutions1 & introduc$ elem5t>y s*ools into ,switz]l&4 ,he also publi%$ a ,brief ,treatise on ! ,*ri/ian ,education ( ,y\? 7#aebc71 :i* recomm5d$ a c\rse ( /udies n unlike t ( ,lu!r1 except t1 f 8 practical temp]am5t1 he did n m5tion hi/ory1 b did add ari?metic & survey+4 ,sid5ote3 ,also began ?r\gh ,nor!rn humanism4 ,sid5ote3 ,calv9's colleges ,sid5ote3 & ,cord]ius4 ,calv9's ,revolt & ,8 ,enc\ragem5t ( ,education4--,:ile endeavor+ to spread 8 re=ms1 ,zw+li 0 sla9 9 ! prime ( life4 ,8 positions 7 ma9ta9$ by 8 successor 9 ! ca!dral1 b ! "w 0 soon ov]%ad[$ & m]g$ 9 ! movem5t ( ,calv9 7#aeji-aefd74 ,calv9's break ) ! ,*ur*1 l t ( ,fr5* ,prote/ants g5]ally1 also began ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,nor!rn humanism & ! /udy ( ! ,greek ,te/am5t4 ,he _h1 h[ev]1 receiv$ an excell5t legal & !ological education1 & did n cont5t himself ) m]ely attack+ ,ca?olic doctr9e1 b 0 ! fir/ ,prote/ant to =mulate an elaborate sy/em ( !ology4 ,! call ( ,calv9 to reorganize ! civil & religi\s adm9i/ration ( ! city ( ,g5eva gave him an excell5t opportunity = work+ out 8 !ories4 ,al?\gh he 0 mu* engross$ 9 religi\s disputes1 he e/abli%$ #8colleges' at ,g5eva & else:]e1 & 9 o!r ways und]took to f\nd s*ools & promote education4 ,he succe$$1 too1 9 p]suad+ 8 =m] tea*]1 ,cord]ius 7see p4 #aaa71 to come to ,switz]l&1 & organize1 adm9i/]1 & tea* 9 ! re=m$ colleges4 ,sid5ote3 ,aim1 cont5t1 & organization4 ,sid5ote3 ,spread 9 ,switz]l&1 ,france1 ,ne!rl&s1 ,engl&1 & ,scotl&4 ,! ,colleges ( ,calv94--,cord]ius "h wrote f\r books ( ,colloquies1 ) ! purpose ( tra9+ boys by means ( conv]sation on timely topics to speak ,lat9 ) facility1 & f ?is "w we c le>n mu* ( ! "* ( ! ,calv9i/ic colleges4 ,cle>ly ! ideal 0 ! #8le>n$ piety' ( ,melan*?on1 ,/urm1 & ! o!r ,nor!rn humani/s & ,prote/ants4 ,an attempt seems to h be5 made to tea* ,lat9 9 su* a way z to cultivate a moral & religi\s life1 & psalms 7 sung1 public pray]s (f]$1 & selections f ! ,bible repeat$ ea* day4 ,we also "k t 9 ! sev5 classes ( a college at ,g5eva ! pupils le>n$ read+ & gramm> f ! ,lat9 cate*ism1 & !n /udi$ ,v]gil1 ,cic]o1 ,ovid1 ,cs>1 ,livy1 & ,lat9 composition4 ,greek seems to h be5 begun 9 ! f\r? ye>1 &1 beside classical ,greek au?ors1 ! ,gospels & ,epi/les 7 read4 ,likewise1 z 9 ! o!r ,re=mation s*ools1 logic & rhetoric 7 /udi$ 9 ! high] classes4 ,! colleges ( ?is type n only spread rapidly among ,calv9's co-religioni/s 9 ,switz]l& & ,france1 b1 z ,g5eva became a city ( refuge = all ! oppress$1 a reg>d = humani/ic1 religi\s1 & univ]sal education 0 absorb$ by ! p]secut$ ,ne!rl&]1 ! ,engli% ,prote/ants ( ,m>y's "t1 & ! ,scot* "u ! lead]%ip ( ,knox 9 ! days ( ,m>y1 ,que5 ( ,scots 7#aeje-aegb74 ,sid5ote3 ,due to p]sonal reasons4 ,sid5ote3 ,suppression ( gramm> s*ools4 ,h5ry ,,viii's ,revolt & ,its ,effect ^u ,education4--,9 ,engl& a revolt f ! ,*ur* likewise occurr$4 ,?is also may h be5 due 9 "p to ! inve/igative _s ( ,nor!rn humanism1 b ! imm$iate cause ( ! brea* 0 ! desire ( ,h5ry ,,viii 7r4 #aeji-aedg7 to control ! national ,*ur*1 t he might divorce 8 wife1 & !re 0 at fir/ little *ange 9 doctr9e4 ,once 9 ecclesia/ical p[]1 ,h5ry began 9 #aecf to confiscate ! mona/ic l&s & prop]ty1 & enl>g$ ! scope ( 8 op]ations until he _h suppress$ a l>ge numb] ( mona/ic1 ca!dral1 collegiate1 hospital1 & o!r s*ools4 ,dur+ ! reign 7#aedg-aeec7 ( 8 successor1 ,edw>d ,,vi1 ! acts ( suppression 7 ext5d$ to *antry & gild f\ndations1 & x is e/imat$ t1 ( ! ?ree hundr$ gramm> s*ools t _h come d[n 9 ,engl& f ! ,middle ,ages1 b few 7 n de/roy$ "u ,h5ry & ,edw>d4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 rema9$ by ! t]ms ( ! p>liam5t>y acts ( suppression1 & popul> s5tim5t caus$ o!rs to be ref\nd$4 ,& dur+ ! reign ( ,elizabe? 7#aeeh-afjc7 & ( ! fir/ two ,/u>t k+s 7#afjc-afdi7 ^! f\ndations 7 greatly increas$ out ( royal funds or ?r\gh ! philan?ropy ( weal?y m54 ,all ( ^! s*ools1 z we h se5 7p4 #aah71 foll[+ ! example ( ,/4 ,paul's1 adopt$ ! ,nor!rn ideals ( humanism & furni%$ a curriculum ( classics & religi\s tra9+4 ,! latt] became bas$1 ( c\rse1 ^u ! tea*+s ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,aim$ to /r5g!n ! au?ority ( ! pope4 ,f\ndation ( ! ,society ( ,jesus4--,we may n[ turn back to ! ,"m ,*ur* & see :at ef=ts %e 0 putt+ =? 9 behalf ( education dur+ ! p]iod ( ,prote/ant revolts4 ,bo? be=e & aft] ! "t ( ,lu!r !re 7 re=m]s inside ! ,*ur* :o wi%$ to improve its practices )\t *ang+ its adm9i/ration1 b ! ,ca?olics 9 g5]al felt x _! *ief duty to cru% ! ,prote/ant h]esy & recov] ! gr\nd !y _h lo/4 ,?is result$ 9 a numb] ( religi\s w>s1 9 :i* bo? sides display$ great bitt]ness & cruelty4 ,b a m effective & con/ructive in/rum5t 9 advanc+ ! int]e/s ( ,ca?olicism 0 ! organization ( ! #8,society ( ,jesus4' ,?is ord] 0 f\nd$ by ,ignatius de ,loyola 7#adia-aeef7 9 #aecd4 ,he p]suad$ six fell[-/ud5ts at ,p>is to jo9 ) him 9 devot+ !mselves to ! conv]sion ( ! hea!n1 & to /r5g!n+ ! au?ority ( ! pope4 ,six ye>s lat]1 aft] consid]able opposition1 ! new ord] 0 recogniz$ by ! pope & began to add rapidly to its numb]s4 ,! ,jesuits h always /riv5 fir/ ?r\gh mission>y labors to ext5d ,ca?olic ,*ri/ianity ?r\gh\t ! _w1 & !n by means ( s*ools to hold _! conv]ts & educate all peoples to papal allegiance4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,con/itution & ! ,ratio ,/udiorum4 ,sid5ote3 ,! #8g5]al1' ,sid5ote3 #8prov9cial1' ,sid5ote3 #8rector1' & o!r (ficials4 ,organization ( ! ,jesuits4--,! organization ( ! ,society ( ,jesus 0 outl9$ 9 its ,con/itution4 ,?is fundam5tal docum5t ( ! ord] receiv$ its f9al revision %ortly aft] ,loyola's dea?1 b ! ,ratio ,/udiorum1 :i* 0 an expansion ( ,"p ,,iv ( ! ,con/itution & describ$ ! educational adm9i/ration 9 detail1 0 n f9ally =mulat$ until #aeii4 ,x ?us summ$ up ! exp]i5ce ( ! ,jesuit s*ools dur+ m ?an sixty ye>s4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ! society has always be5 ( a milit>y type4 ,loyola _h orig9ally />t$ ^u ! c>e] ( a soldi]1 & did n believe t any sy/em c\ld be effective unless x 7 bas$ ^u implicit ob$i5ce to "o's (ficial sup]iors4 ,at ! head ( ! ord] is ! #8g5]al1' :o is elect$ = life & has va/ adm9i/rative p[]s4 ,z ! society spread1 ! c\ntries t came "u its control 7 divid$ into prov9ces1 & at ! head ( ! ,jesuit int]e/s 9 ea* ( ^! di/ricts is ! #8prov9cial1' :o is appo9t$ by ! g5]al = ?ree ye>s4 ,9 ea* prov9ce !re are v>i\s colleges1 ^: presid+ (fic]1 or #8rector1' is *os5 = ?ree ye>s by ! g5]al1 b is directly responsible to ! prov9cial & reports to him4 ,simil>ly1 )9 ea* college are #8prefects1' imm$iately subord9ate to ! rector1 b select$ by ! prov9cial2 & "u ! inspection ( ! prefects are ! #8pr(essors' or #8preceptors4' ,sid5ote3 ,! l[] colleges are second>y & humani/ic1 ,sid5ote3 ) curriculum l>gely un*ang$4 ,! ,jesuit ,colleges4--,! ,jesuits h nev] engag$ 9 elem5t>y education1 b h requir$ t pupils "k h[ to read & write be=e be+ admitt$ to any ( _! s*ools4 ,?is may h be5 br\ght ab\t 9 ! fir/ place by ! fact t ! numb] ( _! tea*]s 0 limit$1 or t ! public elem5t>y s*ool 0 j com+ to be reg>d$ z ( importance1 & second>y education ( ! humani/ic type 0 ev]y:]e dom9ant4 ,! ,jesuit educational organization has1 !re=e1 consi/$ ( #8l[] colleges' ) a gymnasia c\rse1 & ( #8upp] colleges1' :i* are ( univ]sity grade4 ,boys are admitt$ to ! l[] colleges at f t5 to f\rte5 ye>s ( age1 & sp5d five or six ye>s !re4 ,! fir/ ?ree classes 7 at fir/ devot$ to a c>eful /udy ( ,lat9 gramm>1 & a little ( ,greek2 9 ! f\r? ye> a numb] ( ! ,greek & ,lat9 poets & hi/orians 7 read2 :ile ! la/ class1 to :i* two ye>s 7 usually giv51 took up a rhetorical /udy ( ! classical au?ors4 ,only slight v>iations 9 ! curriculum h ev] be5 all[$ s9ce ! ,ratio ,/udiorum 0 issu$1 until ! revision 9 #ahcb4 ,9 t ye> "w 9 ma!matics1 natural sci5ce1 hi/ory1 & geography 0 add$ 9 ! l[] colleges1 b ! classics /ill compose ! body ( ! c\rse4 ,sid5ote3 ,! upp] colleges furni% tra9+ 9 #8philosophy' & !ology4 ,! full c\rse ( ! upp] colleges la/s sev5 or n9e ye>s1-! fir/ ?ree 9 #8philosophy1' foll[$ by f\r or six 9 !ology4 ,! tra9+ 9 #8philosophy' n[ includes n only logic1 metaphysics1 psy*ology1 e?ics1 & natural !ology1 b also "w 9 algebra1 geometry1 trigonometry1 analytics1 calculus1 & me*anics1 & su* natural sci5ces z physics1 *emi/ry1 geology1 a/ronomy1 & physiology4 ,a successful completion ( ! c\rse leads to ! degree ( ,ma/] ( ,arts4 ,aft] ! c\rse 9 philosophy1 mo/ ( ! ,jesuits tea* 9 ! l[] colleges five or six ye>s be=e go+ on ) ! "w 9 !ology4 ,9 ! !ological c\rse f\r ye>s are devot$ to a /udy ( ! ,scriptures1 ,hebrew1 & o!r ,ori5tal languages1 toge!r ) ,*ur* hi/ory1 canon law1 & v>i\s bran*es ( !ology4 ,aft] ?is "o may elect a fur!r tra9+ ( two ye>s1 to review ! "w 9 philosophy & !ology1 & to prep>e a !sis4 ,aft] a public exam9ation & def5se ( 8 !sis1 ! successful c&idate is aw>d$ ! degree ( ,doctor ( ,div9ity4 ,h5ce a complete ,jesuit tra9+ w take f eighte5 to tw5ty ye>s1 & a memb] ( ! ord] may be f ?irty to ?irty-five ye>s ( age be=e complet+ 8 =mal education4 ,sid5ote3 ,tra9$ tea*]s1 ,sid5ote3 ! #8prelection1' ,sid5ote3 memoriz+1 ,sid5ote3 reviews1 ,sid5ote3 & rivalry4 ,! ,jesuit ,me?ods ( ,tea*+4--,! me?ods ( tea*+ & ! spl5did qualification ( ! in/ructors 7 f ! fir/ di/9ctive features 9 ! ,jesuit colleges1 especially :5 "o consid]s h[ little att5tion up to _! "t _h be5 giv5 to ! prep>ation ( tea*]s4 ,no "o c\ld tea* 9 ! l[] colleges :o _h n pass$ ?r\gh ! c\rse 9 philosophy1 :ile pr(essors 9 ! univ]sities _h fir/ to complete ! !ological c\rse4 ,in/ruction 0 g5]ally imp>t$ orally1 & !n memoriz$ or tak5 d[n 9 lecture notes4 ,! me?od 0 ! #8prelection1' :i* meant a prelim9>y explanation ( ! passage or lectures ^u ! topic "u consid]ation by ! tea*]4 ,x consi/$ 9 giv+1 fir/1 ! g5]al mean+ ( ! :ole passage or proposition2 !n1 a m detail$ explanation ( ! con/ruction or phraseology2 next simil> ?\ghts 9 o!r au?ors2 f\r?ly1 #8erudition'1 or in=mational comm5t ^u ! passage2 !n1 a /udy ( ! rhetorical figures2 & f9ally1 ! moral lesson to be drawn4 ,obvi\sly1 ) su* a me?od1 great /ress w\ld be plac$ ^u memoriz+1 especially 9 ! l[] colleges4 ,to fix subjects firmly 9 m9d1 %ort h\rs1 few /udies1 & brief lessons 7 e>ly f\nd to be necess>y4 ,likewise1 reviews h always be5 frequ5t & sy/ematic1 & ! ,lat9 motto ( ! ,jesuit me?od decl>es t 8repetition is ! "m ( le>n+40 ,ea* day beg9s ) a review ( ! prec$+ day's "w1 & closes ) a review ( ! "w j accompli%$4 ,ea* week ends ) a repetition ( all t has be5 cov]$ 9 t "t1 & ! la/ mon? ( e ye> reviews ! c\rse ( ! ye>4 ,to ma9ta9 int]e/ 9 ! mid/ ( s mu* memoriz+ & review+1 _m devices to promote emulation are us$4 ,! pupils are arrang$ 9 pairs z #8rivals1' ^: bus9ess x is to *eck on ! conduct & /udies ( ea* o!r 7,fig4 #ah72 & public #8disputations' betwe5 two sides are engag$ 9 ea* week4 ,sid5ote3 ,sy/ematic1 ,sid5ote3 int]e/+1 & devot$1 ,sid5ote3 b au?oritative & uni=m4 ,value & ,influ5ce ( ! ,jesuit ,education4--,! ,jesuit sy/em1 !n1 seems to h be5 9 advance ( t 9 ! s*ools at ! "t ( its f\ndation4 ,x 0 organiz$ ^u a sy/ematic & ?or\gh basis1 & 0 adm9i/]$ by a set ( spl5didly tra9$ tea*]s ?r\gh ! be/ me?ods t 7 kn[n 9 t day4 ,! s*ools 7 int]e/+ & pleasant1 & 7 free to all :o _h ! ability & desire to att5d4 ,! ,jesuit tea*]s1 too1 7 indefatigable & devot$ to _! duty4 ,! criticism t has be5 (f]$ to ?is educational sy/em is bas$ on its insi/5ce ^u absolute au?ority & ! consequ5t opposition to ! developm5t ( individuality4 ,! ,jesuit c\rses1 subjects1 & me?ods h become some:at uni=m & fix$4 ,9 ! l[] colleges !y dep5d l>gely ^u memory & appeal to int]e/ ?r\gh a sy/em ( rivalry1 honors1 & rew>ds4 ,su* a sy/em is likely to t5d t[>d a reproductive attitude 9 ! pupil4 ,illu/ration3 a4 ,jesuit ,college at ,reg5sburg 9 #afjj4 ,illu/ration3 b4 ,plan ( a ,jesuit s*oolroom ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,b repres5ts ! tea*]1 ,c ! monitors1 & ,d1 ,e1 ,o1 ,x1 & ,i v>i\s /ud5t (ficials4 ,! numb]$ l9es repres5t r[s ( /ud5ts1 kn[n z decuriae4 ,:5 a /ud5t 0 call$ ^u1 8 #8rival' arose f ! correspond+ place 9 ! o!r gr\p2 & z ea* recit$1 ! o!r endeavor$ to correct him 9 "s error4 ,fig4 #ah4--;,education ( ! ,jesuits4 ,sid5ote3 ,ph5om5al gr[? ( ! numb] ( colleges & /ud5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,prom95t graduates4 ,sid5ote3 ,qu>rels & bani%m5ts4 ,nev]!less1 ! ,jesuits furni%$ ! mo/ effective education dur+ ! latt] half ( ! sixte5?1 ! entire sev5te5?1 & ! e>ly "p ( ! eighte5? c5turies4 ,! gr[? ( _! s*ools 0 ph5om5al4 ,by ! dea? ( ,loyola 7#aeef7 !re 7 already "o hundr$ colleges1 & a c5tury & a half lat] !y _h increas$ to sev5 hundr$ & sixty-n9e in/itutions1 spread ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,! av]age numb] ( /ud5ts 9 att5dance at any ( ^! colleges dur+ ! sev5te5? c5tury 0 ab\t ?ree hundr$1 & 9 sev]al ( ! l>g] c5t]s !re 7 betwe5 "o & two ?\s&1 & ! fam\s ,college ( ,cl]mont 7n[ ,lyce ,l\is le ,gr&7 at ,p>is is said to h run up to ?ree ?\s&4 ,at a mode/ e/imate1 !re mu/ h be5 "s two hundr$ ?\s& /ud5ts 9 ! ,jesuit colleges :5 !y 7 at _! height4 ,_! graduates seem to h become prom95t 9 e important activity ( life1 & includ$ a l>ge numb] ( ! not$ au?ors1 prelates1 /atesm51 & g5]als ( ! "t4 ,by ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 ! ideals & cont5t ( education _h some:at *ang$1 & ! ,jesuits did n adapt _! c\rse to ! new conditions4 ,moreov]1 ! ,jesuits seem to h become p[]ful1 ambiti\s1 & some:at arrogant4 ,!y qu>rel$ frequ5tly ) bi%ops1 o!r mona/ic ord]s1 gov]nm5ts1 & univ]sities4 ,f9ally1 aft] !y _h be5 bani%$ f ,france1 ,spa91 & ,portugal1 9 #aggc ! pope himself dissolv$ ! ,society ( ,jesus4 ,=ty ye>s lat] ! ord] 0 re/or$1 b1 ow+ to ! developm5t ( educational ideals & organization & ! increase ( educational in/itutions1 _! "w has nev] s9ce become relatively z effective or held z important a place 9 education4 ,sid5ote3 ,adopt$ rationali/ic philosophy4 ,sid5ote3 #8,little' s*ools4 ,! ,organization ( ! ,education ( ! ,port ,royali/s4--,a type ( ,ca?olic education radically oppos$ to t ( ! ,jesuits 0 creat$ by a gr\p ( m5 belong+ to ! religi\s body kn[n z ! ,jans5i/s4 ,! doctr9es ( ! ,jans5i/s 7 =mulat$ 9 #afba by ,cornelius ,jans51 a pr(essor 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,l\va94 ,:ile /riv+ to reta9 _! place )9 ! ,*ur*1 ! ,jans5i/s oppos$ ! prevail+ doctr9es ( confession & p5ance1 & adopt$ ! rationali/ic philosophy ( ,desc>tes4 ,!y also held t humanity is naturally corrupt1 except z x is wat*$ & guid$1 & t only a relatively few c be sav$4 ,^! doctr9es probably influ5c$ a body ( ,jans5i/s t e/abli%$ a new dep>ture 9 ! way ( education at ! conv5t ( ,port ,royal at ,*evreuse4 ,9 #afdc ! #8,port ,royali/s' endeavor$ to remove :at few *ildr5 !y c\ld f ! temptations ( ! _w to a s*ool />t$ 9 ?is conv5t4 ,simil> in/itutions quickly sprang up 9 ! vic9ity & !n spread ?r\gh ,p>is4 ,to c>ry out _! ideal ( c>eful ov]sight1 ^! s*ools usually took only tw5ty to tw5ty-five pupils1 & ea* ma/] _h "u him five or six boys1 :om he nev] all[$ out ( 8 imm$iate sup]vision day or night4 ,h5ce ^! in/itutions 7 kn[n z #8little s*ools4' ,sid5ote3 ,reason r ?an memory4 ,sid5ote3 ,lat9 ?r\gh ! v]nacul>4 ,sid5ote3 ,logic & geometry4 ,sid5ote3 ,phonetic me?od4 ,sid5ote3 ,indiff]5ce4 ,! ,port ,royal ,c\rse & ,me?od ( ,tea*+4--,s9ce ! ,port ,royali/s held t "* 0 ( m importance ?an k1 & reason 0 to be develop$ r ?an memory1 ^! #8little s*ools' s\ght to imp>t an education t %\ld be s\nd & la/+1 r ?an brilliant4 ,unlike ! ,jesuits1 !y did n />t _! pupils ) ,lat91 b ) ! v]nacul>1 s9ce ?is 0 )9 _! compreh5sion4 ,z soon z !y possess$ a feel+ = good lit]ature1 !y began ! /udy ( ,lat9 ?r\gh a m9imum gramm> writt5 9 ,fr5*1 & soon took up ! ,lat9 au?ors1 r5d]+ !m into ! v]nacul>4 ,greek lit]ature 0 treat$ 9 simil> fa%ion4 ,to tra9 ! reason1 ! old] pupils 7 also taught logic & geometry4 ,! c\rse ( /udy1 h[ev]1 0 mo/ly lit]>y1 & _h no reg>d = sci5ce or inve/igation4 ,port ,royal pres5t$ ! be/ elem5ts ( ! education ( ! pa/1 b did n see beyond x4 ,! me?ods introduc$ "s /rik+ innovations4 ,! lead]s 9 ! ,port ,royal education dep>t$ f ! alphabetic plan 9 tea*+ _! pupils to read1 & develop$ a phonetic me?od4 ,! ,port ,royali/s also refus$ to p]mit ! use ( emulation & prizes 9 _! s*ools1 b _! exclusion ( rivalry result$ 9 indiff]5ce4 ,!y 7 nev] able to secure ! en]gy1 e>ne/ness1 & pleas+ environm5t ( ! ,jesuit colleges4 ,!y did1 h[ev]1 succe$ 9 inculcat+ a g5]al _s ( piety )\t ! =mal tea*+ ( doctr9e4 ,sid5ote3 ,jesuits lo/ sympa?y4 ,sid5ote3 ,port ,royali/s produc$ educational treatises4 ,clos+ ( ! ,port ,royali/ ,s*ools & ,its ,effects4--,9 #affa ! ,port ,royali/ s*ools 7 clos$ by ! ord] ( ,l\is ,,xiv ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! ,jesuits4 ,b ?is act co/ ! ,jesuits de>ly4 ,n only did x lose !m sympa?y1 b x furni%$ ! ,port ,royali/s occasion to issue tracts aga9/ ,jesuitism t h injur$ its repute ev] s9ce4 ,?is clos+ ( _! s*ools also gave ! ,port ,royali/s ! opportunity ( becom+ educators 9 a l>g] s5se by produc+ a great v>iety ( writ+s ^u _! sy/em4 ,lat] on1 too1 ,roll9 7#affa-agda71 :o 0 twice elect$ rector ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 summ>iz$ 9 8 ,treatise on ,/udies ! ,port ,royali/ re=ms wr\ght 9 t in/itution4 ,sid5ote3 ,little elem5t>y education be=e ,la ,salle4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t ( ! s*ools at ,rheims3 ,la ,salle & ! ,s*ools ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs4--,! ,port ,royali/s 71 h[ev]1 l ! ,jesuits1 engross$ ) second>y & high] education1 & gave little he$ to ! education ( all ! p 9 ! rudim5ts4 ,9 fact1 until t[>d ! close ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ! ,ca?olics g5]ally did n succe$ 9 inaugurat+ any effective or widespread movem5t t[>d elem5t>y education4 ,num]\s attempts be=e ?is 7 made ?r\gh cate*ism s*ools & v>i\s re=m]s & religi\s ord]s1 b tea*]s 7 sc>ce & (t5 ignorant & poorly tra9$1 & !re 0 little progress be=e ! organization ( ! ,bro!rs ( ! ,*ri/ian ,s*ools ?r\gh ! self-sacrific+ ef=ts ( ,jean ,bapti/e de la ,salle 7#afea-agai74 ,! organization sprang out ( a gr\p ( five ma/]s engag$ 9 tea*+ s*ools = ! poor 9 ! city ( ,rheims 9 #afgi1 b x 0 n until ?ree ye>s lat] t ,la ,salle complet$ 8 regulations1 f\nd$ ! bro!rhood1 & mov$ ! memb]s into a p]man5t home4 ,! ord] fl\ri%$1 & neighbor+ t[ns soon endeavor$ to secure its memb]s z tea*]s 9 _! s*ools = ! poor4 ,)9 a ye> or two1 f\r s*ools 9 & ab\t ,rheims 7 plac$ "u ma/]s tra9$ 9 ! h\se ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs1 & a numb] ( o!r in/itutions 7 soon organiz$ 9 ! vic9ity ^u ! same basis4 ,sid5ote3 ,p>is1 ,sid5ote3 & ,sa9t ,yon4 ,b1 be+ unable to supply ! con/ant dem&s = 8 tea*]s t came f di/ricts outside ! t[ns1 ,la ,salle und]took to tra9 boys :o 7 s5t him by ! rural cl]gy1 & 7 expect$ to return to _! homes to tea* aft] _! tra9+4 ,to accompli% ?is1 he e/abli%$ 9 #afhd a #8sem9>y = s*oolma/]s' 9 a w+ ( ! h\se ( ! bro!rhood1 & two o!r sem9>ies 7 op5$ 9 neighbor+ t[ns ! foll[+ ye>4 ,f\r ye>s lat] ,la ,salle op5$ a h\se = ! bro!rhood ne> ,p>is1 & ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs 7 spe$ily reque/$ to take *>ge ( ! s*ools ( sev]al p>i%es4 ,despite ! jeal\sy & opposition ( ! e/abli%$ ord] ( s*oolma/]s & ( _m p>ties 9 ,*ur* & ,/ate1 ! s*ools & sem9>ies ( ! ,bro!rs greatly increas$ 9 ,p>is1 & 7 rapidly ext5d$ ?r\gh\t ,france4 ,at ,p>is also ,la ,salle />t$ ! #8,*ri/ian academy1' 9 :i* draw+1 geometry1 & ar*itecture 7 taught ambiti\s poor boys on ,sunday1 & introduc$ bo>d+ colleges = high] second>y tra9+4 ,& ^! in/itutions likewise spread ?r\gh ,france & ! re/ ( ,europe 7,fig4 #ai74 ,9 #agje ,la ,salle retir$ to ! e/ate kn[n z ,sa9t ,yon1 ne> ,r\51 & !re op5$ a home = ! bro!rhood4 ,"h he also f\nd$ a fam\s bo>d+-s*ool 9 :i* he tra9$ boys = soldi]y1 f>m+1 trade1 & v>i\s o!r vocations4 ,be=e long he likewise organiz$ 9 conjunction an indu/rial tra9+ = y\?ful del9qu5ts1 & bo? ! vocational s*ool & ! #8protectory' soon became models = _m simil> in/itutions 9 ,france & else:]e4 ,sid5ote3 ,religi\s aim4 ,sid5ote3 ,besides rudim5ts & religion1 m practical subjects4 ,sid5ote3 #8,simultane\s' me?od4 ,sid5ote3 ,tra9+ ( tea*]s4 ,! ,aim1 ,curriculum1 & ,me?od ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs' ,s*ools4--,! plan ( ! s*ools ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs 0 ev5tually work$ out & cry/alliz$ 9 a fix$ sy/em "u ! title ( ,conduct ( ,s*ools4 ,?is code has n rema9$ q z def9ite & uni=m z ! ,ratio ,/udiorum ( ! ,jesuits1 = *anges & revisions are p]mitt$1 & mod]n me?ods & subjects h f "t to "t be5 introduc$4 ,consid]able latitude1 moreov]1 has be5 all[$ to ! individual h\ses by ! ,sup]ior ,g5]al at ! head ( ! ord]1 & by ! ,bro!rs ,visitors1 :o h *>ge ( ! di/ricts4 ,! educational aim ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs has be5 prem95tly religi\s1 & ! *ief means ( atta9+ ?is h be5 /rict vigilance1 good example1 & cate*etical in/ruction4 ,! c\rse has includ$ ! /udies ( ! be/ s*ools ( ! "t1 & add$ o!r m practical subjects4 ,besides ! rudim5ts--read+1 writ+1 & ari?metic--& religi\s in/ruction & good mann]s1 ma!matics1 hi/ory1 botany1 geography1 draw+1 ar*itecture1 hydrography1 navigation1 & o!r te*nical subjects h (t5 be5 taught1 & 9 ! indu/rial s*ools a manual & vocational tra9+ has be5 furni%$4 ,la ,salle seems to h made a great advance1 too1 9 educational economy by p]fect+ & apply+ ! #8simultane\s' me?od1 :i* _h be5 practic$ 9 a crude =m by "s ( 8 =]unn]s4 ,by ?is me?od is meant grad+ ! *ildr5 accord+ to _! capacity1 & hav+ ^? 9 ea* grade use ! same book & foll[ ! same lesson "u a s+le ma/]1 in/ead ( in/ruct+ ea* pupil individually1 z 0 g5]ally ! cu/om !n4 ,likewise1 ! sem9>ies or tra9+ s*ools ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs contribut$ mu* to ! advancem5t ( effici5cy 9 tea*+4 ,= ! fir/ "t tea*]s ( ability & tra9+ 7 made possible = ! elem5t>y s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,spread ,sid5ote3 & expansion ( ! "w4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,s*ools ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs4--,! "w ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs has met ) /eady gr[? & developm5t4 ,by ! "t ( ,la ,salle's dea? 7#agai71 !re _h come to be tw5ty-sev5 h\ses ( ! ord]1 ) two hundr$ & sev5ty-f\r bro!rs1 educat+ ab\t n9e ?\s& pupils4 ,be=e ! close ( ! c5tury ^! numb]s _h ab\t quadrupl$1 & n[ !y h increas$ ne>ly a hundr$fold s9ce ! f\nd]'s day4 ,dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury ^! in/itutions 7 e/abli%$ 9 all ! /ates ( ,europe1 ,asia1 ,nor!rn ,africa1 & ,am]ica4 ,! educational sy/em has be5 mu* modifi$ & exp&$1 & n[ includes colleges1 te*nical & indu/rial s*ools1 academies & high s*ools1 elem5t>y & gramm> s*ools1 comm]cial s*ools1 asylums1 & protectories4 ,?us ,la ,salle & 8 s*ools ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs h p]=m$ a great s]vice = education 9 all l9es1 b especially 9 ! promotion & enri*m5t ( elem5t>y tra9+1 :i* _h previ\sly be5 s neglect$4 ,sid5ote3 ,religi\s & !ological4 ,aim & ,cont5t ( ,education 9 ! ,re=mation4--,x c n[ be se5 t1 z a result ( ! ,re=mation1 ! religi\s & !ological aim ( education at all /ages became v prom95t ) ,ca?olics & ,prote/ants alike4 ,9 ! elem5t>y s*ools1 beside ! rudim5ts1 ! ,scriptures1 ! ,"l's pray]1 ! t5 comm&m5ts1 & ! ,ca?olic1 ,lu!ran1 ,calv9i/1 or ,anglican cre$ & cate*ism 7 taught1 &1 ) ! ,prote/ants1 also ! hymns ( ! *ur*4 ,! c\rses 9 ! second>y s*ools & univ]sities conta9$ l>ge religi\s elem5ts1 z well z ! =mal humanism into :i* ! ,r5aissance ( ! ,nor? _h deg5]at$4 ,likewise1 !re 0 furni%$ 9 all univ]sities a tra9+ 9 dialectic1 rhetoric1 & !ology = ! sake ( effici5t controv]sy ) ecclesia/ical oppon5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,cop]ation ) civil (ficials4 ,effect ( ! ,re=mation ^u ,elem5t>y ,s*ools4--,b :ile ! ,ca?olics 7 incl9$ to leave ! organization ( education 9 ! h&s ( v>i\s religi\s bodies1 ! ,prote/ants m (t5 ?\ght x wise to h its support & control adm9i/]$ by ! pr9ces & ! /ate4 ,ow+ to ?is secul> managem5t & _! position on univ]sal education1 ! ,prote/ants1 ) ! exception ( ! ,anglicans1 :o _h alt]$ b little 9 doctr9e1 7 incl9$ to e/abli% /ate s*ool sy/ems & hold to ! duty ( provid+ & requir+ elem5t>y education at public exp5se4 ,9 ?is way ! g]ms ( ! mod]n t5d5cy t[>d univ]sal1 free1 & compulsory education began to appe>1 al?\gh !y did n rip5 until mu* lat]4 ,sid5ote3 ,g]many1 ,9 ! ,g]man /ates !re 7 _m illu/rations ( ! spread ( elem5t>y education & civic control4 ,z an imm$iate result ( ,lu!r's ,lett] to ! ,mayors 9 #aebd1 ! city ( ,magdeburg unit$ its p>i% s*ools "u "o managem5t & adopt$ ! ,prote/ant ideals4 ,s1 9 #aebe1 ! s*ool at ,eisleb51 organiz$ ^u a ,prote/ant basis 7see p4 #abh71 includ$ elem5t>y z well z second>y "w4 ,simil> ideals & organization appe> 9 ! provision = #8,g]man' s*ools 9 ! #8,*ur* ord]s' s5t out by ,bug5hag5 7see pp4 #abh f47 to ! ,prote/ant cities & /ates ( ,nor!rn ,g]many4 ,a fur!r /ep 0 tak5 9 #aebh :5 ,melan*?on drew up a plan = s*ools ?r\gh\t ! entire ,electorate ( ,saxony4 ,?is1 ! fir/ /ate s*ool sy/em 9 hi/ory1 0 foll[$ by "o 9 ,wrtemb]g1 :]e 9 #aeei ,duke ,*ri/oph] adopt$ an improvem5t ^u ! ,saxon plan1 :i* call$ = a religi\s & elem5t>y tra9+ = ! *ildr5 ( ! common p 9 e village ( ! du*y4 ,brunswick 9 #aefi1 & ,saxony 9 #aehj1 foll[$ ! lead ( ,wrtemb]g 9 revis+ _! s*ool sy/ems4 ,be=e ! middle ( ! next c5tury1 a numb] ( o!r /ates ( ,g]many1 su* z ,weim>1 ,hess5-,d>m/adt1 ,meckl5burg1 ,hol/e91 ,hess5-,cassel1 & ,go?a model$ elem5t>y s*ool sy/ems aft] ^? ( ,saxony & ,wrtemb]g4 ,:ile ! ,ca?olics did n 9 g5]al ma9ta9 public elem5t>y education1 ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs & o!rs und]took a great "w 9 ?is direction1 & ,duke ,albre*t ,v ( ,bav>ia ev5 ord]$ ?r\gh\t 8 /ate ! e/abli%m5t ( #8,g]man' s*ools ) in/ruction 9 read+1 writ+1 & ! ,ca?olic cre$4 ,?is organization ( univ]sal education cont9u$ its advance1 despite ! decimation & ! g5]al havoc ^u f9ance & education wr\ght by ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> 7#afah-afdh71 & by ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury practically e village ?r\gh\t ! ,g]man /ates _h its ,volkss*ule or #8p's s*ool4' ,^! in/itutions 7 "u ! direction ( ! pa/or ( ea* p>i%1 & :ile actual conditions may (t5 h be5 some:at bel[ ! /atutory level & 9 _m cases 7 a wret*$ apology1 e *ild n /udy+ at a second>y s*ool 0 9 !ory oblig$1 betwe5 ! ages ( six & ?irte51 to att5d "o ( ^! s*ools ( ! p 7,fig4 #bj74 ,sid5ote3 ,holl&1 ,sid5ote3 ,scotl&1 ,sid5ote3 & ! ,am]ican colonies4 ,z a result ( ! ,dut* ,re=m$ movem5t1 ,holl& also made e>ly provision = in/ruction 9 religion1 read+1 & writ+4 ,! ,*ur* at v>i\s synods1 & civic au?orities 9 _m /atutes1 recogniz$ ! ne$ ( univ]sal tra9+1 & f9ally ! great ,synod ( ,dort1 by a comb9ation ) ! civil gov]nm5t1 9 #afah requir$ e p>i% to furni% elem5t>y education = all4 ,simil>ly1 ?r\gh ,knox1 ,scotl& e/abli%$ elem5t>y s*ools "u ! control ( ! p>i%es4 ,prelim9>y /eps 9 ?is direction 7 tak5 by ! ,privy ,c\ncil & ! ,scot* ,p>liam5t e>ly 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & 9 #afdf ! p>liam5t fur!r enact$ t !re be 8a ,s*oole f\nd$1 & a ,s*oole ma/] appo9t$ 9 e ,p>i%10 & provid$ t if a p>i% %\ld fail 9 ?is duty1 ! presbyt]y %\ld h p[] to e/abli% ! s*ool & compel ! p>i% to ma9ta9 x4 ,half a c5tury lat] ?is s*ool sy/em 0 giv5 ov] m fully to ! control ( ! ,/ate1 b ev5 !n mu* ( ! old connection ) ! ,*ur* 0 app>5t4 ,^! s*ools gave in/ruction 9 read+1 writ+1 & religion1 ) ! ,bible z text1 & h done a wond]ful "w 9 rais+ ! level ( intellig5ce & af=d+ an opportunity to ! *ildr5 ( ! l[] classes 9 ,scotl&4 ,engl& h]self cont9u$ to hold to ari/ocratic & #8selective' education1 & gave little he$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( elem5t>y s*ools2 b ! ,am]ican colonies1 z f> z !y 7 f\nd$ by ,calv9i/s or ,lu!rans1 provid$ e>ly = elem5t>y education 7see p4 #ahi74 ,! ,puritan t[ns ( ! ,massa*usetts colony e/abli%$ s*ools almo/ z soon z !y 7 settl$1 & 9 #afdg ! legislature enact$ t all t[ns ) fifty families %\ld provide an elem5t>y s*ool4 ,connecticut foll[$ ! example ?ree ye>s lat]1 & be=e ! close ( ! c5tury1 simil> action 0 tak5 by ,new ,hamp%ire & ,v]mont 7see pp4 #aig & #aii74 ,likewise1 ,new ,am/]dam & ! villages ( ,new ,ne!rl&s foll[$ ! example ( ! ,"m ,c\ntry & provid$ public s*ools 9 connection ) ea* *ur* ?r\gh ! support ( ! ,dut* ,we/ ,india ,company or ( ! civil & ecclesia/ical bodies jo9tly 7see pp4 #aic f74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,a s*ool ( ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs4 7,visit ( ,james ,,ii & ! ,ar*bi%op ( ,p>is to ! s*ool at ,r\547 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,a ,prote/ant s*ool 9 a ,g]man village ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 7,visit ( ! s*ool committee & cate*is+ by ! pa/or47 ,sid5ote3 ,civic control among ,prote/ants1 ,sid5ote3 ?\gh direct managem5t ?r\gh ! ,*ur*4 ,sid5ote3 ,ca?olic education l>gely 9 h&s ( ,jesuits4 ,effect ( ! ,re=mation ^u ! ,second>y ,s*ools4--,:ile ! developm5t ( elem5t>y in/ruction & /ate sy/ems ( education 0 ! mo/ important educational outcome ( ! ,re=mation1 ! movem5t _h a some:at simil> effect ^u ! humani/ic second>y education ( ! "t4 ,9 ,prote/ant ,g]many ! ,lat9 s*ools & gymnasia came "u ! control ( ! pr9ces & ! ,/ate r ?an ! ,*ur*1 & gradually became ! backbone ( ! /ate s*ool sy/ems4 ,b !y /ress$ ! religi\s elem5t 9 _! curriculum1 & ! direct managem5t ( education 0 simply transf]r$ to ,prote/ant m9i/]s or lead]s4 ,! s*ools 7 /ill taught & inspect$ by repres5tatives ( ! ,*ur*1 b ! =m ( ! organization & adm9i/ration ( education 0 radically *ang$4 ,9 ,engl& !re 0 a simil> transf] ( managem5t to ! ,prote/ant cl]gy4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! s*ools _h to be au?oriz$ & _! tea*]s lic5s$ by ! bi%op1 & !y 7 at all times liable to visitation f ecclesia/ical au?ority4 ,! gramm> s*ools1 h[ev]1 7 nev] organiz$ l ! gymnasia1 b ea* s*ool rema9$ indep5d5t ( ! re/ & ( any national comb9ation4 ,nor 7 ! ,calv9i/ic colleges unit$ into a national sy/em1 except :]e !y came into ,g]many1 :5 !y 7 absorb$ into ! sy/em ( ! gymnasia4 ,! /ate sy/em ( education e/abli%$ by ! ,scot* p>liam5t 9 ! p>i%es1 (t5 gave second>y tra9+1 z well z elem5t>y4 ,& 9 ,am]ica ! e/abli%m5t & control ( ! #8gramm>' s*ools1 inh]it$ f ! "m c\ntry1 7 ve/$ 9 ! au?orities ( ! /ate & ! sev]al t[ns4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,ca?olic education 9 all c\ntries f\nd its second>y s*ools l>gely 9 ! colleges ( ! ,jesuits1 & ! subord9ation ( ! individual to au?ority & ! ,*ur* 0 insi/$ ^u4 ,sid5ote3 ,_m univ]sities adh]$ to ,ca?olic au?ority4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!rs *ang$ to ,prote/antism ) _! pr9ces4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,re=mation ^u ! ,univ]sities4--,9 ! case ( ! univ]sities1 _m rema9$ loyal to ,ca?olicism & a few new ,ca?olic f\ndations grew out ( ! ,re=mation4 ,all ^! adh]$ to ! pr9ciple ( submission to ecclesia/ical au?ority4 ,b ! majority ( ! univ]sities 9 ! ,prote/ant /ates ( ,g]many foll[$ _! pr9ces :5 !y *ang$ f ! old cre$ to ! new4 ,witt5b]g1 ?r\gh its connection ) ,lu!r & ,melan*?on1 0 ! fir/ ,g]man univ]sity to become ,prote/ant1 b o!rs1 l ,m>burg1 ,knigsb]g1 ,j5a1 ,helm/adt1 & ,dorpat foll[$ rapidly4 ,altdorf & ,/rassburg 7 develop$ out ( gymnasia4 ,! ,engli% univ]sities1 ,ox=d & ,cambridge1 w5t ov] to ,prote/antism ) ! national ,*ur*4 ,9 ,am]ica1 too1 ,h>v>d & o!r e>ly colleges 7 closely connect$ ) ! v>i\s commonweal?s & ) ! ,calv9i/ic or ! ,anglican communion1 accord+ to ! colony4 ,sid5ote3 ,memory /ress$1 r ?an reason2 au?ority emphasiz$2 & individuality repress$4 ,! ,lapse into ,=malism4--,!re came to be bo? 9 ,ca?olic & ,prote/ant in/itutions a t5d5cy to reg>d ! subjects taught z mat]ials = discipl9e r ?an z valuable = _! cont5t4 ,! /udies l>gely became an end 9 !mselves & 7 depriv$ ( almo/ all _! vitality4 ,! curriculum ( ! in/itutions became fix$ & /]eotyp$ 9 nature1 & education laps$ into a =malism b little sup]ior to t ( ! m$ival s*ola/ics4 ,! me?ods ( tea*+ came to /ress memory m ?an reason4 ,! ,prote/ants _h claim$ to dep5d less ^u uncritical & ob$i5t acceptance ( dogma ?an ^u ! con/ant application ( reason to ! ,scriptures1 b !y soon t5d$ to emphasize ! importance ( au?ority & ! repression ( ! individual q z cle>ly z ! ,ca?olics1 :o def9itely held t reason is out ( place & unreliable z a f9al guide 9 education & life4 ,h5ce1 except = laun*+ ! great conception ( /ate support & control ( education1 ! ,re=mation accompli%$ b little directly mak+ = individualism & progress1 ei!r ?r\gh ! ,ca?olic awak5+ or ! ,prote/ant revolts4 ,education fell back be=e long into ! grooves ( =malism1 repression1 & di/ru/ ( reason4 ,!re result$ a t5d5cy to te/ life & ! educational prep>ation = liv+ by a =mulation ( belief almo/ z mu* z 9 ! days ( s*ola/icism4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,,xv-,,xvi2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *ap4 ,,vii4 ,an excell5t int]pretative acc\nt ( ! ,re=mation is t 9 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization dur+ ! ,middle ,ages 7,scribn]1 #ahid71 *aps4 ,,xvi & ,,xvii4 ,pa9t]1 ,f4 ,v4 ,n41 furni%es a good translation ( ,lu!r on ,education 7,lu!ran ,publication ,society1 ,philadelphia74 ,ri*>d1 ,j4 ,w41 gives a good acc\nt ( ,melan*?on1 ! ,prote/ant ,preceptor ( ,g]many 7,putnam1 #ahih71 especially *aps4 ,,ii-,,iv & ,,vii2 ,watson1 ,f41 ( ,matur9us ,cord]ius1 ! ,s*oolma/] ( ,calv9 7,s*ool ,review1 vol4 ,,xii1 nos4 #d1 #g1 & #i72 ,graves1 ,f4 ,p41 ,ramus & ! ,educational ,re=mation ( ! ,sixte5? ,c5tury 7,macmillan1 #aiab7 ( conditions 9 ,france2 & ,lea*1 ,a4 ,f41 ( ! dissolution acts ( ,h5ry ,,viii & ,edw>d ,,vi 9 ,engli% ,s*ools at ! ,re=mation 7,con/able1 ,london1 #ahif71 pp4 #eh-abb4 ,on ! side ( ,ca?olic education1 "o %\ld read ,s*wick]a?1 ,r41 ,jesuit ,education 7,h]d]1 ,/4 ,l\is71 *aps4 ,,iii-,,viii & ,,xv-,,xviii2 ,cadet1 ,f41 ,port ,royal ,education 7,b>de51 ,syracuse1 #ahii2 ,george ,all5 & ,co41 ,london7 pp4 #i-aai2 & ,wilson1 ,mrs4 ,r4 ,f41 ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs 7,london1 #ahhc71 :i* gives an epitome ( ,ravelet1 ,a41 ,life ( ,la ,salle4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,re=mation ^u ! ,g]man s*ools & univ]sities1 bo? ,prote/ant & ,ca?olic1 is %[n 9 ,nohle ,e41 ,hi/ory ( ! ,g]man ,s*ool ,sy/em 7,report ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,commission] ( ,education1 #ahig-ih1 vol4 ,i71 pp4 #cj-dj2 & ,pauls51 ,f41 ,g]man ,education 7,scribn]1 #aijh71 pp4 #gi-he4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,e>ly ,,realism ,,& ,,! ,,innovators ,,outl9e ,! intellectual awak5+ t appe>$ 9 ! ,r5aissance & ! ,re=mation f\nd ano!r av5ue = expression 9 e>ly realism4 ,?is movem5t _h two phases3 7#a7 humani/ic realism1 :i* emphasiz$ ! cont5t ( classical lit]ature2 & 7#b7 social realism1 :i* /rove to adapt education to actual life4 ,b ! two phases g5]ally occurr$ toge!r1 & ! classification ( a treatise "u "o head or ! o!r is l>gely a matt] ( emphasis4 ,! influ5ce ( ! two phases 0 mo/ly indirect1 b ?r\gh social realism a special tra9+ arose 9 ! ,ritt]akademi5 9 ,g]many1 :ile ,milton's humani/ic realism 0 embodi$ 9 ! #8academies' ( ,engl&1 & aft]w>d ( ,am]ica4 ,sid5ote3 ,a new *annel = ! emancipation ( ! individual4 ,sid5ote3 ,a me?od by :i* #8real ?+s' may be kn[n4 ,sid5ote3 #8,s5se realism' ,sid5ote3 & ! e>li] realism4 ,! ,rise & ,nature ( ,realism4--,by ! sev5te5? c5tury x is obvi\s t humanism 0 ev]y:]e los+ its vitality & decl9+ into a n>r[ #8,cic]onianism1' & t ! ,re=mation 0 h>d5+ once m into fix$ concepts & a dogmatic =malism4 ,! awak5$ intellect ( ,europe1 h[ev]1 0 t5d+ to f9d /ill ano!r mode ( expression 9 ! educational movem5t t is usually kn[n z #8realism4' ,! process ( emancipat+ ! individual f tradition & repressive au?ority _h n altoge!r ceas$1 b x 0 manife/+ itself ma9ly ?r\gh a r diff]5t *annel4 ,! movem5t ( realism impli$ a se>* = a me?od by :i* #8real ?+s' may be kn[n4 ,9 its mo/ di/9ct & late/ =m1--#8s5se realism1' x held t real k comes ?r\gh ! s5ses & reason r ?an ?r\gh memory & reliance on tradition1 & 9 ?is way x int]pret$ ! #8real ?+s' z be+ individual objects4 ,educational realism1 !re=e1 conc]n$ itself ultimately ) inve/igation 9 ! natural sci5ces2 & x might well be d5om9at$ #8! beg9n+s ( ! sci5tific movem5t1' 7 x n t su* a description neglects ! e>li] phases ( ! reali/ic developm5t4 ,sid5ote3 #8,real ?+s' 9 ideas1 r ?an words4 ,sid5ote3 ,milton's ,tractate z an illu/ration4 ,humani/ic ,realism4--,=1 ev5 be=e objects 7 reg>d$ z ! true realities1 !re seems to h be5 an ef=t among "s lat] humani/s to seek = ! #8real ?+s' 9 ! ideas t 7 repres5t$ by ! writt5 words4 ,?is broad] type ( humanism1 9 consequ5ce1 t5d$ to break f a re/riction to words & set =ms & return to ! int]e/ 9 ! cont5t ( classical lit]ature t m>k$ ! ,r5aissance be=e its decl9e into =malism4 ,x may1 !re=e1 prop]ly be call$ #8humani/ic realism4' ,) its emphasis ^u cont5t usually w5t a /udy ( social & physical ph5om5a1 9 ord] to ?r[ light ^u ! passages "u consid]ation4 ,illu/rations ( ?is humani/ic realism are f\nd 9 _m writ]s ( ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies4 ,milton 7#afjh-afgd71 = example1 :ile a rem>kable classici/ himself1 9 8 ,tractate ( ,education objects to ! usual humani/ic education ) 8its grammatic flats & %all[s :]e !y /uck unreasonably to le>n a few words ) lam5table con/ruction02 & says ( ! pupil1 8if he h n /udi$ ! solid ?+s 9 !m z well z ! words & lexicons1 he 7 no?+ s mu* to be e/eem$ z any yeoman or tradesman compet5tly wise 9 8 "m dialect only40 ,& he w\ld tea* ! ,lat9 writ]s on agriculture1 & ! ,greek writ]s on natural hi/ory1 geography1 & m$ic9e = ! sake ( ! subject-matt]4 ,sid5ote3 ,prep>ation = liv+ 9 a real _w4 ,sid5ote3 ,its cont5t4 ,social ,realism4--,b !re 0 ano!r phase ( e>ly realism1 :i* (t5 appe>$ 9 conjunction ) humani/ic education1 & may be call$ #8social realism4' ,its adh]5ts /rove to adapt education to actual liv+ 9 a real _w1 & to af=d direct practical prep>ation = ! opportunities & duties ( life4 ,x 0 g5]ally recomm5d$ z ! means ( education = all memb]s ( ! upp] social class4 ,x s\ght to comb9e ) ! lit]>y elem5ts taught ! cl]gy 9 ! ,middle ,ages & ! s*ol> 9 ! ,r5aissance1 c]ta9 remnants ( ! old *ivalric education z ! prop] tra9+ = g5tlem54 ,x held s*ools to be ( less value z an ag5cy = educat+ ! "y ari/ocrats ?an tra9+ ?r\gh a tutor & travel4 ,h5ce an education 9 social realism usually includ$ a /udy ( h]aldry1 g5ealogy1 rid+1 f5c+1 & gymna/ics1 & involv$ a /udy ( mod]n languages & ! cu/oms & in/itutions ( neighbor+ c\ntries4 ,sid5ote3 ,montaigne's ,education ( ,*ildr5 z an example4 ,a good illu/ration ( ?is type ( education is f\nd 9 ! educational essays ( ,montaigne 7#aecc-aeib74 ,9 ! ,education ( ,*ildr5 he holds t virtue comes f exp]i5ce & bread? ( vision r ?an f read+1 & decl>es3 8,i w\ld h travel ! book my "y g5tleman %\ld /udy ) mo/ att5tion2 = s _m humors1 s _m sects1 s _m judgm5ts1 op9ions1 laws1 & cu/oms1 tea* u to judge aright ( our own1 & in=m our und]/&+ to discov] its imp]fection & natural infirmity40 ,?is tra9+1 too1 he feels1 %\ld be "u ! c>e ( a tutor1 :o is to be a man ( ! _w1 "o 8^: head is well temp]$1 r ?an well fill$40 ,:ile a g5tleman has ne$ ( ,lat9 & ,greek1 ,montaigne ma9ta9s t "o %\ld fir/ /udy 8 own language & ^? ( 8 neighbors4 ,he also /resses physical ex]cise1 & fe>s ! tra9+ ( boys ne> _! mo!rs1 :o 8w n endure to see !m m\nt an unruly horse1 nor take a foil 9 h& aga9/ a rude f5c]40 ,sid5ote3 ,locke's ,?\ghts bett] kn[n4 ,sid5ote3 ,aim ( education4 ,sid5ote3 #8,accompli%m5ts' z "p ( its cont5t4 ,an educational "w bas$ on social realism t has be5 /udi$ ev5 m ?an ! ,essays ( ,montaigne is ,"s ,?\ghts conc]n+ ,education by ,john ,locke 7#afcb-agjd74 ,locke /ates ! aims ( education 9 ! ord] ( _! value z #8,virtue1 ,wisdom 7i4 e41 worldly wisdom71 ,bre$+1 & ,le>n+'2 & holds t su* a tra9+ c be secur$ by ! "y g5tleman only ?r\gh a tutor1 :o 8%\ld himself be well-br$1 und]/&+ ! ,ways ( ,c>riage & ,measures ( ,civility 9 all ! ,v>iety ( ,p]sons1 ,times & ,places1 & keep 8 ,pupil1 z mu* z 8 ,age requires1 con/antly to ! ,obs]vation ( !m40 ,9 consid]+ ! subject-matt] ( ! tra9+1 he ma9ta9s t 8besides :at is to be _h f ,/udy & ,books1 !re are o!r ,accompli%m5ts necess>y = a ,g5tleman1--danc+1 horseback rid+1 f5c+ & wre/l+40 ,sid5ote3 ,difficult to di/+ui% an au?or z ( "o type or ! o!r1 z c be se5 9 ,milton4 ,sid5ote3 ,montaigne1 ,! ,relations ( ,humani/ic to ,social ,realism4--,humani/ic & social realism1 h[ev]1 con/antly appe> toge!r 9 ! works ( ! same au?or1 & x is (t5 difficult to di/+ui% a writ] z advocat+ "o type or ! o!r4 ,! diff]5tiation seems to be l>gely a matt] ( emphasis4 ,:ile "o elem5t or ! o!r may seem to be m prom95t 9 ! treatise ( a c]ta9 au?or1 ! two phases ( education are l>gely b\nd up 9 ea* o!r4 ,:ile ,milton1 = in/ance1 is 9 ! ma9 a humani/ic reali/ & advises an education 9 languages & books1 he recomm5ds t consid]able "t be giv51 t[>d ! end ( ! c\rse1 to ! social sci5ces--hi/ory1 e?ics1 politics1 economics1 !ology--& to su* practical tra9+ z w\ld br+ "o 9 t\* ) life4 ,he also specifically advocates ! exp]i5ce & k t w\ld come f travel 9 ,engl& & abroad2 & def9es education z 8t :i* fits a man to p]=m ju/ly1 skillfully1 & magnanim\sly all ! (fices bo? private & public ( peace & w>40 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,montaigne1 ! social reali/1 seems q z /r5u\s 9 urg+ a m reali/ic humanism4 ,9 8 essay1 ,on ,p$antry1 he laun*es mo/ vigor\s ridicule aga9/ ! prevail+ n>r[ humani/ic education1 ) its memoriz+ ( words & =ms1 & insi/s3 8,let ! ma/] n only exam9e him ab\t ! words ( 8 lesson1 b also z to ! s5se & mean+ ( !m1 & let him judge ( ! pr(it he has made1 n by ! te/imony ( 8 memory1 b t ( 8 und]/&+40 ,sid5ote3 & o!rs4 ,sid5ote3 ,di/9ctive social reali/s4 ,& x is equally difficult to /ate :e!r humani/ic or social elem5ts prevail 9 ,locke's ,?\ghts1 ! ,g>gantua ( ,rabelais 7#adie-aeec71 ! ,positions ( ,mulca/] 7#aecj-afaa71 & o!r treatises ( ! p]iod4 ,x is true1 ( c\rse1 t 9 c]ta9 o!r works writt5 ^u ! tra9+ ( ! ari/ocracy1 social realism is m exclusively /ress$4 ,! titles ( mo/ ( ^! reveal _! cont5t1 z c easily be se5 9 ! case ( su* productions z ,ca/iglione's ,! ,c\rti] 7#aebh71 ,elyot's ,! ,gov]n\r 7#aeca71 ,pea*am's ,! ,compleat ,g5tleman 7#afbb71 & ,bra?waite's ,! ,engli% ,g5tleman 7#afcj74 ,b1 9 mo/ ( ! e>ly reali/ic works1 humani/ic & social elem5ts are inextricably int]wov52 & humani/ic & social realism1 tak5 toge!r1 seem to con/itute a natural bridge f humanism ov] to s5se realism4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r sugge/ions 9 ! e>ly reali/s4 ,sid5ote3 ,b _! influ5ce 0 indirect4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ! ,innovators ^u ,education4--,!re is1 h[ev]1 a v>iety ( o!r brilliant educational sugge/ions 9 ea* ( ^! e>ly reali/s4 ,all ( !m hold to a broad] & bett] r\nd$ tra9+ & m natural & in=mal me?ods ?an ^? 9 vogue4 ,mulca/] ev5 advocates univ]sal elem5t>y education1 ! pr(essional tra9+ ( tea*]s1 & ! education ( girls1 & und]takes to make a nave analysis ( ! m9d z ! basis ( a philosophy ( education4 ,s sugge/ive h ! recomm5dations ( ! e>ly reali/s prov$ to mod]n education t ^! au?ors are (t5 kn[n z ! #8innovators4' ,yet _! !ories d n seem to h affect$ greatly ! educational practice ( ! times4 ,!y did t5d to disrupt traditionalism & ! =mal humanism1 to br+ education into t\* ) society & prep>ation = real life1 & to popul>ize a wid] cont5t & a m in=mal proc$ure1 b _! influ5ce appe>$ ?r\gh _! successors & lat] education r ?an directly 9 ! s*ools ( ! p]iod4 ,locke1 = in/ance1 9 addition to ! influ5ce he _h ^u ,r\sseau1 ,pe/alozzi1 & o!r re=m]s1 mu/ 9 "s measure h be5 responsible = ! great developm5t ( ! physical & e?ical sides ( education 9 ! public & gramm> s*ools ( ,engl&1 toge!r ) ! t5d5cy ( ^! in/itutions to consid] su* aspects ( r m importance ?an ! purely intellectual4 ,8 plea = a tutor z ! means ( %ap+ mann]s & morals has also probably _h its effect ^u ! education ( ! ,engli% ari/ocracy4 ,sid5ote3 ,tra9+ = ! nobility 9 mod]n languages1 *ivalric arts1 & ! sci5ces4 ,sid5ote3 ,absorb$ into second>y sy/em4 ,! ,ritt]akademi54--,9 ! ,g]man /ates1 on ! o!r h&1 !re arose at ! c\rts dur+ ! sev5te5? c5tury an actually new type ( educational in/itution z ! outgr[? ( social realism4 ,"h1 9 place ( ! old humani/ic education1 !re 0 develop$ a special tra9+ = ! "y nobles 9 ,fr5*1 ,italian1 ,spani%1 & ,engli%1 9 su* accompli%m5ts z c\rtly conduct1 danc+1 f5c+1 & rid+1 & 9 philosophy1 ma!matics1 physics1 geography1 /ati/ics1 law1 g5ealogy1 & h]aldry4 ,! educational in/itutions 9 :i* ?is tra9+ 0 embodi$ 7 kn[n z ,ritt]akademi5 or #8academies = ! nobles4' ,su* academies 7 f\nd$ at ,colb]g1 ,luneb]g1 ,vi5na1 ,wolff5bttel1 & _m o!r c5t]s be=e ! close ( ! c5tury4 ,!y orig9ally cov]$ ! "w ( ! gymnasia1 al?\gh sub/itut+ ! mod]n languages1 sci5ces1 & ! knightly arts t h be5 m5tion$ = ! ,greek & ,hebrew1 & add+ a little f ! c\rse ( ! univ]sity4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 !y became "p ( ! regul> second>y sy/em4 ,sid5ote3 ,milton's sugge/ions adopt$ by ,puritans aft] ! ,act ( ,uni=mity4 ,sid5ote3 ,! fir/ academies4 ,sid5ote3 ,_! cont5t4 ,! ,academies 9 ,engl&4--,milton's sugge/ions 7 ultimately mat]ializ$ 9 an ev5 m influ5tial type ( s*ool4 ,9 ! ,tractate he _h recomm5d$ t 8 ideal education be c>ri$ out 9 an in/itution to be kn[n z an #8academy4' ,su* a s*ool 0 to be erect$ #89 e city ?r\gh\t ?is l&4' ,x %\ld tra9 boys f ! age ( twelve to tw5ty-"o1 & %\ld provide bo? second>y & high] education4 #8,academies1' bas$ v closely ^u ?is plan1 7 ab\t a g5]ation lat] actually organiz$ 9 a numb] ( places by ! ,puritans4 ,"u ! h>% ,act ( ,uni=mity 7#affb7 two ?\s& non-con=m+ cl]gym5 7 driv5 f _! p>i%es1 & 9 _m in/ances f\nd s*ool-tea*+ a cong5ial means ( e>n+ a livelihood1 & at ! same "t ( furni%+ high] education to ! "y diss5t]s1 :o 7 exclud$ f ! univ]sities & gramm> s*ools4 ,! fir/ ( ^! academies 0 t e/abli%$ by ,ri*>d ,frankl& at ,ra?mill 9 #affe1 & ?is 0 foll[$ by ! in/itutions ( ,john ,woodh\se at ,%]iffhales1 ( ,*>les ,morton at ,new+ton ,gre51 & ( "s ?irty o!r educators ( :om we h record at o!r places4 ,^! academies 7 l>gely humani/ic 9 _! realism1 &1 s9ce _! *ief function 0 to fit = ! m9i/ry1 !y includ$ ,lat91 ,greek1 & ,hebrew 9 _! c\rse1 b !y 7 also ri* 9 ma!matics1 natural & social sci5ces1 mod]n languages1 & ! v]nacul>4 ,! new t5d5cy 0 also broad5$ & amplifi$ by ,locke's ,?\ghts 7#afic71 :i* became ! great guide = ! manag]s ( ! ,puritan academies4 ,9 #afhi1 :5 ! ,act ( ,tol]ation put non-con=mity ^u a legal foot+1 ! academies 7 all[$ to be regul>ly incorporat$4 ,sid5ote3 ,_! rise z a supplem5t to ! n>r[ #8gramm> s*ools'4 ,sid5ote3 ,! e>ly academies4 ,! ,academies 9 ,am]ica4--,academies arose also 9 ,am]ica4 ,:5 ! numb] ( religi\s d5om9ations _h greatly increas$ & ! dem&s ^u second>y education _h exp&$1 ! #8gramm> s*ools' 7see pp4 #abj f471 ) _! n>r[ d5om9ational ideals & _! limitation to a classical tra9+ & college prep>ation1 prov$ inadequate1 & ef=ts 7 made to organize academies z a supplem5t4 ,!re may h be5 e>li] academies 9 ,am]ica1 b ! fir/ well-kn[n sugge/ion ( an academy 0 made 9 #agdc by ,b5jam9 ,frankl94 ,he wi%$ to inaugurate an education t w\ld prep>e = life1 & n m]ely = college4 ,accord+ly1 he propos$ = ! y\? ( ,p5nsylvania a c\rse 9 :i* ,engli% gramm> & composition1 p5man%ip1 ari?metic1 draw+1 geography1 hi/ory1 ! natural sci5ces1 oratory1 civics1 & logic 7 to be emphasiz$4 ,he w\ld gladly h exclud$ ,lat9 & o!r languages altoge!r1 b = politic reasons ^! c\rses 7 all[$ to be elective4 ,?r\gh ! ef=ts ( a numb] ( lead+ citiz5s1 su* an academy 0 op5$ at ,philadelphia 7,fig4 #cb71 9 ,janu>y1 #agej 7al?\gh n *>t]$ until ,july1 #agec74 ,dur+ ! next g5]ation a numb] ( simil> in/itutions sprang up1 especially 9 ! middle & s\!rn colonies4 ,a great impulse 0 giv5 ! movem5t by ! f\ndation ( ! two ,phillips academies1--"o 9 #aghj at ,&ov]1 ,massa*usetts1 & ! o!r ! next ye> at ,exet]1 ,new ,hamp%ire4 ,! ,dumm] ,gramm> ,s*ool 0 reorganiz$ z an academy 9 #aghb1 & ! movem5t spread rapidly ?r\gh\t ,new ,engl& dur+ ! la/ two decades ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,sid5ote3 ,aft] ! ,revolution ! prevail+ type ( second>y education4 ,sid5ote3 ,support1 location1 & functions4 ,%ortly aft] ! ,revolution1 ow+ 9 "p to ! inability or unwill+ness ( ! t[ns to ma9ta9 gramm> s*ools1 & 9 "p to ! wid] appeal & great] usefulness ( ! academies1 ! latt] in/itutions q eclips$ ! =m]1 & became = ab\t half a c5tury ! prevail+ type ( second>y s*ool 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y 7 usually end[$ in/itutions manag$ by a close corporation1 b 7 (t5 l>gely support$ by subscriptions f ! neighborhood1 & sometimes subsidiz$ by ! /ate4 ,locat$ 9 small t[ns or villages1 !y s]v$ a wide con/itu5cy & made provision = bo>d+1 z well z day pupils4 ,unlike ! gramm> s*ools1 !y 7 n orig9ally int5d$ to prep>e = ! le>n$ pr(essions exclusively1 b1 z "t pass$1 !y t5d$ m & m to become prep>atory s*ools = ! colleges1 in/ead ( f9i%+ s*ools = ! middle classes ( society4 ,! academies 7 also ! fir/ in/itutions ( second>y education to (f] opportunities to wom54 ,_m ( !m 7 co-educational1 & o!rs1 frequ5tly burd5$ ) ! "n ( #8female sem9>y1' 7 = girls exclusively4 ,academies = "s "t likewise furni%$ ! only means ( tra9+ tea*]s = ! elem5t>y s*ools1 & h g5]ally play$ an important "p 9 education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,,xvii2 & ,great ,educators ( ,?ree ,c5turies 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 *aps4 ,i & ,v2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #ddb-dfj4 ,an excell5t edition ( ,milton's ,tractate ( ,education is t by ,morris1 ,e4 ,e4 7,macmillan1 #ahie72 ( ,montaigne's ,education ( ,*ildr5 t by ,rector1 ,l4 ,e4 7,appleton1 #ahii72 ( ,locke's ,?\ghts conc]n+ ,education1 & ( ,mulca/]'s ,positions1 ^? by ,quick1 ,r4 ,h4 7,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #ahie1 & ,longmans1 #ahhh1 respectively72 & ( ,rabelais' ,g>gantua1 t by ,besant1 ,w4 7,lipp9cott1 ,=eign ,classics = ,engli% ,read]s74 ,! works ( ,ca/iglione1 ,elyot1 ,pea*am1 ,bra?waite1 etc41 are also extant4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! ,ritt]akademi51 see ,nohle1 ,e41 ,hi/ory ( ! ,g]man ,s*ool ,sy/em 7,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,commission] ( ,education1 #ahig-ih71 pp4 #da f41 & ,pauls51 ,f41 ,g]man ,education 7,scribn]1 #aijh71 pp4 #aab-aaf2 & ( ! academies1 ,br[n1 ,e4 ,e41 ,! ,mak+ ( ,our ,middle ,s*ools 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #aijb71 *aps4 ,,viii & ,,ix4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,s5se ,,realism ,,& ,,! ,,e>ly ,,sci5tific ,,movem5t ,,outl9e ,9 ! sev5te5? c5tury sci5tific inve/igation develop$ rapidly1 & l$ !ori/s to introduce sci5ce into ! curriculum & to advocate a /udy ( #8real ?+s4' ,bacon und]took to =mulate induction1 & :ile he did n und]/& ! importance ( an hypo!sis1 he did mu* to rid ! times ( a priori reason+4 ,on ! basis ( s5se realism1 ,rati* anticipat$ _m pr9ciples ( mod]n p$agogy1 b he 0 unsuccessful 9 apply+ 8 ideas4 ,com5ius 7#a7 produc$ texts = tea*+ ,lat9 objectively1 7#b7 cry/alliz$ 8 educational pr9ciples 9 ! ,great ,didactic1 & 7#c7 attempt$ an encyclopdic organization ( k4 ,he wi%$ to make ?is k "p ( ! c\rse at e /age ( education1 &1 :ile he 0 n consi/5tly inductive1 he made a great advance 9 ! use ( ?is me?od4 ,?r\gh s5se realism1 rudim5t>y sci5ce 0 introduc$ into ! elem5t>y s*ools2 ! ,ritt]akademi5 & ! pieti/ s*ools /ress$ ! subject2 & pr(essor%ips ( sci5ce 7 f\nd$ 9 ! univ]sities4 ,sid5ote3 ,e>li] realism a transition to s5se realism4 ,sid5ote3 ,opposition to ! sci5ces4 ,! ,developm5t ( ! ,sci5ces & ,realism4--,! reali/ic t5d5cy did n pause ) reviv+ ! ideas repres5t$ by ! words nor ) ! endeavor to br+ ! pupil into t\* ) ! life he 0 to lead4 ,! e>li] realism seems to h be5 simply a /age 9 ! process ( transition f ! n>r[ & =mal humanism to a realism obta9$ ?r\gh ! s5ses1 :i* may be reg>d$ z ! beg9n+ ( ! mod]n movem5t to develop ! natural sci5ces4 ,sci5ce _h />t$ to develop z e>ly z ! "t ( ! s*oolman1 ,rog] ,bacon 7#abad-abid71 b = ?ree c5turies x 0 n k9dly receiv$4 ,ev5 dur+ ! ,r5aissance ! ,*ur* _h cont9u$ to oppose x bitt]ly1 because x t5d$ to conflict ) religi\s dogma1 al?\gh ?is age did n object to ! revival ( ! classics4 ,accord+ly1 ! latt] subject became /rongly intr5*$ 9 educational tradition1 & its advocates (f]$ ! mo/ ob/9ate opposition to ! sci5ces4 ,its num]\s repres5tatives /ruggl$ h>d to keep ! sci5ces out ( education4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t ( physics & a/ronomy 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,h[ev]1 concomitant ) ! gr[? ( reason & ! p>tial removal ( ! !ological ban1 !re 0 develop$ a rem>kable sci5tific movem5t1 ) a v>iety ( discov]ies & inv5tions4 ,= m ?an a mill5nium ! ,greek developm5ts 9 a/ronomy & physics _h be5 accept$ z f9al1 b t[>d ! close ( ! sixte5? & dur+ ! sev5te5? c5tury ^! dicta 7 completely upset4 ,! hypo!sis ( a sol> sy/em1 :i* replac$ ! ,ptolemaic int]pretation1 0 publi%$ by ,cop]nicus 7#adgc-aedc72 ,kepl] 7#aega-afcj7 expla9$ ! motion ( ! planets by ?ree simple laws2 &1 ?r\gh ! con/ruction ( a telescope1 ,galileo 7#aefd-afdb7 reveal$ new cele/ial ph5om5a4 ,galileo also demon/rat$ t all bodies1 all[+ = ! resi/ance ( ! air1 fall at ! same rate2 by means ( ! b>omet]1 ,torricelli 7#afjh-afdg7 & ,boyle 7#afbg-afia7 prov$ ! exi/+ !ories ( a vacuum incorrect1 & =mulat$ important laws conc]n+ ! pressure ( gases2 & ,gu]icke 7#afjb-afhf71 inspir$ by _! discov]ies1 succe$$ 9 con/ruct+ an air-pump4 ,inve/igations ( ?is k9d pav$ ! way = ! =mulation ( ! law ( univ]sal gravitation & ! laws ( motion by ,sir ,isaac ,newton 7#afdb-agbg71 :i* unit$ ! univ]se into a s+le compreh5sive sy/em & complet$ ! f\ndations = mod]n me*anics4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t ( anatomy & physiology4 ,likewise1 ab\t ! same "t1 ! o!r great developm5t 9 sci5ce among ! ,greeks1--anatomy & physiology1 0 completely revolutioniz$4 ,?r\gh ! discov]y ( valves 9 ! ve9s by means ( dissection & vivisection1 ! hypo!sis ( ! d\ble circulation ( ! blood by ,h>vey 7#aegh-afeg71 & ! microscopic demon/rations by ,malpighi 7#afbh-afid7 ( ! exi/5ce ( capill>ies connect+ ! ve9s & ! art]ies1 ! old !ory ( ! motion ( ! blood ?r\gh suction1 :i* _h be5 promulgat$ by ,gal51 0 completely %att]$1 & a great impetus 0 giv5 to inve/igations 9 anatomy & physiology4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is sci5tific progress1 ! educational !ori/s began to introduce sci5ce & a k ( real ?+s into ! curriculum4 ,x came to be widely felt t humanism gave a k only ( words1 books1 & op9ions1 & did n ev5 at its be/ lead to a /udy ( real ?+s4 ,h5ce1 new me?ods & new books 7 produc$1 to %ort5 & improve ! /udy ( ! classical languages1 & new cont5t 0 import$ into ! c\rses ( /udy4 ,! movem5t also includ$ an attempt at a =mulation ( sci5tific pr9ciples 9 education & an adaptation to ! nature ( ! *ild4 ,sid5ote3 ,bacon reject$ ! d$uctive me?od ( ! day1 ,sid5ote3 b creat$ a me*anical proc$ure4 ,bacon & ,8 ,inductive ,me?od4--,! new t5d5cy1 h[ev]1 did n appe> 9 education until aft] ! "t ( ,francis ,bacon 7#aefa-afbf74 ,! use ( ! sci5tific me?od by ! v>i\s discov]]s 0 l>gely unconsci\s1 & x rema9$ = ,bacon to =mulate :at he call$ ! me?od ( #8induction' & by advocat+ its use1 to po9t ! way to its developm5t z a sci5tific me?od 9 education4 ,he is1 !re=e1 ord9>ily kn[n z ! fir/ s5se reali/4 ,he react$ f d$uctive logic1 :i* 0 curr5tly suppos$ to be ! sole me?od ( ,ari/otle1 & took 8 cue 9 =mulat+ a new me?od ( reason+ f ! _m sci5tific work]s ( 8 "t4 ,he made a great advance 9 8 rejection ( ! contempor>y me?od ( attempt+ to e/abli% ! fir/ pr9ciples ( a sci5ce1 & !n d$uc+ f !m by means ( ! syllogism all ! propositions :i* t sci5ce c\ld conta94 ,h[ev]1 8 ,novum ,organum1 or #8new in/rum5t' z he call$ 8 treatise1 9 endeavor+ to create a me?od :]eby anyone c\ld atta9 all ! k ( :i* ! human m9d 0 capable1 und]took f> too mu*1 & result$ 9 a m]ely me*anical proc$ure4 ,briefly /at$1 8 plan 01 aft] ridd+ ! m9d ( individual prejudices1 to obs]ve & c>efully tabulate li/s ( all ! facts ( nature1 & f ^! discov] ! und]ly+ law by comp>+ ! cases :]e a c]ta9 ph5om5on appe>s & :]e x does n4 ,sid5ote3 ,he fail$ to =mulate ! true inductive me?od1 ,sid5ote3 ?\gh he rid ! times ( a priori reason+4 ,b by ?is me?od nei!r ,bacon himself nor anyone else has ev] made any real contribution to sci5ce4 ,x does n foll[ t1 because all obs]v$ cases "u c]ta9 conditions produce a p>ticul> effect1 e o!r in/ance n yet obs]v$ w necess>ily h ! same effect4 ,! true me?od ( induction1 :i* 0 evid5t ev5 9 ! "w ( ,kepl]1 & came to be m s 9 ! discov]ies ( ,h>vey & ,newton1 /resses r ! "p play$ by sci5tific imag9ation1 z x is manife/$ by m5 ( g5ius 9 ! =m+ ( an hypo!sis4 ,! mod]n proc$ure is z foll[s3--,:5 c]ta9 effects are obs]v$1 ( :i* ! cause or law is unkn[n1 ! sci5ti/ frames an hypo!sis 7i4 e41 makes a conjecture7 to acc\nt = !m2 !n he te/s ?is hypo!sis1 by collect+ facts & comp>+ ) ^! facts ! conclusions to :i* 8 hypo!sis w\ld lead2 &1 if !y correspond or agree1 he holds t 8 hypo!sis has be5 confirm$ or v]ifi$1 & ma9ta9s t he has discov]$ ! cause or law4 ,nev]!less1 :ile ,bacon did n =mulate ! inductive me?od ( mod]n sci5ce1 he l>gely help$ to rid ! times ( an unwise dep5d5ce ^u a priori reason+1 & he did call att5tion to ! necessity ( c>eful obs]vation & exp]im5tation1 & ?us op5$ ! way = real inductive proc$ure4 ,probably no book ev] made a great] revolution 9 modes ( ?9k+ or ov]?rew m prejudices ?an ,bacon's ,novum ,organum4 ,sid5ote3 ,bacon 0 n especially int]e/$ 9 education1 ,sid5ote3 b 8 sugge/ions influ5c$ ,rati* & ,com5ius4 ,bacon's ,educational ,sugge/ions & ,influ5ce4--,bacon 0 n a tea*]1 & 8 treatm5t ( educational problems appe>s 9 brief & scatt]$ passages4 ,:ile he (f]s isolat$ sugge/ions conc]n+ ! m5tal & moral tra9+ ( ! "y1 he plans no s]i\s modification 9 ! exi/+ organization ( s*ools4 ,he does1 h[ev]1 9 8 ,new ,atlantis imply an int]e/ 9 promot+ sci5tific rese>* & high] education4 ,9 ! ideal society depict$ 9 t "w1 he describes an organization ( s*ol>s call$ #8,salomon's ,h\se1' ^: memb]s 9 _! inve/igations anticipate mu* t sci5ti/s & inv5tors h to-day only j begun to realize4 ,among ^! anticipations 7 ! v>iation ( species1 ! infusion ( s]ums1 vivisection1 telescopes1 telephones1 fly+-ma*9es1 subm>9e boats1 & /eam-eng9es4 ,f ?is description ,bacon w\ld seem to believe t education %\ld be organiz$ ^u ! basis ( society's gradually accumulat+ a k ( nature & imp>t+ x to all pupils at e /age4 ,at any rate1 9 8 ,advancem5t ( ,le>n+1 he def9itely sugge/s a wid] c\rse ( /udy1 m complete equipm5t = sci5tific inve/igation1 a clos] cop]ation among in/itutions ( le>n+1 & a =w>d+ ( #8unf9i%$ sci5ces4' ,& su* a plan ( pansophia1 or #8univ]sal k1' 0 specifi$ 9 ! educational cre$ ( ! lat] s5se reali/s1 :o work$ out ! ,baconian !ory ( education4 ,h5ce1 :ile n skill$ or greatly int]e/$ 9 education himself1 ,bacon influ5c$ pr(\ndly ! writ+ ( _m :o 71 & has done mu* to %ape ! _s ( mod]n practice4 ,8 me?od 0 fir/ appli$ directly to education by a ,g]man kn[n z ,rati*1 &1 9 a m effective way1 by ,com5ius1 a ,moravian4 ,sid5ote3 ,l+ui/ic tra9+4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r reali/ic pr9ciples4 ,sid5ote3 ,influ5ce4 ,rati*'s ,me?ods4--,rati* 7#aega-afce7 probably became acqua9t$ ) ! s5se realism ( ,bacon :ile /udy+ 9 ,engl&1 &1 :5 ab\t =ty ye>s ( age1 und]took to f\nd a sy/em ( education ^u x4 ,9 l+ui/ic tra9+1 l all reali/s1 he insi/$ t "o 8%\ld fir/ /udy ! v]nacul>0 z an introduction to o!r languages4 ,he also held to ! pr9ciple ( 8"o ?+ at a "t & (t5 repeat$40 ,by ?is he meant t1 9 /udy+ a language1 "o %\ld ma/] a s+le book be=e tak+ up ano!r4 ,9 8 tea*+ at ,k!n1 z soon z 8 pupils knew _! lett]s1 !y 7 requir$ to le>n ,g5esis ?or\ghly = ! sake ( _! ,g]man4 ,ea* *apt] 0 read twice by ! tea*]1 :ile ! pupil foll[$ ! text ) 8 f+]4 ,:5 ! pupils c\ld read ! book p]fectly1 !y 7 taught gramm> f x z a text4 ,! tea*] po9t$ out ! v>i\s p>ts ( spee* & made ! boys f9d o!r examples1 & _h !m decl9e1 conjugate1 & p>se4 ,9 tak+ up ,lat91 a play ( ,t]5ce 0 treat$ 9 simil> fa%ion4 ,o!rs ( ! pr9ciples t he us$ 9 tea*+ language & gramm>1 & especially ^? :i* appli$ to education 9 g5]al1 7 ev5 m di/9ctly reali/ic4 ,su*1 = example1 7 8 precepts1--8foll[ ! ord] ( nature0 & 8ev]y?+ by exp]im5t & induction10 & 8 additional recomm5dation t 8no?+ is to be le>n$ by rote40 ,?us ,rati* n only help$ %ape "s ( ! be/ me?ods = tea*+ languages1 b anticipat$ ! ma9 pr9ciples ( mod]n p$agogy4 ,:ile1 ow+ to obtrusive fail+s 9 "* & exp]i5ce1 he 0 uni=mly unsuccessful 9 8 practice1 he1 nev]!less1 /irr$ up consid]able ?\ght & /imulat$ _m treatises ( o!rs4 ,?us1 ?r\gh ,com5ius1 :o c>ri$ out 8 pr9ciples m fully1 ?is ,g]man innovator1 impractical z he 01 became a spiritual ance/or to ,pe/alozzi1 ,froebel1 & ,h]b>t4 ,sid5ote3 ,education1 ,sid5ote3 w&]+s1 ,sid5ote3 & a*ievem5ts4 ,com5ius3 ,8 ,tra9+ & ,"w4--,john ,amos ,com5ius 7#aeib-afgj7 0 born at ,nivnitz1 ,moravia1 & 0 by religi\s inh]itance a /aun* adh]5t ( ! ,moravian ,*ur*4 ,aft] a c\rse 9 a ,lat9 s*ool1 he sp5t a c\ple ( ye>s 9 high] education at ! ,lu!ran ,college ( ,h]born & at ! ,univ]sity ( ,heidelb]g4 ,9 consequ5ce ( _m vicissitudes 9 life1 he liv$ & wrote 9 a numb] ( places1 & became acqua9t$ ) ! "w ( a v>iety ( m5 engag$ 9 educational re=m & advancem5t4 ,:ile ! problems ) :i* !y 7 deal+ 7 simil> to 8 own & l>gely influ5c$ 8 educational positions1 he f> surpass$ !m all 9 scope ( "w & greatness ( repute4 ,8 educational a*ievem5ts 7 ! outgr[? ( s5se realism1 & appe> 9 ?ree directions3--7#a7 ! s]ies ( texts = le>n+ ,lat92 7#b7 8 ,great ,didactic2 & 7#c7 8 attempts to create an encyclopdic organization ( k 7pansophia74 ,sid5ote3 ,! plan ( ! ,janua4 ,8 ,s]ies ( ,lat9 ,texts4--,! fir/ ( ! fam\s texts t ,com5ius produc$ to facilitate ! /udy ( ,lat9 0 issu$ 9 #afca1 & has g5]ally be5 kn[n by ! "n ( ,janua ,l+u>um ,res]ata 7,! ,gate ( ,languages ,unlock$74 ,x 0 int5d$ z an introductory book to ! /udy ( ,lat91 & consi/$ ( an arrangem5t into s5t5ces ( sev]al ?\s& ,lat9 words = ! mo/ famili> objects & ideas4 ,! ,lat9 0 pr9t$ on ! "r-h& side ( ! page1 & on ! left 0 giv5 a translation 9 ! v]nacul>4 ,by ?is means ! pupil obta9$ a grasp ( all ord9>y sci5tific k & at ! same "t a />t 9 8 ,lat9 vocabul>y4 ,9 writ+ ?is text1 ,com5ius may h be5 some:at influ5c$ by ,rati*1 a review ( ^: me?ods he _h read at ,h]born1 b he seems to h be5 m specifically indebt$ bo? = 8 me?od & ! felicit\s "n ( 8 book to a ,jesuit kn[n z ,bateus1 :o _h writt5 a simil> "w4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,ve/ibulum1 ,sid5ote3 ,atrium1 ,sid5ote3 ,palatium1 ,sid5ote3 & ,orbis ,pictus4 ,x 0 soon app>5t t ! ,janua w\ld be too difficult = beg9n]s1 & two ye>s lat] ,com5ius issu$ 8 ,ve/ibulum 7,ve/ibule71 z an introduction to x4 ,:ile ! ,janua conta9$ all ! ord9>y words ( ! language1--"s eight ?\s&1 !re 7 b a few hundr$ ( ! mo/ common 9 ! ,ve/ibulum4 ,lat] bo? ( ! works 7 sev]al times revis$1 modifi$1 & enl>g$2 & gramm>s1 lexicons1 & treatises 7 writt5 to accompany !m4 ,he also publi%$ a ?ird ,lat9 read]1 ! ,atrium 7,entrance ,hall71 :i* took ! pupil "o /age beyond ! ,janua4 ,we "k1 too1 t he int5d$ also to write a /ill m advanc$ "w1 to be call$ ,sapi5tiae ,palatium 7,palace ( ,wisdom74 ,?is f\r? book 0 to consi/ ( selections f ! be/ ,lat9 au?ors1 b x 0 nev] complet$4 ,he did1 h[ev]1 produce z a supplem5t>y text-book a simpl] & m ext5sive edition ( ! ,janua1 accompani$ ) pictures4 ,ea* object 9 ! illu/rations ( ?is book 0 m>k$ ) a numb] correspond+ to "o 9 ! text4 ,?is "w1 :i* he call$ ,orbis ,s5sualium ,pictus 7,! ,_w ( ,s5se ,objects ,pictur$71 is ! fir/ illu/rat$ read+ book on record 7,fig4 #ba74 ,sid5ote3 ,indebt$ness to o!rs4 ,sid5ote3 ,8 aim & organization ( education4 ,! ,great ,didactic4--,b ^! books on tea*+ ,lat9 reali/ically 7 only "p ( ! "w t ,com5ius contemplat$4 ,dur+ 8 :ole c>e] he _h 9 m9d a def9ite idea ( ! aim ( education1 & ( :at1 9 consequ5ce1 he wi%$ ! organization1 subject-matt]1 & me?ods to be4 ,8 ideas on ! :ole "q ( education 7 =mulat$ 9 8 ,great ,didactic ev5 be=e ! ,janua appe>$1 b ! "w 0 n publi%$ until #afeg4 ,9 x he /rove to assimilate all t 0 good 9 ! reali/ic movem5t & use x z a f\ndation4 ,he develop$ _m ( ! pr9ciples & me?ods ( ,rati*1 ,bateus1 & o!rs1 b he ow$ a great] debt = ! sugge/ions he took f ,bacon's ,advancem5t ( ,le>n+1 & ev5 m f ! ,encyclopdia ( ,al/$1 "o ( 8 tea*]s at ,h]born4 ,9 ! ,great ,didactic ,com5ius =mulat$ an educational aim & con/ruct$ an educational organization ( 8 own4 ,probably1 z an outgr[? ( 8 religi\s attitude1 he held to #8k1 morality1 & piety' z ! ideals ( education1 & advocat$ univ]sal education = #8boys & girls1 bo? noble & ignoble1 ri* & poor4' ,8 organization ( education consi/$ ( f\r p]iods ( six ye>s ea*4 ,! fir/ p]iod ( in/ruction 0 t ?r\gh infancy1 or up to ! age ( six4 ,x 0 to be giv5 9 ! s*ool ( #8! "m's lap1' :i* %\ld exi/ 9 e h\se4 ,= *ildhood1 or f six to twelve1 0 to be organiz$ ! #8v]nacul> s*ool1' :i* %\ld appe> 9 e hamlet & village4 ,f t "t up to eighte5 comes ! #8,lat9 s*ool1' to be ma9ta9$ 9 e city2 &1 f9ally1 = y\? f eighte5 to tw5ty-f\r1 !re %\ld be a univ]sity 9 e k+dom or prov9ce4 ,su* an organization w\ld h made education univ]sal1 & w\ld t5d to br+ ab\t ! cu/om ( education accord+ to ability1 r ?an social /atus1 :i* 0 a sugge/ion "s ?ree c5turies 9 advance ( ! times4 ,munt]o ,caps1 #bj4 c4 ,amiculum1 #bj4 c4 ,s ! ,furri] ,sic ,pellio make? ,furr$ ,g>m5ts facit ,pellicia ( ,furs4 ,pellibus4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,! ,%oemak]4 ,,lxiii4 ,sutor4 ,illu/ration ,! ,%oemak]1 #a4 ,sutor1 #a4 make? ,slipp]s1 #g4 conficit ,crepidas 7,s&alia17 #g4 ,%oes1 #h4 ,calceos1 #h4 79 :i* is se5 79 quibus spectatur above1 ! ,upp]-lea!r1 sup]ne ,ob/ragulum1 b5ea? ! ,sole1 inf]ne ,solea1 & on bo? sides et utr9que ! ,lat*ets7 ,ans7 ,boots1 #i4 ,ocreas1 #i4 & ,high ,%oes1 #aj4 et ,p]ones1 #aj4 ( ,lea!r1 #e4 e ,corio1 #e4 7:i* is cut ) a 7quod disc9ditur ,cutt+-knife71 #f4 ,scalpro ,sutorio1 #f47 by means ( an ,awl1 #b4 ope ,subul1 #b4 & ,l+el1 #c4 et ,fili picati1 #c4 ^u a ,la/1 #d4 sup] ,modum1 #d4 ,fig4 #ba4--;,a page f ! ,orbis ,pictus ( ,com5ius1 illu/rat+ a lesson on a trade4 7,reproduc$ f ! edition publi%$ by ,c4 ,w4 ,b>de51 #ahhg47 ,sid5ote3 ,pansophic tra9+ at e /age ( education4 ,8 ,encyclopdic ,arrangem5t ( ,k4--,! re/ ( ! works ( ,com5ius may be reg>d$ z amplifications ( v>i\s p>ts ( ?is ,great ,didactic4 ,besides ! ,janual s]ies1 :i* he seems to h writt5 = ! ,lat9 s*ool1 he produc$ a set ( texts = ! v]nacul> s*ool1 :i* soon disappe>$1 & a h&book = ! l[e/ "w1 call$ ,! ,s*ool ( ,infancy4 ,b ! phase ( ! ,great ,didactic mo/ (t5 elaborat$ 0 ! reali/ic "o ( pansophia or #8univ]sal k4' ,?is pr9ciple 0 n only exemplifi$ 9 su* works z ! ,janua & ,orbis ,pictus & 9 treatises he wrote ^u a/ronomy & physics1 b 9 v>i\s educational in/itutions t he und]took to f\nd1 & x rema9$ ! rul+ passion ?r\gh\t 8 life4 ,9 ! ,great ,didactic he w5t s f> z to hold t an encyclopdic tra9+ %\ld be giv5 at e /age ( education1--"m s*ool1 v]nacul> s*ool1 ,lat9 s*ool1 & univ]sity4 ,sid5ote3 ,ea* succe$+ /age to enl>ge ! body ( k4 ,sid5ote3 ,! #8didactic college' = all nations4 ,b1 :ile ev5 9 ! "m s*ool ! infant 0 to make a beg9n+ ) geography1 hi/ory1 & v>i\s sci5ces1 gramm>1 rhetoric1 & dialectic1 music1 ari?metic1 geometry1 & a/ronomy1 & ! rudim5ts ( economics1 politics1 e?ics1 metaphysics1 & religion1 8 atta9m5t 0 n expect$ to be z =midable z ! names ( ! subjects s\nd4 ,x 0 to consi/ m]ely 9 und]/&+ simple causal1 temporal1 spatial1 & num]ical relations2 9 di/+ui%+ sun1 moon1 & />s1 hills1 valleys1 lakes1 & riv]s1 & animals & plants2 9 le>n+ to express oneself2 & 9 acquir+ prop] habits4 ,x 01 9 fact1 n unlike ! tra9+ ( ! mod]n k9d]g>t54 ,9 a simil> way ea* succe$+ /age is to enl>ge ! body ( k along all ^! l9es4 8,! diff]5t s*ools are n to deal ) diff]5t subjects1 b %\ld treat ! same subjects 9 diff]5t ways2 ?r\gh\t graduat+ ! in/ruction to ! age ( ! pupil & ! k t he already possesses4 ,9 ! e>li] s*ools ev]y?+ is taught 9 a g5]al & undef9$ mann]1 :ile 9 ^? :i* foll[ ! in=mation is p>ticul>iz$ & exact40 ,moreov]1 beyond ! univ]sity1 :i*1 l ! l[] s*ools1 0 to make tea*+ its *ief function1 ,com5ius held x to be important t some:]e 9 ! _w !re %\ld be a #8didactic college' devot$ to sci5tific inve/igation1 9 :i* le>n$ m5 f all nations %\ld cop]ate4 ,su* an in/itution w\ld =m a logical climax to 8 sy/em ( s*ools1 be>+ ! same relation to !m t ! /oma* does to ! o!r memb]s ( ! body by 8supply+ blood1 life1 & /r5g? to all40 ,sid5ote3 ,(t5 fanciful analogies1 ,! ,me?od ( ,nature4--,! way 9 :i* ?is pansophic in/ruction %\ld be giv51 ,com5ius also int5d$ to h 9 full accord ) s5se realism4 ,he insi/s t ! #8me?od ( nature' mu/ be obs]v$ & foll[$1 & !n %[s h[ nature accompli%es all ?+s #8) c]ta9ty1 ease1 & ?or\ghness1' 9 :at respects s*ools h deviat$ f ! pr9ciples ( nature1 & h[ !y c be rectifi$ only by foll[+ h] plans4 ,^! pr9ciples conc]n+ ! work+ ( nature 7 laid d[n a priori1 b x is probable t !y _h be5 previ\sly work$ out inductively f 8 s*oolroom exp]i5ce4 ,at times1 ?\gh1 !y 7 put 9 ! =m ( fanciful analogies4 ,= example1 he decl>es t because a bird by nature hat*es h] "y 9 ! spr+ or e>ly "p ( ! ye>1 s*ools h err$ 7#a7 9 n requir+ education to beg9 9 ! spr+time ( life1 or boyhood1 & 7#b7 9 n select+ ! spr+time ( ! day1 or ! morn+ h\rs1 = /udy4 ,sid5ote3 b m fully inductive else:]e4 ,b x is n rem>kable t1 ) all 8 reali/ic t5d5cies1 ,com5ius did n consi/5tly employ induction4 ,! natural sci5ces 7 "y 9 8 day1 s t he did n altoge!r grasp _! cont5t & me?od1 & he _h p>tially inh]it$ ! s*ola/ic notion t tru? _c be fully secur$ ?r\gh ! s5ses or by reason4 ,x is suffici5t m]it t ,com5ius1 = ! fir/ "t 9 hi/ory1 appli$ any?+ l induction to tea*+4 ,moreov]1 9 ! application ( 8 g5]al me?od to ! specific tea*+ ( v>i\s l9es1--sci5ces1 read+1 writ+1 s++1 languages1 morality1 & piety1 he utiliz$ m fully ! induction ( ,bacon4 ,= example1 aft] %[+ ! necessity = c>eful obs]vation 9 obta9+ a k ( ! sci5ces1 he gives n9e useful precepts = _! /udy t are cle>ly ! inductive result ( 8 own exp]i5ce z a tea*]4 ,likewise1 he insi/s t1 9 tea*+ ! sci5ces1 9 ord] to make a g5u9e impression ^u ! m9d1 "o mu/ deal ) realities r ?an books4 ,! objects !mselves1 or :]e ?is is n possible1 su* repres5tations ( !m z c be convey$ by copies1 models1 & pictures1 mu/ be /udi$4 ,aft] ! same pr9ciple he =mulates inductive rules & me?ods = in/ruction 9 ! o!r subjects4 ,sid5ote3 ,popul>ity ( 8 ,lat9 text-books1 ,sid5ote3 b ignorance ( ! ,great ,didactic1 ,sid5ote3 :i* 0 ! indirect basis ( mod]n education4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,com5ius ^u ,education4--,?us ! "w ( ,com5ius 0 bas$ prim>ily ^u s5se realism1 b he add$ _m modifications & new elem5ts ( 8 own4 ,he may 9 ! fulle/ s5se be consid]$ ! great educational !ori/ & practical re=m] ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,8 practical ability is especially %[n 9 ! s]ies ( ,lat9 text-books1 :i* f> excell$ ! works ( sev]al contempor>ies on simil> l9es4 ,! ,janua 0 translat$ into a doz5 ,european1 & at lea/ ?ree ,asiatic languages2 ! ,orbis ,pictus prov$ ev5 m popul>1 & w5t ?r\gh an almo/ unlimit$ numb] ( editions 9 v>i\s tongues2 & ! :ole s]ies became = _m g5]ations ! favorite means ( introduc+ "y p to ! /udy ( ,lat94 ,b ! rem>kable !oretical "w ( ,com5ius _h little effect ^u ! s*ools ( ! p]iod1 & until ab\t ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! ,great ,didactic 0 sc>cely kn[n4 ,at t "t1 :5 ?is treatise ( ,com5ius 0 br\ght to light by ,g]man inve/igators1 x 0 discov]$ t ! old reali/ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury _h be5 ! fir/ to deal ) education 9 a sci5tific _s1 & "w out its problems practically 9 ! s*ools4 ,& ! pr9ciples ( ,com5ius 7 at ! "t unconsci\sly tak5 up by o!rs & indirectly became ! basis ( mod]n education4 ,8 _s appe>$ n only 9 ! ideas ( subsequ5t !ori/s--,francke1 ,r\sseau1 ,bas$[1 ,pe/alozzi1 ,h]b>t1 ,froebel--b ev5 9 ! actual curricula & me?ods ( educational in/itutions4 ,sid5ote3 ,sl[ & indirect1 b ! v]nacul> & elem5t>y sci5ce introduc$4 ,reali/ic ,t5d5cies 9 ,elem5t>y ,s*ools4--,:ile ! effect ( s5se realism ^u ! s*ools seems to h be5 sl[ & indirect1 ! movem5t 0 obvi\s ev5 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,9 ,g]many !re came a decid$ t5d5cy ?r\gh\t ! elem5t>y s*ools to increase in/ruction 9 ! v]nacul>1 z recomm5d$ by ,rati* & ,com5ius1 & to le>n fir/ ! ,g]man gramm> r ?an ! ,lat94 ,) ?is movem5t 0 jo9$ ! increase 9 univ]sal & compulsory education urg$ by ! re=m]s1 & an introduction ( elem5t>y sci5ce1 9 addition to read+1 writ+1 ari?metic1 religion1 & s++4 ,at ,weim> 9 #afai1 ?r\gh a pupil ( ,rati*1 a new s*ool sy/em 0 organiz$2 & 9 #afdb1 "u ! ord] ( ,duke ,ern/1 ,&reas ,reyh] prep>$ a new c\rse = ,go?a1 :i* af=d$ elem5t>y in/ruction 9 ! natural sci5ces1 z well z ! rudim5ts & religion4 ,?is "w includ$ tea*+ ! *ildr5 to measure ) ! h\r-glass & sun-dial1 to obs]ve ! ord9>y plants & animals1 & to c>ry on o!r objective /udies ( a simple "*4 ,_m o!r attempts at in/ruction 9 sci5ce 7 made else:]e 9 ! ,g]man /ates1 bo? 9 private & public education1 & ! same t5d5cy appe>$ 9 ! /ates ( ,italy1 & 9 ,france1 ,holl&1 & ,engl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,sci5ce 9 ! ,ritt]akademi51 ,sid5ote3 ,pdagogium1 ,sid5ote3 & ,reals*ule1 ,sid5ote3 & 9 gramm> s*ools & academies4 ,second>y ,s*ools4--,b ! new reali/ic t5d5cies appe>$ also 9 second>y education4 ,:ile 9 ,g]many x 0 n until ! eighte5? c5tury t !re 7 any evid5ces ( s5se realism 9 ! gymnasia1 languages ( neighbor+ c\ntries & consid]able sci5ce appe>$ 9 ! ,ritt]akademi5 7see p4 #aeg7 by ! middle ( ! sev5te5?1 & t[>d ! end ( ! c5tury 9 ! s*ools ( ,francke & o!r #8pieti/s' at ,halle 7 embodi$ all ! reali/ic elem5ts ( ,com5ius4 ,:ile ! pieti/s adopt$ ^! ideas l>gely = _! religi\s side1 z a prote/ & reaction to ! rationali/ic ,ritt]akademi51 !y did n hesitate also to /ress ! sci5ce cont5t & ! /udy ( ! v]nacul>4 ,9 ! second>y s*ool kn[n z ! ,pdagogium1 :i* he _h />t$ = well-to-d boys1 ,francke includ$ tra9+ 9 ! v]nacul>1 ma!matics1 geography1 natural sci5ce1 a/ronomy1 anatomy1 & mat]ia m$ica2 & ! ,reals*ule1 e/abli%$ by 8 colleague1 ,seml]1 w5t ev5 m fully into ! v]nacul>1 ma!matics1 & ! sci5ces1 pure & appli$4 ,?is reali/ic in/ruction ( ! pieti/s 0 br\ght by ,heck] to ,b]l91 :]e he />t$ 8 fam\s ,reals*ule 9 #agdg1 & simil> in/itutions soon spread ?r\gh\t ,prussia4 ,9 ,engl&1 :ile v few ( ! gramm> & public s*ools 7see p4 #abj7 z yet introduc$ ev5 ! elem5ts ( sci5ce into _! c\rse1 ! academies 7see p4 #aeg7 7 ri* 9 sci5ces1 ma!matics1 & ! v]nacul>4 ,?is 0 also true ( ! academies t sprang up 9 ,am]ica 7see p4 #aeh74 ,sid5ote3 ,sci5ces 9 ,halle1 ,gtt+51 & o!r univ]sities1 ,sid5ote3 & 9 ,ox=d & ,cambridge4 ,sid5ote3 ,great "w ( ,newton4 ,sid5ote3 ,sci5ce 9 ,am]ican colleges4 ,! ,univ]sities4--,! univ]sities 7 sl[] 9 respond+ to ! movem5t ( s5se realism4 ,z ! result ( its pieti/ic orig91 h[ev]1 ! ,univ]sity ( ,halle 0 reali/ic almo/ f its beg9n+ 9 #afib4 ,gtt+51 ! next in/itution to become hospitable to ! t5d5cy1 did n />t x until #agcg4 ,b soon aft]w>d ! movem5t became g5]al1 & by ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury all ! ,g]man univ]sities--at lea/1 all "u ,prote/ant auspices--_h creat$ pr(essor%ips 9 ! sci5ces4 ,:ile ! ,engli% univ]sities1 ,ox=d & ,cambridge1 7 mu* sl[] ?an ^? ( ,g]many 9 adopt+ ! new subjects1 & x 0 a c5tury & a half be=e ^! in/itutions became kn[n = _! sci5ce1 dur+ ! pr(essor%ip ( ,isaac ,newton 7#affi-agjb7 consid]able 0 done t[>d mak+ ,cambridge ma!matical & sci5tific1 & 9 ! c\rse ( ! eighte5? c5tury sev]al *airs 9 ! sci5ces 7 e/abli%$4 ,besides =mulat+ ! law ( gravitation1 ,newton lectur$ & wrote at ,cambridge ^u calculus1 a/ronomy1 optics1 & ! spectrum4 ,he became "o ( ! greate/ ma!maticians & physici/s ! _w has kn[n1 & he did mu* to create a sci5tific atmosph]e 9 o!r educational in/itutions1 z well z ,cambridge4 ,am]ica also felt ! sci5tific impulse 9 its high] in/itutions4 ,"s /udy ( a/ronomy1 botany1 & physics 0 possible at ,h>v>d ev5 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & dur+ ! eighte5? ,yale1 ,pr9ceton1 ,k+'s 7aft]w>d ,columbia71 ,d>tm\?1 ,union1 & ,p5nsylvania all came to (f] a little "w 9 physics1 & at times 9 *emi/ry1 geology1 a/ronomy1 & biology4 ,9 8 proposals = ! prospective #8sem9>y' 9 ,new ,york 7#agec71 :i* 0 de/9$ to become ,columbia ,univ]sity1 & 9 ! actual c\rse ( ! academy at ,philadelphia 7lat] ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania71 ov] :i* he presid$1 ,dr4 ,william ,smi? put a mo/ progressive program ( sci5ces1 includ+ ! rudim5ts ( me*anics1 physics1 *emi/ry1 geology1 a/ronomy1 botany1 zology1 & physiology4 ,b = half a c5tury aft] ?is ,am]ican in/itutions did little ) ! sci5ces z laboratory /udies4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,,xviii2 & ,great ,educators ( ,?ree ,c5turies 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 *aps4 ,,ii1 ,,iv1 & ,,vi2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #dfa-eja4 ,! foll[+ works are /&>d = ! au?ors m5tion$3 ,adamson1 ,j4 ,w41 ,pione]s ( ,mod]n ,education 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *ap4 ,,iii 7,bacon72 ,b>n>d1 ,h41 ,g]man ,tea*]s & ,educators1 pp4 #cdc-cgj 7,rati*72 ,f[l]1 ,t41 ,bacon's ,novum ,organum 7,ox=d1 ,cl>5don ,press72 ,laurie1 ,s4 ,s41 ,john ,amos ,com5ius 7,b>de51 ,syracuse1 #ahib72 ,monroe1 ,w4 ,s41 ,com5ius 7,scribn]1 #aijj72 & ,quick1 ,r4 ,h41 ,educational ,re=m]s 7,appleton1 #ahif71 *ap4 ,,ix 7,rati*7 & ,x 7,com5ius74 ,an acc\nt ( s5se realism is af=d$ by ,adamson1 op4 cit41 *ap4 ,i1 & ( its effect ^u ! s*ools by ,b>n>d1 op4 cit41 pp4 #cjb-cag1 & by ,pauls51 ,f41 ,g]man ,education 7,scribn]1 #aijh71 pp4 #aag-acc4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,=mal ,,discipl9e ,,9 ,,education ,,outl9e ,locke is (t5 class$ ) ! advocates ( realism or ( naturalism1 b ! keynote to 8 ?\ght is #8discipl9e4' ,?is is to be obta9$ 9 intellectual tra9+ ?r\gh ma!matics2 9 moral tra9+1 ?r\gh ! control ( desires by reason2 & 9 physical tra9+1 ?r\gh a #8h>d5+ process4' ,locke has1 !re=e1 (t5 be5 view$ z ! great advocate ( ! !ory ( =mal discipl9e1 accord+ to :i* c]ta9 subjects yield a g5]al p[] t may be appli$ 9 any direction1 & %\ld be /udi$ by all4 ,?is doctr9e has greatly influ5c$ education1 b 9 ! late n9ete5? c5tury !re 0 a decid$ reaction f x4 ,rec5tly ?is extreme reaction has be5 modifi$1 & a position tak5 ) :i* ,locke's real attitude w\ld seem to be 9 h>mony4 ,sid5ote3 ,(t5 class$ z an e>ly reali/1 a s5se reali/1 or a naturali/4 ,locke's ,"w & ,its ,v>i\s ,classifications4--,because ( _! relation to an important topic 9 mod]n education1 ! !ories ( ,john ,locke 7#afcb-agjd7 %\ld receive fur!r att5tion ?an !y h yet be5 giv54 ,no writ] on education has be5 m v>i\sly classifi$ ?an he4 ,we h already se5 7p4 #aed7 t ! g5]al t5or ( 8 ,?\ghts conc]n+ ,education w\ld lead u to gr\p him ) ! e>ly reali/ic movem5t4 ,!re are also elem5ts 9 ?is "w t w\ld seem to place him ) ! s5se reali/s1 & _m ( 8 ideas prov$ s simil> & sugge/ive to ,r\sseau's ?\ght 7see p4 #bac71 t he has sometimes be5 class$ among ! advocates ( naturalism4 ,b ,locke's ,?\ghts1 by :i* 8 educational position is (t5 exclusively judg$1 7 simply a set ( practical sugge/ions = ! education ( a g5tleman1 writt5 = a fri5d z advice 9 br++ up 8 son4 ,!y make cle> 8 g5]al sympa?y ) ! curr5t educational re=m1 b d n br+ out 8 ma9 po9t ( view4 ,8 c5tral ?\ght appe>s m def9itely ?r\gh ! philosophical pr9ciples 9 8 fam\s ,essay conc]n+ ! ,human ,und]/&+1 & ?r\gh ! intellectual tra9+ sugge/$ 9 8 o!r educational "w1 ,conduct ( ! ,und]/&+1 :i* 0 orig9ally an additional book & application ( ! ,essay4 ,sid5ote3 ,b 8 und]ly+ ?\ght is #8discipl9e'4 ,sid5ote3 ,to tra9 ! m9d1 ma!matics & a range ( sci5ces %\ld be /udi$4 ,locke's ,discipl9>y ,!ory 9 ,intellectual ,education4--,probably ,locke's und]ly+ ?\ght z to ! prop] me?od ( intellectual1 moral1 & physical tra9+ may be/ be summ$ up 9 ! ^w #8discipl9e4' ,?is educational attitude is a natural coroll>y ( 8 philosophic position4 ,9 8 ,essay he holds t ideas are n born 9 "o1 b t all k comes f exp]i5ce4 ,! m9d1 he decl>es1 is l #8:ite pap]1 or wax1' ^u :i* impressions f ! outside _w are made ?r\gh our s5ses4 ,:5 ! ideas are once 9 m9d1 x is necess>y to det]m9e :at !y tell u 9 ! way ( tru?4 ,h5ce1 to tra9 ! m9d to make prop] discrim9ations1 he decl>es 9 ! ,conduct ( ! ,und]/&+ t practice & discipl9e are necess>y4 8,w\ld y h a man reason well1 y mu/ use him to x betimes1 ex]cise 8 m9d 9 obs]v+ ! connection ( ideas & foll[+ !m 9 tra940 ,z to ! means ( effect+ ?is m5tal discipl9e1 ,locke holds3 8,no?+ does ?is bett] ?an ma!matics1 :i* !re=e ,i ?9k %\ld be taught all ^? :o h ! "t & opportunity1 n s mu* to make !m ma!maticians z to make !m reasonable creatures1 t hav+ got ! way ( reason+1 :i* t /udy necess>ily br+s ! m9d to1 !y might be able to transf] x to o!r p>ts ( k z !y %all h occasion40 ,simil>ly1 he advises a wide range ( sci5ces1 8to accu/om our m9ds to all sorts ( ideas & ! prop] ways ( exam9+ _! habitudes & relations2 n to make !m p]fect 9 any "o ( ! sci5ces1 b s to op5 & dispose _! m9ds z may be/ make !m capable ( any1 :5 !y %all apply !mselves to x40 ,sid5ote3 ,= moral tra9+1 ! desires %\ld be guid$ by reason4 ,sid5ote3 ,= physical tra9+1 ! #8h>d5+ process' %\ld be us$4 ,discipl9>y ,attitude 9 ,moral & ,physical ,tra9+4--,! same discipl9>y conception ( education und]lies ,locke's ideals ( moral tra9+3 8,t a man is able to d5y himself 8 own desires1 cross 8 own incl9ations1 & purely foll[ :at reason directs z be/1 ?o' ! appetite lean ! o!r way4 ,?is p[] is to be got & improv$ by cu/om1 made easy & famili> by an e>ly practice40 ,& ev5 m def9itely discipl9>y is ! well-kn[n #8h>d5+ process1' :i* he recomm5ds 9 physical tra9+3 8,! fir/ ?+ to be tak5 c>e ( is t *ildr5 be n too w>mly clad or cov]$1 w9t] or summ]4 ,! face1 :5 we are born1 is no less t5d] ?an any o!r "p ( ! body4 ,x is use alone h>d5s x1 & makes x m able to endure ! cold40 ,he likewise advises t a boy's 8feet be wa%$ e day 9 cold wat]10 t he 8h 8 %oes s ?9 t !y might leak & let 9 wat]10 t he 8play 9 ! w9d & sun )\t a hat10 & t 88 b$ be h>d40 ,sid5ote3 ,evolv$ ?r\gh ! disappe>ance ( ! utilit>ian argum5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,a g5]al p[] af=d$4 ,sid5ote3 ,e "o %\ld take c]ta9 /udies1 reg>dless ( int]e/4 ,orig91 ,significance1 & ,influ5ce ( ! ,!ory ( ,=mal ,discipl9e4--,?is emphasis ^u discipl9e 9 tra9+ ( e sort--intellectual1 moral1 physical--has (t5 caus$ ,locke to be reg>d$ z ! fir/ great expon5t ( ! educational doctr9e ( #8=mal discipl9e4' ,t !ory has be5 s widespread & important dur+ ! pa/ two c5turies z to require consid]ation "h4 ,dur+ ! ,middle ,ages & ! e>ly p]iod ( humanism ,lat9 0 n only ( cultural1 b ( practical utilit>ian value4 ,x 0 ! language ( ! ,*ur* & ( diplomacy1 & 9 x 0 lock$ up all ! le>n+ ( ! times4 ,all guidance 9 sci5ce1 lit]ature1 philosophy1 & politics t receiv$ any consid]ation 0 c\*$ 9 its t]ms4 ,b ) ! decl9e ( ecclesia/ical influ5ce1 ! developm5t ( v]nacul> languages1 & ! sci5tific awak5+ 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury 7see pp4 #afc f471 ?is utilit>ian argum5t = ! /udy ( ,lat9 0 l>gely swept away4 ,appeal 0 !n made 9 behalf ( ! subject to ! doctr9e ( #8=mal discipl9e1' :i* 0 support$ by ! #8faculty' psy*ology ( ,ari/otle4 ,x 0 held t ! /udy ( ,lat9 yields results out ( all proportion to ! ef=t exp5d$1 & gives a g5]al p[] t may be appli$ 9 any direction4 ,a simil> claim 0 be=e long made = ,greek & ma!matics4 ,ma!matics 0 decl>$ to %>p5 ! #8faculty ( reason1' :ile ! classic languages 7 believ$ to improve ! #8faculty ( memory4' ,consequ5tly1 x gradually came to be argu$ by =mal discipl9>ians t e "o %\ld take ^! all-important /udies1 reg>dless ( 8 int]e/1 ability1 or purpose 9 life1 s9ce he w\ld ?us be/ prep>e himself = any field ( labor4 ,all :o prov$ unfitt$ = ^! p>ticul> subjects h1 !re=e1 be5 suppos$ to be n qualifi$ = ! high] duties & responsibilities1 & to be unwor?y ( consid]ation 9 high] education4 ,sid5ote3 ,us$ by sci5ti/s4 ,sid5ote3 ,effect ^u in/itutions ( v>i\s c\ntries4 ,?is doctr9e ( =mal discipl9e has _h a trem5d\s effect ^u ea* /age ( education 9 practically e c\ntry & dur+ e p]iod until rec5tly4 ,ev5 ! sci5ti/s & advocates ( a v>iety ( o!r subjects1 in/ead ( argu+ = cont5t value & p>ticul> tra9+1 h made /r5u\s ef=ts to meet ?is argum5t by po9t+ out ! =mal discipl9e 9 _! own /udies 7see pp4 #djd f474 ,excell5t examples ( ! effect ( ?is !ory ^u educational in/itutions are f\nd 9 ! =mal classicism ( ! ,engli% gramm> & public s*ools & univ]sities & ( ! ,g]man gymnasiums4 ,:ile 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates a new] & m flexible society has enabl$ *anges to be m readily made1 z late z ! la/ decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ,greek1 ,lat91 & ma!matics l>gely made up ! /aples 9 _m high s*ools1 colleges1 & univ]sities1 & ! husks ( =mal gramm> 7 (t5 def5d$ 9 elem5t>y education ^u ! score ( =mal discipl9e4 ,sid5ote3 ,specific1 n g5]al1 p[]4 ,sid5ote3 ,cont5t1 r ?an =m1 /ress$4 ,sid5ote3 ,b "s g5]aliz$ p[]s possible4 ,opposition to ! ,discipl9>y ,!ory & ,m ,rec5t ,modification4--,at ! beg9n+ ( ! tw5tie? c5tury1 h[ev]1 ) ! ab&onm5t ( ! #8faculty psy*ology' & ! developm5t ( educational !ory1 a decid$ reaction f ! doctr9es ( =mal discipl9e began among psy*ologi/s & common s5se educators4 ,x is n[ almo/ univ]sally conc$$ t specific1 r ?an g5]al1 p[] is develop$ by ! v>i\s /udies1 & no /ud5t is held to be unwor?y ( education or imp]vi\s to culture1 simply because he is n adapt$ to ! classics or ma!matics4 ,9 consequ5ce1 ! cont5t ( /udies1 r ?an ! process ( acquisition1 has come to be emphasiz$1 ! curriculum has ev]y:]e be5 broad5$1 & ! pr9ciple ( ! election ( subjects l>gely recogniz$4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 felt )9 ! la/ half doz5 ye>s t 9 react+ f ! old !ory ( =mal discipl9e1 educators w5t too f>4 ,:ile x is /ill held t emphasis mu/ be laid ^u ! specific "* ( m5tal tra9+1 !re are "s g5]aliz$ p[]s & values to be obta9$4 ,x is realiz$ t 8a g5]al b5efit c be d]iv$ f specific tra9+ 9 s f> z ! p]son tra9$ has consci\sly wr\ght out 9 connection ) ! specific tra9+ a g5]al concept ( me?od1 bas$ ^u ! specific me?ods us$ 9 t tra9+0 7,f4 ,a4 ,hodge74 ,?us a /ud5t :o has once realiz$ ! value ( close reason+ ?r\gh ma!matical demon/rations is likely to develop a g5]al concept ( me?od1 & c h>dly be satisfi$ any long] ) slov5ly ?9k+ 9 o!r fields2 & ! f9e discrim9ations discov]$ 9 ! classical au?ors1 ! balanc$ judgm5t us$ 9 hi/orical me?od1 & ! accuracy requir$ 9 ! /udy ( ! sci5ces1 may well be ab/ract$ & t5d to furni% a g5]aliz$ ideal = o!r l9es ( endeavor4 ,sid5ote3 ,& ,locke's #8discipl9e' is ( ?is k9d4 ,sid5ote3 ,g5]aliz$ values ( ma!matics4 ,sid5ote3 ,locke did n def5d ! =malism ( public s*ools4 ,locke's ,real ,position on ,=mal ,discipl9e4--,x w\ld seem z if ?is modifi$ =m ( g5]al p[] 7 all t ,locke _h 9 m9d4 ,he def9itely conc$es t 8le>n+ pages ( ,lat9 by he>t1 no m fits ! memory = ret5tion ( any?+ else1 ?an ! grav+ ( "o s5t5ce 9 lead makes x ! m capable ( reta9+ firmly any o!r *>act]s40 ,& :ile he holds t ! me?od ( reason+ 9 ma!matics c be transf]r$ #8to o!r p>ts ( k1' he decl>es t m5 :o are reasonable 9 "s ?+s are (t5 v unreasonable 9 o!rs1 & 8m5 :o may reason well 9 "o sort ( matt]s to-day may n d s at all a ye> h5ce40 ,! g5]aliz$ b5efits t /ud5ts may obta9 f ma!matics are simply t x 8w\ld %[ !m ! necessity !re is1 9 reason+1 to sep>ate all di/9ct ideas1 & see ! habitudes t all ^? conc]n$ 9 ! pres5t inquiry h to "o ano!r1 & to lay by ^? :i* relate n to ! proposition 9 h& & :olly to leave !m out ( ! reckon+4 ,?is is t :i* 9 o!r subjects is absolutely requisite to j reason+40 ,?us ,locke appe>s to be r 9 h>mony ) mod]n educational !ory ?an a ?or\gh-go+ advocate ( =mal discipl9e4 ,at any rate1 x %\ld be recogniz$ t he did n def5d1 b vigor\sly assail$1 ! grammatical & l+ui/ic gr9d 9 ! ,engli% public s*ools4 ,8 attitude t[>d =mal discipl9e seems to h sprung f 8 desire to root out ! traditional & false1 r ?an to support ! n>r[ humani/ic curricula ( ! times4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 pp4 #cje-caa2 & ,great ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 *ap4 ,,vi2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *ap4 ,,ix4 ,= a m ext5d$ acc\nt ( ,locke1 read 8 ,?\ghts & ,conduct1 & ,f[l]1 ,t41 ,john ,locke 7,macmillan1 #aija74 ,! lit]ature ( =mal discipl9e is mo/ ext5sive & ! subject is /ill "u discussion2 b a good summ>y ( all writt5 up to #aiaa is furni%$ 9 ,heck1 ,w4 ,h41 ,m5tal ,discipl9e & ,educational ,values 7,john ,lane1 ,new ,york71 & lat] articles c be f\nd by consult+ ! index ( ,! ,am]ican ,psy*ological ,review4 ,9 a doctoral diss]tation 7,univ]sity ( ,virg9ia71 ,john ,locke & ,=mal ,discipl9e1 ,hodge1 ,f4 ,a41 makes x cle> t ! common int]pretation ( ,locke z a =mal discipl9>ian is unfair4 ,! mo/ typical ( ! e>lie/ opposition to ! discipl9>y argum5t is probably f\nd 9 ,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l41 ,educational ,psy*ology 7,tea*]s ,college1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,,viii2 ! sane/ discussion ( ! possible transf] ( ideals appe>s 9 ,bagley1 ,w4 ,c41 ,educative ,process 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *ap4 ,,xiii2 & ! reaction to ! reaction is be/ portray$ by ,angell1 ,pillsbury1 & ,judd 9 ,educational ,review1 vol4 ,,xxxvi1 pp4 #a-dc4 ,lyans1 ,c4 ,k41 9 8 article ^u ,=mal ,discipl9e 7,p$agogical ,sem9>y1 vol4 ,,xxi1 pp4 #cdc-cic7 makes a mo/ c>eful analysis ( ! int]pretations ( ! def5d]s & oppon5ts ( ! !ory1 & gives a v ?or\gh discussion ( transf]s4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,education ,,9 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,colonies ,,outl9e ,! s*ools ( ! ,am]ican colonies closely resembl$ ^? ( ! ,european c\ntries f :i* ! coloni/s came1 & 7 influ5c$ by ! v>i\s religi\s conceptions ( education t 7 curr5t 9 ea* case4 ,9 g5]al1 :]e ! ,calv9i/ic attitude prevail$1 ! colonies attempt$ univ]sal education1 b :]e ! ,anglican communion dom9at$1 ! ari/ocratic ideal ( education 0 9 evid5ce4 ,?ree types ( colonial s*ool organization appe>$3 7#a7 laissez faire 9 ,virg9ia2 7#b7 #8p>o*ial' 9 ,new ,ne!rl&s2 & 7#c7 gov]nm5tal activity 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,! ,s\? g5]ally foll[$ ! same plan z ,virg9ia1 & ,new ,york 7aft] ! ,engli% occupation7 & ,rhode ,isl& also develop$ on ?is basis4 ,! o!r ,middle & ,new ,engl& colonies foll[$ ! p>o*ial & gov]nm5tal patt]ns respectively4 ,sid5ote3 ,! sev5te5? c5tury a p]iod ( #8transplantation ( s*ools4' ,am]ican ,education a ,developm5t f ,european4--,we h hi!rto _h little occasion to speak ( ,am]ican education1 except by way ( anticipat+ c]ta9 great waves ( influ5ce & important in/itutions t h come into ,am]ica f ,europe4 ,b we h n[ rea*$ ! p]iod :5 ! ,new ,_w began to be ext5sively coloniz$1 & 9 ! re/ ( our /udy educational practices 9 ,am]ica w become increas+ly di/9ctive & influ5tial4 ,! s*ools ( ,am]ica are ! (fspr+ ( ,european in/itutions1 & h _! roots deep 9 ! social soil ( ! l&s f :i* ! coloni/s came4 ,:ile ! univ]sal1 free1 & secul> s*ools ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are a natural accompanim5t ( its republican =m ( gov]nm5t1 l ! new democracy itself1 ?is developm5t ( popul> education 0 n rea*$ at a b\nd4 ,at fir/ ! ,am]ican s*ools resembl$ ! in/itutions ( ! ,"m ,c\ntry z closely z ! fronti] life w\ld p]mit4 ,! sev5te5? c5tury 01 !re=e1 = ,am]ican education di/9ctly a p]iod ( #8transplantation ( s*ools1' ) little or no consci\s *ange2 & x is only t[>d ! middle ( ! next c5tury1 z new social & political conditions 7 evolv+ & ! days ( ! ,revolution 7 approa*+1 t !re are evid5t ! gradual modification ( ,european ideals & ! diff]5tiation ( ,am]ican s*ools t[>d an ideal ( _! own4 ,sid5ote3 ,influ5ce ( ,re=mation p]iod ^u ! coloni/s4 ,conditions 9 ,europe f ,:i* ,am]ican ,education ,sprang4--,h5ce1 9 ord] to und]/& ,am]ican education 9 ! colonial p]iod1 we mu/ briefly consid] ! social & educational conditions 9 ,europe dur+ ! e>ly "p ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 :5 ! coloni/s began _! migrations4 ,! ?irte5 ,am]ican colonies 7 />t$ :ile ! fi]ce agitations ( ! ,re=mation p]iod 7 /ill at _! height4 ,! settl]s1 = ! mo/ "p1 7 ,prote/ants1 & _m ( !m _h emigrat$ 9 ord] to e/abli% in/itutions--political1 ecclesia/ical1 educational--t w\ld con=m to _! own ideals1 & 9 all cases education 9 ! ,new ,_w 0 giv5 a peculi> importance by ! dom9ant religi\s int]e/s & conflicts ( ! old4 ,at ?is "t 9 practically all ! /ates ( ,europe1 educational in/itutions 7 controll$ & support$ by ! ,*ur* & religi\s ord]s1 ) ! assi/ance ( private b5evol5ce2 b a few s*ools ev]y:]e1 & especially 9 ,teutonic c\ntries1 7 ma9ta9$ by pre-,re=mation craft gilds1 & s _h a close connection ) municipalities 7see p4 #ib74 ,?us ! ,am]ican s*ools at fir/ naturally adopt$ ! religi\s conception ( education & religi\s dom9ation1 b _h "s acqua9tance ) free s*ools & municipal managem5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,t5d5cy t[>d univ]sal education among ,calv9i/s1 b ari/ocratic ideals among ,anglicans4 ,9 addition to ^! *>act]i/ics1 ! religi\s re=m]s1 l ,lu!r & ,calv91 g5]ally held to ! idea t a sy/em ( s*ools %\ld be support$1 or at lea/ e/abli%$1 by ! /ate1 & t all *ildr5 %\ld h an opportunity to secure an education suffici5t to make !m famili> ) ! ,scriptures4 ,if p 7 to be guid$ by ! ^w ( ,god1 !y mu/ all be able to read x4 ,b ?is view ( education 0 n held by ^? = :om1 z 9 ! ,engli% ,*ur*1 ! ,re=mation 0 n prim>ily a religi\s & !ological1 b r an ecclesia/ical & political revolt4 ,9 ,holl& & ,scotl&1 = example1 :]e ,calv9ism prevail$1 univ]sal education 0 upheld by ! mass ( ! p1 b 9 ,france & ,engl& only a small m9ority1 ! ,hugu5ots & ,puritans respectively1 adopt$ ?is attitude4 ,h5ce x happ5s t1 :]ev] 9 ,am]ica ! influ5ce ( ,puritanism1 ! ,dut* ,re=m$ religion1 ,scot* ,presbyt]ianism1 or o!r =ms ( ,calv9ism 0 felt1 ! nucleus ( public education appe>$1 :ile 9 ! colonies :]e ! ,anglican communion 0 dom9ant1 ! ari/ocratic idea ( education prevail$ & tra9+ ( ! masses 0 neglect$4 ,h[ev]1 ev5 among ! ,calv9i/s1 :o held t elem5t>y education %\ld be univ]sal1 & t ! ,/ate z well z ! ,*ur* %\ld hold itself responsible = its be+ furni%$1 ! logical solution ( ! problem 0 n p]ceiv$ = scores ( ye>s4 ,9 ! ,calv9i/ic colonies x 0 n at fir/ believ$ t education %\ld be ! same 9 "* = all or t ! ,/ate %\ld be> ! exp5se ?r\gh taxation4 ,?is di/9ctively ,am]ican int]pretation ( public education did develop lat]1 b 9 ! beg9n+ ev5 ! mo/ advanc$ colonies to "s ext5t plac$ ! f9ancial responsibility ^u ! p>5t or gu>dian4 ,sid5ote3 ,?ree *ief types4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ,virg9ia1 selective education1 inh]it$ f ,engl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,consequ5t educational legislation4 ,colonial ,s*ool ,organization3 ,! ,ari/ocratic ,type 9 ,virg9ia4--,z a result ( ^! g5]al traditions & *>act]i/ics1 !re w\ld seem to h be5 ?ree *ief types ( s*ool organization 9 ! colonies4 ,^! 7 7#a7 ! laissez faire me?od1 curr5t 9 ,virg9ia & ! ,s\?2 7#b7 ! p>o*ial organization ( ,new ,ne!rl&s & ! ,middle ,colonies 9 g5]al2 7#c7 ! gov]nm5tal activity 9 ,massa*usetts & mo/ ( ! o!r ,new ,engl& colonies4 ,we may pr(itably discuss ^! typical organizations 9 ord]4 ,turn+ fir/ to ! ari/ocratic colonies ( ! ,s\?1 we may select ,virg9ia1 ! olde/ ( ^! prov9ces1 z repres5tative ( ! type4 ,t colony con/itut$ ! fir/ attempt ( ,engl& at reproduc+ h]self 9 ! ,new ,_w1 & "h are f\nd an ord] ( society1 =m ( gov]nm5t1 e/abli%$ *ur*1 & di/9ction betwe5 classes1 simil> to ^? ( ! ,"m ,c\ntry4 ,= "s "t !re exi/$ a %>p l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! g5try1 or l&[n+ class1 & ! masses1 :i* includ$ ! l&less1 ind5tur$ s]vants1 & o!r dep5d5ts4 ,9 education1 ! coloni/s _h br\ght ) !m ! idea ( a classical high] & second>y tra9+ = ! upp] classes 9 ! semi-mona/ic type ( univ]sity & ! 7,lat97 gramm> s*ool 7see pp4 #abj f471 & b little 9 ! way ( elem5t>y education1 except private #8dame' s*ools & ! cate*etical tra9+ by ! cl]gy4 ,!re 71 9 addition1 ! family #8tutorial' education1 bo? second>y & elem5t>y1 = ! *ildr5 ( ! weal?y1 & evid5t attempts at p]petuat+ ! old ,engli% indu/rial tra9+ ?r\gh appr5tice%ip = orphans & *ildr5 ( ! poor4 ,b no su* in/itution z a public elem5t>y s*ool 0 at fir/ kn[n4 ,9 consequ5ce1 ! educational legislation 9 colonial ,virg9ia is conc]n$ ma9ly ) 7a7 ! organization ( a college or univ]sity1 7b7 individual s*ools ( second>y grade1 & 7c7 appr5tice%ip education = ! poor4 ,sid5ote3 ,ef=ts to f\nd a college ,sid5ote3 & second>y s*ools4 ,dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( a c5tury mo/ educational ef=ts 9 ,virg9ia 7 9 behalf ( ! f\ndation ( an in/itution ( high] le>n+1 & 7 aid$ by ! k+1 ! ,anglican bi%ops1 & ! ,london ,company4 ,by #afai ov] #bjjj & a grant ( t5 ?\s& acres ( l& _h be5 obta9$ = a ,univ]sity at ,h5rico1 b ?is r indef9ite plan 0 br\ght to a viol5t end by ! ,indian massacre ( #afbb1 & ! funds 7 div]t$ to a s*ool 9 ! ,bahamas4 ,an ev5 m fruitless endeavor to f\nd a college 0 made 9 #afbd by ,sir ,edw9 ,palm] ^u an isl& 9 ! ,susquehanna4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod also !re 0 at lea/ "o abortive attempt to e/abli% a s*ool by collections & gifts1 & dur+ ! second qu>t] c5tury ( ! colony !re 7 *>t]$ a numb] ( second>y s*ools1 end[$ ) beque/s ( l&1 money1 c[s1 horses1 slaves1 or o!r prop]ty4 ,^! s*ools1 h[ev]1 7 local1 & resembl$ ! end[$ ,lat9 s*ools ( ,engl&1 except t !y may sometimes h be5 oblig$ by circum/ances to include m or less elem5t>y in/ruction4 ,9 #affj !re 0 also a r5ew$ attempt to e/abli% by subscriptions a college & 8free 7second>y7 s*ool = ! advance ( le>n+1 education ( y\?1 supply ( ! m9i/ry & promotion ( piety40 ,b none ( ! ef=ts at f\nd+ s*ools c\ld h be5 v successful1 =1 a decade lat]1 :5 int]rogat$ z to :at k9d ( education exi/$ 9 ! colonies1 ,gov]nor ,b]keley made 8 fam\s reply3 8,! same c\rse t is tak5 9 ,engl& out ( t[ns2 e man accord+ to 8 ability in/ruct+ 8 *ildr54444 ,i ?ank ,god !re are no free s*ools1 & ,i hope we %all n h !m ^! hundr$ ye>s2 = le>n+ has br\ght disob$i5ce & h]esy & sects into ! _w40 ,sid5ote3 ,appr5tice%ip education = ! poor4 ,h[ev]1 despite ^! bias$ rem>ks ( ! te/y gov]nor1 by #afib ! con/ant ef=ts to obta9 an in/itution ( le>n+ 7 f9ally rew>d$4 ,?r\gh ! managem5t ( ! ,rev]5d ,james ,blair1 ,d4 ,d41 ! bi%op's commiss>y 9 ,virg9ia1 a *>t] = ! ,college ( ,william & ,m>y1 a gift ( #bjjj & ( tw5ty ?\s& acres ( l&1 & ! "r to c]ta9 colonial taxes 7 obta9$ f ! k+1 & l>ge donations 7 made by ! plant]s & additional support provid$ by ! assembly4 ,9 fact1 ! college 0 munific5tly end[$ = ! times1 & x did a great "w 9 tra9+ ! greate/ s*ol>s1 /atesm51 judges1 milit>y (fic]s1 & o!r lead]s dur+ ! /ruggle = indep5d5ce4 ,moreov]1 #8free' s*ools n[ greatly increas$ 9 numb] & _! c\rses 7 mu* improv$4 ,b education 0 ?r\gh\t ?is e>ly p]iod reg>d$ z a special privilege1 & ! masses 7 mo/ly employ$ 9 mak+ tobacco1 & o!r manual pursuits4 ,= ! sons ( ^! p ! only educational legislation 0 t provid$ betwe5 #afdc & #agdh 9 v>i\s acts conc]n+ ! indu/rial tra9+ ( ! poor1 appr5tices1 w>ds1 & orphans4 ,9 keep+ ) ,engli% prec$5ts1 ^! *ildr5 7 taught a trade by ! ma/]s to :om !y 7 ind5tur$1 or tra9$ 9 ! flax-h\se e/abli%$ by public funds at ,james ,city4 ,?us1 by ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury a fair provision ( second>y & high] education _h be5 volunt>ily made 9 v>i\s localities1 b z yet no real int]e/ 9 common s*ools _h be5 %[n by ! responsible classes 9 ,virg9ia4 ,education 0 !re pr$om9antly #8selective' 9 "*4 ,sid5ote3 ,calv9i/ic conception ( univ]sal education1 z 9 ,holl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,cate*ism & pray]s ( ,re=m$ ,*ur*1 z well z elem5t>y bran*es1 taught4 ,sid5ote3 ,b1 ) ,engli% occupation1 replac$ by laissez faire organization4 ,! ,p>o*ial ,s*ools 9 ,new ,ne!rl&s4--,a second type ( colonial organization ( education appe>s 9 ! ,new ,ne!rl&s1 z ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,delaw>e & ,connecticut riv]s 0 call$ dur+ ! p]iod ( ,dut* control 7#afba-afgd74 ,9 contra/ to ! laissez faire attitude ( ,virg9ia1 ! f\ndation ( s*ools 0 p>o*ial4 ,in/ead ( ! *ance end[m5t ( s*ools :]ev] ! b5efactors happ5$ to be locat$1 a s*ool 0 f\nd$ 9 connection ) e *ur*4 ,?is arrangem5t grew out ( ! ,calv9i/ic conception ( univ]sal education1 :i* =m$ an ess5tial "p ( ! social traditions 9 ,holl& dur+ ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,long be=e ! ,dut* came to ,am]ica1 ! p>o*ial s*ool1 z a means ( pres]v+ ! ,re=m$ fai?1 _h become an indisp5sable "p ( *ur* organization4 ,b ! ,dut* /ate also _h conc]n$ itself ) ! facilities = education4 ,! ,re=m$ ,dut* ,*ur* 0 grant$ ! "r to exam9e tea*]s1 en=ce subscription to ! cre$1 &1 9 ! case ( ! elem5t>y s*ools at lea/1 l>gely det]m9e ! appo9tm5ts1 b ! legal support & control ( education 7 ve/$ 9 ! civil au?orities4 ,h5ce !re e>ly arose 9 ,new ,am/]dam & ! villages ( ,new ,ne!rl&s a p>o*ial s*ool sy/em & a di/ribution ( control betwe5 ,*ur* & ,/ate v simil> to t 9 ,holl&4 ,besides ! ord9>y elem5t>y bran*es1 ^! p>o*ial s*ools ( ! ,new ,ne!rl&s taught ! #8true pr9ciples ( ,*ri/ian religion1' & ! cate*ism & pray]s ( ! ,re=m$ ,*ur*4 ,?us ! ,dut* s*ool diff]$ f ^? 9 ! ,anglican colonies ( ! ,s\?1 :i* /ress$ second>y education1 9 be+ *iefly elem5t>y1 al?\gh "s attempt at conduct+ a ,lat9 or #8gramm>' 7see p4 #abj7 s*ool 0 also made 9 ,new ,am/]dam f #afeb on4 ,h[ev]1 aft] ! ,engli% took p]man5t possession ( ,new ,york 7#afgd71 ! p>o*ial s*ool ( ! city 0 limit$ to ! support ( ! ,re=m$ ,*ur*1 &1 z a result ( its long refusal to adopt ! ,engli% language1 its possible influ5ce t[>d ! realization ( univ]sal education 0 completely lo/4 ,:ile ! ,dut* s*ools ( ! villages g5]ally reta9$ ! jo9t control & support ( ! local c\rt & *ur*1 ) a con/antly increas+ dom9ation ( ! =m]1 z a :ole ! ,engli% occupation ( ,new ,york w\ld seem to h set public education back ab\t a hundr$ ye>s4 ,at any rate1 by ! eighte5? c5tury colonial ,new ,york seems to h fall5 into ! same laissez faire support ( education t prevail$ 9 ! ,s\!rn colonies4 ,! policy ( univ]sal education by means ( p>o*ial s*ools no long] exi/$4 ,sid5ote3 ,m sects & ! municipality n cord9at$4 ,sid5ote3 ,fri5ds1 ,sid5ote3 ,lu!rans1 ,sid5ote3 ,m5nonites1 ,sid5ote3 & o!rs4 ,sect>ian ,organization ( ,s*ools 9 ,p5nsylvania4--,z a colony1 ,p5nsylvania develop$ a *ur* s*ool organization1 simil> to t ( ! ,new ,ne!rl&s1 except t x 0 c>ri$ on 9 connection ) a numb] ( cre$s1 & t ! municipality 0 seldom a cord9ate factor4 ,p5nsylvania 0 m het]og5e\s 9 population ?an ,new ,york1 z ! tol]ant attitude ( ! ,quak] gov]nm5t _h attract$ a l>ge v>iety ( ,g]man sects1 ,sw$es1 ,dut*1 ,engli%1 ,wel%1 & ,scot* & ,iri% ,presbyt]ians1 & ea* 0 devot$ to its own d5om9ational s*ools4 ,e>ly 9 ! eighte5? c5tury all ,prote/ant religi\s bodies 7 au?oriz$ by /atute to conduct s*ools & to receive beque/s & hold l& = _! support4 ,ev5 be=e ?is ! ,fri5ds _h />t$ ! #8,p5n ,*>t] ,s*ool1' :i*1 :ile itself a second>y s*ool1 soon e/abli%$ elem5t>y s*ools z bran*es ?r\gh\t ! city ^u v>i\s arrangem5ts4 ,9 keep+ ) ! conclusions ( v>i\s #8,ye>ly ,meet+s' 7#agbb1 #agdf1 etc471 ! ,fri5ds also provid$ elem5t>y1 & to "s ext5t second>y1 s*ools 9 close proximity to all meet+-h\ses ?r\gh\t ! colony4 ,simil>ly1 ! ,lu!ran congregations1 = example1 ea* set up a s*ool alongside ( ! *ur* z e>ly z possible4 ,likewise ! ,m5nonites includ$ 9 _! sy/em ! fam\s s*ools ( ,*ri/oph] ,dock1 :o 9 #agej produc$ ! fir/ elaborate educational treatise 9 ,am]ica4 ,!re 0 also "s attempt at #8gramm>' s*ools 7see p4 #abj7 or second>y education1 especially 9 ! case ( ! well-kn[n ,moravian in/itutions at ,be?lehem1 ,naz>e?1 & ,lititz1 & ! ,presbyt]ian ,log ,college at ,ne%am9y1 :i* became ! cradle ( ,pr9ceton1 ,wa%+ton & ,jeff]son1 ,hampd5-,sidney1 & ,union ,colleges4 ,sid5ote3 ,broad] attempts4 ,a some:at broad] _s 0 manife/ 9 ! volunt>y #8neighborhood' s*ools ( ,we/]n ,p5nsylvania & else:]e1 9 ! attempts at univ]sal education ( ! ,connecticut coloni/s 9 ! ,wyom+ ,valley1 & 9 ! #8academy' 7see p4 #aei7 set up at ,philadelphia ?r\gh ,frankl91 to tra9 public m5 & tea*]s1 & fuse ! v>i\s nations 9 a common citiz5%ip4 ,b1 z a :ole1 p>o*ial s*ools ex]t$ ! greate/ influ5ce 9 ! colony ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,sid5ote3 ,democratic & homog5e\s society produc$ gov]nm5tal activity4 ,t[n ,s*ools 9 ,massa*usetts4--,! ?ird type ( colonial s*ool organization appe>$ fir/ 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,z comp>$ ) ! laissez faire & ! p>o*ial me?ods1 gov]nm5tal activity "h prevail$4 ,accord+ly1 ,massa*usetts may be said to h inaugurat$ ! fir/ real sy/em ( public education 9 ,am]ica4 ,! "* ( ! s*ools 9 ?is colony develop$ f its peculi> =m ( society & gov]nm5t4 ,x 0 democratic1 conc5trat$1 & homog5e\s1 z comp>$ ) ! cosmopolitan & sect>ian social /ructure 9 ! ,middle colonies1 or ! class di/9ctions & scatt]$ population ( ! ,s\?4 ,:ile !re 7 "s s]vants & dep5d5ts 9 ! ,massa*usetts ,bay ,colony & a di/9ction 0 made betwe5 #8freem5' & o!rs1 !re 7 at no "t rival elem5ts t 7 unable to comb9e4 ,! settlem5ts 7 n a m]e conf$]ation1 b ! bl5d+ ( all elem5ts into a s+le organism1 :]e ! individuality ( ea* 0 m]g$ 9 a new social :ole4 ,?is condition 0 a result ( ! radical +ra9$ religi\s conviction t e "o 0 a *ild ( ,god1 capable ( becom+ a vital & useful memb] ( society1 & t ! community 0 obligat$ to give him tra9+ to t end 9 ! home1 ! *ur*1 & ! s*ool4 ,sid5ote3 ,acts ( #afdb ,sid5ote3 & #afdg4 ,out ( ?is ,calv9i/ic attitude sprang a _s ( cop]ation & helpfulness1 a g5]al p>ticipation ( all t[nsm5 9 local gov]nm5t1 & ! ,massa*usetts type ( s*ool organization4 ,common s*ools seem to h be5 support$ 9 mo/ t[ns f ! fir/ by volunt>y or compulsory subscriptions1 & be=e ! close ( ! fir/ qu>t] ( a c5tury !re _h be5 e/abli%$ by ! colony at l>ge an educational sy/em 9 :i* e citiz5 _h a work+ %>e4 ,because ( ?is inclusiv5ess & unity 9 matt]s !ological1 ! s*ools1 :ile religi\s & moral1 c\ld h>dly be consid]$ sect>ian4 ,! fir/ educational act ( ! colony1 pass$ 9 #afdb1 0 simil> to ! old ,engli% appr5tice%ip law 9 its provision = indu/rial education1 &1 :ile x 0 broad5$ s z to include "s lit]>y elem5ts & a rate to procure mat]ials 0 e/abli%$1 no s*ool is m5tion$ 9 x4 ,b 9 #afdg ea* t[n ( fifty families 0 requir$1 "u a p5alty ( #e1 to ma9ta9 an elem5t>y s*ool 7,fig4 #bb71 & e "o ( a hundr$ families a 7,lat97 #8gramm>' 7,fig4 #bc7 s*ool4 ,^! s*ools might be support$ 9 "p by tuition fees1 z well z by ! t[n rate1 & ! obligation seems to h /ill re/$ on ! p>5ts to see t ! *ildr5 did #8resort' to ! s*ool1 b ! g]ms ( ! pres5t common s*ool sy/em 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates appe> 9 ! educational activity ( ! legislature 9 colonial ,massa*usetts4 ,! #8gramm>' s*ools 7 to prep>e boys = ,h>v>d ,college 7,fig4 #bd71 :i* _h be5 f\nd$ 9 #afcf4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\nty s*ools 9 ,m>yl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,p>i% s*ools 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,sid5ote3 ,georgia f9anc$ by p>liam5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,democratic t5d5cies 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,education 9 ! ,o!r ,colonies4--,9 g5]al1 ! organization ( education 9 ! rema9+ n9e colonies c be class$ "u "o ( ! ?ree types1 describ$ above1 b !re are v>i\s modifications & "s exceptions to be not$4 ,! laissez faire f\ndation ( s*ools & colleges dur+ ! colonial p]iod1 :i* 0 evid5t 9 ,virg9ia1 seems to be *>act]i/ic ( ! f\r o!r colonies ( ! ,s\?4 ,b ! problems 7 9 e case a little diff]5t1 & 9 ea* !re 7 v>iations 9 developm5t4 ,m>yl&1 = example1 :ile ma9ly foll[+ ! same r&om f\ndation ( s*ools z ,virg9ia1 also s]i\sly endeavor$ 7#afif7 to support s*ools 9 e c\nty by a g5]al colonial tax4 ,s\? ,c>ol9a likewise made an unsuccessful attempt 7#agbb7 at e/abli%+ a c\nty sy/em ( s*ools1 &1 a decade be=e1 x und]took to subsidize a s*ool 9 ea* p>i%4 ,georgia1 on ! o!r h&1 until ! ,revolution1 _h its entire budget1 includ+ ! items = education1 f9anc$ by ! ,engli% p>liam5t4 ,& ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ?r\gh a l>ge numb] ( ,iri% & ,scot* ,presbyt]ians1 ,g]man ,prote/ants1 & o!r immigrants1 mo/ly f ,p5nsylvania1 aft] #agbh began to break away f ! ari/ocratic policy4 ,sid5ote3 ,r&om organization 9 ,new ,york & ,rhode ,isl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,gov]nm5tal activity 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,moreov]1 aft] ! p]man5t occupation 7#afgd7 by ! ,engli%1 ,new ,york w5t ov] to ! laissez faire plan 7see p4 #aid74 ,&1 al?\gh 9 ! rema9+ #8middle' colonies1 ,new ,j]sey & ,delaw>e1 some?+ 0 accompli%$ by ! p>o*ial s*ools ( ! v>i\s sects1 mu* ( ! s*ool organization !re 0 laissez faire4 ,likewise1 ,rhode ,isl&1 dom9at$ by a fanatical devotion to fre$om 9 ?\ght & spee*1 fail$ ?r\gh\t colonial days to pass any g5]al regulations on education1 l ^? ( ,massa*usetts1 & foll[$ m closely ! r&om organization ( s*ools 9 ,virg9ia4 ,b ! o!r ,new ,engl& colonies1 ,connecticut & ,new ,hamp%ire1 :5 x sep>at$ f ,massa*usetts1 t5d$ to provide s*ools aft] ! ,massa*usetts plan4 ,! ,h>t=d colony ( ,connecticut 9 its /atutes ( #afej copi$ almo/ v]batim ! phraseology us$ by ,massa*usetts 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( s*ools4 ,x rema9s = lat] *apt]s to %[ h[ ! practices sugge/$ by ?is type ( organization h ev5tually ov]come ^? ( ! o!r two1 = t did n come to pass until aft] ! colonial p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,t[n s*ool at ,d$ham 7,massa*usetts7 ) wat*-t[]1 built 9 #afdh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,bo/on ,lat9 ,s*ool1 f\nd$ 9 #afce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,! build+s ( ,h>v>d ,college 7f\nd$ #afcf7 erect$ 9 #afge1 #afii1 & #agbj4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap1 iv2 ,clews1 ,elsie ,w41 af=ds prim>y s\rce mat]ial 9 ,educational ,legislation & ,adm9i/ration ( ! ,colonial ,gov]nm5ts 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,dep>tm5t ( ,philosophy & ,psy*ology1 ,no4 #f74 ,! int]pretation ( educational organization 9 ,colonial ,s*ools us$ 9 ?is *apt] is furni%$ by ,monroe & ,kilpatrick 9 ! ,monroe ,cyclopdia ( ,education 7,macmillan1 #aiaj-ad74 ,= conditions 9 ! v>i\s colonies1 consult ,dext]1 ,e4 ,g41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7,macmillan1 #aijd71 *aps4 ,i-,,vi2 ,jackson1 ,g4 ,l41 ,! ,developm5t ( ,s*ool ,support 9 ,colonial ,massa*usetts 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,tea*]s ,college ,contributions1 ,no4 #be1 #aiji72 ,kilpatrick1 ,w4 ,h41 ,! ,dut* ,s*ools ( ,new ,ne!rl& 7,bullet91 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,education1 #aiab72 ,mc,crady1 ,e41 ,education 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a 7,collections ( ! ,hi/orical ,society ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 vol4 ,,iv72 ,smi?1 ,c4 ,l41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,education1 ,circul> ( ,in=mation1 no4 #b1 #ahid72 ,/e9]1 ,b4 ,c41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,connecticut 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,education1 ,circul> ( ,in=mation1 no4 #b1 #ahic7 & ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,m>yl& 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,education1 ,circul> ( ,in=mation1 no4 #b1 #ahid71 *aps4 ,i-,,iv2 ,/ockwell1 ,t4 ,b41 ,hi/ory ( ,public ,education 9 ,rhode ,isl& 7,provid5ce ,press ,co41 ,provid5ce1 #ahgf71 pp4 #bha-djd2 & ,wick]%am1 ,j4 ,p41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,p5nsylvania 7,lanca/]1 ,p5nsylvania1 #ahhf71 *aps4 ,i-,,xii4 ,,"p ,,iv ,,mod]n ,,times ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,gr[? ,,( ,,! ,,democratic ,,ideal ,,9 ,,education ,,outl9e ,dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury1 !re appe>$ ! climax to ! revolt aga9/ absolutism4 ,?is movem5t 0 direct$ aga9/ repression ( intellect 9 ! fir/ half ( ! c5tury1 & aga9/ repression ( political rights 9 ! second half4 ,! =m] phase1 ?r\gh ,voltaire1 made reason ! basis ( society & education1 b introduc$ ! tyranny ( an intellectual few2 ! latt]1 ?r\gh ,r\sseau1 promot$ an emotionalism & #8naturalism' t 7 9 keep+ ) ! s5tim5ts ( ! times4 ,! e>ly treatises ( ,r\sseau advocat$ a complete return to nature1 b 8 lat] works some:at modifi$ ?is attitude4 ,sid5ote3 ,! eighte5? c5tury m>k$ ! climax ( ! rebellion aga9/ ! enslavem5t ( ! individual4 ,! ,revolt f ,absolutism4--,! ideal ( univ]sality & ( /ate control 9 ! education ( ,am]ica & o!r c\ntries 0 greatly assi/$ by ! climax to ! g5]al revolt aga9/ absolutism & ecclesia/icism t appe>$ 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ( "t mo/ /r5u\s ef=ts 7 made to int]pret life f a m reasonable & natural po9t ( view & to ov]?r[ all cu/oms & in/itutions t did n squ>e ) ^! te/s4 ,?is c5tury m>k$ ! climax ( ! rebellion aga9/ au?ority & aga9/ ! enslavem5t ( ! individual t _h be5 manife/+ itself 9 "o =m or ano!r f ! close ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,"o revival aft] ano!r--! ,r5aissance1 ! ,re=mation1 realism1 ,puritanism1 ,pietism--_h bur/ =? only to fade away or h>d5 into a new =malism & au?oritative /&>d4 ,yet ) ea* ef=t some?+ 0 really accompli%$ = fre$om & progress1 & ! way 0 pav$ = ! seem+ly abrupt break f tradition t appe>s to m>k ! p]iod r\ghly includ$ 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,at ?is po9t despotism & ecclesia/icism 7 becom+ ?or\ghly intol]able1 & ! individual t5d$ m & m to ass]t 8 "r to be an end 9 himself4 ,at times all in/itutional b>ri]s 7 swept aside1 & 9 ! ,fr5* ,revolution de/ruction w5t to an extreme4 ,! logical consequ5ce ( ^! movem5ts w\ld h be5 complete social dis9tegration1 _h n ! n9ete5? c5tury happily made consci\s ef=ts to ju/ify ! eighte5?1 & br+ out ! positions t 7 only impli$ 9 ! negations ( ! latt]4 ,?us ! revolution>y t5d5cies & de/ruction ( absolutism 9 ! eighte5? c5tury l$ to evolution>y movem5ts & ! con/ruction ( democracy 9 ! n9ete5?4 ,sid5ote3 ,! revolt aga9/ repression 7#a7 ( intellect & 7#b7 ( political rights4 ,! ,two ,epo*s 9 ! ,eighte5? ,c5tury4--,b ?is revolt ( ! eighte5? c5tury f absolutism 9 politics1 religion1 & ?\ght1 falls naturally into two p>ts4 ,dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! c5tury ! movem5t 0 direct$ aga9/ repression 9 !ology & intellect1 & dur+ ! second half aga9/ repression 9 politics & ! rights ( man4 ,! =m] t5d5cy appe>s 9 ! rationalism & skepticism ( su* m5 z ,voltaire &1 ! #8encyclop$i/s1' :ile ! latt] becomes evid5t *iefly 9 ! emotionalism & #8naturalism' ( ,r\sseau4 ,al?\gh ^! aspects ( ! revolution>y movem5t some:at ov]lapp$ ea* o!r & _h c]ta9 features 9 common1 !y %\ld be cle>ly di/+ui%$4 ,! "o prep>$ ! way = ! o!r by seek+ to de/roy exi/+ abuses1 especially ( ! ,*ur*1 by ! application ( reason1 b x gave no e> to ! claims ( ! masses1 & s\ght m]ely to replace ! traditionalism ( ! cl]gy & mon>* ) ! tyranny ( an intellectual few4 ,9 di/9ction to ?is rule ( #8reason1' #8naturalism' decl>$ t ! intellect c\ld n always be tru/$ z ! prop] monitor1 b t conduct c\ld bett] be guid$ by ! emotions z ! true expression ( nature4 ,x oppos$ ! control ( intellectual ari/ocracy & dem&$ rights = ! common man4 ,sid5ote3 ,*ampion$ reason aga9/ traditions1 ,sid5ote3 & und]took to transplant ,engli% sci5tific movem5t4 ,voltaire & ! ,encyclop$i/s4--,! rationali/ic & sci5tific t5d5cy 0 *iefly develop$ by ,did]ot1 ,voltaire1 ,condillac1 ,d',alemb]t1 & o!rs int]e/$ 9 ! production ( ! ,fr5* ,encyclopdie4 ,( all ^! #8encyclop$i/s' ! mo/ ke5 & brilliant 0 ,voltaire 7#afid-aggh71 :o may well s]ve z ! type ( ! :ole movem5t4 ,) mat*less wit & lit]>y skill1 9 a rem>kable range ( poems1 epi/les1 epigrams1 & o!r writ+s1 he *ampion$ reason aga9/ ! traditional in/itutions ( ,/ate & ,*ur*4 ,8 *ief object ( attack 0 ! p[]ful ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 :i* seem$ to him to /& s]i\sly 9 ! way ( all lib]ty1 individuality1 & progress1 & ! slogan ) :i* he (t5 clos$ 8 lett]s 01--8cru% ! infam\s ?+40 ,! ,prote/ant beliefs he likewise condemn$ z hy/]ical & irrational4 ,:ile an exile 9 ,engl&1 z ! result ( a qu>rel ) a memb] ( ! nobility1 he became acqua9t$ ) ! "w ( ,newton1 ,h>vey1 ,bacon1 ,locke1 & o!rs 7see pp4 #afd f471 & und]took to transplant ! ,engli% sci5tific movem5t to ,france1 & make x ! basis ( a new rgime 9 society1 religion1 & education4 ,sid5ote3 ,new !ories ( education4 ,sid5ote3 ,deg5]at$ into skepticism & lic5se4 ,! o!r rationali/ic writ]s _h simil> doctr9es & purposes1 &1 al?\gh details ( _! ideas are h>dly wor?y ( consid]ation "h1 mo/ ( !m produc$ treatises ^u education4 ,9 ^! !y freely criticis$ ! traditional s*ool sy/ems1 & propos$ new !ories ( organization1 cont5t1 & me?od1 :i* mu/ lat] h assi/$ to demoli% ! exi/+ !ory & practice 9 ,france4 ,?us rationalism s\ght to de/roy despotism & sup]/ition1 & to e/abli% 9 _! place fre$om 9 action1 social ju/ice1 & religi\s tol]ation4 ,b 9 ca/+ away ! old1 x swung to ! opposite extreme & (t5 deg5]at$ into skepticism1 an>*y1 & lic5se4 ,9 _! fight aga9/ despotic ecclesia/icism1 ! rationali/s (t5 fail$ to di/+ui% x f ,*ri/ianity1 & !y oppos$ ! ,*ur* because x 0 irrational r ?an because x 0 n s9c]e4 ,!y felt t x might h a mission ) ! masses :o 7 too dull & un$ucat$ to be able to reason4 ,s :ile rationalism wield$ a mighty weapon aga9/ ! fett]+ ( ! human intellect1 x c>$ little ab\t improv+ ! condition ( ! l[] classes1 :o 7 sunk 9 pov]ty & ignorance1 & 7 univ]sally oppress$4 ,sid5ote3 ,s5tim5talism & want ( control4 ,sid5ote3 ,love ( nature4 ,sid5ote3 ,sympa?y ) poor4 ,sid5ote3 ,sporadic education4 ,r\sseau & ,8 ,times4--,9 opposition to ?is intellectuali/ic & rationali/ic attitude1 ,jean ,jacques ,r\sseau 7#agab-aggh7 develop$ 8 emotionalism & #8naturalism4' ,! social & educational positions ( ?is re=m] f9d a ready explanation 9 8 antec$5ts & c>e]4 ,f 8 fa!r he inh]it$ a m]curial temp]am5t1 love ( pleasure1 & irresponsibility1 & f 8 "m a morbid & emotional disposition4 ,8 t5d5cy t[>d s5tim5talism1 idl5ess1 & want ( control 0 also /r5g!n$ by ! indulg5t aunt t br\ght him up1 & by l[ companions dur+ 8 trade appr5tice%ips 9 ! city ( ,g5eva4 ,at sixte5 he ran away f ! city1 & sp5t sev]al ye>s 9 vagrancy1 m5ial s]vice1 & dissolut5ess4 ,a love ( nature 0 impress$ ^u him by ! wond]ful sc5]y ( ! c\ntry 9 :i* he sp5t 8 boyhood & 8 ye>s ( w&]+4 ,he also le>n$ to sympa?ize ) ! poor & oppress$1 ^: condition 0 at ?is "t =c$ ^u 8 att5tion4 ,he receiv$ "s sporadic in/ruction1 b 8 education 0 inaccurate & unsy/ematic4 ,sid5ote3 ,bl5d$ well ) in*oate s5tim5ts ( ! p]iod4 ,at tw5ty-n9e ,r\sseau settl$ d[n 9 ,p>is1 b 8 days ( vagabondage _h left an ineffaceable /amp ^u him4 ,8 s5sitiv5ess1 impulsiv5ess1 love ( nature1 & sympa?y = ! poor 7 ev] aft]w>d 9 evid5ce4 ,^! *>act]i/ics bl5d$ well ) a body ( in*oate s5tim5ts & vague long+s ( ?is p]iod4 ,x 0 ! day ( ,l\is ,,xv & royal absolutism1 :5 affairs 9 ! k+dom 7 controll$ by a small clique ( idle & extravagant c\rti]s4 ,a mo/ artificial sy/em ( conduct _h gr[n up 9 society4 ,"u ?is v5e] ! degrad$ peasants 7 gr\nd d[n by taxation & =c$ to m9i/] to ! pleasure ( a vici\s leisure class4 ,b aga9/ ?is oppression !re _h gradually aris5 an undef9$ _s ( prote/ & a desire to return to ! orig9al b5efic5t /ate ( nature f :i* x 0 felt t man _h dep>t$4 ,h5ce x happ5$ t ,r\sseau1 emotional1 uncontroll$1 & half-tra9$1 0 de/9$ to br+ into consci\sness & give voice to ! revolution>y & naturali/ic ideas & t5d5cies ( ! c5tury4 ,sid5ote3 ,8 disc\rses1 ,sid5ote3 ,new ,heloise1 ,sid5ote3 ,social ,contract1 ,sid5ote3 & ,emile4 ,r\sseau's ,works4--,9 #agej he fir/ cry/alliz$ ?is _s ( ! age & resultant ( 8 own exp]i5ce 9 a disc\rse on ,! ,progress ( ! ,arts & ,sci5ces4 ,9 ?is he decl>$ ) mu* f]vor & conviction1 ?\gh r illogically1 t ! exi/+ oppression & corruption ( society 7 due to ! advancem5t ( civilization4 ,?ree ye>s lat] he wrote 8 disc\rse on ,! ,orig9 ( ,inequality among ,m54 ,"h aga9 he held t ! physical & intellectual inequalities ( nature :i* exi/$ 9 primitive society 7 sc>cely noticeable1 b t1 ) ! gr[? ( civilization1 mo/ oppressive di/9ctions arose4 ,?is po9t ( view 9 a some:at modifi$ =m he cont9u$ 9 8 rem>kable romance1 ,! ,new ,heloise1 publi%$ 9 #agei1 & ?ree ye>s aft]w>d 9 8 influ5tial essay on political e?ics1 kn[n z ! ,social ,contract1 & 9 t mo/ revolution>y treatise on education1 ! ,emile4 ,! ,new ,heloise comm5ds z mu* ( primitive conditions z ! cry/alliz$ in/itutions ( society w p]mit4 ,9 ! ,social ,contract1 ,r\sseau also f9ds ! ideal /ate1 n 9 t ( nature1 b 9 a society manag$ by ! p1 :]e simplicity & natural wants control1 & ari/ocracy & artificiality d n exi/4 ,b ! "w t has made ! "n ( ,r\sseau fam\s is ! ,emile4 ,?is1 :ile an outgr[? ( 8 naturalism1 assumes ! modifi$ position ( ! lat] works1 & und]takes to %[ h[ education might m9imize ! drawbacks ( civilization & br+ man z ne> to nature z possible4 ,b ! educational influ5ce ( ! ,emile has be5 s f>-rea*+ t we mu/ turn to ano!r *apt] to /udy ! positions ( ,r\sseau & ! effects ( naturalism 9 education4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 pp4 #caa-cac2 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 pp4 #a-aj2 & ,great ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 pp4 #gg-he2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #ecc-edb4 ,see also ,boyd1 ,w41 ,! ,educational ,!ory ( ,r\sseau 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #aiaa72 ,morley1 ,j41 ,voltaire & ,r\sseau 7,macmillan74 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,naturalism ,,9 ,,education ,,outl9e ,r\sseau attempts 9 ! ,emile to outl9e a natural education f bir? to manhood4 ,! fir/ book takes ,emile f bir? to five ye>s ( age1 & deals ) ! tra9+ ( physical activities2 ! second1 f five to twelve1 treats ( body & s5se tra9+2 ! ?ird1 f twelve to fifte51 is conc]n$ ) intellectual education 9 ! natural sci5ces2 ! f\r?1 f fifte5 to tw5ty1 outl9es 8 social & moral developm5t2 & ! fif? describes ! p>asitic tra9+ ( ! girl he is to m>ry4 ,! ,emile is (t5 inconsi/5t1 b brilliant & sugge/ive2 &1 :ile anti-social1 ! times dem&$ su* a radical pres5tation4 ,?r\gh x ,r\sseau became ! prog5itor ( ! social1 sci5tific1 & psy*ological movem5ts 9 education4 ,! fir/ attempt to put ! naturalism ( ,r\sseau into actual practice 0 made by ,bas$[4 ,he sugge/$ t education %\ld be practical 9 cont5t & playful 9 me?od1 & he produc$ texts on 8 sy/em1 & />t$ a s*ool kn[n z ! #8,philan?rop9um4' ,he plann$ a broad c\rse1 & taught languages ?r\gh conv]sation1 games1 & draw+1 & o!r subjects by natural me?ods4 ,! ,philan?rop9um 0 at fir/ successful1 & ?is type ( s*ool grew rapidly1 b x soon became a fad4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,emile =c$ educational ?9k+4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,r\sseau's ,naturalism4--,! influ5ce ( ,r\sseau's ,emile ^u education 9 all its aspects has be5 trem5d\s4 ,x is %[n by ! libr>y ( books s9ce writt5 to contradict1 correct1 or dissem9ate 8 doctr9es4 ,dur+ ! qu>t] ( a c5tury foll[+ ! publication ( ! ,emile1 probably m ?an twice z _m books ^u education 7 publi%$ z 9 ! prec$+ ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury4 ,?is epo*-mak+ "w =c$ a ri* h>ve/ ( educational ?9k+ = a c5tury aft] its appe>ance1 & has affect$ our ideas ^u education f t day to ?is4 ,sid5ote3 ,! sub/itution ( a natural education = ! conv5tional type 9 vogue4 ,naturali/ic ,basis ( ! ,emile4--,9 ! ,emile ,r\sseau aims to replace ! conv5tional & =mal education ( ! day ) a tra9+ t %\ld be natural & spontane\s4 ,"u ! exi/+ rgime x 0 cu/om>y = boys & girls to be dress$ l m5 & wom5 ( fa%ion 7,fig4 #be71 & = education to be l>gely "o ( deportm5t & ! danc+ ma/]4 ,on ! intellectual side1 education 0 l>gely traditional & consi/$ *iefly ( a tra9+ 9 ,lat9 gramm>1 words1 & memorit] "w4 ,r\sseau sca?+ly criticises ^! practices1 & applies 8 naturali/ic pr9ciples to an imag9>y pupil nam$ ,emile 8f ! mom5t ( 8 bir? up to ! "t :51 hav+ become a mature man1 he w no long] ne$ any o!r guide ?an himself40 ,he beg9s ! "w ) a re/atem5t ( 8 basal pr9ciple t 8ev]y?+ is good z x comes f ! h&s ( ! ,au?or ( ,nature2 b ev]y?+ deg5]ates 9 ! h&s ( man40 ,aft] elaborat+ ?is1 he %[s t we are educat$ by 8?ree k9ds ( tea*]s--nature1 man1 & ?+s1 & s9ce ! cop]ation ( ! ?ree educations is necess>y = _! p]fection1 x is to ! "o ov] :i* we h no control 7i e41 nature7 t we mu/ direct ! o!r two40 ,education mu/1 !re=e1 con=m to nature4 ,sid5ote3 ,emile's impulses exam9$ & tra9$ at diff]5t p]iods3 ,! ,five ,books ( ! ,emile4--,n[ ! natural objects1 ?r\gh :i* ,emile is to be educat$1 rema9 ! same1 b ,emile himself *anges f "t to "t4 ,9 s f>1 !re=e1 z he is to be ! guide ( h[ he is to be educat$ 9 a natural environm5t1 8 impulses mu/ be exam9$ at diff]5t times 9 8 life4 ,h5ce ! "w is divid$ into five p>ts1 f\r ( :i* deal ) ,emile's education 9 ! /ages ( infancy1 *ildhood1 boyhood1 & y\? respectively1 & ! fif? ) ! tra9+ ( ! girl :o is to become 8 wife4 ,! *>act]i/ics ( ! diff]5t p]iods 9 ! life ( ,emile are m>k$ by ! diff]5t k9ds ( ?+s he desires4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 infancy1 physical activities4 ,9 ! fir/ book1 :i* takes him f bir? to five ye>s ( age1 8 ma9 desire is = physical activities1 & he %\ld1 !re=e1 be plac$ "u simple1 free1 & heal?ful conditions1 :i* w enable him to make ! mo/ ( ^!4 ,he mu/ be remov$ to ! c\ntry1 :]e he w be close to nature1 & f>!/ f ! contam9at+ influ5ce ( civilization4 ,8 gr[? & tra9+ mu/ be z spontane\s z possible4 ,he mu/ h no?+ to d ) ei!r m$ic9e or doctors1 8unless 8 life is 9 evid5t dang]2 = !n !y c d no?+ worse ?an kill him40 ,8 natural movem5ts mu/ n be re/ra9$ by caps1 b&s1 or swaddl+ clo!s1 & he %\ld be nurs$ by 8 own "m4 ,he %\ld likewise be us$ to ba?s ( all sorts ( temp]ature4 ,9 fact1 ! *ild %\ld n be =c$ into any fix$ ways :atsoev]1 s9ce ) ,r\sseau1 habit is necess>ily some?+ contr>y to impulse & s unnatural4 8,! only habit10 says he1 8:i* ! *ild %\ld be all[$ to =m is to contract no habit :atsoev]40 ,8 play?+s %\ld be su* simple products ( nature z 8bran*es ) _! fruits & fl[]s1 or a poppy-head 9 :i* ! se$s are he>d to rattle40 ,language t is simple1 pla91 & h5ce natural1 %\ld be us$ ) him1 & he %\ld n be hurri$ beyond nature 9 le>n+ to talk4 ,he %\ld be re/rict$ to a few words t express real ?\ghts = him4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 *ildhood1 limb & s5se developm5t1 ,! education ( ,emile dur+ infancy is ?us to be #8negative' & purely physical4 ,! aim is simply to keep 8 in/9cts & impulses1 :i* ,r\sseau holds to be good by nature1 free f vice1 & to af=d him ! natural activity he craves4 ,next1 9 ! p]iod ( *ildhood1 betwe5 ! ye>s ( five & twelve1 :i* is treat$ 9 ! second book1 ,emile desires mo/ to ex]cise 8 legs & arms1 & to t\*1 to see1 & 9 o!r ways to s5se ?+s4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is ! "t = tra9+ 8 limbs & s5ses4 8,z all t ent]s ! human und]/&+ comes !re ?r\gh ! s5ses1 ! fir/ reason ( man is a s5su\s reason4 ,our fir/ tea*]s ( philosophy are our feet1 our h&s1 & our eyes4444 ,9 ord] to le>n to ?9k1 we mu/ !n ex]cise our limbs1 our s5ses1 & our organs1 :i* are ! in/rum5ts ( our intellig5ce40 ,to obta9 ?is tra9+1 ,emile is to we> %ort1 loose1 & scanty clo?+1 g b>ehead$1 & h ! body inur$ to cold & heat1 & be g5]ally subject$ to a #8h>d5+ process' simil> to t recomm5d$ by ,locke 7see p4 #aha74 ,he is to le>n to swim1 & practice long & high jumps1 leap+ walls1 & scal+ rocks4 ,b1 :at is m important1 8 eyes & e>s are also to be ex]cis$ ?r\gh natural problems 9 weigh+1 measur+1 & e/imat+ masses1 heights1 & di/ances4 ,draw+ & con/ructive geometry are to be taught him1 to r5d] him m capable ( obs]v+ accurately4 ,8 e> is to be r5d]$ s5sitive to h>mony by le>n+ to s+4 ,sid5ote3 no geography1 hi/ory1 or read+1 ,?is body & s5se tra9+ %\ld be ! ne>e/ approa* to an intellectual tra9+ at ?is p]iod4 ,r\sseau condemns ! usual unnatural practice ( requir+ pupils to le>n s mu* be=e !y h rea*$ ! prop] ye>s4 ,9 keep+ ) 8 #8negative' education1 he asks rhetorically3 8,%all ,i v5ture to /ate at ?is po9t ! mo/ important1 ! mo/ useful1 rule ( all education8 ,x is n to ga9 "t1 b to lose x40 ,dur+ 8 *ildhood ,emile is n to /udy geography1 hi/ory1 or languages1 ^u :i* p$agogues ord9>ily dep5d to exhibit ! atta9m5ts ( _! pupils1 al?\gh ^! und]/& no?+ ( :at !y h memoriz$4 8,at ! age ( twelve1 ,emile w h>dly "k :at a book is4 ,b ,i %all be told x is v necess>y t he "k h[ to read4 ,?is ,i grant4 ,x is necess>y t he "k h[ to read :5 read+ is useful to him4 ,until !n1 x s]ves only to annoy him40 ,sid5ote3 ?\gh moral tra9+ ?r\gh #8natural consequ5ces4' ,incid5tally1 h[ev]1 9 ord] to make ,emile tol]able 9 society1 = he _c entirely escape x1 he mu/ be giv5 ! idea ( prop]ty & "s ideas ab\t conduct4 ,b ?is is simply because ( practical necessity1 & no moral education is to be giv5 z su*1 =1 8until he rea*es ! age ( reason1 he c =m no idea ( moral be+s or social relations40 ,he is to le>n ?r\gh #8natural consequ5ces' until he arrives at ! age = und]/&+ moral precepts4 ,if he breaks ! furniture or ! w9d[s1 let him suff] ! consequ5ces t arise f 8 act4 ,d n prea* to him or puni% him = ly+1 b aft]w>d affect n to believe him ev5 :5 he has spok5 ! tru?4 ,if he c>elessly digs up ! spr\t+ melons ( ! g>d5]1 9 ord] to plant beans = himself1 let ! g>d5] 9 turn uproot ! beans1 & ?us cause him to le>n ! sacr$ness ( prop]ty4 ,z f> z ?is moral tra9+ is giv51 !n1 x is to be indirect & incid5tal4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 boyhood1 intellectual tra9+ ?r\gh curiosity conc]n+ natural ph5om5a4 ,h[ev]1 betwe5 twelve & fifte51 aft] ! dem&s ( ! boy's physical activities & ( 8 s5ses h some:at abat$1 !re comes 8an int]val :5 8 faculties & p[]s are great] ?an 8 desires10 :5 he displays an insi/5t curiosity conc]n+ natural ph5om5a & a con/ant appetite = rational k4 ,?is p]iod1 :i* is dealt ) 9 8 ?ird book1 ,r\sseau decl>es to be int5d$ by nature itself z ! "t = in/ruction4 ,b z n mu* c be le>n$ )9 ?ree ye>s1 ! boy is to /udy only ^? subjects :i* are useful & n incompreh5sible & mislead+1 & s is limit$ to ! natural sci5ces4 ,lat] 9 ?is ?ird book1 9 ord] t ,emile may in=mally le>n ! int]dep5d5ce ( m5 & may himself become economically indep5d5t1 ,r\sseau adds indu/rial exp]i5ce & ! acquisition ( cab9et-mak+ to 8 tra9+4 ,! mo/ effective me?od ( in/ruction1 ,r\sseau holds1 comes ?r\gh appeal+ to ! curiosity & int]e/ 9 inve/igation1 :i* are s prom95t 9 ! boy at ?is "t4 ,he contra/s ! curr5t me?ods ( tea*+ a/ronomy & geography by means ( globes1 maps1 & o!r mislead+ repres5tations1 ) ! m natural plan ( /imulat+ inquiry ?r\gh obs]v+ ! sun :5 ris+ & sett+ dur+ ! diff]5t seasons1 & ?r\gh problems conc]n+ ! topography ( ! neighborhood4 ,emile is taught to appreciate ! value ( ^! subjects by be+ lo/ 9 ! =e/1 & endeavor+ to f9d a way out4 ,he le>ns ! elem5ts ( electricity ?r\gh meet+ ) a juggl]1 :o attracts an artificial duck by means ( a conceal$ magnet4 ,he simil>ly discov]s ?r\gh exp]i5ce ! effect ( cold & heat ^u solids & liquids1 & s comes to und]/& ! !rmomet] & o!r in/rum5ts4 ,h5ce ,r\sseau feels t all k ( real value may be acquir$ mo/ cle>ly & naturally )\t ! use ( rivalry or textbooks4 ,b he f9ds an exception to ?is irrational me?od 9 "o book1 ,rob9son ,crusoe1 8:]e all ! natural ne$s ( man are exhibit$ 9 a mann] obvi\s to ! m9d ( a *ild1 & :]e ! means ( provid+ = ^! ne$s are successively develop$ ) ! same facility40 ,sid5ote3 ,9 y\?1 sex int]e/s1 z basis ( moral & social tra9+4 ,! f\r? book takes ,emile f ! age ( fifte5 to tw5ty4 ,at ?is p]iod ! sex int]e/s appe> & %\ld be prop]ly guid$ & tra9$1 especially z !y are ! basis ( social & moral relation%ips4 ,emile's fir/ passion calls him into relations ) 8 species1 & he mu/ n[ le>n to live ) o!rs4 8,we h =m$ 8 body1 8 s5ses1 & 8 intellig5ce2 x rema9s to give him a he>t40 ,he is to become moral1 affectionate1 & religi\s4 ,"h aga9 ,r\sseau insi/s t ! tra9+ is n to be accompli%$ by ! =mal me?od ( precepts1 b 9 a natural way by br++ ! y\? into contact ) 8 fell[m5 & appeal+ to 8 emotions4 ,emile is to visit infirm>ies1 hospitals1 & prisons1 & witness concrete examples ( wret*$ness 9 all /ages1 al?\gh n s frequ5tly z to become h>d5$4 ,t ?is tra9+ may n r5d] him cynical or hyp]critical1 x %\ld be correct$ by ! /udy ( hi/ory1 :]e "o sees m5 simply z a spectator )\t feel+ or passion4 ,fur!r1 9 ord] to deliv] ,emile f vanity1 s common dur+ adolesc5ce1 he is to be expos$ to flatt]]s1 sp5d?rifts1 & %>p]s1 & all[$ to suff] ! consequ5ces4 ,he may at ?is "t also be guid$ 9 8 conduct by ! use ( fables1 = 8by c5sur+ ! wrongdo] "u an unkn[n mask1 we in/ruct )\t (f5d+ him40 ,sid5ote3 ,! passive & p>asitic education ( woman4 ,emile at l5g? becomes a man1 & a life companion mu/ be f\nd = him4 ,a se>* %\ld be made = a suitable lady1 b 89 ord] to f9d h]1 we mu/ "k h]40 ,accord+ly1 ! la/ book ( ! ,emile deals ) ! model ,sophie & ! education ( woman4 ,x is ! weake/ "p ( ,r\sseau's "w4 ,he entirely mis9t]prets ! nature ( wom51 & does n all[ !m any individuality ( _! own1 b consid]s !m z simply supplem5t>y to ! nature ( m54 ,l m51 wom5 %\ld be giv5 adequate bodily tra9+1 b r = ! sake ( physical *>ms & ( produc+ vigor\s (fspr+ ?an = _! own developm5t4 ,_! in/9ctive love ( pleas+ ?r\gh dress %\ld be made ( s]vice by tea*+ !m sew+1 embroid]y1 lacework1 & design+4 ,!y ought to be ob$i5t & indu/ri\s1 & !y ought e>ly to be br\ght "u re/ra9t4 ,girls %\ld also be taught s++1 danc+1 & o!r accompli%m5ts4 ,!y %\ld be in/ruct$ dogmatically 9 religion1 & 9 e?ical matt]s !y %\ld be l>gely guid$ by public op9ion4 ,a woman may n le>n philosophy1 art1 or sci5ce1 b %e %\ld /udy m54 8,%e mu/ le>n to p5etrate _! feel+s ?r\gh _! conv]sation1 _! actions1 _! looks1 & _! ge/ures1 & "k h[ to give !m ! feel+s :i* are pleas+ to h]1 )\t ev5 seem+ to ?9k ( !m40 ,sid5ote3 ,defects outweigh$ by m]its4 ,e/imate ( ! ,emile4--,su* 0 ,r\sseau's notion ( ! natural individuali/ic education = a man & ! passive & repressive tra9+ suitable = a woman1 & ( ! happ9ess & prosp]ity t 7 b\nd to ensue4 ,to make a fair e/imate ( ! ,emile & its influ5ce is n easy4 ,x is necess>y to put aside all ( "o's prejudices aga9/ ! weak & (f5sive p]sonality ( ! au?or1 & to =get ! inconsi/5cies & contradictions ( ! "w itself4 ,! ,emile has always be5 acc\nt$ a "w ( great ri*ness1 p[]1 & und]ly+ wisdom1 & ea* ( its defects is m ?an balanc$ by a correspond+ m]it4 ,moreov]1 ! mo/ fundam5tal movem5ts 9 mod]n educational progress--sociological1 sci5tific1 & psy*ological--may be said to h g]m9at$ ?r\gh ! ,emile4 ,sid5ote3 ,revolt f social control1 ,sid5ote3 b extreme doctr9e ne$$1 ,sid5ote3 & ^? :o foll[$ ,r\sseau /ress$ social activities4 ,! ,sociological ,movem5ts 9 ,mod]n ,education4--,! mo/ m>k$ feature ( ! ,r\sselian education & ! "o mo/ subject to criticism has be5 its extreme revolt aga9/ civilization & all social control4 ,a /ate ( nature is held to be ! ideal condition1 & all social relations are reg>d$ z deg5]ate4 ,! *ild is to be br\ght up 9 isolation by ! laws ( brute necessity & to h no social education until he is fifte51 :5 an impossible set ( exp$i5ts = br++ him into t\* ) 8 fell[s is devis$4 ,"o %\ld rememb]1 h[ev]1 t ! times & ! cause _h ne$ ( j s extreme a doctr9e4 ,su* radical individualism alone c\ld enable him to break ! bondage to ! pa/4 ,by means ( p>adoxes & exagg]ations he 0 able to emphasize ! cry+ ne$ ( a natural developm5t ( man1 & to te> d[n ! effete traditions 9 educational organization1 cont5t1 & me?ods4 ,& _m ( ! social movem5ts 9 mod]n educational organization & cont5t 7 made possible & ev5 sugge/$ by him1 aft] hav+ ?us cle>$ ! gr\nd4 ,he held t all memb]s ( society %\ld be tra9$ indu/rially s z to contribute to _! own support & %\ld be taught to be sympa!tic & b5evol5t t[>d _! fell[s4 ,?us ?r\gh him education has be5 m closely relat$ to human welf>e4 ,! indu/rial "w ( ,pe/alozzi & ,fell5b]g1 ! moral aim ( education held by ,h]b>t1 ! #8social p>ticipation' 9 ! practice ( ,froebel1 & ! pres5t-day emphasis ^u vocational education1 moral in/ruction1 & tra9+ ( defectives & ( o!r extreme v>iations1 alike f9d "s ( _! roots 9 ! ,emile4 ,9 fact1 ! fallacy involv$ 9 ,r\sseau's isolat$ education is too palpable to mislead anyone1 & ^? :o h be/ caught 8 _s & endeavor$ to develop 8 practice h 9 all cases mo/ insi/5tly /ress$ social activities 9 ! tra9+ ( *ildr5 & /riv5 to make education lead to a clos] & m sympa!tic cop]ation 9 society4 ,sid5ote3 ,oppos$ to all books1 b emphasiz$ obs]vational "w4 ,! ,sci5tific ,movem5t 9 ,mod]n ,education4--,moreov]1 s9ce ,r\sseau repudiat$ all social traditions & accept$ nature z 8 only guide1 he 0 absolutely oppos$ to all book le>n+ & exagg]at$ ! value ( obs]vation4 ,he consequ5tly neglect$ ! pa/1 & w\ld h robb$ ! pupil ( all ! exp]i5ce ( 8 fell[s & ( ^? :o _h gone be=e4 ,b he emphasiz$ ! use ( natural objects 9 ! curriculum & develop$ ! details ( nature /udy & obs]vational "w to an ext5t nev] previ\sly und]tak54 ,p>tly z a result ( ?is influ5ce1 s*ools & colleges h come to include 9 _! c\rse ! /udy ( physical =ces1 natural environm5t1 plants1 & animals4 ,!re9 ,r\sseau n only anticipates some:at ! nature /udy & geography ( ,pe/alozzi1 ,bas$[1 ,salzmann1 & ,ritt]1 b1 9 a way1 =e%ad[s ! argum5ts ( ,sp5c] & ,huxley1 & ! mod]n sci5tific movem5t 9 education4 ,sid5ote3 ,?\gh defective 9 k ( *ildr51 ,r\sseau saw ! ne$ ( /udy+ !m4 ,! ,psy*ological ,movem5ts 9 ,mod]n ,education4--,a matt] ( ev5 great] importance is ,r\sseau's belief t education %\ld be 9 accordance ) ! natural int]e/s ( ! *ild4 ,al?\gh 8 k ( *ildr5 0 defective1 & 8 recomm5dations 7 m>r$ by unnatural breaks & fill$ ) s5tim5tality1 he saw ! ne$ ( /udy+ ! *ild z ! only basis = education4 ,9 ! ,preface to ! ,emile he decl>es t 8! wise/ among u are engross$ 9 :at ! adult ne$s to "k & fail to consid] :at *ildr5 are able to appreh5d4 ,we are always look+ = ! man 9 ! *ild1 )\t ?9k+ ( :at he is be=e he becomes a man4 ,?is is ! /udy to :i* ,i h devot$ myself1 to ! end t1 ev5 ?\gh my :ole me?od may be *im]ical & false1 ! read] may /ill pr(it by my obs]vation40 ,z a result ( su* appeals1 ! *ild has become ! c5t] ( discussion 9 mod]n tra9+4 ,despite 8 limitations & prejudices1 ?is unnatural & neglectful p>5t /at$ _m details ( *ild developm5t ) mu* =ce & cle>ness & gave an impetus to lat] re=m]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,!ory ( #8delay$ matur+4' ,sid5ote3 ,physical activities & s5se tra9+ ,sid5ote3 ,sympa!tic und]/&+ ( ! *ild4 ,9 ?is connection %\ld especially be consid]$ ,r\sseau's !ory ( /ages ( developm5t4 ,he makes a %>p division ( ! pupil's developm5t into def9ite p]iods t seem b little connect$ ) "o ano!r1 & prescribes a di/9ct education = ea* /age4 ,?is seems l a brea* ( ! evolution ( ! individual1 & ! r$uctio ad absurdum ( su* an atomic tra9+ is rea*$ 9 8 hope ( r5d]+ ,emile w>m-he>t$ & pi\s1 aft] keep+ him 9 ! me%es ( self-int]e/ & d\bt until he is fifte54 ,b1 z 9 ! case ( 8 attitude t[>d society1 ,r\sseau takes an extreme view1 & he has !reby %[n t !re are *>act]i/ic diff]5ces at diff]5t /ages 9 ! *ild's life1 & t only z ! prop] activities are provid$ = ea* /age w x rea* maturity or p]fection4 ,he may1 !re=e1 be cr$it$ to a great degree ) ! increas+ t5d5cy to cease f =c+ ^u *ildr5 a fix$ me?od ( ?9k+1 feel+1 & act+1 & = ! gradual disappe>ance ( ! old ideas t a task is ( educational value accord+ z x is di/a/eful1 & t real education consi/s 9 ov]com+ mean+less difficulties4 ,curiosity & int]e/ r are to be us$ z motives = /udy1 & ,r\sseau !re9 po9ts ! way = ! ,h]b>tians4 ,x is likewise due to him prim>ily t we h recogniz$ ! ne$ ( physical activities & s5se tra9+ 9 ! e>li] developm5t ( ! *ild z a f\ndation = its lat] gr[? & le>n+4 ,to ^! recomm5dations may be trac$ mu* ( ! object tea*+ ( ,pe/alozzianism & ! motor expression ( ,froebelianism4 ,?us ,r\sseau made a l>ge contribution to educational me?od by %[+ ! value ( motivation1 ( creat+ problems1 & ( utiliz+ ! s5ses & activities ( ! *ild1 & may be reg>d$ z ! fa!r ( ! psy*ological movem5ts 9 mod]n education4 ,he c\ld n1 h[ev]1 h bas$ 8 /udy ( *ildr5 & 8 advanc$ me?ods ^u any real psy*ological f\ndation1 = 9 8 day ! #8faculty' psy*ology 7see p4 #ahb7 absolutely prevail$4 ,in/ead ( work+ out 8 me?ods f sci5tific pr9ciples1 he obta9$ !m1 z did ,pe/alozzi aft]w>ds1 ?r\gh 8 sympa!tic und]/&+ ( ! *ild & 8 ability to place himself 9 ! *ild's situation & see ! _w ?r\gh ! eyes ( ! *ild4 ,sid5ote3 ,intellectual prog5itor ( mod]n re=m]s1 b influ5ce ^u s*ools n imm$iate4 ,sid5ote3 ,fir/ attempt ?r\gh ,bas$[4 ,! ,spread ( ,r\sseau's ,doctr9es4--,?us se$s ( _m mod]n developm5ts 9 educational organization1 me?od1 & cont5t1 7 s[n by ,r\sseau1 & he is se5 to be ! intellectual prog5itor ( ,pe/alozzi1 ,h]b>t1 ,froebel1 ,sp5c]1 & _m o!r mod]n re=m]s4 ,b 8 pr9ciples did n take imm$iate hold on ! s*ools !mselves1 al?\gh _! influ5ce is manife/ !re z ! n9ete5? c5tury advanc$4 ,9 ,france !y 7 app>5t 9 ! compla9ts & recomm5dations conc]n+ s*ools 9 ! li/s ( desir$ re=ms 7cahi]s7 t 7 issu$ by ! v>i\s t[ns1 & aft]w>d cle>ly =m$ a basis = mu* ( ! legislation conc]n+ ! univ]sal1 free1 & secul> organization ( educational in/itutions4 ,9 ,engl&1 s9ce !re 0 no national sy/em ( s*ools1 little direct impression 0 made ^u educational practice4 ,b 9 ,am]ica ?is revolution>y ?\ght w\ld seem to h _h mu* to d ) caus+ ! unre/ t gradually result$ 9 upsett+ ! ari/ocratic & =mal tra9+ ( ! "y & 9 secul>iz+ & univ]saliz+ ! public s*ool sy/em4 ,! fir/ def9ite attempt1 h[ev]1 to put into actual practice ! naturali/ic education ( ,r\sseau occurr$ 9 ,g]many ?r\gh ! writ+s ( ,bas$[ & ! f\ndation ( ! #8,philan?rop9um1' & is ( suffici5t importance to dem& sep>ate discussion4 ,sid5ote3 ,naturally captivat$ by ,r\sseau's doctr9es4 ,sid5ote3 ,education ( ! day ne$$ naturalism4 ,developm5t ( ,bas$['s ,educational ,re=ms4--,johann ,b]nh>d ,bas$[ 7#agbc-agij7 0 by nature ! v p]son to be captivat$ by ,r\sseau's doctr9es4 ,he 0 tal5t$1 b erratic1 unor?odox1 tactless1 & irregul> 9 life4 ,he _h be5 prep>$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,leipzig = ! ,lu!ran m9i/ry1 b prov$ too h]etical1 &1 giv+ up ?is vocation1 became a tutor 9 ,hol/e9 to a ,h]r von ,quaal5's *ildr54 ,) ^! ari/ocratic pupils he fir/ develop$ me?ods ( tea*+ ?r\gh conv]sation & play connect$ ) surr\nd+ objects4 ,a few ye>s aft] ?is1 9 #agfc1 ,bas$[ fell "u ! spell ( ,r\sseau's ,emile1 :i* 0 mo/ cong5ial to 8 me?ods ( ?9k+ & tea*+1 & turn$ all 8 en]gy t[>d educational re=m4 ,z 9 ! case ( ,r\sseau ) education 9 ,france1 he realiz$ t ,g]man education ( ! day 0 sadly 9 ne$ ( j su* an antidote z #8naturalism' 0 calculat$ to furni%4 ,! s*oolrooms 7 dismal & ! "w 0 unpleasant1 physical tra9+ 0 neglect$1 & ! discipl9e 0 sev]e4 ,*ildr5 7 reg>d$ z adults 9 m9iature 7,fig4 #be71 & 7 s treat$ bo? 9 _! dress & _! education4 ,! curr5t s*ool+ consi/$ l>gely ( in/ruction 9 artificial deportm5t4 ,! /udy ( classics compos$ ! entire intellectual curriculum1 & ! me?ods 7 purely grammatical4 ,z a result1 sugge/ions made by ,bas$[ = educational improvem5t atta9$ z great popul>ity z 8 advanc$ !ological propositions _h receiv$ abuse4 ,sid5ote3 ,success ( 8 ,address & production ( 8 text-books4 ,9 #agfh by 8 ,address on ,s*ools & ,/udies1 & _! ,influ5ce on ! ,public ,weal1 he call$ g5]ally ^u pr9ces1 gov]nm5ts1 ecclesia/ics1 & o!rs 9 p[]1 to assi/ him f9ancially 9 c]ta9 def9ite educational re=ms4 ,9 addition to sugge/+ t ! s*ools be made nonsect>ian & t public in/ruction be plac$ "u a ,national ,c\ncil ( ,education1 he propos$ t1 9 contra/ to ! =mal & unattractive tra9+ ( ! day1 education %\ld be r5d]$ practical 9 cont5t & playful 9 me?od4 ,to assi/ ?is re=m1 he plann$ to br+ out a "w on elem5t>y education1 :i* he describ$ 9 outl9e4 ,great int]e/ 9 8 proposals 0 %[n ?r\gh\t ,europe by sov]eigns1 nobles1 prom95t m51 & o!rs desir+ a nonsect>ian & m effective education1 & a subsidy ( "s t5 ?\s& doll>s 0 spe$ily rais$1 to enable him to p]fect 8 plans4 ,six ye>s lat]1 ,bas$[ complet$ 8 promis$ text-book1 ,elem5t>w]k1 & ! companion "w = tea*]s & p>5ts kn[n z ,me?od5bu*4 ,! ,elem5t>w]k 0 accompani$ by a volume conta9+ n9ety-six plates1 :i* illu/rat$ ! subject-matt] ( ! text1 b 7 too l>ge to be b\nd 9 ) x4 ,:ile 9 ^! manuals ,bas$[ includ$ _m naturali/ic ideas f ,r\sseau1 he also embodi$ features f o!r re=m]s & ev5 additions ( 8 own4 ,sid5ote3 ,elem5t>w]k ,sid5ote3 & ,me?od5bu*4 ,sid5ote3 ,popul> /ory books = *ildr54 ,text-books & ,o!r ,works4--,! ,elem5t>w]k cle>ly comb9es _m ( ! pr9ciples ( ,com5ius z well z ( ,r\sseau4 ,x has1 9 fact1 be5 (t5 call$ #8! ,orbis ,pictus 7see p4 #agj7 ( ! eighte5? c5tury1' & gives a k ( ?+s & words 9 ! =m ( a dialogue4 ,! ,me?od5bu*1 :ile n foll[+ ,r\sseau completely1 conta9s _m ideas conc]n+ natural tra9+ t are sugge/ive ( him4 ,9 ?is /udy ( ! nature ( *ildr51 ! book makes "s advance ^u ! ,r\sselian doctr9e by f9d+ t !y are especially int]e/$ 9 motion & noise1 al?\gh ,bas$[ w\ld h %ock$ ,r\sseau by be+ s mu* "u ! control ( tradition z to sugge/ us+ ^! int]e/s 9 ! tea*+ ( ,lat94 ,lat]1 ,bas$[1 toge!r ) ,campe1 ,salzmann1 & o!rs ( 8 foll[]s1 also produc$ a s]ies ( popul> /ory books especially adapt$ to ! "*1 int]e/s1 & ne$s ( *ildr54 ,^! works are all l>gely fill$ ) didactics1 moraliz+1 religiosity1 & scraps ( sci5tific in=mation4 ,! be/ kn[n ( !m is ,rob9son d] ,jng]e 7,rob9son ,crusoe ,junior71 :i* 0 publi%$ by ,campe 9 #aggi4 ,x seems to h be5 sugge/$ by ,r\sseau's recomm5dation ( ,rob9son ,crusoe z a text-book1 & 9 turn a g5]ation lat] x became ! model = ,d] ,s*weiz]is*e ,rob9son 7,! ,swiss ,family ,rob9son7 ( ,wyss1 :i* has be5 s popul> ) *ildr5 9 ,am]ica & else:]e4 ,sid5ote3 ,sal>y1 equipm5t1 ,sid5ote3 tea*]s1 ,sid5ote3 & pupils4 ,c\rse & ,me?ods ( ! ,philan?rop9um4--,eight ye>s be=e ?is1 h[ev]1 ,pr9ce ,leopold ( ,dessau _h be5 induc$ to all[ ,bas$[ to f\nd !re a model s*ool call$ ! #8,philan?rop9um1' :i* %\ld embody t re=m]'s ideas4 ,leopold grant$ him a g5]\s sal>y1 & ?ree ye>s lat] gave him an equipm5t ( build+s1 gr\nds1 & end[m5t4 ,at fir/ ,bas$[ _h b ?ree assi/ants1 b lat] ! numb] 0 consid]ably increas$4 ,! /aff !n includ$ sev]al v able m51 su* z ,campe1 =m]ly *apla9 at ,potsdam1 & ,salzmann1 :o _h be5 a pr(essor at ,erfurt4 ,! und]ly+ pr9ciple ( ! ,philan?rop9um 0 #8ev]y?+ accord+ to nature4' ,! natural in/9cts & int]e/s ( ! *ildr5 7 only to be direct$ & n altoge!r suppress$4 ,!y 7 to be tra9$ z *ildr5 & n z adults1 & ! me?ods ( le>n+ 7 to be adapt$ to _! /age ( m5tality4 ,t all ( ! cu/om>y fa%ion & unnaturalness might be elim9at$1 ! boys 7 pla9ly dress$ & _! hair cut %ort4 ,sid5ote3 ,univ]sal education1 b social di/9ctions4 ,sid5ote3 ,indu/rial tra9+ ,sid5ote3 & wide objective c\rse4 ,:ile univ]sal education 0 believ$ 91 & ri* & poor alike 7 to be tra9$1 ! traditional idea /ill obta9$ t ! natural education ( ! "o class 0 = social activity & lead]%ip1 & ( ! o!r = tea*+4 ,consequ5tly1 ! weal?y boys 7 to sp5d six h\rs 9 s*ool & two 9 manual labor1 :ile ^? f families ( small means labor$ six h\rs & /udi$ two4 ,e "o1 h[ev]1 0 taught h&icrafts1--c>p5try1 turn+1 plan+1 & ?re%+1 z sugge/$ 9 ! ?ird book ( ! ,emile1 & !re 7 also physical ex]cises & games = all4 ,on ! intellectual side1 :ile ,lat9 0 n neglect$1 consid]able att5tion 0 paid to ! v]nacul> & ,fr5*4 ,9 keep+ ) ! ,elem5t>w]k1 ,bas$[ plann$ a wide objective & practical c\rse v simil> to t sugge/$ by ,com5ius4 ,x 0 to give "s acc\nt ( man1 includ+ bits ( an?ropology1 anatomy1 & physiology2 ( brute creation1 especially ! uses ( dome/ic animals & _! relation to indu/ry2 ( trees & plants ) _! gr[?1 culture1 & products2 ( m9]als & *emicals2 ( ma!matical & physical in/rum5ts2 & ( trades1 hi/ory1 & comm]ce4 ,he aft]w>d admitt$ t he _h ov]e/imat$ ! am\nt ( cont5t t 0 possible = a *ild1 & greatly abridg$ ! mat]ial4 ,sid5ote3 ,languages taught by conv]sation & games4 ,sid5ote3 ,progressive me?ods 9 o!r subjects4 ,! mo/ /rik+ *>act]i/ic ( ! s*ool1 h[ev]1 0 its recognition ( *ild int]e/s & ! consequ5tly improv$ me?ods4 ,languages 7 taught by speak+ & !n by read+1 & gramm> 0 n br\ght 9 until late 9 ! c\rse4 ,facility 9 ,lat9 0 acquir$ ?r\gh conv]sation1 games1 pictures1 draw+1 act+ plays1 & read+ on practical & int]e/+ subjects 7,fig4 #bf74 ,8 in/ruction 9 ari?metic1 geometry1 geography1 physics1 nature /udy1 & hi/ory 0 fully z progressive z t 9 languages1 &1 :ile cont9u+ ,r\sseau's sugge/ions1 seems to anticipate mu* ( ! #8object tea*+' ( ,pe/alozzi4 ,ari?metic 0 taught by m5tal me?ods1 geometry by draw+ figures accurately & neatly1 & geography by beg9n+ ) "o's home & ext5d+ out into ! neighborhood1 ! t[n1 ! c\ntry1 & ! cont95t4 ,sid5ote3 ,great expectations4 ,sid5ote3 ,/imulus = y\ng] pupils4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,philan?rop9um4--,! att5dance at ! ,philan?rop9um 0 v small 9 ! beg9n+1 s9ce ! in/itution 0 reg>d$ z an exp]im5t1 b ev5tually ! numb] ( pupils rose to m ?an fifty4 ,mo/ visitors 7 greatly pleas$ ) ! s*ool1 especially on acc\nt ( ! int]e/$ & al]t appe>ance ( ! pupils4 ,kant decl>$ t x meant 8n a sl[ re=m1 b a quick revolution10 al?\gh aft]w>d he admitt$ t he _h be5 too optimi/ic4 ,:ile x may n h s]v$ well = old] pupils1 x 0 c]ta9ly excell5t 9 its /imulus to *ildr5 "u t5 or twelve1 :o c be rea*$ by appeals to physical activities & ! s5ses bett] ?an by books4 ,sid5ote3 ,simil> in/itutions ( ,campe1 ,sid5ote3 ,salzmann1 ,sid5ote3 & ,ro*[4 ,bas$[1 h[ev]1 prov$ temp]am5tally unfit to direct ! in/itution4 ,joa*im ,he9ri* ,campe 7#agdf-ahah71 :o fir/ succe$$ him1 )drew )9 a ye> to f\nd a simil> s*ool at ,hamburg4 ,in/itutions ( ! same type sprang up else:]e1 & "s ( !m _h a l>ge influ5ce ^u education4 ,! mo/ /rik+ & endur+ ( ^! s*ools 0 t e/abli%$ 9 #aghd by ,*ri/ian ,got?ilf ,salzmann 7#agdd-ahaa7 at ,s*nepf5?al "u ! patronage ( ! royal family ( ,saxe-,go?a4 ,! natural surr\nd+s--m\nta9s1 valleys1 lakes--7 mo/ favorable = ! purpose ( ! in/itution1 & mu* att5tion 0 giv5 to nature /udy1 #8lessons on ?+s1' organiz$ excursions1 g>d5+1 agricultural "w1 & c>e ( dome/ic animals4 ,manual tra9+1 gymna/ics1 sports1 in=mal moral & religi\s culture1 & o!r features t anticipat$ lat] developm5ts 9 education also =m$ "p ( ! c\rse4 ,dur+ ! decade be=e ! e/abli%m5t ( ,salzmann's s*ool1 in/itutions embody+ _m ( ,bas$['s ideas 7 also op5$ at ,re*ahn & 8 o!r ,br&5burg e/ates by ,b>on ,eb]h>d von ,ro*[ 7#agcd-ahje74 ,8 s*ools 7 simply int5d$ to improve ! peasantry 9 _! me?ods ( f>m+ & liv+1 b1 :5 ?is /ep t[>d univ]sal education prov$ extraord9>ily successful1 ,ro*[ advocat$ ! adoption ( a complete national sy/em ( s*ools on a nonsect>ian basis4 ,sid5ote3 ,becomes a fad1 b accompli%$ "s good4 ,9 #agic ! ,philan?rop9um at ,dessau 0 clos$ p]man5tly4 ,its tea*]s 7 scatt]$ ?r\gh ,europe1 & gave a great impulse to ! new education4 ,an un=tunate result ( ?is popul>ity 0 t ! ,philan?rop9um became a fad1 & s*ools ) ?is "n 7 op5$ ev]y:]e 9 ,g]many by educational m\ntebanks4 ,^! tea*]s pro/itut$ ! sy/em to _! own ends1 degrad$ ! pr(ession into a m]e trade1 & became ! subject ( mu* satire & ridicule4 ,nev]!less1 ! philan?rop9ic movem5t seems n to h be5 )\t good results1 especially :5 we consid] ! educational conditions & ! p$agogy ( ! times4 ,x introduc$ _m new ideas conc]n+ me?ods & indu/rial tra9+ into all p>ts ( ,france & ,switz]l&1 z well z ,g]many1 & ^! 7 c>efully work$ out by su* re=m]s z ,pe/alozzi1 ,froebel1 & ,h]b>t4 ,9 ?is way !re 7 embodi$ 9 education ! fir/ positive results ( ,r\sseau's #8naturalism4' ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4--,! *ild z a m9iature adult4 7,reproduc$ f a ,fr5* fa%ion plate ( ! eighte5? c5tury47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,a naturali/ic s*ool4 7,reproduc$ f ! ,elem5t>w]k ( ,bas$[47 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap4 ,,ii2 & ,great ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 *aps4 ,,vii & ,,viii2 ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *ap4 ,x2 ,p>k]1 ,s4 ,c41 ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,elem5t>y ,education 7,g9n1 #aiab71 *aps4 ,,viii-,x4 ,! ,emile 7,translat$ by ,payne2 ,appleton1 #ahie7 %\ld be read1 & ! ,elem5t>w]k 7,wieg&t1 ,leipzig1 #aiji7 %\ld be exam9$4 ,a judicial description ( ! life & "w ( ,r\sseau is t by ,morley1 ,j4 7,macmillan71 :ile ,davidson1 ,t41 furni%es an int]e/+ int]pretation ( ,r\sseau & ,education f ,nature 7,scribn]1 #aijb71 b ! /&>d treatise on ,! ,educational ,!ory ( ,r\sseau 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #aiaa7 at pres5t has be5 writt5 by ,boyd1 ,w4 ,a good brief acc\nt ( ,bas$[3 ,8 ,educational ,"w & ,pr9ciples 7,kellogg1 ,new ,york1 #ahia7 is af=d$ by ,lang1 ,o4 ,h4 ,see also ,b>n>d1 ,h41 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,education1 vol4 ,v1 pp4 #dhg-ebj4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,philan?ropy ,,9 ,,education ,,outl9e ,9 ,engl&1 dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury1 !re 7 num]\s attempts to provide education = ! poor ?r\gh *>ity s*ools4 ,! mo/ important factor 9 ma9ta9+ ^! in/itutions 0 ! ,society = ! ,promotion ( ,*ri/ian ,k4 ,among o!r organizations1 !re sprang up a ,society = ! ,propagation ( ! ,gospel 9 ,=eign ,p>ts1 :i* support$ s*ools ?r\gh\t ! ,am]ican colonies1 except ,virg9ia4 ,*>ity s*ools 7 also ma9ta9$ 9 ,am]ica by v>i\s o!r ag5cies4 ,an attempt 0 likewise made by ,raikes ( ,gl\ce/]1 ,engl&1 to e/abli% ,sunday s*ools1 = tra9+ ! poor to read1 & ^! in/itutions spread ?r\gh\t ! ,briti% ,isles & ,am]ica4 ,a sy/em ( in/ruction ?r\gh monitors1 develop$ by ,lanca/] & ,bell1 :ile =mal & me*anical1 furni%$ a sort ( sub/itute = national education 9 ,engl&1 &1 spread+ ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pav$ ! way = /ate support1 & greatly improv$ ! me?ods ( tea*+4 #8,infant s*ools' = poor *ildr5 also grew up dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury 9 ,france1 ,engl&1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & f\nd a p]man5t place 9 ! national sy/ems1 b !y soon became =maliz$ & me*anical4 ,philan?ropic education prov$ a fir/ /ep t[>d univ]sal & national education4 ,sid5ote3 ,ev5 9 ,r\sseau & ! philan?rop9i/s1 ,sid5ote3 & especially 9 ,engl&4 ,recon/ructive ,t5d5cies ( ! ,eighte5? ,c5tury4--,! eighte5? c5tury _c be reg>d$ altoge!r z a p]iod ( revolution & de/ruction4 ,:ile su* a *>act]ization describes ! prevail+ t5d5cies1 !re 7 also social & educational =ces t look$ to evolution & re=m r ?an to a complete dis9tegration ( society & a return to primitive liv+4 ,ev5 9 ,r\sseau1 ! ar*-de/roy] ( traditions1 we f\nd _m evid5ces ( a recon/ruction along high] l9es1 & su* a positive movem5t 0 decid$ly obvi\s 9 ,bas$[1 ,salzmann1 & o!r philan?rop9i/s4 ,b 9 ,engl& re=ms 7 especially app>5t4 ,9 ! l& ( ! ,briton1 progress is prov]bially gradual1 & sweep+ victories & ,wat]loo defeats 9 affairs ( society & education are alike unwont$4 ,! ,fr5* t5d5cy to cut %ort ! social & educational process & to sub/itute revolution = evolution is out ( accord ) ! _s across ! ,engli% ,*annel4 ,sid5ote3 ,wret*$ conditions ( labor+ class4 ,sid5ote3 ,*>ity s*ools z rem$y4 ,! ,rise ( ,*>ity ,s*ools 9 ,engl&4--,& yet conditions 9 ,engl& at ?is "t might well h incit$ p to revolution4 ,wages 7 l[1 employm5t 0 irregul>1 & ! labor+ classes1 :o numb]$ fully "o-six? ( ! population1 7 clad 9 rags1 liv$ 9 hovels1 & (t5 w5t hungry4 ,opportunities = elem5t>y education 7 r>e4 ,! few s*ools t rema9$ aft] ! ,re=mation _h l>gely lo/ _! end[m5ts or _h be5 p]v]t$ into second>y in/itutions1 & _h suff]$ f incompet5t & neglig5t ma/]s & f ! religi\s upheaval ( ! times4 ,x 0 z a p>tial rem$y = ?is situation1 t1 t[>d ! close ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 !re sprang up a succession ( #8*>ity s*ools1' 9 :i* *ildr5 ( ! poor 7 n only taught1 b bo>d$ & sometimes provid$ ) clo!s1 & ! boys 7 prep>$ = appr5tice%ip & ! girls = dome/ic s]vice4 ,probably ab\t "o ?\s& s*ools ^u ?is g5]al philan?ropic basis _h be5 e/abli%$ 9 ,engl& & ,wales by ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,mo/ ( ^! _h receiv$ sub/antial end[m5t1 b numb]s ( !m 7 ma9ta9$ by private subscriptions4 ,sid5ote3 ,f\ndation1 ,sid5ote3 managem5t1 ,sid5ote3 books1 ,sid5ote3 tea*]s1 ,sid5ote3 & c\rse4 ,! ,s*ools ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4--,a factor t 0 ev5 m important 9 op5+ *>ity s*ools 0 ! #8,society = ! ,promotion ( ,*ri/ian ,k' 7(t5 abbreviat$ to ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k474 ,?is society 0 f\nd$ 9 #afih by ,rev]5d ,?omas ,bray1 ,d4 ,d41 & f\r o!r cl]gym5 & philan?ropi/s4 ,z a rule1 its s*ools 7 e/abli%$1 support$1 & manag$ by local p1 b ! ,society gu>ante$ _! ma9t5ance1 & assi/$ !m f its own treasury :5ev] a /r+5cy 9 funds arose4 ,! ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 also inspect$ s*ools1 & advis$ & enc\rag$ ! local manag]s1 & furni%$ bibles1 pray] books1 & cate*isms at ! *eape/ rates possible4 ,x made /r+5t regulations ( eligibility = its s*oolma/]s1 requir+1 9 addition to ! usual religi\s1 moral1 p$agogical1 & age te/s1 t !y be memb]s ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& & approv$ by ! m9i/] ( ! p>i%4 ,ea* ma/] 0 expect$ to tea* ! *ildr5 _! cate*ism1 & purge !m ( bad morals & mann]s1 besides tra9+ !m 9 read+1 writ+1 & elem5t>y ari?metic4 ,! pupils 71 moreov]1 clo!d1 bo>d$1 & at times ev5 lodg$4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t1 ,sid5ote3 opposition & advocacy1 ,sid5ote3 decad5ce1 ,sid5ote3 & influ5ce4 ,! numb] ( *>ity s*ools ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 grew by leaps & b\nds1 & by ! close ( ! fir/ decade !re 7 eighty-eight )9 a radius ( t5 miles ( ,london4 ,! gifts made _h am\nt$ to almo/ t5 ?\s& p\nds1 & ne>ly "o ?\s& boys & ov] f\r hundr$ girls _h be5 s5t out z appr5tices4 ,& be=e ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury ! total numb] ( ^! *>ity s*ools 9 ,engl& & ,wales rea*$ ne>ly two ?\s&1 ) ab\t fifty ?\s& boys & girls 9 att5dance4 ,?is increase 9 facilities = ! education ( ! poor 0 n k9dly receiv$ by _m 9 ! upp] classes1 :o (t5 felt t 8!re is no ne$ = any le>n+ at all = ! meane/ ranks ( mank9d3 _! bus9ess is to lab\r1 n to ?9k40 ,b ! *>ity s*ools _h also _m w>m support]s1 & ,addison ev5 believ$ t z a result ( !m !re w\ld be 8few 9 ! next g5]ation :o w n at lea/ be able to write & read1 & h n an e>ly t9cture ( religion40 ,! b5efactions = ^! in/itutions cont9u$ to increase = ne>ly half a c5tury1 b by ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury popul> int]e/ _h wan$4 ,! subscriptions began to fall (f1 ! sy/em ( inspection & ! tea*+ became less effective1 & ! s*ools ceas$ to exp&4 ,nev]!less1 ! ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 _h succe$$ 9 impress+ ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& ) a s5se ( responsibility = ! e/abli%m5t ( a national s*ool sy/em ^u a religi\s basis4 ,its s*ools 7 l>gely cont9u$ ?r\gh\t ! eighte5? c5tury1 & 9 mo/ in/ances aft] #ahaa 7 absorb$ by ! new educational organization ( ! ,engli% ,*ur*1 ! s-call$ #8,national ,society' 7see p4 #bci74 ,sid5ote3 ,noncon=mi/ s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 #8,circulat+ s*ools4' ,sid5ote3 ,f\ndation ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 ,o!r ,briti% ,*>ity ,s*ools4--,^! in/itutions ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& society may be reg>d$ z typical ( ,briti% *>ity s*ools 9 g5]al4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 also a doz5 well-kn[n f\ndations by noncon=mi/s1 includ+ ! #8,gravel ,lane ,s*ool' ( ,s\?w>k1 ,london1 :i* 0 />t$ ov] a decade be=e ! ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 0 organiz$4 ,& an int]e/+ type ( philan?ropic in/itution kn[n z #8circulat+ s*ools' 0 f\nd$ 9 ,wales4 ,^! s*ools simply aim$ to tea* pupils to read ! ,bible 9 ,wel%1 & :5 ?is _h be5 accompli%$ 9 "o neighborhood1 ! s*ool 0 transf]r$ to ano!r4 ,b a mu* m important organization 0 ! (f%oot ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k41 t arose *iefly to c>ry on *>ity s*ools 9 ! ,am]ican colonies4 ,?is association1 ! #8,society = ! ,propagation ( ! ,gospel 9 ,=eign ,p>ts1' 7commonly kn[n z ,s4 ,p4 ,g471 0 f\nd$ by ,dr4 ,bray ?ree ye>s aft] ! p>5t society1 b no s*ools 7 e/abli%$ = sev]al ye>s4 ,sid5ote3 ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 s*ool 9 ,new ,york ,city1-- ,sid5ote3 n[ #8,tr9ity ,*ur* ,s*ool4' ,! ,*>ity ,s*ools ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,g4--,! fir/ s*ool ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 0 op5$ 9 ,new ,york ,city 9 #agji "u ,william ,huddle/on1 :o _h be5 conduct+ a s*ool ( 8 own !re4 ,x 0 int5d$ t ! new s*ool %\ld foll[ ! plan ( ! *>ity s*ools 9 ,engl&1 b1 :ile free tuition & free books 7 grant$ f ! beg9n+1 x 0 n until _m ye>s lat] t ! means ( clo?+ ! *ildr5 gratuit\sly 0 provid$4 ,"u diff]5t ma/]s & ) v>y+ =tunes1 ! s*ool 0 support$ by ! society until #aghc1 :5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates _h f9ally cut loose f ! ,"m ,c\ntry & />t$ on a c>e] ( its own4 ,mean:ile ,tr9ity ,*ur* _h come m & m to take ! initiative 9 ! end[m5t & support ( ! s*ool1 & s9ce ! )drawal ( ! society f ,am]ica ! in/itution has be5 kn[n z #8,tr9ity ,*ur* ,s*ool4' ,sid5ote3 ,o!r colonies ,sid5ote3 ,att5dance1 ,sid5ote3 c\rse1 & books4 ,s*ools ( ! same type 7 active ?r\gh\t ! colonies 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,we possess m or less complete acc\nts ( ^! in/itutions 9 ,new ,york & all ! o!r colonies1 except ,virg9ia1 :]e !y 7 n believ$ to be ne$$4 ,except = size & local peculi>ities1 all ( !m closely resembl$ ! s*ool 9 ,new ,york ,city4 ,! att5dance rang$ f eighte5 or tw5ty pupils to ne>ly f\r times t numb]4 ,girls 7 g5]ally admitt$1 & occasionally equall$ or exce$$ ! boys 9 numb]4 ,z a rule1 *ildr5 ( o!r d5om9ations 7 receiv$ on ! same t]ms z ^? ( ,*ur* ( ,engl& memb]s1 & at times ne>ly "o-half ! att5dance 0 compos$ ( diss5t]s1 b (t5 ^? outside ! ,*ur* 7 giv5 second>y consid]ation1 or ! cate*ism 0 s /ress$ by ! s*ool t ! diss5t+ *ildr5 7 )drawn & rival s*ools set up4 ,! "* ( ! c\rse ( /udy 9 ^! *>ity s*ools is fur!r indicat$ by ! books furni%$ by ! society4 ,9 packets ( v>i\s sizes x s5t ov] horn-books1 prim]s1 spell]s1 writ+-pap] & ink-horns1 cate*isms1 psalt]s1 pray] books1 te/am5ts1 & bibles4 ,!re is also "s evid5ce t second>y in/ruction 0 c>ri$ on int]mitt5tly 9 ! v>i\s c5t]s by ! mission>ies or by ! s*oolma/]s 9 conjunction ) _! elem5t>y "w4 ,sid5ote3 ,opposition to ! ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 ,sid5ote3 ,its devotion & g5]osity1 ,sid5ote3 & influ5ce ^u univ]sal education4 ,?r\gh\t its "w 9 ! ,am]ican colonies ! ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 met ) v>i\s =ms ( opposition4 ,! diss5t]s1 ,quak]s1 & o!rs 7 (t5 op5ly ho/ile ?r\gh fe> ( ! f\ndation ( an e/abli%$ national *ur* simil> to t ( ,engl&1 & bo? sides display$ consid]able sect>ianism & bigotry4 ,aft] #agej ! opposition to ! society increas$ 9 bitt]ness & became m g5]al1 ow+ to ! feel+ t its ag5ts 7 support+ ! k+ aga9/ ! coloni/s4 ,yet its patronage ( s*ools 0 mo/ philan?ropic & important = ,am]ican education 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,:ile x insi/$ ^u ! int]pretation ( ,*ri/ianity adopt$ by ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&1 x /ood fir/ & =emo/ = ! ext5sion ( religion & education to ! virg9 soil ( ,am]ica4 ,x c>ri$ on its labors ) devot$ int]e/ & %[$ great g5]osity 9 ! ma9t5ance ( s*ools1 & ! support ( s*ools 9 ! colonies by ! ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 mu/ h ex]t$ "s influ5ce t[>d univ]sal education4 ,sid5ote3 ,organization1 ,sid5ote3 c\rse1 & ,sid5ote3 disappe>ance ( ,s4 ,p4 ,k4 ,g4 s*ools4 ,*>ity ,s*ools among ! ,p5nsylvania ,g]mans4--,dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury ! ef=ts ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 7 supplem5t$ by ! =mation ( m9or associations & ! e/abli%m5t ( o!r *>ity s*ools 9 v>i\s colonies4 ,p]haps ! mo/ notewor?y in/ance 0 ! organization 9 #agec ( #8,a ,society = ,propagat+ ! ,k ( ,god among ! ,g]mans1' & ! ma9t5ance ( s*ools among ! sects ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,^! s*ools 7 manag$ by a g5]al colonial bo>d ( six tru/ees1 :o visit$ ! s*ools annually & aw>d$ prizes = ,engli% orations & atta9m5ts 9 civic & religi\s duties4 ,! c\rse ( /udy includ$ in/ruction 9 8bo? ! ,engli% & ,g]man languages2 likewise 9 writ+1 keep+ ( common acc\nts1 s++ ( psalms1 & ! true pr9ciples ( ! holy ,prote/ant religion40 ,tw5ty-five s*ools 7 plann$1 b probably !re 7 nev] m ?an half t numb]4 ,! s*ools la/$ only ab\t a decade1 z ! ,g]mans soon came to feel t ?is ,engli% s*ool+ ?reat5$ _! language1 nationality1 & in/itutions4 ,sid5ote3 ,f\ndation1 ,sid5ote3 opposition1 ,sid5ote3 advocacy1 & spread4 ,! #8,sunday ,s*ool' ,movem5t 9 ,great ,brita94--,a v>iety ( *>ity s*ool1 q diff]5t f ^? already m5tion$1 sprang up t[>d ! close ( ! c5tury "u ! "n ( #8,sunday ,s*ools4' ,to ov]come ! prevail+ ignorance1 vice1 & squalor 9 ! manufactur+ c5t] ( ,gl\ce/]1 ,engl&1 ,rob]t ,raikes 9 #aghj set up a s*ool 9 ,sooty ,alley = ! in/ruction ( *ildr5 & adults 9 religion & ! rudim5ts4 ,six mon?s lat] he />t$ a new s*ool 9 ,s\?gate /reet1 & soon _h o!r s*ools e/abli%$4 ,he paid 8 tea*]s a %ill+ ea* ,sunday to tra9 ! *ildr5 to read 9 ! ,bible1 spell1 & write4 ,?is *>ity education1 meag] z x 01 0 attack$ by _m ( ! upp] classes1 & 0 (t5 view$ ) suspicion by ! recipi5ts !mselves4 ,yet ! new movem5t _h w>m support]s among ! nobility & su* re=m]s z ,wesley1 & ! s*ools soon spread to ,london1 & !n ?r\gh\t ,engl&1 ,wales1 ,irel&1 ,scotl&1 & ! ,*annel ,isl&s4 ,a ,sunday ,s*ool ,society 0 f\nd$ 9 #aghe1 & )9 a decade di/ribut$ ne>ly "o hundr$ ?\s& spell]s1 tw5ty-five ?\s& te/am5ts1 & ov] five ?\s& bibles1 & tra9$ approximately sixty-five ?\s& pupils 9 "o ?\s& s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,individual c5t]s ,sid5ote3 & p]man5t associations4 ,! #8,sunday ,s*ool' ,movem5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,! ,raikes sy/em ( ,sunday in/ruction 0 also soon introduc$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,! fir/ s*ool 0 organiz$ 9 #aghf by ,bi%op ,asbury at ! h\se ( ,?omas ,cr5%aw 9 ,hanov] ,c\nty1 ,virg9ia1 & )9 a qu>t] ( a c5tury a numb] ( s*ools arose 9 v>i\s cities4 ,be=e long1 p]man5t associations 7 also />t$ to promote ,sunday in/ruction4 #8,! ,fir/ ,day or ,sunday ,s*ool ,society' 0 organiz$ at ,philadelphia 9 #agia1 & dur+ ! fir/ two decades ( ! n9ete5? c5tury a numb] ( simil> societies = secul> in/ruction on ,sunday 7 f\nd$ 9 ,new ,york1 ,bo/on1 ,philadelphia1 & else:]e4 ,9 #ahbc ^! associations 7 all absorb$ into a new & broad] organization1 kn[n ev] s9ce z ! #8,am]ican ,sunday ,s*ool ,union4' ,at ! />t x publi%$ suitable read+-books1 & furni%$ prim]s1 spell]s1 te/am5ts1 & hymn-books to ne$y ,sunday s*ools at a reasonable rate4 ,sid5ote3 ,make%ift1 b prep>$ ! way = univ]sal education4 ,value ( ! ,in/ruction 9 #8,sunday ,s*ools4'--,bo? 9 ,great ,brita9 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 h[ev]1 ! ,sunday s*ools gradually t5d$ to ab&on _! secul> in/ruction & become purely religi\s4 ,at ! same "t ! tea*]s came to s]ve )\t pay & to in/ruct less effici5tly4 ,& ! value ( ! secul> tea*+ 0 n l>ge at ! be/1 z ! "w 0 necess>ily limit$ to a few h\rs once a week4 ,raikes & all o!rs int]e/$ 9 ^! in/itutions recogniz$ _! inadequacy z a means ( secur+ univ]sal education1 & reg>d$ !m m]ely z auxili>y to a m complete sy/em ( in/ruction4 ,b :ile a make%ift & by no means a f9al solution = national education1 !y p]=m$ a notable s]vice = ! times1 & help$ po9t ! way to univ]sal education4 ,sid5ote3 ,lanca/] ,sid5ote3 & ! ,briti% & ,=eign ,society2 ,! ,s*ools ( ! ,two ,monitorial ,societies4--,:ile philan?ropic education />t$ l>gely 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 "s ( ! s*ools cont9u$ well into ! n9ete5?4 ,?is 0 especially ! case ) ! #8monitorial' sy/em1 />t$ at ,s\?w>k 9 #agih4 ,?is di/rict ( ,london 0 ?rong$ ) b>efoot & unkempt *ildr52 & ,lanca/]1 ! f\nd] ( ! s*ool1 und]took to educate z _m z he c\ld4 ,8 s*oolroom 0 soon fill$ ) a hundr$ or m pupils4 ,9 ord] to tea* !m all1 he us$ ! old] pupils z assi/ants4 ,he taught ! lesson fir/ to ^! #8monitors1' & !y 9 turn imp>t$ x to ! o!rs1 :o 7 divid$ into equal gr\ps4 ,ea* monitor c>$ = a s+le gr\p4 ,! "w 0 v successful f ! fir/1 b ,lanca/]1 attempt+ to introduce s*ools ( ?is k9d ?r\gh\t ,engl&1 fell s recklessly into debt t an association _h to be f\nd$ 9 #ahjh to cont9ue ! "w on a practical basis4 ,)9 half a doz5 ye>s ,lanca/] )drew f ! organization1 b ! association1 "u ! "n ( ! #8,briti% & ,=eign ,society1' cont9u$ to fl\ri% & f\nd new s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,bell & ! ,national ,society4 ,s successful 0 ! ,lanca/]ian "w t ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&1 fe>+ its nonsect>ian influ5ce ^u education1 9 #ahaa organiz$ #8,! ,national ,society = ,promot+ ! ,education ( ! ,poor 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ! ,e/abli%$ ,*ur*4' ,?is long-nam$ association 0 to conduct monitorial s*ools "u ! managem5t ( ,doctor ,&rew ,bell1 :o _h exp]im5t$ ) ! sy/em 9 ,india be=e ,lanca/] op5$ 8 s*ool4 ,al?\gh !y _h =m$ no "p ( ,bell's orig9al me?ods1 ! ,anglican cate*ism & pray] book 7 n[ taught dogmatically 9 ! s*ools f\nd$ by ! ,national ,society4 ,bell prov$ an admirable director1 & a heal?y rivalry sprang up betwe5 ! societies4 ,sid5ote3 ,diff]5ces 9 ! two sy/ems4 ,sid5ote3 ,bo? 7 unorig9al ,sid5ote3 & me*anical4 ,value ( ! ,monitorial ,sy/em 9 ,engl&4--,! plans ( ! two organizations 7 simil>1 b diff]$ some:at 9 details4 ,bo? us$ monitors & taught writ+ by means ( a desk cov]$ ) s&1 b ! sy/em ( ,lanca/] 0 animat$ by broad] motives & _h _m m devices = tea*+4 ,x also in/itut$ company organization1 drill1 & precision1 & develop$ a sy/em ( badges1 (fices1 rew>ds1 & puni%m5ts4 ,monitorial in/ruction1 h[ev]1 0 n orig9al ) ei!r ,lanca/] or ,bell4 ,x _h long be5 us$ by ! ,h9dus & o!rs1 al?\gh ! "w ( ! two societies br\ght x into prom95ce4 ,x ov]emphasiz$ repetition & recitation me*anics1 & consi/$ ( a =mal drill r ?an a me?od ( in/ruction4 ,sid5ote3 ,af=d$ sub/itute = national education4 ,sid5ote3 ,tra9+ colleges4 ,sid5ote3 ,briti% & ,=eign s*ools absorb$1 b ,national a sy/em by !mselves4 ,yet ! monitorial s*ools 7 productive ( "s a*ievem5ts4 ,mo/ ( !m af=d$ a fair education 9 ! elem5t>y s*ool subjects & add$ "s indu/rial & vocational tra9+4 ,!y also did mu* to awak5 ! consci5ce ( ! ,engli% nation to ! ne$ ( g5]al education = ! poor4 ,! ,briti% & ,=eign & ! ,national ,societies af=d$ a sub/itute1 ?\gh a poor "o1 = national education 9 ! days be=e ,engl& 0 will+ to pay = g5]al education1 & !y became ! av5ues ?r\gh :i* su* appropriations z ! gov]nm5t did make 7 di/ribut$4 ,9 #ahcc ! grant ( #bj1jjj1 con/itut+ ! fir/ gov]nm5t aid to elem5t>y education1 0 equally divid$ betwe5 ! two societies 7see p4 #chh71 & ?is me?od ( adm9i/ration 0 cont9u$ z ! annual grant 0 gradually increas$1 until ! sy/em ( public education 0 e/abli%$4 ,likewise1 9 #ahci1 #aj1jjj = normal in/ruction 0 vot$ to ! societies1 & 0 us$ by ! ,briti% & ,=eign = its ,bor\gh ,road ,tra9+ ,college1 & by ! ,national = ,/4 ,m>k's ,tra9+ ,college4 ,^! 7 foll[$ by sev]al o!r tra9+ in/itutions1 e/abli%$ by ea* society ?r\gh gov]nm5t aid4 ,9 #ahgj1 :5 ! #8bo>d1' or public elem5t>y1 s*ools 7 at l5g? f\nd$1 ! s*ools ( ! ,briti% & ,=eign ,society1 ) _! nonsect>ian in/ruction1 fus$ naturally ) !m2 b ! in/itutions ( ! ,national ,society1 ?\gh transf]r$ to s*ool bo>ds 9 a few cases1 h g5]ally come to con/itute by !mselves a national sy/em on a volunt>y basis4 ,sid5ote3 ,adoption by ,new ,york & o!r cities4 ,sid5ote3 ,introduc$ into high s*ools & academies4 ,results ( ! ,monitorial ,sy/em 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! monitorial sy/em 0 introduc$ into ,new ,york ,city 9 #ahjf4 ,! #8,society = ! ,e/abli%m5t ( a ,free ,s*ool1' aft] inve/igat+ ! be/ me?ods 9 o!r cities & c\ntries1 decid$ to try ! sy/em ( ,lanca/] 7see p4 #bfj74 ,! me?od 0 likewise introduc$ into ! *>ity s*ools ( ,philadelphia 7see p4 #bfa74 ,! monitorial sy/em !n spread rapidly ?r\gh ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,massa*usetts1 ,connecticut1 & o!r ,/ates4 ,x is almo/ impossible to trace ! exact ext5t ( ?is organization 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b be=e long x seems to h affect$ ne>ly all cities ( any size z f> s\? z ,augu/a 7,georgia71 & we/ z f> z ,c9c9nati4 ,!re are /ill traces ( its influ5ce ?r\gh\t ?is region1--9 ,h>t=d1 ,new ,hav51 ,albany1 ,wa%+ton1 & ,baltimore1 z well z 9 ! places already m5tion$ 7,figs4 #bg1 #bh1 & #bi74 ,9 #ahah ,lanca/] himself 0 invit$ to ,am]ica1 & assi/$ 9 ! monitorial s*ools ( ,new ,york1 ,brooklyn1 & ,philadelphia4 ,a doz5 ye>s lat] ! sy/em began to be introduc$ g5]ally into ! high s*ools & academies4 ,?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ,dr4 ,john ,griscom1 :o _h be5 greatly pleas$ ) ! monitorial high s*ool ( ,dr4 ,pillans 9 ,ed9burgh1 a simil> in/itution 0 e/abli%$ 9 ,new ,york ,city 9 #ahbe1 & ! plan 0 soon adopt$ by a numb] ( high s*ools 9 ,new ,york & neighbor+ /ates4 ,likewise1 ! /ate sy/ems ( academies 9 ,m>yl& & 9 ,indiana1 :i* became high s*ools aft] ! ,civil ,w>1 7 organiz$ on ?is basis4 ,= two decades ! monitorial rema9$ ! prevail+ me?od 9 second>y education4 ,tra9+ s*ools = tea*]s on ! ,lanca/]ian basis also became common4 ,sid5ote3 ,increas$ s*ool facilities ,sid5ote3 & improv$ organization & me?ods4 ,9 fact1 ! monitorial sy/em 0 de/9$ to p]=m a great s]vice = ,am]ican education4 ,at ! "t ( its introduction1 public & free s*ools 7 g5]ally lack+1 outside ( ,new ,engl&1 & ! facilities t exi/$ 7 meag] & available dur+ b a small portion ( ! ye>4 ,9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry illit]acy 0 almo/ univ]sal among *ildr5 ( ! poor4 ,?is want ( s*ool opportunities 0 r5d]$ m s]i\s by ! rapid gr[? ( ,am]ican cities4 #8,free s*ool societies1' l t 9 ,new ,york ,city1 =m$ to relieve ! situation1 came to reg>d ! sy/em ( ,lanca/]1 because ( its comp>ative inexp5siv5ess1 z a gods5d = _! purpose4 ,& :5 ! p g5]ally awoke to ! cry+ ne$ ( public education1 legislators also f\nd monitorial s*ools ! *eape/ way out ( ! difficulty1 & ! provision made = ^! s*ools gradually op5$ ! road to ! ev] increas+ exp5ditures & taxation t _h to come be=e satisfactory s*ools c\ld be e/abli%$4 ,moreov]1 ! ,lanca/]ian s*ools 7 n only economical1 b mo/ effective1 :5 ! educational conditions ( ! times are tak5 into consid]ation4 ,ev5 9 ! cities1 ! "o-room & "o-tea*] s*ool 0 ! prevail+ type1 & grad+ 0 practically unkn[n4 ,! :ole organization & adm9i/ration 7 %iftless & uneconomical1 & a great improvem5t 0 br\ght ab\t by ! c>efully plann$ & detail$ me?ods ( ,lanca/]4 ,! s*ools 7 made ov] ?r\gh 8 def9ite me*anics ( in/ruction1 c5traliz$ managem5t1 well-tra9$ tea*]s1 improv$ app>atus1 discipl9e1 hygi5e1 & o!r features4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,a monitorial s*ool1 ) ?ree hundr$ pupils & b "o tea*]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4--,pupils recit+ to monitors4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4--,monitor inspect+ slates4 ,sid5ote3 ,disappe>$ :5 educational s5tim5t improv$4 ,b :ile ! monitorial me?ods met a great educational em]g5cy 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !y 7 cle>ly me*anical1 inela/ic1 & )\t psy*ological f\ndation4 ,naturally _! sway c\ld n la/ long1 & z enl>g$ mat]ial res\rces enabl$ ! p to make great] appropriations = education1 ! obvi\s defects ( ! monitorial sy/em became m fully appreciat$ & br\ght ab\t its ab&onm5t4 ,be=e ! middle ( ! c5tury its "w 9 ,am]ica 0 end$1 & x gave way to ! m psy*ological conceptions ( ,pe/alozzi & to ^? aft]w>d =mulat$ by ,froebel & ,h]b>t4 ,sid5ote3 ,beg9n+ ) ,ob]l92 ,sid5ote3 developm5t 9 ,p>is2 ,sid5ote3 "p ( national sy/em4 ,! #8,infant ,s*ools' 9 ,france4--,ano!r =m ( philan?ropic education t came to be v influ5tial dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury & has ev5tually be5 m]g$ 9 sev]al national sy/ems is t ( ! s-call$ #8infant s*ools4' ,! fir/ record$ in/ance ( ^! in/itutions occurr$ late 9 ! eighte5? c5tury ?r\gh ! attempt ( a "y ,lu!ran pa/or nam$ ,ob]l9 to give an in=mal tra9+ to ! small *ildr5 9 all ! villages ( 8 rural *>ge 9 nor!a/]n ,france4 ,?is type ( tra9+ 0 copi$ 9 ,p>is z e>ly z #ahja1 b did n am\nt to mu* until its revival ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( a simil> developm5t 9 ,engl& a qu>t] ( a c5tury lat]4 ,x !n rapidly exp&$1 & 9 #ahcc 0 adopt$ z "p ( ! ,fr5* national sy/em ( education4 ,9 #ahdg a normal s*ool 0 f\nd$ to prep>e directresses & inspectors = ^! in/itutions1 & 9 #ahha !y became kn[n z #8mat]nal s*ools1' & ! pres5t type ( curriculum 0 adopt$4 ,besides read+ & writ+1 ^! s*ools h always includ$ in=mal ex]cises 9 ! "m tongue1 draw+1 k ( common ?+s1 ! elem5ts ( geography & natural hi/ory1 manual & physical ex]cises1 & s++4 ,sid5ote3 ,ow5 at ,new ,lan>k2 ,sid5ote3 ,bu*anan's s*ool 9 ,london1 ,sid5ote3 became model = ,wild]sp91--=mal & me*anical4 ,! #8,infant ,s*ools' 9 ,engl&4--,q indep5d5tly1 ?\gh ov] a g5]ation lat] ?an ,ob]l91 ,rob]t ,ow5 op5$ 8 #8infant s*ool' 9 #ahaf at ,new ,lan>k1 ,scotl&4 ,he 0 a philan?ropic cotton-sp9n]1 & wi%$ to give ! "y *ildr5 ( 8 op]atives a c>eful moral1 physical1 & intellectual tra9+4 ,f ! age ( ?ree !y 7 taught 9 ?is s*ool = two or ?ree ye>s :atev] 0 useful & )9 _! und]/&+1 & ?is in/ruction 0 comb9$ ) mu* s++1 danc+1 amusem5t1 & out-(-door ex]cise4 ,!y 7 n 8annoy$ ) books10 b 7 taught ab\t nature & common objects ?r\gh maps1 models1 pa9t+s1 & famili> conv]sation1 & _! 8curiosity 0 excit$ s z to ask que/ions conc]n+ !m40 ,to af=d ?is in=mal tra9+1 ,ow5 secur$ a 8poor simple-he>t$ weav]1 nam$ ,james ,bu*anan1 :o at fir/ c\ld sc>cely read1 write1 or spell10 b :o1 by foll[+ ! in/ructions ( ,ow5 lit]ally1 made a great success ( ! sy/em4 ,b :5 ,bu*anan1 ) ! cons5t ( ,ow51 _h be5 transf]r$ to ,london1 to />t a simil> s*ool = a gr\p ( pe]s & o!r di/+ui%$ philan?ropi/s1 8 lack ( intellig5ce r$uc$ ! tra9+ to a m]e me*anical imitation ( ! proc$ure he _h le>n$ at ,new ,lan>k4 ,un=tunately1 ?is ,london s*ool became ! model = ,samuel ,wild]sp91 :o 0 de/9$ to become ! lead+ expon5t ( infant s*ools4 ,! s*ools ( ,wild]sp91 :ile reta9+ "s ( ! pr9ciples & devices ( ,ow51 7 mu* m =mal & me*anical4 ,he ?\ght too highly ( #8books1 lessons1 & app>atus1' & conf\nd$ in/ruction ) education4 ,he ov]load$ ! *ild ) v]bal in=mation1 dep5d+ ^u ! memory r ?an ! und]/&+4 ,be=e ! *ild 0 six1 x 0 expect$ t he _h be5 taught read+1 ! fundam5tal op]ations 9 ari?metic1 ! tables ( money1 weights1 & measures1 a k ( ! qualities ( common objects1 ! habits ( diff]5t animals1 ! elem5ts ( a/ronomy1 botany1 & zology1 & ! *ief facts ( ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,ev5 ! games 7 /]eotyp$1 & ! religi\s tea*+ mo/ =mal4 ,sid5ote3 ,spread ( s*ools2 ,sid5ote3 ,infant ,s*ool ,society2 ,sid5ote3 ,home & ,colonial ,society2 ,sid5ote3 ,"p ( public sy/em4 ,wild]sp9's fir/ s*ool 0 op5$ at ,spitalfields1 ,london1 & soon attract$ a horde ( visitors4 ,he !n began lectur+ ^u ! subject ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 (t5 demon/rat+ 8 me?ods ) classes ( *ildr5 he _h tak5 along1 & organiz$ infant s*ools ev]y:]e4 ,9 #ahbd an #8,infant ,s*ool ,society' 0 f\nd$ & ?r\gh x sev]al hundr$ s*ools 7 e/abli%$4 ,a doz5 ye>s lat] an organization = tra9+ infant s*ool tea*]s1 kn[n z #8,! ,home & ,colonial ,s*ool ,society1' 0 f\nd$ at ,london by ,rev]5d ,*>les ,mayo1 ,d4 ,d41 & o!rs4 ,?is society und]took to graft ,pe/alozzianism ^u ! infant s*ool /ock4 ,:ile ! comb9ation result$ 9 "s improvem5t ( ! infant s*ools1 & real object tea*+ & s5se tra9+ 7 m emphasiz$ ?an !y _h be51 ! _s ( ,pe/alozzi 0 l>gely lo/1 & !re 0 too mu* imitation ( ! =mal in/ruction ( old] *ildr51 & !re 0 an evid5t attempt to cultivate infant prodigies4 ,?r\gh ^! ag5cies infant s*ools spread rapidly 9 ,great ,brita91 & 7 adopt$ z a regul> "p ( ! public sy/em1 :5 x 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahgj 7p4 #chh74 ,& f\r ye>s lat] a m>k$ advance 0 made ?r\gh m]g+ 9 !m "s ( ! me?ods & games ( ! k9d]g>t54 ,sid5ote3 ,bo/on #8prim>y s*ools4' #8,infant ,s*ools' 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,s*ools op5 to all y\ng] *ildr5 also sprang up 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,= _m ye>s !y 7 n[h]e reg>d$ z an ess5tial "p ( ! public s*ool sy/em1 & 7 manag$ sep>ately1 b ab\t ! middle ( ! c5tury !y 7 g5]ally unit$4 ,9 #ahah ,bo/on made its fir/ appropriation = 8prim>y s*ools1 to provide in/ruction = *ildr5 betwe5 f\r & sev5 ye>s ( age40 ,^! s*ools 7 divid$ into f\r grades1 beg9n+ ) ! /udy ( ! alphabet & clos+ ) read+ 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,besides read+1 writ+1 & spell+1 sew+ & knitt+ 7 taught ! girls4 ,a =mal c\rse & ! monitorial me?od 7 employ$ until ab\t #ahdj1 :5 ! prim>y s*ools became l>gely inoculat$ ) ! in=mal proc$ure ( ,pe/alozzi4 ,! prim>y s*ools 7 = a long "t "u a sep>ate committee1 b 9 #ahed ! managem5t 0 fus$ 9 a g5]al city bo>d4 ,sid5ote3 #8,prim>y dep>tm5ts' 9 ,new ,york4 ,new ,york />t$ an #8,infant ,s*ool ,society' 9 #ahbg4 ,?is organization op5$ two #8infant s*ools' = poor *ildr5 betwe5 ?ree & six ye>s ( age4 ,"o ( ^! s*ools 0 locat$ 9 ! basem5t ( a ,presbyt]ian ,*ur* & ! o!r 9 t ( a monitorial in/itution belong+ to ! ,public ,s*ool ,society 7see p4 #bfa74 ,! ,pe/alozzian me?ods us$ 9 ^! infant s*ools greatly comm5d$ !mselves1 & 9 #ahcj ! ,public ,s*ool ,society add$ !m z #8prim>y dep>tm5ts' 9 all _! build+s1 b "u sep>ate managem5t4 ,a committee 0 appo9t$ 9 #ahcb to exam9e ! ,society's s*ools & sugge/ improvem5ts4 ,^u ! recomm5dation ( two ( ?is committee1 :o _h inspect$ education 9 ,bo/on1 prim>y s*ools 7 e/abli%$ 9 r5t$ rooms 9 suffici5t numb]s to be )9 easy rea* = ! "y *ildr54 ,! subject-matt] & me?ods 7 likewise made less =mal4 ,sid5ote3 #8,infant s*ools' 9 ,philadelphia ,sid5ote3 & o!r c5t]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,improvem5ts ?r\gh infant s*ools4 ,9 #ahbg ?ree #8infant s*ools' 7 also f\nd$ 9 ,philadelphia & o!r c5t]s ( ,p5nsylvania ?r\gh ,rob]ts ,vaux4 ,by #ahcj ! numb] ( infant s*ools 9 ! /ate _h ris5 to t51 ) two to ?ree ?\s& pupils4 ,z ! numb]s w\ld indicate1 ! s*ools 7 l>gely organiz$ ^u ! ,lanca/]ian plan4 ,two ye>s lat] a model infant s*ool 0 />t$ 9 ,philadelphia1 & 9 #ahcd six o!rs 7 organiz$4 ,by #ahcg !re 7 ?irty prim>y s*ools 9 ,philadelphia alone4 ,sev]al o!r cities />t$ infant s*ools e>ly4 ,h>t=d began !m 9 #ahbg1 & ,baltimore 9 #ahbi4 ,^! in/itutions 7 9 mo/ cases fo/]$ by ! lead+ m5 ( ! community1 & ! ultimate s]vice p]=m$ = ,am]ican education by ?is =m ( philan?ropy 0 consid]able4 ,among o!r improvem5ts1 ! infant s*ools develop$ a bett] type ( s*oolroom1 secur$ sep>ate rooms = diff]5t classes1 introduc$ bett] me?ods & equipm5t1 enc\rag$ a movem5t t[>d playgr\nds1 & br\ght wom5 into ! city s*ools ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,purpose1 ,sid5ote3 location1 ,sid5ote3 c\rse1 ,sid5ote3 & me?ods4 ,! ,importance ( ,philan?ropic ,education4--,_m o!r types ( *>ity s*ool arose dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury bo? 9 ,great ,brita9 & ,am]ica1 b ! *ief movem5ts h be5 describ$1 & suffici5t has be5 said to indicate ! important "p 9 education play$ by philan?ropy4 ,! moral1 religi\s1 & economic condition ( ! l[] classes _h be5 sadly neglect$1 & by means ( end[m5t1 subscription1 or organiz$ societies1 a s]ies ( attempts 0 made to relieve & elevate ! masses ?r\gh education4 ,z a result1 *>ity s*ools ( _m v>ieties & m or less p]man5t 9 "* arose 9 all p>ts ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ev5 ,france4 ,9 _m in/ances ! pupils 7 furni%$ ) lodg+1 bo>d1 & clo!s4 ,! curriculum 9 ^! in/itutions 01 ( c\rse1 mo/ly elem5t>y4 ,x g5]ally includ$ read+1 spell+1 writ+1 & ari?metic1 :ile a moral & religi\s tra9+ 0 giv5 ?r\gh ! ,bible1 cate*ism1 pray] book1 & psalms1 & sometimes ?r\gh att5dance at *ur* "u sup]vision ( ! ma/]4 ,frequ5tly indu/rial or vocational subjects 7 taught1 or ! pupils appr5tic$ to a trade or to dome/ic s]vice4 ,! c\rse 0 usually mo/ =mal bo? 9 matt] & me?od1 b occasionally 9 ! lat] types draw+1 geography1 nature /udy1 physical ex]cises1 & games 7 add$1 & ! m in=mal me?ods ( ,pe/alozzi or ,froebel 7 p>tially employ$4 ,sometimes ! tra9+ 0 especially int5d$ = & adapt$ to *ildr5 "u ! usual s*ool age4 ,sid5ote3 ,v>i\s sorts ( opposition4 ,^! ef=ts to improve social conditions by means ( philan?ropic education enc\nt]$ v>i\s sorts ( opposition4 ,(t5 ! upp] classes held t ! masses %\ld be kept 9 _! place1 & fe>$ t any education at all w\ld make !m discont5t$ & cause an upris+4 ,! poor !mselves1 9 turn1 7 (t5 suspici\s ( any s*ool+ t t5d$ to elevate !m1 & 7 unwill+ to /amp !mselves z paup]s4 ,moreov]1 ! sect>ian color t sometimes appe>$ 9 ! religi\s tra9+ n infrequ5tly repell$ p ( o!r cre$s or kept ! s*ools f receiv+ _! *ildr54 ,sid5ote3 ,pav$ ! way = national & public education4 ,h[ev]1 ?is philan?ropic education may1 9 g5]al1 be consid]$ a =tunate movem5t1 al?\gh its greate/ s]vice consi/$ 9 pav+ ! way = bett] ?+s4 ,9 contra/ to ! negative phase ( #8naturalism1' x repres5t$ a positive factor 9 ! educational activities ( ! c5tury4 ,in/ead ( attempt+ to de/roy exi/+ society utt]ly1 x s\ght r to re=m x1 & :5 ! "w ( de/ruction gave opportunity = new ideals1 x sugge/$ & ev5 furni%$ a recon/ruction along high] l9es4 ,h5ce philan?ropy 9 education ex]cis$ an important influ5ce 9 ! direction ( univ]sal1 national1 & public tra9+ = citiz5%ip4 ,x 0 9 _m ( its =ms m]g$ 9 su* a sy/em 9 sev]al c\ntries1 & 9 succe$+ *apt]s ref]5ces to ! ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k41 ,s4 ,p4 ,g41 ,sunday1 monitorial1 & infant s*ools w naturally appe>4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap4 ,,iii2 & ,great ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 *ap4 ,,xii2 ,p>k]1 ,mod]n ,elem5t>y ,education 7,g9n1 #aiab71 pp4 #aja-ajg4 ,all51 ,w4 ,o4 ,b4 & ,mc,clure1 ,e41 h pres5t$ ,! ,hi/ory ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 7,*ri/ian ,k ,society1 ,london1 #aija71 & ,pascoe1 ,c4 ,f41 ,two ,hundr$ ,ye>s ( ! ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 7,*ri/ian ,k ,society1 ,london1 #ahih71 :ile ,kemp1 ,w4 ,w41 gives a detail$ hi/ory ( ,! ,support ( ,s*ools 9 ,colonial ,new ,york by ! ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,tea*]s ,college ,contributions1 no4 #ef1 #aiac71 & ,web]1 ,s4 ,e41 ( ,! ,*>ity ,s*ool ,movem5t 9 ,p5nsylvania 7,doctoral diss]tation1 ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania74 ,h>ris1 ,j41 furni%es a good description ( ,rob]t ,raikes2 ! ,man & ,8 ,"w 7,dutton1 ,new ,york1 #ahii72 ,salmon1 ,d41 ( ,joseph ,lanca/] 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #aijd72 ,meiklejohn1 ,j4 ,m4 ,d41 ( ,an ,old ,educational ,re=m]1 ,dr4 ,&rew ,bell 7,b>de51 ,syracuse72 & ,salmon1 ,d41 & ,h9d%aw1 ,w41 ( ,infant ,s*ools1 ,_! ,hi/ory & ,!ory 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #aijd74 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,! ,,p]iod ,,( ,,transition ,,9 ,,am]ican ,,education ,,outl9e ,betwe5 ! #8transplantation' p]iod & t ( ! purely ,am]ican conception ( education 0 a di/9ctive /age 9 ,am]ican education1--! #8p]iod ( transition4' ,dur+ ?is p]iod ,virg9ia & ! o!r ,s\!rn /ates began to develop s5tim5t = univ]sal education1 & />t$ p]man5t s*ool funds & #8p]missive' laws = common s*ools4 ,9 ! /ate ( ,new ,york1 appropriations 7 made = elem5t>y education1 b ! public sy/em 0 n really ext5d$ to ! second>y field2 :ile 9 ,new ,york ,city ! way = univ]sal education 0 prep>$ by quasi-public societies4 ,9 ,p5nsylvania1 s*ool di/ricts 7 e/abli%$ at ,philadelphia & else:]e1 b n until #ahcd 0 ! /ate sy/em ( common s*ools />t$4 ,new ,j]sey & ,delaw>e 7 ev5 sl[] 9 gett+ _! sy/ems />t$4 ,! g5]\s support ( colonial education 9 ,massa*usetts 0 foll[$ by a decl9e1 & ! control ( s*ools 0 transf]r$ f ! t[ns to ! di/ricts4 ,academies 7 subsidiz$ by ! /ate & took ! place ( ! gramm> s*ools4 ,a simil> decl9e took place 9 ! s*ools ( ! o!r ,new ,engl& /ates1 except ,rhode ,isl&1 :i* = ! fir/ "t began to develop s*ools at public exp5se4 ,9 ! new /ates erect$ out ( ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory dur+ ?is p]iod !re 0 a prolong$ /ruggle to introduce common s*ools among ^? :o _h come f /ates n yet committ$ to ?is ideal1 & /ate sy/ems ( education began to appe> t[>d ! close ( ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,?us be=e ! educational awak5+ spread ?r\gh ! l&1 a radical modification _h tak5 place 9 ! ,european in/itutions ) :i* ,am]ica began its education4 ,sid5ote3 ,transition to ,am]ican conception began ab\t ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,evolution ( ,public ,education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,we may n[ return to our discussion ( education 9 ,am]ica4 ,x has already be5 se5 7*ap4 ,,xvii7 t ! organization ( s*ools 9 ! v>i\s colonies 0 l>gely ! result ( educational ideals & conditions 9 ! ,"m ,c\ntry4 ,at fir/ ! s*ools ( ,am]ica closely resembl$ ^? ( ! ,european c\ntries f :i* ! coloni/s came1 & ! sev5te5? c5tury 9 ,am]ican education is l>gely a p]iod ( #8transplantation4' ,b t[>d ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 z new social & political conditions 7 evolv+ & ! days ( ! ,revolution 7 approa*+1 !re 7 evid5t a gradual modification ( ,european ideals & ! diff]5tiation ( ,am]ican s*ools t[>d a type ( _! own4 ,am]ica has long /ood1 9 !ory at lea/1 = equality ( opportunity1 & ?is conception ( society is app>5t 9 its views ( education4 ,! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,am]ican s*ools has ?r\gh\t be5 ! attempt ( a free p to educate !mselves1 &1 ?r\gh _! elect$ repres5tatives1 ! p ( ! v>i\s /ates h come1 9 h>mony ) ! g5ius ( ,am]ican civilization1 to initiate1 regulate1 & control _! own sy/ems ( education4 ,:ile ! purely ,am]ican conception ( education _c be fully disc]n$ until almo/ ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 !re c = ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury be=e be cle>ly di/+ui%$ #8a p]iod ( transition' f ! inh]it$ ideals to ^? ( ,am]ica to-day4 ,?is int]v5+ /age ( evolution cov]s r\ghly ! la/ qu>t] c5tury ( colonial life & ! fir/ half c5tury ( /atehood4 ,to x we mu/ n[ direct our att5tion4 ,sid5ote3 ,! #8field s*ool4' ,sid5ote3 ,jeff]son's plan = univ]sal education4 ,rise ( ! ,common ,s*ool 9 ,virg9ia4--,by ! op5+ ( ! p]iod1 z we not$ 7p4 #aic71 ,virg9ia _h volunt>ily made a fair provision = second>y & high] education 9 v>i\s localities1 b z yet no real int]e/ 9 common elem5t>y s*ools _h be5 %[n by ! responsible classes4 ,! ne>e/ approa* to su* in/itutions 0 f\nd 9 ! plantation #8field s*ool4' ,organiz$ by a gr\p ( neighbors1 ^! s*ools 7 support$ by tuition fees & 7 n dep5d5t ^u any au?ority o!r ?an ! good s5se ( ! p>5ts & pupils4 ,b by ! close ( ! ,revolution a desire = g5u9e public education began to appe>4 ,! lead] 9 ! movem5t 0 ! great /atesman1 ,?omas ,jeff]son4 ,z e>ly z #aggi1 he fir/ introduc$ into ! legislature a s*eme ( univ]sal education4 ,8 bill propos$ to lay (f all ! c\nties into small di/ricts five or six miles squ>e1 to be call$ #8hundr$s4' ,ea* hundr$ 0 to e/abli% at its own exp5se an elem5t>y s*ool1 to :i* e citiz5 %\ld be entitl$ to s5d 8 *ildr5 free = ?ree ye>s1 & = z mu* long] z he w\ld pay4 ,! lead+ pupil 9 ea* s*ool 0 to be select$ annually by a s*ool visitor & s5t to "o ( ! tw5ty #8gramm>' 7i4 e4 second>y7 s*ools1 :i* 7 to be erect$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! /ate4 ,aft] a trial ( two ye>s _h be5 made ( ^! boys1 ! lead] 9 ea* gramm> s*ool 0 to be select$ & giv5 a complete second>y c\rse ( six ye>s1 & ! re/ dismiss$4 ,at ! end ( ?is six-ye> c\rse1 ! l[] half ( ! g5iuses ?us det]m9$ 7 to be reta9$ z tea*]s 9 ! gramm> s*ools1 :ile ! upp] half 7 to be support$ f ! public treasury = ?ree ye>s at ! ,college ( ,william & ,m>y1 :i* 0 to be greatly exp&$ 9 control & scope4 ,sid5ote3 ,p]missive law & #8lit]>y fund4' ,sid5ote3 ,univ]sity ( ,virg9ia4 ,?is compreh5sive plan = a sy/em ( common s*ools 01 9 ! face ( mo/ disc\rag+ opposition1 con/antly adh]$ to by ,jeff]son1 al?\gh he did n live to see univ]sal education an accompli%$ fact4 ,he did1 h[ev]1 /imulate "s movem5ts t[>d ?is end4 ,9 #agif ! legislature pass$ an ineffective law :]eby ! ju/ices ( ea* c\nty 7 p]mitt$ to initiate a s*ool sy/em by taxation1 & 9 #ahaj a #8lit]>y fund' 0 e/abli%$ = public education4 ,:51 9 #ahaf1 ?is fund _h be5 increas$ to a million doll>s1 ^? 9 *>ge ( x recomm5d$ to ! legislature ! e/abli%m5t ( 8a sy/em ( public education1 includ+ a univ]sity1 to be call$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,virg9ia1 & su* additional colleges1 academies1 & s*ools z %\ld diffuse ! b5efits ( education ?r\gh ! ,commonweal?40 ,?is revision ( ,jeff]son's sugge/ion did n imm$iately result 9 any legal /eps t[>d univ]sal education1 except ! appropriation 9 #ahah ( #de1jjj f ! income ( ! lit]>y fund to h ! poor *ildr5 ( ea* c\nty s5t to a prop] s*ool1 b x did br+ ab\t 9 #ahbj ! f\ndation ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,virg9ia & a g5]\s grant = ! erection ( a set ( build+s4 ,9 ! same ye> ! effectiv5ess ( ! #8p]missive' law = common s*ools ( #agif & ( ! appropriation act ( #ahah 0 some:at /r5g!n$ by ! division ( ! c\nties into di/ricts1 among :i* ! appropriation = education ( ! poor 0 di/ribut$ & manag$ by special commission]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,h9drances to univ]sal education1 ,sid5ote3 b gradual improvem5t4 ,:ile ?is law m>k$ "o m /ep 9 advance1 x 0 hamp]$ by sev]al ( ! features t 9 v>i\s /ates cont9ually delay$ ! e/abli%m5t ( common s*ools at public exp5se4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x 0 bas$ on ! conception ( public education z poor relief1 r ?an univ]sal tra9+ = citiz5%ip4 ,x 0 (t5 view$ ) ho/ility or indiff]5ce by ! weal?y1 :o felt t !y 7 pay+ = t f :i* !y receiv$ no b5efit1 & ) pride & scorn by ! poor1 :o refus$ to be consid]$ objects ( *>ity4 ,moreov]1 ! sum di/ribut$ 7#de1jjj7 0 totally inadequate = ov] "o hundr$ ?\s& *ildr51 & e v>iety ( s*ool1 private z well z public1 0 subsidiz$ )\t di/9ction4 ,! sy/em lack$ a /rong c5tral organization1 & ! commission]s1 (t5 appo9t$ by ! c\nty judges f ! classes mo/ oppos$ to ! arrangem5t1 7 notori\sly ineffici5t4 ,! tea*]s also 7 g5]ally incompet5t1 z x 0 practically impossible to p]suade college or academy graduates to und]take ! in/ruction ( ! poor4 ,nev]!less1 "u ?is apology = a p's common s*ool1 ! /ate w5t on = a score ( ye>s1 & !re 0 a /eady gr[? 9 ! lit]>y fund1 ! appropriations1 ! l5g? ( ! s*ool t]m1 & ! numb] ( pupils :o 7 will+ to take advantage ( su* opportunities z x af=d$4 ,/ate (ficials ( wide vision1 moreov]1 s\ght 9 e way to improve ! tea*+ corps & ! defective adm9i/ration4 ,:ile ! great majority ( ! s*ool *ildr5 /ill att5d$ ! d5om9ational1 private1 & #8field' s*ools 7see p4 #bec71 ?is sy/em ( subsidies 0 educat+ public op9ion = some?+ bett]4 ,by ! close ( ! fir/ half c5tury ( /atehood1 :ile ,virg9ia 0 n yet ready to e/abli% a complete sy/em ( public education1 we %all lat] 7see pp4 #cbg;f47 f9d t ! gr\nd _h be5 prep>$ = ! developm5t ( common s*ools t 0 spread+ ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,sid5ote3 ,m>yl&1 ,sid5ote3 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ,sid5ote3 ,georgia1 ,sid5ote3 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,simil> ,developm5ts 9 ! ,o!r ,s\!rn ,/ates4--,?is advance t[>d ! common s*ool 9 ,virg9ia is typical ( ! ,s\?4 ,! developm5t 9 ,m>yl& 0 v simil> to t ( ,virg9ia4 ,! /ate began to move sl[ly t[>d univ]sal education by subsidiz+ ! education ( ! poor 7#ahaf71 & by ! passage ( a #8p]missive' law = common s*ools 9 ! c\nties 7#ahbe74 ,9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a an annual appropriation = #8free s*ools' 0 />t$ 9 #ahaa4 ,a law 0 pass$ e/abli%+ a numb] ( s*ools 9 ea* election di/rict equal to t ( its memb]s 9 ! legislature & provid+ #cjj = ea* s*ool4 ,b ^! s*ools 7 l>gely reg>d$ z paup] in/itutions1 &1 because legislative repres5tation 0 bas$ ^u prop]ty1 ! di/ribution ( ! appropriation 0 v inequitable1 = ! inl& p>ts ( ! /ate1 :i* mo/ ne$$ assi/ance1 receiv$ lea/4 ,yet ! am\nt ( appropriation gradually increas$1 & s5tim5t = univ]sal education /eadily develop$4 ,)9 ! fir/ half doz5 ye>s ( /atehood1 ,georgia began ! provision ( l& end[m5t = s*ools1 & ! organization ( a /ate sy/em "u ! title ( ! #8,univ]sity ( ,georgia4' ,:ile ! value ( ! l& 0 too small to e/abli% a g5u9e sy/em ( public education s soon1 be=e ! close ( ! transition p]iod1 a p]man5t s*ool fund _h be5 />t$1 & s5tim5t = public education _h begun to gr[4 ,nor? ,c>ol9a made ev5 e>li] progress t[>d common s*ools4 ,! con/itution ( #aggf provid$ = ! e/abli%m5t ( s*ools1 &1 by #ahag1 at ! reque/ ( ! legislature1 ,judge ,ar*ibald ,d4 ,murphy1 a /atesman ) broad educational traditions1 ev5 =mulat$ an elaborate plan = a complete sy/em ( public s*ools4 ,?is s*eme fail$1 because x propos$ to #8ma9ta91' z well z educate1 ! *ildr5 ( ! poor4 ,b ! sugge/ions ( ! ,murphy committee %ortly br\ght ab\t ! e/abli%m5t ( a #8lit]>y1' or common s*ool fund 7#ahbe71 ! income ( :i* 0 to be us$ = ! support ( public s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 & aft]w>d o!r commonweal?s1 _h ! beg9n+s ( a /ate sy/em2 ,sid5ote3 & ! l>g] cities _h organiz$ _! s*ools4 ,9 ! case ( ! o!r ,s\!rn commonweal?s1 :i* 7 admitt$ aft] ! union _h be5 =m$1 !re 0 simil>ly a v gradual gr[? ( s5tim5t = univ]sal education4 ,9 e /ate !re appe>$ an alliance betwe5 f>-sight$ /atesm5 & educators & ! great middle class ( citiz5s = ! purpose ( e/abli%+ common s*ools = all :ite *ildr51 & ! old ecclesia/ical & exclusive idea ( education 0 beg9n+ to fade4 ,by ! close ( ! fir/ half c5tury ( national exi/5ce1 a public sy/em _h n actually mat]ializ$ 9 any ( ! /ates1 b mo/ ( !m _h begun to create #8lit]>y funds1' subsidize s*ool+ = ! poor1 & enact #8p]missive' laws = e/abli%+ public s*ools4 ,except 9 ,virg9ia & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 provisions _h be5 made = g5]al adm9i/ration 9 /ate1 c\nty1 & di/rict2 & 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a ! organization ( a complete common s*ool sy/em await$ only a fir/ h9t ( ! great educational awak5+ 7#ahce-ahfj74 ,moreov]1 mo/ ( ! l>g] cities--,baltimore1 ,*>le/on1 ,l\isville1 ,na%ville1 ,memphis1 ,mobile1 ,new ,orleans--_h already organiz$ a regul> sy/em ( public s*ools1 & all ( ! old] commonweal?s _h made "s attempt at support+ a /ate in/itution ( high] le>n+1 :i* 0 virtually ! head ( a public s*ool sy/em4 ,! v>i\s d5om9ations _h begun to f\nd colleges 9 "s numb]s1 b ev5 ^! in/itutions 7 n s /rictly ecclesia/ical z ,william & ,m>y />t$ out to be1 & assum$ a wid] function ?an m]ely tra9+ = ! m9i/ry1 :ile ! ari/ocratic & classical #8gramm>' s*ools _h l>gely giv5 way to ! #8academies' 7,fig4 #cb71 :i* 7 nonsect>ian1 democratic1 & m compreh5sive 9 _! curriculum4 ,sid5ote3 ,sy/em "u ,bo>d ( ,reg5ts1 b did n include elem5t>y s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,end[m5t ( common s*ools4 ,evolution ( ,public ,education 9 ,new ,york4--,aft] ! ,engli% took possession ( ,new ,york1 we h se5 7p4 #aie7 h[ t t]ritory laps$ into ! laissez faire support ( education4 ,! upp] classes ( society l>gely s\ght _! education abroad or ?r\gh tutors & ! cl]gy1 al?\gh 9 #aged ,k+'s ,college 7n[ ,columbia ,univ]sity7 0 f\nd$1 & dur+ ! c5tury a numb] ( second>y s*ools 7 organiz$ & grant$ gratuities by ! legislature4 ,! few elem5t>y s*ools t exi/$ 7 ei!r private or ma9ta9$ by "s *ur* or philan?ropic society4 ,z already %[n 7pp4 #bcd ff471 ?is 0 ! p]iod di/+ui%$ = ! s*ools f\nd$ by ! ,society = ! ,propagation ( ! ,gospel4 ,at ! close ( ! ,revolution1 h[ev]1 ! v>i\s elem5ts ( ! population _h be5 weld$ toge!r 9 ! common /ruggle1 & a s5tim5t = public education began to prevail ov] ve/$ int]e/s & sect>ian jeal\sies4 ,a s]ies ( broad-m9d$ gov]nors--! ,cl9tons1 ,lewis1 ,tompk9s1 & ,m>cy--con/antly rem9d$ ! legislature ( its duty to e/abli% common s*ools4 ,9 #aghg a sy/em ( public education 0 !oretically organiz$ "u ! managem5t ( a ,bo>d ( ,reg5ts1 ) ! title ( #8,! ,univ]sity ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1' b x did n include elem5t>y s*ools4 ,two ye>s lat] l&s 9 ea* t[n%ip 7 set ap>t = ! end[m5t ( common s*ools1 & 9 #agie x 0 enact$ t ! sum ( #ej1jjj = five ye>s %\ld be di/ribut$ = ! enc\ragem5t ( elem5t>y education 9 c\nties :]e ! t[ns w\ld raise by taxation half z mu* z ! am\nt ( _! %>e4 ,?is arrangem5t 0 n c>ri$ on beyond ! five ye>s1 b 9 #ahje ! proce$s f #ejj1jjj acres ( l& 7 appropriat$ = a common s*ool fund1 :i* 0 n to be us$ until ! int]e/ rea*$ #ej1jjj p] annum4 ,sid5ote3 ,/ate sup]9t5d5cy & fur!r progress4 ,sid5ote3 ,comb9ation ) secret>y%ip ( /ate4 ,sid5ote3 ,public second>y & normal s*ools delay$ by academy appropriations4 ,9 #ahab fur!r organization 0 enact$ :]eby a /ate sup]9t5d5t ( common s*ools 0 to be appo9t$1 & ! c\nty unit replac$ by a m democratic t[n & di/rict basis4 ,b x _h be5 suppos$ t ! /ate fund w\ld provide = ! entire support ( ! s*ools1 & !re /ill rema9$ an ob/9ate opposition to local taxes4 ,! t[ns1 h[ev]1 7 gradually p]suad$ to raise ! am\nt requir$ to secure _! %>e ( ! /ate donation4 ,mu* progress 0 br\ght ab\t ?r\gh ! fir/ sup]9t5d5t1 ,gideon ,hawley1 & :ile1 aft] eight ye>s ( s]vice1 he 0 remov$ by political manipulation & ! (fice comb9$ ) ! secret>y%ip ( /ate1 ea* ( 8 successors und]took to di/+ui% ! educational side ( 8 adm9i/ration by "s m>k$ advance or improvem5t 9 ! common s*ools4 ,b = a g5]ation ! academies & colleges rema9$ "u sup]vision ( ! reg5ts1 &1 except = /ate appropriations to academies1 no "o und]took to ext5d ! public sy/em into second>y & high] education4 ,moreov]1 ! pr(essional tra9+ ( tea*]s 9 ! academies 0 enc\rag$ by ! /ate1 & !reby ! organization ( normal s*ools 0 delay$4 ,h5ce1 :ile ,new ,york />t$ ! fir/ sy/em ( public education adju/$ to ! political & social conditions ( ! new nation1 & probably _h ! mo/ effective s*ools ( ! times1 n until ! great p]iod ( common s*ool developm5t 7#ahce-ahfj7 7 its p fully will+ to contribute = a g5]al s*ool sy/em1 make x entirely free1 or develop x consi/5tly 9 all directions4 ,sid5ote3 #8,free ,s*ool ,society4' ,sid5ote3 ,*ange ( "n4 ,sid5ote3 ,be!l ,bapti/ ,*ur* controv]sy4 ,sid5ote3 ,city bo>d ( education4 ,new ,york ,city4--,mean:ile1 an int]e/+ developm5t ( educational facilities 0 tak+ place 9 ,new ,york ,city4 ,9 #ahje ! opportunities (f]$ 9 ! private1 *ur*1 & *>ity s*ools 7 se5 by c]ta9 ( ! mo/ prom95t citiz5s to be totally inadequate = a city ( sev5ty-five ?\s& inhabitants1 & a #8,free ,s*ool ,society' 0 f\nd$ to provide = ! boys :o 7 n eligible = ^! s*ools4 ,! presid5t 0 ,de ,witt ,cl9ton1 aft]w>d gov]nor1 & 9 #ahjf ! fir/ s*ool 0 op5$1 f motives ( economy1 ^u ! monitorial basis 7see p4 #bda74 ,! /ate fund did n rea* a suffici5t am\nt to be available until #ahae1 b special gifts 7 made to ! s*ool society f "t to "t by ! legislature1 ! city1 & private individuals1 & !re 0 a rapid increase 9 ! numb] ( ! society's s*ools dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( a c5tury4 ,9 #ahbf ! legislature au?oriz$ ! organization to *>ge a small tuition fee & *ange its "n to ! #8,public ,s*ool ,society4' ,:ile ! fee sy/em 0 soon f\nd to injure ! effici5cy ( ! "w & 0 aboli%$ )9 six ye>s1 ! new title p]si/$1 z x did n sugge/ paup]ism 9 ! way ! old "n _h4 ,9 #ahbh ! society 0 all[$ ! b5efit ( a small local tax4 ,= q a "t ! "w ( ! association 0 unh9d]$1 b 9 #ahbj-ahbe a vigor\s ef=t 0 made to obta9 a %>e ( ! /ate appropriation = ! sect>ian s*ools ( ! ,be!l ,bapti/ ,*ur*4 ,?is move 0 f9ally defeat$1 b ! ,roman ,ca?olics made a m successful prote/ fifte5 ye>s lat] by indicat+ t ! society1 :ile nom9ally nonsect>ian1 0 really ,prote/ant4 ,to settle ?is dispute1 ! legislature 9 #ahdb e/abli%$ a city bo>d ( education1 & aft] elev5 ye>s ! in/itutions ( ! ,public ,s*ool ,society 7 m]g$ 9 ?is city sy/em4 ,?us 0 ! way prep>$ = a public s*ool sy/em 9 ,new ,york ,city1 & ?is developm5t 0 typical ( ! tra9+ ( educational s5tim5t ?r\gh quasi-public societies t took place 9 ,buffalo1 ,utica1 ,oswego1 & sev]al o!r cities4 ,sid5ote3 ,con/itutional provision 9 ,p5nsylvania produc$ only #8poor s*ools4' ,sid5ote3 ,public sy/em 9 ,philadelphia & else:]e4 ,developm5t ( ,sy/ems ( ,education 9 ,p5nsylvania & ! ,o!r ,middle ,/ates4--,! rise ( public sy/ems 9 ! o!r ,middle /ates 0 also gradual4 ,9 ,p5nsylvania1 ! /ate sy/em sl[ly arose ?r\gh a prolong$ /age ( #8poor s*ools4' ,! new con/itution 7#agij7 ( ! /ate decl>$3 8,! legislature %all1 z soon z conv5i5tly may be1 provide by law = ! e/abli%m5t ( s*ools ?r\gh\t ! ,/ate1 9 su* mann] t ! poor may be taught gratis40 ,m5 ( broad vision1 l ,frankl91 ,b5jam9 ,ru%1 & ,timo?y ,pick]+1 _h /riv5 h>d to h popul> education introduc$1 b ! g5]al s5tim5t ( ! times c\ld n rea* beyond provid+ free education = ! poor4 ,moreov]1 al?\gh ?is mod]ate con/itutional provision 0 a compromise1 x 0 n until "s ye>s lat] 7#ahjb1 #ahjd1 & #ahji7 t ! legislature pass$ acts to make x effective4 ,ev5 !n public in/itutions to fulfill ! legislation 7 n e/abli%$1 b x 0 arrang$ t ! tuition ( poor *ildr5 %\ld be paid = at public exp5se 9 private1 *ur*1 & neighborhood s*ools1 & ! proce$s ( ! sixty ?\s& acres ( l& appropriat$ = #8aid+ public s*ools' w5t to subsidize private in/itutions4 ,b ! idea ( common s*ools cont9u$ to develop1 & gov]nors & o!r prom95t m5 con/antly call$ att5tion to ! ne$ ( univ]sal education4 ,philadelphia 0 ! fir/ municipality to be conv]t$1 & 9 #ahah1 "u a special act ( ! legislature1 x became #8! fir/ s*ool di/rict ( ,p5nsylvania1' ) ! p[] to provide a sy/em ( education on ! ,lanca/]ian plan at public exp5se4 ,aft] ?ree or f\r ye>s ?is special legislation 0 ext5d$ to five m #8di/ricts'1 & 9 #ahbd a g5]al law p]mitt+ ! e/abli%m5t ( free s*ools 9 any community 0 enact$1 ?\gh soon repeal$4 ,sid5ote3 ,e/abli%m5t ( a /ate s*ool fund & a /ate s*ool sy/em4 ,sid5ote3 ,ef=t to repeal unsuccessful4 ,f9ally1 9 #ahbh1 #8! ,p5nsylvania ,society = ! ,promotion ( ,common ,s*ools1' aft] demon/rat+ ! ineffectiv5ess ( ! #8paup] s*ool' law 9 a s]ies ( memorials1 succe$$ 9 hav+ a /ate s*ool fund e/abli%$1 & 9 #ahcd1 8an act to e/abli% a g5]al sy/em ( education by common s*ools0 0 pass$4 ,?is law e/abli%$ a /ate sy/em ( s*ools "u ! g5]al sup]9t5d5cy ( ! secret>y ( /ate4 ,= ?is sy/em x appropriat$ #ge1jjj p] annum f ! income ( ! /ate s*ool fund1 & p]mitt$ ! w>ds1 t[n%ips1 & bor\ghs1 :i* x con/itut$ s*ool di/ricts1 to %>e 9 ?is1 provid$ !y levi$ local taxes = s*ools4 ,! ,nor!rn c\nties1 settl$ mo/ly by ,new ,engl& coloni/s1 & ! ,we/]n portion ( ! /ate1 ) its l>ge elem5t ( ,scot*-,iri% ,presbyt]ians1 ard5tly favor$ ?is enc\ragem5t ( univ]sal education1 b ! law 0 only #8p]missive' & 0 bitt]ly oppos$ by ! ,quak] & ,g]man inhabitants ( #8old' ,p5nsylvania1 :o fe>$ t _! own p>o*ial s*ools w\ld be replac$4 ,! weal?y classes 7 also ho/ile to ! new law1 on ! gr\nd t !y ought n to be tax$ to educate o!r p's *ildr54 ,9 a vigor\s campaign to repeal ! act1 h[ev]1 ! oppon5ts ( ! law1 l>gely ?r\gh ! eloqu5t spee* ( ,?addeus ,/ev5s1 7 defeat$ ! foll[+ ye> 7#ahce71 & ! desire to e/abli% public s*ools 0 greatly increas$ 9 #ahcf by ! passage ( a new law1 :i* enl>g$ ! annual appropriation to #bjj1jjj1 9 :i* ! s*ool di/ricts might p>ticipate only on condition ( local taxation4 ,ev5 !n n m ?an "o-half ! di/ricts took advantage ( ! opportunity1 & x 0 sev]al ye>s be=e mo/ ( !m claim$ _! %>e4 ,h5ce1 :ile ! battle 0 won by #ahce1 ! consummation ( public education 9 ,p5nsylvania did n take place until ! great awak5+ ( common s*ools _h swept ov] ! c\ntry4 ,sid5ote3 ,simil> h9drances 9 ,new ,j]sey & ,delaw>e4 ,aft] ! =mation ( ! ,union1 ,new ,j]sey & ,delaw>e met ) ! same k9ds ( h9drance to ! developm5t ( common s*ools z did ,p5nsylvania1 & !y 7 ev5 sl[] 9 gett+ a sy/em e/abli%$4 ,9 bo? commonweal?s a /ate s*ool fund 0 />t$ e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 b x 0 n di/ribut$ = ab\t a doz5 ye>s1 & !n x 0 us$ mo/ly = ! education ( paup]s 9 subsidiz$ private s*ools4 ,"s #8p]missive' legislation = ! organization ( s*ool di/ricts & commission]s & ! e/abli%m5t ( public s*ools 0 also pass$1 b x accompli%$ little be=e ! middle ( ! c5tury4 ,sid5ote3 ,dis9tegration ( ! dom9ation ( ,calv9ism4 ,decl9e ( ,education 9 ,massa*usetts4--,9 ,massa*usetts1 on ! o!r h&1 ef=ts = ! provision ( univ]sal tra9+ deg5]at$ dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! g5]\s support ( public education t _h be5 />t$ 9 #afdg 0 foll[$ by a p]iod ( decl9e = ab\t a c5tury & a half4 ,! causes ( ?is decad5ce ( local int]e/ 9 education 7 r complicat$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! complete dom9ation ( ,calv9ism gradually dis9tegrat$ & 0 replac$ by a tol]ation ( sev]al cre$s4 ,! non-,puritans1 :o 7 con/antly increas+ 9 numb]s1 7 oblig$ by ! law ( #afch to pres]ve an outw>d con=mity to ! ,calv9i/ic rgime "u p5alty ( bani%m5t1 b by #affb a compromise 0 grant$1 :]eby p]sons n con=m+ 9 e respect might be admitt$ to all *ur* privileges1 except communion1 & ! p]secution ( ,quak]s1 ,bapti/s1 & o!r sects 0 l>gely ab&on$4 ,9 #afgj came ! successful secession ( ! ,old ,s\? ,*ur* f ! orig9al *ur* ( ,bo/on1 z ! result ( a qu>rel conc]n+ ?is v compromise1 & )9 a decade ! ,bapti/s 7 p]mitt$ to build a meet+-h\se 9 ,bo/on4 ,by #afib recognition _h be5 l>gely grant$ to all ,prote/ant beliefs1 & to be a #8freeman1' or vot] on all colonial que/ions1 x 0 no long] necess>y to be a memb] ( a ,puritan *ur*4 ,:ile e t[n 0 /ill requir$ to support by tax an or?odox pa/or1 by #agbh ! ,episcopalians1 ,quak]s1 & ,bapti/s 7 p]mitt$ to pay _! assessm5ts to _! own m9i/]s1 & ! alliance ( ! ,/ate ) a despotic ,*ur*1 :i* _h made possible ! sy/em ( public education1 0 l>gely brok54 ,sid5ote3 ,l[]+ ( intellectual /&>ds4 ,sid5ote3 ,disp]sion ( population4 ,sid5ote3 ,consequ5t attempts to evade ! s*ool law4 ,moreov]1 !re 0 a decid$ l[]+ ( intellectual /&>ds ^u ! "p ( ! coloni/s4 ,! h>d /ruggle to wr+ a liv+ f an unpropiti\s soil1 & ! di/urbances due to w>s1 ,indian skirmi%es1 & ! difficulties ( pione] life greatly less5$ _! feel+ ( ne$ = a lit]>y tra9+4 ,ano!r reason = ! educational decl9e 0 ! disp]sion ( ! population 9 ! t[ns4 ,at fir/1 because ( possible attacks by ! ,indians1 a law =bade any dwell+ to be built m ?an half a mile f ! *ur* & s*ool1 & n infrequ5tly ! s*ool 0 equipp$ ) a wat*-t[] 7,fig4 #bb74 ,b1 z ! be/ l& ne> ! c5t] 0 m & m tak5 up1 ! t[ns spread out 9 v>i\s directions1 & ! int]v5+ hills1 /reams1 swamps1 & poor roads1 toge!r ) ! fe> ( ,indians & wild animals1 greatly h9d]$ ^? on ! outskirts 9 rea*+ ! *ur* & s*ool ( ! t[n4 ,z a result ( all ^! conditions1 ! t[ns1 mo/ ( :i* _h be5 eag] to e/abli% s*ools ev5 be=e be+ compell$ to d s1 began to seek v>i\s me?ods ( evad+ ! s*ool law )\t incurr+ ! f9e4 ,! m9i/] 0 at times made ! nom9al s*oolma/]1 or a tea*] 0 ev5 employ$ dur+ ! session ( ! #8,g5]al ,c\rt' 7i4 e41 legislature7 & dis*>g$ ^u adj\rnm5t4 ,laws 7 enact$ aga9/ ^! subt]fuges1 great] vigilance 0 ex]cis$1 & ! f9e 0 increas$ fir/ to #aj 7#afga7 & !n to #bj 7#afhc71 ) a progressive increase :]e ! numb] ( families ran ov] "o hundr$ 7#agab74 ,?us ! f9e came to be almo/ suffici5t to support a s*oolma/]1 & x 0 made m & m unpr(itable = a t[n to disobey ! law4 ,sid5ote3 ,influ5ce ( #8dame' & private elem5t>y s*ools & ( p>i%es4 ,sid5ote3 ,! #8mov+1' ,sid5ote3 #8divid$1' ,sid5ote3 & #8di/rict' s*ools4 ,"u ^! circum/ances x became advantage\s to _m citiz5s1 especially ^? at ! c5t] ( a t[n1 to h ! entire support ( ! s*ool come ?r\gh g5]al taxation r ?an p>tially by means ( tuition fees4 ,b ! p 9 ! m di/ant portions ( ! t[n refus$ to vote a rate f :i* !y !mselves obta9$ no pr(it4 ,!y dem&$ t1 9 return = _! taxes1 ! public s*ool %\ld be br\ght ne>] to !m4 ,probably !y 7 influ5c$ 9 ?is /& by ! fact t private #8dame' s*ools1 & possibly elem5t>y s*ools1 _h = "s "t be5 op5$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! t[n conv5i5tly ne> _! homes4 ,ano!r factor t may h aid$ 9 sugge/+ ?is solution 0 ! legal recognition ( v>i\s remote settlem5ts )9 ! t[n1 kn[n z #8p>i%es' or #8di/ricts1' ?r\gh ! grant ( self-gov]nm5t1 sep>ate *ur* organizations1 & o!r privileges simil> to ^? ( ! t[n z a :ole1 ?\gh on a small] scale4 ,at any rate1 we f9d t 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 :]ev] a rate 0 adopt$ z ! sole means ( s*ool support1 x 0 agre$ t1 in/ead ( hold+ ! t[n s*ool = twelve mon?s 9 ! c5t] alone1 opportunities %\ld be (f]$ = a fraction ( t p]iod 9 v>i\s portions ( ! t[n4 ,usually ! compromise at fir/ took ! =m ( hav+ "o t[n ma/] tea* 9 diff]5t di/ricts ?r\gh ! ye>1 & ! result 0 kn[n z a #8mov+' s*ool4 ,?is necessitat$ hold+ ! s*ool 9 a numb] ( isolat$ communities1 & ! temple ( le>n+ (t5 came at fir/ to be locat$ 9 a private h\se1 usually 9 ! kit*54 ,& al?\gh1 9 "t1 ano!r room 0 add$ to ! f>m h\se = ! accommodation ( ! s*ool1 ! in/itution has s9ce !n be5 kn[n z a #8kit*5 s*ool' 7,fig4 #cj74 ,b1 by a lat] developm5t1 :5 sep>ate s*ools "u diff]5t ma/]s or mi/resses came to be taught at ! same "t1 ! t[n s*ool 0 said to be #8divid$4' ,!n 9 ! w9t]1 :5 ! big boys 7 out ( ! fields & came to s*ool1 ! session 0 held 9 ! c5t] ( ! t[n1 & usually requir$ ! brawn ( a man4 ,b 9 summ]1 :5 only ! y\ng] *ildr5 c\ld att5d1 s*ools 7 held 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! t[n & 7 taught *iefly by wom5 7,fig4 #ca74 ,! divisions ( ! t[n t ?us came to be recogniz$ 7 all[$ m & m control ( _! s*ools until !y practically became autonom\s4 ,be=e ! "t ( ! ,revolution #8divid$ s*ools' 7 recogniz$ z a regul> in/itution1 &1 toge!r ) o!r cu/oms t _h gr[n up dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury1 !y 7 giv5 legal sanction & d5om9at$ #8di/rict s*ools' 9 ! law ( #aghi4 ,by #ahjj ! di/ricts 7 n only all[$ to manage _! own %>e ( ! t[n taxes1 b 7 au?oriz$ to make ! levy !mselves2 9 #ahag !y 7 made corporations & emp[]$ to hold prop]ty = educational purposes2 & 9 #ahbg !y 7 grant$ ! "r to *oose a committeeman1 :o %\ld appo9t ! tea*] & h control ( ! s*ool prop]ty4 ,sid5ote3 ,deg5]acy ( ! di/rict sy/em4 ,sid5ote3 ,end[m5t ( academies ) public l&s4 ,sid5ote3 ,high s*ools n yet influ5tial4 ,?us ! ye> #ahbg 8m>ks ! culm9ation ( a process :i* _h be5 go+ on = m ?an a c5tury1--! high-wat] m>k ( mod]n democracy1 & ! l[-wat] m>k ( ! ,massa*usetts s*ool sy/em40 ,! di/rict sy/em did 9 its e>li] /ages b9d ! families ( a neighborhood into a corporation ^: int5t 0 ! mo/ vital ( human ne$s1--education1 & ! p came to feel ! necessity ( support+ x by _! own g5]\s contributions4 ,b 9 ! c\rse ( "t ! di/ricts became involv$ 9 private & petty political int]e/s1 & _h b little consid]ation = ! public good4 ,! *oice ( ! committeeman1 ! site1 & ! tea*] caus$ mu* unseemly wrangl+1 & z ea* receiv$ only :at x paid 91 ! poor di/rict obta9$ only a weak s*ool & t = b a %ort t]m4 ,! increas+ exp5se ( ! di/rict sy/em _h also made x impossible = any except ! l>g] t[ns to support ! old-"t #8gramm>' s*ool1 & ?is "p ( ! old s*ool requirem5ts _h fall5 into disuse be=e ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,to meet ! ne$s ( second>y education1 ! policy ( end[+ #8academies' 7,fig4 #cb7 ) wild l&s 9 ,ma9e _h gradually gr[n up1 & ?is cu/om 0 legaliz$ 9 #agig4 ,sev5 academies1--f\r 9 ,massa*usetts prop] & ?ree 9 ! prov9ce ( ,ma9e1 _h orig9ally be5 end[$ ) a t[n%ip apiece1 & "s f\rte5 m _h be5 *>t]$ by t[ns at an e>ly date1 & emp[]$ by ! /ate to hold educational funds4 ,by ! "t ( ! educational awak5+ !re 7 "s fifty ( ^! private second>y in/itutions subsidiz$ by ! /ate1 al?\gh manag$ by a close corporation4 ,! fir/ public high s*ool 7,fig4 #da7 _h be5 e/abli%$ 9 ,bo/on 7#ahba71 b ?is type ( second>y s*ool _h n begun to h any influ5ce z yet4 ,into su* a decad5ce _h ! lib]ally support$ sy/em ( public education fall51 be=e ! rapid developm5t 9 common s*ools began & ! influ5ce ( ,horace ,mann & o!r re=m]s 0 felt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,a #8kit*5 s*ool4' ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4--;,a colonial #8summ] s*ool4' ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4--,! fir/ #8academy1' f\nd$ by ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 at ,philadelphia 9 #agej1 & lat] develop$ into ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,sid5ote3 ,connecticut1 ,sid5ote3 ,v]mont1 ,sid5ote3 ,new ,hamp%ire1 & ,rhode ,isl&4 ,developm5ts 9 ! ,o!r ,new ,engl& ,/ates4--,! developm5t ( common s*ools 9 ,massa*usetts may be consid]$ typical ( ,new ,engl& 9 g5]al1 except ,rhode ,isl&4 ,connecticut simil>ly deg5]at$ into a di/rict sy/em1 :i* 0 recogniz$ by law 9 #agid1 & 0 de/9$ lat] to con/itute "o ( ! greate/ problems dur+ ! p]iod ( educational developm5t 7see pp4 #cac & #cbj74 ,v]mont likewise made provision = t[n & di/rict s*ools1 & ev5tually e/abli%$ a /ate s*ool fund & s*ool commission]s1 b ?is legislation 0 soon repeal$1 & ! s*ools ( ! /ate 7 9 a p>l\s condition :5 ! awak5+ f\nd !m4 ,new ,hamp%ire & ,ma9e also pres5t v simil> features4 ,9 ,rhode ,isl& ! volunt>y organization ( education cont9u$ ?r\gh\t ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,9 #ahjj a law p]mitt+ ea* t[n to ma9ta9 #8"o or m free s*ools' 0 pass$1 b no municipality avail$ itself ( ?is p]mission1 except ,provid5ce1 & ! act 0 repeal$ 9 #ahjc4 ,! basal /ate law = common s*ools 0 n pass$ until #ahbh1 :5 at l5g? #aj1jjj 0 appropriat$1 & ea* t[n 0 requir$ to supplem5t its %>e by su* an am\nt z %\ld annually be fix$ 9 t[n meet+4 ,sid5ote3 ,conditions at close ( transition p]iod 9 ! ,s\!rn ,sid5ote3 & ,middle /ates1 ,sid5ote3 z oppos$ to ^? 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,! ,ext5sion ( ,educational ,organization to ! ,nor?we/4--,x is ?us evid5t t by ! close ( ! fir/ half c5tury ( ! republic1 !re 0 ev]y:]e sl[ly gr[+ up a s5tim5t = public education4 ,! developm5t ( common s*ools _h1 h[ev]1 be5 greatly h9d]$ 9 ! ,s\!rn /ates by ! sep>ation ( classes 9 an ari/ocratic organization ( society4 ,yet ! sup]ior class _h %[n no lack ( educational int]e/ 9 _! own behalf & _h ?r\gh ! facilities (f]$ re>$ a gr\p ( intellectual lead]s1 "s ( :om1 l ! f>-sight$ ,jeff]son1 _h caught ! vision ( univ]sal education4 ,! great div]sity ( nationality & cre$ 9 ! ,middle /ates1 on ! o!r h&1 _h fo/]$ sect>ian jeal\sies & ! traditional practice ( ! ma9t5ance ( its own s*ool by ea* congregation4 ,?is _h prov$ almo/ z disa/r\s to ! rise ( a sy/em ( public s*ools1 al?\gh ,p5nsylvania1 & ev5 m ,new ,york1 _h well begun ! e/abli%m5t ( a public sy/em4 ,9 bo? sections ( ! c\ntry public education 0 at fir/ view$ z a species ( poor relief1 & ! weal?y 7 unable to see any ju/ice 9 be+ requir$ to educate ! *ildr5 ( o!rs4 ,z a result1 ! "y #8paup]s' at times _h _! tuition paid 9 private s*ools1 & ^! in/itutions 7 n infrequ5tly all[$ to %>e 9 public funds4 ,! ,new ,engl& /ates1 h[ev]1 z a result ( ! homog5eity ( _! citiz5s1 _h e>ly adh]$ to a sy/em ( public s*ools = all1 organiz$1 support$1 & sup]vis$ by ! p4 ,:ile ! effici5cy ( _! common s*ools 0 ev5tually crippl$ by ! grant ( autonomy to local di/ricts & ! aris+ ( petty private & political int]e/s1 !y _h initiat$ ?is unique ,am]ican product1--a public sy/em = all1 dep5d5t ^u local support & responsive to local wi%es4 ,sid5ote3 ,effect ( ^! conditions ^u ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,ord9ance ( #aghg1 & its provisions = education4 ,?is gr[? ( a #8common s*ools consci\sness' 0 de/9$1 z ! result ( a great educational awak5+1 to increase rapidly dur+ ! second qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 9 ! ,middle & ,s\!rn1 z well z ! ,new ,engl&1 /ates4 ,b be=e describ+ ?is developm5t fur!r1 x is important to see ! effect ( ! ideals ( ^! ?ree sections ( ! c\ntry :5 introduc$ into a new "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by emigrants f ! old] commonweal?s4 ,! new doma9 ref]r$ to 0 ^? l>ge tracts ( unsettl$ t]ritory1 belong+1 accord+ to claims m or less ov]lapp+1 to six or sev5 ( ! orig9al /ates1 & f9ally 7#agha71 9 settlem5t ( ^! disputes1 c$$ to ! f$]al gov]nm5t1 ) ! und]/&+ t ! t]ritory %\ld be #8=m$ into di/9ct republican ,/ates4' ,aft] mu* discussion & v>i\s acts ( ,congress = half a doz5 ye>s1 ! fam\s #8,ord9ance ( #aghg' 0 pass$ = ! gov]nm5t ( ?is #8,nor?we/ ,t]ritory4' ,an e>li] act 7#aghe7 _h divid$ ! entire t]ritory into t[n%ips1 six miles squ>e1 aft] ! ,new ,engl& sy/em1 & ( ! ?irty-six sections into :i* ea* t[n%ip 0 subdivid$1 section sixte5 0 res]v$ = ! support ( public s*ools4 ,a special contract also />t$ ! practice ( provid+ two t[n%ips = ! e/abli%m5t ( a univ]sity 9 ea* /ate4 ,^! provisions 7 lat] ext5d$ to ! va/ t]ritory pur*as$ f ,france 9 #ahjc & kn[n z #8,l\isiana1' & to all ! o!r t]ritory aft]w>d annex$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,h9drances to educational developm5t4 ,?is f$]al l& end[m5t gave an additional /imulus to ! e/abli%m5t ( public education 9 ! f\r commonweal?s--,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 & ,mi*igan--t 7 admitt$ f ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory be=e #ahdj4 ,b ! f9al sy/em ( public education 9 ^! new /ates took =m sl[ly = v>i\s reasons4 ,! settl]s 7 poor2 incessant ,indian w>s1 ! wild]ness1 wret*$ roads1 & lack ( transportation facilities t5d$ to repel immigrants & leave ! c\ntry sp>sely settl$2 ! l>ge tracts ( s*ool l& 7 sl[ 9 acquir+ value1 &1 to attract settl]s1 7 (t5 leas$ at nom9al rates or sacrific$ at a small price2 & social di/9ctions & sect>ian jeal\sies p]si/$ among ! immigrants4 ,z a :ole1 immigration f ! e>li] commonweal?s _h foll[$ p>allels ( latitude1 & ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ,ill9ois 7 occupi$ mo/ly by p f ,new ,engl& & ,new ,york1 & ! s\!rn by =m] inhabitants ( ,virg9ia1 ,k5tucky1 ,t5nessee1 ,l\isiana1 & o!r /ates :]e ! public s*ool sy/em 0 n yet z well develop$4 ,9 ,mi*igan1 h[ev]1 because ( its nor!rly location1 ! great influx ?r\gh\t ! /ate _h come f ,new ,york1 ,new ,engl&1 & ,nor!rn ,ohio4 ,sid5ote3 ,/ruggle to secure public s*ool sy/em1-- ,sid5ote3 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ,ill9ois2 ,sid5ote3 ,mi*igan4 ,consequ5tly1 ! hi/ory ( public education 9 ! fir/ ?ree ( ! new /ates seems to be 9 ea* case l>gely a record ( a prolong$ /ruggle to introduce common s*ools among ^? ( ! p :o _h come f /ates n yet committ$ to ?is ideal1 b ,mi*igan1 ^: inhabitants _h migrat$ f /ates :]e public education 0 9 vogue1 %[$ ! g]ms ( a public sy/em ev5 be=e /atehood 0 conf]r$4 ,! hi/ory ( ! common s*ools 9 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ,ill9ois is v simil> 9 g5]al outl9e4 ,ea* "o />t$ (f by claim+ two t[n%ips ( l& = a univ]sity & ! sixte5? section = s*ools1 & ! /ate con/itution committ$ x to equal s*ool opportunities = all4 ,b n until ! close ( ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 a sy/em ( common s*ools1 ) ! organization ( di/ricts1 appo9tm5t ( s*ool (fic]s1 & local taxation provid$ by ! legislature4 ,ev5 !n ! acts 7 l>gely #8p]missive1' ! tax 0 n exact$ f anyone :o object$1 & = "s "t v>i\s laws all[$ public funds to be paid to exi/+ private s*ools = ! tuition ( ! poor4 ,! complete sy/em ) a /ate sup]9t5d5t 0 fir/ organiz$ 9 ,ohio by #ahcf1 b a simil> /age ( developm5t 0 n rea*$ by ! o!r two /ates until aft] ! great wave ( common s*ool developm5t 7#ahce-ahfj7 _h pass$ ov] ! c\ntry4 ,mi*igan1 on ! o!r h&1 z e>ly z #ahag e/abli%$ a #8ca?olepi/emiad1' :i* 0 to include a univ]sity & a sy/em ( s*ools ( all grades1 & a doz5 ye>s lat] 9 its revision ( ! s*ool laws provid$ = a dep>tm5t ( ,education at ! univ]sity & a t]ritorial sup]9t5d5cy ( s*ools4 ,:ile "u ?is law ( #ahbi tuition fees 7 to be requir$1 except f ! poor1 by ! fir/ /ate con/itution 9 #ahcg ! s*ool l&s 7 tak5 ov] f ! wa/eful managem5t ( ! t[ns1 & a public s*ool 0 requir$ to be op5 = ?ree mon?s 9 e di/rict4 ,! /ate sup]9t5d5cy 0 also e/abli%$1 & be=e #ahdj ,mi*igan 0 well />t$ ) a complete sy/em ( common s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,progress 9 all sections ( ! c\ntry4 ,condition ( ! ,common ,s*ools ,prior to ! ,awak5+4--,?us1 :ile "s ( ! ,new ,engl& /ates1 ,new ,york1 & ,ohio possess$ ! only def9itely organiz$ sy/ems ( public education1 ! movem5t = common s*ools _h made "s progress 9 all sections ( ! c\ntry ev5 be=e ! educational awak5+ spread ?r\gh ! l&4 ,a radical modification _h tak5 place 9 ! ,european in/itutions ) :i* education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates began4 ,to meet ! dem&s ( ! new environm5t1 education _h become m democratic & less religi\s & sect>ian4 ,weal? _h become mu* great] & mat]ial int]e/s _h met ) a m>k$ gr[?4 ,! old ari/ocratic in/itutions _h begun to disappe>4 ,t[n & di/rict s*ools _h be5 tak+ ! place ( ! old *ur*1 private1 & #8field' s*ools1 & 9 "s ( ! cities ! f\ndation = public education 0 be+ laid by quasi-public societies or ev5 ?r\gh local taxation4 ,! academies 7,fig4 #cb7 _h replac$ ! #8gramm>' s*ools1 & ! colleges _h lo/ _! di/9ctly ecclesia/ical "*4 ,/ate univ]sities 7 />t+ 9 ! ,s\? & ,nor?we/4 ,all ^! evid5ces ( ! gr[? ( democracy1 nonsect>ianism1 & popul> tra9+ 9 education 7 de/9$ to be greatly multipli$ & spread be=e long4 ,su* an awak5+ w be f\nd to be *>act]i/ic ( ! great developm5t ( common s*ools t took place 9 ! decades ar\nd ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,b1 be=e pursu+ ! subject fur!r1 we mu/ direct our att5tion to "s new re=ms 9 me?od & cont5t t 7 be+ introduc$ by ,pe/alozzi into education 9 ,europe & 7 de/9$ to produce a great /imulus 9 ! public sy/ems ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap4 ,,iv2 ,p>k]1 ,mod]n ,elem5t>y ,education 7,g9n1 #aiab71 *ap4 ,,xii4 ,a g5]al1 b n always accurate acc\nt ( ! p]iod has be5 contribut$ by ,mayo1 ,a4 ,d41 to ! ,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,commission] ( ,education1 #ahic-id1 ,,xvi2 #ahid-ie1 ,,xxviii2 #ahie-if1 ,,vi & ,,vii2 #ahig-ih1 ,,xi2 & #ahih-ii1 ,,viii4 ,= ! special /ates1 see ,adams1 ,h4 ,b41 ,?omas ,jeff]son & ! ,univ]sity ( ,virg9ia 7,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,education1 ,circul> ( ,in=mation1 #ahhh1 no4 #a72 ,boone1 ,r4 ,g41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,indiana 7,appleton1 #ahib71 *aps4 ,i-,,iii1 & ,v-,,vii2 ,john/on1 ,r4 ,m41 ,e>ly ,educational ,life 9 ,middle ,georgia 7,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,commission] ( ,education1 #ahid-ie1 ,,xvi1 & #ahie-if1 ,,vii72 ,m>t91 ,g4 ,h41 ,evolution ( ! ,massa*usetts ,public ,s*ool ,sy/em 7,appleton1 #ahid71 lect4 ,,iii2 ,palm]1 ,a4 ,e41 ,! ,new ,york ,public ,s*ool 7,macmillan1 #aije72 ,r&all1 ,s4 ,s41 ,hi/ory ( ! ,common ,s*ool ,sy/em ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york 7,ivison1 ,blakeman1 ,taylor1 ,new ,york1 #ahga7 ,second ,p]iod2 ,smi?1 ,c4 ,l41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,education1 ,circul> ( ,in=mation1 no4 #b1 #ahhh72 ,smi?1 ,w4 ,l41 ,hi/orical ,sket* ( ,education 9 ,mi*igan 7,lans+1 #ahha71 pp4 #a-g1 #ci-di1 & #eg-gh2 ,/e9]1 ,b4 ,c41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,connecticut 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau1 ,circul> ( ,in=mation1 no4 #b1 #ahic71 & ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,m>yl& 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau1 ,circul> ( ,in=mation1 no4 #b1 #ahid71 *aps4 ,,ii-,,iv2 ,/ockwell1 ,t4 ,b41 ,hi/ory ( ,public ,education 9 ,rhode ,isl& 7,provid5ce ,press ,co41 ,provid5ce1 #ahgf71 *aps4 ,,ii-,v2 ,updegraff1 ,h41 ,! ,orig9 ( ! ,mov+ ,s*ool 9 ,massa*usetts 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,tea*]s ,college ,contributions1 no4 #ag1 #aijg71 *aps4 ,v-,x2 ,wick]%am1 ,j4 ,p41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,p5nsylvania 7,lanca/]1 ,p5nsylvania1 #ahhf71 *aps4 ,,xiii-,,xvii4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,indu/rial ,,tra9+ ,,9 ,,education ,,outl9e ,pe/alozzi 0 ! fir/ prom95t educator to develop ! negative naturalism ( ,r\sseau into positive re=ms4 ,he desir$ to elevate ! peasantry ab\t him1 &1 fail+ 9 o!r exp$i5ts1 und]took to accompli% ?is ?r\gh a comb9ation ( indu/rial & intellectual tra9+ at ,neuh(4 ,?is tra9+ he cont9u$ at ,/anz1 & began ! developm5t ( 8 obs]vational me?ods4 ,9 8 "w at ,burgdorf1 he 0 =c$ to susp5d 8 indu/rial tra9+1 b he fur!r develop$ 8 #8,a ,b ,c ( obs]vation1' & at ,yv]don ! me?od rea*$ its culm9ation4 ,l ,r\sseau1 ,pe/alozzi conceiv$ ( education z a natural developm5t ( innate p[]s1 & he ext5d$ its application to all *ildr54 ,9 8 me?od he held t cle> ideas c\ld be =m$ only by means ( s5se p]ceptions1 & he und]took to analyze ea* subject into its simple/ elem5ts & develop x by grad$ ex]cises4 ,:ile n orig9al1 practical1 or sci5tific1 ,pe/alozzi made education ! rem$y = corruption 9 society1 & />t$ ! mod]n me?ods 9 ! elem5t>y /udies4 ,pe/alozzian s*ools & me?ods spread rapidly ?r\gh ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! attempt to comb9e indu/rial tra9+ ) intellectual1 :i* ,pe/alozzi _h to give up1 0 cont9u$ by 8 fri5d1 ,fell5b]g1 9 8 in/itutions at ,h(wyl4 ,simil> tra9+ 0 develop$ ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x /imulat$ ! #8manual labor' movem5t1 & 0 lat] utiliz$ z a solution = racial & o!r peculi> problems 9 education4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t ( naturalism ( ,r\sseau by ,pe/alozzi4 ,pe/alozzi z ! ,successor ( ,r\sseau4--,hav+ outl9$ ! v>i\s phases ( philan?ropic education & survey$ ! developm5t ( ! common s*ool 9 ,am]ica1 we may n[ turn aga9 to ! m imm$iate developm5t ( ! movem5ts t f\nd _! roots 9 ,r\sseau4 ,x has be5 not$ h[ ,r\sseau's #8naturali/ic' doctr9es logically po9t$ to a complete demolition ( ! artificial society & education ( ! times4 ,a pause at ?is po9t w\ld h l$ to an>*y4 ,if civilization is n to disappe>1 social de/ruction mu/ be foll[$ by recon/ruction4 ,( c\rse ! negative attitude ( ! ,emile 0 itself accompani$ by consid]able positive advance 9 its sugge/ions = a natural tra9+1 b ?is advice 0 (t5 unpractical & extreme & its ma9 emphasis 0 ^u ! de/ruction ( exi/+ education4 ,h5ce ! happie/ educational results ( ,r\sseau's "w came ?r\gh ,pe/alozzi1 :o especially supplem5t$ t re=m]'s "w ^u ! con/ructive side4 ,pe/alozzi became ! fir/ prom95t educator to develop ! negative & some:at inconsi/5t #8naturalism' ( ,r\sseau into a m positive attempt to re=m corrupt society by prop] education & a new me?od ( tea*+4 ,sid5ote3 ,example ( "m & gr&fa!r1 ,sid5ote3 & e>ly attempts to elevate ! peasantry4 ,pe/alozzi's ,philan?ropic & ,indu/rial ,ideals4--,johann ,he9ri* ,pe/alozzi 0 born at ,zuri* 9 #agdf4 ,aft] ! dea? ( 8 fa!r1 he 0 br\ght up almo/ altoge!r by 8 "m4 ,?r\gh h] unselfi%ness & piety1 & ! example ( 8 gr&fa!r1 pa/or 9 a neighbor+ village1 ,pe/alozzi 0 inspir$ to relieve & elevate ! degrad$ peasantry ab\t him4 ,he fir/ turn$ to ! m9i/ry z be+ ! be/ way to accompli% ?is philan?ropic purpose1 & lat] took up ! /udy ( law1 ) ! idea ( def5d+ ! rights ( 8 p1 b he 0 n able to succe$ 9 ei!r pr(ession4 ,!n1 9 #agfi1 he und]took to demon/rate to ! peasants ! value ( improv$ me?ods ( agriculture4 ,he took up a /rip ( wa/e l& at ,birr1 :i* he call$ ,neuh( 7#8new f>m'71 b )9 five ye>s ?is exp]im5t also prov$ a lam5table failure4 ,meantime a son _h be5 born to him1 :om he _h und]tak5 to re> ^u ! basis ( ! ,emile1 & ! results1 record$ 9 a ,fa!r's ,j\rnal1 sugge/$ new ideas & educational pr9ciples = ! reg5]ation ( ! masses4 ,he began to hold t education did n consi/ m]ely 9 books & k1 & t ! *ildr5 ( ! poor c\ld1 by prop] tra9+1 be taught to e>n _! liv+ & at ! same "t develop _! intellig5ce & moral nature4 ,sid5ote3 ,s*ola/ic in/ruction giv5 :ile ! *ildr5 7 work+4 ,8 ,indu/rial ,s*ool at ,neuh( & ! ,leon>d & ,g]trude4--,h5ce ! failure ( 8 agricultural v5ture af=d$ ,pe/alozzi ! opportunity he crav$ to exp]im5t ) philan?ropic & indu/rial education4 ,t[>d ! end ( #aggd he took into 8 home "s tw5ty ( ! mo/ ne$y *ildr5 he c\ld f9d4 ,^! he f$1 clo!d1 & treat$ z 8 own4 ,he gave ! boys practical in/ruction 9 f>m+ & g>d5+ on small tracts1 & _h ! girls tra9$ 9 dome/ic duties & ne$lework4 ,9 bad wea!r bo? sexes gave _! "t to sp9n+ & weav+ cotton4 ,!y 7 also tra9$ 9 ! rudim5ts1 b 7 practic$ 9 conv]s+ & 9 memoriz+ ! ,bible be=e le>n+ to read & write4 ,! s*ola/ic in/ruction 0 giv5 v l>gely :ile !y 7 work+1 &1 al?\gh ,pe/alozzi _h n z yet le>n$ to make any direct connection betwe5 ! occupational & ! =mal elem5ts1 ?is fir/ attempt at an indu/rial education made x evid5t t ! two c\ld be comb9$4 ,)9 a few mon?s !re 0 a /rik+ improvem5t 9 ! physique1 m9ds1 & morals ( ! *ildr51 z well z 9 ! use ( _! h&s4 ,b ,pe/alozzi 0 s en?usia/ic ov] ! success ( 8 exp]im5t t he greatly increas$ ! numb] ( *ildr51 & by #aghj 0 r$uc$ to bankruptcy4 ,sid5ote3 ,aft] ! s*ool 0 clos$1 he publi%$ 8 views4 ,nev]!less1 8 wid] purpose ( social re=m by means ( education 0 n all[$ to langui% altoge!r1 = a fri5d %ortly p]suad$ him to publi% 8 views4 ,8 fir/ production1 ,! ,ev5+ ,h\r ( a ,h]mit1 embodi$ mo/ ( ! educational pr9ciples he aft]w>d made fam\s1 b he 0 advis$ to put 8 ?\ght into m popul> =m1 & soon wrote 8 highly successful /ory ( ,leon>d & ,g]trude 7#agha74 ,?is "w1 ) subsequ5t additions1 gives an acc\nt ( ! degrad$ social conditions 9 ! ,swiss village ( #8,bonnal' & ! *anges wr\ght 9 !m by "o simple peasant woman4 #8,g]trude' re=ms h] drunk>d husb&1 educates h] *ildr51 & causes ! :ole community to feel h] influ5ce & adopt h] me?ods4 ,:5 f9ally a wise s*oolma/] comes to ! village1 he le>ns f ,g]trude ! prop] conduct ( ! s*ool & begs = h] cont9u$ cop]ation4 ,!n ! gov]nm5t becomes int]e/$1 /udies ! improvem5ts t h tak5 place1 & concludes t ! :ole c\ntry c be re=m$ 9 no bett] way ?an by imitat+ ,bonnal4 ,sid5ote3 ,hav+ no o!r facilities1 he in/ruct$ ?r\gh #8obs]vation' 9 ,sid5ote3 morals1 ,sid5ote3 numb]1 language1 & o!r subjects1 ,8 ,s*ool at ,/anz & ,beg9n+ ( ,8 ,obs]vational ,me?ods4--,9 #agih he 0 giv5 an opportunity to c>ry on 8 philan?ropic & indu/rial ideals 9 education ?r\gh ! orphan home & s*ool at ,/anz1 ( :i* he 0 put 9 *>ge4 ,"h he f\nd x impossible to obta9 any assi/ants1 books1 & mat]ials1 b he felt t none ( ^! conv5tional aids c\ld be ( s]vice 9 ! "w he desir$ to d4 ,h5ce he s\ght to in/ruct ! *ildr5 r by exp]i5ce & obs]vation ?an by ab/ract /atem5ts & words 7,fig4 #cc74 ,?is 0 ! real beg9n+ ( 8 tea*+ ?r\gh #8obs]vation1' &1 :ile at ,/anz he fur!r develop$ 8 correlation ( intellectual ) manual tra9+1 8 obs]vational me?ods 7 !reaft] de/9$ to be m /ress$4 ,religion & morals1 = example1 7 nev] taught by precepts1 b ?r\gh in/ances t arose 9 ! lives ( ! *ildr5 he %[$ !m ! value ( self-control1 *>ity1 sympa?y1 & gratitude4 ,9 a simil>ly concrete way ! pupils 7 in/ruct$ 9 numb] & language "w by means ( objects1 & 9 geography & hi/ory by conv]sation r ?an by books4 ,:ile !y did n le>n _! natural hi/ory prim>ily f nature1 !y 7 taught to corroborate :at !y _h le>n$ by _! own obs]vation4 ,ab\t ?is me?od he said3 8,accord+ to my exp]i5ce1 success dep5ds ^u :e!r :at is taught to *ildr5 comm5ds itself to !m z true ?r\gh be+ closely connect$ ) _! own obs]vation4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ,i atta*$ little importance to ! /udy ( words1 ev5 :5 explanations ( ! ideas !y repres5t$ 7 giv540 ,sid5ote3 r$uc+ p]ception to its l[e/ t]ms4 ,9 connection ) 8 obs]vational me?od1 ,pe/alozzi at ?is "t began 8 attempt to r$uce all p]ception to its l[e/ t]ms1 #8! ,a ,b ,c ( obs]vation1' z he aft]w>d call$ x4 ,x 0 :ile at ,/anz1 = example1 t he fir/ adopt$ 8 well-kn[n plan ( tea*+ *ildr5 to read by means ( ex]cises kn[n z #8syllab>ies4' ,^! jo9$ ! five v[els 9 succession to ! diff]5t consonants1--#8ab1 eb1 ib1 ob1 ub1' & s on ?r\gh all ! consonants4 ,f ! phonetic nature ( ,g]man spell+1 he 0 able to make ! ex]cises v simple1 & ?us to furni% a necess>y practice 9 basal syllables4 ,9 a simil> way he hop$ to simplify all education to su* an ext5t t s*ools w\ld ev5tually become unnecess>y1 & t ea* "m w\ld be able to tea* h] *ildr5 & cont9ue h] own education at ! same "t4 ,sid5ote3 ,susp5sion ( comb9ation ( indu/rial ) intellectual elem5ts4 ,sid5ote3 #8,syllab>ies' & o!r language ex]cises1 ,sid5ote3 ari?metic1 ,sid5ote3 geometry1 & o!r /udies4 ,cont9uation ( ,8 ,me?ods at ,burgdorf1 & ,h[ ,g]trude ,tea*es ,h] ,*ildr54--,f ^! exp]im5ts & concrete me?ods t ,pe/alozzi />t$ at ,/anz gradually develop$ all 8 educational contributions4 ,b be=e ! close ( a ye> he 0 =c$ by circum/ances to remove to ,burgdorf4 ,"h1 on acc\nt ( ! social position ( _m ( 8 pupils1 he _h to susp5d 8 exp]im5t ( comb9+ indu/rial ) intellectual tra9+1 al?\gh1 z w lat] be se51 8 special ef=ts 9 ?is direction 7 greatly enl>g$ & p]petuat$ by ,fell5b]g4 ,he n[ devot$ himself to 8 #8,a ,b ,c ( obs]vation1' & fur!r work$ out & graduat$ 8 #8syllab>ies4' ,language ex]cises 7 also giv5 8 pupils by means ( exam9+ ! numb]1 =m1 position1 & color ( ! designs1 holes1 & r5ts 9 ! wall pap] ( ! s*ool1 & express+ _! obs]vations 9 long] & long] s5t5ces1 :i* !y repeat$ aft] him4 ,= ari?metic he devis$ *>ts ^u :i* 7 plac$ dots or l9es concretely repres5t+ ea* unit up to "o hundr$4 ,by means ( ?is #8table ( units' 7,fig4 #cd71 ! pupil obta9$ a cle> idea ( ! mean+ ( ! digits & ! fundam5tal processes 9 ari?metic4 ,! *ildr5 7 also taught ! elem5ts ( geometry by draw+ angles1 l9es1 & curves1 & ! developm5t ( tea*+ hi/ory1 geography1 & natural hi/ory by ?is me?od ( obs]vation 0 likewise cont9u$4 ,sid5ote3 ,success ( ! s*ool4 ,sid5ote3 ,pr9ciples 9 8 ,h[ ,g]trude4 ,despite a want ( sy/em & errors 9 c>ry+ out 8 me?od1 ,pe/alozzi seems to h produc$ rem>kable results f ! />t4 ,pupils p\r$ 92 a numb] ( progressive tea*]s came to assi/ him2 _m p]sons ( prom95ce visit$ ! s*ool & made mo/ favorable reports ^u its me?ods2 & dur+ ! foll[+ ?ree ye>s & a half ! ,pe/alozzian views on education 7 sy/ematically develop$ & appli$4 ,:ile at ,burgdorf also1 he und]took a detail$ /atem5t ( 8 me?od by ! publication ( 8 ,h[ ,g]trude ,tea*es ,h] ,*ildr5 7#ahja74 ,?is "w does n m5tion ,g]trude1 b consi/s ( fifte5 lett]s to 8 fri5d1 ,gessn]4 ,l all ( ,pe/alozzi's works1 x is q lack+ 9 bo? plan & proportion1 & is fill$ ) repetitions & digressions1 b ! foll[+ portion ( ! summ>y ( its pr9ciples1 made by a biograph] ( ,pe/alozzi1 may s]ve to give an idea ( 8 educational cre$3 8#a4 ,obs]vation is ! f\ndation ( in/ruction4 8#b4 ,language mu/ be connect$ ) obs]vation4 8#c4 ,! "t = le>n+ is n ! "t = judgm5t & criticism4 8#d4 ,9 ea* bran*1 in/ruction mu/ beg9 ) ! simple/ elem5ts1 & proce$ gradually by foll[+ ! *ild's developm5t2 t is1 by a s]ies ( /eps :i* are psy*ologically connect$4 8#e4 ,a pause mu/ be made at ea* /age ( ! in/ruction suffici5tly long = ! *ild to get ! new matt] ?or\ghly into 8 grasp & "u 8 control4 8#f4 ,tea*+ mu/ foll[ ! pa? ( developm5t1 & n t ( dogmatic exposition40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4--#8;,fa!r' ,pe/alozzi at ,/anz4 7,! orphan s*ool 9 ! ,ursul9e conv5t74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,! #8table ( units' ( ,pe/alozzi1 copi$ by ,w>r5 ,colburn 9 ! fir/ edition 7#ahba7 ( 8 ,m5tal ,ari?metic4 ,sid5ote3 ,great prosp]ity4 ,sid5ote3 ,syllab>ies1 & tables ( units1 fractions1 & fractions ( fractions2 ,! #8,in/itute' at ,yv]don & ! ,culm9ation ( ! ,pe/alozzian ,me?ods4--,z a result ( political *anges1 ,pe/alozzi 0 oblig$ 9 #ahje to transf] 8 s*ool to ,yv]don4 ,! #8in/itute' "h sprang into fame almo/ imm$iately1 & increas$ 9 numb]s & prosp]ity = sev]al ye>s4 ,*ildr5 7 s5t f great di/ances1 & tea*]s & visitors ?rong$ !re to le>n & apply ! new pr9ciples at home4 ,! "w ( ! in/itute =m$ a cont9uation & culm9ation ( ! obs]vational me?ods />t$ at ,/anz & ,burgdorf4 ,! simplification introduc$ ?r\gh ! #8syllab>ies' & #8table ( units' 0 fur!r elaborat$4 ,a #8table ( fractions' 0 also devis$ = tea*+ t subject concretely4 ,x consi/$ ( a s]ies ( squ>es1 :i* c\ld be divid$ indef9itely & 9 diff]5t ways4 ,"s ( ! squ>es 7 :ole1 :ile o!rs 7 divid$ horizontally into two1 ?ree1 or ev5 t5 equal p>ts4 ,!re 0 fur!r develop$ a #8table ( fractions ( fractions1' or comp\nd fractions1 9 :i* ! squ>es 7 divid$1 n only horizontally1 b v]tically1 s t ! me?od ( r$uc+ two fractions to ! same d5om9ator might be self-evid5t4 ,sid5ote3 draw+1 ,sid5ote3 writ+1 ,sid5ote3 & con/ructive geometry2 ,fur!r1 9 ord] to draw & write1 ! pupil 0 fir/ taught ! simple elem5ts ( =m4 ,objects1 su* z /icks or p5cils1 7 plac$ 9 diff]5t directions1 & l9es repres5t+ !m 7 drawn on ! bo>d or slate until all elem5t>y =ms1 /raight or curv$1 7 ma/]$4 ,! pupils comb9$ ^! elem5ts1 in/ead ( copy+ models1 & 7 enc\rag$ to design symmetrical & graceful figures4 ,?is also pav$ ! way = writ+4 ,! *ildr5 wrote on _! slates1 beg9n+ ) ! easie/ lett]s & gradually =m+ words f !m1 b soon le>n$ to write on pap] ) a p54 ,writ+ 01 h[ev]1 taught 9 connection ) read+1 al?\gh begun some:at lat] ?an t /udy4 ,con/ructive geometry 0 also le>n$ ?r\gh draw+4 ,! pupils 7 taught to di/+ui%1 fir/ v]tical1 horizontal1 oblique1 & p>allel l9es2 !n !y le>n$ "r1 acute1 & obtuse angles1 diff]5t k9ds ( triangles1 quadrilat]als1 & o!r figures2 & f9ally discov]$ at h[ _m po9ts a c]ta9 numb] ( /raight l9es may be made to cut "o ano!r1 & h[ _m angles1 triangles1 & quadrilat]als c be =m$4 ,to make ! matt] concrete1 ! figures 7 (t5 cut out ( c>dbo>d or made into models4 ,sid5ote3 nature /udy & geography2 ,sid5ote3 & music4 ,9 nature /udy1 geography1 & hi/ory ! concrete obs]vational "w 0 likewise cont9u$4 ,trees1 fl[]s1 & birds 7 view$1 drawn1 & discuss$4 ,! pupils began 9 geography by acquir+ ! po9ts ( ! compass & relative positions1 & f ?is k obs]v$ & describ$ "s famili> place4 ,! valley ( ! ,buron ne> at h& 0 obs]v$ 9 detail & model$ ^u long tables 9 clay br\ght f its sides4 ,!n ! pupils 7 %[n ! map = ! fir/ "t & easily grasp$ ! mean+ ( its symbols4 ,8 ideas on geography1 h[ev]1 7 m fully work$ out by ! sci5ti/1 ,k>l ,ritt]1 :o _h already be5 tra9$ 9 pr9ciples simil> to ,pe/alozzi's 9 ,salzmann's s*ool at ,s*nepf5?al 7see p4 #bbh74 ,in/ead ( ! 8arbitr>y & unme?odical collection ( all facts asc]ta9$ to exi/ ?r\gh\t ! e>?10 :i* con/itut$ ! old #8encyclopdic' type ( geography1 ,ritt] pres5t$ a "w bas$ on pr9ciples indicat$ by ! title1--,! ,sci5ce ( ! ,e>? 9 ,relation to ,nature & ! ,hi/ory ( ,man4 ,simil>ly1 ,pe/alozzi's me?od 0 appli$ to music by 8 fri5d1 ,ngeli1 a not$ ,swiss compos]1 :o began ) ! simple/ tone elem5ts & !n comb9$ & develop$ ^! progressively into m complex & connect$ :oles4 ,sid5ote3 ,analogy ) ! developm5t ( ! tree4 ,sid5ote3 ,univ]sal education4 ,pe/alozzi's ,educational ,aim & ,organization4--,f ! beg9n+ ( 8 "w1 ,pe/alozzi held t 8all ! b5efic5t p[]s ( man are due to nei!r art nor *ance1 b to nature10 & t education %\ld foll[ 8! c\rse laid d[n by nature40 ,s 9 all 8 works he con/antly returns to ! analogy ( ! *ild's developm5t ) t ( ! natural gr[? ( ! plant or tree4 ,he ev5 holds t 8! :ole tree is an un9t]rupt$ *a9 ( organic p>ts1 ! plan ( :i* exi/$ 9 its se$ & root10 & t 8man is simil> to ! tree40 ,consequ5tly1 he def9es education z 8! natural1 progressive1 & h>moni\s developm5t ( all ! p[]s & capacities ( ! human be+40 ,?is belief 9 ! obs]vance ( developm5t f )9 is 9 keep+ ) ! naturalism ( ,r\sseau1 b t re=m] view$ x *iefly f ! negative side1 & fail$ to make 8 educational doctr9e concrete & explicit & to apply x to ! s*ool4 ,pe/alozzi fur!r modifi$ & ext5d$ ! ,r\sselian doctr9e by recomm5d+ its application to all *ildr51 :atev] _! circum/ances & abilities4 ,:]e ,r\sseau evid5tly _h only ! "y ari/ocrat 9 m9d 9 ! education ( ,emile1 ,pe/alozzi held t pov]ty c\ld be reliev$ & society re=m$ only ?r\gh ridd+ ea* & e "o ( 8 degradation by means ( m5tal & moral developm5t4 ,accord+ly1 he 0 ! /an* advocate ( univ]sal education4 ,sid5ote3 ,cle> ideas only ?r\gh s5se p]ceptions1 ,sid5ote3 r$uc$ to simple/ t]ms1 & express$ 9 words4 ,8 ,g5]al ,me?od4--,pe/alozzi's g5]al me?od ( giv+ free play to ?is natural developm5t ( ! p[]s ( all & s = re=m+ social conditions 0 to tra9 8 pupils ?r\gh #8obs]vation4' ,he felt t cle> ideas c\ld be =m$ only by means ( c>eful s5se p]ceptions1 & he 0 ?or\ghly oppos$ to ! me*anical memoriz+ ) little und]/&+ t 0 curr5t 9 ! s*ools ( ! day4 ,8 me?od 9 g5]al consi/$ 9 analyz+ ea* subject into its simple/ elem5ts1 or #8,a ,b ,c1' & develop+ x by grad$ ex]cises bas$ z f> z possible ^u ! /udy ( objects r ?an words4 ,yet ,pe/alozzi felt t 8exp]i5ces mu/ be cle>ly express$ 9 words1 or o!rwise !re arises ! same dang] t *>act]izes ! dom9ant ^w tea*+1--t ( attribut+ entirely errone\s ideas to words40 ,accord+ly1 z %[n 9 ! summ>y ( ,h[ ,g]trude ,tea*es ,h] ,*ildr5 7see p4 #bhb71 9 all in/ruction he w\ld connect language ) #8obs]vation4' ,! special applications ( ?is g5]al me?od t 7 work$ out by him & 8 foll[]s 9 ! mo/ common subjects ( ! curriculum h be5 describ$ 9 detail 9 ! acc\nt ( 8 "w at ,/anz1 ,burgdorf1 & ,yv]don1 & d n require repetition "h4 ,sid5ote3 ,unorig9al1 unpractical1 inconsi/5t1 want+ 9 sci5ce & organization2 ,! ,p]man5t ,influ5ce ( ,pe/alozzi4--,x is easy to exagg]ate ! a*ievem5ts ( ?is almo/ sa9t$ re=m] ( ,switz]l&4 ,pe/alozzi's me?ods 7 nei!r v orig9al nor well c>ri$ out4 ,8 *ief m]it lay 9 develop+ & mak+ positive ! sugge/ions (f]$ by ,r\sseau1 & 9 utiliz+ !m 9 ! "w ( ! s*ools4 ,ev5 9 ?is he fail$ some:at 9 practicality & consi/5cy4 ,moreov]1 ,pe/alozzi 0 grop+ & nev] possess$ full vision4 ,he did n grasp def9ite educational pr9ciples 9 a sci5tific way1 b1 l ,r\sseau1 obta9$ 8 ideas ( tea*+ f sympa!tic insight into ! m9ds ( *ildr54 ,8 writ+s = ! mo/ "p record 8 empirical ef=ts at an effective tra9+1 & are revelations ( me?ods ( tea*+ 9 ! concrete r ?an ! ab/ract4 ,8 works are also poorly arrang$ & inaccurate1 & !re 0 little organization or ord] 9 8 s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 b s\ght to elevate society by education1 ,b all ^! defici5cies are ( small import :5 comp>$ ) ,pe/alozzi's influ5ce ^u society & education4 ,9 ! eighte5? c5tury ca/e rul$ ?r\gh weal? & education1 :ile ! masses1 :o support$ ! own]s ( ! l& 9 idl5ess & luxury1 7 sunk 9 ignorance1 pov]ty1 & vice4 ,! s*ools = ! common p 7 exce$+ly few1 ! cont5t ( education 0 l>gely limit$ by ecclesia/ical au?ority1 & ! me?ods 7 traditional & v]bal4 ,! tea*]s g5]ally _h receiv$ little tra9+1 & 7 select$ at r&om4 ,ord9>ily ! pay 0 wret*$1 no lodg+s 7 provid$ = ! tea*]1 & he _h (t5 to add dome/ic s]vice to 8 duties1 9 ord] to secure food & clo?+4 ,9 ! mid/ ( su* conditions appe>$ ?is mo/ fam\s ( mod]n educators1 :o nev] ceas$ to "w = ! re=mation ( society4 ,z ,voltaire1 ,r\sseau1 & o!rs _h held t ! panacea = ! corrupt times 0 rationalism1 a!ism1 deism1 socialism1 an>*y1 or individualism1 ,pe/alozzi f\nd 8 rem$y 9 education4 ,l ,r\sseau1 he ke5ly felt ! inju/ice1 unnaturalness1 & degradation ( ! exi/+ society1 b he 0 n cont5t to /op ) m]e de/ruction & negations4 ,he saw :at education might d to purify social conditions & to elevate ! p by intellectual1 moral1 & indu/rial tra9+1 & he long$ to apply x univ]sally & to develop me?ods 9 keep+ ) nature4 ,sid5ote3 & 0 ! prog5itor ( all mod]n p$agogy4 ,pe/alozzi's a*ievem5ts conta9$ ! g]m ( mod]n p$agogy1 z well z ( educational re=m4 ,x 0 he t /imulat$ educational !ori/s1 in/ead ( accept+ =mal pr9ciples & traditional processes1 to "w out c>efully & pati5tly ! developm5t ( ! *ild m9d & to embody ! results 9 practice4 ,f him h come ! prevail+ re=ms 9 ! pres5t tea*+ ( language lessons1 ari?metic1 draw+1 writ+1 read+1 geography1 elem5t>y sci5ce1 & music4 ,9 h>mony ) 8 improv$ me?ods1 ,pe/alozzi also />t$ a diff]5t type ( discipl9e4 ,8 "w made cle> ! new _s 9 ! s*ool by :i* x has approa*$ ! atmosph]e ( ! home4 ,he f\nd ! prop] relation ( pupil & tea*] to exi/ 9 sympa?y & fri5d%ip1 or1 z he /ates x1 9 #8love4' ,?is attitude1 :i* appe>s s fully 9 8 k9dly treatm5t ( ! poor *ildr5 at ,neuh( & ,/anz 7,fig4 #cc71 con/itut$ ! greate/ contra/ to t ( ! brutal s*ools ( ! times1 & introduc$ a new conception into education4 ,sid5ote3 ,switz]l&1 ,! ,spread ( ,pe/alozzian ,s*ools & ,me?ods ?r\gh ,europe4--,! #8obs]vational' me?ods ( ,pe/alozzi & in/itutions simil> to 8 7 soon spread by 8 assi/ants & o!rs ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,/range to say1 z a result ( _! famili>ity ) 8 weaknesses & ! cons]vatism result+ f isolation1 ! ,swiss 71 z a :ole1 r sl[ to incorporate ! ,pe/alozzian improvem5ts4 ,9 ,zuri*1 h[ev]1 ,zell] ( ,wrtemb]g1 :o _h visit$ ,burgdorf & _h help$ conduct a ,pe/alozzian tra9+ s*ool1 0 e>ly invit$ to give ?ree c\rses ( lectures 9 aid ( ! e/abli%m5t ( a tea*]s' sem9>y bas$ ^u ! pr9ciples ( ,pe/alozzi4 ,krsi1 aft] leav+ ! in/itute at ,yv]don1 also f\nd$ a numb] ( s*ools & c>ri$ ,pe/alozzianism into v>i\s p>ts ( ,switz]l&4 ,& o!r disciples ev5tually />t$ or reorganiz$ s*ools 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,switz]l&4 ,sid5ote3 ,prussia ,b ! ,pe/alozzian re=ms 9 me?od secur$ _! be/ hold ^u ,g]many4 ,! innovations 7 mo/ rem>kable 9 ,prussia1 & ! elem5t>y education !re has come to be ref]r$ to z ! #8,prussian-,pe/alozzian s*ool sy/em4' ,by ! op5+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ,pe/alozzianism began to f9d its way into t /ate4 ,9 #ahja ! appeal ( ,pe/alozzi = a public subscription 9 behalf ( 8 project at ,burgdorf 0 w>mly support$4 ,9 #ahjb ,h]b>t's acc\nt ( ,pe/alozzi's ,idea ( an ,a ,b ,c ( ,obs]vation 7see p4 #ccg7 attract$ mu* att5tion4 ,a repres5tative 0 s5t f ,prussia to ,burgdorf to report ^u ! new sy/em 9 #ahjc4 ,mean:ile ! ,pe/alozzian mission>ies 7 fa/ conv]t+ ! l&4 ,plamann1 :o _h visit$ ,burgdorf1 9 #ahje e/abli%$ a ,pe/alozzian s*ool 9 ,b]l91 & publi%$ sev]al books apply+ ! new me?ods to language1 geography1 & natural hi/ory4 ,zell] lectur$ to l>ge audi5ces at ,knigsb]g1 & organiz$ a ,pe/alozzian orphanage !re4 ,a simil> in/itution = educat+ orphans 0 op5$ at ,potsdam by ,trck4 ,9 #ahjh1 two ( ,pe/alozzi's pupils1 ,nicolovius & ,sv]n1 7 made directors ( public in/ruction 9 ,prussia1 & s5t sev5te5 brilliant "y m5 to ,yv]don to /udy = ?ree ye>s4 ,^u _! return ^! vigor\s y\?ful educators zeal\sly advanc$ ! cause4 ,! greate/ impulse1 h[ev]1 0 giv5 ! movem5t by ! philosoph]1 ,fi*te1 :o 0 ard5tly support$ by ,k+ ,fr$]ick ,william ,,iii1 & ev5 m by ! noble que51 ,l\ise4 ,!y held t only ?r\gh ^! advanc$ educational pr9ciples c\ld a re/oration ( ! t]ritory & pre/ige lo/ to ,napoleon at ,j5a be effect$4 ,sid5ote3 & ! re/ ( ,g]many1 ,a simil> _s animat$ ! o!r /ates ( ,g]many1 & ,bav>ia1 ,detmold1 & o!r /ates e>ly und]took to introduce ! new pr9ciples4 ,ev]y:]e 9 ,g]many ! greate/ en?usiasm prevail$ among tea*]s1 /ate (ficials1 & pr9ces4 ,?us 9 place ( ! read+1 s++1 & memoriz+ ( texts1 songs1 & cate*ism1 "u ! direction ( incompet5t *ori/]s & sextons1 ) unsanit>y build+s & brutal puni%m5t1 all ,g]many has come to h 9 ea* village an in/itution = tra9+ real m5 & wom54 ,ea* s*ool is "u ! guidance ( a devot$1 humane1 & tra9$ tea*]1 & ! me?ods 9 religion1 read+1 ari?metic1 hi/ory1 geography1 & elem5t>y sci5ce are vitaliz$ & int]e/+4 ,sid5ote3 ,france1 ,9 ,france ! spread ( ,pe/alozzianism 0 at fir/ prev5t$ by ! milit>y _s ( ! "t & by ! apa?y 9 education1 & lat]1 :5 ! reaction occurr$1 ! s*ools came "u ecclesia/ical control & _h little influ5ce ^u ! p4 ,nev]!less1 !re 7 evid5ces ( int]e/ 9 ! new doctr9es4 ,g5]al ,julli5 came to ,yv]don to /udy ! me?ods1 & issu$ two comm5datory reports1 :i* induc$ "s ?irty ,fr5* pupils to g to ,pe/alozzi's in/itute4 ,*avannes also publi%$ a treatise ^u ! ,pe/alozzian me?ods 9 #ahje4 ,^! ef=ts1 h[ev]1 _h little effect ^u education1 & ! ,pe/alozzian pr9ciples did n make mu* headway 9 ,france up to ! revolution ( #ahcj4 ,aft] t "t !y rapidly became popul>1 especially ?r\gh ,victor ,c\s94 ,?is fam\s pr(essor1 :o 0 lat] m9i/] ( public in/ruction1 issu$ 9 #ahce a ,report on ! ,/ate ( ,public ,in/ruction 9 ,prussia1 :i* %[$ ! great m]it ( ,pe/alozzianism 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools ( t c\ntry4 ,sid5ote3 & ,engl&4 ,9 ,engl& ! influ5ce ( ,pe/alozzi 0 l>ge1 b ! use made ( 8 me?ods 0 n altoge!r happy4 ,! private s*ool op5$ by ,mayo aft] 8 return f ,yv]don employ$ object tea*+ 9 sev]al subjects1 & a popul> text-book1 entitl$ ,lessons on ,objects1 0 writt5 by 8 si/]4 ,?is book ( ,elizabe? ,mayo consi/$ ( encyclopdic lessons on ! arts & sci5ces arrang$ 9 a def9ite s]ies1 & mu* beyond ! compreh5sion ( *ildr5 f six to eight ye>s old1 = :om x 0 int5d$4 ,toge!r ) sev]al texts ( a simil> sort1 x _h a wide influ5ce 9 =maliz+ object tea*+ & spread+ x rapidly4 ,! ,mayos 7 also int]e/$ 9 infant s*ools1 & :5 !y help$ organize #8,! ,home & ,colonial ,s*ool ,society' 9 #ahcf1 !y comb9$ ! ,pe/alozzian me?ods ) ^? ( ! infant s*ool 7see p4 #bdf74 ,?r\gh ! model & tra9+ s*ools ( ?is society1 =maliz$ ,pe/alozzianism 0 ext5d$ ?r\gh ,engl& & ,am]ica4 ,sid5ote3 ,mc,clure & ,neef4 ,pe/alozzianism 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,pe/alozzianism began to appe> 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z e>ly z ! fir/ decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,x 0 introduc$ n only f ! orig9al c5t]s 9 ,switz]l&1 b indirectly 9 ! =m x _h assum$ 9 ,g]many1 ,france1 ,engl&1 & o!r c\ntries4 ,! in/ances ( its appe>ance 7 sporadic & seem to h be5 b little connect$ at any "t4 ,! e>lie/ pres5tation 0 t made f ! treatise ( ,*avannes 9 #ahje by ,william ,mc,clure4 ,by ?is & o!r articles1 ,mc,clure did mu* to make ! new pr9ciples kn[n 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & 9 #ahjf he induc$ ,joseph ,neef1 a =m] assi/ant ( ,pe/alozzi1 to come to ,am]ica & become 8 8ma/]'s apo/le 9 ! ,new ,_w40 ,neef ma9ta9$ an in/itution at ,philadelphia = ?ree ye>s & aft]w>d f\nd$ & taught s*ools 9 o!r p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,b 8 imp]fect acqua9tance ) ,engli% & ) ,am]ican "* & 8 frequ5t migrations prev5t$ 8 p]sonal influ5ce f be+ greatly felt1 & ! two excell5t works t he publi%$ ^u applications ( ! ,pe/alozzian me?ods 7 giv5 scant att5tion4 ,sid5ote3 ,griscom1 ,sid5ote3 ,brooks1 ,sid5ote3 ! ,alcotts1 ,sid5ote3 ,colburn1 ,sid5ote3 ,guyot1 ,sid5ote3 ,p>k]1 ,sid5ote3 & ,l[ell ,mason4 ,a l>ge v>iety ( lit]ature1 describ+ ! new education1 & translat+ ! acc\nts ( ,*avannes1 ,julli51 ,c\s91 & a numb] ( ! ,g]man educationali/s1 0 also publi%$ 9 educational j\rnals1 :i* 7 j beg9n+ to appe> 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7see p4 #cjd74 ,return$ travel]s1 l ,pr(essor ,john ,griscom 7see p4 #cje7 publi%$ acc\nts ( _! visits & exp]i5ces at ,yv]don & ,burgdorf1 su* lectur]s z ! ,rev]5d ,*>les ,brooks began to sugge/ ! new pr9ciples z a rem$y = our educational defici5cies1 & educational re=m]s1 l ! ,alcotts1 began to %[ ! ,pe/alozzian _s 9 _! s*ools4 ,pe/alozzi's objective me?ods & ! oral in/ruction result+ f !m 7 us$ 9 v>i\s subjects by a numb] ( educators4 ,= example1 ! me?ods advocat$ 9 ari?metic 7 introduc$ into ,am]ica by ,w>r5 ,colburn4 ,he spread #8m5tal ari?metic' ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 & 9 8 fam\s ,fir/ ,lessons 9 ,ari?metic on ! ,plan ( ,pe/alozzi1 publi%$ fir/ 9 #ahba1 he ev5 pr9t$ ! #8table ( units' 7,fig4 #cd74 ,! ,pe/alozzi-,ritt] me?od 9 geography 0 e>ly pres5t$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?r\gh ! in/itute lectures & text-books ( ,arnold ,guyot1 :o _h be5 a pupil ( ,ritt] & came to ,am]ica f ,switz]l& 9 #ahdh4 ,! promotion ( geographic me?od along ! same l9es 0 lat] m successfully p]=m$ by ,francis ,wayl& ,p>k]1 :o _h /udi$ ) ,guyot1 9 8 tra9+ ( tea*]s & 8 "w on ,h[ to ,tea* ,geography4 ,colonel ,p>k] has also _h sev]al successful pupils1 :o are to-day l>gely cont9u+ ! ,pe/alozzian tradition4 ,! ,pe/alozzian me?od 9 music 0 br\ght into ! ,bo/on s*ools & else:]e ab\t #ahcf by ,l[ell ,mason1 :o 0 influ5c$ by ! works ( ,ngeli4 ,sid5ote3 ,mann & 8 ,sev5? ,annual ,report2 ,sid5ote3 ,%eldon & ! ,oswego #8object lessons4' ,! mo/ influ5tial propag&a ( ! ,pe/alozzian doctr9es 9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 came ?r\gh ! acc\nt ( ! ,g]man s*ool me?ods 9 ! ,sev5? ,annual ,report 7#ahdc7 ( ,horace ,mann 7see p4 #cjh71 & ?r\gh ! inauguration ( ! #8,oswego me?ods' by ,dr4 ,edw>d ,a4 ,%eldon4 ,mann spoke mo/ en?usia/ically ( ! success ( ! ,prussian-,pe/alozzian sy/em ( education & h9t$ at ! ne$ ( a radical re=m along ! same l9es 9 ,am]ica4 ,! report caus$ a great s5sation1 & 0 bitt]ly combat$ by cons]vative s5tim5t ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 b ! sugge/$ re=ms 7 l>gely effect$4 ,dr4 ,%eldon1 on ! o!r h&1 caught 8 ,pe/alozzian inspiration f ,toronto1 ,canada1 :]e he became acqua9t$ ) ! =maliz$ me?ods ( ! ,mayos ?r\gh publications ( ! ,home & ,colonial ,s*ool ,society 7see p4 #bia74 ,he resolv$ to introduce ! pr9ciples ( ,pe/alozzi into ! ,oswego s*ools1 ( :i* he 0 at t "t sup]9t5d5t1 & 9 #ahfa secur$ f ! society 9 ,london an in/ructor to tra9 8 tea*]s 9 ^! me?ods4 ,!re 0 "s criticism ( ! ,oswego me?ods on ! gr\nd ( =malism1 b z a :ole !y 7 pron\nc$ a success1 & 9 #ahfe ! ,oswego tra9+ s*ool 0 made a /ate in/itution4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ normal s*ool 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates :]e #8object lessons' 7 ! *ief feature1 b a l>ge numb] ( o!r normal s*ools ^u ! same basis sprang up rapidly 9 _m /ates1 & ! ,oswego me?ods crept into ! tra9+ s*ools & ! public sy/ems ( num]\s cities4 ,z a consequ5ce1 dur+ ! ?ird qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ,pe/alozzianism1 ?\gh some:at =maliz$1 _h a prevail+ influ5ce ^u ! tea*]s & c\rses ( ! elem5t>y s*ools 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,e/ate at ,h(wyl to tra9 ,pe/alozzian tea*]s4 ,pe/alozzi's ,indu/rial ,tra9+ ,cont9u$ by ,fell5b]g4--,su* 0 ! wide influ5ce ( ,pe/alozzi ^u education4 ,b :ile ?r\gh\t 8 "w he cont9u$ to make new applications ( 8 obs]vational me?ods1 8 pr9ciple ( comb9+ indu/rial tra9+ ) intellectual education1 :i* he _h begun s successfully at ,neuh( & ,/anz1 c\ld n be cont9u$ at ,burgdorf4 ,8 pupils !re came *iefly f ari/ocratic families & 7 n oblig$ to support !mselves by manual labor4 ,h[ev]1 ,pe/alozzi /ill hop$ to save en\gh ( ! income f ! s*ool paym5ts ( ! ri* to f\nd a small agricultural s*ool = ! poor on ?is plan & connect x ) ! #8in/itute1' & :ile ?is in/itution 0 nev] />t$1 ! opportunity = c>ry+ out 8 aim came ?r\gh 8 fri5d1 ,emanuel von ,fell5b]g 7#agga-ahdd74 ,fell5b]g belong$ to a noble family ( ,b]ne1 b1 l ,pe/alozzi1 he believ$ t an amelioration ( ! wret*$ moral & economic conditions 9 ,switz]l& %\ld be accompli%$ by education4 ,to secure ! means = an exp]im5t 9 ?is direction1 he p]suad$ 8 fa!r to pur*ase = him an e/ate ( six hundr$ acres at ,h(wyl1 j n9e miles f ,burgdorf4 ,"h ,pe/alozzi urg$ him to und]take 8 favorite idea ( indu/rial education1 & 9 #ahjf1 ) ! aid ( ,zell] 7see p4 #bhi71 :o _h be5 s5t him by ,pe/alozzi1 he op5$ a s*ool to tra9 tea*]s 9 ! ,pe/alozzian me?od4 ,sid5ote3 ,comb9ation ( obs]vational "w & indu/rial tra9+ 9 ! #8agricultural in/itute2' ,! ,agricultural ,s*ool & ,o!r ,in/itutions at ,h(wyl4--,fell5b]g especially desir$1 h[ev]1 to comb9e ,pe/alozzi's obs]vational "w & 8 old] pr9ciple ( indu/rial tra9+ 9 an #8agricultural in/itute' = poor boys4 ,?is plan 0 n fully realiz$ until #ahjh1 :5 he secur$ ! en?usia/ic ,jacob ,wehrli z an assi/ant4 ,! "w 0 s arrang$ t ea* old pupil1 z fa/ z he 0 tra9$1 took *>ge ( a new] "o z an appr5tice1 & ! s*ool f ! fir/ became a sort ( family4 ,! *ief feature ( ! in/itute 0 agricultural occupations1 includ+ dra9age & irrigation1 b1 f ! requirem5ts ( f>m life1 x 0 natural to tra9 also c>tmak]s1 blacksmi?s1 c>p5t]s1 locksmi?s1 %oemak]s1 tailors1 me*anics1 & work]s 9 wood1 iron1 & lea!r4 ,work%ops = ^! indu/ries 7 e/abli%$ ^u ! e/ate1 & ! pupils 9 ! agricultural in/itute 7 enabl$ to select a tra9+ 9 a wide range ( employm5ts1 )\t neglect+ book in/ruction 7,fig4 #ce74 ,by ?is means1 too1 !y c\ld support !mselves by _! labor :ile be+ educat$4 ,?r\gh ! in/itute also1 a consid]able numb] ( ! pupils 7 tra9$ to be directors ( simil> in/itutions1 or to become rural s*ool-tea*]s4 ,fell5b]g ?\ght x important t all :o 7 to tea* 9 ! common s*ools %\ld h a ?or\gh acqua9tance ) ! practical labor ( a f>m1 ! means ( self-support1 & ! life & habits ( ! majority ( _! pupils4 ,sid5ote3 ! #8lit]>y in/itute' = ! weal?y2 ,sid5ote3 s*ool = poor girls1 & #8real s*ool' = ! middle classes4 ,b ! "w ( ,fell5b]g did n /op !re4 ,f ! beg9n+ he _h felt t ! weal?y %\ld und]/& & be m 9 sympa?y ) ! labor+ classes1 & le>n h[ to direct _! "w m intellig5tly4 ,h5ce he began v e>ly an agricultural c\rse = l&[n]s1 & _m "y m5 ( ! weal?y classes came to %[ a /rik+ int]e/ 9 8 deep-soil pl\gh+1 dra9+1 irrigation1 & o!r means ( educat+ ! poor4 ,b ^! weal?i] y\?s rema9$ at ! in/itute s %ort a "t t he c\ld n ext5d 8 ideals v widely4 ,to reta9 !m long] at ,h(wyl1 9 #ahji he op5$ a #8lit]>y in/itute1' :i*1 besides ! usual academic /udies1 us$ ,pe/alozzi's object lessons & /rove to develop physical activities4 ,moreov]1 ! pupils 9 ! lit]>y in/itute _h to cultivate g>d5s1 "w on ! f>m1 engage 9 c>p5t]+1 turn+1 & o!r me*anical occupations1 & 9 _m ways come into t\* & mutual und]/&+ ) ! poor] boys 9 ! agricultural in/itute4 ,! weal?y le>n$ to dignify labor1 & ! poor1 in/ead ( envy+ ^? 9 ! high] /ations ( life1 became fri5dly & desir\s ( cop]at+ ) !m4 ,ev5tually !re arose an indep5d5t community ( y\?1 manag+ its own affairs outside ( s*ool1 arrang+ its own occupations1 games1 & t\rs1 *oos+ its own (fic]s1 & mak+ its own laws4 ,)9 ?is little _w 0 provid$ a tra9+ = society at l>ge1 ) its v>i\s classes1 associations1 & corporations1 :i* ,fell5b]g seems to h reg>d$ z div9ely orda9$4 ,likewise1 9 #ahbc1 a s*ool = poor girls 0 op5$ by 8 wife1 & f\r ye>s lat] he />t$ a #8real1' or practical1 s*ool = ! middle classes1 :i* 0 int]m$iate betwe5 ! two #8in/itutes4' ,sid5ote3 ,switz]l&1 ,sid5ote3 ,g]many1 ,sid5ote3 ,france1 & ,engl&4 ,indu/rial ,tra9+ 9 ! ,s*ools ( ,europe4--,! educational in/itutions ( ,fell5b]g 7,fig4 #cf7 7 well manag$ & prov$ v successful1 & ! idea ( education ?r\gh indu/rial tra9+ spread rapidly4 ,:ile1 aft] ! dea? ( ,fell5b]g 9 #ahdd1 ! s*ools at ,h(wyl gradually decl9$1 v>i\s types ( indu/rial education ev]y:]e came to supplem5t academic c\rses1 & ext5d ! "w ( ! s*ool to a l>g] numb] ( pupils4 ,?us ! t5d5cy ( mod]n civilization to c>e = ! education ( ! poor1 ! defective1 & ! del9qu5t ?r\gh indu/rial tra9+ has sprung f ! philan?ropic _s ( ,pe/alozzi & 8 practical collaborator1 ,fell5b]g1 & has become app>5t 9 all advanc$ c\ntries4 ,indu/rial in/itutions rapidly increas$ 9 ,switz]l&1 beg9n+ 9 #ahaf ) ! s*ool 9 ! neighbor+ di/rict ( ,meykir*4 ,9 #ahcb a cantonal tea*]s' association 0 =m$ at ,b]ne1 ) ,fell5b]g z presid5t & ,wehrli z vice presid5t1 & e canton soon _h its #8f>m s*ool4' ,indu/rial tra9+ 0 also introduc$ into mo/ ( ! ,swiss normal s*ools4 ,9 ,g]many ! indu/rial "w sugge/$ by ,pe/alozzi & ,fell5b]g came into successful op]ation 9 _m ( ! orphanages & mo/ ( ! re=m s*ools4 ,lat]1 indu/rial education 0 tak5 up by ! ,=tbildungss*ul5 7#8cont9uation s*ools'7 ( ! regul> sy/em 7see p4 #dbj74 ,at ! re=m & cont9uation s*ools ( ,france indu/rial tra9+ has long =m$ ! di/9ctive elem5t 9 ! c\rse4 ,educators & /atesm5 ( ,engl& likewise e>ly comm5d$ ! "w ( ,fell5b]g1 & indu/rial tra9+ %ortly f\nd a foot-hold 9 v>i\s te*nical & re=m s*ools ( t c\ntry4 ,sid5ote3 #8,manual labor' in/itutions4 ,indu/rial ,in/itutions 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,! indu/rial "w ( ! ,pe/alozzi-,fell5b]g sy/em also began to appe> 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ab\t ! close ( ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,aft] t1 = tw5ty ye>s or s1 !re sprang up a l>ge numb] ( in/itutions ( second>y or high] grade ) #8manual labor' features 9 addition to ! lit]>y "w4 ,! prim>y object ( ! indu/rial "w 9 ^! in/itutions 0 to enable /ud5ts to e>n _! way ?r\gh s*ool or college & at ! same "t secure physical ex]cise4 ,x 0 ! fir/ s]i\s academic recognition ( ! ne$ ( a #8s\nd m9d 9 a s\nd body1' & did mu* to ov]come ! prevail+ t5d5cy ( /ud5ts t[>d tub]culosis & to furni% a sane sub/itute = ! escapades & pranks 9 :i* college life ab\nd$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! manual labor in/itutions 7 e/abli%$ 9 ! ,new ,engl& & ,middle /ates betwe5 #ahbj & #ahcj1 b )9 a doz5 ye>s ! manual labor sy/em 0 adopt$ 9 !ological s*ools1 colleges1 & academies f ,ma9e to ,t5nessee4 ,! success ( ?is feature at ,&ov] ,!ological ,sem9>y1 :]e x 0 begun 9 #ahbf = #8invigorat+ & pres]v+ heal?1 )\t any ref]5ce to pecuni>y pr(it1' 0 especially influ5tial 9 caus+ x to be ext5d$4 ,! #8,society = ,promot+ ,manual ,labor 9 ,lit]>y ,in/itutions1' f\nd$ 9 #ahca1 appo9t$ a g5]al ag5t to visit ! *ief colleges 9 ! ,middle ,we/ & ,s\?1 call att5tion to ! value ( manual labor1 & issue a report ^u ! subject4 ,little att5tion1 h[ev]1 0 giv5 to ! p$agogical pr9ciples und]ly+ ?is "w4 ,z mat]ial conditions improv$ & =mal social life develop$1 ! impracticability ( ! s*eme 0 realiz$1 & ! indu/rial side ( ^! in/itutions 0 giv5 up4 ,! physical ex]cise phase 0 !n replac$ by college a?letics4 ,by #ahdj-ahej mo/ ( ! s*ools & colleges t began z #8manual labor in/itutes' _h become purely lit]>y4 ,,fell5b]g',s ,,in/itutions ,,at ,,h(wyl ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4--;,c\rt ( ! ,agricultural ,in/itute4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4--;,g5]al view ( all ! s*ools & work%ops4 7,reproduc$ by p]mission f ,monroe's ,cyclop$ia ( ,education47 ,sid5ote3 ,indu/rial education = racial problems1 prison re=m1 ,sid5ote3 defectives & del9qu5ts1 ,sid5ote3 & effici5cy ( ! public sy/em4 ,a fur!r movem5t 9 indu/rial education has be5 f\nd 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( su* s*ools z ,c>lisle1 ,hampton1 & ,tuskegee1 :i* adopt$ ?is tra9+ z a solution = peculi> racial problems4 ,b ! orig9al idea ( ,pe/alozzi1 to secure r$emption ?r\gh manual labor1 has be5 embodi$ 9 ,am]ican in/itutions s9ce #ahgc1 :5 ,miss ,m>y ,c>p5t]1 ! ,engli% prison re=m]1 visit$ ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,contract labor & factory "w 9 ! re=matories !n began to be replac$ by f>m+1 g>d5+1 & k9dr$ dome/ic indu/ries4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 moreov]1 ! s*ools = del9qu5ts & defectives 9 ! ,new ,engl&1 ,middle ,atlantic1 ,middle ,we/1 & mo/ ( ! ,s\!rn /ates1 h ! ,fell5b]g tra9+1 ?\gh )\t mu* grasp ( ! educational pr9ciples involv$4 ,f9ally1 !re has also be5 a gr[+ t5d5cy 9 ! tw5tie? c5tury to employ indu/rial tra9+ or trade education = ! sake ( hold+ pupils long] 9 s*ool & increas+ ! effici5cy ( ! public sy/em4 ,9 s f> z x has t5d$ to replace ! m g5]al values ( manual tra9+1 once s popul>1 ) skill 9 "s p>ticul> indu/rial process1 ?is mod]n movem5t repres5ts a return f ! occupational "w />t$ by ,froebel to ! philan?ropic practice ( ,fell5b]g & ,pe/alozzi4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap4 ,v2 & ,great ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 *ap4 ,,ix2 ,monroe1 ,textbook 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #eig-fbb2 ,p>k]1 ,mod]n ,elem5t>y ,education 7,g9n1 #aiab71 *aps4 ,,xiii-,,xvi4 ,! ,leon>d & ,g]trude has be5 well arrang$ = ,engli% read]s 9 ! edition ( ,eva ,*ann+ 7,hea?1 #ahif7 & ,h[ ,g]trude ,tea*es ,h] ,*ildr5 has be5 translat$ by ,lucy ,e4 ,holl& & ,frances ,c4 ,turn] 7,b>de51 #ahih74 ,! /&>d ,engli% treatises on ,pe/alozzi are ,guimps1 ,r4 de1 ,pe/alozzi1 ,8 ,aim & ,"w 7,appleton1 #ahij72 ,holman1 ,h41 ,pe/alozzi 7,longmans1 #aijh72 ,krsi1 ,h41 ,pe/alozzi1 ,8 ,life1 ,"w1 & ,influ5ce 7,am]ican ,book ,co41 #ahge72 ,p9lo*e1 ,a41 ,pe/alozzi & ! ,f\ndation ( ! ,mod]n ,elem5t>y ,s*ool 7,scribn]1 #aija71 &1 m rec5tly1 ,gre51 ,j4 ,a41 ,life & ,"w ( ,pe/alozzi 7,clive1 ,london1 #aiac7 & ,pe/alozzi's ,educational ,writ+s 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #aiab74 ,monroe1 ,w4 ,s41 has furni%$ an int]e/+ ,hi/ory ( ! ,pe/alozzian ,movem5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7,b>de51 #aijg74 ,! ,in/itutions ( ,de ,fell5b]g 7 fully describ$ by ,k+1 ,w4 7,london1 #ahdb72 & by ,b>n>d1 ,h41 9 8 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,education1 vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #eia-eif2 ,,xiii1 #cbc-cca2 & ,,xxvi1 #cei-cfh4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,developm5t ,,( ,,public ,,education ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,outl9e ,dur+ ! second qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury a ?ird p]iod 9 ! educational hi/ory ( ,am]ica1 m>k$ by fur!r democratization & a great expansion ( public education1 appe>$4 ,x began ) an awak5+ g5]ally kn[n z #8! revival ( common s*ools1' :i* 0 mo/ noticeable 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,"h1 ow+ to ! attacks made ^u him by reaction>ies1 ,horace ,mann 0 ! mo/ conspicu\s re=m]2 :ile ,h5ry ,b>n>d1 ?r\gh 8 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,education1 enabl$ educators to look beyond ! educational exp]i5ce ( ,am]ica4 ,b ! influ5ce ( ?is awak5+ 0 also felt 9 e o!r section ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x 0 foll[$ by a /eady gr[? 9 univ]sal education1 /ate support & control1 local sup]vision1 & ! organization ( normal s*ools 9 ,new ,engl& & ! ,middle /ates4 ,9 ! ,nor?we/1 common s*ool advocates ov]came ! opposition ( settl]s f /ates n committ$ to public education1 & 9 ! fur!r expansion ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates progress 9 common s*ool s5tim5t has kept pace ) ! settlem5t ( ! c\ntry4 ,! ,s\? made consid]able progress dur+ ! e>ly ye>s ( ! awak5+1 & :ile ! ,civil ,w> cru%$ its educational facilities1 ! /ruggle = public education has s9ce be5 won4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t ( democratic ideals & ext5sion ( /ate sy/ems ( s*ools4 ,! ,?ird ,p]iod 9 ,am]ican ,education4--,int]e/ 9 ! improv$ me?ods ( ,pe/alozzi & o!r re=m]s t 0 manife/+ itself ev]y:]e 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ ! second qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury seems to h be5 b "o phase ( a mu* l>g] movem5t4 ,x 0 ab\t ?is "t t a ?ird p]iod 9 ,am]ican education1 :i* 0 m>k$ by ! developm5t ( democratic ideals & ! ext5sion ( /ate sy/ems ( public s*ools1 may be said to h begun4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( #8transition1' we f\nd 7*ap4 ,,xxi71 half a doz5 ( ! /ates _h />t$ an organization ( common s*ools1 & 9 a doz5 o!rs p]man5t s*ool funds _h be5 e/abli%$1 an influ5tial m9ority ( lead+ citiz5s 7 con/antly advocat+ univ]sal education1 & public int]e/ 9 ! matt] 0 evid5tly increas+4 ,b ! consummation ( a regul> sy/em 0 /ill mu* h9d]$ by sect>ian jeal\sies1 by ! conception ( public s*ools z in/itutions = paup]s & ! consequ5t cu/om ( all[+ private s*ools to %>e 9 public funds1 by ! unwill+ness ( ! weal?y to be tax$ locally = ! b5efit ( o!r p's *ildr51 &1 9 ,new ,engl&1 by ! division ( ! sy/em into autonom\s di/ricts & ! int]f]5ce ( petty politics4 ,h5ce1 :ile mu* progress _h be5 made s9ce ! e>ly days ( #8transplantation' ( ,european ideals & in/itutions1 !re 0 /ill mu* ne$ ( ! expansion & fur!r democratization t n[ began to appe>4 ,( ! rapid developm5t t took place dur+ ?is f9al p]iod ( ,am]icanization1 mu* 0 accompli%$ be=e ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 b educational progress cont9u$ ?r\gh ! f9al decade4 ,sid5ote3 ,/orm c5t] ( #8revival' 9 ,massa*usetts & ,connecticut4 ,sid5ote3 ,ef=ts to e/abli% a tra9+ in/itution4 ,e>ly ,lead]s 9 ! ,common ,s*ool ,revival4--,! educational awak5+ ) :i* ! beg9n+ ( ?is ?ird p]iod seems to be m>k$1 has be5 g5]ally kn[n z #8! common s*ool revival4' ,x fir/ became evid5t dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! decade betwe5 #ahcj & #ahdj1 & _h its /orm c5t] 9 ,massa*usetts & ,connecticut4 ,:ile x greatly fur!r$ ! cause ( public education ev]y:]e1 because ( ! decad5ce into :i* ,new ,engl& _h fall51 ! dem& = an educational awak5+ 0 /ronge/ !re4 ,9 ?is revival ! mo/ conspicu\s figure 0 probably ,horace ,mann1 b !re 7 sev]al lead]s 9 ! field be=e him1 _m 7 contemporane\s1 & ! "w 0 exp&$ & deep5$ by o!rs ( di/9ction long aft] he )drew f ! sc5e4 ,= a score ( ye>s be=e ,mann appe>$1 def9ite prep>ation = ! movem5t _h be5 9 progress1 & ! labors ( ! individuals & associations engag$ 9 ^! endeavors %\ld be briefly not$4 ,_m ( ! re=m]s seem to h recomm5d$ an improvem5t 9 me?ods ?r\gh ! creation ( an in/itution = tra9+ tea*]s1 ?us anticipat+ "o ( ! greate/ a*ievem5ts ( ,mann4 ,actual attempts at a private normal s*ool 7 ev5 made by ! ,rev]5d ,samuel ,r4 ,hall at ,concord1 ,v]mont 7#ahbc71 ,&ov]1 ,massa*usetts 7#ahcj71 & ,plym\?1 ,new ,hamp%ire 7#ahcg74 ,sid5ote3 ,articles 9 educational j\rnals4 ,sid5ote3 ,reports on ,european education4 ,a numb] ( educational j\rnals1 moreov]1 publi%$ articles on s*oolbooks1 ! me?ods ( ,lanca/]1 ,pe/alozzi1 ,neef1 & ,fell5b]g1 ! infant & ,sunday s*ools1 physical education1 ,european s*ool sy/ems1 & a v>iety ( o!r timely topics & re=ms4 ,among ^! progressive publications 7 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,education1 edit$ by ,william ,russell f #ahbf-ahcj1 & !n cont9u$ f #ahca to #ahci1 z ! ,am]ican ,annals ( ,education "u ! editor%ip ( ,william ,c4 ,woodbridge1 & ! ,qu>t]ly ,regi/]1 publi%$ #ahbh-ahdc by ! #8,am]ican ,educational ,society4' ,! late/ ,european ideas 7 also report$ f fir/-h& obs]vation by a numb] :o _h gone abroad to inve/igate4 ,! mo/ influ5tial ( ^! reports 0 ,a ,ye> 9 ,europe1 writt5 9 #ahai by ,pr(essor ,john ,griscom 7see p4 #bib71 :o 0 a lectur] be=e sev]al ,new ,york associations1 includ+ ! ,public ,s*ool ,society4 ,almo/ z widely read 7 ! reports ( ,william ,c4 ,woodbridge 9 #ahbd1 & ( ,pr(essor ,calv9 ,e4 ,/[e ( ,lane ,!ological ,sem9>y1 ,c9c9nati1 9 #ahcf4 ,sid5ote3 ,advocat$ normal s*ools1 ,sid5ote3 & secur$ t[n s*ool committees1 ,sid5ote3 support ( high s*ools1 ,sid5ote3 & ! ,/ate ,bo>d ( ,education4 ,"w ( ,james ,g4 ,c>t]4--,all ^! movem5ts indicate ! educational f]m5t t 0 go+ on4 ,b ! pr$ecessor ( ,mann1 :o accompli%$ mo/ = ! common s*ools1 & influ5c$ t re=m] mo/ directly1 0 ,james ,g4 ,c>t] 7#agie-ahdi74 ,c>t] 7,fig4 #cg7 0 a practical tea*] & wrote cont9ually on ! ne$ ( a tra9+ in/itution to improve in/ruction 9 ! public s*ools4 ,^! appeals prov$ v successful1 & e>n$ him ! title ( #8fa!r ( ! normal s*ools4' ,aft] be+ elect$ to ! legislature1 he accompli%$ mu* by 8 zeal & skill 9 p>liam5t>y tactics4 ,9 #ahbf he secur$ an act by :i* ea* t[n z a :ole 0 requir$ to *oose a regul> committee1 in/ead ( ! m9i/]s & selectm51 to sup]vise ! s*ools1 *oose text-books1 & exam9e1 c]tify1 & employ ! tea*]s4 ,b ! effect ( ?is enactm5t 0 l>gely lo/ ! foll[+ ye> by all[+ ! di/ricts1 z a compromise1 to *oose a committeeman1 :o %\ld appo9t ! tea*]s4 ,9 #ahbf he plac$ second>y education1 !n l>gely conduct$ by academies1 m "u public control ?r\gh a law requir+ ea* t[n ( five hundr$ families to support a free ,engli% high s*ool 7,fig4 #da71 & e "o ( f\r ?\s& inhabitants to ma9ta9 a classical high s*ool4 ,next1 9 #ahcd1 ,c>t] succe$$ 9 gett+ a /ate s*ool fund e/abli%$ f ! proce$s ( ! sale ( l&s 9 ! prov9ce ( ,ma9e & ! /ate's claims aga9/ ! f$]al gov]nm5t = milit>y s]vices4 ,b 8 mo/ fruitful victory 0 won 9 #ahcg1 :5 he procur$ ! passage ( ! bill = a ,/ate ,bo>d ( ,education1 aft] x _h be5 once defeat$1 by induc+ ! h\se to discuss x 9 #8committee ( ! :ole4' ,sid5ote3 ,peculi>ly fitt$ by h]$ity & tra9+4 ,horace ,mann z ,secret>y ( ! ,massa*usetts ,bo>d4--,by reason ( 8 m]its z an educator1 8 p]si/5t ef=ts 9 behalf ( educational re=m1 & 8 advocacy ( ! bill1 x 0 assum$ by mo/ p t ,c>t] w\ld be *os5 secret>y ( ! new bo>d4 ,to _! surprise1 a lawy] nam$ ,horace ,mann 7#agif-ahei71 at t "t presid5t ( ! s5ate1 0 select$ = ! po/1 b ! *oice is n[ kn[n to h be5 mo/ =tunate4 ,by bo? h]$ity & tra9+ ,mann 7,fig4 #ch7 0 suffus$ ) an int]e/ 9 humanity & all phases ( philan?ropy & education4 ,he possess$ a happy comb9ation ( l(ty ideals1 intellig5ce1 c\rage1 en?usiasm1 & legislative exp]i5ce1 :i* equipp$ him admirably = lead]%ip 9 educational re=m4 ,! law propos$ = ! new ,bo>d ( ,education num]\s duties 9 ! way ( collect+ & spread+ in=mation conc]n+ ! common s*ools & ( mak+ sugge/ions = ! improvem5t & ext5sion ( public education1 b x provid$ no real p[]s1 & ! p]man5ce & influ5ce ( ! bo>d dep5d$ almo/ :olly ^u ! intellig5ce & "* ( ! new ,secret>y4 ,sid5ote3 ,effect$ 8 re=ms by educational campaigns1 ,sid5ote3 ,annual ,reports1 ,sid5ote3 ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 ,sid5ote3 s*ool libr>ies1 ,sid5ote3 & /ate normal s*ools4 ,dur+ 8 twelve ye>s 9 ! (fice1 ,mann subs]v$ ! int]e/s ( ! /ate mo/ fai?fully4 ,to awak5 ! p1 he made an educational campaign ?r\gh e portion ( ! /ate ea* ye>1 b an ev5 m effective means ( dissem9at+ 8 re=ms 0 f\nd 9 8 s]ies ( ,annual ,reports4 ,^! docum5ts 7 by law to give in=mation conc]n+ exi/+ conditions & ! progress made 9 ! effici5cy ( public education ea* ye>1 & !y deal ) practically e educational topic ( importance at ! "t4 ,sometimes !y seem commonplace1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t !y 7 n s !n1 & t ! "w ( ,mann did mu* to r5d] !m famili>4 ,!y vitally affect$ s*ool conditions ev]y:]e 9 ,new ,engl&1 & 7 read ) great int]e/ 9 all p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ev5 9 ,europe4 ,he also publi%$ semi-mon?ly ! ,massa*usetts ,common ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 to spread in=mation conc]n+ s*ool improvem5t1 s*ool law1 & ! proce$+s ( ! ,/ate ,bo>d4 ,b x consi/$ ( only sixte5 pages1 & 0 n z valuable z "s ( ! educational j\rnals t _h prec$$ x 7see pp4 #cjd f474 ,ano!r m$ium 9 ! improvem5t ( educational facilities 0 ,mann's g5]al e/abli%m5t ( s*ool libr>ies by /ate subsidy ?r\gh\t ,massa*usetts4 ,b probably ! mo/ p]man5t means ( propagat+ 8 re=ms came ?r\gh secur+ ! f\ndation ( ! fir/ public normal s*ools 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,massa*usetts 0 9 #ahch induc$ to e/abli% ?ree s*ools1 s locat$ t all p>ts ( ! /ate might be equally s]v$4 ,! c\rse 9 ea* s*ool consi/$ 9 a review ( ! common bran*es f ! tea*+ po9t ( view1 "w 9 educational !ory1 & tra9+ 9 a practice s*ool "u sup]vision1 &1 :ile n l>gely att5d$1 ^! in/itutions 7 a great success f ! />t4 ,sid5ote3 ,oppos$ by ,bo/on s*oolma/]s1 ,sid5ote3 ! ultra-or?odox1 & o!r reaction>ies4 ,! ardu\s & unremitt+ labors ( ,mann 9 in/itut+ & promot+ ! v>i\s means ( s*ool re=m made ! greate/ inroad ^u 8 /r5g? & f9ancial res\rces4 ,moreov]1 he 0 = ye>s viol5tly assail$ by reaction>ies ( all types4 ,8 controv]sy ) ! ,bo/on s*oolma/]s 0 especially %>p4 ,mann's ,sev5? ,annual ,report 7#ahdc7 gave an acc\nt ( 8 visit to =eign s*ools1 especially ^? ( ,g]many1 & prais$ ) great w>m? ! #8,pe/alozzian' 7see p4 #bhi7 in/ruction )\t text-books1 ! en?usia/ic tea*]s1 ! abs5ce ( artificial rivalry1 & ! mild discipl9e 9 ! ,prussian sy/em4 ,! report did n /igmatize ! cons]vatism ( ! ,bo/on s*ools or br+ !m into comp>ison ) ^? ( ,b]l91 b ! cap fitt$4 ,! p$agogues 7 disquiet$1 & proce$$ to answ] savagely4 ,b :5 ! smoke ( battle _h cle>$ away1 x 0 se5 t ! lead]s ( ! old ord] _h be5 completely r\t$4 ,a m insidi\s attack 0 t l$ by ! ultra-or?odox4 ,! old s*ools ( ! ,puritans1 ) _! dogmatic religi\s tea*+1 _h be5 /eadily fad+ = m ?an a c5tury be=e ! new bo>d _h be5 inaugurat$1 b _m n>r[ p 7 incl9$ to *>ge ?is disappe>ance to ! re=m]1 ^: lib]al attitude 9 religion 0 well kn[n4 ,! assaults1 h[ev]1 7 vigor\sly & successfully repell$ by ! ,secret>y4 ,& :ile ^! controv]sies wore ,mann out & probably l$ ultimately to 8 resignation1 !y _h mu* to d ) mak+ 8 reputation z a great educator4 ,!y h ev5 caus$ u at times to =get t he 0 b a /rik+ figure 9 a g5]al movem5t4 ,m5 l ,c>t] 7 9 ! field long be=e him1 & 8 co-work]1 ,b>n>d1 s]v$ ! cause ( education = ne>ly half a c5tury aft] ,mann )drew4 ,sid5ote3 ,univ]sal & free education1 ,sid5ote3 ) "* z *ief aim2 ,sid5ote3 mat]ial equipm5t1 ,sid5ote3 sci5tific me?ods1 ,sid5ote3 tra9$ tea*]s1 ,sid5ote3 & practical /udies4 ,! ,educational ,sugge/ions & ,a*ievem5ts ( ,mann4--,9 survey+ 8 educational positions1 we f9d ,mann's =emo/ proposition 0 t education %\ld be univ]sal & free4 ,girls %\ld be tra9$ z well z boys1 & ! poor %\ld h ! same opportunities z ! ri*4 ,public s*ools %\ld furni% education ( su* a quality t ! weal?y w\ld n reg>d private in/itutions z sup]ior4 ,?is univ]sal education1 h[ev]1 %\ld h z its *ief aim moral "* & social effici5cy1 & n m]e erudition1 culture1 & accompli%m5ts4 ,& morality1 he felt1 w\ld n be accompli%$ by inculcat+ sect>ian doctr9es4 ,mann 01 h[ev]1 ma9ly a practical1 r ?an a !oretical re=m]1 & to ! mat]ial side ( education he gave s]i\s att5tion4 ,he decl>$ t s*ool build+s %\ld be well con/ruct$ & sanit>y4 ,?is matt] seem$ to him s important t he wrote a special report ^u ! subject dur+ 8 fir/ ye> 9 (fice4 ,he c>efully discuss$ ! prop] plans = rooms1 v5tilation1 light+1 seat+1 & o!r s*oolh\se features1 & insi/$ t ! inadequate & squalid conditions :i* exi/$ %\ld be improv$4 ,z to me?ods1 he ma9ta9$ t in/ruction %\ld be bas$ ^u sci5tific pr9ciples1 & n ^u au?ority & tradition4 ,he advocat$ ! ^w me?od ( read+1 9 ! place ( ! uneconomical1 artificial1 & ineffective me?od ( ! alphabet1 & ! ,pe/alozzian object me?ods & oral in/ruction 7 introduc$ by him4 ,he held t ! "w %\ld be guid$ by able tea*]s1 :o _h be5 tra9$ 9 a normal s*ool1 & %\ld be imp>t$ 9 a _s ( mildness & k9dness ?r\gh an und]/&+ ( *ild nature4 ,9 ! matt] ( ! /udies to be pursu$1 ,mann 0 incl9$ to be exce$+ly practical4 ,9 discuss+ educational values1 he fail$ to see any reason 8:y algebra1 a bran* :i* n "o man 9 a ?\s& ev] has occasion to use 9 ! bus9ess ( life1 %\ld be /udi$ by m ?an tw5ty-?ree hundr$ pupils1 & bookkeep+1 :i* e man1 ev5 ! day labor]1 %\ld und]/&1 %\ld be att5d$ to by only a little m ?an half t numb]40 ,simil>ly1 he holds t ( all subjects1 save ! rudim5ts1 physiology %\ld receive ! mo/ att5tion4 ,sid5ote3 ,d\bl$ appropriations = public education2 increas$ sal>ies1 l5g? ( ! s*ool ye>1 & ! numb] ( high s*ools2 ,sid5ote3 & effect$ o!r re=ms4 ,9 ord] t ^! v>i\s re=ms might be realiz$1 ,mann insi/$ frequ5tly t ! /ate %\ld sp>e no labor or exp5se4 ,b 9 a republic he felt t 8education c nev] be atta9$ )\t ! cons5t ( ! :ole p40 ,x 0 a g5]al elevation ( ideals1 ef=t1 & exp5diture t he s\ght1 & = :i* he began 8 crusade4 ,& ! g5]al progress t result$ 9 ?is p]iod cov]s a wide range4 ,dur+ 8 secret>y%ip ! appropriations made = public education 9 ,massa*usetts 7 m ?an d\bl$1 & ! proportion ( exp5diture = private s*ools 9 ! /ate 01 9 consequ5ce1 r$uc$ f sev5ty-five to ?irty-six p] c5t ( ! total co/ ( education4 ,! sal>ies ( ma/]s 9 ! public s*ools 7 rais$ sixty-two p] c5t1 &1 al?\gh ! numb] ( wom5 tea*]s _h gr[n fifty-f\r p] c5t1 ! av]age ( _! sal>ies also increas$ fifty-"o p] c5t4 ,! s*ool att5dance enorm\sly exp&$1 & a full mon? 0 add$ to ! av]age s*ool ye>4 ,:5 ,mann's adm9i/ration began1 b f\rte5 out ( =ty-?ree t[ns _h compli$ ) ! high s*ool law ( #ahbf1 b1 by ! middle ( ! c5tury1 fifty new high s*ools _h be5 e/abli%$4 ,! effici5cy ( sup]vision 0 l>gely increas$ by mak+ ! comp5sation ( ! t[n visit+ committees1 e/abli%$ ?r\gh ,c>t]1 compulsory by law4 ,! fir/ /ate normal s*ools at la/ appe>$1 & tea*]s' in/itutes1 c\nty associations1 & public s*ool libr>ies 7 giv5 g5]al popul>ity4 ,q z m>k$ 0 ! improvem5t effect$ 9 ! range & s]viceability ( ! s*ool /udies1 9 text-books1 me?ods ( tea*+1 & discipl9e4 ,?us "u ! lead]%ip ( ,horace ,mann a practically unorganiz$ set ( s*ools1 ) div]se aims & me?ods1 0 weld$ into a well-ord]$ sy/em ) high ideals1 & ! p ( ,massa*usetts r5ew$ _! fai? 9 ! common s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,a sy/ematic exposition ( ,european education ne$$1 ,sid5ote3 & ,b>n>d specially qualifi$ to make x4 ,h5ry ,b>n>d's ,"p 9 ! ,educational ,awak5+4--,b !re 0 ano!r important contribution to ! awak5+ made by a ,new ,engl&]1 :i* 0 ( a r diff]5t nature f t connect$ ) ! influ5ce ( ,horace ,mann4 ,be=e t recon/ruction ( ! common s*ools1 :i* 0 responsible = ! be/ elem5ts 9 our national civilization1 c\ld be at all complete1 x 0 necess>y t ,am]ica %\ld h a bett] compreh5sion ( :at 0 be+ done 9 education else:]e4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates _h = two c5turies be5 und]go+ a gradual transition f ! in/itutional types transplant$ f ,engl& & ! ,cont95t 9 colonial days1 & 0 com+ m & m to blossom out into democracy & ! p's s*ools1 b = a long "t !re 0 little k ( :at 0 be+ done by ! o!r c\ntries t _h by ?is "t adopt$ simil> ideals4 ,conceptions ( univ]sal & democratic education & ( improv$ organization & me?ods _h be5 sl[ly develop+ 9 ,prussia & o!r ,g]man /ates1 & _h ext5d$ to ,france & else:]e4 ,a lit]ature connect$ ) ! advanc$ !ories ( su* re=m]s z ,r\sseau1 ! philan?ropi/s1 ,pe/alozzi1 & ,fell5b]g _h likewise gr[n up 9 ,europe4 ,x 0 v important t ,am]ica1 n[ ke5ly alive to ! ne$ ( educational reorganization1 %\ld become acqua9t$ ) all ?is1 t ! ,new ,_w might secure ! advantages ( comp>ison1 corroboration1 & expansion ( view f ! "w ( old] civiliz$ peoples4 ,"s reports on =eign education & translations ( ,european treatises _h already appe>$ 7pp4 #cjd f471 b ! "t 0 n[ ripe = a m ext5sive & sy/ematic exposition ( ,european education & its application to popul> education 9 ,am]ica1 & = a really capable s*ol> to br+ ^! _w views )9 ! grasp ( all classes ( tea*]s & educational au?orities4 ,?is lit]>y repres5tative ( ! awak5+ appe>$ at l5g? 9 ,h5ry ,b>n>d 7#ahaa-aijj71 :o is fully wor?y ( a place 9 ! educational pan!on ( ,am]ica4 ,b>n>d 7,fig4 #ci7 made a brilliant record at ,yale = g5]al s*ol>%ip1 & a position z assi/ant libr>ian dur+ 8 la/ two ye>s 9 college did mu* to af=d him a wide grasp ( bibliography4 ,aft] graduation1 he obta9$ a valuable exp]i5ce 9 tea*+1 &1 by travell+ ext5sively 9 ,am]ica & ,europe1 =m$ a broad acqua9tance ) educational in/itutions1 libr>ies1 gall]ies1 & social conditions 9 all ! lead+ /ates & nations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg--;,james ,g4 ,c>t] 7#agie-ahdi74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,horace ,mann 7#agif-ahei74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4--;,h5ry ,b>n>d 7#ahaa-aijj74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4--;,francis ,w ,p>k] 7#ahca-aijb74 ,,great ,,am]ican ,,educators ,sid5ote3 ,unt[>d educational conditions 9 ,connecticut1 ,sid5ote3 & ,b>n>d's attempt to re=m2 ,sid5ote3 ,s*ool ,j\rnal ,sid5ote3 & publication ( educational mat]ial4 ,b>n>d z ,secret>y ( ! ,connecticut ,/ate ,bo>d4--,two ye>s aft] ,b>n>d's return to ,connecticut1 he began 8 "p 9 ! educational awak5+ z ,secret>y ( ! new ,/ate ,bo>d ( ,commission]s ( ,common ,s*ools1 & und]took to d a "w simil> to t ( ,mann 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,?r\gh\t ! eighte5? c5tury ,connecticut s*ools _h be5 among ! mo/ effici5t 9 ! c\ntry1 b s9ce ! income f ! ,we/]n ,res]ve l&s _h begun 9 #agih1 & especially s9ce ?is _h be5 increas$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates deposit fund 9 #ahcf1 public education _h /eadily decl9$4 ,a /ate tax 0 /ill ma9ta9$1 b all local ef=t 0 p>alyz$ ?r\gh lack ( ex]cise4 ,ano!r factor 9 produc+ ?is decl9e 0 connect$ ) ! transf]al ( ! managem5t ( ! common s*ools f ! t[n to ! #8s*ool society1' :i* 0 a species ( di/rict1 almo/ id5tical ) ! p>i% ( ea* ,congregational *ur*4 ,! results ( ?is ru9\s policy _h be5 reveal$ 9 an inve/igation made by ! legislature1 :i* %[$ t n "o-half ( ! *ildr5 ( s*ool age 7 att5d+ ! common s*ools1 & t ! tea*]s 7 poorly tra9$ & sup]vision 0 neglect$4 ,b>n>d at once began to urge _m re=ms1 & 9 8 reports & ! ,connecticut ,common ,s*ool ,j\rnal made sugge/ions = a complete plan ( public education4 ,he also began ! publication ( 8 ri* collection ( mat]ial be>+ ^u popul> tra9+ at home & abroad4 ,b he 0 m a s*ol> & lit]>y man ?an an educational /atesman l ,mann4 ,he succe$$ 9 gett+ ! legislature to pass sev]al re=ms & a g5]al revision & codification ( ! s*ool laws1 & 9 ar\s+ sev]al t[ns to am5d _! educational plans1 al?\gh ! crucial difficulty ( ! #8s*ool societies' c\ld n be t\*$1 & )9 f\r ye>s ! cons]vatives succe$$ 9 legislat+ him out ( (fice & 9 undo+ all 8 re=ms4 ,sid5ote3 ,radical re=ms accompli%$4 ,commission] ( ,common ,s*ools 9 ,rhode ,isl&4--,?is gave ,b>n>d an opportunity to pursue 8 favorite inve/igations1 & = ab\t a ye> & a half he 0 engag$ 9 collect+ mat]ial = a hi/ory ( education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!n he 0 p]suad$ by ! gov]nor ( ,rhode ,isl& to become ! fir/ ,commission] ( ,common ,s*ools = t /ate4 ,:ile he f\nd 9 ,rhode ,isl& a bett] educational s5tim5t & less opposition ?an 9 ,connecticut1 ! actual condition ( ! dec5traliz$ & individuali/ic s*ools 0 f> worse 7see p4 #bfi74 ,b1 ?r\gh 8 assemblies ( tea*]s & p>5ts & 8 educational treatises1 he soon began to conv9ce ! p ( ! unwisdom ( di/rict organization1 untra9$ tea*]s1 %ort t]ms1 irregul> att5dance1 poor build+s & v5tilation1 & meag] equipm5t4 ,he also cont9u$ to publi% 8 collection ( educational mat]ial ?r\gh ! f\ndation ( ! ,rhode ,isl& ,s*ool ,j\rnal4 ,z a result ( 8 ef=ts1 :5 fail+ heal? compell$ him to resign 9 #ahdi1 ! /ate no long] reg>d$ wilfulness & p]sonal op9ion z praisewor?y indep5d5ce1 & he c\ld hone/ly claim t ,rhode ,isl& _h at ! "t "o ( ! be/ s*ool sy/ems 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,:5 recall$1 c>ri$ out & ext5d$ 8 re=ms4 ,/ate ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,s*ools 9 ,connecticut4--,b ! cli5tle t ,b>n>d _h built up 9 ,connecticut cont9u$ 8 re=ms & con/ructive "w aft] 8 dep>ture1 & improv$ ^u !m4 ,9 #ahea1 !y ev5 succe$$ 9 hav+ him recall$ virtually to 8 old duties4 ,he 0 designat$ z ,/ate ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,common ,s*ools1 z well z ,pr9cipal ( ! ,/ate ,normal ,s*ool1 :i* _h be5 e/abli%$ ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( 8 adh]5ts4 ,! /ate _h n[ le>n$ its error 9 m+l+ politics ) education1 & ,b>n>d 0 able to c>ry out 8 re=ms unmole/$4 ,?r\gh ! normal s*ool he s5t out a great body ( tra9$ tea*]s4 ,he revis$ ! s*ool code1 *eck$ ! p[] ( ! #8s*ool societies1' consolidat$ & simplifi$ ! organization & adm9i/ration ( public education1 made a m equitable di/ribution ( ! s*ool fund1 & enc\rag$ local taxation4 ,b 8 mo/ di/9ctive "w1 z might be expect$1 0 on ! lit]>y side4 ,he prep>$ a valuable s]ies ( docum5ts ^u =eign education1 normal s*ools1 me?ods ( tea*+1 s*ool ar*itecture1 & o!r topics1 & a long report ^u ,! ,hi/ory ( ,legislation 9 ,connecticut ,respect+ ,common ,s*ools up to #ahch4 ,sid5ote3 ,publi%$ at 8 own exp5se1 ,sid5ote3 9 ?irty-"o l>ge volumes & fifty-two special treatises1 ,sid5ote3 acc\nts ( educational hi/ory & sy/ems1 & o!r !mes4 ,b>n>d's ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,education4--,x 01 too1 dur+ ! la/ days ( 8 ,connecticut sup]9t5d5cy t ,h5ry ,b>n>d sugge/$ ! e/abli%m5t ( a national j\rnal ( education4 ,he fir/ broa*$ ! matt] to ! #8,am]ican ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,education' at its meet+ 9 ,wa%+ton1 ,decemb]1 #ahed4 ,b ! association soon f\nd itself unable to pursue ?is ent]prise = lack ( f9ancial support1 & 9 ,may ( ! next ye> ,b>n>d began ! publication ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,education at 8 own exp5se4 ,x 0 at fir/ plann$ to run ! j\rnal = five ye>s only1 b1 al?\gh ! "w 0 some:at int]rupt$ ^u occasions by o!r duties1 x cont9u$ = m ?an a g5]ation1 until at l5g? ?irty-"o l>ge octavo volumes1 av]ag+ ab\t eight hundr$ pages ea*1 _h be5 issu$4 ,9 addition1 fifty-two special treatises repr9t$ f articles 9 ! j\rnal br\ght ! mat]ial toge!r 9 a connect$ way4 ,besides giv+ ne>ly all 8 "t to edit+ ?is magnum opus1 ,b>n>d sank 8 entire =tune ( #ej1jjj 9 its publication4 ,?is great treasury ( mat]ial includes e phase ( ! hi/ory ( education f ! e>lie/ times d[n into ! latt] half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,x furni%es acc\nts ( all contemporane\s sy/ems 9 ,europe & ,am]ica1 descriptions ( in/itutions = ! pr(essional tra9+ ( tea*]s1 & essays ^u c\rses ( /udy = colleges & te*nical s*ools1 ! education ( defectives & del9qu5ts1 physical education1 s*ool ar*itecture1 great educators1 & a l>ge v>iety ( o!r !mes4 ,:ile x is always mo/ reliable 9 its treatises ^u =eign education1 ( ev5 great] value is its practical grasp ( educational life 9 ,am]ica f ! beg9n+4 ,x conta9s ! greate/ collection ( int]e/+ monographs ^u ! developm5t ( ideals & organization 9 ! v>i\s /ates1 & gives ! mo/ complete description 9 lit]ature ( ! educational life ( a nation4 ,sid5ote3 ,:ile 9 (fice1 susp5d$ 8 ,j\rnal & embodi$ inve/igations 9 8 reports4 ,fir/ ,unit$ ,/ates ,commission] ( ,education4--,9 #ahfg ,b>n>d 0 appo9t$ ! fir/ ,unit$ ,/ates ,commission] ( ,education4 ,?is (fice he _h be5 con/antly try+ to h e/abli%$ ev] s9ce he _h f\nd1 z ,secret>y ( ! ,connecticut ,bo>d1 h[ absolutely lack+ ! f$]al gov]nm5t 0 9 s*ool /ati/ics & docum5ts4 ,he hop$ t1 ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! gov]nm5t1 facilities might be secur$ to collect & publi% tru/wor?y educational /ati/ics1 & to issue a libr>y ( indep5d5t treatises4 ,! bureau 0 n creat$ = _m ye>s1 & !n ?r\gh ! imm$iate initiative ( ano!r1 b :5 ,b>n>d 0 call$ to ! commission]%ip1 he organiz$ ! (fice practically ^u ! l9es he _h previ\sly sugge/$4 ,he susp5d$ 8 ,j\rnal & us$ ! product ( 8 inve/igations 9 ! annual reports ( ! (fice4 ,he />t$ t se>*+ inquiry into ! adm9i/ration1 managem5t1 & in/ruction ( in/itutions ( e grade1 & into all educational societies1 s*ool funds1 legislation1 ar*itecture1 docum5ts1 & b5efactions t has s9ce be5 ma9ta9$ by ! ,bureau ( ,education4 ,h[ev]1 )9 ?ree ye>s a *ange 9 politics br\ght a new incumb5t into ! commission]%ip1 & ,b>n>d gave 8 lit]>y ef=ts once m to 8 belov$ ,j\rnal4 ,sid5ote3 ,?is life "w m>k$ him z lead+ repres5tative ( ! awak5+4 ,value ( ,b>n>d's ,educational ,collections4--,h5ce1 ,b>n>d's real life "w may be consid]$ ! collection ( a great educational comp5dium4 ,by temp]am5t1 native ability1 & habit1 he prov$ himself well fitt$ to be ! lead+ repres5tative ( ! lit]>y side ( ! awak5+4 ,?r\gh 8 "w ,am]ican education 01 9 its p]iod ( greate/ developm5t1 grant$ ! opportunity ( look+ beyond ! p>tial & local results ( ! fir/ half c5tury ( national life4 ,x 0 enabl$ to modify & adapt to its own uses ! educational !ories1 practices1 & organizations ( ! lead+ civiliz$ peoples1 & to br+ toge!r = a comp>ative view sections & /ates t 7 widely sep>at$4 ,b>n>d's ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,education 0 n int5d$ to be a univ]sal encyclopdia ( education1 b (t5 includes a cond5sation ( important works or a pres5tation ( highly sci5tific me?ods & pr(\nd philosophic sy/ems 9 popul> =m4 ,x 0 n possible1 ei!r1 to classify & "w out a connect$ & complete hi/orical acc\nt1 :5 !re 7 no reliable records or collections ( mat]ials 9 exi/5ce4 ,x 0 necess>y t "s "o %\ld fir/ ga!r ! in=mation f newspap]s1 pamphlets1 memorials1 monographs1 & plans1 & publi% x z x 0 f\nd4 ,9 ?is way he accompli%$ a m valuable "w ?an if he _h publi%$ a sy/ematic hi/ory ( education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,! #8revival' 0 g5]al1 b its results 7 mo/ /rik+ 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,educational ,developm5t 9 ,new ,engl& s9ce ! ,revival4--,?is great /oreh\se ( in=mation publi%$ by ,b>n>d & ! virile ef=ts ( ,mann & o!r practical lead]s 7 b prom95t evid5ces ( ! progress t 0 at ! "t sweep+ ov] ! entire c\ntry4 ,! educational awak5+ ( #ahce-ahfj 0 g5]al & prov$ "o ( ! mo/ fruitful 9 hi/ory4 ,its influ5ce 0 felt 9 e /ate1 & x l$ to ! ?ird p]iod ( ,am]ican education1 :i* has be5 *>act]iz$ by ! expansion ( public s*ools & /ate educational sy/ems4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod new ideals ( democracy h come to be felt 9 ,am]ican education1 & a rapid advance has tak5 place 9 ! evolution ( t unique product1 ! ,am]ican public s*ool4 ,9 describ+ ?is developm5t1 we may turn fir/ to ,new ,engl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t s9ce !n 9 ,massa*usetts 9 univ]sal education & improv$ s*ool+4 ,sid5ote3 ,dea? ( di/rict sy/em4 ,9 ,massa*usetts ,horace ,mann has be5 foll[$ 9 ! c5tral adm9i/ration by a succession ( sev5 s*ol>ly & exp]i5c$ educators1 :o believ$ z firmly z he t all /ages ( education bel[ ! college %\ld be op5 at public exp5se )\t let or h9drance to ! ri*e/ & poore/ *ild alike4 ,s9ce ! revival ! /ate has se5 a /eady gr[? ( s5tim5t = univ]sal education & improv$ s*ool+1 & nev] aga9 has su* an upheaval ( ! educational /rata be5 necess>y4 ,! income ( ! /ate s*ool fund & additional appropriations h be5 /eadily increas$1 _! apportionm5t among ! t[ns has be5 r5d]$ m equitable f "t to "t1 & an ef=t has con/antly be5 made to di/ribute !m 9 su* a way z to enc\rage local ef=t & cop]ation4 ,! s*ool t]m has be5 l5g!n$ to t5 mon?s & ! av]age att5dance ( pupils to sev5 ye>s4 ,! improvem5ts 9 s*ool build+s1 sanitation1 & equipm5t h /eadily advanc$4 ,! di/rict sy/em di$ h>d1 & n until #ahhb 0 x altoge!r =c$ out ( exi/5ce4 ,sid5ote3 ,gr[? ( high s*ools1 sup]9t5d5ts1 ,sid5ote3 & tea*] tra9+4 ,mo/ ( ! academies1 too1 :i* prov$ su* a h9drance to ! developm5t ( public second>y education1 gradually di$ or 7 m]g$ 9 ! public sy/em z high s*ools4 ,by means ( /ate aid1 x has be5 possible s9ce #aijc = ! smalle/ t[ns to af=d a high s*ool tra9+ = _! *ildr5 at public exp5se4 ,sup]vision has also become univ]sal dur+ ! pa/ qu>t] c5tury4 ,spr+field fir/ introduc$ a sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools 9 #ahda1 ,gl\ce/] 9 #ahej1 ,bo/on 9 #ahea1 & ! o!r cities mu* lat]1 b s9ce #ahhh1 ?r\gh increas+ /ate aid & ! comb9ation ( small] t[ns into a di/rict sup]9t5d5cy1 exp]t sup]vision has become possible ev]y:]e1 & dur+ ! la/ decade x has be5 compulsory4 ,! normal s*ools1 :i* h n[ increas$ to t51 h br\ght ab\t a /rik+ improvem5t 9 tea*+4 ,x is practically impossible at pres5t = an untra9$ tea*] to secure a position 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools ( ,massa*usetts1 &1 ?r\gh a sy/em ( exam9ations & inve/igations1 tea*]s ( exceptional ability h1 s9ce #ahif1 be5 grant$ an extra weekly all[ance by ! /ate4 ,s9ce ! middle ( ! c5tury1 ! /ate bo>d has be5 p]mitt$ to appo9t a numb] ( ag5ts1 to assi/ 9 inspect+ & improv+ ! s*ools1 especially 9 ! small] t[ns & rural di/ricts4 ,sid5ote3 ,simil> developm5t 9 ,connecticut1 ,rhode ,isl&1 & o!r ,new ,engl& /ates4 ,! c\rse ( developm5t s9ce ! awak5+ has be5 v simil> 9 ! o!r ,new ,engl& /ates4 ,! successors ( ,b>n>d 9 ! c5tral adm9i/ration bo? 9 ,rhode ,isl& & ,connecticut h be5 skill$ & e>ne/ educators1 &1 :ile _! reports lack$ 8 lit]>y t\*1 !y 7 ( r m practical "*4 ,until #ahef1 ,connecticut made no attempt to return f ! p>i% to ! t[n organization4 ,ev5 !n1 z well z lat]1 legislation on ! subject 0 #8p]missive1' & n until ! tw5tie? c5tury 0 ! #8s*ool society1' or di/rict sy/em1 giv5 up 9 half ( ! t[ns4 ,9 ,rhode ,isl&1 ev5 aft] ,b>n>d's re=ms1 almo/ "o-?ird ( ! di/ricts did n own _! s*ool build+s1 ow+ to ! survival ( ! me?od 9 use :5 ! s*ools 7 private1 b ?is condition has gradually be5 rem$i$4 ,likewise1 ! numb] ( t[ns levy+ suffici5t local taxes to secure a %>e 9 ! /ate apportionm5t rapidly grew1 & ! /ate appropriation itself d\bl$ & quadrupl$ )9 a g5]ation4 ,9 ,v]mont1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 & ,ma9e1 ow+ to insuffici5t weal?1 inf]tility ( soil1 & sp>s5ess ( population1 effective public education has be5 rea*$ only by sl[ & cauti\s /eps4 ,b ev5 ^! /ates h gradually c5traliz$ _! educational adm9i/ration ?r\gh ! abolition ( ! di/rict sy/em & ! creation at v>i\s times ( a /ate sup]9t5d5t1 a /ate commission]1 or a /ate bo>d & secret>y4 ,?is reorganization has be5 foll[$ by increas$ /ate s*ool funds & appropriations1 m sy/ematic /ati/ics & reports f ! s*ools1 & great advances 9 univ]saliz+ & improv+ all /ages ( public education4 ,sid5ote3 ,increas$ en?usiasm = public education 9 ,middle /ates4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,awak5+ ^u ! ,middle ,/ates4--,al?\gh ?is awak5$ s5tim5t = education & progress 9 ! common s*ool has be5 mo/ pat5t & spectacul> 9 ,new ,engl&1 x has n be5 peculi> to t "p ( ! c\ntry4 ,ne>ly all ( ! o!r /ates seem to h felt ! influ5ce ( ! awak5+4 ,9 close conjunction ) ! #8revival' 9 ,new ,engl&1 ! movem5t appe>$ 9 ,new ,york1 especially ! we/]n "p1 & 0 m or less evid5t 9 ,p5nsylvania1 ,new ,j]sey1 & ,delaw>e4 ,b because ( its cosmopolitanism & ! ne$ ( fus+ s _m diff]5t political1 religi\s1 & indu/rial traditions1 ! old] p>ts ( ,new ,york1 :]e ! s*ool sy/em _h until ! awak5+ be5 r 9 advance ( o!r /ates1 did n progress z rapidly 9 ! developm5t ( public education z ,massa*usetts & ,connecticut4 ,x _h1 h[ev]1 by ! "t ( ! ,civil ,w>1 succe$$ 9 work+ ov] its het]og5e\s p into a unifi$ civilization & 9 caus+ _! *ildr5 to be educat$ toge!r = a common citiz5%ip4 ,sid5ote3 ,new ,york's advances 9 normal tra9+1 sup]vision1 & s*ool funds4 ,sid5ote3 ,bo>d ( education 9 ,new ,york ,city4 ,! mo/ di/9ct advances dur+ ?is p]iod ( f9al organization h be5 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( /ate normal s*ools1 in/ead ( subsidiz+ academies to tra9 tea*]s1 9 ! adm9i/ration & sup]vision ( ! sy/em1 & 9 ! me?ods ( /ate support ( education4 ,! fir/ /ate normal s*ool 0 op5$ at ,albany 9 #ahdd1 & ?is pione] in/itution has ev5tually be5 foll[$ by t5 o!rs4 ,9 #ahed ! /ate sup]9t5d5cy _h once m be5 sep>at$ f ! secret>y%ip ( /ate1 ) :i* x _h be5 comb9$ = ?irty-five ye>s 7p4 #bei74 ,9 #ahef local sup]vision 0 e/abli%$ ?r\gh ! appo9tm5t ( s*ool commission]s = ! cities & villages4 ,9 ! same ye>1 a ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mill tax 0 plac$ ^u ! prop]ty valuation ( ! /ate1 & dur+ ! next doz5 ye>s _m improvem5ts 7 made 9 ! disburs+ & acc\nt+ ( public funds4 ,at l5g?1 9 #ahfg1 ! long fight t _h be5 made = entirely free education 0 successful4 ,until !n ne>ly fifty ?\s& *ildr5 _h be5 depriv$ ( all education1 because _! p>5ts 7 too pr\d to secure paym5t ( _! tuition fees by confess+ !mselves paup]s4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is era ( progress1 too1 t ,new ,york ,city 01 9 #ahdb1 all[$ to place ! direction ( its s*ools 9 ! h&s ( a bo>d ( education1 elect$ by ! p1 in/ead ( giv+ ov] ! city's %>e ( ! /ate funds to a quasi-public society1 controll$ by a close corporation4 ,= elev5 ye>s1 h[ev]1 ! ,public ,s*ool ,society refus$ to give up its "w1 b by #ahec x decid$ to disb& & m]ge its build+s & funds ) ^? ( ! city s*ool sy/em 7see p4 #bfa74 ,sid5ote3 ,p5nsylvania aboli%$ p]missive feature ( its s*ool law1 ,sid5ote3 made /ate educational sy/em complete1 & provid$ sy/em ( normal s*ools4 ,p5nsylvania 0 sl[] ?an ,new ,york 9 %[+ ! effects ( ! educational awak5+1 b ! leav5 0 at "w4 ,:ile a numb] ( progressive gov]nors & o!r /atesm5 cont9ually recomm5d$ ! developm5t ( public education1 & ! #8,p5nsylvania ,society = ! ,promotion ( ,common ,s*ools' _h be5 organiz$1 ! t[]+ lead] 9 ?is movem5t 0 ,?omas ,h4 ,burr[es4 ,z secret>y ( /ate & ex (ficio sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools 7#ahcf-ahch71 z a public speak] & educational j\rnali/ 7#ahch-ahfj71 & z /ate sup]9t5d5t 7#ahfj-ahfb71 he con/antly urg$ a complete sy/em ( public education1 ! e/abli%m5t ( normal s*ools1 a sep>ate /ate dep>tm5t ( education1 & ! organization ( /ate & c\nty sup]vision4 ,9 #ahdi ! #8p]missive' feature ( ! law ( #ahcd 0 aboli%$1 & ! two hundr$ di/ricts t _h ?us f> refus$ to e/abli% public s*ools 7 =c$ to d s "u ! new provisions4 ,9 #ahed a revis$ s*ool law 0 pass$1 :i*1 aft] tw5ty ye>s1 n[ made ! /ate sy/em ( education complete4 ,x e/abli%$ 9 ! secret>y ( /ate's (fice a deputy sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools1 :o _h virtually a sep>ate dep>tm5t1 & provid$ = c\nty sup]9t5d5ts4 ,?ree ye>s lat] ! /ate educational dep>tm5t became absolutely indep5d5t "u ! c>e ( a sup]9t5d5t1 & provision 0 made = a sy/em ( normal s*ools4 ,^! in/itutions 7 to be e/abli%$ at fir/ by private ent]prise & )\t /ate subsidy4 ,by #ahgg !re 7 t5 9 op]ation1 l>gely ma9ta9$ by ! /ate4 ,?ree o!rs h s9ce be5 add$1 & ! /ate has begun to take ov] into its own h&s ! entire support & control ( !m all4 ,sid5ote3 ,advances 9 ,new ,j]sey rapid1 :5 once />t$4 ,sid5ote3 ,delaw>e sl[]1 b n[ mak+ progress4 ,educational progress 9 ,new ,j]sey also took "s "t to get "u way1 b :5 ! re=ms once />t$1 !y cont9u$ until an excell5t sy/em ( common s*ools _h be5 inaugurat$4 ,9 #ahch ! limitation ( /ate funds to ! education ( ! poor 0 remov$1 & ! apportionm5t ( ! income f !m 0 !reaft] appli$ only to public s*ools4 ,s9ce #ahdh1 :5 a /ate sup]9t5d5cy 0 e/abli%$1 ! developm5t has be5 m rapid4 ,c\nty sup]vision has be5 introduc$1 /ate normal s*ools h be5 e/abli%$ at ,tr5ton & ,upp] ,montclair1 & appropriations h be5 greatly increas$4 ,9 #aiaa a /ate commission] ( education ) an effici5t corps ( deputies 0 provid$4 ,delaw>e1 on ! o!r h&1 fail$ to live up to ! possibilities "u h] e>ly #8p]missive' laws4 ,ev5 ! organization ( #8! fri5ds ( common s*ool education' %[$ itself v cons]vative1 & w\ld n advocate ! creation ( a /ate sup]9t5d5cy or ! e/abli%m5t ( /ate normal s*ools4 ,9 fact1 ,delaw>e did n organize a complete /ate sy/em until aft] ! w>4 ,ev5 !n1 :ile a /ate bo>d & /ate sup]9t5d5cy 7 e/abli%$ 9 #ahge1 !re 7 no c\nty sup]9t5d5ts1 & :5 c\nty sup]vision 0 introduc$ 9 #ahhh1 ! /ate sup]9t5d5cy 0 aboli%$4 ,x 0 n re/abli%$ until #aiab1 b s9ce !n ! /ate sy/em has made evid5t progress4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ,ill9ois1 oppon5ts ( public education ov]come1 & /ate sy/em e/abli%$4 ,public ,education 9 ! ,we/4--,! budd+ ( a common s*ool sy/em1 :i* _h j begun to appe> 9 ! new commonweal?s ( ! ,nor?we/ be=e #ahdj1 rapidly unfold$ into full blossom dur+ ?is educational spr+time4 ,?r\gh ?is awak5+ ! common s*ool advocates 9 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ,ill9ois 7 greatly aid$ 9 _! /ruggle to ov]come ! opposition ( settl]s f ! /ates n committ$ to public education 7see p4 #bgb71 & !y 7 favor$ to "s ext5t by accessions ( emigrants f ! home ( ! public s*ool movem5t4 ,dur+ ! decade j prec$+ ! middle ( ! c5tury1 !re 0 a decid$ elevation ( public s5tim5t go+ on4 ,"u ! lead]%ip ( ,samuel ,lewis & ,samuel ,gall[ay 9 ,ohio1 ,caleb ,mills 9 ,indiana1 & ,n9ian ,w4 ,edw>ds 9 ,ill9ois1 ! fri5ds ( public education _h m>%all$ !mselves = battle4 ,reports & memorials 7 con/antly pres5t$ to ! legislatures ( ^! /ates1 & public addresses 9 behalf ( common s*ools 7 frequ5t 9 mo/ l>ge communities4 ,a gr\p ( devot$ s*oolm5 appe>$1 :o 7 z successful 9 lobby+ = good legislation z !y 7 ) in/itutes & public lectures4 ,:ile reactions occasionally happ5$1 l t 9 ,ohio betwe5 #ahdj & #ahde1 :5 ! /ate sup]9t5d5cy 0 tempor>ily aboli%$1 public education gradually came to be reg>d$ z some?+ m ?an m]ely free education = ! poor1 & public s*ool funds 7 no long] grant$ z a subsidy to private in/itutions4 ,aft] a qu>t] c5tury ( #8p]missive' laws1 local taxation & free common s*ools 7 fully realiz$ 9 all ?ree /ates e>ly 9 ! fifties4 ,! conte/1 ( c\rse1 0 n end$1 z reaction>y elem5ts1 ) selfi%1 local1 & sect>ian int]e/s1 /ill rema9$1 b _! cont5tions h nev] aga9 be5 m ?an p>tially successful4 ,new features ( ! common s*ools1 su* z effici5t tea*]s = ! rural di/ricts1 c\nty sup]vision1 /ate normal tra9+1 & free high] education 9 /ate univ]sities1 h gradually r5d]$ ! /ate sy/ems m consi/5t & complete4 ,sid5ote3 ,mi*igan e>ly provid$ = s*ools1 & soon develop$ high & normal s*ools4 ,9 ,mi*igan1 on ! o!r h&1 :]e !re 0 n su* a mixture ( population1 & a complete sympa?y ) ! common s*ool idea appe>$1 !re 0 almo/ unhamp]$ progress f ! beg9n+ ( /atehood4 ,"u ! fir/ con/itution 7#ahcg71 !re 0 provision made = a p]man5t s*ool fund & = a local tax 9 e di/rict1 al?\gh ! s*ools 7 p>tly ma9ta9$ until #ahfi by #8rate bills' collect$ f ! pupils4 ,9 accordance ) ! grant ( two t[n%ips ( l& by ,congress 9 #ahbf = a univ]sity1 ! fir/ legislature ( ! new /ate e/abli%$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan 7,fig4 #db71 & its doors 7 op5 to /ud5ts 9 #ahda4 ,x soon became ! mo/ prom95t ( ! /ate univ]sities4 ,!re 0 also provid$ a sy/em ( #8bran*es' ( ! univ]sity1 :]eby a lib]al grant 0 made = an academy 9 any c\nty t w\ld furni% suitable build+s & a sum equal to ! appropriation f ! /ate4 ,z ?is prov$ a dissipation ( ! univ]sity funds1 x 0 gradually /opp$1 & betwe5 #aheb & #ahfj #8union' & high s*ools 7 rapidly develop$ to supply ! means ( fitt+ = ! univ]sity4 ,9 #ahej a /ate normal s*ool 0 f\nd$1 & f\r o!rs h s9ce be5 add$4 ,sid5ote3 ,rapidity ( developm5t & triumph ( common s*ool idea 9 ! ,we/4 ,9 all ! o!r t]ritory acquir$ or pur*as$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 its we/w>d expansion1 ! educational hi/ory has be5 v simil> to t 9 ! fir/ /ates ( ! ,nor?we/4 ,progress 9 common s*ool s5tim5t has be5 made p>i passu ) ! settlem5t ( ! c\ntry4 ,ea* /ate1 ^u admission1 has receiv$ its sixte5? section ( s*ool l& & two t[n%ips = a univ]sity1 & 9 ! /ates admitt$ s9ce #ahdh ! end[m5t ( s*ools has be5 increas$ to two sections1 :ile ,texas1 :i* _h be5 an indep5d5t republic 7#ahcf-ahde71 /ipulat$ be=e becom+ a /ate t x %\ld reta9 sole possession ( its public l&s1 & has set aside = education ne>ly two & "o-half millions ( acres4 ,h5ce 9 ! fir/ con/itution ( ea* /ate1 p]man5t s*ool & univ]sity funds1 toge!r ) a regul> organization ( ! s*ools ( ! /ate1 h g5]ally be5 provid$4 ,9 few cases h sect>ian int]e/s be5 able to delay or injure ! gr[? ( common s*ools 9 any ( ! lat] commonweal?s1 & ! int]pretation ( public education z s*ools = ! *ildr5 ( paup]s has nev] s]i\sly influ5c$ ! ,we/4 ,sid5ote3 ,awak5+ felt1 b ) approa* ( ,civil ,w>1 ,sid5ote3 progress /opp$1 & facilities wreck$ at close ( ! w>4 ,organization ( ,/ate ,sy/ems 9 ! ,s\?4--,?us ?r\gh ! awak5+ ( common s*ools t occurr$ ?r\gh\t ! union f #ahce to #ahfj 0 ! old-"t c\ntry & city di/rict s*ool ( ! ,nor? gradually lift$ up to ! pres5t sy/em ( grad$ free elem5t>y1 second>y1 & normal s*ools1 toge!r ) city & /ate univ]sities4 ,b ^! results 7 n at fir/ z fully realiz$ 9 ! ,s\?1 because ( ! approa* & precipitation ( ! dreadful int]nec9e conflict t weigh$ d[n & f9ally pro/rat$ ! res\rces ( t section4 ,h[ev]1 except = ?is imp5d+ calamity1 ! conditions 9 ! ,s\? 7 n ess5tially diff]5t f ^? 9 any o!r section4 ,dur+ ! e>li] ye>s ( ! awak5+1 & 9 "s /ates up to ! v v]ge ( ! ,civil ,w>1 great progress 9 public education 0 noticeable4 ,! att5dance 9 ! common s*ools1 e/abli%$ 9 sev]al /ates by #8p]missive' legislation1 _h be5 rapidly gr[+ = a score ( ye>s1 & !re 0 an increas+ body ( prom95t m5 desir\s ( enl>g+ popul> education4 ,dur+ ! e>ly =ties !re 7 _m ef=ts & sugge/ions = a sy/em ( public s*ools1 & sev]al conv5tions 7 held 9 ! int]e/ ( su* in/itutions4 ,nor? ,c>ol9a actually e/abli%$ a /ate sy/em 9 #ahci4 ,t5nessee 7#ahch-ahdc7 & ,k5tucky 7#ahch7 made less endur+ ef=ts t[>d a simil> organization1 & z late z #aheh ,georgia took a di/9ct /ep =w>d 9 ?is direction4 ,moreov]1 ev5 9 _! secession conv5tions "s /ates1 l ,georgia1 adopt$ resolutions or con/itutional am5dm5ts look+ to ! education ( ! p1 & ,nor? ,c>ol9a 9 #ahfc1 ) ! union army actually at its doors1 und]took to grade ! s*ools & provide = ! tra9+ ( tea*]s4 ,b1 9 g5]al1 z ! imp5d+ conflict drew ne>1 att5tion to educational progress 0 =c$ to give way to ! pres]vation ( /ate & home1 & aft] ! w>1 :i* cru%$ & ravag$ ne>ly e portion ( ! ,s\?1 educational facilities _h = ! mo/ "p be5 totally wreck$4 ,sid5ote3 ,ne$ ( univ]sal education realiz$ & /ruggles to atta9 x4 ,nev]!less1 9 ! end ! w> s]v$ z a /imulus to common s*ools4 ,x br\ght ab\t a complete ov]turn ( ! old social & indu/rial ord]1 & ! ,s\? realiz$ m fully ?an ev] t x c\ld arise f its desp]ate mat]ial & educational plight only ?r\gh ! in/itution ( univ]sal education4 ,z e>ly z #ahfe1 s*ool sy/ems 7 organiz$ 9 ! bord] /ates1--,m>yl&1 ,k5tucky1 ,miss\ri1 & ,we/ ,virg9ia1 & ev5 dur+ ! h>% & unhappy days ( #8recon/ruction' 7#ahfg-ahgf71 ef=ts 7 made 9 o!r /ates to build up sy/ems ( free public education4 ,! organization ( education became m ?or\gh & m&atory ?an be=e ! w>4 ,all *ildr51 :ite & color$1 7 to att5d s*ool betwe5 six & tw5ty-"o1 & ! t]m 0 to la/ f f\r to six mon?s ea* ye>4 ,prop]ty & poll taxation 7 e/abli%$ = ! support ( ! s*ools4 ,a /ate sup]9t5d5t & /ate bo>d ( education1 c\nty commission]s & a c\nty bo>d1 & tru/ees 9 ea* di/rict1 7 provid$ =4 ,text-book commissions 7 (t5 e/abli%$1 & free books 7 grant$ to poor *ildr54 ,! f\ndation = a real sy/em 0 ?us laid4 ,sid5ote3 ,ob/acles t _h to be ov]come4 ,sid5ote3 ,peabody ,educational ,fund & o!r enc\ragem5t4 ,?is 0 a trem5d\s und]tak+1 & %[s ! greate/ c\rage & executive ability ^u ! "p ( ! ,s\?4 ,prop]ty _h be5 dim9i%$ 9 valuation to ! ext5t ( ne>ly two billion doll>s1 & !re 7 two million *ildr5 to be educat$4 ,moreov]1 "u ! recon/ruction rgime1 ! tax on prop]ty 0 (t5 n collect$1 & ! appropriations = education rema9$ on pap]4 ,indiff]5ce & inexp]i5ce 7 aggravat$ by ! fe> t #8mix$' s*ools w\ld be =c$ ^u ! :ite population by a recon/ruction legislature or a ,congress ) mill5nial zeal 9 behalf ( univ]sal bro!rhood4 ,^! ob/acles1 toge!r ) misdirect$ ef=t ^u ! "p ( ,nor!rn mission>ies1 & o!r s]i\s int]f]5ces1 = fully a decade con/itut$ an enorm\s /umbl+-block4 ,sev]al factors1 h[ev]1 aid$ & enc\rag$ ! ,s\? 9 its ef=ts4 ,( ^! ! mo/ important 0 ! f\ndation 9 #ahfg ( ! ,peabody ,educational ,fund ( #b1jjj1jjj1 well *>act]iz$ z 8a gift to ! suff]+ ,s\? = ! good ( ! ,union40 ,?is fund 0 plac$ 9 ! managem5t ( ! wise/ & mo/ sympa!tic ag5ts1 :o appeal$ to ! high] s5tim5t ( ! communities & ! /ates1 & grant$ ! assi/ance necess>y to /imulate local ef=t 9 education4 ,:5 ! fund prov$ insuffici5t = ! great task1 ! tru/ees plead$ ) ,congress = an additional subsidy1 & made ! :ole c\ntry aw>e ( ! cry+ ne$s ( education 9 ! ,s\?4 ,?r\gh ^! appeals1 m ?an t5 million doll>s f v>i\s s\rces h s9ce be5 grant$ to ! diff]5t grades ( public education4 ,sid5ote3 ,/ruggle won by #ahij & con/ant progress s9ce4 ,despite ! trem5d\s rally dur+ ! sev5ties1 h[ev]1 ! /ruggle = public education 9 ! ,s\? 0 n won = tw5ty ye>s1 b complete sy/ems ( common s*ools h n[ at l5g? be5 g5]ally e/abli%$4 ,) ! cessation ( ! recon/ruction influ5ce & ! subsid5ce ( ! dread ( mix$ s*ools1 att5dance & appropriations h greatly increas$1 s*ools = ! education ( color$ *ildr5 h be5 furni%$1 & provision has be5 made = tra9+ & /imulat+ tea*]s ( bo? races4 ,sep>ate /ate in/itutions = high] education1 cultural & vocational1 h be5 e/abli%$ to furni% a broad education = bo? :ites & negroes4 ,s9ce #ahij !re has be5 an ev] increas+ int]e/ 9 improv+ ! public s*ool 9 all respects1 & ! exp5ditures & facilities = education h be5 con/antly increas+4 ,sid5ote3 ,univ]sal education1 /ate support & control1 high s*ools replac$ academies1 colleges non-sect>ian1 & /ate univ]sities e/abli%$4 ,developm5t ( ! ,am]ican ,sy/em ( ,education4--,) its f9al developm5t 9 ! ,s\? dur+ ! la/ decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ! di/9ctly ,am]ican public s*ool sy/em may be said to h be5 fully elaborat$4 ,! educational ideals & in/itutions import$ f ,europe 9 ! colonial p]iod h gradually be5 modifi$ & adapt$ to ! ne$s ( ,am]ica4 ,s*ools h become public & free 9 ! mod]n s5se4 ,! control ( education has pass$ f private p>ties & ev5 quasi-public societies to ! /ate4 ,! s*ools h likewise come to be support$ by ! /ate1 & are op5 to all *ildr5 alike )\t ! imposition ( any f9ancial obligation4 ,9 second>y education1 ! academies1 :i* supplant$ ! #8gramm>' s*ools1 fir/ became #8free academies' & made no *>ge = tuition f local patrons1 ?\gh rema9+ close corporations1 & !n 7 9 "t replac$ by ! true ,am]ican second>y in/itution1--! high s*ool 7,fig4 #da74 ,colleges became l>gely non-sect>ian1 ev5 :5 n nom9ally s1 & /ate univ]sities 7 organiz$ 9 all except a few ( ! olde/ commonweal?s 7,fig4 #db74 ,?us has ! idea ( common s*ools & ! "r to use ! public weal? to educate ! entire body ( *ildr5 into s\nd ,am]ican citiz5%ip be5 made complete4 ,al?\gh ! sy/em is /ill capable ( mu* improvem5t1 x is expressive ( ,am]ican g5ius & developm5t4 ,x is simply ! ,am]ican idea ( gov]nm5t & society appli$ to education4 ,x is ! educational w ( ! p express$ ?r\gh ! majority1 & ! resultant ( ! highe/ ?9k+ & aspirations ( a great nation made up ( ! mo/ p[]ful & progressive elem5ts f all civiliz$ peoples4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *aps4 ,,vi & ,,viii1 & ,great ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 *ap4 ,,xiii2 ,p>k]1 ,mod]n ,elem5t>y ,education 7,g9n1 #aiab71 *ap4 ,,xii4 ,= ! details ( ! life & "w ( ,mann 9 brief =m1 read ,h9sdale1 ,b4 ,a41 ,horace ,mann & ! ,common ,s*ool ,revival 7,scribn]1 #ahii71 or ! readable little "w on ,horace ,mann ! ,educator 7,new ,engl& ,publi%+ ,co41 #ahif7 by ,w9%ip1 ,a4 ,e4 ,monroe1 ,w4 ,s41 has briefly rec\nt$ ,! ,educational ,labors ( ,h5ry ,b>n>d 7,b>de51 ,syracuse1 #ahic71 & a long] acc\nt ( ,h5ry ,b>n>d is t ( ,mayo1 ,a4 ,d41 9 ,report ( ,u4 ,s4 ,commission] ( ,education1 #ahif-ahig1 vol4 ,i1 *ap4 ,,xvi4 ,= ! developm5t ( public education 9 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\ntry dur+ ?is ?ird p]iod1 see ,m>t91 ,g4 ,h41 ,evolution ( ! ,massa*usetts ,public ,s*ool ,sy/em 7,appleton1 #ahid71 lects4 ,,iv-,,vi2 ,/e9]1 ,b4 ,c41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,connecticut 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,education1 ,circul> ( ,in=mation1 ,no4 #b1 #ahic71 *aps4 ,,iii-,v2 ,/ockwell1 ,t4 ,b41 ,hi/ory ( ,public ,education 9 ,rhode ,isl& 7,provid5ce ,press ,co41 ,provid5ce1 #ahgf71 *aps4 ,,vi-,x2 ,r&all1 ,s4 ,s41 ,hi/ory ( ! ,common ,s*ool ,sy/em ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york 7,ivison1 ,blakeman1 ,taylor1 ,new ,york1 #ahga71 ?ird & f\r? p]iods2 ,wick]%am1 ,j4 ,p41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,p5nsylvania 7,lanca/]1 ,p5nsylvania1 #ahhf71 *aps4 ,,xvii-,,xviii2 ,mayo1 ,a4 ,d41 ,! ,developm5t ( ! ,common ,s*ools 9 ! ,we/]n ,/ates 7,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,commission] ( ,education1 #ahih-ii1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ceg-dej72 ,boone1 ,r4 ,g41 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,indiana 7,appleton1 #ahib71 *aps4 ,,iv & ,,viii-,,xxxiii2 ,smi?1 ,w4 ,l41 ,hi/orical ,sket* ( ,education 9 ,mi*igan 7,lans+1 #ahha71 pp4 #ag-ch1 #di-eg1 & #gh-aji2 ,knight1 ,e4 ,w41 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,recon/ruction on ,education 9 ! ,s\? 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,tea*]s ,college ,contributions1 ,no4 #fj1 #aiac7 & ,! ,peabody ,fund & ,its ,e>ly ,op]ation 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a 7,s\? ,atlantic ,qu>t]ly1 vol4 xiv1 no4 #b74 ,mayo1 ,a4 ,d41 ,education 9 ! ,sev]al ,/ates1 ,education ( ! ,color$ ,race1 & ,! ,slat] ,fund 7,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,commission] ( ,education #ahid-ie1 ,,xxx1 ,,xxxi1 & ,,xxxii74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4--,! fir/ high s*ool4 7,?is in/itution 0 e/abli%$ at ,bo/on 9 #ahba z ! #8,engli% ,classical ,s*ool1' & ?ree ye>s lat] ! "n 0 *ang$ to #8,engli% ,high ,s*ool4'7 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4--,! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan 9 #ahee4 7,! olde/ picture ( ! fir/ prom95t /ate univ]sity2 e/abli%$ by ! legislature 9 #ahcg1 & op5$ 9 #ahda47 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,developm5t ,,( ,,educational ,,practice ,,outl9e ,( ! two aspects to ,pe/alozzi's educational positions1 ,froebel /ress$ developm5t f )91 & ,h]b>t developm5t f )\t4 ,?r\gh an e>ly tutorial exp]i5ce ,h]b>t develop$ 8 p$agogy1 b aft]w>d inv5t$ an +5i\s psy*ology ^u :i* to base x4 ,he und]took to %[ h[ ! m9d ( ! pupil is l>gely built up by ! tea*]1 & he held to ! moral aim ( education4 ,to accompli% ?is1 he advocat$ #8_m-sid$ int]e/1' &1 :ile recogniz+ ! value ( bo? #8hi/orical' & #8sci5tific' subjects1 emphasiz$ ! =m]4 ,b he also held t all subjects %\ld be unifi$ ?r\gh #8correlation1' & =mulat$ ! #8=mal /eps ( in/ruction4' ,! value ( 8 "w has be5 obscur$ by ! =mal int]pretations ( disciples1 b he contribut$ greatly to ! sci5ce ( education4 ,h]b>tianism1 develop$ by ,zill] & o!rs1 spread ?r\gh\t ,g]many2 ?r\gh ! ,h]b>t ,society1 x has greatly influ5c$ educational cont5t & me?ods 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?r\gh 8 univ]sity environm5t1 ,froebel develop$ a my/ic philosophy1 b made x ! basis ( rem>kable educational practices4 ,he held to organic #8unity' 9 ! univ]se1 & to ! g5]al me?od ( #8self-activity4' ,besides ?is 7#a7 #8motor expression1' he also /ress$ 7#b7 #8social p>ticipation1' & attempt$ to realize bo? pr9ciples 9 7#c7 a s*ool )\t books & set tasks1--! #8k9d]g>t54' ,! tra9+ "h has consi/$ *iefly 9 #8play-songs1' #8gifts1' & #8occupations4' ,! *ief weakness ( ,froebelianism is its my/ic & symbolic !ory1 b x has compreh5d$ ! mo/ ess5tial laws ( education at all /ages4 ,! k9d]g>t5 0 spread ?r\gh ,europe l>gely by ,b>oness von ,bl[1 & ?r\gh ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ,elizabe? ,p4 ,peabody & o!rs4 ,few t5d5cies 9 educational practices to-day _c be trac$ back = _! rudim5t>y =m to ,h]b>t & ,froebel1 or _! ma/]1 ,pe/alozzi4 ,sid5ote3 ,ea* saw 9 ! ma/] ! pr9ciple t appeal$ to him4 ,froebel & ,h]b>t z ,disciples ( ,pe/alozzi4--,9 ! discussion ( obs]vation & indu/rial tra9+1 we h not$ ! sugge/ions = improvem5t 9 educational practice t arose ?r\gh ,pe/alozzi4 ,:ile some:at vague & bas$ ^u sympa!tic insight r ?an sci5tific pr9ciples1 ! positions ( ,pe/alozzi n only left _! direct influ5ce ^u ! tea*+ ( c]ta9 subjects 9 ! elem5t>y curriculum1 b became ! basis ( ! elaborate sy/ems ( ,h]b>t & ,froebel4 ,^! educators may be reg>d$ z contempor>y disciples ( ! ,swiss re=m]1 :o 0 born a g5]ation be=e1 b !y cont9u$ 8 "w along r diff]5t l9es4 ,ea* w5t to visit ,pe/alozzi1 & x w\ld seem f _! comm5ts ^u :at !y saw t ea* f\nd 9 ! ma/] ! ma9 pr9ciple :i* appeal$ to him & :i* he aft]w>d develop$ m or less consi/5tly ?r\gh\t 8 "w4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t f )9 & ! *ild 7 emphasiz$ by ,froebel2 ,sid5ote3 developm5t f )\t & me?ods1 by ,h]b>t4 ,= !re 7 two v def9ite aspects to ,pe/alozzi's positions1 :i* may at fir/ seem oppos$ to ea* o!r1 b are n necess>ily contradictory4 ,on ! "o h&1 ,pe/alozzi seems to h held t education %\ld be a natural developm5t f )92 on ! o!r1 t x mu/ consi/ 9 ! d]ivation ( ideas f exp]i5ce ) ! outside _w4 ,! =m] po9t ( view1 :i* is app>5t 9 8 educational aim & def9ition ( education 7see p4 #bhe71 w\ld logically argue t e *>act]i/ic is implicit 9 ! *ild at bir? 9 ! exact =m to :i* x is aft]w>d to be develop$1 & t ! tea*] c at be/ only assi/ ! *ild's nature 9 ! ef=ts = its own unfold+4 ,?is attitude ,pe/alozzi app>5tly borr[$ f ! psy*ology impli$ 9 ,r\sseau's naturalism4 ,! o!r conception1 t ( education z s5se p]ception1 :i* is evid5t 9 ,pe/alozzi's obs]vational me?ods 7see p4 #bhf71 dep5ds ^u ! !ory t imm$iate & direct impressions f ! outside are ! absolute basis ( all k1 & holds t ! cont5ts ( ! m9d mu/ be entirely built up by ! tea*]4 ,"s su* nave int]pretation has be5 common s9ce speculation began1 especially among tea*]s1 & _h be5 =mulat$ be=e ,pe/alozzi's day by ,locke1 ,hume1 & o!rs4 ,9 ! ma91 ,froebel took ! fir/ ( ^! ,pe/alozzian viewpo9ts & r>ely admitt$ ! o!r1 b ! latt] phase 0 develop$ by ,h]b>t to ! almo/ total disreg>d ( ! =m]4 ,h5ce we f9d t ! "o educator lays emphasis ^u ! *ild's developm5t & activities1 & ! o!r conc]ns himself ) me?od & ! "w ( ! tea*]4 ,! orig9al contributions ( bo? re=m]s to educational practice1 h[ev]1 7 l>ge1 & are des]v+ ( ext5d$ description4 ,sid5ote3 ,int]e/ 9 philosophy1 ,greek1 & ma!matics4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t ( 8 p$agogy ?r\gh tutorial exp]i5ce4 ,! ,e>ly ,c>e] & ,writ+s ( ,h]b>t4--,johann ,fri$ri* ,h]b>t 7#aggf-ahda7 bo? by bir? & by education possess$ a rem>kable m9d1 & 0 well calculat$ to become a pr(\nd educational philosoph]4 ,he came ( intellectual & educat$ /ock1 & at ! gymnasium & univ]sity display$ a ke5 int]e/ 9 philosophy1 ,greek1 & ma!matics4 ,ea* ( ^! subjects1 too1 0 de/9$ to play a "p 9 8 educational !ories4 ,j be=e graduation 7#agig71 h[ev]1 ,h]b>t left ! univ]sity to become private tutor to ! ?ree sons ( ! gov]nor ( ,int]lak51 ,switz]l&1 & dur+ ! next ?ree ye>s he obta9$ 9 ?is way a mo/ valuable exp]i5ce4 ,! five extant reports t he made on ! me?ods he us$ & on 8 pupils' progress reveal ?us e>ly ! g]ms ( 8 elaborate sy/em4 ,! y\?ful p$agogue seems to h recogniz$ ! individual v>iations 9 *ildr51 & to h %[n a due reg>d = ! respective ages ( 8 pupils4 ,he also s\ght1 by means ( 8 favorite "w1 ! ,odyssey1 to develop 9 !m ! elem5ts ( morality & a #8_m-sid$ int]e/4' ,?is e>ly exp]i5ce1 r ?an 8 +5i\s sy/em ( psy*ology & metaphysics1 :i* he aft]w>d develop$ 9 explanation1 0 ! real f\ndation ( 8 p$agogy1 & furni%$ him ) ! concrete examples ( ! *>act]i/ics & individualities ( *ildr5 t appe> 9 all 8 lat] works4 ,he ev] aft]w>d ma9ta9$ t a c>eful /udy ( ! developm5t ( a few *ildr5 0 ! be/ prep>ation = a p$agogical c>e]1 & ev5tually made an exp]i5ce ( ?is k9d ! ma9 elem5t 9 8 tra9+ ( tea*]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,int]pret$ & supplem5t$ ,pe/alozzi's pr9ciples4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,education4 ,:ile /ill 9 ,switz]l&1 ,h]b>t met ,pe/alozzi & 0 greatly attract$ by ! und]ly+ pr9ciples ( t re=m]4 ,he paid a visit to ! in/itute at ,burgdorf 9 #agii1 & dur+ ! next two ye>s1 :ile at ,brem5 complet+ 8 int]rupt$ univ]sity c\rse1 he und]took to advocate & r5d] m sci5tific ! ?\ght ( ! ,swiss educator4 ,"h he wrote a sympa!tic essay ,on ,pe/alozzi's ,late/ ,writ+1 #8,h[ ,g]trude ,tea*es ,h] ,*ildr51' & made 8 int]pretation ( ,pe/alozzi's ,idea ( an ,a ,b ,c ( ,obs]vation 7see p4 #bhf74 ,next ,h]b>t lectur$ on p$agogy at ! ,univ]sity ( ,gtt+54 ,! treatises he wrote !re seem to h become m critical t[>d ! ,pe/alozzian me?ods1 & he no long] /rives to conceal _! vagu5ess & want ( sy/em4 ,s5se p]ception1 he holds ) ,pe/alozzi1 does supply ! fir/ elem5ts ( k1 b ! mat]ial ( ! s*ool c\rse %\ld be def9itely arrang$ ) ref]5ce to ! g5]al purpose ( in/ruction1 :i* is moral self-realization4 ,?is position on ! moral aim ( education he made especially explicit & complete 9 8 "w on ,! ,sci5ce ( ,education 7#ahjf74 ,sid5ote3 ,sem9>y & practice s*ool4 ,sid5ote3 ,outl9es ( ,educational ,doctr9e4 ,8 ,"w at ,knigsb]g & ,gtt+54--,9 #ahji ,h]b>t 0 call$ to ! *air ( philosophy at ,knigsb]g1 & !re e/abli%$ 8 n[ hi/oric p$agogical sem9>y & ! small practice s*ool connect$ ) x4 ,! /ud5ts1 :o taught 9 ! practice s*ool "u ! sup]vision & criticism ( ! pr(essor1 7 int5d+ to become s*ool pr9cipals & inspectors1 &1 ?r\gh ! widespread "w & influ5ce ( ^! "y ,h]b>tians ! educational sy/em ( ,prussia & ( e o!r /ate 9 ,g]many 0 greatly advanc$4 ,9 8 num]\s publications at ,knigsb]g1 ,h]b>t devot$ himself *iefly to works on a sy/em ( psy*ology z a basis = 8 p$agogy4 ,aft] s]v+ ne>ly a qu>t] ( a c5tury "h1 he return$ to ,gtt+5 z pr(essor ( philosophy1 & ! la/ eight ye>s ( 8 life 7 sp5t 9 exp&+ 8 p$agogical positions4 ,"h he issu$ ! fir/ edition ( 8 ,outl9es ( ,educational ,doctr9e 7#ahce71 :i* gives an exposition ( 8 educational sy/em :5 fully matur$4 ,x conta9s brief ref]5ces to 8 me*anical metaphysics & psy*ology1 b is a mo/ practical & well-organiz$ discussion ( ! educational process4 ,sid5ote3 ,an aft]-?\ght4 ,sid5ote3 ,m9d built up by outside _w4 ,sid5ote3 ,g5esis & comb9ation ( ideas4 ,sid5ote3 #8,app]ception4' ,h]b>t's ,psy*ology4--,h]b>t's metaphysical psy*ology seems to h be5 an aft]-?\ght develop$ to af=d a basis = ! me?od ( p$agogical proc$ure t he _h work$ out ( 8 tutorial exp]i5ce & 8 acqua9tance ) ! ,pe/alozzian practice4 ,b "s explanation ( ?is elaborate psy*ology may s]ve to make cle>] 8 educational pr9ciples4 ,= ! mo/ "p he holds t ! m9d is built up by ! outside _w1 & he is g5]ally suppos$ to h left no place = in/9cts or innate *>act]i/ics & t5d5cies4 ,) him ! simple/ elem5ts ( consci\sness are #8ideas1' :i* are atoms ( m9d /uff ?r[n (f f ! s\l 9 endeavor+ to ma9ta9 itself aga9/ ext]nal /imuli4 ,once produc$ by ?is contact ( ! s\l ) its environm5t1 ! ideas become exi/5ces ) _! own dynamic =ce1 & con/antly /rive to pres]ve !mselves4 ,!y /ruggle to atta9 z ne>ly z possible to ! summit ( consci\sness1 & ea* idea t5ds to draw into consci\sness or height5 ^? alli$ to x1 & to depress or =ce out ^? :i* are unlike4 ,ea* new idea or gr\p ( ideas is height5$1 modifi$1 or reject$1 accord+ to its degree ( h>mony or conflict ) ! previ\sly exi/+ ideas4 ,9 o!r words1 all new ideas are int]pret$ ?r\gh ^? already 9 consci\sness4 ,9 accordance ) ?is pr9ciple1 :i* ,h]b>t call$ #8app]ception1' ! tea*] c secure int]e/ & ! att5tion ( ! pupil to any new idea or set ( ideas & h him reta9 x1 only ?r\gh mak+ use ( 8 previ\s body ( relat$ k4 ,h5ce ! educational problem becomes h[ to pres5t new mat]ial 9 su* a way t x c be #8app]ceiv$' or incorporat$ ) ! old1 & ! m9d ( ! pupil is l>gely 9 ! h&s ( ! tea*]1 s9ce he c make or modify 8 #8app]ception masses1' or sy/ems ( ideas4 ,sid5ote3 ,atta9m5t ( "* z aim4 ,sid5ote3 #8,_m-sid$ int]e/4' ,! ,aim1 ,cont5t1 & ,me?od ( ,education4--,accord+ly1 ,h]b>t holds t ! purpose ( education %\ld be to e/abli% moral & religi\s "*4 ,he believes t ?is f9al aim c be atta9$ ?r\gh in/ruction1 & t1 to det]m9e h[ ?is %all furni% a #8moral revelation ( ! _w1' a c>eful /udy mu/ be made ( ea* pupil's ?\ght masses1 temp]am5t1 & m5tal capacity4 ,!re is n mu* likelihood ( ! pupil's receiv+ ideas ( virtue t w develop into gl[+ ideals ( conduct :5 8 /udies d n appeal to 8 ?\ght sy/ems & are consequ5tly reg>d$ ) indiff]5ce & av]sion4 ,!y mu/ coalesce ) ! ideas he already has1 & ?us t\* 8 life4 ,b ,h]b>t does n limit #8int]e/' to a tempor>y /imulus = ! p]=mance ( c]ta9 s*ool tasks2 he advocates ! build+ up by education ( c]ta9 broad int]e/s t may become p]man5t s\rces ( appeal 9 life4 ,in/ruction mu/ be s select$ & arrang$ z n only to relate itself to ! previ\s exp]i5ce ( ! pupil1 b z also to reveal & e/abli% all ! relations ( life & conduct 9 _! fullness4 ,sid5ote3 #8,k' & #8p>ticipation' int]e/s4 ,sid5ote3 #8,hi/orical' & #8sci5tific' subjects4 ,9 analyz+ ?is #8_m-sid$ int]e/1' ,h]b>t holds t ideas & int]e/s spr+ f two ma9 s\rces1--#8exp]i5ce1' :i* furni%es u ) a k ( nature1 & #8social int]c\rse1' f :i* come ! s5tim5ts t[>d our fell[m54 ,int]e/s may1 !re=e1 be class$ z belong+ to 7#a7 #8k' or to 7#b7 #8p>ticipation4' ,^! two sets ( int]e/s1 9 turn1 ,h]b>t divides into ?ree gr\ps ea*4 ,he class$ ! #8k' int]e/s z 7a7 #8empirical1' appeal+ directly to ! s5ses2 7b7 #8speculative1' seek+ to p]ceive ! relations ( cause & effect2 & 7c7 #8/hetic1' re/+ ^u ! enjoym5t ( contemplation4 ,! #8p>ticipation' int]e/s are divid$ into 7a7 #8sympa!tic1' deal+ ) relations to o!r individuals2 7b7 #8social1' includ+ ! community z a :ole2 & 7c7 #8religi\s1' treat+ "o's relations to ! ,div9e4 ,in/ruction mu/1 !re=e1 develop all ^! int]e/s1 &1 to correspond ) ! two ma9 gr\ps1 ,h]b>t divides all /udies into two bran*es1--! 7#a7 #8hi/orical1' includ+ hi/ory1 lit]ature1 & languages2 & ! 7#b7 #8sci5tific1' embrac+ ma!matics1 z well z ! natural sci5ces4 ,al?\gh recogniz+ ! value ( bo? gr\ps1 ,h]b>t especially /ress$ ! #8hi/orical1' on ! gr\nd t hi/ory & lit]ature are ( great] importance z ! s\rces ( moral ideas & s5tim5ts4 ,sid5ote3 #8,correlation' & #8conc5tration4' ,sid5ote3 #8,culture epo*s4' ,b1 :ile all ! subjects1 #8hi/orical' & #8sci5tific1' are ne$$ = a #8_m-sid$ int]e/1' & ! v>i\s /udies h = conv5i5ce be5 sep>at$ & classifi$ by !mselves1 ,h]b>t holds t !y mu/ be s arrang$ 9 ! curriculum z to become unifi$ & an organic :ole1 if ! unity ( ! pupil's consci\sness is to be ma9ta9$4 ,?is position =eca/s ! emphasis ^u #8correlation1' or ! unification ( /udies1 s common among 8 foll[]s4 ,! pr9ciple 0 fur!r develop$ by lat] ,h]b>tians "u ! "n ( #8conc5tration1' or ! unify+ ( all subjects ar\nd "o or two common c5tral /udies1 su* z lit]ature or hi/ory4 ,b ! selection & articulation ( ! subject-matt] 9 su* a way z to ar\se _m-sid$ness & h>mony is n m ?an h9t$ at by ,h]b>t himself4 ,he specifically holds1 h[ev]1 t ! ,odyssey %\ld be ! fir/ "w read1 s9ce ?is repres5ts ! int]e/s & activities ( ! race :ile 9 its y\?1 & w\ld appeal to ! individual dur+ ! same /age4 ,he w\ld foll[ ?is ) o!r ,greek classics 9 ! ord] ( ! gr[+ complexity ( racial int]e/s depict$ 9 !m4 ,?is t5tative endeavor ( ,h]b>t1 9 ! selection ( mat]ial = ! c\rse ( /udy1 to p>allel ! developm5t ( ! individual ) t ( ! race1 0 cont9u$ & enl>g$ by 8 disciples4 ,x became especially def9ite & fix$ 9 ! #8culture epo*s' !ory =mulat$ by ,zill] & o!rs4 ,sid5ote3 ,f\r /eps 9 ,h]b>t's me?od ( in/ruction4 ,sid5ote3 #8,five =mal /eps4' ,b to secure ?is broad range ( mat]ial & to unify & sy/ematize x1 ,h]b>t realiz$ t x 0 necess>y to =mulate a def9ite me?od ( in/ruct+ ! *ild4 ,?is plan ( in/ruction he wi%$ to con=m to ! developm5t & work+ ( ! human m9d1 & on ! basis ( :at he conceiv$ ?is activity to be1 he mapp$ out a me?od ) f\r logical /eps3 7#a7 #8cle>ness1' ! pres5tation ( facts or elem5ts to be le>n$2 7#b7 #8association1' ! unit+ ( ^! ) relat$ facts previ\sly acquir$2 7#c7 #8sy/em1' ! coh]5t & logical arrangem5t ( :at has be5 associat$2 & 7#d7 #8me?od1' ! practical application ( ! sy/em by ! pupil to new data4 ,! =mulation ( ?is me?od 0 made only 9 pr9ciple by ,h]b>t1 b x has s9ce be5 l>gely modifi$ & develop$ by 8 foll[]s4 ,x 0 soon felt t1 on ! pr9ciple ( #8app]ception1' ! pupil mu/ fir/ be made consci\s ( ! exi/+ /ock ( ideas s f> z !y are simil> to ! mat]ial to be pres5t$1 & t ?is c be accompli%$ by a review ( prec$+ lessons or by an outl9e ( :at is to be und]tak51 or by bo? proc$ures4 ,h5ce ,h]b>t's not$ disciple1 ,zill]1 divid$ ! /ep ( #8cle>ness' into #8prep>ation' & #8pres5tation1' & ! m rec5t ,h]b>tian1 ,re91 add$ #8aim' z a sub/ep to #8prep>ation4' ,! names ( ! o!r ?ree processes h be5 *ang$ = ! sake ( great] lucidity & significance by /ill lat] ,h]b>tians1 & ! #8five =mal /eps ( in/ruction' are n[ giv5 z 7#a7 #8prep>ation1' 7#b7 #8pres5tation1' 7#c7 #8comp>ison & ab/raction1' 7#d7 #8g5]alization1' & 7#e7 #8application4' ,sid5ote3 ,cl>ifi$ ,pe/alozzi's vague pr9ciple ( #8obs]vation' ?r\gh an +5i\s psy*ology1 ,sid5ote3 & made ,pe/alozzi's emphasis on ! physical _w a /epp+-/one to hi/ory & lit]ature4 ,! ,value & ,influ5ce ( ,h]b>t's ,pr9ciples4--,on all sides1 !n1 z comp>$ ) ,pe/alozzi1 ,h]b>t 0 mo/ logical & compreh5sive4 ,:]e ,pe/alozzi obta9$ 8 me?ods solely f a sympa!tic insight into ! *ild m9d1 ,h]b>t s\ght to f\nd 8 also ^u sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,! =m] 0 prim>ily a philan?ropi/ & re=m]2 ! latt]1 a psy*ologi/ & educationali/4 ,pe/alozzi succe$$ 9 ar\s+ ,europe to ! ne$ ( univ]sal education & ( vitaliz+ ! prevail+ =malism 9 ! s*ools1 b he 0 unable ) 8 vague & unsy/ematic utt]ances to give guidance & effici5cy to ! re=m =ces he _h initiat$4 ,:ile he felt ! ne$ ( beg9n+ ) s5se p]ception = ! sake ( cle> ideas1 he _h nei!r ! "t nor ! tra9+ to con/ruct a psy*ology beyond ! traditional "o ( ! times1 nor to analyze ! way 9 :i* ! mat]ial ga9$ by obs]vation is assimilat$4 ,h]b>t1 on ! o!r h&1 did create a sy/em ( psy*ology t1 :ile fanciful & me*anical1 work$ well z a basis = educational !ory & practice4 ,9 keep+ ) ?is psy*ology1 he und]took to %[ h[ ! ideas1 :i* 7 ! product ( ! ,pe/alozzian #8obs]vation1' 7 assimilat$ ?r\gh #8app]ception1' & ma9ta9$ ! possibility ( mak+ all mat]ial t5d t[>d moral developm5t4 ,?is1 he held1 c\ld be accompli%$ by use ( prop] c\rses & me?ods4 ,9 det]m9+ ! subjects to be select$ & articulat$1 he consid]$ ,pe/alozzi's emphasis ^u ! /udy ( ! physical _w to be m]ely a /epp+-/one to 8 own #8moral revelation ( ! _w4' ,:ile ! =m] educator made ari?metic1 geography1 natural sci5ce1 read+1 =m /udy1 draw+1 writ+1 & music ! object ( 8 consid]ation1 & is indirectly responsible = ! mod]n re=ms 9 tea*+ ^! subjects1 ,h]b>t pref]r$ to /ress hi/ory1 languages1 & lit]ature1 &1 ?r\gh 8 foll[]s1 br\ght ab\t improv$ me?ods 9 _! pres5tation4 ,he also fir/ und]took a c>eful analysis ( ! successive /eps 9 all in/ruction1 & by 8 me?odical pr9ciples did mu* to introduce ord] & sy/em into ! "w ( ! classroom1 al?\gh x is n[ kn[n t 8 conception ( ! way 9 :i* ! human m9d works is h>dly t5able4 ,sid5ote3 ,=malization ( foll[]s1 ,sid5ote3 b ,h]b>t m sane & flexible4 ,a great drawback to ! ,h]b>tian doctr9es is f\nd 9 _! =malization & exagg]ation4 ,= ^! t5d5cies 8 en?usia/ic & lit]al-m9d$ foll[]s1 r ?an ,h]b>t himself1 h probably be5 to blame4 ,he 0 himself too ke5 an obs]v] to all[ 8 doctr9es to g ^u all f\rs4 ,he is ord9>ily cr$it$ by ,h]b>tians ) a psy*ology t takes no acc\nt ( ! innate *>act]i/ics ( ea* m9d1 & holds t ! m9d is entirely built up by impressions f ! outside1 b1 :ile ?is is 8 ma9 position1 he occasionally recognizes t !re mu/ be c]ta9 native pr$ispositions 9 ! body :i* influ5ce ! s\l 9 "o direction or ano!r4 ,?is limitation ( complete pla/icity by ! pupil's individuality1 & ( ! consequ5t influ5ce ( ! tea*]1 causes him to p]ceive t 89 ord] to ga9 an adequate k ( ea* pupil's capacity = education1 obs]vation is necess>y--obs]vation bo? ( 8 ?\ght masses & ( 8 physical nature40 ,aga91 :ile ,h]b>t holds t e subject %\ld1 if possible1 be pres5t$ 9 an attractive1 int]e/+1 & #8almo/ playlike' way1 he does n ju/ify t #8sug>-coat$ int]e/' :i* has s (t5 put ,h]b>tianism 9 bad odor4 8,a view t reg>ds ! end z a necess>y evil to be r5d]$ endurable by means ( sweetmeats10 says he1 8implies an utt] confusion ( ideas2 & if pupils are n giv5 s]i\s tasks to p]=m1 !y w n f9d out :at !y are able to d40 ,(t51 he realizes1 8ev5 ! be/ me?od _c secure an adequate degree ( app]ceiv+ att5tion f e pupil1 & rec\rse mu/ accord+ly be _h to ! volunt>y att5tion1 i4 e41 to ! pupil's resolution40 ,moreov]1 #8correlation' betwe5 diff]5t subjects1 z well z betwe5 pr9ciples )9 ! same subject1 0 advocat$ by ,h]b>t1 b he felt t ! attempt to make su* ramifications %\ld n be unlimit$4 ,fur!r1 :ile ,h]b>t made "s ef=t 9 %ap+ ! c\rse ( /udy to p>allel ! developm5t ( ! individual ) t ( ! race1 x 0 ,zill] t erect$ ?is proc$ure into a h>d & fa/ !ory ( #8culture epo*s4' ,b mo/ common ( all has be5 ! t5d5cy ( 8 disciples to p]v]t 8 attempt to br+ ab\t due sequ5ce & arrangem5t into an inflexible s*ema 9 ! recitation1 & to make ! =mal /eps an end r ?an a means4 ,:]eas1 !re is reason to believe t ,h]b>t nev] int5d$ t all ^! /eps %\ld be c>ri$ out 9 e recitation1 b felt t !y appli$ to ! organization ( any subject z a :ole1 & t ye>s might ev5 elapse betwe5 ! v>i\s /eps4 ,sid5ote3 ,zill] greatly develop$ & popul>iz$4 ,! ,ext5sion ( ,8 ,doctr9es 9 ,g]many4--,at fir/ ! doctr9es ( ,h]b>t 7 little kn[n1 b a qu>t] ( a c5tury aft] 8 dea? !re sprang up two fl\ri%+ contempor>y s*ools ( ,h]b>tianism4 ,9 its application ( ,h]b>t's !ory1 ! s*ool ( ,/oy = ! mo/ "p held closely to ! orig9al =m2 b t head$ by ,zill] dep>t$ fur!r & gave x a m extreme int]pretation4 ,tuiskon ,zill] 7#ahag-ahhb71 bo? z tea*] 9 a gymnasium & z pr(essor at ,leipzig1 did mu* to popul>ize & develop ,h]b>t's sy/em4 ,?r\gh him 0 =m$ ! ,h]b>tian society kn[n z ! #8,association = ! ,sci5tific ,/udy ( ,education1' :i* has s9ce spread ?r\gh\t ,g]many4 ,he x 0 t elaborat$ ! doctr9es ( #8correlation' & #8conc5tration1' & fir/ def9itely =mulat$ ! #8culture epo*s' !ory4 8,e pupil %\ld10 he writes1 8pass successively ?r\gh ea* ( ! *ief epo*s ( ! g5]al m5tal developm5t ( mank9d suitable to 8 /age ( developm5t4 ,! mat]ial ( in/ruction1 !re=e1 %\ld be drawn f ! ?\ght mat]ial ( t /age ( hi/orical developm5t 9 culture1 :i* runs p>allel ) ! pres5t m5tal /age ( ! pupil40 ,all ^! pr9ciples ,zill] work$ out 9 a curriculum = ! eight ye>s ( ! elem5t>y s*ool1 :i* he c5t]$ ar\nd fairy tales1 ,rob9son ,crusoe1 & selections f ! ,old & ,new ,te/am5ts4 ,he1 moreov]1 develop$ ,h]b>t's #8=mal /ages ( in/ruction' by divid+ ! fir/ /ep & *ang+ ! "n ( ! la/4 ,sid5ote3 ,/oy's practice s*ool at ,j5a1 ,sid5ote3 cont9u$ by ,re94 ,sid5ote3 ,lange & ,frick4 ,k>l ,volkm> ,/oy 7#ahae-ahhe71 ! f\nd] ( ! o!r s*ool1 gave himself simply to a =ceful re/atem5t ( ! ma/]'s positions1 b also e/abli%$ a mo/ influ5tial p$agogical sem9>y & practice s*ool ^u ! orig9al ,h]b>tian basis at ,j5a4 ,& elev5 ye>s lat]1 ,wilhelm ,re9 7#ahdg- 71 :o _h be5 a pupil ( bo? ,/oy & ,zill]1 succe$$ ! =m] 9 ! direction ( ! practice s*ool1 & introduc$ !re ! elaborate developm5t t _h tak5 place s9ce ,h]b>t's "t4 ,he adopt$ ,zill]'s #8conc5tration1' #8culture epo*s1' & o!r features1 b made !m a little m ela/ic by cord9at+ o!r mat]ial ) ! #8hi/orical' c5t] 9 ! curriculum4 ,?r\gh him ,j5a became kn[n z ! great seat ( ,h]b>tianism4 ,o!r ,g]mans to develop ! pr9ciples ( ,h]b>t h be5 ,lange & ,frick4 ,! ,app]ception ( ,k>l ,lange is an excell5t comb9ation ( sci5tific insight & popul> pres5tation4 ,otto ,frick1 director ( ! #8,francke ,in/itutions' at ,halle 7see p4 #agf71 incl9+ m to ! close int]pretation ( ,/oy1 devot$ himself to apply+ ,h]b>tianism to ! second>y s*ools1 & outl9$ a c\rse = ! gymnasium4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ,g]many cont5t & me?ods ( education 7 greatly modifi$4 ,sid5ote3 ,prom95ce giv5 to hi/ory & lit]ature4 ,a ?rong ( o!r ,g]man s*oolma/]s & pr(essors h fur!r adapt$ ! doctr9es ( ,h]b>t to s*ool practice1 & :ile _! !ories diff] v l>gely f "o ano!r1 f _! common basis !y are all prop]ly designat$ #8,h]b>tian4' ,z a result ( ?is cont9u\s propag&a1 ! cont5t & me?ods ( ! s*ool curricula 9 ,g]many h be5 l>gely modifi$4 ,h]b>t's emphasis ^u ! importance to ! second>y s*ools ( lit]>y & hi/orical /udies z a moral tra9+ has be5 adapt$ to ! elem5t>y s*ools by ! lat] ,h]b>tians 9 ! =m ( /ory & biographical mat]ial4 ,hi/ory has consequ5tly atta9$ a m prom95t place 9 ! curriculum1 & is no long] auxili>y to read+ & geography4 ,x is reg>d$ z a means ( moral developm5t1 & ! cultural features 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,g]man p are /ress$ m ?an ! political4 ,zill]'s plan = conc5trat+ all /udies ab\t a core ( hi/ory & lit]ature1 on ! gr\nd ( ?us produc+ #8a moral revelation ( ! _w' = ! pupil1 is 9 evid5ce ev]y:]e4 ,a tw(old c\rse1--,jewi% hi/ory ?r\gh ,bible /ories1 & ,g]man hi/ory 9 ! =m ( leg5ds & tales1 appe>s 9 e grade ( ! elem5t>y s*ool aft] ! fir/ two1 & ev5 9 ^! l[] classes !re is "s attempt to utilize lit]ature z a moral tra9+ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( fairy /ories1 fables1 moral tales1 ,rob9son ,crusoe1 & ! v>i\s /ories ( ! philan?rop9i/s 7see p4 #bbe74 ,sid5ote3 ,am]ican tea*]s :o /udi$ at ,j5a introduc$ ,h]b>tianism into ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,nor!rn ,ill9ois ! c5t]4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,h]b>t ,society & its ,ye> ,book4 ,h]b>tianism 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,next to ! l& ( its bir?1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 m influ5c$ by ,h]b>tianism ?an any o!r c\ntry4 ,be=e #ahhj !re 7 b few notices ( ,h]b>tianism 9 ,am]ican educational lit]ature1 & n _m appe>$ dur+ ! foll[+ decade4 ,! movem5t 0 fo/]$ l>gely by ,am]ican tea*]s t 7 /udy+ ) ,re9 at ,j5a dur+ ! la/ two decades ( ! c5tury4 ,be=e #ahij n9e ,am]icans _h tak5 _! degree !re1 & by ! tw5tie? c5tury m ?an fifty4 ,^! "y m5 came back fill$ ) ! en?usia/ic belief t ,h]b>tian pr9ciples c\ld supply a solution 9 sy/ematic =m = ! _m complicat$ problems ) :i* ,am]ican education 0 !n grappl+1 & began at once to propagate _! fai?4 ,! movem5t c5t]$ *iefly 9 nor!rn ,ill9ois & 0 especially /rong 9 ! normal s*ools4 ,! /aff ( ! ,/ate ,normal ,univ]sity at ?is "t includ$ ,*>les ,de,garmo1 aft]w>d pr(essor ( ,education at ,cornell1 ,frank ,m4 ,mc,murry1 n[ ( ! ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 & 8 bro!r1 ,*>les ,a4 ,mc,murry1 n[ ( ! faculty ( ! ,george ,peabody ,college = ,tea*]s2 & ! practice s*ool at ! ,normal ,univ]sity 0 ! fir/ to be e/abli%$ ^u ,h]b>tian pr9ciples4 ,! ,s*oolma/]s' ,club ( ,ill9ois gave mu* ( its "t to a discussion ( ,h]b>tian pr9ciples1 & ! fir/ ,h]b>tian lit]ature 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 rapidly produc$4 ,dur+ ! la/ decade ( ! c5tury !re appe>$ l>ge numb]s ( articles1 textbooks1 treatises1 & translations1 includ+ ,! ,me?od ( ! ,recitation & a v>iety ( o!r works ^u g5]al & special me?ods by ! ,mc,murrys4 ,9 #ahib ,! ,h]b>t ,club 0 f\nd$ to promote a /udy ( ,h]b>tian pr9ciples & adapt !m to ,am]ican conditions1 & dur+ ! fir/ ?ree ye>s x sp5t its ef=ts 9 translat+ ! words ( ,h]b>t & 9 discuss+ ,h]b>tian topics only4 ,9 #ahie ! "n ( ! club 0 *ang$ to ! ,h]b>t ,society = ! ,sci5tific ,/udy ( ,education1 _m non-,h]b>tians 7 admitt$1 ! scope ( ! discussions 0 enl>g$1 & ! publication ( a ,ye> ,book 0 begun4 ,sid5ote3 ,opposition1 ,sid5ote3 b gr[? ( ! movem5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,h]b>tian features adopt$ by o!rs4 ,!n began ! p]iod ( criticism & ! =mulation ( ,am]ican ,h]b>tianism4 ,! movem5t 0 vigor\sly oppos$ by _m on ! gr\nd t x 0 a =eign importation1 0 bas$ ^u absurd metaphysical presuppositions1 or conta9$ no?+ new1 b ! disciples ( ,h]b>t /ood valiantly by _! guns4 ,al?\gh n always c]ta9 9 _! own m9ds1 !y endeavor$ to cle> up all misund]/&+ & confusion 9 ! doctr9es & to keep !m practical ?r\gh develop+ !m 9 connection ) actual exp]im5ts 9 tea*+4 ,!y %[$ t ! fanciful psy*ology ( ,h]b>t did n hold a det]m9+ place 9 8 educational ?\ght1 & t x might be reject$1 )\t affect+ ! m]it ( 8 p$agogy4 ,"o by "o ! doctr9es 7 introduc$ 9 ! ord] ( _! concret5ess1--five =mal /eps1 app]ception1 conc5tration1 int]e/--& little attempt 0 made to weave !m into a s+le sy/em4 ,! critical season did n long endure1 & ! movem5t soon spread widely4 ,by ! close ( ! fir/ ye> ! ,h]b>t ,society _h a memb]%ip ( sev5 hundr$1 & ! ,h]b>tian pr9ciples 7 ev]y:]e /udi$ by local clubs & taught 9 s*ools & univ]sities4 ,9 ! report ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,commission] ( ,education = #ahid-ahie1 ,dr4 ,h>ris /at$3 8,!re are at pres5t m adh]5ts ( ,h]b>t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?an 9 ,g]many40 ,?is1 he believ$1 0 due to ! great] fre$om ( discussion t 0 all[$4 ,! movem5t n only became an educational awak5+1 b x atta9$ almo/ to ! proportions ( a cult4 ,moreov]1 _m :o h>dly consid]$ !mselves ,h]b>tians und]took to modify & adapt ! ,h]b>tian pr9ciples1 especially #8correlation' & #8conc5tration4' ,francis ,w4 ,p>k] ( ,*icago1 = example1 among ! phases ( 8 educational practice 7cf4 pp4 #bic & #cfd71 approa*$ conc5tration s closely z to c5t] ! entire c\rse ( /udy ar\nd a hi]>*y ( natural & social sci5ces4 ,& ! ,committees ( ,t5 & ,fifte51 appo9t$ by ! ,national ,education ,association to report ^u second>y & elem5t>y education respectively1 %[$ a /rong ,h]b>tian influ5ce 9 _! recomm5dations ( correlation4 ,sid5ote3 ,am\nt ( hi/ory increas$ 9 ,am]ican s*ools1 ,sid5ote3 & wide survey ( lit]ature enc\rag$4 ,l>gely 9 consequ5ce ( ! developm5t ( ,h]b>tianism1 an increas$ am\nt & l>g] utilization ( hi/orical mat]ial became g5]al also 9 ,am]ican elem5t>y s*ools4 ,a wide appreciation ( ! gr[? ( morality1 culture1 & social life1 r ?an m]ely ! developm5t ( patriotism1 became ! object 9 /udy+ ?is subject4 ,engli% & ,g]man hi/ory1 z well z ,am]ican1 :i* alone 0 =m]ly taught1 & sometimes ,greek1 ,roman1 & ,norse1 appe> 9 ! curricula ( _m elem5t>y s*ools1 &1 in/ead ( be+ conf9$ to ! two upp] classes1 hi/orical mat]ial is (t5 pres5t$ f ! ?ird grade up4 ,biographical & hi/orical /ories are l>gely employ$ 9 ! l[] classes1 :ile 9 ! upp] "s attempt is made to use ,european hi/ory z a sett+ = ,am]ican4 ,a simil> developm5t 9 ! am\nt & use ( lit]ature also has appe>$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! elem5t>y s*ools1 p>tly z a result ( ! ,h]b>tian influ5ce4 ,in/ead ( brief selections f ! ,engli% & ,am]ican writ]s1 or ! poor] mat]ial t =m]ly appe>$ 9 ! s*ool read]s1 complete works ( lit]ature h begun to be /udi$ 9 ! elem5t>y curriculum1 & a wide & rapid survey ( ! great ,engli% classics has be5 enc\rag$ 9 ! place ( m]ely read+ = ! sake ( oral expression4 ,ev5 9 ! l[e/ grades "s attempt to introduce ! classics ( *ildhood has be5 made4 ,:ile 9 ^! ways all elem5t>y1 & to "s ext5t second>y1 s*ools h be5 affect$1 ,h]b>tianism pure & simple has l>gely be5 ab&on$ = less dogmatic me?ods4 ,ev5 ! ,h]b>t ,society has ceas$ to fo/] a propag&a1 & has s9ce #aija dropp$ ! fir/ "p ( its "n & be5 kn[n z #8,! ,national ,society = ! ,sci5tific ,/udy ( ,education4' ,! lat] works ( ,de,garmo & ,frank ,m4 ,mc,murry claim to be q emancipat$ f ,h]b>tianism4 ,b1 al?\gh pr(ess$ ,h]b>tians are n[ almo/ unkn[n 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 no o!r sy/em ( p$agogy1 except t ( ,pe/alozzi1 has ev] _h s wide an influ5ce ^u ,am]ican education & ^u ! ?\ght & practice ( tea*]s g5]ally4 ,sid5ote3 ,se>* = #8unity' develop$ ?r\gh idealism1 romanticism1 & #8nature philosophy' at ,j5a4 ,froebel's ,e>ly ,life4--,let u n[ turn to ,froebel1 ! o!r great successor ( ,pe/alozzi1 & to 8 developm5t & ext5sion ( ! ma/]'s pr9ciple ( #8natural developm5t4' ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,augu/ ,froebel 7#aghb-aheb7 0 born 9 a village ( ! ,?r+ian =e/4 ,he tells u t ?is environm5t />t$ )9 him a se>* = ! my/ic unity t he believ$ to exi/ amid ! v>i\s ph5om5a ( nature1 b x is m likely t ?is attitude 0 develop$ ?r\gh a brief resid5ce 7#agii-ahjj7 at ! ,univ]sity ( ,j5a4 ,! atmosph]e ab\t ?is in/itution 0 *>g$ ) ! ideali/ic philosophy1 ! romantic movem5t1 & ! evolution>y attitude 9 sci5ce4 ,froebel c\ld n h escap$ ! con/ant discussions ^u ! philosophy ( ,fi*te & ,s*ell+4 ,he mu/ likewise h fall5 "u ! spell ( ! ,j5a romantici/s1--! ,s*legels1 ,tieck1 & ,novalis4 ,! advanc$ attitude 9 sci5ce at ,j5a may also h impress$ ! y\?4 ,:ile mu* ( ! sci5ce in/ruction fail$ to make cle> t inn] relation & my/ic unity = :i* he s\ght1 he mu/ occasionally h caught glimpses ( x 9 ! lectures ( pr(essors belong+ to ! s*ool ( ,natur-philosophie4 ,sid5ote3 ,adoption ( tea*+4 ,sid5ote3 ,/udy ) ,pe/alozzi4 ,sid5ote3 ,cry/allization ( law ( #8unity4' ,8 ,exp]i5ces at ,frank=t1 ,yv]don1 & ,b]l94--,aft] leav+ ! univ]sity1 ,froebel 0 = f\r ye>s grop+ = a ni*e 9 life4 ,b he ev5tually 7#ahje7 met ,anton ,grn]1 head ( a ,pe/alozzian model s*ool at ,frank=t1 :o p]suad$ him ( 8 fitness = tea*+ & gave him a position 9 ! in/itution4 ,"h he und]took a sy/ematic /udy ( ,pe/alozzianism1 &1 ?r\gh ! use ( model+ 9 pap]1 pa/ebo>d1 & wood ) 8 pupils1 he came to see ! value ( motor expression z a means ( education4 ,he !n )drew to ,yv]don & work$ ) ,pe/alozzi himself = two ye>s 7#ahjh-ahaj74 ,!re he greatly increas$ 8 k ( ! play & developm5t ( *ildr51 music1 & nature /udy1 :i* 7 to play s important a "p 9 8 me?ods4 ,next1 he w5t to ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l9 to /udy m9]alogy ) ,pr(essor ,weiss1 & ?r\gh ! "w !re he f9ally cry/alliz$ 8 my/ic law ( #8unity4' ,he became fully 8conv9c$ ( ! demon/rable connection 9 all cosmic developm5t10 & decl>$ t 8!reaft] my rocks & cry/als s]v$ me z a mirror :]e9 ,i might disc]n mank9d1 & man's developm5t & hi/ory40 ,sid5ote3 ,self-expression ?r\gh play & practical "w4 ,sid5ote3 ,education ( ,man4 ,! ,s*ool at ,keilhau4--,:ile at ,b]l91 he met 8 lifelong assi/ants1 ,lange?al & ,midd5dorf1 & took !m ) him :5 he und]took ! education ( 8 five "y nephews at ,keilhau4 ,"h he f\nd$ 7#ahaf7 #8,! ,univ]sal ,g]man ,in/itute ( ,education1' 9 :i* self-expression1 free developm5t1 & social p>ticipation 7 rul+ pr9ciples4 ,mu* ( ! tra9+ 0 obta9$ ?r\gh play1 &1 except t ! pupils 7 old]1 ! g]m ( ! k9d]g>t5 0 already pres5t4 ,!re 0 mu* practical "w 9 ! op5 air1 9 ! g>d5 ab\t ! s*oolh\se1 & 9 ! build+ itself4 ,! *ildr5 built dams & mills1 =tresses & ca/les1 & se>*$ ! woods = animals1 birds1 insects1 & fl[]s4 ,to popul>ize ! in/itute1 ,froebel publi%$ a complete acc\nt ( ! !ory practic$ at ,keilhau 9 8 fam\s ,education ( ,man 7#ahbf74 ,:ile ?is "w is compress$1 repetiti\s1 & vague1 & its doctr9es _h aft]w>d to be correct$ by exp]i5ce1 x conta9s ! mo/ sy/ematic /atem5t ( 8 educational philosophy t ,froebel ev] made4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ,switz]l& he began to devise play?+s1 games1 & songs4 ,sid5ote3 ,fir/ k9d]g>t5 at ,blank5burg4 ,sid5ote3 ,lat] works4 ,developm5t ( ! ,k9d]g>t54--,b ! s*ool at ,keilhau 0 too radical = ! times1 & soon f\nd itself 9 s]i\s /raits4 ,froebel !n w5t to ,switz]l&1 & = five ye>s 7#ahcb-ahcg7 cont9u$ 8 educational exp]im5ts 9 v>i\s locations !re4 ,:ile conduct+ a model s*ool at ,burgdorf1 x became obvi\s to him t 8all s*ool education 0 yet )\t a prop] initial f\ndation1 & t1 until ! education ( ! nurs]y 0 re=m$1 no?+ solid & wor?y c\ld be atta9$40 ,! ,s*ool ( ,infancy ( ,com5ius 7see p4 #aga7 _h be5 call$ to 8 att5tion1 & ! educational importance ( play _h come to appeal to him m /rongly ?an ev]4 ,he began to /udy & devise play?+s1 games1 songs1 & bodily movem5ts t w\ld be ( value 9 ! developm5t ( small *ildr51 al?\gh at fir/ he did n organize 8 mat]ials into a sy/em4 ,!n1 two ye>s lat]1 he return$ to ,g]many1 & e/abli%$ a s*ool = *ildr5 betwe5 ! ages ( ?ree & sev54 ,?is in/itution 0 locat$ at ,blank5burg1 two miles f ,keilhau1 "o ( ! mo/ romantic spots 9 ! ,?r+ian ,=e/1 & 01 be=e long1 appropriately *ri/5$ #8,k9d]g>t5' 7i4 e41 g>d5 9 :i* *ildr5 are ! unfold+ plants74 ,"h he put into use ! mat]ial he _h inv5t$ 9 ,switz]l&1 add$ new devices1 & develop$ 8 sy/em4 ,! ma9 features ( ?is 7 ! #8play songs' = "m & *ild & ! s]ies ( #8gifts' & #8occupations' 7see pp4 #ceh f474 ,dur+ 8 sev5 ye>s 9 ,blank5burg1 he con/antly exp&$ 8 mat]ial1 & ! acc\nts ( ^! additions h be5 collect$ 9 ! works kn[n g5]ally z ,p$agogics ( ! ,k9d]g>t51 ,education by ,developm5t1 & ,"m ,play & ,nurs]y ,songs4 ,sid5ote3 ,f9al "w at ,lieb5/e91 & ! ,b>oness von ,bl[4 ,:ile ! k9d]g>t5 attract$ consid]able att5tion1 ,froebel's want ( f9ancial ability ev5tually compell$ him to close ! in/itution4 ,aft] lectur+ ) mu* success = five ye>s ^u 8 sy/em1 he settl$ = ! re/ ( 8 life ne> ! fam\s m9]al spr+s at ,lieb5/e9 9 ,saxe-,me9+54 ,dur+ ?is p]iod he obta9$ ! fri5d%ip & support ( ! ,b>oness von ,m>5holtz-,bl[1 :o br\ght a l>ge numb] ( p ( di/9ction 9 ! political & educational _w to see 8 "w 9 op]ation1 & wrote mo/ int]e/+ ,rem9isc5ces ( ,froebel's activities dur+ ! la/ ?irte5 ye>s ( 8 life4 ,b ow+ to a confusion ( 8 pr9ciples ) ! sociali/ic doctr9es ( 8 nephew1 ,k>l1 a decree 0 promulgat$ 9 ,prussia by ! m9i/] ( education1 clos+ all k9d]g>t5s !re4 ,froebel nev] recov]$ f ?is unju/ humiliation1 & di$ )9 a ye>4 ,sid5ote3 ,develop$ f ,pe/alozzi & ev5 ,r\sseau1 ,sid5ote3 b l>gely a resultant ( 8 univ]sity environm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,reit]ations & subsidi>y concepts4 ,froebel's ,fundam5tal ,concept ( #8,unity4'--,:ile ,froebel's und]ly+ pr9ciples g back to ! developm5tal aspect ( ,pe/alozzi's doctr9es & ev5 to ,r\sseau's naturalism1 8 conception ( !m1 8 imag]y1 & /atem5t1 seem to be a product ( ! ideali/ic philosophy1 romantic movem5t1 & sci5tific attitude ( ! day4 ,^! t5d5cies seem to h be5 assimilat$ by ,froebel l>gely ?r\gh 8 resid5ce 9 ,j5a & ,b]l94 ,8 conclusions z to educational !ory & practice w\ld h be5 possible z inf]5ces f a v diff]5t po9t ( view1 b z he develop$ !m logically & consi/5tly ) 8 metaphysical position1 x may be ( value to consid] briefly ! gr\ndwork ( ! ,froebelian philosophy4 ,he reg>d$ ! #8,absolute1' or ,god1 z ! self-consci\s _s f :i* orig9at$ bo? man & nature1 & he consequ5tly held to ! unity ( nature ) ! s\l ( man4 ,8 fundam5tal view ( ?is organic unity appe>s 9 8 g5]al conception ( ! univ]se3 8,9 all ?+s10 says he1 8!re lives & reigns an et]nal law4 ,?is all-controll+ law is necess>ily bas$ on an all-p]vad+1 en]getic1 liv+1 self-consci\s1 & h5ce et]nal ,unity4 ,?is ,unity is ,god4 ,all ?+s h come f ! ,div9e ,unity1 f ,god1 & h _! orig9 9 ! ,div9e ,unity1 9 ,god alone4 ,all ?+s live & h _! be+ 9 & ?r\gh ! ,div9e ,unity1 9 & ?r\gh ,god4 ,! div9e efflu5ce t lives 9 ea* ?+ is ! ess5ce ( ea* ?+40 ,?is fundam5tal my/ic pr9ciple ,froebel con/antly reit]ates 9 v>i\s =ms1 & f x d]ives a numb] ( subsidi>y conceptions4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 play b a small "p 9 8 actual practice1 & sc>cely require consid]ation "h4 ,sid5ote3 ,education %\ld be #8foll[+4' ,sid5ote3 #8,self-activity4' ,sid5ote3 #8,creativ5ess4' ,motor ,expression z ,8 ,me?od4--,b ,froebel also holds t1 8:ile 9 e human be+ !re lives humanity z a :ole1 9 ea* "o x is realiz$ & express$ 9 a :olly p>ticul>1 peculi>1 p]sonal1 & unique mann]40 ,?us he ma9ta9s t !re is 9 e p]son at bir? a cord9at$1 unifi$ plan ( 8 mature "*1 & t1 if x is n m>r$ or int]f]$ )1 x w develop naturally ( itself4 ,:ile he is n entirely consi/5t1 & at times implies t ?is natural developm5t mu/ be guid$ & ev5 %ap$1 9 ! ma9 he reit]ates ,r\sseau's doctr9e t #8nature is "r1' & cle>ly /&s = a full & free expression ( ! in/9cts & impulses4 ,h5ce he insi/s t 8education 9 in/ruction & tra9+ %\ld necess>ily be passive1 foll[+2 n prescriptive1 categorical1 int]f]+40 ,b 9 8 conclusion z to ! prop] me?od = accompli%+ ?is #8developm5t1' ,froebel naturally holds t x 8%\ld be br\ght ab\t n 9 ! way ( dead imitation or m]e copy+1 b 9 ! way ( liv+1 spontane\s self-activity40 ,by ?is pr9ciple ( #8self-activity' z ! me?od ( education ,froebel seeks n simply activity 9 response to sugge/ion or in/ruction f p>5ts or tea*]s1 b activity ( ! *ild 9 c>ry+ out 8 own impulses & decisions4 ,individuality mu/ be develop$ by su* activity1 & self-hood giv5 its rightful place z ! guide to ! *ild's p[]s :5 ex]cis$ 9 le>n+4 ,h5ce ) ?is idea ( developm5t ?r\gh #8self-activity' is connect$ 8 pr9ciple ( #8creativ5ess1' by :i* new =ms & comb9ations are made & expression is giv5 to new images & ideas4 8,pla/ic mat]ial repres5tation 9 life & ?r\gh do+1 unit$ ) ?\ght & spee*10 he decl>es1 8is by f> m develop+ & cultivat+ ?an ! m]ely v]bal repres5tation ( ideas40 ,sid5ote3 ,self-realization ?r\gh social p>ticipation4 ,sid5ote3 ,cop]ative 9 text activities 9 play4 ,! ,social ,aspect ( ,education4--,8 emphasis ^u ?is psy*ological pr9ciple ( motor expression "u ! head ( #8self-activity' & #8creativ5ess' is ! *ief *>act]i/ic ( ,froebel's me?od4 ,r\sseau _h also recomm5d$ motor activity z a means ( le>n+1 b he _h insi/$ ^u an isolat$ & unsocial education = ,emile1 :]eas ,froebel /resses ! social aspects ( education q z cle>ly z he does ! pr9ciple ( self-expression4 ,9 fact1 he holds t increas+ self-realization1 or individualization ?r\gh #8self-activity1' mu/ come ?r\gh a process ( socialization4 ,! social in/9ct is primal1 & ! individual c be truly educat$ only 9 ! company ( o!r human be+s4 ,! life ( ! individual is necess>ily b\nd up ) p>ticipation 9 in/itutional life4 ,ea* "o ( ! v>i\s in/itutions ( society 9 :i* ! m5tality ( ! race has manife/$ itself--! home1 ! s*ool1 ! *ur*1 ! vocation1 ! /ate--becomes a m$ium = ! activity ( ! individual1 & at ! same "t a means ( social control4 ,z f> z ! *ild ent]s into ! surr\nd+ life1 he is to receive ! developm5t ne$$ = ! pres5t1 & !reby also to be prep>$ = ! future4 ,?r\gh imitation ( cop]ative activities 9 play1 he obta9s n only physical1 b intellectual & moral tra9+4 ,su* a moral & intellectual atmosph]e ,froebel s\ght to cultivate at ,keilhau by cop]ation 9 dome/ic labor1--#8lift+1 pull+1 c>ry+1 digg+1 splitt+1' & ?r\gh cop]ative con/ruction out ( blocks ( a *apel1 ca/le1 & o!r features ( a village4 ,simil>ly1 ! k9d]g>t5 0 int5d$ to 8repres5t a m9iature /ate = *ildr51 9 :i* ! "y citiz5 c le>n to move freely1 b ) consid]ation = 8 little fell[s40 ,sid5ote3 ,a s*ool )\t books or set tasks z 8 ?ird contribution4 ,! ,k9d]g>t54--,beside 8 basal pr9ciples ( motor expression & social p>ticipation1 ,froebel made a ?ird contribution to educational practice 9 advocat+ z a means ( realiz+ ^! pr9ciples a s*ool )\t books or set intellectual tasks1 & p]meat$ ) play1 fre$om1 & joy4 ,9 ! k9d]g>t51 #8self-activity' & #8creativ5ess1' toge!r ) social cop]ation1 f\nd complete application & concrete expression4 ,! tra9+ !re has always consi/$ ( ?ree cord9ate =ms ( expression3 7#a7 song1 7#b7 movem5t & ge/ure1 & 7#c7 con/ruction2 & m+l$ ) ^! & gr[+ out ( ea* is ! use ( language by ! *ild4 ,b ^! means1 :ile sep>ate1 (t5 cop]ate ) & int]pret "o ano!r1 & ! process is connect$ z an organic :ole4 ,= example1 :5 ! /ory is told or read1 x is express$ 9 song1 dramatiz$ 9 movem5t & ge/ure1 & illu/rat$ by a con/ruction f blocks1 pap]1 clay1 or o!r mat]ial4 ,sid5ote3 ,"m ,play4 ,! ,"m ,play & ,nurs]y ,songs 7 int5d$ to ex]cise ! infant's s5ses1 limbs1 & muscles1 &1 ?r\gh ! lov+ union betwe5 "m & *ild1 draw bo? into intellig5t & agreeable relations ) ! common objects ( life ab\t !m4 ,! fifty #8play songs' are ea* connect$ ) "s simple nurs]y game1 l #8pat-a-cake1' #8hide-&-seek1' or ! imitation ( "s trade 7,fig4 #dc71 & are int5d$ to correspond to a special physical1 m5tal1 or moral ne$ ( ! *ild4 ,! selection & ord] ( ! songs 7 det]m9$ ) ref]5ce to ! *ild's developm5t1 :i* ranges f almo/ reflex & in/9ctive movem5ts up to an ability to repres5t 8 p]ceptions ) draw+s1 accompani$ by consid]able gr[? ( ! moral s5se4 ,ea* song conta9s ?ree p>ts3 7#a7 a motto = ! guidance ( ! "m2 7#b7 a v]se ) ! accompany+ music1 to s+ to ! *ild2 & 7#c7 a picture illu/rat+ ! v]se4 ,sid5ote3 #8,gifts1'-- ,sid5ote3 fir/1 ,sid5ote3 second1 ,sid5ote3 ?ird1 ,sid5ote3 & ! o!r ?ree1 ,sid5ote3 & #8occupations4' ,! #8gifts' & #8occupations' 7 bo? int5d$ to /imulate motor expression1 b ! #8gifts' comb9e & re>range c]ta9 def9ite mat]ial )\t *ang+ ! =m1 :ile ! #8occupations' re%ape1 modify1 & trans=m _! mat]ial4 ,! emphasis 9 k9d]g>t5 practice has come to be transf]r$ f ! #8gifts' to ! #8occupations1' :i* h be5 l>gely increas$ 9 range & numb]4 ,( ! #8gifts1' ! fir/ consi/s ( a box ( six wool5 balls ( diff]5t colors4 ,!y are to be roll$ ab\t 9 play1 & ?us develop ideas ( color1 mat]ial1 =m1 motion1 direction1 & muscul> s5sibility4 ,a sph]e1 cube1 & cyl9d] ( h>d wood compose ! second #8gift4' ,"h1 !re=e1 are f\nd a kn[n factor 9 ! sph]e & an unkn[n "o 9 ! cube4 ,a comp>ison is made ( ! /ability ( ! cube ) ! movability ( ! sph]e1 & ! two are h>moniz$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 :i* possesses ! *>act]i/ics ( ea*4 ,! ?ird #8gift' is a l>ge wood5 cube divid$ into eight equal cubes1 ?us tea*+ ! relations ( ! p>ts to ! :ole & to "o ano!r1 & mak+ possible orig9al con/ructions1 su* z arm*airs1 b5*es1 ?rones1 doorways1 monum5ts1 or /eps4 ,! ?ree foll[+ #8gifts' divide ! cube 9 v>i\s ways s z to produce solid bodies ( diff]5t types & sizes1 & excite an int]e/ 9 numb]1 relation1 & =m4 ,f !m ! *ildr5 are enc\rag$ to con/ruct geometrical figures & #8=ms ( beauty' or arti/ic designs4 ,beside ! six regul> #8gifts1' he also add$ #8tablets1' #8/icks1' & #8r+s1' sometimes kn[n z #8gifts sev5 to n9e4' ,?is mat]ial introduces surfaces1 l9es1 & po9ts 9 contra/ ) ! prec$+ solids1 & br+s out ! relations ( area1 outl9e1 & circumf]5ce to volume4 ,! #8occupations' comprise a long li/ ( con/ructions ) pap]1 s&1 clay1 wood1 & o!r mat]ials4 ,correspond+ ) ! #8gifts' t deal ) solids1 may be gr\p$ #8occupations' 9 clay model+1 c>dbo>d cutt+1 pap] fold+1 & wood c>v+2 & ) ^? ( surfaces may be associat$ mat & pap] weav+1 /ick %ap+1 sew+1 bead ?read+1 pap] prick+1 & draw+4 ,sid5ote3 ,sup]ficial faults1 ,sid5ote3 bondage to local ideals1 ,sid5ote3 & =mal discipl9e4 ,! ,value & ,influ5ce ( ,froebel's ,pr9ciples4--,= "o pursu+ de/ructive criticism only1 x w\ld n be difficult to f9d flaws 9 bo? ! !ory & practice ( ,froebel4 ,9 ! ,"m ,play ! pictures are r\gh & poorly drawn1 ! music is crude1 & ! v]ses are lack+ 9 rhy?m1 poetic _s1 & diction 7,fig4 #dc74 ,b ! illu/rations & songs s]v$ well ! int]e/s & ne$s ( ^? = :om !y 7 produc$1 & ,froebel himself 0 n insi/5t t !y %\ld be us$ aft] m satisfactory compositions 7 f\nd4 ,o!r criticism ( 8 mat]ial has be5 made on ! gr\nd t x 0 especially adapt$ to ,g]man ideals1 ,g]man *ildr51 & ! relatively simple village life ( ,froebel's exp]i5ce1 & t x ne$s consid]able modification to suit o!r c\ntries & ! indu/rial organization ( society to-day4 ,also ! argum5t ( #8=mal discipl9e' = c>e & accuracy 9 ! use ( ! gifts1 & ! insi/5ce ^u ! employm5t ( e "p ( ea* gift ^u all occasions 9 ! exact ord] m5tion$ by ,froebel1 h be5 %[n to violate ! pr9ciples ( mod]n psy*ology4 ,8 m lib]al disciples1 h[ev]1 realize t x is ! _s ( 8 und]ly+ pr9ciples1 & n ! lett] ( 8 practice1 t %\ld be foll[$1 & h con/antly /ruggl$ to keep ! k9d]g>t5 matt] & me?ods 9 h>mony ) ! times & ! environm5t4 ,d] ,zimm]mann4 ,seht mir nur d5 ,zimm]mann1 ,wel*' seltne ,kun/ er b5 kann3 ,0 /eht1 br+t er zum ,/urz2 ,0 lang i/1 ma*t er kurz2 ,das ,runde ma*t er grad2 ,das ,rauhe ma*t er glatt2 ,0 krumm i/1 ma*t er glei*2 ,s i/ an ,kun/ er rei*4 ,das ,e9zle ni*t ihm g'ngt1 ,zum ,ganz5 s*nell er 's fgt2 ,do*1 0 kommt da h]aus8-- ,aus ,balk5 wird e9 ,haus6 ,e9 ,haus fr #8s gute ,k9d1 ,da es d'r9 ,elt]n f9d'1 ,die sorgsam es bewahr5 ,vor ,seel'- und ,leib'sgefahr54 ,d5 ,zimm]mann das ,k9d d'rum liebt1 ,d] ihm d5 ,s*utz des ,hauses giebt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4--;,d] ,zimm]mann 7,! ,c>p5t]74 7,reproduc$ by p]mission ( ,d4 ,appleton & ,company f ! ,eliot & ,bl[ edition ( ,froebel's ,"m ,play47 ,sid5ote3 ,greate/ weakness 9 symbolism & my/icism4 ,sid5ote3 ,fanta/ic & vague doctr9es4 ,sid5ote3 ,notion t nature may illum9e m5tal & social laws4 ,a m s]i\s h9drance to ! acceptance ( ,froebelianism has aris5 f 8 peculi> my/icism & symbolism4 ,s9ce all ?+s live & h _! be+ 9 & ?r\gh ,god & ! div9e pr9ciple 9 ea* is ! ess5ce ( its life1 ev]y?+ is liable to be consid]$ by ,froebel z symbolic 9 its v nature1 & he (t5 resorts to fanta/ic & /ra9$ int]pretations4 ,?us ) ,froebel ! cube becomes ! symbol ( div]sity 9 unity1 ! faces & edges ( cry/als all h my/ic mean+s1 & ! numb]s ?ree & five reveal an inn] significance4 ,at times ?is symbolism desc5ds into a lit]al & v]bal pun1 :]e x seems to a mod]n t ,froebel c h>dly be 9 e>ne/4 ,fur!r1 he holds t g5]al conceptions are implicit 9 ! *ild1 & ea* ( ^! c be awak5$ by #8adumbration1' t is1 by pres5t+ some?+ t w symbolically repres5t t p>ticul> #8innate idea4' ,?us1 9 treat+ ! gifts & games1 he ma9ta9s t f a ball ! pupils ga!r an ab/ract notion ( #8unity4' ,moreov]1 because ,god is ! self-consci\s _s t orig9at$ bo? man & nature1 & ev]y?+ is int]connect$1 he believes t ea* "p ( ! univ]se may ?r[ light on e o!r "p1 & con/antly holds t a k ( ext]nal nature1--su* z ! =mation ( cry/als1 w enable "o to compreh5d ! laws ( ! m9d & ( society4 ,sid5ote3 ,mo/ ess5tial to cons]vatives4 ,sid5ote3 ,effect ^u pupils4 ,un=tunately1 ?is my/ic symbolism1 vague & extreme z x is1 is reg>d$ by ! /rict con/ructioni/s among ! k9d]g>tn]s z ! mo/ ess5tial feature 9 ,froebelianism1 & !y expect ! innoc5ts 9 _! *>ge to reveal ! symbolic effect ( ! mat]ial ^u _! m9ds4 ,!re is no real evid5ce = suppos+ t su* associations betwe5 common objects & ab/ract conceptions exi/ = *ildr54 ,b su* an imag9>y symbolic mean+ may be =c$ ^u an object by ! tea*]1 & pupils 9 cons]vative k9d]g>t5s soon le>n to adopt c]ta9 phrases & attitudes t imply su* my/ic mean+4 ,?is (t5 t5ds to fo/] ins9c]ity & s5tim5talism r ?an to inculcate ab/ract tru? ?r\gh symbols4 ,_h ,froebel possess$ ! enl>g$ k ( biology1 physiology1 & psy*ology t is available = "o liv+ 9 ! tw5tie? c5tury1 x is unlikely t he w\ld h insi/$ ^u ! symbolic f\ndations = 8 p$agogy4 ,8 excell5t practice is heavily h&icapp$ by ^! int]pretations1 & might z easily h be5 inf]r$ f v diff]5t positions 9 mod]n psy*ology4 ,sid5ote3 ,borr[$ f o!rs1 ,sid5ote3 b unique 9 motor expression1 social p>ticipation & in=mal s*ool4 ,b ,froebel has _h a mo/ happy effect ^u education z a :ole4 ,9 "s respects he utiliz$ features f o!r re=m]s4 ,we c see t he adopt$ _m ( ,pe/alozzi's objective me?ods 9 geography1 natural hi/ory1 ari?metic1 language1 draw+1 writ+ & read+1 & con/ructive geometry2 reit]at$ ,r\sseau's views ^u ! infallibility ( nature2 & advocat$ ! physical tra9+ & excursions z a means ( /udy t are /ress$ by bo? ^! re=m]s4 ,9 8 use ( /ories1 leg5ds1 fables1 & fairy-tales1 he p>allel$ 8 contempor>y1 ,h]b>t1 9 8 influ5ce ^u ! curriculum4 ,b 9 8 emphasis ^u motor expression & social p>ticipation1 toge!r ) 8 advocacy ( a s*ool )\t books or set tasks1 ,froebel 0 unique1 & made a mo/ di/9ctive contribution to educational practice4 ,& :5ev] ! real significance ( 8 pr9ciples has be5 compreh5d$1 !y h be5 recogniz$ z ! mo/ ess5tial laws 9 ! educational process1 & are valu$ z ! means ( all effective tea*+4 ,sid5ote3 ,contribution to all /ages ( education4 ,sid5ote3 ,manual tra9+ ?r\gh ,cygnu ,sid5ote3 & ,salomon4 ,sid5ote3 ,p>k] & ,dewey4 ,froebel himself nev] fully work$ out 8 !ories 9 connection ) s*ool+ beyond ! k9d]g>t51 b all /ages ( education h n[ come to realize ! value ( discov]+ & develop+ individuality by means ( initiative1 execution1 & cop]ation2 & spontane\s activities1 l play1 con/ruction1 & occupational "w1 h become m & m ! means to ?is end4 ,= example1 ! #8busy "w1' #8:ittl+1' #8clay-model+1' #8sloyd1' & o!r types ( #8manual tra9+' h to a l>ge degree sprung f ! influ5ce ( ,froebel4 ,uno ,cygnu 7#ahaj-ahhh71 :o />t$ ! manual tra9+ movem5t1 ow$ 8 inspiration to ,froebel & 8 own desire to ext5d ! k9d]g>t5 occupations ?r\gh ! grades4 ,z a result ( 8 ef=ts1 ,f9l& 9 #ahff became ! fir/ c\ntry 9 ! _w to adopt manual tra9+ z an integral "p ( ! c\rse 9 ! elem5t>y & tea*] tra9+ s*ools4 ,9 #ahgd1 ?r\gh ! visit ( ,otto ,salomon 7#ahdi-aijg7 to ,cygnu1 ,sw$5 trans=m$ its sloyd f a sy/em ( tea*+ ! elem5ts ( trades to ! m educative me?od ( manual tra9+4 ,?is use ( con/ructive & occupational "w = educational purposes r ?an = indu/rial effici5cy soon spread ?r\gh\t ,europe1 & 0 fir/ sugge/$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ! ,c5t5nial ,exposition ( #ahgf at ,philadelphia4 ,v>i\s types ( mod]n educational !ory & practice1 especially ^? associat$ ) exp]im5ts made 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 also reveal l>ge elem5ts ( ,froebelian influ5ce4 ,among ^! might be includ$ ! "w ( ,colonel ,p>k] 7,fig4 #dj7 & ( ,pr(essor ,john ,dewey4 ,! ,froebelian emphasis ^u motor expression1 ! social aspect ( education1 & in=mal s*ool+ are evid5t ?r\gh\t ,p>k]'s "w 9 8 elem5t>y s*ool1 & are ev5 ext5d$ s z to include spee* & ! language-arts4 ,simil>ly1 ,dewey's occupational "w & indu/rial activities1 :i* 7 us$ ?r\gh ! entire c\rse ( 8 #8exp]im5tal s*ool' 9 ,*icago1 al?\gh n copi$ directly f ,froebel1 closely approa*$ ! modifi$ practice ( ! k9d]g>t5 7see pp4 #dcj f474 ,sid5ote3 ,b>oness von ,bl[ visit$ all c\ntries4 ,sid5ote3 ,f\ndation ( ,froebel ,union4 ,sid5ote3 ,results 9 ,we/]n ,europe4 ,! ,spread ( ,froebelianism ?r\gh ,europe4--,directly aft] ! dea? ( ,froebel1 ! k9d]g>t5 began to be spread ?r\gh 8 devot$ foll[]s1 especially ,b>oness von ,bl[4 ,by means ( h] social position & k ( mod]n languages1 %e 0 enabl$ to become 8 great apo/le ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,hav+ fail$ to obta9 a revocation ( ! edict aga9/ ! k9d]g>t5 7see p4 #cee7 9 ,prussia1 ! b>oness turn$ to =eign l&s4 ,%e visit$ ,france1 ,belgium1 ,holl&1 ,italy1 ,russia1 & ne>ly e o!r section ( ,europe1 & 9 #ahfg 0 invit$ to speak be=e ! #8,congress ( ,philosoph]s' at ,frank=t4 ,?is di/+ui%$ ga!r+ _h be5 call$ to inquire into contempor>y educational movem5ts1 & aft] h] elucidation ( ,froebelianism1 a /&+ committee ( ! ,congress1 kn[n z ! #8,froebel ,union1' 0 =m$ to /udy ! sy/em4 ,! propag&a 0 soon ev]y:]e eag]ly embrac$4 ,k9d]g>t5s1 tra9+ s*ools1 & j\rnals devot$ to ! movem5t rapidly sprang up4 ,:ile ! k9d]g>t5 0 n g5]ally adopt$ by ! gov]nm5ts1 x 0 widely e/abli%$ by volunt>y means ?r\gh\t ,we/]n ,europe1 & has s9ce met ) a notewor?y gr[?4 ,in/ruction 9 ,froebelian pr9ciples is n[ g5]ally requir$ 9 mo/ normal & tea*] tra9+ in/itutions !re4 ,sometimes1 z 9 ,france & ,engl&1 x has be5 comb9$ ) ! infant s*ool movem5t1 & has lo/ "s ( its mo/ vital *>act]i/ics1 b ev5 9 ^! cases ! cross-f]tilization has af=d$ abundant educational fruitage4 ,only 9 ,g]many1 ! native l& ( ! k9d]g>t51 has s]i\s ho/ility to ! idea rema9$4 ,k9d]g>t5s h1 ) few exceptions1 nev] be5 recogniz$ !re z g5u9e s*ools or "p ( ! regul> /ate sy/em4 ,ev5 to-day ! ,g]man k9d]g>t5 is reg>d$ z little m ?an a day nurs]y or conv5i5t place to deposit small *ildr5 & h !m amus$4 ,sid5ote3 ,volunt>y basis ?r\gh ,elizabe? ,p4 ,peabody1 ,sid5ote3 ,m>ia ,blte1 ,sid5ote3 ,susan ,e4 ,bl[1 ,sid5ote3 ,emma ,m>w$el1 & o!rs4 ,! ,k9d]g>t5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,! developm5t & influ5ce ( ! k9d]g>t5 h be5 m m>k$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?an 9 any o!r c\ntry4 ,fir/ attempts at a k9d]g>t5 9 ,am]ica 7 made %ortly aft] ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury by educat$ ,g]mans1 :o _h emigrat$ to ,am]ica because ( ! unsettl$ conditions at home4 ,a m fruitful attempt 0 t ( ,elizabe? ,p4 ,peabody at ,bo/on 9 ! e>ly sixties4 ,not)/&+ ! imm$iate success ( ?is in/itution & ! evid5t enjoym5t ( ! *ildr51 ,miss ,peabody felt t %e _h n succe$$ 9 gett+ ! real _s ( ,froebel1 & 9 #ahfg %e w5t to /udy ) 8 wid[1 :o _h be5 settl$ 9 ,hamburg = sev]al ye>s4 ,^u h] return ! foll[+ ye> ,miss ,peabody correct$ ! errors 9 h] "w & e/abli%$ a p]iodical to expla9 & spread ,froebelianism4 ,! rema9d] ( h] life 0 sp5t 9 int]e/+ p>5ts1 philan?ropi/s1 & s*ool bo>ds 9 ! movem5t1 & a s]vice 0 done = ! k9d]g>t5 9 ,am]ica almo/ equal to t ( ,b>oness von ,bl[ 9 ,europe4 ,9 #ahfh ?r\gh ,miss ,peabody ! fir/ tra9+ s*ool = k9d]g>tn]s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 e/abli%$ at ,bo/on4 ,a simil> in/itution 0 op5$ 9 ,new ,york by #ahgb 9 *>ge ( ,m>ia ,blte1 :o _h also /udi$ ) ,frau ,froebel4 ,! same ye> saw ! beg9n+ ( ,susan ,e4 ,bl['s "w 9 ,/4 ,l\is1 :]e h] free tra9+ s*ool = k9d]g>tn]s 0 op5$4 ,ano!r mission>y ef=t began 9 #ahgf ?r\gh ,emma ,m>w$el1 :o 0 employ$ to organize volunt>y k9d]g>t5s & tra9+ classes ?r\gh\t ! *ief c5t]s ( ,cali=nia4 ,! k9d]g>t5 movem5t grew rapidly4 ,betwe5 #ahgj & #ahij 9 all ! lead+ cities ( ! c\ntry subscriptions = k9d]g>t5s 7 rais$ by v>i\s philan?ropic ag5cies1 & by ! close ( ! c5tury !re 7 ab\t five hundr$ su* volunt>y associations4 ,sid5ote3 ,"p ( ! public s*ool sy/em 9 all progressive cities4 ,b private f\ndations are re/rictive1 & x 0 n until ! k9d]g>t5 began to be adopt$ by s*ool sy/ems t ! movem5t became truly national 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,bo/on 9 ! e>ly sev5ties add$ a few k9d]g>t5s to h] public s*ools1 b aft] sev]al ye>s ( trial gave !m up on acc\nt ( ! exp5se4 ,! fir/ p]man5t e/abli%m5t "u a city bo>d 0 made 9 #ahgc at ,/4 ,l\is ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ,miss ,bl[4 ,twelve k9d]g>t5s 7 organiz$ at fir/1 b o!rs 7 op5$ z rapidly z compet5t directors c\ld be prep>$ at ,miss ,bl['s tra9+ s*ool4 ,)9 a decade !re 7 m ?an fifty public k9d]g>t5s & ne>ly eight ?\s& pupils 9 ,/4 ,l\is4 ,san ,francisco au?oriz$ ! addition ( k9d]g>t5s to ! public s*ools 9 #ahhj2 & betwe5 t date & ! end ( ! c5tury ,new ,york1 ,bo/on1 ,philadelphia1 ,buffalo1 ,pittsburgh1 ,ro*e/]1 ,provid5ce1 ,milwaukee1 ,m9neapolis1 & ne>ly two hundr$ o!r progressive cities made ! "w an integral "p ( _! sy/em4 ,ab\t tw5ty ( ! cities employ$ a special sup]visor to inspect ! "w4 ,excell5t tra9+ s*ools = k9d]g>tn]s are n[ ma9ta9$ by half a hundr$ public & quasi-public normal in/itutions4 ,sid5ote3 ,/udies improv$ by ,pe/alozzi ,sid5ote3 & ,h]b>t1 ,sid5ote3 & tra9+ contribut$ by ,froebel4 ,sid5ote3 ,p]iod ( re=ms ( ,pe/alozzi1 ,sid5ote3 ,froebel1 ,sid5ote3 & ,h]b>t4 ,! ,relative ,influ5ce ( ,pe/alozzi1 ,h]b>t1 & ,froebel4--,x is n[ obvi\s h[ l>ge a "p 9 ! developm5t ( mod]n educational practice has be5 play$ by ,h]b>t & ,froebel4 ,!re are few t5d5cies 9 ! curricula & me?ods ( ! s*ools to-day t _c 9 _! beg9n+s be trac$ back to !m1 or to ,pe/alozzi1 _! ma/]4 ,b ! re=ms ( all ?ree f9d _! roots 9 ,r\sseau 7,fig4 #dd74 ,8 #8naturalism' 0 cont9u$ by ,pe/alozzi 7,fig4 #de7 9 8 #8developm5t' & #8obs]vation1' :i* 71 9 turn1 fur!r elaborat$ by ,froebel & ,h]b>t respectively 7,figs4 #dg & #df74 ,?r\gh 8 #8obs]vation' me?ods1 ,pe/alozzi greatly improv$ ! tea*+ ( ari?metic1 language "w1 geography1 elem5t>y sci5ce1 draw+1 writ+1 read+1 & music1 &1 by means ( ,fell5b]g's "w1 develop$ indu/rial & philan?ropic tra9+4 ,z a result ( ,h]b>t's moral & religi\s aim1 m>k$ advances 9 ! tea*+ ( hi/ory & lit]ature h tak5 place1 &1 l>gely ?r\gh 8 c>efully wr\ght educational doctr9es1 ord] & sy/em h ev]y:]e be5 introduc$ into in/ruction4 ,f ,froebel's my/ic int]pretation ( #8natural developm5t' we h obta9$ ! k9d]g>t5 tra9+ = a p]iod ( life hi!rto l>gely neglect$1 ! in=mal occupations1 manual tra9+1 & o!r /udies ( motor expression1 toge!r ) psy*ological & social pr9ciples t und]lie e /age ( education4 ,pe/alozzi's re=ms 7 felt 9 ,europe ?r\gh\t ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 b did n h any wide effect ^u ! ,unit$ ,/ates until aft] ! #8,oswego movem5t' 9 ! sixties4 ,! influ5ce ( ,froebel appe>$ 9 ,europe %ortly aft] ! middle ( ! c5tury1 & began to rise to its height 9 ,am]ica ab\t #ahhj4 ,! ,h]b>tian !ory & practice became popul> 9 ,g]many betwe5 #ahfe & #ahhe1 :ile ! gr[? ( ,h]b>tianism 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates began ab\t five ye>s aft] ! latt] date4 ,h5ce ! developm5t ( mod]n educational practice1 due to ^! ?ree great re=m]s1 falls di/9ctly )9 ! p]iod ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4--;,jean ,jacques ,r\sseau 7#agab-aggh74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4--;,johann ,he9ri* ,pe/alozzi 7#agdf-ahbg74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,johann ,fri$ri* ,h]b>t 7#aggf-ahda74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4--;,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,augu/ ,froebel 7#aghb-aheb74 ,,great ,,educational ,,re=m]s ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap4 ,,vii2 ,great ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 *aps4 ,x & ,,xi2 ,monroe1 ,textbook 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #fbb-fgc2 ,p>k]1 ,mod]n ,elem5t>y ,education 7,g9n1 #aiab71 *aps4 ,,xvii & ,,xviii4 ,h]b>t's ,sci5ce ( ,education 7translat$ by ,felk971 & ,outl9es ( ,educational ,doctr9e 7translat$ by ,lange & ,de ,g>mo1 ,macmillan1 #aiji72 & ,froebel's ,education ( ,man 7translat$ by ,hailmann2 ,appleton1 #ahid71 ,p$agogics ( ! ,k9d]g>t5 & ,education by ,developm5t 7translat$ by ,j>vis2 ,appleton1 #ahig & #ahii71 & ,"m ,play 7translat$ by ,eliot & ,bl[1 ,appleton1 #ahif71 %\ld be read at lea/ cursorily4 ,! be/ brief treatise on ,h]b>t & ,h]b>tianism 7,scribn]1 #ahif7 is t by ,de ,g>mo1 ,c41 a graphic description ( ,! ,h]b>tian ,psy*ology 7,hea?1 #ahih7 is giv5 by ,adams1 ,j41 9 *ap4 ,,iii1 & a hi/ory ( ,! ,doctr9es ( ,h]b>t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z a doctoral diss]tation 7,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania7 by ,r&els1 ,g4 ,b4 ,a good acc\nt ( ,froebel & ,education by ,self-,activity 7,scribn]1 #ahig7 has be5 furni%$ by ,b[51 ,h4 ,c42 a cons]vative treatm5t ( ,k9d]g>t5 ,education 7,education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 edit$ by ,n4 ,m4 ,butl]1 ,monograph ,no4 #a71 by ,bl[1 ,susan ,e42 an int]e/+ treatise on ,k9d]g>t5 9 ,am]ican ,education 7,macmillan1 #aijh71 by ,v&ewalk]1 ,n9a ,c42 & a critical acc\nt ( ,! ,psy*ology ( ! ,k9d]g>t5 7,tea*]s ,college ,record1 vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cgg-djh71 by ,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,mod]n ,,sy/ems ,,( ,,education ,,outl9e ,! lead+ /ates ( ,we/]n ,europe & ( ,canada h1 dur+ ! pa/ c5tury & a half1 organiz$ sy/ems ( education1 :i* may prove sugge/ive4 ,9 ,prussia1 ow+ to a /rong l9e ( mon>*s1 /ate control has tak5 ! place ( ecclesia/ical ?r\gh a s]ies ( decrees & enactm5ts4 ,! p's s*ools are q sep>ate f ! second>y s*ools4 ,?ree types ( second>y in/itutions h develop$1--! #8gymnasium1' ) ! classics z /aples2 ! #8real-s*ool1' ) mod]n languages & sci5ces2 & ! #8real-gymnasium1' ) its compromise betwe5 ! o!r two4 ,! univ]sities h likewise be5 emancipat$ f ecclesia/ical control4 ,9 ,france1 a highly c5traliz$ sy/em has be5 develop$4 ,napoleon unit$ second>y & high] education 9 a s+le corporation2 "u ,l\is ,philippe1 an organization ( elem5t>y s*ools 0 made2 &1 dur+ ! ?ird republic1 elem5t>y education has be5 made free1 compulsory1 & secul>4 ,! pres5t second>y sy/em--lyces & communal colleges--began ) ,napoleon1 & has n[ be5 diff]5tiat$ into sev]al c\rses4 ,"o-half ( ! univ]sities e/abli%$ by ,napoleon 7 suppress$ dur+ ! ,re/oration1 b s9ce #ahif !re has be5 a univ]sity 9 ea* ( ! sixte5 #8academies1' save "o4 ,9 ,engl& national education has gr[n out ( ! conflict ( a numb] ( social elem5ts4 ,! s5tim5t = univ]sal tra9+ appe>$ t[>d ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 b n until #ahgj 7 #8bo>d s*ools' e/abli%$4 ,9 #ahii a c5tral ,bo>d ( ,education 0 creat$2 & ! ,act ( #aijb1 :ile p]mitt+ volunt>y s*ools to %>e 9 ! local rates1 unifi$ ! sy/em & e/abli%$ second>y education at public exp5se4 ,dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury also ! classical & ecclesia/ical monopoly 9 second>y & high] education 0 l>gely brok54 ,9 ,canada !re h develop$ two types ( educational control1--7#a7 ! closely c5traliz$ sy/em ( public s*ools 9 ,ont>io1 & 7#b7 ! public sup]vision ( ecclesia/ical s*ools 9 ,quebec4 ,sid5ote3 ,elem5t>y education free1 b few cases ( gratuit\s second>y s*ools1 & ,france alone secul>iz$4 ,sid5ote3 ,sugge/ive1 :5 und]/ood hi/orically4 ,national ,sy/ems ( ,education 9 ,europe & ,canada4--,9 previ\s *apt]s 7,,xvii1 ,,xxi1 ,,xxiii7 we h witness$ ! gradual evolution 9 ,am]ica ( /ate sy/ems ( univ]sal education out ( ! unorganiz$ & r ari/ocratic arrangem5t ( s*ools t _h fir/ be5 transplant$ f ,europe 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,b developm5t ( a c5traliz$ organization ( public s*ools has n be5 conf9$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,dur+ ! pa/ c5tury & a half1 ! lead+ p[]s ( ,we/]n ,europe & ,canada h likewise organiz$ /ate sy/ems ( education1 simil> 9 "s respects to ^? ( ! ,am]ican union4 ,all ( ^! /ates h n[ e/abli%$ univ]sal elem5t>y education free to all1 al?\gh z yet 9 few in/ances are second>y s*ools also gratuit\s1 & only ,canada has weld$ h] elem5t>y & second>y sy/ems4 ,france alone has completely secul>iz$ its sy/em1 b ! public s*ools ( ! o!r nations1 :ile /ill includ+ religi\s in/ruction1 h be5 emancipat$ f ecclesia/ical control1 & are responsible to ! civil au?orities4 ,9 all ( !m s*ool att5dance is compulsory4 ,yet ! educational sy/em 9 none ( ^! c\ntries is id5tical ) t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b has be5 adapt$ 9 ea* case to ! g5ius & social organization ( ! p conc]n$4 ,its *>act]i/ics mu/1 !re=e1 be consid]ably modifi$1 9 ord] to be utiliz$ or to prove sugge/ive to ! ,unit$ ,/ates or o!r nations1 & c be und]/ood only 9 ! light ( ! educational hi/ory ( ! p>ticul> c\ntry to :i* x belongs4 ,= an intellig5t appreciation ( ^! mod]n s*ool sy/ems1 we mu/1 !re=e1 trace ! gradual developm5t to _! pres5t =m 9 response to ! *ang+ ideals ( successive p]iods4 ,sid5ote3 ,rise ( ,prussian education due to enlight5$ despots3 ,sid5ote3 7#a7 ,decree = compulsory att5dance by ,fr$]ick ,william ,i 9 #agag2 ,! ,beg9n+ ( ,/ate ,control 9 ,prussia4--,we may look fir/ at ,g]many4 ,up to ! lat] ye>s ( ! eighte5? c5tury all /ages ( education 9 ! v>i\s ,g]man /ates rema9$ almo/ entirely "u ecclesia/ical control1 b dur+ ?is p]iod ! s*ools & univ]sities 7 tak5 ov] by ! /ate f ! *ur*1 al?\gh ! cl]gy /ill ex]cis$ a few pr]ogatives1 & c5traliz$ national sy/ems 7 gradually organiz$4 ,among ^! /ates ( ,g]many ! fir/ & mo/ influ5tial 9 ! organization ( univ]sal education 0 ,prussia4 ,:ile ea* ( ! o!rs is *>act]iz$ by an educational hi/ory & peculi>ities ( its own1 ?is /ate may be tak5 z an illu/ration ( ! evolution ( ,g]man s*ool sy/ems4 ,! rise ( ,prussia1 educationally z well z politically1 seems to h be5 due to ! /rong ,hoh5zoll]n mon>*s1--despotic1 b ?or\ghly awake to ! int]e/s ( _! p4 ,al?\gh = ne>ly two c5turies /ate control ( education 0 c>ri$ on m or less ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! *ur*1 its developm5t 0 well "u way by ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,:ile ! #8consi/ory1' or bo>d ( sup]vision1 0 /ill compos$ l>gely ( ! cl]gy1 ! s*ools 7 soon 7#afhg7 decl>$ n to be simply *ur* organizations1 b to belong to ! /ate1 & "s attempt 0 made to ext5d s*ools to ! villages z well z cities4 ,b ! fir/ notewor?y attempt to e/abli% compulsory att5dance occurr$ dur+ ! reign ( ,fr$]ick ,william ,i4 ,9 #agag t mon>* decre$ t1 :]ev] s*ools exi/$1 *ildr5 %\ld be requir$ to att5d dur+ ! w9t]1 & 9 ! summ] :5ev] !y c\ld be sp>$ by _! p>5ts1 :i* mu/ be at lea/ once a week4 ,he also f\nd$ ! fir/ tea*]s' sem9>y at ,/ett9 f 8 own private means 7#agce71 & ! next ye> _h a def9ite law pass$1 mak+ education compulsory = *ildr5 f six to twelve ye>s ( age4 ,sid5ote3 7#b7 ,g5]al ,s*ool ,regulations decre$ by ,fr$]ick 9 #agfc1 ,sid5ote3 supplem5t$ by ,regulations = ,ca?olic ,s*ools2 ,educational ,a*ievem5ts ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great4--,8 mo/ important contribution1 h[ev]1 consi/$ 9 prep>+ ! way = an educational movem5t t 0 to be greatly develop$ ?r\gh 8 m able son1 ,fr$]ick ! ,great4 ,fr$]ick began by improv+ ! adm9i/ration ( second>y education1 & requir+ t all vacancies on cr[n l&s be fill$ by graduates f ,heck]'s normal s*ool at ,b]l94 ,b ! great /ep t[>d a national sy/em 0 tak5 9 #agfc1 :5 ,fr$]ick issu$ 8 ,g5]al ,s*ool ,regulations = ! ,c\ntry4 ,?is decree requir$ *ildr5 to att5d s*ool f five until ?irte5 or f\rte51 & until !y 8"k n only :at is necess>y ( ,*ri/ianity1 flu5t read+1 & writ+1 b c give answ] 9 ev]y?+ :i* !y le>n f ! s*ool books prescrib$ & approv$ by our consi/ory40 ,if any pupils %\ld arrive at ?is /ate ( pr(ici5cy be=e ?irte5 or f\rte51 !y c\ld ev5 !n leave s*ool only ?r\gh ! (ficial c]tification ( ! tea*]1 m9i/]1 & inspector4 ,provision 0 also made = ! att5dance ( *ildr5 :o _h to h]d cattle or 7 too poor to pay ! s*ool fees4 ,sunday cont9uation s*ools 7 to be e/abli%$ = "y p beyond ! s*ool age4 ,tea*]s mu/ h att5d$ ,heck]'s sem9>y & _h to be exam9$ & lic5s$ by ! inspector4 ,?is decree 0 two ye>s lat] supplem5t$ ) simil> ,regulations = ! ,ca?olic ,s*ools 9 ,silesia1 drawn up by ,abbot ,felbig]4 ,! c>ry+ out ( ! decree 01 h[ev]1 /ubbornly oppos$ by _m tea*]s1 :o c\ld n meet ! new requirem5ts2 by f>m]s1 :o object$ to ! loss ( _! *ildr5's "t2 & by ! nobles1 :o fe>$ ! discont5t & upris+ ( ! peasants1 9 case !y 7 educat$4 ,! execution ( ! regulation 0 /ill 9 ! p[] ( ! cl]gy1 & = "s "t x prov$ b little m ?an a pi\s wi%4 ,b ,fr$]ick /rove h>d to h x en=c$1 & x became ! f\ndation = ! m effective laws t h s9ce become embodi$ 9 ! ,prussian s*ool sy/em4 ,sid5ote3 7#c7 ,e/abli%m5t ( ,c5tral ,bo>d ( ,adm9i/ration "u ,fr$]ick ,william ,,ii 9 #aghg2 ,educational ,influ5ce ( ,z$litz4--,aft] #agga ! educational "w ( ,fr$]ick 0 sub/antially aid$ by ! appo9tm5t ( ,b>on von ,z$litz z head ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,lu!ran ,*ur* & ,s*ool ,affairs4 ,?is great m9i/] _h be5 mu* impress$ by ,bas$['s pr9ciples & exp]im5ts & by ,ro*['s application ( ! #8naturali/ic' tra9+1 & ?r\gh him village s*ools 7 greatly /r5g!n$ & enri*$1 a regul> normal s*ool 0 op5$ at ,halb]/adt1 & ! humani/ic ideal ( second>y education reviv$4 ,a ye> aft] ,fr$]ick's dea? ,z$litz succe$$1 ev5 "u ! reaction>y mon>*1 ,fr$]ick ,william ,,ii1 9 fur!r develop+ ! nationalization ( education4 ,9 #aghg an ,ob]s*ulcollegium1 or c5tral bo>d ( s*ool adm9i/ration1 0 appo9t$ in/ead ( ! =m] *ur* consi/ories4 ,h[ev]1 :ile ! organization 0 suppos$ to be made up ( educational exp]ts1 & ,z$litz 0 actually made *airman1 ! memb]%ip 0 mo/ly fill$ f ! cl]gy1 & ! k+ refus$ to ext5d its jurisdiction to ! high] s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 7#d7 ,publication ( ,g5]al ,code 9 #agid2 ,despite ! reaction>y policy ( ! sov]eign1 ! culm9ation ( ! attempts to e/abli% a national nonsect>ian sy/em ( education occurr$ dur+ ?is reign4 ,9 #agid !re 0 publi%$ ! ,g5]al ,code1 9 :i* ! *apt] ^u education decl>$ unequivocally t 8all s*ools & univ]sities are "u ! sup]vision ( ! /ate1 & are at all times subject to its exam9ation & inspection40 ,tea*]s 71 !re=e1 n to be *os5 )\t ! cons5t ( ! /ate1 & :]e _! appo9tm5t 0 n ve/$ 9 p>ticul> p]sons1 x 0 to belong to ! /ate4 ,tea*]s ( all second>y s*ools 7 to be reg>d$ z /ate (ficials4 ,no *ild 0 to be exclud$ f ! s*ools because ( 8 religion1 nor compell$ to /ay = religi\s in/ruction :5 x diff]$ f ! belief 9 :i* he _h be5 br\ght up4 ,sid5ote3 7#e7 ,creation ( a ,bureau ( ,education 9 #ahjg1 :i* lat] became a sep>ate ,m9i/ry & !n 0 fur!r organiz$4 ,f\ndation ( ! ,m9i/ry ( ,education & ,fur!r ,progress4--,:ile ?is compreh5sive code met ) mu* opposition f ! cl]gy & ! ignorant masses1 & ! next k+1 ,fr$]ick ,william ,,iii1 weakly yield$ at fir/1 ! humiliation ( ,prussia by ,napoleon 7#ahjc7 br\ght ! c\ntry to a realization ( ! ne$ ( a c5traliz$ organization ( ! s*ool sy/em4 ,! ,ob]s*ulcollegium 0 aboli%$1 to get rid ( ! cl]ical dom9ation t _h crept 91 & a ,bureau ( ,education 0 creat$ z a section ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,int]ior 9 #ahjg4 ,! ,bureau 0 )9 a decade erect$ into a sep>ate ,dep>tm5t or ,m9i/ry ( ,education4 ,eight ye>s lat] 7#ahbe7 ! /ate 0 divid$ into educational prov9ces2 & a ,s*ulcollegium1 or adm9i/rative bo>d1 ) consid]able indep5d5ce1 b subject to ! m9i/]1 0 e/abli%$ ov] ea* prov9ce4 ,s9ce !n !re h be5 _m fur!r developm5ts1 & prov9ces !mselves are n[ divid$ into #8gov]nm5ts1' ea* ( :i* has a #8s*ool commission' ov] x1 & e gov]nm5t is divid$ into #8di/ricts1' ^: *ief (fic] is a #8s*ool inspector4' ,"u ! di/rict inspector are local inspectors1 & ea* sep>ate s*ool also has a local bo>d1 to take *>ge ( repairs1 supplies1 & o!r ext]nal matt]s4 ,?us ! supreme managem5t ( ! s*ools has be5 gradually com+ into ! h&s ( ! /ate = ne>ly two c5turies4 ,! decrees ( #agag & #agfc1 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,ob]s*ulcollegium 9 #aghg1 ! ,g5]al ,code promulgat$ 9 #agid1 ! f\ndation ( a di/9ct civic adm9i/ration ( education 9 #ahjg1 are ! mile-/ones t m>k ! way to /ate control4 ,b1 :ile ! influ5ce ( ! *ur* has be5 con/antly dim9i%+1 _m ( ! bo>d memb]s are m9i/]s or prie/s & ! inspectors come mo/ly f ! cl]gy4 ,moreov]1 religi\s in/ruction =ms "p ( ! c\rse 9 e s*ool1 al?\gh x is giv5 at su* an h\r t any pupil may )draw if ! tea*+ is contr>y to ! fai? 9 :i* he has be5 re>$4 ,! second>y s*ools are l>gely int]d5om9ational1 b 9 elem5t>y education !re are sep>ate s*ools = ,ca?olics & ,prote/ants1 alike support$ by ! /ate4 ,sid5ote3 ,volkss*ul51 ,sid5ote3 #8,cont9uation s*ools1' ,sid5ote3 & ,mittels*ul54 ,! ,elem5t>y ,sy/em4--,prussia1 l mo/ ( ! pr9cipal /ates ( ,europe1 z a result ( _! educational hi/ory1 has its elem5t>y & second>y sy/ems q sep>ate & di/9ct f ea* o!r 7,fig4 #dh74 ,! univ]sities cont9ue ! "w ( ! gymnasiums & real-s*ools1 b ^! two latt] in/itutions p>allel ! "w ( ! ,volkss*ul5 7p's s*ools71 r ?an supplem5t x4 ,! c\rse ( ! second>y s*ool ord9>ily occupies ! pupil f n9e to eighte5 ye>s ( age1 :ile t ( ! elem5t>y s*ool c>ries him f six to f\rte51 & aft] ! fir/ ?ree ye>s x is practically impossible to transf] f ! elem5t>y to ! second>y sy/em4 ,a pupil _c ent] a gymnasium or real-s*ool aft] complet+ ! p's s*ool1 & ! only fur!r tra9+ he c obta9 is t ( ! ,=tbildungs*ul51 or #8cont9uation s*ools1' :i* supplem5t ! sy/em 7see p4 #dbj74 ,! p's s*ools are gratuit\s & are att5d$ mo/ly by ! *ildr5 ( ! l[] classes1 :ile ! gymnasiums *>ge a tuition fee & are patroniz$ by ! pr(essional classes & ari/ocracy4 ,h5ce ! l9e betwe5 elem5t>y & second>y education 9 ,prussia is longitud9al & n latitud9al1 z x is 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ! di/9ction is "o ( weal? & social /atus r ?an ( educational grade & advancem5t4 ,!re are also "s ,mittels*ul5 7middle s*ools7 = ! middle classes ( p1 :o _c s5d _! *ildr5 to ! second>y s*ools1 & yet c af=d "s exclusiv5ess4 ,!y h "o m class ?an ! p's s*ools1 include a =eign language dur+ ! la/ ?ree ye>s1 & require tea*]s ) a bett] tra9+4 ,sid5ote3 ,gymnasi5 & ,reals*ul52 ,sid5ote3 ,realgymnasi5 & ,ob]reals*ul52 ,sid5ote3 six-ye> c\rses2 ,! ,second>y ,sy/em4--,! ma9 types ( second>y s*ools 9 ,prussia are ! ,gymnasi5 7see p4 #aad71 ) ! classic languages z ! ma9 feature ( _! c\rse1 & ! ,reals*ul51 or real-s*ools 7see p4 #agf71 *>act]iz$ by l>g] am\nts ( ! mod]n languages1 ma!matics1 & ! natural sci5ces4 ,= m ?an a c5tury aft] ! fir/ real-s*ool 0 op5$ 9 ,b]l9 by ,heck] 7#agdg71 ?is type ( in/itution _h only six ye>s 9 its c\rse1 & 0 consid]$ inf]ior to ! gymnasium4 ,by ! m9i/]ial decree ( #ahei1 h[ev]1 two classes ( real-s*ools 7 recogniz$1 & ^? ( ! fir/ class _h a c\rse ( n9e ye>s1 & includ$ ,lat91 b n ,greek4 ,!y 7 giv5 full /&+ z second>y s*ools1 & graduates 7 grant$ admission to ! univ]sities1 except = ! /udy ( !ology1 m$ic9e1 or law4 ,! c\rse ( ! second class ( ^! in/itutions conta9$ no ,lat91 & 0 b six ye>s 9 l5g?4 ,9 #ahhb ! compromise "* ( ! c\rse ( ! fir/ class ( in/itutions l$ to _! be+ designat$ z ,realgymnasi51 :ile ! second class 9 "s in/ances _h _! "w ext5d$ to n9e ye>s & became kn[n z ,ob]reals*ul54 ,! graduates 7 !n all[$ ! privilege ( /udy+ at ! univ]sities 9 ma!matics & ! natural sci5ces4 ,s9ce #aija ! univ]sity c\rses h be5 ?r[n op5 to graduates ( any ( ! ?ree types ( second>y s*ools1 except t1 to be eligible = !ology1 "o mu/ h complet$ ! c\rse ( a gymnasium1 & = m$ic9e1 ! c\rse ( a real-gymnasium at lea/4 ,besides ^! s*ools t h be5 m5tion$1 9 rural di/ricts :]e a complete c\rse _c be ma9ta9$1 !re are (t5 second>y in/itutions t d n c>ry ! /ud5t m ?an six ye>s4 ,^! are kn[n1 accord+ to ! curriculum1 z ,progymnasi51 ,realprogymnasi51 & ,reals*ul54 ,! fir/ two classes are f> less common ?an in/itutions ) ! long] c\rse ( ! same "*1 b ! ,reals*ul5 are ne>ly twice z num]\s z ! ,ob]reals*ul54 ,sid5ote3 ,re=ms*ul52 ,sid5ote3 ! ,vors*ule4 ,s9ce ^! ?ree types ( second>y in/itutions are s di/9ct f ea* o!r 7,fig4 #dh71 x is evid5t t a p>5t is =c$ to decide ! future c>e] ( 8 boy at n9e ye>s1 long be=e 8 special ability c be kn[n4 ,if he once ent]s a real-s*ool1 he c nev] transf] to a gymnasium1 because ! ,lat9 beg9s 9 ! l[e/ class ( ! latt] c\rse1 nor c he ent] ! gymnasium f ! real-gymnasium1 aft] twelve1 s9ce he has _h no ,greek4 ,to ov]come ?is objection1 dur+ ! pa/ qu>t] ( a c5tury ef=ts h be5 made to delay ! irrevocable decision by gr\p+ all ?ree c\rses z "o in/itution & mak+ !m id5tical z long z possible4 ,9 second>y s*ools ( ?is new sort1 ,fr5* is usually ! only =eign language taught = ! fir/ ?ree ye>s4 ,!n ! c\rse divides1 & "o section takes up ,lat9 & ! o!r ,engli%4 ,aft] two ye>s m a fur!r bifurcation takes place 9 ! ,lat9 section1 & "o gr\p beg9s ) ,greek1 :ile ! o!r /udies ,engli%4 ,^! in/itutions are kn[n z ,re=ms*ul5 7,fig4 #dh71 & ! plan 0 fir/ introduc$ at ,frank=t 9 #ahib4 ,! #8re=m s*ools' are n[ gr[+ rapidly1 & !re is evid5t an increas+ t5d5cy to po/pone ! *oice ( c\rses z long z possible4 ,! ?ree ye>s ( tra9+ prelim9>y to admission to a second>y s*ool ( any type may be obta9$ ?r\gh ! p's or ! middle s*ools4 ,b !re has also gr[n up1 z an atta*m5t ( ! second>y s*ools1 a ,vors*ule 7prep>atory s*ool71 to p]=m ?is function = pupils ( ! m exclusive classes4 ,sid5ote3 ,univ]sities1 /ate in/itutions1 b controll$ by *>t]s & decrees4 ,high] ,education4--,l ! o!r /ages ( education1 ! univ]sities are n[ emancipat$ f ecclesia/ical control1 & may be reg>d$ z "p ( ! national sy/em ( education4 ,! univ]sity is n[ cord9ate & "u ! same au?ority ) ! *ur*1 = bo? are legally /ate in/itutions4 ,univ]sities c1 !re=e1 be e/abli%$ only by ! /ate or ) ! approval ( ! /ate4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 !y are n controll$ by legislation1 b ?r\gh *>t]s & special decrees ( ! m9i/] ( education4 ,z _! income f end[m5ts & fees is v small1 !y are = ! mo/ "p support$ by ! /ate4 ,!y are manag$ int]nally by ! rector & s5ate4 ,! rector is annually *os5 f _! numb] by ! full pr(essors1 ) ! approval ( ! m9i/]1 & ! s5ate is a committee f ! v>i\s faculties4 ,! pr(essors are reg>d$ z civil s]vants ) def9ite privileges1 & !y are appo9t$ by ! m9i/]1 al?\gh ! sugge/ions ( ! faculty conc]n$ are usually respect$4 ,sid5ote3 ,te*nis*e ,ho*s*ul54 ,dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury new in/itutions = ! cultivation ( sci5ce 9 application to practical & te*nological purposes h develop$ f te*nical s*ools ( a m elem5t>y "*4 ,:ile kn[n z #8te*nical high s*ools' 7,te*nis*e ,ho*s*ul571 !y are in/itutions ( high] le>n+1 & exi/ side by side ) ! univ]sities4 ,!y include s*ools ( eng9e]+1 m9+1 =e/ry1 agriculture1 vet]9>y m$ic9e1 & comm]ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,diagram ,,( ,,g]man ,,education ,fig4 #dh4 ,sid5ote3 ,fir/ agitation = elem5t>y education dur+ ! ,revolution4 ,educational ,developm5t 9 ,france4--,! developm5t ( a c5traliz$ sy/em ( education 9 ,france began almo/ a c5tury lat] ?an 9 ,g]many4 ,dur+ ! eighte5? & ! e>ly n9ete5? c5tury ! diff]5t mon>*ic p[]s 7 n at all favorable to tra9+ ! masses1 & popul> education 0 badly neglect$4 ,x requir$ sev]al revolutions 9 gov]nm5t & ! e/abli%m5t ( a p]man5t republic1 to break ! old traditions completely1 & to make x evid5t t univ]sal suffrage %\ld be accompani$ by univ]sal education4 ,j aft] ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury ! revolution>y _s began to manife/ itself ) ! appe>ance ( ,r\sseau's ,emile 7see p4 #bbb71 &1 except = ! tra9+ />t$ by ! ,*ri/ian ,bro!rs 7see p4 #adj71 ! fir/ s]i\s att5tion 0 giv5 to elem5t>y education4 ,roll&1 to :om a g5]al plan = reorganization _h be5 committ$1 recomm5d$ univ]sal education & an adequate numb] ( tra9+ s*ools = tea*]s4 ,:ile 8 proposals 7 n adopt$1 !y 7 ! basis ( mu* ( ! %ort-liv$ legislation t arose dur+ ! ,revolution1 & ( ! great pr9ciples ( educational adm9i/ration t h s9ce be5 e/abli%$4 ,sid5ote3 ,napoleon & ! ,univ]sity ( ,france4 ,napoleon1 f ! beg9n+1 endeavor$ to reorganize education ^u a bett] basis1 & :5 he _h become emp]or1 ord]$ all ! lyces1 second>y colleges1 & faculties ( high] education to be unit$ 9 a s+le corporation1 dep5d5t ^u ! /ate & kn[n z ! #8,univ]sity ( ,france' 7#ahjh74 ,?is decree ( c5tralization divid$ ! c\ntry into tw5ty-sev5 adm9i/rative #8academies1' ea* ( :i* 0 to e/abli% univ]sity faculties ( lett]s & sci5ce ne> ! pr9cipal lyces4 ,sid5ote3 ,?r\gh ,guizot prim>y s*ools began4 ,?is organization1 h[ev]1 did n include elem5t>y education1 & little attempt 0 made to provide = s*ools ( ?is grade be=e ! reign ( ,l\is ,philippe4 ,^u ! advice ( 8 great m9i/] ( education1 ,guizot1 t mon>* organiz$ prim>y education1 requir+ a s*ool = ea* commune1 or at lea/ = a gr\p ( two or ?ree communes1 & />t+ high] prim>y s*ools 9 ! dep>tm5t capitals & 9 communes ( ov] six ?\s& inhabitants 7#ahcc74 ,he also in/itut$ inspectors ( prim>y s*ools1 & e/abli%$ dep>tm5t normal s*ools "u ! m effective control ( ! /ate au?orities4 ,! plan = high] prim>y s*ools 0 nev] fully realiz$1 & ! in/itutions ( ?is sort t _h be5 e/abli%$ disappe>$ dur+ ! second empire4 ,! reaction>y law ( ,fall\x 7#ahej7 did n ev5 m5tion ^! s*ools1 b enc\rag$ ! developm5t ( d5om9ational s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,"u ?ird republic prim>y sy/em 0 complet$4 ,sid5ote3 ,normal s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,high] prim>y & cont9uation s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,mat]nal s*ools4 ,! ,prim>y ,s*ool ,sy/em4--,guizot1 h[ev]1 _h giv5 a p]man5t impulse to popul> education1 & dur+ ! ?ird republic f\ndations = a national sy/em ( education h rapidly be5 laid4 ,s*ools h be5 br\ght into ! smalle/ villages1 & elem5t>y education has be5 made free to all 7#ahha7 & compulsory betwe5 ! ages ( six & ?irte5 7#ahhb74 ,to provide tra9$ tea*]s1 e dep>tm5t has be5 requir$ to provide a normal s*ool = tea*]s ( ea* sex2 & two high] normal s*ools1 "o = m5 & "o = wom51 to tra9 tea*]s = ! dep>tm5tal normal s*ools1 h be5 op5$ by ! /ate 7#ahhb74 ,! high] prim>y s*ools h be5 re/abli%$ & ext5d$ 7#ahih71 & #8supplem5t>y c\rses' (f]$ = pupils rema9+ at ! l[] prim>y s*ools aft] graduation4 ,! /udies 9 ! supplem5t>y c\rses are te*nical1 z well z g5]al1 & "s ( ! high] prim>y s*ools h be5 e/abli%$ = vocational tra9+ r ?an lit]>y4 ,9 addition1 !re are cont9uation #8s*ools ( manual appr5tice%ip' 9 ! v>i\s communes1 subsidiz$ by ! /ate = indu/rial & agricultural education1 & five l>ge s*ools = tra9+ 9 special crafts h be5 organiz$ 9 ,p>is4 ,in/itutions = *ildr5 betwe5 two & six ye>s ( age became "p ( ! prim>y sy/em 9 ! days ( ,guizot 7#ahcc71 & half a c5tury lat] ! pres5t "n1 coles mat]nelles 7see p4 #bdd71 0 adopt$ 7#ahha71 al?\gh !re h s9ce be5 m>k$ re=ms made 9 ! curriculum4 ,sid5ote3 ,secul>ization4 ,secul>ization ( ! s*ool sy/em has also gradually tak5 place4 ,fir/1 ! c\rses ( /udy 7 secul>iz$ by ! sub/itution ( civic & moral in/ruction = religi\s 7#ahha72 next1 ! in/ructional =ce 0 secul>iz$ by provid+ t memb]s ( ! cl]gy %\ld no long] be employ$ 9 ! public s*ools 7#ahhf71 & by recogniz+ public s*ool tea*]s z /ate (fic]s 7#ahhi72 & f9ally1 ! s*ools !mselves 7 completely secul>iz$ by compell+ ! tea*+ ord]s to report to ! /ate au?orities 7#aijb71 & aft]w>ds by clos+ ! free s*ools direct$ by !m 7#aijd74 ,?us )9 a g5]ation univ]sal elem5t>y education has be5 e/abli%$ 9 ,france & br\ght completely "u /ate control4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t ( lyces & communal collges4 ,! ,second>y ,sy/em4--,z 9 ,prussia1 ! second>y s*ool sy/em ( ,france does n connect ) ! prim>y1 b is q sep>ate & di/9ct 7,fig4 #di74 ,! tra9+ has1 s9ce ! "t ( ,napoleon1 be5 furni%$ *iefly by ! lyces & communal collges4 ,dur+ ! ,re/oration 7#ahad-ahcj7 & ! reign ( ,l\is ,philippe 7#ahcj-ahdh7 ! lyces came to be call$ #8royal colleges1' b1 ) ! adv5t ( ! second republic 7#ahdh-ahea71 ! ,napoleonic "n 0 re/or$ & ! curricula 7 completely reorganiz$4 ,by ?is revision "s ela/icity 0 introduc$ into ! la/ ?ree ye>s ( ! lyce by a bifurcation into a lit]>y & a sci5tific c\rse1 & dur+ ! ?ird republic fur!r elections 7 introduc$1 until f9ally 7#aijb7 f\r di/9ct c\rses 7 e/abli%$4 ,9 ! lead+ lyces & collges special prep>ation is also af=d$ = s*ools l ! milit>y in/itution ( ,/4 ,cyr or ! ,polyte*nic ( ,p>is2 & 9 "s !re is a %ort c\rse ( ?ree or f\r ye>s 9 mod]n languages & sci5ces t 9 function closely approa*es t ( ! ,g]man real-s*ool4 ,sid5ote3 ,organization ( lyces ,sid5ote3 & collges4 ,sid5ote3 ,second>y in/itutions = girls4 ,! boys ord9>ily beg9 ! fir/ #8cycle' ( ! lyce or collge at t5 ye>s ( age1 & :ile !y may transf] f ! prim>y sy/em at ?is /age1 9 mo/ lyces & collges !re are prep>atory classes to tra9 ! pupil f six to t54 ,! second #8cycle1' dur+ :i* ! diff]5tiation 9 c\rses l>gely occurs1 takes ! pupil f f\rte5 to sev5te51 & leads ^u completion to ! ba*elor's degree4 ,education 9 a lyce or collge is n gratuit\s1 b ! income f tuition fees is s small z to cov] b a small fraction ( ! co/1 & ! re/ is contribut$ by ! /ate4 ,! communal collges diff] f ! lyces 9 be+ local1 & !y are ma9ta9$ by ! communes1 z well z by ! /ate4 ,!y h n ! same /&+1 & ! same atta9m5ts are n requir$ ( _! pr(essors4 ,until #ahhj !re 7 no lyces & communal collges = girls1 & conv5ts & private s*ools furni%$ ! only means ( female education4 ,ev5 n[ ! usual c\rse 9 ! public second>y in/itutions = girls is two ye>s %ort] ?an 9 ^? = boys4 ,sid5ote3 ,suppression & re/oration ( ! univ]sities4 ,sid5ote3 ,degrees4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r high] in/itutions4 ,! ,in/itutions ( ,high] ,education4--,m ?an "o-half ( ! univ]sities e/abli%$ 9 ! v>i\s #8academies' by ,napoleon 7 suppress$ z soon z ! mon>*y 0 re/or$4 ,b ab\t half a doz5 7 reop5$ 9 ! reign ( ,l\is ,philippe1 & 7 gradually improv$ by ! addition ( new *airs4 ,beg9n+ 9 #ahhe1 a numb] ( decrees e/abli%$ a g5]al c\ncil ( faculties 9 ea* academy to cord9ate ! diff]5t c\rses & /udies1 & 9 #ahif a law 0 pass$1 :i* e/abli%$ a univ]sity 9 ea* ( ! sixte5 #8academies1' except "o4 ,^! univ]sities diff] greatly 9 size1 b all grant ! lic5se1 or ma/]'s degree1 & ! doctorate4 ,! univ]sity degrees are ord9>ily conf]r$ 9 ! "n ( ! /ate & c>ry c]ta9 def9ite rights ) !m1 b ( late ye>s a new type ( degree1 #8doctorate ( ! univ]sity1' is grant$ ^u easi] t]ms to =eign]s m desir\s ( ! degree ?an ( its /ate privileges4 ,9 ,p>is1 besides ! univ]sity1 !re is ! ,college ( ,france1 :i* /ill endeavors to fo/] fre$om ( ?\ght 7see p4 #aaj71 & a doz5 o!r in/itutions ( univ]sity grade1 connect$ ) "s special l9e1 h be5 e/abli%$4 ,sid5ote3 ,duties ( m9i/]1 ,sid5ote3 rectors1 ,sid5ote3 prefects1 ,sid5ote3 & inspectors4 ,c5traliz$ ,adm9i/ration ( ! ,fr5* ,education4--,! c5tralization ( education is ev5 m complete 9 ,france ?an 9 ,g]many4 ,! supreme head ( ! sy/em is ! m9i/] ( education4 ,he is imm$iately assi/$ by ?ree directors1 "o ea* = prim>y1 second>y1 & high] education4 ,a rector is 9 *>ge ( ea* ( ! #8academies1' except ,p>is1 :]e ! m9i/] nom9ally holds ! (fice & a vice rector p]=ms ! duties4 ,! rector has au?ority ov] all ?ree fields ( education 9 8 academy1 b does n appo9t ! tea*]s4 ,t (fice is p]=m$ by ! prefect1 or head ( ea* civil dep>tm5t1 ^u ! recomm5dation ( ! academy inspector4 ,!re is also a dep>tm5tal c\ncil1 presid$ ov] by ! prefect1 t appo9ts delegates 9 ea* canton1 to take *>ge ( ! s*ool premises & equipm5t4 ,fur!r organization is effect$ ?r\gh ! ma9t5ance ( a complete corps ( g5]al1 academy1 & prim>y inspectors4 ,sid5ote3 ,sl[ evolution4 ,sid5ote3 ,*ur* monopoly4 ,sid5ote3 ,philan?ropic in/itutions4 ,e>ly ,developm5t ( ,engli% ,education4--,9 ,engl& ! nationalization ( education 0 delay$ ev5 long] ?an 9 ,france4 ,?is c\ntry 0 nev] controll$ by enlight5$ despots1 :o c\ld1 z 9 ,g]many1 =ce ! gr[? ( public educational s5tim5t1 nor 0 x ov]:elm$ by ! sweep ( a great revolution1 de/roy+1 z 9 ,france1 all opposition to popul> progress4 ,national education 9 ,engl& has gradually gr[n out ( ! conflict ( a numb] ( elem5ts repres5t$ 9 its society4 ,x has be5 ! product ( a s]ies ( compromises among _m diff]5t factors1--! *ur*1 /ate1 economic conditions1 private ent]prise1 & philan?ropy4 ,= sev]al c5turies education 0 reg>d$ z a function ( ! *ur* & family1 & ! s5tim5t = univ]sal tra9+ 0 ret>d$ by ! attitude ( ! upp] classes1 :o /rove to keep ! poor 9 ignorance & to ma9ta9 ! educational control ( ! *ur*4 ,?is dom9ation 0 fir/ s]i\sly *all5g$ 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 & :ile ! tra9+ !n furni%$ ?r\gh ! ,society = ! ,promotion ( ,*ri/ian ,k1 ! ,sunday s*ools1 & o!r philan?ropic in/itutions 7see pp4 #bcb ff471 0 r meag]1 ^! organizations1 toge!r ) ! #8monitorial' in/ruction ( ! ,briti% & ,=eign1 & ! ,national ,societies 7see pp4 #bdj f471 greatly advanc$ ! cause ( univ]sal education4 ,& t[>d ! close ( ! c5tury !re began to appe> a new po9t ( view1 especially ) m5 l ,b5?am1 ,black/one1 ,rob]t ,ow51 & ,adam ,smi?1 :o advocat$ univ]sal education1 compulsory att5dance1 & a national sy/em ( s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,fir/ signs ( progress4 ,sid5ote3 ,fir/ p>liam5t>y grant 9 #ahcc4 ,sid5ote3 ,committee ( ,privy ,c\ncil 9 #ahci4 ,sid5ote3 #8,paym5t by results' 9 #ahfa4 ,educational ,movem5ts 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury4--,! !ory ( ^! great ?9k]s 0 some:at 9 advance ( ! times1 b1 e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 social *anges began to favor bett] educational opportunities4 ,! ,factory ,act 7#ahjb7 provid$ = ! obligatory tra9+ ( appr5tices2 ,mr4 ,:itbread introduc$ 7#ahjg7 a bill to p]mit ! civic (ficials ( any t[n%ip or p>i% to e/abli% s*ools = ! poor :]ev] none exi/$2 & ,br\gham1 :ile los+ 8 bill = popul> education 7#ahbj71 previ\sly secur$ two commissions ( inquiry on s*ool facilities4 ,9 #ahcb1 ! passage ( a re=m bill1 :i* l>gely increas$ ! suffrage1 ar\s$ ,p>liam5t to ! ne$ ( educat+ ! masses1 & ! next ye> ! fir/ grant1 #bj1jjj1 0 made = elem5t>y education4 ,?is sum 0 to be us$ solely to aid 9 build+ s*oolh\ses = :i* subscriptions _h be5 privately obta9$1 & s c\ld be pass$ z a vote ( #8supply1' )\t ref]r+ x to ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,= lack ( a gov]nm5t organization ( education1 x 0 apportion$ ?r\gh ! ,national & ! ,briti% & ,=eign ,societies 7see p4 #bdj74 ,gov]nm5tal activities con/antly increas$4 ,9 #ahci ! annual grant 0 increas$ to #cj1jjj & all[$ to be us$ = elem5t>y education )\t re/riction4 ,9 ! same ye>1 a sep>ate committee ( ! ,privy ,c\ncil 0 designat$ to adm9i/] ! educational grants2 & 9 #ahef a ,vice ,presid5t 0 appo9t$ to act z *airman ( ?is educational committee4 ,!n1 9 #ahfa1 ?r\gh ano!r commission on popul> education1 x 0 arrang$ to base ! grant to any s*ool ^u ! results %[n by ! pupils 9 ! gov]nm5tal exam9ations4 ,?is #8paym5t by results' 0 int5d$ to increase effici5cy1 b1 us$ z a sole means ( te/+1 x soon prov$ n>r[+ & unfair1 & _h to be supplem5t$ by ! g5]al op9ion =m$ ( ea* s*ool by ! inspectors4 ,yet x some:at increas$ ! effici5cy ( ! "w4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 #ahgj e/abli%m5t ( #8bo>d s*ools'1 support$ by local #8rates1' z well z grants4 ,agitation 9 behalf ( univ]sal education cont9u$1 & organizations l ! #8,lanca%ire ,public ,s*ool ,association' ( ,man*e/] 7#ahdg7 & #8,! ,league' ( ,birm+ham 7#ahfi7 spread rapidly ?r\gh ! manufactur+ c5t]s4 ,& :5 ! fran*ise 0 fur!r ext5d$ 9 #ahfh1 ! necessity = prep>+ millions ( ! common p = new responsibilities 9 public affairs l$ 9 #ahgj to ! passage ( ! epo*-mak+ bill ( ,william ,e4 ,=/]4 ,"u ?is act #8bo>d s*ools1' or in/itutions 9 *>ge ( a bo>d *os5 by ! p ( ! community1 7 to be e/abli%$ :]ev] a defici5cy 9 ! exi/+ accommodations requir$ x4 ,! #8volunt>y1' or d5om9ational s*ools1 mo/ ( :i* belong$ to ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&1 7 to cont9ue to %>e 9 ! gov]nm5t grants ^u equal t]ms ) ! new in/itutions1 b ! latt] _h also ! b5efit ( local #8rates4' ,elem5t>y in/ruction 9 all s*ools _h to be op5 to gov]nm5t inspection1 & ! am\nt ( ! grant 0 p>tly det]m9$ by ! report ( ! inspectors4 ,! bo>d s*ools 7 =bidd5 to all[ 8any religi\s cate*ism or religi\s =mul>y1 :i* is di/9ctive ( any p>ticul> d5om9ation20 & religi\s in/ruction 9 ei!r type ( s*ool _h to be plac$ at ! beg9n+ or end ( ! s*ool session1 s t1 "u ! #8consci5ce clause' ( ! act1 any s*ol> might conv5i5tly )draw at t "t4 ,sid5ote3 ,compulsory att5dance1 ,sid5ote3 m9imum age1 ,sid5ote3 free tuition1 ,sid5ote3 & ,bo>d ( ,education4 ,?is act ( #ahgj 01 ( c\rse1 ! magna *>ta ( national education1 & has become ! basis ( mu* s*ool legislation4 ,! compromise 9 ! bill t all[$ ! volunt>y s*ools1 ) _! sect>ian in/ruction1 to cont9ue receiv+ gov]nm5t support1 h[ev]1 prev5t$ a logical & consi/5t sy/em f be+ e/abli%$4 ,! dual sy/em ( elem5t>y s*ools cont9u$ to be develop$ 9 a v>iety ( enactm5ts4 ,compulsory att5dance laws 7 pass$ 7#ahgf1 #ahhj71 ! m9imum age ( exemption 0 set fir/ at elev5 ye>s ( age1 & !n rais$ to twelve 7#ahic1 #ahii71 & an extra grant1 to take ! place ( tuition fees 7#ahia71 made x possible = mo/ s*ools to become absolutely free4 ,f9ally 7#ahii71 !re 0 creat$ a c5tral ,bo>d ( ,education1 :i* assum$ ! functions ( ! ,committee ( ,privy ,c\ncil on ,education & simil> ag5cies = manag+ educational int]e/s4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 #aijb #8volunt>y' s*ools also all[$ local rates1 ,sid5ote3 b dual sy/em swept away1 ,sid5ote3 & second>y in/ruction support$ at public exp5se4 ,subsequ5t ,educational ,movem5ts4--,)9 a g5]ation ( exi/5ce ! bo>d s*ools met ) a ph5om5al gr[?1 & came to include ab\t sev5ty p] c5t ( ! pupils4 ,!y 7 sp5d+ ab\t half z mu* aga9 ^u ea* pupil z 7 ! volunt>y s*ools1 & 7 able to engage a mu* bett] /aff ( tea*]s4 ,?is ext5sion ( civil influ5ce 9 education 0 bitt]ly oppos$ by ! ,e/abli%$ ,*ur*1 & :5 ! cons]vatives came into p[] ?r\gh ! assi/ance ( ! cl]gy1 !y pass$ ! act ( #aijb1 :]eby ! d5om9ational s*ools 7 p]mitt$ to %>e also 9 ! local rates4 ,:ile "u ?is act ! adm9i/ration ( bo? bo>d & volunt>y s*ools 0 n[ c5traliz$ 9 ! c\nty & city c\ncils1 ! imm$iate sup]vision ( in/ruction 9 ! individual s*ools 0 plac$ 9 ! h&s ( a bo>d ( manag]s2 &1 despite _! receipt ( local taxes1 ! volunt>y s*ools 7 requir$ to h b two ( _! manag]s appo9t$ by ! c\ncil1 & ! o!r f\r 7 /ill select$ by ! d5om9ation4 ,s]i\s opposition to ! en=cem5t ( ! new law arose among noncon=mi/s & o!rs1 & co]cive measures 7 tak5 by ! gov]nm5t4 ,! new act1 h[ev]1 :ile unfair to ^? outside ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&1 t5d$ to sweep away ! dual sy/em ( public & *ur* s*ools1 s9ce bo? 7 com+ to re/ ^u a basis ( public control & support4 ,s9ce #aijb all elem5t>y s*ools h be5 consid]$ z "p ( "o compreh5sive sy/em1 & ! bo>d s*ools h be5 di/+ui%$ z #8provid$ s*ools' & ! volunt>y z #8nonprovid$4' ,moreov]1 "u ! legislation ( #aijb /eps 7 also tak5 to cord9ate second>y ) elem5t>y education1 & br+ x some:at )9 ! public sy/em4 ,! bo>d s*ools _h e>ly 9 _! exi/5ce begun to develop upw>d into second>y education & be=e long _h come to compete ) ! old] gramm> & public s*ools1 b 9 #aijj ! #8,cock]ton judgm5t' =bade ! use ( local rates = o!r in/ruction ?an elem5t>y1 & x rema9$ = ! new act to impose ^u c\ncils ! duty to support in/ruction 9 subjects beyond ! elem5t>y "w4 ,! ,bo>d ( ,education 0 also emp[]$ to inspect ! "w ( ! great public s*ools & o!r end[$ second>y in/itutions1 & to all[ grants to all s*ools meet+ ! conditions ( ! ,bo>d4 ,sid5ote3 ,bill ( #aijf defeat$1 ,sid5ote3 b new plan1 plac+ all s*ools "u public control4 ,aft] ! lib]als return$ to p[]1 !y cont9u$ ! cons]vatives' policy ( grant+ local rates to all elem5t>y s*ools1 & ( br++ second>y education "u public support & control4 ,:ile ! education bill ( #aijf1 :i* 0 kept f passage by ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 did n recognize *ur* s*ools z su*1 & insi/$ ^u br++ !m "u ! complete control ( ! public au?orities1 x made no attempt to return to ! =m] dual sy/em ( s*ools & ! isolation ( second>y f elem5t>y education4 ,x /ill held also to religi\s1 &1 "u safegu>ds1 ev5 to sect>ian in/ruction 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools1 & may yet be pass$ 9 a revis$ =m4 ,a volunt>y committee = a #8resettlem5t 9 ,engli% elem5t>y education1' ?r\gh ! m$iation ( ! ,presid5t ( ! ,bo>d ( ,education & ! ,ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury1 has =mulat$ a plan1 :i* conc$es ! pr9ciple ( public control & support = all elem5t>y s*ools & religi\s fre$om = tea*]s & pupils1 b provides local option = ! cont9uance ( d5om9ational s*ools4 ,?us1 :ile ,engl& is n prep>$ to adopt a secul> sy/em1 l t ( ,france & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & has n yet fully articulat$ its second>y education ) elem5t>y1 7,fig4 #ej71 x is ^u ! high road to a complete c5tralization ( s*ool adm9i/ration 9 ! national gov]nm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,classical & ecclesia/ical monopoly brok5 9 second>y & high] education4 ,dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury also ! classical & ecclesia/ical monopoly 9 second>y & high] education 0 l>gely brok54 ,all ! old] public & gramm> s*ools 7see pp4 #dab f47 develop$ #8mod]n sides1' & dur+ ! ,victorian era a numb] ( new s*ools 7 f\nd$1 :i* gave consid]able att5tion to ! mod]n languages & ! sci5ces f ! />t4 ,a recognition ( ! sci5tific ideals began also to appe> 9 ! curriculum ( ,cambridge 7#ahea7 & ,ox=d 7#ahec71 & ! !ological requirem5ts = a degree 7 dropp$ 7#ahef74 ,by ! la/ qu>t] ( ! c5tury actual laboratories _h be5 introduc$1 & /ud5ts 7 fre$ f all doctr9al te/s at bo? univ]sities4 ,moreov]1 new univ]sities1 bett] adju/$ to mod]n dem&s & m closely relat$ to ! s*ool sy/ems & ! civil gov]nm5t1 began to arise 9 manufactur+ c5t]s4 ,s9ce #ahhi su* municipal or #8prov9cial' in/itutions z ! ,univ]sities ( ,birm+ham1 ,man*e/]1 ,le$s1 ,liv]pool1 & ,bri/ol h sprung up1 & ! ,univ]sity ( ,london1 />t$ z an exam9+ body 9 #ahcf1 has become a tea*+ in/itution4 ,sid5ote3 ,two types1 ,sid5ote3 7#a7 ,ont>io & 7#b7 ,quebec4 ,developm5t ( ,education 9 ! ,dom9ion ( ,canada4--,canada develop$ s*ools 9 v e>ly days4 ,9 ! beg9n+ education 0 c>$ = 9 ! f\r prov9ces sep>ately1 & :5 ! ,dom9ion ( ,canada 0 f9ally =m$ 7#ahfg71 ! f$]al gov]nm5t left to ea* prov9ce ! adm9i/ration ( public education )9 its bord]s4 ,! same autonomy 0 ext5d$ to ! prov9ces t h s9ce be5 admitt$ to ! f$]ation4 ,two types ( educational control1--/ate & ecclesia/ical1 h be5 develop+ f ! fir/4 ,! =m] me?od is be/ illu/rat$ by ! sy/em ( ,ont>io2 & ! latt] by t ( ,quebec4 ,ont>io 0 settl$ mo/ly by emigrants f ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & practically all br\ght ) !m ! concept ( public control ( education4 ,! ,fr5* ,ca?olics ( ,quebec1 on ! o!r h&1 naturally foll[$ _! traditions ( p>i% s*ools4 ,illu/ration3 ,,diagram ,,( ,,fr5* ,,education4 ,fig4 #di4 ,illu/ration3 ,,diagram ,,( ,,engli% ,,education4 ,fig4 #ej4 ,sid5ote3 ,univ]sal education1 & s9ce #ahgj great c5tralization ?r\gh m9i/] ,sid5ote3 & subord9ate au?orities4 ,! ,public ,s*ool ,sy/em ( ,ont>io4--,! sy/em ( s*ools 9 ,ont>io began ) ! passage ( its ,common ,s*ools ,act 9 #ahdf4 ,?is 0 =mulat$ aft] a c>eful /udy ( ! sy/ems ( ,massa*usetts1 ,new ,york1 & ! ,european /ates1 & includ$ excell5t elem5ts f v>i\s sy/ems & _m orig9al features ( value4 ,by #ahga ?is fundam5tal law _h come to include free tuition1 compulsory att5dance1 c\nty inspection1 & uni=m exam9ations4 ,9 #ahgf an ev5 great] c5tralization ( ! prov9cial sy/em 0 effect$ ?r\gh sub/itut+ = ! *ief sup]9t5d5t a #8m9i/] ( education' ) mu* l>g] p[]s1 & br++ all /ages ( public education1--elem5t>y1 second>y1 & high] s*ools1 into mu* clos] relation%ip4 ,! m9i/] n[ has _m assi/ants1 includ+ an ,advisory ,c\ncil ( ,education2 & he initiates & directs all s*ool legislation1 decides compla9ts & disputes1 sets exam9ations = ! high1 elem5t>y1 model1 & normal s*ools1 prescribes ! c\rses ( /udy1 *ooses ! text-books1 & appo9ts ! inspectors4 ,! sy/em is fur!r adm9i/]$ by subord9ate au?orities elect$ 9 ! localities1 ^: duties are cle>ly def9$ by law4 ,! prov9ce is = educational purposes divid$ into c\nties1 :i* are 9 turn divid$ into t[n%ips1 & subdivid$ into sections & incorporat$ cities1 t[ns1 & villages4 ,! c5tral & local adm9i/rations are wisely balanc$1 & :ile ! "o det]m9es s*ola/ic /&>ds ?r\gh its pr(essional requirem5ts1 ! o!r e/abli%es s*ools & appo9ts tea*]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,unification ( ! sev]al /ages ( education4 ,sid5ote3 ,inspectors4 ,sid5ote3 #8,sep>ate s*ools4' ,! sy/em ( elem5t>y s*ools1 high s*ools1 & univ]sities1 is fully unifi$1 & ! "w ( ea* /age fits into ! o!rs ev5 m exactly ?an 9 ! #8ladd]' sy/em ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! tra9+ ( tea*]s is c>$ = ?r\gh ! dep>tm5ts ( ,education 9 ! univ]sities1 ! eight prov9cial normal s*ools1 & a model s*ool 9 ea* c\nty4 ,! tea*]s = second>y in/itutions are prep>$ at ! univ]sities1 ! normal s*ools grant a life c]tificate to tea* 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools1 :ile ! model s*ools af=d f\rte5 weeks ( tra9+ = c\ntry tea*]s4 ,! build+s1 equipm5t1 c\rses1 & in/ruction ( ! high1 elem5t>y1 & model s*ools are ea* report$ ^u by inspectors ( assur$ s*ol>%ip & exp]i5ce4 ,s9ce #ahfc p]mission has be5 grant$ to e/abli% #8sep>ate s*ools' = any peculi> cre$ or race1 :]ev] !re are five families reque/+ x4 ,?is opportunity to h s*ools ( _! own fai? has n be5 embrac$ by any save ! ,roman ,ca?olics4 ,any "o pay+ t[>d ! support ( a #8sep>ate s*ool' is exempt f taxation = ! regul> public s*ools4 ,special prov9cial inspectors report ^u ^! s*ools1 b 9 ! same way z = ! public s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r prov9ces simil> to ,ont>io4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ,quebec p>i% z unit1 ,sid5ote3 b s9ce #ahei ,c\ncil ( ,public ,in/ruction ,sid5ote3 & sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,s*ool support4 ,! ,sy/em ( ,ecclesia/ical ,s*ools 9 ,quebec4--,! ,ont>io sy/em may be consid]$ typical ( ! educational adm9i/ration 9 ! v>i\s prov9ces ( ,canada1 except ,quebec4 ,e o!r prov9ce has s\ght uni=mity ( s*ool provision & educational /&>ds ?r\gh gov]nm5t control1 al?\gh none ( !m grant _! c5tral (ficial q z mu* p[] z ,ont>io4 ,alb]ta & ,saskat*ewan likewise p]mit #8sep>ate s*ools1' & !y exi/$ 9 ,manitoba until #ahij4 ,b ! type ( control 9 ,quebec is v diff]5t f t ( ! o!r prov9ces4 ,!re 9 #ahde ! p>i% 0 by law made ! unit ( s*ool adm9i/ration4 ,b sev5 ye>s lat] gov]nm5t inspectors 7 e/abli%$1 & 9 #ahei a c5tral organization 0 complet$ ) a ,c\ncil ( ,public ,in/ruction4 ,?is au?ority is compos$ ( two divisions1 a ,roman ,ca?olic & a ,prote/ant1 :i* sit sep>ately & adm9i/] ! s*ools ( _! respective cre$s4 ,! prov9cial sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools1 appo9t$ by ! lieut5ant gov]nor1 is ex (ficio *airman ( bo? divisions1 b he c vote only ) ! division to :i* he belongs by religion4 ,ea* division makes regulations = ! in/ruction & te/s ( its own s*ools1 & appo9ts inspectors ( its own fai?4 ,! proce$s f ! g5]al public s*ool fund or f any educational legacies are divid$ 9 proportion to ! ,ca?olic & ,prote/ant inhabitants1 b ! regul> s*ool rate may be assign$ to :i*ev] ( ! two s*ool sy/ems ! taxpay] wi%es4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap4 ,,ix2 ,p>k]1 ,mod]n ,elem5t>y ,education 7,g9n1 #aiab71 *aps4 ,x & ,,xi4 ,! foll[+ works ?r[ light ^u v>i\s phases ( ! respective c\ntries3 ,nohle1 ,e41 ,hi/ory ( ! ,g]man ,s*ool ,sy/em 7,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,commission] ( ,education1 #ahig-ahih2 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bf-dd72 ,pauls51 ,f41 ,g]man ,education 7,scribn]1 #aijh72 ,russell1 ,j4 ,e41 ,g]man ,high] ,s*ools 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #ahif72 ,pauls51 ,f41 ,! ,g]man ,univ]sities 7,macmillan1 #ahie2 ,scribn]1 #aijf72 ,k&el1 ,i4 ,l41 ,! ,tra9+ ( ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,tea*]s 9 ,g]many 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,tea*]s ,college ,contributions1 ,no4 #ca1 #aiaj72 ,br[n1 ,j4 ,f41 ,! ,tra9+ ( ,tea*]s = ,second>y ,s*ools 9 ,g]many 7,macmillan1 #aiaa72 ,be>d1 ,m>y ,s41 coles mat]nelles ( ,p>is 7,great ,brita91 ,bo>d ( ,education1 ,special ,reports on ,educational ,subjects1 vol4 ,,viii1 no4 #h72 ,f>r+ton1 ,f4 ,e41 ,fr5* ,second>y ,s*ools 7,longmans1 ,gre51 #aiaj7 & ,! ,public ,prim>y ,sy/em ( ,france 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,tea*]s ,college ,contributions to ,education1 no4 #g1 #aijf72 ,smi?1 ,anna ,t41 ,education 9 ,france 7,reports ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,commission] ( ,education1 #ahij to #aiad1 see tables ( cont5ts72 ,gre5\gh1 ,j4 ,c41 ,! ,evolution ( ! ,elem5t>y ,s*ools ( ,great ,brita9 7,appleton1 #aijc72 ,montmor5cy1 ,j4 ,e4 ,g4 de1 ,/ate ,int]v5tion 9 ,engli% ,education 7,macmillan1 #aijc72 ,%>pless1 ,i41 ,engli% ,education 9 ,elem5t>y & ,second>y ,s*ools 7,appleton1 #ahib72 ,smi?1 ,anna ,t41 ,education 9 ,engl& 7,monroe ,cyclopdia ( ,education1 vol4 ,,ii72 ,s&i=d1 ,p41 ,! ,tra9+ ( ,tea*]s 9 ,engl& & ,wales 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,tea*]s ,college ,contributions1 no4 #cb1 #aiaj72 ,coleman1 ,h4 ,t4 ,j41 ,public ,education 9 ,upp] ,canada 7,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,tea*]s ,college ,contributions1 no4 #ae1 #aiji72 ,ross1 ,g4 ,w41 ,! ,s*ool ,sy/em ( ,ont>io 7,appleton1 #ahif72 ,smi?1 ,anna ,t41 ,education 9 ,canada 7,monroe ,cyclopdia ( ,education1 vol4 ,i74 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,movem5t ,,& ,,! ,,curriculum ,,outl9e ,dur+ ! pa/ two c5turies a great gr[? has tak5 place 9 ! natural sci5ces4 ,= a long "t ?is developm5t affect$ practical life v little1 b dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury ! application ( sci5ce to indu/rial problems has result$ 9 a ho/ ( inv5tions4 ,because ( ! importance ( ! sci5ces to life1 ,sp5c] & o!rs h urg$ ! inclusion ( !m 9 ! curricula ( s*ools & colleges4 ,:ile ! cont5t ( ! sci5ces has furni%$ ! *ief argum5t = ?is1 _m sci5ti/s h urg$ _! value z =mal discipl9e4 ,in/ruction 9 ! sci5ces has gradually be5 includ$ 9 ! high]1 second>y1 & elem5t>y in/itutions ( ,g]many1 ,france1 ,engl&1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is m>k$ sci5tific movem5t is alli$ ) ! psy*ological t5d5cy 9 its improvem5t ( me?od1 & ) ! sociological 9 its emphasis ^u human welf>e4 ,sid5ote3 ,rem>kable a*ievem5ts dur+ pa/ two c5turies4 ,sid5ote3 ,hutton1 ,agassiz1 ,d>w91 & o!rs4 ,! ,developm5t ( ! ,natural ,sci5ces 9 ,mod]n ,times4--,we h already 7*apt] ,,xv7 witness$ ! gr[? ( ! natural sci5ces & ! beg9n+ ( _! introduction into ! curriculum t[>d ! close ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,?is t5d5cy 0 also greatly /imulat$ by ,r\sseau1 :o1 we h se5 7pp4 #bah-bbb71 may be held to advocate ! sci5tific1 z well z ! sociological & psy*ological movem5ts4 ,& dur+ ! pa/ two c5turies ?is developm5t has become mo/ rapid & ext5sive4 ,! desire = sci5tific inve/igation /eadily grew ?r\gh\t ! eighte5? & n9ete5? c5turies until its ideals1 me?ods1 & results became pat5t 9 e dep>tm5t ( human k4 ,! /rongholds ( ignorance1 sup]/ition1 & prejudice 7 rapidly /orm$ & tak5 ?r\gh new discov]ies or new m>%all+s ( facts already discov]$4 ,b evid5t z ?is movem5t has be51 x is sc>cely possible "h ev5 to m5tion ! m important sci5tific a*ievem5ts1 or to outl9e ! broad sweep ( progress 9 a/ronomy1 geology1 biology1 physiology1 *emi/ry1 physics1 & o!r sci5ces )9 a c5tury4 ,! ,newtonian !ory has be5 confirm$ by ! inve/igations ( ,lagrange & ,laplace & by ! discov]y ( ,neptune by ma!matical reason+ f ! effects ( its gravitation4 ,hutton's #8,plutonic' !ory ( cont95ts & ,agassiz's hypo!sis ( a univ]sal ice-age h be5 =mulat$2 ! doctr9e ( evolution ( ,d>w9 7,fig4 #ea7 & ,m5del's law ( inh]itance h be5 e/abli%$2 ,liebig & o!rs h ?r[n light ^u ! process ( dige/ion & ! function+ ( ! lungs & liv]2 atoms1 molecules1 & ions h be5 def9$2 ,j\le & ,may] h demon/rat$ ! cons]vation ( en]gy2 & ! p]iodic law ( *emical elem5ts has be5 discov]$ by ,newl&s4 ,sid5ote3 ,dur+ n9ete5? c5tury sci5ce appli$ ,sid5ote3 to problems ( labor1 transportation1 communication1 com=t1 & hygi5e4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,inv5tions & ,discov]ies 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury4--,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! majority ( ^! inve/igations 7 = a long "t c>ri$ on outside ! univ]sities1 &1 ow+ to ! almo/ prov]bial cons]vatism ( educational in/itutions1 ! natural sci5ces sc>cely ent]$ ! c\rse ( /udy any:]e4 ,9 fact1 ^! great discov]ies at fir/ seem n to h affect$ practical life 9 any direction4 ,huxley tells u t 9 ! eighte5? c5tury 8weav+ & sp9n+ 7 c>ri$ on ) ! old appliances2 nobody c\ld travel fa/] by sea or by l& ?an at any previ\s "t 9 ! _w's hi/ory1 & ,k+ ,george c\ld s5d a message f ,london to ,york no fa/] ?an ,k+ ,john might h done40 ,b a little lat]1 z he adds1 8t gr[? ( k beyond imag9able utilit>ian ends1 :i* is ! condition prec$5t ( its practical utility1 began to produce "s effect ^u practical life40 ,! n9ete5? c5tury w1 on ?is acc\nt1 always be kn[n = its developm5t ( inv5tions & ! arts1 z well z ( pure sci5ce4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod sci5ce rapidly grew & took ! =m ( applications to ! problems ( labor1 production1 transportation1 communication1 hygi5e1 & sanitation4 ,! reap]1 ! sew+ ma*9e1 ! pr9t+ press1 & ! typewrit] greatly r$uc$ ! co/ ( labor2 ! /eamboat1 locomotive1 electric railway1 telegraph1 & telephone l9k$ all p>ts ( ! _w toge!r2 an?racite1 friction mat*es1 petroleum1 & electric light+ & heat+ greatly enl>g$ ! com=ts ( life2 & /e?oscopes1 an/hetics1 antiseptics1 & antitox9es add$ wond]fully to ! span ( human life4 ,sid5ote3 ,conte/ betwe5 advocates ( classics & sci5ces4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] & ,:at ,k is ( ,mo/ ,wor?4--,because ( ^! practical results1 ! vital importance ( a k ( natural ph5om5a to human welf>e & social progress 0 m & m felt ?r\gh\t ! c5tury4 ,x gradually became evid5t t ! natural sci5ces 7 dem&$ by mod]n life & con/itut$ elem5ts ( ! greate/ value 9 mod]n culture & education4 ,_m ,engli% & ,am]ican writ]s began to ma9ta9 t an exclusive /udy ( ! classics did n provide a suitable prep>ation = life1 & t ! sci5ces %\ld be includ$ 9 ! curriculum4 ,?is /ep 0 bitt]ly oppos$ by cons]vative in/itutions & educators4 ,dur+ a great] "p ( ! c5tury a conte/ 0 wag$ betwe5 ! advocates ( ! classical monopoly & ! progressives1 :o urg$ t ! sci5ces %\ld be introduc$4 ,sid5ote3 ,prep>ation = complete liv+ z ! purpose ( education4 ,sid5ote3 ,lead+ k9ds ( activity2 ,a repres5tative argum5t = sci5ces 9 ! c\rse ( /udy is t made by ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 7,fig4 #eb7 9 8 essay on ,:at ,k ,is ( ,mo/ ,wor?4 ,he v5tur$ to raise ! :ole "q ( ! purpose ( education4 ,he held t 8to prep>e u = complete liv+ is ! function :i* education has to dis*>ge2 & ! only rational mode ( judg+ ( any educational c\rse is1 to judge 9 :at degree x dis*>ges su* function4 ,our fir/ /ep mu/ obvi\sly be to classify1 9 ! ord] ( _! importance1 ! lead+ k9ds ( activity :i* con/itute human life4 ,!y may be arrang$ into3 #a4 ,^? activities :i* directly m9i/] to self-pres]vation2 #b4 ,^? activities :i*1 by secur+ ! necess>ies ( life1 indirectly m9i/] to self-pres]vation2 #c4 ,^? activities :i* h = _! end ! re>+ & discipl9e ( (fspr+2 #d4 ,^? activities :i* are involv$ 9 ! ma9t5ance ( prop] social & political relations2 #e4 ,^? miscellane\s activities :i* make up ! leisure "p ( life1 devot$ to ! gratification ( ! ta/es & feel+s4 ,! ideal ( education is complete prep>ation 9 all ^! divisions4 ,b fail+ ?is ideal1 ! aim %\ld be to ma9ta9 a due proportion betwe5 ! degrees ( prep>ation 9 ea*1 greate/ :]e ! value is greate/1 less :]e ! value is less1 lea/ :]e ! value is lea/40 ,sid5ote3 = all ( ^!1 sci5ces are mo/ useful2 ,sid5ote3 & a *ange ( educational cont5t is advocat$4 ,apply+ ?is te/1 ,sp5c] f9ds t a k ( ! sci5ces is always mo/ useful 9 life1 & !re=e ( mo/ wor?4 ,he consid]s ea* "o ( ! five gr\ps ( activities & demon/rates ! ne$ ( ! k ( "s sci5ce or sci5ces to guide x rightly4 ,an acqua9tance ) physiology is necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( heal?1 & s = self-pres]vation4 ,any =m ( indu/ry or o!r means ( indirect self-pres]vation w require "s und]/&+ ( ma!matics1 physics1 *emi/ry1 biology1 & sociology4 ,to c>e = ! physical1 intellectual1 & moral tra9+ ( _! *ildr51 p>5ts %\ld "k ! g5]al pr9ciples ( physiology1 psy*ology1 & e?ics4 ,a man is be/ fitt$ = citiz5%ip ?r\gh a k ( ! sci5ce ( hi/ory 9 its political1 economic1 & social aspects4 ,& ev5 ! /hetic or leisure side ( life dep5ds ^u physiology1 me*anics1 & psy*ology z a basis = art1 music1 & poetry4 ,h5ce ,sp5c] advocates a complete *ange f ! type ( tra9+ t _h dom9at$ education s9ce ! ,r5aissance & calls = a release f ! traditional bondage to ! classics4 ,in/ead ( ,greek & ,lat9 = #8culture' & #8discipl9e1' & an ord] ( society :]e ! few are educat$ = a life ( elegant leisure1 he recomm5ds ! sci5ces & a new s*eme ( life :]e e "o %all enjoy all advantages 9 ! ord] ( _! relative value4 ,b ,sp5c] uses ! t]m #8sci5ce' r loosely1 & seeks to d5ote ! social1 political1 & moral sci5ces1 z well z ! physical & biological1 z be+ #8( mo/ wor?4' ,h5ce he does n des]ve to be sev]ely arraign$ = 8 #8utilit>ianism1' z he has be5 s frequ5tly4 ,8 #8prep>ation = complete liv+' includes m ?an #8h[ to live 9 ! mat]ial s5se only1' & ) him education %\ld conta9 su* mat]ial z w elevate conduct & make life pleasant]1 nobl]1 & m effective4 ,sid5ote3 ,huxley's ridicule ( ! education 9 vogue4 ,advocacy ( ! ,sci5ces by ,huxley & ,o!rs4--,ano!r great popul>iz] ( ! sci5tific elem5ts 9 education1 :o also /ress$ ! value ( ! sci5ces = #8complete liv+' & social progress1 0 ,?omas ,h4 ,huxley 7,fig4 #ec74 ,8 use ( ,engli% 0 vigor\s & epigrammatic1 & he %[$ great skill 9 br++ 8 conclusions into su* simple language t ! mo/ unsci5tific p]sons c\ld und]/& !m4 ,especially 9 an address on ,a ,lib]al ,education be=e a #8work+m5's college1' he has mo/ =cefully depict$ ! value ( ! sci5ces & o!r mod]n subjects 9 tra9+ = concrete liv+1 & ridicul$ ! ineffectiv5ess ( ! curr5t classical education4 ,he ma9ta9s t 8! life1 ! =tune1 & ! happ9ess ( e "o ( u dep5d ^u our kn[+ some?+ ( ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se & ! laws ( ,nature4 ,& yet ?is is :at p tell to _! sons3 #8,at ! co/ ( f "o to two ?\s& p\nds ( our h>d-e>n$ money1 we devote twelve ( ! mo/ preci\s ye>s ( y\r life to s*ool4 ,!re y %all n le>n "o s+le ?+ ( all ^? y w mo/ want to "k directly y leave s*ool & ent] ^u ! practical bus9ess ( life4'0 ,in/ead ( ?is1 8! middle class s*ool sub/itutes :at is usually compris$ "u ! comp5di\s title ( ! #8classics'--t is to say1 ! languages1 ! lit]ature1 & ! hi/ory ( ! anci5t ,greeks & ,romans1 & ! geography ( s mu* ( ! _w z 0 kn[n to ^! two great nations ( antiquity40 ,?us 8! ,briti% fa!r d5ies 8 *ildr5 all ! k !y might turn to acc\nt 9 life1 n m]ely = ! a*ievem5t ( vulg> success1 b = guidance 9 ! great crises ( human exi/5ce40 ,sid5ote3 ,combe4 ,sid5ote3 ,y\mans4 ,sid5ote3 ,eliot4 ,_m o!r vigor\s lectur]s & writ]s ent]$ into ?is re=m ( ! curriculum4 ,opposition to ! ov]-emphasis ( languages1 especially ! classics1 9 ! cont5t ( education 0 und]tak5 ev5 e>li] 9 ! c5tury by ! di/+ui%$ phr5ologi/1 ,george ,combe4 ,9 8 #8secul>' s*ools & 9 8 "w on ,education1 he emphasiz$ in/ruction 9 ! sci5ces relat+ to moral1 religi\s1 social1 & political life1 z well z ^? be>+ ^u man's physical & m5tal con/itution4 ,aft] ! middle ( ! c5tury a numb] ( m5 und]took to popul>ize ! sci5ces 9 ,am]ica by tongue & p54 ,"o ( ! mo/ effective ( ^! 0 ,edw>d ,l4 ,y\mans1 :o collect$ & edit$ a set ( lectures urg+ ! claims ( ! v>i\s sci5ces "u ! title ( ,culture ,dem&$ by ,mod]n ,life 7#ahfg74 ,he also f\nd$ ! ,int]national ,sci5ce ,s]ies 7#ahga7 & ! ,popul> ,sci5ce ,mon?ly 7#ahgb74 ,a s]vice = ! sci5ces1 be>+ m directly ^u ! educational _w1 0 t p]=m$ by ,*>les ,w4 ,eliot 7,fig4 #ed71 ,presid5t ( ,h>v>d4 ,?is he accompli%$ l>gely by an ext5sion ( ! elective sy/em & an emphasis ^u sci5ce 9 ! curriculum ( s*ool & college4 ,9 8 description ( #8a lib]al education1' he argues t 8! arts built ^u *emi/ry1 physics1 botany1 zology1 & geology are *ief factors 9 ! civilization ( our "t1 & are gr[+ 9 mat]ial & moral influ5ce at a m>vel\s rate4 ,!y are n simply me*anical or mat]ial =ces2 !y are also moral =ces ( great int5sity40 ,sid5ote3 ,huxley p>odies ! argum5t ( =mal discipl9e4 ,! ,discipl9>y ,argum5t = ! ,sci5ces4--,?us1 9 g5]al1 ! writ]s & lectur]s int]e/$ 9 ! sci5tific movem5t held t a k ( nature 0 indisp5sable = human welf>e & t ! cont5t ( /udies r ?an ! me?od 0 ( importance 9 education4 ,_m ( !m also express$ _! diss5t f ! discipl9>y conception ( education urg$ by ! classici/s4 ,huxley1 = example1 p>odies ! usual l+ui/ic drill by /at+3 8,i c\ld get up an o/eological prim] s arid1 s p$antic 9 its t]m9ology1 s altoge!r di/a/eful to ! y\?ful m9d1 z to beat ! rec5t fam\s production ( ! head-ma/] out ( ! field 9 all ^! excell5ces4 ,next1 ,i c\ld ex]cise my boys ^u easy fossils1 & br+ out all _! p[]s ( memory & all _! +5uity 9 ! application ( my o/eogrammatical rules to ! int]pretation1 or con/ru+1 ( ^? fragm5ts40 ,sid5ote3 ,b ,sp5c] & o!rs borr[ ! discipl9>y argum5t ( ! classici/s4 ,yet ! tradition ( #8=mal discipl9e' & ! belief 9 faculties or g5]al p[]s ( ! m9d t might be tra9$ by c]ta9 favor$ /udies & aft]w>d appli$ 9 any direction 7see pp4 #ahb;f47 7 too firmly root$ to be entirely upset4 ,ev5 ! greate/ ( ! sci5ti/s seem to h be5 influ5c$ by ?is notion & to h attempt$ occasionally a def5se ( _! subjects on ! basis ( sup]iority 9 ?is direction4 ,aft] ,sp5c] has made 8 effective argum5t = ! sci5ces on ! gr\nd t _! #8cont5t' is s mu* m valuable = ! activities ( life1 he %ifts 8 :ole po9t ( view1 & attempts to anticipate ! classici/s by occupy+ _! own gr\nd4 ,he admits t 8besides its use = guidance 9 conduct1 ! acquisition ( ea* ord] ( facts has also its use z m5tal ex]cise40 ,z evid5ce ( ?is1 he und]takes to %[ t sci5ce1 l language1 tra9s ! memory1 &1 9 addition1 ex]cises ! und]/&+2 t x is sup]ior to language 9 cultivat+ judgm5t2 t1 by fo/]+ indep5d5ce1 p]sev]ance1 & s9c]ity1 x furni%es a moral discipl9e4 ,a simil> argum5t is made by ,combe1 :5 he ma9ta9s t 8x is n s mu* ! m]e k ( ! details ( ,*emi/ry1 ( ,natural ,philosophy1 or ( any o!r sci5ce t ,i value1 z ! /r5g!n+ ( ! intellect1 :i* foll[s f ^! /udies40 ,s ,y\mans decl>es t 8by f> ! mo/ priceless ( all ?+s is m5tal p[]4 ,sci5ce made ! basis ( culture w accompli% ?is result40 ,9 fact1 ne>ly e apologi/ = ! natural sci5ces at "s "t or o!r has advocat$ ^! subjects f ! /&po9t ( =mal discipl9e1 al?\gh ! impli$ attitude t[>d ! transf] ( a g5]aliz$ ideal is (t5 9 h>mony ) mod]n psy*ology 7see p4 #ahd74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4--;,*>les ,d>w9 7#ahji-ahhb74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,h]b]t ,sp5c] 7#ahbj-aijc74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,?omas ,h4 ,huxley 7#ahbe-ahie74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4--;,*>les ,w4 ,eliot 7#ahce- 74 ,a ,,gr\p ,,( ,,educational ,,lead]s ,,9 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,movem5t ,sid5ote3 ,g]man univ]sities ,sid5ote3 & ,ho*s*ul54 ,introduction ( ! ,sci5ces into ,educational ,in/itutions2 ,g]many4--,contemporane\sly ) ! gr[? ( inv5tions & ! cog5t argum5ts & vigor\s campaigns ( advanc$ ?9k]s dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury1 tra9+ 9 ! sci5ces 0 gradually creep+ into educational practice4 ,:ile ! sci5ces began to "w _! way into in/itutions ( all grades e>ly 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 x 0 n until ab\t ! middle ( ! n9ete5? t ! movem5t 0 s]i\sly felt 9 education4 ,ev5 9 ,g]many ! fir/ attempts at /udy+ nature 7 made outside ! univ]sities 9 ! #8academies ( sci5ce4' ,we h se5 7pp4 #agg f47 t dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury mo/ ( ! ,prote/ant univ]sities _h />t$ pr(essor%ips 9 ! sci5ces4 ,b x 0 n until ! beg9n+ ( ! second qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury t1 9 ,liebig's laboratory at ! ,univ]sity ( ,giess51 /ud5ts fir/ began to be taught ?r\gh exp]im5ts1 & x 0 aft] ! middle ( ! c5tury be=e ?is inve/igation "w _h g5]ally replac$ ! =mal sci5ce in/ruction 9 ,g]man univ]sities4 ,s9ce !n ! developm5t ( sci5ce 9 ! high] education ( ,g]many has be5 ph5om5al4 ,! ,te*nis*e ,ho*s*ul5 7see p4 #chj7 h also come to furni% in/ruction 9 all fields ( appli$ sci5ce4 ,sid5ote3 ,real s*ools1 gymnasiums1 ,sid5ote3 & te*nical s*ools4 ,9 ,g]man second>y in/ruction ! reali/ic in/ruction ( ! pieti/s 0 br\ght by ,heck] 7see p4 #agf7 to ,b]l91 :]e he />t$ 8 fam\s ,reals*ule 9 #agdg1 & be=e ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury simil> in/itutions _h spread ?r\gh\t ,prussia4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury ! c\rse ( /udy 9 ! gymnasiums ( ,prussia 0 consid]ably modifi$1 &1 z "p ( ! compromise1 "s sci5ce 0 introduc$4 ,! movem5t lat] spread into ! second>y education ( /ates 9 ,s\? ,g]many1 &1 :ile ! total am\nt ( sci5ce 0 n l>ge1 x manag$ to hold its place 9 ! gymnasial curriculum ev5 dur+ ! reaction to absolutism betwe5 #ahae & #ahdh4 ,b1 z we h se5 7p4 #cgh71 two types ( real-s*ools 7 ev5tually recogniz$1--,realgymnasium & ,ob]reals*ule1 & !y at pres5t devote approximately twice z mu* "t to ! physical & biological sci5ces z d ! gymnasia4 ,te*nical & trade s*ools1 ) sci5tific & ma!matical subjects z a f\ndation = ! vocational "w1 h also appe>$ z a species ( second>y education 9 ,g]many 7see p4 #dbj74 ,! fir/ ( ^! 7 op5$ 9 ,nuremb]g 9 #ahbc1 b _! rapid increase 9 numb]s1 v>iety1 & importance has tak5 place s9ce ! middle ( ! c5tury1 & _! developm5t 9 organization & me?od has occurr$ )9 ! pa/ tw5ty-five ye>s4 ,sid5ote3 ,volkss*ul54 ,! sci5tific movem5t 0 also felt 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools ( ,g]many dur+ ! e>ly "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,sci5ce 0 consid]ably popul>iz$ by ! s*ools ( ! philan?rop9i/s 7pp4 #bbg f471 & 0 widely introduc$ into elem5t>y education by ! spread ( ,pe/alozzianism 9 ,prussia & ! o!r ,g]man /ates 7see p4 #bhi f474 ,be=e ! close ( ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! c5tury ! /udy ( elem5t>y sci5ce1--natural hi/ory1 physiology1 & physics1 appe>$ 9 v>i\s grades2 geography & draw+ 7 taught ?r\gh\t ! c\rse2 & geometry 0 includ$ 9 ! upp] classes ( ! ,volkss*ul54 ,sid5ote3 ,fr5* collges & univ]sities4 ,sid5ote3 ,lyces4 ,france4--,be=e ! ,revolution 9 ,france ! high] & second>y in/itutions f\nd little place = in/ruction 9 sci5ce4 ,!re 0 a *air ( exp]im5tal physics at ! ,college ( ,nav>re ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is & at ! ,univ]sities ( ,t\l\se & ,montpeli]1 & natural hi/ory 0 also taught at ! m indep5d5t ,college ( ,france1 b1 z a :ole1 education 0 dom9at$ l>gely by humanism4 ,h[ev]1 ) ! e/abli%m5t ( ! republic a new rgime began 9 education1 z 9 o!r matt]s1 & sci5ce ent]$ m l>gely into high] & second>y in/ruction4 ,mo/ ( ! revolution>y proposals subord9at$ lett]s to sci5ce1 & 9 #agid ! republic f\nd$ a great c5tral normal s*ool1 :]e ! fam\s ,laplace & ,lagrange = a %ort "t gave in/ruction 9 sci5ce4 ,9 #ahjb ,napoleon _h includ$ 9 ! sci5tific c\rse = ! lyces natural hi/ory1 physics1 a/ronomy1 *emi/ry1 & m9]alogy1 & a def9ite advance 9 quantity & me?od ( ! sci5tific in/ruction 9 ! second>y s*ools 0 made 9 #ahad4 ,on ! gr\nd t !y 7 injur+ classical /udies1 ,c\s9 9 #ahdj _h ! sci5ces curtail$1 b he 0 %ortly =c$ to re/ore !m ^u an optional basis4 ,a conte/ betwe5 ! two types ( /udies 0 c>ri$ on 9 ! lyces until #aheb1 :5 a bifurcation 9 ! c\rse put ! two !oretically ^u ! same basis4 ,! sci5tific c\rse1 h[ev]1 has nev] be5 consid]$ equal 9 pre/ige to ! classical1 al?\gh x has con/antly increas$ 9 l5g? & difficulty4 ,sid5ote3 ,l[] & high] prim>y1 ,sid5ote3 & normal s*ools4 ,"s in/ruction 9 sci5ce has come to be giv5 dur+ ! pa/ =ty ye>s ev5 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools ( ,france4 ,9 ! l[] prim>y s*ools ! "w is in=mal1 & consi/s mo/ly ( object lessons & fir/ sci5tific notions4 ,^! are develop$ 9 connection ) draw+1 manual tra9+1 agriculture1 & geography ( ! neighborhood & ( ,france 9 g5]al4 ,in/ruction becomes m =mal 9 ! #8high] prim>y' s*ools1 & includes regul> c\rses 9 ! natural & physical sci5ces & hygi5e1 z well z geography1 draw+1 & manual tra9+4 ,9 ! normal s*ools = prim>y tea*]s in/ruction 9 all ! physical & biological sci5ces is ev5 m ?or\gh1 & includes n only ! facts & !ories ( g5]al sci5tific importance1 b x also emphasizes _! applications to ev]yday life4 ,= example1 ! flora & fauna ( ! neighborhood are /udi$ 9 _! special relation to agriculture4 ,sid5ote3 ,cambridge & ,ox=d1 ,sid5ote3 municipal univ]sities1 ,sid5ote3 & ,imp]ial ,college ( ,sci5ce4 ,sid5ote3 ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,engl&4--,9 ,engl&1 sev]al *airs 9 ! natural sci5ces 7 e/abli%$ at ,cambridge dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,b x 0 almo/ ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury be=e ! biological sci5ces & ! laboratory me?od ( in/ruction 7 introduc$1 & n until t[>d ! close ( ! c5tury did sci5ce become prom95t at ,cambridge & ,ox=d4 ,& ! mo/ m>k$ promotion ( ! sci5tific movem5t 9 ,engl& has occurr$ )9 ! pa/ fifty ye>s ?r\gh ! f\ndation ( effici5t municipal univ]sities 9 su* c5t]s z ,birm+ham1 ,man*e/]1 ,london1 & ,liv]pool 7see p4 #cib74 ,= _m ye>s ! laboratory in/ruction 0 giv5 only 9 in/itutions outside ! univ]sities4 ,high] c\rses 9 sci5ce by ! new me?ods 7 af=d$ ?r\gh ! f\ndation ( ! ,royal ,s*ool ( ,m9es 7#ahea71 ! ,royal ,s*ool ( ,naval ,ar*itecture & ,m>9e ,eng9e]+ 7#ahfd71 & ! ,normal ,s*ool ( ,sci5ce 7#ahfh71 :i* 7 all comb9$ 9 #ahij into a s+le in/itution kn[n z ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 & 9 #aijg1 :5 ! ,te*nical ,college 7f\nd$ #ahha7 ( ! ,city & ,guilds ( ,london ,in/itute 0 also m]g$1 ! entire corporation became kn[n z ! ,imp]ial ,college ( ,sci5ce & ,te*nology4 ,an ag5cy t 0 in/rum5tal 9 enc\rag+ ! advanc$ /udy ( sci5ce1 al?\gh x accompli%$ ev5 m = elem5t>y & second>y s*ools1 0 ! national ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,?is organization 0 f\nd$ 9 #aheh to br+ "u a s+le managem5t ! sci5ce1 trade1 & navigation s*ools already exi/+1 & to facilitate high] in/ruction 9 sci5ce1 & a few ye>s lat] began to (f] exam9ations & to grant c]tificates to tea* sci5ce 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools4 ,x 0 tak5 ov] by ! national ,bo>d ( ,education1 :5 t body 0 organiz$ 9 #ahii 7see p4 #chi74 ,sid5ote3 ,academies1 ,sid5ote3 #8secul>' s*ools1 ,sid5ote3 #8mod]n side' 9 public s*ools1 ,sid5ote3 & ,dep>tm5t ( ,sci5ce & ,art4 ,9 ,engli% second>y in/ruction ! #8academies1' 9 :i* sci5ce fir/ appe>$ 7pp4 #aeg f471 _h be=e ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury greatly decl9$1 & ! humani/ic #8public' s*ools & second>y in/itutions ( a private "* _h z yet paid almo/ no att5tion to ! sci5ces4 ,9 ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury an anti-classical campaign began1 &1 cont9u+ ) ev] increas+ =ce until ! middle ( ! c5tury1 x br\ght ab\t ! f\ndation ( num]\s s*ools to embody ! new ideals4 ,t[>d ! close ( #ahdh ! fir/ #8secul>' s*ool 0 op5$ by ,combe 7see p4 #djc7 at ,ed9burgh1 & includ$ 9 its curriculum a /udy ( geography1 draw+1 ma!matics1 natural hi/ory1 *emi/ry1 natural philosophy1 physiology1 phr5ology1 & mat]ials us$ 9 ! arts & manufactures4 ,simil> in/itutions 7 organiz$ at ,glasg[1 ,lei?1 ,london1 ,man*e/]1 ,birm+ham1 ,newca/le1 ,belfa/1 & _m o!r cities ( ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,:ile %ort-liv$1 ^! s*ools did mu* to promote ! introduction ( sci5ces into second>y education t soon foll[$4 ,%ortly aft] ! middle ( ! c5tury ,rugby1 & !n ,w9*e/]1 introduc$ sci5ce into ! regul> curriculum1 & by #ahfh1 z a result ( ! gov]nm5tal inve/igation ( ! end[$ s*ools1 :i* %[$ an almo/ complete abs5ce ( sci5ce 9 ! curricula1 all ! lead+ second>y s*ools began to e/abli% a #8mod]n side4' ,?is c\rse g5]ally includ$ physics & natural hi/ory1 z well z mod]n languages & hi/ory1 b x 0 mo/ reluctantly organiz$ by ! in/itutions1 &1 :ile x has atta9$ to great effici5cy1 x has nev]1 except 9 a few s*ools1 be5 accord$ ! same /&+ z ! classical c\rse4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,sci5ce & ,art also af=d$ mu* enc\ragem5t to second>y in/ruction 9 ! sci5ces by subsidiz+ s*ools & classes 9 physics1 *emi/ry1 zology1 botany1 geology1 m9]alogy1 & subjects involv+ ! applications ( sci5ce4 ,be=e its absorption into ! ,bo>d ( ,education "s t5 ?\s& classes & sev5ty-five indep5d5t s*ools ( second>y grade receiv$ assi/ance f ?is s\rce4 ,sid5ote3 ,grants = sci5ce "w 9 elem5t>y s*ools4 ,! ,dep>tm5t also gave aid to ! /udy ( sci5ce 9 elem5t>y education4 ,z e>ly z ! fifties1 grants 7 made to e/abli% "w 9 elem5t>y sci5ce1 art1 & design1 b ! educational value 0 = m ?an =ty ye>s subord9at$ to practical applications4 ,& :ile1 aft] ! report by a ,committee ( ! ,briti% ,association 9 #ahhi1 mu* aid 0 furni%$ = ! equipm5t ( laboratories1 lecture rooms1 & work%ops1 & an increase 9 ! /aff ( in/ructors1 = a decade no subjects except ! rudim5ts 7 requir$ 9 ! elem5t>y c\rse1 & su* #8supplem5t>y' subjects z elem5t>y sci5ce & geography1 if taught1 7 giv5 a special subsidy4 ,b s9ce #aijj ?is sci5tific "w has be5 made compulsory 9 ! elem5t>y curriculum4 ,sid5ote3 ,beg9n+ 9 ! colleges dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,9 ! colleges ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! c\rses %[ consid]able evid5ce ( sci5ce tea*+ by ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,h>v>d1 ,yale1 ,pr9ceton1 ,k+'s 7aft]w>d ,columbia71 ,d>tm\?1 ,union1 & ,p5nsylvania _h all come to (f] "w 9 #8natural philosophy' or #8natural hi/ory1' :i* t]ms might !n be us$ to cov] physics1 *emi/ry1 geology1 a/ronomy1 botany1 & zology4 ,h[ev]1 be=e ! ,revolution physics seems to h be5 a subord9ate bran* ( ma!matical in/ruction1 ev5 less importance 0 atta*$ to biology1 & *emi/ry 0 only occasionally taught z an obscure & unimportant phase ( physics4 ,laboratories & in/rum5ts ( precision did n yet exi/4 ,sid5ote3 ,developm5t ( sci5ces1-- ,sid5ote3 *emi/ry1 ,sid5ote3 physics1 ,sid5ote3 geology1 ,sid5ote3 a/ronomy1 ,sid5ote3 & biology4 ,s9ce !n :ole fields ( sci5ce h be5 discov]$ & def9$1 & o!rs1 l geology & a/ronomy1 h be5 reclaim$ f dogmatism1 & sci5ce /udies h sl[ly come into favor4 ,in/ruction 9 *emi/ry has gr[n up ?r\gh a /udy ( mat]ia m$ica at ! m$ical s*ools ( ,p5nsylvania 7#agfh71 ,h>v>d 7#aghb71 & ,d>tm\? 7#agih74 ,a sep>ate *air ( *emi/ry 0 soon e/abli%$ at ,pr9ceton 7#agie71 ,columbia 7#ahjj71 ,yale 7#ahjb71 ,b[do9 7#ahje71 ,s\? ,c>ol9a 7#ahaa71 ,dick9son 7#ahaa71 & ,williams 7#ahab71 & ! movem5t cont9u$ until practically all ! colleges _h recogniz$ x z an important bran* ( /udy4 ,b :ile exp]im5ts 7 f ! fir/ p]=m$ z demon/rations by ! in/ructors1 x 0 g5]ally n until almo/ ! middle ( ! c5tury t /ud5ts 7 admitt$ at all to ! laboratories4 ,ab\t ! same "t laboratories 9 physics began to be equipp$ ) app>atus4 ,geology 0 includ$ 9 ! e>ly pr(essor%ip ( *emi/ry at ,yale1 & 0 giv5 a di/9ct *air ^u ! adv5t ( ,james ,d4 ,dana ab\t ! middle ( ! c5tury1 :ile ,amos ,eaton taught x z a sep>ate subject at ,williams z e>ly z #ahbe4 ,"s att5tion 0 giv5 to a/ronomy e>ly 9 ! c5tury1 al?\gh ! in/rum5ts rema9$ v ord9>y & ! me?ods au?oritative & prescriptive until ! op5+ ( ! obs]vatories at ,c9c9nati 7#ahdd71 ,cambridge 7#ahdf71 & ,ann ,arbor 7#ahed74 ,! biological sci5ces 7 ev5 long] /udi$ ?r\gh m]e obs]vation r ?an inve/igation & exp]im5t4 ,until ,l\is ,agassiz op5$ 8 laboratory at ,h>v>d to /ud5ts j aft] ! middle ( ! c5tury1 ! c\rses 7 meag]1 mo/ly !oretical & classificatory1 & 7 giv5 entirely by lecture1 )\t field or laboratory "w4 ,s9ce !n ! developm5t has be5 rapid4 ,sid5ote3 ,impulse ?r\gh evolution>y doctr9e4 ,sid5ote3 ,rise ( new in/itutions4 ,b ! greate/ impulse 0 giv5 to in/ruction 9 sci5ce ?r\gh ! publication ( ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species 7#ahei71 & ! dissem9ation ( evolution>y doctr9e ?r\gh ,asa ,gray1 pr(essor ( natural hi/ory at ,h>v>d1 & ,william ,b4 ,rog]s1 presid5t ( ! ,massa*usetts ,in/itute ( ,te*nology4 ,! intellectual developm5t ensu+ also br\ght ab\t ! f\ndation ( su* new in/itutions z ,cornell & ,johns ,hopk9s1 :i* emphasiz$ ! tea*+ ( sci5ce z an unconsci\s prote/ aga9/ ! exclusively classical tra9+4 ,special sci5tific & te*nological s*ools likewise began to arise4 ,! ,r5ssela] ,polyte*nic ,in/itute 7#ahbe7 & ! ,lawr5ce ,sci5tific ,s*ool at ,h>v>d 7#ahdg7 _h already be5 op5$1 b n[ simil> s*ools ( sci5ce1 l ,%effield at ,yale 7#ahfj71 & ! ,massa*usetts ,in/itute ( ,te*nology 7#ahfb71 sprang up 9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 #ahfb ! ,morrill ,act ( ,congress appropriat$ l&s 9 e /ate to promote education 9 agriculture1 me*anic arts1 & ! natural sci5ces4 ,^! grants1 :i* am\nt$ at fir/ to ?irte5 million acres1 7 subsequ5tly ext5d$ to new /ates z !y 7 admitt$1 & ! end[m5t 0 increas$ by ! annual grants ( money t 7 made "u lat] acts4 ,f ^! funds & private b5efactions1 fur!r s*ools ( sci5ce 7 />t$ or old s*ools 7 /r5g!n$ 9 e /ate4 ,sid5ote3 ,academies ,sid5ote3 & high s*ools4 ,?r\gh ! academy movem5t 7pp4 #aeh ff47 sci5ces 7 introduc$ into ,am]ican second>y education4 ,sometimes ^! subjects 7 ext5d$ d[nw>d f ! colleges1 b (t5 !y _h z yet be5 b>ely t\*$ by ! colleges4 ,z ! e>ly high s*ools grew up1 !y cont9u$ ! att5tion paid to ! sci5ces by ! academies4 ,! fir/ high s*ool to appe>1 t at ,bo/on 9 #ahba 7pp4 #bfh f471 s*$ul$ geography 9 ! fir/ ye>2 navigation & survey+ 9 ! second2 & natural philosophy & a/ronomy 9 ! ?ird4 ,a simil> emphasis ^u sci5ce appe>$ dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! c5tury 9 all ! second>y in/itutions1 :e!r kn[n z academies1 high s*ools1 union s*ools1 or city colleges4 ,9 all cases1 h[ev]1 in/ruction 0 giv5 ma9ly ?r\gh text-books1 &1 :ile exp]im5ts 7 frequ5tly us$ = demon/ration by ! tea*]1 !re 0 no laboratory "w = ! /ud5ts4 ,moreov]1 a t5d5cy to ov]load ! curriculum ) sci5ces 0 mu* increas$ dur+ ! sev5ties by ! dem& ( ! legislatures 9 sev]al /ates t c&idates = tea*]s' c]tificates pass an exam9ation 9 sev]al sci5ces4 ,! high s*ools & academies endeavor$ to furni% ! necess>y tra9+ to prep>e = ^! exam9ations1 & until t[>d ! end ( ! c5tury ! c\rses 9 ! sci5ces 7 num]\s & ( r sup]ficial "*4 ,)9 ! la/ tw5ty ye>s1 h[ev]1 ! s*ools h come to limit ea* /ud5t to a relatively few c\rses taught by ?or\gh laboratory me?ods4 ,sid5ote3 ,influ5ce ( ,mann ,sid5ote3 & ,pe/alozzi4 ,except = geography1 :i* appe>$ 9 ! curriculum e>ly 9 ! c5tury1 ! rudim5ts practically con/itut$ ! entire c\rse ( ! elem5t>y s*ool until ! "t ( ,horace ,mann4 ,l>gely ?r\gh 8 ef=ts1 physiology 0 widely introduc$ by ! middle ( ! c5tury4 ,ab\t a doz5 ye>s lat] ! ,pe/alozzian object tea*+ began to come 9 ?r\gh ! ,oswego me?ods1 al?\gh x t5d$ to become =maliz$4 ,?us mat]ials 9 sev]al ( ! sci5ces came to be us$1 & ! pupils 7 requir$ to describe !m 9 sci5tific t]ms4 ,t[>d ! close ( ! c5tury ! sci5ces came to be pres5t$ m in=mally by ! me?od g5]ally kn[n z #8nature /udy4' ,?is movem5t quickly spread ?r\gh ! c\ntry1 & has mo/ rec5tly appe>$ 9 ! guise ( agricultural in/ruction 7see p4 #dbd74 ,_m /ates n[ require agriculture z a requisite = a tea*]'s c]tificate1 & mo/ normal s*ools h come to furni% a tra9+ 9 ! subject4 ,sid5ote3 ,attitude ^u =mal discipl9e & me?od4 ,int]relation ( ! ,sci5tific ) ! ,psy*ological & ,sociological ,movem5ts4--,x is evid5t t !re has be5 a m>k$ sci5tific movem5t 9 ! educational sy/ems ( all c\ntries dur+ ! pa/ two hundr$ ye>s4 ,! sci5ces began to appe> 9 ! curricula ( educational in/itutions 9 ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies1 b _! rapid increase1 & ! use ( laboratories & ! sci5tific me?od 9 in/ruction1 dat$ f ! middle ( ! n9ete5?4 ,9 "s respects ?is sci5tific movem5t has be5 closely relat$ to ! o!r mod]n t5d5cies 9 education1--! psy*ological & ! sociological4 ,! co9cid5ce ( ! sci5tific movem5t ) ! psy*ological on ! "q ( =mal discipl9e has be5 evid5t 7pp4 #ahc f474 ,! influ5ce ( ! developm5t ( ! sci5ces ^u educational me?od also con/itutes "p ( ! psy*ological movem5t4 ,! sci5ces dem&$ entirely diff]5t me?ods ( tea*+ f ! traditional proc$ure4 ,^! innovations 7 work$ out sl[ly by exp]im5tation1 & :5 !y prov$ to be m 9 keep+ ) psy*ology1 !y react$ ^u ! tea*+ ( ! old] subjects & came to be utiliz$ 9 hi/ory1 politics1 philology1 & o!r /udies4 ,a correspond+ improvem5t 9 ! pres5tation ( ! =m1 cont5t1 & arrangem5t ( v>i\s subjects has tak5 place 9 text-books1 & a radically diff]5t set ( books & au?ors has be5 r5d]$ necess>y4 ,sid5ote3 ,means ( human welf>e4 ,! sci5tific movem5t has ev5 m po9ts 9 common ) ! sociological4 ,9 its opposition to ! discipl9>ians & its /ress ^u cont5t r ?an =m1 ! sci5tific t5d5cy co9cides ) ! sociological1 al?\gh ! =m] looks r to ! natural sci5ces z a means ( individual welf>e1 & ! latt] to ! social & political sci5ces to equip ! individual = life 9 social in/itutions & to secure ! progress ( society4 ,b :ile ! sci5ti/ usually /ates 8 argum5t 9 individual t]ms1 because ( 8 connection 9 "t & sympa?y ) ! individualism ( ! eighte5? & n9ete5? c5turies1 ! same writ] usually1 z 9 ! case ( ,r\sseau1 ,combe1 ,sp5c]1 & ,huxley1 advocates ! social1 moral1 & political sci5ces z a means ( complete liv+4 ,simil>ly1 ! sociological movem5t has especial k9%ip ) ! economic & utilit>ian aspects ( ! /udy ( ! sci5ces1 = pr(essional1 te*nical1 & comm]cial in/itutions h be5 evolv$ because ( sociological z well z sci5tific dem&s4 ,aga91 ! use ( ! sci5ces 9 education z a means ( prep>+ = life & ! ne$s ( society ov]laps ! mod]n sociological pr9ciple ( fur!r+ democracy4 ,bo? t5d5cies lead to ! be/ developm5t ( all classes & to ! ab&onm5t ( artificial /rata 9 society4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap4 ,x2 & ,great ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 *ap4 ,,xiv2 ,monroe1 ,textbook 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *ap4 ,,xii2 ,p>k]1 ,mod]n ,elem5t>y ,education 7,g9n1 #aiab71 pp4 #cca-cdj4 ,popul> acc\nts ( ! gr[? ( sci5ce c be f\nd 9 ,buckley1 ,arabella ,b41 ,a ,%ort ,hi/ory ( ,natural ,sci5ce 7,appleton71 & ,williams1 ,h4 ,s41 ,/ory ( ,n9ete5? ,c5tury ,sci5ce 7,h>p]74 ,sp5c]'s ,education & ,huxley's ,sci5ce & ,education %\ld be read4 ,fur!r argum5ts = ! /udy ( sci5ce c be f\nd 9 ,c\lt]1 ,j4 ,m41 ,! ,mission ( ,sci5ce 9 ,education 7,sci5ce1 ,,ii1 #ab1 pp4 #bha-bic72 ,dry]1 ,c4 ,r41 ,sci5ce 9 ,second>y ,s*ools 7,prize ,essay 9 ,! ,academy1 ,may1 #ahhh1 pp4 #aig-bba72 ,gall[ay1 ,r41 ,education1 ,sci5tific & ,te*nical 7,trbn]1 ,london1 #ahha72 ,norton1 ,w4 ,h41 ,! ,social ,s]vice ( ,sci5ce 7,sci5ce1 ,,ii1 #ac1 pp4 #fdd;ff472 ,pe>son1 ,k41 ,gramm> ( ,sci5ce 7,macmillan1 #aiaa71 *ap4 ,i2 ,rob]ts1 ,r4 ,d41 ,sci5ce 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury 7,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aija71 *ap4 ,,vii2 ,s$gwick1 ,w4 ,t41 ,educational ,value ( ! ,me?od ( ,sci5ce 7,educational ,review1 vol4 ,v1 pp4 #bdc;ff471 & especially ,y\mans1 ,e4 ,l41 ,culture ,dem&$ by ,mod]n ,life 7,appleton1 #ahfg74 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii ,,pres5t ,,day ,,t5d5cies ,,9 ,,education ,,outl9e ,at ! pres5t "t !re is great progress 9 indu/rial1 comm]cial1 & agricultural tra9+ 9 ! s*ools ( ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,= a qu>t] ( a c5tury ! educational sy/ems ( ,europe h be5 giv+ att5tion to moral tra9+1 & ( late !re has be5 "s discussion ( ! subject 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,all ! great nations n[ provide = ! tra9+ ( m5tal defectives1 & = "s "t tra9+ has be5 af=d$ ^? defective 9 "s s5se organ4 ,! attempts at improv$ me?ods ( tea*+ are witness$ by ! /udy ( indu/ries 9 ! exp]im5tal s*ool ( ,dewey1 by ! =mulation ( a curriculum 9 t]ms ( normal activities ( o!r elem5t>y s*ools1 & by ! #8didactic app>atus' & ! devices = le>n+ ! #8?ree r's' ( ,montessori4 ,me?ods ( m5tal measurem5t are be+ devis$ = ! elem5t>y s*ool subjects by ,?orndike & o!rs1 & sy/ems ( measurem5t are be+ utiliz$ 9 adm9i/ration4 ,d>w9's !ory ( evolution has revolutioniz$ our attitude1 imag]y1 & vocabul>y 9 education4 ,!re is also a great v>iety ( o!r educational movem5ts 9 all grades ( education4 ,sid5ote3 ,con/ant ef=ts at a recon/ruction ( education4 ,rec5t ,educational ,progress4--,because ( ! notable developm5t ( sci5ce & inv5tion1 :i* has be5 not$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! n9ete5? c5tury has (t5 be5 ref]r$ to z ! #8wond]ful' c5tury4 ,su* a t]m af=ds no bett] description ( mat]ial a*ievem5t ?an ( ! rem>kable progress t has tak5 place 9 education4 ,previ\s *apt]s h indicat$ ! ext5t to :i*1 ?r\gh v>i\s movem5ts1 education has advanc$ & broad5$ 9 conception1 b ! ne> future ( education w probably witness a mu* great] developm5t4 ,at ! pres5t "t !re are con/ant ef=ts at a modification & a recon/ruction ( education 9 ! int]e/ ( a bett] adju/m5t ( ! individual to 8 social environm5t & ( greatly improv$ conditions 9 society itself4 ,x w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be impossible to describe all ( ^! movem5ts ev5 9 ! briefe/ mann]1 b "s ( ! pres5t day t5d5cies t appe> mo/ significant %\ld n[ engage our att5tion4 ,sid5ote3 ,social reasons = indu/rial education4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,indu/rial ,tra9+4--,! movem5t t is p]haps mo/ widely discuss$ to-day is ! introduction ( vocational tra9+ into ! sy/ems ( education4 ,!re is n[ an especial ne$ = ?is type ( tra9+4 ,s9ce ! indu/rial revolution & ! developm5t ( ! factory sy/em1 ! ma/] no long] works by ! side ( 8 appr5tice & in/ructs him1 & ! ambition ( ! y\? c no long] be spurr$ by ! hope t he may himself "s day become a ma/]4 ,8 exp]i5ce is g5]ally conf9$ to "s s+le process1 & only a few ( ! op]atives require any?+ m ?an l[-grade skill4 ,nor1 z a rule1 w ! employ] und]take any sy/ematic education ( 8 workm51 :5 ! mobility ( labor p]mits ( no gu>antee t he w reap ! b5efit ( su* ef=ts1 & ! mod]n indu/rial plant is poorly adapt$ to supply+ ! necess>y !oretical tra9+ = exp]ts4 ,h5ce an outside ag5cy--! s*ool--has be5 call$ ^u to assi/ 9 ! solution ( ^! new problems4 ,to meet ! dem& = indu/rial education1 all ! pr9cipal /ates ( ,europe h ma9ta9$ tra9+ ( ?is sort = at lea/ half a c5tury1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates has 9 ! tw5tie? c5tury be5 mak+ rapid /rides 9 ! same direction4 ,sid5ote3 ,indu/rial tra9+ ( ! cont9uation s*ools 9 ,g]many4 ,sid5ote3 ,"w ( ,k]s*5/e9]4 ,indu/rial ,s*ools 9 ,europe4--,9 ,g]many1 :]e ?is tra9+ is mo/ effective1 ! "w has = fifty ye>s be5 rapidly develop+ ?r\gh ! ,=tbildungss*ul5 7see ,fig4 #ee74 ,! c\rse 9 ^! s*ools at fir/ consi/$ l>gely ( review "w1 b ! rapid spread ( elem5t>y s*ools soon enabl$ !m to devote all ! "t to te*nical education4 ,tra9+ is n[ af=d$ n only = ! rank & file ( workm5 9 ! diff]5t trades1 b = high] grades ( work]s1 su* z =em5 & sup]9t5d5ts4 ,girls are likewise tra9$ 9 a wide v>iety ( vocations4 ,dur+ ! la/ tw5ty-five ye>s !re h also be5 develop$ cont9uation s*ools to furni% !oretical c\rses 9 physical sci5ces1 ma!matics1 bookkeep+1 draw+1 hi/ory1 & law4 ,9 ,nor? ,g]many !re is a t5d5cy to conf9e ! c\rses to !oretical tra9+1 & leave ! practical side to ! c>e ( ! employ]s1 b ! ,s\? ,g]man /ates g5]ally comb9e !oretical & practical "w1 & develop s*ools adapt$ to ! indu/ries ( ! v>i\s localities4 ,?r\gh ! "w ( ,k]s*5/e9]1 ,muni* has ev5 includ$ an extra class 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools1 to bridge ! gap betwe5 s*ool life & employm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,no appr5tice%ip 9 ,france1 b all tra9+ 9 cont9uation s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,e>ly facilities 9 ,engl&4 ,france goes /ill fur!r1 &1 because ( unsatisfactory conditions 9 appr5tice%ip1 attempts to elim9ate x altoge!r1 & to furni% ! entire indu/rial tra9+ ?r\gh cont9uation s*ools articulat+ ) ! elem5t>y sy/em4 ,! pupils are admitt$ at ?irte5 to ! cont9uation s*ools 7see p4 #chc7 & obta9 practice 9 ! s*ool work%ops = ?ree ye>s4 ,woodwork is g5]ally taught to ! boys1 b ! o!r c\rses v>y ) local ne$s4 ,girls le>n to make dresses1 corsets1 mill9]y1 artificial fl[]s1 & o!r indu/rial products4 ,9 ,engl&1 grants 7 fir/ made to ev5+ indu/rial s*ools & classes 9 #ahea1 b tw5ty ye>s lat] regul> s*ools ( sci5ce 7 organiz$1 :i* _h bo? day & ev5+ sessions4 ,9 addition to ^! cont9uation s*ools1 !re h n[ be5 e/abli%$ high] elem5t>y s*ools1 :i* af=d a f\r-ye> c\rse 9 practical & !oretical sci5ce arrang$ accord+ to local ne$s4 ,sid5ote3 ,ev5+ cont9uation s*ools 9 ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,day s*ools1 private ,sid5ote3 & public4 ,sid5ote3 ,second>y s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 #8,"p-"t' s*ools4 ,indu/rial ,tra9+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,indu/rial tra9+ fir/ began to be (f]$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ ! latt] half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury by means ( a numb] ( ev5+ cont9uation s*ools4 ,^! 7 e/abli%$ ?r\gh philan?ropy 9 ! l>g] cities1 & includ$ ! ,coop] ,union & ! ,me*anics' ,in/itute 9 ,new ,york2 ! ,frankl9 ,union & ! ,spr+ ,g>d5 ,in/itute 9 ,philadelphia2 ! ,ohio ,me*anics' ,in/itute 9 ,c9c9nati2 & ! ,virg9ia ,me*anics' ,in/itute 9 ,ri*mond4 ,! public s*ools at l5g? foll[$ ?is example1 & ( late ye>s h organiz$ ev5+ classes 9 draw+1 ma!matics1 sci5ce1 & te*nical subjects4 ,day in/ruction 0 long delay$4 ,x began 9 #ahha ) ! f\ndation ( ! ,new ,york ,trade ,s*ool1 b at ! end ( tw5ty ye>s !re 7 only two o!rs1--! ,williamson ,free ,s*ool ( ,me*anical ,trades ne> ,philadelphia & ! ,b>on de ,hirs* ,trade ,s*ool 9 ,new ,york4 ,lat] ! developm5t 0 m rapid1 & s9ce #aijf sev]al hundr$ day trade s*ools h be5 organiz$1 mo/ly ?r\gh public support1 9 ! l>g] cities ( ! c\ntry4 ,^! s*ools are mo/ly = y\?s betwe5 sixte5 & tw5ty-five1 b #8prep>atory trade s*ools' = y\ng] boys h also be5 />t$ 9 ,new ,york1 ,massa*usetts1 & o!r /ates4 ,high] tra9+ to equip lead]s = ! indu/ries has also come to be furni%$ ?r\gh end[$ second>y s*ools & te*nical high s*ools 9 a numb] ( cities4 ,a rec5t v>iety ( vocational tra9+ is ! #8"p-"t' plan1 by :i* /ud5ts are giv5 "s !oretical & =mal tra9+ 9 a regul> high s*ool or college1 :ile !y are obta9+ _! practical exp]i5ce4 ,?is alt]nation ( practical & !oretical tra9+ is sometimes c>ri$ on 9 a s+le in/itution1 or ev5 )9 a comm]cial e/abli%m5t itself4 ,sid5ote3 ,conditions requir+ comm]cial education4 ,comm]cial ,education 9 ,europe & ,am]ica4--,b ! mod]n developm5t ( vocational tra9+ ?r\gh\t ! lead+ c\ntries has n be5 conf9$ to indu/rial l9es4 ,) ! ext5sion ( ! sph]e ( comm]ce & ! developm5t ( its organization t h tak5 place 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 x has come to be recogniz$ t prep>ation is ess5tial = a bus9ess c>e]4 ,only rec5tly1 h[ev]1 has ?is tra9+ be5 felt to be a prop] function ( ! s*ools1 s9ce = _m ye>s x 0 oppos$ by educators z sordid & comm]cializ+1 & by bus9ess m5 z unpractical & ineffective4 ,bo? classes h n[ be5 br\ght to realize ! ne$ ( mutual support1 & ! rapid gr[? ( comm]cial education indicates an appreciation ( its usefulness4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ,g]many _m private cont9uation s*ools1 ,sid5ote3 & second>y & univ]sity c\rses1 ,sid5ote3 b ,engl& & ,france indiff]5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates #8bus9ess colleges1' ,sid5ote3 & second>y & high] c\rses4 ,g]many is g5]ally admitt$ to lead 9 comm]cial education4 ,! gr[? ( ?is tra9+ has tak5 place s9ce #ahhg1 b !re is n[ (f]$ "u /ate control a unifi$ & ?or\gh prep>ation = any l9e ( bus9ess4 ,besides private cont9uation s*ools1 9 :i* a c\rse ( ?ree ye>s 9 mod]n languages & elem5t>y comm]cial /udies c be obta9$1 !re h gr[n up bo? public second>y s*ools & univ]sity c\rses 9 :i* a ?or\gh g5]al education & !oretical "w 9 comm]ce1 z well z a practical & te*nical tra9+1 are provid$ 7,fig4 #ee74 ,engl& & ,france h be5 r indiff]5t to comm]cial education4 ,9 bo? c\ntries until v rec5tly s*ools h be5 few1 & ! numb] ( pupils 9 ea* has be5 small4 ,b n[ cont9uation s*ools1 free ev5+ c\rses1 & private classes h sprung up1 & 9 a few l>ge cities comm]cial s*ools ( second>y & ev5 high] grade h be5 e/abli%$4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates comm]cial tra9+ began by ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ?r\gh private ent]prise ) classes 9 bookkeep+1 & lat] ) #8bus9ess colleges4' ,despite ! "n ( ! latt]1 ! c\rse is n>r[ & is g5]ally %ap$ by pecuni>y aims4 ,dur+ ! la/ two decades ( ! n9ete5? c5tury high & normal s*ools began to (f] comm]cial in/ruction1 b until ! tw5tie? c5tury ! c\rses 7 only tol]at$ z a necess>y evil1 & l>gely imitat$ ^? ( ! bus9ess colleges4 ,s9ce !n _m cities h op5$ high s*ools ( comm]ce1 & univ]sity s*ools & colleges ( comm]ce h aris51 & ev5 a score ( ye>s be=e ?is developm5t ! ,:>ton ,s*ool ( ,f9ance & ,comm]ce 0 />t$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,sid5ote3 ,agricultural in/ruction 9 ! s*ools ( ,france & ,g]many4 ,sid5ote3 ,unit$ ,/ates (f]s c\rses 9 all grades ( education4 ,rec5t ,emphasis ^u ,agricultural ,tra9+4--,a simil> developm5t has ( late be5 tak+ place 9 agricultural education4 ,france & ,g]many (f] elem5t>y in/ruction 9 agriculture1 :ile ! =m] has also introduc$ ! subject into ! normal s*ools1 & ! latt] has e/abli%$ a second>y agricultural in/itution op5 to /ud5ts at ! close ( _! six? ye> 9 ! ,reals*ule4 ,?r\gh ! feel+ t ! ,unit$ ,/ates mu/ become ! great agricultural nation1 & t ! traditional me?ods ( agriculture h be5 exce$+ly wa/eful1 ?is c\ntry especially has be5 emphasiz+ t type ( vocational education4 ,! l& grant colleges1 fir/ end[$ by act ( ,congress 9 #ahfb1 h greatly /imulat$ int]e/ 9 ! subject1 & lat] ,congress add$ o!r s\rces ( rev5ue1 & has rec5tly furni%$ appropriations = in/ruction 9 ! tea*+ ( agriculture & = ext5sion "w 9 agriculture4 ,?us ! way has be5 prep>$ = ! introduction ( ! subject into ! high s*ool & grades4 ,!re are n[ at lea/ "o hundr$ agricultural high s*ools 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & agriculture is taught z a bran* ( /udy 9 sev]al ?\s& high & elem5t>y s*ool sy/ems4 ,sid5ote3 ,social conditions dem&+ moral tra9+4 ,moral ,tra9+ 9 ! ,s*ools ,to-day4--,b pres5t day t5d5cies 9 education h to d ) m ?an ! mat]ial side ( civilization4 ,!re is a gr[+ s5tim5t 9 favor ( moral in/ruction 9 ! s*ools4 ,!re are _m reasons :y ?is ne$ %\ld be especially felt 9 ! complex bus9ess life ( to-day4 ,:5 m5 "w = imp]sonal corporations1 sell products to p !y nev] see1 or intru/ _! welf>e to (ficials ^: names are sc>cely kn[n1 "o /rong factor mak+ = hone/y & virtue1 t ( p]sonal relations1 is lo/4 ,moreov]1 z a result ( ! weak5+ ( old religi\s sanctions1 ! new conditions 9 l>ge cities1 & o!r causes1 moral traditions are 9 ne$ ( be+ buttress$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,vocational education = boys 9 ,g]many 7,comm]cial1 ,indu/rial1 & ,pr(essional7 9 ,relation to ,public ,s*ool ,organization4 7,reproduc$ by p]mission f ,f>r+ton's ,comm]cial ,education 9 ,g]many47 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ,france secul> tra9+1 b 9 ,engl& & ,g]many religi\s4 ,sid5ote3 ,sadl]'s commission4 ,sid5ote3 ,"w ( ! ,n4 ,e4 ,a4 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,summ>y ( ! ,r4 ,e4 ,a4 ,! educational sy/ems ( ,europe h = a qu>t] ( a c5tury giv5 m or less att5tion to moral tra9+4 ,9 ,france ?is tra9+ has be5 purely secul> & exclud$ all religi\s elem5ts4 ,b ! education ( ,engl& & ,g]many has always associat$ ! tea*+ ( morality ) religion4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! #8bo>d' s*ools h furni%$ religi\s in/ruction ( a nonsect>ian "*1 b ! religi\s tra9+ ( ! #8volunt>y' s*ools has occupi$ m "t & has /ress$ ! cre$ & d5om9ational tea*+ ( "s *ur*1 usually ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& 7see pp4 #chj f474 ,! conte/ ov] religi\s tea*+ s9ce ! ,act ( #aijb 7see p4 #cij7 caus$ a self-con/itut$ commission1 ) ,mi*ael ,e4 ,sadl] z *airman1 to inve/igate ! subject ( moral in/ruction1 & 9 #aijh-aiji x pres5t$ a l>ge & illum9at+ report4 ,9 ,g]many ! moral & religi\s in/ruction 9 all elem5t>y s*ools is sect>ian1 & ,ca?olic & ,prote/ant s*ools are alike support$1 :]ev] ne$$1 at public exp5se4 ,dur+ ! pa/ decade !re has be5 consid]able discussion 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates conc]n+ moral education4 ,9 response to ! dem& = an inve/igation ( ! subject1 a committee ( ! ,national ,education ,association 9 #aijh-aiji made a report ^u v>i\s phases ( moral tra9+1 & recomm5d$ special in/ruction 9 e?ics1 n 9 ! =m ( precepts1 b ?r\gh consid]ation ( exi/+ moral que/ions4 ,9 #aiaa ! ,religi\s ,education ,association1 ^: conv5tion 9 t ye> 0 devot$ to moral tra9+1 gave 9 its ,j\rnal a broad summ>y ( ! progress ( moral education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! report reveals a wide diff]5ce ( op9ion & practice1 b an evid5t t5d5cy to tru/ o!r ag5cies ?an direct moral in/ruction4 ,z a rule1 /ate legislation seems z yet to h fail$ to provide a g5]al sy/em ( tra9+1 b has conf9$ itself to specific subjects1 su* z in/ruction 9 citiz5%ip1 ! effects ( alcohol & n>cotics1 & ! humane treatm5t ( animals4 ,sid5ote3 ,impulse giv5 by ,segu9's #8physiological' me?ods4 ,sid5ote3 ,attempts to introduce intellectual elem5ts4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,tra9+ = ,m5tal ,defectives4--,"o ( ! mo/ pat5t evid5ces ( ! gr[? ( ! humane _s 9 mod]n times is f\nd 9 ! univ]sal att5tion n[ giv5 to ! education ( m5tal defectives4 ,?is movem5t 0 giv5 its greate/ impulse ?r\gh d\>d ,segu91 :o came to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #ahej & develop$ 8 me?ods "h4 ,8 g5]al plan 0 to appeal to ! m9d ?r\gh ! s5ses by means ( a tra9+ ( ! h&1 ta/e & smell1 & eye & e>4 ,he us$ pictures1 photographs1 c>ds1 patt]ns1 figures1 wax1 clay1 scissors1 compasses1 & p5cils z 8 *ief in/rum5ts ( education4 ,! /imulus he gave to ! tra9+ ( defectives has be5 epo*-mak+1 & 8 #8physiological' me?ods h rema9$ ! *ief means ( education4 ,al?\gh !re has gr[n up a t5d5cy to introduce intellectual elem5ts into ! tra9+ ( ! feeble-m9d$1 ! advantages ( su* a proc$ure are d\btful4 ,sid5ote3 ,s*ools 9 ,g]many1 ,sid5ote3 ,france1 & ,engl&4 ,all ! great nations n[ provide s*ools = ! tra9+ ( defectives4 ,g]many has ov] "o hundr$ in/itutions1 ) "s tw5ty ?\s& pupils 9 !m1 al?\gh n9e-t5?s ( !m are n support$ by ! /ate1 b are "u *ur* or private auspices4 ,^! s*ools g5]ally /ress manual education1 b give "s att5tion to intellectual l9es1 especially to spee* tra9+4 ,!re are b few s*ools = defectives 9 ,france1 aside f ! two ne> ,p>is & ! juv5ile dep>tm5t ( ! insane hospital at ,bictre1 b ^! in/itutions l>gely foll[ ! physical "w =mulat$ by ,segu94 ,9 ,london !re is "o excell5t in/itution ) two ?\s& pupils1 :]e manual tra9+ con/itutes almo/ ! entire c\rse4 ,b !re are five o!r s*ools s locat$ z to s]ve ! v>i\s p>ts ( ,engl&1 9 :i* ! tra9+ is r booki% & emphasis is especially laid ^u numb] "w4 ,sid5ote3 ,tra9+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?anks to ! />t giv5 by ,segu91 ,am]ica has tak5 up ! education ( defectives m fully ?an any o!r c\ntry4 ,s*ools = ! feeble-m9d$ n[ exi/ 9 almo/ all ! /ates1 & !re are "s ?irty-five or =ty private in/itutions ( consid]able m]it4 ,n f> f tw5ty ?\s& defectives are be+ tra9$1 al?\gh ?is is probably only ab\t "o-t5? ( ! total numb] ( su* cases 9 ! c\ntry4 ,! type ( education diff]s greatly accord+ to ! in/itution1 rang+ f almo/ purely manual tra9+ to a l>ge proportion ( ! intellectual rudim5ts1 b 9 all ! "w is adapt$ to ! v>i\s grades 9 su* a way z to raise !m a little 9 ! scale ( effici5cy & to keep !m z f> z possible f be+ a burd5 to !mselves & to society4 ,likewise1 special cl9ics & inve/igations1 l ^? ( ,lightn] ,witm] ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania & ( ,h4 ,h4 ,godd>d ( ! ,tra9+ ,s*ool at ,v9el& 7,new ,j]sey71 are greatly add+ to our k ( ! be/ me?ods = tra9+ defectives4 ,sid5ote3 ,manual ,sid5ote3 & oral me?ods = ! deaf4 ,education ( ! ,deaf & ,bl9d4--,p]sons defective 9 "s s5se organ1 b o!rwise up to ! /&>d1 h likewise = "s "t be5 receiv+ an education t w m9imize ! difficulty4 ,!re h be5 two *ief me?ods = tea*+ ! deaf4 ,! manual or #8sil5t' me?od ( communication 0 inv5t$ by ! ,abb de l'pe 9 ,p>is dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & 8 s*ool 0 adopt$ by ! nation 9 #agia4 ,! o!r me?od1 ! #8oral1' by :i* ! pupil le>ns to communicate ?r\gh read+ ! movem5ts ( ! lips1 0 />t$ 9 ,g]many e>ly 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 b 0 n employ$ to any great ext5t until ! middle ( ! next c5tury4 ,mo/ c\ntries n[ use ! oral me?od exclusively1 or 9 connection ) ! manual sy/em4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates practically e commonweal? n[ has "o or m s*ools = ! deaf1 & s9ce #ahfd ev5 high] education has be5 furni%$ by ,gallaudet ,college at ,wa%+ton4 ,sid5ote3 ,s*ools = ! bl9d 9 ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! fir/ in/ruction ( ! bl9d ?r\gh rais$ lett]s 0 giv5 t[>d ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury by ,abb ,hay at ,p>is4 ,:ile 8 s*ools1 ow+ to 8 lack ( judgm5t1 7 failures1 ! idea spread rapidly4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury !re 7 "o or m s*ools 9 ea* ( ! lead+ c\ntries ( ,europe1 & a g5]ation lat] in/itutions ( ?is sort 7 />t$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 s*ools = ! bl9d or deaf1 indu/rial tra9+ has 9 mo/ in/ances be5 add$ to ! intellectual 7see p4 #cjj71 9 ord] to fit e individual to be an indep5d5t workman 9 "s l9e4 ,ev5 pupils1 bo? deaf & bl9d1 l ,laura ,bridgeman & ,hel5 ,kell]1 h _h _! m9ds awak5$ ?r\gh ! s5se ( t\*4 ,sid5ote3 ,colonel ,p>k]'s contributions4 ,rec5t ,developm5t ( ,educational ,me?od2 ,dewey's ,exp]im5tal ,s*ool4--,nor has ! pa/ c5tury witness$ any cessation ( ! attempts at improv$ me?ods ( tea*+4 ,v>i\s sugge/ions & sy/ems h be5 put =w>d & _m h _h an important effect ^u s*ool proc$ure4 ,x is impossible1 h[ev]1 to discuss any except a few ( ! m influ5tial & prom95t1 & ^! c be consid]$ b briefly4 ,! occupational "w ( ,pr(essor ,dewey & ,colonel ,p>k]'s s*eme ( conc5tration h m>k$ ! gr[? ( a body ( educational !ory & practice t places ! me?ods ( to-day f> 9 advance ( any?+ previ\sly kn[n4 ,! comb9ation & modification ( ,ritt]1 ,h]b>t1 & ,froebel work$ out by ,p>k] h p]haps receiv$ suffici5t att5tion 7see pp4 #bic1 #cej1 & #cfd71 b we may at ?is po9t outl9e a little m fully ! contributions made by ,john ,dewey1 :o has probably be5 ! lead] 9 ! recon/ruction t has tak5 place 9 education almo/ s9ce ! tw5tie? c5tury began4 ,sid5ote3 ,purpose ,sid5ote3 & c\rse ( ,dewey's s*ool4 ,! me?ods ( ,dewey 7 develop$ 9 an exp]im5tal elem5t>y s*ool connect$ ) ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago & "u 8 sup]vision f #ahif to #aijc4 ,! s*ool did n />t ) ready-made pr9ciples1 b s\ght to solve ?ree fundam5tal educational problems4 ,x und]took to f9d out 7#a7 h[ to br+ ! s*ool into clos] relation ) ! home & neighborhood life2 7#b7 h[ to introduce subject-matt] 9 hi/ory1 sci5ce1 & art t has a positive value & real significance 9 ! *ild's own life2 & 7#c7 h[ to c>ry on in/ruction 9 read+1 writ+1 & figur+ ) ev]yday exp]i5ce & occupation z _! backgr\nd 89 su* a way t ! *ild %all feel _! necessity ?r\gh _! connection ) subjects :i* appeal to him on _! own acc\nt40 ,! plan = meet+ ^! ne$s 0 f\nd l>gely 9 ! /udy ( indu/ries4 ,s9ce indu/ries are mo/ fundam5tal 9 ! ?\ght1 ideals1 & social organization ( a p1 ^! activities mu/ h ! mo/ prom95t place 9 ! c\rse ( a s*ool4 8,! s*ool _c be a prep>ation = social life except z x reproduces ! typical conditions ( life40 ,! means us$ 9 furni%+ ?is indu/rial activity 7 evolv$ ma9ly along ! l9es ( %opwork1 cook+1 sew+1 & weav+1 al?\gh _m subsidi>y indu/ries 7 also us$4 ,^! occupations 71 ( c\rse1 int5d$ = a lib]aliz+1 r ?an a te*nical purpose1 & consid]able "t 0 giv5 to an hi/orical /udy ( !m 7,fig4 #ef74 ,dewey decl>es3 8,! indu/rial hi/ory ( man is n a mat]iali/ic or m]ely utilit>ian affair4 ,x is a matt] ( intellig5ce4 ,its record is ! record ( h[ man le>n$ to ?9k1 to ?9k to "s effect1 to trans=m ! conditions ( life s t life itself became a diff]5t ?+4 ,x is an e?ical record z well2 ! acc\nt ( ! conditions :i* m5 h pati5tly wr\ght out to s]ve _! ends40 ,sid5ote3 ,9 h>mony ) ,froebel1 ,sid5ote3 b n z /]eotyp$1 ,sid5ote3 & "w--n amusem5t--! _s ( ! s*ool4 ,x c be se5 h[ fully ?is plan is 9 accord ) ! real pr9ciples ( social cop]ation & expression ( individual activities und]ly+ ! "w ( ,froebel2 & 8s f> z ^! /atem5ts correctly repres5t$ ,froebel's educational philosophy10 ,dewey g5]\sly grants t 8! s*ool %\ld be reg>d$ z its expon5t40 ,b ^! indu/rial activities ( ! ,*icago exp]im5tal s*ool 7 n 9 ! lea/ sugge/$ by ,froebel's "w1 & 7 f> m expressive ( real life4 ,!y nev] became z /]eotyp$ & ext]nal z ! gifts or ev5 z ! occupations ( ! k9d]g>t5 h g5]ally be54 ,dewey is insi/5t t ?is tra9+ %all be c>ri$ on n = ! purpose ( furni%+ facts or pr9ciples to be le>n$1 b = enabl+ ! *ild to engage 9 ! indu/rial occupations 9 m9iature4 8,! s*ool is n prep>ation = life3 x is life40 ,h5ce ?is tra9+ is sup]ior to ! occupations ( ,froebel 9 t 8x ma9ta9s a balance betwe5 ! intellectual & ! practical phases ( exp]i5ce40 ,:]e ,froebel has held to ! con/ruction ( beautiful ?+s 9 me*anical ways1 ,dewey emphasizes ! ord9>y activities & exp]i5ces ( life1 ev5 ?\gh ! expression ( ^! be crude4 ,! *ild %\ld be 8giv51 :]ev] possible1 intellectual responsibility = select+ ! mat]ials & in/rum5ts t are mo/ fit1 & giv5 an opportunity to ?9k out 8 own model & plan ( "w1 l$ to p]ceive 8 own errors1 & f9d h[ to correct !m40 ,?us ! "w 0 nev] 8r$uc$ to a m]e r\t9e or cu/om & its educational value lo/40 ,z a result1 too1 x 0 ! cons5sus ( op9ion t 8:ile ! *ildr5 l1 or love1 to come to s*ool1 yet "w1 & n amusem5t1 has be5 ! _s & tea*+ ( ! s*ool2 & t ?is fre$om has be5 grant$ "u su* conditions ( intellig5t & sympa!tic ov]sight z to be a means ( upbuild+ & /r5g!n+ "*40 ,sid5ote3 ,s*ools on a simil> basis4 ,o!r ,exp]im5ts 9 ,me?od4--,h5ce1 :ile ! ,*icago s*ool is n[ at an end1 ! exp]im5t 9 education develop$ !re is /ill yield+ abundant fruitage4 ,x has /imulat$ simil> und]tak+s else:]e1 & has be5 ! l>ge/ factor 9 det]m9+ ! !ory & practice ( ! pres5t day4 ,ei!r z a result ( ,dewey's "w or ?r\gh indep5d5t ?\ght1 !re has sprung up an important gr\p ( s*ools 9 :i* !re is cle>ly an ef=t to br+ boys & girls ( elem5t>y s*ool age into m intimate relation to community life ab\t !m4 ,su* are ! ,g>y 7,indiana7 ,public ,s*ools1 ! ,francis ,w4 ,p>k] ,s*ool ( ,*icago1 ! ,elem5t>y ,s*ool at ! ,univ]sity ( ,miss\ri1 ! ,pe/alozzi-,froebel ,s*ool ( ,b]l91 ! ,abbot%olme ,s*ool 9 ,d]by%ire 7,engl&71 & a numb] ( o!rs4 ,sid5ote3 ,univ]sity ( ,miss\ri ,elem5t>y ,s*ool3 ,sid5ote3 its purpose & curriculum4 ,a good illu/ration is af=d$ 9 ! s*ool develop$ by ,junius ,l4 ,m]iam at ,columbia1 ,miss\ri1 al?\gh x has n be5 giv5 mu* publicity4 ,its function is to help *ildr5 d bett] 9 all ^? :olesome activities 9 :i* !y normally engage4 ,! s*ool does n att5d to ! #8?ree r's' z su*1 b specifically to p>ticul> activities ( *ildr51 includ+ 7#a7 play1 7#b7 obs]vation1 7#c7 h&work1 & 7#d7 /ories1 music1 & art4 ,^! f\r #8/udies1' repres5t+ real life1 irrespective ( ! s*ool1 con/itute ! curriculum1 & ! #8?ree r's' are /udi$ only z !y are ne$$4 ,_! cont5t1 !re=e1 be+ us$1 z 9 life1 9 meet+ real ne$s1 is /udi$ mo/ effectively4 ,sid5ote3 ,g>y s*ool sy/em3 ,sid5ote3 its plant & me?ods4 ,an exp]im5t t has attract$ widespread int]e/ is t work$ out 9 ! ,g>y s*ool sy/em by ,william ,a4 ,wirt4 ,:ile ! a*ievem5t is mo/ly 9 ! way ( a rem>kable organization & adm9i/ration t h und]tak5 to make available 8all ( ! educational opportunities ( ! city all ( ! "t = all ( ! p10 ! tea*+ has to "s ext5t be5 c>ri$ on s z to reveal to ! pupils 8t :at !y are do+ is wor? :ile40 ,! s*ool plant includes a playgr\nd1 g>d51 work%op1 social c5t]1 libr>y1 & traditional s*ool1 & x has be5 %[n t ^! ag5cies1 :5 prop]ly organiz$1 8secure ! same attitude ( m9d t[>d ! read+1 writ+1 & ari?metic t ! *ild normally has = play40 ,all ! o!r s*ools t h be5 m5tion$ above make simil> attempts to enable ! *ildr5 to get into clos] t\* ) _! environm5t4 ,:ile ea* ( !m approa*es ! problems ( elem5t>y tra9+ f a diff]5t angle1 !y are all 9 h>mony ) ! _s ( ,dewey & pres5t day !ory4 ,sid5ote3 #8,lib]ty ( ! pupil2' ,sid5ote3 ,segu9's app>atus4 ,! ,montessori ,me?od4--,b probably ! mo/ spectacul> developm5t 9 educational proc$ure is t orig9at+ ) ,m>ia ,montessori at ,rome4 ,yet ! ,montessori me?od1 except = "s elem5ts adapt$ f ,segu9 7see p4 #dbf71 is l>gely a comb9ation ( sev]al ( ! concepts f\nd 9 ,r\sseau1 ,pe/alozzi1 & ,froebel1 & fails to grasp ! l>g] vision ( education t appe>s 9 pres5t-day !ory1 su* z ,dewey's4 ,l ,r\sseau & ,froebel1 ,montessori holds fundam5tally to ! rightness ( *ild nature & consequ5tly to ! lib]ty ( ! pupil1 b %e does n1 l ,dewey1 realize t education is itself life & t ! activities ( real life %\ld be utiliz$ 9 tra9+4 ,moreov]1 ! s5se tra9+1 :i* ,montessori h]self consid]s ! mo/ di/9ctive feature ( h] sy/em1 is nei!r orig9al nor psy*ologically s\nd4 ,montessori began z a tea*] ( defectives1 & h] #8didactic app>atus' & me?ods are l>gely borr[$ f ,segu94 ,ex]cises ( ?is sort are ( great value 9 tra9+ defectives1 b ! assumption ( _! usefulness 9 ! education ( normal *ildr5 is m d\btful4 ,!y are int5d$ to tra9 ! s5ses to g5]al p[]s & discrim9ations1 & seem to be def5d$ simply ^u ! basis ( faculty psy*ology & ! outworn !ory ( #8=mal discipl9e' 7see p4 #ahb f474 ,sid5ote3 ,writ+1 ,sid5ote3 read+1 & ari?metic4 ,! feature ( ! ,montessori me?od1 h[ev]1 t has attract$ mo/ att5tion is its app>5t success ) ! =mal elem5t>y /udies1 especially ! facility1 en?usiasm1 & spe$ ) :i* x has enabl$ ! pupils to le>n to write4 ,montessori has c>efully analyz$ ! process ( writ+ & devis$ ?ree ex]cises by :i* ?is art is unconsci\sly le>n$ by ?ree or f\r ye> old *ildr5 9 ,italy4 ,if ?is tra9+ c be appli$ to unphonetic languages1 l ! ,engli%1 x may possibly be reg>d$ z a contribution4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ,montessori lays too mu* /ress ^u ! acquisition ( ! =mal /udies & />ts !m at too e>ly an age4 ,9 ?is %e fails to appreciate ,froebel's great contribution ( a s*ool )\t books1 & c]ta9ly does n realize1 ) ,dewey1 t ! ma9 purpose ( education is to give a *ild "s control ( 8 social environm5t & t = ?is !re are activities ( m importance to *ild life ?an ! s*ool arts4 ,)9 a few ye>s x w probably be difficult to und]/& ! furore t has be5 creat$ by ! ,montessori me?ods4 ,sid5ote3 ,te*nique ( ! physical sci5ces appli$ to education4 ,! ,/ati/ical ,me?od & ,m5tal ,measurem5ts 9 ,education4--,"o ( ! mo/ significant ( ! pres5t day movem5ts is ! application1 especially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ( sci5tific1 /ati/ical me?ods to problems ( education4 ,/ati/ics h long be5 us$1 ?\gh (t5 )\t cle>ness or accuracy1 9 reports ( s*ool adm9i/ration1 b x rema9$ = ?is c5tury to apply to ! v>i\s phases ( education ! same g5]al te*nique & approximately ! same precision z t long dem&$ by ! physical & biological sci5ces4 ,quantitative1 unambigu\s /atem5ts are n[ s\ght & secur$ n only = ! ph5om5a ( att5dance1 ret>dation1 exp5ditures1 & ! l1 b also = ! relative & absolute am\nts ( k4 ,z a consequ5ce1 emphasis has be5 plac$ ^u ! results ( education r ?an ^u ! decl>ation ( int5tions4 ,sid5ote3 ,?orndike's advocacy ( a quantitative description & ( scales1 & ! application to a*ievem5t 9 s*ool subjects4 ,probably ! fir/ s*ol> to apply ! sci5tific pr9ciples ( /ati/ics to education 0 ,edw>d ,l4 ,?orndike ( ,columbia ,univ]sity4 ,9 8 ,educational ,psy*ology he illu/rates h[ a quantitative description ( individual diff]5ces & ( ! factors t condition !m is necess>y to ?r[ real light ^u educational !ory & practice1 & 9 8 ,m5tal & ,social ,measurem5ts he pres5ts ! details ( ! me?od4 ,subsequ5tly he ma9ta9$1 9 ! face ( mu* opposition1 t scales1 z objective & z imp]sonal z possible1 %\ld & c\ld be devis$ = measur+ v>iations 9 ability & *anges t take place z a result ( natural gr[? & in/ruction4 ,su* scales1 beg9n+ at an asc]ta9$ z]o & progress+ by regul> /eps to a po9t ne> p]fection1 are1 because ( ! complexity ( _! elem5ts1 difficult to con/ruct1 b !y h be5 set =? m or less t5tatively by v>i\s inve/igators = ! measurem5t ( a*ievem5t 9 h&writ+ 7,fig4 #eg71 ari?metic1 ,engli% composition1 spell+1 draw+1 freeh& lett]+1 & read+ respectively4 ,o!r scales to measure ability 9 ! sev]al high s*ool subjects may be expect$ soon4 ,sid5ote3 ,measurem5t ( ! quantitative significance ( factors 9 me?od4 ,/udies are also be+ made 9 sev]al univ]sities to det]m9e ! relative importance ( ! num]\s factors 9 me?ods ( tea*+4 ,?is is done by conduct+ exp]im5ts ) hundr$s or ?\s&s ( *ildr5 to f9d out by ! mo/ accurate measurem5t yet devis$ ! am\nt ( progress 9 le>n+ t is :olly due to ! pres5ce ( "s "o factor ( me?od 9 ! te*nique ( class-room ex]cises4 ,educational psy*ology has reveal$ ! qualitative significance ( _m ( ! s+le elem5ts 9 ! v complex proc$ure t we h call$ a #8me?od ( tea*+1' & ?is new type ( rese>* aims to det]m9e ! quantitative significance ( ea* ( ^! sev]al elem5ts ( me?od z factors 9 ! production ( abilities4 ,a4 ,duncan ,yocum ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania has =mulat$ a consid]able numb] ( te/s1 &1 by prelim9>y exp]im5tation1 has det]m9$ ! conditions "u :i* !y may ) a high degree ( accuracy be giv5 to gr\ps ( /ud5ts engag$ 9 actual s*ool "w "u ord9>y class-room conditions4 ,8 /ud5ts h made a numb] ( t5tative1 b sugge/ive /udies1 :i* h n yet be5 publi%$4 ,milo ,b4 ,hillegas ( ,columbia ,univ]sity & o!rs are engag$ on c]ta9 aspects ( ?is g5]al type ( rese>*4 ,!re is reason1 !re=e1 to believe t we may sometime be able to measure ) z mu* accuracy ! effici5cy ( well-def9$ educational processes z we are n[ able to measure educational products4 ,if ?is c be atta9$1 ! te*nique ( class-room tea*+ & ( educational sup]vision w beg9 to re/ on a really sci5tific basis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4--;,indian h\se con/ruct$ 9 ,dewey's exp]im5tal s*ool by *ildr5 betwe5 sev5 & eight ye>s ( age1 :ile /udy+ ! developm5t ( primitive life4 7,reproduc$ f ! ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,record by p]mission ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago ,press47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,specim5 ,no4 #ac tak5 f ! #8,?orndike ,writ+ ,scale4' ,?is specim5 con/itutes ! approximate quality ( h&writ+ t may reasonably be expect$ ( pupils 9 ! sev5? or eigh? grade4 ,9 ! complete scale ! specim5s are numb]$ f #d to #ah4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r m5tal & social measurem5ts1 ,sid5ote3 & #8educational surveys4' ,moreov]1 by ! use ( ! improv$ /ati/ical me?od & ( scales1 /udies ( greatly increas$ value h be5 made ( fatigue1 ret>dation1 elim9ation1 & ( o!r social & m5tal ph5om5a ( individual *ildr54 ,& 9 #aiaa1 ) ! reports ( ,paul ,h4 ,hanus ( ,h>v>d ,univ]sity & ,erne/ ,c4 ,moore ( ,yale ,univ]sity ^u ! s*ool sy/ems ( ,montclair & ,ea/ ,orange1 ,new ,j]sey1 !re began to be in/itut$ ^? measurem5ts & consequ5t criticisms ( :ole s*ool sy/ems1 kn[n z #8educational surveys4' ,^! sci5tific reports h be5 ext5d$ to ! educational "w ( a l>ge numb] ( cities & /ates ?r\gh\t ! ,union4 ,!y are int5d$ to enable s*ool (fic]s & patrons to compreh5d ) m def9it5ess ! absolute1 z well z ! relative1 a*ievem5ts ( _! *ildr54 ,sid5ote3 ,new attitude t[>d intellig5ce4 ,sid5ote3 ,/udies ( m5tal developm5t 9 ! race & individual4 ,sid5ote3 ,*ange 9 imag]y & vocabul>y4 ,education & ! ,!ory ( ,evolution4--,a mo/ *>act]i/ic influ5ce 9 education to-day has come ?r\gh ! !ory ( evolution ( ,d>w9 7,fig4 #ea74 ,?is fruitful hypo!sis came to be g5]ally accept$ dur+ ! la/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury z ! guid+ pr9ciple ( education1 & has con/antly increas$ ! illum9ation x has %$ ^u ! educational process4 ,x has giv5 an entirely new mean+ to education1 & has greatly modifi$ ! c\rse ( /udy & revolutioniz$ ! me?od ( approa*+ educational problems4 ,x has wr\ght v mu* ! same *anges 9 ! treatm5t ( intellig5ce t x did 9 ! biological sci5ces4 ,consci\sness is no long] reg>d$ z a fix$ set ( entities1 b z a developm5tal process4 ,in/ead ( classify+ & catalog+ m5tal processes 9 fix$ gr\ps1 ef=ts are made to /udy _! gr[? f ! /&po9t bo? ( ! race & ( ! individual4 ,/udies ( m5tal developm5t 9 ! race1 begun by ,d>w9's ,desc5t ( ,man1 :i* recogniz$ #8sexual' & #8social selection1' z well z #8natural selection1' h be5 cont9u$ by num]\s inve/igators1 & equally ext5sive rese>*es h also be5 latt]ly made 9 g5etic psy*ology1 *ild /udy1 m5tal developm5t1 & adolesc5ce4 ,bo? obs]vation & exp]im5tation h be5 introduc$ into ! /udy ( m5tal processes4 ,ev5 m revolution>y ?an ?is actual increase 9 k1 h[ev]1 is ! *ange t has tak5 place 9 ! conception1 imag]y1 & t]m9ology ( education4 ,writ]s ^u education con/antly employ ! language ( evolution4 ,educational discussions are n[ fill$ ) su* t]ms z #8v>iation1' #8selection1' #8adju/m5t1' & #8adaptation1' & su* concepts dom9ate all educational ?9k+4 ,if educational lead]s ( half a c5tury ago c\ld be pres5t to-day at a ga!r+ ( educational ?9k]s1 !y w\ld f9d !mselves li/5+ to :at w\ld seem to !m almo/ a =eign language4 ,sid5ote3 ,c5tralization2 ,sid5ote3 s*ool hygi5e2 ,sid5ote3 s*ool ar*itecture2 ,sid5ote3 pr(essionalization ( tea*+4 ,sid5ote3 ,reorganization ( second>y & high] education4 ,enl>g+ ,conceptions ( ! ,function ( ,education4--,su* are a few ( ! *ief t5d5cies & advances t are be+ made 9 education to-day4 ,!re is also a great v>iety ( o!r educational movem5ts1 almo/ too num]\s to be m5tion$4 ,9 ! organization & adm9i/ration ( ! public s*ools !re is a decid$ t5d5cy t[>d c5tralization 9 educational activities1 correspond+ to ! c5tralization 9 indu/rial & political affairs4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,education & ! v>i\s ,/ate ,dep>tm5ts ( ,public ,in/ruction h _h _! functions mu* enl>g$ & _! activities greatly increas$4 ,!re are also su* matt]s z ! new proc$ure 9 s*ool hygi5e1 aris+ f ! mod]n attitude t[>d ! prev5tion ( disease2 new heal? regulations1 z a result ( hav+ s _m *ildr5 h\s$ 9 ! same build+s2 m$ical inspection1 op5-air s*ools1 & bett] n\ri%m5t2 & new t5d5cies 9 s*ool ar*itecture4 ,likewise we f9d progressive legislation on compulsory s*ool att5dance2 m ext5sive tra9+ ( tea*]s2 a rapid recognition ( education z a pr(ession2 ! organization ( v>i\s types ( tea*]s' associations2 & ! developm5t ( educational j\rnalism4 ,second>y education is also be+ greatly ext5d$ & l>gely reorganiz$4 #8,junior high s*ools1' comb9+ ! upp] grades ( ! elem5t>y s*ool ) ! l[] grades ( ! second>y s*ool1 & ?us bridg+ ! gap1 are be+ widely introduc$ into ,am]ican cities1 & a v>iety ( propositions = a six-ye> c\rse are be+ s]i\sly ent]ta9$4 ,9 connection ) high] education !re are su* new t5d5cies z univ]sity ext5sion1 correspond5ce c\rses1 summ] sessions1 univ]sity int]e/ 9 ! practical problems ( ! p1 ! correlation ( ! fir/ two ye>s ( college ) ! second>y s*ool1 m flexible entrance requirem5ts1 an increas+ numb] ( fields ( pr(essional "w1 &1 above all1 ! pr(essional tra9+ ( tea*]s ?r\gh ,dep>tm5ts ( ,education1 ,tea*]s ,colleges1 & ,s*ools ( ,education4 ,) ?is is connect$ ! sci5tific /udy ( ,education1 bo? 9 graduate c\rses & indep5d5t inve/igations4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r progressive t5d5cies4 ,simil> ef=ts to secure economy1 gu>d heal?1 improve me?od1 & cause education to s]ve democratic ideals are ev]y:]e app>5t4 ,educational !ory & practice are 9 a con/ant flux1 & h ent]$ ^u a mo/ di/9ctive epo* ( exp]im5tation1 *ange1 & improvem5t4 ,:ile su* a situation is n )\t its p]ils1 & ea* proposal %\ld be c>efully scrut9iz$ be=e acceptance1 ! pres5t t5d5cies are 9 ! ma9 a sign ( progress & life4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap4 ,,xi2 ,monroe1 ,textbook 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *aps4 ,,xiii-,,xiv4 ,= ! special t5d5cies m5tion$1 ! foll[+ works may be consult$3 ,cooley1 ,e4 ,g41 ,vocational ,education 9 ,europe 7,*icago ,comm]cial ,club1 #aiab72 ,hanus1 ,p4 ,h41 ,beg9n+s 9 ,indu/rial ,education 7,h\ghton1 ,miffl91 #aijh72 ,hask9s1 ,c4 ,w41 ,bus9ess ,education & ,acc\nt+ 7,h>p]1 #aijd72 ,adl]1 ,f41 ,moral ,in/ruction ( ,*ildr5 7,appleton1 #ahie72 ,palm]1 ,g4 ,h41 ,e?ical & ,moral ,in/ruction 9 ,s*ools 7,h\ghton1 ,miffl91 #aiji72 ,godd>d1 ,h4 ,h41 ,education ( ,defectives 7,monroe's ,cyclopdia ( ,education72 ,bell1 ,a4 ,g41 ,deaf ,mute ,in/ruction 9 ,relation to ! ,"w ( ! ,public ,s*ools2 ,armitage1 ,t41 ,education & ,employm5t ( ! ,bl9d 7,h>rison ,sons1 ,london1 #ahhf72 ,dewey1 ,j41 ,! ,s*ool & ,society 7,univ]sity ( ,*icago ,press1 #ahii71 & ,elem5t>y ,s*ool ,record 7,univ]sity ( ,*icago ,press1 #aijj72 ,montessori1 ,m>ia1 ,! ,montessori ,me?od 7,translat$ by ,anne ,e4 ,george1 ,/okes ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiab72 ,kilpatrick1 ,w4 ,h41 ,! ,montessori ,me?od ,exam9$ 7,h\ghton1 ,miffl91 #aiad72 ,ayres1 ,l4 ,p41 ,measur+ ,educational ,processes ?r\gh ,educational ,results 7,s*ool ,review1 ,may1 #aiab72 ,/ray]1 ,g4 ,d41 ,/&>ds & ,te/s = ,measur+ ! ,effici5cy ( ,s*ools 7,report ( ! ,committee ( ! ,national ,c\ncil ( ,education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,education ,bullet91 #aiac1 ,no4 #ac72 ,?orndike1 ,e4 ,l41 ,! ,measurem5t ( ,educational ,products 7,s*ool ,review1 ,may1 #aiab74 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii ,,retrospect ,,& ,,prospect ,,outl9e ,evolution 9 education may be int]pret$ f ! /&po9t ( ! developm5t ( individualism4 ,individualism 0 fir/ fully recogniz$ 9 ! tea*+s ( ,*ri/1 b 0 repress$ dur+ ! ,middle ,ages4 ,:ile x reappe>$ dur+ ! ,r5aissance1 ,re=mation1 & o!r movem5ts1 x soon laps$1 b a complete break f tradition occurr$ ) ,r\sseau 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,= a "t individualism dom9at$1 b education s9ce !n has endeavor$ to af=d latitude to ! individual )\t los+ sight ( ! welf>e ( society4 ,sid5ote3 ,progress ( individuali/ic t5d5cies dur+ ! days ( primitive man1 ,sid5ote3 ,ori5tal nations1 ,sid5ote3 ,jewi%1 ,a!nian1 & ,roman civilizations1 ,sid5ote3 ,*ri/ian developm5t1 ,sid5ote3 & ! ,middle ,ages2 ,! ,developm5t ( ,individualism4--,! discussion ( pres5t day t5d5cies t has j be5 giv51 toge!r ) ! acc\nt ( educational evolution 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 s]ves to %[ h[ f> mod]n times h progress$ 9 ! ideals & practice ( education4 ,?is may p]haps be be/ appreciat$ f ! /&po9t ( ! developm5t ( individualism4 ,to foll[ su* an int]pretation back to ! beg9n+ ( ! hi/ory ( education1 x may be /at$ t dur+ ! day ( primitive man no real di/9ction 0 made betwe5 society & ! individual1 & practically all advancem5t 0 impossible1 = no "o look$ mu* beyond ! pres5t4 ,) ! appe>ance ( ! transitional p]iod 9 ! ,ori5tal c\ntries1 ! individual _h begun to em]ge1 b 0 kept 9 con/ant subjection to ! social :ole1 = man 0 q enslav$ to ! pa/4 ,z ! ,jewi%1 ,a!nian1 & ,roman civilizations develop$1 ! beg9n+s ( individualism 7 = ! fir/ "t cle>ly reveal$1 & "s reg>d 0 _h = ! future4 ,!n1 ?r\gh ! tea*+s ( ,*ri/1 !re came to be a l>g] recognition ( ! pr9ciple ( individualism & ! bro!rhood ( man4 ,ow+ to a necessity = spread+ ^! enl>g$ ideals among a b>b>\s horde ( peoples1 individualism 0 repress$1 & ?r\gh\t ! ,middle ,ages ! keynote 0 submission to au?ority & prep>ation = ! life to come4 ,! cultural products ( ,greece & ,rome l>gely disappe>$1 & all civilization became re/rict$1 fix$1 & =mal4 ,sid5ote3 ! ,r5aissance1 ,sid5ote3 ! ,re=mation1 ,sid5ote3 & realism2 ,sid5ote3 ,puritanism & ,pietism2 ,b ! human _s c\ld n be =ev] held 9 bondage1 &1 aft] almo/ a mill5nium ( repression & uni=mity1 v>i\s factors t _h accumulat$ )9 ! ,middle ,ages produc$ an intellectual awak5+ t we "k z ! #8,r5aissance4' ,its vitality la/$ dur+ ! fifte5? c5tury 9 ,italy & to ! close ( ! sixte5? 9 ! ,nor!rn c\ntries1 b by ! dawn ( ! sev5te5? c5tury x _h ev]y:]e deg5]at$ into a dry & me*anical /udy ( ! classics4 ,?is con/itut$ a =malism almo/ z d5se z t x _h sup]s$$1 except t l+ui/ic & lit]>y /udies _h replac$ dialectic & !ology4 ,a little lat] ?an ! spread ( ! ,r5aissance1 ?\gh ov]lapp+ x some:at1 came ! alli$ movem5t ( ! #8,re=mation4' ,?is grew 9 "p out ( ! disposition ( ! ,nor!rn ,r5aissance to turn to social & moral acc\nt ! reviv$ intellig5ce & le>n+4 ,yet "h also ! revival fail$ 9 its mission1 & ! t5d5cy to rely ^u reason r ?an dogma h>d5$ into =malism & a di/ru/ ( individualism4 ,aga91 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 app>5tly z an outgr[? ( ! same =ces1 intellectual activity took ! =m ( a se>* = #8real ?+s4' ,! movem5t t culm9at$ 9 #8s5se realism' appe>$1 b ?is small & crude beg9n+ ( ! mod]n sci5tific t5d5cy 0 = "s decades yet held )9 limits4 ,associat$ ) ?is reali/ic t5d5cy1 on ! religi\s & political sides also appe>$ a quick5+ 9 su* =ms z #8,puritanism' & #8,pietism1' :i* likewise deg5]at$ ev5tually into a fanaticism & hypocrisy4 ,sid5ote3 & ,r\sseau & ! de/ructive t5d5cy4 ,sid5ote3 ,! pres5t t5d5cies 9 education seem to h>monize ! individual int]e/ ) ^? ( society4 ,! ,h>monization ( ! ,individual & ,society4--,?us ! way 0 op5$ = ! complete break ) tradition & au?ority t occurr$ 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,?is t5d5cy1 :ile 9 ,france at lea/ mo/ de/ructive & co/ly1 0 ! inevitable result ( ! unwill+ness to re%ape society & education 9 accordance ) *ang+ ideals & conditions4 ,h5ce ,r\sseau und]took to %att] all educational traditions4 ,b 8 recomm5dation ( isolat$ education1 s palpable 9 its fallacies1 prep>$ ! gr\nd = ! num]\s social1 sci5tific1 & psy*ological t5d5cies 7see pp4 #bah-bbb7 t 7 de/9$ to spr+ up 9 mod]n education & = ! consequ5t improvem5t 9 ! aim1 organization1 cont5t1 & me?od ( education4 ,( c\rse mod]n education has advanc$ inf9itely beyond any?+ impli$ by ,r\sseau or ev5 ! lat] re=m]s ( ! pa/ c5tury1 b x is out ( 8 attempts at de/ruction t has gr[n ?is nobl] /ructure4 ,= a "t individualism triumph$ & gr\nd au?ority "u its heel1 b :5 ?is extremity _h be5 pass$1 ! problem became h[ to h>monize ! individual ) society1 & to develop p]sonality progressively 9 keep+ ) its environm5t4 ,?us ! n9ete5? & tw5tie? c5turies h put =? consci\s ef=ts to ju/ify ! eighte5? & to br+ out & develop ! positions b>ely h9t$ at 9 its negations4 ,x is n alone ! individual z su* t has be5 ( int]e/ 9 ! mod]n p]iod1 b m & m ! individual 9 relation to ! social :ole to :i* he belongs1 z only 9 ?is way c ! value ( 8 activities be e/imat$4 ,sid5ote3 ,rec5t def9itions ( education %[ ?is4 ,sid5ote3 ,! educational problem ( ! future4 ,?is is reveal$ 9 ! works ( ^? :o foll[$ ,r\sseau1 & especially 9 ! attempts ( rec5t educational philosoph]s to frame a def9ition ( education t %all recognize ! importance ( af=d+ latitude to ! individual )\t los+ sight ( ! welf>e ( ! social environm5t 9 connection ) :i* 8 ef=ts are to function4 ,?us ,butl]1 ?\gh recogniz+ ! individual factor1 especially /resses ! social by decl>+ education to be 8! gradual adju/m5t ( ! individual to ! spiritual possessions ( ! race40 ,!n he fur!r decl>es3 8,:5 we he> x sometimes said1 #8,all education mu/ />t f ! *ild1' we mu/ add1 #8,yes1 & lead into human civilization2' & :5 x is said on ! o!r h& t #8all education mu/ />t f a traditional pa/1' we mu/ add1 #8,yes1 & be adapt$ to ! *ild4'0 ,& ! balance betwe5 ! two factors ( ! individual & society is ev5 m explicitly pres]v$ 9 ,dewey's /atem5t 8t ! psy*ological & social sides are organically relat$1 & t education _c be reg>d$ z a compromise betwe5 ! two1 or a sup]imposition ( "o ^u ! o!r40 ,9 ! same way ,bagley has made #8social effici5cy' ! ma9 aim 9 educat+ ! individual to-day1 & bo? elem5ts are c>efully consid]$ by all mod]n writ]s 9 discuss+ educational values4 ,?us ! c5tral problem 9 education ( ! tw5tie? & succe$+ c5turies is to be a con/ant reorganization ( ! curriculum & me?ods ( tea*+1 & ?is recon/ruction mu/ be su* z to h>monize a due reg>d = ! progressive v>iations ( ! individual ) ! welf>e ( ! cons]vative in/itutions ( society4 ,x mu/ include a cont9ual ef=t to h& on ! intellectual possessions ( ! race1 b also to /imulate all individuals to add "s modification or new elem5t to ! product4 ,9 ?is way !re may develop un5d+ possibilities = bo? ! individual & society4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,read+ ,graves1 ,f4 ,p41 ,hi/ory ( ,education be=e ! ,middle ,ages 7,macmillan1 #aiji71 *ap4 ,,xii2 ,hi/ory ( ,education dur+ ! ,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 *ap4 ,,xxiii2 ,hi/ory ( ,education 9 ,mod]n ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 *ap4 ,,xii2 ,monroe1 ,p41 ,textbook 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,education 7,macmillan1 #aije71 *ap4 ,x4 ,,index ,abel>d1 #gj1 #gf4 ,academy1 9 ,g]many1 #aeh2 9 ,engl&1 #aei1 #agg1 #daj2 ( ,frankl91 #aif2 ,lanca/]ian1 #bdb2 9 ,s\?1 #beh2 9 ,new ,york1 #bfj2 9 ,massa*usetts1 #bfh2 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bgd1 #cca1 #dad4 ,adv5ture s*ools1 #ic4 ,agassiz1 #cih1 #dac4 ,agricola1 #aab4 ,agricultural tra9+1 #bie ff41 #dbd4 ,alcotts1 ,!1 #bic4 ,alcu91 #fa ff4 ,alex&ria1 #bi1 #cj1 #df4 ,al/$1 #aga4 ,am]ican ,annals ( ,education1 #cje4 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,education 7,russell7 #cjd1 7,b>n>d7 #caf ff4 ,am]ican ,sunday ,s*ool ,union1 #bch4 ,&ov] ,!ological ,sem9>y1 #bii4 ,anselm1 #gj4 ,antio*1 #df4 ,apologi/s1 #de4 ,apo/les' ,cre$1 #dh4 ,app]ception1 #cch1 #cda4 ,aqu9as1 #ga f4 ,ar*im$es1 #cj4 ,ari/ophanes1 #ai4 ,ari/otle1 #ai1 #bd ff41 #bg1 #de1 #eh1 #gj f41 #afe1 #ahb4 ,as*am1 #aag4 ,assyria1 #e4 ,a!ns1 #ad ff4 ,atrium1 #agj4 ,av]ros1 #fg4 ,avic5na1 #ff1 #gi4 ,babylonia1 #e4 ,bacon1 ,francis1 #bc1 #afd f41 #aff1 #aga1 #agd1 #bjf4 ,bacon1 ,rog]1 #afc4 ,bagley1 ,w4 ,c41 #dde4 ,b>n>d1 #cji1 #cab ff4 ,bas$[1 #bbj1 #bbc ff41 #bca4 ,bateus1 #afi4 ,bell1 ,&rew1 #bci f4 ,b5$ict1 ,/41 #ee4 ,b5?am1 #chg4 ,b]keley1 #aib4 ,black/one1 #chg4 ,blank5burg1 #ced4 ,bl[1 ,susan ,e41 #cff f4 ,bo>d s*ools1 #bda1 #chh ff41 #dbe4 ,boccaccio1 #ajd4 ,blte1 #cff4 ,bo?ius1 #eg f4 ,bonnal1 #bgi4 ,boyle1 #afc4 ,bra?waite1 #aef4 ,bray1 ,?omas1 #bcb4 ,br9sley1 #aai4 ,briti% & ,=eign ,society1 #bci f4 ,brooks1 ,*>les1 #bic4 ,bro!rs ( ,s9c]ity1 #ff4 ,bro!rs ( ! ,*ri/ian ,s*ools1 #adj4 ,br\gham1 #chg4 ,bruni1 #aje4 ,bu*anan1 ,james1 #bde4 ,budu1 #aaj4 ,bug5hag51 #abh1 #ade4 ,bl[1 ,b>oness von1 #ced4 ,burgdorf1 #bha f4 ,burgh] s*ools1 #ic f4 ,burr[es1 ,t4 ,h41 #cbc4 ,butl]1 ,n4 ,m41 #ddd4 ,cs>ea1 #df4 ,calv91 #acj1 #aic1 #aig4 ,cambridge1 #aag1 #adi1 #agg1 #cib4 ,campe1 #bbe1 #bbh4 ,capella1 ,m>tianus1 #eg4 ,c>lisle1 #bii4 ,c>p5t]1 ,m>y1 #bii4 ,c>t]1 ,j4 ,g41 #cje1 #cji4 ,cassiodorus1 #eg4 ,ca/es1 #e ff4 ,ca/iglione1 #aef4 ,cate*etical s*ools1 #df4 ,cate*um5al s*ools1 #dc f4 ,ca!dral s*ools1 #df f41 #ed1 #aca4 ,ca?olepi/emiad1 #bgc4 ,*antry s*ools1 #id f41 #acb4 ,*>ity s*ools1 #bca ff4 ,*>lemagne1 #fa ff4 ,*>les ,,viii1 #aaj4 ,*avannes1 #bia1 #bib4 ,*eke1 #aag4 ,*9a1 #e4 ,*ivalry1 #hc ff4 ,*ri/ianity1 #bi1 #db f4 ,*rysoloras1 #ajd4 ,cic]o1 #eh1 #ajh1 #aaf1 #aea4 ,circulat+ s*ools1 #bcd4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 #df4 ,cl9ton1 ,de ,witt1 #bfj4 ,cock]ton ,judgm5t1 #cia4 ,colburn1 ,w>r51 #bic4 ,colet1 #ic1 #aag f4 ,college ( ,cl]mont1 #acg4 ,college ( ,france1 #aaa1 #che4 ,college ( ,guy5ne1 #aaa4 ,college ( ,william & ,m>y1 #aib4 ,combe1 #djc1 #dje1 #daj1 #daf4 ,com5ius1 #afg1 #afh ff41 #bbd1 #cec4 ,comm]cial education1 #dbb f4 ,communal collges1 #chd4 ,conc5tration1 #cdj1 #cde f41 #cej1 #dbi4 ,condillac1 #bje4 ,conduct ( ! ,und]/&+1 #ahj4 ,connecticut ,common ,s*ool ,j\rnal1 #cac4 ,cont9uation s*ool1 #bih1 #cgd1 #cgg1 #chc1 #dbj4 ,cop]nicus1 #afc4 ,cord]ius1 #aaa1 #acj4 ,cordova1 #ff4 ,corpus ,juris ,civilis1 #gf1 #gi4 ,correlation1 #cda1 #cdd1 #cej4 ,c\ncil ( ,:itby1 #ef4 ,c\rt s*ools1 #aje ff4 ,c\s91 #bia f41 #djh4 ,creativ5ess1 #cef ff4 ,culture epo*s1 #cda1 #cdd1 #cdf4 ,cygnu1 #cfc4 ,d',alemb]t1 #bje4 ,dame s*ools1 #bff4 ,dana1 ,james ,d41 #dab4 ,d>w91 #cih1 #dac1 #dcg f4 ,decree ( ,gratian1 #gf1 #gi4 ,defectives1 #cjj1 #dbf ff4 ,de ,g>mo1 ,*>les1 #cdh1 #cea4 ,delay$ matur+1 #bba4 ,del9qu5ts1 #adb1 #cjj4 ,desc>tes1 #ach4 ,dewey1 ,john1 #cfd1 #dbi ff41 #ddd4 ,dialectic1 #bj1 #eh1 #ga1 #gf1 #abg4 ,didascaleum1 #ad1 #ah1 #ba4 ,did]ot1 #bje4 ,diophantus1 #cj4 ,discipl9e1 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