,,the                                   
,,principles ,,of ,,ornament            
,illustration3 ,patera in silver from   
the ,hildesheim treasure4               
,frontispiece4                          
,illustration                           
,,the                                   
,,principles ,,of ,,ornament            
,,by                                    
,,james ,,ward                          
,,head-,,master ,,of ,,the              
,,macclesfield ,,school ,,of ,,art      
,,edited ,,by                           
,,george ,,aitchison1 ,a4,r4,a4         
,,professor ,,of ,,architecture ,,at    
,,the ,,royal ,,academy ,,of ,,arts     
,,new ,,and ,,enlarged ,,edition        
,,new ,,york                            
,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons          
#aec-aeg ,,fifth ,,avenue               
#ahif                         ,,richard 
,,clay  ,,sons1 ,,limited1              
,,london  ,,bungay4          ,,editor',s
 ,,preface      ,as ,examiner on the    
,principles of ,ornament at the ,science

 and ,art  ,department1 ,i found there  
was no good ,english text-book on the   
subject1  so the necessary information  
could only be picked up by extensive    
reading and independent observation1 and
 these are not to be expected  from     
young students4 ,certain parts of the   
subject have been admirably  treated by 
,moody in his ,lectures and ,lessons on 
,art1--in fact ,i know  of no book where
 the subjects treated show such keen    
observation and  profound knowledge1 but
 they are embedded in lectures on other 
subjects1  and the book has no index4   
,having written the original ,syllabus  
on the  ,principles of ,ornament1 ,i was
 disposed to write a text-book1 had not 
other avocations prevented me4 ,last    
year ,mr4 ,ward's book on ,the          
,elementary ,principles of ,ornament was
 sent me1 and though it was a  useful   
book and had a glossary1 it contained   
some doubtful passages1 and  being      
printed from a course of lectures it was
 a little too discursive4  ,in writing  

the new ,syllabus this year ,i could not
 recommend it for a  text-book as it    
stood1 but as ,i thought it would be    
unfair to ,mr4 ,ward  for me to write a 
text-book after the trouble he had      
taken1 ,i consented  to edit a new      
edition4 ,i may here say that ,i have   
left ,mr4 ,ward's  musical comparisons  
as ,i found them1 and have not revised  
his views on  ,ogham1 and ,runic1 nor   
those on the symbolic ornament of the   
,egyptians1  ,assyrians1 ,siamese1      
,burmese1 ,japanese1 ,hebrews1          
,buddhists1 and ,brahmins4              
,,george ,,aitchison4                   
,,editor',s ,,preface    ,,to ,,the     
,,second ,,edition      ,i have         
carefully revised the book without      
altering its substance4 ,i have  also   
added an ,appendix containing a few     
remarks on the ,orders of               
,architecture1 with illustrations of    
some of the best classical examples2    
believing that this would be useful1 not
 only to carvers and modellers  who have

 to execute enrichments on              
,architecture1 but to all students4     
,the ornamented parts of the ,greek and 
,roman ,orders1 figure sculpture  apart1
 show how two cognate nations1 each with
 transcendent abilities  but of an      
entirely different range1 abstracted the
 beauties of plants1  and conferred them
 on stone and marble to emphasize and   
adorn the rigid  forms of ,architecture2
 how the ,greeks seized on the exquisite
 beauties  of flowers1 and adapted them1
 so as to retain the greatest purity of 
form1 and used them in the most sparing 
way2 while the ,romans1 or ,greeks      
working under ,roman dictation1 used    
them lavishly to procure  magnificence2 
and eventually were so prodigal with    
their ornament as to  defeat the end in 
view1 as little of the architecture was 
left plain2 to  act as a foil to the    
enrichment2 while from the quantity     
employed no  time could be spared to    
perfect the ornament4    ,the power of  
abstracting and applying the beauties of

 floral form seems  now to be entirely  
lost4 ,the great art of the present day 
seems to  consist in copying nature as  
exactly as it can be copied in hard     
materials to make a colourable          
imitation2 but in such a way that its   
highest beauties are lost4    ,mr4 ,ward
 has added several illustrations which  
his experience shows him  will be useful
 to students1 and he has added an       
,appendix on the  construction of some  
geometrical figures1 and the methods of 
drawing  conic sections and spirals4    
,,george ,,aitchison4                   
,,author',s ,,preface      ,in the      
preface to the first edition of this    
book1 ,i stated that the  contents      
consisted of a series of class lectures 
given to art students4  ,these lectures 
were not originally intended for        
publication4 ,i was1  however1 strongly 
advised to publish them1 and did so     
without any  attempt at revision1 under 
the title of ,elementary ,principles of 
,ornament4 ,although there are many     

excellent text-books on ornament        
published at the present time1 there are
 none that exclusively treat of  the    
theory1 or what is known as the         
8principles of ornament02 this  belief  
is shared with me by many of the        
principal art masters in the  country1  
and by many gentlemen whose names stand 
high in the list of  decorative artists1
 judging from the numerous letters and  
opinions ,i  received after the         
publication of the first edition4    ,i 
was gratified to find that the book     
received a favourable recognition  from 
the authorities of the ,science and ,art
 ,department4    ,the present edition   
has been edited and revised by          
,professor ,aitchison1  ,a4,r4,a41 the  
,government ,examiner in the subject and
 ,professor of  ,architecture at the    
,royal ,academy4 ,to that gentleman ,i  
here desire to  record my grateful      
thanks for his invaluable services in   
connection with  the book1 and1 ,i am   
sure ,i shall be right if ,i add1 the   

thanks of all  students in ornamental   
art4 ,professor ,aitchison has also     
written the new  introductory chapter4  
,i wish here also to express my best    
thanks to ,john ,vinycomb1 ,esq41       
,f4,r4,s4,a4,i41 for his valuable       
suggestions to me in the chapter on     
symbolic ornament4    ,the illustrations
 must only be accepted as blackboard    
diagrams1 they are  merely intended as  
aids in explanation of the text2 more   
illustrations  have been added to this  
edition1 a few that appeared in the     
former  edition have been left out4     
,j4 ,,ward4          ,,contents         
,,page    ,,introductory ,,chapter4 ,,by
 ,,the ,,editor                         
#a      ,,chapter ,i    ,definition of  
,ornament--,methods of                  
,expression--,outlined1  ,flat1         
,coloured1 ,relieved1 and ,shaded       
,ornament--,definition  of ,arabesques  
#ai      ,,chapter ,,ii    ,elementary  
forms used in ,ornament--,straight and  
,curved line ,ornament--,the ,greek     

,honeysuckle1  c4                       
#bf      ,,chapter ,,iii    ,the ,laws  
of ,composition in ,ornament enumerated 
and  explained                          
#dj      ,,chapter ,,iv    ,the ,shapes 
and ,decoration of ,mouldings--,fluted  
and  ,reeded ,ornament--,treatment of   
,floors1 ,walls1 and  ,ceilings--,relief
 ,work on ,ceilings                     
#ej      ,,chapter ,v    ,outline and   
,division of ,surfaces--,proportion of  
,rectangular  ,surfaces--,spacing and   
,decoration of ,circular  and ,curved   
,objects--,decoration of ,various       
,shapes1 of ,planes and of ,large ,flat 
,surfaces--,abuses  of ,purely ,natural 
,forms applied to ,articles  of         
,use--,application of ,ornament and     
,materials in  ,wall ,decoration        
#fh      ,,chapter ,,vi    ,the ,six    
,classes or ,great ,divisions of        
,ornament                        #hj    
,,chapter ,,vii    ,the ,application of 
,plants in ,ornament--,plants ,used  in 
,historic ,ornament--,the               

,acanthus--,its ,use by  the ,ancients  
in ,capitals1 ,candelabra1 and on ,flat 
,surfaces--,modern ,use and ,treatment  
of the ,acanthus                   #ajh 
,,chapter ,,viii    ,the ,symbolic and  
,mnemonic ,classes of ,ornament         
#acj      ,,chapter ,,ix    ,raphael's  
,arabesques--,christian                 
,symbolism--,comparison  of ,symbolic   
and sthetic ,ornament                   
#ach    ,,appendix ,,on ,,the ,,orders  
,,of ,,architecture                     
#ade    ,a ,,chapter ,,on ,,the         
,,construction ,,of ,,figures ,,and     
,,curves ,,in ,,practical ,,plane       
,,geometry                              
#agf    ,,glossary                      
#aii          ,,index ,,of              
,,illustrations                         
,,figs4    ,acanthus leaf 7,greek71 from
 a capital of the ,tower of  the ,winds 
#aea    ,acanthus leaf 7,greek71 with   
flowers from a capital of  the ,choragic
 ,monument of ,lysikrates               
#aeb    ,acanthus 7,mollis71 from nature

                                        
#adi    ,acanthus 7,spinosus71 from     
nature                                  
#aej    ,acanthus1 soft-leaved1 from the
 soffit of the architrave  at the       
,temple of ,jupiter ,stator             
#aee    ,acanthus used on candelabra and
 small pillars                   #aef1  
#aeh    ,acanthus1 modern varieties of  
sea-weed and poppy-leaved  ,acanthus    
#aei    ,acanthus1 olive-leaf variety1  
from a ,roman capital                   
#aec    ,acanthus1 olive-leaf variety1  
from a capital of ,mars  ,ultor         
#aed1 #ahg    ,arrangement of a         
wall-paper pattern                      
#hd    ,arrangements for wall-paper or  
room decoration1  improper              
#hj-hc    ,astragal or bead moulding1   
with its ornament                       
#gg      ,bead and reel                 
#gh    ,book-cover 7,german71 sixteenth 
century                                 
#abd    ,border1 upright lily1          
,greco-,roman                           

#abj    ,borders1 ,greek                
#aac-aag    ,borders of ,medallions in  
enamelled earthenware by  ,luca ,della  
,robbia                                 
#add    ,borders1 ,persian              
#aah1 #aai    ,borders derived from the 
laurel                                  
#adj1 #ada    ,bracts used for          
8clothing0 stems in ,scrolls1 c4        
#acg1 #aeg    ,capital1 ,greek ,doric   
#age    ,capital1 ,greek ,ionic         
#agf-agi    ,capital1 ,greek ,corinthian
                                        
#ahj1 #aha    ,capital1 ,roman ,tuscan  
#ahb    ,capital1 ,roman ,doric         
#ahc    ,capital1 ,roman ,ionic         
#ahd    ,capital1 ,roman ,corinthian    
#ahe1 #ahg    ,capital1 ,roman          
,composite                              
#ahh1 #ahi    ,capitals 7,byzantine71   
from ,sta4 ,sophia at ,constantinople1  
showing bossing out of ornament         
,a and ,b    ,catenary1 explained at    
page                                    
#ca    ,cavetto and its ornament        

#ef1 #fh    ,ceiling from ,serlio's     
architecture                            
#hi    ,ceiling1 portion from the       
vestibule of ,st4 ,spirito  7,florence71
 by ,sansovino                          
#hh    ,ceilings1 fillings of           
#he-hg    ,ceilings1 panelling of1      
showing at ,a an improper and  at ,b a  
proper arrangement                      
#ib    ,checkers1 carved                
#ih1 #ii    ,cinque-,cento floral       
ornament composed of the acanthus1      
oak-leaf1 convolvulus and wild rose     
#acj    ,circle1 ornament derived from  
#bd-dj    ,contrasting decoration on    
rectangular and circular  borders       
#ie    ,counter-change                  
#aga    ,counter-change pattern1        
,saracenic                              
#agb    ,cyma recta and its ornament    
#eh1 #fd1 #fi    ,cyma reversa and its  
ornaments4 ,see ,ogee4      ,diaper1    
,saracen                                
#aja    ,diaper1 ,italian1 sixteenth    
century                         #ajf1   

#ajg1 #aaj    ,diaper1 ,persian         
influence1 sixteenth century            
#ajj    ,diaper1 ,italian1 ,german      
origin1 sixteenth century               
#ajg    ,door case at the ,erechtheum1  
showing a portion of  the ,architrave1  
with the pater on the fascia            
#if    ,door panels illustrating        
improper division at ,a1  proper        
division at ,b                          
#ic      ,entablature of the ,erechtheum
                                        
,c    ,entablature of the ,caryatid     
portico attached to the  ,erechtheum    
,d    ,entablature of the ,parthenon    
#age    ,entablature of the ,greek      
,ionic ,temple on the ,ilissus          
#agf    ,entablature of the monument of 
,lysikrates                             
#ahj    ,entablature of the ,theatre of 
,marcellus                              
#ahc    ,entablature of the ,temple of  
,fortuna ,virilis                       
#ahd    ,entablature of the ,pantheon1  
,rome                                   

#ahe    ,entablature of ,jupiter ,tonans
                                        
#ahf    ,entablature of the ,arch of    
,titus                                  
#ahi      ,festoon1 or swag             
#bg    ,finger-plates of different      
outlines                                
#id    ,fluted ornaments for flat bands 
#ge1 #gf    ,frets1 ,greek              
#ab-ae    ,frets1 ,egyptian             
#af      ,inscription from an ,egyptian 
tablet                                  
#afb    ,inscription 7,japanese71 8,jiu0
 or long life                           
#afc    ,interchange                    
#agc1 #agd      ,japanese decoration    
#a    ,japanese decoration1 altered     
#b      ,kiku-,mon1 badge of the ,empire
 of ,japan                              
#afi      ,lamp bottoms                 
#acd1 #ace    ,laurel from nature       
#aci    ,lemon from nature              
#ade    ,lily border1 ,greco-,roman     
#abj      ,meander                      
#dd-dg    ,monograms in ,christian art  

#agj    ,mouldings1 profiles of ,greek  
#fa-ff    ,mouldings1 profiles of ,roman
                                        
#ee-fj      ,network1 ,japanese         
#ajb      ,ogee1 ,roman                 
#eg1 #ga    ,ogee1 ,greek               
#fc1 #gj    ,ogee with water-leaf       
ornament from the ,erechtheum           
#gj1 #gc    ,ogee1 ,roman variety1 with 
its ornaments                           
#ga    ,opus ,alexandrinum1 from a      
pavement in the ,church  of ,san ,marco1
 ,rome                                  
#gi    ,ovolo1 from the ,erechtheum1    
enriched                                
#fg      ,panel ornament1 ,renaissance  
#abh    ,panel 7,venetian71 illustrating
 balance without symmetry               
#abf    ,panel1 ,cinque-,cento          
#abg    ,panel with trophy of arms and  
armour                                  
#acc    ,panel1 design for a carved wood
 panel from the  lemon plant            
#adf    ,panel arrangement from the     
tiger-lily                              

#adh    ,paperhanging1 design from the  
wild rose                               
#adc    ,patera                         
,frontispiece    ,pear-tree1 winter     
aspect1 illustrating 8balance0 in       
nature                                  
#afj    ,pilaster1 designed by          
,donatello                              
#aba    ,pilaster panel1 ,cinque-,cento 
#abb    ,pilaster decoration1 ,italian  
#abc    ,placque1 in silver repouss     
work1 ,german seventeenth  century      
#abe    ,powdering1 ,japanese           
#ajc1 #aje      ,reduction of similar   
ornament in different spaces            
,e    ,reeded ornaments for flat bands1 
c4                            #gf;,a1   
#gf;,b    ,root forms1 ,medival and     
,oriental                               
#ach    ,rosettes 7,roman71 composed of 
leaf and floral forms                   
#acf      ,scarab1 ,egyptian symbolic   
form                                    
#afa    ,scroll ornament on the roof of 
the ,monument of  ,lysikrates           

#ec    ,shield 7,savage7 made of cane   
and ornamented with  cut shells and     
zig-zags                                
#ig    ,spandrel 7,gothic71 from ,stone 
,church1 ,kent                          
#aca    ,spandrel1 by ,alfred ,stevens  
#acb    ,spiral                         
#bd    ,spiral curves1 examples of      
ornament chiefly based on  spiral curves
                                        
#da1 #dc1 #de1 #dg-ea    ,spotting      
#hd1 #ajc1 #aje    ,straight-lined      
ornament                                
#c-bc    ,superimposed ,japanese        
powdering                               
#ajd    ,symbolic ornament1 the         
,egyptian lotus and water               
#afe      ,tail-pieces1 or 8lamp        
bottoms0                                
#acd1 #ace    ,tchakra1 sacred wheel of 
,brahma and ,vishnu1 also  the 8wheel of
 fire0                                  
#afh    ,thyrsus1 staff of the god      
,bacchus                                
#afg    ,tiger-lily from nature         

#adg    ,tree of life from an ,assyrian 
bas-relief with worshippers             
#aff    ,tripod stand on the top of the 
roof of the ,monument  of ,lysikrates   
#ed      ,vase1 from the ,hildesheim    
treasures                               
#abi    ,vases 7,modern and ,greek71    
showing unequal divisions  of the height
 and strengthening horizontal  bands    
#ij1 #ia      ,wild rose from nature    
#adb    ,wine-crater4 ,see ,vase4       
,winged globe and asps1 ,egyptian       
symbolic ornament                       
#afd          ,,introductory ,,chapter  
,it may not be amiss to point out the   
advantages of studying ornamental  art  
even to those who do not mean to be     
artists4 ,the course to be  adopted1    
after acquiring the necessary geometry1 
is to draw or model  plants and to learn
 their anatomy4 ,this will make the     
student accurately  acquainted with the 
forms of plants and of their parts1 and 
as he  progresses he will find out      
beauties which have escaped him in a    

cursory  view2 the further he proceeds1 
the more his admiration will be excited 
by those subtle beauties he finds so    
hard to render and so easy to miss4     
,the student will then notice1 how many 
illustrations of plants are near  enough
 to the originals to be unmistakable1   
but that the grace of the  plants has   
evaporated4 ,as soon as he is           
sufficiently advanced to study  with    
advantage the best examples of          
ornamental art1 he will find out the    
difficulties the great ornamentalists   
have overcome in applying the  beauties 
of nature to works of art2 and will then
 take a deeper interest  in these       
masterpieces1 and receive a             
corresponding delight4 ,he will  learn  
from these studies to reverence the     
artists and to admire the  nation that  
produced them2 for 8art is the mirror of
 a nation's  civilization40    ,i have  
spoken only of floral ornament1 though  
the highest ornament is  the human      
figure1 and after that animal forms4    

,the severity1 however1 of  the         
requisite studies to become a figure    
draughtsman1 which demand a  knowledge  
of the skeleton and of the muscles1     
unfortunately deters  amateurs1 and not 
unfrequently ornamentalists1 from       
learning to draw the  figure1 so that   
their works fall short of the excellence
 of the ,greeks  and ,italians1 who were
 above all things figure draughtsmen4   
,amateurs too  will greatly aid the art1
 for as a rule excellence is only       
attained when  there are many educated  
lovers of it1 who can appreciate a      
beautiful  creation1 and reward the     
artist by their judicious admiration4   
,for twenty years ,i have pointed out   
that ,nature offers her beauties        
gratuitously to mankind for its solace  
and delight2 perhaps1 however1  the     
following words of ,emile de ,laveleye1 
in his book on ,luxury1 will  have more 
weight3--    8,might not the man of the 
people1 on whom the curse of matter     
weighs  with so heavy a load1 find the  

best kind of alleviation for his hard   
condition1 if his eyes were open to what
 ,leonardo da ,vinci calls la  bellezza 
del mondo--#8the beautiful things of the
 earth'8444 ,pindar  says1 #8,in the day
 when the ,rhodians shall erect an altar
 to ,minerva1 a  rain of gold will fall 
upon the isle4' ,the golden rain which  
falls on  any people when literature and
 the fine arts are encouraged 444 is a  
shower of pure and disinterested        
delights40    ,i am tempted to say      
something on the prospects of ornamental
 art4  ,nothing in this world can be had
 without paying for it1 but though we   
must all live1 those who have devoted   
their lives to the creation of  the     
beautiful1 look more to the delight they
 give and the admiration  they excite1  
than to mere pecuniary rewards4 ,no art 
will ever flourish  unless there are    
educated and enthusiastic admirers of   
its masterpieces4  ,the artist will     
never devote his talents to an art1 and 
undergo the  ceaseless toil requisite to

 create beauty1 unless he be rewarded by
 the  praise of real judges4 ,i fear we 
cannot as yet make the ,greek boast     
8that we love the beautiful02 but until 
we do love it1 we can hardly  expect to 
rival those who did4    ,the whole      
ornamental art of the world is now      
before us1 and it is not to  be believed
 that artists would not elaborate       
something new and beautiful  from all   
the knowledge they have gained1 if there
 were a passionate  desire for it among 
the people4 ,this can never be so long  
as the public  is content with          
paraphrases of deceased art1 or merely  
asks for a jumble  of discordant scraps4
 ,novelty we must needs have1 for this  
generation  does not inherit the precise
 tastes of former days1 not even those  
of  its immediate predecessor1 and it is
 this generation that wants to be       
charmed3 it is true that it gets        
novelty1 but it should want beautiful   
novelty1 and not that which is          
commonplace or ugly4 ,novelty in art is 

not an absolute difference from what has
 gone before1 for that is sure  to be   
bad1 but only that difference and that  
improvement which one  instructed       
generation can give to the past         
excellence it builds on4 ,it  is        
therefore necessary for the student who 
is born an artist1 and hopes  to create 
new loveliness1 to be steeped in the    
beauties of nature and of  art4 ,to     
attain this a profound study of nature  
and the masterpieces of  former art are 
wanted1 for1 as ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds  
said1 8,invention is  one of the        
greatest marks of genius1 444 and it is 
by being conversant  with the inventions
 of others that we learn to invent02    
while to express  our knowledge and     
invention admirable draughtsmanship is  
requisite4    ,we have a novel phase of 
ornament1 which consists in twisting or 
arranging certain plants into the shape 
required1 to make them fit their        
places4 ,much of this work is flabby or 
wire-drawn1 and often omits the  highest

 beauty of the plants it uses1 but even 
when the beauty of the  plant is not    
left out1 the ornament is infinitely    
below the highest  flights of former    
art1 in which the artist had absorbed   
the graces of  floral growth and had    
properly applied them4 ,the highest     
ornament1 by  its abstraction1 is       
closely allied to architectural art1    
while all its  higher achievements are  
in conjunction with architecture2       
consequently  there should be a harmony 
between the decoration and the          
framework4  ,natural foliage arranged on
 a geometrical basis makes a poor       
contrast to  noble architecture4    ,all
 ornamental arts1 that are not realistic
 imitations1 must be founded  on        
precedent art4 ,we have only one        
complete system of decorative art  that 
took an entirely new direction besides  
,gothic1 and that harmonizes  with its  
architecture--the ,saracenic--and that  
art is not congenial to  our taste1     
feelings1 or desires4 ,gothic ornamental

 art is mostly too  barbaric or too     
realistic to suit us1 except when it is 
borrowed from  ,roman1 ,byzantine1 or   
,saracenic sources2 in fact1 we have    
nothing but  ,roman1 ,byzantine1 and    
,renaissance art to fall back on for    
ornament2 of  ,greek ornamental art we  
have some carved stone-work1 moulded    
metal-work1  painting on vases1 incised 
work1 and the traces of painting4       
,little of  secular ,byzantine art      
remains1 though it is not probable that 
it  materially differed from the        
ecclesiastical art of its period2 it was
  ,roman art modified by the new        
religion and by ,greek and ,oriental    
taste1  in which saints and martyrs1    
with their attributes or symbols1 took  
the  place of the antique gods and      
goddesses2 while the ,renaissance was an
  attempted revival of ,roman4    ,we   
cannot expect to equal at once the      
masterpieces of ,greek1 ,roman1 or      
,renaissance art2 we have neither the   
centuries of experience nor the         

cultivated public4 ,every artist1       
however1 can1 by the means before       
mentioned1 be sure of having conquered  
the preliminaries of his art1 and  he   
can be sincere2 he can give us those    
beauties from nature that have          
captivated him1 and have been transfused
 into ornament by the alembic of  his   
mind2 such ornament will be sure to find
 some congenial spirits to  admire it3  
and ,i think ,i may say that a public   
sufficiently cultivated  to appreciate  
real art is gradually being formed4 ,the
 highest art is  undoubtedly that which 
is the simplest and most perfect1 which 
gives the  experience and skill of a    
lifetime by a few lines or touches2 and 
this  art is more calculated to         
captivate the best taste of the day than
 the  complex or the intricate4         
,however1 there will even now be ample  
recognition of the creations of any     
skilled artist who is sincere1 let  his 
genius take him where it will4 ,there   
is1 too1 this consolation for  every    

true artist whose works remain3 that if 
there are few judges of  his work now1  
there may be more hereafter--judges who 
when they look at  his work will say1   
this is the work of a true artist2 and  
he may confer  delight on unborn        
thousands1 and direct attention1 in     
after ages1 to  those beauties of nature
 that have been overlooked4    ,i will  
now revert to the book1 and confine     
myself to such remarks as ,i  hope may  
be useful to those who study it4 ,the   
student1 when he has  learnt and        
comprehended the laws1 should observe   
growing plants1 and  notice that every  
plant illustrates some1 and mostly many1
 of the laws2  and when he has clearly  
distinguished them1 he should examine   
the best  ornament of antiquity and the 
,renaissance1 and satisfy himself that  
the  laws1 involved in the particular   
example he is studying1 have been       
followed4 ,when he has done this1 he    
should note any divergence from the     
laws and endeavour to understand the    

reason for it4 ,to ensure the effect    
they intend1 great artists sometimes    
ignore the ordinary laws4    ,it is well
 that he should consider that the main  
object of every plant  is to live and   
propagate itself3 to live it wants air1 
moisture1 and  nourishment1 and mostly  
sunshine1 and it must strive to get     
these  necessaries amidst a crowd of    
competitors4 ,in this struggle the plant
 is  often dwarfed or distorted1 and    
still more frequently some of its parts 
are deformed2 its flowers must attract  
insects by their colour or scent1  and  
must allure the insects by the honey    
they distil to fertilize them2  so that 
beauty1 except in the colour of the     
flowers1 is for the plant a  secondary  
consideration4    ,in ornament1 on the  
contrary1 beauty is the only            
consideration1 except  perhaps in       
mnemonic and symbolic ornament2 and     
these must have beauty1  or they cease  
to be ornament4    ,ornament has also to
 be portrayed on some material1 or      

carved in it2 it  should conform to the 
shape of the object1 be governed by the 
quality of  the material1 and by the use
 to which the object is to be put--e4g4 
a  leaf may be carved in certain woods1 
almost of the thinness of the real      
leaf1 but then it must be preserved in a
 glass case4 ,this thinness is  not to  
be got if the leaf be carved in stone2  
the artist must therefore  see what     
beauties he can abstract from the plant 
he has chosen or from  floral growth    
generally1 so that it can be carved4 ,he
 should in all  cases know that his     
design can be expressed in the material 
to be used1  that it will ornament the  
object1 will not be easily destroyed1   
and will  not interfere with the use of 
the object4 ,if he succeeds in doing    
this1  his skill1 taste1 and judgment   
will be admired4 ,this necessary        
abstraction we unfortunately call       
convention1 and when it makes good      
ornament1 and shows the characteristic  
beauty and vigour of plant form1  it is 

of the highest sort2 this is found in   
the best ,greek1 ,roman1 and            
,renaissance ornament1 while when a     
coarse and clumsy imitation of nature   
is made1 with all the beauty left out1  
it is the lowest sort of  convention4   
,any cheap speculative houses that have 
carving upon them1 will afford  ample   
illustrations of contemporary convention
 in its worst form4    ,gothic ornament 
was quite new2 for no sooner did the    
architects1  carvers1 masons1           
carpenters1 and others find that they   
had surpassed  the old world in         
constructive skill1 than they looked    
down on all the  old world arts1 and    
would not be beholden to them4 ,they    
were determined  to begin afresh2 they  
had human beings1 animals1 trees1       
plants1 and  flowers1 as well as the    
,romans and ,byzantines2 why should they
 not make  as good statues and ornament8
 ,there is much to be said in favour of 
this  contention1 for every one must    
desire to see his house1 his town-hall1 

and his church ornamented with the      
flowers and plants that he knows and    
loves1 instead of with the              
conventionalized plants of other        
countries  that he does not know1 or    
that he has gazed on to satiety4 ,but it
 is one  thing to have a longing1 and   
another to be able to bring plants1     
leaves1  and flowers into the domain of 
high art4 ,the early ,gothic sculptors  
did  give a certain crispness1 and in   
some cases even a monumental air to     
their carved flora1 and sometimes they  
got that mysterious look of  infinite   
complexity that is found in nature1 and 
they had invention to a  marvellous     
degree4 ,from the sculptors working on  
the spot1 and being  able to see each   
figure and piece of ornament in its     
place1 they never  missed their effect4 
,all their ornament answered its main   
end1 of giving  a broken mass of light  
and shade to contrast with plain        
surfaces1  mouldings1 or shafts1 while  
much of it was vigorous2 but some of the

  early ,gothic foliage has no grace1 is
 often destitute of floral  character1  
and might be mistaken for hanks of      
string on pieces of  firewood1 or       
worm-eaten wigs4 ,the first touch of the
 ,renaissance brought  a sweetness of   
proportion to architecture and a grace  
to floral ornament  that is most        
striking4    ,good traditional ornament 
has these inestimable advantages1 that  
it has  been treated for ages by skilful
 men1 so that its faults have been      
corrected1 new graces have been added to
 it1 and it has been fitted to  properly
 fill the requisite shapes4 ,from the   
first1 the artist must have  noticed    
some special beauties and fitness in the
 plant he chose1 and the  ornament must 
have had some striking qualities to make
 it popular2 for  why else should it    
have been preferred and persisted in1   
when so many  other plants had great    
beauty8 ,there is1 however1 some        
ornament that1  after it has once been  
perfected1 seems incapable of further   

improvement4 ,the egg and tongue may be 
cited as an instance4 ,it has  never    
been improved since the perfecting of   
,greek architecture1 nor has  any good  
substitute for it been found4 ,a coarse 
caricature of it is  still the most     
popular ornament of the ovolo4 ,the     
,romans converted it  into a floral form
 at the ,temple of ,jupiter ,tonans1    
with marked want of  success4    ,the   
,greek honeysuckle and the acanthus are 
the most striking examples of  good     
traditional ornament4 ,to take the      
acanthus first1 it was started by  the  
,greeks1 continued by the ,romans1 and  
used by the ,byzantines with a          
different character1 then adopted by the
 ,renaissance artists1 and has  been    
treated in an entirely novel way by     
,alfred ,stevens in our own day4        
,stevens has given a peculiarly plastic 
character to its leafage in the         
,wellington monument4 ,that form of it  
which is used in the ,corinthian        
capital has had such an infinity of     

pains bestowed on it1 that  improvement 
on the old lines is scarcely to be      
expected1 though new  floral capitals   
may be invented4 ,every portion of the  
leaf1 down to its  rafflings1 has been  
perfected to the end the ,romans        
destined it to  fulfil1 though1 as in   
all human inventions1 something was     
sacrificed to  attain it4 ,the ,greek   
capital was rather deficient in outline1
 but it was  possessed of the most      
exquisite floral grace1 and this was    
sacrificed by  the ,romans to attain    
distinctness1 strength1 and dignity2    
these  qualities being particularly     
necessary when it was used in colossal  
monuments4 ,even when it was on a       
smaller scale1 we can see the           
advantages of the change4 ,in some      
,byzantine buildings1 old ,greek and    
,roman ,corinthian columns have been    
used together4 ,as an isolated  ornament
 the ,greek capital is greatly to be    
preferred1 but when the two  are seen in
 conjunction as parts of the building1  

the ,roman capital is  clear1 distinct1 
and dignified1 while the ,greek one is a
 confused mass4    ,in their colossal   
capitals1 the ,romans mostly substituted
 the olive-leaf  for the natural raffle1
 and used but four or five in each      
leaflet2  though the oak-leaf1 the      
parsley1 and the endive were            
occasionally used4  ,each raffle of the 
olive-leafed variety is hollowed by a   
curve without  ribs1 the only lines     
being those made by the edges of the    
hollows1 and  each leaflet is hollowed  
out like a cockle-shell as well4 ,in the
 best  examples1 the upper edges of each
 leaflet are mostly clear of the one    
above or overlap it2 in the first case  
they are thrown up by the shadow        
behind1 in the latter the edges of the  
raffles are bright against the  half    
light of the leaflets above1 and are    
also thrown up by the shade in  their   
points4 ,the top of the complete leaf   
curls over1 and thus throws  its shadow 
on the part below1 so there is the      

contrast between masses of  light1      
graduated shade1 and graduated shadow4  
,the back of the leaf was  used to get a
 wide stem1 and this stem tapers        
upwards1 while the pipes1  that come    
from the eyes between the leaflets1     
taper downwards1 are  nearly parallel   
with the stem1 and are deeply undercut1 
thus making the  whole leaf distinct and
 vigorous 7,fig4 #aaj74 ,if examples are
 compared1  the superiority of the      
parallel pipes over those that run into 
the stem  is at once seen4 ,the lower   
leaves are cut through horizontally in  
the  middle1 and come straight down on  
to the necking1 which gives much more   
vigour to the capital1 than when the    
bell turns inwards above the  necking4  
,the student will do well to carefully  
draw a good example1 then model  it1 and
 then carve it1 for it has been the type
 from which most good  floral capitals  
have been derived4 ,the acanthus and    
other floral  ornament used by the      
,italian ,renaissance artists deserve   

quite as much  attention as the ,roman2 
for though their ornament was not on the
 same  colossal scale1 it was done by   
excellent figure sculptors who had      
studied ornament1 and were of finer     
artistic fibre than the ,romans1        
besides having the best ,roman examples 
for their models4 ,the ,italian  artists
 were1 too1 nearly as fond of the human 
figure as the ,greeks1 and  introduced  
it wherever they could do so            
appropriately4    ,there is perhaps but 
one other ornament that is worthy of the
  profoundest study1 the radiating      
ornament of the ,greeks1 known as the   
,greek honeysuckle4 ,this ornament is   
full of subtle devices1 in the  elegant 
graduation of its forms1 in the         
proportioning of the masses1 in  its    
even distribution1 and in the making of 
the different curves enhance  the value 
of one another4 ,there is often1 too1 a 
suggestion of  horizontality or         
verticality introduced1 that gives the  
highest value to  the composition2 all  

showing the intimate acquaintance with  
nature that  the ,greek artists         
possessed4 ,many of the ,greek running  
patterns are both  original and         
effective1 and in some of them          
tangential junction is  distinctly      
avoided1 to attract attention to the    
ornament4 ,the ,greeks1  too1 were      
pre-eminent in knowing the use of       
restraint and the value of  plainness4  
,when the sculptor had carved his       
ornament on an architectural  monument  
he seemed to say1 8,better this if you  
can60    ,the ,byzantines understood the
 value of gradation1 and when they      
wholly  ornamented a profile1 they made 
some parts in bold1 some in low relief1 
and engraved or sunk other parts4 ,the  
,saracens learned this art from  them1  
and so improved on it1 that the general 
effect of their best work  resembles    
,greek art2 at the proper distance the  
subordinate ornament  looks like a mere 
difference of texture4    ,saracenic    
ornament affords the only instances of  

complete floral  decoration without the 
figures of man or animals2 and although 
it is  inclined to be monotonous1 and   
geometrical forms are too predominant1  
it  is1 when coloured and gilt1 saved   
from monotony by the magical change of  
the patterns on the beholder shifting   
his position4 ,this effect is  obtained 
by trifling differences of level in the 
planes of the ornament  and by gilding4 
,its floral forms1 however1 are usually 
coarse and poor1  and have no refined   
graces4    ,there are a few points not  
touched on in the book which it may be  
well  to mention4 ,one is a device that 
was1 ,i think1 only used by the         
,byzantines1 i4 e4 bossing out ornament 
to catch the light4 ,constantine  the   
,great1 when he had the ,church of the  
,holy ,sepulchre at ,jerusalem  built1  
had the capitals of the sanctuary       
columns made of silver1 and  doubtless  
the silversmiths in working them        
hammered out some bosses to  catch the  
light4 ,this device was seized on by the

 sculptors of ,sta4  ,sophia at         
,constantinople1 and used in the marble 
capitals of its columns  and pilasters  
7,figs4 ,a and ,b74    ,i may also draw 
attention to another ,byzantine device1 
which charmed ,mr4  ,ruskin at ,st4     
,mark's--the leaves of capitals caught  
by the wind and  blown aside4 ,capitals 
with a similar device existed in ,sta4  
,sophia at  ,salonica1 some of which    
were partly calcined by the late fire4  
,the  propriety of using such an        
incident in the conventional stone      
ornaments  of a supporting member may be
 doubted1 still we must admire the      
observation and genius of the sculptor2 
and there are many opportunities  of    
using such an incident when the ornament
 is not on a supporting  member4 ,i     
point it out to show what fresh         
resources for the  ornamentalist are to 
be found in nature1 when he has the     
industry to  observe and the talent to  
create4    ,there are cases where       
architectural features have to be       

reduced1 and at  the same time to be    
emphasized too4 ,no better example of   
this is to be  found than in the        
,caryatid temple attached to the        
,erechtheum4 ,its  entablature was below
 the main one1 and so had to be smaller1
 and yet  was wanted to be important    
,illustration3 ,,figs4 ,a and           
,b4--,byzantine ,capitals from ,sta4    
,sophia at  ,constantinople1 showing the
 bossing out of the ornament4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,c4--,entablature 
of the ,erechtheum4    ,illustration3   
,,fig4 ,d4--,entablature of the         
,caryatid portico of the  ,erechtheum4  
and weighty enough for the figures4 ,all
 the frieze but the capping was         
consequently left out1 the top fascia of
 the architrave was enriched  with      
circular discs1 and between the cappings
 of the architrave and  frieze a deep   
dentil band was introduced4 ,mainly by  
these means the due  effect was gained  
7,figs4 ,c and ,d74    ,ornament has    
sometimes to be repeated in a           

composition on a smaller  scale1 and    
this should not be done by merely       
reducing the scale so as to  have a     
diminutive reproduction1 but by keeping 
the general form of the  ornament with  
fewer details4 ,several examples may be 
found in ,m4  ,mayeux's book4#a         
,instances of the same motive being     
repeated in the  same height and in a   
narrower width are sometimes found4 ,an 
example may  be seen beneath the double 
and single windows of an hotel in the   
,rue  ,dalbard1 ,toulouse#b 7,fig4 ,e74 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,e4--,reduction of
 similar ornament in different  spaces4 
,much might be said on the subject of   
materials1 but ,i will only make a  few 
remarks4 ,in making a design1 due       
consideration should be given to  the   
material employed1 so that the natural  
ornamentation of one material  may not  
be put on another2 pottery is turned on 
the wheel1 and is  adapted for painting1
 while hollow metal vessels are         
embossed1 but it  is common enough to   

see pottery embossed1 which can1 it is  
true1 be  accomplished by casting or by 
inlaying1 yet this sort of ornamentation
  always looks inappropriate4 ,stone is 
usually of large and wood of small      
scantling1 yet in the front of a stone  
building with arched openings the       
wooden door-head is often made a        
continuation of the stone impost1       
though the mouldings of the wood-work   
should be finer and the ornament        
different4    ,although the young       
student should confine his attention to 
the best  styles1 the advanced one      
should have some acquaintance with all  
traditional ornament1 even the styles of
 ,louis ,,xiv4 and ,,xv41 a grafting  of
 ,chinese and ,japanese ornament on the 
current classic1 for they are  the only 
modern styles1 except the early         
,renaissance1 that have complete  unity4
 ,the same style runs through the whole 
building1 down to the door  furniture   
and the damask of the chairs2 the       
handling1 too1 is often  admirable1 and 

the examples are full of hints to the   
advanced student1  who is unlikely to be
 infected with the rococo style4    ,i  
have dwelt much on carving for several  
reasons2 it is the most lasting  of     
ornamental work1 and as a rule the most 
important2 it is susceptible  of the    
greatest perfection when executed in    
marble1 and all  architectural ornament 
must eventually fall into the hands of  
the  sculptor1 since he has devoted his 
life to its study4 ,i may add that the  
,french architects look upon it as the  
weak point in ,english  architecture4   
,to the young student ,i may say that he
 can never become an artist until  he   
has mastered the fundamental principles 
of his art2 and that nothing  can       
deserve the name of ornament that is not
 both appropriate and  beautiful1 and   
has been evolved from nature by the mind
 of man4 ,i would  suggest to the young 
artist that the flora of the world is   
not confined  to the lotus1 the         
honeysuckle1 and the acanthus2 that if  

accident caused  the original choice of 
these plants1 it was the infinite pains 
bestowed  on their treatment that caused
 their persistence4 ,there are1 too1    
thousands of beauties still to be culled
 from plants and flowers that  now      
remain outside the domain of art4 ,let  
the student remember that  knowledge1   
skill1 truth1 and sincerity are the main
 roads to real  success1 and that real  
success is1 to have produced some beauty
 that has  captivated or will captivate 
mankind4                                
,g4 ,,aitchison4          ,,the         
,,principles ,,of ,,ornament            
,,chapter ,i      ,ornament is the      
proper enrichment of an object or       
surface with such  forms1 or forms and  
colours1 as will give the thing         
decorated a new  beauty1 while strictly 
preserving its shape and character4 ,it 
is the  function of ornament to         
emphasize the forms of the object it    
decorates1 not to hide them4 ,decoration
 is not necessarily ornament2  for      

instance1 the lovely sprays of plants   
with birds and cognate  subjects1       
painted on ,japanese pottery1 may be    
called beautiful  decoration1 but cannot
 in our sense of the word be called     
ornament2 for  however realistic        
ornament may be1 it must show that it   
has passed  through the mind of man1 and
 been acted on by it4 ,this kind of     
decoration might be a literal transcript
 from nature1 and neither  emphasizes   
the boundaries of the decorated surface 
nor harmonizes with  them4 ,it possesses
 an exquisite beauty of its own1 for the
 drawing and  colour and the style of   
execution are good4 ,with the exception 
of frets  and diapers1 true ornament is 
rare in ,japanese art4 ,fig4 #a is a    
,japanese decoration on an oblong       
surface4 ,such a design is pretty1 but  
we can hardly call it ornament4         
,something must be done with it before  
we  can give it that name4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,japanese   
decoration4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    

#b4--;,japanese decoration altered4     
,to make an ornamental design1 the units
 of the decoration must be  arranged and
 brought into order2 repetition and     
symmetry may not be  required1 but even 
distribution1 order1 and balance are    
indispensable4 ,the whole too must not  
appear to be accidental but  designed   
for the object1 while ,no4 #a might have
 been made from a shadow  cast on a     
window4 ,the sketch at ,fig4 #b is an   
attempt to illustrate our  notion of    
ornament by using the elements in ,fig4 
#a evenly distributed1  having at the   
same time a due regard to the           
boundary-lines of the  panel4           
,applied ornament is that which is      
specially designed and fitted for the   
position it occupies4    ,independent   
ornaments are such things as shields1   
labels1 medallions1  c41 with or without
 enclosing frames2 pater1 festoons1 and 
other loose  ornamental objects1 which  
may be attached to a surface1 and may be
 used  alone1 or in combination with    

applied ornament 7,fig4 #acc74          
,numerous examples may be given of      
inappropriate ornament4 ,as a rule1  any
 kind of ornament that is not suited to 
the surface ornamented1 or is  falsely  
constructed1 may be called              
inappropriate4 ,for instance1 if        
upright panels and pilasters were       
decorated with ornament running in      
oblique lines1 or with a strongly-marked
 series of horizontal bands2 or  if a   
carpet pattern were designed to run in  
one particular direction2  or1 from an  
architectural point of view1 if columns 
supporting nothing  were used in        
decoration2 if consoles or brackets were
 turned upside  down2 or if curved      
mouldings were decorated with frets2 or 
panels were  overloaded with mouldings2 
if forms1 organic or otherwise1 were    
used  together1 but out of scale with   
one another2 or things were made to     
simulate what they are not2 or there    
were a great excess of enrichment2  each
 of these examples might be considered  

as inappropriate ornament4      ,methods
 of ,expression4--,ornament is expressed
 in three different ways3  ,firstly1 by 
pure outline1 as traced with a point2   
secondly1 where  breadth is added1 by   
flat tints as in painting with the      
brush1 or by  shading1 hatching1        
spotting1 or stippling2 thirdly1 by     
relief1 or  sinking1 as in modelling and
 sculpture4 ,these three divisions may  
be  subdivided1 but all the subdivisions
 are but varieties or combinations  of  
the first three genera4 ,relief modelled
 or pierced ornament has no  other      
outline than that given by light and    
shade2 but it may also be  coloured1 i4 
e4 in two shades--one for the ornament  
and one for the  background1 or with the
 forms and background 8picked out0 in a 
variety  of colours4 ,shaded or painted 
ornament in the flat is an imitation of 
relief work1 and will be noticed again4 
,ornament ,expressed in ,outline4--,all 
the early decorative work of  mankind1  
both the prehistoric etchings on bone   

and on pottery1 the line  decoration on 
,assyrian cylinders1 bronze dishes and  
tablets1 and the  incised work on the   
,greek1 ,etruscan1 and ,roman cistas1   
hand-mirrors1 and  vases come under this
 head2 as well as sgraffito-work when   
expressed by  outline1 cut in plaster   
showing a different-coloured plaster    
beneath4      ,ornament ,expressed by   
,flat ,tints1 in monochrome or colour1  
with no  shading and without shadow1 is 
a common method of ornamentation4 ,this 
class includes painted ornament on the  
flat1 whether polychromatic or in       
8grisaille02 inlaid wood-work1 called   
parquetry when used for floors1  and    
marquetry when used for other purposes2 
inlaid marble1 stone1 tile  and plaster 
work1 mosaic1 tesselated1 sectile and   
,alexandrine pavements2  damascened     
metal-work2 some enamels1 lac-work1 and 
painted pottery2  woven1 embroidered1   
printed1 and stencilled stuffs1         
including oil-cloth2  enamelled glass2  
and some sgraffito-work4 ,it is         

convenient to class  under this head    
certain work of slight thickness or     
relief1 such as  lace1 applied work of  
paper1 stuffs1 velvet1 c41 fine filigree
 and  wire-work4 ,inlay under the name  
of 8,tarsia0 was greatly used by the    
,italians in the decoration of          
cathedrals and churches and in fittings 
and furniture2 in cathedral stalls and  
sacristy fittings1 boxwood was  commonly
 inlaid in walnut1 but ebony and ivory  
were largely employed for  house        
furniture and fittings1 and many        
different substances were  sometimes    
employed4 ,tortoiseshell1 gold1 silver1 
ivory1 mother-of-pearl1  and different  
coloured woods are largely employed for 
the same purpose  by ,orientals and     
others4 ,a species of inlay composed of 
white and  stained ivory1 ebony1 and    
silver1 in geometrical patterns1 is much
 used  by the cabinet-makers of         
,india--our ,tunbridge ware is supposed 
to be an  imitation of it4      ,flat   
,tints enriched by ,outline were        

sometimes used in ,greek vases1 and  are
 often used in inlays and damascened    
work2 very pretty examples may  be found
 in old ,chinese lac-work1 inlaid with  
figures and landscapes in  black        
mother-of-pearl1 the features1 c4 being 
outlined4      ,relief-work4--,ordinary 
modelled and carved work1 either in     
relief or  sunk1 is too well known to   
need description2 but under this heading
 are  included pierced1 open1 and turned
 work1 and such compound work as may  be
 pierced1 or turned and carved or       
incised as well4      ,coloured         
,relief-work4--,all ,egyptian1 ,greek1  
and ,medival bas-reliefs1  and some if  
not all of their figure sculpture in the
 round1 were  coloured1 but when the    
figures were of white marble1 the colour
 was  generally confined to the flesh1  
eyes1 and hair1 and to the stripes or   
patterns on the dresses4 ,in one of the 
white marble sarcophagi from  ,sidon1   
now in the ,museum at ,constantinople1  
while figures of half  life-size are    

left wholly white1 smaller figures are  
wholly coloured and  gilt1 like the     
terra-cotta ones of ,tanagra1 and some  
of the ornament is  white on a purple   
ground4 ,all the ,italian ,renaissance  
bas-reliefs in  8gesso duro0 were wholly
 coloured4    ,in ,greek temples the    
carved ornament was coloured1 including 
the  triglyphs1 and parts of the        
ornament were often gilt1 the uncut     
mouldings too were mostly ornamented in 
colour4 ,in some enamelled  pottery in  
relief1 the figures or ornament were    
left white on a coloured  ground1 or the
 drapery of the figures and the ornament
 were coloured1 as  in some of the      
,della ,robbia ware4 ,all ,roman        
embossed plaster was  coloured and gilt4
 ,much relief-work in bronze and the    
precious metals  has been coloured by   
means of enamel1 or alloys in the metal2
 coloured  mosaic has been used to      
clothe columns1 and some mosaic and     
pietra dura  is in relief1 as well as   
lac and ivory work inlaid with fine     

stones1  mother-of-pearl1 and ivory2 all
 ,moresque and some ,saracen embossed   
plaster-work1 and probably carved       
stone-work1 was coloured and gilt2  some
 ,burmese plaster-work in relief is gilt
 and inlaid with coloured  glass1 and   
certain stuffs have had raised ornament 
upon them1 formed by  stuffing with     
wadding the applied pieces1 which       
sometimes were  embroidered4            
,shaded or ,painted ,ornament on the    
,flat in ,imitation of                  
,relief-work4--,this is probably the    
largest class1 and includes  engraving1 
shaded ornament in chiaroscuro1 and     
shaded and coloured  ornament with or   
without cast shadows2 in it are included
 the ,chinese1  ,persian1 ,medival1 and 
,renaissance translucent enamels1 which 
are laid  over sunk 7intaglio7 work1 and
 painters' enamels2 ,boule work1 which  
consists of brass1 tin1 or pewter1      
inlaid in ebony or tortoiseshell with   
the metal-work engraved2 wood inlay in  
the shape of shaded natural  flowers1   

landscapes1 architectural views1 and    
figure subjects2 shaded  ornament on    
woven or printed stuffs1 and embroidery2
 and shaded painting  on china and      
glass1 and in ,arabesques4 ,what we now 
call ,arabesques were  paraphrases of   
,roman painted decoration1 of which     
,pompeii offers us so  wide a knowledge4
 ,these decorations consisted of        
fantastic buildings1  interspersed with 
figures1 animals1 landscapes1 and       
foliage4 ,the  discovery of this kind of
 painting in the baths of ,titus#c at   
,rome led  ,raphael to adopt it and to  
improve on it4 ,the culminating point in
  ,arabesque painting was the decoration
 of the loggias of the ,vatican by      
,raphael and his pupil1 ,giovanni       
,recamatore1 commonly known as ,giovanni
  da ,udine4 ,the ,mohammedans1 from    
whom the name was derived1 mostly       
avoided the figures of men and          
animals1#d even in their secular        
buildings or furniture1 it being feared 
that the portrayal of living  creatures 

might lead them to idolatry2 so spaces  
were filled with  intricate geometrical 
patterns and coarse foliage4            
,,chapter ,,ii      ,the elementary     
forms used in ornament form the next    
division4 ,it is  assumed that the space
 is given that we are required to       
ornament2 for  example1 a ceiling1 a    
wall1 a frieze1 a panel1 or a carpet4   
,the  boundary-lines are the enclosing  
lines of our space or field1 which may  
be subdivided4 ,this subdividing is     
called the setting-out4 ,we have now  to
 think of the forms and character of the
 ornament we propose to adopt4    ,it is
 now advisable to give illustrations of 
the various elementary  forms used in   
ornament4 ,as lines1 either straight or 
curved1 are the  basis of all ornament1 
we begin with the straight line4 ,it    
would be  difficult to overrate the     
value of the straight line in ornament4 
,the  qualities of stability1 firmness1 
and repose given by upright and         
horizontal lines are well illustrated by

 the mouldings round rectilinear        
panels1 by cornices and pilasters1 and  
by reeded and fluted ornaments4  ,all   
frets are composed of straight lines4   
,the illustrations from ,fig4 #c  to    
,fig4 #bc are specimens of              
straight-lined ornaments4 ,taking the   
band or  two horizontal parallel lines  
in ,fig4 #c1 and marking off equidistant
  points on the upper and on the lower  
one1 only alternating1 and drawing      
vertical lines from these points1 we    
obtain the basis of a large class  of   
frets4 ,figs4 #d1 #f1 #g1 and #h show   
further developments of the fret4       
,figs4 #e and #ah show the elements of  
some ,saracenic or ,moresque frets1 of  
which ,figs4 #aa1 #ba1 and #bb are      
developments4 ,figs4 #f1 #h1 #ab1 #ac1  
and #ad    ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #c to 
#g4--,straight-lined ornaments4    are  
,greek frets2 #g and #bj are ,chinese4  
,fig4 #i is a ,gothic nail-head         
ornament2 #aj is of ,german origin2 #ai 
is a ,japanese key pattern2 and ,fig4   

#bc is derived from the plaiting of     
rushes1 ribbons1 straws1 or from        
herring-bone brick-work1 and is common  
to prehistoric and ,byzantine  work4    
,frets are more appropriate to flat     
surfaces than to concave or convex      
ones2 they may1 however1 be used on     
slightly concave surfaces1 such as  the 
inside bevels of plates or dishes2 then 
their vertical lines will  compose well1
 by radiating from the centre of the    
plate4 ,the square  within square1 and  
double and single frets1 shown at ,figs4
 #h and #ae1  were often                
,illustration3 ,,figs4 #h to            
#aa4--,straight-lined ornaments4    used
 in conjunction by the ,greeks1 and     
earlier by the ,egyptians1 on the       
ceilings of their tombs 7,fig4 #af71    
both singly1 and alternating with       
spirals and circular ornaments4 7,see   
,fig4 #dc47    ,the zigzag is another   
straight-lined form largely used as     
ornament2 it  was used by the ,egyptians
 and ,early ,greeks as the symbol of    

water 7,figs4  #bh1 #afe74    ,lozenges 
and diamonds are other elements of      
straight-lined ornament1  and form the  
basis of many repeating patterns in     
woven stuffs1  paper-hangings1 and      
tiles4 ,triangles1 squares1 hexagons1   
octagons1    ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ab 
to #ad4--;,greek frets4                 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,fret and  
panel border1 ,greek4    and other      
polygons are also used largely as       
constructive bases in                   
pattern-designing4    ,after the        
straight line1 the curved is the other  
element in ornament4 ,it  is            
pre-eminently the type of grace1 and the
 8line of beauty40 ,whether  seen in the
 outline of the cloud1 the wave1 or the 
rounded limb of the  human figure1 the  
eye takes a delight in    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #af4--;,egyptian ceiling fret4  
tracing out the flowing curve4 ,we have 
closed curves in such figures as  the   
circle1 ellipse1 oval1 figure of eight1 
and in the vesica piscis1 or            

fish-shape1 the latter being composed of
 two arcs of a circle of the  same      
radius1 touching each other at their    
opposite extremities4 ,the  parabola1   
hyperbola1 c41 are open curves2 such    
figures as the meander  7,fig4 #bi71 the
 spiral 7,fig4 #bd71 the scroll 7,fig4  
#be71 and the swag or  festoon 7,fig4   
#bg71 are also open curves4 ,when the   
festoon is formed of  links and hangs   
like a chain from two points1 it is     
called a catenary1  and is practically  
identical with the lines of festoons and
 the loopings  of drapery4              
,illustration3 #ag    #ah    #ai    #bj 
,,figs4 #ag ,,to #bj4--,straight-lined  
ornaments    ,in the illustrations1 we  
have at ,fig4 #cj circles touching each 
other2  this is the framework of some   
diapers and repeating forms4 ,next we   
come  to circles intersecting each      
other4 ,fig4 #ca is a pattern common    
alike  to ,saracenic1 ,egyptian1 and    
,japanese diapers4 ,fig4 #cb is a border
  ornament of the same pattern with a   

centre4    ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ba to
 #bc4--,straight-lined ornaments4    ,an
 effective disc border1 like that made  
by savage tribes from cut  shells1 is   
shown at ,fig4 #cc1 and a development of
 the latter is that of  ,fig4 #cd1 taken
    ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #bd4         
#be4--,spiral and ,scroll4    from      
,assyrian tesser1 small oblong pieces of
 stone or metal1 on which  the pattern  
was incised1 and often alternating with 
the guilloche  7,figs4 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1   
and #dj74 ,the guilloche was an         
important pattern in  ,assyrian work1 in
 ,greek moulding decoration1 and in     
their flat painted  ornament4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1  
,d1 ,e4--,scale-work 7imbricated74      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,festoon   
7catenary74    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#bh4--,zigzag4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#bi4--,meander4    ,figs4 #ce and #cf   
are further examples of ornament        
obtained from the  circle and its       
segments2 the former being the ,gothic  

ball-flower4  ,imbricated or scale      
ornament was much used for roofs1 to    
ornament small  columns and circular    
mouldings4 ,examples are given at ,fig4 
#bf1 ,a1 ,b1 and  ,c4    ,illustration3 
,,figs4 #cj to #cf4--,ornaments mostly  
derived from the  circle4    ,we now    
pass from the circle to the spiral1#e   
from which a great part of  ornamental  
forms are derived4    ,fig4 #da is an   
,egyptian wave scroll1 and #db is the   
familiar ,greek wave4  ,fig4 #dc is from
 an ,egyptian ceiling2 all these contain
 the spiral as  their chief             
characteristic4 ,fig4 #dd shows two     
intersecting meanders1    ,illustration3
 ,,figs4 #cg to #dj4--,ornaments mostly 
derived from the  circle4    #dg is a   
scroll intersected by a meander1 #df is 
an eccentric meander1 #de  is the scroll
 or antispiral of the cyma recta1 and   
#dh is the double  spiral of the cavetto
 decoration4 ,fig4 #gj is the ornament  
on the ,greek  cyma reversa or ogee1    
called by the ,french rais de cur2 #ga  

is a ,roman  variety4    ,illustration3 
,,figs4 #da to #dh4--,ornaments chiefly 
based on spiral  curves4    ,fig4 #ej   
shows the anatomy or centre lines of the
 purely sthetic ,greek  pattern         
developed at ,fig4 #di4 ,figs4 #ea and  
#eb are additional examples4  ,fig4 #ec 
is one of the scrolls1 and in ,fig4 #ed 
is shown the irregular  meanders and    
spiral curves forming the stand for the 
tripod on the roof  of the choragic     
monument of ,lysikrates4                
,illustration3 ,,figs4 #di to           
#eb4--;,greek borders from vases4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,scroll     
ornament on the slope of the roof of the
  choragic monument of ,lysikrates4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,portion of 
the tripod stand on top of the roof  of 
the monument of ,lysikrates4            
,,chapter ,,iii      ,the laws of       
composition in ornament are deduced from
 nature1 but we must  look to works of  
art for their proper application4       
,the laws that may be deduced are       

numberless1 but the principal ones may  
be given as follows3--    ,,geometrical 
,,arrangement1 ,,proportion1            
,,stability1 ,,repetition1 ,,contrast1  
,,symmetry1 ,,radiation1 ,,tangential   
,,junction1 ,,repose1 ,,variety1        
,,subordination1 ,,balance1 ,,unity1    
,,series1 ,,growth1 ,,superposition1    
,,fitness4  ,some of these are          
preliminary laws2 e4g4 we cannot have   
ornament  without some geometrical      
arrangement1 even spots in a line must  
be set  out at regular distances1 or    
with a recurring element of             
irregularity2  and as every plant and   
part of it are set out on a geometrical 
basis1 we  cannot have good floral      
ornament without such an arrangement4   
,the same  may be said of the setting   
out of the more complex schemes of      
ornament1  and besides this framework1 a
 whole class of ornament depends on     
geometrical arrangement4 ,there must be 
harmonic proportion between the  parts  
of the ornament1 as well as between the 

enrichment and the ground1  to make     
ornament pleasing2 this last element of 
proportion is generally  called even    
distribution1 and is found in all good  
work2 at the same  time it admits of a  
variety of treatment3 in some ,indian1  
,chinese1 and  ,saracenic ornament it is
 painfully monotonous1 while in good    
,roman and  ,renaissance work1 though   
the law is observed1 there is such      
variety and  contrast1 that it never    
becomes tiresome4 ,ornament to be       
satisfactory  must have ,stability1 and 
not look as if it would fall down4      
,after  these preliminaries1 ,repetition
 may be looked on as the first law2 as  
anything repeated forms elementary      
ornament4 ,contrast comes next1 as  the 
mere alternation of upright and         
horizontal lines form a contrasted      
ornament  ----  ----  ----  ,symmetry   
perhaps comes next1 and is the          
repetition of any form on its axis2 even
 the rudest blot so doubled  makes      
ornament4 ,radiation alone is the basis 

of much ornament1 and  directly we get  
as far as the scroll1 we must have      
tangential  junction1 for broken-backed 
curves are hardly ornament4 ,next comes 
,repose3 any decoration that seems to   
crawl is not pleasing but  distressing4 
,as we advance we want ,variety and     
,subordination4 ,an  unsymmetrical      
ornament generally requires ,balance2   
,unity is  necessary in any complex     
system4 ,series adds a new element by   
the  repetition at stated intervals of a
 succession of different objects1 or  of
 similar ones of increasing or          
decreasing size4 ,growth gives us one   
of the most vigorous and delightful     
elements in nature1 and  ,superposition 
may be looked on as the last addition to
 ornament yet  made by man2 while       
,fitness may be said to include all     
before-mentioned  and more4    ,the     
descriptions just given will serve for  
the definition of some of  the laws1 but
 others require further explanation4    
,proportion1 by which 8harmonic         

proportion0 is meant1 applies also to   
the architectural features of a design1 
and is indispensable in  designing      
borders1 composed of lines or mouldings1
 and in panels4 ,the  width of such     
border1 or series of mouldings1 should  
be a proportionate  part of the         
narrowest width of the space or panel4  
,there are certain  distances between   
lines that are more pleasing than       
others1 and as a  rule1 one space should
 preponderate4 ,in mouldings the same   
thing is  true1 but in addition to the  
spaces1 there are the projections and   
contours to be studied4 ,the study of   
,greek profiles 7,figs4 ,c and ,d1 p4   
#ae7 is most valuable1 though ,greek    
mouldings are unsuitable for external   
work in this climate4 ,the methods of   
proportioning cornices given in         
,vitruvius are useful 7the application  
of proportion to surfaces will be  found
 at ,chap4 ,,iv474                      
,stability4--,instability is mostly     
found in creeping or twining plants1    

put vertically1 and not attached to a   
central stem1 or to the framework  of   
the panel2 also to bulky forms put on   
slight ones1 that from their  size seem 
unable to support the weight4 ,we know  
from experience that  trunks of trees   
support the enormous mass of branches   
and foliage above  them by their        
solidity1 and bear the strain of winds  
by their strength  and the spread and   
tenacity of their roots4 ,in the rare   
case in which  such an arrangement is   
wanted in ornament1 we must resort to   
some  device1 such as difference of     
texture between the supports and the    
mass  above1 to indicate superior       
supporting power4      ,repetition is   
the first method by which things were   
turned into  ornament1 but if it be     
carried too far it produces monotony2   
this may be  seen in a long succession  
of similar windows in factories1 and the
  endless rows of iron railings to      
parks4 ,a little more thought would put 
in proper places a larger or more ornate

 window2 and in the case of  railings   
would afford a larger and more important
 post or a group of  them3 this infusion
 of ,variety would correct the          
monotonous appearance1  and greatly add 
to the pleasure of the beholders4 ,the  
ornaments on  mouldings1 patterns in    
checkers1 net-work1 or diapers may be   
repeated up  to a certain point without 
being tiresome1 but symbolic and        
distinguishing forms must1 as a rule1 be
 used sparingly4 ,one human  figure is  
mostly enough in an ornamental panel1   
because the figure  absorbs the         
attention1 though cupids or very young  
children may be  repeated2 the former   
are imaginary creatures1 and the latter 
sportive  ones1 but even these should be
 so arranged as to compose with the     
foliage1 which should be an open screen 
they are seen playing through4  ,the    
difficulty of preventing even cupids    
from absorbing all interest1  was       
probably the cause of the ancients so   
often making them half-floral4          

,contrast in form or colour imparts     
vigour to the composition2 the          
commonest illustration of contrast in   
form is the circle and the  straight    
line1 but more subtle contrasts are     
found in ,nature's works1  very flat    
curves being contrasted with sharp ones2
 and in colour1  besides the contrasts  
of the leaves and flowers1 there are    
often spots  of contrasting colour on   
flowers to heighten their brilliancy1   
though  this is mostly effected by the  
pistils and stamens4 ,the 8egg and      
tongue10 one of the most effective      
ornaments invented1 has the smooth      
curved eggs contrasted with the thin    
lines of the shells1 and the curved     
eggs with the straight edge of the      
tongue4 7,fig4 #fg47 ,renaissance and   
,roman ornament 7see ,fig4 #abi7 give   
the amplest illustrations of  contrast2 
varieties of foliage contrasting with   
vases1 labels1 shields1  armour1 masks1 
animals1 and human figures4 7,see ,figs4
 #aba1 #abc1 #abd1  #abf1 #abg1 #acj1   

#acb1 and ,frontispiece47      ,symmetry
 has been defined before as the mere    
doubling of a form on its  axis2 it is  
one of the most important means of      
producing ornament1 as  well as one of  
the laws most commonly found in nature4 
,nothing in  nature1 however1 is        
absolutely symmetrical1 though there is 
a suggestion  of symmetry about the bulk
 of its works4      ,radiation is the   
spreading out of lines from a point1    
like a fan1 and  these lines may be     
straight or curved1 and the axis of the 
radiating  lines may be vertical1       
horizontal1 or oblique4 ,it is found in 
the human  hand1 in the wing feathers of
 birds1 in the scallop and similar      
bivalve  shells1 in the umbels of       
flowers1 and in much other plant growth4
 ,the  ,greek honeysuckle is the most   
beautiful instance of its adaptation as 
ornament4 7,see ,figs4 #di1 #ej1 #ea1   
#eb1 and #aae47 ,if the centre of the   
radiating lines is kept below the       
springing line1 it adds greatly to the  

interest and beauty of the ornament4 ,a 
succession of festoons or of  drapery   
hanging from two points are examples of 
one species of curved  radiation4       
,tangential ,junction4--,euclid's       
definition of a tangent is as           
follows3--8,a straight line is said to  
touch a circle1 when it meets the       
circle1 and being produced does not cut 
it10 and is obtained by drawing  a line 
perpendicular to any radius from the    
point at which it touches  the          
circumference4 ,in ornament1 tangential 
junction means that where two  curves of
 opposite curvature meet they are to    
meet at the tangential  points of each  
7,fig4 #be71 and in the case of a curve 
being continued by  a straight line1 the
 point of junction is the tangential    
point4 ,a curve1  however1 should never 
be continued by a straight line1 but by 
a flatter  curve4 ,the beauty imparted  
by following this rule is seen in the   
,ionic  capitals of the ,temple of      
,apollo at ,bass1 where the two volutes 

are  joined by a curve instead of by the
 usual straight line 7see ,fig4 #agi in 
,appendix74      ,repose4--,the absence 
of a look of motion in ornament2 this   
appearance  of motion may be seen in    
some flamboyant tracery and ,saracenic  
patterns1  in some modern               
paper-hangings1 and in patterns in woven
 and printed  stuffs4 ,the word repose  
is sometimes used to denote an absence  
of  spottiness4 ,in the best pilaster   
panels1 horizontal lines are introduced 
partly for contrast1 and partly to give 
repose by checking the  appearance of   
motion in the curved plant forms4 7,fig4
 #abg47      ,variety is a difference of
 form or arrangement in the ornament    
from  that which immediately precedes or
 follows it4 ,in nature we see that     
every leaf varies from every other by   
subtle differences1 though the  foliage 
is roughly alike1 and it is for this    
reason that ,nature's works  never pall 
upon us4 ,general similarity with slight
 variety is the most  proper for the    

highest and most dignified ornament4 ,in
 other cases  absolute variety is       
permissible4 ,variety is the salt of    
ornament that  takes off the insipidity 
of repetition4                          
,subordination4--,the state of being    
inferior to another1 a regular          
descending series4 ,in any complex      
system of ornament1 one part should be  
chosen as the most important1 and all   
the rest should lead up to it2 but      
certain distinct parts1 such as masses  
or flowers1 may re-echo in a  fainter   
way the main motive4 ,in drawing1       
subordination is obtained by  the       
principal mass being larger than the    
rest1 and by its details being  larger  
and more pronounced2 in painting1 by the
 above and by the  principal part being 
more vivid in colour2 in modelling1 by  
greater size  and relief4 ,the ,romans  
and ,cinque ,cento artists were great   
masters of  this art4 ,in some panels1  
though the highest relief is not great1 
there  is an infinity of gradation1 the 

lowest relief gradually sinking into    
the ground4 ,in a ,renaissance          
bas-relief of a full face the greatest  
projection is about the sixteenth of an 
inch1 and yet the face is  perfectly    
modelled4 ,modern ,english carved       
ornament is too frequently  deficient in
 this quality4      ,balance4--,the     
making unsymmetrical masses of equal    
weight4 ,in the  creations of nature we 
see balance employed in trees1 shrubs1  
and plants  7,fig4 #afj72 in leaves1    
made as it were on a symmetrical basis1 
balance  is equally employed4 ,in simple
 oval leaves1 for example1 one side is  
more convex than the other1 and the     
balance is got by the curve in the  rib4
      ,unity is the completeness of any 
system of ornament not marred by        
incongruous elements or forms4          
,series is the repetition of a limited  
succession of different forms3  in the  
egg and tongue1 of two2 in the bead and 
reel1 of three2 in  branches of plants  
when the leaves regularly diminish in   

size1 of many4  7,fig4 #fg47 ,long      
series may be seen in ,saracenic        
ornament1 where the same  text is       
repeated sometimes with ornament between
 the texts4      ,growth4--,this is at  
once the rarest and most delightful of  
the hints  taken from nature by great   
ornamentalists4 ,in climbing plants1    
whose  stalks are polygonal1 and that   
twist to reach an object1 or for the    
flowers to get the sun1 the edges of the
 stalk are seen to form a  spiral4      
,sometimes this vigour of growth is seen
 in the turn of a leaf or  the clasp of 
a tendril round a twig4 ,the capitals   
and the tripod stand  of the choragic   
monument of ,lysikrates are good        
examples4 7,figs4 #ec and  #ed47        
,superposition4--,this is most          
frequently seen in ,saracenic ornament1 
but it is also found in ,renaissance    
ornament4 ,the simplest form is in  the 
case of meanders of different curvature 
when one is put over the  other1 the    
upper one being more vigorous in form   

and colour4 ,the next  case is where    
larger ornaments of a more striking     
colour are put over a  smaller and less 
obtrusive pattern1 as in the ,persian   
windows of the  ,suleimanyeh at         
,constantinople2 but the commonest case 
is that of  inscriptions over floral    
ornament1 examples of which are without 
number  in ,saracenic work4 ,this1 like 
nearly all other inventions in ornament1
  is taken from nature4 ,we see twining 
or creeping plants overgrowing  trees or
 bushes1 and parasitical plants         
overgrowing others1 from which  they get
 their sustenance1 and have therefore   
roots1 stems1 and flowers1  but no      
leaves4 ,saracenic diapers frequently   
have many planes superposed1  and as    
each pattern is differently coloured and
 gilt1 any change of  position in the   
beholder brings out a new pattern4 ,this
 may be seen in  the ,alhambra ,court at
 the ,crystal ,palace4 7,fig4 #aja47    
,fitness1 in its most obvious sense1 is 
arranging the ornament so that  it may  

not interfere with the proper use of the
 thing ornamented4 ,the  enrichment of a
 sword-hilt must not hurt the hand1 nor 
render the proper  wielding of the sword
 difficult or impossible2 and the same  
canon  applies to the handles of        
flagons1 jugs1 or drinking vessels1 c42 
in a  secondary sense it is a due       
consideration of the qualities of the   
material to be ornamented1 and of the   
appropriateness of the ornament to  the 
purpose for which the article is        
intended2 and thirdly1 it supposes  a   
well-ordered design1 whose completeness 
would be marred by anything  being added
 or removed4    ,the want of what is    
called 8alternation0 in design is       
analogous to a  surface that is so      
elaborately decorated with a uniform    
repeating  pattern that it is wearisome 
to look at4    ,the value of plain      
spaces in design is enormous4 ,charles  
,lamb1 in one of  his delightful letters
 to ,coleridge1 says in finishing--8,i  
will leave  you1 in mercy1 one small    

white spot empty below1 to repose your  
eyes  upon1 fatigued as they must be    
with the wilderness of words they have  
by this time painfully travelled        
through40 ,to the designer this analogy 
will be obvious and useful4    ,plain   
spaces as alternations in design1 are   
the oases in the desert1 and  may be    
compared to a refreshing silence after a
 continuous chatter or  deafening noise4
    ,it is easier to do too much than to
 know exactly where to stop4 ,excess  of
 ornament defeats its own end1 there is 
no foil to set it off1 and it  must be  
guarded against4 ,the ,saracens1 by the 
relative weight of their  ornament1 have
 to some extent obviated this objection4
 ,to know the value  of plainness is to 
enhance the ornament used4 ,to have this
 vividly  brought home to you1 the best 
,greek architecture should be compared  
with  late ,roman4 ,in the ,greek you   
see a very small quantity of exquisite  
ornament surrounded by plainness1 which 
makes it doubly precious2 in  late      

,roman1 every surface is covered without
 a spot to rest the eye on1  so that the
 whole becomes dull1 confused1 and      
monotonous4          ,,chapter ,,iv     
,before speaking of the decoration of   
mouldings1 a few words must be said  on 
the mouldings themselves4 ,the ,greeks  
were the first people who  carried the  
art of moulding or profiling to any     
perfection1 and they are  still supreme2
 they mainly used straight-lined        
sections for strength1  but added a few 
curved sections to prevent monotony4    
,the air of ,greece  is pellucid and the
 sunshine brilliant1 so for their curved
 sections  those that approximated to   
conic sections were preferred as having 
more  subtle shade1 segments of circles 
being rarely used4 7,see ,figs4 #fa-fd47
  ,the greatest efforts were made to    
have these mouldings as exquisite as    
possible1 so as to get variety of shade 
and shadow1 and mouldings of the  same  
species were rarely or never alike4 ,the
 ,romans1 who had much  coarser artistic

 sensibilities than the ,greeks1 and    
were slaves to easy  rules1 used        
segments of circles for their mouldings 
instead of the ,greek  curves4 7,see    
,figs4 #ee-ff47 ,they also had an       
atmosphere less clear1 and  their       
sunshine was not so brilliant4 ,the     
,medivals1 who lived in misty  climates 
with little sunshine1 were as logical in
 their methods1 but  were not possessed 
of the artistic sensibilities of the    
,greeks1 so1  although their mouldings  
answer the    ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ee
 to #fj4--,profiles of ,roman mouldings 
with their  fillets4    ,illustration3  
,,figs4 #fa to #ff4--,profiles of ,greek
 mouldings with their  fillets4         
purpose1 they lack refinement4 ,the     
,medivals got their effects by deep     
undercutting1 and by putting fillets or 
leaving arrises on such parts as  were  
to tell bright2--,classic and           
,renaissance mouldings1 however1 are    
alone treated of here4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #fg4--,the ovolo or echinus from

 the ,erechtheum1  enriched4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,the cavetto
 moulding4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#fi4--,the cyma recta4    ,in the best  
periods of ancient art it was the       
invariable custom to adopt  a form      
nearly like the profile or section of   
the moulding1 and to double  it for the 
basis of its decoration1 and nothing    
could produce a more  pleasing and      
artistic result1 for then the moulding  
never lost its  character1 however      
elaborately it might be enriched4 ,the  
diagrams from  ,figs4 #fg to #gh will   
help to illustrate this3 for instance1  
at ,fig4 #fg we  have the ,greek ovolo1 
ornamented with eggs1 called            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,the ,greek 
ogee with water leaf ornament4    by the
 ,greeks 8turnip stones10 which resemble
 the section of the  moulding doubled2  
at #gj and #gc the ,greek ogee is shown 
with the water  leaf ornament           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,roman      
variety of the ornament on the ogee4    

used to enrich it1 for which we have no 
distinctive name--it is called  by the  
,french 8,rais de ,cur10 and resembles  
the section of the  moulding doubled2 at
 #ga is a ,roman variation of this      
ornament2 at #fh1 a  ,roman cavetto1 or 
hollow2 at #fi1 a 8cyma recta40 ,fig4   
#gg is a curved  8astragal0 or bead     
moulding2 and at ,fig4 #gh is the bead  
and reel  ornament4 7,see also ,figs4   
#gb and #gc for examples of ,greek bead 
and reel  ornament47 ,figs4 #gd1 #ge1   
and #gf are examples of ornament used   
for flat  bands or fascias4 ,when these 
are sunk with semi-circular or          
elliptical  channels they are called    
8fluted10 and when raised in relief     
8reeded40    ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#gb4--;,decorated mouldings from the    
temple of ,minerva  ,polias at ,athens1 
ogee1 ovolo1 and beads4    ,we may next 
briefly speak of the ornamental         
treatment of floors1 walls1  and        
ceilings4    ,beginning with the floor1 
it must be remembered that in floor     

decoration  the sense of flatness should
 be preserved2 raised and especially    
angular  surfaces are to be avoided1 and
 what is unpleasant to use is unpleasant
  to be suggested for use1 though the   
,assyrians used relief on their  floors4
 ,whether the    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#gc4--;,greek cyma reversa or ogee      
decorated with the  water leaf1 a fret  
ornament carved on upper fillet1 and a  
bead and reel  below4    ,illustration3 
#gd4 ,from ,jupiter ,tonans4    #ge4    
,from the ,forum of ,nerva4    #gf4     
,from the ,temple of ,jupiter ,stator4  
,,figs4 #gd to #gf4--;,fluted ornaments4
    decoration be obtained by carpets1  
rugs1 floor-cloth1 inlaid marble or     
metal1 mosaic1 tiles1 or parquetry1     
nothing should be introduced to  disturb
 the flatness1    ,illustration3 ,,figs4
 #gf ,a and #gf ,b4--,reeded ornaments  
for flat bands4    by shading the forms 
or by imitating mouldings1 or a ridge   
and furrow4  ,all realistic renderings  
of animals    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     

#gg4--;,astragal or bead moulding4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,bead and  
reel4    or plants should be carefully  
avoided4 ,the colour may be varied1 but 
evenly distributed1 and mostly sober2   
though the ,romans sometimes used  lapis
 lazuli for their floors1 or encrusted  
them with gems1 and the  ,byzantines    
used gold or silver chased and enriched 
with niello4 ,mosaic  work applied to   
floors was an early form of decoration1 
and is still of  a high order in the    
scale of floor decorations1 the highest 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,opus       
,alexandrinum from a pavement in the    
,church  of ,san ,marco 7,rome74        
being marble inlaid with other marbles  
or with mastic1 like those in the       
,baptistery at ,florence and the        
,cathedral at ,siena4 ,the use of marble
 or  tiles in this country is limited to
 the floors of museums1 baths1 halls    
and passages2 on account of their       
coldness1 they cannot be used with      
comfort in ordinary rooms4 ,mosaic may  

be treated with borders and lines  like 
the framing of a picture1 with the field
 7or central space7 either  plain1      
powdered with spots of decoration1 or   
covered with a pattern4  ,black and     
white is the most dignified treatment4  
,if other colours are  used1 black with 
pale red or cream colour1 or low-toned  
reds1 greens1  greys1 and yellows are to
 be preferred4 ,opus ,alexandrinum is   
one of the  most magnificent floor      
decorations yet used2 rectangular or    
circular  slabs of porphyry are         
surrounded with bands composed of       
geometrical  figures in purple1 green1  
and black porphyry1 on a white marble   
ground1  though marble occasionally     
takes the place of porphyry in the      
smaller  geometrical patterns4 7,see    
,fig4 #gi47    ,floor-cloths and        
linoleums are of modern introduction4   
,the decoration of  these coverings is  
best when it is of subdued colours      
treated flatly4    ,in carpets1 the     
pattern should1 as a rule1 radiate from 

geometric  points2 at least the more    
important spots should be on a circular1
  lozenge1 or square basis1 so that the 
eye should not be carried in one        
particular direction4 ,if animals are   
used1 they should have a simple         
outline1 and should be treated flatly4  
,realistic flowers1 birds1 human        
figures1 landscapes1 and architecture   
are out of place on carpets4 ,a  border 
always improves a carpet1 if properly   
designed to harmonize with  the centre1 
or to enhance its value4    ,walls may  
be decorated with metals or marbles2    
with wood panelling1  either plain1     
moulded1 inlaid1 carved or incised2 with
 plaster flatly  embossed or sunk1 or in
 which stones1 shells or looking-glass1 
c4 is  embedded2 with plain colour1 with
 painted or stencilled patterns2 with   
furs or feather work2 with hangings of  
velvet1 satin1 silk1 or calico1  either 
plain1 enriched1 or embroidered2 by     
tapestry1 matting1 stamped  leather or  
,illustration3 ,,figs4 #hj to           

#hc4--;,improper arrangements for       
wall-papers or  room decoration4    its 
imitations1 and by paper-hangings4 ,if  
pictures are to be hung on a  wall1 it  
is obvious that a low-toned decoration1 
that will set them off1  is alone       
admissible2 since the pictures          
themselves are the principal            
decoration1 the walls should be treated 
as an unobtrusive background4  ,the best
 decoration for appearance after simple 
colour or a painted  pattern is silk or 
woven stuffs4#f ,if paper-hangings be   
chosen1 they  should have a uniform     
pattern and be free from spots2 for the 
eye should  not be arrested by any      
particular form1 nor be forcibly carried
 in any  direction4 ,in illustration of 
this1 we may suppose the diagrams1      
,figs4  #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 and #hc1 to      
represent decorated wall spaces4 ,all   
these  decorative arrangements are bad  
as wall-coverings2 but by combining     
their elements1 at ,fig4 #hd a tolerably
 good paper-hanging is produced  that   

will form a background for furniture and
 pictures4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#hd4--;,arrangement for the lines of a  
wall-paper4    ,the diagram1 ,fig4 #hj1 
arrests the eye2 #ha and #hb tend to    
exaggerate the  height or breadth of the
 room2 for patterns in which vertical or
  horizontal lines predominate will have
 the effect of lengthening or  widening 
the surface of the wall2 whilst the     
diagram #hc1 being composed  of oblique 
lines1 will not only give a look of     
weakness to the wall1 but  will lead the
 eye from one corner of the room to the 
other4 ,a pattern1  to be satisfactory  
as a background1 should neither arrest  
the eye nor  carry it in any particular 
direction4    ,the height of a real dado
 generally depends on the height of the 
chair-backs1 but it may be influenced by
 the height of the ceiling1 and  partly 
by the use to which the room is put2    
high wainscoting prevents  small-sized  
pictures from being seen4 ,if the       
wainscot    ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #he  

to #hg4--;,fillings of ceilings showing 
various  schemes of all-over effects4   
be higher than the centre of the wall1  
the upper part of the wall may  have a  
stronger decoration with a more flowing 
pattern than would be  admissible on a  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,portion of 
the ceiling of vestibule of ,sacristy   
of ,s4 ,spirito 7,florence7 by          
,sansovino4    wall with lower          
wainscoting4 ,if there be a frieze in   
the room1 a still  freer and more       
pictorial treatment may be allowed on   
it4 ,the ,greeks  called the frieze     
,zoophoros1 or life-bearing1 because it 
was generally    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#hi4--;,ceiling from ,serlio's          
architecture4    adorned with figures of
 men or animals4 ,wall spaces need not  
be panelled  in small rooms1 as the     
window-openings1 doors1 and fireplaces  
mostly  break up the space sufficiently4
 ,if the rooms1 though small1 are high1 
a  dado and a frieze are improvements4  
,on ceilings there is more room for     

variety and elaboration4 ,there are many
 ways of decorating ceilings4 ,we  may  
take the cornice as the frame1 and      
regard the ceiling as the space  to     
decorate2 the simplest way is to powder 
it 7,fig4 #he71 or to cover it  over    
with a scroll-work pattern 7,fig4 #hf74 
,an effective treatment  consists in    
lightly covering the field with a       
pattern steadied by  labels1 shields1 or
 medallions 7,fig4 #hg74    ,in dividing
 a ceiling into panels1 either by       
painting or by relief work1  the centre 
panel or compartment should generally be
 larger than any of  the others 7see    
,fig4 #hi1 and #ib at ,b71 though there 
are excellent  ,renaissance ceilings    
divided into equal panels4 ,when the    
ceiling is  unequally divided1 the      
spaces should be in harmonic proportion1
 so that  no two series of panels shall 
be the same width2 this1 however1 does  
not  apply to the widths of the stiles  
and rails1 which should be alike4       
,figs4 #hh and #hi show such            

arrangements4 ,care must be taken in    
designing  the subdivisions of ceilings 
that the panels1 interspaces1 and       
mouldings  are well contrasted4 ,a safe 
guide for the designer in obtaining the 
requisite proportions is to be found in 
the ,roman ceilings1 although  those of 
which drawings are preserved were mostly
 vaulted4 ,for flat  ceilings1 good     
examples may be studied of the best     
period of ,italian  ,renaissance 7,fig4 
#hh71 and in both cases the mouldings of
 the panels are  usually given4 ,where a
 ceiling to be decorated is divided by  
beams1 the  panelling1 if admissible1   
should be repeated in the different     
compartments4 ,ceilings of corridors or 
long rooms may be harmonically  divided 
across at discretion4    ,relief work or
 modelled ornament on ceilings should be
 so regulated that  the light from      
windows or from artificial illumination 
should cause  little cast shadow1 only  
enough to define the outline2 the forms 
should  be carefully rounded off in the 

more important masses to lessen the     
abruptness of cast shadow4 ,a           
preponderance of light in the larger    
masses1 connected and softened by lower 
tones1 is commonly adopted4    ,on the  
carved surface itself1 the play of light
 and shade should be  quite secondary1  
and not compete in strength with the    
deeper shadows  cast by the ornament on 
its ground4 ,if this be not attended to1
  confusion and obscurity are apt to be 
produced4    ,a nice balancing of light 
and shade is of the greatest importance 
in  relief ornament4 ,it may here be    
remarked1 that for outdoor work in a    
sunny climate1 a lower relief in the    
carving and more delicacy in the        
mouldings is admissible1 than in a misty
 one like ours1 where strong  sunlight  
rarely occurs2 and for this reason a    
bolder treatment of relief  is          
necessary1 which allows of a coarser    
material being used4 ,before  leaving   
the subject of relief ornament1 it would
 be as well to state1  that no carved   

decoration should be fastened on to a   
ceiling or panel1  but should be worked 
out of the material itself2 and also    
that where  human figures are used on   
ceilings1 they must be so arranged as to
 be  seen from the heads at the most    
important point in the room2 seen from  
the feet the figures appear to be upside
 down4          ,,chapter ,v      ,in   
setting out spaces for decoration the   
chief aim should be to get them  in     
harmonic proportion4 ,the ,greeks were  
the great masters of this art1  the most
 subtle proportions being chosen by     
them1 but there is not space  here to   
enter into refinements4 ,roughly        
speaking1 the proportion of  #a to #a is
 fairly agreeable2 when the space       
required approaches a  double square1 it
 looks better if it somewhat exceeds or 
falls short of  that figure4 ,as a rule1
 a marked preponderance in the height or
 length  should be given to every oblong
 used in decoration1 and with those     
rough  rules1 an educated eye can       

mostly1 after a few trials1 obtain      
harmonious  proportions4 ,those forms   
about which there is an uncertainty     
always look  feeble and unsatisfactory1 
e4g4 an oblong that approaches the      
square1  or an ellipse that approaches a
 circle4 ,in the case of the square     
there  should be no doubt about its     
being a square1 so it is necessary that 
the  ornamentation chosen be calculated 
to emphasize the shape and not give  it 
the appearance of an oblong1 i4e4 the   
ornament should be  symmetrical on both 
the axes1 and it is often useful to     
accentuate the  corners as well2 if the 
square be surrounded by a border it is  
sometimes advisable to strengthen its   
corners by knees4 ,if this be done  it  
is necessary to have them at the four   
corners2 if they be applied to  the two 
upper or the two under corners1 the     
square will be taken for an  oblong4    
,the repetition of squares is much more 
endurable than a  repetition of similar 
oblongs4 ,a common case of the          

monotonous effect of  similar oblong    
panels is to be seen in a four-panelled 
door with the  middle rail in the       
centre1 so the middle rail is commonly  
put below the  centre to get variety in 
the panels4 ,even in so graceful a form 
as the  human figure1 sculptors rarely  
represent it in a perfectly symmetrical 
attitude1 particularly in bas-relief1   
unless it be to express some  marked    
emotion1 or for the sake of the         
composition2 there are1 however1  a few 
figures in front view1 symmetrically    
arranged1 that form the  centres of     
ornamental compositions3 the front view 
of animals in  bas-relief is still less 
admissible4 ,the circle is by far the   
most  beautiful and useful closed curve1
 but it is not always available1 as in  
the case of a central feature in a very 
long ceiling or in oblong  panels1 and  
its place must be then supplied by an   
ellipse1 which has  this merit1 that its
 proportions are infinite1 the straight 
line and the  circle being only extreme 

cases of the ellipse2 but when the      
choice is  unfettered the long 7major7  
axis should so far exceed the short     
7minor7  as to afford a contrast2 an    
ellipse that differs but slightly from  
the  circle too much resembles one that 
is ill-drawn4 ,when an ellipse is       
placed with the long axis vertical1     
which is sometimes necessary in  oblong 
panels1 looking-glasses1 c41 it should  
be tied to the vertical  and horizontal 
framework to prevent an                 
,illustration3 ,,fig #ij4--,vase by     
,stevens showing unequal divisions of   
the  height1 and strengthening          
horizontal bands4    appearance of      
instability1 and when this cannot be    
done it should be  supported by foliage4
    ,in horizontally dividing objects   
circular in plan and curved in section1 
such as vases1 with lines or bands1     
several things have to be  considered4  
,the lines themselves have a            
strengthening effect1 but the  question 
is where they are best applied3 if the  

curves of the object  vary considerably1
 the points at which the variations     
begin are the  proper places1 and in    
this case1 as in all others1 variety and
 the  predominance of one division are  
to be adopted2 if1 however1 the vase    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,vase       
showing unequal divisions of the height1
  and strengthening horizontal bands4   
is to be decorated1 the predominant     
space for the most important  decoration
 must be placed where the curve is      
nearly uniform1 or else the  ornament   
will be distorted4 ,the ,greek painted  
vases1 with a few  exceptions1 are the  
best examples of excellence in their    
divisions  7,figs4 #ij and #ia74 ,due   
consideration must also be given to the 
placing  of the vase2 some of the ,greek
 vases1 intended to stand on the ground1
  have the main ornament confined to the
 shoulder4    ,in the division of       
objects in the round1 it is a general   
rule that they  should not be divided in
 the middle1 but that the upper or under

 part  should be distinctly predominant1
 and that the two parts should be       
different4 ,there is1 however1 an       
exception to this rule1 for when        
certain objects are wanted to be        
symmetrical on their horizontal axes1   
the upper and under forms should then be
 identical1 e4g4 in the case  of certain
 vases1 candlesticks1 and balusters4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,panelling  
of ceilings showing at ,a a bad1 and  at
 ,b a better arrangement4    ,in the    
case of ornamental objects whose outline
 is a matter of taste1  such as         
finger-plates1 care must be taken that  
they neither have a weak  outline wholly
 made up of curves1 like ,a1 nor one    
that is too angular1  like ,b2 the      
design ,c seems to obviate both these   
defects 7,fig4 #id74    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ic4--;,door panels illustrating  
an ill-proportioned  division at ,a1 and
 a well-proportioned one at ,b4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#id4--;,finger-plates for a door1 of    

different  outlines4    ,compositions   
wholly formed of parallel straight      
lines1 such as  entablatures1 and some  
door and window architraves1 have a     
severity1  that borders upon the        
monotonous1 that is sometimes called    
dryness4 ,the  ,greeks corrected this   
defect in their entablatures by         
introducing  figures in the frieze1     
while the ,romans mostly ornamented     
their friezes  with festoons and        
foliage4 ,in the door architrave at the 
,erechtheum  circular pater are used on 
the fascia for this reason 7,fig4 #if72 
modern  ornamentalists have introduced  
curved figures to correct the dryness4  
,archivolts to circular openings without
 imposts1 and not enclosed by  straight 
lines1 lack firmness and rigidity1 which
 may be imparted by  inserting frets or 
flutes radiating from the centre1 on the
 fascia of  the archivolt 7,fig4 #ie74  
,similar devices may be employed to     
correct  weakness in planes of varied   
outline4 ,in the shield of the savage   

7,fig4  #ig71 made of black and yellow  
cane ornamented with cut shells1 the two
  horizontal bands1 just below the      
junction of the semicircles with the    
straight lines1 strengthen the          
composition2 there is a fair amount of  
contrast between the oblique lines of   
the ornaments1 and the circular1        
slanting1 and horizontal lines2 though  
the circular cut shell-work of  the ends
 is excessive and monotonous4 ,extreme  
repetition is a common  fault of savage 
art4    ,when a surface requires        
ornament and yet to be kept flat1 the   
painted or  inlaid ornament upon it     
should not be shaded nor have cast      
shadows1 or  when carved it should be   
sunk3 what beauty can be got by flat    
colours  may be seen in the tiles from  
,rhodes1 ,cairo1 and ,damascus4 ,on     
large  surfaces the best forms of       
applying ornaments is within lines of   
checkers1 network 7,figs4 #ih and #ii71 
or diapers1 and except in the case  of  
very large surfaces1 where striking     

variety may be introduced at set        
intervals1 the ornament should be       
uniform in general    ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #ie4--;,contrasting decoration on
 rectangular and  circular borders4     
effect1 leaving the varieties to be     
discovered by closer inspection4 ,one   
of the best examples of this1 though it 
is not in diapers1 is in the  ,medici   
,chapel at ,florence4 ,michael ,angelo  
enriched a string there with  copies of 
antique masks2 in looking at the sides  
of the chapel the  masks seem all alike1
 but on going near them1 each one is    
seen to be  different4 ,innumerable     
examples of ornament within network1    
checkers1  and diapers1 maybe found in  
,saracenic1 ,moresque1 ,gothic1 and     
,renaissance  work4    ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #if4--;,door case at the         
,erechtheum showing the pater  on the   
fascia4    ,to adopt forms directly from
 nature for the shape of any article of 
use  is rarely successful1 though the   
best shapes have mostly been suggested  

by natural forms4 ,the ,orientals1      
especially those of the extreme ,east1  
have been very fond of this direct      
imitation1 as in vessels made in        
imitation of a piece of bamboo1 of      
gourds with both single and double      
bulbs1 of eggs1 cocoanuts1 the horns and
 hoofs of animals including the  horn of
 the rhinoceros1 of shells1 flowers1 c41
 but they mostly want  stands or feet1  
which partly removes them from pure     
realism1 except in  the case of the     
bamboo1 the form of which too is not    
particularly  beautiful4 ,when the      
ancient traditions had died out in      
,england1 and the  proper application of
 ornament    ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#ig4--,shield made of cane and          
ornamented with cut  shells and zigzags4
    to articles of use was unknown1 it  
occurred to many that such objects      
might be directly imitated from nature4 
,sprays of fuchsia with a large  flower 
on each were used for curtain hooks2    
branches of plants were  used for gas   

brackets with the flame coming from the 
flower2 and vases  made in imitation of 
the blossom of the arum4 ,sometimes     
nature itself  was not vast enough for  
imitation2 earthenware bowls and        
wine-coolers  were made in imitation of 
wickerwork1 gold brooches in imitation  
of  twisted bread1 and other adaptations
 were made that were equally            
incongruous4 ,it is true that the       
,japanese sometimes protect their       
porcelain with an outer covering of     
woven cane1 and wicker-covered  bottles 
are not unknown here4 ,the ,kafirs1 too1
 carry their milk in woven  baskets2 yet
 in spite of these cases1 there is an   
apparent absurdity in  such designs1 not
 to speak of the poverty of invention   
they betray4    ,,figs4 #ih and         
#ii4--;,carved checkers4    ,such       
vagaries are happily disappearing1 since
 the creation of museums  and schools of
 ornamental art1 but they are by no     
means extinct4    ,every article1       
whether for use or ornament1 should     

first be constructed  as elegantly as   
possible for its purpose1 or supposed   
purpose2 and only  be ornamented when   
the ornament does not appear            
incongruous1 and does  not interfere    
with its use1 but only emphasizes its   
form or relieves it  from monotony4     
,although this chapter is mainly        
confined to outlines and  divisions of  
surfaces1 something has been said about 
the application of  ornament1 so it may 
be remarked that the lower part of a    
wall should be  treated with more       
severity and sobriety than the upper    
part2 for the  lower part is partly     
hidden by furniture1 and is most liable 
to injury4  ,the ,romans and ,byzantines
 mostly used marble for the lower parts 
of  walls in magnificent buildings1     
though in houses of less magnificence   
marble was either imitated by painting1 
or else simple floral decoration  was   
used4 ,the ,saracens also employed      
marble1 but when that was not easy  to  
obtain1 tiles took its place4 ,the      

,medivals used marble1 wood  panelling1 
or tapestry1 and when the walls were    
wholly painted1 they  often imitated the
 more costly materials4 ,geometrical    
figures or diapers  are most appropriate
 for this part1 when it is painted or   
papered4 ,the  part of the wall above   
this may be treated with greater freedom
 and  elaboration4 ,the part of the wall
 on a level with the eye should have    
greater finish bestowed on it1 unless   
there be a frieze with figures or  a    
higher class of ornament to a larger    
scale4          ,,chapter ,,vi          
,having previously considered the       
principal elements of ornament1 it is   
now advisable to classify ornament in   
accordance with the spaces it has  to   
fill1 and these may roughly be divided  
into six classes or great  divisions1 as
 follows3--     #a4 ,uniform surfaces1  
as floors1 walls1 and ceilings4   #b4   
,horizontal bands1 as friezes1 c4   #c4 
,perpendicular bands1 as panels of      
piers1 pilasters1 stripes1 c4   #d4     

,symmetrical arrangements1 as panels1   
either rectangular or of closed         
curved figures4   #e4 ,symmetrical      
arrangements composed of straight and   
curved lines or         of compound     
curves1 as spandrels1 panels of curved  
and straight lines4   #f4 ,unsymmetrical
 spaces founded by straight or curved   
lines1 or by both4    ,the uniform      
surfaces of large undivided areas are   
mostly decorated in  the following ways3
 by all-over patterns1 by diapering1    
checkering1  powdering1 or spotting4    
,all-over patterns may be symmetrical1  
balanced1  or one-sided1 and are drawn1 
painted1 modelled1 or carved4 ,the      
typical  pattern1 if symmetrical1 has no
    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,waving
 pattern1 stamped velvet1 #afth century4
  ,italian1 showing ,saracenic          
influence4    two pieces of the ornament
 alike in the one half2 and if balanced 
or  onesided has no two pieces alike2 so
 that the whole is full of interest     
from its variety4 ,it is1 however1      

rarely seen1 as1 unless the artist  does
 it for his own delight1 few amateurs   
care to pay for it4 ,it is  simulated in
 paper-hangings by the repetition of a  
piece1 the width of  the paper 7,fig4   
#adc71 called a repeat2 by stencilling  
or pouncing the  repeat1 if painted2 and
 by cast repeats1 if in plaster4 ,this  
is one of  the cheap substitutes for the
 real thing which pervades ,european    
art4  ,the ,chinese formerly supplied   
paper-hangings that would cover a whole 
room without a repeat4    ,a diaper     
pattern is properly one contained in    
some repeating  geometrical figure not  
composed of straight lines4 ,in         
,saracenic and  ,moresque work real     
diapers are mostly found1 a geometrical 
framework  being laid over some         
interlaced floral patterns 7,fig4 #aja74
 ,the name  diaper comes from jasper1   
through the ,low ,latin diasprum1       
,italian  diaspro1 or ,french diapre1   
and was originally applied to woven     
stuffs from the ,east4 7,see ,figs4     

#aja1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aji1 and #aaj47      
,these  were mostly of silk covered with
 small patterns in colour1 that         
suggested the appearance of the         
flowering of jasper4    ,in vulgar      
parlance1 it is now applied to all      
patterns enclosed in a  repeating       
geometrical form4 ,dados in painted     
decoration were mostly  diapered1 as may
 be seen in one of the churches of ,st4 
,francis1 ,assisi2  and at the ,sainte  
,chapelle at ,paris1 the diapers are on 
painted  hangings2 at the ,arena ,chapel
 at ,padua the dado is painted in       
imitation  of marble panels4            
,checkers and network enclosing carved  
patterns are found on the walls  of     
,gothic cathedrals and churches 7,figs4 
#ih1 #ii74 ,when the space covered  with
 checkers1 network1 or diapers is not   
too large the patterns should  so far   
resemble one another as to give a       
uniform appearance1 the  variations     
being only enough to prevent disgust on 
a near view4 ,two  patterns may         

sometimes alternate1 but in very large  
surfaces another  distinct pattern      
should be introduced1 at certain        
intervals1 to relieve  the monotony4    
,care must be taken to make the network 
and pattern of the  proper scale for the
 building or room1 and for the other    
decoration4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#aja4--,moresque diaper4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--;,japanese 
network4    ,diapers are found in       
,chinese and ,japanese decoration1      
although  rectilinear network is more   
common 7,fig4 #ajb71 but powdering is   
most  favoured by them 7,figs4          
#ajc-aje74 ,sometimes it is put over a  
pattern  7,fig4 #ajd74 ,powdering was1  
too1 a favourite method of ornamenting  
in the  ,middle ,ages4    ,the second   
division is ornament arranged in        
horizontal bands4 ,the  ,greeks were    
pre-eminent in the use of horizontal    
bands in their  sculptured and          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--;,japanese 
powdering4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     

#ajd4--,superimposed ,japanese          
powdering4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#aje4--;,japanese powdering4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,diaper1  
,italian brocade1 #afth century4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,diaper in
 velvet brocade1 #afth century4         
,italian 7,german origin74    painted   
decorations4 ,the embroidered or woven  
patterns on their dresses1  shawls1 and 
curtains1 and the beautiful ornament on 
their vases1 were  mainly               
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ajh4--;,construction lines of ,fig4    
#aji4    designed on this system4 ,the  
frieze is a characteristic feature in   
,greek architecture2 and if you take the
 band ornaments out of ,greek work      
there is very little ornament left4     
,figs4 #cg1 #db1 #de1 #di1 #ea1 #eb1    
#aac1    ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#aji4--,velvet brocade1 #afth century4  
,italian4    #aad1 and #aae are some of 
their favourite band patterns4 ,figs4   
#aaf and  #aag show some of the patterns

 on dresses taken from the ,greek vases4
 ,the  shawl 7peplum7 of ,demeter on a  
vase at the ,british ,museum has chariot
  races1 winged cupids1 animals1 birds1 
and dolphins in the successive  bands2  
the sacred shawls of ,minerva at the    
,parthenon 7pepla7 are only  known by   
description4 ,one had the battle of the 
gods and giants woven or  embroidered on
 it1 and another was ornamented with the
 portraits of  ,antigonus and ,demetrius
 ,poliorcetes 7,plutarch's ,demetrius74 
,spotting at regular intervals was the  
favourite way of decorating the  larger 
surface of dresses4 ,the circular flower
 that usually formed the  spot in ,greek
 ornament was composed of a greater     
number of petals than  the ,roman1 and  
is probably of ,assyrian origin4 7,see  
,fig4 #aaf47 ,saracen  work also affords
 good examples of horizontal band       
treatment4 7,see ,figs4  #aah and #aai47
    ,the third division3 perpendicular  
bands are not so common in  decoration  
as the former class2 they are mostly    

architectural in  character1 and usually
 form divisions between wall-spaces in  
the shape  of panels in piers and       
pilasters4 ,triglyphs in friezes may    
even be  classed in this division1 and  
so may the soffits of arches in the     
,classic and ,renaissance styles2 the   
decoration of the soffits of beams  and 
of ribs and groins in ,gothic1 though   
some purists say it gives a  look of    
weakness to the arch4 ,when the soffits 
of arches are wide in  proportion to    
their height they may be panelled1 and  
if narrow be  treated like pilaster     
panels1 the bottom of each side         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--;,diaper in
 silk brocade4 ,italian or ,spanish1    
#afth century2 formerly used for dress  
purposes1 but now only employed  for    
furniture4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#aab4--,stamped velvet1 #afth century4  
,italian4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#aac4--;,greek ivy meander border4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,greek    
border from a vase4    ,illustration3   

,,fig4 #aae4--;,greek border with fret  
bands4    ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aaf   
,,and #aag4--;,greek borders4 being at  
the  springing2 the tops may nearly     
touch at the crown1 or be separated by a
  circular panel4 ,the decoration of    
pilaster panels in relief should be     
comparatively low1 and although some of 
the minor details may almost  sink into 
the ground1 there should be nothing     
vague2 the danger to be  apprehended    
being a loss of architectural severity  
,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aah ,,and       
#aai4--,persian borders4    in this     
supporting feature4 ,the ornament on a  
pilaster must be  symmetrically built   
with the strongest elements at the base 
and the  lightest at the top4 ,the best 
examples of this kind of decoration are 
,roman1 ,italian1 and ,french           
,cinque-,cento work4 ,the latter may be 
seen in  the well-known pilasters of    
,louis ,,xii4 ,the artists of those     
times paid  the same attention to       
pilaster decoration that the            

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,upright   
lily border4 ,greco-,roman4    ,greeks  
did to horizontal band-work4 ,figs4     
#aba1 #abb1 and #abc show some  examples
 of pilaster decoration4 ,when the main 
ornamental effect is  obtained1 the next
 problem to be solved is to get the     
greatest possible  variation in the     
planes of the carving1 so that the      
ornament may not  have the air of being 
cut out with a fret-saw1 with the face  
slightly  carved and pinned on4 ,it is  
sometimes well to accentuate certain    
portions if care be taken to avoid      
spottiness2 occasionally the main  piece
 of ornament that has the greatest      
projection may be echoed up the         
pilaster with a sort of ebb and flow1   
only the greatest subsidiary  projection
 should be less than the main one4      
,modern ornamentalists have  insisted1  
that if animal forms are introduced they
 should be repeated1  and rise in scale 
of importance as they get higher2 but   
this method does  not seem to have been 

adhered to by the ,romans or            
,renaissance artists4  ,in the latter we
 sometimes meet with cupids or children 
at the very base  of the panel4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,pilaster  
designed by ,donatello4    ,the fourth  
division4--,ornament in panels1 c4      
,ceilings    ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#abb4--;,italian ,cinque-cento pilaster 
panel4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#abc4--;,italian pilaster decoration4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--;,german   
book cover1 date #aegb1 in four enamel  
colours and gold4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #abe4--,plaque in repouss work4  
,german #agth  century4    have been    
treated in ,chapter ,,iv41 and floors   
cannot have real panels1 so  upright    
rectangular panels may be taken first4  
,their simplest  ornamentation is by    
moulding2 if the mouldings have stopped 
ends1 they  are known as linen panels4  
,when narrow and unmoulded they may be  
filled  with symmetrical ornament       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,venetian  

panel illustrating 8balance0 without    
symmetry4    on either side of an       
upright stem1 either purely floral      
7,figs4 #adh and  #abj71 or after the   
manner of pilaster panels1 or the       
ornament may spring  from vases at the  
bottom 7,fig4 #abg71 or they may have   
central medallions  circular or oval1   
pater or bosses2 and in cases where     
these narrow  panels are in a long      
succession1 each one may be varied1 or  
the centres  alone may be varied1 if the
 size and weight of the centres be      
preserved2 circular and oval panels in  
moulded frames should be avoided  in    
woodwork on account of the chances of   
the mouldings splitting4 ,in  ,saracenic
 and ,moresque work the                 
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#abg4--;,cinque-cento panel4    panels  
are mostly filled by diapers1 and in    
late ,european work it was  common to   
enrich the corners1 and sometimes to    
form a centre1 leaving  the rest of the 
panel plain1 spotted1 powdered1 or      

filled with  interlaced work4    ,in    
ornamental panels the mouldings of the  
frame    ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#abh4--,renaissance panel ornament4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,wine      
crater in silver from the ,hildesheim   
treasures4 ,antique ,roman4    must     
never be wholly ornamented 7see ,fig4   
#abh72 sometimes they may be  wholly    
plain1 but if there be several          
mouldings1 it is well to slightly       
enrich one member to connect the frame  
with the panel and detach it from  the  
plain stiles and rails2 these should    
never be carved when enriched  panels   
are used4 ,when great richness is       
required1 and the panels are  carved1   
inlay or incised ornament is the best   
form of enrichment for the  stiles and  
rails4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#acj4--;,cinque-cento floral ornament   
composed of the  acanthus1 oak leaf1    
convolvulus1 and wild rose1 c4    ,the  
fifth division4--,compound shapes such  
as spandrels1 segmental  pediments1     

compound panels1 and tail-pieces 7,figs4
 #acd1 #ace71 the last  known in ,france
 under the name of 8lamp bottoms10 some 
arms and pieces  of armour and some     
utensils 7,fig4 #acc74    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,gothic spandrel from   
,stone ,church in ,kent4    ,in         
spandrels between two arches a slight   
deviation from symmetry may be  allowed 
if the sides are well balanced1 but it  
requires great skill to  render the     
ornament satisfactory 7,fig4 #aca74 ,if 
the arch mouldings are  properly        
emphasized1 the spandrels may have a    
free and unsymmetrical  treatment1 for  
they do not appear so constructively    
important as the  panels of pilasters1  
and so greater freedom is allowed to the
 artist4  ,the ,gothic spandrel 7,fig4  
#aca7 from ,stone ,church1 in ,kent1 is 
a good  example of balance4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,spandrel  
by ,stevens4    ,the sixth              
division4--,unsymmetrical spaces to be  
filled with ornament  are rare1 being   

mostly found in ,saracen work and in    
arms and utensils1  except in the case  
of angular spandrels composed of a      
vertical and  horizontal line and a     
segment 7,fig4 #acb72 in all these      
cases1 balance  must be the principle   
employed4 ,fig4 #acb shows a            
well-balanced design  for a right-angled
 spandrel between a round arch and a    
vertical line1  the work of the late    
,alfred ,stevens4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #acc4--,panel with trophy of arms
 and armour4    ,illustration3 ,,figs4  
#acd and #ace4--,tail-pieces            
7,renaissance71 or lamp  bottoms4       
,,chapter ,,vii      ,the ornamentalist 
is more indebted to plants and flowers1 
both for  materials and suggestions in  
design1 than to any other division in   
the  domain of nature4 ,the best        
conventional and sthetic floral ornament
 was  the outcome of the study of plants
 and flowers4 ,that characteristic      
,greek ornament1 the honeysuckle or     
anthemion1 is said to have originated   

from the ,egyptian lotus flower1 or the 
,sacred ,hom1 and not from the          
honeysuckle2 the conventional rendering 
of this flower in ornament is  said to  
have been adapted from the ,egyptian    
forms by the ,chaldans2 and  later the  
children of those ancient               
flower-worshippers1 the ,assyrians1     
developed the pattern into more ornate  
forms4 ,the ,greeks in their turn  are  
supposed to have copied the anthemion   
from the ,assyrians3 at first  it was   
archaic and stiff1 but full of vitality 
as ornament1 and well  adapted for its  
various uses and positions2 and at last 
perfected to  such a degree of sthetic  
purity in the ,erechtheum1 as to lose   
all  traces of any particular plant1    
while embodying the best qualities of   
plant-growth2 for in it we see vigorous 
life combined with grace and  elegance4 
,another phase of floral and leaf       
growth1 and its proper development  into
 pure ornament1 can be studied in the   
many rosettes of the various  styles4   

,these are circular in plan1 and would  
appear at first sight to  be derived    
from flowers1 but are mostly a cluster  
of leaves1 radiating  like the spokes of
 a wheel1 either straight or curved4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--,rosettes  
or pater from ,roman ornament1  composed
 of leaf and floral forms4    ,there are
 many plants--for instance1 the bedstraw
 and the madder--that  have their sets  
of leaves arranged in a whorl round the 
joints of their  upright stems2 looking 
down on these leaves we notice that the 
plan  appears like a rosette4 ,this idea
 may have occurred to the ancients when 
designing their rosettes4 ,the results1 
obtained by grouping a cluster of       
leaves together in this manner1 are     
finer and stronger in appearance  than  
any imitation of flowers1 particularly  
in sculptured work4 7,see  ,fig4 #acf47 
,leaflets and bracts growing at the     
junctions of stems and  leaves also     
furnished ideas and forms for the making
 up of rosettes and  similar ornament2  

but more use is made of these bracts in 
what is called  8clothing stems10 or    
sheaths1 some varieties of which are    
illustrated at  ,figs4 #acg and #aeg2 in
 fact1 very good ornament is often      
composed of a  stem or meander clothed  
with these bracts alone4 ,root forms are
 not much  used in ,european ornament1  
though ,indian1 ,saracen1 and ,medival  
decoration abound in examples of the    
treatment of roots4 7,see ,fig4  #ach47 
,the objection to their use is this1    
that it gives the whole  ornament the   
appearance of having been pulled up and 
hung to dry4 ,this  must always be an   
objection to their use1 unless the root 
can be shown  in the ground2            
consequently the ,roman and ,renaissance
 artists let their  ornament            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--;,bracts   
used for 8clothing0 stems in scrolls1   
c4    spring from vases or clusters of  
leaves4 ,when roots are used it is clear
  that the general outline of the root  
must alone be taken1 and the  character 

of the growth expressed simply1 to      
prevent confusion and  obscurity4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--,medival   
and ,oriental root forms4    ,as a rule1
 all redundances1 excrescences1 and     
accidental waywardness of  growth1 that 
might be interesting to a botanist1     
ought to be avoided in  the decorative  
rendering of plant form2 the average    
form and the higher  beauties should    
alone be expressed4 ,though this may    
seem a paradox1 the  less realistic we  
make our designs1 the more nature we put
 into them4  ,we should strive to put   
the most perfect forms of nature into   
our  ornament1 avoiding those that are  
poor and stunted1 as well as            
over-nourished and rank ones1 though    
nature abounds in both4                 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,laurel    
from nature4    ,in ,persian#g ornament 
we find flower and plant forms treated  
in a  thoroughly decorative manner      
7,figs4 #aah and #aai72 the pink and    
hyacinth  were as great favourites with 

,persian decorators as the maple and    
vine  were in medival work1 the lotus   
and papyrus in ,egyptian1 the peony in  
,chinese1 and the chrysanthemum in      
,japanese2 while such styles as the     
,greek1 ,roman1 ,celtic1 and ,saracenic 
are more purely conventional1 and1      
without having much realism1 are still  
based on natural forms4    ,students in 
design cannot be too strongly advised to
 cultivate the habit  of making correct 
drawings of    ,illustration3 ,,figs4   
#adj and #ada4--;,borders derived from  
the laurel4    all kinds of plants1 both
 in flower and fruit1 especially those  
of  single flower and of simple growth1 
accompanied by careful notes of the     
construction at the stem and leaf       
junctions4    ,the botanical analysis of
 a plant may serve a scientific end1 and
 be  useful to show the student the     
construction of the plant1 but it makes 
a  very poor show in an artistic design4
 ,landor the poet said it was an  act of
 cruelty to cut a flower from its stem3 

it would be interesting to  know his    
opinion of that school which believes in
 dissecting plants to  find 8new forms10
 many of whose designs present novelties
 that nature  never dreamt of1 such as  
leaves neatly cut in half1 elevations1  
and  sections of petals1 stamens1       
pistils1 seed pods1 and other curious   
forms  suggested    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #adb4--,wild rose from nature4   
by these dissections1 so that the design
 when completed is an anatomical        
preparation1 and certainly innocent of  
any violation of the second             
commandment4 ,a section through some    
flowers may1 however1 give  suggestions 
of outline for some flat ornament4 ,the 
testimony of the best  old decorative   
design is against this practice4 ,it is 
refreshing to see  that in ,england a   
reaction is setting in1 mainly owing to 
the efforts  of such men as ,sir ,edward
 ,burne-,jones1 ,messrs4 ,morris1       
,crane1 and a few  others1 who prefer   
nature to novelty4    ,illustration3    

,,fig4 #adc4--;,design for a            
paper-hanging from the wild  rose4      
,in selecting plants for particular     
purposes1 it is well to bear in mind    
the material to be decorated1 whether it
 be woven stuff1 wood1 or  metal-work1  
and to choose the kind best adapted to  
the purpose--as the  hare-bell1 the wild
 poppy1 grasses1 and delicate ferns for 
muslins1  cottons1 and lace2 the oak1   
orange1 lemon1 pomegranate1 and the     
mallow  for wood-and for stone-carving1 
and for iron-work4 ,at the same time1 a 
too rigid adherence to these principles 
is not to be advised4 ,what is of  most 
importance is to adhere to the growth   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4--;,borders  
of medallions in enamelled earthenware  
by ,luca della ,robbia4    and character
 of the plant we use2 for instance1 a   
plant like the laurel  7,fig4 #aci7 is  
best suited for an upright or horizontal
 border4 7,see  ,figs4 #adj1 #ada47 ,the
 wild rose 7,fig4 #adb7 and the lemon   
7,fig4 #ade7 are  both    ,illustration3

 ,,fig4 #ade4--,lemon from nature4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--;,design   
for a carved wood panel from the lemon  
plant4    suitable for panels of almost 
any form1 for all-over patterns1 or for 
paper-hangings1 c4 7,see ,figs4 #adc and
 #adf47 ,for narrow upright panels1     
plants of upright growth1 such as the   
lily1 the ox-eye1 and the iris1  c41 are
 most suitable4 7,see for illustrations 
,figs4 #adg and #adh47 ,a  trailing vine
 makes a good ceiling decoration1 and   
was so used by the  ,byzantine mosaic   
workers4 ,lastly1 plants of horizontal  
growth1 such as  the dandelion1 the     
daisy1 c41 looked at from above1 might  
be best  adapted for a floor1 a carpet1 
or a table-cover4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #adg4--,tiger lily from nature4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--,panel     
arrangement from the ,tiger lily4       
,the well-known conventional acanthus   
and its varieties must now be           
described4 ,there have been various     
suggestions concerning the identical    

plant from which the acanthus ornament  
is derived1 but1 like the  anthemion of 
the ,greeks1 there is some              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--;,acanthus 
,mollis from nature4    obscurity about 
it4 ,the story told by ,vitruvius of the
 sculptor  ,callimachus having the      
,corinthian capital suggested to him1 by
 finding  the plant growing round a     
basket covered by a square tile1 is a   
plausible and certainly a pretty one    
7,vit4 lib4 #d1 cap4 #a74 ,at any rate1 
,callimachus is credited by ,vitruvius  
with the first use of the acanthus  in  
capitals4 ,the ornamental forms of the  
acanthus bear little  resemblance to the
 natural leaf4 7,see ,figs4 #adi1 #aej1 
#aea1 and #aeb47 ,the  two latter are   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4--;,acanthus 
,spinosus from nature4    leaves from   
,greek capitals1 the first two have been
 drawn from nature4  ,the acanthus1 as  
we know it in the capitals of the ,greek
 and ,roman  ,corinthian1 and the ,roman
 ,composite orders1 is an artistic      

creation1  adapted to suit the ends of a
 grand style of architecture1 and not an
  imitation of a particular leaf4 ,the  
characteristic difference of the        
classic ornament from the natural leaf  
lies in the 8pipes0 that start  from the
 8eyes0 at the base of the leaflets1    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--;,greek    
acanthus leaf from a capital of the     
,tower of the ,winds4    and1 somewhat  
contrary to nature1 taper downwards to  
the base of the  leaf2 these pipes1     
together with the central stalk1 impart 
that strength  and dignity which is     
necessary for architectural foliage1    
especially  when it adorns the bell of a
 capital4 7,see ,fig4 #aed47 ,the pipes 
are less  important1 and are            
consequently less marked in examples of 
smaller work1  such as may be found in  
the acanthus of candelabra and panels1  
in which  constructive strength is not  
required4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#aeb4--;,greek acanthus leaf with       
flowers from a  capital of the ,choragic

 ,monument of ,lysikrates4    ,on the   
,corinthian capital1 the acanthus       
presents a simple edge exactly  repeated
 on each leaflet1 with far less         
serration than is seen in the  natural  
foliage3 this imparts dignity to the    
leaf4 ,on modillions a more  serrated   
and smaller variety is used1 with the   
stalks and pipes still  prominent2 while
 on candelabra and small pillars the    
leaves lie flatter1  and the leaflets   
overlap1 and owing to the fact that the 
leaves are  smaller in scale and nearer 
to our eyes1 more serrations and more   
detail  may be put into them1 for the   
smaller the scale the more detail is    
necessary4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#aec4--,roman leaf of capital1--the     
olive leaf  acanthus variety1--see      
,introductory ,chapter4                 
,illustration3 ,plan showing stalk1     
pipes1 and undercut channels of ,fig4   
#aec4    7,see ,fig4 #aef47 ,to prevent 
the foliage in the latter examples from 
appearing flimsy1 as it would naturally 

do with an overlapping edge much  cut   
up1 the edges of the leaves should be   
slightly thickened and rounded  so as to
 catch the light1 thus giving a rich    
quality to the decoration4  ,the ,greeks
 mostly used    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#aed4--;,acanthus3 olive leaf variety   
from a capital of  ,mars ,ultor4    that
 kind of acanthus that is known as the  
,acanthus spinosus1 or the  prickly     
variety2 the ,romans preferred the      
,acanthus mollis1 or the  soft-leaved   
kind4 ,the olive-leaf has been used for 
the raffles of the  leaves in the       
capitals of ,jupiter ,stator1 ,mars     
,ultor1 and the ,pantheon  at ,rome 7see
 ,figs4 #aed1 #ahe1 and #ahh71 while at 
the ,temple of ,vesta at  ,tivoli the   
capitals have the oak-leaved variety4 ,a
 bit of the  soft-leaved acanthus is    
shown at ,fig4 #aee from the soffit of  
the  architrave at the temple of        
,jupiter    ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#aee4--,soft-leaved acanthus from the   
soffit of the  architrave at the temple 

of ,jupiter ,stator4    ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #aef4--;,acanthus used on        
candelabra and small  pillars4          
,stator4 ,the ,romans sometimes used the
 acanthus in a lavish way1  overloading 
mouldings with it2 the cornice of the   
,temple of ,jupiter  ,tonans1 for       
instance1 is overdone with decoration4  
7,see ,fig4 #ahf47 ,the  more modern    
type of acanthus used on majolica       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--,water     
plant stem1 showing channelling4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--;,acanthus 
and water leaf foliage from an  antique 
,roman shaft4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#aei4--,modern varieties of sea-weed and
 poppy-leaved  acanthus used in         
decoration4    plates and in painted    
decoration is of a very free character1 
but it  only holds a secondary place1   
being generally found in combination    
with  animal forms and grotesques4 ,the 
utmost freedom in the curve and reflex  
curve may be allowed in the painted     
forms of the acanthus2 this being       

logical enough when we consider that the
 greater part of the leafage is         
generated by the free play of the brush4
 7,see ,fig4 #aei47 ,the arabesques  of 
the ,vatican1 and the ,italian          
cinque-cento ware1 afford the best      
examples of this painted foliage4 ,the  
acanthus was the parent of nearly  all  
the subsequent styles of decorative     
foliage down to the ,saracenic  and late
 ,romanesque1 and its modifications have
 shown the difficulty of  improving on  
the ,classic type4 ,we are advised by   
ornamentalists and  writers on art to   
seek for a new leaf that might in time  
rival the  acanthus in ornament4 ,the   
advice may be good1 and many have given 
their  attention to it1 but no lasting  
results have as yet been obtained4 ,of  
late years there is a kind of           
scroll-work much favoured by some       
ornamentalists4 ,it cannot of course be 
called new1 few things can be in  this  
world2 but its persistent application1  
from illumination to  stone-carving1    

will perhaps in time stamp it with a    
traditional  character4 ,the foliage is 
more like sea-weed than anything else1  
but it  also has a faint resemblance to 
the acanthus1 the ox-eye1 and the wild  
poppy 7,fig4 #aei74 ,we have no fixed   
principles of ornamental art2 even      
ornamentalists themselves disagree as to
 what is good1 and what is bad1  so that
 nothing lives long enough to become    
national ornament4 ,how can  we hope to 
vie with the ornamental                 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--,winter    
aspect of a pear tree1 illustrating     
8balance0 in nature4    art of ,greece1 
when the artists disagree and the nation
 is indifferent2  while the ,greeks     
enjoyed unity of artistic thought1 and  
gloried in the  worship of the          
beautiful8 ,to gain a fuller insight    
into the delicate  varieties of the     
acanthus1 the student is advised to     
carefully examine  and draw the foliage 
in the pilasters of ,louis ,,xii4's     
tomb4 ,the late  ,alfred ,stevens has   

done more than any one of late years to 
properly  apply the acanthus4 7,see     
,fig4 #acb47          ,,chapter ,,viii  
,the 8symbolic0 and 8mnemonic0 classes  
of ornament are large1 and are          
interesting alike to the historian1 the 
antiquary1 and the student of  art4 ,it 
is not easy to draw the line between    
them1 as the latter skirts  the ground  
of the former so closely4 ,mnemonic     
ornament is that class  which includes  
written characters1 signs1              
hieroglyphics1 and natural  forms as    
aids to memory4 ,the scenes1 facts1 or  
ideas so recalled may or  may not be in 
relation to the thing decorated2 e4g4 we
 see texts from  the ,korn in ,kufic and
 other characters1 used to decorate the 
walls and  gateways of mosques1 and     
dresses1 vases1 candlesticks1 and other 
articles of domestic use4 ,japanese     
ornament abounds in mnemonic  characters
 with or without other forms4 ,all      
writing came from the  picture-writing  
of barbarous tribes2 the symbols of     

these pictures were  used on the one    
hand for letters1 and on the other for  
ideas4 ,in the  decorative art of most  
nations1 inscriptions can be found on   
their  buildings1 utensils1 and articles
 of luxury2 and as in the case of some  
illuminated manuscripts1 it is not only 
difficult to know where the  lettering  
ends1 and the ornament begins1 but      
whether the main end was  not ornament  
rather than instruction4 ,the art of    
illumination or  decorative writing     
really begins when there is a desire to 
have the  written matter presented in a 
beautiful form1 and to those who could  
not  read the illumination alone was of 
importance4 ,in the hands of artists    
letters have often been arranged as a   
highly ornamental cipher4  ,monogram and
 cipher are almost synonymous terms2 the
 former differs  only from the latter in
 this respect1 that a monogram may have 
different  forms of the letters in      
different positions1 and still have the 
same  meaning1 while a cipher cannot    

have more than one particular form or   
else it defeats its purpose1 if used as 
a signet or as a trade-mark4 ,the       
decorations found on the tombs1         
sarcophagi1 and stone tablets1 c41 of   
ancient ,egypt are mnemonical in        
character1 and this was the primary     
reason of their existence3 they were    
sculptured on the granite slabs1 to     
record the names and virtues of the     
deceased kings and persons of note1  but
 at the same time they were made        
pleasing to the eye2 the perfect        
balance and even distribution of these  
inscriptions render them highly         
decorative1 and they become mnemonic    
ornament4 7,see ,fig4 #afb47 ,this      
diagram is the hieroglyphic inscription 
taken from the famous 8,tablet of  ,four
 ,hundred ,years40 ,it is the third line
 of the twelve on this  monument1 and is
 thus translated3 8,king of ,upper and  
,lower ,egypt1  ,ra-user-ma1            
,sotep-en-ra1 ,son of ,ra1 ,ramases     
,mer-amen1 ,chieftain  enriching the    

lands with memorials of his name40 ,the 
inscription at ,fig4  #afc occurs       
frequently in ,japanese pottery2 it     
represents the word 8,jiu10  meaning    
longevity or everlasting life4 ,the     
,japanese symbols of  longevity are the 
following3 the god of longevity1 a very 
old man with a  large head and merry    
countenance1 holding a scroll in his    
hands1 and  accompanied by a crane1 as  
an attribute1 and sometimes by a stork  
or a  sacred tortoise4 ,the crane itself
 is a symbol of long life2 the bamboo1  
the fir1 and the plum together make a   
second2 and the gourd is another4       
,religion has had1 from the earliest    
period of man's history1 ,art for its   
earthly handmaid1 and nine-tenths of    
symbolic ornament pertains to  religious
 ordinances and ceremonies4 ,nearly all 
the beginnings of art  expressed        
religious thought by means of symbols2  
the picture writing of  barbarians1 the 
hieroglyphic or priestly compositions of
 the ,egyptians  on papyrus and granite1

 the ,runic and ,ogham inscriptions of  
the ,northmen  and ancient ,celts1 were 
alike endowed with an occult meaning1   
but they  were symbols to the initiated 
only4 ,a good example of symbolic       
ornament  may be seen at ,fig4 #afd4    
,the winged globe so common in ,egyptian
 art has  been found sculptured on the  
lintels of temple doorways almost thirty
  feet in length4 ,the globe is said to 
symbolize the sun1 the outspread  wings 
the overshadowing presence of           
,providence1 and the asps dominion or   
the monarchy4 ,the ,scarab1 or winged   
beetle 7,fig4 #afa71 is an emblem of    
the ,creator or ,maker4 ,the disc or    
ball that it holds between its claws  is
 said to represent the ,sun1 from which 
all life is derived4 ,another  and more 
natural meaning attached to the disc is 
that it represents the  ball containing 
the egg which the beetle usually rolls  
to a place of  safety1 where it is      
buried1 and in course of time new life  
will spring  from it4 ,this emblem      

occurs as a central ornament in some    
,egyptian  ceilings4 ,nearly all        
,egyptian ornament was symbolic4 ,the   
canons or laws  laid down by the        
,egyptian priests and chief scribes for 
the guidance of  artists were for       
centuries unvarying2 every ornament1    
including  representations of the human 
figure1 was drawn and sculptured by     
rule1  and no one was allowed to alter  
the type under severe penalties4 ,the   
blue ,nymphea or lotus flower is        
pre-eminently characteristic of         
,egyptian  ornament 7see ,fig4 #afe72 it
 was sacred as the type of coming       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--;,egyptian 
,scarabeus4    plenty1 as it appeared   
just before the springing of the crops1 
and  immediately after the subsidence of
 the ,nile2 it was therefore to the     
,egyptians the harbinger of their daily 
bread1 so there need be little  wonder  
that it was worshipped by them as the   
emblem of earthly goodness4  ,there is a
 species of lotus that bears fruit1 and 

it is said that the  form of the ,jewish
 seven-branched candlestick was derived 
from it4 ,the  lotus was used in the    
decoration of everything ,egyptian1 the 
fresh  flowers were used in garnishing  
the offerings to their gods1 and was    
also presented as a peace offering to   
strangers and visitors4 ,next           
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#afb4--;,inscription from an ,egyptian  
tablet4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#afc4--;,japanese inscription1 8,jiu10  
or 8long life40    ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #afd4--,winged-globe and asps1         
,egyptian ,symbolic  ornament4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--,symbolic  
ornament1 the ,egyptian lotus and       
water4    in importance to the lotus    
came the palm as a symbolical plant2    
this was  used by the ,assyrians in     
their bas-reliefs4 ,it was1 when        
surrounded by  the sacred hom1 called   
the 8tree of life0 7,fig4 #aff74 ,the   
date-palm is  here surrounded by the    
sacred hom1 which grew on the slopes of 

the  ,hindoo ,kush1 and was the plant   
from which inebriating drink was first  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,sacred    
tree of life or hom 7,british ,museum71 
from an ,assyrian bas-relief4    made by
 the ,aryans4 ,the date-palm was        
certainly the tree of life to  ,eastern 
nations1 affording them food1 alcoholic 
drink1#h and shelter4  ,many animals1   
birds1 and hybrid creations1 such as the
 ,egyptian sphinx  and the winged bull  
of ,assyria1 had symbolical meanings4   
,the fir-cone1 so common in ,assyrian   
ornament1 was an emblem of fire1 as  the
 lotus was an emblem of water1 and this 
cone placed on a staff1 and  adorned    
with ribbons1 was carried by the        
,bacchanals and ,mnads when  celebrating
 the festivals of ,dionysus1 the ,greek 
,bacchus4 ,this is known  as the        
8thyrsus10 or staff of ,bacchus4 7,see  
,fig4 #afg47 ,the pine-tree was  sacred 
to ,dionysus1 from its supplying        
turpentine    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#afg4--,three forms of the thyrsus or   

staff of  ,bacchus4    to make torches2 
wine also was made from its cones1 both 
important  elements in these festivals4 
,the head of the thyrsus was often made 
of  ivy leaves instead of the pine-cone1
 and ,bacchus is said to have  concealed
 spears under this head of leaves1 and  
thus overcome those who  were inimical  
to him 7,diodorus ,sic4 lib4 iii4 cap4  
iv42 ,ovid's  ,metamor4 iii4 #ffg74 ,the
 vine and the ivy were also sacred to   
,bacchus1  and are symbolical of him in 
,greek and ,roman decoration4 ,early    
,christian  and medival art are also    
teeming with symbolic ornaments4 ,these 
ornaments are often called indifferently
 8emblems10 8attributes10  8symbols10 c4
 ,allegory is a kind of parable1 and the
 word is often  applied to allegorical  
painting or sculpture1 which is a       
representation  of one thing under the  
image of another1 and is mostly         
expressed by  human or animal forms4#i  
,in a recent picture called 8,hope10 by 
,mr4  ,watts1 we have a fine allegorical

 illustration1 in a figure seated on a  
sphere1 or the world1 bending her ear to
 catch the strains of a lyre  which she 
plays1 which has only one string left2  
there is a weird  feeling of loneliness 
about the composition1 just relieved    
from utter  desolation by the music that
 is left in the one string4             
,,chapter ,,ix      ,the arabesques of  
the ,vatican have been noticed before2  
there were1  however1 arabesques on the 
ceiling of the ,sala del ,cambio at     
,perugia1  painted by ,perugino1        
,raphael's master1 also in the ,borgia  
apartment at  the ,vatican1 and in the  
,villa ,madama2 arabesques of the latter
 are said  to have been copied from the 
plaster work in ,hadrian's villa near   
,tivoli4    ,raphael1 being one of the  
greatest modern painters1 added to the  
beauty  of this sort of decoration by   
the exquisite drawing and composition of
  the figures4 ,some of the medallions  
at the ,loggias contain subjects said   
to be taken from antique gems1 and      

,scripture subjects are also            
introduced2 the expulsion of ,adam and  
,eve from ,paradise is balanced by  one 
of ,omphale and ,hercules1 the queen    
having the club4    ,when a cipher or a 
sign conveys to our minds an idea1 or an
 association  of ideas1 we call it a    
8symbol10 particularly if the idea is   
connected  with religion4 ,the commonest
 form met with in symbolic art is the   
circle1 as the symbol of eternity1 from 
its having neither beginning nor        
ending2 it often appears as a serpent   
with its tail in its mouth1 for  this1  
like many other ,pagan symbols1 was     
adopted by the early  ,christians4 ,the 
circle in the shape of a wheel has      
perhaps had the  widest signification in
 art4 ,the wheel of fire1 or sun-wheel1 
was an  emblem of the ,teutonic         
sun-worshippers4 ,the tchakra1 or sacred
 wheel1  is the emblem of the religion  
of ,brahma2 it is the shield of ,brahma 
and  ,vishnu1 as a wheel of fire2 it is 
to the ,siamese a type of universal     

dominion1 a sign of disaster1 and the   
symbol of eternity4 7,see ,fig4  #afh47 
,the wheel form at ,fig4 #afi is the    
kikumon or badge of the ,empire  of     
,japan2 it is derived1 however1 from the
 chrysanthemum4    ,illustration3       
,,fig4 #afh4--,the 8tchakra10 or sacred 
wheel of ,brahma and ,vishnu1       also
 called the 8wheel of fire40            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--,kiku-,mon1
 badge of the empire of ,japan4         
,christian art1 from the beginning of   
the first century of our era to the     
fourth1 consisted almost entirely of    
symbols4 ,the first ,christians were    
fearful lest their new converts should  
relapse into ,paganism1 and so  avoided 
images2 and being persecuted they used  
only a few symbols such  as the fish1   
the dove1 the lamb1 and the monogram of 
,christ4 ,this last  consisted of two   
,greek letters ,x and ,p 7,chi and      
,rho71 the ,chi forming  the cross as   
shown at ,a in ,fig4 #agj2 another form 
of this is shown at ,b1  in which a     

cross has the ,rho formed on the upright
 stem1 and has the  first and last      
letters of the ,greek alphabet 7,alpha  
and ,omega7 written  beneath the arms4  
,this form sometimes appears on the     
nimbus over the  head of a lamb2 the    
latter sometimes stands on a round hill1
 at the  bottom of which issue four     
streams1 the whole symbol signifying    
8,christ  the first and the last1 the   
,lamb of ,god10 the streams 8the four   
evangelists whose gospels are the water 
of life to the whole world40    ,at ,c1 
,fig #agj1 we have the monogram that the
 ,emperor ,constantine placed  on the   
labarum1 or    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#agj4--,sacred ,monograms in ,christian 
,art4    ,imperial standard1 after his  
conversion2 it was woven in gold on     
purple  cloth4 ,christ was sometimes    
represented as ,orpheus1 with a lyre in 
his  hand1 amid the birds and beasts2   
the commonest personification of ,him   
was1 however1 as the ,good ,shepherd    
caring for ,his sheep1 in which ,he was 

always represented young and beautiful4 
,every allegorical representation  of   
the ,founder of the ,christian religion 
was rendered pleasing to the  eye of the
 new converts1 and anything pertaining  
to the dreadful scene  of the           
,crucifixion was avoided4 ,the          
,christian ,church was symbolized  under
 the form of a ship1 with our ,lord as  
the pilot and the  congregation as the  
passengers2 whence we may have the word 
nave 7of  a church71 from navis1 a ship2
 naus1 a ship1 was also the ,greek name 
for the inner part of a temple4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#aga4--;,counterchange ornament1        
,spanish embroidery4    ,the dove in    
,christian art is the emblem of fidelity
 and of the ,holy  ,spirit1 the pelican 
of the ,atonement1 and the phnix of the 
,resurrection4 ,one of the symbols of   
our ,lord is a fish1 because its  ,greek
 name  7,ichthus7 contains the initials 
of 8,jesus ,christ1 the  ,son of ,god1  
the ,saviour40 ,it was also used as the 

symbol of a ,christian  passing through 
the world without being sullied by it1  
as the fish is  sweet1 in spite of its  
living in salt water2 it is found       
engraved in the  soft stone of the      
,roman catacombs 7where the early       
,christians took  refuge71 with the     
monogram and other inscriptions4 ,the   
,vesica piscis1  or fish form1 often    
encloses the ,virgin and ,child1 and is 
the common  form of the seals of        
religious houses1 abbeys1 colleges1 c4  
,the four  evangelists are represented  
respectively as a lion1 a calf1 a man1  
and  an eagle1--,st4 ,mark being the    
lion1 the calf ,st4 ,luke1 the man ,st4 
,matthew1 and the eagle ,st4 ,john4     
,illustration3 ,,fig3 #agb4--,moresque  
,counterchange pattern1 inlaid  marble4 
,many plants are used as symbols in     
,christian art3 the vine1 as typical  of
 ,christ1 during ,byzantine times and   
the ,middle ,ages4 ,in ,scripture we    
find frequent allusions to the vine and 
grapes2 the wine-press is  typical of   

the 8,passion10 as we read in ,isaiah4  
,the passion-flower1 as  its name       
denotes1 was1 and is1 used as an emblem 
of the death of ,christ4  ,the lily is  
the emblem of purity1 and has always    
been used as the  attribute of the      
,virgin ,mary in pictures of the        
,annunciation4 ,we find  this plant     
often engraved on the tombs of early    
,christian virgins4 ,from  the iris1    
formerly called a lily1 is derived the  
flower de luce1 or  fleur-de-lis1 one of
 the finest conventional renderings of  
any flower2  it was much used as a      
decoration in sculpture1 painting1 and  
weaving  during the thirteenth and      
following centuries4 ,it was the royal  
insignia  of ,france2 medival ,florence 
bore it on her shield and on her coin1  
the  fiorino2 and it was used in the    
crowns of many sovereigns1 from ,king   
,solomon down to our own ,queen4 ,the   
trefoil is an emblem of the ,trinity1   
and is a common form in ,gothic         
decoration4    ,illustration3 ,,figs4   

#agc and #agd4--;,interchange ornament4 
,the symbolic and mnemonic classes have 
now been described1 and the  sthetic    
alone remains4 sthetic form we owe to   
the clearness and  directness of the    
,greek mind4 ,the ,greeks were contented
 with the simple  solution of the       
problem before them1 which was to       
beautify what they had  in hand4 ,if    
they wanted allegorical subjects they   
confined them to their  figure subjects1
 and being thus freed from other        
disturbing elements1  they concentrated 
their whole attention on perfecting     
floral form4 ,they  attained perfection 
in this as they did in their figures1 by
 correcting  the peculiarities of the   
individual by a study of the best       
specimens of  a whole class2 and thus   
succeeded in making the most perfect    
type of  radiating ornament1 and of     
adapting it to sculpture and painting1  
on  flat and curved surfaces4 ,this     
ornament has perfect fitness1 for you   
can  neither add to it nor take away    

from it without spoiling its perfection4
  ,the same may be said1 only in a minor
 degree1 of the colour applied to  the  
carved patterns of the ,saracens and    
,moors3 they are both sthetic  works1   
solely created for their beauty4 ,a     
symphony in music is a  composition of  
harmonious sounds2 it has little        
subject-matter1 and is  analogous to    
sthetic ornament1 only the ear is       
charmed by the former1  as the eye is by
 the latter4          ,,appendix    ,,on
 ,,the ,,orders ,,of ,,architecture     
,it seemed to me that a short chapter on
 the orders would be useful to          
students1 not only because so much      
ornament is used as an enrichment to    
architecture itself1 but also because a 
very much larger proportion of  it is   
used in conjunction with architecture1  
and without some slight  knowledge of   
the subject1 the ornament and the       
architecture1 instead of  setting off   
each other's characteristic beauties1   
are apt to spoil one  another4 ,the     

rigid lines of architecture should act  
as a foil to the  graceful curves of    
ornament1 and the plain faces should not
 only set off  fretted surfaces1 but    
make the undulations of carved ornament 
precious4  ,when ,i speak of ornament1  
,i include the highest form of it1 the  
human  figure1 and ,i may point to the  
,doric frieze of the ,greeks as a       
brilliant  example of success4 ,this    
conjunction of ornament and             
architecture1  however1 demands high    
qualities in the ornament1 and insight  
in the  artists as to what is wanted for
 mutual contrast or emphasis2 and if    
this be successfully accomplished1 ,i   
think it must be conceded that the      
combined work gives a finer result than 
the uncombined excellence of  each4     
,mean ornament1 whether of figures or   
plants1 tends to degrade the            
architecture with which it is           
associated1 and may spoil it by the main
  lines not properly contrasting with   
the adjacent architectural forms1 or  by

 the ornament being on too large a      
scale4 ,i have seen in modern work1  the
 stately dignity of a grand room utterly
 destroyed by colossal  figures4        
,michelangelo1 in his superb ceiling at 
the ,sistine ,chapel1 has  by use of    
gigantic figures dwarfed the vast chapel
 into a doll's house4  ,i may add that  
there is monumental colouring as well as
 monumental form3  the finest examples  
of such colouring may be seen in many of
 the grand  buildings in ,italy and at  
,constantinople1 notably at ,st4 ,mark's
 and at  ,sta4 ,sophia2 but you may also
 see magnificent halls and churches1    
coloured to look like ,french           
plum-boxes4    ,the elaborate system of 
proportioning parts to one another and  
to the  whole1 which is so important in 
architecture as to be its main          
characteristic1 is equally valuable for 
the division of spaces for  ornament4   
,mouldings which form so great a feature
 in architecture as to have given  rise 
to the saying that 8mouldings are       

architecture10 give lessons in  elegance
 of shape1 and in the proper contrast of
 forms1 that are useful  to the         
ornamentalist who has to design the     
shapes of small objects2  while the     
,corinthian capital has been the        
prototype of most of the  floral        
capitals up to the present day4    ,it  
is admitted that in those periods of    
history when architecture1  sculpture1  
and painting attained their highest     
excellence1 the painter1  sculptor1 and 
architect have not only sympathized with
 one another1 but  each one has been no 
mean judge of the sister arts4 ,at the  
,renaissance1  and immediately before   
it1 artists are to be found who were    
goldsmiths1  sculptors1 painters1 and   
architects1 and some few who were poets1
  musicians1 and engineers as well4     
,the origin of the orders was probably  
in the verandah of the ,greek  wooden   
hut4 ,in some of the paintings on the   
,greek vases may be seen the  processes 
by which the ,doric and ,ionic capitals 

were evolved2 but for  our purpose1     
which is not archology1 only some of the
 best examples  need be referred to1    
after the wooden hut had been converted 
into a  marble temple4    ,an order     
consists of a column supporting an      
architrave1 frieze1 and  cornice1 which 
is called the entablature4 ,the column  
generally consists  of a shaft1 a       
capital1 and a base1 except in the      
,doric columns of the  ,greeks and early
 ,romans1 which were baseless4 ,the     
capital was the  capping-piece which you
 now see put on the tops of story-posts 
by  carpenters to shorten the bearing of
 the bressummer4 ,the architrave was    
what we now call a bressummer1 and bore 
the trusses of the roof2 the  fascias of
 the architrave show that in some       
instances this bressummer  was composed 
of three balks of timber1 each          
projecting slightly over the  one below4
 ,the frieze was the wide band          
immediately above the architrave  and   
below the cornice1 comprising the       

triglyphs or ends of the trusses1  and  
the filling in between them1 which is   
called the metope4 ,the metopes  were   
left open in early ,greek temples1 but  
were eventually filled with  sculpture4 
,the cornice was the projecting boarded 
caves2 while the  slanting              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4--,the       
,parthenon4 ,greek ,doric3 enlarged     
section  of annulets at ,a4             
undersides of the mutules were copied   
from the slanting timbers of the  roof4 
,i will speak first of the ,greek       
orders1 not only because they were the  
earliest1 but because the ,greeks showed
 the greatest artistic  sensibility in  
their choice of forms1 in the           
composition of lines1 and  in their     
arrangements for light and shade4 ,i    
begin with the ,,doric4 ,the  shaft is  
conical1 and fluted with twenty shallow 
segmental flutes that  finished under   
the capital1 which consists of a thick  
square cap called  the abacus1 with a   
circular echinus under it1 finished at  

the bottom  with rings called annulets1 
and a little below them is a deep narrow
  sunk chase called the necking1 and the
 shaft has no base4    ,the ,greeks were
 a seafaring people1 mainly inhabiting  
the sea-shore1 the  islands of the      
,archipelago1 and the edges of ,asia    
,minor1 and were thus  acquainted with  
the forms of the sea and of shells4 ,the
 echinus of the  ,doric capital         
resembles the shell of the sea-urchin1  
or echinus1 when it  has lost its       
spines1 and was probably called after   
it4 ,the ovolo  moulding that was most  
used was called the cyma or wave4 ,at   
the  ,parthenon1 the finest example of  
the ,doric1 the architrave is plain1 and
  was once adorned with golden shields  
and inscriptions2 it is capped by a     
square moulding called the tnia or band2
 the frieze1 with its square  cymatium1 
is capped with a carved astragal1 and is
 divided  longitudinally by the         
triglyphs1 projecting pieces1 ornamented
 with two  whole and two half vertical  

channels1 from which the word triglyph  
takes  its name2 below the tnia is a    
narrower square moulding the width of   
the  triglyph1 and beneath it1          
ornamented with drops called gutt4 ,i   
may  point to this as a most artistic   
device both to relieve the monotony of  
the tnia and to weld the architrave with
 the frieze4 ,the triglyphs  begin at   
the angles of the frieze1 and range     
centrally over all the rest  of the     
columns1 with an additional triglyph    
between each1 though in the  frieze over
 the larger central opening of the      
,propylum there are two  intermediate   
triglyphs2 the nearly-square metopes    
between the triglyphs  are filled with  
figure-sculpture4 ,the cornice consists 
of the square  mutule band1 from which  
the mutules project1 whose slanting     
underside is  enriched with drops2 and  
above the mutules is their capping1 a   
narrow  fascia under the corona2 the    
corona or main projecting member of the 
cornice is throated at the bottom1 and  

its capping consists of a wide  fillet1 
deeply-throated1 with a hawk's-bill     
moulding under it4 ,these  together form
 the most superb piece of architectural 
work that exists1  and has called forth 
the rapturous admiration of all the     
tasteful in the  world1 from the time it
 was built to the time of ,ernest       
,renan1 one of  its latest distinguished
 admirers4    ,i have lingered over this
 order because it is a masterpiece for  
all  time4 ,those who have seen it in   
,england alone are possibly convinced   
that this praise has been ill-bestowed2 
yet even these would change  their      
opinion if they saw it when perfectly   
white on a clear day in  bright         
sunshine2 but in ,london1 even at its   
best1 the clear air and  fierce sun of  
,athens is wanting1 as well as the      
pentelic marble1 and the  chances are   
that the sculpture in the metopes has   
been left out4 ,this  ,doric of the     
,greeks is true architecture1 fitted to 
the climate1 and  made by men of genius 

to charm the most gifted race the world 
has seen4  ,to the ,greek architect no  
thought and no labour was too great in  
designing his building1 to form it so   
that the sun would play melodies  on it 
from dawn to dusk4 ,such truly national 
architecture cannot be  imported into a 
different climate without losing most of
 its effect1 nor  can it be transferred 
to a coarse and opaque material without 
losing  much of its charm2 while its    
sculpture1 the finest the world has yet 
seen1 portrayed national traditions or  
events connected with its faith4  ,but  
even here in ,london1 if you see        
paraphrases of ,greek architecture  just
 painted white on a clear sunshiny day1 
you will see a faint reflex  of its     
pristine glory4 ,the rising moon that   
the sun makes on the  echinus1          
contrasted with soft graduated warm     
shades and sharp blue  shadows1 is the  
finest thing an architect has ever      
compassed4 ,the  splendid sculpture that
 adorned its metopes may be seen in the 

,elgin  room of the ,british ,museum4   
,this one example is a model for those  
who  seek perfection in exquisite       
simplicity1 for almost all the mouldings
  are square ones1 and there is no      
enrichment beyond the highest           
figure-sculpture1 and one little carved 
astragal2 and ,i may add1 that  the     
perfection of the whole composition of  
the ,temple is as great as  that of this
 part4      ,,the ,,ionic4    ,the      
example1 given on account of its        
simplicity1 is from the ,temple on  the 
river ,ilissus4 ,the column differs from
 that of the ,doric by being of         
slenderer proportions1 by having        
twenty-four deep elliptical flutes with 
fillets in its shaft1 by having a       
cushioned capital inserted between the  
thin moulded    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#agf4--;,entablature1 capital and base  
of the ,greek  ,ionic ,temple on the    
,ilissus4    abacus1 and a shallow      
echinus carved with the egg and tongue4 
,the  peculiarity of this cushioned cap 

is1 that each side of the front and     
back faces are formed into volutes1 and 
come down considerably below the  bottom
 of the capital1 and are carved on the  
faces with a shell  spiral4#aj ,the     
junctions of the plain surfaces of the  
volutes with the  projecting circular   
echinus are masked by a half            
honeysuckle4 ,at the  bottom of the     
shaft is a circular pedestal or base of 
slight projection1  consisting of an    
upper and lower torus joined by a hollow
 7trochilus71  the upper torus being    
horizontally fluted and the lower one   
plain1 and  there is no square plinth4  
,in this case the architrave is deep and
 without fascias1 though the  ,ionic    
order has mostly three fascias2 its     
capping 7cymatium7 consists of  a fillet
 with a plain cyma and astragal beneath4
 ,the frieze1 which has  no triglyphs1  
is supposed to have been sculptured with
 figures2 its  cymatium consists of an  
ogee and astragal1 to admit which the   
underside  of the corona is deeply      

hollowed out2 the cymatium of the corona
  consists of a narrow fillet and a     
cyma4 ,the crowning member probably     
only existed on the raking sides of the 
pediment4    ,as this is not a treatise 
for architects1 but a sketch of the     
subject  for ornamentalists1 one example
 is enough to show the difference       
between  the ,doric and ,ionic1 but the 
capital of the most ornate example1 that
 of  the ,erechtheum1 is given2 its main
 differences from the former one being  
these1 that the ornaments on the        
mouldings are carved instead of only    
being painted1 that in the entablature  
there are three fascias to the          
architrave1 that the column has a neck  
carved with floral ornaments and  a     
carved necking1 and the sweeps of the   
capital as well as the spirals  of the  
volutes are more numerous4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4--,side      
elevation1 plan1 and section of the     
,ionic  capital1 from the ,temple on the
 ,ilissus4    ,side ,elevation4 ,plan4  

,section4 ,section4    ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #agh4--;,greek ,ionic3 half of   
the ,capitol from the  north portico of 
the ,erechtheum at ,athens4 ,a is a     
regular guilloche  with coloured glass  
beads in the eyes4    ,i have given too 
the capital of the internal ,ionic      
columns of ,apollo  ,epicurius at ,bass1
 to show how much it is improved by     
making the top of  the capital curved   
instead of straight4 ,the ,ionic is more
 graceful and  as a rule more ornate    
than the ,doric1 but is not so majestic4
 ,capitals  from the    ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #agi4--;,capital from the ,temple
 of ,apollo ,epicurius at  ,bass4 ,greek
 ,ionic4    ,erechtheum1 from the       
,temple at ,bass1 from the last ,temple 
of ,diana at  ,ephesus1 and from the    
,mausoleum are at the ,british ,museum4 
,,the ,,corinthian4    ,callimachus1    
according to ,vitruvius1 invented this  
capital1 and is  supposed to have lived 
about #cif ,b4,c41 forty years before   
,alexander the  ,great was born4        

,besides the beauty of this order of the
 choragic  monument of ,lysikrates1 it  
is the only undoubted and complete      
,greek  specimen that we have in        
,europe4 ,the main importance of the    
invention1  besides its intrinsic       
beauty1 is its being adopted by the     
,romans as  their favourite order and   
used throughout their dominions4 ,i give
 you  here the story ,vitruvius tells of
 its invention4 ,besides the prettiness 
of the story1 it serves as an incitement
 to the reflection1 that if  those whose
 hand and eye are trained will only     
observe what they see1  they may get    
notions for inventions4    8,a          
marriageable maid1 a citizen of         
,corinth1 was taken ill and died4       
,after her burial1 her nurse gathered   
the things in which the maid most       
delighted when she was alive1 put them  
into a basket1 and carried them  to the 
grave and put them on the top1 and so   
that they might last the  longer in the 
open air1 covered them with a tile4 ,by 

chance this basket  was put on an       
acanthus root4 ,the acanthus root       
meanwhile1 pressed by the  weight1 put  
forth its leaves and shoots about spring
 time2 these shoots  growing against the
 sides of the basket1 were forced to    
bend their tops  by the weight of the   
corners of the tile and to make         
themselves into  volutes4 ,then         
,callimachus1 who from the elegance and 
subtlety of his  sculpture was called   
,catatechnos by the ,athenians1 passing 
by that  grave1 noticed the basket and  
the tender growth of leaves round it1   
and  charmed by the style and novelty of
 its form1 made his columns among the   
,corinthians after that pattern40 7,vit4
 lib4 #d1 cap4 i4 pp4 #i1 #aj47         
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ahj4--;,entablature1 capital and base  
of the  ,lysikrates monument4 ,greek    
,corinthian4    ,a ,corinthian capital  
was found by ,professor ,cockerell in   
the ,temple at  ,bass1 supposed by him  
to have been used there4 ,another was   

found at  ,athens by ,inwood1 and there 
is a graceful capital of one of the     
engaged  ,corinthian columns at the     
,temple of ,apollo ,didymus1 at         
,branchid1 near  ,miletus1 of unknown   
date4    ,i do not look on work as      
,greek that was done after the second   
century  ,b4,c41 when ,greece became a  
,roman province4    ,the ,corinthian    
capital of the monument of ,lysikrates  
is more than one  and a half times as   
high as the lower diameter of the       
column1 while the  ,doric capital of the
 ,parthenon is only about half a        
diameter to the  necking1 and the ,ionic
 capital of the ,erechtheum about       
eight-tenths4    ,the abacus of the     
capital is deep and moulded1 is hollowed
 out  horizontally on the four sides in 
plan1 and has the sharp angles of the   
abacus cut off4 ,the floral cap consists
 of a bottom range of sixteen  plain    
water leaves1 about half the height of  
the eight acanthus leaves  of the upper 
row2 these have a blossom between each  

pair of leaves4    ,above the top1 and  
at the sides of the centre leaf1 on each
 of the four  sides of the capital1     
spring two acanthus sheaths1 out of each
 sheath  spring three cauliculi2 the one
 most distant from the centre forms a   
volute under one side of the angle of   
the abacus1 and is supported by  the    
turned-over top leaf of the sheath2 the 
lowest cauliculi form two  volutes      
touching one another at the centre4 ,the
 third cauliculus comes  from between   
the two former1 and forms much smaller  
volutes than those  immediately below   
them1 touching    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#aha4--;,capital of the ,lysikrates     
monument4 ,greek  ,corinthian4    at the
 centre1 but turning the reverse way to 
those beneath2 from the  middle of these
 springs a honeysuckle1 whose top is as 
high as the top  of the abacus1 and     
there is a little floral sprig between  
the angle  volutes and the honeysuckle1 
to relieve the bareness of the basket or
  bell4 ,the foliage of this capital is 

exquisitely graceful1 but the  outline  
of the capital is not happy4 ,the       
entablature is ,ionic1 to leave  the    
frieze clear for the sculptured history 
of ,bacchus1 turning some  pirates into 
dolphins4 ,the architrave is deep with  
three equal fascias1  the face of each  
one inclined inwards1 and a cymatium4   
,above the  cymatium of the frieze is a 
cornice with a heavy dentilled bed      
mould4    ,the ,greeks were consummate  
artists1 who bore in mind the adage that
  8rules are good for those who can do  
without them10 and adapted every  part  
of their buildings to produce the effect
 of light and shade they  wanted4 ,the  
profiles of their mouldings were mostly 
slightly different  in every example we 
have1 and mostly approximate to conic   
sections1 so  as to have the shade less 
uniform1 segments of circles being      
rarely  used2 and there was in ,athens  
an affluence of excellent figure        
sculptors4    ,it has always seemed to  
me that the slight variations the       

,greeks made in  their profiles to get  
perfection1 and their passion for       
simplicity1 were  greatly due to their  
intimate knowledge of the nude human    
figure4 ,all  their recruits were       
exercised naked1 and they must have     
noticed that the  perfecting of the     
human shape by training was brought     
about by slight  variations4      ,,the 
,,roman ,,orders4    ,the ,romans1 great
 people as they were in subjugating1    
governing1 and  civilizing so great a   
portion of the world1 and possibly on   
that very  account1 were                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4--,the       
,tuscan order4    not artistic in the   
sense that the ,greeks were4 ,the       
,romans were slaves  to easy rules and  
methods2 most1 if not all1 the profiles 
of their  mouldings were struck with    
compasses1 and they were almost         
destitute of  good figure sculptors4    
,they had1 however1 a passion for       
magnificence1  and for ornate           
stateliness and dignity1 and they rarely

 failed to get  these in their public   
monuments4    ,besides the three orders 
which were taken from the debased ,greek
  examples of their own time1 the       
,romans added two1 the order of the     
,tuscans1 and an invention of their own 
called the ,composite4      ,,the       
,,tuscan4    ,the ,tuscan is described  
by ,vitruvius1 lib4 #d1 cap4 #g1 as an  
incomplete  ,doric1 but with a base and 
a round plinth4 ,the portico of ,st4    
,paul's1  ,covent ,garden1 by ,inigo    
,jones1 is the best example we have of  
it in  ,london4 ,the example given is   
from the learned ,newton ,vitruvius4    
,,the ,,roman ,,doric4    ,one of the   
earliest examples1 with the exception of
 that at ,cora1 which  is rather debased
 ,greek than ,roman1 is the example on  
the ,theatre of  ,marcellus at ,rome1   
finished by ,augustus4 ,the column is   
not fluted1 and  has no base1 and the   
capital has been greatly altered from   
that of the  best ,greek examples4 ,the 
abacus has a cymatium2 the echinus has  

been  reduced in depth1 and is an ovolo1
 and the annulets are merely three      
plain fillets2 the column too has a neck
 and a necking4 ,in the  entablature the
 architrave is    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#ahc4--,roman ,doric4 ,from the ,theater
 of ,marcellus4    ,the crowning members
 of the cornice are conjectural1 for the
 whole has  been broken away4 ,see      
,desgodetz4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#ahd4--,roman ,ionic4 ,entablature1     
capital1 and base of  an angle column1  
at the ,temple of ,fortuna ,virilis4    
shallower than in the ,greek examples4  
,in the frieze the triglyphs are  over  
the centres of the angle columns2 the   
gutt are the frustums of  cones1 while  
those of the ,greeks were cylinders or  
with hollowed sides2  the cornice has a 
dentilled bed mould2 and the mutules    
have disappeared1  but their edge runs  
through and the soffit is slanting1 and 
ornamented  alternately with coffers and
 small gutt1 six on face and three deep2
  and besides1 the cymatium of the      

corona is capped by a large cavetto2    
this in the ,greek examples was only the
 crowning member of the slanting  sides 
of the pediment4 ,there are ,roman      
,doric columns at the ,colosseum1  at   
,diocletian's ,baths at ,rome1 and      
elsewhere4 ,the ,doric1 best known to   
us1 was elaborated by the ,italian      
architects of the ,renaissance4         
,,the ,,roman ,,ionic4    ,the ,ionic   
was not much more to the taste of the   
,romans than the ,doric1  for1 with the 
exception of the examples in tall       
buildings1 where the  orders were piled 
up one over the other1 the ,temple of   
,fortuna ,virilis  is the only good     
example1 although there is a very       
debased one at the  ,temple of ,concord4
 ,the columns of the ,temple of ,fortuna
 ,virilis somewhat  resemble the        
,greco-,roman ones of the ,temple of    
,bacchus at ,teos2 they  have similar   
paltry capitals1 and an ,attic base1 but
 their truly ,roman  entablature is very
 notably worse than that at ,teos1 in   

fact1 it might  be used as an example of
 what to avoid in profiling4 ,the       
cornice is  crushingly heavy for the    
frieze and architrave1 the parts are    
disproportionate1 the corona having     
almost disappeared to make room for  the
    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4--,roman 
,corinthian4 ,entablature1 capital1 and 
base of the ,pantheon4    extra crowning
 member1 and the floral ornaments on    
some of the mouldings  are gigantic4    
,its main importance to us is from the  
use made of it by  the ,renaissance     
architects1 some of whom1 however1      
greatly improved its  appearance1 by    
making it a four-faced capital1 by      
adding a necking and  putting festoons  
from the eyes1 thus giving the capital  
greater depth  and importance4          
,,the ,,roman ,,corinthian4    ,the     
magnificence of this capital took the   
,romans1 so that good examples  of the  
other orders1 except of the ,composite1 
are rare4 ,as ,i said  before1 the only 
undoubted ,greek ,corinthian order that 

has come down to  us is that of the     
,lysikrates monument1 though we have    
many ,greco-,roman  examples4 ,the best 
,roman example ,i can give you is that  
of the ,pantheon2  the existing portico 
is believed by ,m4 ,chedanne to be a    
copy of  ,agrippa's1 made in the days of
 ,septimius ,severus4 ,at any rate1 it  
has  the comparative simplicity that    
characterized some of the buildings just
  before our era4 ,the capital has two  
rows of eight leaves1 the upper row  not
 rising to quite so great a height above
 the lower ones as these do  above the  
necking1 and there is space between the 
upper leaves to show  the stalks of the 
sheaths of the cauliculi2 the inner ones
 finish under  the rim of the basket1   
the outer ones form the volutes under   
the angles  of the abacus1 and above    
these a curled leaf masks the           
overhanging of  the angles of the       
abacus4 ,from some foliage on the top of
 the upper    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#ahf4--,roman ,corinthian4 ,entablature 

of ,jupiter  ,tonans4    middle leaf1 a 
stalk runs up behind the cauliculi1 and 
blossoms in the  abacus4    ,it may be  
observed that the cauliculi of the      
centre and of the volute  have lost the 
floral character and become stony4 ,the 
shafts are  unfluted1 being of granite1 
and have the favourite ,roman base1 a   
plain  upper and a lower torus1 with two
 scotias separated by double astragals  
and fillets4 ,the entablature consists  
of an architrave of three fascias1  the 
bottom edge of whose projections are    
moulded1 the whole architrave  is capped
 with a cymatium consisting of a wide   
fillet and an ogee with  an astragal    
beneath4 ,the frieze is slightly        
shallower than the  architrave1 and has 
nothing on it but the inscription1 and  
its cymatium  is the counterpart of that
 of the architrave on a smaller scale4  
,the  cornice is heavy1 and its bed     
mould consists of an uncut dentil band1 
an  ovolo carved with the egg and       
tongue1 and an astragal carved with the 

bead and reel1 a modilion band with     
carved modilions1 a shallow corona1  and
 a deep cyma-recta-cymatium with        
fillets4    ,i have added the fine and  
gigantic capital of ,mars ,ultor and the
  entablature of ,jupiter ,tonans1 which
 is overladen with ornament1 as a       
contrast to the almost stern simplicity 
of that of the ,pantheon4    ,i shall   
only draw your attention to two points  
in this ornamentation1  the omission of 
the tongues between the eggs1 leaving   
only the upright  line1 and the attempt 
to turn the egg and tongue into a       
foliated form4  ,the egg itself is      
covered with ornament1 and is set in the
 centre of  acanthus leaves4 ,we must   
praise the boldness of the author1 who  
has  given us a new ornament1 but       
deplore his want of tasteful invention  
which has forced him to give a bad one4 
,the varieties of leaves used in        
capitals have been mentioned in the body
  of the book4      ,,the ,,roman       
,,composite4    ,this order has been    

called the ,composite1 from the mixture 
of ,ionic and  ,corinthian motives in   
its capital4 ,the example given is from 
the ,arch of  ,titus1 erected to        
celebrate the taking of ,jerusalem in   
#gj ,a4,d4 ,the main  thing to be       
remarked is the capital2 for the        
entablature is ,corinthian1  less ornate
 than that of ,jupiter ,tonans or       
,jupiter ,stator1 and very  inferior to 
the latter in its proportions4 ,it may  
be imagined that all  the foliage above 
the upper row of leaves in a ,corinthian
 capital has  been removed1 that a      
carved ,ionic echinus has been put in at
 the level  of the bottom of the        
,corinthian cauliculi1 that on the      
centre of the  echinus there is a calix1
 from which a flower runs up above the  
top of  the abacus1 and from each side  
of the calix spring curved bands running
  into the hollow of the abacus and     
ending in heavy volutes coming down to  
the tops of the upper row of leaves1 the
 lower parts of the bands and  the      

spaces between the spirals being filled 
with foliage4 ,the parts of  the bell   
thus left bare by the omission of the   
sheaths of the cauliculi  have two      
little scrolls of foliage to cover them4
 ,the worst fault of the  capital is1   
that the upper part has no artistic     
connection with the  lower1 and taken   
merely as an isolated capital1 its      
volutes are too  ponderous for the rest4
 ,we must1 however1 give the ,romans    
credit for the  merits of the invention4
 ,they    ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#ahg4--,roman ,corinthian4 ,half of the 
capital of ,mars  ,ultor4    saw that in
 tall columns1 and in this case the     
columns are on pedestals1  the volutes  
of ,corinthian columns    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #ahh4--,roman composite capital 
from the ,arch of  ,titus4    were too  
insignificant4 ,this capital when once  
invented took the ,romans1  and was     
applied everywhere4    ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #ahi4--,roman ,composite4        
,entablature1 capital1 and  base1 ,arch 

of ,titus4    ,it was the practical     
solution for a practical people of a    
want that was  felt4 ,artistically      
speaking1 it was no solution1 and we can
 imagine that  if such a solution had   
been offered to the ,athenians in their 
palmy  days1 the author would have been 
howled at1 and hunted out of the city4  
,i may mention that the orders that have
 passed through the hands of the        
,italian masters and been altered by    
them are not ,classical1 but            
,renaissance4    ,those who wish to     
study this subject will find the ,greek 
examples in  ,stuart and ,rivett's      
,antiquities of ,athens2 in ,mr4        
,penrose's  ,principles of ,athenian    
,architecture2 in the books published by
 the  ,dilettanti ,society2 in          
,cockerell's ,temple of ,jupiter        
,panhellenius at  gina2 in ,inwood's    
,erectheion2 and in ,wilkins'           
,antiquities of ,magna  ,grcia4 ,j4     
,pennethorne's ,elements and            
,mathematical ,principles of the  ,greek

 ,architects gives many examples of     
profiles3 8,the ,roman10 in ,les        
difices ,antiques de ,rome1 by          
,desgodetz2 ,cresy and ,taylor's        
,architectural ,antiquities of ,rome2   
,normand's ,parallel of the ,orders2    
and ,mr4 ,phen ,spiers' ,orders of      
,architecture4               ,a         
,,chapter ,,on ,,the ,,construction ,,of
 ,,some ,,figures ,,and ,,curves ,,in   
,,practical ,,plane ,,geometry ,,useful 
,,in ,,ornament4      ,definitions and  
names of figures from #a to #ac4    ,an 
,equilateral triangle is a triangle     
which has three equal sides4  7,fig4    
#a47    ,an ,isosceles triangle is that 
which has only two sides equal4 7,fig4  
#b47    ,a ,scalene triangle is that    
which has three unequal sides4 7,fig4   
#c47    ,a ,right-angled triangle is    
that which has a right angle4 7,fig4    
#d47    ,an ,acute-angled triangle is   
that which has three acute angles4      
7,fig4  #e47    ,a ,parallelogram is a  
four-sided figure which has its opposite

 sides  parallel4 7,fig4 #f47    ,a     
,rhombus is a four-sided figure which   
has all its sides equal1 but  its angles
 are not right angles4 7,fig4 #g47    ,a
 ,lozenge is a square set angle-wise4   
7,fig4 #h47         ,,note4--,a square1 
an oblong1 a rhombus1 and a rhomboid are
 all       species of parallelograms4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h    ,a ,diamond 
is composed of two equilateral triangles
 set back to back4  7,fig4 #i47    ,all 
other four-sided figures are called     
,trapeziums4 ,if one opposite pair  of  
sides be parallel1 and the other pair   
not1 the figure is called a  ,trapezoid4
 7,fig4 #aj47    ,polygons4--,a ,polygon
 is a plane rectilineal figure contained
 by more  than four straight lines4     

,a ,regular ,polygon is that which has  
its sides equal1 and its angles  also   
are equal4    ,an ,irregular ,polygon   
may have unequal sides and unequal      
angles1 or  unequal sides and equal     
angles1 or equal sides and unequal      
angles4 ,in this chapter regular        
polygons are only treated of4           
,polygons are named according to the    
number of sides or angles they may      
have4 ,a polygon having             #e  
sides is a ,pentagon4           #f  8   
a ,hexagon4           #g  8       a     
,heptagon4           #h  8       an     
,octagon4           #i  8       a       
,nonagon4          #aj  8       a       
,decagon4          #aa  8       a       
,undecagon4          #ab  8       a     
,dodecagon4          #ac  8       a     
,tridecagon4          #ad  8       a    
,tetradecagon4          #ae  8       a  
,pentadecagon4          #af  8       a  
,hexadecagon4          #ag  8       a   
,heptadecagon4          #ah  8       an 
,octadecagon4          #ai  8       a   

,nonodecagon4          #bj  8       a   
,bisdecagon4    ,figs4 #aa1 #ab1 and #ac
 are self-explanatory4    ,fig4 #ad4    
,from a given point ,d without to draw  
,tangents to a given circle  ,a ,b ,c4  
,join ,e the centre of the circle ,d4   
,bisect ,d ,e in ,f4 ,with ,f as centre 
and ,f ,e radius describe the circle ,d 
,b  ,e cutting the given circle in ,a   
and ,b4 ,draw the required tangents from
 ,d  to touch the given circle at ,a and
 ,b4 ,n4,b4--,a tangent to a circle or  
arc  is always at right angles to a     
radius drawn to the point of contact4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa               
,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ab and #ac      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad    ,fig4 #ae4 
,to draw an ,exterior ,tangent to two   
given circles ,a ,b and ,c ,d ,k4       
,join the centres ,e and ,f cutting the 
circumference of the larger circle  at  
,k4 ,bisect ,e ,f in ,g4 ,from ,k in the
 line ,k ,f cut off a part ,k ,p equal  

to the radius of the smaller circle ,e  
,b4    ,with centre ,g and radius ,k ,f 
describe a semicircle2 with ,f as centre
 and  radius ,f ,p describe a circle4   
,the semicircle cuts this circle at ,h4 
,join  ,f ,h1 and produce it to ,c4 ,at 
,e draw ,e ,a parallel to ,f ,c4 ,join  
,a ,c1 which  is the exterior tangent   
required4    ,fig4 #af4 ,to draw an     
,interior ,tangent to two given circles 
,b ,e and ,f ,d4    ,join the centres ,e
 and ,f4 ,bisect ,e ,f in ,g1 and       
describe a semicircle on  ,e ,f4 ,from  
,k on the larger circle mark off ,k ,j  
and ,e ,f equal to the  radius of the   
smaller circle1 and with ,f as centre   
and ,f ,j as radius  describe an arc    
passing through semicircle at ,h4 ,join 
,f ,h cutting the  larger circle at ,c1 
and draw ,e ,a parallel to ,f ,h4 ,the  
points of contact  are ,a and ,c1       
through which the interior tangent is   
drawn4    ,fig4 #ag4 ,within a given    
circle to describe any ,regular         
,polygon--say a  ,pentagon4    ,draw the

 diameter ,a ,f and divide it into the  
same number of parts as the  required   
polygon is to have sides--in this case  
it will be five parts4  ,to divide the  
diameter into the number of equal parts1
 draw a line ,a ,x  any angle to ,a ,f4 
,set off any convenient measurement five
 times on this  line4 ,join point #e to 
,f1 and draw the lines #d1 #d1 #c1 #c1  
c41 parallel  to #e ,f to meet the      
diameter4 ,with ,a and ,f as centre and 
,a ,f as radius  describe arcs          
intersecting at ,l4 ,from               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag    ,l draw a  
line through the ,second division on ,a 
,f at point #b cutting  the             
circumference at ,b4 ,join ,a ,b4 ,this 
is the length of the side of the        
required polygon4 ,set off the length of
 the side ,a ,b around the              
circumference at ,c1 ,d1 and ,e4 ,join  
the points ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e to        
complete  the required pentagon4        

,n4,b4--,a ,regular ,hexagon may be     
inscribed in a circle by setting off the
  length of its radius six times round  
the circumference1 and joining  the     
points4    ,fig4 #ah4 ,on a given line  
to construct any ,regular ,polygon1--say
 a  ,pentagon4    ,produce the given    
line ,a ,b to ,r1 and with ,b as centre 
and ,a ,b as radius  describe a         
semicircle ,a ,c ,r4 ,divide the        
semicircle into as many parts as  the   
polygon is to have sides--in this case  
five4 ,draw a line from point  ,b to the
 second division point ,q ,c4 ,bisect ,a
 ,b and ,b ,c to find ,p1  which will be
 the centre of a circle passing through 
the points ,a ,b ,c4  ,mark off the     
points ,d and ,e1 making the distances  
,c ,d1 ,d ,e1 and ,e ,a each  equal to  
,a ,b4 ,join ,c ,d1 ,d ,e1 and ,e ,a to 
complete the required polygon4    ,fig4 
#ai4 ,special method of drawing an      
,octagon in a given circle4    ,draw two
 diameters ,b ,f and ,h ,d at right     
angles to each other4 ,bisect  angles ,h

 ,k ,b and ,b ,k ,d in the lines ,k ,a  
and ,k ,c4 ,produce the lines ,k ,a1  ,k
 ,c1 to meet the circumference at ,g and
 ,e4 ,the eight points thus found  on   
the circumference are joined to make the
 required octagon4    ,fig4 #bj4 ,to    
inscribe an ,octagon in a given square4 
,with each corner of the square as      
centres1 and half the diagonal of the   
square as radius1 describe arcs         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj    cutting the
 sides of the square at ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,k1 
c4 ,join these points to  complete the  
required octagon4    ,fig4 #ba4 ,to     
describe a circle to touch two given    
straight lines ,a ,b and  ,a ,c1 one    
point of contact being given4    ,bisect
 the angle ,b ,a ,c in ,a ,d4 ,at ,c    
draw a perpendicular to ,a ,c1 meeting  
,a ,d at ,d4 ,with ,d as centre and ,d  
,c as radius describe the required      
circle4    ,fig4 #bb4 ,to inscribe a    
circle in a given triangle ,a ,b ,c4    

,bisect any two of the angles as at ,b  
and ,c4 ,the lines of bisection         
intersect at ,d4 ,produce ,b ,d to ,e4  
,with centre ,d and distance ,d ,e      
inscribe the required circle4    ,fig4  
#bc4 ,a square being given1 to inscribe 
four equal circles each  touching two   
others and two sides of the square4     
,draw the diagonals and two lines       
parallel to the sides through the       
centre of the given square4 ,join the   
extremities of the latter lines to      
obtain the points #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d4   
,with these points as centres1 and #a ,e
  drawn perpendicular to ,c ,a as       
radius1 inscribe the four required      
circles4    ,fig4 #bd4 ,a square being  
given1 to inscribe four equal circles   
each  touching two other and one side of
 the square4    ,draw the diagonals and 
two lines through the centre parallel to
 the  sides of the given square ,a ,b ,c
 ,d4 ,bisect any one of the angles made 
by  a diagonal and one of the sides of  
the square1 as at ,d4 ,produce the line 

of bisection until it meets the vertical
 centre line at point #a4 ,with  the    
central point ,o as centre              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd    and ,o #a  
as radius1 describe a circle to obtain  
the points #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4  ,these are  
the centres of the required circles4    
,n4,b4--,if the central portion made by 
the meeting of the four       circles   
were removed1 the remaining parts of the
 circles would form       a figure known
 as the quatrefoil1 a form common in    
architecture4    ,fig4 #be4 ,to inscribe
 six equal circles in a given           
equilateral triangle  ,a ,b ,c4         
,bisect the angles of the given         
equilateral triangle as at ,e1 and draw 
the bisection lines through to meet the 
centre of each side4 ,bisect the  angle 
,a ,b ,j to obtain the point ,d on ,c   
,k4 ,through ,d draw ,g ,f parallel to  
,a ,b1 also ,f ,h and ,h ,g parallel to 

the sides of the triangle4 ,with ,d as  
centre and ,d ,k as radius inscribe one 
of the required circles1 and with  the  
same radius and ,f1 #b1 ,h1 #a1 and ,g  
as centres inscribe the remaining       
circles4    ,fig4 #bf4 7#a7 ,within a   
given circle to inscribe a hexagon4 7#b7
 ,without  the same circle to describe a
 hexagon4 7#c7 ,within the inner hexagon
 to  inscribe three equal circles each  
touching each other and two sides of    
the hexagon4    7#a7 ,mark off the      
length of the radius of the given circle
 ,b ,d ,f six  times on the             
circumference as at ,d ,e ,f1 c4 ,draw  
the three diameters ,a  ,d1 ,b ,e1 and  
,g ,f1 and produce them a little beyond 
these points4 ,join the  points ,g1 ,d1 
,e1 ,f1 c41 by straight lines to produce
 the hexagon within  the given circle4  
7#b7 ,bisect the angle ,k ,o ,h1 the    
line of bisection will  cut the circle  
at point ,r4 ,through ,r draw ,h ,k     
parallel to ,b ,c4 ,with ,o as  centre  
and ,o ,h as radius describe a circle   

cutting the produced  diameters at ,k1  
,l1 ,m1 c4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf    ,join the  
latter points to produce the required   
hexagon without the given  circle4 7#c7 
,join the points ,g1 ,e1 ,a4 ,this will 
obtain the points #a1 #b1 #c  on the    
diameters4 ,draw #a1 #d perpendicular to
 ,g ,b4 ,with #a1 #d as radius  and #a  
as centre describe one of the required  
circles4 #c and #b are the  centres of  
the other two required circles4    ,fig4
 #bg4 ,within a given circle to inscribe
 any number of equal  circles1 each     
touching the circumference and two other
 circles4    ,divide the circle in the  
same number of parts as the number of   
circles  required--in this case five4   
,draw the five radii4 ,bisect the angles
 ,b ,d  ,a and ,a ,d ,c4 ,draw ,e ,f    
perpendicular to ,d ,a4 ,d ,e ,f is a   
triangle any two  angles of which bisect
 as at ,d and ,e4 ,from point #a thus   
obtained on ,d ,a  and radius #a ,a     
inscribe a circle4 ,from ,d as centre   

and ,d #a as radius  describe a circle  
cutting the five radii in points #a1 #b1
 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,with  the latter points as
 centres and #a ,a as radius describe   
the remaining  required circles4        
,fig4 #bh4 ,this problem is worked in   
the same manner as ,fig4 #bg1 seven     
circles being inscribed instead of five 
in a given circle4    ,fig4 #bi4 ,to    
inscribe a trefoil1 or three equal      
semicircles having  adjacent diameters  
in a given circle4    ,divide the given 
circle into six equal parts by marking  
off the length  of the radius six times 
on the circumference4 ,from the centre  
,d to these  six points draw radii4     
,bisect any of the six sectors as at ,e4
 ,draw ,e ,c  obtaining ,f on one of the
 radials4 ,on either side of ,f draw    
lines from  it to meet the alternate    
radials perpendicular to ,b ,d and ,d   
,c1 and    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi    join their 
extremities1 thus making the equilateral

 triangle #a1 #b1 #c4 ,on  the sides of 
this triangle describe the three        
semicircles required by  using points   
#a1 #b1 and #c as centres1 and #b ,f as 
radius4 ,the completed  figure is the   
trefoil1 and the inscribed three        
semicircles have their  diameters       
adjacent4    ,fig4 #cj4 ,to describe an 
equilateral triangle within and without 
a given  circle4    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #cj    ,draw six radii dividing  
the given circle into six equal parts4  
,join  their alternate extremities as at
 ,l ,m ,n4 ,this makes the required     
equilateral triangle within the circle4 
,draw tangents to the circle at  ,l ,m  
and ,n1 or lines at right angles to ,l  
,o1 ,m ,o1 and ,n ,o4 ,produce the      
latter radii to meet the tangents at ,a 
,b ,c4 ,a ,b ,c is the equilateral      
triangle without the circle4            
,n4,b4--,it will be seen that the       
triangle ,b ,a ,c is made up of four    
similar triangles each equal to ,l ,m   
,n4 ,also1 if six of the smaller        

triangles1 as ,a ,l ,m1 were placed     
around points ,a ,b and ,c a hexagon    
would be formed4 ,this figure is very   
useful in designing       geometrical   
and other repeating all over patterns in
 ornament4      ,,conic ,,sections4     
,the figures known as the ,conic        
,sections are the ,ellipse1 the         
,parabola1  and the ,hyperbola4    ,the 
,cone may have other sections in        
addition to these1 such as the  section 
through any point below the apex1 on the
 axis1 and taken  parallel to the base2 
this would be a circle1 and a section   
through  the apex perpendicular to the  
base would be an isosceles triangle4    
,the ,ellipse is the curve of the       
section made by a plane passing         
obliquely through a cone from side to   
side4    ,the ,parabola is the curve of 
the section made by a plane passing     
through  a cone parallel to one of its  
sides4    ,the ,hyperbola is the curve  
of a section made by a plane passing    
through  a cone parallel to its axis1 or

 inclined at a greater angle to its     
base than its side1 but not through its 
apex4    ,fig4 #ca4 ,the elevation of a 
cone is shown at ,a ,b ,c4 ,a section   
through  point ,x at right angles to the
 axis of the cone is a ,circle4 ,a      
section  passing through and across the 
cone from point ,x1 but not at right    
angles to the axis1 is an ,ellipse1 as  
at ,x #a4 ,a section through ,x         
parallel to the opposite side ,a ,c is a
 ,parabola1 as at ,x #b4 ,a section     
through ,x parallel to the axis1 as at  
,x #c1 or a section through ,x at any   
other angle greater than the angle made 
by the side and base1 as at ,x #d1  is a
 ,hyperbola4    ,figs4 #cb1 #cc1 and #cd
 show the actual shape of the sections  
,x #a1 ,x #b1 and  ,x #c respectively4  
,fig4 #cb4 ,in this figure the major or 
transverse axis of the ,ellipse  is     
equal to ,x #a4 ,to find the minor or   
conjugate axis bisect ,x #a  7,fig4 #ca7
 in ,h1 draw through it ,f ,g parallel  
to ,a ,b1 drop a  perpendicular from ,f 

to f1 and describe the semicircle f h g4
 ,from ,h  drop a perpendicular to ,a   
,b1 and produce it to h to meet the     
semicircle1 k h is then half the length 
of the minor axis of the  ,ellipse1 as  
,c ,d4 ,divide ,a ,e into any number of 
equal parts1 and ,a ,g into  the same   
number4 ,draw from ,c lines through the 
divisions as #a1 #b1 #c c41  and from ,d
 lines to #a #b #c c4 ,the curve of the 
required ,ellipse will  pass through the
 intersections of these lines1 as at #a 
#c #e c4    ,fig4 #cc4 ,in this figure1 
the ,parabola1 the line ,c ,d is equal  
to ,x #b  7,fig4 #ca71 while ,a ,b is   
twice the length of ,d #b 7,fig4 #ca74  
,divide ,g ,b  into any number of equal 
parts1 and join the points of the       
divisions to  ,c4 ,divide ,d ,b into the
 same number of equal parts1 and draw   
lines from  the points of division      
parallel to ,d ,c to meet the similar   
numbered  lines drawn from ,b ,g2       
through these meeting points the curve  
of the  ,parabola will be drawn4        

,fig4 #cd4 ,the only difference between 
the working of this figure--the         
,hyperbola--and the ,parabola is that   
the lines which in the ,parabola were   
drawn parallel to ,g ,b1 are here drawn 
to a point ,e on ,c ,d produced1 ,c ,d  
being equal to ,x #c 7,fig4 #ca74 ,this 
point ,e is found by drawing the line   
from #g on ,d ,b to ,e on ,c ,d         
produced1 where ,c ,e equals twice ,x ,o
 7,fig4  #ca74    ,fig4 #ce4 ,to        
describe an ,archimedean spiral of any  
number of  revolutions--say three1 the  
longest radius ,a ,b being given4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd               
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ce4--;,archimedean ,spiral4    ,divide 
the radius ,a ,b into three equal parts 
for the three  revolutions4 ,with ,b as 
centre and ,b ,a as radius describe a   
circle1 and  divide it into any number  
of equal parts--say eight1 by drawing   

four  diameters4 ,each of the three     
divisions on ,a ,b is divided into eight
  equal parts4 ,with centre ,b and the  
point of each succeeding division as    
radius1 describe arcs1 meeting in       
following order the next nearest        
diameter as shown at arcs #a #a1 #b #b1 
#c #c1 c4 ,through point #h with  radius
 ,b #h1 the second division1 describe a 
circle1 and through point #af  with     
centre ,b describe a circle4 ,in these  
two divisions arcs are drawn  as        
described above for the division ,a #h1 
c41 to the next nearest  diameter4 ,the 
spiral is then drawn through the points 
thus formed on  the diameters1 which    
mark its path as at #a1 #b1 #c1 c41     
until it ends  in its centre at ,b4     
,fig4 #cf4 ,to draw ,goldman's ,volute1 
the cathetus ,c ,f being given4         
,divide ,c ,f into #ae equal parts4     
,with ,c as centre describe a circle ,a 
,e ,b  to form the eye of the volute1   
making the diameter #c of these parts4  
,bisect ,a ,c and ,c ,b in #a and #d4   

,on #a #d draw a square1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4
 ,produce  the sides #a #b1 #b #c1 and  
#c #d to ,g1 ,h1 and ,i respectively4   
,divide #a ,c into three equal parts4   
,draw lines parallel to #a ,g through   
the points of division to ,p and ,l1    
which cut the line ,c #b in the points  
#f and #aj4 ,through these points 7#f   
and #aj7 draw lines to ,m and ,q        
parallel  to ,e ,h1 cutting ,c #c in #g 
and #aa4 ,in the same way draw lines    
parallel to  #c ,i from #g and #aa to ,n
 and ,r4 ,the points #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1
 c41 will then  form the centres of the 
series of quadrants which are to form   
the outer  spiral that begins with the  
radius #a ,f4 ,to describe the inner    
spiral4  ,a ,f in ,fig4 #cf 7a7 is equal
 to ,a ,f 7,fig4 #cf74 ,f ,s is made    
equal to  the breadth of the fillet at  
the top ,f ,s4 ,v ,f is drawn at right  
angles  to ,f ,a and equal to ,c #a4 ,by
 joining ,v ,a and drawing ,t ,s        
parallel  to ,v ,f1 then ,t ,s is       
obtained which will be the length of    

half the  side of the square for drawing
 the inner spiral4 ,the method for      
obtaining the inner spiral is the same  
as for the outer4    ,fig4 #cg4 ,there  
is no geometric means of drawing a      
perfect catenary  curve2 at best we can 
only obtain it by an approximation in   
geometry4  ,the curve is formed by      
suspending a chain from two points and  
pricking  points along the curve of the 
chain4 ,these    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#cf4--;,goldman's volute4    points will
 mark the path of the catenary4 ,in the 
accompanying figure  three catenary     
curves are drawn from a chain suspended 
from points ,a and  ,b4    ,fig4        
#ch4--,to draw a cycloid curve when the 
generating circle is  given4 ,in order  
to find the length of the line ,a ,b on 
which the circle  rolls1 and which must 
be the length of the circumference of   
the given  circle1 we must first find   
approximately that length by            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,catenary  
curves4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4        

#ch4--;,cycloid curve4    the following 
method4 ,draw the vertical diameter of  
the circle ,d ,c4 ,draw  ,d ,m at right 
angles to ,d ,c1 and make it three times
 the length of the  radius of the       
circle2 make an angle of #cj at ,e1 and 
draw a line  parallel to ,d ,m of any   
convenient length4 ,the line ,e ,l      
making the angle  of #cj cuts ,c ,b in  
,l4 ,join ,m ,l4 ,m ,l is the           
approximate length of half  the         
circumference4 ,make ,a ,c and ,c ,b    
each equal to ,m ,l4 ,then ,a ,b is the 
length approximately of the             
circumference1 drawn at right angles to 
,c  ,d on which the circle rolls4       
,divide now half the circle into eight  
equal  parts1 and draw a line from ,e ,s
 parallel to ,a ,b1 and equal to ,m ,l4 
,divide ,e ,s into eight equal parts4   
,from the points #a1 #b1 #c1 c41 draw   
lines parallel to ,a ,c4 ,with centres  
#a1 #b1 #c1 c41 and with radius ,e  ,c1 
describe arcs cutting them at #a1 #b1   
#c1 c4 ,the curve ,a ,d1 which  must be 

drawn by free-hand1 will then pass      
through these points4  ,complete the    
cycloid by drawing ,d ,b in a similar   
manner4 ,the length ,a ,b  can also be  
found approximately by dividing ,c ,d   
into seven equal parts1  and taking ,a  
,b  #bb of those parts4                 
,,glossary ,,of ,,terms ,,used ,,in     
,,ornament      ,many of the terms which
 appear in this ,glossary have been     
explained in  the previous chapters4    
,the reader should refer back to the    
text when any  of the terms are         
inadequately described here4            
sthetics1 the science of the beautiful4 
sthetic1 when applied to ornament1 not  
only means 8beautiful10       hut that  
beauty was the sole aim of its          
production1 and       distinguishes it  
from symbolic and mnemonic ornament4    
,see page #adc4         ,allegory1 the  
representation of one thing under the   
image of       another4 ,it was mostly  
confined to human figures1 but to aid   
its       comprehension attributes were 

added4 ,among the ,pagans strength was  
shown as ,hercules with his club2 health
 as a woman with a serpent2       rivers
 were represented as gods with crowns of
 sedge or rushes2       towns as gods or
 goddesses with mural crowns4 ,among the
 ,christians1       a man holding a     
lamb1 or a shepherd with his flock1 was 
an       allegorical representation of  
,christ the ,good ,shepherd2 the seven  
cardinal virtues and the seven deadly   
sins were represented by                
allegorical figures1 and each had its   
proper attributes4         ,alternation1
 two different forms in succession1 or  
alternating       with each other4      
,figs4 #fg1 #ge1 and #gf4               
,anthemion1 a radiating ornament with a 
palmate outline2 the       honeysuckle  
ornament of the ,greeks4                
,attributes1 the things assigned to any 
one4 ,amongst the ,pagans       the     
eagle and thunderbolt to ,jupiter1 the  
trident to ,neptune1 the       peacock  
to ,juno1 c4 ,amongst the ,christians   

the nimbus was the       attribute of   
divinity1 saintship1 or martyrdom1 the  
lily of       chastity1 c4              
,balance1 equilibrium or counterpoise4  
,in compositions that are       not     
symmetrical the weight of the masses    
must be alike on either       side of a 
central axis2 in those of symmetrical   
outline with       different fillings   
there must be equality of weight in the 
fillings4 ,renaissance ornament affords 
many admirable examples of              
balance4 ,see page #df1 and ,figs4 #abf 
and #aca4         ,banding1 decorating  
by means of horizontal stripes1 mostly  
filled       with ornament4 ,figs4 #aaf 
and #aag4         ,catenary1 the curve  
formed by a chain hanging from two      
points4       ,fig4 #bg4                
,cauliculus1 the shoot or stem of a     
plant forming the volutes       under   
the angles of the abacus1 and those in  
the centre of each       face of a      
,corinthian capital2 in modern works    
this name is mostly       confined to   

the central spirals1 the outer ones     
being called       volutes4 ,figs4 #ahj1
 #aha1 #ahe1 #ahg1 and #ahh4            
,checkering1 covering a surface with a  
square pattern like a       chess-board1
 in which the colour or the ornament    
alternates4 ,the       outline is formed
 by equidistant vertical and horizontal 
lines       crossing one another4 ,figs4
 #ih and #ii4         ,colour1 apart    
from the literal meaning of the word1 is
 a vague       technical term to express
 character and contrast in ornament4    
,complexity1 interweaving or intricacy2 
the opposite of       simplicity4       
,ornament in which the leading forms are
 not apparent1       is mainly to be    
found in ,celtic1 ,saracenic1 ,moresque1
 and ,gothic       ornament4 ,it is also
 characteristic of the decadent periods 
of all       historic styles4           
,contrast1 the opposition of dissimilar 
figures or positions1 by       which one
 contributes to the effect of the other2
 e4 g4 the       straight line with the 

circle1 vertical and horizontal lines   
alternating2 in colour black with white1
 c42 ornamental forms       where flat  
and sharp curves contrast with one      
another2 a plain       space alternating
 with an ornamented one1 or an enriched 
moulding       round a plain panel1 or  
vice vers1 c4 ,see page #dc4            
,conventional4 ,this is a word of great 
elasticity4 ,in early       decoration  
natural objects were highly             
conventionalized through the       want 
of skill in the artists1 who could not  
copy1 but only portray       their      
impressions1 thus the ,egyptians and    
early ,greeks represented       water by
 the zig-zag4 ,these early              
conventionalized forms were             
sometimes perpetuated through religious 
conservatism1 after the       artists   
had become skilful4 ,all ornament is    
more or less       conventional1 but the
 term is usually applied to designate   
that       ornament in which the most   
beautiful and characteristic floral     

forms have been abstracted and adapted  
to the material employed and       the  
effect wanted4 ,the styles most         
characterized by conventional           
ornament are the ,greek and the early   
,gothic2 they are equally               
effective as ornament in their          
respective countries1 but the ,greek    
has all the grace and vigour of the     
highest plant form1 while       ,gothic 
has mostly only the vigour4 ,figs4      
#di-ed4 ,the ,romans and the            
,renaissance architects also            
successfully conventionalized4 ,figs4   
#ia       and #abi4 ,convention now too 
often means leaving out all grace and   
vigour4 ,saracenic-,persian ornament is 
perhaps the least       conventionalized
 of fairly good ornament4 ,figs4 #di1   
#ec1 #ed1 #aah1       and #aai4         
,conventional is also used in opposition
 to realistic       ornament4           
,counterchange1 a pattern in which the  
ornament and ground are       mostly    
similar in shape but different in colour

 and alternate with       each other4   
,see ,figs4 #aga and #agb4              
,cymatium1 the capping to a vertical    
member1 as the cymatium of       the    
abacus of the ,roman ,doric1 of the     
architrave1 of the frieze1 of       the 
corona4 ,see ,appendix on the orders4   
,diaper1 derived from jasper1 originally
 employed to designate       those      
coloured patterns on stuffs that        
suggested the flowerings of             
jasper2 subsequently a pattern enclosed 
in repealing geometrical       forms not
 composed of straight lines2 but        
unhappily employed of       late years  
to designate any repeating patterns     
enclosed in       geometric forms1      
including checkers and net-work4 ,figs4 
#aja1 #ajg1       #aji1 and #aaj4       
,emblem1 in ,latin1 means embossed      
ornament on vessels1 inlaid       work1 
and mosaic4 ,in modern ,english it is a 
device1 and was the       animal or     
thing that was painted on a shield to   
show the temper or       striking       

quality or achievement of the warrior4  
,it is also used as       an allegorical
 representation of some virtue or       
quality4 ,we say the       cock is an   
emblem of watchfulness2 the lion1 of    
courage2 the       scales1 of justice2  
the lily1 of purity2 but the latter may 
be used       as a symbol of the ,virgin
 ,mary4         ,equilibrium4 ,see      
,balance4 ,also ,figs4 #acj and #afj4   
,enlargement of ,subject1 e4 g4 the     
figure of ,bacchus is wanted       for a
 given space which it does not fill2 the
 due filling of the       space may     
sometimes be attained by the addition of
 his attributes1       as a leopard1 a  
thyrsus1 a vine and grapes2 accessories 
even may be       wanted1 as a satyr1   
mnad1 rocks1 trees1 c4                  
,eurythmy1 harmony or elegance in       
ornament2 a quality obtained by         
the use of contrasted but harmonious and
 dignified forms1 expressed       in a  
measured or proportionate quantity4     
,even distribution1 the plain space and 

ornament proportionately       arranged2
 ,indian ornament gives the most        
mechanical instance of       this1 while
 good ,roman and ,cinque ,cento pilaster
 panels give the       most artistic    
examples of this arrangement4 ,it is    
sometimes       improperly used to      
designate the balancing of masses in a  
design4       ,figs4 #aja1 #ajb1 #adc1  
c4         ,expression1 the method of   
representing ornament by various means1 
as in outline by the pencil1 pen1 or    
point2 in painting1 by the       brush2 
and in relief or sunk work by modelling4
 ,in another sense       expression is  
giving the proper treatment and         
character to       ornament4            
,fanciful1 a term sometimes applied to  
grotesque creations1 for       example1 
to the hybrid animals1 and the figures  
ending in foliage1       met with in    
,pompeian and other decorations4 ,figs4 
#abb1 #aca1 #acd1       and #ace4       
,fitness1 absolute propriety2 beautiful 
ornament adapted to its       purpose   

and not interfering with the use of the 
object ornamented4       ,see page #dh4 
,flexibility1 a quality derived from the
 appearance of plants of       free     
growth2 the freedom and elasticity found
 in natural forms when       converted  
into ornament give a look of            
flexibility1 in opposition       to     
rigid and angular lines which produce a 
look of inflexibility4       ,see ,fig4 
#ed4         ,fluted1 channelled in     
hollows1 semi-circular1 segmental1 or   
elliptical in section2 like those on    
some of the shafts of ,greek       and  
,roman columns4 ,see also ,figs4 #ge and
 #gf4         ,geometric1 or            
8geometrical arrangement10 the setting  
out of all       good ornament2 also the
 bounding lines for ornament constructed
 on       a basis of geometry1 as in    
diapers1 c42 the triangle1 square1      
lozenge1 diamond1 the circle1 the       
hexagon1 octagon1 and other             
polygons1 are the chief geometrical     
forms for patterns in ornament4         

,saracenic decorations are pre-eminently
 geometric in construction4       ,see  
,figs4 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaj1 and
 #agb4         ,grotesque1 from the word
 grot or grotto4 ,when the fantastic    
arabesques of ancient ,roman decoration 
were discovered under the       baths   
and in grottoes1 they were originally   
called grotesque1 and       were        
imitated in the ,vatican4 7,see ,figs4  
#abb and #abh47 ,the word is            
mainly used now to describe the coarse  
and humorous carvings of       heads1   
satyrs1 c41 originally used to decorate 
the built grottoes       of the late    
,renaissance1 which gradually overspread
 all buildings4       ,the word is also 
used to denote the quaint class of      
,gothic       sculptured creations      
7,fig4 #aca71 such as winged dragons1   
grinning       monsters1 c41 that serve 
to decorate the ends of dripstone       
mouldings2 gargoyles1 bosses1 and       
finials1 c4         ,growth is a concise
 expression for those forms which denote

 the       special vigour shown by      
plants at certain epochs of their       
growth1       the twist of the stem of  
creeping plants to get light to the     
flowers1 the bursting of the bud from a 
capsule1 or the clasp of a              
tendril4 ,examples are to be met with in
 the volutes of ,greek       ,corinthian
 capitals1 in the base of the tripod on 
the choragic       monument of          
,lysikrates1 in ,renaissance sculpture1 
and in early       ,gothic4             
,guilloche1 snare-work2 an ornament     
composed of parallel curved       lines 
flowing and crossing each other2 these  
forms may best be       illustrated by  
the bending of ropes round circular pins
 so as to       cross one another4 ,see 
,figs4 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 and #dj4          
,hieroglyphic1 sacred carving1 mostly   
applied to ,egyptian picture       and  
symbolic writing4 ,see ,fig4 #afb4      
,idealistic1 used by some writers as    
equivalent to conventional1       in    
opposition to 8realistic04              

,imbrication1 overlapping scale-like    
ornaments2 as seen in       fir-cones1  
the hop1 and curved tiles on roofs1 are 
examples of       imbrication4 ,the bark
 of the ,chili pine is a peculiar       
instance of       horizontal imbrication
 which is something like that of a      
,roman       roof4 ,it is used as       
decoration on roofs1 torus mouldings1   
and small       columns1 and is a common
 way of filling certain spaces on       
,italian       majolica4 ,see ,fig4 #bf1
 ,a1 ,b1 ,c4         ,inappropriate     
ornament1 that which is improperly      
applied1 so as       to spoil the       
appearance1 or interfere with the use of
 an object2 is       false1 out of      
scale1 or redundant4 ,see page #ba4     
,independent ornaments4 ,things that are
 beautiful1 quaint1 or       curious1   
that may be attached to a wall or       
surface1 as festoons1       shields1    
medallions1 trophies1 c4 ,see page #ba1 
also ,fig4 #acc4         ,interchange is
 when running vertical or horizontal    

patterns are       divided by a vertical
 or horizontal axis1 the colour of the  
ground       on either side of it being 
different1 the ornament on each side of 
the axis being of the colour of the     
opposite ground4 ,see ,figs4 #agc1      
#agd4         ,interlacing1 ornament    
composed of bands1 ribbons1 ropes1      
rushes1       osiers1 c41 woven         
together1 or crossing at intervals1 as  
seen in       ,celtic1 ,byzantine1 and  
,saracenic ornament2 among examples of  
interlaced work may be mentioned        
braided1 trellis1 basket1 and           
woven work4 ,figs4 #bb1 #bc4            
,intersection1 the points at which lines
 or other forms cut one       another4  
,monotony1 sameness of tone2 often shown
 in excessive repetition2       a very  
undesirable feature in ornament3        
patterns within diapers       without   
contrasting elements2 mouldings coming  
together whose       widths and profiles
 are nearly equal2 panelling without    
sufficient       variety in size2 carved

 ornament of nearly equal relief--in    
short1       any lack of variety in the 
composition1 modelling1 or colour of    
ornament produces monotony4             
,mnemonic1 ornament in which written    
signs or other elements are       used  
for the purpose of aiding the memory4   
,see page #acj4 ,figs4 #afb1       #afc4
         ,naturalistic1 those forms that
 are used for decoration1 that          
resemble the spots and eyes on          
butterflies' wings1 or the markings     
on the skins of reptiles and quadrupeds1
 or on the feathers of       birds2     
mostly found in the ornament of savage  
tribes4         ,network1 as opposed to 
checkers1 are squares set lozengewise or
       forming diamonds2 but the word is
 commonly applied to any figures        
in outline1 rectilinear or otherwise1   
covering a surface4 ,see ,fig4          
#ajb4         ,order1 regular           
disposition2 a pleasing sequence in the 
arrangement of opposed forms4 ,order is 
of such vital importance in       a     

design that ornament can scarcely have  
any existence without it4               
,powdering1 sprays1 flowers1 leaves1 and
 other decorative units       sprinkled 
on a ground2 8powdering0 is a favourite 
method of       decoration with the     
,japanese1 and was with the ,medivals4  
,see pp4       #fc1 #hj1 and #hc1 and   
,figs4 #he1 #ajc1 and #aje4             
,proportion1 the harmonic spacing of    
lines and surfaces2 of the       length1
 width1 and projection of solids2 the   
ratio between       succeeding units in 
flowing ornament1 and the relation      
between the       spaces occupied by the
 ornament and its ground4               
,radiation1 the divergence from a point 
of straight or curved       lines4      
,radiating ornament is improved by the  
point being below the       straight or 
curved line from which the radiation    
starts4 ,explained       at page #dd4   
,see ,figs4 #di1 #ej1 and #ea4          
,realistic1 a style of decoration in    
which forms are applied       without   

alteration from natural forms or        
objects1 or without       apparent      
alteration2 it is opposed to the        
8conventional10 and is       rarely     
found in the best periods of good       
historic styles4 ,see ,figs4       #a   
and #adf4         ,repetition1 a        
succession of the same decorative unit4 
,for       explanation see pages #dj-dc4
 and ,figs4 #c1 #i1 and #cb4            
,reeded1 convex forms applied to a flat 
or curved surface1       producing the  
reverse effect of 8fluting02 some of the
 columns in       ,egyptian architecture
 are reeded1 being sculptured to        
represent a       bundle of reeds tied  
together4 ,see ,figs4 #gf;,a and #gf;,b4
         ,repose1 rest2 the absence of  
apparent movement in ornament2 this     
apparent movement may be seen in some   
flamboyant tracery and       ,saracenic 
work1 and in some bad paper-hangings1   
c42 also the       absence of           
spottiness4 ,see page #de4              
,scale1 the relative proportion of the  

different parts of a       decorative   
composition to each other1 to the whole1
 and to the       thing ornamented4 ,if 
a design is composed of different       
organic       forms1 they should1 as a  
rule1 keep their natural proportion to  
each other4 ,attributes are1 however1   
often made to a much larger       scale 
in ,greek coins and engraved gems4      
,equality in scale need not       be    
used when parts are cut off from each   
other by inclosing       mouldings1 as  
in isolated panels1 pilasters1          
medallions1 spandrels1       c42 the    
inclosed spaces may be filled with other
 subjects of       smaller or larger    
scale1 as with landscapes1 heads1 or    
inscriptions2 the frieze of a room1 from
 its greater importance1       may have 
its decoration larger in scale than the 
panels of the       door or shutters4   
,the scale employed in the decoration of
 rooms1 of       floors1 or of pieces of
 furniture1 may increase or destroy     
their       importance2 hence1 except in

 rare instances1 the human figure       
should not exceed its natural size1 and 
may want to be much       smaller4 ,and 
this precaution is equally important in 
the use of       plants2 if the flowers 
or leaves in ornament are made gigantic1
       they destroy the scale of the    
room or floor2 though it may be known   
that leaves four feet in diameter or six
 feet long actually exist4              
,scalloping or scolloping1 forming an   
edge with semi-circles or               
segments1 the convex side being         
outwards4         ,scroll1 a roll of    
paper or parchment4 ,as a unit in       
ornament1 it       is usually applied to
 two spirals1 each attached to the      
opposite       ends of a curved stem1   
each spiral coiling the reverse way1 but
 the       word is often applied to     
ornament composed of a meander with     
spirals4         ,series1 usually the   
sequence of several dissimilar forms at 
regular intervals1 as the bead and reel 
in bead-mouldings1 the       sequence of

 the same text in ,saracenic work1 and  
also a sequence of       forms similar  
in shape but in an increasing or        
decreasing order1 as       branches of  
plants with leaves getting smaller from 
bottom to top4         ,setting out1 the
 planning of a scheme of decoration2 the
 first       constructive lines or      
marking-out of the ornament2 the        
skeleton       lines of a design4 ,see  
pages #bf1 #dj1 and #fh4                
,soffit1 an architectural term applied  
to the under side of any       fixed    
portion1 as the soffit of a beam1 an    
architrave1 a cornice1       an arch1 or
 a vault4         ,spacing1 the marking 
of widths in mouldings1 panels1 stiles  
and       rails1 borders1 c4 ,equality  
of division in decoration is1 in most   
cases1 ineffective1 and should be       
guarded against2 harmonious             
variety in such widths and distances is 
desirable for getting a       good      
effect4 ,see pages #db1 #fb1 #fe1 and   
#fh-ga4 ,also ,figs4 ,c1 ,d1 #hh        

and #hi4         ,spiral1 the elevation 
of a wire continuously twisted round a  
cylinder1 or cone1 also the plan of one 
twisted round a cone2 in       ornament 
the word spiral1 when used as a         
substantive1 mostly means       the     
latter form4 ,the curved line forming a 
volute 7as in the ,ionic       capital7 
and the outline of the wave ornament2   
the line of       construction in       
univalve shells4 ,see ,figs4 #bd1 #da1  
#db1 #dc1 #agh1 c4         ,stability1  
firmness and strength in the general    
appearance of a       design2 in        
climbing plants this appearance can only
 be given by       their attachment to a
 central upright or to the vertical     
sides of       the frame2 the straight  
line is the chief factor of stability in
       ornament4 ,see page #db4 ,where  
many curved lines are used in the       
decoration of long panels1              
straight-lined forms must be introduced 
to counteract the effect of instability 
in the curved ones4 ,see       ,figs4   

#abc and #abh4 ,this is especially the  
case in pilasters which       are       
architectural features of support2 and  
for the same reason the       heavier   
forms should be kept at the bottom and  
the lighter ones at       the top4      
,style1 originally meant handwriting4   
,in historic styles it means       the  
expression of the taste and skill of the
 people who produced       the work of  
art1 whether it be architecture1        
sculpture1 or       painting4 ,bygone   
styles are useful for study1 and may be 
copied or       paraphrased1 but can    
never be re-created1 because the genius1
       knowledge1 opportunities1 and    
surroundings of any later period are    
unlikely to be the same4 ,we classify   
them under the head of                  
conventional 7sometimes called          
idealistic71 realistic1 and             
naturalistic4 ,it is also used to       
express good drawing or modelling1      
which conveys the elegance1 grace1 or   
vigour of the best natural       forms4 

,sometimes it is applied to a           
composition in which those              
qualities arc expressed1 in             
contradistinction to the ill-drawn1     
flabby1 or commonplace4                 
,spotting4 ,this word has nearly the    
same meaning as 8powdering10       the  
only difference being that the units of 
form in such decoration       have a    
geometrical basis and are mostly        
equidistant1 the ground       occupying 
much larger space than the ornament4    
,see ,fig4 #hj4         ,stripe1 usually
 applied in ornament to narrow bands4   
,suitability1 sthetic and practical     
fitness2 the great thing to             
remember is the nature1 surface1 and    
shape of the object to be               
decorated1 and to design the ornament   
accordingly1 for it is       evident    
that what would be a good ornament for  
one object or       position might be   
bad for another4         ,superimposed  
or superposed1 an ornament which is laid
 on the       surface of another1 such  

as a large flowing pattern on a ground  
covered with a smaller pattern1 either  
geometric or floral2 or a       broad1  
ribbon-like ornament laid on a pattern  
formed of narrow and       fine lines4  
,this sort of ornamentation is mostly   
seen in the       decoration of the     
,saracens1 but occasionally in that of  
the       ,renaissance artists4 ,in the 
wall-patterns of the ,alhambra1 we often
       find two1 three1 and sometimes   
four different designs superimposed     
on each other1 the judicious use of     
different colours and gold              
preventing confusion in the pattern2 the
 complexity is sometimes of       a     
well-ordered kind4 ,see ,figs4 #aja1    
#ajb1 and #ajd4         ,subordination4 
,a regular gradation from the most      
important       feature to the least    
important4 ,see the central panel of    
ceiling1       ,fig4 #hi4               
,symbol originally meant a token or a   
ticket among the ,greeks2 by       the  
,romans it meant the same1 and also a   

signet4 ,in modern ,english       it    
means a sign1 emblem1 or figurative     
representation4 ,in       ornamental art
 it is mostly used to express some      
beautiful thing       that by knowledge 
or association brings to the mind some  
power or       dignity connected with   
religion4 ,attributes are often used as 
symbols of the divinity to which they   
belong--the bow of ,diana1 the          
thyrsus of ,bacchus 7,fig4 #afg71 and   
the trident of ,neptune1 c4 ,in         
,christian ornament the fish and lamb   
are mostly symbols of the               
,saviour4 ,it is sometimes difficult to 
determine when anything       should be 
called a symbol1 an emblem1 or an       
allegorical       representation2 for   
instance1 whether the ,apocalyptic calf 
is a       symbol1 an emblem1 or an     
allegorical representation of ,st4      
,luke4         ,symmetry1 equality of   
form and mass on either side of a       
central       line2 absolute sameness in
 the two sides of a piece of ornament4  

,see ,figs4 #abg and #acj4              
,tangential ,junction1 the meeting of   
curves at their tangential       points1
 so that they flow into one another     
without making an angle4       ,the     
principal constructive lines in foliated
 ornament and scroll       patterns     
should illustrate 8tangential junction10
 i4 e4 the       branches and curves    
should flow out of the central stem4    
,see p4 #de1       and ,figs4 #be and   
#ec4         ,uniformity1 being of one  
shape2 the square and circle are uniform
       figures2 it is one of the main   
causes of grandeur and dignity1 but     
if absolute1 results in monotony4 ,the  
,greek temples had apparently           
uniform columns placed at uniform       
distances1 and monotony was             
avoided by delicate variations in the   
size and spacing of the       columns4  
,unit1 the smallest or simplest complete
 expression of ornament       in any    
scheme of decoration4         ,unity1   
perfect accord in all the parts of a    

design4 ,unity is       often a         
characteristic of designs that are very 
monotonous1 so by       itself it will  
scarcely render a design pleasing4      
,unsymmetrical1 without symmetry1 such  
as the volute4 ,see the word            
,balance4         ,variety1 the absence 
of similarity2 a word embracing an      
infinity       of differences1 from two 
things that are not absolutely alike1 to
       two things that are absolutely   
unlike4 ,the judicious use of variety   
gives interest to ornament1 but         
uniformity with slight variety          
gives the most dignity4                 
,,richard ,,clay  ,,sons1 ,,limited1    
,,london  ,,bungay4      ,,footnotes3   
#a ,m4 ,henri ,mayeux1 ,la ,composition 
,dcorative1 #hvo1 ,paris1 s4a4    #b    
,see ,m4 ,csar ,daly's ,motifs          
,historique1 fol41 ,paris1 #ahha4    #c 
,the chambers under ,titus' baths in    
which the paintings were found1  were   
originally parts of ,nero's golden      
house4    #d ,there are1 however1       

figures of men and animals occasionally 
found  in their carved wood-work1 tiles1
 damascened work1 carpets1 and          
embroidery4    #e ,many of the frets are
 woven spirals4    #f ,there is1        
however1 a strong objection1 from a     
sanitary point of  view1 to the use of  
absorbent hangings1 especially when the 
surface  is rough1 for they not only    
absorb infection1 but hold dust1 which  
generally contains the germs of disease4
    #g ,there arc many styles of        
,persian ornamentation--that of the     
,achmenides1 probably that of the       
,macedonians after the conquest of      
,persia by ,alexander the ,great1 that  
of the ,sasanides1 that of the          
,saracens after they conquered the      
country1 and their ornamentation  was   
doubtless influenced by the subsequent  
,mongul conquest4 ,that  ornamentation  
which is generally called ,persian1     
except modern work1  seems to be        
,saracenic4    #h ,in the sixteenth     
chapter of the ,korn called the 8,bee10 

it is  said1 8and of the fruit of the   
palm-trees and of grapes1 ye obtain an  
inebriating liquor and also good        
nourishment40    #i        8,eve's      
tempter thus the rabbins have express'd1
       ,a cherub's face1 a reptile all  
the rest40--,,pope4      #aj ,from ,dr4 
,richter's discoveries at ,cyprus1 it   
seems probable that  the ,ionic volute  
may have taken its rise from an         
enlargement of the  ,egyptian lotus4