,,the ,,arts ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 ,,and ,,at ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,annunciation4 ,fac-simile of a ,miniature from the 8,hours0 of ,anne de ,bretagne formerly belonging to ,catherine de ,medicis 7,library of ,m4 ,a4 ,firmin ,didot47 ,,the ,,arts ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 ,,and ,,at ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,,by ,,paul ,,lacroix 7,bibliophile ,jacob71 ,,curator ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,library ,,of ,,the ,,arsenal1 ,,paris4 ,illustrated with ,,nineteen ,,chromolithographic ,,prints ,,by ,f4 ,,kellerhoven ,,and ,,upwards ,,of ,,four ,,hundred ,,engravings ,,on ,,wood4 ,,fourth ,,thousand4 ,,london3 ,,bickers ,,and ,,son1 #a1 ,,leicester ,,square4 ,illustration ,,preface ,,of ,,the ,,editor4 ,the aim and scope of this work are so explicitly set forth in the appended ,preface by its ,author as to require for the book no further introduction4 ,the position held by ,m4 ,,lacroix in the ,imperial ,library of the ,arsenal1 ,paris1 is a sufficient guarantee of his qualifications for undertaking a publication of this nature4 ,how far his labours were appreciated in ,france is evident from the fact that1 when the first edition made its appearance1 it was exhausted within a few days4 ,it may fairly be presumed that ,,the ,,arts ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages will find equal favour in ,england1 where so much attention has of late years been given to the subject in all its various ramifications2 and where1--in our ,national ,museum1 ,kensington1 especially1--we are accumulating so extensive and valuable a collection of objects associated with the epochs referred to by ,m4 ,,lacroix4 ,in preparing these sheets for the press1 my task has been little more than to put an excellent and conscientious literal translation of the ,french text into language somewhat in harmony with the construction of our own4 ,in so doing1 however1 it has been my object to retain1 as far as practicable1 the peculiar--sometimes the quaint--phraseology of the original writing4 ,a few notes are added when they appeared necessary by way of explaining terms1 c41 or to render them more intelligible to the general reader4 ,but some words are used by the ,author for which no ,english equivalent can be found3 these have been allowed to stand without note or comment4 ,,james ,,dafforne4 ,,brixton1 ,february1 #ahgj4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,french ,,edition4 ,more than twenty years ago we published1 with the aid of our friend ,ferdinand ,sr1 whose loss we regret1 and with the co-operation of other learned men and of the most eminent writers and artists1 an important work1 entitled 8,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,and ,,the ,,renaissance40 ,that work1 which consists of no less than five large quarto volumes1 treated in detail the manners and customs1 the sciences1 literature1 and the arts of those two great epochs1 a subject as vast as it is interesting and instructive4 ,thanks to the learning it displays1 to its literary merit and its admirable execution1 it had the rare good fortune to attract immediately the attention of the public1 and even now it maintains the interest which marked its first appearance4 ,it has taken its place in the library of the amateur1 not only in ,france but also among foreigners2 it has become celebrated4 ,this exceptional result1 especially as regards a publication of such extent1 induces us to believe that our work1 thus known and appreciated by the learned1 may and ought henceforth to have still greater success by addressing itself to a yet larger number of readers4 ,with this conviction we now present to the public one of the principal portions of that important work1 and perhaps the most interesting1 in a form more simple1 easier1 and more pleasing2 within the reach of youth who desire to learn without weariness or irksomeness1 of females interested in grave authors1 of the family that loves to assemble round a book altogether instructive and attractive4 ,we would speak of the 8,,arts ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 ,,and ,,at ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance40 ,after having reunited the scattered materials on this subject1 we have ranged them each in its own rank1 taking care to discard all crudity of learning and to preserve in our work the brilliant colouring in which it was first clothed4 ,all the ,arts are interesting in themselves4 ,their productions awaken attention and excite curiosity4 ,but here it is not one ,art only that is treated of4 ,we pass in review all the ,arts1 starting from the fourth century to the second half of the sixteenth--,architecture raising churches and abbeys1 palaces and public memorials1 strong fortresses and the ramparts of cities2 ,sculpture adorning and perfecting other ,arts by its works in stone1 marble1 bronze1 wood1 and ivory2 ,painting1 commencing with mosaic and enamels1 contributing to the decoration of buildings jointly with stained glass and frescoes1 embellishing and illuminating manuscripts before it arrived at its highest point of perfection1 with the ,art of ,giotto and ,raphael1 of ,hemling and ,albert ,drer2 ,engraving on wood and metal1 with which is associated the work of the medallist and the goldsmith2 and after attempting to touch upon ,playing-cards and ,niello-work1 we suddenly evoke that sublime invention destined to change the face of the world--,printing4 ,such are1 in brief1 some of the principal features of this splendid picture4 ,one can imagine what an infinity1 what variety and richness1 of details it should contain4 ,our subject presents1 at the same time1 another kind of interest more elevated and not less alluring4 ,here each ,art appears in its different phases and in its diversified progress4 ,it is a history1 not alone of the ,arts1 but of the epoch itself in which they were developed2 for the ,arts1 regarded in their generality1 are the truest expression of society4 ,they speak to us of tastes1 of ideas1 of character3 they exhibit us in their works4 ,of all an age can leave to the future concerning itself1 that which represents it most vividly is ,art3 the ,arts of an epoch revivify it1 and bring it back before our eyes4 ,it is this which forms our book4 ,yet1 we must remark1 here its interest is redoubled1 for we retrace not only a single era1 but two eras very distinct from each other4 ,in the first1 that of the ,middle ,ages1 which followed the invasion of the ,northmen1 society was in a great measure formed of new and barbarous elements1 which ,christianity laboured to break up and fashion4 ,in the second epoch1 on the contrary1 society was organised and firmly established2 it enjoyed peace1 and reaped its fruits4 ,the ,arts followed the same phases4 ,at first rude and informal1 they rose slowly and by degrees1 like society1 out of chaos4 ,at length they nourished in perfect freedom1 and progressed with all the energy of which the human mind is capable4 ,hence the successive advances whose history presents a marvellous interest4 ,during the ,middle ,ages1 ,art generally followed the inspirations of that ,christian spirit which presided at the formation of this new world4 ,it arose to reproduce in an admirable manner the religious ideal4 ,only towards the end of that period it searched out for beauty of form1 and began to find it when the ,renaissance made its appearance3 the ,renaissance1 that is1 the intellectual revolution1 which1 in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 restored among modern nations the sceptre to ,literature and the ,arts of antiquity4 ,then1 with the ,renaissance1 the ,arts changed their direction1 and especially the principal ,arts1 those by which the genius of man expresses most forcibly his ideas and his feelings4 ,thus1 in the ,middle ,ages1 a new style of architecture is created that rapidly attained the highest degree of perfection1 the ogival 7later ,gothic or flamboyant71 of which we see the chefs-d'uvre in our cathedrals3 at the ,renaissance1 this was replaced by architecture derived from that of the ,greeks and ,romans1 which also produced admirable works1 but almost always less in harmony with the dignity and splendour of worship4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 ,painting chiefly applied itself to represent the beau idal of the religious mind reflecting itself in the countenance2 at the ,renaissance1 it is the beauty of the physical form1 so perfectly expressed by the ancients4 ,sculpture1 which comes nearer to ,painting1 followed at the same time all similar phases1 drawing the art of ,engraving with it4 ,do not the diversified changes through which the ,arts passed1 as retraced in this book during two epochs1 present to the intelligent reader a succession of facts of the highest interest and a history most instructive8 ,our work is the only existing one on this great and magnificent subject1 of which the materials are scattered through a multitude of volumes4 ,thus for the success of this undertaking it became necessary to unite with us in our task men most distinguished by their learning and talents3 we are permitted to cite the names of ,,mm4 ,ernest ,breton1 ,aim ,champollion1 ,champollion-,figeac1 ,pierre ,dubois1 ,duchesne1 ,ferdinand ,denis1 ,jacquemart1 ,arch4 ,juvinal1 ,jules ,labarte1 ,lassus1 ,louandre1 ,prosper ,mrime1 ,alfred ,michiels1 ,gabriel ,peignot1 ,riocreux1 ,de ,saulcy1 ,jean ,designeur1 le ,marquis de ,varennes4 ,after such a list we record our own name only to acknowledge that we have gone over and recast these various works1 and presented them in a form which gives them more unity1 but owes to them all the interest and all the charm it may offer4 ,the numerous illustrations that adorn the work will engage the eye1 while the text will speak to the intelligence4 ,the designs in chromolithography are executed by ,m4 ,kellerhoven1 who for several years has made the art one of a high order1 worthy to shine among the finest works of our greatest painters1 as is proved by his 8,chefs-d'uvre of the ,great ,masters10 8,lives of the ,saints10 and 8,legend of ,st4 ,ursula40 ,no one is ignorant of the attention given in these days to archology4 ,information about objects of antiquity is necessary to every instructed person4 ,it ought to be studied so far as to enable us to appreciate1 or at least to recognise1 the examples of olden time in ,architecture1 ,painting1 c41 that present themselves to our notice4 ,thus it has become for the young of each sex indispensable to good education4 ,the perusal of this book will be for such an attractive introduction to that knowledge which for too long a time was the exclusive domain of the learned4 ,,paul ,,lacroix 7,bibliophile ,jacob74 ,illustration ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,page ,,furniture3 ,,household ,,and ,,ecclesiastical #a ,simplicity of ,furniture among the ,gauls and ,franks4--,introduction of costly taste in articles of ,furniture of the ,seventh ,century4--,arm-chair of ,dagobert4--,round ,table of ,king ,artus4--,influence of the ,crusades4--,regal ,banquet in the time of ,charles ,v4--,benches4--,sideboards4--,dinner ,services4--,goblets4--,brassware4--,cas ks4--,lighting4--,beds4--,carved-wood ,furniture4--,locksmith's ,work4--,glass and ,mirrors4--,room of a ,feudal ,seigneur4--,costliness of ,furniture used for ,ecclesiastical ,purposes4--,altars4--,censers4--,shrine s and ,reliquaries4--,gratings and ,iron-mountings4 ,,tapestry #cg ,scriptural ,origin of ,tapestry4--,needlework ,embroidery in ,ancient ,greek and ,roman ,times4--,attalic ,carpets4--,manufacture of ,carpets in ,cloisters4--,manufactory at ,poitiers in the ,twelfth ,century4--,bayeux ,tapestry1 named 8,de la ,reine ,mathilde40--,arras ,carpets4--,inventory of the ,tapestries of ,charles ,v42 enormous ,value of these ,embroidered ,hangings4--,manufactory at ,fontainebleau1 under ,francis ,i4--,the ,manufacture of the ,hpital de la ,trinit1 at ,paris4--,the ,tapestry ,workers1 ,dubourg and ,laurent1 in the reign of ,henry ,,iv4--,factories of ,savonnerie and ,gobelins4 ,,ceramic ,,art #ec ,pottery ,workshops in the ,gallo-,romano ,period4--,ceramic ,art disappears for several ,centuries in ,gaul3 is again found in the ,tenth and ,eleventh ,centuries4--,probable ,influence of ,arabian ,art in ,spain4--,origin of ,majolica4--,luca della ,robbia and his ,successors4--,enamelled ,tiles in ,france1 dating from the ,twelfth ,century4--,the ,italian ,manufactories of ,faenza1 ,rimini1 ,pesaro1 c4--,beauvais ,pottery4--,invention and ,works of ,bernard ,palissy2 his ,history2 his ,chefs-d'uvre4--,the ,faence of ,thouars1 called 8,henri ,,ii40 ,,arms ,,and ,,armour #ge ,arms of the ,time of ,charlemagne4--,arms of the ,normans at the ,time of the ,conquest of ,england4--,progress of ,armoury under the ,influence of the ,crusades4--,the ,coat of ,mail4--,the ,crossbow4--,the ,hauberk and the ,hoqueton4--,the ,helmet1 the ,hat of ,iron1 the ,cervelire1 the ,greaves1 and the ,gauntlet2 the ,breastplate and the ,cuish4--,the ,casque with ,vizor4--,plain ,armour and ,ribbed ,armour4--,the ,salade ,helmet4--,costliness of ,armour4--,invention of ,gunpowder4--,bombards4--,hand-,cannons4 --,the ,culverin1 the ,falconet4--,the ,arquebus with ,metal-holder1 with ,match1 and with ,wheel4--,the ,gun and the ,pistol4 ,,carriages ,,and ,,saddlery #ajg ,horsemanship among the ,ancients4--,the ,riding-horse and the ,carriage-horse4--,chariots armed with ,scythes4--,vehicles of the ,romans1 the ,gauls1 and the ,franks3 ,carruca1 the ,petoritum1 the ,cisium1 the ,plastrum1 the ,basterna1 the ,carpentum4--,different kinds of ,saddle-horses in the ,days of ,chivalry4--,the ,spur a distinctive ,sign of ,nobility3 its ,origin4--,the ,saddle1 its ,origin and its ,modifications4--,the ,tilter4--,carriages4--,the ,mules of ,magistrates4--,corporations of ,saddlers and ,harness-makers1 ,lorimers1 ,coachmakers1 ,chapuiseurs1 ,blazonniers1 and ,saddle-coverers4 ,,gold ,,and ,,silver ,,work #abc ,its ,antiquity4--,the ,trsor de ,guarrazar4--,the ,merovingian and ,carlovingian ,periods4--,ecclesiastical ,jewellery4--,pre-eminence of the ,byzantine ,goldsmiths4--,progress of the ,art consequent on the ,crusades4--,the ,gold and ,enamels of ,limoges4--,jewellery ceases to be restricted to ,purposes of ,religion4--,transparent ,enamels4--,jean of ,pisa1 ,agnolo of ,siena1 ,ghiberti4--,great ,painters and ,sculptors from the ,goldsmiths' ,workshops4--,benvenuto ,cellini4--,the ,goldsmiths of ,paris4 ,,horology #afi ,modes of measuring ,time among the ,ancients4--,the ,gnomon4--,the ,water-,clock4--,the ,hour-,glass4--,the ,water-,clock1 improved by the ,persians and by the ,italians4--,gerbert invents the ,escapement and the moving ,weights4--,the ,striking-bell4--,maistre ,jehan des ,orloges4--,jacquemart of ,dijon4--,the first ,clock in ,paris4--,earliest portable ,timepiece4--,invention of the spiral ,spring4--,first appearance of ,watches4--,the ,watches1 or 8,eggs10 of ,nuremberg4--,invention of the ,fusee4--,corporation of ,clockmakers4--,noted ,clocks at ,jena1 ,strasburg1 ,lyons1 c4--,charles-,quint and ,jannellus4--,the ,pendulum4 ,,musical ,,instruments #ahg ,music in the ,middle ,ages4--,musical ,instruments from the ,fourth to the ,thirteenth ,century4--,wind ,instruments3 the ,single and ,double ,flute1 the ,pandean ,pipes1 the ,reed-pipe4--,the ,hautboy1 the ,flageolet1 ,trumpets1 ,horns1 ,olifants1 the ,hydraulic ,organ1 the ,bellows-,organ4--,instruments of ,percussion3 the ,bell1 the ,hand-bell1 ,cymbals1 the ,timbrel1 the ,triangle1 the ,bombulum1 ,drums4--,stringed ,instruments3 the ,lyre1 the ,cithern1 the ,harp1 the ,psaltery1 the ,nable1 the ,chorus1 the ,organistrum1 the ,lute and the ,guitar1 the ,crout1 the ,rote1 the ,viola1 the ,gigue1 the ,monochord4 ,,playing-,,cards #bbc ,supposed ,date of their ,invention4--,existed in ,india in the ,twelfth ,century4--,their connection with the ,game of ,chess4--,brought into ,europe after the ,crusades4--,first ,mention of a ,game with ,cards in #acgi4--;,cards well known in the ,fifteenth ,century in ,spain1 ,germany1 and ,france1 under the name of ,tarots4--,cards called ,charles the ,sixth's must have been ,tarots4--,ancient ,cards1 ,french1 ,italian1 and ,german4--,cards contributing to the ,invention of ,wood-,engraving and ,printing4 ,,glass-,,painting #bea ,painting on ,glass mentioned by ,historians in the ,third ,century of our ,era4--,glazed ,windows at ,brioude in the ,sixth ,century4--,coloured ,glass at ,st4 ,john ,lateran and ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome4--,church-,windows of the ,twelfth and ,thirteenth ,centuries in ,france3 ,saint-,denis1 ,sens1 ,poitiers1 ,chartres1 ,rheims1 c4--,in the ,fourteenth and ,fifteenth ,centuries the ,art was at its ,zenith4--,jean ,cousin4--,the ,clestins of ,paris3 ,saint-,gervais4--,robert ,pinaigrier and his ,sons4--,bernard ,palissy decorates the ,chapel of the ,castle of ,ecouen4--,foreign ,art3 ,albert ,drer4 ,,fresco-,,painting #bfi ,the ,nature of ,fresco4--,employed by the ,ancients4--,paintings at ,pompeii4--,greek and ,roman ,schools4--,mural ,paintings destroyed by the ,iconoclasts and ,barbarians4--,revival of ,fresco1 in the ,ninth ,century1 in ,italy4--,fresco-,painters since ,guido of ,siena4--,principal ,works of these ,painters4--,successors of ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo4--,fresco in ,sgraffito4--,mural ,paintings in ,france from the ,twelfth ,century4--,gothic ,frescoes of ,spain4--,mural ,paintings in the ,low ,countries1 ,germany1 and ,switzerland4 ,,painting ,,on ,,wood1 ,,canvas1 ,,etc #bhc ,the ,rise of ,christian ,painting4--,the ,byzantine ,school4--,first ,revival in ,italy4--,cimabue1 ,giotto1 ,fra ,angelico4--,florentine ,school3 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,michael ,angelo4--,roman ,school3 ,perugino1 ,raphael4--,venetian ,school3 ,titian1 ,tintoretto1 ,veronese4--,lombard ,school3 ,correggio1 ,parmigianino4--,spanish ,school4--,german and ,flemish ,schools3 ,stephen of ,cologne1 ,john of ,bruges1 ,lucas van ,leyden1 ,albert ,drer1 ,lucas van ,cranach1 ,holbein4--,painting in ,france during the ,middle ,ages4--,italian ,masters in ,france4--,jean ,cousin4 ,,engraving #cae ,origin of ,wood-,engraving4--,the ,st4 ,christopher of #adbc4--8,the ,virgin and ,child ,jesus40--,the earliest ,masters of ,wood-,engraving4--,bernard ,milnet4--,engraving in ,camaeu4--,origin of ,engraving on ,metal4--,the 8,pax0 of ,maso ,finiguerra4--,the earliest ,engravers on ,metal4--,niello ,work4--,le ,matre of #adff4--,le ,matre of #adhf4 ,martin ,schngauer1 ,israel van ,mecken1 ,wenceslaus of ,olmutz1 ,albert ,drer1 ,marc ,antonio1 ,lucas van ,leyden4--,jean ,duret and the ,french ,school4--,the ,dutch ,school4--,the ,masters of ,engraving4 ,,sculpture #cci ,origin of ,christian ,sculpture4--,statues in ,gold and ,silver4--,traditions of ,antique ,art4--,sculpture in ,ivory4--,iconoclasts4--,diptychs4--,the highest ,style of ,sculpture follows the ,phases of ,architecture4--,cathedrals and ,monasteries from the year #ajjj4--,schools of ,burgundy1 ,champagne1 ,normandy1 ,lorraine1 c4--,german1 ,english1 ,spanish1 and ,italian ,schools4--,nicholas of ,pisa and his ,successors4--,position of ,french ,sculpture in the ,thirteenth ,century4--,florentine ,sculpture and ,ghiberti4--,french ,sculptors from the ,fifteenth to the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,,architecture #cgc ,the ,basilica the first ,christian ,church4--,modification of ,ancient ,architecture4--,byzantine ,style4--,formation of the ,norman ,style4--,principal ,norman ,churches4--,age of the ,transition from ,norman to ,gothic4--,origin and ,importance of the ,ogive4--,principal ,edifices in the pure ,gothic ,style4--,the ,gothic ,church1 an ,emblem of the ,religious ,spirit in the ,middle ,ages4--,florid ,gothic4--,flamboyant ,gothic4--,decadency4--,civil and ,military ,architecture3 ,castles1 ,fortified ,enclosures1 ,private ,houses1 ,town-,halls4--,italian ,renaissance3 ,pisa1 ,florence1 ,rome4--,french ,renaissance3 ,mansions and ,palaces4 ,,parchment ,,and ,,paper #dac ,parchment in ,ancient ,times4--,papyrus4--,preparation of ,parchment and ,vellum in the ,middle ,ages4--,sale of ,parchment at the ,fair of ,lendit4--,privilege of the ,university of ,paris on the ,sale and ,purchase of ,parchment4--,different ,applications of ,parchment4--,cotton ,paper imported from ,china4--,order of the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 concerning ,paper4--,the ,employment of ,linen ,paper1 dating from the ,twelfth ,century4--,ancient ,water-,marks on ,paper4--,paper ,manufactories in ,france and other parts of ,europe4 ,,manuscripts #dbc ,manuscripts in ,olden ,times4--,their ,form4--,materials of which they were composed4--,their ,destruction by the ,goths4--,rare at the ,beginning of the ,middle ,ages4--,the ,catholic ,church preserved and multiplied them4--,copyists4--,transcription of ,diplomas4--,corporation of ,scribes and ,booksellers4--,palography4--,greek ,writings4--,uncial and ,cursive ,manuscripts4--,sclavonic ,writings4--,latin ,writers4--,tironian ,shorthand4--,lombardic ,characters4--,diplomatic4--,capetian4-- ,ludovicinian4--,gothic4--,runic4-- ,visigothic4--,anglo-,saxon4--,irish4 ,,miniatures ,,in ,,manuscripts #ddc ,miniatures at the ,beginning of the ,middle ,ages4--,the two 8,vatican0 ,virgils4--,painting of ,manuscripts under ,charlemagne and ,louis le ,dbonnaire4--,tradition of ,greek ,art in ,europe4--,decline of the ,miniature in the ,tenth ,century4--,origin of ,gothic ,art4--,fine ,manuscript of the time of ,st4 ,louis4--,clerical and ,lay ,miniature-,painters4--,caricature and the ,grotesque4--,miniatures in ,monochrome and in ,grisaille4--,illuminators at the ,court of ,france and to the ,dukes of ,burgundy4--,school of ,john ,fouquet4--,italian ,miniature-,painters4--,giulio ,clovio4--,french ,school under ,louis ,,xii4 ,,bookbinding #dga ,primitive ,binding of ,books4--,bookbinding among the ,romans4--,bookbinding with ,goldsmith's ,work from the ,fifth ,century4--,chained ,books4--,corporation of ,lieurs1 or ,bookbinders4--,books bound in ,wood1 with ,metal ,corners and ,clasps4--,first ,bindings in ,leather1 honeycombed 7waffled87 and gilt4--,description of some celebrated ,bindings of the ,fourteenth and ,fifteenth ,centuries4--,sources of ,modern ,bookbinding4--,john ,grollier4--,president de ,thou4--,kings and ,queens of ,france ,bibliomaniacs4--,superiority of ,bookbinding in ,france4 ,,printing #dhe ,who was the ,inventor of ,printing8--,movable ,letters in ancient ,times4--,block ,printing4--,laurent ,coster4--,donati and ,specula4--,gutenberg's ,process4--,partnership of ,gutenberg and ,faust4--,schffer4--,the ,mayence ,bible4--,the ,psalter of #adeg4--,the 8,rationale0 of #adei4--;,gutenberg prints by himself4--,the 8,catholicon0 of #adfj4--,printing at ,cologne1 ,strasbourg1 ,venice1 and ,paris4--,louis ,,xi4 and ,nicholas ,jenson4--,german ,printers at ,rome4--,incunabula4--,colard ,mansion4--,caxton4--,improvement of ,typographical ,processes up to the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,illustration ,,table ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,i4 ,,chromolithographs4 ,plate ,to face page #a4 ,the ,annunciation4 ,fac-simile of ,miniature taken from the 8,hours0 of ,anne de ,bretagne1 formerly belonging to ,catherine de ,medicis ,,frontispiece #b4 ,distaff and ,bedposts of the ,sixteenth ,century #bj #c4 ,adoration of the ,magi4 ,bernese ,tapestry of the ,fifteenth ,century #df #d4 ,paris in the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,beauvais ,tapestry #ej #e4 ,encaustic ,tiles #eh #f4 ,biberon of ,henri ,deux ,faience #fd #g4 ,casque1 ,morion1 and ,helmets #hb #h4 ,entrance of ,queen ,isabella of ,bavaria into ,paris4 ,from ,froissart's 8,chronicles0 #aah #i4 ,jewelled ,crosses of the ,visigoths1 found at ,guarrazar4 ,seventh ,century #abd #aj4 ,drageoir1 or ,table ,ornament4 ,german work #aed #aa4 ,clock of ,damaskeened ,iron of the ,fifteenth ,century2 and ,watches of the ,sixteenth ,century #ahj #ab4 ,francis ,i4 and ,eleanor his ,wife at their ,devotions4 ,sixteenth ,century #bff #ac4 ,the ,dream of ,life1 a ,fresco by ,orcagna #bgf #ad4 ,st4 ,catherine and ,st4 ,agnes1 by ,margaret van ,eyck #cjj #ae4 ,clovis the ,first and ,clotilde his ,wife #ceb #af4 ,decoration of ,la ,sainte-,chapelle1 ,paris #chf #ag4 ,coronation of ,charles the ,fifth of ,france4 ,from ,froissart's 8,chronicles0 #dfd #ah4 ,panel of a ,book-cover of the ,ninth ,century #dgb #ai4 ,diptych of ,ivory #dgd ,,ii4 ,,engravings4 ,page ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis #daf ,alhambra1 ,interior of the #dje ,alphabet1 ,specimen of ,grotesque #cbg ,altar-cloth of the ,fifteenth ,century #cj 8 ,cross ascribed to ,st4 ,eloi #acg 8 of ,gold #acj 8 ,tray and ,chalice #ca ,arch1 ,restoration of a ,norman #cdc ,archer of ,normandy #gi ,archers of the ,fifteenth ,century1 ,france #hh ,arles1 ,sculptures on ,st4 ,trophimus #chd1 #che ,armour1 ,convex1 of the ,fifteenth ,century #hd 8 ,knights in complete #hi 8 ,lion #ij 8 of the ,duc d',alenon #ib 8 ,plain1 of the ,fifteenth ,century #hc ,arms of the ,cardmakers of ,paris #bej 8 ,goldsmiths of ,paris #afj ,arquebus with ,wheel and ,match #ajc ,arquebusier #ajb ,atelier of ,etienne ,delaulne #aeh ,bagpiper1 ,thirteenth ,century #aii ,banner of ,paper-makers of ,paris #dbb 8 ,printers-,booksellers of ,angers #dgi 8 ,printers-,booksellers of ,autun #dhd 8 ,saddlers of ,tonnerre #aba 8 ,sword-cutlers of ,angers #aje 8 ,tapestry ,workers of ,lyons #ea ,banners of ,corporations #afa ,banquet in the ,fifteenth ,century #ab ,basilica of ,constantine1 at ,trves #cgd ,basilica of ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome1 ,interior of #djg ,bas-relief in carved wood #cd ,battle-axe and ,pistol1 ,sixteenth ,century #ajd ,bed furnished with ,canopy and ,curtains #ai ,belfry of ,brussels #djd ,bell in a ,tower of ,siena1 ,twelfth ,century #bjf ,bells of the ,ninth ,century1 ,chime of #bjh ,bolt of the ,sixteenth ,century1 with ,initial #bc ,bombards on fixed and rolling carriages #if ,bookbinders' ,work-room #dhb ,bookbinding for the ,gospels #dgd 8 in an ,unknown ,material #dhj 8 in ,gold1 with precious ,stones #dgd ,borders3-- ,bible1 called ,clement ,,vii4's #dfc ,bible of ,st4 ,martial of ,limoges #dej ,book of the ,gospels1 ,eighth ,century #ddf ,book of the ,gospels1 ,eleventh ,century #dea ,book of the ,gospels in ,latin #dea ,employed by ,john of ,tournes #eai ,froissart's 8,chronicles0 #dfe ,gospel in ,latin #def ,lectionary in ,metz ,cathedral #ddh 8,livre d',heures0 of ,anthony ,vrard #eaf 8,livre d',heures0 of ,geoffroi ,tory #eag ,lyons ,school #eah ,missal of ,pope ,paul ,v4 #dfg 8,ovid10 ,fifteenth ,century #dfe ,prayer-book of ,louis of ,france #dfa ,sacramentary of ,st4 thelgar #dec ,bracelet1 ,gallic #abd ,brooch1 chased1 enamelled1 c4 #afg ,cabinet in damaskeened ,iron1 inlaid #bb 8 for ,jewels #ba ,cameo-setting of the time of ,charles ,v4 #adj ,cannon1 ,earliest ,models of #ih 8 ,hand #ii ,caparison of the ,horse of ,isabel the ,catholic #aag ,capital of a ,column1 ,st4 ,genevive1 ,paris #cib 8 8 ,st4 ,julien1 ,paris #cib 8 8 ,the ,clestins1 ,paris #cic ,carruca1 or ,pleasure-carriage #ajh ,cart drawn by ,oxen1 ,fifteenth ,century #aji ,castle of ,marcoussis1 near ,rambouillet #cig 8 ,coucy1 in its ancient state #cii 8 ,vincennes1 ,seventeenth ,century #cii ,cathedral of ,amiens1 ,interior of #cia 8 ,mayence #chh ,censer of the ,eleventh ,century #cb ,chains #afe ,chair called the 8,fauteuil de ,dagobert0 #c 8 of ,christine de ,pisan #i 8 of ,louise de ,savoie #aj 8 of ,louis ,,ix4 #g 8 of the ,ninth or ,tenth ,century #d ,chalice of the ,fourth or ,fifth ,century #ca 8 said to be of ,st4 ,remy #ace ,chteau de ,chambord #dji ,chess-,players #bbe ,chest shaped like a ,bed1 and ,chair #bj ,choron1 ,ninth ,century #baa ,chorus with ,single ,bell-end with ,holes #aii ,church of ,mouen1 ,remains of the #cgh 8 ,st4 ,agnes1 ,rome #cgg 8 ,st4 ,martin1 ,tours #cgg 8 ,st4 ,paul-des-,champs1 ,paris #cha 8 ,st4 ,trophimus1 ,arles1 ,portal #chd1 #che 8 ,st4 ,vital1 ,ravenna #cgf ,clock1 ,astronomical1 of ,strasburg ,cathedral #ahd 8 of ,jena1 in ,germany #ahc 8 ,portable1 of the time of the ,valois #agh 8 with ,wheels and ,weights #agg ,clockmaker1 ,the #agj ,cloister of the ,abbey of ,moissac1 ,guyenne #chf ,coffee-pot of ,german ,ware #gb ,concert2 a ,bas-relief 7,normandy7 #aic 8 and ,musical ,instruments #aid ,cooper's ,workshop1 ,sixteenth ,century #af ,crossbow ,men protected by ,shield-bearers #he ,cross1 ,gold-chased #afc ,crout1 ,three-stringed1 ,ninth ,century #bag ,crown of ,suintila1 ,king of the ,visigoths #abe ,crozier1 ,abbot's1 enamelled #ach 8 ,bishop's #ach ,cup1 ,italian ,ware #fb 8 of ,lapis-lazuli1 mounted in ,gold #aeb ,diadem of ,charlemagne #abg ,diptych in ,ivory #cde ,dish1 ,ornament of a #gd ,doorways of the ,htel de ,sens1 ,paris #djc ,dragonneau1 ,double-barreled #aja ,drinking-cup of ,agate #acd ,dwelling-room of a ,seigneur of the ,fourteenth ,century #bf ,enamelled ,border of a ,dish #fc 8 ,dish1 by ,bernard ,palissy #ga 8 ,terra-cotta #eg ,engine for hurling ,stones #ie ,engraving3-- ,columbus on board his ,ship #cbe ,ferdinand ,i4 #cce ,herodias #cbi ,letter ,n1 ,grotesque ,alphabet #cbg ,lutma1 of ,groningen #ccg ,isaiah with ,instrument of his ,martyrdom #cbc ,maximilian1 ,coronation of #cba ,phalaris1 ,tyrant of ,agrigentum #ccc ,repose of the ,holy ,family #ccd ,st4 ,catherine on her ,knees #cai ,st4 ,hubert praying before the ,cross borne by a ,stag #cca ,the ,holy ,virgin #cch ,engraving3-- ,the ,prophet ,isaiah #cbc ,the ,virgin and ,child #cah ,the ,virgin and ,infant ,jesus #caf ,ensign of the ,collar of the ,goldsmiths of ,ghent #add ,escutcheon in ,silver-gilt #ade ,escutcheon of ,france1 ,fourteenth ,century #dgj ,ewer in ,limoges ,enamel #aeg ,fac-simile of a ,bible of #adef #ejc 8 8,catholicon0 of #adfj #ejf 8 ,engraving on ,wood #dhg 8 ,inscription ,ex libris #dda 8 ,miniature drawn with a pen #dej 8 ,miniature of a ,psalter #dee 8 ,miniature1 ,thirteenth ,century #deg 8 ,page of a 8,livre d',heures0 #eaj 8 ,page of a ,psalter of #adei #eje 8 ,page of the 8,ars ,moriendi0 #die 8 ,page of the most ancient ,xylographic 8,donatus0 #dia 8 ,xylographic ,page of the 8,biblia ,pauperum0 #dic ,fiddle1 ,angel playing on the #bbj ,flute1 ,double #aig ,fresco-,painting3-- ,christ and his ,mother #bgc ,creation1 ,the #bgh ,death and the ,jew #bha ,disciples in ,gethsemane #bge ,fra ,angelico1 of ,fiesole #bhb ,fraternity of ,cross-bowmen #bhj ,group of ,saints #bgg ,pope ,sylvester ,i4 #bgd ,gargoyles in the ,palais de ,justice1 ,rouen #cgb ,gate of ,moret #dja 8 ,st4 ,john1 ,provins #djb ,glass-,painting3-- ,citadel of ,pallas #bfb ,flemish ,window #bfe ,legend of the ,jew piercing the ,holy ,wafer #bfj ,st4 ,paul1 an ,enamel #bfd ,st4 ,timothy the ,martyr #bee ,temptation of ,st4 ,mars #bfg ,the ,prodigal ,son #beg ,window1 ,evreux ,cathedral #bfa ,goblet1 by ,bernard ,palissy #fi ,goldsmiths of ,paris carrying a ,shrine #afb ,goldsmiths' ,stamps3-- ,chartres #aei ,lyons #aei ,melun #aei ,orleans #aei ,gutenburg1 ,portrait of #dib ,harp1 ,fifteen-stringed1 ,twelfth ,century #bad 8 ,minstrel's1 ,fifteenth ,century #baf 8 ,triangular ,saxon1 ,ninth ,century #bad ,harper of the ,fifteenth ,century #bae ,harpers of the ,twelfth ,century #bae ,helmet of ,don ,jaime el ,conquistador #hj 8 of ,hughes1 ,vidame of ,chlons #hb ,henry ,,viii4 in the ,camp of the ,field of the ,cloth of ,gold #aai ,horn1 or ,olifant1 ,fourteenth ,century #bja 8 ,shepherd's1 ,eighth ,century #bja ,hour-glass of the ,sixteenth ,century #agc ,hour-glass1 ,top of #ahf ,initial ,letter1 ,ninth ,century #dgf ,initial ,letters from ,manuscripts #dde ,initial ,letters extracted from the 8,rouleau ,mortuaire0 of ,st4 ,vital #ded ,jacquemart of ,notre-,dame at ,dijon #agf ,key of the ,thirteenth ,century #bc ,king ,william1 as represented on his ,seal #gg ,knight armed and mounted for ,war #aad 8 entering the ,lists #aaa 8 in his ,hauberk #ha ,knights1 ,combat of #hi ,lament composed shortly after the ,death of ,charlemagne #ahh1 #ahi ,lamps of the ,nineteenth ,century #ag ,lancer of ,william the ,conqueror's ,army #gg ,library of the ,university of ,leyden #dge ,lute1 ,five-stringed1 ,thirteenth ,century #baf ,lyre1 ,ancient #bji 8 of the ,north #bji ,mangonneau of the ,fifteenth ,century #ig ,miniatures3-- ,anne de ,bretagne's ,prayer-book #dfh ,book of the ,gospels of ,charlemagne #ddg ,consecration of a ,bishop #ddi ,dante's 8,paradiso0 #dff ,evangelist1 ,an1 transcribing #dae ,four ,sons of ,aymon #deh ,les ,femmes ,illustres #dfa ,margrave of ,baden's 8,livre d',heures0 #dfi ,miniature of the ,thirteenth ,century #deg ,missal of the ,eleventh ,century #deb ,order of the ,holy ,ghost1 ,instituting the #dfd ,psalter of ,john1 ,duke of ,berry #dfb ,psalter of the ,thirteenth ,century #dee 8,roman de ,fauvel10 from the #dei 8,virgil10 in the ,vatican1 ,rome #ddd ,mirror for ,hand or ,pocket #be ,monochord played with a ,bow #bba ,musician sounding ,military ,trumpet #bjb ,musicians playing on the ,flute1 c4 #aih 8 8 ,violin #bai ,nabulum1 ,ninth ,century #baa ,notre-,dame la ,grande of ,poitiers #chc 8 ,paris #cij 8 ,rouen #cgi ,organ1 ,great1 of the ,twelfth ,century #bjd 8 ,pneumatic1 of the ,fourth ,century #bjc 8 ,portable1 of the ,fifteenth ,century #bje 8 with single ,key-board #bje ,organistrum1 ,ninth ,century #bac ,oxford1 ,saloon of the ,schools #cif ,painting on ,wood1 ,canvas1 c43-- ,baptism of ,king ,clovis #bhf ,christ crowned with ,thorns #cjd ,portrait of ,leonardo da ,vinci #bib ,princess ,sibylla of ,saxony #cje ,st4 ,ursula #cjb ,sketch of the ,virgin of ,alba #cab ,the ,holy ,family #bid ,the ,holy ,virgin1 ,st4 ,george1 and ,st4 ,donat #cjj ,the ,last ,judgment #caa ,the ,patriarch ,job #bij ,the ,tribute ,money #cji ,paper-maker1 ,the #dbj ,pendant1 adorned with ,diamonds1 c4 #afd 8 after a ,design by ,benvenuto ,cellini #aej ,playing-,cards3-- ,ancient ,french #bcf ,buffoon1 from a ,pack of ,tarots #bcj ,charles ,,vi4 on his ,throne #bcc ,engravings1 ,coloured1 analogous to ,playing-,cards #bbg ,from a ,game of 8,logic0 #bde ,german ,round-shaped #bdg ,italian ,tarots #bdb ,justice #bca ,king of ,acorns #bdd ,knave of ,clubs #bch ,knight from a ,pack engraved by 8,the ,master of #adff0 #bdi ,la ,damoiselle #bdh ,moon1 ,the #bca ,roxana1 ,queen of ,hearts #bdb ,specimen of the ,sixteenth ,century #bcf ,three and ,eight of ,bells #bdc ,two of a ,pack of ,german ,lansquenet #bde ,two of ,bells #bdd ,porte de ,hal1 ,brussels #daj ,pottery ,figures1 ,fragments of #fh 8 ,ornamentation on #fg ,printers' ,marks1 ,arnold de ,keyser1 ,ghent #eaa 8 8 ,bonaventure and ,elsevier1 ,leyden #ebj 8 8 ,colard ,mansion1 ,bruges #eab 8 8 ,eustace1 ,w4 #dhc 8 8 ,fust and ,schffer #eaa 8 8 ,galliot du ,pr1 ,paris #eac 8 8 ,grard ,leeu1 ,gouwe #eaa 8 8 ,gryphe1 ,lyons #eae 8 8 ,j4 ,le ,noble1 ,troyes #eae 8 8 ,philippe le ,noir1 c41 ,paris #ead 8 8 ,plantin1 ,antwerp #eae 8 8 ,robert ,estienne1 ,paris #eae 8 8 ,vostre1 ,simon1 ,paris #eac 8 8 ,temporal1 ,lyons #ead 8 8 ,trechsel1 ,lyons #eab ,printing-office1 ,interior of a #dii ,psalterion1 ,performer on the #bab 8 ,twelfth ,century #baa ,psaltery1 ,buckle-shaped #baa 8 to produce a prolonged ,sound #baj ,reredos in ,carved ,bone #cfc ,rebec of the ,sixteenth ,century #bba ,reading-desk of the ,fifteenth ,century #cc ,reliquary1 ,byzantine #abi 8 ,silver-gilt #adc ,rings #afe ,rote1 ,david playing on a #bah ,saddle-cloth1 ,sixteenth ,century #aah ,salt-cellar1 ,enamelled #aee 8 ,interior base of #aef ,sambute1 or ,sackbut1 of the ,ninth ,century #bjb ,sansterre1 as represented on his ,seal #gi ,saufang1 of ,st4 ,cecilia's at ,cologne1 ,the #bjf ,scent-box in ,chased ,gold #adb ,scribe or ,copyist in his ,work-room #dcb ,sculpture3-- ,altar of ,castor #cdj ,altar of ,jupiter ,ceraunus #cda ,bas-relief of ,dagobert ,i4 #cdg ,citizens relieving ,poor ,scholars #cea ,coronation of the ,emperor ,sigismund #cfj ,fragment of a ,reredos in ,bone #cfc ,francis ,i4 and ,henry ,,viii4 on the ,field of the ,cloth of ,gold #cfi ,gargoyles on the ,palace of ,justice1 ,rouen #cgb ,roman ,triumphal ,arch #cdb 8,le ,bon ,dieu10 ,paris #cfd ,st4 ,eloi #cff ,st4 ,john the ,baptist preaching #cfh ,st4 ,julien and his ,wife conveying ,jesus ,christ in their boat #cfb ,statue of ,philip ,chabot #cgj ,statue of ,dagobert ,i4 #cdg ,statue said to be of ,clovis ,i4 #cec ,statues on ,bourges ,cathedral #ceg ,statuette of ,st4 ,avit #cfa ,stone ,tomb #cdc ,the 8,beau ,dieu d',amiens0 #cee ,the ,entombment #cga ,tomb of ,dagobert #cdi ,seal of the ,goldsmiths of ,paris #aei 8 ,king of ,la ,basoche #dai ,seal of the ,university of ,oxford #dgh 8 ,university of ,paris #dag ,seals #aff ,seats1 ,fourteenth and ,fifteenth ,centuries #h ,sedan ,chair of ,charles ,v4 #abj ,shrine in ,copper-gilt #acb ,shrine in ,limoges #aca 8 of the ,fifteenth ,century #adg ,soldiers1 ,gallo-,romano #gf ,spurs1 ,german and ,italian #aac ,staircase of a ,tower #cih ,stall of the ,fifteenth ,century #cc ,stalls in ,st4 ,benot-sur-,loire #ce ,sword of ,charlemagne #abf ,syrinx1 ,seven-tubed #aig ,table of ,king ,artus of ,brittany #e ,tapestry3-- ,construction of ,boats for the ,conqueror #dd ,hunting ,scene #di ,marriage of ,louis ,,xii4 and ,anne of ,brittany #df ,mounted ,men of ,duke ,william's army #de ,the ,weaver #ej ,tintinnabulum1 or ,hand-bell #bjf ,toledo1 ,gothic ,architecture at #cic ,tour de ,nesle1 ,paris #djj ,tournament ,helmet1 screwed on the ,breastplate #hb ,tournament ,saddles1 ornamented with ,paintings #aaf ,tree of ,jesse4 ,from a ,miniature #aie ,triangle of the ,ninth ,century #bbb ,trumpet1 ,curved1 ,eleventh ,century #bjj 8 ,straight1 with ,stand #bjj ,tympanum of the ,thirteenth ,century #bjh ,vase of ,rock-crystal1 mounted in ,silver-gilt #aeb ,vases of ancient shape #ed1 #ee ,vielle1 ,juggler playing on a #bbj 8 ,oval #bbj 8 ,player on the #bbj ,watches of the ,valois ,epoch #aha ,water-jug1 ,four-handled #gb ,water-marks on ,paper #dba ,window with ,stone ,seats #cih ,wood-block cut in ,france1 about #addj #dhh 8 ,print cut in ,flanders #dhf ,writing ,caligraphic ,ornament #ddb 8 ,cursive1 of the ,fifteenth ,century #dci 8 ,diplomatic1 of the ,tenth ,century #dch 8 of the ,eighth ,century #dcf1 #dcg 8 of the ,fifteenth ,century #ddb 8 of the ,fourteenth ,century #ddj 8 of the ,seventh ,century #dce1 #dcf 8 of the ,sixth ,century #dce 8 of the ,tenth ,century #dcg 8 ,tironian1 of the ,eighth ,century #dcg 8 ,title and ,capital ,letters of the ,seventh ,century #dce ,illustration ,,the ,,arts ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 ,,and ,,at ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,,furniture3 ,,ordinary ,,household1 ,,and ,,appertaining ,,to ,,ecclesiastical ,,purposes4 ,simplicity of ,furniture among the ,gauls and ,franks4--,introduction of costly taste in articles of ,furniture of the ,seventh ,century4--,arm-chair of ,dagobert4--,round ,table of ,king ,artus4--,influence of the ,crusades4--,regal ,banquet in the time of ,charles ,v4--,benches4--,sideboards4--,dinner ,services4--,goblets4--,brassware4--,cas ks4--,lighting4--,beds4--,carved ,wood ,furniture4--,locksmith's ,work4--,glass and ,mirrors4--,room of a ,feudal ,seigneur4--,costliness of ,furniture used for ,ecclesiastical ,purposes4--,altars4--,censers4--,shrine s and ,reliquaries4--,gratings and ,iron-mountings4 ,we shall be readily believed when we assert that the furniture used by our remote ancestors1 the ,gauls1 was of the most rude simplicity4 ,a people essentially addicted to war and hunting1--at the best1 agriculturists1--having for their temples the forests1 for their dwellings huts formed out of turf and thatched with straw and branches1 would naturally be indifferent to the form and description of their furniture4 ,then succeeded the ,roman ,conquest4 ,originally1 and long subsequent to the formation of their warlike republic1 the ,romans had also lived in contempt of display1 and even in ignorance of the conveniences of life4 ,but when they had subjugated ,gaul1 and had carried their victorious arms to the confines of the world1 they by degrees appropriated whatever the manners and habits of the conquered nations disclosed to them of refined luxury1 material progress1 and ingenious devices for comfort4 ,thus1 the ,romans brought with them into ,gaul what they elsewhere had acquired4 ,again1 when1 in their turn1 the semi-barbarous hordes of ,germany and of the ,northern steppes invaded the ,roman empire1 these new conquerors did not fail to accommodate themselves instinctively to the social condition of the vanquished4 ,this1 briefly stated1 is an explanation--we admit1 rather concise--of the transition connecting the characteristics of the society of olden days with those of modern society4 ,society in the ,middle ,ages--that social epoch which may be compared to the state of a decrepid and worn-out old man1 who1 after a long1 dull torpor awakes to new life1 like an active and vigorous child--society in the ,middle ,ages inherited much from preceding times1 though1 to a certain extent1 they were disconnected4 ,it transformed1 perhaps2 and it perfected1 rather than invented2 but it displayed in its works a genius so peculiar that we generally recognise in it a real creation4 ,proposing rapidly to pursue our archological and literary course through a twofold period of birth and revival1 we cannot indulge the belief that we shall succeed in exhibiting our sketches in a light the best adapted to their effect4 ,however1 we will make the attempt1 and1 the frame being given1 will do our best to fill in the picture4 ,if we visit any royal or princely abode of the ,merovingian period1 we observe that the display of wealth consists much less in the elegance or in the originality of the forms devised for articles of furniture1 than in the profusion of precious materials employed in their fabrication and embellishment4 ,the time had gone by when the earliest tribes of ,gauls and of ,northmen1 who came to occupy the ,west1 had for their seats and beds only trusses of straw1 rush mats1 and bundles of branches2 and for their tables slabs of stone or piles of turf4 ,from the fifth century of the ,christian era1 we already find the ,franks and the ,goths resting their muscular forms on the long soft seat which the ,romans had adopted from the ,east1 and which have become our sofas or our couches2 changing only their names4 ,in front of them were arranged low horse-shoe tables1 at which the centre seat was reserved for the most dignified or illustrious of the guests4 ,couches at the table1 suited only to the effeminacy induced by warm climates1 were soon abandoned by the ,gauls2 benches and stools were adopted by these most active and vigorous men2 meals were no longer eaten reclining1 but sitting3 while the thrones of kings1 and the chairs of state for nobles1 were of the richest sumptuousness4 ,thus1 for instance1 we find ,st4 ,eloi1 the celebrated worker in metals1 manufacturing and embellishing two state-chairs of gold for ,clotaire1 and a throne of gold for ,dagobert4 ,the chair ascribed to ,st4 ,eloi1 and known as the ,fauteuil de ,dagobert 7,fig4 #a71 is an antique consular chair1 which originally was only a folding one2 the ,abb ,suger1 in the twelfth century1 added to it the back and arms4 ,artistic display was equally lavished on the manufacture of tables4 ,historians tell us that ,st4 ,remy1 a contemporary of ,clovis1 had a silver table decorated all over with sacred subjects4 ,the poet ,fortunat1 ,bishop of ,poitiers1 describes a table of the same metal1 which had a border representing a vine with bunches of grapes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,the ,curule ,chair called the 8,fauteuil de ,dagobert10 in gilt bronze1 now in the ,muse des ,souverains4 ,coming to the reign of ,charlemagne1 we find1 in a passage in the writings of ,eginhard1 his minister and historian1 that1 in addition to a golden table which this great monarch possessed1 he had three others of chased silver2 one decorated with designs representing the city of ,rome1 another ,constantinople1 and the third 8all countries of the universe40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,chair of the ,ninth or ,tenth ,century1 taken from a ,miniature of that period 7,,ms4 de la ,bibl4 ,imp4 de ,paris74 ,the chairs or seats of the ,romanesque period 7,fig4 #b7 exhibit an attempt to revive in the interior of the buildings1 where they were used1 the architectural style of contemporary monuments4 ,they were large and massive1 and were raised on clusters of columns expanding at the back in three semicircular rows4 ,the anonymous monk of ,saint-,gall1 in his chronicle written in the ninth century1 alludes to a grand banquet1 at which the host was seated on cushions of feathers4 ,legrand d',aussy tells us1 in his 8,histoire de la ,vie ,prive des ,franais10 that at a later date--referring to the reign of ,louis le ,gros1 in the beginning of the twelfth century--the guests were seated1 at ordinary family repasts1 on simple stools2 but if the party was more of a ceremonious than intimate character1 the table was surrounded with benches1 or bancs1 whence the term banquet is derived4 ,the form of table was commonly long and straight1 but on occasions of state it was semicircular1 or like a horse-shoe in form1 recalling the ,romanesque round table of ,king ,artus of ,brittany 7,fig4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,round ,table of ,king ,artus of ,brittany1 from a ,miniature of the ,fourteenth ,century 7,,ms4 de la ,bibl4 ,imp4 de ,paris74 ,the ,crusades1 bringing together men of all the countries of ,europe with the people of the ,east1 made those of the ,west acquainted with luxuries and customs which1 on returning from their chivalrous expeditions1 they did not fail to imitate4 ,we find feasts at which they ate sitting cross-legged on the ground1 or stretched out on carpets in the ,oriental fashion1 as represented and described in miniatures contained in the manuscripts of that period4 ,the ,sire de ,joinville1 the friend and historian of ,louis ,,ix41 informs us that this saintly king was in the habit of sitting on a carpet1 surrounded by his barons1 and in that manner he dispensed justice2 but at the same time the practice of using large chaires1 or arm-chairs1 continued1 for there still is to be seen a throne in massive wood belonging to that period1 and called le banc de ,monseigneur ,st4 ,louis1 embellished with carvings representing fanciful and legendary birds and animals4 ,it is unnecessary to add that the lower orders did not aspire to so much refinement4 ,in their abodes the seats in use were settles1 chests1 or at best benches1 the supports of which were1 to a slight extent1 carved4 ,this was the period when the practice commenced of covering seats with woollen stuffs1 or with silk figured on frames1 or embroidered by hand1 displaying ciphers1 emblems1 or armorial bearings4 ,from the ,east was introduced the custom of hangings for rooms1 composed of glazed leather1 stamped and gilt4 ,these skins of the goat or sheep were called or basan1 because plain gilt2 or embossed leather1 in gold colour1 was made from them4 ,or basan was also used to conceal the bare look of arm-chairs4 ,towards the fourteenth century1 tables of precious metals disappeared1 in consequence of fashion ruling in favour of the stuffs which covered them2 tapestry1 tissues of gold1 and velvets thenceforth formed the table-cloths4 ,on great occasions1 the place of the principal guests was distinguished by a canopy1 more or less rich1 erected above their seats1 as represented in the account of the sumptuous feast given by ,king ,charles ,v4 to the ,emperor ,charles of ,luxemburg1 in the great hall of the palace4 ,m4 ,frguier thus describes the banquet from contemporary documents in the 8,histoire de l',administration de la ,police de ,paris30-- 8,the dinner was served on a marble table4 ,the ,archbishop of ,rheims1 who had officiated that day1 first took his place at table4 ,the ,emperor then sat down1 then the ,king of ,france1 and the ,king of ,bohemia1 the son of the ,emperor4 ,above the seat of each of the three princes was a separate canopy of gold cloth1 embroidered all over with fleurs-de-lis4 ,these three canopies were surmounted by a larger one1 also of cloth of gold1 which covered the whole extent of the table1 and was suspended behind the guests4 ,after the ,king of ,bohemia1 three bishops took their place1 but far removed from him1 and near the end of the table4 ,under the nearest canopy the ,dauphin was seated1 at a separate table1 with several princes or nobles of the ,court of ,france1 or of the ,emperor4 ,the hall was adorned with three buffets1 or dressers1 covered with gold and silver plate2 these three dressers1 as well as the two large canopies1 were protected by a railing1 to prevent the intrusion of the crowds of people who had been permitted to witness the magnificence of the display4 ,finally1 there were to be seen five other canopies1 under which were assembled princes and barons round private tables2 also numerous other tables40 ,it is noteworthy that from the time of ,st4 ,louis these same chairs and seats1 carved1 covered with the richest stuffs1 inlaid with precious stones1 and engraved with the armorial bearings of great houses1 issued for the most part from the workshops of ,parisian artisans4 ,those artisans1 carpenters1 manufacturers of coffers and carved chests1 and furniture-makers1 were so celebrated for works of this description1 that in inventories and appraisements of furniture great care was taken to specify that such and such articles among them were of ,parisian manufacture2 ex operagio ,parisiensi 7,fig4 #d74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,louis ,,ix4 represented in his ,regal ,chair1 tapestried in fleurs-de-lis1 from a ,miniature of the ,fourteenth ,century4 7,,ms4 de la ,bibl4 ,imp4 de ,paris474 ,the following extract1 from an invoice of ,etienne ,la ,fontaine1 the royal silversmith1 affords1 in terms which require no comment1 an idea of the costliness lavished on the manufacture of an arm-chair1 then called faudesteuil1 intended for the ,king of ,france1 in #aceb3-- 8,for making a fauteuil of silver and of crystal decorated with precious stones1 delivered to the said seigneur1 of which the said seigneur ordered the said goldsmith to make the framework1 who ornamented it with several crystals1 illuminated pieces1 many designs1 pearls1 and other stones4444 ,,vii ,,lxxiiii 7#ggd louis74 8,for illuminated pieces placed under the crystals of the said fauteuil1 of which there are #dj of the armorial bearings of ,france1 #fa of the prophets holding scrolls1 #aab half-length figures of animals on gold ground1 and #d large representations of the judgments of ,solomon4444 ,,vi 7#fbj louis74 8,for twelve crystals for the said fauteuil1 of which five are hollow to hold the btons1 six flat1 and one round10 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,seats from ,miniatures of the ,fourteenth and ,fifteenth ,centuries4 ,it was only towards the commencement of the fifteenth century that chairs stuffed with straw or rushes first appeared2 they folded in the form of the letter ,x 7,fig4 #e72 the seats and arms being stuffed4 ,in the sixteenth century chairs with backs 7chaires or chayeres dorseret71 in carved oak or chestnut1 painted and gilt1 fell into disuse1 even in the royal castles1 as being too heavy and inconvenient1 and on account of their enormous size 7,figs4 #f and #g74 ,the dresser1 which has just been described as used at the grand feast of ,charles ,v41 and which moreover has been retained1 altered to a sideboard with shelves1 almost to our time1 was an article manufactured much less for use than for show4 ,it was upon this dresser1--the introduction of which does not appear to go further back than the twelfth century1 and the name whereof sufficiently describes its purpose1--that there was displayed1 in the vast halls of manorial residences1 not only all the valuable plate required for the table1 but many other objects of goldsmith's work which played no part in the banquet--vases of all sorts1 statuettes1 figures in high relief1 jewels1 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,christine de ,pizan1 contemporary with ,charles ,v4 and ,charles ,,vi41 seated on a ,chair in carved wood with back and canopy1 and tapestry of worsted or figured silk4 ,the box or chest which formed the writing-table contained books4 7,miniature from a ,,ms4 in the ,bibl4 of ,burgundy-,bruxelles1 ,fifteenth ,century47 and even reliquaries4 ,in palaces and mansions1 the dressers were of gold1 silver1 or copper gilt2 as were previously the tables4 ,persons of inferior rank had only wooden tables1 but they were scrupulous in covering them with tapestry1 embroidered cloth1 and fine table-cloths4 ,at one time the display of wealth on the dressers in ecclesiastical establishments attained to such a point1 that we are reminded1 among other censures levelled against that fashionable exhibition of vanity1 of the expostulations of ,martial d',auvergne1 author of the historical poem1 8,les ,vigiles de ,charles ,,vii410 addressed to the bishops on the subject4 ,one item significant enough is mentioned in ancient documents2 it is the tribute of half-a-dozen small bouquets1 which the inhabitants of ,chaillot were bound to tender annually to the ,abbey of ,saint-,german des ,prs1 to decorate the dressers of ,messire the ,abbot4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,louise de ,savoie1 ,duchess of ,angoulme1 mother of ,francis ,i41 seated in a high-backed ,chair of carved wood4 7,miniature from a ,,ms4 in the ,imp4 ,bibl4 of ,paris47 ,more plain1 but also more useful1 were the abace and the crdence1 other kinds of sideboards which generally stood at a little distance from the table2 on one of these were placed the dishes and plates for removes1 on the other the goblets1 glasses1 and cups4 ,it may be added that the crdence1 before it was introduced in the dining-halls1 had from very remote times been used in churches1 where it was placed near the altar to receive the sacred vessels during the sacrifice of mass4 ,posidonius1 the ,stoic philosopher1 who wrote about a hundred years before the ,christian era1 tells us that1 at the feasts of the ,gauls1 a slave used to bring to table an earthenware1 or a silver1 jug filled with wine1 from which every guest quaffed in turn1 and allayed his thirst4 ,we thus see the practice of using goblets of silver1 as well as of earthenware1 established among the ,gauls at a period we consider primitive4 ,in truth1 those vessels of silver were probably not the productions of local industry1 but the spoil which those martial tribes had acquired in their wars against more civilised nations4 ,with regard to the vases of baked clay1 the majority of those frequently exhumed from burial-grounds prove how coarse they were1 though they seem to have been made with the help of the potter's wheel1 as among the ,romans4 ,however that may be1 we think it best to omit the consideration of the question in this place1 and to resume it in the chapter on the ,ceramic ,art4 ,but we must not forget to notice the custom which prevailed among the earliest inhabitants of our country1 of offering to those most renowned for their valour beverages in a horn of the urus1 which was either gilt or ornamented with bands of gold or silver4 ,the urus was a species of ox1 now extinct1 that existed in a wild state in the forests with which ,gaul was then partly covered4 ,this horn goblet long continued to be the emblem of the highest warlike dignity among the nations who succeeded the ,gauls4 ,william of ,poitiers relates1 in his 8,histoire de ,guillaume le ,conqurant10 that towards the end of the eleventh century1 this ,duke of ,normandy still drank out of the horn of a bull1 when he held his full court at ,fcamp4 ,our ancient kings1 whose tables were made of the most precious metals1 failed not also to display rare magnificence in the plate that stood on those superb tables4 ,chroniclers relate1 for example1 that ,chilperic1 8on the pretext of doing honour to the people whom he governed1 had a dish made of solid gold1 ornamented all over with precious stones1 and weighing fifty pounds20 and again1 that ,lothaire one day distributed among his soldiers the fragments of an enormous silver basin1 on which was designed 8the world1 with the courses of the stars and the planets40 ,in the absence of any authentic documents1 it must be presumed that1 in contrast to this regal style1 or rather far removed therefrom1 the rest of the nation scarcely used any other utensils but those of earthenware1 or wood2 or else of iron or copper4 ,advancing in the course of centuries1 and till the period when the progress of the ceramic art enabled its productions at length to rank among articles of luxury1 we find gold and silver always preferred for dinner services2 but marble1 rock crystal1 and glass appeared in turn1 artistically worked in a thousand elegant or singular forms1 as cups1 ewers1 large tumblers1 goblets1 c4 7,fig #h74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,a ,state ,banquet in the ,fifteenth ,century1 with the service of dishes brought in and handed round to the sound of musical instruments4 7,miniature from a ,,ms4 in the ,imp4 ,lib4 in ,paris47 ,to the goblet1 especially1 seem to belong all honorary privileges in the etiquette of the table2 for the goblet1 a sort of large chalice on a thin stem1 was more particularly regarded as an object of distinction by the guests1 on account of the supposed antiquity of its origin4 ,thus we see represented among the presents given to the ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis by the ,emperor ,charles the ,bald1 a goblet which is alleged to have belonged to ,solomon1 8which goblet was so marvellously wrought1 that never 7oncques7 was there in all the kingdoms of the world a work so delicate 7subtile740 ,the goldsmiths1 sculptors1 and workers in copper had recourse to all the devices of art and imagination to embellish goblets1 ewers1 and salt-cellars4 ,we find allusions1 in the recitals of chroniclers1 the romances of chivalry1 and especially in old invoices and inventories1 to ewers representing men1 roses1 and dolphins2 to goblets covered with flowers and animals2 to salt-cellars in the form of dragons1 c4 ,several large pieces of gold plate1 discontinued at a later period1 glittered then at grand banquets4 ,especially may be noted the portable fountains raised in the middle of the table1 and from which1 during the repast1 flowed several sorts of beverages4 ,philip the ,good1 ,duke of ,burgundy1 had one in the form of a fortress with towers1 from the summit of which the figure of a woman poured out hippocras 7spiced wine7 from her bosom1 and that of a child1 which sprinkled perfumed water4 ,there were also plate-holders1 well described by ,du ,cange as large dishes made to contain vessels1 cups1 knives2 comfit-boxes1 which have been replaced by our modern bonbonnires1 and which formerly were valuable caskets chased and damaskeened2 and lastly1 almsboxes1 a description of metal-urns1 richly chased2 these were placed before the guests in order that1 according to an ancient custom1 each might place therein some portions of meat1 to be subsequently distributed to the poor4 ,if we glance at the other minor objects which completed the table-service--knives1 spoons1 forks1 bottle-stands1 plate-mats1 c4--we shall see that they no less indicate refinement and luxury4 ,forks1 that now seem to us so indispensable1 are mentioned for the first time in #acgi1 in an inventory of ,charles ,v4 ,they had only two prongs1 or rather two long sharp points4 ,as for knives1 which1 with spoons1 had to supply the place of forks for the guests to eat with1 their antiquity is undoubted4 ,posidonius1 whom we have already quoted1 says1 when speaking of the ,celts3--8,they eat in a very slovenly manner1 and seize with their hands1 like lions with their claws1 whole quarters of meat1 which they tear in pieces with their teeth4 ,if they find a tough morsel1 they cut it with a small knife which they always carry in a sheath at their side40 ,of what were these knives made8 ,our author does not tell us2 but we may assume that they were of flint or of polished stone1 like the hatchets and arrow-heads so frequently found where these ancient people dwelt1 and which bear testimony to their industry4 ,in the thirteenth century mention is made of knives1 under the name of mensacul and artavi1 which a little later were known by the word kenivet1 from which evidently is derived canif4 ,to complete this connection1 we may remark that it is to be gathered1 from a passage by the same author1 that the blades of some knives of that period were made to slide into the handle by means of a spring1 like our pocket-knives4 ,spoons1 which necessarily were used by all nations as soon as dishes more or less liquid were introduced1 are described from the date of almost our earliest history4 ,accordingly1 we see1 in the 8,life of ,st4 ,radegonde10 that that princess1 who was constantly engaged in charitable acts1 used a spoon for feeding the blind and the helpless whom she took under her care4 ,at a very remote period we find in use turquoises1 or nut-crackers4 ,cruet-stands were1 excepting in form1 very similar to stands for two bottles2 for they are thus described3--8,a kind of double-necked bottle in divisions1 in which to place two sorts of liquors without mixing them40 ,the plate-mats were our dessous de plat1 made of wicker1 wood1 tin1 or other metal4 ,the manufacture of the greater number of these articles1 if intended for persons of rank1 did not fail to engage the industry of artisans and the talent of artists4 ,spoons1 forks1 nut-crackers1 cruet-stands1 sauce-boats1 c41 furnished inexhaustible subjects for embellishment and chasing2 knife-handles1 made of ivory1 cedar-wood1 gold1 or silver1 were also fashioned in the most varied forms4 ,until ceramic art introduced plates more or less costly1 they naturally enough followed the shape of dishes1 which in fact they are1 on a small scale4 ,but if the dishes were of enormous size1 the plates were always very small4 ,if from the dining-room we pass to the kitchen1 so as to form some idea of culinary utensils1 we must admit that1 anterior to the thirteenth century1 the most circumstantial documents are all but silent on the subject4 ,nevertheless1 some of the ancient poets and early romancers allude to those huge mechanical spits on which1 at one and the same time1 large joints of different kinds1 entire sheep1 or long rows of poultry and game1 could be roasted4 ,moreover1 we know that in palaces1 and in the mansions of the nobility1 copper cooking-utensils possessed real importance1 because the care and maintenance of the copper-ware was entrusted to a person who bore the title of maignen1 a name still given to the itinerant tinker4 ,we also find that from the twelfth century there existed the corporation of braziers 7dinans71 who executed historical designs1 in relievo1 by the use of the hammer in beating out and embossing copper1--designs that would bear comparison with the most elaborate works produced by the goldsmith's art4 ,some of these artisans obtained such reputation that their names have descended to us4 ,jean d',outremeuse1 ,jean ,delamare1 ,gautier de ,coux1 ,lambert ,patras1 were among those who conferred honour on the art of brazier's work 7dinanderie74 ,from the kitchen to the cellar the distance is usually but short4 ,our forefathers1 who were large consumers1 and in their way had a delicate appreciation1 of the juice of the vine1 understood how to store the barrels which contained their wines in deep and spacious vaults4 ,the cooper's art1 when almost unknown in ,italy and ,spain1 had existed for a long time in ,france1 as is attested by a passage taken from the 8,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions30--8,we see by the text of the ,salic law that1 when an estate changed hands1 the new proprietor gave1 in the first place1 a feast1 and the guests were bound to eat1 in the presence of witnesses1 a plate of boiled minced meat4 ,it is remarked in the #8,glossaire de ,du ,cange' that1 among the ,saxons and ,flemings1 the word boden means a round table2 because the peasantry used the bottom of a barrel as a table4 ,tacitus says that for the first meal of the day the ,germans had each their own table2 that is to say1 apparently a full or empty barrel placed on end40 ,a statute of ,charlemagne alludes to bons barils 7bonos barridos74 ,these barrels were made by skilled coopers 7,fig4 #i71 who gave all their care to form of staves1 hooped either with wood or iron1 the casks destined to hold the produce of the vintage4 ,according to an old custom1 still in vogue in the south of ,france1 the inside of the wine-skin used to be painted with tar1 in order to give a flavour to the wine2 to us this would perhaps be nauseous1 but at that time it was held in high favour4 ,in alluding to wine-skins1 or sewn skins coated with pitch1 we may remark that they date from the earliest historic times4 ,they are still employed in countries where wine is carried on pack-animals1 and they were much used for journeys4 ,if a traveller was going into a country where he expected to find nothing to drink1 he would fasten a wine-skin on the crupper of his horse's saddle1 or1 at least1 would sling a small leather wine-skin across his shoulder4 ,etymologists even maintain that from the name of these light wine-skins1 outres lgres1 was derived the old ,french word bouteille2 that1 first having been designated bouchiaux1 and boutiaux1 they finally were named bouties and boutilles4 ,when1 in the thirteenth century1 the ,bishop of ,amiens was setting out for the wars1 the tanners of his episcopal town were bound to supply him with two leathern bouchiaux--one holding a hogshead1 the other twenty-four setiers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,a ,cooper's ,workshop1 drawn and engraved1 in the ,sixteenth ,century1 by ,j4 ,amman4 ,some archologists maintain that1 when there had been a very abundant vintage1 the wine was stored in brick-built cisterns1 such as are still made in ,normandy for cider2 or that they were cut out of the solid rock1 as we see them sometimes in the south of ,france2 but it is more probable that these ancient cisterns1 which are perhaps of an earlier date than the ,middle ,ages1 were more especially intended for the process of fermentation--that is to say1 for making wine1 and not for storing it2 which1 indeed1 under such unfavourable circumstances1 would have been next to impossible4 ,what light did our ancestors use8 ,history tells us that at first they used lamps with stands1 and hanging lamps1 in imitation of the ,romans2 which1 however1 must not lead us to the conclusion that1 even in the remotest times of our annals1 the use of fat and wax for such purposes was absolutely unknown4 ,this fact is the less doubtful because1 from the time when trade corporations were formed1 we find the makers of candles and wax-chandlers ,illustration3 ,figs4 #aj and #aa4--;,hanging ,lamps of the ,ninth ,century1 from ,miniatures in the ,bible of ,charles the ,bald 7,bibl4 ,imp4 de ,paris74 of ,paris governed by certain statutes4 ,as for the lamps1 which1 as in ancient times1 were on stands placed for this purpose in the houses1 or were suspended by light chains 7,figs4 #aj and #aa71 they were made in accordance with the means of those for whom they were intended1 and were of baked earth1 iron1 brass1 and gold or silver1 all more or less ornamented4 ,lamps and candlesticks are not unfrequently mentioned in the inventories of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 ,german artisans made torch-holders1 flambeaux1 and chandeliers in copper1 wrought and embellished with representations of all kinds of natural or fantastic objects2 and in those days these works of art were much in request4 ,the use of lamps was all but general in the early days of the monarchy2 but as the somewhat dim and smoky flame which they furnished did not give sufficient brilliancy to the entertainments and solemn assemblies held in the evening1 it became an established custom to add to these lamps the light of resinous torches1 which serfs held in their hands4 ,the tragic episode of the ,ballet des ,ardents1 as told by ,froissart--which we shall hereafter relate in the chapter on ,playing ,cards--shows that this custom1 which we already see alluded to in ,grgoire de ,tours1 our earliest historian1 was in fashion until the reign of ,charles ,,vi4 ,in subjugating the ,east1 the ,romans assumed and brought back with them extreme notions of luxury and indolence4 ,previously their bedsteads were of planks1 covered with straw1 moss1 or dried leaves4 ,they borrowed from ,asia those large carved bedsteads1 gilt and plated with ivory1 whereon were piled cushions of wool and feathers1 with counterpanes of the most beautiful furs and of the richest materials4 ,these customs1 like many others1 were handed down from the ,romans to the ,gauls1 and from the ,gauls to the ,franks4 ,with the exception of bed-linen1 which came into use much later1 we find1 from the time of our earliest kings1 the various sleeping appliances nearly as they are now--the pillow 7auriculare71 the foot-coverlet 7lorale71 the counterpane 7culcita71 c4 ,no mention1 however1 is made of curtains 7or courtines74 ,at a later period1 while still retaining their primitive furniture1 bedsteads vary in their shapes and dimensions3 those of the poor and of the monks are narrow and homely2 among kings and nobles they1 in process of time1 became veritable examples of the joiner's work1 and only to be reached by the aid of stools1 or even steps 7,fig4 #ab74 ,the guest at a chteau could not receive any greater honour than to occupy the same bed as the lord of the manor2 and the dogs by whom the seigneurs--all great sportsmen--were constantly surrounded had the privilege of reposing where their masters slept4 ,hence we recognise the object of these gigantic bedsteads1 which were sometimes twelve feet in width4 ,if we are to believe the chronicles1 the pillows were perfumed with essences and odoriferous waters2 this we can understand to have been by no means a useless precaution4 ,we see1 in the sixteenth century1 ,francis ,i4 testifying his great regard for ,admiral ,bonnivet by occasionally admitting him to share his bed4 ,having completed our review of furniture1 properly so called1 we have now to treat of that which may be termed highly artistic articles of furniture--that is1 those on which the workers in wood exercised their highest talents--elevated seats of honour1 chairs and arm-chairs1 benches and trestles2 all of which were frequently ornamented with figures in relief1 very elaborately sculptured with a knife 7canivet72 the bahuts1 a kind of chest with either a flat or convex top1 resting on feet1 and opening on the upper side1 whereon were placed stuffed leather cushions 7,fig4 #ac72 tubs1 buffets1 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,bed furnished with ,canopy and ,curtains1 from a ,miniature at the end of the ,fourteenth ,century4 7,,ms4 de la ,bibl4 ,imp4 de ,paris47 presses1 coffers both large and small1 chess-boards1 dice-tables1 comb-boxes1 which have been superseded by our dressing-cases1 c4 ,many specimens of these various kinds of furniture have descended to our time2 and they prove to what a degree of perfection and of elaborate finish the art of cabinet-making and of inlaying had attained in the ,middle ,ages4 ,elegance and originality of design in inlaid metals1 jasper1 mother-of-pearl1 ivory2 carving1 various kinds of veneering1 and of stained woods1 are all found combined in this description of furniture2 some of which was ornamented with extreme delicacy of taste 7,plate ,i471 and still remains inimitable1 if not in all the details of execution1 at least in rich and harmonious effect4 ,at the time of the ,renaissance1 cabinets with numerous drawers and in several compartments were introduced3 these were known in ,germany by the name of artistic cabinets 7armoires artistiques73 the sole object of the maker was to combine in one piece of furniture1 under the pretext of utility1 all the fascination and gorgeous caprices of decorative art4 ,to the ,germans must be awarded the merit of having been the first to distinguish themselves in the manufacture of these magnificent cabinets1 or presses2 but they soon found rivals in both the ,french 7,fig4 #ad7 and ,italians 7,fig4 #ae71 who proved themselves equally skilful and ingenious in the execution of this kind of manufacture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,chest shaped like a ,bed1 standing in front of a ,fireplace1 and a ,chair with cushions1 in carved wood1 from ,miniatures of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,bibl4 ,roy4 de ,bruxelles47 ,the art of working in iron1 which can legitimately rank as one of the most notable industries of the ,middle ,ages1 soon came to lend its aid to that of cabinet-making1 both in embellishing and giving solidity to its chefs-d'uvre4 ,the ornamentation of cabinets and coffers was remarkable for the good taste and the high finish displayed in them4 ,illustration3 ,,distaff ,,of ,,wood1 ,turned and ,carved4 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,size of the ,original4 ,in the hands of skilful artisans1 of unknown artists dating from the twelfth to the sixteenth century1 iron seemed to assume great ductility--indeed1 we might say unprecedented submission4 ,observe1 in the gratings of courtyards1 in the iron-work of gates1 how those lines are interlaced1 how attractive are those designs1 how those wrought stems are delicately lengthened out1 at once strong but light1 and finally how they expand with natural grace into leaves1 fruits1 and symbolic figures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,small ,cabinet for ,jewels1 in carved wood1 after the style of ,jean ,goujon1 from the ,chteau d',ecouen1 and which formerly belonged to the ,montmorency family4 7,in the ,collection of ,m4 ,double47 ,moreover1 the workers in metal did not confine themselves to the application of iron on articles already prepared and manufactured by other artisans2 they had also to originate and execute1 to ornament caskets and reliquaries3 but their special art was to manufacture bolts 7,fig4 #af71 locks1 and keys2 examples of this kind of ancient work will always be admired4 8,locks10 says ,m4 ,jules ,labarte1 8were at that time carried to such a degree of perfection1 that they were considered as veritable objects of art2 they were carried from place to place1 as would have been done with any other valuable article of furniture4 ,nothing could be more artistic than the figures in high relief1 the armorial bearings1 the letterings1 the ornaments and the engravings which embellished that portion of the key which the fingers grasp 7,fig4 #ag71 and for which we have substituted a common ring40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,cabinet in ,damaskeened ,iron1 inlaid with gold and silver4 ,an ,italian work of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,glass and glazing claim particular notice4 ,it may be said that glass was known in the remotest ages1 for ,phnicia and ancient ,egypt were1 in the time of ,moses1 renowned for their innumerable productions in vitrified sand4 ,in ,rome they cast1 cut1 and engraved glass--they even worked it with the hammer1 if we are to believe ,suetonius1 who relates that a certain artist had discovered the secret of making glass malleable4 ,this industrial art1 which extended and improved under the emperors1 found its way to ,byzantium1 where it flourished during several centuries2 until ,venice1 claiming as she then did a prominent position in the history of the arts1 imported the process of the ,byzantine method of making glass1 and in her turn excelled in this manufacture4 ,although articles in glass and crystal1 painted1 enamelled1 and engraved1 are frequently alluded to in historical and poetical narratives1 and also in the inventories of the ,middle ,ages1 we know they were all the result of ,greek or ,venetian manufacture4 ,in this art ,france especially seems to have been somewhat late in taking her first artistic step2 such ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,bolt of the ,sixteenth ,century1 with ,initial of ,henry ,,ii4 7,in the ,castle of ,chenonceaux47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,key of the ,thirteenth ,century1 with two ,figures of ,chimeras1 back to back4 7,soltykoff ,collection47 objects as were manufactured for the use of the rich never passed beyond the limits of the rudest art4 ,we should1 however1 observe that ,france must have long been acquainted with the art of glazing1 for in the middle of the seventh century we find ,st4 ,benot--called ,biscop1 who built so many churches and convents in ,england--coming to ,france in search of workmen for the purpose of glazing the church and the cloisters of his abbey at ,canterbury4 ,and it is also mentioned in the chronicles of the ,venerable ,bede1 that the ,french taught their art to the ,english glaziers4 ,towards the fourteenth century the windows of even the commonest houses were generally glazed2 at that date glass manufactories were found in operation everywhere2 and although they may not have rivalled in a remarkable degree their predecessors of the ,merovingian period1 they nevertheless made in large quantities all kinds of articles ordinarily in use1 as we can judge by the terms of a charter1 dated #acch1 by which one ,guionnet1 in order to have the privilege of establishing a glass factory in the forest of ,chambarant1 was bound to furnish as an annual due to his seigneur1 ,humbert1 ,dauphin of ,viennois1 one hundred dozen glasses in the shape of a bell1 twelve dozen small shallow glasses1 twenty dozen goblets1 twelve dozen amphor1 twenty dozen lamps1 six dozen candlesticks1 one dozen large cups1 one large stand 7or nef71 six dozen dishes without borders1 twelve dozen jars1 c4 ,we have alluded to ,venice and the celebrity she attained in the art of working glass4 ,it was especially for the manufacture of mirrors and looking-glasses that this large and industrious city made herself renowned over all the world4 ,if we are to believe ,pliny1 the ,romans purchased their glass mirrors at ,sidon1 in ,phnicia1 where1 in the remotest ages1 they had been invented4 ,at this time were these mirrors silvered8 ,we must believe that they were1 for a plate of glass1 without quicksilvering1 could never be anything than glass more or less transparent1 and would permit of the light passing through1 without reflecting objects4 ,but ,pliny asserts nothing of the kind2 and1 moreover1 as the practice of using mirrors of polished metal1 which was taken from the ,romans1 was for a long time maintained among modern nations1 we may conclude either that the invention of glass mirrors was not a great success1 or that the secret of making them was lost4 ,in the thirteenth century an ,english monk wrote a treatise on optics1 in which allusion is made to mirrors lined with lead4 ,nevertheless1 mirrors of silver continued in use among the rich1 and of iron and polished steel by the poorer classes1 till the time when glass became less expensive1 and ,venetian looking-glasses were introduced1 or cleverly imitated1 in all ,european countries2 metal mirrors1 which easily became dim1 and did not give the natural colour to reflected objects1 were then discontinued4 ,at the same time1 the elegant shape of the ancient hand-mirrors was retained1 the workers in gold and silver still continuing to encircle them with most graceful designs2 the only difference being that the surface of polished steel or silver was replaced by a thick and bright piece of ,venetian glass1 sometimes ornamented with reflected designs produced in the coating of quicksilver 7,fig4 #ah74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,hand or ,pocket ,mirror in gold or chased silver1 from an ,engraving by ,etienne ,delaune1 a celebrated ,french goldsmith and engraver 7,sixteenth ,century74 ,from all these details1 the reader will have the gratification of ascertaining at a glance the general effect of furniture in use for domestic purposes2 and thus1 after the analysis1 he will have its opposite4 ,fig4 #ai1 a reproduction1 taken from the 8,dictionnaire du ,mobilier ,franais10 by ,m4 ,viollet-le-,duc1 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,dwelling room of a ,seigneur of the ,fourteenth ,century4 represents a dwelling-room of a rich nobleman in the fourteenth century4 ,what we now designate as a bedroom1 and which was then called simply cambre or chambre1 contained1 besides the bed--which was very large--a variety of other furniture in use for the ordinary requirements of daily life2 for the time that was not given to business1 to out-door amusements1 to state receptions1 and to meals1 was passed1 both by nobles and citizens1 in this room4 ,in the fourteenth century requirements for comfort had developed themselves in a remarkable degree in ,france4 ,to be convinced of this1 we have only to glance at the inventories1 to read the romances and narratives of the day1 and to study with some little care the mansions and houses erected in the reign of ,charles ,v4 ,a huge chimney admitted many persons to the fireside4 ,near the hearth was placed the chaire 7seat of honour7 of the master or of the mistress4 ,the bed1 which usually stood in a corner1 surrounded by thick curtains1 was effectually screened1 and formed what was then called a clotet2 that is1 a sort of small room enclosed by tapestry4 ,near the windows were bancals1 or benches with backs covered with drapery1 on which persons could sit and talk1 read1 or work1 while enjoying the view4 ,a dresser was ranged along one side of the room1 and on its shelves were placed pieces of valuable plate1 dishes for comfits1 and flower-vases4 ,small stools1 arm-chairs1 and1 especially1 numerous cushions were placed here and there in the room4 ,flemish carpets1 and those which were called sarrasinois1 covered the floor2 this was composed of enamelled tiles2 or1 in the northern provinces1 of thick squares of polished oak4 ,these large1 lofty1 wainscoted rooms always communicated with private staircases1 through dressing-rooms and wardrobes in which were located the domestics in immediate attendance4 ,let us now pass from domestic furniture to that used for ecclesiastical purposes4 ,we now leave the palaces of kings1 the mansions of nobles1 and the dwellings of the rich1 and enter the buildings consecrated to worship4 ,we know that in the early ages of ,christianity religious ceremonies were characterised by the greatest simplicity1 and that the buildings in which the faithful were wont to assemble were for the most part devoid of any kind of decoration4 ,by degrees1 however1 rich display entered into churches1 and pomp accompanied the exercise of religious worship1 especially at the period when ,constantine the ,great put an end to the era of persecutions and proclaimed himself the protector of the new faith4 ,it is related that among the rich presents which this emperor distributed throughout the ,christian temples in ,rome1 were a golden cross weighing two hundred pounds1 patens of the same metal1 lamps representing animals1 c4 ,at a later period1 in the seventh century1 ,st4 ,eloi1 who was a celebrated goldsmith before he became ,bishop of ,noyon1 gave his whole mind and talents to the manufacture of church ornaments4 ,he enlisted from among the monks of the various monasteries that were subject to his episcopal authority1 all those whom he fancied had an aptitude for these works of art2 he instructed and directed them himself1 and made them excellent artists2 he transformed entire monasteries into gold and silver-smiths' workshops2 and numerous remarkable works increased the splendour of the ,merovingian basilicas2 such1 for example1 were the shrine of ,st4 ,martin of ,tours1 and the tomb of ,st4 ,denis1 the marble roof of which was profusely ornamented with gold and precious stones4 8,the bounty of ,charlemagne10 says ,m4 ,charles ,louandre1 8added new riches to the immense wealth already accumulated in the churches4 ,mosaics1 sculpture1 the rarest kinds of marble1 were lavished on those basilicas for which the emperor evinced partiality2 but all these treasures were dispersed by the ,norman invasions4 ,from the ninth to the eleventh centuries it would seem that1 with the exception of a few shrines and crosses1 objects employed for ecclesiastical purposes were not enriched by the addition of anything note-worthy2 at any rate1 the works of that period and those of anterior date have not been handed down to us1 if we except some rare fragments4 ,the reason is1 that1 independently of the constant causes of destruction1 the furniture of churches was renewed towards the end of the eleventh century1 when the edifices themselves were rebuilt2 and it is only from the date of this mystical ,renaissance that we begin to find in the texts precise indications1 and in museums or temples perfectly preserved monuments40 ,ecclesiastical appendages include altars1 altar-screens1 the pulpit1 monstrances1 chalices1 incense-burners1 candlesticks or lamps1 shrines1 reliquaries1 basins for containing holy water1 and some other objects of lesser relative importance1 as crosses1 bells1 and banner-poles4 ,to these we may add votive offerings1 which were generally either of gold or silver4 ,in the infancy of religious worship the altar took two distinct shapes2 sometimes the form of a table1 with a top of stone1 wood1 or metal supported by legs or by columns2 sometimes it resembled an ancient tomb1 or a long coffer1 narrowed at the base1 and surmounted by a similar covering1 which invariably formed the upper portion1 or the table1 of the altar4 ,in addition to altars1 more or less monumental1 which were fixtures in the churches1 and which1 from the earliest period1 were placed under ciboria 7a kind of dais or canopy supported by columns71 small portable altars were employed1 in order to meet the requirements of the service4 ,they were intended to accompany the bishops1 or the ordinary clergy1 who had to preach the faith in countries where no churches existed4 ,these altars1 which were alluded to when the ,christian religion had made but slight progress1 were no longer seen after it became general2 but we again find them at the time of the ,crusades1 when pious pilgrims1 who journeyed from place to place preaching the ,gospel1 were obliged to say mass in fields and public places1 where the faithful assembled to hear them1 and to 8take up the cross40 ,m4 ,jules ,labarte gives the following summary description of a portable altar of the twelfth century3--8,it consists of a slab of lumachella marble1 set in a box of gilt copper1 #cf centimtres in height by #bg in width1 and #c in thickness4 ,the top of the box is cut in such a manner as to leave uncovered the stone on which the chalice was placed during the celebration of mass40 ,throughout all the periods of the ,middle ,ages1 the ardent faith of which seemed to consider sufficient honour could never be rendered to the real presence of ,god in the holy sacrifice1 the ornamentation of the altar was everywhere looked upon as an object of the most extraordinary pomp and of the most elevated artistic taste4 ,among the marvels of this kind we must name1 as occupying a leading place1 the gold altar of ,st4 ,ambrose1 in ,milan1 which dates from #hce1 and those of the cathedrals of ,basle and ,pistoia1 which belong to the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,these gold altars1 wrought with the hammer1 were chased and sometimes enamelled1 and in addition to remarkably well executed designs in carved work1 taken from religious books1 they usually also had on them portraits of the donors4 ,the altars and tabernacles were executed with an equal amount of art and costliness2 and from the earliest period of the fabrication or the importation of carpets1 embroideries1 and gold and silver fabrics1 we see them employed for the purpose of covering1 adorning1 and of rendering more striking and imposing the altar and its accessories1 to which the name of chancel was given 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the chalice and the altar-vessels1 which date from the very cradle of ,christian worship1 since without these sacred vases the fundamental services of the religion of ,jesus ,christ could not have been performed1 perhaps owe it to this exceptional fact that they are not spoken of before the eleventh century 7,fig4 #ba74 ,in truth1 nowhere do we find an indication of their ordinary shape1 nor of the mode of their manufacture in early times2 but it is reasonable to suppose that the chalice originally was identical1 as it was in times approaching nearer to our own1 with the goblet of the ancients2 or perhaps1 to define it more particularly1 was the well-known hanap 7drinking-cup71 the earliest type of which tradition endeavours to trace to so early a date4 ,at a later period1 and until the time when the artists of the ,renaissance period were called upon to remodel sacred ornaments1 and they transformed them into marvels of art on which were lavished all the resources of casting1 chasing1 and glyptic1 we observe that chalices continued to be manufactured with the greatest care1 adorned with exquisite elegance1 and enriched with all the brilliancy that art can give them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,an ,altar-cloth embroidered in silver on a black ground1 representing the procession of a friar of the ,abbey of ,st4 ,victor4 ,fifteenth ,century 7copied from the original belonging to ,n4 ,achille ,jubinal74 ,all that can be said regarding the chalice applies equally to the monstrances and the pyxes employed to contain and to exhibit the consecrated wafers1 as also to the censers1 which originated in the ,jewish form of worship1 and which1 in accordance with the successive epochs of ,christianity1 affected different mystical and symbolic shapes 7,fig4 #bb74 ,of these ,m4 ,didron gives the following description3--8,they were first formed of two open-work spheroids1 in cast and chased copper1 ornamented with figures of animals and inscriptions40 ,originally they were suspended by three chains1 which1 according to tradition1 signified 8the union of the body1 the soul1 and the divinity in ,christ40 ,at another period the censers represented1 in miniature1 churches and chapels with pointed arches4 ,again1 at the ,renaissance1 they took the form of that now in use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,an ,altar-,tray and ,chalice1 in enamelled gold1 supposed to be of the ,fourth or ,fifth ,century1 found at ,gourdon1 near ,chalon-sur-,sane1 in #ahdf4 7,cabinet des ,antiques1 ,bibl4 ,imp4 de ,paris47 ,from the first1 the lighting of churches was1 to a certain extent1 carried out on much the same principle as that employed in princely abodes and important mansions4 ,fixed or movable lamps were used2 also wax candles in chandeliers1 for the ornamentation of which pious donors and pious artisans1 the former paying the latter1 vied with each other in skill and liberality4 ,we may here observe that even in the early days of ,christianity1 numerous candlesticks were generally employed both by day and by night4 ,the candlesticks on the altar represented the apostles surrounding ,christ2 thus their number ought to be twelve4 ,placed around the dead1 they signified that the ,christian finds light beyond the grave4 ,to the faithful they typified the day which shines brightly in celestial ,jerusalem4 ,the worship of relics1 established in the early days of the ,church1 subsequently led to the introduction of shrines and reliquaries1 a kind of portable tomb which the disciples of the ,gospel devoted to the memory1 and in honour1 of martyrs and confessors of the faith4 ,thus from the first1 in collecting these holy relics1 to which the faithful attached every kind of miraculous powers1 they dedicated what1 according to ecclesiastical writers1 had been the temple of the living ,god1 a gorgeous sanctuary1 worthy of so many virtues and miracles4 ,hence the introduction of shrines into churches1 and reliquaries into private houses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,censer of the ,eleventh ,century1 recalling the shape of the ,temple of ,jerusalem1 in copper repouss4 7,formerly in ,metz ,cathedral1 now at ,trves47 ,owing to the care bestowed on some of these by ,st4 ,eloi1 from the seventh century1 they had become real marvels of intrinsic richness and artistic finish4 ,nevertheless we are unacquainted with the shape which1 in accordance with the ,christian liturgy1 was originally given to the shrines and reliquaries1 although the ,latin word capsa1 from which the word chsse 7shrine7 is derived1 conveys the idea of a kind of box or coffer4 ,indeed this shape was retained for a long time by the whole of ,christendom2 but the majority of shrines in gold and silver work which do not date further back than the eleventh or twelfth century represent tombs1 chapels1 and even cathedrals4 ,this symbolic shape continued in use to the time of the ,renaissance1 but with successive modifications suggested by the architectural style of each period4 ,we thus see there was no precious material or delicate workmanship which was not employed to contribute in making the shrines and reliquaries more magnificent4 ,gold1 silver1 rare marbles1 precious stones1 were lavished on their construction2 the chaser and enameller embellished with figures and emblems1 with incidents taken from ,holy ,writ and from the lives of saints1 the shrines in which are deposited their remains4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bc and #bd4--,stall and ,reading-desk in carved wood1 from the ,church of ,aosta 7,fifteenth ,century74 ,we know that in the early days of ,christianity the rite of baptism was performed by immersion in rivers or in fountains1 but at a period nearer to our own time1 basins or vessels of various dimensions were placed in a small detached edifice1 by the side of the church2 into these the neophytes were plunged when receiving the first sacrament4 ,these baptistries disappeared as soon as the practice of sprinkling holy water on the forehead of the catechumen was definitely substituted for that of immersion4 ,baptismal fonts then became what they now are1 that is1 a kind of small erection above the level of the floor--piscinas1 shells 7vasques71 or basins1 recalling to our minds1 though on a reduced scale1 the primitive baptistries4 ,they were placed inside the church1 either near the entrance1 or in one of the side-chapels4 ,at various periods they were made of stone1 marble1 or bronze2 and were ornamented with subjects relating to the rite of baptism4 ,it was the same with the holy-water basins1 which1 according to ancient custom1 were placed at the entrance to the church1 and generally assumed the form of a shell1 or of a large amphora1 when not made simply of a hollowed stone to recall the ancient baptismal vessels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,bas-relief in carved wood1 representing a ,domestic ,scene1 from the ,stalls called 8,misricordes10 in the ,choir of the ,cathedral of ,rouen 7,fifteenth ,century74 ,we must not overlook the altar and procession-crosses1 which1 as being typical of the divine emblem of the ,christian faith1 could not fail to become real objects of art even from the time of the catacombs4 ,it would be needless repetition to enumerate here the different materials used in the manufacture of crosses1 the various shapes that were given to them1 according to the purpose for which they were intended1 and the subjects and figures they represented4 ,the sculptor1 the modeller1 the chaser1 the enameller1 and even the painter1 were associated with the goldsmith in producing most exquisite works of this kind4 ,the art of the wood-carver and that of the worker in iron1 which we have seen executing such marvels for household furniture1 could not fail to find scope in the manufacture of objects used for religious purposes4 ,it was especially in making pulpits1 ornamental screens1 wainscoting1 and stalls1 that the art of the wood-carver became renowned2 he was no longer simply an artisan1 but became an artist of the highest order4 ,in the ornamentation of railings of choirs and tombs1 the iron-work on doors1 of bolts1 locks1 and keys1 the remarkable talent of the locksmiths of the ,middle ,ages was displayed4 ,let us here remark1 that in the early days of worship the pulpit was simply a kind of stool on which the preacher stood in order that his congregation might see him4 ,by degrees the pulpit was raised on supports or columns2 and later again1 but only towards the end of the fifteenth century1 we find it fixed at a great height against one of the central pillars of the church1 and usually magnificently carved1 as was also the dais1 and the sounding-board by which it was surmounted4 ,to form an idea of the degree of perfection attained in wood-carving from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century1 we ought to inspect the stalls of ,st4 ,justine1 at ,padua1 those of the cathedrals of ,milan and ,ulm1 the church of ,aosta 7,figs4 #bc and #bd71 c41 and the stalls of the churches of ,rodez1 ,albi1 ,amiens1 ,toulouse1 and ,rouen 7,fig4 #be74 ,and if we would examine a very ancient example of the art attained by workers in iron1 we have but to notice the hinges1 dating from the thirteenth century1 which stretch1 in arabesque designs1 over the panels of the western door of ,notre-,dame1 ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,design on the ,stalls in the ,church of ,st4 ,benot-sur-,loire4 ,,tapestry4 ,scriptural ,origin of ,tapestry4--,needlework ,embroidery in ,ancient ,greek and ,roman ,times4--,altalic ,carpets4--,manufacture of ,carpets in ,cloisters4--,manufactory at ,poitiers in the ,twelfth ,century4--,bayeux ,tapestry1 named 8,de la ,reine ,mathilde40--,arras ,carpets4--,inventory of the ,tapestries of ,charles ,v42 enormous ,value of these ,embroidered ,hangings4--,manufactory at ,fontainebleau1 under ,francis ,i4--,the ,manufacture of the ,hpital de la ,trinit1 at ,paris4--,the ,tapestry ,workers1 ,dubourg and ,laurent1 in the reign of ,henry ,,iv4--,factories of ,savonnerie and ,gobelins4 ,if there is an art which bears brilliant testimony to the industry and ingenuity of mankind in the remotest ages1 undoubtedly it is that of weaving1 or of embroidering tapestry2 for1 however far back we trace the annals of nations1 we find this art flourishing and producing marvels of workmanship4 ,let us first open the ,bible1 the oldest of all historical documents2 we read therein of woven fabrics1 not only worked on the loom1 but also made by hand1 that is1 richly embroidered in needlework on linen or canvas4 ,these magnificent fabrics1 which were laboriously and minutely executed1 represented all kinds of designs in relief and in colours2 they were used as decorations for the holy temple1 and as ornamental garments for the priests who performed the religious ceremonies4 ,indubitable proof of this is the description1 in the book of ,exodus1 of the curtains surrounding the tabernacle4 ,some of these embroideries1 in the manufacture of which gold and silver thread1 combined with dyed wools and silk1 was used1 were named opus plumarii 7work in imitation of bird's plumage72 others--such1 for example1 as the veil of the ,holy of ,holies1 which represented cherubim in the act of adoration--were called opus artificis 7work of the artisan71 because they were made by the weaver on the loom2 and1 with the aid of numerous shuttles1 the woof of wools and silks of various hues was introduced4 ,in the traditions of the magnificent city of ,babylon we also find figured tapestry delineating the mysteries of religion1 and handing down to us the recollection of historical incidents4 8,the palace of the kings of ,babylon10 says ,philostratus1 in the 8,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana10 8was ornamented with tapestries in gold and silver tissues1 which recorded the ,grecian fables of ,andromeda1 of ,orpheus1 c40 ,the ,greek poet ,apollonius of ,rhodes1 who wrote a century before our era1 relates in his poem of 8,the ,argonauts0 that the women of ,babylon excelled in the execution of these gorgeous textures4 ,the famous tapestries which were sold in the time of ,metellus ,scipio for #hjj1jjj sesterces 7about #afe1jjj francs71 and a hundred years later were purchased for the exorbitant sum of two million sesterces 7about #dab1jjj francs7 by ,nero1 to place on his festive couches1 were of ,babylonian workmanship4 ,ancient ,egypt1 which would seem to have been the early cradle of an advanced civilisation1 was also renowned for this marvellous art1 the invention of which the ,greeks attributed to ,minerva1 and to which allusion is frequently made in their mythology4 ,penelope's web1 whereon were delineated the exploits of ,ulysses1 has remained the most celebrated among them all4 ,it was on a similar web that ,philomela1 in her prison1 illustrated in embroidery the narrative of her misfortunes1 after ,tereus had cut out her tongue1 to prevent her telling her sister ,progne the outrage she had suffered at his hands4 ,throughout the poems of ,homer we find embroidery of this kind either mentioned1 or described as made with the needle or loom1 and intended for decorative drapery1 or as garments for men and women4 ,during the siege of ,troy1 ,helen embroidered1 upon a fine tissue1 the sanguinary combats of the heroes who were destroying each other for her sake4 ,the cloak of ,ulysses represents a dog pulling down a fawn1 c4 ,the custom of embroidering such scenes as combats and hunting-incidents seems to have lasted during a long time4 ,according to ,herodotus1 certain races bordering on the ,caspian ,sea were accustomed to have figures of animals1 flowers1 and landscapes delineated on their garments4 ,this custom is mentioned among the pagans by ,philostratus1 and among ,christians by ,clement of ,alexandria4 ,pliny1 the naturalist1 who lived in the first century of our era1 also alludes to it on several occasions in his works4 ,three hundred years later1 ,amasius1 ,bishop of ,amasia1 deplores the folly which 8set a great value on this art of weaving1 a vain and useless art1 which by the combination of the warp and woof imitates painting40 8,when persons thus dressed appear in the street10 adds the pious bishop1 8the passers-by look at them as walking pictures1 and the children point at them with their finger4 ,we see lions1 panthers1 bears1 rocks1 woods1 hunters2 the religiously inclined have ,christ1 his disciples1 and his miracles figured on their garments4 ,here we see the wedding of ,cana1 and the pitchers of water turned into wine2 there we have the paralytic carrying his bed1 or the sinner at the feet of ,jesus1 or ,lazarus being raised from the dead40 ,we have only to look into the works of the writers of the time of ,augustus to learn that the halls in the houses of the wealthy were always hung with tapestry2 and that the tables1 or rather the beds1 upon which the guests were seated1 were covered with carpets4 ,the ,attalian carpets1 which were thus named because they came from the inheritance bequeathed to the ,roman people by ,attalus1 ,king of ,pergamos1 were indescribably magnificent4 ,cicero1 who was a connoisseur in such matters1 speaks of them with enthusiasm in his works4 ,under ,theodosius ,i41 that is to say1 at the time of the decline of the great empire which was soon to break up and be separated1 and at last to merge into new nationalities1 a contemporaneous historian shows us 8the youth of ,rome engaged in making tapestry-work40 ,in the early period of ,french history1 this ingenious and delicate work would seem to have been mainly carried on by women1 and especially by those of the highest rank4 ,at any rate it is a fact that rich tapestries were in common use1 both in private houses and for ecclesiastical purposes1 as early as the sixth century2 for ,gregory of ,tours does not fail to tell us of the embroidered hangings1 and also of the tapestry1 in most of the ceremonies which he describes4 ,when ,king ,clovis renounced paganism and asked to be baptised1 8this intelligence was the greatest joy to the bishop2 he orders the sacred fonts to be prepared2 the streets overhung with painted cloths2 the churches ornamented with hangings40 ,when the abbey-church of ,st4 ,denis had to be consecrated1 8its walls are covered with tapestry embroidered in gold and ornamented with pearls40 ,these tapestries were for a long time preserved in the abbey-treasury4 ,subsequently1 this same treasury received1 as a present from ,queen ,adelaide1 the wife of ,hugh ,capet1 8a chasuble1 a valance1 as also some hangings1 worked by her own hand20 and ,doublet1 the historian of this ancient abbey1 states that ,queen ,bertha 7the same whom the old ,french proverb makes an indefatigable worker with her needle7 embroidered on canvas a series of historical subjects1 depicting the glorious deeds of the family4 ,nevertheless1 there is no written authority for asserting that in ,france the manufacture of tapestries and hangings worked on the loom can be traced beyond the ninth century2 but at this period1 and a little later1 we find some documents which are as precise as they are curious--proving that this industry1 the principal object of which1 at that period1 was the ornamentation of churches1 had to a certain extent obtained a footing1 and was flourishing in religious establishments4 ,the ancient chronicles of ,auxerre relate that ,st4 ,anthelm1 the bishop of that city1 who died in #hbh1 caused to be made1 under his own directions1 numerous rich carpets for the choir of his church4 ,one hundred years later we find a regular manufactory established at the monastery of ,st4 ,florent1 at ,saumur4 8,in the time of the abbot ,robert ,,iii410 says the historian of this monastery1 8the vestry 7fabrique7 of the cloister was further enriched by magnificent paintings and pieces of sculpture1 accompanied by legends in verse4 ,the above-mentioned abbot1 who was passionately devoted to similar works1 sought for and purchased a considerable quantity of magnificent ornaments1 such as large dorserets#a in wool1 curtains1 canopies1 hangings1 bench-covers1 and other ornaments1 embroidered with various devices4 ,among other objects1 he caused to be made two pieces of tapestry of large size and of admirable quality1 representing elephants2 and these two pieces were joined together with a rare kind of silk1 by hired workers in tapestry4 ,he also ordered two dorserets in wool to be manufactured4 ,it happened that1 during the time one of these was being completed1 the above-mentioned abbot went to ,france4 ,the ecclesiastic left in charge took advantage of his absence to forbid the artisans to work the woof according to the customary method4 #8,well1' said they1 #8in the absence of our good abbot we will not discontinue our employment2 but as you thwart us we shall make quite a different kind of fabric4' ,and this now admits of proof4 ,they made several square carpets1 representing silver lions upon a field of gules 7red71 with a white border covered with scarlet animals and birds4 ,this unique piece of workmanship was looked upon as a perfect specimen of this kind of fabric1 until the time of the abbot ,william1 when it was considered the most remarkable piece of tapestry belonging to the monastery4 ,in fact1 on the occasions of great solemnities the abbot had the elephant tapestry displayed1 and one of the priors showed that on which were the lions40 ,from the ninth or tenth century there was also a manufactory at ,poitiers2 and its fabrics1 on which figured kings1 emperors1 and saints1 were of ,european celebrity1 as appears to be attested1 among other documents1 by a remarkable correspondence which took place1 in #ajbe1 between an ,italian bishop1 named ,lon1 and ,william ,,iv41 ,count of ,poitou4 ,to understand rightly this correspondence1 it must be borne in mind that at the time ,poitou was as famous for its mules as for tapestry4 ,in one of his letters1 the bishop begs the count to send him a mule and a piece of tapestry1 both equally marvellous 7mirabiles71 and for which he has been asking six years4 ,he promises to pay whatever they may cost4 ,the count1 who must have had a facetious disposition1 replied1 8,i cannot1 at present1 send you what you ask1 because for a mule to merit the epithet of marvellous1 he would require to have horns1 and three tails1 or five legs--and this ,i should not be able to find in our country4 ,i shall therefore content myself with sending you one of the best ,i can procure4 ,as to the tapestry1 ,i have forgotten the dimensions you desire4 ,let me have these particulars again1 and it will then soon be sent to you40 ,but this costly industry was not limited to the ,french provinces4 ,in the 8,chronique des ,ducs de ,normandie10 written by ,dudon1 in the eleventh century1 it is stated that the ,english were clever workers in this art2 and when designating some magnificent embroidery1 or rich tapestry1 it was described as of ,english work 7opus ,anglicanum74 ,moreover1 the same chronicle relates that the wife of ,richard ,i41#b the ,duchess ,gonnor1 assisted by her embroiderers1 made hangings of linen and of silk1 embellished with images and figures representing the ,virgin ,mary and the ,saints1 to decorate the church of ,notre ,dame1 ,rouen4 ,the ,east1 also1 which from the earliest times had been renowned for the art of producing beautiful embroidered fabrics1 became still more famous during the ,middle ,ages for those of wool and silk1 embroidered with silver and gold4 ,it was from the ,east were brought the rich stuffs covered all over with emblazonments1 and with figures of animals1 and probably also embroidered in open-work3 these fabrics were called toffes sculptes1 or pleines d'yeux4 ,the librarian ,anastasius1 in his book the 8,lives of the ,popes10 which undoubtedly was written before the eleventh century1 gives1 when describing church decorations1 some curious and circumstantial details regarding the subject we are now discussing4 ,according to him1 as early as the time of ,charlemagne 7eighth century71 ,pope ,leo ,,iii4 8had a veil made of purple worked in gold1 on which was the history of the ,nativity and of ,simon1 having in the centre the ,annunciation of the ,virgin40 ,this was to ornament the principal altar of the ,holy ,mother of ,god1 at ,rome4 ,he also ordered for the altar of the church of ,st4 ,laurence1 8a veil of silk worked in gold1 having on it the histories of the ,passion of our ,saviour and of the ,resurrection40 ,he placed on the altar of ,st4 ,peter's 8a veil of purple of a remarkable size1 worked in gold and ornamented with precious stones2 on one side was seen our ,saviour giving ,st4 ,peter the power to bind and to loose1 on the other the ,passion of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul40 ,in the same book1 several other pieces of tapestry are described in such terms that it seems difficult to realise the richness and the beauty of finish of these artistically-worked fabrics1 which for the most part came from ,asia or ,egypt4 ,it was only in the twelfth century1 after the return from the first crusades had enabled ,western nations to admire and to appropriate to themselves luxuries quite new to them1 that the custom of using tapestry1 while becoming far more general in churches1 found its way also into private dwellings4 ,if1 in the cloisters1 the monks1 in order to find employment1 lavished their utmost care on the weaving of wool and of silk1 there was the more reason why this occupation should prove pleasing to the noble chtelaines who were confined to their feudal castles4 ,it was then1 when surrounded by their tire-women1 as in earlier times were the ,roman matrons by their slaves1 that these fair dames1 while listening to the reading of tales of chivalry which deeply interested them1 or inspired by a profound faith1 gave themselves to the task of reproducing with the needle either the pious legends of the saints or the glorious exploits of warriors4 ,the bare walls1 when thus draped with touching incidents or warlike memorials1 assumed a peculiar eloquence which doubtless inspired the mind with grand visions1 and aroused noble sentiments in the heart4 ,among the finest specimens of this kind is one which1 owing to its really exquisite character1 has escaped what would have seemed inevitable destruction4 ,we allude to the famous ,bayeux tapestry called 8de la ,reine ,mathilde0 7of the wife of ,william the ,conqueror74 ,this work represents the conquest of ,england by the ,normans4 ,if we are to accept the ancient traditions to which it owes its name1 it must date from the last half of the eleventh century4 ,in these days we may be permitted to doubt1 in consequence of the many discussions that have taken place among the learned1 if this embroidery is as ancient as was at one time supposed4 ,and although we first find it alluded to in an inventory 7prepared in #adgf7 of the treasury of ,bayeux ,cathedral1 we may venture1 with a certain degree of confidence1 to believe that it was made in the twelfth century by ,englishwomen1 who at that time were particularly famous for their needlework2 an opinion confirmed by more than one author contemporaneous with ,william and ,matilda4 ,this tapestry1 which is #ai inches in height1 by nearly #bab feet in length1 is a piece of brown linen1 on which are embroidered with the needle1 in wool of different colours 7and these seem to have lost none of their early freshness71 a series of seventy-two groups or subjects1 with legends in ,latin interspersed with ,saxon1 embracing the whole history of the ,conquest1 as related by the chroniclers of the period 7,figs4 #bg and #bh74 ,at the first glance1 this embroidery may seem to be but a rudely executed grouping of figures and animals2 nevertheless there is character throughout1 and the original outline1 discoverable beneath the intersections of the wool1 is not wanting in a certain accuracy that brings to our mind the vigorous simplicity of the ,byzantine style4 ,the decoration of the double border1 between which is delineated a drama wherein #ecj figures are introduced1 is the same as those of the paintings in manuscripts of the ,middle ,ages4 ,and1 in short1 failing any exact proof1 if we are determined not to deprive this immense work of its traditional antiquity1 it might1 with much probability1 be attributed to a female embroiderer of ,queen ,matilda1 named ,leviet1 whose skill has rescued her name from oblivion4 ,it may also be well to observe that at the time it is first alluded to in history1 this tapestry is found belonging to the very church in which ,matilda desired to be buried4 ,we have already seen 7in the chapter on ,furniture7 that towards the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 under the influence of ,eastern habits and ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,a piece of the ,bayeux ,tapestry1 representing the construction of ,boats for ,william 7with ,border74 customs1 the practice of sitting on carpets was established at the court of our kings4 ,from this date rich tapestries were frequently used for making tents for campaigning or for hunting4 ,they were displayed on festive occasions2 as1 for instance1 when princes were entering a town1 the object being to hide the bare walls4 ,the dining-halls were hung with magnificent tapestries1 giving additional splendour to the interludes 7entremets1 or intermdes7 performed during the repast4 ,the champions in the lists saw glittering around them1 suspended from the galleries1 fabrics on which heroic deeds were embroidered4 ,lastly1 the caparison of the charger 7the war-horse's garb of honour7 displayed its brilliant emblazonings to the eyes of admiring crowds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,a portion of the ,bayeux ,tapestry1 representing two mounted men of ,duke ,william's army armed from head to foot1 and in the act of fighting4 ,it was moreover the custom that the tapestries made for noblemen should bear their respective armorial devices1 the object being1 no doubt1 that it might be known to whom they belonged when used on the occasion of the entry of royal and other distinguished personages in solemn processions2 and also at jousts and tournaments4 ,in the fourteenth century the manufactories of ,flanders1 which were of considerable reputation even about the twelfth century1 made great advance1 and the success of the ,arras tapestries became so general that the most handsome hangings were called ,arras tapestry1 although the greater part of them did not come from that city4 ,it may here be noticed that the term ,arrazi is1 in ,italy1 still synonymous with valuable tapestry 7,fig4 #bi74 ,these fabrics were generally worked in wool1 and sometimes in flax and linen3 but at the same period ,florence and ,venice1 which had imported this industry from the ,east1 wove tapestries wherein gold and silk were blended4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,marriage of ,louis ,,xii4 and ,anne of ,brittany4 ,tapestry in wool and silk1 with a mixture of gold and silver thread4 ,made in ,flanders the end of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,lent by ,m4 ,achille ,jubinal47 ,an inventory1 dated #bast ,january1 #acgi1 contained in a manuscript now in the 8,bibliothque ,impriale10--in which are enumerated 8all the jewels in gold and silver1 all the rooms with embroidery and tapestries belonging to ,charles ,v410--gives us an idea not only of the multiplicity of hangings and tapestries that appertained to the personal property of royalty1 especially at the ,htel ,saint-,pol1 but it also shows us the variety ,illustration3 ,,the ,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,magi4 ,tapestry of ,berne of the fifteenth ,century 7,communicated by ,m4 ,achille ,jubinal47 of subjects therein represented4 ,a few of these pieces of tapestry are still preserved1 but among some which have been destroyed or lost we may mention those representing the ,passion of our ,saviour1 the ,life of ,st4 ,denis1 the ,life of ,st4 ,theseus1 and that entitled ,goodness and ,beauty--all these were of large dimensions4 ,then again1 the tapestry of the ,seven ,mortal ,sins1 two pieces of the ,nine ,bold ,knights1 that of the ladies hunting and flying 7qui volent71 in other words1 hawking2 that of the ,wild ,men2 two of ,godfrey de ,bouillon2 a white tapestry for a chapel1 in the centre of which was seen 8a compass with a rose10 emblazoned with the arms of ,france and of ,dauphiny1 this was three yards square2 one large handsome piece of tapestry1 8the king has bought1 which is worked with gold1 representing the ,seven ,sciences and ,st4 ,augustin20 the tapestry of ,judith 7the queen who subsequently appears on playing-cards72 a large piece of ,arras cloth1 representing the ,battles of ,judas ,maccabeus and ,antiochus2 another of 8the ,battle of the ,duke of ,aquitaine and of ,florence20 a piece of tapestry 8whereon are worked the twelve months of the year20 another of 8the ,fountain of ,jouvent0 7,jouvence71 a large piece of tapestry 8covered with azure fleurs-de-lys1 which said fleurs-de-lys are mingled with other small yellow fleurs-de-lys1 having in the centre a lion1 and1 at the four corners1 beasts holding banners1 c40--in fact1 the list is endless4 ,we must still1 however1 add to these figured tapestries those with armorial bearings1 made for the most part with 8,arras thread10 and bearing the arms of ,france and ,behaigne 7the latter being those of the queen1 daughter of the ,king of ,bohemia74 ,there was also a piece of tapestry 8worked with towers1 fallow bucks and does1 to put over the king's boat40 ,the tapestry called velus1 or velvet1 which now we call moquettes1 was as commonly seen as any other kind4 ,there were also to be noticed the ,salles d',angleterre1 or the tapestries from that country1 which1 as we have said1 had previously acquired a great celebrity in that art4 ,among these one was 8ynde 7blue71 with trees and wild men1 with wild animals1 and castles20 others were vermilion1 embroidered with azure1 having vignette borders1 and in the centre lions1 eagles1 and leopards4 ,in addition to these1 ,charles ,v4 possessed at his castle of ,melun many 8silken fabrics and tapestries40 ,at the ,louvre one could but admire1 among other magnificent pieces of tapestry1 8a very lovely green room1 ornamented with silk covered with leaves2 and representing in the centre a lion1 which two queens were in the act of crowning1 and a fountain wherein swans were disporting themselves40 ,yet we must not be led away with the idea that it was only the royal palaces which presented such sumptuousness2 for it would be easy to enumerate many instances similar to those we have given1 by looking over the inventories of the personal property of nobles1 or those of the treasuries of certain churches and abbeys4 ,in one place the tapestries represent religious subjects taken from the ,bible1 the ,gospels1 or the legends of the saints2 in another the subjects are either historical or relating to chivalry1 more especially battles or hunting scenes 7,fig4 #cj74 ,we are thus justified in asserting that the luxury of tapestry was general among the higher classes4 ,an expensive taste it was2 because not only does an examination of these marvellous works show us that they could have been purchased only at a very high price1 but in old documents we find more than one certain confirmation of this fact4 ,for example1 ,amaury de ,goire1 a worker in tapestry1 received in #acdh1 from the ,duke of ,normandy and ,guienne1 #dib livres1 #c sous1 #i deniers1 for 8a woollen cloth10 on which were represented scenes from the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,in #acfh1 ,huchon ,barthlmy1 money-changer1 received #ijj golden francs for a piece of 8worked tapestry1 representing ,la ,qute de ,st4 ,graal 7the search for the blood of ,christ72 and in #acia1 the tapestry exhibiting the history of ,theseus1 to which we have already alluded1 was purchased by ,charles ,v4 for #a1bjj livres2 all these sums1 considering the period1 were really exorbitant4 ,the sixteenth century1 remarkable for the progress and the excellence to which the arts of every kind had attained1 gave a renewed impulse to that of tapestry4 ,a manufactory was established by ,francis ,i41 at ,fontainebleau1 where the tapestry was woven in one entire piece1 instead of being made up1 as had been the practice1 of separate pieces matched and sewn together4 ,in this new fabric gold and silver threads were mixed with silk and wool4 ,when ,francis sent for the ,primate from ,italy1 he commissioned him to procure designs for several pieces of tapestry1 to be made in the workshops of ,fontainebleau4 ,but1 while liberally rewarding the ,italian or ,flemish artists and artisans collected in the dependencies of his chteau1 the king still continued to employ ,parisian tapestry-workers2 proof of which is to be found in a receipt of the sieurs ,miolard and ,pasquier1 who give an ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--,tapestry representing a ,hunting ,scene1 from the ,chteau d',effiat4 7,in the possession of ,m4 ,achille ,jubinal47 acknowledgment of having been paid #daj livres tournois1 8to begin the purchase of materials and other requisites for a piece of silk tapestry1 which the said seigneur had ordered them to make for his coronation1 according to the patterns which the said seigneur has had prepared for this purpose1 and on which must be represented a ,leda1 with certain nymphs1 satyrs1 c40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,the ,weaver4 ,drawn and ,engraved by ,j4 ,amman4 ,henry ,,ii4 did even more than maintain the establishment at ,fontainebleau2 in addition he instituted1 in compliance with the request of the guardians of the ,hpital de la ,trinit1 a manufactory of tapestry in ,paris1 in which the children belonging to the hospital were employed in dyeing wool and silk1 and in weaving them in the loom with a high and low warp4 ,the new manufactory1 whether on account of the excellence of its productions1 or from influential patronage1 obtained so many privileges that the public peace was on several occasions seriously disturbed by the jealousy of the guild of tapestry-workers2 an ancient and numerous corporation still possessing great authority and influence4 ,the manufactory of the ,hpital de la ,trinit continued to flourish during the reign of ,henry ,,iii42 and ,sauval1 in his 8,histoire des ,antiquits de ,,plan ,,of ,,paris ,,in ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century1 ,,with ,,this ,,legend3 ,mil cinq cents ans quarante et neuf passez ,du dluge3 ,paris le noble roy ,dix-huitime3 fonda en grand arroy ,ville et cit de ,paris belle assez ,devant que ,rome eust des gens amassez ,six cent cinquante et huit ans comme croy4 ,,translation4 ,one thousand five hundred and forty-nine years after the ,deluge1 the noble ,king ,paris1 the eighteenth of his name1 founded with great pomp the fine town and city of ,paris1 anterior to the foundation of ,rome1 which took place1 as ,i think1 #feh 787 years before ,jesus ,christ4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,paris ,,in ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century4 ,beauvais ,tapestry 7,communicated by ,m4 ,achille ,jubinal47 ,paris10 informs us that in the following reign it reached its highest point of prosperity4 ,in #aeid1 ,dubourg made in these workshops1 from the designs of ,lerembert1 the beautiful tapestries which1 to a date very near our own1 decorated the ,church of ,saint-,merry4 ,henry ,,iv41 says ,sauval1 hearing this work much spoken of1 desired to see it1 and was so pleased therewith that he resolved to restore the manufactories in ,paris1 8which the disorder of preceding reigns had abolished40 ,he therefore established ,laurent1 a celebrated tapestry-worker1 in the maison professe of the ,jesuits1 which had remained closed since the trial of ,jean ,chastel4 ,he allowed one crown a day1 and one hundred francs a year1 as wages to this skilful artist2 his apprentices receiving ten sous a day1 and his fellow-workmen twenty-five1 thirty1 and even forty sous1 according to their skill4 ,at a later period ,dubourg and ,laurent1 who had entered into partnership1 were both installed in the galleries of the ,louvre4 ,henry ,,iv41 following the example of ,francis ,i41 brought from ,italy skilled workers in gold and in silk4 ,these he lodged in the ,htel de la ,maque1 ,rue de la ,tisseranderie3 the special works they made were hangings in fine cloth of gold and silver 7fris74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,banner of the ,tapestry ,workers of ,lyons4 ,subsequently to the sixteenth century1 the tapestries fabricated at the manufactories of the ,savonnerie1 the ,gobelins1 and at ,beauvais1 c41 although more perfect as regards the weaving1 and therefore presenting greater regularity of design and a better comprehension of colour and perspective1 unfortunately lost the original simplicity which characterized them in olden times4 ,approaching the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 under the influence of the school of ,le ,brun1#c they affected an imitation of ,greek and ,roman forms1 which seem out of place in ,france4 ,handsome countenances are the result1 out accompanied by meaningless figures2 the frankness of truth gives place to staid coldness1 the ideal usurps the place of nature1 conventionality that of spontaneity4 ,we find them ingenious1 pretty1 and even beautiful productions1 but wanting character1 the real soul of works of art4 ,,ceramic ,,art4 ,pottery ,workshops in the ,gallo-,romano ,period4--,ceramic ,art disappears for several ,centuries in ,gaul3 is again found in the ,tenth and ,eleventh ,centuries4--,probable ,influence of ,arabian ,art in ,spain4--,origin of ,majolica4--,luca della ,robbia and his ,successors4--,enamelled ,tiles in ,france1 dating from the ,twelfth ,century4--,the ,italian ,manufactories of ,faenza1 ,rimini1 ,pesaro1 c4--,beauvais ,pottery4--,invention and ,works of ,bernard ,palissy2 his ,history2 his ,chefs-d'uvre4--,the ,faence of ,thouars1 called 8,henri ,,ii40 ,we can assuredly say1 with ,m4 ,jacquemart1 that 8the history of the ceramic art of the ,middle ,ages is shrouded by a veil which probably will always remain impenetrable4 ,notwithstanding the constant investigations of local societies1 and the numerous documents that have been brought to light1 nothing has transpired to remove the doubts of the archologist regarding the places where the manufacture of pottery had its birth among us40 ,nevertheless1 it is certain that at the ,gallo-,romano period--that is to say1 when the ,romans1 having made themselves masters of that country1 had introduced their customs and their industry--,gaul possessed numerous and considerable pottery workshops1 which produced vessels and vases of all kinds4 ,maintaining the ancient forms and processes of manufacture1 these factories continued to furnish1 till about the sixth century1 amphor1 basins1 cups on stems1 dishes1 plates1 and bottles4 ,they were made1 with the aid of the potter's wheel1 of grey1 yellow1 or brown clay4 ,some of the finest quality were covered with a brilliant varnish1 resembling red sealing-wax both in colour and appearance2 and these articles were often ornamented with much care and delicacy4 ,we find vases surrounded with garlands of leaves1 cups embellished with figures of men and animals2 these are so many proofs that this was a manufacture to which the influence of art was by no means unknown4 ,yet it is also evident that this industry--one of a sufficiently elevated kind--nearly disappeared about the period of the invasions and wars amidst the tumult of which ,french monarchy had its birth2 and there remained but the simple art that provided for ordinary requirements an assemblage of articles rude and devoid of character4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the ceramic art which had flourished in the ,west merely migrated1 instead of becoming extinct2 and it found1 like so many other arts1 a new country in that ,byzantium destined to be the sanctuary of ancient magnificence4 ,whatever may be the reason1 ceramic art disappeared from the soil of ,france during a long period2 and it is still a question what was the real origin of its revival4 ,did it revive of itself1 or was it under the influence of example8 ,did it owe its resuscitation to any immigration of artisans1 or to the importation of some process of manufacture8 ,these questions still remain unanswered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,vases of ancient shape1 represented in the decorative sculpture of the ,church of ,st4 ,benot1 ,paris4 7,twelfth ,century47 ,the ceramic art1 which perhaps we somewhat wrongly style modern1 is characterized by the use of enamel1 or overlaying articles with a glaze having a metallic basis2 this the fire of the oven vitrifies2 it is a process of which the ancients were entirely ignorant4 ,but1 in searching the tombs that belonged to the ancient abbey of ,jumiges 7in ,normandy71 and which date from the year #aabj1 there have been found fragments of pottery of a fine but porous clay1 covered with a glazing somewhat similar to that now used4 ,moreover1 we read in a chronicle of the ancient province of ,alsace1 that in the year #abhc 8died a potter of ,schelestadt1 who was the first to cover earthen vessels with glass40 ,but we also know that at the time when these isolated attempts were being carried out in ,france1 the ,persians and ,armenians had long before discovered the art of making magnificent enamelled ware for covering the exterior of their monuments2 and that the ,arabs settled in ,spain produced wonderful examples of painted and enamelled earthenware1 with which they decorated and furnished those palaces whose grand ruins are still to us like the fairy visions of a dream or of enchantment4 ,the vases of the ,alhambra1 types of an art as original as it was singularly ingenious1 claim1 and doubtless will always claim1 the admiration of minds that can appreciate the beautiful in whatever form it may present itself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,vases of ancient form1 represented in the decorative sculptures of the ,church of ,st4 ,benot1 ,paris4 7,twelfth ,century47 ,and now1 are we to suppose that the intercourse between nations and the transactions of commerce must necessarily have made western ,europe acquainted with the enamelled dishes of ,asia1 or the chefs-d'uvre of the ,african race in ,spain8 ,or1 on the other hand1 shall we say that it was by a spontaneous effort of invention that our forefathers opened up the road to a new domain of art8 ,in the one case we have the opinion1 deservedly respected1 of ,scaliger1 who affirms the fact1 apparently very significant1 that during the ,middle ,ages there existed in the ,balearic ,islands manufactories of pottery of ,arab origin2 our learned author even adds1 that in accordance with the most probable etymology1 the name of ,majolica1 which was first given to ,italian ware 7the earliest in the ,european revival of the ceramic art71 was derived from ,majorca1 the largest1 as we know1 of the ,balearic ,islands1 in which locality the principal manufactory of these pottery wares was situated4 ,but1 on the other hand1 a comparative examination of ,arab and ,italian wares excludes all idea not only of affiliation1 but even of imitation or reminiscence between them4 ,in the face of such contradictory coincidence1 if we may say so1 it would be as difficult as it would be rash to pronounce an opinion2 we consider it better1 while disregarding problematical indications1 to boldly face a train of facts now determined by historical proof4 8,at the commencement of the fifteenth century0--we cannot do better than borrow from ,m4 ,jacquemart a passage which he himself took from the ,italian work by ,passeri1 on ,majolica 7,pesaro1 #ahch1 in #hvo47--8,luca della ,robbia1 the son of ,simone di ,marro1 apprenticed himself to a ,florentine goldsmith1 ,leonardo1 the son of ,giovanni2 but disliking the confinement of a laboratory1 he soon became a pupil of the sculptor ,lorenzo ,ghiberti1 who made the gates of the ,baptistry at ,florence4 ,his rapid progress under so able a master placed him in a position1 when he could not have been more than fifteen years old1 to undertake the task of ornamenting a chapel for ,sigismond ,malatesta1 at ,rimini4 ,two years later1 ,pietro di ,medici1 who was having an organ erected in ,santa-,maria dei ,fiori1 at ,florence1 directed ,luca to execute some marble sculptures in that church4 ,the fame which he gained by these works drew everybody's attention to the young sculptor4 ,orders reached him in such numbers that he clearly saw the impossibility of executing them in marble or in bronze2 added to this1 he bore with impatience the restraint imposed by working with such rigid materials1 of which the laborious handling trammelled the flights of his imagination4 ,soft and plastic clay was a material far better suited to his readiness of conception4 ,at the same time1 ,luca dreamt of the future1 and of glory2 and thus having in view the object of executing works which1 though less perishable1 might be rapidly executed1 he devoted all his efforts to discover a coating which would give to clay the polish and the hardness of marble4 ,after many trials1 a varnish made of tin 7tain71 which was white1 opaque1 and of a resisting nature1 furnished him with the result he hoped for4 ,the art of producing fine earthenware was discovered1 which first received the name of vitrified clay 7terra invetriata74 8,luca's enamel was a most perfect white2 he first used it alone for figures1 in semi-relief1 which were raised on a blue background4 ,at a later period he ventured to colour his figures1 and ,pietro di ,medici was one of the first who encouraged this kind of work for the decoration of palaces4 ,the fame of this novel art spread with rapidity2 all the churches were anxious to possess some specimen of the master1 so that ,luca was soon compelled to associate with himself his two brothers ,ottaviano and ,agostino1 in order to keep pace with the requirements of the public4 ,he endeavoured1 nevertheless1 to extend the application of his discovery by painting flowers and groups of figures on a smooth surface2 but in the year #adcj death cut short his remarkable career1 and stayed1 in the hands of the inventor1 the progress of enamelled pottery 7,fig4 #ce74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--;,enamelled ,terra-cotta1 by ,luca della ,robbia4 8,the family of ,luca1 however1 made public the secret of his discovery4 ,his two nephews1 ,luca and ,andrea1 produced some figures and designs of singular merit in terra-cotta4 ,luca ornamented the floor of the ,loggia of ,raphael4 ,girolumo1 a relative of ,luca1 come to ,france1 where he decorated the chteau of ,madrid1 in the neighbourhood of ,paris4 ,two females1 ,lisabetta and ,speranza1 added to the renown of the family ,della ,robbia40 ,such is the history of the revival1 or rather of the creation1 of ceramic art in ,italy1 as briefly recorded by a man thoroughly acquainted with the subject4 ,an ancient author1 and1 moreover1 a competent writer1 instances some monuments of an earlier date2 among others a tomb at ,bologna1 in which were tiles covered with a green and yellow varnish1 and vessels 7cuelles7 of the same kind inserted in the faades or porticoes of the churches of ,pesaro and the abbey of ,pomposa4 ,but to the honour of ,luca della ,robbia it may be remarked1 that these specimens of an earlier industry differed essentially from his productions2 because the glazing that covered them1 the basis of which was lead1 was so transparent1 that through it could be seen either the clay or the colours underneath2 whereas the enamel discovered by ,luca1 the basis of which was tin1 had1 on the contrary1 for its essential character1 an opacity which may be termed intense4 ,let us observe1 moreover1 that in order to embellish his productions with paintings1 ,luca was accustomed to apply colours to the first and general coating1 which became fixed by a subsequent process of baking4 ,it is by recognising the distinction we have just laid down between these two processes1 that the productions of ,italian ceramic art are ordinarily classified3 the demi-majolica1 with transparent glaze1 somewhat like the ,spanish-,arabian pottery1 and also1 perhaps1 like ,asiatic tiles2 then the majolica1 by which we understand fine earthenware1 where the clay is covered with a coating of opaque varnish1 distinguishing the invention due to ,luca della ,robbia4 ,having given priority of invention to ,luca della ,robbia1 it is as well1 nevertheless1 here to state1 that from the eleventh and twelfth centuries there existed in ,france a kind of ceramic art employed especially in the manufacture of varnished pottery-tiles4 ,many1 of baked clay1 have been found with drawings and designs in black or brown on a white or yellow ground 7,plate ,,iv474 ,at a later period these tiles1 of which we see such brilliant specimens in the small pictures in manuscripts1 especially in those ,illustration3 ,,paving ,,tiles ,,of ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,and ,,fifteenth ,,centuries4 of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 were embellished with designs1 emblems1 armorial bearings1 and scrolls4 ,as already stated1 in the passage from the author whom we have taken as our guide1 the impulse which ,luca della ,robbia gave to ceramic art extended itself with rapidity in every direction2 and if any other reason were wanting1 beyond the intrinsic value of this art1 to account for its development1 we should say that the circumstances in the midst of which ,luca made his discovery were eminently favourable to its advancement4 ,luxurious display was1 at that time1 prominent among the classes who aspired to ostentation4 ,when writing of furniture1 we saw to what a pitch of splendid profusion kings1 princes1 and nobles carried the mania for displaying their wealth4 ,we particularly pointed out sideboards in the dining-rooms1 covered with plate and all kinds of objects1 which were only placed there to dazzle the eyes4 ,the custom of these displays having been introduced1 it could nevertheless be only indulged in by those in possession of considerable fortunes1 and therefore it will be readily understood how quickly fashion affected the productions of ceramic art2 which1 in addition to being recognised as works of art1 were singularly well suited1 both in character and by their comparative cheapness1 to the spirit of ostentation which had taken possession of people of inferior rank4 ,it was sufficient that some piece of majolica should have found a place on the sideboard of a prince amidst the gold and the silver which hitherto had alone enjoyed this privilege1 for the lower ranks of the bourgeoisie and the tiers-tat to adopt the fashion1 in their dining-rooms1 of decorating them either with majolica alone1 or associated with plate4 ,and admitting this fact1 that the productions of ceramic art were thus allowed to find admittance1 and1 as it were1 in some measure an equally distinguished position1 amidst plate and objects of precious metals1 it resulted that this new industry1 supported by the best artists1 soon became remarkable for works which were at the same time most beautiful and original4 ,as something new in history1 we find simple pieces of pottery--to give them their generic name--passing as valuable offerings among the great1 and employed on very many occasions to denote ardent admiration in the world of courtly gallantry4 ,it is thus we have handed down to us1 principally on cups by renowned masters1 portraits of the beauties who in those times adorned the ranks of the nobility3 the ,dianas1 the ,francescas1 the ,lucias1 the ,proserpines1 whom their admirers caused to be portrayed in order to offer them their own likenesses4 ,it was at ,florence1 about the year #adaj1 that ,luca della ,robbia first introduced his invention2 but as soon as the process became known1 the greater part of the towns of ,italy1 especially those of ,tuscany1 established manufactories1 among which a remarkable rivalry soon arose3 ,pesaro1 ,gubbio1 ,urbino1 ,faenza1 ,rimini1 ,bologna1 ,ravenna1 ,ferrara1 ,citta ,castellana1 ,bassano1 ,venice1 emulated each other1 and almost all succeeded in giving1 as it were1 an individual character to their productions4 ,pesaro--the place were the earliest workshops of ornamental pottery in ,italy were seated1 and the processes of which 7derived from ,luca della ,robbia7 seem to have blended with the ancient ,spanish1 or ,majorquaises--presents to us a design of a rather harsh and stiff character4 8,the outlines of figures10 adds ,m4 ,jacquemart1 8are drawn in manganese black1 the flesh is the colour of the enamel1 and the drapery alone is of uniform tint40 ,it was at ,pesaro that the celebrated ,lanfranco flourished4 ,the ceramic museum of ,svres has two of his pieces3 it was he who invented the method of applying gold to earthenware1 at a time when the early processes of ornamenting this manufacture had ceased to be employed1 and had given place to delicate paintings1 which1 although no longer executed by the most renowned artists of ,italy1 were nevertheless the work of intelligent pupils who had received the benefit of their teaching and example4 ,the manufactory at ,gubbio had for its founder ,giorgio ,andreoli1 who1 both as a sculptor and an artist in majolica1 executed works as remarkable in form as in effect4 8,the palette of mineral colours adopted by ,andreoli was the most perfect of the period2 and coppery yellows1 ruby reds1 are frequently used in his works40 ,there are still extant some works signed by this master 7a title officially conferred on him by a patent of nobility72 one is a slab in the ,svres collection1 and another a tablet representing the ,holy ,family4 ,urbino--of which the dukes1 especially ,guidobaldo ,,ii41 signalized themselves as the most zealous patrons of ceramic art--became famous through the works of ,francesco ,xanto1 who executed historical subjects on enamelled clay4 ,xanto had as a successor ,orazio ,fontana1 who has been named 8the ,raphael of ,majolica10 and who produced1 among other magnificent objects1 some vases which1 when subsequently seen by ,christina of ,sweden1 so impressed her by their beauty that she offered to exchange for them silver vases of equal size4 ,it was at the manufactory of ,deruta that imaginative subjects on majolica were first introduced2 ,bassano was famous for its landscapes with ruins2 ,venice became celebrated for delicate ware with repouss reliefs2 ,faenza is still proud of her ,guido ,salvaggio2 ,florence of her ,flaminio ,fontana1 c4 ,majolica attained to its highest point of brilliancy under the ,duke of ,urbino whom we have already named1 ,guidobaldo ,,ii41 who was ever ready to make any sacrifice in order that this art might be introduced into the manufactories under his patronage4 ,he even obtained from ,raphael and ,giulio ,romano some original drawings to serve as examples2 and this feeling having once been inculcated1 we soon find artists of renown1 such as ,batista ,franco and ,raphael del ,colle1 tendering their services for the ornamentation of majolica4 ,thus the productions of this period are distinguishable among all others for harmony of composition and accurate drawing1 qualities which render them specially noteworthy 7,fig4 #cf74 ,then1 almost immediately1 followed the decline of this art4 ,while flourishing more and more until the middle of the sixteenth century1 the art of making majolica had fallen1 at the termination of that epoch1 into a kind of degenerate industry1 swayed by the caprice of fashion1 and thereby reduced to mannerism4 ,nearly at the commencement of the renovation of ceramic art1 ,italian artisans had established themselves in various places1 which then became so many artistic centres4 ,eastern ,europe had for its earliest instructors three brothers1 ,giovanni1 ,tiseo1 and ,lazio1 who settled at ,corfu4 ,flanders was indebted for the knowledge of these processes to ,guido of ,savino1 who took up his abode at ,antwerp4 ,and about the year #aebj we find a manufactory at ,nuremberg1 of which the ware1 though materially differing in character from ,italian majolica1 may still very probably have been derived from ,italy4 ,we may add that letters of the ,king of ,france mention that from #adef there were certain revenues derivable from the 8,beauvais ,potteries20 and in the twenty-seventh chapter of the first book of 8,pantagruel10 published in #aece1 ,rabelais places among the various articles composing the trophy of ,panurge1 8a saucer1 a salt-cellar of clay1 and a ,beauvais goblet20 which proves1 as ,m4 de ,sommerard remarks1 8that as early as this date1 there were manufactured in this city vessels of clay sufficiently good in quality to be placed on the table with silver and pewter utensils20 but it does not naturally follow that ,france had not long to wait for the man of genius who would soon leave her nothing to covet from ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--;,cup1 ,italian ,ware4 ,in the ,collection of ,baron ,alph4 ,rothschild4 ,taken from ,,mm4 ,carle ,delange and ,c4 ,borneman's work4 ,about the year #aeaj1 in a small village in ,prigord1 a child was born who1 after receiving the rudiments of education1 was obliged while still quite young to try to gain a livelihood by his own industry4 ,this child's name was ,bernard ,palissy4 ,he first learnt the trade of a glazier1 or rather of a glass-fitter and painter4 ,this trade1 while it initiated him into the principles of drawing1 and gave him a certain insight into chemical manipulations1 at the same time aroused in him a taste for art and the study of natural sciences4 ,while 8painting figures in order to gain his daily bread10 as he himself tells us in one of the works he has left behind him1 and which gives us the highest opinion of his simple yet energetic nature1 he applied himself to the study of the true principles of art in the works of the great ,italian painters--the only artists then in repute4 ,owing to various circumstances the trade of glazier proving unprofitable1 he at once began the study of geometry1 and soon obtained credit1 in the part of the country wherein he dwelt1 as 8a clever draughtsman of plans40 ,such comparatively mechanical labour as this could not long suffice for the active vigour of a mind thirsting after progress and discovery4 ,moreover1 ,palissy1 while employed on his calling as a land-surveyor1 had never ceased to give close observation to the structure and composition of geological strata4 ,with the purpose of dispelling the doubts in his mind1 and also with the object of obtaining substantial confirmation regarding the system he had already originated1 he began to travel4 ,the result of his journeyings was the inauguration of a theory which1 after having long been contemptuously rejected by the learned1 was nevertheless destined to form the foundation of principles which are now considered as the basis of modern geological science4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,a figured ,border of an ,enamelled ,dish1 by ,bernard ,palissy4 ,but if the certain knowledge which ,palissy thought he had acquired as to the early convulsions of the globe had succeeded in satisfying his own mind1 the glazier-surveyor 7who was now a married man with a family7 still remained in straitened circumstances1 and was obliged to find some means of avoiding actual want4 ,we must refer to what he himself says more than a quarter of a century later1 and when success had completely crowned his efforts1 to learn what were his recollections of his early and hazardous experiments in a new channel4 8,know10 says he1 in his expressive language1 8that it is twenty-five years since an earthen vessel was shown to me2 it was turned1 enamelled1 and of such exquisite beauty1 that from that very moment ,i began to argue with myself1 while remembering observations made derisively to me by some persons when ,i was painting figures4 ,and seeing that they were beginning to give up the use of these objects in the country where ,i lived1 and that glazing also was not in great demand1 ,i set myself to think that had ,i but discovered the art of making enamel1 ,i might make earthen vessels and other articles of beautiful appearance2 for ,god had given me the capacity to understand a little about ceramic painting1 and from that instant1 without in the least regarding my utter ignorance of siliceous substances1 ,i set myself to discover enamels like a man groping in the dark40 ,it has been much disputed1 but we may as well say at once to no purpose1 how to assign with certainty a particular locality whence came this object which inspired ,palissy2 but whatever may have been its origin1 it seems to us to be a question of little moment1 because at the time when ,palissy must have seen it1 the ,italian manufactories1 and even those which were afterwards established in various localities1 had succeeded in disseminating their wares far and wide2 and1 besides this1 the works of ,palissy1 which we still see1 bear testimony to a style that was peculiarly his own1 and in some measure original4 ,however this may have been1 here we have him seeking out and grinding all kinds of substances1 mixing them1 and coating with them pieces of ware which he first subjected to the action of an ordinary potter's oven1 afterwards to the more powerful heat employed by glass-makers4 ,then we see him building an oven in his own house--taking into his service a working potter1 to whom1 on one occasion1 when he has no money for the payment of wages1 he is obliged to give his own clothes2 again we find him turning1 single-handed1 a mill for grinding his materials which ordinarily required 8two powerful men0 to work it2 then again1 wounding his hands in repairing the oven that the fire cracked1 and the bricks and mortar of which had become 8liquified and vitrified20 so that he is obliged for several days 8to eat his soup with his fingers tied up in rags20 pushing the conscientiousness and zeal of an experimentalist so far as to fall down in a state of insensibility on finding that the whole contents of an oven1 on which he had been relying1 proved to have numerous defects4 ,in despite ,illustration3 ,,biberon ,,of ,,henri ,,ii ,,ware4 ,or ,oiron fayence4 7,pourtales' ,collection47 ,now in the possession of ,j4 ,malcolm1 ,esq4 of his poverty we see him destroying pieces of work that he considered were not quite perfect1 though a fair price was offered him for them1 merely because 8they might bring discredit on him and loss of reputation20 and finally1 we see him breaking up and putting into the fire1 for want of other fuel1 the flooring of his house and the furniture of his humble abode4 ,the magnificent discovery1 brought about by the single initiative of an individual who had said that he would succeed1 and who heroically endured all kinds of misery1 privations1 and humiliations1 in order to attain his object1 was the labour of not less than fifteen years4 8,to console me10 relates ,palissy1 8even those from whom ,i had a right to expect help laughed at me0 7he here alludes to his family--his wife1 and children--who had not the same unbounded faith as himself in the ultimate success of his labours72 8they paraded the town exclaiming that ,i was burning the woodwork of my house2 thus was my credit injured1 and ,i was looked upon as a fool4 ,others said ,i was attempting to make base coin4 ,i went about quite humiliated1 ashamed of myself4 ,i owed money in several quarters1 and generally had two children out at nurse1 and not able to pay the cost4 ,all ridiculed me1 saying3 #8,he deserves to starve1 because he has given up his trade4' 8,struggling on in this way1 at the end of ten years ,i became so thin that my legs and arms had no roundness of shape left about them2 my legs were all of a size 7toutes d'une venue72 so that as soon as ,i began to walk1 the garters with which ,i fastened my stockings used at once to slip down1 stockings and all1 on to my heels4444 ,for many years1 having nothing wherewith to cover my ovens1 ,i was exposed all night long to the winds and the rains1 without receiving any help or consolation1 except from the screech-owls hooting on one side and the dogs howling on the other4444 ,sometimes ,i found myself1 with all my garments wet through from the rain1 going to bed at midnight1 or at dawn of day2 and when proceeding in this condition to bed1 ,i went reeling along without a light1 and stumbling from side to side1 like a man drunk with wine2 ,i was overcome by previous sorrow1 the more so because after long-continued work ,i saw my labour lost4 ,and on entering my chamber ,i found a fresh persecution awaiting me--the complaints of my wife--worse than the first1 and which now makes me wonder how it was ,i did not die of grief4444 ,i have been in such anguish that many and many a time ,i fancied ,i was at death's door40 ,at last1 despite all these obstacles1 disappointments1 physical and mental suffering1 the determined experimentalist succeeded in his anticipations1 and gave to the world those works he called rustics1 and which were so original and so beautiful that they had but to be seen in order to invite attention1 and to gain for him all the praise1 as well as the profit1 he received4 ,we have just intimated it was at ,saintes that ,palissy1 when in search of immortal fame1 underwent his rude apprenticeship4 ,a short time after he had attained these definite results1 religious questions having caused some disturbances in ,saintonge1 the ,constable de ,montmorency1 who had been sent to suppress the ,huguenot rising1 had an opportunity of seeing ,palissy's works3 he requested that he should be presented to him1 and at once declared himself his friendly protector4 ,and we must take this word protector in its widest sense1 for the potter1 who had zealously embraced the doctrines of the ,reformation1 and who subsequently preferred to be imprisoned for life rather than abjure his faith 7if he did not die in the ,bastille1 at least he was imprisoned there at the time of the ,massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew71 indeed required protection1 as much for the exercise of liberty of conscience as for carrying on his artistic labours4 ,after ,montmorency had commissioned him to execute some considerable works1 which also gained him the patronage of several important personages1 he obtained for him the favour of royalty4 ,palissy was summoned to ,paris1 and received the title of 8inventeur des rustiques figulines du roi et de la reine-mre0--,henri ,,ii4 and ,catherine de ,mdicis4 ,he was lodged in the ,tuileries2 and was not long there before he became renowned1 not only for his ceramic productions1 but also for his scientific knowledge4 ,in the recent building operations at the ,tuileries1 on digging a trench in the garden1 the workshop of ,bernard ,palissy was discovered2 being recognised by fragments and various pieces of enamelled pottery with figures in relievo4 ,among these was found a large fragment of the dish of ,palissy1 known under the name of the ,baptismal ,dish1 on account of the subject represented thereon4 ,in ,july1 #ahfe1 while excavating in the part of the palace where the 8,salle des ,etats0 has been built1 the workmen discovered1 below the level of the surface soil1 two ovens for baking pottery1 in a tolerably good state of preservation4 ,one contained pieces of those muffles 7gazettes7 ,palissy is said to have invented1 and which were employed in baking delicate pieces of work--imprints of various kinds of ornaments1 and figures in altorelievo3 two of these are described by ,palissy himself in the 8,devis d'une grotte pour la royne1 mre du roy0 78device of a grotto for the queen1 the king's mother071 and which he thus indicates in the following sentence3--8,i should wish to make certain figures from nature1 following her so closely1 even to the small hair in the beard and eyebrows1 as to make them the natural size40 ,these peculiarities are to be seen in the fragments of the moulds which have been discovered4 ,in the same page ,palissy says1 8,also there would be another1 composed completely of sea-shells of different kinds2 that is to say1 the two eyes of two shells1 the nose1 mouth1 and chin1 forehead and cheeks1 all made out of sea-shells1 as well as even the remainder of the body40 ,this was found in fragments1 as also a hand moulded from nature1 and holding a sword of ancient make 7,fig4 #ci74 ,among the fragments moulded from the naked and the draped form1 is the one which we give 7,fig4 #dj72 it is thus described by ,palissy3--8,also for the sake of astonishing mankind1 ,i wished to make three or four 7figures7 draped1 and with their hair dressed in quaint ways1 whose dresses and head-dresses shall be of divers linen1 cloths1 or striped materials so natural that no man would think but it was the object itself which the workman had wished to imitate40#d ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,ornamentation on ,pottery by ,bernard ,palissy4 ,we thus see how ,palissy1 called 8,matre ,bernard des ,thuilleries10 deserved the esteem of the sovereigns who desired he should be near them4 ,m4 ,jacquemart says of ,palissy ware3--8,it is remarkable in more ways than one--for its white paste with a shade of yellowish grey1 for its hardness1 and its infusibility1 equalling that of fine earthenware or pipe-clay4 ,these give it a special character1 that distinguishes it from ,italian productions1 the clay of which is of a dirty and dusky red4 ,the enamel has great brilliancy2 it is hard1 and is not unfrequently wavy 7tresaille74 ,the colours vary a little1 but they are bright--pure yellow1 yellow ochre1 indigo blue1 grey blue1 emerald green produced from copper1 yellow green1 violet brown1 and manganese violet4 ,as for the white1 it is somewhat dull1 and cannot be compared with ,luca della ,robbia ware2 wherefore the most persevering researches of ,palissy1 who invented all the processes which he employed in his work1 aimed at the attainment of greater brilliancy4 ,the under part of ,palissy ware is never of a uniform tone of colour2 it is spotted or tinted with blue1 yellow1 and violet brown4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ci and #dj4--;,fragments of ,figures on which the moulds have been found in one of ,palissy's ,ovens at the ,tuileries4 8,it would be exceedingly difficult1 not to say impossible1 to enumerate the various shapes he was able to give to his enamelled ware4 ,combining in ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,goblet1 by ,bernard ,palissy4 7,museum of the ,louvre47 himself all the artistic talent of his day1 he was at the same time a skilful designer and an intelligent modeller2 and thus he discovered a thousand resources for the display of elegance and richness2 sometimes in the multiplicity of relievos and in the outline of his vases1 sometimes in the mere application of colour4444 ,in many of his productions1 particularly dishes and bowls1 are seen natural objects represented with astonishing truthfulness as to form and colour2 nearly all these are modelled from nature1 and grouped with perfect taste2 from the lower surface1 rippled by streams of water in which fish of the river ,seine are swimming1 coiled reptiles rise gracefully from among fossil shells 7we must remember that ,palissy was a geologist71 found in the tertiary strata of ,paris2 on the marli 7the sloping edge of the dish71 amidst delicate ferns arranged in masses1 lizards1 crayfish1 and large-bodied frogs climb and jump 7,fig4 #db74 ,the accuracy of their movements1 the truth of tones produced by a limited variety of colours--all indicate a close observer4 ,we must not1 however1 form our opinion of ,palissy from these rustic works alone1 but also from his vases1 where he introduced all the ornamental richness of those times1 and on which he took a pleasure in developing all his fertility of composition and his knowledge as a designer4444 ,on this point ,palissy followed the same law to which all artists of the sixteenth century were subject--he was a worker in precious metals4 ,by their graceful originality1 their fringed 7franges7 borders1 their figured accessories1 these vases put us in mind of metal4 ,how could it have been otherwise8 ,was not ,benvenuto ,cellini at that time1 we will not say the object of all imitations1 for this would be an insult to the skilful artists of that period1 but at all events the ideal towards which the inspirations of others were directed8 ,as regards the human figure1 ,palissy's constant endeavour was to approach the ,italian type2 and as doubtless the school of ,fontainebleau furnished him with most of his models1 in the greater part of his figures we trace that graceful elongation of form1 that elegant simplicity1 which1 in the works of ,jean ,goujon1 fall into mannerism 7,figs4 #dc and #dd74 8,palissy did not limit himself to the production of small and moderate-sized vases for ornamenting sideboards1 buffets1 tables1 and brackets2 he raised pottery to the most gigantic proportions in his rustiques figulines1 intended as ornaments for gardens1 grottoes1 fountains1 and the halls of stately mansions4 ,the castles of ,nesle and of ,chaulnes1 of ,reux and of ,ecouen1 and the garden of the ,tuileries1 contained some remarkable specimens4 ,all have perished with the devastation of the buildings in which they stood2 a single fragment of a capital1 preserved in the ,museum of ,svres1 proves the truthfulness of the writers of the sixteenth century regarding the monumental creations of the potter of ,saintes4 8,after the death of ,palissy1 in #aehi1 the art which he had created insensibly declined1 until soon it almost completely disappeared in ,france40 ,this latter remark has reference to the style which was peculiarly of ,palissy's own invention1 and not to the production of ceramic works generally2 though the art failed not to give evidence of a certain vitality1 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,enamelled ,dish1 by ,bernard ,palissy4 7,museum of the ,louvre47 it employed as guides or models the fanciful examples of ,italian ware1 in preference to the really masterly specimens of the ,french artist4 ,among the different centres of manufacture which1 at that period1 were deserving of notoriety1 we must specially name ,nevers1 whence came numerous examples characterised by subjects taken from biblical narratives1 as well as from ,roman and contemporaneous times2 ,rouen1 where the manufacture probably was not of an earlier date than the beginning of the seventeenth century1 and which evidently had to provide its full supply of dishes for the table when1 owing to the heavy expenses of war1 the courtiers1 following the example of ,louis ,,xiv41 sent their plate to the mint1 and 8se mirent en faence10 8took to earthenware10 as ,saint-,simon says4 ,lastly we have ,montreuil-sur-,mer1 which1 if we are to credit the specimens collected in the district by ,m4 ,boucher de ,perthes1 one of our most learned antiquarians1 possessed a manufactory that produced some remarkable 8open-work0 vases4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--;,four-handled ,water-jug4 ,german ware of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--;,egg-shaped ,coffee-pot4 ,german ware of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,let us also mention the ,dutch pottery1 called ,delft ware1 which1 in the beginning of the seventeenth century1 began to find a place on all sideboards and dressers4 ,according to ,m4 ,brongniart1 these came from a manufactory founded prior1 perhaps1 to the sixteenth century4 ,we also instance the fine earthenware1 in relievo1 manufactured with undoubted ability in ,germany1 especially in the town of ,nuremberg4 ,in the ,louvre and in the ,cluny ,museums may be seen magnificent specimens of enamelled slabs and vases of architectural forms1 ornamented with figures4 ,majolica was equally esteemed on the banks of the ,rhine4 ,many specimens are found1 dating from the latest years of the sixteenth century1 in which identity of form or similarity of sigles 7earths or clays7 to primitive works had led to their being1 at first1 classified among ,italian majolica4 ,however1 the majority of these examples1 ornamented with escutcheons and arabesques1 combined generally with ,latin or ,german inscriptions1 bear on the reverse a cipher in ,gothic letters1 leaving no doubt as to the artist's country4 ,now a word on a question we ought not to pass in silence1 though it yet remains unanswered1 and doubtless will never be explained4 ,why is this name of faence commonly given in ,france1 almost from the revival of the ceramic art1 to the productions of the new industry8 ,some say1 8because ,faenza was the first among ,italian manufactories that introduced1 generally1 painted and ornamented potteries into ,france1 where it acquired great reputation40 ,others discover in ,france itself1 a small town called ,faence1 near ,frjus1 in ,provence1 8where the manufacture of enamelled clays was in full activity before there was any evidence of it elsewhere20 and thus it gave its name to the pottery called majolica by the ,italians3 this would be nothing less than to deprive ,luca della ,robbia of the merit1 if not of the invention1 at least of priority4 ,unfortunately for this last opinion1 those who state it cannot bring in support of their assertion any certain details of the nature of the productions ascribed to that locality1 and which by their very celebrity ought to have been safe from destruction4 ,thus it is evident there is here a point of dispute regarding which it is difficult to form a decisive opinion4 ,though1 in a certain measure1 lying out of the province to which our observations have hitherto been limited1 we have still to notice a small group of productions which are known by connoisseurs under the title of faences fines d',henri ,,ii42 of these there are not more than forty authenticated specimens4 ,the locality of this manufacture1 which seems1 so to speak1 to have been isolated--for the ware is unlike any contemporaneous productions--is quite unknown4 8,we only know10 says ,m4 ,jacquemart1 8that most of the examples came from the south-west of ,france1 from ,saumur1 from ,tours1 and especially from ,thouars4 ,as to the date1 it is indelibly inscribed on the vases1 some having the salamander of ,francis ,i41 others the arms of ,france with three crescents interlaced1 the emblem adopted by ,henri ,,ii4 ,they consist of cups1 ewers1 drinking-vases1 oval sugar-basins1 salt-cellars1 and candlesticks4 ,the form is ornate and pure1 and is relieved by elegant mouldings4 ,on the clay--a yellowish white1 and covered with a crystallized varnish1 the basis of which is lead1 and consequently is transparent--wind bands of yellow ochre bordered with dark brown1 and interlaced with all the inventive richness which characterized the period2 small designs in green1 violet1 black1 and occasionally in red1 enhance this decoration40 ,much search has been made1 but1 as yet1 without any reliable result1 for the name of the artist to whom might be attributed the creation of these works1 and of the individual style they denote4 ,however this may be1 if ,england claims the first application of pipe-clay to fine earthenware1 the ,french can1 by showing her the faence d',henry ,,ii41 prove that1 two hundred years before1 an unknown artist in ,france was setting an example in that art in which ,england now prides herself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,ornament of a ,dish1 ,italian ware4 7,collection of ,m4 le ,baron ,alph4 de ,rothschild47 ,,arms ,,and ,,armour4 ,arms of the ,time of ,charlemagne4--,arms of the ,normans at the ,time of the ,conquest of ,england4--,progress of ,armoury under the ,influence of the ,crusades4--,the ,coat of ,mail4--,the ,crossbow4--,the ,hauberk and the ,hoqueton4--,the ,helmet1 the ,hat of ,iron1 the ,cervelire1 the ,greaves1 and the ,gauntlet2 the ,breastplate and the ,cuish4--,the ,casque with ,vizor4--,plain ,armour and ,ribbed ,armour4--,the ,salade ,helmet4--,costliness of ,armour4--,invention of ,gunpowder4--,bombards4--,hand-,cannons4 --,the ,culverin1 the ,falconet4--,the ,arquebus with ,metal-holder1 with ,match1 and with ,wheel4--,the ,gun and the ,pistol4 ,the most ancient and authentic document that presents to us a just and almost perfect idea of the arms in use towards the end of the eleventh century1 is the celebrated tapestry of ,bayeux1 of which we have already spoken4 ,it is sufficient to examine with some attention that complex and illustrated narrative of the conquest of ,england in #ajff1 to learn what was the general aspect of war at that period4 ,but any one who has at all studied the ancient historians and the annals of our earliest career as a people1 will not fail to recognise1 as so many constituent parts combining to form the equipment of war1 most of those weapons that were adopted among various races1 the contests and the union of which was to give birth to modern nations4 ,if we can rely on the testimony of some miniatures in manuscripts of the time of ,charlemagne1 ,roman customs are constantly recalled in the costume and arms of the warriors of the eighth and ninth centuries 7,fig4 #df71 8but with the modifications necessarily resulting from contemporaneous corrupt taste10 as observed by ,m4 de ,saulcy1 whom1 it may be remarked1 we follow step by step1 as it were1 in the labours which he has conscientiously devoted to the history of warlike arms2 8for at that time the helmets1 the bucklers1 and the swords had assumed forms very unlike the models whereof they were supposed to be an imitation4 ,one can readily imagine that costume had become subjected to the same sort of change as language1 corrupted as this was by the admixture of ,german manners with those of the nations subjected to ,rome40 ,in the middle of the ninth century the ,normans disembarking1 possessed themselves of ,neustria1 and introduced among the ,french nation1 with which they at first contended1 and at length concluded a peace1 an entire series of defensive arms entirely novel in form1 if not in their nature4 ,it is then1 according to certain learned men1 that warriors are seen1 in illustrated manuscripts1 attired in dresses furnished with small rings or iron scales1 wearing pointed helmets1 and using shields cut horizontally above1 and terminating at the base in a point more or less sharp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,gallo-,romano ,soldiers4 ,fac-simile of ,miniatures in the ,,ms4 of ,prudentius4 7,imp4 ,library of ,paris47 ,in the ,bayeux tapestry we see the army of ,william that fought the battle of ,hastings composed of three different bodies of troops3 the archers1 light infantry1 armed with arrows and darts2 foot-soldiers1 or ,heavy infantry1 using weightier arms1 and clad in iron mail2 and cavalry1 in the midst of which figures the ,duke ,william 7,fig4 #dg74 ,the costume exhibits little variety2 only two sorts of accoutrements are observable2 one very plain1 worn by men who have no helmet1 is evidently that of an inferior soldier2 the other1 covered with iron rings1 not interlaced1 extends from the shoulders to the knees1 and belongs only to warriors whose head-dress is a narrow1 conical helmet1 more or less sharply pointed1 extending behind 7en couvre nuque7 to cover the nape of the neck 7,fig4 #dh71 and in front provided with a metal protector for the face1 called the nasal4 ,among the horsemen thus encased in iron1 are some who have boots and stirrups1 others are without them1 and even wear no spurs4 ,their shields are convex1 secured to the arm by a leather strap1 generally circular at top1 and terminating in a point below4 ,some1 however1 are polygonal and convex1 and in the centre show a rather long point4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,king ,william1 as represented on his seal preserved in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,lancer of ,william's ,army4 ,offensive arms consist of swords1 axes1 lances1 javelins1 and arrows4 ,the swords are long1 of uniform width nearly to the extremity which comes abruptly to a point1 and have heavy1 strong hilts4 ,the axes exhibit no remarkable peculiarity4 ,the spears terminate in an iron point1 probably sharpened1 and equal in length to one-sixth of the handle4 ,we see also clubs1 maces1 and1 finally1 pronged staves 7btons fourchus71 doubtless the earliest form of the weapon2 these last were subsequently called bisagu1 and1 with maces and clubs1 were ordinarily used by serfs and peasants2 the sword and the spear being reserved for freemen4 ,the sling is not to be found in the hands of any warrior2 but it is remarkable that1 in the border of the ,bayeux tapestry1 it is used by a peasant aiming at a bird2 from which it may be inferred that the sling had become a mere weapon for field-sport4 ,moreover1 this was also the case with the bow among the ,french2 which was again held in honour after the advent of the ,normans1 especially since the latter could ascribe to it their success at the battle of ,hastings1 where ,harold1 the opponent of ,william1 was killed by an arrow4 ,nevertheless1 the statutes of the ,conqueror1 who himself excelled with the bow1 did not include that weapon among those of the nobility4 ,from the conquest of the ,normans to the ,crusades1 we scarcely find anything worth notice1 except the adoption of a very murderous implement of war1 which acquired the name of the flail1 or armed whip 7flau1 or fouet d'armes72 it was formed of iron balls studded with points1 and was attached to the end of a strong staff by small chains4 ,but we come to a period when the events which occurred in ,asia had a considerable influence on the arms and the military costume of ,europe4 ,the first and principal of the importations due to those distant expeditions was that of the coat of mail1 then in common use among the ,arabs1 and which has since been discovered in the sculptures of the period of the ,sassanid1 a royal race that ruled over ,persia from the third to the seventh century4 ,it is not affirmed that prior to the first crusade we had no knowledge of iron chain-work1 of which the ,orientals made defensive helmets2 but we imitated it only in a heavy and clumsy manner4 ,this armour1 which was of ponderous weight1 and1 besides1 was far from rendering invulnerable those who were burdened with it1 had not displaced the haubergeons1 the jacques de fer1 the brigandines1 the armures macles 7,fig4 #di71 7such were the names given to the cuirasses of leather and of cloth covered with metal plates72 but when such defensive armour came to be better known1 with all its original good qualities2 and when we had learned to make it according to the ,oriental method1 there was no further delay in adopting that network of iron 7tricot7 at once flexible1 light1 and1 in some degree1 impenetrable4 ,however1 since the manufacture of ancient armour was more simple1 and consequently less costly1 it was not altogether abandoned4 ,it is only so late as the time of ,philip ,augustus and ,louis ,,ix4 7the thirteenth century7 that the use of coats of mail became general2 to this some knights attached mail hose1 to protect the thighs1 legs1 and feet 7,fig4 #ej74 ,in the reign of ,louis le ,gros 7twelfth century7 we see the first attempt at a movable vizor adapted to the conical helmet of the ,normans2 and to the same period must be referred the invention of the crossbow3 or1 it may rather be said that a stock1 or arbrier1 was added to the bow1 which afforded greater facility for stretching the string1 and also aided in directing the arrow4 ,this new weapon1 after being exclusively used in the chase1 appeared in warfare2 but1 in #aaci1 ,pope ,innocent ,,ii41 confirming the decisions of the ,council of ,lateran1 which had condemned it as too destructive1 prohibited its use4 ,the crossbow was not restored to military equipments until the third crusade1 under ,richard ,cur de ,lion1 who1 having permitted his men to resume the weapon1 was subsequently assumed to have invented it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,norman ,archer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,jean ,sansterre1 as represented on his ,seal4 ,reproduced by ,meyrick4 ,during the first crusade1 barons and knights wore a hauberk of links of iron or steel4 ,every warrior had a helmet--silver-plated for royalty1 of steel for nobles1 and of iron for the private soldiers4 ,the crusaders used the lance1 the sword1 a kind of dagger called misricorde1 the club and the battle-axe1 the sling and the bow4 ,in the windows which ,suger1 minister of ,louis ,,vii41 caused to be painted for the church of the abbey of ,saint-,denis1 and which represented the principal events of the second crusade1 we see the chiefs of the crusaders still clothed in hauberks of links1 or macles 7plates of iron72 the helmet is conical and without the nose-piece 7nasal72 and1 lastly1 the buckler1 formed like a scutcheon1 covers the breast1 generally suspended from the neck by a leather thong4 ,towards the middle of the twelfth century1 the iron breastplate is said to have been introduced2 it was placed over the chest to support the hauberk1 the direct pressure of which being found detrimental to health4 ,but no description of it is to be met with in the romances of chivalry1 that furnish the best documentary evidence regarding the armour of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--;,helmet of ,don ,jaime el ,conquistador 7,armeria ,real1 ,madrid47 ,under ,philip ,augustus1 who1 as we know1 was one of the leaders of the third crusade1 the conical helmet assumed a cylindrical form2 to this was occasionally added a vizor called ventail1 intended to protect the face4 ,richard ,i41 ,king of ,england1 is represented on his seal with this kind of helmet2 level with the eyes and also at the height of the mouth are two horizontal slits1 which admit of seeing and breathing4 ,still the use of the conical helmet without vizor or nose-piece was retained even to the thirteenth century in ,spain1 as is proved by that worn by ,jaime ,i41 ,king of ,aragon 7,fig4 #ea71 which is preserved in the ,armeria ,real1 ,madrid4 ,it is of polished steel1 is surmounted by a dragon's head1 and portions of it are richly ornamented4 ,thus in the third crusade the use of the 8coat-of-arms0 became general1--a sort of overcoat1 if we may so term it1 of cloth or of silk stuff1 and the purpose of which1 at first1 was only to mitigate the insupportable effect of the rays of an ,eastern sun on metal armour4 ,this new garment soon served1 moreover1 when made of various colours1 to distinguish different nations marching under the standard of the ,cross 7,fig4 #eb74 ,it became really a dress of military splendour1 was made of the richest stuffs1 and embroidered in gold or silver with excessive refinement4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,knight in his ,hauberk 7after ,meyrick74 ,the slingers1 who had never been otherwise recruited than from the lower orders1 disappeared from the ,french armies after the reign of ,st4 ,louis4 ,as for the archers1 those of ,england wore at that time1 over the hauberk1 a leather jacket1 adopted subsequently by the ,french archers1 and called jacque d',anglois4 ,an old author1 in fact1 thus mentions it3-- 8,c'toit un pourpoint de chamois2 ,farci de bourre sus et sous2 ,un grand vilain jacque d',anglois1 ,qui lui pendoit jusqu'aux genoux40 ,the jacque having become the fashion in ,france was soon recognised in every kind of material more or less costly2 it continued in use until the end of the fourteenth century2 ,charles ,,vi4 wore one of black velvet during a journey he made in ,brittany4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,helmet of ,hughes1 ,vidame of ,chalons4 7,end of ,thirteenth ,century47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,tournament ,helmet1 screwed on the ,breastplate4 7,end of ,fifteenth ,century47 ,the casque1 or helmet1 from that time enclosing the head entirely1 assumed1 under ,st4 ,louis1 the form of two truncated cones 8runis par leurs grandes bases40 ,in addition to the helmet there was also worn at that time the chapel de fer1 which at first was only a simple cap underneath the hood of the hauberk2 but when1 curtailing the hood1 a brim was added to the cap1 it thus became a hat almost of the form of the felts now in use4 ,to protect the neck there was also attached to the rim of the hat a tippet of mail1 falling on the shoulders1 and called camail4#e ,the iron cap then took ,illustration3 ,,casque1 ,,morion1 ,,and ,,helmets4 ,with and without vizors1 from the ,armeria ,real at ,madrid4 the name of coiffre or cervelire1 and later it became a kind of reversed pot concealing the entire head1 and kept in position by its weight only 7,fig4 #ec74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,plain ,armour of the ,fifteenth ,century1 about #adfj4 7,museum of ,artillery1 ,paris47 ,again2 there had for some time been manifested a movement which gradually caused the knights to be entirely cased in iron4 ,a king of ,scotland1 contemporary with ,philip ,augustus1 is represented on his seal with a plate of armour intended to protect the elbow4 ,the knee-cap followed4 ,under ,philip the ,bold1 successor of ,st4 ,louis1 the iron grvires 7greaves71 or half leg-pieces1 protecting the front of the legs1 were adopted4 ,in the reign of ,philip the ,fair we have the first example of an iron gauntlet with its fingers separate and jointed3 previously it was merely an inflexible piece covering the back of the hand4 ,about the same time the cervelire1 either flat or spherical1 became pointed at the top1 and took the name of bassinet2 but this bassinet was unlike the casque which1 in the following century1 retained that name and was made completely closed4 ,the exact period of the transition from mailed armour to that of plain iron or steel1 called also plate-armour1 dates from the first thirty years of the fifteenth century 7,fig4 #ee74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--;,convex ,armour of the ,fifteenth ,century1 said to be that of ,maximilian4 7,museum of ,artillery1 ,paris47 ,the annals of ,florence contain a statute of #acae1 requiring every horseman serving in a campaign to have a helmet1 a breastplate1 gauntlets1 cuishes1 and leg-pieces1 all of iron2 but in ,france and ,england the whole of these pieces were not adopted until somewhat later4 ,in the reigns of ,philip ,v4 and ,charles ,,iv4 we see the ventail of the helmet with a grating1 and the vizor opening with a hinge4 ,the bassinet1 lighter than the helmet1 was at first worn by the knight when no hostile encounter was anticipated2 but subsequently1 and at an early date1 the vizor was added to the bassinet1 as well as to the casque2 and then it became as much used as the helmet1 which1 towards the end of the fourteenth century1 was abandoned4 ,about the same period some portions of iron horse-armour began to make their appearance4 ,we find entered in the inventory of the armour of ,louis ,x41 a chanfrein 7a plate of iron fastened on the horse's forehead74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--;,crossbow ,men protected by ,shield-bearers4 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,after a ,miniature from the ,chronicles of ,froissart4 7,,ms4 ,bibl4 ,imp4 de ,paris47 ,the crossbow1 for some time prohibited by ecclesiastical authority1 was the weapon most in use at the period spoken of2 as having the double advantage of being drawn with more power than the ordinary bow1 and of throwing its arrows to a longer distance with greater precision4 ,historians say that at ,crcy1 in #acdf1 there were fifteen thousand crossbow men in the ,french army4 ,the ,genoese were considered the most skilful in ,europe2 and next1 those of ,paris4 ,a manuscript in the ,british ,museum shows them wearing iron helmets1 brassires1#f and leg-pieces2 and for body-covering1 jackets with long1 hanging sleeves4 ,while the bowmen had both hands occupied in discharging their arrows1 shield-bearers were employed to protect them by means of large bucklers 7,fig4 #eg74 ,in the year #acch the use of firearms is for the first time noted in ,france4 ,but we think it right to reserve all we have to say of these modern offensive weapons until our history of the ancient system of armour is finished4 ,considering the early imperfections of firearms1 the old system must have long continued1 especially among combatants of noble degree--for they affected contempt for the new warlike equipments1 by means of which personal valour became in a manner useless and could no longer ensure victory in battle4 ,under ,john the ,good1 that is1 in the middle of the fourteenth century1 plain armour was generally adopted2 the long coat of mail1 heavier and less convenient1 was entirely abandoned2 but chain-armour still covered certain parts of the body not yet protected by iron plates4 ,the bassinet1 then very pointed1 was furnished with mail1 covering the neck and a portion of the shoulders4 ,the upper part of the arm was protected by a half-armlet1 called the paulette1 but the lower part was provided with mail4 ,ornaments began to be introduced in armour in the reign of ,charles ,v42 until that time it had a simple and plain appearance4 ,for instance1 the camail of the bassinet is embroidered on the shoulders with gold and silver1 and the point surmounting it is decorated with an imitation of foliage--an ornament which1 according to the 8,chronicle of ,du ,gueslin10 had the disadvantage of presenting a kind of handle to an opponent4 ,the cuirass1 to which it was then deemed sufficient to impart a bright polish1 or to paint in ordinary colours1 sometimes bright1 sometimes dark1 began to be engraved and chased towards the end of the following reign4 ,in the time of ,charles ,,vi4 there was introduced1 for the first time1 four or five flexible plates1 called faldes1 which protected the lower part of the stomach without impeding the movements of the body4 ,a little later1 tassettes were added2 they were attached to the top of the thigh to guard the hips and the groin4 ,it appears that at this period the artisans of ,milan1 were especially renowned for the manufacture of armour2 for ,froissart relates that ,henry ,,iv41 ,king of ,england1 when ,earl of ,derby1#g and preparing to enter the lists with the ,duke of ,norfolk1 requested armour from ,galeas1 ,duke of ,milan1 who sent it with four ,milanese armourers4 ,the swords and spears made at ,toulouse and at ,bordeaux were also held in great repute2 so also were the double-handed swords in use from the middle of the thirteenth century1 and manufactured at ,lubeck1 in ,germany4 ,the steel helmets of ,montauban were also much in request4 ,towards the commencement of the fifteenth century1 engines of war1 distinct from those in which powder was used1 had attained a remarkable degree of perfection4 ,when ,john the ,fearless1 ,duke of ,burgundy1 marched upon ,paris1 in #adaa1 there was with his army a considerable number of machines called ribaudequins1 a species of gigantic crossbow drawn by a horse1 and which with enormous strength threw javelins to a great distance4 ,under ,charles ,,vii41 the breastplate of the cuirass was composed of two parts3 one covered the breast2 the other1 reaching to the hips1 protected the stomach1 and was attached to the former by clasps and leather straps4 ,generally the breastplate was convex4 ,taught by the disastrous defeat of ,agincourt1--where ten thousand men1 of whom eight thousand were of the nobility1 had fallen1 owing to the precision and the celerity of the fire of the ,english archers1--,charles ,,vii4 instituted in ,france the franc archer 7,fig4 #eh71 who wore the salade and the jacket or brigandine1 and carried the dagger1 the sword1 the bow1 the quiver or crossbow garnie4 ,these archers were exempt from all taxes or imposts2 their equipments were declared not distrainable for debts1 and during war they received pay at the rate of four livres a month4 ,the salade1 a part of armour which has remained particularly celebrated1 and the name of which has been applied subsequently to helmets of divers forms1 is pre-eminently the helmet of the epoch of ,charles ,,vii4 ,at first it was a head-dress for war1 composed of a simple cap 7timbre71 that covered the top of the head1 with a pendent piece of metal of greater or less length at the back1 which sometimes was made for protecting the neck1 and ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--;,franc ,archers 7,fifteenth ,century71 from the ,painted ,hangings of the ,town of ,rheims4 sometimes to guard a portion of the shoulders4 ,towards the end of the fifteenth century there was added to the salade a small vizor1 that was gradually lengthened downwards to near the upper lip1 and in which a narrow opening was then made for the sight4 ,in the reign of ,louis ,,xii4 the salade received a chin-piece1 the lower part of which was a gorget1 that surrounded and protected the neck4 ,the top of the cuirass had a cord1 to which was attached the salade2 and this helmet1 so different to the primitive salade1 continued to bear the same name 7,fig4 #ei74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,knights in complete ,armour1 with the ,salade4 7,end of ,fifteenth ,century47 ,a ,single ,combat1 taken from 8,the ,triumph of ,maximilian10 by ,burgmayer1 after a drawing by ,albert ,drer4 ,the brigandine1 recalling the early armour abandoned for the coat of mail1 was composed of small plates of steel or iron arranged on a strong piece of leather1 and stitched or fixed with wire1 in the form of the scales of a fish4 ,a decree of ,peter ,,ii41 ,duke of ,brittany1 issued in #adej1 ordered the nobles to equip themselves as archers1 or in brigandine1 if they knew how to use arrows2 but otherwise1 to be provided with guisarmes1 with good salades1 and leg-armour2 each noble was to be attended by one coustillier1 and to have two good horses4 ,the guisarme was a sort of two-edged and pointed javelin4 ,the coustillier was a foot-soldier1 or a horseman1 whose duty it was to act as a servant to the nobleman1 and to carry the coustille1 a long1 slender sword1 triangular or square1 apparently resembling the foil in our fencing-rooms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,armour ornamented with ,lions1 supposed to be that of ,louis ,,xii4 7,museum of ,artillery1 ,paris47 ,about this period ,french noblemen displayed much magnificence in the adornment of the chanfrein of their horses4 ,for instance1 we know that at the siege of ,harfleur1 in #addi1 the charger of the ,count de ,saint-,pol had on its head a massive gold chanfrein1 of the most delicate work1 valued at not less than twenty thousand crowns4 ,in the same year1 at the siege of ,bayonne1 the ,count de ,foix entered the conquered city mounted on a horse whose chanfrein of polished steel was enriched with gold and precious stones to the value of fifteen thousand gold crowns4 ,half a century later--that is1 in the reign of ,charles ,,viii4 and that of ,louis ,,xii4--chargers wore1 besides the chanfrein1 the manefaire1 protecting the neck1 the poitrail1 the croupire1 the flancois1 which respectively covered the chest1 the back1 and the flanks of the horse2 and to these was added another piece of armour placed under the tail4 ,of the date of ,louis ,,xii41 we still see embossed suits of armour ornamented with fluting1 sometimes blended with beautiful engraved work executed in the metal by the use of aquafortis1 or subjects in relievo produced by embossing3 ornamentation of this nature elevated the equipments of the warrior to real works of art 7,fig4 #fj74 ,louis ,,xii4 was the first to admit ,greek mercenaries into his army4 ,these were named stradiots2 they tendered their military services equally to both ,turks and ,christians4 ,the armour of these troops consisted of a cuirass with sleeves and gauntlets in mail1 and over this a jacket2 on their head a vizorless helmet was worn4 ,the stradiots were armed with a large sword1 called a braquemart1 much resembling the ,turkish sword1 but with a cross-handle2 the sword and its scabbard were ornamented with ,grecian devices4 ,they carried in addition several small arms at the saddle-bow1 and also a zagaye1 a very long lance1 tipped at both extremities with iron4 ,at this period also was introduced the pertuisane1#h the blade of which1 wider than that of the lance1 formed a crescent immediately above the handle4 ,there were at that time two kinds of cross-bows--one for discharging bolts1 the other for bullets4 ,the bow was slung by means of a moulinet1 a kind of hand-winch4 ,embossed and fluted armour was not the only kind used in ,france and in ,italy at the end of the fifteenth and the commencement of the following century4 ,the monuments in the former country of the time of ,louis ,,xii41 and on the other side of the ,alps1 show how prevalent was a peculiar description of plain armour1 whereof the cuirass1 which was longer than that of the embossed armour1 had a rib or raised line in the middle4 ,this rib1 which completely altered the character of the cuirass1 in that it served to turn aside the thrust of the lance1 became increasingly distinctive as the seventeenth century drew near4 ,in the reign of ,francis ,i4 embossed and ribbed armour were equally ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--;,damaskeened ,armour of the end of the ,sixteenth ,century4 7,portrait of ,franois1 ,duc d',alenon1 from ,montfaucon's 8,la ,monarchie ,franoise407 used 7,fig4 #fa74 ,in the ,museum of ,artillery1 in ,paris1 is preserved the armour which that king wore at the battle of ,pavia4 ,the body is longer than in the cuirass of the preceding century1 the rib in the centre is more raised1 the gusset of the shoulder-piece is made of several movable plates1 and of large size4 ,the casque1 a generic name given since those times to all descriptions of head-armour1 assumed a comfortable and elegant shape1 which was maintained as long as the use of armour continued4 ,another cuirass of the same date1 still longer in the body1 was made to turn up towards the lower extremity1 and then took an inward bend to fit the hip4 ,it was made with movable plates overlapping from below2 this allowed the wearer to stoop1 which it was almost impossible to do when the breast-piece and the back-piece were in one4 ,sometimes these plates were only three or four in number over the stomach1 and the others over the breast were only represented1 not genuine plates4 ,the armour called clisse1 or crevisse1 worn at a certain period by the halberdiers1 must not be passed over2 it received this name because the cuirass was made of horizontal plates 7clisses71 three or four inches in width1 which1 though they covered the entire body1 did not in any way impede its movements4 ,we must1 however1 refer to a peculiarity in this armour which prevented its general adoption2 it was that as the movement or 8play0 of the clisses made it convenient to wear1 so from this flexibility it was found that the plates frequently became disconnected1 and thus left a part of the body defenceless4 ,in making the clisses to overlap from below1 regard was had to the usual direction of a sword-cut or dagger-thrust1 which usually came from below2 but there was all the more danger from blows of the martel#i and battle-axe1 the stroke of which weapon was directed downwards4 ,bronzed armour came in about the middle of the sixteenth century1 and was somewhat commonly worn in #aeeh2 it was introduced on account of its being far more easily kept clean than polished steel4 ,for the same reason black armour was tried1 but the engravings and chasings1 the gildings and damaskeenings were more effective on the greenish ground2 consequently black varnish was given up in favour of bronze4 ,at the end of the sixteenth century1 and during the long civil wars which desolated ,france1 armour took a variety of shapes1 and as regards ornamentation at least1 there was generally to be seen a strange medley of the style of the previous century with that of the period 7,fig4 #fa74 ,however1 the decline of the use of armour1 which became in a measure inevitable1 was at hand4 ,de la ,noue1 an eminent ,huguenot officer of the time of ,charles ,,ix41 says1 in his 8,discours ,militaires0--8,the penetrating power of pikes and arquebuses has very naturally led to the adoption of armour stronger and more capable of great resistance than formerly4 ,it is now so heavy that one is laden with anvils rather than protected by armour4 ,our men-at-arms and light cavalry in ,henry ,,ii4's time presented a much finer appearance1 with their helmets1 their brassarts1 tassets1#aj and the morion1#aa carrying the lance with a flag2 their armour was not so heavy but that a strong man was able to support its weight for twenty-four hours2 but those of the present day are so ponderous that a young knight of thirty has his shoulders quite crippled40 ,thus1 in endeavouring to make the resistance of armour keep pace with the improvement in new warlike engines1 they rendered it useless2 because the weight was intolerable1 especially in warm weather1 during long marches1 or in lengthened combats4 ,having vainly tried to make suits of armour invulnerable1 men began to leave off wearing such portions as were of minor importance1 which by degrees were entirely discontinued4 ,under ,louis ,,xiii4 we see armour undergoing further modifications1 but of fashion rather than of utility3 finally1 there is every reason to think that the magnificent armour presented by the ,republic of ,venice to ,louis ,,xiv41 in #affh1 and which is now to be seen in the ,museum of ,artillery in ,paris1 was one of the latest sets made in ,europe4 ,let us now retrace our steps to examine a series of arms1 the gradual adoption of which was destined to completely change the art of warfare4 ,it is now the almost universal opinion that the invention of gunpowder1--assumed to have been discovered in #abef1 or at all events its application to artillery1 which first dates from #abhj1--;is due to ,berthold ,schwartz1 an ,augustin friar1 born at ,fribourg4 ,some writers1 however1 make these dates a century later1 and affirm that powder and cannons were first known from #accj to #achj4 ,nevertheless1 the employment of artillery only became general during the wars of ,charles-,quint and of ,francis ,i41 that is1 towards #aecj1 or two centuries after its invention4 ,but perhaps in place of giving1 as we have done1 the unconditional acceptation to the word artillery which it now has1 we ought perhaps to have said artillery used with gunpowder2 for long before the invention of gunpowder the word artillery was employed when speaking of all machines or engines of war 7,fig4 #fb74 ,thus in the middle of the thirteenth century we find among the personnel of the artillery a grand master of the crossbow men1 masters of the engines1 of the cannoniers 7the word cannon was even then applied to the tube forming one of the principal portions of an engine for hurling projectiles71 and in #abia we see ,philip the ,fair appointing a grand master of the artillery of the ,louvre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--;,engine for hurling ,stones2 taken from a ,miniature of the ,chevalier au ,cygne4 7,bibl4 ,imp4 de ,paris1 ,no4 #cdj1 ,s4 ,e47 ,in order to follow methodically the progress of the manufacture of arms such as we shall call novel1 we will1 in the first place1 treat separately of the engines of large calibre which were first employed1 and then of portable arms4 ,the earliest allusion to cannons in ,france is found in #acch1 in an account of the treasurer of war1 wherein we read3--8,to ,henri de ,vaumechon1 for buying powder and other necessaries for cannons10 which had been used at the siege of ,puy-,guilhem1 in ,prigord4 ,in ,froissart1 we next find that1 in #acdj1 the inhabitants of ,quesnoy1 when repelling the attack of the ,french1 made use of bombards and cannon which hurled huge bolts at the besiegers4 ,but the statement of ,villani1 that the ,english were indebted to the employment of artillery for the victory of ,crcy1 in #acdf1 must be treated as a pure invention1 because it is certain that the firearms which may have been in use at that time were in no way suited to field warfare2 and that they were only employed with the older engines in the attack and defence of fortresses4 ,not only did their cumbrous weight and the rude construction of their carriages render them extremely difficult of transport1 but1 intended as they were to be employed as catapults1 they were generally constructed for hurling heavy projectiles1 by causing these to describe a curved line1 like modern shells2 and their shape is1 in fact1 much more like that of our mortars than of cannon 7,fig4 #fc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--;,bombards on fixed and rolling carriages4 7,from the ,,mss4 #hea and #heb1 ,bibl4 ,imp4 de ,paris47 8,it would seem10 says ,m4 de ,saulcy1 8that1 in loading them1 hollow cylinders 7manchons71 or movable chambers1 were used1 in which the charge was previously laid2 and these fitted1 by means of a wedge1 into the body of the piece4 ,sometimes these cylinders were at the side1 and formed a right angle with the axis of the piece1 but usually they fitted into the breech1 of which they formed a prolongation40 ,the name bombards1 which we have just used1 and which is derived1 as we may conclude1 from the ,greek bombos 7noise71 was the first employed for designating cannon2 but these engines were so imperfect in principle1 and so feeble in power1 that catapults1 which had played so signal a part in sieges during the ,middle ,ages1 were used in preference when very heavy projectiles had to be hurled 7,fig4 #fd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,mangonneau2 an ,engine of ,war of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,miniature in the ,,ms4 #g1bci1 ,bibl4 ,imp4 of ,paris47 ,originally the piece rested1 as it were1 fixedly on a massive support2 but soon the means of sighting had to be considered2 thus we see depicted in early manuscripts pieces that could be moved up and down by means of trunnions2 or which were elevated or depressed for firing by a sort of tail or long projection behind the tube2 at other times the muzzle of the cannon is sustained by a fork more or less buried in the ground4 ,this bombard1 attached to a platform on wheels1 received the denomination of cerbotana ambulatoria2 this last word conveying the idea of the movability of the engine4 ,we have seen that projectiles were of stone1 but there is no doubt that from the fourteenth century they were also made of metal2 that was nothing new1 for ancient engines of war1 including the sling1 threw leaden balls and masses of red-hot iron4 ,no doubt it was with the object of giving the largest size possible to projectiles of artillery by means of powder that stone was used2 which1 in the state of the art at that time1 was much better adapted than metal for large balls4 ,christine of ,pisa1 who wrote in the time of ,charles ,,vi4 the 8,livre des ,faits d',armes et de ,chevalrie10 has left us a collection of very interesting details of the condition of artillery used with powder1 which1 as early as the fifteenth century1 had become much more extended than would be easily believed2 moreover1 in the descriptions this author gives of armaments1 or of narratives of battles1 we almost always still see catapults1 the large cross-bows1 c41 appearing by the side of cannon2 a certain proof that the use of powder found its equivalent in more than one instance in the ancient means of the propulsion of projectiles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--;,earliest ,models of ,cannon4 ,in the ,tower of ,london4 ,valturio1 an ,italian writer1 whose treatise on military art was first printed in #adgb1 has described and drawn all the engines of war then in use4 ,cannons are not forgotten4 ,we observe that the greater number of these pieces have no longer any box forming a movable chamber2 this implies an important advance in the art of making them2 but1 on the other hand1 these cannons1 bound with cords to a block of wood1 or resting on platforms1 must have been very difficult to move4 ,at this period pieces of the largest calibre1 which projected enormous balls of stone1 were more commonly called bombards2 mortars1 the very short cannons throwing heated projectiles2 cannons1 pieces of medium calibre carrying iron projectiles 7,fig4 #fe72 culverins1 the long pieces loaded with leaden balls1 which1 as well as the powder1 were rammed in with an iron rod2 hand-cannons1 or btons feu 7,fig4 #ff71 were in a manner portable1 for if they were handled by one man1 it was never without his having recourse to another for firing them4 ,this last-named term1 btons feu1 like that of cannon1 existed before the invention of gunpowder4 ,as swords and lances had often been designated under the generic name of btons1 it followed that the name which implied arms in general should also be applied to the earliest portable firearms4 ,in ancient royal ordinances we even see the term gros btons used to designate large pieces of artillery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--;,hand ,cannon 7or ,bton feu71 taken from a piece of ,tapestry belonging to the ,church of ,notre ,dame de ,nantilly1 ,saumur4 ,according to ,m4 de ,saulcy1 the most important improvement ever made in artillery is certainly that which consisted in placing a gun with trunnions on a carriage flasques--upright beams of wood1 between which the gun can oscillate1 and united by cross-pieces2 this carriage was mounted on wheels1 and admitted of the gun being inclined by the simple use of a wedge of wood placed under the breech4 ,but1 strangely enough1 it is most difficult to state precisely the date of this improvement4 ,nevertheless1 circumstances tend to the belief that it was between #adgf and #adid--that is1 during the reigns of ,louis ,,xi4 and of ,charles ,,viii4--that they succeeded in making pieces of all calibres carrying iron shot1 and also in solidly fixing the trunnions1 which not only supported the weight1 but also resisted the recoil of the cannon4 ,the carriages for these guns were mounted on wheels4 ,from this period the art of fortifying towns underwent a complete revolution1 which suddenly changed the whole system4 ,when1 in #adid1 ,charles ,,viii4 entered ,italy to conquer the kingdom of ,naples1 the ,french artillery produced universal admiration4 ,the ,italians had only iron guns1 drawn by bullocks in rear of the army1 and more for appearance than for use4 ,after the first discharge it was some hours before the gun was ready for a second4 ,the ,french had lighter cannon of bronze1 drawn by horses1 and moved with so much order that their transport hardly delayed the march of the army2 they planted their batteries with incredible promptitude1 considering the period1 and the rounds were as quickly delivered as they were well aimed4 ,cotemporaneous ,italian writers say that the ,french used almost exclusively iron shot1 and that the guns1 both of large and small calibre1 were admirably balanced on their carriages4 ,yet no single specimen1 or even a drawing1 of this remarkable artillery has been handed down to us4 ,the ,museum of ,artillery does1 indeed1 possess one small piece1 on which1 between the trunnions and the breech1 is this inscription3--8,presented by ,charles ,,viii4 to ,bartemi1 ,lord of ,pins1 captain of the bands of artillery1 in #adij40 ,this cannon presents nothing remarkable in its construction1 for we already recognise the form1 one that has scarcely varied since then1 and which1 it seems1 was definitely adopted under ,louis ,,xii4 and ,francis ,i4 ,of this period we still have two magnificent bronze cannons4 ,they were found at ,algiers in #ahcj2 the porcupine1 the salamander1 and the fleur-de-lys that ornament them1 made their origin known4 ,artillery1 which in the reign of ,charles ,,viii4 had become an important arm1 and had1 besides1 the prestige of success in ,italy1 became a subject to which particular attention was given in succeeding reigns4 ,but1 we again say1 the true principles of manufacture and mounting were already well ascertained1 and only improvements in matters of detail remained to be discovered4 ,the ,armoury ,real of ,madrid contains a curious dragonneau1#ab cast at ,lige in #aejc1 which figured in the siege of ,santander in #aeaa 7,fig4 #fg74 ,the carriage1 consisting of a single piece of carved oak1 is by its delicacy and finish worthy of sustaining this masterpiece of bronze-work1 which presents a double interest1 first as regards art1 and then on account of the rapid advance already made in firearms2 for this dragonneau has a double barrel1 and is loaded at the breech4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,double-barrelled ,dragonneau4 ,armoury ,real of ,madrid4 ,having arrived at this point1 let us again retrace our steps1 in order to note1 and rapidly follow from its origin1 the progress of firearms4 ,the earliest of these used in the middle of the fourteenth century were called hand-cannon1 and were merely formed of an iron tube pierced with a vent1 without stock or lock4 ,a manuscript of that period represents a warrior who1 standing on one of those little movable towers then forming part of the siege matriel1 is shooting a stone with a gun of this description4 ,the piece is resting on the parapet4 ,by the side a sling is placed with its stone--a circumstance which indicates the relative power of the hand-cannon1 as no doubt each engine was to be used alternately4 ,in another place is a horseman holding a small gun with a prolongation2 the muzzle is supported by a prong fixed on the pommel of the saddle4 ,thus it was impossible for him to take aim1 and he applied the fire with his hand4 ,a little later1 to prevent the effect of the recoil1 there was added below the barrel1 a little short of the centre1 a sort of hook1 intended to serve the purpose of checking the piece4 ,when fired1 it was supported on a fork or on a wall2 hence the name of arquebuse croc1 which took the place of that of canon main4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--;,arquebusier4 ,drawn and ,engraved by ,j4 ,amman4 ,the arquebuse croc sometimes weighed from fifty to sixty pounds1 measured from five to six feet in length1 and in principle was chiefly adapted for firing from a wall2 it was lightened a little that it might be used by foot-soldiers1 who1 however1 never fired it without a fixed or a movable rest4 ,the inconvenience of applying fire with the hand1 which1 moreover1 prevented the right direction of the missile1 was soon partially superseded by adapting to the barrel a stock to fire from the shoulder1 and a lock for a match1 called a serpentin1 which had only to be let down to ignite the powder at the touch-hole4 ,this was the matchlock arquebus still used by certain ,eastern nations in our time1 and which secured victory to the ,spaniards at the battle of ,pavia4 ,although the matchlock arquebus1 which was made lighter1 and was then called mousquet1 continued to be the usual arm of infantry until the time of ,louis ,,xiii41 many serious objections to the use of the serpentin continued4 ,it compelled the soldier always to have a lighted match1 or some means of striking a light4 ,besides1 for nearly each shot it was necessary so to regulate the match that the end of it1 which was placed in the head of the serpentin 7lock71 should come exactly into the priming-pan2 then the priming-pan had to be opened2 these operations were1 so to speak1 impossible for mounted men1 who at the same time had to manage their horses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--;,arquebus with ,wheel and ,match4 ,about #aeag the ,germans invented the screw-plate called rouet1--wheel-lock 7,fig4 #fi74 ,to the ,spaniards is due the merit of the improvement that followed1 the type of which is still in a measure perpetuated in our percussion guns2 which1 in their turn1 have just been replaced by the needle-gun4 ,the ,spanish screw-plate1 often called the miquelet screw-plate1 had on the outside a spring1 which pressed1 at the extremity of its movable limb1 on one of the catches of the hammer2 when the gun was cocked the other catch pressed against a pin which projected from the inside and traversed the screw-plate2 this pin could be removed1 and then the spring acted on the hammer1 which was no longer held back2 the flint 7for at that time a flint was fitted to the gun7 struck upon a ribbed plate of steel forming part of the cover of the priming-pan1 the action of the flint on the plate produced the fire4 ,among the arms in use during the sixteenth century was one called petrinal or poitrinal 7petronel71 on account of the bent stock1 which rested on the chest4 ,this short and heavy arquebus1 which could only throw balls1 but of a very large size1 to a short distance1 was usually suspended from the shoulder by a strap or a broad cross-belt4 ,light troops were armed with these guns1 and took the name of carabins2 from this the weapon was next called carabine--a designation which since then has received quite another meaning4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--;,battle-axe and ,pistol of the #afth ,century4 7,museum of ,artillery1 ,paris47 ,then followed the pistoles and the pistolets1 thus named1 it is said1 because they were invented at ,pistoia2 but1 with other etymologists1 we can also believe that they owed the name to the fact of their bore being of equal diameter with that of the pistole1 a coin of the time4 ,the earliest pistols were made with wheels 7 rouet71 and the barrel did not measure more than a foot in length4 ,subsequently they varied in shape and in use2 some were made which fired several shots in succession1 and in other cases they attempted to combine a pistol with the dagger or the battle-axe4 7,fig4 #gj1 c47 ,this is a notably fine specimen4 ,we must not forget to note1 in what may be called les armes de luxe1 the joint application of the match-holder and the wheel to highly-finished arms1 this combination being available4 ,the screw-plate miquelet1 improved by ,french experiments1 led to the mechanism called flint-lock 7fusil74 ,there were also then pistols and arquebuses with flint-locks1 as formerly there had been pistols and arquebuses with wheels4 ,subsequently the explanatory became the absolute term1 and the entire weapon was known as fusil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--;,banner of the ,sword-cutlers of ,angers4 ,,carriages ,,and ,,saddlery4 ,horsemanship among the ,ancients4--,the ,riding-horse and the ,carriage-horse4--,chariots armed with ,scythes4--,vehicles of the ,romans1 the ,gauls1 and the ,franks3 the ,carruca1 the ,petoritum1 the ,cisium1 the ,plaustrum1 the ,basterna1 the ,carpentum4--,different kinds of ,saddle-horses in the ,days of ,chivalry4--,the ,spur a distinctive ,sign of ,nobility3 its ,origin4--,the ,saddle1 its ,origin and its ,modifications4--,the ,tilter4--,carriages4--,the ,mules of ,magistrates4--,corporations of ,saddlers and ,harness-makers1 ,lorimers1 ,coachmakers1 ,chapuiseurs1 ,blazonniers1 and ,saddle-coverers4 ,,the horse has been described by ,buffon as 8the noblest conquest made by man40 ,historians1 both1 sacred and profane1 inform us that the conquest dates from the most remote ages4 ,in the ,book of ,job we have this magnificent description3--8,then the ,lord said1 ,hast thou given the horse strength8 hast thou clothed his neck with thunder8 ,canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper8 the glory of his nostrils is terrible4 ,he paweth in the valley1 and rejoiceth in his strength3 he goeth on to meet the armed men4 ,he mocketh at fear1 and is not affrighted2 neither turneth he back from the sword4 ,the quiver rattleth against him1 the glittering spear and the shield4 ,he swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage2 neither believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet4 ,he saith among the trumpets1 ,ha1 ha2 and he smelleth the battle afar off40 ,the sacred writer is here referring expressly to the fiery animal trained for war1 and obedient to the master who has trained him4 ,xenophon1 in his 8,treatise on ,horsemanship0 and his 8,instructor of ,cavalry10 and ,diodorus in his 8,histories10 are among the ,greeks who adduce the most numerous testimonies to the honour in which equestrian exercises were held4 ,among the ,latins1 ,virgil1 in reference to the funereal games celebrated by ,acestes in honour of ,anchises1 tells us that the ,roman youth were taught equestrian art as practised by the ,trojans4 ,the horse and chariot races1 which took place at the solemn games in ,greece1 have always been justly celebrated2 as were those which continued in ,rome and in all the great cities of the ,roman world until the fifth or sixth century4 ,we are disposed to believe that the use of the saddle-horse and the carriage-horse was introduced about the same time4 ,but it seems that chariots were rarely mounted by any but chiefs1 who fought from that ambulatory elevation while squires managed the horses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,the ,carruca1 or ,pleasure-,carriage1 drawn by a ,pair of ,horses1 dating from the ,fifth to the ,tenth ,century4 7,taken from a ,,ms4 of the ,ninth ,century1 in the ,royal ,library at ,brussels47 ,to ,cyrus the ,great is ascribed the first idea of arming chariots with scythes1 which cut to pieces in every direction those who opposed the progress of the vehicle1 or who were thrown down by the violence of the shock4 ,the same war-carriages were found among the ,gauls2 for a king named ,bituitus1 having been taken prisoner by the ,romans1 appeared in his chariot armed with scythes in the triumphal procession of the general who had conquered him4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--;,cart drawn by ,oxen1 end of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,taken from the 8,chroniques de ,hainault10 ,,ms4 in the ,royal ,library at ,brussels47 ,riding on horseback was not only practised1 but was carried to the highest degree of perfection1 among the nations of antiquity2 and the use of chariots was1 in former times1 almost general in war and on certain state occasions4 ,the ,romans1 and in imitation of them the ,gauls who prided themselves on being skilful carriage-builders1 had several sorts of wheeled vehicles4 ,those adopted by the ,romans and the ,gauls1 but discountenanced by the ,franks1 who preferred to ride on horseback1 were the carruca1 or carruque1 with two wheels and a pair of horses 7,fig4 #gb71 richly ornamented with gold1 silver1 and ivory2 the pilentum1 a four-wheel carriage with a cloth canopy2 the petoritum1 an open carriage suitable for rapid travelling2 the cisium1 a basket-carriage drawn by mules1 and used for long journeys2 and finally1 various carts--the plaustrum1 the serracum1 the benne1 the camuli 7trucks71 c4 ,these last1 which were chiefly employed as field-carts1 continued in use even after pleasure-carriages had entirely disappeared4 ,there remained1 however1 independent of mule-litters1 the basterna and carpentum1 state-carriages of the ,merovingian period1 but only queens and ladies of high rank1 who were unequal to long journeys on horseback1 indulged in such means of locomotion1 while men--even kings and high personages--would have blushed to be conveyed like 8holy relics10 as picturesquely expressed by one of ,charlemagne's courtiers2 but certainly not at the period of the 8lazy kings10 when1 as ,boileau has well said1-- 8,in ,paris1 four oxen1 in pace soft and slow1 ,drew the indolent monarch1 when airing he'd go40 8,chivalry10 wrote ,m4 le ,marquis de ,varenne1 8the exercises of which were the image of war1 rendered horsemanship a new art always indispensable in the education of the nobility2 and chevalier soon became synonymous with a man of good birth40 8,the ,book of ,facts10 by the 8,bon ,chevalier ,messire ,jean le ,maingre1 called ,baucicaut1 ,marshal of ,france10 written in the beginning of the fifteenth century1 enumerates the exercises which a youth aspiring to the title of a gentleman had to undergo3--8,they endeavoured to leap 7sailler7 upon a charger1 fully armed2 item1 leaped1 without placing the foot in the stirrup1 on a charger in all its armour2 item1 leaped from the ground a-straddle on to the shoulders of a tall man on a large horse1 seizing the man by the sleeve with one hand1 without other assistance2 item1 placing one hand on the saddle-bow of a large charger1 and the other near the ears1 taking him by the mane1 and from the level ground jumping to the other side 7ct7 of the charger40 ,the ,chevalier ,bayard1 while yet page to the ,duke of ,savoy1 and only seventeen years of age1 performed1 as his historian relates1 wonders in the meadows of ,ainay1 at ,lyons1 before ,king ,charles ,,viii41 8in leaping on his charger10 and by his management of it creating a favourable impression of his merits4 ,this will suffice to show the estimation in which horsemanship was held4 ,no one was regarded as a valiant knight until he had proved his prowess in jousts and tournaments 7,fig4 #gd7 in the rank of squire4 ,although his functions were essentially those of serving1 a squire1 who ranked higher than a page1 was to the knight rather an auxiliary and a companion than a servant4 ,it was his duty to carry the arms of the knight1 to take charge of his table1 his house1 and his horses4 ,on the field of battle he remained in his rear1 ready to defend him1 to lift him up if he were overthrown1 and to provide him1 when necessary1 with another horse or other arms4 ,he guarded the prisoners captured by the knight1 and occasionally fought for him at his side4 ,the principal sign distinguishing knights from squires consisted in the material of which their spurs were made--of gold for the former1 of silver for the latter4 ,it is well known that1 at the disastrous battle of ,courtray1 the ,flemings collected after the action1 from the slain1 four thousand pairs of gold spurs2 consequently1 four thousand knights of the army of ,philip the ,fair had fallen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--;,a ,knight entering the ,lists4 7,from a ,miniature in the 8,tournois du ,roi ,ren407 ,in order to win his spurs 7of gold7--an expression become proverbial--it was indispensable that one who aspired to the honour should perform some valiant deed1 proving him worthy of being 8dubbed10 or armed as a knight4 ,the ceremony of admission commenced by presenting the spurs2 and whosoever conferred the order of chivalry1 were he king or prince1 condescended to put on and fasten the spurs for the recipient4 ,in pursuance of the same principle1 when a knight1 having committed a fault or any cowardly act1 had incurred blame or correction1 it was by deprivation of1 or by changing his spurs1 that his degradation commenced4 ,for a slight offence a herald substituted silver spurs for those of gold1 which lowered a knight to the grade of squire4 ,but in a case of 8forfeiture10 as it was termed1 an executioner or a cook cut off the straps of his spurs1 or they were struck off on a dunghill with an axe3 infamy was the future portion of him who had been subjected to that public disgrace4 ,the privilege of wearing spurs was regarded as a mark of independence and authority2 so that when a noble tendered faith and homage to his sovereign1 he was obliged to take off his spurs in token of vassalage4 ,in #haf1 ere chivalry had been instituted1 an assembly of lords and bishops prohibited ecclesiastics from adopting the profane fashion of wearing spurs then prevailing among the higher classes of the clergy4 ,the use of the spur appears to date from the most ancient times4 ,the origin of the word has been much disputed4 ,from the time of ,louis le ,dbonnaire it was called spuors1 which has become sporen in ,germany1 sperane in ,italian1 spur in ,english1 peron in ,french4 ,the ,latins called it calcar 7which originally signified cock's spur71 doubtless from the form first given to the spur4 ,that form has strangely varied during centuries4 ,the oldest known shape is that of the spur found in the tomb of ,queen ,brunehaut1 who died in #fac1 and which is simply like a skewer4 ,this seems to have long continued to be the form2 but1 from the commencement of the thirteenth to the end of the sixteenth century1 the spur is seen in the form of a rose1 or of a star with a turning rowel1 and was mostly fashioned in a very rich and delicate manner4 ,at the period when horses were clad in steel or leather1 the spurs were necessarily very long1 in order to reach the animal's flanks 7,figs4 #ge and #gf74 ,the spurs of ,godfrey of ,bouillon1 which have been preserved 7their authenticity is more or less questionable71 are in that style4 ,in the reign of ,charles ,,vii4 the young nobles wore1 rather for show than for use1 spurs the rowel of which was as large as the hand1 and fixed at the end of a metal stem half a foot long4 ,if1 therefore1 from time immemorial every mounted horse 8felt the spur10 there was at least a period when every sort of spur could not be indiscriminately applied to the flanks of each individual of the equine race4 8,there are10 says ,brunetto ,latini1 a writer of the thirteenth century1 in his 8,treasury of all ,things0--a sort of encyclopdia of the age--8there are horses of several kinds3 chargers1 or tall horses1 for the combat1 whence the expression1 #8mounting the high horse2' others1 for gentle exercise1 use palfreys1 which were also called amblers and hackneys2 others employ pack-horses1 courtants 7cropped horses71 to carry a load 7somme740 ,somme here signifies a burden1 and this1 which we now call baggage1 consisted of spare arms and hauberk1 which a knight was careful to take with him when he went to the wars4 ,mares and bt-horses 7horses carrying the bt1 or load7 were reserved for agriculture and other field-purposes2 and it was clearly on that account that a knight was not allowed to ride them4 ,to make a knight ride upon a mare was1 like the loss of his spurs1 one of the most degrading punishments that could be inflicted on him1 and thenceforth 8any one who regarded his own honour would no more have touched that disgraced knight than a shaven idiot 7leper740 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--;,german ,spur4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--;,italian ,spur4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--;,a ,knight armed and mounted for ,war4 7,museum of ,artillery1 ,paris47 ,the horses of ,french knights were without ears or mane2 those of the ,germans without tails4 ,according to ,carrion-,nisas1 the armour of the horse1 and the style in which it was caparisoned1 were the cause of these mutilations4 ,we have elsewhere remarked that if the men were cased in steel their horses were not less heavily cuirassed 7,fig4 #gg74 ,the entire armour and appointments of a horse were called the harness2 the plates of steel or leather 7for leather also was often used7 were called bardes4 ,we find enumerated1 not only the articles of which the harness consisted--chanfrein1 nasal1 flancois1 c4--but examples are cited to denote the sumptuousness of this equipment of the horse4 ,we need not1 however1 dwell longer here on this subject1 that refers more properly to the manufacture of arms2 but a few words must be said regarding the saddle1 which is1 if we may use the expression1 an implement of horsemanship1 and not a part of the armour4 ,the use of saddles seems to have been unknown in early times1 and never to have been introduced among certain nations which1 by the way1 were most famous in the art of training the horse and making him serviceable4 ,the ,thessalonians and the ,numidians rode on the bare back1 without saddle or stirrups2 seated firmly on the horse simply by the pressure of the knees and the calf of the legs2 a position which is still that of the boldest riders in the ,east and in ,africa4 ,hippocrates has ascribed the common and severe diseases of the hips and legs which afflicted the ,scythians to the rider's want of support on horseback4 ,galen makes the same remark regarding the ,roman legions1 who only introduced the use of a saddle about the year #cdj of the ,christian era4 ,the ,gauls and ,franks used neither saddles nor stirrups2 but when steel armour was adopted1 it would have been impossible for knights to preserve an equilibrium without the aid of a saddle1 or to sustain the slightest shock to which they were exposed1 as armour rendered them in a manner rigid1 or with little flexibility on their large horses4 ,they therefore had recourse to a high1 or rather a deep1 saddle1 closely adhering to the thighs and loins1 with large stirrups serving as supports to the feet4 ,the several parts of the armour being splendidly ornamented1 it followed that the saddles1 which also were exposed to view1 were no more neglected than other ornaments of the animal4 ,engraved and chased1 they were also gilt and painted1 and thus1 with the shield1 helped to distinguish1 by the 8devices0 they bore1 the armed warrior completely cased in his steel covering 7,figs4 #gh to #ha74 ,as to stirrups1 of which there certainly is no trace among the ,greeks or the ,romans1 it may be said they were coeval with the invention of saddles4 ,they made their appearance in the earliest days of the ,merovingian dynasty2 and if we accept the ,german etymology which the learned have offered 7streben1 to support one's self71 the name and the object was introduced by the ,franks into ,gaul4 ,however that may be1 they were no longer dispensed with1 especially in war1 and when the weight of armour rendered their use necessary4 ,they were of course very large1 very massive1 and very clumsy in the days of chivalry4 ,when they diminished in size and weight they were wrought with more care1 and became objects of art1 charged with ingenious ornaments1 and embellished with engraving1 chasing1 and gilding4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #gh and #gi4--,tournament ,saddles1 ornamented with ,paintings1 taken from the ,armoury ,real1 ,madrid4 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,communicated by ,m4 ,ach4 ,jubinal47 ,in accordance with the opinion held by ,m4 de la ,varenne1 we have already ascribed the disuse of private carriages to the contempt with which the ,franks regarded a mode of conveyance deemed by them to be effeminate4 ,but1 following the same author1 we must observe that a reason might also be discovered in the wretched condition into which1 after the decline of the ,romans1 those magnificent roads formed by them in all their conquered provinces had fallen4 ,in towns1 moreover1 the streets1 narrow1 crooked1 and with no regular direction1 were very frequently so many holes and quagmires4 ,philip ,augustus ,i4 had some of the streets of ,paris paved in that lutce#ac which already1 at the time of the ,roman conquest1 had deserved the significant epithet of miry4 ,the princes and the nobles who1 as ,molire humorously makes ,mascarilla say1 feared 8to leave the impression of their shoes in mud10 and could not without difficulty drive about the towns in carriages1 consequently had recourse to the horse or the mule4 ,the ladies made use of them also2 but very frequently1 if not carried in litters1 they rode on a pillion behind the horseman4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--,the ,caparison of the ,horse of ,isabel the ,catholic4 7,communicated by ,m4 ,ach4 ,jubinal47 ,in the thirteenth century chariots reappeared2 but the fashion did not long prevail1 for ,philip the ,fair discouraged them1 in one of the clauses of his sumptuary ordinance of #abid1 by declaring that 8no citizen may have a chariot40 ,the litter continued to be held in repute for processions2 but queens frequently rode on horseback4 ,isabel of ,bavaria rode on a beautiful palfrey1 with her ladies and her maids also on horseback1 on the occasion of her entering ,paris to espouse ,charles ,,vi4 ,and when ,mary of ,england1 who went to be married to ,louis ,,xii41 made her entry into ,abbeville1 she also1 as ,robert de la ,marck relates1 was mounted on a palfrey1 as were most of her ladies1 8and the remainder in chariots2 and the king1 riding a large1 prancing bay horse1 came to receive his bride1 with all the gentlemen of his household and of his guard on horseback40 ,the meeting of ,henry ,,viii4 and ,francis ,i4 in the camp of the ,field of the ,cloth of ,gold1 presented the most beautiful display that had ever been seen of caparisoned horses1 decorated and furnished with unprecedented richness 7,fig4 #hb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4--,saddle-cloth4 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,charles ,v41 in consequence of frequent attacks of gout1 was soon compelled to renounce riding4 ,when he went into the country1 or on a journey1 he was generally followed by a litter and a chair4 ,mules bore the litter1 in which he could recline1 while bearers carried the chair1 which was ,illustration3 ,,entrance ,,of ,,the ,,queen ,,isabeau ,,of ,,bavaria ,,into ,,paris4 ,from a ,miniature in ,froissart's ,chronicles1 ,national ,library1 ,paris4 provided with a movable back2 its four uprights could be fitted with a sort of canopy of canvas or leather4 ,in #adeg the ambassadors of ,ladislaus ,v41 ,king of ,hungary1 presented to ,marie of ,anjou1 ,queen of ,france1 a chariot which excited the admiration of the whole court and the inhabitants of ,paris1 8because10 as the historian of the times says1 8it was branlant 7suspended71 and very rich40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4--;,henry ,,viii4 in the ,camp of the ,field of the ,cloth of ,gold 7#aebj74 ,from the ,bas-reliefs of the ,htel of the ,bourg ,herolde at ,rouen4 ,it is difficult to reconcile the inference to be drawn from the ordinance of ,philip the ,fair with the assertion of many historians1 that coaches first appeared in ,france only in the time of ,francis ,i4 ,the point is still doubtful4 ,nevertheless1 one may suppose historians to mean that coaches1 instead of being the only vehicles employed in ,paris in the time of ,francis ,i41 were but chariots of a grander and more gorgeous description than any seen before that time4 ,but we know for certain that1 during the ,middle ,ages1 the horse and the mule were generally ridden by everybody1 by citizens and by nobles1 by women and by men4 ,the horse-blocks fixed in the streets--too narrow evidently1 if not for one carriage1 at least for two to pass each other--and the rings fastened on doors sufficiently denote that it was so4 ,the mule was especially ridden by sedate men1 such as magistrates and doctors1 who had to 8amble0 through the towns4 8,to take care of the mule10 a proverbial expression signifying to wait impatiently1 is derived from the custom of lawyers' servants remaining in the court of the ,palace to take charge of the riding-horses or mules belonging to their masters4 ,according to ,sauval1 the two first coaches seen in ,paris1 and which called forth the wonder of the people1 belonged1 one to ,queen ,claude1 the first wife of ,francis ,i42 and the other to ,diana of ,poitiers1 his mistress4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,sedan-chair of ,charles ,v4 7,armoury ,real1 ,madrid47 ,the fashion was soon followed2 so much so1 that even where the sumptuary laws were still regarded as efficient1 we find parliament entreating ,charles ,,ix4 to prohibit the circulation of coaches 7coches7 through the town4 ,the magistrates continued1 until the commencement of the seventeenth century1 to attend at the courts of justice on their mules4 ,christopher of ,thou1 father of the celebrated historian1 and first ,president of ,parliament1 was the first who came thither in his carriage2 but only because he suffered from gout1 for his wife continued to ride on horseback1 seated pillion-fashion behind a servant4 ,henry ,,iv4 had only one carriage4 8,i shall be unable to go and see you10 he one day wrote to ,sully1 8for my wife uses my coach 7coche740 ,these coaches were neither elegant nor convenient4 ,for doors they were provided with leathern aprons1 which were drawn or opened for entrance or exit1 with similar curtains to protect against the rain or the sun4 ,marshal ,bassompierre1 in the time of ,louis ,,xiii41 had a glass coach made for him1 which was regarded as a real marvel3 it originated the impulse which has led to the productive era of modern coach-building4 ,formerly there were in ,paris1 as appears from numerous documents1 several corporations representing the saddler's trade4 ,first came the selliers-bourreliers1 and the selliers-lormiers-carrossiers4 ,the privileges of the first secured to them specially the manufacture of saddles and harness 7collars and other articles for draught74 ,the second made also carriages1 bridles1 reins1 c4 ,another very ancient corporation was that of the lormiers-peronniers--8artisans10 says the ,glossary of ,jean de ,garlande1 8whom the military nobles greatly patronised1 because they manufactured silvered and gilt spurs1 metal breastplates for their horses1 and well-executed bits40 ,there were also chapuissiers1 who made saddle-bows and pack-frames for the beasts of burden1 which were mostly manufactured of alder-wood4 ,the blazenniers and cuireurs then covered with leather the packs and the saddles prepared by the chapuissiers2 and1 finally1 saddle-painters were employed to ornament them1 either in compliance with fashion1 which has always been omnipotent in ,france1 or according to the laws of heraldry1 when intended for men of rank for purposes of state or war4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--;,banner of the ,corporation of the ,saddlers of ,tonnerre4 ,,gold ,,and ,,silver ,,work4 ,its ,antiquity4--,the ,trsor de ,guarrazar4--,the ,merovingian and ,carlovingian ,periods4--,ecclesiastical ,jewellery4--,pre-eminence of the ,byzantine ,goldsmiths4--,progress of the ,art consequent on the ,crusades4--,the ,gold and ,enamels of ,limoges4--,jewellery ceases to be restricted to ,purposes of ,religion4--,transparent ,enamels4--,jean of ,pisa1 ,agnolo of ,sienna1 ,ghiberti4--,great ,painters and ,sculptors from the ,goldsmiths' ,workshops4--,benvenuto ,cellini4--,the ,goldsmiths of ,paris4 ,in the remarks upon furniture1 we were compelled to trespass on the domain which we now again approach2 for1 having to trace the history of secular and religious luxury1 we cannot but frequently encounter the goldsmiths and their splendid works4 ,it will thus happen more than once that we shall have to indicate briefly certain important facts already described1 in some details1 in preceding chapters4 ,it is known that in old times1 even the most remote1 the goldsmith's art flourished4 ,there is scarcely any ancient narrative which does not allude to jewels2 and every day the discovery of precious objects1 found in ruins and in tombs1 still attests the high state of perfection the art of gold and silver work had attained among races long since extinct4 ,the ,gauls1 when under ,roman dominion1 applied themselves successfully to the business of the gold-worker4 ,we may again say that the triumph of the ,christian religion1 under ,constantine the ,great1 while encouraging the interior decoration of places of worship1 added a fresh impulse to the development of this beautiful art4 ,the popes succeeding ,st4 ,sylvester 7who had stimulated the liberality of ,constantine7 continued to accumulate1 in the churches at ,rome1 the most costly and massive articles of gold-work4 ,symmachus 7#dih to #ead7 alone1 according to a calculation made by ,seroux d',agincourt1 enriched the treasures of the basilicas to the amount of #acj pounds weight of gold1 and #a1gjj of silver1 forming the material of objects most finely wrought4 ,it was from the very court of the ,greek emperors that the examples of this magnificence were derived2 for we hear ,st4 ,john ,chrysostom exclaiming1 8,all our admiration is at present reserved for the goldsmiths and the weavers20 and it is well known that in consequence of his bold indiscretion in rebuking the extravagance of the ,empress ,eudoxia1 this eloquent ,father of the ,church expiated in exile and persecutions his ardent zeal and his sincerity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--;,gallic ,bracelet1 from a ,cabinet of ,antiquities4 7,imp4 ,library1 ,paris47 ,the brilliant specimens of the gold-work of the ,visigoths1 which1 in #aheh1 were exhumed in the field of ,guarrazar1 near ,toledo1 and which have been obtained for the ,cluny ,museum1 throw a new light on the monuments of that period4 ,far from indicating any original style1 they afford further proof that the barbarians who came from the ,north became subjected1 in the arts1 to ,byzantine influence4 ,the most remarkable1 not only in its dimensions and extreme richness1 but in the peculiarity of its ornaments1 is a votive crown1 intended to be hung1 according to the custom of those times1 in a sacred place--that of ,recesvinthe1 who reigned over the ,goths of ,spain from #fec to #fgb4 ,it is composed of a large fillet1 jointed1 and formed of a double plate of the finest gold4 ,thirty uncut sapphires and as many pearls1 regularly alternating1 arranged in three rows and in quincunxes1#ad are seen on its exterior circle4 ,chased ornaments occupy the spaces between the stones4 ,the votive crown of ,king ,suintila1 which we here reproduce 7,fig4 #hf71 is fully as rich1 and about thirty years older4 ,illustration3 ,,gold ,,crosses ,,of ,a ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,goths4 ,found at ,guarrazar4 ,seventh ,century4 7,museum of the ,hotel ,cluny7 7,taken from the work of ,m4 ,ferdinand de ,lasteyrie47 ,it is of massive gold1 ornamented with sapphires and pearls arranged in rose-pattern1 and set off by two borders similarly set with delicate stones4 ,but the originality of this precious gem consists in the letters hanging as pendants from its lower border4 ,these letters1 open-worked1 are filled with small pieces of red glass set in gold2 their combination presents the following inscription3--8,suintilanus ,rex offeret0 7offering of the ,king ,suintila74 ,each of them is suspended from the fillet by a chain with double links1 sustaining a pendant of violet sapphire1 pear-shaped4 ,finally1 the crown is suspended by four chains attached to a circular top of rock-crystal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--,votive ,crown of ,suintila1 ,king of the ,visigoths from #fba to #fca4 7,armoury ,real1 ,madrid47 8,five of the crowns so fortunately discovered at ,guarrazar10 says ,m4 de ,lasteyrie1 8have crosses4 ,these1 attached by a chain to the same circular top1 were evidently intended to remain suspended across the circle of the crown40 ,the cross belonging to the crown of ,recesvinthe is by far the richest2 eight large pearls and six sapphires1 all mounted in open-work1 adorn the front4 ,the four other crosses are of the form which in heraldry is called croix pate2 but they differ in size and in the ornaments with which they are enriched4 ,we have already stated that the kings and grandees of the ,merovingian period displayed in their plate and in some of their state-furniture a richness of gold-work the profuseness of which was ordinarily opposed to good taste4 ,we have seen at his work the celebrated ,saint ,eloi1 bishop-goldsmith2 and we have mentioned not only his remarkable productions1 but also the enduring influence he exercised over a whole historical period of art4 ,finally1 we have observed that ,charlemagne--whose object seems to have been not only to imitate ,constantine1 but to surpass him--endowed the churches magnificently with works of art1 without prejudice to the numberless splendours which his palaces contained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,the ,sword of ,charlemagne4 ,preserved in the ,imperial ,treasury at ,vienna4 ,according to a tradition1 the loss of most of the beautiful objects of gold-work belonging to that monarch may have been owing to the circumstance that they were disposed around him in the sepulchral chamber where the body was deposited after death2 and the emperors of ,germany1 his successors1 may not have scrupled to appropriate those riches1 of which some rare specimens1 particularly his diadem and sword1 are still preserved in the ,museum of ,vienna 7,figs4 #hg and #hh74 ,ecclesiastical display1 notably extinct during the period of trouble and suffering through which the ,church passed in the seventh and eighth centuries1 and to which the power of ,charlemagne was to put an end1 manifested itself in an extraordinary degree from that time4 ,for example1 it was calculated that under ,leo ,,iii41 who occupied the pontifical chair from #gie to #haf1 the weight of the plate which the ,pope gave to enrich the churches1 amounted to not less than #a1jge pounds of gold and #bd1gdd pounds of silver6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--;,diadem of ,charlemagne4 ,preserved in the ,imperial ,treasury at ,vienna4 ,to that period belongs the famous gold altar of the basilica of ,st4 ,ambrose of ,milan1 executed in #hce1 by order of ,archbishop ,angilbert1 by ,volvinius2 and which1 notwithstanding its immense intrinsic value1 has come down to our time4 8,the four sides of this monument10 says ,m4 ,labarte1 8are of extreme richness4 ,the front1 entirely of gold1 is divided into three panels by a border of enamel4 ,the centre panel represents a cross of four equal projections1 formed by fillets of ornaments in enamel1 alternating with precious stones uncut but polished4 ,christ is seated in the centre of the cross4 ,the symbols of the ,evangelists occupy its branches4 ,three of the ,apostles are placed in each angle4 ,all these figures are in relief4 ,the right and left panels contain each six bas-reliefs1 the subjects of which are taken from the life of ,christ2 they are encircled by borders of enamels and precious stones alternately disposed4 ,the two sides1 in silver relieved with gold1 exhibit very rich crosses1 treated in the same style as the borders4 ,the back1 which is also of silver relieved with gold1 is likewise divided in three large panels2 that in the centre contains four medallions1 and each of the others six bas-reliefs1 of which the life of ,st4 ,ambrose supplied the subjects4 ,in one of the medallions of the centre panel is seen ,st4 ,ambrose receiving the gold altar from the hands of ,archbishop ,angilbert2 in the other1 ,st4 ,ambrose is giving his benediction to ,volvinius1 the master goldsmith 7magister faber71 as he is designated in the inscription transmitting to us the name of the author of this work1 of which no description can give an exact idea40 ,it was not ,italy alone which possessed skilful goldsmiths1 and encouraged them4 ,we have in particular1 among other enlightened and active supporters of ecclesiastical gold-work1 a succession of the bishops of ,auxerre1 to whom must be added ,hincmar1 bishop of ,rheims1 who caused a splendid shrine to be made for the relics of the illustrious patron of his church4 ,it was cased in plates of silver1 and statues of twelve bishops adorned its borders4 ,but1 notwithstanding all its artistic magnificence1 the jewellery of the ,west could only appear to be the reflex of the wonders produced at the same epoch by the goldsmiths of the ,east1 or the ,byzantines1 to adopt a term generally sanctioned4 ,one of the most curious specimens of ,byzantine art1 preserved in ,russia1 is a gold reliquary lined with a plate of silver1 in the centre of which is an embossed representation of the ,crucifixion4 ,above the head1 on a gilt nimbus1 is an inscription in ,greek1 8,jesus ,christ1 ,king of ,glory40 ,this treasure1 remarkable for its extreme finish1 is covered with a mosaic of precious stones of different colours1 in partitions of gold2 the cross being quartered in enamel1 with silver filigree4 ,at the back the names of the archimandrite ,nicolos are engraved4 ,it is a work of the tenth century1 and was found in the ,iberian monastery on ,mount ,athos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4--;,byzantine ,reliquary1 in ,enamel1 brought from ,mount ,athos4 ,tenth ,century4 7,collection of ,m4 ,sebastianof47 ,if rare specimens only of jewellery have come down to us of a date prior to the eleventh century1 this may be accounted for not merely by their intrinsic value having indicated them to the uncivilised as fit objects of plunder during the invasions which took place after the reign of ,charlemagne1 but also1 as we have elsewhere remarked1 by the re-introduction of church furniture1 which was in some measure a necessary result of renovated architecture4 ,it was right to adapt the style of plate to that of the edifice it was to adorn4 ,the forms which were then employed for various objects of church-service showed the influence of the severe style derived from the original ,byzantine type2 the latter1 moreover1 explained itself by the repute1 especially in metallurgy1 enjoyed by the city of ,constantine1 to which the ,east generally had recourse when taking in hand any work of importance4 ,the ,german school particularly would acquire a ,byzantine character1 owing to the marriage of the ,emperor ,otho ,,ii4 with the ,greek princess ,theophania 7#igb7--;an alliance which naturally bound the two empires in closer ties1 and attracted a considerable number of artists and artisans to ,germany from the ,east4 ,of the works of that period still in existence1 one of the most remarkable is the rich gold cover of the book of the ,gospels1 now in the ,royal ,library1 ,munich2 on which are executed1 in the embossed style1 various bas-reliefs of great delicacy1 and designed with the purity at that time distinguishing the ,greek school4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--;,altar of ,gold1 presented to the ancient ,cathedral of ,basle by the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii41 now in the ,cluny ,museum4 ,the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4 was therefore welcomed 7bien-venu71 and1 if one may say so1 well served by the condition of art in ,germany1 when1 elevated to the throne in #ajjb1 and inspired by ardent piety1 he sought1 by princely liberality to the churches1 to surpass even ,constantine and ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4--;,enamelled ,shrine1 in ,limoges ,work of the ,twelfth ,century4 7,museum of ,cluny47 ,charlemagne4 ,it is to ,henry that the ,cathedral of ,basle owes the decorations of the altar1 to which none can be compared for richness1 except that of ,milan2 yet without recalling it by its style1 which has lost every trace of the antique1 and is a clearly-pronounced type of the art which the ,middle ,ages were to create as their own4 ,it is right to mention also the crown of the sainted emperor1 and that of his wife1 now preserved in the ,treasury of the ,king of ,bavaria2 both are in six jointed parts1 making a circle2 the former bears figures of winged angels2 the other1 stalks with four leaves designed with correctness and grace1 and executed in a manner which evinces the greatest dexterity4 8,moreover10 says ,m4 ,labarte1 8the taste for jewellery was then generally diffused throughout ,germany2 and many prelates followed the example set by the emperor4 ,willigis1 the first ,archbishop of ,mayence1 may be cited2 he endowed his church with a crucifix weighing #fjj pounds1 the several parts of which were adjusted with such art that each could be detached at the joints2 and ,bernward1 ,bishop of ,hildesheim1 who1 like ,st4 ,eloi1 was himself a celebrated goldsmith1 and to whom is ascribed a crucifix enriched with precious stones and filigrees1 and two magnificent candelabra1 which still constitute a portion of the treasures of the church whereof he was the pastor40 ,about the same period--that is1 in the early days of the eleventh century--a monk of ,dreux1 named ,odorain1 who had made himself famous in ,france by his works in precious metals1 executed a large number of objects for ,king ,robert1 intended for the churches the monarch had founded4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4--,shrine in ,copper ,gilt4 7,end of the ,twelfth ,century47 ,it has been remarked in the preceding chapter1 that the ,crusades gave a great impulse to the goldsmith's art in ,europe1 in consequence of the great demand for shrines and reliquaries intended for the reception of the venerated remains of saints which the soldiers of the faith brought back from their distant expeditions 7,figs4 #ia and #ib74 ,the offerings of consecrated vessels and of altar-fronts were also multiplied4 ,the ,holy ,scriptures received cases and coverings which were so many splendid works entrusted to the goldsmiths4 ,to speak truly1 had it not been for the essentially religious direction which1 at that period1 certain departments of luxury acquired by the ,crusaders in the ,east had taken1 we might perhaps have seen the arts1 that only in the ,west recommenced a real existence1 become extinguished1 and in a manner perish in the first burst of their revival4 ,it is chiefly to the minister of ,louis le ,gros1 ,suger1 ,abbot of ,saint-,denis1 who died in #aaeb1 that the honour of this consecration of arts is due1 for he distinctively proclaimed himself their protector2 he endeavoured to render legitimate their position in the ,state1 by opposing their pious aims to the too exclusive censures of ,st4 ,bernard and his disciples4 ,conjointly with the powerful abbot1 there is deserving of special mention a simple monk1 ,theophilus1 an eminent artist who wrote in ,latin a description of the ,industrial ,arts of his time 7,diversarum ,artium ,schedula71 and devoted seventy-nine chapters of his book to that of the goldsmith4 ,this valuable treatise shows us1 in the most unmistakable manner1 that the goldsmiths of the twelfth century must have possessed a comprehensiveness of knowledge and manipulation1 the mere enumeration of which surprises us the more now that we see industry everywhere tending to an almost infinite division of labour4 ,at that time the goldsmith was required to be at once modeller1 sculptor1 smelter1 enameller1 jewel-mounter1 and inlay-worker4 ,he had to cast his own models in wax1 as well as to labour with his hammer or embellish with his graver3 he had to make the chalice1 the vases1 and the pyx1 for the metropolitan churches1 on which were lavished all the resources of art2 and to produce1 by the ordinary process of punching1 the open-work or the designs of copper intended to ornament the books of the poor 7libri pauperum71 c4 ,the treasury of the ,abbey of ,saint-,denis still possessed1 at the time of the ,revolution1 several chefs-d'uvre produced by the artists whose processes are described by ,theophilus2 especially the rich mounting of a cup of ,oriental agate1 bearing the name of ,suger1 which it is believed he used for the service of mass2 and the mounting of an ancient sardonyx vase1 known as the cup of the ,ptolemies1 which ,charles the ,simple had given to the abbey4 ,having been deposited1 in #agic1 in the ,cabinet of ,medals1 ,paris1 the mounting of the cup of the ,ptolemies and the chalice of ,suger remained there until they were stolen in #ahjd4 ,among the examples of that period still existing1 and which1 conditionally1 every one is permitted to inspect1 we may distinguish1 with ,m4 ,labarte1--in addition to 8the great crown of lights0 suspended under the cupola in the cathedral of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 and the magnificent shrine in which ,frederick ,i4 collected the bones of ,charlemagne1--in the ,museum of the ,louvre1 a vase of rock-crystal mounted in gold and embellished with gems1 presented to ,louis ,,vii4 by his wife ,eleanora2 in the ,cluny ,museum1 several candelabra2 in the ,imperial ,library in ,paris1 the covering of a ,latin manuscript1 numbered #fbb2 a cup of agate onyx 7,fig4 #ic71 bordered with a belt of precious stones raised on a groundwork of filigree2 and the beautiful gold chalice of ,st4 ,remy 7,fig4 #id71 which1 after having appeared in the ,cabinet of ,antiquities1 was restored in #ahfa to the treasury of the church of ,notre-,dame1 ,rheims4 ,severe forms and an elevated style were the characteristics of the jewelled works of the eleventh and twelfth centuries2 and1 for the principal elements of accessory embellishment1 we most frequently see pearls1 precious stones1 with enamelled divisions which1 according to the minute description of ,theophilus1 are only delicate mosaics whose various coloured segments are separated by plates of gold4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4--;,a ,drinking ,cup1 called ,gondole1 of ,agate2 from the ,treasury of the ,abbey of ,saint-,denis4 7,cabinet of ,antiquities1 ,imp4 ,library1 ,paris47 ,in the days of ,st4 ,louis1 a period of active and generous piety1 there was 7an assertion which may appear hazardous after what we have said of the zeal of preceding centuries7 a remarkable accession to the number and the splendour of the gifts and offerings of jewellery to the churches4 ,for instance1 it was then that ,bonnard1 ,parisian goldsmith1 assisted by the ablest artisans1 devoted two years to the manufacture of the shrine of ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4--;,chalice1 said to be of ,st4 ,remy4 7,treasury of the ,cathedral of ,rheims47 ,st4 ,genevive1 on which he expended one hundred and ninety-three marks of silver and seven and a half marks of gold2 the mark weighing eight ounces4 ,the shrine1 consecrated in #abab1 was in the form of a little church1 with statuettes and bas-reliefs enriched with precious stones4 ,it was deposited in the ,french mint in #agic2 but the spoil realised only twenty-three thousand eight hundred and thirty livres4 ,half a century earlier1 the most celebrated ,german goldsmiths were engaged during seventeen years upon the famous reliquary in silver gilt1 called the 8,great ,relics10 which the cathedral at ,aix-la-,chapelle still possesses2 it was fabricated from the gifts deposited in that space of time by the faithful in the poors'-box of the porch2 an edict of the ,emperor ,barbarossa having appropriated all the offerings to that object1 8so long as it remained unfinished40 ,moreover1 that period1 which may be regarded as denoting the zenith of the goldsmith's art for sacred purposes1 is also that wherein occurred the important transition which was to introduce into domestic life the same lavishness so long devoted only to objects applicable to ecclesiastical use4 ,but1 before entering upon that new phase1 we ought to mention1 not without much commendation1 the enamelled gold-work of ,limoges1 which was greatly celebrated for several centuries4 ,from the ,gallo-,romano period ,limoges had acquired a reputation for the works of its goldsmiths4 ,st4 ,eloi1 the great goldsmith in the time of the ,merovingian kings 7,fig4 #ie71 was originally from that country1 and he was working under ,alban1 a goldsmith1 and master of the mint at ,limoges1 when his reputation led to his being called to the court of ,clotaire ,,ii4 ,the ancient ,roman colony had retained its industrial speciality1 and during the ,middle ,ages was remarkable for the production of works of a peculiar character1 which are supposed to have been fabricated there prior to the third century1 if we may judge from a passage in ,philostratus1 a ,greek writer of that period4 ,this work consisted of a mixed style1 inasmuch as the material forming the ground of the work is copper2 and1 moreover1 the principal effects are due not less to the skill of the enameller than to the talent of the worker in metal4 ,the process of fabrication is very simple--that is1 in the way of description--yet the execution must have been extremely protracted and minute4 8,after having prepared and polished a plate of copper10 says ,m4 ,labarte1 whose account we transfer to our own pages1 8the artist marked on it all the parts which were to rise to the surface of the metal1 in order to produce the outlines of the drawing or of the figure he wanted to represent2 then1 with gravers and scrapers1 he dug deeply in the copper all the space which the various metals were to cover4 ,in the hollows thus champlevs 7a word sometimes used to signify the mode of producing this kind of work71 he placed the material to be vitrified1 which was afterwards melted in a furnace4 ,when the enamelled piece was cold1 he polished it by various means1 so as to bring to the surface of the enamel all the lines of the drawing produced by the copper4 ,gilding was afterwards applied to the parts ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4--;,cross of an ,altar1 ascribed to ,st4 ,eloi4 of the metal thus preserved4 ,until the twelfth century1 only the outlines of the drawing ordinarily rose to the surface of the enamel1 and the tints of the flesh1 as well as the dresses1 were produced by coloured enamel2 in the thirteenth century enamel was no longer used but to colour the ground-work4 ,the figures were entirely preserved on the plate of copper1 and the outlines of the drawing were then shown by a delicate engraving on the metal40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,an ,abbot's ,enamelled ,crozier1 made at ,limoges4 7,thirteenth ,century47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4--;,a ,bishop's ,crozier1 which appears to be of ,italian manufacture4 7,fourteenth ,century4 ,cathedral of ,metz47 ,between the enamels partitioned 7cloisonns7 and the enamels champlevs the difference1 as we can see1 is only the first arrangement of the divisions to receive the several vitrifiable compositions4 ,making allowances for the influence of fashion1 these two styles of analogous works were held in almost equal estimation4 ,nevertheless1 it seems that the preference ought to be assigned to the goldsmith's art in ,limoges1 which1 at a time when there was manifested a demand for private reliquaries and collective offerings to the churches1 had this advantage over the other1 that it was much less costly1 and consequently more accessible to all classes 7,fig4 #if74 ,in the present day there is scarcely a museum1 or even a private collection1 that does not contain some specimen of the ancient ,limousine#ae industry4 ,with the fourteenth century the splendour of the goldsmith's art ceases to display1 as its exclusive object1 ecclesiastical decoration and embellishment2 but it suddenly became so developed among the laity that ,king ,john 7of ,france7 desiring1 or pretending to desire1 to restore it to the exclusive line it had till then retained1 prohibited by an ordinance1 in #acef1 the goldsmiths from 8working 7fabricating7 gold or silver plate1 vases1 or silver jewellery1 of more than one mark of gold or silver1 excepting for the churches40 ,but it is possible to issue ordinances in order to show the advantage of evading them1 and to benefit exclusively by the exception4 ,this is what appears to have then occurred2 for1 in the inventory of the treasury of ,charles ,v41 son and successor of the king who signed the sumptuary edict of #acef1 the value of the various objects of the goldsmith's art is estimated at not less than nineteen millions4 ,this document1 in which the greater number of the articles are described to the minutest detail1 would suffice in itself to exhibit a truthful historical view of the art at that period2 and1 at all events1 it affords a striking idea of the artistic progress made in that direction1 and of the extravagance to which the trade was subservient4 ,when considering the subject of furniture in domestic life1 we indicated the names and the uses of several articles which were displayed on the tables or sideboards--plateholders1 ewers1 urns1 goblets1 c42 we also adverted to the numerous and capricious forms they assumed--flowers1 animals1 grotesque images2 we need not1 therefore1 recur to the matter2 but we ought not to overlook the jewellery1 of all sorts--insignia1 or ornaments of the head-dress1 gems1 clasps1 chains and necklaces1 antique cameos 7,fig4 #ih71 which appear in the treasury of the ,king of ,france4 ,in treating of ecclesiastical furniture we1 moreover1 observed that the goldsmith's art1 although devoting itself to secular ornaments1 nevertheless continued to work marvels in the production of objects for ecclesiastical use2 it would be mere repetition to support this assertion by other examples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--;,an ,ancient ,cameo-setting of the time of ,charles ,v4 7,cab4 of ,ant41 ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,but1 dismissing those two questions1 let a contemporary poet raise a third1 which deserves a place here4 ,eustache ,deschamps1 who died in #adbb1 equerry and usher-at-arms to ,charles ,v4 and ,charles ,,vi41 enumerates the jewels and gems which the female nobility of the time aspired to possess4 8,it was indispensable10 he says-- 8,aux matrones1 ,nobles palais et riches trnes2 ,et celles qui se marient ,qui moult tt 7bientt7 leurs pensers varient1 ,elles veulent tenir d'usaige 444 ,vestements d'or1 de draps de soye1 ,couronne1 chapel et courroye ,de fin or1 espingle d'argent 444 ,puis couvrechiefs or batus1 ,a pierres et perles dessus 444 ,encor vois-je que leurs maris1 ,quand ils reviennent de ,paris1 ,de ,reims1 de ,rouen et de ,troyes1 ,leur rapportent gants et courroyes 444 ,tasses d'argent ou gobelets 444 ,bourse de pierreries1 ,coulteaux imagineries1 ,espingliers 7tuis7 taills maux40 ,they desired1 moreover1 and said that they ought to have given to them-- 8,pigne 7peigne7 et miroir d'ivoire 444 ,et l'estui qui soit noble et gent 7riche et beau71 ,pendu chaines d'argent2 ,heures 7livres de pit7 me fault de ,notre-,dame1 ,qui soient de soutil 7delicat7 ouvraige1 ,d'or et d'azur1 riches et cointes 7jolies71 ,bien ordonns et bien pointes 7peintes71 ,de fin drap d'or trs-bien couvertes1 ,et quand elles seront ouvertes1 ,deux fermaux 7agrafes7 d'or qui fermeront40 ,we thus see that1 according to the above programme1 the jewel-box of a princess1 or of a lady of rank1 must have been really splendid4 ,unfortunately for us1 the specimens of these female ornaments of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are still more rare in collections than objects of massive plate2 and one is almost left to imagine their appearance and their richness from the entries in inventories1 that chief source of information regarding the times of which the memorials have disappeared4 ,it is there we see the costliness of the fermails1 or clasps of cloaks and copes1 called also pectoraux1 because they fastened the garments across the breast2 girdles1 chaplets 7head-dresses71 portable reliquaries1 and other 8little jewels 7,fig4 #ii7 pendants et pendre10 the fashion of which we have restored under the name of breloques1 and which represent every variety of object more or less whimsical4 ,we see1 for instance1 gold clasps representing a peacock1 a fleur-de-lis1 two hands 8clasped40 ,this one is embellished with six sapphires1 sixty pearls1 and other large gems2 that one with eighteen rubies1 and four emeralds4 ,from a girdle of ,charles ,v41 which is made 8of scarlet silk adorned with eight gold mountings10 are suspended 8a knife1 scissors1 and a pen-knife10 ornamented in gold2 the trinkets 7pendants7 represent 8a man on horseback1 a cock holding a mirror in the form of a trefoil10 or 8a stag of pearls with enamelled horns20 or1 again1 a man mounted on a double-headed serpent1 8playing on a ,saracenic horn0 7of ,saracen origin74 ,finally1 we remark that in reliquaries a fashion long established was maintained1 which consisted of forming them of a statuette representing a saint 7,fig4 #ajj71 or of a subject that comprised his image1 and to which were attached1 by a small chain1 relics inlaid in a little tabernacle of gold or silver1 preciously wrought4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4--,scent-box in ,chased ,gold4 7,a ,french ,work of the ,fifteenth ,century47 ,but now the fifteenth century opens out1 and with it a period of tumult4 ,france suddenly beheld that impulse to industry paralyzed1 which1 to prosper1 requires a condition of affairs very different from sanguinary civil dissensions and foreign invasion4 ,not only were the workshops closed1 but princes and nobles were more than once constrained to appropriate the gorgeous decorations of their tables and their collections of gems1 to pay and arm warriors under their command1 or even to redeem themselves from captivity4 ,at that time the goldsmith's art flourished in the neighbouring country of ,flanders1 then quietly submissive to the powerful house of ,burgundy1 which1 with equal taste and liberality1 encouraged the art1 which had installed itself in the principal cities4 ,this was also an epoch of magnificent productions ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--,reliquary1 ,silver-gilt1 surmounted by a ,statuette of the ,virgin with the ,infant ,jesus1 representing ,jeanne d',evreux1 ,queen of ,france4 7,museum of ,sovereigns1 in the ,louvre47 in that country1 but not more than one or two examples remain2 these are attributed to ,corneille de ,bonte1 who worked at ,ghent1 and was ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--,the ,ensign of the ,collar of the ,goldsmiths of ,ghent4 7,fifteenth ,century47 generally considered the most skilful goldsmith of his time 7,figs4 #aja and #ajb74 ,however that may be1 the style of the goldsmith's art of the fifteenth century continued1 as in the two or three preceding centuries1 conformable to the contemporaneous style of architecture4 ,for instance1 the shrine of ,saint-,germain-des-,prs1 which was of that period1 had the form of a small ogivale#af church2 and some specimens still existing in ,berlin are of the ,gothic character1 the prevailing style of the edifices of those times4 ,but an influence was making itself felt that was not long in entirely modifying the general aspect of the productions of the trade we are considering4 ,that transformation must have been promoted by ,italy2 in the midst of which1 in spite of intestine troubles and serious contentions with other nations1 a luxury and opulence prevailed4 ,genoa1 ,venice1 ,florence1 ,rome1 had long been so many centres where the ,fine ,arts struggled for pre-eminence and inspiration4 ,among the majority of the wealthy merchants who had ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--;,escutcheon in ,silver-gilt1 executed by ,corneille de ,bonte1 in the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,museum of the ,htel de ,ville1 ,ghent47 become patricians of those gorgeous republics were found so many ,mcenases1 under whose patronage flourished great artists whom popes and princes emulously countenanced4 8,from the moment10 says ,m4 ,labarte1 8when the ,nicolases1 the ,jeans of ,pisa1 and the ,giottos1 throwing off the ,byzantine yoke1 caused ,art to emerge from languor and supineness1 that of the goldsmith could no longer find favour in ,italy but by maintaining itself on a level with the progress of sculpture1 whose daughter it was4#ag ,when we know that the great ,donatello1--,philip ,brunelleschi1 the bold architect of the dome of ,florence1--,ghiberti1 the author of the marvellous doors of the ,baptistery1 had goldsmiths for their earliest masters1 we may judge what artists the ,italian goldsmiths of that period must have been40 ,the first in date is the celebrated ,jean of ,pisa1 son of ,nicolas1 who1 brought from ,arezzo in #abhf1 to sculpture the marble table of the high-altar1 and a group of the ,virgin between ,st4 ,gregory and ,st4 ,donato1 desired to pay tribute to the taste of the time by ornamenting the altar with those fine chasings on silver coloured with enamels to which we give the name of translucid enamels in relief2 and also by designing a clasp or jewel with which he decorated the breast of the ,virgin4 ,both chasings and clasp are now lost4 ,to ,jean 7,giovanni7 of ,pisa succeeded his pupils ,agostino and ,agnolo of ,siena4 ,in #acaf ,andrea of ,ognibene executed1 for the ,cathedral of ,pistoia1 an altar-front1 which has come down to us1 and must have been followed by more important works4 ,then come ,pietro and ,paulo of ,arezzo1 ,ugolino of ,siena1 and finally ,master ,cione1#ah the author of the two silver bas-reliefs still to be seen on the altar of the ,baptistery of ,florence4 ,master ,cione1 whose school was numerous1 had for his principal pupils ,forzane of ,arezzo and ,leonardo of ,florence1 who worked on the two most noted monuments of the goldsmith's art which time and depredations have respected--the altar of ,saint-,jacques at ,pistoia1 and that same altar of the ,baptistery to which the bas-reliefs of ,cione were afterwards adapted4 ,during more than a hundred and fifty years the ornamentation of these two altars1 of which no description can give an idea1 was1 if we may so say1 the arena wherein all the most famous goldsmiths met4 ,at the end of the fourteenth century ,luca della ,robbia1 who1 as we have seen1 distinguished himself in ceramic art1 and afterwards ,brunelleschi1 no less great as an architect than as a sculptor1 came forth from the studio of a goldsmith4 ,at the same period shone ,baccioforte and ,mazzano of ,placentia1 ,arditi the ,florentine1 and ,bartoluccio1 master of the famous sculptor ,ghiberti1 to whom we owe those doors of the ,baptistery1 which ,michael ,angelo pronounced worthy of being placed at the entrance to ,paradise4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--,shrine of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,collection of ,prince ,soltykoff47 ,it is well known that the execution of these doors was1 in #adjj1 submitted to competition2 and it may be said1 in honour of the goldsmith's art1 that ,ghiberti1 vying with the most celebrated competitors--for among them were ,donatello and ,brunelleschi--owed his triumph1 perhaps1 to the simple fact that he had treated1 as it were by habit1 his model with all the delicacy of the goldsmith's art4 ,and it must be added1 and to the praise of the great artist1 that although in great reputation for sculptured works of the highest importance1 he adhered faithfully all his life to his first profession1 and considered it not derogatory even to manufacture jewellery4 ,thus1 for example1 in #adbh he mounted as a signet for ,jean de ,medicis1 a cornelian said to have belonged to the treasury of ,nero1 and he set it as a winged-dragon emerging from a cluster of ivy leaves2 in #adbi1 for ,pope ,martin ,v41 a button of the cope1 and a mitre2 and in #adci1 for ,pope ,eugene ,,iv41 a golden mitre1 embellished with five and a half pounds weight of precious stones1--its front representing ,christ surrounded by numerous cherubs1 and at the back the ,virgin in the midst of the four ,evangelists4 ,during the forty years employed in the execution of the doors of the ,baptistery1 ,ghiberti continued to derive assistance from several goldsmiths1 who1 so guided1 could not fail in their turn to become skilful masters4 ,the list would be long of goldsmiths who1 by the single force of their talents1 or under the direction of renowned sculptors1 competed during two centuries in the production of the marvellous works with which the churches of ,italy are still crowded2 and in fact it would be only a monotonous detail1 the interest of which can scarcely be enhanced by any description we could give of their works4 ,nevertheless1 we may cite the most illustrious of them3 for instance1 ,andrea ,verrochio1 in whose studio ,perugino and ,leonardo da ,vinci passed their time2 ,domenichino ,ghirlandajo1 so called because when a goldsmith he had invented an ornament in the form of garlands1 of which the ladies of ,florence were passionately fond2 he afterwards relinquished the hammer and the graver for the painter's pencil2 ,maso ,finiguerra1 who1 reputed to be the cleverest niello-worker of his time1 engraved a pax1 or paten1 still preserved in the cabinet of bronzes in ,florence2 it is acknowledged to be the plate of the first engraving printed1--the ,imperial ,library of ,paris possesses the only early proof of it4 ,in #aejj was born ,benvenuto ,cellini1 who was to be the embodiment of the genius of the goldsmith's art1 and who raised it to the zenith of its power4 8,cellini1 a ,florentine citizen1 now a sculptor10 as his contemporary ,vasari relates1 8had no equal in the goldsmith's art when devoting himself to it in his youth1 and was perhaps for many years without a rival1 as well as in the execution of small figures in full relief and in bas-relief1 and all works of that nature4 ,he mounted precious stones so skilfully1 and decked them in such marvellous settings1 with small figures so perfect1 and sometimes so original and with such fanciful taste1 that one could not imagine anything better2 nor can we adequately praise the medals which1 when he was young1 he engraved with incredible care in gold and silver4 ,at ,rome he executed1 for ,pope ,clement ,,vii41 a fastening for the cope1 in which he represented with admirable workmanship the ,eternal ,father4 ,he also mounted with rare talent a diamond1 cut to a point1 and surrounded by several young children carved in gold4 ,clement ,,vii4 having ordered a gold chalice with its cup supported by the theological attributes1 ,benvenuto executed the work in a surprising manner4 ,of all the artists who1 in his own time1 tried their hands at engraving medals of the ,pope1 no one succeeded better1 as those well know who possess them or have seen them4 ,also to him was entrusted the execution of the coins of ,rome2 and finer pieces were never struck4 ,after the death of ,clement ,,vii41 ,benvenuto returned to ,florence1 where he engraved the head of ,duke ,alexander on the coins1 which are so beautiful that to this day several specimens are preserved as precious antique medals2 and rightly so1 for in them ,benvenuto surpassed himself4 ,at length he devoted himself to sculpture and to the art of casting statues4 ,he executed in ,france1 where he was in the service of ,francis ,i41 many works in bronze1 silver1 and in gold4 ,returning to his native country1 he was employed by the ,duke ,cosmo de ,medicis1 who at once required of him several works in jewellery1 and afterwards some sculptures40 ,thus1 ,benvenuto is at the same time goldsmith 7,fig4 #ajd71 engraver in medals1 and sculptor1 and he excels in these three branches of the art1 as the productions which have survived him attest4 ,nevertheless1 unfortunately1 the greater part of his works in the goldsmith's art have been destroyed1 or are now confounded with those of his contemporaries1 upon whom ,italian taste1 combined with his original genius1 had exercised a powerful influence4 ,in ,france there remains of his works only a magnificent salt-cellar1 which he executed for ,francis ,i42 in ,florence is preserved the mounting of a cup in lapis-lazuli1 representing three anchors in gold enamelled1 heightened by diamonds2 also the cover1 in gold enamelled1 of another cup of rock-crystal4 ,but1 besides the bronze bust of ,cosmo ,i41 we may still admire1 with the group of ,perseus and ,medusa1 which ranks among grand sculptures1 the reduced form1 or rather the model of that group1 which in size approaches goldsmith's work2 and the bronze pedestal1 decorated with statuettes1 on which ,perseus is placed2 works that enable us to see of what ,cellini was capable as a goldsmith4 ,and1 let us repeat1 the influence which he exercised over his contemporaries was immense1 as well in ,florence as in ,rome1 as well in ,france as in ,germany2 and1 had his work been thought utterly worthless1 he would remain not less justly celebrated for giving an impulse to his time by imprinting on the art which he professed a movement as fertile as it was bold4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--;,a ,pendant1 after a design by ,benvenuto ,cellini4 ,sixteenth ,century4 7,cabinet of ,antiquities1 ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,moreover1 in imitation of the monk ,theophilus1 his predecessor of the twelfth century1 ,benvenuto ,cellini1 after having given practical example1 desired that the theories he had found prevailing1 and those which were due to his faculty for originating1 should be preserved for posterity4 ,a treatise 78,trattato intorno alle otto principali ,arti dell #8,orificeria071 in which he describes and teaches all the best processes of working in gold1 remains one of the most valuable works on the subject2 and even in our days goldsmiths who wish to refer back to the true sources of their art do not neglect to consult it4 ,the artistic style of the celebrated ,florentine goldsmith is that of a period when1 by an earnest return to antiquity1 the mythological element was introduced everywhere1 even in the ,christian sanctuaries4 ,the character1 which we may call autochthone1#ai of the pious and severe ,middle ,ages1 ceased to influence the production of plastic works1 when the models were taken from the glorious remains of idolatrous ,greece and ,rome4 ,the art which the religion of ,christ had awakened and upheld suddenly became again ,pagan1 and ,cellini proved himself one of the enthusiasts of the ancient temples raised in honour of the gods and goddesses of ,paganism2 that is to say1 under the impulse given by him1 and in imitation of him1 the phalanx of artists1 of which he is in a manner the chief1 could not fail to go far on the new road by which he had travelled among the first4 ,when ,cellini came to ,france he found1 as he himself says in his book1 that the work consisted 8more than elsewhere in grosserie0 7the grosserie comprised the church plate1 vessels1 and silver images71 8and that the works there executed with the hammer had attained a degree of perfection nowhere else to be met with40 ,the inventory of the plate and jewels of ,henry ,,ii41 among which were many by ,benvenuto ,cellini--the inventory prepared at ,fontainebleau in #aefj--shows us that1 after the departure of the ,florentine artist1 the ,french goldsmiths continued to deserve that eulogium2 and to comprehend of what they were capable in the time of ,charles ,,ix41 it is sufficient to recall the description1 preserved in the archives of ,paris1 of a piece of plate which the city had caused to be made to offer as a present to the king on the occasion of his entry into his capital in #aega4 8,it was10 says that document1 8a large pedestal1 supported on four dolphins1 and having seated on it ,cybele1 mother of the gods1 representing the mother of the king1 accompanied by the gods ,neptune and ,pluto1 and the goddess ,juno1 as ,messeigneurs the brothers1 and ,madame the sister1 of the king4 ,this ,cybele was contemplating ,jupiter1 who represented our king1 and was raised on two columns1 the one of gold1 the other of silver1 having his device inscribed--#8,pietate et ,justitia4' ,upon this was a large imperial crown1 on one side held in the beak of an eagle perched on the croup of a horse on which ,jupiter was mounted2 and on the other side supported by the sceptre he held--thus being1 as it were1 deified4 ,at the four corners of the pedestal were the figures of four kings1 his predecessors1 all of the same name--that is1 ,charles the ,great1 ,charles ,v41 ,charles ,,vii41 and ,charles ,,viii41 who in their time fulfilled their missions1 and their reigns were happy1 as we hope will be that of our king4 ,in the frieze of that pedestal were the battles and the victories1 of all kinds1 in which he was engaged2 the whole made of fine silver1 gilt with ducat gold1 chased1 engraved1 and in workmanship so executed that the style surpassed the material40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4--;,cup of ,lapis-lazuli1 mounted in ,gold enriched with ,rubies1 and a ,figure in ,gold enamelled4 7,italian ,work of the #afth ,century47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--,vase of ,rock-crystal1 mounted in ,silver-gilt and enamelled4 7,italian ,work of the #afth ,century47 ,that rare piece was the work of ,jean ,regnard1 a ,parisian goldsmith2 and the period when such works were produced was precisely that during which religious wars were about to cause the annihilation of a great number of the chefs-d'uvre1 ancient and modern1 of the goldsmith's art4 ,the new iconoclasts1 the ,huguenots1 shattered and melted down1 wherever they triumphed1 the sacred vessels1 the shrines1 the reliquaries4 ,then were lost the most precious gold-wrought memorials of the times of ,st4 ,eloi1 of ,charlemagne1 of ,suger1 and of ,st4 ,louis4 ,at the same period ,germany1 where the influence of the ,italian school had made itself felt less directly1 but which could not escape from its impulse1 possessed also1 especially at ,nuremburg and ,augsburg1 goldsmiths' workshops of high character2 these furnished the empire1 and even foreign countries1 with remarkable works4 ,a new career opened to the ,german goldsmiths when the cabinet-makers of their country had invented those cabinets1 whereof we have already said something 7vide ,,furniture71 and in the intricate decoration of which appear statuettes1 silver bas-reliefs1 and inlay-work of gold and precious stones4 ,the treasuries and the museums of ,germany have succeeded in preserving many rich objects of that period2 but one of the most rare collections of the kind is that in ,berlin1 where1 in substitution for the originals in silver which have been melted down1 are gathered a great number of beautiful bas-reliefs in lead1 and several vases in tin1--copies of pieces of plate supposed to be of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,and on this point it may be remarked that the high price of the material1 together with the sumptuary laws1 not always admitting of the possession of gold or silver vases by the citizens1 it sometimes happened that the goldsmiths manufactured a table-service of tin1 on which they bestowed so much pains that these articles were transferred from the sideboards of citizens to those of princes4 ,the inventory of the ,count d',angoulme1 father of ,francis ,i41 alludes to a considerable table-service of tin4 ,indeed1 several goldsmiths devoted themselves exclusively to this description of work2 and1 to this day1 the tins of ,franois ,briot1 who flourished in the time of ,henry ,,ii41 are regarded as the most perfect specimens of plate of the sixteenth century4 ,however that may be1 after ,cellini1 and until the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 the goldsmith's art did but follow faithfully in the footsteps of the ,italian master4 ,elevated by the impulse of the ,renaissance1 the art succeeded in maintaining itself in that high position without1 however1 any striking individuality discovering itself1 until1 in a century not less illustrious than the sixteenth1 new masters appeared and imparted to it additional lustre and magnificence4 ,these are named ,ballin1 ,delaunay1 ,julien ,defontaine1 ,labarre1 ,vincent ,petit1 ,roussel1 goldsmiths and jewellers of ,louis ,,xiv41 who retained them in his pay1 and lodged them in the ,louvre4 ,it was for that prince they produced an imposing collection of admirable works1 for which ,le ,brun often furnished the designs1 and under an inspiration altogether ,french1 abandoned the graceful1 though rather fluette forms of the ,renaissance1 and gave to them a character more diffuse and grand4 ,then1 for a short time1 every article of royal furniture proceeded from the hands of the goldsmith4 ,but1 alas6 once more the majority of these marvels must disappear1 as happened to so many others4 ,even the monarch who had ordered them despatched his acquisitions to the crucibles of the mint1 when1 the war having exhausted the public treasury1 he found himself compelled1 at least for example's sake1 to sacrifice his silver plate and to deck his table with earthenware4 ,having finished this sketch of the goldsmith's art in general1 it may not be inappropriate to add a brief notice of the more special history of the ,french goldsmiths1 of which the wealthy corporation may be considered not only as the most ancient1 but as the model of all those that were formed among us in the ,middle ,ages4 ,but first1 since we have already referred to the exceptional part taken by the goldsmiths of ,limoges in the industrial movement of that period1 we cannot proceed further without noting another description of works1 which1 although derived from the oldest examples1 nevertheless gave1 and with justice1 a kind of new lustre to the ancient city where the first goldsmiths of ,france had distinguished themselves4 8,towards the end of the fourteenth century10 says ,m4 ,labarte1 8the taste for gold and silver articles having led to the disuse of plate of enamelled copper1 the ,limousine enamellers endeavoured to discover a new mode of applying enamel to the reproduction of graphic subjects4 ,their researches led them to dispense with the chaser for delineating the outlines of designs2 the metal was entirely concealed under the enamel1 which1 spread by the brush1 formed altogether both the drawing and the colouring4 ,the first attempts at this novel painting on copper were necessarily very imperfect2 but the processes gradually improved1 until at length1 in #aedj1 they attained perfection4 ,prior to that period1 the enamels of ,limoges were almost exclusively devoted to the reproduction of sacred subjects1 of which the ,german school furnished the designs4 ,but the arrival of ,italian artists at the court of ,francis ,i41 and the publication of engravings of the works of ,raphael and other great masters of ,italy1 gave a new direction to the school of ,limoges1 which adopted the style of that of ,italy4 ,il ,rosso and ,primaticcio painted cartoons for the ,limousine enamellers2 and then ,illustration3 ,,drageoir1 ,,or ,,table ,,ornament ,of ,enamelled and ,gilt ,copper4 ,german1 latter part of ,sixteenth ,century4 they who had previously worked only on plates intended to be set in diptychs1 on caskets1 created a new species of goldsmith's art4 ,basins1 ewers1 cups1 salt-cellars1 vases1 and utensils of all sorts1 manufactured with thin sheet-copper in the most elegant forms were decorated with their rich and brilliant paintings40 ,in the highest rank of artists who have rendered this attractive work illustrious we must place ,lonard 7,limousin71 painter to ,francis ,i41 who was the first director of the royal manufacture of enamels founded by that king at ,limoges4 ,then followed ,pierre ,raymond 7,figs4 #ajg to #aaj71 whose works date from #aecd to #aegh1 the ,penicauds1 ,courteys1 ,martial ,raymond1 ,mercier1 and ,jean ,limousin1 enameller to ,anne of ,austria4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ajg and #ajh4--;,faces of an ,hexagonal ,enamelled ,salt-cellar1 representing the ,labours of ,hercules4 ,executed at ,limoges1 for ,francis ,i41 by ,pierre ,raymond4 ,with the remark that1 at the end of the sixteenth century1 ,venice1 doubtless imitating ,limoges1 also manufactured pieces of plate in enamelled copper1 we return to our national goldsmiths4 ,this celebrated corporation could1 without much trouble1 be traced back in ,gaul to the epoch of the ,roman occupation2 but it is unnecessary to search for its origin beyond ,st4 ,eloi1 who is still its patron1 after having been its founder and protector4 ,eloi1 become prime-minister to ,dagobert ,i4--thanks in some measure to his merits as a goldsmith1 which distinguished him above all1 and gained him the honour of royal friendship--continued to work no less at his forge as a simple artisan4 8,he made for the king10 says the chronicle1 8a great number of gold vases enriched with precious stones1 and he worked incessantly1 seated with his servant ,thillon1 a ,saxon by birth1 at his side1 who followed the lessons of his master40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4--;,interior base of a ,salt-cellar1 executed at ,limoges2 with a ,portrait of ,francis ,i4 ,this extract seems to indicate that already the goldsmith's art was organised as a corporation1 and that it comprised three ranks of artisans--the masters1 the journeymen1 and the apprentices4 ,besides1 it is clear that ,st4 ,eloi founded two distinct corporations of goldsmiths--one for secular1 the other for religious works1 in order that the objects sacred to worship should not be manufactured by the same hands that executed those designed for profane uses or worldly state4 ,the seat of the former in ,paris was first the ,cit1 near the very abode of ,st4 ,eloi long known as the maison au fvre1 and surrounding the monastery of ,st4 ,martial4 ,within the jurisdiction of that monastery was the space comprised between the streets of ,la ,barillerie1 of ,la ,calandre1 ,aux ,fves1 and of ,la ,vieille ,draperie1 under the denomination of 8,st4 ,eloi's ,enclosure40 ,a raging fire destroyed the entire quarter inhabited by the goldsmiths1 excepting the monastery2 and the lay goldsmiths went forth and established themselves as a colony1 still under the auspices of their patron saint1 in the shadow of the ,church of ,st4 ,paul des ,champs1 which he had caused to be constructed on the right bank of the ,seine4 ,the assemblage of forges and shops of these artisans soon formed a sort of suburb1 which was called ,clture1 or ,culture ,st4 ,eloi4 ,subsequently some of the goldsmiths returned to the ,cit2 but they remained on the ,grand-,pont1 and returned no more to the streets1 where the cobblers had established themselves4 ,moreover1 the monastery of ,st4 ,martial had become1 under the administration of its first abbess1 ,st4 ,anne1 a branch of the goldsmith's school which the 8,seigneur ,eloi0 had established in #fca in the ,abbey of ,solignac1 in the environs of ,limoges4 ,that abbey1 whose first abbot1 ,thillon or ,thau--a pupil1 or1 as the chronicle expresses it1 a servant of ,st4 ,eloi--was also a skilful goldsmith1 preserved during several centuries the traditions of its founder1 and furnished not only models1 but also skilful workmen1 to all the monastic ateliers of ,christendom which exclusively manufactured for the churches jewelled and enamelled plate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--;,ewer in ,enamel1 of ,limoges1 by ,pierre ,raymond4 ,however1 the goldsmiths of ,paris engaged in secular works continued to maintain themselves as a corporation2 and their privileges1 which they ascribed to the special regard of ,dagobert for ,st4 ,eloi1 were recognised1 it is said1 in #gfh by a royal charter1 and confirmed in #hdf in a capitulary of ,charles the ,bald4 ,these goldsmiths worked in gold and silver only for kings and nobles1 whom the strictness of the sumptuary laws did not reach4 ,the ,dictionary of ,jean de ,garlande informs us that1 in the eleventh century1 there were in ,paris four classes of workmen in the goldsmith's trade--those who coined money 7nummularii71 the clasp-makers 7firmacularii71 the manufacturers of drinking-goblets 7cipharii71 and the goldsmiths1 properly so called 7aurifabri74 ,the ateliers and the shop-windows of these last were on the ,pont-au-,change 7,fig4 #aaa71 in competition with the money-changers1 who for the most part were ,lombards or ,italians4 ,from that epoch a rivalry commenced between these two trade guilds1 which only ceased on the complete downfall of the money-changers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--;,interior of the ,atelier of ,etienne ,delaulne1 a celebrated goldsmith of ,paris1 in the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,designed and engraved by himself4 ,when ,etienne ,boileau1 ,provost of ,paris in the reign of ,louis ,,ix41 wrote in obedience to the legislative designs of the king1 his famous 8,livre des ,mtiers10 to establish the existence of guilds on permanent foundations1 he had scarcely more to do than to transcribe the statutes of the goldsmiths almost the same as those instituted by ,st4 ,eloi1 with the modifications consequent on the new order of things4 ,by the terms of the ordinances drawn up by ,louis1 the goldsmiths of ,paris were exempt from the watch1 and from all other feudal services2 they elected1 every three years1 two or three anciens 7seniors7 8for the protection of the trade10 and these anciens exercised permanent vigilance over the works of their colleagues1 and over the quality of the gold and silver material used by them4 ,an apprentice was not admitted as a master until after ten years' apprenticeship2 and no master could have more than one apprentice1 in addition to those belonging to his own family4 ,the corporation1 so far as concerned the fraternity with respect to works for charitable and devotional purposes1 had a seal 7,fig4 #aaf7 which placed it under the patronage of ,st4 ,eloi2 but1 with regard to its industrial association1 it imprinted on manufactured articles a seing1 or stamp1 which guaranteed the value of the metal4 ,the corporation soon obtained1 from ,philip of ,valois1 a coat-of-arms1 which conferred on it a sort of professional nobility2 and acquired1 owing to the distinguished protection extended to it by that king1 a position which nevertheless it did not succeed in preserving in the united constitution of the six mercantile bodies2 for1 although it laid claim to the first rank on account of its antiquity1 it was forced1 notwithstanding the undeniable superiority of its works1 to be contented with the second1 and even to descend to the third rank4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4--,stamp of ,lyons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4--,stamp of ,chartres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4--,stamp of ,melun4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--;,ancient ,corporate ,seal of the ,goldsmiths of ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4--,stamp of ,orlans4 ,the goldsmiths1 at the time of the compilation of the code of professions by ,etienne ,boileau1 were already separated1 voluntarily or otherwise1 from several trades which had long appeared in their train2 the cristalliers1 or lapidaries2 the gold and silver beaters2 the embroiderers in orfroi 7gold-fringe72 the patentriers 7bead-stringers7 in precious stones lived under their own regulations2 the montaires 7bullion-dealers7 remained under the control of the king and his mint2 the hanapiers 7drinking-cup makers71 the fermailleurs 7makers of clasps71 the pewterers1 boxmakers1 inferior artisans and others who worked in common metals1 had no longer any connection with the goldsmiths of ,paris4 ,but in the provinces1 in towns where the masters of a trade were insufficient to constitute a community or fraternity having its chiefs and its own administration1 it was indispensable to reunite under the same banner the trades between which there was the most agreement1 or rather the least contrariety4 ,thus1 in certain localities in ,france and the ,low ,countries1 the goldsmiths1 proud as they might be of the nobility of their origin1 sometimes found themselves united as equals with the ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4--;,arms of the ,corporation of ,goldsmiths of ,paris1 with this device3 8,vases ,sacrs et ,couronnes1 voil notre uvre40 pewterers1 the mercers1 the braziers1 and even the grocers2 and thus it came to pass that they combined on their banners of fleurs-de-lis the proper arms of each of these several trades4 ,thus1 for instance1 we see the banner of the goldsmiths of ,castellane 7,fig4 #aah7 united with the retail mercers and tailors--it shows a pair of scissors1 scales1 and an ell measure2 at ,chauny 7,fig4 #aai71 a ladder1 a hammer1 and a vase1 indicate that the goldsmiths had for compeers the pewterers and the slaters2 at ,guise 7,fig4 #abj71 the association of farriers1 coppersmiths1 and locksmiths1 is allied with the goldsmiths by a horse-shoe1 a mallet1 and a key2 the brewers of ,harfleur 7,fig4 #aba7 quartered in their arms four barrels between the bars of the cross gules charged with a goblet of gold1 which was the emblem of their associates the goldsmiths2 at ,maringues 7,fig4 #abb71 the gold cup on a field gules surmounts the grocer's candles4 ,these banners were displayed only on great public ceremonies1 in solemn processions1 receptions1 marriages1 the obsequies of kings1 queens1 princes1 and princesses4 ,exempted from military service1 the goldsmiths1 unlike other trade corporations1 had not the opportunity of distinguishing themselves in the militia of the communes4 ,they1 nevertheless1 occupied the first place in the state processions of trades1 and frequently filled posts of honour4 ,thus in ,paris they had the custody of the gold and silver plate when the good city entertained some illustrious guest at a banquet2 they carried the canopy above the head of the king on his joyful accession2 or1 crowned with roses1 walked bearing on their shoulders the venerated shrine of ,st4 ,genevive 7,fig4 #abc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,in the wealthy cities of ,belgium1 where the corporations were queens 7reines71 the goldsmiths1 by virtue of their privileges1 dictated the law and swayed the people4 ,no doubt in ,france they were far from enjoying the same political influence2 nevertheless1 one of them was that provost of merchants1 ,etienne ,marcel1 who1 from #acef to #aceh1 played so bold a part during the regency of the ,dauphin ,charles4 ,but it was especially in periods of peace and prosperity that the goldsmith's art in ,paris shone in all its splendour2 then its banners incessantly waved in the breeze for the festivals and processions of its numerous and wealthy brotherhoods to the churches of ,notre-,dame1 ,st4 ,martial1 ,st4 ,paul1 and ,st4 ,denis of ,montmartre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4--,the ,corporation of the ,goldsmiths of ,paris carrying the ,shrine of ,st4 ,genevive4 7,from an engraving of the ,seventeenth ,century47 ,in #accg the number of the wardens of the goldsmith's guild in ,paris had increased from three to six4 ,they had their names engraved and their marks stamped on tablets of copper1 which were preserved as archives in the town-hall4 ,every ,french goldsmith1 admitted a master after the production of his principal work1 left the impression of his sign manual1 or private mark1 on similar tablets of copper deposited in the office of the guild2 while the stamp of the community itself was required to be engraved at the mint to authorise its being used4 ,every corporation thus had its mark1 which the wardens set on the articles after having assayed and weighed the metal4 ,these marks1 at least in the later centuries1 represented in general the special arms or emblems of the cities2 for ,lyons1 it is a lion2 for ,melun1 an eel2 for ,chartres1 a partridge2 for ,orleans1 the head of ,joan of ,arc1 c4 7,figs4 #aab to #aae74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4--;,gold ,cross1 chased4 7,a ,french ,work of the ,seventeenth ,century47 ,the goldsmiths of ,france manifested1 and with reason1 a jealousy of their privileges1 it being more indispensable for them than for any other artisans to inspire that confidence without which the trade would have been lost2 for their works were required to bear as authentic and legal a value as that of money4 ,therefore1 it may be understood that they exercised keen vigilance over all gold or silver objects which were in any way under their warranty3 hence the frequent visits of the sworn masters to the ateliers and shops of the goldsmiths2 hence the perpetual lawsuits against all instances of negligence or fraud2 hence those quarrels with other trades which arrogated to themselves the right of working in precious metals without having qualified for it4 ,confiscation of goods1 the whip1 the pillory1 were penalties inflicted on goldsmiths in contraband trade who altered the standard1 concealed copper beneath the gold1 or substituted false for precious stones4 ,it1 indeed1 seems remarkable that while for the most part other trades were subject to the control of the goldsmiths1 the latter were responsible only to themselves for the aggressions which they constantly committed within the domain of rival industries4 ,whenever the object to be manufactured was of gold1 it belonged to the goldsmith's trade4 ,the goldsmith made1 by turns1 spurs as the spur-maker2 armour and arms1 as the armourer2 girdles and clasps1 as the belt-maker and the clasp-maker4 ,however1 there is reason to believe that in the fabrication of these various objects1 the goldsmith had recourse to the assistance of special artisans1 who could scarcely fail to derive all possible advantage from such fortuitous association4 ,thus1 when the gold-wrought sword which ,dunois carried when ,charles ,,vii4 entered ,lyons in #addi1 mounted in diamonds and rubies1 and valued at more than fifteen thousand crowns1 was to be made1 the work of the goldsmiths probably consisted only of the fashioning and chasing the hilt1 while the sword-cutler had to forge and temper the blade4 ,in the same manner1 when it was required to work a jewelled robe1 such as ,marie de ,medicis wore at the baptism of her son in #afjf1 the robe being covered with thirty-two thousand precious stones and three thousand diamonds1 the goldsmith had only to mount the stones and furnish the design for fixing them on the gold or silk tissue4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4--,pendant1 adorned with ,diamonds and ,precious ,stones4 7,seventeenth ,century47 ,long before ,benvenuto and other skilful ,italian goldsmiths were summoned by ,francis ,i4 to his court1 the ,french goldsmiths had proved that they needed only a little encouragement to range themselves on a level with foreign artists4 ,but that patronage having failed them1 they left the country and established themselves elsewhere2 thus at the court of ,flanders1 ,antoine of ,bordeaux1 ,margerie of ,avignon1 and ,jean of ,rouen1 distinguished themselves4 ,it is true that in the reign of ,louis ,,xii41 whose exchequer had been exhausted in the ,italian expeditions1 gold and silver had become so scarce in ,france1 that the king was obliged to prohibit the manufacture of all sorts of large plate 7grosserie74 ,but the discovery of ,america having brought with it an abundance of the precious metals1 ,louis ,,xii4 recalled his ordinance in #aeaj2 and thenceforth the corporations of goldsmiths were seen to increase and prosper1 as luxuriousness1 diffused by the example of the great1 descended to the lower ranks of society4 ,silver plate soon displaced that of tin2 and before long personal display had attained such a height1 8that the wife of a merchant wore on her person more jewels than were seen on the image of the ,virgin40 ,the number of the goldsmiths then became so great that in the city of ,rouen alone there were in #aefc two hundred and sixty-five masters having the right of stamp6 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #abf to #aca4--;,chains4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #acb to #acf4--,rings4 ,to sum up this chapter4 ,until the middle of the fourteenth century it is the religious art which prevails2 the goldsmiths are engaged only in executing shrines1 reliquaries1 and church ornaments4 ,at the end of that century1 and during the one following1 they manufactured gold and silver ,illustration3 ,figs4 #acg to #ada4--,seals4 plate1 enriching with their works the treasuries of kings and nobles1 and imparting brilliant display to the adornment of dress4 ,in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the goldsmiths applied themselves more to chasing1 enamelling1 and inlay-work4 ,everywhere are to be seen marvellous trinkets--necklaces1 rings1 buckles1 chains1 seals 7,figs4 #abd to #adb74 ,the weight of metal is no longer the principal merit2 the skill of the workman is especially appreciated1 and the goldsmith executes in gold1 in silver1 and in precious stones1 the beautiful productions of painters and engravers4 ,nevertheless1 the demand for delicate objects had the disadvantage of requiring much solder and alloy1 which deteriorated the standard of metal4 ,then a desperate struggle commenced between the goldsmiths and the mint--a struggle which was prosecuted through a maze of legal proceedings1 petitions1 and ordinances1 until the middle of the reign of ,louis ,,xv4 ,at the same time the ,italian and ,german goldsmiths making an irruption into ,france and introducing materials of a low standard1 the old professional integrity became suspected and was soon disregarded4 ,at the end of the sixteenth century very little plate was ornamented3 there is a return to massive plate1 the weight and standard of which could be easily verified4 ,gold is scarcely any longer employed1 except for jewels2 and silver in a thousand forms creeps into the manufacture of furniture4 ,after cabinets1 covered and ornamented with carving in silver1 came the articles of silver furniture invented by ,claude ,ballin4 ,but the mass of precious metal withdrawn from circulation was soon returned to it1 and the fashion passed away4 ,the goldsmiths found themselves reduced to manufacture only objects of small size2 and for the most part they limited themselves to works of jewellery1 which subjected them to less annoyance from the mint4 ,besides1 the art of the lapidary had almost changed its character1 as well as the trade in precious stones4 ,pierre de ,montarsy1 jeweller to the king1 effected a kind of revolution in his art1 which the travels of ,chardin1 of ,bernier1 and of ,tavernier1 in the ,east had1 so to say1 enlarged4 ,the cutting and mounting of precious stones has not since been excelled4 ,it may be said that ,montarsy was the first jeweller1 as ,ballin was the last goldsmith4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4--;,chased and ,enamelled ,brooch1 embellished with ,pearls and ,diamonds4 7,seventeenth ,century47 ,,horology4 ,modes of measuring ,time among the ,ancients4--,the ,gnomon4--,the ,water-,clock4--,the ,hour-,glass4--,the ,water-,clock1 improved by the ,persians and by the ,italians4--,gerbert invents the ,escapement and the moving ,weights4--,the ,striking-bell4--,maistre ,jehan des ,orloges4--,jacquemart of ,dijon4--,the first ,clock in ,paris4--,earliest portable ,timepiece4--,invention of the spiral ,spring4--,first appearance of ,watches4--,the ,watches1 or 8,eggs10 of ,nuremberg4--,invention of the ,fusee4--,corporation of ,clockmakers4--,noted ,clocks at ,jena1 ,strasburg1 ,lyons1 c4--,charles-,quint and ,jannellus4--,the ,pendulum4 ,among the ancients there were three instruments for measuring time--the gnomon1 or sun-dial1 which is only1 as we know1 a table whereon lines are so arranged as successively to meet the shadow cast by a gnomon1#bj thus indicating the hour of the day according to the height or inclination of the sun2 the water-clock 7clepsydra71 which had for its principle the measured percolation of a certain quantity of water2 and the hour-glass1 wherein the liquid is exchanged for sand4 ,it would be difficult to determine which of these three chronometric modes can lay claim to priority4 ,there is this to be said that1 according to the ,bible1 in the eighth century before ,christ1 ,ahaz1 ,king of ,judah1 caused a sun-dial to be constructed at ,jerusalem2 again1 ,herodotus says ,anaximander introduced the sun-dial into ,greece1 whence it passed on to the other parts of the then civilised world2 and that1 in the year #bic before our era1 the celebrated ,papirius ,cursor1 to the astonishment of his fellow-citizens1 had a sun-dial traced near the temple of ,jupiter ,quirinus4 ,according to the description given by ,athena 7,athenus871 the water-clock was formed of an earthenware or metal vessel filled with water1 and then suspended over a reservoir whereon lines were marked indicating the hours1 as the water which escaped drop by drop from the upper vessel came to the level4 ,we find this instrument employed by most ancient nations1 and in many countries it remained in use until the tenth century of the ,christian era4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4--,the ,clockmaker4 ,designed and ,engraved by ,j4 ,amman4 ,in one of his dialogues ,plato declares that the philosophers are far more fortunate than the orators--8these being the slaves of a miserable water-clock2 whereas the others are at liberty to make their discourse as long as they please40 ,to explain this passage1 we must remember that it was the practice in the ,athenian courts of justice1 as subsequently in those of ,rome1 to measure the time allowed to the advocates for pleading by means of a water-clock4 ,three equal portions of water were put into it--one for the prosecutor1 one for the defendant1 and the third for the judge4 ,a man was charged with the special duty of giving timely notice to each of the three speakers that his portion was nearly run out4 ,if1 on some unusual occasion1 the time for one or other of the parties was doubled1 it was called 8adding water-clock to water-clock20 and when witnesses were giving evidence1 or the text of some law was being read out1 the percolation of the water was stopped3 this was called aquam sustinere 7to retain the water74 ,the hour-glass1 which is still in use to a considerable extent for measuring short intervals of time1 had great analogy with the water-clock1 but was never susceptible of such regularity4 ,in fact1 at different periods important improvements were applied to the water-clock4 ,vitruvius tells us that1 about one hundred years before our era1 ,ctesibius1 a mechanician of ,alexandria1 added several cogged-wheels to the water-clock1 one of which moved a hand1 showing the hour on a dial4 ,this must have been1 so far as historical documents admit of proof1 the first step towards purely mechanical horology4 ,in order1 then1 to find an authentic date in the history of horology1 we must go to the eighth century1 when water-clocks1 still further improved1 were either made or imported into ,france2 among others1 one which ,pope ,paul ,i4 sent to ,pepin le ,bref4 ,we must1 however1 believe that these instruments can have attracted but little attention1 or that they were speedily forgotten2 for1 one hundred years later1 there appeared a water-clock at the court of ,charlemagne1 a present from the famous caliph ,aroun-al-,raschid1 regarded1 indeed almost celebrated1 as a notable event4 ,of this ,eginhard has left us an elaborate description4 ,it was1 he says1 in brass1 damaskeened with gold1 and marked the hours on a dial4 ,at the end of each hour an equal number of small iron balls fell on a bell1 and made it sound as many times as the hour indicated by the needle4 ,twelve windows immediately opened1 out of which were seen to proceed the same number of horsemen armed cap--pie1 who1 after performing divers evolutions1 withdrew into the interior of the mechanism1 and then the windows closed4 ,shortly afterwards ,pacificus1 ,archbishop of ,verona1 constructed one far superior to all that had preceded it2 for1 besides giving the hours1 it indicated the date of the month1 the days of the week1 the phases of the moon1 c4 ,but still it was only an improved water-clock4 ,before horology could really assume an historical date1 it was necessary that for motive power weights should be substituted for water1 and that the escapement should be invented2 yet it was only in the beginning of the tenth century that these important discoveries were made4 8,in the reign of ,hugh ,capet10 says ,m4 ,dubois1 8there lived in ,france a man of great talent and reputation named ,gerbert4 ,he was born in the mountains of ,auvergne1 and had passed his childhood in tending flocks near ,aurillac4 ,one day some monks of the order of ,st4 ,benedict met him in the fields3 they conversed with him1 and finding him precociously intelligent1 took him into their convent of ,st4 ,grauld4 ,there ,gerbert soon acquired a taste for monastic life4 ,eager for knowledge1 and devoting all his spare moments to study1 he became the most learned of the community4 ,after he had taken vows1 a desire to add to his scientific attainments led him to set out for ,spain4 ,during several years he assiduously frequented the universities of the ,iberian peninsula4 ,he soon found himself too learned for ,spain2 for1 in spite of his truly sincere piety1 ignorant fanatics accused him of sorcery4 ,as that accusation might have involved him in deplorable consequences1 he preferred not to await the result2 and hastily quitting the town of ,salamanca1 which was his ordinary residence1 he came to ,paris1 where he very soon made himself powerful friends and protectors4 ,at length1 after having successively been monk1 superior of the convent of ,bobbio1 in ,italy1 ,archbishop of ,rheims1 tutor to ,robert ,i41 ,king of ,france1 and to ,otho ,,iii41 ,emperor of ,germany1 who appointed him to the see of ,ravenna1 ,gerbert rose to the pontifical throne under the name of ,sylvester ,,ii43 he died in #ajjc4 ,this great man did honour to his country and to his age4 ,he was acquainted with nearly all the dead and living languages2 he was a mechanician1 astronomer1 physician1 geometrician1 algebraist1 c4 ,he introduced the ,arab numerals into ,france4 ,in the seclusion of his monastic cell1 as in his archiepiscopal palace1 his favourite relaxation was the study of mechanics4 ,he was skilled in making sun-dials1 water-clocks1 hour-glasses1 and hydraulic organs4 ,it was he who first applied weight as a motive power to horology2 and1 in all probability1 he is the inventor of that admirable mechanism called escapement--the most beautiful1 as well as the most essential1 of all the inventions which have been made in horology40 ,this is not the place to give a description of these two mechanisms1 which can hardly be explained except with the assistance of purely technical drawings1 but it may be remarked that weights are still the sole motive power of large clocks1 and the escapement alluded to has been alone employed throughout the world until the end of the seventeenth century4 ,notwithstanding the importance of these two inventions1 little use was made of them during the eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth centuries4 ,the water-clock and hour-glass 7,fig4 #add7 continued exclusively in use4 ,some were ornamented and engraved with much taste2 and they contributed to the decoration of apartments1 as at present do our bronzes and clocks more or less costly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4--;,an ,hour-glass of the ,sixteenth ,century1--,french ,work4 ,history does not inform us who was the inventor of the striking machinery2 but it is at least averred that it existed at the commencement of the twelfth century4 ,the first mention of it is found in the 8,usages de l',ordre de ,cteaux10 compiled about #aabj4 ,it is there prescribed to the sacristan so to regulate the clock1 that it 8sounds and awakens him before matins20 in another chapter the monk is ordered to prolong the lecture until 8the clock strikes40 ,at first1 in the monasteries1 the monks took it in turn to watch1 and warn the community of the hours for prayer2 and1 in the towns1 there were night watchmen1 who1 moreover1 were maintained in many places to announce in the streets the hour denoted by the clocks1 the water-clocks1 or the hour-glasses4 ,the machinery for striking once invented1 we do not find that horology had attained to any perfection before the end of the thirteenth century2 but1 in the commencement of the following it received its impulse1 and the art from that time continued to progress4 ,to give an idea of what was effected at that time1 we will borrow a passage from the earliest writings in which horology is mentioned2 that is1 from an unpublished book by ,philip de ,maizires1 entitled 8,le ,songe du ,vieil ,plerin30--8,it is known that in ,italy there is at present 7about #acej7 a man generally celebrated in philosophy1 in medicine1 and in astronomy2 in his station1 by common report1 singular and grave1 excelling in the above three sciences1 and of the city of ,padua4 ,his surname is lost1 and he is called #8,maistre ,jehan des ,orloges1' residing at present with the ,comte de ,vertus2 and1 for the treble sciences1 he has for yearly wages and perquisites two thousand florins1 or thereabouts4 ,this ,maistre ,jean des ,orloges has made an instrument1 by some called a sphere or clock1 of the movement of the heavens1 in which instrument are all the motions of the signs 7zodiacal71 and of the planets1 with their circles and epicycles1 and multiplied differences1 wheels 7roes7 without number1 with all their parts1 and each planet in the said sphere1 distinctly4 ,on any given night1 we see clearly in what sign and degree are the planets and the stars of the heavens2 and this sphere is so cunningly made1 that notwithstanding the multitude of wheels1 which cannot well be numbered without taking the machinery to pieces1 their entire mechanism is governed by one single counterpoise1 so marvellous that the grave astronomers from distant regions come with great reverence to visit the said ,maistre ,jean and the work of his hands2 and all the great clerks of astronomy1 of philosophy1 and of medicine1 declare that there is no recollection of a man1 either in written document or otherwise1 who in this world has made so ingenious or so important an instrument of the heavenly movements as the said clock4444 ,maistre ,jean made the said clock with his own hands1 all of brass and of copper1 without the assistance of any other person1 and did nothing else during sixteen entire years1 if the writer of the book1 who had a great friendship for the said ,maistre ,jean1 has been rightly informed40 ,it is known1 on the other hand1 that the famous clockmaker1 whose real name ,maizires assumes to be lost1 was called ,jaques de ,dondis2 and that1 in spite of the assertion of the writer1 he had only to arrange the clock1 the parts of which had been executed by an excellent workman named ,antoine4 ,however this may be1 placed at the top of one of the towers of the palace of ,padua1 the clock of ,jaques de ,dondis1 or of 8,maistre ,jean des ,orloges10 excited general admiration1 and several princes of ,europe being desirous to have similar clocks1 many workmen tried to imitate it4 ,in fact1 churches or monasteries were soon able to pride themselves on possessing similar chefs-d'uvre4 ,among the most remarkable clocks of that period1 we must refer to that of which ,froissart speaks1 and which was carried away from the town of ,courtray by ,philip the ,bold after the battle of ,rosbecque in #achb4 8,the ,duke of ,burgundy10 says our author1 8caused to be carried away from the market-place a clock that struck the hours1 one of the finest which could be found on either side the sea2 and he conveyed it piece by piece in carts1 and the bell also4 ,which clock was brought and carted into the town of ,dijon1 in ,burgundy1 was there deposited and put up1 and there strikes the twenty-four hours between day and night40 ,it is the celebrated clock of ,dijon which then as now was surmounted by two automata of iron1 a man and a woman1 striking the hours on the bell4 ,the origin of the name of ,jacquemart given to these figures has been much disputed4 ,mnage believes that the word is derived from the ,latin jaccomarchiardus 7coat of mail--attire of war72 and he reminds us that1 in the ,middle ,ages1 it was the custom to station1 on the summit of the towers1 men 7soldiers wearing the jacque7 to give warning of the approach of the enemy1 of fires1 c4 ,mnage adds that1 when more efficient watchers occasioned the discontinuance of these nocturnal sentinels1 it was probably considered desirable to preserve the remembrance of them by putting in the place they had occupied iron figures which struck the hours4 ,other writers trace the name even to the inventor of this description of clocks1 who1 according to them1 lived in the fourteenth century1 and was called ,jacques ,marck4 ,finally1 ,gabriel ,peignot1 who has written a dissertation on the jacquemart of ,dijon1 asserts that in #adbb a person named ,jacquemart1 clockmaker and locksmith1 residing in the town of ,lille1 received twenty-two livres from the ,duke of ,burgundy1 for repairing the clock of ,dijon2 and from that he concludes1 seeing how short the distance is from ,lille to ,courtray1 whence the clock of ,dijon had been taken1 that this ,jacquemart might well be the son or the grandson of the clockmaker who had constructed it about #acfj2 consequently the name of the jacquemart of ,dijon is derived from that of its maker1 old ,jacquemart1 the clockmaker of ,lille 7,fig4 #ade74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4--;,jacquemart of ,notre-,dame at ,dijon1 made at ,courtray in the ,fourteenth ,century4 ,giving to each of these opinions its due weight1 we confine ourselves to stating that1 from the end of the fourteenth century to the beginning of the fifteenth1 numerous churches in ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,france already had jacquemarts4 ,the first clock possessed by ,paris was that in the turret of the ,palais de ,justice4 ,charles ,v4 had it constructed in #acgj by a ,german artisan1 ,henri de ,vic4 ,it contained a weight for moving power1 an oscillating piece for regulator1 and an escapement4 ,it was adorned with carvings by ,germain ,pilon1 and was destroyed in the eighteenth century4 ,in #achi1 the clockmaker ,jean ,jouvence made one for the ,castle of ,montargis4 ,those of ,sens and of ,auxerre1 as well as that of ,lund in ,sweden1 date from the same period4 ,in the last1 every hour two cavaliers met and gave each other as many blows as the hours to be struck3 then a door opened1 and the ,virgin ,mary appeared sitting on a throne1 with the ,infant ,jesus in her arms1 receiving the visit of the ,magi followed by their retinue2 the ,magi prostrating themselves and tendering their presents4 ,during the ceremony two trumpets sounded3 then all vanished1 to re-appear the following hour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4--;,clock with ,wheels and ,weights4 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,cabinet of ,antiquities1 ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,until the end of the thirteenth century1 clocks were destined exclusively ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4--;,a portable ,clock of the time of the ,valois4 to public buildings2 or they at least affected1 if we may say so1 a monumental character which precluded their admission into private houses4 ,the first clocks with weights and the flywheel made for private use appeared in ,france1 in ,italy1 and in ,germany1 about the commencement of the fourteenth century2 but naturally they were at first so costly that only nobles and wealthy persons could obtain them4 ,but an impulse was given which led to the manufacture of these objects more economically4 ,in fact1 it was not long before portable clocks were seen in the most unpretentious abodes4 ,this of course did not prevent the production of expensive examples1 either as regards ornamentation or carving1 or in placing the clock on costly pedestals or cases1 within which were suspended the weights 7,fig4 #adf74 ,the fifteenth century has distinctly left its mark on the progress of horology4 ,in #adja the ,cathedral of ,seville was enriched with a magnificent clock which struck the hours4 ,in #adjd1 ,lazare1 a ,servian by birth1 constructed a similar one for ,moscow4 ,that of ,lubeck1 which was embellished with the figures of the twelve ,apostles1 dates from #adje4 ,it is proper to notice also the famous clock which ,jean-,galeas ,visconti had made for ,pavia2 and more especially that of ,st4 ,marc of ,venice1 which was not executed until #adie4 ,the spiral spring was invented in the time of ,charles ,,vii43 a band of very fine steel1 rolled up into a small drum or barrel1 produced1 in unrolling1 the effect of the weights on the primitive movements4 ,to the possibility of enclosing that moving power in a confined space is due the facility of manufacturing very small clocks4 ,in fact1 one finds in certain collections1 clocks of the time of ,louis ,,xi41 remarkable not only for the artistic richness of their decoration1 but still more so for the small space they occupy1 although they are generally of very complicated mechanism2 some marking the date of the month1 striking the hour1 and serving also as alarm-clocks4 ,it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to determine the exact date of the invention of watches4 ,but1 in truth1 we ought perhaps to regard the watch1 especially after the invention of the spiral spring1 as only the last step taken towards a portable form of clock4 ,it is however true1 according to the statements found in ,pancirole and ,du ,verdier by the authors of the 8,encyclopdia of ,sciences10 that at the end of the fifteenth century watches were made no larger than an almond4 ,even the names ,myrmcides and ,carovagius are cited as those of two celebrated artisans in such work4 ,it was said that the latter made an alarm-watch which not only sounded the hour required1 but even struck a light to ignite a candle4 ,besides1 we know for certain that1 in the time of ,louis ,,xi41 there were watches very small yet perfectly manufactured2 and it is proved that1 in #aejj1 at ,nuremberg1 ,peter ,hele made them of the form of an egg1 and consequently the watches of that country were long known as ,nuremberg eggs4 ,we learn1 moreover1 from history that in #aedb1 a watch which struck the hours1 set in a ring1 was offered to ,guidobaldo of ,rovere2 and that in #aege1 ,parker1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 bequeathed to his brother ,richard a cane of ,indian wood having a watch placed in its head2 and1 finally1 that ,henry ,,viii4 of ,england wore a very small watch requiring to be wound up only every eighth day4 ,it is not inappropriate here to remark that the time kept by these little machines was not regular until an ingenious workman1 whose name has not come down to us1 invented the fusee1 a kind of truncated cone2 to the base of this was attached a small piece of catgut which1 spirally rolling itself up to the top1 became fastened to the barrel that enclosed the spring4 ,the advantage of this arrangement is1 that owing to the conical form of the fusee1 the traction of the spring acting as it relaxes on a greater radius of the cone1 it results in establishing equilibrium of power between the first and the last movements of the spring4 ,subsequently a clockmaker named ,gruet substituted jointed 7articules7 chains for catgut2 the latter having the great disadvantage of being hygrometric and varying in tension with the state of the atmosphere4 ,the use of watches spread rapidly in ,france4 ,in the reigns of the ,valois1 a large number were made of very diminutive size1 to which the clockmakers gave all sorts of forms1 especially those of an acorn1 an almond1 a ,latin cross1 a shell 7,figs4 #adh to #aej74 ,they were engraved1 chased1 enamelled2 the hand which marked the hour was very frequently of delicate workmanship1 and sometimes ornamented with precious stones4 ,some of these watches set in motion symbolic figures1 as well as ,time1 ,apollo1 ,diana1 the ,virgin1 the ,apostles1 and the saints4 ,it may be conceived that all these complicated works required numerous craftsmen4 ,it was therefore considered proper to unite these artisans in a community4 ,the statutes which they had received from ,louis ,,xi4 in #adhc were confirmed by ,francis ,i4 ,they contained a succession of laws1 intended to protect at the same time the interests of members of the corporation and the dignity of their profession4 ,no one was admitted as master but on proof of having served eight years of apprenticeship1 and after having produced a chef-d'uvre in the ,illustration3 ,,clock ,,of ,,damascened ,,iron ,,and ,,watches ,of the ,fifteenth and ,sixteenth ,centuries4 house1 or under the supervision1 of one of the inspectors of the corporation4 ,the visiting inspectors1 elected by all the members1 as well as by the trustees and the syndics1 were authorised when introducing themselves into the workshops1 to look after the proper construction of watches and clocks2 and if it happened that they found such as did not appear to be made according to the rules of art1 they could not only seize and destroy them1 but also impose a fine on the maker for the benefit of the corporation4 ,the statutes also gave exclusive right to the accredited masters to trade1 directly or otherwise1 with all the stock1 new or second-hand1 finished or unfinished4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #adh to #aej4--,watches of the ,valois ,epoch4 7,sixteenth ,century47 8,under the influence of these wise institutions10 ,m4 ,dubois remarks1 8the master-clockmakers had no fear of the competition of persons not belonging to the corporation4 ,if they were affected by the artistic superiority of some of their colleagues1 it was with the laudable desire to contend with them for the first places4 ,the work of one day1 superior to that of the preceding1 was surpassed by that of the day following4 ,it was by this incessant competition of intelligence and knowledge1 by this legitimate and invigorating rivalry of all the members of the same industrious community1 that science itself attained by degrees the zenith of the excellent and the sublime of the beautiful4 ,the ambition of workmen was to rise to the mastership1 and they attained that only by force of labour and assiduous efforts4 ,the ambition of the masters was to acquire the honours of the syndicate--that consular magistracy the most honourable of all1 for it was the result of election1 and the recompense of services rendered to art and to the community40 ,having thus reached the middle of the sixteenth century1 and not wishing to exceed the compass assigned to this sketch1 we may limit ourselves to the mention of some of the remarkable works produced during a century by an art that had already manifested itself with a power never to be diminished4 ,the clock which ,henry ,,ii4 had constructed for the chteau of ,anet has long been regarded as very curious4 ,every time the hand denotes the hour1 a stag appears from the inside of the clock1 and darts away followed by a pack of hounds2 but soon the pack and the stag stop1 and the latter1 by means of very ingenious mechanism1 strikes the hours with one of his feet4 ,the clock of ,jena 7,fig4 #aea71 which is still in existence1 is not less famous4 ,above the dial is a bronze head presumed to represent a buffoon of ,ernest1 ,elector of ,saxony1 who died in #adhf4 ,when the hour is about to strike1 the head--so remarkably ugly as to have given the clock the name of the monstrous head--opens its very large mouth4 ,a figure representing an old pilgrim offers it a golden apple on the end of a stick2 but just when poor ,hans 7so was the fool called7 is about to close his mouth to masticate and swallow the apple1 the pilgrim suddenly withdraws it4 ,on the left of the head is an angel singing 7the arms of the city of ,jena71 holding in one hand a book1 which he raises towards his eyes whenever the hours strike1 and with the other he rings a hand-bell4 ,the town of ,niort1 in ,poitou1 possessed also an extraordinary clock1 ornamented with a great number of allegorical figures--the work of ,bouhain1 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4--;,clock of ,jena1 in ,germany4 7,fifteenth ,century47 in #aegj4 ,a much more famous clock was that of ,strasburg 7,fig4 #aeb71 constructed in #aegc1 and which was long considered to be the greatest of all wonders4 ,it was entirely restored in #ahdb by ,m4 ,schwilgu4 ,angelo ,rocca1 in his 8,commentarium de ,campanis10 gives a description of it4 ,its most important feature was a moving sphere1 whereon were represented the planets and the constellations1 and which completed its rotation in three hundred and sixty-five days4 ,on two sides of the dial and below it the principal festivals of the year and the solemnities of the ,church were represented by allegorical figures4 ,other dials1 distributed symmetrically on the faade of the tower in which the clock is situated1 marked the days of the week1 the date of the month1 the signs of the zodiac1 the phases of the moon1 the rising and setting of the sun1 c4 ,every hour two angels ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--;,astronomical ,clock of the ,cathedral at ,strasburg1 constructed in #aegc4 sounded the trumpet4 ,when the concert was finished1 the bell tolled2 then immediately a cock1 perched on the summit1 spread his wings noisily1 and made his crowing to be heard4 ,the striking machinery1 by means of movable trap-doors1 cylinders1 and springs concealed in the interior of the clock1 set in motion a considerable number of automata1 executed with much skill4 ,angelo ,rocca adds that the completion of this chef-d'uvre was attributed to ,nicolas ,copernicus2 and that when this able mechanician had finished his work1 the sheriffs and consuls of the city had his eyes put out in order to render it impossible for him to execute a similar clock for any other city4 ,this last statement is the more deserving to rank among mere legends from the fact that1 independent of existing proof of the clock being made by ,conrad ,dasypodius1 it would be very difficult to prove that ,copernicus ever visited ,alsace1 or had his eyes put out4 ,a similar tradition is attached to the history of another clock still in existence1 and which was not less celebrated than that of ,strasburg4 ,we refer to that of the ,church of ,st4 ,john at ,lyons1 made in #aeih by ,nicholas ,lippius1 a clockmaker of ,basle2 repaired and enlarged subsequently by ,nourisson1 an artisan of ,lyons4 ,only the horary mechanism now acts2 but the clock is not on that account neglected by visitors1 to whom the worthy attendants still repeat1 in perfect faith1 that ,lippius was put to death as soon as he had finished his chef-d'uvre4 ,to show the improbability of this pretended penalty it is sufficient to remark1 with ,m4 ,dubois1 that even in the sixteenth century persons were not killed for the crime of making chefs-d'uvre2 and there is1 besides1 proof that ,lippius died in peace1 and honoured1 in his native country4 ,to these famous clocks must be added those of ,st4 ,lambert at ,lige1 of ,nuremberg1 of ,augsburg1 and of ,basle2 that of ,medina del ,campo1 in ,spain1 and those which1 in the reign of ,charles ,i41 or during the ,protectorship of ,cromwell1 were manufactured and placed in ,england1 at ,st4 ,dunstan's in ,london1#ba and in the ,cathedral of ,canterbury1 in ,edinburgh1 and in ,glasgow1 c4 ,before concluding1 and to do justice to a century to which we have assigned a period of decline1 we are bound to acknowledge that some years before the death of ,cardinal ,richelieu--that is to say1 from #afcj to #afdj--;artists of ability made praiseworthy efforts to create a new era in horology4 ,but the improvements they had in view were directed much more to the processes of the construction of the several parts composing the clockwork of watches and clocks than to the beauty and ingenuity of the workmanship4 ,this was progress of a purely professional character1 in order to create a more ready and inexpensive supply2 a progress which we may regard as services rendered by art to trade4 ,the period of great constructions and delicate marvels was past4 ,ornamental ,jacquemarts were no longer placed in belfries4 ,mechanical chefs-d'uvre were no longer set in frail gems4 ,the time was still far off when1 laying down the sceptre of that empire on which 8the sun never sets10 the conqueror of ,francis ,i41 retiring to a cloister1 employed himself in the construction of the most complicated clockwork4 ,charles ,v4 had as assistant1 if not as teacher1 in his work the learned mathematician1 ,jannellus ,turianus1 whom he had induced to join him in his retreat4 ,it is said that he enjoyed nothing so much as seeing the monks of ,saint-,just standing amazed before his alarum watches and automaton clocks2 but it is also stated that he manifested the greatest despair when obliged to admit it was as impossible to establish perfect concord among clocks as among men4 ,in truth1 ,galileo had not yet arrived to observe and formulate the laws of the pendulum1 which ,huygens was happily to apply to the movements of horology4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4--,top of an ,hour-,glass1 engraved and gilt4 7,a ,french ,work of the ,sixteenth ,century47 ,,musical ,,instruments4 ,music in the ,middle ,ages4--,musical ,instruments from the ,fourth to the ,thirteenth ,century4--,wind ,instruments3 the ,single and ,double ,flute1 the ,pandean ,pipes1 the ,reed-pipe1 the ,hautboy1 the ,flageolet1 ,trumpets1 ,horns1 ,olifants1 the ,hydraulic ,organ1 the ,bellows-,organ4--,instruments of ,percussion3 the ,bell1 the ,hand-bell1 ,cymbals1 the ,timbrel1 the ,triangle1 the ,bombulum1 ,drums4--,stringed ,instruments3 the ,lyre1 the ,cithern1 the ,harp1 the ,psaltery1 the ,nable1 the ,chorus1 the ,organistrum1 the ,lute and the ,guitar1 the ,crout1 the ,rote1 the ,viola1 the ,gigue1 the ,monochord4 ,the history of ,music in the ,middle ,ages would commence about the fourth century of our era4 ,in the sixth century1 ,isidore of ,seville1 in his 8,sentiments sur la ,musique10 writes as follows3--8,music is a modulation of the voice1 and also an accordance of several sounds and their simultaneous union40 ,about #chd1 ,st4 ,ambrose1 who built the ,cathedral of ,milan1 regulated the mode in which psalms1 hymns1 and anthems should be performed1 by selecting from ,greek chants those melodies he considered best adapted to the ,latin ,church4 ,in #eij1 ,gregory the ,great1 in order to remedy the disorder which had crept into ecclesiastical singing1 collected all that remained of the ancient ,greek melodies1 with those of ,st4 ,ambrose and others1 and formed the antiphonary which is called the ,centonien1 because it is composed of chants of his selection4 ,henceforward1 ecclesiastical chanting obtained the name of ,gregorian2 it was adopted into the whole of the ,western ,church1 and maintained its position almost unaltered down to the middle of the eleventh century4 ,it is thought that originally the music of the antiphonary was noted in accordance with ,greek and ,roman usage--a notation known as the ,boethian1 from the name of ,boethius the philosopher1 by whom we are informed that in his time 7that is1 about the end of the fifth century7 the notation was composed of the first fifteen letters of the alphabet4 ,the sounds of the octave were represented--the major by capital letters1 the minor by small letters1 as follows3-- ,major mode ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,minor mode a b c d e f g ,some fragments of music of the eleventh century are still preserved1 in which the notation is represented by letters having above them the signs of another kind of notation called neumes 7,fig4 #aed74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4--,lament composed shortly after the ,death of ,charlemagne1 probably about #had or #hae1 and attributed to ,colomban1 ,abbot of ,saint-,tron4 7,,ms4 de la ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,no4 #a1aed47 ,musical ,notation expressed in ,modern ,signs1 the ,text and ,translation of the ,lament on ,charlemagne4 ,illustration3 ,a so lis or tu us que ad oc ci du a ,lit to ra ma ris plan ctus pul sat pec to ra ,ul tra ma ri na ag mi na tris ,illustration3 ti ti a ,te ti git in gens cum er ro re ni mi o ,heu me do lens plan go6 ,fran ci ,ro ma ni at que cun cti cre du li1 ,luc tu pun gun tur et mag na mo les ti a in fan tes1 se nes glo ri o si prin ci pes ,nam clan git or bis de trimentum ,ka ro li ,heu mi hi mi se ro6 ,a solis ortu usque ad occidua ,littora maris1 planctus pulsat pectora2 ,ultra marina agmina tristitia ,tetigit ingens cum errore nimio4 ,heu6 me dolens1 plango4 ,franci1 ,romani1 atque cuncti creduli1 ,luctu punguntor et magna molestia1 ,infantes1 senes1 gloriosi principes2 ,nam clangit orbis detrimentum ,karoli4 ,heu6 mihi misero6 ,from the ,east to the ,western shores1 sorrow agitates every heart2 and inland1 this vast grief saddens armies4 ,alas6 in my grief1 ,i1 too1 weep4 ,french1 ,romans1 and all believers are plunged into mourning and profound grief3 children1 old men1 and illustrious princes2 for the whole world deplores the loss of ,charlemagne4 ,alas6 miserable me6 ,about the fourth century the neumes were in use in the ,greek ,church2 they are spoken of by ,st4 ,gregory of ,nazianzus4 ,certain modifications in them were introduced by the ,lombards and ,saxons4 8,they were specially in use from the eighth to the twelfth century10 says ,m4 ,coussemaker1 in his learned work1 8,histoire de l',harmonie au ,moyen ,age10 8and consisted of two sorts of signs3 some formed like commas1 dots1 or small inclined or horizontal strokes1 which represented isolated sounds2 others in the shape of hooks1 and strokes variously twisted and joined1 expressing groups of sound composed of various intervals4 8,these commas1 dots1 and inclined or horizontal strokes were the origin of the long notes1 the breve and the semibreve1 and afterwards of the square notation still in use in the plain-chant of the ,church4 ,the hook-shaped signs and the variously twisted and joined strokes gave rise to the ligatures and connections of notes4 8,from the eighth to the end of the twelfth century--that is1 during one of the brightest periods of musical liturgy--the neumes were the notation exclusively adopted over the whole of ,europe1 both in ecclesiastical singing and also in secular music4 ,from the end of the eleventh century1 this system of notation was established in ,france1 ,italy1 ,germany1 ,england1 and ,spain40 ,the chief modification to which the notation of music was subject at the end of the eleventh century is due to the monk ,guido1 of ,arezzo4 ,in order to facilitate the reading of the neumes1 he invented placing them on lines1 and these lines he distinguished by colours4 ,the second1 that of the fa1 was red2 the fourth1 that of the ut1 was green2 the first and the third are only traced on the vellum with a pen4 ,in order that the seven notes should be better impressed upon the memory1 he gave as an example the three first lines of the ,hymn of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 in which the syllables ut1 re1 mi1 fa1 sol1 la1 corresponded to the signs of the gamut3-- 8,ut queant laxis ,resonare fibris ,mira gestorum ,famuli tuorum1 ,solve polluti ,labii reatum1 ,sancte ,joannes40 ,the choristers1 in singing this hymn1 slightly raised the intonation of each of the italicised syllables1 which were soon adopted for indicating six of the notes of the gamut4 ,to supply the seventh1 which was not named in this system1 the barbarous theory of muances 7divisions7 was introduced1 and it was not until the seventeenth century the term si was applied in ,france4 ,but after the commencement of the tenth century many individuals1 and especially poets1 had invented rhythmical songs1 which were entirely different from those of the ,church4 8,harmony formed by successions of various intervals10 as we are told by the author whom we have before quoted1 8obtained in the eleventh century the name of discantus1 in old ,french dchant4 ,francon de ,cologne is the most ancient author who makes use of this word4 ,during the whole course of the eleventh century the composition of melody was independent of harmony1 and henceforth the composition of music was divided into two very distinct parts4 ,the people1 and poets and persons in high life1 constructed the melody and the words2 but being ignorant of the science of music1 they resorted to a professional musician to have their inspirations written down4 ,the first were very justly called trouvres 7trobadori71 the others the dchanteurs1 or harmonisers4 ,harmony was then only adapted for two voices--a combination of fifths1 and of movements in unison4 8,in the twelfth century1 the construction of melody continued to be in the hands of poets4 ,the dchanteurs or harmonisers were the professional musicians4 ,popular songs became very numerous4 ,troubadours multiplied all over ,europe1 and the greatest lords deemed it an honour to cultivate both poetry and music4 ,germany had her #8master-singers1' who were in request at every court4 ,in ,france1 the ,chtelain de ,coucy1 the ,king of ,navarre1 the ,comte de ,bthune1 the ,comte d',anjou1 and a hundred others acquired a brilliant reputation by songs1 of which they composed both the words and the melody4 ,the most celebrated of these trouvres was ,adam de la ,halle1 who flourished in #abfj40 ,in the fourteenth century1 the name of counterpoint was substituted for that of dchant2 and in #acfd1 at the coronation of ,charles ,v4 at ,rheims1 a mass was sung which was written in four parts1 composed by ,guillaume de ,machault1 poet and musician4 ,among the ancients the number of musical instruments was considerable1 but their names were even still more numerous1 because derived from the shape1 the material1 the nature and character of the instruments1 all of which varied infinitely1 according to the whim of the maker or the musician4 ,added to this1 every country had its national instruments2 and as each in its own language designated them by descriptive names1 the same instrument appeared under ten different denominations1 and a similar name was applied to ten instruments4 ,however1 having nothing but monumental representation to guide us1 and in the absence of the instruments themselves1 an almost inextricable confusion arises4 ,the ,romans carried back to their own country1 as the results of conquest1 specimens of most of the musical instruments they found in use in the countries subdued by them4 ,thus ,greece supplied ,rome with nearly all the soft instruments of the class of lyres and flutes4 ,germany and the northern provinces1 being inhabited by warlike races1 gave to their conquerors the taste for loud-sounding instruments1 such as trumpets and drums4 ,asia1 and ,juda especially1 which had multiplied various kinds of metal-instruments for use in their religious ceremonies1 were the means of naturalising in ,roman music deep-toned instruments of the class of bells and tom-toms 7a kind of drum74 ,egypt introduced into ,italy the timbrel along with the worship of ,isis4 ,byzantium had no sooner invented the first pneumatic organs than the new religion of ,christ took possession of them for exclusive consecration to its service1 both in the ,east and in the ,west4 ,all the musical instruments of the known world had therefore taken refuge1 as it were1 in the capital of the ,roman empire2 but their fate was only to disappear and sink into oblivion after they had played their part in the last pomps of that falling empire1 and in the final festivals of the ancient mythology4 ,in a letter in which he specially treats of 8various kinds of musical instruments10 ,st4 ,jerome1 who lived from #cca to #dbj1 speaks of those which were in use in his time for the requirements of religion1 war1 ceremonial1 and art4 ,he mentions1 in the first place1 the organ1 and describes it as composed of fifteen brazen pipes1 two air-reservoirs of elephant's skin1 and twelve large sets of bellows1 8to imitate the voice of thunder40 ,he next specifies1 under the generic name of tuba1 several kinds of trumpets3 that which called the people together1 that which directed the march of troops1 that which proclaimed the victory1 that which sounded the charge against the enemy1 that which announced the closing of the gates1 c4 ,one of these trumpets1 the shape of which is rather difficult to gather from his description1 had three brazen bells1 and roared through four air-conduits4 ,another instrument1 the bombulum1 which must have made a frightful uproar1 was1 as far as we can conjecture from the text of the pious writer1 a kind of peal of bells attached to a hollow metallic column which1 by the assistance of twelve pipes1 reverberated the sounds of twenty-four bells that were set in motion by one another4 ,next come the cithara of the ,hebrews1 in the shape of a triangle1 furnished with twenty-four strings2 the sackbut1 of ,chaldan origin1 a trumpet formed of several movable tubes of wood1 fitting one into the other2 the psaltery1 a small harp provided with ten strings2 and lastly1 the tympanum1 also called the chorus1 a hand-drum to which were fixed two metal flute-tubes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4--;,concert2 a ,bas-relief1 taken from a ,capital in ,saint-,georges de ,boscherville1 ,normandy4 7,a ,work of the ,eleventh ,century47 ,a nomenclature of a similar kind1 applying to the ninth century1 exists in a history of ,charlemagne1 in ,latin verse1 by ,aymeric de ,peyrac4 ,this shows as that1 during the lapse of four centuries1 the number of instruments had been nearly doubled1 and that the musical influence of ,charlemagne's reign had made itself felt in the revival and improvement of several instruments which had been formerly abandoned4 ,this curious metrical composition enumerates all the stringed1 wind1 and pulsatile instruments which celebrated the praise of the great emperor1 the protector and restorer of music4 ,the number of instruments specified are twenty-four in number1 among which we find nearly all those mentioned by ,st4 ,jerome4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4--;,concert and ,musical ,instruments4 ,from a ,miniature in a ,manuscript of the ,thirteenth ,century4 ,the names1 therefore1 of musical instruments had passed through seven or eight centuries without undergoing any kind of change than that naturally resulting from variations in the language4 ,but the instruments themselves1 during this long interval of time1 had been often modified to such extent that the primitive denomination not unfrequently appeared to contradict the musical characteristics of the instrument to which it still continued to be attached4 ,thus1 the chorus1 which had been a four-stringed harp1 and from its name seems to indicate a collection of instruments1 had become a wind-instrument4#bb ,so also the psaltery1 which was originally touched by a plectrum 7stick7 or with the fingers1 now only gave forth its notes under the influence of a bow2 an instrument that had had twenty strings now only retained eight2 another1 the name of which seemed to refer to a square shape1 was rounded2 those primitively made of wood were now constructed of metal4 ,there is reason to believe that1 generally speaking1 these changes were made not so much with the view of any musical improvement1 properly so called1 as with an idea of gratifying the ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--,the ,tree of ,jesse4 ,the ancestors of ,jesus ,christ are represented with ,musical ,instruments1 and as forming a ,celestial ,concert4 7,fac-simile from a ,miniature in a ,manuscript ,breviary of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,royal ,library1 ,brussels47 fancy of the eye 7,figs4 #aee to #aeg74 ,scarcely any fixed rules for the construction of musical instruments existed before the sixteenth century1 when learned musicians applied mathematical principles to the theory of manufacture4 ,down to #aehi musical instruments were made in ,paris by workmen who were organ-makers1 lute-makers1 or even coppersmiths1 under the inspection and guarantee of the community of musicians2 but at this epoch the makers of musical instruments were united in a trade corporation1 and obtained1 through the goodwill of ,henry ,,iii41 certain privileges and special statutes4 ,as musical instruments have always been divided into three particular classes1--stringed1 pulsatile1 and wind instruments1--we shall adopt this natural division in passing under review the various kinds in use during the ,middle ,ages and the ,renaissance4 ,we shall not1 however1 pretend to be always able to point out the precise musical value of these instruments1 for in several instances we have no knowledge of them1 except from representations more or less truthful4 ,the class of wind instruments comprised flutes1 trumpets1 and organs2 each of these was1 however1 subdivided into several very distinct kinds4 ,in the division of flutes alone1 for instance1 we find the straight flute1 the double flute1 the side-mouthed or ,german flute1 the ,pandean pipes1 the chorus1 the calamus1 the bagpipes 7muse or mousette71 the doucine or hautboy1 the flaos or flageolet1 c4 ,the flute is the most ancient of musical instruments2 even in the ,middle ,ages no orchestra was considered complete which did not contain an entire order of flutes1 differing both in shape and tone4 ,in principle1 the simple flute1 or flte bec1 consisted of a straight pipe of hard and sounding wood1 made in one piece1 and pierced with four or six holes4 ,but the number of holes being successively increased to eleven1 and the pipe being enlarged to a length of seven or eight feet1 the result was that the fingers were unable to act simultaneously upon all the openings2 thus1 in order to close the two holes farthest from the mouthpiece1 keys were attached to the body of the flute which the instrumentalist acted on with his foot4 ,the simple flute1 of greater or less length1 is seen on the figured monuments of every epoch4 ,the double flute1 which was equally in use1 had1 as its name indicates1 two pipes1 generally of unequal lengths2 the left-hand tube1 which was the shortest and therefore called the feminine1 produced shrill sounds1 while the right-hand1 or masculine1 gave the low notes4 ,whether these two tubes were united or were separate1 this flute had always two distinct mouths1--although they were often very close together--on which the musician played alternately4 ,the double flute 7,fig4 #aeh7 was the instrument employed in the eleventh century by the jongleurs or jugglers as an accompaniment4 ,the side-mouthed flute1 which was at first very little used1 owed its celebrity in the sixteenth century to the improvements it received from the ,germans1 hence it acquired the name of the ,german flute 7,fig4 #afj74 ,the syrinx was nothing but the ancient ,pandean pipes1 composed generally of seven tubes of wood or metal1 gradually decreasing in length2 they were closed at the bottom1 and at the top took the form of a horizontal plane1 which was touched by the lip of the musician as it passed along 7,fig4 #aei74 ,in the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 the syrinx1 which must have produced very shrill and discordant music1 was generally made in the shape of a semicircle1 and contained nine tubes in a metallic case pierced with the same number of holes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--;,double ,flute1 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,from ,willemin's 8,french ,monuments407 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4--,seven-tubed ,syrinx1 ,ninth or ,tenth ,century4 7,angers ,,ms47 ,the chorus1 which in the time of ,st4 ,jerome was composed of a skin and two tubes1 one forming the mouth1 the other the bell-end 7,fig4 #afa71 must have presented a very great similarity to the modern bagpipes4 ,in the ninth century its shape had changed but little1 except that we sometimes find two bell-ends1 and the membranous air-reservoir is in some examples replaced by a kind of case made of metal or resonant wood 7bois sonore74 ,subsequently this instrument was transformed into a simple dulcimer4 ,the calamus1 called the chalemelle or chalemie1 which derived its origin from the calamus or reed-pipe of the ancients1 became in the sixteenth century a treble to the hautboy1 the bombarde being its counter-bass and tenor1 and the bass being executed on the cromorne4 ,there was1 however1 quite a group of hautboys4 ,the douaine or doucine1 a soft flute1 the great hautboy of ,poitou played the parts of tenor or of fifth4 ,the length of the hautboy having been found inconvenient1 it was divided into pieces united in a movable cluster 7faisceau7 known by the name of fagot4 ,this instrument was afterwards called courtaut in ,france1 and sourdeline or sampogne in ,italy1 where it had become a kind of bagpipe1 like the muse or estive4 ,the muse de bl was a simple reed-pipe1 but the muse d',aussay 7or d',ausois1 district of ,auch7 was certainty a hautboy4 ,with regard to the bagpipes1 properly so called1 they generally bore the name of chevrette1 chevrie1 or chivre1 on account of the skin of which the bag was made4 ,they were also designated by the names of pythaule and cornemuse1 drone-pipe 7,fig4 #afb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4--;,german ,musicians playing on the ,flute and ,goat's ,horn4 7,drawn and ,engraved by ,j4 ,amman47 ,the flaos de saus1 or reed-flutes1 were nothing but mere whistles1 such as village children are still in the habit of making in the spring2 but there were1 says an ancient author1 more than twenty kinds1 8as many loud as soft10 which were coupled by pairs in an orchestra4 ,the fistule1 the souffle1 the pipe1 and the fretiau or galoubet1 were all small flageolets played on by the left hand while the right marked the time on a tambourine or with the cymbals4 ,the pandorium1 which has been classed among the flutes without its shape and character of tone being rightly determined1 must have presented1 at least at its origin1 some similarity of sound to the stringed instrument called pandore 7pandora74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4--;,chorus with single ,bell-end with ,holes4 7,ninth ,century1 ,,ms4 of ,saint-,blaise47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4--;,bagpiper1 ,thirteenth ,century4 7,sculpture on the ,musicians' ,hall at ,rheims47 ,trumpets formed a much more numerous class than the flutes4 ,in ,latin they were called tuba1 lituus1 buccina1 taurea1 cornu1 claro1 salpinx1 c42 in ,french1 trompe1 corne1 olifant1 cornet1 buisine1 sambute1 c4 ,in most cases1 however1 they derived their name either from their shape1 the sound which they produced1 the material whereof they were made1 or the use for which they were specially intended4 ,thus1 among military trumpets of copper or brass1 the names of some 7claro1 clarasius7 indicating the piercing sound which they produced2 the names of others seem rather to refer to the appearance of their bell-ends 7,fig4 #afd71 which imitated the head of a bird1 a horn1 a serpent1 c4 ,some of these trumpets were so long and heavy that a foot or stand was required to support them1 while the performer took the end in his mouth and blew through it with full power of breath 7,fig4 #afc47 ,the shepherds' horns1 made of wood rimmed with brass1 were a heavy and powerful kind of speaking-trumpet1 which in the eighth century the ,welsh herdsmen and those of the landes of ,cornouaille always carried with them 7,fig4 #afe47 ,when the barons or knights desired to convey any signals rendered necessary either in war or hunting1 they were in the habit of using horns of a much more portable character1 which were suspended at their girdles2 they used them1 also1 as drinking vessels when occasion required4 ,at first these instruments were generally made of nothing but buffalo's or goat's horns2 but when the fashion arose of working delicately in ivory1 they took the name of olifant1 an appellation destined to become famous in the old romances of chivalry1 in which the olifant played a very important part 7,fig4 #aff74 ,to cite only one example among a thousand1 ,roland1 when overwhelmed by numbers in the valley of ,ronceveaux1 sounded the olifant in order to call ,charlemagne's army to his aid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4--,straight ,trumpet with ,stand4 7,eleventh ,century4 ,cotton ,,ms41 ,british ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4--;,curved ,trumpet4 7,eleventh ,century4 ,cotton ,,ms41 ,british ,museum47 ,in the fourteenth century1 according to a passage in a manuscript in the ,library of ,berne1 quoted by ,m4 ,jubinal1 there were in bodies of troops corneurs1 trompeurs1 and buisineurs1 who played under certain special circumstances4 ,the trompes sounded for the movements of the knights1 or men-at-arms2 the cornes for the movements of the banners or the foot-soldiers1 and the buisines1 or clarions1 when the entire camp 7ost7 was to march4 ,the heralds-at-arms1 whose duty it was to make the announcements or proclamations in the public ways1 were in the habit of using either long trumpets1 called potence1 on account of the forked stick whereon they were supported1 or trumpets tortilles 7serpentine71 the name of which sufficiently indicates their shape4 ,added to this1 the sound of the trumpet or horn accompanied or signalised the principal acts of the citizens both in public and private life4 ,during the meals of great men1 the water1 the wine1 and the bread1 were heralded by sound of trumpet4 ,in towns this instrument announced the opening and closing of the gates1 the opening and closing of the markets1 and the time of curfew1 till the time when the horn and the copper trumpet were superseded in this function by the bells in church-towers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4--,shepherd's ,horn4 ,eighth ,century4 7,,ms41 ,british ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4--;,horn1 or ,olifant1 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,from ,willemin's 8,french ,monuments407 ,polybius and ,ammianus ,marcellinus tell us that the ancient ,gauls and ,germans had a great passion for large1 hoarse-sounding trumpets4 ,at the time of ,charlemagne1 and still more in the days of the ,crusades1 the intercourse that took place between the men of the ,west and the ,african and ,asiatic races introduced among the former the use of musical instruments of a harsh and piercing tone4 ,then it was that the ,saracen-horns1 made of copper1 replaced the wooden or horn trumpets4 ,at the same period sackbuts1 or sambutes 7,fig4 #afg71 made their appearance in ,italy3 in those of the ninth century1 we find the principle of the modern trombone4 ,about the same epoch the ,germans introduced great improvements into the trumpet by adapting to it the system of holes1 which up to that time had been the characteristic of flutes 7,fig4 #afh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4--,sambute1 or ,sackbut1 of the ,ninth ,century4 7,boulogne ,,ms47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4--;,german ,musician sounding the ,military ,trumpet4 ,drawn and ,engraved by ,j4 ,amman4 ,but among all the wind instruments of the ,middle ,ages1 the organ was the one most imposing in its nature1 and destined to the most glorious career4 ,the only instrument of this kind known by the ancients was the water-organ1 in which a key-board of twenty-six keys corresponded to the same number of pipes2 and the air1 acted upon by the pressure of water1 produced most varied sounds4 ,nero1 it is said1 spent a whole day examining and admiring the mechanism of an instrument of this kind4 ,the water-organ1 although described and commended by ,vitruvius1 was not much in use in the ,middle ,ages4 ,eginhard speaks of one constructed1 in #hbf1 by a ,venetian priest2 and the last of which mention is made existed at ,malmesbury in the twelfth century4 ,but this latter might be regarded more in the light of a steam-organ2 for1 like the warning whistles of our locomotives1 it was worked by the effects of the steam of boiling water rushing into brass pipes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4--,pneumatic ,organ of the ,fourth ,century4 7,sculpture of that date at ,constantinople47 ,the water-organ was1 in very early times1 superseded by the pneumatic or wind-organ 7,fig4 #afi71 the description of which given by ,st4 ,jerome agrees with the representations on the obelisk erected at ,constantinople in the time of ,theodosius the ,great4 ,we must1 however1 fix a date as late as the eighth century for the introduction of this instrument into the ,west1 or at least into ,france4 ,in #geg1 ,constantine ,copronymus1 ,emperor of the ,east1 sent to ,king ,ppin a number of presents1 among which was an organ that excited the admiration of the court4 ,charlemagne1 who received a similar present from the same monarch1 had several organs made from this model4 ,these were provided1 according to the statement of the monk of ,saint-,gall1 with 8brazen pipes which were acted on by bellows made of bull's hide1 and imitated the roaring of thunder1 the accents of the lyre1 and the clang of cymbals40 ,these primitive organs1 notwithstanding the power and richness of their musical resources1 were of dimensions which rendered them quite portable4 ,it was1 in fact1 only in consequence of its almost exclusive application to the solemnities of ,catholic worship that the organ became developed on an almost gigantic scale4 ,in #iea1 there existed in ,winchester ,cathedral an organ which was divided into two parts1 each provided with its apparatus of bellows1 its key-board1 and its organist4 ,twelve bellows above1 and fourteen below1 were worked by seventy strong men1 and the air was distributed by means of forty valves into four hundred pipes1 arranged in groups or choirs of ten1 each group corresponding with one of the twenty-four keys of each key-board 7,fig4 #agj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4--;,great ,organ1 with ,bellows and double ,key-board1 of the ,twelfth ,century4 7,,ms4 at ,cambridge47 ,in the ninth century1 the ,german organ-makers acquired great renown4 ,the monk ,gerbert1 who1 as we have already remarked1 became pope under the name of ,sylvester ,,ii41 and co-operated so efficiently in the progress of the horological art1 established in the monastery of which he was abbot a workshop for the manufacture of organs4 ,we must add1 that all the musical treatises written from the ninth to the twelfth century entered into very considerable details concerning the arrangement and working of this instrument4 ,nevertheless1 the admission of the organ into churches did not fail to meet with earnest opponents among the bishops and priests of the day4 ,but while some complained of the thunder and rumbling of the organs1 others appealed to the examples of king ,david and the prophet ,elisha4 ,finally1 in the thirteenth century1 the right of placing organs in all churches was no longer disputed1 and the only question was1 who could build the most powerful and most magnificent instruments4 ,at ,milan was an organ the pipes of which were of silver2 at ,venice some were made of pure gold4 ,the number of these pipes was varied and multiplied to an infinite extent1 according to the effects the instrument was required to produce4 ,the mechanism was1 generally speaking1 rather complicated1 and the working of the bellows very laborious4 ,in large organs the key-board was made up of key-plates five or six inches wide1 which the organist1 his hands defended by thickly padded gloves1 had to strike with his clenched fist in order to bring out the notes 7,fig4 #aga74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4--,organ with single ,key-board of the ,fourteenth ,century4 7,miniature from a ,latin ,psalter1 ,no4 #age1 ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,the organ1 which1 as we have seen1 was at first of a portable nature1 in some cases resumed its original dimensions 7,fig4 #agb74 ,it was then sometimes called simply portatif 7hand-organ71 and sometimes rgale or positif 7choir-organ74 ,raphael1 in one of his famous pictures1 represents ,st4 ,cecilia singing sacred hymns1 and accompanying herself on a choir-organ4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4--,portable ,organ of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,miniature in ,vincent de ,beauvais' 8,miroir ,historial10 ,,ms4 in the ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,the class of pulsatile instruments was formed of bells1 cymbals1 and drums4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4--,tintinnabulum or ,hand-,bell of the ,ninth ,century4 7,boulogne ,,ms47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4--,the ,saufang of ,st4 ,cecilia's at ,cologne4 7,sixth ,century47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4--;,bell in a ,tower of ,siena4 7,twelfth ,century47 ,there can be no doubt that the ancients were acquainted with large bells1 hand-bells1 and strung-bells 7grelots74 ,but we must ascribe to the requirements of ,christian worship the first introduction of the bell1 properly so called1 formed of cast-metal 7campana or nola1 the first having been made1 it is said1 at ,nola71 which was employed from the first in summoning the faithful to the public services4 ,in the first instance the bell was merely held in the hand and shaken by some monk or ecclesiastic who stood in front of the church-door1 or mounted a raised platform for the purpose4 ,this tintinnabulum 7,fig4 #agc71 or portable bell1 subsequently passed into the hands of the public criers1 the societies of ringers1 and those who rang knells for the dead1 at a time when most of the churches were provided with campaniles or bell-towers1 wherein were hung the parish bells1 which daily assumed dimensions of increasing importance4 ,these great bells1 of which the ,saufang of ,cologne 7sixth century7 is an example 7,fig4 #agd71 were at first made of wrought-iron plates laid one over the other1 and riveted together4 ,but in the eighth century they began to cast bells of copper and even of silver4 ,one of the most ancient still existing is that in the tower of ,bisdomini at ,siena 7,fig4 #age74 ,it bears the date of #aaei1 and is formed in the shape of a cask1 being rather more than a yard high3 the sound it produces is very sharp4 ,the combination of several bells of various sizes naturally produced the peal or chime2 this at first consisted of an arch of wood or iron whereon were suspended the bells1 which the player struck with a small hammer 7,fig4 #agf74 ,the number and classification of the bells becoming subsequently rather more complicated1 the hand of the chimer was superseded by a mechanical arrangement4 ,this was the origin of those peals of bells for which there was such a demand in the ,middle ,ages1 and of which certain towns are still so proud4 ,the designations of cymbalum and flagellum were1 in the first instance1 applied to small hand-chimes2 but there were also regular cymbals 7cymbala or acetabula71 spherical or hollowed plates of silver1 brass1 or copper4 ,some of these were shaken at the ends of the fingers1 or fastened to the knees or feet1 so as to be put in motion by the movement of the body4 ,these small cymbals1 or crotales1 were a kind of rattle 7grelots71 causing the dancers to make a noise in their performance1 as do the ,spanish castanets1 which in the sixteenth century were called in ,france maronnettes1 and were the same as the cliquettes1 or snappers1 used by lepers in former days4 ,small strung-bells became so much the fashion at a certain epoch that not only was the harness of horses adorned with them1 but they were suspended to the clothes both of men and women1 who at the slightest movement made a ringing1 tinkling noise1 sounding like so many perambulating chimes4 ,the use of pulsatile instruments producing a metallic sound increased greatly in ,europe1 especially after the return from the ,crusades4 ,but even before this date the ,egyptian timbrel was used in religious and festival music2 this instrument was composed of a circle whereon rings were hung1 which tinkled as they struck together when the timbrel was shaken4 ,the ,oriental triangle was also used on these occasions2 this was almost the same then as it is at the present day4 ,the drum has always been a hollow case covered with a stretched skin1 but the shape and size of this instrument have caused great variations in its name1 and also in the way in which it was used4 ,in the ,middle ,ages it was called taborellus1 tabornum1 and tympanum4 ,it generally made its appearance in festal music1 and especially in processions2 but it was not until the fourteenth century that it began to take a place in military bands1 at least in ,france2 the ,arabians1 however1 have used it from the earliest ages4 ,in the thirteenth century the taburel was a kind of tambourine1 played on with only a drum-stick2 in the tabornum we may recognise the military drum of the present day2 and the tympanum was equivalent to our tambourine4 ,sometimes1 as seen in a sculpture in the ,musicians' ,hall at ,rheims1 this instrument was attached to the right shoulder of the performer1 who played upon it by striking it with his head1 while at the same time he blew through two metal flutes communicating with the inside of the drum 7,fig4 #agg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4--;,chime of ,bells of the ,ninth ,century4 7,,ms4 de ,saint-,blaise47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4--,tympanum of the ,thirteenth ,century4 7,sculpture on the ,musicians' ,hall1 ,rheims47 ,we have now to speak of stringed instruments1 the whole of which may be divided into three principal classes3 those played on by the fingers1 those that are struck1 and those which are rubbed 7frottes7 by means of some appliance4 ,as a matter of fact1 there are some stringed instruments which may be said to belong to all three of these classes1 as all three modes of playing upon them has been adopted either simultaneously or in succession4 ,the most ancient are doubtless those that are played on by the fingers1 first among which1 in right of its antiquity1 we must name the lyre2 from this have sprung the cithern1 the harp1 the psaltery1 the nabulon1 c4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 however1 considerable confusion arose from the fact that these original names were at the time often diverted from their real acceptation4 ,the lyre1 the stringed instrument par excellence of the ,greeks and ,romans1 preserved its primitive form as late as the tenth century4 ,the strings were generally of twisted gut1 but sometimes also of brass wire1 and varied in number from three to eight4 ,the sounding-box1 which was always placed at the lower part of the instrument1 was more often made of wood than of either metal or tortoise-shell 7,fig4 #agh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4--;,ancient ,lyre4 7,angers ,,ms47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4--,lyre of the ,north4 7,ninth ,century47 ,the lyre was held upon the knees1 and the performer touched or rubbed the strings with one hand1 either with the fingers or by means of a plectrum4 ,the lyre specified as 8,northern0 7,fig4 #agi71 was certainly the origin of the violin1 to the shape of which it even then bore some resemblance2 it was fastened at the top1 and had a cordier at the end of the sounding-board1 as well as a bridge in the centre of the face of the instrument4 ,the lyre was superseded by the psaltery and the cithern4 ,the psaltery1 which never was furnished with fewer than ten1 or more than twenty1 strings1 differed essentially from the lyre and the cithern by the sounding-board being placed at the top of the instrument4 ,psalteries were made of a round1 square1 oblong1 or buckler-shaped form 7,fig4 #aha72 and sometimes the sounding-box was lengthened so as to rest upon the shoulder of the musician 7,fig4 #ahj74 ,the psaltery disappeared in the tenth century and gave place to the cithern 7cithara71 a name which had been at first applied to all kinds of stringed instruments4 ,the shape of the cithern1 which in the days of ,st4 ,jerome resembled a ,greek delta 771 varied in different countries1 as is proved by the epithets--barbarica1 ,teutonica1 ,anglica1 which we find at different times coupled with its generic name4 ,in other places1 in consequence of these local transformations1 it became the nabulum1 the chorus1 and the salterion or psalterion 7which latter must not be confounded with the psaltery1 a primary derivative of the lyre74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,psaltery to produce a prolonged sound4 ,ninth ,century4 7,,ms4 in the ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,the nabulum#bc 7,fig4 #ahb7 was made either in the shape of a triangle with truncated corners1 or of a semicircle joined at the two extremities2 its sounding-board occupied the whole of the rounded part1 and left but a very limited space for the twelve strings4 ,the chorus or choron1 the imperfect representation of which in the manuscripts of the ninth and tenth centuries calls to mind the appearance of a long semicircular window or of a ,gothic capital ,n1 generally had one of its sides prolonged1 on which the performer leaned so as to hold the instrument in the same way as a harp 7,fig4 #ahc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4--;,buckler-shaped ,psaltery with many ,strings4 7,ninth ,century4 ,boulogne ,,ms47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,nabulum4 ,ninth ,century4 7,,ms4 d',angers47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--;,choron4 ,ninth ,century4 7,boulogne ,,ms47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4--,psalterion4 ,twelfth ,century4 ,the psalterion1 which was in use all over ,europe after the twelfth century1 and is thought to have originated in the ,east1 where it was found by the ,crusaders1 was at first composed of a flat box of sounding wood1 with two oblique sides2 it assumed the shape of a triangle truncated at its top1 with twelve or sixteen metallic strings either of gold or silver1 which were played upon by means of a small bow of wood1 ivory1 or horn 7,fig4 #ahd72 subsequently the strings were made more slender1 the number being increased to as many as twenty-two2 the three angles of the sounding-box were cut off1 and holes were made1 sometimes one only in the middle1 sometimes one at each angle1 and sometimes as many as five1 symmetrically arranged4 ,the performer placed the instrument against his chest1 and held it so as to touch the strings either with the fingers of the two hands1 or with a pen or plectrum 7,fig4 #ahe74 ,this instrument1 which in the representations of poets and painters never failed to figure in celestial concerts1 produced tones of incomparable softness4 ,the old romances of chivalry exhausted all the phrases of admiration in describing the psalterion4 ,but the highest eulogium which can be passed on this instrument is that it formed the starting-point of the harpsichord1 or of the stringed instruments struck or played on by means of mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--,performer on the ,psalterion4 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,,ms4 ,no4 #gjc in the ,bibl4 ,imp4 of ,paris47 ,it is1 in fact1 thought that a kind of harpsichord with four octaves1 which in the fourteenth century was called dulcimer or dulcemelos1 and is but imperfectly described1 was nothing else than a psalterion1 with a sounding apparatus that assumed the proportions of a large box1 to which also a key-board had been adapted4 ,this instrument1 when it had but three octaves1 was called clavicord or manicordion1 and in the sixteenth century produced forty-two to fifty tones or semi-tones3 one string expressed several notes1 and this was effected by means of plates of metal which1 serving as a movable bridge to each string1 either increased or diminished the intensity of its vibration4 ,the grand-pianos of the present day unquestionably have their key-boards placed in the same position as they were in the dulcimer and clavicorde4 ,the earliest improvements in metallic stringed instruments constructed with a key-board are due to the ,italians2 these improvements soon had the effect of throwing the psalterion into oblivion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--,organistrum4 ,ninth ,century4 7,,ms4 de ,saint-,blaise47 ,in the ninth century a stringed instrument was in use the mechanism of which1 although not very perfect1 evidently tended to an imitation of the key-board applied to organs3 this was the organistrum 7,fig4 #ahf71 an enormous guitar pierced with two sound holes1 and provided with three strings set in vibration by a small winch2 eight movable screws1 rising or falling at will along the finger-board1 formed so many keys which served to vary the tones4 ,in the first instance two persons performed on the organistrum--one turning the winch while the other touched the keys4 ,when its size was decreased it became the vielle 7hurdy-gurdy7 properly so called1 which could be managed by one musician4 ,it was at first called rubelle1 rebel1 and symphonie2 subsequently this last name was corrupted into chifonie and sifonie1 and we may remark that even now in certain districts of central ,france the vielle still bears the popular name of chinforgne4 ,the chifonie never found a place in musical concerts1 and fell almost immediately into the hands of the mendicants1 who solicited alms accompanied by the doleful and somewhat discordant notes of this instrument1 and thence obtaining the name of chifoniens4 ,notwithstanding all the efforts which were made to substitute wheels and key-boards for the action of the fingers on the strings of instruments1 still those that were played on by the hand only1 such as harps and lutes1 did not fail to maintain the preference among skilful musicians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--,triangular ,saxon ,harp of the ,ninth ,century4 7,bible of ,charles le ,chauve47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--;,fifteen-stringed ,harp of the ,twelfth ,century4 7,,ms4 in the ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,the harp was certainly ,saxon in its origin1 although some have imagined they could discover traces of it in ,greek1 ,roman1 and even ,egyptian antiquities4 ,this instrument was at first nothing but a triangular cithern 7,fig4 #ahg71 in which the sounding-board occupied the whole of one side from top to bottom1 instead of being limited to the lower angle1 as in the primitive cithara1 or confined to the upper part as in the psaltery4 ,the ,english harp 7cithara ,anglica7 of the ninth century differed but little from the modern instrument2 the simplicity and good judgment shown in its shape bear witness to the perfection it had already attained 7,fig4 #ahh74 ,the number of strings and the shape of this instrument varied constantly from time to time4 ,the sounding-box was sometimes made square1 sometimes elongated1 and sometimes round4 ,the arms were sometimes straight and sometimes curved2 the upper side was often lengthened so as to represent an animal's head 7,fig4 #ahi7 and the lower angle1 on which the instrument rested on the ground1 terminated in a griffin's claw4 ,according to the miniatures in manuscripts1 the harp was of a size that the top of it did not extend higher than the head of the performer1 who played upon it in a sitting posture 7,fig4 #aij74 ,there were1 however1 harps of a lighter character1 which the musician bore suspended from his neck by a strap1 and played upon while standing up4 ,this portable harp was the one that may par excellence be called noble1 and was the instrument on which the trouvres accompanied their voices when reciting ballads and metrical tales 7,fig4 #aia74 ,in the romances of chivalry harpers are constantly introduced1 and their harps are ever tuned to some lay of love or war2 we find this taking place as well in the north as in the south4 8,the harp10 says ,guillaume de ,machaut-- 8tous instruments passe1 ,quand sagement bien en joue et compasse40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--;,harpers of the ,twelfth ,century1 from a ,miniature in a ,bible4 7,,ms4 in the ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4--;,harp-player of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,from an ,enamelled ,dish found near ,soissons1 and preserved in the ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris4 ,in the sixteenth century1 however1 it began to fall into disfavour2 it was supplanted by the lute 7,fig4 #aib71 an instrument much used in the thirteenth century1 and by the guitar1 which was brought into fashion in ,france from ,spain and ,italy1 and formed the delight both of the court and private circles4 ,at that time every great lord1 imitating kings and princesses1 wished to have his lute or guitar player1 and the poet ,bonaventure des ,priers1 valet de chambre of ,marguerite de ,navarre1 composed for her 8,la ,manire de bien et justement entoucher les ,lucs et ,guiternes40 ,the lute and the guitar1 which for about two centuries were in high favour in what was called 8chamber music10 have since the above-named epoch scarcely been altered in shape4 ,with certain modifications1 however1 they gave rise to the theorbo and the mandolin1 which never attained more than a transient or local favour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4--,minstrel's ,harp1 of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,,ms4 in the ,miroir ,historial of ,vincent de ,beauvais47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4--;,five-stringed ,lute4 ,thirteenth ,century4 7,,ms4 in the ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,stringed instruments that were played on by means of bows were not known before the fifth century1 and belonged to the northern races2 they did not become prevalent in ,europe generally until after the ,norman invasion4 ,at first they were but roughly made and rendered indifferent service to musical art2 but from the twelfth to the sixteenth century1 these instruments were subject to many changes both in form and name1 and were brought to perfection according as the execution of musicians also improved4 ,the most ancient of these instruments is the crout 7,fig4 #aic71 which must have produced the rote1 so dear to the minstrels and the trouvres of the thirteenth century4 ,the crout1 which is the instrument placed by tradition in the hands of the ,armorican1 ,breton1 and ,scotch bards1#bd was composed of an oblong sounding-box1 more or less hollowed out at the two sides1 with a handle fixed in the body of the instrument1 in which were made two openings that allowed the performer to hold it by the left hand and at the same time to touch the strings2 these1 as a matter of principle1 were only three in number4 ,subsequently it had four strings1 and then six--two of which were played open 7 vide74 ,the musician played on it with a straight or convex bow1 provided with a single thread either of iron wire or of twisted hair4 ,except in ,england1 where the crout was national1 it did not last beyond the eleventh century4 ,it was replaced by the rote1 which was not1 as its name 7apparently derived from rota1 a wheel7 would seem to intimate1 a vielle or symphonie4 ,it would be useless to seek for the derivation of the name of rota1 except in the word crotta1 the ,latin form of the term crout4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4--,three-stringed ,crout of the ,ninth ,century4 ,from a ,miniature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4--,king ,david playing on a ,rote4 ,from a ,painted ,window of the ,thirteenth ,century4 7,chapel of the ,virgin1 ,cathedral of ,troyes47 ,in the earliest rotes 7,fig4 #aid71 those made in the thirteenth century1 there is an evident intention of combining the two modes of playing on the strings--rubbing with a bow and touching with the fingers4 ,the box1 which was not hollowed out and rounded at the two ends1 was much deeper at the lower end1 where the strings commenced1 than higher up1 near the pegs1 where these strings are sounded open under the action of the finger1 which reaches them through an aperture2 the bow acting on them near the string-bridge in front of the sounding-holes4 ,it must have been difficult to touch with the bow one string alone1 but it should be remarked that the harmonic ideal of this instrument consisted in forming accords by consonances of thirds1 fifths1 and eighths4 ,the rote was soon developed into a new instrument1 assuming the form that our violoncellos have almost exactly retained4 ,the box was increased in size1 the handle was lengthened beyond the body of the instrument1 the number of strings was reduced to three or four1 stretched over a bridge1 and the sounding-holes were made in the shape of a crescent4 ,from this time the rote acquired a special character it had not lost even in the sixteenth century1 when it became the bass-viol4 ,this was its true destination4 ,the size of the instrument dictated the manner in which it was held1 either on the knees or on the ground between the legs 7,fig4 #aie74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4--;,german ,musicians playing on the ,violin and ,bass-,viol4 ,drawn and ,engraved by ,j4 ,amman4 ,the vielle or viole1 which had no affinity except in shape with the vielle 7hurdy-gurdy7 of the present day1 was at first a small rote held by the performer against his chin or his breast1 in much the same way as the violin is now used 7,fig4 #aif74 ,the box1 which was at first conical and convex1 became gradually oval in shape1 and the handle remained short and wide4 ,it was1 perhaps1 this handle which terminated in a kind of ornamental scroll in the shape of a violet 7viola71 that originated the name of the instrument4 ,the viole1 just as the rote1 formed the accompaniment obligato of certain songs2 and among the jugglers who played upon it good performers were rare 7,figs4 #aig1 #aih74 ,improvements in the vielle came for the most part from ,italy1 where the co-operation of a number of skilful lute-players was the means of gradually forming the violin4 ,even before the famous ,dnifloprugar1 born in the ,italian ,tyrol1 had hit upon the model of his admirable violins1 the handle of the vielle had been lengthened1 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4--,oval ,vielle with ,three ,strings1 of the ,thirteenth ,century4 7,sculpture on the ,cathedral of ,amiens47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4--;,juggler playing on a ,vielle1 hollowed out at the ,sides4 ,fifteenth ,century4 78,heures du ,roi ,ren10 ,,ms4 ,no4 #aei in the ,bibl4 ,imp4 of the ,arsenal1 ,paris47 its sides hollowed out1 and its strings had received a more extended field of action by removing the stringer 7cordier7 from the centre of the sounding-board ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4--,player on the ,vielle4 ,thirteenth ,century4 7,taken from an ,enamelled ,dish at ,soissons47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4--;,angel ,playing on a ,three-stringed ,fiddle4 ,thirteenth ,century4 7,sculpture in the ,cathedral of ,amiens47 ,henceforth the play of the board became more free and easy1 the performer was able to touch every string singly1 and was in a position to substitute effects more characteristic instead of the former monotonous consonances4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--,rebec1 of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,from ,willemin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4--,long ,monochord played on with a ,bow4 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,,ms4 of ,froissart1 in the ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,england was the birthplace of the crout2 ,france invented the rote1 and ,italy the viole2 ,germany originated the gigue1#be the name of which may perhaps be derived from the similarity presented by the shape of the instrument to the thigh of a kid4 ,the gigue was provided with three strings 7,fig4 #aii71 and its special distinction from the viole was1 that instead of the handle being as it were independent of the body of the instrument1 it was a kind of prolongation of the sounding-board4 ,the gigue1 which bore a considerable resemblance to the modern mandolin1 was an instrument on which the ,germans were accustomed to work wonders in the way of performance2 according1 at least1 to the statement of ,adens1 the trouvre1 who speaks with admiration of the 8gigueours of ,germany40 ,the gigue1 however1 entirely disappeared1 at least in ,france1 in the fifteenth century2 but its name still remained as the designation of a joyous dance1 which for a considerable period was enlivened by the sound of this instrument4 ,among the musical instruments of this class in the ,middle ,ages1 we have still to mention the rebec 7,fig4 #bjj71 which was so often quoted by the authors of the day1 and yet is so little known1 although it figured in the court concerts in the time of ,rabelais1 who specifies it by the term aulique1 in contrast to the rustic cornemuse 7bagpipes74 ,we must1 in conclusion1 speak of the monochord 7monocordium71 which is always mentioned by the authors of the ,middle ,ages with feelings of pleasure1 although it appears to have been nothing more than the most simple and primitive expression of all the other stringed instruments 7,fig4 #bja74 ,it was composed of a narrow oblong box1 on each end of the front-board were fixed two immovable bridges supporting a metallic string stretched from one to the other1 and corresponding to a scale of notes traced out on the instrument4 ,a movable bridge1 which was shifted up and down between the string and the scale1 produced whatever notes the performer wished to bring out4 ,in the eighth century there was a kind of violin or mandolin furnished with a single metallic string played on with a metallic bow4 ,later still1 we find a kind of harp formed of a long sounding-box traversed by a single string1 over which the musician moved a small bow handled with a sudden and rapid movement4 ,the instruments we have named do not1 however1 embrace all those in use in the ,middle ,ages and the ,renaissance4 ,there certainly were others which1 in spite of the most intelligent investigations1 and the most judicious deductions1 are now known to us only by name4 ,as regards1 for instance1 the nature and appearance of the les or celes1 the chaqueil or chequier1 the enmorache1 and the micamon1 we are left to the vaguest conjectures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--,triangle of the ,ninth ,century4 7,,ms4 of ,saint-,emmeran47 ,,playing-,,cards4 ,supposed ,date of their ,invention4--,existed in ,india in the ,twelfth ,century4--,their connection with the ,game of ,chess4--,brought into ,europe after the ,crusades4--,first ,mention of a ,game with ,cards in #acgi4--;,cards well known in the ,fifteenth ,century in ,spain1 ,germany1 and ,france1 under the name of ,tarots4--,cards called ,charles the ,sixth's must have been ,tarots4--,ancient ,cards1 ,french1 ,italian1 and ,german4--,cards contributing to the ,invention of ,wood-,engraving and ,printing4 ,the origin of playing-cards has for many years past formed a special subject of investigation among scholars and antiquarians4 ,for1 however trifling the matter may appear in itself1 this curious point is connected with two of the most important inventions of modern times--engraving and printing4 ,we must not1 however1 take upon ourselves to assert too positively that all the profound researches1 persevering study1 and ingenious deductions which have been applied to the subject have entirely succeeded in elucidating the question4 ,nevertheless1 a certain degree of light has been thrown upon it1 by which we shall endeavour to profit4 ,the question is1 at what date are we to fix the invention of playing-cards1 and to whom are we to attribute it8 ,in order to solve these queries1 they must be divided2 for1 although the introduction of playing-cards into ,europe may not date back beyond the fourteenth century1 and the invention of our game of piquet may not have been prior to the reign of ,charles ,,vii41 it is at least asserted--7#ast71 that playing-cards existed in ,india in the twelfth century2 7#bnd71 that the ancients played at games in which certain figures and numbers were represented on dice or tablets2 7#crd71 that in comparatively recent times the game of chess and the game of cards presented striking affinities1 proving the common origin of these two games--one connected with painting1 the other with sculpture4 ,if we are to believe ,herodotus1 the ,lydians1 in order to beguile the sufferings of hunger during a long and cruel famine1 invented nearly every game1 especially that of dice4 ,later authors ascribe the honour of these inventions to the ,greeks1 when irritated at the tedious delays of the siege of ,troy4 ,cicero even mentions by name ,pyrrhus and ,palamedes as the originators of the 8games in use in camps0 7ludos castrenses74 ,what were these games8 ,some say1 chess2 others1 dice or knuckle-bones4 ,certain very ancient specimens prove unquestionably that the ,indian cards were nothing but a transformation of the game of chess2 for the principal pieces in this game are reproduced on the cards1 but in such a way that eight players instead of two could take part in it4 ,in the game of chess there were only two armies of pawns1 each having at its head a king1 a vizier 7who was afterwards turned into a 8queen071 a knight1 an elephant 7which became a 8bishop071 and a dromedary 7afterwards a 8castle074 ,there can be no doubt that the course and arrangement of these games were very different2 but in both may be found an original affinity in the fact that they recalled to mind the terrible game of war1 in which each adversary had to attack by means of stratagems1 combinations1 and vigilance4 ,we have now learned from certain authority 7,abel de ,rmusat1 ,journal ,asiatique1 ,september1 #ahbb7 that playing-cards1 proceeding from ,india and ,china1 were1 like the game of chess 7,fig4 #bjc71 in the hands of the ,arabians and the ,saracens at the commencement of the twelfth century4 ,it is therefore almost certain they must have been brought into ,europe after the ,crusades1 with the arts1 traditions1 and customs which the men of the ,west then derived from their ,oriental antagonists4 ,there is1 however1 every reason to believe that the use of cards spread but slowly2 for at an epoch when the civil and ecclesiastical authorities were constantly issuing ordinances against games of chance1 we do not find that cards were ever the subject of legal proceedings1 like dice and chess4 ,the first formal mention made of playing-cards is found in a manuscript chronicle of ,nicolas de ,covelluzzo1 preserved in the archives of ,viterbo4 8,in the year #acgi10 says the chronicler1 8there was introduced at ,viterbo the game of cards1 which comes from the country of the ,saracens1 and is called by the latter nab40 ,there is1 in fact1 a ,german book1 the 8,jeu d',or10 printed at ,augsbourg in #adgb1 which testifies to the fact that cards existed in ,germany in the year #acjj4 ,but1 in the first place1 this evidence is not contemporary with the fact alleged2 and1 besides1 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--;,chess-,players4 ,fac-simile of a ,miniature of the ,thirteenth ,century4 7,,ms4 #g1bff1 ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 we may well suppose that the vanity of the ,germans1 which had attributed to themselves the discovery of printing1 desired1 with about as much reason1 to appropriate also the invention of cards--that is1 of wood-engraving4 ,we shall1 therefore1 act judiciously in paying but little attention to this doubtful assertion1 and hold to the account given by the chronicler of ,viterbo4 ,but the latter1 unfortunately1 furnishes us with no details as to the nature of these cards4 ,was the game similar to that which is still extant in ,india8 ,or was it one peculiar to the ,arabs8 ,these are questions which must remain unsolved4 ,the only facts presented to our notice are1 that in #acgi cards made their appearance in ,europe1 brought from ,arabia1 or the country of the ,saracens1 and that their original name is given4 ,the ,italians for a long time gave to cards the name of nabi4 ,in ,spain they are still called naypes4 ,if it be understood that the word nab in ,arabic signifies 8captain10 we shall see that the game in question was one of a military character1 like that of chess1 and we shall be led to recognise in these primitive cards the tarots which were for a long time current in the south of ,europe4 ,in #achg1 ,john ,i41 ,king of ,castile1 issued an ordinance prohibiting to play with dice1 naypes1 or at chess4 ,in the archives of the ,audit ,office1 in ,paris1 there formerly existed an account of the treasurer1 ,poupart1 who states that1 in #acib1 he had 8paid to ,jacquemin ,gringonneur1 painter1 for three packs of cards in gold and various colours1 ornamented with numerous devices1 to lay before the lord the king 7,charles ,,vi47 for his amusement1 #ej sols of ,paris40 ,this game1 which seemed at first intended only for the amusement of the king in his mental derangement1 subsequently spread so much among the people1 that the provost of ,paris1 in an ordinance of ,january #bb1 #acig1 issued a prohibition 8to persons engaged in trade from playing at tennis1 bowls1 dice1 cards1 and skittles1 except on feast-days40 ,we must remark that1 twenty-eight years previously1 ,charles ,v41 in a celebrated ordinance which enumerates all the games of chance1 did not mention cards4 ,the 8,red ,book0 of the town of ,ulm1 a manuscript register preserved in the archives of that town1 contains an ordinance dated in #acig1 in which is conveyed a prohibition of games with cards4 ,these facts are the only authenticated evidence which can be brought forward with a view of fixing the approximate period of the introduction of cards into ,europe4 ,some authors have certainly imagined they were in a position to determine an earlier epoch1 but they have gone upon data the value of which has since been destroyed by more thorough investigation4 ,in the fifteenth century there are evident traces both of the existence and popularity of cards in ,italy1 ,spain1 ,germany1 and ,france4 ,their names1 colours1 and emblems1 their number and forms1 were indeed constantly changing1 according to the country in which they were used and the fancy of the players4 ,but whether called tarots or 8,french cards10 they were in fact nothing but modifications of the primitive ,oriental cards1 and an imitation more or less faithful of the ancient game of chess4 ,reckoning from the fifteenth century1 we meet with cards in every enumeration of games of chance2 we find them also proscribed and condemned in ecclesiastical and royal ordinances4 ,the clergy1 too1 raised their voices against them2 but these measures did not prevent the trade in ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bjd and #bje4--;,jean ,dunois1 ,king ,alexander1 ,julius ,csar1 ,king ,arthur1 ,charles the ,great1 and ,godefroi de ,bouillon4 ,from ancient coloured ,wood-,engravings2 prints analogous to the first ,playing-,cards of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris1 ,department of ,manuscripts47 them from increasing1 nor great attention to their improved manufacture4 ,poets and romance-writers vied with each other in speaking of them2 they appeared in the miniatures in manuscripts1 and also in the first attempts at engraving on wood and copper 7,figs4 #bjd and #bje74 ,and1 notwithstanding the fragile nature of the cards themselves1 some have been preserved which belong to the earliest years of the fifteenth century4 ,as we have already seen1 cards had1 in principle1 been classed among the number of childish games2 but it may be safely asserted that this could not have long been the case1 else how could we explain the legal strictures and the ecclesiastical anathemas of which they were the subject8 ,st4 ,bernard1 for example1 speaking on the #eth of ,march1 #adbc1 to the crowd assembled in front of a church at ,siena1 inveighed with so much energy1 and fulminated with so much persuasion1 against games of chance1 that all who heard ran at once and fetched their dice1 chess1 and cards1 and burnt them on the very spot4 ,but1 adds the chronicle1 there was a card-maker who1 being ruined by the sermon of the saint1 went to seek him1 and with a flood of tears said to him3 8,father1 ,i am a maker of cards1 and ,i have no other trade by which to live4 ,by preventing me from following my trade1 you condemn me to die of hunger40 8,if painting is all you are capable of10 replied the preacher1 8paint this picture40 ,and he showed him an image of a radiating sun1 in the centre of which shone the monogram of ,christ--,i4 ,h4 ,s4 ,the artisan followed his advice1 and soon made his fortune by painting this representation1 which was adopted by ,st4 ,bernard as his device4 ,although in every direction similar censures were directed against cards1 they nevertheless did not fail to come much into fashion1 especially in ,italy2 and to have a considerable sale4 ,thus1 in #adda1 we find the master card-makers at ,venice 8who formed a rather numerous association10 claiming and obtaining from the senate a kind of prohibitory order against 8the large quantity of painted and printed cards which were made out of ,venice and were introduced into the town1 to the great detriment of their art40 ,it is important to notice that mention is made here of printed as well as of painted cards4 ,the fact is1 that at this date1 not only did all the cities in ,italy make their own cards1 but1 in consequence of the invention of wood-engraving1 ,germany and ,holland exported a large quantity of them4 ,we must also point out that documents of the same date appear to establish a distinction between the primitive nabi and cards properly so called1 without1 however1 affording any detailed characteristics of either4 ,it is1 however1 known that prior to the year #adai1 one ,franois ,fibbia1 a noble of ,pisa who died in exile at ,bologna1 obtained from the 8reformers0 of this city1 on the score of his being the inventor of the game of tarrochino1 the right of placing his escutcheon of arms on the 8queen de bton10 and that of his wife's arms on the 8queen de denier40 ,btons1 deniers1 with coupes and pes1 were then the suits of the ,italian cards1 as carreau 7diamond71 trfle 7club71 cur 7heart71 and pique 7spade71 were those of the ,french cards4 ,no original specimen has been preserved of the tarots 7tarrochi1 tarrochini7 or ,italian cards of this epoch2 but we possess a pack engraved about #adfj1 which is known to be an exact copy of them4 ,added to this1 ,raphael ,maffei1 who lived at the end of the fifteenth century1 has left in his 8,commentaries0 a description of tarots1 which were1 he says1 8a new invention10--in comparison1 doubtless1 with the origin of playing-cards4 ,from these two documents--though they present some differences--we may gather that the pack of tarots was then composed of four or five series or suits1 each of ten cards1 bearing consecutive numbers1 and presenting so many deniers1 btons1 coupes1 and pes1 equal in number to that of the card4 ,to these series we must add a whole assortment of figures1 representing the ,king1 the ,queen1 the ,knight1 the ,foot-traveller1 the ,world1 ,justice1 an ,angel1 the ,sun1 the ,devil1 a ,castle1 ,death1 a ,gibbet1 the ,pope1 ,love1 a ,buffoon 7,fig4 #bjf71 c4 ,it is evident that tarots were current in ,france long before the invention of the game of piquet1 which is unquestionably of ,french origin2 and among these tarots we must class the cards that are called those of ,charles ,,vi4 7,figs4 #bjg and #bjh71 and are now preserved in the ,print-,room of the ,bibliothque ,impriale in ,paris2 these may be considered as the oldest to be found in any collection1 either public or private4 ,the ,abb de ,longuerue states that he saw the pack with all its cards complete2 but only seventeen have been preserved to our day4 ,these cards are painted with delicacy1 like the miniatures in manuscripts1 on a gilt ground1 filled with dots forming a perforated ornamentation2 they are also surrounded by a silvered border in which a similar dotting depicts a spirally twisted ribbon4 ,this dotting is doubtless the tare1 a kind of goffering produced by small holes pricked out and arranged in compartments1 to which the tarots owe their names1 and of which our present cards still retain a kind of reminiscence1 in their backs being covered with arabesques or dotted over in black or various colours4 ,these cards were about seven inches long and three and a half inches wide1 and were painted in distemper on cardboard #jci inch thick4 ,the composition of them is ingenious and to some extent skilful1 the drawing correct and full of character1 and the colouring or illumination brilliant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--,the ,buffoon1 a ,card from a ,pack of ,tarots4 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,among the subjects they represent are some which deserve all the more attention1 because they can hardly fail to recall to mind a conception somewhat similar to that of the 8,dance of ,death10 that terrible 8morality0 which1 dating from this epoch1 was destined to increase more and more in popularity4 ,thus1 for instance1 by the side of the ,emperor1 who is covered with silver armour and holds the globe and the sceptre1 a ,hermit makes his appearance as an old man muffled in a cowl and holding up an hour-glass1 an emblem of the rapidity of time4 ,then we have the ,pope1 who1 with the tiara on his head1 sits between two cardinals2 but ,death is also there1 mounted on a grey horse with a rough and shaggy coat1 and sweeping down with his scythe kings1 popes1 bishops1 and other great men of the earth4 ,if we see ,love1 represented by three couples of lovers who embrace as they converse1 while two cupids dart at them their arrows from a cloud above2 we also see a ,gibbet1 on which hangs a gambler suspended by one foot1 and still holding in his hand a bag of money4 ,an ,esquire1 clothed in gold and scarlet1 rides gallantly along1 proudly waving his sword2 a ,chariot bears in triumph an officer in full armour2 a ,fool places his cap and bells under his arm that he may count upon his fingers4 ,finally1 the last trumpets are waking up the dead1 who come out of their graves to appear at the ,last ,judgment4 ,illustrations3 ,fig4 #bjg4--,the ,moon4 ,fig4 #bjh4--;,justice4 7,cards taken from the ,pack1 said to be of ,charles ,,vi41 preserved in the ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,most of these allegorical subjects have been retained in the tarots1 which include1 independent of the sixteen figures of our piquet-pack1 twenty-two cards1 representing the ,emperor1 the ,lover1 the ,chariot1 the ,hermit1 the ,gibbet1 ,death1 the ,house of ,god1 the ,end of the ,world1 c4 ,we should scarcely be justified in imagining that these tarots1 presenting as they did a picture of life so gloomily philosophical1 regarded from a ,christian point of view1 could have enjoyed any great favour in the centre of a frivolous and corrupt court1 devoted to little else but ftes1 masquerades1 and singing2 this1 too1 at a time when the ,state1 a prey to every kind of intrigue1 was falling into ruin1 and the voice of insurrection was surging up among a people burdened by taxes1 and decimated by pestilence and famine4 ,on the other hand these tarots might well please the imagination of certain good people who1 having been deprived of their property in some of the disturbances incidental to these times1 could not fail to accept as a consolation such emblematical representations of life and death4 ,artists of every kind tried their best to reproduce them in all forms2 and as these designs found a place even in the ornaments of the female sex1 it was scarcely probable that playing-cards would form an exception4 ,we are in possession of the remains of two ancient packs of cards1 produced by means of engraved plates2 they were discovered1 like most cards of this date which have come to light1 in the bindings of books of the fifteenth century4 ,these cards1 which belong to the reign of ,charles ,,vii41 are essentially ,french in their character4 ,we find in them the king1 the queen1 and the knave of each suit1 as in our present pack of piquet cards4 ,in one of these ancient packs we notice1 however1 traces of the ,saracenic origin of the nabi2 the ,mussulman 8crescent0 being substituted for the 8diamond10 while the 8club0 is depicted in the ,arabian or ,moorish fashion2 that is1 with four similar branches4 ,there is also another peculiarity2 the 8king of hearts0 is represented by a kind of savage1 or hairy ape1 leaning upon a knotty stick4 ,the 8queen0 of the same suit is likewise covered with hair1 and holds a torch in her hand4 ,the 8knave of clubs10 who is well fitted to serve as an escort to the 8king0 and 8queen of hearts10 is also covered with hair1 and carries a knotty stick on his shoulder4 ,we may1 besides1 notice the legs of a fourth hairy personage among those which have been separated from their bodies by the knife of the bookbinder4 ,but1 with the exception of these1 all the other personages are clothed according to the fashion or the etiquette which prevailed at the court of ,charles ,,vii4 ,the 8queen of crescents0 is represented in a costume similar to that of ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4--;,charles ,,vi4 on his ,throne1 from a ,miniature in the ,,ms4 of the ,kings of ,france4 7,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,mary of ,anjou1 the wife of the king2 or in that of ,grarde ,grassinel1 his mistress4 ,the representations of the kings1 the hairy one excepted1 are identical with those we have of ,charles ,,vii4 himself1 or the nobles of his suite4 ,their costume was a velvet hat surmounted by the crown ornamented with fleurs-de-lis2 a robe open in front and lined with ermine or menu vair1 a tight doublet1 and close stockings4 ,the 8knaves0 are copied from the pages and sergeants-at-arms of the period2 one wears the plumed flat cap and long cloak2 another1 on the contrary1 is clad in a short dress1 and stands erect in his close-fitting doublet and tightly drawn breeches4 ,the latter displays1 written on a streamer which he is unrolling1 the name of the card-maker1 8,f4 ,clerc40 ,these are certainly cards of ,french invention1 or1 at any rate1 of ,french manufacture2 but what explanation are we to give of the presence of the savage 8king0 and 8queen10 and the 8hairy knave10 among the kings1 queens1 and knaves all dressed according to the fashion of the time of ,charles ,,vii48 ,we may1 perhaps1 find a satisfactory reply by referring to the chronicles of the preceding reign4 ,on the #bith of ,january1 #acib1 there was a grand fte at the mansion of ,queen ,blanche in honour of the marriage of a ,chevalier de ,vermandois with one of the queen's ladies4 ,the king1 ,charles ,,vi41 had only just recovered from his mental malady4 ,one of his favourites1 ,hugonin de ,janzay1 projected an entertainment in which the king and five lords were to take a part4 8,it was10 says ,juvnal des ,ursins1 8a masquerade of wild men chained together1 and all shaggy2 their dress was made to fit close to their body1 and was rendered rough by flax and tow fastened on by resinous pitch1 greased so as to shine the better40 ,froissart1 who was an eye-witness of this fte1 says that the six actors in the ballet entered the hall yelling and shaking their chains4 ,as it was not known who these maskers were1 the ,duke of ,orleans1 brother of the king1 wishing to find out1 took a lighted torch from the hands of his servant1 and held it so close to one of these strange personages that 8the heat of the fire caught the flax40 ,the king was fortunately separated from his companions1 who were all burned1 with the exception of one only1 who threw himself into a tub full of water4 ,although ,charles ,,vi4 escaped from this peril1 he was deeply affected by the thought of the danger to which he had been exposed1 and the result was a relapse into his former insanity4 ,this fearful ballet des ardents left such an impression on the minds of people generally1 that seventy years afterwards a ,german engraver made it the subject of a print4 ,should we1 then1 be venturing on an inadmissible hypothesis if we attribute to a cardmaker of this epoch the idea of introducing the same subject in a pack of cards8 which1 as is abundantly proved1 was modified according to the whim of the artist4 ,in order to justify the costume of a female savage and the torch1 which are given to the 8queen of hearts10 we must not forget that ,isabel of ,bavaria1 consort of ,charles ,,vi41 is accused of having assisted in devising this fatal masquerade1 which was intended to get rid of the king2 and of having taken as her accomplice the ,duke of ,orleans1 her brother-in-law1 who is said to have purposely set fire to the clothing of these pretended wild men1 among whom was the king4 ,the second pack1 or fragment of a pack1 which is dated back to this epoch1 presents a similarity to our present cards of a yet more striking nature1 at least in the characters and costumes of the figures2 although the names and devices of the personages still are suggestive of their ,saracenic origin4 ,we must remark1 under this head1 that for several centuries the names coupled with the different personages were incessantly varying4 ,in this pack we find 8kings10 8queens10 and 8knaves0 of clubs1 hearts1 spades1 and diamonds2 the ,saracenic crescent has disappeared4 ,the 8kings0 are all holding sceptres1 and the 8queens0 carry flowers4 ,everything in the representations is not only in harmony with the fashions of the period1 but in addition to this1 there are no violations either of the laws of heraldry or of the usages of chivalry4 ,according to tradition1 this pack1 the true piquet-pack1 which superseded the ,italian tarots and the cards of ,charles ,,vi41 and soon became generally used in ,france1 was the invention of ,etienne ,vignoles1 called ,la ,hire1 one of the bravest and most active soldiers of that period4 ,the tradition has a right to our respect1 for the mere examination of this piquet-pack proves that it must have been the work of some accomplished chevalier1 or at least of a mind profoundly imbued with the manners and customs of chivalry4 ,but1 without any wish to exclude ,la ,hire1 who1 as the historians say1 8always had his helmet on his head and his lance in his hand1 ready to attack the ,english1 and never rested until he died of his wounds10 we are led rather to ascribe the honour of this ingenious invention to one of his contemporaries1 ,etienne ,chevalier1 secretary and treasurer to the king1 who was distinguished by his skill in designing4 ,jacques ,cur1 whose commercial relations with the ,east brought upon him the accusation of having 8sent arms to the ,saracens10 might well have become the importer of ,asiatic cards into ,france1 and ,chevalier might then have amused himself by applying devices to them or1 as was then said1 by moralising or symbolising them4 ,in ,india it had been the game of the vizier and of war2 the royal treasurer turned it into a pack having reference to the knight and chivalry4 ,in the first place he placed on it his own armorial bearings1 the unicorn1 which figures in several ancient packs of cards4 ,he did not forget the allusive arms of ,jacques ,cur1 and substituted 8hearts0 for the coupes4 ,he made the 8clubs0 imitate the heraldic flower of ,agnes ,sorel2 and also changed the deniers into diamonds1 or arrow-heads 7,fig4 #baj71 and the pes into spades1 to do honour to the two brothers ,jean and ,gaspard ,bureau1 grand-masters of artillery in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4--;,ancient ,french ,card of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4--,specimen of a ,pack of ,cards of the ,sixteenth ,century4 7,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,etienne ,chevalier1 as the most skilful designer of emblems of the period1 was eminently capable of substituting1 in playing-cards1 ladies or queens for the ,oriental 8viziers0 or ,italian 8knights0 which1 on the tarots1 figured alone among the 8kings0 and 8knaves40 ,we must1 however1 repeat that we have no intention of depriving ,la ,hire of the honour of the invention1 and only hazard a supposition in addition to the opinion generally received4 ,these cards1 which bear all the characteristics of the reign of ,charles ,,vii41 must be looked upon as the first attempts at wood-engraving1 and at printing by means of engraved blocks4 ,they were probably executed between #adbj and #addj1 that is to say1 prior to most of the known xylographic productions4 ,playing-cards1 therefore1 served as a kind of introduction or prelude to printing from engraved blocks1 an invention which considerably preceded the printing from movable characters4 ,when1 however1 we observe that so early as the middle of the fifteenth century playing-cards were spread all over ,europe1 it is but natural to imagine that some economical plan of manufacture had been discovered and employed4 ,thus1 as we have already mentioned1 ,jacquemin ,gringonneur1 in #acib1 was paid fifty-six sols of ,paris1 that is about #g #as4 #h;d4 of our present money1 for three packs of tarots1 painted for the ,king of ,france4 ,one single pack of tarots1 admirably painted1 about the year #adae1 by ,marziano1 secretary to the ,duke of ,milan1 cost one thousand five hundred golden crowns 7about #fbe72 but in #aded1 a pack of cards intended for the ,dauphin of ,france cost no more than five sous of ,tours 7about eleven or twelve shillings74 ,in the interval between #acib and #aded means had been discovered of making playing-cards at a cheap rate1 and of converting them into an object of trade2 mercers were accustomed to sell them together with the 8pins10 which then took the place of copper and silver counters2 hence the ,french proverb1 8,tirer son pingle du jeu0 7to get out of a scrape74 ,although the use of playing-cards continued to extend more and more1 we must not imagine that they had ceased to be the subject of prohibitory and condemnatory ordinances on the part of the civil and ecclesiastical authorities4 ,on the contrary1 a long list might be made of the decrees launched against cards themselves and those that used them4 ,princes and lords1 as a matter of right1 felt themselves above these prohibitions2 the lower orders and the dissolute did not fail to infringe them4 ,it was nevertheless the case1 that in the face of these constantly-renewed prohibitions1 the manufacture of playing-cards could only be developed1 or rather perhaps be carried on1 in some indirect mode4 ,thus1 we find the business at first was concealed1 as it were1 under that of a stationer or illuminator4 ,not until ,december1 #aeha--that is1 in the reign of ,henry ,,iii4--do we find the first regulation fixing the statutes of the 8master-cardmakers40 ,these statutes1 confirmed by letters patent in #aehd and #afac1 remained in force down to the 7,french7 ,revolution4 ,in the confirmation of corporate privileges granted at the latter date1 it is laid down as a rule that henceforth master-cardmakers should be bound to place their names1 surnames1 signs1 and devices on the 8knave of clubs0 7,figs4 #bab1 #bac7 of every pack of cards4 ,this prescription appears to have done nothing more than legalise an old custom--a fact which may be proved by an examination of the curious collection of ancient cards in the ,print-,room of the ,bibliothque ,impriale4 ,we have already stated that for a period of many years the names given to the various personages in the pack varied constantly1 according to the fancy of the cardmaker2 a mere glance at the collection just mentioned will confirm this assertion4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bab and #bac4--,the 8,knave of ,clubs0 in the ,packs of ,cards of ,r4 ,passerel and ,r4 ,le ,cornu4 7,sixteenth ,century4 ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,the cards that might be styled those of ,charles ,,vii41 which appear to us to convey some reminiscence of the ballet des ardents1 have no inscription but the name of the cardmaker4 ,but in the other pack of the same date the 8knave of clubs0 bears as a legend the word ,rolan2 the 8king of clubs10 ,sans ,souci2 the 8queen of clubs10 ,tromperie2 the 8king of diamonds10 ,corsube2 the 8queen of diamonds10 ,en toi te fie2 the 8king of spades10 ,apollin1 c4 ,this collection of names reveals to us the threefold influence of the ,saracenic origin of playing-cards1 the ideas conveyed at that period to the mind by the reading of the old romances of chivalry1 and the effect of contemporary events4 ,in fact1 in the ancient epics1 ,apollin 7or ,apollo7 is a deity by whom the ,saracens were accustomed to swear2 ,corsube is a knight of ,cordova 7,corsuba74 ,sans ,souci is evidently one of those sobriquets which squires acquired the habit of adopting at the time they were proving themselves worthy of the title of knight4 ,roland1 the mighty ,paladin who died at ,roncevaux fighting against the ,saracens1 seems to have been placed upon the cards in order to oppose the memory of his glory to that of the infidel kings4 ,the queen 8,en toi te fie0 might well allude to ,joan of ,arc4 ,the queen 8,tromperie0 recalls to mind ,isabel of ,bavaria1 who was an unfaithful wife and a cruel mother2 and1 moreover1 had betrayed ,france to ,england4 ,all these ideas are doubtless mere suppositions1 but such as a critical examination of a more minute and extended character would perhaps succeed in changing into unquestionable certainties4 ,next after the cards of the time of ,charles ,,vii4 follow1 as the most ancient in point of date1 two packs which certainly belong to the reign of ,louis ,,xii4 ,one of these packs does not bear any kind of legend2 in the other the 8king of hearts0 is called ,charles2 the 8king of diamonds10 ,csar2 the 8king of clubs10 ,arthur2 the 8king of spades10 ,david2 the 8queen of hearts10 ,hleine2 the 8queen of diamonds10 ,judith2 the 8queen of clubs10 ,rachel2 the 8queen of spades10 ,persabe 7doubtless for ,bathsheba74 ,in a pack of cards belonging to the reign of ,francis ,i41 the 8king of clubs0 becomes ,alexander1 and the name of ,judith is transferred to the 8queen of hearts20 and for the first time 7at least in the specimens which have been preserved7 some of the 8knaves0 bear special names--the 8knave of hearts0 is ,la ,hire1 and the 8knave of diamonds0 ,hector of ,trois 7sic74 ,a few years later1 about the time of the battle of ,pavia and of the king's captivity1 the influence of ,spanish and ,italian fashions begins to affect the legends on packs of cards4 ,it is remarked that the 8knave of spades10 which presents nothing in the way of a legend but the name of the cardmaker1 is made to resemble ,charles-,quint 7,fig4 #baa74 ,the three other knaves bear the singular denominations of ,prien ,roman1 ,capita ,fili1 and ,capitane ,vallant4 ,the kings are3 8hearts10 ,julius ,csar2 8diamonds10 ,charles2 8clubs10 ,hector2 8spades10 ,david4 ,the queens are3 8hearts10 ,hleine2 8diamonds10 ,lucresse2 8clubs10 ,pentaxle 7,penthesilea72 8spades10 ,beciabe 7,bathsheba74 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,ii41 the names given to the personages come much nearer to the arrangement observed in our present cards4 ,csar is the 8king of diamonds20 ,david1 the 8king of spades20 ,alexander1 the 8king of clubs40 ,rachel is the 8queen of diamonds20 ,argine1 of 8clubs20 ,pallas1 of 8spades40 ,hogier1 ,hector of ,troy1 and ,la ,hire1 are the 8knaves0 of 8spades10 8diamonds10 and 8hearts10 respectively4 ,at the time of ,henry ,,iii41 who devoted himself much more to regulating the fashions than to governing his kingdom1 and was the first to grant statutes to the association of cardmakers1 the pack of cards became the mirror of the extravagant fashions of this effeminate reign4 ,the 8kings0 have the pointed beard1 the starched collar1 the plumed hat1 the breeches puffing out round the loins1 the slashed doublet1 and the tight-fitting hose4 ,the 8queens0 have their hair drawn back and crisped1 the dress close round the body1 and made vertugarde 7in the form of a hoop-petticoat74 ,we see a ,dido1 an ,elizabeth1 and a ,clotilde1 make their appearance in the respective characters of 8queens0 of 8diamonds10 8hearts10 and 8spades40 ,among the kings figure ,constantine1 ,clovis1 ,augustus1 and ,solomon4 ,the valiant ,barnais#bf mounts the throne1 and the cards still reflect the aspect of his court4 ,but soon ,astrea and a whole cortge of tender and gallant heroes begin to assume an influence over refined minds1 and we then find ,cyrus and ,semiramis as 8king and queen0 of diamonds2 ,roxana is the 8queen of hearts0 7,fig4 #bad71 ,ninus the 8king of spades10 c4 ,in the regency of ,marie de ,medicis1 in the reign of ,louis ,,xiii41 or rather of ,richelieu1 in the time of ,anne of ,austria and ,louis ,,xiv41 playing-cards continued to assume the character of the period1 following the whim of the court1 or the fancy of the cardmaker4 ,at a certain time they began to take an ,italian character4 ,the 8king of diamonds0 was called ,carel2 his queen1 ,lucresi2 the 8queen of spades10 ,barbera2 the 8queen of clubs10 ,penthame2 the 8knave of diamonds10 capit4 ,melu4 ,a vast field of investigation would lie before us if1 in tracing out the detailed history of these numerous variations1 we were to endeavour to distinguish and settle the different causes which gave rise to them4 ,one fact must certainly strike any one devoting himself to such inquiry2 he would see that1 in contradistinction to the changes which have affected the personages on the cards and their names1 a continuous state of stability has been the characteristic of the four suits in the ,french cards or the piquet-pack1 which were adopted from the very commencement1 and that no attempt has ever been made against their arrangement and nature4 ,cur 7hearts71 carreau 7diamonds71 trfle 7clubs71 and pique 7spades7--these were the divisions established by ,la ,hire or ,chevalier1 and they are still faithfully maintained in the present day1 although at various times endeavours have been made to define their symbolical signification4 ,for a long time the opinion of ,father ,menestrier was the prevalent one2 that 8hearts0 were an emblem of the clergy or the choir 7chur72 8diamonds10 of the citizens1 who had their rooms paved with square tiles2 8clubs10 of labourers2 and 8spades10 of military men4 ,but ,menestrier was in egregious error4 ,a much clearer view of the matter was taken by ,father ,daniel1 who1 like all sensible interpreters1 recognising in cards a game of an essentially military character1 asserted that 8hearts0 denoted the courage of the commanders and soldiers2 8clubs0 7trfle--8trefoil07 the stores of forage2 8spades0 and 8diamonds10 the magazines of arms4 ,this was a view which1 as we think1 comes much closer to the real interpretation of the suits2 and ,bullet was still nearer the mark when he recognised offensive arms in 8clubs0 and 8spades10 and defensive arms in 8hearts0 and 8diamonds40 ,the first were the sword and the lance2 the second1 the target and the shield4 ,but in order to do full honour to ,french cards1 we must not exclude from our attention the tarots1 which preceded our game of piquet1 and continued to be simultaneously used even in ,france4 ,the ,spanish and ,italian cardmakers1 who had been nearly always established in ,france1 made a large quantity of tarots 7,fig4 #bae72 but they made a certain concession to ,french politeness by substituting 8queens0 for the 8cavaliers0 of their national game4 ,we must remark here1 that even at the epoch of the conquests of ,charles ,,viii4 and ,louis ,,xii41 ,french cards with the four 8queens0 replacing the 8cavaliers0 never succeeded in nationalising themselves in ,italy1 and still less in ,spain2 on the contrary1 the fact was that as regards this point of fashion1 the vanquished people obtained the advantage over their conquerors1 and the tarots came into full favour among the victorious soldiery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4--,roxana1 ,queen of ,hearts4 7,specimen of the ,cards of the time of ,henry ,,iv47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4--;,card of ,italian ,tarots1 from the ,pack of the minchiate4 7,collection of ,playing-,cards1 ,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,the ,spaniards must certainly have received the ,oriental nab from the ,moors and ,saracens a long time prior to the introduction of this game into ,europe at ,viterbo2 but we have no written proofs which certify to the existence of cards among the ,saracens of ,spain4 ,the first document in which they are mentioned is the edict of ,john ,i41 of the date of #achg1 to which reference has been made4 ,certain savants have endeavoured to ascertain the signification of the four suits of the ,spanish naypes1 and have fancied that they could distinguish in them a special symbolism4 ,in their view1 the dineros1 copas1 bastos1 and spadas1 denoted the four estates which composed the population3 the merchants1 who have the money2 the priests1 who hold the chalice or cup2 the peasantry1 who handle the staff2 and the nobles1 who wear the sword4 ,this explanation1 although ingenious1 does not appear to us to be based on any very solid foundation4 ,the signs or suits of the numeral cards were fixed upon in the ,east1 and ,spain as well as ,italy merely adopted them without taking much trouble to penetrate into their allegorical meaning4 ,the ,spaniards became so addicted to this game that they soon preferred it to any other recreation2 and we know that when the companions of ,christopher ,columbus1 who had just discovered ,america1 formed their first settlement at ,st4 ,domingo1 they almost instantly set to work to make playing-cards out of the leaves of trees4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #baf and #bag4--,the 8,three0 and 8,eight0 of 8,bells40 ,german ,cards of the ,sixteenth ,century4 7,bibl4 ,imp4 of ,paris4 ,print-,room47 ,there can be no doubt that playing-cards very soon made their way from ,italy into ,germany2 but as they advanced towards the ,north they almost immediately lost their ,oriental characteristics and ,saracenic name4 ,there is1 in fact1 no longer any etymological trace to be found in the old ,german language of the words nab1 nabi1 or naypes4 ,cards were called ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bah and #bai4--,the 8,two of ,bells0 and the 8,king of ,acorns10 taken from a ,pack of ,cards of the ,sixteenth ,century1 designed and engraved by a ,german ,master4 7,bibl4 ,imp4 of ,paris4 ,print-,room47 ,briefe1 that is1 letters2 the game itself ,spielbriefe1 game of letters2 the earliest cardmakers were ,briefmaler1 painters of letters4 ,the four suits of the ,briefe were neither ,italian nor ,french in character2 they bore the name of ,schellen1 8bells0 7,figs4 #baf1 #bag1 #bah71 or roth 7red71 grn 7green71 and ,eicheln 7acorns7 7,fig4 #bai74 ,the ,germans1 in their love of symbolism1 had comprehended the real original signification of the game of cards1 and although they introduced many marked changes1 they made it their study1 at least in principle1 to preserve its military characteristics4 ,their suits depicted1 it is said1 the triumphs or the honours of war--the crowns of oak-leaves or ivy1 the bells were the bright insignia of the ,german nobility1 and the purple was the recompense of their valiant warriors4 ,the ,germans were careful not to admit ladies into the thoroughly warlike company of kings1 captains 7ober71 and officers 7unter74 ,the ace was always the flag1 the warlike emblem par excellence2 in addition to this1 the oldest game was the ,landsknecht1 or lansquenet 7,fig4 #bbj71 the distinctive term of the soldier4 ,we are speaking here only of the earliest ,german cards1 for1 after a certain date1 the essential form and emblematical rules of the pack depended on nothing but the fancy and whim of the maker or the engraver4 ,the figures were but seldom designated by a proper name1 but often bore devices in ,german or ,latin4 ,among the collections of ancient cards we find one pack half ,german and half ,french1 with the names of the ,pagan gods4 ,there are also several sets of cards with five suits 7of fourteen cards each71 among others those of 8roses0 and 8pomegranates40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--,the 8,two0 of a ,pack of ,german ,lansquenet ,cards4 7,bibl4 ,imp4 of ,paris47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4--;,card from a ,game of 8,logic10 invented by ,th4 ,murner1 and copied from his 8,chartiludium ,logices40 7,cracow1 #aejg47 ,the ,germans were the first who entertained the idea of applying cards to the instruction of youth2 and1 as it were1 of moralising a game of chance by making it express all the categories of scholastic science4 ,thomas ,murner1 a ,franciscan monk1 and professor of philosophy1 made in #aejg an attempt of this kind 7,fig4 #bba47 ,he designed a pack of fifty-two cards1 divided into sixteen suits1 corresponding to the same number of scholastic treatises2 each card is covered with so many symbols that a description would resemble the setting forth of some obscure riddle 7tnbreux logogriphe74 ,the ,german universities1 which were far from being dismayed at a little mysticism1 were only the more eager to study the arcana of grammar and logic while playing at cards4 ,imitations of ,murner's cards were multiplied ad infinitum4 ,a game and pack of cards attributed to the celebrated ,martin ,schngauer1 or to one of his pupils1 must also be dated in the fifteenth century4 ,the cards are distinguished by their form1 number1 and design2 they are round in shape1 and much resemble ,persian cards1 are painted on ivory and covered with arabesques1 flowers1 and birds4 ,this pack1 only a few pieces of which now exist in some of the ,german collections1 was composed of fifty-two cards divided into four numeral series of nine cards each1 and with four figures in each series--the king1 the queen1 the squire1 and the knave4 ,the suits or marks are the 8,hare10 the 8,parrot10 the 8,carnation10 and the 8,columbine40 ,each of the aces represents the type of the suit1 and they bear philosophical devices in ,latin4 ,the four figures of the 8,parrot0 suit are of ,african character2 those of the 8,hare0 are ,asiatic or ,turkish2 those of the 8,carnation0 and the 8,columbine0 belong to ,europe4 ,the 8kings0 and 8queens0 are on horseback2 the 8squires0 and 8knaves0 are so similar that it is difficult to distinguish them1 with the exception of the knaves of 8,columbine0 and 8,carnation0 7,figs4 #bbb to #bbg74 ,the ,english also were in possession of playing-cards at an early date1 obtaining them through the medium of the trade which they carried on with the ,hanseatic towns and ,holland2 but they did not manufacture cards before the end of the sixteenth century2 for we know that in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth the ,government retained in its own hands the monopoly of playing-cards1 8which were imported from abroad40 ,the ,english1 while adopting indiscriminately cards of a ,german1 ,french1 ,italian1 or ,spanish character1 gave to the valet the characteristic appellation of 8knave40#bg ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bbb to #bbg4--;,german ,round-shaped ,cards1 with the ,monogram ,t4 ,w4 #a4 8,king of ,parrots40 #b4 8,queen of ,carnations40 #c4 8,knave of ,columbine40 #d4 8,knave of ,hares40 #e4 8,three of ,parrots40 #f4 8,ace of ,carnations40 7,bibl4 ,imp4 of ,paris47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--,la ,damoiselle1 from a ,pack of ,cards engraved by 8,the ,master of #adff40 7,bibl4 ,imp4 of ,paris4 ,print-,room47 ,wood-engraving1 which was invented at the commencement of the fifteenth century1 and perhaps even before1 must have been applied at the very first and almost simultaneously to the reproduction of sacred pictures and the manufacture of playing-cards4 ,holland and ,germany have contended for the honour of having been the cradle of this invention4 ,taking advantage of this1 they have also even thought themselves warranted in laying claim to the credit of the original manufacture of cards2 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--,the ,knight1 from a ,pack of ,cards engraved by 8,the ,master of #adff40 7,bibl4 ,imp4 of ,paris47 whereas the fact is that all they can claim is to have been the first to produce them by some more expeditious method of making4 ,according to the opinion of several savants1 ,laurent ,coster of ,haerlem was only an engraver of wood-blocks for cards and pictures1 before he became a printer of books4 ,it certainly is a fact that wood-engraving1 which was for a long time limited to a few studios in ,holland and ,upper ,germany1 owed a large share of its progress to the trade in playing-cards--one which was carried on with such activity that1 as we read in an old chronicle of the city of ,ulm1 about the year #acig1 8they were in the habit of sending playing-cards in bales to ,italy1 ,sicily1 and other southern countries1 to exchange for groceries and various merchandise40 ,a few years later1 engraving on metal or copper-plate was employed in producing playing-cards of a really artistic character1 among which we may mention those of 8,the ,master of #adff0 7,figs4 #bbh and #bbi71 and by his anonymous rivals4 ,the pack of cards of this engraver exists only in a small number of print-collections1 and it is in every case incomplete4 ,as far as we can judge1 it must have been composed of sixty cards1 consisting of forty numeral cards divided into five series1 and twenty picture-cards1 being four to each series4 ,the figures are the king1 queen1 knight1 and knave4 ,the suits1 or marks1 present rather a strange selection of wild men1 ferocious quadrupeds1 deer1 birds of prey1 and various flowers4 ,these objects are numerically grouped and tolerably well arranged1 so as to allow the numbers indicated to be distinguished at first sight4 ,thus1 as we have seen1 playing-cards made their way through ,arabia from ,india to ,europe1 where they first arrived about the year #acgj4 ,within a few years they spread from the south to the north of the latter country2 but those who1 under the influence of a passion for play1 had so eagerly welcomed them1 were far indeed from suspecting that this new game contained within itself the germ of two of the most beautiful inventions ever devised by the human mind--those of engraving and printing4 ,there can be no doubt that playing-cards were in use for many a long year1 ere the public voice had proclaimed the almost simultaneous discovery of the arts of engraving on wood and metal1 and of printing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--;,coat of ,arms of the ,cardmakers of ,paris4 ,,glass-,,painting4 ,painting on ,glass mentioned by ,historians in the ,third ,century of our ,era4--,glazed ,windows at ,brioude in the ,sixth ,century4--,coloured ,glass at ,st4 ,john ,lateran and ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome4--,church-,windows of the ,twelfth and ,thirteenth ,centuries in ,france3 ,saint-,denis1 ,sens1 ,poitiers1 ,chartres1 ,rheims1 c4--,in the ,fourteenth and ,fifteenth ,centuries the ,art was at its ,zenith4--,jean ,cousin4--,the ,clestins of ,paris2 ,saint-,gervais4--,robert ,pinaigrier and his ,sons4--,bernard ,palissy decorates the ,chapel of the ,castle of ,ecouen4--,foreign ,art2 ,albert ,drer4 ,we have already established the fact that the art of manufacturing and colouring glass was known to the most ancient nations2 and1 says ,champollion-,figeac1 8if we study the various fragments of this fragile substance that have been handed down to our time1 if we take into consideration the varied ornamentation with which they are covered1 even the human figures which some of them represent1 it would be difficult to assert that antiquity was unacquainted with the means of combining glass with painting4 ,if antiquity did not produce what are now called painted-windows1 the real cause doubtless was because the custom of employing glass in windows did not then exist40 ,some few specimens of it have1 however1 been found in the windows of the houses exhumed at ,pompeii2 but this must have been an exception1 for the third century of our era is the earliest date in which traces are found in history of window-glass being used in buildings2 and we must bring down our researches as late as the times of ,st4 ,john ,chrysostom and ,st4 ,jerome 7the fourth century7 in order to find any reliable affirmation as to its adoption4 ,in the sixth century ,gregory of ,tours relates that a soldier broke the glass-window of a church at ,brioude in order to enter it secretly and commit robbery2 and we know that when this prelate caused the restoration of the ,church of ,st4 ,martin of ,tours1 he took care to fill its windows with glass 8of varied colours40 ,about the same time ,fortunatus1 the poet-bishop of ,poitiers1 highly extols the splendour of the glass-window of a church in ,paris1 the name of which he does not mention2 but the learned investigations of ,foncemagne with reference to the first kings of ,france inform us that the church built at ,paris by ,childebert ,i4 in honour of the ,holy ,cross and ,st4 ,vincent1 as well as the churches of ,lyons and ,bourges1 were closed in with glass-windows4 ,du ,cange1 in his 8,constantinople ,chrtienne10 describes the glass-windows of the basilica of ,st4 ,sophia1 rebuilt by ,justinian2 and ,paul1 the ,silentiary1#bh dwells with enthusiasm on the marvellous effect produced by the rays of the sun upon this assemblage of various coloured glasses4 ,in the eighth century1 the epoch at which the use of glass-windows was becoming general1 the basilica of ,st4 ,john ,lateran and the ,church of ,st4 ,peter at ,rome possessed coloured glass-windows2 and ,charlemagne1 who had caused mosaics of coloured glass to be made in a large number of churches1 did not fail to avail himself of this kind of ornament in the cathedral erected by him at ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,up to this time the only method of making glass was in small pieces1 generally round1 and designated by the name of cires1 a number of which by means of a network of plaster1 wooden frames1 or strips of lead1 were used to fill up the windows4 ,this material being1 however1 very costly1 it could only be introduced into edifices of great importance4 ,added to this1 it can scarcely be a source of wonder if1 at a time when all branches of art had relapsed into a sort of barbarism1 and glass was only exceptionally employed in ordinary purposes1 no one thought of decorating it with painted figures and ornaments4 ,with regard to mosaic1 either in marble or coloured glass1 ,martial1 ,lucretius1 and other writers of antiquity1 mention it in their works4 ,egypt had a knowledge of it even before ,greece2 the ,romans were accustomed to employ it in ornamenting the roofs and pavement of their temples1 and even their columns and streets4 ,some magnificent specimens of these decorations have remained to our time1 and they are considered as inseparable from the architecture of the emperors4 ,some have desired to attribute the custom of employing coloured glass in mosaics to the rarity of coloured marbles4 ,would it not be a more probable hypothesis that the simultaneous use of marble and glass for this purpose was the result of improvements in the art of making mosaics8 for glass that1 by metallic mixtures1 may be brought to a variety of colours1 is much more easily adapted to pictorial combinations than marble1 the tints of which are the result of the caprices of nature4 ,seneca1 alluding to the use of coloured glasses in mosaic1 complains of people not being able 8to walk except on precious stones20 this shows how prevalent the use of rich mosaics had become in ,rome4 ,but this art must have singularly fallen into decay1 for the few examples of the kind we now possess1 which date from the first centuries of ,christianity1 are marked with a character of simplicity that fully harmonises with the rudeness of the artists of those times4 ,among these specimens must be mentioned a pavement discovered at ,rheims1 upon which are represented the twelve signs of the zodiac1 the seasons of the year1 and ,abraham's ,sacrifice2 another on which are depicted ,theseus and the labyrinth of ,crete1 in juxtaposition with ,david and ,goliath4 ,it is1 moreover1 known that there existed in the ,forum of ,naples a portrait in mosaic of ,theodoric1 king of the ,goths1 who had caused a representation of the ,baptism of ,christ to be executed1 in the church of ,ravenna1 by the same process4 ,sidonius ,apollinaris1 describing the excessive luxury of ,consentius at ,narbonne1 speaks of arches and pavements ornamented with mosaics4 ,the churches of ,st4 ,john ,lateran1 ,st4 ,clement1 and ,st4 ,george in ,velabro1 at ,rome1 still display mosaics of this period4 ,lastly1 ,charlemagne caused the greater part of the churches constructed by him to be ornamented with mosaics4 ,to return to glass-work1 we find that in the time of ,charles the ,bald1 in #hfc1 mention is made of two artisans1 ,ragenat and ,balderic1 who became as it were the heads of the race of ,french glass-makers4 ,we also learn from the chronicle of ,st4 ,benignus of ,dijon1 that in #ajeb there existed in that church a 8very ancient painted window10 representing ,st4 ,paschasie1 which was said to have been taken from the earlier church4 ,we have therefore a right to conclude that at this period the custom of painting on glass had long been common4 ,in the tenth century glass-makers must have acquired some degree of importance1 for the reigning ,dukes of ,normandy of that era established certain privileges in their favour2 but1 says ,champollion-,figeac1 8as all privilege was the prerogative of the order of nobility1 they contrived to give them to noble families whose fortunes were precarious4 ,four ,norman families obtained this distinction4 ,but although it was understood that in devoting themselves to the trade these titled individuals incurred no degradation1 it was never said1 as is commonly believed1 that the profession of this art conferred nobility2 on the contrary1 a proverb arose which long continued in use1 namely1 that #8in order to make a gentleman glass-maker1 you must first take a gentleman4'0 ,although painting on glass was from that time carried on with considerable activity1 in many cases it was still very far from being accomplished by the processes which were destined to make it one of the most remarkable productions of art4 ,the application of the brush to vitrifiable colours was not generally adopted4 ,in the examples of this period that remain to our days1 we indeed find large cives cast in white glass1 upon which characters were painted by the artist2 but1 as the colour was not designed to be incorporated with the glass by the action of fire1 with a view to ensure the preservation of the painting1 another transparent but thick cive was placed over the first and closely soldered to it4 ,while glass-painting was thus seeking to perfect its processes1 mosaic work gradually declined4 ,only a very small number of mosaics of the tenth and eleventh centuries exist at the present day1 and these1 moreover1 are very incorrect in design1 and entirely wanting in taste and colour4 ,in the twelfth century all the arts began to revive4 ,the fear of the end of the world1 which had thrown mankind into a strange state of perturbation1 was dissipated4 ,the ,christian faith everywhere stirred up the zeal of its disciples4 ,magnificent cathedrals with imposing arches sprang up in various places1 and the art of the glass-maker came to the aid of architecture in order to diffuse over the interiors consecrated to worship the light1 both prismatic and harmonious1 which affords the calm1 necessary for holy meditation4 ,but though1 in the painted windows of this period1 we are forced to admire the ingenious combinatian of colours for the rose-work 7rose-windows71 the case is very different as regards the drawing and colouring of the designs4 ,the figures are generally traced in rough1 stiff lines on glass of a dull tint1 which absorbs all the expression of the heads2 the entire drapery of the costume is heavy2 the figure is spoilt by the folds of ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4--,st4 ,timothy the ,martyr1 ,coloured ,glass of the end of the ,eleventh ,century1 found in the ,church of ,neuwiller 7,bas-,rhin7 by ,m4 ,bswillwald4 7,from the 8,history of ,glass-,painting10 by ,m4 ,lasteyrie47 its vestments as if it were enclosed in a long sheath4 ,this is the general character of the examples of that period as they are known to us 7,fig4 #bca74 ,the painted windows which ,suger made to adorn the abbey-church of ,st4 ,denis1 some of which exist in our days1 date from the twelfth century4 ,the abbot made inquiries in every country1 and gathered together at a great expense the best artists he could find1 in order to assist in this decoration4 ,the ,adoration of the ,magi1 the ,annunciation1 the ,history of ,moses1 and various allegories1 are there represented in the chapel of the ,virgin and those of ,st4 ,osman and ,st4 ,hilary4 ,among the principal pictures may be also observed a portrait of ,suger himself at the feet of the ,virgin4 ,the borders surrounding the subjects may be considered as models of harmony and good arrangement of effect2 but still the taste shown in the selection and combination of colours is carried to the highest point in the subjects themselves1 the designs of which are very excellent4 ,in the ,church of ,st4 ,maurice1 at ,angers1 we find examples of a rather earlier date--perhaps the most ancient specimens of painted windows in ,france2 these are the history of ,st4 ,catherine and that of the ,virgin1 which1 in truth1 are not equal in merit1 as regards execution and taste1 to the ancient windows of the ,church of ,st4 ,denis4 ,we still have to mention some fragments contained in the ,church of ,st4 ,serge1 and the chapel of the ,hospital1 in the town of ,angers2 also a glass-window in the ,abbey of ,fontevrault2 another in the ,church of ,st4 ,peter1 at ,dreux1 in which is represented ,queen ,anne of ,brittany4 ,we will1 in conclusion1 mention one of the windows of the choir in the ,church of the ,trinity1 at ,vendme2 it represents the ,glorification of the ,virgin1 who bears on her forehead an aureola1 the shape of which1 called amandaire1#bi has furnished archologists with a subject for long discussions2 some being desirous of proving that this aureola1 which does not appear to be depicted in the same way on any other painted window1 tends to show that the works of the ,poitevine glass-makers1 to whom it is attributed1 had been subject to the influence of the ,byzantine school2 others assert that the almond-shaped crown is a symbol exclusively reserved for the ,virgin4 ,before we proceed to the examples handed down to us from the twelfth century1 we must mention some remains of glass to be seen at ,chartres1 ,mans1 ,sens1 and ,bourges 7,fig4 #bcb71 c4 ,we may also add1 as an incident not without interest1 that a chapter of the order of the ,cistercians1 considering the great expense to which the acquisition of painted windows led1 prohibited the use of them in churches under the rule of ,st4 ,bernard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4--;,fragment of a ,church-window1 representing the 8,prodigal ,son40 ,thirteenth ,century4 7,presented to the ,cathedral of ,bourges by the ,guild of ,tanners47 8,the architecture of the thirteenth century10 according to the judicious remarks of ,champollion-,figeac1 8by its style of moulding1 which is more slender and graceful than the massive forms of ,roman art1 opened a wider and more favourable field for artists in glass4 ,the small pillars then projected1 and extended themselves with a novel elegance1 and the tapering and delicate spires of the steeples lost themselves in the clouds4 ,the windows occupied more space1 and likewise had the appearance of springing lightly and gracefully upwards4 ,they were adorned with symbolical ornaments1 griffins1 and other fantastic animals2 leaves and boughs cross and intertwine with one another1 producing that varied rose-work which is the admiration of modern glass-makers4 ,the colours are more skilfully combined and better blended than in the windows of the preceding century2 and although some of the figures are still wanting in expression1 and have not thrown off all the stiffness which characterised them1 the draperies1 at least1 are lighter and better drawn40 ,examples of the thirteenth century which have remained to our time are very numerous4 ,there is at ,poitiers some painted glass composed of small roses1 and chiefly placed in one of the windows in the centre of the church and in the 8,calvary0 of the apse2 at ,sens1 the legend of ,st4 ,thomas of ,canterbury is represented in a number of small medallions1 called verrires lgendaires2 at ,mans is glass representing the corporations of trades2 at ,chartres1 the painted glass in the cathedral1 a work both magnificent and extensive1 contains no fewer than one thousand three hundred and fifty subjects1 distributed throughout one hundred and forty-three windows4 ,at ,rheims1 the painted glass is perhaps less important1 but it is remarkable both for the brilliancy of its colours and also for its characteristic fitness to the style of the edifice4 ,bourges1 ,tours1 ,angers1 and ,notre-,dame in ,paris1 present very beautiful specimens4 ,the ,cathedral of ,rouen possesses1 to this day1 a window which bears the name of ,clement of ,chartres1 master glazier1 the first artist of this kind who has left behind him any work bearing his signature4 ,we must1 in conclusion1 mention the ,sainte-,chapelle1 ,paris1 which is unquestionably the highest representation of what the art is capable of producing4 ,the designs of the windows in this last edifice are legendary1 and although some few inaccuracies may be noticed in the figures1 the fault is redeemed by the studied elegance of the ornamentation and the harmony of colours1 which combine to render them one of the most consistent and perfect works of painting on glass4 ,in the thirteenth century 8grisaille0 first made its appearance2 it was quite a new style1 and has been often since employed in the borders and ornaments of painted windows4 8,grisaille10#cj the name of which is to some extent sufficient to describe its aspect1 was used simultaneously with the mosaics of variegated glass1 as we see in the ,church of ,st4 ,thomas1 ,strasbourg1 in the ,cathedral of ,freybourg in ,brisgau1 and in many churches of ,bourges4 ,the large number of paintings on glass belonging to the thirteenth century1 which may still be studied in various churches1 has given rise to the idea of classifying all these monuments1 and arranging them under certain schools1 which have been designated by the names of ,franco-,norman1 ,germanic1 c4 ,some have even gone further1 and desired to recognise in the style peculiar to the artists of ancient ,france a ,norman style1 a ,poitevin style 7the latter recognisable1 it is said1 by the want of harmony in the colours71 c4 ,we can hardly admit these last distinctions1 and are the less inclined to do so1 as those who propound them seem to base their theories rather on the defects than the good qualities of the artists4 ,besides1 at a period in which a nobleman sometimes possessed several provinces very distant from each other--as1 for example1 ,anjou and ,provence--it might so happen that the artists he took with him to his different residences could scarcely fail1 by the union of their various works1 to cause any provincial influences to disappear1 and would finally reduce the distinction between what is called the ,poitevin style1 the ,norman style1 c41 to a question of a more or less skilful manufacture1 or of a more or less advanced improvement4 ,in the fourteenth century the artist in glass became separated from the architect2 although naturally subordinate to the designer of the edifice1 in which the windows were to be only an accessory ornament1 he wished to give effect to his own inspiration4 ,the whole of the building was subjected by him to the effect of his more learned and correct drawing1 and his purer and more striking colouring4 ,it mattered little to him should some part of the church have too much light1 or not light enough1 if a flood of radiance deluged the apse or the choir1 instead of being gradually diffused everywhere1 as in earlier buildings4 ,he desired his labour to recommend him1 and his work to do him honour4 ,the court-poets1 ,guillaume de ,machaut and ,eustache ,deschamps1 celebrate in their poems several works in painted glass of their time1 and even give some details in verse on the mode of fabricating them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--,legend of the ,jew of the ,rue des ,billettes1 ,paris1 piercing the ,holy ,wafer with his ,knife4 7,from a ,window of the ,church of ,st4 ,alpin1 at ,chlons-sur-,marne4 ,fourteenth ,century47 ,in #acdg a royal ordinance was proclaimed in favour of the workmen of ,lyons4 ,the custom existed at that time of adorning with painted windows royal and lordly habitations4 ,the artists produced their own designs1 adapting them to the use that was made1 in private life1 of the halls for which they were intended4 ,some of these windows representing familiar legends adorned even the churches 7,fig4 #bcc74 ,among the most important works of the fourteenth century1 we must mention in the first place the windows of the cathedrals of ,mans1 ,beauvais1 vreux 7,fig4 #bcd71 and the rose-windows of ,st4 ,thomas at ,strasbourg4 ,next come the windows of the ,church of ,st4 ,nazaire at ,carcassonne and of the ,cathedral of ,narbonne4 ,there are1 besides1 in the ,church of ,st4 ,john at ,lyons1 in ,notre-,dame of ,semur1 in ,aix in ,provence1 at ,bourges1 and at ,metz1 church-windows in every respect worthy of attention4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--;,fragment of a ,window presented to the ,cathedral of ,evreux by the ,bishop ,guillaume de ,cantiers4 ,fourteenth ,century4 ,the fifteenth century only continues the traditions of the preceding one4 ,the principal works dating from this epoch begin1 according to the order of merit1 with the window of the ,cathedral of ,mans1 which represents ,yolande#ca of ,aragon1 and ,louis ,,ii41 ,king of ,naples and ,sicily1 ancestors of the good ,king ,ren2 after them we shall place the windows of the ,sainte-,chapelle1 ,riom2 ,st4 ,vincent1 ,rouen2 the ,cathedral of ,tours2 and that of ,bourges1 representing a memorial of ,jacques ,cur1 c4 ,the sixteenth century1 although bringing with it1 owing to religious troubles1 many ravages of new iconoclasts1 has handed down to us a variety of numerous and remarkable church-windows4 ,we are1 of course1 unable to mention them all2 but it seems expedient--adopting the rule of most archologists--to divide them into three branches or schools1 which are actually formed by the different styles of the artists of that epoch2 the ,french school1 the ,german school1 and the ,lorraine school 7,fig4 #bce71 which partakes of the characteristics of the two preceding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4--;,allegorical ,window1 representing the 8,citadel of ,pallas40 7,lorraine work of the ,sixteenth ,century1 preserved in the ,library at ,strasbourg47 ,at the head of the ,french school figures the celebrated ,jean ,cousin1 who decorated the chapel of ,vincennes2 he also made for the ,clestins monastery1 ,paris1 a representation of ,calvary2 for ,st4 ,gervais1 in #aehg1 the windows representing the 8,martyrdom of ,st4 ,lawrence10 the 8,samaritan conversing with ,christ10 and the 8,paralytic40 ,in these works1 which belong to a high style of painting1 the best method of arrangement1 vigorous drawing1 and powerful colouring1 seem to reflect the work of ,raphael4 ,windows in 8grisaille10 made from the cartoons of ,jean ,cousin1 also decorated the ,castle of ,anet4 ,another artist1 named ,robert ,pinaigrier1 who1 although inferior to ,cousin1 was much more fertile in production1 assisted by his sons ,jean1 ,nicholas1 and ,louis1 and several of his pupils1 executed a number of windows for the churches of ,paris1 of which the greater part have disappeared3 ,saint-,jacques la ,boucherie1 the ,madeleine1 ,sainte-,croix en la ,cit1 ,saint ,barthlemy1 c4 ,magnificent specimens of his work still remain at ,saint-,merry1 ,saint-,gervais1 ,saint-,etienne du ,mont1 and in the ,cathedral of ,chartres4 ,pinaigrier's works in the decorations of chteaux and the mansions of the nobility are perhaps equally numerous4 ,at this period several windows were made from the drawings of ,raphael1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 and ,parmigiano2 it may also be remarked that two patterns of the latter's work were used by ,bernard ,palissy1 who was a glass-maker before he became an enameller1 in forming windows in 8grisaille0 for the chapel of the ,chteau of ,ecouen4 ,for the same place1 following the style of ,raphael1 and from the drawings of ,rosso1 called ,matre ,roux1 ,bernard ,palissy executed thirty pictures on glass1 representing the history of ,psyche1 which are justly considered as ranking among the most beautiful compositions of the epoch2 but it is not now known what has become of these valuable windows1 which at the ,revolution were transported to the ,museum of ,french ,monuments4 ,they were1 it is said1 executed under the direction of ,leonard of ,limoges1 who1 like all the masters of that school 7,fig4 #bcf71 applied to painting on glass the processes of enamelling1 and vice vers4 ,in the collections of the ,louvre and of several amateurs1 there are still examples of his composition1 on which he employed the best glass-painters of his time2 for he could not himself work on all the objects that proceeded from his studios1 and which were almost exclusively destined for the king's palace4 ,the ,french art of glass-working became cosmopolitan4 ,it was introduced into ,spain and also into the ,low ,countries under the protection of ,charles ,v4 and the ,duke of ,alba4 ,it even appears to have crossed the ,alps2 for we know that in #aeab a glass-painter of the name of ,claude adorned with his works the large windows of the ,vatican2 and ,julius ,,ii4 summoned ,guillaume of ,marseilles to the ,eternal ,city1 the pontiff when occupying the sees of ,carpentras and ,avignon having appreciated his talent4 ,we must not omit to mention1 among the ,flemish artists who escaped this foreign influence1 the name of ,dirk of ,haarlem 7,fig4 #bcg71 the most celebrated master in this art at the close of the fifteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--,st4 ,paul1 an ,enamel of ,limoges1 by ,etienne ,mercier4 ,while ,french art was thus spreading over the continent1 foreign art ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4--;,flemish ,window 7,fifteenth ,century71 half life-size4 ,painted in ,monochrome1 relieved with yellow1 by ,dirk of ,haarlem4 7,collection of ,m4 ,benoni-,verhelst1 ,ghent47 was being introduced into ,france4 ,albert ,drer employed his pencil in painting twenty windows in the church of the ,old ,temple1 in ,paris1 and produced a collection of pictures characterised by vigorous drawing1 and warm and intense colouring4 ,the celebrated ,german did not work alone--other artists assisted him2 and1 notwithstanding the devastations which took place during the ,revolution1 in many a church and mansion traces of these skilful masters may still be found2 their compositions1 which are generally as well arranged as they are executed1 are marked with a tinge of ,german simplicity very suitable to the pious nature of the subjects they represent4 ,in #afjj1 ,nicholas ,pinaigrier placed in the windows of the ,castle of ,la ,briffe seven pictures in 8grisaille10 copied from the designs of ,francis ,floris1 a ,flemish master1 who was born in #aebj4 ,at this same period ,van ,haeck1 ,herreyn1 ,john ,dox1 and ,pelgrin ,rsen1 all belonging to the school of ,antwerp1 and other artists who had decorated the windows of most of the churches in ,belgium1 especially ,st4 ,gudule in ,brussels1 influenced either directly or indirectly the glass-painters of the east and north of ,france4 ,another group of artists1 the ,provenals1 imitators of the ,italian style1 or rather perhaps inspired by the same luminary1 the sun of ,michael ,angelo1 trod a similar path to that which ,jean ,cousin1 ,pinaigrier1 and ,palissy had followed with so much renown4 ,the chiefs of this school were ,claude1 and ,guillaume of ,marseilles1 who1 as we have just mentioned1 carried their talent and their works into ,italy1 where they succeeded in educating some clever pupils4 ,with regard to the school of ,messin or ,lorraine1 it is principally represented by a disciple of ,michael ,angelo1 ,valentin ,bousch1 the ,alsatian1 who died in #aeda at ,metz1 where he had executed1 since #aeba1 an immense number of works4 ,the windows of the churches of ,st4 ,barbe1 ,st4 ,nicolas du ,port1 ,autrey1 and ,flavigny-sur-,moselle1 are due to the same school1 in which ,israel ,henriet was also brought up2 he became the chief of a school exclusively belonging to ,lorraine1 at the time when ,charles ,,iii4 had invited the arts to unite under the patronage of the ducal throne4 ,thierry ,alix1 in a 8,description indite de la ,lorraine10 written in #aeij1 and mentioned by ,m4 ,bgin1 speaks of 8large plates of glass of all colours10 made in his time in the mountains of ,vosges1 where 8all the herbs and other things necessary to painting0 were found4 ,m4 ,bgin1 after having quoted this curious statement1 adds that the windows which at that era were produced in the studios of ,vosges1 and subsequently carried to all parts of ,europe1 constituted a very active branch of commerce4 8,nevertheless10 says ,champollion-,figeac1 8art was declining4 ,christian art especially was disappearing1 and had almost come to an end1 when ,protestantism stepped in and gave it the last blow2 this is proved by the window in the cathedral church of ,berne1 in which the artist1 ,frederic 8,,francis ,i4 ,,and ,,eleanor ,,his ,,wife ,,at ,,prayers40 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,window ,,in ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,gudule ,,in ,,brussels4 ,,from 8,l',,histoire ,,de ,,la ,,peinture ,,sur ,,verre ,,en ,,europe40 ,this magnificent window was given to the ,church of ,st4 ,gudule by ,francis ,i4 and ,eleanor of ,spain1 his wife1 sister of ,charles ,v41 and widow by her first marriage of ,emmanuel the ,great1 ,king of ,portugal4 ,the donors are represented kneeling1 each one protected by his or her patron saint2 the king is attended by ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi1 who is receiving in a vision the impress of the stigmata of ,jesus on the ,cross2 the queen is accompanied by ,st4 ,eleanor1 who holds in her hand the palm of the elect4 ,this window is from a design by ,bernard van ,orley4 ,francis ,i4 and ,eleanor expended on the window two hundred and twenty-two crowns1 or four hundred florins1 an important sum in those days 7#aeae-dg74 ,illustration3 ,,francis ,i4 ,,and ,,eleonora ,,at ,,their ,,devotions4 ,portion of a ,stained ,glass ,window in the ,church of ,st4 ,gudule at ,brussels4 ,walter1 dared to launch his satire against doctrine itself1 and to ridicule transubstantiation by representing a pope shovelling four evangelists into a mill1 from which come forth a number of wafers2 these a bishop is receiving into a cup in order to distribute them to the wondering people4 ,any edification of the masses by the powerful effect of transparent images placed1 so to speak1 between the earth and heaven1 soon ceased to be possible1 and glass-painting1 henceforth alienated from the special aim of its origin1 was destined also to disappear40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4--,temptation of ,st4 ,mars1 a ,hermit of ,auvergne1 by the ,devil disguised as a ,woman4 ,fragment of a ,window of the ,sainte-,chapelle of ,riom4 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,from 8,histoire de la ,peinture sur ,verre10 by ,m4 ,f4 de ,lasteyrie47 ,,fresco-,,painting4 ,the ,nature of ,fresco4--,employed by the ,ancients4--,paintings at ,pompeii4--,greek and ,roman ,schools4--,mural ,paintings destroyed by the ,iconoclasts and ,barbarians4--,revival of ,fresco1 in the ,ninth ,century1 in ,italy4--,fresco-,painters since ,guido of ,siena4--,principal ,works of these ,painters4--,successors of ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo4--,fresco in ,sgraffito4--,mural ,paintings in ,france from the ,twelfth ,century4--,gothic ,frescoes of ,spain4--,mural ,paintings in the ,low ,countries1 ,germany1 and ,switzerland4 8,too frequently in conversational language and even in the writings of grave authors10 says ,m4 ,ernest ,breton1 8the word fresco is made synonymous with mural painting in general4 ,this confusion of terms has sometimes caused the most fatal errors4 ,the etymology of the word is the best definition of the subject4 ,the ,italians give the name of paintings in fresco or a fresco1 that is to say1 frais1 or sur le frais1 to those works executed upon damp stucco into which the colour penetrates to a certain depth4 ,the ancient ,french authors1 preserving the difference existing between the ,italian fresco and the ,french frais1 wrote the word fraisque4 ,at the present day ,italian orthography has prevailed1 and with us this word has now more relation to its etymology than its real signification40 ,whatever may be the common acceptation of the word1 we must1 in order to keep within the limits of our subject1 here only take into consideration real frescoes1 or in other words1 works of art executed upon a bare wall1 properly prepared for the purpose1 with which they are as it were incorporated2 for in the roll of art all are excluded from the catalogue of mural paintings1 rightly so called1 which1 although applied to walls either directly or by the aid of panels or fixed canvas1 are produced otherwise than with water-colours1 and used in such a manner as to penetrate the special kind of plaster with which the wall had been previously covered4 ,we will mention as a striking example of this the famous 8,lord's ,supper0 of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 which has many times been called a fresco 7it is well known to have been painted upon the wall of the refectory of ,santa ,maria della ,gratia1 at ,milan71 but is nothing but a painting in distemper#cb on a dry partition--a circumstance1 by-the-bye1 which has not a little contributed to the deterioration of this magnificent work4 ,fresco has long been considered the most ancient style of painting4 ,vasari1 who wrote in the middle of the sixteenth century1 says in apt terms that 8the ancients generally practised painting in fresco1 and the first painters of the modern schools have only followed the antique methods20 and1 in our own day1 ,millin1 in his 8,dictionnaire des ,beaux-,arts10 asserts that the great paintings in the 8,pcile0 of ,athens and the 8,lesche0 of ,delphi1 by ,pannus and ,polygnotus1 spoken of by ,pausanias1 were executed by this process2 the same author also ranks among frescoes the numerous paintings left by the ,egyptians in their temples and catacombs4 8,it was10 he remarks1 8what the ,romans called in udo pariete pingere 7to paint on a damp wall72 they say in cretula pingere 7to paint on chalk7 to designate water-colour painting on a dry ground40 ,some persons have considered the paintings found at ,herculaneum and ,pompeii to be frescoes2 nevertheless ,winckelmann1 who is an authority in these matters1 said1 a hundred years ago1 in speaking of those works1 8,it is to be remarked that the greater part of these pictures were not painted on damp lime1 but upon a dry ground1 which is rendered very evident by several of the figures having scaled off in such a way as to show distinctly the ground upon which they rest40 ,the whole mistake has arisen from taking the expression 8in udo pariete10 found in ,pliny1 in too literal a sense2 the error1 which might at all events have been dissipated by an attentive examination of the examples themselves1 would not have lasted long if the passage from ,pliny had been compared with a statement of ,vitruvius1 which informs us that they applied to fresh walls uniform tints of black1 blue1 yellow1 or red1 which were destined to form the grounds of paintings1 or even allowed them to remain plain1 like our present coloured walls4 ,the employment of this process may also be easily recognised in the paintings of ,pompeii1 where this uniform colouring has sometimes penetrated nearly an inch into the stucco of the wall4 ,on this ground1 when it was perfectly dry1 ornamental subjects were painted either in distemper or encaustic4 ,thus1 therefore1 it is shown that the process of painting in fresco was unknown to the ancients1 and was invented by artists of succeeding times2 but it would be difficult to assign any precise date to this invention2 for however far we go back1 we do not find any authors who fix the epoch at which the new method was for the first time followed4 ,we are1 therefore1 compelled to notice the age of some particular example which shows that the discovery had then taken place1 without being able to determine the exact date of its commencement4 ,painting1 which with the ,greeks attained its greatest height in the reign of ,alexander1 fell1 says ,m4 ,breton1 8with the power of ,greece4 ,in losing its liberty1 the country of the ,fine ,arts lost1 too1 the perception of the beautiful40 ,at ,rome1 painting never reached the same degree of perfection as it did in ,greece2 for a long time it was only practised by men of the lowest rank and by slaves4 ,a few patricians1 such as ,amulius1 ,fabius ,pictor 7painter71 and ,cornelius ,pinus1 were1 at the best1 able to bring about only some slight revival4 ,after the twelve ,csars1 painting followed the movement of decadence which carried away with it all the arts2 like them1 it received its death-blow in the fourth century1 on the day when ,constantine1 quitting ,rome in order to establish the seat of empire at ,byzantium1 took with him into his new capital not only the best artists1 but also a prodigious number of their productions1 and of those of the artists who preceded them4 ,several other causes may also be mentioned as having led to the decline of art1 or to the destruction of examples which would now bear witness to its power in remote ages4 ,in the first place1 there was the birth of ,christian ,art1 which rose on the ruins of ,paganism2 then1 the invasion of barbarians which took place in the fifth century2 lastly1 in the eighth and ninth centuries1 the fury of the ,iconoclasts1 or ,image-breakers1 a sect at the head of which figured several emperors of the ,east1 from ,leo the ,isaurian1 who reigned in #gag1 down to ,michael the ,stammerer and ,theophilus1 who respectively ascended the imperial throne in #hbj and #hbi4 ,even among the ignorant masses1 to whom we owe the loss of so many chefs-d'uvre1 were some individuals who formed honourable exceptions1 not only by opposing the devastations1 but also by manifesting a laudable conservative instinct4 ,cassiodorus tells us that ,theodoric1 king of the ,goths1 re-established the office of centurio nitentium rerum 7guardian of beautiful objects71 instituted by the emperor ,constantius2 and we know that the ,lombard kings who succeeded this prince and reigned in ,italy for #bah years1 although less zealous in the culture of the arts1 did not fail to honour and protect them4 ,in ,paul the ,deacon#cc we read that1 in the sixth century1 queen ,teudelinde1 wife of ,autharis and afterwards of ,agilulphus1 caused the valorous deeds of the first ,lombard kings to be painted on the basilica that she had consecrated at ,monza under the name of ,st4 ,john4 ,other paintings of the same epoch may still be seen at ,pavia4 ,the ,church of ,st4 ,nazaire at ,verona possesses in its crypt paintings spoken of by ,maffei1 which have been engraved by ,ciampini and ,frisi3 these must date back to the sixth and seventh centuries4 ,lastly1 they have recently found in the subterranean chapel of the basilica of ,st4 ,clement1 in ,rome1 some admirable mural paintings1 which archologists refer to the same epoch4 ,the ,eastern artists1 driven away by the persecutions of the ,iconoclasts1 sought an asylum in ,italy1 where the ,latin ,church1 obedient to the prescriptions of the ,council of ,nice1 seemed determined to multiply sacred images as much as possible4 ,the arrival of the ,grecian artists in the ,west was also singularly promoted by the commercial relations which from that time were established between all points of the ,mediterranean shore and the maritime or mercantile towns of ,italy--,pisa1 ,genoa1 and ,venice4 ,thus was brought about the movement which1 although taking place on ,italian soil1 drew from an entirely ,eastern source the inspiration of the revival of the ,fine ,arts2 thus was continued the so-called ,byzantine school1 destined to be the foundation of all modern art4 ,in #hag some ,greek artists1 by order of ,pope ,pascal ,i41 executed under the portico of the ,church of ,st4 ,cecilia in ,rome a series of frescoes1 the subjects of which were taken from the life of the saint4 ,to the same school we are indebted for the sitting figures of ,christ and ,his mother 7,fig4 #bci71 in the old ,church of ,santa-,maria ,trans-,tiberia1 in ,rome2 the large ,madonna painted on the walls of ,santa-,maria della ,scala1 ,milan1 which1 at the time when this church was destroyed and replaced by the theatre of ,la ,scala1 was taken away and carried to the ,church of ,santa-,fidelia1 where it still remains2 a series of portraits of the ,popes after ,st4 ,leo1 a collection of which a large portion perished in the fire of ,st4 ,paul-extra-,muros1 ,rome 7,fig4 #bdj72 and lastly1 the paintings in the vaults of the ,cathedral of ,aquila4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4--;,christ and ,his ,mother4 ,fresco-,painting of the ,ninth ,century1 in the ,apse of ,santa-,maria ,trans-,tiberia1 ,rome4 8,the works of these earliest painters10 observes ,m4 ,breton1 8seem to mark the transition from painting to sculpture3 they are long figures as stiff as columns1 single or arranged symmetrically1 forming neither groups nor compositions1 without perspective or effects of light and shade1 and having nothing to express their meaning than a sort of legend proceeding out of the mouths of the characters4 ,these frescoes1 which are so weak when looked at in an artistic point of view1 are remarkable for their material execution1 being extremely solid in their workmanship4 ,it is astonishing to see the wonderful preservation of some pictures of saints that adorn the pilasters of ,st4 ,nicholas in ,treviso and the walls of the church in ,fiesole1 whereon are preserved the frescoes of ,fra ,angelico40 ,among the paintings remaining to our time1 the first in which the authors departed from the uniform style of the ,byzantine masters are those which adorn the interior of the ancient temple of ,bacchus1 now the ,church of ,st4 ,urban in the ,campagna of ,rome3 there is nothing ,grecian either in the figures or draperies1 and it is impossible not to recognise in them an ,italian pencil2 the date1 however1 is #ajaa4 ,pesaro1 ,aquila1 ,orvieto1 and ,fiesole1 possess examples of the same epoch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--,portrait of the ,pope ,sylvester ,i4 ,fresco-,painting in ,mosaic1 on a gold ground1 in the ,basilica of ,st4 ,paul-extra-,muros1 ,rome4 ,at last1 in the thirteenth century1 notwithstanding its fierce intestine struggles1 ,italy1 and especially ,tuscany1 witnessed the dawn of the sun of the ,fine ,arts1 which1 after a long period of darkness1 was to shine with so much brilliancy over the whole world4 ,pisa and ,siena1 earliest in the revival1 gave birth respectively to ,giunta and ,guido 7,palmerucci71 each of whom in his time acquired great renown2 but the only works of these artists which remain now1 in the ,cathedral of ,assisi1 seem but to indicate a desire of progress without manifesting any real advancement in art4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4--,the ,apostles in the ,garden of ,gethsemane4 ,fresco by ,berna1 at ,san-,geminiano4 7,fourteenth ,century47 ,to ,guido of ,siena succeeds1 but not immediately1 the friend of ,petrarch1 ,simon ,memmi1 whose frescoes in the ,campo ,santo of ,pisa testify to his powerful genius1 and denote the first remarkable stage of art4 ,in the collegiate church of ,san-,geminiano#cd may be still seen a fresco by ,berna 7,fig4 #bda71 an eminent master in the school of ,siena1 who died in #acgj4 ,passing1 but not without mention1 ,margaritone and ,bonaventura ,berlinghieri1 who were only the timid harbingers of a great individuality1 the ,florentine school places in the first rank of its celebrities ,cimabue 7#abdj-acjj71 justly regarded by the artistic world as the true restorer of painting4 ,cimabue pointed out the path2 ,giotto1 his pupil1 trod it4 ,he took nature for his guide1 and has been surnamed 8nature's pupil40 ,real imitation was the object of his endeavour1 and as he found this system marvellously applied in the beautiful antique marbles which had already inspired1 in the preceding century1 the sculptors ,john and ,nicolas of ,pisa1 he made an earnest study of these ancient chefs-d'uvre4 ,the impulse was given1 and the ,campo ,santo of ,pisa shows us its first results in 8,the ,dream of ,life40 ,for two centuries there was a slow but always progressive improvement1 owing to the industry of ,buffamalco1 ,taddeo ,gaddi1 ,orcagna1 ,spinello of ,lucca1 and ,masolino of ,panicale4 ,with the fifteenth century appeared ,fra ,angelico of ,fiesole 7,figs4 #bdb and #bdf71 and ,benozzo ,gozzoli2 then ,masaccio1 ,pisanello1 ,mantegna1 ,zingaro1 ,pinturicchio1 and lastly ,perugino1 the ,master of the divine ,raphael4 ,in the sixteenth century art attained its culminating point4 ,at this epoch ,raphael and his pupils painted the 8,farnesina0 and the 8,stanze0 and 8,loggie0 of the ,vatican 7it is known that the two first pictures of the 8,loggie0 7,fig4 #bdc7 were painted solely by the hand of ,raphael72 ,michael ,angelo alone executed the immense expanse of the 8,last ,judgment10 and ,paul ,veronese painted the ceilings of the palace of the ,doges at ,venice4 ,then ,giulio ,romano covered with his works the walls of the ,te palace at ,mantua2 ,andrea del ,sarto1 those of the 8,annunziata0 and 8,dello ,scalzo0 at ,florence4 ,daniel of ,volterra painted his famous 8,descent from the ,cross0 for the ,trinit du ,mont1 ,rome2 at ,parma1 the ,pencil of ,correggio worked marvels on the circle of the dome of the cathedral4 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 besides the picture of the 8,lord's ,supper10 which we before mentioned only to exclude it from the ,illustration3 8,,the ,,dream ,,of ,,life40 ,,fresco-,,painting1 ,,by ,,orcagna1 ,,in ,,the ,,cloister ,,of ,,the ,,campo ,,santo ,,of ,,pisa4 7,,fourteenth ,,century47 ,this fresco is by ,andrea ,cione1 called ,orcagna1 a ,florentine painter of the fourteenth century1 who executed for the ,campo ,santo of ,pisa a series of paintings which are still admired1 representing the four destinies of man3--8,death10 8,judgment10 8,hell10 and 8,paradise40 ,each of these large compositions embraces several scenes2 that which we give belongs to the 8,triumph of ,death40 ,petrarch had just given to the world the concluding notes of his funereal song1 and the wish of the painter seems to have been to call to life1 in his fresco1 the strange vision of the poet4 ,the happy of this world are here represented gathered together under cool shades and upon carpets of verdure2 gay lords are murmuring magic words into the ears of the young ladies of ,florence4 ,even quiet falcons on the wrists of the lords seem captivated by this delicious music4 ,everything appears to invite forgetfulness of the miseries of life1--the richness of the vestments1 the beautiful sky of ,italy1 the perfumes1 the love-songs4444 ,this is the 8,dream of ,life10 which 8,death0 is destined to dispel with one sweep of his mighty wing4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dream ,,of ,,life4 7,after a ,copy made for the ,library of ,m ,ambroise ,firmin ,didot47 ,from a fresco ,painting by ,orcagna1 in the ,cloister of the ,campo ,santo of ,pisa4 ,fourteenth ,century4 number of frescoes1 endowed the monastery of ,st ,onofrio at ,rome with a magnificent ,madonna1 and the palace of ,caravaggio1 near ,bergamo1 with ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--;,group of ,saints1 taken from the large ,fresco of 8,the ,passion0 in the ,convent of ,st4 ,mark4 ,painted by ,fra ,angelico of ,fiesole4 a colossal ,virgin4 ,it was1 in short1 the age of splendid productions in mural painting1 that in which the great ,buonarotti exclaimed when engaged in enthusiastic labour on one of his sublime conceptions--8,fresco is the only painting2 painting in oils is only the art of women and idle and unenergetic men40 ,and yet1 at least as regards improvements in the process of execution1 fresco had hardly reached its climax4 ,in the seventeenth century the school of ,bologna1 after having for a long time maintained a merely imitative style of art1 shone forth with independent light under the influence of the ,carracci1 who1 summoned to ,rome1 covered the walls of the ,farnesian gallery with frescoes1 to which none others could be compared for brilliancy and powerful effect4 ,as much must be said of the works of their pupils3 the 8,martyrdom of ,st4 ,sebastian10 in the ,church of ,st4 ,mary of the ,angels2 the 8,miracles of ,st4 ,nil10 at ,grotta-,ferrata1 near ,rome2 the 8,death of ,st4 ,cecilia10 at ,saint-,louis-des-,franais1 by ,domenichino2 8,aurora10 by ,guercino1 at the ,villa ,ludovici2 the 8,chariot of the ,sun10 by ,guido1 in the ,rospigliosi ,palace1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--;,first ,picture of the ,loggie of ,raphael--8,god creating the ,heaven and the ,earth40 ,luca ,giordano1 a ,neapolitan painter1 founder of the gallery of the ,ricciardi ,palace at ,florence1 and author of the frescoes in numerous churches in ,italy and ,spain1 must not be forgotten2 and with him must be mentioned ,pietro da ,cortona1 of the ,roman school1 who especially distinguished himself in the ceilings of the ,barberini ,palace1 at ,rome4 ,we still have to mention the fertile painters of the ,genoese and ,parmesan schools--,lanfranc1 ,carloni1 and ,francavilla2 but the hour of decadence had come when these artists appeared2 they had more boldness than talent1 they aimed at the majestic1 but only succeeded in attaining to the gigantic2 their pencils were skilful1 but their soul lacked fervour and conviction2 in spite of their efforts1 fresco-painting declined under their hands1 and since that time has only decayed and gradually sunk into oblivion4 ,we must not quit the classical ground of the ,fine ,arts without mentioning a process of painting which is closely allied to fresco1 and bears the characteristic name of sgraffito 7literally1 a scratch74 ,this style of painting1 or rather of drawing 7for the works had the appearance of a large drawing in black crayon71 was more generally used for the exterior of buildings1 and was produced by covering the wall first with black stucco1 then with a second layer of white1 and afterwards by removing with an iron instrument the second layer so as to lay bare1 in places1 the black ground4 ,the most important work executed in this style is the ornamentation of the monastic house of the knights of ,st4 ,stephen1 at ,pisa2 this work is by ,vasari1 to whom also has been attributed--but wrongfully--the invention of sgraffito1 which was used long before his time4 ,hitherto we have chiefly confined our remarks to ,italy and ,italian artists2 however1 in the consideration of them we have nearly summed up our brief history of fresco4 ,if we would look to ,france for any remarkable works of this kind1 we must refer to the epochs in which ,italy sent ,simon ,memmi to decorate the palace of the popes at ,avignon1 and ,rosso and ,primaticcio to adorn that of the kings at ,fontainebleau4 ,prior to this1 all we meet with are1 at the most1 a few primitive1 not to say barbarous1 subjects1 painted here and there1 in distemper1 by unknown artists1 on the walls of churches or monasteries4 ,among these conventional examples it is1 however1 only just to distinguish some pictures of powerful effect1 if not in execution1 at least for the ideas they are intended to convey2 we would speak of the 8,dance of ,death10 or 8,dance of the ,dead10 like that which existed at ,paris in the ,cemetery of the ,innocents1 and another still to be seen in the ,abbey of ,chaise-,dieu1 in ,auvergne2 legends more than ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--8;,fraternity of the ,cross-bowmen40 7,fresco-,painting of the ,fifteenth ,century1 in the ancient ,chapel of ,st4 ,john and ,st4 ,paul1 ,ghent47 pictures1 and philosophical compositions rather than manifestations of art4 ,spain1 too1 has no reason to be proud of her national productions2 for1 with the exception of the ,gothic frescoes still existing in the ,cathedral of ,toledo1 representing the combats between the ,moors and the ,toledans 7pictures specially worthy of the attention of archologists71 the only frescoes of ,spanish origin we can mention are the paintings of a few ceilings in the ,escurial and in a chapter-room in the ,cathedral of ,toledo2 all the other frescoes must be attributed to ,italian artists4 ,whenever the northern artists1 usually so cold and methodical in their mode of operation1 devoted themselves to mural painting1 it seems to have been necessary that they should enliven their temperament in the sunny rays of a southern sky2 for while in ,holland and ,belgium we notice but few walls covered with decorative painting1 we find a large number of ,italian churches and palaces which contain frescoes bearing the signature of ,flemish masters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4--8;,death and the ,jew40 ,an episode from the 8,dance of ,death40 ,painted in #adda1 in the ,cemetery of the ,dominicans1 ,basle4 7,facsimile from the ,engraving of ,m4 ,mrian47 ,there was considerable excitement manifested a few years ago at the discovery of the mural paintings in the ancient ,chapel of ,st4 ,john and ,st4 ,paul1 in ,ghent 7,fig4 #bdd74 ,these works are of the fifteenth century1 and although satisfactory enough as regards the design1 they derive more importance from the subjects which they represent than from any merit of execution4 ,in speaking of ,germany1 we should not omit to mention the ancient 8,dance of ,death0 7,fig4 #bde71 at ,basle1 in the cemetery of the ,dominicans1 painted in the middle of the fifteenth century2 also another 8,dance of ,death0 much more famous1 and the faades of several houses1 painted at ,basle by ,holbein4 ,we must also indicate the paintings with which 7in #adff7 ,israel de ,meckenheim covered the walls of a chapel of ,st4 ,mary of the ,capitol1 at ,cologne2 and the frescoes of ,st4 ,etienne and ,st4 ,augustine1 at ,vienna4 ,but it does not follow1 from this limited enumeration of works1 that ,germany either created or followed any special school4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4--;,fra ,angelico1 of ,fiesole4 ,,painting ,,on ,,wood1 ,,canvas1 ,,etc4 ,the ,rise of ,christian ,painting4--,the ,byzantine ,school4--,first ,revival in ,italy4--,cimabue1 ,giotto1 ,fra ,angelico4--,florentine ,school3 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,michael ,angelo4--,roman ,school3 ,perugino1 ,raphael4--,venetian ,school3 ,titian1 ,tintoretto1 ,veronese4--,lombard ,school3 ,correggio1 ,parmigianino4--,spanish ,school4--,german and ,flemish ,schools3 ,stephan of ,cologne1 ,john of ,bruges1 ,lucas van ,leyden1 ,albert ,drer1 ,lucas van ,cranach1 ,holbein4--,painting in ,france during the ,middle ,ages4--,italian ,masters in ,france4--,jean ,cousin4 ,after its first weak manifestations in the dark shadows of the ,catacombs--the place of refuge to which the earliest believers had to resort to celebrate their holy mysteries--,christian painting made its first attempt to display itself in open day at the time when the new faith found in ,constantine the high protection of a crowned disciple4 ,but this art felt an instinctive repugnance to draw its inspirations from works which had been created under the empire of decayed and contemned creeds4 ,in the completely spiritual worship of the true ,god1 it seemed but natural to seek for other types than those which had been consecrated by the fancies of materialistic mythologies4 ,the school of idea1 which was substituted for the school of form1 desired to owe nothing to its frivolous predecessor4 ,it would have considered it a reproach to give even the semblance of permanence to reprobated traditions1 and it set itself to work to create an art completely new in all its features4 ,the rule it laid down1 therefore1 was to regard as non-existent the chefs-d'uvre which recalled to mind the days of moral error2 rejecting the inspiration to be derived from the magnificent relics of the past1 it resolved to commence an era of its own1 and to exist on its own ideas4 ,hence that principle of energetic simplicity which1 although it may have hindered art from elevating itself to the perfection we call classical1 had at least this advantage1 that it sought by gradual development to imprint on ,christian art a stamp of individuality from which it was to derive both its power and its glory4 ,thus1 by the enthusiasm of faith1 was called into existence that really primitive ,school of ,painting which has received the name of ,byzantine2 because at the very time when it obtained the liberty of displaying itself1 ,constantine1 transferring the seat of empire to ,byzantium1 necessarily took with him the body of artists of whom he was the protector2 because1 too1 as we have before observed1 ,byzantium henceforth became for many centuries the sole focus whence light radiated towards the ,west1 which was now plunged in barbarism4 ,we must1 therefore1 go back to the ,byzantine school1 if we wish to trace to their origin all the forms of ,european painting4 8,allegory10 says ,m4 ,michiels1 8was the first language of ,christian painting2 not only did it express typically the ,evangelical teachings1 but the ,divine personages themselves were metamorphosed into symbols4 ,sometimes1 for instance1 ,christ appeared in the form of a young shepherd1 bearing on his shoulders and carrying back to the fold a wandering sheep2 sometimes ,he was represented as the ,orpheus of the new faith1 charming and taming ferocious animals by the sound of ,his lute4444 ,he also was made to assume the form of the lamb without spot1 or of a phnix spreading its wings1 the conqueror of death and the spirits of darkness4 ,thus was the transition softened down2 thus did they escape the raillery of ,pagans who would have turned into ridicule the heroic sufferings and the glorious humiliations of the ,son of man4 ,but this timidity could not long continue4444 ,the council held at ,constantinople in #fib commanded that allegory should be repudiated1 and that the objects of their veneration should be displayed to the faithful without the veil hitherto employed4 ,now was exhibited to view a spectacle new indeed to men2 a ,deity crowned with thorns1 enduring the outrages of a vile populace1 or stretched upon a cross and pierced with a lance1 turning ,his sad glance to heaven and wrestling with ,his agony4 ,the ,greeks and ,latins were but slow in adopting this mode of representation1 and did so with regret4444 ,but the perception of moral dignity was destined to eclipse the vain pomp of ,pagan grandeur4 ,the generous sufferings of sacrifice were to become the greatest of all glories40 8,christian painting1 when once established as an art on the banks of the ,bosphorus1 assumed a certain immobility of character4 ,forms1 attitudes1 groups1 and vestments--all were regulated by ecclesiastical prescription4 ,there was1 as it were1 an inflexible text-book1 to which artists were bound to submit4 ,delicacy of colouring and nobility of attitude were the only things to recall the beauty of ancient art4 ,even in our days the ,greek and ,russian painters follow a similar plan1 drawing and arranging their figures in the same manner as their ancestors of the time of ,honorius and the ,palologi40 ,even in the ,west the case was nearly the same1 so long as the practice of painting remained almost exclusively confined to artists coming from ,constantinople4 ,thus1 in some celebrated manuscripts of the eighth and ninth centuries we find compositions that give a very exact representation of the state of the art in these remote times1 though the paintings themselves have been destroyed by the ,iconoclasts4 ,in fact1 during ten centuries it seemed that the ,western races resisted any expression of artistic individuality or invention4 ,throughout this long period we find ,greek painters the supreme arbiters of taste and knowledge in the countries of ,western ,europe1 forcing upon them their own barren style1 and teaching them their contracted perceptions4 ,art among them seemed always to be but a mere instinct4 ,constant immigrations took place which were continually leading them to every point in ,western ,europe1 but none of them ever brought anything novel in art beyond what their predecessors had already introduced4 ,if they took root in a new country1 the son repeated the works of his father4 ,the pupil took no means to enlarge his thoughts2 he adopted as his model and his ideal nothing but the work of his master1 and the poor form of tradition was continued without enthusiasm and without progress 7,fig4 #bdg74 ,genius is altogether wanting1 or if its sacred spark sprung forth from heaven1 it was soon extinguished when it reached the earth for want of a soul which could receive it1 and be kindled by its fire4 ,the ,greek masters doubtless affected some pride in the grandeur of their native name1 but they were none the less living proofs that the sources from which flowed the inspiration of a ,zeuxis1 a ,protogenes1 or an ,apelles1 had since those far-distant days been long dried up4 ,the ,east had for ever terminated its ancient character of artistic creation1 and the most it seemed destined to achieve during the ,middle ,ages was to preserve the germ which the ,west was to bring again into active life4 ,italy1 and more particularly ,tuscany1 may lay claim to the honour of ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4--8;,baptism of ,king ,clovis40 7,fragment of a ,painting on ,canvas at ,rheims4 ,fifteenth ,century47 having witnessed1 about the end of the thirteenth and the beginning of the fourteenth century1 the dawn of the great revival of artistic light4 ,the names of ,giunta of ,pisa1 ,guido of ,siena1 and ,duccio1 had1 however1 already commenced the glorious list of ,italian artists1 who were the first to endeavour to modify the immutable ,greek manner4 ,their attempts1 no doubt1 seem but insignificant1 looking at the immense progress subsequently accomplished2 but1 however slight it may appear to be1 the first step made beyond the beaten path which has been trodden for centuries is often evidence of the most courageous daring4 ,the year #abdj witnessed the birth of ,cimabue3 as a young man1 he became enamoured of art by watching the labours of the ,greek painters who had been summoned to ,florence to decorate the chapel of the ,gondi4 ,it was purposed to make him a savant and a lawyer2 but he succeeded in abandoning the pen in favour of the pencil1 and1 from the lessons of the timid ,byzantines1 he soon became a master whose every thought was henceforth devoted to the emancipation of an art that he found condemned to a kind of immobility4 ,thanks to him1 the expression of faces1 which up to that time had been entirely conventional in character1 was animated by a truer sentiment2 the lines of drawing1 which had been hard and stiff1 were broken up into well-ordered grace2 the colouring1 hitherto dull and gloomy1 assumed soft brilliancy and harmonious relief4 ,it is said that ,cimabue's chef-d'uvre1 the 8,madonna0 which is still to be seen in the ,church of ,santa-,maria-,novella1 was carried in procession by the crowd to the place which it now occupies2 the painter was received with shouts1 and1 it is added1 the joy of the people at the sight of the picture was so great that the part of the city wherein ,cimabue's studio was situated received1 after this event1 the name of ,borgo ,allegro 7the ,joyous ,town74 ,one day when ,cimabue was in the country1 he noticed a young shepherd-boy who was amusing himself by sketching on a rock the sheep he tended4 ,the painter took charge of the boy2 he became his favourite pupil1 and was the celebrated ,giotto1 who happily persevered in the reform commenced by ,cimabue4 ,giotto1 the first among the artists of his time1 ventured to paint portraits1 and succeeded well in them4 ,to him we owe our acquaintance with the real features of his friend ,dante2 and we still admire1 at least as manifestations of an adventurous genius1 the paintings he left in the ,church of ,santa ,clara at ,naples1 in the ,cathedral of ,assisi1 and especially in the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa1 where he painted in fresco the history of ,job4 ,giotto died in #accf1 but he left behind him to continue his work1 ,taddeo ,gaddi1 ,giottino1 ,stefano1 ,andrea ,orcagna1 and ,simon ,memmi1 who were each destined to open out some new path in art4 ,in the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa we may see how great was the power of the genius of these masters1 especially of ,andrea ,orcagna 7#acbi-achi71 who has there represented1 with an equal measure of beauty and of sombre and terrible energy1 the 8,dream of ,life10 facing the 8,triumph of ,death40 ,taddeo ,gaddi remained a fervent disciple of his master1 and continued his delicate accuracy of design1 and the living freshness of his colouring4 ,stefano succeeded him in the boldness of his compositions1 in his studious knowledge of the nude1 and of perspective effect which had been hitherto neglected4 ,giottino inherited his serious inspirations4 ,memmi endeavoured to recall his mystical and graceful sentiment4 ,orcagna1 who was at once painter1 sculptor1 architect1 and poet1 seemed to possess in turn all the qualities which his fellow-disciples had shared among them1 and could represent with equal success the terrors of the infernal regions and the visions of heaven4 ,the progress of which these painters had constituted themselves the apostles was not carried out without exciting some opposition4 ,in addition to the ,greek masters1 who naturally felt compelled to contend with the innovators1 certain individuals were found among the ,italian artists who energetically embraced the party of the past4 ,we will only mention one1 ,margaritone of ,arezzo1 who wore out his long life in a useless devotion to a cause which was already lost2 even his name we should not have particularised1 if it had not been that the art owed him some gratitude for the service he rendered it1 by substituting the use of canvas prepared for painting instead of panels of wood1 which had hitherto been exclusively employed4 ,the ,florentine school 7for thus we call the group of artists who trod in the footsteps of ,cimabue and ,giotto7 had for its representative1 at the beginning of the fifteenth century1 ,giovanni of ,fiesole1 surnamed ,fra ,angelico1 the personification of enthusiasm in artistic sublimity2 whose works1 too1 resemble so many hymns of adoration4 ,born in the year #achg1 and inheriting great wealth1 he was endowed with a contemplative mind1 and1 ignorant of the talent which inspired him1 he sought oblivion from the world in the garb of a ,dominican1 little suspecting that glory awaited him in the very depth of his humility4 ,at first1 as a kind of pious recreation1 he covered with miniatures several pages of manuscripts2 next1 his companions in the cloister requested him to paint a picture4 ,he obeyed1 feeling convinced that the inspiration which stirred within him was a manifestation of the ,divine spirit1 and it was with the most artless simplicity that he referred to this celestial origin the chef-d'uvre which proceeded from his hands4 ,his reputation spread far and wide4 ,at the invitation of the head of the ,christian ,church1 he repaired to ,rome in order to paint one of the chapels of the ,vatican4 ,and when the pontiff1 full of enthusiasm at his talent1 wished to confer upon him as a reward the dignity of archbishop1 ,angelico retired modestly to his cell in order to devote himself without interruption to that art which was to him a continual prayer1 and a perpetual soaring up to that heavenly country on which he unceasingly meditated with all the unutterable feelings of the elect4 ,about the same era as the 8seraphic monk10 who died full of years in #adee1 appeared ,tomaso ,guidi1 for whom a kind of unconsciousness of everyday life had obtained the ironical sobriquet of ,masaccio 7the ,stupid72 who1 however1 astonished the world by his works to such extent that it was said concerning them1 8those of his predecessors were painted1 but his were living40 ,masaccio was one of the first 7and this fact shows how slowly art may progress even in bold hands7 to place in his pictures firmly on the soles of their feet figures presenting a full front1 instead of making them stand upon their great-toes1 as his predecessors had done from a want of knowledge of the requisite foreshortening4 ,masaccio died in #addc4 ,philippo ,lippi1 who devoted himself more specially to the study of nature1 both in the human physiognomy and also in the accessory details of his works1 marks as it were the last stage of the art1 when it approached the state of full vigour in which it was to manifest the whole extent of its power4 ,we are now at the end of the fifteenth century1 and the masters of the great masters are in existence4 ,it was ,andrea ,verrochio who1 at the sight of an angel which ,leonardo da ,vinci1 his pupil1 had painted in one of his works1 for ever abandoned his pencil4 ,it was ,domenico ,ghirlandajo who1 jealous of the superior qualities which he recognised in his pupil1 the youthful ,buonarotti1 not only endeavoured1 but succeeded in diverting his talents1 at least for a time1 to sculpture4 ,it was ,fra ,bartolommeo 7#adfi-aeag7 who was affected with such profound grief at the death of his friend ,savonarola1 that he embraced a monastic life4 ,baccio della ,porta 7such was the name of the ,brother7 was a very great painter 7,fig4 #bdh72 the vigour and ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4--8,the ,patriarch ,job40 ,a ,painting on ,panel1 by ,fra ,bartolommeo4 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,in the ,gallery at ,florence47 harmony of colouring which he showed1 especially in his last productions1 has sometimes caused them to be attributed to ,raphael1 with whom he was for some time united in the bonds of friendship4 ,but we must not confine ourselves to characterising the works of one single group of artists2 for1 although the revival took its rise on the banks of the ,arno1 it spread far and wide beyond those limits4 ,added to this1 ,giotto1 when visiting ,verona1 ,padua1 and ,rome1 left in each place the still resplendent traces of his presence4 ,when ,fra ,angelico went to adorn the ,vatican1 his genius spread around it a fruitful irradiation which everywhere dimmed the ancient renown of the ,byzantine painters who had hitherto prevailed in the ,italian cities4 ,at ,rome we find flourishing in succession ,pietro ,cavallini1 whom ,giotto had instructed during the sojourn of the latter in the ,eternal ,city2 ,gentile da ,fabriano1 who drew his inspiration from ,fra ,angelico2 and ,pietro della ,francesca1 who has been regarded as the originator of perspective4 ,we next meet with ,pietro ,vannucci1 called ,perugino1 who was born in #addf2 it was owing to nothing but the force of his genius and his character that he became one of the most celebrated masters of his time4 ,at the close of his career1 ,perugino had the honour of initiating into the practice of his art ,raphael ,sanzio of ,urbino1 who was in his own day1 as he still is1 the prince of painting4 ,at ,venice a body of pioneers1 still more numerous and compact1 prepared the way for the new era1 destined to be made illustrious by ,titian1 ,tintoretto1 and ,paul ,veronese4 ,we will mention also ,gentile and ,jacopo ,bellini2 the former was incessantly absorbed in investigating the theories of an art which he nevertheless exercised with all the abandon of an inspired genius2 the latter constantly devoted himself to the combination of power and grace2 and1 at the age of seventy-five years1 seemed to regain a second youth in following with happy boldness the example of his pupil ,giorgione4#ce ,this painter1 who was born in #adgg1 and died in #aeaa1 introduced all kinds of innovations in respect to design and colouring1 and was the master of ,giovanni da ,udine1 ,sebastian del ,piombo1 ,jacques ,palma1 and ,pordenone1 fellow-pupils and sometimes rivals of the three great artists by whose works the ,venetian school was to mark its individuality4 ,at ,parma a local school was represented by ,antonio ,allegri1 called ,correggio1 born in #adid2 and by ,francesco ,mazzuoli1 called ,parmigianino1 born in #aejc4 ,in other places1 too1 talents of a vigorous or of a graceful character were developed1 but we can only cast a comprehensive glance on this memorable artistic epoch1 and are unable to offer a detailed review of the artists and their works4 ,and what further luminaries of art could we wish to embrace in our summary after having displayed in it1 shining1 so to speak1 at one and the same epoch1 ,leonardo da ,vinci 7,fig4 #bdi71 ,michael ,angelo1 ,raphael1 ,titian1 ,tintoretto1 ,veronese1 ,correggio1 and ,parmigianino8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4--,portrait of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 from a ,venetian ,engraving of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,four principal schools compete with one another--the ,florentine school1 the characteristics of which are truth of design1 energy of colouring1 and grandeur of conception2 the ,roman school1 which seeks its ideal in the skilful and sober judgment of its lines1 the dignity of its compositions1 propriety of expression and beauty of form2 the ,venetian school1 which occasionally neglected correctness of drawing1 and devoted itself more to the brilliancy and magical effect of colour2 lastly1 the school of ,parma1 which is distinguished especially by its softness of touch and by its knowledge of light and shade4 ,all such estimations of the different qualities of these various groups must not1 however1 be looked upon as in any way absolute4 ,as chiefs of the first school we have two men1 each of whom presents to us one of the richest organisations and the most widely extending genius which human nature has1 perhaps1 ever produced2 these were ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,michael ,angelo1 both of whom were sculptors as well as painters2 and also architects1 musicians1 and poets4 ,we will first speak of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 whose style presents two very distinct epochs2 the first tending to vigour in the shadows1 to a mistiness in reflected lights1 to a general effect produced by a certain oddness1 or rather by a strange representation of truth2 a combination of qualities which1 as ,m4 ,michiels says1 makes ,leonardo the 8most northerly of the ,italian painters0 7,fig4 #bej74 ,his second style1 8clear1 serene1 and precise10 transports us into a 8completely southern sphere40 ,but some secret influence drew the artist so forcibly towards his earlier manner1 that he returned to it at an advanced age in painting the famous portrait of ,mona ,lisa1 which adorns the gallery of the ,louvre4 ,we must not forget the fact that we have to attribute to ,pope ,leo ,x4 the great revival of the arts1 and especially of painting1 in ,italy at the commencement of the sixteenth century4 8,in ,michael ,angelo10 still to quote the words of ,m4 ,michiels1 8science1 power1 grandeur1 and all the more severe qualities are combined4 ,no vulgar artifice and no affectation4 ,the painter was imbued with a sublime ideal of majestic types from which nothing was able to divert him4 ,he felt as if there were existing in himself a whole population of heroes1 whom1 by the aid of painting and sculpture1 he endeavoured to withdraw from their mental concealment1 and to embody in incarnate forms4 ,his personages scarcely seem to belong to our race2 they appear to be creatures worthy of some more spacious world1 to the proportions of which their physical vigour and their moral energy would well respond4 ,the very women do not possess the grace of their sex2 we might fancy them valiant ,amazons well capable of mastering a horse or of crushing an enemy4 ,this great man's object was neither to charm nor to please2 his delight rather was to astonish and to strike with admiration or terror2 but it is this very excess of power which enabled him to win the approbation of all40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4--,the ,holy ,family1 by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 from the ,picture in the ,museum at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,next we have ,raphael1 il divino ,sanzio1 as he was called by his numerous admirers1 whose genius was constantly attaining to grandeur by means of simplicity1 and to power by means of reserve4 ,michael ,angelo always seems as if he were only able to represent a limited portion of his gigantic conceptions on the wall he covered with his designs2 but it was sufficient for ,raphael to place some tranquil figure on a narrow square of canvas1 and we have before us the bright image of the most perfect and delicious inspiration4 ,he created for himself a heaven which he peopled with the purest and most venerated types of the human race2 and a light1 as from on high1 beams with regal splendour on these graceful visions4 ,in ,raphael1 even more than in ,leonardo da ,vinci1 it seemed as if two artists of equal sublimity succeeded one another4 ,at first we have the charming dreamer who1 in the fresh enthusiasm of his early youth1 creates ,madonnas1 artless daughters of the earth in whose look and countenance a sacred light shines in all its ineffable purity2 next he is the master full of the deepest science1 for whom the real beauties of creation have no concealment2 who1 in representing nature1 succeeded in transforming to her the magnificent ideal of which his own soul appears to have received the impression from association with the divine regions4 8,the principal characteristic of ,raphael10 still following the very just remarks of ,m4 ,michiels1 8is the universality of his fame4 ,it becomes almost painful to hear the vulgar crowd constantly repeating a magic name1 the true signification of which they do not understand40 ,as the spoiled child of fortune1 the creator of ,virgins and 8,the ,transfiguration10 he is almost without detractors from his fame2 and it is impossible to reckon the number of his admirers4 8,one circumstance in his life affords us an emblem of his destiny4 ,having sent to ,palermo the famous canvas of the #8,spasimo1'#cf a tempest overwhelmed the ship which carried it2 but the waves seemed to respect the chef-d'uvre4 ,after having drifted more than fifty leagues through the sea1 the box which enclosed the precious production floated gently on shore at the port of ,genoa4 ,the picture was in no way injured4 ,the ,sicilian monks1 for whom it was intended1 did not fail to claim it2 and since that time1 thanks to the mercy of the waves1 it attracts to the foot of ,etna numerous pilgrims to the shrine of genius40 ,at ,venice1 we first have ,titian1 the painter of ,charles ,v4 and ,francis ,i4 8,the genius of ,titian10 says ,alexander ,lenoir1 8is always great and noble4 ,no painter has ever produced flesh-colours so beautiful and life-like4 ,in ,titian there is no apparent tone2 the colouring of his flesh is so well blended1 that it seems as difficult to imitate as the model itself4 ,add to his pictures their truth and expression of action1 and the elegance and richness of the drapery1 and we shall have some idea of the great works which he left behind him40 ,next ,jacques ,robusti presents himself1 who1 from the profession of his father was surnamed ,tintoretto 7the ,dyer74 ,he was at first a pupil of ,titian1 who1 it is said1 from motives of jealousy1 dismissed him from his studio2 but the fervour of uninterrupted labour was all that ,tintoretto required in order to mature the most productive talent4 8,the drawing of ,michael ,angelo1 and the colouring of ,titian0--such was the ambitious motto he wrote over the door of his humble atelier1 and we are almost justified in stating that he was enabled1 by force of study and labour1 to fulfil his aspirations1 if we look only at some of his pieces executed before a certain fever of exuberant production had seized upon and necessarily weakened his vigorous talents4 ,to form some estimate of the extent to which ,tintoretto was impelled by this impulse of creation1 we may recollect that even ,paul ,veronese reproached him with being unable to restrain himself--,veronese1 the most indefatigable of producers6 ,with regard to the latter1 his works are characterised not only by the number of figures in them1 but also by the striking brilliancy of the mise en scne4 ,although he multiplies his actors1 they are grouped in perfect order2 although he paints a multitude1 he knows how to avoid a crowd4 ,notice how a feeling of life profusely pervades the whole of his vast pictures of important events2 an idea of space is everywhere given2 everywhere light plays a powerful part1 and imagination has full scope4 ,he is the painter par excellence of feasts and ceremonies3 at once pompous and natural1 his copiousness is only equalled by his dazzling facility2 and we are compelled to forgive the errors with which he mingles on the same canvas the religious ideas of sacred subjects and the profane splendour of modern times4 ,what shall we say about ,correggio8 ,there is no methodical scale by which to measure grace2 and there is no formula laid down of delicious softness4 ,but if1 at the ,louvre1 we examine his 8,antiope asleep10 we shall not soon forget the fascinating power of the old ,allegri 7,correggio74 ,from ,correggio to ,parmigianino the distance is of the kind that admiration can easily fill up4 ,it was said of the latter that he had more the appearance of an angel than of a man2 and the ,romans of his own day used to add that the spirit of ,raphael had passed into his body4 ,in more than one instance his genius was kindled by the sun of ,correggio1 and ripened in the studios of ,michael ,angelo and ,raphael2 but in addition to this1 his flexible and varied talent enabled him to find a place by himself between these two masters4 8,st4 ,francis receiving the ,stigmata10 and 8,the ,marriage of ,st4 ,catherine10 which he painted before he had attained his eighteenth year1 are still regarded as equal to the chefs-d'uvre signed by ,allegri4 ,it is well known that a 8,st4 ,margaret10 executed by ,parmigianino fifteen years later for a church at ,bologna1 was placed by ,guido in the same rank as the 8,st4 ,cecilia0 of ,raphael4 ,by the side of1 or after1 these famous men1 in whom the glory of ,italian painting seems to have brilliantly culminated1 how many noble names still remain to be cited2 how many remarkable names are there still to mention1 even among those who1 in following the glorious path opened out for them by the great masters1 began to show glimpses of the earliest symptoms of decay1 exhaustion1 and lassitude6 ,it does not form a part of our plan to dwell upon the various phases of this decadence2 but before we glance at the last sparks of light which were shed forth1 we must not forget the fact that the ,italian pleiades were not exclusively privileged to illumine the artistic horizon4 ,it is certainly the case that all over ,europe the ,byzantine tradition had been the sole possessor of the throne of art since the earliest centuries of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in ,germany as in ,italy1 in ,france as in the countries bounding it on the north1 we find nothing but the same school displaying the dead level of its inflexibility4 ,at various epochs1 however1 certain feeble attempts at independence were here and there manifested2 but these aspirations were at first generally isolated1 and therefore transient in their character4 ,finally1 however1 as if the hour of revival had been simultaneously agreed upon at all points of the intellectual world1 these desires for emancipation manifested themselves in a corresponding effort to reject the former too absolute form1 and to substitute the element of life for the principle of conventionality4 ,in ,spain a strange combat was waging on the soil itself1 for the possession of which two hostile races1 two irreconcilable faiths1 were in fierce contention4 ,the ,mahometan built the ,alhambra1 the halls of which were destined to be subsequently adorned by a ,christian pencil4 ,in the paintings that enliven the arches of this marvellous edifice an art is manifested which is both simple and grand in its character2 but in this one undertaking it appears to have exhausted the share of vitality time had awarded to it2 for immediately afterwards it seems to have died away4 ,if1 however1 any fresh masters of the art of painting appeared on the ,iberian soil1 they had sought in ,italy the flame of inspiration1 or some mighty art-pilgrim visited their country4 ,we must come down to a later epoch1 from the consideration of which we are now precluded1 in order to meet with an ,herrera1 a ,ribera1 a ,velasquez1 or a ,murillo1 the glory of whom1 although comparatively late1 may perhaps hold its own by the side of the great ,italian schools1 but cannot pretend to eclipse them4 ,among the predecessors of these real and distinct individualities1 we will1 however1 mention the following3--,alonzo ,berruguete1 born in #adhj1 at once painter1 architect1 and sculptor2 he was a pupil of ,michael ,angelo1 in whose works he often took a share2 ,pedro ,campagna1 born in #aejc1 who studied under the same master--his chef-d'uvre is still admired in the ,cathedral of ,seville2 ,luis de ,vargas1 born in #aejb1 who was able in many points to appropriate the secrets of ,sanzio1 from whom he appeared to have received lessons2 ,morales1 whose paintings are still admired for the harmony of their lines and the delicacy of their touch2 ,vicente ,juanes1 whose purity of design and sober vigour of colouring obtained for him the title 7certainly by some exaggeration of praise7 of the 8,raphael of ,valencia20 lastly1 ,fernandez ,navarette1 born in #aebf1 who1 perhaps less hyperbolically1 was surnamed the 8,spanish ,titian20 and ,sanchez ,coello1 born about #aejj1 who1 excelling in portraits1 has handed down the likenesses of some celebrated personages of his time4 ,in ,germany and the ,low ,countries we find similar traces of the feeling of regeneration actuating the minds of artists at a much earlier period4 ,the first name which presents itself to us beyond the ,rhine is that mentioned in the ,chronicle of ,limburg1 of the date of #achj4 8,there was then at ,cologne10 says the chronicler1 8a painter named ,wilhelm4 ,according to the masters1 he was the best in all the countries of ,germany2 he has painted men of every description as if they were alive40 ,we have nothing left of the works of this artist except some panels without signature1 which1 in consideration of the date they bear1 are attributed to him2 an examination shows that1 considering the epoch at which he lived1 ,wilhelm might justly be looked upon as a creative genius4 ,he was succeeded by his most talented pupil1 ,matre ,stephan4 ,a triptych of his work may be seen at the ,cathedral of ,cologne1 representing 8,the ,adoration of the ,magi10 8,st4 ,gereon10 8,st4 ,ursula10 and 8,the ,annunciation40 ,this work1 which exhibits charming finish as well as harmonious simplicity1 is sufficient evidence that its author was possessed of much natural ability as well as a certain extent of knowledge2 and if we make it our study to seek out the relics of the artistic movement of the period1 we can in no way feel surprise at seeing that the influence of this early master made itself felt in a very extended radius4 ,but at this epoch1 that is1 at the commencement of the fifteenth century1 in a city of ,flanders1 a new luminary made its appearance1 which was destined to eclipse the brilliancy of the somewhat weak ,german innovation4 ,two brothers1 ,hubert and ,john van ,eyck1 together with their sister ,margaret1 established themselves in the 8triumphant city of ,bruges10 as it is called by an historian2 and very soon all the ,flemish and ,rhenish regions resounded with the name of ,van ,eyck1 their works being the only representations which were admired and followed2 and even in those early days it was a title of glory to form a part of their brilliant school4 ,john1 the younger of the two brothers1 was the one to whom renown more particularly attached 7,fig4 #bea74 ,he is reputed to have been the inventor of oil-painting2 but all he did was to improve the methods employed4 ,nevertheless1 tradition tells us that an ,italian master1 ,antonello of ,messina1 made a journey to ,flanders1 with the object of finding out the secret of ,john ,bruges 7by which name ,van ,eyck is often called72 and that he subsequently circulated it throughout the ,italian schools4 ,be this as it may1 ,john of ,bruges1 apart from any similarity in manner 7for it was by the force of his colouring1 as much as by his new theories of composition1 that he succeeded in revolutionising the old school of painting71 may be considered as the ,giotto of the ,north2 but we must add that the effects of his attempts were much more rapidly decisive4 ,at one leap1 so to speak1 the somewhat cold painting of the ,gothic school decked itself with a splendour which left but little for the future ,venetian school to achieve beyond it2 with one flight of genius1 stiff and methodical conceptions became imbued with suppleness and vital action4 ,finally1 we have the first notable sign of the true feeling of an art combining science and grace--a knowledge of anatomy is shown in the life-like flesh and under the brilliant draperies4 ,there is1 however1 a considerable distance1 which cannot fail to be remarked1 separating the two reformers of art whose names we have just brought together4 ,one1 ,giotto1 desired to grasp the real in order to make it conduce to the triumph of the ideal2 while ,van ,eyck only accepted the ideal because he had as yet been unable to apprehend the deepest secrets of the real4 ,all the other masters are but as the fruit yielded by the school of the great ,florentine1 and by those which the descendants of the ,flemish masters were destined to produce4 ,at ,ghent1 we still have as an object of admiration1 an altar-piece1 a chef-d'uvre of ,van ,eyck2 it is an immense composition1 some portions of which have been removed2 but at first it did not contain less than three hundred figures1 representing the 8,adoration of the ,paschal ,lamb by the ,virgins of the ,apocalypse40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4--8,the ,holy ,virgin1 ,st4 ,george1 and ,st4 ,donat40 ,by ,john van ,eyck4 7,museum at ,antwerp47 ,john van ,eyck resided for some time at the court of ,portugal1 whither he had been sent by ,philip the ,good1 ,duke of ,burgundy1 to delineate ,illustration3 8,,st4 ,,catherine ,,and ,,st4 ,,agnes40 ,a ,,picture ,,attributed ,,to ,,margaret ,,van ,,eyck4 ,on the left of the picture is seen ,st4 ,catherine of ,alexandria holding in her hands the instruments of her punishment--the wheel1 which is broken into fragments1 and the sword which decapitated her2 below her is the head of the ,emperor ,maxmilian ,,ii41 who ordered her martyrdom4 ,on the right is ,st4 ,agnes1 and a lamb1 the emblem of her innocence and gentleness4 ,the ring ,st4 ,agnes is presenting to ,st4 ,catherine denotes the bond which unites the two virgin-martyrs1 and attests that both are worthy to be spouses of ,jesus ,christ4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,catherine ,,and ,,st4 ,,agnes4 ,painting attributed to ,margaret ,van ,eyck4 7,m4 ,quedeville's ,collection47 the features of his fiance1 the ,princess ,elizabeth 7#adbh74 ,the influence exercised by his labours is thought to have brought about that tendency to brilliancy and realism which1 after its first manifestation in the earliest ,spanish manner1 gave way before the encroachments of ,italian genius1 only to reappear in all its power in the great national school4 ,among the best pupils that ,van ,eyck left behind him at ,bruges1 we must not omit the name of ,hugo van der ,goes1 whose works are rare4 ,roger van der ,weyden1 of whose paintings but few are now extant1 was the favourite pupil of ,john of ,bruges1 and the master of ,hemling1 whose reputation was destined to equal1 if not to surpass1 that of the chief of his school4 8,hemling10 says ,m4 ,michiels1 so eminent a judge on this subject1 8whose most ancient picture bears the date #adej1 possesses more sweetness and grace than the ,van ,eycks4 ,his figures charm by an ideal elegance2 his expression never exceeds the limits of tranquil feeling and agreeable emotion4 ,quite contrary to ,john van ,eyck1 he prefers the slender and rich character of the ,gothic 7,fig4 #beb7 to the heaviness and scanty detail of ,roman architecture4 ,his colouring1 although less vigorous1 is softer2 the water1 the woods1 the sites1 the grass1 and the distances of his pictures cause a dream-like feeling40 ,a kind of instinctive reaction was manifested in the pupil1 but the master was not altogether forgotten4 ,we shall1 however1 find elsewhere the effects of his direct influence2 but in order not to have to return to the school of ,bruges1 we will first mention ,jerome ,bosch1 who1 contrary to his countryman ,hemling1 sought after opposition of effects and singularities of invention2 and next ,erasmus1 the great thinker and writer1 who was also a painter in his day2#cg lastly1 ,cornelius ,engelbrechtsen1 the master of ,lucas van ,leyden1 born in #adid4 ,the latter was as famous with the pencil as with the graving tool1 and introduced into all his works a powerful and sometimes strange originality which caused him to be looked upon as the first painter of 8genre40 ,lucas van ,leyden must close our list of the artists who opened out the paths which were destined to be followed1 though with many a diversity of method and of style1 by ,breughel1 ,teniers1 ,van ,ostade1 ,porbus1 and ,schellincks4 ,at the head of these masters was subsequently to rise the magnificent ,rubens1 and the energetic ,rembrandt1 the king of the palette1 the great chief of the school1 who ,illustration3 ,fig #beb4--8,st4 ,ursula40 ,by ,hemling4 towers loftily over all his pupils1 ,gerard ,dow1 ,ferdinand ,bol1 ,van ,eckhout1 ,govaert ,flinck1 c41 as well as over his imitators and contemporaries--,abraham ,bloemaert1 ,gerard ,honthorst1 ,adrian ,brauwer1 ,seghers1 c4 ,when the ,van ,eycks made their appearance1 ,german art--which1 under the impulse of ,stephan of ,cologne1 had appeared as if destined to direct the movement--allowed itself to be led away and influenced by the ,flemish school1 without1 however1 entirely divesting itself of the individual characteristics which are1 to some extent1 inherent in the region wherein it flourished4 ,in ,alsatia1 we see the style peculiar to the school of ,bruges showing itself in ,martin ,schn 7#adfj72 in ,suabia1 it had as its interpreter ,frederick ,herlen 7#adfg72 at ,augsburg1 it was old ,holbein2 at ,nuremberg1 it was first ,michael ,wohlgemuth1 and after him ,albert ,drer 7#adga71 whose vigorous individuality did not fail to reflect the temperament of the ,van ,eycks4 8,the works of ,albert ,drer present a singular combination of the fantastic and the real 7,fig4 #bec74 ,the principal tendencies peculiar to the character of the northern mind are always to be found in them4 ,the thoughts of the artist are always transporting him into a world of abstraction and chimeras2 but the ever-present consciousness of the difficulties of life under the cold northern sky always draws him back to the details of existence4 ,on the one hand1 therefore1 he seems to love philosophical1 and even supernatural subjects2 but1 on the other1 the minute details of his execution bind him down to earth4 ,his models1 his action1 his positions1 the muscular development of his nude subjects1 the innumerable folds of his draperies1 the expression which he gives to joy1 grief1 and hatred1 all seem to bear a manifest character of exaggeration4 ,added to this1 he is deficient in grace2 a rudeness entirely northern in its character closes the path to any of the softer qualities of art4 ,the panels of ,albert ,drer all seem to have a touch of the antique barbarism of the ,germanic hordes4 ,he himself was in the habit of wearing his hair long1 like the ancient ,german kings4 ,upon the whole1 however1 his beautiful colouring1 the skilful firmness of his drawing1 his grand characteristics1 his depth of thought1 the poetry1 often terrible1 of his composition1 place him in the first rank of masters0 7,michiels74 ,while ,albert ,drer was endeavouring to combine in his works every type of the strangest character1 ,lucas van ,cranach made it his study ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4--8;,jesus ,crowned with ,thorns10 painted on ,wood by ,albert ,drer2 a ,fac-simile traced from the original of the same size4 7,in the ,collection of ,m4 de ,quedeville47 to represent with no less success pleasant legends or the most charming realities4 ,he is the painter of artless youths1 aerially veiled1 and of sportive and enchanting virgins2 and if some antique scene is created by his delicate and original pencil1 it seem1 to be metamorphosed by a happy facility into something that appears to have the character of a ,german reminiscence 7,fig4 #bed74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4--8,princess ,sibylla of ,saxony10 by ,lucas van ,cranach4 7,suermondt ,collection47 ,between these two masters1 so equally endowed with power in their respective lines of art1 the great ,holbein takes his place1 as if embodying the rather abrupt vigour of the one1 and the sentimental delicacy of the other4 ,this painter's artistic career was carried out almost entirely in ,england1 but the character of his genius belongs unquestionably to the country where he left behind him his 8,dance of ,death10 a piece of tragic raillery justly held to be the most wonderful among all the creations of fancy4 ,albert ,drer1 who died in #aebh1 and ,lucas van ,cranach1 and ,holbein1 who died in #aeec1ch were destined to create a race of painters1 and a host of successors were soon at work4 ,but the movement1 which was impeded by troubles of a religious character1 died away in the terrible convulsions of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and was never again renewed4 ,the era in which ,german art seemed all at once to decline was that wherein the ,italian school flourished in full splendour1 and exercised an unrivalled influence over every ,european country occupied by the ,latin races4 ,france yielded all the more readily to this foreign influence1 because the ,papal court at ,avignon had already given an asylum to ,giotto in the first place1 and afterwards to ,simon ,memmi2 both of whom1 and especially the last1 have left master-like traces of their presence on ,french soil4 ,as a matter of fact1 although ,french painting1 regarded in the light of a national art1 cannot boast of having spontaneously produced1 as a thing of home-growth1 any of those essays of complete independence of which ,germany and ,italy are so proud2 the memorials of ,french art at least bear witness that1 during the long reign of ,byzantine tradition1 it never ceased to struggle with some force under the yoke2 at a time1 indeed1 when ,italy and ,germany themselves seemed1 on the contrary1 to bear the burden with the most submissive servitude4 ,the tenth century1 in becoming subject to the influence of a foolish but heartfelt terror 7the fear of the end of the world71 marked a period of fatal obstruction to every kind of effort1 and progress died away2 but if we look beyond this we shall perceive that1 from the earliest days of the monarchy1 painting was held in honour1 and painters themselves afforded proofs of power1 if not of genius4 ,we shall1 for instance1 find that the basilica of ,st4 ,germain-des-,prs1 built by ,childebert ,i41 had its walls decorated with 8elegant paintings40 ,we shall find ,gondebaud1 the son of ,clotaire1 himself handling the pencil and 8painting the walls and roofs of oratories40 ,in the reign of ,charlemagne1 we discover the texts which the bishops and priests were compelled to paint on 8the whole interior surface0 of their churches1 in order that the charm of the colouring and of the compositions might aid the fervour of faith in the congregations4 ,but all this is but evidence recorded in the pages of the ancient chronicles4 ,we have other testimony derived from works still existing1 on which a judgment may be practically passed4 ,some frescoes discovered at ,st4 ,savin1 in the department of ,vienne1 and at ,nohant-,vicq1 in the department of ,indre1 which must be attributed to the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 attest1 in all their rude simplicity1 the efforts of a thoughtful art1 and specially bear the stamp of a true spirit of independence4 ,the ,sainte-,chapelle1 in ,paris1 by its painted windows and the mural paintings of its crypt1 asserts the real vitality of an artistic feeling1 which only waited for the signal of a bolder spirit to rise to loftier things4 ,moreover1 if other examples are wanting1 there are manuscripts1 on the ornamentation of which the most skilful painters have concentrated their powers1 that would suffice to point out the tendencies and artistic standard of every succeeding age4 7,see the article on ,,miniature-,,painting47 ,however little we may consult history1 we scarcely ever fail to discover traces of certain groups of artists whose names or works have survived4 ,thus1 a series of paintings preserved in the ,cathedral of ,amiens1 as well as the 8,sacre de ,louis ,,xii40 and the 8,vierge au ,froment10 in the museum at ,cluny1 prove to us the existence1 at the end of the fifteenth century1 of the school of ,picardy1 which possessed skill in composition1 combined with a feeling for colour and a certain knowledge of handling4 ,thus1 too1 the researches of the learned have traced out the laborious career of the ,clouet family1 sung by ,ronsard and others1 but whose works are almost entirely lost2 thus1 also1 we find the names of ,bourdichon1 ,perral1 ,foucquet1 who worked for ,louis ,,xi4 and ,charles ,,viii41 and that of the peaceful ,king ,ren of ,provence1 who thought it not beneath his dignity to make himself the practical chief of a school whose nameless productions are still scattered over the south of ,france4 ,with the sixteenth century commenced the age of the great ,italian painters4 ,in #aeae1 ,francis ,i4 persuaded ,leonardo da ,vinci to come to ,france1 and to afford the example of his wonderful genius4 ,but the illustrious creator of 8,la ,gioconda0 7the famous portrait of ,mona ,lisa71 burthened with years and worn out with work1 visited ,france as if only to draw his last breath 7#aeai74 ,andrea del ,sarto1 the graceful pupil of the severe ,michael ,angelo1 came to ,france in #aeag2 but1 after having painted for his royal protector a few pictures1 among which was the magnificent 8,charity0 in the ,louvre1 he again repaired to the ,italian soil1 to which his unhappy marriage recalled him to his doom4 ,in #aebj ,raphael died1 at the age of only thirty-seven years4 ,giulio ,pippi 7called ,giulio ,romano71 ,francis ,penni 7called il ,fattore71 and ,perino del ,vaga1 whom he named as his heirs and charged with the completion of his unfinished works1 did their best to replace the illustrious dead4 ,for a short time it might have been thought that the inspiration of the master still remained with his pupils2 but soon a separation of this group of artists1 who had found their principal power in unity of thought1 took place2 and1 fifteen or twenty years after the tomb had closed on ,raphael1 the tradition of his school was nothing more than a glorious ruin4 ,michael ,angelo1 who died in #aefc1 was destined to have a longer career2 but it was only to become a witness of the rapid decadence of the great movement he had helped to call forth4 ,after ,daniele di ,volterra1 the painter of the 8,descent from the ,cross10 which is classed among the three most beautiful works that ,rome possesses2 after ,vasari1 who possessed a double title to celebrity as a skilful painter and the historian of the ,italian schools2 after ,rosso1 whose renown subsequently suffered at the court of ,france2 and ,bronzino1 who sought success in taste and delicacy2 the school of the great ,buonarotti produced nothing but works which seemed to wander from exaggeration to bad taste4 ,the dwarfs who attempted to walk in the footsteps of the giant were soon exhausted1 and only succeeded in rendering themselves ridiculous4 ,the ,venetian school1 the great masters of which did not become extinct before the end of the sixteenth century1 had its period of decadence at a later epoch2 this will not come under our consideration4 ,the ,lombard school1 which1 by the deaths of ,correggio and ,parmigianino1 had been left without its chiefs before the middle of this century 7#aecd and #aedj71 seemed for a moment as if it would disappear as it had risen4 ,but in ,michael ,angelo ,caravaggio 7,fig4 #bee7 it met with a powerful master1 who was able for some time to arrest the progress of its decadence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4--8,the ,tribute ,money40 ,picture by ,caravaggio 7,sixteenth ,century71 in the ,florence ,gallery4 ,we have as yet done little more than hint at the presence of ,rosso1 or ,matre ,roux1 at the court of ,france4 ,he came in #aecj1 at the invitation of ,francis ,i41 to decorate the ,palace of ,fontainebleau4 8,his engraved work10 says ,m4 ,michiels1 8shows him to be a feeble and pretentious man1 devoid both of taste and inspiration1 who exhibited laboured refinement in the place of vigour1 mistaking want of proportion for grandeur1 and absence of truth for originality4 ,being nominated by the king as ,canon of the ,sainte-,chapelle1 he had as his assistants ,leonard1 a ,fleming1 the ,frenchmen ,michel ,samson and ,louis ,dubreuil1 and the ,italians ,lucca ,penni1 ,bartolommeo ,miniati1 c4 ,but in #aeca1 ,primaticcio arrived from ,mantua1 and a contest arose henceforth between them4444 ,le ,rosso having ended his days by suicide1 ,primaticcio remained master of the field4 ,his most talented pupil decorated under his direction the magnificent ball-room4 ,primaticcio painted with less exaggeration and more delicacy and elegance than ,rosso2 but still he formed one of that troop of awkward and affected copyists who exaggerated the errors of ,caravaggio4444 ,his empire of forty years' duration1 in the midst of a foreign population1 was1 however1 an undisturbed one4 ,henry ,,ii41 ,francis ,,ii41 ,charles ,,ix41 and ,catherine de ,medicis1 showed him no less favour than ,francis ,i4 ,he died in #aegj1 loaded with honours and riches4 8,the number of ,french artists who allowed themselves to be influenced by the ,italian method was considerable4 ,at last a man of more vigorous character arose who would not permit false taste to rule him1 and adopted all the improvements of modern art1 without following in the footsteps of court favourites4 ,his talents inaugurated a new period in the history of ,french painting4 ,we are speaking of ,jean ,cousin1 who was born at ,soucy1 about #aecj2 he adorned with his compositions both glass and canvas1 and was1 in addition1 a skilful sculptor4 ,his famous picture of the 8,last ,judgment10 in the ,louvre1 suggests a high opinion of him4 ,the colouring is harsh and monotonous1 but the drawing of the figures and the arrangement of the piece prove that he had the habit of thought and also of reckoning on his own powers and of seeking out novel dispositions1 producing effects hitherto unknown40 ,the beautiful composition we introduce here 7,fig4 #bef7 is taken from ,m4 ,a4 ,firmin ,didot's 8,notice sur ,jean ,cousin10 in which a large number of other subjects are reproduced2 some of them may have been ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4--;,composition by ,jean ,cousin4 ,first ,sketch of his 8,last ,judgment10 from a ,wood-,engraving in the ,romance of 8,grard d',euphrate40 ,paris1 #aedi4 7,cabinet of ,m4 ,a4 ,f4 ,didot47 engraved by the painter himself4 ,like ,albert ,drer and ,holbein1 ,jean ,cousin did not disdain to apply his talents to the ornamentation of books4 ,jean ,cousin is generally looked upon as the real chief of the ,french school4 ,after him1 and by his side1 we must place the ,janets1#ci who although of ,flemish origin1 are actually ,french in their style and the character of their pictures4 ,the most celebrated of them1 ,franois ,clouet1 portrayed1 with a realism full of elegance and distinction1 the nobles and beautiful ladies of the court of ,valois4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beg4--,sketch of the ,virgin of ,alba4 ,chalk-drawing by ,raphael4 ,we should here close our remarks1 were it not that we might be accused of an important omission in this review of the principal schools4 ,for nothing has been said of the ,bolognese school1 whose origin1 though not its maturity1 belongs to the epoch we have made our study4 ,but the material circumstances we now mention must be our justification3 although the school of ,bologna gave signs of its existence in the thirteenth century1 and under the impulse of ,guido1 ,ventura1 and ,ursone1 showed itself to be industrious1 active1 and numerous2 and also in the fourteenth century1 under that of ,jacopo d',avanzo and ,lippodi ,dalmasio2 yet it died away1 reviving only at the commencement of the sixteenth century1 again to become extinct after the death of the poetic ,raibolini1 called ,francia1 without having produced any of those great individualities to whose glory alone we are compelled to devote our attention4 ,we must1 however1 confess that this school1 which suddenly retrieved its position at a time when all other schools were in a state of complete decadence1 found three illustrious chiefs instead of one1 and acquired the singular glory of resuscitating1 by a kind of potent eclecticism1 the ensemble of the noblest traditions4 ,but it was not till the latter part of the sixteenth century that ,bologna witnessed the opening by the ,carracci of that studio whence were destined to proceed ,guido1 ,albano1 ,domenichino1 ,guercino1 ,caravaggio1 ,pietro of ,cortona and ,luca ,giordano--a magnificent phalanx of men who1 by their own works and the force of their example1 were to become the honour of an age into which it does not form a portion of our task to follow them4 ,illustration ,,engraving4 ,origin of ,wood-,engraving4--,the ,st4 ,christopher of #adbc4--8,the ,virgin and ,child ,jesus40--,the earliest ,masters of ,wood-,engraving4--,bernard ,milnet4--,engraving in ,camaeu4--,origin of ,engraving on ,metal4--,the 8,pax0 of ,maso ,finiguerra4--,the earliest ,engravers on ,metal4--,niello ,work4--,le ,matre of #adff4--,le ,matre of #adhf4--,martin ,schngauer1 ,israel van ,mecken1 ,wenceslaus of ,olmutz1 ,albert ,drer1 ,marc ,antonio1 ,lucas van ,leyden4--,jean ,duret and the ,french ,school4--,the ,dutch ,school4--,the ,masters of ,engraving4 ,almost all authors who have devoted themselves to investigate this subject have asserted1 but doubtless very erroneously1 that engraving on metal was naturally derived from engraving on wood4 ,nevertheless1 any one who gives but a slight consideration to the difference existing between the two processes must be led to the belief that the two arts must result from two distinct inventions4 ,in wood-engraving1 the impression is1 in fact1 formed by the portions of the block which are in relief2 while in engraving on metal1 the incised strokes give the lines of the print4 ,now1 no one who has any knowledge of professional matters can for a moment doubt that1 in spite of the similar appearance of the productions1 there is a radical difference in the starting-points and modes of execution of these two methods4 ,we certainly must consider it probable that the appearance of prints produced by wood-engraving may have suggested the idea of seeking to obtain a similar or better result by some other process2 but that a process should be assimilated1 as if by affiliation1 to another diametrically opposed to it is a view we do not feel called upon to accept without reservation4 ,be this as it may1 certain authors look upon wood-engraving as having been invented in ,germany at the commencement of the fifteenth century4 ,others have derived it from ,china1 where it was in use in the year #ajjj of our era4 ,others1 again1 propound the opinion that the art of printing stuffs by means of engraved blocks was employed in different parts of ,asia1 to which it had been imported from ancient ,egypt1 at a period long before it was first thought of in ,europe4 ,these hypotheses being admitted1 the whole question reduces itself into an inquiry as to the way in which the art made its entrance into ,western ,europe in the first half of the fifteenth century2 this being the earliest date at which we find engravings made in ,germany1 ,france1 and the ,low ,countries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beh4--8,the ,virgin and ,infant ,jesus40 ,fac-simile of a ,wood-,engraving of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 ,the most ancient dated impression known of a cut engraved on wood is a ,st4 ,christopher1 without either mark or name of its author1 bearing a ,latin inscription and the date of #adbc4 ,this specimen is so roughly engraved1 and in drawing is so faulty1 that it is only natural to assume it must be one of the earliest attempts at wood-engraving4 ,there is1 however1 an engraving in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 representing the ,virgin holding the ,child ,jesus seated in her arms 7,fig4 #beh71 which may perhaps be considered an earlier specimen than the ,st4 ,christopher4 ,the back of the niche is a kind of mosaic1 formed of diamond-shaped quadrilaterals2 the aureol and ornaments of the niche are coloured a yellowish brown4 ,there is1 however1 one singularity in this engraving which testifies to its great antiquity2 it is printed on paper made of cotton1 and is unsized1 and the impression sinks so deeply into it that it may be seen nearly as well on the back of the print as on the front4 ,we must not omit to mention another engraving1 preserved in the ,royal ,library1 ,brussels2 this is also a 8,virgin with the ,child ,jesus10 surrounded by four saints 7,fig4 #bei74 ,it is a composition of a somewhat grand style1 and does not agree very well with the date1 ,,mccccxviii41 which is seen at the foot of the print4 ,we must1 doubtless1 attribute to nearly the same time some specimens of playing-cards1--these we have already mentioned when dealing specially with this subject2 and also a series of figures of the ,twelve ,apostles with ,latin legends1 underneath which are the same number of phrases in ,french1 or rather in the ancient dialect of ,picardy1 reproducing the whole text of the ,decalogue2 one of these xylographic plates may be seen in the chapter on 8,,printing40 ,in these engravings each figure is standing up1 clothed in a long tunic1 and covered with a wide mantle2 the ink1 so to speak1 is bistre1 and the mantles are coloured1 red and green alternately4 ,the ,apostles all bear the symbolical sign which distinguishes them1 and are surrounded with a long fillet1 whereon is traced in ,latin the sentence of the ,creed attributed to each1 and one of the ten ,commandments4 ,st4 ,peter1 for instance1 has for his motto this ,french sentence1 8,gardeis ,dieu le roy moult sain20 ,st4 ,andrew1 8,ne jurets point son nome en vain20 ,st4 ,john1 8,pre et ,mre tosjours honoras20 ,st4 ,james the ,greater1 8,les fiestes et dymeng1 garderas10 c4 ,there are other engravings belonging to the middle of the fifteenth century which make known the fact that the art of engraving was practised by several artists in ,france2 and that without doing any injustice ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4--8,the ,virgin and ,child40 ,a ,wood-,engraving of the ,fifteenth ,century7874 7,bibl4 ,roy41 ,brussels47 to ,germany we can attribute several anonymous works to ,french masters4 ,but we must in any case claim the very characteristic works of an engraver named ,bernard ,milnet4 ,in the engravings of this master there are neither lines nor cross-hatching2 the ground of the print is black2 the lights are ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4--8,st4 ,catherine on her ,knees40 ,fac-simile of an ,engraving on ,wood1 by ,bernard ,milnet1 called the 8,master with the dotted backgrounds40 7,bibl4 ,imp41 ,paris47 formed by an infinite number of white dots varying in size according to the requirement and taste of the artist4 ,this engraver does not appear to have had any imitators2 and1 to tell the truth1 his mode of operation must have presented many difficulties in execution4 ,there are only six known specimens of his work--a 8,virgin with the ,child ,jesus10 8,st4 ,catherine ,kneeling0 7,fig4 #bfj71 the 8,scourging of ,christ10 a group of 8,st4 ,john1 ,st4 ,paul1 and ,st4 ,veronica10 a 8,st4 ,george10 and a 8,st4 ,bernard40 ,although engravings of this time are now extremely rare1 it does not necessarily follow that they were equally scarce at the dates when they were executed4 ,m4 ,michiels1 in his 8,histoire de la ,peinture en ,flandre10 says that1 8according to ancient custom1 on feast-days the ,lazarists1 and others belonging to religious orders who were accustomed to nurse the sick1 carried in the streets a large wax candle ornamented with mouldings and glass-trinkets1 and distributed to the children wood-engravings illuminated with brilliant colours1 and representing sacred subjects4 ,there must1 therefore1 have been a considerable number of these engravings40 ,in the sixteenth century wood-engraving1 improved by the pupils of ,albert ,drer1 and especially by ,john ,burgkmair 7,fig4 #bfa71 was very extensively developed2 and the art was then practised with a superiority of style which left far behind the timid attempts of the preceding century4 ,the works of most of the wood-engravers of this period are anonymous2 nevertheless1 the names of a few of these artists have survived4 ,but it is only by an error that1 in the nomenclature of the latter1 certain painters and designers1 such as ,albert ,drer1 ,lucas van ,leyden1 and ,lucas van ,cranach1 have long been made to figure4 ,there are wood-engravings which do actually bear the signatures or monograms of these masters2 but the fact is1 that the latter were often in the habit of drawing their designs on the wood1 as is frequently the practice with artists in our own day2 and the engraver 7or rather the formschneider1 form-cutter1 to employ the usual expression71 in reproducing the composition drawn with a pencil or pen1 has copied also the signature which the designer of the subject added4 ,an error often committed by writers may be thus easily set right4 ,we must not quit the subject of wood-engraving without mentioning engraving in camaeu2 a process of ,italian origin1 in which three or four blocks1 applying in succession to the print uniform tints of more or less intense tones1 ultimately produced engravings of a very remarkable effect1 imitating drawings with the stump or the pencil4 ,at the commencement of the sixteenth century several artists distinguished themselves in this ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4--,the ,archdukes and ,high ,barons of ,germany assisting1 in ,state ,costume1 at the ,coronation of the ,emperor ,maximilian4 ,a fragment taken from a large collection of ,engravings1 entitled the 8,triumph of ,maximilian ,i410 by ,j4 ,burgkmair4 7,sixteenth ,century47 mode of engraving1 especially ,ugo di ,carpi1 who worked at ,modena about the year #aeah2 ,antonio ,fantuzzi1 a pupil of ,francis ,parmigianino1 who accompanied and assisted ,primaticcio at ,fontainebleau2 ,gualtier1 and ,andrew ,andreani2 and lastly1 ,bartholomew ,coriolano1 of ,bologna1 who would have been the last engraver in this style1 were it not for ,antonio ,m4 ,zanetti1 a celebrated ,venetian amateur1 who was still nearer to us in point of date4 ,two or three ,germans1 ,john ,ulrich in the sixteenth1 and ,louis ,buring#dj in the seventeenth1 century1 also made some engravings in camaeu1 but only with two blocks3 one giving the design of the subject with the outline and cross-hatching1 the other introducing a colour1 usually bistre1 on which all the lights were taken out1 so as to leave the ground of the paper white4 ,these specimens imitated a pen-and-ink drawing on coloured paper1 and finished with the brush or pencil4 ,we must now go back to the year #adeb1 which is generally fixed upon as the date of the invention of engraving on metal 7,fig4 #bfb74da ,when discussing the subject of 8,goldsmith's ,work10 we mentioned1 among the pupils of the illustrious ,ghiberti1 ,maso ,finiguerra1 and stated that this artist had engraved on silver a 8,pax0 intended for the treasury of the ,church of ,st4 ,john4 ,certain writers having recognised in a print now in the ,imperial ,library of ,paris1 and also in another print in the ,library of the ,arsenal1 an exact impression of this engraving1 were led to attribute to the celebrated ,florentine goldsmith the honour of an invention in which he might perhaps have had no share at all4 ,possibly this process of printing off an impression1 which was a very natural thing to do1 had been actually practised by goldsmiths long before ,finiguerra2 they wished1 doubtless1 to preserve a pattern of their niello-work1 or to see how it progressed in its various stages4 ,the proofs1 thus taken off by hand1 having been lost1 ,finiguerra may have been considered the originator of a method which he only applied as a matter of course to his goldsmith's work4 ,the two circumstances--that the plate is made of silver and not of any common metal1 and that it may be classed among the numerous nielli1 engraved plates of decorative goldsmith's work1 which have been handed down to us and are of even earlier dates--will alone suffice1 in our opinion1 to dispose of the ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4--,the ,prophet ,isaiah1 holding in his hand the saw which was the instrument of his martyrdom4 7,fac-simile from an ,engraving on ,copper by an unknown ,italian ,master of the ,fifteenth ,century47 idea that this work was expressly executed in order to furnish impressions on paper4 ,it was nothing but chance that in this case introduced the name of ,finiguerra1 which would not have become known in this connection1 if it had not been for the preservation of two ancient impressions of his niello-work2 while those taken from other and perhaps older plates had been destroyed4 ,thus the date1 or the asserted date1 of the invention of engraving on metal was fixed by the ascertained date of the piece of goldsmith's work4 ,be this as it may1 the print of the 8,pax10 or rather of the 8,assumption10 engraved by ,finiguerra1 does not fail1 in the opinion of all writers and amateurs1 to bear the title of the earliest print from metal2 a title to which it has a perfect right1 and in thus regarding it we are induced to give a brief description of the subject represented in the engraving4 ,jesus ,christ1 seated on a lofty throne and wearing a cap similar to that of the ,doges1 places1 with both his hands1 a crown on the head of the ,virgin1 who1 with her hands crossed upon her breast1 is seated upon the same throne2 ,st4 ,augustine and ,st4 ,ambrose are kneeling2 in the centre1 below1 and on the right1 several saints are standing1 among whom we can distinguish ,st4 ,catherine and ,st4 ,agnes2 on the left1 in the rear of ,st4 ,augustine1 we see ,st4 ,john the ,baptist and other saints2 lastly1 on both sides of the throne a number of angels are blowing trumpets2 and1 above1 are others holding a streamer1 on which we read3 8,,assvmpta4 ,,est4 ,,maria4 ,,in4 ,,celvm4 ,,ave4 ,,exercitvs4 ,,angelorvm20 8,mary is taken up into ,heaven4 ,hail1 army of angels60 ,the first of the impressions of this niello found its way into the ,royal ,library with the ,marolles ,collection1 bought by ,louis ,,xiv4 in #affg3 the other was discovered only in #ahda1 by ,m4 ,robert ,dumesnil1 who1 in the ,library of the ,arsenal1 was turning over the leaves of a volume containing engravings by ,callot and ,sebastian ,le ,clerc4 ,this latter impression1 though taken on inferior paper1 is nevertheless in a much better state of preservation than the other2 but the ink is of a greyer hue1 and one might readily fancy that1 as ,m4 ,duchesne1 the learned writer1 asserts1 it was printed before the final completion of the plate4 ,in support of the opinion which we before indirectly expressed1 that the practice of taking impressions from engraved plates of metal might well be a kind of fortuitous result of a mere professional tradition incidental to the goldsmith's art1 we may remark that most of the engravings which have been handed down to us as belonging to the era fixed upon for the invention of engraving1 are the work of ,italian goldsmith-engravers4 ,more than four hundred specimens of this date have been preserved2 among the artists we must mention ,amerighi1 ,michael ,angelo ,bandinelli1 and ,philippo ,brunelleschi1 of ,florence2 ,forzoni ,spinelli1 of ,arezzo2 ,furnio1 ,gesso1 ,rossi1 and ,raibolini1 of ,bologna2 ,teucreo1 of ,siena2 ,caradosso and ,arcioni1 of ,milan2 ,nicholas ,rosex1 of ,modena1 of whose work we have three nielli and more than sixty engravings2 ,antonio ,pollajuolo1 who engraved a print called the 8,fight with ,cutlasses10 representing ten naked men fighting2 lastly1 the most skilful of the metal-chasing goldsmiths after ,finiguerra1 ,peregrino of ,cesena1 who has left his name and his mark on sixty-six nielli4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4--;,fac-simile of a ,niello executed on ,ivory1 from the original design of ,stradan1 representing ,columbus on board his ,ship1 during his first ,voyage to the ,west4 ,more special mention must be made of ,bartholomew ,baldini1 better known under the name of ,baccio1 to whom we owe1 in addition to some large engravings both of a sacred and of a mythological character1 twenty vignettes designed for the folio edition 7#adha7 of ,dante's 8,inferno20 of ,andrea ,mantegna1 a renowned painter1 who himself engraved many of his own compositions2 and of ,john van der ,straet1 called ,stradan 7,fig4 #bfc71 who executed at ,florence many remarkable plates4 ,we find in ,germany an engraver who dates several of his works in the year #adff1 but on none of them has he left more than his initials1 ,e4 ,s4 ,this has not failed to tax the ingenuity of those who would establish his individuality in some authentic way4 ,some have agreed to call him ,edward ,schn or ,stern1 on account of the stars he frequently introduces into the borders of the vestments of his figures2 one asserts that he was born in ,bavaria1 because in a specimen of his works is the figure of a woman holding a shield emblazoned with the arms of that country2 another believes him to have been a ,swiss1 because he twice engraved the 8,pilgrimage of ,st4 ,mary of ,einsiedeln10 the most celebrated in the country4 ,but those amateurs who1 upon the whole1 think more of the work than the workman1 are content to designate him as the ,master of #adff4 ,this engraver has left behind him three hundred examples1 most of them of small dimensions1 among which1 independently of sundry very curious compositions1 we must notice two important series1 namely1 an ,alphabet composed of grotesque figures 7,fig4 #bfd71 and a pack of ,numeral ,cards1 the greater part of which are in the ,imperial ,library4 ,at almost the same epoch ,holland also presents us with an anonymous engraver1 who might be called the ,master of #adhf1 from the date on one only of his engravings4 ,the works of this artist1 whose manner exhibits a powerful and original style1 are very rare in any collections not belonging to the country in which he worked4 ,the ,cabinet of ,engravings at ,amsterdam possesses seventy-six of them1 while that of ,vienna has but two1 that of ,berlin one only1 and that of ,paris six1 among which we may remark 8,samson sleeping on the knees of ,delilah10 and 8,st4 ,george10 on foot1 piercing with his sword the throat of the dragon which menaced the life of the ,queen of ,lydia4 ,we have still three comparatively celebrated engravers to mention before reaching the epoch at which ,marc ,antonio ,raimondi in ,italy1 ,albert ,drer in ,germany1 and ,lucas van ,leyden in ,holland1 all simultaneously flourished4 ,martin ,schngauer1 for some time designated by the name of ,martin ,schn1 who died at ,colmar in #adhh1 was a good painter as well as a skilful engraver4 ,more than one hundred and twenty specimens of his work are known1 the most important of which are--8,christ bearing his ,cross10 8,the ,battle of the ,christians0 7waged against the infidels by the apostle ,st4 ,james71 both very rare compositions of large size2 the 8,passion of ,jesus ,christ10 the 8,death of the ,virgin10 and 8,st4 ,anthony tormented by ,demons10 one proof of which1 it is said1 was coloured by ,michael ,angelo4 ,we must add 7and this circumstance shows again the kind of direct relation which we have already noted as existing between engraving and goldsmith's work71 that ,martin ,schngauer also engraved a pastoral staff and a censer1 both of very beautiful workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4--;,fac-simile of the letter ,n from the 8,grotesque ,alphabet10 engraved by the 8,master of #adff40 ,israel van ,mecken 7or ,meckenem71 supposed to be a pupil of ,francis van ,bocholt1 as he worked at ,bocholt previous to the year #aejj1 is1 of all ,german engravers of this epoch1 the one whose works are most extensively known4 ,the ,cabinet of ,engravings in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 possesses three volumes of his engravings1 containing two hundred and twenty-eight superb examples2 among these we must especially notice a composition engraved on two plates of the same height2 8,st4 ,gregory perceiving the ,man of ,sorrows at the ,moment of the ,mass40 ,we must confine ourselves to the mention1 in addition1 of his 8,st4 ,luke painting the ,portrait of the ,virgin20 8,st4 ,odile releasing from ,purgatory1 by his prayers1 the ,soul of his ,father1 ,duke ,etichon20 8,herodias0 7,fig4 #bfe72 and 8,lucretia killing herself in the presence of ,collatinus and others10 which last is the only subject this artist has taken from profane history4 ,we mention ,wenceslaus of ,olmutz1 who was engaged in engraving from the year #adha to #adig1 with the especial object of describing an allegorical print due to his burin2 it may serve to give a notion of the fantastic tendency impressed on the ideas of the day by the religious dissensions which arose at this epoch between several princes of ,germany and the court of ,rome4 ,this print1 or rather this graphic satire1 most of the allusions in which are now lost to us1 represents the monstrous figure of a woman entirely naked1 seen in profile and turning to the left1 her body covered with scales1 with the head and mane of an ass2 her right leg terminates in a cloven foot1 and the left in a bird's claw2 her right arm is terminated by the paw of a lion1 and the left by a woman's hand4 ,the back of this fantastic being is covered with a hairy mask1 and in the place of a tail she has the neck of a chimera1 with a deformed head from which darts a serpent's tongue4 ,above the engraving is written1 8,roma ,caput ,mundi0 78,rome the head of the world074 ,on the left hand is a three-storied tower1 upon which a flag adorned with the keys of ,st4 ,peter is floating4 ,on the chteau is written1 8,castelagno0 7,castle of ,st4 ,angelo72 in the foreground is a river1 upon whose waves is traced the word 8,tevere0 7the ,tiber72 lower still is the word 8,ianrarii0 7,january71 below the date #adif3 on the right1 in the background1 is a square tower1 upon which is written1 8,tore ,di ,nona0 7,tower of the ,nones72 on the same side1 in front1 is a vase with two handles1 and in the centre of the lower part the letter ,w1 the monogrammatic signature of the engraver4 ,our interest in this plate is increased by the date it bears2 for1 being engraved by means of ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4--8;,herodias10 a ,copper-plate ,engraving1 by ,israel van ,mecken4 aquafortis1 it proves that ,albert ,drer is wrongfully regarded as the inventor of this mode of engraving1 more expeditious than with the burin1 as the oldest aquafortis work of ,albert ,drer is dated #aeae1 that is to say1 nineteen years later than that of ,wenceslaus of ,olmutz4 ,we now come to three great artists who1 at a period in which the art of engraving had made the most remarkable progress1 availed themselves of it for producing works which eminently characterise each master respectively4 ,albert ,drer1 born at ,nuremberg in #adga1 was a vigorous painter1 and was not less remarkable for the productions of his burin and etching-needle4 ,we do not intend to describe all his works1 though all are worthy of notice1 but must content ourselves with mentioning 8,adam and ,eve standing by the ,tree of ,knowledge of ,good and ,evil10 a small plate of delicate workmanship and admirable perfectness of design2 the 8,passion of ,jesus ,christ10 in a series of sixteen plates2 8,christ praying in the ,garden of ,gethsemane10 the first work executed by this master by means of aquafortis1 then a new method1 which1 being less soft than the burin1 gave rise to an idea not dispelled for some time1 that this print and several others were engraved on iron or tin2 several figures of the 8,virgin with the ,infant ,jesus10 which are all remarkable for expression and simplicity1 and have received odd sobriquets on account of some accessory object which accompanies them 7for instance1 the 8,virgin with the pear1 butterfly1 ape10 c472 the 8,prodigal ,son keeping ,swine10 a composition in which the painter himself is represented2 8,st4 ,hubert praying before the ,cross borne by a ,stag0 7,fig4 #bff71 a very rare and beautiful plate2 the 8,chevalier and his ,lady20 lastly1 the 8,chevalier of ,death10 a chef-d'uvre1 dated #aeae1 and representing ,francis of ,sickingen1 who was destined to be the firmest supporter of ,luther's ,reformation4#db ,marc ,antonio ,raimondi1 born at ,bologna about the year #adge1 was first a pupil of ,francis ,raibolini1 and afterwards of ,raphael1#dc whose style he often ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bff4--8,st4 ,hubert praying before the ,cross borne by a ,stag40 ,engraved by ,albert ,drer4 followed1 and in his compositions did his utmost to imitate his pure and noble manner4 ,everything in his designs is ideally true1 and all is harmonious in the ensemble of his works4 ,most of his engravings still existing are very much sought after1 and as any description we could give would only convey but an imperfect idea of the excellence of these works1 the strongest testimony in favour of their merit will be to mention the high prices given for certain prints by this master at the public sale which took place in #ahdd4 ,for example3--8,adam and ,eve10 a print after ,raphael1 #a1jaj francs 7#dj72 8,god commanding ,noah to build the ,ark10 from the same master1 #gjj francs 7#bh72 the 8,massacre of the ,innocents10 #a1bjj francs 7#dh72 8,st4 ,paul preaching at ,athens10 #b1ejj francs 7#ajj72 the 8,lord's ,supper10 #b1ijj francs 7#aaf72 the 8,judgment of ,paris10 which is regarded as the chef-d'uvre of ,marc ,antonio1 #c1cej francs 7#acd72 three pendentives of the 8,farnesina10 #a1fbj francs 7#fd #ajs471 c4 ,subsequently1 these enormous prices have been even exceeded4 ,lucas van ,leyden1 born in #adid1 and1 like ,albert ,drer1 a clever painter as well as skilful engraver1 has left about eighty plates1 the most remarkable of which are 8,david playing the ,harp before ,saul20 the 8,adoration of the ,magi20 a large 8,ecce ,homo10 engraved by the artist at the age of sixteen2 a 8,peasant and ,peasant-woman with a ,cow20 the 8,monk ,sergius killed by ,mahomet20 the 8,seven ,virtues20 a plate called the 8,little ,milkmaid10 very rare2 lastly1 a 8,poor ,family travelling10 of which only five proofs are known2 they were bought for sixteen louis d'or by the ,abbot of ,marolles1 when he formed his cabinet of prints1 which became one of the richest additions to the ,imperial ,library4 ,in a befitting rank below these famous artists we may class a ,french engraver1 ,jean ,duret1 born at ,langres in #adhh1 who was goldsmith to ,henri ,,ii41 and executed several beautiful allegorical plates on the intrigues of the king and ,diana of ,poitiers1 as well as twenty-four compositions taken from the ,apocalypse2 also ,pierre ,woeiriot 7or ,voeiriot71 an engraver and goldsmith of ,lorraine1 born in #aeca1 who produced numerous fine works down to the end of the century2 the most famous of them1 designated by the name of the 8,bull of ,phalaris0 7,fig4 #bfg71 represents the tyrant of ,agrigentum shutting up human victims destined to be burnt alive in a brazen bull4 ,there were at work in ,italy at the same epoch ,augustine of ,musi ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4--8,phalaris1 ,tyrant of ,agrigentum1 causing ,victims destined to be burnt alive to be shut up in a ,brazen ,bull40 ,engraved by ,p4 ,woeiriot4 7,french ,school of the ,sixteenth ,century47 7,agustino de ,musis1 called the ,venetian71 ,giacomo ,caraglio1 the ,ghisis1#dd ,eneas ,vico2 in ,germany1 ,altdorfer 7,fig4 #bfh71 ,george ,pencz1#de ,aldegrever1 ,jacque ,binck1 ,bartel and ,hans ,sebald ,beham 7,fig4 #bfi71 who are designated under the collective name of the 8,little ,masters20 in ,holland1 ,thierry 7,dirk7 van ,staren4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4--8,repose of the ,holy ,family40 ,engraved by ,a4 ,altdorfer4 ,in the course of the sixteenth century engraving reached its culminating point1 and at that time ,italy and ,germany no longer took the lead in this branch of art1 for the most skilful and renowned masters then belonged to ,holland and ,france4 ,those of ,holland were ,henry ,goltzius 7or ,goltz71 born in #aeeh1 and his pupils ,matham and the ,mullers1 whose vigorous gravers might remind one of brilliant effects of colour without any loss of purity of design2 the two brothers1 ,boetius and ,scheltius ,bolswaert1 so called from their native town ,bolswaert1 born in #aehj and #aehf respectively2 ,paul ,pontius and ,lucas ,vorsterman1 both born in #aeij1 whose engravings so well represent the chiaroscuro and colour of ,van ,dyck and ,jordaens4 ,in ,france was ,jacques ,callot1 born in #aeid1 whose works were both numerous and original1 and enjoyed a somewhat popular celebrity2 among them the most worthy of remark are the 8,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony10 the 8,fair of the ,madonna d',imprunette10 8,the ,garden0 and the 8,parterre10 both scenes in ,nancy2 as well as several series1 such as the 8,miseries of ,war10 c4 ,there were also ,michael ,lasne1 born in #aeif1 who engraved a number of historical portraits2 and ,etienne 7,stephen7 ,baudet1 who reproduced eight large landscapes after ,poussin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4--8;,ferdinand ,i41 ,brother of ,charles ,v40 ,engraved by ,bart4 ,beham in #aeca4 ,a separate notice is reserved for ,jonas ,suyderoef1 born at ,leyden in #afjj1 who1 by combining the graver1 the etching-needle1 and aquafortis1 gave an exceptional character to his works4 ,among the two hundred engravings by this master the most admired are the 8,treaty of ,munster10 after ,terburg2 and the 8,burgomasters of ,amsterdam receiving the ,news of the ,arrival of ,queen ,mary of ,medicis10 after ,de ,keyser4 ,we are now touching closely upon1 even if we have not already exceeded1 the limits to which we are prescribed by the scope of our notices2 but as the history of engraving does not present1 like that of so many other arts1 the spectacle of a grievous decadence after a period of brilliancy1 we cannot without regret come to a conclusion1 when mention might still be made of many distinguished names among the engravers of every country4 ,we should also scarcely be able to pass on to another subject without having alluded to those men whose works belong1 indeed1 to the following epoch1 but the date of whose birth connects them with that we are considering4 ,we could not1 in fact1 assume to have treated of engraving had we passed over in silence ,van ,dyck1 ,claude ,lorraine1 and ,rembrandt 7,fig4 #bgj71 those greatest of masters who were equally celebrated for painting and engraving4 ,in truth1 perhaps1 we could not say anything of them which would not be superfluous4 ,who is not acquainted with at least some few works by ,van ,dyck8 ,this celebrated pupil of ,rubens has left in painting as many masterpieces as canvases2 and in engraving he knew how to give to his etching-needle so much verve and spirit1 that his prints are perfect models to follow1 and have never been surpassed4 ,who is there that does not admire the landscapes of ,claude ,lorraine1 which are equally remarkable for the light diffused over them1 and the misty atmosphere that tempers its brilliancy8 ,we all know this master produced1 as if for recreation1 certain engravings which for truth and melancholy 7mlancolic7 are hardly surpassed by his marvellous paintings4 ,and how can we speak of ,rembrandt without seeming to be commonplace8 ,for his fertile and varied talent no difficulty ever seemed to exist2 a theme1 the most simple and common in appearance1 becomes in his hands the basis of a masterly conception2 nature1 to which he seemed to lend a new life1 while seizing upon its most striking realities1 was for him an inexhaustible source of powerful compositions4 ,the mention of these artists on the threshold of an epoch into which we ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4--8,portrait of ,john ,lutma1 ,goldsmith of ,groningen40 ,designed and ,engraved in aquafortis by ,rembrandt4 are precluded from following them1 must suffice to convey some idea of the height that art had attained during this century4 ,we will1 however1 enumerate after them a few names among foreign engravers4 ,the ,flemish artists1 ,nicolas ,berghem and ,paul ,potter1 both great animal-painters1 have left some prints in aquafortis for the possession of which amateurs contend2 ,wenceslaus ,hollar1 the ,englishman1#df engraved 8,the ,queen of ,sheba10 after ,veronese2 to ,cornelius ,visscher1 a ,dutchman1 we owe the famous 8,seller of ,ratsbane20 and to ,stefano della ,bella1 of ,florence1 the 8,view from the ,pont-,neuf1 ,paris40 ,rupert1 the ,prince-,palatine 7nephew of ,charles ,i4 of ,england71 was the inventor of the mezzo-tinto1 or black style of engraving2 and ,william ,faithorne1 an ,englishman1 engraved several portraits after ,van ,dyck4 ,france also presents to our notice some justly celebrated names4 ,the views of towns by ,israel ,silvestre1 of ,nancy1 are very beautiful2 ,franois de ,poilly1 of ,abbeville1 reproduced several pictures by ,raphael2 ,jean ,pesne1 of ,rouen1 himself a painter1 engraved especially after ,poussin2 ,antoine ,masson1 of ,orleans1 has left a print of the 8,pilgrims of ,emmaus10 after the picture by ,titian1 which is regarded as a chef-d'uvre4 ,lastly1 ,robert ,nanteuil1 of ,rheims1 the famous portrait-painter1 engraved ,prfixe1 ,archbishop of ,paris1 four times2 the ,archbishop of ,rheims five times2 ,colbert six times2 ,michel ,le ,tellier1 ,chancellor of ,france1 ten times2 ,louis ,,xiv4 eleven times1 and ,cardinal ,mazarin fourteen times4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4--8,the ,holy ,virgin40 ,engraved by ,aldegrever in #aebg4 ,,sculpture4 ,origin of ,christian ,sculpture4--,statues in ,gold and ,silver4--,traditions of ,antique ,art4--,sculpture in ,ivory4--,iconoclasts4--,diptychs4--,the highest ,style of ,sculpture follows the ,phases of ,architecture4--,cathedrals and ,monasteries from the ,year #ajjj4--,schools of ,burgundy1 ,champagne1 ,normandy1 ,lorraine1 c4--,german1 ,english1 ,spanish1 and ,italian ,schools4--,nicholas of ,pisa and his ,successors4--,position of ,french ,sculpture in the ,thirteenth ,century4--,florentine ,sculpture and ,ghiberti4--,french ,sculptors from the ,fifteenth to the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,it is an indisputable fact that the epoch in which the ,emperor ,constantine1 by receiving baptism1 effected the triumph of ,christianity1 developed a kind of revival in the movement of the decorative arts1 the ideas of which were then exclusively directed to the exaltation of the new faith4 ,to construct numerous basilicas1 to adorn them magnificently1 and by means of the chisel to embody in a material form the spiritualism of the ,gospel1 were the objects of this pious monarch4 ,gold and silver were the less spared1 as marble was considered too common a substance in which to represent the sacred personages of the divine hierarchy4 ,at ,constantinople1 in the basilica constructed by ,constantine1 there was represented1 on one side of the apse1 a seated figure of our ,saviour surrounded by ,his twelve disciples2 on the other side1 ,christ was represented also sitting on a throne and accompanied by four angels1 who had precious stones of ,alabanda1 inlaid1 to represent their eyes4 ,all these figures were life-size1 and made of silver repouss2 each one weighing from ninety to a hundred and ten pounds4 ,in the same church1 a canopy representing the ,apostles and cherubim in relief1 of polished silver1 weighed more than two thousand pounds4 ,but these splendours were even eclipsed by those of the font of porphyry in which ,constantine received baptism from the hands of ,bishop ,sylvester4 ,the part whence the water flowed away was adorned with massive silver over an extent of five feet1 and for the purpose three thousand pounds of this precious metal were employed4 ,in the centre1 columns of gold supported a lamp of the same metal weighing fifty-two pounds1 in which1 during the feast of ,easter1 two hundred pounds of perfumed oil were burnt4 ,the water was poured into the font through the image of a lamb of solid gold1 weighing thirty pounds4 ,on the right was a life-size representation of our ,saviour1 weighing a hundred and seventy pounds2 on the left was a statue of ,john the ,baptist of the same size2 while seven hinds of silver placed around the font1 and pouring water into the basin1 harmonised in their dimensions and materials with the other figures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4--;,altar of ,castor 7a ,gallo-,roman ,sculpture71 discovered in #agaa under the ,choir of ,notre-,dame1 ,paris4 ,we would not assert that these works1 pompously enumerated by ,anastasius1 the ,librarian1 corresponded in purity and elevation of style with the richness of the materials employed2 for we know1 on the contrary1 that in order to comply with the wishes of the powerful emperor1 artists were found who1 by simple substitution of heads1 attributes1 or inscriptions1 converted without any scruple a ,jupiter into ,god the ,father1 or a ,venus into a ,virgin4 ,the large cities were not as yet depopulated of the innumerable crowd of statues which adorned them2 and it was only in provinces far from the metropolis that the images of the false gods were buried under the fragments of their overthrown temples 7,figs4 #bgb and #bgc74 ,in fact1 before the art had adopted1 or rather created1 the system of ,christian symbolism1 it was absolutely necessary to borrow the elements of its existence from the glorious materials of the past1 and even to imitate the works of ,pagan art4 ,in ,greece more than elsewhere--and by ,greece we include ,constantinople--statuary preserved1 under ,constantino and his earliest successors1 a certain degree of power which we might call original4 ,the design still adhered to beautiful forms1 and1 in the arrangement of subjects1 the principles of the ancients were for a long time applied1 as if instinctively4 ,although artists no longer studied nature1 they were1 at all events1 surrounded by excellent models1 which guided them with somewhat imperious rule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4--;,altar of ,jupiter ,ceraunus 7,gallo-,roman ,sculpture71 discovered in #agaa1 under the ,choir of ,notre-,dame1 ,paris4 ,we have already seen that1 among the barbaric chiefs who invaded the empire of the ,csars and seated themselves on the ,imperial throne of ,rome1 were some who1 at a certain period1 professed to be1 if not the protectors of the ,fine ,arts1 which had then sunk into torpor1 at least the preservers of the ,greek and ,roman monuments belonging to the noblest epoch of ,art4 ,the statues were no longer broken down2 the inscriptions and bas-reliefs ceased to be mutilated2 the triumphal arches 7,fig4 #bgd71 the palaces1 and the theatres1 were respected1 or1 rather1 were left standing4 ,but a kind of deadness had come over the artistic world1 and a few sympathetic manifestations of this kind were not sufficient to reanimate its enervated spirit2 it was necessary that the period of repose should be fully accomplished--a period which1 in the views of ,providence1 was perhaps a phase of profound contemplation or preparatory development4 ,nevertheless1 although the art which gives life to marble and bronze--a high style of sculpture--was in a stationary or retrograde state1 the lower kind1 which we may call domestic1 preserved some degree of activity4 ,for instance1 it was then the custom for great personages to send as presents diptychs of ivory1 on the outer face of which were carved bas-reliefs recalling some memorable event4 ,monarchs1 on their accession1 were in the habit of conferring diptychs of this kind on the governors of provinces and bishops2 and the latter1 in order to testify to the good understanding existing between the civil and religious authorities1 placed the diptych on the altar4 ,a marriage1 a baptism1 or any success1 gave occasion for the presentation of diptychs4 ,for two centuries artists lived on nothing but this kind of work4 ,it needed events of some very extraordinary character to cause the production of any monument of real sculpture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgd4--,restoration of a ,roman ,triumphal ,arch1 with its ,bas-reliefs4 ,in the sixth century the cathedrals of ,rome1 ,trves1 ,metz1 ,lyons1 ,rhodez1 ,arles1 ,bourges1 and the abbeys of ,st4 ,mdard at ,soissons1 ,st4 ,ouen at ,rouen1 and ,st4 ,martin at ,tours1 are mentioned as remarkable2 and yet the walls of these edifices were nothing but bare stone1 without either ornament or sculpture4 8,to become living stones10 says ,m4 ,j4 ,duseigneur1 8they had to wait for another age4 ,the whole of the ornamentation was exclusively applied to the altar and the baptismal font4 ,the tombs even of great personages present the most primitive simplicity40 7,fig4 #bge47 ,ancient ,gaul1 in spite of its disasters1 still retained1 in certain parts of its territory1 men1 or rather groups of men1 in whose hearts the cultivation of ,art still remained a living principle4 ,this was the case in ,provence1 round the archbishops of ,arles2 in ,austrasia 7,metz71 near the throne of ,brunehaut2 in ,burgundy1 at the court of ,king ,gontran4 ,most of the works and even the names of these artists are now lost2 but history has recorded the movement1 which was1 as it were1 a happy link destined to abbreviate the solution of continuity in artistic tradition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bge4--;,a ,stone ,tomb1 of one of the first ,abbots of ,st4 ,germain-des-,prs1 ,paris4 ,at the time when ,greek art1 in its degenerate state1 had sunk down into a department of mere goldsmith's work1 casting over ,europe only a pale and feeble light2 when artists1 in representing sacred or profane subjects1 contented themselves with simple medallions of bronze1 gold1 or silver1 which were generally inserted in a shrine1 or suspended on the walls2 across the seas ,byzantine art was springing into life2 an art which blended ,hellenic reminiscences with ,christian sentiment4 ,in the eighth century1 the epoch of the uprising of the ,iconoclasts against images of all kinds1 ,byzantine sculpture had acquired certain well-marked characteristics3 rigidness of outline1 meagreness of form1 elongation of the proportions1 combined with great profuseness of costume2 all was the expression of saddened resignation and costly grandeur4 ,the monumental statuary of this age has1 however1 almost entirely disappeared1 and we should be nearly destitute of any accurate record as to the state of ,art for a period of several centuries1 were it not for numerous diptychs which1 to some extent1 supply this want4 ,many of these sacred diptychs were exquisitely wrought4 ,gori1 in his 8,trsor des ,diptyques10 written in ,latin and published at ,florence in #agei1 divides these monuments into four classes3 diptychs intended to receive the names of the newly baptised2 those wherein were written the names of the benefactors of the church1 sovereigns1 and popes2 and those destined to preserve the memory of the faithful who had died in the bosom of the church 7,fig4 #bgf74 ,their outward surface generally represented some scene taken from the ,evangelists1 in which ,christ was especially depicted as young and beardless1 his head glorified with a nimbus without a cross4 ,the more these representations were condemned1 the more they who paid respect to them endeavoured to perpetuate their use4 ,the ,greek artists1 being unable to find a livelihood in their own country1 made their way into ,italy in such numbers that the popes ,paul ,i41 ,adrian ,i41 and ,pascal ,i41 erected monasteries to receive them4 ,owing to the influence of this immigration1 ,art1 which in the ,west was germinating in an undecided state between a weak style of originality and an awkward mode of imitation1 was compelled to assume a character of its own1 and this necessarily was the ,byzantine character2 that is1 a manner which was firm1 clear1 and1 in general1 impressed with a certain imposing nobility of style4 ,this style attained all the more success by its being illustrated by very eminent artists1 whom ,charlemagne patronised as fully adequate to the magnificence of his ideas2 and also because the richness of ornament which this style combined with its work was likely to render it pleasing to the populace4 ,the royal palaces of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,goddinga1 ,attiniacum1 and ,theodonis ,villa1 and the monasteries of ,st4 ,arnulph1 ,trves1 ,st4 ,gall1 ,salzbourg1 and ,prm felt the salutary influence which ,charlemagne exercised on all kinds of ,art4 ,prior to #agic1 in these various localities precious remains were still to be seen1 reaching back to the eighth century2 they testified to the fact that1 apart from ,byzantine influence1 and bearing the impress of a simple ,christian sentiment1 sculpture still clung1 owing to ,lombard ascendancy1 to some of the grand traditions of antiquity4 ,this union of principles gave rise to a number of works bearing a remarkable character4 ,the foundation of the abbeys of ,st4 ,mihiel 7,lorraine71 ,isle-,barbe 7near ,lyons71 of ,ambernay and ,romans2 the erection of several of the great monasteries in ,alsace1 ,soissonnais1 ,brittany1 ,normandy1 ,provence1 ,languedoc1 and ,aquitaine2 the construction of the ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgf4--;,diptychs in ,carved ,ivory of the ,eleventh ,century4 7,m4 ,rigollot's ,collection1 ,amiens47 ,the first compartment represents ,st4 ,remy1 ,bishop of ,rheims1 healing a paralytic2 the second1 ,st4 ,remy healing a sick man by the invocation of the sacrament on the altar2 the third1 ,st4 ,remy1 assisted by a holy bishop1 baptising ,king ,clovis in the presence of ,queen ,clotilda1 and receiving from the ,holy ,spirit the sacred ampulla4 important churches of ,metz1 ,toul1 ,verdun1 ,rheims1 ,autun1 c42 the restorations which took place at the abbeys of ,bze1 ,st4 ,gall1 ,st4 ,benignus of ,dijon1 ,remiremont1 ,st4 ,arnulphe-ls-,metz1 and ,luxeuil1 were of sufficient importance to occupy an immense number of artists1 architects1 and sculptors1 who1 like the monk ,gundelandus1 abbot of ,lauresheim1 handled the compasses and the mallet with as much authority as the crucifix4 ,nothing could equal the splendour of some of the monasteries1 which were perfect centres of genius and skill1 in which all the ,fine ,arts united were a mutual assistance to one another2 directed1 perhaps1 by a master who was himself inspired by a feeling for elevated production 7,fig4 #bgg74 ,nevertheless1 the smaller examples of sculpture and carving constituted the principal work of the artists of the eighth century4 ,in the execution of any larger objects they were deterred by a dread of the ,iconoclasts1 who still continued their course of destruction1 neither was it much less after the death of ,charlemagne1 owing to the civil wars and invasions which1 in every direction1 put a stop to or ruined architectural works4 ,a shrine or an altar might perhaps be saved1 but a church-front or doorway could not be protected2 and the hereditary hatred with which princes pursued one another did not fail to be wreaked on their effigies4 ,at that time there were neither artists nor monks2 every one became a soldier1 and the common peril gave some energy to our alarmed ancestors4 ,when these invasions had almost come to an end in ,europe1 the very disasters they had caused assisted to some extent the progress both of architecture and sculpture4 ,in the first place there sprang up a complete order of new buildings1 originated by the need that arose for fresh edifices for the purpose of public worship2 the ,church1 having a thousand disasters to repair1 built or restored a number of monasteries which assumed a decided character of individuality4 ,the cathedrals of ,auxerre1 ,clermont1 ,toul1 the ,church of ,st4 ,paul at ,verdun1 the abbeys of ,montier-en-,der and of ,gorze1 of ,munster1 ,cluny1 ,celles-sur-,cher1 c41 were specially adorned with the sculptural characteristics of this epoch4 ,crucifixes in high relief were multiplied1 the introduction of which into monumental sculpture did not take place before the pontificate of ,leo ,,iii4 ,in the arched recesses over doorways representations of the good and the bad were placed opposite to one another2 the worship of the ,virgin was celebrated in all kinds of artistic productions2 and1 in short1 sculpture was displayed everywhere with an extraordinary amount of richness4 ,nothing escaped1 so to speak1 its luxurious growth3 ambons1#dg seats1 arches1 baptismal fonts1 columns1 cornices1 bell-turrets1 and gargoyles--everything1 in short1 testified that sculpture and stone were now in full harmony4 ,almost all the figures were then represented as clothed in the ,roman style1 with a short tunic1 and the chlamys clasped upon the shoulder2 this still continued to be the court-costume1 and consequently the only one suitable to the representation of the exalted followers of ,christianity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgg4--;,bas-relief in the ,abbey-,church of ,st4 ,denis2 a reproduction of the ancient ,statue of ,dagobert ,i41 destroyed in the ,ninth ,century4 ,it is worthy of remark that the monuments of this age are generally wanting both in dates and the name of the sculptor4 ,not more than five or six of the principal artists or directors of artistic works of the period are mentioned by name in any historical records4 ,among them1 however1 are ,tutilon1 a monk of ,saint-,gall1 who at once poet1 sculptor1 and painter1 ornamented with his works the churches of ,mayence and ,metz2 ,hugues1 ,abbot of ,montier-en-,der2 ,auste1 ,abbot of ,st4 ,arnulph1 in the diocese of ,metz2 ,morard1 who1 with the co-operation of ,king ,robert1 rebuilt1 towards the end of the tenth century1 the old church of ,st4 ,germain-des-,prs1 at ,paris2 lastly1 ,guillaume1 ,abbot of ,st4 ,benignus1 at ,dijon1 who took under his direction forty monasteries1 and became chief of a school of ,art1 as well as their head on religious matters4 ,the doorways of the churches of ,avallon1 ,nantua1 and ,vermanton1 executed at this epoch1 bear witness to the rigour of an improved taste2 and it may be well said that this abbot ,guillaume1 who for a long series of years directed a number of artists1 who also in their turn became chiefs of schools1 exercised as powerful an influence on ,french art as ,nicholas of ,pisa on ,tuscan art in the following century4 ,but although it embraced within its influence a very extended sphere1 the school of ,burgundy did not fail to find on the ancient ,gallic soil very skilful and industrious rivals4 ,the districts of ,messin1 ,lorraine1 ,alsace1 ,champagne1 ,normandy1 and the ,ile-de-,france1 in short all the various centres of the ,south1 possessed numerous artists1 each of whom impressed on their works their own special character of individuality4 ,while all this activity was prevailing in ,france1 ,italy had as yet taken so insignificant a part in the revival of ,art1 that in #igf ,peter ,orseolo1 ,doge of ,venice1 having formed the idea of rebuilding the basilica of ,st4 ,mark1 was compelled to summon from ,constantinople both architects and artists4 ,a period of check to any progress took place in ,france1 however1 just as in all the rest of ,europe1 when1 at the approach of the year #ajjj1 the whole population became subject to an ideal dread that the end of the world was at hand2 but when this date was once passed1 every school of art set vigorously to work1 and the most remarkable monuments of ,romanesque architecture sprang up throughout ,europe in every direction4 ,then it was that the artists of ,burgundy built and ornamented1 among other churches and monasteries1 the ,abbey of ,cluny1 the apse of which consisted of a bold cupola1 supported by six columns thirty-six feet in height1 of ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgh4--,tomb of ,dagobert1 executed by order of ,st4 ,louis1 in the ,abbey-,church of ,st4 ,denis4 ,it represents the ,king carried away by ,demons1 after his death1 towards the ,infernal ,bark1 from which he is rescued by ,angels and the ,fathers of the ,church4 7,thirteenth ,century47 ,cipolin and ,pentelican marble1 with captials1 cornices1 and friezes1 carved painted1 and decorated with bronze4 ,in ,lorraine they worked at the cathedrals of ,toul and ,verdun1 and the abbey of ,st4 ,viton4 ,in the diocese of ,metz ,gontran and ,adlard1 celebrated abbots of ,st4 ,trudon1 covered ,hasbaye with new buildings4 8,adlard10 says a chronicler1 8superintended the construction of fourteen churches1 and his outlay was so great that the imperial treasury would scarcely have sufficed for it40 ,in ,alsace1 the cathedral at ,strasbourg and the two churches of ,colmar and ,schelestadt simultaneously arose1 and in ,switzerland the ,cathedral of ,basle4 ,these magnificent edifices are still standing to show the vigour and majestic simplicity with which the art of sculpture was then able to embody its ideas2 and1 by lending its aid to architecture1 to manifest1 so to speak1 the faith which actuated it4 ,it was in this century that ,fulbert1 ,bishop of ,chartres1 who was doubtless a sculptor also1 superintended the restoration of his church1 the splendour of which is still open to the admiration of all4 ,art1 too1 did not less distinguish herself in the decoration of certain additions made at that time to edifices already existing4 ,the doorways of the churches of ,laon1 ,chteaudun1 and ,st4 ,ayoult of ,provins1 grand works of the earliest years of the twelfth century1 yield the palm only to the splendid external ornamentation of the ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis1 executed between the years #aacg and #aahj4 ,the ,abbot ,suger1 who was himself an eminent artist1 does not name any of the sculptors to whose care this important task was committed4 ,we are equally ignorant as to the sculptors of the statues of ,dagobert and of ,queen ,nanthilde1 his wife2 and also as to the artists of a large golden crucifix1 the foot of which was enriched with bas-reliefs1 and the figure of ,christ1 that presented1 says ,suger1 8an expression really divine40 ,the names of the sculptors of the cathedral church of ,paris are likewise concealed from our admiration4 ,one might suppose that a body of artists fired with the same inspiration1 and with a common sentiment both in thought and action1 had there assembled to design their works2 some sculpturing in marble the sarcophagus of ,philip of ,france2 some peopling the rood-loft and the apse with tall figures and a long gallery of ,biblical subjects2 others decorating the faade and exterior with statues1 all of every diversified character1 but yet all appearing to unite in the expression of the same feelings and the same faith 7,fig4 #bgi74 ,in the twelfth century1 the ,burgundian artists continued their marvellous ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgi4--;,external ,bas-relief of ,norte-,dame1 in ,paris1 representing ,citizens relieving ,poor ,scholars4 7,the work of ,jean de ,chelles4 ,date #abeg47 work4 ,the tomb of ,hugues1 ,abbot of ,cluny2 the doorway of the monastery of ,st4 ,jean1 that of the ,church of ,st4 ,lazare at ,autun2 the nave and the west front of ,semur-en-,auxois1 are all of this school1 and of this epoch4 ,the school of ,champagne raised to the memory of ,count ,henry ,i41 in the ,church of ,st4 ,etienne1 at ,troyes1 a tomb surrounded with forty-four columns of gilded bronze1 surmounted by a slab of silver on which were placed1 in a recumbent position1 the statues of the ,count and of one of his sons2 bas-reliefs1 in bronze and silver1 representing the ,holy ,family1 the celestial court1 angels1 and prophets1 surrounded this monument4 ,the tomb of ,count ,henry was a triumph of sculpture in metal2 and1 at that time1 surpassed all other tombs in ,france1 just as the ,cathedral of ,rheims was destined1 ere long1 to excel all others4 ,in ,normandy we find the same enthusiasm1 the same zeal1 the same skill in ,art2 and there1 at least1 we learn the names of some of the artists3 ,otho1 the builder of the ,cathedral of ,sez2 ,garnier1 of ,fcamp2 ,anquetil1 of ,petit-,ville1 c4 ,the masons and sculptors1 too1 formed at this epoch a numerous and powerful corporation4 ,in the ,south1 ,asquilinus1 ,abbot of ,moissac1 near ,cahors1 ornamented with fine statues the cloister and front of his church1 and affixed to the sides of the apse a ,crucifixion so skilfully carved1 that it was believed to have emanated from some divine hand 78ut non humano1 sed divino artificio facta074 ,in ,auvergne1 ,provence1 and ,languedoc1 many other important works of sculpture were executed4 ,but the chief masterpiece of all1 which combines the different styles of the southern schools1 is the famous ,church of ,st4 ,trophimus of ,arles1 the front of which1 where the breadth and grace of the ,greek style is allied with the purest ,christian simplicity1 carries back the imagination to the brightest epochs of the art4 ,towards the end of the eleventh and the commencement of the twelfth century1 the sculptors' studios of the districts of ,messin and ,lorraine were in full activity4 ,several magnificent churches having been destroyed by fire1 particularly that of ,verdun1 the whole population assisted1 either with money or labour1 in the restoration of these edifices4 ,it was a perfect artistic crusade1 in which several bishops and abbots1 who were clever artists as well as spiritual chiefs1 took the lead in the movement4 ,in ,alsace1 art asserted its position in the magnificent ,cathedral of ,strasbourg1#dh a kind of challenge thrown out to the artists on the other side of the ,rhine1 who were unable1 even at ,cologne1 to carry an edifice to such an ,illustration3 ,,clovis ,i4 ,,and ,,clotilde ,,his ,,wife4 ,statues formerly at the ,entrance of the ,church of ,notre ,dame at ,corbeil4 ,twelfth ,century4 enormous height1 or to adorn it with such a diversified multitude of statues4 ,although belonging more especially to the thirteenth century1 it may be taken as the starting-point of the prodigious works executed by an association of freemasons1 who have marked with their hieroglyphic signatures the stones of this edifice1 as of all others executed by them in the valley of the ,rhine1 from ,dusseldorf to the ,alps4 ,we are1 however1 led to believe that ,germany also did not fail to be subject to the influence of this artistic school1 for among contemporary monuments are several in a style which manifestly testifies to the effects of the neighbouring country of ,alsace4 ,flemish art of that time is exemplified by the ,church of ,st4 ,gudule at ,brussels1 the style of which is especially rich with decorations borrowed from churches on the banks of the ,rhine1 the ,moselle1 the ,sarre1 and the ,upper ,meuse4 ,if we include in one comprehensive glance ,french1 ,german1 and ,flemish sculptural works1 we shall recognise in all1 notwithstanding the predominance of any particular school1 one original and special type4 ,the characteristics of this are elongated faces with a calm1 contemplative1 and penitent expression2 stiffness of attitude1 and a kind of ecstatic immobility1 rather than any glow of animation2 draperies with small narrow folds and close-fitting1 as if wetted2 pearled fringes or ribbons1 set off with gems 7,fig4 #bhj74 ,we see statues of lofty proportions reared up2 representations of various personages are multiplied on the tombs2 ,greek art is disappearing and its learned theories are giving way before ,christian sentiment2 thought is obtaining the mastery over mere form2 symbolism makes its appearance and becomes a science4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhj4--,statue said to be of ,clovis ,i41 formerly in the porch of ,st4 ,germain-des-,prs1 ,paris4 7,twelfth ,century47 ,but let us turn our eyes towards ,italy4 ,venice had scarcely raised her lofty dome ere ,pisa aspired to have one also4 ,many a ,tuscan ship1 launched upon the sea for conquests of a new kind1 brought from ,greece an infinity of monuments1 statues1 bas-reliefs1 capitals1 friezes1 and various fragments2 and the ,tuscan people1 the best organised race in ,europe for fully appreciating all the beauty of form1 were called upon to draw their inspiration from the relics of ancient works of ,art4 ,the enthusiasm became general4 ,in #ajaf1 ,buschetto1 regarded as the first architect of his time1 undertook the building of the ,cathedral of ,pisa1 where ancient fragments are still conspicuous amid the works of more modern creation3 a kind of holographic testament the benefit of which the followers of the art of ,phidias have thus handed down to posterity4 ,the pupils of ,buschetto1 accepting the impulse of his masterly hand and reproducing his ideas1 soon spread all over the peninsula1 and the cathedrals of ,amalfi1 ,pistoia1 ,siena1 and ,lucca arose1 the ,byzantine character of which differed from the ,lombard style presented by the ,cathedral of ,milan4 ,one might almost have fancied that the bosom of the earth brought forth statues which1 as if by enchantment1 peopled every pedestal2 and that from heaven descended the ray which animated them with their sublime expression4 ,the art of casting in bronze1 hitherto almost unknown in ,italy1 became naturalised there as much as the art of carving in stone4 ,while in the ,west the ,arts were making such a spring1 in the ,east they had relapsed into the lowest stage of debasement1 at the period when ,byzantium was simultaneously threatened by the ,bulgarians and the ,crusaders2 although for a time they had appeared to revive1 owing to the zeal of ,basil the ,macedonian1 ,constantine ,,viii41 and some of their successors4 ,eastern sculpture disappeared when the ,latins sacked the ancient capital of the first ,christian emperor 7#abjd74 ,at the approach of the thirteenth century1 which was destined to be the great age of ,christian architecture and sculpture1 artists no longer looked1 as they had hitherto done1 towards ,byzantium1 they depended on themselves2 and although some hesitation might still be felt1 they found all round them models they could imitate1 traditions they could follow1 and masters to whom they could listen4 ,christian art had now an independent existence1 and the various schools asserted their styles in a way which became every day more clear1 more powerful1 and more original4 8,the style of the head of ,christ at ,amiens0 7,fig4 #bha71 says ,m4 ,viollet-le-,duc1 writing on this subject1 8fully deserves the attention of ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bha4--8,the ,beau ,dieu d',amiens20 a ,statue of ,christ in the ,front of the ,cathedral of ,amiens4 7,thirteenth ,century47 sculptors4 ,this carving is treated in the same way as the ,greek heads called ,eginetic4 ,there is the same simplicity of model1 the same purity of outline1 the same style of execution1 at once broad and delicate4 ,it well represents the features of ,christ as a man3 a blending of sweetness with firmness1 a gravity devoid of sadness40 ,this is not the place to assert any minute comparisons between different manners and styles2 even the bare enumeration of the many monuments to which this fervent age gave birth might prove wearisome4 ,we call it a 8fervent age10 and fully are we justified1 for1 at a time when a whole world of artist-sculptors of ornaments and figures were devoting themselves to the most delicate and marvellous works of sculpture 7,fig4 #bhb71 none seemed desirous of displaying his own personal distinction4 ,we find1 for instance1 numerous sculptors setting aside all claim to individual merit1 and carrying this self-denial so far that1 instead of their own names1 they inscribed that of the ,virgin ,mary on the carvings of the churches which they had enriched with their finest works3 8,hoc panthema pia claverat ipsa ,maria40 ,in ,germany1 ,christian art became specially enthroned in ,saxony2 and ,dresden1 which has been justly styled the ,german ,athens1 can date back her architecto-sculptural adornments to the tenth century4 ,on the banks of the ,rhine1 at ,cologne1 ,coblentz1 and ,mayence1 we find again the school of ,saint-,gall1 which1 having been planted in #iga1 under the auspices of ,notker1 ,bishop of ,laodicea1 left its stamp1 during a period of two centuries1 in a series of remarkable works4 ,england1 as early as the seventh century1 had called to her aid some of the ,french 8masters in stone0 and best workmen1 and she subsequently continued to do so for the building and ornamentation of her finest religious edifices4 ,william of ,sens1 a very skilful artist 7artifex subtilissimus71 proceeded1 in #aagf1 to rebuild ,canterbury ,cathedral4 ,norman and ,french artists also restored the abbeys of ,croyland and ,wearmouth1 and ,york ,cathedral1 already enriched with ,byzantine and ,french sculpture4 ,spain and ,portugal1 the soil of which had long been the theatre of an inveterate conflict between two races embracing two irreconcilable religions1 were destined to inherit from these very struggles the creation of a singularly characteristic style of art4 ,in adopting the ,byzantine style1 the ,moors had deprived it of its character of simple earnestness1 and made it to harmonise with the tendencies of their refined sensualism4 ,even when ,christian art was able to exercise an undivided rule1 it could not fail to be influenced by the buildings erected by the ,moors2 and the fact that this alliance of architectural and sculptural styles succeeded in producing masterpieces is well attested by the cathedrals of ,cuenca1 ,vittoria1 and some portions of those of ,seville1 ,barcelona1 and ,lugo in ,galicia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhb4--,statues in the ,south ,porch of ,bourges ,cathedral4 7,twelfth ,century47 ,sicily and the kingdom of ,naples followed the movement made in other countries of ,europe2 but here1 again1 was felt the influence of various foreign importations4 ,some of them were of ,greek origin1 coming from ,byzantium2 some northern1 from ,normandy1 and perhaps also from ,germany2 most1 however1 from ,spain1 and especially from the important school of ,aragon4 8,nicolas of ,pisa10 says ,emeric ,david1 8was born towards the end of the twelfth century1 in a town then peopled with ,greek masters and the pupils of those masters1 and full of ,greek monuments of every age2 a town which might be called altogether ,greek4 ,he had the good sense to disdain the productions of his own time and to devote himself to the more elevated contemplation of the chefs-d'uvre of ancient ,greece4 ,this proof of undoubted discernment1 and a high degree of taste on his part1 could not but lead to very marked progress4 ,but a premature study of the antique is not so sure a guide to the desired end as the contemplation of nature1 to which ,guido of ,siena1 his contemporary1 and a little later ,cimabue and ,giotto1 taught perhaps by his errors1 assiduously applied themselves40 ,there can1 however1 be no doubt that the first development of ,christian sculpture in ,italy must unquestionably be referred to ,nicolas of ,pisa4 ,he had1 nevertheless1 some rivals who were well worthy of competing with him4 ,among these were ,fuccio1 sculptor of the magnificent tomb of the ,queen of ,cyprus1 in the ,church of ,san ,francesco at ,florence2 and also ,marchione of ,arezzo1 who in #abaf carved his name over the doorway of the church of that town4 ,giovanni of ,pisa1 son of ,nicolas1 who sculptured many beautiful works at ,arezzo1 ,pistoia1 and ,florence1 and even surpassed himself in the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa1 perhaps the most remarkable monument in ,christian ,europe1 has been placed by some far below his father in rank as a sculptor1 on account of an accusation made against him of having abandoned the ,greek style4 ,but this renunciation was1 in fact1 a real trait of genius1 and actually constitutes his glory2 for1 by neglecting form to some extent1 he was enabled to carry religious idealism and power of expression to its very highest limits4 ,we must1 therefore1 consider ,giovanni and ,margaritone1 pupils of ,nicolas2 ,andrea ,ugolino1 pupil of ,giovanni2 ,agnolo and ,agostino of ,siena2 and the celebrated ,giotto1 who was at once architect1 sculptor1 and painter1 as real regenerators of the art4 ,indeed1 we might call these great artists the creators of ,christian sculpture in ,italy--that art in which simultaneously shone forth seriousness of composition1 grace and ease of attitude1 simplicity of imitation1 elevation of sentiment2 in short1 all the great harmonies of a style which seemed to breathe forth a hymn of love and faith4 ,thanks to the studios of ,agnolo and ,agostino1 ,siena1 a small town which calls to mind the ancient ,sicyone1 so weak in a political point of view and yet so learned and polished1 was for some time the rival of ,pisa1 up to the period when ,florence absorbed the artistic splendour of the two cities4 ,florence1 as the home of the ,arts1 became the centre of radiation1 whence artists took their flight over the whole of ,italy1 and from ,italy spread among all the nations of ,europe4 ,towards the end of the thirteenth century1 the churches of ,florence1 on which the fraternities combined their efforts1 and some of the civil buildings of this rich and flourishing city1 were filled with statues4 ,the foundation of the municipal palace in #abhb1 and that of the cathedral in #abih1 made these two wonderful edifices real museums of sculpture1 in which1 among the works of ,eastern artists1 those of ,giovanni of ,arezzo and ,giotto are distinguished4 ,agostino and ,agnolo of ,pisa executed at that time some magnificent examples at ,santa ,maria in ,orvieto1 ,san ,francisco in ,bologna1 and in the subterranean ,church of ,assisi1 c4 ,lastly1 ,andrea of ,pisa1 a contemporary of ,giotto1 as he died only in #acde1 extracted from antiquity all that ,christian sculpture could borrow from it2 that is1 he combined sublimity both of form and expression4 ,at ,pisa1 the chancel of ,santa ,maria a ,ponte2 at ,florence1 the campanile and the high-altar of ,santa ,maria de' ,fiori1 and a door of ,san ,giovanni2 in the ,cathedral of ,pistoia1 the tomb of ,cino1 are all of them so many masterpieces2 above which1 however1 the old ,pisan master proudly classed the works of his son ,nino4 ,this young artist1 who carved the monument of the ,scaligers at ,verona1 became1 in fact1 the worthy follower of the school which recognised ,andrea as its chief4 ,jacopo della ,quercia and ,niccolo ,aretino enriched also with magnificent works the towns of ,siena1 ,lucca1 ,bologna1 ,arezzo1 and ,milan1 as well as ,florence4 ,but when1 in #adbd1 the tomb closed over ,jacopo della ,quercia1 the lofty destinies of the art seemed to come to a termination1 and soon rapidly declined4 ,in ,venice1 at the death of ,filippo ,calendario1 which occurred in #acee1 ,italian sculpture had already lost much of its nobility and vigour of style4 ,italian sculpture 7,fig4 #bhc71 as remarked by ,emeric ,david1 raised itself to the height of the sublime by merely striving after a simple and exact imitation of nature4 ,it was by the same course of action that ,french sculpture always emulated its ,transalpine rival2 but1 in order to attain the same end1 the imitation followed a different path4 ,in ,italy1 ,art raised itself to the ideal by an attentive study of ,greek forms2 while on this side of the ,alps1 when sentiment required it1 form was1 if not sacrificed1 at least neglected4 ,french art showed more respect for the orthodoxy of ,christian thought2 she did not introduce into the sanctuary of the ,holy of ,holies any of those profane and material ideas that might have been inspired by the marbles of ,greece4 ,in spite of the pointed architecture which everywhere prevailed1 ,french sculpture1 replete with a certain eloquent unction1 preserved for a considerable period the ,byzantine style in the appearance of the head and in the delicacy of draperies2 without1 however1 altogether renouncing its individuality of character1 and without ceasing to seek for models peculiar to its own soil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhc4--;,bas-relief on one of the ,bronze ,gates of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 representing the ,coronation of the ,emperor ,sigismund by ,pope ,eugne ,,iv41 in #adcc4 7,sculpture of the ,fifteenth ,century47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhd4--,statuette of ,st4 ,avit1 in the ,church of ,notre-,dame de ,corbeil1 demolished in #ahbj4 7,eleventh ,century47 ,unfortunately for the personal glory of the ,french sculptors1 the historians of the time have scarcely taken the trouble to record their names4 ,in order to discover but a few of them1 learned men of modern days have been compelled to undertake laborious researches2 while many1 and those the most remarkable--worthy1 no doubt1 to be compared with the greatest ,italian artists--are and must remain ever unknown 7,fig4 #bhd74 ,the ,italians were more fortunate2 to them ,vasari1 their rival and contemporary1 has raised a lasting monument4 ,in ,french art1 the list of the sculptors of so many masterpieces must come to a close when we have mentioned ,enguerrand1 who1 from #abja to #abab1 commenced the ,cathedral and the ,church du ,buc1 at ,rouen1 and had for his successor ,gautier de ,meulan2 ,robert de ,coucy1 chief of the body of artists who1 in #abaa1 caused the ,cathedral of ,rheims to rise loftily from the earth2 ,hugues ,libergier1 who rebuilt the ancient basilica of ,st4 ,jovin2 ,robert de ,luzarches1 the founder1 in #abbj1 of the ,cathedral of ,amiens1 continued after his death by ,thomas de ,cormont and his son ,regnault2 ,jean1 ,abbot of ,st4 ,germain-des-,prs1 who in #abab undertook the ,church of ,st4 ,cosme1 ,paris2 that of ,st4 ,julien le ,pauvre being restored and adorned with sculpture at the same date1 from the designs of the abbot and the 8brethren0 of ,longpont 7,fig4 #bhe72 ,jean des ,champs1 who in #abdh worked at the ancient ,cathedral of ,clermont2 lastly1 the two ,jeans de ,montereau1 who at one time as military architects1 at another as sculptors of sacred subjects1 were at the command of ,st4 ,louis1 and produced some extraordinary works both of construction and sculpture4 ,alsace manifested no less enthusiasm than ,france for the new architectural system1 and sculpture was also subject to a similar development4 ,from ,basle to ,mayence1 the slopes of the ,vosges and the long valley of the ,rhine1 became full of edifices enriched with sculpture and peopled with statues4 ,erwin of ,steinbach 7who died in #acah71 assisted by ,sabina1 his daughter1 and ,william of ,marbourg1 were the most renowned masters in these parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhe4--;,bas-relief formerly over the ,doorway of ,st4 ,julien le ,pauvre1 ,paris1 representing ,st4 ,julien and ,st4 ,basilissa1 his wife1 conveying in their boat ,jesus ,christ under the figure of a ,leper4 7,thirteenth ,century47 ,the extraordinary advance that ,french sculpture made in this age was assisted--if not as regards the higher style of work1 which could do without this help1 at least in respect to the minor details of the art--by the institution of the fraternities of the ,conception ,notre-,dame4 ,in many towns the sculptors of images and the painters1 the moulders1 the bahutiers1 or carvers in wood1 horn1 and ivory 7,fig4 #bhf71 were all united under the same banner4 ,in ,germany and ,belgium also existed hanses1 or guilds1 which were in direct communication with those of ,alsace1 and who accepted as guides ,french artists of known ability2 as1 for instance1 ,volbert and ,grard1 architect-sculptors1 who were simultaneously engaged in the construction of the ,church of the ,holy ,apostles1 ,cologne4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhf4--;,fragment of a small ,reredos1 in carved ,bone 7,fourteenth ,century74 ,presented by ,jean1 ,duc de ,berry1 ,brother of ,charles ,v41 to the church of the ancient ,abbey of ,poissy4 7,museum of the ,louvre47 ,with respect to the works commenced or finished in the fourteenth century1 the only difficulty is to make a choice among these wonderful monuments of ,art2 which1 however1 must be looked upon as the last manifestations of ,christian art1 properly so-called4 ,we must1 however1 point out the polychrome sculptures of ,chartres1 of ,st4 ,remy1 ,rheims2 ,st4 ,martin1 ,laon2 ,st4 ,yved1 ,braisne2 ,st4 ,jean des ,vignes1 ,soissons2 of the ,chartreux1 ,dijon4 ,in this ducal city we find1 in #aceg1 ,guy le ,maon1 a celebrated ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhg4--8,le ,bon ,dieu10 in the old ,chapel of the ,charnier des ,innocents1 ,paris4 7,fifteenth ,century47 sculptor2 at ,bourges1 about the same date1 ,aguillon1 of ,droues2 at ,montpellier1 between #acca and #acfj1 the two ,alamans1 ,john and ,henry2 at ,troyes1 ,denisot and ,drouin of ,mantes1 c4 ,beyond ,france1 ,matthias of ,arras1 in #acdc1 laid the foundations of the ,cathedral of ,prague1 which was to be continued and finished by another ,french artist1 ,pierre of ,boulogne4 ,arrested as our attention must be by the statues and bas-reliefs which were multiplied under the porches1 in the niches 7,fig4 #bhg71 and on all the tombs1 we can cast but a very cursory glance on the immense number of wood-carvings1 figures in ivory1 and movable pieces of sculpture1 executed by artists who may be divided into two very distinct classes1 the ,norman and the ,rhenish2 all of other schools appear to have been nothing but imitators of these4 ,in #adjj the ,matre ,pierre ,prat1 architect of three cathedrals1 who was at once both civil engineer and sculptor1 and one of the greatest masters of whom ,france can boast1 died at ,metz1 where he was interred with all the honours due to his wonderful talents4 ,just at the same time a memorable competition was opened at ,florence4 ,the object in view was to finish the doors of the ,baptistery of ,st4 ,john4 ,the formal announcement of the competition1 which was made all over ,italy1 did not fail to call forth the most skilful artists4 ,seven of these were selected1 on account of their renown1 to furnish designs3 they consisted of three ,florentines--,filippo ,brunelleschi1 ,donatello1 and the goldsmith1 ,lorenzo ,ghiberti2 ,jacopo della ,quercia of ,siena2 ,nicolo ,lamberti d',arezzo2 ,francesco da ,valdambrina2 and ,simone da ,colle1 called de' ,bronzi4 ,to each of these competitors the republic granted one year's salary1 on condition that1 at the end of the period1 each of them should furnish a panel of wrought bronze of the same size as those of which the doors of ,st4 ,john were to be composed4 ,on the day fixed for the examination of the works1 the most celebrated artists of ,italy were summoned4 ,thirty-four judges were selected1 and before this tribunal the seven models were exhibited1 in the presence of the magistracy and the public4 ,after the judges had audibly discussed the respective merits of the works1 those of ,ghiberti1 ,brunelleschi1 and ,donatello were preferred4 ,but to whom of the three was the palm to be awarded8 ,they hesitated4 ,then ,brunelleschi and ,donatello retired apart and exchanged a few words2 after which one of them1 commencing to address the assembly1 said3--8,magistrates and citizens1 we declare to you that in our own judgment ,ghiberti has surpassed us4 ,award him the preference1 for our country will thus acquire the greater glory4 ,it is less discredit to us to make known our opinion than to keep silence40 ,these doors1 at which ,ghiberti worked for forty years1 with the assistance of his father1 his sons1 and his pupils1 are perhaps the finest work we have in sculptured metal4 ,at the date when ,lorenzo ,ghiberti1 ,donatello1 ,brunelleschi1 and their pupils were the representatives of ,florentine sculpture1 the ,french school also produced its masters and its works of ,art4 ,nicholas ,flamel1 the famous ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhh4--8,st4 ,eloi1 ,patron of ,goldsmiths and ,farriers40 ,a ,sculpture of the ,fifteenth ,century1 in the ,church of ,notre-,dame d',armanon1 at ,semur1 ,burgundy4 writer 7crivain7 of the parish of ,st4 ,jacques la ,boucherie1 ornamented the churches and mortuary chapels of ,paris with mystical and alchemical 7alchimiques7 sculptures1 of which he was the designer if not the actual artist4 ,thury executed the tombs of ,charles ,,vi4 and ,isabelle of ,bavaria2 ,claux ,sluter1 author of the 8,ruits de ,mose10 at ,dijon1 assisted by ,james de la ,barre1 multiplied the works of monumental sculpture in ,burgundy 7,fig4 #bhh74 ,in ,alsace1 under the impulse of ,king ,ren1 himself an artist1 the sculptor's art produced examples bearing the impress of a remarkable individuality4 ,in the district of ,messin1 ,henry de ,ranconval1 his son ,jehan1 and ,clausse1 were distinguished4 ,in ,touraine1 ,michael ,columb executed the tomb of ,francis ,,ii41 ,duke of ,brittany2 ,jehan ,juste1 that of the children of ,charles ,,viii41 as introductory to the mausoleum of ,louis ,,xii41 which he executed between #aeah and #aecj1 for the basilica of ,st4 ,denis2 a ,german1 ,conrad of ,cologne1 assisted by ,laurent ,wrine1 master of the ordnance to the king1 cast in metal the effigy for the tomb of ,louis ,,xi4 ,in ,champagne appeared ,jean de ,vitry1 sculptor of the stalls of the ,church of ,st4 ,claude 7,jura72 in ,berry1 ,jacquet ,gendre1 master-mason and figure-maker for the ,htel de ,ville1 ,bourges1 c4 ,at the end of the same century1 ,peter ,brucy1 of ,brussels1 exercised his art at ,toulouse2 the inspiration of the ,alsacian artists was developed in the magnificent sculpture of ,thann1 ,kaisersberg1 and ,dusenbach2 while ,germany1 achieving but a late independence1 sheltered the faults of her early genius under the illustrious names of ,lucas ,moser1 ,peter ,vischer1 ,schhlein1 ,michel ,wohlgemuth1 ,albert ,drer 7,fig4 #bhi71 c4 ,in sculptural works1 as in every other branch of art1 historical sentiment and faith seemed to die out with the fifteenth century4 ,medival art was subjected to protest2 the desire seemed to be to re-create beauty of form by going back to the antique2 but the emphatically ,christian individuality was no longer reached1 and this pretended renaissance1 in which even earnest minds were induced to gratify themselves1 only served to exhibit the feeble efforts of an epoch that sought to reproduce the glories of a vanished age4 ,in the time of ,charles ,,viii4 and ,louis ,,xii41 ,lombarde-,venetian art1 the affected and ingenious imitation of the ,greek style1 was introduced into ,france2 it suited the common people1 and pleased mediocre intellect4 ,the sculptors who came at that period to seek their fortunes at the court of the ,french kings worked exclusively for the aristocracy1 and vied with one another in adorning1 with an ardent infatuation for ,italian art1 the royal and aristocratic palaces which were being built or restored in every direction1 such as the ,chteaux of ,amboise and ,gaillon4 ,but they failed to do any injury to ,french artists1 who still remained charged with the works of sacred sculptures2 and their style became but slightly1 if at all1 influenced by this foreign immigration4 ,even ,benvenuto ,cellini himself failed to exercise much effect on the vigorous schools of ,tours1 ,troyes1 ,metz1 ,dijon1 and ,angers2 his reputation and his works never passed1 so to speak1 beyond the limits of the court of ,france1 and the brilliant traces they ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhi4--8,st4 ,john the ,baptist preaching in the ,desert40 ,bas-relief in ,carved ,wood by ,albert ,drer4 7,brunswick ,gallery47 left behind them were confined to the school of ,fontainebleau4 ,ere long1 some zealous artists from all the principal centres of the ,french schools left their country and betook themselves to ,italy2 among these were ,bachelier of ,languedoc1 ,simon and ,ligier ,richier of ,lorraine1 ,valentine ,bousch of ,alsace1 and ,jacques of ,angoulme1 who had the honour of a victory over his master1 ,michael ,angelo1 in a competition of statuary 7many of the former artist's works now exist in the ,vatican72 ,jean de ,boulogne1 and several others4 ,some of them1 after they had become celebrated on the other side of the ,alps1 returned to their native country1 bringing back to it their own native genius matured by the lessons of the ,italians4 ,there was1 therefore1 always a ,french school that preserved its individual characteristics1 its generic good qualities and defects1 which are so well represented in the sculptures of the ,htel du ,bourgtheroulde1 ,rouen 7,fig4 #bij74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij4--;,bas-relief of the ,htel du ,bourgtheroulde1 ,rouen1 representing a ,scene in the ,interview between ,francis ,i4 and ,henry ,,viii41 on the ,field of the ,cloth of ,gold4 ,michael ,angelo was born on the #fth of ,march1 #adge1 and died on the #agth of ,february1 #aefd1 without having shown any signs of decadence2 greater1 possibly1 by his genius than by his works1 he is the personification of the ,renaissance4 ,it would be1 perhaps1 irreverent to say that this age was an age of decay2 we might fear of desecrating the tomb of ,buonarotti if we laid to his charge that his grand boldness led ordinary talents astray2 and it is not a pleasant subject of thought that1 influenced by two currents of ideas--one coming from ,italy1 the other from ,germany--the art of the century operated to its own suicide4 ,when the very soil itself seemed to be shaken1 and the ,christian pedestal which had formed both its grandeur and power overturned1 what could be done in the way of opposition to the downfall of ,art by ,jean ,goujon1 ,jean ,cousin 7,fig4 #bia71 ,germain ,pilon1 ,franois ,marchand1 ,pierre ,bontemps1 those stars of ,french sculpture in the sixteenth century8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bia4--,statue in ,alabaster of ,philip ,chabot1 ,admiral of ,france1 by ,jean ,cousin4 ,formerly in the ,church of the ,clestins1 ,paris1 now in the ,museum of the ,louvre4 ,a final manifestation of the old religious feeling was1 however1 apparent in the tombs of the ,church of ,brou1 designed by ,jean ,perral1 the great painter of ,lyons1 executed by ,conrad ,meyt1 and carved by ,gourat and ,michael ,columb2 also in the mausoleum of ,francis ,,ii41 carved by ,columb and his family2 in the sepulchre of ,st4 ,mihiel 7,fig4 #bib7 by ,richier2 of the ,saints de ,solesme1 in the tombs of ,langey du ,bellay1 and of the ,chancellor ,de ,birague1 by ,germain ,pilon1 c4 ,but fashion and the prevailing taste now required from artists nothing but profane and voluptuous compositions1 and they adopted this line of ,art all the more readily1 seeing1 as they did every day1 most beautiful works of ,christian sculpture mutilated by a new tribe of ,iconoclasts1 the ,huguenots1 who seldom showed mercy to the figured monuments in ,catholic churches4 ,the stalls of the ,cathedral of ,amiens1 by ,jean ,rupin1 the rood-loft by ,jean ,boudin1 and a number of other works of the same kind1 testify to the irruption of the ,greek style1 its implantation in religious art1 and its hybrid association with pointed architecture4 ,it is1 however1 only due to our sculptors of the sixteenth century to say1 that when they sacrificed themselves to the requirements of their age in imitating the masterpieces of ,italy1 they approached the natural grace of ,raphael much closer than ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bib4--8,the ,entombment10 by ,richier1 in the ,church of ,st4 ,mihiel 7,meuse74 7,sixteenth ,century47 ,cellini1 ,primaticcio1 or any of the other ,italian artists who were settled in ,france2 that they combined in the best possible way the mythological expression of the ancients with our modern ideas1 and that1 thanks to them1 ,france is enabled to point with pride to a natural art1 original and independent1 which has been handed down to our days in direct succession by ,sarrazain1 ,puget1 ,girardon1 and ,coysevox4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bic1 #bid4--;,gargoyles on the ,palace of ,justice1 ,rouen4 7,fifteenth ,century47 ,,architecture4 ,the ,basilica the first ,christian ,church4--,modification of ,ancient ,architecture4--,byzantine ,style4--,formation of the ,norman ,style4--,principal ,norman ,churches4--,age of the ,transition from ,norman to ,gothic4--,origin and ,importance of the ,ogive4--,principal ,edifices in the pure ,gothic ,style4--,the ,gothic ,church1 an ,emblem of the ,religious ,spirit in the ,middle ,ages4--,florid ,gothic4--,flamboyant ,gothic4--,decadency4--,civil and ,military ,architecture3 ,castles1 ,fortified ,enclosures1 ,private ,houses1 ,town ,halls4--,italian ,renaissance3 ,pisa1 ,florence1 ,rome4--,french ,renaissance3 ,mansions and ,palaces4 ,when the ,christian family1 humble and persecuted1 was beginning to form itself into congregations2 when it was forbidden to consecrate any special edifice to the performance of the services of its religion--a religion which opposed to the gorgeous ceremonies of polytheism the most austere simplicity--any refuge might have seemed good enough which offered to the faithful the means of assembling themselves together in security2 any retreat must have appeared sufficiently ornamented which would recall to the disciples of the crucified ,saviour the mournful events preceding the glorification of that ,divine sacrifice4 ,but when the religion proscribed one day found itself on the next the religion of the ,state1 things changed4 ,constantine1 in the mighty ardour of his zeal1 wished to see the worship of the true ,god efface in pomp and in magnificence all the solemnities of the heathen world4 ,in expelling the idols from their temples1 the idea could not have suggested itself of using these buildings for the new religion1 because they were generally of excessively limited dimensions1 and the plan on which they were built would have but indifferently answered the requirements of the ,christian ceremonial4 ,what was necessary for these services was principally a spacious nave1 in which a large congregation could assemble to hear the same word1 to join in the same prayer1 and to intone the same chants4 ,the ,christians sought1 therefore1 among the edifices then in existence 7,fig4 #bie71 for such as would best answer these purposes4 ,the basilicas presented themselves2 these buildings served at once as law-courts and places of assembly for tradesmen and money-changers1 and were generally composed of one immense hall1 with lateral galleries and tribunes adjoining it4 ,the name of basilica1 derived from the ,greek word basileus 7a king71 was given them1 according to some writers1 from the fact that formerly the kings themselves used to administer justice within their walls2 according to others1 because the basilica of ,athens served as a tribunal of the second archon1 who bore the title of king2 whence the edifice was called stoa basilik 7royal porch71 a designation of which the ,romans preserved only the adjective1 the substantive being understood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bie4--;,basilica of ,constantine1 at ,trves1 transformed into a ,fortress in the ,middle ,ages4 8,the ,christian basilica10 says ,m4 ,vaudoyer1 in his learned treatise on architecture in ,france1 8was most certainly an imitation of the heathen basilica2 but it is of importance to observe that from one cause or another the ,christians1 in the construction of their basilicas1 very soon substituted for the ,grecian architecture of the ancient basilicas a system of arches reposing directly on isolated columns1 which served as their supports2 a perfectly new contrivance1 of which there existed no previous example4 ,this new mode of construction1 which has generally been attributed to the want of skill in the builders of this period1 or to the nature of the materials they had at their disposal1 was1 however1 to become the fundamental principle of ,christian art2 a principle characterised by the breaking up of the range of arches1 and by the abandonment of the system of rectilinear construction of the ,greeks and ,romans4 8,indeed1 the arcade1 which had become the dominant element of ,roman architecture1 had nevertheless remained subject to the proportions of the ,greek orders1 of which the entablature served as an indispensable accompaniment2 and from this medley of elements so diverse was produced the mixed style which characterises the ,greco-,roman architecture4 ,but the ,christians1 in separating or breaking up the arcade1 in abandoning the use of the ancient orders1 and in making the column the real support of the arch1 laid the foundations of a new style1 which led to the exclusive employment of arches and vaults in ,christian edifices4 ,the ,church of ,st4 ,sophia at ,constantinople1 built by ,justinian in the middle of the sixth century1 affords the most ancient example of this system of construction by arches and vaults in a ,christian church of large dimensions40 ,transported to the ,east1 the ,latin style there assumed a new character1 owing especially to the adoption and generalisation of the cupola1 of which there were some examples in ,roman architecture1 but only as an accessory2 whereas1 in what is called ,byzantine architecture1 this form became dominant1 and1 as it were1 fundamental2 thus1 at all periods and at each time that the architectural influence of the ,east made itself felt in the ,west1 we see the cupola introduced into buildings4 ,the ,church of ,st4 ,vital at ,ravenna affords1 in its plan 7,fig4 #bif7 and in its general appearance1 an example of this influence1 which is quite ,byzantine4 ,edifices of ,latin architecture1 properly so called1 are rare1 we might almost say that they have all disappeared 7,figs4 #big and #bih72 but if some churches in ,rome1 whose foundation dates back to the fifth and sixth centuries1 can be considered as specimens of this first period of ,christian art1 it is in the arrangement of the plan much more than in the details of execution1 which for a long subsequent time since have been united with the work of later periods4 ,in the days when ,christianity was so triumphantly established as to have no fear nor scruple to utilise1 in the construction of its churches1 the ruins ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bif4--;,church of ,st4 ,vital1 at ,ravenna4 ,byzantine style4 7,sixth ,century47 of the ancient temples1 it generally happened that the architect1 conforming himself to new requirements1 endeavoured1 by a prudent return towards the traditions of the past1 to avoid those striking incongruities which would have deprived of all their value the magnificent materials he had at his disposal4 ,hence arose a style still undecided2 hence mixed creations1 which it will suffice merely to mention4 ,then we must not forget--to say nothing of the case in which1 as in the old ,roman city1 ,christian basilicas might be built with the marble of heathen sanctuaries--the monuments of this same ,rome were still the only models that presented themselves for imitation4 ,finally1 for this architecture which the ,christian religion was to create as its own1 it was obvious there would be an infancy1 an age of groping in the dark and of uncertainty2 and at length that there should be a separation from the past1 and a gradually experienced feeling of individual strength4 7,fig4 #bii47 ,this infancy lasted about five or six centuries2 for it was only about the year #ajjj that the new style--which we see at first made up of 8recollections0 and weak innovations--assumed an almost determinate form4 ,this is the period called ,norman1#di which1 according to ,m4 ,vaudoyer1 has left us some monuments that are 8the noblest1 the simplest1 and the severest expression of the ,christian temple40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #big4--,the ,church of ,st4 ,agnes1 at ,rome1 ,latin style 7,fifth ,century74 ,restored and debased in the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bih4--,the ,church of ,st4 ,martin1 at ,tours 7,sixth ,century74 ,rebuilt or restored in the ,eleventh ,century4 8,three years after the year #ajjj1 which was supposed was to be the last year of the world10 says the monk ,raoul ,glaber1 8churches were renewed in nearly every part of the universe1 especially in ,italy and in ,gaul1 although the greater number were still in a condition good enough to require ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bii4--,remains of the ,church of ,mouen1 in ,normandy4 ,architecture of the ,fifth or ,sixth ,century4 no repairs40 8,it was to this period1 that is to say1 the eleventh century10 adds ,m4 ,vaudoyer1 8must be assigned the greater number of the ancient churches of ,france1 grander and more magnificent than all those of preceding centuries2 it was then1 also1 the first associations of builders were formed1 whereof the abbots and the prelates themselves formed a portion1 and which were essentially composed of men bound by a religious vow2 the ,arts were cultivated in the convents1 the churches were built under the direction of bishops2 the monks co-operated in works of all kinds4444 ,the plan of the ,western churches preserved the primitive arrangement of the ,latin basilica--that is1 the elongated form and the lateral galleries2 the most important modifications were the lengthening of the choir and of the galleries1 or of the cross1 a free passage established round the apse 7,fig4 #cjj72 and1 lastly1 the combination of chapels1 which grouped themselves around the sanctuary4 ,in the construction the isolated columns of the nave are sometimes replaced by pillars1 the spaces between which are filled up with semicircular arches1 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjj4--,notre-,dame1 ,rouen1 ogival style4 7,thirteenth ,century47 and a general system of vaulted roofs is substituted for the ceilings and timber roofs of the ancient ,latin basilicas4444 ,the use of bells1 which was but sparingly adopted in the ,east1 contributed to give to the churches of the ,west a character and an appearance quite their own1 and which they owe particularly to those lofty towers that had become the essential part of their faade40 ,the faade itself is generally of great simplicity4 ,we enter the edifice by one of three doors1 above which runs1 in most cases1 a little gallery formed of very small columns close to each other1 supporting a range of arcades2 and these arcades are often ornamented with statues1 as we find in the church of ,notre-,dame at ,poitiers1 which--together with the churches of ,notre-,dame des ,doms1 at ,avignon2 of ,st4 ,paul1 at ,issoire2 of ,st4 ,sernin1 at ,toulouse2 of ,notre-,dame du ,port1 at ,clermont1 c4--may be considered as one of the most complete specimens of ,norman architecture4 ,in churches of this style1 as for instance those of ,st4 ,front1 at ,prigueux2 of ,notre-,dame1 at ,puy en ,velay2 of ,st4 ,etienne1 at ,nevers1 are seen also some cupolas2 but we must not forget that the ,byzantine architects1 whose migrations towards the ,west were constantly taking place at this period1 could not fail to leave traces of their wanderings1 and we must acknowledge that1 especially in our own country 7,france71 where ,oriental influence was never more than partial1 the union of the two architectonic principles produced the happiest results4 ,the ,cathedral of ,angoulme1 for example1 is justly regarded as one of the edifices in which ,oriental taste harmonises the best with the ,norman style4 ,at the beginning of this period1 the bell-towers were of very little importance2 but gradually we find them rising higher and higher1 and attaining to great elevations4 ,some cathedrals on the borders of the ,rhine1 and the ,church of ,st4 ,etienne at ,caen1 are examples of the extraordinary height to which these towers were built4 ,in principle1 we may add1 there was only one bell-tower 7,fig4 #cja72 but it generally happened that two were given to churches built or restored after the year #ajjj3 ,st4 ,germain-des-,prs had three bell-towers--one over the portal1 and one at each side of the transept2 certain churches had four and even five bell-towers4 ,norman bell-towers are generally square1 exhibiting1 in stories1 two or three ranges of round-arched arcades1 and terminating in a pyramidal roof resting on an octagonal base4 ,the ,abbey of ,st4 ,germain d',auxerre possesses one of the most remarkable bell-towers of the ,norman style2 then come1 although built subsequently to the principal edifice1 those of the ,abbaye aux ,hommes1 at ,caen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cja4--;,ancient ,church of ,st4 ,paul-des-,champs1 at ,paris1 founded1 in the ,seventh ,century1 by ,st4 ,eloi4 ,restored and in part rebuilt in the ,thirteenth ,century4 ,the sun's rays penetrated into the ,norman church first through the oculus1#ej a vast round opening intended to admit light into the nave1 and situated above the faade1 which generally rose in the form of a gable above one or several rows of small columns on the exterior4 ,a series of lateral windows opened on the side-aisles of the edifice2 another was pierced on a level with the galleries2 and a third between the vaulted arches of the nave4 ,the crypt1 a sort of subterranean sanctuary1 which generally contained the tomb of some beatified saint1 or of some martyr to whom the edifice was dedicated1 formed very often an integral part of the ,norman church4 ,the architecture of the crypt1 which had for its ideal object to recall to the mind the period when the offices of the ,christian religion were performed in caverns and in catacombs1 was generally of a massive and imposing severity1 well suited to express the sentiment which must have presided over the earliest ,christian buildings4 ,the ,norman style1 that is to say1 the primitive idea of ,christian architecture1 freed from its remaining servility to the antique1 seems to have caught a glimpse of the definitive formula of ,christian art4 ,many a majestic monument already attested the austere power of this style2 and perhaps a final and masterly inspiration would have sufficed1 perfection being attained1 to cause the researches of the matres d'uvre1#ea made as they felt their way forward1 to cease of themselves4 ,already1 too1 as a sign of maturity1 ,norman edifices1 instead of remaining in the somewhat too unadorned simplicity of the first period1 became gradually ornamented1 till in time they resembled1 from their base to the summit1 a delicate work of embroidery4 ,it is to this florid ,norman style1 which in ,france reigns especially to the south of the ,loire1 that the charming faade of the ,church of ,notre-,dame de ,poitiers 7,fig4 #cjb7 belongs1 which we have already cited as a perfect type of the ,norman style itself2 the faade of ,st4 ,trophimus1 at ,aries 7,figs4 #cjc and #cjd71 an example in the general arrangement of which the same character of original unity does not prevail2 and that of the ,church of ,st4 ,gilles1 which ,m4 ,mrime cites as the most elegant expression of the florid ,norman4 ,in short1 let us repeat it1 the ,norman style1 grandiose in its austerity1 still quiet and compact even in its richest phantasy1 was on the eve of individualising for ever1 perhaps1 ,christian architecture2 its rounded arches1 uniting their full soft curves to the simple profiles of columns1 robust even in their lightness1 seemed to characterise at one and the same time the ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjb4--,notre-,dame la ,grande of ,poitiers 7,twelfth ,century74 elevated calm of hope and the humble gravity of faith4 ,but lo6 the ogive sprang up2 not1 indeed1 as certain authors have thought they were right in affirming1 from an outburst of spontaneous invention1 for we find the principle and the application of it not only in many edifices of the ,norman period1 but even in the architectural contrivances of the most remote times4 ,and it happened that this simple breaking up of the round arch1 this 8sharpness0 of the arch1 if we may use the expression1 which the ,norman builders had skilfully utilised1 giving more of slenderness or graceful strength to vaults of great extent1 became the fundamental element of a style which1 in less than a century1 was to shut the future to a tradition dating from six or eight centuries1 and which could with justice pride itself on the most beautiful architectural conceptions4 7,fig4 #cje47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjc4--,tympanum of the ,portal of ,st4 ,trophimus1 at ,arles 7,twelfth ,century74 ,from the twelfth to the thirteenth century the transition took place4 ,the ,norman style1 which is distinguished by its round arch1 maintained the struggle with the ,gothic style1 of which the ogive is the original mark4 ,in the churches of this period we find also1 with regard to the ground-plan of edifices1 the choir assuming larger dimensions1 necessitated no doubt by increased ceremonials in the services4 ,the ,latin cross1 which was the ground-plan whereon up to this time the greater number of sanctuaries were built1 ceased to indicate as precisely as heretofore its outlines2 the nave was raised considerably in height1 the lateral chapels were multiplied1 and often broke the perspective of the side-aisles2 bell-towers assumed greater importance1 and the placing of immense organs above the principal entrance gave rise to a new system of elevated galleries in this part of the building4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjd4--;,details of the ,portal of ,st4 ,trophimus1 at ,arles4 7,twelfth ,century47 ,the churches of ,st4 ,remy1 ,rheims2 of the ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis2 of ,st4 ,nicholas1 ,blois2 the ,abbey of ,jumiges2 and the ,cathedral of ,chlons-sur-,marne1 are the principal examples of the architecture of the mixed style4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cje4--;,cloister of the ,abbey of ,moissac1 ,guyenne4 7,twelfth ,century47 ,it should be remarked that for a long while1 in the north of ,france1 the pointed arch had prevailed almost entirely over the round arch1 at the time when1 in the south1 ,norman tradition1 blended with the ,byzantine1 still continued to inspire the builders4 ,nevertheless1 the demarcation cannot be rigorously established1 for1 at the time when edifices of the purest ,norman style showed themselves in our 7,french7 northern counties 7as1 for example1 the ,church of ,st4 ,germain-des-,prs1 and the apse of ,illustration3 ,,decoration ,,of ,,la ,,sainte ,,chapelle1 ,,paris4 ,thirteenth ,century4 ,st4 ,martin-des-,champs1 ,paris71 we find1 at ,toulouse1 at ,carcassonne1 at ,montpellier1 the most remarkable specimens of the ,gothic style4 ,at last ,gothic architecture gained the day4 8,its principle10 says ,m4 ,vitet1 8is in emancipation1 in liberty1 in the spirit of association and commerce1 in sentiments quite indigenous and quite national3 it is homely1 and more than that1 it is ,french1 ,english1 ,teutonic1 c4 ,norman architecture1 on the contrary1 is sacerdotal40 ,and ,m4 ,vaudoyer adds3 8,the rounded arch is the determinate and invariable form2 the pointed arch is the free and indefinite form which lends itself to unlimited modifications4 ,if1 then1 the ,pointed style has no longer the austerity of the ,norman1 it is because it belongs to that second phase of all civilisation1 in which elegance and richness replace the strength and the severity of primordial types40 ,it was1 moreover1 at this period that architecture1 like all the other arts1 left the monasteries to pass into the hands of lay architects organised into confraternities1 who travelled from place to place1 and thus transmitted the traditional types2 the result of this was that buildings raised at very great distances from each other presented a striking analogy1 and often even a complete similitude to each other4 ,there has been much discussion not only on the origin of the pointed arch1 but also as to the beauty and excellence of its form4 ,according to some it was suggested by the sight of many arches interlaced1 and only constituted one of those fantastical forms which an art in quest of novelty adopts2 others1 among whom is ,m4 ,vaudoyer1 attribute to it the most remote origin1 by making it result quite naturally in the first attempts at building in stone1--8from a succession of courses of stone so arranged that each overhung the other20 or else in wooden constructions1 8from the greater facility there was in forming with beams a pointed rather than a perfectly rounded arch20 others consider the adoption of the ,pointed style1 as we said above1 as nothing but a proof of the religious independence succeeding the rigid faith of earlier days4 ,a third opinion1 again1 is that of ,m4 ,michiels1 who looks on the ,pointed style as in some sort an inevitable result of the boldness of the ,norman1 and who considers the ,gothic1 of which it is the characteristic1 as 8expressing the spirit of a period when religious feeling had attained its most perfect maturity1 and ,catholic civilisation produced its sweetest and most agreeable fruits40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjf4--,mayence ,cathedral4 ,rhenish ,norman4 7,twelfth and ,thirteenth ,centuries74 ,whatever may be the merits of these different opinions1 into the discussion of which we need not enter1 it is now generally assumed that the ,pointed style1 properly so called1 sprang up first within the limits of the ancient ,ile-de-,france1 whence it propagated itself by degrees towards the southern and eastern provinces4 ,m4 ,michiels1 agreeing on this point with the celebrated architect ,lassus1 points out that it would be as difficult to attribute the creation of this style to ,germany as to ,spain4 ,it was in the thirteenth century that the finest ,gothic buildings appeared in ,france2 while in ,germany1 except the churches built1 as it were1 on the ,french frontier1 we find nothing at that period but ,norman churches 7,fig4 #cjf72 and it is reasonable to suppose that1 if we owed the general adoption of the pointed arch to ,spain1 the introduction of it would have been gradually made through that part of the country situated beyond the ,loire1 where1 however1 the ,norman style continued to be in great favour when it was almost entirely abandoned in the north of ,france4 ,a century sufficed to bring the ,pointed style to its highest perfection4 ,notre-,dame 7,fig4 #cjg7 and the ,sainte-,chapelle1 in ,paris2 ,notre-,dame1 ,chartres2 the cathedrals of ,amiens 7,fig4 #cjh71 ,sens1 ,bourges1 ,coutances1 in ,france2 those of ,strasbourg1 ,fribourg1 ,altenberg1 and ,cologne1 in ,germany1 the dates of whose construction succeed each other at intervals from the first half of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth century1 are so many admirable specimens or types of this art1 which we may here call relatively new4 ,to know to what marvellous variety of combinations and effects1 by merely modifying it in height and breadth from its original type1 this pointed arch1 which1 taken by itself1 might appear the simplest of forms1 can attain1 one must have passed some time in dividing into the different parts of which it is composed1 by an accurate examination of its tout ensemble1 such an edifice as ,notre-,dame1 ,paris1 or as the ,cathedral of ,strasbourg2 the first of which attracts attention by the sustained boldness of its lines1 strong as they are graceful2 the second1 by its perfectly bold independence1 seeming1 as it does1 to taper away as by enchantment1 in order to bear to a surprising height the evidence of its incomprehensible temerity4 ,we must rise in thought above the edifice to grasp the plan of its first conception2 we must1 from below1 study it on all sides to perceive ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjg4--,notre-,dame1 ,paris 7,twelfth and ,thirteenth ,centuries74 ,view of the principal ,faade before the restoration executed by ,messrs4 ,lassus and ,viollet-le-,duc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjh4--;,interior of ,amiens ,cathedral4 7,thirteenth ,century47 with what art its various parts are arranged1 grouped1 placed at certain intervals from each other2 we must seek to discover the contrivance by virtue of which the immense vidage 7sloping7 of numerous buttresses1 the height of the towers1 the retiring of the laterals1 and the curve of the apse are harmonised2 we must enter the church and stand in its nave1 with its interminable delicate ribs--how many clusters of small columns extend above the slender pillars6--we must contemplate the beautiful fancies of the rose-windows1 which by their many-coloured glass sober down the glare of the light passing through them2 we must gain the summit of those towers1 those spires1 and from them command the dizzy extent of arial ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cji4--;,capital of a ,column in the ,abbey of ,st4 ,genevive 7destroyed71 ,paris4 7,eleventh ,century47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caj4--;,capital of a ,column in the ,church of ,st4 ,julien the ,poor 7destroyed71 ,paris4 7,twelfth ,century47 space1 and the landscape stretching out around them below2 we must follow attentively with our eye the strikingly bold outlines which the turrets1 the ornamented gables1 the guivres1 the tops of the bell-towers trace upon the sky4 ,this done1 we should yet have paid but a brief tribute of attention to these prodigious edifices4 ,what1 then1 if we wished to devote sufficient time to the ornamentation of the details 7,figs4 #cji to #cab78 if we desired to obtain a tolerably exact idea of the people from the statues which swarm from the porch to the pinnacle1 and of the flora and fauna1 real or ideal1 that give movement to every projection or animate every wall8 if one counted on success in finding out the key to all the crossings and intersections of the lines1 of the well-adjusted conceptions which1 while they deceive the eye1 contribute to the majesty or the solidity of the whole8 if1 finally1 we were most careful not to lose any one of the multifarious thoughts that have been fixed in the stones of the gigantic edifice8 ,the mind becomes confused2 and certainly the effect produced by so much imagination and so much enterprise1 by so much skill and taste1 wonderfully elevates the soul1 which searches with more love after the ,creator when it sees such a work proceeding from the hands of the creature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caa4--,vestige of the ,architecture of the ,goths at ,toledo4 7,seventh ,century47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cab4--;,capital in the ,church of the ,clestins 7destroyed71 ,paris4 7,fourteenth ,century47 ,when you approach the ,gothic church1 when you stand beneath its lofty roof1 it is as if a new country were receiving you1 possessing you1 casting around you an atmosphere of subduing reverie in which you feel your wretched servitude to worldly interests vanishing away1 and you become conscious of more solid1 more important ties1 springing up in you4 ,the ,deity whom our finite nature can figure to ourselves seems in fact to inhabit this immense building1 to be willing to put himself in direct communion with the humble ,christian who approaches to bow down before ,him4 ,there is nothing in it of the human dwelling-place--all relating to our poor and miserable existence is here forgotten2 ,he for whom this residence was constructed is the ,strong1 the ,great1 the ,magnificent1 and it is from a paternal condescension that ,he receives us into ,his holy habitation1 as weak1 little1 miserable4 ,it is the ideal of the faith which is realised2 all the articles of the belief in which we have been brought up are here embodied before our eyes2 it is1 lastly1 the chosen spot where the meeting of mortal nothingness and ,divine ,majesty is quietly accomplished4 ,the ,christianity of the ,middle ,ages had then been able to find in the ,gothic style a tongue as tractable as it was energetic1 as simple as it was ingenious1 which1 for the pious excitement of souls1 was to declare to the senses all its ineffable poetry4 ,but as the unbounded faith1 of which it was the faithful organ1 was on the next dawn of its most ardent aspirations about to decline1 so this splendid style was almost as soon to lose its vigour1 and to exhaust itself in the unrestrained manifestation of its power4 ,springing into existence with the warm enthusiasm of the first ,crusades1 the ,pointed style seems to follow in its different phases the decline of faith in the time of these adventurous enterprises4 ,it began by a sincere outburst1 and was produced by a bold1 unshackled genius2 then a factitious or reflected ardour gave birth to elaborateness and mannerism2 then the fervent zeal and the artistic sentiment dwindled away3 this is the decadency4 ,gothic art raised itself in less than a century to its culminating point2 within two centuries more it was to reach the fatal point where it would begin to decline4 ,the thirteenth century saw it in all its glory1 with the edifices we have mentioned2 in the fourteenth it had become the ,florid or ,rayonnant ,gothic1 which produced the churches of ,st4 ,ouen at ,rouen1 and of ,st4 ,etienne at ,metz4 8,then10 says ,m4 ,a4 ,lefvre1 one of the latest historians of architecture1 8no more walls2 everywhere open screen-work supported by slender arcades2 no more capitals1 rows of foliage imitated directly from nature2 no more columns1 lofty pillars ornamented with round or bevelled mouldings4 ,as yet1 however1 there was nothing weakly in its extreme elegance2 slim and delicate without being gaunt1 the ,florid style did not in the least disfigure the churches of the thirteenth century1 which it bounded and decorated4 8,but after the ,rayonnant ,gothic came the ,flamboyant1 which1 always under the pretext of lightness and grace1 denaturalises the ornaments1 the forms1 and even the proportions of the architectural members4 ,it effaces the horizontal lines which used to give two stories to the windows of the nave1 fills up the nave with irregular compartments1 curs1 soufflets1 and flammes2 suppresses the angles of the pillars and sharpens the mouldings2 leaves even to the most massive supports nothing but an undulating1 vanishing1 impalpable form1 where shadow cannot fix itself2 changes the lancet-arches into braces1 or into flat-arched vaults more or less depressed1 and the florid ornamentation of the pinnacles into whimsical scrolls4 ,it reserved all its riches for accessory or exterior decorations1 stalls1 pulpits1 hanging key-stones1 running friezes1 rood-screens1 and bell-towers4 ,visible decadency of the whole corresponds with great progress in details40 7,fig4 #cac47 ,the churches of ,st4 ,wulfran1 ,abbeville2 of ,notre-,dame1 ,clry-sur-,loire2 of ,st4 ,riquier2 of ,corbeil2 and the cathedrals of ,orleans and of ,nantes1 may be cited as the principal specimens of the ,flamboyant style1 and as the last notable manifestations of an art which thenceforward diverged more and more from its original inspiration4 ,the middle of the fifteenth century is generally fixed as the limit beyond which the handsome ,gothic buildings that still rose were no longer1 in any degree1 the normal productions of their period1 but were felicitous copies or imitations of works already consecrated by the history of the art4 ,a remark may here be made showing to what extent religious feeling predominated in the ,middle ,ages2 it is that at the very moment when the ,norman and ,gothic architects were designing and producing so many marvellous habitations for the ,deity1 they seemed to bestow scarcely any attention on the construction of comfortable or luxurious dwellings for man1 even those destined for the most exalted personages of the ,state4 ,in proportion as this sentiment of original faith lost its intensity1 ,art occupied itself more and more with princely and lordly habitations4 ,the middle class was the last favoured by this progress1 and the feeling of their position as citizens had taken the place of a zeal exclusively pious2 so we find the 8town-halls0 absorbing the splendour and elegance of which private houses remained destitute2 these being generally built of wood and plaster1 and in the heart of the towns1 so close together that they seemed to be disputing for light and air4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cac4--,saloon of the ,schools1 ,oxford4 7,fourteenth ,century47 ,everywhere1 during the ,middle ,ages1 rose the church--the home of peace2 but everywhere also towered up at the same time the castle1 that characterised the permanent state of war in which feudal society lived1 delighted1 and gloried4 8,the castles of the richest and most powerful nobles10 says ,m4 ,vaudoyer1 8consisted of irregular1 uncomfortable buildings1 pierced with a few narrow windows1 standing within one or two fortified enclosures1 and surrounded by moats4 ,the donjon1 a large high tower1 generally occupied the centre1 and other towers1 more or less numerous1 flanked the walls1 and served for the defence of the place40 7,fig4 #cad74 8,these castles10 adds ,m4 ,mrime1 8generally present the same characteristics as the ancient castellum2 but a certain ruggedness1 a striking quaintness in plan and execution1 bear witness to a personal will1 and that tendency to isolation which is the instinctive sentiment of the feudal system40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cad4--;,ancient ,castle of ,marcoussis1 near ,rambouillet4 7,thirteenth ,century47 ,in most of the buildings destined for the privileged classes1 it seems as if it were deemed unnecessary that care should be taken to secure harmony of form4 ,the decorative style of the period showed itself chiefly in the interior of some of the principal apartments1 the habitable quarters of the lord of the castle and of his family4 ,there were vast fireplaces with enormous chimney-corners surmounted by projecting mantelpieces2 the vaulted roof was ornamented with pendents of various devices1 and with painted or carved escutcheons4 ,narrow closets1 contrived in the walls1 served as sleeping places4 ,the embrasures of the windows pierced in the excessively thick walls formed so many little chambers1 raised a few steps above the floor of the room to which they admitted light4 ,stone seats ran along each side of these embrasures4 ,here the inmates of the tower generally sat when the cold did not oblige them to draw near to the fireplaces4 7,figs4 #cae and #caf47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cae4--,staircase of a ,tower4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caf4--,pointed ,window with ,stone ,seats4 7,thirteenth ,century47 ,with the exception of these slight sacrifices made to the comforts of life1 everything in the castle was arranged1 contrived1 and disposed with a view to strength and resistance2 and yet it cannot be denied that1 unintentionally1 the builders of these silent 7taciturnes7 edifices have many a time--aided often1 it is true1 by the picturesque sites which encircle their works--attained to a majesty of height and a grandeur of form truly extraordinary4 ,if the ,norman church expresses with gentle severity1 and the ,gothic church with sumptuous fancy1 the important and sublime doctrines of the ,gospel1 we must equally allow that the castle1 in some sort1 loudly proclaims the stern and uncivilised notions of the feudal authority of which it was at once the instrument and the symbol4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cag4--,the ,castle of ,coucy in its ancient state4 7,from a ,miniature taken from a ,manuscript of the ,thirteenth ,century47 ,placed1 in most cases1 on natural or artificial eminences1 it is not without a sort of eloquent boldness that the towers and the donjons shoot into the air1 succeed each other at intervals1 command and support each other4 ,it is frequently not without a sort of fantastic grace that the walls scale the rising ground1 making an infinity of the strangest bends1 or coiling themselves about with the supple ease of a serpent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cah4--,the ,castle of ,vincennes1 as it was in the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,evidently1 if the castle raises its gloomy head high into the air1 it has no other object in doing so than to secure to itself the advantages of distance and height2 but not the less on that account does it stand out on the sky a grand object4 ,the masses of its walls unsymmetrically pierced with sombre loop-holes present an abrupt and naked appearance2 but the monotony of their lines is picturesquely broken by the projection of overhanging turrets1 by the corbels of the machicolated arches1 and by the embrasures of the battlements4 ,a vast amount of civilisation still exists for him who recalls the past in the multitude of ruins which were the witnesses of bloody feudal divisions2 and we must add to the system of isolated castles that often commanded the most deserted valleys1 the apparatus of strength and defence of cities and towns--gates1 ramparts1 towers1 citadels1 c41 immense works which1 although inspired solely by the genius of strife and dissension1 did not fail nevertheless1 in many instances1 to combine harmony and variety of detail with the general grandeur of the whole4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cai4--,tour de ,nesle1 which occupied the site of the ,exchange on the banks of the ,seine1 ,paris4 7,from an ,engraving of the ,seventeenth ,century47 ,we may cite1 as examples of architecture purely feudal1 the castles of ,coucy 7,fig4 #cag71 ,vincennes 7,fig4 #cah71 ,pierrefonds1 the old ,louvre1 the ,bastille1 the ,tour de ,nesle 7,fig4 #cai71 the ,palais de ,justice1 ,plessis-les-,tours1 c42 and as specimens of the fortified town in the ,middle ,ages1 ,avignon and the city of ,carcassonne4 ,let us add that ,aigues-,mortes1 in ,provence2 ,narbonne1 ,thann 7,haut-,rhin71 ,vendme1 ,villeneuve-le-,roi1 ,moulins1 ,moret 7,fig4 #cbj71 ,provins 7,fig4 #cba71 afford yet again the most characteristic remains of analogous fortifications4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbj4--;,gate of ,moret4 7,twelfth ,century47 ,while the nobles1 jealous and suspicious1 sheltered themselves in the shadow of their donjons built with many strategical contrivances and of substantial materials2 while the large and small towns were surrounded with deep moats1 high walls1 impregnable towers1 the most primitive simplicity presided over the construction of private dwellings4 ,stone hardly ever1 and brick but seldom1 figured among the number of the materials employed4 ,sawed or squared timbers serving as ribs1 mud or clay filling up the interstices1 were all that was at first required for the erection of houses as small as they were comfortless1 and following each other in irregular lines along the narrow streets4 ,the beams of the corbels1 it is true1 began to be adorned with carvings and paintings1 the faades with panes 7glass7 of different colours2 but we must reach the last half of the fifteenth century before we see the resources of architecture applied to the erection and ornamentation of private houses4 ,moreover1 faith was already growing weak2 and no longer was it possible to direct all the resources of an entire province to the honour of the ,deity by the erection of a church2 the use of gunpowder1 by revolutionising the art of war1 came to lessen1 if it did not annihilate1 the vast strength of walls2 the decline of feudalism itself had commenced2 and1 lastly1 the enfranchisement of corporations gave rise to a perfectly new order of individuals who took their place in history4 ,we must refer to this period the house of ,jacques ,cur1 ,bourges2 the ,htel de ,sens1 ,paris 7,fig4 #cbb72 the ,palais de ,justice1 ,rouen2 and those town-halls in which the belfry was then considered as a sort of palladium1 in whose shade the sacred rights of the community sheltered themselves4 ,it is in our 7,french7 northern towns--,st4 ,quentin1 ,arras1 ,noyon2 and in the ancient cities of ,belgium--,brussels 7,fig4 #cbc71 ,louvain1 ,ypres1 that these edifices assume the most sumptuous character4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cba4--;,gate of ,st4 ,john1 with ,drawbridge1 ,provins4 7,fourteenth ,century47 ,in ,germany1 where for a time it reigned almost exclusively1 ,gothic art established the cathedrals of ,erfurt1 of ,cologne1 ,fribourg1 and of ,vienna2 then it died away in the growth of the ,flamboyant style4 ,in ,england1 after having left some magnificent examples of pure inspiration1 it found its decline in the attenuated meagreness and the complicated ornamentation of the style called ,perpendicular ogival4 ,if it penetrated also into ,spain1 it was to contend with difficulty against the mighty ,moorish school1 which had too many imposing chefs-d'uvre in the past to surrender without resistance the country of its former triumphs 7,fig4 #cbd74 ,in ,italy it clashed not only with the ,latin and ,byzantine schools1 but also with a style that1 just beginning to form itself1 was soon to dispute with it the empire of taste1 and to dethrone it in that very land which had been its cradle4 ,the cathedrals of ,assisi1 of ,siena1 of ,milan1 are the splendid works in which its influence triumphed over local traditions and over the ,renaissance that was preparing to follow2 yet we must not think that it succeeded even there in rendering itself absolutely the master1 as it had done on the ,rhenish or ,british territories4 ,sacrifices were made in its favour2 but these sacrifices did not amount to an entire immolation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbb4--;,doorways of the ,htel de ,sens1 at ,paris2 the last remaining portion of the ,htel ,royal de ,saint-,pol1 built in the reign of ,charles ,v4 7,fourteenth ,century47 ,when we use the word ,renaissance1 we seem to be speaking of a return to an age already gone by1 of the resurrection of a period that had passed away4 ,it is not strictly in this sense that the word must be understood in the present instance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbc4--;,belfry of ,brussels 7,fifteenth ,century71 from an engraving of the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,inheriting from of old the artistic temperament of ,greece1 rather than spontaneously creating of herself any style1 ,italy1 among all the nations of ,europe1 was the country which had most successfully resisted the profound ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbd4--;,interior of the ,palace of the ,alhambra1 at ,granada4--7,thirteenth ,century47 darkness of barbarism1 and the first on which the light of modern civilisation shone4 ,at the period of this new dawn of genius1 ,italy had only to ransack the ruins its first magnificence had bequeathed it to find among them examples it might follow2 moreover1 it was the time when the active rivalry of its republics caused all the treasures of ancient ,greece to flow into it4 ,but while it derived inspiration from these abundant manifestations of another age1 it never entertained the idea of abandoning itself exclusively to a servile imitation2 it had--and in this consists its chief title to glory--while giving a peculiar direction to the revivals of the antique1 the good sense to remain under the poetic influence of that simple and congenial art which had consoled the world during the whole continuance of that protracted infancy of a civilisation which was at last advancing with rapid strides towards perfect manhood4 ,from the twelfth century1 ,pisa gave an impetus to the art by building its ,duomo1 its ,baptistery1 its ,leaning ,tower1 and the cloisters of its famous ,campo ,santo2 so many admirable works forming an era in the history of modern art1 and in a brilliant manner opening the career on which so many distinguished men were to enter1 rivalling each other in invention1 in science1 and in genius4 ,in these monuments the union of ,oriental taste with the traditions of ages gone by created an originality as grand as it was graceful4 8,it is10 as ,m4 ,a4 ,lefvre points out1 8the ,antique without its nudity1 the ,byzantine without its heaviness1 the fervour of the ,western ,gothic without its ghastliness0 7effroi74 ,in #abid the magistrates of ,florence passed the following decree1 charging the architect1 ,arnolfo di ,cambio1 to convert into a cathedral the church1 till then of little importance1 of ,santa ,maria de' ,fiori3--8,forasmuch10 they said1 8as it is in the highest degree prudent for a people of illustrious origin to proceed in their affairs in such manner that their public works may cause their grandeur and wisdom to be acknowledged1 the order is given to ,arnolfo1 master-architect of our town1 to make plans for repairing the ,church of ,santa ,maria with the greatest and most lavish magnificence1 so that the skill and prudence of men may never invent1 nor ever be able to undertake1 anything more important or more beautiful40 ,arnolfo applied himself to his task1 and conceived a plan which the shortness of human life did not allow him to carry out2 but ,giotto succeeded ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbe4--;,interior of the ,basilica of ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome4 him1 and to ,giotto succeeded ,orcagna1 and to ,orcagna1 ,brunelleschi1 who designed and almost completed that ,duomo1 of which ,michael ,angelo said it would be difficult to equal1 and impossible to surpass1 it4 ,arnolfo1 ,giotto1 ,orcagna1 ,brunelleschi--does it not suffice to cite these great names for us to form an idea of the movement going on at this period8 and which was soon to produce ,alberti1 ,bramante1 ,michael ,angelo1 ,jacques della ,porta1 ,baldassare ,peruzzi1 ,antonio and ,juliano de ,sangallo1 ,giocondo1 ,vignola1 ,serlio1 and even ,raphael1 who1 when he liked1 was as mighty an architect as he was a marvellous painter4 ,it was in ,rome that these princes of the art congregated together1 as the splendours of ,st4 ,peter's 7,fig4 #cbe71 to mention only one of their grand creations1 still attest2 so1 it is from this city that henceforward light and example are to come4 ,in the style which this masterly phalanx created1 the ,latin rounded arch regained all its ancient favour1 and united itself to the ancient orders1 which became intermingled1 or1 at any rate1 superposed4 ,the ogive was abandoned1 but the columns to decorate their capitals1 and the entablatures to give more grace to their projections1 borrowed a certain fantastical style which yielded in nothing to the ogival2 the ,grecian pediment reappeared1 changing sometimes the upper lines of its triangle into a depressed semicircle2 lastly the cupola1 that striking object which was the characteristic feature of the ,byzantine style1 became the dome1 whose ample curve defied1 in the daring heights whereto it rose1 the wonders of the ,perpendicular ,gothic4 ,the ,italian ,renaissance was now accomplished1 the ,gothic age at an end4 ,rome and ,florence sent in every direction their architects1 who1 as they travelled far from these metropolises of the new style1 were once more subjected to certain territorial influences1 but who knew how to make the tradition of which they were the apostles triumphant4 ,it was then that ,france inaugurated in its turn a ,renaissance peculiar to herself2 it was then that1 under the reign of ,charles ,,viii41 after his expedition into ,italy1 began1 with the ,chteau de ,gaillon1 a long succession of edifices1 which in many cases yielded neither in richness nor in majesty to the works of the preceding period4 ,under ,louis ,,xii4 rose the ,chteau de ,blois1 and the ,htel de la ,cour des ,comptes1 ,paris1 a splendid building destroyed by fire in the eighteenth century4 ,under ,francis ,i41 ,chambord 7,fig4 #cbf71 ,fontainebleau1 ,madrid 7near ,paris71 magnificent royal 8humours10 contended in ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbf4--;,chteau de ,chambord1 with its ,ancient ,moat4 7,seventeenth ,century47 elegance and grace with the chteaux of ,nantouillet1 ,chenonceaux1 and ,azai-le-,rideau2 and with the manor-house of ,ango1 near ,dieppe1 all sumptuous1 lordly mansions2 the old ,louvre1 the palace of kings1 the cradle of monarchy1 was regenerated under the care of ,peter ,lescot2 the ,htel de ,ville1 ,paris1 still bears witness to the varied talent of ,dominique ,cortona1 who1 as ,m4 ,vaudoyer said of him1 8justly understood that1 in building for ,france1 he should act in a perfectly different manner to that in which he would have acted in ,italy40 ,under ,henry ,,ii4 and ,charles ,,ix4 this activity continued1 and the architects who sought their inspirations in ,grecian and ,roman antiquity1 as much as in the souvenirs of the ,italian ,renaissance1 delighted in loading all the elegant and graceful buildings with ornaments1 with bas-reliefs1 and with statues1 which they seemed to carve in the stone1 as delicately wrought as a piece of goldsmith's work4 ,philibert ,delorme built for ,diana of ,poitiers the ,chteau d',anet1 that architectural jewel whose portico1 transported piece by piece at the time of the revolutionary disorders1 now decorates the court of the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts2 ,jean ,bullant built ,ecouen for the ,constable ,anne de ,montmorency2 and the architect d',anet undertook1 by order of ,catherine de ,medicis1 the construction of the ,palace of the ,tuileries1 which1 by a sort of exigency resulting from its particular destination1 seemed typically to characterise the style of the ,french ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbg4--,porte de ,hal1 ,brussels4 7,fourteenth ,century47 ,we must not burden with details this summary of one of the most important branches of art4 ,the history of architecture is among those vast domains which demand either a short epitome or a thoroughly deep investigation4 ,the epitome being alone consistent with the plan of our work1 we must confine ourselves to its limits2 but we may1 perhaps1 be allowed to think that the few rapid pages thus devoted to the subject have inspired the reader with the desire of penetrating farther into a study which is capable of offering him so many agreeable surprises1 so many rational delights4 ,illustration ,,parchment ,,and ,,paper4 ,parchment in ,ancient ,times4--,papyrus4--,preparation of ,parchment and ,vellum in the ,middle ,ages4--,sale of ,parchment at the ,fair of ,lendit4--,privilege of the ,university of ,paris on the ,sale and ,purchase of ,parchment4--,different ,applications of ,parchment4--,cotton ,paper imported from ,china4--,order of the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 concerning ,paper4--,the ,employment of ,linen ,paper dating from the ,twelfth ,century4--,ancient ,water-,marks on ,paper4--,paper ,manufactories in ,france and other parts of ,europe4 ,although most authors who speak of parchment attribute the invention of it1 on the testimony of ,pliny1 to ,eumenius1 king of ,pergamus 7doubtlessly from the etymology of the word by which it was designated1 viz41 ,pergamena71 it seems to be proved1 according to ,peignot1 that the use of it is much more ancient1 and that its origin is utterly lost4 ,certainly1 in many passages of the ,old ,testament we find a ,hebrew ,word1 in ,latin volumen1 which can only be understood to mean a roll formed of prepared skin or of the leaves of papyrus1 and it is consequently evident that the ,jews1 from the time of ,moses1 wrote the tables of the ,law on rolls of parchment4 ,herodotus says that the ,ionians called books diphthera 71 a prepared hide71 because1 at a time when the biblos 71 the inner bark of the papyrus7 was scarce1 they wrote on skins of goats or of sheep4 ,diodorus ,siculus affirms that the ancient ,persians wrote their annals on skins1 and we must suppose that ,pliny's assertion refers only to some improvements the ,king of ,pergamus had made in the art of preparing a material that could supply the place of papyrus1 which ,ptolemy ,epiphanius would no longer allow to leave ,egypt4 ,the absolute deficiency of papyrus raised into activity the fabrication of parchment1 and soon so large a quantity was seen to flow into ,pergamus that this town was considered as the cradle of the new trade1 already so flourishing4 ,there were then books of two kinds1 the one in rolls composed of many leaves sewed together1 on one side of which only was there writing2 the others1 square-shaped1 were written upon both sides4 ,the grammarian ,crates1 ambassador of ,eumenius at ,rome1 passed as the inventor of vellum4 ,ordinary parchment is the skin of a goat1 sheep1 or lamb1 prepared in lime1 dressed1 scraped1 and rendered smooth by pumice-stone4 ,its principal qualities are whiteness1 thinness1 and stiffness2 but the work of the currier must have been formerly very imperfect1 for ,hildebert1 ,archbishop of ,tours in the eleventh century1 tells us that the writer1 before beginning his occupation1 8was in the habit of clearing away from the parchment1 with the aid of a razor1 the remains of fat and other gross impurities1 and then with pumice-stone to make the hair and tendons disappear30 this almost amounts to affirming that the scribes bought the hide undressed1 and1 by an elaborate preparation1 made them fit for proper use4 ,virgin parchment1 which in its grain and colour resembles vellum1 was made of the skins of those lambs and goats which had been clipped4 ,vellum1 more polished1 whiter1 more transparent1 is made1 as its name indicates1 of the hide of the calf4#eb ,it is probable that with the ,romans1 papyrus1 considering the facility they had of procuring it for themselves1 was more frequently used than parchment1 which1 at first1 was rare and costly4 ,but parchment1 more durable and of greater resistance than papyrus1 was reserved for the transcription of the most important works4 ,cicero1 who had many books on parchment in his magnificent library1 said that he had seen the 8,iliad0 copied on a scroll of pergamena which went into a nut-shell4 ,many of ,martial's epigrams prove to us that in the time of this poet books of such kind were still more numerous4 ,unfortunately1 there remains to us no writing on parchment dating from this distant period4 ,the ,virgil in the ,vatican1 and the ,terence at ,florence1 are of the fourth and fifth century of our era4 ,admitting that time destroys all1 and also that the work of the rude tribes on many occasions assisted this natural cause of destruction1 we must not forget that at certain periods1 to supply the place of new parchment when it was scarce1 a plan had been devised of making the parchment rolls which had already been used for manuscripts serve again ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbh4--,miniature of the ,ninth ,century1 representing an ,evangelist who is transcribing with the ,calamus1 on ,parchment1 the ,sacred ,text1 of which he is receiving the revelation4 7,bibl4 de ,bourgogne1 ,brussels47 for a similar purpose1 either by scraping and rubbing them with pumice-stone1 or by boiling them in water or soaking in lime4 ,there is no doubt but the scarceness and the dearness of parchment was the cause of the loss of very many excellent works4 ,muratori cites1 for example1 a manuscript of the ,ambrosian ,library1 of which the writing1 dating from eight or nine centuries back1 had been substituted for another of more than a thousand years old2 and ,maffei informs us that the employment of ancient parchment scraped and washed became so general1 in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 throughout ,germany1 that the ,emperors put a stop to this dangerous abuse by issuing an order to the notaries to use nothing but parchment 8quite new40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbi4--,view of the ,ancient ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis and its ,dependencies4 ,generally1 the quality of parchment serves to determine the date of its manufacture4 ,the vellum of manuscripts till the middle of the eleventh century is very white and thin2 the parchment of the twelfth century is thick1 rough1 and brownish1 which often shows it has been scraped or washed4 ,the greater number of fine manuscripts are on ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccj4--,seal of the ,university of ,paris 7,fourteenth ,century71 after one of the ,dies preserved in the ,collection of ,medals in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris4 virgin parchment1 which from its nature was suited to the delicacies of calligraphy and illumination4 ,moreover1 we see from a statute of the ,university of ,paris1 dated #abia1 that the parchment trade had attained at that period to considerable development2 so1 as a protection against the frauds and deceptions which might result from the great competition of traders in it1 and to insure a good article being furnished to students and artists1 a special privilege was granted to the university1 which1 in the person of its rector1 had not only the right of inspection1 but also the refusal of all parchment bought in ,paris1 no matter whence it had come4 ,besides which1 at the fair of ,lendit1 which was held every year at ,saint-,denis1 on the domains of the abbey 7,fig4 #cbi71 and at the fair of ,saint-,lazare1 the rector likewise caused the parchment brought to them to be examined1 and the merchants of ,paris could not purchase any till the king's agents1 those of the ,bishop of ,paris1 and the masters and scholars of the university1 had provided themselves with what they required 7,fig4 #ccj74 ,let us add that the rector was paid a duty on all parchment sold1 and the result of this tax was the only source of income attached to the rectorship in the seventeenth century4 ,although white parchment seems to be the best suited for writing1 the ,middle ,ages1 following the example of antiquity1 gave to the material various tints1 especially purple and yellow4 ,the purple was chiefly intended to receive characters of gold or silver4 ,the ,emperor ,maximinius1 the younger1 inherited from his mother the works of ,homer inscribed in gold on purple vellum2 and parchment tinted in this way was1 during the first centuries1 one of the prerogatives reserved for princes and the great dignitaries of the ,church4 ,it is remarkable that the barbarism of the seventh and eighth centuries did not diminish the favour in which these luxurious manuscripts were held4 ,little by little1 however1 the custom 7of writing the entire work in gold or colours7 dwindled away4 ,scribes began by colouring a few pages only in each volume1 then some margins or frontispieces2 and lastly this decoration was restricted to the heads of chapters1 or to words to which great prominence was to be given1 or to capital letters4 ,the rubricatores 7literally1 writers in red71 workmen who performed this operation1 came in time to be mere painters of letters or rubrics 7so called because they were originally painted red71 of whose assistance1 however1 the first printers availed themselves to rubric or colour the initials of missals1 ,bibles1 and law books4 ,the dimensions or sizes of our books at the present day have their origin in the sizes of the parchment in olden times4 ,the entire skin of the animal1 cut square and folded in two1 represented the 8in-folio10 which1 moreover1 varied in length and breadth2 and we have every reason to suppose that paper1 from the day it was invented1 followed the ordinary sizes of the folded parchment4 ,as to the dimensions of the parchment employed for diplomas1 they varied according to the time1 the brevity of the matter1 or the nature of its employment4 ,among the ancients1 who wrote only on one side of the parchment1 the skins were cut in bands joined together so as to form volumes or rolls1 which were unrolled as their contents were read4 ,this custom was preserved for public and judicial acts for a long time after the invention of the square book 7codex7 had caused the opisthographic writing to be adopted1 by which is to be understood writing on both sides of the page4 ,in principle1 only the final formul1 or the signatures1 were written on the back of the document4 ,by degrees people adopted the practice of writing on the back as well as the front of the page2 but it was not till the sixteenth century that this custom became general4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cca4--,seal of the ,king of ,la ,basoche4 7,this title was suppressed1 with all its prerogatives1 by ,henry ,,iii47 ,judicial acts1 composed sometimes of many skins sewed together1 came in time to form rolls of twenty feet in length2 to such extreme proportions did they reach1 though at first they were so small in size that their limited dimensions are truly incredible2 for in #abcc and #abeb we find contracts of sales of two inches long by five inches wide1 and in #abeh a will written on a piece of parchment of two inches by three and a half4 ,it was by way of compensating for the great cost of parchment that opisthographic writing was adopted and rolls were put aside2 and the name alone remains as applied to the rolls of procedure4 ,the size that leaves should assume was also fixed1 according to the different uses for which they were intended4 ,for instance1 the leaves of parliamentary documents were nine inches and a half long by seven and a half wide2 those of the council1 ten by eight2 those of finance and of private contracts1 twelve and a half by nine and a half2 letters of pardon1 under the king's hand1 were to be on entire skins squared1 two feet two inches by one foot eight inches in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccb4--,the ,paper-,maker1 drawn and engraved in the ,sixteenth ,century by ,j4 ,amman4 ,but while the use of parchment was still strictly employed in the chancellor's offices and the tribunals1 where the basoche 7a brotherhood of lawyers of all grades7 considered it as one of their most lucrative privileges 7,fig4 #cca71 it had for a long while ceased to be used anywhere else4 ,paper1 after having during many centuries competed with parchment1 at last almost entirely replaced it 7,fig4 #ccb72 for if less durable1 it had the great advantage of costing much less4 ,formerly nothing but the ancient papyrus of ,egypt was known1 and it was made use of concurrently with parchment till there was brought into ,europe1 towards the tenth century1 cotton paper1 which is generally believed to be a ,chinese invention1 and which was at first called ,grecian parchment1 because the ,venetians1 who introduced it into the ,west1 had found it in use in ,greece4 ,actually1 this paper was at first of a very inferior quality1 coarse1 spongy1 dull1 and subject to the attacks of damp and worms2 so much so that the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 issued1 in #abba1 an order declaring null and void all documents written on it1 and fixing the term at two years by which all were to be transcribed on parchment4 ,the use and the knowledge of the process of manufacturing paper from cotton soon led to the fabrication of paper from linen or rags4 ,it is1 however1 impossible to say when and where it was accomplished--the assertions and the testimonies on this point are so contradictory4 ,some think that the paper was brought from the ,east by the ,spanish ,saracens2 others say it came from ,china2 these affirm it has been employed since the tenth century2 those1 that we can only find specimens of it as far back as the reign of ,st4 ,louis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccc4--,water-,marks on ,paper1 from the ,fourteenth to the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,at any rate1 the most ancient writing on paper made of rags known at the present day is a letter from ,joinville to ,louis ,x41 dated #acae2 we may1 moreover1 mention with certainty1 as written on linen paper1 an inventory of goods belonging to a certain ,prior ,henry1 who died in #acdj1 which is preserved at ,canterbury1 and many authentic writings1 dating back as far as #acce1 preserved in the ,british ,museum1 ,london4 ,the first paper-manufactory established in ,england was1 it is said1 at ,hertford1 which dates only from #aehh2 but important paper-manufactories existed in ,france from the reign of ,philippe de ,valois1 that is1 from the middle of the fourteenth century2 particularly at ,essonne and at ,troyes4 ,the paper which came from these manufactories bore generally1 in the paper itself1 different marks 7,fig4 #ccc7 called water-marks1 such as a bull's head1 a cross1 a serpent1 a star1 a crown1 c41 according to the quality or destination of the paper4 ,many other countries in ,europe had also flourishing paper-manufactories in the fourteenth century4 ,from this period we find1 indeed1 a large number of documents written on paper made of rags1 the use of which thus preceded by about a century the invention of printing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccd4--;,banner of the ,paper-,makers of ,paris4 ,,manuscripts ,manuscripts in ,olden ,times4--,their ,form4--,materials of which they were composed4--,their ,destruction by the ,goths4--,rare at the ,beginning of the ,middle ,ages4--,the ,catholic ,church preserved and multiplied them4--,copyists4--,transcription of ,diplomas4--,corporation of ,scribes and ,booksellers4--,palography4--,greek ,writings4--,uncial and ,cursive ,manuscripts4--,sclavonic ,writings4--,latin ,writers4--,tironian ,shorthand4--,lombardic ,characters4--,diplomatic4--,capetian4-- ,ludovicinian4--,gothic4--,runic4-- ,visigothic4--,anglo-,saxon4--,irish4 ,let the reader refer to the chapters on ,,parchment and ,,binding1 and he will find a few remarks on the purely material part of manuscripts2 we may1 then1 here treat this question very summarily2 and for that purpose we shall avail ourselves of the remarkable work of ,j4 ,j4 ,champollion-,figeac4 ,when writing was once invented1 and had passed into general use in civilised society1 the choice of substances suited for its reception1 and to fix it in a durable manner1 was very diversified1 although depending on the nature of the text to be written4 ,people wrote on stone1 on metals1 on the bark and leaves of many kinds of trees1 on dried or baked clay1 on wood1 on ivory1 wax1 linen1 the hides of quadrupeds1 on parchment1 the best of these preparations2 on papyrus1 which is the inner bark of a reed growing in the ,nile2 then on paper made of cotton2 and lastly1 on paper made from hemp and flax1 called rag paper4 ,the ,roman world had adopted the use of papyrus1 which was a very important branch of commerce at ,alexandria4 ,we find proof of this in the writers of antiquity3 ,st4 ,jerome bears witness to it as far as regards the fifth century of our era4 ,the ,latin and ,greek emperors gave their diplomas on papyrus4 ,popes traced their most ancient bulls upon it4 ,the charters of the kings of ,france of the first race were also issued on papyrus4 ,from the eighth century parchment contended with papyrus2 a little later cotton paper also became its competitor1 and the eleventh century is generally fixed on as the period when papyrus was entirely superseded by the new materials appropriated to the preservation of writing4 ,for writing on papyrus the brush or reed was employed1 with inks of different colours2 black ink was1 however1 most generally used4 ,there grew on the banks of the ,nile1 at the time when the reed furnished papyrus1 another sort of reed1 stiffer and also more flexible1 and admirably suited for the manufacture of the calamus1 an instrument supplying the place of the pen1 which was not adopted before the eighth century4 ,the size of manuscripts was in no way subject to fixed rules1 there were volumes of all dimensions2 the most ancient on parchment are1 in general1 longer than they are broad1 or else are square2 the writing rests on a line traced with the dry point of the calamus1 and afterwards with black-lead2 the parts making up a volume are composed of an indeterminate number of leaves2 a word or a figure1 placed at the bottom of the last page of each part and at the end of the volume1 serves as a catchword from one fasciculus to another4 ,the emperors of ,constantinople used to sign in red ink the acts of their sovereignty2 their first secretary was the guardian of the vase containing the cinnabar 7vermilion71 which the emperor alone might use4 ,some diplomas of the kings of ,france of the second race are signed in the same manner4 ,in valuable manuscripts1 great use was made of golden ink1 especially when the parchment was dyed purple2 but red ink was almost always employed for capital letters or for the titles of books1 and for a long time after the invention of printing the volumes still had the rubrics 7ruber1 red7 painted or beautifully executed with the pen4 ,the greater number of rich manuscripts1 even when they contained the text of some ancient secular author1 were destined to be presented to the treasuries of churches and abbeys1 and these offerings were not made without great display3 the book1 whatever its contents might be1 was placed on the altar1 and a solemn mass was celebrated on the occasion2 moreover1 an inscription at the end of the work mentioned the homage which had been paid for it to ,god and to the saints in paradise4 ,we must not forget that in this time of almost universal ignorance1 the ,church was the only depository of literature and science2 she sought after those heathen authors who could instruct her in eloquence that might be employed in advancing the faith1 almost as much as she sought for sacred books2 it was not rare even to see ,christian zeal exalting itself so far as to find prophets of the ,messiah in writers very anterior to the doctrines of ,christ4 ,thus the best ,greek and ,latin manuscripts of profane authors are the work of monks1 as were the ,bibles and the writings of the ,fathers of the ,church4 ,the rules of the most ancient brotherhoods recommended the monks who could write and who wished to please ,god to re-copy the manuscripts1 and those who were illiterate to learn to bind them4 8,the work of the copyist10 said the learned ,alcuin to his contemporaries1 8is a meritorious work1 which is profitable to the soul1 while the work of the ploughman is profitable only to the belly40 ,at all periods of history we find mention made of certain celebrated manuscripts4 ,we will not go so far back as the ,greek traditions relating to the works of ,homer1 of which some copies were ornamented with a richness that has1 probably1 never been surpassed4 ,in the fifth century ,st4 ,jerome possessed twenty-five parts of the works of ,origen1 which ,pamphilus the ,martyr had copied with his own hand4 ,st4 ,ambrose1 ,st4 ,fulgentius1 ,hincmar1 ,archbishop of ,rheims1 men as learned as they were pious1 applied themselves to reproducing with their own hands the best ancient texts4 ,a copyist by profession was called scriba1 scriptor2 the place in which they generally worked was called scriptorium4 ,the capitularies against bad copyists were frequently renewed4 8,we ordain that no scribe write incorrectly10 we find in the collection of ,baluze4 ,we read in the same collection1 in #ghi1 8,there shall be good ,catholic texts in all monasteries1 so that prayers shall not be made to ,god in faulty language40 ,in #hje1 8,if the ,gospels1 the ,psalter1 or the ,missal are to be copied1 only careful middle-aged men are to be employed2 verbal errors may otherwise be introduced into the faith40 ,there were1 moreover1 correctors who rectified the work of the copyists1 and attested the work1 on the volumes1 by the words contuli1 emendavi 78,i have collated1 ,i have revised074 ,a copy of ,origen's works has been mentioned1 corrected by the hand of ,charlemagne himself1 to whom is also attributed the introduction of full stops and commas4 ,the same care presided over the preparation of royal charters and diplomas2 the referendaries or chancellors drew them up and superintended their despatch2 the principal officers of the crown intervened1 as guarantors or witnesses to them1 and these acts were read publicly before they were signed and sealed4 ,notaries and witnesses guaranteed the authenticity of private charters4 ,as long as printing did not exist in ,france1 the corporation of scribes1 copyists of charters1 and copyists of manuscripts1 which counted among them booksellers1 was very numerous and very influential1 since it was composed of graduates of the university that patronised them and placed them among the number of its indispensable agents4 ,he who desired to become a bookseller had to give proof of his instruction and of his ability2 he was obliged to take an oath 8not to commit any deception1 fraud1 or evil thing which might damage or prejudice the university1 its scholars and frequenters1 nor to rob nor speak ill of them40 ,besides which he was compelled to deposit a sum of fifty francs 7livres parisis7 as caution-money4 ,the rules imposed on scribes and on booksellers were always very strict1 and this severity was only too justly occasioned by the abuses that existed1 and by the scandalous disorder of the people who exercised these professions4 ,in the year #acbd the university published this order3--8,there will be admitted only people of good conduct and morals1 sufficiently acquainted with the book trade1 and previously approved by the university4 ,the bookseller may not take a clerk into his service till that clerk has sworn1 before the university1 to exercise his profession according to the ordinances4 ,the bookseller must give to the university a list of the works which he sells2 he must not refuse to let a manuscript to whomsoever may wish to make a copy of it1 on payment of the indemnity fixed by the university4 ,he is forbidden to let out books that have not been corrected1 and those students who find an incorrect copy are requested to denounce it publicly to the rector1 so that the bookseller who has let it out may be punished1 and that the copy may be corrected by scholares 7learned men or scholars74 ,there shall be every year four commissioners chosen to fix the price of books4 ,one bookseller shall not sell a work to another bookseller before he has exposed the work for sale during four days4 ,in any case the seller is obliged to register the name of the purchaser1 to describe him1 and to state the price for which the book was sold40 ,from century to century this legislation underwent variations1 according to the ideas of the times3 and when the printing-press came1 in the middle of the fifteenth century1 to change the face of the world1 the corporation of scribes rose at first against the new art which was to ruin them4 8,but at last10 says ,champollion-,figeac1 8they submitted1 and temporary measures were recommended to the public authorities for the defence of an ancient order of things which could not long resist the new40 ,now let us go back to the first centuries of the ,middle ,ages1 to resume the question from a palographic point of view4 ,the languages and literature of modern ,europe are all ,greek or ,latin1 ,sclavonic or ,gothic2 these four great families of peoples and of languages have existed in spite of the vicissitudes of politics4 ,such is the basis whereon must be found all the researches by which we are to establish the origin and nature of the writing peculiar to each literature4 ,the ,greeks of ,constantinople taught writing to the ,sclavonic race1 and with it the ,christian faith4 ,the most ancient ,greek writing 7we speak of the ,christian era only7 was the capital writing1 regular and well-proportioned2 as it became general it was simplified more and more4 ,after this sort of writing1 examples of which are found only on stone or bronze1 we come to the writing called1 although we do not know why1 uncial1#ec which1 was the first step towards the ,greek cursive 7flowing74 ,uncial writing was employed1 in ,greek manuscripts1 up to the ninth century2 we may observe the transition from the uncial to the half-uncial1 and from the half-uncial to the minuscule4#ed ,in the tenth century manuscripts in minuscule became very abundant--the tachygrapher's 71 quick1 and 1 ,i write71 or the partisans of quick writing1 gained the day2 the caligraphers 71 beautiful1 and ,i write7 desired to follow their example4 ,these employed a great deal of time in painting the initials of running letters3 the new method1 which produced more in the same space of time1 easily got into favour2 the caligraphers abandoned the uncial and adopted the minuscule characters connected together1 which combined good forms with greater facility of execution4 ,thenceforward1 the uncial was no longer employed except for the titles or headings of books4 ,among the fine specimens of this epoch which have been preserved1 we may mention1 in the ,imperial ,library of ,paris1 a ,book of the ,gospels1 called ,cardinal ,mazarin's1 and the ,commentaries of ,gregory ,nazianzus2 at the ,laurentinean ,library1 ,florence1 are a ,plutarch and a ,book of the ,gospels1 written with gold ink in large and massive minuscule cursive characters2 and lastly1 a book of ecclesiastical offices1 belonging also to the ,imperial ,library in ,paris1 and which bears this superscription in ,greek3--8,pray for ,euthymus1 a poor monk1 priest of the monastery of ,st4 ,lazare4 ,this volume was finished in the month of ,may1 ,convocation ,s1 in the year #feae10 a date which1 according to the computation of the ,greek ,church1 corresponds to the month of ,may of the year #ajjg of the ,christian era4 ,to the twelfth century is assigned the beautiful ,greek manuscript which was afterwards given to ,louis ,,xiv4 by ,chrysanthes ,noras1 ,patriarch of ,jerusalem2 to the thirteenth century belongs another manuscript1 in very small cursive letters1 ornamented with portraits1 presented by the ,emperor ,palologos to ,st4 ,louis4 ,it was only in the fourteenth century that manuscripts half ,latin and half ,greek1 appeared4 ,lastly came ,ange ,vgce1 of ,corfu1 who1 towards the middle of the fifteenth century1 made for himself1 as a ,greek caligrapher1 such a reputation that he gave1 it is said1 rise to the proverb1 8crire comme un ange40 ,the ,greek alphabet1 when it penetrated into the countries of the north with the ,christian religion and civilisation1 underwent important modifications4 ,on the right bank of the ,danube1 in ancient ,msia1 ,ulphilas1 the descendant of a ,cappadocian family formerly taken prisoner by the ,goths1 invented1 in the fourth century1 the alphabet bearing1 on that account1 the name of ,mso-,gothic1 and which is of ,greek origin1 with a mixture of ,latin characters and other peculiar signs4 ,this writing is heavy1 without being elegant2 differing1 as if by an instinct of nationality1 from the types which it imitates4 ,the ,mso-,gothic manuscripts are1 however1 very rare2 only two or three being known4 ,the ,sclavonic writing1 which is also a daughter of ,greece1 has a history nearly similar to that of the ,mso-,gothic4 ,when the people of this family were converted to ,christianity1 they were brought over to it by ,greek ,christians1 and the ,patriarch ,cyril1 in the ninth century1 became their teacher2 he taught them1 how to write 7which they never knew till then71 and it was the ,greek alphabet they adopted1 adding to it1 however1 a few new signs1 so that they might be able to express the sounds peculiar to their language4 ,sclavonic manuscripts are positively numerous in public libraries4 ,we find them in ,paris1 ,bologna1 and ,rome1 but above all in ,germany1 and in the country under the dominion of the ,muscovite4 ,one of the most celebrated is that belonging to the town of ,rheims1 and which is known by the name of 8,texte du ,sacre10 because a tradition 7an erroneous one1 however7 asserts that the kings of ,france1 at the time of their coronation at ,rheims1 took the oaths on this book1 which was said to be written by the hand of ,st4 ,procopius4 ,the ,sclavonic manuscripts in general recommend themselves less by the elegance of their execution than by the richness of their bindings4 ,the actual ,russian alphabet is but an abridgment of the alphabet called the ,cyrilian1 reduced to forty-two signs by the ,emperor ,peter ,i42 so that the ,sclavonic nations knew two ,cyrilian alphabets1 the ancient ,sclavonic for the liturgical writings1 and the modern ,sclavonic1 or ,russian1 in general use4 ,of the first no manuscripts exist earlier than the eleventh century of our era4 ,the manuscripts of the ,latins are1 without doubt1 more numerous and more varied1 because the ,latin ,church is more extensive1 and because ,roman civilisation spread itself over a larger number of ,european provinces4 ,at the head of the manuscripts of the ,latin writing is placed a fragment of papyrus1 found in ,egypt1 on which is inscribed an imperial edict for the annulment of a sale of property1 agreed upon in consequence of some violence committed by a certain man named ,isidore2 the date of this document has been fixed as the third century4 ,for the fourth century we have the 8,virgil10 with miniatures1 which we mention elsewhere 7,,miniatures ,,of ,,manuscripts71 and a 8,terence10 both belonging to the ,vatican ,library1 and both written in capital letters2 in the latter1 however1 they are irregular1 and called1 on that account1 rustic capitals4 ,to the same period we must refer the 8,treatise on the ,republic10 by ,cicero1 which has but lately been found in a volume from which the previous writing had been effaced1 as was often the case 7see ,,parchment ,,and ,,paper71 in order to make room for the new writing4 ,for the fifth century we have a second 8,virgil10 with miniatures1 which passed from the library of the ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis into that of the ,vatican4 ,the 8,prudence10 which the ,imperial ,library of ,paris still possesses1 is a very fine manuscript of the sixth century1 written1 in rustic capitals1 quaint but elegant4 ,two other kinds of writing were1 at the same period1 in use among the ,latins2 this same rustic capital1 ceasing to be rectangular1 and rounded in its principal strokes1 became the uncial2 and for that very reason being much more expeditious1 was reserved especially for the copying of works2 while the cursive1 although sometimes employed for manuscripts1 was used chiefly in letter-writing4 ,of the first of these two writings1 the uncial1 we have two fine specimens of the sixth century in the 8,sermons0 of ,st4 ,augustine1 on papyrus 7,fig4 #ccf71 and in a ,psalter of ,st4 ,germain-des-,prs1 written in letters of silver on purple vellum1 both of which now belong to the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris4 ,in the same century1 we find a kind of writing called half-uncial1 which became more and more expeditious by the change made in certain of its forms4 ,there was then also a ,gallican uncial1 the form of which we can see in the manuscript said to be by ,st4 ,prosper 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris72 and an uncial of ,italy1 among which figure the ,bible of ,mont-,amiati1 at ,florence2 the palimpsest#ee ,homilies of the ,vatican1 and the admirable ,book of the ,gospels at ,notre-,dame1 ,paris 7,fig4 #ccg74 ,the most ancient style of cursive writing1 employed in charts and diplomas1 is to be seen in the deeds known by the name of charters of ,ravenna1 from the name of the town in which they were first discovered4 ,we may consider as analogous to these the writing of the ,acts of our early kings1 very difficult to read on account of the exaggerated manner in which the thin strokes join the letters together1 and by the indefinite forms of the up and down strokes4 ,we give a fragment 7,fig4 #cch7 taken from an original chart1 on parchment1 of ,childebert ,,iii4 ,we see what the same writing had become in #ghd by ,fig4 #cci1 copied from an original capitulary of ,charlemagne4 ,to the same period belongs the employment1 in ordinary use among chancellors and notaries1 of a writing completely tachygraphic2 it is composed of ciphers1 one of which took the place of a syllable or a word4 ,this writing was called ,tironian1 because the invention of it is attributed to ,tiro1 ,cicero's freed-man1 who made use of it in tachygraphing1 or1 as we should now say1 stenographing 7short-hand71 the speeches of the illustrious orator4 ,fig4 #cdj is taken from a psalter of the eighth century1 of which the text is transcribed with the tachygraphic characters of that period4 ,the name of ,visigothic is given to the writing of manuscripts executed in the south of ,france and in ,spain during the rule of the ,goths and the ,visigoths2 this writing1 still rather ,roman1 is generally round and embellished with fanciful strokes1 which render it agreeable to the eye4 ,we also find in ,italy the ,lombardic1 in use for diplomas till the twelfth century4 ,the beautiful manuscripts on purple vellum are of the time of ,charlemagne1 when luxury in the arts showed itself in all forms4 ,there is in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 a magnificent volume1 which came from the ancient domain of ,soubise1 that contains the ,epistles and ,gospels for all the festivals of the year3 the execution of this work is perfect2 the gigantic capital letters1 of ,anglo-,saxon form1 are coloured1 and rendered still richer by being dotted with gold4 ,a valuable manuscript of the 8,tractus ,temporum0 of the ,venerable ,bede1 a manuscript posterior by more than two hundred years to the author1 who lived in the beginning of the eighth century1 affords a specimen of one of the varieties of minuscule writings1 which in ,france was called the ,lombardic writing of books1 because it was in use during the reign of the ,lombard kings beyond the ,alps2 it is more difficult to read than the ,roman1 though similar in form1 because the words are not separated4 ,a beautiful manuscript of 8,horace0 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris71 which presents a mixture of the different kinds of ,roman writing of the period1 is attributed to the same century4 ,we have in ,fig4 #cda an elegant ornamental capital1 taken from a manuscript1 8,commentaries of ,st4 ,jerome10 also in the ,imperial ,library4 ,we find specimens of writing of ,anglo-,saxon origin1 capital letters1 and running text1 in many books of the ,gospel4 ,the diplomatic writing of the tenth century is here represented by a charter of the king1 ,hugh ,capet1 from which we borrow ,fig4 #cdb2 it must have been issued between #ihh and #iif4 ,in this fragment1 the first line only is composed of characters very elongated1 close together1 mixed with some capital letters and some singular forms4 ,it bears witness to the fact that the fine ,merovingian writing had then singularly degenerated4 ,in the eleventh century the minuscule of manuscripts was characterised by its angular forms1 which caused it to receive the name of ,capetian4 ,then the ,capetian1 exaggerated in its tendency towards its strokes and angles1 became the ,ludovician1 which announces the thirteenth century1 and characterises the reign of ,st4 ,louis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cce4--,scribe or ,copyist1 in his ,work-room1 surrounded by ,open ,manuscripts1 and ,writing at a ,desk4 7,from a ,miniature of the ,fifteenth ,century47 ,however1 manuscripts of the thirteenth century abound1 and the history of the writing of the period of ,st4 ,louis and of the three centuries succeeding it1 may be summed up in these words3--8,the ,capetian writing called ,ludovician1 when it had come to differ still more from the beautiful forms of the writings of ,charlemagne's time or the renovated ,roman1 was more and more deformed1 and these successive degradations became so complicated that the writing1 in the seventeenth century1 resulted in being perfectly illegible4 ,thus can be generalised all the precepts relative to the state of writing1 in the manuscripts and the charters in ,france1 for this period of three hundred years0 7,fig4 #cdc74 ,it was1 however1 the era of the richest manuscripts1 that in which was brought to perfection the art of ornamenting them1 when the pencil of the miniature-painter and the pen of the caligrapher1 conjointly1 produced some masterpieces 7,fig4 #cdd74 ,this was also the time when the corporation of writers became numerous and powerful 7,fig4 #cce74 ,one of the most distinguished members of this society was that ,nicholas ,flamel1 about whom so many fabulous legends have been invented4 ,we give1 as a specimen of his magnificent cursive writing 7,fig4 #cde71 the fac-simile of one of the ex libris inscriptions he placed at the beginning of all the books belonging to ,duke ,jean de ,berry1 whose secretary and bookseller he was4#ef ,in other countries than ,france1 in ,germany especially1 ,gothic writing was easily diffused4 ,german manuscripts differ little from those of ,france4 ,we observe only that ,german writing continued to be very fine till the middle of the thirteenth century1 at which period it became irregular1 angular1 and bristling with sharp points4 ,that which has just been said of ,germany in particular is naturally applicable to ,east and ,west ,flanders1 and to the ,low ,countries4 ,during the fifteenth century1 under the impulse given by the ,dukes of ,burgundy1 whose influence we have already mentioned1 the most important chronicles1 the best histories then extant1 were magnificently transcribed in that beautiful ,gothic minuscule1 thick1 massive and angular1 which was called lettre de forme2 and we find it again in some ancient editions of the end of the fifteenth century 7,fig4 #cdf71 and of the beginning of the sixteenth4 ,in more northern countries the ,runic alphabet was made use of1 to which for a long while a marvellous origin was attributed1 but which the ,benedictines justly regarded as an imitation1 or rather as a corruption1 of the ,latin alphabet4 ,there exist in the ,runic language inscriptions on stone and on wood1 some manuscripts on vellum1 and ,irish books on parchment and on paper4 ,in the south1 the writing seems constantly to have reflected the lively and frank spirit of its inhabitants1 among whom was perpetuated the profound impress of the old ,roman civilisation4 ,the minuscule continued as high as it was long1 thin1 and distinct2 even when it was altered by the influence of the ,gothic1 it was still beautiful1 and1 above all1 legible1 as we may be convinced of by examining a fine manuscript entitled 8,specchio della ,croce0 78,mirror of the ,cross071 of the thirteenth century2 and a precious manuscript of ,dante1 of the fourteenth century1 both belonging to the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris4 ,we may adopt for ,spain the same opinions as for ,italy4 ,there was in that country also writing of great merit1 handed down from the ,romans1 which received1 as we have already said1 the name of ,visigothic4 ,the ,visigothic writing of the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 of the eleventh especially1 is a minuscule of the most graceful kind4 ,but ,gothicism1 by the ,capetian and the ,ludovician coming in as intermediate agents1 at last corrupted this elegant and delicate writing1 as we see in the collection of ,spanish troubadours1 formed by order of ,john ,,ii41 ,king of ,castile and ,leon1 about #addj2 a celebrated manuscript in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris4 ,into ,england1 where the ,anglo-,saxon type reigned supreme1 the ,norman conquest introduced the ,french writing in charters and manuscripts4 ,and lastly1 among the writings called national1 we must again mention that of ,ireland1 of which there are fine examples remaining2 but upon examination they prove to be nothing but a variety of the ,anglo-,saxon4 ,it is said to have been in use since the sixth century2 and we find that in spite of divers conquests it continued to be employed till the fifteenth century4 ,it was even known and employed in ,france1 although it by no means recommends itself by its elegance1 as is attested1 among other manuscripts1 by that of the 8,homilies of ,st4 ,augustine10 in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 which is supposed to belong to the eighth century4 ,here our summary review of palographic examples at different periods of the ,middle ,ages comes to an end4 ,we might follow up our investigations on this point1 even after the time when the printing-press was invented1 since manuscripts are found of the reign of ,louis ,,xiv42 but they were nothing but fanciful inutilities2 each century1 in order to show itself in its true light1 should follow the instincts and the inspirations which belong to it4 ,,fac-,,simile ,,of ,,manuscripts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccf4--,writing of the ,sixth ,century1 with ,capital ,letters1 from a ,manuscript1 on ,papyrus1 of the 8,sermons of ,st4 ,augustine40 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,,text4--,spes nostra est non de isto tempore1 neque de mundo est1 neque in ea felicitate4444 ,,translation4--,our hope is not of this time1 nor is it of the world1 nor in that felicity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccg4--,title and ,capital ,letters of the ,seventh ,century1 from a ,book of the ,gospels of ,notre-,dame1 ,paris4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,,text4--,incipit prfatio4 ,,translation4--,here begins the ,preface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cch4--,writing of the end of the ,seventh ,century1 after a ,diploma of ,childebert ,,iii41 for the ,gift of a ,villa to the ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis4 7,this ,fac-simile gives only the half of the length of the lines47 ,,text4-- ,childeberthus rex ,se oportune beneficia ad loca sanctorum quod pro juvamen servorum4444 ,et hoc nobis ad eterna retributione pertenire confidemus4 ,ideoque4444 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cci4--,writing of the ,eighth ,century1 from a ,capitulary of ,charlemagne1 addressed to ,pope ,adrian ,i4 in #ghd4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,,text4--,primo ,capitulo4 ,salutant vos dominus noster1 filius vester1 ,carolus rex et filia vestra domna nostra ,fastrada1 filii et fil domini nostri simul1 et omnis domus sua4 ,,ii4 ,salutant vos cuncti sacerdotes1 episcopi et abbates1 atque omnis congregatio illorum in ,dei servicio constituta etiam1 et universus populus ,franconum4 ,,translation4--,i4 ,our lord1 your son1 ,king ,charles and your daughter our ,lady ,fastrada1 salute thee1 also the sons and daughters of our ,lord1 and all his house4 ,,ii4 ,all the priests1 bishops1 and abbots salute thee1 as also the whole congregation of those who are established in the service of ,god1 and the whole of the ,french people4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdj4--,tironian ,writing of the ,eighth ,century1 from a ,latin ,psalter4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,,text4--,exsurge1 ,domine1 in ira tua et exaltare in finibus inimicorum meorum1 et exsurge1 ,domine ,deus meus1 in precepto quod mandasti2 et sinagoga populorum circomdabit1 te1 et propter hanc in altum regredere4 ,,translation4--,arise1 ,o ,lord1 in thine anger1 lift up thyself because of the rage of mine enemies3 and awake for me to the judgment that thou hast commanded4 ,so shall the congregation of the people compass thee about3 for their sakes therefore return thou on high4--7,psalm vii4 #f1 #g47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cda4--,writing of the ,tenth ,century1 after a ,manuscript of the 8,commentaries of ,st4 ,jerome40 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,,text4--,qui nolunt inter epistolas ,pauli eam recipere qu ad ,filemonem scribitur aiunt non semper apostolum nec omnia ,christo in se loquente dixisse4 ,quia neque 444 ,,translation4--,those who are unwilling to receive among the epistles of ,st4 ,paul that which is written to ,philemon1 deny that the ,apostles spoke everything and at all times under the inspiration of ,christ4 ,because neither 444 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdb4--;,diplomatic ,writing of the ,tenth ,century1 from a ,charter of ,hugh ,capet4 7,archives of the ,empire47 ,this ,fac-simile gives only half the length of the lines4 ,,text 7completely restored47--,in nomine sanct et individu ,trinitatis1 ,hugo gratia ,dei ,francorum rex4 ,mos et consuetudo regum prdecessorum nostrorum semper exstitit ut ecclesias ,dei sublimarent et justis petitionibus servorum ,dei clementer faverent1 et oppressionem eorum benigne sublevarent1 ut ,deum propitium haberent1 eujus amore id fecissent4 ,hujus rei gratia1 auditis clamoribus venerabilis ,abbonis abbatis monasterii ,s4 ,mari1 ,s4 ,petri et ,s4 ,benedicti ,floriacensis et monachorum sub eo degentium1 nostram presentiam adeuntium1 pro malis consuetudinibus et assiduis rapinis 444 ,,translation4--,in the name of the holy and indivisible ,trinity1 ,hugh1 by the grace of ,god1 ,king of the ,francs4 ,the custom and habit of the kings our predecessors has always been to honour the churches of ,god1 and to show themselves mercifully favourable to the just petitions of the servants of ,god1 and to deliver them kindly from oppression1 so that ,god might be propitious to them1 for the love of whom they thus acted4 ,for this cause1 having heard the complaints of the venerable ,abbon1 ,abbot of the ,monastery of ,our ,lady1 ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,benedict1 of ,fleury-sur-,loire1 and those of the monks living under his direction1 and who came into our presence1 on account of the bad customs and continual rapines 444 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdc4--;,cursive ,writing of the ,fifteenth ,century1 after an ,original ,letter1 taken from 8,recueil des ,lettres de ,rois40 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,,text4--,messeigneurs et freres1 si tres humblement que faire puis a voz bonnes graces me recommande4 ,messeigneurs1 j'ay receu1 voz lettres par le present porteur3 ensemble la requeste et arrest de la court par icelle ensuivy4 ,j'ay le tout communiqu a messeigneurs les generaulx de ,langue doil et ,normandie1 et nous avons souuant est ensemble4 ,ilz trouuent bien estrange1 aussi font daultres1 qui zelent le bien et honneur de la chambre ausquelz pareillement 444 ,,translation4--,my lords and brothers1 ,i commend myself as humbly as possible to your good graces4 ,my lords1 ,i received your letters by the bearer of this1 together with the petition and the decree of the court accompanying them4 ,i communicated the whole to my lords the generals of ,la ,langue d',oil and of ,normandy1 and we have often conferred together on the matter4 ,they think it very strange1 as do others also1 who are zealous for the good and the honour of the chamber1 to which equally 444 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdd4--,writing of the ,fourteenth ,century1 after a ,manuscript of 8,l',histoire ,romaine20 being a paraphrase of the text of ,valerius ,maximus4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,,text4--,eadem1 c4--,,glose4 ,ceste histoire touche ,titus ,liuius ou quint liure4 ,pourquoy il est assauoir que ou temps que les ,gals auoient prise ,romme et assis le ,capitole1 si comme il est dit deuant1 il y auoit dedens le ,capitole un jeune homme qui auoit non ,gayus ,fabius qui estoit de la lignie des ,fabiens4 ,et pour auoir la congnoissance de ceste lignie est assauoir aussi que il y ot asses pres de ,romme jadis une cite qui estoit appelee ,gabinia3 laquele cite apres moult de inconueniens se rendi a ,romme par tel conuenant que il seroient citoiens de ,romme4 ,,translation4--,eadem1 c4--,,glose4 ,livy1 in his fifth book1 touches on this history4 ,we must know that at the time when the ,gauls had taken ,rome and besieged the ,capitol1 as was said above1 there was in the ,capitol a young man named ,caius ,fabius1 and who was of the ,fabian race2 and to know this race we must also know that there was formerly near ,rome a town called ,gabinia2 which town1 after many vicissitudes1 surrendered to ,rome1 on the condition that all its inhabitants should be considered as citizens of ,rome4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cde4--;,fac-simile of the ,inscription ,ex libris1 c41 in the beginning of a ,manuscript executed by ,john ,flamel1 ,scribe and ,librarian to the ,duke de ,berry1 at the end of the ,fourteenth ,century4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,,text4--,ceste ,bible est a ,monseigneur le ,duc de ,berry4 ,,flamel4 ,,translation4--,this ,bible belongs to ,monseigneur the ,duke de ,berry4 ,,flamel4 ,,note4--,the ,duke de ,berry1 ,john1 brother of ,king ,charles ,v41 and uncle to ,king ,charles ,,vi41 was a great amateur of fine books4 ,he spent very large sums in having manuscripts copied and illuminated4 ,the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 preserves a large number of the most valuable of them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdf4--,writing of the ,fifteenth ,century1 after the ,first ,page of a ,breviary4 7,royal ,library1 ,brussels47 ,,text4--,sabbato in aduentu ,domini1 ad vesperas1 super psalmos antiphona1 ,benedictus1 psalmus1 ipsum cum ceteris antiphonis et psalmis4 ,infra capitulum4 ,ecce dies veniunt1 dicit ,dominus1 et suscitabo ,dauid germen4 ,,translation4--,on ,saturday in ,advent1 at vespers1 before the psalms chanted alternately1 7comes7 the hymn ,benedictus1 with the other antiphons and psalms4 ,after the lesson 444 8,behold the days are coming1 saith the ,lord1 and ,i will restore the seed of ,david40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdg4--;,design of a ,caligraphic ,ornament taken from a ,charter of the ,university of ,paris4 7,fifteenth ,century47 ,,miniatures ,,in ,,manuscripts4 ,miniatures at the ,beginning of the ,middle ,ages4--,the two 8,vatican0 ,virgils4--,painting of ,manuscripts under ,charlemagne and ,louis le ,dbonnaire4--,tradition of ,greek ,art in ,europe4--,decline of the ,miniature in the ,tenth ,century4--,origin of ,gothic ,art4--,fine ,manuscript of the time of ,st4 ,louis4--,clerical and ,lay ,miniature-,painters4--,caricature and the ,grotesque4--,miniatures in ,monochrome and in ,grisaille4--,illuminators at the ,court of ,france and to the ,dukes of ,burgundy4--,school of ,john ,fouquet4--,italian ,miniature-,painters4--,giulo ,clovio4--,french ,school under ,louis ,,xii4 ,contemporaneous1 almost1 with the idea which first caused oral traditions1 chronicles1 speeches1 and poetry to be collected together under the form and name of book1 is the art of ornamenting manuscripts with miniatures4 ,our intention is not to go back to the sources--as obscure as they are distant--of that art1 but only to point out its principal phases of improvement or of decay during the ,middle ,ages4 ,the most ancient known miniatures date from the very commencement of that period which is generally called the ,middle ,ages2 that is to say1 from the third and fourth centuries4 ,these paintings1 of which there exist but two or three specimens in the libraries of ,europe1 nevertheless offer1 in their correctness and masterly beauty1 the great characteristics of ancient ,art4 ,the most celebrated are those of the 8,virgil10 preserved in the ,vatican ,library 7,fig4 #cdh71 a manuscript long celebrated among learned men for the authenticity of its text4 ,another 8,virgil10 of the date of about a century later1 and which1 before its presentation to the ,pope1 was one of the most beautiful ornaments of the ancient library of the ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis1 in ,france1 contains paintings not less remarkable in respect of colour1 but very inferior as far as drawing and the style of the compositions are concerned4 ,these two incomparable examples are sufficient in themselves to show the state of the painting of manuscripts at the beginning of the ,middle ,ages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdh4--,miniature taken from the 8,virgil0 in the ,library of the ,vatican1 ,rome4 7,third or ,fourth ,century47 ,the sixth and seventh centuries have left us no books with miniatures2 the utmost we find at that period are some capital letters embellished by caligraphy4 ,in the eighth century1 on the contrary1 the ornaments were multiplied1 and some rather elegant paintings can be pointed out2 the fact is1 under the reign of ,charlemagne a movement of renovation took place in the ,arts as in literature3 the ,latin writing1 which had become illegible1 was reformed1 and the style of painting manuscripts assumed something of the form of the fine antique examples still extant at that period4 7,fig4 #cej47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdi4--,painted ,capital letters1 taken from ,manuscripts of the ,eighth or ,ninth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cej4--;,border1 taken from a ,book of the ,gospels of the ,eighth ,century4 7,library of ,vienna74 ,if we would have an idea of the heaviness and the ungraceful character of the writing and of the ornaments which accompanied it before the period of ,charlemagne1 it will suffice to examine ,fig4 #cdi4 8,it was then quite time10 says ,m4 ,aim ,champollion-,figeac1 8that the salutary influence exercised by the illustrious monarch made itself felt in the ,arts as well as in letters40 ,the first manuscripts which seem to bear witness to this progress are first a sacramentary1 said to be that of ,gellonius1 the allegorical paintings of which are of great interest in the history of ,christian symbolism2 and a ,book of the ,gospels1 now in the ,louvre3 the latter is said to have belonged to the great emperor himself1 and we reproduce one of the paintings from it 7,fig4 #cea74 ,we may mention1 as of the ninth century1 many ,books of the ,gospels1 in one of which1 given by ,louis le ,dbonnaire to the ,abbey ,st4 ,mdard de ,soissons1 the purest ,byzantine style shows itself2 then the ,bible called the 8,metz0 ,bible1 in which are paintings of large dimensions1 remarkable for the felicitous groupings of the figures and for the beauty of the draperies4 ,one of these miniatures excites an interest quite peculiar1 inasmuch as ,king ,david1 who is represented in it1 is but a copy of an ancient ,apollo1 round whom the artist has personified ,courage1 ,justice1 ,prudence1 c4 ,let us mention still further two ,bibles and a book of prayers1 the last containing a very fine portrait of the king1 ,charles the ,bald1 to whom it belonged2 and lastly1 two books really worth attention1 on account of the delicacy and freedom of the outline drawings1 for the attitudes of the characters represented1 and for the draperies1 which resemble those of ancient statues4 ,these books are a 8,terence10 preserved in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 number #g1hii in the catalogue2 and a 8,lectionary of the ,cathedal of ,metz10 from which the ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cea4--,miniature from the ,book of the ,gospels of ,charlemagne4 7,manuscript in the ,library of the ,louvre47 border 7,fig4 #ceb7 is taken4 ,while in ,france the art of painting manuscripts had progressed so much as to produce some perfect models of delicacy and taste1 ,germany had never got beyond the simplest compositions1 as we see in the 8,paraphrase on the ,gospels10 in ,theotisc 7the old ,teutonic language71 belonging to the ,library of ,vienna4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceb4--;,border of a ,lectionary in the ,cathedral of ,metz4 7,ninth ,century47 ,the artistic traditions of the ancients in the ninth century are attested by the manuscripts of ,christian ,greece1 whereof the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 possesses many magnificent specimens1 at the head of which we must place the 8,commentaries of ,gregory ,nazianzus10 ornamented with an infinite number of paintings1 in which all the resources of ancient art are applied to the representation of ,christian subjects 7,fig4 #cec74 ,the heads of the characters portrayed are admirably expressive1 and of the finest style2 the colouring of the miniatures is warm and soft2 the costumes1 the representations of buildings and of the accessories1 offer1 moreover1 very interesting subjects of study4 ,unfortunately1 these paintings were executed on a very crumbling surface1 which has in many places peeled off3 it is sad to see one of the most precious monuments of ,greek and ,christian ,art in a deplorable state of dilapidation4 ,the masterpiece of the tenth century1 which again is due to the artists of ,greece1 is a 8,psalter1 with ,commentaries10 belonging also to the ,imperial ,library 7number #aci among the ,greek manuscripts71 a work in which the miniature-painter seems not to have been able to disengage himself from the ,pagan creeds in illustrating ,biblical episodes4 ,two celebrated manuscripts of the same time1 but executed in ,france1 and preserved in the same collection1 show1 by the stiffness and incorrectness of the drawing1 that the impetus given by the genius of ,charlemagne had abated3 these are the 8,bible de ,noailles10 and the 8,bible de ,st4 ,martial10 of ,limoges 7,fig4 #cee74 ,to speak truly1 if in ,france there was a decadency1 the ,anglo-,saxon and ,visigothic artists of this period ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cec4--,miniature of the ,ninth ,century1 extracted from the 8,commentaries of ,gregory ,nazianzus10 representing the consecration of a ,bishop4 7,large folio ,manuscript in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 were also very inferior1 to judge from a ,latin ,book of the ,gospels of the tenth century painted in ,england 7,fig4 #cef72 it1 however1 proves that the art of ornamenting books had degenerated less than that of drawing the human figure4 ,another manuscript with paintings1 called ,visigothic1 containing the ,apocalypse of ,st4 ,john1 gives1 in its fantastic ornaments and animals1 an example of the strange style adopted by a certain school of miniature-painters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ced4--;,fac-smile of a ,miniature drawn with the pen1 taken from a ,bible of the ,eleventh ,century4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cee4--;,border taken from the ,bible of ,st4 ,martial of ,limoges4 7,tenth ,century47 ,germany now began to improve in the art of painting miniatures4 ,it owed this happy result to the emigration of ,greek artists1 who came to the ,german court to take refuge from the troubles of the ,east4 ,the progress accomplished in this part of ,europe shows itself in the drawing of the figures of a ,german ,book of the ,gospels of the beginning of the eleventh century1 a work very superior to that of the ,teutonic ,book of the ,gospels just referred to4 ,the border of which we give a fac-simile in ,fig4 #ceg shows also a certain degree of improvement2 it is taken from a ,book of the ,gospels of the same period1 preserved in the ,royal ,library1 ,munich4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cef4--;,border taken from a ,book of the ,gospels in ,latin1 executed in ,england4 7,tenth ,century47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceg4--;,border taken from a ,book of the ,gospels of the beginning of the ,eleventh ,century4 ,in the ,royal ,library1 ,munich4 ,but in ,france1 to foreign invasions and to misfortunes of all kinds1 which1 since the death of ,charlemagne1 had afflicted the country1 was added the terror caused by the general expectation that the world was coming to an end at the expiration of the first millennial4 ,people were1 therefore1 otherwise employed than in ornamenting books4 ,accordingly1 this epoch is one of the most barren in religious or other paintings4 ,fig4 #ceh represents the last degree of abasement in this art4 ,nothing in the world could be more barbarous1 nor farther removed from all sentiment of the beautiful1 and even from the instinctive idea of drawing4 ,ornamentation1 however1 remained sufficiently good1 although under very heavy forms1 as the ,sacramentary of thelgar1 which is preserved in the ,library of ,rouen1 shows 7,fig4 #cei74 ,the decadency1 however1 seems to have come to a stop in ,france towards the end of the eleventh century1 if we judge of the art from paintings1 executed in #ajfj1 and contained in a ,latin manuscript1 bearing the number #hah1 in the ,imperial ,library4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceh4--,miniature taken from a ,missal of the ,beginning of the ,eleventh ,century4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 ,no4 #hba47 ,in the manuscripts of the twelfth century1 the influence of the ,crusades made itself already felt4 ,at this period1 the ,east regenerated in some sort the ,west in all that concerned arts1 sciences1 and literature4 ,many examples witness that the painting of manuscripts was not the last to undergo this singular transformation4 ,everything the imagination could invent of the most fantastic was particularly brought into play to give to the ,latin letters a peculiar character--imitated1 moreover1 from the ornaments of ,saracenic architecture4 ,this practice was even applied to public acts and documents1 as ,fig4 #cfj proves2 it represents some of the initial letters in the 8,rouleau ,mortuaire0 of ,st4 ,vital4 ,callot1 in his 8,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony10 has1 we think1 imagined nothing stranger than the figure we give2 a demon standing on the back of ,cerberus forms the vertical line in the letter ,t2 while two other demons1 whose feet are in the mouth of the first1 form the two lateral branches of the letter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cei4--;,border taken from the ,sacramentary of thelgar4 7,rouen ,library47 ,in the thirteenth century1 ,saracenic or ,gothic art universally prevailed4 ,everywhere figures assumed gaunt1 elongated forms2 coats-of-arms invaded the miniatures2 but the colouring was of marvellous purity and brightness2 burnished gold1 applied with the greatest skill1 stood out from blue or purple backgrounds which even in our own day have lost nothing of their original freshness4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfj4--;,initial ,letters extracted from the 8,rouleau ,mortuaire0 of ,st4 ,vital1 ,twelfth ,century4 7,imperial ,archives of ,france47 ,among the most remarkable manuscripts of this century we must mention a ,psalter in five colours1 containing the ,french1 ,hebrew1 and ,roman versions1 with some commentaries 7,imperial ,library1 ,no4 #a1acb bis74 ,one should analyse the greater number of subjects depicted in this manuscript to understand all their importance2 we will mention only that among them are sieges of towns1 ,gothic fortresses1 interiors of ,italian banking-houses1 various musical instruments1 c4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no other manuscript which equals this in the richness1 the beauty1 and multiplicity of its paintings3 it contains ninety-nine large miniatures1 independently of ninety-six ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfa4--;,facsimile of a ,miniature of a ,psalter1 of the ,thirteenth ,century1 representing warlike1 scientific1 commercial1 and agricultural ,works4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 medallions representing divers episodes suggested by the text of the ,psalms 7,fig4 #cfa74 ,after this psalter we must place the ,breviary of ,st4 ,louis1 or rather of ,queen ,blanche1 formerly preserved in the ,arsenal ,library1 ,paris1 and now in the ,muse des ,souverains2 a celebrated manuscript which has1 on folio #aia1 this inscription3 8,c'est le ,psautier monseigneur ,st4 ,loys1 lequel fu sa mre40#eg ,but the volume is not rich in large miniatures4 ,we observe in it1 however1 a calendar ornamented with small subjects very delicately executed1 representing the labours appropriate to each month1 according to the seasons of the year4 ,the character of the paintings exhibits a style anterior to the reign of ,louis ,,ix42 and it is supposed1 indeed1 that this book first belonged to the mother of that king4 ,we must now mention another ,psalter1 which was actually used by ,st4 ,louis2 as is proved not only by an inscription at the beginning of the volume1 but still further by the fleurs-de-lis of the king1 the arms of ,blanche of ,castile1 his mother1 and perhaps also les pals de gueules of ,margaret of ,provence1 his wife4 ,nothing can equal the beautiful preservation of the miniatures in this volume1 which contains seventy-eight subjects1 with as many explanatory texts in ,french4 ,the heads of the characters1 though almost microscopic1 have nevertheless1 generally1 a fine expression4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfb4--;,a ,border taken from a ,gospel in ,latin1 of the ,thirteenth ,century4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,the 8,livre de ,clergie10 which bears the date of #abfj1 merits far less attention3 so does the 8,roman du ,roi ,artus10 ,no4 #f1ifc1 in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 executed in #abgf4 ,but we must point out two of the most beautiful examples of this period1 a ,book of the ,gospels in ,latin1 ,no4 #ffe in the ,supplement1 ,imperial ,library1 from which we have borrowed an elegant border 7,fig4 #cfb71 and the 8,roman du ,saint-,graal10 ,no4 #f1gfi1 also in the ,imperial ,library4 ,italy was then at the head of civilisation in everything2 it had particularly inherited the grand traditions of painting which had gone to sleep for ever in ,greece only to wake up again in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfc4--;,facsimile of a ,miniature of the ,thirteenth ,century1 representing a scene of an old ,romance3 the beautiful ,josiane1 disguised as a female juggler1 playing a ,welsh air on the ,rote 7,fiddle71 to make herself known to her friend ,bewis4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,here we must introduce a remark1 the result of a general examination of the manuscripts bequeathed to us by the thirteenth century2 namely1 that the miniatures in sacred books are much more beautifully and carefully executed than those of the romances of chivalry and the chronicles of the same period 7,figs4 #cfc and #cfd74 ,must we attribute this superiority to the power of religious inspiration8 ,must we suppose that in the monasteries alone clever artists met with sufficient remuneration8 ,before answering these questions1 or rather as an answer to them1 let us remember that in those days religious institutions absorbed nearly all the social intellectual movement1 as well as the effective possession of material riches1 if not of territorial property4 ,solely occupied with distant wars or intestine quarrels which impoverished them1 the nobles were altogether unable to become protectors of literature and ,art4 ,in the abbeys and convents were lay-brethren who sometimes had taken no vow1 but whose fervent spirits1 burning with poetical imagination1 sought in the monastic retreat redemption from their past sins3 these men of faith were happy to consecrate their whole existence to the ornamentation of a single sacred book destined for the community which gave them in exchange all the necessaries of life4 ,illustration3 ,fig #cfd4--,the ,four ,sons of ,aymon on their good ,steed1 ,bayart4 ,from a ,miniature in the ,romance of the 8,four ,sons of ,aymon10 a ,manuscript of the ,thirteenth ,century4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,this explains the absence of the names of the miniature-painters in ancient manuscripts1 particularly in those which are written in ,latin4 ,however1 when romances and chronicles in the vulgar tongue began to come into fashion1 artists of great talent eagerly presented themselves to be engaged by princes and nobles who wished to have this sort of books ornamented2 but the anonymous which these lay artists generally preserved is explained by the circumstance that in most cases they were considered only as artistic assistants in the lordly houses where they were employed1 and in which they fulfilled some other domestic duty2 for instance1 ,colard de ,laon1 the favourite painter of ,louis of ,orleans1 was also valet-de-chambre to this prince2 ,pietro ,andrea1 another artist1 doubtless an ,italian1 to judge from his ,christian name1 was gentleman-usher2 and we see this ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfe4--,miniature taken from the 8,roman de ,fauvel0 7,fifteenth ,century71 representing ,fauvel1 or the ,fox1 reprimanding a ,widow who has married again1 and to whom is being given a ,serenade of ,rough ,music4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 same painter 8sent from ,blois to ,tours1 to procure certain matters for the accouchment of ,madame the ,duchess20 or again1 8from ,blois to ,romorantin1 to inquire after ,madame d',angoulesme1 who was reported to be very unwell40 ,certain artists1 however1 who then took the modest name of illuminators1 lived entirely by their profession2 working at tableaux benots 7blessed pictures71 or popular paintings1 which were sold at the church-doors4 ,others1 again1 were paid assistants of the recognised painters to princes or nobles2 and the anonymous was quite naturally imposed upon them by their subordinate position1 if not by the simple modesty which was for a long time the accompaniment of talent4 ,in the fourteenth century the study of miniatures is peculiarly interesting1 on account of the scenes of public and private life1 of manners and customs1 we find reproduced in them4 ,portraits after life1 d'aprs le vif1 as they were called in those days1 made their appearance2 and caricature1 at all times so powerful in ,france1 already began to show itself with a daring which1 occupying itself with the clergy1 women1 and chivalry1 stopped only before the prestige of royalty4 ,the miniatures of a ,french manuscript1 dated #acac 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 ,no4 #h1ejd1 ,f4 ,l471 deserve to be mentioned1 especially on account of the various subjects they represent2 for1 besides the ceremony of the reception of the ,king of ,navarre into the order of chivalry1 we see in it philosophers discussing1 judges administering the law1 various scenes of conjugal life1 singers accompanying themselves on divers instruments of music1 villagers engaged in the labours of country life1 c4 ,we must mention also a manuscript of the 8,roman de ,fauvel10 in which is especially prominent the very original scene of a popular concert of rough music1 by masked performers1 given1 according to an old custom1 to a widow who had married a second time 7,fig4 #cfe74 ,the period during which ,charles ,v4 occupied the throne of ,france is one of those that produced the finest specimens of manuscript-painting4 ,this monarch1 the founder of the ,royal ,library1 was an admirer of illustrated books1 and had accumulated1 at great cost1 a large collection in the great tower of the ,louvre4 ,a royal prince1 whom we have already mentioned as being excessively devoted to artistic luxuries1 was the rival of ,charles ,v4 in this respect3 this was his brother1 the ,duke ,jean de ,berry1 who devoted enormous sums to the purchase and production of manuscripts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cff4--;,border taken from a ,prayer-book belonging to ,louis of ,france1 ,duke of ,anjou1 ,king of ,naples1 of ,sicily1 and of ,jerusalem4 7,fourteenth ,century47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfg4--,miniature taken from 8,les ,femmes ,illustres10 translated from ,boccacio4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,even under ,charles ,,vi4 this impulse did not abate1 and the art of painting manuscripts was never in a more flourishing condition4 ,the border taken from the 8,livre d',heures10 or prayer-book1 of the ,duke d',anjou1 uncle of the king 7,fig4 #cff71 is an example of this4 ,we might mention1 as specimens of illustrated works of this period1 the book of the 8,demandes et ,rponses10 by ,peter ,salmon1 a manuscript executed for the king1 and ornamented with exquisite miniatures1 in which all the characters are true historical portraits1 beautifully finished4 ,nevertheless1 the masterpieces of the ,french school at this period show themselves in the miniatures of two translations of ,boccacio's 8,de ,claris ,mulieribus0 78,beautiful ,women07 7,fig4 #cfg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfh4--,miniature of the ,psalter of ,john1 ,duke of ,berry1 representing the ,man of ,sorrow1 or ,christ1 showing the ,sign of the ,cross4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfi4--;,border taken from the ,bible called ,clement ,,vii4's4 7,fourteenth ,century47 ,at that time two new styles appeared in the painting of manuscripts3 miniatures en camaeu 7in one colour only71 and miniatures en grisaille 7in two colours1 viz41 a light colour shaded1 generally with brown74 ,of the first kind1 we may instance 8,les ,petites ,heures0 of ,john1 ,duke de ,berry 7,fig4 #cfh71 and 8,les ,miracles de ,notre-,dame40 ,germany did not in this respect rise to the height of ,france2 but miniature-painting in ,italy progressed more and more towards perfection4 ,a remarkable specimen of ,italian art of this period is the ,bible called ,clement ,,vii4's 7,fig4 #cfi71 which is preserved in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris4 ,but there exists one more admirable still in the same establishment1 so rich in curiosities1 of the manuscript of 8,the ,institution of the ,order of the ,holy ,ghost10 an order of chivalry founded at ,naples in #aceb1 by ,louis de ,tarento1 ,king of ,naples1 during a feast on the day of ,pentecost2 it is in this superb manuscript1 executed by ,italian or ,french artists1 may1 perhaps1 be found the most exquisite miniatures of that day 7,fig4 #cgj72 especially remarkable are the beautiful portraits in camaeu of ,king ,louis and his wife1 ,jane ,i41 ,queen of ,naples4 ,a valuable copy of the romance of 8,lancelot du ,lac10 of the same date1 recommends itself to the attention of connoisseurs by a rare peculiarity3 one can follow in it the successive operations of the painter in miniature2 thus are presented to us consecutively the outline-drawing1 then the first tints1 generally uniform1 executed by the illuminator2 next the surface on which the gold is to be applied2 then the real work of the miniature-painter in the heads1 costumes1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgj4--,miniature from a ,manuscript of the ,fourteenth ,century1 representing ,louis de ,tarento1 second ,husband of ,queen ,jane of ,naples1 instituting the ,order of the ,holy ,ghost4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,france1 in spite of the great troubles which agitated her1 and the wars she had to maintain with foreign powers during the fifteenth century1 saw1 nevertheless1 the art of the painter improve very considerably4 ,the fine copy of ,froissart in the ,imperial ,library1 ,paris 7,fig4 #cga71 might alone suffice to prove the truth of this assertion4 ,the name of ,john ,foucquet1 painter to ,king ,louis ,,xi41 deserves to be mentioned with eulogy1 as that of one of the artists who contributed most to the progress of painting on manuscripts4 ,everything thenceforward announced the ,renaissance which was to take place in the sixteenth century2 and if we wish to follow the onward progress of art from the beginning of the fifteenth century till the time ,illustration3 ,,coronation ,,of ,,charles ,v41 ,,king ,,of ,,france4 ,miniature from ,froissart's ,chronicles in the ,national ,library1 ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cga4--;,border taken from 8,froissart's ,chronicles10 a ,french ,manuscript of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgb4--;,border taken from an 8,ovid40 ,an ,italian ,manuscript of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 of ,raphael1 it is in the miniatures of manuscripts we shall find the best evidences of it4 ,let us observe1 by the way1 that the ,flemish school of the ,dukes of ,burgundy exercised great influence over this marvellous art for a period of more than a century4 ,spain was also progressing2 but it is to the ,italian artists we must1 from that time forward1 look for the most remarkable works4 ,the ,imperial ,library of ,paris possesses many manuscripts which bear witness to the marked improvement in miniature-painting at this period2 among others an 8,ovid0 of the fifteenth century 7,fig4 #cgb72 but in order to see the highest expression of the art1 we must examine an incomparable copy of ,dante's works1 preserved in the ,vatican1 a manuscript proceeding from the hands of ,giulio ,clovio 7,fig4 #cgc71 an illustrious painter1 pupil and imitator of ,raphael3 his miniatures are remarkable for beauty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgc4--,miniature1 painted by ,giulio ,clovio1 of the ,sixteenth ,century1 taken from ,dante's 8,paradise10 representing the ,poet and ,beatrice transported to the ,moon1 the abode of ,women devoted to ,chastity4 7,manuscript in the ,vatican ,library1 ,rome47 ,lastly1 in the reign of ,louis ,,xii41 the complete regeneration of the ,arts was effected4 ,we should1 however1 mention that at this period there were two very distinct schools3 one whose style still showed the influence of ancient ,gothic traditions1 the other entirely dependent on ,italian taste4 ,the ,missal of ,pope ,paul ,v4 emanated from this last school 7,fig4 #cgd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgd4--;,border taken from the ,missal of ,pope ,paul ,v4 7,an ,italian ,manuscript of the ,sixteenth ,century47 ,this immense progress1 which showed itself simultaneously in ,france and in ,italy by the production of many original works1 seems to have attained its climax in the execution of a justly celebrated manuscript1 known by the name of 8,heures d',anne de ,bretagne0 7,fig4 #cge74 ,among the numerous pictures which decorate this book of prayers1 many would not be unworthy of ,raphael's pencil3 the expression in the face of the ,virgin ,mary is1 with many others1 remarkable for its sweetness2 the heads of the angels have something divine in them2 and the ornaments which occupy the margin of each page are composed of flowers1 fruits1 and insects1 represented with all the freshness and brilliancy of nature4 ,this inimitable masterpiece was1 like a sort of sublime testament1 to mark the glorious boundary-line of an art which must necessarily degenerate now that the printing-press was causing the numerous class of scribes and illuminators of the ,middle ,ages to disappear4 ,it has never revived since1 but at intervals2 and then more to meet the requirements of fancy than to be of any real use4 ,a few manuscripts adorned with miniatures of the end of the sixteenth century may still be mentioned1 especially two 8,livres d',heures0 7prayer-books7 painted in grisaille1 which ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cge4--,miniature from the ,prayer-book of ,anne de ,bretagne1 representing the ,archangel ,st4 ,michael4 7,muse des ,souverains47 belonged to ,henry ,,ii41 ,king of ,france 7now in the ,muse des ,souverains71 and the 8,livre d',heures10 executed for the ,margrave of ,baden by a painter of ,lorraine or of ,metz named ,brentel 7,fig4 #cgf71 who1 however1 did nothing ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgf4--,miniature in the 8,livre d',heures0 belonging to the ,margrave of ,baden1 representing the ,portrait of the blessed ,bernard of ,baden1 who died in the odour of ,sanctity1 on ,july #ae1 #adeh4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris47 but put together designs copied from the great masters of ,italy and ,flanders4 ,there were1 nevertheless1 good miniature-painters in ,france up to the seventeenth century1 to illustrate the manuscripts executed with so much taste by the famous ,jarry and the caligraphers of his school4 ,the last manifestation of the art shines forth1 for example1 in the magnificent 8,livre d',heures0 presented to ,louis ,,xiv4 by the pensioners of the ,htel des ,invalides1 a remarkable work1 but yet unworthy to appear by the side of the 8,livre d',heures d',anne de ,bretagne10 which the painter seems to have adopted as his model4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgg4--;,escutcheon of ,france1 taken from some ,ornaments in the ,manuscript of the 8,institution of the ,order of the ,holy ,ghost40 7,fourteenth ,century47 ,,bookbinding ,primitive ,binding of ,books4--,bookbinding among the ,romans4--,bookbinding with ,goldsmith's ,work from the ,fifth ,century4--,chained ,books4--,corporation of ,lieurs1 or ,bookbinders4--,books bound in ,wood1 with ,metal ,corners and ,clasps4--,first ,bindings in ,leather1 honeycombed 7waffled87 and gilt4--,description of some celebrated ,bindings of the ,fourteenth and ,fifteenth ,centuries4--,sources of ,modern ,bookbinding4--,john ,grollier4--,president ,de ,thou4--,kings and ,queens of ,france ,bibliomaniacs4--,superiority of ,bookbinding in ,france4 ,as soon as the ancients had made square books1 more convenient to read than the rolls1 binding--that is to say1 the art of reuniting the leaves stitched or stuck 7ligati7 into a movable back1 between two square pieces of wood1 ivory1 metal1 or leather--bookbinding was invented4 ,this primitive binding1 which had no other object than that of preserving the books1 no other merit than than of solidity1 was not long ere it became associated with ornament1 and thus put itself in relation with the luxury of ,greek and ,roman civilisation4 ,not contented with placing on each side of the volume a little tablet of cedar-wood or of oak1 on which was written the title of the book 7for books were then laid flat on the shelves of the library71 a piece of leather was stretched over the edge to preserve it from dust1 if the book was valuable1 and the volume was tied up with a strap passed round it many times1 and which was subsequently replaced by clasps4 ,in certain instances the volume was enveloped in thick cloth1 and even enclosed in a case of wood or leather4 ,such was the state of bookbinding in ancient times4 ,there were then1 as now1 good and bad bookbinders4 ,cicero1 in his letters to ,atticus1 asks for two of his slaves who were very clever ligatores librorum 7bookbinders74 ,bookbinding1 however1 was not an art very generally known1 for square books1 notwithstanding the convenience of their shape1 had not yet superseded rolls2 but we see1 in the ,notices of the ,dignities of the ,eastern ,empire 78,notitia ,dignitatum ,imperii71 written towards #dej1 that this accessory art had already made immense progress2 since certain officers of the empire used to carry1 in the public ceremonies1 large square books containing the administrative instructions of the emperor3 these books were bound1 covered with green1 red1 blue1 or yellow leather1 closed by means of leathern straps or by hooks1 and ornamented with little golden rods disposed horizontally1 or lozengewise1 with the portrait of the sovereign painted or gilt on their sides4 ,from the fifth century goldsmiths and lapidaries ornamented binding with great richness4 ,and so we hear ,st4 ,jerome exclaiming3--8,your books are covered with precious stones1 and ,christ died naked before the gate of his temple60 8,the ,book of the ,gospels10 in ,greek1 given to the basilica of ,monza by ,theodelinda1 queen of the ,lombards1 about #fjj1 has still one of these costly bindings4 ,a specimen of ,byzantine art1 preserved in the ,louvre1 is a sort of small plate1 which is supposed to be one of the sides of the cover of a book2 on it we find executed in bas-relief the 8,visit of the ,holy ,women to the ,tomb10 and several other scenes from the ,gospels4 ,in this example the beauty of the figures1 the taste which dictated the arrangement of the draperies1 and the finish in the execution1 furnish us with evidence that1 in the industrial arts1 the ,greeks had maintained till the twelfth century their pre-eminence over all the people of ,europe4 ,in those days the binding of ordinary books was executed without any ornamentation1 this being reserved for sacred books4 ,if1 in the treasures of churches1 abbeys1 and palaces1 a few manuscripts covered with gold1 silver1 and precious stones were kept as relics1 books in common use were simply covered in boards or leather2 but not without much attention being given to the binding1 which was merely intended to preserve the volumes4 ,many documents bear witness to the great care and precision with which1 in certain monasteries1 books were bound and preserved4 ,all sorts of skins were employed in covering them when they had been once pressed and joined together between boards of hard wood that would not readily decay3 in the ,north1 even the skins of seals and of sharks were employed1 but pig-skin seems to have been used in preference to all others4 ,illustration3 ,,panel ,,of ,a ,,book ,,cover4 ,bas-relief in ,gold ,repouss4 ,ninth ,century4 7in the ,louvre47 ,it must be admitted that we1 perhaps1 owe to their rich bindings1 which were well calculated to tempt thieves1 the destruction of a number of valuable manuscripts when towns or monasteries were sacked2 but1 on the other hand1 the sumptuous bindings with which kings and nobles covered ,bibles1 the ,gospels1 antiphonaries1#eh and missals1 have certainly preserved to us very many curious examples that1 without them1 would by degrees have deteriorated1 or would not have escaped all the chances of destruction to which they were exposed4 ,it is thus1 for instance1 that the famous manuscript of ,sens has descended to us1 which contains 8,la ,messe des ,fous10 set to music in the twelfth century2 it is bound between two pieces of ivory1 with bas-relief carvings of the fourth century1 representing the festivals of ,bacchus4 ,all great public collections show with pride some of these rare and venerable bindings1 decorated with gold1 silver1 or copper1 engraved1 chased1 or inlaid with precious stones or coloured glass1 with cameos or antique ivories 7,fig4 #cgh74 ,the greater number of rich books of the ,gospels mentioned in history date back as far as the period of ,charlemagne1 and among these we must mention1 above all1 one given by the emperor himself to the ,abbey of ,st4 ,riquier1 8covered with plates of silver1 and ornamented with gold and gems20 that of ,st4 ,maximinius of ,treves1 which came from ,ada1 daughter of ,pepin1 sister of ,charlemagne1 and was ornamented with an engraved agate representing ,ada1 the emperor1 and his sons2 and lastly1 one that was to be seen as late as #agbg in the convent of ,hautvillers1 near ,epernay1 and which was bound in carved ivory4 ,sometimes these sumptuous volumes were enclosed in an envelope made of rich stuff2 or1 in pursuance of an ancient custom1 a casket not less gorgeously decorated than the binding1 contained it4 ,the ,prayer-book of ,charlemagne1 now preserved in the ,library of the ,louvre1 is known to have been originally enclosed in a small casket of silver gilt1 on which were represented in relief the 8,mysteries of the ,passion40 ,these books1 however1 bound with goldsmith's work1 were not those that were chained in churches and in certain libraries 7,fig4 #cgi71 as some volumes still in existence show1 with the rings through which passed the chain that fastened them to the desk4 ,these catenati 7chained books7 were generally ,bibles and missals1 bound in wood and heavily ornamented with metallic corners2 which1 while placed at the disposition of the faithful and of the public in general1 their owners wished to guarantee against being stolen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgh4--;,binding in ,gold1 adorned with precious ,stones which covered a 8,book of the ,gospels0 of the ,eleventh ,century1 representing ,jesus ,crucified1 with the ,virgin and ,st4 ,john at the ,foot of the ,cross4 7,muse du ,louvre74 ,we must not forget to mention1 among the most beautiful bindings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 the coverings of books in enamelled copper 7,fig4 #chj74 ,the ,museum of ,cluny possesses two plates of incrusted enamel of ,limoges1 which must have belonged to one of these bindings3 the first has for its subject the 8,adoration of the ,magi20 the other ,illustration3 ,,ivory ,,diptych ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,empire4 ,serving as a ,book ,cover1 8l',office des fous404 7,in the ,library of ,sens7 represents the monk ,etienne de ,muret1 founder of the order of ,grandmont 7in the twelfth century71 conversing with ,st4 ,nicholas4 ,the ,cathedral of ,milan contains in its treasury the covering of a book still more ancient and much richer1 about fourteen inches long by twelve inches wide1 and profusely covered with incrusted enamel1 mounted and ornamented with polished1 but uncut1 precious stones of various colours4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgi4--,library of the ,university of ,leyden1 in which all the ,books were chained1 even in the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,but all these were only the work of enamellers1 goldsmiths1 illuminators1 and clasp-makers4 ,the binders1 or bookbinders properly so called1 fastened together the leaves of books1 and placed them between two boards1 which they then covered with leather1 skin1 stuff1 or parchment2 they added to these coverings sometimes leathern straps1 sometimes metal clasps1 sometimes hooks1 to keep the volume firmly closed1 and almost always nails1 whose round and projecting heads preserved the flat surface of the binding from being rubbed4 ,in the year #abii1 when the tax was imposed upon the inhabitants of ,paris for the exigencies of the king1 it was ascertained that the number of bookbinders then actually in the town amounted only to seventeen1 who1 as well as the scribes and booksellers1 were directly dependent on the ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chj4--,large ,painted ,initial ,letter in a ,manuscript in the ,royal ,library1 ,brussels1 showing the arrangement of the ,binding1 in enamelled ,metal1 of a book of the ,gospels4 7,ninth or ,tenth ,century47 ,university1 the authorities of which placed them under the surveillance of four sworn bookbinders1 who were considered the agents of the ,university4 ,we must except1 however1 from this jurisdiction the acknowledged bookbinder to the 8,chambre des ,comptes10 who1 before he could be appointed to this office1 had to make an affirmation that he could neither read nor write4 ,in the musters1 or processions1 of the ,university of ,paris1 the bookbinders came after the booksellers4 ,to explain the relatively small number of professed bookbinders1 we must remember that at this period the majority of scholars bound their own books1 as divers passages of ancient authors prove2 while the monasteries1 which were the principal centres of bookmakers1 had one or many members of their community whose special function it was to bind the works written within their walls4 ,tritheimius1 ,abbot of ,spanheim at the end of the fifteenth century1 does not forget the bookbinders in the enumeration he makes of the different employments of his monks3--8,let that one10 says he1 8fasten the leaves together1 and bind the book with boards4 ,you1 prepare those boards2 you1 dress the leather2 you1 the metal plates1 which are to adorn the binding40 ,these bindings are represented on the seal of the ,university of ,oxford 7,fig4 #cha71 and on the banners of some ,french corporation of printers and booksellers 7,figs4 #chb and #chf74 ,the metal plates1 the corners1 the nails1 the clasps with which these volumes were then laden rendered them so heavy that1 in order to enable the reader to turn over the leaves with facility1 they were placed on one of those revolving desks having space for many open folios at the same time1 and which were capable of accommodating many readers simultaneously4 ,it is said that ,petrarch had caused a volume containing the 8,epistles of ,cicero10 transcribed by himself1 to be bound so massively1 that as he was continually reading it1 he often let it fall and injured his leg2 so badly once that he was threatened with amputation4 ,this manuscript in ,petrarch's handwriting is still to be seen in the ,laurentian ,library at ,florence2 it is bound in wood1 with edges and clasps of copper4 ,the ,crusades1 which introduced into ,europe many luxurious customs1 must have had great influence on bookbinding1 since the ,arabs had for a long while known the art of preparing1 dyeing1 stamping1 and gilding the skins they employed to make covers for books3 these covers took the name of al 7the wings71 no doubt from the resemblance between them and the wings of a bird of rich plumage4 ,the ,crusaders having brought back from their expeditions specimens of ,oriental binding1 our ,european workmen did not fail to turn their brilliant models to account4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cha4--,seal of the ,university of ,oxford1 in which is a ,book bound with ,corners and ,clasps4 ,an entire revolution1 moreover1 which had taken place in the formation of royal and princely libraries1 was to produce a revolution in binding also4 ,bibles1 missals1 reproductions of ancient authors1 treatises on theology1 were no longer the only books in common use4 ,the new language had given rise to histories1 romances1 and poems1 which were the delight of a society becoming more and more polished every day4 ,for the pleasure of readers1 the gallant of one sex and the fair of the other1 books were required more agreeable to the eye1 and less rough to the touch1 than those used for the edification of monks or the instruction of scholars4 ,and first of all were substituted1 for the purpose of manuscripts1 sizes more portable than the grave folio4 ,then fine and smooth vellum was used for writing1 and books were covered in velvet1 silk1 or woollen stuffs4 ,moreover1 paper1 a recent invention1 opened up a new era for libraries2 but two centuries were to elapse before pasteboard had entirely taken the place of wooden covers4 ,it is in the inventories1 in the accounts1 and in the archives of kings and princes1 we must look for the history of bookbinding in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 7,fig4 #chc74 ,we shall limit ourselves to giving a description of some costly bindings1 taken from the inventories of the magnificent libraries of the ,dukes of ,burgundy and of ,orleans1 now partly destroyed1 and partly scattered about among the great public collections of ,france and other countries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chb4--;,banner of the ,corporation of ,printers-,booksellers of ,angers4 ,belonging to the ,dukes of ,burgundy1 ,philip the ,bold1 ,jean sans ,peur1 and ,philip the ,good1 we see a small ,book of the ,gospels and of the 8,heures de la ,croix0 7a kind of prayer-book71 with 8a binding embellished with gold and fifty-eight large pearls1 in a case made of camlet1 with one large pearl and a cluster of small pearls20 the romance of the 8,moralit des ,hommes sur le ,ju 7jeu7 des ,eschiers0 7the game of chess71 8covered in silk1 with white and red flowers1 and silver-gilt nails1 on a green ground20 a ,book of ,orisons1 8covered in red leather1 with silver-gilt nails20 a ,psalter1 8having two silver-gilt clasps1 bound in blue1 with a golden eagle with two heads and red talons1 to which is attached a little silver-gilt instrument for turning over the leaves1 with three escutcheons of the same arms1 covered with a red velvet chemise40#ei ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chc4--;,fragment of an engraved and stamped ,binding in an unknown ,material 7,fifteenth ,century71 representing the mystical ,chase of the ,unicorn1 which is taking refuge in the lap of the ,virgin4 7,public ,library1 ,rouen47 ,the chemise was a sort of pocket in which certain valuable books were enveloped4 ,the 8,heures de ,st4 ,louis0 7,st4 ,louis's ,prayer-book71 now in the ,muse des ,souverains1 is still in its chemise of red sandal-wood4 ,belonging to the ,duke of ,orleans1 brother of ,charles ,,vi41 we find ,vgce's book1 8,on ,chivalry10 8covered in red leather inlaid1 which has two little brass clasps20 the book of 8,meliadus10 8covered in green velvet1 with two silver-gilt clasps1 enamelled with the arms of his ,royal ,highness20 the book of ,boce1 8,on ,consolation10 8covered in figured silk20 8,the ,golden ,legend10 8covered in black velvet1 without clasps20 the 8,heures de ,notre-,dame10 8covered in white leather40 ,the same inventories give an account of the prices paid for some bindings and their accessories4 ,thus1 in #achf1 ,martin ,lhuillier1 a bookseller at ,paris1 received from the ,duke of ,burgundy #af francs 7equivalent to about #aad francs ,french money of the present time71 8for binding eight books1 of which six were covered in grained leather20 on ,sept4 #ai1 #acid1 the ,duke of ,orleans paid to ,peter ,blondel1 goldsmith1 #ab livres #ae sols1 8for having wrought1 besides the duke's silver seal1 two clasps0 for the book of ,boce2 and on ,jan4 #ae1 #acih1 to melot de ,rubert1 an embroideress at ,paris1 #ej sols tournois1 8for having cut out and worked in gold and silk two covers of green ,dampmas cloth1 one for the ,breviary1 the other for the ,book of ,hours of the aforesaid nobleman1 and for having made fifteen markers 7sinets7 and four pair of silk and gold straps for the said books40 ,the old style of thick1 heavy1 in some sort armour-plated1 binding1 could not exist long after the invention of printing1 which1 while multiplying books1 diminished their weight1 reduced their size1 and1 moreover1 gave them a less intrinsic value4 ,wooden boards were replaced by compressed cardboard1 nails and clasps were gradually laid aside1 and stuffs of different kinds no longer used2 only skin1 leather1 and parchment were employed4 ,this was the beginning of modern binding2 but bookbinders were as yet but mechanics working for the booksellers1 who1 when they had on their premises a bookbinding-room 7,fig4 #chd71 assumed1 in their editions1 the double title of libraire-relieur 7bookseller-bookbinder7 7,fig4 #che74 ,in #aegh1 ,nicholas ,eve still placed on his books and his sign-board1 8,bookseller to the ,university of ,paris and ,bookbinder to the ,king40 ,no volume was sold unbound4 ,from the end of the fifteenth century1 although bookbinding was always considered as an adjunct to the bookseller's shop1 certain amateurs who had a taste for art required richer and more recherch exteriors for their books4 ,italy set us the example of beautiful bindings in morocco1 stamped and gilt2 imitated1 however1 from those of the ,koran and other ,arabian manuscripts1 which ,venetian navigators frequently brought back with them from the ,east4 ,the expedition of ,charles ,,viii4 and the wars of ,louis ,,xii4 introduced into ,france not only ,italian bindings1 but ,italian binders also4 ,without renouncing1 however1 at least for the livres d'heures1 the bindings ornamented with goldsmith's work and gems1 ,france had very soon binders of her own1 surpassing those who had been to them as initiators or masters4 ,jean ,grollier1 of ,lyons1 loved books too much not to wish to give them an exterior ornamentation worthy of the wealth of knowledge they contained4 ,treasurer of ,war1 and ,intendant of the ,milanese before the battle of ,pavia1 he had begun to create a library1 which he subsequently transported into ,france1 and did not cease to enlarge and to enrich till his death1 which happened in #aefe4 ,his books were bound in morocco from the ,levant1 with such care and taste that1 under the supervision of this exacting amateur1 bookbinding seemed to have already attained perfection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chd4--;,bookbinders' ,work-room1 drawn and engraved in the ,sixteenth ,century1 by ,j4 ,amman4 ,princes and ladies of the court prided themselves on their love of books and the desire to acquire them2 they founded libraries1 and encouraged the works and inventions of good bookbinders who produced masterpieces of patience and ability in decorating the covers of books1 either with enamelled paintings1 or with mosaics made of different pieces inlaid1 or with plain gildings stamped on the surface with small irons4 ,it would be impossible to enumerate the splendid bindings in all styles that the ,french bookbinders of the sixteenth century have left us1 and which have never been surpassed since4 ,the painter1 the engraver1 and even the goldsmith1 co-operated with the bookbinder in his art1 by furnishing him with designs for ornaments4 ,we now see reappearing some plates obtained from hot or cold dies1 representing various subjects1 and the designs from which they were taken1 reproduced from those that had been in fashion towards the beginning of the sixteenth century1 were often drawn by distinguished artists1 such as ,jean ,cousin1 ,stephen de ,laulne1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #che4--,mark of ,william ,eustace 7#aeab71 ,bookseller and ,binder1 ,paris4 ,nearly all the ,french kings1 especially the ,valois1 were passionately fond of splendid bindings4 ,catherine de ,medicis was such a connoisseur of finely-bound books1 that authors and booksellers1 who eagerly presented her with copies of their works1 tried to distinguish themselves in the choice and beauty of the bindings which they had made expressly for her4 ,henry ,,iii41 who appreciated handsomely-bound books no less than his mother1 invented a very singular binding1 when he had instituted the ,order of 8,penitents20 this consisted of death's heads and cross bones1 tears1 crosses1 and other instruments of the ,passion1 gilt or stamped on black morocco leather1 and having the following device1 8,spes mea ,deus0 78,god is my hope071 with or without the arms of ,france4 ,it is impossible to associate these superb bindings with the usual and common work executed at the booksellers' shops1 and under their superintendence4 ,some booksellers of ,paris and of ,lyons1 the houses of ,gryphe and ,tournes1 of ,estienne and ,vascosan1 paid a little more attention1 however1 than others of the fraternity1 to the binding of books which they sold to the reading public2 they adopted patterns of dun-coloured calf1 in compartments2 or white vellum1 with fillets and arabesques in gold1 fine specimens of which are now very rare4 ,at this period ,italian bookbinding had reached the most complete state of decadency1 while in ,germany and other parts of ,europe the old massive bindings1--bindings in wood1 leather1 and parchment1 with fastenings of iron or brass1--still held their ground4 ,in ,france1 however1 the binders1 whom the booksellers kept in a state of obscurity and servitude1 had not even been able to form themselves into a guild or fraternity4 ,they might produce masterpieces of their art1 but were not allowed to append their names to their works2 and we must come down as far as the famous ,gascon 7#afda7 before we can introduce the name of any illustrious bookbinder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chf4--;,banner of the ,corporation of ,printers-,booksellers of ,autun4 ,,printing ,who was the ,inventor of ,printing8--,movable ,letters in ,ancient ,times4--,block ,printing4--,laurent ,coster4--,donati and ,specula4--,gutenberg's ,process4--,partnership of ,gutenberg and ,faust4--,schoeffer4--,the ,mayence ,bible4--,the ,psalter of #adeg4--,the 8,rationale0 of #adei4--;,gutenburg prints by himself4--,the 8,catholicon0 of #adfj4--,printing at ,cologne1 ,strasbourg1 ,venice1 and ,paris4--,louis ,,xi4 and ,nicholas ,jenson4--,german ,printers at ,rome4--,incunabula4--,colart ,mansion4--,caxton4--,improvement of ,typographical ,processes up to the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,fifteen towns have laid claim to the honour of being the birthplace of printing1 and writers who have applied themselves to search out the origin of this admirable invention1 far from coming to any agreement on the point in their endeavours to clear up the question1 have only confused it4 ,now1 however1 after many centuries of learned and earnest controversy1 there only remain three antagonistic propositions1 with three names of towns1 four names of inventors1 and three different dates4 ,the three places are ,haarlem1 ,strasbourg1 and ,mayence2 the four inventors1 ,laurent ,coster1 ,gutenberg1 ,faust1 and ,schoeffer2 the three dates which are assigned to the invention of printing are #adbj1 #addj1 #adej4 ,in our opinion these three propositions1 which some try to combat and destroy by opposing each to the other1 ought1 on the contrary1 to be blended into one1 and combined chronologically in such a manner as to represent the three principal periods of the discovery of printing4 ,there is no doubt that printing existed in the germ in ancient times2 that it was known and made use of by the ancients4 ,there were stamps and seals bearing legends traced the wrong way1 from which positive impressions were obtained on papyrus or parchment1 in wax1 ink1 or colour4 ,we are shown1 in museums1 plates of copper or of cedar-wood1 covered with characters carved or cut out in them1 which seem to have been intended for the purpose of printing1 and which resemble the block plates of the fifteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chg4--;,ancient ,wood-block ,print1 cut in ,flanders before #addj1 representing ,jesus ,christ after his ,flagellation4 7,delbecq's ,collection1 ,ghent47 ,something very much like the process of printing in movable type is described by ,cicero in a passage in which he refutes the doctrine of ,epicurus on the creation of the world by atoms3 8,why not believe1 also1 that by throwing together1 indiscriminately1 innumerable forms of letters of the alphabet1 either in gold or in any other substance1 one can print with these letters1 on the ground1 the ,annals of ,ennius80 ,the movable letters possessed by the ancients were carved in box-wood or ivory2 but they were only employed for teaching children to read1 as ,quinctilian testifies in his 8,oratorical ,institutions10 and ,st4 ,jerome in his 8,epistles40 ,there was then only wanting a fortunate chance to cause this carved alphabet to create the typographic art fifteen centuries earlier than its actual birth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chh4--;,fac-simile of an ,engraving on ,wood1 by an ancient ,flemish ,engraver 7about #adch72 which was inserted1 after the manner of a ,miniature1 in a ,manuscript of the ,fifteenth ,century1 containing ,prayers for the use of the ,people4 7,delbecq's ,collection1 ,ghent47 8,the art of taking impressions once discovered10 says ,m4 ,lon de ,laborde1 8and applied to engraving in relief1 gave rise to printing1 which was only the perfection to which a natural and rapid progression of attempts and efforts would naturally lead40 8,but it was only10 adds ,m4 ,ambroise-,firmin ,didot1 8when the art of making paper--that art familiar to the ,chinese from the beginning of our era--spread in ,europe and became generally known1 that the reproduction1 by pressing1 of texts1 figures1 playing-cards1 c41 first by the tabular process1 called xylography 7block-printing71 then with movable types1 became easy1 and was consequently to appear simultaneously in different places40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chi4--,wood-block1 cut in ,france1 about #addj1 representing an ,image of ,st4 ,james the ,great1 with one of the ,commandments as a ,text4 7,imperial ,library1 ,paris1 ,collection of ,prints47 ,but1 at the end of the fourteenth century1 at ,haarlem1 in ,holland1 wood-engraving had been discovered1 and consequently tabular impression1 with which the ,chinese1 it is said1 were already acquainted three or four hundred years before the modern era4 ,perhaps it was some ,chinese book or pack of cards brought to ,haarlem by a merchant or a navigator1 that revealed to the cardmakers and printsellers of the industrious ,netherlands a process of impressing more expeditious and more economical4 ,xylography began on the day when a legend was engraved on a wood-block2 this legend1 limited at first to a few lines1 very soon occupied a whole page2 then this page was not long in becoming a volume 7,fig4 #chg to #chi74 ,here is an extract from the account given by ,adrian ,junius1 in his ,latin work entitled 8,batavia10 of the discovery of printing at ,haarlem1 written in #aegb3--8,more than one hundred and thirty-two years ago there lived at ,haarlem1 close to the royal palace1 one ,john ,laurent1 surnamed ,coster 7or governer71 for this honourable post came to him by inheritance1 being handed down in his family from father to son4 ,one day1 about #adbj1 as he was walking after dinner in a wood near the town1 he set to work and cut the bark of beech-trees into the shape of letters1 with which he traced1 on paper1 by pressing one after the other upon it1 a model composed of many lines for the instruction of his children4 ,encouraged by this success1 his genius took a higher flight1 and then1 in concert with his son-in-law1 ,thomas ,pierre1 he invented a species of ink more glutinous and tenacious than that employed in writing1 and he thus printed figures 7images7 to which he added his wooden letters4 ,i have myself seen many copies of this first attempt at printing4 ,the text is on one side only of the paper4 ,the book printed was written in the vulgar tongue1 by an anonymous author1 having as its title #8,speculum nostr ,salutis' 7#8,the ,mirror of our ,salvation'74 ,later1 ,laurent ,coster changed his wooden types into leaden1 then these into pewter4 ,laurent's new invention1 encouraged by studious men1 attracted from all parts an immense concourse of purchasers4 ,the love of the art increased1 the labours of his workshop increased also1 and ,laurent was obliged to add hired workmen to the members of his family1 to assist in his operations4 ,among these workmen there was a certain ,john1 whom ,i suspect of being none other than ,faust1 who was treacherous and fatal to his master4 ,initiated1 under the seal of an oath1 into all the secrets of printing1 and having become very expert in casting type1 in setting it up1 and in the other processes of his trade1 this ,john took advantage of a ,christmas evening1 while every one was in church1 to rifle his master's workshop and to carry off his typographical implements4 ,he fled with his booty to ,amsterdam1 thence to ,cologne1 and afterwards to ,mayence1 where he established himself2 and calculating upon safety here1 set up a printing-office4 ,in that very same year1 #adbb1 he printed with the type which ,laurent had employed at ,haarlem1 a grammar then in use1 called #8,alexandri ,galli ,doctrinale1' and a #8,treatise of ,peter the ,spaniard' 7#8,petri ,hispani ,tractatus'740 ,this account1 which came1 indeed1 rather late1 although the author referred to the most respectable authorities in support of it1 met at first with nothing but incredulity and contempt4 ,at this period the right of ,mayence to be considered the birthplace of printing could only be seriously counterbalanced by the right ,strasbourg had to be so considered4 ,the three names of ,gutenberg1 of ,faust1 and of ,schffer were already consecrated by universal gratitude4 ,everywhere1 then1 except in ,holland1 this new testimony was rejected2 everywhere the new inventor1 whose claim had just been made for a share of the honour1 was rejected as an apocryphal or legendary being4 ,but very soon1 however1 criticism1 raising itself above the influences of nationality1 took up the question1 discussed the account given by ,junius1 examined that famous 8,speculum0 which no one had yet pointed out1 proved the existence of xylographic impressions1 sought for those which could be attributed to ,coster1 and opposed to the ,abb ,tritheim 7or ,trithemius71 who had written on the origin of printing from information furnished by ,peter ,schffer himself1 the more disinterested testimony of the anonymous chronicler of ,cologne in #adfe1 who had learned from ,ulric ,zell1 one of ,gutenberg's workmen1 and the first printer of ,cologne in #adfe1 this important peculiarity3--8,although the typographic art was invented at ,mayence10 says he1 8nevertheless the first rough sketch of this art was invented in ,holland1 and it is in imitation of the #8,donatus' 7the ,latin syntax by ,clius ,donatus1 a grammarian of the fourth century1 a book then in use in the schools of ,europe71 which long before that time was printed there2 it is in imitation of this1 and on account of it1 that the said art began under the auspices of ,gutenberg40 ,if ,gutenberg imitated the 8,donatus10 which was printed in ,holland before the time he himself printed at ,mayence1 ,gutenberg was not the inventor of printing4 ,it was in #adej that ,gutenberg began to print at ,mayence 7,fig4 #cij72 but from as early a date as #adcf he had tried to print at ,strasbourg2 and1 before his first attempts1 there had been printed in ,holland1--at ,haarlem1 and ,dordrecht1--8,specula0 and 8,donati0 on wooden boards2 a process known by the name of xylography 7engraving on wood71 while the attempts at typography 7printing with movable type7 made by ,gutenberg entirely differed from the other2 since the letters1 engraved at first on steel points 7poinons71 and afterwards forced into a copper matrix reproduced by means of casting in a metal more fusible than copper the impress of the point on shanks 7tiges7 made of pewter or lead1 hardened by an alloy 7,fig4 #cia74 ,now1 a rather singular circumstance comes to corroborate what was said by ,adrian ,junius4 ,a ,latin edition of the 8,speculum10 an in-folio of sixty-three leaves1 with wood engravings in two compartments at the head of each leaf1 consists of a mixture of twenty xylographic leaves1 and of forty-one leaves printed with movable type1 but very imperfect1 and cast in moulds which were probably made of baked earth3 an edition of a ,dutch 8,speculum10 in folio1 has also two pages in a type smaller and closer than the rest of the text4 ,how are we to explain these anomalies8 ,on the one hand1 a mixture of xylography and typography2 on the other1 a combination of two different kinds of movable type4 ,my hypothesis is1 if indeed the details given by ,junius1 open to suspicion as they are1 be correct1 that the dishonest workman who1 according to his own account1 stole the implements ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cij4--;,fac-simile of a ,page of the most ancient ,xylographie 8,donatus0 7,chapter on ,prepositions71 printed at ,mayence1 by ,fust and ,gutenberg1 about #adej4 employed in the workshop of ,laurent ,coster1 and who must have acted with a certain amount of precipitation1 contented himself with carrying off some forms of the 8,speculum0 just ready for the press4 ,the type employed for twenty or twenty-two pages was sufficient to serve as models for a counterfeit edition1 and also for a book of small extent1 such as the 8,alexandri ,galli ,doctrinale10 and the 8,petri ,hispani ,tractatus40 ,it is probable that the ,latin and ,dutch editions of the 8,speculum0 were both entirely composed1 set up1 and prepared for the text to be struck off1 when the thief took at hazard the twenty-two forms1 which he determined to turn to account1 at any rate as a model for the counterfeit edition he intended to publish4 ,in cast-iron type1 these forms could not have weighed more than sixty pounds2 in wooden type1 not half as much2 if we add to these the composing-sticks1 the pincers1 the galleys1 and other indispensable elements of the trade1 we shall find that the booty was not beyond the strength of a man to carry easily on his shoulders4 ,as for the press1 about that there could be no question1 since the impressions produced at ,haarlem were made with a pad and by hand1 as is still the case with playing-cards and prints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cia4--,portrait of ,gutenberg1 from an ,engraving of the ,sixteenth ,century4 7,imperial ,library of ,paris1 ,print ,room47 ,it remains now to discover who was this ,john who appropriated the secret of printing1 and took it from ,haarlem to ,mayence4 ,was it ,john ,fust or ,faust1 as ,adrian ,junius suspected8 ,was it ,john ,gutenberg1 as many ,dutch writers have alleged8 or was it not rather ,john ,gensfleisch the elder1 a relation of ,gutenberg1 as1 from a very explicit passage of the learned ,joseph ,wimpfeling1 his contemporary1 the latest defenders of the ,haarlem tradition think8 ,the question is still undecided4 ,the 8,speculum10 however1 is not the only book of the kind which ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cib4--;,fac-simile of the ,twenty-eighth ,xylographic ,page of the 8,biblia ,pauperum20 representing1 with ,texts taken from the ,old ,testament1 ,david slaying ,goliath1 and ,christ causing the ,souls of the ,patriarchs and ,prophets to come out of ,purgatory4 had appeared in the ,low ,countries before the period assigned to the discovery of printing in ,holland4 ,some of these were evidently xylographic1 others show signs of having been printed with movable type of wood1 not of metal4 ,all have engravings of the same character as those of the 8,speculum10 especially the 8,biblia ,pauperum0 78,poor ,men's ,bible07 7,fig4 #cib71 the 8,ars ,moriendi0 78,the ,art of ,dying07 7,fig4 #cic7 the 8,ars ,memorandi0 78,the ,art of ,remembering071 which had a very wide circulation4 ,however this may be1 ,laurent ,coster1 notwithstanding the progress he had made with his invention1 was certainly ignorant of its importance4 ,in those days the only libraries were those belonging to convents and to a few nobles of literary acquirements2 private individuals1 with the exception of some learned men who were richer than their fellows1 possessed no books at all4 ,the copyists and illuminators by profession were employed exclusively in reproducing 8,livres d',heures0 7prayer-books71 and school books3 the first were sumptuous volumes1 objects of an industry quite exceptional2 the second1 destined for children1 were always simply executed1 and composed of a few leaves of strong paper or parchment4 ,the pupils limited themselves to writing passages of their lessons from the dictation of their teachers2 to the monks was assigned the task of transcribing1 at full length1 the sacred and profane authors4 ,coster could not even have thought of reproducing these works1 the sale of which would have seemed to him impossible1 and he at first fell back upon the 8,specula10 religious books which addressed themselves to all the faithful1 even to those who could not read1 by means of the stories or illustrations 7images7 of which these books were composed2 then he occupied himself with the 8,donati10 which he reprinted many times from xylographic plates1 if not with movable type1 and for which he must have found a considerable demand4 ,it was one of these 8,donati0 that1 falling under the eyes of ,gutenberg1 revealed to him1 according to the 8,chronique de ,cologne10 the secret of printing4 ,this secret was kept faithfully for fifteen or twenty years by the workmen employed in his printing-house1 who were not initiated into the mysteries of the new art till they had served a certain time of probation and apprenticeship3 a terrible oath bound together those whom the master had considered worthy of entering into partnership with him2 for on the preservation of the secret depended the prosperity or the ruin of the inventor and his coadjutors1 since all printed books were then sold as manuscripts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cic4--;,fac-simile of the fifth ,page of the first ,xylographic ,edition of the 8,ars ,moriendi10 representing the ,sinner on his ,death-bed surrounded by his ,family4 ,two ,demons are whispering into his ear1 8,think of thy treasure10 and 8,distribute it to thy friends40 ,but while the secret was so scrupulously maintained by the first ,dutch printer and his partners1 a lawsuit was brought before the superior court of ,strasbourg which1 though the motives for it were apparently but of private interest1 was nevertheless to give the public the key to the mysterious trade of the typographer4 ,this lawsuit1--the curious documents relating to which were found only in #agfj1 in an old tower at ,strasbourg1--was brought against ,john ,gensfleisch1 called ,gutenberg 7who was born at ,mayence1 but was exiled from his native town during the political troubles1 and had settled at ,strasbourg since #adbj71 by ,george and ,nicholas ,dritzehen1 who1 as heirs of the deceased ,andrew ,dritzehen1 their brother1 and formerly ,gutenberg's partner1 desired to be admitted as his representatives into an association of whose object they were ignorant1 but from which they no doubt knew their brother expected to derive some beneficial results4 ,it was1 in short1 printing itself which was on its trial at ,strasbourg towards the end of the year #adci2 that is1 more than fourteen years before the period at which printing is known to have been first employed in ,mayence4 ,here is a summary1 as we find them in the documents relating to this lawsuit1 of the facts stated before the judge4 ,gutenberg1 an ingenious but a poor man1 possessed divers secrets for becoming rich4 ,andrew ,dritzehen came to him with a request that he would teach him many arts4 ,gutenberg thereupon initiated him into the art of polishing stones1 and ,andrew 8derived great profit from this secret40 ,subsequently1 with the object of carrying out another art during the pilgrimage of ,aix-la-,chapelle1#fj ,gutenberg agreed with ,hans ,riffen1 mayor of ,lichtenau1 to form a company1 which ,andrew ,dritzehen and a man named ,andrew ,heilman desired to join4 ,gutenberg consented to this on condition that they would together purchase of him the right to a third of the profits1 for a sum of #afj florins1 payable on the day of the contract1 and #hj florins payable at a later date4 ,the agreement being made1 he taught them the art which they were to exercise at the proper period in ,aix-la-,chapelle2 but the pilgrimage was postponed to the following year1 and the partners required of ,gutenberg that he should not conceal from them any of the arts and inventions of which he was cognisant4 ,new stipulations were entered upon whereby the partners pledged themselves to pay an additional sum1 and in which it was stated that the art should be carried on for the benefit of the four partners during the space of five years2 and that1 in the event of one of them dying1 all the implements of the art1 and all the works already produced1 should belong to the surviving partners2 the heirs of the deceased being entitled to receive no more than an indemnity of #ajj florins at the expiration of the said five years4 ,gutenberg accordingly offered to pay the heirs of his late partner the stipulated sum2 but they demanded of him an account of the capital invested by ,andrew ,dritzehen1 which1 as they alleged1 had been absorbed in the speculation4 ,they mentioned especially a certain account for lead1 for which their brother had made himself responsible4 ,without denying this account1 ,gutenberg refused to satisfy their demands4 ,numerous witnesses gave evidence1 and their depositions for and against the object of the association show us a faithful picture of what must have been the inner life of four partners exhausting themselves and their money in efforts to realise a scheme the nature of which they were very careful to conceal1 but from which they expected to derive the most splendid results4 ,we find them working by night2 we hear them answering those who questioned them on the object of their work1 that they were 8mirror-makers0 7spiegel-macher72 we find them borrowing money1 because they had in hand 8something in which they could not invest too much money40 ,andrew ,dritzehen1 in whose care the press was left1 being dead1 ,gutenberg's first object was to send to the deceased's house a man he could trust1 who was commissioned to unscrew the press1 so that the pieces 7or forms71 which were fixed closely together by it1 might become detached from each other1 and then to place these forms in or on the press 8in such a manner that no one might be able to understand what they were40 ,gutenberg regrets that his servant did not bring him back all the forms1 many of which 8were not to be found40 ,lastly1 we find figuring among the witnesses a turner1 a timber-merchant1 and a goldsmith who declared that he had worked during three years for ,gutenberg1 and that he had gained more than #ajj florins by preparing for him 8the things belonging to printing0 7das zu dem ,trucken gehoret74 ,trucken--printing6 ,thus the grand word was pronounced in the course of the lawsuit1 but certainly without producing the least effect on the audience1 who wondered what was this occult art which ,gutenberg and his partners had carried on with so much trouble1 and at such great expense4 ,however1 it is quite certain that1 with the exception of the indiscretion1 really very insignificant1 of the goldsmith1 ,gutenberg's secret remained undiscovered1 for it was supposed it had to do with the polishing of stones and the manufacture of mirrors4 ,the judge1 being informed as to the good faith of ,gutenberg1 pronounced the offers he made to the plaintiffs satisfactory1 decided against the heirs of ,andrew ,dritzehen1 and the three other partners remained sole proprietors of their process1 and continued to carry it out4 ,if we study with some attention the documents relating to this singular trial at ,strasbourg1 and if we also notice1 that our word mirror is the translation of the ,german word spiegel and of the ,latin word speculum1 it is impossible not to recognise all the processes1 all the implements made use of in printing1 with the names they have not ceased to bear1 and which were given to them as soon as they were invented2 the forms1 the screw 7which is not the printing-press1 for they printed in those days with the frotton1 or rubber1 but the frame in which the types were pressed71 the lead1 the work1 the art1 c4 ,we see ,gutenberg accompanied by a turner who made the screw for the press1 the timber merchant who had supplied the planks of box or of pear wood1 the goldsmith who had engraved or cast the type4 ,then we ascertain that these 8mirrors10 in the preparation of which the partners were occupied1 and which were to be sold at the pilgrimage of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 were no other than the future copies of the 8,speculum ,human ,salvationis10 an imitation more or less perfect of the famous book of illustrations of which ,holland had already published three or four editions1 in ,latin and in ,dutch4 ,we know1 on the other hand1 that these 8,mirrors0 or 8,specula0 were1 in the earliest days of printing1 so much in request1 that in every place the first printers rivalled each other in executing and publishing different editions of the book with illustrations4 ,here1 there was the reprint of the 8,speculum10 abridged by ,l4 ,coster2 there1 the 8,speculum0 of ,gutenberg1 taken entirely from manuscripts2 now it was the 8,speculum ,vit ,human10 by ,roderick1 ,bishop of ,zamora2 then the 8,speculum ,conscienci10 of ,arnold ,gheyloven2 then the 8,speculum ,sacerdotum10 or again1 the voluminous 8,speculum0 of ,vincent de ,beauvais1 c4 ,it cannot now any longer be assumed that ,gutenberg really made mirrors or looking-glasses at ,strasbourg1 and that those pieces 8laid in a press10 those 8forms which came to pieces10 that lead sold or wrought by a goldsmith1 were1 as they wished it to be supposed1 only intended to be used 8for printing ornaments on the frames of looking-glasses60 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cid4--;,interior of a ,printing-office in the ,sixteenth ,century1 by ,j4 ,amman4 ,would it not have been surprising that the pilgrims who were to visit ,aix-la-,chapelle on the occasion of the grand jubilee of #addj1 should be so anxious to buy ornamented mirrors8 ,as to the art 8of polishing stones10 which ,gutenberg had taught at first to ,andrew ,dritzehen1 who derived from it 8so much profit10 having anything to do with printing was1 no doubt1 also questionable2 but we have not been able to solve the enigma1 and wait to clear up the difficulty till a new incunable 7incunabula1 8a cradle10 the word is applied to the first editions ever printed7 is discovered1 the work of some ,peter 7 8a stone07 or other2 as1 for example1 the ,latin sermons of ,hermann de ,petra on the ,lord's ,prayer2 for ,gutenberg1 when speaking of polishing stones1 might have enigmatically designated a book he was printing2 just as his partner1 in answer to the judge1 after having raised his hand on high and sworn to give true evidence1 could call himself a maker of mirrors1 without telling a falsehood1 without committing perjury4 ,the secret of printing was to be religiously kept by those who knew it4 ,in short1 it results from all this that ,gutenberg1 8an ingenious man and a man of invention10 having seen a xylographie 8,donatus10 had endeavoured to imitate it1 and had succeeded in doing so1 the secret being confided to ,andrew ,dritzehen2 that the other arts1 which ,gutenberg at first kept to himself1 but which he subsequently communicated to his partners1 consisted in the idea of substituting movable type for tabular printing2 a substitution that could only be effected after numerous experiments had been made1 and which were just about to be crowned with success when ,andrew ,dritzehen died4 ,we may then consider it as nearly certain that printing was in some sort discovered twice successively--the first time by ,laurent ,coster1 whose small printed books1 or books in letterpress 7en moule71 attracted the attention of ,gutenberg2 and the second time by ,gutenberg1 who raised the art to a degree of perfection such as had never been attained by his predecessor4 ,it was after the ,strasbourg lawsuit between the years #addj or #addb1 as stated by many historians1 that ,gutenberg went to ,holland1 and there became a workman in the establishment of ,coster2 this is asserted in order that they might be able to accuse him of the theft which ,junius has laid to the account of a certain man whose name was ,john4 ,only--and the coincidence is not1 in this case1 unworthy of remark--two unedited chronicles of ,strasbourg and the ,alsatian ,wimpfeling relate1 almost at the same time1 a robbery of type and implements used in printing1 but mentioning ,strasbourg instead of ,haarlem1 ,gutenberg instead of ,laurent ,coster1 and naming the thief ,john ,gensfieisch4 ,but1 according to the ,strasbourg tradition1 this ,john ,gensfieisch the elder1 related to and employed by ,gutenberg1 robbed him of his secret and his tools1 after having been his rival in the discovery of printing1 and established himself at ,mayence1 where1 by a just visitation of ,providence1 he was soon struck blind4 ,it was then1 adds the tradition1 that in his repentance he sent for his former master to come to ,mayence1 and gave up to him the business he had founded4 ,but this last part of the tradition seems to savour too much of the moral deductions of a story2 and as it is very improbable1 moreover1 that two thefts of the same kind were committed at the same period1 and under the same circumstances1 we are inclined to believe that the ,john mentioned by ,junius was1 in fact1 ,gutenberg's relative1 who went to ,haarlem to perfect himself in the art of printing1 and robbed ,coster2 for there really existed at ,mayence1 at the time mentioned1 a ,john ,gensfleisch1 who might have printed1 before ,gutenberg went to join him there1 the two school books1 8,doctrinale ,alexandri ,galli10 and 8,petri ,hispani ,tractatus40 ,this is rendered still more probable from the fact that1 after search had been long made for these books1 which were absolutely unknown when ,junius mentioned them1 three fragments of the 8,doctrinale10 printed on vellum with the type of the ,dutch 8,speculum10 were at length found4 ,however1 ,gutenberg had not succeeded with his printing at ,strasbourg4 ,when he quitted the town1 where he left such pupils as ,john ,mentell and ,henry ,eggestein1 he removed to ,mayence1 and established himself in the house of ,zum ,jungen4 ,there he again printed1 but he exhausted his means in experiments1 alternately taking up and laying aside the various processes he had employed--xylography1 movable types of wood1 lead1 and cast iron4 ,he used1 for printing1 a hand-press which he had made on the same principle as a wine-press2 he invented new tools2 he began ten works and could finish none4 ,at last1 his resources all gone1 and himself in a state of despair1 he was just going to give up the art altogether1 when chance sent him a partner1 ,john ,fust or ,faust1 a rich goldsmith of ,mayence4 ,this partnership took place in #adej4 ,fust1 by a deed properly drawn up by a notary1 promised ,gutenberg to advance him #hjj gold florins for the manufacture of implements and tools1 and #cjj for other expenses--servants' wages1 rent1 firing1 parchment1 paper1 ink1 c4 ,besides the 8,specula0 and 8,donati0 already in circulation1 which ,gutenberg probably continued to print1 the object of the partnership was the printing of a ,bible in folio of two columns1 in large type1 with initial letters engraved on wood2 an important work requiring a great outlay4 ,a caligrapher was attached to ,gutenberg's printing establishment1 either to trace on wood the characters to be engraved1 or to rubricate the printed pages2 in other words1 to write in red ink1 to paint with a brush or to illuminate 7au frottou7 the initials1 the capital letters1 and the headings of chapters4 ,this caligrapher was probably ,peter ,schffer or ,schoiffer1 of ,gernsheim1 a small town in the diocese of ,darmstadt1 a clerk of the diocese of ,mayence1 as he styles himself1 and perhaps a ,german student in the ,university of ,paris2 since a manuscript copied by him1 and preserved at ,strasbourg1 is terminated by an inscription in which he testifies that he himself wrote it in the year #addi1 in 8the very glorious ,university of ,paris40 ,schffer was not only a literary man1 but was also a man of ingenuity and prudence 7ingeniosus et prudens74 ,having entered ,gutenberg's establishment1 on whom ,fust had forced him1 in #adeb1 to take part in the new association they were then forming1 ,schffer invented an improved mould with which he could cast separately all the letters of the alphabet in metal1 whereas up to this time they had been obliged to engrave the type with a burin4 ,he concealed his discovery from ,gutenberg1 who would naturally have availed himself of it2 but he confided the secret to ,fust1 who1 being very experienced in casting metals1 carried out his idea4 ,it was evidently with this cast type1 which resisted the action of the press1 that ,schffer composed and executed a 8,donatus10 of which four leaves1 in parchment1 were found at ,treves in #ahjc1 in the interior of an old bookcover1 and were deposited in the ,imperial ,library of ,paris4 ,an inscription in this edition1 printed in red1 announces formally that ,peter ,schffer alone had executed it1 with its type and its initial letters1 according to the 8new art of the printer1 without the help of the pen40 ,that was certainly the first public disclosure of the existence of printing1 which up to this time had passed off its productions as the work of caligraphers4 ,it seems that ,schffer thus desired to mark the date and to appropriate to himself the invention of ,gutenberg4 ,it is certain that ,fust1 allured by the results ,schffer had obtained1 secretly entered into partnership with him1 and1 in order to get rid of ,gutenberg1 profited by the power which his bond gave him over that unfortunate individual4 ,gutenberg1 summoned to dissolve the partnership and to return the sums he had received1 which he was quite incapable of paying1 was obliged1 in order to satisfy the demands of his pitiless creditor1 to give up to him his printing establishment with all the materials it contained2 among them was included this same ,bible1 the last leaves of which were1 perhaps1 in the press at the moment when they robbed him of the fruits of his long-protracted labours4 ,gutenberg evicted1 ,peter ,schffer1 and ,fust1 who had given ,schffer his daughter in marriage1 completed the great ,bible1 which was ready for sale in the early months of #adef4 ,this ,bible1 being passed off as a manuscript1 must have commanded a very high price4 ,this accounts for the non-appearance on it of any inscription to show by what means this immense work had been executed2 let us add that in any case we may well suppose ,schffer and ,fust were not willing to give to ,gutenberg a share of the glory which they dared not yet appropriate to themselves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cie4--;,fac-simile of the ,bible of #adef 7#a ,samuel xix1 #a-e71 printed at ,mayence by ,gutenberg4 ,the ,latin ,bible1 without date1 which all bibliographers agree in considering as that of ,gutenberg1 is a large in-folio of six hundred and forty-one leaves1 divided into two1 or three1 or even four volumes4 ,it is printed in double columns1 of forty-two lines each in the full pages1 with the exception of the first ten1 which consisted of only forty or forty-one lines 7,fig4 #cie74 ,the characters are ,gothic2 the leaves are all numbered1 and have neither signatures nor catchwords4 ,some copies of it are on vellum1 others on paper4 ,the number of copies which were printed of this ,bible may be estimated at one hundred and fifty--a considerable number for that period4 ,the simultaneous publication of so many ,bibles1 exactly alike1 did not contribute less than the lawsuit of ,gutenberg and ,fust to make known the discovery of printing4 ,besides which1 ,fust and his new partner1 although they had mutually agreed to keep the secret as long as possible1 were the first to reveal it1 in order to get all the credit of the invention for themselves1 when public rumour allowed them no longer to conceal it within their printing-office4 ,it was then they printed the 8,psalmorum ,codex0 7,collection of ,psalms71 the earliest book bearing their names1 and which fixed1 in a manner1 for the first time1 a date for the new art they had so much improved4 ,the colophon1 or inscription at the end of the 8,psalmorum ,codex10 announces that the book was executed 8without the help of the pen1 by an ingenious process1 in the year of our ,lord1 #adeg40 ,this magnificent ,psalter1 which went through three editions without any considerable alterations being made in it in the space of thirty-three years1 is a large in-folio volume of one hundred and seventy-five leaves1 printed in red and black characters1 imitated from those used in the liturgical manuscripts of the fifteenth century4 ,there exists1 however1 of the rarest edition of this book but six or seven copies on vellum 7,fig4 #cif74 ,from this period printing1 instead of concealing itself1 endeavoured1 on the contrary1 to make itself generally known4 ,but it does not as yet seem to have occurred to any one that it could be applied to the reproduction of other books than ,bibles1 psalters1 and missals1 because these were the only books that commanded a quick and extensive sale4 ,fust and ,schffer then undertook the printing of a voluminous work1 which served as a liturgical manual to the whole of ,christendom1 the celebrated 8,rationale ,divinorum ,officiorum0 78,manual of ,divine ,offices071 by ,william ,durand1 ,bishop of ,mende1 in the thirteenth century4 ,it suffices to glance over this 8,rationale10 and to compare it with the coarse 8,specula0 printed in ,holland1 to be convinced that in the year #adei printing had reached the highest degree of perfection4 ,this edition1 dated from ,mayence 7,mogunti71 was no longer intended for a small number of buyers2 it was addressed to the entire ,catholic world1 and copies of it on vellum and on paper were disseminated so rapidly over the whole of ,europe as to cause the belief1 thenceforward1 that printing was invented at ,mayence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cif4--;,fac-simile of a page of the ,psalter of #adei1 second edition1 or the second copy that was struck off4 ,printed at ,mayence1 by ,j4 ,fust and ,p4 ,schffer4 ,the fourth work printed by ,fust and ,schffer1 and dated #adfj1 is the collection of the ,constitutions of ,pope ,clement ,v41 known by the name of 8,clementines0--a large in-folio in double columns1 having superb initial letters painted in gold and colours in the small number of copies still extant4 ,but ,gutenberg1 though deprived of his typographic apparatus1 had not renounced the art of which he considered himself1 and with reason1 the principal inventor4 ,he was1 above all1 anxious to prove himself as capable as his former partners of producing books 8without the help of the pen40 ,he formed a new association1 and fitted up a printing-office which1 we know by tradition1 was actively at work till #adfj1 the year wherein appeared the 8,catholicon0 7a kind of encyclopdia of the thirteenth century71 by ,john ,balbi1 of ,genoa1 the only important work the printing of which can be attributed to ,gutenberg 7,fig4 #cig71 and which can bear comparison with the editions of ,fust and ,schffer4 ,gutenberg1 who had imitated the ,dutch 8,donati0 and 8,specula10 doubtless felt a repugnance at appropriating to himself the credit of an invention he had only improved2 accordingly1 in the long and explicit anonymous inscription placed at the end of the volume1 he attributed to ,god alone the glory of this divine invention1 declaring that the 8,catholicon0 had been printed without the assistance of reed1 stylus1 or pen1 but by a marvellous combination of points1 matrices1 and letters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cig4--;,fac-simile of the 8,catholicon0 at #adfj1 printed at ,mayence by ,gutenberg4 ,this undertaking brought to a happy termination1 ,gutenberg1 no doubt weary of the annoyances incident to business1 transferred his printing-office to his workmen1 ,henry and ,nicholas ,bechtermuncze1 ,weigand ,spyes1 and ,ulric ,zell4 ,then1 having retired near to ,adolphus ,,ii41 elector and archbishop of ,mayence1 where he occupied the post of gentleman of the ecclesiastical court of that prince1 he contented himself with the modest stipend attached to that office1 and died at a date not authentically determined1 but which cannot be later than ,february #bd1 #adfh4 ,his friend1 ,adam ,gelth1 erected in the ,church of the ,rcollets at ,mayence1 a monument to his memory1 with an epitaph styling him formally 8the inventor of the typographic art40 ,fust and ,schffer did not the less continue to print books with indefatigable ardour4 ,in #adfb they completed a new edition of the ,bible1 much more perfect than that of #adef1 and of which copies were probably sold1 as were those of the first edition1 as manuscripts1 especially in countries where1 as in ,france1 printing did not already exist4 ,it seems that the appearance in ,paris of this ,bible1 7called the ,mayence ,bible71 greatly excited the community of scribes and booksellers1 who saw in the new method of producing books1 without the aid of the pen1 8the destruction of their trade40 ,they charged1 it is said1 the sellers of these books with magic2 but it is more probable the latter were proceeded against1 and condemned to fine and imprisonment1 for having omitted to procure from the ,university authority for the sale of their ,bible2 such permission being then indispensable for the sale of every kind of book4 ,in the meantime the town of ,mayence had been taken by assault and given up to pillage 7,october #bg1 #adfb74 ,this event1 in consequence of which the printing-office of ,fust and ,schffer remained shut up for two years1 resulted in the dissemination over the whole of ,europe of printers and the art of printing4 ,cologne1 ,hamburg1 and ,strasbourg appear to have been the first towns in which the emigrants established themselves4 ,when these printers left ,mayence1 and carried their art elsewhere1 it had never produced any book of classic literature2 but it had proved by important publications1 such as the ,bible and the 8,catholicon10 that it could create entire libraries1 and thus propagate1 ad infinitum1 the masterpieces of human genius4 ,it was reserved for the printing-office of ,fust and ,schffer to set the example in that direction1 and of printing the first classical work4 ,in #adfe1 ,cicero's treatise 8,de ,officiis10 issued from the press of these two faithful associates1 and marked1 as we may say1 the commencement of the printing of books for libraries1 and with so great success that in the following year a new edition of the treatise was published1 in quarto4 ,at this period1 ,fust himself came to ,paris1 where he established a dpt of printed books1 but left the management of the concern to one of his own fellow-countrymen4 ,this person dying soon afterwards1 the books found in his house1 being the property of a foreigner1 were sold by right of forfeiture1 for the king's benefit4 ,but upon the petition of ,peter ,schffer1 backed up by the ,elector of ,mayence1 the ,king1 ,louis ,,xi41 granted to the petitioners a sum of #b1dbe golden dollars1 8in consideration of the trouble and labour which the said petitioners had taken for the said art and trade of printing1 and of the benefit and utility which resulted and may result from this art to the whole world1 as well by increasing knowledge as in other ways40 ,this memorable decree of the ,king of ,france bears date ,april #ba1 #adge4 ,we must mention1 however1 that about the year #adfb1 ,louis ,,xi41 inquisitive and uneasy at what he had heard of the invention of ,gutenberg1 sent to ,mayence ,nicholas ,jenson1 a clever engraver1 attached to the mint at ,tours1 8to obtain secret information of the cutting of the points and type1 by means of which the rarest manuscripts could be multiplied1 and to carry off surreptitiously the invention and introduce it into ,france40 ,nicholas ,jenson1 after having succeeded in his mission1 did not return to ,france 7it was never known why71 but went to ,venice and established himself there as a printer4 ,it would seem1 however1 that ,louis ,,xi41 not discouraged at the ill success of his attempt1 despatched1 it is said1 another envoy1 less enterprising but more conscientious than the first1 to discover the secrets of printing4 ,in #adfi1 three ,german printers1 ,ulric ,gering1 ,martin ,crantz1 and ,michael ,friburger1 began to print in ,paris1 in a room of the ,sorbonne1 of which their fellow-countryman1 ,john ,heylin1 named ,de la ,pierre1 was then the prior2 in the following year they dedicated to the king1 8their protector10 one of their editions1 revised by the learned ,william ,fichet2 and in the space of four years they published about fifteen works1 quartos and folios1 the majority being printed for the first time4 ,then1 when they were forced to leave the ,sorbonne1 because ,john de la ,pierre1 who had returned to ,germany1 had no longer authority over the institution1 they set up in the ,rue ,saint-,jacques a new printing establishment1 whose sign-board was the 8,soleil d',or10 from which1 during the next five years1 were issued twelve other important works4 ,the ,sorbonne then1 like the ,university1 was the cradle and the foster-mother in ,paris of the art of printing1 which soon attained to a nourishing condition1 and produced1 during the last twenty years of the fourteenth#fa century1 numerous fine books of history1 poetry1 literature1 and devotion1 under the direction of the able and learned ,pierre ,caron1 ,pasquier ,bonhomme1 ,anthony ,vrard1 ,simon ,vostre 7,fig4 #cih71 c4 ,after the capture of ,mayence1 two workmen1 who had been dismissed from the establishment of ,fust and ,schffer1 ,conrad ,sweynheim and ,arnold ,pannartz1 carried beyond the ,alps the secret that had been confided to them under the guarantee of an oath4 ,they remained for a time in the ,convent of ,subiaco1 near ,rome1 in which were some ,german monks1 and there they organised a printing apparatus1 and printed many fine editions of ,lactantius1 ,cicero1 ,st4 ,augustine1 c4 ,they were soon invited to ,rome1 and met with an asylum in the house of the illustrious family of ,massimi2 but they found an opponent in the city in one of their own workmen from the convent1 who had come to ,rome and engaged himself as printer to the cardinal ,john of ,torquemada4 ,henceforward sprang up between the two printing establishments a rivalry which showed itself in unparalleled zeal and activity on both sides4 ,in ten years the greater number of the writings of the ancient ,latin authors1 which had been preserved in manuscripts more or less rare1 passed through the press4 ,in #adgf there were in ,rome more than twenty printers1 who employed about a hundred presses1 and whose great object was to surpass each other in the rapidity with which they produced their publications2 so that the day soon arrived when the most precious manuscripts retained any value only because they contained what had not been already made public by printing4 ,those of which printed editions already existed were so universally disregarded1 that we must refer to this period the destruction of a large number4 ,they were used1 when written on parchment1 for binding the new books2 and to this circumstance may be attributed the loss of certain celebrated works which printing in nowise tended to preserve from the knife of the binder4 ,while printing was displaying such prodigious activity in ,rome1 it was ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cih4--;,fac-simile of a page of a 8,livre d',heures0 printed in ,paris1 in #aeab1 by ,simon ,vostre4 not less active in ,venice1 where it seems to have been imported by that ,nicholas ,jenson whom ,louis ,,xi4 had sent to ,gutenberg1 and whom for a long time even the ,venetians looked on as the inventor of the art with which he had clandestinely become acquainted at ,mayence4 ,from the ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cii4--,the ,mark of ,grard ,lecu1 ,printer at ,gouwe 7#adhb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djj4--,the ,mark of ,fust and ,schffer1 ,printers4 7,fifteenth ,century47 year #adfi1 however1 ,jenson had no longer the monopoly of printing in ,venice1 where ,john de ,spire had arrived1 bringing also from ,mayence all the improvements ,gutenberg and ,schffer had obtained4 ,this art having ceased to be a secret in the city of the ,doges1 great ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dja4--,mark of ,arnold de ,keyser1 ,printer at ,ghent4 7#adhj47 competition arose among printers1 who flocked to ,venice1 where they found a market for their volumes which a thousand ships carried to all parts of the world4 ,at this period important and admirable publications issued from the numerous rival printing establishments in ,venice4 ,christopher ,waltdorfer1 of ,ratisbon1 published in #adga the first edition of the 8,decameron0 of ,boccaccio1 of which a copy was sold for #b1jhj at the ,roxburgh sale2 ,john of ,cologne published1 in the same year1 the first dated edition of 8,terence20 ,adam of ,amberg reprinted1 from the ,roman editions1 8,lactantius0 and 8,virgil10 c4 ,finally1 ,venice already possessed more than two hundred printers1 when in #adid the great ,aldo ,manuzio made his appearance1 the precursor of the ,estiennes1#fb who were the glory of ,french printing4 ,from every part of ,europe printing spread itself and flourished 7,figs4 #cii to #daa72 the printers1 however1 often neglected1 perhaps intentionally1 to date their ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djb4--,mark of ,colard ,mansion1 ,printer at ,bruges4 7#adgg47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djc4--,mark of ,trechsel1 ,printer at ,lyons4 7#adhi47 productions4 ,in the course of #adfi there were only two towns1 ,venice and ,milan1 that revealed1 by their dated editions1 the time at which printing was first established within their walls2 in #adgj1 five towns--,nuremberg1 ,paris1 ,foligno1 ,treviso1 and ,verona2 in #adga1 eight towns--,strasbourg1 ,spires1 ,treviso1 ,bologna1 ,ferrara1 ,naples1 ,pavia1 and ,florence2 in #adgb1 eight others--,cremona1 ,felizzano1 ,padua1 ,mantua1 ,montreuil1 ,jesi1 ,munster1 and ,parma2 in #adgc1 ten--,brescia1 ,messina1 ,ulm1 ,bude1 ,lauingen1 ,mersebourg1 ,alost1 ,utrecht1 ,lyons1 and ,st4 ,ursio1 near ,vicenza2 in #adgd1 thirteen towns1 among which are ,valentia 7in ,spain7 and ,london2 in #adge1 twelve towns1 c4 ,each year we find the art gaining ground1 and each year an increase in the number of books newly edited1 rendering science and literature popular by considerably diminishing the price of books4 ,thus1 for example1 at the beginning of the fifteenth century1 the illustrious ,poggio sold his fine manuscript of 8,livy10 to raise money enough to buy himself a villa near ,florence2 ,anthony of ,palermo mortgaged his estate in order to be able to purchase a manuscript of the same historical writer1 valued at a hundred and twenty-five dollars2 yet a few years later the 8,livy10 printed at ,rome by ,sweynheim and ,pannartz1 in one folio volume on vellum1 was worth only five golden dollars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djd4--,mark of ,simon ,vostre1 ,printer at ,paris1 in #aeca1 living in the ,rue ,neuve ,nostre-,dame1 at the ,sign of ,st4 ,john the ,evangelist4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dje4--,mark of ,galliot du ,pr1 ,bookseller at ,paris4 7#aeca47 ,the largest number of the early editions resembled each other1 for they were generally printed in ,gothic characters1 or lettres de somme--letters which bristled with points and angular appendices4 ,these characters1 when printing was only just invented1 had preserved in ,holland and in ,germany their original form2 and the celebrated printer of ,bruges1 ,colard ,mansion1 only improved on them in his valuable publications1 which were almost contemporaneous with ,gutenberg's 8,catholicon20 but they had already under-gone in ,france a semi metamorphosis in getting rid of their angularities and their most extravagant features4 ,these lettres de somme were then adopted under the name of btarde 7bastard7 or ronde 7round71 in the first books printed in ,france1 and when ,nicholas ,jenson established himself in ,venice ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djf4--,mark of ,philippe le ,noir1 ,printer1 ,bookseller1 and ,bookbinder1 at ,paris1 #aecf1 living in the ,rue ,st4 ,jacques1 at the sign of the 8,rose ,couronne40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djg4--,mark of ,temporal1 ,printer at ,lyons1 #aeej-aeei1 with two devices2 one in ,latin1 8,and in the meanwhile time flieth1 flieth irreparably20 the other in ,greek1 8,mark1 or know1 ,time40 7,observe the play upon the words tempus1 and ,temporal47 he used the ,roman1 which were only an elegant variety of the lettres de somme of ,france 7,gothic characters74 ,aldo ,manuzio1 with the sole object of insuring that ,venice should not owe its national type to a ,frenchman1 adopted the ,italic character1 renewed from the writing called cursive or de chancellerie 7of the chancellor's office71 which was never generally used in printing1 notwithstanding the fine editions of ,aldo4 ,hereafter the ,ciceronean character was to come into use1 so called because it had been employed at ,rome in the first edition of the 8,epistol ,familiares0 7,familiar ,letters7 of ,cicero1 in #adfg4 ,the character called 8,st4 ,augustinian10 which appeared later1 likewise owes its name to the large edition of the works of ,st4 ,augustine1 published at ,basle in #aejf4 ,moreover1 during this first period in which each printer engraved1 or caused to be engraved under his own directions1 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djh4--,mark of ,robert ,estienne1 ,printer at ,paris1 #aecf4 8,do not aspire to know high things40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dji4--,mark of ,gryphe1 ,printer at ,lyons1 #aebi4 8,virtue my ,leader1 ,fortune my ,companion40 the characters he made use of1 there was an infinite number of different types4 ,the register1 a table indicative of the quires which composed the book1 was necessary to point out in what order these were to be arranged ,illustration3 ,fig4 #daj4--,mark of ,plantin1 ,printer1 at ,antwerp1 #aeeg4 8,christ the true ,vine40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #daa4--,mark of ,j4 ,le ,noble1 ,printer at ,troyes4 7#aeie47 and bound together4 ,after the register came the catchwords1 which1 at the end of each quire or of each leaf1 were destined to serve an analogous purpose2 and the signatures1 indicating the place of quires or of leaves by letters or figures2 but signatures and catchwords existed already in the manuscripts1 and typographers had only to reproduce them in their editions4 ,there was at first a perfect identity between the manuscripts and the books printed from them4 ,the typographic art seems to have considered it imperative to respect the abbreviations with which the manuscripts were so encumbered as often to become unintelligible2 but1 as it was not easy to transfer them precisely from the manuscripts1 they were soon expressed in such a way1 and in so complicated a manner1 that in #adhc a special explanatory treatise had to be published to render them intelligible4 ,the punctuation was generally very capriciously presented3 here1 it was nearly nil2 there1 it admitted only of the full stop in various positions2 the rests were often indicated by oblique strokes2 sometimes the full stop was round1 sometimes square1 and we find also the star or asterisk employed as a sign of punctuation4 ,the new paragraphs1 or breaks1 are placed indifferently in the same line with the rest of the text1 projecting beyond it or not reaching to it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dab4--;,border from the 8,livre d',heures0 of ,anthony ,vrard 7#adhh71 representing the ,assumption of the ,virgin in the presence of the ,apostles and ,holy ,women1 and at the bottom of the page two ,mystical ,figures4 ,the book1 on leaving the press1 went1 like its predecessor the manuscript1 first into the hands of the corrector1 who revised the text1 rectifying wrong letters1 and restoring those the press had left in blank2 then into the hands of the rubricator1 who printed in red1 blue1 or other colours1 the initial letters1 the capitals1 and the new paragraphs4 ,the leaves1 before the adoption of signatures1 were numbered by hand4 ,at first1 nearly all books were printed in folio and quarto sizes1 the result of folding the sheet of paper in two or in four respectively2 but the length and breadth of these sizes varied according to the requirements of typography and the dimensions of the press4 ,at the end of the fifteenth century1 however1 the advantages of the octavo were already appreciated1 which soon became in ,france the sex-decimo1 and in ,italy the duo-decimo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dac4--;,border taken from the 8,livre d',heures0 of ,geoffroi ,tory 7#aebe74 ,paper and ink employed by the earliest printer seem to have required no improvement as the art of printing progressed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dad--8,livre d',heures10 by ,guillaume ,roville 7#aeea71 a composition in the style of the school of ,lyons1 with ,caryatides representing female ,saints semi-veiled4 ,the ink was black1 bright1 indelible1 unalterable1 penetrating deeply into the paper1 and composed1 as already were the colours1 of oil-paint4 ,the paper1 which was certainly rather grey or yellow1 and often coarse and rough1 had the advantage of being strong1 durable1 and was almost fit1 in virtue of these qualities1 to replace parchment and vellum1 both of which materials were scarce and too expensive4 ,editors contented themselves with having struck off on membrane 7a thin and white vellum7 a small number of copies of each edition2 never exceeding three hundred4 ,these sumptuous copies1 rubricated1 illuminated1 bound with care1 resembling in every respect the finest manuscripts1 were generally presented to kings1 princes1 and great personages1 whose patronage or assistance the printer sought4 ,nor was any expense spared to add to typography all the ornaments which wood-engravings could confer upon it2 and from the year #adge1 numerous illustrated editions1 of which an example was found in the first 8,specula10 especially those printed in ,germany1 were enriched with figures1 portraits1 heraldic escutcheons1 and a multitude of ornamented margins 7,figs4 #dab to #dae74 ,for more than a century the painters and engravers worked hand in hand with the printers and booksellers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dae4--;,border employed by ,john of ,tournes1 in #aeeg1 ornamented with ,antique ,masks and ,allegorical ,personages bearing ,baskets containing ,laurel ,branches4 ,the taste for books spread over the whole of ,europe2 the number of buyers and of amateurs was every day increasing4 ,in the libraries of princes1 scholars1 or monks1 printed books were collected as formerly were manuscripts4 ,henceforth printing found everywhere the same protection1 the same encouragements1 the same rivalry4 ,typographers sometimes travelled with their apparatus1 opened a printing-office in a small town1 and then went on elsewhere after they had sold one edition4 ,finally1 such was the incredible activity of typography1 from its origin till #aejj1 that the number of editions published in ,europe in the space of half a century amounted to sixteen thousand4 ,but the most remarkable result of printing was the important part it played in the movement of the sixteenth century1 from which resulted the transformation of the arts1 of literature1 and science2 the discoveries of ,laurent ,coster and of ,gutenberg had cast a new light over the world1 and the press made its appearance to modify profoundly the conditions of the intellectual life of peoples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #daf4--,mark of ,bonaventure and ,abraham ,elsevier1 ,printers at ,leyden1 #afbj4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,virtue ,,and ,,co41 ,,city ,,road4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,dorserets1 covers to backs of chairs1 beds1 c4 #b ,richard ,i41 surnamed ,sans-peur1 third ,duke of ,normandy1 was natural son of ,william ,i41 and grandson of ,rollo4 ,he died in #iif4--;,,ed4 #c ,charles le ,brun1 a distinguished painter of the ,french school1 flourished during the seventeenth century4 ,the son of a sculptor1 who placed him under ,simon ,vouet1 the young artist made such progress that at the age of fifteen he painted a remarkable picture1 8,hercules ,destroying the ,horses of ,diomede10 which brought him at once into public notice4 ,le ,brun's patron1 the ,chancellor ,seguier1 sent him to ,italy1 with an introduction to ,nicholas ,poussin1 whose pure and correct taste1 however1 seems to have had little influence on the ,french artist1 who1 though possessing an inventive and somewhat elevated genius1 often showed himself a mannerist4--,,ed4 #d 8,historical ,topography of ,ancient ,paris in the district of the ,louvre and ,tuileries40 ,by ,berty and ,legrand4 #e ,probably an abbreviation1 or corruption1 of cap-mail4--,,ed4 #f ,or brassarts--pieces to protect the upper part of the arms4--,,ed4 #g ,this title is not chronologically correct4 ,henry of ,bolingbroke had been created ,duke of ,hereford nearly a year before his intended combat with ,norfolk1 at ,coventry1 in #acih2 when the king1 ,richard ,,ii41 interfered1 and banished both nobles from the kingdom4--,,ed4 #h ,anglic1 partisan--a kind of pike or lance4--,,ed4 #i ,martel-de-fer--a weapon combining a hammer and pick2 used by cavalry in the ,middle ,ages1 to damage and destroy armour4 ,it was generally hung at the saddle-bow4--,,ed4 #aj ,tassets--parts of the cuirass4 #aa ,morion--a kind of helmet1 usually worn by foot-soldiers4--,,ed4 #ab ,so called1 it may be presumed1 from its form and make4--,,ed4 #ac ,latin1 ,luteus--muddy4--,,ed4 #ad ,quincunx order is a method of arranging five objects1 or pieces1 in the form of a square2 one being in the centre1 and one at each corner4--,,ed4 #ae ,limousine--a term applied to enamelling1 and derived1 as some writers assume1 from ,leonard ,limousin1 a famous artist in this kind of work1 resident at ,limoges4 ,it is1 however1 more probable it came from the province ,limousin1 or ,limosin1 of which ,limoges was the capital2 and that ,leonard acquired the surname of ,limousin from his place of birth or residence2 just as many of the old painters are best known by theirs4--,,ed4 #af ,ogivale--a term used by ,french architects to denote the ,gothic vault1 with its ribs and cross-springers1 c4 ,it is also employed to denote the pointed arch4--,,gwilt',s ,encyclopdia of ,architecture4--,,ed4 #ag ,this is a literal rendering of the text of ,m4 ,labarte2 but the artists to whom allusion is made were only two1 ,niccola and ,giovanni1 sculptors and architects of ,pisa4 ,according to ,vasari1 ,niccola1 father of ,giovanni 7,jean or ,john71 first worked under certain ,greek sculptors who were executing the figures and other sculptural ornaments of the ,duomo of ,pisa and the ,chapel of ,san ,giovanni4--,,ed4 #ah ,andrea di ,cione ,orcagna4--,,ed4 #ai ,autochthone--relating to the aboriginal inhabitants of a country3 the use of the word here is not very intelligible4--,,ed4 #bj ,gnomon--literally the upright piece of wood or metal which projects the shadow on the plane of the dial4--,,ed4 #ba ,this clock1 as many readers doubtless know1 was removed some years ago1 when ,st4 ,dunstan's ,church1 in ,fleet ,street1 was rebuilt4--,,ed4 #bb ,the reader will notice a discrepancy between this description of the chorus and that given in a preceding paragraph4 ,we have retained both1 mainly because it is now impossible to determine what the instrument really was3 no mention of it appears in any book we have consulted4--,,ed4 #bc ,nabulum--a name evidently derived from the ,hebrew word nebel1 generally translated in the ,scriptures as a psaltery4--,,ed4 #bd ,the ,welsh or ,scotch ,crwd4--,,tr4 #be ,in ,german ,geige1 8fiddle40--,,tr4 #bf ,henry ,,iv41 born at ,pau1 in the ,barn4--,,ed4 #bg ,the ,english 8knave0 is only our old equivalent for the ,german knabe1 and had originally the same meaning of servant2 it is also nearly similar in sense to the ,french valet4--,,tr4 #bh ,paul1 the ,silentiary1 is so named from holding in the court of ,justinian the office of chief of the ,silentiarii1 persons who had the care of the palace4 ,he wrote a poem on the rebuilding of ,st4 ,sophia1 at ,constantinople1 which was translated from ,greek into ,latin1 and published with notes1 by ,du ,cange1 of ,paris1 in #afgj4 ,it is this to which ,m4 ,lecroix refers in the text4--,,ed4 #bi ,amandaire--almond-shaped4 ,strictly speaking1 the aureola is the nimbus of the whole body1 as the nimbus is the aureola of the head4 ,in ,fairholt's 8,dictionary of ,terms in ,art0 is an engraving showing a saint standing in the centre of an almond-shaped aureola--,,ed4 #cj ,grisaille--white and black4--,,ed4 #ca ,probably ,alfonso is thus designate64--,,ed4 #cb ,this is obviously a misconception4 ,lanzi1 alluding to the picture1 says1 8,had ,leonardo desired to follow the practice of his age in painting in distemper1 the art at this time would have been in possession of this treasure4 ,but being always fond of attempting new methods1 he painted this masterpiece upon a peculiar ground1 formed of distilled oils1 which was the reason that it gradually detached itself from the wall10 c4 ,and a later authority1 ,kugler1 thus writes3 8,the determination of ,leonardo to execute the work in oil-colours instead of fresco1 in order to have the power of finishing the minutest details in so great an undertaking1 appears to have been unfortunate40 ,distemper differs from fresco in that it is painted on a dry1 and not a damp1 wall2 but in both the vehicle used is of an aqueous1 and not an oily1 nature4--,,ed4 #cc ,deacon of the ,church at ,aquila1 and afterwards attached to the court of ,charlemagne4 ,paul1 who died about the year #gii1 was distinguished as a poet and historian4--,,ed4 #cd ,or ,san-,gemignano1 a small town between ,florence and ,siena4--,,ed4 #ce ,giorgione studied under ,giovanni ,bellini1 younger brother of ,gentile1 and son of ,jacopo4 ,m4 ,lacroix does not even mention ,giovanni ,bellini1 though he is generally esteemed before his father and brother1 besides being the master of two of the greatest painters of the ,venetian school1 ,titian and ,giorgione2 who1 however1 soon cast aside the antiquated style of their early instructor4--,,ed4 #cf ,the famous picture1 an altar-piece1 representing 8,christ bearing his ,cross10 known by the name of ,lo ,spasimo di ,sicilia1 from its having been painted for the convent of ,santa ,maria della ,spasimo at ,palermo1 in ,sicily4 ,it is now in the ,museum of ,madrid4--,,ed4 #cg ,we can find no authority to support this statement4--,,ed4 #ch ,holbein died of the plague which prevailed in ,london in #aeed4--;,,ed4 #ci ,this name is generally written ,jeannet1 and1 according to ,wornum's 8,epochs of ,painting10 seems to have been applied indiscriminately almost to the two painters1 ,jehannet or ,jehan ,clouet1 father and son4 ,m4 ,lacroix appears also to include ,franois under the same general cognomen2 which1 indeed1 appears to have been a species of surname4--,,ed4 #dj ,buziack is the name by which this old wood-engraver is generally known4--,,ed4 #da ,the legend which accompanies this engraving is in old ,italian2 it relates to the famous prophecy of ,isaiah as to the birth of ,christ 7,isaiah vii4 #ad74 #db ,we presume this plate to be that commonly known among collectors of prints as 8,death's ,horse20 it represents a knight on horseback followed by ,death4 ,the best impressions of this plate are prior to the date #aeac4 ,it is also called 8,the ,christian ,knight10 and 8,the ,knight1 ,death1 and the ,devil40--,,ed4 #dc ,that ,marc ,antonio studied painting under ,raphael1 as is here implied1 is more than doubtful1 though he engraved a very large number of his various compositions1 and was highly esteemed by the great master4--,,ed4 #dd ,giovanni ,b4 ,b4 ,ghisi2 ,giorgio and ,adams1 his two sons2 and ,diana1 his daughter4--,,ed4 #de ,this engraver1 generally known by the single name of ,george1 usually signed his plates with the surname ,peins or ,pentz4--,,ed4 #df ,he was born at ,prague1 although most of his works were executed in ,england4--,,tr4 #dg ,ambons--a kind of pulpit in the early ,christian churches4--,,ed4 #dh ,strasbourg spire is #dfh feet in height1 the highest in the world4 ,amiens1 the next1 a mere flche1 is #dbb feet4--,,tr4 #di ,m4 ,lacroix uses the word ,romane throughout1 with reference to this style of architecture3 we have adopted ,norman as that most commonly associated with it1 and because it is a generic term comprehending ,romanesque1 ,lombardic1 and even ,byzantine4--,,ed4 #ej ,oculus 7eye74--,this word is not known in the vocabulary of ,english architects2 but it is evidently intended to signify a circular window4--,,ed4 #ea ,officers who had jurisdiction over1 and were inspectors of1 works of masonry and carpentry4 #eb ,the word is derived from vellus1 which merely signifies the skin of any beast1 not of a calf only4--,,ed4 #ec ,the word is derived from the ,latin uncialis1 and is applied to letters of a round or hook-shaped form3 such were used by the ancients as numerals1 or for words in abbreviated inscriptions4--,,ed4 #ed ,minuscule4--,less or little4 ,the term is evidently here intended to distinguish small letters from capitals4--,,ed4 #ee ,palimpsest--a kind of parchment from which anything written could easily be erased4--,,ed4 #ef ,librarian probably2 though libraire means only a bookseller1 bibliothcaire being the ,french for a librarian4--,,tr4 #eg ,translation3 8,this is ,monseigneur ,st4 ,louis' ,psalter1 which belonged to his mother40 #eh ,antiphonaries--books containing the responses1 c41 used in ,catholic church-services4--,,ed4 #ei 8,garni de deux fermaulx d'argent1 dorez1 armoiez d'azur une aigle d'or deux testes1 ongl de gueulles1 auquel a ung tuyau d'argent dor pour tourner les feuilles1 trois escussons desdites armes1 couvert d'une chemise de veluyau vermeil40 #fj ,probably this 8pilgrimage0 refers to some one of the great ,european ,councils or ,diets held in the city during the ,middle ,ages1 as were ,congresses in later times4--,,ed4 #fa ,sic2 but it should evidently be the fifteenth century4--,,ed4 #fb ,anglic1 ,stephens1 by which name this illustrious family of scholars and printers is most popularly known in ,england4 ,they were ten in number1 who flourished between #aeab and about #affj4 ,anthony1 the last distinguished representative of the family1 died in poverty at the ,htel ,dieu1 ,paris1 in #afgd1 at the age of eighty-two4--,,ed4