---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the #8' character as italic4 ,superscripted characters are shown as1 e4g41 #8,ier'4 ,the single footnote has been placed to follow the paragraph in which it was referenced4 ,there are copious illustrations1 which appear here as ,illustration3 caption1 and have been moved slightly to fall on paragraph breaks4 ,minor errors1 attributable to the printer1 have been corrected4 ,please see the transcriber's note at the end of this text for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation4 ,illustration3 ,,reduced ,,fac-,,simile ,,of ,a ,,border4 ,from an edition of 8,herodotus0 ,printed at ,venice in the year #adgj4 ,,historic ,,ornament ,treatise on ,,decorative ,,art ,,and ,,architectural ,,ornament ,,pottery2 ,,enamels2 ,,ivories2 ,,metal-,,work2 ,,furniture2 ,,textile ,,fabrics2 ,,mosaics2 ,,glass2 ,,and ,,book ,,decoration ,,by ,,james ,,ward ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,ornament0 99 99 ,with ,three ,hundred and ,seventeen ,illustrations ,,london3 ,,chapman ,,and ,,hall1 ,,limited #ahig ,,preface4 ,illustration ,this work is a continuation of the former volume on the subject of ,historic ,ornament1 and treats of the historical development of ornament and decoration as illustrated in furniture1 pottery1 enamels1 ivories1 metal work1 including goldsmiths'1 silversmiths'1 and jewellers' work1 textile fabrics1 mosaic1 glass1 and book decoration4 ,though each volume may be considered complete in itself as far as it has been possible to consider the subjects therein treated in the dimensions of this work1 at the same time the student is respectfully advised to read both volumes1 as a few subjects which are necessarily only slightly noticed in the former treatise1 particularly those belonging to the ,minor ,arts1 are more fully treated in the present work4 ,j4 ,,ward4 ,,contents4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,pottery--,,maiolica--,,della ,,robbia ,,ware--,,italian ,,maiolica--,,persian1 #a ,,damascus1 ,,and ,,rhodian ,,wares--,,french ,,pottery--,,oiron ,,ware--,,palissy ,,ware--,,nevers1 ,,rouen1 ,,and ,,moustiers ,,wares--,,french ,,porcelain--,,german ,,pottery--,,german ,,porcelain--,,english ,,pottery--,,english ,,porcelain--,,chinese ,,porcelain--,,indian ,,pottery ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,enamels--,,enamels ,,of ,,the ,,countries ,,of ,,the ,,east #ajh ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,ivory ,,carvings #aci ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,metal ,,work--,,gold1 ,,silver1 ,,bronze1 ,,pewter1 ,,and ,,iron--,,spanish ,,metal #afa ,,work--,,metal ,,work ,,in ,,italy1 ,,germany1 ,,france1 ,,and ,,england--,,niello-,,work ,,and ,,damascening--,,indian ,,jewellery--,,iron ,,work ,,in ,,france1 ,,germany1 ,,belgium1 ,,italy1 ,,and ,,england ,,chapter ,v4 ,,furniture--,,antique3 ,,egypt1 ,,assyria1 ,,greece1 ,,and ,,rome--,,byzantine1 #bda ,,romanesque1 ,,saracenic1 ,,and ,,the ,,furniture ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages--,,italian ,,and ,,other ,,furniture ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,textile ,,fabrics--,,textiles ,,of ,,india--,,embroidery--,,tapestry--,,lac e #bie ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,mosaics #cdd ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,glass #cfe ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,decoration ,,of ,,books #chi ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,illustration ,,fig4 ,,page ,border from an edition of ,herodotus ,frontispiece #bie4 ,alabastron1 ,phnician #cff #ih4 ,altar1 ,portable1 ,german #aaf #aea4 ,altar ,front1 ,golden1 ,basle #ahh #bga4 ,archer1 ,norman1 from the ,bayeux ,tapestry #cba #bbg4 ,bedroom ,interior1 ,fourteenth ,century #bed #acf4 ,bell ,shrine of ,st4 ,patrick's #agb #gc4 ,bellarmine1 ,fulham ,stoneware #hc #bcd4 ,bellows1 ,italian #bfb #aag4 ,bone ,carving1 ,pastoral ,staff1 ,english #adg #cae4 ,book1 ,cover of2 ,henri-,deux ,style #djd #caf4 8,book of the ,hours10 ,cover for1 designed by #djf ,geoffry ,tory #ca4 ,bottle1 ,pilgrim's1 ,urbino ,ware #ce #ea4 ,bottle1 ,pilgrim's1 ,nevers ,ware #eg #ec4 0 0 0 #ei #big4 ,bottle1 ,glass1 ,ancient ,roman #cfi #bii4 ,bottle1 ,glass1 and ,mosque ,lamp1 ,enamelled #cgb ,oriental #ahd4 ,bowl1 ,eighteenth ,century #bae #e4 ,bowl1 ,samian #e #da4 ,bowl1 ,blue ,persian #de #gi4 ,bowl of ,chelsea-,derby ,porcelain #ib #hd4 ,bowl of ,tobacco-pipe1 ,worcester ,ware #ih #aeg4 ,bowl1 ,mazer1 ,ironmongers' ,hall #aic #cji4 ,bowl1 ,glass1 ,chinese #chg #bde4 ,bracket1 ,english ,carved #bgh #aic4 ,bracelet1 ,silver1 ,bengal #bbc #bac4 ,bronze ,tripod1 ,greco-,roman #bde #acg4 ,brooch1 ,tara #agc #ach4 ,brooch1 ,tara1 reverse #agd #bgj4 ,brocade1 ,velvet1 ,italian #cae #bdc4 ,cabinet1 ,boulle #bge #bdd4 ,cabinet or ,armoire1 ,boulle #bgf #bch4 ,cabinet1 ,french #bff #bej4 ,cabinet ,marquetry1 with ,svres ,plaques #bhe #bef4 ,cabinet1 ,japanese1 and ,porcelain ,dish #bia #bae4 ,candelabra1 ,roman ,bronze #bdf #bag4 ,candelabrum ,roman1 ,marble #bdg #ff4 ,candelabrum1 ,dresden #ge #ahc4 ,candelabrum1 ,silver #bae #dg4 ,candlestick1 ,henri-,deux ,ware #eb #acc4 ,candlestick1 ,base of1 ,milan ,cathedral #afi #aeb4 ,candlestick1 ,gloucester #ahi #aec4 ,candlestick1 ,seven-branched1 ,cathedral of #aij ,milan #aed4 ,candlestick1 ,lower ,boss of the ,milan #aia #agc4 ,candlestick1 ,bronze1 ,italian #bjg #ahi4 ,candlestick1 ,silver-gilt1 ,louis ,seize #bag #aij4 ,candlestick1 ,silver-gilt1 ,italian #bah #bgc4 ,carpet1 ,embroidered ,persian #cbc #bcj4 ,carriage1 ,travelling1 ,english #bef #bca4 0 0 0 #bef #agf4 ,casket1 ,silver #baj #bi4 ,castel-,durante ,ware #cb #aef4 ,censer #aic #acd4 ,chair of ,dagobert #agj #bji4 ,chair1 ,greek #bdc #baa4 0 0 0 #bdd #bai4 ,chair1 ,marble1 ,roman #bdh #bbi4 ,chair1 ,coronation1 ,westminster ,abbey #bee #bce4 ,chair1 ,italian1 ,sixteenth ,century #bfc #bcg4 ,chair decorated with ,gauffered ,leather #bfe #bec4 ,chairs1 ,parlour1 by ,chippendale #bhh #bed4 ,chairs in ,chinese style1 by ,chippendale #bhi #ajb4 ,chalice of ,ardagh #abj #ade4 ,chalice1 ,spanish #aha #aei4 ,chalices1 ,gothic #aie #afj4 ,chalice #aif #afa4 0 #aif #afb4 ,chalice1 ,german #aif #afc4 ,chalice1 ,spanish #aif #afd4 ,chalice1 ,english1 ,oxford #aig #aca4 ,chimera1 ,bronze1 at ,florence #afd #ahf4 ,chocolate ,pot #baf #aba4 ,coffer in ,bone1 ,carved and ,engraved #aej #bcc4 ,coffer1 ,marriage1 of ,carved ,wood1 ,italian ,work #bfj #bdh4 ,commode with ,lac ,panels and ,mounts1 by #bhb ,caffieri #aaa4 ,coronation of ,virgin1 ,ivory ,caning1 ,french #ada #bah4 ,couch in ,bronze1 ,roman #bdh #bab4 ,couches and ,sofa1 ,greek #bdd #if4 ,crown of ,charlemagne #aad #hb4 ,crown-,derby covered ,cup and ,saucer #ie #ada4 ,crozier of ,clonmacnois #agg #adb4 ,crozier of ,bronze1 ,irish1 in ,edinburgh #agh #adj4 ,cumdach1 or ,case of ,molaise's ,gospels #agf #ajc4 ,cup1 with ,translucent ,enamels set #abc transparently #afe4 ,cup1 ,standing1 ,cambridge #aih #aff4 ,cup1 ,enamelled1 ,king's ,lynn #aih #age4 ,cup1 with ,cover1 ,silver-gilt1 ,french #bji #agh4 ,cup of ,gold1 ,oxford #baj #cjf4 ,cup1 ,drinking1 ,anglo-,saxon #chc #aie4 ,cuttack1 ,native ,silver ,jewellery of #bbe #aif4 ,cuttack1 ,filigrain ,jewellery of #bbe #bfb4 ,damask1 ,silk1 ,early ,saracenic #cjg #bff4 ,damask1 ,silk1 ,sicilian #caa #bfg4 0 0 #cab #bfh4 ,damask1 ,silk1 ,florentine #cac #cad4 ,dante's 8,inferno10 from ,woodcut of #djb #bfi4 ,diaper in ,velvet ,brocade1 ,italian #cad #bbe4 ,dining ,room #bec #bbf4 ,dining ,table on ,trestles #bec #g4 ,dish1 ,valencia #i #ae4 ,dish1 ,early ,pesaro #ai #bd4 ,dish1 ,lustred1 ,gubbio ,ware #bg #bh4 ,dish1 ,embossed ,fruit1 ,gubbio #ca #cb4 ,dish1 ,urbino #cf #ce4 ,dish1 ,venetian #ci #dc4 ,dish1 ,rhodian #dg #ej4 ,dish1 ,rustic ,palissy ,ware #ef #eg4 ,dish1 ,rouen ,ware #fc #ga4 ,dish1 of ,slip ,ware1 by ,thomas ,toft #ha #gb4 ,dish1 of ,lambeth ,delft #hb #adh4 ,dish1 ,spanish1 silver #ahd #bjj4 ,door1 ,press1 in ,church of ,st4 ,jacques #bca #bje4 ,door1 ,iron-bound1 ,monastery of ,krems #bch #ba4 ,drug-pot1 ,siena #bf #cj4 ,drug-pot1 ,castel-,durante ,ware #cc #id4 ,enamel1 ,cloisonn1 ,altar ,tray and ,chalice #aaa #ig4 ,enamel1 ,champlev1 of ,geoffry ,plantagenet #aae #ii4 ,enamel1 ,chsse in ,champlev #aag #ajj4 ,enamel1 ,champlev1 ,french #aah #ajf4 ,enamel1 ,battersea #aca #ajh4 ,enamelled ,haka ,stand1 ,mongol period #ace #aji4 ,enamelled ,pen-and-ink ,stand1 ,jaipur #acf #aaj4 ,enamelled ,sarai1 ,punjaub #acg #ic4 ,enamelled ,tile1 from ,sindh #ajg #caa4 ,epistle of ,jerome1 from the1 in 8,book of #cic ,durrow0 #bea4 ,escritoire of ,marie-,antoinette #bhf #c4 ,ewer1 ,greek or ,etruscan #d #dh4 ,ewer and ,tazza1 ,oiron ,ware #ec #bfc4 ,fabric1 ,silk1 of ,iconium1 ,arabian 7,lyons #cjh ,museum7 #cc4 ,faenza ,plate #cg #cd4 ,faenza ,maiolica #ch #ahj4 ,fire-dog1 ,silver1 at ,knole ,park #bab #bid4 ,glass ,vase or ,bottle #cfe #bih4 ,glass ,tablet in ,relief1 ,roman #cgj #cjj4 ,glass1 ,venetian ,enamelled #cge #cja4 ,glass1 ,venetian #cgf #cjc4 ,glass1 ,spanish #chj #cjd4 ,glasses1 ,german #cha #cjg4 ,glass1 ,stained #che #cjh4 ,glass1 ,window1 ,english #chf #ij4 ,glazed ,pierced ,water-,bottle1 from ,madura #ajd #bgd4 ,gloves1 ,state1 formerly belonging to ,louis #cbd ,,xiii #aih4 ,gold ,jewellery of ,bombay1 ,native #bbg #abh4 ,gold ,brooch and ,earrings1 ,etruscan #afb #bjb4 ,grille or ,herse on ,queen ,eleanor's ,tomb1 #bcc ,westminster #bjc4 ,grille1 ,tabernacle1 from ,ottoberg1 ,tyrol #bcf #bhj4 ,guipure1 ,flemish #cch #bha4 ,guipure ,lace1 ,italian #cci #afg4 ,hanap1 ,german #aii #aii4 ,hinges1 c41 ,haddiscoe ,church #bbi #bja4 ,hinge to ,porte ,ste4 ,anne of ,notre-,dame #bcb #bhd4 ,honiton ,lace1 ,modern #cdb #aeh4 ,hour-glass ,salt1 ,oxford #aid #aab4 ,image ,painter #adb #hh4 ,incense ,burner1 ,satsuma ,ware #ajb #hi4 ,incense ,burner1 ,arita ,ware #ajc #aia4 ,italian ,damascene ,work #bbj #aah4 ,ivory ,carving1 ,fourteenth-century ,pierced ,work #adh #aai4 ,ivory ,diptych1 ,english #adi #abj4 ,ivory ,casket1 ,lid of1 ,spanish #aej #abb4 ,ivory ,comb #aea #abc4 ,ivory ,mirror ,case #aeb #abd4 ,ivory ,tankard1 ,flemish #aed #abe4 ,ivory ,panels of ,pulpit ,door1 ,saracenic #aef #abf4 ,ivory ,ink ,horn #aeg #abg4 ,ivory ,box1 ,indian #aei #aad4 ,ivory ,carving with ,archangel #ade #aae4 ,ivory ,vase #ade #gd4 ,jar1 ,staffordshire ,stone #hd #adg4 ,jewel1 ,spanish #ahc #aig4 ,jewellery1 ,native1 of ,trichinopoly1 ,madras #bbf #bfa4 ,kincob of ,ahmedabad #cjc #bhe4 ,lace ,point1 ,irish ,modern #cdc #bgf4 ,lace1 ,point1 ,genoese #ccd #bgg4 ,lace1 ,grounds #cce #bhb4 ,lace1 ,point1 ,venetian1 ,finest ,raised #cdj #bhc4 ,lace1 ,mechlin1 ,border of #cda #beg4 ,lacquered ,boxes1 ,sindh #bib #beh4 ,lacquered ,leg of ,bedpost1 ,sindh #bic #gf4 ,lamp1 ,black ,egyptian ,ware1 ,wedgwood #hh #adi4 ,lamp1 ,moorish #ahe #bgh4 ,lappet1 ,brussels #ccf #bgi4 ,lappet1 8,point d',alenon0 #ccg #aac4 ,leaf of ,roman ,diptych #adc #bjd4 ,lock in ,klagenfurt ,museum1 ,german #bcg #cab4 8,lyme ,missal10 page from the ,caxton #cig #cac4 8,lyme ,missal10 page from the ,caxton1 the #cii ,crucifixion #ag4 ,maiolica1 ,sgraffitto #bb #ah4 ,maiolica ,plate #bc #ac4 ,medallion in ,enamelled ,earthenware1 ,della #ag ,robbia #bdf4 ,mirror ,frame1 ,seventeenth ,century #bgi #bjf4 ,mirror1 ,wrought-,iron1 ,french #bci #bdb4 ,mirror ,frame1 ,venetian #bgj #caj4 ,monogram1 ,illuminated1 portion of 8,book of #cib ,kells0 #add4 ,monstrance1 ,spanish #ahj #afh4 ,monstrance1 ,italian #bjj #bhg4 ,mosaic1 ,roman1 found at ,avignon #cdg #bhh4 ,mosaic1 ,roman1 ,ancient #cdh #bhf4 ,mosaic1 ,roman1 from ,woodchester #cdf #bhi4 ,mosaic1 ,head in1 from 8,battle of ,issus0 #cej #bij4 ,mosaic1 ,geometric1 ,church of ,ara ,cli1 ,rome #ceg #bia4 ,mosaic from the ,alhambra #cfc #bib4 ,mosaic1 ,saracenic1 from ,monreale #cfc #bic4 ,mosaic1 ,indian1 from the ,taj ,mehal #cfd #abi4 ,necklace1 part of1 ,head of ,bacchus1 ,etruscan #afb #aid4 ,neck ,ornament1 ,silver #bbd #bif4 ,necklace of ,glass and ,gold1 ,phnician #cfg #ajg4 ,necklace1 ,punjaub #acd #de4 ,ornament on ,cupola of ,mosque of ,soliman the #di ,great #bbb4 ,panel1 ,flemish #beb #bbc4 ,panel1 ,german #beb #bbd4 ,panel1 ,english #beb #aci4 ,pattern1 ,irish ,trumpet #age #adf4 ,pax1 ,spanish #ahb #afi4 ,pax1 ,italian #bja #gg4 ,pedestal1 ,jasper1 ,wedgwood ,ware #hi #agj4 ,pendant1 ,cellini1 ,paris #bjb #bj4 ,pesaro ,portrait ,dish #be #af4 ,pitcher1 ,caffaggiolo ,maiolica #ba #h4 ,plaque1 ,earthenware1 ,alcora ,ware #aa #ai4 ,plateau or ,tazza1 ,caffaggiolo ,ware #bd #bb4 ,plate1 ,siena #bf #bc4 ,plate1 ,siena #bf #ed4 ,plateau1 ,rouen ,ware #fj #ef4 0 0 #fb #eh4 ,plate1 ,lille ,ware #fe #ei4 ,plate1 ,moustiers ,ware #ff #fj4 ,plate1 ,strasburg ,ware #fg #hf4 ,porcelain1 ,oriental1 ,chinese with ,french #ajj ,ormoulu ,mounting #ia4 ,pottery1 ,glazed1 of ,sindh #aje #ib4 0 0 0 #ajf #aej4 ,rapiers1 ,spanish #ahf #ie4 ,reliquary1 ,byzantine1 ,cloisonn ,enamel #aac #ajd4 ,salt-cellar1 portions of1 by ,pierre ,raymond #abh #di4 ,salt-cellar1 ,oiron ,ware #ed #agd4 ,salver1 ,flemish #bjh #bjh4 ,seat1 ,assyrian #bdb #bba4 ,seat1 ,scandinavian #bea #bbh4 ,seats1 ,fourteenth ,century #bee #bbj4 ,sella1 ,roman #bdh #fa4 ,svres ,vase #fi #fb4 ,svres ,porcelain ,clock #gj #fc4 ,svres ,vase #ga #aib4 ,shield1 ,damascened in ,gold1 ,indian #bba #aee4 ,shrine or ,reliquary #aib #agb4 ,silver-gilt ,german ,cup #bjf #aga4 ,spoons1 ,apostle1 ,cambridge #bje #aaf4 ,staff1 ,pastoral1 ,german #adf #ha4 ,statuette1 ,derby #id #baj4 ,stools and ,chairs1 ,folding1 ,greek #bdc #bcf4 ,stool of ,carved ,wood1 ,italian #bfd #bee4 ,stool and ,armchair1 ,empire style #bij #adc4 ,sword of ,boabdil1 ,madrid #agi #bgb4 ,syon ,cope1 ,portion of #cbb #aha4 ,table at ,windsor ,castle1 ,silver #bac #baf4 ,tables1 ,roman #bdf #bcb4 ,table 7,kursy71 ,saracenic #beg #bdj4 ,table1 ,elizabethan #bfh #bdi4 ,table1 ,writing1 ,louis ,seize #bhd #beb4 ,table of ,marie-,antoinette1 inlaid with ,svres #bhg ,plaques #agg4 ,tankard1 ,nuremberg #baj #agi4 ,tankard1 ,english #baa #bge4 ,tapestry1 ,italian1 ,dismissal of ,hagar and #cca ,ishmael #bf4 ,tazza1 by ,giorgio1 8,the ,stream of ,life0 #bi #bg4 ,tazza1 by ,giorgio #cj #df4 ,tazza1 ,henri ,,ii4 ,ware #ea #bjg4 ,throne1 ,assyrian #bdb #ci4 ,tile1 ,persian #dc #ab4 ,tile1 ,alhambra #ae #fi4 ,tile1 ,encaustic1 ,monmouth ,priory #gi #ee4 ,tray1 ,rouen ,ware #fa #bei4 ,tree1 ,homa or ,sacred1 ,assyrian #cjj #bfj4 ,tree of ,life1 ,assyrian #cjj #bfe4 ,tree of ,life1 ,apostolic1 with the ,cross ,emblem #caj #bad4 ,tripod1 ,folding1 ,roman #bde #ahe4 ,tureen at ,windsor ,castle #baf #gj4 ,tyg of ,wrotham ,ware #hj #fh4 ,urn1 ,romano-,british #gh #a4 ,vase1 ,greek1 ,oinoch #d #b4 ,vase1 ,greek1 or ,crater #d #d4 ,vase1 ,greek1 ,signed by ,necosthenes #d #f4 ,vase1 ,grco-,roman #f #i4 ,vase1 ,buen-,retiro #ab #aj4 ,vase1 ,alhambra #ac #aa4 ,vase1 ,hispano-,moresque #ad #be4 ,vase in ,copper-ruby ,lustre #bh #cg4 ,vase1 ,persian ,flower1 with ,chinese ,decoration #da #dd4 ,vase1 ,siculo-,arabian ,ware #dh #eb4 ,vase1 ,nevers ,ware #eh #fd4 ,vase1 ,delft #gc #fg4 ,vase1 ,dresden #gf #gh4 ,vase1 ,chelsea #ia #hj4 ,vase1 ,bow ,porcelain #ic #hc4 ,vase1 ,worcester #if #he4 ,vase1 ,chinese #ii #hg4 ,vase1 ,ancient ,japanese #aja #aja4 ,vase1 ,enamelled1 found in ,essex #aai #aje4 ,vase1 ,painted ,enamel by ,pierre ,raymond #abi #ahg4 ,vase1 ,silver #baf #ahh4 ,vase1 by ,adam #baf #cje4 ,vases1 ,decorated ,german #chb #acj4 ,vessel1 ,etruscan ,bronze #afc #bdg4 ,vessel for ,holy-,water #bhj #ad4 ,virgin and ,child1 ,della ,robbia ,ware #ah #cjb4 8,vitro di ,trina10 ,venetian #cgg #ace4 ,votive ,crown of ,king ,suinthila #aga #dj4 ,wall ,decoration1 ,persian #dd #bfd4 ,wall ,hanging1 ,silk1 ,arabian #cji #cf4 ,ware1 ,persian ,lustred #dj #db4 ,ware1 ,rhodian #df #fe4 ,ware1 ,german ,stone #ge #ge4 ,ware1 ,white ,salt-,glazed1 ,staffordshire #he #bda4 ,ware1 ,great ,bed of1 ,elizabethan #bfi #ch4 ,water-bottle1 ,persian imitated ,chinese #db ,porcelain #acb4 ,wine ,crater in ,silver1 ,antique ,roman #afe #ahb4 ,wine ,fountain #bad #bci4 ,wood ,panel1 ,carved1 ,french #bfg ,,historic ,,ornament4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,i4 ,,pottery4 ,in a former volume of this work1 under the respective headings1 the ,pottery of the ,prehistoric ages1 and of the oldest nations1 as ,egypt1 ,assyria1 and ,phnicia1 has been noticed4 ,the pottery of primitive ,greece has also been mentioned1 and some illustrations have been given4 ,it is here intended to give a brief outline of the history of ,ceramics dating from about the end of the thirteenth century2 but to connect this sketch with the notice of ,cyprian pottery already given it will be necessary to say something of the ,greek1 ,etruscan1 and ,roman pottery4 ,greek vases had been found in great quantities in ,etruria before they were found in the islands and colonies of ,greece1 or to any extent in ,athens1 and from this circumstance they were wrongly supposed to have been of ,etruscan workmanship4 ,the ,etruscans imported these vases from ,greece during the fifth and sixth centuries ,b4,c41 many of which had been placed in their tombs1 from where they have been exhumed during the last hundred and fifty years4 ,the vases found at ,athens and other parts of ,greece were also1 as a rule1 found in tombs and burial-places2 one class in particular--the ,athenian lekythi--were made specially to contain the sacred oil or wine and to be afterwards placed in the tomb4 ,these vases are of a long1 narrow1 and elegant shape1 and were decorated with appropriate funeral subjects outlined on a white ground4 ,this white ground is known as matt1 and is of a dull surface2 it is not a glaze1 but simply an engobe of clay fired at a very low temperature4 ,the draperies of the figures are occasionally coloured red1 brown1 pale green1 or a bluish tint1 and some of them are remarkable for their beauty of drawing and expression of sentiment in the design4 ,they date from ,b4,c4 #dej to #cej4 ,greek vases are characterized by their beauty of shape as well as by their refined decoration4 ,some of the richly decorated ones were given as prizes to the victors in the ,olympian games1 and it has also been conjectured that some of the terra-cotta vases found in the tombs were designed to represent the costlier metal vases that were offered for prizes at the games held in honour of princes at their death1 the coarser terra-cotta vases being used at the death of the common people4 ,the shapes of the ,greek vases vary in the different periods1 getting more elegant as they approached the middle period--the fifth and the first half of the fourth century ,b4,c4--and larger in size with the handles more elaborate in the later periods4 ,the principal varieties are known under the following names3--the ,amphora1 a full-bodied vase with two handles1 used for carrying wine2 the ,hydria1 a wider bodied vase1 used for carrying water3 it has generally one large and two smaller handles2 the ,crater1 a large wide-mouthed vessel1 used for mixing wine and water2 the ,lebes1 a round basin usually placed on the top of a stand or tripod2 the ,oinocho1 a ewer-shaped vase1 used for pouring out wine2 the ,lekythos1 a long bottle-shaped vase1 used for holding oil2 the ,aryballos1 for perfumes or oil2 the ,cantharos1 a two-handled cup on a foot1 used for drinking purposes2 the ,kylix1 a shallow cup on a foot1 used for drinking wine2 and the ,rhyton1 or drinking horn1 made in the shape of an animal's head or a sphinx4 ,greek ,ceramic ware1 like the ,etruscan and ,roman1 was coated with a scarcely perceptible thin glaze1 supposed to be composed of a vitreous alkaline that merely hardened the clay body and left a very faint polish on the surface4 ,the colouring on the majority of the ,greek vases of the sixth century is a brown or red glaze on which are painted the designs in black2 the markings on the figures and drapery are incised1 showing the groundwork1 or being sometimes filled in with white1 and the faces and limbs usually painted a white colour and fired at a low heat4 ,sometimes a purple tint was painted over the accessories4 ,vases of this period have also a white biscuit ground with similar coloured decorations as those of the red ground4 ,in the fifth century ,b4,c4 a change took place in the style of decoration3 the figures and accessories are left in the red ground colour of the vase1 and the surrounding groundwork is black2 the interior markings are in faint yellow or black1 and incised slightly with a tool4 ,this is the period of the best designs and of delicate and correct drawing4 ,some of the kylixes of this period are exceedingly beautiful1 and are usually signed with the name of the artist4 ,some artists' names are ,meidias1 ,polygnotos1 ,epictelos1 ,pamphaios1 ,brygos1 ,euphronius1 c4 ,it is said that the greatest artists of ,greece--,phidias1 ,polycletus1 ,apelles1 and ,myron--furnished designs for the potters4 ,the ,greeks in their vase paintings observed strictly the sthetic laws of proportion and space division 7,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d7 as they did in their architecture4 ,the precision of touch which they displayed is remarkable1 and the skill in the freehand rendering of their geometric and floral borders1 not to speak of their figure-work1 is astonishing when we think that if they made a mistake on the absorbent biscuit ware on which they painted1 it could not be altered without showing the defect4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,greek ,vase4 ,oinocho4 ,illustration ,fig4 #c4--;,greek or ,etruscan ,ewer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,greek ,vase4 ,crater4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,greek ,vase4 ,signed by ,nicosthenes4 ,the ,levantine island of ,samos has been celebrated from the earliest times for its pottery4 ,it has been mentioned by ,homer and ,herodotus as unparalleled1 for its size1 in the wealth and artistic qualities of its people4 ,it was renowned for its temples and metal work as well as for pottery4 ,the ,temple of ,juno--the ,herum--was built in marble1 and was of great magnitude--a treasure house of art in itself4 ,the ,samians were great traders1 and their beautiful red pottery was carried by their ships to all parts of the known world4 ,the clay of which the ,samian ware was made was of a fine red compact earth2 the pottery was usually thicker than that of the other ,greek ceramics1 and the decoration was partly modelled and partly incised 7,fig4 #e74 ,this ware has been found in nearly all parts of ,europe1 the design of which inclines to the ,grco-,roman style1 and is doubtless of the variety made during the ,roman occupation of the island4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,samian ,bowl4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,grco-,roman ,vase4 ,a ,grco-,roman vase in terra-cotta is shown at ,fig4 #f4 ,roman pottery and fragments of it have been found in every country that was formerly under the ,roman rule1 and consists of examples both of a very simple kind and artistic4 ,great quantities have been found in ,england1 and every year almost brings new examples to light1 consisting of vases1 lamps1 and panels in terra-cotta4 ,although the ,greeks never quite lost the art of making pottery during the ,middle ,ages1 they did not produce much artistic work after ,a4,d4 #bjj1 and between this time and the end of the fourteenth century4 ,artistic pottery as glazed ware was imported into ,europe from ,damascus through the ,arabs or ,saracens about this time4 ,cups from ,damascus in glazed pottery were reckoned among the treasures of kings1 and it was from ,damascus that the ,arabs undoubtedly brought the secrets of glazed earthenware to ,spain1 where they established the potteries that fabricated the famous ,hispano-,moresque ware4 ,before dealing with this ware1 it is necessary to note briefly the various kinds of glazed wares anterior to its invention4 ,the process of glazing terra-cotta tiles1 bricks1 and vessels is of great antiquity4 ,in ,egypt1 as early as the fourth dynasty 7,b4,c4 #cgff-cfjj71 examples of glazed terra-cotta tiles were in use4 ,copper has been employed at these early dates to produce a turquoise blue enamel in ,assyria and ,babylon1 and tin has been used in the glaze mixture on the enamelled bricks from the same countries4 ,these ancient tiles and bricks1 therefore1 belong to the category of fayences4 ,the word fayence1 now of so wide application1 is derived from ,faenza1 a town in ,italy1 where enamelled earthenware1 or maiolica1 was manufactured in the fifteenth century1 which was distinguished by its fine polished white enamel4 ,fayence is a ware that is distinct from porcelain2 it is a potter's clay mixed with a marl of an argillaceous and calcareous nature and sand4 ,according to the composition1 and the degree of heat required in firing1 it is called 8,soft0 7,fayence pte tendre7 and 8,hard0 7,fayence pte dure74 ,english earthenware made from pipeclay is 8soft02 stone ware1 ,queen's ware1 and some other special wares are hard4 ,soft wares are unglazed1 glazed1 and enamelled4 ,the glazed or varnished wares1 as we have seen1 were made by the ancient civilized nations1 as well as the coarser terra-cotta or unglazed wares4 ,in medieval and in modern times enamelled ware1 as distinct from merely glazed or varnished wares1 have been made1 as well as porcelain or ,china ware2 the latter is called also ,kaolin1 and is a fine white earth in which silex is the chief constituent1 which is derived from a decomposition of feldspathic granite4 ,vitreous glaze 7or glass7 is composed of sand or other siliceous matter fused with potash or soda2 this is ground and mixed with water1 forming a liquid in which the clay biscuit ware is dipped1 and afterwards fired1 in order to make it impermeable to liquids4 ,oxide of lead in considerable quantities is added to the vitreous glaze1 which increases its fusibility1 but still keeping it transparent2 this is what is known as a plumbeous glaze4 ,this glaze may be coloured yellow by the addition of iron oxide2 green by copper oxide2 blue by cobalt2 and black by manganese4 ,all these coloured glazes were known to the ancients4 ,a further addition of the oxide of tin to the vitreous or plumbeous transparent glaze1 in comparatively small quantities1 produces the opaque enamel known as a 8stanniferous0 or tin glaze4 ,this is the enamelled glaze of the ,della ,robbia ware1 of the ,hispano-,moresque1 and of the ,italian maiolica4 ,from recent analysis of the enamel on ,assyrian tiles and bricks it has been ascertained that the oxide of tin was used by the enamellers of that early time1 but not to the same extent as the vitreous glaze4 ,persia was the natural inheritor of the art of the ancient land of ,mesopotamia1 and the beautiful siliceous and probably the stanniferous glaze1 and also metallic lustres1 have been used in that country from very early times4 ,the ,arabs1 or ,saracens1 evidently brought the workmen from the ,east1 and imported many pieces of ,damascus ware during the independent ,caliphate of the ,damascus ,caliphs in ,cordova in ,spain1 which lasted from the eighth century to the year #abce1 when the ,moors drove the ,arabs out of ,spain4 ,the ,arabs 7says ,riao7 had1 as early as the beginning of the twelfth century1 if not before1 established the industry of metallic-lustred pottery in ,spain4 ,edrisi1 the ,arab geographer1 wrote in #aaed1 in describing ,calatayud in ,spain3 8,here the gold-coloured pottery is made1 which is exported to all countries40 ,this gold-coloured pottery is likely to have been similar to the siliceous glazed ware of the ,east4 ,the next reference to lustred pottery is made by ,ben ,batutah1 a celebrated ,arab traveller1 when travelling from ,tangiers to ,granada1 and when passing ,malaga 7#acdi-eg7 he says3 8,at ,malaga the fine golden pottery is made1 which is exported to the furthermost countries40 ,the golden pottery here referred to is the tin-glazed ,hispano-,moresque4 ,at ,manises1 in the kingdom of ,valencia1 the famous lustred pottery fabriques or workshops were in a flourishing state in the fifteenth century1 when ,eximenus1 in his 8,regiment de la cosa publica10 quoted by ,riao1 speaking of the excellent things made in his time at ,manises in ,valencia1 says3 8,above all1 the beauty of the gold pottery1 so splendidly painted at ,manises1 which enamours every one so much that the ,pope1 and the cardinals1 and the princes of the world obtain it by special favour1 and are astonished that such excellent and noble works can be made out of the earth40 ,the same author translates a document he found in the ,british ,museum1 which gives a description of the whole of the making and preparing of the golden lustre as used at ,manises in #aghe3 speaking of its composition1 the document runs thus3 8,five ingredients enter into the composition of the gold colour3 copper1 which is the better the older it is2 silver as old as possible2 sulphur1 red ochre1 and strong vinegar1 which are mixed in the following proportions3 of copper three ounces1 of red ochre twelve ounces1 of silver one peseta 7about a shilling71 sulphur three ounces1 vinegar a quart40 ,all these ingredients are fused together1 and afterwards ground and diluted with water and the vinegar to make the gold-coloured glaze or varnish for use in the decorating of the ware4 ,a woodcut gives a very imperfect idea of ,hispano-,moresque pottery1 as the lustre and colour is everything in the ware2 the designs generally are very simple leaf-work shields and small geometric repetitions4 ,the beautiful dish 7,fig4 #g7 is one of the finest examples of the ware made at ,murcia in the province of ,valencia4 ,the statement of ,eximenus regarding the ,pope1 the cardinals1 and princes sending for this ware seems to have been correct1 for most of the pieces known have been found or brought from ,italy1 to which country the majority of them had evidently been exported4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,valencia ,dish2 ,hispano-,moresque4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,besides the lustred ware manufactured in the peninsula in the ,middle ,ages1 the ,azulejos1 or tiles of bright colours1 were made in small pieces1 and were embedded in the walls to form geometric patterns4 ,this manner of using these tiles was derived from the coloured and geometric ,byzantine mosaics1 tiles being used in ,spain where mosaics would be used in the ,eastern ,empire2 and perhaps the earliest use of them in ,spain was in the ,alhambra decoration of the fourteenth century4 ,afterwards the tiles became larger and more complete in their patterns4 ,terra-cotta figures and ornament1 green and white-glazed pottery were also made by the ,moors in ,spain4 ,in the sixteenth century ,spanish pottery design was of the ,italian ,renaissance character4 ,unlike the ,moresque work1 the designs were shaded and the colours more subdued1 but the ,moresque design still continued in favour1 and to keep its flat treatment and bright effect of colour4 ,the ,italian kind of pottery was made at ,talavera1 at ,andujar1 and at ,la ,rambla1 as well as unglazed porous and coloured ware at the former place1 and white unglazed pottery at the latter places4 ,coarse green and white pottery was made at ,toledo in the sixteenth century2 a large well-head or brim1 with an interlaced ,moresque band in relief1 from this place is now in the ,museum at ,kensington4 ,a bowl of ,talavera ware of the eighteenth century1 painted in imitation of the ,italian maiolica ware1 is also in the ,museum4 ,the colours used are green1 blue1 orange1 and manganese tint1 which are usually found on the ,spanish pottery of this period4 ,the well-known and extensive potteries at ,alcora were established by ,count ,aranda in #agbf1 where porcelain and pipeclay wares were made with all kinds of designs1 mostly imitations of ,france1 ,holland1 ,england1 and ,china4 ,most of the principal painters and modellers at these works were ,frenchmen or ,germans4 ,the names of the chief artists were ,haly1 ,knipper1 ,martin1 ,garces1 ,ferrer1 and ,prato4 ,the ,duke of ,hijar1 son of ,count ,aranda1 succeeded his father 7#ahjj-aheh7 in the management of the ,alcora potteries4 ,a specimen of this ware is shown in the ,rococo plaque 7,fig4 #h7 with the subject of ,galatea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,earthenware ,plaque2 ,alcora ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,another celebrated pottery1 connected with royalty1 was founded by ,king ,charles ,,iii4 in #agfj in the gardens of the royal palace of ,buen ,retiro at ,madrid4 ,this ,king1 coming from ,naples to inherit the ,spanish ,crown at the death of his brother ,ferdinand1 was anxious to establish a similar pottery in ,madrid to that which he had previously founded at ,capo di ,monte1 at ,naples1 so he brought his staff of artists1 workmen1 and director of the works1 ,bonicelli1 over from ,italy to ,madrid1 and established the ,buen ,retiro works at a great cost4 ,the yearly expenses of these works were #bj1jjj1 and all the pottery made was for the exclusive use of the ,king and ,royal ,family1 and was sent as presents to foreign princes4 ,this was the case for the first thirty years until the death of ,charles ,,iii4 7#agih71 after which the pottery was allowed to be sold1 but at a very high price4 ,the workmanship of this pottery is good1 but there is nothing particularly artistic about it4 ,the designs are in the false taste of the late ,italian mixed with ,louis ,seize incrusted motives4 ,a vase in the ,buen ,retiro ware is shown at ,fig4 #i4 ,a room in the royal palace1 ,madrid1 is covered with plaques of this ware4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,buen ,retiro ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,,maiolica4 ,before the advent of ,maiolica ware in ,italy a similar kind of pottery was made in ,spain1 which had the stanniferous or opaque tin glaze and the golden lustre that belonged to the best examples of ,italian maiolica4 ,we refer to the ,hispano-,moresque ware4 ,this opaque stanniferous glaze was known to the ,arabs of ,spain from the end of the thirteenth century1 or more than one hundred years before ,luca della ,robbia 7who died in #adcj7 produced his enamelled earthenware4 ,the first specimens of ,hispano-,moresque pottery were probably made at ,malaga1 and another important factory was at ,valencia4 ,the shape and decoration of the famous ,alhambra vase 7,fig4 #aj71 one of the earliest specimens of ,hispano-,moresque ware 7about #acbj71 clearly points to its ,persian origin of design1 and was probably made and decorated by a ,persian ,saracenic artist4 ,it is coloured brown and blue on a yellowish ground1 and is decorated with animals and ornament in the ,persian manner4 ,it was found about the middle of the sixteenth century1 under the pavement of the ,alhambra ,palace1 filled with gold coins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,the ,alhambra ,vase ,hispano-,moresque4 ,hispano-,moresque ware is of a general yellowish-white colour1 with an iridescent metallic lustre similar to the ,italian maiolica of the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries4 ,the ornamentation is lustrous rather than the ground1 and is of a golden copper red to a pale yellow golden tint4 ,it has been divided into three classes3 the first has the ornamentation of a copper red colour2 the ground is nearly covered by ornament1 consisting invariably of birds in the midst of flowers and foliage1 resembling ,persian pottery4 ,the ware of this class is less perfect in manufacture than that of the golden yellow designs1 and is the oldest4 ,the second class has the colour of a monochrome golden yellow tint1 with the ornament of a small geometric character1 and ,spanish or ,moresque escutcheons4 ,this variety is of ,spanish origin of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4 ,the third class has the ornament partly rendered in coloured enamels1 and has golden yellow armorial bearings1 interlacings1 and foliage4 ,animals1 such as antelopes1 sometimes occur4 ,this ware is the carefully executed work of the fifteenth century4 ,during the first years of the sixteenth century the third class of ware was probably imitated by the ,italians4 ,the process of the manufacture of lustred earthenware was introduced into ,italy by ,arabian or ,spanish workmen from the ,balearic ,isles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,hispano-,moresque ,vase4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,a beautiful vase of elegant shape with large perforated handles in ,hispano-,moresque1 decorated with ivy or briony leaves and tendrils1 is in the ,kensington ,museum 7,fig4 #aa74 ,a curious shaped tile from the ,alhambra is shown at ,fig4 #ab1 the decoration of which is purely ,saracenic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,alhambra ,tile4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,scaliger 7#adhd-aeeh7 tells us that a costly fayence1 as beautiful as the pottery of ,india1 was made in his time in the island of ,majorca and exported to ,italy2 he also adds that the name 8,maiolica0 or ,majolica was derived from ,majorca4 ,the island of ,majorca was an ,arab possession until the year #abcj1 and no doubt the ,arabs had there founded potteries for the production of glazed earthenware4 ,towards #acjj1 as related by ,passeri1 the ,italian potters began to cover a raw clay with a coating of white opaque ,sienese earth produced from that territory4 ,this coating of a white opaque substance1 called an 8engobe10 was the ground to which the colours were applied1 and which1 differing from the older methods hitherto employed in ,italy1 was a distinct advance in pottery manufacture1 and has been considered as the first beginning of ,maiolica pottery4 ,improvements were effected in the use of this engobe or opaque varnish until the time of ,luca della ,robbia 7#acee-adcj74 ,,della ,,robbia ,,ware4 ,it is not known whether the above celebrated artist invented the opaque white stanniferous glaze with which he covered his works1 but he was the first to use it successfully in the architectural decoration known as 8,della ,robbia0 ware4 ,he succeeded1 however1 in colouring his white glaze1 thereby greatly enlarging its usefulness for exterior and interior decoration4 ,the colours he obtained were blue1 yellow1 green1 violet1 and a copper tint4 ,his sculptured terra-cottas glazed with these colours became objects of great request4 ,he obtained more orders than he could execute himself1 and so he employed his two brothers1 who were sculptors1 to assist him4 ,his nephew ,andrea1 after himself was the most famous in this kind of work1 and produced1 like his uncle ,luca1 groups of figures in panels1 single figures1 tabernacles1 friezes1 c4 ,three sons of ,andrea1 ,giovanni1 ,luca1 and ,girolamo1 worked in the same material1 and ,girolamo was invited by ,franois ,ier to decorate the ,chteau de ,madrid with 8,della ,robbia0 ware1 representing the 8,metamorphoses0 of ,ovid1 which was done at a cost equal to #ae1ecj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,medallion in ,enamelled ,earthenware1 by ,luca della ,robbia4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,in the ,kensington ,museum there are many specimens of ,della ,robbia ware1 among which are a series of twelve circular medallions in enamelled terra-cotta1 representing the twelve months of the year1 one of which is illustrated at ,fig4 #ac4 ,the bas-relief of the ,virgin and ,child 7,fig4 #ad7 is likely to be a work of one of the ,della ,robbia family4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,virgin and ,child4 ,school of ,della ,robbia4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,,italian ,,maiolica4 ,about the year #adej the ,sforzi1 the ,lords of ,pesaro1 established at the latter place ,maiolica factories1 and a decree1 dated #ast of ,april1 #adhf1 was published1 granting certain privileges to the ceramists of ,pesaro4 ,the potteries of ,urbino1 ,gubbio1 and ,castel-,durante were then equally famous with those of ,pesaro4 ,it is generally thought that the use of metallic lustre was first known at ,pesaro2 the pearly1 the ruby1 and the golden lustres appeared at ,pesaro and ,gubbio before they were known at any other ,italian pottery4 ,the early pieces are decorative dishes1 or1 as they are called1 8bacili10 having a broad border and a deep sunk centre2 at the back is a projecting circular 8giretto10 pierced with two holes1 which shows that they were intended to be hung up as decorative objects4 ,coats of arms1 or other devices1 occupied the centre2 the border usually is simple but well designed1 showing a mixture of ,oriental with ,gothic or ,italian forms 7,fig4 #ae74 ,the potteries of ,faenza1 ,forli1 and ,caffaggiolo are thought by some to be as early1 if not earlier1 in date than those of ,pesaro4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,early ,pesaro ,dish4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,in #addd ,federigo1 the second ,duke of ,urbino1 built a castellated palace at ,urbino1 and gathered around him men of learning and many artists1 and especially encouraged the manufacture of maiolica4 ,his son1 ,guidobaldi ,i41 succeeded him in #adhb1 and he also was a great patron of the ceramic arts4 ,the ware made in ,italy during this time--the latter half of the fifteenth century--was known under the name of 8mezza-maiolica10 this ware differing from tin-glazed or true maiolica in its glaze in its having a lead or plumbeous glaze2 but in common with the true maiolica1 the mezza-maiolica is also a lustred ware1 having a peculiar iridescent lustre1 derived from the lead used as a glaze4 ,this lustred ware was therefore made anterior to the tin-glazed dishes and other objects1 and chiefly at ,pesaro and ,gubbio4 ,the lustre was obtained on a glaze of oxide of lead and glass by the use of certain metallic oxides1 and the art of making it was probably learnt from the potters of the island of ,majorca1 where the making of the ,hispano-,moresque ware was well known4 ,the ,italian writer ,passeri states that the tin-glazed ware or true maiolica was made at ,pesaro in #aejj1 and that the process was introduced from ,tuscany4 ,a better ground for the reception of the colours used in the decoration was afforded by the new enamel1 but it did not entirely supersede the manufacture of the mezza-maiolica1 as a great deal of the latter ware still continued to be made of a brilliant metallic lustre at the fabriques of ,pesaro and ,gubbio4 ,at ,castel-,durante1 ,urbino1 and ,diruta were other famous botegas or fabriques where the lustred ware was made1 but none were so celebrated as that of ,maestro ,giorgio at ,gubbio4 ,it was at this famous botega that the best of all the golden and ruby metallic lustres were produced4 ,the ruby lustre particularly seemed to be a monopoly of the ,gubbio workshops1 for it is known that many of the ,italian factories sent their pieces to ,maestro ,giorgio at ,gubbio to have the ruby and the gold lustre added as a finish to parts of the designs4 ,maiolica was made at ,venice in the sixteenth century1 also at ,forli1 ,diruta1 ,siena1 ,caffaggiolo1 and ,faenza1 where much early work of great beauty in design was produced4 ,we shall only have space to describe a few of the most important products of ,italian maiolica4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,pitcher2 ,caffaggiolo ,maiolica4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,an early method of decorating maiolica pottery is known as 8sgraffitto-work10 in which the patterns are scratched or incised into the ground3 this was a favourite method of executing outdoor plaster decoration in ,italy4 ,it consists in laying on a ground of coloured clay or plaster on another coating of a different colour1 and while this second coating is moderately soft1 the pattern or design is incised or 8scratched0 down to the first coating or ground1 which1 being of a different colour1 reveals itself1 and thus forms the pattern4 ,in both1 pottery and plaster decoration sgraffitto work is usually accompanied by modelling in relief1 such as representations of leaves1 flowers1 and fruit in bas-relief bands1 or medallions of figures and animals1 in high relief4 ,after the ware is incised it is glazed with a translucent lead glaze1 variegated with green and yellow colouring over the white engobe 7,fig4 #ag74 ,the sgraffitto pottery of ,italy is either of ,lombardic or ,venetian origin1 as appears from the usual ,gothic character of the designs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,sgraffitto ,maiolica4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the wares of ,caffaggiolo are distinguished by a purely white glaze1 with masses of a rich cobalt blue used as portions of the groundwork for the ornament2 sometimes green and purple are used with the blue1 and at other times a bright orange yellow and a copper green or an ,indian red4 ,caffaggiolo1 ,faenza1 and ,forli wares have much resemblance to each other4 ,the pitcher 7,fig4 #af71 with the arms of the ,medici family1 belongs probably to the ,caffaggiolo school1 and is a work of the early years of the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,maiolica ,plate2 ,caffaggiolo ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the tazza 7,fig4 #ai7 is another example of this ware4 ,the fine plate 7,fig4 #ah7 is thought to be a work from the same botega1 and the subject is supposed to represent ,raphael and the ,fornarina4 ,the plate 7,fig4 #ae7 is an example of the mezzo-maiolica ware1 and is anterior to the date #aejj4 ,the more beautiful one 7,fig4 #bj7 is a work dating from the first years of the sixteenth century1 at the time when the stanniferous glaze was coming into use4 ,both these plates are supposed to be from the ,pesaro fabriques4 ,they may have been made as wedding presents from the bridegroom to the bride1 and are portrait dishes1 with an inscription on the ribbon1 with the name of the bride1 or some endearing motto4 ,these plates are known as 8amatorri0 pieces4 ,the colours used in the ,pesaro maiolica are yellow1 green1 manganese1 black1 and cobalt blue1 and have what is known as the 8madreperla0 lustre1 which has a beautiful changing effect in colour4 ,the outlines are manganese1 and the flesh left white in the best pieces4 ,the finest work executed in ,pesaro came from the fabrique of ,lanfranco in the years #aedj-de4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,plateau or ,tazza2 ,caffaggiolo ,ware4 ,the products of the ,sienese potteries are worthy of being ranked with the best works of ,pesaro and ,caffaggiolo1 to which they are closely allied4 ,there is a fine pavement of tiles in the ,kensington ,museum from the ,petrucci ,palace at ,siena1 dated #aeji4 ,benedetto is the name of an artist of the ,sienese school1 who painted in maiolica1 from whose hand most of the best ,siena maiolica has come2 the drug pot 7,fig4 #ba7 and the two plates 7,figs4 #bb and #bc7 are works of his4 ,on the drug pot1 tiles1 and some large dishes1 grotesques were very much used as ornament1 and in colour1 yellow1 orange1 and particularly black grounds1 were used in the ,siena production4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,pesaro ,portrait ,dish 7about #aejj74 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the maiolica wares of ,gubbio are the most celebrated in all ,italy1 as regards their richness and beauty of colouring2 this1 of course1 was due mostly to the beautiful effects gained by the unique ruby and gold lustres used at this fabrique4 ,the name of one man1 ,maestro ,giorgio ,andreoli1 as the chief artist1 is connected with the ,gubbio ware4 ,he was a native of ,pavia1 and came of a noble family4 ,he finally established himself at ,gubbio1 where he was made a 8,castellano0 of that city in #adih1 and enjoyed the patronage of the ,dukes of ,urbino4 ,he was a modeller as well as a painter of maiolica1 and is said to have executed some altar-pieces in relief before coming to ,gubbio4 ,in the ,kensington ,museum there is a bas-relief of ,st4 ,sebastian which is supposed on good authority to be a work of his hand2 it is coloured with the gold and ruby lustres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,drug ,pot2 ,siena4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,siena ,plate4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,siena ,plate4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,a circular dish or 8bacile0 of lustred ware 7,fig4 #bd71 with the subject of two mailed horsemen in the centre1 and a border of foliated ornament1 is a work of the ,gubbio fabrique1 but is an earlier work than the time of ,mo4 ,giorgio4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,lustred ,dish2 ,gubbio ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the embossed vase in copper lustre 7,fig4 #be7 is a very beautiful example of the stanniferous glaze and ruby copper lustre4 ,the design is well adapted to show the 8reflets0 of the lustre by the variety of form on its embossed surfaces4 ,this work is ascribed to the same artist who executed the previous example4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,vase in ,copper-ruby ,lustre2 ,gubbio4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the tazza 7,fig4 #bf71 with the subject1 8,the ,stream of ,life10 after ,robetta1 is one of ,giorgio's best figure pieces4 ,though not very good in figure draughtsmanship1 it is excellent in colour1 and is cleverly heightened with ruby lustre4 ,this and another plaque in ,kensington ,museum1 representing the 8,three ,graces0 after ,raphael1 are amongst if not the best of ,giorgio's work3 for colour and richness of lustre1 and for clearness and perfection of the enamel glaze1 they are the best works in ,italian maiolica that we possess4 ,the date of both is probably #aebe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,the ,stream of ,life2 ,tazza by ,mo4 ,giorgio4 ,a work by ,giorgio is shown at ,fig4 #bg4 ,this is a highly decorative tazza in the best manner of ,giorgio1 who was very clever at this kind of design4 ,the groundwork of this piece is blue1 parts of the decoration are green1 and other parts ruby1 while all of the decoration is lustred4 ,the back of this piece is covered with a yellow lead glaze1 which seems to be the case with many examples of maiolica4 ,probably it was done for economical reasons4 ,we close the list of illustrations of ,gubbio ware with that of a dish1 8,fruttiera0 7,fig4 #bh74 ,the design is simple and very good for showing the beauties of the ruby and gold lustres4 ,it is embossed1 and has been made from a mould1 and is an unsurpassed example of the famous ,gubbio lustre4 ,mr4 ,fortnum thinks that ,giorgio obtained the secret of the ruby lustre from an artist that formerly worked at the ,gubbio fabrique1 and that he did not invent it1 and also that all the similar lustred ware was produced at ,gubbio1 the wares of ,urbino1 ,castel-,durante1 and of other fabriques having been sent to ,gubbio to get the final lustre added to them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,tazza by ,giorgio4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,another artist who executed many important works at the ,gubbio botega signs his productions with the letter ,n4 ,some think that this is meant for a signature of ,mo4 ,cencio1 a son of ,giorgio who succeeded his father at the fabrique4 ,another name that appears on some of this ware is ,m4 ,prestino4 ,it is known that ,giorgio signed his name on many pieces that were painted by other artists or by his pupils4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,embossed ,fruit ,dish2 ,gubbio4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,a beautiful specimen of ,castel-,durante ware is the plate 7,fig4 #bi7 with a deep centre--tondino--which has a border of cupids1 foliage1 and medallions on a dark blue ground4 ,the centre has cupids1 and the sides of the centre painted with solid white ornaments on a low white ground4 ,it is probably the work of the artist ,giovanni ,maria 7#aejh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,castel-,durante ,maiolica4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the vase 7,fig4 #cj7 is a richly decorated specimen of the same ware2 the grotesque masks and arabesques are vigorously drawn1 and the ornament generally is a good example of that used on the ,castel-,durante ware4 ,this vase has been used as a drug pot1 and was made at the botega of ,sebastiano di ,marforio4 ,giuseppe ,raffaelli in his 8,memorie0 7#ahdf7 says that the manufacture of glazed pottery as an art began when ,monsignor ,durante built a 8castello0 on the ,metauro at ,correto in the year #abhd1 and the names of potteries are recorded that were in existence in #acfd to #addj4 ,the year #adij began a period of great activity in the ,castel-,durante fabriques1 and we hear of many artists who were ,durantine maiolica painters going to various parts of ,europe and establishing works in pottery4 ,tesio and ,gatti went to ,corfu in #aecj1 and taught the art in the ,ionian ,islands2 ,francesco de ,vasaro went to ,venice1 where he was eminently successful in developing the ,venetian phase of maiolica2 others went to ,nevers and ,lyons1 in ,france1 and one to ,antwerp4 ,the artist who styled himself 8,francesco0 of ,urbino1 and who also worked at ,perugia1 sometimes signed his works 8,durantino40 ,vasari1 in his 8,lives of the ,painters10 speaks of ,battista ,franco of ,venice1 a clever painter and designer1 as having been employed by the ,duke of ,urbino1 ,guidobaldo ,,ii41 in #aedj1 to design subjects for the excellent ceramic painters of ,castel-,durante4 ,the death of ,duke ,francisco ,maria ,,ii4 7#afca7 put an end practically to the maiolica industry of the place2 the trade generally then declined1 and the artists were forced to emigrate4 ,urbino is a city celebrated in the art and literature of ,italy in the ,renaissance period1 and her dukes rivalled the ,medici family of ,florence in the patronage and encouragement of art1 science1 and literature4 ,the names of the ,urbino maiolica artists have been fortunately well preserved4 ,those of ,nicola da ,urbino1 ,guido ,fontana1 and his more famous son ,orazio1 also another son1 ,camillo1 the versatile artists in 8,majoliche istoriate01 and ,francesco ,xanto1 may be mentioned as the most important4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,drug ,pot2 ,castel-,durante ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,to the first-named artist1 ,nicola1 is ascribed the earliest authentic works from the potteries of ,urbino1 the celebrated service of maiolica1 painted probably between the years #adij and #aeai1 for ,isabella d',este1 wife of the ,marquis of ,mantua1 and known as the ,gonzaga-,este service4 ,two fine plates of this service are in the ,british ,museum4 ,they have the arms of ,gonzaga impaling those of ,este on a shield1 and one of them has the painted subjects of ,apollo and ,daphne1 and ,apollo and the ,python1 while the other has a representation of a troop of horse soldiers entering a city4 ,the figures are delicately and carefully outlined and the colouring is brilliant4 ,orazio ,fontana was the most celebrated of the family of that name4 ,his best work was done from #aedj to #aefj1 and he was the artist proprietor of a botega at ,urbino1 from whence came many of the finest works ever made in that city1 not only as regards their artistic qualities but in the beauty and finish of the maiolica ware4 ,the 8istoriati0 panels1 or figure subjects 7usually mythological7 which were copies or adaptations of engraved designs by ,italian painters1 were the work of ,orazio himself1 and the grotesques probably from the hand of his brother or some other artist4 ,the pilgrim bottle 7,fig4 #ca7 is from the botega of ,orazio ,fontana1 but the grotesques on it are supposed to have been painted by his brother ,camillo4 ,one artist named ,gironimo was very clever at this grotesque1 or 8,raphaelesque0 work as it is sometimes called--not from the great ,raphael ,sanzio1 but from the artist ,raphael dal ,colle1 who introduced this grotesque design among other work of his for the decoration of the ,pesaro ware1 in the duchy of ,urbino4 ,these grotesques were afterwards called 8,urbino arabesques0 and were of a different character to the grotesques of the ,gubbio ware1 which may be seen by comparing the dish of ,urbino ware signed by ,gironimo 7,fig4 #cb7 with ,fig4 #bg4 ,there is a circular dish of ,urbino ware in the ,museum at ,kensington on which is painted the subject of the marriage of ,alexander with ,roxana1 from an engraving by ,marc ,antonio ,raimondi1 after ,raphael's design4 ,this work is signed by ,francesco ,xanto 7#aecc71 a prolific and somewhat careless artist who took great liberties with the designs he adapted1 like most of the maiolica painters4 ,the colouring of this dish is very rich3 the colours generally of the ,urbino school were green1 yellow1 and blue1 and a predominance of orange on a light or white ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,pilgrim ,bottle2 ,urbino ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,faenza pottery is among the oldest in ,italy1 but little is known of the early artists or potteries4 ,many pieces of doubtful origin have been classed as ,faentine1 but without any positive proof4 ,in the ,cluny ,museum in ,paris there are a pair of pharmacy jars or vases1 one of which bears the inscription 8,faenza10 and the other is dated #aejj1 their excellence proving that good work was done at ,faenza at this date1 or perhaps much earlier4 ,the pottery works called the ,casa ,pirota was the principal establishment for the production of maiolica at ,faenza4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--,urbino ,dish1 with 8,urbino ,arabesques40 7,s4,k4,m47 ,many works from this pottery are in the ,kensington ,museum1 and they seem generally to be the work of one hand1 but there is no record of the artist4 ,he painted a certain kind of grotesque1 and figures of boys on plates of a wide border4 ,the colours are a light blue on a dark blue ground1 the light blue heightened with touches of white1 and shaded with a brownish yellow4 ,this style is known as 8sopra azzuro0 and is very characteristic of the unknown painter's work 7,fig4 #cc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--;,faenza ,plate4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,a fine tazza in the same museum by the ,faentine artist who signs himself as ,f4 ,r4 has the painted subject 8the ,gathering of the ,manna10 after ,raphael4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--;,faenza ,maiolica4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the colours used are strong and rich yellows1 blues1 greens1 orange1 and purple tints4 ,this work is much superior to that of another ,faentine artist who used the same initials4 ,an oblong panel or plaque in the ,kensington ,collection1 #i-c_/d inches in height by #h inches in width1 has a painting of the ,resurrection after a design by ,melozzo de ,forli1 signed with a monogram consisting of ,t and ,b4 ,it is a maiolica work of the highest rank1 carefully executed yet with perfect freedom of touch--for carefulness of execution in pottery painting very often implies hardness--and pleasing combinations of blues1 yellows1 greens1 and golden browns1 with little touches of red4 ,mr4 ,fortnum thinks it was painted by the same artist that executed the famous service of maiolica of which seventeen pieces are in the ,museo ,correr at ,venice4 ,the tazza at ,fig4 #cd is ascribed to the ,faenza fabriques4 ,it is as much ,gothic as ,italian in design1 which is the case sometimes in ,northern ,italian art1 and it has been found also that the 8istoriati0 maiolica of ,faenza has more of its subjects from the engravings of ,german artists' works1 such as ,drer1 ,martin ,schon1 and others1 than the pottery of any other ,italian fabrique4 ,maiolica has been fabricated at many other places in ,italy1 such as ,diruta1 ,forli1 ,rimini1 ,padua1 ,ferrara1 ,genoa1 and ,venice1 but space prevents us here from giving any descriptive notice of them1 further than the mention of the ,venetian botegas where many important examples came from during the sixteenth century4 ,the ,venetian dishes of this time were covered with ingenious and elaborate designs of interlacing ornament1 foliage1 birds1 masks1 with tyings of ribbons or drapery 7,fig4 #ce74 ,the colour of the enamelled surface is white slightly tinted with zaffre blue4 ,a low-toned blue colour was employed for the ornament1 which was outlined and shaded with a darker blue and heightened with white4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,venetian ,dish4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,,persian1 ,,damascus1 ,,and ,,rhodian ,,wares4 ,the artistic pottery and tiles of ,persia1 though forming a large variety1 may nearly all be brought under the designation of siliceous or glass-glazed wares1 the tin glaze being only met with occasionally in some ,persian and ,damascus examples1 where an unusually white surface was required4 ,all the glazed wares of ,persia are highly baked1 and are mostly of a semi-translucent character4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,persian ,lustred ,ware4 ,there is the fine copper1 ruby1 and brown lustred ware1 which has sometimes a white and at others a blue ground4 ,the plate 7,fig4 #cf7 is an example of this ware4 ,the design on this ware is in the pure ,persian character4 ,another kind1 and by far the most numerous1 are the wares of a coarse porcelain variety1 not only made in imitation of ,chinese porcelain1 but decorated to imitate the ,chinese ware1 the ornament being sometimes mixed with ,arabian forms2 the colour a bright blue on a white ground1 and the ,chinese marks or signatures being copied as well 7,figs4 #cg and #ch74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,flower ,vase1 ,persian1 with ,chinese decoration4 ,in the reign of the ,persian ,shah ,abbas the ,great 7,a4,d4 #aehf-afbh7 the route for travellers and merchants from ,china to ,europe lay across ,persia1 and many objects of merchandise were imported from ,china to ,persia1 including great quantities of ,chinese porcelain1 many examples of which were purchased in ,persia that are now in our museums1 as well as specimens in abundance of the imitated ,chinese variety4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,persian ,water-bottle2 imitated ,chinese decoration4 ,the beautiful enamelled earthenware tiles were made with and without the metallic lustre in the days of1 and anterior to the reign of1 ,shah ,abbas1 but since his time the art has declined1 and nothing but a coarse and inartistic pottery has been made in recent times4 ,as a rule the excellence of ,persian pottery1 like wine1 is augmented in proportion to its age4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,persian ,tile2 ,seventeenth ,century4 ,the picturesque wall tile 7,fig4 #ci7 was found in the ruins of the palace of ,shah ,abbas ,,ii4 7#afdb-afff71 near ,ispahan4 ,it has a blue ground with white embossed decorations and black pencillings1 and is lustred4 ,wall tiles have been in use in ,persia from a very early date4 ,some of them are beautiful in colour1 having usually a deep lapis-lazuli blue ground or white4 ,sometimes the design is complete on one tile1 but generally a whole tile has only a portion of the pattern1 many tiles being required to make up the complete pattern 7,fig4 #dj74 ,the tiles are made to fit into all kinds of spaces1 according to the shape of the wall1 and these arrangements have usually a border design4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,persian ,wall ,decoration4 ,the lustred tiles are of an older date than the ,persian fayence fine ware1 or imitated ,chinese porcelain4 ,the body composition of the tiles resembles that of the old bricks that are found in great quantities in the ruinous mounds of ,rhages 7,rh71 where also many fragments of tiles have been found1 and some remains of potters' kilns1 proving that ,rhages must have been the centre of extensive pottery works4 ,another class of ,persian ware has a thin1 hard1 and nearly translucent paste1 which is decorated by having pierced holes filled in with transparent glaze4 ,it is creamy white in colour1 and has foliated ornament in blue or brown4 ,this has been called ,gombion ,ware4 ,one variety of decoration on a late seventeenth-century ,persian bowl is shown at ,fig4 #da4 ,this is a good example of the late floral ornament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,blue ,persian ,bowl2 ,seventeenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,damascus ware has generally been classified as ,persian1 but in many points it is different from the latter4 ,it is better in colour and design4 ,some examples have a smooth even glaze1 and are coloured with a fine quality of cobalt blue1 turquoise green1 and a dull lilac or purple intermixed with white portions of the design evenly distributed4 ,the ornament is less florid and the fayence is of an older date than the majority of ,persian examples4 ,the 8,damas0 cups or vases have always been highly prized for their beauty1 and the wall tiles from ,damascus are the most beautiful of all ,oriental tiles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--,rhodian ,ware4 ,rhodian or ,lindus tiles and pottery have been also classified as ,persian1 but again this ware is quite distinct from ,persian or ,damascus wares4 ,rhodian pottery is coarser than the two former varieties1 and the decoration is brighter and more strongly marked4 ,the ornament is of a very conventional character1 and in colour it is characterised by having a red opaque pigment used in spots and patches1 and sometimes in bands1 but always raised or embossed4 ,the plates shown in ,figs4 #db and #dc are examples of ,rhodian ware4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,rhodian ,dish4 ,the island of ,sicily was conquered by the ,saracens in ,a4,d4 #hbg1 and about the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries potteries of glazed wares had been established by the latter4 ,some examples of their work of these periods have decorations of animals1 figures1 birds1 and also mock ,saracenic inscriptions like the ,siculo-,arabian textiles of the same and later periods 7,fig4 #dd74 ,anatolian ware is a later variety that is akin to the ,persian wares1 but somewhat coarser and of a duller surface4 ,this ware is small in size1 and the colouring is usually gay on light grounds4 ,the tiles from ,anatolia are less inventive in their ornament and rougher in execution than the ,damascus or ,rhodian4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,vase1 ,siculo-,arabian ,ware2 ,fourteenth ,century4 ,the decoration of ,turkish tiles and ,turkish ornament generally is of the ,saracenic kind1 but has neither the beauty nor the invention of the other varieties of ,persian4 ,there are no plant nor animal forms in the ,turkish variety of ,saracenic ornament2 it is more allied to the ,egyptian ,saracenic1 but lacks the ingenuity of the latter4 ,the colour is harsh and crude4 ,it is seen at its best in the tomb mosque of ,soliman the ,great at ,constantinople 7,fig4 #de71 built in #aedd4 ,the decoration of the palace of the ,seraglio and of the 8,sultanin ,valide0 consists of beautiful tiles that were brought from ,persia to ,constantinople4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,ornament from the ,cupola of the ,mosque of ,soliman the ,great1 ,constantinople4 ,,french ,,pottery4 ,the art of the potter flourished in ,gaul before the time of the ,romans1 but this early pottery was of a coarse kind1 used mostly for domestic purposes1 and of an unglazed variety 7poteries mates74 ,the use of a vitreous glaze was common in ,france as early as the thirteenth century1 and in a grave that had the date of #aabj1 in the ,abbey of ,jumiges1 two small broken vases were found covered with a yellowish lead glaze4 ,we are informed by an old ,french chronicler that 8,on fait des godets ,beauvais40 ,a godet was a goblet or cup of glazed fayence1 with a wide mouth1 and often had a cover1 and was usually silver-mounted4 ,beauvais was noted in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries for its glazed pottery4 ,it has been mentioned before that the ,italian artist1 ,girolamo della ,robbia1 introduced the famous enamelled earthenware invented by his grand-uncle1 ,luca della ,robbia1 into ,france1 when he came by invitation of ,francis ,i4 to decorate the exterior of the ,chteau de ,madrid1 in the ,bois de ,boulogne1 and the ,pesaro maiolica painter1 ,francesco1 also settled and worked in ,france2 but apparently little came of these attempts to naturalise ,italian pottery on ,french soil1 except that the art must have been spread in some degree by the workmen1 and by ,french artists who would naturally have assisted the ,italians1 and the traditions left by the latter must have helped considerably to influence the subsequent fabrication of enamelled earthenware4 ,,oiron ,,ware4 ,to take our subject in a chronological order1 the wares of ,oiron1 or 8,henri-,deux ware10 as the name they are better known by1 must be noticed first4 ,until a recent date the origin of this was only guessed at1 but the late ,m4 ,benjamin ,fillon by his researches has cleared up the mystery4 ,it appears now that the invention of this scarce and unique ware was due to ,hlne de ,hangest1 ,dame de ,boissy1 the widow lady of ,gouffier1 who was formerly governor to ,francis ,i4 ,this lady established the pottery in #aefd in the ,chteau of ,oiron1 near ,thouars2 and1 being gifted with strong artistic tastes1 conducted the work with great success1 assisted by two skilful collaborateurs1 ,franois ,charpentier and ,jehan ,bernart4 ,the former was the modeller1 and the latter--,bernart--was her librarian1 and the artist who designed and adapted the stamped ornament which is so characteristic of this ware4 ,this ornament is copied from the bookbindings of the period1 and seems to have been stamped in colour on the ,oiron ware with tools similar to those used in the bookbinding craft4 ,the vase or tazza 7,fig4 #df7 is a fine example of this ware of the earlier period1 showing the stamped decoration4 ,the ornament is identical with the peculiar ,italo-,saracenic style of the ,grolier and contemporary bookbindings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--,tazza1 ,henri-,deux ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the decoration is of a dark brown colour1 sometimes heightened with pink1 on an ivory-coloured ground4 ,another and later class of this ware has modelled decorations in high relief4 ,the colouring and technical skill generally was also improved1 as may be seen in the profusion of small figures1 masks1 and festoons that were added to the candlesticks and vases after the earlier period1 but these additions were not always improvements in the general design4 ,the colouring is also of a greater variety3 ochre1 green and blue1 and sometimes gold1 was added in small quantities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--;,candlestick1 ,henri-,deux ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the celebrated candlestick 7,fig4 #dg7 is one of the best examples in which modelled ornament is a feature4 ,it is now in the ,kensington ,museum1 where there are various fine specimens of ,oiron ware4 ,this candlestick shows the ,italian ,renaissance influence very strongly1 and probably owes much to the art of ,cellini1 as seen in his metal-work designs4 ,the ewer and tazza betray also his influence 7,fig4 #dh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,oiron ,ewer and ,tazza4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the saltcellar 7,fig4 #di7 is a restrained piece of architectural design and is altogether a very fine piece of work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,oiron or ,henri-,deux ,saltcellar4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,it is said by some that there are eighty pieces of this ware in existence1 and others that there are only fifty-three genuine pieces4 ,the early examples bear the emblems of ,francis ,i41 and the later ones those of ,henry ,,ii4 and ,diana of ,poitiers4 ,the paste used in this ware is a white pipeclay1 and is covered with a thin glaze4 ,,palissy ,,ware4 ,bernard ,palissy was one of the most remarkable men who practised the art of the potter in ,france or in any other country4 ,he was born about the year #aeaj1 but his birthplace is not exactly known4 ,he worked in his younger days and up to the period of his middle age at surveying1 glass-making1 portrait painting1 and was also well skilled in natural sciences1 but was not brought up to the trade of a potter4 ,it was in the year #aedb1 at ,saintes1 that in order to increase his slender means he took to the making of earthenware4 ,in writing his life he says3 8,it is now more than five-and-twenty years that a cup was shown to me of fashioned and enamelled clay1 and of such beauty1 that from that day ,i began to struggle with my own thoughts1 and hence1 heedless of my having no knowledge of the different kinds of argillaceous earth1 ,i tried to discover the art of making enamel1 like a man groping in the dark40 ,so he struggled on for fifteen years1 with starvation and death often at his door1 until at last he mastered his art1 and produced ultimately1 as he says1 8those vessels of intermixed colours1 after the manner of jasper40 ,the particular jasper enamel invented by ,palissy is a deep rich glaze of a green and brownish variegated character4 ,he made many 8rustic pieces0 as dishes1 plates1 and plaques1 on which he admirably arranged reptiles1 fishes1 frogs1 shells1 insects of various kinds1 fruits1 leaves1 acorns1 c41 modelled in relief and covered with the jasper glaze4 ,most of these dishes were elliptical in shape and had broad rims 7,fig4 #ej74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,rustic ,dish1 with ,reptiles and ,fishes2 ,palissy ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,he decorated a 8grotto0 with his famous pottery at the ,chteau of ,ecouen for his patron the ,constable de ,montmorency1 and similar grottoes at the ,tuileries1 and at ,reux1 in ,normandy1 for ,catherine de' ,medici4 ,palissy made other forms of pottery besides his rustic pieces1 such as ewers1 bottles1 hunting flasks1 and dishes1 ornamented with figures and other work4 ,it is likely that the figure work was executed by his sons or relatives1 ,nicholas and ,mathurin ,palissy1 who worked for ,catherine de' ,medici on the ,tuileries grotto4 ,many of the ,palissy wares are similar in design to the tains and pewter works of ,briot and of other artists1 as ,prieur1 ,rosso1 ,gauthier1 and ,primaticcio4 ,openwork baskets and dishes and other modelled works were covered with the jasper glaze4 ,of the invention of the latter ,palissy does not seem to have communicated the secret to his successors1 for after his death the jasper glaze was imitated1 but without much success1 as appears evident from some specimens that are now in existence which were made from his moulds4 ,palissy was nearly all his life engaged in lecturing on scientific and other subjects1 and in the work of proselytism for the ,reformed ,church of which he was a member1 being in prison more than once on account of his religious ideas1 and eventually died in the ,bastille ,prison in poverty in #aeij at the age of eighty4 ,as efforts of decorative design the encrusted wares of ,palissy cannot be placed in a high rank of decorative art1 but the art of ,france would be considerably poorer without the genius of ,palissy1 an artist of whom any nation might be justly proud4 ,,nevers1 ,,rouen1 ,,and ,,moustiers ,,wares4 ,we have mentioned before that some maiolica artists and workmen came from ,italy in the sixteenth century to ,nevers and ,lyons and there set up potteries4 ,one of these artists1 named ,scipio ,gambin1 worked at ,nevers1 under the patronage of the ,duc de ,nivernais4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,pilgrim's ,bottle1 ,nevers ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the maiolica productions at ,nevers were in imitation of the ,urbino1 ,castel-,durante1 and ,faenza wares1 but the colours were inferior1 probably owing to the poorer glaze used by the ,french potters4 ,the subjects of the decoration were at first similar to the 8istoriati0 decoration of the ,urbino ware1 and were compositions from ,ovid's 8,metamorphoses0 7,fig4 #ea7 or from the ,bible4 ,later on the potters of ,nevers imitated the shapes of ,oriental pottery with ,french decorations 7,fig4 #eb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,vase1 ,nevers ,ware4 ,in #afjh two ,italians--the brothers ,conrade--came from ,genoa to ,nevers1 and were probably the successors of ,gambin3 the ware made by them was decorated with a mixture of ,chinese and ,italian ornament1 and the colouring was blue1 manganese1 brown1 and white4 ,in #afcb a ,frenchman named ,pierre ,custode and his sons established a pottery at the sign of 8,the ,ostrich0 at ,nevers4 ,to them is ascribed the beautiful ,persian blue-coloured pottery decorated with naturalistic flowers and birds in solid white with yellow heightenings1 the shape and decoration being ,chinese in character4 ,the blue glaze peculiar to ,nevers pottery of this period is very fine1 and has been imitated by ,french and foreign potters1 but without success4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,pilgrim's ,bottle1 ,nevers ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the great importation of ,chinese porcelain into ,europe in the seventeenth century and at the beginning of the eighteenth had a strong influence on the art of the ,nevers pottery1 and many pieces exist on which ,chinese designs almost pure were copied in a blue ,camaen 7monochrome71 or in a harmonious mixture of blue and purple-black manganese1 the latter colour being a mixture of the blue with manganese4 ,in the eighteenth century the style of design was debased and very much degraded1 and the pottery became coarse and heavy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,plateau1 ,rouen ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,,rouen ,,ware4--,a much better class of pottery both in manufacture and design is the famous ,rouen ware1 made in the town of that name in ,normandy4 ,in the year #afdd ,edme ,poterat obtained a licence to make and sell fayence in the province of ,normandy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,tray1 ,rouen ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,this monopoly did not last long1 for we find that in #afgc his son1 ,louis ,poterat1 obtained another licence1 and from that time a new development takes place in the ornament that is so characteristic of ,rouen ware4 ,the greater part of this ornament is composed of a scallop form of setting out1 with alternating compositions of ornamental flowers1 called lambrequins1 and baskets of ornamental flowers that repeat at intervals around the border of plates or trays2 light pendentives and wreaths of artificial flowers are painted in a lighter tone1 and occur between the richer lambrequins 7,fig4 #ed74 ,richly ornamented coats-of-arms1 or baskets of flowers and cornucopias1 occupy the centres 7,fig4 #ee74 ,the beautiful plate in the ,kensington ,museum 7,fig4 #ef7 is unique in ,rouen ware in having amorini1 or cupids1 in the centre4 ,all of the foregoing examples are painted in blue of different shades on the white enamel1 or sometimes on yellow ochre grounds4 ,indian red colour and a warm reddish yellow is sometimes also used4 ,the ornament is pseudo-,chinese1 and is a ,norman development of ,oriental forms with some ,italian influences which are reminiscences of the decoration brought by the ,conrade brothers from ,genoa to ,nevers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,plateau1 ,rouen ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,some of the ,rouen ware is decorated with a ray formation on which the ornament is painted on a light or dark ground4 ,this is known as the style rayonnant4 ,the drawing of these patterns is always very careful and correct1 the latter often being copies of the printed decoration of the books of that period4 ,later on the decoration became of a freer type1 with bouquets of artificial flowers1 and in the eighteenth century the ,rocaille or ,rococo element began to creep in1 and the ,rouen ware developed from the camaen blue style of decoration to a polychrome style4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--;,dish1 ,rouen ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the ,chinese element in design became everywhere in the ascendant1 not only in late ,rouen ware1 but in the pottery of every country in ,europe1 and remains more or less in the work of to-day4 ,some of the late ,rouen ware is not so bizarre in its decoration as many other ,french and ,european styles of the same period4 ,fig4 #eg shows the ,chinese influence1 but is in better taste than the majority of contemporary designs4 ,as a style decays the colour as a rule becomes more gaudy1 which applies to ,rouen ware as to other varieties of fayence4 ,the 8,cornucopia pattern0 belongs to the decadence period3 this is full of unrestrained liberty both in form and colour4 ,it ought to be mentioned that ,louis ,poterat1 of ,rouen1 first discovered the secret of making the ,chinese soft porcelain 7pte tendre7 in ,france4 ,several pieces of this ,rouen porcelain are preserved in the ,museums at ,svres and at ,limoges4 ,the ,rouen ,school of ,decoration has influenced modern pottery designers in ,france1 ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,england1 more than any other school2 but unfortunately they all copied its later defects with greater zeal than in taking lessons from its earlier excellencies4 ,rouen ware was imitated in the ,sinceny pottery1 but this pottery was made by some workmen who had formerly belonged to ,rouen1 and established themselves at ,sinceny in #agac1 and copied the ,rouen ware so closely that the copies have often been mistaken for the latter ware4 ,at ,paris1 ,st4 ,cloud1 ,quimper1 and ,lille1 imitations of ,rouen ware have been attempted with success4 ,the ,st4 ,cloud pottery is of a slatey blue colour4 ,the pottery of ,lille is a close imitation of ,rouen ware1 as the plate 7,fig4 #eh7 clearly shows4 ,,moustiers1 in the south of ,france1 was an important centre for enamelled pottery works1 where a style of decoration was used that was a mixture of the ,italian ,urbino and the ,school of ,rouen1 the borders of the plates having the ,rouen lambrequins1 and the centres having figure subjects and landscapes1 or1 as in the later work1 grotesques and ornament after the ,french artists1 ,callot and ,berain4 ,the colour was in shades of a deep blue 7,fig4 #ei74 ,pierre ,clrissy 7#agbh7 was the name of the first artist and also of his nephew1 who continued the works after him in ,moustiers4 ,polychrome decoration became common at a later date1 when some ,moustiers workmen1 who had been to the ,alcora potteries in ,spain1 introduced the ,spanish style of colouring1 then in great fashion1 which consisted of bright orange yellow1 light green1 and blue outlines4 ,the later ,moustiers ware is decorated with festoons and ovals with figures or busts painted in them4 ,,marseilles fayence is of a delicate and pure enamel1 and is painted with flowers1 shell fish1 and insects1 c41 which as a rule are thrown on or disposed in an irregular sort of way4 ,much of the decoration was ,chinese or ,rouen imitations1 and little landscapes painted in red camaen2 gold was sometimes used in the stalks of the flowers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,plate1 ,lille ,ware4 ,,strasburg pottery1 though classed as ,french1 owed a good deal of its process of manufacture and general character to ,german methods of manipulation and decorative processes1 as ,german potters were mostly employed in the works4 ,the great difference was in the mode of decoration1 the latter being applied on the fired surface of the enamel in the ,strasburg wares2 whereas in the wares of the other ,french potteries that have just been considered the decoration was applied to the unbaked and consequently absorbent ground4 ,the latter was the more artistic method1 and the former1 or ,german method1 allowed a wider range of the artist's palette1 and admitted of greater delicacy of execution1 but was more harsh in effect1 and did not incorporate the colours with the enamel in a way that an absorbent ground or unbaked enamel would do4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,plate1 with ,stag ,hunt2 ,moustiers ,ware4 ,the name of ,charles ,hannong is connected with an early pottery of ,strasburg1 which was mostly a manufactory of earthenware stoves4 ,this pottery was founded in #agji4 ,in #agba ,hannong and a ,german porcelain worker1 who was taken into partnership by the former1 began to make porcelain1 but after a short existence under the sons of ,hannong this pottery was closed4 ,statuettes1 clocks1 dinner and dessert services were made in ,strasburg glazed earthenware1 with modelled and painted decoration4 ,the colouring and decoration was of the prevalent ,rococo1 bright and clear2 flowers of all kinds1 and ,chinese pictures1 were imitated mostly on white grounds 7,fig4 #fj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,plate1 ,strasburg ,ware4 ,,french ,,porcelain4 ,the desire to imitate the porcelain ware of ,china led to the discovery of the soft paste 7pte tendre74 ,the names 8porcelaine de ,france0 and 8,svres porcelain0 have also been given to it4 ,as previously mentioned1 it was made at ,rouen in #afij1 at ,st4 ,cloud in #afih1 and at ,lille in #agaa1 but in all these cases in a small and tentative way4 ,the composition of the paste in the ,french soft porcelain is described by ,,mm4 ,gasnault and ,garnier in their handbook of 8,french ,pottery0 as follows3 8,the paste was composed of the sand of ,fontainebleau1 saltpetre1 sea salt1 soda 7soude d',alicante71 alum1 gypsum1 or parings of alabaster2 all these elements were mixed together and placed in an oven in a layer of considerable thickness1 where1 after being baked for at least fifty hours1 they formed a perfectly white frit1 or vitrefied paste4 ,the frit was mixed with ,argenteuil marl in the proportion of nine pounds of frit to three pounds of marl1 c40 ,the glaze is described as consisting of 8the sand of ,fontainebleau1 litharge1 salts of soda1 ,bougival silex or gun-flint1 and potash40 ,all these were ground and melted together1 and afterwards the vitreous mass was re-ground in water and thus formed the glaze4 ,the soft paste is much superior for artistic works owing to the glaze incorporating with the colours in a perfect manner1 rendering them equally brilliant with the enamel1 but this is not the case with the hard or natural kaolin1 as the glaze on this does not blend completely with the colours of the decoration4 ,the soft paste porcelain is1 however1 too porous for articles of domestic use1 and can be tested by its being easily scratched by a knife4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,svres ,vase2 ,jones ,collection4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the ,marquis ,orry de ,fulvey made an attempt to establish the soft paste porcelain works at ,vincennes in #agda1 but this was not a success4 ,it was established again under new conditions in #agde1 and after many experiments some important vases were made decorated with flowers in relief4 ,the manufactory was reorganized again and removed to ,svres1 near ,paris1 in the year #agef4 ,the products of the ,svres works at this time were the fine vases with the bleu de roi1 or bleu de ,svres1 and the lovely rose ,pompadour colours1 and numerous fancy articles1 as heads of canes1 buttons1 snuff-boxes1 needle-cases1 also table services1 c4 ,many artists were employed to paint the flower and figure decorations2 the latter were painted after the designs of ,boucher1 ,vanloo1 and others4 ,the soft paste porcelain was made from about #agjj to #aggj4 ,some of the finest soft paste ,svres porcelain may be seen in the ,jones ,collection at ,south ,kensington1 of which there are nearly sixty examples4 ,the vase 7,fig4 #fa7 has a dark blue ground4 ,the clock of ,svres porcelain 7,fig4 #fb7 is a beautiful and unique example that was made especially for ,marie ,antoinette4 ,the clock is mounted in ormoulu by ,gouthire1 and is in his best style of work4 ,the egg-shaped vase 7,fig4 #fc7 has a blue ground and is decorated with subject of ,cupid and ,psyche4 ,the artists ,falconet1 ,clodion1 ,la ,rue1 and ,bachelier modelled and designed many of the statuettes1 plaques1 and vases for the ,svres manufactory4 ,cabinets and tables of the ,louis ,seize period were often inlaid with painted plaques of ,svres ware1 and have ormoulu mountings4 ,this kind of furniture is exceedingly refined in design and workmanship1 and reflects in a high degree the ,pompadour and ,du ,barry period of ,french taste4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,svres ,porcelain ,clock2 ,jones ,collection4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,in #agfh beds of kaolin clay were found in ,france at ,st4 ,yrieix1 near ,limoges4 ,maquer1 a chemist attached to the ,svres factory1 in #agfi submitted for the king's 7,louis ,,xvi47 inspection at the ,chteau of ,versailles sixty pieces of the new hard porcelain made from this native clay4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,svres ,vase1 dark blue2 ,jones ,collection4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,during the time of the ,french ,revolution the manufactory was in a critical state of existence1 but was still kept in a working state4 ,in the year #ahjj ,alexandre ,brongniart was appointed director1 a post he held for forty-seven years--and after his appointment the manufacture of soft porcelain ceased4 ,in his time the manufactory was in a state of great prosperity1 and the science he brought to bear on the manufacturing processes was of immense importance4 ,vases over seven feet in height were produced1 and the pieces which were made were ornamented with trophies and battle scenes that glorified the events in the reign of ,napoleon ,i4 ,in the reign of ,louis ,philippe the artists ,fragonard1 ,chenavard1 ,clerget1 and ,julienne introduced a new style of ,renaissance decoration and design1 but this was of a heavy and overloaded order that was not exactly suited to the character of porcelain4 ,about the middle of the present century ,louis ,robert1 the chief painter at ,svres1 introduced the novelty of coloured pastes1 which was to develop later into the pte-sur-pte process1 so successfully practised by the talented ,m4 ,solon1 who has executed so much of this beautiful work for ,minton's in ,england4 ,the process of ,louis ,robert consisted in the use of porcelain paste coloured with oxides4 ,a barbotine or slip was made of this composition and paintings were executed with it in slight relief1 the white paste being used chiefly on a coloured ground1 the modelling or light and shade being regulated according to the thickness of the semi-transparent material employed4 ,when finished this kind of work has a cameo-like effect4 ,,german ,,pottery4 ,german stoneware was manufactured at an early date1 and in the countries bordering upon the ,rhine the industry must have been in an active state in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 judging from the plentiful examples of the different varieties of the ware formerly known as 8,grs ,flamands0 or 8,grs de ,flandres10 but now classified under their proper ,german origins4 ,in the sixteenth century this ware was carried in great quantities from ,raeren1 from ,frechen and ,sieburg1 near ,cologne1 and from ,greuzhausen1 near ,coblentz1 down the ,rhine to ,leyden and the ,low ,countries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--;,delft ,vase4 ,the brown stoneware of ,raeren--which formerly belonged to the ancient ,duchy of ,limbourg--was especially in great request in ,flanders4 ,this brown ware was of a spherical or cylindrical shape1 divided by a central broad band1 with decorations of figure subjects1 shields1 masks1 arms1 c42 the neck is also decorated with shields and bosses1 and the foot with rings and guilloche ornament4 ,some good specimens of blue stoneware--called the 8blue of ,leipzig0--were also made at ,raeren4 ,at ,frechen1 near ,cologne1 the celebrated 8,greybeards0 or 8,bellarmines0 were first made1 that were imported and imitated so much in ,england during the reign of ,james ,i4 7see ,fig4 #gc74 ,they were decorated with the head of an old man with a long beard1 and sometimes also with armorial bearings or figure subjects4 ,the ,sieburg stoneware was a cream-coloured ware1 richly decorated in relief1 and chiefly consisted of long narrow drinking tankards with metal covers1 called 8,pokals40 ,at ,greuzhausen and at ,hhr were manufactured small jugs called 8cruches10 also saltcellars1 inkstands1 and braziers were made in grey stoneware decorated in parts with the rich 8blue of ,leipzig0 and with various relief ornaments4 ,in the end of the seventeenth century and beginning of the eighteenth at ,creussen1 in ,bavaria1 tankards or drinking mugs were made of a round shape with covers1 and decorated with figures of the ,apostles in relief1 and coloured in bright crude colours that look like oil painting3 they are known as 8,apostel ,kruges10 or ,apostle mugs4 ,at ,nuremberg1 tiles1 pipes1 and stoves were manufactured in glazed brown or green stoneware1 and at the same place a celebrated potter named ,augustin ,hirschvogel made different kinds of ware in tin-glazed enamel1 who with his family preserved for a long time the secret in ,germany of this particular glaze4 ,delft1 a town in ,holland1 was renowned in the seventeenth century for its extensive manufacture of the fayence known as 8,delft40 ,the potteries of ,delft were established in the early years of the century1 and towards the end upwards of thirty potteries were in full working order4 ,the genuine delft ware is of a fine hard paste1 has a beautiful and clear smooth enamel1 and is decorated with almost every kind of subject1 chiefly in a blue camaen4 ,attempts at polychrome decoration are very rare1 but a red colour has been often used4 ,the style of design and shapes were generally imitations of ,chinese1 ,japanese1 and ,dresden wares 7,fig4 #fd74 ,almost every class and shape of the usual pottery objects were manufactured1 and some plates and vases were of very great dimensions4 ,,german ,,porcelain4 ,the ,portuguese introduced ,china porcelain into ,europe1 and for a long time the potters sought to imitate it1 but without much success1 until the true kaolin was discovered by ,bttger1 about #agji4 ,at ,aue1 ,schneeberg1 and in the year #agae1 a pottery for the manufacture of hard porcelain was established at ,meissen1 by ,augustus ,,ii41 ,elector of ,saxony and ,king of ,poland1 with ,bttger as director4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--;,german ,stoneware4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--;,dresden ,candelabrum4 ,this porcelain1 after it had been brought to a considerable degree of perfection1 turned out a great success in its similarity to the ,chinese composition of body1 but in spite of all precautions to keep the making and the nature of the clay secret1 the knowledge leaked out1 and in a short time after we find that hard porcelain was made in many parts of ,germany and ,austria4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,dresden ,vase2 ,jones ,collection4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,like most of the wares made at other potteries at this period1 the ,dresden porcelain was at first an imitation of ,chinese in shape and decoration4 ,almost every kind of articles were made at ,dresden1 such as candelabra1 statuettes1 modelled flowers1 vases1 services1 c41 on which were painted with great delicacy1 flowers1 landscapes1 and figures on grounds of different rich colours 7,figs4 #ff and #fg74 ,,english ,,pottery4 ,ancient ,british pottery has been found in the barrows and burial mounds in the form of incense cups1 drinking and food vessels1 and cinerary urns4 ,these have all been made of clays that were found usually on the spot1 and are either sun-dried or imperfectly burnt4 ,the drinking vessels were tall and cylindrical in form1 and the incense cups were wider in the centre than at either end4 ,the urns and food vessels have a similarity of shape1 being globular1 with or without a neck4 ,the decoration is of the simplest description1 such as chevrons1 or zigzags1 and straight-lined patterns produced by scratching with a stick1 or the impressions of a rope tied around the vessel while the clay was soft4 ,the ,romans made pottery in ,britain from native clay1 and also imported much of the ,samian ware4 ,the ,roman wares of ,british manufacture are known as ,castor1 ,upchurch1 and ,new ,forest wares2 they are generally of very good shapes1 and are decorated with slips1 dots1 bosses1 and indentations1 and are unglazed or slightly glazed 7,fig4 #fh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,romano-,british ,urn1 with ,slip ,decoration4 7,b4,m47 ,the ,romano-,british urn in the illustration has a slight yellow glaze4 ,the pottery made by the ,anglo-,saxons is of the same type and pattern as that made by the ,saxons on the ,continent4 ,it is rough and inartistic in shape1 except in some specimens that were made in the south of ,england1 where an imitation of ,roman and probably ,norman pottery was attempted4 ,we do not meet much ,saxon pottery in ,england of any importance until we come to the twelfth or thirteenth centuries1 when some of the best efforts in tile making and decoration are seen in the beautiful floor-tiles of the early ,gothic period4 ,many examples of these tiles have been preserved in the ,british and other ,museums1 and some are still in sit in ,westminster ,abbey1 ,malvern1 ,ely1 and ,gloucester ,cathedrals1 and ,chertsey ,abbey4 ,the designs are often heraldic in character 7,fig4 #fi71 and consist of geometrical1 floral1 animal1 and architectural forms4 ,badges1 shields1 and texts are also found as decorations1 and sometimes the human figure is also represented4 ,the earliest are of one colour1 or two1 as a yellow or a dull red1 and the later ones have several colours4 ,they are generally called 8encaustic0 tiles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--;,encaustic ,tile1 from ,monmouth ,priory4 7,b4,m47 ,slip wares were made extensively at ,wrotham in ,kent as early as #afej1 and at ,staffordshire1 ,derby1 and other places in ,england even earlier than this date4 ,many of them are of quaint and uncouth forms1 and are generally covered with a rich green1 brown1 or yellow glaze1 made from copper1 manganese1 or iron oxides4 ,curious two-handled1 three or four-handled mugs or tygs used for handing round drinks1 posset cups or pots1 plates1 dishes1 candlesticks1 jugs1 and piggins were made in these wares1 and decorated with 8slip10 which is a mixture of clay and water used in the thickness of cream1 and which is dropped or trailed from a tube or spouted vessel1 on the surface of the ware1 forming the decoration according to the fancy of the designer4 ,the colour of the slip varied from light to dark 7,fig4 #gj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,tyg of ,wrotham ,ware4 ,the dish of ,toft's ware 7,fig4 #ga7 is a specimen of the slip decoration1 date about #affj4 ,toft was a potter who had his kiln at ,tinker's ,clough1 near ,newcastle in ,staffordshire4 ,his work is decorated with coloured slip on a common red clay1 with a wash of white or pipe clay1 upon which the decoration was laid in red slip2 darker tints were used for the outlines1 and sometimes white dots4 ,the lead glaze used gave a yellow tint to the white clay coating4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--;,dish of ,slip ,ware2 by ,thomas ,toft4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,marbled and combed wares1 c41 were made in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 in which different coloured bodies were mixed in the paste to form a mottled1 marbled1 or variegated appearance4 ,lambeth has been noted for its potteries from about #affj4 ,lambeth delft comprised such objects as wine jars1 candlesticks1 posset pots4 ,the ware is of a pale buff tint2 the paste is covered with a white tin-glaze or enamel1 and a lead glaze over the decoration4 ,some plates have figure subjects and floriated borders1 which seem to be imitations of ,italian majolica 7,fig4 #gb74 ,the names of ,griffith and ,morgan appear as ,lambeth potters in the eighteenth century2 and the present 8,stiff's0 pottery was founded in #agea4 ,the most noted pottery now in ,london is the manufactory of ,messrs4 ,doulton--,the ,lambeth ,pottery--founded in #ahaa1 whose original and beautiful work is so well known to everybody in the present day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--;,dish of ,lambeth ,delft4 7,b4,m47 ,in ,staffordshire pictorial delft ware was made in ,william ,,iii4 and ,queen ,anne's time1 but was of a coarser kind and less pure in the enamel than ,lambeth delft4 ,stoneware of an extremely hard and translucent kind was made by ,john ,dwight at ,fulham1 about #afgj4 ,he made grey stoneware jugs1 flasks1 statuettes1 and busts4 ,the busts and statuettes were of great excellence4 ,the jugs and tankards were made in imitation of the ,german 8,grs0--the so-called 8,grs de ,flandres40 ,these were called in ,england 8,bellarmines10 8longbeards10 or 8greybeards10 by way of mockery of the ,cardinal ,robert ,bellarmine1 who was unpopular with the ,protestant party in the reign of ,james ,i4 7,fig4 #gc74 ,salt-glazed stoneware is still made at the present time at the ,fulham works1 which are now in possession of ,mr4 ,c4 ,j4 ,c4 ,bailey4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--;,bellarmine1 ,fulham ,stone ,ware4 ,the salt-glazed white stoneware of ,staffordshire was made from #afij till after #ahjj4 ,the introduction of the salt glaze ware in ,staffordshire is ascribed to the celebrated potter ,john ,philip ,elers and his brother ,david4 ,they are likely to have been ,dutchmen who had also worked in the potteries of ,nuremberg1 and had brought with them the knowledge of the salt-glaze process to ,staffordshire1 together with the style and ornamentation of the ,holland stonewares4 ,dwight of ,fulham made salt-glazed wares before the time that the ,elers settled at ,bradwell in ,staffordshire 7#afij-agaj74 ,john ,elers made a revolution in the style of working the ,english pottery by turning his ware in the lathe instead of the exclusive use of the potter's wheel4 ,the ,elers made a red unglazed stoneware chiefly for teapots1 cups1 saucers1 milk jugs1 chocolate pots1 besides other salt-glazed wares4 ,the salt-glazed ware is one of the hardest wares known1 and is almost a porcelain in composition4 ,the glaze gives a slightly uneven surface to the ware1 which comes from the manner in which the wares receive the glaze4 ,the pieces are not dipped in a glaze mixture1 but when the kiln has reached a very high temperature common salt is thrown into the kiln2 the soda is liberated from the salt by the action of the heat1 and coming in contact with the silica of the stoneware clay1 forms with it a silicate of soda1 which is really a glass glaze4 ,the composition of the ware is1 generally speaking1 clay and fine sand4 ,astbury1 the potter1 in #agbj used what is considered the best composition--grey clay and ground flint instead of sand4 ,the colour is drab1 or sometimes has a dull cream-coloured covering4 ,the colour of the old ,staffordshire ware is drab1 with small white applied ornaments that were previously cast from moulds of brass or stoneware4 ,coloured enamels have also been very much used for decorating later work4 ,the ornaments are single roses1 may blossoms1 fleur-de-lis1 spirals1 small interlacings1 birds1 figures1 straight or wavy lines1 c41 all generally very sharp and clear cut 7,figs4 #gd1 #ge74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--;,jar1 ,white ,stoneware of ,staffordshire4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the potter ,john ,astbury worked for the ,elers1 and after finding out as many secrets as he could from them1 he left them and started a pottery of his own in ,staffordshire4 ,he used a wider range of clays and colours than those used by the ,elers1 and had more variety also in the decoration of his ware1 which consisted of such ornaments as harps1 crowns1 stags1 lions1 and heraldic designs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,white ,salt-glazed ,ware of ,staffordshire4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,brown stoneware was made at ,nottingham during the whole of the eighteenth century1 and was of a bright rich colour2 the material was thin and well fabricated4 ,besides the ordinary shaped jugs1 puzzle-jugs and mugs in the shape of bears with movable heads were made1 that were used in the beerhouses of the last century4 ,bristol and ,liverpool were famous for their delft-ware during the last century4 ,richard1 ,frank1 and ,joseph ,flower are names of potters who had delft works in ,bristol4 ,in ,liverpool bowls with pictures of ships1 arms1 and landscape decoration were made of delft4 ,tiles on which were printed transfer decorations were also made of ,liverpool delft by ,sadler and ,green1 the inventors4 ,these tiles were about five inches square1 were printed in black or red1 and were used for lining stoves and fireplaces4 ,theatrical characters and portraits of celebrities were the usual subjects4 ,wedgwood and other ,staffordshire potteries sent their wares to ,liverpool to get transfers printed on them4 ,wedgwood ware is one of the most technically perfect productions that has been invented4 ,the colouring is quiet and refined1 and the decorations--following the classic ideals of the period--are severe and rather cold1 but the workmanship is of such a perfection and delicacy that is seldom found in the ceramic products of any other manufactory4 ,josiah ,wedgwood came of a family of potters4 ,he was born in #agcj1 and died in #agie4 ,he was the youngest son of ,thomas ,wedgwood1 a potter of ,burslem1 who died in #agci1 and after his death ,josiah left school and was bound apprentice to his brother ,thomas1 who succeeded his father in the pottery4 ,josiah concentrated his energies to the designing and modelling of pottery ornaments and to the invention of new paste compositions and glazes4 ,later on he sought to imitate in appearance and composition the precious stones of agate1 onyx1 jasper1 c4 ,after his apprenticeship was over he joined partnership with ,harrison1 of ,stoke1 and afterwards with ,wheildon1 of ,fenton1 but these associations did not last long1 and in #agei he started business in a small way at ,burslem1 where he executed many works1 and by degrees perfected the cream-coloured ware which is known by the name of 8,queen's ware40 ,in the year #aggf he took into partnership ,mr4 ,thomas ,bentley1 a ,liverpool merchant of artistic tastes1 who attended chiefly to the production of the decorative wares of the firm4 ,this partnership lasted until the death of ,bentley in #aghj4 ,it was in #agfi that ,wedgwood removed his works and went also to live at his new house at ,etruria1 where he founded and named this village4 ,he took his sons ,john1 ,josiah1 and ,thomas into partnership1 and also his nephew ,thomas ,byerley in #agij4 ,five years after this date he died4 ,the products of the ,wedgwood manufacture--which may be found more fully described in ,professor ,church's excellent book on 8,english ,earthenware10 to which we are indebted for many particulars on ,english pottery and for some of the illustrations--are thus classified3-- #a4 ,cream-coloured ware1 or #8,queen's ware1' comprises dinner and dessert services1 tea and coffee sets4 ,cream-coloured1 saffron1 and straw-coloured1 with well-painted designs of conventional foliage and flowers1 and later work with transfer engraving in red or black1 printed by ,sadler and ,green1 of ,liverpool4 #b4 ,egyptian black1 or basalt ware1 owing its colour chiefly to iron4 ,seals1 plaques1 life-size busts1 medallion portraits1 and vases4 ,black tea and coffee sets decorated with coloured enamels and gilding 7,fig4 #gf74 #c4 ,red ware1 or ,rosso ,antico1 used for cameo reliefs4 #d4 ,white semi-porcelain or fine stoneware4 ,this ware was composed of one of ,wedgwood's improved bodies4 #e4 ,variegated ware is of two kinds1 one a cream-coloured body1 marbled1 mottled1 or spangled with divers colours upon the surface and under the glaze2 the other an improved kind of agate ware1 in which the bands1 twists1 and strips constituted the entire substance of the vessel4 8#f4 ,jasper ware4 ,the body of this ware was the material in which the chief triumphs of ,wedgwood were wrought4 ,outwardly it resembled the finest of his white terra-cotta and semi-porcelain bodies1 but in chemical and physical properties it differed notably from them4 ,there are seven colours in the ,jasper body besides the white ,jasper1 but the solid ,jasper is of a blue tint4 ,the seven colours are3-- blue of various tints1 lilac1 pink1 sage-green1 olive-green1 yellow1 and black40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--,lamp1 ,black ,egyptian ,ware4 ,plaques1 tablets1 large portraits1 and other medallions1 cameos1 intaglios1 vases1 statuettes1 pedestals1 flower-pots1 c41 are objects and vessels that were made in ,jasper ware4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,pedestal in ,green and ,white ,jasper1 ,wedgwood ,ware4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,flaxman collaborated with ,wedgwood in making many designs for his work4 ,the beautiful pedestal shown at ,fig4 #gg is from a design by ,flaxman1 and is made in green and white ,jasper4 ,other names of artists who designed or modelled for ,wedgwood are ,hackwood1 ,stubbs1 ,bacon1 ,webber1 ,devere1 ,angelini1 ,dalmazzoni1 c4 ,an influence on some of his work was due to his studying and copying the celebrated ,portland ,vase1 which was lent to him for this purpose for more than three years by the ,duke of ,portland4 ,,english ,,porcelain4 ,porcelain was first made in ,england about the year #agde4 ,the best period of the manufacture dates from #agej to #aghj1 though some of the oldest factories have survived to the present day4 ,english porcelain1 or as it is better known as 8,china0 ware1 was made at ,chelsea1 ,bow1 ,derby1 ,worcester1 ,plymouth1 ,bristol1 and in ,staffordshire4 ,some of the best porcelain from these places does not yield in beauty to the finest of ,svres ware4 ,the ,chelsea porcelain works were first under a ,mr4 ,charles ,gouyn1 and it appears that ,nicolas ,sprimont was his successor1 who was originally a goldsmith in ,soho1 and who was probably of ,flemish origin4 ,chelsea ware is remarkable for its deep rich claret-coloured grounds4 ,this colour was first used on the ,chelsea porcelain in #agei4 ,turquoise-blue1 pea-green1 and ,mazarine-blue were also1 though in a lesser degree1 peculiar to ,chelsea ware4 ,the early pieces are without gilding1 which is more of a distinguishing mark of the later productions4 ,the paste1 the enamel1 the colour1 and technique are all perfect in their way1 but the art and design of the objects do not by any means equal the workmanship2 this was of course due to the false taste of the period1 when the rococo element in design was fashionable everywhere 7,fig4 #gh74 ,vases1 statuettes1 scent bottles1 compotiers1 bowls1 cups1 saucers1 animals1 birds1 fruit1 and flowers were made by ,sprimont in an extravagant style of design4 ,in #agfi ,william ,duesbury1 of the ,derby porcelain works1 purchased the ,chelsea manufactory1 and six years later he acquired the ,bow porcelain works4 ,a less extravagant style of design and decoration characterized the ,chelsea-,derby productions1 a specimen of which is seen in the cooper's bowl1 ,fig4 #gi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--;,chelsea ,vase2 ,jones ,collection4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the ,bow ,china factory was owned by two partners1 ,weatherby and ,crowther1 in #agej2 the former died in #agfb1 and the latter failed in the business in #agfc4 ,duesbury1 of ,derby1 bought up the ,bow works in #aggf1 when he removed the moulds and models4 ,chelsea and ,bow ware are very similar in design and appearance1 and consequently a difficulty exists in classifying doubtful pieces4 ,there are a great many examples of ,bow porcelain in the ,schreiber gift in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 and ,professor ,church is of the opinion that they are mostly authentic specimens4 ,the ,chinese-shaped vase with the rococo and ,louis-,seize decorations is a typical example of the ,bow porcelain 7,fig4 #hj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--;,bowl of ,chelsea-,derby ,porcelain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--;,bow ,porcelain ,vase4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4--;,derby ,statuette4 ,the date of founding of the ,derby porcelain works is not exactly known1 except that certain pieces of ,derby ware have been advertised for auction 8after the finest ,dresden models0 in #agef and up to #aggj1 proving that the works must have been going on during these periods4 ,according to ,professor ,church1 ,william ,duesbury1 the first of that name1 was connected with the ,derby works in #agef1 and died in #aghf4 ,he was succeeded by his son of the same name1 who took into partnership ,michael ,kean in #agie4 ,this ,w4 ,duesbury died in #agif4 ,the works were carried on by another ,william ,duesbury until the year #ahae1 when they passed into the hands of ,robert ,bloor1 who carried the manufactory on until #ahdh1 when it ceased4 ,locher1 a manager of ,bloor's1 started another factory after this which still exists to-day4 ,the ,derby coloured porcelain statuettes are imitated more or less from ,dresden ware1 even to the ,dresden marks of the crossed swords 7,fig4 #ha71 which marks are copied by a great many porcelain manufacturers4 ,the cup and saucer 7,fig4 #hb7 is a specimen of early ,crown ,derby4 ,the borders are deep blue and the festoons pink4 ,some of the names of the painters who were engaged at the ,crown ,derby works are3--,f4 ,duvivier 7#agfi71 ,p4 ,stephan 7#aggj71 ,r4 ,askew 7#aggb71 ,j4 ,j4 ,spengler 7#agij71 and ,w4 ,j4 ,coffee 7#agia74 ,askew was a clever figure painter4 ,deep blues1 reds1 and greens1 with lavish gilding1 and ornament of a very conventional character1 are found on some of the late ,derby cups1 saucers1 and plates4 ,,worcester porcelain was first made by a company consisting of fifteen shareholders1 formed in the year #agea by ,dr4 ,wall and ,mr4 ,w4 ,davis1 the inventors4 ,the name given to the early ware was the 8,tonquin porcelain of ,worcester40 ,these works have been going almost without interruption under different names of proprietors until the present day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4--;,crown ,derby ,covered ,cup and ,saucer4 ,vases and other objects in ,worcester porcelain of the early period were decided imitations of ,chinese and ,japanese wares1 but at the same time they were dignified examples both as to form and decoration compared with the meaningless rococo designs of ,chelsea and ,bow4 ,the vase 7,fig4 #hc71 in the ,schreiber ,collection1 is ,oriental in form and decoration1 but has a restrained character of its own that is not usually met with in the contemporary wares of the period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,worcester ,vase4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the vases are the chief glory of ,worcester ware2 in colour they are exceedingly rich1 having grounds of 8gros bleu10 turquoise1 pea-green1 maroon1 and a fine shade of yellow2 gold is also used in modified proportions4 ,we have mentioned before the mode of decoration by transfer printing adopted by ,janssen on the ,battersea enamels and by ,sadler and ,green on the ,liverpool delft2 this style of decoration was extensively employed by the ,worcester decorators for the fillings of the panels with landscapes and rustic figures1 after engravings by ,watteau1 ,gainsborough1 and others4 ,dresden and ,svres wares were imitated at ,worcester1 and it is generally thought that when this was done--during the period #agfh-aghc--the ,worcester ware was at its best4 ,this was the middle period1 and towards the time that ended about the beginning of this century the designs became laboured1 and lavish use of gold rendered the work vulgar and showy4 ,josiah and ,richard ,holdship and ,r4 ,handcock are names of some of the principal artists of the early and middle period4 ,donaldson1 ,neale1 and ,foggo were names of enamellers who worked at the ,worcester pottery4 ,a curious design in this ware of a tobacco-pipe bowl 7,fig4 #hd7 is in the ,schreiber ,collection4 ,,plymouth porcelain manufactory was established by ,william ,cookworthy 7#agje-hj71 who was the first to discover in ,england the real ,china clay or kaolin1 about the year #agee4 ,cookworthy had a good knowledge of chemistry1 and was a wholesale chemist and druggist4 ,he found both the ,china clay and ,china stone at ,tregonning ,hill and at two other places in ,cornwall4 ,a patent was granted to him in #agfh for the manufacture of porcelain1 and the firm of 8,cookworthy and ,co40 established itself at ,coxside1 ,plymouth4 ,a ,french ceramic artist named ,sequoi was engaged to superintend the works4 ,the ,plymouth works were not of long duration1 for shortly afterwards they were removed to ,bristol1 and ,richard ,champion1 of ,bristol1 obtained a licence from ,cookworthy to make the ,plymouth porcelain1 and bought the entire rights from the latter in #aggc4 ,from this date until #agha ,champion owned the ,castle ,green works at ,bristol which formerly belonged to ,cookworthy4 ,statuettes1 vases1 rustic pieces1 teapots1 cups and saucers1 c41 were made in both ,plymouth and ,bristol china1 many of them being imitations of ,svres and ,oriental wares4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--;,bowl of ,tobacco-pipe1 ,worcester ,ware4 ,in ,staffordshire many porcelain works are still in existence that began in the last century or early in this1 such as ,longton ,hall1 ,new ,hall1 ,spode1 ,wedgwood1 and ,minton1 but space prevents us from giving any details of their work4 ,liverpool1 ,lowestoft1 ,coalport1 ,swansea1 ,nantgarw1 and ,rockingham may be mentioned as other places where ,english porcelain was made4 ,,chinese ,,porcelain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--;,chinese ,vase4 ,the manufacture of porcelain in ,china1 according to their own accounts1 dates for more than two hundred years before the ,christian era4 ,the composition of ,chinese porcelain is of two elements3 one1 the infusible argillaceous earth or clay called kaolin2 and the other the 8pe-tun-tse10 which is feldspar slightly altered1 a micaceous mineral and quartz or silica1 which is fusible4 ,the latter is used with or without other mixtures to form a glaze for hard porcelain4 ,other materials are sometimes used in the glaze1 but1 unlike the enamel of earthenware1 tin or lead is not used4 ,the ,chinese made their porcelain in different degrees of translucency4 ,the kind made especially for the ,emperor's use1 such as cups1 saucers1 and rice plates of a ruby-red tint1 are very thin and almost transparent4 ,the porcelain coloured in turquoise blue1 violet1 sea-green1 and celadon are of the oldest varieties made4 ,yellow1 the colour of ,ming dynasty1 is a common colour in ,chinese porcelain4 ,the ,chinese decorated their vases sometimes without much regard to the spacing or divisions of body1 neck1 or foot 7,fig4 #he74 ,landscapes1 dragons1 fanciful kylins1 dogs1 and lions1 as well as nearly all kinds of natural objects were used by them as decoration4 ,conventional renderings of flowers and foliage and geometric ornament are often used in a judicious sense4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--,oriental ,porcelain2 ,chinese1 with ,french ,ormolu ,mounting4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,peculiar shapes of vases1 such as the square1 hexagonal1 and octagonal forms1 are found very frequent in ,oriental ware4 ,the vase 7,fig4 #hf71 from the ,jones ,collection1 is a less extravagant example of ,chinese porcelain than usual2 the egg-shaped body is1 however1 the only ,oriental part of the vase4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4--;,japanese ,ancient ,vase2 circa ,b4,c4 #fdj4 ,,japanese ware is more interesting and more varied in design1 though not so gaudy in appearance as the ,chinese1 owing to the higher sense of artistic feeling and individuality of the ,japanese artists4 ,the art1 as seen in the ceramic productions as well as in most other things of ,japanese art and design1 was originally borrowed from the older nation of ,china and from the ,coreans4 ,from their keen sense of beauty1 and also greater artistic power1 the art products of the ,japanese are superior to those of ,china4 ,the first glazed pottery made in ,japan is supposed to date from the year #abcj--this was made at ,seto by ,tshiro1 who had learnt the art in ,china1 and the first porcelain just before the year #aeac1 for the maker of this early ,japanese porcelain--,shonsui1 a ,chinese potter--had returned to ,china in that year4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--;,incense-,burner1 ,satsuma ,ware2 circa #agbj4 ,pottery of an inferior kind was made anterior to the ,christian era1 but probably the oldest known was made by the people who occupied the country before the present ,japanese4 ,the ancient vase 7,fig4 #hg7 is an example of this early ware4 ,it is of a coarse kind of earthenware1 baked or fired in a hole in the ground1 over which and around the vessel was built a wood fire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4--;,incense-,burner1 ,arita ,ware2 circa #agaj4 ,japanese wares are of three kinds3 the common stoneware ornamented with scratched lines and glazed2 a crackled glazed ware with painted decorations2 and the porcelain4 ,the porcelain of ,japan is first baked to the biscuit state1 then the colours of the decoration are applied1 and the piece is afterwards glazed1 and is again fired at a greater heat4 ,the gilding or enamel colours that may be required are put on afterwards1 when a third firing at a lower temperature is necessary4 ,the ,japanese porcelain paste does not stand the firing so well as the ,chinese1 and consequently the pieces are often twisted and altered in shape4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--,pierced ,glazed ,water-bottle1 from ,madura4 7,b47 ,the factories of ,hizen are among the very oldest and are still in working order in ,japan4 ,old ,hizen ware is decorated with blue paintings4 ,the pottery and porcelain of ,seto manufacture is highly esteemed1 and the name of ,setomono has been given by the ,japanese to their porcelain ware4 ,the ,kutani ware is a coarse porcelain1 known also under the name of ,kaga ware2 the pieces with a red ground and gold ornamentation are highly valued4 ,it is also glazed with deep green1 light purple1 and yellow colours4 ,one of the most famous and costliest ,japanese wares is the old ,satsuma1 which was first made by the ,corean potters who settled in the village of ,nawashirogawa1 in the province of ,satsuma1 about #afjj4 ,this ware is of a dark cream colour1 with a crackled glaze1 and is decorated with red1 green1 and gold outlined ornament 7,fig4 #hh7 ,a specimen of the ,hizen potteries porcelain1 ,arita ware1 is illustrated at ,fig4 #hi1 of an incense-burner4 ,it is painted in bright colours of red1 green1 pale blue1 and has some gilding4 ,it is decorated with hares or rabbits and waves in the panels and dragons on the cover4 ,,indian ,,pottery4 ,the making of pottery is universal throughout ,india4 ,the unglazed wares are made everywhere1 and of various colours4 ,red glazed pottery is made at ,dinapur1 gilt pottery at ,amroha and in ,rajputana2 black and silver pottery at ,azimghar in the north-west1 and at ,surujgarrah in ,bengal2 painted pottery at ,kota1 the unglazed pierced variety at ,madura1 and the celebrated glazed pottery made at ,sindh and in the ,punjaub4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4--;,glazed ,pottery of ,sindh4 7,b47 ,it may be said that in general the pottery of ,india is good in shape1 colour1 and decoration1 the latter never violating its purpose1 nor distracting the eye from the shape of the vessel4 ,the designs are very simple1 and repeating1 perhaps to monotony in many cases2 but the painted pottery decoration1 by reason of its broad and direct application1 although the ornament is very simple in character1 is better1 and less monotonous1 for instance1 than the ,indian wood-carving decoration4 ,the designs take the form of panels of flower and leaf ornament placed side by side1 bands of guilloches1 chevrons1 running ornament1 and lines1 the knop-and-flower pattern1 and a panel filling or an all-over decoration consisting of diapered flowers1 leaves1 or stars4 ,the elegant shaped water bottle from ,madura 7,fig4 #ij7 is pierced so that the air may circulate round the inner porous bowl4 ,this ware is coloured a dark green or a golden brown glaze4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4--;,glazed ,pottery of ,sindh4 7,b47 ,the ,sindh glazed pottery is beautiful1 though very simple in colour and decoration4 ,the colours are mostly blue of two or three shades1 turquoise greens1 and creamy whites1 and sometimes the glaze is purple1 golden brown1 or yellow4 ,many of the vases are bulbous or oviform in shape1 with wide necks and bottoms1 and are decorated with the ,sventi1 or daisy-like flower 7,fig4 #ia71 or the lotus 7,fig4 #ib74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic--;,enamelled ,tile1 from ,sindh4 7,b47 ,the enamelled tile from ,sindh 7,fig4 #ic7 has a knop-and-flower decoration1 the larger flower having the character of an iris1 and1 at the same time1 something of the lotus flower in its composition4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,enamels4 ,enamelling is the art of applying a vitreous material to an object1 as decoration1 to the surface of which it is made to adhere by heat4 ,metals are the usual foundations to which enamels are applied1 but stone1 earthenware1 and glass may be enamelled4 ,when one speaks of 8an enamel0 we understand it to mean a metal that is ornamented by a vitreous decoration fused and fixed to the metal surface by heat4 ,there are three principal kinds of enamels3 the 8embedded or encrusted10 the 8translucent upon relief10 and the 8painted40 ,some enamelled objects have a mixture of two methods4 ,the embedded or so-called encrusted kind has two varieties1 which are best known under their ,french names1 the ,cloisonn and the ,champlev4 ,when floated in a transparent state over a bas-relief1 showing the chased details below1 it is translucent1 or1 as it is called by the ,french1 maux de basse-taille4 ,the painted is a later variety developed by the school of ,limoges4 ,the ,cloisonn is the oldest variety2 it is that in which the ,greek or ,byzantine enamels are made1 and also the ,chinese4 ,in this method of enamelling the plate or metal foundation which is to receive the enamel is first cut to the required shape1 and a little rim of gold ribbon soldered around it4 ,the design is formed by narrow strips of gold ribbon or filigree1 fastened to the foundation by a strong gum or cement1 and bent to form the lines of the design4 ,the cells thus formed are filled in with the enamel in a fine powdered state1 or in a paste1 the vitreous materials of the selected enamel having previously been tried1 as to their colour and time required for perfect and equal fusion4 ,the piece is then placed in a furnace or 8muffle10 sufficiently open so that the progress of the fusing can be watched while firing1 and withdrawn when perfectly fused4 ,as the enamel generally sinks lower than the walls of the cells after fusion1 it is necessary to add a second thin coating1 or sometimes more1 and to re-fire it in order to fill all the cavities4 ,after this the work will require grinding down and polishing to level the surface and restore the brilliancy of the colours that may be slightly deadened by the cooling of the enamel4 ,the materials of enamel colours are metallic oxides4 ,these colours are finely pulverized1 washed1 and mixed with vitreous compounds1 called fluxes1 which are easily fusible1 and in melting impart an extra brilliancy to the colours1 and form with them by fusion the almost imperishable substance of enamel4 ,the ,champlev enamels are made in the same way as the ,cloisonn1 with this exception1 that instead of the thin gold ribbons or filigree work forming the design1 the walls of the cells that compose the design and separate the enamel colours in the ,champlev variety are formed by the hollowing out of the thick metal--usually copper--and leaving the design to be formed out of the thin partitions that are left standing4 ,the cavities are filled with the enamel mixtures and fused as in the ,cloisonn method4 ,on account of the articles being small1 and also being mostly made on a gold foundation1 they were more likely to have been stolen or melted down1 and this accounts in a great measure for the scarcity of ,cloisonn enamels in our collections4 ,the ,champlev1 on the other hand1 being generally enamels on copper or brass1 that from the cheapness of those materials1 larger vessels and other objects were extensively made1 and from both size and lesser value of the materials they were more likely to have escaped the melting-pot4 ,when the foundation of the ,champlev enamels was copper1 the lines of this metal that formed the design would be gilt with an amalgam of melted gold and mercury1 and the piece re-fired at a lower temperature1 in order not to injure or disturb the enamel surface4 8,translucent0 enamel upon reliefs known as de basse taille is the art of enamelling reliefs of silver or gold that have previously been chased or engraved with the design required4 ,the enamel is laid on in various degrees of thickness1 according to the strength of shading or depth of tone required4 ,the transparent varieties of enamels are selected for these works1 and opaque varieties avoided4 8,painted0 enamels were suggested by the translucent enamels upon reliefs4 ,the extensive demand for the latter variety1 and the great number executed1 gave rise to the invention of using enamel colours as in oil-painting2 that is1 instead of engraving the subject or design previously on the metal1 the method of expressing with the brush the drawing and the light and shade with the enamel colours direct was resorted to1 on grounds specially prepared upon copper surfaces4 ,labarte believes that the modification in the art of glass painting introduced in the fourteenth century had the effect of causing enamel painters to experiment in painting with the enamel colours direct1 as in painting on glass4 ,about this time the method of painting on glass was introduced1 which formerly was decorated by simply using the pieces of stained or coloured glass as in mosaic work1 the only difference between the superficial glass painting and the painting in enamels being that in the latter the opaque enamel colours are used instead of the transparent as in glass painting4 ,it was1 however1 a considerable time from the introduction of painting on enamels before any good specimens of the art were executed4 ,among the earliest specimens of ,cloisonn enamels was the golden altar given to the cathedral of ,sta4 ,sophia at ,constantinople by ,justinian4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4--;,altar ,tray and ,chalice1 ,cloisonn ,enamel2 ,sixth ,century 7874 ,this altar was dismantled and divided amongst the ,crusaders at the taking of ,constantinople in #abjd4 ,the next important works in date are the gold altar of ,ambrose at ,milan1 made by ,volvinius in #hbe2 the votive crown of ,st4 ,mark1 ,venice1 #hhf-iaa2 the ,limburg reliquary made for ,basil ,,ii4 7the ,macedonian71 #igf2 and the famous altar1 the ,pala d',oro1 in ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice1 #igf-aaje1 made at ,constantinople1 and brought from there to ,venice by order of the ,doge ,ordelafo ,faliero4 ,this altar had precious stones added to it and was enlarged in #abji and in #acde4 ,if the crown of ,charlemagne 7,fig4 #if7 was used at his coronation it would make the date of the four enamelled gold plates with the figures of ,solomon1 ,david1 and ,our ,lord between two seraphim and ,esaias and ,hezekiah1 anterior to the year ,a4,d4 #hjj1 when he was crowned4 ,these enamels are enclosed in filigree bands and sunk into the metal in the ,greek manner4 ,the sword of ,charlemagne1 made in the ninth century1 has the golden scabbard inlaid with filagree ,cloisonn enamels4 ,both the sword and crown are in the ,imperial treasury at ,vienna4 ,the gold altar tray and chalice 7,fig4 #id7 were found near ,gourdon1 in the ,department of the ,haute-,sane4 ,the altar tray has a cross in the centre1 and lozenge and trefoil ornaments of ,cloisonn garnet-coloured enamels4 ,greek coins of the sixth century were found with it4 ,the ,byzantine reliquary 7,fig4 #ie7 is another example of ,cloisonn work4 ,at ,cologne1 in the cathedral1 is the shrine of the ,magi that contains the skulls of the 8,three ,kings40 ,this is a magnificent reliquary made by the order of the ,archbishop ,philip von ,heinsberg in two storeys1 both of which have a series of arcades with figures in each4 ,it is also an example of enamelled work in which the ,cloisonn and ,champlev processes may be seen4 ,the first authentic or dated specimens of ,champlev enamels belong to the twelfth century1 though some specimens are likely of an earlier date4 ,some crosses and other works of the dates #ajda-ajed show a mixture of the two embedded varieties of enamels4 ,it is probable that the ,rhenish ,provinces of ,germany were the first places where ,champlev enamels were extensively made2 but almost simultaneously in the twelfth century there arose an active centre of work in this method in ,limoges1 the future great seat of the enamel industry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie--;,byzantine ,reliquary1 ,cloisonn ,enamel2 ,tenth ,century4 ,the ,german variety may be distinguished from the ,french by the greater number of colours employed3 there is a difficulty in deciding which of the two is the earlier4 ,the ,abb ,suger1 when building the ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis1 brought enamellers from ,loraine1 near the ,rhine1 to make an enamelled cross1 which they completed between #aadc and #aadg4 ,a portable altar1 and a cruciform reliquary with a dome1 in the treasury at ,hanover1 are early examples of the ,german school4 ,one of these portable altars in enamel1 of the ,german school1 thirteenth century1 is shown at ,fig4 #ih4 ,the earliest ,champlev enamel of the ,limoges school is that of the monument to ,geoffrey ,plantagenet1 who died in #aaea4 ,it is now in the ,museum of ,le ,mans 7,fig4 #ig74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,crown of ,charlemagne4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4--;,champlev ,enamel of ,geoffrey ,plantagenet4 ,at ,limoges towards the end of the twelfth century ,champlev enamels were made in great numbers4 ,two specimens of this date are in the ,cluny ,museum in ,paris3 one has the subject of the adoration of the ,magi1 and the other ,st4 ,stephen with ,st4 ,nicholas1 both having ,limousin legends4 ,in the same museum are ,champlev enamels as book-covers of the ,gospels1 croziers1 plaques1 and 8gemellions40 ,the latter is the name given to certain hand-basins used for religious purposes4 ,in the ,louvre is an example of ,champlev enamel--a ciborium of the fourteenth century4 ,this is a vessel in which the ,host is kept4 ,another vessel used for similar purposes is the pyx4 ,both are small round boxes in which the sacred wafers were kept1 and were used for carrying the sacrament to the sick4 ,ciboria were also in the forms of doves or little towers suspended over the altar4 ,they were kept in little cupboards on either side of the altar1 and at later periods the name 8ciborium0 was applied to the tabernacles having architectural pretensions erected over the altar1 and which had a canopy or curtain used as a covering4 ,these tabernacles became shrines of great size and beauty in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 and were carved in wood as that in ,nuremberg by ,adam ,kraft1 or were stone erections of great dimensions with sculptured figures as decorations1 the doors of which were often made in gold and enamelled4 ,fig4 #dbc 7previous volume7 is an example of a fifteenth-century tabernacle with a gilt metal door4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,portable ,altar2 ,german1 ,thirteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,when ,justinian rebuilt ,sta4 ,sophia he placed in it a ciborium or tabernacle of great splendour4 ,ciboria are now changed into what are known as baldacchinos4 ,in the ,kensington and ,british ,museums are many examples of ,champlev enamels1 both ,german and ,limoges1 such as book-covers1 croziers1 pricket candlesticks1 chsses1 chefs1 reliquaries1 paxes1 crosses1 and nuptial caskets1 c4 ,most of them have blue grounds1 with light bluish-grey and dark blue or green ornaments1 and are usually enamelled on copper4 ,some of the reliquaries or chsses have gilt figures in high relief4 ,from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries is the date of these enamels4 ,in the latter end of the thirteenth and in the fourteenth centuries enamels became simplified in execution2 the figures were mostly incised and gilt1 and the background a level coating of enamel--generally of a blue colour4 7,fig4 #ajj47 ,fig4 #ii is a ,limoges enamelled chsse or shrine of the twelfth century1 and is in the ,british ,museum4 ,the ,italians did not make ,champlev enamels2 but they worked in the ,cloisonn process from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries1 as we know from examples1 and from the work1 8,diversarum ,artium ,schedula10 written by the learned monk ,theophilus1 in the twelfth century1 wherein he describes very minutely the whole process of making ,cloisonn enamels1 according to the methods of the ,tuscan enamellers of his time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4--;,chsse in ,champlev ,enamel2 ,twelfth ,century4 7,b4,m47 ,as regards the antiquity of the art of enamelling on metal1 it is generally agreed by learned authorities in the matter that before the art was known at ,constantinople or in the workshops of ,greece1 it was practised by the 8barbarians0 of ,western ,europe in the ,gallo-,roman period4 ,we apologize for quoting here the oft-repeated passage from ,philostratus1 the ,greek who established himself at ,rome in the early part of the third century at the request of the ,empress ,julia1 wife of ,septimus ,severus4 ,in his 8,treatise upon ,images0 he says3 8,it is said that the barbarians living near the ocean pour colours upon heated brass1 so that these adhere and become like stone1 and preserve the design represented40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--;,champlev ,enamel2 ,french1 ,fourteenth ,century4 ,this passage proves at any rate in ,greece and in ,italy enamelling on metal was an unknown art in the third century1 the time in which this ,greek writer lived1 and sufficient examples exactly answering his description have been found in ,gaul and in ,britain1 in ,roman burial-places and in caves1 all bearing evidences of belonging to this period4 ,the ,celtic objects in vitreous enamel are on bronze or copper1 and prove that enamelling was an art carried on in the ,roman ,provinces of ,gaul and ,britain1 which was unknown in ,italy at that time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--;,enamelled ,vase1 found in ,essex in #ahcd1 since partially destroyed by fire4 ,diameter1 #d inches4 ,the beautiful vessel at ,fig4 #aja1 found in a ,roman sepulchre in the ,bartlow ,hills1 in ,essex1 is a fine example of this early enamel4 ,other existing specimens of the ,gallo-,roman period are in the ,museum at ,poitiers1 in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 and in the ,museums of ,london4 ,from the ,gallo-,roman period until the eleventh century most of the arts were at a low ebb1 owing to the devastating wars and invasions that spread all over ,europe2 the art of enamelling had been almost lost1 and had quite died out in ,france and ,germany1 but is likely to have still been practised in ,ireland1 where no doubt the art of the goldsmith and the enameller in conjunction had flourished less disturbed than in ,france or ,england4 ,we have existing remains of pure ,irish ,celtic work that date from the ninth and probably earlier centuries1 and are of unsurpassed workmanship4 ,chalices1 books of the ,gospels1 croziers1 reliquaries1 brooches1 jewellery1 c41 more or less enamelled1 were made in the ninth century1 and some earlier4 ,ireland had a school of living art when in the ninth and tenth centuries the rest of ,christendom was sitting wrapped in chaotic gloominess1 idly awaiting the supposed end of the world1 in ,a4,d4 #ajjj4 ,as regards our present subject1 we must notice as coming under the head of enamels that beautiful ,irish relic known as the ,ardagh ,chalice4 7,fig4 #ajb47 ,the body of the cup is silver with about one-third or one-fourth of copper alloy4 ,it is a wonderful mixture of metals1 there being gold1 silver1 copper1 bronze1 brass1 and lead2 and an iron bolt secures the stem and bowl together4 ,the ornaments are belts1 and the handles1 to which are fastened the beautifully designed and worked interlacings of ,celtic ornament1 of which each little panel is different2 it is said that forty distinct varieties in the designs can be traced1 consisting of interlaced bands of ,celtic twistings1 knots1 and arabesques3 each compartment of the principal belt of ornament is divided by a boss1 or enamelled bead1 of which there are twelve4 ,the handles are composed of enamels and filigree work similar to the work of the belt1 but different in design1 with blue glass or paste bosses4 ,the two larger circular ornaments on the sides are composed of gold filigree with a central enamelled boss4 ,the four settings of these ornaments had two pieces of blue glass paste and two pieces of amber1 which have fallen out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--,the ,ardagh ,chalice2 ,irish ,celtic ,work4 ,height1 #g inches4 ,the stem is composed of bronze metal gilt1 and is richly chased with interlaced ornaments4 ,the circular foot is ornamented with gold and bronze plaques alternating on the outer rim2 the bronze divisions are enamelled4 ,the inside1 or under the foot of the cup1 is divided into a series of circular divisions around a central crystal1 composed of amber and bronze1 gold filigree1 amber1 bronze1 and translucent green enamels respectively4 ,in some of the enamels were embedded small portions or grains of gold while the enamel was in fusion4 ,there is a chiselled inscription on the plain surface of the bowl consisting of the names of the ,apostles4 ,the workmanship of this exquisite chalice is infinitely superior to the ,byzantine work of the same period4 ,a detailed and exhaustive description of this chalice is given in ,miss ,stokes's 8,early ,christian ,art in ,ireland10 from which our illustration is taken4 ,going back to the ninth century1 we have the ring of ,king ,ethelwulf1 bearing his name1 which is of ,saxon workmanship4 ,it was found in ,hampshire1 and is made of gold and blue-black enamel4 ,another ring1 that of ,alfred the ,great1 was found at ,athelney in ,somersetshire1 the place where ,alfred retired to in #hgh4 ,it is of gold1 wrought in filigree and chased4 ,the face is of rock crystal1 and the design is in filigree fastened to the gold plate and enamelled in the ,byzantine manner4 ,round the edge is the inscription 7translated71 8,alfred ordered me to be made40 ,enamelled disks1 fibul1 finger rings1 and other articles of personal adornment have been found in ,england of the ,anglo-,saxon period1 mostly having a bronze foundation for the enamel4 ,documents are preserved at ,oxford proving that ,limoges enamellers were brought over to ,england in the thirteenth century to execute effigies1 tombs1 and other work in enamels4 ,master ,john1 a native of ,limoges1 was employed to construct the tomb and recumbent figure of ,walter de ,merton1 ,bishop of ,rochester4 ,this work was destroyed at the period of the ,reformation4 ,there still exists1 however1 some of the ,limoges work of that date in the effigy of ,william de ,valence1 who died in #aabi4 ,this tomb is in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,the enamels known as maux de plique jour1 are a kind of ,cloisonn work in which there was no background1 the enamel being in variety transparent1 in imitation of precious stones1 and set between the ,cloisons or network of gold4 ,the beautiful specimen 7,fig4 #ajc7 is a cup with a cover1 and with architectural features2 it is now in ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,translucent enamels upon relief date from the period when ,art in ,italy was beginning to throw off the stiffness and angularity of ,byzantine traditions4 ,this was towards the end of the thirteenth century1 in the early dawn of the ,renaissance4 ,freedom in sculpture and painting brought with it a desire to treat enamels in the same freedom1 and so we find that engraving on silver and gold1 and placing carefully the various powdered enamels in their proper proportions over the engraved surfaces1 produced an entirely new and splendid effect2 besides1 it required more artistic skill to execute this kind of enamelling1 and consequently the best artists of the ,renaissance were not only goldsmiths1 painters1 sculptors1 and architects1 but executed important works in enamels as well4 ,the method was one that could be described as a link between the art of the painter and the goldsmith1 and no doubt the demand for enamelled altars1 and religious vessels of all kinds1 both sacred and secular1 in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 was the cause of producing many artists that subsequently rose to great eminence4 ,for instance1 among others may be mentioned ,francisco ,francia1 the celebrated painter who lived in the fifteenth century1 who was originally a goldsmith1 and as ,vasari says1 he excelled everybody of his time as an engraver on metals and as an enameller on silver4 ,there is a fine oil-painting by him in the ,national ,gallery of ,london1 on which he has signed himself as 8,francia the ,goldsmith40 ,many names of eminent ,italians artists might be given who executed works in enamel in the translucent process3 ,nicolas ,pisano and ,john his pupil1 who executed an altar for ,bishop ,gubertini of ,arezzo in translucent enamel on silver in #abhf4 ,agostino and ,agnolo were pupils of ,john1 and helped him at this altar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--;,cup of ,translucent ,enamel4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,forzore1 the son of ,spinello of ,arezzo1 is mentioned by ,vasari as a famous enameller4 ,pollaiuolo is another great name in the ,italian art of the goldsmith and enameller4 ,he was also a celebrated modeller and sculptor who had helped ,ghiberti in the ornamental work of his gates of the ,baptistery of ,st4 ,john4 ,he died in #adih4 ,many other celebrated names could be mentioned1 but the greatest of all1 both as a goldsmith and as an enameller1 was ,benvenuto ,cellini 7#aejj-aegj71 whose work is well known1 and who tells us himself1 in his 8,treatise on the ,goldsmith's ,art10 so much about the method of enamelling in his time4 ,the celebrated ewer1 called 8,the ,cellini ,ewer10 is a masterpiece of jeweller's work1 and is attributed to ,cellini4 ,the body of the ewer is composed of two oval slices of brown sardonyx1 carved with radiating ribs in relief4 ,these slices are fastened in an ornamental frame of gold1 richly worked4 ,a female figure sits on the top front curve of the body under the lip4 ,the neck1 lip1 stem with dragons1 and other parts of the framework1 are enamelled in the translucent method4 ,a book-cover in the ,kensington ,museum1 of very fine workmanship1 with several small figure compositions enamelled on gold1 is attributed to ,cellini4 ,works by him in jewellery1 vases1 salt-cellars1 c41 are preserved in various museums on the ,continent4 ,cellini spent five years in ,france1 ending the year #aedj1 where he executed some works for ,francis ,i41 notably the fine salt-cellar now at ,vienna4 ,the art of enamelling on reliefs was introduced to ,france by ,italian artists during the early years of the fourteenth century1 and about the same time to ,flanders4 ,we read of a manufactory of this kind of enamelling as having existed in #acag at ,montpellier1 the seat of the royal ,mint4 8,painted enamels10 as we have seen1 were suggested by the translucent enamels on relief4 ,painted enamels were first made at ,limoges1 and also brought to great perfection at the same place4 ,any painted enamels found in ,italy are ,limoges enamels or the work of ,limousin artists4 ,the fifteenth century was the period during which the painted enamels were brought to perfection4 ,in the earlier part of the century the enamel was applied directly to the plate of metal and united to it by fusion2 but later1 towards the middle of the century1 a ground of translucent enamel coating was laid on the metal1 over the engraved outline of the design1 and on this transparent flux the colours were applied4 ,the outlines of the design1 which appeared through the transparent coating1 were then covered over with a dark-coloured enamel2 the various parts1 such as draperies1 background1 and sky1 were then laid in with thick coatings of enamel2 the spaces left for the flesh tints were filled in with black or violet enamel2 and the modelling of the flesh was obtained by layers of white enamel in varying degrees of thickness1 leaving the darker violet parts for shade or shadows1 and thicker layers represented the highest lights4 ,thus1 all the flesh tints in enamels of this period are slightly brownish or violet in hue4 ,the other parts of the design were left without shadow1 or sometimes the highest points in the hair or draperies would have little fine touches of gold pencillings1 in order to bring out some kind of relief4 ,imitations of precious stones or jewellery on the dresses were brought out in translucent bits of enamel4 ,an entire change in the process is seen in the ,limoges painted enamels of the sixteenth century4 ,the plate of metal was covered with a layer of black or some very dark-coloured enamel1 and the design carefully outlined in white4 ,the whole work was then modelled up with white1 laid on in varying thicknesses1 so as to produce an effect of light and shade called grisaille 7grey71 the flesh tints being slightly higher in relief than the other parts1 and a flesh-coloured enamel being always employed4 ,fine touchings of white and gold were added to finish off the work4 ,to make a coloured enamel of the grisaille work it was only necessary to add a thin transparent coating of coloured enamel4 ,some splendid effects of a translucent character were obtained in the enamels of this period by the use of gold and silver leaf 7paillon7 fixed on the enamel ground behind the draperies and other accessories1 and sometimes on the backgrounds4 ,over this leaf of shining metal transparent enamels were painted4 ,armour1 imitation jewellery1 and other accessories were rendered by this means of a rich and dazzling brilliancy4 ,in the ,kensington ,collection many examples of this kind of enamelling may be seen4 ,one work amongst others is an oval plaque of the sixteenth-century ,limoges enamel1 which has a representation of a warrior on horseback1 and has portions of the armour in translucent enamel4 ,the horse is white1 and the groundwork dark4 ,it is one of the best works of the ,courtois family4 ,the enamel painters of ,limoges had many methods and secrets in the exercise of their art1 and1 as a rule1 kept them in their families4 ,generally speaking1 we find many enamellers of the same name and family1 and their works bear also a strong family likeness1 both in subject1 colour1 and methods4 ,the greatest name amongst these ,limoges artists is ,lonard ,limousin4 ,this surname was bestowed on him by ,francis ,i4 to distinguish him from ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,lonard ,limousin was the chief enameller to this monarch1 and worked at his art between the years of #aecb-gd4 ,lonard in his early works copied his subjects from engravings of the ,german school of artists1 but at a later period1 owing to the influence of the ,italian artists that were brought to the ,court of ,francis ,i41 he adopted the subjects of ,raphael and the ,italian masters4 ,he also improved at this period in his colour and drawing4 ,some of his best works are those that he painted in the year #aeec for the ,sainte-,chapelle by order of ,henry ,,ii41 which consist of two magnificent frames of pictures in enamel1 now in the ,louvre1 and which are acknowledged as his masterpieces4 ,he also excelled in portraits1 among which from his hand are those of the ,duke de ,guise1 the ,constable de ,montmorenci1 and that of ,catherine de' ,medici in her mourning robes1 taken after the death of ,henry ,,ii4 ,a full-length portrait of ,henry ,,ii4 is preserved in the ,louvre1 executed by ,lonard4 ,the monarch is represented in the character of ,st4 ,thomas1 and is painted on a white enamel ground1 as several other works by this artist are similarly executed4 ,this style of work looks1 however1 too much like majolica painting1 and was not persevered in to any great extent4 ,lonard was noted for some good original work1 both in oils and enamel2 but1 generally speaking1 the ,limoges enamellers were fond of copying subjects from ,german1 ,italian1 and ,french engravers1 who engraved many works after the great painters of these countries4 ,the ,german engravers were known under the name of the 8,petits-,matres10 many of whom were pupils or imitators of ,albert ,drer4 ,some of the more important were ,heinrich ,aldegrever1 ,hans ,sebald ,behan1 ,virgilis ,solis1 ,theodore de ,bry1 ,jean ,collaert1 ,albrecht ,altdorfen1 and ,georg ,pens4 ,two celebrated ,french engravers who supplied many designs for the ,limoges enamellers were tienne de ,laulne1 known also as ,stephanus1 and ,pierre ,woeiriot1 the former a copper-plate and the latter a wood engraver4 ,the ,courtois and ,raymond enamels have many subjects from the designs of tienne de ,laulne4 ,another engraver1 ,marc ,antonio ,raimondi1 of the ,italian school 7#aejj-aedj71 supplied copies of the works of ,raphael to the ,limousin enamellers1 and also to the ,italian majolica painters4 ,this engraver was the most celebrated of his time4 ,he was a pupil at first of 8,francia the ,goldsmith10 learnt much from ,albert ,drer and ,lucas van ,leyden1 and was the engraver of many of the works of ,raphael1 which he executed in what is known as his ,roman method4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is the enamel of the twelve ,sibyls of ,lonard ,limousin1 painted about #aeej4 ,another well-known name is that of ,pierre ,raymond4 ,he painted chiefly in grisaille1 or in camaeu1 and not often in colour4 ,his works date from #aecd to #aegb 7,figs4 #ajd and #aje74 ,the ,pnicaud family 7circa #aedj7 consists of four enamel painters of this name--,jean ,pnicaud1 the elder1 ,jean ,pnicaud1 junior1 ,pierre ,pnicaud1 and ,n4 ,pnicaud4 ,the elder ,pnicaud was a good draughtsman1 and often employed 8paillon0 to get the rich colouring in which he excelled4 ,he executed portraits of ,luther and ,erasmus1 which are signed with his initials4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--,portion of a ,salt-cellar1 by ,pierre ,raymond4 ,the ,courtois or ,courteys family was another celebrated family of painters on enamel4 ,pierre ,courtois was the eldest 7circa #aeej74 ,he painted some of the largest enamels ever executed4 ,these were large oval panels measuring #ff inches in height by #dj inches in width1 on which were painted the subjects of the cardinal virtues and heathen divinities1 and which formerly decorated the faade of the ,chteau de ,madrid1 built by ,francis ,i4 and ,henry ,,ii4 ,they are signed and dated #aeei4 ,in his larger works ,pierre ,courtois does not show himself so good in his draughtsmanship as in his smaller enamels4 ,jean ,courtois 7circa #aefj7 was a prolific enameller4 ,his work is characterized by a profusion of arabesque ornament of the period of ,henry ,,ii4 ,his flesh tints and other parts of his compositions are generally highly coloured1 the flesh having a salmon-coloured tint4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4--,vase2 ,painted ,enamel1 by ,pierre ,raymond4 ,another member of this family signs his work ,i4 ,d4 ,c4 ,his principal figures are usually hammered out in relief1 and his work is of a high finish4 ,jean ,court 7circa #aeee7 was also known under his other surname of 8,vigier40 ,he was formerly confounded with ,jean ,courtois1 but his work is different from the latter's4 ,his drawing is better1 and his colouring not so strong but more natural than that of ,jean ,courtois4 ,suzaune ,court1 as she signed herself1 was an enameller of the school of ,jean ,courtois4 ,martial ,raymond 7circa #aeij7 was an artist of considerable power1 and a goldsmith1 who worked at the end of the sixteenth century4 ,his work is usually heightened with gold1 and he used 8paillon0 very much4 ,jean ,limousin 7circa #afbe71 and ,franois ,limousin 7#afcc71 were enamellers who carried out the traditions of the ,limoges school in a worthy manner during the early part of the seventeenth century4 ,the former passes for the son of ,lonard ,limousin1 and was supposed1 from the fleur-de-lis that always appears between his initials on his works1 to have been the director of the royal manufactory at ,limoges1 as his predecessor ,lonard was in the reign of ,francis ,i4 ,jean ,limousin executed some beautiful enamels1 in which the translucent birds1 arabesques1 and small figures were treated with rare delicacy4 ,in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 7#afdc-agae7 ,jaques ,nouailher introduced a new kind of enamel1 which consisted of modelling in relief on copper with a white enamel paste1 and afterwards covering it with a transparent coloured enamel4 ,pierre ,nouailher was another enameller of this family who was noted for his correctness of drawing4 ,the school of ,limoges of this date exhibits a greater correctness of drawing1 accompanied with a marked diminution of good colouring2 the enamels of the seventeenth century show a decline of that splendour of colouring which characterized the former century4 ,this was owing to the abandonment of the silver and gold 8paillon0 backgrounds1 and to the exclusive use of the brush alone in the enamels of this period4 ,the process of painting with a preparation of opaque enamel colours on a gold ground direct1 without previously using the heretofore black ground for the purposes of getting the shadows1 is ascribed to ,toutin 7#afcb74 ,this was the first step to the decadence of enamelling1 as the system of ,toutin was restricted to the production of portraits in miniature1 and in course of time nothing else was done but miniatures4 ,many artists in the period of this decadence executed good work1 amongst which may be mentioned the names of ,gribelin1 a fellow-worker with ,toutin1 ,dubi1 ,morlire of ,orleans1 and ,vacquer of ,blois4 ,the latter were pupils of ,toutin4 ,chartier1 ,petitot1 and ,bordier were three other noted miniature painters on enamel4 ,the latter two worked in conjunction1 and lived for some years in ,england1 until the death of ,charles ,i41 when they returned to the ,court of ,louis ,,xiv41 and there painted the portraits in miniature of the principal people of the time4 ,the art of enamelling was carried on in ,spain1 in ,italy1 and in some parts of ,germany during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 but not to the same extent as in ,france4 ,such articles as crosses1 crucifixes1 rosaries1 pendants1 ewers1 medallions1 perfume bottles1 rings1 badges1 small panels with figure subjects1 and numerous small objects1 particularly in jewellery1 were made in enamels in these centuries throughout ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--;,battersea ,enamel4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,in the seventeenth century1 in ,england1 a good deal of enamelling was done at ,battersea1 and at ,bilston in ,staffordshire4 ,a kind of coarse enamel was made in ,england at that time on cast iron and on brass4 ,the cavities were cast to receive the enamel4 ,there are some candlesticks and fire-dogs in existence that are made in this way4 ,stephen ,t4 ,janssen had his enamel works at ,york ,house1 ,battersea1 in the years #agej-e4 ,after this time the ,english practice of enamel-making died out4 ,kensington and the ,british ,museums contain many specimens of ,battersea enamel 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,snuff and tobacco boxes1 scent-bottles1 candlesticks1 small dishes1 crests1 labels of wine-bottles1 and miniatures are the principal articles of ,battersea enamel4 ,the decorations are chiefly small flowers and ornament on light-coloured or white grounds enclosing pastoral subjects4 ,some have prints of calendars1 and other black and white subjects1 printed by transferring4 ,in the ,british ,museum there are two large oval medallions with the portraits of ,george ,,iii4 and ,queen ,charlotte1 painted by the ,english enameller ,w4 ,h4 ,craft4 ,,enamels ,,of ,,the ,,countries ,,of ,,the ,,east4 ,china1 ,india1 and ,persia have been famed from early times for their exquisite productions in enamels4 ,japan also has made1 and continues to make1 enamels of great beauty4 ,the older or ,cloisonn method is mostly in favour with the natives of the ,east1 and very little ,champlev work is executed4 ,although enamelling is an old art in ,china1 yet ,chinese enamels are rare that have been executed before the fifteenth century4 ,in the ,ming dynasty1 under the ,emperor ,king-tai 7#adej-g71 enamel working was in its highest state of excellence4 ,the designs on the enamelled vases are pretty much the same as on all their other works1 such as textiles1 embroideries1 and porcelain4 ,in fact1 a ,chinese enamelled vase is as a rule very similar in shape1 colour1 and decoration to a porcelain one of the same country1 and sometimes the likeness is so great as to demand a close inspection to determine which is enamel and which porcelain4 ,the ,chinese used as a rule light colours in their enamel grounds3 light turquoise blue1 light olive green1 or a bright yellow ground2 the latter colour was mostly used in the painted enamels of the ,thsing dynasty1 yellow being the national colour of this dynasty4 ,the general type of the design is made up of such things as a very crooked tree or branch1 decorated with large clusters of flowers and foliage1 slightly conventional in drawing2 sometimes with birds and butterflies1 or with dragons2 some vases have one large dragon occupying the greater part of the field4 ,the colouring is generally very bright1 the ground light and brilliant2 the flowers may be red1 deep blue1 pansy-violet1 golden yellow1 or white4 ,the foliage is usually of a crude emerald green type4 ,borders of conventional cloud forms or other geometric forms surround the panels1 or form belts to the fields of the ornamental compositions4 ,religious vases1 altar furniture1 perfume-burners1 candlesticks1 lamps1 screens1 and table-tops are some of the articles in ,chinese enamels made invariably in the ,cloisonn manner4 ,the ,chinese also make a species of enamel that has no metal foundation1 which consists of a cloisonnage of network in which the enamel is skilfully fused between the divisions1 and is of a semi-translucent character4 ,japanese enamels are more modern than the ,chinese1 old pieces of ,japanese being extremely rare4 ,the enamels of ,japan are darker in the ground colour than the ,chinese1 being generally of a dark olive green1 or of a warm neutral grey tint4 ,some very large vases1 braziers1 and large dishes are made by the ,japanese4 ,these wonderful people are extremely clever in the use of the enamellers' lamp and the blowpipe1 for the purpose of fusing the enamel in sections1 as the large pieces they made could not possibly be fired entire4 ,the ,chinese excel in the painting of enamels1 but the ,japanese do not seem to cultivate this art to any great extent4 ,indian enamels are characterized by their extreme brilliance and splendour of colouring1 in which qualities they excel the enamels of all other countries4 ,the native enamellers work in the translucent1 ,cloisonn1 and ,champlev processes1 and the methods and secrets of their craft are kept in their families4 ,greens of the peacock and emerald hues1 coral and ruby reds1 torquoise and sapphire blues are the favourite ,indian enamel colours4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--,necklace2 ,punjaub4 7,b47 ,the celebrated ,jaipur enamels are of the ,champlev kind4 ,in ,cashmere and in the ,punjaub jewellery is made of gemmed gold and enamels 7,fig #ajg74 ,the ,queen and the ,prince of ,wales possess many articles that are masterpieces of ,indian enamelling4 ,the ,haka stand lent by the ,queen to the ,indian ,museum is a splendid specimen of translucent painted enamel in green and blue1 of the ,mongol period 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--;,enamelled ,haka ,stand2 ,mongol ,period4 7,b47 ,a large plate of ,jaipur enamel1 said to be the largest ever made1 was presented to the ,prince of ,wales4 ,a unique and beautiful specimen of the same kind of enamel is the ,kalamdan1 or pen-and-ink stand in the shape of an ,indian gondola 7,fig4 #aji74 ,the stern is formed of a peacock's head and body1 the tail of which decorates in brilliant enamels the underneath part of the boat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4--;,enamelled ,pen-and-,ink ,stand2 ,jaipur4 7,b47 ,the canopy of the ink receptacle has green1 blue1 coral1 and ruby enamels laid on a gold foundation4 ,the vase1 or ,sarai 7,fig4 #aaj7 in possession of ,lady ,wyatt is a fine example of ,cashmere enamel1 on which the shawl pattern may be seen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--;,enamelled ,sarai2 ,punjaub4 7,b47 ,a kind of enamel is made at ,pertabghar in ,rajputana1 which consists in covering a plate of burnished gold with a rich green enamel1 and placing on the surface while it is hot thin plates of gold ornaments1 which are fastened to the enamel by heat2 afterwards these gold plates are engraved elaborately with incised lines1 so as to bring out the design4 ,sometimes the enamel itself is engraved1 and an easily fused gold amalgam is rubbed into the incised lines1 and fused to form the decoration4 ,persian enamels are applied mostly to the heads of 8,kalians10 or tobacco water-pipes1 jewellery1 and coffee-cup holders4 ,the foundations are gold or copper4 ,a large tray enamelled on copper on both sides is in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,it is decorated with flowers of various colours on a white ground1 and has an ,armenian inscription with the date ,a4,d4 #aggf1 and comes from ,ispahan4 ,in most ,persian enamels the grounds are usually of a white or light tint1 with brightly coloured flowers as decoration4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,ivory ,,carvings4 ,in the former part of this work we have noticed the ivory carvings of the ancient world1 and it is proposed in the following pages to give an outline of ivory carvings of the ,middle ,ages and of the comparatively modern periods4 ,one of the oldest and most important works in ivory carving of the sixth century is the celebrated ,chair of ,st4 ,maximinian1 now preserved in the metropolitan church of ,ravenna4 ,it is entirely overlaid with plates of ivory1 and has five upright panels in the front and below the seat which are carved with figure subjects4 ,the legs and back are overlaid with ivory plates1 carved with animals1 foliage1 and figures1 and on the rail in front of the seat is carved the ,archbishop's monogram4 ,it is altogether a very fine and rich piece of ,romanesque work4 ,very important works in ivory were executed in the time of the ,roman ,empire1 in the nature of 8,consulare0 diptychs and triptychs4 ,these ,consular diptychs were originally made of wood or ivory1 and were hinged tablets that folded over each other1 the outside surfaces being carved elaborately1 with a portrait or figure of the ,consul or chief magistrate of the province in the centre1 the inside surfaces being used for writing purposes4 ,these consulares were also called 8pugillares0 from being portable objects that could be carried conveniently in the hand or fist4 ,they were usually made as presents to be given to important people of distant provinces1 or to very intimate friends of the ,consuls4 ,after the adoption of the ,christian religion by the ,roman ,empire it was the custom of the ,consuls to send these consulares in the form of a diptych or triptych1 as a present to the bishop of a church in his province1 to show his patronage and goodwill1 and they were usually placed on the altar of the church1 in order that the congregation should see them and remember the giver in their prayers4 ,this custom led to the making of the diptychs 7two-leaved7 and the triptychs 7three-leaved71 for the purpose of the altar decorations1 and usually on the plain inner leaves were inscribed the names of the newly baptized 7neophytes7 ,christians1 benefactors to the church1 dignitaries of the same1 and ,christian martyrs4 ,the use of these led to the later magnificent painted and carved altars of the triptych order in ,christian churches4 ,during the persecution by the iconoclastic ,emperors of the ,eastern ,empire a great number of these triptychs were made in wood and in ivory of ,greek workmanship1 carved or painted on the interior faces with representations of saints and sacred personages4 ,these were used as portable altars1 and were carried about the person of those who used to pray before them in secret4 ,many of them were also of a good size1 and became later important objects that were placed above or near the 8prie-dieus0 in private rooms or chapels4 ,the smaller pugillares1 and larger ecclesiastical diptychs were used in later times to form the coverings of costly illuminated books1 and it is owing to this use of them that so many have been preserved to our day4 ,byzantine sculpture and ivory carvings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were invested with the same severe and solemn character that was the distinguishing feature of the ceiling and wall mosaics of the same period4 ,the figures were long and attenuated1 the draperies very stiff and angular and arranged in parallel folds1 which1 with the ,german phase of ,christian art1 developed later into a still more angular and rocky character4 ,in ,france1 on the other hand1 in the thirteenth century there arose a splendid and original school of sculpture1 entirely native1 whose richest efforts culminated in such masterly achievements as the figure sculpture of the cathedrals of ,rheims1 ,chartres1 and ,amiens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--;,coronation of the ,virgin2 ,ivory ,carving relieved with ,colours and ,gold2 ,thirteenth-,century ,french4 7,jacquemart47 ,small statuettes in ivory were made in great quantities in the ,middle ,ages1 and as an example of the ,french school of ivory carving of this period there is an exceedingly fine representation of the 8,coronation of the ,virgin0 7,fig4 #aaa7 in the ,louvre4 ,in this work the figure of ,christ has the dress and lineaments of ,philip ,,iii4 7the ,bold71 the son of ,st4 ,louis1 and that of the ,virgin is personified as ,mary1 his ,queen1 daughter of ,henry ,,iii4 7the ,debonnaire71 ,duke of ,lorraine and ,brabant4 ,this example dates from about #abgd1 and is certainly one of the most perfectly finished works of ,french sculpture of that time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4--;,image ,painter2 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,colour and rich decoration were seen very much on the sculpture of the ,middle ,ages1 for we find traces of it in the medival tombs1 effigies1 and all kinds of statuary4 ,some of the ancient diptychs had both ground and figures coloured and perhaps gilt4 ,coloured and gilded statues and reliefs were common in ,germany and ,france1 and are so to-day in those of the ,roman and ,greek ,christian churches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4--,leaf of a ,roman ,diptych4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the dresses of the figures are sem 7sown7 all over with fleurs-de-lis and very rich diapers in gold and silver1 on rich red1 blue1 and white grounds4 ,statuary painting was a profession in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #aab71 from a ,french fifteenth-century manuscript1 shows an image painter at work4 ,returning to the ivory plaques or diptychs1 the illustration at ,fig4 #aac is that of the most perfect and most beautiful specimen of antique ivory carving that we have any knowledge of4 ,it is now in the ,kensington ,museum1 and represents the figure of a young girl1 or ,bacchante1 with a younger girl attending her4 ,the figure has a well-designed arrangement of drapery hanging in graceful folds4 ,she stands at an altar1 and is in the act of making an offering4 ,a vigorously carved oak-tree with acorns and foliage occupies the left top of the panel1 and a border of a ,greek character surrounds it4 ,the corresponding half of this plaque is in the ,cluny ,museum in ,paris4 ,it was found at the bottom of a well at ,montier-en-,der1 and is much injured4 ,the latter half shows the figure of a female standing at an altar1 and holding in her hands inverted flaming torches4 ,these famous plaques1 which measure nearly #ab inches by #e1 are supposed to have formed the doors of a large shrine or chsse that was brought from ,rome in the days of ,childeric4 ,they are supposed to be ,roman work of the sixth or seventh century1 though some think the work is earlier3 they are undoubtedly executed by a ,greek artist4 ,there are many specimens of consular diptychs in the museums of ,london1 ,liverpool1 and the ,continent4 ,the earliest dates from about ,a4,d4 #bej1 and the latest about ,a4,d4 #edj4 ,the ,roman ,consuls continued for nearly one thousand years3 the last ,consul of ,constantinople was ,basilius 7,a4,d4 #eda71 and the last ,consul of ,rome was ,paulinus 7,a4,d4 #ecf74 ,there is a large plaque of ivory in the ,british ,museum which measures #af inches by nearly #f inches in width--the largest known--on which is carved the figure of an archangel holding in one hand a globe and in the other a long staff4 ,he stands on the top of a flight of steps under a round arch supported by ,corinthian pillars4 ,its date is uncertain1 but is probably of the seventh century2 it is grandly designed and of excellent workmanship 7,fig4 #aad74 ,a work of the same or slightly earlier period is the beautiful ivory vase 7,fig4 #aae71 which has well proportioned horizontal divisions and well-designed ornamentation4 ,the style of design suggests a copy from metal work4 ,triptychs1 as we have seen1 were used above and behind the altar tables1 and were at first portable1 so that they could be carried away after the service was ended2 but later they became the 8retables10 fixed altars1 or 8reredoses10 and were carved or painted1 or were partly executed in both ways4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4--;,ivory ,carving with ,archangel4 7,b4,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4--;,ivory ,vase2 ,roman1 ,seventh ,century4 7,b4,m47 ,many objects of secular art1 and articles that the wealthy could afford to use in every-day life1 were made in ivory during the ,middle ,ages1 such as book-covers1 toilet-combs1 mirror-cases1 chessmen1 horns1 hilts of knives1 swords1 and daggers1 caskets1 small coffers1 c41 in addition to the objects required for use in religious ceremonies1 as pyxes1 croziers1 crucifixes1 crosses1 and taus1 the latter being an early form of the pastoral staff4 ,the pastoral staffs of ivory are not very common1 and most examples known belong to the thirteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--,pastoral ,staff2 ,german1 ,thirteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the woodcut 7,fig4 #aaf7 of the pastoral staff shows the subject of the ,crucifixion on one side and the ,virgin and ,child with attendant angels on the other4 ,it is ,german work of the thirteenth century1 and is now in the ,cathedral of ,metz4 ,an older specimen of the pastoral staff1 which ,mr4 ,maskell thinks is ,english work1 is carved in bone with interlacing scrolls1 and has a grotesque and serpent forming the crook decorations 7,fig4 #aag74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4--,pastoral ,staff2 ,bone ,caning1 ,english2 ,twelfth ,century4 ,in the fourteenth century ivory carvings were in great demand1 judging from the great number of the various ivories of that date which have been preserved4 ,belonging to this period are the beautiful ivory hunting horns called 8oliphants0 7from elephant7 that were much used by kings and nobles in hunting1 and were sometimes mounted in gold4 ,the ivory carvings known as pierced or 8open-work0 are usually of very fine and delicate workmanship4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #aah7 shows two compartments of a larger plaque in the ,kensington ,museum1 the full size of the originals that have sacred figures under ,gothic canopies of fourteenth-century work4 ,it is not known exactly to what country they belong1 as ivory carvings as a rule are undated and unsigned1 but the woodcut 7,fig4 #aai7 represents an undoubted piece of ,english work4 ,it is one leaf of a diptych made for ,grandison1 ,bishop of ,exeter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4--;,ivory ,carving2 ,fourteenth ,century ,pierced ,work4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,few names of artists1 as ivory carvers1 have come down to us from the ,middle ,ages4 ,one named ,jean ,lebraellier was the carver to ,charles ,v4 of ,france2 ,jehan ,nicolle is another who has signed his name on an ivory pax in the ,british ,museum4 ,henry des ,grs was a 8pignier0 or carver of combs 7#acia74 ,hliot has dated work of #acib4 ,henry de ,senlis1 8tabletier10 plaque carver of #aded1 and ,philip ,daniel1 8pignier0 and 8tabletier0 7#adhd71 in ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4--;,ivory ,diptych2 ,english ,work2 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the top of a ,moorish casket from ,spain1 with ,saracenic engraved ornament of the eleventh century1 is shown at ,fig4 #abj1 and a beautiful casket from ,italy1 carved and engraved in bone1 is illustrated at ,fig4 #aba4 ,this is fourteenth-century work4 ,caskets and coffers made of slabs of bone1 carved and inlaid with figure subjects and armorial bearings1 were made extensively in ,italy at this period1 and used as marriage coffers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4--,lid of ,ivory ,cabinet2 ,spanish2 ,eleventh ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,combs and mirror cases were naturally objects that received much attention at the hands of the carver in ivory4 ,a beautiful comb in the ,british ,museum 7,fig4 #abb7 belongs to the eleventh century1 the central scroll-work of which is very rich and ornate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4--;,coffer in ,bone ,carving and ,engraved ,work2 ,italian2 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,ceremonial combs1 with finely carved ornamentation1 have been found in tombs of bishops1 and many are preserved in churches that date from the sixth to the fifteenth centuries4 ,the mirror case1 ,fig4 #abc1 is a beautiful example of fourteenth-century work4 ,it has the carved subject of the 8,siege of the ,castle of ,love0--a favourite subject for mirror case decoration--and four lions forming the corners to the circular ring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4--;,ivory ,comb2 ,eleventh ,century4 ,in reference to the ivory carver ,hliot1 mentioned above1 ,jacquemart quotes--when speaking of his work1 the oratory of carved ivory tablets in the ,cluny ,museum that belonged to the ,duchess of ,burgundy--,accounts of ,amiot ,arnant from #acib to #acic4 ,paid #ejj livres to ,berthelot ,hliot1 #8varlet de chambre' of the duke 7,philip the ,bold71 for two large ivory tablets with images1 one of which is the #8,passion of ,our ,lord1' and the other the #8,life of ,monsieur ,saint ,jean-,baptiste1' which he has sold for the ,carthusians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4--;,ivory ,mirror ,case4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,many celebrated artists have doubtless worked in ivory1 but there is nothing to prove this except the supposed hand-work of the artists4 ,michelangelo is credited with working in ivory2 ,cellini1 ,donatello1 ,agostino1 ,carracci1 and other famous names in ,italian art have been mentioned as ivory carvers2 and in the seventeenth century a celebrated ivory carver named ,cop1 but better known as ,fiamingo1 who was ,flemish by birth4 ,he made many basins1 ewers1 tankards1 and carved figures of children in bas-relief4 ,fiamingo worked and lived in ,rome at the end of the sixteenth and during the first ten years of the seventeenth centuries4 ,he died in #afaj4 ,his work1 like that of many other artists of this period1 was greatly influenced by the style of ,rubens1 and a strongly marked realism in the manner of treating allegorical subjects was the prevailing taste in painting and carving4 ,very fine tankards in ivory1 and basins1 were carved by ,fiamingo with bacchanalian scenes in a realistic manner4 ,the tankard from the ,jones ,collection 7,fig4 #abd7 is believed to be the work of ,fiamingo4 ,it is a ,flemish ivory mounted in silver-gilt work of good design4 ,the body of the tankard is spiritedly carved with the figures of a nymph and satyr dancing1 ,silenus1 and some children carrying grapes4 ,another ,flemish artist in ivory was ,francis von ,bossuit1 who spent a great part of his life in ,rome1 and whose figure carvings are of great value4 ,alessandro ,algardi was an ,italian artist of the seventeenth century1 who carved the ivory bas-relief of ,st4 ,leo going out to meet ,attila1 now in ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 and also a very fine bust of ,cosimo ,,ii4 de' ,medici4 ,one of the best ivory carvers that ever lived was ,franois ,duquesnoy1 known better as ,franois ,flamand 7#aeid-afdd72 he was a native of ,brussels1 and went to ,rome when a young man for the purpose of study4 ,he supported himself in his wanderjahr period by carving little figures in ivory and wood4 ,in the ,cluny ,museum and in the ,louvre some groups1 and bas-reliefs of females and children1 may be seen1 executed by ,flamand1 that are full of roundness and life1 boldly conceived and extremely graceful4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4--;,ivory ,tankard1 ,silver-gilt ,mounted2 ,flemish2 ,seventeenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,we have noticed how plentiful the ivory carvings were of the fourteenth century period2 but at the end of that century ivory sculpture fell in abeyance1 which lasted during almost the whole of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,this was due to the very great impulse given to wood carving by the ,french1 and even more so by the ,german wood sculptors4 ,large wooden altar-pieces1 or 8retables10 came into fashion1 and also minute wooden portraits and statuettes1 which for a long period superseded ivory carvings2 and in ,germany a good deal of carving was executed in 8,speckstein0 or ,soapstone1 a kind of drab-coloured lithographic stone that was not difficult to work4 ,albert ,drer and ,lucas ,cranach carved some very fine works in ,speckstein4 ,at the beginning of the seventeenth century ivory carving became again in great request4 ,the ,germans carried the arts of ivory and miniature wood carving1 as they did the larger style of wood carving1 to great perfection2 in fact to an astonishing degree of dexterity1 that would compare with ,chinese or ,japanese carving1 but lacking in the restrained artistic power of the latter nation's productions4 ,all kinds of astonishing creations are preserved in the museums of subjects such as little ivory carvings of skeletons in company with groups of female figures1 miniature hunchbacks1 and beggars with diamonds for buttons on their dresses4 ,leo ,pronner1 of ,nuremberg1 carved on a cherry-stone a hundred heads1 that required the aid of a magnifying glass to see the expressions1 and later ,simon ,troger1 of the same city1 produced many marvels in ivory figures with brown wood dresses and other accessories in wood4 ,many good ivories have been the work of ,spanish carvers1 and as a rule they are tinted or coloured4 ,nearly all the carvings in ivory that we have noticed have been statuettes1 reliefs1 or objects in which the human figure predominates4 ,as a matter of fact there are very few ivories of any artistic value in which the human figure is not the most important part of the composition1 purely ornamental work being very rare4 ,even in ,saracenic work1 where the figure and animal representations are not found1 the amount of carved ivory work is limited1 and the specimens are very scarce4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4--;,carved ,ivory ,panels of a ,pulpit ,door2 ,saracenic4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,in an ancient ,coptic church in ,cairo there is a massive partition or screen of ebony1 in which is a central door and two side panels4 ,this screen has a rich display of inlaid ivory carved with arabesques1 and has ivory crosses in high relief4 ,the screen is believed by ,mr4 ,butler--the author of 8,the ,ancient ,coptic ,churches of ,egypt0--to be a work of the tenth century1 and also to be the model on which the ivory carving of the mosques was founded4 ,the ivory carvings in ,saracenic work are usually found as carved or chased panels1 with arabesque designs1 and surrounded with geometric linear framing 7,fig4 #abe74 ,the best of this type of work was executed in the fourteenth century4 ,objects made of ivory alone are very rare in ,saracenic art4 ,the illustration given of an ivory ink-horn is unique in this material1 but ink-horns of the same shape are common that have been made in copper and brass4 ,figure and animal carvings of ,saracenic or ,moorish design have been made in ,spain1 and in some other countries under the rule of the ,saracens1 but are not found in the ,egyptian ,saracenic4 ,china has always been prolific in the production of ivory carvings4 ,there are numerous statuettes of ,confucius1 ,cheo-lao1 the god of old age1 of the ,buddhist female divinity ,kouan-in1 and of other divinities4 ,necklaces1 pierced plaques for waist-belt decoration1 and the su-chus or rosaries1 all are carved with a certain archaic quality and quaintness1 but of a minute and unsurpassed dexterity of workmanship4 ,the ,chinese ivory fans of pierced work are beautiful and as delicate as lace-work4 ,examples of these are very common4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4--;,ivory ,ink-,horn2 ,saracenic4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the pen-cases called pitongs are beautiful objects1 carved with dragons1 flowers1 and quaint figures in toy-like houses and gardens4 ,the 8puzzle balls0 are amongst the most wonderful of the ,chinese carvings in ivory1 where quite a number of loose balls of lessening sizes are contained within each other1 and are all carved out of a solid ball of ivory4 ,the outer surfaces of each ball are also carved with elaborate ornamentation4 ,the method of cutting out these balls consists in boring a number of holes at regulated distances on the surface to a measured depth of the thickness of each outer shell1 and then to cut around the circumference of each hole with a steel tool made with a bent end to suit the concentric curve of the sphere1 and turned until each shell is freed from its next smaller ball4 ,the ,chinese puzzle balls are not very perfect examples of accurate turning1 as the ornamentation conceals the rough workmanship in a great degree1 but still they are marvels of skill and patience4 ,the ,japanese carvings in ivory are better in an artistic sense than the ,chinese1 and exhibit the same surprising beauty of finish and minuteness of detail4 ,all kinds of little cases for pens1 jewels1 powders and perfumes2 little divinities1 small caskets and cabinets put together with plaques of slabs of carved ivory1 gilt and coloured with lacquers1 and also encrusted with lapis-lazuli1 mother-of-pearl1 and precious stones4 ,there is also the most wonderful little ivory figure and groups of animal carvings called netsukes4 ,these in many instances are works of the highest order4 ,many of them are meant as embodied jokes1 puns1 or satires4 ,some consist of groups of real or sham cripples1 beggars with monkeys on their backs1 wrestlers1 boxers1 all kinds of domestic scenes1 warriors on foot and on horseback2 other subjects full of dignity and grace1 and animal groups carved as no other people in the world can do4 ,these netsukes are used not only as ornaments that are treasured for their own sakes1 but also as dress-fasteners and as articles of personal adornment by the better classes in ,japan4 ,many other uses for ivory carvings are found by the ,japanese1 such as handles of swords and daggers1 and some of their beautiful lacquered panels have encrusted eagles and other birds beautifully carved1 and perched on the branches of trees1 the latter being made from mother-of-pearl1 and sometimes the flowers1 foliage1 and fruit of tinted ivory minutely chased4 ,india is famed for its extremely elaborate ivory carvings4 ,the elaborated richness of ,oriental ornament is seen in the ivory carvings of ,india more than in almost any other material except the goldsmiths' work2 but this may be more excused in such precious materials as ivory1 gold1 or hand-made laces1 where it is quite legitimate to give to the ornament that necessary character of elaborate detail which always adds to the preciousness of the material4 ,sometimes the carved ivory cabinets from ,india have ,biblical subjects in the panels1 which proves them to be works made to the order of the ,european missionaries1 by native artists4 ,the ivory jewel casket with gold mountings 7,fig4 #abg7 is thoroughly ,hindu in design and execution4 ,deified females with outstretched arms form a natural palanquin for the seated figure of an ,indian divinity2 other figures act as palanquin bearers1 and the intervening spaces are richly filled with characteristic foliage and fruit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4--;,ivory ,casket with ,gold ,clasp and ,hinge2 ,indian4 7,jacquemart47 ,ivory carving is so extensively carried on throughout ,india that it would be difficult to say in what part of the country it was not done4 ,in some districts ivory carving in certain articles is done to the exclusion of others4 ,bison horn is carved at ,ratnagiri4 ,tortoiseshell is plentifully used for carving in ,bombay4 ,the ,hindoos1 like the ,chinese1 carve fans in a wonderfully delicate manner4 ,ivory bracelets1 little elephants with all their trappings1 tigers1 oxen1 gondolas1 fully-rigged ships1 hunting scenes1 gods and goddesses1 c41 are all made in ivory throughout ,india4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,metal ,,work4 ,,gold1 ,,silver1 ,,bronze1 ,,pewter1 ,,and ,,iron4 ,the early ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,phnician1 and ,primitive ,grecian metal work has been noticed under the historic sketch of the art of these nations in the former volume4 ,we read in the ,bible of the great magnificence of ,solomon's ,temple1 especially in the extreme richness and wealth of the gold1 silver1 and brazen vessels1 utensils1 and architectural decorations1 in which the precious metals were used in the solid or plated manner on capitals1 pillars1 doors1 seats1 thrones1 and on the decorations of the ,ark2 but no remains of all this magnificence have survived the wrecks of time or the greed and spoliation of the conquerors of ,jerusalem4 ,the sculptured decorations of the ,arch of ,titus at ,rome afford us the only tangible testimony as to the kind or shapes of the tables1 vessels1 and seven-branched candlesticks which were carried off by the ,romans after the sacking of ,jerusalem1 ,a4,d4 #gc4 ,the workmanship and design of these objects were probably a mixture of ,egyptian and ,assyrian forms1 passing through the hands of the probable ,phnician artificers4 ,some of the earliest goldsmiths' work that possesses a real artistic value consists of personal ornaments1 such as wreaths1 earrings1 brooches1 and diadems of ,etruscan workmanship4 ,much of this work was made very thin1 in plates or scales joined together1 and was generally designed for funeral uses4 ,articles of personal adornment were very rich and beautifully made1 having the usual character of ,greek design 7,figs4 #abh1 #abi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4--;,gold ,brooch and ,earrings set with ,garnets2 ,etruscan4 7,j47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4--;,head of ,bacchus1 part of ,necklace2 ,etruscan ,jewellery4 7,j47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4--;,etruscan ,bronze ,vessel4 ,the ,etruscans were greatly skilled in the making of all kinds of gold1 silver1 and bronze vessels1 jewellery1 cups1 goblets1 and articles of domestic use 7,fig4 #acj74 ,a remarkable bronze of a monster or chimra was found at ,arezzo1 in ,italy1 in #aecd1 which no doubt was a representation of an ,etruscan deity 7,fig4 #aca74 ,the art of the ,etruscans was strongly imbued with a decided ,oriental character of mysteriousness4 ,we have noticed before the gold and other metal work of primitive ,greece that was found by ,dr4 ,schliemann at ,mycen and on the site of ancient ,troy4 ,most of this work was in beaten and inlaid metals1 but in later periods the arts of soldering grains and plates of gold1 and fine wire drawing for delicate filigree work were well known4 ,minute grains of gold that had the appearance of frosted work were in reality soldered to the plate4 ,statues were made in gold1 but more often were plated4 ,chryselephantine statues were common in the best days of ,greek art1 as those of ,athene and ,jupiter by ,phidias1 and the statue of ,bacchus in his temple at ,athens4 ,crsus made offerings of gold and silver vessels to the shrine of ,delphi1 and both he and ,darius had images of their wives made in gold by ,greek artists4 ,very few examples of ,greek goldsmiths' art have come down to us1 for owing to the valuable nature of the material1 nearly all such work has been1 in the course of time1 pillaged and melted down by the barbarians or conquerors1 and it is only in a few isolated cases such valuables have been preserved by being buried or hidden purposely in the earth1 and in late years have been brought to light4 ,we are1 therefore1 indebted to the ancient historians for most of our knowledge concerning the goldsmithery of ,greece and ,rome4 ,some very valuable finds have been brought to light1 such as that of the ,hildesheim treasures 7,fig4 #acb71 and the articles of bronze found at ,herculaneum and ,pompeii give a good idea of the richness and beauty of the metal work of ancient ,greece and ,rome4 ,the wine crater 7,fig4 #acb7 is exceptionally beautiful in its delicate lines of arabesque tracery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4--;,bronze ,chimra at ,florence4 ,there are some valuable examples in silver of the period of the late ,roman ,empire in the ,british ,museum1 which are the treasures of another 8find40 ,they consist of a bridal casket #bb by #ag inches1 and #aa inches in height2 another round bridal casket2 dishes on a low stand 7,scutell72 oblong-shaped dishes or trays 7lances72 horse trappings and ornaments 7,phaler72 seated figures representing ,rome1 ,constantinople1 ,alexandria1 and ,antioch2 various vases and vessels for holding perfumes and unguents4 ,this treasure was discovered in the vaults of a house in ,rome in #agic1 where it was supposed to have been hidden from the barbarians who invaded and captured ,rome in the sixth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4--,wine ,crater in ,silver2 from the ,hildesheim ,treasures4 ,antique ,roman4 ,the bridal caskets have the portraits of the bride and bridegroom in hammered or repouss work1 and mythological marine subjects4 ,the style and execution is in the usual coarse manner that characterized the work of the period of early ,christian ,art1 with some of the antique traditions still asserting their influence in the style of the design4 ,tripods1 candelabra1 vases1 bowls1 caskets1 spoons1 besides articles of personal adornment made in the precious metals1 have been found in the buried cities of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 and in other places in ,italy1 ,france1 and ,germany1 of antique ,roman design4 7,see ,fig4 #dag in the previous volume of this work47 ,the names of a few ,greek and ,roman goldsmiths occur in the writings of ,pausanias1 ,pliny1 and ,martial1 one of the earliest of which is named ,mentor1 who probably lived in a subsequent near period to ,phidias4 ,acragras and ,mys were the names of two others of a little later time4 ,stratonicus and ,tauriscus are two others who lived in the third century ,b4,c4 ,antipater is mentioned as the name of a goldsmith by ,pliny4 ,pytheas was a famous worker in gold and silver1 who engraved figure compositions1 and ,posidanius of ,ephesus excelled in hunting and racing subjects4 ,praxiteles was a silversmith who executed animal representations from the life1 and 8,alexander the coppersmith0 is mentioned in ,st4 ,paul's ,epistle to ,timothy4 ,the metal work of the ,byzantine period--from the fourth to the eleventh century--is characterized by a subservience of the design to the material employed2 in other words1 what was lacking in good drawing and modelling was replaced by splendour and magnificence in the general effect4 ,the use of gold with enamels was a great feature in ,byzantine art and throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,when the great ,church of ,santa ,sophia was rebuilt by ,justinian in the sixth century1 the best artists were employed to make the great altar screen1 and to decorate the sanctuary in resplendent works in gold1 silver1 and enamels4 ,the altar was made in marble plated with gold in which was set precious stones and crusted enamels4 ,it was supported by pillars thickly plated with gold4 ,the canopy or ciborium of the altar rested on four silver-gilt columns1 and this canopy was overlaid with plates of silver1 on which were figures wrought in niello work4 ,the canopy had an orb surmounted by a cross made of gold and inlaid with large precious stones4 ,the screen in front of the altar had its dado or lower part of gilt bronze1 and the pillars and architrave silver-plated4 ,it had also statues and panels of silver1 the latter being engraved with figures of saints in niello work4 ,the ambo or pulpit had a canopy of plated gold set with precious stones4 ,the sanctuary of ,santa ,sophia contained forty thousand pounds weight of silver1 and the altar vessels were made of gold set with stones of the greatest value4 ,the above description is given by ,mr4 ,j4 ,hungerford ,pollen1 in his handbook of 8,gold and ,silver10 to whom we are indebted for many of the illustrations and some interesting information on the subject of the precious metals4 ,it will be seen from this that ,justinian had established a great school of goldsmiths and enamellers at ,byzantium1 and when ,leo the ,iconoclast in the eighth century1 and ,theophilus in #hcb1 finally drove out the image-makers and many other goldsmiths from ,constantinople--checking in a great degree the art of the metal-worker in the ,eastern ,empire--they were received with great welcome in ,italy1 ,germany1 and ,france1 where they followed the practice of their art under more favourable auspices4 ,under ,basil the ,macedonian1 who died in #hhf1 the images were restored1 and a great encouragement given to all kinds of art2 and during the reign of ,constantine1 his grandson 7#iab-iei71 ,constantinople was again a great art centre from which ,italy and ,germany procured their chief artists4 ,the celebrated ,pala d',oro1 or ,altar of ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice1 and the bronze gates of ,san ,paolo1 near ,rome1 were made in ,constantinople4 ,the splendour and treasures of the imperial city remained intact until its capture by the ,french and ,venetians in #abjd1 when a general sacking of nearly all of its treasures took place4 ,the ,byzantine style of the scroll-work and acanthus was of the ,greek type1 and was admirably suited to show to advantage the rich quality of the precious metals1 and a modified character of this leafage appears in the ,romanesque metal work4 ,the vine-leaf1 grapes1 and twisting tendrils were first used in a symbolic sense in the ,byzantine style and subsequently in the ,romanesque4 ,the acanthus and the vine are treated very much alike in the conventional ornament of the latter style1 which is really a connecting-link between the ,early ,gothic foliage and the ,byzantine4 ,this may be seen in the illustration 7,fig4 #acc7 of a portion of the base of the great candlestick at ,milan1 a work of the twelfth century4 ,a celebrated 8find10 known as the 8treasure of ,petrossa10 was brought to light in #ahcg by some peasants who were digging on the banks of ,argish ,river1 a tributary of the ,danube4 ,it consists of vessels of pure gold1 vessels made of slices of garnet and other stones1 a torque or collar of gold1 a great dish1 and some brooches of a large size4 ,they have all been inlaid with precious stones1 and have simple but well-designed ornaments4 ,the workmanship is ,byzantine1 or it may have been done by ,gothic artists after ,byzantine models4 ,this treasure is now in the museum at ,bucharest4 ,the influence of the ,byzantine school of metal workers spread1 not only over the continent of ,europe1 but as far as ,england and ,ireland2 and many portable altars1 shrines1 and reliquaries were made to order in ,constantinople1 or given as presents to foreign churches4 ,during the seventh1 eighth1 and ninth centuries it was customary for kings and queens to present votive crowns to their churches3 these crowns were treasured with other precious articles1 and hung up in the sanctuaries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4--;,base of ,candlestick1 ,milan ,cathedral4 7,p47 ,there is still preserved in the ,cathedral at ,monza the ,iron ,crown of the ,lombard kings4 ,it was given to the cathedral by ,theodolinda the ,lombard ,queen in #faf4 ,the ,iron ,crown is so called from its having a thin band of iron encrusted in the inside1 said to have been made from a nail from the ,cross4 ,it is really a band or collar of gold1 studded with tallow-cut precious stones4 ,st4 ,eloi1 who rose from the rank of goldsmith to a bishop 7#ehh-fei7 made crowns and other articles for church uses for the ,church of ,st4 ,denis at ,paris4 ,the bronze-gilt chair of ,st4 ,dagobert 7,fig4 #acd7 is ascribed to him4 ,he founded the ,abbey of ,solignac1 near ,limoges1 where he established a school of working goldsmiths1 which supplied many important works for various churches in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4--;,chair of ,dagobert2 ,seventh ,century4 ,in the year #aheh at ,guarrazar1 near ,toledo1 in ,spain1 another valuable 8find0 was discovered1 consisting of no less than eleven votive crowns or diadems1 with other valuables1 all buried close to the surface of the ground4 ,the crowns are of pure gold1 and are set with precious stones1 such as sapphires and pearls4 ,the rest of the treasure consists of three crosses1 a large emerald stone1 and several fragments of gold plates with chains attached4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4--,votive ,crown of ,king ,suinthila2 ,seventh ,century4 ,the stones in these crowns1 like those in the ,charlemagne and ,lombard crowns1 and other jewellery of the ,middle ,ages1 were 8tallow-cut10 that is1 they were polished in the round or oval shapes1 without facets1 and were also known under the name of 8,cabochons40 ,on one of the crowns of the above treasure--which is now in the ,cluny ,museum--is the name of 8,beccesvinthus ,rex0 7,a4,d4 #fdi-fgb71 and another has the letters forming the name of ,king ,suinthila 7,a4,d4 #fba-fca7 7,fig4 #ace74 ,others of a smaller size were probably those of ,spanish queens4 ,the design and work of the articles forming this treasure are in a kind of ,romanesque-,gothic4 ,the crown of ,charlemagne has already been described under the head of enamels 7see ,fig4 #if74 ,the art of the goldsmith was fostered to a great degree under the rule of ,charlemagne4 ,this monarch's great friend and adviser1 the prelate ,alcuin 7#gce-hjd71 was the chief spirit of his times in founding monasteries1 which were1 apart from their religious character1 also great schools of art1 especially in metal working1 where all such articles as were required for church uses1 as well as shields1 swords1 and jewellery for the king and nobles1 were also made4 ,charlemagne was buried with most of his treasures about him1 but his enamelled sword and crown are the only objects which belonged to him that now remain1 both of which are at ,vienna4 ,gold1 silver1 and bronze were worked in by ,franks on the ,continent and by the ,saxons in ,england as early as the fifth and sixth centuries1 many examples of which1 consisting chiefly of articles of personal adornment1 are now in our museums4 ,that the goldsmith's art was practised in ,england in the days of ,alfred 7#hga-ijj7 we have evidence in the famous ring belonging to this king which is described on page #aba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4--,shrine of ,st4 ,patrick's ,bell4 7,s47 ,another gold ring belonging to ,ethelwulf1 of the early ninth or eighth century1 the enamelled vase or situla found in ,essex1 the golden altar of ,st4 ,ambrose at ,milan1 and the beautiful ,irish chalice found at ,ardagh have been described in the chapter on enamels1 all of which show evidence of the great skill of the ,european goldsmiths from the seventh to the tenth centuries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4--,the ,tara ,brooch4 7,s47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4--,tara ,brooch 7reverse74 7,s47 ,the tenth century was a barren one for ,art in ,europe1 except in some of the monasteries of ,france1 ,italy1 and in ,ireland4 ,in the latter country a great deal of good work was produced--in metals especially--in the ninth and tenth centuries4 ,the amount of personal ornaments1 such as torques or collars of gold1 bracelets1 brooches1 belt-clasps1 and croziers1 shrines for sacred bells1 and covers for the ,gospels1 that were wrought in gold1 silver1 or alloys must have been prodigious4 ,the astonishing delicacy and intricacy of the ,celtic ornamentation bear eloquent testimony to the great skill of the early ,irish artists4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4--;,irish 8,trumpet ,pattern40 ,the shrine of ,st4 ,patrick's bell1 or the bell of ,armagh1 is a splendid specimen of ,irish art 7,fig4 #acf74 ,it forms the cover of the ancient square-mouthed iron bell that formerly belonged to the patron saint of ,ireland1 and is plated with silver-gilt ornamentation and gold filigree work in both high and low relief4 ,the ornamentation is composed of twisted and interlacing scrolls and knot-work1 with some elongated animal forms in the composition4 ,it has crystals and coloured gems set in the angles and other places4 ,the large central stone is set in imbricated work4 ,there are five of these bells in ,ireland and two in ,scotland1 but none of them are so fine as the ,st4 ,patrick bell4 ,another beautiful example of ,irish metal work is the ,tara brooch 7,figs4 #acg and #ach74 ,it is made of white metal1 a hard bronze composed of tin and copper4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4--;,cumdach or ,case of ,molaise's ,gospels4 7,s47 ,the gold and silver ornamentation on this brooch and on the ,ardagh chalice are of the same style of design and workmanship1 which would point out that these two fine examples of ,irish art were made about the same date1 perhaps anterior to the tenth century4 ,the 8trumpet pattern10 which is not found on ,irish work after #ajej1 occurs on the reverse side of the ,tara brooch 7,fig4 #ach74 ,the ornamentation is of an extraordinary beauty1 both in variety of style and pattern and in the execution4 ,it is riveted or fastened with pins and held by means of slender bars to the foundation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4--,the ,crozier of ,clonmacnois4 7,s47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4--;,irish ,crozier of ,bronze1 ,edinburgh ,museum4 7,s47 ,the ,cumdachs or book-cases used as covers for the books of the ,gospels were also important works of the ,irish goldsmith's art4 ,the illustration of the book-case or shrine for the cover of ,molaise's ,gospels is a unique example 7,fig4 #adj74 ,this cumdach is made of plates of bronze1 and on this foundation is riveted plates of silver with gilt patterns4 ,in the panels may be seen rude and quaint figures or symbols of the four ,evangelists1 and in the centre is a cross in a circle4 ,it dates from the first quarter of the eleventh century1 and is one of the oldest of these ,irish book shrines4 ,crosses and croziers were also made of bronze1 with gold and silver inlays or relief ornamentation4 ,the ,cross of ,cong1 of the twelfth century1 now in the museum of the ,royal ,irish ,academy1 and the croziers of ,lismore 7end of eleventh century7 and that of ,clonmacnois 7,fig4 #ada7 are the most important examples of this kind of work1 the latter being a very rich example4 ,a simpler ,irish crozier in bronze 7,fig4 #adb7 is in the ,edinburgh ,museum4 ,,spanish ,,metal ,,work4 ,during the ,arab rule in ,spain metal work was an important branch of the ,moorish arts4 ,the ,arab rulers had in their train many accomplished ,eastern artists in metal work1 and such objects as caskets1 jewellery1 bracelets1 rings1 sword and dagger handles1 and scabbards4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4--,sword of ,boabdil1 ,madrid4 7,r47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4--,spanish ,monstrance1 #aecg4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the ,moorish caskets are often made of wood1 covered with silver or gold plates1 the ornamentation being similar to that of the ivory carvings4 ,the ,arab or ,saracenic metal work of ,spain is executed in repouss1 or is chiselled niello work1 filigree1 or enamelled1 and the ornament is usually mixed with the ,arab laudatory inscriptions4 ,the treasure found at ,guarrazar1 already noticed1 shows something of the early metal work of the ,spanish ,visigoths4 ,moorish arms1 such as sword sheaths and hilts1 are very artistic1 as may be seen in the illustration of the sword of ,boabdil 7,fig4 #adc71 the last of the ,moorish kings4 ,the hilt of this sword is made of solid gold1 and is enamelled in blue1 white1 and red4 ,the axle is made of ivory1 and is elaborately carved4 ,triptychs1 altars1 processional crosses1 and other church furniture were made in ,spain in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 of ,gothic design4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade--,spanish ,chalice4 7,r47 ,in the fifteenth century there was an astonishing quantity of silversmiths' work produced4 ,this was owing to the discovery of ,america and the consequent power and wealth of ,spain at this time4 ,the silver throne of the ,king ,don ,martin de ,aragon belongs to this period1 which still exists in the ,cathedral of ,barcelona4 ,it is covered with a chased ornamentation in the metal work1 and has rich embroidered work of gold and precious stones4 ,many silversmiths came from ,italy1 ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,france at this period and settled in ,spain owing to the great demand for their services4 ,riao gives the names of ,enrique de ,arphe1 ,jacome ,trezzo1 ,mateo ,aleman1 ,hans ,belta1 and others who were employed at this time1 besides many ,spanish goldsmiths4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4--,spanish ,pax4 7,r47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4--,spanish ,jewel2 ,seventeenth ,century4 7,r47 ,a special feature of church furniture of this period in ,spain was the ,monstrance1 or ,custodia1 an object of architectural design made in gold1 silver1 or bronze-gilt metals1 which has a central part--the lumule or viril--generally made of rock-crystal1 in which the sacrament was exposed2 sometimes a sun with rays is represented on the monstrance1 and usually it is surmounted by a cross in gold and set with jewels 7,fig4 #add74 ,the designs are in the ,renaissance and sometimes in the ,gothic style1 and they are often eight feet in height4 ,some of them are carried in procession on ,corpus ,christi ,days4 ,many works in gold and silver are in ,spain that have been made in ,mexico1 but of ,spanish design1 in which forms of ,american flora and fauna are worked into the designs4 ,a ,spanish chalice of ,gothic outlines with some ,renaissance details is shown at ,fig4 #ade4 ,a beautiful pax of ,renaissance design in the ,kensington ,museum is shown at ,fig4 #adf4 ,the pendant jewel of the seventeenth century shows the beginnings of the decadence in design 7,fig4 #adg71 and the silver dish 7,fig4 #adh71 though very rich in effect1 is a pronounced step in the direction of unrestrained space-covering that characterizes the design of the late seventeenth century in ,spain as well as in other ,european countries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4--,spanish ,silver ,dish2 ,seventeenth ,century4 7,r47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4--,moorish ,lamp1 ,bronze2 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,r47 ,bronze-casting was practised in ,spain by the ,moors as well as the ,spanish themselves4 ,the ,moorish hanging lamp 7,fig4 #adi7 is a beautiful specimen of bronze-working in pierced open-work4 ,it bears the date of the ,hegira1 #gje 7,a4,d4 #acje74 ,important works in bronze of the ,renaissance period1 such as candelabra1 monstrances1 c41 are still preserved in many of the churches4 ,from the earliest historic times ,spain has been celebrated for the excellent quality of its iron and steel arms and armour4 ,the ,romans patronised the ,spanish armourers extensively for their swords and other arms after the ,carthaginian ,war4 ,the best swords were made at ,bilbilis or ,calatayud in ,aragon1 and were short and wide1 with double edges--about #ae to #ai inches in length4 ,a sickle-shaped sword was also made #bb inches in length4 ,toledo blades were proverbial for their excellent tempering1 and were famous as early as the days of the ,romans4 ,seville was also noted for the excellence of its steel blades1 and the ,arabs1 as we have seen1 were highly skilled in metal working1 and especially in the making of all kinds of arms and armour1 including its ornamentation4 ,the celebrated sword of ,boabdil had a ,toledo blade1 and including the hilt was #ci inches in length4 ,the ,spanish warriors of the eleventh century had dresses1 arms1 and armour not unlike the ,normans1 as represented on the ,bayeux ,tapestry1 which were in imitation of or borrowed from the military habits of the ,saracens4 ,the sword manufactory at ,toledo was in its most flourishing state during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries2 it was re-established in the last century1 and is in existence at the present day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4--,spanish ,rapiers4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,two rapiers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are represented at ,fig4 #aej4 ,muskets1 crossbows1 saddles1 coats of mail1 knives1 scissors1 and many other objects in steel have been made in ,spain from the earliest periods1 and many ,spanish goods in manufactured steel even at the present day still preserve the ,moorish forms4 ,,metal ,,work ,,in ,,italy1 ,,germany1 ,,france1 ,,and ,,england4 ,in ,italy during the eleventh century an endeavour was made to revive the art of the goldsmith1 and many objects of ,byzantine workmanship were brought from ,constantinople1 and also many articles for church uses were made within the walls of the great ,benedictine monasteries throughout ,italy4 ,an important ,romanesque example of metal work of the time of the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4 7#ajjc-bd7 is now in the ,cluny ,museum4 ,it is a golden altar front 7,fig4 #aea7 that was given by this ,emperor to the cathedral of ,bsle1 and is nearly #f feet in width4 ,figures of the ,saviour1 three archangels1 and a figure of ,st4 ,benedict1 are in relief of beaten gold and stand each under ,romanesque arches4 ,in ,england we read of reliquaries being made in the eleventh century having images of gold1 the work of ,richard1 an abbot of ,st4 ,albans4 ,brithnodus1 an abbot of ,ely1 ,leo1 and ,elsinus are names of others who made reliquaries and objects in metal4 ,hildesheim in ,hanover was a centre of great activity in metal work in the eleventh century1 and in the ,cathedral of ,hildesheim there are candlesticks1 crucifixes1 and chalices of this period4 ,at this time in ,germany were made great coronas or crowns of light that sometimes spanned the nave of the churches1 like that made by ,bishop ,bernaward 7#iib-ajbb71 and his successor ,hezilo for the ,cathedral of ,hildesheim1 a cast of which is now in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,the twelfth century was very fertile in important works in gold1 silver1 bronze1 and copper4 ,metal work was carried to a high degree of elaborate finish and intricacy of design4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4--;,golden ,altar ,front2 from ,bsle4 ,cluny ,museum4 ,eleventh ,century4 ,some wonderful achievements in casting1 plating1 and gilding of metals have been performed during this prolific period4 ,the celebrated ,gloucester candlestick1 now in the ,kensington ,museum1 is a good example of the elaborate style of the twelfth-century metal work 7,fig4 #aeb74 ,this is one of the most elaborate and intricate examples of ornamentation that could well be seen in the metal work of any period4 ,nothing could exceed the fanciful ingenuity of its design3 it would1 perhaps1 have been better if some parts of the design had been left plainer1 as a foil for the others4 ,the material of its composition is a kind of white bronze1 with a good proportion of silver in the alloy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--;,gloucester ,candlestick2 ,twelfth ,century4 ,the churches of this century were1 as a rule1 furnished with large standing candlesticks or coronas for holding lights1 many of which were of good design1 were made of silver1 and sometimes enamelled4 ,the large seven-branched candlestick of the ,cathedral of ,milan--before mentioned--is an important work of this period1 a copy of which is in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,the material is gilt bronze1 and the candlestick is over #ad feet in height2 the design is extremely rich 7,fig4 #aec71 the base being composed of four winged dragons with voluted tails2 the spaces between the dragons are filled with elaborate scroll-work1 and symbolic subjects fill the volutes 7,fig4 #aed74 ,the lower boss is richly ornamented1 but the other five are plain4 ,three pairs of graceful branches spring from the central stem to hold the lights4 ,the whole design is a reminiscence of the ,jewish seven-branched candlestick4 ,one smaller in size is in the ,brunswick ,cathedral1 and another one is at ,essen4 ,censers1 reliquaries1 and shrines were made at this period in the shape of little churches 7,fig4 #aee74 ,the reliquaries contained the bones of saints or other precious relics4 ,sometimes they were made in the form of a human head1 with a band or ribbon around it set with gems4 ,this kind of reliquary was called a 8chef02 one of this description is in the ,cathedral at ,bsle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec--,seven-,branched ,candlestick in ,milan ,cathedral4 ,the bronze censer 7,fig4 #aef7 of the twelfth century is a good specimen of the architectural design in the ,romanesque metal work of this time4 ,the reliquaries are usually of copper-gilt and enamelled1 or are occasionally in gold4 ,these objects have been noticed in the chapter on enamels4 ,the larger coffer-shaped ones with sloping roofs are called chsses1 some of which are six and seven feet in length4 ,most of them are of copper-gilt and enamelled1 and are ,german work1 made for the most part at ,cologne and in the ,rhenish ,provinces1 and were generally of ,romanesque or ,gothic design even up to the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4--,lower ,boss of the ,milan ,candlestick2 ,twelfth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4--,shrine or ,reliquary1 ,copper ,gilt2 ,twelfth ,century4 ,the shrine of ,st4 ,sebaldus by ,peter ,vischer already mentioned is a curious mixture of ,gothic and ,italian forms4 ,the celebrated shrine or silver reliquary of the ,church of ,orvieto is made to represent the church itself2 it is said to weigh #fjj pounds1 and is enriched with panels of translucent enamel and small statuettes4 ,it is the finest work of the ,italian goldsmith's art of the fourteenth century1 and was made by ,ugolino 7#acch71 an artist of ,siena4 ,heads of the croziers and bishops' pastoral staffs were often designed in elaborate architectural compositions1 and generally speaking ,gothic ornamentation is enthralled by architectural forms even to the smallest details when the plan of the object to be decorated is architectural1 which happens in most cases2 when1 however1 the plan is not so1 the freedom and fancy of the designer revelled in the beauty of the curving1 twisting1 foliage1 and grotesque work1 as may be seen in the metal work of the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,the ,gloucester and ,milan candlesticks will afford examples of this4 ,in the twelfth century ,limoges was very active in the making of articles for secular purposes as well as for religious uses4 ,common jewellery of enamelled bronze was exported to all parts1 such as brooches or morses1 buckles1 armour decoration1 and monumental plates with effigies1 one of the latter being that of ,aylmer de ,valence in ,westminster ,abbey1 made at ,limoges and brought to ,england4 ,the monastic establishments were the schools and workshops of all the art produced in the ,middle ,ages1 and not only splendid examples of metal work1 but manuscript illuminations1 wood and stone carving1 and many other kinds of works were produced within their walls4 ,after the beginning of the thirteenth century the arts were passing into the hands of the laymen1 and artists were at the same time beginning to receive greater encouragement from the patronage of wealthy persons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4--;,censer2 ,twelfth ,century4 ,almost every kind of article was now made in gold1 silver1 and bronze1 such as cups1 jugs1 bowls1 standing cups1 mazer and wassail bowls1 articles for the table1 such as salt-cellars1 ewers1 basins1 and nefs1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--,mazer ,bowl2 #adej2 ,ironmongers' ,hall4 ,the ,nef was a kind of table ornament or sweetmeat dish in the form of a fully-rigged ship1 and was sometimes mounted on wheels3 the modern pergne corresponds to the nef4 ,a mazer bowl was so called because it was made usually of maple wood--masere being the old word for maple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--;,hour-glass ,salt1 given #adic1 at ,new ,college1 ,oxford4 ,these bowls have usually a silver or gold rim1 and were often lined with silver1 but the name is wrongly applied to bowls made entirely of metal1 as it sometimes is4 ,fig4 #aeg is an illustration of a mazer bowl of the fifteenth century belonging to the ,ironmongers' ,company of ,london4 ,salt-cellars were also important table decorations4 ,the salt was put on the table in such a position as to mark the dividing line between the guests of different rank4 ,there is a salt in the form of a giant1 a work of the fifteenth century1 at ,all ,souls' ,college1 ,oxford1 and some other salts of this period and earlier were often made in form of hour-glasses 7,fig4 #aeh74 ,very few specimens of household plate have come down to us from the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries1 although we have many records of the great quantities of jewels and plate that belonged to the kings and feudal lords4 ,spoons and knives were made and used at a very early period of the world's history1 but forks do not seem to have come into general use until some time in the fourteenth century4 ,sacramental cups and chalices1 and all kinds of drinking cups1 were made at this time4 ,the beautiful cup of ,gothic design with translucent enamels1 now in the ,kensington ,museum1 is probably a work of the fourteenth century1 and of ,burgundian origin4 7,see ,fig4 #ajc47 ,three sacramental chalices are illustrated at ,fig4 #aei1 and belonging to the fourteenth century1 and two at ,figs4 #afj and #afa1 of the fifteenth century1 all of which are ,gothic in design2 two also are given of the sixteenth century 7,figs4 #afb and #afc71 the latter being of ,spanish origin designed in the style of the ,renaissance1 which is interesting as showing the development of the standing cup from the chalice1 this example being in the transitional stage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4--;,gothic ,chalices2 ,fourteenth ,century4 ,the difference between the ,gothic and ,renaissance cups is very marked1 the foot of the former being either trefoil1 or more often hexagonal in plan 7,fig4 #afd71 with the distinctive central knot or boss on the plain upright stem for grasping purposes1 while the ,renaissance cups are usually round in the plan of the foot1 or sometimes octagonal1 and have a horizontal character which is obtained by the use of mouldings cutting the cup into parts4 7,see ,spanish chalice1 ,fig4 #afc47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4--;,chalice2 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4--;,chalice2 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,this upright character of the ,gothic cup is well emphasized in the beautiful enamelled cup belonging to the corporation of ,king's ,lynn 7,fig4 #aff71 and the horizontal features in the foot1 stem1 and bowl may be seen in the standing cup of ,renaissance design in the ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge 7,fig4 #afe74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4--;,german ,chalice1 with ,paten2 #aebj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4--,spanish ,chalice2 #aedi4 ,the base of the ,gothic cup splays outwards from the knot downwards1 while the ,renaissance base mouldings may be enclosed by a line of the opposite curvature1 forming a dome of a semicircular section2 and lastly the calyx of the bowl of the latter cups is always a richly ornamented feature1 in opposition to the plain or almost plain bowl and calyx of the ,gothic varieties4 ,many ,gothic cups and hanaps show decided architectural constructions1 as may be noticed in some of the illustrations1 and some have quite a landscape treatment1 as in the curious gilt metal hanap 7,fig4 #afg71 which is probably of ,nuremberg manufacture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4--;,english ,chalice1 ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,oxford2 #aejg4 7,c47 ,clocks were also objects which received a pronounced architectural treatment4 ,a favourite design was a church tower1 or a fortified tower1 embattled1 and having a spreading base1 in which were open archways4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4--,standing ,cup1 ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge2 #aeii4 7,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4--;,enamelled ,cup at ,king's ,lynn2 #acej4 7,c47 ,the goldsmiths of ,italy in the sixteenth century were painters and architects as well1 and a decided architectural construction is clearly seen in most of the gold and silver-smithery of this period4 ,the monstrance 7,fig4 #afh7 is a good illustration of this1 and another is the pax 7,fig4 #afi74 ,the church altar furniture and silver plate of the period also partook of the prevailing architectural features4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4--;,hanap2 ,german4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,benvenuto ,cellini 7#aejj-ga7 is the greatest name among the many great ones of the sixteenth century in the art of the goldsmith4 ,some of his work has already been noticed in the chapter on enamels4 ,cellini represents the art of the ,italian goldsmith and enameller at its best period4 ,he was famous for his designs in jewellery1 in which he set precious stones in cartouche work combined with griffins1 masks1 and well-modelled little figures 7,fig4 #agj74 ,many cups made in lapis-lazuli1 sardonyx1 and rock-crystal are attributed to him4 ,he was also a successful worker in bronze1 the best of his works in this metal being the statue group of ,perseus and ,medusa1 and the colossal bas-relief of the ,nymph of ,fontainebleau1 copies of which may be seen in ,kensington ,museum4 ,a graphic and very interesting account of the casting of the ,perseus group is given in his autobiography4 ,a fine shield in damascene work by ,cellini is in ,windsor ,castle4 ,his smaller works in gold and jewellery probably exist in greater numbers than can be verified owing to the absence of his signature or other identifying marks4 ,according to his own account1 when besieged with the ,pope1 ,clement ,,vii41 in the ,castle of ,angelo1 by the ,spanish1 he unset the precious stones and jewellery1 and melted down at the command of the ,pope about two hundredweight of gold and silver crowns1 tiaras1 cups1 and reliquaries of ancient workmanship in order to convert them into money and medals as required by the ,pope4 ,this gives us a good idea of how the fine treasures of the ,middle ,ages must have been destroyed under similar circumstances1 and excites our wonder how any valuable piece of goldsmith's work has escaped the melting-pot1 which was generally the sequel to the pillaging of conquering troops or the exigencies of war4 ,cellini's visit to ,france and his work in that country gave a great impulse to the style of the ,renaissance1 and his countryman1 ,primaticcio the sculptor1 spread the style still further in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4--,monstrance2 ,italian2 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,some names of ,italian goldsmiths about or immediately after ,cellini's time are--,luca ,agnolo1 ,valerio ,vicentino1 ,pilote1 ,piero di ,mino1 ,vincenzo ,dati1 ,girolamo del ,prato4 ,the latter was a native of ,lombardy4 ,benedict ,ramel1 ,franois ,desjardins1 ,delahaie1 and ,franois ,briot are names of ,french goldsmiths of the sixteenth century4 ,many models of vases1 ewers1 plates1 cups1 and tankards were made by ,briot in pewter that are still in existence4 ,these pewter models were usually made by goldsmiths1 no doubt1 as models for their gold and silver work1 or in some cases were casts taken from the finished works1 and kept as mementos or as replicas in design of their more costly works1 and were also sold to those whose means would not permit them to indulge in the more costly gold and silver plate4 ,briot's pewter models are among the best examples of design and workmanship in metal of the sixteenth century4 ,in ,germany the art of the metal worker flourished in the sixteenth century in its greatest perfection at ,nuremberg and ,augsburg4 ,the ,german goldsmiths' work1 especially at the end of the century1 was almost identical with that of the ,italian school4 ,the similarity is seen in the details of the ornamentation1 the masks and figures2 the difference may be noted in the extraordinary development of the cartouche and strap-work of the ,german work1 more especially in that of the ,netherlands4 ,many ,german artists of this time1 who were chiefly engravers1 designed for the goldsmiths and produced engravings from which goldsmiths' work and enamel paintings on metal were executed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4--,pax2 ,italian2 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4--,pendant1 attributed to ,cellini1 in the ,library at ,paris4 ,virgil ,solis1 of ,nuremberg1 ,theodor de ,bry1 of ,lige1 the ,collaerts--father and son--of ,antwerp1 are some of the principal engravers who designed very largely for jewellery and other goldsmiths' work4 ,these ,german engravers and designers of ornament went under the designation of the 8,little ,masters10 but in point of fact some of their work would compare favourably with the compositions of many of the so-called 8,great ,masters40 ,generally speaking1 they were pupils or followers of ,albert ,drer4 ,as a designer and engraver of figure work1 ,hans ,sebald ,beham must be placed first in the rank of the 8,little ,masters10 and for ornament purely the name of ,heinrich ,aldegrever must head the list4 ,albert ,drer1 whose great name overshadows all ,german art1 though he tried his gifted hand at ornament1 as in the car of the 8,triumph0 and in the 8,book of the ,hours10 designed for the ,emperor ,maximilian1 was not altogether successful in the matter of ornament1 for his work in this line is much too loose and florid1 with much unrestrained and naturalistic flourishing4 ,hans ,burgkmair1 of ,nuremberg1 his contemporary1 was better at ornament than ,drer1 and was the chief artist of that great work1 the 8,triumph of ,maximilian10 in which he strove to unite the ,gothic and the style of the ,renaissance4 ,his work generally takes the form of elaborate heraldry4 ,hans ,holbein1 as well as being a great painter1 was also a famous designer for goldsmiths' work1 and was a master in ornament1 especially in the application of the figure to ornamental purposes4 ,he was in some measure a pupil of ,hans ,burgkmair1 and was thoroughly imbued with the spirit of the ,renaissance4 ,holbein the elder--his father--was a well-known artist1 who worked in the old ,german ,gothic style4 ,the younger ,holbein began his artistic career as a goldsmith1 and his designs of sword and dagger handles1 in which the figure forms so admirably follow the lines of the composition in a remarkable degree of ornamental fitness1 reveal his fine sense and feeling for ornament4 ,in ,italy the sculptor1 ,luca ,signorelli1 employed the figure and animal forms with an equal degree of skill1 and with the same feeling for ornament4 ,both artists thoroughly understood the correct laws of ornamental composition1 which was not by any means a universal gift with the artists of the ,renaissance period4 ,holbein designed many cups1 one of which was a rich example of a standing cup and cover which was designed for ,jane ,seymour1 one of the wives of ,henry ,,viii4 of ,england4 ,the drawing for this cup is preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,during the sixteenth century the art of metal working in ,germany1 especially at ,nuremberg1 ,swabian ,augsburg1 and ,lbeck1 reached a high state of perfection under the great patronage of wealthy families1 such as the ,fugger family1 of ,augsburg1 and others4 ,holbein1 and other ,german1 ,dutch1 and ,flemish artists1 worked in ,england1 and besides much ,german and ,flemish ,renaissance work found its way into ,england1 and influenced in a great degree the style of the metal work of this country4 ,in addition to the gold and silver plate of the kings' palaces and of private families1 corporations and colleges accumulated great quantities of plate1 and before banks were properly established1 gold and silver plate and jewellery were the chief store of wealth that could1 when necessary1 be easily converted into money4 ,king ,henry ,,vii4 had a service of plate valued at twenty thousand pounds4 ,this monarch employed the ,italian sculptor and goldsmith1 ,torrigiano1 and other foreign artists4 ,henry ,,viii4 also employed many ,italian and ,german artists and goldsmiths1 and it is believed that ,cellini executed some of his finest jewellery for this king4 ,not only ,henry ,,viii41 but his great lords and ministers1 had extensive collections of plate4 ,cardinal ,wolsey had a large safe or cupboard1 barred all round for protection1 in which was displayed a goodly show of gold cups and other sumptuous vessels for use at his table4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4--;,apostle ,spoons2 #aeff2 at ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge4 7,c47 8,apostle spoons0 were made at this and subsequent periods1 and were so called from their having little figures of the ,apostles modelled on the tops of the handles 7,fig4 #aga74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb--,silver-gilt ,german ,cup2 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,the silver1 gold1 and bronze work in ,queen ,elizabeth's time in ,england was made in the style of the ,renaissance1 like that of ,germany4 ,italian and ,german work at this time was almost identical 7,figs4 #agb and #agc72 and even when the ,rococo decadence was prevalent in architecture1 both on the ,continent and in ,england1 goldsmiths' work was the last industry that fell under its influence1 especially when we compare it with the contemporary pottery1 furniture1 and other decorative art4 ,of course1 at the latter end of the seventeenth and during the eighteenth century1 the design in metal work in ,france1 and also in ,england1 was sacrificed to display and ostentation2 but at the same time a comparative purity of style is seen in much of the plate made in the reigns of ,william and ,mary1 ,james ,,ii41 and ,queen ,anne1 of ,english manufacture4 ,the silver and gold plate of the 8,queen ,anne0 period 7#agjb-ad7 is highly prized for its beauty of design and massive character1 some examples of which will be noticed presently4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4--;,bronze ,candlestick2 ,italian2 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,in the metal work1 especially in gold and silver of the seventeenth century1 towards the middle of the century a certain heaviness of design gradually crept in2 although a good deal of fine work was still produced by the artists who belonged to the older schools1 and1 as a matter of course1 the best work belonged to the earlier part of the century4 ,a fine freedom of line and handling is seen in the ,flemish salver 7,fig4 #agd7 of ,renaissance design4 ,the ,french example of a silver-gilt cup and cover is unusually simple for ,french work of this century 7,fig4 #age71 and an ,english silver casket of the same date 7,fig4 #agf7 shows a similarity of style3 the serpent handles and covers are almost identical4 ,about the middle of the seventeenth century silversmiths' work in ,germany began to assume a bulbous or lobed character1 and gradually became more florid in design 7,fig4 #agg74 ,this bulbous or gadrooned work was carried out to a greater degree in ,english work of this period1 of which the gold cup rat ,exeter ,college 7,fig4 #agh7 is a good example4 ,the decoration of metal work in ,england at this time consisted of flowers and foliage chased on the repouss surfaces1 and often large rich acanthus-leaves were used1 especially on the vases and silver furniture of ,charles ,,ii4's time4 ,the lobed panel work of ,germany was developed in ,england into lozenge and pine-shaped raised surfaces1 and the details of the ,french ,louis ,quatorze were added as decoration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4--;,flemish ,salver2 ,seventeenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,tankards were made in silver1 or sometimes in pottery richly mounted in silver or pewter4 ,the tankard has a wide base1 the body narrowing towards the mouth1 and has usually a cover 7,fig4 #agi71 while the beaker or drinking cup is the reverse in shape--narrow in the base1 and widening towards the mouth1 and is without a handle or cover4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4--;,cup with ,cover1 ,silver-gilt2 ,french2 ,seventeenth ,century4 7,j47 ,the ,english silver tankards were straight-sided1 with naturalistic decoration4 ,modern tankards for beer-drinking uses are made in pewter or ,britannia metal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4--,silver ,casket2 ,seventeenth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4--,nuremberg ,tankard4 ,in the ,rhine ,provinces1 in ,germany1 and in ,switzerland stoneware tankards with metal covers and mountings are still in use4 ,tankards in the seventeenth century were made with pegs inserted in the sides at regulated distances1 so that each drinker might quaff his measured portion when the vessel was handed round4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4--;,cup of ,gold1 circa #affj-gj1 at ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford4 7,c47 ,in the reign of ,james ,i4 many sumptuous objects in services and toilet furniture were made in gold and silver4 ,the baronial halls in ,england were extremely rich in large pieces of plate3 huge salvers1 vases1 basins1 jugs1 cups1 toilet services1 and even tables1 chairs1 mirror-frames1 and fire-dogs were made in silver4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4--;,english ,tankard2 ,seventeenth ,century4 ,in ,france1 during the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 similar gold and silver vessels and sumptuous furniture were made in the rich and massive style of the period4 ,balin and ,delaunay are mentioned among others who were skilful goldsmiths to that monarch1 and who worked under the directions of the chief painter and tapestry designer1 ,lebrun4 ,england not only made a good deal of this silver furniture1 but also imported it largely from ,france2 most of it1 however1 was melted down to pay for the wars of ,charles ,i4 ,a few remaining examples are still at ,knole ,park1 in ,kent1 consisting of silver tables1 mirror-frames1 fire-dogs1 c4 7,fig4 #ahj74 ,similar objects of this period are now at ,windsor ,castle 7,fig4 #aha71 of which copies in electrotype are in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,some of the gold plate preserved in the ,tower of ,london with the regalia is of this period4 ,after the date of #affj gold and silver-smithery becomes fluted and less florid in decoration1 but some of it still keeps the gadrooned and bulbous character4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,silver ,fire-,dog at ,knole ,park4 ,towards the end of the century1 in the time of ,william ,,iii41 the flutings were less in number1 and consequently became larger in scale1 and in the early part of the eighteenth century the metal work in ,england became plainer1 depending more on the lines of its contour for effect than on its decoration 7,fig4 #ahb74 ,mouldings were plainer1 and broad spaces of convex and concave shapes producing a massive and1 in many cases1 an elegant appearance 7,figs4 #ahb1 #ahc71 which gave to the ,queen ,anne plate a mark of great distinction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4--,silver ,table at ,windsor ,castle4 ,about #agej the forms in silver work partook1 in many instances1 of the prevailing fashion in the chinaware of that date1 though without the extravagance in the decoration4 ,from #aggj1 and for about ten years later1 the designs became more attenuated1 and were peculiar in having the dividing lines of the design composed of fillets of beads 7,figs4 #ahe and #ahg74 ,the beaded style of silversmiths' work and in all metal work1 pottery1 and furniture of this period was due to the development of classic design that took place in ,france and in ,england consequent on the discovery of the buried city of ,pompeii in #aggj4 ,the brothers ,adam in ,england designed a good deal of silversmiths' work1 of which the three illustrations given are examples of their style4 ,light wreaths1 medallions1 fillets of beads1 festoons1 masks1 feet and legs of animals composed the decoration of the ,adams' style4 ,the brothers ,john and ,robert ,adam had travelled in ,italy1 and had brought with them pronounced classic ideas which not only influenced their own and other contemporary work in architecture and furniture designs1 but in silversmiths' work also their influence was widely felt 7,fig4 #ahh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,wine ,fountain2 #agaj4 7,c47 ,in ,france the classic ideas were also very prevalent about this period in silversmiths' work4 ,the 8,louis-,seize0 candlestick 7,fig4 #ahi7 is one of a pair from the ,jones ,collection in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 and is an admirable example of the style2 though it is said to have been made at ,turin in ,italy in #aghc1 it is certainly of ,french design4 ,it has the square base so peculiar to ,french work of this period1 with the wreaths and medallions so characteristic of the style in question1 that of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--;,candelabrum1 ,haberdashers' ,hall1 ,london4 7,c47 ,another candlestick 7,fig4 #aij7 from the ,jones ,collection is probably ,italian in style and manufacture1 and belongs to the early part of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4--;,eighteenth-,century ,bowl4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--,tureen at ,windsor ,castle1 #aggc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--,silver ,vase2 #aggj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--;,chocolate ,pot2 #aggg4 7,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--,vase by ,adam4 ,at the time of the ,revolution1 and immediately after1 the style of the silver work deteriorated in ,france4 ,vast quantities of plate were seized and sent off to the ,mint by the ,revolutionary army1 and naturally an art like the goldsmith's1 that ministered to the needs of luxury1 was in those times at a low ebb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--;,candlestick1 ,silver-gilt2 ,louis ,seize4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4--;,candlestick1 ,silver-gilt2 ,italian2 ,eighteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,in ,england in the early part of the nineteenth century some good work was executed from the designs of ,flaxman and ,stothard1 chiefly in the classic style2 the ,wellington ,shield may be mentioned as an example2 but about the middle of this century gold and silver work was characterized by even a greater degree of naturalism in design than that of the ,french debased style from which it was copied4 ,nothing could exceed the vulgarity and bad taste in the design of silversmiths' work made about fifty or forty years ago4 ,all architectural principles that should guide the design of relief modelling and construction were thrown to the winds1 and naturalism unnaturally applied and mixed in any heterogeneous way was quite fashionable4 ,for instance1 we have huge pergnes where stags and other animals from the ,highlands of ,scotland or the ,welsh mountains are decorating silver rock-work from which the tropical palms of ,africa are seen to grow out of their clefts1 affording grateful shade to the natives of the ,british moorland4 ,the art of the silversmith in ,england about this period had suffered more than any other artistic industry1 and in the matter of design it seemed to have reached the twilight state of semi-insanity1 and was utterly devoid of any artistic merit4 ,a great improvement is1 however1 to be seen in the work of respectable firms and in that of many private craftsmen of to-day1 but many shop windows are still filled with costly work in the precious metals that are worthless from an artistic point of view4 ,,niello-,,work ,,and ,,damascening4 ,niello-work has been mentioned on a previous page4 ,it was an important branch of the goldsmith's art1 as well as that of damascening4 ,from the earliest times the nations of antiquity have engraved on metals and filled up the lines or grooves of the engraving with a black species of enamel composition--niello--or with other metals such as silver1 gold1 and electrum2 the latter process has been called damascening1 from ,damascus1 where gold and silver inlaid in iron or steel was practised in the tenth and eleventh centuries4 ,it was a favourite method of decorating metals during the ,middle ,ages throughout the countries of ,persia1 ,syria1 and in most ,european countries1 especially on such objects as arms1 armour1 and different kinds of vessels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4--;,italian ,damascene ,work2 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,the celebrated ,italian metal-worker1 ,maso ,finiguerra1 worked extensively in niello1 and to him is ascribed the discovery of the art of engraving on copper and printing from the copper plate4 ,he was a goldsmith and a native of ,florence1 and was the pupil of ,ghiberti and ,masaccio4 ,in the year #adeb he made a pax1 on the flat panel of which he engraved a design to be filled in afterwards with the black composition of niello1 but before he had completely finished his work he took a 8squeeze0 in clay of the engraving in order to judge of the progress he had made1 and from this squeeze he made a mould in sulphur1 and filled it with a black pigment1 and on pressing this sulphur block on a sheet of damp paper the pattern appeared similar to the niello effect4 ,this led him to fill the lines of the actual silver plate with a more durable ink1 and to print off impressions on paper4 ,it was by thus experimenting that ,finiguerra discovered the art of engraving and printing from the metal plate4 ,the original pax with its impressions are preserved at ,florence4 ,damascening is executed in three ways4 ,first1 where the steel or copper is engraved with an undercut line and a thread of gold or silver is forced in by hammering or pressed by a burnisher into the grooved lines4 ,second1 the plated method1 where the plate of metal to be encrusted is enclosed between slightly raised walls in the foundation metal4 ,third1 where the foundation metal is roughened by a sharp tool in all directions and the gold or silver is laid on thinly and pressed or hammered in4 ,the last method is the latest and least durable4 ,sometimes the lines of the engraving are punched with holes at regulated distances1 which serve as keys to hold the inlaid metal when hammered in4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4--,shield ,damascened in ,gold2 ,indian4 7,b47 ,the famous bowl called the 8,baptistery of ,st4 ,louis10 now in the ,louvre1 is made of copper inlaid with figures of horsemen and hunting scenes4 ,it is an example of 8,mosil work10 or ,mesopotamian damascening1 of the thirteenth century1 in which silver only is used as the inlaid metal4 ,a delicate design in ,italian damascene work is shown at ,fig4 #aia1 and an ,indian example at ,fig4 #aib4 ,the ,italian example shows the ,arabian influence in some of the details of the ornament4 ,the ,japanese are perfect masters in the art of damascening4 ,sword-blades of the thirteenth and later centuries have beautiful designs inlaid as intaglios or in damascene work2 sword-guards of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are remarkable for this kind of decoration1 and for the exquisite chasing of the iron1 which in some cases is cut out like fret-work1 and in others are carved as delicate as decorative ivory work4 ,,indian ,,jewellery4 ,the jewellery of ,india is one of the most important art industries of that country1 and the trade of the gold and silver smith is an established institution in every village and district4 ,the variation in style and method of fabrication has very marked features1 according to the fashion that finds favour in each locality4 ,the extreme love for trinkets of a brilliant and dazzling nature amongst all grades of the people has in a great measure directed the fabrication of ,indian jewellery1 which tends to make the most of the precious metals by using them in thin plates or in a filigrain work1 and in order to get the flashing effect and rich colouring1 scales or flakes of diamonds are more often used than the more valuable and solid gems1 and inferior gems1 or even coloured glass1 are set to the best advantage1 and used indiscriminately3 anything1 in fact1 is used in order to get the gorgeous variety of brilliant colouring and dazzling effect4 ,much of the ,indian jewellery is of a flimsy character as regards its lightness and thin nature of the material2 but the latter is generally of the best quality1 and the artistic workmanship lavished on most of the jewellery more than makes up for its want of inherent solidity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,fig4 #aic4-,primitive ,silver ,bracelet3 ,dinajpur1 ,bengal4 7,b47 ,jewellery ought to be light in character and of good design and workmanship if it is intended to fulfil its use in decorating the person1 as nothing is uglier than heavy jewellery1 which can only be valuable in the light of representing the wealth of the owner4 ,some of the ,indian jewellery is1 however1 fairly solid and heavy1 as in the chopped gold form of cubical1 octahedron1 and oblong shapes of the metal which are strung on silk cord as necklaces1 and the nail-head variety of earrings made at ,ahmedabad and ,surat in ,western ,india4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4--,silver ,neck ,ornament1 from ,sindh4 7,b47 ,girdles1 torques or neck collars1 bracelets1 and anklets are made of twisted gold wire1 which are common throughout ,india1 and in the western provinces are made in the twisted form of the ,matheran knotted and woven grass collars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4--,native ,silver ,jewellery of ,cuttack4 7,b47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4--;,filigrain ,jewellery of ,cuttack4 7,b47 ,some of the native jewellery in many parts of ,india still keeps its primitive character and bears a great likeness to the very early ,celtic jewellery found in ,ireland and in other countries of ,europe1 which would probably suggest the same ,celtic origin for all 7,fig4 #aic74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4--,native ,jewellery of ,trichinopoly1 ,madras4 7,b47 ,the silver filigrain work of ,india1 especially the designs of the ,sindh jewellery and that made at ,cuttack1 ,trichinopoly1 and ,travancore1 recalls the methods of fabrication and design of the ancient ,etruscan jewellery4 7,see ,figs4 #aid1 #aie1 #aig47 ,a certain analogy may also be noticed in the native jewellery from the above places to the ,phnician1 primitive ,grecian1 and even ,scandinavian1 which goes a long way to prove the intercourse between1 and the migrations of1 the people of ,india1 ,thibet1 ,turkestan to ,asia ,minor and the continent of ,europe4 ,some ,indian jewellery1 though possessing shapes common to other countries1 has very distinctive national characteristics in the decoration1 which may be seen in the illustration 7,fig4 #aih7 of the gold plate from ,bombay4 ,in these cases the design is usually symbolical4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4--,native ,gold ,jewellery of ,bombay4 7,b47 ,the ,indian jewellers of the ,mogul period have produced some exquisite work in the setting of gems on jade carvings and on small vases of jade4 ,the deftness and cunning of the ,indian jeweller may have been equalled by the ,etruscans and ancient ,greeks1 but he has not been surpassed in his delicate workmanship by any nation of modern times4 ,,iron ,,work ,,in ,,france1 ,,germany1 ,,belgium1 ,,italy ,,and ,,england4 ,ornamental iron work was executed in ,france and in ,england before the ,roman occupation of these countries1 but any early remains of this work that have been found in either country are supposed to be of the ,roman period4 ,the ,romans were not skilled in the working of iron1 although well conversant with the manufacture of bronze objects4 ,remains of iron hasps1 escutcheons1 window grilles1 candlesticks1 folding chairs1 c41 have been found in ,france and in ,england1 of the ,romano-,gaulish and ,british periods1 that have a great similarity of style1 and1 indeed1 up to the fifteenth century the style and design of iron work in both countries were pretty much alike4 ,the most interesting examples of the blacksmith's art of the ,middle ,ages--in ,england especially--are the hinges to the church doors4 ,the first hinges were simple single straps of iron that passed from back to front of the door1 the socket being formed out of the solid piece at the angle on one side4 ,the front side of this strap by degrees was clawed out1 or otherwise elaborated1 to cover as much of the door as possible1 so as to form an armour of defence against predatory robbers1 such as the barbarous ,norse pirates who were continually invading the ,british shores4 ,a favourite form of the hinge was the crescent shape2 sometimes the hinge branched out in a simple crescent with curved and bifurcated endings that may have symbolized the snake or birds' heads1 and often two or three of these crescents branched out from a central bar4 ,between the hinges additional bars or straps were sometimes run across the door to strengthen it1 and elaborate foliated crosses often occupied the central part1 as in ,fig4 #aii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4--;,hinges1 c41 to ,haddiscoe ,church4 ,on some of the old ,norman doors1 in addition to the hinges1 as at ,stillingfleet ,church1 there are designs in iron work which consist of mystical signs of ,danish origin1 such as a viking ship or sun ship1 the swastika or fylfot1 moon signs1 and rude images of the human figure4 ,the crescent hinge may have had a symbolical meaning1 perhaps ,scandinavian1 or it may have originated in the ,saracenic crescent1 and may have been brought from ,sicily1 the birthplace of ,norman architecture4 ,the art of the blacksmith in the ,middle ,ages was more developed in ,france than in any other country of ,europe1 and the art of stamping the leaves1 stems1 and rosettes with steel or chilled iron dies and punches was practised there earlier than the thirteenth century1 and at a period a little later in ,england4 ,the ornament was in style very little more than the ,romanesque type of the conventional vine1 or other leaf of a like nature--the cinquefoil1 trefoil1 rosettes1 and scrolls1 but these few elements were used in the most effective manner 7,fig4 #bjj74 ,the magnificent hinges on the ,porte ,ste4 ,anne of ,notre-,dame at ,paris show to perfection the ,french stamping on the leaves and other parts4 ,these unrivalled hinges 7,fig4 #bja7 are of the ,early ,french style of the thirteenth century4 ,nothing1 however1 is known of their origin1 nor even the name of the smith who forged them4 ,each hinge is composed of six large scrolls springing from the central bar or stem1 all of which are richly clothed with spirals1 foliage1 birds1 and dragons2 the whole design is supposed to represent the terrestrial ,paradise4 ,exceedingly rich1 but not so elaborated as the hinges of the ,church of ,notre-,dame1 is the herse1 or grille1 of ,english work of the same period1 which surmounts the tomb of ,queen ,eleanor in ,westminster ,abbey 7,fig4 #bjb74 ,this fine example of ,english smithery was made by ,thomas de ,leghtone in the year #abid4 ,it is a clever adaptation of hinge-work to the design of a grille4 ,mr4 ,gardner supposes ,leghtone to be connected with ,leighton ,buzzard1 as the same kind of iron work as the ,eleanor grille occurs in the hinges of the parish church door of that place1 and also from the fact that similar work is found on many other church doors of the same period in ,bedfordshire--at ,eaton ,bray and ,turvey1 for instance2 also at ,norwich1 ,tunstall1 ,windsor1 ,lichfield1 and ,merton ,college1 ,oxford1 are examples of the same kind of work1 which no doubt was executed by ,thomas de ,leghtone and his assistants4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--,press ,door in the ,church of ,st4 ,jacques1 at ,lige4 7,g47 ,after the end of the thirteenth century examples are scarce of genuine wrought-iron work1 for the fashion changed at that time in the manner of working the metal4 ,sheets and bars of iron were cut in the cold state into various patterns by the use of chisels and files1 the pieces being fastened together by rivets and small collars or ties of metal4 ,much of this work1 was done in ,italy1 in imitation of marble and wood panelling1 and a very common method consisted in making the grilles in ,italy of riveted quatrefoils4 ,a fine grille of this character is in the ,church of ,santa ,croce of the date of #acga4 ,in the churches and palaces of ,venice1 ,florence1 ,verona1 c41 there are many good examples of grilles that resemble in a great degree joinery work in iron4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4--,one of the ,hinges to the ,porte ,ste4 ,anne of ,notre-,dame1 ,paris4 7,g47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--;,grille or ,herse on ,queen ,eleanor's ,tomb1 ,westminster ,abbey2 #abid4 7,g47 ,in ,germany the love for iron work was not developed so early as it was in ,france and ,england1 and it was not until ,gothic architecture took a firm hold in that country in the end of the thirteenth century that the first serious attempts were made in the use of decorative iron work1 and1 like their architectural forms1 the ,german wrought-iron work was inspired by ,french examples4 ,german work in iron of the thirteenth century is very scarce3 one of the best-known examples occurs in the iron work on the doors of the ,church of ,st4 ,elizabeth at ,marburg1 near ,cassel1 which consists of branching scroll-work clothed with vine-leaf endings4 ,in the fourteenth century the ,germans developed the ,french vine-work into lozenge-shaped leaves1 and for a change interspersed them with fleurs-de-lis1 and occasionally some tracery patterns1 all of which were borrowed from the ,french4 ,the stamped work of the ,english and ,french blacksmith was not developed in ,germany4 ,in the fifteenth century ,german iron work was greatly influenced by the fine work which was being produced at this period in the ,low ,countries4 ,brussels had been noted for its extensive works in iron and steel from the fourteenth century4 ,the brawny ,flemish smiths were celebrated throughout ,europe for their great achievements in moulded and hammered iron1 such as in the spires of the cathedrals of ,antwerp1 ,ghent1 and ,bruges1 well-covers1 railings1 fonts1 cranes1 and grilles4 ,the historical well-cover in front of the ,cathedral of ,antwerp has usually been ascribed to ,quentin ,matsys the painter1 but as he was only twelve years old when this work was completed1 it could hardly have been made by his hands4 ,the explanation is that he has been confounded with another ,quentin1 a blacksmith and the son of ,josse ,matsys1 the architect1 smith1 and clockmaker of ,antwerp4 ,the well-cover is more likely to have been the work of ,josse ,matsys4 ,the design is ,gothic in feeling and is very picturesque with its interlacing stems and vine-leaves1 flowers1 and figures4 ,a rich font crane in iron work in the ,cathedral of ,louvain is said to be the authentic work of ,josse1 and a twelve-branched corona in the same church is ascribed to his son1 ,quentin ,matsys4 ,to the hand of the latter is also ascribed the rich ,flemish gates of ,bishop ,west's ,chapel in ,ely ,cathedral4 ,brabant was celebrated for its iron work1 particularly in pierced and filed work in such things as locks1 hinges1 candelabra1 tabernacles1 and guichets 7little windows or wicket gates71 most of these objects taking pronounced ,gothic architectural forms1 for the most part being composed of flamboyant tracery and little buttresses 7,fig4 #bjc74 ,much of the ,brabaon iron work found its way into ,england and ,germany4 ,this work is characterised by its flamboyant tracery1 which is found on locks of doors and ,flemish coffers1 and in the design of the guichets1 a fine specimen of the latter now being in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,the locks of the doors in ,st4 ,george's ,chapel1 ,windsor and in some other places are of ,brabaon workmanship4 ,this ,flemish style of lock work was imitated very much in ,england1 but the workmanship was less refined although of a stronger character than the ,flemish4 ,the ,germans1 especially of ,augsburg1 ,nuremberg1 and in the ,rhine ,provinces1 more particularly at ,cologne1 developed the chiselled iron work to an astonishing degree of elaboration4 ,while the shapes of the lock-plates were of a decided ,saracenic character1 the design of the pattern ornamentation was either of an elaborate architectural composition1 as in the large lock in the ,klagenfurt ,museum 7,fig4 #bjd71 or of designs mainly developed from the thistle-plant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--,tabernacle ,grille from ,ottoberg1 ,tyrol2 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 7,g47 ,the thistle was distinctly characteristic of ,german iron work1 and also the trellis-work pattern as seen on the doors of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries 7,fig4 #bje74 ,armorial bearings fill the panels between the trellis-bands1 with richly forged rivets or nail-heads on the lozenge intersections4 ,sometimes the decoration was gilt or silvered1 and the ground underneath painted red or black4 ,in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the iron work in ,europe and ,england partook of the character of the ,renaissance1 and towards the end of the former century had all the foliated character of that style4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--,lock1 #ah inches high1 in the ,klagenfurt ,museum2 ,german2 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,g47 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #bjf7 shows a typical example of ,french work of the end of the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4--;,iron-bound ,door in the ,monastery of ,krems2 ,late ,fifteenth ,century4 7,g47 ,in ,flanders1 ,holland1 and in ,england1 especially during the eighteenth century1 decorative iron work was again in great demand1 and some beautiful work in gates1 grilles1 and railings were executed4 ,among the finest works of this period are the celebrated gates or screens designed in the style of the ,renaissance and made by ,huntingdon ,shaw for ,king ,william ,,iii4 for his palace at ,hampton ,court4 ,these gates1 which are fine examples of hammered work1 are now in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,the iron gates and railings made in the reign of ,queen ,anne and later were often of beautiful design1 in which the capabilities of the material were excellently expressed4 ,some fine examples still exist in the gates and railings of the old houses in ,cheyne ,walk1 ,chelsea1 and some good ironwork of this type may be seen in the screens in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral4 ,this beautiful style died out during this century1 when a more extended use of cast iron crept in1 and if we except the work of the late ,alfred ,stevens and of a few other designers and architects1 there has been nothing of an artistic value that one can point out in ,england in the domain of cast-iron productions4 ,in fact1 it is a curious but common expression to say of a bad design for almost anything that it 8looks like cast iron40 ,designers for cast-iron work might take some good hints from the old ,roman or ,pompeian bronzes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--,mirror1 ,wrought ,iron2 ,french ,work2 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,furniture4 ,,antique3 ,,egypt1 ,,assyria1 ,,greece1 ,,and ,,rome4 ,the furniture of the antique nations has been noticed in some instances in the former volume of this work1 especially in the cases of ,egyptian and ,assyrian examples1 where fortunately we can point out the many representations of it that occur on the bas-reliefs4 ,it is from these that we chiefly form an opinion as to how the palaces and interiors must have been furnished1 for1 owing to the great lapse of time1 nearly every vestige of furniture of these old nations has passed away4 ,the ,british ,museum and the ,louvre contain a few ,egyptian chairs or seats that have been made in ebony and ivory1 which owe their preservation to the lasting nature of the material4 ,two ,egyptian chairs or thrones are illustrated at ,figs4 #adf and #adg1 in the first part of this work1 and a wooden coffer at ,fig4 #adi4 ,at ,fig4 #adh carpenters are represented as occupied in chair making1 the feet and legs of the chairs being designed from animals' limbs1 and the stools on which the workmen are sitting are blocks of wood hollowed out at the top4 ,the ,egyptian couch was of a straight-lined design in the body with a curved head like an ordinary sofa1 the legs1 feet1 and other salient points being carved with heads1 feet1 and tails of animals4 ,some boxes and coffers with gable tops dovetailed together1 small toilet boxes having carved or painted decoration1 and mummy cases of cedar-wood having elaborate hieroglyphic decorations1 may be seen in the ,british ,museum and in the ,louvre4 ,chariot and horse furniture are well represented in the reliefs and wall paintings4 ,egypt was famed for chariot building1 and exported them in trade to the surrounding nations4 ,we read that ,king ,solomon imported his war-chariots from ,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4--;,assyrian ,throne4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4--;,assyrian ,seat4 ,if examples of ,egyptian furniture are scarce1 the furniture of ,assyria is practically non-existent1 as the climate of the latter country was not so dry or preservative as that of ,egypt1 so that all examples that have not been wilfully destroyed have long ago perished4 ,many ornaments of bronze and of ivory decorations have been discovered that have been used as mountings to feet1 ends or legs of seats1 chairs1 or thrones4 ,the bas-reliefs of the latter enable us to form a fairly accurate judgment of the nature and style of ,assyrian furniture1 the decoration of which was of a heavier and coarser character than that of the more elegant ,egyptian 7,figs4 #bjg and #bjh74 ,forms and parts of animals were used by the ,assyrians and nearly all ,oriental nations as furniture decorations4 ,the human figure was used also1 but generally in the representation of slaves or conquered peoples1 who were degraded to the position of bearing the weight of the seat or throne of the monarch 7see ,persian throne1 ,fig4 #bef1 first vol41 from ,persepolis1 which was an adaptation from an ,assyrian throne74 ,the ,egyptian chairs had also carved human figures as captives tied under the seat 7,figs4 #adf1 #adg1 first vol474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4--;,greek ,chair4 ,the furniture of the ,hebrews was doubtless of the same kind as the ,assyrian4 ,from the description of ,king ,solomon's throne it was apparently similar to those of the ,assyrian kings4 ,it had lions for the arm supports1 and had six lions in gold and ivory on the six steps on either side of the throne4 ,in the manufacture of the furniture of the nations of antiquity the principal materials were--in woods1 ebony1 rosewood1 walnut1 pine1 teak1 and1 above all1 cedar-wood2 ivory1 gold1 silver1 bronze1 and electrum were also much used for inlays and for solid mountings4 ,the furniture and the chariots of the ,greeks in their early period were simply copied from ,egyptian and ,asiatic sources1 with less of the animal forms and more of plant forms as decorative details 7,figs4 #bji1 #baj74 ,folding stools and chairs were made in wood and in metal1 and the backs of the chairs were upright1 or nearly so couches resembling modern sofas1 elaborate footstools1 and arm-chairs with sphinxes for the arms were made by the ,greeks 7,figs4 #baj1 #bab74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4--;,greek ,folding ,stools and ,chairs1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4--;,greek ,chair4 ,in the ,british ,museum are some small models of ,greek chairs made in lead1 and wooden boxes showing the dovetail construction4 ,in the later ,greek periods the furniture was inlaid with ivory1 ebony1 gold1 and silver4 ,tripods were made of bronze1 and had ornamented legs in the shapes of the limbs of lions1 leopards1 and sphinxes4 ,the ,roman bronze tripods were very similar to the ,grecian ones in design1 and were not only used for sacred purposes in the temples1 but also to support braziers for heating purposes1 or for burning perfumes in the houses of private people 7,fig4 #bac74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4--;,greek ,couches and ,sofa4 ,hand-mirrors and cist were made in great quantities in bronze or in other metal alloys1 in silver1 and sometimes in gold4 ,the mirrors were polished on the face1 and had often rich designs of figure subjects4 ,the ,greek cist were cylindrical metal boxes that rested on feet designed from those of various animals1 having a lid or cover1 with a handle or knot usually of figure design1 the whole surface of the body being covered with engraved figure compositions and ornamental borders4 ,they were probably used to contain jewellery and trinkets4 ,some very fine specimens of these hand-mirrors and cist may be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4--;,bronze ,tripod1 ,greco-,roman4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4--;,folding ,tripod1 ,roman4 ,the furnishing of the houses of the ,romans was very much of the same character as that of the ,greeks and ,etruscans1 from whom the ,romans inherited all their arts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4--,roman ,bronze ,candelabra4 ,the interior plan and aspects of the ,roman houses were such as those of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum1 described in the first vol4 ,tables and tripods of bronze or braziers were supported on three legs1 some of which were made with hinges for folding purposes 7,fig4 #bad71 and others were of sphinx and animal forms of a rich design 7,fig4 #bac74 ,lamp-stand designs were quaint and elegant and were made in bronze 7,fig4 #bae74 ,candelabra of architectural design were carved in marble and were from six to ten feet in height 7,fig4 #bag74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4--,roman ,tables4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4--,marble ,candelabrum1 ,roman4 ,the ,romans highly prized and paid good sums for tables that were made from the pollard cross grain of different hard woods in which the knots and grain showed to advantage1 the beauty of the wood being brought out by hand-polishing and by staining it with various coloured dyes4 ,bird's-eye maple and the wood of the cedrus atlantica were much prized4 ,the smaller tables1 abaci1 rested usually on one foot--monopodium--and larger tables had three or four legs1 which had ivory claws or heads of animals as carved decoration 7,fig4 #baf74 ,boxwood1 beech1 and palm1 inlaid with ivory1 ebony1 and precious metals1 were used in the materials of chairs and couches4 ,the latter were also made in bronze 7,fig4 #bah71 and chairs of state were carved in marble1 one of this kind being in the ,louvre1 a cast of which is now in the ,kensington ,museum 7,fig4 #bai74 ,the form of the ,roman curule chair was like the letter ,x1 and was so called because it could be folded and carried easily in the curules or chariots4 ,it was used from the earliest times of the ,romans down to modern days in ,italy1 and was often constructed of elephants' tusks1 wood1 or metal1 with ivory feet4 ,the curule chairs were carried about for outdoor use and for the theatre4 ,the sella or bisellium1 to seat two persons1 was often a very ornate kind of seat with turned legs similar to the couches 7,fig4 #bbj74 ,in the houses of the ,romans a separate room or wardrobe was fitted up to keep the dresses and clothes of the family2 this room had cupboards with doors and shelves1 drawers1 and lockers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4--;,couch in ,bronze1 ,roman4 ,portable coffers and chests were used1 in which they packed their clothes and valuables when carrying them to and from their town and country houses4 ,the ,roman furniture and wooden construction of their houses were decorated with paintings and carvings of animals' heads1 limbs1 and feet1 and with figures of heroes and masks1 as well as with the usual architectural acanthus foliage4 ,veneering of woods was an art in which the ,romans were skilled2 both small and large designs or pictures in tarsia work were the chief decorations of the best furniture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4--,marble ,chair1 ,roman4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--,roman ,sella or ,bisellium4 ,,byzantine1 ,,romanesque1 ,,saracenic1 ,,and ,,the ,,furniture ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,the furniture1 such as tables1 chairs1 beds1 and the chariots1 of the ,byzantine period1 was like the architecture in having something of the classic ,roman mixture with some ,asiatic ,greek forms in its design4 ,scarcely any remains of such are now in existence1 although we have evidence of the extreme richness of the sumptuary furniture and vessels of the great houses and palaces of ,constantinople1 for owing to the decadence and destruction of the ,roman empire in the provinces1 the capital of the ,east became enriched by treasures of the old ,roman families1 who naturally fled to ,constantinople for protection for themselves and their valuable effects4 ,the old ivories known as consular diptychs have different varieties of seats1 chairs1 and footstools1 on which the consuls are seated1 represented in the carving4 ,many originals of these and casts from others may be seen in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,the chair of ,st4 ,maximian1 preserved at ,ravenna1 is covered with ivory carvings1 and is one of the finest examples of ,byzantine work4 ,it is described at page #ach and is figured in ,labarte's 8,art of the ,middle ,ages40 ,much of the furniture of the early centuries of ,christian art is represented in the ,byzantine illuminated manuscripts4 ,beds and couches kept the old ,roman forms with the turned legs4 ,chariots must have been used very much1 as the old game of chariot racing was kept up by the ,byzantines4 ,the ,iconoclasts of the ,eastern ,empire under ,leo the ,isaurian 7,a4,d4 #gbf7--whose injurious rule lasted about one hundred and twenty years--were responsible for much destruction of sumptuary furniture1 as well as for other productions of an artistic nature1 but at the same time they were the indirect means of causing a new development in art in the western parts of ,europe1 and more particularly in the ,rhenish ,provinces1 by driving the ,byzantine artists and craftsmen to these places1 where they were welcomed by ,charlemagne1 and by his powerful nobles and ,churchmen4 ,in the course of time they succeeded in founding the school of art known as ,rhenish-,byzantine4 ,the finest illustrations of this art are seen in the magnificent enamelled reliquaries or shrines4 ,the gilt-bronze chair of ,dagobert is of ,romanesque design1 and is one of the earliest pieces of furniture of the ,middle ,ages 7see ,fig4 #acd74 ,another medival chair or throne is high seated1 and exceedingly rich in design 7,fig4 #bba74 ,it is of ,scandinavian origin1 and is a good example of the ,romanesque style of ,northern ,europe4 ,many forms of the ,romanesque are seen in the furniture and carving of the ,gothic style that immediately succeeded the former4 ,during the ,anglo-,saxon period in ,england the ordinary houses usually consisted of one room4 ,sometimes a shed-like structure was erected against the wall of the room to contain the bed of the mistress of the house1 and as a rule the inmates slept on a large table placed in the centre of the room1 or on benches on which bags of straw were placed4 ,seats without backs1 or stools1 long settles or benches with backs and carved ends or arms1 were the chief articles in furniture4 ,after the ,norman ,conquest domestic improvements were multiplied1 more rooms were added to the houses1 such as the solar or upper room1 and the parloir or talking-room1 and some of the rooms had fireplaces1 but not chimneys4 ,the principal room was the hall or assembly-room1 which had a fireplace in the centre1 the smoke escaping through the lantern light in the roof4 ,in the ,norman times the principal additions to the furniture of ,english manor-houses and castles were the cupboard1 presses or armoires1 and chests4 ,these pieces of furniture were introduced from ,france4 ,sometimes the portable presses and the chests were painted with tempera decorations1 and were bound with wrought-iron clasps and hinges1 which were just beginning to come into use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4--,scandinavian ,seat or ,throne of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the bed-clothes and personal clothing of the nobles and rich landowners began to assume a rich character1 and were often embroidered4 ,tapestry and painted cloth hangings were imported2 also pottery of an ornamental description was not only imported1 but made in ,england at this time4 ,all this applies to the homes of the rich only1 for the poorer classes remained for a long period in a very primitive condition as regards their style of houses and their furniture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4--;,flemish2 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4--;,german2 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd--;,english2 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,the construction of furniture and the panelling of chests began to exhibit some workmanlike appearances of good carpentry4 ,panels were placed in framework that was mortised and fastened with wooden pegs1 which became the universal method of panelling throughout the ,gothic period4 ,room panelling came into use in ,england in the early part of the thirteenth century1 when pine timber was used at first for this work1 but was displaced later by the more substantial oak4 ,this oak panelling during the ,gothic periods was often carved with elaborate tracery of an architectural character 7,figs4 #bbb1 #bbc71 and a common design was a carved imitation of a carefully folded textile1 known as the 8linen panel0 7,fig4 #bbd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--;,dining ,room2 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,chests were used as tables1 and the tops had inlaid checkers to be used as chessboards4 ,they were also used as sideboards on which to place dishes of food1 the dining-table being a board which was placed on trestles1 that could be removed and packed away when not required 7,figs4 #bbe1 #bbf74 ,a cross-legged chair and a three-legged stool is shown at ,fig4 #bbh1 which were common shapes in the fourteenth century4 ,the illustration1 ,fig4 #bbg1 is that of a bedroom of the same period1 and is taken from an ,english manuscript of the date of #adjj4 ,for these illustrations1 and many others on the subject of furniture1 we are indebted to the work of ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,pollen on 8,furniture and ,woodwork40 ,the bed in the latter illustration has a flat canopy1 or tester1 with embroidered hangings4 ,the walls of the room are panelled1 and the floor is in checkered parquetry4 ,there is a curious seat that is partly an open press1 with pottery1 and metal vases placed as decoration on the top4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4--;,dining ,table on ,trestles2 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4--;,bedroom ,interior2 #adjj4 7,p47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--,seats2 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--,the ,coronation ,chair1 ,westminster ,abbey4 7,p47 ,chests1 trunks1 or bahuts1 were at this period1 and in the time of the ,normans1 the most important articles in furniture3 they were often made with inlaid wood decorations1 and had strap-work of iron and ornate hinges4 ,they were the usual repositories of the household valuables1 money1 and other treasures1 and were carried on horses or mules when the family moved about from place to place4 ,by degrees the chest1 with the addition of a back and arms1 became the settles or principal seats in the living-room1 and the back developed with an added hood or projecting covering into the das1 or throne-like seat1 that was placed at the end of the chief room--the place of honour4 ,another and later development of the chest was to raise it on legs1 and to add a back arrangement to it1 with shelves for the display of household plate1 to which was given the name of dressoir1 or dresser1 the latter in time developing into the modern sideboard4 ,chests were also important articles of church furniture1 in which the sacred vessels1 treasures1 books1 and priests' garments could be locked up1 and a particular form of chest kept in church vestries was the cope chest1 which took the semicircular shape of the copes when laid out flat in these chests4 ,examples of these chests are still to be seen in some of the large cathedrals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--,travelling ,carriage2 ,english2 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,the coronation chair 7,fig4 #bbi7 gives a good idea of a state chair of the early ,gothic period in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4--,travelling ,carriage2 ,english2 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,carriages of the fourteenth century were used for the conveyance of women and children1 but were not very common4 ,they were long-shaped covered vehicles on four wheels1 with or without panelled sides1 and were painted and decorated 7,figs4 #bcj1 #bca74 ,carts for carrying and for agricultural purposes were used in the ,anglo-,saxon and ,norman periods in ,england1 and in ,france at the same dates3 these were two-wheeled vehicles1 each wheel being usually of one solid piece of wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4--,table 7,kursy72 ,saracenic4 7,l4 ,p47 ,the ,saracens were very ingenious in the using of wood1 as in carpentry1 carving1 and turning in the lathe4 ,their ingenuity and skill in carpentry and turning is seen in the ,meshrebya work and lattice1 and in the carvings of the pulpit and door panels4 ,this work has been noticed under the heading of ,saracenic ,architecture and ,ornament in the former volume4 ,regarding the furniture of the domestic dwellings of the ,saracens1 whether of ,egypt1 ,arabia1 or elsewhere1 there was very little of a movable nature except the small tables and reading-desks4 ,the tables of ,saracenic design are usually small and of a greater height than width 7,fig4 #bcb74 ,these tables or kursys are sometimes panelled with turned1 latticed1 or carved decoration1 having stalactites under the top1 as in the illustration1 or in the kursys of a lighter construction are generally inlaid with ivory1 ebony1 and mother-of-pearl4 ,some of the richest variety are hexagonal in shape1 are inlaid with brass and silver filigree ornamentation1 and are of splendid workmanship4 ,the next important article in movable furniture is the ,saracen reading-desk1 which is made in the form of a camp-stool1 with cross legs4 ,it is usually inlaid and decorated like the tables4 ,the divans are platforms raised slightly from the ground1 and covered with cushions on the seats and backs4 ,the carved cupboards or shelves on brackets placed behind and above the divans1 on which vases and trays are kept for ornament or when not in use1 complete the usual furniture of the ,saracenic living-room4 ,seats or chairs of lattice-work 7dikkas71 on which the doorkeeper sits1 are usually found in entrance-halls1 and if we add the elaborate metal and coloured-glass lamps1 the vases1 the large metal salvers or trays1 and the rugs and carpets1 the furniture of a ,saracenic house is complete4 ,,italian ,,and ,,other ,,furniture ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,in the early part of the fifteenth century and during the whole of the century the furniture of ,europe generally was designed more or less on ,gothic lines1 but gradually the new forms that were now rapidly developing in the architecture of the ,renaissance1 but in a slower measure1 began to assert themselves in furniture designs4 ,consequently1 we find in many articles1 such as armoires or presses1 and cabinets1 a mixture of style in the design--as1 for instance1 the upper panels would be in the ,medival1 and the lower ones in the ,renaissance style1 or the general construction would be ,gothic1 and the details and decoration would be ,italian4 ,this was more often the case in the furniture and other art in ,germany1 where the ,renaissance was tardily welcomed4 ,styles of design in furniture overlap each other so much1 especially in the ,renaissance period1 that it becomes very difficult to assign a correct date to many pieces of important work4 ,gothic designs continued to be used during the sixteenth century1 although the ,renaissance had been developing for a hundred years earlier4 ,the most authentic means of fixing the date is when certain work can be proved to have come from the hand of a particular artist1 or when there is a record of its having been made for a king or some great person1 for the style is not always a sure proof of the correct date4 ,in the 8,quattrocento0 period 7#adjj-aejj71 or fifteenth century1 ,italian furniture made for churches1 palaces1 or private houses1 was usually decorated with paintings1 sometimes on a gilt ground1 which was prepared in a gesso material before the gold was applied1 some parts of which had relief ornamentation4 ,reliquaries1 altar-fronts1 panels of cabinets1 chests1 and marriage coffers were decorated in this way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--,marriage ,coffer of ,carved ,wood2 ,italian2 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,j47 ,the work known as 8tarsia10 or certosina work1 was made in great perfection about this time in ,italy4 ,it is inlaid work of a geometric character in design1 or is composed of floral ornament1 and sometimes consists of representations of landscapes and buildings4 ,this kind of inlay was derived from ,persian sources1 was developed chiefly by the ,venetians1 and was used mostly by them in the decoration of choir stalls1 tables1 chairs1 cabinets1 c4 ,ebony1 ivory1 and metals were also employed in the ,italian inlays of this period4 ,the ,italian ,cassoni1 or marriage-coffers1 were the most ornate and most imposing articles of furniture of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,they were placed in the long halls and corridors of the palaces and great houses1 and were usually given as presents to newly married couples4 ,they were generally used as the receptacle for the bride's trousseau and other treasures4 ,in the latter century they were carved in walnut with sculptural mythological subjects1 and had endings or corners of half-figures and half-foliage1 as caryatids1 with feet designed from the claws of animals to raise them from the ground 7,fig4 #bcc74 ,the carving was relieved by gilding in parts1 and sometimes the whole of it was gilt4 ,other examples of an earlier date were covered with a finely modelled decoration of gesso work1 and gilded1 and in other cases the large panels in the front were painted with figure subjects in brilliant colours and heightened with gold4 ,a less costly kind of marriage coffer was made in cypress-wood1 and fitted up in the inside with drawers1 having the decoration on the surface engraved or etched in brown lines1 with the ground slightly recessed and punched or stamped with a fine ornamentation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--;,italian ,work2 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,in the ,kensington ,museum there is an extensive collection of ,italian cassoni embracing all the above varieties4 ,chairs carved and gilt of the same style and period as the coffers were usually placed between the rows of the latter in the halls of the ,italian palaces 7,fig4 #bce74 ,these chairs had their backs and legs richly carved1 each part being made out of a single slab of wood4 ,the pair of bellows 7,fig4 #bcd7 is a further illustration of the design and excellence of workmanship as shown in the work of the wood carvers of ,italy in the sixteenth century1 or 8,cinquecento0 period4 ,another fine specimen of wood carving is the ,italian stool 7,fig4 #bcf7 of the same date1 which is remarkable for its delicacy of treatment4 ,another form of chair of a rectangular character1 with or without arms1 having an embossed leather or velvet covering on the back and seat1 with turned and carved legs and rails1 was made in ,italy about this time 7,fig4 #bcg72 it was much used subsequently in ,spain1 ,france1 and in ,england1 and has continued to be in favour down to the present day4 ,cabinets were made in ,italy and in ,france in which slabs of beautifully coloured and veined marbles and rare stones were inserted as panels in various shapes1 to which the name of 8pietra-dura0 work has been given4 ,in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries painted plaques of porcelain took the place of these marbles4 ,in ,england1 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,germany1 the great houses1 both private and religious1 and the king's palaces were elaborately furnished1 and kept in a state of great splendour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4--;,chair2 ,italian2 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,churches were also furnished with elaborate stalls1 pulpits1 and rich utensils1 but in the latter the style of the designs was still ,medival4 ,in the reigns of ,henry ,,vii4 and ,henry ,,viii4 in ,england the style gradually altered to the ,italian forms of the ,renaissance1 and many ,italian architects and carvers found work in this country in making furniture for the royal palaces1 and besides1 great quantities of ,italian1 ,flemish1 and ,french furniture were largely imported4 ,jean de ,mabuse and ,torrigiano were employed as architects and sculptors by ,henry ,,vii41 and ,holbein and some ,italian artists designed furniture and goldsmith's work for ,henry ,,viii4 ,in ,france1 during the reigns of ,franois ,i41 ,catherine de' ,medici1 and ,henri ,,ii41 a great activity took place in architecture and in all the industrial arts1 in which that country not only imitated1 but sought to excel1 the work of the ,italian schools4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--,stool of ,carved ,wood2 ,italian2 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,j47 ,as already mentioned1 the ,french kings and ,medicean princesses in the sixteenth century had invited from ,italy ,cellini1 ,primaticcio1 ,il ,rosso1 ,serlio1 and others1 who succeeded in founding the style of the ,renaissance in ,france1 and about the same time many ,french artists journeyed to ,italy to acquire the newer style which had been evolved from the study of the old classic remains of that country4 ,among the names of the principal ,french artists1 sculptors1 and carvers of this period are those of ,jean ,goujon1 ,nicholas ,bachelier of ,toulouse1 ,jean ,cousin1 ,germain ,pilon1 ,philibert de l',orme1 ,du ,cerceau1 who published designs for all kinds of decorations and carvings1 and ,hugues ,sambin of ,dijon4 ,most of these men were architects and also designers of the heavy and rich furniture that was characteristic of the ,french ,renaissance4 ,some of these artists and their works have been noticed in the chapters on ,renaissance architecture and metal work4 ,the cabinet 7,fig4 #bch7 is a good example of the architectonic style of ,french furniture of the sixteenth century4 ,french wood carving is distinguished from the ,italian of this period by the great use of the cartouche and strap-work 7,fig4 #bci71 which was so characteristic of the ,henri-,deux style4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4--;,chair ,decorated with ,gauffered ,leather2 ,early ,sixteenth ,century2 ,italian ,style4 7,j47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4--;,french ,cabinet2 ,sixteenth-,century ,work4 7,p47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4--;,carved ,wood ,panel2 ,french2 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,when the ,renaissance had taken a firm root in ,germany1 the designers and carvers of altar-pieces and of furniture generally proved themselves thorough masters of the style1 and were especially skilful in the carving of wood1 both on a gigantic and on a minute scale4 ,whole fronts of houses were elaborately carved in designs consisting of figure work1 animals1 ornament1 and grotesques of a quaint and humorous description1 while exceedingly minute works of figure subjects and animals were carved in box and other woods with a delicacy and quaintness often excelling the ivory carvings of the ,japanese4 ,escritoires1 buffets1 cabinets1 and other furniture1 were made and exported from ,germany into ,spain and other countries4 ,flemish and ,english furniture and carving were pretty much alike in the reigns of ,elizabeth--the ,tudor period of ,english art--and of ,james ,i41 the ,stuart or ,jacobean4 ,the pieces of carved furniture1 both ,flemish and ,english1 were very solid and heavy both in the design and thickness of the material1 which was generally of oak or chestnut4 ,so much ,flemish furniture was imported into ,england at this time1 and the ,english-made work1 being so close in resemblance to the former1 that a great difficulty is experienced in classifying examples of this period4 ,the table1 ,fig4 #bdj1 and the so-called 8,great ,bed of ,ware10 are examples of the furniture of the ,elizabethan period 7,fig4 #bda47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--;,elizabethan ,table4 7,p47 ,in ,spain the ,italian style in furniture was introduced in the first instance by the great importations from ,italy and ,germany1 but under such excellent native carvers and designers as ,felipe de ,borgoa 7sixteenth century71 and ,berruguete 7#adhj-aefa71 the style of the ,renaissance soon spread from ,toledo to ,seville and ,valladolid1 where great quantities of carved and inlaid work and elaborate altar-pieces were executed during the prosperous ,spanish period of the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4--,the ,great ,bed of ,ware2 ,elizabethan4 7,p47 ,during the same century ,venice and ,florence were famed for their marquetry--inlaid work of ivory and metal--in cypress1 walnut1 and other woods1 which art had been imported from ,persia and ,india by the ,venetians1 and which spread rapidly through ,europe until the furniture made with marquetry decoration by degrees supplanted the heavier classical architectural designs4 ,this was brought about chiefly in the ,west of ,europe by the ,dutch and ,french marquetry work1 developed during the seventeenth century4 ,before leaving the ,italian sixteenth-century work we must notice the mirrors1 with their elaborately carved frames of ,venetian design and manufacture4 ,in this century ,venice was renowned for the making of glass1 for which it is still famous1 and certain privileges were granted by the ,state exclusively to ,venetian manufacturers of looking-glasses4 ,two ,murano glass makers named ,andrea and ,dominico1 who were the inventors1 were granted in the year #aejg the sole privilege of making 8mirrors of crystal glass0 for a term of twenty years4 ,previous to this time the mirrors were made of various polished metals4 ,the frames of the ,venetian mirrors were often elaborately carved 7,fig4 #bdb71 some of them being made in designs that were strictly architectural in character1 representing a door1 or window frame1 with pilasters1 frieze1 and cornice1 and sill or plinth4 ,these carved frames were often partly or wholly gilt1 and were exported in considerable quantities4 ,pictures were framed in a similar way to the mirrors1 and carved and gilt frames were soon used all over ,europe as picture frames4 ,later on gilt furniture of all kinds was made in ,venice and was in great favour in the other countries of the ,continent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--,venetian ,minor ,frame2 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,the manufacture of marquetry furniture by the ,dutch in the seventeenth century has been mentioned as having helped in a great measure to change the style of furniture design from its former architectural character to a greater simplicity of construction4 ,large panel surfaces were used for the purpose of showing to greater advantage the rich and bright colours of different kinds of hard woods used in the marquetry4 ,both natural and stained varieties of various wood were arranged in the designs in juxtaposition1 and a free and picturesque kind of ornamental foliage was employed mixed with large tulips1 roses1 and birds in the ,dutch marquetry decoration4 ,other materials1 such as ivory1 ebony1 and mother-of-pearl1 were also used as inlays4 ,in ,france a similar kind of marquetry was developed1 but the design consisted more of figure subjects and imitations of ruins in landscapes4 ,a complete change in the design of the furniture in the latter country was also effected by the same desire to get large surfaces on which the inlaid work could be seen to great advantage1 and the spaces were not divided by architectural mouldings1 or pilasters1 as they had been in the preceding earlier work4 ,towards the end of the sixteenth century1 and during the earlier half of the seventeenth1 the sumptuous furniture1 the beds1 and general furnishing of the better class of houses and palaces in ,france and other ,european countries1 were characterized by the use of costly silk brocades1 tissues1 and embroidered coverings and hangings4 ,by thus seeking to give the furniture an appearance of the richest possible kind1 such articles as chairs1 couches1 and beds lost in a corresponding degree their elegance and former constructive beauty4 ,under their gorgeous ,italian and ,oriental velvet coverings1 their framed construction ceased to be visible4 ,the above pieces of furniture still retained their sumptuous upholstery during the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 but the tables1 armoires1 cabinets1 book-cases1 pedestals1 clock-stands and cases1 came under the influence of the architecture of the period1 when the king's chief minister1 ,colbert1 selected the best architects and cabinet-makers of the day to design the furniture for the palaces of the ,tuileries1 the ,louvre1 and ,fontainebleau4 ,the greatest name connected with the design and manufacture of the magnificent furniture of the ,louis-,quatorze period is that of ,andr-,charles ,boulle1 whose work is known under his name as 8,boulle40 ,this celebrated furniture is an elaborate kind of marquetry of which the materials are rare woods1 ebony1 tortoiseshell1 brass1 mother-of-pearl1 and white metal or tin4 ,the mountings1 mouldings1 and other salient points are made in brass beautifully chased and finished1 some of the mountings being in the forms of masks1 foliage1 cartouches1 and animals' heads and feet as termination4 ,andr-,charles ,boulle was born in ,paris in the year #afdb4 ,his father1 ,pierre ,boulle1 was also a distinguished bniste1 or cabinet-maker1 but his more eminent son possessed the artistic gift in a much higher degree4 ,in addition to making his special marquetry from his own designs ,boulle also executed a good deal of his best works from the designs of ,jean ,berain 7#afcf-agaa71 his chief collaborateur4 ,berain's designs were more ,italian in style1 more symmetrical in the composition of the ornament1 and more correct from an architectural point of view1 than those attributed to ,boulle himself1 whose designs had much of the looseness and freedom of the prevalent ,louis ,quatorze4 ,at the death of ,jean ,mac1 the king's bniste1 in #afgb1 who had formerly lived in the royal galleries of the ,louvre1 the logement and office of bniste to the king had become vacant1 and ,boulle on the recommendation of ,colbert1 minister to ,louis ,,xiv41 was appointed as the successor of ,mac1 and was installed in his rooms in the ,louvre in the year #afgc4 ,he had previously executed some important work for the king1 and was known as the ablest bniste at that time in ,paris4 ,the origin of the ,boulle marquetry can be traced to the ,indian1 ,persian1 and ,damascus encrusted inlays in ivory1 ebony1 nacre1 and metal1 that found their way to ,venice1 ,portugal1 ,spain1 and ,france in the ,middle ,ages4 ,these works consisted chiefly of caskets1 coffers1 and small pieces of furniture4 ,in the inventories of ,charles ,v4 of ,france 7#achj7 mention is made of lecterns and coffers of inlaid ivory or bone1 in ebony1 and similar works are mentioned in the inventories of ,charles ,,vi4 7#adah71 and of ,anne of ,brittany 7#adih74 ,these are the earliest notices of marquetry furniture that was made in ,france1 and was probably an imitation of ,oriental work4 ,in the ,renaissance period ,franois ,i4 bought some magnificent furniture of ,indian workmanship1 inlaid with mother-of-pearl1 from ,portuguese merchants1 and mention is made of chairs1 tables1 coffers1 cabinets1 and mirror-frames that belonged to ,queen ,marie de' ,mdicis 7#afjj71 the ,cardinal d',amboise 7#aeej71 and other great persons of the ,french ,court1 all of which works were made in marquetry4 ,in ,france before the sixteenth century1 tortoiseshell1 brass1 tin1 and exotic woods were used as inlays1 in addition to the ivory1 ebony1 and nacre of the ,east4 ,from this it will be seen that ,boulle did not invent the celebrated marquetry that bears his name4 ,he1 however1 brought this sumptuous form of cabinet work to great perfection1 and under the patronage of ,louis ,,xiv4 he had every opportunity to develop his artistic abilities to the utmost4 ,the method of procedure in the making of the ,boulle marquetry was1 first1 to prepare the veneers of wood1 shell1 tin1 and brass of the same thickness1 each having perfectly plain surfaces2 these veneers were then glued together in pairs of opposite materials1 according to the nature of the effect required in the finished work1 and were held together firmly in a vice4 ,the design was then traced on the surface of the upper leaf1 and the veneers were then cut through the lines of the pattern with a burin1 a sharp strong knife1 or a fine saw2 thus four pieces of marquetry were made at one cutting4 ,when the plaque forming the design was composed of tin or brass1 which was afterwards engraved or chased1 it was technically called 8boulle02 and when the design was formed by the shell or ebony it was called 8counter02 the two effects are together known as 8boulle and counter10 or premire et contre-partie4 ,a later kind of ,boulle work1 known as the ,second ,style1 has the shell veneers laid on a clouded vermilion or on a gilt ground4 ,boulle was an artist of great excellence as a sculptor and chaser of metals2 his mountings of foliage and masks which decorated his works are spirited in design and are skilfully chased and finished 7,fig4 #bdc74 ,he executed a great number of costly pieces of his famous marquetry for ,louis ,,xiv4 and the ,dauphin of ,france1 many of which found their way to ,england a century later4 ,examples of ,boulle work fetch great prices when1 as on rare occasions1 they make their appearance in a sale4 ,for instance1 two armoires1 or large cabinets1 were sold at the sale of the ,duke of ,hamilton's ,collection in #ahhb for the sum of #ab1jge4 ,the armoire 7,fig4 #bdd7 now in the ,jones ,collection at ,south ,kensington1 is perhaps the finest piece of ,boulle furniture in ,england4 ,it is much finer and better designed than the ,hamilton cabinets1 and would probably1 if now sold1 fetch the above sum1 or more1 that was paid for these cabinets4 ,it appears likely1 from the style of the ornament1 that it was designed by ,berain4 ,after the death of ,boulle his four sons carried on the making of this celebrated marquetry1 but in a coarser and feebler style of design and of inferior workmanship4 ,other bnistes tried to imitate ,boulle work1 but their efforts were not very successful1 and were only inferior imitations4 ,in ,germany in the seventeenth century1 the most prominent names as designers and makers of furniture are ,philip ,heinhofer1 ,baumgartner1 and ,hans ,schwanhard4 ,the former was the maker of the celebrated ,pomeranian ,cabinet 7#afaa-afag7 which is now in the ,royal ,museum at ,berlin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--;,boulle ,cabinet4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,in this century1 in ,italy1 ,andrea ,brustolone 7#afgj-agcb7 was noted as a carver1 gilder1 and cabinet-maker who worked in the extravagant style of the ,louis ,quinze 7,louis ,,xv471 and in the first half of the eighteenth century 7#agjj-gg7 ,pifetti1 a ,piedmontese cabinet-maker1 was honoured by the ,italian ,court1 for which he executed many works in ivory carving and marquetry work in the style of ,boulle4 ,many other cabinet-makers and carvers were employed to make furniture and to decorate the queen's palace at ,turin1 among whom may be mentioned the names of ,galleti1 the successor of ,pifetti1 and ,maggiolino of ,milan1 who chiefly made a kind of marquetry in light woods4 ,we are indebted to ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,pollen's handbook on furniture for some of these names1 and a list of many others will be found at the end of his useful book4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--;,boulle ,cabinet or ,armoire4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the ,french architect1 ,le ,pantre 7#afag-hb71 designed furniture and decoration in the heavy classical style of the ,roman antique1 mixed with shell-work1 grotesques1 and little ,cupids or 8putti10 and also engraved and published a book of studies of ,roman ornament from sketches that his master1 ,adam ,phillipon1 had made in ,italy4 ,he worked with ,le ,brun1 the painter and director of the decoration at ,versailles4 ,le ,brun's own work was heavy and dull1 although he aimed at grandeur and gorgeousness of effect4 ,he was director of the ,gobelins tapestry manufactory1 and his style of work was in harmony with the pompous ideas of ,louis the 8,grand ,monarch40 ,madame de ,maintenon says in one of her letters to a friend1 that ,louis was so fond of symmetry and stateliness in his architecture1 as in other things1 that he would have you 8perish in his symmetry10 for he caused his doors and windows to be constructed in pairs opposite to one another1 which gave to everybody who lived in his palaces their death of cold by draughts of air4 ,much of the more artistic kind of furniture was imported from the ,continent into ,england during the seventeenth century1 and a feature of this period was the highly decorative silver furniture already noticed in the chapter on metal work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4--;,carved ,bracket2 ,english2 ,eighteenth ,century4 7,p47 ,in this century and early in the following one1 the art of wood carving was greatly developed in ,england1 chiefly owing to the genius of ,grinling ,gibbons and to the influence of ,sir ,christopher ,wren1 the style developed being a more or less realistic or baroque form of the ,renaissance 7,figs4 #bde1 #bdf74 ,gibbons carried out some of his carvings to an astonishing degree of realism3 bouquets of flowers1 festoons of fruit and flowers1 birds1 figures1 and drapery were executed by him in the highest possible relief1 which looked detached from the ground1 and yet they usually formed a part of the solid wood with the background4 ,ornament was carved with a singular crispness1 and apparently without any hesitation on the part of the carver4 ,though we may condemn the florid looseness of the style of ,gibbons1 we must admire the dexterity of workmanship and general technical excellence imparted to everything he touched4 ,some of his best work may still be seen at ,chatsworth1 ,petworth ,house in ,sussex1 ,lyme ,hall in ,cheshire1 ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 and ,trinity ,college ,chapel at ,oxford4 ,many of the old ,english halls and manor houses also contain examples of carving done either by ,gibbons or his pupils and immediate successors1 namely1 ,watson1 ,drevot1 and ,laurens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4--,mirror ,frame2 ,seventeenth ,century4 7,p47 ,under the ,regency of ,philippe d',orlans in ,france 7#agae-agbc7 decoration and ornament assumed a light and fanciful character1 very naturalistic1 but still having some classic details2 of this style ,claude ,gillot is the chief exponent4 ,watteau1 his pupil1 made a great name as a painter of pastoral scenes1 ftes galantes1 and all kinds of light and daintily-treated subjects of a theatrical and artificial kind of composition4 ,his colour was silvery and harmonious1 and sometimes he decorated furniture with pastoral scenes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4--;,holy ,water ,vessel2 ,english2 ,seventeenth ,century4 7,p47 ,the ,rococo style had begun under the ,regency1 if not earlier1 and such men as ,oppenort1 the ,de ,cottes1 father and son1 ,franois de ,cuvillis1 the ,italians ,bernini and ,borromini1 and lastly the great apostle of the ,rococo1 ,meissonier1 were all designers of furniture or architects who belonged to the period of ,louis ,,xv41 and who executed works that reflected the loose and unrestrained character of the times 7#agbc-aggd74 ,chinese and naturalistic elements were grafted on1 or mixed with1 the former ,louis ,quatorze1 with an addition of still life that did duty for architectural form in objects of pottery and metal work1 and a combination of shell work2 all these elements made up the style known under the different names of rococo1 rocaille1 baroque1 or ,louis ,quinze4 ,furniture was made with curved and swelling panels to show to more advantage the marquetry1 or paintings on gold grounds3 these kinds of panels and friezes were known as 8bomb40 ,it is said that the ,italian architects1 ,bernini and ,borromini1 were the first to introduce the rococo style into ,france1 but no designer went so far in the wildness of its vagaries as the ,french ,meissonier4 ,his ornament furnishes a perfect example of the want of balance and symmetry4 ,he designed for furniture1 woodwork1 silver-smithery1 and modelled decoration1 all of which work illustrated the broken shell-shaped panels with frilled and scalloped edgings and curved mouldings4 ,rooms were lined with looking-glasses having these rocaille mouldings1 which were well adapted to show to the best advantage the glitter of the gold leaf that was used inordinately on the furniture and decoration of the ,louis-,quinze period4 ,pierre ,germain1 ,jean ,restout1 and ,jean ,pillement are well-known names of other designers of the rocaille style4 ,painted panels of pastoral scenes and flower groups were the usual colour decorations of ceilings1 furniture1 carriages1 and a host of minor articles such as fans1 tuis1 snuff-boxes1 c4 ,the latter smaller articles1 as well as the state carriages1 were decorated with paintings in what was known as the ,vernis-,martin style4 ,martin was a decorator of carriages and an heraldic painter1 who invented the particular hard varnish or lacquer which bears his name4 ,it was quite likely that this was as near as possible a successful imitation of the ,japanese gold lacquer that decorated the articles which were at this period imported from ,japan by the ,dutch and ,portuguese traders into ,europe4 ,carriages1 tables1 cabinets1 and especially smaller articles like snuff-boxes and needle-cases1 were painted and decorated in 8,vernis-,martin40 ,some of the smaller objects were beautifully mounted in chased gold4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4--;,commode1 with ,lac ,panels1 and ,mounts by ,caffieri4 ,louis-,quinze ,style4 ,it was quite a common practice to cover or to panel furniture with plaques of ,japanese lacquer1 and to mount them in chased metal or ormoulu decorations4 ,a unique commode is illustrated at ,fig4 #bdh1 made from panels of very old ,japanese lacquer and highly decorated with ormoulu mounts by ,caffieri1 a skilled chaser of the ,louis-,quinze period4 ,in the latter half of the eighteenth century an improvement in the design of furniture and of ornament generally crept in1 owing to the study of the ornamentation and design of the classic objects that had been found in the buried cities of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,these cities had been discovered in #agac1 and about forty or fifty years later books were published illustrating the buried remains1 which helped to change the public taste1 and by degrees a demand arose for designs of a more severe and classic kind4 ,the prevailing taste was then apparently gratified by the mixture or grafting of a certain quantity of classic forms with the former frivolous style of the ,louis ,quinze4 ,the style in furniture and in ornament now developed into what is known as the 8,louis ,seize0 7,louis ,,xvi471 and consisted in its ornament of a composition of thin scrolls1 garlands1 bows and quivers of arrows1 ribbons and knots1 medallions with classic cameo-cut subjects4 ,mouldings were fine and delicately ornamented1 and of straight-lined variety2 in fact1 the straight line now reasserted itself in architecture and furniture design 7see ,figs4 #bdi1 #bej71 in refreshing and healthy contrast to the tottering and riotous curves of ,louis ,,xv4 and the ,du ,barry period4 ,some of the most beautiful furniture expressive of the utmost elegance was made by ,riesner and ,david1 and was decorated with ormoulu mounts by ,gouthire for the ,queen ,marie ,antoinette4 ,riesner and ,gouthire were the ablest men of their time1 who generally worked together in the making and decorating of the finest furniture of this period4 ,we are fortunate in possessing in the ,jones ,collection at ,south ,kensington some of the very finest examples of this furniture1 much of which was made for ,marie ,antoinette 7,figs4 #bea1 #beb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4--,louis-,seize ,writing ,table4 ,riesner usually worked in light and richly-coloured woods1 such as tulip-wood1 holly1 maple1 laburnum1 purple-wood1 and rosewood1 for his marquetry work1 and used oak for the linings and foundations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4--,mahogany ,cabinet with ,svres ,plaques4 ,louis ,seize4 ,the best pieces of ,david and ,riesner were usually mounted in ormoulu or bronze-gilt metal by ,gouthire1 who has never been equalled as a founder and chaser of this class of work4 ,prieur was also a good chaser of the ,louis ,seize period4 ,delafosse was an architect and designer of furniture and decoration of the period1 whose designs were of a more heavy and classical kind4 ,cauvet was a ,german who worked in ,paris1 and designed graceful arabesques and figure work1 and who published a book of designs4 ,lalonde designed work that might be classed in the same category as that of ,cauvet1 and ,salembier was a prolific designer of a light and free kind of arabesque4 ,many of his designs for silk may be seen in the fabric at the ,silk ,museum in the ,bourse at ,lyons4 ,le ,ntre designed for furniture1 carving1 and was also famed with ,la ,quintinie as a designer of the state and public gardens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4--;,escritoire of ,marie ,antoinette4 7,jones ,collection47 ,in ,italy the prevailing ornament in furniture and decoration was more classical than in ,france4 ,piranesi1 ,albertolli1 ,pergolese1 and ,bartolozzi are names of the principal designers of this country in the eighteenth century1 most of whom published extensive works on ornament4 ,the latter two were brought to ,england by the brothers ,john and ,robert ,adam 7#agbh-agib71 who had travelled in ,italy1 bringing also with them classical ideas1 which they developed in ,england1 and which influenced to a great extent the style of architecture and furniture design in this country4 ,the ,adelphi building and the houses in ,portland ,place were built from designs by the ,adams4 ,all kinds of furniture1 sedan chairs1 carriages1 plate1 c41 were made from their designs4 ,fine mouldings1 medallions1 rosettes1 light garlands1 capitals in classic form1 fluted pilasters and columns1 were all designed by them with the utmost restraint in style--even to coldness4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beb4--,table of ,marie ,antoinette1 inlaid with ,svres ,plaques4 7,jones ,collection47 ,thomas ,chippendale was a famous cabinet-maker of the eighteenth century4 ,his furniture1 or even any good imitation of it1 fetches a good price at the present time4 ,he published a book on furniture design and interior decoration in the year #agfd4 ,his sons are supposed to have made nearly all the best of the mahogany furniture known as 8,chippendale40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4--,parlour ,chairs1 by ,chippendale4 7,l47 ,the parlour chairs 7,fig4 #bec7 are good examples of ,chippendale furniture1 and the chairs made in the so-called 8,chinese style0 7,fig4 #bed7 are attributed to the elder ,chippendale4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4--;,chair in the ,chinese ,style1 by ,thomas ,chippendale4 7,l47 ,sherraton and ,heppelwhite are names of two other well-known cabinet-makers1 who made excellent mahogany furniture in the last century1 both of whom published works on the subject at the latter end of the century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4--,stool and ,chair1 ,carved and ,gilt ,mountings2 ,empire ,style4 7,l47 ,the names of ,gillow1 ,lichfield1 ,lock1 and ,copeland are those of eminent ,english cabinet-makers and decorators of this period1 the two former firms being still in existence in ,london4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4--;,cabinet of ,red ,chased ,lacquer 7,japanese7 and ,porcelain ,dish4 7,j47 ,in ,france1 after the ,revolution 7#agib71 a more decided phase of the dry and heavy classicisms was apparent in the furniture design and decoration of the period 7#ahja74 ,this return to classic heaviness has been attributed to the influence of the academic painter ,david1 but is more likely to have been a pandering to the national worship of ,napoleon and the ,french ,empire4 ,it seemed to have been the universal desire to make everything echo or reflect in some measure the glory of the ,emperor ,napoleon ,i4 ,the meanest thing had some symbol or allusion by the way of decoration that should remind everybody of the greatness of the new monarch and of the ,french ,empire1 and consequently the heavy and ponderous style of that period was known as the 8,empire ,style40 ,the furniture of the ,empire was usually made in mahogany1 decorated with mountings in brass or bronze1 of sphinxes1 griffins1 ,roman emblems1 and antique scrollery 7,fig4 #bee74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beg--,lacquered ,boxes2 ,sindh4 7,b47 ,percier and ,fontaine are names of ,french cabinet-makers and designers who worked in the ,empire style1 and who published a book of their designs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beh4--,lacquered ,leg of ,bedpost2 ,sindh4 7,b47 ,in ,england the style was copied1 and we find that endless imitations of the ,french fashion in tables1 sofas1 chairs1 cabinets1 and clocks were designed after the same antique ideals4 ,in this country1 during the earlier half of the present century1 the medival ,gothic style was partly revived in architecture and in furniture1 mainly owing to the efforts of ,augustus ,w4 ,pugin1 the architect4 ,he designed many pieces of furniture1 and published a work consisting of ,gothic designs in the year #ahce4 ,notwithstanding the efforts of ,pugin and some other eminent architects and 8purists10 no particular lasting impression was made in this direction4 ,if we except a few of the best cabinet-makers' shops1 where in the present day some furniture of good design is made1 the majority of such work is now made by machinery1 or is often too much the work of the upholsterer1 and is consequently less artistic and more mechanical both in design and construction4 ,some of the most beautiful furniture of ,japanese and ,chinese manufacture is made in carved wood and lacquered in black or red4 ,cabinets with drawers and quaintly contrived cupboards and recesses 7,fig4 #bef7 are made by the ,japanese1 finished in lacquers1 and inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl4 ,the ,chinese are especially skilled in carving red lac-work4 ,some vases of great dimensions and of exquisite workmanship in this material may be seen in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,lac-work is also executed with great skilfulness by the natives of ,india4 ,bracelets1 armlets1 or golias1 are made of lac in various colours1 the golden decorations of which are made from tinfoil and varnished with a yellow varnish made of myrrh1 copal1 and sweet oil boiled together4 ,boxes1 bed-posts1 and other furniture1 made in wood or papier-mch1 are lacquered and decorated with flat renderings of flowers and conventional shapes of animals and birds 7,figs4 #beg1 #beh74 ,all kinds of toys1 weights and measures1 cooking utensils1 circular playing-cards1 turnery1 c41 are objects in small wares made in the choicest lac-work of ,india4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,textile ,,fabrics4 ,weaving is an art that has been practised from prehistoric times4 ,grasses1 shreds of bark1 rushes1 bast1 c41 were at first woven1 and used as articles of dress and coverings such as we see in use to-day among the uncivilised tribes of the world4 ,the loom is also a very ancient invention1 and must have been used much earlier than we have any record of it4 ,one of the oldest varieties of fabrics made in the loom is that of linen1 the threads of which are prepared from the fibrous parts of the flax plant stalk4 ,we have not only ,biblical evidence of the weaving of linen by the ancient ,egyptians1 but the actual material itself1 which has been proved by the strictest scientific analysis to be the product of the flax plant4 ,the oldest kind of ,egyptian linen was that used for the swathing bands of the mummies1 and was formerly known under the erroneous name of byssus1 the latter being a material woven from the filaments or beard of the pinna marina1 or sea-caterpillar4 ,the various methods and processes used in the manufacture of linen are well illustrated in the ,egyptian paintings and bas-reliefs1 such as the beating of the flax1 combing1 spinning1 and weaving in the loom4 ,some of the ,egyptian linen was exceedingly fine in texture and perfect in workmanship3 a piece of linen found at ,memphis had #edj threads to the inch in the warp4 ,linen yarn and the raw flax were exported from ,egypt by the ,phnicians and ,carthaginians to ,greece1 ,italy1 ,germany1 ,spain1 and probably to the ,british ,isles4 ,the ,greek women wove linen for their garments1 as the women of most ,european countries have done in the ancient and ,middle ,ages4 ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,belgium have from early times been the chief countries for linen manufacture in ,europe4 ,perhaps at the present day the city of ,belfast in ,ireland is the most important seat of linen industry in the world1 and ,dundee in ,scotland might claim the second place4 ,for the last two hundred years the linen trade of ,ulster has been in a flourishing condition4 ,the ,english ,parliament from the days of ,william ,,iii4 to the present time have encouraged and promoted the trade1 but the initial success of this industry was owing in a great measure to the skill and energy of ,louis ,crommelin and the ,huguenot colony1 who came to the ,north of ,ireland from ,france after the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes 7#afhe71 and in the year #afii finally settled at ,lisburn1 near ,belfast4 ,a similar colony of ,french ,protestants1 who were weavers by trade1 settled in ,scotland in #agbg under their leader1 ,nicholas d',assaville4 ,a great epoch in the history of weaving dates from the time of the invention of the ,jacquard machine1 which caused a revolution in nearly all branches of weaving4 ,jean-,marie ,jacquard 7#ageb-ahcd71 the inventor of this machine1 was a native of ,lyons and a silk weaver by trade4 ,the ,jacquard machine is attached to any ordinary loom1 and its work consists in mechanically selecting and raising the warp threads1 when the shuttle passes across the loom1 the action being regulated by means of cards with pierced holes through which the lifting cords or needles pass1 the holes in the cards being arranged or cut in accordance with the preconceived pattern that ultimately figures in the woven cloth4 ,the first ,jacquard machine used in ,england was set up in ,coventry in the year #ahbj4 ,silk and its manufacture by the ,chinese was known and understood from a period anterior to the date of #bgjj years before the ,christian ,era4 ,perhaps the first knowledge of silk products in ,europe was due to the conquest of ,persia and portion of ,india by ,alexander the ,great1 who came in contact with the ,chinese1 or some people who lived beyond ,india1 and who had probably worn silken garments4 ,to these people the ,greeks gave the general name of the ,seres4 ,this name was not only given to the people beyond ,india by the ,romans1 but to the silkworm itself4 ,aristotle1 ,virgil1 ,dionysius the ,geographer1 and later ,pausanias1 mention the seer or spinning-worm1 from which the rich and valuable ,oriental garments were made4 ,pliny says that the ,assyrians made silk from the bombyx and taught the art to the inhabitants of the island of ,cos4 ,pamphile1 the daughter of ,plates1 made the finest woven silk in the island of ,cos4 ,it is supposed that in the first instance the raw material found its way from ,china1 through ,india1 ,persia1 and ,arabia1 to the ,grecian ,isles1 and eventually to ,italy and ,western ,europe4 ,in ,european countries silk at first was mixed with wool or linen1 and garments of this material were worn by the ,romans4 ,the thin gauze-like silken garments of ,cos were of a pure quality and were imported to ,rome in the second century and were reckoned worth their weight in gold4 ,about this time great quantities of the raw silk were brought from the ,east by the overland route and by sea1 and in the end of the fourth century silk had become so cheap as to be within the reach of the common people 7,marcellinus1 ,a4,d4 #chj74 ,tyre and ,berytus were the chief seats of silk manufacture from which the ,roman markets were supplied4 ,in the year #eeb an event is recorded that revolutionised the manufacture of silk in ,europe4 ,the story is related that two monks1 either ,greeks or ,persians1 were sent as ambassadors to ,china1 and there learnt the arts and methods of silk production from the natives4 ,they succeeded in secretly conveying in their hollow cane walking-sticks a quantity of silkworms' eggs which they brought to ,constantinople1 where they were hatched in warm manure1 and the grubs were fed on the leaves of the mulberry-tree4 ,very soon after this a royal factory was set up in the palace at ,constantinople4 ,women weavers were pressed into the ,emperor's service1 and a state monopoly was set up for the manufacture of silk fabrics4 ,the introduction of the silkworm did not cheapen the price of silk2 on the contrary1 the production of the royal looms were sold at excessive prices1 and far beyond those paid for the material before the silkworm rearing period in ,europe4 ,the court of the ,eastern ,empire did not hold the silk-weaving monopoly long1 for very soon after the secret of the rearing of the worms spread to the ,peloponnesus and the isles of ,greece1 where1 from the sixth to the middle of the twelfth centuries1 ,europe was supplied with nearly all the silk it required4 ,in the year #aacj ,roger ,i41 the ,norman ,king of ,sicily1 brought a colony of silk weavers from ,athens and induced them to settle in ,palermo1 where an extensive silk industry was already developed under the former ,saracenic rulers1 who were vassals of the independent ,ftimy ,khalifs of ,egypt1 during the ninth and tenth centuries4 ,after the introduction of the ,greek weavers into the ,palermo workshops we find the ,siculo-,arabian designs altering from the older circular panels of ,saracenic ornament1 which consisted of the designs of birds and animals placed back to back1 or vis--vis1 of ,mesopotamian origin1 to bands of birds1 animals1 and fishes1 grotesque and otherwise1 mixed with foliage and scrolls containing mock ,arabic inscriptions4 ,to trace the analysis of patterns in silk fabrics is to trace the historical development of the fabrics themselves1 for pattern and manufacture1 historically considered1 have developed side by side4 ,when we consider the varieties indicated by the names of ,byzantine1 ,saracenic1 or ,arabian in its various forms1 ,italian and ,french1 we shall find that in the order mentioned the chronological development of material and pattern run concurrently4 ,silk1 in its raw state1 during the first few centuries of our era arrived in the principal towns of ,asia ,minor1 in ,alexandria in ,egypt1 and in ,byzantium 7,constantinople71 from ,china1 by the way of the ,indian ,ocean and the ,red ,sea1 and overland by caravans4 ,the ,persians and the ,byzantine ,greeks1 from the first to the eighth centuries1 monopolised the ,western silk manufacture1 as they already possessed the looms on which they had made linen1 woollen cloth1 and carpet tapestry4 ,it required very little adaptation to convert them into silk looms1 and towards the early part of the seventh century the new material had firmly established itself in ,persia1 ,syria1 and ,constantinople4 ,the patterns for the most part were symbolic and large in character1 and nearly all of them had their origin in the 8,homa10 or sacred 8,tree of ,life0 7,figs4 #bei1 #bfj71 with the worshippers on either side consisting of kings or other personages in the act of adoration1 such as we find as a common theme engraved on the ,assyrian cylinders1 wall decorations1 and bronze platters1 which had its origin in the older ,egyptian forms4 ,where the ,sacred ,tree1 with animals instead of human forms1 was made a feature of in the silk fabrics1 the stuff had a ,persian development derived from ,babylonian sources1 but the ,greeks or ,byzantines used this pattern for the sake of expediency1 and not in a symbolic sense4 ,there is a piece of very old ,byzantine silk in the ,kensington ,collection1 and also a piece of the same material in the ,silk ,museum at ,lyons1 which consists of a design of winged personages wrestling with lions2 the pattern is woven in strips1 and the colour is a red ground with white1 gold-coloured1 blue and green figuring4 ,the style of the design and peculiarity of the weaving prove it to be of a date anterior to the eighth century4 ,this particular ,byzantine tissue has the red weft of the ground executed in five different shades of the red colour thrown crosswise 7lanc crois71 each shade alternating in three threads by three2 the warp is thick1 and the shuttle passes right across the width1 all the material being pure silk--these are the marks by which ,byzantine fabrics are known4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4--;,assyrian ,homa or ,sacred ,tree4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4--,tree of ,life1 ,assyrian4 ,it is only in genuine examples of ,byzantine ,greek fabrics where we find the human figure is used in the design1 or animals of a free and natural type1 as the ,byzantine silk designs were invariably taken from ,greek mythological sources and scriptural subjects4 ,genuine examples of ,byzantine fabrics are very scarce1 and the one described is a genuine example of great value4 ,when the ,arabs under ,mohammed had conquered the countries of ,persia1 ,syria1 and the countries south of the ,persian ,sea1 they found already in these places the manufacture of silk in a flourishing state4 ,from this time--the ninth century--until the fourteenth1 we find that from the borders of ,china and ,india in the east to ,africa and ,spain in the south and west--which embraces the countries conquered by the ,saracens--the silk industry was carefully fostered under the ,mohammedan rule4 ,next to precious stones in importance and value the chiefest treasures of the ,khalifs of ,bagdad1 ,cairo1 ,fez1 and ,cordova were silken goods4 ,the bazaars of the chief towns were filled with the precious material1 and silk fairs or markets were held periodically1 chiefly at ,antioch1 ,rey1 ,erzeroum1 ,ispahan1 ,jerusalem1 and ,mecca4 ,the ,mussulman laws forbade the faithful to negotiate with the 7,christian7 infidels1 but there was a saving clause that helped them out of this difficulty1 which allowed them to bargain with the ,jews1 and these middlemen did not scruple to do business with either the ,christian infidel or ,mussulman4 ,the ,jews were then1 as they are now1 the bankers1 merchants1 and dealers in silk and precious stones1 and even before this date they were the purveyors of all kinds of articles of luxury to the wealthy ,romans of the south1 the ,gallo-,romans of the west1 and the ,goths of ,northern ,europe4 ,notwithstanding the laws of excommunication then in force1 ,italian ,christian merchants1 as well as ,jews1 traded with the ,mohammedan world1 and both ,jews and ,italians travelled over ,asia ,minor1 ,north ,africa1 throughout ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,spain1 ,france1 and ,england1 distributing the products of ,saracenic looms1 and establishing silk manufactories in ,christian countries1 notably in ,sicily and ,italy4 ,shawls1 dress goods1 and hangings were then the principal articles of silk manufacture4 ,persia was the original place from whence came the best patterns and materials2 it was really the fountain-head of textile designs1 and from thence they spread over ,arabia into ,north ,africa1 ,sicily1 and ,italy1 the patterns being modified according to the popular taste of the different countries and by the introduction of various symbolic features4 ,,textiles ,,of ,,india4 ,the textiles of ,india form an important section of the industrial arts of that country4 ,the materials used in the woven and embroidered fabrics are silk1 cotton1 wool1 hair1 coloured grasses1 jute1 gold1 silver1 and various tinsels4 ,among the chief artistic productions in textiles are the kincobs1 or silken brocades1 made at ,ahmedabad and ,benares1 the embroidered muslin of ,dacca1 the pile carpets of ,malabar1 the rugs of ,madras1 and the shawls of ,cashmere4 ,the native excellence1 however1 in the design1 colour1 and manufacture that has characterised these textiles for centuries past is now in danger of extinction--and great mischief has been done already--from the influence of ,european designs1 the introduction of magenta and aniline dyes1 and by the competition with ,european markets1 resulting in the production of cheaper forms of ,indian goods4 ,it is only in the case of a few instances where the textiles are made to order1 or under the patronage of some of the remaining ,indian princes1 that the traditional superiority of manufacture is still maintained4 ,another exception is the production of the silk brocades1 or kincobs 7,fig4 #bfa72 this is owing in a great measure to the demand for these goods by the ,chinese and other ,orientals1 who have not yet adopted the ,western ideas of imitating the ,european style of dress4 ,some of these kincobs are highly ornamented with interwoven gold or silver-gilt patterns of floral form1 others are ornamented as in the 8happy hunting-ground0 patterns of ,benares manufacture1 with flowers1 birds1 and animals4 ,this particular form of fabric is no doubt a survival1 through ,persian channels1 of the embroidered garments of the ancient ,babylonian monarchs4 ,in the production of cotton goods the trade of the native caste of weavers has suffered very much by the great importation of ,manchester cottons1 and by the establishment of monster cotton power-loom factories at ,ahmedabad and elsewhere4 ,many natives of the weaver caste have been obliged to take to agricultural and other less lucrative pursuits1 owing to the partial ruin of their trade by ,english competition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4--,kincob of ,ahmedabad4 7,b47 ,cotton-printing is still1 however1 an important native industry1 especially in the city of ,lucknow1 where the colouring and design are still superior to that of the ,english or ,french chintzes4 ,some of the best ,indian1 or rather ,indo-,persian1 ornament is found on the printed calico palampores1 or bed-coverings1 made at ,masulipatam and other places4 ,calicoes woven in varying stripes of coloured threads1 checks1 and tartans of all hues1 are among the specialities of ,indian textiles1 the material being used for trouserings1 skirts1 and petticoats4 ,the once-famous ,dacca muslins1 that on account of their gossamer-like appearance have been known under the names of 8evening dew0 and 8running water10 are now almost non-existent1 a cheaper and coarser variety taking their place4 ,muslins from ,dacca and other places embroidered with silk are still greatly used in ,india1 and are largely exported to the surrounding ,eastern countries1 including ,turkey and ,egypt4 ,cotton fabrics interwoven with golden thread were formerly made in great quantities to meet the wants of the once-powerful native rulers and the ,court retinues1 but now1 since the ,english rule in ,india1 this kind of fabric with many others of a sumptuous nature are much less in demand4 ,printing patterns in gold and silver foil is a common method of decorating dark purple or deep green cottons2 muslins are also stamped with patterns in gold4 ,fine gold and silver-gilt wire is used very much in ,india for lace-making1 weaving1 and embroidery4 ,the natives excel all ,europeans in the art of wire-drawing and in the making of gold and silver foil1 tinsels1 and spangles4 ,these industries are carried on chiefly in the cities of ,delhi1 ,lucknow1 ,ahmedabad1 and ,lahore4 ,silk manufacture is still a flourishing industry in many parts of ,india1 but1 on the other hand1 in some places it has declined very much owing to ,european competition4 ,the tasar or tusser silk is a native wild silk1 from which a coarser variety of silk is now manufactured in increasing quantities1 and is exported chiefly from ,bengal4 ,it is a useful material1 but has not the brilliancy or sheen of the ordinary silk4 ,plain silk cloth is made in the ,punjaub1 and the damasked or figured variety is made chiefly at ,bhawalpur4 ,cashmere has been famed for centuries past for its beautiful woollen shawls made from pushm1 the wool of the ,cashmere goat1 and from camel's hair wool2 the woven material of the latter is known as 8camlet40 ,the principal design on the ,cashmere shawls is the cone pattern decorated with a mixture of small flowers1 the fillings between the cones being also a diapering of small floral forms4 ,the cone patterns are also found on metal work1 enamels1 and carvings from ,cashmere and its neighbourhood4 ,on the genuine shawls the ornamentation is embroidered in wide borders1 centrepieces1 and corner groups of flowers4 ,the ,cashmere shawls have been imitated in woven shawls by the ,french and in the ,paisley shawls of ,scotch manufacture4 ,some of the costliest ,cashmere shawls are embroidered with a 8terrestrial paradise0 of singing birds1 flowers1 animals1 and figures4 ,indian ornament or decoration1 from its mosaic-like or flattened-out character1 is extremely well suited to the decoration of textile fabrics4 ,the native ornament consists of a variety of flat renderings of the daisy 7sventi71 the lotus1 the shoe flower 7,figs4 #ia1 #ib1 #bfa71 knop and flower patterns1 parrots1 peacocks1 lions1 tigers1 elephants1 men on horseback1 hunting or fighting1 c41 and is always rendered in flat tints of alternating colours on flat grounds1 in such works as enamels1 tiles1 pottery1 wall paintings1 lac-work1 and textiles of all kinds4 ,though at times the vice of ,indian ornament is illustrated in a riotous use of small detail1 on the whole it is well suited for the decoration of flat surfaces4 ,in the artistic products of the ,mohammedan people of ,india1 or descendants of ,persian settlers1 the ornament invariably consists of ,persian or ,saracenic types2 the former is distinctly seen in the ,masulipatam rugs1 carpets1 and palampores1 and the latter in the various art work of the ,mogul period1 as1 for instance1 in the inlaid marbles and other work of ,agra4 7,fig4 #bic47 ,the ,sassanian ,persian designs in silk1 as we have seen1 were derived from the more ancient ,assyrian and ,babylonian embroideries1 the motives of which were invariably the ,tree of ,life1 or 8,grove of ,ashareh10 with divinities1 priests1 or royal worshippers on either side1 the whole usually enclosed in circles4 ,in the ,persian and in the later ,mesopotamian ,msilwork animals took the place of the human figures1 and were often placed back to back1 divided by a stem or piece of floriated ornament--a reminiscence of the sacred tree--and still enclosed in a circular band4 ,the animals were generally lions1 cheetahs1 or were griffin forms1 all treated as ornamental abstractions1 and the intervening spaces between the circles were filled up with forms of parrots or other birds1 conventionally treated4 ,the early ,saracenic designs were copies of these 7,fig4 #bfb74 ,later ,saracenic designs had less of the bird and animal forms1 and more of the purely ,arabian ornament1 with the addition of horizontal bands of ,kufic inscriptions such as texts from the ,koran1 laudatory compliments to and names or titles of ,sultans and ,khalifs for whom the fabrics were made 7,fig4 #bfc74 ,it is singular that the rich silken fabrics made for and by the ,saracens had nearly always representations of animals in the designs1 although this was contrary to the laws of their faith2 but this may be accounted for by their practice of copying or adapting the forms of decoration already in use in the countries they had conquered1 and their lack of originality in design during their earlier days was1 perhaps1 the strongest motive in causing them to adapt ready-made inventions to their own uses4 ,the wearing of pure silken garments was also forbidden by the ,mohammedan religion1 but the ,saracens got over that difficulty by the mixture of a few cotton threads with the silken web4 ,the ,egyptian ,mamlks 7#abej-acij7 were very prodigal in the use of silk for dresses1 banners1 tent hangings1 carpets1 and horse clothing1 supplied from the looms of ,cairo and ,alexandria1 and imported from the ,eastern centres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4--,silk ,damask2 ,eleventh ,century2 ,early ,saracenic 7,l4 ,p47 ,in the thirteenth century the silk industry of the ,saracens was in its greatest vigour1 with designs mostly in imitation of the ,persian school1 and in the fourteenth the same motives were used1 but arranged in rows of horizontal bands--which is essentially a ,greek method--and was due to the influence of the ,greek and ,christian ,coptic designers4 ,a good example of this style may be seen in the peacock design1 ,fig4 #bfd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4--,silk ,fabric of ,iconium2 ,arabian3 ,thirteenth ,century4 7,lyons ,museum47 ,on account of the seaboard of ,asia ,minor having a mixed population of ,jews1 ,christians1 and ,saracens1 silk fabrics from that country were decorated with imitations of ,persian designs1 having the 8homa0 or 8tree of life10 ,christian elements1 such as the cross1 seen in the 8tree of life0 7,fig4 #bfe71 and also imitations of ,arabic writing4 ,the ,syrian examples of textiles are not so good in material or workmanship as the ,byzantine or old ,persian4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4--;,arabian ,silk ,wall ,hanging of the ,fourteenth ,century4 ,j4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4--;,apostolic ,tree of ,life1 with the ,cross ,emblem4 ,the most interesting development in the design of silk fabrics is that which took place in ,sicily4 ,the ,sicilians were first taught the art of spinning and weaving of silk and the rearing of the silkworm by their rulers the ,saracens of ,egypt1 and the early designs of the ,siculo-,arabian style have1 in addition to the ,persian cheetahs1 ,indian parrots1 and antelopes1 such animals of ,african origin as the giraffe1 elephant1 gazelle1 and other fauna of that continent4 ,gold1 silver1 and cotton threads were used with the silk in these fabrics4 ,mention has been made that in the twelfth century1 when the ,normans conquered ,sicily1 of their bringing silk weavers from ,athens and from other parts of ,greece to work at ,palermo4 ,here and at this time 7#aacj7 a distinct alteration of the design took place by the introduction of the ,greek classic and ,christian elements of ornament in mixture with some of the older ,saracenic forms4 ,mock ,arabic inscriptions were also used very much in these ,sicilian fabrics2 this may have been done by ,christian designers ignorant of ,arabic1 in order to give to the fabrics an appearance of ,saracenic work1 which1 perhaps1 made them sell better when exported 7,fig4 #bff74 ,another peculiarity of the ,palermitan silks is the multitude of elements found in the designs4 ,all kinds of fabulous animals and birds are used as in heraldic blazoning3 sunbursts1 cloud-forms1 ,christian emblems and elements occurring as forms of angels with swinging censers1 initials of sacred names1 and emblematic plants4 ,the use of these heraldic and ,christian elements was in a great measure due to the influence of the ,crusaders in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the favourite colouring of the ,sicilian silks was dark red grounds and green foliage2 the birds1 animals1 and mythological elements were usually woven in gold threads as in the example given 7,fig4 #bfg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bff4--,silk ,damask2 ,sicilian2 with ,imitated ,arabic ,characters4 7,r47 ,towards the end of the fourteenth century and during the fifteenth the designs became more floriated1 the vine and pomegranate1 with vase forms1 were used and were really developments from1 and did duty for1 the sacred tree of the early patterns1 and instead of a circular framing the flamboyant or ogival diaper lines were introduced4 ,this repeating framework was derived from the ,saracenic ,pointed architecture and adopted in the ogival ,gothic at this date 7,figs4 #bfh1 #bfi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4--,silk ,damask2 ,sicilian2 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,l4,p47 ,during the sixteenth century the pineapple was used very much under a variety of modifications as an ornamental form in fabrics 7,fig4 #bfi71 and often in company with the pomegranate4 ,this came about after the discovery of the ,west ,indies1 from where the pineapple had been imported into ,europe 7,fig4 #bgj74 ,large-pattern damask diapers1 brocades1 and velvets were now made in many places in ,italy1 with patterns based on waving lines or ogival forms enclosing bilateral schemes of ornament1 all of which were reminiscences of the 8tree of life0 patterns1 and in all may be traced the strong influences of ,saracenic design4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4--,silk ,damask2 ,florentine2 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries1 and even later1 ,lucca in ,tuscany1 ,genoa1 ,florence1 and ,venice were celebrated for the manufacture of silken brocades and velvets1 which have been used for the dresses of priests1 kings1 and noblemen1 as well as for hangings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4--;,diaper in ,velvet ,brocade2 ,italian2 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,the dress patterns of those days were all of a very large size of diaper1 such as are now only used for hangings and furniture coverings4 ,the ,venetian and ,spanish pictures of the period contain many illustrations of these patterns on the dresses of the figures and hangings of the chambers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4--,velvet ,brocade2 ,italian2 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,in ,france the silk weaving industry was first established at ,lyons about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,the designs of the first efforts of the ,french weavers were very similar if not copies of the prevailing ,italian school1 but soon after became more floral in character1 and more and more realistic renderings of flowers and foliage1 until about the eighteenth century1 when they partook of the same character as the pottery and furniture decoration1 which has been already described4 ,during the ,medival and ,renaissance periods ,france1 like ,england1 imported silks and velvets from ,italy and the ,east1 and their linen and drapery from ,flanders and ,germany4 ,bruges in ,flanders was especially famous during the sixteenth century for its silks and velvets1 and ,ypres was even more so for its fine linens and damasks4 ,very little silk was manufactured in ,england prior to #afbi1 when about this date a company of silkmen was formed in ,london4 ,the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes in #afhe had the effect of firmly establishing the manufacture of silk in ,england by the colony of ,french refugees who settled at ,spitalfields1 ,st4 ,giles's1 and ,soho in ,london1 and at ,canterbury1 ,norwich1 and ,coventry4 ,the trade soon afterwards spread to ,manchester1 ,macclesfield1 and ,paisley in ,scotland1 and the first silk mill for spinning and throwing was erected at ,derby by ,john ,lombe in the year #agag1 which was worked by water power4 ,the designs for the patterns of ,english silks have always been more or less imitations of the prevalent ,french styles1 and1 in fact1 ,england depended largely until late years on the efforts of ,french designers for nearly all of its textile patterns4 ,this is not the case1 however1 to-day1 for very few foreigners are now employed as designers by ,english manufacturers4 ,the chief seat of the velvet manufacture in ,germany at the present day is ,crefeld2 ,switzerland produces great quantities of silk1 which is made chiefly at ,zurich and the villages on the banks of the ,lake of ,zurich1 at ,bsle1 and other places4 ,china1 the birthplace of silk1 and younger ,japan are still famed for their delicate fabrics in this material1 from whence the raw products are imported extensively into ,europe4 ,in ,america the silk industry has made great headway of late years1 the principal seat of the manufacture is the town of ,paterson in ,new ,jersey4 ,england has always held its own in the manufacture of woollen goods of good material1 mostly of plain cloth1 but sometimes inwrought or woven with designs of figures1 animals1 and foliage patterns4 ,at ,bath1 ,norwich1 ,worcester1 and in the abbeys and great religious houses during the ,middle ,ages the monks employed a good deal of their time at the loom1 and considerable quantities of their work were exported to the ,continent during the fourteenth century4 ,the town of ,worsted in ,norfolk has given the name--worsted--to a cloth made there from a new preparation of the woollen yarn1 which consisted of a special twisting of the threads so as to make the yarn of a harder texture4 ,this cloth has been used for church vestments1 hangings1 and bed coverings4 ,cotton1 the woolly product of the cotton-tree1 and the cloth made from it1 has been known in ,india and the ,east from the earliest times4 ,pliny mentions cotton under the name of a fabric called oxylina1 made from the cotton that grew about the branches of the xylon or gossypium tree1 or shrub1 which grew in ,india1 ,upper ,egypt1 and ,arabia4 ,the ,romans imported cotton fabrics from ,india1 and the priests of ancient ,egypt used it for their dresses4 ,the cotton plant was cultivated by the ,moors in ,spain about the beginning of the tenth century1 and they were the first people in ,europe to make cotton fabrics4 ,they are also credited with the invention of fustian-making 7,spanish1 fustes71 a cotton material woven and afterwards cut precisely like velvet2 it is generally thought that as fustian preceded the manufacture of velvet1 the making of the latter may have been suggested to the ,italians by the ,spanish fustian4 ,in the year #aehe1 after the sacking of ,antwerp1 some ,flemish weavers settled at ,manchester--now the great seat of cotton manufacture in ,england--and commenced the new industry of cotton spinning and weaving4 ,before this date ,manchester and its neighbourhood were noted for the weaving of linen4 ,the linen yarn was imported from ,ireland1 woven at ,manchester1 and the cloth sent back for distribution and sale in ,ireland and other parts of the kingdom4 ,the power of production in cotton goods was enormously increased by the inventions of ,arkwright with his water-frame spinning machine1 ,hargreaves1 who in #aggj invented the spinning-jenny1 and by ,compton1 who improved on the latter by his invention of the mule-jenny in #aggi4 ,in #aghe ,dr4 ,cartwright invented an automatic loom1 which others improved on1 when finally ,horrocks1 of ,stockport1 in #ahjc brought to a successful issue his invention of the power-loom now in general use4 ,cotton printing and dyeing in colours have been successfully practised in ,india1 ,asia ,minor1 the ,levant1 and in the ,east generally from the earliest times4 ,the patterns found in the commoner prints and chintzes of to-day have still reminiscences of ,indian and ,persian ornament4 ,most of the ,english designs in cotton prints of the more important classes have a strong tendency to floral patterns of a naturalistic type1 the outcome of the imitation of ,french silk patterns that were common in the early part of this century4 ,calico block-printing was introduced into ,england about the middle of the eighteenth century by ,robert ,peel--the grandfather of the first baronet--who cut his own blocks4 ,printing by means of cylinders was invented in #aghe4 ,previous to the invention of calico printing 8painted cloths0 of linen and other fabrics were used as hangings and in the general furnishing of ,english apartments4 ,,embroidery4 ,the earliest method of decorating textiles was that of embroidering4 ,it has been called 8painting with the needle10 and is even an older art than pattern weaving4 ,in some of the oldest monuments of art that are still in existence1 as the bas-reliefs of ,egypt and ,assyria1 there may be seen representations of the embroidery that formerly decorated the kings' garments 7see ,figs4 #afb;,a to #afe1 former volume71 and we have seen that these were the models for some of the earliest woven patterns4 ,at first embroidered patterns would be simple geometrical designs1 and afterwards symbolic units mixed with simple floral forms1 as many of the older ,egyptian embroidered patterns usually were1 until by degrees the higher forms of patterns with figures or personages and animal forms were developed by the ,chaldeans and ,assyrians4 ,the latter nations1 with their inherent love of barbaric splendour and ,asiatic predilections for georgeous colouring1 surpassed the ,egyptians in the art of embroidery4 ,the ,persians and surrounding nations inherited from the older races this love of colour and early traditions of design1 which are still seen in their tapestry1 carpets1 and embroidered work of all kinds4 ,the ancient ,phrygian and ,lydian people1 who inhabited a portion of ,asia ,minor1 were cultured races whom the ,greeks and ,romans always regarded as the inventors of embroidery--phrygio being the ,roman word for embroiderer4 ,the ,phrygian embroidered patterns were mostly geometric1 but in the later periods plant and animal forms were also used4 ,most of the decoration of the ,ionian ,greek pottery1 consisting of bands of animals1 birds1 rosettes1 and lozenges1 are copies from the embroidered work of ,asia ,minor4 ,to-day1 even1 the women of these parts embroider their bodices1 aprons1 head-coverings1 and towels in an almost similar style of ornament4 ,the rock-cut faades of the ,phrygian tombs1 unlike the imitated timber constructions of the ,lydian tombs1 have sculptured decorations that have been copied from geometrical forms of embroidery1 and in many cases these faades resemble an embroidered curtain or carpet that would be hung up to serve the purposes of a door to the entrance of the earlier square domestic wooden buildings1 of which the ,phrygian and ,lydian tombs were imitations in stone4 ,the ,assyrian thresholds 7,fig4 #aff1 former volume7 and many other sculptures and wall decorations in painted tiles of ,chaldean and ,persian origin were usually copies of embroidery1 all of which clearly shows that embroidery and pattern weaving preceded stone1 wood1 and metal sculpture4 ,the ,greeks were highly skilled in making embroidery4 ,homer repeatedly alludes to this art as an employment for women4 ,helen of ,troy and ,penelope wrought beautiful robes and hangings in their looms1 embroidering them with rich needlework4 ,on a ,greek vase from ,chiusi1 ,penelope is represented at work on a loom of the 8high warp0 7haute-lisse7 or vertical pattern which is used so much to-day by the embroiderers and carpet weavers of the ,east4 ,we have many allusions in the ,bible to those who made all kinds of cunning needlework4 ,josephus says that the veil of the ,temple at ,jerusalem 8was a ,babylonian curtain embroidered with blue and fine linen1 with scarlet and purple1 and of a texture that was wonderful40 ,in ,england1 during the ,anglo-,saxon times1 embroidered work had a great reputation1 so much so that it was greatly prized and in request in ,france and other parts of ,europe1 where it was known as 8,anglicum ,opus40 ,from an inventory of ,charles ,v4 of ,france 7#acfd-hj7 we learn that he had a room furnished with ,english 8hullings0 or hangings embroidered in blue1 with figures of lions1 eagles1 and leopards4 ,embroidery was the chief occupation of ,anglo-,saxon and ,anglo-,norman ladies4 ,bede and other old historians frequently extolled the excellence of design and workmanship of the ,english embroidered palls1 copes1 corporals1 chasubles1 and hangings4 ,after the ,conquest and during the ,norman period all kinds of heraldic devices were introduced amongst the ornament and floriated patterns2 sometimes stories and romances were illustrated with the needle1 and belonging to this order the famous ,bayeux ,tapestry may be mentioned1 which represented in the form of a long frieze the ,conquest of ,england by the ,normans4 ,it is supposed to have been wrought by ,queen ,matilda and her maidens1 but was probably made to the order of ,odo1 ,bishop of ,bayeux1 and brother-in-law to the ,queen4 ,it is not only a celebrated piece of needlework1 but is an invaluable record of the costume of the period 7,fig4 #bga74 ,a coloured photograph of it is now in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4--,norman ,archer from the ,bayeux ,tapestry4 ,about the date of the thirteenth century various technical names were given to the different kinds of embroidery1 such as 8opus plumarium10 or1 as it is now called1 8feather-stitch10 a kind of needlework where the stitches are laid lengthwise1 and not across1 overlapping each other like the feathers in a bird's plumage2 8opus pulvinarium10 or 8cushion0 style1 where the work is done in cross and tent stitch2 8opus pectineum10 where the embroidery is made to represent or imitate weaving1 and had the design carried through from front to back of the foundation material4 ,the ,opus ,anglicum1 so highly prized1 seems to have been a kind of chain-stitch embroidery1 giving a granulated surface4 ,the workwoman would start1 for instance1 in the case of executing the face of a human figure1 at a point in the centre of the cheek or chin1 and work around it in a circular method1 and where the hollows and dimples would occur1 a heated metal rod with a small bulb at the end of it would be used to press down the cavities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4--,part of the ,orphrey of the ,syon ,cope2 in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,in the well-known ,syon ,cope1 an ,english embroidery of this period 7,fig4 #bgb71 both the old feather-stitch and the chain-stitch are used as above described4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4--;,carpet from ,persia1 embroidered in ,gold and ,silver on ,dark ,blue ,velvet2 ,early ,eighteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the ,crewel stitch is a combination of the long and short feather-stitches1 and is adapted for shading effects4 ,in the stitches known as chain1 knotted1 and button-hole stitch the thread is looped2 but lies flat in satin-stitch1 crewel1 darning1 tent1 and cross stitches4 ,satin and darning stitches can be worked so that the design appears the same on both sides of the cloth1 but chain and crewel stitch only produces the design on one side of the material4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgd4--,state ,gloves1 formerly belonging to ,louis ,,xiii4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,gold thread has been used very much in all ages in embroidery1 and silver thread also1 but unless the latter is varnished or lacquered it goes black by tarnishing4 ,gold 8passing0 is a silver-gilt thread wound around silk4 ,in old embroideries and woven tissues a gold thread was made of thin parchment gilded and twisted around silk3 the ,japanese used gilded paper in the same way1 and sometimes the pure gold was used in thin1 flat1 beaten-out strips for both embroideries and woven fabrics4 ,in ,persia and in the ,east generally an extensive use is made of cloths of gold and silver embroidery 7,fig4 #bgc7 as well as closely-covered needlework in silk and wool1 and another modern kind is white silk embroidery on white cambric or calico4 ,cut work or 8appliqu0 is another form of embroidery1 where flowers1 foliage1 ornament1 and figures are separately wrought with the needle1 and the spaces cut out of the ground material into which these pieces were inserted4 ,many examples of ,spanish1 ,rhenish1 and ,florentine needlework may be seen in the ,kensington ,museum1 in which the architectural portions of the design are woven1 and the figures of saints and other subjects worked on fine canvas and inserted in the panel spaces4 ,another and commoner kind of appliqu work is where the ornamental shapes are cut out of silk1 velvet1 linen1 or woollen material1 and sewed on to the cloth foundation1 an edging material being used consisting of silk cord1 gilt leather1 or gimp4 ,appliqu work is more adapted for hangings and furniture coverings than for dress material1 though it was formerly used for dresses4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #bgd7 gives a very good idea of the style of ornament in ,spanish or ,french embroidery of the ,renaissance period4 ,,tapestry4 ,tapestry weaving is an art that requires greater care and skill on the part of the workman than any other branch of textile manufacture1 especially in that kind known as 8storied tapestry10 in which is woven a design or picture copied from a previously executed cartoon4 ,tapestry is woven in the 8high warp0 7haute-lisse7 or in the 8low warp0 loom3 in the former case the loom is vertical1 and in the latter horizontal4 ,the largest sized and the more important kinds of tapestry1 such as the 8,gobelins10 are made in the high warp looms4 ,on account of the skill required1 the accuracy and difficulty connected with the weaving of storied tapestry1 it takes a long time to educate and perfect the training of a tapestry weaver--who must be an artist himself1 so much being left to him in the selection1 harmonizing1 and shading of the different colours1 even after the design is made that he is required to copy4 ,in tapestry weaving the warp is covered by the woof on both its sides4 ,the warp is divided into two leaves or parts by a thread1 and by a glass rod or tube called the bton de croisure4 8,to form the web1 the workman takes a shuttle mounted with wool or silk1 the end of which he fastens to the warp to the left of the space to be covered by the colour in his shuttle2 then passing his left hand between the two leaves1 separated by the bton de croisure1 he draws towards him the thread which this shade is to cover2 his right hand1 passing between the threads1 lays hold of the shuttle1 which he brings to the right1 and his left hand taking hold of the coats brings forward the back thread of the warp1 while the right hand returns the shuttle to the place from which it was first moved4 ,this passing and returning of the shuttle forms what is called two shoots or a course40 7,de ,champeaux74 ,one of the great difficulties of the weaver is the shading off or gradation of the colours1 which is rendered more difficult by the design being reproduced on the wrong side from the position of the weaver4 ,hatching and stippling are resorted to in order to prevent a harsh or mosaic-like appearance1 and it is here that the great skill and artistic knowledge of the weaver are most required4 ,an extraordinary number of tones and shades are used in an important piece of work1 all of which require to be fast dyed in colour in order to secure durability of tone in the fabric4 ,it is said that ,m4 ,chevreul1 the late famous ,french chemist and director of the dyeing department of the ,gobelins1 had composed a chromatic prism of #ad1dbj different tones4 ,the best wool used in principal tapestry works on the ,continent has always been imported from ,kent in ,england4 ,the art of tapestry weaving was originally acquired from the ,east1 where carpets of a floral and ornamental design were woven in the imitation of the old hand-made embroideries4 ,in ,europe the names of ,sarazins or ,sarazinois tapestry were given to these products from the fact that they were made and exported by the ,saracens4 ,perhaps the earliest woven tapestries of ,europe were the ,flemish1 which were first made towards the end of the twelfth century4 ,the towns of ,arras1 ,oudenarde1 ,lille1 ,brussels1 ,valenciennes1 ,tournay1 and ,bruges were celebrated for the manufacture of tapestry1 of which the town of ,arras was the most important1 hence the old name of 8,arras0 used in ,england for all kinds of storied tapestry4 ,flanders was a rich and powerful country during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 and at that time the ports of ,bruges and ,antwerp were the greatest in the world4 ,the various trades were protected by the great corporations or guilds against the encroachments of the nobles on their rights1 and the most sturdy and turbulent of all the guilds was that of the ,flemish weavers1 by reason of their numbers and general prosperity of their trade4 ,the product of the ,flemish looms found its way to all parts of ,europe and particularly to ,england1 and as far as design and workmanship were concerned1 and in the flat treatment of the former to the material1 these old ,flemish tapestries have never been excelled4 ,the flat decorative treatment in the figure subjects of the earlier work1 consisting of allegorical designs and romances by such artists as ,roger van der ,weyden1 ,stuerbout1 ,hugo van der ,goes1 and other artists of the ,van ,eyck school1 were singularly appropriate to the material1 and immensely superior to the more gorgeous effects of colour and misapplied shading of the later ,french tapestries4 ,examples of this earlier work are still in existence in the museums and palaces of ,europe4 ,louis ,,xi41 ,king of ,france1 took the town of ,arras in #adgg1 and this was practically the death blow to the manufacture of tapestry at that place1 but immediately after this event ,brussels under the ,burgundian rule rose to great prosperity4 ,artists and tapestry weavers flocked to ,brussels1 which soon became a great centre of this industry4 ,designs were sent from ,italy by the ,popes and other princes to be woven in tapestry1 and many of the best ,italian and ,flemish painters made designs for the ,brussels ateliers4 ,pope ,leo ,x4 had the tapestries--now in the ,vatican--from the celebrated cartoons by ,raphael1 made in ,brussels4 ,these cartoons are now in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,they were bought by ,charles ,i4 from a tapestry manufactory of ,brussels by the advice of ,rubens4 ,giulio ,romano1 the ,italian painter1 ,lucas van ,leyden1 ,bernard van ,orley1 ,jean ,mabuse1 and other artists of the ,renaissance period1 furnished designs for ,brussels tapestry4 ,owing to the occupation of ,flanders by the ,spanish 7#aeee-afdh71 the palace at ,madrid contains the most extensive collection of ,flemish tapestries in existence1 which had been chiefly acquired during that period4 ,tapestry making declined and was almost non-existent during the religious wars of the sixteenth century1 but was re-established and became once more a flourishing industry in the seventeenth century1 and a decree was passed in #afdg for its support by the ,state4 ,the subjects of the storied tapestry were now of a more naturalistic order3 hunting scenes1 landscapes1 and rustic figures were woven from the designs of the ,dutch and ,flemish painters of the period1 and many of the designs were copied from ,french tapestry4 ,the family of ,pannemaker1 celebrated at a former period in ,brussels1 set up an important atelier in ,lille about #afdg1 which remained in full working order for about fifty years4 ,another well-known tapestry master named ,guillaume ,werniers 7#agja-agch7 executed many compositions designed by ,teniers4 ,among the earliest tapestry manufactories in ,france was the one established at ,fontainebleau in the year #aeci by ,francis ,i4 ,it was managed by ,philibert ,babou1 the king's architect1 and ,serlio1 the ,italian architect and painter1 designed some of the tapestries4 ,the same manufactory existed under ,henri ,,ii41 with ,delorme for its director and ,ducerceau as the chief designer4 ,many tapestry weavers were attracted to ,france from ,flanders and ,italy at this period1 and a colony of ,flemish weavers who had settled in ,paris were joined to the house of the ,gobelins--a long-established family of scarlet wool dyers--in the ,faubourg ,saint ,marcel in #afjc4 ,the house of the ,gobelins had been under royal patronage for some time previous to the year #affg1 when it was bought by ,louis ,,xiv4 and henceforth became a royal monopoly4 ,lebrun1 the painter to the king1 was appointed director4 ,some very heavy and inappropriate compositions of this painter were copied in the ,gobelins tapestry1 but besides these1 many purely decorative and ornamental designs with rich borders were also produced4 ,this was a period of great activity at the ,gobelins factory1 when nearly three hundred workmen and artists were employed4 ,mignard was the successor of ,lebrun as director of the works 7#afij71 then ,mansard the architect4 ,after him came the ,duc d',antin as director 7#agjh-cf71 and then ,m4 de ,marigny1 under whom many large paintings were reproduced in tapestry1 and smaller designs of ,boucher and others4 ,this celebrated factory1 like that of the ,svres porcelain1 still remains under ,state care and patronage4 ,several other tapestry manufactories existed in ,paris from the early days of the ,gobelins1 and a new kind of tapestry-carpet called the ,savonnerie--a kind of velvet carpet made in imitation of the ,oriental ,turkey-stitch1 was introduced into ,france under the patronage of ,henri ,,iv4 7#aehj-afaj71 the looms being set up in the ,louvre4 ,this carpet manufactory was united to the ,gobelins factory in #ahbf4 ,at ,beauvais a celebrated manufactory of low warp tapestry has been in existence from early times1 and though some of the ,beauvais compositions are equal to the high warp productions of the ,gobelins1 the work as a rule consists of a smaller and more ornamental character of design4 ,rheims1 ,aubusson1 and ,felletin have also been centres of the ,french tapestry industry4 ,aubusson carpets and tapestry have been noted for their soft and delicate textures1 and have been used very much for furniture upholstery4 ,italy has produced some good storied tapestry in the sixteenth century 7,fig4 #bge71 but has been more celebrated for its velvets1 c4 ,england has been content to import more tapestry than it has ever manufactured1 although many important works have been executed at different times in this country4 ,probably the earliest piece of genuine ,english tapestry is that which still adorns the old ,st4 ,mary's ,hall or ,council-chamber in ,coventry1 and may have been made in the fourteenth1 or early fifteenth1 century4 ,in the laws of ,edward ,,iv4 7#acdd7 tapestry making is mentioned1 and in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 and the year #aeji1 ,sheldon and ,hicks set up a tapestry manufactory at ,barcheston in ,warwickshire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bge4--;,dismissal of ,hagar and ,ishmael by ,abraham2 ,italian ,tapestry2 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,the most important tapestry works were those set up at ,mortlake1 near ,london1 in the reign of ,james ,i41 by ,francis ,crane1 and which were liberally supported by ,james and his son ,charles ,i4 ,during the reign of the latter monarch the ,mortlake works furnished a great many important hangings for the royal palaces of ,windsor1 ,hampton ,court1 ,greenwich1 and ,st4 ,james's1 among which were the reproductions of the celebrated cartoons of ,raphael1 which ,charles ,i4 had purchased from ,brussels4 ,some of these tapestries are now preserved in the 8,garde ,meuble0 at ,paris4 ,mythological subjects1 framed with rich borders1 were designed by ,francis ,cheyne1 a native of ,saxony1 who was the principal artist employed at the ,mortlake works4 ,during the wars of the ,commonwealth the factory was closed1 but was re-opened at the ,restoration of ,charles ,,ii41 who passed some ,acts for the encouragement of ,english tapestry making1 and put restrictions on the great importations of foreign tapestries4 ,the latter king employed ,verrio the painter to make designs for the ,mortlake textiles4 ,on the death of ,francis ,crane1 the founder1 in #agjc1 the works were finally closed4 ,unimportant tapestry works were in existence at ,soho and ,fulham about the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,another attempt at tapestry weaving was made by a ,french ,protestant refugee named ,passavant1 who established a factory at ,exeter about the end of the seventeenth century1 and of late years there has been an attempt made to carry on tapestry weaving at ,windsor under the patronage of ,her ,majesty4 ,some excellent work1 equal if not superior to some of the best ,flemish tapestry1 has been successfully made by ,william ,morris from the designs of ,sir ,edward ,burne-,jones4 ,england has given great attention to the manufacture of low warp carpets1 in which she is only excelled by some of the best products of ,oriental looms4 ,the manufacture of printed and woven carpets now forms one of the most important factors in the national prosperity of ,england4 ,brussels carpets are now made chiefly at ,kidderminster2 originally they were made at ,wilton4 ,axminster and ,kidderminster carpets are made in ,glasgow1 ,wilton1 and ,kilmarnock1 and ,wilton carpets in ,yorkshire4 ,turkey carpets are imported chiefly from ,smyrna4 ,persia1 ,india1 and ,tunis are still great centres of the ,eastern carpet industry4 ,the carpets from these places are in great request in ,europe for their beauty of colour and design and for their great wearing qualities4 ,carpets were originally used as portires1 table and couch coverings1 but have gradually become coverings for floors1 owing to their cheapened cost of production4 ,,lace4 ,hand-made laces are divided into two great classes--the 8needle-point0 and the 8pillow-made02 the former is made with a needle on parchment1 and the latter by twisting or plaiting threads from bobbins on a pillow4 ,needle-point lace is an offspring of embroidery1 and pillow-made lace is the highest artistic development of twisted and plaited threads4 ,the foundation lines or threads of the pattern1 various kinds of grounds1 and the edging in needle-point lace1 are usually worked over with a button-hole stitch in the ordinary course of making1 while this distinguishing feature of needle-point lace is absent in the pillow-made varieties4 ,the earliest forms of lace were known as 8lacis10 or darned netting1 and a species of embroidery called 8cutwork40 ,one kind of cutwork consisted in cutting1 vandyking1 or scalloping the edges of collars1 cuffs1 or garments into various shapes1 and overcasting the edges with the button-hole stitch2 another kind was when an embroidered design was wrought on stretched network1 and the pattern wrought in looped stitches with the needle4 ,this was the transitional form between embroidery and lace work4 8,lacis10 or darned netting1 was worked in regulated stitches on a ground formed in squares1 called 8reseuil10 and sometimes it was formed of pieces of linen cut out and applied to the net4 ,ornamental open-work of cut linen and other material embroidered with silks of various colours1 gold and silver threads1 and woollen yarns1 were made before the sixteenth century4 ,all these varieties1 though akin to lace work1 required some kind of a foundation1 but lace consists of a combination of threads alone1 and has no foundation4 ,pattern-books were published in ,venice of designs for 8cutworks0 and embroidery of all kinds as early as #aebg1 and later1 in #aeca1 a book was published by ,tagliente1 giving the descriptions and methods employed for making the various stitches used in embroidery for hangings1 costumes1 and altar-cloths4 ,some of the geometric designs in this book have been used for point-lace patterns4 ,the term used by the ,italians1 punto in aere 7aria71 or 8point in air10 is thought by ,mr4 ,alan ,cole to mean needle-point lace4 ,the geometric design 7,fig4 #bgf7 of ,genoese point is something very much akin to the punto in aria patterns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgf4--;,genoese ,point ,lace4 ,at ,antwerp and ,cologne1 and other cities in ,germany and ,flanders1 imitations of the ,venetian pattern-books were published1 which served the lace makers of those countries for their patterns4 ,the ,flemish lace workers imitated to a great extent the ,venetian patterns1 and in later years those of the ,french4 ,lace is made in silk1 cotton1 flax1 and sometimes in gold and silver thread1 aloe-fibre1 and hair4 ,in the early kinds of lace the pattern was united by single threads covered with button-hole stitch1 and edged with little loops1 the flowers or pattern made of compact 8clothing10 or woven threads 7,fig4 #bgg;,d71 and the ground in its simplest variety by meshes made by plaiting 7,fig4 #bgg;,a71 as in the ,brussels and ,honiton four-thread ground1 or in other varieties1 by simple twisting 7,fig4 #bgg;,b74 ,the ground or mesh 7rseau7 is usually hexagonal1 and is worked together with the pattern in the ,valenciennes1 ,mechlin1 and ,buckingham laces1 but in the ,brussels and ,honiton the ground is worked in afterwards1 or the pattern is sewn on4 ,other fancy grounds or 8fillings0 are called 8modes0 or 8brides10 which consist of little ties ornamented with 8picots0 or small loops 7see ,figs4 #bhj1 #bhd74 ,a more elaborate form of fillings may be seen in the ,brussels and ,alenon lappets 7,figs4 #bgh1 #bgi72 in the latter may be seen lozenges and flat hexagons of a solid character set in frames of hexagons and on the intersections of the squares4 ,this groundwork has been termed rseau-rosac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgg4--;,a1 ,brussels ground2 ,b1 ,two-thread ,mesh2 ,d1 ,woven ,ground4 ,the outline around the pattern in some laces is called the 8cordonnet02 it is an important feature of the ,alenon point lace 7,fig4 #bgi71 where it consists of a horsehair overcast with a button-hole stitch of thread2 it is also a distinctive mark of the pillow-made ,mechlin lace 7,fig4 #bhc71 but never occurs in the true or vraie ,valenciennes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgh4--,lappet2 ,brussels2 ,eighteenth ,century4 ,the oldest of white hand-made laces is the ,italian needle-point variety1 which is a development of embroidery4 ,it is difficult to give the exact date of the invention of needle-point lace1 for in the earliest specimens of ,italian work1 in which the patterns are copied from the geometric designs of the ,venetian pattern-books1 they are usually a mixture of needle-point and of plaited and twisted work1 but the latter may have been done with a hooked needle1 and not pillow-made4 ,on the other hand1 before point lace was so universally made by the ,venetians1 the pattern-books were published about the middle of the sixteenth century for merletti a piombini1 or 8lace made with leaden bobbins0--probably a species of pillow-made lace--and some ,italian work of this kind is still in existence that is quite as early in date as that of the oldest needlepoint variety4 ,this would prove that there was little or no difference in the age of either invention1 although perhaps priority ought to be given to the needle-point variety4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgi4--,lappet2 ,point d',alenon2 ,eighteenth ,century4 ,guipure is a name that has been given to lace in which the flowers are united with ties or 8brides picotees0 7,fig4 #bhj71 but the term guipure is more properly a kind of filigree work made with stiffened cords like gimp or wire1 the pattern being formed of gimp bent into a flattened design by the needle1 and united where the forms touch each other 7,fig4 #bha74 ,the patterns in the early laces were1 as we have seen1 purely geometric forms1 such as squares with circles enclosed1 divided by radiating lines and diagonals1 rosettes1 lozenges1 and small trimming borders of rectangular panels1 all worked on foundation lines that resembled in some degree the main lines of a spider's web4 ,by degrees these patterns developed into a more solid massing of the flower forms1 and the ties1 or brides1 became more irregular1 but at the same time more evenly distributed4 ,sometimes1 as in ,venetian point lace1 the brides had little flowers worked on them1 and in many instances the larger forms were raised to a considerable height or thickness4 ,the groundwork in some of the scroll designs of ,venetian point laces is composed of regular hexagons1 and this was the starting-point of the future hexagonal mesh grounds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhj4--;,guipure2 ,flemish2 ,seventeenth ,century4 ,raised scroll work is peculiar to the ,venetian point laces of the best period--the end of the seventeenth century4 ,flemish lace was mostly of the pillow-made variety1 but some point work was also executed1 principally at ,brussels4 ,mechlin1 ,lille1 and ,valenciennes were all famous for their pillow-made laces4 ,returning to the development of patterns in lace1 we find that ,france led the way in design from the early years of the eighteenth century4 ,prior to this time1 ,colbert1 the ,minister of ,louis ,,xiv4--whose far-sightedness in the matters of art did so much for ,france--succeeded in establishing lace-making centres at ,alenon1 ,argentan1 ,quesnoy1 ,arras1 ,rheims1 c41 and the patterns of lace then in favour partook of the prevailing style of ,louis-,quatorze ornament with a mixture of floral forms1 more or less realistic in character 7,fig4 #bgi74 ,the latter illustration is that of a lappet of 8point d',alenon0 fabric1 which is the most elaborate and most expensive of all ,french laces4 ,another ,french point lace is that known as 8point d',argentan10 and if not a variety of ,alenon lace1 is very much like it4 ,this lace is noted for its clear and strong-meshed ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bha4--;,guipure ,lace2 ,italian2 ,seventeenth ,century4 ,valenciennes lace1 made in the ,french town of that name1 is one of the oldest pillow-made laces1 dating from the fifteenth century2 the best ,valenciennes1 however1 has been made at ,yprs1 and is a very soft and flat variety of fabric1 with the meshes plaited1 not twisted1 has no cordonnet around the edges1 and is very floral in design4 8,fausse0 ,valenciennes is an irregular and slightly coarser variety than the 8vraie0 or true ,valenciennes4 ,mechlin lace is similar in design to ,valenciennes1 but has the cordonnet outline1 and has the meshes of the ground partly twisted and partly plaited 7,fig4 #bhc74 ,lille and ,arras laces have fine single grounds3 four of the six sides of the mesh are formed by the twisting of two threads1 and the other two sides by simply crossing the threads4 ,lille was formerly famous for its black straight-edged laces4 ,chantilly laces were made in white and black silk1 but now similar black silk laces are made at ,bayeux in ,normandy1 and at ,auvergne1 an old-established centre4 ,laces are now made in all kinds of materials4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhb4--;,finest ,raised ,venetian ,point4 ,brussels lace has always been a much-prized variety3 it is made both in the 8point l'aiguille0 or needle-point1 and in 8point plat0 or pillow-made1 and sometimes it is a mixture of both1 where the flowers are made separate in needle-point and are worked in afterwards to the various 8modes0 and mesh or net grounds4 ,the ,brussels mesh is peculiar in having two of its hexagonal sides longer than the other four1 the former two being plaited with four threads1 while the latter four are composed of a two-thread twist1 and the cordonnet is well raised around the pattern and is plaited4 ,the patterns in ,brussels lace are of all kinds1 but are chiefly imitations of ,french designs2 it is a common thing to find ,alenon and other ,french patterns copied in this lace4 ,in ,france1 ,brussels lace was known by the name of 8point d',angleterre10 from the fact that great quantities of it were imported1 and also smuggled into ,england during its prohibited importation in the lace-weaving period of ,charles ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhc4--;,border of ,mechlin ,lace4 ,ancient ,spanish point-lace was like the ,venetian raised work1 but much of the so-called ,spanish lace was really ,flemish1 and was largely imported from the ,spanish ,netherlands4 ,honiton in ,devonshire1 and ,buckinghamshire are the chief centres of the lace making in ,england4 ,honiton lace is pillow-made1 and is similar to ,brussels in fabrication1 the designs of which were originally sprigs of flowers1 but have developed to a kind of guipure work held together by 8brides0 7,fig4 #bhd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhd4--;,honiton2 ,modern4 ,buckinghamshire lace is also pillow-made1 and resembles ,flemish lace in design1 but is a little more irregular and weaker in drawing4 ,irish lace is known under the name of ,carrickmacross--a kind of cut linen work2 ,limerick--a species of embroidery2 and point lace1 made in ,ulster and elsewhere in ,ireland 7,fig4 #bhe74 ,many efforts have been made in recent years to revive the ,irish lace-making industry1 which have been attended with a good measure of success1 particularly in the schools attached to the convents4 ,a great modern revival of lace making has taken place in the island of ,burano1 near ,venice1 which dates from the year #ahgb4 ,this is due to the energy and ability of ,madame ,bellario1 assisted by the patronage of the ,queen of ,italy and other members of the royal family4 ,the variety made is the needle-point1 and the designs are mostly good copies of the old ,venetian and seventeenth-century ,french patterns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhe4--;,irish ,point2 ,modern4 ,machine-made lace has been brought to an advanced state of perfection1 and ,nottingham in ,england1 where the first machines were set up1 is now the great centre of this industry4 ,the machine on which lace is made is a development of the stocking-knitting machine1 and lace nets were first made on these machines about #aggj4 ,heathcote1 of ,nottingham1 invented the bobbin net machine1 and ,leaver invented the lace machine which is still in use with various improvements and modifications4 ,almost any kind of lace can now be imitated by the machine1 but it is easily distinguished from the hand-made varieties by the greater regularity of texture1 the absence in the machine-made point lace of any imitation of the button-hole stitch and of the elaborate plaiting that is found in the pillow hand-made laces4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,mosaics4 ,the word mosaic is applied generally to a decorative work executed with small cubes or tesser made from various coloured marbles or enamels1 cut into convenient sizes according to the requirements or scale of the design4 ,these cubes of enamels or marbles are placed in a bed of cement which is first spread on the surface of the wall or panel4 ,the composition of this cement has varied in the different periods and countries and according to the nature of the ground which receives it4 ,the ,italian method is to spread on the wall a thick coating of mastic cement composed of marble dust or powdered stone1 lime1 and linseed oil2 when this cement is partly set a coating of fine plaster is laid on the top and brought up to the level of the intended surface of the mosaic2 the design is traced on this surface1 and the plaster is then cut away with a fine small chisel1 little by little1 just sufficient at a time to receive a small quantity of the tesser or cubes1 which are first dipped in moist cement and inserted in their proper places1 matching the colour copied from the cartoon4 ,when the work is finished the surface is brought to a uniform level by a polishing process4 ,some of the earlier kinds of mosaic were composed of pieces of marble or other stones cut in geometric slabs or rectangular shapes2 this kind was called by the ,romans lithostratum1 and was used chiefly in pavements2 opus sectile is a kind of pavement mosaic made of different colours1 the marbles being cut into small regular portions2 opus tesselatum is a variety of the opus sextile1 but has its component parts made of geometric forms in which straight and parallel lines predominate in the design2 and opus vermiculatum has its tesser composed of small cubes or bits of enamel 7glass mosaic71 terra-cotta1 or marble1 which are cut into all kinds of shapes1 so as to form a more pliant or softer contour to the proposed design4 ,this latter variety is used in picture mosaics and in the goldsmiths' work and jewellery made at the present time in ,rome and ,venice4 ,another kind of mosaic used in pavement is that known as opus ,alexandrinum4 ,large slabs of different coloured marbles have been used as floor pavements and as wall linings1 both on the exterior and in the interior of churches and other buildings in ,italy and elsewhere4 ,most of this work is of a geometric pattern2 the different pieces of stone1 marble1 terra-cotta1 or enamel1 being cut into exact shapes to fit a preconceived pattern1 form a species of inlay1 and do not therefore come under the head of a true mosaic4 ,coloured marbles and precious stones have been used in the decoration of furniture by the ,italians and ,french1 which is known by the name of 8,florentine mosaic10 or 8pietra dura40 ,a species of mosaic work resembling enamels in appearance was executed by the ,egyptians1 a method in which stones and coloured pastes were cut to fit into metal shapes1 as may be seen in the pectoral ornaments and diadems 7see ,figs4 #adb1 #adc1 former volume74 ,in the ,museum of ,turin there is an ,egyptian sarcophagus inlaid with precious stones1 but it can hardly be called true mosaic work4 ,the ,greeks were very skilful in mosaic1 and were doubtless the inventors of the enamels used by themselves and by the ,romans afterwards under the name of musivum--from whence the word mosaic is derived4 ,the ,italians called these enamels smalto or smalts4 ,nearly all the remains of antique mosaic that have been preserved to our days have been executed in ,italy or in countries that were under the ,roman sway1 but usually the work has been done by ,greek artists or under ,grecian influence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhf4--,roman ,mosaic1 from ,woodchester4 ,pliny mentions the name of ,sosus1 a ,greek artist1 who came to ,italy to execute mosaics4 ,to this artist is ascribed the celebrated mosaic of the doves perched on the rim of a basin--,cantharos--one of which is drinking from the water in the vessel4 ,this mosaic is now in the ,capitol at ,rome1 and came originally from the ,villa of ,hadrian4 ,it is related by ,pliny that ,sosus made a floor in mosaic decorated with fragments of a repast1 such as realistic representations of the remains of bones1 vegetables1 fish1 a mouse gnawing at a nut1 c4 ,great pavements1 with all kinds of animated figures1 both realistic and fanciful1 representing combats of animals1 fighting gladiators1 circus and hunting scenes1 with the figures sometimes of life size1 in combination with allegorical subjects1 tritons1 nereids1 and other marine deities1 were common in the antique period in ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhg4--,roman ,mosaic1 found at ,avignon4 ,these great pavements were usually found enclosed in frames or borders composed of ornament1 or of smaller designs of birds1 fishes1 and marine animals4 ,the borders1 however1 are often modern work1 and are generally restorations or additions4 ,besides being found at ,rome and other places in ,italy1 these large ,roman mosaics have been found at almost every place that was formerly a ,roman province4 ,many good examples have been discovered in ,france1 chiefly in the ,basses-,pyrnes1 and in ,england1 at ,woodchester1 ,withington in ,gloucestershire1 ,london1 and other places 7,figs4 #bhf1 #bhg74 ,the ,roman mosaics executed in the provinces were1 however1 of a ruder kind than those found at ,rome and at other places in ,italy 7,fig4 #bhh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhh4--;,ancient ,roman ,mosaic4 ,in the ,grco-,roman collection at the ,british ,museum may be seen representations of colossal figures in mosaic from ,carthage1 and a floor pavement #dj feet by #ab feet from ,halicarnassos4 ,one of the most important examples of ,roman mosaic was found in the seventeenth century in the ,temple of ,fortune at ,palestrina--the ancient ,praeneste4 ,it represents landscape scenes placed in superimposed sections1 through which runs a river1 supposed by some authorities to represent the mouth of the ,nile2 islands are represented on which are monuments1 temples1 trees1 farms1 climbing plants1 animals1 and figures engaged in agricultural and hunting pursuits4 ,the animals depicted are chiefly those which are native to ,egypt2 besides these there are some fantastic creatures represented common to the mythology of that country1 as well as to ,greece and ,rome2 the inscriptions and names of the animals are rendered in ,greek characters1 ,greek being the official language used at that period in ,egypt and at the ,court in ,rome1 as well as being the native language of the artists who executed the work4 ,all this goes to strengthen the opinion formed by the ,abb ,barthlemy1 in opposition to others1 that this great mosaic picture represents the voyage of the ,emperor ,hadrian on the ,upper ,nile1 through ,egypt1 to the ,elephantine ,island4 ,mosaic pavements with subjects of combats of lions and bulls in a savage landscape1 executed in the same manner as the ,palestrina mosaic1 have been found at ,pompeii in the ruins of ,hadrian's ,villa1 a building which he had constructed in imitation of the various styles of architecture of the different countries which he had visited4 ,a celebrated mosaic1 of a much higher and earlier order of art1 is the representation of the ,battle of ,arbela1 or ,issus1 now preserved in the ,naples ,museum4 ,this battle was fought between the ,greek and ,persian forces in the year #cca 7,b4,c471 in which ,alexander the ,great was victorious over ,darius the ,persian4 ,alexander is represented on horseback in the act of throwing his lance at a ,persian satrap2 horsemen1 chariots1 and foot soldiers are all represented with great vigour and in correct drawing2 the whole composition is excellent1 and represents the ,greek army in the decisive moment of victory4 ,this great work was found in the ,house of the ,faun at ,pompeii in the year #ahcj1 and is immeasurably superior to anything of its kind hitherto found in that buried city4 ,it has1 no doubt1 been a copy in mosaic of a picture or fresco painted by a ,greek artist4 ,important portions of the work are missing1 but enough remains to testify to the beauty and greatness of this monument of ,grecian art4 ,fig4 #bhi represents the head of a ,persian soldier in the mosaic4 ,a border was found with this work which represents a river with alligators1 hippopotami1 aquatic birds1 and river plants1 all disposed in a careless manner2 this border is evidently a later ,roman addition to the work4 ,another antique mosaic picture in the ,museum at ,naples is the seated figure of the tragic poet found in a house at ,pompeii4 ,fountains1 columns1 dados1 wall panels1 as well as floor decorations1 were common objects of mosaic treatment with the ,romans1 and many houses of the better classes at ,pompeii have been lavishly decorated with this imperishable material4 ,a singular peculiarity was the almost exclusive representation of the human figure on floors1 while the wall spaces only received ornamental compositions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhi4--;,head in ,mosaic1 from the 8,battle of ,issus40 ,it appears from this that the ,romans never thoroughly understood the true value of mosaic as a means of architectural decoration1 and it was not until about the fourth century of our era that the walls and vaults of churches at ,rome were treated with pictorial mosaic4 ,for a long time in ,italy the character of the design was strongly influenced by the old classic traditions1 which impregnated the germs of the early ,christian art of the catacombs of ,s4 ,calixtus and ,s4 ,agnese 7see ,figs4 #ccb1 #ccc1 former vol474 ,this influence hardly ever passed away from the works of ,italian artists1 for down to the sixteenth century there has been many examples of church decoration in which a mixture of ,pagan and ,christian elements are found4 ,the remaining mosaics of the central cupola in the church of ,s4 ,constance at ,rome consist of a ,pagan composition--the 8,triumph of ,bacchus0--worked out in the ,roman style1 and another vaulted compartment in the same church has a mosaic decoration consisting of a vine spreading over the whole surface1 amongst the branches and leaves of which are children gathering the grapes4 ,at two of the sides are grape-laden waggons drawn by oxen1 and figures pressing out the grape juice in the vats4 ,from the subjects of the mosaics in this building it was formerly thought to be a temple of ,bacchus2 but as the vine is one of the commonest symbols of the ,christian faith1 and as a mixture of ,christian and ,pagan elements was a very common occurrence in the age of ,constantine1 there is no hesitation in describing these mosaics1 and the church itself1 as early ,christian work4 ,a very important mosaic of the fourth century still exists in the apse of the ,church of ,s4 ,pudentia at ,rome4 ,the design is not altered from the original1 but much of the work has been restored at different times4 ,a colossal figure of ,christ is enthroned in the centre of a composition which has an architectural background of temples and churches4 ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul are represented on either side of the central figure1 with other sacred personages1 and above in the clouds float the sacred emblems of the ,evangelists4 ,after ,constantine removed the seat of his empire from ,rome to ,byzantium 7#ccj7 mosaic decoration was used in many of the ,eastern churches in ,macedonia and other places in the ,byzantine empire1 but it was not until the sixth century that the decided ,byzantine ,greek style was developed in mosaic work--notably in the mosaics of the great church of ,santa ,sophia4 ,during the fifth century at ,rome1 and more especially at ,ravenna1 the basilicas and ,christian churches were decorated on the vaulted ceilings1 walls1 arches1 and spandrels with mosaics1 of which the general design and ornamental details were still strongly influenced with the spirit of the antique2 but although these works retained much of the dignity pertaining to the latter1 they were gradually losing the correctness of drawing which had characterised the mosaics of the fourth century4 ,in the chapter on ,early ,christian ,architecture1 in the former volume of this work1 pages #bhh-cjj1 we have drawn attention to some of these mosaics4 ,the church of ,santa ,sophia was burned down in #ecc1 and the rebuilding of it was finished and the church consecrated in #eei4 ,much of the interior was shortly afterwards covered with mosaic decoration4 ,near the summit of the cupola was a colossal figure of ,christ enthroned1 with his arm raised upwards in the act of blessing2 below the sacred figure were ranged the ,apostles1 and in the lower pendentives were groups of people4 ,in the chancel below is a figure of the ,virgin enthroned1 with the ,infant ,christ standing on her knees2 in the great niches are figures of martyrs and bishops1 and in the spaces above the pillars figures of the prophets4 ,on the walls of the narthex1 ,christ is represented seated on a throne1 the crowned figure of ,justinian prostrate at his feet1 and on the gold background are the heads of the ,virgin and ,st4 ,michael4 ,in colour the mosaics are sober and refined1 the expressions and attitudes of the figures solemn1 and often beautiful2 the costumes follow the style of the antique4 ,according to ,salzenberg1 who published his great work on ,santa ,sophia at ,berlin in the year #ahed1 the colouring of the draperies of ,christ and his ,apostles is white1 the ,virgin has blue robes1 and the other figures of prophets1 angels1 and martyrs are in varied colouring4 ,the shades of the folds in the draperies are expressed by quiet blues and greens1 the lights being heightened by silver markings4 ,all the mosaics have a ground of gold1 and bands of gold enrich the garments of ,christ4 ,although many of the great mosaics of this church belong to the sixth century1 some of them are1 however1 works of a later period4 ,among other arts1 ,justinian encouraged mosaic decoration in the highest degree1 and is said to have ornamented the palace of his capital with mosaic pictures representing the victories of his armies4 ,some famous mosaics were executed during the sixth century at ,ravenna1 notably in the basilicas of ,s4 ,apollinare-,nuovo1 ,s4 ,apollinare-in-,classe1 and ,s4 ,vitale2 in the former there is a fine mosaic1 the subject being the ,kiss of ,judas1 and a group of figures where ,pontius ,pilate is represented washing his hands after the trial of ,christ1 both of which works again show the antique influence4 ,in the beautiful basilica of ,s4 ,apollinare-in-,classe the figure of ,christ is represented standing and blessing with uplifted hands1 surrounded by the symbols of the ,evangelists and a flock of sheep2 the angels ,gabriel and ,michael and the ,transfiguration are also represented4 ,the ,church of ,s4 ,vitale1 which was built somewhat after the model of ,santa ,sophia1 has the celebrated mosaics representing processions in state of the ,emperor ,justinian and the ,empress ,theodora1 who presided at the dedication of the church4 ,the dresses of the principal personages in these mosaics are richly decorated with ,byzantine geometric patterns1 figured embroidery1 and jewellery4 ,in the apse of the church is the celebrated youthful figure of ,christ1 who is represented without a beard2 it is remarkable for its benign expression and softness of its adolescent beauty4 ,the mosaics of ,s4 ,vitale are distinctly ,greek in character1 unlike those of the two former churches1 which were executed by ,roman mosaicists brought from ,italy to ,ravenna by ,theodoric the ,ostrogoth in the early years of the sixth century4 ,the seventh century was almost barren in mosaic works1 and the eighth century does not seem to have produced more than a few tentative efforts1 mainly in countries outside ,italy4 ,it is related that ,adrian ,i41 who was ,pope between the years #ggb-gie1 gave permission to ,charlemagne to remove several mosaics from churches at ,ravenna1 the materials of which were used in the decoration of the dome of his chapel at ,aachen 7,aix-la-,chapelle74 ,these mosaics were destroyed by fires in the years #afef and #agcj4 ,some drawings of them were made before the second fire by ,ciampini1 and published by him at ,rome in #afii4 ,these works were not1 however1 of any great artistic value4 ,the art of the mosaicist was fast becoming only a caricature of its former self1 for the work of the ninth century was characterized by exceedingly bad drawing and savage colouring4 ,uninviting and even terrible representations of ,christ1 of the ,virgin1 angels1 martyrs1 and prophets were only too common4 ,it may be said with good reason that in ,rome and in the ,west during the ninth century1 that the zenith of ugliness had been attained in the design of mosaics1 and in place of the careful grouping and correct drawing of the works of the fourth to the sixth century we have instead figures of great dimensions and multiplication of attributes4 ,at the time we speak of there was not this decadence of art in the ,eastern ,empire1 for many fine mosaics were executed to the order of ,basil the ,macedonian 7#hfg-hhf71 under whose protection art generally was much encouraged4 ,some of the mosaics of ,santa ,sophia and of other churches and palaces at ,constantinople were executed during this period4 ,however1 from the tenth to the twelfth centuries the art of mosaic decoration1 with a few notable exceptions1 was in a slow state of decadence in the ,east1 but the old ,greek artistic spirit broke in other and in new directions1 as we have witnessed in the wealth of ,byzantine enamels1 carved ivories1 bas-reliefs1 repouss work1 miniatures1 and illuminated manuscripts4 ,in the eleventh century some fine mosaic floors were executed in ,france4 ,examples of this date were found in the old churches of ,sordes in the ,department of ,landes1 and of ,lescar in the ,basses-,pyrnes4 ,some of these pavements have ornamental compositions of geometrical interlacings and conventional foliage1 and others have hunting scenes in which animals1 figures1 and birds are treated flatly1 after the ,persian or ,oriental manner of inlaid work or like textile designs4 ,in the thirteenth century towards the latter end1 in the dawn of the ,renaissance1 design in mosaic began to feel the reviving influence in common with all ,italian art4 ,in the mosaics of this century executed at ,rome we see something of the poetry and dignity which belonged to the great works of the fifth century4 ,this turning-point was in a great measure due to the influence of ,cimabue1 the founder of ,italian painting 7#abdj-acjj71 who was then a great personality in ,italian art4 ,the most important mosaics of this period in ,italy were those which decorate the tribune of the basilica of ,st4 ,john ,lateran at ,rome1 executed by ,jacobus ,toriti between the years #abhg and #abib1 and those of the tribune of ,s4 ,maria ,maggiore in ,rome1 executed also by ,toriti during the last few years of the thirteenth century and finished about #acjb4 ,the design of the former mosaics is simple in arrangement4 ,on a gold ground1 symmetrically arranged1 are the figures of six saints and ,apostles1 with smaller figures of ,st4 ,francis and ,st4 ,anthony of ,padua advancing towards a central cross1 from underneath which flows the four rivers of ,paradise into the ,jordan beneath4 ,above is the celebrated head of ,christ1 the face having a benign expression4 ,this was formerly supposed to be of an older creation1 but it is quite likely to have been designed by ,toriti4 ,the head is surrounded by a plain gold nimbus1 and around and above it1 on a blue ground with clouds1 is a glory of angels in the form of an arc4 ,below this1 on the wall of the tribune1 between pointed window openings1 ,christ and the ,apostles are represented on a smaller scale4 ,in the tribune of ,s4 ,maria ,maggiore the design is grander and more decorative than the ,st4 ,john ,lateran mosaics1 and indeed ranks as the finest work of art of its period4 ,in a large central medallion of the apse ,christ and the ,virgin are enthroned1 ,christ being represented in the act of crowning the ,virgin4 ,a crowd of angels are on either side and at the lower parts of the medallion4 ,the ground of the latter is blue1 sown with golden stars2 beyond1 on either side of the adoring angels1 are the upright figures of ,apostles and saints on a gold ground1 and above them1 filling the upper surrounding space1 are conventional vines in whose scrolly branches birds of various kinds are found4 ,below this composition the ,river ,jordan is represented1 and the walls of the tribune are occupied with small compositions representing scenes in the life of ,christ4 ,in the loggia of the same church are a series of well-designed mosaics inscribed with the name of the artist who designed them--,philippus ,rusuti--who is not known with certainty to have executed any other work4 ,they had been formerly ascribed to the ,florentine mosaicist ,gaddo ,gaddi1 a friend of ,cimabue2 he died in #acab4 ,gaddi1 according to ,vasari1 had been invited to ,rome to complete the unfinished mosaics of ,toriti at the ,church of ,s4 ,maria ,maggiore after the death of the latter artist1 and he occupied himself with the storied mosaics representing the foundation of that church in a series of four compositions4 ,it is still1 however1 a matter of doubt as to how much of these mosaics belong to the hand of ,rusuti or ,gaddi4 ,the latter artist executed some subjects in the dome of the ,baptistery at ,florence1 in the ,cathedral of ,pisa1 and the mosaics which decorate the inner lunette in the portal of the ,cathedral at ,florence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij4--;,geometric ,mosaic1 ,church of ,ara ,cli1 ,rome4 ,gaddi followed the style and aims of ,cimabue2 his work was poetic in conception1 and in his execution he leaned to the ,byzantine methods1 but in drawing and composition he was greatly excelled by the ,roman mosaicist ,toriti4 ,the celebrated ,roman family of the ,cosmati were excellent mosaicists4 ,giovanni ,cosmato1 son of the elder artist of that name1 executed some fine work on the tomb of ,gonsalo ,roderigo in the ,church of ,s4 ,maria ,maggiore1 and on monuments in ,s4 ,maria sopra ,minerva4 ,a variety of mosaic was much used in ,italy at different times1 the earliest dating from the sixth century1 which consisted in decorating pulpits1 screens1 and small altars with a geometric inlay of small squares and lozenges of gold and coloured tesser which were inserted into grooves of white marble 7,fig4 #bij74 ,about the year #acea1 ,pietro ,cavallini1 a native of ,rome and a supposed pupil of the painter ,giotto1 was commissioned to execute some mosaics in the ,church of ,s4 ,maria ,transtevere at ,rome4 ,the design and style of these works were strongly influenced if not partly copied from the frescoes of ,giotto in the ,arena ,chapel at ,padua4 ,cavallini also executed in mosaic the celebrated ,navicella1 from the design by ,giotto1 which decorates the vestibule of the old basilica church of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome4 ,this work represents a ship in which the ,apostles are seen1 and ,christ and ,peter are figured walking on the sea4 ,with the exception of a few notable works in ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 in ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice1 some unfinished work of ,domenico ,ghirlandaio 7#addi-ie71 and the work of ,pesselli in the ,church of ,or-,san-,michele at ,florence 7#adaf71 the fifteenth century was not a prosperous period for mosaic4 ,this is accounted for by the rapid development of the ,italian schools of painting1 which advanced during this century with incredible swiftness1 and as painting advanced1 mosaic decoration retreated before its more popular rival4 ,the mosaicist had to make room for the fresco painter1 who soon became the successful competitor of the former in the work of church decoration4 ,regarding the mosaics of ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice1 it may be stated that they date from the eleventh century to the nineteenth4 ,the interior of this church is richly decorated on the vaults and upper parts of the walls with mosaics on grounds of gold1 the other parts are covered with various rich marbles1 and the floor is mosaic designed in the ,byzantine style4 ,in the twelfth century the principal apse1 the cupola of the choir1 and some of the chapels were decorated in mosaic4 ,the great central cupola has mosaics of the eleventh century representing the ,virtues1 and twelfth-century work with the subjects of the 8,virgin with ,angels and ,apostles10 the 8,evangelists10 c4 ,to the same century belong the mosaics in the cupola of the choir1 consisting of the figures of ,christ1 the ,virgin1 ,david and ,solomon1 and symbols of the ,evangelists2 the figure of ,st4 ,clement in the vault of the terminal chapel of ,st4 ,clement is ascribed to the twelfth century1 and the mosaics of this chapel representing the life of the saint are thirteenth-century work4 ,the most important mosaic of the latter century in ,st4 ,mark's is that which decorates the faade1 the subject being 8,the ,dedication of the ,church40 ,from the remains of the original mosaics which have not been remodelled by the restorers of later times1 it has been seen that the work of the above centuries at ,st4 ,mark's kept to the spirit and traditions of the ,byzantine school4 ,the work of restoration1 however1 has been so great in modern times that nearly all the mosaics belonging to a date prior to the sixteenth century have been executed afresh1 so it can hardly be said there are any perfect or genuine ,byzantine mosaics left4 ,those of the sixteenth century in ,st4 ,mark's are more like paintings in their general effect than monumental works for the decoration of the fabric4 ,pictorial effect and an appeal to the emotional faculties were aimed at by the artists and governing body of the church1 rather than simplicity or a feeling for the decorative fitness of the material4 ,the painters ,titian1 ,pordenone1 ,tintoret1 ,paul ,veronese1 and the sculptor and architect ,sansovino made designs for the mosaics1 and their cartoons were interpreted by mosaicists1 the principal of whom were ,vicenzo and ,domenico ,bianchini1 the brothers ,zuccati1 ,bozza1 ,rizzo1 ,gatano1 c4 ,in this century1 at ,rome1 in the cupola of the ,chigi ,chapel in ,s4 ,maria del ,popolo1 a celebrated mosaic was executed by the ,venetian mosaicist ,luigi da ,pace1 from a design by the great painter ,raphael4 ,it bears the date #aeaf1 and has for its subject the ,creation of the ,world4 ,the ,almighty is represented surrounded by seraphim1 and in eight compartments are mythological figures representing the planets4 ,angel figures of great beauty are seated on the signs of the ,zodiac1 which occupy the lower parts of the mosaic4 ,during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the principal mosaics executed in ,italy were those which decorate the ,church of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome4 ,in these periods the ,pontifical fabrique or studio for the production of the smalto and for the execution of the mosaics was in a state of activity4 ,the fabrique had various locations in the vicinity of the church from the time of its establishment in #aebh1 and was finally set up in the ,vatican in #ahbe by ,leo ,,xiii4 ,the most important period in the history of the ,pontifical ateliers was during the early half of the eighteenth century1 when it was under the direction of ,pierre-,paul ,cristofari1 who was assisted in the production of the variously coloured material by the chemist ,mattioli4 ,the mosaics which cover the cupolas1 the altars of the various chapels1 the pendentines1 tympani1 and other spaces1 have been executed by mosaicists who were not the designers of the subjects4 ,this was the general practice in the ,renaissance periods4 ,one noteworthy exception to this rule may be noticed in the work of the artist ,muziano de ,brescia1 who executed the mosaics of the ,gregorian ,chapel at ,st4 ,peter's from his own designs1 for which work he received the commission from ,pope ,gregory ,,xiii4 7#aegb-aehe74 ,muziano was an imitator of ,michelangelo1 and is best known by his work in mosaic4 ,as a rule the mosaics of ,st4 ,peter's1 like all those of the ,renaissance period1 are not to be compared for dignity and repose with those of the early ,christian era1 nor did they fulfil the true aim of monumental wall decoration1 but sought rather to imitate as closely as possible the finish of oil or fresco painting4 ,the 8,transfiguration0 after ,raphael is not a success as a mosaic4 ,it is believed to have been executed by ,cristofari from a drawing enlarged from the original by ,stefano ,pozzi 7#agjh-agfh74 ,in the great cupola the mosaic has for its subject 8,the ,eternal ,father10 surrounded by cherubims4 ,in other compartments are angels in adoration1 cherubims1 ,jesus1 ,mary1 ,john the ,baptist1 ,paul1 the twelve ,apostles and their attributes4 ,these mosaics are from designs by the ,chevalier d',arpin 7#aefj-afdj71 and rank among the best works of their kind in ,st4 ,peter's4 ,in the present century there has been some noted revivals of mosaic decoration in ,france and in ,england4 ,during the first thirty years of this century a royal manufactory was set up in ,paris under the superintendence of ,belloni1 an ,italian artist who came from the ,pontifical atelier of ,rome4 ,mosaic work of all kinds was executed at this studio1 such as miniatures1 pictures1 and pietra-dura1 or ,florentine mosaic1 for the encrusted decoration of furniture1 as well as important works for pavements1 which were designed in the classical style of the period4 ,the principal work of ,belloni is the pavement of the 8,salle ,melpomne0 in the ,louvre4 ,it is a composition divided into five compartments1 each having figure subjects1 and has an extremely rich border of frets1 foliage1 and rosettes4 ,some fine mosaics of a more recent date are the decorations of the foyer and other parts of the ,grand ,opera ,house in ,paris1 executed from the designs of ,m4 ,charles ,garnier1 the architect of the building1 ,m4 de ,curzon1 and others1 by the mosaicists ,salviati and ,facchina of ,venice4 ,the new cathedrals at ,marseilles and ,lyons have been recently decorated with mosaics more or less in the style of the ,ravenna work of the fifth century1 but the principal part of these works consists of ornamental compositions1 such as doves with olive-branches1 monograms1 stars1 and borders of romanesque ornament4 ,some still more recent work is the decoration of the apse of the ,pantheon in ,paris1 from the designs of ,m4 ,e4 ,hbert and the late ,m4 ,galland1 who furnished the ornamental designs4 ,in ,england1 during the present half of this century1 there has been several attempts to popularise mosaic decoration4 ,full-length figures of the chief ancient and modern sculptors1 painters1 and architects have been designed by ,lord ,leighton1 ,sir ,e4 ,j4 ,poynter1 ,e4 ,armitage1 ,v4 ,prinsep1 ,w4 ,f4 ,yeames1 ,f4 ,w4 ,moody1 and others2 these have been executed in glass mosaic and in ,english ceramic mosaic1 and form part of the decoration of the ,south ,court in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,in the ,houses of ,parliament a mosaic has been executed from the design1 8,st4 ,george10 by ,sir ,e4 ,j4 ,poynter2 and other examples are the mosaics on the monument to ,prince ,albert designed by ,sir ,gilbert ,scott4 ,but the most important efforts during the last few years are the mosaic decorations in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral4 ,from the year #ahfc until #ahib the eight spandrels of the dome were filled with mosaics1 the subjects being the four ,evangelists1 designed by ,mr4 ,watts1 ,r4,a41 and ,mr4 ,brittan1 and the four greater ,apostles by the late ,alfred ,stevens4 ,the work of these spandrels was carried out by ,dr4 ,salviati of ,venice4 ,in the spring of #ahia ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,richmond1 ,r4,a41 undertook the great work of designing the cartoons1 and of superintending the mosaic decoration of the eastern end of the cathedral1 including the apse1 the original sanctuary bay1 and the choir4 ,the central panel in the roof of the apse is occupied with a representation of 8,our ,lord in ,majesty10 seated on a rainbow throne1 and clothed in light-coloured robes4 ,the background is composed of a great whirl of wings2 the sun and moon are also represented4 ,the panels on either side of this subject contain figures of the recording angels1 which are ,byzantine in style of design2 as the whole of the mosaics are1 but perhaps not so much in degree as the figures of these angels4 ,mr4 ,richmond had made a special study of the ,ravenna mosaics1 and was no doubt rightly influenced by the style of design and methods of execution of these early works4 ,the three saucer domes of the choir have subjects representing respectively the creation of birds1 fishes1 and animals of the land2 and the pendentives of the saucer domes are each filled with figures of angels1 their arms being extended1 as if in the act of bringing down messages from heaven to the earth4 ,inscriptions in ,latin1 consisting of appropriate scriptural texts1 explain the subjects of the pendentives4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bia4--,mosaic from the ,alhambra4 ,the spaces at the sides of the clerestory windows are occupied with figures of the ,sibyls1 ,prophets1 builders of the ,tabernacle or ,house of ,god1 scenes from the ,old ,testament1 and some secular figures4 ,the general effect of the mosaics is very rich1 and the colouring exceedingly harmonious4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bib4--,saracenic ,mosaic1 from ,monreale4 ,the smalto tesser used was made from opaque glass of many colours and shades1 and the fractured edge was shown in every case as the surface of the mosaic2 this was done in order to get greater brilliancy of colour1 and to catch all the possible light that is reflected from the walls and floor of the church4 ,portland stone composed the panels1 and brick was the background material of the saucer domes1 and in order to get a bed for the cement and tesser1 these surfaces had to be cut away to a certain depth so that the mosaics would come flush when finished with the original surface4 ,the tesser were inserted into a bed of red mastic cement1 made chiefly of a mixture of red lead and linseed oil1 a cement which ultimately sets as hard as the stone itself4 ,the execution of the work was entrusted to ,messrs4 ,powell of ,london1 who employed a large staff of skilled assistants in this successful achievement4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bic4--;,indian ,mosaic1 from the ,taj ,mehal4 ,the ,saracens employed mosaic--as in the ,alhambra in ,spain--in the form of small tiles--azulejos--of glazed earthenware cut into geometric shapes1 from which they made up their characteristic rectilinear patterns1 and used this form of decoration to a great extent for walls1 but rarely for floor pavements 7,figs4 #bia1 #bib74 ,some beautiful examples of mosaic work in the nature of inlaid marbles and precious stones occur in the ,mohammedan buildings in ,india1 the chief of which are the ,taj ,mehal at ,agra 7,fig4 #bic7 and the great palace at ,delhi4 ,the latter has been noticed in the chapter on ,indian ,architecture in the former volume1 and an illustration of the inlaid marble hall is given at ,fig4 #cbi in the same volume4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,glass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bid4 ,glass ,vase or ,bottle2 height1 #c ins4 7,b4,m47 ,the manufacture of glass is of great antiquity4 ,the invention has been ascribed to the ,phnicians1 but specimens of glass beads1 amulets1 plaques1 vases1 and small phials or bottles have been found in some of the oldest ,egyptian tombs4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is a small piece of blue opaque glass in the form of a lion's head1 which bears the prenomen of the ,egyptian monarch ,nuntef ,,iv41 belonging to the ,fourth ,dynasty 7,b4,c4 #bdbc-bchj74 ,there are also paintings on the walls of early tombs representing bottles with red wine1 as well as figures engaged in glass-blowing4 ,a number of glass bowls1 vases1 and bottles from ,nimroud may be seen in the ,british ,museum1 the earliest specimen of which is an ,assyrian transparent glass vase with two handles1 and is inscribed with the name of the monarch ,sargon 7,b4,c4 #gbb-gje74 ,this is supposed to be the oldest known specimen of transparent glass 7,fig4 #bid74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bie4 ,phnician ,alabastron4 ,many long-shaped little bottles--alabastron--of pale greenish1 and others of brilliant colours1 with slightly varied shapes1 have been dug up from the ruins of ,assyrian palaces1 and have been found in most of the ancient tombs in ,greece1 ,italy1 and in the islands of ,cyprus1 ,sardinia1 and ,rhodes4 ,these little bottles have been made by the ,egyptians1 ,assyrians1 ,phnicians1 and ,greeks1 and their shape1 being consecrated by use1 remained unchanged for many centuries2 they were portable objects of barter1 as glass beads also were with the ,phnicians1 who distributed them in trade to all parts of the countries bordering on the ,mediterranean 7,figs4 #bie1 #bif74 ,common forms of the ,phnician glass bottles were small vessels in the shapes of heads1 and of dates1 grapes1 and other fruits1 which were blown in moulds4 ,these vessels probably came from the great workshops of ,tyre and ,sidon2 some of them bear the names of their makers--,eugenes1 ,ennion1 and 8,artas the ,sidonian40 ,the shapes of many of these vessels are decidedly ,greek1 and if not ,greek in manufacture1 have been copied from the shapes of ,greek pottery4 ,the colours used were yellow1 turquoise1 and white on blue1 green1 or brown1 and a common arrangement of these was in zigzag or wavy alternating lines2 in other examples the surface was reeded1 as may be seen in the alabastron1 ,fig4 #bie4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bif4--,necklace of ,glass and ,gold1 ,phnician4 7,b4,m47 ,ancient ,roman glass is of great variety in colour1 and many specimens show the highest technical skill combined with great artistic beauty4 ,the lovely iridescent effect on ,roman and other antique glass is due to the chemical changes of the surface decomposition1 and in other instances to the minute flaking of the glass1 which reflects the light at various angles1 and thus producing the prismatic hues4 ,at the time of the ,roman occupation of ,egypt1 during the period of rule under the ,ptolemies1 glass making was a great industry in the latter country4 ,it is said that the ,romans learnt the art from the ,egyptians1 and it is known that many of the latter were brought to ,rome to practise their art as glass-blowers4 ,the making of the glass known as mille-fiori was taught to the ,romans by the ,egyptians1 and was extensively employed in vase and bottle making by the former2 the ,venetians from the fourteenth century have imitated the ,romans in their uses of mille-fiori glass for bead making and other purposes1 with great success4 ,the method of making this variety of glass consists in arranging a number of thin rods or threads of glass of the required variety of colours1 gold being sometimes used2 these united rods were then fused together by heat1 and drawn out or twisted1 so that when transverse sections were cut the pattern would always be the same4 ,another way of mixing the colour in glass1 which was employed by the ,egyptians1 ,romans1 and later by the ,venetians1 was in the making of regular patterns of mosaic-like designs of the various colours1 and another was in imitating the precious stones and marbles1 such as onyx1 agate1 serpentine1 porphyry1 and murrhine2 the latter is supposed to be a variety of agate1 with red and purple shades4 ,the murrhine glass examples of ,roman manufacture are very rare4 ,the ,romans used these glass imitations of the precious stones and marbles to line their walls and floors1 as in mosaic work4 ,egyptian and ,roman glass in their transparent varieties have such colours as yellow1 purple1 blue1 green1 and pink2 opaque colours are generally found in shades of yellow1 blue1 green1 and black4 ,the most valuable kind of glass was that of the clearest white or crystal2 this1 it would appear1 was the most difficult to make1 as the commoner clear variety had usually a slight greenish or bluish hue4 ,the ,romans made a special variety of glass ware which consisted of interlaced bands of opaque white or coloured glass1 ingeniously made to form a pattern by twisting them with clear or coloured transparent glass1 like that of the elegant lace-glass variety known as the 8vitro di trina0 of the ,venetians 7,fig4 #cjb74 ,in the arts of glass cameo and intaglio engraving1 and in the imitation of gems1 the ,romans were exceedingly skilful4 ,the cameo engraved glass was produced by placing a layer of white opaque glass on a ground of transparent blue1 the design being formed by cutting away the white surface to the blue ground1 leaving the blue as the background2 the remaining white which formed the design was then carefully finished by engraving4 ,light and shade was produced according to the thicknesses of the cameo left by the engraver4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #big4--;,ancient ,roman ,glass ,bottle4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the celebrated ,barberini or ,portland ,vase1 in the ,british ,museum1 is made in a blue and white cameo4 ,this splendid work of art was discovered in a marble sarcophagus near ,rome1 which is supposed to have been the tomb of the ,emperor ,alexander ,severus4 ,the vase is ten inches in height1 is two-handled1 and has for the subject of one side a figure decoration representing ,thetis consenting to be the bride of ,peleus1 attended by ,poseidon and ,eros2 on the other side is ,peleus and ,thetis on ,mount ,pelion1 and on the bottom is a bust of ,paris4 ,the ground is transparent blue glass1 and the subjects are beautifully engraved in cameo out of the superimposed white layer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bih4--,roman ,glass ,tablet in relief4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,a similar kind of vase1 but smaller1 was found at ,pompeii1 and is now in the ,museum at ,naples1 and the remains of the ,auldjo ,vase in the ,british ,museum is also in a similar style1 the cameo decoration of it consisting of vine-leaves4 ,intaglios and cameos1 sometimes of a large size1 were copied in glass from gems2 these were usually cast in moulds1 and many of them are of high value as works of art4 7,fig4 #bih74 ,the ,romans made window glass of small squares or oblongs1 which was manufactured by rolling it on a plate4 ,in the early ,christian period gold leaf was used as a means of decoration on glass3 sometimes the gold was annealed to the surface1 and sometimes it was placed1 as the making of the gold smalto for mosaics1 between two layers of thin glass1 and afterwards fired4 ,patterns and figure subjects were executed in gold foil1 and formed the decoration of glass dishes and bowls1 the broken remains of which have been found in the ,christian tombs of the ,roman ,catacombs4 ,though extensive glass works are known to have existed at ,constantinople and at ,thessalonica between the ninth and thirteenth centuries1 there are scarcely any remains of ,byzantine glass in existence that can with certainty be ascribed to the ,eastern empire1 unless we except the five cups and two shallow basins of thick green glass that are decorated with ,byzantine ornament1 and which form part of the treasure of ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice4 ,glass was used in the windows of ,byzantine churches and1 of course1 in the making of the mosaic tesser4 ,it is highly probable that glass objects were made in ,syria1 and at ,damascus especially1 since the ,roman period1 yet examples of the earlier work from these parts are very rare4 ,the celebrated gold cup of ,chrosroes 7,a4,d4 #eca-egi7 is a ,persian work which has been set with glass lozenges and rosettes4 ,other examples are small glass weights1 discs1 or tokens1 and a ,saracenic glass basin in the ,cluny ,museum at ,paris1 which has been made either in ,egypt or ,syria1 and is known to date between #abgi and #abid4 ,with the above exceptions there is no authentic work that can be pointed to which dates earlier than the fourteenth century4 ,the finest examples of ,saracenic glass1 some of which may be seen in our museums1 are the beautiful enamelled glass mosque lamps 7,fig4 #bii74 ,they mostly date from the fourteenth century1 and are usually decorated richly with ,arabic inscriptions--sometimes with the name of the artist--in gold and coloured enamels4 ,in the city of ,damascus glass cups and other vessels of great beauty were made at this period1 having enamelled ,saracenic decorations4 ,the 8cups of ,damascus0 were much prized1 and according to the inventories of the kings of ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 we learn that they were set in gold stands or mounts1 and were usually presents to ,western monarchs1 brought by their ambassadors from the ,east4 ,the cup kept by the ,musgrave family1 and known as the 8,luck of ,edenhall10 is made in enamelled ,saracenic glass1 and has a leather covering of fifteenth-century workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bii4--;,enamelled ,oriental ,glass ,bottle and ,mosque ,lamp4 ,venetian blown glass has always been renowned for its beauty1 both in its elegance of form-as in the wine-glasses1 goblets1 and cups--and in the beautiful opalescent hues of its delicate colouring4 ,the making of glass in ,venice began to assume great importance in the fourteenth century1 but many small glass furnaces were in operation for more than a hundred years prior to this date4 ,the ,venetians apparently1 in the early period of the ,renaissance1 studied very closely the remains of the ,roman glass1 and eventually imitated and produced nearly all the kinds of glass that in former days were made in ancient ,rome4 ,another direct cause which led to the advancement of the glass makers' craft in ,venice was the parricidal conquest of ,constantinople by the ,christians of ,rome1 aided by the fleets of ,venice1 in #abjd1 for after the sacking of the ,byzantine capital1 most of the portable works of art of every kind-including the bronze horses that had been brought from ,rome to ,constantinople by its founder1 and which now adorn the front of ,st4 ,mark's-were carried off to ,venice1 and it is more than likely that after this the glass mosaic workers1 among other ,byzantine craftsmen1 had come to ,venice1 where they found employment in the rising republic4 ,the work in the mosaic decoration of ,st4 ,mark's doubtless helped to develop the making of glass in ,venice1 and the lagunes were rich in marsh-loving plants that would yield alkali and furnish the fine sand requisite for its manufacture4 ,mention is made in one of the documents in the archives of ,venice1 dated #ajij1 of one ,petrus ,flavianus1 who was a 8phiolarius10 or glass maker1 and the trade regulations of the glass makers' societies or corporations are preserved at ,venice and ,murano1 which show that in the thirteenth century they had become important bodies4 ,glass furnaces were becoming so numerous in ,venice that the ,great ,council decreed1 in #abia1 they should be demolished1 but permitted them to be set up outside the city1 in the suburban districts4 ,in the following year1 however1 the decrees were altered to the effect that the small glass workers might remain in the ,rialto 7the city proper71 provided fifteen paces were left between each atelier4 ,these decrees were made to guard against a possible spread of fire4 ,it is supposed that this had the effect of moving many of the principal glass works to ,murano1 a district of ,venice which had become renowned for the production of ,venetian glass1 and where to-day the eminent firm of ,salviati ,co4 have their extensive works4 ,the glass house at ,murano1 which was known as the 8,sign of the ,angel0 in the early half of the fifteenth century1 was the most renowned of the ateliers of that century4 ,angelo ,beroviero was one of its earliest directors1 who was succeeded by his son ,marino in that position4 ,the latter was a head or master of the ,company of 8,phioleri0 7,glass ,makers' ,corporation7 in #adfh1 which was a very strong society at that time and enjoyed exceptional privileges from the city council4 ,the intercourse of ,venice with the ,east furnished the ,venetian glass makers with patterns of ,damascus and ,egyptian glass1 and the enamelled and gilded ,oriental varieties were imitated and improved on by the ,murano artists4 ,some of the products of this period are preserved in the museums4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #cjj7 is from a ,venetian enamelled cup of green glass in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,in the sixteenth century the glass-making furnaces of ,murano had increased to a great extent1 and were placed under the special protection of the ,council of ,ten4 ,owing to the jealousy at this time of other ,european ,states1 ,venetian glass-blowers were bribed by offers of money and large salaries to set up furnaces abroad1 and laws were then made forbidding workmen to leave the country to carry on glass making in other places under the penalty of death4 ,this1 however1 did not prevent ,venetian glass-blowers from taking service under the protection of foreign rulers in such countries as ,flanders1 ,spain1 and ,england4 ,the natural consequences followed1 that the exports in glass from ,venice to foreign countries became lessened1 so much so that the workmen of ,murano complained of being thrown idle for several months in the year4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjj4--,venetian ,enamelled ,glass2 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,venetian glass has been made in many colours1 such as blue1 green1 purple1 amber1 and ruby1 and in variegated mixtures of clear or transparent and opaque glass4 ,the clear variety is remarkable for elegance of shape and fantastic designs of handles or wings1 consisting of twisted and knotted interlacings1 which were generally executed in blue or red colours and attached to the sides of wine-glasses and other vessels 7,fig4 #cja74 ,one beautiful variety of glass is clouded with a milky-like opalescent tint1 which is supposed to be produced from arsenic4 ,the opaque white glass is made by the addition of oxide of tin to the usual ingredients4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cja4--,venetian ,glass of the ,sixteenth ,century4 7,j47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjb4--,venetian 8,vitro di trina40 7,s4,k4,m47 ,glass was made by the ,venetians to imitate precious stones1 were streaked1 splashed1 or spotted with various colours1 gold1 and copper2 the aventurine spotted glass was obtained from a silicate of copper4 ,the latticinio variety was formed of rods of transparent glass enclosing lines of opaque white glass forming patterns4 ,the vitro di trina is the so-called lace-glass 7,fig4 #cjb72 the latter and the mosaic-like or mille-fiori glass were made by the ,venetians in imitation of the ,roman varieties4 ,another variety was that known as a reticelli1 in which ornament of opaque network sometimes enclosed air bubbles4 ,that known under the ,german name of ,schmelz is the variegated or marble opaque glass made in the ,murano furnaces1 which imitated chalcedony1 lapis lazuli1 tortoiseshell1 and jasper4 ,crackled glass was made by the sudden cooling of the half-blown material2 this was again heated and drawn out in order to increase the spaces between the crackled lines4 ,in the sixteenth century the forms of the ,venetian glass vessels were of the ,renaissance type2 the long shanks and the wide bowls gave them an appearance of elegance and grace4 ,the light and thin character of the material had also a great deal to do with the fragile look of elegance in ,venetian glass of this period2 the glass of the former 7fifteenth7 century was of a much thicker kind4 ,the lightness and superior strength of ,venetian glass was due to the absence of lead in its composition1 which is so much used in the modern flint glass4 ,the materials of the composition of the clear ,murano glass are supposed to be--one part of alkali1 obtained from ferns1 moss1 lichen1 or seaweed1 and two parts of pebbles of white quartz or fine clean white sand1 and a small quantity of manganese1 all well mixed together and melted in the furnace4 ,the colouring matter is produced from the oxides of various metals1 as in the vitreous coloured glazes used in the enamels for glazed pottery4 ,vessels and objects in endless variety have been made by the ,venetians1 such as ewers1 basins1 drinking-glasses1 bottles1 standing cups1 bowls1 goblets1 large and small candlesticks1 beads1 and mirrors1 and were exported in great quantities to all parts by the ,venetian galleys4 ,bead making at ,venice was a separate trade1 and was one of great importance in the sixteenth and two following centuries4 ,the makers of the small beads were called the 8,margariteri10 and those who made the large beads were known as the 8,perlai40 ,the beads were made from small sections broken or cut off from rods or tubes of glass and placed in an iron pot that was made to rotate1 so that the motion prevented the beads from adhering to each other1 and at the same time formulated their spherical shape4 ,mirrors were made by the ancients of polished metal and from slabs of black obsidian--a kind of natural glass4 ,in medival times they were made of clear glass behind which was placed a sheet of lead foil4 ,glass mirrors were made in ,venice from the year #aejg1 when methods had been discovered of polishing the glass and of applying the 8foglia10 or layer of metal leaf1 to the back4 ,after this date the making of mirrors soon developed into great importance1 and the 8,specchiai10 or mirror makers1 had their own corporation4 ,like the other glass wares of ,venetian manufacture1 the mirrors were exported to all parts of ,europe4 ,some good examples of sixteenth-century mirrors and mirror-frames in glass cut into ornamental shapes1 with bevelled edges and engraved1 are preserved in our museums and in old houses4 ,glass painting for windows was known and practised in ,venice as early as the fourteenth century4 ,the very early ,italian stained glass used in windows is said to have been executed for ,leo ,,iii4 in #gie4 ,besides the painted or stained glass used in church windows during the ,middle ,ages throughout ,italy1 there were glass manufactories in ,rome1 ,verona1 ,milan1 and ,florence for the production of similar wares as those of ,venice4 ,in ,france and ,spain glass making was carried on at various places from the days of the ,romans2 antique fragments of glass have been dug up in ,normandy and in ,poitou4 ,in the latter province glass making flourished from a very early date up to the fifteenth century4 ,it was revived in #aegb by the ,venetian ,fabriano ,salviati1 who came to ,poitou and set up a glass workshop4 ,at ,paris1 ,rouen1 ,normandy1 and in ,lorraine glass was made prior to the sixteenth century4 ,the ,normandy glass was of a coarse kind1 made chiefly for windows and common utensils1 but many of the ,venetian varieties were made at the other places named4 ,some ,venetian glass makers came to ,paris in #affe1 when an establishment was formed for the making of mirrors1 and about the same time another factory was set up at ,four-la-,ville2 these two factories were united by the ,french ,minister ,colbert1 and were under the patronage of the king4 ,we find that soon afterwards1 and especially in the ,louis-,quinze period1 large panels and wall spaces were filled with glass mirrors as interior decorations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjc4--,spanish ,glass2 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,glass was made in ,spain in the ,ibero-,roman period1 as the remains of glass vessels and necklaces have been found in tombs1 and the ruins of ,roman furnaces have been found in the valleys of the ,pyrenees4 ,it is supposed that the art was carried on under the ,gothic kings of ,spain1 and also by the ,moors in the thirteenth century1 who brought with them glass workers as well as some of the wares of the ,east4 ,much of the glass made in ,spain subsequent to this date is in imitation of the shapes of ,arabian pottery1 and this is still the case in much of the modern ,spanish glass4 ,spanish glass of the ,renaissance was similar in form and in material to the ,venetian work of the same period1 and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the work was in imitation more or less of the contemporary ,dutch and ,flemish glass 7,fig4 #cjc74 ,in ,holland1 glassware seems to have been made by ,murano artificers1 who from time to time settled in that country and brought the secrets of their trade with them4 ,the objects made were naturally imitations of the ,venetian glass1 and many of the ,dutch drinking-glasses were very graceful in design4 ,in ,amsterdam1 ,antwerp1 ,brussels1 and throughout the ,low ,countries generally ,venetian glass had been imported in great quantities in the time of and prior to the seventeenth century1 and it is difficult to say how much of the old glass found at those places is ,dutch1 ,flemish1 or ,venetian4 ,engraving on glass was much practised in ,holland1 and many ,dutch goblets have well executed portraits of kings1 queens1 and other persons4 ,glass making has been practised in ,germany1 like in most ,european countries1 from the days of the ,romans downwards1 especially in the ,rhenish ,provinces1 but ,german examples dating from the ,middle ,ages are very rare4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjd4--;,german ,glasses4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,there is documentary evidence which proves that glass was made at ,mainz as early as the beginning of the eighth century4 ,the earliest example of ,german glass in this country is a wiederkom1 or cylindrical drinking-vessel1 which bears the date of #aega1 but an older one1 of the date of #aeec1 is preserved in the ,knstkammer at ,berlin4 ,a favourite decoration on the ,german ,wiederkoms is the arms of the emperor or electors1 those of the different states of the empire1 and of private owners 7,fig4 #cjd74 ,the colour of this kind of glass is usually green and the decorations are enamelled or painted in grisaille2 as a rule the ,german cups and wine glasses of the seventeenth century are richly decorated 7,fig4 #cje74 ,in the ,german wine-glasses known as 8flgelglser0 is seen an imitation of the ,venetian 8winged glasses0 7,fig4 #cja74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cje4--;,decorated ,german ,vases2 ,seventeenth ,century4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,bohemian glass of the seventeenth century is noted for its clearness and good quality1 and illustrates the advancement made in the art of engraving on glass4 ,the engraved work was done with a diamond point as in etching1 with the lapidary's wheel1 and by means of biting the glass with fluoric acid2 the latter method is said to have been discovered by ,henry ,schwanhard of ,nremberg in #afgj4 ,john ,schper was a very clever glass engraver and decorator of this period4 ,a beautiful kind of ,german glass is known as ,kunckel's ruby glass1 the originator of which was the director of the ,potsdam glass works1 where he produced this variety about #afhj4 ,many relics of glass vessels and beads have been found in ,roman tombs1 and in various parts of ,england1 of a greenish or blue colour4 ,these may have been imported or may have been made in ,england1 but there is no certain evidence of this4 ,glass vessels for drinking purposes have been found which are believed to have belonged to the ,anglo-,saxon period 7,fig4 #cjf74 ,the material of these is thin1 the colour is generally of a pale straw tint1 and strips of thickened glass ornament the outside1 arranged in the nature of parallel lines1 or wound spirally to produce a kind of network decoration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjf4--;,anglo-,saxon ,drinking ,cup4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,venetian glass found its way to ,england in the sixteenth century2 in the inventories of ,henry ,,viii4 7#aebi7 and of ,robert1 ,earl of ,leicester 7#aehh71 large quantities of ,venetian glasses are mentioned as belonging to the above4 ,some ,muranese glass workers were engaged at this time 7#aeej7 in the service of the ,king of ,england4 ,the name of an ,italian--,jacob ,vessaline--is mentioned as a glass maker who worked at ,crutched ,friars in the beginning of ,elizabeth's reign 7#aeeg71 and in the year #aehi there were supposed to be fifteen glass houses in ,england4 ,sir ,robert ,mansel was a prominent glass maker of the seventeenth century2 he obtained patents in the year #afaf for the making of window glass and all kinds of vessels1 and from the remains of glass objects that were found on the site of ,princes ,hall1 in ,broad ,street1 ,london1 it is believed that his works were on that spot4 ,mansel employed ,italian workmen in the first instance1 and it appears that prior to #afbc he had set up works in ,milford ,haven1 at ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 in ,scotland1 and other places4 ,the ,newcastle furnaces were the most successful1 the others being practically failures4 ,mr4 ,nesbitt thinks that the success of the ,newcastle-on-,tyne works was due to the new system of flint-glass making1 which must be credited as an ,english invention4 ,flint or crystal glass is made of a mixture of silicate of potash and lead4 ,it was known but imperfectly made by the ,romans in their clear glass variety1 which contained a small portion of lead4 ,in the ,middle ,ages the glass which contained lead was called 8,jewish glass10 and was generally used for painting on1 as it was more fusible than other varieties which did not contain lead4 ,but all authorities agree that the ,english invented a new product in their flint glass1 which was made after many experiments at ,lambeth in #afgc1 as 8clear1 ponderous1 and thick as crystal40 ,mr4 ,nesbitt infers that it was the use of coal in the furnaces instead of wood that led to the development of the process4 ,when using coal the melting-pots had to be covered in the furnace1 which lessened the heating powers and thus made the fusing more difficult4 ,to put more alkali in the mixture would have helped it to fuse at a much lower heat1 but it would have injured the colour and quality of the glass1 so lead was added in certain proportions1 which gave the requisite clearness and strength4 ,all kinds of glass vessels and plate glass for carriage windows were made at ,lambeth1 under the management or patronage of the ,duke of ,buckingham4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjg4--,stained ,glass2 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,though there are no records of glass making in ,ireland of a very early date1 the glass beads and glass bosses which decorate the objects of ,irish art1 such as the crosses1 croziers1 brooches1 book-covers1 and the celebrated ,ardagh ,chalice1 prove that the art was known in ,ireland at least in the ninth century1 if not earlier4 ,mention has also been made in old writings of this period of glass vessels for use in ,irish churches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjh4--,window ,glass2 ,english1 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,painted or stained window glass is the glory of our ,medival churches4 ,the earliest coloured windows were doubtless made from mosaic-like arrangements of different bits of coloured glass4 ,the mosaic window led to the representation of pictorial subjects in stained glass1 the latter being formed of pieces of self-coloured glass1 or that kind having each piece stained in one colour throughout1 cut in the requisite shapes1 and fastened together by an arrangement of lead lines which form the main lines of the design2 to help out the drawing and expression the stained glass is shaded in hatchings1 stippling1 and bold lines1 usually in a brown colour4 ,painted glass1 as distinguished from stained glass1 is that which is painted on clear or tinted grounds with various enamel colours made from metallic oxides4 ,after the painting is finished the piece of glass is fired1 and the enamel colours become fused with the glass surface1 and really become part of the glass itself4 ,more finish1 a wider range of colouring1 greater detail1 and generally a more pictorial effect is produced by the artist being able to use freely the enamel colours2 but a corresponding loss of depth and brilliancy of colour and of bold decorative effect which belonged to older examples of stained glass must be set against any advantages the painted variety may possess from its pictorial point of view4 ,the earliest instance in the use of stained glass for church window's is supposed to have been in those that were given by ,count ,arnold to the ,abbey of ,tegernsee in ,bavaria in the year #iii4 ,the thirteenth and fourteenth century were the finest periods for the stained-glass windows of the ,gothic cathedrals both in ,england and on the ,continent4 ,about the middle of the sixteenth century enamel colours began to be used1 and1 as before observed1 the designs showed a striving after pictorial effects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cji4--;,chinese ,glass ,bowl4 7,s4,k4,m47 ,the revival of classic art in the ,renaissance period has also a great deal to do with this change in the style and method of execution in painted glass1 and we find that the greatest painters--but not always the greatest decorators-of the period supplied cartoons and designs for this class of work4 ,glass making has been known in ,china and ,japan from very early times1 but it appears to be difficult to obtain anything like authentic information as to its history from our present imperfect knowledge or acquaintance with the native records4 ,there are stories of ancient ,chinese glass vessels that are said to have been seen by the ,french missionaries of the last century1 one of which vessels was so large that 8a mule could have been put into it10 and that the ,chinese made a kind of glass called 8lieou-li0 that was sufficiently elastic as to bend easily4 ,the vitreous enamels of the ,chinese were of course used as glazes on their porcelain wares and pottery1 but it seems that formerly they only made glass objects in the imitation of precious stones1 gems1 and in their enamels4 ,chinese glass is often made to simulate rock crystal and jade carvings2 their glass snuff-boxes and other small objects are usually well coloured1 and are decorated with relief work of ornament1 landscapes or figure subjects1 the objects generally being of a massive character 7,fig4 #cji74 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,decoration ,,of ,,books4 ,books may be illustrated in a more or less pictorial manner without any particular regard to the decoration of the page1 or with due regard to its ornamentation4 ,in the latter case the designer of the decoration will be the illustrator and decorator in one4 ,the great majority of modern illustrated books are not decorated in the true sense of the word1 but have their illustrations inserted as pictures1 or scraps of pictures1 without borders or frames1 and with little or no relation to the distribution of the printed matter or to the boundary lines of the page4 ,in this respect the modern practice is different from that observed in the ,medival and ,renaissance book illustration1 for in the two periods named1 when a purely literal or pictorial scene was inserted1 it had usually borders like mouldings1 or borders of rich decoration1 or sometimes bands and lines only1 which separated the picture from the printed or written text1 and harmonized with any other decoration that might be on the page4 ,thus an artistic unity was usually preserved in the book decoration of earlier times1 which1 generally speaking1 is the exception in the present day1 and not the rule4 ,the modern practice was brought about by the invention of copper-plate engraving--about #adgg--when the copper-plate illustration became1 in a great measure1 the substitute for wood-engraved blocks of a former period4 ,the plates were usually engraved with copies of pictures1 and the book decorator was superseded by the painter2 the art and practice of the former declined1 while the work of the latter became fashionable1 and has remained so ever since4 ,photography has been a considerable aid to the pictorial side of book illustration1 and has1 on the other hand1 been a great help to designers of decorative illustration1 for by the use of photography the designer is enabled to have the work of his hand reproduced in facsimile1 as in the process block method1 which has been such a powerful rival and competitor to all kinds of engraving that it has now almost crushed them out of existence4 ,before the invention of printing books were very scarce1 as they were written in manuscript1 and were mostly of a devotional character1 made for the use of the clergy and others in monastic establishments or religious houses4 ,the writers and decorators of these missals or illuminated books were chiefly the brothers or monks of the several religious orders4 ,some of the earliest and best decorated books are those belonging to the ,irish ,celtic art of the seventh and eighth centuries4 ,the remarkable designs of illuminated initials and capitals1 and the intricate geometric patterns1 spirals1 and involved interlacings of many varieties1 all executed with astonishing skill1 were not excelled or equalled by the scribes and designers of similar work in ,england or on the ,continent4 ,foremost in importance among the many remaining monuments of ,irish art in book decoration is the celebrated 8,book of ,kells10 now preserved in ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin4 ,it was formerly supposed to have been brought to the ,columban ,monastery of ,kells1 or ,kenlis1 the ancient ,cennanas1 by ,st4 ,columba1 the founder of that ,christian house1 whose death is said to have taken place in the year #eig2 but this is likely to be only tradition1 for it would appear1 according to some later authorities1 that the character of the lettering and the style of the ornamentation fixes the date of its execution about the end of the seventh century4 ,although the native ,irish phase of ,celtic art possesses many characteristics of its own1 it is a development in some degree of the more ,eastern ,romanesque ornament1 and symbolic ,byzantine1 or even the more primitive ,greek4 ,it is also mixed with a few geometric forms and symbols that had existed in ,ireland before the introduction of ,christianity in the fifth century4 ,in the 8,book of ,kells10 for instance1 there are several illustrations which show in some parts a ,greek influence1 and in one page the ,greek monogram of ,christ appears4 ,the initial letters in square or rectilineal capitals usually occupy large portions of the illuminated page1 and are often embedded in rectangular panels with borders1 the latter being filled with elaborate interlacings and spirals1 c4 7,fig4 #caj74 ,the smaller text used by the ,irish scribes was founded on the round or uncial ,roman variety of lettering1 but in the ,irish variety there is a distinct improvement on the ,roman in its beautiful and restrained quality of artistic simplicity1 combined with its perfect legibility4 ,in some ,irish manuscripts an angular cursive or running hand was also used4 ,an illustration given at ,fig4 #caa of the frontispiece from the 8,epistle of ,jerome10 in the ,irish missal known as the 8,book of ,durrow10 is a fine example of ,celtic ornamentation4 ,this and the previous illustration are from ,miss ,m4 ,stokes' handbook on 8,early ,christian ,art in ,ireland40 ,illustration3 ,fig #caj4--,portion of ,illuminated ,monogram2 ,book of ,kells4 7,s47 ,the influence and art work of the ,irish scribes and missal decorators in ,england and on the ,continent has been much greater than was formerly believed4 ,missionaries were sent to ,england1 ,scotland1 and to the ,continent1 from the great monastic establishments in ,ireland during the period from the seventh to the eleventh centuries1 and carried with them 8,gospels10 8,psalters10 and other missals1 besides making many other religious books for the use of the monasteries they had founded in foreign countries4 ,these ,irish scribes also taught their art of book illumination to the monks who lived at such places where they set up their missions1 or where they had become recluses in the foreign monasteries already established4 ,this accounts for the number of ,irish manuscripts that have been found in such monastic houses as that of ,st4 ,gall in ,switzerland1 ,bobio in ,piedmont1 at ,mentz 7,mayence71 at ,ratisbon in ,bavaria1 at ,honau on the ,rhine1 and at many other places on the ,continent4 ,the style of art in all the manuscripts found at these places1 though introduced at the inception of ,christianity into ,ireland from ,italy through ,gaul1 had died out in the latter countries during the fourth and fifth centuries1 and was re-introduced1 as we have seen1 under a modified phase into the ,continent by the ,irish missionary scribes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caa4--;,from the ,epistle of ,jerome2 8,book of ,durrow40 7,s47 ,the majority of the ,anglo-,saxon manuscripts1 if not written by ,irish scribes in ,england1 were either decorated or copied closely from the work of the latter4 ,this is supported by some written testimony1 but the ornamentation of the pages themselves are distinctly of ,irish design4 ,a common feature in the illuminated pages of the books of the ,middle ,ages was the dividing of the pages into four compartments with ornamental borders1 and each compartment holding the figure of a saint or symbols of the ,evangelists1 or having a miniature on the top half of the page and two small columns of text below4 ,anglo-,saxon manuscripts1 with classical treatment of the figure designs1 may be seen in the ,king's ,library at the ,british ,museum4 ,the figures have the attenuated ,byzantine character1 with the linear treatment of the draperies1 and with the long lobe-like forms which strongly mark the intended position of the limbs under the drapery2 while others show the influence of the early ,christian paintings of the catacombs at ,rome and ,naples4 ,the 8,charter0 of the foundation of ,newminster at ,winchester 7#iff7 and several 8,gospels0 in ,latin of the eleventh century in the ,british ,museum1 are examples of the best kind of ,anglo-,saxon illuminated manuscripts4 8,psalteries10 8,gospels10 and botanical works known as 8,herbals0 were among the principal kinds of illustrated books1 which were executed in considerable numbers during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4 ,the text in these books was usually in solid columns1 neatly written in a kind of half-uncial letter in ,latin1 with large initials and surrounded by broad borders1 having little scrolls and trefoil leaves or flowers in which four or six miniatures were placed at intervals4 ,some pages had the upper half or more occupied by a miniature and had less text1 but nearly always there were the accompanying delicate borders designed with great spirit and freedom1 and consisting of ornament made up of leaves1 flowers1 fruit1 stems1 lines1 and spirals1 executed on the vellum ground in bright colours and burnished gold4 ,a characteristic of some of the missals of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the calendar pages at the beginning of the book4 ,the pages which contained the calendar had also1 in some cases1 miniatures in the borders representing the seasons4 ,the ,bedford ,missal 7#addb71 in the ,british ,museum1 is a good example of the best ,french book decoration of that period4 ,it contains a calendar1 and was the work of a ,french artist1 though executed in ,england4 ,towards the end of the fifteenth century the miniature began to assume more importance and to occupy the whole of the page4 ,the borders had become more realistic in treatment2 foliage1 flowers1 and insects were rendered almost naturally on gold or coloured grounds1 with cast shadows1 so as to give the utmost relief4 ,this treatment was not an improvement on the former flat ,gothic style1 as it tended to lead to shadowy and meretricious work4 ,two of the very finest books of this period are the 8,romance of the ,rose10 in the ,british ,museum1 and the ,grimani 8,breviary0 in ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice4 ,in the latter magnificent book some of the miniatures are ascribed to the ,flemish artist ,memling4 ,the miniatures of the splendid choir books of ,siena ,cathedral are the masterly designs of ,girolamo da ,cremona and ,liberale da ,verona1 who were famous at this kind of work4 ,the quantity1 variety1 and purely ,italian character of the decoration of these books would almost be sufficient to form a school of ,renaissance art in itself4 ,with the invention of printing a great change came about in the production of decorated books2 but it is curious to note that1 for a long time after1 in order to produce a book it was thought necessary by the means of woodcuts and type to imitate the illuminated missals of the former times4 ,a good illustration of this may be seen in the woodcut blocks from the recently discovered ,sarum ,missal 7,figs4 #cab1 #cac74 ,this very important acquisition to the list of ,caxton's works was found in #ahic1 in ,lord ,newton's library at ,lyme ,hall1 ,cheshire1 and is one of the works which ,caxton sent to be printed in ,france4 ,it contains some additions to the text in ,caxton's handwriting and has an impression of his peculiar mark at the end of the book4 ,the illustrations have been printed from wood blocks1 and coloured by hand afterwards1 according to the practice which obtained at the latter end of the fifteenth century4 ,another interesting survival of the practice of placing a cross at the bottom of the page1 on which was represented the crucifixion1 is seen underneath the latter illustration 7,fig4 #cac7 in the ,lyme ,missal4 ,in the earlier illuminated missals this device was resorted to in order to keep the picture of the crucifixion from being damaged by the frequent kissing of the cross2 and so a small cross was placed at the bottom of the picture to enable the piously inclined to still perform this act of piety without damage to the book4 ,the custom of engraving blocks for book illustration in outline1 to be filled in afterwards in colour1 led the way to line engraving on wood1 where the pure line work was left uncoloured1 and soon after became a style by itself1 which ultimately1 as the art of black and white1 was sought after and prized for its own sake4 ,the invention of printing from type may be traced from the woodcuts1 as we have remarked above1 some of the earliest of which were those cut for playing cards at the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cab4--,page from the ,caxton 8,lyme ,missal40 ,the invention was soon after applied to the production of the xylographic or block-printed books1 which were printed in colour from the block4 ,the colour was spread on the block1 a sheet of paper was placed on the top1 and then rubbed over by the hand to get the impression4 ,the early block-books printed in this way had more pictorial or decorative work in their pages than text or literary matter1 and therefore appealed more directly to the great uneducated masses of the people of the times for whom they were compiled4 ,by means of the block printing1 many proofs could also be taken to supply the increasing demand for general knowledge which was springing up everywhere in the fifteenth century4 ,letters1 whole words1 and legends were now also cut for the printing of literary matter in the block-books4 ,book blocks were cut in ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,flanders2 the period of their production was from the year #adbj to #aeaj4 ,the invention of printing by movable type has been ascribed to various people1 but it is now pretty certain that the one name most entitled to this honour is that of ,john ,gutenberg1 a native of ,mentz 7,mainz71 who set up a printing establishment in that city in the year #adee1 and who worked in connection with ,fust1 another ,german printer4 ,the invention1 therefore1 may date about #adej4 ,it was about #adee that the ,mazarin ,bible was issued from the press of ,fust and ,gutenberg at ,mentz4 ,lord ,ashburnham's copy of the ,mazarin ,bible1 printed on vellum1 has been sold this year 7#ahig7 for the sum of #d1jjj4 ,peter ,schffer was in partnership some years later with ,fust1 and in the year #adeg they issued the famous ,mentz ,psalter 7now in the ,british ,museum71 the first book printed in different colours from the same block1 and the first printed book with a date4 ,this book is a triumph of technical skill1 and is unique in its beauty among printed books of the earliest period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cac4--,page with the ,crucifixion from the ,caxton 8,lyme ,missal40 ,there are few1 if any1 of the early printed books that cannot lay a great claim to artistic merit1 but this would hardly have been possible if the designers of the type and ornament for the decoration of the pages1 at the advent of printing1 had not had before their eyes the splendid models left them by the caligraphers and illuminators of the preceding centuries4 ,it will be convenient here to say a few words concerning early ,english printing1 which is associated with the name of its great founder1 ,william ,caxton 7#adbc-adia74 ,he was a merchant and a diplomatist1 but a man of strong literary tastes4 ,he learned the art of printing from ,colard ,mansion1 at ,bruges1 where he had set up as a merchant2 but leaving his business1 he entered the household of the ,duchess of ,burgundy1 sister of ,edward ,,iv41 where he was engaged in literary pursuits1 and for her he made a translation of ,le ,fevre's 8,recueil des ,histoires de ,troyes40 ,it was in order to multiply copies of this work that he learned the art of printing1 and it is said that this was the first ,english book ever printed1 which was probably printed by ,mansion at ,bruges1 under the literary direction of ,caxton1 in the year #adgf4 ,caxton came back to ,england in #adgg1 and set up a printing press at ,westminster1 from which he issued a great many books during the last fourteen years of his life4 ,his first book printed at ,westminster was a work called 8,dictes and ,sayings of the ,philosophers10 which is known to be the first ,english book printed in ,england4 ,it is now shown in ,case ,,viii41 ,king's ,library1 in the ,british ,museum4 ,among ,caxton's other books may be mentioned several editions of the poets ,chaucer1 ,lydgate1 and ,gower1 ,malory's 8,morte d',arthur10 c4 ,he evidently sent books of his own composition to be printed on the ,continent1 as witness the ,sarum ,missal before mentioned4 ,the early printed books did not have title-pages4 ,the slow development of this feature after the invention of printing is accounted for by the reason that in this respect1 as in others1 the first printed books were modelled in imitation of the illuminated missals1 and it was not deemed necessary in the medival books and manuscripts to have a title-page1 the scribe of the olden time merely recording in a note or label fastened to the end of the volume the name and description of his work2 so this habit was continued for a long time by the early printers4 ,this note or ending was called a ,colophon4 ,title-pages began to come into use about #adij1 but it was not until about forty years later that they became general4 ,printers' devices1 which were generally of an heraldic character1 were commonly seen on the title-pages1 some of which were very elaborate and finely designed4 ,the famous printing house of ,aldus at ,venice had a device of an anchor with a dolphin twined around it1 and the motto 8,propera tarde10 or 8,festina lente0 7hasten slowly74 ,it was from the printing press of ,aldus1 in #adii1 that the celebrated book called ,poliphili ,hypnerotomachia1 8,the ,dream of ,poliphilus10 was issued4 ,it is a finely illustrated book1 consisting of classical compositions of figures and processions1 many architectural designs1 ornamental letters1 emblems1 and devices1 all of which are executed in outline and printed from wood blocks4 ,the illustrations have a fine quality of line1 somewhat in the spirit and style of ,mantegna's processional designs1 or like those great woodcuts in the 8,triumph of ,maximilian0 by ,hans ,burgmair and ,albert ,drer2 they are supposed--without1 however1 any definite proof--to be the work of ,gentile or ,giovanni ,bellini4 ,the book is a romance written and illustrated in the spirit of classical antiquity that so deeply coloured the art and literature of the early ,renaissance epoch4 ,a reproduction of the illustrations of this book in photo-lithography by ,mr4 ,w4 ,griggs1 with notes by ,dr4 ,appell1 was issued by the ,science and ,art ,department in #ahhh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cad4--;,illustration from ,woodcut of ,dante's 8,inferno20 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,somewhat in the style of 8,the ,dream of ,poliphilus0 is the illustration 7,fig4 #cad7 from an edition of ,dante's 8,inferno0 of the same period4 ,a reduced specimen of the flat treatment of a ,renaissance border1 from a woodcut which appeared in an edition of 8,herodotus0 printed at ,venice in #adgj1 is shown as the ,frontispiece of this volume4 ,this rich and delicate design is extremely effective in white on a black ground1 and is artistically appropriate to the decoration of the page1 much more so than the later ,french and ,german work in borders and title-pages1 which was usually of an extremely heavy character4 ,shaded designs of an architectural kind1 such as friezes1 columns1 bases1 and pediments1 with corpulent figure decoration and heavy mouldings1 were compositions which in the latter end of the sixteenth and during the seventeenth centuries took the place of the earlier light arabesque scroll-work of the ,italian school1 which revelled in the beauty of purer outline and in flat treatment of black and white4 ,jean ,goujon1 ,jean ,cousin1 ,virgil ,solis1 ,ducerceau1 ,stimmer1 ,jost ,amman1 and others1 though versatile and vigorous to the highest degree1 and clever ,french and ,german draughtsmen of the sixteenth century1 their work in book decoration was more like designs for stone carving and sculpture than legitimate decoration for books4 ,at the end of the century1 however1 a more correct appreciation of book-cover decoration was manifested4 ,this was due to the happy influence of ,arabian design when mixed with the prevailing ,renaissance forms4 ,the ,oriental craftsmen who came to ,italy1 and the great commerce of ,venice and ,europe generally with the ,east1 served to colour in a marked degree the design of the ornamental arts1 and nowhere do we see the purely ,arabian strap-work and peculiar ,saracen leafage used to such advantage as in the tooled and stamped book-cover designs of this period4 ,the ,henri ,deux book-cover design 7,fig4 #cae7 is ,arabian in its details1 but ,renaissance in its general arrangement4 ,it might have been designed by ,ducerceau1 but perhaps more likely by ,solomon ,bernard of ,lyons--known as 8,le ,petit ,bernard0--who was a prolific designer of small pictures for wood-engraved book illustrations4 ,he died at ,lyons in #aegj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cae4--;,cover of a ,rook4 ,henri-,deux ,style2 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,both of these designers1 as well as another famous designer of book decoration1 ,geoffry ,tory1 were very partial to the use of strap-work and ,arab foliation4 ,the latter artist was also a scholar and author1 and produced many fine designs for book-covers4 ,fig4 #caf is a very delicate and rich design for the cover of a 8,book of the ,hours10 by ,tory1 and is a good example of the ,franco-,renaissance of the sixteenth century4 ,jean ,grolier1 ,viscount d',aguisy1 was one of the earliest and greatest bibliophiles of ,france4 ,though of ,italian origin he adopted ,france as his country1 and was ,treasurer-,general of ,france when he died1 in #aefe1 at the age of eighty-six4 ,he was appointed ambassador to ,clement ,,vii4 in the year #aecd1 and at this time had begun to collect valuable books1 that had been chiefly printed in ,venice and at ,basle4 ,these books were generally unbound copies1 but were printed with great care on beautiful paper4 ,on his return to ,france he employed ,geoffry ,tory and other designers as well as the best craftsmen in bookbinding to decorate and clothe his precious works4 ,the illustrations we have given are such as are usually found on the ,grolier bindings1 which nearly always consist of designs composed of strap-work or interlacings and delicate tracery1 clothed with ,arabian foliage1 worked on prepared costly leathers in various colours1 and often heightened with gold4 ,grolier's bindings usually bore in addition to the title of the book the inscription 8,jo ,grolierii ,et ,amicorum10 indicating that they belonged to ,grolier and his friends1 at the same time adding a testimony to the unselfish spirit of the great book-lover4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caf4--;,cover for a 8,book of the ,hours10 designed by ,geoffry ,tory2 ,french1 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,the strap-work and ,oriental foliage designs1 which had developed so much in ,france1 went even further in ,germany1 not only in bookbinding decoration1 but in gold and silversmiths' work1 and in architecture--as we have noticed before in this volume--and nearly all the ,german1 ,flemish1 and ,dutch artists of the sixteenth and following century1 who designed for book decoration1 adopted the above features in their ornament4 ,great masters like ,albert ,drer1 ,holbein the younger1 ,lucas ,cranach1 and ,hans ,burgmair1 and the 8little masters0--,jost ,amman1 ,hans ,sebald ,beham1 ,aldegrever1 ,virgil ,solis1 ,jerome ,bang1 ,peter ,fltner of ,lige1 the ,collrts and ,janssens of ,antwerp1 and ,lucas ,kilian of ,augsburg--were the principal designers and engravers for book decoration and illustrations1 in which work they were engaged among their varied and prolific labours in other branches of decorative art4 ,during the seventeenth century the power of design was growing rapidly weaker1 the ornament became coarser in feeling and imitated the cumbersome and heavy traditions of classical art4 ,headpieces1 tailpieces1 and printers' devices or marks were now more in fashion1 rather than the consideration of the design of the page as a whole decorative scheme4 ,title-pages with heavy architectural pretensions and pictorial views began to be very common at the end of the century and throughout the eighteenth century4 ,the pictorial illustration in black and white was due to the development of copper-plate first1 and steel engraving afterwards1 as new methods for book illustration4 ,these processes were developed very much in ,italy and ,france at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 and in ,england their use in book illustration might be said to extend from about the middle of the eighteenth to the middle of the present century4 ,this period embraced that of the publication of a type of ,english books of essays1 poems1 and short stories1 known as ,anniversaries1 ,amulets1 ,annuals1 ,keepsakes1 ,souvenirs1 c4 ,these books were filled with beautifully executed line engravings of landscapes and figure subjects1 and most of them were of the highest order of technical skill4 ,the period of their existence was from #aghj to #ahcj4 ,book decoration had become more and more pictorial and less decorative when the method employed was line engraving1 for1 generally speaking1 pictures in oil or water-colour were copied with great fidelity and skill by the engraver for use in book illustration1 and thus through the agency of the burin or engraver's tool the painter supplanted the book decorator4 ,many of the line engravings in the books of the above period show a mixture1 on the same plate1 of pure line engraving and etching1 the latter being a process in which the lines of the design are scratched into the metal plate1 which had been previously covered with a wax preparation1 and the lines thus exposed are bitten deeper by an acid solution into which the plate is immersed4 ,three artists of great talents--,prout1 ,stothard1 and ,turner--supplied designs and water-colour drawings of landscapes1 figures1 and decorative compositions1 that were engraved as book illustrations4 ,the illustrations1 though on a small scale1 to ,rogers's 8,poems10 were very beautifully engraved by ,william ,finden1 after the designs of ,stothard1 who made the figure compositions1 and of ,turner1 who did the landscapes4 ,finden was the great interpreter of ,stothard's figure designs1 but was equally successful in his engraving of ,turner's landscapes4 ,stothard has designed many illustrations for books which are characterized by a fine sense of decorative value2 his figures were1 as a rule1 clothed in light classical costumes1 and were graceful in pose and in drawing4 ,the best engravers of the day1 such as ,finden1 ,heath1 ,allen1 ,fox1 ,goodyear1 ,robinson1 and ,humphreys1 were engaged for the publishers in translating his designs for book illustration4 ,steel-engraved frontispieces to books on science1 history1 travels1 architecture1 and philosophy had become very common in the eighteenth century4 ,the designs of these were more or less of a heavy classical type of architectural framing and allegorical figures1 sometimes enclosing portraits or landscape views4 ,hogarth's engraved designs and the work of ,flaxman maybe said to be at the opposite poles of art2 the dramatic realism of the former is in strong opposition to the classic idealism of the latter4 ,the works of both have been used as book illustrations1 but neither of them can be called book decorators1 their engraved works being produced as plates1 or as a series of pictures1 and the text of the books written merely in explanation of the plates4 ,the poet and highly imaginative artist1 ,william ,blake1 in his designs for his 8,songs of ,innocence0 7#aghi71 and in his 8,book of ,job10 reverts to the old missal-painters' manner of embodying together the text1 ornament1 and miniatures1 in one decorative scheme of unity1 in the artistic treatment of the page4 ,blake engraved his own designs1 and printed them off in black and white1 or sometimes in colour4 ,during the later years in which steel engravings for books were in fashion1 the revived art of wood-engraving was making a slow headway towards recognition and favour in ,england1 and its complete revival was owing to the persistent efforts and genius of ,thomas ,bewick 7#agec-ahbh74 ,bewick was not only a wood-engraver and a craftsman of the highest order1 but was an artist gifted with a fine feeling for humour and pathos1 and many of his small compositions are characterized by a good deal of pictorial effect4 ,his best works1 from a technical point of view1 are his illustrations of natural history1 the finest of which are the illustrations in his book1 the 8,history of ,british ,birds10 which show ,bewick at his best in the rendering of bird form and feather texture4 ,he also designed and executed many dainty little compositions of landscapes with figures and animals as tailpieces4 ,the school of ,bewick1 formed of his pupils and others1 served to keep alive the art of wood-engraving until the revival was assured1 for ,bewick had a difficult task to get the public to appreciate his work during his lifetime4 ,the names of his principal pupils were ,luke ,clennel1 who was the most celebrated1 and who was also a good water-colour painter2 ,charlton ,nesbitt1 ,robert ,johnson1 and ,william ,harvey4 ,a self-educated engraver of some note was ,robert ,branston1 of ,lynn1 ,norfolk 7#aggh-ahbg74 ,john ,thompson was a pupil of ,branston1 who excelled his master1 and was the best engraver of his time in ,england4 ,a great name among ,english wood-engravers is that of ,william ,j4 ,linton1 who has done more by his work and pen to advance the art than any one4 ,his best work was executed about the middle of this century1 particularly in the engravings of ,rossetti's designs for ,tennyson's poems 7#aheg-ei74 ,he is also known as a writer and designer of considerable power4 ,a pupil of his--,mr4 ,walter ,crane--whose work is so well known and admired in the present day1 has designed some fine decorative work for book illustration4 ,his children's books are good examples of colour and design1 but perhaps his own poem1 8,the ,sirens ,three10 where he has designed and executed the lettering and beautiful decoration1 best fulfils the conditions of what a decorated page ought to be1 and maybe ranked as one of his greatest efforts in book decoration4 ,the late ,randolph ,caldecott1 whose characteristic humour appears in every line of his work1 was another great designer of children's books4 ,his colouring is very harmonious and refined1 and though his work is mostly of a pictorial character1 yet in his larger pages he displays a true feeling for the decoration of the page4 ,children's illustrated books of fairy tales have multiplied very much of late years1 and in many of them is seen some of the old decorative feeling1 where the text and illustrations are considered in an artistic relation to each other4 ,this will also be noticed in many illustrations to poems which often appear in the monthly magazines of the present day4 ,on the other hand1 picture illustrations and scrappy designs of the vignette order are very common4 ,these are generally inserted1 without any apparent order1 on any part of the page1 and the type matter filled into the vacant spaces4 ,this picture-screen method of book1 newspaper1 and magazine illustration has no doubt been developed by our recent acquaintance and infection with ,japanese art1 which1 though highly artistic and decorative in many senses1 is wanting in balance of mass1 and is only occasionally right in arrangement of line4 ,japanese decoration as such is generally charming1 but when the ,western designer copies the ,japanese ideas without the style and methods of execution1 the result may have novelty to recommend it1 but otherwise it is a failure4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that the reign of wood-engraving is almost now at an end as far as book illustration is concerned1 and1 like steel engraving1 has nearly become an art of the past1 owing to the great advance made in recent years in the many methods of black and white reproduction1 which is mainly due to the powerful help and agency of photography4 ,,end4 --------------------- ,,printed ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,virtue ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited1 ,,city ,,road1 ,,london4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapman ,,hall',s ,,art ,,publications4 ,illustration ,,plants ,,and ,,their ,,application ,,to ,,ornament4 ,edited by ,,eugene ,,grasset4 ,this magnificent work contains #gb ,coloured ,plates1 consisting of #bd ,floral ,designs1 with two samples of each1 showing their ornamental application4 ,in ,portfolio1 net1 #e #es4 --------------------- ,,an ,,illustrated ,,record ,,of ,,the ,,retrospective ,,exhibition ,,held ,,at ,,south ,,kensington1 #ahif4 ,compiled and ,edited by ,,john ,,fisher1 ,head ,master1 ,kensington ,school of ,science and ,art1 ,berkeley ,square1 ,bristol4 ,with about #aef full-page ,illustrations4 #bas4 net4 ,,historic ,,ornament3 ,a ,treatise on ,decorative ,art and ,architectural ,ornament1 from ,pre-,historic ,times to the ,present ,day4 ,by ,,james ,,ward1 ,author of 8,the ,principles of ,ornament40 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,in #b vols41 #gs4 #f;d each4 ,,harbutt',s ,,plastic ,,method1 and the ,use of ,plasticine in the ,arts of ,writing1 ,drawing1 and ,modelling in ,educational ,work4 ,by ,,william ,,harbutt4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,crown #dto1 #ds4 --------------------- ,,modern ,,architecture3 ,a book for ,architects and the ,public4 ,by ,h4 ,,heathcote ,,statham1 ,editor of ,the ,builder1 and ,author of 8,architecture for ,general ,readers10 c4 ,with numerous ,illustrations of ,contemporary ,buildings4 ,demy #hvo4 --------------------- ,,figure ,,drawing ,,and ,,composition4 ,being a number of ,hints for the ,student and ,designer upon the ,treatment of the ,human ,figure4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,,hatton4 ,with #ejj ,diagrams4 ,crown #hvo1 #is4 --------------------- ,,architecture ,,for ,,general ,,readers3 to which is added an ,historical ,sketch of ,architecture4 ,by ,h4 ,,heathcote ,,statham4 ,with hundreds of ,illustrations by the ,author4 ,second ,edition1 ,revised4 ,demy #hvo1 #abs4 --------------------- ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,design4 ,an ,advanced ,text-,book on ,decorative ,art4 ,by ,f4 ,g4 ,,jackson4 ,with #gjj ,illustrations4 ,large crown #hvo1 #is4 --------------------- ,,the ,,horse4 ,by ,,cecil ,,brown4 ,the work is thoroughly practical1 and shows the ,horse as he really is1 not as he is too often represented in conventional art4 ,the work will be invaluable to every artist and to every horse-lover4 ,in ,eight ,parts1 each #bs4 #f;d42 or in one volume1 #bas4 --------------------- ,,elementary ,,design3 being a ,theoretical and ,practical ,introduction in the ,art of ,decoration4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,,hatton4 ,with #aaj ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,studies ,,in ,,plant ,,form ,,and ,,design4 ,by ,w4 ,,midgley and ,a4 ,e4 ,v4 ,,lilley4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo1 #ds4 --------------------- ,,wood ,,carving4 ,by ,,jos4 ,,phillips4 ,a ,carefully ,graduated and ,educational ,course of ,wood ,carving1 specially adapted for ,schools and ,technical ,classes4 ,with #ac ,illustrations1 #cs4 #f;d42 #ae ,full-size ,shaded ,working ,drawings1 #es4 --------------------- ,,raphael3 ,,his ,,life1 ,,works1 ,,and ,,times4 ,by ,,eugene ,,muntz4 ,a ,new and ,cheap ,edition1 condensed from the original work4 ,royal #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,a ,,practical ,,handbook ,,of ,,drawing3 ,for ,modern ,methods of ,reproduction4 ,by ,,charles ,g4 ,,harper4 ,with many ,illustrations showing comparative results4 ,crown #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,egyptian ,,art4 ,by ,c4 ,,ryan4 ,with #ef ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,principles ,,of ,,ornament4 ,by ,j4 ,,ward4 ,edited by ,g4 ,,aitchison1 ,a4,r4,a4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,new and ,enlarged ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,decorative ,,design4 ,an ,elementary ,text-,book of ,principles and ,practice4 ,by ,f4 ,g4 ,,jackson4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,large crown #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,the ,,decoration ,,of ,,metals3 ,chasing1 ,repouss1 and ,saw ,piercing4 ,by ,,john ,,harrison4 ,with #ahj ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,wood-,,carving ,,in ,,theory ,,and ,,practice1 ,,as ,,applied ,,to ,,home ,,arts1 with ,notes on ,design4 ,by ,f4 ,l4 ,,schauermann4 #abd ,illustrations4 ,second ,edition4 ,imp4 #hvo1 #es4 --------------------- ,,sciography3 or1 ,parallel and ,radial ,projection of ,shadows4 ,being a ,course of ,exercises for the use of ,students in ,architectural and ,engineering ,drawing4 ,by ,r4 ,,pratt4 ,with numerous plates4 ,oblong #dto1 #gs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,the ,,sculptor ,,and ,,art ,,students' ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,form4 ,with measurements in feet and inches of ,full-grown ,figures of ,both ,sexes and of ,various ,ages4 ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,,schadow4 ,oblong folio1 #cas4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,elementary ,,principles ,,of ,,ornament4 ,by ,,james ,,ward4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 #es4 --------------------- ,,handbook ,,of ,,perspective4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,,james1 ,m4,a41 ,cantab4 ,with #ge ,diagrams4 ,crown #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,text-,,book ,,on ,,shades ,,and ,,shadows1 ,,and ,,perspective4 ,by ,,john ,e4 ,,hill1 ,associate ,professor of ,engineering1 ,brown ,university4 ,twelve folding ,plates4 #hvo1 net1 #hs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,hints ,,to ,,amateurs4 ,a ,handbook on ,art4 ,by ,,louise ,,jopling4 ,with ,diagrams4 ,crown #hvo1 #as4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,ten ,,lectures ,,on ,,art4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,,poynter1 ,r4,a4 ,large crown #hvo1 #is4 ,new and ,enlarged ,edition4 --------------------- ,,bent ,,ironwork ,,for ,,beginners ,,and ,,proficients4 ,by ,,amanda ,,sanders4 ,with #ee ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,elementary ,,drawing4 ,a few ,suggestions for ,students and ,teachers4 ,by ,h4 ,,foster ,,newey4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,practical ,,plane ,,and ,,solid ,,geometry4 ,containing ,solutions to the ,honours ,questions set at the ,examinations of the ,science and ,art ,department 7#ahhg-ahif7 inclusive4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,by ,t4 ,j4 ,,evans1 ,lecturer in ,geometry and ,architectural ,subjects at the ,south-,west ,london ,polytechnic ,institute2 and ,w4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,pullen1 ,wh4,sc41 ,a4,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,head of the ,engineering ,department1 ,south-,west ,london ,polytechnic ,institute4 ,demy #hvo1 #is4 --------------------- ,,the ,,characteristics ,,of ,,style3 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of the ,history of ,ornamental ,art4 ,by ,r4 ,n4 ,,wornum4 ,ninth ,edition4 ,royal #hvo1 #hs4 --------------------- ,,perrot 7,g47 and ,,chipiez 7,c474--,a ,,history ,,of ,,art ,,in ,,primitive ,,greece 7,,myc,,nian74 ,with #eec ,illustrations and #bj ,coloured ,plates4 #b vols4 ,imperial #hvo1 #dbs4 --------------------- ------ ------ ,a ,,history ,,of ,,ancient ,,art ,,in ,,persia4 ,with #bed ,illustrations1 and #ab ,steel and ,coloured ,plates4 ,imperial #hvo1 #bas4 --------------------- ------ ------ ,a ,,history ,,of ,,ancient ,,art ,,in ,,phrygia1 ,,lydia1 ,,caria and ,,lycia4 ,with #bhj ,illustrations4 ,imperial #hvo1 #aes4 --------------------- ------ ------ ,a ,,history ,,of ,,ancient ,,art ,,in ,,sardinia1 ,,jud,a1 ,,syria1 and ,,asia ,,minor4 ,with #cie ,illustrations4 #b vols4 ,imperial #hvo1 #cfs4 --------------------- ------ ------ ,a ,,history ,,of ,,ancient ,,art ,,in ,,ph,,nicia ,,and ,,its ,,dependencies4 ,with #fed ,illustrations4 #b vols4 ,imperial #hvo1 #dbs4 --------------------- ------ ------ ,a ,,history ,,of ,,art ,,in ,,chald,a ,,and ,,assyria4 ,with #deb ,illustrations4 #b vols4 ,imperial #hvo1 #dbs4 --------------------- ------ ------ ,a ,,history ,,of ,,art ,,in ,,ancient ,,egypt4 ,with #fjj ,illustrations4 #b vols4 ,imperial #hvo1 #dbs4 ,,chapman ,,and ,,hall',s ,,science ,,publications4 ,illustration ,,first ,,principles ,,of ,,mechanical ,,and ,,engineering ,,drawing4 ,a ,course of ,study adapted to the ,self-,instruction of ,students and ,apprentices of ,mechanical ,engineering in all its ,branches4 ,and for the use of ,teachers in ,technical and ,manual ,instruction ,schools4 ,by ,h4 ,,holt-,,butterfill1 ,m4,e41 formerly a ,member of the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers and ,institution of ,naval ,architects4 ,with upwards of #cej ,diagrams in ,illustration of the ,principles of the subject4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,a ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,mechanical ,,engineering4 ,by ,,wilfrid ,j4 ,,lineham1 ,m4,i4,mech4,e41 ,head of the ,engineering ,department at the ,goldsmiths' ,company's ,institute1 ,new ,cross4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 --------------------- ,,machine ,,construction ,,and ,,drawing 7,elementary and ,advanced74 ,a ,key to the ,examinations of the ,science and ,art ,department4 ,by ,,henry ,,adams1 ,m4,inst4,c4,e41 ,m4,inst4,m4,e41 ,f4,s4,i41 c41 ,professor of ,engineering at the ,city of ,london ,college4 #b vols4 ,crown #hvo #bs4 #f;d4 each4 --------------------- ,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,natural ,,orders ,,of ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom4 ,by ,d4 ,,oliver1 ,f4,r4,s41 late ,professor of ,botany1 ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,new ,edition4 #aji ,plates1 coloured4 ,royal #hvo4 #afs4 --------------------- ,,practical ,,plane ,,and ,,solid ,,geometry4 ,a ,treatise containing ,solutions to the ,honours ,questions set at the ,examinations of the ,science and ,art ,department 7#ahhg-ahif7 inclusive4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,by ,t4 ,j4 ,,evans and ,w4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,pullen1 ,wh4,sc41 ,a4,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,south-,west ,london ,polytechnic ,institute4 ,demy #hvo4 #is4 --------------------- ,,key ,,to ,,examinations ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,art ,,department4 ,subject ,,iii4--,,building ,,construction4 ,by ,,henry ,,adams1 ,m4,inst4,c4,e41 ,m4,inst4,m4,e41 c41 ,professor of ,engineering at the ,city of ,london ,college4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 --------------------- ,,practical ,,plane ,,and ,,solid ,,geometry4 ,a ,key to the ,examinations of the ,science and ,art ,department4 ,by ,,henry ,,angel1 ,lecturer on ,geometry at the ,birkbeck ,institute1 ,woolwich ,polytechnic1 c4 ,gold ,medallist4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 --------------------- ,,mechanical ,,engineers' ,,pocket-,,book4 ,a ,reference ,book of ,rules1 ,tables1 ,data1 and ,formul1 for the ,use of ,engineers1 ,mechanics1 and ,students4 ,by ,,william ,,kent1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,e41 ,consulting ,engineer4 #a1ajj pages4 #abmo1 morocco flap4 #bas4 net4 --------------------- ,,civil ,,engineers' ,,pocket-,,book of ,mensuration1 ,trigonometry1 ,surveying1 ,hydraulics1 ,hydrostatics1 ,instruments and their adjustments1 ,strength of ,materials1 ,masonry1 ,principles of ,wooden and ,iron ,roof and ,bridge ,trusses1 ,stone ,bridges and ,culverts1 ,trestles1 ,pillars1 ,suspension ,bridges1 ,dams1 ,railroads1 ,turnouts1 ,turning ,platforms1 ,water ,stations1 ,cost of ,earthwork1 ,foundations1 ,retaining-,walls1 c4 ,in addition to which the elucidation of certain important ,principles of ,construction is made in a more simple manner than heretofore4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,trautwine1 ,c4,e4 #abmo1 morocco flaps1 gilt edges4 ,seventeenth edition1 #dgth thousand4 ,revised and enlarged1 with new ,illustrations1 by ,j4 ,c4 ,,trautwine1 ,junr41 ,c4,e4 #bas4 net4 --------------------- ,,the ,,materials ,,of ,,construction4 ,by ,j4 ,b4 ,,johnson4 ,large #hvo4 #hjj pages4 #fej ,illustrations1 #aa ,plates1 and ,complete ,index4 #bes4 net4 --------------------- ,,the ,,mechanical ,,engineering ,,of ,,power ,,plants4 ,by ,professor ,,frederick ,r4 ,,hutton1 ,columbia ,university4 #hvo4 #bas4 net4 --------------------- ,,higher ,,mathematics3 a ,text-,book for ,classical and ,engineering ,colleges4 ,edited by ,m4 ,,merriman and ,r4 ,s4 ,,woodward4 #hvo4 #bls4 net4 --------------------- ,,steam ,,boilers4 ,by ,,cecil ,h4 ,,peabody and ,e4 ,f4 ,,miller1 ,professor of ,marine ,engineering and ,naval ,architecture4 #hvo4 #ags4 net4 ,,diagrams ,,for ,,class ,,teaching4 7,adapted to the ,requirements of the ,science and ,art ,department47 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,mining4 ,arranged by ,e4 ,t4 ,,howard1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s 1 and ,e4 ,w4 ,,small1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,these ,diagrams have been arranged in accordance with the list given in the ,directory of ,science and ,art 7#ahie74 ,the object has been to supply a really useful selection at a very moderate cost4 ,twelve sheets1 size #cj in4 by #dj in4 ,price #bas4 net2 on rollers and varnished1 #b #bs4 net4 ,,terrestrial ,,and ,,astronomical ,,phenomena ,,and ,,objects4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,gregory1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 author of 8,elementary ,physiography10 8,the ,planet ,earth10 c4 ,these diagrams have been prepared to illustrate ,phenomena and ,objects which cannot be experimentally demonstrated or easily observed4 ,it is believed that they will not only be of value in ,departmental ,classes1 but also in ,elementary ,schools where ,physical ,geography is taught4 ,twelve sheets1 size #cj in4 by #dj in4 ,price #bas4 net2 on rollers and varnished1 #b #bs4 net4 --------------------- ,,botanical4 ,,illustrating ,a ,,practical ,,method ,,of ,,teaching ,,botany4 ,by ,professor ,,henslow1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,nine sheets coloured1 #db in4 by #ca in41 #b2 on rollers and varnished1 #c #cs4 ,,machine ,,details4 ,,sixteen ,,coloured ,,diagrams4 ,by ,professor ,,unwin4 #ca in4 by #bc in41 #b #bs42 on rollers and varnished1 #c #ads4 ,,models4 ,,syllabus ,,of ,,art ,,examinations4 ,minute by ,science and ,art ,department4 ,,model ,,drawing1 ,,elementary ,,and ,,advanced ,,stages4 ,models and ,vases prescribed by the ,science and ,art ,department for the use at the above ,art ,examinations4 ,these ,models and ,vases have been duly approved by the ,authorities1 and specially manufactured for ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,limited4 ,the ,entire ,collection consists of-- #a4 ,,vase--,bottle4 #h4 ,,hexagonal ,,prism4 #b4 ,,vase--,majolica ,vase4 #i4 ,,triangular ,,prism4 #c4 ,,vase--,large ,earthenware ,vase4 #aj4 ,,square ,,prism4 #d4 ,,cube--,large4 #aa4 ,,square ,,pyramid4 #e4 ,,cube--,small4 #ab4 ,,skeleton ,,cube4 #f4 ,,cone4 #ac4 ,,sphere4 #g4 ,,cylinder4 #ad4 ,,ring4 ,price in box1 complete1 #d net4 ,set for ,elementary ,stage 7,subject #c;,a--,first ,figure71 #b #afs4 net4 ,set for ,advanced ,stage 7,subject #c;,a--,second ,figure71 #a #ds4 net4 ------------------------------------ ,,casts4 ,a ,,catalogue ,,of ,,casts1 ,especially selected for the use of ,schools of ,art1 ,art ,classes1 ,technical ,schools and ,public and ,elementary ,schools4 ,price #as4 ,this ,catalogue contains ,illustrations of #dbc different ,casts1 a great number of which are made by ,messrs4 ,chapman ,hall from original and copyright designs1 and from exhibits in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,the selection and manufacture are under the personal supervision of the ,art ,master of one of the largest ,art ,schools of ,england4 ,,notice4--,the above diagrams1 models1 c41 can be inspected in the ,show ,room of ,messrs4 ,chapman and ,hall's premises1 together with a vast assortment of mechanical and other models1 vases1 diagrams1 and drawing examples4 ,catalogues post free4 ------------------------------------ ,,london3 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,ltd41 ,agents to the ,science and ,art ,department4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note ,some inconsistencies in formatting conventions have been corrected1 without further mention4 ,occasionally1 diacritical marks are used 7or not used7 inconsistently as well1 and has been made regular to facilitate searches4 ,the compound word #8salt-cellar' is given both with and without the hyphen4 ,they have been retained as printed4 ,any errors deemed most likely to be the printer's have been corrected1 and are noted here4 ,the references are to the page and line in the original4 ,the following issues should be noted1 along with the resolutions4 xiv4#af ,salt-celle_/ar1 portions of1 by ,pierre ,replaced4 ,raymond #aa4;f#h ,earthernware ,plaque2 ,alcora ,ware4 ,removed4 #hc4ai ,the glaze gives a slightly uneven surface ,inserted4 #afg4d plated with gold4 ,restored4 #bgb4f ,this celebrated furnitut_/re ,replaced4 #cai4ah for georgeous colouring ,removed4 #cfa4cc there has been several attempts sic3 have #chb4d known as 8flgelglsser0 ,removed4