,a ,,student',s ,,history ,,of          
,,education          ,,books ,,on ,,the 
,,history ,,of ,,education    ,by       
,,dean ,,frank ,p4 ,,graves      ,a     
,,history ,,of ,,education ,,in ,,three 
,,volumes    ,vol4 ,i4 ,before the      
,middle ,ages        ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,during
 the ,middle ,ages and the ,transition  
to ,modern ,times    ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,in   
,modern ,times      ,,great ,,educators 
,,of ,,three ,,centuries        ,,peter 
,,ramus ,,and ,,the ,,educational       
,,reformation ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth    
,,century    ,a ,,student',s ,,history  
,,of ,,education            ,a          
,,student',s ,,history    ,,of          
,,education        ,,by      ,,frank    
,,pierrepont ,,graves      7,,ph4,d41   
,,columbia7      ,,dean ,,of ,,the      
,,school ,,of ,,education ,,and         
,,professor    ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of
 ,,education ,,in ,,the    ,,university 
,,of ,,pennsylvania        ,new ,york   
,,the ,,macmillan ,,company    #aibb    
,all rights reserved        ,,copyright1

 #aiae1    ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan       
,,company4      ,set up and             
electrotyped4 ,published ,july1 #aiae4  
,norwood ,press3    ,berwick  ,smith    
,co41 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4       
,,to      ,,william ,,oxley ,,thompson1 
,,ll4,d4    ,,president ,,of ,,the      
,,ohio ,,state ,,university      ,,with 
,,appreciative ,,memories ,,of    ,,six 
,,pleasant ,,years ,,of ,,association   
,,preface      ,there is a growing      
conviction among those engaged in       
training teachers  that the ,history of 
,education must justify itself4 ,it is  
believed  that1 if this subject is to   
contribute to the professional equipment
  of the teacher1 its material must be  
selected with reference to his  specific
 needs4 ,antiquarian interests and      
encyclopdic completeness are  alluring  
and may in their place prove            
praiseworthy and valuable1 but  they do 
not in themselves supply any definite   
demand in the training  of teachers4    
,the greatest services that the ,history

 of ,education can  perform for the     
teacher are to impel him to analyze his 
problems more  completely and to throw  
light upon the school practices with    
which he  is himself concerned4 ,by     
presenting a series of clear-cut views  
of past  conditions1 often in marked    
contrast to his own1 it should make him 
conscious that the present educational  
situation has to a large degree  been   
traditionally received1 and it should at
 the same time especially  help him to  
understand the origin and significance  
of current practices4    ,in this way a 
study of the ,history of ,education will
 disrupt the  teacher's complacent      
acceptance of the present1 and will     
enable him  to reconstruct his ideas in 
the light of the peculiar conditions out
  of which the education of his times   
has sprung4 ,whenever historical        
records do not assist in such an        
analysis and synthesis of present  day  
problems1 they may be frankly dismissed 
from discussion4 ,this  conception of   

the subject1 ,i have myself1 with much  
reluctance1 come  to accept4 ,my own    
regard for the classics1 philosophy1 and
 general  history as college disciplines
 has caused me to view with apprehension
  any disposition to curtail their      
scope4 ,it now seems clear1 however1    
that the modern tendency to emphasize   
the functional aspects of the  ,history 
of ,education is both necessary and     
wise4 ,the present work1  therefore1 is 
not a mere condensation of my ,history  
of ,education in  ,three ,volumes1 but  
has been very largely re-written from   
the new angle4    ,in the first place1  
,i have sought to stress educational    
institutions  and practices1 rather than
 theories that did not find embodiment  
in  the times4 ,this has led to the     
omission of much that is unessential or 
more strictly related to philosophy1    
general history1 or literature4  ,for   
example1 even the immortal work of      
,plato and ,aristotle has been          
epitomized2 the entire subject of       

mysticism and most of scholasticism     
have been dropped2 the masterpieces of  
such pure theorists as ,rabelais1       
,montaigne1 and ,mulcaster1 are barely  
mentioned2 and the various  historical  
epochs are given only so much detail as 
may be needed to  form a social setting 
for the educational movements of those  
periods4    ,secondly1 it has seemed to 
me that our present problems in         
education  can best be analyzed through 
a knowledge of the practices that have  
developed in modern times4 ,hence1 while
 this book includes an account  of all  
educational endeavor from the day of    
primitive man to the  present1 somewhat 
more than one-half the material is      
connected with the  last two centuries4 
,even the attractive period of ,hellenic
 activity  and the fascinating stories  
of monasticism and of chivalry have been
  reduced to a minimum4 ,but1 though    
most of the changes in the earlier  half
 of the work are in the nature of       
shortening1 or have to do with  more    

immediate connections1 some topics1     
notably the development of  commerce and
 cities 7,chapter ,,xi7 and the analysis
 of formal discipline  7,chapter ,,xvi71
 have seemed to be so closely connected 
with subsequent  progress as to deserve 
more adequate treatment4    ,finally1   
since this book is intended chiefly for 
teachers in the ,united  ,states1 ,i    
have believed it most helpful to give   
considerable space to  the discussion of
 ,american education4 ,the account of   
each educational  movement has included 
at least an attempt to trace its        
influence upon  the content1 method1 and
 organization of education in the       
,united  ,states1 while three chapters  
have been devoted exclusively to the    
rise  of educational systems in this    
country4    ,my indebtedness for many   
valuable features in this book is heavy4
  ,the idea of an ,outline1 which       
appears at the beginning of each        
chapter1 was first suggested to me by   
the ,history of ,modern ,elementary     

,education of ,dean ,s4 ,c4 ,parker of  
the ,college of ,education1 ,university 
of ,chicago1 although ,i have adopted a 
different explanation of its  value4    
,professor ,parker also read through the
 manuscript and sent me a  general      
estimate of it4 ,professors ,j4 ,h4     
,coursault of the ,university  of       
,missouri1 ,a4 ,j4 ,jones of the        
,university of ,maine1 ,w4 ,h4          
,kilpatrick  of ,columbia ,university1  
,a4 ,r4 ,mead of ,ohio ,wesleyan        
,university1 and ,a4  ,l4 ,suhrie of the
 ,west ,chester 7,pennsylvania7 ,state  
,normal ,school1 have  all read the     
manuscript through with exceeding care  
and furnished me  with numerous         
corrections and criticisms1 both        
particular and general4  ,professor ,t4 
,h4 ,briggs of ,columbia ,university    
suggested a number of  improvements in  
the chapter upon ,present ,day          
,tendencies in ,education  7,,xxvii74   
,the chapter upon the ,educational      
,influences of the ,reformation         

7,,xiii7 has been relieved of several   
inaccuracies1 and possibly of some      
,protestant bias1 through the assistance
 of the ,rev4 ,benedict ,guldner1  ,s4  
,j41 of ,st4 ,joseph's ,college1 and of 
,brother ,denis ,edward1 ,f4 ,s4 ,c41   
,president of ,la ,salle ,college1      
,philadelphia4 ,i have also1 as usual1  
been greatly aided by my wife1 ,helen   
,wadsworth ,graves4      ,f4 ,p4 ,g4    
,,contents        ,,part ,i             
,,ancient ,,times        ,,chapter ,i   
,,page      ,,the ,,earliest ,,education
                                        
#c      ,the ,value of the ,history of  
,education4 ,its ,treatment    in ,this 
,book4 ,primitive ,education4 ,oriental 
,education4 ,india3 ,its ,religion and  
,castes4 ,the ,hindu    ,education4     
,effect of the ,hindu ,education4 ,india
 as    ,typical of the ,orient4 ,jewish 
,education4        ,,chapter ,,ii       
,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,greeks   
#aa      ,progressive ,nature of ,greek 
,education4 ,spartan    ,education3 ,its

 ,aim and ,early ,stages4 ,training in  
,youth and ,manhood3 ,results4 ,old     
,athenian ,education3    ,its ,aim and  
,early ,training4 ,training for the     
,youth4 ,effect of the ,old ,athenian   
,education4 ,causes    and ,character of
 the ,new ,athenian ,education4 ,the    
,sophists and ,their ,training4 ,their  
,extreme ,individualism4    ,the        
,reactionaries and the ,mediators4 ,the 
,method of ,socrates4 ,plato's ,system  
of ,education for    the ,three ,classes
 of ,society4 ,the ,weakness of ,plato's
    ,system4 ,his ,influence upon       
,educational ,theory and    ,practice4  
,aristotle's ,ideal ,state and          
,education4 ,the    ,permanent ,value of
 ,his ,work4 ,the ,post-,aristotelian   
,schools of ,philosophy4 ,the ,schools  
of ,rhetoric4 ,the    ,hellenic         
,universities4 ,extension of ,hellenic  
,culture4        ,,chapter ,,iii        
,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,romans   
#cb      ,roman ,education ,amalgamated 
with ,greek4 ,early    ,education in    

,rome4 ,the ,absorption of ,greek       
,culture4    ,the ,ludus4 ,grammar      
,schools4 ,rhetorical ,schools4         
,universities4 ,subsidization of        
,education4 ,decay of    ,education4    
,influence of ,roman ,education4        
,,chapter ,,iv      ,,the ,,education   
,,of ,,the ,,early ,,christians         
#db      ,the ,ideals of ,early         
,christianity4 ,early ,christian        
,life as an ,education4 ,catechumenal   
,schools4 ,amalgamation    of           
,christianity with ,grco-,roman         
,philosophy4    ,catechetical and       
,episcopal or ,cathedral ,schools4      
,influence of ,grco-,roman ,culture upon
 ,christianity4    ,rise of the         
,monastic ,schools4        ,,part ,,ii  
,,the ,,middle ,,ages        ,,chapter  
,v      ,,the ,,monastic ,,education    
#ec      ,the ,middle ,ages as a ,period
 of ,assimilation and ,repression4      
,the ,evolution and ,nature of          
,monasticism4    ,benedict's #8,rule'   
and the ,multiplication of ,manuscripts4

    ,amalgamation of ,roman and ,irish  
,christianity4    ,the ,organization of 
the ,monastic ,schools4 ,the    #8,seven
 ,liberal ,arts' as the ,curriculum4    
,the ,methods    and ,texts4 ,effect    
upon ,civilization of the ,monastic     
,schools4        ,,chapter ,,vi         
,,charlemagne',s ,,revival ,,of         
,,education                             
#fj      ,condition of ,education in the
 ,eighth ,century4    ,higher ,education
 at the ,palace ,school4 ,educational   
,improvement in the ,monastic1          
,cathedral1 and ,parish    ,schools4    
,alcuin's ,educational ,work at ,tours4 
,rabanus    ,maurus1 ,erigena1 and      
,others ,concerned in the    ,revival4  
,,chapter ,,vii      ,,moslem ,,learning
 ,,and ,,education                      
#fe      ,the ,hellenization of         
,moslemism4 ,hellenized ,moslemism    in
 ,spain4 ,effect upon ,europe of the    
,moslem    ,education4        ,,chapter 
,,viii      ,,educational ,,tendencies  
,,of ,,scholasticism                    

#fi      ,the ,nature of ,scholasticism4
 ,the ,history of ,scholastic           
,development4 ,scholastic ,education4   
,its ,value and    ,influence4          
,,chapter ,,ix      ,,the ,,medi,,val   
,,universities                          
#gd      ,the ,rise of ,universities4   
,the ,foundation of ,universities    at 
,salerno1 ,bologna1 and ,paris4 ,bologna
 and    ,paris as the ,models for ,other
 ,universities4 ,privileges    ,granted 
to the ,universities4 ,organization of  
the ,universities4    ,course in the    
,four ,faculties4 ,the ,methods    of   
,instruction4 ,examinations and         
,degrees4 ,the ,value    and ,influence 
of the ,university ,training4           
,,chapter ,x      ,,the ,,education ,,of
 ,,chivalry                             
#hc      ,the ,development of           
,feudalism4 ,the ,ideals of ,chivalry4  
,the ,three ,preparatory ,stages of     
,education4    ,the ,effects of         
,chivalric ,education4        ,,chapter 
,,xi      ,,the ,,burgher1 ,,gild1 ,,and

 ,,chantry ,,schools                    
#hh      ,the ,rise of ,commerce and    
,industry4 ,development    of ,cities   
and the ,burgher ,class4 ,the ,gilds and
 ,industrial    ,education4 ,gild       
,schools4 ,burgher ,schools4 ,chantry   
,schools4 ,influence of the ,new        
,schools4        ,,part ,,iii      ,,the
 ,,transition ,,to ,,modern ,,times     
,,chapter ,,xii      ,,the ,,humanistic 
,,education                             
#ii      ,the ,passing of the ,middle   
,ages4 ,the ,renaissance    and the     
,revival of ,learning4 ,causes of the   
,awakening    in ,italy4 ,the ,revival  
of the ,latin ,classics4 ,the           
,development    of ,greek ,scholarship4 
,the ,court ,schools    and ,vittorino  
da ,feltre4 ,the ,court ,school at      
,mantua4    ,the ,relation of the ,court
 ,schools to the ,universities4         
,decadence of ,italian ,humanism4 ,the  
,spread and ,character    of ,humanism  
in the ,northern ,countries4 ,the       
,development    of ,humanism in ,france4

 ,french ,humanistic    ,educators and  
,institutions4 ,humanism in the ,german 
,universities4 ,the ,hieronymians and   
,their ,schools4    ,erasmus1 ,leader in
 the ,humanistic ,education of the      
,north4 ,the ,development of            
,gymnasiums3 ,melanchthon's    ,work4   
,sturm at ,strassburg4 ,formalism in the
    ,gymnasiums4 ,the ,humanistic       
,movement in ,england3    ,greek at     
,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,humanism at the
    ,court ,colet and ,his ,school at   
,st4 ,paul's4 ,humanism    in the       
,english ,grammar ,schools4 ,english    
,grammar and    ,public ,schools        
,to-day4 ,the ,grammar ,schools in the  
,american ,colonies4 ,the ,aim and      
,institutions of ,humanistic            
,education4        ,,chapter ,,xiii     
,,educational ,,influences ,,of ,,the   
,,reformation                           
#abd      ,the ,relation of the         
,reformation to the ,renaissance4       
,the ,revolt and ,educational ,works of 
,luther4 ,luther's    ,ideas on         

,education4 ,the ,embodiment of         
,luther's    ,ideas in ,schools by ,his 
,associates4 ,the ,revolt and           
,educational ,ideas of ,zwingli4        
,calvin's ,revolt and ,his              
,encouragement of ,education4 ,the      
,colleges of ,calvin4    ,henry ,,viii's
 ,revolt and ,its ,effect upon          
,education4    ,foundation of the       
,society of ,jesus4 ,organization of    
the ,jesuits4 ,the ,jesuit ,colleges4   
,the ,jesuit ,methods    of ,teaching4  
,value and ,influence of the ,jesuit    
,education4    ,the ,organization of the
 ,education of the ,port    ,royalists4 
,the ,port ,royal ,course and ,method of
    ,teaching4 ,la ,salle and the       
,schools of the ,christian    ,brothers4
 ,the ,aim1 ,curriculum1 and ,method of 
the    ,christian ,brothers' ,schools4  
,influence of the ,schools of    the    
,christian ,brothers4 ,aim and ,content 
of ,education    in the ,reformation4   
,effect of the ,reformation upon        
,elementary ,education4 ,effect of the  

,reformation upon    the ,secondary     
,schools4 ,influence of the ,reformation
    upon the ,universities4 ,the ,lapse 
into ,formalism4        ,,chapter ,,xiv 
,,early ,,realism ,,and ,,the           
,,innovators                            
#aea      ,the ,rise and ,nature of     
,realism4 ,humanistic ,realism4         
,social ,realism4 ,the ,relations of    
,humanistic to    ,social ,realism4 ,the
 ,influence of the ,innovators upon     
,education4 ,the ,ritterakademien4 ,the 
,academies    ,in ,england4 ,the        
,academies in ,america4        ,,chapter
 ,,xv      ,,sense ,,realism ,,and ,,the
 ,,early ,,scientific ,,movement        
#afb      ,the ,development of the      
,sciences and ,realism4 ,bacon    and   
,his ,inductive ,method4 ,bacon's       
,educational    ,suggestions and        
,influence4 ,ratich's ,methods4         
,comenius3    ,his ,training and ,work4 
,his ,series of ,latin    ,texts4 ,the  
,great ,didactic4 ,his ,encyclopdic     
,arrangement    of ,knowledge4 ,the     

,method of ,nature4 ,the    ,influence  
of ,comenius upon ,education4 ,realistic
    ,tendencies in ,elementary ,schools4
 ,secondary ,schools4    ,the           
,universities4        ,,chapter ,,xvi   
,,formal ,,discipline ,,in ,,education  
#agi      ,locke's ,work and ,its       
,various ,classifications4 ,locke's     
,disciplinary ,theory in ,intellectual  
,education4 ,disciplinary    ,attitude  
in ,moral and ,physical ,training4      
,origin1 ,significance1 and ,influence  
of the ,theory of    ,formal            
,discipline4 ,opposition to the         
,disciplinary    ,theory and ,more      
,recent ,modification4 ,locke's ,real   
,position on ,formal ,discipline4       
,,chapter ,,xvii      ,,education ,,in  
,,the ,,american ,,colonies             
#ahg      ,american ,education a        
,development from ,european4            
,conditions in ,europe from ,which      
,american ,education    ,sprang4        
,colonial ,school ,organization3 ,the   
,aristocratic    ,type in ,virginia4    

,the ,parochial ,schools in ,new        
,netherlands4    ,sectarian             
,organization of ,schools in            
,pennsylvania4    ,town ,schools in     
,massachusetts4 ,education    in the    
,other ,colonies4        ,,part ,,iv    
,,modern ,,times        ,,chapter       
,,xviii      ,,growth ,,of ,,the        
,,democratic ,,ideal ,,in ,,education   
#bjc      ,the ,revolt from ,absolutism4
 ,the ,two ,epochs in    the ,eighteenth
 ,century4 ,voltaire and the            
,encyclopedists4    ,rousseau and ,his  
,times4 ,rousseau's    ,works4          
,,chapter ,,xix            ,,page       
,,naturalism ,,in ,,education           
#baj      ,the ,influence of ,rousseau's
 ,naturalism4 ,naturalistic    ,basis of
 the ,emile4 ,the ,five ,books of the   
,emile4    ,estimate of the ,emile4 ,the
 ,sociological ,movements in    ,modern 
,education4 ,the ,scientific ,movement  
in ,modern    ,education4 ,the          
,psychological ,movements in ,modern    
,education4 ,the ,spread of ,rousseau's 

,doctrines4 ,development    of          
,basedow's ,educational ,reforms4       
,text-books    and ,other ,works4       
,course and ,methods of the             
,philanthropinum4 ,influence of the     
,philanthropinum4        ,,chapter ,,xx 
,,philanthropy ,,in ,,education         
#bcj      ,reconstructive ,tendencies of
 the ,eighteenth ,century4    ,the ,rise
 of ,charity ,schools in ,england4 ,the 
,schools of the ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 ,other  
,charity ,schools4 ,the    ,charity     
,schools of the ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 ,charity    
,schools among    the ,pennsylvania     
,germans4 ,the #8,sunday ,school'       
,movement in ,great ,britain4 ,the      
#8,sunday ,school'    ,movement in the  
,united ,states4 ,value of the          
,instruction    in #8,sunday ,schools4' 
,the ,schools of the ,two ,monitorial   
,societies4 ,value of the ,monitorial   
,system in ,england4    ,results of the 
,monitorial ,system in the ,united      
,states4 ,the #8,infant ,schools' in    
,france4 ,the #8,infant    ,schools' in 

,england4 #8,infant ,schools' in the    
,united    ,states4 ,the ,importance of 
,philanthropic ,education4              
,,chapter ,,xxi      ,,the ,,period ,,of
 ,,transition ,,in ,,american           
,,education                   #bea      
,evolution of ,public ,education in the 
,united ,states4    ,rise of the ,common
 ,school in ,virginia4 ,similar         
,developments    in the ,other ,southern
 ,states4 ,evolution of    ,public      
,education in ,new ,york4 ,new ,york    
,city4 ,development    of ,systems of   
,education in ,pennsylvania and    the  
,other ,middle ,states4 ,decline of     
,education in ,massachusetts4           
,developments in the ,other ,new        
,england    ,states4 ,the ,extension of 
,educational ,organization to    the    
,northwest4 ,condition of the ,common   
,schools    ,prior to the ,awakening4   
,,chapter ,,xxii      ,,observation     
,,and ,,industrial ,,training ,,in      
,,education                 #bgf        
,pestalozzi as the ,successor of        

,rousseau4 ,pestalozzi's                
,philanthropic and ,industrial ,ideals4 
,his ,industrial    ,school at ,neuhof  
and the ,leonard and ,gertrude4 ,his    
,school at ,stanz and ,beginning of ,his
 ,observational    ,methods4            
,continuation of ,his ,methods at       
,burgdorf1    and ,how ,gertrude        
,teaches ,her ,children4 ,the           
#8,institute'    at ,yverdon and the    
,culmination of the ,pestalozzian       
,methods4 ,pestalozzi's ,educational    
,aim and ,organization4    ,his ,general
 ,method4 ,the ,permanent ,influence of 
,pestalozzi4 ,the ,spread of            
,pestalozzian ,schools and    ,methods  
through ,europe4 ,pestalozzianism in the
    ,united ,states4 ,pestalozzi's      
,industrial ,training ,continued    by  
,fellenberg4 ,the ,agricultural ,school 
and    ,other ,institutions at ,hofwyl4 
,industrial ,training in the    ,schools
 of ,europe4 ,industrial ,institutions  
in the    ,united ,states4              
,,chapter ,,xxiii      ,,development    

,,of ,,public ,,education ,,in ,,the    
,,united ,,states             #cjb      
,the ,third ,period in ,american        
,education4 ,early    ,leaders in the   
,common ,school ,revival4 ,work of      
,james    ,g4 ,carter4 ,horace ,mann as 
,secretary of the ,massachusetts        
,board4 ,the ,educational ,suggestions  
and ,achievements    of ,mann4 ,henry   
,barnard's ,part in the ,educational    
,awakening4 ,barnard as ,secretary of   
the ,connecticut    ,state ,board4      
,commissioner of ,common    ,schools in 
,rhode ,island4 ,state ,superintendent  
of    ,schools in ,connecticut4         
,barnard's ,american ,journal    of     
,education4 ,first ,united ,states      
,commissioner of    ,education4 ,value  
of ,barnard's ,educational ,collections4
    ,educational ,development in ,new   
,england since the    ,revival4         
,influence of the ,awakening upon the   
,middle    ,states4 ,public ,education  
in the ,west4 ,organization of    ,state
 ,systems in the ,south4 ,development of

 the ,american    ,system of ,education4
        ,,chapter ,,xxiv                
,,development ,,of ,,educational        
,,practice                              
#ccc      ,froebel and ,herbart as      
,disciples of ,pestalozzi4 ,the         
,early ,career and ,writings of         
,herbart4 ,work at ,knigsberg and       
,gttingen4 ,herbart's ,psychology4 ,the 
,aim1    ,content1 and ,method4 ,the    
,value and ,influence of    ,herbart's  
,principles4 ,the ,extension of ,his    
,doctrines    in ,germany4              
,herbartianism in the ,united ,states4  
,froebel's ,early ,life4 ,his           
,experiences at ,frankfort1    ,yverdon1
 and ,berlin4 ,the ,school at ,keilhau4 
,development    of the ,kindergarten4   
,froebel's ,fundamental    ,concept of  
#8,unity4' ,motor ,expression as ,his   
,method4    ,the ,social ,aspect of     
,education4 ,the ,kindergarten4    ,the 
,value and ,influence of ,froebel's     
,principles4 ,the    ,spread of         
,froebelianism through ,europe4 ,the    

,kindergarten    in the ,united ,states4
 ,the ,relative ,influence of           
,pestalozzi1 ,herbart1 and ,froebel4    
,,chapter ,,xxv      ,,the ,,development
 ,,of ,,modern ,,systems                
#cgj      ,national ,systems of         
,education in ,europe and ,canada4      
,the ,beginning of ,state ,control in   
,prussia4 ,educational    ,achievements 
of ,frederick the ,great4 ,educational  
,influence    of ,zedlitz4 ,foundation  
of the ,ministry of ,education    and   
,further ,progress4 ,the ,elementary    
,system4    ,the ,secondary ,system4    
,higher ,education4 ,educational        
,development ,in ,france4 ,the ,primary 
,school    ,system4 ,the ,secondary     
,system4 ,the ,institutions of          
,higher ,education4 ,centralized        
,administration of    the ,french       
,education4 ,early ,development of      
,english    ,education4 ,educational    
,movements in the ,nineteenth           
,century4 ,subsequent ,educational      
,movements4 ,development    of          

,education in the ,dominion of ,canada4 
,the ,public ,school ,system of         
,ontario4 ,the ,system of               
,ecclesiastical ,schools in ,quebec4    
,,chapter ,,xxvi      ,,the ,,scientific
 ,,movement ,,and ,,the ,,curriculum    
#cig      ,the ,development of the      
,natural ,sciences in ,modern    ,times4
 ,the ,growth of ,inventions and        
,discoveries in    the ,nineteenth      
,century4 ,herbert ,spencer and ,what   
,knowledge is of ,most ,worth4 ,advocacy
 of the ,sciences    by ,huxley and     
,others4 ,the ,disciplinary ,argument   
for    the ,sciences4 ,introduction of  
the ,sciences into ,educational         
,institutions in ,germany1 ,france1     
,england1 and    the ,united ,states4   
,interrelation of the ,scientific with  
the ,psychological and ,sociological    
,movements4        ,,chapter ,,xxvii    
,,present ,,day ,,tendencies ,,in       
,,education                             
#dah      ,recent ,educational          
,progress4 ,the ,growth of ,industrial  

,training4 ,industrial ,schools in      
,europe4 ,industrial    ,training in the
 ,united ,states4 ,commercial ,education
    in ,europe and ,america4 ,recent    
,emphasis upon ,agricultural            
,training4 ,moral ,training in the      
,schools ,to-day4    ,the ,development  
of ,training for ,mental ,defectives4   
,education of the ,deaf and ,blind4     
,recent    ,development of ,educational 
,method2 ,dewey's ,experimental         
,school4 ,other ,experiments in ,method4
 ,the    ,montessori ,method4 ,the      
,statistical ,method and    ,mental     
,measurements in ,education4 ,education 
and    the ,theory of ,evolution4       
,enlarging ,conceptions of    the       
,function of ,education4                
,,chapter ,,xxviii            ,,page    
,,retrospect ,,and ,,prospect           
#dda      ,the ,development of          
,individualism4 ,the ,harmonization     
of the ,individual and ,society4        
,,index                                 
#ddg          ,,illustrations           

,,plate   ,,fig4                        
,,opposite ,,page        #a4     #a4    
,elders explaining to young men of an   
,australian                   tribe at  
the #8initiatory ceremonies'            
#h                 #b4  ,a ,hindu school
 in the open air1 with the              
village schoolmaster teaching boys to   
write on                   a strip of   
palm leaf with an iron stylus           
#h          #b4     #c4  ,the palstra in
 education at ,athens                   
#ad               #d4  ,the didascaleum 
in education at ,athens              #ad
          #c4     #e4  ,roman school    
materials                               
#cf                 #f4  ,scene at a    
ludus or ,roman elementary school       
#cf          #d4     #g4  ,a monk in the
 scriptorium                            
#ef                 #h4  ,a monastic    
school                                  
#ef          #e4     #i4  ,the temple of
 wisdom2 an allegorical                 
representation of the medival course of 

study        #gb          #f4    #aj4   
,the lecture in medival universities    
#hj                #aa4  ,the           
disputation in medival universities     
#hj          #g4    #ab and #ac4        
,preliminaries and termination of a     
combat in the education of chivalry     
#hf                #ad4  ,boys playing  
tournament with a #8quintain' or        
dummy man                               
#hf          #h4    #ae4                
,apprenticeship training in a gild      
#ib                #af4  ,gild school at
 ,stratford1 where ,shakespeare         
learned #8little ,latin and less ,greek'
                 #ib          #i4       
#ag4  ,great ,english ,public ,schools3 
,winchester and                   ,eton 
#abj         #aj4    #ah4  ,education of
 the ,jesuits3 ,jesuit ,college at      
,regensburg and diagram of a ,jesuit    
schoolroom        #acf         #aa4     
#ai4  ,school of the ,christian         
,brothers at ,rouen            #adf     
#bj4  ,a ,protestant school in a ,german

 village of                   the       
sixteenth century                       
#adf         #ab4    #ba4  ,a page from 
the ,orbis ,pictus of ,comenius1        
illustrating a lesson on a trade        
#agj         #ac4    #bb4  ,town school 
at ,dedham 7,massachusetts7 with        
watch-tower1 built in #afdh             
#aih                #bc4  ,boston ,latin
 ,school1 founded in #afce              
#aih                #bd4  ,the buildings
 of ,harvard ,college1 erected in       
#afge1 #afii1 and #agbj                 
#aih         #ad4    #be4  ,the child as
 a miniature adult                      
#bbh                #bf4  ,a            
naturalistic school                     
#bbh         #ae4    #bg4  ,a monitorial
 schoolroom                             
#bdb                #bh4  ,pupils       
reciting to monitors                    
#bdb                #bi4  ,monitor      
inspecting slates                       
#bdb         #af4    #cj4  ,a #8kitchen 
school'                                 

#bfh                #ca4  ,a colonial   
#8summer school'                        
#bfh                #cb4  ,the first    
#8academy' founded by ,benjamin         
,franklin at ,philadelphia in #agej     
#bfh         #ag4    #cc4  #8,father'   
,pestalozzi at ,stanz                   
#bhb                #cd4  ,the #8table  
of units' of ,pestalozzi                
#bhb         #ah4    #ce4  ,court of    
,fellenberg's ,agricultural ,institute  
#bih                #cf4  ,general view 
of ,fellenberg's schools and            
workshops                               
#bih         #ai4    #cg4  ,james ,g4   
,carter                                 
#cab                #ch4  ,horace ,mann 
#cab                #ci4  ,henry        
,barnard                                
#cab                #dj4  ,francis ,w4  
,parker                                 
#cab         #bj4    #da4  ,the first   
high school1 established at ,boston     
in #ahba                                
#ccb                #db4  ,the          

,university of ,michigan in #ahee       
#ccb         #ba4    #dc4  #8,the       
,carpenter' from ,froebel's ,mother     
,play         #cfj         #bb4    #dd4 
,jean ,jacques ,rousseau                
#cfh                #de4  ,johann       
,heinrich ,pestalozzi                   
#cfh                #df4  ,johann       
,friedrich ,herbart                     
#cfh                #dg4  ,friedrich    
,wilhelm ,august ,froebel               
#cfh      ,in text4  #dh4  ,diagram of  
,german education                       
#chj      ,in text4  #di4  ,diagram of  
,french education                       
#cib      ,in text4  #ej4  ,diagram of  
,english education                      
#cib         #bc4    #ea4  ,charles     
,darwin                                 
#djd                #eb4  ,herbert      
,spence                                 
#djd                #ec4  ,thomas ,h4   
,huxley                                 
#djd                #ed4  ,charles ,w4  
,eliot                                  

#djd      ,in text4  #ee4  ,diagram of  
vocational education of boys in         
#dbd                   ,germany         
#bd4    #ef4  ,indian house constructed 
in ,dewey's                             
experimental school                     
#dcf                #eg4  ,part of the  
,thorndike ,writing ,scale              
#dcf          ,,foreword      ,each     
chapter in this book will be prefaced by
 an ,outline1 or  generalized statement 
of the ideas to be included in it4      
,logically such  an epitome is needed at
 the beginning as well as at the end of 
the  chapter4 ,at the beginning1 it     
serves as a hypothetical or tentative   
generalization of the facts2 at the end1
 as a conclusion whose  truth has been  
tested in the light of these facts and  
accepted with  conviction4    ,by having
 this outline in mind when he studies   
the facts1 the student  is enabled not  
only to see that the general statements 
are verified and  made more significant 
by the details1 but at the same time to 

organize  the facts with reference to   
the generalization1 and thereby secure  
an easier control of them1 and1 through 
the relation of each to the  others1    
discover a fuller meaning in them all4  
,then1 after this study  of the details 
has established the truth of the outline
 and enriched  its meaning1 he can      
review the outline and fix it in mind as
 the  conclusion of the chapter4        
,,part ,i    ,,ancient ,,times          
,a ,,students ,,history ,,of ,,education
          ,,chapter ,i    ,,the         
,,earliest ,,education      ,,outline   
,even a brief survey of the history of  
education may greatly broaden      one's
 view4        ,starting with primitive  
man1 we find that his training aims only
      at the necessities of life1 and is
 acquired informally through the        
elders and the medicine-men4        ,in 
,oriental education1 the next stage in  
progress1 illustrated by      ,india1 a 
traditional knowledge is acquired       
through memoriter and      imitative    

methods4        ,while ,oriental1       
,jewish education afforded greater      
development of      individuality1 but  
it was late in organizing schools1      
memoriter      in methods1 and          
restricted in content4        ,thus all 
education before the day of the ,greeks 
was largely      non-progressive4       
,sidenote3 ,breadth of view obtained    
,the ,value of the ,history of          
,education4--,the ,history of ,education
 from  the earliest times should        
contribute largely to one's breadth of  
view  and prove a study of the greatest 
liberal culture4 ,a record of typical   
instances of the moral1 sthetic1 and    
intellectual development of man  in all 
lands and at all periods should         
certainly enlarge one's vision  and     
enable him to appreciate more fully the 
part that education has  played in the  
progress of civilization4 ,such cultural
 values may be  found even in a limited 
survey of the world's educational       
development4    ,sidenote3 ,space and   

perspective here given to subject       
matter4    ,its ,treatment in ,this     
,book4--,and this is all that will be   
undertaken  here4 ,for1 while valuable  
as a liberal study1 the ,history of     
,education  finds its justification     
chiefly in the degree to which it       
functions  in the professional training 
of a teacher1 and it will be necessary  
in a brief treatise to omit or pass over
 hastily much that might be  of interest
 and value in a more complete account of
 the development  of civilization4      
,therefore1 the amount of space and the 
perspective  afforded the various       
peoples1 epochs1 and leaders must here  
be  determined in large measure by the  
part they have played in the  evolution 
of educational institutions and         
practices1 and by the light  their      
history sheds upon the aim1             
organization1 content1 and method of    
education to-day4 ,at times1 too1 the   
history of a single epoch1 state1  or   
educational leader will be selected as a

 type1 to the exclusion of  others      
equally important1 and treated with     
considerable intensiveness1  instead of 
describing all sides of the subject with
 encyclopdic  monotony4 ,now the first  
historical epoch to leave a real impress
 upon  modern practice is that of       
,athens at its height4 ,hence a mere    
statement  of the salient features of   
education preceding that period is all  
that can be afforded in this brief      
survey4 ,a detailed account of the      
educational processes used by savage    
tribes1 ,oriental nations1 and even     
,juda may prove interesting and         
important in other connections1 but it  
must here be largely curtailed4         
,sidenote3 ,training through elders and 
medicine-men ties the savage to  the    
present4    ,primitive                  
,education4--,there is little to be     
noted in the training of  the young     
among primitive peoples1 save that it is
 intended largely  for the satisfaction 
of immediate wants--food1 clothing1 and 

shelter4  ,naturally no such actual     
institution as a school has yet been    
evolved1  but the training is           
transmitted informally by the parents4  
,the method  used is simply that of     
example and imitation1 or1 more         
specifically1  #8trial and success4'    
,but a more conscious and formal        
education is given  at puberty through  
the #8initiatory ceremonies' 7,fig4 #a74
 ,in these rites  the youths are        
definitely instructed by the older men  
about their  relation to the spirits and
 the totem animals1 subordination to the
  elders1 the relations of the sexes1   
the sacredness of the clansman's        
obligations1 and other traditional      
usages4 ,strict silence is enjoined     
upon them concerning this information1  
and to impress it upon their  minds1 and
 test their endurance1 they are required
 to fast for several  days and are often
 tortured and mutilated4 ,as the savage 
does not  clearly distinguish between   
himself and the tribe to which he       

belongs1  there is practically no       
development of individuality1 and since 
the  race has not yet learned to        
treasure its experience in writing1 he  
has  no record of past experience and is
 virtually tied to the present4         
,sidenote3 ,vocational training and     
class divisions of the ,orient4         
,oriental ,education4--,the nations of  
the ancient ,orient--,egypt1            
,babylonia1 ,assyria1 ,china1 ,india1   
and ,persia--may be said to represent   
the next higher stage in civilization4  
,their systems of education  prepare    
mostly for vocations1 and are not       
sufficiently advanced to  undertake a   
training for manhood or citizenship4    
,but since a division  of labor has now 
been evolved1 the training has become   
more clearly  differentiated and fits   
for specific occupations4 ,in this way1 
class  divisions1 or even castes1 have  
generally arisen in society1 and the    
young people are educated according to  
the position in life they  desire1 or   

are required to fill4 ,as an            
illustration of this stage of           
development1 we may consider somewhat in
 detail the social environment  and     
education of ,india4    ,sidenote3      
,mystic religion and caste system in    
,india4    ,india3 ,its ,religion and   
,castes4--,in ,india1 largely as a      
result of  the debilitating climate1    
there was formulated about #abjj ,b4 ,c4
 a  dreamy philosophy1 according to     
which nothing except ,brahma1 the one   
universal spirit1 really exists4 ,while 
men would seem to be temporarily        
allowed a separate existence of their   
own1 it was held that they should       
remain inactive as far as possible and  
seek an ultimate absorption  into the   
great ,eternal ,spirit4 ,although       
somewhat modified by the  infusion of   
,buddhism1 between #ejj ,b4 ,c4 and #ejj
 ,a4 ,d41 and by the  ,british          
occupation of the peninsula during the  
nineteenth century1  this mystic and    
static religion still dominates in      

,india4 ,connected  with it is the caste
 system1 by which the people are divided
 into  four hereditary classes4 ,these  
are 7#a7 the brahmins1 or sacerdotal    
class1 which includes all those trained 
for law1 medicine1 teaching1  and other 
professional occupations2 7#b7 the      
warriors1 or military and               
administrative caste2 7#c7 the          
industrial group2 and 7#d7 the sudras1  
or menial caste4 ,altogether outside the
 social order are the pariahs1  or      
outcasts4 ,the caste system is          
exceedingly strict4 ,one may fall into  
a lower caste1 but he cannot rise1 and  
loss of caste by one person in a  family
 will degrade all the rest4             
,sidenote3 ,knowledge of sacred books   
and training in laws and  traditions4   
,the ,hindu ,education4--,hence ,hindu  
education has always endeavored  to fill
 the pupils with the tenets of their    
religion1 and so prepare  them for      
absorption into the ,infinite1 rather   
than for activities in  this life1 and  

to preserve the caste system and keep   
all within the  sphere of their         
occupation4 ,the three upper castes are1
 therefore1  supposed to gain a         
knowledge of certain sacred works1      
especially  the four ,vedas or books of 
#8knowledge1' the six ,angas on         
philosophical and scientific subjects1  
and the ,code of ,manu1 which  is a     
collection of traditional customs2 but  
few1 outside the brahmin  class1 are    
ever allowed to take advantage of this  
opportunity4 ,the  warriors are expected
 to pay more attention to martial       
exercises1  and the industrial caste to 
acquire through apprenticeship the arts 
necessary for its hereditary            
occupations4 ,sudras1 pariahs1 and women
  are generally allowed no education4   
,except the sudras1 all the castes      
obtain elementary education from a study
 of the laws1 traditions1 and  customs  
of the country through the medium of the
 family1 and more  recently through     
village schools held in the open air    

7,fig4 #b74 ,the  higher education is   
largely carried on in brahminic         
colleges1 called  parishads1 and1 as    
also in the case of the elementary work1
 the  teachers have to be brahmins4     
,since all learning has been preserved  
by  tradition1 the chief methods of     
instruction are those of memorizing  and
 imitation4 ,even the later texts are so
 written as to be easily  committed1 and
 the lines are sung aloud by the pupils 
until they have  memorized them4        
,writing is learned by imitating the    
teacher's copy on  the sand with a      
stick1 then on palm leaves with a stylus
 7,fig4 #b71 and  finally on plane      
leaves with ink4    ,sidenote3 ,much    
traditional learning1 but no progress   
results4    ,effect of the ,hindu       
,education4--,hence1 among the ,hindus  
education is  forbidden to ninety-five  
per cent of the population1 and1 as far 
as it  does exist1 it is a mere stuffing
 of the memory4 ,it concerns itself but 
little with mental culture or with      

preparation for real living4 ,the       
brahmins have handed down considerable  
traditional learning1 grammar1          
phonetics1 rhetoric1 logic1 #8,arabic'  
notation1 algebra1 astronomy1 and       
medicine1 but new knowledge of any sort 
is barred4 ,the ,hindus still  plow with
 sticks of wood1 and their crops are    
harvested and threshed  by devices      
equally primitive4 ,they bake bricks1   
work metals1 and weave  cloth1 but with 
the same kind of appliances that were   
used by their  remote ancestors4 ,until 
recently1 they have been greatly lacking
 in  ambition1 self-reliance1 and       
personal responsibility1 and have not   
yet  come to any feeling of solidarity  
or national unity4 ,to them prosperity  
and progress are foreign ideas4         
,sidenote3 ,oriental education in       
bondage to the past4    ,india as       
,typical of the ,orient4--,the other    
countries of the ancient  ,orient never 
fixed their social classes in so hard   
and fast a manner1  and have never      

included so elaborate a philosophy among
 the products  of their culture4 ,but   
,india may well be considered broadly   
typical  of the stage of development in 
the ,orient4 ,certain common features   
appear in the education of all the      
nations there4 ,in the system of  each1 
the classes below the sacerdotal or     
priestly are given little  intellectual 
education1 and the women none at all1   
but both are trained  by apprenticeship 
in their vocations4 ,actual schools1    
both elementary  and higher1 have been  
instituted2 and the latter1 except in   
,china1 are  conducted at temples or    
priestly colleges by members of the     
sacerdotal  class4 ,the educational     
content is naturally traditional4 ,it   
is1 for  the most part1 ensured against 
change by being embalmed in sacred      
books1 such as the ,vedas4 ,the         
educational method consists largely in  
the memorizing of the test and imitation
 of the copy set1 and little  attempt is
 made to give a reason for the customs  

and traditional  knowledge taught4      
,hence1 while individuality has begun to
 emerge1 it is  suppressed by every     
agency possible2 and1 although these    
peoples have  largely overcome the      
primitive enslavement to nature and the 
present1  they are completely in bondage
 to the past4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#a4--;,elders explaining to young men of
 an ,australian  tribe at the           
#8initiatory ceremonies4'               
7,reproduced from ,spencer and ,gillen's
 ,across ,australia47    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #b4--;,a ,hindu school in the open
 air1 with the  village schoolmaster    
teaching boys to write on a strip of    
palm leaf  with an iron stylus4         
,reproduced from ,things as ,they ,are  
by ,amy ,wilson-,carmichael1 by         
permission of the ,fleming ,h4 ,revell  
,company47    ,sidenote3 ,greater       
development of personality1             
,sidenote3 but ,oriental and            
non-progressive4    ,jewish             
,education4--,the ,jews are classed     

among the nations of the  ,orient1 but  
they formulated loftier aims and have   
exerted more  influence upon modern     
ideals in education4 ,while their       
theology greatly  developed in the      
course of their history1 from the first 
they held to  an ethical conception of  
,god1 and the chief goal of their       
education  was the building of moral and
 religious character4 ,not until after  
the ,babylonish captivity 7#ehf-ecf ,b4 
,c471 however1 did they establish       
actual schools4 ,before that1 children  
were given an informal training  in the 
traditions and observances of their     
religion by their parents4  ,but they   
brought back from ,babylon the idea of  
institutions for higher  training and   
started such schools through their      
synagogues4 ,in the  second century ,b4 
,c4 the founding of elementary schools  
also began1 and  eventually the ,jews   
made education well-nigh universal4 ,the
 beneficial  effect of this training is 
seen in the respect shown by the ,jews  

for  their women1 their kind treatment  
of children1 and their reverence for    
parents4 ,the defects of their education
 appear in the stereotyped and  formal  
way in which the religious material came
 to be interpreted1  and the consequent 
hostility to science and art1 except as 
they threw  light on some religious     
festival or custom4 ,although appeal was
 made  to various types of memory1      
systems of mnemonics devised1 and other 
good pedagogical features suggested1    
their methods of instruction  were      
largely memoriter4 ,the ,jewish system  
of education1 as a whole1  afforded a   
greater development of personality than 
that of the other  ,oriental nations1   
and through it have been spread some of 
the world's  most exalted religious     
conceptions4 ,nevertheless1 it did not  
depart  much from its traditions and the
 past1 and to this extent it may be     
classed with the training of the        
primitive tribes and of the ,oriental   
nations as predominantly                

non-progressive4      ,,supplementary   
,,reading    ,for general works1 see    
,graves1 ,f4 ,p41 ,history of ,education
 before the  ,middle ,ages 7,macmillan1 
#aiji71 chaps4 ,i-,,xi2 ,monroe1 ,p41   
,text-book in  the ,history of          
,education 7,macmillan1 #aije71 chaps4  
,i-,,ii4 ,a general  interpretation of  
the evolution of education in savagery  
and barbarism  is also given in ,laurie1
 ,s4 ,s41 ,pre-,christian ,education    
7,longmans1  ,green1 #aiji71 pp4 #a-bjg2
 ,morgan1 ,l4 ,h41 ,ancient ,society    
7,holt1  #aijg71 ,part ,i2 and ,taylor1 
,h4 ,o41 ,ancient ,ideals 7,macmillan1  
#aiac71  vol4 ,i1 chaps4 ,i-,v4 ,an     
illustration of primitive training of   
especial  interest to ,american students
 is found in ,spencer1 ,f4 ,c41         
,education  of the ,pueblo ,child       
7,columbia ,university1 ,department of  
,philosophy  and ,psychology1 vol4 #g1  
no4 #a72 and a detailed description of  
the  puberty rites of a variety of      
savage tribes1 in ,webster1 ,h41        

,primitive  ,secret ,societies1         
7,macmillan1 #aijh71 chaps4 ,i-,v4 ,a   
more complete  account of the ,hindu    
philosophy and education appears in     
,dutt1 ,r4 ,c41  ,civilization of ,india
 7,dent1 ,london71 and ,taylor1 ,h4 ,o41
 ,ancient  ,ideals 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 
vol4 ,i1 chaps4 ,,iii and ,,iv4 ,a      
systematic  statement of the ,jewish    
training has been adapted from a ,german
 work1  in ,leipziger1 ,h4 ,m41         
,education of the ,jews 7,new ,york     
,teachers  ,college1 #ahij71 and a more 
detailed account worked out in ,spiers1 
,b41  ,school ,system of the ,talmud    
7,stock1 ,london1 #ahih74               
,,chapter ,,ii    ,,the ,,education ,,of
 ,,the ,,greeks      ,,outline          
,the ,spartan training was intended to  
serve the state by making      warriors1
 and little attention was paid to       
intellectual education4        ,at first
 the ,athenian education was also mainly
 concerned in      serving the state4   
,for the earliest stage of the boy's    

education1      there were schools of   
two types1--one for intellectual        
training1 as      well as one for       
physical2 from fifteen to eighteen a    
more advanced      physical training was
 given2 and then1 for two years1 a      
preparation      for military life4     
,after the ,persian wars1 the ,athenians
 adopted ideals of education            
affording a larger recognition of       
individualism4 ,the sophists            
introduced the new educational          
practices1 and went to an extreme in    
their individualism4        ,the        
systematic philosophers1--,socrates1    
,plato1 and ,aristotle1 tried      to   
mediate the outworn institutional       
education and the extreme               
individualism4 ,socrates held that the  
sophistic #8knowledge' was      only    
#8opinion1' and that the more universal 
knowledge could be      reached in every
 person by stripping off his            
individualistic      opinion4           
,but ,plato maintained that only the    

intellectual class could attain      to 
knowledge4 ,for them he formulated a new
 course of study1 in      addition to   
that in vogue1 consisting of            
mathematical subjects and               
dialectic4 ,aristotle held that the     
training for every one before      seven
 should be bodily2 up to fourteen1 the  
irrational soul should      be trained2 
and until twenty-one1 the rational4     
,while ,plato and      ,aristotle had   
little effect upon educational practice 
at the time1      they have since       
greatly influenced education4           
,after ,aristotle1 there arose          
individualistic schools of philosophy   
and formal schools of rhetoric1 and out 
of them universities sprang      up4    
,then ,greek culture and education      
spread throughout the world4            
,sidenote3 ,first development of        
individuality appeared among ,greeks4   
,progressive ,nature of ,greek          
,education4--,real educational progress 
began with the ,greeks4 ,in their       

training gradually appeared             
considerable regard for individuality4  
,they were the first people whose       
outlook seems to have been toward the   
future rather than the past1  and they  
first made a serious attempt to promote 
human development in  accordance with a 
remote ideal progressively revealed4 ,as
 a result1  they not only gave a        
wonderful impetus to educational        
practice in their  own time1 but ever   
since then the world has had constant   
recourse to  them for inspiration and   
counsel4 ,while this intellectual       
emancipation  did not appear to any     
extent before its development among the 
,athenians  in the middle of the fifth  
century ,b4 ,c41 well-planned systems of
  education existed in ,greece several  
centuries before this and paved the  way
 for the system in ,athens during the   
,age of ,pericles4    ,sidenote3        
,service to state the object4           
,sidenote3 ,exposure of sickly infants4 
,sidenote3 ,barracks training of boys4  

,spartan ,education3 ,its ,aim and      
,early ,stages4--,among the states of   
ancient ,greece1 ,sparta possessed the  
earliest education of which we  have any
 extended information4 ,its citizens    
dwelt in the midst of  hostile peoples  
they had subjugated1 and this made it   
necessary to  produce a race of hardy   
and patriotic warriors4 ,strength1      
courage1 and  obedience to the laws were
 held as the aim of education4 ,the     
,spartan  educational system was        
intended to serve the state1 and the    
rights of  the individual were given    
little or no consideration4 ,state      
control  began with birth4 ,the infant  
was immediately inspected by a council  
of elders1 and1 if he were sickly or    
deformed1 he was #8exposed'  to die in  
the mountains2 but if he appeared       
physically promising1  he was formally  
adopted by the state and left with his  
mother for  rearing until seven4 ,at    
that age the boys were placed in charge 
of a  state officer and ate and slept in

 a kind of public barracks4 ,here  their
 life became one of constant drill and  
discipline4 ,in addition  to hard beds1 
scanty clothing1 and little food1 they  
were given a  graded course in          
gymnastics4 ,besides ball-playing1      
dancing1 and the  pentathlum--running1  
jumping1 throwing the discus1 casting   
the  javelin1 and wrestling--the        
exercises included boxing1 and even  the
 brutal pancratium1 in which any means  
of overcoming one's                     
antagonist--kicking1 gouging1 and       
biting1 as well as wrestling and        
boxing--was permitted4    ,sidenote3    
,little intellectual or moral training4 
,the ,spartan boys1 however1 received   
only a little informal training  in the 
way of intellectual education4 ,they    
simply committed to memory  and chanted 
the laws of ,lycurgus and selections    
from ,homer1 and they  listened to the  
conversation of the older men during the
 meals at the  common table1 and were   
themselves exercised in giving concise  

and  sensible answers to questions put  
to test their wisdom4 ,every adult was  
also required to choose as his constant 
companion or #8hearer' a youth  to whom 
he might become an #8inspirer4'         
,sidenote3 ,military training4          
,training in ,youth and ,manhood3       
,results4--,when a youth reached        
eighteen1 he began the distinctive study
 of warfare4 ,for two years he  was     
trained in the use of arms and          
skirmishing1 and every ten days had  his
 courage and his physique tested by     
being whipped before the altar  of      
,artemis4 ,then he regularly entered the
 army1 and for ten years  guarded some  
border fortress and lived upon the      
coarsest of fare4 ,when  he became      
thirty1 he was considered a man and     
forced to marry at once1  but even then 
he could visit his wife only            
clandestinely and was still  obliged to 
live in common with the boys and assist 
in their training4    ,sidenote3        
,similar education of girls4    ,the    

education of women was very like that of
 the men4 ,while the girls  were allowed
 to live at home1 they were given a     
similar physical  training in the hope  
that they would become the mothers of   
sturdy sons4  ,thus the ,spartan        
education was shaped entirely with      
reference to the  welfare of the state4 
,their educational system served well   
its purpose  of creating strong warriors
 and devoted citizens1 but it failed to 
make for the highest manhood4 ,sparta   
developed practically no art1           
literature1 or philosophy1 and produced 
little that tended to promote           
civilization4 ,she has left to the world
 little but examples of heroism  and    
foolhardiness alike4    ,sidenote3 ,two 
types of schools3 7#a7 the palaestra1   
furnishing  physical training2 7#b7 the 
didascaleum1 furnishing music1 reading1 
and writing4    ,sidenote3 ,the         
paedagogus4    ,old ,athenian           
,education3 ,its ,aim and ,early        
,training4--,for many  centuries the    

,athenian education was not unlike the  
,spartan in  promoting the welfare of   
the state without much consideration of 
individual interests4 ,but even in early
 days ,athens felt that the  state was  
best served when the individual secured 
the most complete  personal development4
 ,hence1 the ,athenian boys began to    
receive at  seven years of age two kinds
 of training1--7#a7 the pentathlum and  
other physical exercises in the         
palaestra 7,fig4 #c7 or exercising      
ground1 and 7#b7 singing and playing    
upon the flute or lyre1 and reading  and
 writing at the didascaleum 7,fig4 #d47 
or music school4 ,after  the boy had    
learned his letters by tracing them in  
the sand1 he was  taught to copy verses 
and selections from well-known authors1 
at first  upon wax-tablets with a       
stylus1 and later upon parchment with   
pen  and ink4 ,it was1 moreover1        
necessary for the pupils in singing to  
be  taught the rhythm and melody1 and to
 understand the poem so as to bring  out

 its meaning4 ,hence the explanations   
and interpretations given by  the       
teachers brought in all the learning of 
the times1 and the moral  and           
intellectual value of the studies must  
have been much greater  than would be   
suggested by the meagerness of the      
course4 ,some moral  training and       
discipline were also given the boy by a 
slave called the  paedagogus1 who       
conducted him to school and carried his 
lyre and  other appurtenances4 ,this    
functionary was often advanced in years 
or  incapacitated for other duties by   
physical disability4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #c4--,the palaestra4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,the          
didascaleum4    7,reproduced from       
illustrations taken from old vases by   
,freeman in his  ,schools of ,hellas47  
,sidenote3 ,advanced physical training  
in gymnasia1 and ephebic course  in     
military duties4    ,training for the   
,youth4--,at fifteen the ,athenian boy  
might take  physical training of a more 

advanced character at one of the        
exercising  grounds just outside        
,athens1 which were known as gymnasia4  
,he was now  permitted to go wherever he
 wished and become acquainted with      
public  life through first-hand contact4
 ,when eighteen the youth took the  oath
 of loyalty to ,athens1 and for two     
years as an ephebus or cadet  continued 
his education with a course in military 
duties4 ,the first  year he spent in the
 neighborhood of ,athens and formed part
 of the city  garrison1 but in the      
second year he was transferred to some  
fortress on  the frontier4 ,at twenty   
the young man became a citizen1 but even
 then  his training continued through   
the drama1 architecture1 sculpture1 and 
art that were all about him4            
,sidenote3 ,women given little training4
    ,sidenote3 ,resemblance of old      
,athenian education to ,spartan4        
,effect of the ,old ,athenian           
,education4--,little attention was1     
however1  given by the ,athenians to the

 education of woman4 ,it was felt that  
her duties demanded no knowledge beyond 
ordinary skill in household  affairs4   
,with this exception1 the ,athenian     
education was superior to  the ,spartan 
in allowing greater opportunity for     
individual development  and in          
furnishing a more rounded training4     
,nevertheless1 until about  the middle  
of the fifth century ,b4 ,c41 while     
differing considerably in  degree from  
,sparta1 ,athens may be grouped with    
that country as adhering  to the #8old' 
education1 where the individual was     
subordinated to the  good of the social 
whole4    ,sidenote3 ,extreme           
individualism in new ,athenian          
education4    ,causes and ,character of 
the ,new ,athenian ,education4--,this   
characterization is1 of course1 in      
contrast to ,greek education in the     
#8new' period1 which is represented by  
,athens alone4 ,this later type  of     
education was probably somewhat the     
result of the gradual rise of           

democratic ideals in ,athens1 but a more
 immediate set of factors grew  out of  
the ,persian wars 7#dib-dgi ,b4 ,c474   
,this extended conflict with  a powerful
 ,oriental people1 possessing a         
well-organized but widely  different    
body of traditions tended to broaden the
 views of the  ,athenians greatly1 and  
the ensuing political and commercial    
intercourse  with a variety of dependent
 states and nations in the ,delian      
,league1  together with social contact  
with the foreigners from every land that
  were thronging the streets of ,athens1
 led even more directly to a            
reconstruction of practices and beliefs4
 ,a rapid transition in the  old        
traditions took place and society seems 
for a time to have been  sadly          
disorganized4 ,the old was shattered1   
and while new ideals were  being        
constructed1 a groping ensued4 ,although
 the latitude given the  individual was 
destined1 as always1 to produce progress
 in the long  run1 and was of great     

ultimate service to the world1 more     
immediately a  low ebb in morals at     
,athens resulted4 ,individualism ran    
riot4 ,education  reflected the         
conditions of the period4 ,its ideals   
became more and  more individualistic4  
,the times demanded a training that     
would promote  the happiness of the     
individual with little consideration for
 the  welfare of the state as a whole4  
,the old education seemed narrow and    
barren of content2 and there arose a    
desire for all sorts of knowledge  that 
might contribute to one's advancement1  
whether it increased his  social        
usefulness or not4 ,skill in debate and 
public speaking was  especially sought1 
because of the unusual opportunity for  
personal  achievement in politics4      
,sidenote3 ,study of grammatical and    
rhetorical subtleties1 in the place  of 
the old education4    ,the ,sophists and
 ,their ,training4--,to meet these new  
demands1 a set of  teachers known as the
 sophists came into prominence4 ,they   

professed  to train young men for a     
political career1 and some of them even 
claimed to teach any subject whatsoever1
 or how to defend either side  of an    
argument4 ,these pretensions1 together  
with their charging a fee  for their    
services1 contrary to ,athenian custom1 
seriously offended  the more            
conservative of the citizens of ,athens4
 ,but many of the first  sophists       
afforded an honest and careful training4
 ,the effect of their  teaching was     
especially felt by the adolescents in   
the gymnasium  stage of education1 since
 they were ambitious to distinguish     
themselves politically4 ,the physical   
training that had hitherto  dominated   
the gymnasium course gave way to a study
 of grammatical and  rhetorical         
subtleties1 and whenever a sophist      
appeared in the street1  market-place1  
or house1 the young men crowded about   
him to borrow from  his store of        
experience and wisdom1 and acquire his  
method of argument4  ,to a less degree  

the same influence was felt in the lower
 schools and  by the cadets and younger 
citizens4 ,the exercises of the         
palaestra were  no longer as rigorous1  
and existed for the sake of individual  
health  and pleasure rather than for the
 making of citizens4 ,the literary work 
of the didascaleum came to include1     
besides the ,homeric epics1 a wide      
range of didactic1 reflective1 and lyric
 poetry1 with a superabundance  of      
discussions4 ,in music the old patriotic
 and religious songs sung to  the simple
 ,doric airs and accompanied upon the   
seven-stringed lyre1  were replaced by  
rhythms of great difficulty1 like the   
,lydian and  ,phrygian1 and by          
complicated instruments of all sorts4   
,sidenote3 ,reaction from the old       
subordination of the individual to the  
state4    ,their ,extreme               
,individualism4--,all this inroad upon  
the time honored  curriculum shows how  
fully the sophists embodied the         
individualism of  the times4 ,although  

they held no body of doctrine common to 
them all1  they were generally at one in
 their position of extreme              
individualism4  ,they often went so far 
as to insist that there could not safely
 be  any universal criteria in knowledge
 or morals2 that no satisfactory        
interpretation of life could be made for
 all1 but that every fact and  situation
 should be subject to the judgment of   
the individual4 ,no doubt  the formula  
attributed to ,protagoras1 8,man 7i4 e4 
the individual7 is  the measure of all  
things1 both of the seen and the        
unseen10 would have  expressed the      
attitude common to most of them4 ,they  
but carried to  its legitimate          
conclusion the complete reaction from   
the old ideal of  subordination of the  
individual to the state4    ,sidenote3  
,the attitude of ,pythagoras and        
,aristophanes2    ,sidenote3 and of     
,socrates1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle4      
,the ,reactionaries and the             
,mediators4--,meanwhile1 the            

conservative  element was making its    
usual attempt to adjust the unsettled   
conditions  by suggesting a return to   
the old4 ,various schemes had been      
advanced1  even before the sophists had 
come into prominence4 ,of these the most
  complete plan was that of ,pythagoras 
7about #ehj-ejj ,b4 ,c474 ,by  adopting 
an analogy from the #8harmony' of the   
celestial bodies and from  the relation 
of the powers in the individual to each 
other1 he arranged  a definite hierarchy
 in society1 so that each member should 
have his  proper place1 and complete    
harmony and social order should ensue4  
,as  the influence of the sophists began
 to be felt1 later representatives  of  
the reactionary movement1 such as the   
matchless caricaturist1  ,aristophanes  
7#dde-chj ,b4 ,c471 began to appear and 
inveigh against  the new conditions4    
,but the social process can never move  
backward1  and reconstruction on some   
higher plane was needed to overcome the 
destructive tendencies of the times4 ,to

 furnish this1 was the task  set        
themselves by ,socrates1 ,plato1 and    
,aristotle4 ,like the sophists1  they   
recognized that the traditional beliefs 
and sanctions1 the old  social order1   
and the former ideals and content of    
education1 had been  outlived1 and that 
the individual could not find truth and 
morality  through an institutional      
system4 ,at the same time they felt that
 the  extreme individualism of the      
sophists was too negative a basis upon  
which to build1 and that a more         
socialized standard of knowledge and    
morality must be sought4    ,sidenote3  
#8,knowledge' versus #8opinion'4        
,sidenote3 ,the #8dialectic' of         
,socrates4    ,the ,method of           
,socrates4--,this mediating effort was  
begun by ,socrates  7#dfi-cii ,b4 ,c474 
,while he started with the formula of   
,protagoras1 he  maintained that the    
#8man' indicated thereby was not the    
individual1 but  mankind as a whole4 ,it
 is not the peculiar view of any        

individual that  represents the truth1  
but the knowledge that is the same for  
everyone4  ,the former1 which the       
sophists considered #8knowledge1'       
,socrates held  to be only #8opinion1'  
and declared that the reason men think  
so  differently is because each sees but
 one side of the truth4 ,he believed    
that everyone could get at universal    
knowledge by stripping off  individual  
differences and laying bare the         
essentials upon which all  men are      
agreed4 ,he conceived it to be the      
mission of the philosopher or  teacher  
to enable the individual to do this1 and
 he endeavored to deal  with the mind of
 all those with whom he came in contact1
 so that they  would form valid         
conclusions4 ,by his method1 known as   
the dialectic1  or #8conversational1' he
 first encouraged the individual to make
 a  definite statement of his belief1   
and then1 through a set of clever       
questions1 caused the person to develop 
his thought1 until he became so         

involved in manifest contradictions that
 he was forced to admit that  his view  
had been imperfectly formed4 ,he thus   
caused the individual to  see that the  
view he had first expressed was mere    
#8opinion' and but  a single phase of   
the universal truth4 ,as ,socrates      
further held that  morality consists in 
right knowledge and made no distinction 
between  the knowledge of an action and 
the impulse to perform it1 he strove    
through his methods of developing       
knowledge to harmonize the individual   
welfare with that of the social group4  
,sidenote3 ,in the ,republic government 
was to be by the intellectual  class4   
,sidenote3 ,early education4            
,sidenote3 ,cadet training4    ,plato's 
,system of ,education for the ,three    
,classes of ,society4--,but  the        
believers in the old traditions and     
institutional morality felt  that       
,socrates was atheistic and immoral4    
,they persuaded ,athens to give  him the
 hemlock1 and thus destroyed the man who

 might have proved her  savior4 ,a      
pupil1 ,plato 7#dbg-cdg ,b4 ,c471       
undertook to continue his work1  but his
 aristocratic birth and temperament     
caused him to underestimate  the        
intelligence of the masses4 ,he held    
that they were incapable of  attaining  
to #8knowledge'--that they possessed    
only #8opinion4' ,in his  most famous   
dialogue1 ,the ,republic1 he endeavors  
to show that the  ideal state can exist 
only when the entire control of the     
government  is entrusted to the         
#8philosophers1' or intellectual class1 
who alone  possess #8real knowledge4'   
,those who are to compose the three     
classes  of society ,plato would have   
selected during the educational process 
on  the basis of their ability4 ,for all
 boys up to eighteen years of age  he   
prescribes an education similar to that 
in vogue in the palaestra1  didascaleum1
 and gymnasium1 except that he would    
somewhat expurgate  the literary        
element1 and would confine the musical  

training to the  simpler melodies and   
instruments4 ,the youths who prove      
capable of going  beyond this lower     
education are next to take up the cadet 
training  between eighteen and twenty1  
but those who are incapable of further  
education are to be relegated to the    
industrial class4 ,during the cadet     
period are to be determined those       
capable of going on with the higher     
education of philosophers1 while those  
who here reach their limit  become      
members of the military class4          
,sidenote3 ,higher education for        
philosophers3    ,sidenote3 7#a7        
mathematical subjects2    ,sidenote3    
7#b7 dialectic4    ,as ,athenian        
education did not extend beyond the     
twentieth year1 ,plato  is here obliged 
to invent a new course of study that    
will enable  the future philosophers to 
acquire the habit of speculation4 ,this 
additional course1 he declares1 should  
also be graded1 in order that  a further
 test of intellectual and moral         

qualities may be made4  ,arithmetic1    
plane and solid geometry1 music1 and    
astronomy1 are to  occupy the first ten 
years of the course4 ,these subjects1   
however1  are not to be studied for     
calculation or practical purposes of any
  sort1 but entirely from the standpoint
 of theory or the universal  relations  
underlying them1 since only thus can    
they furnish a capacity  for abstract   
thought4 ,after this1 at thirty1 the    
young men who can go  no further1 are to
 be placed in the minor offices of the  
state1 while  those who have shown      
themselves capable of the study of      
dialectic1 go  on with that subject for 
five years longer4 ,it then becomes the 
duty of  these highest philosophers to  
guide and control the state until they  
have reached the age of fifty1 when they
 may be allowed to retire4    ,sidenote3
 ,return to subordination of the        
individual2    ,sidenote3 neglect of    
human will2    ,sidenote3 failure to see
 all human traits in each individual2   

,sidenote3 no means of evolution4       
,the ,weakness of ,plato's              
,system4--,thus1 where ,socrates found  
the  basis of universal truth in        
everyone1 ,plato held that only one     
class  of people1 the most intellectual1
 could attain to real knowledge4 ,he1   
therefore1 maintained that the          
philosophers should absolutely guide    
the conduct of the state1 and that      
education should be organized  with that
 in view4 ,plato's ideal state would    
thus become a sort of  intellectual     
oligarchy1 and in a way was a return to 
the old principle  of subordinating the 
individual to society4 ,the ,republic   
thus quite  neglected human will as a   
factor in society and assumed that men  
can be moved about in life like pieces  
upon the chess board4 ,plato  failed to 
see1 too1 that each individual really   
possesses all human  characteristics4   
,the workers have reason1 and the       
philosophers have  passions1 and a human
 being is not a man unless all these    

functions are  his4 ,but even if his    
scheme had been a happy one1 the        
treatise provided  no method of         
evolution from current conditions1 and  
if it were further  granted that this   
order of things could be established at 
once4 ,plato  put the ban upon all      
innovation or change1 and so closed the 
door to  progress4    ,sidenote3 ,the   
,laws offered a more practical and      
traditional system  of education4       
,hence ,the ,republic was viewed as a   
visionary conception1 and had no        
immediate effect upon education or any  
other institution of ,athens4 ,so  in   
his declining years1 without denying    
,the ,republic as ideal1 he  wrote the  
more practical dialogue known as ,the   
,laws4 ,in it he welded  elements from  
the educational systems of ,sparta and  
older ,athens1 and  reverted to         
traditions and ideals not dissimilar to 
the doctrines of  ,pythagoras4 ,he      
replaced the philosophers with priests1 
an hereditary  ruler1 a superintendent  

of education1 and various other         
officials2 and  the course of study     
reached its height with the subject of  
mathematics1  while dialectic was not   
mentioned4    ,sidenote3 ,model for     
later ,utopias4    ,sidenote3 ,the      
#8quadrivium' and #8formal discipline4' 
,his ,influence upon ,educational       
,theory and ,practice4--,thus the       
efforts  of ,socrates1 as continued by  
,plato1 to obtain the benefit of the    
growing individualism for society and   
education without disrupting  them1 had 
seemingly come to naught4 ,nevertheless1
 ,plato has had  considerable influence 
upon the thought and practice of men    
since the  ,greek period4 ,the ideal    
society where everything is well managed
 and  everyone is in the position for   
which nature intended him1 has ever     
since the day of ,the ,republic been a  
favorite theme for writers1 as  witness 
,more's ,utopia and the ,new ,atlantis  
of ,bacon4 ,a specific  movement that   
shows the impress of ,plato1 as we shall

 see later1 is the  formulation of the  
more advanced studies of the medival    
#8seven liberal  arts' under the name of
 the #8quadrivium4' ,it is even possible
 that the  whole conception of          
#8liberal' studies1 and so the doctrine 
of #8formal  discipline' 7see p4 #ahb71 
may be traced back to ,plato's idea that
 the  mathematical subjects in the      
course for philosophers should never be 
studied from a practical point of view4 
,on the whole1 ,plato has been a  factor
 in educational theory and practice that
 cannot be overlooked4    ,sidenote3    
,theoretically a monarchy1 but          
practically a democracy is  best4       
,aristotle's ,ideal ,state and          
,education4--,a more practical attempt  
to  unify the new with the old in       
,athenian society and education was made
  by ,aristotle 7#chf-cbb ,b4 ,c471 the 
pupil of ,plato4 ,from his father1 the  
court physician at ,macedon1 and from   
his study under ,plato1 ,aristotle      
obtained an excellent scientific        

training1 which is evident in the  way  
he approaches his problems4 ,it is in   
his ,politics especially  that he       
discusses the ideal state and the       
training of a citizen4 ,his  method of  
investigation to determine the nature of
 this ideal state  is inductive1 and    
before formulating his conception of it1
 he makes a  critical analysis of       
,plato's ,republic and ,laws1 and       
analyzes the  organization of many other
 states1 both ideal and actual4 ,he     
concludes  that a monarchy is           
theoretically the best type of          
government1 but that  the form most     
likely to be exercised for the good of  
the governed is  the democracy4 ,he then
 considers in detail the best natural   
and social  conditions for a state4     
,among these practical considerations is
 the  proper education to make its      
citizens virtuous4    ,sidenote3        
,education necessary for virtue4        
,sidenote3 ,training of the body1--     
,sidenote3 sensible advice4    ,since   

virtue is of two kinds1 moral or        
practical1 and intellectual or          
speculative1 and the former is merely   
the stepping-stone to the latter1  the  
education needed for the virtue of the  
state must not1 like that  of ,sparta1  
be purely a training for war and        
practical affairs4 ,in  marking off the 
periods of education1 ,aristotle holds  
that 8the care  of the body ought to    
precede that of the soul1 and the       
training of the  impulsive side of the  
soul ought to come next2 nevertheless1  
the care  of it must be for the sake of 
the reason1 and the care of the body    
for the sake of the soul40 ,the         
development of the body he wishes to    
start even before birth by having the   
legislator 8consider at what age  his   
citizens should marry and who are fit to
 marry40 ,also he deems it  necessary to
 sanction the usage of his time of      
#8exposing' 7see p4 #ac7  all deformed  
and weakly children4 ,however1 his      
advice concerning the  food1 clothing1  

and exercise of children is humane and  
in keeping with  the best modern        
hygiene4    ,sidenote3 ,training of the 
irrational soul1--    ,sidenote3        
gymnastics1 music1 and literary         
subjects4    ,the training of the body  
is a preparation for the formal         
schooling1  which is to last from seven 
to twenty-one4 ,this is divided into two
  periods by puberty1 the first to be   
devoted to the training of the          
impulsive or irrational side of the     
soul1 and the second to that of the     
rational side4 ,education1 he claims1   
should be public1 as in ,sparta1  for it
 is the business of the state to see    
that its citizens are all  rendered     
virtuous4 ,however1 the industrial      
classes1 not being citizens1  have no   
need of education1 and women are to be  
limited in the scope  of their training4
 ,the course of study for the irrational
 period is  largely the same as that in 
use at ,athens1--gymnastics1 music1 and 
literary subjects1 although he          

recommends some reforms4 ,gymnastics  is
 intended for self-control and beauty of
 form1 and the making of  neither       
athletes nor warriors should be the     
object1 since the training  of the      
former exhausts the constitution1 and   
that of the latter is  brutalizing4 ,the
 literary subjects1 which with          
,aristotle includes  drawing1 as well as
 reading and writing1 are not to be     
taught merely  for utilitarian reasons4 
,music is to be used not so much for    
relaxation  or intellectual enjoyment as
 for higher development4 ,since melodies
  that afford pleasure are connected    
with noble ideas1 and those  which give 
us pain are joined to debased ideas1 the
 study of music  8cultivates the habit  
of forming right judgments1 and of      
taking delight  in good dispositions and
 noble actions40 ,another moral effect  
of music  is that it produces katharsis 
or #8purification'2 that is1 by arousing
  in us pity and fear for humanity at   
large1 it lifts us out of ourselves  and

 affords a safe vent for our emotions4  
,sidenote3 ,training of the rational    
soul1--mathematical subjects1           
dialectic1 and sciences4    ,such was to
 be the training for the body and for   
the irrational period1  but how         
,aristotle would have advised that the  
education of the rational  soul be      
carried on can only be surmised1 since  
the treatise breaks off  suddenly at    
this point4 ,it is probable that it     
would have included  a higher training  
in mathematical subjects and dialectic  
similar to  that advocated by ,plato1   
and1 from ,aristotle's own              
predilections1 he  would have been      
likely also to add some of the physical 
and biological  sciences4    ,sidenote3 
,somewhat in bondage to his times4      
,sidenote3 ,contribution to sciences1   
formulation of laws of thought1  and    
invention of terminology4    ,sidenote3 
,formulation of ,church doctrine4       
,the ,permanent ,value of ,his          
,work4--,thus ,aristotle1 like ,plato1  

endeavored to work out the harmonizing  
of individual with social  interests by 
the creation of an ideal state1 and he  
similarly failed  to answer the demand  
of the times4 ,his work was much less   
visionary  than ,the ,republic1 but he  
did not fully recognize that the day of 
the small isolated states of ,greece1   
with their narrow prescriptions  for    
patriotism and social order1 had passed 
forever4 ,hence he hoped to  achieve    
some reform by departing but little from
 existing conditions  and reading a     
philosophy into them1 and this bondage  
to the times  prevented his educational 
system from making any advance beyond   
that  of ,plato4 ,but while ,aristotle  
had little effect upon the society of   
the times1 his works have since been    
considered of great value1 and  the     
methods that he formulated have been    
most important4 ,he not  only started1  
or made the first great contributions to
 a number of  sciences1 but he          
crystallized the laws of thought itself4

 ,also1 as  instruments to assist in    
fashioning the various sciences1        
,aristotle  invented a complete system  
of terminology1 and created such pairs  
as  #8matter' and #8form1' #8mean' and  
#8extreme1' and #8cause' and #8effect1' 
and such convenient expressions as      
#8principle1' #8maxim1' #8habit1' and   
#8faculty4' ,a more important effect of 
,aristotle's ideas has been that  upon  
the formulation of doctrine in the      
,christian ,church4 ,after the  spread  
of ,mohammedanism1 which had largely    
absorbed the ,aristotelian  principles1 
the ,church1 though at first bitterly   
opposing them1 finally  found it        
impossible to suppress them1 and began  
to clothe her own  doctrine in their    
dress4 ,the greatest of the scholastics 
began to study  ,aristotelianism1 and   
soon made it the effective weapon of the
 ,church  by reducing all human         
knowledge to a finished ,aristotelian   
system with  theology at the top4       
,sidenote3 ,triumph of individualism4   

,the ,post-,aristotelian ,schools of    
,philosophy4--,but the harmonizing      
attempt of ,aristotle was fruitless4    
,like ,socrates and ,plato1 he failed   
to reconcile with the old and settled   
order the ever-expanding movement       
toward individualism4 ,thus all efforts 
to control the individualistic  and     
disintegrating tendencies of the times  
were in vain1 and the  conquest of the  
,greek states by ,philip of ,macedon    
7#ceh-cch ,b4 ,c47 was  only symptomatic
 of the complete collapse of corporate  
life and the  inability to reconstruct  
it successfully4 ,all possibility of    
social  unity disappeared1 and          
philosophy no longer considered the     
individual  from the standpoint of      
membership in society4 ,it was occupied 
no  further with the harmonization of   
the individual and the state1 but       
concerned itself with the welfare of the
 individual and the art of  living4     
,individualism was completely           
triumphant1 and education was           

considered simply as a means to personal
 development or happiness1  without     
regard to one's fellows4 ,the new       
theories of life and education  were    
formulated by such schools of philosophy
 as the ,epicureans1  ,stoics1 and      
,skeptics1 which kept themselves far    
removed from society4  ,none of these   
#8schools' could be so termed in the    
sense of offering  an education1 but    
rather in the modern usage of a group of
 adherents  to certain teachings4 ,they 
spent their energy1 for the most part1  
in  interpreting1 elaborating1 and      
lauding the original teachings of the   
founders1 and with them a stereotyped   
dogmatism took the place of  philosophy4
    ,sidenote3 ,formal study and general
 knowledge4    ,the ,schools of         
,rhetoric4--,but these schools were not 
the only outcome  of the teaching of the
 sophists4 ,just as they came about     
gradually from  the speculative         
tendencies of the sophists as developed 
through certain  famous philosophers1   

there likewise grew up more directly    
from the  sophistic efforts to train    
young men in rhetoric and public        
speaking a  multitude of rhetorical     
schools4 ,in these a formal study was   
made of  oratory and the knowledge of   
the day4 ,their professed object was to 
make successful men of the world1 and1  
although they at first included  such   
reputable and influential schools as    
that of ,isocrates 7#dcf-cch  ,b4 ,c471 
they laid little claim to teaching      
anything solid or profound1  much less  
to forming any philosophic habits4 ,they
 succeeded in  spreading a popular      
education among a people that had lost  
all hope of  a political life1 but they 
soon degenerated into the use of narrow 
and  formal methods4 ,the later         
rhetoricians attempted to hasten        
oratorical  training and preparation for
 life1 by teaching their pupils         
ready-made  speeches and dialogues1     
together with a general knowledge of    
current  questions4 ,nevertheless1 these

 schools flourished for several         
centuries  and closely rivalled those of
 the philosophers4    ,sidenote3 ,origin
 of ,university of ,athens4             
,sidenote3 ,other universities4         
,sidenote3 ,philosophy and science at   
,alexandria4    ,the ,hellenic          
,universities4--,from these two classes 
of schools1 the  philosophical and the  
rhetorical1 the fame of ,athens spread  
rapidly1  and from the fourth century   
,b4 ,c4 onward the number of young men  
from all over the civilized world who   
came there to study steadily  increased4
 ,before the close of the century the   
old cadet training of  ,athens was      
united with this intellectual education1
 and there sprang  up a regular         
institution or university1 which the    
young ,athenians  and students from     
outside might attend4 ,before long1 the 
,hellenic  world boasted other          
universities1 such as those at ,rhodes1 
,pergamon1  ,alexandria1 and ,rome4     
,until almost #cjj ,a4 ,d4 ,athens      

remained the chief  intellectual center 
of civilization1 and attracted students 
from all  parts of the ,roman ,empire4  
,gradually1 however1 the higher         
education  there tended toward the study
 of rhetoric alone and artificiality    
grew apace4 ,in consequence1 ,alexandria
 came to displace ,athens as  the center
 of culture1 and her university became  
the leading one of  the world4 ,here the
 various philosophic and religious sects
 gathered  to study and discuss1 and the
 abstract ,greek philosophy united with 
the more concrete beliefs of the        
,orient1 especially ,zoroastrianism1    
,judaism1 and ,christianity4 ,thus there
 flourished here the various  systems of
 religious philosophy known collectively
 as #8,hellenistic1'  such as           
,neopythagoreanism1 ,neomazdeism1       
,philonism1 ,gnosticism1 and            
,neoplatonism4 ,considerably before     
this1 too1 there had developed  at      
,alexandria the ,ptolemaic theory of the
 universe4 ,other noted  investigations1

 like those of ,euclid in geometry1     
,archimedes in  physics1 ,eratosthenes  
in astronomy1 and ,diophantus in        
algebra1 also  bore witness to the      
intellectual activity of this           
university4    ,sidenote3 ,spread       
through the ,orient    ,sidenote3 and   
the ,roman world4    ,extension of      
,hellenic ,culture4--,it can thus be    
seen that the  political downfall of    
,athens had only prepared the way for a 
larger  intellectual influence4 ,as     
,alexander extended his yoke over one   
,eastern  country after another1 he had 
carried with him all the culture of     
,greece1 and within a century of his    
death the whole ,orient was dotted  with
 ,greek gymnasia1 stadia1 and theaters1 
and saturated with ,greek  literature1  
art1 philosophy1 and education4         
,similarly ,rome1 which had  come       
somewhat into contact with ,greece      
before conquering her1 had been         
tinctured with ,greek life and learning2
 and1 after her absorption  of ,macedon 

and ,greece1 she fell under the         
spiritual thrall of the  subjugated     
people4 ,the history of ,greek          
civilization and education was  so      
intermingled with the ,roman that it can
 scarcely be distinguished  from it4    
,the ,greek schools of philosophy and   
rhetoric were continued  in ,rome1      
,roman youths made up a great body of   
the attendance at the  universities of  
,athens and ,alexandria1 and the ,roman 
emperors did much  for the support and  
extension of the work in these          
institutions4 ,hence  from the ,greeks  
have developed some of the most advanced
 intellectual  and sthetic ideas that   
civilization has known4                 
,,supplementary ,,reading    ,graves1   
,before the ,middle ,ages 7,macmillan1  
#aiji71 chap4 ,,xii2  ,monroe1          
,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 chap4   
,,iii4 ,see also ,laurie1               
,pre-,christian ,education 7,longmans1  
,green1 #aijj71 pp4 #bjh-cah4           
,davidson1 ,t41 in his ,aristotle       

7,scribner1 #ahif71 develops the        
periods of ,greek education in          
chronological order1 and his ,education 
of the ,greek ,people 7,appleton1 #aijc7
 gives the social setting of  its       
development4 ,a most scholarly and      
brilliant work is ,freeman1 ,k4  ,j41   
,schools of ,hellas 7,macmillan1 #aijg71
 which is illustrated by  vase-scenes   
and other reproductions of ,greek       
education4 ,bosanquet1 ,b41  ,the       
,education of the ,young in ,plato's    
,republic 7,cambridge ,university       
,press1 #aijh71 ,nettleship1 ,r4 ,l41   
,theory of ,greek ,education in ,plato's
  ,republic 7,see ,evelyn ,abbott's     
,hellenica1 ,longmans1 ,green1 #aijh71  
and ,burnet1 ,j41 ,aristotle on         
,education 7,cambridge ,university      
,press7  afford a good interpretation of
 the theorists mentioned2 while ,capes1 
,w4 ,w41 in the ,university ,life in    
,ancient ,athens 7,harper1 #ahgg71 and  
,walden1 ,j4 ,w41 in the ,universities  
of ,ancient ,greece 7,scribner1  #aiji71

 furnish a lively description of the    
students and professors4                
,,chapter ,,iii    ,,the ,,education    
,,of ,,the ,,romans      ,,outline      
,the contribution of the ,romans to     
progress was largely due to their       
absorption of ,greek culture1 but their 
primitive training had an      influence
 in itself4 ,this was mostly civic and  
practical1 and was      given informally
 in the family and the forum4           
,through amalgamation with the ,greek1  
,roman education maintained      three  
grades of schools3 7#a7 the elementary  
school or ludus1 7#b7      the          
#8grammar' school1 and 7#c7 the         
rhetorical school4 ,beyond the          
education of these schools1 a young     
,roman might attend a university4       
,schools were gradually subsidized by   
the emperors1 but education             
eventually deteriorated into a formal   
qualification for senatorial      rank4 
,the practical ,romans1 however1 created
 a universal empire      and legal      

system1 a universal religion1 and other 
institutions for      modern society4   
,sidenote3 ,until ,hellenized1 ,roman   
ideals were narrow4    ,roman ,education
 ,amalgamated with ,greek4--,the name of
 ,rome is still  suggestive of power and
 organization4 ,these characteristics   
seem to  have been innate2 but the      
significance of ,roman development to   
the  history of progress and education  
was largely due to the fact that1  in   
her spread over the civilized world1 the
 ,eternal ,city amalgamated  the ,greek 
civilization with her own4 ,until then  
her ideals of life1  while effective in 
conquest1 had been narrow and little    
adapted to  the development of          
individuality or of cosmopolitanism4    
,unconsciously  realizing the need of   
broader ideals1 she absorbed those of   
,greece4  ,but ,rome could not be       
,hellenized without making some         
contributions to  the result from her   
own genius1 and for that reason it is   
important  to learn something of ,roman 

civilization and education1 crude as    
they  were1 before they came into       
contact with ,greek culture4            
,sidenote3 ,its civic and practical aim4
    ,early ,education in ,rome4--,in the
 early days ,rome was animated by       
intense patriotism and love for military
 life1 and felt that each  citizen was  
bound to merge his identity in that of  
the state4 ,in  the surrender of        
individuality they were1 to be sure1 not
 unlike  the ,spartans1 although they   
believed that this subordination should 
be brought about voluntarily rather than
 by compulsion of law and  state        
organization4 ,but1 with such a love as 
theirs for mere material  achievement1  
the ,athenian ideal of a full and       
harmonious development  of one's whole  
nature could scarcely be expected to    
make any appeal4  ,they looked not for  
harmony1 proportion1 or grace1 but for  
stern  utility4 ,they were sedate1      
grave1 and serious1 and their education 
was  practical1 prosaic1 and            

utilitarian4    ,sidenote3 ,informal    
training in the family and in public4   
,until the ,greek institutions began to 
be adopted1 schools did not exist  in   
,rome1 except possibly the ludus or     
elementary school4 ,during this         
pristine period education consisted in a
 practical training in ,roman  ideals   
and everyday living conducted largely   
through the family4 ,in  childhood the  
boys and girls alike were given a       
physical and moral  training by their   
mother1 but1 as the boy grew older1 he  
went more in  the company of his father1
 and learned efficiency in life         
informally  through his example and that
 of the older men1 while the girl was   
taught at home by her mother4 ,if the   
boy belonged to a patrician  family1 he 
might acquire much knowledge concerning 
,roman custom and  law by hearing his   
father advise and aid the family        
clients1 or  #8dependents1' and by      
attending banquets with him4 ,he might  
also receive  an apprenticeship training

 from his parent or some other older man
 in  the profession of soldier1         
advocate1 or statesman4 ,in case he was 
born  in a less exalted station1 he     
might learn his father's occupation at  
the farm or shop4 ,the girl1 whatever   
her social status1 was trained by  her  
mother in the domestic arts1 especially 
in spinning and weaving  wool4 ,through 
their parents children probably learned 
to read and  write2 and they committed  
to memory stories of ,roman heroes1     
ballads1  martial and religious songs1  
and the ,twelve ,tables of national     
laws1  after these had been codified    
7#dea ,b4 ,c474 ,physical exercise was  
secured largely by games1 which were    
mostly in imitation of future           
occupations1 and gymnastics were        
employed simply as training for war4    
,the usages of home and public religion 
also played an important part  in the   
education of the young ,romans1         
especially since almost every  activity 
in life was presided over by some deity1

 whom it was necessary  to propitiate   
when engaging in it4    ,sidenote3      
,practical and occupational character4  
,thus education in early ,rome was      
practical1 and1 to some extent1         
occupational4 ,it was intended to       
produce efficiency as fathers1          
citizens1 and soldiers4 ,it consisted in
 training the youths to  be healthy and 
strong in mind and body1 and sedate and 
simple in  their habits2 to reverence   
the gods1 their parents1 the laws1 and  
institutions2 and to be courageous in   
war1 and familiar with the  traditional 
agriculture1 or the conduct of some     
business4 ,it did  produce a nation of  
warriors and loyal citizens1 but it     
inevitably  tended to make them         
calculating1 selfish1 overbearing1      
cruel1 and  rapacious4 ,they never      
possessed either lofty ideals or        
enthusiasm4  ,their training was best   
adapted to a small state1 and became    
unsatisfactory when they had spread over
 the entire ,italian peninsula4  ,the   

golden age of valor and stern virtue had
 then largely departed1 and  they began 
unconsciously to seek a more universal  
culture4 ,while such a  people regarded 
the ,greeks as visionary1 just as the   
,greeks looked upon  them as barbarians1
 they felt instinctively that only by   
absorption of  the ,hellenic ideals     
could their cosmopolitan ambitions be   
carried out4  ,on the other hand1 it was
 through the organization which the     
,romans  were able to furnish1 that the 
great ideals formulated by the ,greeks  
were destined to be rendered effective  
and to become a matter of value  and    
concern to civilization ever since4     
,sidenote3 ,spread through ,alexander   
and ,roman conquests4    ,sidenote3 ,the
 schools resulting4    ,the ,absorption 
of ,greek ,culture4--,there was a       
gradual infiltration  of ,greek culture 
into ,rome from very early days4 ,this  
received a great  impulse through the   
conquests of ,alexander 7#ccd-cbc ,b4   
,c47 and the  absorption of ,macedon by 

,rome 7#afh ,b4 ,c471 but it was not    
until about  half a century after       
,greece itself had become a ,roman      
province 7#adf ,b4  ,c471 that the      
,greek educational ideals and           
institutions can be said to  have been  
completely absorbed by ,rome4 ,this new 
type of education was  thus well        
established early in the first century  
,b4 ,c4 ,it may be said  to have        
remained almost unmodified until toward 
the end of the second  century ,a4 ,d41 
when political conditions at ,rome      
became most unstable  and the period of 
degeneracy set in4 ,during these three  
centuries of  ,hellenized ,roman        
education1 three grades of schools      
resulted from the  amalgamation4 ,they  
were the 7#a7 ludus or school of the    
litterator1  as the lowest school was   
called2 7#b7 the #8grammar' school1     
taught by  a grammaticus or litteratus2 
and 7#c7 the schools of rhetoric and    
oratory1 which furnished a somewhat     
higher education4    ,sidenote3 ,its    

content and methods4    ,the            
,ludus4--,the ludus1 or lowest school1  
may possibly have existed  before the   
process of ,hellenization even began1   
but if it did1 it must  have been       
intended simply to supplement the more  
informal training  of the home4         
,whenever originated1 it probably taught
 at first only  reading1 writing1 and   
rudimentary calculation1 as in the      
family1  through the medium of          
historical anecdotes1 ballads1 religious
 songs1  and the ,twelve ,tables4 ,but  
as the ,greek influence crept in more   
and  more1 the literary content was     
somewhat extended4 ,about the middle of 
the third century ,b4 ,c41 ,livius      
,andronicus translated the ,odyssey     
into ,latin2 and a number of epics1     
dramas1 and epigrams were soon  composed
 after ,greek models4 ,these works1 in  
whole or part1 were  introduced into the
 curricula of the ludi and by the       
beginning of  the first century ,b4 ,c41
 the ,twelve ,tables had been displaced 

by  the ,latinized ,odyssey of          
,andronicus4 ,the methods of instruction
  were memoriter and imitative4 ,the    
names and alphabetic order of the       
letters were first taught without any   
indication of their significance  or    
even shape1 and all possible            
combinations of syllables were          
committed before any words were learned4
 ,reading and writing were then  taught 
by dictation1 and1 in tracing the       
letters on wax-tablets with  the stylus 
7,fig4 #e71 the hand of the pupil was at
 first guided by the  teacher4          
,calculation was learned by counting on 
the fingers1 by means  of pebbles1 or   
upon the abacus1 and eventually sums    
were worked upon  the tablets4          
,illustration3      7a7      7b7        
7c7    ,fig4 #e4--,school materials from
 wall paintings3 7a7 ,wax tablet and    
capsa1 containing rolls1 or books4 7b7  
,three stili1 capsa1 and  roll leaning  
against it4 7c7 ,wax tablet1 with stilus
 tied to it4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    

#f4--,scene at a ludus or ,roman        
elementary school1  taken from a fresco 
found at ,herculaneum4    ,sidenote3    
,discipline and teachers4    ,sidenote3 
,slaves to accompany pupils4            
,sidenote3 ,buildings4    ,methods so   
devoid of interest were naturally       
accompanied by severe  discipline4 ,the 
rod1 lash1 and whip seem to have been in
 frequent use1  and the names ordinarily
 applied to schoolmasters in ,latin     
literature  are suggestive of harshness 
and brutality4 ,moreover1 a fresco found
  at ,herculaneum depicts a boy held    
over the shoulders of another1 with  the
 master beating the victim upon the bare
 back 7,fig4 #f74 ,under  these         
circumstances1 no real qualifications   
were required of the  teacher1 and his  
social standing was low4 ,the ,greek    
custom of having  the boy accompanied to
 and from school by a slave that was    
otherwise  incapacitated by age or      
physical disability soon came to be     
imitated  by the ,romans4 ,when a       

special building was employed for the   
school1 it  was usually a mere booth or 
veranda1 and the pupils sat on the floor
 or  upon stones4    ,sidenote3         
,curriculum4    ,sidenote3 ,methods and 
discipline4    ,sidenote3 ,buildings4   
,grammar ,schools4--,the #8grammar'     
school grew out of the increasing       
literary work of the ludus4 ,but1 while 
offering a more advanced  course1 it    
would seem to belong in part at least to
 the elementary  stage of education1    
especially as its work was never sharply
 divided  from that of the ludus4 ,the  
young ,roman might attend both a ,greek 
and a ,latin grammar school1 but1 in    
case he did1 usually went first to  the 
former4 ,the curriculum in each         
consisted1 according to ,quintilian1  of
 #8the art of speaking correctly' and   
#8the interpretation of the  poets1' or1
 in other words1 of a training in       
grammar and literature4  #8,grammar'    
may1 however1 have included some        
knowledge of philology and  derivations1

 as well as drill on the parts of       
speech1 inflections1  syntax1 and       
prosody1 and practice in composition and
 paragraphing4  ,the literary training  
was obtained by writing paraphrases of  
the best  authors1 textual and literary 
criticism1 commentaries1 and exercises  
in diction and verse-writing4 ,some     
other studies1 like arithmetic1         
geometry1 astronomy1 geography1 and     
music may also have been added in  time1
 from the suggestions of ,plato1 but the
 ,romans naturally gave them  a         
practical bearing4 ,some gymnastics1    
mostly for military training1  were     
often in the course4 ,the methods in the
 grammar schools were  somewhat better  
than those of the ludus1 but the        
commentary of the  teacher on the text  
was usually taken down verbatim by the  
pupil4  ,the discipline1 in consequence1
 was not much in advance of that of the 
lower schools4 ,but the accommodations  
for these secondary schools were        
decidedly superior1 and the buildings   

not only possessed suitable seats  for  
the pupils and teacher1 but were even   
adorned with paintings and  sculpture4  
,sidenote3 ,professional1 but broad     
training4    ,rhetorical ,schools4--,the
 #8rhetorical' schools were a           
development of  work in debate that had 
gradually grown up in the grammar       
schools4 ,the  earliest of these        
institutions at ,rome were ,greek1 but  
by the first  century ,b4 ,c41 there had
 arisen a number in which ,latin was    
used4 ,while  they afforded a legal and 
forensic training1 and seem more        
professional  in spirit than the grammar
 schools1 they were by no means narrow4 
,the  orator was for the ,roman the     
typical man of culture and education1   
and  he was supposed not only to have   
been trained in eloquence and law and   
history1 but to possess wide learning1  
grace1 culture1 and knowledge of  human 
emotions1 sound judgment1 and good      
memory4 ,besides a training in  oratory1
 these schools furnished a linguistic   

and literary education  of some breadth4
 ,they may be considered as belonging   
partly to the  secondary and partly to  
the higher stage of education4 ,the     
youths were  exercised first in         
declamation on ethical and political    
subjects1 which  would bring in fine    
distinctions in ,roman law and ethics1  
and later  they were given practice in  
three types of speeches1--deliberative1 
judicial1 and panegyric4 ,attention was 
given to all the various factors  in    
making a successful oration3 the matter1
 arrangement1 style1  memorizing1 and   
delivery4    ,sidenote3 ,spread         
throughout the empire4                  
,universities4--,when the young ,roman  
had completed his course at a           
rhetorical school1 he might1 if he were 
ambitious1 go to the university  at     
,athens1 ,alexandria1 or ,rhodes for a  
higher training4 ,later1 a  university  
also sprang up at ,rome1 and before long
 these institutions  spread throughout  
the empire4 ,the ,greek influence caused

 a large number  of these institutions  
to be established in the ,east1 but some
 were  also located in the ,west4 ,the  
latter gave more emphasis to practical  
subjects4 ,in several instances the     
universities found their nucleus in  one
 of the many libraries that were started
 with books brought from the  sacking of
 ,greece and ,asia ,minor4    ,sidenote3
 ,imperial control of schools4          
,subsidization of ,education4--,thus1   
through the adoption of the             
institutions of the ,greeks1 ,roman     
education became thoroughly             
,hellenized4 ,although all the types of 
schools spread everywhere in the        
empire1 there was1 of course1 no such   
thing as a real school system1  except  
as the government gradually came to     
subsidize all schools4 ,this  the       
different emperors accomplished in      
various ways1--by contributing  to      
school support1 paying a salary to      
certain teachers1 or granting  them     
exemption from taxation and military    

service1 or offering  scholarships to a 
given number of pupils4 ,as a result1   
schools came to  be established in many 
cases for the purpose of getting these  
special  privileges for the teachers1   
rather than for promoting education4 ,to
  stop these abuses1 the emperor in #dbe
 ,a4 ,d4 decreed that he had the  sole  
authority to establish schools1 and that
 a penalty would be laid  upon anyone   
else assuming this prerogative4 ,in this
 way the schools  came fully into the   
hands of the imperial government1 and   
the basis for  the idea of public       
education was laid for the first time in
 history4    ,sidenote3 ,formal and     
superficial character4    ,decay of     
,education4--,before this1 however1     
,roman education had  deteriorated4     
,with the political and moral decay that
 were obvious  after the second century 
,a4 ,d41 it became a mere form and mark 
of the  aristocracy4 ,the training in   
oratory was continued1 because it was  a
 necessary qualification for entering   

the senatorial class1 but it  had lost  
its real function1 since there was no   
longer any occasion  for oratory when   
the emperor dominated all the government
 and law4  ,it was not intended to      
furnish a training of any value in life1
 and  the careful literary preparation  
was more and more shirked4 ,while the   
grammarians and rhetoricians were still 
held in high esteem1 they  contented    
themselves with mere display1 and       
wandered from town to town  more for the
 purpose of entertaining than of        
teaching4 ,glittering  phrases1         
epigrams1 and other artificialities took
 the place of  instruction and argument4
    ,sidenote3 ,institutions furnished  
for the ideals of ,judea and ,greece4   
,influence of ,roman ,education4--,but  
the ,roman education and  civilization  
had left their impress upon the world4  
,this was  accomplished by the practical
 nature of the ,romans1 and by their    
ability to make abstract ideals concrete
 and embody them in  institutions that  

have been useful to civilization and    
progress4  ,through them was created the
 idea of a universal empire1 which has  
been  influential throughout the world's
 history4 ,similarly1 the concept of    
law originating with the ,greek         
philosophers became in the hands of the 
,romans the great system of principles  
that underlies and guides all our       
present civilization4 ,and it was the   
,roman genius for organization that     
institutionalized a despised religious  
sect and expanded it into the  position 
of the greatest world religion4 ,if     
,judaism furnished the world  with      
exalted religious ideals1 and if from   
,hellenism came striking  intellectual  
and sthetic concepts1 the institutions  
for realizing  these ideals originated  
with ,rome4      ,,supplementary        
,,reading    ,graves1 ,before the       
,middle ,ages 7,macmillan1 #aiji71 chap4
 ,,xiii2  ,monroe1 ,text-book           
7,macmillan1 #aije71 chap4 ,,iv4        
,interesting brief  monographs on the   

subject are ,clarke1 ,g41 ,education of 
,children  at ,rome 7,macmillan1 #ahif71
 and ,wilkins1 ,a4 ,s41 ,roman          
,education1  7,cambridge ,university    
,press1 #aije74 ,see also the treatment 
in ,laurie1  ,pre-,christian ,education 
7,longmans1 ,green1 #aijj71 pp4         
#cai-dcf4          ,,chapter ,,iv       
,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,early    
,,christians      ,,outline             
,christianity accomplished much in the  
reform of the degraded      ,roman      
society4 ,the earliest education of the 
,christians came      through their     
#8otherworldly' life1 but actual        
schools1 called      #8catechumenal1'   
before long furnished a moral and       
religious      training4        ,after  
the amalgamation of ,christianity with  
,grco-,roman philosophy1                
#8catechetical' schools furnished a     
higher training4 ,when higher           
education came to be utilized by the    
bishops for training their      clergy1 
institutions known as #8episcopal' or   

#8cathedral' schools      were founded4 
,later1 although opposition grew up     
among the ,christians to the            
culture of ,greece and ,rome1 its       
impress was found to have been left     
upon the doctrines and organization of  
,christianity4    ,sidenote3 ,impotence 
of ,roman and other ideals4             
,sidenote3 ,universal appeal of         
,christianity4    ,the ,ideals of ,early
 ,christianity4--,the actual social     
conditions amid  which the religion of  
,christ was born1 and which it was      
destined to  reform1 were most degraded4
 ,the ,roman world had become sunk in   
vice and  corruption4 ,the ,roman       
virtues of patriotism1 bravery1 and     
service to  the state had largely       
disappeared with the development of the 
empire1  and were impotent in checking  
the widespread depravity4 ,nor could the
  lofty ,greek thought accomplish much1 
since it was too intellectual  and      
philosophic to touch the masses4 ,the   
debased ,eastern religions1  which ,rome

 had admitted in her easy-going         
skepticism1 were still  less productive 
of good4 ,while the more philosophic    
forms of ,judaism  and the ,roman       
development of ,stoicism tended to raise
 the tone of  morals and pave the way   
for ,christianity1 not even these forces
 could  have accomplished a successful  
reform in ,roman society1 without the   
stimulus and wide appeal of the         
,christian teachings4 ,christianity was 
the ethical and universal religion      
needed as a leaven4 ,its truths were    
based on faith rather than              
understanding1 and its appeal was to the
  instinctive promptings and emotions   
rather than to the intellect4 ,this     
made it democratic and enabled it to    
reach the masses1 for everybody  can    
feel and have faith1 even where he      
cannot understand4    ,sidenote3        
,segregation4    ,sidenote3             
#8,otherworldliness4'    ,early         
,christian ,life as an                  
,education4--,thus it came about that1  

while the earliest ,christians were     
without schools of their own and  were  
largely illiterate1 their religion      
itself served as an education4  ,they   
were practically deprived of            
intellectual development1 but they      
received moral training of a very high  
order4 ,the very dishonor and           
unpopularity of the ,christian religion1
 and the segregation of their  ,church  
membership1 gave the ,christian life    
itself all the effect of a  species of  
schooling4 ,the early ,christians showed
 an extreme reaction  to the vicious    
morals of the time1 and endeavored to   
cultivate the  higher ideals inculcated 
by the teachings of ,christ4 ,they had  
gathered  from the statements of the    
,master that he would soon return and   
this  world would come to an end4 ,they1
 therefore1 concerned themselves        
entirely with a preparation for         
#8,jerusalem the golden' and #8the life 
everlasting1' and the ideal of this most
 primitive ,christian training  may be  

described as #8otherworldly4'           
,sidenote3 ,cause of their organization4
    ,sidenote3 ,elementary content4     
,catechumenal ,schools4--,early in the  
second century1 however1 when  the      
,church began to extend itself rapidly1 
it seemed necessary to  insist upon some
 sort of formal instruction as          
preliminary to ,church  membership4 ,it 
was also deemed wise to fix a period of 
probation after  the profession of one's
 faith in ,christ1 in order that        
informers might  not be admitted to the 
services1 or the ,church disgraced by   
apostasy or  the lapses of those who had
 not well considered the step4 ,these   
demands  were met by the gradual        
institution of popular instruction in   
,christian  principles for the ,jewish  
and pagan proselytes1 who were known as 
catechumens4 ,while some effort was made
 to lift the pupils of these            
#8catechumenal' schools from the bondage
 of ignorance1 they were  primarily     
trained in the things needful for their 

souls' salvation1 and  the ideal of     
,christian education remained           
prevailingly #8otherworldly4'  ,the     
instruction was carried on in the       
portico or other special portion  of the
 church2 and consisted in moral and     
religious teachings1 reading  and       
memorizing the ,scriptures1 together    
with some training in early  psalmody4  
,the course usually lasted three years1 
and while some  distinction was made    
between the general division of         
catechumens and  those almost ready for 
baptism1 there is little ground for     
supposing  that the schools were divided
 into actual classes4 ,the meetings in  
the  church were held several times a   
week1 or even every day4    ,sidenote3  
,grco-,roman training a worldly one4    
,sidenote3 ,union of the worldly and    
otherworldly1--    ,sidenote3           
,apologists    ,sidenote3 and ,gnostics4
    ,amalgamation of ,christianity with 
,grco-,roman ,philosophy4--,but while   
the ,christian ideals and training were 

developing and crystallizing1  the      
,greek philosophy in its ,roman form was
 being continued and  expanded4 ,this   
movement has been seen to be very       
different from early  ,christianity in  
its general purpose4 ,it concerned      
itself chiefly  with life in this world4
 ,the problem it attempted to solve was 
how  one should live so as to get the   
most satisfaction out of life4 ,the     
,hellenized ,roman schools may1         
therefore1 be accounted as #8worldly'   
as the ,christian schools were          
#8otherworldly' in their aim4 ,a general
  feeling of this marked difference in  
purpose and organization between        
,christianity and the contemporaneous   
,grco-,roman culture was destined  to   
cause an opposition to pagan learning to
 spring up among the  ,christians4 ,but 
for two or three centuries this is      
scarcely noticeable1  especially in the 
,eastern empire1 where it was felt that 
philosophy  was1 like ,christianity1 a  
search after truth2 and1 as far as it   

went1  confirmed the ,bible4 ,there was 
even a tendency to unite the two        
movements4 ,as the new religion spread  
throughout the ,roman world1 and  was   
compelled to defend itself against      
charges of immorality1 atheism1  and    
treason1 the educated converts attempted
 to set forth the ,christian  teachings 
in terms of ,greek thought1 and to solve
 speculative problems  that had never   
been considered by ,jesus and his       
disciples4 ,the first  ,hellenizing     
,christians are known as ,apologists1   
since their efforts  were directed      
toward reconciling ,christianity with   
the ,grco-,roman  philosophy4 ,in       
general1 they mingled ,stoicism with the
 teachings of  ,jesus4 ,later1 other    
,hellenistic philosophers unified       
,christian doctrine  with the principles
 of ,pythagoras1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle4
 ,perhaps  the most extreme of these    
philosophic positions within            
,christianity  was a combination with   
,platonism known as ,gnosticism1 which  

was  intended to be a sort of esoteric  
knowledge and to show the relation of   
,christianity to other religions and to 
the universe4    ,sidenote3 ,pupils in  
the school at ,alexandria allowed to    
study all  ,greek subjects4             
,catechetical and ,episcopal or         
,cathedral ,schools4--,in this way1     
during  the second and third centuries1 
all the ,christians at ,alexandria1     
which  had become the great seat of     
,hellenistic philosophy1 had their      
theology  tinctured with ,greek thought4
 ,before long1 a sort of theological1 or
  #8catechetical' school1 was gradually 
organized at this center1 to  counteract
 the heathen schools there and to afford
 higher instruction  for ,christian     
teachers and leaders4 ,this school had  
no building of its  own1 and the        
students met at the teacher's house1 but
 they were able to  take advantage of   
the facilities at the ,university of    
,alexandria4 ,in  addition to a thorough
 training in the ,bible1 the pupils were

 allowed  to study all types of ,greek  
philosophy1 except ,epicureanism1 the   
whole  range of sciences1 classical     
,greek literature1 grammar1 rhetoric1   
and  other higher subjects of the pagan 
schools1 but from a different point  of 
view4 ,thus the ,grco-,roman and the    
,christian movements had formed  an     
alliance in education1 and in this      
catechetical school we find an          
attempted union of the #8otherworldly'  
ideal with the #8worldly4'    ,sidenote3
 ,other catechetical schools4    ,the   
best known heads of this school at      
,alexandria were ,clement  7#aej-bae7   
and ,origen 7#ahe-bec74 ,they were among
 the most noted of the  ,eastern        
,fathers in the philosophic             
interpretation of ,christianity1  and   
their work contributed not a little to  
heretical doctrine4 ,origen  may even   
have been expelled for heresy4 ,at any  
rate1 he opened a new  school of the    
same sort at ,csarea1 where he was      
kindly received4 ,other  catechetical   

schools sprang up rapidly at ,antioch1  
,edessa1 ,nisibis1 and  elsewhere       
throughout the ,east4 ,later the        
accession of the followers  of          
,nestorius1 whose ,hellenized theology  
had in #dca been proscribed  by the     
,church at the ,council of ,ephesus1    
very greatly increased the  importance  
of these cities as intellectual centers4
 ,in addition to the  translations      
already there1 the ,nestorian           
,christians accumulated a  larger range 
of the original ,greek treatises on     
philosophy1 science1  and medicine4     
,sidenote3 ,bishops start ,hellenic     
schools for their clergy4    ,but before
 this1 higher training of the ,hellenic 
type came to be  regularly used by the  
bishops in training their clergy1 and   
promotion  in the ,church began to      
depend upon having had this education4  
,so higher  schools of this sort were   
gradually instituted in every bishopric 
at the see city1 and became known       
eventually as #8episcopal' or           

#8bishop's' schools1 or1 from their     
location at the bishop's church1 as     
#8cathedral' schools4 ,these cathedral  
schools became the most important       
educational institutions of the ,middle 
,ages4 ,from them were derived  all the 
schools of ,western ,europe1 but the    
bishop soon became too busy  to attend  
to them himself and was forced to commit
 them to various  officials4 ,thus they 
developed in time into at least three   
types1--the  #8grammar' school1 taught  
by one of the cathedral canons1 known as
 the  scholasticus2 the #8song' or music
 school1 taught by the cantor or        
precentor2 and the #8chorister's'       
school1 which offered a combination  of 
the training in the two other schools4  
,thus the cathedral schools  virtually  
took the place of the old pagan schools 
supported by the  ,roman emperors4      
,sidenote3 ,growth of opposition to the 
,grco-,roman culture4    ,influence of  
,grco-,roman ,culture upon              
,christianity4--,however1 by the        

century after the foundation of the     
catechetical school at ,alexandria1  the
 ,christians had begun to grow          
suspicious of ,grco-,roman culture and  
the #8worldly' ideal in education4 ,even
 the ,eastern or ,greek ,fathers of  the
 ,church appear to have cooled          
considerably in their attitude toward   
philosophy1 and the ,western or ,latin  
,fathers were more pronounced in  their 
opposition4 ,roman ,christians could not
 forget the immorality  of those who had
 been connected with this culture1 nor  
the abuse and  insults that these pagans
 had heaped upon them4 ,they felt1 too1 
that  the one great mission of the      
,church was ethical1 and that ,christ's 
second coming was at hand1 and that all 
philosophy and learning were  somewhat  
impertinent4    ,sidenote3 ,but great   
influence of ,greece and ,rome upon     
,christian  doctrine and ,church        
organization4    ,nevertheless1 despite 
this growth of opposition to pagan      
philosophy1  primitive ,christianity    

could not endure in its simplicity after
 it  had been in contact with the       
advanced intellectual concepts of the   
,greeks1 as modified by the organizing  
genius of the ,romans4 ,both  ,greece   
and ,rome left a permanent impress upon 
,christianity2 and1  though dead1 they  
yet live in the ,christian ,church4 ,the
 influence of  ,greek philosophy is seen
 in the formulation of a system of      
,christian  doctrine4 ,this appears in  
the development of the ,apostles' ,creed
  during the second century1 in the     
selection of a canon of sacred  writings
 or ,new ,testament during the third    
century1 and still more in  the ,nicene 
,creed 7#cbe71 which was not formulated 
until ,christianity  had been largely   
,hellenized4 ,similarly1 the ,greek     
tendency to attribute  universal        
validity to their sacred writings1 and  
the pomp1 ceremonies1  and mysteries of 
the ,hellenic worship1 are more or less 
apparent in the  various ecclesiastical 
tenets and usages4 ,on the other hand1  

the ,roman  concepts of administration  
appear in the organization of the       
,church1  which seems to have closely   
paralleled the ,roman civil polity4 ,by 
the  third century priests and bishops  
had largely come to be similarly        
located1 and to correspond in control1  
to the ,roman district and city         
magistrates respectively4 ,and in #dde  
the recognition of the supremacy  of the
 ,bishop of ,rome established a visible 
head of the entire ,church1             
corresponding to the position of the    
emperor on the civic side4    ,sidenote3
 ,reversion to otherworldliness4        
,rise of the ,monastic ,schools4--,thus 
it has been seen how the  two great     
movements of ,grco-,roman culture and   
,christian teaching  arose              
independently1 in time united and later 
separated1 although1  after separation1 
the ,christian doctrines were somewhat  
affected by  their long association with
 pagan philosophy4 ,eventually the pagan
  schools were suppressed by the edict  

of ,justinian in #ebi ,a4 ,d41  and the 
,christian education was left alone in  
the field4 ,it then  found an additional
 means of expression in the #8monastic' 
schools1  in which there was naturally a
 tendency to revert to an ascetic or    
#8otherworldly' ideal1 and to leave     
intellectual attainments largely out  of
 consideration4 ,but these monastic     
institutions are to be grouped  with    
medivalism and belong more distinctly to
 the next chapter4      ,,supplementary 
,,reading    ,graves1 ,before the       
,middle ,ages 7,macmillan1 #aiji71 chap4
 ,,xii2 ,monroe1  ,text-book            
7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #bba-bdc4 ,for 
the moral effect  of ,christianity1 see 
,lecky1 ,w4 ,e4 ,h41 ,history of        
,european ,morals  7,appleton1 #ahfi71  
vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #a-ajj4 ,other places in 
the chapter  will be illumined by       
reading ,ayer1 ,j4 ,c41 ,jr41           
,catechumenal ,schools  and             
,catechetical ,schools 7,monroe         
,cyclopdia of ,education1 vol4 ,i72     

,dill1 ,d41 ,roman ,society in the ,last
 ,century of the ,western ,empire       
7,macmillan1 #ahii71 especially book ,v2
 ,hatch1 ,e41 ,the ,influence of  ,greek
 ,ideas and ,usages upon the ,christian 
,church 7,hibbert ,lectures1  #ahhh1    
,williams1 ,london1 #ahia72 ,hodgson1   
,g41 ,primitive ,christian  ,education  
7,clark1 ,edinburgh1 #aijf72 and ,leach1
 ,a4 ,f41 ,bishop's  ,schools and       
,cathedral ,schools 7,monroe ,cyclopdia 
of ,education1 vol4  ,i74               
,,part ,,ii    ,,the ,,middle ,,ages    
,,chapter ,v    ,,the ,,monastic        
,,education      ,,outline              
,during the ,middle ,ages the ,german   
hordes absorbed ancient                 
civilization under the authoritative    
guidance of the ,church1 and      the   
chief means of leavening the barbarian  
lump was found in the      cathedral and
 monastic schools4        ,monasteries  
grew up to counteract the prevailing    
worldliness4      ,to keep the monks    
busy1 ,benedict prescribed the copying  

of      manuscripts1 and this literary  
work rendered schools necessary4        
,in these monastic schools were taught  
the #8seven liberal arts' by            
catechetical methods4        ,thus      
monasticism helped preserve learning and
 education1 although      it was        
somewhat hostile to the classics and    
science4    ,sidenote3 ,absorption of   
,greek1 ,roman and ,christian           
civilization4    ,the ,middle ,ages as a
 ,period of ,assimilation and           
,repression4--,the  ,middle ,ages may be
 regarded as an era of assimilation and 
of  repression4 ,on the one hand1 the   
rude ,german hordes1 who had by the     
sixth century everywhere taken          
possession of the decadent ancient      
world1 were enabled during this period  
to rise gradually to such a  plane of   
intelligence and achievement that they  
could absorb the ,greek1  ,roman1 and   
,christian civilization1 and become its 
carriers to modern  times4 ,on the other
 hand1 that this absorption might take  

place1 it  was necessary that the       
individual should conform to the model  
set1  and it was inevitable that a      
bondage to authority1 convention1 and   
institutions should ensue4    ,sidenote3
 ,authoritative attitude of the ,church4
    ,the main power in effecting this   
subservience on the part of medival     
society was the ,christian ,church4 ,for
 it was but natural during the  period  
of assimilation that the ,church1 which 
had become completely  organized and    
unlimited in power1 should stand as the 
chief guide and  schoolmaster of the    
,germanic hosts4 ,by the decree of      
,justinian in  #ebi ,a4 ,d41 which      
closed the pagan schools and marks the  
beginning of  the ,middle ,ages1        
,christian education was left without a 
rival4 ,hence  the cathedral and        
monastic schools became almost the sole 
means of  leavening the barbarian lump4 
,contrary to the view commonly accepted1
  the educational activities of the     
cathedral institutions were more        

important and general than those of the 
monastic schools4 ,but the  former have 
already been somewhat discussed1 and so 
much relating to  the course and        
services of the latter will also apply  
to them that we  may now turn to a      
detailed description of the monastic    
schools4    ,sidenote3 ,reaction to     
prevailing vice4    ,the ,evolution and 
,nature of ,monasticism4--,to understand
 these  schools1 it will be necessary to
 examine the movement out of which they 
arose4 ,monasticism grew up through the 
corruption in ,roman society and  the   
desire of those within the ,church for a
 deeper religious life4  ,christianity  
was no longer confined to small         
extra-social groups  meeting secretly1  
but was represented in all walks of     
society1 and  mingled with the world4   
,it had become thoroughly secularized1  
and even  the clergy had in many        
instances yielded to the prevailing     
worldliness  and vice4    ,sidenote3    
,hermits and monasteries4    ,sidenote3 

,monasticism in the ,west4    ,under    
these circumstances there were          
,christians who felt that the only  hope
 for salvation rested in fleeing from   
the world and its temptations  and      
taking refuge in an isolated life of    
asceticism and devotion4 ,this  led     
eventually to the foundation of         
monasteries1 in which the monks  lived  
apart in separate cells1 but met for    
meals1 prayers1 communion1  and counsel4
 ,monasticism started in ,egypt1 but    
soon spread into ,syria  and ,palestine1
 and then into ,greece1 ,italy1 and     
,gaul4 ,but in the  ,west monasticism   
gradually adopted more active pursuits  
and milder  discipline1 and the monks   
turned to the cultivation of the soil   
and the  preservation of literature4    
,sidenote3 ,manual labor and reading    
required4    ,sidenote3 ,resulting      
literary activities4    ,benedict's     
#8,rule' and the ,multiplication of     
,manuscripts4--,these  monastic         
activities were especially crystallized 

and promoted by the  ,benedictine       
#8rule4' ,this was a code formulated by 
,st4 ,benedict in  #ebi for his         
monastery at ,monte ,cassino in         
,southwest ,italy1 and it  was generally
 adopted by the monasteries of ,western 
,europe4 ,in the  forty-eighth chapter  
of the #8rule' he commanded that the    
monks each  day engage in manual labor  
for at least seven hours and in         
systematic  reading for at least two    
hours4 ,the requirement of daily reading
 led  to the collection and reproduction
 of manuscripts1 and each monastery     
soon had a scriptorium1 or              
#8writing-room1' in one end of the      
building  7,fig4 #g74 ,most of the works
 copied were of a religious nature and  
were limited in number1 but the monks   
were occasionally occupied with  the    
,latin classics1 and they also became   
the authors of some original            
literature1 which included histories of 
the ,church1 the monasteries1  and the  
times1 as well as works upon religious  

topics4    ,sidenote3 ,especial         
preservation of learning in ,english    
monasteries4    ,amalgamation of and    
,irish ,christianity4--,this            
preservation of  learning and           
development of literature was especially
 apparent in  the monasteries of        
,england ,it came about through the     
amalgamation at  the ,council of        
,whitby1 in #ffd1 of the ,roman ,church 
in ,england1 with  ,irish ,christianity1
 which had preserved an unusually high  
order of  learning after its isolation4 
,an immense enthusiasm for the ,church1 
culture1 and literature of ,rome        
resulted from this merging of the  rival
 organizations1 and the ,english        
monasteries1 such as ,jarrow  and       
,wearmouth1 and cathedral schools1 like 
,york1 became the great  educational    
centers for ,europe4    ,sidenote3      
,length of course4    ,sidenote3 ,types 
of pupils4    ,the ,organization of the 
,monastic ,schools4--,the literary work 
of  the monasteries soon led to the     

establishment of regular schools  within
 their walls 7,fig4 #h74 ,the course in 
these monastic schools may  often have  
lasted eight or ten years1 as boys of   
ten or even less  were sometimes        
received1 and no one could become a     
regular member of  the order before he  
was eighteen4 ,by the ninth century the 
schools  sometimes also admitted pupils 
who never expected to enter the order4  
,these latter were called externi in    
distinction to the oblati1 who  were    
preparing to become monks4 ,some        
training was also given women in        
convents for nuns1 such as that         
established by the sister of ,benedict4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,a monk in   
the scriptorium4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #h4--;,a monastic school4    ,sidenote3
 ,evolution and scope of the trivium and
 quadrivium4    ,the #8,seven ,liberal  
,arts' as the ,curriculum4--,the        
curriculum of the  monastic schools was 
at first elementary and narrow4 ,it     
included only  reading1 in order to     

study the ,bible2 writing1 to copy the  
sacred  books2 and calculation1 for the 
sake of computing ,church festivals4    
,but  after a while the classical       
learning was gradually introduced in    
that  dry and condensed form of the     
#8seven liberal arts'1 which was also   
used  by the cathedral schools4 ,this   
medival canon of studies was a gradual  
evolution from ,grco-,roman days4 ,the  
discrimination of these liberal         
subjects may be said to have begun with 
,plato1 whose educational  scheme       
included a higher group of studies1     
consisting of arithmetic1  geometry1    
music1 and astronomy2 and during the    
later days of ,greece  and ,rome these  
#8liberal' subjects of ,plato were      
combined with the  #8practical' studies 
of the sophists1--grammar1 rhetoric1 and
 dialectic4  ,these #8seven liberal     
arts' were definitely fixed during the  
fifth  and sixth centuries ,a4 ,d41     
through several treatises by such       
writers  as ,martianus ,capella1        

,bothius1 and ,cassiodorus2 and the     
grammar1  rhetoric1 and dialectic       
eventually became classed as the trivium
 or  lower studies1 and the arithmetic1 
geometry1 music1 and astronomy as  the  
quadrivium or higher 7,fig4 #i74 ,while 
this curriculum was not a  broad one1   
the scope was much wider than would be  
supposed4 #8,grammar'  was an           
introduction to literature1 #8rhetoric' 
included some knowledge  of law and     
history1 #8dialectic' paved the way for 
metaphysics1  #8arithmetic' extended    
beyond mere calculation1 #8geometry'    
embraced  geography and surveying1      
#8music' covered a broad course in      
theory1 and  #8astronomy' comprehended  
some physics and advanced mathematics4  
,sidenote3 ,dictation and memorizing4   
,sidenote3 ,donatus and ,priscian1      
,sidenote3 ,aristotle1 ,euclid1         
,bothius1 and ,ptolemy4    ,the ,methods
 and ,texts4--,the general method of    
teaching in the  monastic schools was   
that of question and answer4 ,as copies 

of the  various books were scarce1 the  
instructor often resorted to dictation1 
explaining the meaning as he read1 and  
the pupils took the passage down  upon  
tablets and committed it4 ,the reading  
books preparatory to the  study of      
literature1 many of which are still     
extant1 were generally  arranged by each
 teacher1 and careful attention was     
given to the  etymological and literary 
study of the authors to be read4 ,as to 
texts1  the leading works upon grammar  
were at first the elementary work of    
,donatus 7fourth century7 and the more  
advanced treatise of ,priscian  7sixth  
century71 but by the thirteenth century 
there had sprung up  a series of        
simplified grammars1 which1 for the sake
 of memorizing1  were often written in  
verse4 ,as rhetoric was no longer much  
concerned  with declamation1 ,cicero and
 ,quintilian were rarely used as texts1 
but  various medival treatises upon     
official letters1 legal documents1 and  
forms came into use4 ,dialectic was     

studied through translations of the     
,organon of ,aristotle1 ,euclid         
furnished the text on geometry1 the     
works of ,bothius were generally used   
for arithmetic and music1 and in        
astronomy adaptations of the treatises  
of ,aristotle and ,ptolemy became  the  
texts4    ,sidenote3 ,maintenance of    
classical literature and education4     
,effect upon ,civilization of the       
,monastic ,schools4--,thus monasticism  
accomplished not a little for           
civilization4 ,while the works produced 
in  the monasteries were uncritical and 
superstitious1 they compose most of  our
 historical documents and sources in the
 ,middle ,ages4 ,and1 although  monastic
 schools were decidedly hostile to      
classical literature as  representing   
the temptations of the world1 and at all
 times their rigid  orthodoxy prevented 
every possibility of science and the    
development of  individualism1 they1    
together with the cathedral schools1    
preserved a  considerable amount of     

,grco-,roman culture4 ,without the      
cathedral and  monastic schools1 the    
,latin and ,greek manuscripts and       
learning could  scarcely have survived  
and have been available at the          
,renaissance4      ,,supplementary      
,,reading    ,graves1 ,history of       
,education during the ,middle ,ages and 
the ,transition  to ,modern ,times      
7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 chaps4 ,i-,,ii2    
,monroe1 ,text-book  7,macmillan1       
#aije71 pp4 #bdc-bgd4 ,for the evolution
 of the ascetic life1  see ,lecky1      
,history of ,european ,morals           
7,appleton1 #ahfi71 vol4 ,,ii1  pp4     
#aja-bgd2 for the development of        
monasticism1 ,taylor1 ,h4 ,o41 ,the     
,classical ,heritage of the ,middle     
,ages 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 chap4 ,,vii1 
and ,wishart1 ,a4 ,w41 ,a ,short        
,history of ,monks and ,monasticism     
7,brandt1  ,trenton1 #aijb74 ,the       
contribution of ,irish monasticism is   
shown in  ,healy1 ,j41 ,insula          
,sanctorum et ,doctorum 7,sealy1        

,dublin1 #ahig71 and  ,zimmer1 ,h41 ,the
 ,irish ,element in ,medival ,culture   
7,putnam1 #ahia74  ,succinct articles on
 ,abbey ,schools1 ,bishop's ,schools1   
,church  ,schools1 and ,cloister        
,schools by ,leach1 ,a4 ,f4 7,monroe    
,cyclopdia of  ,education1 vols4 ,i and 
,,ii71 furnish the most accurate ideas  
of monastic  education as far as it is  
known4 ,an account of the monastic      
libraries  is given in ,clark1 ,j4 ,w41 
,libraries in the ,medival and          
,renaissance  ,monasteries 7,macmillan  
and ,bowes1 ,cambridge1 #ahid71 and     
,putnam1 ,g4 ,h41  ,books and ,their    
,makers during the ,middle ,ages        
7,putnam1 #ahif74 ,the  best account of 
,the ,seven ,liberal ,arts in ,english  
is that by ,abelson1  ,p4 7,columbia    
,university1 ,teachers ,college         
,contributions1 ,no4 #aa1 #aijf74       
,,chapter ,,vi    ,,charlemagne',s      
,,revival ,,of ,,education              
,,outline        ,learning and schools  
had by the eighth century been sadly    

disrupted1 and1 to restore them1        
,charlemagne invited ,alcuin of ,york   
to become his adviser in education4     
,alcuin induced ,charlemagne to         
conduct higher education at the ,palace 
,school1 and to improve the             
cathedral1 monastic1 and parish schools4
        ,even after ,alcuin retired from
 the active direction of education1     
he continued his educational influence1 
but he became set and      narrow4 ,a   
broader spirit1 however1 appeared in his
 pupils1 and      intellectual          
stagnation never again prevailed4       
,sidenote3 ,decay of learning4          
,sidenote3 ,charlemagne    ,sidenote3   
and ,alcuin4    ,condition of ,education
 in the ,eighth ,century4--,in the      
course of the  seventh and eighth       
centuries medival education met with    
considerable  retrogression4 ,the       
learning of the sixth century was       
disappearing1  the copying of           
manuscripts had almost ceased1 and the  
cathedral and  monastic schools had been

 sadly disrupted4 ,the secular clergy1  
monks1  nobility1 and others who might  
have been expected to be trained1  at   
times seem even to have lost the art of 
writing1 although the  leading churchmen
 must generally have maintained their   
knowledge of  ecclesiastical ,latin and 
some acquaintance with the classical    
authors  and various compilations of the
 seven liberal arts4 ,just before this  
time the ,franks had succeeded in       
establishing a supremacy over the  other
 barbarian tribes and had spread their  
rule through what is now  ,france1      
,belgium1 and ,holland1 and most of     
,western ,germany4 ,under a  dynasty of 
vigorous kings1 they now drove back the 
,moslems1 conquered  the ,lombards and  
,saxons1 and subdued the ,slavs and     
,bohemians1 and  finally ,charlemagne   
7#gdb-had7 even planned to re-establish 
the ,western  ,roman ,empire under his  
sovereignty4 ,this monarch greatly      
strengthened  and centralized his       
dominions by a number of improvements in

 external  administration1 but1 even    
before his recognition as emperor by the
  pope 7#hjj71 he had realized that a   
genuine unity of his people could  be   
brought about only through a much more  
effective and universal  education4 ,he 
had a keen sense of the unfortunate     
educational  situation1 and made every  
effort to improve it4 ,to assist him in 
his  endeavors1 in #ghb he called       
,alcuin 7#gce-hjd7 from the headship of 
the  famous cathedral school at ,york   
7see p4 #ef7 to be his chief adviser in 
education4    ,sidenote3 ,methods and   
curriculum4    ,higher ,education at the
 ,palace ,school4--,through this noted  
scholar  ,charlemagne proceeded to      
revive the cathedral1 monastic1 and     
parish  schools1 and to increase the    
importance of the #8,palace ,school4'   
,at this  latter school the great king1 
all his family1 and many of his         
relatives  and intellectual friends     
studied under the ,saxon educator4      
,alcuin  must1 however1 have used a more

 discursive and less memoriter method   
with his adult students than the formal 
catechetical plan employed  in          
instructing the youth4 ,among the       
subjects taught were grammar1  including
 some study of the ,latin poets and the 
writings of the ,church  ,fathers1      
rhetoric1 dialectic1 arithmetic1        
astronomy1 and theology1 but  ,alcuin   
appears to have had but little command  
of the ,greek learning4  ,charlemagne   
himself seems to have become proficient 
in ,latin and other  languages1 but1 in 
spite of strenuous efforts1 he began too
 late in  life to train his hand to     
write4    ,sidenote3 ,capitularies to   
abbots and bishops4    ,sidenote3       
,course in the monastic1 cathedral1 and 
village schools4    ,sidenote3 ,free    
tuition4    ,educational ,improvement in
 the ,cathedral1 ,monastic1 and ,parish 
,schools4--,with the coperation of      
,alcuin1 ,charlemagne also did          
everything in his power to increase     
facilities and improve standards  in the

 existing types of schools4 ,in #ghg he 
issued an educational  #8capitulary' or 
decree to the bishops and abbots1       
8urging diligence in  the pursuit of    
learning and the selection of teachers  
for this work  who are able1 willing1   
and zealous to learn themselves and to  
teach  others40 ,two years later he     
wrote a more urgent capitulary to the   
bishops and abbots1 in which he         
specified the subjects to be taught in  
the cathedral and monastic schools and  
the care to be taken in teaching  them4 
,schools seem to have been everywhere   
established or revived in  the various  
cathedrals1 monasteries1 and villages1  
and the instruction  in several places  
became famous4 ,all these schools came  
to offer at  least a complete elementary
 course1 and some added considerable    
work  in higher education4 ,reading1    
writing1 computation1 singing1 and  the 
,scriptures were taught first1 but1     
beyond this1 instruction in  grammar1   
rhetoric1 and dialectic was often given1

 and at the more  noted cathedral and   
monastic schools the quadrivium also    
appeared in  the course4 ,the schools in
 the villages1 under the care of the    
parish  priests1 taught only the        
rudiments1 the ,lord's ,prayer1 the     
,creed1  and the ,psalms4 ,tuition was  
free in all schools for those intending 
to become monks or priests1 but for the 
higher work a small fee was  sometimes  
paid by the laity4 ,it seems to have    
been generally intended  that education 
should be gratuitous and open to all4 ,a
 letter of the  ,bishop of ,orleans     
required it of his clergy2 and through a
 capitulary  in #hjb ,charlemagne strove
 to make it compulsory4    ,sidenote3   
,after retirement ,alcuin's influence   
continued1 but he became  narrow4       
,alcuin's ,educational ,work at         
,tours4--,after fourteen years of       
strenuous service1 ,alcuin retired from 
the active headship of the  educational 
system to the abbacy of the monastery at
 ,tours4 ,but even  here his educational

 work did not cease4 ,he soon           
established a model  house of learning  
and education1 whither flocked the most 
brilliant  youths in the empire1 and    
since they rapidly became prominent as  
teachers and churchmen1 his influence   
upon the schools remained fully  as     
marked as before4 ,he also wrote a      
number of educational works1  mostly on 
the seven liberal arts1 and had a large 
correspondence about  education with    
kings and the higher clergy4 ,alcuin1   
however1 was by  nature conservative1   
and with his retirement he became       
decidedly set  and narrow4 ,his fear of 
dialectic and the more advanced views of
  certain ,irish scholars is almost     
ludicrous1 and his repudiation of the   
classic poets1 even his former favorite1
 ,vergil1 is pathetic4    ,sidenote3    
,his pupils retained his broader spirit4
    ,rabanus ,maurus1 ,erigena1 and     
,others ,concerned in the               
,revival4--,fortunately1 ,alcuin's      
pupils1 who at his death occupied       

practically all positions of educational
 importance1 retained his  broader      
spirit4 ,this was true in particular of 
,rabanus ,maurus  7#ggf-hef71 whose     
leadership caused the monastic school at
 ,fulda  to become the great center of  
learning4 ,rabanus wrote even more      
prolifically than ,alcuin upon grammar1 
language1 and theology1 but  was not    
afraid to emphasize the study of classic
 literature or the  new training in     
dialectic4 ,he also greatly expanded the
 mathematical  subjects of the          
curriculum1 and tended to ascribe all   
phenomena  to natural laws4 ,rabanus1 in
 his turn1 influenced a large number  of
 pupils1 and a further impetus was given
 to the movement by a                   
cross-fertilization of ,irish learning1 
which was also introduced1  especially  
through the mastership of ,joannes      
,scotus ,erigena 7#haj-hgf7  at the     
,palace ,school4    ,sidenote3          
,permanent effects of the revival4      
,thus during the ninth century and the  

first half of the tenth there  arose1   
through the initiative of ,charlemagne  
and ,alcuin1 a marked  revival in       
education1 and for several generations  
the cathedral and  monastic schools     
enthusiastically fostered education and 
learning4  ,curricula were expanded1 and
 many famous scholars appeared4 ,while1 
owing to the weakness of ,charlemagne's 
successors and the attacks  of the      
,northmen1 learning gradually faded once
 more1 intellectual  stagnation never   
again prevailed4 ,through the revival of
 the great  ,frankish monarch1 classical
 learning had to some extent been       
recalled  to continental ,europe from   
its insular asylum in the extreme ,west4
      ,,supplementary ,,reading         
,graves1 ,during the ,transition        
7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 chap4 ,,iii2       
,monroe1  ,text-book 7,macmillan1       
#aije71 pp4 #bgd-bgi4 ,read also        
,gaskoin1 ,c4 ,j4  ,c41 ,alcuin1 ,his   
,life and ,his ,work 7,clay1 ,london1   
#aijd71 or ,west1 ,a4  ,f41 ,alcuin and 

the ,rise of ,christian ,schools        
7,scribner1 #ahib71 and  ,mullinger1 ,j4
 ,b41 ,the ,schools of ,charles the     
,great 7,longmans1 ,london1  #ahgg74    
,,chapter ,,vii    ,,moslem ,,learning  
,,and ,,education      ,,outline        
,moslemism amalgamated in ,syria with   
,greek philosophy and science1      and 
the ,moslem cities there became renowned
 for their learning4        ,the masses 
of the ,moslems were suspicious of the  
,greek learning1      however1 and those
 who had absorbed the ,hellenized       
philosophy were      driven from the    
,orient into ,spain1 where they founded 
,moorish      colleges4        ,the     
,moslems thus stimulated learning in the
 ,christian schools1 and      introduced
 ,aristotle once more1 but1 after       
bringing learning back1      ,moslemism 
itself reverted to its primitive stage4 
,sidenote3 ,illiteracy of early         
,moslemism4    ,sidenote3 ,learning of  
the ,mohammedan cities of ,syria4       
,the ,hellenization of ,moslemism4--,one

 of the most important influences  in   
awakening medival ,europe was the       
revival of learning and education  that 
came through the advent of the ,moslems4
 ,mohammed1 the founder  of ,moslemism1 
had been almost illiterate1 and the     
,koran1 or sacred  book1 was a curious  
jumble of ,judaistic1 ,christian1 and   
other religious  elements with which    
,mohammed had become acquainted during  
his early  travels4 ,as long as this    
religion was confined to the ignorant   
and unreflecting tribes of ,arabia1 it  
served its purpose without              
modification4 ,but when it spread into  
,syria and came in contact with  ,greek 
philosophy1 in order to appeal to the   
people there1 it had to  be interpreted 
in ,hellenistic terms1 and during the   
eighth1 ninth1  and tenth centuries1    
through the influence of the ,nestorian 
scholars  7see p4 #df71 the ,mohammedans
 were engaged in rendering into ,arabic 
from the ,syriac1 or from the original  
,greek1 the works of the great          

philosophers1 mathematicians1 and       
physicians4 ,the ,mohammedan cities  of 
,syria soon became renowned for their   
learning4 ,in them arose  such scholars 
as ,avicenna 7#ihj-ajcg71 who wrote many
 treatises on  mathematics and          
philosophy1 and a ,canon of ,medicine   
that remained  authoritative for five   
centuries4 ,similarly1 there grew up a  
society  called the #8,brothers of      
,sincerity1' which in its course of     
study  amalgamated the ,moslem theology 
with ,hellenistic philosophy4           
,sidenote3 ,averros and the ,moorish    
colleges4    ,hellenized ,moslemism in  
,spain4--,but the masses of the         
,mohammedans  were as suspicious of the 
,greek learning as the orthodox         
,christians had  been1 and toward the   
end of the eleventh century ,hellenized 
,moslemism  was driven from the ,orient 
and found a refuge in ,northern ,africa 
and  in ,spain4 ,here the advanced      
,mohammedans became known as #8,moors1' 
and  their works were destined to have a

 pronounced influence upon the          
,christians4 ,there soon appeared such  
scholars as ,averros 7#aabf-aaih71  who 
became the authoritative commentator on 
,aristotle for several  centuries2 and  
,moorish colleges were founded at       
,cordova1 ,granada1  ,toledo1 and       
elsewhere4 ,in these institutions1 while
 learning was  still at a low ebb in the
 ,christian schools1 were taught        
arithmetic1  geometry1 trigonometry1    
astronomy1 physics1 biology1 medicine1  
surgery1 jurisprudence1 logic1 and      
metaphysics4 ,arabic notation was  also 
introduced in place of the cumbersome   
,roman numerals and many  inventions and
 discoveries were made4    ,sidenote3   
,learning stimulated in ,christian      
education4    ,effect upon ,europe of   
the ,moslem ,education4--,these schools 
and  colleges of the ,moslems soon had  
their effect upon ,christian education4 
,through their influence1 ,raymund1     
,archbishop of ,toledo1 by the middle   
of the twelfth century had the chief    

,arabic treatises on philosophy         
translated into ,castilian by a learned 
,jew1 and then into ,latin by  the      
monks2 and ,frederick ,,ii had scholars 
render the works of ,averros  into      
,latin4 ,such translations had1 however1
 passed through several  media--,greek1 
,syriac1 ,arabic1 ,castilian1           
,latin--and could not be at  all        
accurate4 ,but1 stimulated by this taste
 of ,greek learning1 the  ,christians   
sought a more immediate version1 and a  
half century later  when the ,venetians 
took the city of ,constantinople1 the   
works of  ,aristotle were recovered in  
the original and translated directly    
into  ,latin4 ,meanwhile the orthodox   
,mohammedanism had been coming to the   
front in ,spain and overwhelming the    
,hellenized form1 and it was left  to   
,christian schools to continue the work 
of the advanced ,moorish  institutions4 
,moslemism had returned to its primitive
 stage1 but it  had helped bring back   
learning1 especially the works of       

,aristotle1 to  ,christendom4 ,as the   
classical learning had been restored    
from the ,west  during the revival of   
,charlemagne1 it now returned from its  
refuge in  the ,east through the coming 
of the ,moslems4      ,,supplementary   
,,reading    ,graves1 ,during the       
,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 chap4  
,v2 ,monroe1  ,text-book 7,macmillan1   
#aije71 pp4 #cca-ccd4 ,for a further    
account of  ,saracen education1 see     
,coppe1 ,h41 ,history of the ,conquest  
of ,spain  by the ,arab-,moors 7,little1
 ,brown1 ,boston1 #ahha71 especially bk4
 ,x2  ,davidson1 ,t41 ,the ,brothers of 
,sincerity 7,international ,journal of  
,ethics1 ,july1 #ahih71 and ,draper1 ,j4
 ,w41 ,history of the ,intellectual     
,development of ,europe 7,harper1       
#ahge71 vol4 ,i1 chaps4 ,,xi and ,,xiii1
 and  vol4 ,,ii1 chaps4 ,,ii and ,,iv4  
,,chapter ,,viii    ,,educational       
,,tendencies ,,of ,,scholasticism       
,,outline        ,scholasticism was a   
peculiar method of philosophic          

speculation in      the later medival   
period4 ,at first1 scholastic           
philosophers held      that faith must  
precede reason1 but eventually reason   
itself tended      to become the means  
of testing the truth4        ,scholastic
 education was organized in the monastic
 and episcopal      schools1 and        
consisted in the limited learning of the
 times1      systematized on the basis  
of ,aristotelian deduction4             
,scholasticism      was extreme in its  
discussions1 but it tended to           
rationalize the      ,church doctrines4 
,sidenote3 ,not a set of doctrines1 but 
a peculiar method4    ,the ,nature of   
,scholasticism4--,one of the movements  
that most tended  to awaken the medival 
mind1 especially during the latter part 
of  the ,middle ,ages1 was the          
development of the ,church philosophy   
known  as #8scholasticism4' ,this       
movement does not indicate any one set  
of  doctrines1 but is rather a general  
designation for the peculiar methods    

and tendencies of philosophic           
speculation that became prominent within
  the ,church in the eleventh century1  
came to their height during the  twelfth
 and thirteenth1 and declined rapidly   
the following century4 ,the  name is    
derived from doctor scholasticus1 which 
was the title given  during the medival 
period to the authorized teachers in a  
monastic or  episcopal school1 for it   
was among these #8schoolmen' that the   
movement  started and developed4 ,its   
most striking characteristics are the   
narrowness of its field and the         
thoroughness with which it was worked4  
,sidenote3 ,anselm    ,sidenote3 and    
,abelard4    ,the ,history of           
,scholastic ,development4--,the history 
of scholasticism  belongs properly to   
the field of philosophy1 but its        
influence in  bringing on the           
,renaissance and its effect upon        
education make a brief  consideration of
 its development necessary here4 ,it    
began as an effort  to vanquish heresy  

in the interest of the ,church dogmas1  
which until  late in the ,middle ,ages  
it had not generally been necessary to  
explain4  ,even then it was assumed that
 the ,church was in possession of all   
final  truth1 which had come to it by   
,divine revelation1 and was in harmony  
with reason1 when fully understood4 ,it 
was1 therefore1 the aim of the  earlier 
schoolmen to show how these doctrines   
were consistent with  each other and in 
accordance with reason4 ,at first1 as   
with ,anselm  7#ajcc-aaji71 it was held 
that faith must precede reason1 and     
where  reason was incapable of          
penetrating the mysteries of revealed   
doctrine1  it must desist from its      
efforts4 ,but the conviction gradually  
gained  ground that human reason is     
reliable and that truth can be reached  
only through investigation4 ,abelard    
7#ajgi-aadb7 declared that the only     
justification of a doctrine is its      
reasonableness1 that reason must        
precede faith1 and that it is not sinful

 to doubt4    ,sidenote3 ,aquinas1      
,scotus1 and ,occam4    ,a new epoch for
 scholasticism dawned in the twelfth and
 thirteenth  centuries through contact  
with the ,greek philosophy of the ,moors
  in ,spain and the subsequent recovery 
of some original treatises of           
,aristotle 7see p4 #fg74 ,for a time the
 ,church endeavored to suppress the     
great philosopher1 but1 failing to do   
so1 soon utilized his works for  its own
 defense1 and even made reason identical
 with ,aristotle1 whose  authority was  
not to be disputed4 ,a group of most    
prominent schoolmen  arose1 and1 as a   
result of the discussions of ,aquinas   
7#abbe-abgd71  ,duns ,scotus            
7#abgd-acjh71 and ,william of ,occam    
7#abhj-acdg71 it came  to be held that  
truth is established by the fiat of     
,god1 and that  ecclesiastical dogmas   
are1 consequently1 not matters of       
reason1 but  purely of faith4 ,as a     
result of this breach between revelation
 and  reason1 there arose two types of  

truth1 and a tendency to choose that    
type which was supported by reason4     
,sidenote3 ,aim1    ,sidenote3 content1 
,sidenote3 and method4    ,scholastic   
,education4--,the schoolmen were thus   
throughout attempting  to rationalize   
the teachings of the ,church1 and to    
present them  in scientific form4 ,as an
 education1 scholasticism aimed also at 
furnishing a training in dialectic and  
intellectual discipline that  should    
make the student both keen and learned  
in the knowledge of  the times4 ,the    
scholastic course of study1 which was   
given at first  in the monastic and     
episcopal schools and later in the      
universities1  consisted in the beliefs 
of the ,church and the limited learning 
of the  times arranged in a systematized
 form largely on the deductive basis  of
 the ,aristotelian logic4 ,this         
knowledge could all be grouped under    
the head of philosophical theology4 ,the
 best illustration of the formal  and   
dogmatic way in which these doctrines   

were usually presented can  be found in 
the ,sententi of ,peter the ,lombard    
7#aajj-aafj7 and the  ,summa ,theologi  
of ,aquinas 7#abbe-abgd71 which were the
 standard texts  of the day upon        
theology4 ,the work of ,aquinas has four
 main parts1  under each of which is    
grouped a number of problems4 ,every    
problem  is concerned with some         
fundamental doctrine1 and is further    
divided  into several subtopics4 ,after 
the problem has been stated1 first the  
arguments and authorities for the       
various solutions other than the        
orthodox one are given and refuted in   
regular order1 then the proper  solution
 with its arguments is set forth1 and   
finally1 the different  objections to it
 are answered in a similarly systematic 
way4 ,peter the  ,lombard's work has a  
like arrangement4    ,sidenote3 ,it     
systematized ,church doctrines1 and     
liberated philosophy  from theology4    
,its ,value and ,influence4--,as a      
whole1 the work of scholastic  education

 has been underestimated4 ,it has been  
urged that it ruined  all spiritual     
realities by its extreme systemization  
of religion1 that  it dealt with mere   
abstractions1 and that it indulged in   
over-subtle  distinctions and verbal    
quibbles4 ,but the scholastic arguments 
were  not as purposeless or absurd as   
they seem4 ,for example1 the celebrated 
inquiry of ,aquinas as to the number of 
angels that could stand on the  point of
 a needle is simply an attempt to       
present the nature of the  ,infinite in 
concrete form4 ,it is the characteristic
 of reasoning beings  to analyze1       
compare1 abstract1 and classify1 and    
while scholasticism  may have carried   
its abstractions1 hair-splittings1 and  
scientific  terminology to an extreme1  
it performed a great service for        
knowledge4  ,it found a confused mass of
 traditional and irrational doctrines   
and practices1 made them systematic1    
rational1 and scientific1  and greatly  
assisted accuracy in thinking4 ,the     

discussions of the  schoolmen resulted  
in liberating philosophy from theology1 
and1 without  intending it perhaps1     
scholastic education aided the cause of 
human  reason against dogmatism and     
absolute authority4 ,it greatly         
stimulated  intellectual interests1     
produced the most acute and subtle minds
 of the  age1 and helped to prepare the 
way for the ,renaissance4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,the temple of
 wisdom4    ,an allegorical             
representation of the medival course of 
study  reproduced from the ,margarita   
,philosophica of ,gregorius ,reisch1    
,freiburg1 #aejd4 ,donatus 7elementary  
grammar7 on the first floor2  ,priscian 
7advanced grammar7 on second2 ,aristotle
 7logic71 ,cicero  7rhetoric71 and      
,boethius 7arithmetic7 on the third2    
,pythagoras 7music71  ,euclid           
7geometry71 and ,ptolemy 7astronomy7 on 
the fourth2 ,pliny  7natural history7   
and ,seneca 7ethics7 on the fifth2 and  
,peter the  ,lombard 7theology7 on top4 

,,supplementary ,,reading    ,graves1   
,during the ,transition 7,macmillan1    
#aiaj71 chap4 ,,vi2 ,monroe1  ,text-book
 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #bib-cac4 ,for
 a good account of all  ,the ,great     
,schoolmen of the ,middle ,ages         
7,hodder1 ,london1 #ahha71 see  the work
 of ,townsend1 ,w4 ,j42 for the         
beginnings of scholasticism1            
,mullinger1 ,j4 ,b41 ,the ,university of
 ,cambridge 7,longmans1 ,green1  #ahhh71
 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dg-fd2 for the life and  
influence of ,abelard1  ,compayr1 ,g41  
,abelard 7,scribner1 #ahic71 chap4 ,i2  
,mc,cabe1 ,j41  ,abelard 7,putnam1      
#aija72 and ,rashdall1 ,h41 ,the        
,universities of ,europe  in the ,middle
 ,ages 7,oxford1 ,clarendon ,press1     
#ahie71 vol4 ,i1 chap4 ,,ii4            
,,chapter ,,ix    ,,the ,,medi,,val     
,,universities      ,,outline           
,universities began to spring up toward 
the close of the ,middle      ,ages4    
,through local conditions1 a course in  
medicine arose at      ,salerno2 in     

civil and canon law at ,bologna2 and in 
theology at      ,paris4 ,bologna became
 the pattern for numerous universities  
in the      ,south2 and ,paris for many 
in the ,north4        ,popes and        
sovereigns granted privileges by charter
 to the various      universities4 ,the 
term #8university' originally signified 
a      #8corporation' of students and   
teachers1 and the students were         
usually grouped according to #8nations4'
 ,the teaching body was      divided    
into four or five #8faculties4'         
,the course in arts included the seven  
liberal arts and portions of            
,aristotle2 in civil and canon law1 the 
,corpus ,juris ,civilis of              
,justinian and the ,decree of ,gratian  
respectively2 in medicine1      the     
treatises of ,greek and other medical   
writers2 and in theology1      mostly   
the ,sententi of ,peter the ,lombard4   
,the texts were read      and explained 
by the lecturers1 and a practical       
training in debate      was furnished4  

,while the courses and methods were     
narrow and formal1 the medival          
university contained the germ of modern 
inquiry and did much to      foster     
independence of thought and action4     
,sidenote3 ,in general a product of all 
that was best in the ,middle  ,ages4    
,the ,rise of ,universities4--,a most   
important effect upon subsequent        
education came through the foundation of
 the medival universities4  ,these      
institutions grew out of the old        
cathedral and monastic schools1  but    
found their models largely in the       
liberal and professional courses  of the
 ,moorish colleges4 ,in general1 they   
came into existence through  the many   
broadening influences of the later      
,middle ,ages4 ,their rise  was         
intimately connected with the stimulus  
of the ,moslem presentation  of ,greek  
philosophy and science1 with the        
interest in dialectic and  theological  
discussions1 which led to the           
development of scholasticism1  with the 

reaction from #8otherworldliness'       
resulting from the ideals of  chivalry1 
and with the growth of cities and       
wealth1 and the consequent  emphasis    
upon secular interests and knowledge    
7see chap4 xi74 ,however1  while they   
were all more or less the product of the
 same factors1 no  two sprang from      
exactly the same set of causes1 and     
special conditions  played a part in the
 evolution of each university4          
,sidenote3 ,causes of the medical school
 at ,salerno4    ,the ,foundation of    
,universities at ,salerno1 ,bologna1 and
 ,paris4--,the  oldest of these         
institutions1 that at ,salerno1 near    
,naples1 was simply  a school of        
medicine1 and originated through the    
survival of the old  ,greek medical     
works in ,southwestern ,italy1 and      
through the attraction  of the mineral  
springs and salubrity of this particular
 place4 ,by the  middle of the eleventh 
century ,salerno was well known as the  
leading  place for medical study4 ,it   

was1 however1 never chartered as a      
regular  university1 although in #abca  
,frederick ,,ii recognized it as the    
school  of medicine for the university  
he had created at ,naples some seven    
years earlier4    ,sidenote3 ,origin of 
the courses at ,bologna    ,sidenote3 in
 civil law    ,sidenote3 and canon law4 
,on the other hand1 ,northern ,italy    
became known as a center for  the study 
of ,roman law4 ,the cities here1 in     
order to defend their  independence1    
were led to study this subject1 and     
endeavored to find  some special        
charter1 grant1 or edict from the old   
,roman emperors upon  which to base     
their claims4 ,several northern centers 
were renowned for  their investigation  
of the ,roman civil law1 but early in   
the twelfth  century ,bologna became    
preminent through the lectures of       
,irnerius4  ,by him the entire ,corpus  
,juris ,civilis1 a compilation of ,roman
 law  made by eminent jurists in the    
sixth century at the command of the     

emperor ,justinian1 was collected and   
critically discussed4 ,influenced  by   
this example1 a monk of ,bologna1 named 
,gratian1 undertook to codify  all      
edicts and formulations of popes and    
councils in a convenient  text-book4    
,the ,decree of ,gratian1 which         
resulted1 was almost  immediately       
recognized as the authority upon the    
subject1 and canon law  came to be      
studied here with the same thoroughness 
as civil law4 ,the  university at       
,bologna was regularly chartered by     
,frederick ,barbarossa  in #aaeh1       
probably as a recognition of the        
services of its masters in  support of  
his imperial claims1 and faculties of   
arts1 medicine1 and  theology were      
established at various times4 ,it was   
thus the first real  university1 and its
 reputation soon became widespread4     
,sidenote3 ,development of liberal arts 
and theology at ,paris4    ,next in     
order of foundation came the university 
at ,paris1 which was by  far the most   

famous of all4 ,the special interest    
here1 as in this part  of ,europe       
generally1 was dialectic and            
scholasticism4 ,the university  grew out
 of the cathedral school at ,notre      
,dame1 which had acquired  considerable 
reputation under the headship of        
,william of ,champeaux1  ,abelard1 and  
,peter the ,lombard1 but it was not     
until #abjj1 after canon  law and       
medicine had been added to the liberal  
arts and theology1 that  it received    
complete recognition by the charter of  
,philip ,augustus4    ,sidenote3        
#8,master-universities' in the ,north1  
but  #8student-universities' in the     
,south4    ,bologna and ,paris as the   
,models for ,other                      
,universities4--,salerno1  as we have   
seen1 was not a real university1 and it 
did not reproduce  its type2 but        
,bologna1 and even more ,paris1 became  
the mother of  universities1 for many   
other institutions were organized after 
their  general plans4 ,at ,bologna the  

students1 who were usually mature  men1 
had entire charge of the government of  
the university4 ,they  selected the     
masters and determined the fees1 length 
of term1 and  time of beginning4 ,but in
 ,paris1 where the students were        
younger1  the government was in the     
hands of the masters4 ,consequently1    
new foundations in the ,north1 where    
,paris was the type1 usually  became    
#8master-universities1' while those of  
the ,south were                         
#8student-universities4' ,during the    
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries  it 
became fashionable for the authorities1 
civil and ecclesiastical1  to charter   
existing organizations or to found new  
institutions on one  of these two plans1
 and by the time the ,renaissance was   
well started  about eighty universities 
had been established in ,europe4 ,not   
all of  these foundations were          
permanent1 however1 for some thirty     
have1 in the  course of time1 become    
extinct1 and those which remain are much

 changed  in character4    ,sidenote3   
,protection and autonomy4    ,sidenote3 
immunity from taxation and military     
service1 and right to  license masters  
and to #8strike'4    ,privileges        
,granted to the ,universities4--,from   
the time of the  earliest official      
recognition of the universities1 a large
 variety of  exemptions1 immunities1 and
 other special privileges were conferred
  upon the organizations or upon their  
masters and students1 by the  charters  
of popes1 emperors1 kings1 and          
municipalities4 ,the students  of the   
universities were in many instances     
taken under the immediate  protection of
 the sovereign1 and were allowed to be  
tried in special  courts of their own1  
independent of civil jurisdiction1 and  
to possess  complete autonomy in all    
their internal affairs4 ,generally      
masters1  students1 and their retainers 
alike were relieved from all taxation   
and from military service4 ,likewise1   
universities were granted  the right to 

license masters to lecture anywhere     
without further  examination 7jus ubique
 docendi71 and the privilege of         
#8striking'  7cessatio71 when university
 rights were infringed4 ,if no redress  
were given in the latter case1 the      
suspension of lectures was followed  by 
emigration of the university to another 
town4 ,this could easily be  done1 since
 none of the medival universities had   
buildings of their  own1 and there was  
no need of expensive libraries1         
laboratories1 and  other equipment4     
,sidenote3 ,wandering students4         
,through such special rights the        
universities obtained great power  and  
became very independent4 ,soon the      
liberty allowed to students  degenerated
 into recklessness and license1 and they
 became dissipated  and quarrelsome4    
,this is especially seen in the life of 
the so-called  #8wandering students1'   
who migrated from university to         
university1  begging their way1 and were
 shiftless1 rollicking1 and vicious4    

,the  one compensating feature of such  
degeneracy was their production of      
jovial ,latin and ,german songs to voice
 their appreciation of forbidden        
pleasures and their protest against     
restraint4    ,sidenote3 ,the           
#8university' a corporation4            
,sidenote3 ,the nations1    ,sidenote3  
councilors1    ,sidenote3 faculties1    
deans1 and rector4    ,organization of  
the ,universities4--,the term           
universitas1 or  #8university1' did not 
imply originally1 as often claimed      
since1 an  institution where            
#8everything' is taught1 but it was used
 of any legal  corporation1 and only in 
the course of time was it limited to an 
organization of masters and students4   
,the phrase studium generale  was also  
often used of a university1 to indicate 
a school where the  students from all   
parts of civilization were received1 and
 to contrast  it with a studium         
particulare1 which was confined to      
pupils of a  limited neighborhood4 ,the 

formation of a university had been      
preceded  by the organization of        
#8nations1' or bodies of students       
grouped  according to the part of       
,europe from which they came1 but these 
nations  soon began to combine for the  
sake of obtaining greater privileges and
  power4 ,every year each nation chose a
 #8councilor1' who was to represent  it 
and guard its interests4 ,on the side of
 the masters1 the university  became    
organized into #8faculties1' of which   
there might be at least  four1--arts1   
law1 medicine1 and theology2 and each   
faculty came to  elect a #8dean' as its 
representative4 ,the deans and the      
councilors  jointly elected the         
#8rector1' or head of the university4   
,sidenote3 ,arts4    ,sidenote3 ,law4   
,sidenote3 ,medicine4    ,sidenote3     
,theology4    ,course in the ,four      
,faculties4--,the course of study to be 
offered  by each faculty was largely    
fixed by papal decree or university     
legislation during the thirteenth       

century4 ,the course in arts1 which     
occupied six years1 included the texts  
on the liberal arts mentioned  for the  
monastic schools 7see pp4 #ef f47 and   
several of the treatises  of ,aristotle1
 as rapidly as they were recovered4 ,in 
the law course1  ,corpus ,juris ,civilis
 was the authorized text for civil law1 
and the  ,decree of ,gratian for canon  
law4 ,the faculty of medicine utilized  
the  ,greek treatises by ,hippocrates   
7c4 #dfj-cge ,b4 ,c47 and ,galen 7c4    
#acj-bjj  ,a4 ,d471 the ,canon of       
,avicenna 7see p4 #ff71 and the works of
 certain  ,jewish and ,salernitan       
physicians4 ,the students of theology   
put most of  their time upon the four   
books of ,peter the ,lombard's ,sententi
 7,fig4  #i71 although the ,bible was   
studied incidentally4    ,sidenote3     
,lectures4    ,sidenote3 ,debates4      
,the ,methods of ,instruction4--,the    
training of a medival student  consisted
 not only in acquiring the subjects     
mentioned1 but in  learning to debate   

upon them4 ,the acquisition of the      
subject-matter  was accomplished through
 lectures1 which consisted in reading   
and  explaining the text-book under     
consideration 7,fig4 #aj74 ,beside the  
text  itself1 the teacher would read all
 the explanatory notes1 summaries1      
cross-references1 and objections to the 
author's statements1 which  often quite 
overshadowed the original1 and might    
even add a commentary  of his own4 ,the 
passage was read slowly and repeated    
whenever  necessary4 ,the whole exercise
 was carried on in ,latin1 which had to 
be  learned by the student before coming
 to the university4 ,the training  in   
debate was furnished by means of formal 
disputations1 in which one  student1 or 
group of students1 was pitted against   
another 7,fig4 #aa74  ,in these         
contests1 which also were conducted in  
,latin1 not only were  authorities      
cited1 but the debaters might add       
arguments of their own4  ,thus1 compared
 with the memorizing of lectures1       

debating afforded some  acuteness and   
vigor of intellect1 but by the close of 
the fifteenth  century it had become no 
longer reputable4 ,the aim came to be to
 win  and to secure applause without    
regard to truth or consistency4         
,sidenote3 ,master or doctor4           
,sidenote3 ,baccalaureate4              
,examinations and ,degrees4--,at the    
close of the course1 the student  was   
examined in his ability to define and   
dispute2 and if he passed1  he was      
admitted to the grade of master1 doctor1
 or professor4 ,these  degrees seem     
originally to have been about on a par  
with each other1  and signified that the
 candidate was now ready to practice the
 craft of  teaching4 ,the baccalaureate 
was at first not a real degree1 but     
simply  permission to become a candidate
 for the license to teach4 ,during the  
thirteenth century1 however1 it came to 
be sought as an honor by many  not      
intending to teach1 and eventually      
became a separate degree4               

,illustration3      ,the ,medival       
,universities3    ,fig4 #aj4--,the      
lecture4    ,fig4 #aa4--,the            
disputation4      ,sidenote3 ,meager and
 authoritative1    ,sidenote3 but       
somewhat productive of inquiry and      
freedom4    ,the ,value and ,influence  
of the ,university                      
,training4--,obviously the  medival     
universities had most of the defects of 
their times4 ,from a  modern point of   
view1 the content of their course of    
study was meager1  fixed1 and formal1   
and the methods of teaching were        
stereotyped and  authoritative4 ,they   
largely neglected the real literature of
 the  classical age1 and permitted but  
little that savored of investigation  or
 thinking4 ,yet the universities were a 
product of the growing  tendencies that 
later burst the fetters of medivalism4  
,they were a  great encouragement to    
subtlety1 industry1 and thoroughness1   
and their  efforts toward philosophic   
speculation contained the germs of the  

modern spirit of inquiry and            
rationality4 ,they were even of         
immediate  assistance in promoting      
freedom of discussion and advancing     
democracy1  and to their arbitration    
were often referred disputes between the
 civil  and ecclesiastical powers4 ,thus
 they aided greatly in advancing the    
cause of individualism and carrying     
forward the torch of civilization  and  
progress4      ,,supplementary ,,reading
    ,graves1 ,during the ,transition    
7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 chap4 ,,ix2        
,monroe1  ,text-book 7,macmillan1       
#aije71 pp4 #cac-cbg4 ,standard works on
 the  universities in general are       
,laurie1 ,s4 ,s41 ,the ,rise and ,early 
,constitution of ,universities          
7,appleton1 #ahhf71 and the more        
complete  and accurate ,universities of 
,europe in the ,middle ,ages 7,oxford1  
,clarendon ,press1 #ahie71 by ,rashdall1
 ,h4 ,for a brief source account of  the
 privileges1 courses1 methods1 and      
student life of universities1  see      

,norton1 ,a4 ,o41 ,readings in the      
,history of ,education2 ,medival        
,universities 7,harvard ,university1    
#aiji71 or ,munro1 ,d4 ,c41 ,the        
,medival ,student 7,longmans1 ,green1   
#ahii74 ,for the history of  individual 
universities1 see ,compayr1 ,g41        
,abelard and the ,origin and  ,early    
,history of ,universities 7,scribner1   
#ahic72 ,lyte1 ,h4 ,c4 ,m41 ,a  ,history
 of the ,university of ,oxford          
7,macmillan1 #ahhf72 ,mullinger1 ,j4    
,b41 ,university of ,cambridge          
7,longmans1 ,london1 #ahhh72 and        
,paulsen1  ,f41 ,the ,german            
,universities 7,macmillan1 #ahie2       
,scribner1 #aijf74          ,,chapter ,x
    ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,chivalry   
,,outline        ,owing to the weakness 
of the regular sovereignty after        
,charlemagne's day1 the feudal system   
sprang up1 and by the middle      of the
 twelfth century it had developed a code
 of manners known as      chivalry4     
,out of this there arose a training for 

knighthood in religion1      honor1 and 
gallantry4 ,before becoming a knight1   
the boy was early      trained at home1 
then at some castle1 first as #8page1'  
and later as      #8squire4'            
,this chivalric education produced many 
contradictory results1 but      it      
tended to refine the times and to       
counteract #8otherworldliness4'         
,sidenote3 ,dependence upon a powerful  
neighbor became a regular form of       
government4    ,the ,development of     
,feudalism4--,the medival education thus
 far  described has had to do mostly    
with the schooling of the ecclesiastical
  and other select professional classes4
 ,quite a different type of  training   
was that given the knight4 ,this has    
generally been known as  the education  
of chivalry4 ,chivalry is a name for the
 code of manners  in usage during the   
days of the feudal system4 ,by this     
system is  meant an order of society and
 government that gradually grew up in   
the ,middle ,ages alongside the regular 

political organization1 and  when1 under
 the successors of ,charlemagne1 the    
monarchy became weak1  tended to be     
substituted for it4 ,under feudalism    
small landowners and  freemen lacking   
land had come to depend upon some       
powerful neighbor  for protection1 and  
even to seek from him a dependent tenure
 of land4  ,then1 in time1 the lords    
acquired a species of sovereignty over  
their  tenants1 and by the tenth century
 there had come to be a great social    
gulf between the nobility1 who owned the
 land and lived in castles1 and  the    
peasantry1 who tilled the soil and      
supported them4 ,the only serious       
business of the former was fighting with
 spear1 sword1 or battle-axe1  in their 
own quarrels or those of their feudal   
superiors4 ,to prepare  for this        
warfare1 mock combats may occasionally  
have been engaged in as  early as the   
tenth century 7,fig4 #ab74    ,sidenote3
 ,religion1 honor1 and gallantry4       
,the ,ideals of ,chivalry4--,but by the 

middle of the twelfth century1  when the
 old heroic age had lapsed into an age  
of courtesy1 with  extravagant devotion 
to women and romantic adventure as its  
chief  ideals1 these encounters were    
organized into a definite species of    
pastime called #8tournaments1' and soon 
degenerated into mere pageantry4  ,hence
 the rules of chivalry became fixed and 
formal1 and the art of  horsemanship and
 the management of the lance and spear  
were developed  and settled4 ,the ideals
 of knightly conduct and education could
 then  be stated as #8service and       
obedience' to ,god1 as represented by   
the  organized church1 to one's lord1 or
 feudal superior1 and to one's lady1    
whose favor the knight wore in battle or
 tournament4 ,the three ruling  motives 
of chivalric education were1 therefore1 
held to be #8religion1  honor1 and      
gallantry4'    ,sidenote3 ,training 7#a7
 at home1    ,sidenote3 7#b7 as a page1 
,sidenote3 and    ,sidenote3 7#c7 as a  
squire4    ,sidenote3 ,the knighting4   

,the ,three ,preparatory ,stages of     
,education4--,there were three periods  
in the preparatory training of a knight4
 ,first1 until the child was  seven or  
eight1 he was trained in religion1      
politeness1 and physique at  home by his
 mother4 ,after this he became a        
#8valet' or #8page' at the  home of a   
nobleman1 who was generally his father's
 feudal superior4  ,here he performed   
personal duties for his lord and lady1  
and his  education was conducted mostly 
by the latter4 ,he learned the game of  
chess1 acquired the etiquette of love   
and honor1 and was taught to  play the  
harp and pipe and to sing1 to read and  
write1 and to compose  in verse4        
,outside the castle1 the pages were     
trained in running1  wrestling1 boxing1 
riding1 and rudimentary tilting 7,fig4  
#ad74 ,in the  third stage1 at fourteen 
or fifteen the youth passed to the grade
 of  #8squire1' and1 while he still     
attended the lady and carved the meat   
or handed around the viands for the     

guests1 his chief service was to  the   
knight and his training came through    
him4 ,he slept near him at  night1      
groomed his horses1 kept his armor and  
weapons in condition1  and attended him 
at the tournament or upon the           
battlefield4 ,through  this service the 
squire himself was practiced in all the 
warlike  arts4 ,toward the close of the 
period the embryo knight also chose his 
lady-love1 and learned to write verses  
and dance4 ,when the squire  became     
twenty-one1 he was knighted with many   
religious ceremonies4  ,after a season  
of fasting1 the candidate entered the   
church in full  armor and spent a night 
in vigil and holy meditation4 ,in the   
morning he  confessed1 had his sword    
blessed upon the altar by the priest1   
and took  an oath to defend the church1 
protect women1 and succor the poor4 ,he 
then knelt before his lord1 who laid his
 own sword upon the candidate  and      
dubbed him knight4    ,sidenote3        
,courage1 but cruelty2    ,sidenote3    

self-respect1 but pride2    ,sidenote3  
liberality1 but extravagance2           
,sidenote3 and other anomalies4         
,sidenote3 ,counteraction of            
otherworldliness4    ,the ,effects of   
,chivalric ,education4--,such was the   
training of the  knight in the          
#8rudiments of love1 war1 and religion4'
 ,it contained  many apparent anomalies 
and contradictions1 and every virtue    
seems to  have been balanced by a       
correlative vice4 ,the knights were     
recklessly  courageous in battle1 but   
their anger was ungovernable and their  
cruelty extreme4 ,a great self-respect  
was supposed to characterize  the true  
knight1 but this often reacted into an  
overweening pride4  ,likewise1 while the
 knights were rated largely according to
 their  liberality and hospitality1     
these virtues degenerated into a great  
love of display and extravagance beyond 
measure4 ,again1 although great  respect
 for womanhood was inculcated1 not much 
consideration could be  expected by the 

woman beneath a certain rank4           
,similarly1 the knightly  word of honor1
 if accompanied by certain forms1 would 
be held sacred1  but should these forms 
be omitted1 a decided breach of faith   
was not  uncommon4 ,as a whole1 however1
 the chivalric training had a beneficial
  effect upon the society of the times4 
,it helped to organize the turmoil  and 
to refine the barbarism of medival      
,europe1 and was an effective           
instrument in raising the position of   
women4 ,moreover1 while this  peculiar  
training was artificial and worldly1 by 
that very tendency it  did much to      
counteract the #8otherworldly' ideal of 
monasticism and the  general asceticism 
of the period4 ,it encouraged an        
activity in earthly  affairs and a frank
 enjoyment of this life1 and thus helped
 to develop  a striking characteristic  
of the ,renaissance4                    
,,supplementary ,,reading    ,graves1   
,during the ,transition 7,macmillan1    
#aiaj71 chap4 ,,vii2 ,monroe1           

,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4     
#bhd-bia4 ,detailed descriptions of  the
 stages of chivalric training can be    
found in ,cornish1 ,f4 ,w41  ,chivalry  
7,sonnenschein1 ,london1 #aija7         
7,macmillan1 #aijh72 ,furnival1 ,f4     
,j41 ,early ,education in ,england      
7,forewords to ,the ,babees ,book1      
,early  ,english ,text ,society1        
,original ,series1 vol4 #cb72 and       
,mills1 ,c41 ,the  ,history of ,chivalry
 7,lea and ,blanchard1 ,philadelphia1   
#ahdd71 vol4  ,i1 chaps4 ,i-,v1 and vol4
 ,,ii1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,an ingenious1 but  
uncritical  reconstruction of the life  
of a knight in story form1 is found in  
,gautier1 ,l41 ,chivalry1 chaps4        
,v-,,xx4    ,illustration3 ,the         
,education of ,chivalry3    ,figs4 #ab  
and #ac4--,preliminaries and termination
 of a combat4    ,fig4 #ad4--;,boys     
playing tournament with a #8quintain1'  
or dummy opponent4    7,reproduced from 
,strutt1 ,sports and ,pastimes of       
,england47          ,,chapter ,,xi      

,,the ,,burgher1 ,,gild1 ,,and ,,chantry
 ,,schools      ,,outline        ,in the
 later ,middle ,ages the commerce of    
,europe was greatly      increased4     
,soon the towns received a large impulse
 from serfs that      flocked into them1
 and before long an influential         
#8burgher class'      arose4            
,there also sprang up merchant and craft
 gilds1 which afforded an               
industrial training through             
apprenticeship1 and a more formal       
education through #8gild schools4' ,as  
the gilds merged with the      town1    
these institutions became #8burgher     
schools1' and afforded a      practical 
education in reading1 writing1 and      
reckoning4 ,various      #8adventure1'  
#8chantry1' and other schools were also 
absorbed by the      burgher schools4   
,thus these institutions came to        
represent the educational interests     
of the industrial classes1 and paved the
 way for the civic control      of      
education4    ,sidenote3 ,impulse caused

 by ,crusades and desire for luxuries4  
,the ,rise of ,commerce and             
,industry4--,a most important influence 
in  producing a transition from the     
medival to modern times is found in  the
 increase of commerce during the later  
,middle ,ages4 ,from the ,roman  days   
down1 trade had never died out in       
,western ,europe1 especially  ,italy1   
despite the injuries wrought by         
barbarian invasions1 as the  nobles had 
always need of luxuries1 and the ,church
 of articles of  utility in its         
services4 ,but the demand for vessels   
and transports  during the ,crusades1   
and the desire for the precious stones1 
silks1  perfumes1 drugs1 spices1 and    
porcelain from the ,orient afterward1   
gave a tremendous impulse to commercial 
and industrial activity4 ,the  people of
 ,europe began to think of what articles
 others outside their  own little groups
 might want in exchange for these       
luxuries1 and to  strive to produce such
 commodities4 ,they also undertook      

themselves  to make some of the new     
articles1 such as light and gauzy cotton
 and  linen fabrics1 silks1 velvets1 and
 tapestries4 ,thus the means of         
communication between the ,european     
states was greatly facilitated1 new     
commercial routes and new regions were  
opened1 geographical knowledge  was     
increased1 navigation was developed1    
maritime and mercantile  affairs were   
organized1 manufactures and industries  
were enlarged1  currency was increased1 
and forms of credit were improved4 ,all 
this  tended toward a larger            
intellectual view and a partial         
dissipation of  provincialism and       
intolerance4    ,sidenote3 ,contributed 
to the growth of cities1    ,development
 of ,cities and the ,burgher            
,class4--,the most noteworthy           
consequence of this industrial and      
commercial awakening was the growth  of 
towns and cities4 ,there was little town
 life in ,western ,europe  during the   
,middle ,ages before the twelfth        

century1 as the old ,roman  towns had1  
through the invasions of the ,germans1  
largely disintegrated1  and but few new 
organizations had sprung up in their    
place4 ,while  some towns still existed 
in ,italy and ,southern ,france1 most of
 the  people of ,europe lived in the    
country upon feudal estates4 ,these     
little communities were largely isolated
 and independent of the rest  of the    
world4 ,they produced among themselves  
all that their members  needed1 and     
little or no money was necessary for    
their crude forms of  exchange4 ,their  
life was unbroken in its monotony1 there
 was little  opportunity for them to    
better their condition1 and their       
industries  were carried on in a        
perfunctory and wasteful fashion4 ,but  
with the  growth of commerce and        
population1 these serfs began to find it
 more  profitable to work in the towns  
and compensate the lord of the manor    
with money rather than work1 and the    
lords1 in turn1 found it of  advantage  

to accept money in lieu of services1    
especially as many of  them had been    
impoverished by the ,crusades4 ,great   
bodies of serfs  flocked to the towns1  
and new centers sprang up around the    
manorial  estates and monasteries as    
manufactures1 trades1 and commerce      
increased4    ,sidenote3 and to the     
development of a burgher class4         
,feudalism thus began to be threatened  
as early as the twelfth  century1 and   
within a hundred years the extinction of
 serfdom was  assured4 ,the people soon 
rebelled against the rule of their lords
 and  either expelled them altogether or
 secured from them for a monetary       
consideration a charter conferring more 
liberal rights and privileges4  ,by     
these charters1 the lord agreed to      
recognize the gild of merchants1  and to
 permit the people to govern themselves4
 ,as industries1 trade1  and commerce   
continued to develop1 the craftsmen and 
merchants grew  rapidly in wealth and   
importance4 ,they were soon enabled to  

rival the  clergy in education1 and the 
nobility in the luxury of their         
dwellings  and living4 ,they began to   
read1 and books were written or adapted 
for  their needs4 ,the #8burgher class' 
came to have a recognized position by   
the side of the clergy and nobility2 and
 the king1 in order to retain  their    
support1 was forced to take counsel with
 them4 ,this development  of industry   
and commerce1 growth of town and city   
life1 and rise of a  #8third estate' is 
one of the most noteworthy changes of   
the late ,middle  ,ages4    ,sidenote3  
,stages of    ,sidenote3 7#a7 apprentice
    ,sidenote3 7#b7 journeyman1 and     
7#c7 master4    ,the ,gilds and         
,industrial ,education4--,such a new    
social attitude  naturally gave rise to 
new forms of education4 ,an informal    
type of  training soon sprang up in     
connection with the development of      
#8gilds4'  ,besides the original gild of
 merchants1 through which the town had  
presented a united front and gained its 

privileges1 separate gilds  for the     
various crafts had been established in  
each town4 ,these craft  gilds were the 
sole repositories of the traditional    
lore of the  vocations1 and became the  
chief channel for transmitting it4      
,while  their number and variety        
differed in each town1 all the gilds    
sought to  prevent anyone who had not   
been regularly approved and admitted to 
the  corporation from practicing the    
trade he represented4 ,in consequence   
of this attempt at regulation1          
industrial training in the craft of     
each gild grew up through an            
apprenticeship system4 ,this was        
provided  upon a domestic basis4 ,the   
#8apprentice' entered the household of  
his  #8master1' and learned the craft   
under his direction 7,fig4 #ae74 ,the   
time  necessary for this varied greatly 
in different crafts4 ,for example1  in  
,paris it took two years to learn to    
become a cook1 eight years an           
embroiderer1 and ten years a goldsmith4 

,while the apprentice received  no wages
 during this period1 he was under the   
protection of the gild1  and might      
appeal to the organization against      
ill-treatment or defective  training4   
,at the end of his apprenticeship1 he   
became a #8journeyman'  and could earn  
wages1 but only by working for a master1
 and not through  direct service for the
 public4 ,after an examination by the   
gild1  which might include the          
presentation of a #8masterpiece1' or    
sample of  his work1 the journeyman     
eventually became a master4 ,in other   
ways1  the organization regulated and   
protected its craft4 ,in order that     
journeymen and masters might not become 
too numerous1 all masters1 save  those  
on the governing board of the gild1 were
 forbidden to take more  than one       
apprentice4 ,the methods of practicing  
each trade and the hours  to be devoted 
to it each day were specified1 and the  
handiwork of each  man carefully        
scrutinized4 ,in many instances1 the    

gild put its own  stamp upon good work1 
and might often seize products that it  
considered  defective4    ,sidenote3 ,a 
more formal means of education was      
instituted through  priests of the gilds
 and endowments4    ,gild ,schools4--,in
 this way there grew up a species of    
industrial  education1 with three       
definite stages in its organization and 
with  inspection at every point4 ,before
 long1 too1 the gilds developed a  more 
formal means of education4 ,the existing
 ecclesiastical schools  did not        
altogether meet the needs of the gilds1 
and they undertook  the establishment of
 additional institutions for this       
purpose4 ,where  the gilds had retained 
one or more priests to perform the      
necessary  religious offices for their  
members1 before long they also utilized 
these functionaries to keep a school for
 the benefit of their own and  sometimes
 other children in the town4 ,later1    
endowments were furnished  especially   
for a priest to teach school1 or an     

amount sufficient for  the purpose was  
paid out of the common funds of the     
gild4 ,some of these  gild schools1 like
 #8,merchant ,taylors'' of ,london1 or  
the ,grammar ,school  at                
,stratford-on-,avon1 where ,shakespeare 
was educated 7,fig4 #af71 still  survive
 as secondary institutions4 ,many       
instances1 too1 are recorded  where the 
members of a certain gild were appointed
 trustees of a  school established by an
 individual1 and were granted the right 
of  appointing and dismissing the       
master1 admitting the pupils1 managing  
the property1 and formulating statutes4 
,in some such fashion ,colet  later     
vested the management of the famous ,st4
 ,paul's school 7see p4  #aah7 in the   
gild of mercers4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #ae4--;,apprenticeship training in a   
gild4 7,the master  bootmaker and his   
wife1 two journeymen1 and an            
apprentice47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#af4--;,gild school and church at       
,stratford-on-,avon4  7,in this         

#8grammar' school ,shakespeare learned  
#8little ,latin and less  ,greek4'7     
,sidenote3 ,gild schools absorbed by the
 burgher schools4    ,sidenote3         
,practical course4    ,burgher          
,schools4--,as the gild organizations   
gradually merged with  those of the     
towns1 the gild schools were generally  
absorbed in the  institutions known as  
#8burgher' or town schools4 ,at first   
these burgher  schools were not very    
dissimilar to those established by the  
,church1  except that they were more    
conveniently located1 but later various 
types of vernacular schools arose to    
meet special practical demands1         
especially writing and reckoning4 ,the  
,latin burgher schools were also        
somewhat practical in their course1 and 
often admitted some pupils who  desired 
to learn only to read1 write1 and       
reckon4 ,writing had become  an         
important vocation1 since printing had  
not yet been invented2 and  there was a 
definite demand for writers in public   

offices1 private  secretaries1 letter   
writers for the illiterate1 and teachers
 of  writing4 ,reckoning grew directly  
out of the new commercial life1 and  was
 often taught in the writing schools4   
,it was not taught from the  standpoint 
of theory or discipline1 as was the     
arithmetic in the ,latin  schools1 but  
for the sake of practical calculation   
and bookkeeping4 ,but  even all the     
facilities of the regular ,latin and    
vernacular schools of  the town were not
 sufficient to meet the demand for a    
more practical  education4 ,in          
consequence1 private #8adventure'       
schools1 taught by  wandering teachers  
or by women1 likewise often sprang up1  
and some  teachers were even licensed by
 the town authorities to teach the      
vernacular4 ,in most instances1 however1
 these institutions were also  combined 
with the burgher schools4    ,sidenote3 
,arose from foundations for masses for  
the dead4    ,chantry                   
,schools4--,another type of institution 

that came into  prominence toward the   
close of the ,middle ,ages was the      
#8chantry  school4' ,schools of this    
sort at first arose out of bequests by  
wealthy  persons to support priests who 
should #8chant' masses for the repose of
  their souls4 ,since these religious   
duties did not absorb all the time  of  
the priests1 they were able to do some  
teaching4 ,and before long1  the        
founders of chantries themselves came to
 direct that the priests  carrying out  
their will should be required to teach4 
,often two chantry  priests were        
provided1 one to teach a #8grammar'     
school1 and the other  a #8song' or     
vernacular school4 ,from the first most 
of these chantry  schools were free of  
all tuition charges1 the priest being   
requested  to 8teach gratis1 without    
asking anything beyond his stipend for  
his  pains10 but occasionally they were 
gratuitous only to the children of  his 
parishioners or to poor children whose  
parents or guardians asked  for the     

privilege4    ,sidenote3 ,paved the way 
for a more secularized education4       
,influence of the ,new ,schools4--,the  
chantry schools likewise were  often    
united with various other schools within
 a town1 and became  jointly known as   
#8burgher schools4' ,many new           
foundations of a similar  nature were   
also made4 ,these burgher schools were  
largely controlled  and supported by the
 public authorities1 although still     
generally  taught by the priests4 ,they 
came to represent the interests of the  
mercantile and industrial classes1 and  
gave instruction in subjects  of more   
practical value than had any of the     
schools hitherto4 ,such  institutions   
sprang up everywhere during the later   
,middle ,ages4 ,they  were often        
strongly opposed by the ecclesiastical  
authorities1 who  struggled hard to     
abolish them or bring them under        
control1 but they  continued to grow and
 hold their own4 ,the number of lay     
teachers in  them gradually increased1  

and thus paved the way for the tendency 
toward the secularization and civic     
control of education that appeared      
later on4 ,the new schools1 therefore1  
that arose in connection with the       
development of commerce and industry and
 the growth of towns1 were one  of the  
largest factors that led into the       
broadening of outlook known as  the     
,renaissance4      ,,supplementary      
,,reading    ,graves1 ,during the       
,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 chap4  
,x2 ,monroe1  ,text-book 7,macmillan1   
#aije71 pp4 #ccg-cci4 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b41  
,civilization  during the ,middle ,ages 
7,scribner1 #ahid71 furnishes an        
illuminating  chapter 7,,xii7 upon the  
,growth of ,commerce and ,its ,results4 
,the  development of towns and gilds in 
various countries of ,europe is         
described in detail by ,ashley1 ,w4 ,j41
 ,english ,economic ,history and        
,theory 7,putnam1 #ahib71 vol4 ,i1 chap4
 ,,ii2 ,green1 ,alice ,s41 ,town ,life  
in the ,fifteenth ,century 7,macmillan1 

#ahid72 ,gross1 ,c41 ,the ,gild         
,merchant 7,oxford1 ,clarendon ,press1  
#ahij72 ,staley1 ,e41 ,the ,guilds  of  
,florence 7,methuen1 ,london1 #aijf72   
and ,unwin1 ,g41 ,the ,gilds and        
,companies of ,london 7,methuen1        
,london1 #aijh2 ,scribner1 #aiji74      
,accounts  of the new types of schools  
are found in ,leach1 ,a4 ,f41 ,english  
,schools  at the ,reformation           
7,constable1 #ahif71 chaps4 #g-i2       
,nohle1 ,e41 ,history  of the ,german   
,school ,system 7,report of the ,u4 ,s4 
,commissioner of  ,education1           
#ahig-ahih1 vol4 ,i71 pp4 #bb-bf2 and   
,watson1 ,f41 ,english  ,grammar        
,schools to #affj 7,cambridge           
,university ,press1 #aiji71 chap4       
,,vii4          ,,part ,,iii    ,,the   
,,transition ,,to ,,modern ,,times      
,,chapter ,,xii    ,,the ,,humanistic   
,,education      ,,outline        ,by   
the fourteenth century there appeared an
 intellectual awakening1      known as  
the ,renaissance4 ,it was accompanied by

 a #8revival of      learning' and an   
education called #8humanistic4'         
,italy first showed evidence of the new 
movement4 ,the      characteristics of  
the ,renaissance were embodied in       
,petrarch and      ,boccaccio1 but      
little was done with the ,greek classics
 until      ,chrysoloras came from      
,constantinople4        ,the tyrants of 
various cities often had humanistic     
schools started      at their courts4   
,of these the most typical was that     
under ,vittorino      da ,feltre4 ,these
 schools eventually forced the          
universities to      admit the          
humanities to their course4 ,but        
humanism gradually      degenerated into
 #8,ciceronianism4'        ,humanistic  
education also gradually spread to the  
countries north      of ,italy1 but it  
there took on more of a moral color4 ,in
 ,france1      the protection of        
,francis ,i encouraged the introduction 
of humanism      into educational       
institutions by various scholars4 ,the  

,german      universities likewise began
 to respond to humanistic influences4   
,the ,hieronymians first introduced the 
classics into the schools1      and     
,erasmus1 who was trained by them1      
became the leader in      humanistic    
education4 ,through other humanistic    
schools started by      ,sturm and      
others1 the #8gymnasium1' the typical   
classical school of      ,germany1 was  
evolved1 and the humanistic education   
became fixed and      formal4        ,in
 ,england the movement gradually        
developed at ,oxford and                
,cambridge1 and ,colet started ,st4     
,paul's school1 which became the        
model for all secondary schools4        
,humanism in ,england1 however1         
soon retrograded into a formalism1 and  
the #8grammar' and #8public'            
schools there are little changed to-day4
        ,the first secondary schools in 
the ,american colonies were modeled     
after the grammar schools of the mother 
country4    ,sidenote3 ,medivalism      

contained the germ of its own           
emancipation4    ,the ,passing of the   
,middle ,ages4--,it can now be seen that
 a new  spirit had crept into ,european 
civilization1 and that the ,middle ,ages
  were passing4 ,we have previously     
noted 7pp4 #ec;f47 that1 in order  to   
bring the ,german barbarians up to the  
level of the past1 it was  necessary for
 the ,church to set an authoritative    
standard and repress  all variation on  
the part of the individual4 ,yet such   
bondage of the  human spirit was        
unnatural1 and there were periodic      
tendencies to  rebel against the system4
 ,in fact1 medivalism contained within  
itself  the germ of its own             
emancipation4 ,during the eighth century
 there  came about a new political      
order1 which culminated in              
,charlemagne's  revival of education4   
,while conditions were never again as   
desperate  after this stimulus1 with the
 disruption of ,charlemagne's empire    
another decline set in4 ,but by the     

thirteenth century a new revival1       
material and intellectual1 had also     
appeared4 ,several developments gave    
evidence of the expansion within1 and   
assisted in producing it4 ,the          
broadening of horizon through contact   
with the ,moors1 the development  of    
scholasticism1 the evolution of         
universities1 the worldly appeal  of    
chivalry1 and the growth of cities1     
gilds1 and commerce were all  helping by
 accumulation to dispel the medival     
spirit4    ,sidenote3 ,the general      
tendencies of the ,awakening    ,and by 
the fourteenth century a new dawn had   
been ushered in4 ,the  period that      
followed was marked by a general        
intellectual and cultural  progress that
 began to free men from their bondage to
 ecclesiasticism  and to induce them to 
look at the world about them4 ,the      
adherence to  an #8otherworldly' ideal1 
the restriction of learning1 the        
reception of  the teachings of the      
,church without investigation1 and the  

conformity  of the individual were by   
this time rapidly disappearing4 ,such   
tendencies were clearly being replaced  
by a genuine joy in the life  of this   
world1 a broader field of knowledge and 
thought1 a desire to  reason and deal   
with all ideas more critically1 and     
enlarged ideals of  individualism4 ,the 
days of mere absorption and assimilation
 had passed4    ,sidenote3 ,while the   
,renaissance was caused by internal     
factors1 it was  promoted by the        
,revival of ,learning4    ,sidenote3    
,humanists and humanistic education4    
,the ,renaissance and the ,revival of   
,learning4--,this tremendous  widening  
of horizon has been generally known as  
the ,renaissance  or #8new birth4' ,the 
term is used to indicate that the spirit
 of  the ,grco-,roman development had   
returned1 and that opportunity for      
expression was granted to the individual
 once more4 ,but this period  is also   
appropriately known as the #8,revival of
 ,learning4' ,for1 while  the awakening 

preceded and was caused by internal     
factors1 rather than  by the recovery of
 classical literature and learning1     
intellectual  freedom was very greatly  
heightened and forwarded after a        
restoration  of the classics once began4
 ,the only food at hand that could      
satisfy  the awakened intelligence of   
the times was the literature and culture
  of the classical peoples4 ,the        
discovery that the writings of the      
ancient world were filled with a genuine
 vitality and virility1 and  that the   
old authors had dealt with world        
problems in a profound and  masterly    
fashion1 and with far more vision than  
had ever been possible  for the         
medivalists1 gave rise to an eager      
desire and enthusiasm for  the classics 
that went beyond all bounds4 ,a         
knowledge of classical  literature had  
never altogether disappeared1 and       
various works had  been preserved by the
 monks and others4 ,to search out the   
manuscripts  of the ,latin and ,greek   

writers1 the monasteries1 cathedrals1   
and  castles were now ransacked from end
 to end4 ,the manuscripts found were    
rapidly multiplied1 and the greatest    
pains taken to secure the correct  form 
of every passage4 ,the devotees of the  
new movement were generally  called     
#8humanists1' and the training embodying
 the classics has since  been termed    
#8humanistic education4'    ,sidenote3  
,political storm center4    ,sidenote3  
,commercial activity4    ,sidenote3     
,home of the classics4    ,causes of the
 ,awakening in ,italy4--,while the      
general tendency toward  an awakening   
was apparent throughout ,western        
,europe1 it first became  evident in    
,italy4 ,this was due to the fact that  
,italy was at the time  a seat of       
intellectual activity resulting from    
several factors4 ,it was  a storm center
 for civic and interstate quarrels1 and1
 as a result  of this political unrest1 
the citizens were kept constantly on the
  outlook for their own safety and      

interests1 and their wits were greatly  
sharpened4 ,even the exile1 into which  
one civic faction or another  was       
constantly forced1 had the effect of    
broadening their vision  and bringing   
out the greatest possibilities within   
them4 ,again1 the  commercial           
intercourse of the ,italian cities with 
other countries had1  for various       
physiographic and historic reasons1     
become extraordinarily  active4 ,this   
tended to open the minds of the         
,italians1 break up their  old          
conceptions1 free them of prejudice1 and
 increase their thirst for  learning4   
,furthermore1 the ghost of the classic  
ages still haunted its  old home4 ,a    
knowledge of the ,latin tongue had never
 ceased to exist in  ,italy1 and many   
manuscripts of the ,latin and ,greek    
authors had been  preserved4 ,there was 
only needed an intellectual awakening   
sufficient  to shake off the thraldom to
 the ,church and produce an appreciation
 of  classical literature and culture1  

in order to bring back this spirit of   
the past into real pulsating life4      
,sidenote3 ,petrarch embodied the       
,renaissance spirit1    ,sidenote3 and  
was an enthusiast on the ,latin         
classics4    ,sidenote3 ,his influence4 
,the ,revival of the ,latin             
,classics4--,the earliest of the great  
humanists was ,petrarch 7#acjd-acgd74   
,in him we find the very embodiment  of 
the ,renaissance spirit4 ,he completely 
repudiated the #8otherworldly'  ideal of
 medivalism1 and was keenly aware of the
 beauties and joys of  this life4 ,he   
did not hesitate to attack the most     
hoary of traditions1  nor to rely upon  
observation1 investigation1 and reason4 
,he likewise  felt a kinship with the   
thinkers and writers of the classic age1
 when  independence and breadth were    
given more scope1 and held that their   
works must be recovered before their    
spirit could be continued4 ,this  led to
 a tremendous enthusiasm for the ,latin 
classics1 and he spent  much of his life

 in restoring ancient culture4 ,he      
devoted himself  during his extensive   
travels largely to collecting           
manuscripts of the  old ,latin writers1 
which previously had been widely        
scattered1 and  endeavoring to repair in
 them the ravages of time4 ,and he      
inspired  every one he met with a desire
 to gather and study the works of the   
classic authors4 ,he also wrote a number
 of ,latin works that were  filled with 
the classic spirit4 ,among them were    
several collections  of ,letters1 a work
 of erudition ,on ,famous ,men1 and an  
epic poem  in honor of ,scipio          
,africanus that he called ,africa4 ,some
 of his  letters were indited to        
,cicero1 ,homer1 and other classical    
authors as  if they were still living4  
,after he had been crowned as poet      
laureate  by the ,university of ,rome in
 #acda1 he spent most of his time       
visiting  various ,italian cities and   
spreading the humanistic spirit4 ,of the
  younger scholars and literary men     

influenced by him probably the most     
noted was ,boccaccio 7#acac-acge74      
,through ,petrarch this youthful poet   
developed a perfect passion for the     
ancient writers1 and devoted the  rest  
of his life to classical culture4 ,he   
obtained a wide knowledge of  the ,latin
 writers1 and searched out1 preserved1  
and had copied as many  manuscripts as  
possible4    ,sidenote3 ,little was at  
first known of the ,greek classics4     
,sidenote3 ,chrysoloras    ,sidenote3   
and his pupils4    ,the ,development of 
,greek ,scholarship4--,with all this    
revival of  ,latin literature by the    
cterie of ,petrarch1 for some time there
 was  little done with the ,greek4 ,that
 language had almost disappeared in     
,europe1 and the greatest ,greek authors
 were known only through ,latin         
translations4 ,but a knowledge of the   
,greek language and literature  still   
persisted in the ,eastern empire1 and   
the humanists of ,italy were1  through  
the works of the ,latin authors1        

constantly directed back to the         
writings of the ,greeks4 ,they became   
eager to read them in the original1  and
 several humanists began the study of   
,greek4 ,nevertheless1 ,petrarch        
pathetically confessed3 8,homer is dumb 
to me1 while ,i am most certainly  deaf 
to him40 ,and while1 with the aid of his
 ,greek teacher1 ,boccaccio  made a     
translation of ,homer1 it showed little 
real appreciation of the  original4 ,not
 until ,chrysoloras 7#acej-adae7 came as
 an envoy from the  ,eastern emperor and
 was induced in #acif to settle in      
,italy and teach  ,greek1 was any       
systematic training possible4 ,during   
the next sixteen  years this man of     
learning taught in the leading centers1 
established  schools1 made translations 
of ,greek authors1 and wrote a ,greek   
grammar4  ,from his efforts sprang a    
number of famous scholars1 such as      
,vergerio1  ,niccolo de' ,niccoli1      
,bruni1 and ,guarino da ,verona and his 
son4 ,these  men collected or copied    

hundreds of volumes1 started libraries  
and  schools1 made excellent            
translations1 wrote treatises on        
humanistic  education1 and trained a    
number of humanists1 who became         
distinguished  later4    ,sidenote3     
,city tyrants fostered humanism and     
started court schools4    ,the ,court   
,schools and ,vittorino da ,feltre4--,a 
powerful support  for the work of these 
humanists resulted from the rivalry of  
the  ,italian cities4 ,the princes at   
the head of these centers were often    
usurpers1 and depended largely upon city
 pride to maintain their  power4 ,to    
appeal to the classical enthusiasm of   
their people1 they  did everything      
possible to propagate the humanistic    
movement and make  their cities         
illustrious4 ,probably the most typical 
examples of these  humanistic tyrants   
are found among the ,visconti at ,milan 
and the ,medici  at ,florence4 ,in some 
instances these court circles promoted  
the new  learning informally1 but often1

 where a scholar had been taken into    
the family of a prince as private tutor1
 children of the neighboring            
aristocracy were associated and a       
regular school was started4 #8,court    
schools' of this sort soon existed at   
,florence1 ,venice1 ,padua1 ,pavia1     
,verona1 ,ferrara1 and several other    
cities1 but the best known of all  was  
that organized by ,vittorino da ,feltre 
7#acgh-addf7 at ,mantua4    ,sidenote3  
,types of pupils4    ,sidenote3 ,the aim
 was harmonious development of mind1    
body1 and  morals4    ,the ,court       
,school at ,mantua4--,vittorino         
undertook this school at  forty-five1   
when he had received the best possible  
education of the  times in ,latin1      
,greek1 and mathematics1 and had greatly
 distinguished  himself as a teacher and
 a man of piety4 ,he received into the  
school  not only the royal princes and  
the scions of the leading ,mantuan      
families1 but1 by special permission1   
the sons of his personal friends  and   

promising boys of every degree4 ,he     
dwelt with his pupils1 and was  most    
strict in his selection of masters and  
of attendants1 that the  morals of his  
pupils might be of the highest4         
,likewise1 #8the father  of his pupils1'
 as ,vittorino held himself to be1      
looked out for their  food1 clothing1   
and health1 and shared in their games1  
interests1  and pleasures4 ,it was his  
intention to secure for his pupils that 
harmonious development of mind1 body1   
and morals that the old ,greeks  had    
known as a #8liberal education1' but he 
emphasized the practical and  social    
side of the individual's efficiency1 and
 wished to prepare his  pupils for a    
life of activity and service rather than
 to create mere  rhetoricians and       
pedants4    ,sidenote3 ,course and      
methods4    ,sidenote3 ,classics and    
mathematical subjects4    ,sidenote3    
,physical and moral and religious       
training4    ,this he felt could be     
accomplished largely through a          

grammatical and  literary study of the  
,greek and ,roman writers4 ,the pupils  
learned from  the first to converse in  
,latin1 and there were games with       
letters for  the youngest and simple    
exercises to train them in clear        
articulation  and proper accent and     
emphasis4 ,before they were ten1 they   
were also  drilled in memorizing and    
reciting with intelligence the easier   
portions of the classic authors4 ,this  
elocutionary work1 which was  increased 
in length and difficulty as the boys    
grew older1 gave them an  excellent     
grasp of vocabulary1 rhythm1 and style4 
,as they advanced1 the  pupils read a   
variety of ,latin writers1 and soon took
 up a study of the  ,greek authors and  
of the ,church ,fathers4 ,the           
mathematical subjects were  also taught 
with an enlarged scope1 especially in   
their applications  to drawing1         
mensuration1 and surveying4 ,because of 
the lack of books1  the teaching was    
carried on largely by dictation4        

,vittorino1 however1  carefully studied 
the ability1 interests1 and future      
career of his  pupils1 and selected the 
subjects and methods best suited to each
  intelligence4 ,he thus inaugurated a  
thoroughly elastic course for the       
school4 ,physical and moral education   
were likewise insisted upon quite  as   
fully as intellectual4 ,vittorino       
introduced especially fencing1          
wrestling1 dancing1 ball-playing1       
running1 and leaping1 in all of  which  
he was himself an expert1 but the       
purpose of these was to aid  and        
stimulate the mental powers4 ,he also by
 both precept and example  inculcated   
piety1 reverence1 and religious         
observances4 ,he believed1  moreover1   
that truth and moral beauty could be    
derived not only from  the ,christian   
authors1 but also1 by means of          
expurgation1 from the  classic writings4
    ,sidenote3 ,rivalry and adoption of 
the new learning by the  universities4  
,the ,relation of the ,court ,schools to

 the ,universities4--,the court  school 
at ,mantua had thus a most potent       
influence upon the educational  practice
 of the times1 and trained a large      
number of distinguished  ecclesiastics1 
statesmen1 scholars1 and rulers4 ,it    
doubtless was  broadly typical of the   
court schools and of the humanistic     
education of  ,italy in general4 ,these 
court schools1 while taking pupils very 
early1  often retained them until they  
were twenty-one1 and covered as much1   
if not more1 ground than the arts course
 of the university4 ,they were1  in a   
way1 competitors of the older           
institutions4 ,a student might1 for  the
 sake of a degree1 go from a court      
school to a university1 but1 as  a rule1
 if what he wished were a general       
course1 he would be satisfied  with the 
greater prestige that came from being a 
pupil of one of the  distinguished      
humanists that the court schools were   
generally able to  retain at their head4
 ,in fact1 the want of hospitality1 if  

not actual  hostility1 of universities  
to the new learning1 often stimulated   
the  growth of court schools4 ,in many  
instances where the university was      
especially conservative1 a court school 
was set up by its side as a  professed  
rival4 ,gradually1 however1 the         
humanistic training crept  into all the 
universities of ,italy1 and the         
classical literature of  the ,greeks and
 ,romans largely took the place of the  
former grammar1  rhetoric1 and          
dialectic4 ,before the close of the     
fifteenth century1  ,florence1 ,padua1  
,pavia1 ,milan1 ,ferrara1 ,rome1 and    
other cities had  admitted the          
humanities to their universities1 and   
the other university  seats were not    
long in following their example4        
,sidenote3 ,humanism eventually became  
formalized and largely a drill in       
grammar4    ,sidenote3                  
#8,ciceronianism4'    ,decadence of     
,italian ,humanism4--,toward the close  
of the fifteenth  century1 however1 this

 liberal education of the humanists in  
,italy  began to be fixed and formal4   
,until the middle of the century the    
ideals1 content1 and meaning of this    
training were constantly  expanding1 but
 after that there was a gradual         
narrowing and hardening1  and during the
 early years of the sixteenth century   
the degeneration  became complete4 ,as  
the subject-matter became               
institutionalized1  the literature of   
the ,greeks and ,romans failed more and 
more to be  interpreted in terms of     
life4 ,emphasis was placed upon the form
 rather  than the content of the        
classical writings1 and grammatical     
drill  was more and more emphasized as a
 means of formal discipline4 ,before    
long the course was limited largely to  
,cicero1 and the new learning  fell into
 that decadent state known as           
#8,ciceronianism4' ,it consisted  simply
 in an attempt to teach a perfect style 
with ,cicero as a model1  and to give   
one a conversational knowledge of       

,ciceronian ,latin4 ,the  structure1    
metaphors1 and vocabulary of all ,latin 
writing had to be  copied from the      
phrases of ,cicero1 and the literature  
of the day became  little more than a   
sequence of model passages from that    
author4    ,sidenote3 ,through the      
invention of printing humanism leaped   
the ,alps4    ,the ,spread and          
,character of ,humanism in the ,northern
 ,countries4--,such  was the effect of  
the ,renaissance upon education in the  
country of its  birth4 ,but the         
humanistic training could not be        
confined to ,italy4 ,by  the middle of  
the fifteenth century1 with the         
invention of printing1  the texts of the
 classic authors were rapidly multiplied
 and spread  everywhere4 ,the           
,renaissance and the classic literature 
leaped the ,alps1  and made their way   
into ,france1 the ,teutonic countries1  
,england1 and  elsewhere4 ,at first1    
humanistic scholars wandered into the   
,north1 soon  others were invited in    

large numbers by patrons of learning1   
and1 at  length1 students from the      
,northern countries thronged into ,italy
 for  instruction4 ,towards the close of
 the fifteenth century the humanists    
outside the peninsula became very       
numerous1 and during the sixteenth      
century the movement came to its height 
in the ,northern lands4    ,sidenote3   
,less individual and more social in the 
,north4    ,sidenote3 ,use of ,greek and
 ,hebrew4    ,but the character and     
effects of the ,renaissance and humanism
 in the  ,north differed greatly from   
those in the country of their origin4   
,the  peoples of the ,north1 especially 
those of ,germanic stock1 were by       
nature more religious than the brilliant
 and mercurial ,italians4 ,with  them   
the ,renaissance led less to a desire   
for personal development1               
self-realization1 and individual        
achievement1 and took on more of  a     
social and moral color4 ,the prime      
purpose of humanism became the          

improvement of society1 morally and     
religiously1 and the classical  revival 
pointed the way to obtaining a new and  
more exalted meaning  from the          
,scriptures4 ,through the revival of    
,greek1 ,northern scholars1  especially 
the ,german and ,english1 sought to get 
away from the  ecclesiastical doctrines 
and traditions1 and turn back to the    
essence  of ,christianity by studying   
the ,new ,testament in the original4    
,this  suggested a similar insight into 
the ,old ,testament1 and an interest in 
,hebrew was thereby aroused4 ,in        
consequence1 to most people in the      
,north  a renewed study of the ,bible   
became as important a feature of        
humanism  as an appreciation of the     
classics4    ,sidenote3 ,expeditions of 
,french kings into ,italy4    ,sidenote3
 ,francis ,i1    ,the ,development of   
,humanism in ,france4--,in ,france      
humanism appeared  early4 ,in #adeh a   
professorship of ,greek was established 
at the  ,university of ,paris1 but the  

humanistic movement did not amount to   
much in ,france until it was stimulated 
by the expeditions of ,charles  ,,viii  
7#adid7 and ,louis ,,xii 7#adih7 into   
,italy4 ,these undertakings of the      
monarchs did not attain the military and
 political objects intended1  but       
through them ,france came into direct   
contact with humanism at  its sources1  
and a definite impression was made upon 
,french art1  literature1 and education4
 ,even then1 owing to the conservatism  
of the  university1 the new learning met
 at first with formidable opposition4   
,happily1 it found an influential patron
 in the youthful ,francis ,i 7r4        
#aeae-aedg74    ,sidenote3 and ,budus4  
,sidenote3 ,corderius1 and ,ramus4      
,sidenote3 ,college of ,guyenne4        
,french ,humanistic ,educators and      
,institutions4--,under the protection   
of ,francis1 many prominent humanistic  
scholars and educators1 like  ,budus    
7#adfh-aedj71 appeared1 classical       
manuscripts were collected1  ,greek and 

,latin authors were translated1         
treatises on humanistic  education were 
produced1 and the ,college of ,france1  
with chairs of  ,greek1 ,hebrew1 and    
,latin1 was established 7#aecj74        
,humanism was also  introduced into     
various colleges in ,paris and ,bordeaux
 by such scholars  and practical        
teachers as ,corderius 7#adgi-aefd7 and 
,ramus 7#aeae-aegb71  and many          
text-books and editions of the classics 
were published4 ,soon  most of the      
schools of ,france responded to the new 
training4 ,it would  hardly be possible 
to consider many of them1 but a brief   
description  of the course and          
administration in vogue at the ,college 
of ,guyenne1  taken from an account of  
one of its teachers1 may prove          
illuminating4  ,this college contained  
ten classes in secondary work1 and two  
years  more in philosophy1 which        
partially overlapped the faculty of arts
 in  the university4 ,latin and religion
 were taught throughout the secondary   

school1 and ,greek1 mathematics1        
rhetoric1 and declamation could be      
taken in the last three or four classes4
 ,the pupils were introduced  to the    
rudiments of ,latin through the         
vernacular1 and developmental  methods  
and enlivening disputations were used4  
,probably the general  conditions here  
were typical of the ,french humanistic  
schools  everywhere during the sixteenth
 century4    ,sidenote3 ,erfurt and     
other existing universities4            
,sidenote3 ,new universities4           
,humanism in the ,german                
,universities4--,before humanism was    
well  established in ,france1 however1  
it had also spread through the          
,teutonic countries4 ,by the end of the 
sixteenth century the ,german           
universities had begun to adopt the new 
learning4 ,in #adid ,erfurt  established
 a professorship of ,poetry and         
,eloquence1 which covered the  field of 
classic literature1 and lectures on     
humanistic subjects were  before long   

given in ,leipzig1 ,heidelberg1         
,tbingen1 ,ingoldstadt1 and  ,vienna4   
,likewise1 a number of new universities1
 ,wittenberg1 ,marburg1  ,knigsberg1 and
 ,jena1 were started upon a humanistic  
basis1 and before  the middle of the    
sixteenth century humanism prevailed in 
practically  all of the ,german         
universities4    ,sidenote3 ,at first   
instruction only in ,bible and          
vernacular1    ,sidenote3 but humanism  
added4    ,sidenote3 ,wessel1 ,agricola1
 ,reuchlin1    ,sidenote3 and           
,sidenote3 ,wimpfeling4    ,the         
,hieronymians and ,their ,schools4--,the
 earliest factor in ,germanic  humanism1
 however1 appeared in the education     
furnished by the  ,hieronymians1 or     
,brethren of the ,common ,lot4 ,for the 
instruction of  the poor1 this order had
 started schools1 or established        
teachers in  institutions already       
existing1 throughout the ,netherlands1  
,germany1  and ,france4 ,at first1 they 
stressed instruction in the ,bible and  

the  vernacular1 but1 as the ,italian   
influence began to be felt in the  upper
 countries1 they broadened the course by
 the addition of classic  literature and
 ,hebrew1 and the schools soon became   
recognized centers  of humanism and     
intellectual interests4 ,the pupils that
 were trained  there strengthened the   
new learning as teachers in the         
universities and  schools throughout    
,germany and the ,netherlands4 ,the     
first educator of  importance to        
introduce humanism into the ,hieronymian
 training seems  to have been ,wessel   
7#adbj-adhi74 ,he was preminently       
interested in  teaching1 and among his  
earliest pupils of distinction were     
,agricola  7#addc-adhe71 who had a most 
potent influence in introducing         
classics1  and ,reuchlin 7#adee-aebb71  
who taught the classics and ,hebrew at  
various  universities1 and produced a   
monumental grammar and lexicon upon  the
 latter subject4 ,an even more          
noteworthy teacher was ,wimpfeling      

7#adej-aebh71 who became professor1     
dean1 and rector at ,heidelberg4 ,he    
lectured upon the classical authors and 
the ,church ,fathers1 and wrote a       
number of treatises upon education1 in  
which he held to the attitude  of       
,northern humanism that all learning is 
vain which does not lead to  the        
advancement of mankind4 ,but1 while a   
true reformer1 he never broke  from the 
,church4    ,sidenote3 ,attitude of     
,erasmus4    ,sidenote3 ,his text-books1
    ,sidenote3 satires1    ,sidenote3   
and educational treatises4    ,erasmus1 
,leader in the ,humanistic ,education of
 the ,north4--,a  similar attitude was  
held by ,erasmus 7#adfg-aeca71 the      
greatest of the  humanists trained by   
the ,hieronymians4 ,while he was        
bitterly opposed  to the corruption and 
obscurantism of ecclesiastics1 he       
believed that  the remedy lay1 not in a 
division of the ,church1 but in the     
study  of the classics and the ,church  
,fathers1 and in the general removal  of

 ignorance4 ,accordingly1 to advance    
education1 he assisted in the           
preparation of ,lily's ,latin grammar1  
translated into ,latin the ,greek       
grammar of ,theodore of ,gaza1 and wrote
 a work on ,latin composition1  called  
,de ,copia ,verborum et ,rerum1 and an  
elementary text-book  of ,latin         
conversation on topics of the day1 known
 as ,colloquies4  ,similarly1 he        
produced treatises on the ,new          
,testament1 and popularized  the        
,gospels and ,church ,fathers through   
paraphrases4 ,even better known  are the
 satires that he wrote in ,latin to     
reform the abuses and  foibles of his   
times4 ,his ,adages and ,praise of      
,folly mercilessly  scored the          
absurdities and vices of the ,church and
 the priesthood1  and in his ,dialogue  
on ,ciceronianism he ridiculed some of  
the  narrower tendencies into which     
humanism had fallen4 ,he also made      
direct contributions to educational     
theory in his ,latin treatises on  ,the 

,liberal ,education of ,children1 ,the  
,right ,method of ,study1 and           
,courteous ,manners in ,boys1 which are 
almost modern in some of their          
recommendations4 ,learning1 morality1   
religion1 and good manners1 he  held1   
must be trained together1 and education 
must be open to everyone1  according to 
his or her ability4 ,it should be       
started in infancy by  the mothers1 and 
reading1 writing1 drawing1 and some     
knowledge of  familiar animals and      
objects taught by informal methods4 ,at 
seven  the boy is to be given a thorough
 training in the ,scriptures1 ,church   
,fathers1 and the classics1 and the     
content rather than the language and    
form of these works is to be stressed4  
,sidenote3 ,developed out of old schools
 for benefit of municipalities4         
,sidenote3 ,latin schools for           
,electorate of ,saxony4    ,the         
,development of ,gymnasiums3            
,melanchthon's ,work4--,it can thus be  
seen what a profound effect the         

humanists trained in the ,hieronymian   
schools had upon the ,teutonic          
universities and other educational      
institutions4 ,but there sprang up      
another set of schools1 known as        
,gymnasien1 that was an even more       
typical and lasting institutional       
development of the ,northern            
,renaissance4 ,these #8gymnasiums' grew 
largely out of the old cathedral and    
upper burgher schools1 and  were        
established for the benefit of the      
municipality1 rather than  for ,state   
and ,church4 ,their development was     
gradual1 but they were  given their     
first definite shaping by ,melanchthon  
7#adig-aefj74 ,after  a thorough        
humanistic training from his            
great-uncle1 ,reuchlin1 and  from the   
universities at ,heidelberg and         
,tbingen1 that scholar had  become      
associated with ,luther at the          
,university of ,wittenberg1 and was     
requested by the ,elector of ,saxony in 
#aebh to organize the schools in  his   

state4 ,the #8,latin ,schools1' which he
 planned for every town and  village of 
the electorate1 were divided into three 
classes1 and the  work in ,latin and    
religion was adapted to the grade4 ,not 
even ,greek or  ,hebrew appeared in the 
course2 much less the vernacular1       
mathematics1  science1 and history4     
,nevertheless1 it was from these        
municipal ,latin  schools1 when the     
course had been somewhat modified and   
expanded1 that  the #8gymnasium' may be 
said to have sprung4    ,sidenote3      
,piety1 knowledge1 and eloquence as     
ideals4    ,sidenote3 ,course of the ten
 classes4    ,sturm at ,strassburg4--,a 
further step in fixing the type and the 
first use of the term #8gymnasium' are  
found in the case of the  classical     
school organized by ,johann ,sturm      
7#aejg-aehi7 at ,strassburg  in #aech4  
,here during his forty-five years as    
rector1 ,sturm worked  out a gymnasial  
course of ten classes1 upon which the   
pupils entered  at six or seven years of

 age4 ,the aim of this training he held 
to be  #8piety1 knowledge1 and          
eloquence1' meaning by the last an      
ability to  speak and write ,latin      
readily4 ,for #8piety1' the ,lutheran   
catechism was  studied in ,german for   
three years1 and in ,latin for three    
years longer4  ,the ,sunday ,sermons    
were read in the fourth and fifth years1
 and  the ,letters of ,jerome also in   
the fifth year1 while the ,epistles  of 
,st4 ,paul were carefully studied from  
the sixth year through the  rest of the 
course4 ,on the #8knowledge' and        
#8eloquence' side1 ,latin  grammar was  
begun immediately and the drill         
continued for four years1  during which 
the pupil passed gradually from         
memorizing lists of words  used in      
everyday life and reading dialogues that
 embodied them to  the translation of   
,cicero and the easier ,latin poets4 ,in
 the fourth  year exercises in style    
were begun1 and this was accompanied by 
a  grammatical and literary study of    

,cicero1 ,vergil1 ,plautus1 ,terence1   
,martial1 ,horace1 ,sallust1 and other  
authors1 together with letter  writing1 
declamation1 disputation1 and the acting
 of plays4 ,greek was  begun in the     
fifth year1 and after three years of    
grammatical training1  ,demosthenes1 the
 dramatists1 ,homer1 and ,thucydides    
were undertaken4    ,sidenote3          
,formalism1    ,sidenote3 but wide      
influence4    ,formalism in the         
,gymnasiums4--,this training1 like that 
of the  ,italian humanists1 soon became 
set1 formal1 and mechanical4 ,while     
other  authors than ,cicero were read1  
the object was to acquire an ability  to
 read1 write1 and speak ,ciceronian     
,latin1 and words1 phrases1 and         
expressions were carefully committed4   
,the main emphasis throughout was  upon 
form1 with little regard for content1   
and the ,latin and ,greek  were largely 
regarded as an end in themselves4 ,yet  
the gymnasium of  ,sturm was an enormous
 success1 and was soon crowded with     

students4  ,his pupils became the       
headmasters of all the most prominent   
schools1  and through his wide          
correspondence with sovereigns and      
educators1  the course of study         
formulated by ,sturm became a model not 
only for  ,germany1 but1 in a sense1 for
 the rest of ,europe4 ,at any rate1 most
  of the existing secondary schools in  
,germany1 and many founded later1       
became gymnasiums4 ,the majority of the 
,hieronymian schools soon adopted  the  
gymnasial course4 ,this was also the    
case with the ,frstenschulen1  or       
#8princes' schools1' a type of          
institution started in #aedc by ,duke   
,moritz of ,saxony to train             
well-prepared officials for ,church and 
,state at public expense1 and afterward 
absorbed into the gymnasial  system4    
,and the gymnasiums have to-day changed 
but little from ,sturm's  organization4 
,owing to the later influence of        
realism1 the addition of  mathematics1  
modern languages1 and the natural       

sciences has somewhat  mitigated the    
amount of classics prescribed1 but      
otherwise the ,german  gymnasiums adhere
 to their formal humanism as tenaciously
 as in the  sixteenth century4          
,sidenote3 ,grocyn and ,linacre4        
,sidenote3 ,erasmus1 ,colet1 and ,more4 
,sidenote3 ,cheke and ,ascham4    ,the  
,humanistic ,movement in ,england3      
,greek at ,oxford and  ,cambridge4--,in 
its northward march the humanistic      
education also  effected profound       
changes in ,england4 ,by the middle of  
the fifteenth  century many former      
students of ,oxford began to study at   
various  humanistic centers in ,italy4  
,but the influence of such innovators   
was  scarcely felt until ,grocyn and    
,linacre1 who had gone to ,florence     
about  #adhh1 undertook to introduce    
,greek into education upon their return 
home4 ,grocyn 7#addb-aeai7 became the   
first lecturer on ,greek at ,oxford1    
but he was greatly assisted in the      
humanistic training by ,linacre         

7#adfj-aebd71 although his lectureship  
was nominally on medicine4 ,among  their
 pupils were ,erasmus1 ,more1 and       
,colet4 ,humanistic education  did not  
reach ,cambridge1 however1 until the    
close of the fifteenth  century1 but1   
with the progress of the sixteenth1 that
 university  rapidly overtook her sister
 institution4 ,the real development     
began  when ,erasmus1 while a professor 
of theology at ,cambridge 7#aeaj-aead71 
consented also to lecture upon ,greek as
 a labor of love4 ,erasmus was          
succeeded by a number of lecturers1 and 
in #aedj the new regius  professorship  
was held for four years each by the     
great teachers1 ,cheke  7#aead-aeeg7 and
 ,ascham 7#aeae-aefh74    ,sidenote3    
,more and ,wolsey4    ,sidenote3        
,ascham's ,scholemaster4    ,humanism at
 the ,court4--,as ,cheke became private 
tutor to ,prince  ,edward and ,ascham to
 ,princess ,elizabeth1 an ,hellenic     
atmosphere  was soon promoted in royal  
circles4 ,a powerful assistance to the  

development of humanism was also found  
at the court through the  influence of  
,more1 who was especially close to      
,cardinal ,wolsey1 and  so for a time to
 the king1 ,henry ,,viii4 ,a number of  
treatises upon  humanistic education    
were written by members of the court1   
like ,more  and ,vives2 while ,ascham   
produced his ,scholemaster1 a well-known
 work  on teaching ,latin and ,greek by 
#8double translation4' ,this famous     
method consisted in having the child    
translate a passage into ,english1  and 
then1 after an hour1 render it back into
 the original and have the  master      
compare it with the text4    ,sidenote3 
,religious training combined with the   
classics4    ,sidenote3 ,influence upon 
other grammar schools4    ,colet and    
,his ,school at ,st ,paul's4--,the      
humanistic changes in ,english          
education1 however1 were not limited to 
the universities and the  court4 ,the   
schools also felt the effect of the new 
movement1 and the  most important factor

 in bringing this about was the         
foundation of  ,st4 ,paul's ,school in  
#aeji by ,colet4 ,this scholar devoted  
most of the  fortune left him by his    
father to establishing a humanistic     
school in  ,st4 ,paul's churchyard1     
dedicated to #8the child ,jesus4' ,the  
institution  was thus an outgrowth of   
,northern humanism1 and combined        
religious  training with a study of the 
classics4 ,in connection with certain   
,latin authors and ,church ,fathers1 the
 pupils studied the catechism in        
,english1 the ,latin ,grammar of ,lily1 
who was the first headmaster of  the    
school1 and the ,de ,copia of ,erasmus4 
,st4 ,paul's school trained a  long list
 of brilliant scholars1 literary men1   
clergy1 and statesmen1  and became the  
immediate model for a host of other     
institutions4 ,there  were in existence 
at the time ,st4 ,paul's was founded    
some three hundred  #8grammar' schools  
of various types4 ,these had come down  
from the ,middle  ,ages1 and their chief

 purpose had been the training of young 
men for  the priesthood4 ,their         
curriculum was usually of the medival   
monastic  type1 but they soon felt the  
influence of the new school4 ,those     
which  survived the general dissolution 
of ecclesiastical foundations by ,henry 
,,viii and ,edward ,,vi were gradually  
remodeled on the classical basis of     
,st4 ,paul's4 ,new schools were also    
established in accordance with the      
humanistic ideals4    ,sidenote3 ,soon  
became narrow and formal4    ,humanism  
in the ,english #8,grammar'             
,schools4--,but the humanism of the     
#8grammar' schools in ,england1 as in   
,italy and ,germany1 soon became  narrow
 and formal4 ,the purpose of humanistic 
education came to be  not so much a real
 training in literature as a practical  
command of  ,latin as a means of        
communication in all lands and ages4    
,accordingly1  the training became one  
of dictionaries1 grammars1 and          
phrase-books4  ,expressions and         

selections were culled from authors and 
treasured in  notebooks1 and the methods
 became largely memoriter and passive4  
,the formalism into which the schools of
 ,england had thus fallen by  the       
seventeenth century is depicted in      
,brinsley's ,ludus literarius3  or the  
,grammar ,schoole1 a work intended to   
ridicule and reform these  conditions4  
,it indicates that the training in      
,latin was devoted to  drill in         
inflecting1 parsing1 and construing a   
fixed set of texts4  ,lily's ,grammar   
was memorized by the pupils1 and        
references to it  were glibly repeated1 
with little understanding of their      
meaning4 ,all  conversation was based   
upon some phrase-book1 like the         
,colloquies of  ,corderius1 and a ,latin
 theme had to be ground out each week4  
,sidenote3 ,largely unchanged4          
,sidenote3 ,the great #8public' schools4
    ,english #8,grammar' and #8,public' 
,schools ,to-day4--,although reforms    
have  since been made in many of these  

directions1 the organization and the    
formal humanism of the ,english         
#8grammar' school have been preserved   
in principle even to this day4          
,mathematics1 modern languages1 and     
sciences have been added1 and a #8modern
 side' has been established  as an      
alternate for the old course1 but the   
classics are still the  emphasized      
feature1 and1 to a large degree1 the    
drill methods prevail4  ,but1 while it  
was originally intended that the grammar
 schools should1  by means of the       
endowment1 be open to rich and poor     
alike1 because of  the great increase in
 expenses1 necessary and unnecessary1   
there are  now not many opportunities   
for any one in the lower classes of     
society  to attend a grammar school4    
,similarly1 a distinction has come to be
  drawn between #8grammar' and #8public'
 schools1 although it is not a  very    
clear one4 ,in general1 a #8public      
school' has a more aristocratic  and    
wealthier patronage4 ,nine #8great      

public schools' were recognized  by the 
,clarendon ,commission in               
#ahfd1--,winchester 7,fig4 #ag71 ,eton1 
,st4  ,paul's1 ,shrewsbury1             
,westminster1 ,rugby1 ,harrow1 ,merchant
 ,taylors'1  and ,charterhouse2 but     
several other old schools and a number  
of the  stronger foundations of         
,victoria's reign are generally         
admitted1 and  many others claim the    
dignity of the name that would not be   
considered  eligible outside of the     
immediate locality4    ,sidenote3 ,first
 ,american secondary schools modeled    
after ,english4    ,the #8,grammar'     
,schools in the ,american               
,colonies4--,it was after these         
#8grammar' schools of the mother country
 that the first secondary  schools in   
,america were modeled and named4 ,in    
many instances the  fathers of the      
colonies1 such as ,edward ,hopkins1     
,william ,penn1 and  ,roger ,williams1  
had been educated in the grammar schools
 of ,england1  and naturally sought to  

model the institutions in their new home
 after  them as nearly as the different 
conditions would permit4 ,the ,boston   
,latin 7,grammar7 ,school was founded as
 early as #afce 7,fig4 #bc71 and  other 
towns of ,massachusetts1--,charlestown1 
,ipswich1 ,salem1 ,dorchester1          
,newbury1 ,cambridge1 and ,roxbury1 also
 before long established grammar        
schools4 ,similarly1 towns of           
,connecticut1 ,rhode ,island1 ,new      
,york1  ,pennsylvania1 ,virginia1 and   
the other colonies1 had in many cases   
founded grammar schools before the close
 of the century4 ,moreover1  the        
legislatures of ,massachusetts 7#afdg7  
and ,connecticut 7#afej7 soon  ordered  
that a #8grammar' school be established 
in every town having one  hundred       
families4 ,the ,american grammar        
schools1 like their prototypes1  were   
secondary and sustained no real relation
 to the elementary  schools4 ,they were 
mostly intended to fit pupils for       
college1 although  sometimes the college

 had not yet been established1 and thus 
to  furnish a preliminary step to       
preparation for the ,christian ministry4
  ,hence their course consisted chiefly 
in reading the classics and the  ,new   
,testament1 and used among its texts    
,lily's ,grammar and the  ,colloquies of
 ,corderius4 ,and while the hold of     
formal humanism upon  secondary         
education was somewhat relaxed during   
the subsequent stages  of the #8academy'
 and the #8high school1' the formal     
classical training  was considered the  
only means of a liberal education until 
well into  the nineteenth century4      
,illustration3    a4 ,drawing of        
,winchester ,college and its inmates by 
,warden ,chandler  of ,new ,college1    
,oxford1 in #adfj4 ,the picture reveals 
the relationship  of ,winchester to the 
old monastic institutions1 before it    
became  humanistic4    ,illustration3 b4
 ,eton ,college in #afhh1 from the      
drawing of ,david  ,loggan4    ,fig4    
#ag4--;,great ,english ,public ,schools4

    ,sidenote3 ,interests of this life4 
,sidenote3 ,more social and moral in the
 ,north1 and more individual in  ,italy4
    ,the ,aim and ,institutions of      
,humanistic ,education4--,it can now be 
seen how far the ideals of humanism had 
departed from those of the  medival     
period4 ,the #8otherworldly' aim1 the   
monastic isolation1 and  the scholastic 
discussions had given way to the        
interests of this  life1 personal and   
social development1 and a study of the  
classics4  ,in the ,north the movement  
took on rather a different color from   
what  it did in the peninsula that gave 
it birth4 ,while ,northern humanism  was
 narrower in not concerning itself so   
much with self-culture1  personal       
expression1 and the various             
opportunities of life1 it had a  wider  
vision through interesting itself in    
society as a whole and in  endeavoring  
to advance morality and religion4 ,it   
was democratic and  social in its trend1
 where ,italian humanism was more       

aristocratic and  individual4           
,sidenote3 ,organization1    ,sidenote3 
content1    ,sidenote3 methods1         
,sidenote3 and effect4    ,in ,italy the
 chief educational institutions         
resulting from the  humanistic movement 
were the schools that arose at the      
brilliant courts  of the city tyrants4  
,these institutions were sometimes      
connected with  the universities1 and   
gradually the universities themselves   
were forced  to admit the new learning  
to the curriculum4 ,in the ,north a     
number of  new                          
institutions--,hieronymian schools1     
princes' schools1 gymnasiums1  and      
grammar schools--were developed from    
humanism1 and the existing  institutions
 soon showed the influence of the       
movement1 but all of  them stressed     
moral and religious studies1 as well as 
classical4  ,everywhere the curriculum  
of the humanistic foundations consisted 
mostly in the mastery of ,latin and     
,greek1 but in the ,north the renewal   

of ,greek meant also a study of the ,new
 and ,old ,testaments and the  ,church  
,fathers4 ,where the ,italian           
,renaissance re-created the liberal     
education of ,plato and ,aristotle1     
,cicero and ,quintilian1 the movement   
in its ,northern spread found in the    
classical revival a means of moral  and 
religious training4 ,but just as        
humanism in ,italy by the beginning  of 
the sixteenth century had degenerated   
into mere ,ciceronianism1  so the       
humanistic education in the ,north1     
after about a century of  development1  
began to grow narrow1 hard1 and fixed4  
,by the middle of  the sixteenth century
 the spirit of criticism1 investigation1
 and  intellectual activity had begun to
 abate1 and by the opening of the       
seventeenth humanism had been completely
 formalized4 ,in the study of  the      
classics all emphasis was placed upon   
grammar1 linguistics1 and  style2 form  
was preferred to content2 and methods   
became memoriter  and imitative4        

,humanism had largely performed its     
mission1 and a new  awakening was needed
 to revivify education and society in   
general4      ,,supplementary ,,reading 
,graves1 ,during the ,transition        
7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 chaps4 ,,xii-,,xiv2
  ,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1      
#aije71 chap4 ,,vi4 ,an interesting     
interpretation of the ,renaissance both 
in ,italy and the ,north is found  in   
,adams1 ,g4 ,b41 ,civilization during   
the ,middle ,ages 7,scribner1  #ahid71  
chap4 ,,xv4 ,an account of the movement1
 including its educational  aspects in  
,italy1 is found in ,burckhardt1 ,j41   
,civilization of the  ,renaissance in   
,italy 7,sonnenschein1 ,london1 #ahib2  
,macmillan71 vol4  ,i1 especially part  
,,iii2 ,symonds1 ,j4 ,a41 ,renaissance  
in ,italy 7,holt1  ,scribner71 vol4     
,,ii1 especially chaps4 ,,iii-,,viii2 or
 ,symonds' ,short  ,history of the      
,renaissance 7,holt1 #ahid71 especially 
chaps4 ,i and  ,,vii1 and ,,ix-,,xi4    
,woodward1 ,w4 ,h41 gives us a vivid    

account of the  educational work of     
,vittorino da ,feltre and ,other        
,humanist ,educators  7,cambridge       
,university ,press1 #ahig71 and of      
,erasmus concerning  ,education         
7,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aijd71 
and of ,education  during the           
,renaissance 7,cambridge ,university    
,press1 #aijf7 as a whole4  ,peter      
,ramus and the ,educational ,reformation
 of the ,sixteenth ,century             
7,macmillan1 #aiab71 by ,graves1 ,f4    
,p41 furnishes some idea of conditions  
in ,france4 ,the ,italian ,renaissance  
in ,england 7,columbia ,university      
,press1 #aije71 especially chap4 ,i1 is 
succinctly described by ,einstein1  ,l42
 and an account of ,colet and ,st4      
,paul's ,school can be found in         
,barnard1 ,h41 ,english ,pedagogy1      
second series1 pp4 #di-aag4             
,,chapter ,,xiii    ,,educational       
,,influences ,,of ,,the ,,reformation   
,,outline        ,luther's educational  
positions are most fully revealed in his

      well-known ,letter and ,sermon4   
,he holds that education should         
prepare for citizenship1 and should be  
state-supported1 and these              
recommendations were somewhat embodied  
in actual schools by his                
associates4        ,zwingli was killed  
before he could greatly influence       
education1      but the educational     
institutions of ,calvin spread rapidly  
through      ,switzerland1 ,france1     
,netherlands1 ,puritan ,england1 and    
,scotland4        ,in ,england ,henry   
,,viii and ,edward ,,vi confiscated the 
property of      some three hundred     
monastic and other ecclesiastical       
schools1 but      subsequently many of  
these were refounded4        ,the       
,jesuit colleges were organized to      
extend ,catholic ,christianity4         
,the lower colleges were humanistic1 and
 the higher taught      #8philosophy'   
and theology4 ,the teachers were        
trained1 and the      methods1 though   
memoriter and emulative1 were effective4

 ,the      influence of the ,jesuit     
colleges was phenomenal1 but they have  
failed to meet new conditions4          
,the ,port ,royalists held that reason  
was more important than memory1         
but1 while their #8little schools'      
stressed vernacular1 logic1 and         
geometry1 they offered nothing beyond   
the best elements in the      education 
of the past4        ,elementary and     
industrial education was given an       
impulse for      the ,catholics by the  
schools of the ,christian ,brothers4    
,they      also opened training schools 
for teachers1 and perfected the         
#8simultaneous' method4        ,among   
the ,protestants and some ,catholics in 
,germany1 ,holland1      ,scotland1 and 
certain of the ,american colonies1 the  
,reformation      inclined toward       
universal elementary education and      
control of the      schools by the      
state4 ,the secondary schools in        
,protestant countries      also came    
largely under civic authorities1        

although the clergy      still taught   
and inspected them2 while ,catholic     
secondary education      was furnished  
mostly by the ,jesuit colleges4 ,in many
 instances the      universities turned 
,protestant2 and new universities1      
,protestant      and ,catholic1 were    
founded4    ,sidenote3 ,a series of     
revolts from the ,church accompanied    
,northern  humanism4    ,the ,relation  
of the ,reformation to the              
,renaissance4--,the series  of revolts  
from the ,catholic ,church1 generally   
known collectively  as the              
#8,reformation1' may be regarded as     
closely connected with the              
,renaissance4 ,as shown in the last     
chapter1 humanism in the ,north led  to 
a renewed study of the ,scriptures and a
 reform of ecclesiastical  doctrines and
 abuses1 and took on a moral and        
religious color4  ,reformers arose1 like
 ,wimpfeling and ,erasmus1 who1 while   
remaining  within the ,church1 sought to
 purify it of corruption and            

obscurantism4  ,but the ,church at first
 stubbornly resisted all efforts at     
internal  reform4 ,its immense wealth1  
large numbers1 and training enabled it  
for a long time to thwart the spirit of 
the age1 and a condition of             
ecclesiastical upheaval followed4       
,revolts against papal authority  ensued
 in various parts of ,europe north of   
,italy1 and were furnished  support by  
the awakened intellectual and social    
conditions of the  sixteenth century4   
,the result was the establishment of a  
church1 or  rather a set of churches1   
outside of ,catholic ,christianity4     
,while  each revolt had some            
peculiarities of its own1 there were    
underlying  them all certain general    
causes that indicated their relation to 
the  ,renaissance4    ,sidenote3 ,in his
 revolt1 ,luther relied upon the        
individualistic spirit  of the times4   
,the ,revolt and ,educational ,works of 
,luther4--,even the attitude  of ,martin
 ,luther 7#adhc-aedf7 seems to have been

 bound up with the  tendencies of the   
day4 ,apparently he had at first no idea
 of breaking  from the ,church1 and     
supposed that the ninety-five theses he 
nailed  to the church door at           
,wittenberg 7#aeag7 were quite          
consistent with  ,catholic allegiance4  
,but even before this he had attacked   
,aristotle and  scholasticism with great
 vigor1 appealing to primitive          
,christianity  and the right of free    
thought1 and thus identified himself in 
spirit  with the ,northern ,renaissance4
 ,and two years later1 in his contest   
with ,eck1 when he was actually led to  
deny the authority of both  pope and    
council1 he was evidently relying upon  
the humanistic and  individualistic     
atmosphere of the times4    ,sidenote3  
,his translation of the ,bible          
,sidenote3 and his catechisms4          
,sidenote3 ,his ,letter and ,sermon4    
,when once he had revolted1 ,luther gave
 much of his time to promoting  the     
reform and education of the masses by   

writing4 ,all his works1  whether       
religious or pedagogical1 were clearly  
intended1 in a broad  sense1 to be      
educational4 ,after his condemnation at 
the ,diet of ,worms  7#aeba71 when he   
had taken refuge at the ,wartburg1 he   
undertook to  awaken the minds and      
hearts of the common people by a        
translation of  the ,greek ,testament4  
,contrary to general opinion1 a large   
number of  translations had preceded    
that of ,luther1 and their popularity   
must  have proved suggestive to him1 but
 his edition was unusually close  to the
 colloquial language of the times4 ,a   
dozen years later1 he  had completed a  
translation of the entire ,bible1 which 
contributed  greatly to education by    
getting the masses to read and reflect4 
,for  the further instruction of the    
people1 he also followed the fashion of 
the day in producing two catechisms1 one
 for adults and the other for  children1
 together with many tracts1 addresses1  
and letters1 filled  with allusions to  

the organization and methods of         
education4 ,but the  documents which    
most fully reveal his educational       
positions are his  ,letter to the       
,mayors and ,aldermen of ,all ,cities of
 ,germany in behalf  of ,christian      
,schools 7#aebd71 and his ,sermon on the
 ,duty of ,sending  ,children to ,school
 7#aecj74    ,sidenote3 ,civic aim4     
,sidenote3 ,industrial and academic     
training4    ,sidenote3 ,enlarged       
content4    ,sidenote3 ,rational        
methods4    ,luther's ,ideas on         
,education4--,the purpose of education1 
,luther  everywhere holds1 involves the 
promotion of the ,state's welfare quite 
as much as that of the ,church4 ,the    
schools were to make good citizens  as  
well as religious men4 ,educational     
institutions should1 on that  account1  
be maintained at public expense for     
every one1--rich and poor1  high and    
low1 boys and girls1 alike1 and         
attendance should be compelled  by the  
civic authorities4 ,realizing that some 

pupils may find it hard  to give the    
time to school1 ,luther planned that    
8they should spend an  hour or two a day
 in school1 and the rest of the time in 
work at home1  learn some trade and do  
whatever is desired1 so that study and  
work may  go on together40 ,but he also 
desired a more academic course 8for the 
brightest pupils1 who give promise of   
becoming accomplished teachers1         
preachers1 and workers40 ,in any case1  
,luther naturally believed that  the    
chief studies should be the ,bible and  
the catechism4 ,but1 as a  ,northern    
humanist1 he recommended the ancient    
languages--,latin1 ,greek1  and         
,hebrew--for the light they would throw 
on the ,scriptures and the  patristic   
writers4 ,he likewise approved of       
rhetoric and dialectic1  which were very
 valuable subjects in those days of     
controversy2 and  he made a decided     
advance in advocating history1 natural  
science1  vocal and instrumental music1 
and gymnastic exercises4 ,history is    

advised1 not only1 as was common with   
the humanists1 for the sake of          
illustrating moral truth1 but also for  
the purpose of understanding  social    
institutions4 ,the study of nature was  
intended to reveal 8the  wonders of     
,divine ,goodness and the omnipotence of
 ,god40 ,gymnastics he  considered of   
value both for the body and the soul1   
and music a means  of 8driving away all 
care and melancholy from the heart40    
,the methods  he recommended were       
equally rational4 ,he would utilize the 
natural  activity of children and not   
attempt to repress them1 and would make 
use of concrete examples1 wherever      
possible4 ,languages he would teach     
less by grammar than by practice4 ,this 
belief in the importance of  selecting  
the proper content and method in        
education led him to rate  the function 
of the teacher as higher1 if anything1  
than that of the  preacher4             
,sidenote3 ,melanchthon and ,sturm4     
,sidenote3 ,bugenhagen in ,northern     

,germany4    ,sidenote3 ,other          
associates4    ,the ,embodiment of      
,luther's ,ideas in ,schools by ,his    
,associates4--,these  recommendations of
 ,luther were largely embodied in actual
 institutions  by his associates4 ,the  
year after his ,letter to the ,mayors   
was  published1 the ,protestants were   
requested by the ,count of ,mansfeld  to
 establish in ,luther's native town1    
,eisleben1 a school that should  put his
 educational theories into practice1 and
 this was performed by  ,melanchthon4   
,the subsequent organization of ,latin  
schools throughout  the ,electorate of  
,saxony1 and the foundation of the      
gymnasium of ,sturm  at ,strassburg upon
 the ,protestant basis have already been
 touched upon  7pp4 #aad ff474 ,but of  
fully as much importance were the       
educational  foundations of ,bugenhagen 
7#adhe-aeeh74 ,while engaged in         
reorganizing  the churches in the cities
 and states of ,northern ,germany1 by   
his  general #8church orders' to each1  

he made ample provision for schools  of 
the ,lutheran type4 ,for instance1 at   
,hamburg in #aebj he organized a  single
 ,latin school with a rector and seven  
teachers1 together with a  ,german      
school for boys and one for girls in    
every parish4 ,eight years  afterward1  
the #8church orders' of ,brunswick      
provided two classical  schools1 two    
vernacular schools for boys1 and four   
for girls1 so  located in the city that 
all children could conveniently reach a 
school4 ,within a half dozen years he   
made similar requirements for  ,lbeck1  
,minden1 ,gttingen1 ,soest1 ,bremen1    
,osnabrck1 and other cities1  and       
throughout some entire states of        
,germany1 such as ,holstein and his  own
 native duchy of ,pomerania4 ,the       
educational theories of ,luther were    
also put into practice in a number of   
schools taught by ,trotzendorf1         
,neander1 and other pupils of           
,melanchthon4    ,sidenote3 ,sprang from
 ,northern humanism4    ,sidenote3      

,schools and course similar to          
,luther's4    ,the ,revolt and          
,educational ,ideas of ,zwingli4--,the  
revolt under  ,zwingli 7#adhd-aeca7 was 
more directly the outcome of ,northern  
humanism  than was that of ,luther4     
,through ,erasmus and others he had come
 to  believe that there was little basis
 in the ,bible for the traditional      
theology1 and he carefully read the     
accounts himself in the original  ,greek
 and ,hebrew4 ,after he took charge of  
the cathedral at ,zurich1 he  began his 
attack upon the dogmas and traditions of
 the ,church1 and1 by  securing the     
support of the town1 managed in a fairly
 peaceful way to  drop one form of the  
,church after another1 until1 within    
five years1  he had abolished even the  
mass4 ,zwingli likewise made the        
extension  of educational facilities a  
part of his reform4 ,he founded a number
  of humanistic institutions1 and       
introduced elementary schools into      
,switzerland4 ,he also published a      

,brief ,treatise on the ,christian      
,education of ,youth 7#aebc71 which     
recommended a course of studies not     
unlike that of ,luther1 except that1    
from his practical temperament1 he  did 
not mention history1 but did add        
arithmetic and surveying4    ,sidenote3 
,also began through ,northern humanism4 
,sidenote3 ,calvin's colleges           
,sidenote3 and ,corderius4    ,calvin's 
,revolt and ,his ,encouragement of      
,education4--,while  endeavoring to     
spread his reforms1 ,zwingli was slain  
in the prime of  life4 ,his positions   
were maintained by his successor in the 
cathedral1  but the work was soon       
overshadowed and merged in the movement 
of ,calvin  7#aeji-aefd74 ,calvin's     
break with the ,church1 like that of    
,french  ,protestants generally1 also   
began through the influence of ,northern
  humanism and the study of the ,greek  
,testament4 ,he had1 however1  received 
an excellent legal and theological      
education1 and did not  content himself 

with merely attacking ,catholic         
doctrine1 but was the  first ,protestant
 to formulate an elaborate system of    
theology4 ,the  call of ,calvin to      
reorganize the civil and religious      
administration of  the city of ,geneva  
gave him an excellent opportunity for   
working out  his theories4 ,although he 
was much engrossed in religious         
disputes1  he established #8colleges' at
 ,geneva and elsewhere1 and in other    
ways  undertook to found schools and    
promote education4 ,he succeeded1 too1  
in persuading his former teacher1       
,corderius 7see p4 #aaa71 to come  to   
,switzerland1 and organize1 administer1 
and teach in the reformed  colleges4    
,sidenote3 ,aim1 content1 and           
organization4    ,sidenote3 ,spread in  
,switzerland1 ,france1 ,netherlands1    
,england1 and  ,scotland4    ,the       
,colleges of ,calvin4--,corderius here  
wrote four books of  ,colloquies1 with  
the purpose of training boys by means of
  conversation on timely topics to speak

 ,latin with facility1 and from  this   
work we can learn much of the character 
of the ,calvinistic  colleges4 ,clearly 
the ideal was the #8learned piety' of   
,melanchthon1  ,sturm1 and the other    
,northern humanists and ,protestants4   
,an attempt  seems to have been made to 
teach ,latin in such a way as to        
cultivate a  moral and religious life1  
and psalms were sung1 public prayers    
offered1  and selections from the ,bible
 repeated each day4 ,we also know that  
in  the seven classes of a college at   
,geneva the pupils learned reading  and 
grammar from the ,latin catechism1 and  
then studied ,vergil1 ,cicero1  ,ovid1  
,csar1 ,livy1 and ,latin composition4   
,greek seems to have been  begun in the 
fourth year1 and1 beside classical      
,greek authors1 the  ,gospels and       
,epistles were read4 ,likewise1 as in   
the other ,reformation  schools1 logic  
and rhetoric were studied in the higher 
classes4  ,the colleges of this type not
 only spread rapidly among ,calvin's    

co-religionists in ,switzerland and     
,france1 but1 as ,geneva became a city  
of refuge for all the oppressed1 a      
regard for humanistic1 religious1  and  
universal education was absorbed by the 
persecuted ,netherlander1  the ,english 
,protestants of ,mary's time1 and the   
,scotch under the  leadership of ,knox  
in the days of ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots  
7#aeje-aegb74    ,sidenote3 ,due to     
personal reasons4    ,sidenote3         
,suppression of grammar schools4        
,henry ,,viii's ,revolt and ,its ,effect
 upon ,education4--,in ,england a       
revolt from the ,church likewise        
occurred4 ,this also may have been  due 
in part to the investigative spirit of  
,northern humanism1 but  the immediate  
cause of the breach was the desire of   
,henry ,,viii 7r4  #aeji-aedg7 to       
control the national ,church1 that he   
might divorce  his wife1 and there was  
at first little change in doctrine4     
,once in  ecclesiastical power1 ,henry  
began in #aecf to confiscate the        

monastic  lands and property1 and       
enlarged the scope of his operations    
until  he had suppressed a large number 
of monastic1 cathedral1 collegiate1     
hospital1 and other schools4 ,during the
 reign 7#aedg-aeec7 of his  successor1  
,edward ,,vi1 the acts of suppression   
were extended to chantry  and gild      
foundations1 and it is estimated that1  
of the three hundred  grammar schools   
that had come down in ,england from the 
,middle ,ages1  but few were not        
destroyed under ,henry and ,edward4     
,some1 however1  remained by the terms  
of the parliamentary acts of            
suppression1 and  popular sentiment     
caused others to be refounded4 ,and     
during the reign  of ,elizabeth         
7#aeeh-afjc7 and of the first two       
,stuart kings 7#afjc-afdi7  these       
foundations were greatly increased out  
of royal funds or through  the          
philanthropy of wealthy men4 ,all of    
these schools1 as we have seen  7p4     
#aah71 following the example of ,st4    

,paul's1 adopted the ,northern  ideals  
of humanism and furnished a curriculum  
of classics and religious  training4    
,the latter became based1 of course1    
upon the teachings of the  ,church of   
,england4    ,sidenote3 ,aimed to       
strengthen the authority of the pope4   
,foundation of the ,society of          
,jesus4--,we may now turn back to  the  
,mother ,church and see what efforts she
 was putting forth in  behalf of        
education during the period of          
,protestant revolts4 ,both  before and  
after the time of ,luther there were    
reformers inside the  ,church who wished
 to improve its practices without       
changing its  administration1 but the   
,catholics in general felt it their     
chief  duty to crush the ,protestant    
heresy and recover the ground they had  
lost4 ,this resulted in a number of     
religious wars1 in which both  sides    
displayed great bitterness and cruelty4 
,but a more effective  and constructive 
instrument in advancing the interests of

 ,catholicism  was the organization of  
the #8,society of ,jesus4' ,this order  
was  founded by ,ignatius de ,loyola    
7#adia-aeef7 in #aecd4 ,he persuaded six
  fellow-students at ,paris to join with
 him in devoting themselves to  the     
conversion of the heathen1 and to       
strengthening the authority of  the     
pope4 ,six years later1 after           
considerable opposition1 the new order  
was recognized by the pope and began to 
add rapidly to its numbers4  ,the       
,jesuits have always striven first      
through missionary labors to  extend    
,catholic ,christianity throughout the  
world1 and then by means  of schools to 
hold their converts and educate all     
peoples to papal  allegiance4           
,sidenote3 ,the ,constitution and the   
,ratio ,studiorum4    ,sidenote3 ,the   
#8general1'    ,sidenote3 #8provincial1'
    ,sidenote3 #8rector1' and other     
officials4    ,organization of the      
,jesuits4--,the organization of the     
,society of  ,jesus was outlined in its 

,constitution4 ,this fundamental        
document of  the order received its     
final revision shortly after ,loyola's  
death1  but the ,ratio ,studiorum1 which
 was an expansion of ,part ,,iv of the  
,constitution and described the         
educational administration in detail1   
was not finally formulated until #aeii4 
,it thus summed up the experience  of   
the ,jesuit schools during more than    
sixty years4 ,the administration  of the
 society has always been of a military  
type4 ,loyola had  originally started   
upon the career of a soldier1 and did   
not believe  that any system could be   
effective unless it were based upon     
implicit  obedience to one's official   
superiors4 ,at the head of the order is 
the  #8general1' who is elected for life
 and has vast administrative powers4    
,as the society spread1 the countries   
that came under its control were        
divided into provinces1 and at the head 
of the ,jesuit interests in  each of    
these districts is the #8provincial1'   

who is appointed by the  general for    
three years4 ,in each province there are
 various colleges1  whose presiding     
officer1 or #8rector1' is chosen for    
three years by the  general1 but is     
directly responsible to the provincial  
and reports  to him4 ,similarly1 within 
each college are #8prefects1'           
immediately  subordinate to the rector1 
but selected by the provincial2 and     
under  the inspection of the prefects   
are the #8professors' or #8preceptors4' 
,sidenote3 ,the lower colleges are      
secondary and humanistic1    ,sidenote3 
with curriculum largely unchanged4      
,the ,jesuit ,colleges4--,the ,jesuits  
have never engaged in elementary        
education1 but have required that pupils
 know how to read and write  before     
being admitted to any of their schools4 
,this may have been  brought about in   
the first place by the fact that the    
number of their  teachers was limited1  
or that the public elementary school was
 just  coming to be regarded as of      

importance1 and secondary education of  
the humanistic type was everywhere      
dominant4 ,the ,jesuit educational      
organization has1 therefore1 consisted  
of #8lower colleges' with a  gymnasia   
course1 and of #8upper colleges1' which 
are of university  grade4 ,boys are     
admitted to the lower colleges at from  
ten to fourteen  years of age1 and spend
 five or six years there4 ,the first    
three  classes were at first devoted to 
a careful study of ,latin grammar1 and  
a little of ,greek2 in the fourth year a
 number of the ,greek and ,latin  poets 
and historians were read2 while the last
 class1 to which two  years were usually
 given1 took up a rhetorical study of   
the classical  authors4 ,only slight    
variations in the curriculum have ever  
been  allowed since the ,ratio          
,studiorum was issued1 until the        
revision  in #ahcb4 ,in that year work  
in mathematics1 natural science1        
history1  and geography was added in the
 lower colleges1 but the classics still 

compose the body of the course4         
,sidenote3 ,the upper colleges furnish  
training in #8philosophy' and  theology4
    ,the full course of the upper       
colleges lasts seven or nine years1-the 
first three in #8philosophy1' followed  
by four or six in theology4 ,the        
training in #8philosophy' now includes  
not only logic1 metaphysics1            
psychology1 ethics1 and natural         
theology1 but also work in algebra1     
geometry1 trigonometry1 analytics1      
calculus1 and mechanics1 and such       
natural sciences as physics1 chemistry1 
geology1 astronomy1 and  physiology4 ,a 
successful completion of the course     
leads to the degree  of ,master of      
,arts4 ,after the course in philosophy1 
most of the ,jesuits  teach in the lower
 colleges five or six years before going
 on with the  work in theology4 ,in the 
theological course four years are       
devoted to a  study of the ,scriptures1 
,hebrew1 and other ,oriental languages1 
together  with ,church history1 canon   

law1 and various branches of theology4  
,after this one may elect a further     
training of two years1 to review  the   
work in philosophy and theology1 and to 
prepare a thesis4 ,after a  public      
examination and defense of his thesis1  
the successful candidate  is awarded the
 degree of ,doctor of ,divinity4 ,hence 
a complete ,jesuit  training will take  
from eighteen to twenty years1 and a    
member of the  order may be from thirty 
to thirty-five years of age before      
completing  his formal education4       
,sidenote3 ,trained teachers1           
,sidenote3 the #8prelection1'           
,sidenote3 memorizing1    ,sidenote3    
reviews1    ,sidenote3 and rivalry4     
,the ,jesuit ,methods of                
,teaching4--,the methods of teaching and
  the splendid qualification of the     
instructors were from the first         
distinctive features in the ,jesuit     
colleges1 especially when one  considers
 how little attention up to their time  
had been given to the  preparation of   

teachers4 ,no one could teach in the    
lower colleges who  had not passed      
through the course in philosophy1 while 
professors  in the universities had     
first to complete the theological       
course4  ,instruction was generally     
imparted orally1 and then memorized or  
taken  down in lecture notes4 ,the      
method was the #8prelection1' which     
meant  a preliminary explanation of the 
passage or lectures upon the topic      
under consideration by the teacher4 ,it 
consisted in giving1 first1 the  general
 meaning of the whole passage or        
proposition2 then1 a more  detailed     
explanation of the construction or      
phraseology2 next similar  thoughts in  
other authors2 fourthly1 #8erudition'1  
or informational  comment upon the      
passage2 then1 a study of the rhetorical
 figures2 and  finally1 the moral lesson
 to be drawn4 ,obviously1 with such a   
method1  great stress would be placed   
upon memorizing1 especially in the lower
  colleges4 ,to fix subjects firmly in  

mind1 short hours1 few studies1 and     
brief lessons were early found to be    
necessary4 ,likewise1 reviews have      
always been frequent and systematic1 and
 the ,latin motto of the ,jesuit  method
 declares that 8repetition is the mother
 of learning40 ,each day  begins with a 
review of the preceding day's work1 and 
closes with a  review of the work just  
accomplished4 ,each week ends with a    
repetition  of all that has been covered
 in that time1 and the last month of    
every  year reviews the course of the   
year4 ,to maintain interest in the midst
  of so much memorizing and reviewing1  
many devices to promote emulation  are  
used4 ,the pupils are arranged in pairs 
as #8rivals1' whose business  it is to  
check on the conduct and studies of each
 other 7,fig4 #ah72 and  public         
#8disputations' between two sides are   
engaged in each week4    ,sidenote3     
,systematic1    ,sidenote3 interesting1 
and devoted1    ,sidenote3 but          
authoritative and uniform4    ,value and

 ,influence of the ,jesuit              
,education4--,the ,jesuit system1  then1
 seems to have been in advance of that  
in the schools at the time  of its      
foundation4 ,it was organized upon a    
systematic and thorough  basis1 and was 
administered by a set of splendidly     
trained teachers  through the best      
methods that were known in that day4    
,the schools were  interesting and      
pleasant1 and were free to all who had  
the ability and  desire to attend4 ,the 
,jesuit teachers1 too1 were             
indefatigable and  devoted to their     
duty4 ,the criticism that has been      
offered to this  educational system is  
based on its insistence upon absolute   
authority  and the consequent opposition
 to the development of individuality4   
,the  ,jesuit courses1 subjects1 and    
methods have become somewhat uniform and
  fixed4 ,in the lower colleges they    
depend largely upon memory and appeal   
to interest through a system of rivalry1
 honors1 and rewards4 ,such a  system is

 likely to tend toward a reproductive   
attitude in the pupil4    ,illustration3
 a4 ,jesuit ,college at ,regensburg in  
#afjj4    ,illustration3    b4 ,plan of 
a ,jesuit schoolroom of the seventeenth 
century4 ,b  represents the teacher1 ,c 
the monitors1 and ,d1 ,e1 ,o1 ,x1 and ,i
 various  student officials4 ,the       
numbered lines represent rows of        
students1 known  as decuriae4 ,when a   
student was called upon1 his #8rival'   
arose from  the corresponding place in  
the other group2 and as each recited1   
the  other endeavored to correct him in 
some error4    ,fig4 #ah4--;,education  
of the ,jesuits4    ,sidenote3          
,phenomenal growth of the number of     
colleges and students4    ,sidenote3    
,prominent graduates4    ,sidenote3     
,quarrels and banishments4              
,nevertheless1 the ,jesuits furnished   
the most effective education during  the
 latter half of the sixteenth1 the      
entire seventeenth1 and the  early part 
of the eighteenth centuries4 ,the growth

 of their schools  was phenomenal4 ,by  
the death of ,loyola 7#aeef7 there were 
already one  hundred colleges1 and a    
century and a half later they had       
increased  to seven hundred and         
sixty-nine institutions1 spread         
throughout the  world4 ,the average     
number of students in attendance at any 
of these  colleges during the           
seventeenth century was about three     
hundred1 and in  several of the larger  
centers there were between one and two  
thousand1  and the famous ,college of   
,clermont 7now ,lyce ,louis le ,grand7  
at  ,paris is said to have run up to    
three thousand4 ,at a modest estimate1  
there must have been some two hundred   
thousand students in the ,jesuit        
colleges when they were at their height4
 ,their graduates seem to have  become  
prominent in every important activity of
 life1 and included a  large number of  
the noted authors1 prelates1 statesmen1 
and generals of  the time4 ,by the      
middle of the eighteenth century1       

however1 the ideals  and content of     
education had somewhat changed1 and the 
,jesuits did  not adapt their course to 
the new conditions4 ,moreover1 the      
,jesuits  seem to have become powerful1 
ambitious1 and somewhat arrogant4 ,they 
quarreled frequently with bishops1 other
 monastic orders1 governments1  and     
universities4 ,finally1 after they had  
been banished from ,france1  ,spain1 and
 ,portugal1 in #aggc the pope himself   
dissolved the ,society  of ,jesus4      
,forty years later the order was        
restored1 but1 owing to the  development
 of educational ideals and organization 
and the increase of  educational        
institutions1 their work has never since
 become relatively  as effective or held
 as important a place in education4     
,sidenote3 ,adopted rationalistic       
philosophy4    ,sidenote3 #8,little'    
schools4    ,the ,organization of the   
,education of the ,port ,royalists4--,a 
type  of ,catholic education radically  
opposed to that of the ,jesuits was     

created by a group of men belonging to  
the religious body known as  the        
,jansenists4 ,the doctrines of the      
,jansenists were formulated in  #afba by
 ,cornelius ,jansen1 a professor in the 
,university of ,louvain4  ,while        
striving to retain their place within   
the ,church1 the ,jansenists  opposed   
the prevailing doctrines of confession  
and penance1 and adopted  the           
rationalistic philosophy of ,descartes4 
,they also held that humanity  is       
naturally corrupt1 except as it is      
watched and guided1 and that only  a    
relatively few can be saved4 ,these     
doctrines probably influenced  a body of
 ,jansenists that established a new     
departure in the way of  education at   
the convent of ,port ,royal at          
,chevreuse4 ,in #afdc the #8,port       
,royalists' endeavored to remove what   
few children they could from the        
temptations of the world to a school    
started in this convent4 ,similar       
institutions quickly sprang up in the   

vicinity and then spread through        
,paris4 ,to carry out their ideal of    
careful oversight1 these schools        
usually took only twenty to twenty-five 
pupils1 and each master had  under him  
five or six boys1 whom he never allowed 
out of his immediate  supervision day or
 night4 ,hence these institutions were  
known as  #8little schools4'            
,sidenote3 ,reason rather than memory4  
,sidenote3 ,latin through the           
vernacular4    ,sidenote3 ,logic and    
geometry4    ,sidenote3 ,phonetic       
method4    ,sidenote3 ,indifference4    
,the ,port ,royal ,course and ,method of
 ,teaching4--,since the ,port           
,royalists held that character was of   
more importance than knowledge1  and    
reason was to be developed rather than  
memory1 these #8little  schools' sought 
to impart an education that should be   
sound and  lasting1 rather than         
brilliant4 ,unlike the ,jesuits1 they   
did not start  their pupils with ,latin1
 but with the vernacular1 since this was

 within  their comprehension4 ,as soon  
as they possessed a feeling for good    
literature1 they began the study of     
,latin through a minimum grammar        
written in ,french1 and soon took up the
 ,latin authors1 rendering them  into   
the vernacular4 ,greek literature was   
treated in similar fashion4  ,to train  
the reason1 the older pupils were also  
taught logic and  geometry4 ,the course 
of study1 however1 was mostly literary1 
and had  no regard for science or       
investigation4 ,port ,royal presented   
the best  elements of the education of  
the past1 but did not see beyond it4    
,the  methods introduced some striking  
innovations4 ,the leaders in the ,port  
,royal education departed from the      
alphabetic plan in teaching their       
pupils to read1 and developed a phonetic
 method4 ,the ,port ,royalists  also    
refused to permit the use of emulation  
and prizes in their  schools1 but their 
exclusion of rivalry resulted in        
indifference4  ,they were never able to 

secure the energy1 earnestness1 and     
pleasing  environment of the ,jesuit    
colleges4 ,they did1 however1 succeed in
  inculcating a general spirit of piety 
without the formal teaching of          
doctrine4    ,sidenote3 ,jesuits lost   
sympathy4    ,sidenote3 ,port ,royalists
 produced educational treatises4        
,closing of the ,port ,royalist ,schools
 and ,its ,effects4--,in #affa the      
,port ,royalist schools were closed by  
the order of ,louis ,,xiv through the   
influence of the ,jesuits4 ,but this act
 cost the ,jesuits dearly4 ,not  only   
did it lose them sympathy1 but it       
furnished the ,port ,royalists  occasion
 to issue tracts against ,jesuitism that
 have injured its repute  ever since4   
,this closing of their schools also gave
 the ,port ,royalists  the opportunity  
of becoming educators in a larger sense 
by producing  a great variety of        
writings upon their system4 ,later on1  
too1 ,rollin  7#affa-agda71 who was     
twice elected rector of the ,university 

of ,paris1  summarized in his ,treatise 
on ,studies the ,port ,royalist reforms 
wrought in that institution4            
,sidenote3 ,little elementary education 
before ,la ,salle4    ,sidenote3        
,development of the schools at ,rheims3 
,la ,salle and the ,schools of the      
,christian ,brothers4--,the ,port       
,royalists were1 however1 like the      
,jesuits1 engrossed with secondary  and 
higher education1 and gave little heed  
to the education of all  the people in  
the rudiments4 ,in fact1 until toward   
the close of the  seventeenth century1  
the ,catholics generally did not succeed
 in  inaugurating any effective or      
widespread movement toward elementary   
education4 ,numerous attempts before    
this were made through catechism        
schools and various reformers and       
religious orders1 but teachers were     
scarce and often ignorant and poorly    
trained1 and there was little  progress 
before the organization of the ,brothers
 of the ,christian  ,schools through the

 self-sacrificing efforts of ,jean      
,baptiste de la  ,salle 7#afea-agai74   
,the organization sprang out of a group 
of five  masters engaged in teaching    
schools for the poor in the city of     
,rheims  in #afgi1 but it was not until 
three years later that ,la ,salle       
completed  his regulations1 founded the 
brotherhood1 and moved the members into 
a permanent home4 ,the order flourished1
 and neighboring towns soon  endeavored 
to secure its members as teachers in    
their schools for the  poor4 ,within a  
year or two1 four schools in and about  
,rheims were  placed under masters      
trained in the house of the ,christian  
,brothers1  and a number of other       
institutions were soon organized in the 
vicinity  upon the same basis4          
,sidenote3 ,paris1    ,sidenote3 and    
,saint ,yon4    ,but1 being unable to   
supply the constant demands for his     
teachers that  came from districts      
outside the towns1 ,la ,salle undertook 
to train boys  who were sent him by the 

rural clergy1 and were expected to      
return  to their homes to teach after   
their training4 ,to accomplish this1 he 
established in #afhd a #8seminary for   
schoolmasters' in a wing of the  house  
of the brotherhood1 and two other       
seminaries were opened in  neighboring  
towns the following year4 ,four years   
later ,la ,salle opened  a house for the
 brotherhood near ,paris1 and the       
,christian ,brothers  were speedily     
requested to take charge of the schools 
of several  parishes4 ,despite the      
jealousy and opposition of the          
established order  of schoolmasters and 
of many parties in ,church and ,state1  
the schools  and seminaries of the      
,brothers greatly increased in ,paris1  
and were  rapidly extended throughout   
,france4 ,at ,paris also ,la ,salle     
started  the #8,christian academy1' in  
which drawing1 geometry1 and            
architecture  were taught ambitious poor
 boys on ,sunday1 and introduced        
boarding  colleges for higher secondary 

training4 ,and these institutions       
likewise  spread through ,france and the
 rest of ,europe 7,fig4 #ai74 ,in #agje 
,la  ,salle retired to the estate known 
as ,saint ,yon1 near ,rouen1 and there  
opened a home for the brotherhood4 ,here
 he also founded a famous               
boarding-school in which he trained boys
 for soldiery1 farming1 trade1  and     
various other vocations4 ,before long he
 likewise organized in  conjunction an  
industrial training for youthful        
delinquents1 and both  the vocational   
school and the #8protectory' soon became
 models for many  similar institutions  
in ,france and elsewhere4    ,sidenote3 
,religious aim4    ,sidenote3 ,besides  
rudiments and religion1 more practical  
subjects4    ,sidenote3 #8,simultaneous'
 method4    ,sidenote3 ,training of     
teachers4    ,the ,aim1 ,curriculum1 and
 ,method of the ,christian ,brothers'   
,schools4--,the plan of the schools of  
the ,christian ,brothers was  eventually
 worked out and crystallized in a fixed 

system under the  title of ,conduct of  
,schools4 ,this code has not remained   
quite as  definite and uniform as the   
,ratio ,studiorum of the ,jesuits1 for  
changes and revisions are permitted1 and
 modern methods and subjects  have from 
time to time been introduced4           
,considerable latitude1  moreover1 has  
been allowed to the individual houses by
 the ,superior  ,general at the head of 
the order1 and by the ,brothers         
,visitors1 who  have charge of the      
districts4 ,the educational aim of the  
,christian  ,brothers has been          
preminently religious1 and the chief    
means  of attaining this have been      
strict vigilance1 good example1 and     
catechetical instruction4 ,the course   
has included the studies of the  best   
schools of the time1 and added other    
more practical subjects4  ,besides the  
rudiments--reading1 writing1 and        
arithmetic--and religious  instruction  
and good manners1 mathematics1 history1 
botany1 geography1  drawing1            

architecture1 hydrography1 navigation1  
and other technical  subjects have often
 been taught1 and in the industrial     
schools a manual  and vocational        
training has been furnished4 ,la ,salle 
seems to have made  a great advance1    
too1 in educational economy by          
perfecting and applying  the            
#8simultaneous' method1 which had been  
practiced in a crude form by  some of   
his forerunners4 ,by this method is     
meant grading the children  according to
 their capacity1 and having those in    
each grade use the  same book and follow
 the same lesson under a single master1 
instead of  instructing each pupil      
individually1 as was generally the      
custom then4  ,likewise1 the seminaries 
or training schools of the ,christian   
,brothers  contributed much to the      
advancement of efficiency in teaching4  
,for the  first time teachers of ability
 and training were made possible for the
  elementary schools4    ,sidenote3     
,spread    ,sidenote3 and expansion of  

the work4    ,influence of the ,schools 
of the ,christian ,brothers4--,the work 
of the  ,christian ,brothers has met    
with steady growth and development4 ,by 
the  time of ,la ,salle's death 7#agai71
 there had come to be twenty-seven      
houses of the order1 with two hundred   
and seventy-four brothers1  educating   
about nine thousand pupils4 ,before the 
close of the century  these numbers had 
about quadrupled1 and now they have     
increased nearly  a hundredfold since   
the founder's day4 ,during the          
nineteenth century  these institutions  
were established in all the states of   
,europe1  ,asia1 ,northern ,africa1 and 
,america4 ,the educational system has   
been  much modified and expanded1 and   
now includes colleges1 technical and    
industrial schools1 academies and high  
schools1 elementary and grammar         
schools1 commercial schools1 asylums1   
and protectories4 ,thus ,la ,salle  and 
his schools of the ,christian ,brothers 
have performed a great  service for     

education in all lines1 but especially  
in the promotion  and enrichment of     
elementary training1 which had          
previously been so  neglected4          
,sidenote3 ,religious and theological4  
,aim and ,content of ,education in the  
,reformation4--,it can now be seen      
that1 as a result of the ,reformation1  
the religious and theological aim  of   
education at all stages became very     
prominent with ,catholics and           
,protestants alike4 ,in the elementary  
schools1 beside the rudiments1 the      
,scriptures1 the ,lord's prayer1 the ten
 commandments1 and the ,catholic1       
,lutheran1 ,calvinist1 or ,anglican     
creed and catechism were taught1 and1   
with the ,protestants1 also the hymns of
 the church4 ,the courses in the        
secondary schools and universities      
contained large religious elements1  as 
well as the formal humanism into which  
the ,renaissance of the ,north  had     
degenerated4 ,likewise1 there was       
furnished in all universities a         

training in dialectic1 rhetoric1 and    
theology for the sake of efficient      
controversy with ecclesiastical         
opponents4    ,sidenote3 ,coperation    
with civil officials4    ,effect of the 
,reformation upon ,elementary           
,schools4--,but while the  ,catholics   
were inclined to leave the organization 
of education in the  hands of various   
religious bodies1 the ,protestants more 
often thought  it wise to have its      
support and control administered by the 
princes  and the state4 ,owing to this  
secular management and their position   
on universal education1 the             
,protestants1 with the exception of the 
,anglicans1 who had altered but little  
in doctrine1 were inclined to  establish
 state school systems and hold to the   
duty of providing and  requiring        
elementary education at public expense4 
,in this way the germs  of the modern   
tendency toward universal1 free1 and    
compulsory education  began to appear1  
although they did not ripen until much  

later4    ,sidenote3 ,germany1    ,in   
the ,german states there were many      
illustrations of the spread of          
elementary education and civic control4 
,as an immediate result of  ,luther's   
,letter to the ,mayors in #aebd1 the    
city of ,magdeburg united  its parish   
schools under one management and adopted
 the ,protestant  ideals4 ,so1 in #aebe1
 the school at ,eisleben1 organized upon
 a  ,protestant basis 7see p4 #abh71    
included elementary as well as secondary
  work4 ,similar ideals and organization
 appear in the provision for  #8,german'
 schools in the #8,church orders' sent  
out by ,bugenhagen 7see  pp4 #abh f47 to
 the ,protestant cities and states of   
,northern ,germany4  ,a further step was
 taken in #aebh when ,melanchthon drew  
up a plan for  schools throughout the   
entire ,electorate of ,saxony4 ,this1   
the first  state school system in       
history1 was followed by one in         
,wrtemberg1  where in #aeei ,duke       
,christopher adopted an improvement upon

 the ,saxon  plan1 which called for a   
religious and elementary training for   
the  children of the common people in   
every village of the duchy4 ,brunswick  
in #aefi1 and ,saxony in #aehj1 followed
 the lead of ,wrtemberg in  revising    
their school systems4 ,before the middle
 of the next century1  a number of other
 states of ,germany1 such as ,weimar1   
,hessen-,darmstadt1  ,mecklenburg1      
,holstein1 ,hessen-,cassel1 and ,gotha  
modeled elementary  school systems after
 those of ,saxony and ,wrtemberg4 ,while
 the  ,catholics did not in general     
maintain public elementary education1   
the  ,christian ,brothers and others    
undertook a great work in this          
direction1  and ,duke ,albrecht ,v of   
,bavaria even ordered throughout his    
state  the establishment of #8,german'  
schools with instruction in reading1    
writing1 and the ,catholic creed4 ,this 
organization of universal  education    
continued its advance1 despite the      
decimation and the general  havoc upon  

finance and education wrought by the    
,thirty ,years' ,war  7#afah-afdh71 and 
by the end of the eighteenth century    
practically every  village throughout   
the ,german states had its ,volksschule 
or #8people's  school4' ,these          
institutions were under the direction of
 the pastor of  each parish1 and while  
actual conditions may often have been   
somewhat  below the statutory level and 
in many cases were a wretched apology1  
every child not studying at a secondary 
school was in theory obliged1  between  
the ages of six and thirteen1 to attend 
one of these schools of  the people     
7,fig4 #bj74    ,sidenote3 ,holland1    
,sidenote3 ,scotland1    ,sidenote3 and 
the ,american colonies4    ,as a result 
of the ,dutch ,reformed movement1       
,holland also made early  provision for 
instruction in religion1 reading1 and   
writing4 ,the ,church  at various       
synods1 and civic authorities in many   
statutes1 recognized  the need of       
universal training1 and finally the     

great ,synod of ,dort1  by a combination
 with the civil government1 in #afah    
required every  parish to furnish       
elementary education for all4           
,similarly1 through  ,knox1 ,scotland   
established elementary schools under the
 control of the  parishes4 ,preliminary 
steps in this direction were taken by   
the ,privy  ,council and the ,scotch    
,parliament early in the seventeenth    
century1  and in #afdf the parliament   
further enacted that there be 8a        
,schoole  founded1 and a ,schoole master
 appointed in every ,parish10 and       
provided  that if a parish should fail  
in this duty1 the presbytery should have
  power to establish the school and     
compel the parish to maintain it4  ,half
 a century later this school system was 
given over more fully to  the control of
 the ,state1 but even then much of the  
old connection  with the ,church was    
apparent4 ,these schools gave           
instruction in  reading1 writing1 and   
religion1 with the ,bible as text1 and  

have done  a wonderful work in raising  
the level of intelligence and affording 
an  opportunity to the children of the  
lower classes in ,scotland4 ,england    
herself continued to hold to            
aristocratic and #8selective' education1
  and gave little heed to the           
establishment of elementary schools2 but
  the ,american colonies1 as far as they
 were founded by ,calvinists or         
,lutherans1 provided early for          
elementary education 7see p4 #ahi74 ,the
  ,puritan towns of the ,massachusetts  
colony established schools almost  as   
soon as they were settled1 and in #afdg 
the legislature enacted that  all towns 
with fifty families should provide an   
elementary school4  ,connecticut        
followed the example three years later1 
and before the  close of the century1   
similar action was taken by ,new        
,hampshire  and ,vermont 7see pp4 #aig  
and #aii74 ,likewise1 ,new ,amsterdam   
and the  villages of ,new ,netherlands  
followed the example of the ,mother     

,country  and provided public schools in
 connection with each church through    
the support of the ,dutch ,west ,india  
,company or of the civil and            
ecclesiastical bodies jointly 7see pp4  
#aic f74    ,illustration3    ,fig4     
#ai4--;,a school of the ,christian      
,brothers4 7,visit of ,james ,,ii and   
the ,archbishop of ,paris to the school 
at ,rouen47    ,illustration3    ,fig4  
#bj4--;,a ,protestant school in a       
,german village of the sixteenth        
century4 7,visit of the school committee
 and catechising by the pastor47        
,sidenote3 ,civic control among         
,protestants1    ,sidenote3 though      
direct management through the ,church4  
,sidenote3 ,catholic education largely  
in hands of ,jesuits4    ,effect of the 
,reformation upon the ,secondary        
,schools4--,while the  development of   
elementary instruction and state systems
 of education  was the most important   
educational outcome of the ,reformation1
 the  movement had a somewhat similar   

effect upon the humanistic secondary    
education of the time4 ,in ,protestant  
,germany the ,latin schools and         
gymnasia came under the control of the  
princes and the ,state rather  than the 
,church1 and gradually became the       
backbone of the state school  systems4  
,but they stressed the religious element
 in their curriculum1  and the direct   
management of education was simply      
transferred to  ,protestant ministers or
 leaders4 ,the schools were still taught
 and  inspected by representatives of   
the ,church1 but the form of the        
organization and administration of      
education was radically changed4 ,in    
,england there was a similar transfer of
 management to the ,protestant  clergy4 
,the existence of the schools had to be 
authorized and their  teachers licensed 
by the bishop1 and they were at all     
times liable to  visitation from        
ecclesiastical authority4 ,the grammar  
schools1 however1  were never organized 
like the gymnasia1 but each school      

remained  independent of the rest and of
 any national combination4 ,nor were    
the ,calvinistic colleges united into a 
national system1 except where  they came
 into ,germany1 when they were absorbed 
into the system of  the gymnasia4 ,the  
state system of education established by
 the ,scotch  parliament in the         
parishes1 often gave secondary training1
 as well  as elementary4 ,and in        
,america the establishment and control  
of the  #8grammar' schools1 inherited   
from the mother country1 were vested in 
the authorities of the state and the    
several towns4 ,on the other hand1  the 
,catholic education in all countries    
found its secondary schools  largely in 
the colleges of the ,jesuits1 and the   
subordination of the  individual to     
authority and the ,church was insisted  
upon4    ,sidenote3 ,many universities  
adhered to ,catholic authority4         
,sidenote3 ,others changed to           
,protestantism with their princes4      
,influence of the ,reformation upon the 

,universities4--,in the case of  the    
universities1 many remained loyal to    
,catholicism and a few new  ,catholic   
foundations grew out of the             
,reformation4 ,all these adhered  to the
 principle of submission to             
ecclesiastical authority4 ,but the      
majority of the universities in the     
,protestant states of ,germany  followed
 their princes when they changed from   
the old creed to the new4  ,wittenberg1 
through its connection with ,luther and 
,melanchthon1 was the  first ,german    
university to become ,protestant1 but   
others1 like ,marburg1  ,knigsberg1     
,jena1 ,helmstadt1 and ,dorpat followed 
rapidly4 ,altdorf and  ,strassburg were 
developed out of gymnasia4 ,the ,english
 universities1  ,oxford and ,cambridge1 
went over to ,protestantism with the    
national  ,church4 ,in ,america1 too1   
,harvard and other early colleges were  
closely  connected with the various     
commonwealths and with the ,calvinistic 
or  the ,anglican communion1 according  

to the colony4    ,sidenote3 ,memory    
stressed1 rather than reason2 authority 
emphasized2  and individuality          
repressed4    ,the ,lapse into          
,formalism4--,there came to be both in  
,catholic and  ,protestant institutions 
a tendency to regard the subjects taught
 as  materials for discipline rather    
than as valuable for their content4 ,the
  studies largely became an end in      
themselves and were deprived of almost  
all their vitality4 ,the curriculum of  
the institutions became fixed and       
stereotyped in nature1 and education    
lapsed into a formalism but little      
superior to that of the medival         
scholastics4 ,the methods of teaching   
came to stress memory more than reason4 
,the ,protestants had claimed  to depend
 less upon uncritical and obedient      
acceptance of dogma than  upon the      
constant application of reason to the   
,scriptures1 but they  soon tended to   
emphasize the importance of authority   
and the repression  of the individual   

quite as clearly as the ,catholics1 who 
definitely  held that reason is out of  
place and unreliable as a final guide in
  education and life4 ,hence1 except for
 launching the great conception of      
state support and control of education1 
the ,reformation accomplished  but      
little directly making for individualism
 and progress1 either  through the      
,catholic awakening or the ,protestant  
revolts4 ,education  fell back before   
long into the grooves of formalism1     
repression1 and  distrust of reason4    
,there resulted a tendency to test life 
and the  educational preparation for    
living by a formulation of belief almost
 as  much as in the days of             
scholasticism4      ,,supplementary     
,,reading    ,graves1 ,during the       
,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 chap4  
,,xv-,,xvi2  ,monroe1 ,text-book        
7,macmillan1 #aije71 chap4 ,,vii4 ,an   
excellent  interpretative account of the
 ,reformation is that in ,adams1 ,g4    
,b41  ,civilization during the ,middle  

,ages 7,scribner1 #ahid71 chaps4 ,,xvi  
and  ,,xvii4 ,painter1 ,f4 ,v4 ,n41     
furnishes a good translation of ,luther 
on  ,education 7,lutheran ,publication  
,society1 ,philadelphia74 ,richard1 ,j4 
,w41 gives a good account of            
,melanchthon1 the ,protestant ,preceptor
 of  ,germany 7,putnam1 #ahih71         
especially chaps4 ,,ii-,,iv and ,,vii2  
,watson1 ,f41  of ,maturinus ,corderius1
 the ,schoolmaster of ,calvin 7,school  
,review1  vol4 ,,xii1 nos4 #d1 #g1 and  
#i72 ,graves1 ,f4 ,p41 ,ramus and the   
,educational  ,reformation of the       
,sixteenth ,century 7,macmillan1 #aiab7 
of conditions  in ,france2 and ,leach1  
,a4 ,f41 of the dissolution acts of     
,henry ,,viii and  ,edward ,,vi in      
,english ,schools at the ,reformation   
7,constable1 ,london1  #ahif71 pp4      
#eh-abb4 ,on the side of ,catholic      
education1 one should read              
,schwickerath1 ,r41 ,jesuit ,education  
7,herder1 ,st4 ,louis71 chaps4          
,,iii-,,viii and ,,xv-,,xviii2 ,cadet1  

,f41 ,port ,royal ,education 7,bardeen1 
,syracuse1 #ahii2 ,george ,allen and    
,co41 ,london7 pp4 #i-aai2 and ,wilson1 
,mrs4 ,r4 ,f41 ,christian ,brothers     
7,london1 #ahhc71 which gives an epitome
  of ,ravelet1 ,a41 ,life of ,la ,salle4
 ,the influence of the ,reformation     
upon the ,german schools and            
universities1 both ,protestant and      
,catholic1  is shown in ,nohle ,e41     
,history of the ,german ,school ,system 
7,report  of the ,united ,states        
,commissioner of ,education1 #ahig-ih1  
vol4 ,i71 pp4  #cj-dj2 and ,paulsen1    
,f41 ,german ,education 7,scribner1     
#aijh71 pp4 #gi-he4          ,,chapter  
,,xiv    ,,early ,,realism ,,and ,,the  
,,innovators      ,,outline        ,the 
intellectual awakening that appeared in 
the ,renaissance and the                
,reformation found another avenue for   
expression in early realism4            
,this movement had two phases3 7#a7     
humanistic realism1 which               
emphasized the content of classical     

literature2 and 7#b7 social             
realism1 which strove to adapt education
 to actual life4 ,but the      two      
phases generally occurred together1 and 
the classification      of a treatise   
under one head or the other is largely a
 matter of      emphasis4        ,the   
influence of the two phases was mostly  
indirect1 but through      social       
realism a special training arose in the 
,ritterakademien      in ,germany1 while
 ,milton's humanistic realism was       
embodied in the      #8academies' of    
,england1 and afterward of ,america4    
,sidenote3 ,a new channel for the       
emancipation of the individual4         
,sidenote3 ,a method by which #8real    
things' may be known4    ,sidenote3     
#8,sense realism'    ,sidenote3 and the 
earlier realism4    ,the ,rise and      
,nature of ,realism4--,by the           
seventeenth century it  is obvious that 
humanism was everywhere losing its      
vitality and  declining into a narrow   
#8,ciceronianism1' and that the         

,reformation was  hardening once more   
into fixed concepts and a dogmatic      
formalism4  ,the awakened intellect of  
,europe1 however1 was tending to find   
still  another mode of expression in the
 educational movement that is usually   
known as #8realism4' ,the process of    
emancipating the individual from        
tradition and repressive authority had  
not altogether ceased1 but it  was      
manifesting itself mainly through a     
rather different channel4  ,the movement
 of realism implied a search for a      
method by which #8real  things' may be  
known4 ,in its most distinct and latest 
form1--#8sense  realism1' it held that  
real knowledge comes through the senses 
and  reason rather than through memory  
and reliance on tradition1 and in  this 
way it interpreted the #8real things' as
 being individual objects4  ,educational
 realism1 therefore1 concerned itself   
ultimately with  investigation in the   
natural sciences2 and it might well be  
denominated  #8the beginnings of the    

scientific movement1' were it not that  
such a  description neglects the earlier
 phases of the realistic development4   
,sidenote3 #8,real things' in ideas1    
rather than words4    ,sidenote3        
,milton's ,tractate as an illustration4 
,humanistic ,realism4--,for1 even before
 objects were regarded as  the true     
realities1 there seems to have been an  
effort among some  later humanists to   
seek for the #8real things' in the ideas
 that were  represented by the written  
words4 ,this broader type of humanism1  
in  consequence1 tended to break from a 
restriction to words and set forms  and 
return to the interest in the content of
 classical literature that  marked the  
,renaissance before its decline into    
formalism4 ,it may1  therefore1 properly
 be called #8humanistic realism4' ,with 
its emphasis  upon content usually went 
a study of social and physical          
phenomena1  in order to throw light upon
 the passages under consideration4      
,illustrations of this humanistic       

realism are found in many writers  of   
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4
 ,milton 7#afjh-afgd71 for  example1    
while a remarkable classicist himself1  
in his ,tractate  of ,education objects 
to the usual humanistic education with  
8its  grammatic flats and shallows where
 they stuck unreasonably to learn a  few
 words with lamentable construction02   
and says of the pupil1 8if  he have not 
studied the solid things in them as well
 as the words  and lexicons1 he were    
nothing so much to be esteemed as any   
yeoman  or tradesman competently wise in
 his mother dialect only40 ,and he      
would teach the ,latin writers on       
agriculture1 and the ,greek writers  on 
natural history1 geography1 and medicine
 for the sake of the  subject-matter4   
,sidenote3 ,preparation for living in a 
real world4    ,sidenote3 ,its content4 
,social ,realism4--,but there was       
another phase of early realism1 which   
often appeared in conjunction with      
humanistic education1 and may be  called

 #8social realism4' ,its adherents      
strove to adapt education  to actual    
living in a real world1 and to afford   
direct practical  preparation for the   
opportunities and duties of life4 ,it   
was generally  recommended as the means 
of education for all members of the     
upper  social class4 ,it sought to      
combine with the literary elements      
taught  the clergy in the ,middle ,ages 
and the scholar in the ,renaissance1    
certain remnants of the old chivalric   
education as the proper training  for   
gentlemen4 ,it held schools to be of    
less value as an agency for  educating  
the young aristocrats than training     
through a tutor and  travel4 ,hence an  
education in social realism usually     
included a study  of heraldry1          
genealogy1 riding1 fencing1 and         
gymnastics1 and involved  a study of    
modern languages and the customs and    
institutions of  neighboring countries4 
,sidenote3 ,montaigne's ,education of   
,children as an example4    ,a good     

illustration of this type of education  
is found in the  educational essays of  
,montaigne 7#aecc-aeib74 ,in the        
,education of  ,children he holds that  
virtue comes from experience and breadth
 of  vision rather than from reading1   
and declares3 8,i would have travel the 
book my young gentleman should study    
with most attention2 for so many        
humors1 so many sects1 so many          
judgments1 opinions1 laws1 and customs1 
teach us to judge aright of our own1 and
 inform our understanding to  discover  
its imperfection and natural infirmity40
 ,this training1 too1  he feels1 should 
be under the care of a tutor1 who is to 
be a man of  the world1 one 8whose head 
is well tempered1 rather than well      
filled40  ,while a gentleman has need of
 ,latin and ,greek1 ,montaigne maintains
 that  one should first study his own   
language and those of his neighbors4 ,he
  also stresses physical exercise1 and  
fears the training of boys near  their  
mothers1 who 8will not endure to see    

them mount an unruly horse1  nor take a 
foil in hand against a rude fencer40    
,sidenote3 ,locke's ,thoughts better    
known4    ,sidenote3 ,aim of education4 
,sidenote3 #8,accomplishments' as part  
of its content4    ,an educational work 
based on social realism that has been   
studied  even more than the ,essays of  
,montaigne is ,some ,thoughts concerning
  ,education by ,john ,locke            
7#afcb-agjd74 ,locke states the aims of 
education in the order of their value as
 #8,virtue1 ,wisdom 7i4 e41  worldly    
wisdom71 ,breeding1 and ,learning'2 and 
holds that such a  training can be      
secured by the young gentleman only     
through a tutor1  who 8should himself be
 well-bred1 understanding the ,ways of  
,carriage  and ,measures of ,civility in
 all the ,variety of ,persons1 ,times   
and  ,places1 and keep his ,pupil1 as   
much as his ,age requires1 constantly   
to the ,observation of them40 ,in       
considering the subject-matter of  the  
training1 he maintains that 8besides    

what is to be had from  ,study and      
,books1 there are other ,accomplishments
 necessary for a  ,gentleman1--dancing1 
horseback riding1 fencing and           
wrestling40    ,sidenote3 ,difficult to 
distinguish an author as of one type or 
the  other1 as can be seen in ,milton4  
,sidenote3 ,montaigne1    ,the          
,relations of ,humanistic to ,social    
,realism4--,humanistic and  social      
realism1 however1 constantly appear     
together in the works of  the same      
author1 and it is often difficult to    
distinguish a writer  as advocating one 
type or the other4 ,the differentiation 
seems to  be largely a matter of        
emphasis4 ,while one element or the     
other  may seem to be more prominent in 
the treatise of a certain author1  the  
two phases of education are largely     
bound up in each other4  ,while ,milton1
 for instance1 is in the main a         
humanistic realist and  advises an      
education in languages and books1 he    
recommends that  considerable time be   

given1 toward the end of the course1 to 
the social  sciences--history1 ethics1  
politics1 economics1 theology--and to   
such  practical training as would bring 
one in touch with life4 ,he also        
specifically advocates the experience   
and knowledge that would come  from     
travel in ,england and abroad2 and      
defines education as 8that which  fits a
 man to perform justly1 skillfully1 and 
magnanimously all the  offices both     
private and public of peace and war40   
,on the other hand1  ,montaigne1 the    
social realist1 seems quite as strenuous
 in urging a  more realistic humanism4  
,in his essay1 ,on ,pedantry1 he        
launches most  vigorous ridicule against
 the prevailing narrow humanistic       
education1  with its memorizing of words
 and forms1 and insists3 8,let the      
master  not only examine him about the  
words of his lesson1 but also as to the 
sense and meaning of them1 and let him  
judge of the profit he has made1  not by
 the testimony of his memory1 but that  

of his understanding40    ,sidenote3 and
 others4    ,sidenote3 ,distinctive     
social realists4    ,and it is equally  
difficult to state whether humanistic or
 social  elements prevail in ,locke's   
,thoughts1 the ,gargantua of ,rabelais  
7#adie-aeec71 the ,positions of         
,mulcaster 7#aecj-afaa71 and other      
treatises of the period4 ,it is true1 of
 course1 that in certain other  works   
written upon the training of the        
aristocracy1 social realism  is more    
exclusively stressed4 ,the titles of    
most of these reveal  their content1 as 
can easily be seen in the case of such  
productions  as ,castiglione's ,the     
,courtier 7#aebh71 ,elyot's ,the        
,governour  7#aeca71 ,peacham's ,the    
,compleat ,gentleman 7#afbb71 and       
,brathwaite's  ,the ,english ,gentleman 
7#afcj74 ,but1 in most of the early     
realistic  works1 humanistic and social 
elements are inextricably interwoven2   
and  humanistic and social realism1     
taken together1 seem to constitute a    

natural bridge from humanism over to    
sense realism4    ,sidenote3 ,other     
suggestions in the early realists4      
,sidenote3 ,but their influence was     
indirect4    ,the ,influence of the     
,innovators upon ,education4--,there is1
 however1  a variety of other brilliant 
educational suggestions in each of      
these early realists4 ,all of them hold 
to a broader and better  rounded        
training and more natural and informal  
methods than those  in vogue4 ,mulcaster
 even advocates universal elementary    
education1  the professional training of
 teachers1 and the education of girls1  
and undertakes to make a nave analysis  
of the mind as the basis of  a          
philosophy of education4 ,so suggestive 
have the recommendations  of the early  
realists proved to modern education that
 these authors  are often known as the  
#8innovators4' ,yet their theories do   
not seem  to have affected greatly the  
educational practice of the times4 ,they
  did tend to disrupt traditionalism and

 the formal humanism1 to bring          
education into touch with society and   
preparation for real life1 and  to      
popularize a wider content and a more   
informal procedure1 but their  influence
 appeared through their successors and  
later education rather  than directly in
 the schools of the period4 ,locke1 for 
instance1 in  addition to the influence 
he had upon ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 and 
other  reformers1 must in some measure  
have been responsible for the great     
development of the physical and ethical 
sides of education in the  public and   
grammar schools of ,england1 together   
with the tendency of  these institutions
 to consider such aspects of rather more
 importance  than the purely            
intellectual4 ,his plea for a tutor as  
the means of  shaping manners and morals
 has also probably had its effect upon  
the  education of the ,english          
aristocracy4    ,sidenote3 ,training for
 the nobility in modern languages1      
chivalric  arts1 and the sciences4      

,sidenote3 ,absorbed into secondary     
system4    ,the ,ritterakademien4--,in  
the ,german states1 on the other hand1  
there  arose at the courts during the   
seventeenth century an actually new     
type of educational institution as the  
outgrowth of social realism4  ,here1 in 
place of the old humanistic education1  
there was developed a  special training 
for the young nobles in ,french1        
,italian1 ,spanish1 and  ,english1 in   
such accomplishments as courtly conduct1
 dancing1 fencing1  and riding1 and in  
philosophy1 mathematics1 physics1       
geography1  statistics1 law1 genealogy1 
and heraldry4 ,the educational          
institutions  in which this training was
 embodied were known as ,ritterakademien
 or  #8academies for the nobles4' ,such 
academies were founded at ,colberg1     
,luneberg1 ,vienna1 ,wolffenbttel1 and  
many other centers before the  close of 
the century4 ,they originally covered   
the work of the gymnasia1  although     
substituting the modern languages1      

sciences1 and the knightly  arts that   
have been mentioned for the ,greek and  
,hebrew1 and adding a  little from the  
course of the university4 ,gradually1   
however1 they  became part of the       
regular secondary system4    ,sidenote3 
,milton's suggestions adopted by        
,puritans after the ,act of             
,uniformity4    ,sidenote3 ,the first   
academies4    ,sidenote3 ,their content4
    ,the ,academies in                  
,england4--,milton's suggestions were   
ultimately  materialized in an even more
 influential type of school4 ,in the    
,tractate he had recommended that his   
ideal education be carried  out in an   
institution to be known as an           
#8academy4' ,such a school was  to be   
erected #8in every city throughout this 
land4' ,it should train  boys from the  
age of twelve to twenty-one1 and should 
provide both  secondary and higher      
education4 #8,academies1' based very    
closely upon  this plan1 were about a   
generation later actually organized in a

 number  of places by the ,puritans4    
,under the harsh ,act of ,uniformity    
7#affb7 two  thousand non-conforming    
clergymen were driven from their        
parishes1 and  in many instances found  
school-teaching a congenial means of    
earning  a livelihood1 and at the same  
time of furnishing higher education to  
the young dissenters1 who were excluded 
from the universities and  grammar      
schools4 ,the first of these academies  
was that established by  ,richard       
,frankland at ,rathmill in #affe1 and   
this was followed by the  institutions  
of ,john ,woodhouse at ,sheriffhales1 of
 ,charles ,morton at  ,newington ,green1
 and of some thirty other educators of  
whom we have  record at other places4   
,these academies were largely humanistic
 in  their realism1 and1 since their    
chief function was to fit for the       
ministry1 they included ,latin1 ,greek1 
and ,hebrew in their course1 but  they  
were also rich in mathematics1 natural  
and social sciences1 modern  languages1 

and the vernacular4 ,the new tendency   
was also broadened and  amplified by    
,locke's ,thoughts 7#afic71 which became
 the great guide  for the managers of   
the ,puritan academies4 ,in #afhi1 when 
the ,act of  ,toleration put            
non-conformity upon a legal footing1 the
 academies were  allowed to be regularly
 incorporated4    ,sidenote3 ,their rise
 as a supplement to the narrow #8grammar
 schools'4    ,sidenote3 ,the early     
academies4    ,the ,academies in        
,america4--,academies arose also in     
,america4 ,when  the number of religious
 denominations had greatly increased and
  the demands upon secondary education  
had expanded1 the #8grammar  schools'   
7see pp4 #abj f471 with their narrow    
denominational ideals  and their        
limitation to a classical training and  
college preparation1  proved inadequate1
 and efforts were made to organize      
academies as a  supplement4 ,there may  
have been earlier academies in ,america1
 but  the first well-known suggestion of

 an academy was made in #agdc by        
,benjamin ,franklin4 ,he wished to      
inaugurate an education that would      
prepare for life1 and not merely for    
college4 ,accordingly1 he proposed  for 
the youth of ,pennsylvania a course in  
which ,english grammar and  composition1
 penmanship1 arithmetic1 drawing1       
geography1 history1 the  natural        
sciences1 oratory1 civics1 and logic    
were to be emphasized4 ,he  would gladly
 have excluded ,latin and other         
languages altogether1 but  for politic  
reasons these courses were allowed to be
 elective4 ,through  the efforts of a   
number of leading citizens1 such an     
academy was opened  at ,philadelphia    
7,fig4 #cb71 in ,january1 #agej         
7although not chartered  until ,july1   
#agec74 ,during the next generation a   
number of similar  institutions sprang  
up1 especially in the middle and        
southern colonies4  ,a great impulse was
 given the movement by the foundation of
 the two  ,phillips academies1--one in  

#aghj at ,andover1 ,massachusetts1 and  
the  other the next year at ,exeter1    
,new ,hampshire4 ,the ,dummer ,grammar  
,school  was reorganized as an academy  
in #aghb1 and the movement spread       
rapidly  throughout ,new ,england during
 the last two decades of the eighteenth 
century4    ,sidenote3 ,after the       
,revolution the prevailing type of      
secondary  education4    ,sidenote3     
,support1 location1 and functions4      
,shortly after the ,revolution1 owing in
 part to the inability or  unwillingness
 of the towns to maintain grammar       
schools1 and in part  to the wider      
appeal and greater usefulness of the    
academies1 the  latter institutions     
quite eclipsed the former1 and became   
for about  half a century the prevailing
 type of secondary school in the ,united
  ,states4 ,they were usually endowed   
institutions managed by a close         
corporation1 but were often largely     
supported by subscriptions from the     
neighborhood1 and sometimes subsidized  

by the state4 ,located in small  towns  
or villages1 they served a wide         
constituency and made provision  for    
boarding1 as well as day pupils4 ,unlike
 the grammar schools1 they  were not    
originally intended to prepare for the  
learned professions  exclusively1 but1  
as time passed1 they tended more and    
more to become  preparatory schools for 
the colleges1 instead of finishing      
schools  for the middle classes of      
society4 ,the academies were also the   
first  institutions of secondary        
education to offer opportunities to     
women4  ,many of them were              
co-educational1 and others1 frequently  
burdened with  the name of #8female     
seminary1' were for girls exclusively4  
,academies  for some time likewise      
furnished the only means of training    
teachers  for the elementary schools1   
and have generally played an important  
part  in education in the ,united       
,states4      ,,supplementary ,,reading 
,graves1 ,during the ,transition        

7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 chap4 ,,xvii2 and  
,great ,educators of ,three ,centuries  
7,macmillan1 #aiab71 chaps4 ,i and  ,v2 
,monroe1 ,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71
 pp4 #ddb-dfj4 ,an excellent  edition of
 ,milton's ,tractate of ,education is   
that by ,morris1 ,e4  ,e4 7,macmillan1  
#ahie72 of ,montaigne's ,education of   
,children that  by ,rector1 ,l4 ,e4     
7,appleton1 #ahii72 of ,locke's         
,thoughts concerning  ,education1 and of
 ,mulcaster's ,positions1 those by      
,quick1 ,r4 ,h4  7,cambridge ,university
 ,press1 #ahie1 and ,longmans1 #ahhh1   
respectively72  and of ,rabelais'       
,gargantua1 that by ,besant1 ,w4        
7,lippincott1 ,foreign  ,classics for   
,english ,readers74 ,the works of       
,castiglione1 ,elyot1  ,peacham1        
,brathwaite1 etc41 are also extant4 ,for
 an account of the  ,ritterakademien1   
see ,nohle1 ,e41 ,history of the ,german
 ,school ,system  7,report of the ,u4   
,s4 ,commissioner of ,education1        
#ahig-ih71 pp4 #da f41  and ,paulsen1   

,f41 ,german ,education 7,scribner1     
#aijh71 pp4 #aab-aaf2 and  of the       
academies1 ,brown1 ,e4 ,e41 ,the ,making
 of ,our ,middle ,schools  7,longmans1  
,green1 #aijb71 chaps4 ,,viii and ,,ix4 
,,chapter ,,xv    ,,sense ,,realism     
,,and ,,the ,,early ,,scientific        
,,movement      ,,outline        ,in the
 seventeenth century scientific         
investigation developed      rapidly1   
and led theorists to introduce science  
into the curriculum      and to advocate
 a study of #8real things4'             
,bacon undertook to formulate induction1
 and while he did not      understand   
the importance of an hypothesis1 he did 
much to rid the      times of a priori  
reasoning4        ,on the basis of sense
 realism1 ,ratich anticipated many      
principles      of modern pedagogy1 but 
he was unsuccessful in applying his     
ideas4        ,comenius 7#a7 produced   
texts for teaching ,latin objectively1  
7#b7      crystallized his educational  
principles in the ,great ,didactic1     

and 7#c7 attempted an encyclopdic       
organization of knowledge4 ,he          
wished to make this knowledge part of   
the course at every stage of            
education1 and1 while he was not        
consistently inductive1 he made a       
great advance in the use of this method4
        ,through sense realism1         
rudimentary science was introduced into 
the      elementary schools2 the        
,ritterakademien and the pietist schools
      stressed the subject2 and         
professorships of science were founded  
in      the universities4    ,sidenote3 
,earlier realism a transition to sense  
realism4    ,sidenote3 ,opposition to   
the sciences4    ,the ,development of   
the ,sciences and ,realism4--,the       
realistic tendency  did not pause with  
reviving the ideas represented by the   
words nor  with the endeavor to bring   
the pupil into touch with the life he   
was  to lead4 ,the earlier realism seems
 to have been simply a stage in the     
process of transition from the narrow   

and formal humanism to a realism        
obtained through the senses1 which may  
be regarded as the beginning  of the    
modern movement to develop the natural  
sciences4 ,science had  started to      
develop as early as the time of the     
schoolman1 ,roger ,bacon  7#abad-abid71 
but for three centuries it was not      
kindly received4 ,even  during the      
,renaissance the ,church had continued  
to oppose it bitterly1  because it      
tended to conflict with religious dogma1
 although this age  did not object to   
the revival of the classics4            
,accordingly1 the latter  subject became
 strongly intrenched in educational     
tradition1 and its  advocates offered   
the most obstinate opposition to the    
sciences4 ,its  numerous representatives
 struggled hard to keep the sciences out
 of  education4    ,sidenote3           
,development of physics and astronomy in
 the seventeenth  century4    ,however1 
concomitant with the growth of reason   
and the partial removal  of the         

theological ban1 there was developed a  
remarkable scientific  movement1 with a 
variety of discoveries and inventions4  
,for more than  a millennium the ,greek 
developments in astronomy and physics   
had been  accepted as final1 but toward 
the close of the sixteenth and during   
the  seventeenth century these dicta    
were completely upset4 ,the hypothesis  
of a solar system1 which replaced the   
,ptolemaic interpretation1 was          
published by ,copernicus 7#adgc-aedc72  
,kepler 7#aega-afcj7 explained  the     
motion of the planets by three simple   
laws2 and1 through the  construction of 
a telescope1 ,galileo 7#aefd-afdb7      
revealed new celestial  phenomena4      
,galileo also demonstrated that all     
bodies1 allowing for  the resistance of 
the air1 fall at the same rate2 by means
 of the  barometer1 ,torricelli         
7#afjh-afdg7 and ,boyle 7#afbg-afia7    
proved the  existing theories of a      
vacuum incorrect1 and formulated        
important  laws concerning the pressure 

of gases2 and ,guericke 7#afjb-afhf71   
inspired by their discoveries1 succeeded
 in constructing an air-pump4           
,investigations of this kind paved the  
way for the formulation of the  law of  
universal gravitation and the laws of   
motion by ,sir ,isaac ,newton           
7#afdb-agbg71 which united the universe 
into a single comprehensive  system and 
completed the foundations for modern    
mechanics4    ,sidenote3 ,development of
 anatomy and physiology4    ,likewise1  
about the same time1 the other great    
development in  science among the       
,greeks1--anatomy and physiology1 was   
completely  revolutionized4 ,through the
 discovery of valves in the veins by    
means of dissection and vivisection1 the
 hypothesis of the double  circulation  
of the blood by ,harvey 7#aegh-afeg71   
and the microscopic  demonstrations by  
,malpighi 7#afbh-afid7 of the existence 
of capillaries  connecting the veins and
 the arteries1 the old theory of the    
motion of  the blood through suction1   

which had been promulgated by ,galen1   
was  completely shattered1 and a great  
impetus was given to investigations  in 
anatomy and physiology4 ,in consequence 
of this scientific progress1  the       
educational theorists began to introduce
 science and a knowledge  of real things
 into the curriculum4 ,it came to be    
widely felt that  humanism gave a       
knowledge only of words1 books1 and     
opinions1 and did  not even at its best 
lead to a study of real things4 ,hence1 
new methods  and new books were         
produced1 to shorten and improve the    
study of the  classical languages1 and  
new content was imported into the       
courses  of study4 ,the movement also   
included an attempt at a formulation of 
scientific principles in education and  
an adaptation to the nature of  the     
child4    ,sidenote3 ,bacon rejected the
 deductive method of the day1           
,sidenote3 but created a mechanical     
procedure4    ,bacon and ,his ,inductive
 ,method4--,the new tendency1 however1  

did not  appear in education until after
 the time of ,francis ,bacon            
7#aefa-afbf74  ,the use of the          
scientific method by the various        
discoverers was  largely unconscious1   
and it remained for ,bacon to formulate 
what he  called the method of           
#8induction' and by advocating its use1 
to point  the way to its development as 
a scientific method in education4 ,he   
is1  therefore1 ordinarily known as the 
first sense realist4 ,he reacted from   
deductive logic1 which was currently    
supposed to be the sole method of       
,aristotle1 and took his cue in         
formulating a new method of reasoning   
from the many scientific workers of his 
time4 ,he made a great advance  in his  
rejection of the contemporary method of 
attempting to establish  the first      
principles of a science1 and then       
deducing from them by  means of the     
syllogism all the propositions which    
that science could  contain4 ,however1  
his ,novum ,organum1 or #8new           

instrument' as he called  his treatise1 
in endeavoring to create a method       
whereby anyone could  attain all the    
knowledge of which the human mind was   
capable1 undertook  far too much1 and   
resulted in a merely mechanical         
procedure4 ,briefly  stated1 his plan   
was1 after ridding the mind of          
individual prejudices1  to observe and  
carefully tabulate lists of all the     
facts of nature1 and  from these        
discover the underlying law by comparing
 the cases where a  certain phenomenon  
appears and where it does not4          
,sidenote3 ,he failed to formulate the  
true inductive method1    ,sidenote3    
though he rid the times of a priori     
reasoning4    ,but by this method       
neither ,bacon himself nor anyone else  
has ever made  any real contribution to 
science4 ,it does not follow that1      
because all  observed cases under       
certain conditions produce a particular 
effect1  every other instance not yet   
observed will necessarily have the same 

effect4 ,the true method of induction1  
which was evident even in the  work of  
,kepler1 and came to be more so in the  
discoveries of ,harvey and  ,newton1    
stresses rather the part played by      
scientific imagination1 as  it is       
manifested by men of genius in the      
forming of an hypothesis4 ,the  modern  
procedure is as follows3--,when certain 
effects are observed1 of  which the     
cause or law is unknown1 the scientist  
frames an hypothesis  7i4 e41 makes a   
conjecture7 to account for them2 then he
 tests this  hypothesis1 by collecting  
facts and comparing with these facts the
  conclusions to which his hypothesis   
would lead2 and1 if they correspond  or 
agree1 he holds that his hypothesis has 
been confirmed or verified1  and        
maintains that he has discovered the    
cause or law4 ,nevertheless1  while     
,bacon did not formulate the inductive  
method of modern science1  he largely   
helped to rid the times of an unwise    
dependence upon a  priori reasoning1 and

 he did call attention to the necessity 
of  careful observation and             
experimentation1 and thus opened the way
  for real inductive procedure4         
,probably no book ever made a greater   
revolution in modes of thinking or      
overthrew more prejudices than  ,bacon's
 ,novum ,organum4    ,sidenote3 ,bacon  
was not especially interested in        
education1    ,sidenote3 but his        
suggestions influenced ,ratich and      
,comenius4    ,bacon's ,educational     
,suggestions and ,influence4--,bacon was
 not a  teacher1 and his treatment of   
educational problems appears in brief   
and  scattered passages4 ,while he      
offers isolated suggestions concerning  
the mental and moral training of the    
young1 he plans no serious  modification
 in the existing organization of        
schools4 ,he does1 however1  in his ,new
 ,atlantis imply an interest in         
promoting scientific  research and      
higher education4 ,in the ideal society 
depicted in that  work1 he describes an 

organization of scholars called         
#8,salomon's  ,house1' whose members in 
their investigations anticipate much    
that  scientists and inventors have     
to-day only just begun to realize4      
,among  these anticipations were the    
variation of species1 the infusion of   
serums1 vivisection1 telescopes1        
telephones1 flying-machines1 submarine  
boats1 and steam-engines4 ,from this    
description ,bacon would seem to        
believe that education should be        
organized upon the basis of society's   
gradually accumulating a knowledge of   
nature and imparting it to all  pupils  
at every stage4 ,at any rate1 in his    
,advancement of ,learning1  he          
definitely suggests a wider course of   
study1 more complete equipment  for     
scientific investigation1 a closer      
coperation among institutions  of       
learning1 and a forwarding of           
#8unfinished sciences4' ,and such a     
plan of pansophia1 or #8universal       
knowledge1' was specified in the        

educational creed of the later sense    
realists1 who worked out the  ,baconian 
theory of education4 ,hence1 while not  
skilled or greatly  interested in       
education himself1 ,bacon influenced    
profoundly the  writing of many who     
were1 and has done much to shape the    
spirit of  modern practice4 ,his method 
was first applied directly to education 
by  a ,german known as ,ratich1 and1 in 
a more effective way1 by ,comenius1 a   
,moravian4    ,sidenote3 ,linguistic    
training4    ,sidenote3 ,other realistic
 principles4    ,sidenote3 ,influence4  
,ratich's ,methods4--,ratich            
7#aega-afce7 probably became acquainted 
with  the sense realism of ,bacon while 
studying in ,england1 and1 when about   
forty years of age1 undertook to found a
 system of education upon it4  ,in      
linguistic training1 like all realists1 
he insisted that one 8should  first     
study the vernacular0 as an introduction
 to other languages4 ,he  also held to  
the principle of 8one thing at a time   

and often repeated40  ,by this he meant 
that1 in studying a language1 one should
 master a  single book before taking up 
another4 ,in his teaching at ,kthen1 as 
soon as his pupils knew their letters1  
they were required to learn  ,genesis   
thoroughly for the sake of their        
,german4 ,each chapter was  read twice  
by the teacher1 while the pupil followed
 the text with his  finger4 ,when the   
pupils could read the book perfectly1   
they were taught  grammar from it as a  
text4 ,the teacher pointed out the      
various parts  of speech and made the   
boys find other examples1 and had them  
decline1  conjugate1 and parse4 ,in     
taking up ,latin1 a play of ,terence was
 treated  in similar fashion4 ,others of
 the principles that he used in teaching
  language and grammar1 and especially  
those which applied to education  in    
general1 were even more distinctly      
realistic4 ,such1 for example1  were his
 precepts1--8follow the order of nature0
 and 8everything by  experiment and     

induction10 and his additional          
recommendation that  8nothing is to be  
learned by rote40 ,thus ,ratich not only
 helped shape  some of the best methods 
for teaching languages1 but anticipated 
the main principles of modern pedagogy4 
,while1 owing to obtrusive  failings in 
character and experience1 he was        
uniformly unsuccessful  in his practice1
 he1 nevertheless1 stirred up           
considerable thought  and stimulated    
many treatises of others4 ,thus1 through
 ,comenius1  who carried out his        
principles more fully1 this ,german     
innovator1  impractical as he was1      
became a spiritual ancestor to          
,pestalozzi1  ,froebel1 and ,herbart4   
,sidenote3 ,education1    ,sidenote3    
wanderings1    ,sidenote3 and           
achievements4    ,comenius3 ,his        
,training and ,work4--,john ,amos       
,comenius 7#aeib-afgj7 was  born at     
,nivnitz1 ,moravia1 and was by religious
 inheritance a staunch  adherent of the 
,moravian ,church4 ,after a course in a 

,latin school1 he  spent a couple of    
years in higher education at the        
,lutheran ,college  of ,herborn and at  
the ,university of ,heidelberg4 ,in     
consequence of  many vicissitudes in    
life1 he lived and wrote in a number of 
places1  and became acquainted with the 
work of a variety of men engaged in     
educational reform and advancement4     
,while the problems with which  they    
were dealing were similar to his own and
 largely influenced his  educational    
positions1 he far surpassed them all in 
scope of work and  greatness of repute4 
,his educational achievements were the  
outgrowth of  sense realism1 and appear 
in three directions3--7#a7 the series of
 texts  for learning ,latin2 7#b7 his   
,great ,didactic2 and 7#c7 his attempts 
to  create an encyclopdic organization  
of knowledge 7pansophia74    ,sidenote3 
,the plan of the ,janua4    ,his ,series
 of ,latin ,texts4--,the first of the   
famous texts that  ,comenius produced to
 facilitate the study of ,latin was     

issued in #afca1  and has generally been
 known by the name of ,janua ,linguarum 
,reserata  7,the ,gate of ,languages    
,unlocked74 ,it was intended as an      
introductory  book to the study of      
,latin1 and consisted of an arrangement 
into  sentences of several thousand     
,latin words for the most familiar      
objects  and ideas4 ,the ,latin was     
printed on the right-hand side of the   
page1  and on the left was given a      
translation in the vernacular4 ,by this 
means the pupil obtained a grasp of all 
ordinary scientific knowledge  and at   
the same time a start in his ,latin     
vocabulary4 ,in writing this  text1     
,comenius may have been somewhat        
influenced by ,ratich1 a review of      
whose methods he had read at ,herborn1  
but he seems to have been more          
specifically indebted both for his      
method and the felicitous name of  his  
book to a ,jesuit known as ,bateus1 who 
had written a similar work4             
,sidenote3 ,the ,vestibulum1            

,sidenote3 ,atrium1    ,sidenote3       
,palatium1    ,sidenote3 and ,orbis     
,pictus4    ,it was soon apparent that  
the ,janua would be too difficult for   
beginners1 and two years later ,comenius
 issued his ,vestibulum  7,vestibule71  
as an introduction to it4 ,while the    
,janua contained  all the ordinary words
 of the language1--some eight thousand1 
there  were but a few hundred of the    
most common in the ,vestibulum4 ,later  
both of the works were several times    
revised1 modified1 and enlarged2  and   
grammars1 lexicons1 and treatises were  
written to accompany them4  ,he also    
published a third ,latin reader1 the    
,atrium 7,entrance ,hall71  which took  
the pupil one stage beyond the ,janua4  
,we know1 too1 that  he intended also to
 write a still more advanced work1 to be
 called  ,sapientiae ,palatium 7,palace 
of ,wisdom74 ,this fourth book was to   
consist of selections from the best     
,latin authors1 but it was never        
completed4 ,he did1 however1 produce as 

a supplementary text-book a  simpler and
 more extensive edition of the ,janua1  
accompanied with  pictures4 ,each object
 in the illustrations of this book was  
marked with  a number corresponding to  
one in the text4 ,this work1 which he   
called  ,orbis ,sensualium ,pictus 7,the
 ,world of ,sense ,objects ,pictured71  
is the  first illustrated reading book  
on record 7,fig4 #ba74    ,sidenote3    
,indebtedness to others4    ,sidenote3  
,his aim and organization of education4 
,the ,great ,didactic4--,but these books
 on teaching ,latin  realistically were 
only part of the work that ,comenius    
contemplated4  ,during his whole career 
he had in mind a definite idea of the   
aim of  education1 and of what1 in      
consequence1 he wished the organization1
  subject-matter1 and methods to be4    
,his ideas on the whole question  of    
education were formulated in his ,great 
,didactic even before the  ,janua       
appeared1 but the work was not published
 until #afeg4 ,in it  he strove to      

assimilate all that was good in the     
realistic movement  and use it as a     
foundation4 ,he developed many of the   
principles and  methods of ,ratich1     
,bateus1 and others1 but he owed a      
greater debt for  the suggestions he    
took from ,bacon's ,advancement of      
,learning1 and  even more from the      
,encyclopdia of ,alsted1 one of his     
teachers at  ,herborn4 ,in the ,great   
,didactic ,comenius formulated an       
educational  aim and constructed an     
educational organization of his own4    
,probably1  as an outgrowth of his      
religious attitude1 he held to          
#8knowledge1  morality1 and piety' as   
the ideals of education1 and advocated  
universal education for #8boys and      
girls1 both noble and ignoble1 rich  and
 poor4' ,his organization of education  
consisted of four periods  of six years 
each4 ,the first period of instruction  
was that through  infancy1 or up to the 
age of six4 ,it was to be given in the  
school of  #8the mother's lap1' which   

should exist in every house4 ,for       
childhood1  or from six to twelve1 was  
to be organized the #8vernacular        
school1'  which should appear in every  
hamlet and village4 ,from that time up  
to  eighteen comes the #8,latin school1'
 to be maintained in every city2  and1  
finally1 for youth from eighteen to     
twenty-four1 there should be  a         
university in every kingdom or province4
 ,such an organization would  have made 
education universal1 and would tend to  
bring about the custom  of education    
according to ability1 rather than social
 status1 which was  a suggestion some   
three centuries in advance of the times4
        ,muntero ,caps1 #bj4 c4         
,amiculum1 #bj4 c4      ,so the ,furrier
             ,sic ,pellio    maketh     
,furred ,garments     facit ,pellicia   
of ,furs4                    ,pellibus4 
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------    ,the   
,shoemaker4             ,,lxiii4        
,sutor4    ,illustration          ,the  

,shoemaker1 #a4          ,sutor1 #a4    
maketh ,slippers1 #g4        conficit   
,crepidas                               
7,sandalia17 #g4    ,shoes1 #h4         
,calceos1 #h4    7in which is seen      
7in quibus spectatur    above1 the      
,upper-leather1  superne ,obstragulum1  
beneath the ,sole1          inferne     
,solea1    and on both sides          et
 utrinque    the ,latchets7             
,ans7    ,boots1 #i4                    
,ocreas1 #i4    and ,high ,shoes1 #aj4  
et ,perones1 #aj4    of ,leather1 #e4   
e ,corio1 #e4    7which is cut with a   
7quod discinditur    ,cutting-knife71   
#f4         ,scalpro ,sutorio1 #f47     
by means of an ,awl1 #b4     ope ,subul1
 #b4    and ,lingel1 #c4             et 
,fili picati1 #c4    upon a ,last1 #d4  
super ,modum1 #d4    ,fig4 #ba4--;,a    
page from the ,orbis ,pictus of         
,comenius1 illustrating a  lesson on a  
trade4    7,reproduced from the edition 
published by ,c4 ,w4 ,bardeen1 #ahhg47  
,sidenote3 ,pansophic training at every 

stage of education4    ,his ,encyclopdic
 ,arrangement of ,knowledge4--,the rest 
of the works  of ,comenius may be       
regarded as amplifications of various   
parts of  this ,great ,didactic4        
,besides the ,janual series1 which he   
seems to  have written for the ,latin   
school1 he produced a set of texts for  
the vernacular school1 which soon       
disappeared1 and a handbook for  the    
lowest work1 called ,the ,school of     
,infancy4 ,but the phase of  the ,great 
,didactic most often elaborated was the 
realistic one of  pansophia or          
#8universal knowledge4' ,this principle 
was not only  exemplified in such works 
as the ,janua and ,orbis ,pictus and  in
 treatises he wrote upon astronomy and  
physics1 but in various  educational    
institutions that he undertook to found1
 and it remained  the ruling passion    
throughout his life4 ,in the ,great     
,didactic he  went so far as to hold    
that an encyclopdic training should be  
given  at every stage of                

education1--mother school1 vernacular   
school1 ,latin  school1 and university4 
,sidenote3 ,each succeeding stage to    
enlarge the body of knowledge4          
,sidenote3 ,the #8didactic college' for 
all nations4    ,but1 while even in the 
mother school the infant was to make a  
beginning  with geography1 history1 and 
various sciences1 grammar1 rhetoric1    
and dialectic1 music1 arithmetic1       
geometry1 and astronomy1 and the        
rudiments of economics1 politics1       
ethics1 metaphysics1 and religion1  his 
attainment was not expected to be as    
formidable as the names of  the subjects
 sound4 ,it was to consist merely in    
understanding simple  causal1 temporal1 
spatial1 and numerical relations2 in    
distinguishing  sun1 moon1 and stars1   
hills1 valleys1 lakes1 and rivers1 and  
animals  and plants2 in learning to     
express oneself2 and in acquiring proper
  habits4 ,it was1 in fact1 not unlike  
the training of the modern              
kindergarten4 ,in a similar way each    

succeeding stage is to enlarge  the body
 of knowledge along all these lines4    
8,the different schools  are not to deal
 with different subjects1 but should    
treat the same  subjects in different   
ways2 throughout graduating the         
instruction to  the age of the pupil and
 the knowledge that he already          
possesses4 ,in  the earlier schools     
everything is taught in a general and   
undefined  manner1 while in those which 
follow the information is particularized
  and exact40 ,moreover1 beyond the     
university1 which1 like the lower       
schools1 was to make teaching its chief 
function1 ,comenius held it to  be      
important that somewhere in the world   
there should be a #8didactic  college'  
devoted to scientific investigation1 in 
which learned men from  all nations     
should coperate4 ,such an institution   
would form a logical  climax to his     
system of schools1 bearing the same     
relation to them that  the stomach does 
to the other members of the body by     

8supplying blood1  life1 and strength to
 all40    ,sidenote3 ,often fanciful    
analogies1    ,the ,method of           
,nature4--,the way in which this        
pansophic instruction  should be given1 
,comenius also intended to have in full 
accord with  sense realism4 ,he insists 
that the #8method of nature' must be    
observed  and followed1 and then shows  
how nature accomplishes all things      
#8with  certainty1 ease1 and            
thoroughness1' in what respects schools 
have  deviated from the principles of   
nature1 and how they can be rectified   
only by following her plans4 ,these     
principles concerning the working  of   
nature were laid down a priori1 but it  
is probable that they had  been         
previously worked out inductively from  
his schoolroom experience4  ,at times1  
though1 they were put in the form of    
fanciful analogies4 ,for  example1 he   
declares that because a bird by nature  
hatches her young  in the spring or     
early part of the year1 schools have    

erred 7#a7 in not  requiring education  
to begin in the springtime of life1 or  
boyhood1 and  7#b7 in not selecting the 
springtime of the day1 or the morning   
hours1  for study4    ,sidenote3 but    
more fully inductive elsewhere4    ,but 
it is not remarkable that1 with all his 
realistic tendencies1  ,comenius did not
 consistently employ induction4 ,the    
natural sciences  were young in his day1
 so that he did not altogether grasp    
their  content and method1 and he had   
partially inherited the scholastic      
notion that truth cannot be fully       
secured through the senses or by        
reason4 ,it is sufficient merit that    
,comenius1 for the first time in        
history1 applied anything like induction
 to teaching4 ,moreover1 in the         
application of his general method to the
 specific teaching of various           
lines1--sciences1 reading1 writing1     
singing1 languages1 morality1 and       
piety1 he utilized more fully the       
induction of ,bacon4 ,for example1      

after showing the necessity for careful 
observation in obtaining a  knowledge of
 the sciences1 he gives nine useful     
precepts for their  study that are      
clearly the inductive result of his own 
experience as  a teacher4 ,likewise1 he 
insists that1 in teaching the sciences1 
in  order to make a genuine impression  
upon the mind1 one must deal with       
realities rather than books4 ,the       
objects themselves1 or where this  is   
not possible1 such representations of   
them as can be conveyed by  copies1     
models1 and pictures1 must be studied4  
,after the same principle  he formulates
 inductive rules and methods for        
instruction in the other  subjects4     
,sidenote3 ,popularity of his ,latin    
text-books1    ,sidenote3 but ignorance 
of the ,great ,didactic1    ,sidenote3  
which was the indirect basis of modern  
education4    ,the ,influence of        
,comenius upon ,education4--,thus the   
work of  ,comenius was based primarily  
upon sense realism1 but he added many   

modifications and new elements of his   
own4 ,he may in the fullest sense  be   
considered the great educational        
theorist and practical reformer  of the 
seventeenth century4 ,his practical     
ability is especially shown  in the     
series of ,latin text-books1 which far  
excelled the works of  several          
contemporaries on similar lines4 ,the   
,janua was translated  into a dozen     
,european1 and at least three ,asiatic  
languages2 the  ,orbis ,pictus proved   
even more popular1 and went through an  
almost  unlimited number of editions in 
various tongues2 and the whole series   
became for many generations the favorite
 means of introducing young  people to  
the study of ,latin4 ,but the remarkable
 theoretical work  of ,comenius had     
little effect upon the schools of the   
period1 and  until about the middle of  
the nineteenth century the ,great       
,didactic  was scarcely known4 ,at that 
time1 when this treatise of ,comenius   
was  brought to light by ,german        

investigators1 it was discovered that   
the  old realist of the seventeenth     
century had been the first to deal  with
 education in a scientific spirit1 and  
work out its problems  practically in   
the schools4 ,and the principles of     
,comenius were at the  time             
unconsciously taken up by others and    
indirectly became the basis  of modern  
education4 ,his spirit appeared not only
 in the ideas of  subsequent            
theorists--,francke1 ,rousseau1         
,basedow1 ,pestalozzi1 ,herbart1        
,froebel--but even in the actual        
curricula and methods of educational    
institutions4    ,sidenote3 ,slow and   
indirect1 but the vernacular and        
elementary science  introduced4         
,realistic ,tendencies in ,elementary   
,schools4--,while the effect of  sense  
realism upon the schools seems to have  
been slow and indirect1  the movement   
was obvious even in the seventeenth     
century4 ,in ,germany  there came a     
decided tendency throughout the         

elementary schools to  increase         
instruction in the vernacular1 as       
recommended by ,ratich  and ,comenius1  
and to learn first the ,german grammar  
rather than the  ,latin4 ,with this     
movement was joined the increase in     
universal and  compulsory education     
urged by the reformers1 and an          
introduction of  elementary science1 in 
addition to reading1 writing1           
arithmetic1  religion1 and singing4 ,at 
,weimar in #afai1 through a pupil of    
,ratich1  a new school system was       
organized2 and in #afdb1 under the order
 of  ,duke ,ernst1 ,andreas ,reyher     
prepared a new course for ,gotha1 which 
afforded elementary instruction in the  
natural sciences1 as well as  the       
rudiments and religion4 ,this work      
included teaching the children  to      
measure with the hour-glass and         
sun-dial1 to observe the ordinary       
plants and animals1 and to carry on     
other objective studies of a simple     
character4 ,many other attempts at      

instruction in science were made        
elsewhere in the ,german states1 both in
 private and public education1  and the 
same tendency appeared in the states of 
,italy1 and in ,france1  ,holland1 and  
,england4    ,sidenote3 ,science in the 
,ritterakademien1    ,sidenote3         
,pdagogium1    ,sidenote3 and           
,realschule1    ,sidenote3 and in       
grammar schools and academies4          
,secondary ,schools4--,but the new      
realistic tendencies appeared also in   
secondary education4 ,while in ,germany 
it was not until the eighteenth  century
 that there were any evidences of sense 
realism in the gymnasia1  languages of  
neighboring countries and considerable  
science appeared in  the                
,ritterakademien 7see p4 #aeg7 by the   
middle of the seventeenth1  and toward  
the end of the century in the schools of
 ,francke and  other #8pietists' at     
,halle were embodied all the realistic  
elements  of ,comenius4 ,while the      
pietists adopted these ideas largely for

  their religious side1 as a protest and
 reaction to the rationalistic          
,ritterakademien1 they did not hesitate 
also to stress the science  content and 
the study of the vernacular4 ,in the    
secondary school known  as the          
,pdagogium1 which he had started for    
well-to-do boys1 ,francke  included     
training in the vernacular1 mathematics1
 geography1 natural  science1 astronomy1
 anatomy1 and materia medica2 and the   
,realschule1  established by his        
colleague1 ,semler1 went even more fully
 into  the vernacular1 mathematics1 and 
the sciences1 pure and applied4  ,this  
realistic instruction of the pietists   
was brought by ,hecker to  ,berlin1     
where he started his famous ,realschule 
in #agdg1 and similar  institutions soon
 spread throughout ,prussia4 ,in        
,england1 while very few  of the grammar
 and public schools 7see p4 #abj7 as yet
 introduced even  the elements of       
science into their course1 the academies
 7see p4 #aeg7  were rich in sciences1  

mathematics1 and the vernacular4 ,this  
was also  true of the academies that    
sprang up in ,america 7see p4 #aeh74    
,sidenote3 ,sciences in ,halle1         
,gttingen1 and other universities1      
,sidenote3 and in ,oxford and           
,cambridge4    ,sidenote3 ,great work of
 ,newton4    ,sidenote3 ,science in     
,american colleges4    ,the             
,universities4--,the universities were  
slower in responding  to the movement of
 sense realism4 ,as the result of its   
pietistic  origin1 however1 the         
,university of ,halle was realistic     
almost from  its beginning in #afib4    
,gttingen1 the next institution to      
become  hospitable to the tendency1 did 
not start it until #agcg4 ,but soon     
afterward the movement became general1  
and by the end of the eighteenth        
century all the ,german universities--at
 least1 all under ,protestant           
auspices--had created professorships in 
the sciences4 ,while the ,english       
universities1 ,oxford and ,cambridge1   

were much slower than those of  ,germany
 in adopting the new subjects1 and it   
was a century and a half  before these  
institutions became known for their     
science1 during the  professorship of   
,isaac ,newton 7#affi-agjb7 considerable
 was done toward  making ,cambridge     
mathematical and scientific1 and in the 
course of the  eighteenth century       
several chairs in the sciences were     
established4  ,besides formulating the  
law of gravitation1 ,newton lectured and
 wrote  at ,cambridge upon calculus1    
astronomy1 optics1 and the spectrum4 ,he
  became one of the greatest            
mathematicians and physicists the world 
has known1 and he did much to create a  
scientific atmosphere in other          
educational institutions1 as well as    
,cambridge4 ,america also felt the      
scientific impulse in its higher        
institutions4 ,some study of astronomy1 
botany1 and physics was possible at     
,harvard even in the seventeenth        
century1 and during the eighteenth      

,yale1 ,princeton1 ,king's 7afterward   
,columbia71 ,dartmouth1 ,union1 and     
,pennsylvania all came to offer a       
little work in physics1 and at times in 
chemistry1 geology1 astronomy1  and     
biology4 ,in his proposals for the      
prospective #8seminary' in ,new  ,york  
7#agec71 which was destined to become   
,columbia ,university1 and in  the      
actual course of the academy at         
,philadelphia 7later the ,university  of
 ,pennsylvania71 over which he presided1
 ,dr4 ,william ,smith put a  most       
progressive program of sciences1        
including the rudiments of  mechanics1  
physics1 chemistry1 geology1 astronomy1 
botany1 zology1 and  physiology4 ,but   
for half a century after this ,american 
institutions did  little with the       
sciences as laboratory studies4         
,,supplementary ,,reading    ,graves1   
,during the ,transition 7,macmillan1    
#aiaj71 chap4 ,,xviii2 and  ,great      
,educators of ,three ,centuries         
7,macmillan1 #aiab71 chaps4 ,,ii1  ,,iv1

 and ,,vi2 ,monroe1 ,text-book          
7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #dfa-eja4 ,the 
following works are standard for the    
authors mentioned3 ,adamson1 ,j4 ,w41   
,pioneers of ,modern ,education         
7,macmillan1 #aije71 chap4 ,,iii        
7,bacon72  ,barnard1 ,h41 ,german       
,teachers and ,educators1 pp4 #cdc-cgj  
7,ratich72  ,fowler1 ,t41 ,bacon's      
,novum ,organum 7,oxford1 ,clarendon    
,press72 ,laurie1  ,s4 ,s41 ,john ,amos 
,comenius 7,bardeen1 ,syracuse1 #ahib72 
,monroe1 ,w4 ,s41  ,comenius 7,scribner1
 #aijj72 and ,quick1 ,r4 ,h41           
,educational ,reformers  7,appleton1    
#ahif71 chap4 ,,ix 7,ratich7 and ,x     
7,comenius74 ,an account of  sense      
realism is afforded by ,adamson1 op4    
cit41 chap4 ,i1 and of its  effect upon 
the schools by ,barnard1 op4 cit41 pp4  
#cjb-cag1 and by  ,paulsen1 ,f41 ,german
 ,education 7,scribner1 #aijh71 pp4     
#aag-acc4          ,,chapter ,,xvi      
,,formal ,,discipline ,,in ,,education  
,,outline        ,locke is often classed

 with the advocates of realism or of    
naturalism1 but the keynote to his      
thought is #8discipline4' ,this      is 
to be obtained in intellectual training 
through mathematics2 in      moral      
training1 through the control of desires
 by reason2 and in      physical        
training1 through a #8hardening         
process4'        ,locke has1 therefore1 
often been viewed as the great advocate 
of the theory of formal discipline1     
according to which certain      subjects
 yield a general power that may be      
applied in any      direction1 and      
should be studied by all4        ,this  
doctrine has greatly influenced         
education1 but in the late              
nineteenth century there was a decided  
reaction from it4 ,recently      this   
extreme reaction has been modified1 and 
a position taken with      which        
,locke's real attitude would seem to be 
in harmony4    ,sidenote3 ,often classed
 as an early realist1 a sense realist1  
or a  naturalist4    ,locke's ,work and 

,its ,various                           
,classifications4--,because of their    
relation to an important topic in modern
 education1 the theories of  ,john      
,locke 7#afcb-agjd7 should receive      
further attention than they  have yet   
been given4 ,no writer on education has 
been more variously  classified than he4
 ,we have already seen 7p4 #aed7 that   
the general  tenor of his ,thoughts     
concerning ,education would lead us to  
group  him with the early realistic     
movement4 ,there are also elements in   
this  work that would seem to place him 
with the sense realists1 and many  of   
his ideas proved so similar and         
suggestive to ,rousseau's thought  7see 
p4 #bac71 that he has sometimes been    
classed among the advocates  of         
naturalism4 ,but ,locke's ,thoughts1 by 
which his educational  position is often
 exclusively judged1 were simply a set  
of practical  suggestions for the       
education of a gentleman1 written for a 
friend as  advice in bringing up his    

son4 ,they make clear his general       
sympathy  with the current educational  
reform1 but do not bring out his main   
point of view4 ,his central thought     
appears more definitely through the     
philosophical principles in his famous  
,essay concerning the ,human            
,understanding1 and through the         
intellectual training suggested in  his 
other educational work1 ,conduct of the 
,understanding1 which was  originally an
 additional book and application of the 
,essay4    ,sidenote3 ,but his          
underlying thought is #8discipline'4    
,sidenote3 ,to train the mind1          
mathematics and a range of sciences     
should be studied4    ,locke's          
,disciplinary ,theory in ,intellectual  
,education4--,probably  ,locke's        
underlying thought as to the proper     
method of intellectual1  moral1 and     
physical training may best be summed up 
in the word  #8discipline4' ,this       
educational attitude is a natural       
corollary of his  philosophic position4 

,in his ,essay he holds that ideas are  
not born  in one1 but that all knowledge
 comes from experience4 ,the mind1 he   
declares1 is like #8white paper1 or     
wax1' upon which impressions from  the  
outside world are made through our      
senses4 ,when the ideas are once  in    
mind1 it is necessary to determine what 
they tell us in the way  of truth4      
,hence1 to train the mind to make proper
 discriminations1  he declares in the   
,conduct of the ,understanding that     
practice and  discipline are necessary4 
8,would you have a man reason well1 you 
must  use him to it betimes1 exercise   
his mind in observing the connection  of
 ideas and following them in train40 ,as
 to the means of effecting  this mental 
discipline1 ,locke holds3 8,nothing does
 this better than  mathematics1 which   
therefore ,i think should be taught all 
those who  have the time and            
opportunity1 not so much to make them   
mathematicians  as to make them         
reasonable creatures1 that having got   

the way of  reasoning1 which that study 
necessarily brings the mind to1 they    
might  be able to transfer it to other  
parts of knowledge as they shall have   
occasion40 ,similarly1 he advises a wide
 range of sciences1 8to accustom  our   
minds to all sorts of ideas and the     
proper ways of examining their          
habitudes and relations2 not to make    
them perfect in any one of the          
sciences1 but so to open and dispose    
their minds as may best make them       
capable of any1 when they shall apply   
themselves to it40    ,sidenote3 ,for   
moral training1 the desires should be   
guided by reason4    ,sidenote3 ,for    
physical training1 the #8hardening      
process' should be  used4               
,disciplinary ,attitude in ,moral and   
,physical ,training4--,the same         
disciplinary conception of education    
underlies ,locke's ideals of  moral     
training3 8,that a man is able to deny  
himself his own desires1  cross his own 
inclinations1 and purely follow what    

reason directs as  best1 tho' the       
appetite lean the other way4 ,this power
 is to be got  and improved by custom1  
made easy and familiar by an early      
practice40  ,and even more definitely   
disciplinary is the well-known          
#8hardening  process1' which he         
recommends in physical training3 8,the  
first thing to  be taken care of is that
 children be not too warmly clad or     
covered1  winter or summer4 ,the face1  
when we are born1 is no less tender than
  any other part of the body4 ,it is use
 alone hardens it1 and makes it  more   
able to endure the cold40 ,he likewise  
advises that a boy's 8feet  be washed   
every day in cold water10 that he 8have 
his shoes so thin  that they might leak 
and let in water10 that he 8play in the 
wind and  sun without a hat10 and that  
8his bed be hard40    ,sidenote3        
,evolved through the disappearance of   
the utilitarian  argument4    ,sidenote3
 ,a general power afforded4             
,sidenote3 ,every one should take       

certain studies1 regardless of          
interest4    ,origin1 ,significance1 and
 ,influence of the ,theory of ,formal   
,discipline4--,this emphasis upon       
discipline in training of every         
sort--intellectual1 moral1 physical--has
 often caused ,locke to be  regarded as 
the first great exponent of the         
educational doctrine of  #8formal       
discipline4' ,that theory has been so   
widespread and important  during the    
past two centuries as to require        
consideration here4 ,during  the ,middle
 ,ages and the early period of humanism 
,latin was not only of  cultural1 but of
 practical utilitarian value4 ,it was   
the language of  the ,church and of     
diplomacy1 and in it was locked up all  
the learning  of the times4 ,all        
guidance in science1 literature1        
philosophy1 and  politics that received 
any consideration was couched in its    
terms4  ,but with the decline of        
ecclesiastical influence1 the           
development of  vernacular languages1   

and the scientific awakening in the     
seventeenth  century 7see pp4 #afc f471 
this utilitarian argument for the study 
of  ,latin was largely swept away4      
,appeal was then made in behalf of the  
subject to the doctrine of #8formal     
discipline1' which was supported  by the
 #8faculty' psychology of ,aristotle4   
,it was held that the study  of ,latin  
yields results out of all proportion to 
the effort expended1  and gives a       
general power that may be applied in any
 direction4  ,a similar claim was before
 long made for ,greek and mathematics4  
,mathematics was declared to sharpen the
 #8faculty of reason1' while the        
classic languages were believed to      
improve the #8faculty of memory4'       
,consequently1 it gradually came to be  
argued by formal disciplinarians  that  
every one should take these             
all-important studies1 regardless  of   
his interest1 ability1 or purpose in    
life1 since he would thus  best prepare 
himself for any field of labor4 ,all who

 proved unfitted  for these particular  
subjects have1 therefore1 been supposed 
to be  not qualified for the higher     
duties and responsibilities1 and to be  
unworthy of consideration in higher     
education4    ,sidenote3 ,used by       
scientists4    ,sidenote3 ,effect upon  
institutions of various countries4      
,this doctrine of formal discipline has 
had a tremendous effect upon  each stage
 of education in practically every      
country and during  every period until  
recently4 ,even the scientists and      
advocates of a  variety of other        
subjects1 instead of arguing for content
 value and  particular training1 have   
made strenuous efforts to meet this     
argument  by pointing out the formal    
discipline in their own studies 7see pp4
 #djd  f474 ,excellent examples of the  
effect of this theory upon educational  
institutions are found in the formal    
classicism of the ,english grammar  and 
public schools and universities and of  
the ,german gymnasiums4 ,while  in the  

,united ,states a newer and more        
flexible society has enabled  changes to
 be more readily made1 as late as the   
last decade of the  nineteenth century1 
,greek1 ,latin1 and mathematics largely 
made up the  staples in many high       
schools1 colleges1 and universities1 and
 the husks  of formal grammar were often
 defended in elementary education upon  
the  score of formal discipline4        
,sidenote3 ,specific1 not general1      
power4    ,sidenote3 ,content1 rather   
than form1 stressed4    ,sidenote3 ,but 
some generalized powers possible4       
,opposition to the ,disciplinary ,theory
 and ,more ,recent  ,modification4--,at 
the beginning of the twentieth century1 
however1  with the abandonment of the   
#8faculty psychology' and the           
development  of educational theory1 a   
decided reaction from the doctrines of  
formal  discipline began among          
psychologists and common sense          
educators4 ,it is  now almost           
universally conceded that specific1     

rather than general1  power is developed
 by the various studies1 and no student 
is held to  be unworthy of education or 
impervious to culture1 simply because he
  is not adapted to the classics or     
mathematics4 ,in consequence1 the       
content of studies1 rather than the     
process of acquisition1 has come  to be 
emphasized1 the curriculum has          
everywhere been broadened1 and  the     
principle of the election of subjects   
largely recognized4 ,it has1  however1  
been felt within the last half dozen    
years that in reacting  from the old    
theory of formal discipline1 educators  
went too far4 ,while  it is still held  
that emphasis must be laid upon the     
specific character  of mental training1 
there are some generalized powers and   
values to  be obtained4 ,it is realized 
that 8a general benefit can be derived  
from specific training in so far as the 
person trained has consciously  wrought 
out in connection with the specific     
training a general concept  of method1  

based upon the specific methods used in 
that training0 7,f4  ,a4 ,hodge74 ,thus 
a student who has once realized the     
value of close  reasoning through       
mathematical demonstrations is likely to
 develop  a general concept of method1  
and can hardly be satisfied any longer  
with slovenly thinking in other fields2 
and the fine discriminations  discovered
 in the classical authors1 the balanced 
judgment used in  historical method1 and
 the accuracy required in the study of  
the  sciences1 may well be abstracted   
and tend to furnish a generalized  ideal
 for other lines of endeavor4           
,sidenote3 ,and ,locke's #8discipline'  
is of this kind4    ,sidenote3          
,generalized values of mathematics4     
,sidenote3 ,locke did not defend the    
formalism of public schools4    ,locke's
 ,real ,position on ,formal             
,discipline4--,it would seem as if  this
 modified form of general power were all
 that ,locke had in mind4  ,he          
definitely concedes that 8learning pages

 of ,latin by heart1 no more  fits the  
memory for retention of anything else1  
than the graving of  one sentence in    
lead makes it the more capable of       
retaining firmly any  other characters40
 ,and while he holds that the method of 
reasoning  in mathematics can be        
transferred #8to other parts of         
knowledge1' he  declares that men who   
are reasonable in some things are often 
very  unreasonable in others1 and 8men  
who may reason well in one sort of      
matters to-day may not do so at all a   
year hence40 ,the generalized  benefits 
that students may obtain from           
mathematics are simply that it  8would  
show them the necessity there is1 in    
reasoning1 to separate all  distinct    
ideas1 and see the habitudes that all   
those concerned in the  present inquiry 
have to one another1 and to lay by those
 which relate  not to the proposition in
 hand and wholly to leave them out of   
the  reckoning4 ,this is that which in  
other subjects is absolutely requisite  

to just reasoning40 ,thus ,locke appears
 to be rather in harmony with  modern   
educational theory than a thorough-going
 advocate of formal  discipline4 ,at any
 rate1 it should be recognized that he  
did not  defend1 but vigorously         
assailed1 the grammatical and linguistic
 grind  in the ,english public schools4 
,his attitude toward formal discipline  
seems to have sprung from his desire to 
root out the traditional and  false1    
rather than to support the narrow       
humanistic curricula of the  times4     
,,supplementary ,,reading    ,graves1   
,during the ,transition 7,macmillan1    
#aiaj71 pp4 #cje-caa2 and  ,great       
,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 chap4   
,,vi2 ,monroe1 ,text-book  7,macmillan1 
#aije71 chap4 ,,ix4 ,for a more extended
 account of ,locke1 read  his ,thoughts 
and ,conduct1 and ,fowler1 ,t41 ,john   
,locke 7,macmillan1  #aija74 ,the       
literature of formal discipline is most 
extensive and the  subject is still     
under discussion2 but a good summary of 

all written  up to #aiaa is furnished in
 ,heck1 ,w4 ,h41 ,mental ,discipline and
  ,educational ,values 7,john ,lane1    
,new ,york71 and later articles can be  
found by consulting the index of ,the   
,american ,psychological ,review4  ,in a
 doctoral dissertation 7,university of  
,virginia71 ,john ,locke and  ,formal   
,discipline1 ,hodge1 ,f4 ,a41 makes it  
clear that the common  interpretation of
 ,locke as a formal disciplinarian is   
unfair4 ,the  most typical of the       
earliest opposition to the disciplinary 
argument  is probably found in          
,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l41 ,educational       
,psychology  7,teachers ,college1 ,new  
,york1 #aiaj71 chap4 ,,viii2 the sanest 
discussion  of the possible transfer of 
ideals appears in ,bagley1 ,w4 ,c41     
,educative ,process 7,macmillan1 #aije71
 chap4 ,,xiii2 and the reaction  to the 
reaction is best portrayed by ,angell1  
,pillsbury1 and ,judd in  ,educational  
,review1 vol4 ,,xxxvi1 pp4 #a-dc4       
,lyans1 ,c4 ,k41 in his  article upon   

,formal ,discipline 7,pedagogical       
,seminary1 vol4 ,,xxi1  pp4 #cdc-cic7   
makes a most careful analysis of the    
interpretations of  the defenders and   
opponents of the theory1 and gives a    
very thorough  discussion of transfers4 
,,chapter ,,xvii    ,,education ,,in    
,,the ,,american ,,colonies             
,,outline        ,the schools of the    
,american colonies closely resembled    
those of      the ,european countries   
from which the colonists came1 and were 
influenced by the various religious     
conceptions of education that      were 
current in each case4 ,in general1 where
 the ,calvinistic      attitude         
prevailed1 the colonies attempted       
universal education1 but      where the 
,anglican communion dominated1 the      
aristocratic ideal of      education was
 in evidence4        ,three types of    
colonial school organization appeared3  
7#a7 laissez      faire in ,virginia2   
7#b7 #8parochial' in ,new ,netherlands2 
and 7#c7      governmental activity in  

,massachusetts4 ,the ,south generally   
followed the same plan as ,virginia1 and
 ,new ,york 7after the ,english         
occupation7 and ,rhode ,island also     
developed on this basis4 ,the      other
 ,middle and ,new ,england colonies     
followed the parochial and              
governmental patterns respectively4     
,sidenote3 ,the seventeenth century a   
period of #8transplantation of          
schools4'    ,american ,education a     
,development from ,european4--,we have  
hitherto  had little occasion to speak  
of ,american education1 except by way   
of anticipating certain great waves of  
influence and important  institutions   
that have come into ,america from       
,europe4 ,but we have  now reached the  
period when the ,new ,world began to be 
extensively  colonized1 and in the rest 
of our study educational practices in   
,america will become increasingly       
distinctive and influential4 ,the       
schools of ,america are the offspring of
 ,european institutions1 and  have their

 roots deep in the social soil of the   
lands from which the  colonists came4   
,while the universal1 free1 and secular 
schools of the  ,united ,states are a   
natural accompaniment of its republican 
form of  government1 like the new       
democracy itself1 this development of   
popular  education was not reached at a 
bound4 ,at first the ,american schools  
resembled the institutions of the       
,mother ,country as closely as the      
frontier life would permit4 ,the        
seventeenth century was1 therefore1 for 
,american education distinctly a period 
of #8transplantation of schools1'  with 
little or no conscious change2 and it is
 only toward the middle of  the next    
century1 as new social and political    
conditions were evolving  and the days  
of the ,revolution were approaching1    
that there are evident  the gradual     
modification of ,european ideals and the
 differentiation of  ,american schools  
toward an ideal of their own4           
,sidenote3 ,influence of ,reformation   

period upon the colonists4              
,conditions in ,europe from ,which      
,american ,education ,sprang4--,hence1  
in  order to understand ,american       
education in the colonial period1 we    
must  briefly consider the social and   
educational conditions in ,europe during
  the early part of the seventeenth     
century1 when the colonists began  their
 migrations4 ,the thirteen ,american    
colonies were started while  the fierce 
agitations of the ,reformation period   
were still at their  height4 ,the       
settlers1 for the most part1 were       
,protestants1 and many  of them had     
emigrated in order to establish         
institutions--political1                
ecclesiastical1 educational--that would 
conform to their own ideals1  and in all
 cases education in the ,new ,world was 
given a peculiar  importance by the     
dominant religious interests and        
conflicts of the  old4 ,at this time in 
practically all the states of ,europe1  
educational  institutions were          

controlled and supported by the ,church 
and religious  orders1 with the         
assistance of private benevolence2 but a
 few schools  everywhere1 and especially
 in ,teutonic countries1 were maintained
  by pre-,reformation craft gilds1 and  
so had a close connection with          
municipalities 7see p4 #ib74 ,thus the  
,american schools at first  naturally   
adopted the religious conception of     
education and religious  domination1 but
 had some acquaintance with free schools
 and municipal  management4             
,sidenote3 ,tendency toward universal   
education among ,calvinists1 but        
aristocratic ideals among ,anglicans4   
,in addition to these characteristics1  
the religious reformers1 like  ,luther  
and ,calvin1 generally held to the idea 
that a system of schools  should be     
supported1 or at least established1 by  
the state1 and  that all children should
 have an opportunity to secure an       
education  sufficient to make them      
familiar with the ,scriptures4 ,if      

people were  to be guided by the word of
 ,god1 they must all be able to read it4
  ,but this view of education was not   
held by those for whom1 as in the       
,english ,church1 the ,reformation was  
not primarily a religious and           
theological1 but rather an              
ecclesiastical and political revolt4 ,in
  ,holland and ,scotland1 for example1  
where ,calvinism prevailed1 universal   
education was upheld by the mass of the 
people1 but in ,france and  ,england    
only a small minority1 the ,huguenots   
and ,puritans respectively1  adopted    
this attitude4 ,hence it happens that1  
wherever in ,america  the influence of  
,puritanism1 the ,dutch ,reformed       
religion1 ,scotch  ,presbyterianism1 or 
other forms of ,calvinism was felt1 the 
nucleus of  public education appeared1  
while in the colonies where the         
,anglican  communion was dominant1 the  
aristocratic idea of education prevailed
  and training of the masses was        
neglected4 ,however1 even among the     

,calvinists1 who held that elementary   
education should be universal1  and that
 the ,state as well as the ,church      
should hold itself responsible  for its 
being furnished1 the logical solution of
 the problem was not  perceived for     
scores of years4 ,in the ,calvinistic   
colonies it was not  at first believed  
that education should be the same in    
character for  all or that the ,state   
should bear the expense through         
taxation4 ,this  distinctively ,american
 interpretation of public education did 
develop  later1 but in the beginning    
even the most advanced colonies to some 
extent placed the financial             
responsibility upon the parent or       
guardian4    ,sidenote3 ,three chief    
types4    ,sidenote3 ,in ,virginia1     
selective education1 inherited from     
,england4    ,sidenote3 ,consequent     
educational legislation4    ,colonial   
,school ,organization3 ,the             
,aristocratic ,type in ,virginia4--,as  
a result of these general traditions and

 characteristics1 there  would seem to  
have been three chief types of school   
organization in  the colonies4 ,these   
were 7#a7 the laissez faire method1     
current  in ,virginia and the ,south2   
7#b7 the parochial organization of ,new 
,netherlands and the ,middle ,colonies  
in general2 7#c7 the governmental       
activity in ,massachusetts and most of  
the other ,new ,england colonies4  ,we  
may profitably discuss these typical    
organizations in order4  ,turning first 
to the aristocratic colonies of the     
,south1 we may select  ,virginia1 the   
oldest of these provinces1 as           
representative of the type4  ,that      
colony constituted the first attempt of 
,england at reproducing  herself in the 
,new ,world1 and here are found an order
 of society1 form  of government1       
established church1 and distinction     
between classes1  similar to those of   
the ,mother ,country4 ,for some time    
there existed a  sharp line of          
demarcation between the gentry1 or      

landowning class1 and  the masses1 which
 included the landless1 indentured      
servants1 and other  dependents4 ,in    
education1 the colonists had brought    
with them the idea  of a classical      
higher and secondary training for the   
upper classes in  the semi-monastic type
 of university and the 7,latin7 grammar 
school  7see pp4 #abj f471 and but      
little in the way of elementary         
education1  except private #8dame'      
schools and the catechetical training by
 the  clergy4 ,there were1 in addition1 
the family #8tutorial' education1  both 
secondary and elementary1 for the       
children of the wealthy1 and  evident   
attempts at perpetuating the old        
,english industrial training  through   
apprenticeship for orphans and children 
of the poor4 ,but no  such institution  
as a public elementary school was at    
first known4  ,in consequence1 the      
educational legislation in colonial     
,virginia is  concerned mainly with 7a7 
the organization of a college or        

university1  7b7 individual schools of  
secondary grade1 and 7c7 apprenticeship 
education for the poor4    ,sidenote3   
,efforts to found a college             
,sidenote3 and secondary schools4       
,during the first quarter of a century  
most educational efforts in  ,virginia  
were in behalf of the foundation of an  
institution of higher  learning1 and    
were aided by the king1 the ,anglican   
bishops1 and the  ,london ,company4 ,by 
#afai over #bjjj and a grant of ten     
thousand acres  of land had been        
obtained for a ,university at ,henrico1 
but this rather  indefinite plan was    
brought to a violent end by the ,indian 
massacre  of #afbb1 and the funds were  
diverted to a school in the ,bahamas4   
,an  even more fruitless endeavor to    
found a college was made in #afbd by    
,sir ,edwin ,palmer upon an island in   
the ,susquehanna4 ,during this period   
also there was at least one abortive    
attempt to establish a school by        
collections and gifts1 and during the   

second quarter century of the  colony   
there were chartered a number of        
secondary schools1 endowed with         
bequests of land1 money1 cows1 horses1  
slaves1 or other property4  ,these      
schools1 however1 were local1 and       
resembled the endowed ,latin  schools of
 ,england1 except that they may         
sometimes have been obliged  by         
circumstances to include more or less   
elementary instruction4 ,in  #affj there
 was also a renewed attempt to establish
 by subscriptions  a college and 8free  
7secondary7 school for the advance of   
learning1  education of youth1 supply of
 the ministry and promotion of piety40  
,but none of the efforts at founding    
schools could have been very            
successful1 for1 a decade later1 when   
interrogated as to what kind of         
education existed in the colonies1      
,governor ,berkeley made his famous     
reply3 8,the same course that is taken  
in ,england out of towns2 every  man    
according to his ability instructing his

 children4444 ,i thank ,god  there are  
no free schools1 and ,i hope we shall   
not have them these  hundred years2 for 
learning has brought disobedience and   
heresy and  sects into the world40      
,sidenote3 ,apprenticeship education for
 the poor4    ,however1 despite these   
biased remarks of the testy governor1 by
  #afib the constant efforts to obtain  
an institution of learning were  finally
 rewarded4 ,through the management of   
the ,reverend ,james  ,blair1 ,d4 ,d41  
the bishop's commissary in ,virginia1 a 
charter for the  ,college of ,william   
and ,mary1 a gift of #bjjj and of twenty
 thousand  acres of land1 and the right 
to certain colonial taxes were obtained 
from the king1 and large donations were 
made by the planters and  additional    
support provided by the assembly4 ,in   
fact1 the college was  munificently     
endowed for the times1 and it did a     
great work in training  the greatest    
scholars1 statesmen1 judges1 military   
officers1 and  other leaders during the 

struggle for independence4 ,moreover1   
#8free'  schools now greatly increased  
in number and their courses were much   
improved4 ,but education was throughout 
this early period regarded as  a special
 privilege1 and the masses were mostly  
employed in making  tobacco1 and other  
manual pursuits4 ,for the sons of these 
people  the only educational legislation
 was that provided between #afdc and    
#agdh in various acts concerning the    
industrial training of the poor1        
apprentices1 wards1 and orphans4 ,in    
keeping with ,english precedents1  these
 children were taught a trade by the    
masters to whom they were  indentured1  
or trained in the flax-house established
 by public funds  at ,james ,city4      
,thus1 by the middle of the eighteenth  
century a fair  provision of secondary  
and higher education had been           
voluntarily made  in various localities1
 but as yet no real interest in common  
schools  had been shown by the          
responsible classes in ,virginia4       

,education was  there predominantly     
#8selective' in character4    ,sidenote3
 ,calvinistic conception of universal   
education1 as in  ,holland4             
,sidenote3 ,catechism and prayers of    
,reformed ,church1 as well as           
elementary branches1 taught4            
,sidenote3 ,but1 with ,english          
occupation1 replaced by laissez faire   
organization4    ,the ,parochial        
,schools in ,new ,netherlands4--,a      
second type of colonial  organization of
 education appears in the ,new          
,netherlands1 as the  country between   
the ,delaware and ,connecticut rivers   
was called during  the period of ,dutch 
control 7#afba-afgd74 ,in contrast to   
the laissez  faire attitude of          
,virginia1 the foundation of schools was
 parochial4  ,instead of the chance     
endowment of schools wherever the       
benefactors  happened to be located1 a  
school was founded in connection with   
every  church4 ,this arrangement grew   
out of the ,calvinistic conception of   

universal education1 which formed an    
essential part of the social  traditions
 in ,holland during the seventeenth     
century4 ,long before the  ,dutch came  
to ,america1 the parochial school1 as a 
means of preserving  the ,reformed      
faith1 had become an indispensable part 
of church  organization4 ,but the ,dutch
 state also had concerned itself with   
the  facilities for education4 ,the     
,reformed ,dutch ,church was granted the
  right to examine teachers1 enforce    
subscription to the creed1 and1  in the 
case of the elementary schools at least1
 largely determine  the appointments1   
but the legal support and control of    
education  were vested in the civil     
authorities4 ,hence there early arose in
 ,new  ,amsterdam and the villages of   
,new ,netherlands a parochial school    
system  and a distribution of control   
between ,church and ,state very similar 
to that in ,holland4 ,besides the       
ordinary elementary branches1 these     
parochial schools of the ,new           

,netherlands taught the #8true          
principles  of ,christian religion1' and
 the catechism and prayers of the       
,reformed  ,church4 ,thus the ,dutch    
school differed from those in the       
,anglican  colonies of the ,south1 which
 stressed secondary education1 in being 
chiefly elementary1 although some       
attempt at conducting a ,latin or       
#8grammar' 7see p4 #abj7 school was also
 made in ,new ,amsterdam from #afeb  on4
 ,however1 after the ,english took      
permanent possession of ,new ,york      
7#afgd71 the parochial school of the    
city was limited to the support  of the 
,reformed ,church1 and1 as a result of  
its long refusal to adopt  the ,english 
language1 its possible influence toward 
the realization  of universal education 
was completely lost4 ,while the ,dutch  
schools  of the villages generally      
retained the joint control and support  
of  the local court and church1 with a  
constantly increasing domination of  the
 former1 as a whole the ,english        

occupation of ,new ,york would seem  to 
have set public education back about a  
hundred years4 ,at any rate1  by the    
eighteenth century colonial ,new ,york  
seems to have fallen  into the same     
laissez faire support of education that 
prevailed in  the ,southern colonies4   
,the policy of universal education by   
means of  parochial schools no longer   
existed4    ,sidenote3 ,more sects and  
the municipality not cordinated4        
,sidenote3 ,friends1    ,sidenote3      
,lutherans1    ,sidenote3 ,mennonites1  
,sidenote3 and others4    ,sectarian    
,organization of ,schools in            
,pennsylvania4--,as a colony1           
,pennsylvania developed a church school 
organization1 similar to that  of the   
,new ,netherlands1 except that it was   
carried on in connection  with a number 
of creeds1 and that the municipality was
 seldom a  cordinate factor4            
,pennsylvania was more heterogeneous in 
population  than ,new ,york1 as the     
tolerant attitude of the ,quaker        

government had  attracted a large       
variety of ,german sects1 ,swedes1      
,dutch1 ,english1  ,welsh1 and ,scotch  
and ,irish ,presbyterians1 and each was 
devoted to  its own denominational      
schools4 ,early in the eighteenth       
century all  ,protestant religious      
bodies were authorized by statute to    
conduct  schools and to receive bequests
 and hold land for their support4 ,even 
before this the ,friends had started the
 #8,penn ,charter ,school1' which1      
while itself a secondary school1 soon   
established elementary schools  as      
branches throughout the city upon       
various arrangements4 ,in keeping  with 
the conclusions of various #8,yearly    
,meetings' 7#agbb1 #agdf1 etc471  the   
,friends also provided elementary1 and  
to some extent secondary1  schools in   
close proximity to all meeting-houses   
throughout the colony4  ,similarly1 the 
,lutheran congregations1 for example1   
each set up a  school alongside of the  
church as early as possible4 ,likewise  

the  ,mennonites included in their      
system the famous schools of            
,christopher  ,dock1 who in #agej       
produced the first elaborate educational
 treatise  in ,america4 ,there was also 
some attempt at #8grammar' schools 7see 
p4  #abj7 or secondary education1       
especially in the case of the well-known
  ,moravian institutions at ,bethlehem1 
,nazareth1 and ,lititz1 and the         
,presbyterian ,log ,college at          
,neshaminy1 which became the cradle of  
,princeton1 ,washington and ,jefferson1 
,hampden-,sidney1 and ,union ,colleges4 
,sidenote3 ,broader attempts4    ,a     
somewhat broader spirit was manifest in 
the voluntary #8neighborhood'  schools  
of ,western ,pennsylvania and elsewhere1
 in the attempts at  universal education
 of the ,connecticut colonists in the   
,wyoming ,valley1  and in the #8academy'
 7see p4 #aei7 set up at ,philadelphia  
through  ,franklin1 to train public men 
and teachers1 and fuse the various      
nations in a common citizenship4 ,but1  

as a whole1 parochial schools  exerted  
the greatest influence in the colony of 
,pennsylvania4    ,sidenote3 ,democratic
 and homogeneous society produced       
governmental  activity4    ,town        
,schools in ,massachusetts4--,the third 
type of colonial school  organization   
appeared first in ,massachusetts4 ,as   
compared with the  laissez faire and the
 parochial methods1 governmental        
activity here  prevailed4 ,accordingly1 
,massachusetts may be said to have      
inaugurated  the first real system of   
public education in ,america4 ,the      
character of  the schools in this colony
 developed from its peculiar form of    
society  and government4 ,it was        
democratic1 concentrated1 and           
homogeneous1  as compared with the      
cosmopolitan and sectarian social       
structure  in the ,middle colonies1 or  
the class distinctions and scattered    
population of the ,south4 ,while there  
were some servants and dependents  in   
the ,massachusetts ,bay ,colony and a   

distinction was made between  #8freemen'
 and others1 there were at no time rival
 elements that were  unable to combine4 
,the settlements were not a mere        
confederation1  but the blending of all 
elements into a single organism1 where  
the  individuality of each was merged in
 a new social whole4 ,this condition    
was a result of the radical ingrained   
religious conviction that every  one was
 a child of ,god1 capable of becoming a 
vital and useful member  of society1 and
 that the community was obligated to    
give him training  to that end in the   
home1 the church1 and the school4       
,sidenote3 ,acts of #afdb    ,sidenote3 
and #afdg4    ,out of this ,calvinistic 
attitude sprang a spirit of coperation  
and helpfulness1 a general participation
 of all townsmen in local  government1  
and the ,massachusetts type of school   
organization4 ,common  schools seem to  
have been supported in most towns from  
the first by  voluntary or compulsory   
subscriptions1 and before the close of  

the  first quarter of a century there   
had been established by the colony  at  
large an educational system in which    
every citizen had a working  share4     
,because of this inclusiveness and unity
 in matters theological1  the schools1  
while religious and moral1 could hardly 
be considered  sectarian4 ,the first    
educational act of the colony1 passed in
 #afdb1  was similar to the old ,english
 apprenticeship law in its provision for
  industrial education1 and1 while it   
was broadened so as to include some     
literary elements and a rate to procure 
materials was established1 no  school is
 mentioned in it4 ,but in #afdg each    
town of fifty families was  required1   
under a penalty of #e1 to maintain an   
elementary school 7,fig4  #bb71 and     
every one of a hundred families a       
7,latin7 #8grammar' 7,fig4 #bc7  school4
 ,these schools might be supported in   
part by tuition fees1 as  well as by the
 town rate1 and the obligation seems to 
have still rested  on the parents to see

 that the children did #8resort' to the 
school1 but  the germs of the present   
common school system in the ,united     
,states  appear in the educational      
activity of the legislature in colonial 
,massachusetts4 ,the #8grammar' schools 
were to prepare boys for ,harvard       
,college 7,fig4 #bd71 which had been    
founded in #afcf4    ,sidenote3 ,county 
schools in ,maryland4    ,sidenote3     
,parish schools in ,south ,carolina4    
,sidenote3 ,georgia financed by         
parliament4    ,sidenote3 ,democratic   
tendencies in ,north ,carolina4         
,education in the ,other ,colonies4--,in
 general1 the organization of  education
 in the remaining nine colonies can be  
classed under one of  the three types1  
described above1 but there are various  
modifications  and some exceptions to be
 noted4 ,the laissez faire foundation of
  schools and colleges during the       
colonial period1 which was evident in   
,virginia1 seems to be characteristic of
 the four other colonies of the  ,south4

 ,but the problems were in every case a 
little different1 and in  each there    
were variations in development4         
,maryland1 for example1 while  mainly   
following the same random foundation of 
schools as ,virginia1  also seriously   
endeavored 7#afif7 to support schools in
 every county by  a general colonial    
tax4 ,south ,carolina likewise made an  
unsuccessful  attempt 7#agbb7 at        
establishing a county system of schools1
 and1 a  decade before1 it undertook to 
subsidize a school in each parish4      
,georgia1 on the other hand1 until the  
,revolution1 had its entire  budget1    
including the items for education1      
financed by the ,english  parliament4   
,and ,north ,carolina1 through a large  
number of ,irish and  ,scotch           
,presbyterians1 ,german ,protestants1   
and other immigrants1 mostly  from      
,pennsylvania1 after #agbh began to     
break away from the aristocratic        
policy4    ,sidenote3 ,random           
organization in ,new ,york and ,rhode   

,island4    ,sidenote3 ,governmental    
activity in ,new ,england4    ,moreover1
 after the permanent occupation 7#afgd7 
by the ,english1 ,new  ,york went over  
to the laissez faire plan 7see p4 #aid74
 ,and1 although  in the remaining       
#8middle' colonies1 ,new ,jersey and    
,delaware1 something  was accomplished  
by the parochial schools of the various 
sects1 much  of the school organization 
there was laissez faire4 ,likewise1     
,rhode  ,island1 dominated by a         
fanatical devotion to freedom in thought
 and  speech1 failed throughout colonial
 days to pass any general regulations   
on education1 like those of             
,massachusetts1 and followed more       
closely  the random organization of     
schools in ,virginia4 ,but the other    
,new  ,england colonies1 ,connecticut   
and ,new ,hampshire1 when it separated  
from ,massachusetts1 tended to provide  
schools after the ,massachusetts  plan4 
,the ,hartford colony of ,connecticut in
 its statutes of #afej  copied almost   

verbatim the phraseology used by        
,massachusetts in the  establishment of 
schools4 ,it remains for later chapters 
to show how  the practices suggested by 
this type of organization have          
eventually  overcome those of the other 
two1 for that did not come to pass until
  after the colonial period4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,town school 
at ,dedham 7,massachusetts7 with        
watch-tower1 built in #afdh4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,boston     
,latin ,school1 founded in #afce4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,the         
buildings of ,harvard ,college 7founded 
#afcf7 erected in #afge1 #afii1 and     
#agbj4      ,,supplementary ,,reading   
,graves1 ,history of ,education in      
,modern ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71     
chap1  iv2 ,clews1 ,elsie ,w41 affords  
primary source material in ,educational 
,legislation and ,administration of the 
,colonial ,governments 7,columbia       
,university1 ,department of ,philosophy 
and ,psychology1 ,no4 #f74 ,the         

interpretation of educational           
organization in ,colonial ,schools used 
in this chapter is furnished by ,monroe 
and ,kilpatrick in the ,monroe          
,cyclopdia of ,education 7,macmillan1   
#aiaj-ad74 ,for conditions in the       
various colonies1 consult ,dexter1 ,e4  
,g41 ,history of ,education in the      
,united ,states 7,macmillan1 #aijd71    
chaps4 ,i-,,vi2 ,jackson1 ,g4 ,l41 ,the 
,development of ,school ,support in     
,colonial ,massachusetts 7,columbia     
,university1 ,teachers ,college         
,contributions1 ,no4 #be1 #aiji72       
,kilpatrick1  ,w4 ,h41 ,the ,dutch      
,schools of ,new ,netherland 7,bulletin1
 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau  of ,education1 #aiab72
 ,mc,crady1 ,e41 ,education in ,south   
,carolina  7,collections of the         
,historical ,society of ,south          
,carolina1 vol4 ,,iv72  ,smith1 ,c4 ,l41
 ,history of ,education in ,north       
,carolina 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau  of          
,education1 ,circular of ,information1  
no4 #b1 #ahid72 ,steiner1 ,b4 ,c41      

,history of ,education in ,connecticut  
7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education1         
,circular of ,information1 no4 #b1      
#ahic7 and ,history of ,education in    
,maryland 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of           
,education1 ,circular of ,information1  
no4 #b1  #ahid71 chaps4 ,i-,,iv2        
,stockwell1 ,t4 ,b41 ,history of ,public
 ,education  in ,rhode ,island          
7,providence ,press ,co41 ,providence1  
#ahgf71 pp4  #bha-djd2 and ,wickersham1 
,j4 ,p41 ,history of ,education in      
,pennsylvania  7,lancaster1             
,pennsylvania1 #ahhf71 chaps4 ,i-,,xii4 
,,part ,,iv    ,,modern ,,times         
,,chapter ,,xviii    ,,growth ,,of ,,the
 ,,democratic ,,ideal ,,in ,,education  
,,outline        ,during the eighteenth 
century1 there appeared the climax to   
the      revolt against absolutism4     
,this movement was directed against     
repression of intellect in the          
first half of the century1 and against  
repression of political      rights in  
the second half4 ,the former phase1     

through ,voltaire1      made reason the 
basis of society and education1 but     
introduced      the tyranny of an       
intellectual few2 the latter1 through   
,rousseau1      promoted an emotionalism
 and #8naturalism' that were in keeping 
with      the sentiments of the times4  
,the early treatises of ,rousseau       
advocated a complete return to          
nature1 but his later works somewhat    
modified this attitude4    ,sidenote3   
,the eighteenth century marked the      
climax of the rebellion  against the    
enslavement of the individual4    ,the  
,revolt from ,absolutism4--,the ideal of
 universality and of state  control in  
the education of ,america and other     
countries was greatly  assisted by the  
climax to the general revolt against    
absolutism and  ecclesiasticism that    
appeared in the eighteenth century4     
,during this  period of time most       
strenuous efforts were made to interpret
 life  from a more reasonable and       
natural point of view and to overthrow  

all customs and institutions that did   
not square with these tests4  ,this     
century marked the climax of the        
rebellion against authority and  against
 the enslavement of the individual that 
had been manifesting  itself in one form
 or another from the close of the       
,middle ,ages4 ,one  revival after      
another--the ,renaissance1 the          
,reformation1 realism1  ,puritanism1    
,pietism--had burst forth only to fade  
away or harden into  a new formalism and
 authoritative standard4 ,yet with each 
effort  something was really            
accomplished for freedom and progress1  
and the  way was paved for the seemingly
 abrupt break from tradition that       
appears to mark the period roughly      
included in the eighteenth century4  ,at
 this point despotism and               
ecclesiasticism were becoming thoroughly
  intolerable1 and the individual tended
 more and more to assert his  right to  
be an end in himself4 ,at times all     
institutional barriers  were swept      

aside1 and in the ,french ,revolution   
destruction went to an  extreme4 ,the   
logical consequence of these movements  
would have been  complete social        
disintegration1 had not the nineteenth  
century happily  made conscious efforts 
to justify the eighteenth1 and bring out
 the  positions that were only implied  
in the negations of the latter4 ,thus   
the revolutionary tendencies and        
destruction of absolutism in the        
eighteenth century led to evolutionary  
movements and the construction  of      
democracy in the nineteenth4            
,sidenote3 ,the revolt against          
repression 7#a7 of intellect and 7#b7 of
  political rights4    ,the ,two ,epochs
 in the ,eighteenth ,century4--,but this
 revolt of the  eighteenth century from 
absolutism in politics1 religion1 and   
thought1  falls naturally into two      
parts4 ,during the first half of the    
century  the movement was directed      
against repression in theology and      
intellect1  and during the second half  

against repression in politics and the  
rights of man4 ,the former tendency     
appears in the rationalism and          
skepticism of such men as ,voltaire and1
 the #8encyclopedists1' while the       
latter becomes evident chiefly in the   
emotionalism and #8naturalism'  of      
,rousseau4 ,although these aspects of   
the revolutionary movement  somewhat    
overlapped each other and had certain   
features in common1  they should be     
clearly distinguished4 ,the one prepared
 the way for the  other by seeking to   
destroy existing abuses1 especially of  
the ,church1  by the application of     
reason1 but it gave no ear to the claims
 of the  masses1 and sought merely to   
replace the traditionalism of the clergy
  and monarch with the tyranny of an    
intellectual few4 ,in distinction to    
this rule of #8reason1' #8naturalism'   
declared that the intellect could  not  
always be trusted as the proper monitor1
 but that conduct could  better be      
guided by the emotions as the true      

expression of nature4 ,it  opposed the  
control of intellectual aristocracy and 
demanded rights for  the common man4    
,sidenote3 ,championed reason against   
traditions1    ,sidenote3 and undertook 
to transplant ,english scientific       
movement4    ,voltaire and the          
,encyclopedists4--,the rationalistic and
 scientific  tendency was chiefly       
developed by ,diderot1 ,voltaire1       
,condillac1  ,d',alembert1 and others   
interested in the production of the     
,french  ,encyclopdie4 ,of all these    
#8encyclopedists' the most keen and     
brilliant was ,voltaire 7#afid-aggh71   
who may well serve as the type  of the  
whole movement4 ,with matchless wit and 
literary skill1 in a  remarkable range  
of poems1 epistles1 epigrams1 and other 
writings1 he  championed reason against 
the traditional institutions of ,state  
and  ,church4 ,his chief object of      
attack was the powerful ,roman ,catholic
  ,church1 which seemed to him to stand 
seriously in the way of all  liberty1   

individuality1 and progress1 and the    
slogan with which  he often closed his  
letters was1--8crush the infamous       
thing40 ,the  ,protestant beliefs he    
likewise condemned as hysterical and    
irrational4  ,while an exile in         
,england1 as the result of a quarrel    
with a member of  the nobility1 he      
became acquainted with the work of      
,newton1 ,harvey1  ,bacon1 ,locke1 and  
others 7see pp4 #afd f471 and undertook 
to transplant  the ,english scientific  
movement to ,france1 and make it the    
basis of a  new rgime in society1       
religion1 and education4    ,sidenote3  
,new theories of education4             
,sidenote3 ,degenerated into skepticism 
and license4    ,the other rationalistic
 writers had similar doctrines and      
purposes1  and1 although details of     
their ideas are hardly worthy of        
consideration  here1 most of them       
produced treatises upon education4 ,in  
these they  freely criticised the       
traditional school systems1 and proposed

 new  theories of organization1 content1
 and method1 which must later have      
assisted to demolish the existing theory
 and practice in ,france4  ,thus        
rationalism sought to destroy despotism 
and superstition1 and  to establish in  
their place freedom in action1 social   
justice1 and  religious toleration4 ,but
 in casting away the old1 it swung to   
the  opposite extreme and often         
degenerated into skepticism1 anarchy1   
and license4 ,in their fight against    
despotic ecclesiasticism1 the           
rationalists often failed to distinguish
 it from ,christianity1 and they        
opposed the ,church because it was      
irrational rather than because it was   
not sincere4 ,they felt that it might   
have a mission with the masses who  were
 too dull and uneducated to be able to  
reason4 ,so while rationalism  wielded a
 mighty weapon against the fettering of 
the human intellect1  it cared little   
about improving the condition of the    
lower classes1 who  were sunk in poverty

 and ignorance1 and were universally    
oppressed4      ,sidenote3              
,sentimentalism and want of control4    
,sidenote3 ,love of nature4             
,sidenote3 ,sympathy with poor4         
,sidenote3 ,sporadic education4         
,rousseau and ,his ,times4--,in         
opposition to this intellectualistic and
  rationalistic attitude1 ,jean ,jacques
 ,rousseau 7#agab-aggh7 developed his   
emotionalism and #8naturalism4' ,the    
social and educational positions of     
this reformer find a ready explanation  
in his antecedents and career4  ,from   
his father he inherited a mercurial     
temperament1 love of pleasure1  and     
irresponsibility1 and from his mother a 
morbid and emotional  disposition4 ,his 
tendency toward sentimentalism1         
idleness1 and want of  control was also 
strengthened by the indulgent aunt that 
brought him  up1 and by low companions  
during his trade apprenticeships in the 
city  of ,geneva4 ,at sixteen he ran    
away from the city1 and spent several   

years in vagrancy1 menial service1 and  
dissoluteness4 ,a love of nature  was   
impressed upon him by the wonderful     
scenery of the country in which  he     
spent his boyhood and his years of      
wandering4 ,he also learned to          
sympathize with the poor and oppressed1 
whose condition was at this  time forced
 upon his attention4 ,he received some  
sporadic instruction1  but his education
 was inaccurate and unsystematic4       
,sidenote3 ,blended well with inchoate  
sentiments of the period4    ,at        
twenty-nine ,rousseau settled down in   
,paris1 but his days of  vagabondage had
 left an ineffaceable stamp upon him4   
,his sensitiveness1  impulsiveness1 love
 of nature1 and sympathy for the poor   
were ever  afterward in evidence4 ,these
 characteristics blended well with a    
body  of inchoate sentiments and vague  
longings of this period4 ,it was the    
day of ,louis ,,xv and royal absolutism1
 when affairs in the kingdom  were      
controlled by a small clique of idle and

 extravagant courtiers4  ,a most        
artificial system of conduct had grown  
up in society4 ,under  this veneer the  
degraded peasants were ground down by   
taxation and  forced to minister to the 
pleasure of a vicious leisure class4    
,but  against this oppression there had 
gradually arisen an undefined spirit  of
 protest and a desire to return to the  
original beneficent state of  nature    
from which it was felt that man had     
departed4 ,hence it happened  that      
,rousseau1 emotional1 uncontrolled1 and 
half-trained1 was destined  to bring    
into consciousness and give voice to the
 revolutionary and  naturalistic ideas  
and tendencies of the century4          
,sidenote3 ,his discourses1             
,sidenote3 ,new ,heloise1    ,sidenote3 
,social ,contract1    ,sidenote3 and    
,emile4    ,rousseau's ,works4--,in     
#agej he first crystallized this spirit 
of the  age and resultant of his own    
experience in a discourse on ,the       
,progress  of the ,arts and ,sciences4  

,in this he declared with much fervor   
and  conviction1 though rather          
illogically1 that the existing          
oppression  and corruption of society   
were due to the advancement of          
civilization4  ,three years later he    
wrote his discourse on ,the ,origin of  
,inequality  among ,men4 ,here again he 
held that the physical and intellectual 
inequalities of nature which existed in 
primitive society were scarcely         
noticeable1 but that1 with the growth of
 civilization1 most oppressive          
distinctions arose4 ,this point of view 
in a somewhat modified form he          
continued in his remarkable romance1    
,the ,new ,heloise1 published in  #agei1
 and three years afterward in his       
influential essay on political  ethics1 
known as the ,social ,contract1 and in  
that most revolutionary  treatise on    
education1 the ,emile4 ,the ,new        
,heloise commends as  much of primitive 
conditions as the crystallized          
institutions of  society will permit4   

,in the ,social ,contract1 ,rousseau    
also finds the  ideal state1 not in that
 of nature1 but in a society managed by 
the  people1 where simplicity and       
natural wants control1 and aristocracy  
and artificiality do not exist4 ,but the
 work that has made the name  of        
,rousseau famous is the ,emile4 ,this1  
while an outgrowth of his  naturalism1  
assumes the modified position of the    
later works1 and  undertakes to show how
 education might minimize the drawbacks 
of  civilization and bring man as near  
to nature as possible4 ,but the         
educational influence of the ,emile has 
been so far-reaching that we  must turn 
to another chapter to study the         
positions of ,rousseau and the  effects 
of naturalism in education4             
,,supplementary ,,reading    ,graves1   
,during the ,transition 7,macmillan1    
#aiaj71 pp4 #caa-cac2  ,history of      
,education in ,modern ,times            
7,macmillan1 #aiac71 pp4 #a-aj2 and     
,great ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71  

pp4 #gg-he2 ,monroe1 ,text-book         
7,macmillan1 #aije71 pp4 #ecc-edb4 ,see 
also ,boyd1 ,w41 ,the ,educational      
,theory of ,rousseau 7,longmans1 ,green1
 #aiaa72 ,morley1 ,j41 ,voltaire and    
,rousseau 7,macmillan74                 
,,chapter ,,xix    ,,naturalism ,,in    
,,education      ,,outline              
,rousseau attempts in the ,emile to     
outline a natural education      from   
birth to manhood4 ,the first book takes 
,emile from birth      to five years of 
age1 and deals with the training of     
physical      activities2 the second1   
from five to twelve1 treats of body and 
sense training2 the third1 from twelve  
to fifteen1 is concerned      with      
intellectual education in the natural   
sciences2 the fourth1      from fifteen 
to twenty1 outlines his social and moral
 development2      and the fifth        
describes the parasitic training of the 
girl he is to      marry4        ,the   
,emile is often inconsistent1 but       
brilliant and suggestive2      and1     

while anti-social1 the times demanded   
such a radical      presentation4       
,through it ,rousseau became the        
progenitor of the      social1          
scientific1 and psychological movements 
in education4        ,the first attempt 
to put the naturalism of ,rousseau into 
actual      practice was made by        
,basedow4 ,he suggested that education  
should be      practical in content and 
playful in method1 and he produced texts
      on his system1 and started a      
school known as the #8,philanthropinum4'
      ,he planned a broad course1 and   
taught languages through                
conversation1 games1 and drawing1 and   
other subjects by natural      methods4 
,the ,philanthropinum was at first      
successful1 and this type      of school
 grew rapidly1 but it soon became a fad4
    ,sidenote3 ,the ,emile forced       
educational thinking4    ,the ,influence
 of ,rousseau's ,naturalism4--,the      
influence of ,rousseau's  ,emile upon   
education in all its aspects has been   

tremendous4 ,it is  shown by the library
 of books since written to contradict1  
correct1 or  disseminate his doctrines4 
,during the quarter of a century        
following  the publication of the       
,emile1 probably more than twice as many
 books  upon education were published as
 in the preceding three-quarters of a   
century4 ,this epoch-making work forced 
a rich harvest of educational  thinking 
for a century after its appearance1 and 
has affected our ideas  upon education  
from that day to this4    ,sidenote3    
,the substitution of a natural education
 for the conventional  type in vogue4   
,naturalistic ,basis of the ,emile4--,in
 the ,emile ,rousseau aims  to replace  
the conventional and formal education of
 the day with a  training that should be
 natural and spontaneous4 ,under the    
existing  rgime it was customary for    
boys and girls to be dressed like men   
and women of fashion 7,fig4 #be71 and   
for education to be largely one  of     
deportment and the dancing master4 ,on  

the intellectual side1  education was   
largely traditional and consisted       
chiefly of a training  in ,latin        
grammar1 words1 and memoriter work4     
,rousseau scathingly  criticises these  
practices1 and applies his naturalistic 
principles  to an imaginary pupil named 
,emile 8from the moment of his birth up 
to  the time when1 having become a      
mature man1 he will no longer need any  
other guide than himself40 ,he begins   
the work with a restatement of his      
basal principle that 8everything is good
 as it comes from the hands of  the     
,author of ,nature2 but everything      
degenerates in the hands of man40       
,after elaborating this1 he shows that  
we are educated by 8three kinds  of     
teachers--nature1 man1 and things1 and  
since the coperation of the  three      
educations is necessary for their       
perfection1 it is to the one  over which
 we have no control 7i e41 nature7 that 
we must direct the  other two40         
,education must1 therefore1 conform to  

nature4    ,sidenote3 ,emile's impulses 
examined and trained at different       
periods3    ,the ,five ,books of the    
,emile4--,now the natural objects1      
through  which ,emile is to be educated1
 remain the same1 but ,emile himself    
changes from time to time4 ,in so far1  
therefore1 as he is to be the  guide of 
how he is to be educated in a natural   
environment1 his  impulses must be      
examined at different times in his life4
 ,hence the  work is divided into five  
parts1 four of which deal with ,emile's 
education in the stages of infancy1     
childhood1 boyhood1 and youth           
respectively1 and the fifth with the    
training of the girl who is to  become  
his wife4 ,the characteristics of the   
different periods in the  life of ,emile
 are marked by the different kinds of   
things he desires4    ,sidenote3 ,in    
infancy1 physical activities4    ,in the
 first book1 which takes him from birth 
to five years of age1  his main desire  
is for physical activities1 and he      

should1 therefore1  be placed under     
simple1 free1 and healthful conditions1 
which will  enable him to make the most 
of these4 ,he must be removed to the    
country1 where he will be close to      
nature1 and farthest from the           
contaminating influence of civilization4
 ,his growth and training must  be as   
spontaneous as possible4 ,he must have  
nothing to do with either  medicine or  
doctors1 8unless his life is in evident 
danger2 for then  they can do nothing   
worse than kill him40 ,his natural      
movements must  not be restrained by    
caps1 bands1 or swaddling clothes1 and  
he should  be nursed by his own mother4 
,he should likewise be used to baths of 
all sorts of temperature4 ,in fact1 the 
child should not be forced into  any    
fixed ways whatsoever1 since with       
,rousseau1 habit is necessarily         
something contrary to impulse and so    
unnatural4 8,the only habit10 says  he1 
8which the child should be allowed to   
form is to contract no habit            

whatsoever40 ,his playthings should be  
such simple products of nature as       
8branches with their fruits and flowers1
 or a poppy-head in which the  seeds are
 heard to rattle40 ,language that is    
simple1 plain1 and hence  natural1      
should be used with him1 and he should  
not be hurried beyond  nature in        
learning to talk4 ,he should be         
restricted to a few words that  express 
real thoughts for him4    ,sidenote3 ,in
 childhood1 limb and sense development1 
,the education of ,emile during infancy 
is thus to be #8negative' and  purely   
physical4 ,the aim is simply to keep his
 instincts and impulses1  which         
,rousseau holds to be good by nature1   
free from vice1 and to  afford him the  
natural activity he craves4 ,next1 in   
the period of  childhood1 between the   
years of five and twelve1 which is      
treated in  the second book1 ,emile     
desires most to exercise his legs and   
arms1 and  to touch1 to see1 and in     
other ways to sense things4 ,this1      

therefore1  is the time for training his
 limbs and senses4 8,as all that enters 
the  human understanding comes there    
through the senses1 the first reason  of
 man is a sensuous reason4 ,our first   
teachers of philosophy are our  feet1   
our hands1 and our eyes4444 ,in order to
 learn to think1 we must  then exercise 
our limbs1 our senses1 and our organs1  
which are the  instruments of our       
intelligence40 ,to obtain this training1
 ,emile is  to wear short1 loose1 and   
scanty clothing1 go bareheaded1 and have
  the body inured to cold and heat1 and 
be generally subjected to a  #8hardening
 process' similar to that recommended by
 ,locke 7see p4 #aha74  ,he is to learn 
to swim1 and practice long and high     
jumps1 leaping  walls1 and scaling      
rocks4 ,but1 what is more important1 his
 eyes and  ears are also to be exercised
 through natural problems in weighing1  
measuring1 and estimating masses1       
heights1 and distances4 ,drawing and    
constructive geometry are to be taught  

him1 to render him more capable  of     
observing accurately4 ,his ear is to be 
rendered sensitive to  harmony by       
learning to sing4    ,sidenote3 no      
geography1 history1 or reading1    ,this
 body and sense training should be the  
nearest approach to an  intellectual    
training at this period4 ,rousseau      
condemns the usual  unnatural practice  
of requiring pupils to learn so much    
before  they have reached the proper    
years4 ,in keeping with his #8negative' 
education1 he asks rhetorically3 8,shall
 ,i venture to state at this  point the 
most important1 the most useful1 rule of
 all education8 ,it  is not to gain     
time1 but to lose it40 ,during his      
childhood ,emile is  not to study       
geography1 history1 or languages1 upon  
which pedagogues  ordinarily depend to  
exhibit the attainments of their pupils1
 although  these understand nothing of  
what they have memorized4 8,at the age  
of  twelve1 ,emile will hardly know what
 a book is4 ,but ,i shall be told  it is

 very necessary that he know how to     
read4 ,this ,i grant4 ,it is  necessary 
that he know how to read when reading is
 useful to him4 ,until  then1 it serves 
only to annoy him40    ,sidenote3 though
 moral training through #8natural       
consequences4'    ,incidentally1        
however1 in order to make ,emile        
tolerable in society1 for  he cannot    
entirely escape it1 he must be given the
 idea of property  and some ideas about 
conduct4 ,but this is simply because of 
practical  necessity1 and no moral      
education is to be given as such1 for1  
8until  he reaches the age of reason1 he
 can form no idea of moral beings or    
social relations40 ,he is to learn      
through #8natural consequences' until   
he arrives at the age for understanding 
moral precepts4 ,if he breaks  the      
furniture or the windows1 let him suffer
 the consequences that  arise from his  
act4 ,do not preach to him or punish him
 for lying1 but  afterward affect not to
 believe him even when he has spoken the

 truth4  ,if he carelessly digs up the  
sprouting melons of the gardener1 in    
order  to plant beans for himself1 let  
the gardener in turn uproot the beans1  
and thus cause him to learn the         
sacredness of property4 ,as far as this 
moral training is given1 then1 it is to 
be indirect and incidental4             
,sidenote3 ,in boyhood1 intellectual    
training through curiosity  concerning  
natural phenomena4    ,however1 between 
twelve and fifteen1 after the demands of
 the boy's  physical activities and of  
his senses have somewhat abated1 there  
comes 8an interval when his faculties   
and powers are greater than his         
desires10 when he displays an insistent 
curiosity concerning natural  phenomena 
and a constant appetite for rational    
knowledge4 ,this period1  which is dealt
 with in his third book1 ,rousseau      
declares to be intended  by nature      
itself as the time for instruction4 ,but
 as not much can be  learned within     
three years1 the boy is to study only   

those subjects  which are useful and not
 incomprehensible and misleading1 and so
 is  limited to the natural sciences4   
,later in this third book1 in order     
that ,emile may informally learn the    
interdependence of men and may  himself 
become economically independent1        
,rousseau adds industrial  experience   
and the acquisition of cabinet-making to
 his training4 ,the  most effective     
method of instruction1 ,rousseau holds1 
comes through  appealing to the         
curiosity and interest in investigation1
 which  are so prominent in the boy at  
this time4 ,he contrasts the current    
methods of teaching astronomy and       
geography by means of globes1 maps1  and
 other misleading representations1 with 
the more natural plan of  stimulating   
inquiry through observing the sun when  
rising and setting  during the different
 seasons1 and through problems          
concerning the  topography of the       
neighborhood4 ,emile is taught to       
appreciate the  value of these subjects 

by being lost in the forest1 and        
endeavoring  to find a way out4 ,he     
learns the elements of electricity      
through  meeting with a juggler1 who    
attracts an artificial duck by means of 
a  concealed magnet4 ,he similarly      
discovers through experience the effect 
of cold and heat upon solids and        
liquids1 and so comes to understand  the
 thermometer and other instruments4     
,hence ,rousseau feels that all         
knowledge of real value may be acquired 
most clearly and naturally  without the 
use of rivalry or textbooks4 ,but he    
finds an exception  to this irrational  
method in one book1 ,robinson ,crusoe1  
8where all  the natural needs of man are
 exhibited in a manner obvious to the   
mind of a child1 and where the means of 
providing for these needs are           
successively developed with the same    
facility40    ,sidenote3 ,in youth1 sex 
interests1 as basis of moral and social 
training4    ,the fourth book takes     
,emile from the age of fifteen to       

twenty4 ,at  this period the sex        
interests appear and should be properly 
guided  and trained1 especially as they 
are the basis of social and moral       
relationships4 ,emile's first passion   
calls him into relations with his       
species1 and he must now learn to live  
with others4 8,we have formed  his body1
 his senses1 and his intelligence2 it   
remains to give him a  heart40 ,he is to
 become moral1 affectionate1 and        
religious4 ,here again  ,rousseau       
insists that the training is not to be  
accomplished by the  formal method of   
precepts1 but in a natural way by       
bringing the youth  into contact with   
his fellowmen and appealing to his      
emotions4 ,emile  is to visit           
infirmaries1 hospitals1 and prisons1 and
 witness concrete  examples of          
wretchedness in all stages1 although not
 so frequently as  to become hardened4  
,that this training may not render him  
cynical or  hypercritical1 it should be 
corrected by the study of history1 where

  one sees men simply as a spectator    
without feeling or passion4 ,further1   
in order to deliver ,emile from vanity1 
so common during adolescence1 he  is to 
be exposed to flatterers1 spendthrifts1 
and sharpers1 and allowed  to suffer the
 consequences4 ,he may at this time also
 be guided in his  conduct by the use of
 fables1 for 8by censuring the wrongdoer
 under an  unknown mask1 we instruct    
without offending him40    ,sidenote3   
,the passive and parasitic education of 
woman4    ,emile at length becomes a    
man1 and a life companion must be found 
for  him4 ,a search should be made for a
 suitable lady1 but 8in order to  find  
her1 we must know her40 ,accordingly1   
the last book of the ,emile  deals with 
the model ,sophie and the education of  
woman4 ,it is the  weakest part of      
,rousseau's work4 ,he entirely          
misinterprets the nature  of women1 and 
does not allow them any individuality of
 their own1 but  considers them as      
simply supplementary to the nature of   

men4 ,like  men1 women should be given  
adequate bodily training1 but rather for
  the sake of physical charms and of    
producing vigorous offspring than  for  
their own development4 ,their           
instinctive love of pleasing through    
dress should be made of service by      
teaching them sewing1 embroidery1       
lacework1 and designing4 ,they ought to 
be obedient and industrious1  and they  
ought early to be brought under         
restraint4 ,girls should also  be taught
 singing1 dancing1 and other            
accomplishments4 ,they should be        
instructed dogmatically in religion1 and
 in ethical matters they should  be     
largely guided by public opinion4 ,a    
woman may not learn philosophy1  art1 or
 science1 but she should study men4     
8,she must learn to penetrate  their    
feelings through their conversation1    
their actions1 their looks1  and their  
gestures1 and know how to give them the 
feelings which are  pleasing to her1    
without even seeming to think of them40 

,sidenote3 ,defects outweighed by       
merits4    ,estimate of the             
,emile4--,such was ,rousseau's notion of
 the natural  individualistic education 
for a man and the passive and repressive
  training suitable for a woman1 and of 
the happiness and prosperity  that were 
bound to ensue4 ,to make a fair estimate
 of the ,emile and  its influence is not
 easy4 ,it is necessary to put aside all
 of one's  prejudices against the weak  
and offensive personality of the author1
  and to forget the inconsistencies and 
contradictions of the work  itself4 ,the
 ,emile has always been accounted a work
 of great richness1  power1 and         
underlying wisdom1 and each of its      
defects is more than  balanced by a     
corresponding merit4 ,moreover1 the most
 fundamental  movements in modern       
educational progress--sociological1     
scientific1 and  psychological--may be  
said to have germinated through the     
,emile4    ,sidenote3 ,revolt from      
social control1    ,sidenote3 but       

extreme doctrine needed1    ,sidenote3  
and those who followed ,rousseau        
stressed social activities4    ,the     
,sociological ,movements in ,modern     
,education4--,the most marked  feature  
of the ,rousselian education and the one
 most subject to  criticism has been its
 extreme revolt against civilization and
 all  social control4 ,a state of nature
 is held to be the ideal condition1  and
 all social relations are regarded as   
degenerate4 ,the child is to  be brought
 up in isolation by the laws of brute   
necessity and to have  no social        
education until he is fifteen1 when an  
impossible set of  expedients for       
bringing him into touch with his fellows
 is devised4  ,one should remember1     
however1 that the times and the cause   
had need  of just so extreme a doctrine4
 ,such radical individualism alone could
  enable him to break the bondage to the
 past4 ,by means of paradoxes  and      
exaggerations he was able to emphasize  
the crying need of a  natural           

development of man1 and to tear down the
 effete traditions  in educational      
organization1 content1 and methods4 ,and
 many of the  social movements in modern
 educational organization and content   
were  made possible and even suggested  
by him1 after having thus cleared  the  
ground4 ,he held that all members of    
society should be trained  industrially 
so as to contribute to their own support
 and should be  taught to be sympathetic
 and benevolent toward their fellows4   
,thus  through him education has been   
more closely related to human welfare4  
,the industrial work of ,pestalozzi and 
,fellenberg1 the moral aim of  education
 held by ,herbart1 the #8social         
participation' in the practice  of      
,froebel1 and the present-day emphasis  
upon vocational education1  moral       
instruction1 and training of defectives 
and of other extreme  variations1 alike 
find some of their roots in the ,emile4 
,in fact1  the fallacy involved in      
,rousseau's isolated education is too   

palpable  to mislead anyone1 and those  
who have best caught his spirit and     
endeavored to develop his practice have 
in all cases most insistently  stressed 
social activities in the training of    
children and striven to  make education 
lead to a closer and more sympathetic   
coperation in  society4    ,sidenote3   
,opposed to all books1 but emphasized   
observational work4    ,the ,scientific 
,movement in ,modern                    
,education4--,moreover1 since  ,rousseau
 repudiated all social traditions and   
accepted nature as  his only guide1 he  
was absolutely opposed to all book      
learning and  exaggerated the value of  
observation4 ,he consequently neglected 
the  past1 and would have robbed the    
pupil of all the experience of his      
fellows and of those who had gone       
before4 ,but he emphasized the use  of  
natural objects in the curriculum and   
developed the details of  nature study  
and observational work to an extent     
never previously  undertaken4 ,partly as

 a result of this influence1 schools and
 colleges  have come to include in their
 course the study of physical forces1   
natural environment1 plants1 and        
animals4 ,therein ,rousseau not only    
anticipates somewhat the nature study   
and geography of ,pestalozzi1  ,basedow1
 ,salzmann1 and ,ritter1 but1 in a way1 
foreshadows the arguments  of ,spencer  
and ,huxley1 and the modern scientific  
movement in education4    ,sidenote3    
,though defective in knowledge of       
children1 ,rousseau saw the  need of    
studying them4    ,the ,psychological   
,movements in ,modern ,education4--,a   
matter of even  greater importance is   
,rousseau's belief that education should
 be in  accordance with the natural     
interests of the child4 ,although his   
knowledge of children was defective1 and
 his recommendations were  marred by    
unnatural breaks and filled with        
sentimentality1 he saw  the need of     
studying the child as the only basis for
 education4 ,in  the ,preface to the    

,emile he declares that 8the wisest     
among us are  engrossed in what the     
adult needs to know and fail to consider
 what  children are able to apprehend4  
,we are always looking for the man in   
the child1 without thinking of what he  
is before he becomes a man4 ,this  is   
the study to which ,i have devoted      
myself1 to the end that1 even  though my
 whole method may be chimerical and     
false1 the reader may  still profit by  
my observation40 ,as a result of such   
appeals1 the child  has become the      
center of discussion in modern training4
 ,despite his  limitations and          
prejudices1 this unnatural and          
neglectful parent stated  many details  
of child development with much force and
 clearness and  gave an impetus to later
 reformers4    ,sidenote3 ,theory of    
#8delayed maturing4'    ,sidenote3      
,physical activities and sense training 
,sidenote3 ,sympathetic understanding of
 the child4    ,in this connection      
should especially be considered         

,rousseau's theory  of stages of        
development4 ,he makes a sharp division 
of the pupil's  development into        
definite periods that seem but little   
connected with  one another1 and        
prescribes a distinct education for each
 stage4  ,this seems like a breach of   
the evolution of the individual1 and the
  reductio ad absurdum of such an atomic
 training is reached in his  hope of    
rendering ,emile warm-hearted and pious1
 after keeping him  in the meshes of    
self-interest and doubt until he is     
fifteen4 ,but1  as in the case of his   
attitude toward society1 ,rousseau takes
 an  extreme view1 and he has thereby   
shown that there are characteristic     
differences at different stages in the  
child's life1 and that only  as the     
proper activities are provided for each 
stage will it reach  maturity or        
perfection4 ,he may1 therefore1 be      
credited to a great  degree with the    
increasing tendency to cease from       
forcing upon children  a fixed method of

 thinking1 feeling1 and acting1 and for 
the gradual  disappearance of the old   
ideas that a task is of educational     
value  according as it is distasteful1  
and that real education consists in     
overcoming meaningless difficulties4    
,curiosity and interest rather  are to  
be used as motives for study1 and       
,rousseau therein points the  way for   
the ,herbartians4 ,it is likewise due to
 him primarily that we  have recognized 
the need of physical activities and     
sense training in  the earlier          
development of the child as a foundation
 for its later  growth and learning4 ,to
 these recommendations may be traced    
much of  the object teaching of         
,pestalozzianism and the motor          
expression of  ,froebelianism4 ,thus    
,rousseau made a large contribution to  
educational  method by showing the value
 of motivation1 of creating problems1   
and of  utilizing the senses and        
activities of the child1 and may be     
regarded  as the father of the          

psychological movements in modern       
education4 ,he  could not1 however1 have
 based his study of children and his    
advanced  methods upon any real         
psychological foundation1 for in his day
 the  #8faculty' psychology 7see p4     
#ahb7 absolutely prevailed4 ,instead of 
working out his methods from scientific 
principles1 he obtained them1  as did   
,pestalozzi afterwards1 through his     
sympathetic understanding of  the child 
and his ability to place himself in the 
child's situation and  see the world    
through the eyes of the child4          
,sidenote3 ,intellectual progenitor of  
modern reformers1 but influence  upon   
schools not immediate4    ,sidenote3    
,first attempt through ,basedow4    ,the
 ,spread of ,rousseau's                 
,doctrines4--,thus seeds of many modern 
developments in educational             
organization1 method1 and content1 were 
sown by ,rousseau1 and he is seen to be 
the intellectual progenitor  of         
,pestalozzi1 ,herbart1 ,froebel1        

,spencer1 and many other modern         
reformers4 ,but his principles did not  
take immediate hold on the  schools     
themselves1 although their influence is 
manifest there as  the nineteenth       
century advanced4 ,in ,france they were 
apparent in the  complaints and         
recommendations concerning schools in   
the lists of  desired reforms 7cahiers7 
that were issued by the various towns1  
and afterward clearly formed a basis for
 much of the legislation  concerning the
 universal1 free1 and secular           
organization of educational             
institutions4 ,in ,england1 since there 
was no national system of  schools1     
little direct impression was made upon  
educational practice4  ,but in ,america 
this revolutionary thought would seem to
 have had much  to do with causing the  
unrest that gradually resulted in       
upsetting the  aristocratic and formal  
training of the young and in            
secularizing and  universalizing the    
public school system4 ,the first        

definite attempt1  however1 to put into 
actual practice the naturalistic        
education of  ,rousseau occurred in     
,germany through the writings of        
,basedow and the  foundation of the     
#8,philanthropinum1' and is of          
sufficient importance to  demand        
separate discussion4    ,sidenote3      
,naturally captivated by ,rousseau's    
doctrines4    ,sidenote3 ,education of  
the day needed naturalism4              
,development of ,basedow's ,educational 
,reforms4--,johann ,bernhard  ,basedow  
7#agbc-agij7 was by nature the very     
person to be captivated  by ,rousseau's 
doctrines4 ,he was talented1 but        
erratic1 unorthodox1  tactless1 and     
irregular in life4 ,he had been prepared
 at the ,university  of ,leipzig for the
 ,lutheran ministry1 but proved too     
heretical1 and1  giving up this         
vocation1 became a tutor in ,holstein to
 a ,herr von  ,quaalen's children4 ,with
 these aristocratic pupils he first     
developed  methods of teaching through  

conversation and play connected with    
surrounding objects4 ,a few years after 
this1 in #agfc1 ,basedow fell  under the
 spell of ,rousseau's ,emile1 which was 
most congenial to his  methods of       
thinking and teaching1 and turned all   
his energy toward  educational reform4  
,as in the case of ,rousseau with       
education in  ,france1 he realized that 
,german education of the day was sadly  
in need  of just such an antidote as    
#8naturalism' was calculated to furnish4
 ,the  schoolrooms were dismal and the  
work was unpleasant1 physical training  
was neglected1 and the discipline was   
severe4 ,children were regarded  as     
adults in miniature 7,fig4 #be71 and    
were so treated both in their  dress and
 their education4 ,the current schooling
 consisted largely of  instruction in   
artificial deportment4 ,the study of    
classics composed  the entire           
intellectual curriculum1 and the methods
 were purely  grammatical4 ,as a result1
 suggestions made by ,basedow for       

educational  improvement attained as    
great popularity as his advanced        
theological  propositions had received  
abuse4    ,sidenote3 ,success of his    
,address and production of his          
text-books4    ,in #agfh by his ,address
 on ,schools and ,studies1 and their    
,influence  on the ,public ,weal1 he    
called generally upon princes1          
governments1  ecclesiastics1 and others 
in power1 to assist him financially in  
certain definite educational reforms4   
,in addition to suggesting that  the    
schools be made nonsectarian and that   
public instruction be placed  under a   
,national ,council of ,education1 he    
proposed that1 in contrast  to the      
formal and unattractive training of the 
day1 education should  be rendered      
practical in content and playful in     
method4 ,to assist this  reform1 he     
planned to bring out a work on          
elementary education1 which  he         
described in outline4 ,great interest in
 his proposals was shown  throughout    

,europe by sovereigns1 nobles1 prominent
 men1 and others  desiring a            
nonsectarian and more effective         
education1 and a subsidy of  some ten   
thousand dollars was speedily raised1 to
 enable him to perfect  his plans4 ,six 
years later1 ,basedow completed his     
promised text-book1  ,elementarwerk1 and
 the companion work for teachers and    
parents known  as ,methodenbuch4 ,the   
,elementarwerk was accompanied by a     
volume  containing ninety-six plates1   
which illustrated the subject-matter of 
the text1 but were too large to be bound
 in with it4 ,while in these  manuals   
,basedow included many naturalistic     
ideas from ,rousseau1 he also  embodied 
features from other reformers and even  
additions of his own4    ,sidenote3     
,elementarwerk    ,sidenote3 and        
,methodenbuch4    ,sidenote3 ,popular   
story books for children4    ,text-books
 and ,other ,works4--,the ,elementarwerk
 clearly combines  many of the          
principles of ,comenius as well as of   

,rousseau4 ,it has1  in fact1 been often
 called #8the ,orbis ,pictus 7see p4    
#agj7 of the  eighteenth century1' and  
gives a knowledge of things and words in
 the  form of a dialogue4 ,the          
,methodenbuch1 while not following      
,rousseau  completely1 contains many    
ideas concerning natural training that  
are  suggestive of him4 ,in this study  
of the nature of children1 the book     
makes some advance upon the ,rousselian 
doctrine by finding that they  are      
especially interested in motion and     
noise1 although ,basedow would  have    
shocked ,rousseau by being so much under
 the control of tradition  as to suggest
 using these interests in the teaching  
of ,latin4 ,later1  ,basedow1 together  
with ,campe1 ,salzmann1 and others of   
his followers1  also produced a series  
of popular story books especially       
adapted to  the character1 interests1   
and needs of children4 ,these works are 
all  largely filled with didactics1     
moralizing1 religiosity1 and scraps  of 

scientific information4 ,the best known 
of them is ,robinson der  ,jngere       
7,robinson ,crusoe ,junior71 which was  
published by ,campe in  #aggi4 ,it seems
 to have been suggested by ,rousseau's  
recommendation of  ,robinson ,crusoe as 
a text-book1 and in turn a generation   
later it  became the model for ,der     
,schweizerische ,robinson 7,the ,swiss  
,family  ,robinson7 of ,wyss1 which has 
been so popular with children in        
,america  and elsewhere4    ,sidenote3  
,salary1 equipment1    ,sidenote3       
teachers1    ,sidenote3 and pupils4     
,course and ,methods of the             
,philanthropinum4--,eight years before  
this1  however1 ,prince ,leopold of     
,dessau had been induced to allow       
,basedow to  found there a model school 
called the #8,philanthropinum1' which   
should  embody that reformer's ideas4   
,leopold granted him a generous salary1 
and three years later gave him an       
equipment of buildings1 grounds1 and    
endowment4 ,at first ,basedow had but   

three assistants1 but later the  number 
was considerably increased4 ,the staff  
then included several very  able men1   
such as ,campe1 formerly chaplain at    
,potsdam1 and ,salzmann1  who had been a
 professor at ,erfurt4 ,the underlying  
principle of the  ,philanthropinum was  
#8everything according to nature4' ,the 
natural  instincts and interests of the 
children were only to be directed and   
not altogether suppressed4 ,they were to
 be trained as children and not  as     
adults1 and the methods of learning were
 to be adapted to their  stage of       
mentality4 ,that all of the customary   
fashion and unnaturalness  might be     
eliminated1 the boys were plainly       
dressed and their hair cut  short4      
,sidenote3 ,universal education1 but    
social distinctions4    ,sidenote3      
,industrial training    ,sidenote3 and  
wide objective course4    ,while        
universal education was believed in1 and
 rich and poor alike were  to be        
trained1 the traditional idea still     

obtained that the natural  education of 
the one class was for social activity   
and leadership1  and of the other for   
teaching4 ,consequently1 the wealthy    
boys were to  spend six hours in school 
and two in manual labor1 while those    
from  families of small means labored   
six hours and studied two4 ,every one1  
however1 was taught                     
handicrafts1--carpentry1 turning1       
planing1 and  threshing1 as suggested in
 the third book of the ,emile1 and there
  were also physical exercises and games
 for all4 ,on the intellectual  side1   
while ,latin was not neglected1         
considerable attention was paid  to the 
vernacular and ,french4 ,in keeping with
 the ,elementarwerk1  ,basedow planned a
 wide objective and practical course    
very similar  to that suggested by      
,comenius4 ,it was to give some account 
of man1  including bits of anthropology1
 anatomy1 and physiology2 of brute      
creation1 especially the uses of        
domestic animals and their relation to  

industry2 of trees and plants with their
 growth1 culture1 and products2  of     
minerals and chemicals2 of mathematical 
and physical instruments2  and of       
trades1 history1 and commerce4 ,he      
afterward admitted that he had          
overestimated the amount of content that
 was possible for a child1 and  greatly 
abridged the material4    ,sidenote3    
,languages taught by conversation and   
games4    ,sidenote3 ,progressive       
methods in other subjects4    ,the most 
striking characteristic of the school1  
however1 was its  recognition of child  
interests and the consequently improved 
methods4  ,languages were taught by     
speaking and then by reading1 and       
grammar  was not brought in until late  
in the course4 ,facility in ,latin was  
acquired through conversation1 games1   
pictures1 drawing1 acting  plays1 and   
reading on practical and interesting    
subjects 7,fig4 #bf74  ,his instruction 
in arithmetic1 geometry1 geography1     
physics1 nature  study1 and history was 

fully as progressive as that in         
languages1  and1 while continuing       
,rousseau's suggestions1 seems to       
anticipate  much of the #8object        
teaching' of ,pestalozzi4 ,arithmetic   
was taught by  mental methods1 geometry 
by drawing figures accurately and       
neatly1  and geography by beginning with
 one's home and extending out into the  
neighborhood1 the town1 the country1 and
 the continent4    ,sidenote3 ,great    
expectations4    ,sidenote3 ,stimulus   
for younger pupils4    ,influence of the
 ,philanthropinum4--,the attendance at  
the  ,philanthropinum was very small in 
the beginning1 since the institution    
was regarded as an experiment1 but      
eventually the number of pupils  rose to
 more than fifty4 ,most visitors were   
greatly pleased with the  school1       
especially on account of the interested 
and alert appearance  of the pupils4    
,kant declared that it meant 8not a slow
 reform1 but a  quick revolution10      
although afterward he admitted that he  

had been too  optimistic4 ,while it may 
not have served well for older pupils1  
it was  certainly excellent in its      
stimulus to children under ten or       
twelve1  who can be reached by appeals  
to physical activities and the senses   
better than by books4    ,sidenote3     
,similar institutions of ,campe1        
,sidenote3 ,salzmann1    ,sidenote3 and 
,rochow4    ,basedow1 however1 proved   
temperamentally unfit to direct the     
institution4 ,joachim ,heinrich ,campe  
7#agdf-ahah71 who first succeeded  him1 
withdrew within a year to found a       
similar school at ,hamburg4             
,institutions of the same type sprang up
 elsewhere1 and some of them  had a     
large influence upon education4 ,the    
most striking and enduring  of these    
schools was that established in #aghd by
 ,christian ,gotthilf  ,salzmann        
7#agdd-ahaa7 at ,schnepfenthal under the
 patronage of the royal  family of      
,saxe-,gotha4 ,the natural              
surroundings--mountains1 valleys1       

lakes--were most favorable for the      
purpose of the institution1 and much    
attention was given to nature study1    
#8lessons on things1' organized         
excursions1 gardening1 agricultural     
work1 and care of domestic animals4     
,manual training1 gymnastics1 sports1   
informal moral and religious  culture1  
and other features that anticipated     
later developments in  education also   
formed part of the course4 ,during the  
decade before the  establishment of     
,salzmann's school1 institutions        
embodying many of  ,basedow's ideas were
 also opened at ,rechahn and his other  
,brandenburg  estates by ,baron         
,eberhard von ,rochow 7#agcd-ahje74 ,his
 schools were  simply intended to       
improve the peasantry in their methods  
of farming  and living1 but1 when this  
step toward universal education proved  
extraordinarily successful1 ,rochow     
advocated the adoption of a complete    
national system of schools on a         
nonsectarian basis4    ,sidenote3       

,becomes a fad1 but accomplished some   
good4    ,in #agic the ,philanthropinum 
at ,dessau was closed permanently4 ,its 
teachers were scattered through ,europe1
 and gave a great impulse to the  new   
education4 ,an unfortunate result of    
this popularity was that the            
,philanthropinum became a fad1 and      
schools with this name were opened      
everywhere in ,germany by educational   
mountebanks4 ,these teachers            
prostituted the system to their own     
ends1 degraded the profession into  a   
mere trade1 and became the subject of   
much satire and ridicule4               
,nevertheless1 the philanthropinic      
movement seems not to have been  without
 good results1 especially when we       
consider the educational  conditions and
 the pedagogy of the times4 ,it         
introduced many new ideas  concerning   
methods and industrial training into all
 parts of ,france and  ,switzerland1 as 
well as ,germany1 and these were        
carefully worked out by  such reformers 

as ,pestalozzi1 ,froebel1 and ,herbart4 
,in this way there  were embodied in    
education the first positive results of 
,rousseau's  #8naturalism4'             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,the child as
 a miniature adult4    7,reproduced from
 a ,french fashion plate of the         
eighteenth century47    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #bf4--;,a naturalistic school4    
7,reproduced from the ,elementarwerk of 
,basedow47      ,,supplementary         
,,reading    ,graves1 ,in ,modern ,times
 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 chap4 ,,ii2 and   
,great  ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 
chaps4 ,,vii and ,,viii2 ,monroe1       
,text-book 7,macmillan1 #aije71 chap4   
,x2 ,parker1 ,s4 ,c41 ,history  of      
,modern ,elementary ,education 7,ginn1  
#aiab71 chaps4 ,,viii-,x4 ,the  ,emile  
7,translated by ,payne2 ,appleton1      
#ahie7 should be read1 and  the         
,elementarwerk 7,wiegandt1 ,leipzig1    
#aiji7 should be examined4  ,a judicial 
description of the life and work of     
,rousseau is that by  ,morley1 ,j4      

7,macmillan71 while ,davidson1 ,t41     
furnishes an interesting  interpretation
 of ,rousseau and ,education from       
,nature 7,scribner1  #aijb71 but the    
standard treatise on ,the ,educational  
,theory of  ,rousseau 7,longmans1       
,green1 #aiaa7 at present has been      
written by  ,boyd1 ,w4 ,a good brief    
account of ,basedow3 ,his ,educational  
,work and  ,principles 7,kellogg1 ,new  
,york1 #ahia7 is afforded by ,lang1 ,o4 
,h4 ,see  also ,barnard1 ,h41 ,american 
,journal of ,education1 vol4 ,v1 pp4    
#dhg-ebj4          ,,chapter ,,xx       
,,philanthropy ,,in ,,education         
,,outline        ,in ,england1 during   
the eighteenth century1 there were      
numerous      attempts to provide       
education for the poor through charity  
schools4      ,the most important factor
 in maintaining these institutions was  
the      ,society for the ,promotion of 
,christian ,knowledge4        ,among    
other organizations1 there sprang up a  
,society for the      ,propagation of   

the ,gospel in ,foreign ,parts1 which   
supported schools      throughout the   
,american colonies1 except ,virginia4   
,charity schools      were also         
maintained in ,america by various other 
agencies4        ,an attempt was        
likewise made by ,raikes of ,gloucester1
 ,england1 to      establish ,sunday    
schools1 for training the poor to read1 
and these      institutions spread      
throughout the ,british ,isles and      
,america4        ,a system of           
instruction through monitors1 developed 
by ,lancaster      and ,bell1 while     
formal and mechanical1 furnished a sort 
of      substitute for national         
education in ,england1 and1 spreading   
throughout the ,united ,states1 paved   
the way for state support1 and          
greatly improved the methods of         
teaching4        #8,infant schools' for 
poor children also grew up during the   
nineteenth century in ,france1 ,england1
 and the ,united ,states1 and      found
 a permanent place in the national      

systems1 but they soon      became      
formalized and mechanical4              
,philanthropic education proved a first 
step toward universal and      national 
education4    ,sidenote3 ,even in       
,rousseau and the philanthropinists1    
,sidenote3 and especially in ,england4  
,reconstructive ,tendencies of the      
,eighteenth ,century4--,the eighteenth  
century cannot be regarded altogether as
 a period of revolution and             
destruction4 ,while such a              
characterization describes the          
prevailing  tendencies1 there were also 
social and educational forces that      
looked  to evolution and reform rather  
than to a complete disintegration  of   
society and a return to primitive       
living4 ,even in ,rousseau1  the        
arch-destroyer of traditions1 we found  
many evidences of a  reconstruction     
along higher lines1 and such a positive 
movement was  decidedly obvious in      
,basedow1 ,salzmann1 and other          
philanthropinists4  ,but in ,england    

reforms were especially apparent4 ,in   
the land of the  ,briton1 progress is   
proverbially gradual1 and sweeping      
victories  and ,waterloo defeats in     
affairs of society and education are    
alike  unwonted4 ,the ,french tendency  
to cut short the social and educational 
process and to substitute revolution for
 evolution is out of accord  with the   
spirit across the ,english ,channel4    
,sidenote3 ,wretched conditions of      
laboring class4    ,sidenote3 ,charity  
schools as remedy4    ,the ,rise of     
,charity ,schools in ,england4--,and yet
 conditions in  ,england at this time   
might well have incited people to       
revolution4  ,wages were low1 employment
 was irregular1 and the laboring        
classes1 who  numbered fully one-sixth  
of the population1 were clad in rags1   
lived in  hovels1 and often went hungry4
 ,opportunities for elementary education
  were rare4 ,the few schools that      
remained after the ,reformation had     
largely lost their endowments or had    

been perverted into secondary           
institutions1 and had suffered from     
incompetent and negligent masters  and  
from the religious upheaval of the      
times4 ,it was as a partial  remedy for 
this situation1 that1 toward the close  
of the seventeenth  century1 there      
sprang up a succession of #8charity     
schools1' in which  children of the poor
 were not only taught1 but boarded and  
sometimes  provided with clothes1 and   
the boys were prepared for              
apprenticeship  and the girls for       
domestic service4 ,probably about one   
thousand schools  upon this general     
philanthropic basis had been established
 in ,england  and ,wales by the middle  
of the eighteenth century4 ,most of     
these had  received substantial         
endowment1 but numbers of them were     
maintained by  private subscriptions4   
,sidenote3 ,foundation1    ,sidenote3   
management1    ,sidenote3 books1        
,sidenote3 teachers1    ,sidenote3 and  
course4    ,the ,schools of the ,s4 ,p4 

,c4 ,k4--,a factor that was even more   
important  in opening charity schools   
was the #8,society for the ,promotion of
  ,christian ,knowledge' 7often         
abbreviated to ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k474 ,this  
society  was founded in #afih by        
,reverend ,thomas ,bray1 ,d4 ,d41 and   
four other  clergymen and               
philanthropists4 ,as a rule1 its schools
 were established1  supported1 and      
managed by local people1 but the        
,society guaranteed  their maintenance1 
and assisted them from its own treasury 
whenever  a stringency in funds arose4  
,the ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 also inspected     
schools1  and advised and encouraged the
 local managers1 and furnished bibles1  
prayer books1 and catechisms at the     
cheapest rates possible4 ,it made       
stringent regulations of eligibility for
 its schoolmasters1 requiring1  in      
addition to the usual religious1 moral1 
pedagogical1 and age tests1  that they  
be members of the ,church of ,england   
and approved by the  minister of the    

parish4 ,each master was expected to    
teach the children  their catechism1 and
 purge them of bad morals and manners1  
besides  training them in reading1      
writing1 and elementary arithmetic4 ,the
  pupils were1 moreover1 clothed1       
boarded1 and at times even lodged4      
,sidenote3 ,development1    ,sidenote3  
opposition and advocacy1    ,sidenote3  
decadence1    ,sidenote3 and influence4 
,the number of charity schools of the   
,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 grew by leaps and       
bounds1 and by the close of the first   
decade there were eighty-eight  within a
 radius of ten miles of ,london4 ,the   
gifts made had amounted to  almost ten  
thousand pounds1 and nearly one thousand
 boys and over four  hundred girls had  
been sent out as apprentices4 ,and      
before the middle  of the eighteenth    
century the total number of these       
charity schools  in ,england and ,wales 
reached nearly two thousand1 with about 
fifty  thousand boys and girls in       
attendance4 ,this increase in facilities

 for  the education of the poor was not 
kindly received by many in the upper    
classes1 who often felt that 8there is  
no need for any learning at all  for the
 meanest ranks of mankind3 their        
business is to labour1 not to  think40  
,but the charity schools had also many  
warm supporters1 and  ,addison even     
believed that as a result of them there 
would be 8few in  the next generation   
who will not at least be able to write  
and read1  and have not an early        
tincture of religion40 ,the benefactions
 for these  institutions continued to   
increase for nearly half a century1 but 
by  the middle of the eighteenth century
 popular interest had waned4 ,the       
subscriptions began to fall off1 the    
system of inspection and the  teaching  
became less effective1 and the schools  
ceased to expand4  ,nevertheless1 the   
,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4 had succeeded in        
impressing the ,church  of ,england with
 a sense of responsibility for the      
establishment of a  national school     

system upon a religious basis4 ,its     
schools were largely  continued         
throughout the eighteenth century1 and  
in most instances  after #ahaa were     
absorbed by the new educational         
organization of the  ,english ,church1  
the so-called #8,national ,society' 7see
 p4 #bci74    ,sidenote3 ,nonconformist 
schools4    ,sidenote3 #8,circulating   
schools4'    ,sidenote3 ,foundation of  
the ,s4 ,p4 ,g4    ,other ,british      
,charity ,schools4--,these institutions 
of the ,church of  ,england society may 
be regarded as typical of ,british      
charity schools  in general4 ,there     
were1 however1 also a dozen well-known  
foundations  by nonconformists1         
including the #8,gravel ,lane ,school'  
of ,southwark1  ,london1 which was      
started over a decade before the ,s4 ,p4
 ,c4 ,k4 was  organized4 ,and an        
interesting type of philanthropic       
institution known  as #8circulating     
schools' was founded in ,wales4 ,these  
schools simply  aimed to teach pupils to

 read the ,bible in ,welsh1 and when    
this had  been accomplished in one      
neighborhood1 the school was transferred
 to  another4 ,but a much more important
 organization was the offshoot of  the  
,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k41 that arose chiefly to  
carry on charity schools in the         
,american colonies4 ,this association1  
the #8,society for the ,propagation  of 
the ,gospel in ,foreign ,parts1'        
7commonly known as ,s4 ,p4 ,g471 was    
founded by ,dr4 ,bray three years after 
the parent society1 but no  schools were
 established for several years4         
,sidenote3 ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 school in ,new   
,york ,city1--    ,sidenote3 now        
#8,trinity ,church ,school4'    ,the    
,charity ,schools of the ,s4 ,p4        
,g4--,the first school of the ,s4 ,p4   
,g4  was opened in ,new ,york ,city in  
#agji under ,william ,huddleston1 who   
had  been conducting a school of his own
 there4 ,it was intended that the new   
school should follow the plan of the    
charity schools in ,england1 but1  while

 free tuition and free books were       
granted from the beginning1 it  was not 
until many years later that the means of
 clothing the children  gratuitously was
 provided4 ,under different masters and 
with varying  fortunes1 the school was  
supported by the society until #aghc1   
when the  ,united ,states had finally   
cut loose from the ,mother ,country and 
started  on a career of its own4        
,meanwhile ,trinity ,church had come    
more and more  to take the initiative in
 the endowment and support of the       
school1 and  since the withdrawal of the
 society from ,america the institution  
has  been known as #8,trinity ,church   
,school4'    ,sidenote3 ,other colonies 
,sidenote3 ,attendance1    ,sidenote3   
course1 and books4    ,schools of the   
same type were active throughout the    
colonies in the  eighteenth century4 ,we
 possess more or less complete accounts 
of these  institutions in ,new ,york and
 all the other colonies1 except         
,virginia1  where they were not believed

 to be needed4 ,except for size and     
local  peculiarities1 all of them       
closely resembled the school in ,new    
,york  ,city4 ,the attendance ranged    
from eighteen or twenty pupils to nearly
  four times that number4 ,girls were   
generally admitted1 and occasionally    
equalled or exceeded the boys in number4
 ,as a rule1 children of other          
denominations were received on the same 
terms as those of ,church of  ,england  
members1 and at times nearly one-half   
the attendance was  composed of         
dissenters1 but often those outside the 
,church were given  secondary           
consideration1 or the catechism was so  
stressed by the school  that the        
dissenting children were withdrawn and  
rival schools set  up4 ,the character of
 the course of study in these charity   
schools is  further indicated by the    
books furnished by the society4 ,in     
packets of  various sizes it sent over  
horn-books1 primers1 spellers1          
writing-paper  and ink-horns1           

catechisms1 psalters1 prayer books1     
testaments1 and  bibles4 ,there is also 
some evidence that secondary instruction
 was  carried on intermittently in the  
various centers by the missionaries or  
by the schoolmasters in conjunction with
 their elementary work4    ,sidenote3   
,opposition to the ,s4 ,p4 ,g4          
,sidenote3 ,its devotion and generosity1
    ,sidenote3 and influence upon       
universal education4    ,throughout its 
work in the ,american colonies the ,s4  
,p4 ,g4 met with  various forms of      
opposition4 ,the dissenters1 ,quakers1  
and others were  often openly hostile   
through fear of the foundation of an    
established  national church similar to 
that of ,england1 and both sides        
displayed  considerable sectarianism and
 bigotry4 ,after #agej the opposition to
 the  society increased in bitterness   
and became more general1 owing to the   
feeling that its agents were supporting 
the king against the colonists4  ,yet   
its patronage of schools was most       

philanthropic and important for         
,american education in the eighteenth   
century4 ,while it insisted upon  the   
interpretation of ,christianity adopted 
by the ,church of ,england1 it  stood   
first and foremost for the extension of 
religion and education  to the virgin   
soil of ,america4 ,it carried on its    
labors with devoted  interest and showed
 great generosity in the maintenance of 
schools1  and the support of schools in 
the colonies by the ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 must    
have  exerted some influence toward     
universal education4    ,sidenote3      
,organization1    ,sidenote3 course1 and
    ,sidenote3 disappearance of ,s4 ,p4 
,k4 ,g4 schools4    ,charity ,schools   
among the ,pennsylvania                 
,germans4--,during the  eighteenth      
century the efforts of the ,s4 ,p4 ,g4  
were supplemented by the  formation of  
minor associations and the establishment
 of other charity  schools in various   
colonies4 ,perhaps the most noteworthy  
instance was  the organization in #agec 

of #8,a ,society for ,propagating the   
,knowledge of  ,god among the ,germans1'
 and the maintenance of schools among   
the sects  of ,pennsylvania4 ,these     
schools were managed by a general       
colonial board  of six trustees1 who    
visited the schools annually and awarded
 prizes  for ,english orations and      
attainments in civic and religious      
duties4 ,the  course of study included  
instruction in 8both the ,english and   
,german  languages2 likewise in writing1
 keeping of common accounts1 singing  of
 psalms1 and the true principles of the 
holy ,protestant religion40             
,twenty-five schools were planned1 but  
probably there were never more  than    
half that number4 ,the schools lasted   
only about a decade1 as the  ,germans   
soon came to feel that this ,english    
schooling threatened their  language1   
nationality1 and institutions4          
,sidenote3 ,foundation1    ,sidenote3   
opposition1    ,sidenote3 advocacy1 and 
spread4    ,the #8,sunday ,school'      

,movement in ,great ,britain4--,a       
variety of charity  school1 quite       
different from those already mentioned1 
sprang up  toward the close of the      
century under the name of #8,sunday     
,schools4'  ,to overcome the prevailing 
ignorance1 vice1 and squalor in the     
manufacturing center of ,gloucester1    
,england1 ,robert ,raikes in #aghj set  
up a school in ,sooty ,alley for the    
instruction of children and adults  in  
religion and the rudiments4 ,six months 
later he started a new school  in       
,southgate street1 and soon had other   
schools established4 ,he paid  his      
teachers a shilling each ,sunday to     
train the children to read in  the      
,bible1 spell1 and write4 ,this charity 
education1 meager as it was1  was       
attacked by many of the upper classes1  
and was often viewed with  suspicion by 
the recipients themselves4 ,yet the new 
movement had warm  supporters among the 
nobility and such reformers as ,wesley1 
and the  schools soon spread to ,london1

 and then throughout ,england1 ,wales1  
,ireland1 ,scotland1 and the ,channel   
,islands4 ,a ,sunday ,school ,society   
was  founded in #aghe1 and within a     
decade distributed nearly one hundred   
thousand spellers1 twenty-five thousand 
testaments1 and over five  thousand     
bibles1 and trained approximately       
sixty-five thousand pupils  in one      
thousand schools4    ,sidenote3         
,individual centers    ,sidenote3 and   
permanent associations4    ,the         
#8,sunday ,school' ,movement in the     
,united ,states4--,the ,raikes system   
of ,sunday instruction was also soon    
introduced in ,america4 ,the first      
school was organized in #aghf by ,bishop
 ,asbury at the house of ,thomas        
,crenshaw in ,hanover ,county1          
,virginia1 and within a quarter of a    
century  a number of schools arose in   
various cities4 ,before long1 permanent 
associations were also started to       
promote ,sunday instruction4 #8,the     
,first ,day or ,sunday ,school ,society'

 was organized at ,philadelphia in      
#agia1 and during the first two decades 
of the nineteenth century a  number of  
similar societies for secular           
instruction on ,sunday were  founded in 
,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,philadelphia1 and 
elsewhere4 ,in #ahbc these  associations
 were all absorbed into a new and       
broader organization1  known ever since 
as the #8,american ,sunday ,school      
,union4' ,at the start  it published    
suitable reading-books1 and furnished   
primers1 spellers1  testaments1 and     
hymn-books to needy ,sunday schools at a
 reasonable rate4    ,sidenote3         
,makeshift1 but prepared the way for    
universal education4    ,value of the   
,instruction in #8,sunday               
,schools4'--,both in ,great ,britain    
and the ,united ,states1 however1 the   
,sunday schools gradually tended to     
abandon their secular instruction and   
become purely religious4 ,at the  same  
time the teachers came to serve without 
pay and to instruct less  efficiently4  

,and the value of the secular teaching  
was not large at the  best1 as the work 
was necessarily limited to a few hours  
once a week4  ,raikes and all others    
interested in these institutions        
recognized their  inadequacy as a means 
of securing universal education1 and    
regarded  them merely as auxiliary to a 
more complete system of instruction4    
,but while a makeshift and by no means a
 final solution for national  education1
 they performed a notable service for   
the times1 and helped  point the way to 
universal education4    ,sidenote3      
,lancaster    ,sidenote3 and the        
,british and ,foreign ,society2    ,the 
,schools of the ,two ,monitorial        
,societies4--,while philanthropic       
education started largely in the        
eighteenth century1 some of the  schools
 continued well into the nineteenth4    
,this was especially the  case with the 
#8monitorial' system1 started at        
,southwark in #agih4 ,this  district of 
,london was thronged with barefoot and  

unkempt children2 and  ,lancaster1 the  
founder of the school1 undertook to     
educate as many as  he could4 ,his      
schoolroom was soon filled with a       
hundred or more pupils4  ,in order to   
teach them all1 he used the older pupils
 as assistants4  ,he taught the lesson  
first to these #8monitors1' and they in 
turn  imparted it to the others1 who    
were divided into equal groups4 ,each   
monitor cared for a single group4 ,the  
work was very successful from  the      
first1 but ,lancaster1 attempting to    
introduce schools of this kind          
throughout ,england1 fell so recklessly 
into debt that an association  had to be
 founded in #ahjh to continue the work  
on a practical basis4  ,within half a   
dozen years ,lancaster withdrew from the
 organization1 but  the association1    
under the name of the #8,british and    
,foreign ,society1'  continued to       
flourish and found new schools4         
,sidenote3 ,bell and the ,national      
,society4    ,so successful was the     

,lancasterian work that the ,church of  
,england1  fearing its nonsectarian     
influence upon education1 in #ahaa      
organized  #8,the ,national ,society for
 ,promoting the ,education of the ,poor 
in the  ,principles of the ,established 
,church4' ,this long-named association  
was  to conduct monitorial schools under
 the management of ,doctor ,andrew      
,bell1 who had experimented with the    
system in ,india before ,lancaster      
opened his school4 ,although they had   
formed no part of ,bell's original      
methods1 the ,anglican catechism and    
prayer book were now taught             
dogmatically in the schools founded by  
the ,national ,society4 ,bell  proved an
 admirable director1 and a healthy      
rivalry sprang up between  the          
societies4    ,sidenote3 ,differences in
 the two systems4    ,sidenote3 ,both   
were unoriginal    ,sidenote3 and       
mechanical4    ,value of the ,monitorial
 ,system in ,england4--,the plans of the
 two  organizations were similar1 but   

differed somewhat in details4 ,both used
  monitors and taught writing by means  
of a desk covered with sand1 but  the   
system of ,lancaster was animated by    
broader motives and had many  more      
devices for teaching4 ,it also          
instituted company organization1  drill1
 and precision1 and developed a system  
of badges1 offices1  rewards1 and       
punishments4 ,monitorial instruction1   
however1 was not  original with either  
,lancaster or ,bell4 ,it had long been  
used by the  ,hindus and others1        
although the work of the two societies  
brought it  into prominence4 ,it        
overemphasized repetition and recitation
 mechanics1  and consisted of a formal  
drill rather than a method of           
instruction4    ,sidenote3 ,afforded    
substitute for national education4      
,sidenote3 ,training colleges4          
,sidenote3 ,british and ,foreign schools
 absorbed1 but ,national a system  by   
themselves4    ,yet the monitorial      
schools were productive of some         

achievements4  ,most of them afforded a 
fair education in the elementary school 
subjects and added some industrial and  
vocational training4 ,they  also did    
much to awaken the conscience of the    
,english nation to the  need of general 
education for the poor4 ,the ,british   
and ,foreign and  the ,national         
,societies afforded a substitute1 though
 a poor one1 for  national education in 
the days before ,england was willing to 
pay  for general education1 and they    
became the avenues through which  such  
appropriations as the government did    
make were distributed4 ,in  #ahcc the   
grant of #bj1jjj1 constituting the first
 government aid to  elementary          
education1 was equally divided between  
the two societies  7see p4 #chh71 and   
this method of administration was       
continued as the  annual grant was      
gradually increased1 until the system of
 public  education was established4     
,likewise1 in #ahci1 #aj1jjj for normal 
instruction was voted to the societies1 

and was used by the ,british  and       
,foreign for its ,borough ,road         
,training ,college1 and by the ,national
  for ,st4 ,mark's ,training ,college4  
,these were followed by several other   
training institutions1 established by   
each society through government  aid4   
,in #ahgj1 when the #8board1' or public 
elementary1 schools were at  length     
founded1 the schools of the ,british and
 ,foreign ,society1 with  their         
nonsectarian instruction1 fused         
naturally with them2 but the            
institutions of the ,national ,society1 
though transferred to school  boards in 
a few cases1 have generally come to     
constitute by themselves  a national    
system on a voluntary basis4            
,sidenote3 ,adoption by ,new ,york and  
other cities4    ,sidenote3 ,introduced 
into high schools and academies4        
,results of the ,monitorial ,system in  
the ,united ,states4--,in the  ,united  
,states the monitorial system was       
introduced into ,new ,york ,city  in    

#ahjf4 ,the #8,society for the          
,establishment of a ,free ,school1'     
after  investigating the best methods in
 other cities and countries1 decided  to
 try the system of ,lancaster 7see p4   
#bfj74 ,the method was likewise         
introduced into the charity schools of  
,philadelphia 7see p4 #bfa74 ,the       
monitorial system then spread rapidly   
through ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1      
,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 and other 
,states4 ,it is almost impossible  to   
trace the exact extent of this          
organization in the ,united ,states1    
but before long it seems to have        
affected nearly all cities of any  size 
as far south as ,augusta 7,georgia71 and
 west as far as ,cincinnati4  ,there are
 still traces of its influence          
throughout this region1--in  ,hartford1 
,new ,haven1 ,albany1 ,washington1 and  
,baltimore1 as well as in  the places   
already mentioned 7,figs4 #bg1 #bh1 and 
#bi74 ,in #ahah ,lancaster  himself was 
invited to ,america1 and assisted in the

 monitorial schools  of ,new ,york1     
,brooklyn1 and ,philadelphia4 ,a dozen  
years later the system  began to be     
introduced generally into the high      
schools and academies4  ,through the    
efforts of ,dr4 ,john ,griscom1 who had 
been greatly pleased  with the          
monitorial high school of ,dr4 ,pillans 
in ,edinburgh1 a similar  institution   
was established in ,new ,york ,city in  
#ahbe1 and the plan was  soon adopted by
 a number of high schools in ,new ,york 
and neighboring  states4 ,likewise1 the 
state systems of academies in ,maryland 
and in  ,indiana1 which became high     
schools after the ,civil ,war1 were     
organized  on this basis4 ,for two      
decades the monitorial remained the     
prevailing  method in secondary         
education4 ,training schools for        
teachers on the  ,lancasterian basis    
also became common4    ,sidenote3       
,increased school facilities            
,sidenote3 and improved organization and
 methods4    ,in fact1 the monitorial   

system was destined to perform a great  
service  for ,american education4 ,at   
the time of its introduction1 public and
  free schools were generally lacking1  
outside of ,new ,england1 and the       
facilities that existed were meager and 
available during but a small  portion of
 the year4 ,in all parts of the country 
illiteracy was almost  universal among  
children of the poor4 ,this want of     
school opportunities  was rendered more 
serious by the rapid growth of ,american
 cities4  #8,free school societies1'    
like that in ,new ,york ,city1 formed to
 relieve  the situation1 came to regard 
the system of ,lancaster1 because of its
  comparative inexpensiveness1 as a     
godsend for their purpose4 ,and when    
the people generally awoke to the crying
 need of public education1  legislators 
also found monitorial schools the       
cheapest way out of the  difficulty1 and
 the provision made for these schools   
gradually  opened the road to the ever  
increasing expenditures and taxation    

that had to come before satisfactory    
schools could be established4           
,moreover1 the ,lancasterian schools    
were not only economical1 but most      
effective1 when the educational         
conditions of the times are taken into  
consideration4 ,even in the cities1 the 
one-room and one-teacher school  was the
 prevailing type1 and grading was       
practically unknown4 ,the whole         
organization and administration were    
shiftless and uneconomical1 and  a great
 improvement was brought about by the   
carefully planned and  detailed methods 
of ,lancaster4 ,the schools were made   
over through his  definite mechanics of 
instruction1 centralized management1    
well-trained  teachers1 improved        
apparatus1 discipline1 hygiene1 and     
other features4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#bg4--;,a monitorial school1 with three 
hundred pupils  and but one teacher4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--,pupils      
reciting to monitors4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #bi4--,monitor inspecting slates4 

,sidenote3 ,disappeared when educational
 sentiment improved4    ,but while the  
monitorial methods met a great          
educational emergency in  the ,united   
,states1 they were clearly mechanical1  
inelastic1 and without  psychological   
foundation4 ,naturally their sway could 
not last long1  and as enlarged material
 resources enabled the people to make   
greater  appropriations for education1  
the obvious defects of the monitorial   
system became more fully appreciated and
 brought about its abandonment4  ,before
 the middle of the century its work in  
,america was ended1 and it  gave way to 
the more psychological conceptions of   
,pestalozzi and to  those afterward     
formulated by ,froebel and ,herbart4    
,sidenote3 ,beginning with ,oberlin2    
,sidenote3 development in ,paris2       
,sidenote3 part of national system4     
,the #8,infant ,schools' in             
,france4--,another form of philanthropic
  education that came to be very        
influential during the nineteenth       

century and has eventually been merged  
in several national systems is  that of 
the so-called #8infant schools4' ,the   
first recorded instance of  these       
institutions occurred late in the       
eighteenth century through the  attempt 
of a young ,lutheran pastor named       
,oberlin to give an informal  training  
to the small children in all the        
villages of his rural charge  in        
northeastern ,france4 ,this type of     
training was copied in ,paris as  early 
as #ahja1 but did not amount to much    
until its revival through the  influence
 of a similar development in ,england a 
quarter of a century  later4 ,it then   
rapidly expanded1 and in #ahcc was      
adopted as part of  the ,french national
 system of education4 ,in #ahdg a normal
 school was  founded to prepare         
directresses and inspectors for these   
institutions1  and in #ahha they became 
known as #8maternal schools1' and the   
present  type of curriculum was adopted4
 ,besides reading and writing1 these    

schools have always included informal   
exercises in the mother tongue1         
drawing1 knowledge of common things1 the
 elements of geography and  natural     
history1 manual and physical exercises1 
and singing4    ,sidenote3 ,owen at ,new
 ,lanark2    ,sidenote3 ,buchanan's     
school in ,london1    ,sidenote3 became 
model for ,wilderspin1--formal and      
mechanical4    ,the #8,infant ,schools' 
in ,england4--,quite independently1     
though over a  generation later than    
,oberlin1 ,robert ,owen opened his      
#8infant school'  in #ahaf at ,new      
,lanark1 ,scotland4 ,he was a           
philanthropic cotton-spinner1  and      
wished to give the young children of his
 operatives a careful  moral1 physical1 
and intellectual training4 ,from the age
 of three they  were taught in this     
school for two or three years whatever  
was useful  and within their            
understanding1 and this instruction was 
combined with  much singing1 dancing1   
amusement1 and out-of-door exercise4    

,they were  not 8annoyed with books10   
but were taught about nature and common 
objects through maps1 models1 paintings1
 and familiar conversation1 and  their  
8curiosity was excited so as to ask     
questions concerning them40  ,to afford 
this informal training1 ,owen secured a 
8poor simple-hearted  weaver1 named     
,james ,buchanan1 who at first could    
scarcely read1 write1  or spell10 but   
who1 by following the instructions of   
,owen literally1  made a great success  
of the system4 ,but when ,buchanan1 with
 the consent  of ,owen1 had been        
transferred to ,london1 to start a      
similar school for  a group of peers and
 other distinguished philanthropists1   
his lack  of intelligence reduced the   
training to a mere mechanical imitation 
of the procedure he had learned at ,new 
,lanark4 ,unfortunately1 this  ,london  
school became the model for ,samuel     
,wilderspin1 who was destined  to become
 the leading exponent of infant schools4
 ,the schools of  ,wilderspin1 while    

retaining some of the principles and    
devices of ,owen1  were much more formal
 and mechanical4 ,he thought too highly 
of #8books1  lessons1 and apparatus1'   
and confounded instruction with         
education4  ,he overloaded the child    
with verbal information1 depending upon 
the  memory rather than the             
understanding4 ,before the child was    
six1 it was  expected that he had been  
taught reading1 the fundamental         
operations  in arithmetic1 the tables of
 money1 weights1 and measures1 a        
knowledge  of the qualities of common   
objects1 the habits of different        
animals1  the elements of astronomy1    
botany1 and zology1 and the chief facts 
of  the ,new ,testament4 ,even the games
 were stereotyped1 and the religious    
teaching most formal4    ,sidenote3     
,spread of schools2    ,sidenote3       
,infant ,school ,society2    ,sidenote3 
,home and ,colonial ,society2           
,sidenote3 ,part of public system4      
,wilderspin's first school was opened at

 ,spitalfields1 ,london1 and soon       
attracted a horde of visitors4 ,he then 
began lecturing upon the subject        
throughout the ,united ,kingdom1 often  
demonstrating his methods with  classes 
of children he had taken along1 and     
organized infant schools  everywhere4   
,in #ahbd an #8,infant ,school ,society'
 was founded and through  it several    
hundred schools were established4 ,a    
dozen years later  an organization for  
training infant school teachers1 known  
as #8,the  ,home and ,colonial ,school  
,society1' was founded at ,london by    
,reverend  ,charles ,mayo1 ,d4 ,d41 and 
others4 ,this society undertook to graft
  ,pestalozzianism upon the infant      
school stock4 ,while the combination    
resulted in some improvement of the     
infant schools1 and real object         
teaching and sense training were more   
emphasized than they had been1  the     
spirit of ,pestalozzi was largely lost1 
and there was too much  imitation of the
 formal instruction of older children1  

and there was an  evident attempt to    
cultivate infant prodigies4 ,through    
these agencies  infant schools spread   
rapidly in ,great ,britain1 and were    
adopted as a  regular part of the public
 system1 when it was established in     
#ahgj 7p4  #chh74 ,and four years later 
a marked advance was made through       
merging in  them some of the methods and
 games of the kindergarten4             
,sidenote3 ,boston #8primary schools4'  
#8,infant ,schools' in the ,united      
,states4--,schools open to all younger  
children also sprang up in the ,united  
,states during the first quarter  of the
 nineteenth century4 ,for many years    
they were nowhere regarded  as an       
essential part of the public school     
system1 and were managed  separately1   
but about the middle of the century they
 were generally  united4 ,in #ahah      
,boston made its first appropriation for
 8primary  schools1 to provide          
instruction for children between four   
and seven  years of age40 ,these schools

 were divided into four grades1         
beginning  with the study of the        
alphabet and closing with reading in the
 ,new  ,testament4 ,besides reading1    
writing1 and spelling1 sewing and       
knitting  were taught the girls4 ,a     
formal course and the monitorial method 
were  employed until about #ahdj1 when  
the primary schools became largely      
inoculated with the informal procedure  
of ,pestalozzi4 ,the primary  schools   
were for a long time under a separate   
committee1 but in #ahed  the management 
was fused in a general city board4      
,sidenote3 #8,primary departments' in   
,new ,york4    ,new ,york started an    
#8,infant ,school ,society' in #ahbg4   
,this organization  opened two #8infant 
schools' for poor children between three
 and six  years of age4 ,one of these   
schools was located in the basement of a
  ,presbyterian ,church and the other in
 that of a monitorial institution       
belonging to the ,public ,school        
,society 7see p4 #bfa74 ,the            

,pestalozzian  methods used in these    
infant schools greatly commended        
themselves1 and  in #ahcj the ,public   
,school ,society added them as #8primary
 departments'  in all their buildings1  
but under separate management4 ,a       
committee  was appointed in #ahcb to    
examine the ,society's schools and      
suggest  improvements4 ,upon the        
recommendation of two of this committee1
 who  had inspected education in        
,boston1 primary schools were           
established  in rented rooms in         
sufficient numbers to be within easy    
reach for the  young children4 ,the     
subject-matter and methods were likewise
 made less  formal4    ,sidenote3       
#8,infant schools' in ,philadelphia     
,sidenote3 and other centers4           
,sidenote3 ,improvements through infant 
schools4    ,in #ahbg three #8infant    
schools' were also founded in           
,philadelphia  and other centers of     
,pennsylvania through ,roberts ,vaux4   
,by #ahcj the  number of infant schools 

in the state had risen to ten1 with two 
to  three thousand pupils4 ,as the      
numbers would indicate1 the schools     
were largely organized upon the         
,lancasterian plan4 ,two years later  a 
model infant school was started in      
,philadelphia1 and in #ahcd six  others 
were organized4 ,by #ahcg there were    
thirty primary schools in  ,philadelphia
 alone4 ,several other cities started   
infant schools early4  ,hartford began  
them in #ahbg1 and ,baltimore in #ahbi4 
,these institutions  were in most cases 
fostered by the leading men of the      
community1 and  the ultimate service    
performed for ,american education by    
this form of  philanthropy was          
considerable4 ,among other improvements1
 the infant  schools developed a better 
type of schoolroom1 secured separate    
rooms  for different classes1 introduced
 better methods and equipment1          
encouraged a movement toward            
playgrounds1 and brought women into the 
city schools of the ,united ,states4    

,sidenote3 ,purpose1    ,sidenote3      
location1    ,sidenote3 course1         
,sidenote3 and methods4    ,the         
,importance of ,philanthropic           
,education4--,many other types of       
charity school arose during the         
eighteenth century both in ,great       
,britain and ,america1 but the chief    
movements have been described1 and      
sufficient has been said to indicate the
 important part in education  played by 
philanthropy4 ,the moral1 religious1 and
 economic condition of  the lower       
classes had been sadly neglected1 and by
 means of endowment1  subscription1 or  
organized societies1 a series of        
attempts was made to  relieve and       
elevate the masses through education4   
,as a result1 charity  schools of many  
varieties and more or less permanent in 
character  arose in all parts of the    
,british ,isles1 the ,united ,states1   
and even  ,france4 ,in many instances   
the pupils were furnished with lodging1 
board1 and clothes4 ,the curriculum in  

these institutions was1 of  course1     
mostly elementary4 ,it generally        
included reading1 spelling1  writing1   
and arithmetic1 while a moral and       
religious training was  given through   
the ,bible1 catechism1 prayer book1 and 
psalms1 and  sometimes through          
attendance at church under supervision  
of the master4  ,frequently industrial  
or vocational subjects were taught1 or  
the pupils  apprenticed to a trade or to
 domestic service4 ,the course was      
usually  most formal both in matter and 
method1 but occasionally in the later   
types drawing1 geography1 nature study1 
physical exercises1 and games  were     
added1 and the more informal methods of 
,pestalozzi or ,froebel were  partially 
employed4 ,sometimes the training was   
especially intended for  and adapted to 
children under the usual school age4    
,sidenote3 ,various sorts of opposition4
    ,these efforts to improve social    
conditions by means of philanthropic    
education encountered various sorts of  

opposition4 ,often the upper  classes   
held that the masses should be kept in  
their place1 and feared  that any       
education at all would make them        
discontented and cause an  uprising4    
,the poor themselves1 in turn1 were     
often suspicious of any  schooling that 
tended to elevate them1 and were        
unwilling to stamp  themselves as       
paupers4 ,moreover1 the sectarian color 
that sometimes  appeared in the         
religious training not infrequently     
repelled people of  other creeds or kept
 the schools from receiving their       
children4    ,sidenote3 ,paved the way  
for national and public education4      
,however1 this philanthropic education  
may1 in general1 be considered  a       
fortunate movement1 although its        
greatest service consisted in  paving   
the way for better things4 ,in contrast 
to the negative phase  of #8naturalism1'
 it represented a positive factor in the
 educational  activities of the century4
 ,instead of attempting to destroy      

existing  society utterly1 it sought    
rather to reform it1 and when the work  
of  destruction gave opportunity for new
 ideals1 it suggested and even          
furnished a reconstruction along higher 
lines4 ,hence philanthropy  in education
 exercised an important influence in the
 direction of  universal1 national1 and 
public training for citizenship4 ,it was
 in  many of its forms merged in such a 
system in several countries1 and in     
succeeding chapters references to the   
,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k41 ,s4 ,p4 ,g41 ,sunday1  
monitorial1 and infant schools will     
naturally appear4      ,,supplementary  
,,reading    ,graves1 ,in ,modern ,times
 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 chap4 ,,iii2 and  
,great  ,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 
chap4 ,,xii2 ,parker1 ,modern           
,elementary  ,education 7,ginn1 #aiab71 
pp4 #aja-ajg4 ,allen1 ,w4 ,o4 ,b4 and   
,mc,clure1 ,e41  have presented ,the    
,history of the ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k4         
7,christian ,knowledge  ,society1       
,london1 #aija71 and ,pascoe1 ,c4 ,f41  

,two ,hundred ,years of the  ,s4 ,p4 ,g4
 7,christian ,knowledge ,society1       
,london1 #ahih71 while ,kemp1 ,w4  ,w41 
gives a detailed history of ,the        
,support of ,schools in ,colonial  ,new 
,york by the ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 7,columbia     
,university1 ,teachers ,college         
,contributions1 no4 #ef1 #aiac71 and    
,weber1 ,s4 ,e41 of ,the ,charity       
,school ,movement in ,pennsylvania      
7,doctoral dissertation1 ,university  of
 ,pennsylvania74 ,harris1 ,j41 furnishes
 a good description of ,robert  ,raikes2
 the ,man and ,his ,work 7,dutton1 ,new 
,york1 #ahii72 ,salmon1 ,d41 of  ,joseph
 ,lancaster 7,longmans1 ,green1 #aijd72 
,meiklejohn1 ,j4 ,m4 ,d41 of  ,an ,old  
,educational ,reformer1 ,dr4 ,andrew    
,bell 7,bardeen1 ,syracuse72 and        
,salmon1 ,d41 and ,hindshaw1 ,w41 of    
,infant ,schools1 ,their ,history and   
,theory 7,longmans1 ,green1 #aijd74     
,,chapter ,,xxi    ,,the ,,period ,,of  
,,transition ,,in ,,american ,,education
      ,,outline        ,between the     

#8transplantation' period and that of   
the purely      ,american conception of 
education was a distinctive stage in    
,american education1--the #8period of   
transition4'        ,during this period 
,virginia and the other ,southern states
 began to      develop sentiment for    
universal education1 and started        
permanent      school funds and         
#8permissive' laws for common schools4  
,in the state of ,new ,york1            
appropriations were made for elementary 
education1 but the public system was not
 really extended to the      secondary  
field2 while in ,new ,york ,city the way
 for universal      education was       
prepared by quasi-public societies4 ,in 
,pennsylvania1      school districts    
were established at ,philadelphia and   
elsewhere1      but not until #ahcd was 
the state system of common schools      
started4      ,new ,jersey and ,delaware
 were even slower in getting their      
systems      started4        ,the       
generous support of colonial education  

in ,massachusetts was      followed by a
 decline1 and the control of schools was
 transferred      from the towns to the 
districts4 ,academies were subsidized by
 the      state and took the place of   
the grammar schools4 ,a similar decline 
took place in the schools of the other  
,new ,england states1 except      ,rhode
 ,island1 which for the first time began
 to develop schools at      public      
expense4        ,in the new states      
erected out of the ,northwest ,territory
 during      this period there was a    
prolonged struggle to introduce common  
schools among those who had come from   
states not yet committed to      this   
ideal1 and state systems of education   
began to appear toward      the close of
 the first quarter of the nineteenth    
century4        ,thus before the        
educational awakening spread through the
 land1 a      radical modification had  
taken place in the ,european            
institutions      with which ,america   
began its education4    ,sidenote3      

,transition to ,american conception     
began about the middle of  the          
eighteenth century4    ,evolution of    
,public ,education in the ,united       
,states4--,we may now  return to our    
discussion of education in ,america4 ,it
 has already been  seen 7chap4 ,,xvii7  
that the organization of schools in the 
various  colonies was largely the result
 of educational ideals and conditions in
  the ,mother ,country4 ,at first the   
schools of ,america closely resembled   
those of the ,european countries from   
which the colonists came1 and  the      
seventeenth century in ,american        
education is largely a period of        
#8transplantation4' ,but toward the     
middle of the eighteenth century1 as    
new social and political conditions were
 evolving and the days of the           
,revolution were approaching1 there were
 evident a gradual modification  of     
,european ideals and the differentiation
 of ,american schools toward  a type of 
their own4 ,america has long stood1 in  

theory at least1 for  equality of       
opportunity1 and this conception of     
society is apparent  in its views of    
education4 ,the distinguishing          
characteristic of the  ,american schools
 has throughout been the attempt of a   
free people to  educate themselves1 and1
 through their elected representatives1 
the  people of the various states have  
come1 in harmony with the genius of     
,american civilization1 to initiate1    
regulate1 and control their own  systems
 of education4 ,while the purely        
,american conception of education       
cannot be fully discerned until almost  
the middle of the nineteenth  century1  
there can for three-quarters of a       
century before be clearly  distinguished
 #8a period of transition' from the     
inherited ideals to  those of ,america  
to-day4 ,this intervening stage of      
evolution covers  roughly the last      
quarter century of colonial life and the
 first half  century of statehood4 ,to  
it we must now direct our attention4    

,sidenote3 ,the #8field school4'        
,sidenote3 ,jefferson's plan for        
universal education4    ,rise of the    
,common ,school in ,virginia4--,by the  
opening of the period1  as we noted 7p4 
#aic71 ,virginia had voluntarily made a 
fair provision  for secondary and higher
 education in various localities1 but as
  yet no real interest in common        
elementary schools had been shown by    
the responsible classes4 ,the nearest   
approach to such institutions  was found
 in the plantation #8field school4'     
,organized by a group of  neighbors1    
these schools were supported by tuition 
fees and were not  dependent upon any   
authority other than the good sense of  
the parents  and pupils4 ,but by the    
close of the ,revolution a desire for   
genuine  public education began to      
appear4 ,the leader in the movement was 
the great statesman1 ,thomas ,jefferson4
 ,as early as #aggi1 he first           
introduced into the legislature a scheme
 of universal education4 ,his  bill     

proposed to lay off all the counties    
into small districts five  or six miles 
square1 to be called #8hundreds4' ,each 
hundred was to  establish at its own    
expense an elementary school1 to which  
every  citizen should be entitled to    
send his children free for three years1 
and for as much longer as he would pay4 
,the leading pupil in each  school was  
to be selected annually by a school     
visitor and sent to one  of the twenty  
#8grammar' 7i4 e4 secondary7 schools1   
which were to be  erected in various    
parts of the state4 ,after a trial of   
two years had  been made of these boys1 
the leader in each grammar school was to
 be  selected and given a complete      
secondary course of six years1 and the  
rest dismissed4 ,at the end of this     
six-year course1 the lower half of  the 
geniuses thus determined were to be     
retained as teachers in the  grammar    
schools1 while the upper half were to be
 supported from the  public treasury for
 three years at the ,college of ,william

 and ,mary1  which was to be greatly    
expanded in control and scope4          
,sidenote3 ,permissive law and          
#8literary fund4'    ,sidenote3         
,university of ,virginia4    ,this      
comprehensive plan for a system of      
common schools was1 in the face  of most
 discouraging opposition1 constantly    
adhered to by ,jefferson1  although he  
did not live to see universal education 
an accomplished  fact4 ,he did1 however1
 stimulate some movements toward this   
end4 ,in  #agif the legislature passed  
an ineffective law whereby the justices 
of  each county were permitted to       
initiate a school system by taxation1   
and in #ahaj a #8literary fund' was     
established for public education4       
,when1 in #ahaf1 this fund had been     
increased to a million dollars1 those   
in charge of it recommended to the      
legislature the establishment of  8a    
system of public education1 including a 
university1 to be called  the           
,university of ,virginia1 and such      

additional colleges1 academies1  and    
schools as should diffuse the benefits  
of education through  the               
,commonwealth40 ,this revision of       
,jefferson's suggestion did not         
immediately result in any legal steps   
toward universal education1  except the 
appropriation in #ahah of #de1jjj from  
the income of the  literary fund to have
 the poor children of each county sent  
to a  proper school1 but it did bring   
about in #ahbj the foundation of the    
,university of ,virginia and a generous 
grant for the erection of a set  of     
buildings4 ,in the same year the        
effectiveness of the #8permissive'  law 
for common schools of #agif and of the  
appropriation act of #ahah  was somewhat
 strengthened by the division of the    
counties into  districts1 among which   
the appropriation for education of the  
poor was  distributed and managed by    
special commissioners4    ,sidenote3    
,hindrances to universal education1     
,sidenote3 but gradual improvement4     

,while this law marked one more step in 
advance1 it was hampered by  several of 
the features that in various states     
continually delayed  the establishment  
of common schools at public expense4 ,in
 the first  place1 it was based on the  
conception of public education as poor  
relief1 rather than universal training  
for citizenship4 ,it was often  viewed  
with hostility or indifference by the   
wealthy1 who felt that  they were paying
 for that from which they received no   
benefit1 and with  pride and scorn by   
the poor1 who refused to be considered  
objects of  charity4 ,moreover1 the sum 
distributed 7#de1jjj7 was totally       
inadequate  for over one hundred        
thousand children1 and every variety of 
school1  private as well as public1 was 
subsidized without distinction4 ,the    
system lacked a strong central          
organization1 and the commissioners1    
often appointed by the county judges    
from the classes most opposed to  the   
arrangement1 were notoriously           

inefficient4 ,the teachers also were    
generally incompetent1 as it was        
practically impossible to persuade      
college or academy graduates to         
undertake the instruction of the poor4  
,nevertheless1 under this apology for a 
people's common school1 the  state went 
on for a score of years1 and there was a
 steady growth in  the literary fund1   
the appropriations1 the length of the   
school term1  and the number of pupils  
who were willing to take advantage of   
such  opportunities as it afforded4     
,state officials of wide vision1        
moreover1  sought in every way to       
improve the teaching corps and the      
defective  administration4 ,while the   
great majority of the school children   
still  attended the denominational1     
private1 and #8field' schools 7see p4   
#bec71  this system of subsidies was    
educating public opinion for something  
better4 ,by the close of the first half 
century of statehood1 while  ,virginia  
was not yet ready to establish a        

complete system of public  education1 we
 shall later 7see pp4 #cbg;f47 find that
 the ground had  been prepared for the  
development of common schools that was  
spreading  throughout the country4      
,sidenote3 ,maryland1    ,sidenote3     
,south ,carolina1    ,sidenote3         
,georgia1    ,sidenote3 ,north          
,carolina1    ,similar ,developments in 
the ,other ,southern ,states4--,this    
advance  toward the common school in    
,virginia is typical of the ,south4 ,the
  development in ,maryland was very     
similar to that of ,virginia4 ,the      
state began to move slowly toward       
universal education by subsidizing  the 
education of the poor 7#ahaf71 and by   
the passage of a #8permissive'  law for 
common schools in the counties 7#ahbe74 
,in ,south ,carolina an  annual         
appropriation for #8free schools' was   
started in #ahaa4 ,a law  was passed    
establishing a number of schools in each
 election district  equal to that of its
 members in the legislature and         

providing #cjj  for each school4 ,but   
these schools were largely regarded as  
pauper  institutions1 and1 because      
legislative representation was based    
upon  property1 the distribution of the 
appropriation was very inequitable1  for
 the inland parts of the state1 which   
most needed assistance1  received least4
 ,yet the amount of appropriation       
gradually increased1  and sentiment for 
universal education steadily developed4 
,within the  first half dozen years of  
statehood1 ,georgia began the provision 
of  land endowment for schools1 and the 
organization of a state system  under   
the title of the #8,university of       
,georgia4' ,while the value of the  land
 was too small to establish a genuine   
system of public education  so soon1    
before the close of the transition      
period1 a permanent school  fund had    
been started1 and sentiment for public  
education had begun to  grow4 ,north    
,carolina made even earlier progress    
toward common schools4  ,the            

constitution of #aggf provided for the  
establishment of schools1  and1 by      
#ahag1 at the request of the            
legislature1 ,judge ,archibald ,d4      
,murphy1 a statesman with broad         
educational traditions1 even formulated 
an elaborate plan for a complete system 
of public schools4 ,this scheme  failed1
 because it proposed to #8maintain1' as 
well as educate1 the  children of the   
poor4 ,but the suggestions of the       
,murphy committee  shortly brought about
 the establishment of a #8literary1' or 
common  school fund 7#ahbe71 the income 
of which was to be used for the support 
of public schools4    ,sidenote3 and    
afterward other commonwealths1 had the  
beginnings of a  state system2          
,sidenote3 and the larger cities had    
organized their schools4    ,in the case
 of the other ,southern commonwealths1  
which were admitted  after the union had
 been formed1 there was similarly a very
 gradual  growth of sentiment for       
universal education4 ,in every state    

there  appeared an alliance between     
far-sighted statesmen and educators and 
the great middle class of citizens for  
the purpose of establishing  common     
schools for all white children1 and the 
old ecclesiastical and  exclusive idea  
of education was beginning to fade4 ,by 
the close of  the first half century of 
national existence1 a public system had 
not  actually materialized in any of the
 states1 but most of them had begun  to 
create #8literary funds1' subsidize     
schooling for the poor1 and enact       
#8permissive' laws for establishing     
public schools4 ,except in ,virginia    
and ,south ,carolina1 provisions had    
been made for general administration  in
 state1 county1 and district2 and in    
,north ,carolina the organization  of a 
complete common school system awaited   
only a first hint of the  great         
educational awakening 7#ahce-ahfj74     
,moreover1 most of the larger           
cities--,baltimore1 ,charleston1        
,louisville1 ,nashville1 ,memphis1      

,mobile1  ,new ,orleans--had already    
organized a regular system of public    
schools1  and all of the older          
commonwealths had made some attempt at  
supporting  a state institution of      
higher learning1 which was virtually the
 head  of a public school system4 ,the  
various denominations had begun to      
found colleges in some numbers1 but even
 these institutions were not  so        
strictly ecclesiastical as ,william and 
,mary started out to be1 and  assumed a 
wider function than merely training for 
the ministry1 while  the aristocratic   
and classical #8grammar' schools had    
largely given way  to the #8academies'  
7,fig4 #cb71 which were nonsectarian1   
democratic1 and  more comprehensive in  
their curriculum4    ,sidenote3 ,system 
under ,board of ,regents1 but did not   
include  elementary schools4            
,sidenote3 ,endowment of common schools4
    ,evolution of ,public ,education in 
,new ,york4--,after the ,english took   
possession of ,new ,york1 we have seen  

7p4 #aie7 how that territory lapsed     
into the laissez faire support of       
education4 ,the upper classes of        
society largely sought their education  
abroad or through tutors and  the       
clergy1 although in #aged ,king's       
,college 7now ,columbia ,university7    
was founded1 and during the century a   
number of secondary schools were        
organized and granted gratuities by the 
legislature4 ,the few elementary        
schools that existed were either private
 or maintained by some church  or       
philanthropic society4 ,as already shown
 7pp4 #bcd ff471 this was  the period   
distinguished for the schools founded by
 the ,society  for the ,propagation of  
the ,gospel4 ,at the close of the       
,revolution1  however1 the various      
elements of the population had been     
welded  together in the common struggle1
 and a sentiment for public education   
began to prevail over vested interests  
and sectarian jealousies4 ,a  series of 
broad-minded governors--the ,clintons1  

,lewis1 ,tompkins1 and                  
,marcy--constantly reminded the         
legislature of its duty to establish    
common schools4 ,in #aghg a system of   
public education was theoretically      
organized under the management of a     
,board of ,regents1 with the title  of  
#8,the ,university of the ,state of ,new
 ,york1' but it did not include         
elementary schools4 ,two years later    
lands in each township were set  apart  
for the endowment of common schools1 and
 in #agie it was enacted  that the sum  
of #ej1jjj for five years should be     
distributed for the  encouragement of   
elementary education in counties where  
the towns  would raise by taxation half 
as much as the amount of their share4   
,this arrangement was not carried on    
beyond the five years1 but in  #ahje the
 proceeds from #ejj1jjj acres of land   
were appropriated for a  common school  
fund1 which was not to be used until the
 interest reached  #ej1jjj per annum4   
,sidenote3 ,state superintendency and   

further progress4    ,sidenote3         
,combination with secretaryship of      
state4    ,sidenote3 ,public secondary  
and normal schools delayed by academy   
appropriations4    ,in #ahab further    
organization was enacted whereby a state
 superintendent  of common schools was  
to be appointed1 and the county unit    
replaced by  a more democratic town and 
district basis4 ,but it had been        
supposed  that the state fund would     
provide for the entire support of the   
schools1 and there still remained an    
obstinate opposition to local  taxes4   
,the towns1 however1 were gradually     
persuaded to raise the amount  required 
to secure their share of the state      
donation4 ,much progress  was brought   
about through the first superintendent1 
,gideon ,hawley1  and while1 after eight
 years of service1 he was removed by    
political  manipulation and the office  
combined with the secretaryship of      
state1  each of his successors undertook
 to distinguish the educational side  of

 his administration by some marked      
advance or improvement in the  common   
schools4 ,but for a generation the      
academies and colleges  remained under  
supervision of the regents1 and1 except 
for state  appropriations to academies1 
no one undertook to extend the public   
system into secondary and higher        
education4 ,moreover1 the professional  
training of teachers in the academies   
was encouraged by the state1 and        
thereby the organization of normal      
schools was delayed4 ,hence1 while  ,new
 ,york started the first system of      
public education adjusted to the        
political and social conditions of the  
new nation1 and probably had  the most  
effective schools of the times1 not     
until the great period of  common school
 development 7#ahce-ahfj7 were its      
people fully willing  to contribute for 
a general school system1 make it        
entirely free1 or  develop it           
consistently in all directions4         
,sidenote3 #8,free ,school ,society4'   

,sidenote3 ,change of name4             
,sidenote3 ,bethel ,baptist ,church     
controversy4    ,sidenote3 ,city board  
of education4    ,new ,york             
,city4--,meanwhile1 an interesting      
development of educational  facilities  
was taking place in ,new ,york ,city4   
,in #ahje the opportunities  offered in 
the private1 church1 and charity schools
 were seen by  certain of the most      
prominent citizens to be totally        
inadequate for a  city of seventy-five  
thousand inhabitants1 and a #8,free     
,school ,society'  was founded to       
provide for the boys who were not       
eligible for these  schools4 ,the       
president was ,de ,witt ,clinton1       
afterward governor1 and  in #ahjf the   
first school was opened1 from motives of
 economy1 upon  the monitorial basis    
7see p4 #bda74 ,the state fund did not  
reach a  sufficient amount to be        
available until #ahae1 but special gifts
 were  made to the school society from  
time to time by the legislature1 the    

city1 and private individuals1 and there
 was a rapid increase in the  number of 
the society's schools during the first  
quarter of a century4  ,in #ahbf the    
legislature authorized the organization 
to charge a small  tuition fee and      
change its name to the #8,public ,school
 ,society4' ,while  the fee system was  
soon found to injure the efficiency of  
the work and  was abolished within six  
years1 the new title persisted1 as it   
did not  suggest pauperism in the way   
the old name had4 ,in #ahbh the society 
was  allowed the benefit of a small     
local tax4 ,for quite a time the work of
  the association was unhindered1 but in
 #ahbj-ahbe a vigorous effort was  made 
to obtain a share of the state          
appropriation for the sectarian  schools
 of the ,bethel ,baptist ,church4 ,this 
move was finally defeated1  but the     
,roman ,catholics made a more successful
 protest fifteen years  later by        
indicating that the society1 while      
nominally nonsectarian1  was really     

,protestant4 ,to settle this dispute1   
the legislature in  #ahdb established a 
city board of education1 and after      
eleven years  the institutions of the   
,public ,school ,society were merged in 
this  city system4 ,thus was the way    
prepared for a public school system in  
,new ,york ,city1 and this development  
was typical of the training of          
educational sentiment through           
quasi-public societies that took place  
in  ,buffalo1 ,utica1 ,oswego1 and      
several other cities4    ,sidenote3     
,constitutional provision in            
,pennsylvania produced only #8poor      
schools4'    ,sidenote3 ,public system  
in ,philadelphia and elsewhere4         
,development of ,systems of ,education  
in ,pennsylvania and the ,other  ,middle
 ,states4--,the rise of public systems  
in the other ,middle states  was also   
gradual4 ,in ,pennsylvania1 the state   
system slowly arose  through a prolonged
 stage of #8poor schools4' ,the new     
constitution  7#agij7 of the state      

declared3 8,the legislature shall1 as   
soon  as conveniently may be1 provide by
 law for the establishment of  schools  
throughout the ,state1 in such manner   
that the poor may be  taught gratis40   
,men of broad vision1 like ,franklin1   
,benjamin ,rush1  and ,timothy          
,pickering1 had striven hard to have    
popular education  introduced1 but the  
general sentiment of the times could not
 reach  beyond providing free education 
for the poor4 ,moreover1 although this  
moderate constitutional provision was a 
compromise1 it was not until  some years
 later 7#ahjb1 #ahjd1 and #ahji7 that   
the legislature passed  acts to make it 
effective4 ,even then public            
institutions to fulfill  the legislation
 were not established1 but it was       
arranged that the  tuition of poor      
children should be paid for at public   
expense in  private1 church1 and        
neighborhood schools1 and the proceeds  
of the  sixty thousand acres of land    
appropriated for #8aiding public        

schools'  went to subsidize private     
institutions4 ,but the idea of common   
schools  continued to develop1 and      
governors and other prominent men       
constantly  called attention to the need
 of universal education4 ,philadelphia  
was the first municipality to be        
converted1 and in #ahah1 under a        
special act of the legislature1 it      
became #8the first school district  of  
,pennsylvania1' with the power to       
provide a system of education on  the   
,lancasterian plan at public expense4   
,after three or four years  this special
 legislation was extended to five more  
#8districts'1 and in  #ahbd a general   
law permitting the establishment of free
 schools in any  community was enacted1 
though soon repealed4    ,sidenote3     
,establishment of a state school fund   
and a state school  system4             
,sidenote3 ,effort to repeal            
unsuccessful4    ,finally1 in #ahbh1    
#8the ,pennsylvania ,society for the    
,promotion of  ,common ,schools1' after 

demonstrating the ineffectiveness of the
  #8pauper school' law in a series of   
memorials1 succeeded in having a  state 
school fund established1 and in #ahcd1  
8an act to establish a  general system  
of education by common schools0 was     
passed4 ,this law  established a state  
system of schools under the general     
superintendency  of the secretary of    
state4 ,for this system it appropriated 
#ge1jjj  per annum from the income of   
the state school fund1 and permitted the
  wards1 townships1 and boroughs1 which 
it constituted school districts1  to    
share in this1 provided they levied     
local taxes for schools4 ,the  ,northern
 counties1 settled mostly by ,new       
,england colonists1 and the  ,western   
portion of the state1 with its large    
element of ,scotch-,irish               
,presbyterians1 ardently favored this   
encouragement of universal  education1  
but the law was only #8permissive' and  
was bitterly opposed  by the ,quaker and
 ,german inhabitants of #8old'          

,pennsylvania1 who feared  that their   
own parochial schools would be replaced4
 ,the wealthy classes  were also hostile
 to the new law1 on the ground that they
 ought not to  be taxed to educate other
 people's children4 ,in a vigorous      
campaign  to repeal the act1 however1   
the opponents of the law1 largely       
through  the eloquent speech of         
,thaddeus ,stevens1 were defeated the   
following  year 7#ahce71 and the desire 
to establish public schools was greatly 
increased in #ahcf by the passage of a  
new law1 which enlarged the  annual     
appropriation to #bjj1jjj1 in which the 
school districts might  participate only
 on condition of local taxation4 ,even  
then not more  than one-half the        
districts took advantage of the         
opportunity1 and it  was several years  
before most of them claimed their share4
 ,hence1 while  the battle was won by   
#ahce1 the consummation of public       
education in  ,pennsylvania did not take
 place until the great awakening of     

common  schools had swept over the      
country4    ,sidenote3 ,similar         
hindrances in ,new ,jersey and          
,delaware4    ,after the formation of   
the ,union1 ,new ,jersey and ,delaware  
met with  the same kinds of hindrance to
 the development of common schools  as  
did ,pennsylvania1 and they were even   
slower in getting a system  established4
 ,in both commonwealths a state school  
fund was started  early in the          
nineteenth century1 but it was not      
distributed for about  a dozen years1   
and then it was used mostly for the     
education of  paupers in subsidized     
private schools4 ,some #8permissive'    
legislation  for the organization of    
school districts and commissioners and  
the  establishment of public schools was
 also passed1 but it accomplished       
little before the middle of the century4
    ,sidenote3 ,disintegration of the   
domination of ,calvinism4    ,decline of
 ,education in ,massachusetts4--,in     
,massachusetts1 on the  other hand1     

efforts for the provision of universal  
training degenerated  during the        
eighteenth century4 ,the generous       
support of public education  that had   
been started in #afdg was followed by a 
period of decline for  about a century  
and a half4 ,the causes of this         
decadence of local  interest in         
education were rather complicated4 ,in  
the first place1  the complete          
domination of ,calvinism gradually      
disintegrated and was  replaced by a    
toleration of several creeds4 ,the      
non-,puritans1 who were  constantly     
increasing in numbers1 were obliged by  
the law of #afch  to preserve an outward
 conformity to the ,calvinistic rgime   
under  penalty of banishment1 but by    
#affb a compromise was granted1 whereby 
persons not conforming in every respect 
might be admitted to all church         
privileges1 except communion1 and the   
persecution of ,quakers1 ,baptists1  and
 other sects was largely abandoned4 ,in 
#afgj came the successful  secession of 

the ,old ,south ,church from the        
original church of ,boston1  as the     
result of a quarrel concerning this very
 compromise1 and within  a decade the   
,baptists were permitted to build a     
meeting-house in  ,boston4 ,by #afib    
recognition had been largely granted to 
all ,protestant  beliefs1 and to be a   
#8freeman1' or voter on all colonial    
questions1  it was no longer necessary  
to be a member of a ,puritan church4    
,while  every town was still required to
 support by tax an orthodox pastor1 by  
#agbh the ,episcopalians1 ,quakers1 and 
,baptists were permitted to pay  their  
assessments to their own ministers1 and 
the alliance of the ,state  with a      
despotic ,church1 which had made        
possible the system of public           
education1 was largely broken4          
,sidenote3 ,lowering of intellectual    
standards4    ,sidenote3 ,dispersion of 
population4    ,sidenote3 ,consequent   
attempts to evade the school law4       
,moreover1 there was a decided lowering 

of intellectual standards upon  the part
 of the colonists4 ,the hard struggle to
 wring a living from an  unpropitious   
soil1 and the disturbances due to wars1 
,indian skirmishes1  and the            
difficulties of pioneer life greatly    
lessened their feeling  of need for a   
literary training4 ,another reason for  
the educational  decline was the        
dispersion of the population in the     
towns4 ,at first1  because of possible  
attacks by the ,indians1 a law forbade  
any dwelling  to be built more than half
 a mile from the church and school1 and 
not  infrequently the school was        
equipped with a watch-tower 7,fig4 #bb74
  ,but1 as the best land near the center
 was more and more taken up1 the  towns 
spread out in various directions1 and   
the intervening hills1  streams1 swamps1
 and poor roads1 together with the fear 
of ,indians and  wild animals1 greatly  
hindered those on the outskirts in      
reaching the  church and school of the  
town4 ,as a result of all these         

conditions1 the  towns1 most of which   
had been eager to establish schools even
 before  being compelled to do so1 began
 to seek various methods of evading  the
 school law without incurring the fine4 
,the minister was at times  made the    
nominal schoolmaster1 or a teacher was  
even employed during  the session of the
 #8,general ,court' 7i4 e41 legislature7
 and discharged  upon adjournment4 ,laws
 were enacted against these subterfuges1
 greater  vigilance was exercised1 and  
the fine was increased first to #aj     
7#afga7  and then to #bj 7#afhc71 with a
 progressive increase where the number  
of  families ran over one hundred       
7#agab74 ,thus the fine came to be      
almost  sufficient to support a         
schoolmaster1 and it was made more and  
more  unprofitable for a town to disobey
 the law4    ,sidenote3 ,influence of   
#8dame' and private elementary schools  
and of  parishes4    ,sidenote3 ,the    
#8moving1'    ,sidenote3 #8divided1'    
,sidenote3 and #8district' schools4     

,under these circumstances it became    
advantageous to many citizens1          
especially those at the center of a     
town1 to have the entire support  of the
 school come through general taxation   
rather than partially by  means of      
tuition fees4 ,but the people in the    
more distant portions of  the town      
refused to vote a rate from which they  
themselves obtained  no profit4 ,they   
demanded that1 in return for their      
taxes1 the public  school should be     
brought nearer to them4 ,probably they  
were influenced  in this stand by the   
fact that private #8dame' schools1 and  
possibly  elementary schools1 had for   
some time been opened in various parts  
of  the town conveniently near their    
homes4 ,another factor that may have    
aided in suggesting this solution was   
the legal recognition of various  remote
 settlements within the town1 known as  
#8parishes' or #8districts1'  through   
the grant of self-government1 separate  
church organizations1  and other        

privileges similar to those of the town 
as a whole1 though  on a smaller scale4 
,at any rate1 we find that in the early 
part of  the eighteenth century1        
wherever a rate was adopted as the sole 
means  of school support1 it was agreed 
that1 instead of holding the town       
school for twelve months in the center  
alone1 opportunities should  be offered 
for a fraction of that period in various
 portions of the  town4 ,usually the    
compromise at first took the form of    
having one town  master teach in        
different districts through the year1   
and the result  was known as a #8moving'
 school4 ,this necessitated holding the 
school  in a number of isolated         
communities1 and the temple of learning 
often  came at first to be located in a 
private house1 usually in the kitchen4  
,and although1 in time1 another room was
 added to the farm house for  the       
accommodation of the school1 the        
institution has since then been  known  
as a #8kitchen school' 7,fig4 #cj74     

,but1 by a later development1  when     
separate schools under different masters
 or mistresses came to  be taught at the
 same time1 the town school was said to 
be #8divided4'  ,then in the winter1    
when the big boys were out of the fields
 and came  to school1 the session was   
held in the center of the town1 and     
usually  required the brawn of a man4   
,but in summer1 when only the younger   
children could attend1 schools were held
 in various parts of the town  and were 
taught chiefly by women 7,fig4 #ca74    
,the divisions of the town  that thus   
came to be recognized were allowed more 
and more control of  their schools until
 they practically became autonomous4    
,before the  time of the ,revolution    
#8divided schools' were recognized as a 
regular  institution1 and1 together with
 other customs that had grown up during 
the eighteenth century1 they were given 
legal sanction and denominated          
#8district schools' in the law of #aghi4
 ,by #ahjj the districts were  not only 

allowed to manage their own share of the
 town taxes1 but  were authorized to    
make the levy themselves2 in #ahag they 
were made  corporations and empowered to
 hold property for educational purposes2
  and in #ahbg they were granted the    
right to choose a committeeman1 who     
should appoint the teacher and have     
control of the school property4         
,sidenote3 ,degeneracy of the district  
system4    ,sidenote3 ,endowment of     
academies with public lands4            
,sidenote3 ,high schools not yet        
influential4    ,thus the year #ahbg    
8marks the culmination of a process     
which had been  going on for more than a
 century1--the high-water mark of modern
  democracy1 and the low-water mark of  
the ,massachusetts school system40  ,the
 district system did in its earlier     
stages bind the families of a           
neighborhood into a corporation whose   
intent was the most vital of  human     
needs1--education1 and the people came  
to feel the necessity of  supporting it 

by their own generous contributions4    
,but in the course  of time the         
districts became involved in private and
 petty political  interests1 and had but
 little consideration for the public    
good4 ,the  choice of the committeeman1 
the site1 and the teacher caused much   
unseemly wrangling1 and as each received
 only what it paid in1 the poor         
district obtained only a weak school and
 that for but a short term4 ,the        
increasing expense of the district      
system had also made it impossible  for 
any except the larger towns to support  
the old-time #8grammar'  school1 and    
this part of the old school requirements
 had fallen into  disuse before the     
close of the eighteenth century4 ,to    
meet the needs  of secondary education1 
the policy of endowing #8academies'     
7,fig4 #cb7  with wild lands in ,maine  
had gradually grown up1 and this custom 
was  legalized in #agig4 ,seven         
academies1--four in ,massachusetts      
proper and  three in the province of    

,maine1 had originally been endowed with
 a  township apiece1 and some fourteen  
more had been chartered by towns at  an 
early date1 and empowered by the state  
to hold educational funds4  ,by the time
 of the educational awakening there were
 some fifty of  these private secondary 
institutions subsidized by the state1   
although  managed by a close            
corporation4 ,the first public high     
school  7,fig4 #da7 had been established
 in ,boston 7#ahba71 but this type of   
secondary school had not begun to have  
any influence as yet4 ,into such  a     
decadence had the liberally supported   
system of public education  fallen1     
before the rapid development in common  
schools began and the  influence of     
,horace ,mann and other reformers was   
felt4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,a 
#8kitchen school4'    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #ca4--;,a colonial #8summer       
school4'    ,illustration3    ,fig4     
#cb4--,the first #8academy1' founded by 
,benjamin ,franklin at  ,philadelphia in

 #agej1 and later developed into the    
,university of  ,pennsylvania4          
,sidenote3 ,connecticut1    ,sidenote3  
,vermont1    ,sidenote3 ,new ,hampshire1
 and ,rhode ,island4    ,developments in
 the ,other ,new ,england ,states4--,the
 development  of common schools in      
,massachusetts may be considered typical
 of  ,new ,england in general1 except   
,rhode ,island4 ,connecticut similarly  
degenerated into a district system1     
which was recognized by law in  #agid1  
and was destined later to constitute one
 of the greatest problems  during the   
period of educational development 7see  
pp4 #cac and #cbj74  ,vermont likewise  
made provision for town and district    
schools1 and  eventually established a  
state school fund and school            
commissioners1  but this legislation was
 soon repealed1 and the schools of the  
state  were in a parlous condition when 
the awakening found them4 ,new          
,hampshire and ,maine also present very 
similar features4 ,in ,rhode ,island    

the voluntary organization of education 
continued throughout the  eighteenth    
century4 ,in #ahjj a law permitting each
 town to maintain #8one  or more free   
schools' was passed1 but no municipality
 availed itself  of this permission1    
except ,providence1 and the act was     
repealed in  #ahjc4 ,the basal state law
 for common schools was not passed until
 #ahbh1  when at length #aj1jjj was     
appropriated1 and each town was required
 to  supplement its share by such an    
amount as should annually be fixed in   
town meeting4    ,sidenote3 ,conditions 
at close of transition period in the    
,southern    ,sidenote3 and ,middle     
states1    ,sidenote3 as opposed to     
those in ,new ,england4    ,the         
,extension of ,educational ,organization
 to the ,northwest4--,it  is thus       
evident that by the close of the first  
half century of the  republic1 there was
 everywhere slowly growing up a         
sentiment for  public education4 ,the   
development of common schools had1      

however1 been  greatly hindered in the  
,southern states by the separation of   
classes  in an aristocratic organization
 of society4 ,yet the superior class    
had shown no lack of educational        
interest in their own behalf and had    
through the facilities offered reared a 
group of intellectual leaders1  some of 
whom1 like the far-sighted ,jefferson1  
had caught the vision of  universal     
education4 ,the great diversity of      
nationality and creed in  the ,middle   
states1 on the other hand1 had fostered 
sectarian jealousies  and the           
traditional practice of the maintenance 
of its own school by  each congregation4
 ,this had proved almost as disastrous  
to the rise  of a system of public      
schools1 although ,pennsylvania1 and    
even more  ,new ,york1 had well begun   
the establishment of a public system4   
,in both  sections of the country public
 education was at first viewed as a     
species of poor relief1 and the wealthy 
were unable to see any justice  in being

 required to educate the children of    
others4 ,as a result1 the  young        
#8paupers' at times had their tuition   
paid in private schools1 and  these     
institutions were not infrequently      
allowed to share in public  funds4 ,the 
,new ,england states1 however1 as a     
result of the homogeneity  of their     
citizens1 had early adhered to a system 
of public schools  for all1 organized1  
supported1 and supervised by the people4
 ,while  the efficiency of their common 
schools was eventually crippled by the  
grant of autonomy to local districts and
 the arising of petty private  and      
political interests1 they had initiated 
this unique ,american  product1--a      
public system for all1 dependent upon   
local support and  responsive to local  
wishes4    ,sidenote3 ,effect of these  
conditions upon the ,northwest          
,territory4    ,sidenote3 ,the          
,ordinance of #aghg1 and its provisions 
for education4    ,this growth of a     
#8common schools consciousness' was     

destined1 as the  result of a great     
educational awakening1 to increase      
rapidly during the  second quarter of   
the nineteenth century in the ,middle   
and ,southern1 as  well as the ,new     
,england1 states4 ,but before describing
 this development  further1 it is       
important to see the effect of the      
ideals of these  three sections of the  
country when introduced into a new part 
of the  ,united ,states by emigrants    
from the older commonwealths4 ,the new  
domain  referred to was those large     
tracts of unsettled territory1          
belonging1  according to claims more or 
less overlapping1 to six or seven of the
  original states1 and finally 7#agha71 
in settlement of these disputes1  ceded 
to the federal government1 with the     
understanding that the  territory should
 be #8formed into distinct republican   
,states4' ,after  much discussion and   
various acts of ,congress for half a    
dozen years1  the famous #8,ordinance of
 #aghg' was passed for the government of

 this  #8,northwest ,territory4' ,an    
earlier act 7#aghe7 had divided the     
entire  territory into townships1 six   
miles square1 after the ,new ,england   
system1 and of the thirty-six sections  
into which each township was            
subdivided1 section sixteen was reserved
 for the support of public  schools4 ,a 
special contract also started the       
practice of providing two  townships for
 the establishment of a university in   
each state4 ,these  provisions were     
later extended to the vast territory    
purchased from  ,france in #ahjc and    
known as #8,louisiana1' and to all the  
other territory  afterward annexed to   
the ,united ,states4    ,sidenote3      
,hindrances to educational development4 
,this federal land endowment gave an    
additional stimulus to the              
establishment of public education in the
 four commonwealths--,ohio1  ,indiana1  
,illinois1 and ,michigan--that were     
admitted from the ,northwest  ,territory
 before #ahdj4 ,but the final system of 

public education in  these new states   
took form slowly for various reasons4   
,the settlers  were poor2 incessant     
,indian wars1 the wilderness1 wretched  
roads1 and  lack of transportation      
facilities tended to repel immigrants   
and leave  the country sparsely settled2
 the large tracts of school land were   
slow  in acquiring value1 and1 to       
attract settlers1 were often leased at  
nominal rates or sacrificed at a small  
price2 and social distinctions  and     
sectarian jealousies persisted among the
 immigrants4 ,as a whole1  immigration  
from the earlier commonwealths had      
followed parallels  of latitude1 and the
 northern parts of ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and 
,illinois  were occupied mostly by      
people from ,new ,england and ,new      
,york1 and  the southern by former      
inhabitants of ,virginia1 ,kentucky1    
,tennessee1  ,louisiana1 and other      
states where the public school system   
was not  yet as well developed4 ,in     
,michigan1 however1 because of its      

northerly  location1 the great influx   
throughout the state had come from ,new 
,york1  ,new ,england1 and ,northern    
,ohio4    ,sidenote3 ,struggle to secure
 public school system1--    ,sidenote3  
,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois2         
,sidenote3 ,michigan4    ,consequently1 
the history of public education in the  
first three of the  new states seems to 
be in each case largely a record of a   
prolonged  struggle to introduce common 
schools among those of the people who   
had come from states not yet committed  
to this ideal1 but ,michigan1  whose    
inhabitants had migrated from states    
where public education was  in vogue1   
showed the germs of a public system even
 before statehood  was conferred4 ,the  
history of the common schools in ,ohio1 
,indiana1  and ,illinois is very similar
 in general outline4 ,each one started  
off  by claiming two townships of land  
for a university and the sixteenth      
section for schools1 and the state      
constitution committed it to equal      

school opportunities for all4 ,but not  
until the close of the first  quarter of
 the nineteenth century was a system of 
common schools1 with  the organization  
of districts1 appointment of school     
officers1 and  local taxation provided  
by the legislature4 ,even then the acts 
were  largely #8permissive1' the tax was
 not exacted from anyone who objected1  
and for some time various laws allowed  
public funds to be paid to  existing    
private schools for the tuition of the  
poor4 ,the complete  system with a state
 superintendent was first organized in  
,ohio by  #ahcf1 but a similar stage of 
development was not reached by the other
  two states until after the great wave 
of common school development            
7#ahce-ahfj7 had passed over the        
country4 ,michigan1 on the other hand1  
as early as #ahag established a         
#8catholepistemiad1' which was to       
include  a university and a system of   
schools of all grades1 and a dozen years
  later in its revision of the school   

laws provided for a department  of      
,education at the university and a      
territorial superintendency of  schools4
 ,while under this law of #ahbi tuition 
fees were to be required1  except from  
the poor1 by the first state            
constitution in #ahcg the  school lands 
were taken over from the wasteful       
management of the towns1  and a public  
school was required to be open for three
 months in every  district4 ,the state  
superintendency was also established1   
and before  #ahdj ,michigan was well    
started with a complete system of common
 schools4    ,sidenote3 ,progress in all
 sections of the country4    ,condition 
of the ,common ,schools ,prior to the   
,awakening4--,thus1 while  some of the  
,new ,england states1 ,new ,york1 and   
,ohio possessed the only  definitely    
organized systems of public education1  
the movement for  common schools had    
made some progress in all sections of   
the country  even before the educational
 awakening spread through the land4 ,a  

radical modification had taken place in 
the ,european institutions  with which  
education in the ,united ,states began4 
,to meet the demands  of the new        
environment1 education had become more  
democratic and  less religious and      
sectarian4 ,wealth had become much      
greater and  material interests had met 
with a marked growth4 ,the old          
aristocratic  institutions had begun to 
disappear4 ,town and district schools   
had  been taking the place of the old   
church1 private1 and #8field' schools1  
and in some of the cities the foundation
 for public education was  being laid by
 quasi-public societies or even through 
local taxation4  ,the academies 7,fig4  
#cb7 had replaced the #8grammar'        
schools1 and the  colleges had lost     
their distinctly ecclesiastical         
character4 ,state  universities were    
starting in the ,south and ,northwest4  
,all these  evidences of the growth of  
democracy1 nonsectarianism1 and popular 
training in education were destined to  

be greatly multiplied and spread  before
 long4 ,such an awakening will be found 
to be characteristic of  the great      
development of common schools that took 
place in the decades  around the middle 
of the nineteenth century4 ,but1 before 
pursuing the  subject further1 we must  
direct our attention to some new reforms
  in method and content that were being 
introduced by ,pestalozzi into          
education in ,europe and were destined  
to produce a great stimulus in  the     
public systems of the ,united ,states4  
,,supplementary ,,reading    ,graves1   
,in ,modern ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 
chap4 ,,iv2 ,parker1 ,modern            
,elementary ,education 7,ginn1 #aiab71  
chap4 ,,xii4 ,a general1 but not  always
 accurate account of the period has been
 contributed by ,mayo1 ,a4  ,d41 to the 
,report of the ,u4 ,s4 ,commissioner of 
,education1 #ahic-id1 ,,xvi2  #ahid-ie1 
,,xxviii2 #ahie-if1 ,,vi and ,,vii2     
#ahig-ih1 ,,xi2 and #ahih-ii1 ,,viii4   
,for the special states1 see ,adams1 ,h4

 ,b41 ,thomas ,jefferson and the        
,university of ,virginia 7,united       
,states ,bureau of ,education1 ,circular
  of ,information1 #ahhh1 no4 #a72      
,boone1 ,r4 ,g41 ,history of ,education 
in ,indiana 7,appleton1 #ahib71 chaps4  
,i-,,iii1 and ,v-,,vii2 ,johnston1 ,r4  
,m41 ,early ,educational ,life in       
,middle ,georgia 7,report of the ,u4 ,s4
  ,commissioner of ,education1 #ahid-ie1
 ,,xvi1 and #ahie-if1 ,,vii72 ,martin1  
,g4  ,h41 ,evolution of the             
,massachusetts ,public ,school ,system  
7,appleton1  #ahid71 lect4 ,,iii2       
,palmer1 ,a4 ,e41 ,the ,new ,york       
,public ,school  7,macmillan1 #aije72   
,randall1 ,s4 ,s41 ,history of the      
,common ,school ,system  of the ,state  
of ,new ,york 7,ivison1 ,blakeman1      
,taylor1 ,new ,york1 #ahga7  ,second    
,period2 ,smith1 ,c4 ,l41 ,history of   
,education in ,north ,carolina  7,u4 ,s4
 ,bureau of ,education1 ,circular of    
,information1 no4 #b1 #ahhh72  ,smith1  
,w4 ,l41 ,historical ,sketch of         

,education in ,michigan 7,lansing1      
#ahha71 pp4 #a-g1 #ci-di1 and #eg-gh2   
,steiner1 ,b4 ,c41 ,history of          
,education  in ,connecticut 7,u4 ,s4    
,bureau1 ,circular of ,information1 no4 
#b1 #ahic71  and ,history of ,education 
in ,maryland 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau1 ,circular
 of  ,information1 no4 #b1 #ahid71      
chaps4 ,,ii-,,iv2 ,stockwell1 ,t4 ,b41  
,history of  ,public ,education in      
,rhode ,island 7,providence ,press ,co41
 ,providence1  #ahgf71 chaps4 ,,ii-,v2  
,updegraff1 ,h41 ,the ,origin of the    
,moving ,school in  ,massachusetts      
7,columbia ,university1 ,teachers       
,college ,contributions1  no4 #ag1      
#aijg71 chaps4 ,v-,x2 ,wickersham1 ,j4  
,p41 ,history of ,education in          
,pennsylvania 7,lancaster1              
,pennsylvania1 #ahhf71 chaps4           
,,xiii-,,xvii4          ,,chapter ,,xxii
    ,,observation ,,and ,,industrial    
,,training ,,in ,,education             
,,outline        ,pestalozzi was the    
first prominent educator to develop the 

negative      naturalism of ,rousseau   
into positive reforms4        ,he       
desired to elevate the peasantry about  
him1 and1 failing      in other         
expedients1 undertook to accomplish this
 through a      combination of          
industrial and intellectual training at 
,neuhof4      ,this training he         
continued at ,stanz1 and began the      
development of      his observational   
methods4 ,in his work at ,burgdorf1 he  
was forced      to suspend his          
industrial training1 but he further     
developed his      #8,a ,b ,c of        
observation1' and at ,yverdon the method
 reached its      culmination4          
,like ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi conceived  
of education as a natural               
development of innate powers1 and he    
extended its application to      all    
children4 ,in his method he held that   
clear ideas could be      formed only by
 means of sense perceptions1 and he     
undertook to      analyze each subject  
into its simplest elements and develop  

it by      graded exercises4            
,while not original1 practical1 or      
scientific1 ,pestalozzi made            
education the remedy for corruption in  
society1 and started the      modern    
methods in the elementary studies4      
,pestalozzian schools and      methods  
spread rapidly through ,europe and the  
,united ,states4        ,the attempt to 
combine industrial training with        
intellectual1 which      ,pestalozzi had
 to give up1 was continued by his       
friend1 ,fellenberg1      in his        
institutions at ,hofwyl4 ,similar       
training was developed      throughout  
,europe4 ,in the ,united ,states it     
stimulated the #8manual      labor'     
movement1 and was later utilized as a   
solution for racial      and other      
peculiar problems in education4         
,sidenote3 ,development of naturalism of
 ,rousseau by ,pestalozzi4              
,pestalozzi as the ,successor of        
,rousseau4--,having outlined the various
  phases of philanthropic education and 

surveyed the development of the  common 
school in ,america1 we may now turn     
again to the more immediate  development
 of the movements that found their roots
 in ,rousseau4 ,it has  been noted how  
,rousseau's #8naturalistic' doctrines   
logically pointed  to a complete        
demolition of the artificial society and
 education  of the times4 ,a pause at   
this point would have led to anarchy4   
,if  civilization is not to disappear1  
social destruction must be followed  by 
reconstruction4 ,of course the negative 
attitude of the ,emile was  itself      
accompanied by considerable positive    
advance in its suggestions  for a       
natural training1 but this advice was   
often unpractical and  extreme and its  
main emphasis was upon the destruction  
of existing  education4 ,hence the      
happiest educational results of         
,rousseau's work  came through          
,pestalozzi1 who especially supplemented
 that reformer's  work upon the         
constructive side4 ,pestalozzi became   

the first prominent  educator to develop
 the negative and somewhat inconsistent 
#8naturalism'  of ,rousseau into a more 
positive attempt to reform corrupt      
society by  proper education and a new  
method of teaching4    ,sidenote3       
,example of mother and grandfather1     
,sidenote3 and early attempts to elevate
 the peasantry4    ,pestalozzi's        
,philanthropic and ,industrial          
,ideals4--,johann ,heinrich  ,pestalozzi
 was born at ,zurich in #agdf4 ,after   
the death of his father1  he was brought
 up almost altogether by his mother4    
,through her  unselfishness and piety1  
and the example of his grandfather1     
pastor in  a neighboring village1       
,pestalozzi was inspired to relieve and 
elevate  the degraded peasantry about   
him4 ,he first turned to the ministry as
  being the best way to accomplish this 
philanthropic purpose1 and later  took  
up the study of law1 with the idea of   
defending the rights of his  people1 but
 he was not able to succeed in either   

profession4 ,then1 in  #agfi1 he        
undertook to demonstrate to the peasants
 the value of improved  methods of      
agriculture4 ,he took up a strip of     
waste land at ,birr1 which  he called   
,neuhof 7#8new farm'71 but within five  
years this experiment  also proved a    
lamentable failure4 ,meantime a son had 
been born to him1  whom he had          
undertaken to rear upon the basis of the
 ,emile1 and the  results1 recorded in a
 ,father's ,journal1 suggested new ideas
 and  educational principles for the    
regeneration of the masses4 ,he began to
  hold that education did not consist   
merely in books and knowledge1 and  that
 the children of the poor could1 by     
proper training1 be taught to  earn     
their living and at the same time       
develop their intelligence and  moral   
nature4    ,sidenote3 ,scholastic       
instruction given while the children    
were  working4    ,his ,industrial      
,school at ,neuhof and the ,leonard and 
,gertrude4--,hence the failure of his   

agricultural venture afforded           
,pestalozzi the opportunity he craved to
 experiment with philanthropic  and     
industrial education4 ,toward the end of
 #aggd he took into his home  some      
twenty of the most needy children he    
could find4 ,these he fed1  clothed1 and
 treated as his own4 ,he gave the boys  
practical instruction  in farming and   
gardening on small tracts1 and had the  
girls trained in  domestic duties and   
needlework4 ,in bad weather both sexes  
gave their  time to spinning and weaving
 cotton4 ,they were also trained in the 
rudiments1 but were practiced in        
conversing and in memorizing the ,bible 
before learning to read and write4 ,the 
scholastic instruction was given  very  
largely while they were working1 and1   
although ,pestalozzi had not  as yet    
learned to make any direct connection   
between the occupational  and the formal
 elements1 this first attempt at an     
industrial education  made it evident   
that the two could be combined4 ,within 

a few months  there was a striking      
improvement in the physique1 minds1 and 
morals  of the children1 as well as in  
the use of their hands4 ,but ,pestalozzi
  was so enthusiastic over the success  
of his experiment that he greatly       
increased the number of children1 and by
 #aghj was reduced to bankruptcy4       
,sidenote3 ,after the school was closed1
 he published his views4                
,nevertheless1 his wider purpose of     
social reform by means of education  was
 not allowed to languish altogether1 for
 a friend shortly persuaded  him to     
publish his views4 ,his first           
production1 ,the ,evening ,hour of a    
,hermit1 embodied most of the           
educational principles he afterward made
  famous1 but he was advised to put his 
thought into more popular form1  and    
soon wrote his highly successful story  
of ,leonard and ,gertrude  7#agha74     
,this work1 with subsequent additions1  
gives an account of the  degraded social
 conditions in the ,swiss village of    

#8,bonnal' and the  changes wrought in  
them by one simple peasant woman4       
#8,gertrude' reforms  her drunkard      
husband1 educates her children1 and     
causes the whole  community to feel her 
influence and adopt her methods4 ,when  
finally a  wise schoolmaster comes to   
the village1 he learns from ,gertrude   
the  proper conduct of the school and   
begs for her continued coperation4      
,then the government becomes interested1
 studies the improvements that  have    
taken place1 and concludes that the     
whole country can be reformed  in no    
better way than by imitating ,bonnal4   
,sidenote3 ,having no other facilities1 
he instructed through  #8observation' in
    ,sidenote3 morals1    ,sidenote3    
number1 language1 and other subjects1   
,his ,school at ,stanz and ,beginning of
 ,his ,observational ,methods4--,in     
#agih he was given an opportunity to    
carry on his philanthropic and          
industrial ideals in education through  
the orphan home and school at  ,stanz1  

of which he was put in charge4 ,here he 
found it impossible to  obtain any      
assistants1 books1 and materials1 but he
 felt that none of  these conventional  
aids could be of service in the work he 
desired to  do4 ,hence he sought to     
instruct the children rather by         
experience and  observation than by     
abstract statements and words 7,fig4    
#cc74 ,this was  the real beginning of  
his teaching through #8observation1'    
and1 while  at ,stanz he further        
developed his correlation of            
intellectual with  manual training1 his 
observational methods were thereafter   
destined to  be more stressed4 ,religion
 and morals1 for example1 were never    
taught  by precepts1 but through        
instances that arose in the lives of the
  children he showed them the value of  
self-control1 charity1 sympathy1  and   
gratitude4 ,in a similarly concrete way 
the pupils were instructed  in number   
and language work by means of objects1  
and in geography  and history by        

conversation rather than by books4      
,while they did not  learn their natural
 history primarily from nature1 they    
were taught  to corroborate what they   
had learned by their own observation4   
,about  this method he said3 8,according
 to my experience1 success depends  upon
 whether what is taught to children     
commends itself to them as  true through
 being closely connected with their own 
observation4 ,as a  general rule1 ,i    
attached little importance to the study 
of words1 even  when explanations of the
 ideas they represented were given40    
,sidenote3 reducing perception to its   
lowest terms4    ,in connection with his
 observational method1 ,pestalozzi at   
this time  began his attempt to reduce  
all perception to its lowest terms1     
#8the ,a  ,b ,c of observation1' as he  
afterward called it4 ,it was while at   
,stanz1  for example1 that he first     
adopted his well-known plan of teaching 
children to read by means of exercises  
known as #8syllabaries4' ,these  joined 

the five vowels in succession to the    
different consonants1--#8ab1  eb1 ib1   
ob1 ub1' and so on through all the      
consonants4 ,from the  phonetic nature  
of ,german spelling1 he was able to make
 the exercises  very simple1 and thus to
 furnish a necessary practice in basal  
syllables4 ,in a similar way he hoped to
 simplify all education to such  an     
extent that schools would eventually    
become unnecessary1 and that  each      
mother would be able to teach her       
children and continue her own  education
 at the same time4    ,sidenote3        
,suspension of combination of industrial
 with intellectual  elements4           
,sidenote3 #8,syllabaries' and other    
language exercises1    ,sidenote3       
arithmetic1    ,sidenote3 geometry1 and 
other studies4    ,continuation of ,his 
,methods at ,burgdorf1 and ,how         
,gertrude ,teaches  ,her                
,children4--,from these experiments and 
concrete methods that  ,pestalozzi      
started at ,stanz gradually developed   

all his educational  contributions4 ,but
 before the close of a year he was      
forced by  circumstances to remove to   
,burgdorf4 ,here1 on account of the     
social  position of many of his pupils1 
he had to suspend his experiment of     
combining industrial with intellectual  
training1 although1 as will  later be   
seen1 his special efforts in this       
direction were greatly  enlarged and    
perpetuated by ,fellenberg4 ,he now     
devoted himself to  his #8,a ,b ,c of   
observation1' and further worked out and
 graduated his  #8syllabaries4'         
,language exercises were also given his 
pupils by means  of examining the       
number1 form1 position1 and color of the
 designs1  holes1 and rents in the wall 
paper of the school1 and expressing     
their  observations in longer and longer
 sentences1 which they repeated after   
him4 ,for arithmetic he devised charts  
upon which were placed dots or  lines   
concretely representing each unit up to 
one hundred4 ,by means of  this #8table 

of units' 7,fig4 #cd71 the pupil        
obtained a clear idea of  the meaning of
 the digits and the fundamental         
processes in arithmetic4  ,the children 
were also taught the elements of        
geometry by drawing  angles1 lines1 and 
curves1 and the development of teaching 
history1  geography1 and natural history
 by this method of observation was      
likewise continued4    ,sidenote3       
,success of the school4    ,sidenote3   
,principles in his ,how ,gertrude4      
,despite a want of system and errors in 
carrying out his method1  ,pestalozzi   
seems to have produced remarkable       
results from the start4  ,pupils poured 
in2 a number of progressive teachers    
came to assist him2  many persons of    
prominence visited the school and made  
most favorable  reports upon its        
methods2 and during the following three 
years and a  half the ,pestalozzian     
views on education were systematically  
developed  and applied4 ,while at       
,burgdorf also1 he undertook a detailed 

statement  of his method by the         
publication of his ,how ,gertrude       
,teaches ,her  ,children 7#ahja74 ,this 
work does not mention ,gertrude1 but    
consists of  fifteen letters to his     
friend1 ,gessner4 ,like all of          
,pestalozzi's works1  it is quite       
lacking in both plan and proportion1 and
 is filled with  repetitions and        
digressions1 but the following portion  
of the summary  of its principles1 made 
by a biographer of ,pestalozzi1 may     
serve to  give an idea of his           
educational creed3        8#a4          
,observation is the foundation of       
instruction4        8#b4 ,language must 
be connected with observation4          
8#c4 ,the time for learning is not the  
time for judgment and      criticism4   
8#d4 ,in each branch1 instruction must  
begin with the simplest      elements1  
and proceed gradually by following the  
child's      development2 that is1 by a 
series of steps which are               
psychologically connected4        8#e4  

,a pause must be made at each stage of  
the instruction      sufficiently long  
for the child to get the new matter     
thoroughly      into his grasp and under
 his control4        8#f4 ,teaching must
 follow the path of development1 and not
 that of      dogmatic exposition40     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--#8;,father'  
,pestalozzi at ,stanz4 7,the orphan     
school in the ,ursuline convent74       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,the #8table 
of units' of ,pestalozzi1 copied by     
,warren ,colburn in the first edition   
7#ahba7 of his ,mental ,arithmetic4     
,sidenote3 ,great prosperity4           
,sidenote3 ,syllabaries1 and tables of  
units1 fractions1 and fractions  of     
fractions2    ,the #8,institute' at     
,yverdon and the ,culmination of the    
,pestalozzian  ,methods4--,as a result  
of political changes1 ,pestalozzi was   
obliged  in #ahje to transfer his school
 to ,yverdon4 ,the #8institute' here    
sprang into fame almost immediately1 and
 increased in numbers and  prosperity   

for several years4 ,children were sent  
from great distances1  and teachers and 
visitors thronged there to learn and    
apply the new  principles at home4 ,the 
work of the institute formed a          
continuation and  culmination of the    
observational methods started at ,stanz 
and ,burgdorf4  ,the simplification     
introduced through the #8syllabaries'   
and #8table of  units' was further      
elaborated4 ,a #8table of fractions' was
 also devised  for teaching that subject
 concretely4 ,it consisted of a series  
of  squares1 which could be divided     
indefinitely and in different ways4     
,some of the squares were whole1 while  
others were divided horizontally  into  
two1 three1 or even ten equal parts4    
,there was further developed a  #8table 
of fractions of fractions1' or compound 
fractions1 in which the  squares were   
divided1 not only horizontally1 but     
vertically1 so that  the method of      
reducing two fractions to the same      
denominator might be  self-evident4     

,sidenote3 drawing1    ,sidenote3       
writing1    ,sidenote3 and constructive 
geometry2    ,further1 in order to draw 
and write1 the pupil was first taught   
the  simple elements of form4 ,objects1 
such as sticks or pencils1 were  placed 
in different directions1 and lines      
representing them were drawn  on the    
board or slate until all elementary     
forms1 straight or curved1  were        
mastered4 ,the pupils combined these    
elements1 instead of copying  models1   
and were encouraged to design           
symmetrical and graceful figures4  ,this
 also paved the way for writing4 ,the   
children wrote on their  slates1        
beginning with the easiest letters and  
gradually forming words  from them1 but 
soon learned to write on paper with a   
pen4 ,writing was1  however1 taught in  
connection with reading1 although begun 
somewhat  later than that study4        
,constructive geometry was also learned 
through  drawing4 ,the pupils were      
taught to distinguish1 first vertical1  

horizontal1 oblique1 and parallel lines2
 then they learned right1  acute1 and   
obtuse angles1 different kinds of       
triangles1 quadrilaterals1  and other   
figures2 and finally discovered at how  
many points a certain  number of        
straight lines may be made to cut one   
another1 and how many  angles1          
triangles1 and quadrilaterals can be    
formed4 ,to make the matter  concrete1  
the figures were often cut out of       
cardboard or made into  models4         
,sidenote3 nature study and geography2  
,sidenote3 and music4    ,in nature     
study1 geography1 and history the       
concrete observational work  was        
likewise continued4 ,trees1 flowers1 and
 birds were viewed1 drawn1  and         
discussed4 ,the pupils began in         
geography by acquiring the points of    
the compass and relative positions1 and 
from this knowledge observed  and       
described some familiar place4 ,the     
valley of the ,buron near at hand  was  
observed in detail and modeled upon long

 tables in clay brought  from its sides4
 ,then the pupils were shown the map for
 the first time  and easily grasped the 
meaning of its symbols4 ,his ideas on   
geography1  however1 were more fully    
worked out by the scientist1 ,karl      
,ritter1  who had already been trained  
in principles similar to ,pestalozzi's  
in ,salzmann's school at ,schnepfenthal 
7see p4 #bbh74 ,instead of the          
8arbitrary and unmethodical collection  
of all facts ascertained to  exist      
throughout the earth10 which constituted
 the old #8encyclopdic'  type of        
geography1 ,ritter presented a work     
based on principles  indicated by the   
title1--,the ,science of the ,earth in  
,relation to  ,nature and the ,history  
of ,man4 ,similarly1 ,pestalozzi's      
method was  applied to music by his     
friend1 ,ngeli1 a noted ,swiss composer1
 who  began with the simplest tone      
elements and then combined and developed
  these progressively into more complex 
and connected wholes4    ,sidenote3     

,analogy with the development of the    
tree4    ,sidenote3 ,universal          
education4    ,pestalozzi's ,educational
 ,aim and ,organization4--,from the     
beginning  of his work1 ,pestalozzi held
 that 8all the beneficent powers of man 
are due to neither art nor chance1 but  
to nature10 and that education  should  
follow 8the course laid down by nature40
 ,so in all his works  he constantly    
returns to the analogy of the child's   
development  with that of the natural   
growth of the plant or tree4 ,he even   
holds  that 8the whole tree is an       
uninterrupted chain of organic parts1   
the plan of which existed in its seed   
and root10 and that 8man is  similar to 
the tree40 ,consequently1 he defines    
education as 8the  natural1 progressive1
 and harmonious development of all the  
powers  and capacities of the human     
being40 ,this belief in the observance  
of  development from within is in       
keeping with the naturalism of          
,rousseau1  but that reformer viewed it 

chiefly from the negative side1 and     
failed  to make his educational doctrine
 concrete and explicit and to apply it  
to the school4 ,pestalozzi further      
modified and extended the ,rousselian   
doctrine by recommending its application
 to all children1 whatever  their       
circumstances and abilities4 ,where     
,rousseau evidently had only  the young 
aristocrat in mind in the education of  
,emile1 ,pestalozzi  held that poverty  
could be relieved and society reformed  
only through  ridding each and every one
 of his degradation by means of mental  
and  moral development4 ,accordingly1 he
 was the stanch advocate of universal   
education4    ,sidenote3 ,clear ideas   
only through sense perceptions1         
,sidenote3 reduced to simplest terms1   
and expressed in words4    ,his ,general
 ,method4--,pestalozzi's general method 
of giving free play  to this natural    
development of the powers of all and so 
for reforming  social conditions was to 
train his pupils through #8observation4'

 ,he  felt that clear ideas could be    
formed only by means of careful sense   
perceptions1 and he was thoroughly      
opposed to the mechanical memorizing    
with little understanding that was      
current in the schools of the day4  ,his
 method in general consisted in         
analyzing each subject into its         
simplest elements1 or #8,a ,b ,c1' and  
developing it by graded exercises  based
 as far as possible upon the study of   
objects rather than words4  ,yet        
,pestalozzi felt that 8experiences must 
be clearly expressed in  words1 or      
otherwise there arises the same danger  
that characterizes  the dominant word   
teaching1--that of attributing entirely 
erroneous  ideas to words40             
,accordingly1 as shown in the summary of
 ,how ,gertrude  ,teaches ,her ,children
 7see p4 #bhb71 in all instruction he   
would connect  language with            
#8observation4' ,the special            
applications of this general  method    
that were worked out by him and his     

followers in the most  common subjects  
of the curriculum have been described in
 detail in the  account of his work at  
,stanz1 ,burgdorf1 and ,yverdon1 and do 
not require  repetition here4           
,sidenote3 ,unoriginal1 unpractical1    
inconsistent1 wanting in science  and   
organization2    ,the ,permanent        
,influence of ,pestalozzi4--,it is easy 
to exaggerate  the achievements of this 
almost sainted reformer of ,switzerland4
  ,pestalozzi's methods were neither    
very original nor well carried out4     
,his chief merit lay in developing and  
making positive the suggestions  offered
 by ,rousseau1 and in utilizing them in 
the work of the schools4  ,even in this 
he failed somewhat in practicality and  
consistency4  ,moreover1 ,pestalozzi was
 groping and never possessed full       
vision4 ,he  did not grasp definite     
educational principles in a scientific  
way1 but1  like ,rousseau1 obtained his 
ideas of teaching from sympathetic      
insight  into the minds of children4    

,his writings for the most part record  
his empirical efforts at an effective   
training1 and are revelations  of       
methods of teaching in the concrete     
rather than the abstract4 ,his  works   
are also poorly arranged and inaccurate1
 and there was little  organization or  
order in his schools4    ,sidenote3 but 
sought to elevate society by education1 
,but all these deficiencies are of small
 import when compared with              
,pestalozzi's influence upon society and
 education4 ,in the eighteenth  century 
caste ruled through wealth and          
education1 while the masses1  who       
supported the owners of the land in     
idleness and luxury1 were sunk  in      
ignorance1 poverty1 and vice4 ,the      
schools for the common people  were     
exceedingly few1 the content of         
education was largely limited  by       
ecclesiastical authority1 and the       
methods were traditional and  verbal4   
,the teachers generally had received    
little training1 and were  selected at  

random4 ,ordinarily the pay was         
wretched1 no lodgings were  provided for
 the teacher1 and he had often to add   
domestic service  to his duties1 in     
order to secure food and clothing4 ,in  
the midst of  such conditions appeared  
this most famous of modern educators1   
who  never ceased to work for the       
reformation of society4 ,as ,voltaire1  
,rousseau1 and others had held that the 
panacea for the corrupt times  was      
rationalism1 atheism1 deism1 socialism1 
anarchy1 or individualism1  ,pestalozzi 
found his remedy in education4 ,like    
,rousseau1 he keenly felt  the          
injustice1 unnaturalness1 and           
degradation of the existing society1    
but he was not content to stop with mere
 destruction and negations4 ,he  saw    
what education might do to purify social
 conditions and to elevate  the people  
by intellectual1 moral1 and industrial  
training1 and he  longed to apply it    
universally and to develop methods in   
keeping with  nature4    ,sidenote3 and 

was the progenitor of all modern        
pedagogy4    ,pestalozzi's achievements 
contained the germ of modern pedagogy1  
as  well as of educational reform4 ,it  
was he that stimulated educational      
theorists1 instead of accepting formal  
principles and traditional  processes1  
to work out carefully and patiently the 
development of the  child mind and to   
embody the results in practice4 ,from   
him have come  the prevailing reforms in
 the present teaching of language       
lessons1  arithmetic1 drawing1 writing1 
reading1 geography1 elementary science1 
and music4 ,in harmony with his improved
 methods1 ,pestalozzi also  started a   
different type of discipline4 ,his work 
made clear the new  spirit in the school
 by which it has approached the         
atmosphere of the  home4 ,he found the  
proper relation of pupil and teacher to 
exist in  sympathy and friendship1 or1  
as he states it1 in #8love4' ,this      
attitude1  which appears so fully in his
 kindly treatment of the poor children  

at  ,neuhof and ,stanz 7,fig4 #cc71     
constituted the greatest contrast to    
that  of the brutal schools of the      
times1 and introduced a new conception  
into education4    ,sidenote3           
,switzerland1    ,the ,spread of        
,pestalozzian ,schools and ,methods     
through ,europe4--,the  #8observational'
 methods of ,pestalozzi and institutions
 similar to his  were soon spread by his
 assistants and others throughout       
,europe4  ,strange to say1 as a result  
of their familiarity with his weaknesses
  and the conservatism resulting from   
isolation1 the ,swiss were1 as a  whole1
 rather slow to incorporate the         
,pestalozzian improvements4 ,in         
,zurich1 however1 ,zeller of ,wrtemberg1
 who had visited ,burgdorf and  had     
helped conduct a ,pestalozzian training 
school1 was early invited  to give three
 courses of lectures in aid of the      
establishment of a  teachers' seminary  
based upon the principles of            
,pestalozzi4 ,krsi1  after leaving the  

institute at ,yverdon1 also founded a   
number of  schools and carried          
,pestalozzianism into various parts of  
,switzerland4  ,and other disciples     
eventually started or reorganized       
schools in  various parts of            
,switzerland4    ,sidenote3 ,prussia    
,but the ,pestalozzian reforms in method
 secured their best hold  upon ,germany4
 ,the innovations were most remarkable  
in ,prussia1 and  the elementary        
education there has come to be referred 
to as the  #8,prussian-,pestalozzian    
school system4' ,by the opening of the  
nineteenth  century ,pestalozzianism    
began to find its way into that state4  
,in  #ahja the appeal of ,pestalozzi for
 a public subscription in behalf  of his
 project at ,burgdorf was warmly        
supported4 ,in #ahjb ,herbart's  account
 of ,pestalozzi's ,idea of an ,a ,b ,c  
of ,observation 7see p4  #ccg7 attracted
 much attention4 ,a representative was  
sent from ,prussia  to ,burgdorf to     
report upon the new system in #ahjc4    

,meanwhile the  ,pestalozzian           
missionaries were fast converting the   
land4 ,plamann1  who had visited        
,burgdorf1 in #ahje established a       
,pestalozzian school  in ,berlin1 and   
published several books applying the new
 methods to  language1 geography1 and   
natural history4 ,zeller lectured to    
large  audiences at ,knigsberg1 and     
organized a ,pestalozzian orphanage     
there4 ,a similar institution for       
educating orphans was opened at         
,potsdam by ,trck4 ,in #ahjh1 two of    
,pestalozzi's pupils1 ,nicolovius and   
,svern1 were made directors of public   
instruction in ,prussia1 and sent       
seventeen brilliant young men to        
,yverdon to study for three years4      
,upon their return these vigorous       
youthful educators zealously advanced   
the cause4 ,the greatest impulse1       
however1 was given the movement by  the 
philosopher1 ,fichte1 who was ardently  
supported by ,king ,frederick  ,william 
,,iii1 and even more by the noble queen1

 ,louise4 ,they held that  only through 
these advanced educational principles   
could a restoration  of the territory   
and prestige lost to ,napoleon at ,jena 
be effected4    ,sidenote3 and the rest 
of ,germany1    ,a similar spirit       
animated the other states of ,germany1  
and ,bavaria1  ,detmold1 and other      
states early undertook to introduce the 
new  principles4 ,everywhere in ,germany
 the greatest enthusiasm prevailed      
among teachers1 state officials1 and    
princes4 ,thus in place of the  reading1
 singing1 and memorizing of texts1      
songs1 and catechism1 under  the        
direction of incompetent choristers and 
sextons1 with unsanitary  buildings and 
brutal punishment1 all ,germany has come
 to have in each  village an institution
 for training real men and women4 ,each 
school  is under the guidance of a      
devoted1 humane1 and trained teacher1   
and  the methods in religion1 reading1  
arithmetic1 history1 geography1 and     
elementary science are vitalized and    

interesting4    ,sidenote3 ,france1     
,in ,france the spread of               
,pestalozzianism was at first prevented 
by  the military spirit of the time and 
by the apathy in education1  and later1 
when the reaction occurred1 the schools 
came under  ecclesiastical control and  
had little influence upon the people4   
,nevertheless1 there were evidences of  
interest in the new doctrines4  ,general
 ,jullien came to ,yverdon to study the 
methods1 and issued two  commendatory   
reports1 which induced some thirty      
,french pupils to go to  ,pestalozzi's  
institute4 ,chavannes also published a  
treatise upon the  ,pestalozzian methods
 in #ahje4 ,these efforts1 however1 had 
little effect  upon education1 and the  
,pestalozzian principles did not make   
much  headway in ,france up to the      
revolution of #ahcj4 ,after that time   
they  rapidly became popular1 especially
 through ,victor ,cousin4 ,this famous  
professor1 who was later minister of    
public instruction1 issued in #ahce  a  

,report on the ,state of ,public        
,instruction in ,prussia1 which showed  
the great merit of ,pestalozzianism in  
the elementary schools of that  country4
    ,sidenote3 and ,england4    ,in     
,england the influence of ,pestalozzi   
was large1 but the use made of  his     
methods was not altogether happy4 ,the  
private school opened by  ,mayo after   
his return from ,yverdon employed object
 teaching in several  subjects1 and a   
popular text-book1 entitled ,lessons on 
,objects1  was written by his sister4   
,this book of ,elizabeth ,mayo consisted
 of  encyclopdic lessons on the arts and
 sciences arranged in a definite        
series1 and much beyond the             
comprehension of children from six to   
eight  years old1 for whom it was       
intended4 ,together with several texts  
of a  similar sort1 it had a wide       
influence in formalizing object teaching
  and spreading it rapidly4 ,the ,mayos 
were also interested in infant  schools1
 and when they helped organize #8,the   

,home and ,colonial ,school  ,society'  
in #ahcf1 they combined the             
,pestalozzian methods with those of  the
 infant school 7see p4 #bdf74 ,through  
the model and training schools  of this 
society1 formalized ,pestalozzianism was
 extended through  ,england and         
,america4    ,sidenote3 ,mc,clure and   
,neef4    ,pestalozzianism in the       
,united ,states4--,pestalozzianism began
 to  appear in the ,united ,states as   
early as the first decade of the        
nineteenth century4 ,it was introduced  
not only from the original  centers in  
,switzerland1 but indirectly in the form
 it had assumed in  ,germany1 ,france1  
,england1 and other countries4 ,the     
instances of its  appearance were       
sporadic and seem to have been but      
little connected at  any time4 ,the     
earliest presentation was that made from
 the treatise  of ,chavannes in #ahje by
 ,william ,mc,clure4 ,by this and other 
articles1  ,mc,clure did much to make   
the new principles known in the ,united 

,states1  and in #ahjf he induced       
,joseph ,neef1 a former assistant of    
,pestalozzi1  to come to ,america and   
become his 8master's apostle in the ,new
 ,world40  ,neef maintained an          
institution at ,philadelphia for three  
years and  afterward founded and taught 
schools in other parts of the country4  
,but  his imperfect acquaintance with   
,english and with ,american character   
and his frequent migrations prevented   
his personal influence from  being      
greatly felt1 and the two excellent     
works that he published upon            
applications of the ,pestalozzian       
methods were given scant attention4     
,sidenote3 ,griscom1    ,sidenote3      
,brooks1    ,sidenote3 the ,alcotts1    
,sidenote3 ,colburn1    ,sidenote3      
,guyot1    ,sidenote3 ,parker1          
,sidenote3 and ,lowell ,mason4    ,a    
large variety of literature1 describing 
the new education1 and  translating the 
accounts of ,chavannes1 ,jullien1       
,cousin1 and a number of  the ,german   

educationalists1 was also published in  
educational journals1  which were just  
beginning to appear in the ,united      
,states 7see p4 #cjd74  ,returned       
travelers1 like ,professor ,john        
,griscom 7see p4 #cje7 published        
accounts of their visits and experiences
 at ,yverdon and ,burgdorf1  such       
lecturers as the ,reverend ,charles     
,brooks began to suggest the  new       
principles as a remedy for our          
educational deficiencies1 and           
educational reformers1 like the         
,alcotts1 began to show the             
,pestalozzian  spirit in their schools4 
,pestalozzi's objective methods and the 
oral  instruction resulting from them   
were used in various subjects by a      
number of educators4 ,for example1 the  
methods advocated in arithmetic  were   
introduced into ,america by ,warren     
,colburn4 ,he spread #8mental           
arithmetic' throughout the country1 and 
in his famous ,first ,lessons in        
,arithmetic on the ,plan of ,pestalozzi1

 published first in #ahba1 he even      
printed the #8table of units' 7,fig4    
#cd74 ,the ,pestalozzi-,ritter method   
in geography was early presented in the 
,united ,states through the  institute  
lectures and text-books of ,arnold      
,guyot1 who had been a pupil  of ,ritter
 and came to ,america from ,switzerland 
in #ahdh4 ,the promotion  of geographic 
method along the same lines was later   
more successfully  performed by ,francis
 ,wayland ,parker1 who had studied with 
,guyot1 in his  training of teachers and
 his work on ,how to ,teach ,geography4 
,colonel  ,parker has also had several  
successful pupils1 who are to-day       
largely  continuing the ,pestalozzian   
tradition4 ,the ,pestalozzian method in 
music  was brought into the ,boston     
schools and elsewhere about #ahcf by    
,lowell  ,mason1 who was influenced by  
the works of ,ngeli4    ,sidenote3 ,mann
 and his ,seventh ,annual ,report2      
,sidenote3 ,sheldon and the ,oswego     
#8object lessons4'    ,the most         

influential propaganda of the           
,pestalozzian doctrines in  general1    
however1 came through the account of the
 ,german school methods  in the ,seventh
 ,annual ,report 7#ahdc7 of ,horace     
,mann 7see p4 #cjh71  and through the   
inauguration of the #8,oswego methods'  
by ,dr4 ,edward  ,a4 ,sheldon4 ,mann    
spoke most enthusiastically of the      
success of the  ,prussian-,pestalozzian 
system of education and hinted at the   
need of  a radical reform along the same
 lines in ,america4 ,the report caused a
  great sensation1 and was bitterly     
combated by conservative sentiment      
throughout the country1 but the         
suggested reforms were largely          
effected4 ,dr4 ,sheldon1 on the other   
hand1 caught his ,pestalozzian          
inspiration from ,toronto1 ,canada1     
where he became acquainted with the     
formalized methods of the ,mayos through
 publications of the ,home and          
,colonial ,school ,society 7see p4      
#bia74 ,he resolved to introduce the    

principles of ,pestalozzi into the      
,oswego schools1 of which he was at     
that time superintendent1 and in #ahfa  
secured from the society in  ,london an 
instructor to train his teachers in     
these methods4 ,there was  some         
criticism of the ,oswego methods on the 
ground of formalism1 but as  a whole    
they were pronounced a success1 and in  
#ahfe the ,oswego training  school was  
made a state institution4 ,this was the 
first normal school  in the ,united     
,states where #8object lessons' were the
 chief feature1 but  a large number of  
other normal schools upon the same basis
 sprang up  rapidly in many states1 and 
the ,oswego methods crept into the      
training  schools and the public systems
 of numerous cities4 ,as a consequence1 
during the third quarter of the         
nineteenth century1 ,pestalozzianism1   
though somewhat formalized1 had a       
prevailing influence upon the  teachers 
and courses of the elementary schools in
 the ,united ,states4    ,sidenote3     

,estate at ,hofwyl to train             
,pestalozzian teachers4    ,pestalozzi's
 ,industrial ,training ,continued by    
,fellenberg4--,such was  the wide       
influence of ,pestalozzi upon education4
 ,but while throughout  his work he     
continued to make new applications of   
his observational  methods1 his         
principle of combining industrial       
training with  intellectual education1  
which he had begun so successfully at   
,neuhof  and ,stanz1 could not be       
continued at ,burgdorf4 ,his pupils     
there came  chiefly from aristocratic   
families and were not obliged to support
  themselves by manual labor4 ,however1 
,pestalozzi still hoped to save  enough 
of the income from the school payments  
of the rich to found a  small           
agricultural school for the poor on this
 plan and connect it with  the          
#8institute1' and while this institution
 was never started1 the  opportunity for
 carrying out his aim came through his  
friend1 ,emanuel  von ,fellenberg       

7#agga-ahdd74 ,fellenberg belonged to a 
noble family  of ,berne1 but1 like      
,pestalozzi1 he believed that an        
amelioration of  the wretched moral and 
economic conditions in ,switzerland     
should be  accomplished by education4   
,to secure the means for an experiment  
in  this direction1 he persuaded his    
father to purchase for him an estate  of
 six hundred acres at ,hofwyl1 just nine
 miles from ,burgdorf4 ,here            
,pestalozzi urged him to undertake his  
favorite idea of industrial  education1 
and in #ahjf1 with the aid of ,zeller   
7see p4 #bhi71 who had  been sent him by
 ,pestalozzi1 he opened a school to     
train teachers in  the ,pestalozzian    
method4    ,sidenote3 ,combination of   
observational work and industrial       
training in  the #8agricultural         
institute2'    ,the ,agricultural       
,school and ,other ,institutions at     
,hofwyl4--,fellenberg  especially       
desired1 however1 to combine            
,pestalozzi's observational work  and   

his older principle of industrial       
training in an #8agricultural           
institute' for poor boys4 ,this plan was
 not fully realized until #ahjh1  when  
he secured the enthusiastic ,jacob      
,wehrli as an assistant4 ,the  work was 
so arranged that each old pupil1 as fast
 as he was trained1  took charge of a   
newer one as an apprentice1 and the     
school from the  first became a sort of 
family4 ,the chief feature of the       
institute  was agricultural occupations1
 including drainage and irrigation1     
but1 from the requirements of farm life1
 it was natural to train also           
cartmakers1 blacksmiths1 carpenters1    
locksmiths1 shoemakers1 tailors1        
mechanics1 and workers in wood1 iron1   
and leather4 ,workshops for these       
industries were established upon the    
estate1 and the pupils in the           
agricultural institute were enabled to  
select a training in a wide  range of   
employments1 without neglecting book    
instruction 7,fig4 #ce74  ,by this      

means1 too1 they could support          
themselves by their labor while  being  
educated4 ,through the institute also1 a
 considerable number  of the pupils were
 trained to be directors of similar     
institutions1  or to become rural       
school-teachers4 ,fellenberg thought it 
important  that all who were to teach in
 the common schools should have a       
thorough acquaintance with the practical
 labor of a farm1 the means of          
self-support1 and the life and habits of
 the majority of their pupils4          
,sidenote3 the #8literary institute' for
 the wealthy2    ,sidenote3 school for  
poor girls1 and #8real school' for the  
middle  classes4    ,but the work of    
,fellenberg did not stop there4 ,from   
the beginning he  had felt that the     
wealthy should understand and be more in
 sympathy  with the laboring classes1   
and learn how to direct their work more 
intelligently4 ,hence he began very     
early an agricultural course for        
landowners1 and many young men of the   

wealthy classes came to show a  striking
 interest in his deep-soil ploughing1   
draining1 irrigation1 and  other means  
of educating the poor4 ,but these       
wealthier youths remained  at the       
institute so short a time that he could 
not extend his ideals  very widely4 ,to 
retain them longer at ,hofwyl1 in #ahji 
he opened a  #8literary institute1'     
which1 besides the usual academic       
studies1 used  ,pestalozzi's object     
lessons and strove to develop physical  
activities4  ,moreover1 the pupils in   
the literary institute had to cultivate 
gardens1 work on the farm1 engage in    
carpentering1 turning1 and other        
mechanical occupations1 and in many ways
 come into touch and mutual             
understanding with the poorer boys in   
the agricultural institute4 ,the        
wealthy learned to dignify labor1 and   
the poor1 instead of envying  those in  
the higher stations of life1 became     
friendly and desirous of  coperating    
with them4 ,eventually there arose an   

independent community  of youth1        
managing its own affairs outside of     
school1 arranging its  own occupations1 
games1 and tours1 choosing its own      
officers1 and  making its own laws4     
,within this little world was provided a
 training  for society at large1 with   
its various classes1 associations1 and  
corporations1 which ,fellenberg seems to
 have regarded as divinely  ordained4   
,likewise1 in #ahbc1 a school for poor  
girls was opened by  his wife1 and four 
years later he started a #8real1' or    
practical1  school for the middle       
classes1 which was intermediate between 
the two  #8institutes4'    ,sidenote3   
,switzerland1    ,sidenote3 ,germany1   
,sidenote3 ,france1 and ,england4       
,industrial ,training in the ,schools of
 ,europe4--,the educational             
institutions of ,fellenberg 7,fig4 #cf7 
were well managed and proved  very      
successful1 and the idea of education   
through industrial  training spread     
rapidly4 ,while1 after the death of     

,fellenberg in  #ahdd1 the schools at   
,hofwyl gradually declined1 various     
types of  industrial education          
everywhere came to supplement academic  
courses1  and extend the work of the    
school to a larger number of pupils4    
,thus the tendency of modern            
civilization to care for the education  
of the poor1 the defective1 and the     
delinquent through industrial  training 
has sprung from the philanthropic spirit
 of ,pestalozzi and  his practical      
collaborator1 ,fellenberg1 and has      
become apparent in  all advanced        
countries4 ,industrial institutions     
rapidly increased  in ,switzerland1     
beginning in #ahaf with the school in   
the neighboring  district of ,meykirch4 
,in #ahcb a cantonal teachers'          
association was  formed at ,berne1 with 
,fellenberg as president and ,wehrli as 
vice  president1 and every canton soon  
had its #8farm school4' ,industrial     
training was also introduced into most  
of the ,swiss normal schools4  ,in      

,germany the industrial work suggested  
by ,pestalozzi and ,fellenberg  came    
into successful operation in many of the
 orphanages and most  of the reform     
schools4 ,later1 industrial education   
was taken up by  the                    
,fortbildungsschulen 7#8continuation    
schools'7 of the regular  system 7see p4
 #dbj74 ,at the reform and continuation 
schools of ,france  industrial training 
has long formed the distinctive element 
in the  course4 ,educators and statesmen
 of ,england likewise early commended   
the  work of ,fellenberg1 and industrial
 training shortly found a foot-hold  in 
various technical and reform schools of 
that country4    ,sidenote3 #8,manual   
labor' institutions4    ,industrial     
,institutions in the ,united            
,states4--,the industrial work  of the  
,pestalozzi-,fellenberg system also     
began to appear in the ,united  ,states 
about the close of the first quarter of 
the nineteenth century4  ,after that1   
for twenty years or so1 there sprang up 

a large number  of institutions of      
secondary or higher grade with #8manual 
labor'  features in addition to the     
literary work4 ,the primary object of   
the industrial work in these            
institutions was to enable students to  
earn their way through school or college
 and at the same time secure  physical  
exercise4 ,it was the first serious     
academic recognition of  the need of a  
#8sound mind in a sound body1' and did  
much to overcome  the prevailing        
tendency of students toward tuberculosis
 and to furnish  a sane substitute for  
the escapades and pranks in which       
college  life abounded4 ,the first of   
these manual labor institutions were    
established in the ,new ,england and    
,middle states between #ahbj and  #ahcj1
 but within a dozen years the manual    
labor system was adopted in  theological
 schools1 colleges1 and academies from  
,maine to ,tennessee4  ,the success of  
this feature at ,andover ,theological   
,seminary1 where it  was begun in #ahbf 

for #8invigorating and preserving       
health1 without  any reference to       
pecuniary profit1' was especially       
influential in  causing it to be        
extended4 ,the #8,society for ,promoting
 ,manual ,labor  in ,literary           
,institutions1' founded in #ahca1       
appointed a general  agent to visit the 
chief colleges in the ,middle ,west and 
,south1 call  attention to the value of 
manual labor1 and issue a report upon   
the  subject4 ,little attention1        
however1 was given to the pedagogical   
principles underlying this work4 ,as    
material conditions improved and  formal
 social life developed1 the             
impracticability of the scheme was      
realized1 and the industrial side of    
these institutions was given up4  ,the  
physical exercise phase was then        
replaced by college athletics4 ,by      
#ahdj-ahej most of the schools and      
colleges that began as #8manual labor   
institutes' had become purely literary4 
,,fellenberg',s ,,institutions ,,at     

,,hofwyl    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#ce4--;,court of the ,agricultural      
,institute4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#cf4--;,general view of all the schools 
and workshops4    7,reproduced by       
permission from ,monroe's ,cyclopedia of
 ,education47    ,sidenote3 ,industrial 
education for racial problems1 prison   
reform1    ,sidenote3 defectives and    
delinquents1    ,sidenote3 and          
efficiency of the public system4    ,a  
further movement in industrial education
 has been found in the  establishment of
 such schools as ,carlisle1 ,hampton1   
and ,tuskegee1 which  adopted this      
training as a solution for peculiar     
racial problems4 ,but  the original idea
 of ,pestalozzi1 to secure redemption   
through manual  labor1 has been embodied
 in ,american institutions since #ahgc1 
when ,miss  ,mary ,carpenter1 the       
,english prison reformer1 visited the   
,united ,states4  ,contract labor and   
factory work in the reformatories then  
began to be  replaced by farming1       

gardening1 and kindred domestic         
industries4 ,at the  present time1      
moreover1 the schools for delinquents   
and defectives in  the ,new ,england1   
,middle ,atlantic1 ,middle ,west1 and   
most of the ,southern  states1 have the 
,fellenberg training1 though without    
much grasp of the  educational          
principles involved4 ,finally1 there has
 also been a growing  tendency in the   
twentieth century to employ industrial  
training or  trade education for the    
sake of holding pupils longer in school 
and  increasing the efficiency of the   
public system4 ,in so far as it has     
tended to replace the more general      
values of manual training1 once so      
popular1 with skill in some particular  
industrial process1 this modern         
movement represents a return from the   
occupational work started by  ,froebel  
to the philanthropic practice of        
,fellenberg and ,pestalozzi4            
,,supplementary ,,reading    ,graves1   
,in ,modern ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 

chap4 ,v2 and ,great  ,educators        
7,macmillan1 #aiab71 chap4 ,,ix2        
,monroe1 ,textbook 7,macmillan1  #aije71
 pp4 #eig-fbb2 ,parker1 ,modern         
,elementary ,education 7,ginn1 #aiab71  
chaps4 ,,xiii-,,xvi4 ,the ,leonard and  
,gertrude has been well arranged  for   
,english readers in the edition of ,eva 
,channing 7,heath1 #ahif7 and  ,how     
,gertrude ,teaches ,her ,children has   
been translated by ,lucy ,e4  ,holland  
and ,frances ,c4 ,turner 7,bardeen1     
#ahih74 ,the standard ,english          
treatises on ,pestalozzi are ,guimps1   
,r4 de1 ,pestalozzi1 ,his ,aim and      
,work 7,appleton1 #ahij72 ,holman1 ,h41 
,pestalozzi 7,longmans1 #aijh72  ,krsi1 
,h41 ,pestalozzi1 ,his ,life1 ,work1 and
 ,influence 7,american ,book  ,co41     
#ahge72 ,pinloche1 ,a41 ,pestalozzi and 
the ,foundation of the ,modern          
,elementary ,school 7,scribner1 #aija71 
and1 more recently1 ,green1 ,j4 ,a41    
,life and ,work of ,pestalozzi 7,clive1 
,london1 #aiac7 and ,pestalozzi's       

,educational ,writings 7,longmans1      
,green1 #aiab74 ,monroe1 ,w4 ,s41 has   
furnished an interesting ,history of the
 ,pestalozzian ,movement in the  ,united
 ,states 7,bardeen1 #aijg74 ,the        
,institutions of ,de ,fellenberg  were  
fully described by ,king1 ,w4 7,london1 
#ahdb72 and by ,barnard1 ,h41  in his   
,american ,journal of ,education1 vol4  
,,iii1 pp4 #eia-eif2 ,,xiii1  #cbc-cca2 
and ,,xxvi1 #cei-cfh4          ,,chapter
 ,,xxiii    ,,development ,,of ,,public 
,,education ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states
      ,,outline        ,during the      
second quarter of the nineteenth century
 a third      period in the educational 
history of ,america1 marked by further  
democratization and a great expansion of
 public education1 appeared4        ,it 
began with an awakening generally known 
as #8the revival of      common         
schools1' which was most noticeable in  
,new ,england4 ,here1      owing to the 
attacks made upon him by reactionaries1 
,horace ,mann      was the most         

conspicuous reformer2 while ,henry      
,barnard1 through his      ,american    
,journal of ,education1 enabled         
educators to look beyond      the       
educational experience of ,america4 ,but
 the influence of this      awakening   
was also felt in every other section of 
the ,united ,states4        ,it was     
followed by a steady growth in universal
 education1 state      support and      
control1 local supervision1 and the     
organization of      normal schools in  
,new ,england and the ,middle states4   
,in the ,northwest1 common school       
advocates overcame the opposition       
of settlers from states not committed to
 public education1 and      in the      
further expansion of the ,united ,states
 progress in common      school         
sentiment has kept pace with the        
settlement of the country4        ,the  
,south made considerable progress during
 the early years of      the awakening1 
and while the ,civil ,war crushed its   
educational      facilities1 the        

struggle for public education has since 
been won4    ,sidenote3 ,development of 
democratic ideals and extension of state
  systems of schools4    ,the ,third    
,period in ,american                    
,education4--,interest in the improved  
methods of ,pestalozzi and other        
reformers that was manifesting itself   
everywhere in the ,united ,states during
 the second quarter of the  nineteenth  
century seems to have been but one phase
 of a much larger  movement4 ,it was    
about this time that a third period in  
,american  education1 which was marked  
by the development of democratic ideals 
and  the extension of state systems of  
public schools1 may be said to have     
begun4 ,during the period of            
#8transition1' we found 7chap4 ,,xxi71  
half  a dozen of the states had started 
an organization of common schools1  and 
in a dozen others permanent school funds
 had been established1 an  influential  
minority of leading citizens were       
constantly advocating  universal        

education1 and public interest in the   
matter was evidently  increasing4 ,but  
the consummation of a regular system was
 still much  hindered by sectarian      
jealousies1 by the conception of public 
schools  as institutions for paupers and
 the consequent custom of allowing      
private schools to share in public      
funds1 by the unwillingness of the      
wealthy to be taxed locally for the     
benefit of other people's children1     
and1 in ,new ,england1 by the division  
of the system into autonomous  districts
 and the interference of petty politics4
 ,hence1 while much  progress had been  
made since the early days of            
#8transplantation'  of ,european ideals 
and institutions1 there was still much  
need of  the expansion and further      
democratization that now began to       
appear4  ,of the rapid development that 
took place during this final period  of 
,americanization1 much was accomplished 
before the middle of the  nineteenth    
century1 but educational progress       

continued through the  final decade4    
,sidenote3 ,storm center of #8revival'  
in ,massachusetts and ,connecticut4     
,sidenote3 ,efforts to establish a      
training institution4    ,early ,leaders
 in the ,common ,school ,revival4--,the 
educational  awakening with which the   
beginning of this third period seems to 
be  marked1 has been generally known as 
#8the common school revival4' ,it  first
 became evident during the latter part  
of the decade between #ahcj  and #ahdj1 
and had its storm center in             
,massachusetts and ,connecticut4  ,while
 it greatly furthered the cause of      
public education everywhere1  because of
 the decadence into which ,new ,england 
had fallen1 the demand  for an          
educational awakening was strongest     
there4 ,in this revival  the most       
conspicuous figure was probably ,horace 
,mann1 but there were  several leaders  
in the field before him1 many were      
contemporaneous1 and  the work was      
expanded and deepened by others of      

distinction long after  he withdrew from
 the scene4 ,for a score of years before
 ,mann appeared1  definite preparation  
for the movement had been in progress1  
and the  labors of the individuals and  
associations engaged in these endeavors 
should be briefly noted4 ,many of the   
reformers seem to have recommended  an  
improvement in methods through the      
creation of an institution for  training
 teachers1 thus anticipating one of the 
greatest achievements  of ,mann4 ,actual
 attempts at a private normal school    
were even made  by the ,reverend ,samuel
 ,r4 ,hall at ,concord1 ,vermont        
7#ahbc71 ,andover1  ,massachusetts      
7#ahcj71 and ,plymouth1 ,new ,hampshire 
7#ahcg74    ,sidenote3 ,articles in     
educational journals4    ,sidenote3     
,reports on ,european education4    ,a  
number of educational journals1         
moreover1 published articles  on        
schoolbooks1 the methods of ,lancaster1 
,pestalozzi1 ,neef1 and  ,fellenberg1   
the infant and ,sunday schools1 physical

 education1  ,european school systems1  
and a variety of other timely topics and
  reforms4 ,among these progressive     
publications were the ,american         
,journal of ,education1 edited by       
,william ,russell from #ahbf-ahcj1  and 
then continued from #ahca to #ahci1 as  
the ,american ,annals of  ,education    
under the editorship of ,william ,c4    
,woodbridge1 and the  ,quarterly        
,register1 published #ahbh-ahdc by the  
#8,american ,educational  ,society4'    
,the latest ,european ideas were also   
reported from first-hand  observation by
 a number who had gone abroad to        
investigate4 ,the most  influential of  
these reports was ,a ,year in ,europe1  
written in #ahai by  ,professor ,john   
,griscom 7see p4 #bib71 who was a       
lecturer before several  ,new ,york     
associations1 including the ,public     
,school ,society4 ,almost as  widely    
read were the reports of ,william ,c4   
,woodbridge in #ahbd1 and of  ,professor
 ,calvin ,e4 ,stowe of ,lane            

,theological ,seminary1 ,cincinnati1 in 
#ahcf4    ,sidenote3 ,advocated normal  
schools1    ,sidenote3 and secured town 
school committees1    ,sidenote3 support
 of high schools1    ,sidenote3 and the 
,state ,board of ,education4    ,work of
 ,james ,g4 ,carter4--,all these        
movements indicate the  educational     
ferment that was going on4 ,but the     
predecessor of ,mann1  who accomplished 
most for the common schools1 and        
influenced that  reformer most directly1
 was ,james ,g4 ,carter 7#agie-ahdi74   
,carter 7,fig4  #cg7 was a practical    
teacher and wrote continually on the    
need of a  training institution to      
improve instruction in the public       
schools4  ,these appeals proved very    
successful1 and earned him the title of 
#8father of the normal schools4' ,after 
being elected to the legislature1  he   
accomplished much by his zeal and skill 
in parliamentary tactics4  ,in #ahbf he 
secured an act by which each town as a  
whole was required  to choose a regular 

committee1 instead of the ministers and 
selectmen1  to supervise the schools1   
choose text-books1 and examine1 certify1
  and employ the teachers4 ,but the     
effect of this enactment was largely    
lost the following year by allowing the 
districts1 as a compromise1  to choose a
 committeeman1 who should appoint the   
teachers4 ,in #ahbf he  placed secondary
 education1 then largely conducted by   
academies1 more  under public control   
through a law requiring each town of    
five hundred  families to support a free
 ,english high school 7,fig4 #da71 and  
every one  of four thousand inhabitants 
to maintain a classical high school4    
,next1  in #ahcd1 ,carter succeeded in  
getting a state school fund established 
from the proceeds of the sale of lands  
in the province of ,maine and the       
state's claims against the federal      
government for military services4  ,but 
his most fruitful victory was won in    
#ahcg1 when he procured the  passage of 
the bill for a ,state ,board of         

,education1 after it had been  once     
defeated1 by inducing the house to      
discuss it in #8committee of the        
whole4'    ,sidenote3 ,peculiarly fitted
 by heredity and training4    ,horace   
,mann as ,secretary of the              
,massachusetts ,board4--,by reason  of  
his merits as an educator1 his          
persistent efforts in behalf of         
educational reform1 and his advocacy of 
the bill1 it was assumed by  most people
 that ,carter would be chosen secretary 
of the new board4 ,to  their surprise1 a
 lawyer named ,horace ,mann             
7#agif-ahei71 at that time  president of
 the senate1 was selected for the post1 
but the choice is  now known to have    
been most fortunate4 ,by both heredity  
and training  ,mann 7,fig4 #ch7 was     
suffused with an interest in humanity   
and all  phases of philanthropy and     
education4 ,he possessed a happy        
combination  of lofty ideals1           
intelligence1 courage1 enthusiasm1 and  
legislative  experience1 which equipped 

him admirably for leadership in         
educational  reform4 ,the law proposed  
for the new ,board of ,education        
numerous  duties in the way of          
collecting and spreading information    
concerning  the common schools and of   
making suggestions for the improvement  
and  extension of public education1 but 
it provided no real powers1 and the     
permanence and influence of the board   
depended almost wholly upon the         
intelligence and character of the new   
,secretary4    ,sidenote3 ,effected his 
reforms by educational campaigns1       
,sidenote3 ,annual ,reports1            
,sidenote3 ,school ,journal1            
,sidenote3 school libraries1            
,sidenote3 and state normal schools4    
,during his twelve years in the office1 
,mann subserved the interests of  the   
state most faithfully4 ,to awaken the   
people1 he made an educational  campaign
 through every portion of the state each
 year1 but an even more  effective means
 of disseminating his reforms was found 

in his series  of ,annual ,reports4     
,these documents were by law to give    
information  concerning existing        
conditions and the progress made in the 
efficiency  of public education each    
year1 and they deal with practically    
every  educational topic of importance  
at the time4 ,sometimes they seem       
commonplace1 but it must be remembered  
that they were not so then1 and  that   
the work of ,mann did much to render    
them familiar4 ,they vitally  affected  
school conditions everywhere in ,new    
,england1 and were read  with great     
interest in all parts of the ,united    
,states1 and even in  ,europe4 ,he also 
published semi-monthly the              
,massachusetts ,common ,school          
,journal1 to spread information         
concerning school improvement1 school   
law1 and the proceedings of the ,state  
,board4 ,but it consisted of only       
sixteen pages1 and was not as valuable  
as some of the educational  journals    
that had preceded it 7see pp4 #cjd f474 

,another medium in the  improvement of  
educational facilities was ,mann's      
general establishment  of school        
libraries by state subsidy throughout   
,massachusetts4 ,but  probably the most 
permanent means of propagating his      
reforms came  through securing the      
foundation of the first public normal   
schools in  this country4 ,massachusetts
 was in #ahch induced to establish three
  schools1 so located that all parts of 
the state might be equally  served4 ,the
 course in each school consisted in a   
review of the common  branches from the 
teaching point of view1 work in         
educational theory1  and training in a  
practice school under supervision1 and1 
while not  largely attended1 these      
institutions were a great success from  
the  start4    ,sidenote3 ,opposed by   
,boston schoolmasters1    ,sidenote3 the
 ultra-orthodox1 and other              
reactionaries4    ,the arduous and      
unremitting labors of ,mann in          
instituting and promoting  the various  

means of school reform made the greatest
 inroad upon his  strength and financial
 resources4 ,moreover1 he was for years 
violently  assailed by reactionaries of 
all types4 ,his controversy with the    
,boston  schoolmasters was especially   
sharp4 ,mann's ,seventh ,annual ,report 
7#ahdc7 gave an account of his visit to 
foreign schools1 especially  those of   
,germany1 and praised with great warmth 
the #8,pestalozzian' 7see  p4 #bhi7     
instruction without text-books1 the     
enthusiastic teachers1  the absence of  
artificial rivalry1 and the mild        
discipline in the  ,prussian system4    
,the report did not stigmatize the      
conservatism of the  ,boston schools or 
bring them into comparison with those of
 ,berlin1  but the cap fitted4 ,the     
pedagogues were disquieted1 and         
proceeded to  answer savagely4 ,but when
 the smoke of battle had cleared away1  
it was  seen that the leaders of the old
 order had been completely routed4  ,a  
more insidious attack was that led by   

the ultra-orthodox4 ,the old  schools of
 the ,puritans1 with their dogmatic     
religious teaching1 had  been steadily  
fading for more than a century before   
the new board had  been inaugurated1 but
 many narrow people were inclined to    
charge this  disappearance to the       
reformer1 whose liberal attitude in     
religion was  well known4 ,the assaults1
 however1 were vigorously and           
successfully  repelled by the           
,secretary4 ,and while these            
controversies wore ,mann out  and       
probably led ultimately to his          
resignation1 they had much to do  with  
making his reputation as a great        
educator4 ,they have even caused  us at 
times to forget that he was but a       
striking figure in a general  movement4 
,men like ,carter were in the field long
 before him1 and his  co-worker1        
,barnard1 served the cause of education 
for nearly half a  century after ,mann  
withdrew4    ,sidenote3 ,universal and  
free education1    ,sidenote3 with      

character as chief aim2    ,sidenote3   
material equipment1    ,sidenote3       
scientific methods1    ,sidenote3       
trained teachers1    ,sidenote3 and     
practical studies4    ,the ,educational 
,suggestions and ,achievements of       
,mann4--,in surveying  his educational  
positions1 we find ,mann's foremost     
proposition was  that education should  
be universal and free4 ,girls should be 
trained  as well as boys1 and the poor  
should have the same opportunities as   
the rich4 ,public schools should furnish
 education of such a quality  that the  
wealthy would not regard private        
institutions as superior4  ,this        
universal education1 however1 should    
have as its chief aim moral  character  
and social efficiency1 and not mere     
erudition1 culture1 and                 
accomplishments4 ,and morality1 he felt1
 would not be accomplished  by          
inculcating sectarian doctrines4 ,mann  
was1 however1 mainly a  practical1      
rather than a theoretical reformer1 and 

to the material  side of education he   
gave serious attention4 ,he declared    
that school  buildings should be well   
constructed and sanitary4 ,this matter  
seemed  to him so important that he     
wrote a special report upon the subject 
during his first year in office4 ,he    
carefully discussed the proper  plans   
for rooms1 ventilation1 lighting1       
seating1 and other schoolhouse          
features1 and insisted that the         
inadequate and squalid conditions  which
 existed should be improved4 ,as to     
methods1 he maintained that  instruction
 should be based upon scientific        
principles1 and not upon  authority and 
tradition4 ,he advocated the word method
 of reading1 in  the place of the       
uneconomical1 artificial1 and           
ineffective method of  the alphabet1 and
 the ,pestalozzian object methods and   
oral instruction  were introduced by    
him4 ,he held that the work should be   
guided by  able teachers1 who had been  
trained in a normal school1 and should  

be  imparted in a spirit of mildness and
 kindness through an understanding  of  
child nature4 ,in the matter of the     
studies to be pursued1 ,mann was        
inclined to be exceedingly practical4   
,in discussing educational values1  he  
failed to see any reason 8why algebra1 a
 branch which not one man  in a thousand
 ever has occasion to use in the        
business of life1 should  be studied by 
more than twenty-three hundred pupils1  
and bookkeeping1  which every man1 even 
the day laborer1 should understand1     
should be  attended to by only a little 
more than half that number40 ,similarly1
  he holds that of all subjects1 save   
the rudiments1 physiology should        
receive the most attention4             
,sidenote3 ,doubled appropriations for  
public education2 increased  salaries1  
length of the school year1 and the      
number of high schools2    ,sidenote3   
and effected other reforms4    ,in order
 that these various reforms might be    
realized1 ,mann insisted  frequently    

that the state should spare no labor or 
expense4 ,but in a  republic he felt    
that 8education can never be attained   
without the  consent of the whole       
people40 ,it was a general elevation of 
ideals1  effort1 and expenditure that he
 sought1 and for which he began his     
crusade4 ,and the general progress that 
resulted in this period covers  a wide  
range4 ,during his secretaryship the    
appropriations made for  public         
education in ,massachusetts were more   
than doubled1 and the  proportion of    
expenditure for private schools in the  
state was1 in  consequence1 reduced from
 seventy-five to thirty-six per cent of 
the  total cost of education4 ,the      
salaries of masters in the public       
schools  were raised sixty-two per cent1
 and1 although the number of women      
teachers had grown fifty-four per cent1 
the average of their salaries  also     
increased fifty-one per cent4 ,the      
school attendance enormously  expanded1 
and a full month was added to the       

average school year4 ,when  ,mann's     
administration began1 but fourteen out  
of forty-three towns had  complied with 
the high school law of #ahbf1 but1 by   
the middle of the  century1 fifty new   
high schools had been established4 ,the 
efficiency  of supervision was largely  
increased by making the compensation of 
the  town visiting committees1          
established through ,carter1 compulsory 
by  law4 ,the first state normal schools
 at last appeared1 and teachers'        
institutes1 county associations1 and    
public school libraries were given      
general popularity4 ,quite as marked was
 the improvement effected in the  range 
and serviceability of the school        
studies1 in text-books1 methods  of     
teaching1 and discipline4 ,thus under   
the leadership of ,horace ,mann a       
practically unorganized set of schools1 
with diverse aims and methods1  was     
welded into a well-ordered system with  
high ideals1 and the people  of         
,massachusetts renewed their faith in   

the common schools4    ,sidenote3 ,a    
systematic exposition of ,european      
education needed1    ,sidenote3 and     
,barnard specially qualified to make it4
    ,henry ,barnard's ,part in the      
,educational ,awakening4--,but there    
was another important contribution to   
the awakening made by a ,new            
,englander1 which was of a rather       
different nature from that connected    
with the influence of ,horace ,mann4    
,before that reconstruction of the      
common schools1 which was responsible   
for the best elements in our  national  
civilization1 could be at all complete1 
it was necessary  that ,america should  
have a better comprehension of what was 
being  done in education elsewhere4 ,the
 ,united ,states had for two centuries  
been undergoing a gradual transition    
from the institutional types            
transplanted from ,england and the      
,continent in colonial days1 and was    
coming more and more to blossom out into
 democracy and the people's  schools1   

but for a long time there was little    
knowledge of what was  being done by the
 other countries that had by this time  
adopted  similar ideals4 ,conceptions of
 universal and democratic education  and
 of improved organization and methods   
had been slowly developing  in ,prussia 
and other ,german states1 and had       
extended to ,france and  elsewhere4 ,a  
literature connected with the advanced  
theories of such  reformers as          
,rousseau1 the philanthropists1         
,pestalozzi1 and ,fellenberg  had       
likewise grown up in ,europe4 ,it was   
very important that ,america1  now      
keenly alive to the need of educational 
reorganization1 should  become          
acquainted with all this1 that the ,new 
,world might secure the  advantages of  
comparison1 corroboration1 and expansion
 of view from  the work of older        
civilized peoples4 ,some reports on     
foreign education  and translations of  
,european treatises had already appeared
 7pp4 #cjd  f471 but the time was now   

ripe for a more extensive and systematic
  exposition of ,european education and 
its application to popular  education in
 ,america1 and for a really capable     
scholar to bring these  world views     
within the grasp of all classes of      
teachers and educational  authorities4  
,this literary representative of the    
awakening appeared at  length in ,henry 
,barnard 7#ahaa-aijj71 who is fully     
worthy of a place in  the educational   
pantheon of ,america4 ,barnard 7,fig4   
#ci7 made a brilliant  record at ,yale  
for general scholarship1 and a position 
as assistant  librarian during his last 
two years in college did much to afford 
him a  wide grasp of bibliography4      
,after graduation1 he obtained a        
valuable  experience in teaching1 and1  
by travelling extensively in ,america   
and  ,europe1 formed a broad            
acquaintance with educational           
institutions1  libraries1 galleries1 and
 social conditions in all the leading   
states  and nations4    ,illustration3  

,fig4 #cg--;,james ,g4 ,carter          
7#agie-ahdi74    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ch4--;,horace ,mann 7#agif-ahei74      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--;,henry      
,barnard 7#ahaa-aijj74    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #dj4--;,francis ,w ,parker       
7#ahca-aijb74    ,,great ,,american     
,,educators    ,sidenote3 ,untoward     
educational conditions in ,connecticut1 
,sidenote3 and ,barnard's attempt to    
reform2    ,sidenote3 ,school ,journal  
,sidenote3 and publication of           
educational material4    ,barnard as    
,secretary of the ,connecticut ,state   
,board4--,two years after  ,barnard's   
return to ,connecticut1 he began his    
part in the educational  awakening as   
,secretary of the new ,state ,board of  
,commissioners of  ,common ,schools1 and
 undertook to do a work similar to that 
of ,mann  in ,massachusetts4 ,throughout
 the eighteenth century ,connecticut    
schools had been among the most         
efficient in the country1 but since  the
 income from the ,western ,reserve lands

 had begun in #agih1 and  especially    
since this had been increased by the    
,united ,states deposit  fund in #ahcf1 
public education had steadily declined4 
,a state tax was  still maintained1 but 
all local effort was paralyzed through  
lack  of exercise4 ,another factor in   
producing this decline was connected    
with the transferal of the management of
 the common schools from the  town to   
the #8school society1' which was a      
species of district1 almost  identical  
with the parish of each ,congregational 
church4 ,the results  of this ruinous   
policy had been revealed in an          
investigation made by  the legislature1 
which showed that not one-half of the   
children of  school age were attending  
the common schools1 and that the        
teachers  were poorly trained and       
supervision was neglected4 ,barnard at  
once  began to urge many reforms1 and in
 his reports and the ,connecticut       
,common ,school ,journal made           
suggestions for a complete plan of      

public  education4 ,he also began the   
publication of his rich collection of   
material bearing upon popular training  
at home and abroad4 ,but he was  more a 
scholar and literary man than an        
educational statesman like  ,mann4 ,he  
succeeded in getting the legislature to 
pass several reforms  and a general     
revision and codification of the school 
laws1 and in  arousing several towns to 
amend their educational plans1 although 
the  crucial difficulty of the #8school 
societies' could not be touched1 and    
within four years the conservatives     
succeeded in legislating him out of     
office and in undoing all his reforms4  
,sidenote3 ,radical reforms             
accomplished4    ,commissioner of       
,common ,schools in ,rhode              
,island4--,this gave ,barnard  an       
opportunity to pursue his favorite      
investigations1 and for about a  year   
and a half he was engaged in collecting 
material for a history of  education in 
the ,united ,states4 ,then he was       

persuaded by the governor  of ,rhode    
,island to become the first             
,commissioner of ,common ,schools  for  
that state4 ,while he found in ,rhode   
,island a better educational  sentiment 
and less opposition than in             
,connecticut1 the actual condition  of  
the decentralized and individualistic   
schools was far worse 7see  p4 #bfi74   
,but1 through his assemblies of teachers
 and parents and his  educational       
treatises1 he soon began to convince the
 people of the  unwisdom of district    
organization1 untrained teachers1 short 
terms1  irregular attendance1 poor      
buildings and ventilation1 and meager   
equipment4 ,he also continued to publish
 his collection of educational  material
 through the foundation of the ,rhode   
,island ,school ,journal4  ,as a result 
of his efforts1 when failing health     
compelled him to resign  in #ahdi1 the  
state no longer regarded wilfulness and 
personal opinion  as praiseworthy       
independence1 and he could honestly     

claim that ,rhode  ,island had at the   
time one of the best school systems in  
the ,united  ,states4    ,sidenote3     
,when recalled1 carried out and extended
 his reforms4    ,state ,superintendent 
of ,schools in ,connecticut4--,but the  
clientle  that ,barnard had built up in 
,connecticut continued his reforms and  
constructive work after his departure1  
and improved upon them4 ,in  #ahea1 they
 even succeeded in having him recalled  
virtually to his old  duties4 ,he was   
designated as ,state ,superintendent of 
,common ,schools1  as well as ,principal
 of the ,state ,normal ,school1 which   
had been  established through the       
efforts of his adherents4 ,the state had
 now  learned its error in mingling     
politics with education1 and ,barnard   
was  able to carry out his reforms      
unmolested4 ,through the normal school  
he sent out a great body of trained     
teachers4 ,he revised the school  code1 
checked the power of the #8school       
societies1' consolidated and  simplified

 the organization and administration of 
public education1  made a more equitable
 distribution of the school fund1 and   
encouraged  local taxation4 ,but his    
most distinctive work1 as might be      
expected1  was on the literary side4 ,he
 prepared a valuable series of documents
  upon foreign education1 normal        
schools1 methods of teaching1 school    
architecture1 and other topics1 and a   
long report upon ,the ,history of       
,legislation in ,connecticut ,respecting
 ,common ,schools up to #ahch4          
,sidenote3 ,published at his own        
expense1    ,sidenote3 in thirty-one    
large volumes and fifty-two special     
treatises1    ,sidenote3 accounts of    
educational history and systems1 and    
other  themes4    ,barnard's ,american  
,journal of ,education4--,it was1 too1  
during  the last days of his            
,connecticut superintendency that ,henry
 ,barnard  suggested the establishment  
of a national journal of education4  ,he
 first broached the matter to the       

#8,american ,association for the        
,advancement of ,education' at its      
meeting in ,washington1 ,december1      
#ahed4 ,but the association soon found  
itself unable to pursue this  enterprise
 for lack of financial support1 and in  
,may of the next year  ,barnard began   
the publication of the ,american        
,journal of ,education  at his own      
expense4 ,it was at first planned to run
 the journal for  five years only1 but1 
although the work was somewhat          
interrupted upon  occasions by other    
duties1 it continued for more than a    
generation1  until at length thirty-one 
large octavo volumes1 averaging about   
eight  hundred pages each1 had been     
issued4 ,in addition1 fifty-two special 
treatises reprinted from articles in the
 journal brought the material  together 
in a connected way4 ,besides giving     
nearly all his time to  editing this    
magnum opus1 ,barnard sank his entire   
fortune of #ej1jjj  in its publication4 
,this great treasury of material        

includes every  phase of the history of 
education from the earliest times down  
into  the latter half of the nineteenth 
century4 ,it furnishes accounts of  all 
contemporaneous systems in ,europe and  
,america1 descriptions of  institutions 
for the professional training of        
teachers1 and essays upon  courses of   
study for colleges and technical        
schools1 the education of  defectives   
and delinquents1 physical education1    
school architecture1  great educators1  
and a large variety of other themes4    
,while it is  always most reliable in   
its treatises upon foreign education1 of
 even  greater value is its practical   
grasp of educational life in ,america   
from the beginning4 ,it contains the    
greatest collection of interesting      
monographs upon the development of      
ideals and organization in the  various 
states1 and gives the most complete     
description in literature  of the       
educational life of a nation4           
,sidenote3 ,while in office1 suspended  

his ,journal and embodied               
investigations in his reports4    ,first
 ,united ,states ,commissioner of       
,education4--,in #ahfg ,barnard was     
appointed the first ,united ,states     
,commissioner of ,education4 ,this      
office he had been constantly trying to 
have established ever since  he had     
found1 as ,secretary of the ,connecticut
 ,board1 how absolutely  lacking the    
federal government was in school        
statistics and documents4  ,he hoped    
that1 through the agency of the         
government1 facilities might  be secured
 to collect and publish trustworthy     
educational statistics1  and to issue a 
library of independent treatises4 ,the  
bureau was not  created for many years1 
and then through the immediate          
initiative  of another1 but when        
,barnard was called to the              
commissionership1 he  organized the     
office practically upon the lines he had
 previously  suggested4 ,he suspended   
his ,journal and used the product of his

  investigations in the annual reports  
of the office4 ,he started that         
searching inquiry into the              
administration1 management1 and         
instruction  of institutions of every   
grade1 and into all educational         
societies1  school funds1 legislation1  
architecture1 documents1 and            
benefactions  that has since been       
maintained by the ,bureau of ,education4
 ,however1  within three years a change 
in politics brought a new incumbent into
  the commissionership1 and ,barnard    
gave his literary efforts once more  to 
his beloved ,journal4    ,sidenote3     
,this life work marked him as leading   
representative of the  awakening4       
,value of ,barnard's ,educational       
,collections4--,hence1 ,barnard's real  
life work may be considered the         
collection of a great educational       
compendium4 ,by temperament1 native     
ability1 and habit1 he proved  himself  
well fitted to be the leading           
representative of the literary  side of 

the awakening4 ,through his work        
,american education was1 in its  period 
of greatest development1 granted the    
opportunity of looking  beyond the      
partial and local results of the first  
half century of  national life4 ,it was 
enabled to modify and adapt to its own  
uses the  educational theories1         
practices1 and organizations of the     
leading  civilized peoples1 and to bring
 together for a comparative view        
sections and states that were widely    
separated4 ,barnard's ,american         
,journal of ,education was not intended 
to be a universal encyclopdia  of       
education1 but often includes a         
condensation of important works or  a   
presentation of highly scientific       
methods and profound philosophic        
systems in popular form4 ,it was not    
possible1 either1 to classify  and work 
out a connected and complete historical 
account1 when there  were no reliable   
records or collections of materials in  
existence4 ,it  was necessary that some 

one should first gather the information 
from  newspapers1 pamphlets1 memorials1 
monographs1 and plans1 and publish it   
as it was found4 ,in this way he        
accomplished a more valuable work than  
if he had published a systematic history
 of education in the ,united  ,states4  
,sidenote3 ,the #8revival' was general1 
but its results were most  striking in  
,new ,england4    ,educational          
,development in ,new ,england since the 
,revival4--,this great  storehouse of   
information published by ,barnard and   
the virile efforts  of ,mann and other  
practical leaders were but prominent    
evidences of  the progress that was at  
the time sweeping over the entire       
country4  ,the educational awakening of 
#ahce-ahfj was general and proved one of
  the most fruitful in history4 ,its    
influence was felt in every state1  and 
it led to the third period of ,american 
education1 which has been  characterized
 by the expansion of public schools and 
state educational  systems4 ,during this

 period new ideals of democracy have    
come to be  felt in ,american education1
 and a rapid advance has taken place in 
the evolution of that unique product1   
the ,american public school4 ,in        
describing this development1 we may turn
 first to ,new ,england4    ,sidenote3  
,development since then in              
,massachusetts in universal  education  
and improved schooling4    ,sidenote3   
,death of district system4    ,in       
,massachusetts ,horace ,mann has been   
followed in the central  administration 
by a succession of seven scholarly and  
experienced  educators1 who believed as 
firmly as he that all stages of         
education  below the college should be  
open at public expense without let or   
hindrance to the richest and poorest    
child alike4 ,since the revival the     
state has seen a steady growth of       
sentiment for universal education  and  
improved schooling1 and never again has 
such an upheaval of the  educational    
strata been necessary4 ,the income of   

the state school fund  and additional   
appropriations have been steadily       
increased1 their  apportionment among   
the towns has been rendered more        
equitable from  time to time1 and an    
effort has constantly been made to      
distribute them  in such a way as to    
encourage local effort and coperation4  
,the school  term has been lengthened to
 ten months and the average attendance  
of pupils to seven years4 ,the          
improvements in school buildings1       
sanitation1 and equipment have steadily 
advanced4 ,the district system  died    
hard1 and not until #ahhb was it        
altogether forced out of existence4     
,sidenote3 ,growth of high schools1     
superintendents1    ,sidenote3 and      
teacher training4    ,most of the       
academies1 too1 which proved such a     
hindrance to the  development of public 
secondary education1 gradually died or  
were  merged in the public system as    
high schools4 ,by means of state aid1 it
  has been possible since #aijc for the 

smallest towns to afford a high  school 
training for their children at public   
expense4 ,supervision has  also become  
universal during the past quarter       
century4 ,springfield  first introduced 
a superintendent of schools in #ahda1   
,gloucester in  #ahej1 ,boston in #ahea1
 and the other cities much later1 but   
since #ahhh1  through increasing state  
aid and the combination of smaller towns
 into  a district superintendency1      
expert supervision has become possible  
everywhere1 and during the last decade  
it has been compulsory4 ,the  normal    
schools1 which have now increased to    
ten1 have brought about  a striking     
improvement in teaching4 ,it is         
practically impossible at  present for  
an untrained teacher to secure a        
position in the elementary  schools of  
,massachusetts1 and1 through a system of
 examinations and  investigations1      
teachers of exceptional ability have1   
since #ahif1 been  granted an extra     
weekly allowance by the state4 ,since   

the middle of  the century1 the state   
board has been permitted to appoint a   
number of  agents1 to assist in         
inspecting and improving the schools1   
especially  in the smaller towns and    
rural districts4    ,sidenote3 ,similar 
development in ,connecticut1 ,rhode     
,island1 and other  ,new ,england       
states4    ,the course of development   
since the awakening has been very       
similar  in the other ,new ,england     
states4 ,the successors of ,barnard in  
the  central administration both in     
,rhode ,island and ,connecticut have    
been  skilled and earnest educators1    
and1 while their reports lacked his     
literary touch1 they were of rather more
 practical character4 ,until  #ahef1    
,connecticut made no attempt to return  
from the parish to the town             
organization4 ,even then1 as well as    
later1 legislation on the subject  was  
#8permissive1' and not until the        
twentieth century was the #8school      
society1' or district system1 given up  

in half of the towns4 ,in ,rhode        
,island1 even after ,barnard's reforms1 
almost one-third of the districts  did  
not own their school buildings1 owing to
 the survival of the method  in use when
 the schools were private1 but this     
condition has gradually  been remedied4 
,likewise1 the number of towns levying  
sufficient local  taxes to secure a     
share in the state apportionment rapidly
 grew1  and the state appropriation     
itself doubled and quadrupled within a  
generation4 ,in ,vermont1 ,new          
,hampshire1 and ,maine1 owing to        
insufficient  wealth1 infertility of    
soil1 and sparseness of population1     
effective  public education has been    
reached only by slow and cautious steps4
  ,but even these states have gradually 
centralized their educational           
administration through the abolition of 
the district system and  the creation at
 various times of a state               
superintendent1 a state  commissioner1  
or a state board and secretary4 ,this   

reorganization has  been followed by    
increased state school funds and        
appropriations1 more  systematic        
statistics and reports from the schools1
 and great advances  in universalizing  
and improving all stages of public      
education4    ,sidenote3 ,increased     
enthusiasm for public education in      
,middle states4    ,influence of the    
,awakening upon the ,middle             
,states4--,although this  awakened      
sentiment for education and progress in 
the common school  has been most patent 
and spectacular in ,new ,england1 it has
 not  been peculiar to that part of the 
country4 ,nearly all of the other       
states seem to have felt the influence  
of the awakening4 ,in close  conjunction
 with the #8revival' in ,new ,england1  
the movement appeared  in ,new ,york1   
especially the western part1 and was    
more or less  evident in ,pennsylvania1 
,new ,jersey1 and ,delaware4 ,but       
because of its  cosmopolitanism and the 
need of fusing so many different        

political1  religious1 and industrial   
traditions1 the older parts of ,new     
,york1  where the school system had     
until the awakening been rather in      
advance  of other states1 did not       
progress as rapidly in the development  
of  public education as ,massachusetts  
and ,connecticut4 ,it had1 however1 by  
the time of the ,civil ,war1 succeeded  
in working over its heterogeneous       
people into a unified civilization and  
in causing their children to be         
educated together for a common          
citizenship4    ,sidenote3 ,new ,york's 
advances in normal training1            
supervision1 and  school funds4         
,sidenote3 ,board of education in ,new  
,york ,city4    ,the most distinct      
advances during this period of final    
organization  have been in the          
establishment of state normal schools1  
instead of  subsidizing academies to    
train teachers1 in the administration   
and  supervision of the system1 and in  
the methods of state support of         

education4 ,the first state normal      
school was opened at ,albany in #ahdd1  
and this pioneer institution has        
eventually been followed by ten  others4
 ,in #ahed the state superintendency had
 once more been separated  from the     
secretaryship of state1 with which it   
had been combined for  thirty-five years
 7p4 #bei74 ,in #ahef local supervision 
was established  through the appointment
 of school commissioners for the cities 
and  villages4 ,in the same year1 a     
three-quarters of a mill tax was placed 
upon the property valuation of the      
state1 and during the next dozen  years 
many improvements were made in the      
disbursing and accounting of  public    
funds4 ,at length1 in #ahfg1 the long   
fight that had been made  for entirely  
free education was successful4 ,until   
then nearly fifty  thousand children had
 been deprived of all education1 because
 their  parents were too proud to secure
 payment of their tuition fees by       
confessing themselves paupers4 ,it was  

during this era of progress1  too1 that 
,new ,york ,city was1 in #ahdb1 allowed 
to place the direction  of its schools  
in the hands of a board of education1   
elected by the  people1 instead of      
giving over the city's share of the     
state funds to  a quasi-public society1 
controlled by a close corporation4 ,for 
eleven  years1 however1 the ,public     
,school ,society refused to give up its 
work1  but by #ahec it decided to       
disband and merge its buildings and     
funds  with those of the city school    
system 7see p4 #bfa74    ,sidenote3     
,pennsylvania abolished permissive      
feature of its school law1    ,sidenote3
 made state educational system complete1
 and provided system  of normal schools4
    ,pennsylvania was slower than ,new  
,york in showing the effects of the     
educational awakening1 but the leaven   
was at work4 ,while a number of         
progressive governors and other         
statesmen continually recommended the   
development of public education1 and the

 #8,pennsylvania ,society for the       
,promotion of ,common ,schools' had been
 organized1 the towering leader  in this
 movement was ,thomas ,h4 ,burrowes4 ,as
 secretary of state and ex  officio     
superintendent of schools 7#ahcf-ahch71 
as a public speaker  and educational    
journalist 7#ahch-ahfj71 and as state   
superintendent  7#ahfj-ahfb71 he        
constantly urged a complete system of   
public education1  the establishment of 
normal schools1 a separate state        
department of  education1 and the       
organization of state and county        
supervision4 ,in  #ahdi the             
#8permissive' feature of the law of     
#ahcd was abolished1 and the  two       
hundred districts that had thus far     
refused to establish public  schools    
were forced to do so under the new      
provisions4 ,in #ahed a  revised school 
law was passed1 which1 after twenty     
years1 now made the  state system of    
education complete4 ,it established in  
the secretary of  state's office a      

deputy superintendent of schools1 who   
had virtually  a separate department1   
and provided for county superintendents4
  ,three years later the state          
educational department became absolutely
  independent under the care of a       
superintendent1 and provision was  made 
for a system of normal schools4 ,these  
institutions were to be  established at 
first by private enterprise and without 
state subsidy4  ,by #ahgg there were ten
 in operation1 largely maintained by the
 state4  ,three others have since been  
added1 and the state has begun to take  
over into its own hands the entire      
support and control of them all4        
,sidenote3 ,advances in ,new ,jersey    
rapid1 when once started4    ,sidenote3 
,delaware slower1 but now making        
progress4    ,educational progress in   
,new ,jersey also took some time to get 
under  way1 but when the reforms once   
started1 they continued until an        
excellent system of common schools had  
been inaugurated4 ,in #ahch the         

limitation of state funds to the        
education of the poor was removed1  and 
the apportionment of the income from    
them was thereafter applied  only to    
public schools4 ,since #ahdh1 when a    
state superintendency was  established1 
the development has been more rapid4    
,county supervision  has been           
introduced1 state normal schools have   
been established at  ,trenton and ,upper
 ,montclair1 and appropriations have    
been greatly  increased4 ,in #aiaa a    
state commissioner of education with an 
efficient  corps of deputies was        
provided4 ,delaware1 on the other hand1 
failed to  live up to the possibilities 
under her early #8permissive' laws4     
,even  the organization of #8the friends
 of common school education' showed     
itself very conservative1 and would not 
advocate the creation of a  state       
superintendency or the establishment of 
state normal schools4 ,in  fact1        
,delaware did not organize a complete   
state system until after  the war4 ,even

 then1 while a state board and state    
superintendency were  established in    
#ahge1 there were no county             
superintendents1 and when  county       
supervision was introduced in #ahhh1 the
 state superintendency  was abolished4  
,it was not restablished until #aiab1   
but since then the  state system has    
made evident progress4    ,sidenote3 ,in
 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois1        
opponents of public  education overcome1
 and state system established4          
,public ,education in the ,west4--,the  
budding of a common school  system1     
which had just begun to appear in the   
new commonwealths of  the ,northwest    
before #ahdj1 rapidly unfolded into full
 blossom during  this educational       
springtime4 ,through this awakening the 
common school  advocates in ,ohio1      
,indiana1 and ,illinois were greatly    
aided in their  struggle to overcome the
 opposition of settlers from the states 
not  committed to public education 7see 
p4 #bgb71 and they were favored to  some

 extent by accessions of emigrants from 
the home of the public  school movement4
 ,during the decade just preceding the  
middle of the  century1 there was a     
decided elevation of public sentiment   
going on4  ,under the leadership of     
,samuel ,lewis and ,samuel ,galloway in 
,ohio1  ,caleb ,mills in ,indiana1 and  
,ninian ,w4 ,edwards in ,illinois1 the  
friends  of public education had        
marshalled themselves for battle4       
,reports  and memorials were constantly 
presented to the legislatures of these  
states1 and public addresses in behalf  
of common schools were frequent  in most
 large communities4 ,a group of devoted 
schoolmen appeared1  who were as        
successful in lobbying for good         
legislation as they were  with          
institutes and public lectures4 ,while  
reactions occasionally  happened1 like  
that in ,ohio between #ahdj and #ahde1  
when the state  superintendency was     
temporarily abolished1 public education 
gradually  came to be regarded as       

something more than merely free         
education for  the poor1 and public     
school funds were no longer granted as a
 subsidy  to private institutions4      
,after a quarter century of             
#8permissive' laws1  local taxation and 
free common schools were fully realized 
in all three  states early in the       
fifties4 ,the contest1 of course1 was   
not ended1 as  reactionary elements1    
with selfish1 local1 and sectarian      
interests1  still remained1 but their   
contentions have never again been more  
than  partially successful4 ,new        
features of the common schools1 such as 
efficient teachers for the rural        
districts1 county supervision1 state    
normal training1 and free higher        
education in state universities1 have   
gradually rendered the state systems    
more consistent and complete4           
,sidenote3 ,michigan early provided for 
schools1 and soon developed high  and   
normal schools4    ,in ,michigan1 on the
 other hand1 where there was not such a 

mixture  of population1 and a complete  
sympathy with the common school idea    
appeared1 there was almost unhampered   
progress from the beginning of          
statehood4 ,under the first constitution
 7#ahcg71 there was provision  made for 
a permanent school fund and for a local 
tax in every district1  although the    
schools were partly maintained until    
#ahfi by #8rate  bills' collected from  
the pupils4 ,in accordance with the     
grant of two  townships of land by      
,congress in #ahbf for a university1 the
 first  legislature of the new state    
established the ,university of ,michigan
  7,fig4 #db71 and its doors were open  
to students in #ahda4 ,it soon became   
the most prominent of the state         
universities4 ,there was also provided  
a system of #8branches' of the          
university1 whereby a liberal grant was 
made for an academy in any county that  
would furnish suitable buildings  and a 
sum equal to the appropriation from the 
state4 ,as this proved  a dissipation of

 the university funds1 it was gradually 
stopped1 and  between #aheb and #ahfj   
#8union' and high schools were rapidly  
developed  to supply the means of       
fitting for the university4 ,in #ahej a 
state  normal school was founded1 and   
four others have since been added4      
,sidenote3 ,rapidity of development and 
triumph of common school idea in  the   
,west4    ,in all the other territory   
acquired or purchased by the ,united    
,states  in its westward expansion1 the 
educational history has been very       
similar to that in the first states of  
the ,northwest4 ,progress in  common    
school sentiment has been made pari     
passu with the settlement  of the       
country4 ,each state1 upon admission1   
has received its sixteenth  section of  
school land and two townships for a     
university1 and in  the states admitted 
since #ahdh the endowment of schools has
 been  increased to two sections1 while 
,texas1 which had been an independent   
republic 7#ahcf-ahde71 stipulated before

 becoming a state that it should  retain
 sole possession of its public lands1   
and has set aside for  education nearly 
two and one-half millions of acres4     
,hence in the first  constitution of    
each state1 permanent school and        
university funds1  together with a      
regular organization of the schools of  
the state1 have  generally been         
provided4 ,in few cases have sectarian  
interests been  able to delay or injure 
the growth of common schools in any of  
the  later commonwealths1 and the       
interpretation of public education as   
schools for the children of paupers has 
never seriously influenced the  ,west4  
,sidenote3 ,awakening felt1 but with    
approach of ,civil ,war1    ,sidenote3  
progress stopped1 and facilities wrecked
 at close of the  war4    ,organization 
of ,state ,systems in the ,south4--,thus
 through the  awakening of common       
schools that occurred throughout the    
union from  #ahce to #ahfj was the      
old-time country and city district      

school of  the ,north gradually lifted  
up to the present system of graded free 
elementary1 secondary1 and normal       
schools1 together with city and state   
universities4 ,but these results were   
not at first as fully realized in  the  
,south1 because of the approach and     
precipitation of the dreadful           
internecine conflict that weighed down  
and finally prostrated the  resources of
 that section4 ,however1 except for this
 impending calamity1  the conditions in 
the ,south were not essentially         
different from those  in any other      
section4 ,during the earlier years of   
the awakening1 and in  some states up to
 the very verge of the ,civil ,war1     
great progress in  public education was 
noticeable4 ,the attendance in the      
common schools1  established in several 
states by #8permissive' legislation1 had
 been  rapidly growing for a score of   
years1 and there was an increasing body 
of prominent men desirous of enlarging  
popular education4 ,during the  early   

forties there were many efforts and     
suggestions for a system  of public     
schools1 and several conventions were   
held in the interest  of such           
institutions4 ,north ,carolina actually 
established a state  system in #ahci4   
,tennessee 7#ahch-ahdc7 and ,kentucky   
7#ahch7 made less  enduring efforts     
toward a similar organization1 and as   
late as #aheh  ,georgia took a distinct 
step forward in this direction4         
,moreover1 even  in their secession     
conventions some states1 like ,georgia1 
adopted  resolutions or constitutional  
amendments looking to the education of  
the people1 and ,north ,carolina in     
#ahfc1 with the union army actually  at 
its doors1 undertook to grade the       
schools and provide for the  training of
 teachers4 ,but1 in general1 as the     
impending conflict drew  near1 attention
 to educational progress was forced to  
give way to the  preservation of state  
and home1 and after the war1 which      
crushed and  ravaged nearly every       

portion of the ,south1 educational      
facilities had  for the most part been  
totally wrecked4    ,sidenote3 ,need of 
universal education realized and        
struggles to attain  it4                
,nevertheless1 in the end the war served
 as a stimulus to common  schools4 ,it  
brought about a complete overturn of the
 old social and  industrial order1 and  
the ,south realized more fully than ever
 that  it could arise from its desperate
 material and educational plight  only  
through the institution of universal    
education4 ,as early as  #ahfe1 school  
systems were organized in the border    
states1--,maryland1  ,kentucky1         
,missouri1 and ,west ,virginia1 and even
 during the harsh and  unhappy days of  
#8reconstruction' 7#ahfg-ahgf71 efforts 
were made  in other states to build up  
systems of free public education4 ,the  
organization of education became more   
thorough and mandatory than  before the 
war4 ,all children1 white and colored1  
were to attend school  between six and  

twenty-one1 and the term was to last    
from four to six  months each year4     
,property and poll taxation were        
established for  the support of the     
schools4 ,a state superintendent and    
state board  of education1 county       
commissioners and a county board1 and   
trustees  in each district1 were        
provided for4 ,text-book commissions    
were  often established1 and free books 
were granted to poor children4 ,the     
foundation for a real system was thus   
laid4    ,sidenote3 ,obstacles that had 
to be overcome4    ,sidenote3 ,peabody  
,educational ,fund and other            
encouragement4    ,this was a tremendous
 undertaking1 and shows the greatest    
courage  and executive ability upon the 
part of the ,south4 ,property had been  
diminished in valuation to the extent of
 nearly two billion dollars1  and there 
were two million children to be         
educated4 ,moreover1 under the          
reconstruction rgime1 the tax on        
property was often not collected1 and   

the appropriations for education        
remained on paper4 ,indifference and    
inexperience were aggravated by the fear
 that #8mixed' schools would be  forced 
upon the white population by a          
reconstruction legislature or a         
,congress with millennial zeal in behalf
 of universal brotherhood4 ,these       
obstacles1 together with misdirected    
effort upon the part of ,northern       
missionaries1 and other serious         
interferences1 for fully a decade       
constituted an enormous stumbling-block4
 ,several factors1 however1  aided and  
encouraged the ,south in its efforts4   
,of these the most  important was the   
foundation in #ahfg of the ,peabody     
,educational ,fund  of #b1jjj1jjj1 well 
characterized as 8a gift to the         
suffering ,south  for the good of the   
,union40 ,this fund was placed in the   
management of  the wisest and most      
sympathetic agents1 who appealed to the 
higher  sentiment of the communities and
 the states1 and granted the assistance 

necessary to stimulate local effort in  
education4 ,when the fund proved        
insufficient for the great task1 the    
trustees pleaded with ,congress for  an 
additional subsidy1 and made the whole  
country aware of the crying  needs of   
education in the ,south4 ,through these 
appeals1 more than ten  million dollars 
from various sources have since been    
granted to the  different grades of     
public education4    ,sidenote3         
,struggle won by #ahij and constant     
progress since4    ,despite the         
tremendous rally during the seventies1  
however1 the  struggle for public       
education in the ,south was not won for 
twenty  years1 but complete systems of  
common schools have now at length  been 
generally established4 ,with the        
cessation of the reconstruction         
influence and the subsidence of the     
dread of mixed schools1 attendance  and 
appropriations have greatly increased1  
schools for the education  of colored   
children have been furnished1 and       

provision has been made  for training   
and stimulating teachers of both races4 
,separate state  institutions for higher
 education1 cultural and vocational1    
have been  established to furnish a     
broad education for both whites and     
negroes4  ,since #ahij there has been an
 ever increasing interest in improving  
the  public school in all respects1 and 
the expenditures and facilities for     
education have been constantly          
increasing4    ,sidenote3 ,universal    
education1 state support and control1   
high schools  replaced academies1       
colleges non-sectarian1 and state       
universities  established4              
,development of the ,american ,system of
 ,education4--,with its final           
development in the ,south during the    
last decade of the nineteenth  century1 
the distinctly ,american public school  
system may be said to  have been fully  
elaborated4 ,the educational ideals and 
institutions  imported from ,europe in  
the colonial period have gradually been 

modified and adapted to the needs of    
,america4 ,schools have become  public  
and free in the modern sense4 ,the      
control of education has  passed from   
private parties and even quasi-public   
societies to the  state4 ,the schools   
have likewise come to be supported by   
the state1 and  are open to all children
 alike without the imposition of any    
financial  obligation4 ,in secondary    
education1 the academies1 which         
supplanted the  #8grammar' schools1     
first became #8free academies' and made 
no charge  for tuition from local       
patrons1 though remaining close         
corporations1  and then were in time    
replaced by the true ,american secondary
  institution1--the high school 7,fig4  
#da74 ,colleges became largely          
non-sectarian1 even when not nominally  
so1 and state universities were         
organized in all except a few of the    
oldest commonwealths 7,fig4 #db74  ,thus
 has the idea of common schools and the 
right to use the public  wealth to      

educate the entire body of children into
 sound ,american  citizenship been made 
complete4 ,although the system is still 
capable of  much improvement1 it is     
expressive of ,american genius and      
development4  ,it is simply the         
,american idea of government and society
 applied to  education4 ,it is the      
educational will of the people expressed
 through  the majority1 and the         
resultant of the highest thinking and   
aspirations  of a great nation made up  
of the most powerful and progressive    
elements  from all civilized peoples4   
,,supplementary ,,reading    ,graves1   
,in ,modern ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 
chaps4 ,,vi and ,,viii1 and  ,great     
,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 chap4   
,,xiii2 ,parker1 ,modern  ,elementary   
,education 7,ginn1 #aiab71 chap4 ,,xii4 
,for the details of the  life and work  
of ,mann in brief form1 read ,hinsdale1 
,b4 ,a41 ,horace  ,mann and the ,common 
,school ,revival 7,scribner1 #ahii71 or 
the readable  little work on ,horace    

,mann the ,educator 7,new ,england      
,publishing  ,co41 #ahif7 by ,winship1  
,a4 ,e4 ,monroe1 ,w4 ,s41 has briefly   
recounted  ,the ,educational ,labors of 
,henry ,barnard 7,bardeen1 ,syracuse1   
#ahic71  and a longer account of ,henry 
,barnard is that of ,mayo1 ,a4 ,d41 in  
,report of ,u4 ,s4 ,commissioner of     
,education1 #ahif-ahig1 vol4 ,i1 chap4  
,,xvi4 ,for the development of public   
education in the various parts of  the  
country during this third period1 see   
,martin1 ,g4 ,h41 ,evolution  of the    
,massachusetts ,public ,school ,system  
7,appleton1 #ahid71 lects4  ,,iv-,,vi2  
,steiner1 ,b4 ,c41 ,history of          
,education in ,connecticut 7,u4 ,s4     
,bureau of ,education1 ,circular of     
,information1 ,no4 #b1 #ahic71 chaps4   
,,iii-,v2 ,stockwell1 ,t4 ,b41 ,history 
of ,public ,education in ,rhode ,island 
7,providence ,press ,co41 ,providence1  
#ahgf71 chaps4 ,,vi-,x2 ,randall1 ,s4   
,s41 ,history of the ,common ,school    
,system of the ,state of ,new ,york     

7,ivison1 ,blakeman1 ,taylor1 ,new      
,york1 #ahga71 third and fourth periods2
  ,wickersham1 ,j4 ,p41 ,history of     
,education in ,pennsylvania 7,lancaster1
  ,pennsylvania1 #ahhf71 chaps4         
,,xvii-,,xviii2 ,mayo1 ,a4 ,d41 ,the    
,development  of the ,common ,schools in
 the ,western ,states 7,report of the   
,u4 ,s4  ,commissioner of ,education1   
#ahih-ii1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ceg-dej72       
,boone1 ,r4  ,g41 ,history of ,education
 in ,indiana 7,appleton1 #ahib71 chaps4 
,,iv  and ,,viii-,,xxxiii2 ,smith1 ,w4  
,l41 ,historical ,sketch of ,education  
in  ,michigan 7,lansing1 #ahha71 pp4    
#ag-ch1 #di-eg1 and #gh-aji2 ,knight1   
,e4 ,w41  ,the ,influence of            
,reconstruction on ,education in the    
,south 7,columbia  ,university1         
,teachers ,college ,contributions1 ,no4 
#fj1 #aiac7 and ,the  ,peabody ,fund and
 ,its ,early ,operation in ,north       
,carolina 7,south  ,atlantic ,quarterly1
 vol4 xiv1 no4 #b74 ,mayo1 ,a4 ,d41     
,education in the  ,several ,states1    

,education of the ,colored ,race1 and   
,the ,slater ,fund  7,report of the ,u4 
,s4 ,commissioner of ,education         
#ahid-ie1 ,,xxx1 ,,xxxi1  and ,,xxxii74 
,illustration3    ,fig4 #da4--,the first
 high school4 7,this institution was    
established at  ,boston in #ahba as the 
#8,english ,classical ,school1' and     
three years later  the name was changed 
to #8,english ,high ,school4'7          
,illustration3    ,fig4 #db4--,the      
,university of ,michigan in #ahee4 7,the
 oldest picture of  the first prominent 
state university2 established by the    
legislature in  #ahcg1 and opened in    
#ahda47          ,,chapter ,,xxiv       
,,development ,,of ,,educational        
,,practice      ,,outline        ,of the
 two aspects to ,pestalozzi's           
educational positions1 ,froebel         
stressed development from within1 and   
,herbart development from      without4 
,through an early tutorial experience   
,herbart developed his      pedagogy1   
but afterward invented an ingenious     

psychology upon      which to base it4  
,he undertook to show how the mind of   
the pupil      is largely built up by   
the teacher1 and he held to the moral   
aim of education4 ,to accomplish this1  
he advocated #8many-sided               
interest1' and1 while recognizing the   
value of both #8historical'      and    
#8scientific' subjects1 emphasized the  
former4 ,but he also held      that all 
subjects should be unified through      
#8correlation1' and      formulated the 
#8formal steps of instruction4' ,the    
value of his work      has been obscured
 by the formal interpretations of       
disciples1 but      he contributed      
greatly to the science of education4    
,herbartianism1      developed by       
,ziller and others1 spread throughout   
,germany2 through      the ,herbart     
,society1 it has greatly influenced     
educational content      and methods in 
the ,united ,states4        ,through his
 university environment1 ,froebel       
developed a mystic      philosophy1 but 

made it the basis of remarkable         
educational      practices4 ,he held to 
organic #8unity' in the universe1 and to
      the general method of             
#8self-activity4' ,besides this 7#a7    
#8motor      expression1' he also       
stressed 7#b7 #8social participation1'  
and      attempted to realize both      
principles in 7#c7 a school without     
books      and set tasks1--the          
#8kindergarten4' ,the training here has 
consisted      chiefly in #8play-songs1'
 #8gifts1' and #8occupations4' ,the     
chief      weakness of ,froebelianism is
 its mystic and symbolic theory1 but    
it has comprehended the most essential  
laws of education at all      stages4   
,the kindergarten was spread through    
,europe largely by      ,baroness von   
,blow1 and through the ,united ,states  
by ,elizabeth ,p4      ,peabody and     
others4        ,few tendencies in       
educational practices to-day cannot be  
traced      back for their rudimentary  
form to ,herbart and ,froebel1 or their 

master1 ,pestalozzi4    ,sidenote3 ,each
 saw in the master the principle that   
appealed to him4    ,froebel and        
,herbart as ,disciples of               
,pestalozzi4--,in the discussion  of    
observation and industrial training1 we 
have noted the suggestions  for         
improvement in educational practice that
 arose through ,pestalozzi4  ,while     
somewhat vague and based upon           
sympathetic insight rather than         
scientific principles1 the positions of 
,pestalozzi not only left  their direct 
influence upon the teaching of certain  
subjects in the  elementary curriculum1 
but became the basis of the elaborate   
systems of  ,herbart and ,froebel4      
,these educators may be regarded as     
contemporary  disciples of the ,swiss   
reformer1 who was born a generation     
before1 but  they continued his work    
along rather different lines4 ,each went
 to  visit ,pestalozzi1 and it would    
seem from their comments upon what they 
saw that each found in the master the   

main principle which appealed  to him   
and which he afterward developed more or
 less consistently  throughout his work4
    ,sidenote3 ,development from within 
and the child were emphasized by        
,froebel2    ,sidenote3 development from
 without and methods1 by ,herbart4      
,for there were two very definite       
aspects to ,pestalozzi's positions1     
which may at first seem opposed to each 
other1 but are not necessarily          
contradictory4 ,on the one hand1        
,pestalozzi seems to have held that     
education should be a natural           
development from within2 on the other1  
that it must consist in the derivation  
of ideas from experience with  the      
outside world4 ,the former point of     
view1 which is apparent in  his         
educational aim and definition of       
education 7see p4 #bhe71 would          
logically argue that every              
characteristic is implicit in the child 
at birth in the exact form to which it  
is afterward to be developed1  and that 

the teacher can at best only assist the 
child's nature in the  efforts for its  
own unfolding4 ,this attitude           
,pestalozzi apparently  borrowed from   
the psychology implied in ,rousseau's   
naturalism4 ,the  other conception1 that
 of education as sense perception1 which
 is  evident in ,pestalozzi's           
observational methods 7see p4 #bhf71    
depends  upon the theory that immediate 
and direct impressions from the outside 
are the absolute basis of all knowledge1
 and holds that the contents  of the    
mind must be entirely built up by the   
teacher4 ,some such nave  interpretation
 has been common since speculation      
began1 especially  among teachers1 and  
had been formulated before ,pestalozzi's
 day by  ,locke1 ,hume1 and others4 ,in 
the main1 ,froebel took the first of    
these  ,pestalozzian viewpoints and     
rarely admitted the other1 but the      
latter  phase was developed by ,herbart 
to the almost total disregard of the    
former4 ,hence we find that the one     

educator lays emphasis upon the  child's
 development and activities1 and the    
other concerns himself  with method and 
the work of the teacher4 ,the original  
contributions of  both reformers to     
educational practice1 however1 were     
large1 and are  deserving of extended   
description4    ,sidenote3 ,interest in 
philosophy1 ,greek1 and mathematics4    
,sidenote3 ,development of his pedagogy 
through tutorial experience4    ,the    
,early ,career and ,writings of         
,herbart4--,johann ,friedrich ,herbart  
7#aggf-ahda7 both by birth and by       
education possessed a remarkable mind1  
and was well calculated to become a     
profound educational philosopher4  ,he  
came of intellectual and educated stock1
 and at the gymnasium  and university   
displayed a keen interest in philosophy1
 ,greek1 and  mathematics4 ,each of     
these subjects1 too1 was destined to    
play a part  in his educational         
theories4 ,just before graduation       
7#agig71 however1  ,herbart left the    

university to become private tutor to   
the three sons  of the governor of      
,interlaken1 ,switzerland1 and during   
the next three  years he obtained in    
this way a most valuable experience4    
,the five  extant reports that he made  
on the methods he used and on his       
pupils'  progress reveal thus early the 
germs of his elaborate system4 ,the     
youthful pedagogue seems to have        
recognized the individual variations  in
 children1 and to have shown a due      
regard for the respective  ages of his  
pupils4 ,he also sought1 by means of his
 favorite work1  the ,odyssey1 to       
develop in them the elements of morality
 and a  #8many-sided interest4' ,this   
early experience1 rather than his       
ingenious  system of psychology and     
metaphysics1 which he afterward         
developed in  explanation1 was the real 
foundation of his pedagogy1 and         
furnished him  with the concrete        
examples of the characteristics and     
individualities  of children that appear

 in all his later works4 ,he ever       
afterward  maintained that a careful    
study of the development of a few       
children  was the best preparation for a
 pedagogical career1 and eventually made
  an experience of this kind the main   
element in his training of teachers4    
,sidenote3 ,interpreted and supplemented
 ,pestalozzi's principles4    ,sidenote3
 ,the ,science of ,education4    ,while 
still in ,switzerland1 ,herbart met     
,pestalozzi and was greatly  attracted  
by the underlying principles of that    
reformer4 ,he paid a  visit to the      
institute at ,burgdorf in #agii1 and    
during the next two  years1 while at    
,bremen completing his interrupted      
university course1  he undertook to     
advocate and render more scientific the 
thought of the  ,swiss educator4 ,here  
he wrote a sympathetic essay ,on        
,pestalozzi's  ,latest ,writing1 #8,how 
,gertrude ,teaches ,her ,children1' and 
made his  interpretation of             
,pestalozzi's ,idea of an ,a ,b ,c of   

,observation  7see p4 #bhf74 ,next      
,herbart lectured on pedagogy at the    
,university  of ,gttingen4 ,the         
treatises he wrote there seem to have   
become more  critical toward the        
,pestalozzian methods1 and he no longer 
strives  to conceal their vagueness and 
want of system4 ,sense perception1 he   
holds with ,pestalozzi1 does supply the 
first elements of knowledge1  but the   
material of the school course should be 
definitely arranged  with reference to  
the general purpose of instruction1     
which is moral  self-realization4 ,this 
position on the moral aim of education  
he  made especially explicit and        
complete in his work on ,the ,science of
  ,education 7#ahjf74    ,sidenote3     
,seminary and practice school4          
,sidenote3 ,outlines of ,educational    
,doctrine4    ,his ,work at ,knigsberg  
and ,gttingen4--,in #ahji ,herbart was  
called to  the chair of philosophy at   
,knigsberg1 and there established his   
now  historic pedagogical seminary and  

the small practice school connected     
with it4 ,the students1 who taught in   
the practice school under the           
supervision and criticism of the        
professor1 were intending to become     
school principals and inspectors1 and1  
through the widespread work and         
influence of these young ,herbartians   
the educational system of ,prussia  and 
of every other state in ,germany was    
greatly advanced4 ,in his  numerous     
publications at ,knigsberg1 ,herbart    
devoted himself chiefly  to works on a  
system of psychology as a basis for his 
pedagogy4 ,after  serving nearly a      
quarter of a century here1 he returned  
to ,gttingen  as professor of           
philosophy1 and the last eight years of 
his life were  spent in expanding his   
pedagogical positions4 ,here he issued  
the  first edition of his ,outlines of  
,educational ,doctrine 7#ahce71 which   
gives an exposition of his educational  
system when fully matured4  ,it contains
 brief references to his mechanical     

metaphysics and  psychology1 but is a   
most practical and well-organized       
discussion of  the educational process4 
,sidenote3 ,an after-thought4           
,sidenote3 ,mind built up by outside    
world4    ,sidenote3 ,genesis and       
combination of ideas4    ,sidenote3     
#8,apperception4'    ,herbart's         
,psychology4--,herbart's metaphysical   
psychology seems to  have been an       
after-thought developed to afford a     
basis for the method  of pedagogical    
procedure that he had worked out of his 
tutorial  experience and his            
acquaintance with the ,pestalozzian     
practice4 ,but  some explanation of this
 elaborate psychology may serve to make 
clearer  his educational principles4    
,for the most part he holds that the    
mind  is built up by the outside world1 
and he is generally supposed to have    
left no place for instincts or innate   
characteristics and tendencies4  ,with  
him the simplest elements of            
consciousness are #8ideas1' which  are  

atoms of mind stuff thrown off from the 
soul in endeavoring to  maintain itself 
against external stimuli4 ,once produced
 by this  contact of the soul with its  
environment1 the ideas become existences
  with their own dynamic force1 and     
constantly strive to preserve           
themselves4 ,they struggle to attain as 
nearly as possible to the summit  of    
consciousness1 and each idea tends to   
draw into consciousness or  heighten    
those allied to it1 and to depress or   
force out those which  are unlike4 ,each
 new idea or group of ideas is          
heightened1 modified1  or rejected1     
according to its degree of harmony or   
conflict with  the previously existing  
ideas4 ,in other words1 all new ideas   
are  interpreted through those already  
in consciousness4 ,in accordance  with  
this principle1 which ,herbart called   
#8apperception1' the teacher  can secure
 interest and the attention of the pupil
 to any new idea or  set of ideas and   
have him retain it1 only through making 

use of his  previous body of related    
knowledge4 ,hence the educational       
problem  becomes how to present new     
material in such a way that it can be   
#8apperceived' or incorporated with the 
old1 and the mind of the pupil  is      
largely in the hands of the teacher1    
since he can make or modify his         
#8apperception masses1' or systems of   
ideas4    ,sidenote3 ,attainment of     
character as aim4    ,sidenote3         
#8,many-sided interest4'    ,the ,aim1  
,content1 and ,method of                
,education4--,accordingly1 ,herbart     
holds that the purpose of education     
should be to establish moral and        
religious character4 ,he believes that  
this final aim can be attained  through 
instruction1 and that1 to determine how 
this shall furnish  a #8moral revelation
 of the world1' a careful study must be 
made of  each pupil's thought masses1   
temperament1 and mental capacity4 ,there
  is not much likelihood of the pupil's 
receiving ideas of virtue that  will    

develop into glowing ideals of conduct  
when his studies do not  appeal to his  
thought systems and are consequently    
regarded with  indifference and         
aversion4 ,they must coalesce with the  
ideas he already  has1 and thus touch   
his life4 ,but ,herbart does not limit  
#8interest' to  a temporary stimulus for
 the performance of certain school      
tasks2 he  advocates the building up by 
education of certain broad interests    
that  may become permanent sources of   
appeal in life4 ,instruction must be  so
 selected and arranged as not only to   
relate itself to the previous           
experience of the pupil1 but as also to 
reveal and establish all the  relations 
of life and conduct in their fullness4  
,sidenote3 #8,knowledge' and            
#8participation' interests4             
,sidenote3 #8,historical' and           
#8scientific' subjects4    ,in analyzing
 this #8many-sided interest1' ,herbart  
holds that ideas and  interests spring  
from two main sources1--#8experience1'  

which furnishes  us with a knowledge of 
nature1 and #8social intercourse1' from 
which  come the sentiments toward our   
fellowmen4 ,interests may1 therefore1 be
  classed as belonging to 7#a7          
#8knowledge' or to 7#b7                 
#8participation4'  ,these two sets of   
interests1 in turn1 ,herbart divides    
into three  groups each4 ,he classed the
 #8knowledge' interests as 7a7          
#8empirical1'  appealing directly to the
 senses2 7b7 #8speculative1' seeking to 
perceive the relations of cause and     
effect2 and 7c7 #8sthetic1' resting     
upon the enjoyment of contemplation4    
,the #8participation' interests  are    
divided into 7a7 #8sympathetic1' dealing
 with relations to other  individuals2  
7b7 #8social1' including the community  
as a whole2 and 7c7  #8religious1'      
treating one's relations to the ,divine4
 ,instruction must1  therefore1 develop 
all these interests1 and1 to correspond 
with the two  main groups1 ,herbart     
divides all studies into two            

branches1--the 7#a7  #8historical1'     
including history1 literature1 and      
languages2 and the 7#b7  #8scientific1' 
embracing mathematics1 as well as the   
natural sciences4  ,although recognizing
 the value of both groups1 ,herbart     
especially  stressed the #8historical1' 
on the ground that history and          
literature  are of greater importance as
 the sources of moral ideas and         
sentiments4    ,sidenote3               
#8,correlation' and #8concentration4'   
,sidenote3 #8,culture epochs4'    ,but1 
while all the subjects1 #8historical'   
and #8scientific1' are  needed for a    
#8many-sided interest1' and the various 
studies have for  convenience been      
separated and classified by themselves1 
,herbart holds  that they must be so    
arranged in the curriculum as to become 
unified  and an organic whole1 if the   
unity of the pupil's consciousness is to
  be maintained4 ,this position         
forecasts the emphasis upon             
#8correlation1'  or the unification of  

studies1 so common among his followers4 
,the  principle was further developed by
 later ,herbartians under the name  of  
#8concentration1' or the unifying of all
 subjects around one or  two common     
central studies1 such as literature or  
history4 ,but the  selection and        
articulation of the subject-matter in   
such a way as to  arouse many-sidedness 
and harmony is not more than hinted at  
by ,herbart  himself4 ,he specifically  
holds1 however1 that the ,odyssey should
 be  the first work read1 since this    
represents the interests and activities 
of the race while in its youth1 and     
would appeal to the individual  during  
the same stage4 ,he would follow this   
with other ,greek classics  in the order
 of the growing complexity of racial    
interests depicted in  them4 ,this      
tentative endeavor of ,herbart1 in the  
selection of material  for the course of
 study1 to parallel the development of  
the individual  with that of the race1  
was continued and enlarged by his       

disciples4 ,it  became especially       
definite and fixed in the #8culture     
epochs' theory  formulated by ,ziller   
and others4    ,sidenote3 ,four steps in
 ,herbart's method of instruction4      
,sidenote3 #8,five formal steps4'       
,but to secure this broad range of      
material and to unify and systematize   
it1 ,herbart realized that it was       
necessary to formulate a definite       
method of instructing the child4 ,this  
plan of instruction he wished to        
conform to the development and working  
of the human mind1 and on the  basis of 
what he conceived this activity to be1  
he mapped out a method  with four       
logical steps3 7#a7 #8clearness1' the   
presentation of facts  or elements to be
 learned2 7#b7 #8association1' the      
uniting of these  with related facts    
previously acquired2 7#c7 #8system1' the
 coherent and  logical arrangement of   
what has been associated2 and 7#d7      
#8method1'  the practical application of
 the system by the pupil to new data4   

,the  formulation of this method was    
made only in principle by ,herbart1 but 
it has since been largely modified and  
developed by his followers4  ,it was    
soon felt that1 on the principle of     
#8apperception1' the pupil  must first  
be made conscious of the existing stock 
of ideas so far as  they are similar to 
the material to be presented1 and that  
this can  be accomplished by a review of
 preceding lessons or by an outline of  
what is to be undertaken1 or by both    
procedures4 ,hence ,herbart's noted     
disciple1 ,ziller1 divided the step of  
#8clearness' into #8preparation'  and   
#8presentation1' and the more recent    
,herbartian1 ,rein1 added #8aim'  as a  
substep to #8preparation4' ,the names of
 the other three processes  have been   
changed for the sake of greater lucidity
 and significance by  still later       
,herbartians1 and the #8five formal     
steps of instruction' are  now given as 
7#a7 #8preparation1' 7#b7               
#8presentation1' 7#c7 #8comparison and  

abstraction1' 7#d7 #8generalization1'   
and 7#e7 #8application4'    ,sidenote3  
,clarified ,pestalozzi's vague principle
 of #8observation'  through an ingenious
 psychology1    ,sidenote3 and made     
,pestalozzi's emphasis on the physical  
world a  stepping-stone to history and  
literature4    ,the ,value and          
,influence of ,herbart's                
,principles4--,on all sides1  then1 as  
compared with ,pestalozzi1 ,herbart was 
most logical and  comprehensive4 ,where 
,pestalozzi obtained his methods solely 
from a  sympathetic insight into the    
child mind1 ,herbart sought to found    
his also upon scientific principles4    
,the former was primarily  a            
philanthropist and reformer2 the latter1
 a psychologist and  educationalist4    
,pestalozzi succeeded in arousing       
,europe to the need of  universal       
education and of vitalizing the         
prevailing formalism in the  schools1   
but he was unable with his vague and    
unsystematic utterances  to give        

guidance and efficiency to the reform   
forces he had initiated4  ,while he felt
 the need of beginning with sense       
perception for the sake  of clear ideas1
 he had neither the time nor the        
training to construct  a psychology     
beyond the traditional one of the times1
 nor to analyze  the way in which the   
material gained by observation is       
assimilated4  ,herbart1 on the other    
hand1 did create a system of psychology 
that1  while fanciful and mechanical1   
worked well as a basis for educational  
theory and practice4 ,in keeping with   
this psychology1 he undertook  to show  
how the ideas1 which were the product of
 the ,pestalozzian  #8observation1' were
 assimilated through #8apperception1'   
and maintained  the possibility of      
making all material tend toward moral   
development4  ,this1 he held1 could be  
accomplished by use of proper courses   
and  methods4 ,in determining the       
subjects to be selected and articulated1
  he considered ,pestalozzi's emphasis  

upon the study of the physical  world to
 be merely a stepping-stone to his own  
#8moral revelation of  the world4'      
,while the former educator made         
arithmetic1 geography1  natural science1
 reading1 form study1 drawing1 writing1 
and music the  object of his            
consideration1 and is indirectly        
responsible for the  modern reforms in  
teaching these subjects1 ,herbart       
preferred to stress  history1 languages1
 and literature1 and1 through his       
followers1 brought  about improved      
methods in their presentation4 ,he also 
first undertook a  careful analysis of  
the successive steps in all instruction1
 and by his  methodical principles did  
much to introduce order and system into 
the  work of the classroom1 although it 
is now known that his conception of  the
 way in which the human mind works is   
hardly tenable4    ,sidenote3           
,formalization of followers1            
,sidenote3 but ,herbart more sane and   
flexible4    ,a great drawback to the   

,herbartian doctrines is found in their 
formalization and exaggeration4 ,for    
these tendencies his enthusiastic  and  
literal-minded followers1 rather than   
,herbart himself1 have  probably been to
 blame4 ,he was himself too keen an     
observer to allow  his doctrines to go  
upon all fours4 ,he is ordinarily       
credited by  ,herbartians with a        
psychology that takes no account of the 
innate  characteristics of each mind1   
and holds that the mind is entirely     
built up by impressions from the        
outside1 but1 while this is his main    
position1 he occasionally recognizes    
that there must be certain native       
predispositions in the body which       
influence the soul in one direction  or 
another4 ,this limitation of complete   
plasticity by the pupil's               
individuality1 and of the consequent    
influence of the teacher1 causes  him to
 perceive that 8in order to gain an     
adequate knowledge of each  pupil's     
capacity for education1 observation is  

necessary--observation  both of his     
thought masses and of his physical      
nature40 ,again1 while  ,herbart holds  
that every subject should1 if possible1 
be presented  in an attractive1         
interesting1 and #8almost playlike' way1
 he does  not justify that              
#8sugar-coated interest' which has so   
often put  ,herbartianism in bad odor4  
8,a view that regards the end as a      
necessary  evil to be rendered endurable
 by means of sweetmeats10 says he1      
8implies an utter confusion of ideas2   
and if pupils are not given  serious    
tasks to perform1 they will not find out
 what they are able  to do40 ,often1 he 
realizes1 8even the best method cannot  
secure an  adequate degree of           
apperceiving attention from every pupil1
 and  recourse must accordingly be had  
to the voluntary attention1 i4 e41  to  
the pupil's resolution40 ,moreover1     
#8correlation' between different        
subjects1 as well as between principles 
within the same subject1  was advocated 

by ,herbart1 but he felt that the       
attempt to make such  ramifications     
should not be unlimited4 ,further1 while
 ,herbart made  some effort in shaping  
the course of study to parallel the     
development  of the individual with that
 of the race1 it was ,ziller that       
erected  this procedure into a hard and 
fast theory of #8culture epochs4' ,but  
most common of all has been the tendency
 of his disciples to pervert  his       
attempt to bring about due sequence and 
arrangement into an  inflexible schema  
in the recitation1 and to make the      
formal steps  an end rather than a      
means4 ,whereas1 there is reason to     
believe that  ,herbart never intended   
that all these steps should be carried  
out in  every recitation1 but felt that 
they applied to the organization of  any
 subject as a whole1 and that years     
might even elapse between the  various  
steps4    ,sidenote3 ,ziller greatly    
developed and popularized4    ,the      
,extension of ,his ,doctrines in        

,germany4--,at first the doctrines of   
,herbart were little known1 but a       
quarter of a century after his death    
there sprang up two flourishing         
contemporary schools of ,herbartianism4 
,in its application of ,herbart's       
theory1 the school of ,stoy for the     
most part held closely to the original  
form2 but that headed by ,ziller        
departed further and gave it a more     
extreme interpretation4 ,tuiskon        
,ziller 7#ahag-ahhb71 both as teacher in
 a gymnasium and as professor at        
,leipzig1 did much to popularize and    
develop ,herbart's system4 ,through  him
 was formed the ,herbartian society     
known as the #8,association for  the    
,scientific ,study of ,education1' which
 has since spread throughout  ,germany4 
,he it was that elaborated the doctrines
 of #8correlation' and                  
#8concentration1' and first definitely  
formulated the #8culture epochs'        
theory4 8,every pupil should10 he       
writes1 8pass successively through  each

 of the chief epochs of the general     
mental development of mankind  suitable 
to his stage of development4 ,the       
material of instruction1  therefore1    
should be drawn from the thought        
material of that stage of  historical   
development in culture1 which runs      
parallel with the present  mental stage 
of the pupil40 ,all these principles    
,ziller worked out in  a curriculum for 
the eight years of the elementary       
school1 which he  centered around fairy 
tales1 ,robinson ,crusoe1 and selections
 from  the ,old and ,new ,testaments4   
,he1 moreover1 developed ,herbart's     
#8formal stages of instruction' by      
dividing the first step and changing    
the name of the last4    ,sidenote3     
,stoy's practice school at ,jena1       
,sidenote3 continued by ,rein4          
,sidenote3 ,lange and ,frick4    ,karl  
,volkmar ,stoy 7#ahae-ahhe71 the founder
 of the other school1 gave  himself     
simply to a forceful restatement of the 
master's positions1  but also           

established a most influential          
pedagogical seminary and  practice      
school upon the original ,herbartian    
basis at ,jena4 ,and eleven  years      
later1 ,wilhelm ,rein 7#ahdg- 71 who had
 been a pupil of both ,stoy  and        
,ziller1 succeeded the former in the    
direction of the practice  school1 and  
introduced there the elaborate          
development that had taken  place since 
,herbart's time4 ,he adopted ,ziller's  
#8concentration1'  #8culture epochs1'   
and other features1 but made them a     
little more  elastic by cordinating     
other material with the #8historical'   
center  in the curriculum4 ,through him 
,jena became known as the great seat of 
,herbartianism4 ,other ,germans to      
develop the principles of ,herbart have 
been ,lange and ,frick4 ,the            
,apperception of ,karl ,lange is an     
excellent  combination of scientific    
insight and popular presentation4 ,otto 
,frick1  director of the #8,francke     
,institutions' at ,halle 7see p4 #agf71 

inclining  more to the close            
interpretation of ,stoy1 devoted himself
 to applying  ,herbartianism to the     
secondary schools1 and outlined a course
 for the  gymnasium4    ,sidenote3 ,in  
,germany content and methods of         
education were greatly  modified4       
,sidenote3 ,prominence given to history 
and literature4    ,a throng of other   
,german schoolmasters and professors    
have further  adapted the doctrines of  
,herbart to school practice1 and while  
their  theories differ very largely from
 one another1 from their common basis   
they are all properly designated        
#8,herbartian4' ,as a result of this    
continuous propaganda1 the content and  
methods of the school curricula  in     
,germany have been largely modified4    
,herbart's emphasis upon the  importance
 to the secondary schools of literary   
and historical studies  as a moral      
training has been adapted to the        
elementary schools by the  later        
,herbartians in the form of story and   

biographical material4  ,history has    
consequently attained a more prominent  
place in the  curriculum1 and is no     
longer auxiliary to reading and         
geography4 ,it is  regarded as a means  
of moral development1 and the cultural  
features in  the history of the ,german 
people are stressed more than the       
political4  ,ziller's plan for          
concentrating all studies about a core  
of history  and literature1 on the      
ground of thus producing #8a moral      
revelation  of the world' for the pupil1
 is in evidence everywhere4 ,a twofold  
course1--,jewish history through ,bible 
stories1 and ,german history in  the    
form of legends and tales1 appears in   
every grade of the elementary  school   
after the first two1 and even in these  
lower classes there is  some attempt to 
utilize literature as a moral training  
through the  medium of fairy stories1   
fables1 moral tales1 ,robinson ,crusoe1 
and  the various stories of the         
philanthropinists 7see p4 #bbe74        

,sidenote3 ,american teachers who       
studied at ,jena introduced             
,herbartianism into the ,united ,states4
    ,sidenote3 ,northern ,illinois the  
center4    ,sidenote3 ,the ,herbart     
,society and its ,year ,book4           
,herbartianism in the ,united           
,states4--,next to the land of its      
birth1  the ,united ,states has been    
more influenced by ,herbartianism than  
any  other country4 ,before #ahhj there 
were but few notices of ,herbartianism  
in ,american educational literature1 and
 not many appeared during  the following
 decade4 ,the movement was fostered     
largely by ,american  teachers that were
 studying with ,rein at ,jena during the
 last two  decades of the century4      
,before #ahij nine ,americans had taken 
their  degree there1 and by the         
twentieth century more than fifty4      
,these  young men came back filled with 
the enthusiastic belief that ,herbartian
  principles could supply a solution in 
systematic form for the many            

complicated problems with which         
,american education was then grappling1 
and began at once to propagate their    
faith4 ,the movement centered  chiefly  
in northern ,illinois and was especially
 strong in the normal  schools4 ,the    
staff of the ,state ,normal ,university 
at this time included  ,charles         
,de,garmo1 afterward professor of       
,education at ,cornell1 ,frank  ,m4     
,mc,murry1 now of the ,teachers         
,college1 ,columbia ,university1 and his
  brother1 ,charles ,a4 ,mc,murry1 now  
of the faculty of the ,george ,peabody  
,college for ,teachers2 and the practice
 school at the ,normal ,university  was 
the first to be established upon        
,herbartian principles4 ,the            
,schoolmasters' ,club of ,illinois gave 
much of its time to a discussion  of    
,herbartian principles1 and the first   
,herbartian literature in  the ,united  
,states was rapidly produced4 ,during   
the last decade of  the century there   
appeared large numbers of articles1     

textbooks1  treatises1 and translations1
 including ,the ,method of the          
,recitation  and a variety of other     
works upon general and special methods  
by the  ,mc,murrys4 ,in #ahib ,the      
,herbart ,club was founded to promote a 
study of  ,herbartian principles and    
adapt them to ,american conditions1 and 
during  the first three years it spent  
its efforts in translating the words of 
,herbart and in discussing ,herbartian  
topics only4 ,in #ahie the name of  the 
club was changed to the ,herbart        
,society for the ,scientific ,study  of 
,education1 many non-,herbartians were  
admitted1 the scope of the  discussions 
was enlarged1 and the publication of a  
,year ,book was  begun4    ,sidenote3   
,opposition1    ,sidenote3 but growth of
 the movement4    ,sidenote3 ,herbartian
 features adopted by others4    ,then   
began the period of criticism and the   
formulation of ,american                
,herbartianism4 ,the movement was       
vigorously opposed by many on the       

ground that it was a foreign            
importation1 was based upon absurd      
metaphysical presuppositions1 or        
contained nothing new1 but the          
disciples of ,herbart stood valiantly by
 their guns4 ,although not  always      
certain in their own minds1 they        
endeavored to clear up  all             
misunderstanding and confusion in the   
doctrines and to keep  them practical   
through developing them in connection   
with actual  experiments in teaching4   
,they showed that the fanciful          
psychology of  ,herbart did not hold a  
determining place in his educational    
thought1  and that it might be rejected1
 without affecting the merit of his     
pedagogy4 ,one by one the doctrines were
 introduced in the order of  their      
concreteness1--five formal steps1       
apperception1 concentration1            
interest--and little attempt was made to
 weave them into a single  system4 ,the 
critical season did not long endure1 and
 the movement soon  spread widely4 ,by  

the close of the first year the ,herbart
 ,society  had a membership of seven    
hundred1 and the ,herbartian principles 
were everywhere studied by local clubs  
and taught in schools and  universities4
 ,in the report of the ,united ,states  
,commissioner of  ,education for        
#ahid-ahie1 ,dr4 ,harris stated3 8,there
 are at present  more adherents of      
,herbart in the ,united ,states than in 
,germany40  ,this1 he believed1 was due 
to the greater freedom of discussion    
that  was allowed4 ,the movement not    
only became an educational awakening1   
but it attained almost to the           
proportions of a cult4 ,moreover1 many  
who hardly considered themselves        
,herbartians undertook to modify  and   
adapt the ,herbartian principles1       
especially #8correlation' and           
#8concentration4' ,francis ,w4 ,parker  
of ,chicago1 for example1 among the     
phases of his educational practice 7cf4 
pp4 #bic and #cfd71 approached          
concentration so closely as to center   

the entire course of study around  a    
hierarchy of natural and social         
sciences4 ,and the ,committees of ,ten  
and ,fifteen1 appointed by the ,national
 ,education ,association to report  upon
 secondary and elementary education     
respectively1 showed a strong           
,herbartian influence in their          
recommendations of correlation4         
,sidenote3 ,amount of history increased 
in ,american schools1    ,sidenote3 and 
wide survey of literature encouraged4   
,largely in consequence of the          
development of ,herbartianism1 an       
increased amount and larger utilization 
of historical material became  general  
also in ,american elementary schools4 ,a
 wide appreciation of the  growth of    
morality1 culture1 and social life1     
rather than merely the  development of  
patriotism1 became the object in        
studying this subject4  ,english and    
,german history1 as well as ,american1  
which alone was  formerly taught1 and   
sometimes ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,norse1   

appear in the  curricula of many        
elementary schools1 and1 instead of     
being confined  to the two upper        
classes1 historical material is often   
presented from  the third grade up4     
,biographical and historical stories are
 largely  employed in the lower classes1
 while in the upper some attempt is     
made to use ,european history as a      
setting for ,american4 ,a similar       
development in the amount and use of    
literature also has appeared  in the    
course of the elementary schools1 partly
 as a result of the  ,herbartian        
influence4 ,instead of brief selections 
from the ,english and  ,american        
writers1 or the poorer material that    
formerly appeared in the  school        
readers1 complete works of literature   
have begun to be studied  in the        
elementary curriculum1 and a wide and   
rapid survey of the great  ,english     
classics has been encouraged in the     
place of merely reading  for the sake of
 oral expression4 ,even in the lowest   

grades some attempt  to introduce the   
classics of childhood has been made4    
,while in these ways all elementary1 and
 to some extent secondary1  schools have
 been affected1 ,herbartianism pure and 
simple has largely  been abandoned for  
less dogmatic methods4 ,even the        
,herbart ,society  has ceased to foster 
a propaganda1 and has since #aija       
dropped the  first part of its name and 
been known as #8,the ,national ,society 
for the  ,scientific ,study of          
,education4' ,the later works of        
,de,garmo and ,frank ,m4  ,mc,murry     
claim to be quite emancipated from      
,herbartianism4 ,but1 although          
professed ,herbartians are now almost   
unknown in the ,united ,states1 no      
other system of pedagogy1 except that of
 ,pestalozzi1 has ever had so  wide an  
influence upon ,american education and  
upon the thought and  practice of       
teachers generally4    ,sidenote3       
,search for #8unity' developed through  
idealism1 romanticism1  and #8nature    

philosophy' at ,jena4    ,froebel's     
,early ,life4--,let us now turn to      
,froebel1 the other great  successor of 
,pestalozzi1 and to his development and 
extension of the  master's principle of 
#8natural development4' ,friedrich      
,wilhelm ,august  ,froebel 7#aghb-aheb7 
was born in a village of the ,thringian 
forest4  ,he tells us that this         
environment started within him a search 
for the  mystic unity that he believed  
to exist amid the various phenomena of  
nature1 but it is more likely that this 
attitude was developed through  a brief 
residence 7#agii-ahjj7 at the           
,university of ,jena4 ,the atmosphere   
about this institution was charged with 
the idealistic philosophy1 the  romantic
 movement1 and the evolutionary attitude
 in science4 ,froebel  could not have   
escaped the constant discussions upon   
the philosophy of  ,fichte and          
,schelling4 ,he must likewise have      
fallen under the spell  of the ,jena    
romanticists1--the ,schlegels1 ,tieck1  

and ,novalis4 ,the  advanced attitude in
 science at ,jena may also have         
impressed the youth4  ,while much of the
 science instruction failed to make     
clear that inner  relation and mystic   
unity for which he sought1 he must      
occasionally  have caught glimpses of it
 in the lectures of professors belonging
 to  the school of ,natur-philosophie4  
,sidenote3 ,adoption of teaching4       
,sidenote3 ,study with ,pestalozzi4     
,sidenote3 ,crystallization of law of   
#8unity4'    ,his ,experiences at       
,frankfort1 ,yverdon1 and               
,berlin4--,after leaving the            
university1 ,froebel was for four years 
groping for a niche in life4 ,but  he   
eventually 7#ahje7 met ,anton ,grner1   
head of a ,pestalozzian model  school at
 ,frankfort1 who persuaded him of his   
fitness for teaching and  gave him a    
position in the institution4 ,here he   
undertook a systematic  study of        
,pestalozzianism1 and1 through the use  
of modeling in paper1  pasteboard1 and  

wood with his pupils1 he came to see the
 value of  motor expression as a means  
of education4 ,he then withdrew to      
,yverdon  and worked with ,pestalozzi   
himself for two years 7#ahjh-ahaj74     
,there  he greatly increased his        
knowledge of the play and development of
  children1 music1 and nature study1    
which were to play so important a  part 
in his methods4 ,next1 he went to the   
,university of ,berlin to study         
mineralogy with ,professor ,weiss1 and  
through the work there he finally       
crystallized his mystic law of #8unity4'
 ,he became fully 8convinced of  the    
demonstrable connection in all cosmic   
development10 and declared  that        
8thereafter my rocks and crystals served
 me as a mirror wherein ,i  might       
discern mankind1 and man's development  
and history40    ,sidenote3             
,self-expression through play and       
practical work4    ,sidenote3 ,education
 of ,man4    ,the ,school at            
,keilhau4--,while at ,berlin1 he met his

 lifelong  assistants1 ,langethal and   
,middendorf1 and took them with him when
 he  undertook the education of his five
 young nephews at ,keilhau4 ,here  he   
founded 7#ahaf7 #8,the ,universal       
,german ,institute of ,education1' in   
which self-expression1 free development1
 and social participation were  ruling  
principles4 ,much of the training was   
obtained through play1  and1 except that
 the pupils were older1 the germ of the 
kindergarten  was already present4      
,there was much practical work in the   
open air1  in the garden about the      
schoolhouse1 and in the building itself4
 ,the  children built dams and mills1   
fortresses and castles1 and searched    
the woods for animals1 birds1 insects1  
and flowers4 ,to popularize the         
institute1 ,froebel published a complete
 account of the theory practiced  at    
,keilhau in his famous ,education of    
,man 7#ahbf74 ,while this work is       
compressed1 repetitious1 and vague1 and 
its doctrines had afterward to  be      

corrected by experience1 it contains the
 most systematic statement  of his      
educational philosophy that ,froebel    
ever made4    ,sidenote3 ,in            
,switzerland he began to devise         
playthings1 games1 and  songs4          
,sidenote3 ,first kindergarten at       
,blankenburg4    ,sidenote3 ,later      
works4    ,development of the           
,kindergarten4--,but the school at      
,keilhau was  too radical for the times1
 and soon found itself in serious       
straits4  ,froebel then went to         
,switzerland1 and for five years        
7#ahcb-ahcg7  continued his educational 
experiments in various locations there4 
,while conducting a model school at     
,burgdorf1 it became obvious to  him    
that 8all school education was yet      
without a proper initial  foundation1   
and that1 until the education of the    
nursery was reformed1  nothing solid and
 worthy could be attained40 ,the ,school
 of ,infancy  of ,comenius 7see p4 #aga7
 had been called to his attention1 and  

the  educational importance of play had 
come to appeal to him more strongly     
than ever4 ,he began to study and devise
 playthings1 games1 songs1 and  bodily  
movements that would be of value in the 
development of small  children1 although
 at first he did not organize his       
materials into a  system4 ,then1 two    
years later1 he returned to ,germany1   
and established  a school for children  
between the ages of three and seven4    
,this  institution was located at       
,blankenburg1 two miles from ,keilhau1  
one  of the most romantic spots in the  
,thringian ,forest1 and was1 before     
long1 appropriately christened          
#8,kindergarten' 7i4 e41 garden in which
  children are the unfolding plants74   
,here he put into use the material  he  
had invented in ,switzerland1 added new 
devices1 and developed his  system4 ,the
 main features of this were the #8play  
songs' for mother  and child and the    
series of #8gifts' and #8occupations'   
7see pp4 #ceh  f474 ,during his seven   

years in ,blankenburg1 he constantly    
expanded  his material1 and the accounts
 of these additions have been collected 
in the works known generally as         
,pedagogics of the ,kindergarten1       
,education by ,development1 and ,mother 
,play and ,nursery ,songs4    ,sidenote3
 ,final work at ,liebenstein1 and the   
,baroness von ,blow4    ,while the      
kindergarten attracted considerable     
attention1 ,froebel's want  of financial
 ability eventually compelled him to    
close the institution4  ,after lecturing
 with much success for five years upon  
his system1 he  settled for the rest of 
his life near the famous mineral springs
 at  ,liebenstein in ,saxe-,meiningen4  
,during this period he obtained the     
friendship and support of the ,baroness 
von ,marenholtz-,blow1 who  brought a   
large number of people of distinction in
 the political  and educational world to
 see his work in operation1 and wrote   
most  interesting ,reminiscences of     
,froebel's activities during the last   

thirteen years of his life4 ,but owing  
to a confusion of his principles  with  
the socialistic doctrines of his nephew1
 ,karl1 a decree was  promulgated in    
,prussia by the minister of education1  
closing all  kindergartens there4       
,froebel never recovered from this      
unjust  humiliation1 and died within a  
year4    ,sidenote3 ,developed from     
,pestalozzi and even ,rousseau1         
,sidenote3 but largely a resultant of   
his university environment4             
,sidenote3 ,reiterations and subsidiary 
concepts4    ,froebel's ,fundamental    
,concept of #8,unity4'--,while          
,froebel's underlying  principles go    
back to the developmental aspect of     
,pestalozzi's  doctrines and even to    
,rousseau's naturalism1 his conception  
of them1  his imagery1 and statement1   
seem to be a product of the idealistic  
philosophy1 romantic movement1 and      
scientific attitude of the day4  ,these 
tendencies seem to have been assimilated
 by ,froebel largely  through his       

residence in ,jena and ,berlin4 ,his    
conclusions as to  educational theory   
and practice would have been possible as
 inferences  from a very different point
 of view1 but as he developed them      
logically  and consistently with his    
metaphysical position1 it may be of     
value  to consider briefly the          
groundwork of the ,froebelian           
philosophy4 ,he  regarded the           
#8,absolute1' or ,god1 as the           
self-conscious spirit from  which       
originated both man and nature1 and he  
consequently held to  the unity of      
nature with the soul of man4 ,his       
fundamental view of  this organic unity 
appears in his general conception of the
 universe3  8,in all things10 says he1  
8there lives and reigns an eternal law4 
,this all-controlling law is necessarily
 based on an all-pervading1  energetic1 
living1 self-conscious1 and hence       
eternal ,unity4 ,this ,unity  is ,god4  
,all things have come from the ,divine  
,unity1 from ,god1 and  have their      

origin in the ,divine ,unity1 in ,god   
alone4 ,all things live  and have their 
being in and through the ,divine ,unity1
 in and through  ,god4 ,the divine      
effluence that lives in each thing is   
the essence of  each thing40 ,this      
fundamental mystic principle ,froebel   
constantly  reiterates in various forms1
 and from it derives a number of        
subsidiary  conceptions4 ,these1        
however1 play but a small part in his   
actual  practice1 and scarcely require  
consideration here4    ,sidenote3       
,education should be #8following4'      
,sidenote3 #8,self-activity4'           
,sidenote3 #8,creativeness4'    ,motor  
,expression as ,his ,method4--,but      
,froebel also holds that1 8while  in    
every human being there lives humanity  
as a whole1 in each one it  is realized 
and expressed in a wholly particular1   
peculiar1 personal1  and unique manner40
 ,thus he maintains that there is in    
every person at  birth a cordinated1    
unified plan of his mature character1   

and that1  if it is not marred or       
interfered with1 it will develop        
naturally of  itself4 ,while he is not  
entirely consistent1 and at times       
implies  that this natural development  
must be guided and even shaped1 in  the 
main he reiterates ,rousseau's doctrine 
that #8nature is right1'  and clearly   
stands for a full and free expression of
 the instincts  and impulses4 ,hence he 
insists that 8education in instruction  
and  training should necessarily be     
passive1 following2 not prescriptive1   
categorical1 interfering40 ,but in his  
conclusion as to the proper  method for 
accomplishing this #8development1'      
,froebel naturally holds  that it       
8should be brought about not in the way 
of dead imitation or  mere copying1 but 
in the way of living1 spontaneous       
self-activity40 ,by  this principle of  
#8self-activity' as the method of       
education ,froebel  seeks not simply    
activity in response to suggestion or   
instruction  from parents or teachers1  

but activity of the child in carrying   
out  his own impulses and decisions4    
,individuality must be developed by     
such activity1 and self-hood given its  
rightful place as the guide to  the     
child's powers when exercised in        
learning4 ,hence with this idea  of     
development through #8self-activity' is 
connected his principle  of             
#8creativeness1' by which new forms and 
combinations are made  and expression is
 given to new images and ideas4         
8,plastic material  representation in   
life and through doing1 united with     
thought and  speech10 he declares1 8is  
by far more developing and cultivating  
than  the merely verbal representation  
of ideas40    ,sidenote3                
,self-realization through social        
participation4    ,sidenote3 ,coperative
 in text    activities in play4    ,the 
,social ,aspect of ,education4--,his    
emphasis upon this psychological        
principle of motor expression under the 
head of #8self-activity' and            

#8creativeness' is the chief            
characteristic of ,froebel's method4    
,rousseau had also recommended motor    
activity as a means of learning1  but he
 had insisted upon an isolated and      
unsocial education for  ,emile1 whereas 
,froebel stresses the social aspects of 
education quite  as clearly as he does  
the principle of self-expression4 ,in   
fact1 he  holds that increasing         
self-realization1 or individualization  
through  #8self-activity1' must come    
through a process of socialization4 ,the
  social instinct is primal1 and the    
individual can be truly educated  only  
in the company of other human beings4   
,the life of the individual  is         
necessarily bound up with participation 
in institutional life4 ,each  one of the
 various institutions of society in     
which the mentality of  the race has    
manifested itself--the home1 the school1
 the church1  the vocation1 the         
state--becomes a medium for the activity
 of the  individual1 and at the same    

time a means of social control4 ,as far 
as the child enters into the surrounding
 life1 he is to receive the  development
 needed for the present1 and thereby    
also to be prepared for  the future4    
,through imitation of coperative        
activities in play1 he  obtains not only
 physical1 but intellectual and moral   
training4 ,such  a moral and            
intellectual atmosphere ,froebel sought 
to cultivate at  ,keilhau by coperation 
in domestic labor1--#8lifting1 pulling1 
carrying1  digging1 splitting1' and     
through coperative construction out of  
blocks  of a chapel1 castle1 and other  
features of a village4 ,similarly1  the 
kindergarten was intended to 8represent 
a miniature state for  children1 in     
which the young citizen can learn to    
move freely1 but with  consideration for
 his little fellows40    ,sidenote3 ,a  
school without books or set tasks as his
 third  contribution4    ,the           
,kindergarten4--,beside his basal       
principles of motor expression  and     

social participation1 ,froebel made a   
third contribution to  educational      
practice in advocating as a means of    
realizing these  principles a school    
without books or set intellectual tasks1
  and permeated with play1 freedom1 and 
joy4 ,in the kindergarten1              
#8self-activity' and #8creativeness1'   
together with social coperation1  found 
complete application and concrete       
expression4 ,the training there  has    
always consisted of three cordinate     
forms of expression3 7#a7 song1  7#b7   
movement and gesture1 and 7#c7          
construction2 and mingled with these    
and growing out of each is the use of   
language by the child4 ,but these       
means1 while separate1 often coperate   
with and interpret one another1  and the
 process is connected as an organic     
whole4 ,for example1 when the  story is 
told or read1 it is expressed in song1  
dramatized in movement  and gesture1 and
 illustrated by a construction from     
blocks1 paper1  clay1 or other material4

    ,sidenote3 ,mother ,play4    ,the   
,mother ,play and ,nursery ,songs were  
intended to exercise the  infant's      
senses1 limbs1 and muscles1 and1 through
 the loving union  between mother and   
child1 draw both into intelligent and   
agreeable  relations with the common    
objects of life about them4 ,the fifty  
#8play songs' are each connected with   
some simple nursery game1 like          
#8pat-a-cake1' #8hide-and-seek1' or the 
imitation of some trade 7,fig4  #dc71   
and are intended to correspond to a     
special physical1 mental1 or  moral need
 of the child4 ,the selection and order 
of the songs were  determined with      
reference to the child's development1   
which ranges from  almost reflex and    
instinctive movements up to an ability  
to represent  his perceptions with      
drawings1 accompanied by considerable   
growth of  the moral sense4 ,each song  
contains three parts3 7#a7 a motto for  
the  guidance of the mother2 7#b7 a     
verse with the accompanying music1 to   

sing to the child2 and 7#c7 a picture   
illustrating the verse4    ,sidenote3   
#8,gifts1'--    ,sidenote3 first1       
,sidenote3 second1    ,sidenote3 third1 
,sidenote3 and the other three1         
,sidenote3 and #8occupations4'    ,the  
#8gifts' and #8occupations' were both   
intended to stimulate  motor expression1
 but the #8gifts' combine and rearrange 
certain  definite material without      
changing the form1 while the            
#8occupations'  reshape1 modify1 and    
transform their material4 ,the emphasis 
in  kindergarten practice has come to be
 transferred from the #8gifts' to  the  
#8occupations1' which have been largely 
increased in range and  number4 ,of the 
#8gifts1' the first consists of a box of
 six woolen  balls of different colors4 
,they are to be rolled about in play1   
and  thus develop ideas of color1       
material1 form1 motion1 direction1 and  
muscular sensibility4 ,a sphere1 cube1  
and cylinder of hard wood compose  the  
second #8gift4' ,here1 therefore1 are   

found a known factor in the  sphere and 
an unknown one in the cube4 ,a          
comparison is made of the  stability of 
the cube with the movability of the     
sphere1 and the two  are harmonized in  
the cylinder1 which possesses the       
characteristics  of each4 ,the third    
#8gift' is a large wooden cube divided  
into eight  equal cubes1 thus teaching  
the relations of the parts to the whole 
and  to one another1 and making possible
 original constructions1 such as        
armchairs1 benches1 thrones1 doorways1  
monuments1 or steps4 ,the three         
following #8gifts' divide the cube in   
various ways so as to produce  solid    
bodies of different types and sizes1 and
 excite an interest in  number1         
relation1 and form4 ,from them the      
children are encouraged  to construct   
geometrical figures and #8forms of      
beauty' or artistic  designs4 ,beside   
the six regular #8gifts1' he also added 
#8tablets1'  #8sticks1' and #8rings1'   
sometimes known as #8gifts seven to     

nine4' ,this  material introduces       
surfaces1 lines1 and points in contrast 
with the  preceding solids1 and brings  
out the relations of area1 outline1  and
 circumference to volume4 ,the          
#8occupations' comprise a long list  of 
constructions with paper1 sand1 clay1   
wood1 and other materials4              
,corresponding with the #8gifts' that   
deal with solids1 may be grouped        
#8occupations' in clay modeling1        
cardboard cutting1 paper folding1 and   
wood carving2 and with those of surfaces
 may be associated mat and  paper       
weaving1 stick shaping1 sewing1 bead    
threading1 paper pricking1  and drawing4
    ,sidenote3 ,superficial faults1     
,sidenote3 bondage to local ideals1     
,sidenote3 and formal discipline4       
,the ,value and ,influence of ,froebel's
 ,principles4--,for one pursuing        
destructive criticism only1 it would not
 be difficult to find flaws  in both the
 theory and practice of ,froebel4 ,in   
the ,mother ,play the  pictures are     

rough and poorly drawn1 the music is    
crude1 and the verses  are lacking in   
rhythm1 poetic spirit1 and diction      
7,fig4 #dc74 ,but the  illustrations and
 songs served well the interests and    
needs of those  for whom they were      
produced1 and ,froebel himself was not  
insistent  that they should be used     
after more satisfactory compositions    
were  found4 ,other criticism of his    
material has been made on the ground    
that it was especially adapted to       
,german ideals1 ,german children1  and  
the relatively simple village life of   
,froebel's experience1 and  that it     
needs considerable modification to suit 
other countries and  the industrial     
organization of society to-day4 ,also   
the argument of  #8formal discipline'   
for care and accuracy in the use of the 
gifts1  and the insistence upon the     
employment of every part of each gift   
upon all occasions in the exact order   
mentioned by ,froebel1 have been  shown 
to violate the principles of modern     

psychology4 ,his more liberal           
disciples1 however1 realize that it is  
the spirit of his underlying            
principles1 and not the letter of his   
practice1 that should be  followed1 and 
have constantly struggled to keep the   
kindergarten matter  and methods in     
harmony with the times and the          
environment4      ,der ,zimmermann4     
,seht mir nur den ,zimmermann1          
,welch' seltne ,kunst er ben kann3      
,was steht1 bringt er zum ,sturz2       
,was lang ist1 macht er kurz2      ,das 
,runde macht er grad2      ,das ,rauhe  
macht er glatt2      ,was krumm ist1    
macht er gleich2      ,so ist an ,kunst 
er reich4        ,das ,einzle nicht ihm 
g'ngt1      ,zum ,ganzen schnell er 's  
fgt2      ,doch1 was kommt da heraus8-- 
,aus ,balken wird ein ,haus6      ,ein  
,haus fr #8s gute ,kind1      ,da es    
d'rin ,eltern find'1      ,die sorgsam  
es bewahren      ,vor ,seel'- und       
,leib'sgefahren4        ,den ,zimmermann
 das ,kind d'rum liebt1        ,der ihm 

den ,schutz des ,hauses giebt4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--;,der        
,zimmermann 7,the ,carpenter74          
7,reproduced by permission of ,d4       
,appleton and ,company from the ,eliot  
and  ,blow edition of ,froebel's ,mother
 ,play47    ,sidenote3 ,greatest        
weakness in symbolism and mysticism4    
,sidenote3 ,fantastic and vague         
doctrines4    ,sidenote3 ,notion that   
nature may illumine mental and social   
laws4    ,a more serious hindrance to   
the acceptance of ,froebelianism has    
arisen  from his peculiar mysticism and 
symbolism4 ,since all things live and   
have their being in and through ,god and
 the divine principle in each  is the   
essence of its life1 everything is      
liable to be considered  by ,froebel as 
symbolic in its very nature1 and he     
often resorts to  fantastic and strained
 interpretations4 ,thus with ,froebel   
the cube  becomes the symbol of         
diversity in unity1 the faces and edges 
of  crystals all have mystic meanings1  

and the numbers three and five  reveal  
an inner significance4 ,at times this   
symbolism descends into  a literal and  
verbal pun1 where it seems to a modern  
that ,froebel  can hardly be in earnest4
 ,further1 he holds that general        
conceptions  are implicit in the child1 
and each of these can be awakened by    
#8adumbration1' that is1 by presenting  
something that will symbolically        
represent that particular #8innate      
idea4' ,thus1 in treating the gifts  and
 games1 he maintains that from a ball   
the pupils gather an abstract  notion of
 #8unity4' ,moreover1 because ,god is   
the self-conscious spirit  that         
originated both man and nature1 and     
everything is interconnected1  he       
believes that each part of the universe 
may throw light on every  other part1   
and constantly holds that a knowledge of
 external  nature1--such as the         
formation of crystals1 will enable one  
to  comprehend the laws of the mind and 
of society4    ,sidenote3 ,most         

essential to conservatives4             
,sidenote3 ,effect upon pupils4         
,unfortunately1 this mystic symbolism1  
vague and extreme as it is1  is regarded
 by the strict constructionists among   
the kindergartners  as the most         
essential feature in ,froebelianism1 and
 they expect the  innocents in their    
charge to reveal the symbolic effect of 
the material  upon their minds4 ,there  
is no real evidence for supposing that  
such  associations between common       
objects and abstract conceptions exist  
for  children4 ,but such an imaginary   
symbolic meaning may be forced upon an  
object by the teacher1 and pupils in    
conservative kindergartens soon  learn  
to adopt certain phrases and attitudes  
that imply such mystic  meaning4 ,this  
often tends to foster insincerity and   
sentimentalism  rather than to inculcate
 abstract truth through symbols4 ,had   
,froebel  possessed the enlarged        
knowledge of biology1 physiology1 and   
psychology  that is available for one   

living in the twentieth century1 it is  
unlikely that he would have insisted    
upon the symbolic foundations for  his  
pedagogy4 ,his excellent practice is    
heavily handicapped by these            
interpretations1 and might as easily    
have been inferred from very  different 
positions in modern psychology4         
,sidenote3 ,borrowed from others1       
,sidenote3 but unique in motor          
expression1 social participation and    
informal school4    ,but ,froebel has   
had a most happy effect upon education  
as a whole4  ,in some respects he       
utilized features from other reformers4 
,we can  see that he adopted many of    
,pestalozzi's objective methods in      
geography1 natural history1 arithmetic1 
language1 drawing1 writing  and reading1
 and constructive geometry2 reiterated  
,rousseau's views  upon the             
infallibility of nature2 and advocated  
the physical training  and excursions as
 a means of study that are stressed by  
both these  reformers4 ,in his use of   

stories1 legends1 fables1 and           
fairy-tales1  he paralleled his         
contemporary1 ,herbart1 in his influence
 upon the  curriculum4 ,but in his      
emphasis upon motor expression and      
social  participation1 together with his
 advocacy of a school without books or  
set tasks1 ,froebel was unique1 and made
 a most distinctive contribution  to    
educational practice4 ,and whenever the 
real significance of his  principles has
 been comprehended1 they have been      
recognized as the most  essential laws  
in the educational process1 and are     
valued as the means  of all effective   
teaching4    ,sidenote3 ,contribution to
 all stages of education4    ,sidenote3 
,manual training through ,cygnus        
,sidenote3 and ,salomon4    ,sidenote3  
,parker and ,dewey4    ,froebel himself 
never fully worked out his theories in  
connection  with schooling beyond the   
kindergarten1 but all stages of         
education  have now come to realize the 
value of discovering and developing     

individuality by means of initiative1   
execution1 and coperation2 and          
spontaneous activities1 like play1      
construction1 and occupational  work1   
have become more and more the means to  
this end4 ,for example1  the #8busy     
work1' #8whittling1' #8clay-modeling1'  
#8sloyd1' and other  types of #8manual  
training' have to a large degree sprung 
from the  influence of ,froebel4 ,uno   
,cygnus 7#ahaj-ahhh71 who started the   
manual  training movement1 owed his     
inspiration to ,froebel and his own     
desire  to extend the kindergarten      
occupations through the grades4 ,as a   
result  of his efforts1 ,finland in     
#ahff became the first country in the   
world  to adopt manual training as an   
integral part of the course in the      
elementary and teacher training schools4
 ,in #ahgd1 through the visit  of ,otto 
,salomon 7#ahdi-aijg7 to ,cygnus1       
,sweden transformed its sloyd  from a   
system of teaching the elements of      
trades to the more educative  method of 

manual training4 ,this use of           
constructive and occupational  work for 
educational purposes rather than for    
industrial efficiency  soon spread      
throughout ,europe1 and was first       
suggested to the ,united  ,states by the
 ,centennial ,exposition of #ahgf at    
,philadelphia4 ,various  types of modern
 educational theory and practice1       
especially those  associated with       
experiments made in the ,united ,states1
 also reveal  large elements of         
,froebelian influence4 ,among these     
might be included  the work of ,colonel 
,parker 7,fig4 #dj7 and of ,professor   
,john ,dewey4  ,the ,froebelian emphasis
 upon motor expression1 the social      
aspect of  education1 and informal      
schooling are evident throughout        
,parker's  work in his elementary       
school1 and are even extended so as to  
include  speech and the language-arts4  
,similarly1 ,dewey's occupational work  
and  industrial activities1 which were  
used through the entire course of his   

#8experimental school' in ,chicago1     
although not copied directly from       
,froebel1 closely approached the        
modified practice of the kindergarten   
7see pp4 #dcj f474    ,sidenote3        
,baroness von ,blow visited all         
countries4    ,sidenote3 ,foundation of 
,froebel ,union4    ,sidenote3 ,results 
in ,western ,europe4    ,the ,spread of 
,froebelianism through                  
,europe4--,directly after the  death of 
,froebel1 the kindergarten began to be  
spread through his  devoted followers1  
especially ,baroness von ,blow4 ,by     
means of her  social position and       
knowledge of modern languages1 she was  
enabled to  become his great apostle    
throughout ,europe4 ,having failed to   
obtain  a revocation of the edict       
against the kindergarten 7see p4 #cee7  
in  ,prussia1 the baroness turned to    
foreign lands4 ,she visited ,france1    
,belgium1 ,holland1 ,italy1 ,russia1 and
 nearly every other section of  ,europe1
 and in #ahfg was invited to speak      

before the #8,congress of               
,philosophers' at ,frankfort4 ,this     
distinguished gathering had been  called
 to inquire into contemporary           
educational movements1 and after  her   
elucidation of ,froebelianism1 a        
standing committee of the ,congress1    
known as the #8,froebel ,union1' was    
formed to study the system4 ,the        
propaganda was soon everywhere eagerly  
embraced4 ,kindergartens1  training     
schools1 and journals devoted to the    
movement rapidly  sprang up4 ,while the 
kindergarten was not generally adopted  
by the  governments1 it was widely      
established by voluntary means          
throughout  ,western ,europe1 and has   
since met with a noteworthy growth4     
,instruction  in ,froebelian principles 
is now generally required in most normal
  and teacher training institutions     
there4 ,sometimes1 as in ,france and    
,england1 it has been combined with the 
infant school movement1 and  has lost   
some of its most vital characteristics1 

but even in these  cases the            
cross-fertilization has afforded        
abundant educational  fruitage4 ,only in
 ,germany1 the native land of the       
kindergarten1 has  serious hostility to 
the idea remained4 ,kindergartens have1 
with few  exceptions1 never been        
recognized there as genuine schools or  
part  of the regular state system4 ,even
 to-day the ,german kindergarten is     
regarded as little more than a day      
nursery or convenient place to  deposit 
small children and have them amused4    
,sidenote3 ,voluntary basis through     
,elizabeth ,p4 ,peabody1    ,sidenote3  
,maria ,blte1    ,sidenote3 ,susan ,e4  
,blow1    ,sidenote3 ,emma ,marwedel1   
and others4    ,the ,kindergarten in the
 ,united ,states4--,the development and 
influence  of the kindergarten have been
 more marked in the ,united ,states than
  in any other country4 ,first attempts 
at a kindergarten in ,america  were made
 shortly after the middle of the        
nineteenth century by  educated         

,germans1 who had emigrated to ,america 
because of the unsettled  conditions at 
home4 ,a more fruitful attempt was that 
of ,elizabeth ,p4  ,peabody at ,boston  
in the early sixties4 ,notwithstanding  
the immediate  success of this          
institution and the evident enjoyment of
 the children1  ,miss ,peabody felt that
 she had not succeeded in getting the   
real spirit  of ,froebel1 and in #ahfg  
she went to study with his widow1 who   
had been  settled in ,hamburg for       
several years4 ,upon her return the     
following  year ,miss ,peabody corrected
 the errors in her work and established 
a  periodical to explain and spread     
,froebelianism4 ,the remainder of her   
life was spent in interesting parents1  
philanthropists1 and school  boards in  
the movement1 and a service was done for
 the kindergarten  in ,america almost   
equal to that of ,baroness von ,blow in 
,europe4 ,in  #ahfh through ,miss       
,peabody the first training school for  
kindergartners  in the ,united ,states  

was established at ,boston4 ,a similar  
institution  was opened in ,new ,york by
 #ahgb in charge of ,maria ,blte1 who   
had  also studied with ,frau ,froebel4  
,the same year saw the beginning of     
,susan ,e4 ,blow's work in ,st4 ,louis1 
where her free training school  for     
kindergartners was opened4 ,another     
missionary effort began in  #ahgf       
through ,emma ,marwedel1 who was        
employed to organize voluntary          
kindergartens and training classes      
throughout the chief centers of         
,california4 ,the kindergarten movement 
grew rapidly4 ,between #ahgj  and #ahij 
in all the leading cities of the country
 subscriptions for  kindergartens were  
raised by various philanthropic         
agencies1 and by  the close of the      
century there were about five hundred   
such voluntary  associations4           
,sidenote3 ,part of the public school   
system in all progressive cities4       
,but private foundations are            
restrictive1 and it was not until the   

kindergarten began to be adopted by     
school systems that the movement  became
 truly national in the ,united ,states4 
,boston in the early  seventies added a 
few kindergartens to her public schools1
 but after  several years of trial gave 
them up on account of the expense4 ,the 
first permanent establishment under a   
city board was made in #ahgc at  ,st4   
,louis through the efforts of ,miss     
,blow4 ,twelve kindergartens were       
organized at first1 but others were     
opened as rapidly as competent          
directors could be prepared at ,miss    
,blow's training school4 ,within a      
decade there were more than fifty public
 kindergartens and nearly eight         
thousand pupils in ,st4 ,louis4 ,san    
,francisco authorized the addition  of  
kindergartens to the public schools in  
#ahhj2 and between that date  and the   
end of the century ,new ,york1 ,boston1 
,philadelphia1 ,buffalo1  ,pittsburgh1  
,rochester1 ,providence1 ,milwaukee1    
,minneapolis1 and nearly  two hundred   

other progressive cities made the work  
an integral part of  their system4      
,about twenty of the cities employed a  
special supervisor  to inspect the work4
 ,excellent training schools for        
kindergartners  are now maintained by   
half a hundred public and quasi-public  
normal  institutions4    ,sidenote3     
,studies improved by ,pestalozzi        
,sidenote3 and ,herbart1    ,sidenote3  
and training contributed by ,froebel4   
,sidenote3 ,period of reforms of        
,pestalozzi1    ,sidenote3 ,froebel1    
,sidenote3 and ,herbart4    ,the        
,relative ,influence of ,pestalozzi1    
,herbart1 and ,froebel4--,it is  now    
obvious how large a part in the         
development of modern educational       
practice has been played by ,herbart and
 ,froebel4 ,there are few  tendencies in
 the curricula and methods of the       
schools to-day that  cannot in their    
beginnings be traced back to them1 or to
 ,pestalozzi1  their master4 ,but the   
reforms of all three find their roots in

  ,rousseau 7,fig4 #dd74 ,his           
#8naturalism' was continued by          
,pestalozzi 7,fig4  #de7 in his         
#8development' and #8observation1' which
 were1 in turn1  further elaborated by  
,froebel and ,herbart respectively      
7,figs4 #dg and  #df74 ,through his     
#8observation' methods1 ,pestalozzi     
greatly improved  the teaching of       
arithmetic1 language work1 geography1   
elementary  science1 drawing1 writing1  
reading1 and music1 and1 by means of    
,fellenberg's work1 developed industrial
 and philanthropic training4  ,as a     
result of ,herbart's moral and religious
 aim1 marked advances in  the teaching  
of history and literature have taken    
place1 and1 largely  through his        
carefully wrought educational doctrines1
 order and system  have everywhere been 
introduced into instruction4 ,from      
,froebel's  mystic interpretation of    
#8natural development' we have obtained 
the  kindergarten training for a period 
of life hitherto largely neglected1  the

 informal occupations1 manual training1 
and other studies of motor  expression1 
together with psychological and social  
principles that  underlie every stage of
 education4 ,pestalozzi's reforms were  
felt  in ,europe throughout the first   
half of the nineteenth century1 but  did
 not have any wide effect upon the      
,united ,states until after the         
#8,oswego movement' in the sixties4 ,the
 influence of ,froebel appeared in      
,europe shortly after the middle of the 
century1 and began to rise to  its      
height in ,america about #ahhj4 ,the    
,herbartian theory and practice  became 
popular in ,germany between #ahfe and   
#ahhe1 while the growth of              
,herbartianism in the ,united ,states   
began about five years after the  latter
 date4 ,hence the development of modern 
educational practice1 due  to these     
three great reformers1 falls distinctly 
within the period  of the nineteenth    
century4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#dd4--;,jean ,jacques ,rousseau         

7#agab-aggh74    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#de4--;,johann ,heinrich ,pestalozzi    
7#agdf-ahbg74    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#df4--;,johann ,friedrich ,herbart      
7#aggf-ahda74    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#dg4--;,friedrich ,wilhelm ,august      
,froebel    7#aghb-aheb74    ,,great    
,,educational ,,reformers               
,,supplementary ,,reading    ,graves1   
,in ,modern ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 
chap4 ,,vii2 ,great  ,educators         
7,macmillan1 #aiab71 chaps4 ,x and ,,xi2
 ,monroe1 ,textbook  7,macmillan1       
#aije71 pp4 #fbb-fgc2 ,parker1 ,modern  
,elementary ,education  7,ginn1 #aiab71 
chaps4 ,,xvii and ,,xviii4 ,herbart's   
,science of ,education  7translated by  
,felkin71 and ,outlines of ,educational 
,doctrine  7translated by ,lange and ,de
 ,garmo1 ,macmillan1 #aiji72 and        
,froebel's  ,education of ,man          
7translated by ,hailmann2 ,appleton1    
#ahid71  ,pedagogics of the             
,kindergarten and ,education by         
,development  7translated by ,jarvis2   

,appleton1 #ahig and #ahii71 and ,mother
 ,play  7translated by ,eliot and ,blow1
 ,appleton1 #ahif71 should be read at   
least  cursorily4 ,the best brief       
treatise on ,herbart and ,herbartianism 
7,scribner1 #ahif7 is that by ,de       
,garmo1 ,c41 a graphic description of   
,the  ,herbartian ,psychology 7,heath1  
#ahih7 is given by ,adams1 ,j41 in chap4
  ,,iii1 and a history of ,the          
,doctrines of ,herbart in the ,united   
,states  as a doctoral dissertation     
7,university of ,pennsylvania7 by       
,randels1  ,g4 ,b4 ,a good account of   
,froebel and ,education by              
,self-,activity  7,scribner1 #ahig7 has 
been furnished by ,bowen1 ,h4 ,c42 a    
conservative  treatment of ,kindergarten
 ,education 7,education in the ,united  
,states1 edited by ,n4 ,m4 ,butler1     
,monograph ,no4 #a71 by ,blow1 ,susan   
,e42 an interesting treatise on         
,kindergarten in ,american ,education   
7,macmillan1 #aijh71 by ,vandewalker1   
,nina ,c42 and a critical account of    

,the ,psychology of the ,kindergarten   
7,teachers ,college ,record1 vol4  ,,iv1
 pp4 #cgg-djh71 by ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4  
,,chapter ,,xxv    ,,the ,,development  
,,of ,,modern ,,systems ,,of ,,education
      ,,outline        ,the leading     
states of ,western ,europe and of       
,canada have1 during the      past      
century and a half1 organized systems of
 education1 which may      prove        
suggestive4        ,in ,prussia1 owing  
to a strong line of monarchs1 state     
control has      taken the place of     
ecclesiastical through a series of      
decrees      and enactments4 ,the       
people's schools are quite separate from
      the secondary schools4 ,three     
types of secondary institutions         
have developed1--the #8gymnasium1' with 
the classics as staples2      the       
#8real-school1' with modern languages   
and sciences2 and the                   
#8real-gymnasium1' with its compromise  
between the other two4 ,the             
universities have likewise been         

emancipated from ecclesiastical         
control4        ,in ,france1 a highly   
centralized system has been developed4  
,napoleon      united secondary and     
higher education in a single            
corporation2      under ,louis          
,philippe1 an organization of elementary
 schools was      made2 and1 during the 
third republic1 elementary education has
      been made free1 compulsory1 and   
secular4 ,the present secondary         
system--lyces and communal              
colleges--began with ,napoleon1 and     
has now been differentiated into several
 courses4 ,one-half of the              
universities established by ,napoleon   
were suppressed during the              
,restoration1 but since #ahif there has 
been a university in each of      the   
sixteen #8academies1' save one4         
,in ,england national education has     
grown out of the conflict of a          
number of social elements4 ,the         
sentiment for universal training        
appeared toward the close of the        

eighteenth century1 but not until       
#ahgj were #8board schools' established4
 ,in #ahii a central ,board      of     
,education was created2 and the ,act of 
#aijb1 while permitting      voluntary  
schools to share in the local rates1    
unified the system      and established 
secondary education at public expense4  
,during the      nineteenth century also
 the classical and ecclesiastical       
monopoly      in secondary and higher   
education was largely broken4        ,in
 ,canada there have developed two types 
of educational      control1--7#a7 the  
closely centralized system of public    
schools in      ,ontario1 and 7#b7 the  
public supervision of ecclesiastical    
schools      in ,quebec4    ,sidenote3  
,elementary education free1 but few     
cases of gratuitous  secondary schools1 
and ,france alone secularized4          
,sidenote3 ,suggestive1 when understood 
historically4    ,national ,systems of  
,education in ,europe and ,canada4--,in 
previous  chapters 7,,xvii1 ,,xxi1      

,,xxiii7 we have witnessed the gradual  
evolution in  ,america of state systems 
of universal education out of the       
unorganized  and rather aristocratic    
arrangement of schools that had first   
been  transplanted from ,europe in the  
seventeenth century4 ,but development   
of a centralized organization of public 
schools has not been confined  to the   
,united ,states4 ,during the past       
century and a half1 the leading  powers 
of ,western ,europe and ,canada have    
likewise organized state  systems of    
education1 similar in some respects to  
those of the ,american  union4 ,all of  
these states have now established       
universal elementary  education free to 
all1 although as yet in few instances   
are secondary  schools also gratuitous1 
and only ,canada has welded her         
elementary and  secondary systems4      
,france alone has completely secularized
 its system1  but the public schools of 
the other nations1 while still including
  religious instruction1 have been      

emancipated from ecclesiastical         
control1 and are responsible to the     
civil authorities4 ,in all of them      
school attendance is compulsory4 ,yet   
the educational system in none of  these
 countries is identical with that in the
 ,united ,states1 but has  been adapted 
in each case to the genius and social   
organization of the  people concerned4  
,its characteristics must1 therefore1 be
 considerably  modified1 in order to be 
utilized or to prove suggestive to the  
,united  ,states or other nations1 and  
can be understood only in the light of  
the educational history of the          
particular country to which it belongs4 
,for an intelligent appreciation of     
these modern school systems1 we  must1  
therefore1 trace the gradual development
 to their present form in  response to  
the changing ideals of successive       
periods4    ,sidenote3 ,rise of         
,prussian education due to enlightened  
despots3    ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,decree for 
compulsory attendance by ,frederick     

,william ,i  in #agag2    ,the          
,beginning of ,state ,control in        
,prussia4--,we may look first at        
,germany4 ,up to the later years of the 
eighteenth century all stages  of       
education in the various ,german states 
remained almost entirely  under         
ecclesiastical control1 but during this 
period the schools and  universities    
were taken over by the state from the   
church1 although the  clergy still      
exercised a few prerogatives1 and       
centralized national  systems were      
gradually organized4 ,among these states
 of ,germany  the first and most        
influential in the organization of      
universal  education was ,prussia4      
,while each of the others is            
characterized by an  educational history
 and peculiarities of its own1 this     
state may be  taken as an illustration  
of the evolution of ,german school      
systems4  ,the rise of ,prussia1        
educationally as well as politically1   
seems to  have been due to the strong   

,hohenzollern monarchs1--despotic1 but  
thoroughly awake to the interests of    
their people4 ,although for nearly  two 
centuries state control of education was
 carried on more or less  through the   
medium of the church1 its development   
was well under  way by the seventeenth  
century4 ,while the #8consistory1' or   
board of  supervision1 was still        
composed largely of the clergy1 the     
schools  were soon 7#afhg7 declared not 
to be simply church organizations1 but  
to belong to the state1 and some attempt
 was made to extend schools to  the     
villages as well as cities4 ,but the    
first noteworthy attempt to  establish  
compulsory attendance occurred during   
the reign of ,frederick  ,william ,i4   
,in #agag that monarch decreed that1    
wherever schools existed1  children     
should be required to attend during the 
winter1 and in the  summer whenever they
 could be spared by their parents1 which
 must be  at least once a week4 ,he also
 founded the first teachers' seminary at

  ,stettin from his own private means   
7#agce71 and the next year had a        
definite law passed1 making education   
compulsory for children from six  to    
twelve years of age4    ,sidenote3 7#b7 
,general ,school ,regulations decreed by
 ,frederick in  #agfc1    ,sidenote3    
supplemented by ,regulations for        
,catholic ,schools2    ,educational     
,achievements of ,frederick the         
,great4--,his most  important           
contribution1 however1 consisted in     
preparing the way for  an educational   
movement that was to be greatly         
developed through his  more able son1   
,frederick the ,great4 ,frederick began 
by improving the  administration of     
secondary education1 and requiring that 
all vacancies  on crown lands be filled 
by graduates from ,hecker's normal      
school  at ,berlin4 ,but the great step 
toward a national system was taken in   
#agfc1 when ,frederick issued his       
,general ,school ,regulations for the   
,country4 ,this decree required children

 to attend school from five  until      
thirteen or fourteen1 and until they    
8know not only what is  necessary of    
,christianity1 fluent reading1 and      
writing1 but can give  answer in        
everything which they learn from the    
school books prescribed  and approved by
 our consistory40 ,if any pupils should 
arrive at this  state of proficiency    
before thirteen or fourteen1 they could 
even then  leave school only through the
 official certification of the teacher1 
minister1 and inspector4 ,provision was 
also made for the attendance  of        
children who had to herd cattle or were 
too poor to pay the school  fees4       
,sunday continuation schools were to be 
established for young  people beyond the
 school age4 ,teachers must have        
attended ,hecker's  seminary and had to 
be examined and licensed by the         
inspector4 ,this  decree was two years  
later supplemented with similar         
,regulations for  the ,catholic ,schools
 in ,silesia1 drawn up by ,abbot        

,felbiger4 ,the  carrying out of the    
decree was1 however1 stubbornly opposed 
by many  teachers1 who could not meet   
the new requirements2 by farmers1 who   
objected to the loss of their children's
 time2 and by the nobles1 who  feared   
the discontent and uprising of the      
peasants1 in case they were  educated4  
,the execution of the regulation was    
still in the power of  the clergy1 and  
for some time it proved but little more 
than a pious  wish4 ,but ,frederick     
strove hard to have it enforced1 and it 
became the  foundation for the more     
effective laws that have since become   
embodied  in the ,prussian school       
system4    ,sidenote3 7#c7              
,establishment of ,central ,board of    
,administration under  ,frederick       
,william ,,ii in #aghg2    ,educational 
,influence of ,zedlitz4--,after #agga   
the educational  work of ,frederick was 
substantially aided by the appointment  
of  ,baron von ,zedlitz as head of the  
,department of the ,lutheran ,church    

and ,school ,affairs4 ,this great       
minister had been much impressed by     
,basedow's principles and experiments   
and by ,rochow's application of  the    
#8naturalistic' training1 and through   
him village schools were  greatly       
strengthened and enriched1 a regular    
normal school was opened  at            
,halberstadt1 and the humanistic ideal  
of secondary education  revived4 ,a year
 after ,frederick's death ,zedlitz      
succeeded1 even under  the reactionary  
monarch1 ,frederick ,william ,,ii1 in   
further developing  the nationalization 
of education4 ,in #aghg an              
,oberschulcollegium1  or central board  
of school administration1 was appointed 
instead of  the former church           
consistories4 ,however1 while the       
organization was  supposed to be made up
 of educational experts1 and ,zedlitz   
was actually  made chairman1 the        
membership was mostly filled from the   
clergy1 and  the king refused to extend 
its jurisdiction to the higher schools4 

,sidenote3 7#d7 ,publication of ,general
 ,code in #agid2    ,despite the        
reactionary policy of the sovereign1 the
 culmination of  the attempts to        
establish a national nonsectarian system
 of education  occurred during this     
reign4 ,in #agid there was published the
 ,general  ,code1 in which the chapter  
upon education declared unequivocally   
that 8all schools and universities are  
under the supervision of the  state1 and
 are at all times subject to its        
examination and inspection40  ,teachers 
were1 therefore1 not to be chosen       
without the consent of  the state1 and  
where their appointment was not vested  
in particular  persons1 it was to belong
 to the state4 ,teachers of all         
secondary  schools were to be regarded  
as state officials4 ,no child was to be 
excluded from the schools because of his
 religion1 nor compelled to  stay for   
religious instruction when it differed  
from the belief in  which he had been   
brought up4    ,sidenote3 7#e7 ,creation

 of a ,bureau of ,education in #ahjg1   
which later  became a separate ,ministry
 and then was further organized4        
,foundation of the ,ministry of         
,education and ,further                 
,progress4--,while  this comprehensive  
code met with much opposition from the  
clergy and  the ignorant masses1 and the
 next king1 ,frederick ,william ,,iii1  
weakly  yielded at first1 the           
humiliation of ,prussia by ,napoleon    
7#ahjc7 brought  the country to a       
realization of the need of a centralized
 organization  of the school system4    
,the ,oberschulcollegium was abolished1 
to get  rid of the clerical domination  
that had crept in1 and a ,bureau of     
,education was created as a section of  
the ,department of the ,interior  in    
#ahjg4 ,the ,bureau was within a decade 
erected into a separate  ,department or 
,ministry of ,education4 ,eight years   
later 7#ahbe7 the  state was divided    
into educational provinces2 and a       
,schulcollegium1  or administrative     

board1 with considerable independence1  
but subject  to the minister1 was       
established over each province4 ,since  
then there  have been many further      
developments1 and provinces themselves  
are now  divided into #8governments1'   
each of which has a #8school commission'
  over it1 and every government is      
divided into #8districts1' whose chief  
officer is a #8school inspector4' ,under
 the district inspector are local       
inspectors1 and each separate school    
also has a local board1 to take  charge 
of repairs1 supplies1 and other external
 matters4    ,thus the supreme          
management of the schools has been      
gradually coming  into the hands of the 
state for nearly two centuries4 ,the    
decrees of  #agag and #agfc1 the        
establishment of the ,oberschulcollegium
 in #aghg1  the ,general ,code          
promulgated in #agid1 the foundation of 
a distinct  civic administration of     
education in #ahjg1 are the mile-stones 
that  mark the way to state control4    

,but1 while the influence of the  church
 has been constantly diminishing1 many  
of the board members  are ministers or  
priests and the inspectors come mostly  
from the  clergy4 ,moreover1 religious  
instruction forms part of the course in 
every school1 although it is given at   
such an hour that any pupil may         
withdraw if the teaching is contrary to 
the faith in which he has been  reared4 
,the secondary schools are largely      
interdenominational1 but in  elementary 
education there are separate schools for
 ,catholics and  ,protestants1 alike    
supported by the state4    ,sidenote3   
,volksschulen1    ,sidenote3            
#8,continuation schools1'    ,sidenote3 
and ,mittelschulen4    ,the ,elementary 
,system4--,prussia1 like most of the    
principal states of  ,europe1 as a      
result of their educational history1 has
 its elementary  and secondary systems  
quite separate and distinct from each   
other  7,fig4 #dh74 ,the universities   
continue the work of the gymnasiums and 

real-schools1 but these two latter      
institutions parallel the work of  the  
,volksschulen 7people's schools71 rather
 than supplement it4 ,the  course of the
 secondary school ordinarily occupies   
the pupil from  nine to eighteen years  
of age1 while that of the elementary    
school  carries him from six to         
fourteen1 and after the first three     
years  it is practically impossible to  
transfer from the elementary to the     
secondary system4 ,a pupil cannot enter 
a gymnasium or real-school  after       
completing the people's school1 and the 
only further training  he can obtain is 
that of the ,fortbildungschulen1 or     
#8continuation  schools1' which         
supplement the system 7see p4 #dbj74    
,the people's  schools are gratuitous   
and are attended mostly by the children 
of  the lower classes1 while the        
gymnasiums charge a tuition fee and are 
patronized by the professional classes  
and aristocracy4 ,hence the line        
between elementary and secondary        

education in ,prussia is longitudinal   
and not latitudinal1 as it is in the    
,united ,states2 the distinction is  one
 of wealth and social status rather than
 of educational grade and  advancement4 
,there are also some ,mittelschulen     
7middle schools7 for  the middle classes
 of people1 who cannot send their       
children to the  secondary schools1 and 
yet can afford some exclusiveness4 ,they
 have  one more class than the people's 
schools1 include a foreign language     
during the last three years1 and require
 teachers with a better  training4      
,sidenote3 ,gymnasien and ,realschulen2 
,sidenote3 ,realgymnasien and           
,oberrealschulen2    ,sidenote3 six-year
 courses2    ,the ,secondary            
,system4--,the main types of secondary  
schools in ,prussia  are the ,gymnasien 
7see p4 #aad71 with the classic         
languages as the  main feature of their 
course1 and the ,realschulen1 or        
real-schools  7see p4 #agf71            
characterized by larger amounts of the  

modern languages1  mathematics1 and the 
natural sciences4 ,for more than a      
century after  the first real-school was
 opened in ,berlin by ,hecker 7#agdg71  
this type  of institution had only six  
years in its course1 and was considered 
inferior to the gymnasium4 ,by the      
ministerial decree of #ahei1 however1   
two classes of real-schools were        
recognized1 and those of the first      
class had a course of nine years1 and   
included ,latin1 but not ,greek4  ,they 
were given full standing as secondary   
schools1 and graduates  were granted    
admission to the universities1 except   
for the study of  theology1 medicine1 or
 law4 ,the course of the second class of
 these  institutions contained no       
,latin1 and was but six years in length4
 ,in  #ahhb the compromise character of 
the course of the first class of        
institutions led to their being         
designated as ,realgymnasien1 while  the
 second class in some instances had     
their work extended to nine  years and  

became known as ,oberrealschulen4 ,the  
graduates were then  allowed the        
privilege of studying at the            
universities in mathematics  and the    
natural sciences4 ,since #aija the      
university courses have  been thrown    
open to graduates of any of the three   
types of secondary  schools1 except     
that1 to be eligible for theology1 one  
must have  completed the course of a    
gymnasium1 and for medicine1 the course 
of a real-gymnasium at least4 ,besides  
these schools that have been  mentioned1
 in rural districts where a complete    
course cannot be  maintained1 there are 
often secondary institutions that do not
 carry  the student more than six years4
 ,these are known1 according to the     
curriculum1 as ,progymnasien1           
,realprogymnasien1 and ,realschulen4    
,the first two classes are far less     
common than institutions with the       
longer course of the same character1 but
 the ,realschulen are nearly  twice as  
numerous as the ,oberrealschulen4       

,sidenote3 ,reformschulen2    ,sidenote3
 the ,vorschule4    ,since these three  
types of secondary institutions are so  
distinct  from each other 7,fig4 #dh71  
it is evident that a parent is forced to
  decide the future career of his boy at
 nine years1 long before his  special   
ability can be known4 ,if he once enters
 a real-school1 he can  never transfer  
to a gymnasium1 because the ,latin      
begins in the lowest  class of the      
latter course1 nor can he enter the     
gymnasium from the  real-gymnasium1     
after twelve1 since he has had no       
,greek4 ,to overcome  this objection1   
during the past quarter of a century    
efforts have been  made to delay the    
irrevocable decision by grouping all    
three courses  as one institution and   
making them identical as long as        
possible4 ,in  secondary schools of this
 new sort1 ,french is usually the only  
foreign  language taught for the first  
three years4 ,then the course divides1  
and  one section takes up ,latin and the

 other ,english4 ,after two years more  
a further bifurcation takes place in the
 ,latin section1 and one group  begins  
with ,greek1 while the other studies    
,english4 ,these institutions  are known
 as ,reformschulen 7,fig4 #dh71 and the 
plan was first  introduced at ,frankfort
 in #ahib4 ,the #8reform schools' are   
now growing  rapidly1 and there is      
evident an increasing tendency to       
postpone the  choice of courses as long 
as possible4 ,the three years of        
training  preliminary to admission to a 
secondary school of any type may be     
obtained through the people's or the    
middle schools4 ,but there has also     
grown up1 as an attachment of the       
secondary schools1 a ,vorschule         
7preparatory school71 to perform this   
function for pupils of the more         
exclusive classes4    ,sidenote3        
,universities1 state institutions1 but  
controlled by charters  and decrees4    
,higher ,education4--,like the other    
stages of education1 the  universities  

are now emancipated from ecclesiastical 
control1 and may  be regarded as part of
 the national system of education4 ,the 
university  is now cordinate and under  
the same authority with the church1 for 
both are legally state institutions4    
,universities can1 therefore1 be        
established only by the state or with   
the approval of the state4 ,in  general1
 however1 they are not controlled by    
legislation1 but through  charters and  
special decrees of the minister of      
education4 ,as their  income from       
endowments and fees is very small1 they 
are for the most  part supported by the 
state4 ,they are managed internally by  
the rector  and senate4 ,the rector is  
annually chosen from their number by the
  full professors1 with the approval of 
the minister1 and the senate is  a      
committee from the various faculties4   
,the professors are regarded as  civil  
servants with definite privileges1 and  
they are appointed by the  minister1    
although the suggestions of the faculty 

concerned are usually  respected4       
,sidenote3 ,technische ,hochschulen4    
,during the nineteenth century new      
institutions for the cultivation of     
science in application to practical and 
technological purposes have  developed  
from technical schools of a more        
elementary character4 ,while  known as  
#8technical high schools' 7,technische  
,hochschulen71 they  are institutions of
 higher learning1 and exist side by side
 with the  universities4 ,they include  
schools of engineering1 mining1         
forestry1  agriculture1 veterinary      
medicine1 and commerce4                 
,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,german  
,,education    ,fig4 #dh4    ,sidenote3 
,first agitation for elementary         
education during the  ,revolution4      
,educational ,development in            
,france4--,the development of a         
centralized  system of education in     
,france began almost a century later    
than in  ,germany4 ,during the          
eighteenth and the early nineteenth     

century the  different monarchic powers 
were not at all favorable to training   
the masses1 and popular education was   
badly neglected4 ,it required  several  
revolutions in government and the       
establishment of a permanent  republic1 
to break the old traditions completely1 
and to make it  evident that universal  
suffrage should be accompanied by       
universal  education4 ,just after the   
middle of the eighteenth century the    
revolutionary spirit began to manifest  
itself with the appearance of           
,rousseau's ,emile 7see p4 #bbb71 and1  
except for the training started  by the 
,christian ,brothers 7see p4 #adj71 the 
first serious attention  was given to   
elementary education4 ,rolland1 to whom 
a general plan for  reorganization had  
been committed1 recommended universal   
education  and an adequate number of    
training schools for teachers4 ,while   
his  proposals were not adopted1 they   
were the basis of much of the           
short-lived legislation that arose      

during the ,revolution1 and of the      
great principles of educational         
administration that have since been     
established4    ,sidenote3 ,napoleon and
 the ,university of ,france4            
,napoleon1 from the beginning1          
endeavored to reorganize education upon 
a  better basis1 and when he had become 
emperor1 ordered all the lyces1         
secondary colleges1 and faculties of    
higher education to be united  in a     
single corporation1 dependent upon the  
state and known as the  #8,university of
 ,france' 7#ahjh74 ,this decree of      
centralization divided  the country into
 twenty-seven administrative            
#8academies1' each of  which was to     
establish university faculties of       
letters and science near  the principal 
lyces4    ,sidenote3 ,through ,guizot   
primary schools began4    ,this         
organization1 however1 did not include  
elementary education1 and  little       
attempt was made to provide for schools 
of this grade before  the reign of      

,louis ,philippe4 ,upon the advice of   
his great minister of  education1       
,guizot1 that monarch organized primary 
education1 requiring  a school for each 
commune1 or at least for a group of two 
or three  communes1 and starting higher 
primary schools in the department       
capitals and in communes of over six    
thousand inhabitants 7#ahcc74  ,he also 
instituted inspectors of primary        
schools1 and established  department    
normal schools under the more effective 
control of the  state authorities4 ,the 
plan for higher primary schools was     
never fully  realized1 and the          
institutions of this sort that had been 
established  disappeared during the     
second empire4 ,the reactionary law of  
,falloux  7#ahej7 did not even mention  
these schools1 but encouraged the       
development of denominational schools4  
,sidenote3 ,under third republic primary
 system was completed4    ,sidenote3    
,normal schools4    ,sidenote3 ,higher  
primary and continuation schools4       

,sidenote3 ,maternal schools4    ,the   
,primary ,school ,system4--,guizot1     
however1 had given a permanent  impulse 
to popular education1 and during the    
third republic foundations  for a       
national system of education have       
rapidly been laid4 ,schools  have been  
brought into the smallest villages1 and 
elementary education  has been made free
 to all 7#ahha7 and compulsory between  
the ages of  six and thirteen 7#ahhb74  
,to provide trained teachers1 every     
department  has been required to provide
 a normal school for teachers of each   
sex2  and two higher normal schools1 one
 for men and one for women1 to train    
teachers for the departmental normal    
schools1 have been opened by the  state 
7#ahhb74 ,the higher primary schools    
have been restablished  and extended    
7#ahih71 and #8supplementary courses'   
offered for pupils  remaining at the    
lower primary schools after graduation4 
,the studies  in the supplementary      
courses are technical1 as well as       

general1 and  some of the higher primary
 schools have been established for      
vocational  training rather than        
literary4 ,in addition1 there are       
continuation  #8schools of manual       
apprenticeship' in the various communes1
 subsidized  by the state for industrial
 and agricultural education1 and five   
large  schools for training in special  
crafts have been organized in ,paris4   
,institutions for children between two  
and six years of age became part  of the
 primary system in the days of ,guizot  
7#ahcc71 and half a century  later the  
present name1 coles maternelles 7see p4 
#bdd71 was adopted  7#ahha71 although   
there have since been marked reforms    
made in the  curriculum4    ,sidenote3  
,secularization4    ,secularization of  
the school system has also gradually    
taken place4  ,first1 the courses of    
study were secularized by the           
substitution  of civic and moral        
instruction for religious 7#ahha72 next1
 the  instructional force was           

secularized by providing that members of
 the  clergy should no longer be        
employed in the public schools 7#ahhf71 
and by recognizing public school        
teachers as state officers 7#ahhi72  and
 finally1 the schools themselves were   
completely secularized by  compelling   
the teaching orders to report to the    
state authorities  7#aijb71 and         
afterwards by closing the free schools  
directed by them  7#aijd74 ,thus within 
a generation universal elementary       
education has  been established in      
,france and brought completely under    
state control4    ,sidenote3            
,development of lyces and communal      
collges4    ,the ,secondary             
,system4--,as in ,prussia1 the secondary
 school system  of ,france does not     
connect with the primary1 but is quite  
separate  and distinct 7,fig4 #di74 ,the
 training has1 since the time of        
,napoleon1  been furnished chiefly by   
the lyces and communal collges4 ,during 
the  ,restoration 7#ahad-ahcj7 and the  

reign of ,louis ,philippe 7#ahcj-ahdh7  
the  lyces came to be called #8royal    
colleges1' but1 with the advent of the  
second republic 7#ahdh-ahea71 the       
,napoleonic name was restored and the   
curricula were completely reorganized4  
,by this revision some elasticity  was  
introduced into the last three years of 
the lyce by a bifurcation  into a       
literary and a scientific course1 and   
during the third republic  further      
elections were introduced1 until finally
 7#aijb7 four distinct  courses were    
established4 ,in the leading lyces and  
collges special  preparation is also    
afforded for schools like the military  
institution  of ,st4 ,cyr or the        
,polytechnic of ,paris2 and in some     
there is a short  course of three or    
four years in modern languages and      
sciences that in  function closely      
approaches that of the ,german          
real-school4    ,sidenote3 ,organization
 of lyces    ,sidenote3 and collges4    
,sidenote3 ,secondary institutions for  

girls4    ,the boys ordinarily begin the
 first #8cycle' of the lyce or collge   
at ten years of age1 and while they may 
transfer from the primary  system at    
this stage1 in most lyces and collges   
there are preparatory  classes to train 
the pupil from six to ten4 ,the second  
#8cycle1'  during which the             
differentiation in courses largely      
occurs1 takes the  pupil from fourteen  
to seventeen1 and leads upon completion 
to the  bachelor's degree4 ,education in
 a lyce or collge is not gratuitous1    
but the income from tuition fees is so  
small as to cover but a small  fraction 
of the cost1 and the rest is contributed
 by the state4 ,the  communal collges   
differ from the lyces in being local1   
and they are  maintained by the         
communes1 as well as by the state4 ,they
 have not  the same standing1 and the   
same attainments are not required of    
their  professors4 ,until #ahhj there   
were no lyces and communal collges for  
girls1 and convents and private schools 

furnished the only means of  female     
education4 ,even now the usual course in
 the public secondary  institutions for 
girls is two years shorter than in those
 for boys4    ,sidenote3 ,suppression   
and restoration of the universities4    
,sidenote3 ,degrees4    ,sidenote3      
,other higher institutions4    ,the     
,institutions of ,higher                
,education4--,more than one-half of the 
universities established in the various 
#8academies' by ,napoleon were          
suppressed as soon as the monarchy was  
restored4 ,but about half a  dozen were 
reopened in the reign of ,louis         
,philippe1 and were gradually  improved 
by the addition of new chairs4          
,beginning in #ahhe1 a number  of       
decrees established a general council of
 faculties in each academy  to cordinate
 the different courses and studies1 and 
in #ahif a law  was passed1 which       
established a university in each of the 
sixteen  #8academies1' except one4      
,these universities differ greatly in   

size1 but  all grant the license1 or    
master's degree1 and the doctorate4 ,the
  university degrees are ordinarily     
conferred in the name of the state  and 
carry certain definite rights with them1
 but of late years a new  type of       
degree1 #8doctorate of the university1' 
is granted upon easier  terms to        
foreigners more desirous of the degree  
than of its state  privileges4 ,in      
,paris1 besides the university1 there is
 the ,college of  ,france1 which still  
endeavors to foster freedom of thought  
7see p4  #aaj71 and a dozen other       
institutions of university grade1       
connected  with some special line1 have 
been established4    ,sidenote3 ,duties 
of minister1    ,sidenote3 rectors1     
,sidenote3 prefects1    ,sidenote3 and  
inspectors4    ,centralized             
,administration of the ,french          
,education4--,the  centralization of    
education is even more complete in      
,france than in  ,germany4 ,the supreme 
head of the system is the minister of   

education4  ,he is immediately assisted 
by three directors1 one each for        
primary1  secondary1 and higher         
education4 ,a rector is in charge of    
each of the  #8academies1' except       
,paris1 where the minister nominally    
holds the  office and a vice rector     
performs the duties4 ,the rector has    
authority  over all three fields of     
education in his academy1 but does not  
appoint  the teachers4 ,that office is  
performed by the prefect1 or head of    
each  civil department1 upon the        
recommendation of the academy inspector4
  ,there is also a departmental council1
 presided over by the prefect1  that    
appoints delegates in each canton1 to   
take charge of the school  premises and 
equipment4 ,further organization is     
effected through the  maintenance of a  
complete corps of general1 academy1 and 
primary  inspectors4    ,sidenote3 ,slow
 evolution4    ,sidenote3 ,church       
monopoly4    ,sidenote3 ,philanthropic  
institutions4    ,early ,development of 

,english ,education4--,in ,england the  
nationalization of education was delayed
 even longer than in ,france4  ,this    
country was never controlled by         
enlightened despots1 who could1  as in  
,germany1 force the growth of public    
educational sentiment1 nor  was it      
overwhelmed by the sweep of a great     
revolution1 destroying1 as  in ,france1 
all opposition to popular progress4     
,national education in  ,england has    
gradually grown out of the conflict of a
 number of elements  represented in its 
society4 ,it has been the product of a  
series of  compromises among many       
different factors1--the church1 state1  
economic  conditions1 private           
enterprise1 and philanthropy4 ,for      
several centuries  education was        
regarded as a function of the church and
 family1 and the  sentiment for         
universal training was retarded by the  
attitude of the  upper classes1 who     
strove to keep the poor in ignorance and
 to maintain  the educational control of

 the church4 ,this domination was first 
seriously challenged in the eighteenth  
century1 and while the training  then   
furnished through the ,society for the  
,promotion of ,christian  ,knowledge1   
the ,sunday schools1 and other          
philanthropic institutions  7see pp4    
#bcb ff471 was rather meager1 these     
organizations1 together  with the       
#8monitorial' instruction of the        
,british and ,foreign1 and the          
,national ,societies 7see pp4 #bdj f471 
greatly advanced the cause of  universal
 education4 ,and toward the close of the
 century there began  to appear a new   
point of view1 especially with men like 
,bentham1  ,blackstone1 ,robert ,owen1  
and ,adam ,smith1 who advocated         
universal  education1 compulsory        
attendance1 and a national system of    
schools4    ,sidenote3 ,first signs of  
progress4    ,sidenote3 ,first          
parliamentary grant in #ahcc4           
,sidenote3 ,committee of ,privy ,council
 in #ahci4    ,sidenote3 #8,payment by  

results' in #ahfa4    ,educational      
,movements in the ,nineteenth           
,century4--,the theory of these  great  
thinkers was somewhat in advance of the 
times1 but1 early in the  nineteenth    
century1 social changes began to favor  
better educational  opportunities4 ,the 
,factory ,act 7#ahjb7 provided for the  
obligatory  training of apprentices2    
,mr4 ,whitbread introduced 7#ahjg7 a    
bill to  permit the civic officials of  
any township or parish to establish     
schools for the poor wherever none      
existed2 and ,brougham1 while  losing   
his bill for popular education 7#ahbj71 
previously secured two  commissions of  
inquiry on school facilities4 ,in #ahcb1
 the passage of a  reform bill1 which   
largely increased the suffrage1 aroused 
,parliament  to the need of educating   
the masses1 and the next year the first 
grant1  #bj1jjj1 was made for elementary
 education4 ,this sum was to be used    
solely to aid in building schoolhouses  
for which subscriptions had  been       

privately obtained1 and so could be     
passed as a vote of #8supply1'  without 
referring it to the ,house of ,lords4   
,for lack of a government  organization 
of education1 it was apportioned through
 the ,national and  the ,british and    
,foreign ,societies 7see p4 #bdj74      
,governmental activities  constantly    
increased4 ,in #ahci the annual grant   
was increased to #cj1jjj  and allowed to
 be used for elementary education       
without restriction4 ,in  the same year1
 a separate committee of the ,privy     
,council was designated  to administer  
the educational grants2 and in #ahef a  
,vice ,president was  appointed to act  
as chairman of this educational         
committee4 ,then1 in  #ahfa1 through    
another commission on popular education1
 it was arranged  to base the grant to  
any school upon the results shown by the
 pupils in  the governmental            
examinations4 ,this #8payment by        
results' was intended  to increase      
efficiency1 but1 used as a sole means of

 testing1 it soon  proved narrowing and 
unfair1 and had to be supplemented by   
the general  opinion formed of each     
school by the inspectors4 ,yet it       
somewhat  increased the efficiency of   
the work4    ,sidenote3 ,in #ahgj       
establishment of #8board schools'1      
supported by local  #8rates1' as well as
 grants4    ,agitation in behalf of     
universal education continued1 and      
organizations  like the #8,lancashire   
,public ,school ,association' of        
,manchester 7#ahdg7  and #8,the ,league'
 of ,birmingham 7#ahfi7 spread rapidly  
through the  manufacturing centers4 ,and
 when the franchise was further extended
 in  #ahfh1 the necessity for preparing 
millions of the common people for  new  
responsibilities in public affairs led  
in #ahgj to the passage of  the         
epoch-making bill of ,william ,e4       
,forster4 ,under this act #8board       
schools1' or institutions in charge of a
 board chosen by the people  of the     
community1 were to be established       

wherever a deficiency in the  existing  
accommodations required it4 ,the        
#8voluntary1' or denominational         
schools1 most of which belonged to the  
,church of ,england1 were to  continue  
to share in the government grants upon  
equal terms with the  new institutions1 
but the latter had also the benefit of  
local #8rates4'  ,elementary instruction
 in all schools had to be open to       
government  inspection1 and the amount  
of the grant was partly determined by   
the  report of the inspectors4 ,the     
board schools were forbidden to allow   
8any religious catechism or religious   
formulary1 which is distinctive  of any 
particular denomination20 and religious 
instruction in either  type of school   
had to be placed at the beginning or end
 of the school  session1 so that1 under 
the #8conscience clause' of the act1 any
 scholar  might conveniently withdraw at
 that time4    ,sidenote3 ,compulsory   
attendance1    ,sidenote3 minimum age1  
,sidenote3 free tuition1    ,sidenote3  

and ,board of ,education4    ,this act  
of #ahgj was1 of course1 the magna      
charta of national  education1 and has  
become the basis of much school         
legislation4 ,the  compromise in the    
bill that allowed the voluntary schools1
 with their  sectarian instruction1 to  
continue receiving government support1  
however1 prevented a logical and        
consistent system from being            
established4 ,the dual system of        
elementary schools continued to be      
developed in a variety of enactments4   
,compulsory attendance laws were  passed
 7#ahgf1 #ahhj71 the minimum age of     
exemption was set first at  eleven years
 of age1 and then raised to twelve      
7#ahic1 #ahii71 and an  extra grant1 to 
take the place of tuition fees 7#ahia71 
made it possible  for most schools to   
become absolutely free4 ,finally        
7#ahii71 there was  created a central   
,board of ,education1 which assumed the 
functions of  the ,committee of ,privy  
,council on ,education and similar      

agencies for  managing educational      
interests4    ,sidenote3 ,in #aijb      
#8voluntary' schools also allowed local 
rates1    ,sidenote3 but dual system    
swept away1    ,sidenote3 and secondary 
instruction supported at public expense4
    ,subsequent ,educational            
,movements4--,within a generation of    
existence  the board schools met with a 
phenomenal growth1 and came to include  
about seventy per cent of the pupils4   
,they were spending about half  as much 
again upon each pupil as were the       
voluntary schools1 and were  able to    
engage a much better staff of teachers4 
,this extension of civil  influence in  
education was bitterly opposed by the   
,established ,church1  and when the     
conservatives came into power through   
the assistance of  the clergy1 they     
passed the act of #aijb1 whereby the    
denominational  schools were permitted  
to share also in the local rates4 ,while
 under  this act the administration of  
both board and voluntary schools was now

  centralized in the county and city    
councils1 the immediate supervision  of 
instruction in the individual schools   
was placed in the hands of  a board of  
managers2 and1 despite their receipt of 
local taxes1 the  voluntary schools were
 required to have but two of their      
managers  appointed by the council1 and 
the other four were still selected by   
the denomination4 ,serious opposition to
 the enforcement of the new law  arose  
among nonconformists and others1 and    
coercive measures were taken  by the    
government4 ,the new act1 however1 while
 unfair to those outside  the ,church of
 ,england1 tended to sweep away the dual
 system of public  and church schools1  
since both were coming to rest upon a   
basis of  public control and support4   
,since #aijb all elementary schools have
 been  considered as part of one        
comprehensive system1 and the board     
schools  have been distinguished as     
#8provided schools' and the voluntary as
  #8nonprovided4' ,moreover1 under the  

legislation of #aijb steps were also    
taken to cordinate secondary with       
elementary education1 and bring it      
somewhat within the public system4 ,the 
board schools had early in their        
existence begun to develop upward into  
secondary education and before  long had
 come to compete with the older grammar 
and public schools1  but in #aijj the   
#8,cockerton judgment' forbade the use  
of local rates  for other instruction   
than elementary1 and it remained for the
 new act  to impose upon councils the   
duty to support instruction in subjects 
beyond the elementary work4 ,the ,board 
of ,education was also empowered  to    
inspect the work of the great public    
schools and other endowed  secondary    
institutions1 and to allow grants to all
 schools meeting the  conditions of the 
,board4    ,sidenote3 ,bill of #aijf    
defeated1    ,sidenote3 but new plan1   
placing all schools under public        
control4    ,after the liberals returned
 to power1 they continued the           

conservatives'  policy of granting local
 rates to all elementary schools1 and of
  bringing secondary education under    
public support and control4 ,while  the 
education bill of #aijf1 which was kept 
from passage by the ,house  of ,lords1  
did not recognize church schools as     
such1 and insisted upon  bringing them  
under the complete control of the public
 authorities1  it made no attempt to    
return to the former dual system of     
schools  and the isolation of secondary 
from elementary education4 ,it still    
held also to religious1 and1 under      
safeguards1 even to sectarian           
instruction in the elementary schools1  
and may yet be passed in a  revised     
form4 ,a voluntary committee for a      
#8resettlement in ,english  elementary  
education1' through the mediation of the
 ,president of the  ,board of ,education
 and the ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 has
 formulated  a plan1 which concedes the 
principle of public control and support 
for all elementary schools and religious

 freedom for teachers and  pupils1 but  
provides local option for the           
continuance of denominational  schools4 
,thus1 while ,england is not prepared to
 adopt a secular  system1 like that of  
,france and the ,united ,states1 and has
 not yet  fully articulated its         
secondary education with elementary1    
7,fig4  #ej71 it is upon the high road  
to a complete centralization of school  
administration in the national          
government4    ,sidenote3 ,classical and
 ecclesiastical monopoly broken in      
secondary  and higher education4        
,during the nineteenth century also the 
classical and ecclesiastical  monopoly  
in secondary and higher education was   
largely broken4 ,all the  older public  
and grammar schools 7see pp4 #dab f47   
developed #8modern  sides1' and during  
the ,victorian era a number of new      
schools were  founded1 which gave       
considerable attention to the modern    
languages and  the sciences from the    
start4 ,a recognition of the scientific 

ideals  began also to appear in the     
curriculum of ,cambridge 7#ahea7 and    
,oxford  7#ahec71 and the theological   
requirements for a degree were dropped  
7#ahef74 ,by the last quarter of the    
century actual laboratories had  been   
introduced1 and students were freed from
 all doctrinal tests at  both           
universities4 ,moreover1 new            
universities1 better adjusted to  modern
 demands and more closely related to the
 school systems and the  civil          
government1 began to arise in           
manufacturing centers4 ,since #ahhi     
such municipal or #8provincial'         
institutions as the ,universities of    
,birmingham1 ,manchester1 ,leeds1       
,liverpool1 and ,bristol have sprung up1
  and the ,university of ,london1       
started as an examining body in #ahcf1  
has  become a teaching institution4     
,sidenote3 ,two types1    ,sidenote3    
7#a7 ,ontario and 7#b7 ,quebec4         
,development of ,education in the       
,dominion of ,canada4--,canada developed

  schools in very early days4 ,in the   
beginning education was cared for  in   
the four provinces separately1 and when 
the ,dominion of ,canada was  finally   
formed 7#ahfg71 the federal government  
left to each province  the              
administration of public education      
within its borders4 ,the same  autonomy 
was extended to the provinces that have 
since been  admitted to the federation4 
,two types of educational               
control1--state  and ecclesiastical1    
have been developing from the first4    
,the former  method is best illustrated 
by the system of ,ontario2 and the      
latter by  that of ,quebec4 ,ontario was
 settled mostly by emigrants from       
,england1  ,scotland1 and the ,united   
,states1 and practically all brought    
with  them the concept of public control
 of education4 ,the ,french ,catholics  
of ,quebec1 on the other hand1 naturally
 followed their traditions of  parish   
schools4    ,illustration3 ,,diagram    
,,of ,,french ,,education4    ,fig4 #di4

    ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of       
,,english ,,education4    ,fig4 #ej4    
,sidenote3 ,universal education1 and    
since #ahgj great centralization        
through minister    ,sidenote3 and      
subordinate authorities4    ,the ,public
 ,school ,system of ,ontario4--,the     
system of schools in  ,ontario began    
with the passage of its ,common ,schools
 ,act in #ahdf4 ,this  was formulated   
after a careful study of the systems of 
,massachusetts1  ,new ,york1 and the    
,european states1 and included excellent
 elements  from various systems and many
 original features of value4 ,by #ahga  
this fundamental law had come to include
 free tuition1 compulsory  attendance1  
county inspection1 and uniform          
examinations4 ,in #ahgf an  even greater
 centralization of the provincial system
 was effected  through substituting for 
the chief superintendent a #8minister of
  education' with much larger powers1   
and bringing all stages of public       
education1--elementary1 secondary1 and  

higher schools1 into much closer        
relationship4 ,the minister now has many
 assistants1 including an  ,advisory    
,council of ,education2 and he initiates
 and directs all school  legislation1   
decides complaints and disputes1 sets   
examinations for the  high1 elementary1 
model1 and normal schools1 prescribes   
the courses  of study1 chooses the      
text-books1 and appoints the inspectors4
 ,the  system is further administered by
 subordinate authorities elected in  the
 localities1 whose duties are clearly   
defined by law4 ,the province  is for   
educational purposes divided into       
counties1 which are in turn  divided    
into townships1 and subdivided into     
sections and incorporated  cities1      
towns1 and villages4 ,the central and   
local administrations are  wisely       
balanced1 and while the one determines  
scholastic standards  through its       
professional requirements1 the other    
establishes schools  and appoints       
teachers4    ,sidenote3 ,unification of 

the several stages of education4        
,sidenote3 ,inspectors4    ,sidenote3   
#8,separate schools4'    ,the system of 
elementary schools1 high schools1 and   
universities1 is  fully unified1 and the
 work of each stage fits into the others
 even  more exactly than in the         
#8ladder' system of the ,united ,states4
 ,the  training of teachers is cared for
 through the departments of ,education  
in the universities1 the eight          
provincial normal schools1 and a  model 
school in each county4 ,the teachers for
 secondary institutions  are prepared at
 the universities1 the normal schools   
grant a life  certificate to teach in   
the elementary schools1 while the model 
schools  afford fourteen weeks of       
training for country teachers4 ,the     
buildings1  equipment1 courses1 and     
instruction of the high1 elementary1 and
 model  schools are each reported upon  
by inspectors of assured scholarship    
and experience4 ,since #ahfc permission 
has been granted to establish           

#8separate schools' for any peculiar    
creed or race1 wherever there are  five 
families requesting it4 ,this           
opportunity to have schools of their    
own faith has not been embraced by any  
save the ,roman ,catholics4 ,any  one   
paying toward the support of a          
#8separate school' is exempt from       
taxation for the regular public schools4
 ,special provincial inspectors  report 
upon these schools1 but in the same way 
as for the public  schools4             
,sidenote3 ,other provinces similar to  
,ontario4    ,sidenote3 ,in ,quebec     
parish as unit1    ,sidenote3 but since 
#ahei ,council of ,public ,instruction  
,sidenote3 and superintendent of        
schools4    ,sidenote3 ,school support4 
,the ,system of ,ecclesiastical ,schools
 in ,quebec4--,the ,ontario system  may 
be considered typical of the educational
 administration in the  various         
provinces of ,canada1 except ,quebec4   
,every other province has  sought       
uniformity of school provision and      

educational standards through           
government control1 although none of    
them grant their central official  quite
 as much power as ,ontario4 ,alberta and
 ,saskatchewan likewise  permit         
#8separate schools1' and they existed in
 ,manitoba until #ahij4  ,but the type  
of control in ,quebec is very different 
from that of the  other provinces4      
,there in #ahde the parish was by law   
made the unit of  school administration4
 ,but seven years later government      
inspectors  were established1 and in    
#ahei a central organization was        
completed  with a ,council of ,public   
,instruction4 ,this authority is        
composed of  two divisions1 a ,roman    
,catholic and a ,protestant1 which sit  
separately  and administer the schools  
of their respective creeds4 ,the        
provincial  superintendent of schools1  
appointed by the lieutenant governor1 is
  ex officio chairman of both divisions1
 but he can vote only with  the division
 to which he belongs by religion4 ,each 

division makes  regulations for the     
instruction and tests of its own        
schools1 and  appoints inspectors of its
 own faith4 ,the proceeds from the      
general  public school fund or from any 
educational legacies are divided in     
proportion to the ,catholic and         
,protestant inhabitants1 but the regular
  school rate may be assigned to        
whichever of the two school systems the 
taxpayer wishes4      ,,supplementary   
,,reading    ,graves1 ,in ,modern ,times
 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 chap4 ,,ix2       
,parker1 ,modern  ,elementary ,education
 7,ginn1 #aiab71 chaps4 ,x and ,,xi4    
,the following  works throw light upon  
various phases of the respective        
countries3  ,nohle1 ,e41 ,history of the
 ,german ,school ,system 7,report of the
  ,u4 ,s4 ,commissioner of ,education1  
#ahig-ahih2 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bf-dd72       
,paulsen1 ,f41 ,german ,education       
7,scribner1 #aijh72 ,russell1 ,j4 ,e41  
,german ,higher ,schools 7,longmans1    
,green1 #ahif72 ,paulsen1 ,f41 ,the     

,german ,universities 7,macmillan1      
#ahie2 ,scribner1 #aijf72 ,kandel1 ,i4  
,l41 ,the ,training of ,elementary      
,school ,teachers in ,germany 7,columbia
  ,university1 ,teachers ,college       
,contributions1 ,no4 #ca1 #aiaj72       
,brown1  ,j4 ,f41 ,the ,training of     
,teachers for ,secondary ,schools in    
,germany  7,macmillan1 #aiaa72 ,beard1  
,mary ,s41 coles maternelles of ,paris  
7,great ,britain1 ,board of ,education1 
,special ,reports on ,educational       
,subjects1 vol4 ,,viii1 no4 #h72        
,farrington1 ,f4 ,e41 ,french ,secondary
  ,schools 7,longmans1 ,green1 #aiaj7   
and ,the ,public ,primary ,system of    
,france 7,columbia ,university1         
,teachers ,college ,contributions to    
,education1 no4 #g1 #aijf72 ,smith1     
,anna ,t41 ,education in ,france        
7,reports of the ,united ,states        
,commissioner of ,education1 #ahij to   
#aiad1 see tables of contents72         
,greenough1 ,j4 ,c41 ,the ,evolution of 
the  ,elementary ,schools of ,great     

,britain 7,appleton1 #aijc72            
,montmorency1 ,j4  ,e4 ,g4 de1 ,state   
,intervention in ,english ,education    
7,macmillan1 #aijc72  ,sharpless1 ,i41  
,english ,education in ,elementary and  
,secondary ,schools  7,appleton1 #ahib72
 ,smith1 ,anna ,t41 ,education in       
,england 7,monroe  ,cyclopdia of        
,education1 vol4 ,,ii72 ,sandiford1 ,p41
 ,the ,training of  ,teachers in        
,england and ,wales 7,columbia          
,university1 ,teachers ,college         
,contributions1 no4 #cb1 #aiaj72        
,coleman1 ,h4 ,t4 ,j41 ,public          
,education in  ,upper ,canada 7,columbia
 ,university1 ,teachers ,college        
,contributions1  no4 #ae1 #aiji72 ,ross1
 ,g4 ,w41 ,the ,school ,system of       
,ontario 7,appleton1  #ahif72 ,smith1   
,anna ,t41 ,education in ,canada        
7,monroe ,cyclopdia of  ,education1 vol4
 ,i74          ,,chapter ,,xxvi    ,,the
 ,,scientific ,,movement ,,and ,,the    
,,curriculum      ,,outline             
,during the past two centuries a great  

growth has taken place in      the      
natural sciences4 ,for a long time this 
development affected      practical life
 very little1 but during the nineteenth 
century the      application of science 
to industrial problems has resulted in a
      host of inventions4               
,because of the importance of the       
sciences to life1 ,spencer and          
others have urged the inclusion of them 
in the curricula of schools      and    
colleges4 ,while the content of the     
sciences has furnished the      chief   
argument for this1 many scientists have 
urged their value as      formal        
discipline4        ,instruction in the  
sciences has gradually been included in 
the      higher1 secondary1 and         
elementary institutions of ,germany1    
,france1      ,england1 and the ,united 
,states4        ,this marked scientific 
movement is allied with the             
psychological      tendency in its      
improvement of method1 and with the     
sociological in      its emphasis upon  

human welfare4    ,sidenote3 ,remarkable
 achievements during past two centuries4
    ,sidenote3 ,hutton1 ,agassiz1       
,darwin1 and others4    ,the            
,development of the ,natural ,sciences  
in ,modern ,times4--,we have  already   
7chapter ,,xv7 witnessed the growth of  
the natural sciences  and the beginning 
of their introduction into the          
curriculum toward  the close of the     
seventeenth century4 ,this tendency was 
also greatly  stimulated by ,rousseau1  
who1 we have seen 7pp4 #bah-bbb71 may be
 held to  advocate the scientific1 as   
well as the sociological and            
psychological  movements4 ,and during   
the past two centuries this development 
has become most rapid and extensive4    
,the desire for scientific              
investigation steadily grew throughout  
the eighteenth and nineteenth  centuries
 until its ideals1 methods1 and results 
became patent in  every department of   
human knowledge4 ,the strongholds of    
ignorance1  superstition1 and prejudice 

were rapidly stormed and taken through  
new discoveries or new marshallings of  
facts already discovered4 ,but  evident 
as this movement has been1 it is        
scarcely possible here even  to mention 
the more important scientific           
achievements1 or to outline  the broad  
sweep of progress in astronomy1 geology1
 biology1 physiology1  chemistry1       
physics1 and other sciences within a    
century4 ,the ,newtonian  theory has    
been confirmed by the investigations of 
,lagrange and ,laplace  and by the      
discovery of ,neptune by mathematical   
reasoning from the  effects of its      
gravitation4 ,hutton's #8,plutonic'     
theory of continents  and ,agassiz's    
hypothesis of a universal ice-age have  
been formulated2  the doctrine of       
evolution of ,darwin 7,fig4 #ea7 and    
,mendel's law of  inheritance have been 
established2 ,liebig and others have    
thrown light  upon the process of       
digestion and the functioning of the    
lungs and  liver2 atoms1 molecules1 and 

ions have been defined2 ,joule and      
,mayer  have demonstrated the           
conservation of energy2 and the periodic
 law of  chemical elements has been     
discovered by ,newlands4    ,sidenote3  
,during nineteenth century science      
applied    ,sidenote3 to problems of    
labor1 transportation1 communication1   
comfort1 and hygiene4    ,the ,growth of
 ,inventions and ,discoveries in the    
,nineteenth  ,century4--,it should be   
noted1 however1 that the majority of    
these investigations were for a long    
time carried on outside the             
universities1 and1 owing to the almost  
proverbial conservatism of  educational 
institutions1 the natural sciences      
scarcely entered the  course of study   
anywhere4 ,in fact1 these great         
discoveries at first  seem not to have  
affected practical life in any          
direction4 ,huxley tells  us that in the
 eighteenth century 8weaving and        
spinning were carried  on with the old  
appliances2 nobody could travel faster  

by sea or by  land than at any previous 
time in the world's history1 and ,king  
,george  could send a message from      
,london to ,york no faster than ,king   
,john might  have done40 ,but a little  
later1 as he adds1 8that growth of      
knowledge  beyond imaginable utilitarian
 ends1 which is the condition precedent 
of its practical utility1 began to      
produce some effect upon practical      
life40 ,the nineteenth century will1 on 
this account1 always be known  for its  
development of inventions and the arts1 
as well as of pure  science4 ,during    
this period science rapidly grew and    
took the form of  applications to the   
problems of labor1 production1          
transportation1  communication1 hygiene1
 and sanitation4 ,the reaper1 the sewing
 machine1  the printing press1 and the  
typewriter greatly reduced the cost of  
labor2 the steamboat1 locomotive1       
electric railway1 telegraph1 and        
telephone linked all parts of the world 
together2 anthracite1 friction  matches1

 petroleum1 and electric lighting and   
heating greatly enlarged  the comforts  
of life2 and stethoscopes1 ansthetics1  
antiseptics1 and  antitoxines added     
wonderfully to the span of human life4  
,sidenote3 ,contest between advocates of
 classics and sciences4    ,herbert     
,spencer and ,what ,knowledge is of     
,most ,worth4--,because  of these       
practical results1 the vital importance 
of a knowledge of  natural phenomena to 
human welfare and social progress was   
more and  more felt throughout the      
century4 ,it gradually became evident   
that the  natural sciences were demanded
 by modern life and constituted elements
  of the greatest value in modern       
culture and education4 ,many ,english   
and ,american writers began to maintain 
that an exclusive study of the  classics
 did not provide a suitable preparation 
for life1 and that the  sciences should 
be included in the curriculum4 ,this    
step was bitterly  opposed by           
conservative institutions and educators4

 ,during a greater  part of the century 
a contest was waged between the         
advocates of the  classical monopoly and
 the progressives1 who urged that the   
sciences  should be introduced4         
,sidenote3 ,preparation for complete    
living as the purpose of education4     
,sidenote3 ,leading kinds of activity2  
,a representative argument for sciences 
in the course of study is that  made by 
,herbert ,spencer 7,fig4 #eb7 in his    
essay on ,what ,knowledge ,is  of ,most 
,worth4 ,he ventured to raise the whole 
question of the purpose  of education4  
,he held that 8to prepare us for        
complete living is the  function which  
education has to discharge2 and the only
 rational mode  of judging of any       
educational course is1 to judge in what 
degree it  discharges such function4    
,our first step must obviously be to    
classify1  in the order of their        
importance1 the leading kinds of        
activity which  constitute human life4  
,they may be arranged into3 #a4 ,those  

activities  which directly minister to  
self-preservation2 #b4 ,those activities
  which1 by securing the necessaries of 
life1 indirectly minister to            
self-preservation2 #c4 ,those activities
 which have for their end the  rearing  
and discipline of offspring2 #d4 ,those 
activities which are  involved in the   
maintenance of proper social and        
political relations2  #e4 ,those        
miscellaneous activities which make up  
the leisure part of  life1 devoted to   
the gratification of the tastes and     
feelings4 ,the  ideal of education is   
complete preparation in all these       
divisions4 ,but  failing this ideal1 the
 aim should be to maintain a due        
proportion  between the degrees of      
preparation in each1 greatest where the 
value  is greatest1 less where the value
 is less1 least where the value is      
least40    ,sidenote3 for all of these1 
sciences are most useful2    ,sidenote3 
and a change of educational content is  
advocated4    ,applying this test1      

,spencer finds that a knowledge of the  
sciences is  always most useful in life1
 and therefore of most worth4 ,he       
considers  each one of the five groups  
of activities and demonstrates the need 
of the knowledge of some science or     
sciences to guide it rightly4  ,an      
acquaintance with physiology is         
necessary to the maintenance of  health1
 and so for self-preservation4 ,any form
 of industry or other  means of indirect
 self-preservation will require some    
understanding  of mathematics1 physics1 
chemistry1 biology1 and sociology4 ,to  
care  for the physical1 intellectual1   
and moral training of their children1   
parents should know the general         
principles of physiology1 psychology1   
and ethics4 ,a man is best fitted for   
citizenship through a knowledge of  the 
science of history in its political1    
economic1 and social aspects4  ,and even
 the sthetic or leisure side of life    
depends upon physiology1  mechanics1 and
 psychology as a basis for art1 music1  

and poetry4 ,hence  ,spencer advocates a
 complete change from the type of       
training that had  dominated education  
since the ,renaissance and calls for a  
release from  the traditional bondage to
 the classics4 ,instead of ,greek and   
,latin  for #8culture' and              
#8discipline1' and an order of society  
where the few  are educated for a life  
of elegant leisure1 he recommends the   
sciences  and a new scheme of life where
 every one shall enjoy all advantages in
  the order of their relative value4    
,but ,spencer uses the term #8science'  
rather loosely1 and seeks to denote the 
social1 political1 and moral  sciences1 
as well as the physical and biological1 
as being #8of most  worth4' ,hence he   
does not deserve to be severely         
arraigned for his  #8utilitarianism1' as
 he has been so frequently4 ,his        
#8preparation for  complete living'     
includes more than #8how to live in the 
material sense  only1' and with him     
education should contain such material  

as will  elevate conduct and make life  
pleasanter1 nobler1 and more effective4 
,sidenote3 ,huxley's ridicule of the    
education in vogue4    ,advocacy of the 
,sciences by ,huxley and                
,others4--,another great  popularizer of
 the scientific elements in education1  
who also stressed  the value of the     
sciences for #8complete living' and     
social progress1  was ,thomas ,h4       
,huxley 7,fig4 #ec74 ,his use of        
,english was vigorous and  epigrammatic1
 and he showed great skill in bringing  
his conclusions  into such simple       
language that the most unscientific     
persons could  understand them4         
,especially in an address on ,a ,liberal
 ,education  before a #8workingmen's    
college1' he has most forcefully        
depicted  the value of the sciences and 
other modern subjects in training for   
concrete living1 and ridiculed the      
ineffectiveness of the current          
classical education4 ,he maintains that 
8the life1 the fortune1 and the         

happiness of every one of us depend upon
 our knowing something of the  phenomena
 of the universe and the laws of        
,nature4 ,and yet this is what  people  
tell to their sons3 #8,at the cost of   
from one to two thousand  pounds of our 
hard-earned money1 we devote twelve of  
the most precious  years of your life to
 school4 ,there you shall not learn one 
single  thing of all those you will most
 want to know directly you leave school 
and enter upon the practical business of
 life4'0 ,instead of this1 8the  middle 
class school substitutes what is usually
 comprised under the  compendious title 
of the #8classics'--that is to say1 the 
languages1  the literature1 and the     
history of the ancient ,greeks and      
,romans1 and  the geography of so much  
of the world as was known to these two  
great  nations of antiquity40 ,thus 8the
 ,british father denies his children all
  the knowledge they might turn to      
account in life1 not merely for the     
achievement of vulgar success1 but for  

guidance in the great crises of  human  
existence40    ,sidenote3 ,combe4       
,sidenote3 ,youmans4    ,sidenote3      
,eliot4    ,many other vigorous         
lecturers and writers entered into this 
reform  of the curriculum4 ,opposition  
to the over-emphasis of languages1      
especially the classics1 in the content 
of education was undertaken  even       
earlier in the century by the           
distinguished phrenologist1 ,george     
,combe4 ,in his #8secular' schools and  
in his work on ,education1 he           
emphasized instruction in the sciences  
relating to moral1 religious1  social1  
and political life1 as well as those    
bearing upon man's  physical and mental 
constitution4 ,after the middle of the  
century a  number of men undertook to   
popularize the sciences in ,america by  
tongue  and pen4 ,one of the most       
effective of these was ,edward ,l4      
,youmans1 who  collected and edited a   
set of lectures urging the claims of the
 various  sciences under the title of   

,culture ,demanded by ,modern ,life     
7#ahfg74  ,he also founded the          
,international ,science ,series 7#ahga7 
and the  ,popular ,science ,monthly     
7#ahgb74 ,a service for the sciences1   
bearing  more directly upon the         
educational world1 was that performed by
 ,charles  ,w4 ,eliot 7,fig4 #ed71      
,president of ,harvard4 ,this he        
accomplished largely  by an extension of
 the elective system and an emphasis    
upon science in  the curriculum of      
school and college4 ,in his description 
of #8a liberal  education1' he argues   
that 8the arts built upon chemistry1    
physics1  botany1 zology1 and geology   
are chief factors in the civilization   
of our time1 and are growing in material
 and moral influence at a  marvelous    
rate4 ,they are not simply mechanical or
 material forces2 they  are also moral  
forces of great intensity40             
,sidenote3 ,huxley parodies the argument
 of formal discipline4    ,the          
,disciplinary ,argument for the         

,sciences4--,thus1 in general1 the      
writers and lecturers interested in the 
scientific movement held  that a        
knowledge of nature was indispensable   
for human welfare and  that the content 
of studies rather than the method was of
 importance  in education4 ,many of them
 also expressed their dissent from the  
disciplinary conception of education    
urged by the classicists4 ,huxley1  for 
example1 parodies the usual linguistic  
drill by stating3 8,i could  get up an  
osteological primer so arid1 so pedantic
 in its terminology1  so altogether     
distasteful to the youthful mind1 as to 
beat the recent  famous production of   
the head-master out of the field in all 
these  excellences4 ,next1 ,i could     
exercise my boys upon easy fossils1 and 
bring out all their powers of memory and
 all their ingenuity in the  application
 of my osteogrammatical rules to the    
interpretation1 or  construing1 of those
 fragments40    ,sidenote3 ,but ,spencer
 and others borrow the disciplinary     

argument of  the classicists4    ,yet   
the tradition of #8formal discipline'   
and the belief in faculties  or general 
powers of the mind that might be trained
 by certain favored  studies and        
afterward applied in any direction 7see 
pp4 #ahb;f47 were  too firmly rooted to 
be entirely upset4 ,even the greatest of
 the  scientists seem to have been      
influenced by this notion and to have   
attempted occasionally a defense of     
their subjects on the basis of          
superiority in this direction4 ,after   
,spencer has made his effective         
argument for the sciences on the ground 
that their #8content' is so much  more  
valuable for the activities of life1 he 
shifts his whole point  of view1 and    
attempts to anticipate the classicists  
by occupying  their own ground4 ,he     
admits that 8besides its use for        
guidance in  conduct1 the acquisition of
 each order of facts has also its use as
  mental exercise40 ,as evidence of     
this1 he undertakes to show that        

science1 like language1 trains the      
memory1 and1 in addition1 exercises  the
 understanding2 that it is superior to  
language in cultivating  judgment2 that1
 by fostering independence1             
perseverance1 and sincerity1  it        
furnishes a moral discipline4 ,a similar
 argument is made by ,combe1  when he   
maintains that 8it is not so much the   
mere knowledge of the  details of       
,chemistry1 of ,natural ,philosophy1 or 
of any other science  that ,i value1 as 
the strengthening of the intellect1     
which follows from  these studies40 ,so 
,youmans declares that 8by far the most 
priceless  of all things is mental      
power4 ,science made the basis of       
culture will  accomplish this result40  
,in fact1 nearly every apologist for the
  natural sciences at some time or other
 has advocated these subjects  from the 
standpoint of formal discipline1        
although the implied attitude  toward   
the transfer of a generalized ideal is  
often in harmony with  modern psychology

 7see p4 #ahd74    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#ea4--;,charles ,darwin    7#ahji-ahhb74
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,herbert
 ,spencer    7#ahbj-aijc74              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,thomas ,h4  
,huxley    7#ahbe-ahie74                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--;,charles ,w4
 ,eliot    7#ahce- 74    ,a ,,group ,,of
 ,,educational ,,leaders ,,in ,,the     
,,scientific ,,movement    ,sidenote3   
,german universities    ,sidenote3 and  
,hochschulen4    ,introduction of the   
,sciences into ,educational             
,institutions2                          
,germany4--,contemporaneously with the  
growth of inventions and the  cogent    
arguments and vigorous campaigns of     
advanced thinkers during  the nineteenth
 century1 training in the sciences was  
gradually  creeping into educational    
practice4 ,while the sciences began to  
work  their way into institutions of all
 grades early in the eighteenth         
century1 it was not until about the     
middle of the nineteenth that the       

movement was seriously felt in          
education4 ,even in ,germany the first  
attempts at studying nature were made   
outside the universities in  the        
#8academies of science4' ,we have seen  
7pp4 #agg f47 that during the           
eighteenth century most of the          
,protestant universities had started    
professorships in the sciences4 ,but it 
was not until the beginning  of the     
second quarter of the nineteenth century
 that1 in ,liebig's  laboratory at the  
,university of ,giessen1 students first 
began to be  taught through experiments1
 and it was after the middle of the     
century  before this investigation work 
had generally replaced the formal       
science instruction in ,german          
universities4 ,since then the           
development  of science in the higher   
education of ,germany has been          
phenomenal4  ,the ,technische           
,hochschulen 7see p4 #chj7 have also    
come to furnish  instruction in all     
fields of applied science4    ,sidenote3

 ,real schools1 gymnasiums1             
,sidenote3 and technical schools4    ,in
 ,german secondary instruction the      
realistic instruction of the  pietists  
was brought by ,hecker 7see p4 #agf7 to 
,berlin1 where he started  his famous   
,realschule in #agdg1 and before the    
beginning of the  nineteenth century    
similar institutions had spread         
throughout ,prussia4  ,early in the     
nineteenth century the course of study  
in the gymnasiums  of ,prussia was      
considerably modified1 and1 as part of  
the compromise1  some science was       
introduced4 ,the movement later spread  
into the  secondary education of states 
in ,south ,germany1 and1 while the total
  amount of science was not large1 it   
managed to hold its place in the        
gymnasial curriculum even during the    
reaction to absolutism between  #ahae   
and #ahdh4 ,but1 as we have seen 7p4    
#cgh71 two types of real-schools  were  
eventually recognized1--,realgymnasium  
and ,oberrealschule1 and  they at       

present devote approximately twice as   
much time to the physical  and          
biological sciences as do the gymnasia4 
,technical and trade  schools1 with     
scientific and mathematical subjects as 
a foundation  for the vocational work1  
have also appeared as a species of      
secondary  education in ,germany 7see p4
 #dbj74 ,the first of these were opened 
in  ,nuremberg in #ahbc1 but their rapid
 increase in numbers1 variety1 and      
importance has taken place since the    
middle of the century1 and their        
development in organization and method  
has occurred within the past            
twenty-five years4    ,sidenote3        
,volksschulen4    ,the scientific       
movement was also felt in the elementary
 schools of  ,germany during the early  
part of the nineteenth century4 ,science
 was  considerably popularized by the   
schools of the philanthropinists  7pp4  
#bbg f471 and was widely introduced into
 elementary education by  the spread of 
,pestalozzianism in ,prussia and the    

other ,german states  7see p4 #bhi f474 
,before the close of the first quarter  
of the century  the study of elementary 
science1--natural history1 physiology1  
and  physics1 appeared in various       
grades2 geography and drawing were      
taught  throughout the course2 and      
geometry was included in the upper      
classes  of the ,volksschulen4          
,sidenote3 ,french collges and          
universities4    ,sidenote3 ,lyces4     
,france4--,before the ,revolution in    
,france the higher and secondary        
institutions found little place for     
instruction in science4 ,there  was a   
chair of experimental physics at the    
,college of ,navarre of the  ,university
 of ,paris and at the ,universities of  
,toulouse and ,montpelier1  and natural 
history was also taught at the more     
independent ,college of  ,france1 but1  
as a whole1 education was dominated     
largely by humanism4  ,however1 with the
 establishment of the republic a new    
rgime began in  education1 as in other  

matters1 and science entered more       
largely into  higher and secondary      
instruction4 ,most of the revolutionary 
proposals  subordinated letters to      
science1 and in #agid the republic      
founded a  great central normal school1 
where the famous ,laplace and ,lagrange 
for a short time gave instruction in    
science4 ,in #ahjb ,napoleon had        
included in the scientific course for   
the lyces natural history1  physics1    
astronomy1 chemistry1 and mineralogy1   
and a definite advance  in quantity and 
method of the scientific instruction in 
the secondary  schools was made in      
#ahad4 ,on the ground that they were    
injuring  classical studies1 ,cousin in 
#ahdj had the sciences curtailed1 but he
  was shortly forced to restore them    
upon an optional basis4 ,a contest      
between the two types of studies was    
carried on in the lyces until  #aheb1   
when a bifurcation in the course put the
 two theoretically  upon the same basis4
 ,the scientific course1 however1 has   

never been  considered equal in prestige
 to the classical1 although it has      
constantly increased in length and      
difficulty4    ,sidenote3 ,lower and    
higher primary1    ,sidenote3 and normal
 schools4    ,some instruction in       
science has come to be given during the 
past  forty years even in the elementary
 schools of ,france4 ,in the lower      
primary schools the work is informal1   
and consists mostly of object  lessons  
and first scientific notions4 ,these are
 developed in  connection with drawing1 
manual training1 agriculture1 and       
geography  of the neighborhood and of   
,france in general4 ,instruction becomes
  more formal in the #8higher primary'  
schools1 and includes regular  courses  
in the natural and physical sciences and
 hygiene1 as well  as geography1        
drawing1 and manual training4 ,in the   
normal schools  for primary teachers    
instruction in all the physical and     
biological  sciences is even more       
thorough1 and includes not only the     

facts and  theories of general          
scientific importance1 but it also      
emphasizes their  applications to       
everyday life4 ,for example1 the flora  
and fauna of the  neighborhood are      
studied in their special relation to    
agriculture4    ,sidenote3 ,cambridge   
and ,oxford1    ,sidenote3 municipal    
universities1    ,sidenote3 and         
,imperial ,college of ,science4         
,sidenote3 ,science and ,art            
,department4    ,england4--,in ,england1
 several chairs in the natural sciences 
were  established at ,cambridge during  
the eighteenth century4 ,but it was     
almost the middle of the nineteenth     
century before the biological  sciences 
and the laboratory method of instruction
 were introduced1  and not until toward 
the close of the century did science    
become  prominent at ,cambridge and     
,oxford4 ,and the most marked promotion 
of  the scientific movement in ,england 
has occurred within the past fifty      
years through the foundation of         

efficient municipal universities in     
such centers as ,birmingham1            
,manchester1 ,london1 and ,liverpool    
7see  p4 #cib74 ,for many years the     
laboratory instruction was given only in
  institutions outside the universities4
 ,higher courses in science by the  new 
methods were afforded through the       
foundation of the ,royal ,school  of    
,mines 7#ahea71 the ,royal ,school of   
,naval ,architecture and ,marine        
,engineering 7#ahfd71 and the ,normal   
,school of ,science 7#ahfh71 which  were
 all combined in #ahij into a single    
institution known as the ,royal         
,college of ,science1 and in #aijg1 when
 the ,technical ,college 7founded       
#ahha7 of the ,city and ,guilds of      
,london ,institute was also merged1 the 
entire corporation became known as the  
,imperial ,college of ,science and      
,technology4 ,an agency that was        
instrumental in encouraging the advanced
  study of science1 although it         
accomplished even more for elementary   

and  secondary schools1 was the national
 ,science and ,art ,department4 ,this   
organization was founded in #aheh to    
bring under a single management  the    
science1 trade1 and navigation schools  
already existing1 and to  facilitate    
higher instruction in science1 and a few
 years later began  to offer            
examinations and to grant certificates  
to teach science in  the elementary     
schools4 ,it was taken over by the      
national ,board of  ,education1 when    
that body was organized in #ahii 7see p4
 #chi74    ,sidenote3 ,academies1       
,sidenote3 #8secular' schools1          
,sidenote3 #8modern side' in public     
schools1    ,sidenote3 and ,department  
of ,science and ,art4    ,in ,english   
secondary instruction the #8academies1' 
in which science  first appeared 7pp4   
#aeg f471 had before the close of the   
eighteenth  century greatly declined1   
and the humanistic #8public' schools and
  secondary institutions of a private   
character had as yet paid almost  no    

attention to the sciences4 ,in the first
 half of the nineteenth  century an     
anti-classical campaign began1 and1     
continuing with ever  increasing force  
until the middle of the century1 it     
brought about  the foundation of        
numerous schools to embody the new      
ideals4 ,toward  the close of #ahdh the 
first #8secular' school was opened by   
,combe  7see p4 #djc7 at ,edinburgh1 and
 included in its curriculum a study of  
geography1 drawing1 mathematics1 natural
 history1 chemistry1 natural            
philosophy1 physiology1 phrenology1 and 
materials used in the arts and          
manufactures4 ,similar institutions were
 organized at ,glasgow1 ,leith1         
,london1 ,manchester1 ,birmingham1      
,newcastle1 ,belfast1 and many other    
cities of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,while  
short-lived1 these schools did  much to 
promote the introduction of sciences    
into secondary education  that soon     
followed4 ,shortly after the middle of  
the century ,rugby1  and then           

,winchester1 introduced science into the
 regular curriculum1  and by #ahfh1 as a
 result of the governmental             
investigation of the  endowed schools1  
which showed an almost complete absence 
of science in  the curricula1 all the   
leading secondary schools began to      
establish  a #8modern side4' ,this      
course generally included physics and   
natural  history1 as well as modern     
languages and history1 but it was most  
reluctantly organized by the            
institutions1 and1 while it has attained
  to great efficiency1 it has never1    
except in a few schools1 been  accorded 
the same standing as the classical      
course4 ,the ,department  of ,science   
and ,art also afforded much             
encouragement to secondary  instruction 
in the sciences by subsidizing schools  
and classes in  physics1 chemistry1     
zology1 botany1 geology1 mineralogy1 and
 subjects  involving the applications of
 science4 ,before its absorption into   
the ,board of ,education some ten       

thousand classes and seventy-five       
independent schools of secondary grade  
received assistance from this  source4  
,sidenote3 ,grants for science work in  
elementary schools4    ,the ,department 
also gave aid to the study of science in
 elementary  education4 ,as early as the
 fifties1 grants were made to establish 
work  in elementary science1 art1 and   
design1 but the educational value was   
for more than forty years subordinated  
to practical applications4 ,and  while1 
after the report by a ,committee of the 
,british ,association in  #ahhi1 much   
aid was furnished for the equipment of  
laboratories1 lecture  rooms1 and       
workshops1 and an increase in the staff 
of instructors1  for a decade no        
subjects except the rudiments were      
required in the  elementary course1 and 
such #8supplementary' subjects as       
elementary  science and geography1 if   
taught1 were given a special subsidy4   
,but  since #aijj this scientific work  
has been made compulsory in the         

elementary curriculum4    ,sidenote3    
,beginning in the colleges during the   
eighteenth century4    ,the ,united     
,states4--,in the colleges of the       
,united ,states the courses  show       
considerable evidence of science        
teaching by the eighteenth  century4    
,harvard1 ,yale1 ,princeton1 ,king's    
7afterward ,columbia71  ,dartmouth1     
,union1 and ,pennsylvania had all come  
to offer work in  #8natural philosophy' 
or #8natural history1' which terms might
 then be  used to cover physics1        
chemistry1 geology1 astronomy1 botany1  
and  zology4 ,however1 before the       
,revolution physics seems to have been a
  subordinate branch of mathematical    
instruction1 even less importance  was  
attached to biology1 and chemistry was  
only occasionally taught  as an obscure 
and unimportant phase of physics4       
,laboratories and  instruments of       
precision did not yet exist4            
,sidenote3 ,development of sciences1--  
,sidenote3 chemistry1    ,sidenote3     

physics1    ,sidenote3 geology1         
,sidenote3 astronomy1    ,sidenote3 and 
biology4    ,since then whole fields of 
science have been discovered and        
defined1  and others1 like geology and  
astronomy1 have been reclaimed from     
dogmatism1 and science studies have     
slowly come into favor4 ,instruction  in
 chemistry has grown up through a study 
of materia medica at the  medical       
schools of ,pennsylvania 7#agfh71       
,harvard 7#aghb71 and ,dartmouth        
7#agih74 ,a separate chair of chemistry 
was soon established at ,princeton      
7#agie71 ,columbia 7#ahjj71 ,yale       
7#ahjb71 ,bowdoin 7#ahje71 ,south       
,carolina  7#ahaa71 ,dickinson 7#ahaa71 
and ,williams 7#ahab71 and the movement 
continued until practically all the     
colleges had recognized it as an        
important branch of study4 ,but while   
experiments were from the first         
performed as demonstrations by the      
instructors1 it was generally not  until
 almost the middle of the century that  

students were admitted at  all to the   
laboratories4 ,about the same time      
laboratories in physics  began to be    
equipped with apparatus4 ,geology was   
included in the early  professorship of 
chemistry at ,yale1 and was given a     
distinct chair upon  the advent of      
,james ,d4 ,dana about the middle of the
 century1 while ,amos  ,eaton taught it 
as a separate subject at ,williams as   
early as #ahbe4  ,some attention was    
given to astronomy early in the century1
 although  the instruments remained very
 ordinary and the methods authoritative 
and prescriptive until the opening of   
the observatories at ,cincinnati        
7#ahdd71 ,cambridge 7#ahdf71 and ,ann   
,arbor 7#ahed74 ,the biological         
sciences were even longer studied       
through mere observation rather than    
investigation and experiment4 ,until    
,louis ,agassiz opened his laboratory   
at ,harvard to students just after the  
middle of the century1 the  courses were
 meager1 mostly theoretical and         

classificatory1 and were  given entirely
 by lecture1 without field or laboratory
 work4 ,since then  the development has 
been rapid4    ,sidenote3 ,impulse      
through evolutionary doctrine4          
,sidenote3 ,rise of new institutions4   
,but the greatest impulse was given to  
instruction in science through  the     
publication of ,darwin's ,origin of     
,species 7#ahei71 and the  dissemination
 of evolutionary doctrine through ,asa  
,gray1 professor of  natural history at 
,harvard1 and ,william ,b4 ,rogers1     
president of the  ,massachusetts        
,institute of ,technology4 ,the         
intellectual development  ensuing also  
brought about the foundation of such new
 institutions as  ,cornell and ,johns   
,hopkins1 which emphasized the teaching 
of science  as an unconscious protest   
against the exclusively classical       
training4  ,special scientific and      
technological schools likewise began to 
arise4 ,the ,rensselaer ,polytechnic    
,institute 7#ahbe7 and the ,lawrence    

,scientific ,school at ,harvard 7#ahdg7 
had already been opened1 but now        
similar schools of science1 like        
,sheffield at ,yale 7#ahfj71 and the    
,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology
 7#ahfb71 sprang up in all parts  of the
 country4 ,in #ahfb the ,morrill ,act of
 ,congress appropriated lands  in every 
state to promote education in           
agriculture1 mechanic arts1 and  the    
natural sciences4 ,these grants1 which  
amounted at first to thirteen  million  
acres1 were subsequently extended to new
 states as they were  admitted1 and the 
endowment was increased by the annual   
grants of  money that were made under   
later acts4 ,from these funds and       
private  benefactions1 further schools  
of science were started or old schools  
were strengthened in every state4       
,sidenote3 ,academies    ,sidenote3 and 
high schools4    ,through the academy   
movement 7pp4 #aeh ff47 sciences were   
introduced  into ,american secondary    
education4 ,sometimes these subjects    

were  extended downward from the        
colleges1 but often they had as yet been
  barely touched by the colleges4 ,as   
the early high schools grew up1  they   
continued the attention paid to the     
sciences by the academies4  ,the first  
high school to appear1 that at ,boston  
in #ahba 7pp4 #bfh f471  scheduled      
geography in the first year2 navigation 
and surveying in the  second2 and       
natural philosophy and astronomy in the 
third4 ,a similar  emphasis upon science
 appeared during the first half of the  
century  in all the secondary           
institutions1 whether known as          
academies1 high  schools1 union schools1
 or city colleges4 ,in all cases1       
however1  instruction was given mainly  
through text-books1 and1 while          
experiments  were frequently used for   
demonstration by the teacher1 there was 
no  laboratory work for the students4   
,moreover1 a tendency to overload  the  
curriculum with sciences was much       
increased during the seventies  by the  

demand of the legislatures in several   
states that candidates  for teachers'   
certificates pass an examination in     
several sciences4  ,the high schools and
 academies endeavored to furnish the    
necessary  training to prepare for these
 examinations1 and until toward the end 
of the century the courses in the       
sciences were numerous and of rather    
superficial character4 ,within the last 
twenty years1 however1 the  schools have
 come to limit each student to a        
relatively few courses  taught by       
thorough laboratory methods4            
,sidenote3 ,influence of ,mann          
,sidenote3 and ,pestalozzi4    ,except  
for geography1 which appeared in the    
curriculum early in the  century1 the   
rudiments practically constituted the   
entire course of the  elementary school 
until the time of ,horace ,mann4        
,largely through his  efforts1          
physiology was widely introduced by the 
middle of the century4  ,about a dozen  
years later the ,pestalozzian object    

teaching began to  come in through the  
,oswego methods1 although it tended to  
become  formalized4 ,thus materials in  
several of the sciences came to be used1
  and the pupils were required to       
describe them in scientific terms4      
,toward the close of the century the    
sciences came to be presented  more     
informally by the method generally known
 as #8nature study4' ,this  movement    
quickly spread through the country1 and 
has most recently  appeared in the guise
 of agricultural instruction 7see p4    
#dbd74  ,many states now require        
agriculture as a requisite for a        
teacher's  certificate1 and most normal 
schools have come to furnish a training 
in  the subject4    ,sidenote3 ,attitude
 upon formal discipline and method4     
,interrelation of the ,scientific with  
the ,psychological and  ,sociological   
,movements4--,it is evident that there  
has been a marked  scientific movement  
in the educational systems of all       
countries during  the past two hundred  

years4 ,the sciences began to appear in 
the  curricula of educational           
institutions in the seventeenth and     
eighteenth  centuries1 but their rapid  
increase1 and the use of laboratories   
and  the scientific method in           
instruction1 dated from the middle of   
the  nineteenth4 ,in some respects this 
scientific movement has been closely    
related to the other modern tendencies  
in education1--the psychological  and   
the sociological4 ,the coincidence of   
the scientific movement with  the       
psychological on the question of formal 
discipline has been evident  7pp4 #ahc  
f474 ,the influence of the development  
of the sciences upon  educational method
 also constitutes part of the           
psychological movement4  ,the sciences  
demanded entirely different methods of  
teaching from  the traditional          
procedure4 ,these innovations were      
worked out slowly  by experimentation1  
and when they proved to be more in      
keeping with  psychology1 they reacted  

upon the teaching of the older subjects 
and  came to be utilized in history1    
politics1 philology1 and other studies4 
,a corresponding improvement in the     
presentation of the form1 content1  and 
arrangement of various subjects has     
taken place in text-books1  and a       
radically different set of books and    
authors has been rendered  necessary4   
,sidenote3 ,means of human welfare4     
,the scientific movement has even more  
points in common with the  sociological4
 ,in its opposition to the              
disciplinarians and its stress  upon    
content rather than form1 the scientific
 tendency coincides with  the           
sociological1 although the former looks 
rather to the natural  sciences as a    
means of individual welfare1 and the    
latter to the  social and political     
sciences to equip the individual for    
life in  social institutions and to     
secure the progress of society4 ,but    
while  the scientist usually states his 
argument in individual terms1 because   

of his connection in time and sympathy  
with the individualism of the           
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries1 the
 same writer usually1 as in the  case of
 ,rousseau1 ,combe1 ,spencer1 and       
,huxley1 advocates the social1  moral1  
and political sciences as a means of    
complete living4 ,similarly1  the       
sociological movement has especial      
kinship with the economic and           
utilitarian aspects of the study of the 
sciences1 for professional1  technical1 
and commercial institutions have been   
evolved because of  sociological as well
 as scientific demands4 ,again1 the use 
of the  sciences in education as a means
 of preparing for life and the needs  of
 society overlaps the modern            
sociological principle of furthering    
democracy4 ,both tendencies lead to the 
best development of all classes  and to 
the abandonment of artificial strata in 
society4      ,,supplementary ,,reading 
,graves1 ,in ,modern ,times 7,macmillan1
 #aiac71 chap4 ,x2 and ,great           

,educators 7,macmillan1 #aiab71 chap4   
,,xiv2 ,monroe1 ,textbook 7,macmillan1  
#aije71 chap4 ,,xii2 ,parker1 ,modern   
,elementary ,education 7,ginn1 #aiab71  
pp4 #cca-cdj4 ,popular accounts of the  
growth of science can be found in       
,buckley1 ,arabella ,b41 ,a ,short      
,history of ,natural ,science           
7,appleton71  and ,williams1 ,h4 ,s41   
,story of ,nineteenth ,century ,science 
7,harper74  ,spencer's ,education and   
,huxley's ,science and ,education should
  be read4 ,further arguments for the   
study of science can be found in        
,coulter1 ,j4 ,m41 ,the ,mission of     
,science in ,education 7,science1  ,,ii1
 #ab1 pp4 #bha-bic72 ,dryer1 ,c4 ,r41   
,science in ,secondary ,schools  7,prize
 ,essay in ,the ,academy1 ,may1 #ahhh1  
pp4 #aig-bba72 ,galloway1 ,r41          
,education1 ,scientific and ,technical  
7,trbner1 ,london1 #ahha72 ,norton1  ,w4
 ,h41 ,the ,social ,service of ,science 
7,science1 ,,ii1 #ac1 pp4 #fdd;ff472    
,pearson1 ,k41 ,grammar of ,science     

7,macmillan1 #aiaa71 chap4 ,i2 ,roberts1
  ,r4 ,d41 ,science in the ,nineteenth  
,century 7,cambridge ,university ,press1
  #aija71 chap4 ,,vii2 ,sedgwick1 ,w4   
,t41 ,educational ,value of the ,method 
of  ,science 7,educational ,review1 vol4
 ,v1 pp4 #bdc;ff471 and especially      
,youmans1 ,e4 ,l41 ,culture ,demanded by
 ,modern ,life 7,appleton1 #ahfg74      
,,chapter ,,xxvii    ,,present ,,day    
,,tendencies ,,in ,,education           
,,outline        ,at the present time   
there is great progress in industrial1  
commercial1 and agricultural training in
 the schools of ,europe and             
,america4        ,for a quarter of a    
century the educational systems of      
,europe have      been giving attention 
to moral training1 and of late there has
 been      some discussion of the       
subject in the ,united ,states4         
,all the great nations now provide for  
the training of mental      defectives1 
and for some time training has been     
afforded those      defective in some   

sense organ4        ,the attempts at    
improved methods of teaching are        
witnessed by the      study of          
industries in the experimental school of
 ,dewey1 by the      formulation of a   
curriculum in terms of normal activities
 of other      elementary schools1 and  
by the #8didactic apparatus' and the    
devices      for learning the #8three   
r's' of ,montessori4        ,methods of 
mental measurement are being devised for
 the elementary      school subjects by 
,thorndike and others1 and systems of   
measurement      are being utilized in  
administration4        ,darwin's theory 
of evolution has revolutionized our     
attitude1      imagery1 and vocabulary  
in education4        ,there is also a   
great variety of other educational      
movements in all      grades of         
education4    ,sidenote3 ,constant      
efforts at a reconstruction of          
education4    ,recent ,educational      
,progress4--,because of the notable     
development  of science and invention1  

which has been noted in the last        
chapter1  the nineteenth century has    
often been referred to as the           
#8wonderful'  century4 ,such a term     
affords no better description of        
material  achievement than of the       
remarkable progress that has taken place
  in education4 ,previous chapters have 
indicated the extent to which1  through 
various movements1 education has        
advanced and broadened in  conception1  
but the near future of education will   
probably witness  a much greater        
development4 ,at the present time there 
are constant  efforts at a modification 
and a reconstruction of education in the
  interest of a better adjustment of the
 individual to his social  environment  
and of greatly improved conditions in   
society itself4 ,it  would1 of course1  
be impossible to describe all of these  
movements even  in the briefest manner1 
but some of the present day tendencies  
that  appear most significant should now
 engage our attention4    ,sidenote3    

,social reasons for industrial          
education4    ,the ,growth of           
,industrial ,training4--,the movement   
that is perhaps most  widely discussed  
to-day is the introduction of vocational
 training  into the systems of          
education4 ,there is now an especial    
need for this  type of training4 ,since 
the industrial revolution and the       
development  of the factory system1 the 
master no longer works by the side of   
his  apprentice and instructs him1 and  
the ambition of the youth can no  longer
 be spurred by the hope that he may     
himself some day become a  master4 ,his 
experience is generally confined to some
 single process1  and only a few of the 
operatives require anything more than   
low-grade  skill4 ,nor1 as a rule1 will 
the employer undertake any systematic   
education of his workmen1 when the      
mobility of labor permits of no         
guarantee that he will reap the benefit 
of such efforts1 and the  modern        
industrial plant is poorly adapted to   

supplying the necessary  theoretical    
training for experts4 ,hence an outside 
agency--the  school--has been called    
upon to assist in the solution of these 
new problems4 ,to meet the demand for   
industrial education1 all the  principal
 states of ,europe have maintained      
training of this sort for  at least half
 a century1 and the ,united ,states has 
in the twentieth  century been making   
rapid strides in the same direction4    
,sidenote3 ,industrial training of the  
continuation schools in ,germany4       
,sidenote3 ,work of ,kerschensteiner4   
,industrial ,schools in ,europe4--,in   
,germany1 where this training is  most  
effective1 the work has for fifty years 
been rapidly developing  through the    
,fortbildungsschulen 7see ,fig4 #ee74   
,the course in these  schools at first  
consisted largely of review work1 but   
the rapid  spread of elementary schools 
soon enabled them to devote all the     
time to technical education4 ,training  
is now afforded not only for  the rank  

and file of workmen in the different    
trades1 but for higher  grades of       
workers1 such as foremen and            
superintendents4 ,girls are  likewise   
trained in a wide variety of vocations4 
,during the last  twenty-five years     
there have also been developed          
continuation schools  to furnish        
theoretical courses in physical         
sciences1 mathematics1  bookkeeping1    
drawing1 history1 and law4 ,in ,north   
,germany there is a  tendency to confine
 the courses to theoretical training1   
and leave  the practical side to the    
care of the employers1 but the ,south   
,german  states generally combine       
theoretical and practical work1 and     
develop  schools adapted to the         
industries of the various localities4   
,through  the work of ,kerschensteiner1 
,munich has even included an extra class
  in the elementary schools1 to bridge  
the gap between school life and         
employment4    ,sidenote3 ,no           
apprenticeship in ,france1 but all      

training in  continuation schools4      
,sidenote3 ,early facilities in         
,england4    ,france goes still further1
 and1 because of unsatisfactory         
conditions in  apprenticeship1 attempts 
to eliminate it altogether1 and to      
furnish the  entire industrial training 
through continuation schools            
articulating  with the elementary       
system4 ,the pupils are admitted at     
thirteen to the  continuation schools   
7see p4 #chc7 and obtain practice in the
 school  workshops for three years4     
,woodwork is generally taught to the    
boys1  but the other courses vary with  
local needs4 ,girls learn to make       
dresses1 corsets1 millinery1 artificial 
flowers1 and other industrial  products4
 ,in ,england1 grants were first made to
 evening industrial  schools and classes
 in #ahea1 but twenty years later       
regular schools of  science were        
organized1 which had both day and       
evening sessions4 ,in  addition to these
 continuation schools1 there have now   

been established  higher elementary     
schools1 which afford a four-year course
 in practical  and theoretical science  
arranged according to local needs4      
,sidenote3 ,evening continuation schools
 in ,united ,states4    ,sidenote3 ,day 
schools1 private    ,sidenote3 and      
public4    ,sidenote3 ,secondary        
schools4    ,sidenote3 #8,part-time'    
schools4    ,industrial ,training in the
 ,united ,states4--,industrial training 
first  began to be offered in the       
,united ,states during the latter half  
of  the nineteenth century by means of a
 number of evening continuation         
schools4 ,these were established through
 philanthropy in the larger  cities1 and
 included the ,cooper ,union and the    
,mechanics' ,institute  in ,new ,york2  
the ,franklin ,union and the ,spring    
,garden ,institute in  ,philadelphia2   
the ,ohio ,mechanics' ,institute in     
,cincinnati2 and the  ,virginia         
,mechanics' ,institute in ,richmond4    
,the public schools at  length followed 

this example1 and of late years have    
organized evening  classes in drawing1  
mathematics1 science1 and technical     
subjects4 ,day  instruction was long    
delayed4 ,it began in #ahha with the    
foundation of  the ,new ,york ,trade    
,school1 but at the end of twenty years 
there were  only two others1--the       
,williamson ,free ,school of ,mechanical
 ,trades near  ,philadelphia and the    
,baron de ,hirsch ,trade ,school in ,new
 ,york4 ,later  the development was more
 rapid1 and since #aijf several hundred 
day  trade schools have been organized1 
mostly through public support1 in  the  
larger cities of the country4 ,these    
schools are mostly for youths  between  
sixteen and twenty-five1 but            
#8preparatory trade schools' for        
younger boys have also been started in  
,new ,york1 ,massachusetts1 and  other  
states4 ,higher training to equip       
leaders for the industries  has also    
come to be furnished through endowed    
secondary schools and  technical high   

schools in a number of cities4 ,a recent
 variety of  vocational training is the 
#8part-time' plan1 by which students are
  given some theoretical and formal     
training in a regular high school  or   
college1 while they are obtaining their 
practical experience4 ,this  alternation
 of practical and theoretical training  
is sometimes carried  on in a single    
institution1 or even within a commercial
 establishment  itself4    ,sidenote3   
,conditions requiring commercial        
education4    ,commercial ,education in 
,europe and ,america4--,but the modern  
development of vocational training      
throughout the leading countries  has   
not been confined to industrial lines4  
,with the extension of the  sphere of   
commerce and the development of its     
organization that have  taken place in  
the nineteenth century1 it has come to  
be recognized  that preparation is      
essential for a business career4 ,only  
recently1  however1 has this training   
been felt to be a proper function of the

  schools1 since for many years it was  
opposed by educators as sordid and      
commercializing1 and by business men as 
unpractical and ineffective4  ,both     
classes have now been brought to realize
 the need of mutual  support1 and the   
rapid growth of commercial education    
indicates an  appreciation of its       
usefulness4    ,sidenote3 ,in ,germany  
many private continuation schools1      
,sidenote3 and secondary and university 
courses1    ,sidenote3 but ,england and 
,france indifferent4    ,sidenote3 ,in  
the ,united ,states #8business          
colleges1'    ,sidenote3 and secondary  
and higher courses4    ,germany is      
generally admitted to lead in commercial
 education4 ,the  growth of this        
training has taken place since #ahhg1   
but there is now  offered under state   
control a unified and thorough          
preparation for  any line of business4  
,besides private continuation schools1  
in which  a course of three years in    
modern languages and elementary         

commercial  studies can be obtained1    
there have grown up both public         
secondary  schools and university       
courses in which a thorough general     
education  and theoretical work in      
commerce1 as well as a practical and    
technical  training1 are provided 7,fig4
 #ee74 ,england and ,france have been   
rather  indifferent to commercial       
education4 ,in both countries until very
  recently schools have been few1 and   
the number of pupils in each has  been  
small4 ,but now continuation schools1   
free evening courses1 and  private      
classes have sprung up1 and in a few    
large cities commercial  schools of     
secondary and even higher grade have    
been established4  ,in the ,united      
,states commercial training began by the
 middle of  the nineteenth century      
through private enterprise with classes 
in  bookkeeping1 and later with         
#8business colleges4' ,despite the name 
of  the latter1 the course is narrow and
 is generally shaped by pecuniary  aims4

 ,during the last two decades of the    
nineteenth century high and  normal     
schools began to offer commercial       
instruction1 but until the  twentieth   
century the courses were only tolerated 
as a necessary evil1  and largely       
imitated those of the business colleges4
 ,since then many  cities have opened   
high schools of commerce1 and university
 schools and  colleges of commerce have 
arisen1 and even a score of years before
 this  development the ,wharton ,school 
of ,finance and ,commerce was started at
  the ,university of ,pennsylvania4     
,sidenote3 ,agricultural instruction in 
the schools of ,france and  ,germany4   
,sidenote3 ,united ,states offers       
courses in all grades of education4     
,recent ,emphasis upon ,agricultural    
,training4--,a similar development  has 
of late been taking place in            
agricultural education4 ,france and     
,germany offer elementary instruction in
 agriculture1 while the former  has also
 introduced the subject into the normal 

schools1 and the  latter has established
 a secondary agricultural institution   
open to  students at the close of their 
sixth year in the ,realschule4 ,through 
the feeling that the ,united ,states    
must become the great agricultural      
nation1 and that the traditional methods
 of agriculture have been  exceedingly  
wasteful1 this country especially has   
been emphasizing that  type of          
vocational education4 ,the land grant   
colleges1 first endowed  by act of      
,congress in #ahfb1 have greatly        
stimulated interest in the  subject1 and
 later ,congress added other sources of 
revenue1 and has  recently furnished    
appropriations for instruction in the   
teaching of  agriculture and for        
extension work in agriculture4 ,thus the
 way has  been prepared for the         
introduction of the subject into the    
high school  and grades4 ,there are now 
at least one hundred agricultural high  
schools in the ,united ,states1 and     
agriculture is taught as a branch of    

study in several thousand high and      
elementary school systems4    ,sidenote3
 ,social conditions demanding moral     
training4    ,moral ,training in the    
,schools ,to-day4--,but present day     
tendencies in  education have to do with
 more than the material side of         
civilization4  ,there is a growing      
sentiment in favor of moral instruction 
in the  schools4 ,there are many reasons
 why this need should be especially felt
  in the complex business life of       
to-day4 ,when men work for impersonal   
corporations1 sell products to people   
they never see1 or intrust their        
welfare to officials whose names are    
scarcely known1 one strong factor       
making for honesty and virtue1 that of  
personal relations1 is lost4  ,moreover1
 as a result of the weakening of old    
religious sanctions1 the  new conditions
 in large cities1 and other causes1     
moral traditions are  in need of being  
buttressed4    ,illustration3    ,fig4  
#ee4--,vocational education for boys in 

,germany 7,commercial1  ,industrial1 and
 ,professional7 in ,relation to ,public 
,school ,organization4    7,reproduced  
by permission from ,farrington's        
,commercial ,education in  ,germany47   
,sidenote3 ,in ,france secular training1
 but in ,england and ,germany           
religious4    ,sidenote3 ,sadler's      
commission4    ,sidenote3 ,work of the  
,n4 ,e4 ,a4 in the ,united ,states4     
,sidenote3 ,summary of the ,r4 ,e4 ,a4  
,the educational systems of ,europe have
 for a quarter of a century given  more 
or less attention to moral training4 ,in
 ,france this training  has been purely 
secular and excluded all religious      
elements4 ,but the  education of        
,england and ,germany has always        
associated the teaching of  morality    
with religion4 ,in ,england1 the        
#8board' schools have furnished         
religious instruction of a nonsectarian 
character1 but the religious  training  
of the #8voluntary' schools has occupied
 more time and has  stressed the creed  

and denominational teaching of some     
church1 usually  the ,church of ,england
 7see pp4 #chj f474 ,the contest over   
religious  teaching since the ,act of   
#aijb 7see p4 #cij7 caused a            
self-constituted  commission1 with      
,michael ,e4 ,sadler as chairman1 to    
investigate the  subject of moral       
instruction1 and in #aijh-aiji it       
presented a large and  illuminating     
report4 ,in ,germany the moral and      
religious instruction  in all elementary
 schools is sectarian1 and ,catholic and
 ,protestant  schools are alike         
supported1 wherever needed1 at public   
expense4  ,during the past decade there 
has been considerable discussion in the 
,united ,states concerning moral        
education4 ,in response to the demand   
for an investigation of the subject1 a  
committee of the ,national  ,education  
,association in #aijh-aiji made a report
 upon various phases  of moral training1
 and recommended special instruction in 
ethics1  not in the form of precepts1   

but through consideration of existing   
moral questions4 ,in #aiaa the          
,religious ,education ,association1     
whose  convention in that year was      
devoted to moral training1 gave in its  
,journal a broad summary of the progress
 of moral education in the  ,united     
,states4 ,the report reveals a wide     
difference of opinion and  practice1 but
 an evident tendency to trust other     
agencies than direct  moral instruction4
 ,as a rule1 state legislation seems as 
yet to have  failed to provide a general
 system of training1 but has confined   
itself  to specific subjects1 such as   
instruction in citizenship1 the effects 
of alcohol and narcotics1 and the humane
 treatment of animals4    ,sidenote3    
,impulse given by ,seguin's             
#8physiological' methods4    ,sidenote3 
,attempts to introduce intellectual     
elements4    ,the ,development of       
,training for ,mental ,defectives4--,one
 of the most  patent evidences of the   
growth of the humane spirit in modern   

times  is found in the universal        
attention now given to the education of 
mental defectives4 ,this movement was   
given its greatest impulse through      
douard ,seguin1 who came to the ,united 
,states in #ahej and developed  his     
methods here4 ,his general plan was to  
appeal to the mind through  the senses  
by means of a training of the hand1     
taste and smell1 and  eye and ear4 ,he  
used pictures1 photographs1 cards1      
patterns1 figures1  wax1 clay1 scissors1
 compasses1 and pencils as his chief    
instruments of  education4 ,the stimulus
 he gave to the training of defectives  
has been  epoch-making1 and his         
#8physiological' methods have remained  
the chief  means of education4 ,although
 there has grown up a tendency to       
introduce  intellectual elements into   
the training of the feeble-minded1 the  
advantages of such a procedure are      
doubtful4    ,sidenote3 ,schools in     
,germany1    ,sidenote3 ,france1 and    
,england4    ,all the great nations now 

provide schools for the training of     
defectives4 ,germany has over one       
hundred institutions1 with some  twenty 
thousand pupils in them1 although       
nine-tenths of them are not  supported  
by the state1 but are under church or   
private auspices4 ,these  schools       
generally stress manual education1 but  
give some attention to  intellectual    
lines1 especially to speech training4   
,there are but few  schools for         
defectives in ,france1 aside from the   
two near ,paris and  the juvenile       
department of the insane hospital at    
,bictre1 but these  institutions largely
 follow the physical work formulated by 
,seguin4 ,in  ,london there is one      
excellent institution with two thousand 
pupils1  where manual training          
constitutes almost the entire course4   
,but there  are five other schools so   
located as to serve the various parts of
  ,england1 in which the training is    
rather bookish and emphasis is          
especially laid upon number work4       

,sidenote3 ,training in the ,united     
,states4    ,thanks to the start given  
by ,seguin1 ,america has taken up the   
education  of defectives more fully than
 any other country4 ,schools for the    
feeble-minded now exist in almost all   
the states1 and there are some          
thirty-five or forty private            
institutions of considerable merit4 ,not
  far from twenty thousand defectives   
are being trained1 although this  is    
probably only about one-tenth of the    
total number of such cases in  the      
country4 ,the type of education differs 
greatly according to the  institution1  
ranging from almost purely manual       
training to a large  proportion of the  
intellectual rudiments1 but in all the  
work is  adapted to the various grades  
in such a way as to raise them a little 
in the scale of efficiency and to keep  
them as far as possible from  being a   
burden to themselves and to society4    
,likewise1 special clinics  and         
investigations1 like those of ,lightner 

,witmer of the ,university of           
,pennsylvania and of ,h4 ,h4 ,goddard of
 the ,training ,school at ,vineland     
7,new ,jersey71 are greatly adding to   
our knowledge of the best methods  for  
training defectives4    ,sidenote3      
,manual    ,sidenote3 and oral methods  
for the deaf4    ,education of the ,deaf
 and ,blind4--,persons defective in some
 sense  organ1 but otherwise up to the  
standard1 have likewise for some time   
been receiving an education that will   
minimize the difficulty4 ,there  have   
been two chief methods for teaching the 
deaf4 ,the manual or  #8silent' method  
of communication was invented by the    
,abb de l'pe in  ,paris during the      
latter part of the eighteenth century1  
and his school  was adopted by the      
nation in #agia4 ,the other method1 the 
#8oral1' by  which the pupil learns to  
communicate through reading the         
movements  of the lips1 was started in  
,germany early in the eighteenth        
century1  but was not employed to any   

great extent until the middle of the    
next  century4 ,most countries now use  
the oral method exclusively1 or in      
connection with the manual system4 ,in  
the ,united ,states practically  every  
commonwealth now has one or more schools
 for the deaf1 and since  #ahfd even    
higher education has been furnished by  
,gallaudet ,college at  ,washington4    
,sidenote3 ,schools for the blind in    
,europe and the ,united ,states4    ,the
 first instruction of the blind through 
raised letters was given  toward the end
 of the eighteenth century by ,abb ,hay 
at ,paris4 ,while  his schools1 owing to
 his lack of judgment1 were failures1   
the idea  spread rapidly4 ,early in the 
nineteenth century there were one or    
more  schools in each of the leading    
countries of ,europe1 and a generation  
later institutions of this sort were    
started in the ,united ,states4  ,in    
schools for the blind or deaf1          
industrial training has in most         
instances been added to the intellectual

 7see p4 #cjj71 in order to  fit every  
individual to be an independent workman 
in some line4 ,even  pupils1 both deaf  
and blind1 like ,laura ,bridgeman and   
,helen ,keller1  have had their minds   
awakened through the sense of touch4    
,sidenote3 ,colonel ,parker's           
contributions4    ,recent ,development  
of ,educational ,method2 ,dewey's       
,experimental  ,school4--,nor has the   
past century witnessed any cessation of 
the  attempts at improved methods of    
teaching4 ,various suggestions and      
systems have been put forward and many  
have had an important effect  upon      
school procedure4 ,it is impossible1    
however1 to discuss any  except a few of
 the more influential and prominent1 and
 these can be  considered but briefly4  
,the occupational work of ,professor    
,dewey and  ,colonel ,parker's scheme of
 concentration have marked the growth of
 a  body of educational theory and      
practice that places the methods of     
to-day far in advance of anything       

previously known4 ,the combination and  
modification of ,ritter1 ,herbart1 and  
,froebel worked out by ,parker have     
perhaps received sufficient attention   
7see pp4 #bic1 #cej1 and #cfd71 but  we 
may at this point outline a little more 
fully the contributions made  by ,john  
,dewey1 who has probably been the leader
 in the reconstruction  that has taken  
place in education almost since the     
twentieth century  began4    ,sidenote3 
,purpose    ,sidenote3 and course of    
,dewey's school4    ,the methods of     
,dewey were developed in an experimental
 elementary  school connected with the  
,university of ,chicago and under his   
supervision from #ahif to #aijc4 ,the   
school did not start with ready-made    
principles1 but sought to solve three   
fundamental educational problems4  ,it  
undertook to find out 7#a7 how to bring 
the school into closer  relation with   
the home and neighborhood life2 7#b7 how
 to introduce  subject-matter in        
history1 science1 and art that has a    

positive  value and real significance in
 the child's own life2 and 7#c7 how to  
carry on instruction in reading1        
writing1 and figuring with everyday     
experience and occupation as their      
background 8in such a way that the      
child shall feel their necessity through
 their connection with subjects  which  
appeal to him on their own account40    
,the plan for meeting these  needs was  
found largely in the study of           
industries4 ,since industries  are most 
fundamental in the thought1 ideals1 and 
social organization  of a people1 these 
activities must have the most prominent 
place  in the course of a school4 8,the 
school cannot be a preparation for      
social life except as it reproduces the 
typical conditions of life40  ,the means
 used in furnishing this industrial     
activity were evolved  mainly along the 
lines of shopwork1 cooking1 sewing1 and 
weaving1  although many subsidiary      
industries were also used4 ,these       
occupations  were1 of course1 intended  

for a liberalizing1 rather than a       
technical  purpose1 and considerable    
time was given to an historical study of
  them 7,fig4 #ef74 ,dewey declares3    
8,the industrial history of man is  not 
a materialistic or merely utilitarian   
affair4 ,it is a matter of              
intelligence4 ,its record is the record 
of how man learned to think1 to  think  
to some effect1 to transform the        
conditions of life so that life  itself 
became a different thing4 ,it is an     
ethical record as well2 the  account of 
the conditions which men have patiently 
wrought out to serve  their ends40      
,sidenote3 ,in harmony with ,froebel1   
,sidenote3 but not as stereotyped1      
,sidenote3 and work--not amusement--the 
spirit of the school4    ,it can be seen
 how fully this plan is in accord with  
the real  principles of social          
coperation and expression of individual 
activities underlying the work of       
,froebel2 and 8so far as these          
statements correctly represented        

,froebel's educational philosophy10     
,dewey generously grants that 8the      
school should be regarded as its        
exponent40 ,but these industrial        
activities of the ,chicago experimental 
school were not in the least suggested  
by ,froebel's work1 and were far  more  
expressive of real life4 ,they never    
became as stereotyped and  external as  
the gifts or even as the occupations of 
the kindergarten  have generally been4  
,dewey is insistent that this training  
shall be  carried on not for the purpose
 of furnishing facts or principles to   
be learned1 but for enabling the child  
to engage in the industrial  occupations
 in miniature4 8,the school is not      
preparation for life3  it is life40     
,hence this training is superior to the 
occupations of  ,froebel in that 8it    
maintains a balance between the         
intellectual and  the practical phases  
of experience40 ,where ,froebel has held
 to the  construction of beautiful      
things in mechanical ways1 ,dewey       

emphasizes  the ordinary activities and 
experiences of life1 even though the    
expression of these be crude4 ,the child
 should be 8given1 wherever  possible1  
intellectual responsibility for         
selecting the materials and  instruments
 that are most fit1 and given an        
opportunity to think out  his own model 
and plan of work1 led to perceive his   
own errors1 and  find how to correct    
them40 ,thus the work was never 8reduced
 to a mere  routine or custom and its   
educational value lost40 ,as a result1  
too1 it  was the consensus of opinion   
that 8while the children like1 or love1 
to  come to school1 yet work1 and not   
amusement1 has been the spirit and      
teaching of the school2 and that this   
freedom has been granted under  such    
conditions of intelligent and           
sympathetic oversight as to be a  means 
of upbuilding and strengthening         
character40    ,sidenote3 ,schools on a 
similar basis4    ,other ,experiments in
 ,method4--,hence1 while the ,chicago   

school is  now at an end1 the experiment
 in education developed there is still  
yielding abundant fruitage4 ,it has     
stimulated similar undertakings         
elsewhere1 and has been the largest     
factor in determining the theory  and   
practice of the present day4 ,either as 
a result of ,dewey's work or  through   
independent thought1 there has sprung up
 an important group of  schools in which
 there is clearly an effort to bring    
boys and girls of  elementary school age
 into more intimate relation to         
community life  about them4 ,such are   
the ,gary 7,indiana7 ,public ,schools1  
the ,francis  ,w4 ,parker ,school of    
,chicago1 the ,elementary ,school at the
 ,university  of ,missouri1 the         
,pestalozzi-,froebel ,school of ,berlin1
 the ,abbotsholme  ,school in           
,derbyshire 7,england71 and a number of 
others4    ,sidenote3 ,university of    
,missouri ,elementary ,school3          
,sidenote3 its purpose and curriculum4  
,a good illustration is afforded in the 

school developed by ,junius ,l4  ,meriam
 at ,columbia1 ,missouri1 although it   
has not been given much  publicity4 ,its
 function is to help children do better 
in all those  wholesome activities in   
which they normally engage4 ,the school 
does  not attend to the #8three r's' as 
such1 but specifically to particular    
activities of children1 including 7#a7  
play1 7#b7 observation1 7#c7  handwork1 
and 7#d7 stories1 music1 and art4 ,these
 four #8studies1'  representing real    
life1 irrespective of the school1       
constitute the  curriculum1 and the     
#8three r's' are studied only as they   
are needed4  ,their content1 therefore1 
being used1 as in life1 in meeting real 
needs1 is studied most effectively4     
,sidenote3 ,gary school system3         
,sidenote3 its plant and methods4    ,an
 experiment that has attracted          
widespread interest is that worked out  
in the ,gary school system by ,william  
,a4 ,wirt4 ,while the achievement is    
mostly in the way of a remarkable       

organization and administration that    
have undertaken to make available 8all  
of the educational opportunities  of the
 city all of the time for all of the    
people10 the teaching has to  some      
extent been carried on so as to reveal  
to the pupils 8that what  they are doing
 is worth while40 ,the school plant     
includes a playground1  garden1         
workshop1 social center1 library1 and   
traditional school1 and  it has been    
shown that these agencies1 when properly
 organized1 8secure  the same attitude  
of mind toward the reading1 writing1 and
 arithmetic  that the child normally has
 for play40 ,all the other schools that 
have  been mentioned above make similar 
attempts to enable the children  to get 
into closer touch with their            
environment4 ,while each of them        
approaches the problems of elementary   
training from a different angle1  they  
are all in harmony with the spirit of   
,dewey and present day theory4          
,sidenote3 #8,liberty of the pupil2'    

,sidenote3 ,seguin's apparatus4    ,the 
,montessori ,method4--,but probably the 
most spectacular development  in        
educational procedure is that           
originating with ,maria ,montessori  at 
,rome4 ,yet the ,montessori method1     
except for some elements adapted  from  
,seguin 7see p4 #dbf71 is largely a     
combination of several of the  concepts 
found in ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 and    
,froebel1 and fails to grasp  the larger
 vision of education that appears in    
present-day theory1 such  as ,dewey's4  
,like ,rousseau and ,froebel1           
,montessori holds fundamentally  to the 
rightness of child nature and           
consequently to the liberty of  the     
pupil1 but she does not1 like ,dewey1   
realize that education is  itself life  
and that the activities of real life    
should be utilized  in training4        
,moreover1 the sense training1 which    
,montessori herself  considers the most 
distinctive feature of her system1 is   
neither  original nor psychologically   

sound4 ,montessori began as a teacher   
of defectives1 and her #8didactic       
apparatus' and methods are largely      
borrowed from ,seguin4 ,exercises of    
this sort are of great value in         
training defectives1 but the assumption 
of their usefulness in the  education of
 normal children is more doubtful4 ,they
 are intended to  train the senses to   
general powers and discriminations1 and 
seem to be  defended simply upon the    
basis of faculty psychology and the     
outworn  theory of #8formal discipline' 
7see p4 #ahb f474    ,sidenote3         
,writing1    ,sidenote3 reading1 and    
arithmetic4    ,the feature of the      
,montessori method1 however1 that has   
attracted most  attention is its        
apparent success with the formal        
elementary studies1  especially the     
facility1 enthusiasm1 and speed with    
which it has  enabled the pupils to     
learn to write4 ,montessori has         
carefully analyzed  the process of      
writing and devised three exercises by  

which this art is  unconsciously learned
 by three or four year old children in  
,italy4 ,if  this training can be       
applied to unphonetic languages1 like   
the ,english1  it may possibly be       
regarded as a contribution4 ,it is      
evident1 however1  that ,montessori lays
 too much stress upon the acquisition of
 the  formal studies and starts them at 
too early an age4 ,in this she fails  to
 appreciate ,froebel's great            
contribution of a school without books1 
and certainly does not realize1 with    
,dewey1 that the main purpose of        
education is to give a child some       
control of his social environment and   
that for this there are activities of   
more importance to child life  than the 
school arts4 ,within a few years it will
 probably be difficult  to understand   
the furore that has been created by the 
,montessori  methods4    ,sidenote3     
,technique of the physical sciences     
applied to education4    ,the           
,statistical ,method and ,mental        

,measurements in ,education4--,one of   
the most significant of the present day 
movements is the application1           
especially in the ,united ,states1 of   
scientific1 statistical methods to      
problems of education4 ,statistics have 
long been used1 though often  without   
clearness or accuracy1 in reports of    
school administration1  but it remained 
for this century to apply to the various
 phases of  education the same general  
technique and approximately the same    
precision as that long demanded by the  
physical and biological  sciences4      
,quantitative1 unambiguous statements   
are now sought and  secured not only for
 the phenomena of attendance1           
retardation1  expenditures1 and the     
like1 but also for the relative and     
absolute  amounts of knowledge4 ,as a   
consequence1 emphasis has been placed   
upon  the results of education rather   
than upon the declaration of intentions4
    ,sidenote3 ,thorndike's advocacy of 
a quantitative description and of       

scales1 and the application to          
achievement in school subjects4         
,probably the first scholar to apply the
 scientific principles of  statistics to
 education was ,edward ,l4 ,thorndike of
 ,columbia ,university4  ,in his        
,educational ,psychology he illustrates 
how a quantitative  description of      
individual differences and of the       
factors that condition  them is         
necessary to throw real light upon      
educational theory and  practice1 and in
 his ,mental and ,social ,measurements  
he presents the  details of the method4 
,subsequently he maintained1 in the face
 of much  opposition1 that scales1 as   
objective and as impersonal as possible1
  should and could be devised for       
measuring variations in ability and     
changes that take place as a result of  
natural growth and instruction4  ,such  
scales1 beginning at an ascertained zero
 and progressing by  regular steps to a 
point near perfection1 are1 because of  
the  complexity of their elements1      

difficult to construct1 but they have   
been set forth more or less tentatively 
by various investigators for  the       
measurement of achievement in           
handwriting 7,fig4 #eg71 arithmetic1    
,english composition1 spelling1 drawing1
 freehand lettering1 and  reading       
respectively4 ,other scales to measure  
ability in the several  high school     
subjects may be expected soon4          
,sidenote3 ,measurement of the          
quantitative significance of factors in 
method4    ,studies are also being made 
in several universities to determine the
  relative importance of the numerous   
factors in methods of teaching4  ,this  
is done by conducting experiments with  
hundreds or thousands of  children to   
find out by the most accurate           
measurement yet devised the  amount of  
progress in learning that is wholly due 
to the presence of  some one factor of  
method in the technique of class-room   
exercises4  ,educational psychology has 
revealed the qualitative significance of

  many of the single elements in the    
very complex procedure that we have     
called a #8method of teaching1' and this
 new type of research aims  to determine
 the quantitative significance of each  
of these several  elements of method as 
factors in the production of abilities4 
,a4 ,duncan  ,yocum of the ,university  
of ,pennsylvania has formulated a       
considerable  number of tests1 and1 by  
preliminary experimentation1 has        
determined  the conditions under which  
they may with a high degree of accuracy 
be given to groups of students engaged  
in actual school work under  ordinary   
class-room conditions4 ,his students    
have made a number of  tentative1 but   
suggestive studies1 which have not yet  
been published4  ,milo ,b4 ,hillegas of 
,columbia ,university and others are    
engaged on  certain aspects of this     
general type of research4 ,there is     
reason1  therefore1 to believe that we  
may sometime be able to measure with as 
much accuracy the efficiency of         

well-defined educational processes  as  
we are now able to measure educational  
products4 ,if this can be  attained1 the
 technique of class-room teaching and of
 educational  supervision will begin to 
rest on a really scientific basis4      
,illustration3    ,fig4 #ef4--;,indian  
house constructed in ,dewey's           
experimental school by  children between
 seven and eight years of age1 while    
studying the  development of primitive  
life4    7,reproduced from the          
,elementary ,school ,record by          
permission of the  ,university of       
,chicago ,press47    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #eg4--,specimen ,no4 #ac taken    
from the #8,thorndike ,writing ,scale4' 
,this specimen constitutes the          
approximate quality of handwriting that 
may reasonably be expected of pupils in 
the seventh or eighth grade4 ,in  the   
complete scale the specimens are        
numbered from #d to #ah4    ,sidenote3  
,other mental and social measurements1  
,sidenote3 and #8educational surveys4'  

,moreover1 by the use of the improved   
statistical method and of  scales1      
studies of greatly increased value have 
been made of fatigue1  retardation1     
elimination1 and of other social and    
mental phenomena of  individual         
children4 ,and in #aiaa1 with the       
reports of ,paul ,h4 ,hanus  of ,harvard
 ,university and ,ernest ,c4 ,moore of  
,yale ,university upon the  school      
systems of ,montclair and ,east ,orange1
 ,new ,jersey1 there began  to be       
instituted those measurements and       
consequent criticisms of whole  school  
systems1 known as #8educational         
surveys4' ,these scientific  reports    
have been extended to the educational   
work of a large number  of cities and   
states throughout the ,union4 ,they are 
intended to enable  school officers and 
patrons to comprehend with more         
definiteness the  absolute1 as well as  
the relative1 achievements of their     
children4    ,sidenote3 ,new attitude   
toward intelligence4    ,sidenote3      

,studies of mental development in the   
race and individual4    ,sidenote3      
,change in imagery and vocabulary4      
,education and the ,theory of           
,evolution4--,a most characteristic     
influence in education to-day has come  
through the theory of evolution  of     
,darwin 7,fig4 #ea74 ,this fruitful     
hypothesis came to be generally         
accepted during the last quarter of the 
nineteenth century as the  guiding      
principle of education1 and has         
constantly increased the  illumination  
it has shed upon the educational        
process4 ,it has given  an entirely new 
meaning to education1 and has greatly   
modified  the course of study and       
revolutionized the method of approaching
  educational problems4 ,it has wrought 
very much the same changes in  the      
treatment of intelligence that it did in
 the biological sciences4               
,consciousness is no longer regarded as 
a fixed set of entities1 but  as a      
developmental process4 ,instead of      

classifying and cataloging  mental      
processes in fixed groups1 efforts are  
made to study their  growth from the    
standpoint both of the race and of the  
individual4  ,studies of mental         
development in the race1 begun by       
,darwin's ,descent  of ,man1 which      
recognized #8sexual' and #8social       
selection1' as well as  #8natural       
selection1' have been continued by      
numerous investigators1  and equally    
extensive researches have also been     
latterly made in  genetic psychology1   
child study1 mental development1 and    
adolescence4  ,both observation and     
experimentation have been introduced    
into the  study of mental processes4    
,even more revolutionary than this      
actual  increase in knowledge1 however1 
is the change that has taken place in   
the conception1 imagery1 and terminology
 of education4 ,writers upon  education 
constantly employ the language of       
evolution4 ,educational  discussions are
 now filled with such terms as          

#8variation1' #8selection1'             
#8adjustment1' and #8adaptation1' and   
such concepts dominate all  educational 
thinking4 ,if educational leaders of    
half a century ago  could be present    
to-day at a gathering of educational    
thinkers1 they  would find themselves   
listening to what would seem to them    
almost a  foreign language4             
,sidenote3 ,centralization2             
,sidenote3 school hygiene2    ,sidenote3
 school architecture2    ,sidenote3     
professionalization of teaching4        
,sidenote3 ,reorganization of secondary 
and higher education4    ,enlarging     
,conceptions of the ,function of        
,education4--,such are a  few of the    
chief tendencies and advances that are  
being made in  education to-day4 ,there 
is also a great variety of other        
educational  movements1 almost too      
numerous to be mentioned4 ,in the       
organization  and administration of the 
public schools there is a decided       
tendency  toward centralization in      

educational activities1 corresponding to
 the  centralization in industrial and  
political affairs4 ,the ,united ,states 
,bureau of ,education and the various   
,state ,departments of ,public          
,instruction have had their functions   
much enlarged and their activities      
greatly increased4 ,there are also such 
matters as the new procedure  in school 
hygiene1 arising from the modern        
attitude toward the  prevention of      
disease2 new health regulations1 as a   
result of having  so many children      
housed in the same buildings2 medical   
inspection1  open-air schools1 and      
better nourishment2 and new tendencies  
in school  architecture4 ,likewise we   
find progressive legislation on         
compulsory  school attendance2 more     
extensive training of teachers2 a rapid 
recognition of education as a           
profession2 the organization of various 
types of teachers' associations2 and the
 development of educational  journalism4
 ,secondary education is also being     

greatly extended and  largely           
reorganized4 #8,junior high schools1'   
combining the upper grades  of the      
elementary school with the lower grades 
of the secondary  school1 and thus      
bridging the gap1 are being widely      
introduced into  ,american cities1 and a
 variety of propositions for a six-year 
course  are being seriously entertained4
 ,in connection with higher education   
there are such new tendencies as        
university extension1 correspondence    
courses1 summer sessions1 university    
interest in the practical problems  of  
the people1 the correlation of the first
 two years of college  with the         
secondary school1 more flexible entrance
 requirements1 an  increasing number of 
fields of professional work1 and1 above 
all1 the  professional training of      
teachers through ,departments of        
,education1  ,teachers ,colleges1 and   
,schools of ,education4 ,with this is   
connected the  scientific study of      
,education1 both in graduate courses and

 independent  investigations4           
,sidenote3 ,other progressive           
tendencies4    ,similar efforts to      
secure economy1 guard health1 improve   
method1 and  cause education to serve   
democratic ideals are everywhere        
apparent4  ,educational theory and      
practice are in a constant flux1 and    
have  entered upon a most distinctive   
epoch of experimentation1 change1 and   
improvement4 ,while such a situation is 
not without its perils1 and each        
proposal should be carefully scrutinized
 before acceptance1 the present         
tendencies are in the main a sign of    
progress and life4      ,,supplementary 
,,reading    ,graves1 ,in ,modern ,times
 7,macmillan1 #aiac71 chap4 ,,xi2       
,monroe1  ,textbook 7,macmillan1 #aije71
 chaps4 ,,xiii-,,xiv4 ,for the special  
tendencies mentioned1 the following     
works may be consulted3 ,cooley1 ,e4    
,g41 ,vocational ,education in ,europe  
7,chicago ,commercial ,club1 #aiab72    
,hanus1 ,p4 ,h41 ,beginnings in         

,industrial ,education 7,houghton1      
,mifflin1  #aijh72 ,haskins1 ,c4 ,w41   
,business ,education and ,accounting    
7,harper1  #aijd72 ,adler1 ,f41 ,moral  
,instruction of ,children 7,appleton1   
#ahie72  ,palmer1 ,g4 ,h41 ,ethical and 
,moral ,instruction in ,schools         
7,houghton1  ,mifflin1 #aiji72 ,goddard1
 ,h4 ,h41 ,education of ,defectives     
7,monroe's  ,cyclopdia of ,education72  
,bell1 ,a4 ,g41 ,deaf ,mute ,instruction
 in  ,relation to the ,work of the      
,public ,schools2 ,armitage1 ,t41       
,education  and ,employment of the      
,blind 7,harrison  ,sons1 ,london1      
#ahhf72 ,dewey1  ,j41 ,the ,school and  
,society 7,university of ,chicago       
,press1 #ahii71  and ,elementary ,school
 ,record 7,university of ,chicago       
,press1 #aijj72  ,montessori1 ,maria1   
,the ,montessori ,method 7,translated by
 ,anne ,e4  ,george1 ,stokes ,co41 ,new 
,york1 #aiab72 ,kilpatrick1 ,w4 ,h41    
,the ,montessori  ,method ,examined     
7,houghton1 ,mifflin1 #aiad72 ,ayres1   

,l4 ,p41 ,measuring  ,educational       
,processes through ,educational ,results
 7,school ,review1  ,may1 #aiab72       
,strayer1 ,g4 ,d41 ,standards and ,tests
 for ,measuring the  ,efficiency of     
,schools 7,report of the ,committee of  
the ,national ,council  of ,education in
 the ,united ,states ,bureau of         
,education ,bulletin1 #aiac1  ,no4 #ac72
 ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l41 ,the ,measurement 
of ,educational ,products  7,school     
,review1 ,may1 #aiab74                  
,,chapter ,,xxviii    ,,retrospect ,,and
 ,,prospect      ,,outline              
,evolution in education may be          
interpreted from the standpoint of      
the development of individualism4       
,individualism was first fully          
recognized in the teachings of ,christ1 
but was repressed during      the       
,middle ,ages4 ,while it reappeared     
during the ,renaissance1                
,reformation1 and other movements1 it   
soon lapsed1 but a complete      break  
from tradition occurred with ,rousseau  

in the eighteenth      century4         
,for a time individualism dominated1 but
 education since then has               
endeavored to afford latitude to the    
individual without losing      sight of 
the welfare of society4    ,sidenote3   
,progress of individualistic tendencies 
during the days of  primitive man1      
,sidenote3 ,oriental nations1           
,sidenote3 ,jewish1 ,athenian1 and      
,roman civilizations1    ,sidenote3     
,christian development1    ,sidenote3   
and the ,middle ,ages2    ,the          
,development of ,individualism4--,the   
discussion of present day  tendencies   
that has just been given1 together with 
the account of  educational evolution in
 the preceding chapters1 serves to show 
how far  modern times have progressed in
 the ideals and practice of education4  
,this may perhaps be best appreciated   
from the standpoint of the  development 
of individualism4 ,to follow such an    
interpretation back to  the beginning of
 the history of education1 it may be    

stated that during  the day of primitive
 man no real distinction was made       
between society  and the individual1 and
 practically all advancement was        
impossible1  for no one looked much     
beyond the present4 ,with the appearance
 of the  transitional period in the     
,oriental countries1 the individual had 
begun to emerge1 but was kept in        
constant subjection to the social       
whole1 for man was quite enslaved to the
 past4 ,as the ,jewish1 ,athenian1  and 
,roman civilizations developed1 the     
beginnings of individualism  were for   
the first time clearly revealed1 and    
some regard was had  for the future4    
,then1 through the teachings of ,christ1
 there came to  be a larger recognition 
of the principle of individualism and   
the  brotherhood of man4 ,owing to a    
necessity for spreading these enlarged  
ideals among a barbarous horde of       
peoples1 individualism was repressed1   
and throughout the ,middle ,ages the    
keynote was submission to authority  and

 preparation for the life to come4 ,the 
cultural products of ,greece  and ,rome 
largely disappeared1 and all            
civilization became restricted1  fixed1 
and formal4    ,sidenote3 the           
,renaissance1    ,sidenote3 the         
,reformation1    ,sidenote3 and realism2
    ,sidenote3 ,puritanism and ,pietism2
    ,but the human spirit could not be  
forever held in bondage1 and1 after     
almost a millennium of repression and   
uniformity1 various factors  that had   
accumulated within the ,middle ,ages    
produced an intellectual  awakening that
 we know as the #8,renaissance4' ,its   
vitality lasted during  the fifteenth   
century in ,italy and to the close of   
the sixteenth in the  ,northern         
countries1 but by the dawn of the       
seventeenth century it had  everywhere  
degenerated into a dry and mechanical   
study of the classics4  ,this           
constituted a formalism almost as dense 
as that it had superseded1  except that 
linguistic and literary studies had     

replaced dialectic and  theology4 ,a    
little later than the spread of the     
,renaissance1 though  overlapping it    
somewhat1 came the allied movement of   
the #8,reformation4'  ,this grew in part
 out of the disposition of the ,northern
 ,renaissance  to turn to social and    
moral account the revived intelligence  
and  learning4 ,yet here also the       
revival failed in its mission1 and  the 
tendency to rely upon reason rather than
 dogma hardened into  formalism and a   
distrust of individualism4 ,again1 in   
the seventeenth  century1 apparently as 
an outgrowth of the same forces1        
intellectual  activity took the form of 
a search for #8real things4' ,the       
movement  that culminated in #8sense    
realism' appeared1 but this small and   
crude  beginning of the modern          
scientific tendency was for some decades
 yet  held within limits4 ,associated   
with this realistic tendency1 on the    
religious and political sides also      
appeared a quickening in such forms  as 

#8,puritanism' and #8,pietism1' which   
likewise degenerated eventually  into a 
fanaticism and hypocrisy4    ,sidenote3 
and ,rousseau and the destructive       
tendency4    ,sidenote3 ,the present    
tendencies in education seem to         
harmonize the  individual interest with 
those of society4    ,the ,harmonization
 of the ,individual and ,society4--,thus
 the way  was opened for the complete   
break with tradition and authority that 
occurred in the eighteenth century4     
,this tendency1 while in ,france  at    
least most destructive and costly1 was  
the inevitable result of  the           
unwillingness to reshape society and    
education in accordance with  changing  
ideals and conditions4 ,hence ,rousseau 
undertook to shatter all  educational   
traditions4 ,but his recommendation of  
isolated education1  so palpable in its 
fallacies1 prepared the ground for the  
numerous  social1 scientific1 and       
psychological tendencies 7see pp4       
#bah-bbb7 that  were destined to spring 

up in modern education and for the      
consequent  improvement in the aim1     
organization1 content1 and method of    
education4  ,of course modern education 
has advanced infinitely beyond anything 
implied by ,rousseau or even the later  
reformers of the past century1  but it  
is out of his attempts at destruction   
that has grown this nobler  structure4  
,for a time individualism triumphed and 
ground authority  under its heel1 but   
when this extremity had been passed1 the
 problem  became how to harmonize the   
individual with society1 and to develop 
personality progressively in keeping    
with its environment4 ,thus the         
nineteenth and twentieth centuries have 
put forth conscious efforts  to justify 
the eighteenth and to bring out and     
develop the positions  barely hinted at 
in its negations4 ,it is not alone the  
individual as  such that has been of    
interest in the modern period1 but more 
and more  the individual in relation to 
the social whole to which he belongs1 as

  only in this way can the value of his 
activities be estimated4    ,sidenote3  
,recent definitions of education show   
this4    ,sidenote3 ,the educational    
problem of the future4    ,this is      
revealed in the works of those who      
followed ,rousseau1 and  especially in  
the attempts of recent educational      
philosophers to  frame a definition of  
education that shall recognize the      
importance  of affording latitude to the
 individual without losing sight of the 
welfare of the social environment in    
connection with which his efforts  are  
to function4 ,thus ,butler1 though      
recognizing the individual  factor1     
especially stresses the social by       
declaring education to be  8the gradual 
adjustment of the individual to the     
spiritual possessions  of the race40    
,then he further declares3 8,when we    
hear it sometimes  said1 #8,all         
education must start from the child1' we
 must add1 #8,yes1  and lead into human 
civilization2' and when it is said on   

the other  hand that #8all education    
must start from a traditional past1' we 
must  add1 #8,yes1 and be adapted to the
 child4'0 ,and the balance between the  
two factors of the individual and       
society is even more explicitly         
preserved in ,dewey's statement 8that   
the psychological and social  sides are 
organically related1 and that education 
cannot be regarded  as a compromise     
between the two1 or a superimposition of
 one upon  the other40 ,in the same way 
,bagley has made #8social efficiency'   
the  main aim in educating the          
individual to-day1 and both elements are
  carefully considered by all modern    
writers in discussing educational       
values4 ,thus the central problem in    
education of the twentieth and          
succeeding centuries is to be a constant
 reorganization of the  curriculum and  
methods of teaching1 and this           
reconstruction must be  such as to      
harmonize a due regard for the          
progressive variations of  the          

individual with the welfare of the      
conservative institutions of  society4  
,it must include a continual effort to  
hand on the intellectual  possessions of
 the race1 but also to stimulate all    
individuals to add  some modification or
 new element to the product4 ,in this   
way there may  develop unending         
possibilities for both the individual   
and society4      ,,supplementary       
,,reading    ,graves1 ,f4 ,p41 ,history 
of ,education before the ,middle ,ages  
7,macmillan1 #aiji71 chap4 ,,xii2       
,history of ,education during the       
,transition 7,macmillan1 #aiaj71 chap4  
,,xxiii2 ,history of ,education in      
,modern ,times 7,macmillan1 #aiac71     
chap4 ,,xii2 ,monroe1 ,p41 ,textbook in 
the ,history of ,education 7,macmillan1 
#aije71 chap4 ,x4          ,,index      
,abelard1 #gj1 #gf4      ,academy1 in   
,germany1 #aeh2      in ,england1 #aei1 
#agg1 #daj2      of ,franklin1 #aif2    
,lancasterian1 #bdb2      in ,south1    
#beh2      in ,new ,york1 #bfj2      in 

,massachusetts1 #bfh2      in ,united   
,states1 #bgd1 #cca1 #dad4              
,adventure schools1 #ic4      ,agassiz1 
#cih1 #dac4      ,agricola1 #aab4       
,agricultural training1 #bie ff41 #dbd4 
,alcotts1 ,the1 #bic4      ,alcuin1 #fa 
ff4      ,alexandria1 #bi1 #cj1 #df4    
,alsted1 #aga4      ,american ,annals of
 ,education1 #cje4      ,american       
,journal of ,education 7,russell7 #cjd1 
7,barnard7 #caf ff4      ,american      
,sunday ,school ,union1 #bch4           
,andover ,theological ,seminary1 #bii4  
,anselm1 #gj4      ,antioch1 #df4       
,apologists1 #de4      ,apostles'       
,creed1 #dh4      ,apperception1 #cch1  
#cda4      ,aquinas1 #ga f4             
,archimedes1 #cj4      ,aristophanes1   
#ai4      ,aristotle1 #ai1 #bd ff41 #bg1
 #de1 #eh1 #gj f41 #afe1 #ahb4          
,ascham1 #aag4      ,assyria1 #e4       
,athens1 #ad ff4      ,atrium1 #agj4    
,averros1 #fg4      ,avicenna1 #ff1 #gi4
        ,babylonia1 #e4      ,bacon1    
,francis1 #bc1 #afd f41 #aff1 #aga1     

#agd1 #bjf4      ,bacon1 ,roger1 #afc4  
,bagley1 ,w4 ,c41 #dde4      ,barnard1  
#cji1 #cab ff4      ,basedow1 #bbj1 #bbc
 ff41 #bca4      ,bateus1 #afi4         
,bell1 ,andrew1 #bci f4      ,benedict1 
,st41 #ee4      ,bentham1 #chg4         
,berkeley1 #aib4      ,blackstone1 #chg4
      ,blankenburg1 #ced4      ,blow1   
,susan ,e41 #cff f4      ,board schools1
 #bda1 #chh ff41 #dbe4      ,boccaccio1 
#ajd4      ,blte1 #cff4      ,bothius1  
#eg f4      ,bonnal1 #bgi4      ,boyle1 
#afc4      ,brathwaite1 #aef4           
,bray1 ,thomas1 #bcb4      ,brinsley1   
#aai4      ,british and ,foreign        
,society1 #bci f4      ,brooks1         
,charles1 #bic4      ,brothers of       
,sincerity1 #ff4      ,brothers of the  
,christian ,schools1 #adj4              
,brougham1 #chg4      ,bruni1 #aje4     
,buchanan1 ,james1 #bde4      ,budus1   
#aaj4      ,bugenhagen1 #abh1 #ade4     
,blow1 ,baroness von1 #ced4             
,burgdorf1 #bha f4      ,burgher        
schools1 #ic f4      ,burrowes1 ,t4 ,h41

 #cbc4      ,butler1 ,n4 ,m41 #ddd4     
,csarea1 #df4      ,calvin1 #acj1 #aic1 
#aig4      ,cambridge1 #aag1 #adi1 #agg1
 #cib4      ,campe1 #bbe1 #bbh4         
,capella1 ,martianus1 #eg4              
,carlisle1 #bii4      ,carpenter1 ,mary1
 #bii4      ,carter1 ,j4 ,g41 #cje1     
#cji4      ,cassiodorus1 #eg4           
,castes1 #e ff4      ,castiglione1 #aef4
      ,catechetical schools1 #df4       
,catechumenal schools1 #dc f4           
,cathedral schools1 #df f41 #ed1 #aca4  
,catholepistemiad1 #bgc4      ,chantry  
schools1 #id f41 #acb4      ,charity    
schools1 #bca ff4      ,charlemagne1 #fa
 ff4      ,charles ,,viii1 #aaj4        
,chavannes1 #bia1 #bib4      ,cheke1    
#aag4      ,china1 #e4      ,chivalry1  
#hc ff4      ,christianity1 #bi1 #db f4 
,chrysoloras1 #ajd4      ,cicero1 #eh1  
#ajh1 #aaf1 #aea4      ,circulating     
schools1 #bcd4      ,clement of         
,alexandria1 #df4      ,clinton1 ,de    
,witt1 #bfj4      ,cockerton ,judgment1 
#cia4      ,colburn1 ,warren1 #bic4     

,colet1 #ic1 #aag f4      ,college of   
,clermont1 #acg4      ,college of       
,france1 #aaa1 #che4      ,college of   
,guyenne1 #aaa4      ,college of        
,william and ,mary1 #aib4      ,combe1  
#djc1 #dje1 #daj1 #daf4      ,comenius1 
#afg1 #afh ff41 #bbd1 #cec4             
,commercial education1 #dbb f4          
,communal collges1 #chd4                
,concentration1 #cdj1 #cde f41 #cej1    
#dbi4      ,condillac1 #bje4            
,conduct of the ,understanding1 #ahj4   
,connecticut ,common ,school ,journal1  
#cac4      ,continuation school1 #bih1  
#cgd1 #cgg1 #chc1 #dbj4                 
,copernicus1 #afc4      ,corderius1     
#aaa1 #acj4      ,cordova1 #ff4         
,corpus ,juris ,civilis1 #gf1 #gi4      
,correlation1 #cda1 #cdd1 #cej4         
,council of ,whitby1 #ef4      ,court   
schools1 #aje ff4      ,cousin1 #bia f41
 #djh4      ,creativeness1 #cef ff4     
,culture epochs1 #cda1 #cdd1 #cdf4      
,cygnus1 #cfc4        ,d',alembert1     
#bje4      ,dame schools1 #bff4         

,dana1 ,james ,d41 #dab4      ,darwin1  
#cih1 #dac1 #dcg f4      ,decree of     
,gratian1 #gf1 #gi4      ,defectives1   
#cjj1 #dbf ff4      ,de ,garmo1         
,charles1 #cdh1 #cea4      ,delayed     
maturing1 #bba4      ,delinquents1 #adb1
 #cjj4      ,descartes1 #ach4           
,dewey1 ,john1 #cfd1 #dbi ff41 #ddd4    
,dialectic1 #bj1 #eh1 #ga1 #gf1 #abg4   
,didascaleum1 #ad1 #ah1 #ba4            
,diderot1 #bje4      ,diophantus1 #cj4  
,discipline1 ,locke's1 #ahj ff4         
,districts1 #bff f4      ,divided       
schools1 #bfg4      ,dock1 ,christopher1
 #aie4      ,donatus1 #eh4      ,double 
translation1 #aag4      ,duns ,scotus1  
#ga4        ,eaton1 ,amos1 #dab4        
coles maternelles1 #chc4      ,edessa1  
#df4      ,edward ,,vi1 #acb4           
,edwards1 ,ninian ,w41 #cbe4            
,egypt1 #e4      ,eisleben1 #abh1 #ade4 
,elementarwerk1 #bbd4      ,elementary  
education1 with ,hindus1 #g2      with  
,jews1 #i2      in ,sparta1 #ac2      in
 ,athens1 #ad2      in ,rome1 #cc1 #cf  

f42      monastic1 #ef2      with       
,charlemagne1 #fb2      humanistic1 #aje
 ff41 #aac f42      ,sturm1 #aae2       
,zwingli1 #abi2      ,jesuit1 #acd2     
,port ,royal1 #aci f42                  
,reformation1 #add ff42                 
,innovators1 #aef2      ,comenius1 #aga2
      ,german realists1 #age2           
colonial ,virginia1 #aia2      colonial 
,new ,york1 #aid2      colonial         
,pennsylvania1 #aie2      colonial      
,massachusetts1 #aig2      ,england1    
#bca1 #bdd ff41 #chg ff41 #dji2      ,s4
 ,p4 ,g41 #bcd2      monitorial1 #bdj2  
,france1 #bdc1 #cha1 #djh2      ,united 
,states1 #bdf1 #dae2      ,new ,york1   
#beh f42      ,herbartian1 #cdg2        
,prussia1 #cgg2      ,canada1 #cib ff42 
,germany1 #djg4      ,eliot1 ,charles   
,w41 #djc4      ,elyot1 #aef4           
,emile1 #bjh ff4      ,encyclopedists1  
#bjd ff4      pe1 ,abb de l'1 #dbh4     
,epicureans1 #bh1 #df4      ,episcopal  
schools1 #df f4      ,erasmus1 #aac1    
#aag1 #abe4      ,eratosthenes1 #cj4    

,erigena1 #fd4      ,essay concerning   
the ,human ,understanding1 #ahj4        
,euclid1 #cj1 #eh4      ,evening ,hour  
of a ,hermit1 #bgi4        ,faculty     
psychology1 #bg1 #ahb ff41 #bbb1 #dcd4  
,falloux1 #chb4      ,father's ,journal1
 #bgh4      ,felbiger1 #cgd4            
,fellenberg1 #bai1 #bie ff4             
,feudalism1 #hc f41 #ij4      ,fichte1  
#bij1 #cea4      ,field school1 #bec4   
,formal discipline1 #bc1 #ahb ff41 #djd1
 #dcd4      ,forster1 ,w4 ,e41 #chh4    
,fortbildungsschulen1 #bih1 #cgg1 #dbj4 
,francis ,i1 #aaj4      ,francke1 #age  
f4      ,francke ,institutions1 #cdf4   
,frankland1 #aeh4      ,franklin1       
,benjamin1 #aei1 #bfa4      ,frederick  
,barbarossa1 #gf4      ,frederick the   
,great1 #cgc4      ,frederick ,william  
,i1 #cgc4      ,frederick ,william      
,,iii1 #bij1 #cge4      ,frederick ,,ii1
 #fg1 #ge4      ,free ,school ,society1 
#bfj4      ,french ,revolution1 #bjd4   
,frick1 #cdf4      ,froebel1 #afh1 #age1
 #bai1 #bdc1 #ccd1 #cea ff41 #cfh1 #dcj 

f4      ,froebel ,union1 #cfe4          
,fulda1 #fc4        ,galen1 #gi1 #afd4  
,galileo1 #afc4      ,galloway1 ,s41    
#cbe4      ,gild schools1 #ib f41 #acb4 
,gifts1 #ced1 #cei f4      ,gnosticism1 
#cj1 #de4      ,goddard1 ,h4 ,h41 #dbg4 
,grammar schools1 ,rome1 #cf f42        
cathedral1 #dg2      monastic1 #eg2     
,charlemagne1 #fa2      chantry1 #id2   
,england1 #aah f42      ,america1 #abj2 
,new ,amsterdam1 #aid2                  
,massachusetts1 #aig2      ,virginia1   
#bec2      ,south1 #beh2      ,united   
,states1 #bgd1 #cca4      ,granada1 #ff4
      ,gratian1 #gf1 #gi4      ,gravel  
,lane ,school1 #bcd4      ,gray1 ,asa1  
#dac4      ,great ,didactic1 #afi1 #agj 
ff41 #age4      ,griscom1 #bdb1 #bib1   
#cje4      ,grocyn1 #aag4      ,grner1  
#ceb4      ,guericke1 #afc4             
,guizot1 #chb4      ,guyot1 #bic4       
,gymnasium1 ,athens1 #ae1 #ag1 #ba2     
,melanchthon1 #aad2      ,sturm1 #aae   
f41 #abh1 #aeg1 #agf2      ,prussian1   
#cgh1 #djf4        ,hall1 ,samuel ,r41  

#cjd4      ,hampton1 #bii4      ,hanus1 
,p4 ,h41 #dcg4      ,harvard1 #adi1     
#agg1 #aih4      ,harvey1 #afd f41 #bjf4
      ,hay1 ,abb1 #dbh4      ,hawley1   
,gideon1 #bei4      ,hecker1 #agf1 #cgc1
 #cgh4      ,hellenistic philosophy1    
#bi4      ,henry ,,viii1 #aca4          
,herbart1 #afh1 #age1 #bai1 #bdc1 #ccd  
ff41 #cfc1 #cfh4      ,herbart ,society1
 #cdh1 #cea4      ,hieronymians1 #aab   
ff4      ,high school1 #bdb1 #bfi1 #cjf1
 #caa1 #cca1 #dad4      ,hillegas1 ,m4  
,b41 #dcf4      ,hippocrates1 #gi4      
,hofwyl1 #bie ff4      ,home and        
,colonial ,school ,society1 #bdf4       
,hopkins1 ,edward1 #abj4      ,how      
,gertrude ,teaches ,her ,children1 #bhb1
 #bhf4      ,humanistic education1 #ajb 
ff41 #afd4      ,hume1 #cce4            
,hutton1 #cih4      ,huxley1 #bbj1 #cii1
 #djb1 #djd1 #daf4        ,india1 #e ff4
      ,induction1 #afe1 #agc f4         
,industrial education1 of gilds1 #ia f42
      ,la ,salle1 #ada2      ,virginia1 
#aia1 #aic2      ,massachusetts1 #aig2  

,philanthropinum1 #bbi2      monitorial1
 #bdj2      charity1 #bdi2              
,pestalozzi1 #bgh ff42      ,fellenberg1
 #bie ff42      ,europe1 #bih ff42      
present status1 #dai ff4      ,infant   
,school ,society1 #bdf f4      ,infant  
schools1 #bdc ff4      ,initiatory      
ceremonies1 #e4      ,innovators1 #aef4 
,irnerius1 #gf4      ,isocrates1 #bh4   
,jansenists1 #ach ff4      ,janua       
,linguarum1 #afi1 #agd4      ,jarrow1   
#ef4      ,jefferson1 #bec1 #bgj4       
,jesuits1 #acc ff4      ,jews1 #i f4    
,joule1 #cih4      ,judaism1 #bi4       
,jullien1 ,general1 #bia f4             
,justinian1 #ed1 #gf4        ,kant1     
#bbg4      ,keilhau1 #cec4      ,kepler1
 #afc1 #afe4      ,kerschensteiner1     
#dbj4      ,kindergarten1 #ced1 #ceh    
ff41 #cfd ff4      ,kitchen school1     
#bfg4      ,krsi1 #bhi4                 
,lancaster1 ,joseph1 #bci ff4           
,lagrange1 #cih1 #djh4      ,lange1     
,karl1 #cdf4      ,langethal1 #ceb4     
,laplace1 #cih1 #djh4      ,la ,salle1  

#adj4      ,latin schools4 ,see ,grammar
 schools4      ,laws1 ,the1 #bc4        
,leonard and ,gertrude1 #bgh f4         
,leopold of ,dessau1 #bbe4      ,lewis1 
,s41 #cbe4      ,liberal studies1 #bc1  
#ef f41 #abb4      ,libraries1 #cjg4    
,liebig1 #cih1 #djf4      ,liebenstein1 
#ced4      ,lily1 #aac1 #aah4           
,linacre1 #aag4      ,locke1 #aed ff41  
#aeh1 #agi1 #bjf1 #bac1 #cce4           
,louis ,,xii1 #aaj4      ,louis ,,xiv1  
#adj4      ,louis ,,xv1 #bjg4           
,louis ,philippe1 #chb4      ,loyola1   
#acb f4      ,ludus1 #cf f4             
,luther1 #aad1 #abe ff4      ,lyces1    
#chd1 #djh4        ,mc,clure1 ,william1 
#bib4      ,mc,murry1 ,c4 ,a41 #cdh4    
,mc,murry1 ,f4 ,m41 #cdh1 #cea4         
,malpighi1 #afd4      ,mann1 #bic1 #cjd1
 #cjf ff41 #dae4      ,manual training1 
in ,united ,states1 #bih f42            
,cygnus1 #cfc2      in ,france1 #chc4   
,many-sided interest1 #ccf ff4          
,marwedel1 ,emma1 #cff4      ,mason1    
#bic4      ,massachusetts ,common       

,school ,journal1 #cjg4      ,maternal  
schools1 #bdd4      ,maurus1 ,rabanus1  
#fc f4      ,mayer1 #cih4      ,mayo1   
,charles1 #bdf1 #bia4      ,medici1     
#aje4      ,melanchthon1 #aad1 #abh1    
#aca1 #ade4      ,mendel1 #cih4         
,merchant ,taylors'1 #ib1 #abj4         
,meriam1 ,j4 ,l41 #dcb4                 
,methodenbuch1 #bbd4      ,middendorf1  
#ceb4      ,mills1 ,caleb1 #cbe4        
,milton1 #aeb1 #aee1 #aeg4              
,mittelschule1 #cgg4      ,mohammed1    
#fe4      ,mohammedanism1 #bg1 #fe ff4  
,monastic schools1 #di1 #ed ff41 #acb4  
,monitorial system1 #bci ff4            
,montaigne1 #aec f41 #aee4              
,montessori1 #dcc4      ,moore1 ,e4 ,c41
 #dcg4      ,moors1 #ff4      ,more1    
#bc1 #aag4      ,morrill ,act1 #dac4    
,morton1 ,charles1 #aeh4      ,mother   
,play and ,nursery ,songs1 #ceh f41     
#cfj4      ,motor expression1 #cef4     
,moving school1 #bfg4      ,mulcaster1  
#aee f4      ,murphy1 ,judge ,a4 ,d41   
#beg4        ,ngeli1 #bhe1 #bic4        

,napoleon1 #cha1 #djh4      ,national   
,education ,association1 #cej4          
,national ,society1 #bcc1 #bci f4       
,naturalism1 #ahj1 #bgg4      ,nature   
study1 #dae4      ,neander1 #abi4       
,neef1 #bib4      ,neomazdeism1 #bi4    
,neoplatonism1 #cj4                     
,neopythagoreanism1 #bi4                
,neshaminy1 #aif4      ,nestorius1 #df4 
,neuhof1 #bgh4      ,new ,atlantis1 #bc1
 #aff4      ,newlands1 #cih4      ,new  
,testament1 #dh4      ,newton1 #afd f41 
#agg1 #bjf1 #cih4      ,niccoli1        
,niccolo de'1 #aje4      ,nicene ,creed1
 #dh4      ,nicolovius1 #bij4           
,nisibis1 #df4      ,normal schools1    
,carter1 #cje2      ,mann1 #cjg f42     
,massachusetts1 #cbj2      ,middle      
states1 #cbb1 #cbd2      ,zedlitz1 #cgd2
      ,france1 #chb1 #djh4      ,notre  
,dame1 #gf4      ,novalis1 #cba4        
,novum ,organum1 #afe4        ,oberlin1 
#bdd4      ,oberrealschule1 #cgh f41    
#djf4      ,observation1 #bgf ff41 #bhj1
 #bhf ff41 #ccg1 #cdc4      ,occam1     

,william of1 #ga4      ,occupational    
work1 ,froebel1 #cfc2      ,europe and  
,united ,states1 #cfd2      ,dewey1 #dbi
 f4      ,occupations1 #ced1 #cei f4    
,orbis ,pictus1 #agj1 #agd1 #bbd4       
,ordinance of #aghg1 #bga4      ,origen 
of ,alexandria1 #df4      ,oswego       
methods1 #bic f41 #dae4                 
,otherworldliness1 #dc ff41 #ge1 #aja1  
#aba4      ,outlines of ,educational    
,doctrine1 #ccg4      ,owen1 #bdd f41   
#chg4      ,oxford1 #aag1 #adi1 #agg1   
#cib1 #dji4        ,pdagogium1 #agf4    
,palace school1 #fa4      ,palstra1 #ad1
 #ag1 #ba4      ,pancratium1 #ac4       
,pansophia1 #afg1 #afi1 #aga ff4        
,parishads1 #g4      ,parker1 ,colonel  
,f4 ,w41 #bic1 #cej1 #cfd1 #dbi4        
,parochial schools1 #aic f4             
,peabody1 ,elizabeth ,p41 #cff4         
,peabody ,educational ,fund1 #cbi4      
,peacham1 #aef4      ,penn1 #abj4       
,penn ,charter ,school1 #aie4           
,pentathlum1 #ac f4      ,permissive    
laws1 #bef f41 #bfc f41 #bfi1 #bgc1     

#cbj1 #cbb1 #cbd f41 #cbh4      ,persia1
 #e4      ,pestalozzi1 #aef1 #afh1 #age1
 #bai1 #bdc1 #bgg ff41 #cfc1 #cfh1 #dae4
      ,peter the ,lombard1 #ga f41 #gf1 
#gi4      ,petrarch1 #ajc f4            
,philanthropic movement1 #bbi ff4       
,philanthropinum1 #bbc ff4      ,philip 
,augustus1 #gf4      ,philonism1 #bi4   
,philosophical schools1 ,athens1 #bg f4 
,pickering1 ,timothy1 #bfa f4           
,pietists1 #agf f4      ,plamann1 #bhi4 
,plato1 #ai ff41 #de1 #ef f4            
,politics1 #bd4      ,poor schools1     
#bfa4      ,port ,royal1 #ach ff4       
,prelection1 #ace4      ,primitive      
peoples1 #d f4      ,princes' schools1  
#aaf4      ,priscian1 #eh4              
,progymnasien1 #cgi4      ,protagoras1  
#ah f4      ,prussian-,pestalozzianism1 
#bhi1 #bic1 #cjh4      ,psychological   
movement1 #bbj f41 #dae f4              
,ptolemy1 #eh4      ,public schools1    
,england1 #abj1 #daj4      ,public      
,school ,society1 #bdg1 #bfa1 #cbb4     
,pythagoras1 #ah f41 #bc1 #de4          

,quadrivium1 #bc1 #eg1 #fb4             
,quarterly ,register1 #cje4             
,quintilian1 #eh4        ,rabelais1     
#aee4      ,raikes1 #bcg4      ,ramus1  
#aaa4      ,ratich1 #afg1 #age4         
,raymund of ,toledo1 #fg4               
,realgymnasien1 #cgh1 #djf4             
,realism1 #aea ff41 #afb1 #agi4         
,realprogymnasien1 #cgi4                
,realschulen1 #agf1 #cgh f41 #djf4      
,rechahn1 #bbh4      ,reformation1 #abe 
ff4      ,reformschulen1 #cgi4          
,rein1 ,w41 #cdb1 #cdf4                 
,renaissance1 #gj1 #ie1 #aja ff4        
,republic1 ,the1 #ba ff4      ,reuchlin1
 #aab1 #aad4      ,reyher1 ,andreas1    
#age4      ,rhetorical schools1 ,athens1
 #bh1 #cj2      ,rome1 #cf1 #ch f4      
,rhode ,island ,school ,journal1 #cad4  
,ritter1 #bbj1 #bhe f41 #bic4           
,ritterakademien1 #aeg1 #agf4           
,robinson ,crusoe1 #baf1 #bbe1 #cde4    
,rochow1 #bbh4      ,rogers1 ,w4 ,b41   
#dac4      ,rolland1 #cha4      ,rollin1
 #adj4      ,rome1 #bi f41 #cb ff4      

,rousseau1 #aef1 #age1 #agi1 #bjf ff41  
#bca1 #bgg1 #bhe ff41 #cfc1 #cfh1 #daf1 
#ddc4      ,rush1 ,b41 #bfa4            
,russell1 ,w41 #cjd4        ,st4 ,paul's
 school1 #ic1 #aah1 #acb4      ,st4     
,yon1 #ada4      ,salomon1 #cfd4        
,salzmann1 #bbj1 #bbe1 #bbh1 #bca1 #bhd4
      ,saxony1 #ade4      ,schelling1   
#ceb4      ,schlegels1 ,the1 #ceb4      
,scholasticism1 #fi ff41 #gf4           
,scholemaster1 ,the1 #aag4      ,science
 of ,education1 #ccg4      ,scientific  
movement1 #aeb1 #afc1 #aff f41 #bai f41 
#cig ff4      ,secondary education1     
,athens1 #ae1 #ag2      ,plato1 #ba2    
,aristotle1 #be2      ,rome1 #cf2       
gild schools1 #ib2      humanistic1 #aje
 ff42      ,french1 #aaa2      ,german1 
#aad ff42      ,england1 #aah f41 #acb1 
#aeh1 #cij f41 #dji2      ,jesuit1 #acd2
      ,port ,royal1 #ach ff42      ,la  
,salle1 #ada2      ,reformation1 #adg   
f42      ,america1 #aeh ff41 #bgd1 #dad2
      ,comenius1 #aga2      realists1   
#agf2      colonial1 #aia f41 #aic f41  

#aie f41 #aif f42      charity schools1 
#bce2      monitorial1 #bdb2            
,virginia1 #bec f42      other ,southern
 states1 #bef f42      ,new ,york1 #beh 
f42      ,massachusetts1 #bfh2          
,carter1 #cjf2      ,mann1 #cai1 #cca2  
,herbart1 #cdg2      ,prussia1 #cgc1    
#cgh ff42      ,france1 #chd1 #djh2     
,canada1 #cid2      ,germany1 #djf4     
,seguin1 #dbf f41 #dcc4                 
,self-activity1 #cef ff4      ,semler1  
#agf4      ,sense realism1 #aeb1 #afb   
ff41 #afi1 #agc1 #age f41 #agi4         
,seventh ,annual ,report1 ,mann's1 #bic1
 #cjh4      ,sheldon1 ,e4 ,a41 #bic4    
,simultaneous method1 #adc4             
,skeptics1 #bh4      ,smith1 ,adam1     
#chg4      ,social realism1 #aec ff4    
,sociological movement1 #bah1 #ceg1 #dae
 ff4      ,socrates1 #ai f4             
,sophie1 #bag4      ,sophists1 #ag ff4  
,sparta1 #ab ff4      ,spencer1 #bbj1   
#djj ff41 #daf4      ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,k41   
#bcb4      ,s4 ,p4 ,g41 #bcd ff4        
,s4 ,p4 ,k4 ,g41 #bcf4      ,stanz1 #bgi

 ff4      ,stevens1 ,thaddeus1 #bfc4    
,stoics1 #bh1 #de4      ,stowe1 ,david1 
#cje4      ,stoy1 #cde f4               
,strassburg1 #aae1 #abh4      ,sturm1   
#aae f41 #abh1 #aca4      ,svern1 #bij4 
,sunday schools1 #bcg f4      ,swiss    
,family ,robinson1 #bbe4                
,syllabaries1 #bha1 #bhc4        ,table 
of fractions1 #bhc4      ,table of      
units1 #bha1 #bhc1 #bic4                
,technische ,hochschulen1 #chj1 #djf4   
,theodore of ,gaza1 #aac4               
,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l41 #dce4              
,thoughts concerning ,education1 #agi f4
      ,tieck1 #ceb4      ,toledo1 #ff4  
,torricelli1 #afc4      ,trinity ,church
 ,school1 #bce4      ,trivium1 #eg4     
,trotzendorf1 #abi4      ,trck1 #bij4   
,tuskegee1 #bii4        ,university1    
,athens1 #bi1 #ci2      ,alexandria1    
#bh1 #ci2      ,rhodes1 #bi1 #ci2       
,rome1 #bi1 #ci2      ,pergamon1 #bi2   
medival1 #gd ff42      ,paris1 #ge ff41 
#aaj2      ,bologna1 #ge ff42           
,salerno1 #ge2      ,erfurt1 #aaa2      

,leipzig1 #aaa2      ,heidelberg1 #aaa2 
,tbingen1 #aaa2      ,ingoldstadt1 #aaa2
      ,vienna1 #aaa2      ,wittenberg1  
#aaa2      ,marburg1 #aaa2              
,knigsberg1 #aaa2      ,jena1 #aaa2     
after ,reformation1 #adh f42            
,halle1 #agg2      ,gttingen1 #agg2     
,yale1 #agg2      ,princeton1 #agg1     
#aif2      ,columbia1 #agg2             
,pennsylvania1 #agg2      ,virginia1    
#bed2      ,georgia1 #bef2              
,michigan1 #cbf2      ,france1 #cha2    
,cornell1 #dac2      ,johns ,hopkins1   
#dac4      ,university of the ,state of 
,new ,york1 #bei4      ,vaux1 ,robert1  
#bdg4      ,vergerio1 #aje4             
,verona1 #aje4      ,vestibulum1 #afi f4
      ,visconti1 #aje4      ,vittorino  
da ,feltre1 #aje ff4      ,vives1 #aag4 
,vocational education1 #bai1 #bdj1 #bdi4
      ,volksschulen1 #ade1 #cgg1 #djg4  
,voltaire1 #bjd ff41 #bhg4              
,voluntary schools1 #chh ff41 #dbe4     
,vorschulen1 #chj4        ,wandering    
students1 #gh4      ,wehrli1 #bie4      

,weiss1 ,professor1 #ceb4      ,wessel1 
#aab4      ,what ,knowledge ,is of ,most
 ,worth1 #djj4      ,whitebread1 #chg4  
,wilderspin1 #bde4      ,william of     
,champeaux1 #gf4      ,williams1 ,roger1
 #abj4      ,wimpfeling1 #aab1 #abe4    
,wirt1 ,w4 ,a41 #dcb4      ,witmer1 ,l41
 #dbg4      ,woman's education1 ,hindu1 
#g2      ,sparta1 #ad2      ,athens1    
#ae2      ,aristotle1 #be2      ,rome1  
#cd2      ,convent1 #ef2      ,luther1  
#abg2      realists1 #aef2              
academies1 #afj2      ,comenius1 #aga2  
charity schools1 #bgh2      ,pestalozzi1
 #bgh2      ,fellenberg1 #big2          
,mann1 #cji2      ,france1 #che4        
,woodbridge1 ,w4 ,c41 #cje4             
,woodhouse1 ,john1 #aeh4                
,wrtemberg1 #ade4      ,wyss1 #bee4     
,yocum1 ,a4 ,d41 #dcf4      ,york1 #ef1 
#fa4      ,youmans1 ,e4 ,l41 #djc1 #dje4
      ,yverdon1 #bhc4        ,zedlitz1  
von1 #cgd4      ,ziller1 #bhi1 #bie1    
#cda f41 #cde f41 #cdg4                 
,zoroastrianism1 #bi4      ,zwingli1    

#abi4        ,printed in the ,united    
,states of ,america      ,transcriber's 
,note3    ,page #bah line #h1 ,emile    
changed to read ,emile for consistency4 
,obvious printer errors corrected       
silently4    ,inconsistent spelling and 
hyphenation are as in the original4