,an                                     
,historical ,sketch                     
of              ,the ,conceptions of    
,memory among the ,ancients4            
,submitted as a ,thesis                 
by                           ,william   
,h4 ,burnham1             ,candidate for
 the degree of ,doctor of ,philosophy   
at                        ,johns        
,hopkins ,university1                   
,baltimore4                             
#ahhh4                                  
,table of ,contents4                    
,i4   ,conceptions of ,memory before    
,aristotle1                       pp4   
#a-aa                                   
,,ii4   ,aristotle's ,conceptions of    
,memory1                            pp4 
#ab-dj                                  
,,iii4   ,conceptions of ,memory among  
the ,stoics and ,epicureans1 and in     
,cicero and ,quintilian1                
pp4 #da-df                              
,,iv4   ,conceptions of ,plotinus and   
,st4 ,augustine1                    pp4 

#dg-gj                                  
,v4   ,diseases of ,memory mentioned by 
ancient writers1              pp4 #ga-gc
                                        
,,vi4   ,ancient ,systems of ,mnemonics1
                                 pp4    
#gd-gf                                  
,memory4                                
,i4   ,mnemosyne1 ,hesiod tells us1 was 
the mother of the ,muses4 ,without      
speculating as some have done about the 
reasons for this myth it is interesting 
as showing an appreciation of the       
fundamental nature of memory and some   
sort of crude introspective psychology  
dating back possibly to pre-historic    
times4  ,before the art of writing was  
in common use men had to depend more    
largely than to-day upon their memories 
for preserving and transmitting their   
knowledge4 ,it is not surprising1       
therefore1 that the ancients put a high 
estimate upon memory before they began  
to theorize about its nature4 ,there    
are1 of course1 allusions to memory in  

,homer and in the ,hebrew ,scriptures4#a
 ,and occasionally one of the early     
,greek philosophers tries to explain    
some phenomenon of memory4 ,but we find 
no scientific study of the subject      
before ,aristotle4  ,the psychology of  
the ,ionian school of philosophers1 as  
far as they can be said to have had any 
at all1 was sensationalism4 ,their views
 of memory must be conjectured from the 
fundamental principles of their         
philosophy4  ,the doctrine of           
transmigration as held in the           
,pythagoreans is an anticipation of     
,plato's doctrine of reminiscence1 but  
there is little psychology in it4       
,theophrastus tells us that ,diogenes of
 ,appollonia was puzzled by the         
phenomenon of forgetting things4#b ,but 
he explained it in accordance with the  
principles of his philosophy by         
supposing that the cause of forgetting  
was an arrest of the equal distribution 
of air throughout the body4 ,a          
corroboration of this explanation he    

found in the easier breathing that      
follows the recalling of what was       
forgotten4  ,among the ,eleatics1       
,parmenides is reported to have held    
that not only thought1 but recollecting 
and forgetting depended upon the way the
 light or heat and the dark or cold are 
mixed in the body4 ,if we may trust     
,theophrastus1#c it may be assumed that1
 according to ,parmenides1 every        
presentation corresponded to a definite 
mixture or relation of these qualities1 
and with the destruction of that        
relation the presentation disappeared1  
that is1 was forgotten4  ,heraclitus1   
one might suppose1 would study memory   
carefully1 but in the fragments of his  
philosophy that have come down to us    
nothing is said upon the subject4  ,in  
,plato we find a more modern psychology4
 ,according to him the thinking power of
 the mind1 the understanding1 is above  
the mere power of sense perceptions4 ,it
 is this power which compares and       
considers1 notes similarities and       

contrasts1 unity and plurality1 and     
forms ideas of relation between ,being  
and ,non-,being as well as relations of 
number and proportions4 ,among the      
elements of this power1 recollection 77 
is of prime importance4 ,this rests upon
 the association by similarity and      
simultaneity4#d  ,plato distinguishes   
the passive retention 77 of perceptions 
from active memory 771#e and suggests as
 a definition of memory1 8the power     
which the soul has of recovering1 when  
by itself1 some feeling which it        
experienced when in company with the    
body40 ,he attempts no explanation of   
memory of memory2 but in the ,theaetetus
 puts the following words into the mouth
 of ,socrates3  8,i would have you      
imagine1 then1 that there exists in the 
mind of man a block of wax1 which is of 
different sizes in different men2       
harder1 moister1 and having more or less
 of purity in one than in another1 and  
in some of an intermediate quality4444  
,let us say that this tablet is a gift  

of ,memory1 the mother of the ,muses1   
and that when we wish to remember       
anything which we have seen or heard1 or
 thought in our own minds1 we hold the  
wax to the perceptions and thoughts1 and
 in that receive the impressions from   
them as from the seal of a ring2 and    
that we remember and know what is       
imprinted as long as the image lasts2   
but when the image is effaced1 or cannot
 be taken1 then we forget and do not    
know40  ,plato carries out the same     
figure to explain different degrees of  
memory4 8,when the wax in one's soul is 
deep1 abundant1 smooth1 and of the right
 quality1 the impressions are lasting4  
,such minds can easily retain and are   
not liable to confusion4 ,but1 on the   
other hand1 when the wax is very soft1  
one learns easily and forgets as easily2
 if the wax is hard1 the reverse is     
true2 again1 if the wax is hard or      
impure1 the impressions are indistinct2 
and still more indistinct are they when 
jostled together in a little soul40#f   

,this illustration must not be taken too
 seriously2 for later on in the same    
dialogue ,socrates calls it a 8waxen    
figment0 and substitutes for it the     
figure of the aviary of all kinds of    
birds--8some flocking together apart    
from the rest1 others in small groups1  
others solitary1 flying anywhere and    
everywhere40  ,the receptacle is empty  
when we are young4 ,the birds are kinds 
of knowledge4 ,learning is the process  
of capturing the birds and of detaining 
them in this enclosure4 ,in acts of     
memory we re-catch them and take them   
out of the aviary4  ,plato's views upon 
memory have a special interest on       
account of their connection with his    
metaphysical doctrines4 ,perception and 
recollection are the occasion of the    
minds turning away from the world of    
sense to the inner world of innate and  
universal ideas4 ,these ideas we could  
never get from sense-perception4 ,that  
gives us only the immediate and the     
individual4 ,the ideas are of the       

essential and the universal4 ,we could  
not conceive them if we did not already 
know them4 ,hence the power to know the 
universal in the individual proves a    
previous existence in which we had the  
intuitions of universal truths2 and1    
accordingly1 learning is but            
recollection4#g ,the metaphysical       
aspects of memory1 however1 let us avoid
 as much as possible4 ,they would soon  
lead far from a psychological study4    
,but this doctrine of recollection lies 
at the heart of the ,platonic           
philosophy1 and it is necessary to note 
carefully the distinction between this  
and ordinary memory4 ,the latter1 as    
defined by ,plato in the passage quoted 
above is the memory or recollection of  
what has been learned through the body1 
that is1 through sense-perception1      
belongs to the world of appearances1 and
 is liable to many errors4 ,the former1 
on the other hand1 is not concerned with
 things of sense4 ,it is recollection of
 that higher world where we had an      

antenatal vision of intelligible        
realities4 ,its highest manifestation is
 the insight of the philosopher who sees
 the divine goodness1 truth1 and        
beauty4#h                               
,,ii4   ,the difference in philosophic  
method between ,plato and ,aristotle is 
well illustrated by their treatment of  
memory4 ,what ,plato says of memory is  
incidental to the discussion of such    
profound matters as the nature of the   
soul and the theory of knowledge4       
,memory1 according to him1 is one of the
 higher faculties and partakes of the   
eternal nature of the soul4 ,aristotle  
makes a special study of memory in a    
less transcendental way4 ,with him it is
 no longer a function of the eternal    
,nous2 but it has its seat in the       
passive ,reason1 is dependent upon a    
physiological process1 and perishes with
 the body4  ,aristotle seems to have    
been the first of ancient philosophers  
to write a systematic treatise on       
psychology4 ,but1 rather curiously1 in  

this work on psychology there is no     
special treatment of memory4 ,a special 
tract1 however1 was devoted to the      
subject4#i ,this1 so  far as we know1   
was the first scientific study of       
memory2 and for this reason1 as well as 
for its intrinsic merits1 the tract     
deserves special attention4 ,but before 
passing to his doctrine of memory1 it is
 well to notice briefly his theory of   
sense-perceptions4 ,on occasion of      
appropriate stimuli movements take place
 in the sense-organs4 ,these movements1 
however1 are not sense perception4 ,in  
perception the mind must compare and    
distinguish disparate sensations2 it    
must unite the sensations presented     
simultaneously by our double sense      
organs as of sight and hearing1 and it  
must be conscious of sensation4 ,this   
work of comparison1 of psychic          
synthesis1 and of self-conscious        
perception is performed by a central    
sense4 ,the physical basis of this sense
 is the heart4 ,through it the mind     

performs the act of sense perception4   
,the functions now attributed to nervous
 substance are referred by ,aristotle to
 the pneuma connected with the blood4   
,this is the medium by which the        
movements arising in the sense organs   
are transmitted to the heart1 and in    
this pneuma the movements persist long  
after the external stimuli have ceased  
to act4 ,incidentally1 it is interesting
 to note1 that according to ,aristotle's
 psychology1 the brain has very little  
to do with mental activity4 ,to borrow a
 phrase from ,wallace1 it serves simply 
as 8a cooling apparatus to counteract   
the excessive warmth of the heart40     
,when the movement occasioned in the    
sense organ by an external stimulus is  
propagated to the heart1#aj it becomes a
 perception of the soul4 ,sense         
perception1 then1 is an act of the soul 
by means of a physiological process4 ,in
 the words of ,aristotle it is 8a       
movement of the soul through the        
body40#aa ,now this movement sometimes  

continues after the stimulus1 which was 
the occasion of it1 has ceased to act4  
,the extreme case is the well known     
phenomenon of a visual after-image4 ,the
 images of the imagination are such     
after-sensations4 ,imagination is weak  
sensation1 or in the words of ,hobbes1  
8decaying sense04 ,so too1 dreaming is  
the result of a movement in our bodily  
organs1 caused either from without or   
from within4 ,again1 these persisting   
movements are the elements of memory4   
,at first1 one wonders how ,aristotle   
will distinguish those movements which  
constitute memory from those which are  
the basis of imagination4 ,he is not    
entirely satisfactory on this point2 but
 he makes the following distinction4    
,the picture of the imagination1 or the 
corresponding movement does not refer to
 an external object1 and is not located 
in the past4 ,the memory picture1 on the
 other hand1 does refer to an object and
 carries with it the consciousness of a 
time in the past1 when the perception   

remembered took place4#ab ,memory1 then1
 involves time1 and both this and the   
sense of time are dependent upon the    
central sense4 ,memory1 as we have seen1
 is dependent upon the residua of       
sensations4 ,the subjective side of a   
sensation is an image4 ,thus memory     
belongs to the same part of the soul as 
the imagination1 and the proper objects 
of memory are images 774 ,the image is a
 condition 77 of the central sense4     
,memory per se is of the original image 
or perception1 and only in an accidental
 manner does it relate to matters of    
thought4#ac  ,in his special tract on   
memory1 ,aristotle in part repeats      
,plato's views1 in part discusses the   
obvious facts of memory1 which1 having  
been continually repeated since his     
time1 have become mere platitudes1 and  
in part he tries to explain the         
phenomena of memory in accordance with  
his general system of psychology4 ,the  
essay1 however1 is of special interest1 
because in it ,aristotle sets forth very

 clearly the famous doctrine of         
association of ideas4 ,some of the other
 points in the treatise may be briefly  
mentioned and special consideration     
given to the portion relating to        
recollection and association4  ,first   
,aristotle takes considerable space to  
show what would seem to be apparent     
enough to everybody1 that memory is of  
the past1 as perception is of the       
present1 and hope and opinion of the    
future4  ,the central sense or sensorium
 must be in a condition suitable to     
receive and retain impressions4 ,if the 
sensorium is too hard1 no impression is 
made4 ,if it is greatly agitated1 the   
new movement is ineffectual3 on somewhat
 the same principle1 one may suppose1 as
 one say in modern psychology1 that a   
weak stimulus is washed out by a strong 
one4 ,hence the very young and the very 
old have poor memories2 for the former  
are in the movement of growth1 the      
latter in that of decay4 ,again1 the    
question arises3 ,how is it that in     

recollection we recognize the memory    
image as a picture of the absent object8
 ,a scholastic answer is given4 8,an    
animal painted in a picture1 he says1 is
 both an animal and a copy1 and while   
being thus one and the same1 it is      
nevertheless two things at once4 ,the   
animal and the copy are not identical1  
and we may think of the picture either  
as animal or as a representation4 ,this 
is also true of the image within us2 and
 the idea which the mind contemplates is
 something1 although it is also the     
image of something else40#ad  ,the      
second chapter of the treatise on memory
 is devoted chiefly to recollection and 
the association of ideas4 ,aristotle    
distinguishes carefully between the mere
 persistence and reproduction of a      
presentation 77 from voluntary          
recollection 774 ,the latter is indirect
 reproduction4 ,it is possible only by  
the association of ideas4 ,the former is
 an attribute of animals1 while the     
latter is peculiar to man4 ,recollection

 occurs according to the sequence of    
ideas4#ae ,what and how necessary the   
sequence shall be depends upon our past 
experience4 8,if the sequence be        
necessary01 ,aristotle continues1 8then1
 when this movement occurs1 that one    
will follow4 ,if it is not necessary1   
but a matter of habit1 the latter       
movement will generally follow40 ,sir   
,wm4 ,hamilton understands the word     
translated movement 77 to mean merely   
change in quality4 ,the word1 then1 he  
thinks may be fairly translated into    
modern nomenclature by his famous term  
modification4 ,one hesitates to         
criticise such a profound scholar and   
such a diligent student of ,aristotle as
 ,sir ,wm4 ,hamilton2 but in the light  
of what has been said it seems much     
simpler and more in accordance with the 
psychology of ,aristotle to understand  
his doctrine of recollection as follows3
 ,the physiological movements originally
 connected with a series of perceptions 
must occur again in the same order when 

we recall a true memory-picture4#af ,man
 is so constituted that when one        
movement and the mental image connected 
with it occur1 another movement with its
 appropriate mental image is likely to  
follow4 ,when we would recall anything1 
therefore1 we must call up idea after   
idea until we arrive at one upon which  
the one we are in search of has often   
been sequent in our experience4 ,or in  
terms of physiology1 movement after     
movement must recur until we arrive at a
 movement upon which the movement       
corresponding to the idea desired has   
often been sequent4  ,this sequence or  
association of ideas is subject to      
certain laws4 ,the remarkable passage in
 which ,aristotle states these laws is  
translated by ,sir ,wm4 ,hamilton as    
follows3  8,when1 therefore1 we         
accomplish an act of ,reminiscence we   
pass through a certain series of        
precursive movements until we arrive at 
a movement1 on which the one we are in  
quest of is habitually consequent4      

,hence1 too1 it is that we hunt through 
the mental train1 excogitating what we  
seek from its concomitant in the        
present1 or some other time and from its
 ,similar or ,contrary or ,coadjacent4  
,through this process ,reminiscence is  
effected4 ,for the movements1 which and 
by which we recollect are1 in these     
cases1 and sometimes the same1 sometimes
 at the same time1 sometimes parts of   
the same whole3 so that having obtained 
from one or the other of these a        
commencement1 the subsequent movement is
 already more than half                 
accomplished40#ag  ,wallace quotes the  
same passage in the introduction to his 
,psychology of ,aristotle1#ah and gives 
the following somewhat different and    
probably more accurate translation3--   
8,when engaged in recollection we seek  
to excite some of our previous movements
 until we come to that which the        
movement or impression of which we are  
in search was wont to follow4 ,and hence
 we seek to reach this preceding        

impression by starting in our thought   
from an object present to us or         
something else whether it be similar1   
contrary1 or contiguous to that of which
 we are in search2 recollection taking  
place in this manner because the        
movements are in one case identical1 in 
another case coincident and in the last 
case partly overlap40#ai  ,whichever    
translation we adopt it seems plain     
enough that ,aristotle maintained that  
voluntary recollection depended upon the
 laws of association by similarity1     
contrast or contrariety1 and contiguity4
 ,very likely he meant to include       
simultaneity and sequence2 but any proof
 of this should rest upon the general   
import of the passage rather than upon  
any doubtful emendation like            
,hamilton's4#bj  ,a more important      
question is whether ,aristotle meant to 
limit the application of these laws to  
voluntary recollection 771 or whether he
 intended to include spontaneous        
reproduction 77 as well4  ,the opinion  

commonly held by students of ,aristotle1
 from ,themistius down1 has been that he
 applied the law of association only to 
voluntary recollection4 ,hamilton1      
however1 argues forcibly that ,aristotle
 taught the universality of the law of  
association4 ,it seems natural enough to
 suppose that one who saw so clearly    
that in the voluntary train of thought  
the sequence conforms to the law of     
association1 would have seen that the   
same laws apply to the spontaneous      
activity of the mind4 ,but while        
,aristotle states the law of association
 clearly for the former1 he at most     
merely alludes to the latter1 and       
obscurely enough at that4 ,later in the 
same treatise ,aristotle gives an       
illustration that may serve to elucidate
 the principles of association that have
 just been stated4 ,in recollection     
there are certain movements which serve 
as standpoints or clues4 ,milk suggests 
whiteness1 whiteness the clear          
atmosphere1 the atmosphere moisture1    

this the rainy season4 ,so too1         
,themistius in commenting upon the      
passage quoted above1 uses an           
illustration somewhat similar4 8,i see a
 painted lyre1 and moved by this1 as the
 prior and leading image1 ,i have the   
reminiscence of a real lyre2 this       
suggests the musician1 and the musician1
 the song ,i heard him play40#ba ,again1
 ,aristotle uses an illustration        
somewhat as follows3 ,let ,a4 ,b4 ,c4   
,d4 ,e4 ,f4 ,g4 ,h4 represent a series  
of ideas1 one of which we will to       
recall4 ,from ,d ,e1 as a starting point
 we may be moved forward by ,e or       
backward by ,d1 by the association of   
ideas4 ,if1 then1 on the suggestion of  
,d ,e1 we do not find what we would     
recall1 we may find it by running over  
the series ,e 444 ,h2 if not1 we shall  
at any rate find the desired idea by    
running over the series backward from ,d
 to ,a4 ,not much stress1 however1      
should be put upon this last            
illustration2 for the text is so obscure

 that many different interpretations    
have been given by commentators4        
,perhaps ,aristotle meant to illustrate 
something more profound than the mere   
linkings of presentations in a series1  
and the process of recollecting the     
mental train4 ,but the illustration of  
such a simple matter as this was not    
unimportant in the first scientific     
study of memory4  ,the place of memory  
in the ,aristotelian psychology in      
relation to the lower psychic activities
 is plain from what has been said4 ,the 
relation of memory1 as voluntary        
recollection1 to the higher activity of 
the ,nous is indicated by ,aristotle    
when he says that recollection is a     
syllogistic process4 ,thus it is that1  
while many animals have the lower kind  
of memory1 man alone has the higher     
form4 8,the reason is01 says ,aristotle1
 8that ,reminiscence is1 as it were1 a  
kind of syllogism1 or mental discourse4 
,for he who is reminiscent1 that he has 
formerly seen or heard1 or otherwise    

perceived1 anything virtually performs  
an act of syllogism40#bb ,with          
,aristotle the higher functions of the  
soul are based upon the lower4 8,without
 nutrition1 there is no sense2 without  
sense there is no phantasy2 without     
phantasy there is no cogitation or      
intelligence40#bc ,the place of memory  
among the soul's functions is1 with the 
phantasy or imagination1 mediate between
 sensation and intelligence4  ,in       
connection with ,aristotle's doctrine of
 recollection1 one passage in his       
,psychology is interesting1 although its
 importance has1 perhaps1 been          
exaggerated4 8,recollection10 he says1  
8starts from the soul and terminates in 
the movements or impressions which are  
stored up in the organs of sense40#bd   
,siebeck interprets this passage as     
meaning that the soul has the power by  
means of the heart to effect a sort of  
efferent movement towards the sense     
organs and thus to arouse anew the      
persisting residua of former motions4   

,recollection1 then1 with ,aristotle as 
in modern psychology1 is an excitation  
of the sense organs1 reproduced in a    
less degree2 and the same organs are    
excited and the same movements repeated 
as in the original sensation4#be ,this  
passage is certainly a remarkable       
anticipation of ,bain's famous doctrine 
that a reproduced impression 8occupies  
the very same parts and in the same     
manner0 as the original impression4#bf  
,in the foregoing sketch of ,aristotle's
 view of memory the attempt has been    
made to give only what can fairly be    
found in ,aristotle's text4 ,much of his
 tract upon memory is obscure4          
,commentators have held very conflicting
 opinions in regard to the importance of
 what he wrote upon association and     
recollection4 ,sir ,wm4 ,hamilton calls 
him 8the founder and finisher of the    
theory of ,association10 looks upon the 
commentators as marvellously stupid in  
their interpretations1 and deems it a   
proof of ,aristotle's genius that it    

took the world #bjjj years to become    
intelligent enough to understand him4   
,indeed1 in reading ,hamilton's erudite 
discussion one may be led almost to     
believing that ,aristotle was the first 
,scottish philosopher4 ,but while       
,hamilton's ,scottish apperception      
probably found too much in ,aristotle's 
treatise1 and while1 on the other hand1 
,lewes may be right in saying that 8here
 as in so many other cases modern       
knowledge supplies the telescope with   
its lenses01 nevertheless ,aristotle's  
doctrine of association was a valuable  
contribution to science4 ,and it is     
manifestly unfair to charge him with    
ignorance of its importance1 because he 
did not spin out as many volumes upon   
the subject as the ,english             
associationalists have done4#bg         
,,iii4   ,the ,stoics took ,plato's     
figure of the wax almost literally6     
,they held that the mind is originally a
 tabula rasa4 ,sensations are the first 
writing upon this tablet4 ,the object of

 sensation makes an impression upon the 
perceiving subject1 as the seal         
impresses the wax4 ,memory depends upon 
this impression4 ,this was the view of  
,zeno4 ,chrysippus found difficulties in
 such a crude materialistic theory4 ,how
 could the mind receive and retain at   
the same time a number of different and 
partly incompatible impressions8        
,accordingly he replaced this view by   
the theory that the sense impression    
consists in a qualitative change 77 of  
the passively receiving organ1 the      
soul4#bh ,the presentation 77 is a state
 of the soul4 ,the relation of memory to
 the general theory of knowledge with   
the ,stoics was briefly as              
follows3--,the lowest act of the soul is
 mere perception 772 the next is        
presentation 771 which adds conscious   
observation1 its function being to make 
a first test of the truth of the        
material furnished by sense4 ,if        
perception has offered a true picture of
 the external object1 this presenting   

activity of the mind becomes so         
intensive that the understanding is     
brought into action4 ,the understanding 
or judgment approves or disapproves the 
presentations4 ,if it approves1 there   
arises the empirical fact1 which bears  
upon it the mark of truth4 ,these facts 
memory stores up4 ,by combination of the
 separate facts empirical concepts are  
formed which make up the treasure of    
memory or experience4#bi  ,the          
psychology of ,epicurus and the other   
atomists was a simple kind of mechanical
 sensationalism4 ,eidola or images from 
external objects enter the soul through 
the sense organs4 ,the mind stores up a 
great multitude of these eidola4        
,whenever we call up a picture of memory
 or of the imagination1 we turn the     
attention to one of these images4 ,thus 
the mind sees in the same way that the  
eye does1 with this difference1 that it 
perceives much thinner eidola4#cj       
,cicero and ,quintilian both dwell upon 
the importance of memory2 and both seem 

to adopt the common theory of the time1 
that impressions are stamped on the mind
 as the signets are marked on wax4 ,they
 are especially concerned1 however1 with
 principles relating to the exercise of 
memory2 and they give instructions for  
mnemonic aids in oratory4 ,cicero lays  
special stress upon order as an aid to  
memory2 and as sight is the most acute  
of the senses1 those things are best    
remembered which are visualized by the  
imagination4 ,in accordance with the    
ancient mnemonic systems he would have  
these imagined forms localized4 ,the    
advice of ,quintilian in respect to     
memory is especially sensible4          
,according to him1 nothing can take the 
place of exercise and labor4 ,next in   
importance is the division and          
arrangement of one's subject4 ,he       
notices also the importance of good     
health2 and says that for slow minds an 
interval of rest is a good thing1 though
 he seems to be uncertain whether the   
advantage is due to the rest1 or whether

 it gives reminiscence time to          
mature4#ca                              
,,iv4   ,the ,neo-,platonic psychology  
of memory is represented by             
,plotinus4#cb ,he discusses the subject 
at considerable length1 and presents a  
somewhat original doctrine4 ,memory does
 not belong to ,god nor to the divine   
immutable intelligence in man1 which    
knows by direct intellectual perception4
 ,it is a function of the soul and first
 appears when the world soul is         
individualized in bodies4 ,memory1      
however1 has no basis in the physical   
organism1 nor does the soul impress the 
sensations upon the body4 ,the effects  
of sensations are not like impressions  
made by a seal1 nor are they reactions  
771 or configurations 771 but in        
sense-perception as in thought the soul 
is active4 ,in memory1 too1 the soul is 
active1 not passive4 ,the influence of  
the body proves nothing against this4   
,the changeable nature of the body may  
cause us to forget1 but it cannot       

condition positive recollection4 ,the   
body is the river of ,lethe1 but memory 
belongs to the soul4 ,the part of the   
soul to which memory belongs is the     
image-forming faculty4 ,this holds sense
 impressions as well as thought4 ,two   
souls1 the higher and the lower1 are    
concerned in memory4 ,when the soul     
leaves the body1 the recollections of   
the lower soul are soon forgotten in    
proportion as the higher soul rises     
toward the intelligible world4#cc  ,st4 
,augustine developed the views of the   
,neo-,platonists in regard to memory4   
,with him memory is a faculty of        
animals1 men1 and angels4 ,god1 whose   
immutable essence is above the sphere of
 movement and change1 does not remember4
 ,everything is seen by him in one      
indivisible and unchangeable present4   
,augustine does not agree with          
,aristotle that some animals are devoid 
of memory4 ,he attributes memory even to
 fishes1 and relates in confirmation of 
this opinion an incident that he had    

observed4 ,there was a large fountain   
filled with fishes4 ,people came daily  
to see them and often fed them4 ,the    
fishes remembered what they received2   
and as soon as any one came to the      
fountain they crowded together expecting
 their accustomed food4 ,but ,augustine 
does not suppose that animals have that 
higher memory which is purely           
intellectual1 although he probably      
failed to see how purely mechanical and 
involuntary their so-called acts of     
memory are4 ,memory with ,st4           
,augustine1 as in the psychology of     
,plotinus1 is a function of the soul1   
not of the body4 ,but with ,aristotle he
 refers it to the central sense4#cd     
,what is memory8 ,it is thinking of what
 one knows4 ,all the various            
modifications of the soul cannot all be 
present to us at once4 ,there is a      
difference between knowing a thing and  
thinking of it4 ,the musician1 says     
,augustine1 knows music1 but he does not
 think of it when he is talking about   

,geometry4#ce ,the ideas relating to    
music are in the mind in a latent state4
 ,augustine anticipates ,leibnitz in    
discussing the unconscious modifications
 of our own ideas2 but he speaks        
especially of their gradual decay1 while
 ,leibnitz considers the unconscious    
growth of them4 8,many numbers01#cf     
,augustine says1 8are gradually effaced 
from memory2 for they remain not an     
instant unaltered4 ,indeed what is not  
found in memory after a year is somewhat
 diminished even after one day4 ,but    
this diminution is imperceptible2 yet it
 is not wrongly inferred2 for it does   
not suddenly all vanish the day before  
the year is up4 ,hence we may conclude  
that from the moment it was engraved in 
memory it began to slip away40#cg ,this 
doctrine of unconscious mental changes  
and unconscious mental states is one of 
the most remarkable features of         
,augustine's psychology4 ,with          
irresistible logic he demonstrates the  
existence of such states in the         

following passage from another place3-- 
8,but what when the memory itself loses 
anything1 as falls out when we forget   
and seek that we may recollect8 ,where1 
in the end1 do we search1 but in the    
memory itself8 ,and there1 if one thing 
be1 perchance1 offered instead of       
another1 we reject it1 until what we    
seek meets us2 and when it doth we say  
#8,this is it'2 which we should not     
unless we recognized it1 nor recognize  
it1 unless we remembered it----,for we  
do not believe it as something new1 but 
upon recollection1 allow what was named 
to be right4 ,but were it utterly       
blotted out of the mind1 we should not  
remember it1 even when reminded4 ,for we
 have not as yet utterly forgotten that 
which we remember ourselves to have     
forgotten4 ,what1 then1 we have utterly 
forgotten1 though lost1 we cannot even  
seek after40#ch ,it would not be        
difficult to find passages in modern    
psychologies that read almost like      
translations of this chapter of         

,augustine's ,confessions4  ,two kinds  
of memory--sense memory and intellectual
 memory are distinguished in the        
,augustinian psychology4 ,the former    
preserves and reproduces not only the   
images of visible objects1 but also the 
impressions of sounds1 odors and other  
objects which strike our senses4#ci ,the
 images are not like the eidola of      
,democritus1 but are ideal1 formed by   
the mind from its own essence4          
,intellectual memory contains our       
knowledge of the sciences1 of           
literature1 and dialectic1 and of the   
questions relating to these subjects4#dj
 ,this memory1 unlike the memory of     
sense1 contains not the images of       
things1 but the things themselves4      
,these ideas which the intellectual     
memory stores up are in a sense innate4 
,they never came to us through the      
senses4 ,they could never have been     
taught to us1 unless we had already had 
them in our memories4 8,when ,i learned 
them ,i gave not credit to another man's

 mind1 but recognized them in mine40    
,thus the memory contains the idea of   
truth and of ,god4  ,augustine points   
out1 too1 what has been repeated by     
,locke and others until it has become a 
platitude1 that we do not remember      
objects themselves1 but the ideas which 
we have gained from them4 ,and with his 
usual subtlety he shows that much of    
what is ordinarily attributed to        
perception is really the work of memory4
  8,we see what importance ,st4         
,augustine attaches to memory4 ,it is in
 his view the faculty which preserves   
the ideas relating not only to the body1
 but to the soul1 not only to eternal   
truths1 but to the ,eternal ,being      
himself----4 ,this memory1 which is     
peculiar to man1 and which animals do   
not possess--this memory1 which in a    
mysterious manner contains in it        
intelligible realities1 is1 according to
 the ,bishop of ,hippo1 one of the three
 great faculties of man1 and the origin 
of the other two4 ,it is from it that   

intelligence arises1 and the will       
proceeds from the one to the other and  
unites them4 ,thus1 if it is allowed to 
compare things human with things divine1
 we have in us an image of the august   
,trinity4 ,memory1 in which is the      
matter of knowledge1 and which is as the
 place of intelligible things1 offers   
some resemblance to the ,father2 the    
intellect1 which is derived from and    
formed from it1 is not without analogy  
to the ,son2 and love or will1 which    
unites the intelligible 7or memory7 to  
the intellect has a certain resemblance 
to the ,holy ,spirit40#da ,the phenomena
 of memory were also important with     
,augustine as weapons against           
materialism4 ,by memory the soul knows  
objects of sense when it no longer      
perceives them1 and1 moreover1 combines 
the heterogeneous in ways inexplicable  
by means of a physchical substance4 ,and
 again the soul can form abstract       
conceptions of space and mathematical   
truths4  ,the well-known conditions of a

 good memory1 such as acuteness of      
sensation1 order1 and repetition1       
,augustine notices only incidentally4   
,more attention is given to the relation
 of the will to memory and to the       
association of ideas4  ,whether we      
remember or not depends upon the will4  
,by an act of will we avert the memory  
from sense-perceptions1 as1 for example1
 when we hear a speaker and do not      
notice what he says1 or read a page and 
do not know what we have read1 or walk  
with our attention upon something else4 
,in all these cases we perceive1 but do 
not remember our perceptions4 ,so1 too1 
recollection depends upon the will3 8,as
 the will applies the sense to the body 
7or external object71 so it applies the 
memory to the sense1 and the eye of the 
mind of the thinker to the memory40#db  
,this power of the will over memory is1 
however1 limited by the association of  
ideas4 ,in order to recall anything by a
 voluntary effort we must remember the  
general notion of the thing or some     

associated idea4 8,for example1 if ,i   
wish to remember what ,i supped on      
yesterday1 either ,i have already       
remembered that ,i did sup1 or if not   
yet this1 at least1 ,i have remembered  
something about that time itself1 if    
nothing else2 at all events1 ,i have    
remembered yesterday and that part of   
yesterday in which people usually sup1  
and what supping is40#dc ,in another    
place he says that1 of a series of ideas
 the lost part is recovered 8by the part
 whereof we had hold40  ,many since     
,augustine have marvelled at the miracle
 of memory4 ,none have expressed their  
admiration more eloquently4 8,great is  
this force of memory01 he exclaims1     
8excessive great1 ,o my ,god2 a large   
and boundless chamber2 who ever sounded 
the bottom thereof8 ,yet is this a power
 of mine1 and belongs unto my nature2   
nor do ,i myself comprehend all that ,i 
am4 ,therefore is the mind too strait to
 contain itself4 ,and where should that 
be which it containeth1 not of itself8  

,is it without and not within8 ,how then
 doth it not comprehend itself4 ,a      
wonderful admiration surprises me1      
amazement seizes me upon this4 ,and men 
go abroad to admire the heights of      
mountains1 the mighty billows of the    
sea1 the broad tides of rivers1 the     
compass of the ocean1 and the circuits  
of the stars1 and pass themselves by2   
nor wonder that when ,i spake of all    
these things1 ,i did not see them with  
my eyes1 yet could not have spoken of   
them1 unless ,i then actually saw the   
mountains1 billows1 rivers1 stars1 which
 ,i had seen1 and that ocean which ,i   
believe to be inwardly in my memory1 and
 that1 with the vast spaces between1 as 
if ,i saw them abroad4 ,yet did not ,i  
by seeing draw them into myself1 when   
with mine eyes ,i beheld them2 nor are  
they themselves with me1 but their      
images only4 ,and ,i know by what sense 
of the body1 each was impressed upon    
me40  ,it is an interesting fact that   
,augustine noticed the possibility of   

illusions of memory4 ,certain rare      
phenomena--the so-called recollections  
of ,pythagoras and others who were said 
to have remembered objects perceived in 
a former state of existence--he explains
 in a very modern fashion1 except that  
he attributes these beliefs to the      
agency of evil spirits4 8,for we must   
not01 he says1 8acquiesce in their story
 who assert that the ,samian ,pythagoras
 recollected some things of this kind1  
which he had experienced when he was    
previously here in another body2 and    
others tell yet of others1 that they    
experienced something of the same sort  
in their minds4 ,but it may be          
conjectured that these were untrue      
recollections1 such as we commonly      
experience in sleep1 when we fancy we   
remember1 as though we had done or seen 
it1 when we never did or saw at all2 and
 that the minds of these persons1 even  
though awake1 were affected in this way 
at the suggestion of malicious and      
deceitful spirits1 whose care it is to  

confirm1 or to sow some false belief    
concerning the changes of souls1 in     
order to deceive men40#dd ,if they truly
 remembered such things1 he argues1 such
 phenomena would not be as rare2 but    
many persons would experience the same4 
,perhaps the most serious criticism of  
,augustine's psychology of memory is    
that he entirely neglects the           
physiological side of the subject4 ,he  
does not even notice the relation of    
memory to states of health or disease1  
and of youth or age4 ,in one place1     
however1 he states that memory has its  
seat in one of the three ventricles of  
the brain1 which is situated between    
that which is the seat of sensation and 
that which presides over of locomotion1 
so that our movements may be            
coordinated4#de  ,the criticism has also
 been made that ,augustine seems to     
waver in his conception of memory1 that 
he sometimes represents it as the source
 of all our intellectual activity       
comparing it among the other faculties  

to the ,father in the ,trinity2 that    
again he seems to limit this faculty to 
the work of preserving knowledge        
acquired empirically4 ,certainly in some
 passages he seems to make memory       
contain a kind of innate ideas that may 
be drawn forth by suggestion4#df  ,but  
if ,augustine is unsatisfactory in this1
 it must be remembered that he is not   
writing a psychology and that he was1 as
 ,ferraz calls him1 a philosopher of    
transition4 8,he combats ,plato's       
doctrine of reminiscence1 and prepares  
the way for the innate ideas of         
,descartes1 without positively enough   
rejecting the former1 and without       
clearly enough admitting the latter40#dg
                                        
,v4   ,the pathological side of memory  
seems to have been little studied by the
 ancients4 ,augustine referred to the   
possibility of illusions of memory in   
the way already mentioned4 ,seneca tells
 of a certain ,sabinus who had so bad a 
memory that he forgot the name of       

,ulysses1 and again of ,achilles1 and   
sometimes of ,priam1 though he knew them
 as well as we remember our             
schoolmasters4#dh ,some remarkable cases
 of amnesia were reported to the ,elder 
,pliny4 8,nothing whatever in man10 he  
says1 8is of so frail a nature as the   
memory2 for it is affected by disease1  
by injuries1 and even by fright2 being  
sometimes partially lost and at other   
times entirely so4 ,a man who received a
 blow from a stone forgot the names of  
the letters 7of the alphabet7 only2     
while1 on the other hand1 another       
person1 who fell from a very high roof  
could not so much as recollect his      
mother or his relations and neighbors4  
,another person in consequence of some  
disease forgot his own servants even2   
and ,messala ,corvinus1 the orator1 lost
 all recollection of his own name40#di  
,while these cases are good             
illustrations of certain diseases of    
memory1 they are not reported with      
sufficient accuracy and detail to render

 them of much scientific value4 ,ancient
 thinkers appear not to have seen the   
importance of studying the pathological 
conditions of memory4                   
,,vi4   ,no historical sketch of memory 
among the ancient ,greeks and ,romans is
 complete without some mention of their 
mnemonic systems4 ,the art of mnemonics 
seems to have been much in vogue among  
them4 ,there are frequent allusions to  
this art in the works of ,aristotle1    
,plato1 and other classic writers4      
,aristotle is reported by some to have  
written a work upon mnemonics4 ,every   
scholar of the classics is familiar with
 the story that ascribes the invention  
of the art to ,simonides4  ,the main    
principles of the ancient mnemonic      
systems according to ,cicero and        
,quintilian were as follows4 ,the thing 
to be remembered was localized by the   
imagination in some definite place--say 
in a room of a real or imaginary house2 
and1 if necessary1 a concrete symbol as 
vivid as possible was associated with   

it4 ,this method was used by the ,romans
 as an aid in oratory2 and it has been  
said that the phrases1 8in the first    
place10 8in the second place10 and the  
like1 originated in this ancient        
practice4  ,the ancient systems of      
mnemonics are inferior to the best      
modern systems1 that1 since the days of 
,pick#ej have been based upon sound     
psychological principles4 ,but the      
ancient systems were probably very      
helpful to eye-minded people4 ,the men  
with remarkable memories1 mentioned by  
,cicero and other ancient writers very  
likely owed much to mnemonic aids4 ,it  
is of special psychological interest to 
consider the ancient mnemonic devices in
 the light of such studies as those of  
,galton upon mental imagery1 number     
forms1 and the like4#ea ,the high       
estimate that many of the ancients      
placed upon the mnemonic art1 may1      
perhaps1 fairly be taken as evidence    
that what ,galton calls the faculty of  
visualisation was developed among them4 

,especially some of the ,roman orators  
seem to have possessed this faculty in a
 high degree4                           
,biographical ,note of the ,author4   ,i
 was born at ,dunbarton1 ,n4,h4 on the  
#c;d of ,dec4 #ahee1 and am the youngest
 son of ,samuel and ,hannah ,dane       
,burnham4 ,i graduated at the ,high     
,school at ,manchester1 ,n4,h4 in #ahge4
 ,the next three years ,i spent in      
teaching and in study4 ,in #ahgh ,i     
entered ,harvard ,college1 and graduated
 in the ,class of '#hb4 ,the following  
year was spent in teaching in the       
,preparatory ,department of ,wittenberg 
,college4 ,the next two years were spent
 at the ,state ,normal ,school at       
,potsdam1 ,n4,y41 where my work was the 
teaching of ,latin and ,rhetoric4 ,in   
#ahhe ,i entered the ,johns ,hopkins    
,university4 ,in this university ,i have
 held the positions of ,fellow in       
,philosophy and ,fellow by ,courtesy4   
,my work has been chiefly under the     
direction of ,prof4 ,g4 ,stanley ,hall  

and ,dr4 ,richard ,t4 ,ely4             
,william ,henry ,burnham4  ,,footnotes3 
-----  ,footnote #a3    ,for reference  
see ,carus3 ,geschichte der             
,psychologie1 pp4 #aej  #afi4  ,footnote
 #b3    ,theophrastus1 #de4  ,footnote  
#c3    ,theophrastus1 #d4 ,cf4 ,siebeck3
 ,geschichte der ,psychologie4 ,erste   
,abtheilung1 p4 #aej4  ,footnote #d3    
,phaedrus1 #gc4  ,footnote #e3          
,philebus1 #cd4  ,footnote #f3          
,jowett's ,translation4  ,footnote #g3  
,for references see ,zeller's ,plato and
 the ,older ,academy1 pp4 #abf and      
#djg4 ,cf4 also ,siebeck3 ,geschichte   
der ,psychologie4  ,footnote #h3    ,for
 the many passages in which the words 1 
1 1     occur in ,plato1 conf see ,ast4 
,lexicon   ,platonicum1 ,,ii4 pp4       
#cef-ceg4 ,for  and  cf4 the   same1    
,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #aea-aeb4  ,footnote #i3  
,de ,memoria et ,reminiscentia4 ,for a  
list of commentaries1 see   ,hamilton's 
edition of ,reid's ,works1 p4 #hia4     
,footnote #aj3    ,touch and ,taste     

according to ,a4 reside in the heart4   
,sight1 ,sound1 and   ,smell in the     
brain1 but they are indirectly connected
 with the heart4  ,footnote #aa3    ,de 
,somno4 #a4 #ded4                   4   
,footnote #ab3    ,see ,wallace2        
,aristotle's ,psychology1 ,introduction1
 pp4 #ic  #id4  ,footnote #ac3    ,in   
other words1 abstract ideas and the like
 are reproducible only so   far as they 
imply images4  ,footnote #ad3    ,quoted
 from ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes's work on          
,aristotle1 p4 #beg4  ,footnote #ae3    
'  1          4   ,this passage is      
obscure1 but it is generally understood 
to refer to   the sequence of motions or
 the corresponding ideas1 and this      
interpretation agrees with the context4 
,see ,hamilton's ,edition of   ,reid1   
pp4 #hib-hic1 and ,themistius'          
paraphrase of ,de ,memoria1 quoted by   
,hamilton1 p4 #hic-hid2 also ,siebeck1  
,geschichte der ,psychologie1 ,zweite   
,abtheilung1 p4 #gg2 ,grote's           
,aristotle1 p4 #bae2 ,grant's           

,aristotle1 p4   #agj2 ,wallace's       
,aristotle's ,psychology1 ,introduction1
 p4 #ie4  ,footnote #af3    ,cf4        
,siebeck1 ,geschichte der ,psychologie1 
,zweite ,abtheilung1 p4 #gg4  ,footnote 
#ag3    ,the ,greek is as follows3      
' 1  1        4          1  ' 1         
' 4  ,footnote #ah3    p4 #ie4          
,footnote #ai3    ,see also ,grote1     
,grant1 ,siebeck1 and ,zeller3 see      
opp4 cit4  ,footnote #bj3    ,hamilton's
 emendation is as follows3    ,after    
in the passage cited he would supply  or
   4  ,footnote #ba3    ,quoted by      
,hamilton in his edition of ,reid's     
,works1 p4 #ija4  ,footnote #bb3        
,hamilton's translation4 ,edition of    
,reid's ,works1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #iji4    
,footnote #bc3    ,grote1 op4 cit4 p4   
,footnote #bd3    ,wallace3 ,aristotle's
 ,psychology1 p4 #da4  ,footnote #be3   
,siebeck3 op4 cit41 pp4 #gh-gi4         
,footnote #bf3    ,bain3 ,senses and    
,intellect1 p4 #cch4 #c;d ,american ed4 
,footnote #bg3    ,for passages where   

the words 1 1 etc41 occur in            
,aristotle see the ,index in the ,berlin
 edition of ,aristotle's works1   ,vol4 
,v4 ,in addition to the works cited see 
also ,waddington-,kastus2 ,de   la      
psychologie d',aristote1 ,chap4 ,,xiii4 
,footnote #bh3    ,for reference see    
,siebeck's ,geschichte der ,psychologie1
 p4 #bji4 ,see   also ,ueberweg1        
,history of ,philosophy1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4   
#aic4  ,footnote #bi3    ,cf4 ,stein2   
,die ,erkenntnisstheorie der ,stoa3     
,zeller2 ,stoics1   ,epicureans1 and    
,sceptics3 and ,ueberweg2 ,hist4 of     
,philos4 loc4 cit4  ,footnote #cj3      
,lucretius1 ,,iv4 #ge seqq4  ,footnote  
#ca3    ,cicero1 ,de ,oratore1 ,,ii4 #hf
 seq4    ,quintilian1 ,instit4 orat4    
,,xi4 #b seq4  ,footnote #cb3    ,cf4   
,enn4 ,,iv4 ,l4 ,,iii4 ,c4 ,,xxv4 ,,xxx 
and ,l4 ,,vi4  ,footnote #cc3    ,cf4   
,siebeck3 ,geschichte der ,psychologie1 
,,ii4 p4 #cad seq4  ,footnote #cd3      
,the central sense or sensorium1        
however1 according to ,augustine is     

located in the brain1 not in the heart  
as in ,aristotle's psychology4          
,footnote #ce3    ,de ,trin4 ,l4 ,,xiv4 
,c4 ,,vii4 ,see also ,ferraz1--,psych4  
de ,st4 ,augustin1   #bnd ed4  ,footnote
 #cf3    ,augustine does not mean to    
limit what follows to mathematical      
truths1   but according to his          
psychology the same would be true of    
anything that we are liable to forget4  
,footnote #cg3    ,de ,musica1 ,l4 ,,vi4
 ,c4 ,,iv4  ,footnote #ch3    ,conf4 ,l4
 ,x4 ,c4 ,,xix4 ,pusey's translation4   
,footnote #ci3    ,conf4 ,l4 ,x4 ,c4    
,,viii4  ,footnote #dj3    ,conf4 ,l4   
,x4 ,c4 ,,ix4 sqq4  ,footnote #da3      
,ferraz4--,psych4 de ,st4 ,augustin1 p4 
#agh4 ,cf4 also ,de ,trin4 ,l4 ,,xv4 ,c4
   ,,xxi4 ,,xxii4 ,,xxiii4 and ,l4 ,,xi4
 ,c4 ,,vii4 and ,,viii4  ,footnote #db3 
,de ,trin4 ,l4 ,,xi4 ,c4 ,,viii4        
,pusey's translation4  ,footnote #dc3   
,de ,trin4 ,l4 ,,xi4 ,c4 ,,vii4 ,pusey's
 translation4  ,footnote #dd3    ,de    
,trin41 ,l4 ,,xii4 #ae4  ,footnote #de3 

,de ,gen4 ad ,litt41 ,l4 ,,vii4 ,c4     
,,xviii4  ,footnote #df3    ,conf41 ,l4 
,x4 ,c4 ,x4 and ,,xi4  ,footnote #dg3   
,ferraz1 op4 cit41 p4 #aib4  ,footnote  
#dh3    ,epistolae1 #bg4  ,footnote #di3
    ,nat4 ,hist41 ,l4 ,,vii4 ,c4 #bd4   
,footnote #ej3    ,cf4 his work 8,on    
,memory and the ,rational ,means of     
,improving it40   ,london1 #ahfb4       
,footnote #ea3    ,galton1 ,enquiry into
 ,human ,faculty1 p4 #hc seq4           
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,transcriber',s ,,notes    #a4 ,p4 #fh1
 added a footnote anchor4  #b4 ,silently
 corrected typographical errors and     
variations in spelling4  #c4 ,retained  
anachronistic1 non-standard1 and        
uncertain spellings as       printed4   
#d4 ,footnotes have been re-indexed     
using numbers and collected together    
at the end of the last chapter4  #e4    
,enclosed underlined font in            
underscores4  #f4 ,enclosed inserted    
text in at signs4  #g4 ,enclosed deleted

 text in not signs4  #h4 ,superscripts  
are denoted by a caret before a single  
superscript       character or a series 
of superscripted characters enclosed in 
curly braces1 e4g4 ,mr4 or ,mister4