,,moorish ,,remains ,,in ,,spain        
,illustration3 ,,cordova4               
,,the ,,mosque4          ,vertical      
,section of the ,dome and ,cupola of the
 ,mihrab4                               
,illustration3                          
,,moorish                               
,,remains                               
,,in ,,spain                            
,,being ,a ,,brief ,,record ,,of        
,,the ,,arabian ,,conquest ,,of ,,the   
,,peninsula ,,with ,a ,,particular      
,,account ,,of ,,the ,,mohammedan       
,,architecture ,,and ,,decoration       
,,in ,,cordova1 ,,seville  ,,toledo     
,,by ,,albert ,f4 ,,calvert             
,,london3 ,,john ,,lane1 ,,the ,,bodley 
,,head                   ,,new ,,york3  
,,john ,,lane ,,company1 ,,mcmvi        
,e4 ,goodman and ,son1 ,phnix ,printing 
,works1 ,taunton4                       
,,dedication                     ,,to   
,,his ,,majesty ,,king ,,alfonso ,,xiii4
                                        
,,sire1  ,the great interest ,your      

,majesty has evinced in the ,moorish    
,monuments which adorn ,your ,majesty's 
loyal and noble country1 and the        
gracious appreciation with which ,you   
were pleased to regard my work on ,the  
,alhambra1 inspired me with the         
presumption to solicit the honour of    
,your ,majesty's ,august ,patronage for 
this volume1 which is humbly dedicated  
to ,your ,majesty agreeably to ,your    
,majesty's gracious permission1 by      
,your ,majesty's humble ,servant1       
,,albert ,f4 ,,calvert4     ,,preface   
,the inception of my work on ,the       
,alhambra1 to which this book is        
designed to be the companion and        
complementary volume1 was due to the    
disappointing discovery that no such    
thing as an even moderately adequate    
souvenir of the ,red ,palace of         
,granada1 8that glorious sanctuary of   
,spain10 was in existence4 ,it was      
written at a time when ,i shared the    
very common delusion that the ,alhambra 
was the only word in a vocabulary of    

relics which includes such ,arabian     
superlatives as the ,mosque at ,cordova1
 the ,gates and the ,cristo de la ,luz  
of ,toledo1 and the ,alcazar at         
,seville4 ,i had then to learn that     
while the ,alhambra has rightly been    
accepted as the last word on ,moorish   
,art in ,spain1 it must not be regarded 
as the solitary monument of the         
splendour and beauty with which the     
,arabs stamped their virile and artistic
 personality upon ,andalus4  ,in the    
course of frequent and protracted visits
 to ,spain ,i came to realise that the  
,moors were not a one-city nation2 they 
did not exhaust themselves in a single1 
isolated effort to achieve the sublimely
 beautiful4 ,before the ,alhambra was   
conceived in the mind of ,mohammed the  
,first of ,granada1 ,toledo had been    
adorned and lost2 ,cordova1 which for   
centuries had commanded the admiration  
of ,europe1 had paled and waned beside  
the increasing splendour of ,seville2   
and the 8gem of ,andalusia0 itself had  

been wrested from the ,moor by the      
victorious ,ferdinand ,,iii4 ,but each  
in turn had been redeemed from ,gothic  
tyranny by the art-adoring influence of 
the ,moslem4 ,their dominion1 their     
politics1 and their influence is a tale 
of a day that is dead1 but it survives  
in the monuments of their ,art1 which   
exist to the glory of ,spain and the    
wonder of the world4 ,the ,arabian sense
 of the beautiful sealed itself upon    
,cordova1 and made the city its own2 it 
blended with the joyous spirit of       
,seville2 it forced its impress upon the
 frowning forehead of ,toledo4 ,to see  
the ,alhambra is not to understand the  
wonders of the ,alcazar2 the study of   
,moorish wizardry in ,toledo does not   
reveal1 does not even prepare one1 for  
the bewildering cunning of the ,mosque  
in ,cordova4  ,in ,cordova--this gay1   
vivacious overgrown village1 which      
gleams serene in a setting of vineyards 
and orange groves--the spirit of the    
,moors still breathes4 ,rome wrested the

 city from ,carthage2 the ,goths humbled
 it to the dust4 ,but1 under the ,moors1
 ,cordova became the centre of ,european
 civilisation1 the rival of ,baghdad and
 ,damascus as a seat of learning1 the   
,athens of the ,west1 and second only in
 sanctity to the ,kaaba of ,mecca4 ,its 
,cathedral first came into being as a   
temple of ,janus2 it has been both a    
basilica and a mosque4 ,but the magic   
art of the ,mohammedan1 which effaced   
the imprint of the ,roman spear1 has    
survived the torch of the ,holy         
,inquisition1 and to-day ,cordova is the
 most exquisitely beautiful ,moorish    
monument in ,spain4  ,in ,seville1 on   
the spot where ,roman1 ,visigoth1 and   
,moslem have each in turn practised     
their faith1 the ,cathedral bells now   
hang above the ,arabian tower of the    
mosque1 and the spire of the temple of  
the faithful has become the world-famous
 ,giralda1 which dominates the city4    
,moorish fountains and patios are found 
at ,malaga1 and ,granada1 and ,toledo1  

but one comes to 8,la ,tierra de ,maria 
,santisima0 to see them at their        
loveliest1 while the ,alcazar is perhaps
 the best preserved and most            
superbly-decorated specimen of the      
,moorish citadel-palace that ,europe has
 to show4  ,menacing1 majestic1 and     
magnificent in its strength and splendid
 isolation1 ,toledo1 guarded by its     
,moorish masonry1 a rock built upon a   
rock1 has been described by ,padilla as 
8the crown of ,spain1 the light of the  
world1 free from the time of the mighty 
,goths40 ,the light of the world has    
dwindled in the socket of modern        
progress1 the ,moor has left his scars  
upon the freedom of the ,goth2 but      
,toledo1 which was old when             
,christianity was born1 presents an     
epitome of the principal arts1          
religions1 and races which have         
dominated the world for the last two    
thousand years4  ,in the three cities of
 ,cordova1 ,seville1 and ,toledo1 in    
which the hand of the ,moor touched     

nothing that it did not beautify1 ,i    
have found the supplement to the art    
wonders that ,i attempted to describe in
 my book upon the ,alhambra2 and1       
encouraged by the cordiality of the     
welcome extended to that volume in      
,spain and ,america1 as well as in this 
country1 ,i have followed the course    
which ,i therein adopted1 of making the 
letterpress subservient to the          
illustrations4 ,while immersed in       
authorities1 and tempted often by the   
beauties of the scenes to indulge the   
desire to emotionalise in words1 ,i have
 never permitted myself to forget that  
my purpose has been to present a picture
 rather than to chronicle the romance of
 ,spanish-,morisco art4  ,for the       
historical data1 and some of the        
descriptions contained in this book1 ,i 
have levied tribute on a large number of
 authors4 ,don ,pascual de ,gayngos1 the
 renowned translator of ,al-,makkari2   
the ,handbook and the ,gatherings of    
,richard ,ford2 ,william                

,stirling-,maxwell's ,don ,john of      
,austria2 ,the ,history of the ,conquest
 of ,spain1 by ,henry ,coppe2           
,washington ,irving's ,conquest of      
,granada2 ,miss ,charlotte ,yonge's     
,christians and ,moors in ,spain2       
,stanley ,lane-,poole's ,the ,moors in  
,spain2 the writings of ,dr4 ,r4 ,dozy1 
of ,leipsic2 ,muhammed ,hayat ,khan's   
,rise and ,fall of the ,muslim ,empire  
in ,spain2 ,hannah ,lynch's ,toledo2    
,walter ,m4 ,gallichan's ,seville2 ,the 
,latin-,byzantine ,monuments of         
,cordova2 ,monumentos ,arquitectonicos  
de ,espaa2 ,pedro de ,madrazo's         
,sevilla--these1 and many less important
 writers on ,spain1 have been consulted4
  ,but with this wealth of literary     
material to hand1 ,i have remembered    
that it is my collection of             
illustrations1 rather than on the       
written word1 that ,i must depend4 ,from
 the nature of ,arabian art1 and the    
characteristic minuteness of the details
 of which ,morisco decoration is        

composed1 lengthy descriptions of       
architecture1 unaccompanied by          
illustrations1 become not only tedious  
but positively confusing to the reader1 
while1 on the other hand1 a sufficiency 
of illustrations renders exhaustive     
descriptions superfluous4 ,i have       
striven to do justice to the subject in 
this direction1 not without hope of     
achieving my purpose1 but with a vast   
consciousness of the fact that1 neither 
by camera1 nor brush1 nor by the pen1   
can one reflect1 with any fidelity1 the 
effects obtained by the ,moorish masters
 of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in their art we 
find a sense of the mysterious that     
appeals to one like the glint of        
moonlight on running water2 an          
intangible spirit of joyousness that one
 catches from the dancing shadows of    
leaves upon a sun-swept lawn2 and an    
elusive key to its beauty1 which is lost
 in the bewildering maze of traceries   
and the inextricable network of designs4
 ,the form1 but not the fantasy1 of     

these fairy-like1 fascinating           
decorations may be reproduced1 and this 
,i have endeavoured to do4  ,a4 ,f4 ,c4 
8,,royston10 ,,hampstead1 ,n4 ,w4       
#aije4     ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations  
,,cordova                               
,,page  ,,the ,,mosque--,,principal     
,,nave ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab              
#i  ,,the ,,mosque--,,entrance ,,to     
,,the ,,mihrab                          
#aj  ,,gates ,,of ,,pardon              
#aa  ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,and     
,,bridge ,,south ,,of ,,the             
,,guadalquivir                 #ab      
,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,interior  
,,of ,,the ,,mosque                     
#ab  ,,fa,,ade ,,and ,,gate ,,of ,,the  
,,almanzor                              
#ac  ,,view ,,of ,,interior ,,of ,,the  
,,mosque #ifa-ifg                       
#ad  ,,the ,,mosque--,,plan ,,in ,,the  
,,time ,,of ,,the ,,arabs #ghf-gif1     
#ifa-ifg1 #ihh-ajja1 #aebc-aeic         
#ae  ,,the ,,mosque--,,plan ,,in ,,its  
,,present ,,state1 #ghf-gif1 #ifa-ifg1  

#ihh-ajja1 #aebc-aeic                   
#af  ,,ancient ,,arab ,,tower1 ,,now    
,,the ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,nicholas    
,,de ,,la ,,villa        #be  ,,orange  
,,court ,,in ,,the ,,mosque1 ,,moorish  
,,style1 ,,built #ieg1 ,,by ,,said ,,ben
 ,,ayout                                
#bf  ,,exterior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque     
#bg  ,,the ,,mosque--,,section ,,of     
,,the ,,mihrab                          
#bh  ,,the ,,mosque--,,portal ,,on ,,the
 ,,north ,,side1 ,,moorish ,,style1     
,,built ,,under ,,hakam ,,iii41         
#ihh-ajja                               
#de  ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,the       
,,mosque                                
#dg  ,,exterior ,,angle ,,of ,,the      
,,mosque                                
#di  ,,the ,,exterior ,,of ,,the        
,,mosque                                
#ea  ,,the ,,bridge                     
#ee  ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,mosque ,,and   
,,the ,,bridge                          
#eg  ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,mosque ,,of 
,,cordova ,,on ,,the ,,line ,,of ,,the  

,,plan ,l4 ,m4        #ei  ,,section    
,,of ,,the ,,mosque ,,of ,,cordova ,,on 
,,the ,,line ,,of ,,the ,,plan ,n4 ,o4  
#ei  ,,the ,,gates ,,of ,,pardon        
#fa  ,a ,,view ,,in ,,the ,,garden      
,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,mosque         
#fe  ,,the ,,mosque--,,lateral ,,gate   
#fg  ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque1    
,,or ,,cathedral                        
#fi  ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque1    
,,moorish ,,style1 ,,built #ifa-ifg4    
,,under ,,hakam ,,ii4 #ga  ,,the        
,,mosque                                
#ge  ,,the ,,mosque--,,interior ,,view  
#gg  ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,the       
,,mosque                                
#gi  ,,the ,,mosque--,,general ,,view   
,,of ,,the ,,interior                   
#ha  ,,the ,,central ,,nave ,,of ,,the  
,,mosque--#ifa-ifg                      
#he  ,,the ,,mosque--,,chief ,,entrance 
#hg  ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,the       
,,cathedral                             
#hi  ,,interior ,,of ,,the              
,,mosque--,,lateral ,,nave              

#ia  ,,interior ,,of ,,the              
,,mosque--,,east ,,side                 
#ia  ,,the ,,mosque--,,detail ,,of ,,the
 ,,gate                                 
#ie  ,,the ,,mosque--,,fa,,ade ,,of     
,,the ,,almanzor                        
#ie  ,,view ,,in ,,the                  
,,mosque--#ifa-ifg                      
#ig  ,,the ,,mosque--,a ,,gate ,,on     
,,one ,,of ,,the ,,lateral ,,sides      
#ii  ,,the ,,mosque--,,side ,,of ,,the  
,,captive',s ,,column                   
#aja  ,,mosque1 ,,north                 
,,side--,,exterior ,,of ,,the ,,chapel  
,,of ,,st4 ,,pedro              #aje    
,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,interior  
,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,masura 
,,and ,,st4 ,,ferdinand                 
#ajg  ,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of 
,,masura                                
#aji  ,,the ,,mosque--,,elevation ,,of  
,,the ,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,sanctuary ,,of
 ,,the ,,koran      #aaa  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,sanctuary 
,,of ,,the ,,koran                      

#aae  ,,the ,,mosque--,,mosaic          
,,decoration ,,of ,,the ,,sanctuary1    
#ife-ajja             #aag  ,,the       
,,mosque--,,right-,,hand ,,side ,,gate  
,,within ,,the ,,precincts ,,of ,,the   
,,maksurrah                             
#aai  ,,the ,,mosque--,,section ,,of    
,,the ,,cupola ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab      
#aba  ,,the ,,mosque--,,dome ,,of ,,the 
,,sanctuary                             
#abe  ,,the ,,mosque--,,roof ,,of ,,the 
,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,masura ,,and ,,st4
 ,,ferdinand       #abg  ,,villaviciosa 
,,chapel                                
#abi  ,,the ,,mosque--,,detail ,,of     
,,the ,,hall ,,of ,,chocolate           
#aca  ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,vestibule 
,,of ,,the ,,mihrab                     
#ace  ,,mihrab ,,or ,,sanctuary ,,of    
,,the ,,mosque                          
#acg  ,,the ,,mosque--,,arch ,,and      
,,front ,,of ,,the ,,abd-,,er-,,rahman  
,,and ,,mihrab ,,chapels   #aci         
,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,chapel ,,of     
,,the ,,mihrab                          

#ada  ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,of 
,,the ,,mihrab ,,chapel                 
#ade  ,,the ,,mosque--,,details ,,of    
,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,chapel    
,,of ,,the ,,mihrab      #adg  ,,the    
,,mosque--,,marble ,,socle ,,in ,,the   
,,mihrab                                
#adi  ,,basement ,,panel ,,of ,,the     
,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab           
#aea  ,,the ,,mosque--,,front ,,of ,,the
 ,,trastamara ,,chapel                  
#aee  ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the       
,,chapel ,,of ,,villaviciosa            
#aeg  ,,north ,,angle ,,of ,,the        
,,chapel ,,of ,,villaviciosa            
#aei  ,,villaviciosa ,,chapel           
#afa  ,,the ,,mosque--,,chapel ,,of     
,,villaviciosa                          
#afe  ,,arab ,,tribune1 ,,to-,,day ,,the
 ,,chapel ,,of ,,villaviciosa1 ,,left   
,,side           #afg  ,,ancient        
,,inscription ,,of ,,the ,,time ,,of    
,,khalifate1 ,,found ,,in ,,an          
,,excavation  #afi  ,,the               
,,mosque--,,chapel ,,of ,,trastamara1   

,,south ,,side                          
#aga  ,,the ,,mosque--,,detail ,,of     
,,the ,,trastamara ,,chapel             
#aga  ,,the ,,mosque--,,interior ,,of   
,,the ,,mihrab                          
#age  ,,the ,,mosque--,,arab ,,arcade   
,,above ,,the ,,first ,,mihrab          
#age  ,,the ,,mosque--,,details1        
,,arches ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab            
#agg  ,,the ,,mosque--,,detail ,,of     
,,the ,,mihrab                          
#agg  ,,the ,,mosque--,,exterior ,,of   
,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab      
#agi  ,,the ,,mosque--,,gate ,,of ,,the 
,,sultan                                
#agi  ,,principal ,,entrance ,,to ,,the 
,,mosque                                
#aha  ,,the ,,mosque--,,detail ,,near   
,,the ,,mihrab                          
#aha  ,,the ,,gates ,,of ,,pardon       
#ahe  ,,the ,,bishop',s ,,gate          
#ahe  ,,the ,,mosque--,,pilasters ,,and 
,,arabian ,,baths                       
#ahg  ,,inscriptions ,,and ,,arabian    
,,chapters                              

#aia  ,,the ,,mosque--,a ,,cufic        
,,inscription ,,in ,,the ,,place        
,,appropriated ,,to ,,the ,,performance 
,,of ,,ablutions                        
#aic  ,,arabic ,,inscriptions           
#aie  ,a ,,cufic ,,inscription ,,on     
,,the ,,additions ,,made ,,to ,,the     
,,mosque1 ,,by ,,order ,,of ,,the       
,,khalif ,,al-,,hakam                   
#aig  ,,the ,,bridge ,,across ,,the     
,,guadalquivir1 ,,with ,a ,,view ,,of   
,,the ,,cathedral 7,,mezquita74 ,,the   
,,scene ,,as ,,it ,,appeared ,,in #aghj4
 ,,from ,antigedades ,arabes de ,espaa4 
,,madrid1 #aghj1 ,,fol4                 
#bja  ,,view ,,of ,,cordova ,,cathedral 
7,,mezquita71 ,,as ,,it ,,appeared ,,in 
#aghj4 ,,from ,antigedades ,arabes de   
,espaa4 ,,madrid1 #aghj1 ,,fol4         
#bjc  ,,wall ,,of ,,the ,,mosque        
#bje  ,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab     
#bjg  ,,the ,,mosque--,,arch ,,of ,,one 
,,of ,,the ,,gates                      
#baa  ,,the ,,mosque--,,lattice         
#bac  ,,the ,,mosque--,,ornamental      

,,arched ,,window                       
#bag  ,,the ,,mosque--,,capitals ,,of   
,,the ,,entrance ,,arch                 
#bai  ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,frieze     
#bba  ,,plan                            
#bba  ,,keystone ,,of ,,ornamental      
,,arch                                  
#bba  ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,cornice    
#bbc  ,,capital ,,of ,,arch             
#bbg  ,,side ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,cornice
                                        
#bbg  ,,bases                           
#bbg  ,,east ,,fa,,ade1 ,,without ,,the 
,,portico                               
#bbi   ,,seville  ,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the  
,,alcazar                               
#bda  ,,alcazar--,,gates ,,of ,,the     
,,principal ,,entrance                  
#bdc  ,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the ,,alcazar    
#bdg  ,,chief ,,entrance ,,to ,,the     
,,alcazar1 ,,moorish ,,style1 ,,built   
,,under ,,don ,,pedro ,i4 ,,the ,,cruel1
 #acfi-acgi                             
#bdi  ,,alcazar--,,principal ,,fa,,ade  
#bec  ,,interior ,,court ,,of ,,the     

,,alcazar                               
#bee  ,,alcazar--,,arcade ,,in ,,the    
,,principal ,,court                     
#bei  ,,alcazar--,,view ,,of ,,the      
,,interior                              
#bfa  ,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the     
,,dolls                                 
#bfe  ,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the     
,,dolls1 ,,moorish ,,style1 ,,built     
#acfi-acgi          #bfg                
,,alcazar--,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the     
,,dolls                                 
#bga  ,,alcazar--,,right ,,angle ,,of   
,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,dolls        
#bgc  ,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the     
,,dolls                                 
#bgg  ,,alcazar--,,upper ,,part ,,of    
,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,dolls        
#bgi  ,,alcazar--,,upper ,,portions ,,of
 ,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,dolls       
#bhc  ,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the     
,,dolls                                 
#bhe  ,,alcazar--,,the ,,little ,,court 
#bhi  ,,alcazar--,,view ,,in ,,the      
,,little ,,court                        

#bia  ,,alcazar--,,view ,,of ,,the      
,,hall ,,of ,,ambassadors ,,from ,,the  
,,little ,,court       #bie             
,,alcazar--,,hall ,,of ,,ambassadors    
#big  ,,alcazar--,,interior ,,of ,,the  
,,hall ,,of ,,ambassadors               
#cja  ,,alcazar--,,the ,,hall ,,of      
,,ambassadors                           
#cjc  ,,alcazar--,,throne ,,of ,,justice
                                        
#cjg  ,,alcazar--,,hall ,,of            
,,ambassadors                           
#cjg  ,,alcazar--,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the   
,,court ,,of ,,the ,,virgins            
#cji  ,,alcazar--,,interior ,,of ,,the  
,,court ,,of ,,the ,,virgins1 ,,moorish 
,,style1 ,,built #acfi-acgi             
#cac  ,,alcazar--,,general ,,view ,,of  
,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,hundred      
,,virgins            #cae               
,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the ,,hundred 
,,virgins                               
#cai  ,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the     
,,virgins                               
#cba  ,,alcazar--,,gallery ,,in ,,the   

,,court ,,of ,,the ,,hundred ,,virgins  
#cbe  ,,alcazar--,,the ,,sultana',s     
,,apartment ,,and ,,court ,,of ,,the    
,,virgins            #cbg               
,,alcazar--,,entrance ,,to ,,the        
,,sleeping ,,saloon ,,of ,,the ,,moorish
 ,,kings        #cca                    
,,alcazar--,,dormitory ,,of ,,the       
,,kings                                 
#ccc  ,,alcazar--,,the ,,dormitory      
#ccg  ,,alcazar--,,front ,,of ,,the     
,,sleeping ,,saloon ,,of ,,the ,,moorish
 ,,kings           #cci                 
,,alcazar--,,sleeping ,,saloon ,,of     
,,the ,,moorish ,,kings                 
#cci  ,,alcazar--,,room ,,of ,,the      
,,infanta                               
#cdc  ,,alcazar--,,columns ,,where ,,don
 ,,fadrique ,,was ,,murdered            
#cde  ,,alcazar--,,gate ,,of ,,the      
,,hall ,,of ,,san ,,fernando            
#cdi  ,,alcazar--,,gallery ,,of ,,hall  
,,of ,,san ,,fernando                   
#cdi  ,,alcazar--,,hall ,,in ,,which    
,,king ,,san ,,fernando ,,died          

#cea  ,,alcazar--,,room ,,of ,,the      
,,prince                                
#cee  ,,alcazar--,,view ,,of ,,the      
,,gallery ,,from ,,the ,,second ,,floor 
#ceg  ,,tower ,,of ,,the ,,giralda      
#cfa  ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,giralda    
,,tower                                 
#cfc  ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of   
,,pilatos                               
#cfg  ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of   
,,pilatos                               
#cfi  ,,house ,,of ,,pilatos--,,view    
,,in ,,the ,,court ,,by ,,the ,,door    
,,of ,,the ,,chapel        #cgc  ,,house
 ,,of ,,pilatos--,,chapel               
#cge  ,,gallery ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of 
,,pilatos                               
#cgf  ,,gallery ,,of ,,the ,,court ,,of 
,,the ,,house ,,of ,,pilatos            
#cha  ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,palace ,,of  
,,medina-,c,,li                         
#che   ,,toledo  ,,santa ,,maria ,,la   
,,blanca--,,interior1 #aajj-aaej        
#cie  ,,the ,,gate ,,of ,,blood         
#cii  ,,interior ,,of ,,santa ,,maria   

,,la ,,blanca                           
#dje  ,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,sun           
#dji  ,,door ,,of ,,the ,,hall ,,of     
,,mesa                                  
#dac  ,,exterior ,,of ,,the ,,chapel    
,,of ,,christo ,,de ,,la ,,vega         
#dac  ,,ancient ,,gate ,,of ,,visagra   
#dai  ,,castle ,,of ,,st4 ,,servando    
#dai  ,,moorish ,,sword                 
#dbc  ,,arab ,,fragment ,,at ,,tarragona
                                        
#dbi  ,,ancient ,,arabian ,,baths ,,at  
,,palma1 ,,majorca                      
#dce   ,,moorish ,,designs ,,and        
,,ornaments  ,,designs ,,and ,,ornaments
                                        
#ddg-did  ,,description ,,of ,,the      
,,plates--,,hexagonal ,,family          
#die-ehf     ,,list ,,of ,,coloured     
,,plates   ,,plate4  ,,description4     
,,frontispiece--,,vertical ,,section    
,,of ,,the ,,dome ,,and ,,cupola ,,of   
,,the ,,mihrab4 ,,cordova4  ,i4         
,,shell-,,like ,,ornaments ,,in ,,the   
,,cupola ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4 ,,cordova4

  ,,ii4 ,,shell-,,like ,,ornaments ,,in 
,,the ,,cupola ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4     
,,cordova4  ,,iii4 ,,shell-,,like       
,,ornaments ,,in ,,the ,,cupola ,,of    
,,the ,,mihrab4 ,,cordova4  ,,iv4 ,,part
 ,,of ,,the ,,ornamentation ,,and       
,,keystone ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,lower
 ,,arches1 ,,which ,,gives ,,light ,,to 
,,the ,,dome4 ,,cordova4  ,,iv4 ,,ring  
,,of ,,the ,,cupola4  ,v4 ,,curvilineal 
,,triangles1 ,,resulting ,,from ,,the   
,,intersection ,,of ,,the ,,arches      
,,sustaining ,,the ,,dome4 ,,cordova4   
,v4 ,,setting ,,of ,,the ,,arches       
,,sustaining ,,the ,,dome4 ,,cordova4   
,v4 ,,setting ,,of ,,the ,,arches       
,,sustaining ,,the ,,dome4 ,,cordova4   
,,vi4 ,,ornament ,,running ,,below ,,the
 ,,cupola4 ,,cordova4  ,,vi4 ,,ornament 
,,running ,,below ,,the ,,cupola4       
,,cordova4  ,,vi4 ,,setting ,,of ,,one  
,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,arches1 ,,which    
,,gives ,,light ,,to ,,the ,,dome4      
,,cordova4  ,,vii4 ,,curvilineal        
,,triangles1 ,,resulting ,,from ,,the   

,,intersection ,,of ,,the ,,arches      
,,sustaining ,,the ,,dome4  ,,vii4      
,,architrave ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the      
,,arches ,,sustaining ,,the ,,dome4     
,,cordova4  ,,viii4 ,,details ,,of ,,the
 ,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,maksurrah4         
,,cordova4  ,,ix4 ,,arches ,,of ,,the   
,,portal ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4 ,,cordova4
  ,x4 ,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,framing ,,of
 ,,the ,,side ,,gate4 ,,cordova4  ,x4   
,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,window ,,placed   
,,over ,,the ,,side ,,door4 ,,cordova4  
,x4 ,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,framing ,,of  
,,the ,,arch ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4  ,,xi4
 ,,windows ,,in ,,an ,,alcove4  ,,xii4  
,,arab ,,vase ,,of ,,metallic ,,lustre4 
,,xiii4 ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,arches4  
,,xiv4 ,,centre ,,painting ,,on ,a      
,,ceiling4  ,,xv4 ,,divan4  ,,xvi4      
,,detail ,,of ,,an ,,arch4  ,,xvii4     
,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,murada4  ,,xviii4   
,,details ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4  ,,xviii4
 ,,detail ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,arches
 ,,of ,,the ,,cupola4  ,,xviii4 ,,mosaic
 ,,keystones ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,arch  

,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4  ,,xix4 ,,details1 
,,villaviciosa ,,chapel ,,and ,,mihrab4 
,,xx4 ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,interior   
,,of ,,the ,,mosque4  ,,xxi4 ,,details  
,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the        
,,mosque4  ,,xxii4 ,,details ,,of       
,,moorish ,,work4  ,,xxiii4 ,,details1  
,,villaviciosa ,,chapel ,,and ,,mihrab4 
,,xxiv4 ,,details ,,of ,,moorish ,,work4
  ,,xxv4 ,,frieze ,,in ,,the ,,hall ,,of
 ,,ambassadors4 ,,seville4  ,,xxv4      
,,stucco ,,work ,,in ,,the ,,hall ,,of  
,,ambassadors4 ,,seville4  ,,xxv4       
,,mosaic ,,in ,,the ,,large ,,court4    
,,seville4  ,,xxv4 ,,mosaic ,,in ,,the  
,,large ,,court4 ,,seville4  ,,xxvi4    
,,hall ,,of ,,ambassadors--,,details4   
,,seville4  ,,xxvii4 ,,hall ,,of        
,,ambassadors--,,details4 ,,seville4    
,,xxviii4 ,,hall ,,of                   
,,ambassadors--,,details4 ,,seville4    
,,xxix4 ,,blank ,,window4  ,,xxx4       
,,soffit ,,of ,,arch4  ,,xxxi4 ,,cornice
 ,,at ,,springing ,,of ,,arch ,,of      
,,doorway ,,at ,,one ,,of ,,the         

,,entrances4  ,,xxxii4 ,,borders ,,of   
,,arches4  ,,xxxiii4 ,,borders ,,of     
,,arches4  ,,xxxiv4 ,,border ,,of       
,,arches4  ,,xxxv4 ,,ornament ,,in      
,,panels ,,on ,,the ,,wall4  ,,xxxvi4   
,,bands1 ,,side ,,of ,,arches4          
,,xxxvii4 ,,bands1 ,,side ,,of ,,arches4
  ,,xxxviii4 ,,ornaments ,,on ,,panels4 
,,xxxix4 ,,ornaments ,,on ,,panels4     
,,xl4 ,,ornaments ,,on ,,panels4  ,,xli4
 ,,ornaments ,,on ,,panels  ,,xlii4     
,,frieze ,,in ,,the ,,upper ,,chamber1  
,,house ,,of ,,sanchez4  ,,xliii4       
,,cornice ,,at ,,springing ,,of ,,arches
 ,,in ,a ,,window4  ,,xliv4 ,,panels    
,,on ,,walls4  ,,xlv4 ,,spandrils ,,of  
,,arches4  ,,xlvi4 ,,spandrils ,,of     
,,arches4  ,,xlvii4 ,,spandrils ,,of    
,,arches4  ,,xlviii4 ,,plaster          
,,ornaments1 ,,used ,,as ,,upright ,,and
 ,,horizontal ,,bands ,,enclosing       
,,panels ,,on ,,the ,,walls4  ,,xlix4   
,,blank ,,window4  ,l4 ,,rafters ,,of ,a
 ,,roof ,,over ,a ,,doorway1 ,,now      
,,destroyed1 ,,beneath ,,the ,,tocador  

,,de ,,la ,,reyna4  ,,li4 ,,band ,,at   
,,springing ,,of ,,arch ,,at ,,the      
,,entrance ,,to ,,one ,,of ,,the        
,,halls4  ,,lii4 ,,panelling ,,of ,a    
,,recess4  ,,liii4 ,,blank ,,window4    
,,liv4 ,,ornaments ,,on ,,the ,,walls1  
,,house ,,of ,,sanchez4  ,,lv4          
,,ornament ,,in ,,panels ,,on ,,the     
,,walls4  ,,lvi4 ,,ornaments ,,in       
,,spandrils ,,of ,,arches4  ,,lvii4     
,,mosaic ,,dado ,,in ,a ,,window1 ,c4   
,,lviii4 ,,mosaic ,,dados ,,on          
,,pillars4  ,,lix4 ,,mosaic ,,dados ,,on
 ,,pillars4  ,,lx4 ,,mosaics4  ,,lxi4   
,,mosaic ,,dado ,,round ,,the ,,internal
 ,,walls ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4  ,,lxii4  
,,painted ,,tiles4  ,,lxiii4 ,,mosaics4 
,,lxiv4 ,,mosaics4  ,,lxv4 ,,ornaments  
,,in ,,panels4  ,,lxvi4 ,,ornament      
,,over ,,arches ,,at ,,one ,,of ,,the   
,,entrances4  ,,lxvii4 ,,ornament ,,on  
,,the ,,walls4  ,,lxviii4 ,,ornament    
,,in ,,panels ,,on ,,the ,,walls4       
,,lxix4 ,,small ,,panel ,,in ,,jamb ,,of
 ,a ,,window4  ,,lxx4 ,,small ,,panel   

,,in ,,jamb ,,of ,a ,,window4  ,,lxxi4  
,,panel ,,in ,,the ,,upper ,,chamber    
,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,sanchez4      
,,lxxii4 ,,spandril ,,from ,,niche ,,of 
,,doorway ,,at ,,one ,,of ,,the         
,,entrances4  ,,lxxiii4 ,,lintel ,,of ,a
 ,,doorway4  ,,lxxiv4 ,,capital ,,of    
,,columns4  ,,lxxv4 ,,capital ,,of      
,,columns4  ,,lxxvi4 ,,capital ,,of     
,,columns4  ,,lxxvii4 ,,socle ,,of ,,the
 ,,entrance ,,arch ,,to ,,the           
,,ante-,,chapel4  ,,lxxviii4 ,,socle    
,,of ,,the ,,entrance ,,arch ,,to ,,the 
,,chapel4  ,,lxxix4 ,,detail ,,of ,,the 
,,tiles ,,of ,,the ,,altar4  ,,lxxx4    
,,socle ,,in ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the
 ,,chapel4  ,,lxxxi4 ,,socle ,,in ,,the 
,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,chapel4         
,,lxxxii4 ,,mosaics ,,from ,,various    
,,halls4  ,,lxxxiii4 ,,mosaics ,,from   
,,various ,,halls4  ,,lxxxiv4 ,,part    
,,of ,,ceiling ,,of ,a ,,portico4       
,,moorish ,,remains ,,in ,,spain        
,,introductory   ,the conquest of ,spain
 by the ,moors1 and the story comprised 

in the eight centuries during which they
 wielded sovereignty as a ,european     
power1 forms a romance that is without  
parallel in the history of the world4   
,under ,mohammedan rule ,spain enjoyed  
the first and most protracted period of 
comparative peace and material          
prosperity she had ever known4 ,she had 
been plundered by ,carthage and         
,phnicia1 ground beneath the iron heel  
of ,rome1 devastated and enslaved by    
those ,christianised but corrupt        
barbarians1 the ,visigoths4 ,all the    
evils and demoralisation arising from   
successive waves of bloody conquest and 
decadent voluptuousness had been sown in
 the breast of ,spain4 ,the squandered  
might of ,carthage had left the country 
a prey to the vigorous ,roman2 the      
degenerate ,roman had been banished by  
the rugged1 victorious ,goth1 who1 after
 two centuries of security and sensual  
ease1 was to be made subject to the     
warlike and enlightened ,moor4 ,once    
more the land was to be overrun and the 

face of the country was to be scarred   
with fire and the sword2 once more the  
people were to learn to serve new       
masters and conform to new laws4 ,of a  
truth the last state must have seemed   
worse than the first to the ,romanised  
,spaniards4 ,carthage had brought       
chains1 but it had also introduced      
artificers and a form of ,government2   
the ,roman eagles had been accompanied  
by ,roman engineers and road-builders2  
the ,goths erected upon the broken      
altars of mythology temples to the      
living ,god4 ,but it now seemed that the
 whips of ancient foes were to be       
replaced by the scorpions of their new  
taskmasters2 the ,christianity which the
 ,east had sent them was to be uprooted 
by the ,eastern infidels4  ,such must   
have been the prospect before ,spain1   
and even before the rest of ,europe1    
when ,tarik returned in #gaj to ,ceuta1 
from a marauding expedition upon the    
coast of ,andalusia1 and reported to    
,musa1 the son of ,noseyr1 the ,arab    

,governor of ,north ,africa1 that the   
country was ripe for conquest and well  
worth the hazard of the cast4 ,twenty   
years later the ,moslems had overrun    
,spain1 captured ,bordeaux by assault   
and advanced to the conquest of ,gaul4  
,it is passing strange to reflect that  
these far-reaching1 epoch-making events 
had not been undertaken as the result of
 a deep-laid scheme of national         
expansion or religious enterprise4      
,according to tradition the foundation  
of the ,moslem supremacy in ,spain was  
instigated by the hatred of a single    
traitor1 ,count ,julian1 the ,governor  
of ,ceuta1 and his treachery was        
inspired by the dishonour of one young  
girl--,julian's daughter1 ,florinda4    
,at the beginning of the eighth century1
 when the ,moors had extended their     
possessions up to the walls of ,ceuta1  
which was held for ,roderick1 ,king of  
,spain1 by ,count ,julian1 the ,count1  
in accordance with the custom among the 
,gothic nobility1 had sent his daughter 

to the ,court of ,roderick1 at ,toledo1 
to be educated among the ,queen's       
gentlewomen in a manner befitting her   
rank and lineage4 ,the rest is the old  
story of a beautiful1 unprotected girl1 
a lascivious guardian1 and a father     
thirsting for vengeance4 ,so far ,count 
,julian had defended ,ceuta against the 
,moors with unbroken success1 now he    
came to ,toledo to relieve the king of  
the custody of his daughter1 and repay  
the breach of trust which ,roderick had 
committed by making a compact with the  
king's enemies4 ,on the eve of his      
departure from the capital1 the king    
requested the ,count to send him some   
hawks of a special variety that he      
desired for hunting purposes1 and the   
vengeful noble pledged himself to supply
 his master with hawks1 the like of     
which he had never seen4  ,but ,count   
,julian found the ,saracenic hawks less 
keen for the hunting he had in view than
 he expected4 ,that old bird of prey1   
,musa1 listened to the alluring tales of

 the richness and beauty of ,spain1 but 
doubted the good faith of his long-time 
enemy1 who proposed that the ,moors     
should invade this promised land in     
,spanish ships1 lent to them for the    
purpose4 ,but the love of conquest and  
the lust of loot1 which had inspired and
 sustained the ,arab arms in all their  
territorial campaigns1 overcame the     
natural hesitancy of the ,moorish       
,governor1 and in #gaj ,musa despatched 
,tarik with a small expedition to spy   
out the state of the ,spanish coast4 ,so
 successful was the mission1 and so rich
 the plunder they brought back1 that in 
the following year he adventured an army
 of #g1jjj men under ,tarik for the     
spoliation of ,andalusia4 ,tarik1 who   
landed at the rock of ,gibraltar--,gebal
 ,tarik1 which still bears his          
name--captured ,carteya1 and encountered
 the army of ,roderick1 who had hurried 
from the ,north of his dominions to     
repel the invaders1 on the banks of the 
,guadalete4  ,washington ,irving1 in the

 ,conquest of ,spain1 has related1 in   
his brilliantly picturesque style1 the  
old legend of the prophecy of           
,roderick's overthrow and the mystery   
surrounding his death4 ,the king was    
proof against the solemn warnings of the
 old warders of the tower of            
,hercules1--the tower of 8jasper and    
marble1 inlaid in subtle devices1 which 
shone in the rays of the sun10--wherein 
lay the secret of ,spain's future1      
sealed by a magic spell1 and guarded by 
a massive iron gate1 and secured by the 
locks affixed to it by every successive 
,spanish king since the days of         
,hercules4 ,roderick came not to set a  
new lock upon the gate1 but to burst the
 bolts of the centuries and reveal the  
mystery that his predecessors had gone  
down into their graves without solving4 
,all day long his courtiers urged him   
vainly against his own undoing1 and the 
custodians laboured at the rusty locks1 
and at evening he entered the mighty1   
outer hall1 rushed past the bronze      

warder1 penetrated the inner chamber1   
and read the inscription attached to the
 casket1 which ,hercules had deposited  
in the gem-encrusted tower4 8,in this   
coffer is the mystery of the ,tower4    
,the hand of none but a ,king can open  
it2 but let him beware1 for wonderful   
things will be disclosed to him1 which  
must happen before his death40 ,in a    
moment the lid is prized open1 the      
parchment1 folded between plates of     
copper1 is brought into the light of    
day1 and the king has read the motto    
inscribed upon the border3 8,behold1    
rash man1 those who shall hurl thee from
 thy throne and subdue thy ,kingdom40   
,beneath the motto is drawn a panorama  
of horsemen1 fierce of countenance1     
armed with bows and scimitars4 ,as the  
king gazes wonderingly upon the picture1
 the sound of warfare rushes on his ear1
 the chamber is filled with a cloud1 and
 in the cloud the horsemen bend forward 
in their saddles and raise their arms to
 strike4 ,amazed and terrorised1        

,roderick and his courtiers drew back   
and 8beheld before them a great field of
 battle1 where ,christians and ,moors   
were engaged in deadly conflict4 ,they  
heard the rush and tramp of steeds1 the 
blast of trump and clarion1 the clash of
 cymbal1 and the stormy din of a        
thousand drums4 ,there was the flash of 
swords and maces and battle axes1 with  
the whistling of arrows and hurling of  
darts and lances4 ,the ,christian       
quailed before the foe4 ,the infidels   
pressed upon them1 and put them to utter
 rout2 the standard of the ,cross was   
cast down1 the banner of ,spain was     
trodden under foot1 the air resounded   
with shouts of triumph1 with yells of   
fury1 and the groans of dying men4      
,amidst the flying squadrons1 ,king     
,roderick beheld a crowned warrior1     
whose back was turned towards him1 but  
whose armour and device were his own1   
and who was mounted on a white steed    
that resembled his own war horse1       
,orelia4 ,in the confusion of the fight1

 the warrior was dismounted and was no  
longer to be seen1 and ,orelia galloped 
wildly through the field of battle      
without a rider40  ,the vision he had   
witnessed in the ,tower of ,hercules    
must have recurred to ,roderick when he 
saw the ,moorish army encamped against  
him by the waters of the ,guadalete1 but
 he must have noted its numbers with    
surprise1 and contemplated his own host 
with complacency4 ,for ,tarik1 even with
 his ,berber reinforcements1 only       
counted #ab1jjj men1 and nearly four    
score thousand slept beneath the        
standard of ,spain4 ,if ever prophecy   
was calculated to be found at fault it  
must have seemed to be so that day1 and 
,tarik published his estimate of the    
enormity of the odds that were against  
him when he cried to his army of        
fatalists1 8,men1 before you is the     
enemy1 and the sea is at your backs4 ,by
 ,allah1 there is no escape for you1    
save in valour and resolution40 ,but    
valour and resolution belonged to the   

,spaniards as well as to the ,moors2    
and1 but for the action of the kinsmen  
of the dethroned ,king ,witiza1 who     
deserted to the side of the ,saracens in
 the midst of the seven day battle1 the 
,moorish conquest would have been       
delayed1 if not even entirely abandoned4
 ,but ,witiza's adherents turned the    
tide of battle against ,roderick1 the   
,spaniards broke and fled1 and ,orelia  
galloped riderless through the field4   
,tarik1 in a single encounter1 had won  
all ,spain for the infidels4  ,without  
hesitation1 and in defiance of the      
commands of ,musa1 who coveted the glory
 that his lieutenant had so unexpectedly
 won1 ,tarik proceeded to make good his 
mastery of the entire ,peninsula4 ,he   
despatched a force of seven hundred     
horsemen to capture ,cordova2 ,archidona
 and ,malaga capitulated without        
striking a blow2 and ,elvira was taken  
by storm4 ,city after city surrendered  
to the victorious invaders1 and the     
principles of true chivalry1 which the  

,moors invariably observed1 reconciled  
the vanquished ,spaniards to their new  
conquerors4 ,the common people welcomed 
the promise of a new era1 while the     
nobles fled before the advancing armies1
 and abandoned the country to the enemy4
 ,with the surrender of ,toledo1 ,tarik 
had added a new dominion to the crown of
 ,damascus4 ,musa left ,ceuta in #gab   
with #ah1jjj men to join ,tarik at      
,toledo1 taking ,seville1 ,carmona1 and 
,merida en route4 ,the meeting of the   
,governor and his ,general at the       
capital revealed the first flash of that
 fire of personal jealousy and          
internecine conflict which kept ,spain  
in a blaze throughout the eight         
centuries of the ,moorish occupation4   
,to the intrepid warriors1 who were bred
 to war and trained to the business of  
conquest1 the ,pyrenees represented1 not
 a bar to further progress1 but a       
bulwark from which they were to advance 
to the subjugation of ,europe4 ,the     
total defeat of the ,saracens under the 

walls of ,toulouse by the ,duke of      
,aquitana in #gba turned their course   
westwards2 and after occupying          
,carcasonne and ,narbonne1 raiding      
,burgundy and carrying ,bordeaux by     
assault1 they suffered a decisive defeat
 at the hands of the ,franks1 under     
,charles ,martel1 at the ,battle of     
,tours in #gcc4 ,the tide of ,arabian   
aggression was arrested and rolled back2
 and although the ,moors repulsed the   
,frankish invasion of ,spain under      
,charlemagne1 a bound had been put upon 
their empire-building ambitions1 and    
they set themselves resolutely to       
accomplish the pacification of the      
kingdom they had already won4 ,it is the
 boast of the ,northern ,spaniards1 the 
hardy mountaineers of ,galicia and      
,leon1 of ,castile and the ,biscayan    
provinces1 that they were never subject 
to ,moslem rule4 ,there is good warrant 
for their claim1 and in truth the       
independence of the ,north was          
maintained1 but the fact remains that   

the ,moors had no desire for those bleak
 and unfruitful districts2 and so long  
as the savage ,basques did not disturb  
the security of ,arabian tenure in the  
fertile ,south1 they were left in the   
enjoyment of their dreary1 frozen       
fastnesses1 and their wind-swept1 arid  
wastes4  ,the ,moors had made themselves
 secure in the smiling country that1    
roughly speaking1 lies ,south of the    
,sierra de ,guadarrama2 and here1 with a
 genius and success that was            
unprecedented1 they organised the       
,kingdom of ,cordova4 8,it must not be  
supposed10 writes ,mr4 ,stanley         
,lane-,poole1 8that the ,moors1 like the
 barbarian hordes who preceded them1    
brought desolation and tyranny in their 
wake4 ,on the contrary1 never was       
,andalusia so mildly1 justly1 and wisely
 governed as by the ,arab conquerors4   
,where they got their talent for        
administration it is hard to say1 for   
they came almost direct from their      
,arabian deserts1 and their rapid tide  

of victories had left them little       
leisure to acquire the art of managing  
foreign nations4 ,some of their         
,counsellors were ,greeks and           
,spaniards1 but this does not explain   
the problem2 for these same ,counsellors
 were unable to produce similar results 
elsewhere2 all the administrative talent
 of ,spain had not sufficed to make the 
,gothic domination tolerable to its     
subjects4 ,under the ,moors1 on the     
other hand1 the people were on the whole
 contented--as contented as any people  
can be whose rulers are of a separate   
race and creed--and far better pleased  
than they had been when their sovereigns
 belonged to the same religion as that  
which they nominally professed4         
,religion was1 indeed1 the smallest     
difficulty which the ,moors had to      
contend with at the outset1 though it   
had become troublesome afterwards4 ,the 
,spaniards were as much pagan as        
,christian2 the new creed promulgated by
 ,constantine had made little impression

 among the general mass of the          
population1 who were still predominantly
 ,roman4 ,what they wanted was--not a   
creed1 but the power to live their lives
 in peace and prosperity4 ,this their   
,moorish masters gave them40  ,the      
people were allowed to retain their own 
religion and their own laws and judges2 
and with the exception of the poll tax1 
which was levied only upon ,christians  
and ,jews1 their imposts were no heavier
 than those paid by the ,moors4 ,the    
slaves were treated with a mildness     
which they had never known under the    
,romans or the ,goths1 and1 moreover1   
they had only to make a declaration of  
,mohammedanism--to repeat the formula of
 belief1 8,there is no ,god but ,god1   
and ,mohammed is ,his ,prophet0--to gain
 their freedom4 ,by the same simple     
process1 men of position and wealth     
secured equal rights with their         
conquerers4 ,but while the ,moors thus  
practised the science of pacification1  
they were unable to conquer their own   

racial instincts1 which found their vent
 in jealous blood feuds and ceaseless   
internal conflicts4 ,in the field the   
,arabs were a united people2 under      
stress of warfare their rivalries were  
forgotten2 but the racial spirit of the 
conquerors reasserted itself when the   
stress of conquest gave place to        
8dimpling peace10 and government by     
murder created constant changes in the  
administration4 ,the ,arabs and the     
,berbers1 though they may be regarded as
 one race in their domination of ,spain1
 were two entirely distinct and fiercely
 hostile tribes4 ,the ,berbers of ,tarik
 had accomplished the conquest of       
,spain1 but the ,arabs arrived in time  
to seize the lion's share of the spoils 
of victory2 and when the ,berber        
insurrection in  ,illustration3         
,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque--,,principal  
,,nave ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4             
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,entrance ,,to ,,the         
,,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova     

,,gates ,,of ,,pardon  ,illustration3   
,,view ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,and ,,bridge 
,,south ,,of ,,the ,,guadalquivir       
,illustration3 ,,general ,,view ,,of    
,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4   
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,fa,,ade     
,,and ,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,almanzor4     
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,view ,,of   
,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque #ifa-ifg4
  ,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,i4  ,,the  
,,mosque4  ,,plan ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of
 ,,the ,,arabs #ghf-gif1 #ifa-ifg1      
#ihh-ajja1 #aebc-aeic4  ,a--,gate of    
,pardon4 ,b--,bell ,tower4 ,c--,orange  
,court4 ,d--,principal ,entrance4       
,e--,mosque of the time #ghf-gif4       
,f--,tribunal where the ,mufti prays4   
,g--,portion of the time #ifa-ifg4      
,h--,hall where the ,koran is kept4     
,i--,sanctuary4 ,k--,portion added in   
#ihh-ajja4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova    
,,ii4  ,,the ,,mosque--,,plan ,,in ,,its
 ,,present ,,state4  #ghf-gif1 #ifa-ifg1
 #ihh-ajja1 #aebc-aeic4  ,l--,principal 
,chapel4 ,m--,choir4 ,n--,first         

,christian ,church4 ,o--,chapels4       
,p--,the ,cardinal's ,chapel4  ,north   
,africa triumphed1 their ,berber        
brethren1 who had been relegated to the 
least congenial districts of            
,estremadura1 roused themselves to      
measures of retaliation1 and carried    
their standards to the gates of ,toledo 
and ,cordova4 ,in alarm1 the ,arab      
,governor of ,andalusia sent for his    
compatriots of ,ceuta to aid him1 and he
 expiated his folly with his life4 ,the 
,african contingent routed the ,berbers1
 murdered the ,arab ,governor1 and set  
up their own chief in his place1 until  
,abd-er-,rahman arrived from ,damascus  
to unite all factions1 for a while1     
under the standard of the ,sultan of    
,cordova4  ,abd-er-,rahman1 which       
signifies 8,servant of the ,merciful    
,god10 was a member of the deposed      
family of the ,omeyyads1 which had given
 fourteen khalifs to the throne of      
,damascus4 ,the usurping khalif1        
,es-,deffah1 8,the ,butcher10 who       

founded the dynasty of the ,abbasides1  
practically exterminated the ,omeyyad   
family1 but ,abd-er-,rahman eluded his  
vigilance1 and1 after abandoning a      
project to make himself the ,governor of
 ,north ,africa1 he determined to carry 
his princely pretensions to the         
newly-founded ,spanish dominions4 ,in   
,andalusia1 the advent of the ,omeyyads 
was hailed with enthusiasm4 ,the army of
 the ,governor deserted to the standard 
of the young pretender2 ,archidona and  
,seville were induced to throw open     
their gates to him by a piece of        
questionable strategy2 he defeated the  
troops that opposed his march upon      
,cordova1 and before the end of the year
 #gef1 or some fifteen months after     
setting foot in the country1 all the    
,arab part of ,spain had acknowledged   
the dynasty of the ,omeyyads1 which for 
three centuries was to endure in        
,cordova4 ,brave1 unscrupulous1 and     
instant in action1 ,abd-er-,rahman had  
recourse to every wile of diplomacy1 of 

severity1 and of valour to maintain his 
supremacy in ,spain4 ,he defeated and   
utterly annihilated an invading army    
sent against him by the ,abbaside       
khalif1 ,mansur1 and sent a sackful of  
the heads of his generals as a present  
to their master2 he won over the people 
of ,toledo by false promises1 and       
crucified their leaders2 he had the     
,yemenite chief assassinated while      
receiving him as an honoured guest2 he  
crushed a revolt of the ,berbers in the 
,north1 and of the ,yemenites in the    
,south2 he saw the forces of            
,charlemagne waste away in the bloody   
fastnesses of the ,pyrenees4 ,by        
treachery and the sword1 by false oaths 
and murder1 he triumphed over every     
rival and enemy until all insurrection  
had been crushed by his relentless      
might1 and the ,khalif ,mansur was fain 
to exclaim3 8,thank ,god1 there is a sea
 between that man and me40 ,in an       
eloquent tribute to his 8daring1 wisdom1
 and prudence10 his old-time enemy thus 

extolled the genius of the conqueror3   
8,to enter the paths of destruction1    
throw himself into a distant land1 hard 
to approach and well defended1 there to 
profit by the jealousies of the rival   
parties to make them turn their arms    
against one another instead of against  
himself1 to win the homage and obedience
 of his subjects1 and having overcome   
every difficulty1 to rule supreme lord  
of all6 ,of a truth1 no man before him  
has done this60  ,but the tyrant of     
,spain was to pay a great and terrible  
price for his triumphs4 ,he had         
established himself in a kingdom in     
which he was to stand alone4 ,long      
before his death he found himself       
forsaken by his kinsmen1 deserted by his
 friends1 abhorred by his enemies2 on   
all sides detested and avoided1 he      
immured himself in the fastnesses of his
 palace1 or went abroad surrounded by a 
strong guard of hired mercenaries4 ,his 
son and successor1 ,hisham1 practised   
during the eight years of his reign an  

exemplary piety1 and so encouraged and  
cherished the theological students and  
preceptors of ,cordova1 that they       
rebelled against the light-hearted1     
pleasure-loving ,hakam1 who succeeded   
him1 and incited the people to open     
rebellion4  ,but while the              
insurrectionists besieged the palace1   
the ,sultan's soldiers set fire to a    
suburb of the city2 and when the people 
retired terror stricken to the rescue of
 their homes and families1 they found   
themselves between the palace garrison  
and the loyal incendiaries4 ,the revolt 
ended in a massacre1 but the dynasty was
 saved1 and the palace was preserved to 
become the nucleus of the gorgeous city 
which ,hakam's son1 ,abd-er-,rahman     
,,ii41 was to fashion after the style of
 ,harun-er-,rashid at ,baghdad4 ,under  
this sthetic monarch1 ,cordova became   
one of the most beautiful cities in the 
world4 ,its palaces and gardens1 its    
mosques and bridges were the wonder of  
,europe2 its courtiers made a profession

 of culture2 its arbiter of fashion     
again asserted himself as the first man 
in the empire4  ,in such a city1 and at 
such an epoch1 it was natural1 even     
inevitable1 that ,christianity should   
assert itself as a protest against the  
fashion of the age4 ,but so tolerant was
 the ,mohammedan rule in religious      
matters1 that the too exalted spirit of 
the ,cordovan ,christians was hard put  
to it to find some excuse for its       
manifestation of discontent4 ,while the 
sultan and his nobles found their       
pleasure in music1 poetry1 and other    
sthetic if less commendable indulgences1
 the prejudices of the devout were      
always respected4 ,prosecution for      
religious convictions was unheard of1   
and the only way that the ,christians   
could achieve martyrdom for their faith 
was by blaspheming the creed of their   
,moslem rulers4 ,these early fanatics1  
whose religious rites and beliefs had   
been treated with respect by the        
,mohammedans1 and who knew that by      

,moslem law he who blasphemes the       
,prophet ,mohammed or his religion must 
die1 voluntarily transgressed the law   
for the purpose of achieving their      
object4 ,in spite of warnings1 of       
protests1 and of earnest counsel1 these 
suicidal devotees cursed the name of the
 ,prophet1 and expiated their wilful    
fanaticism with death4 ,with the        
exception of this period of religious   
mania1 which was bewailed by the general
 body of ,christians1 and regarded with 
unfeigned sorrow by the ,mohammedan     
judges1 the tolerance of the ,moors to  
the ,christians was as unvarying as it  
was remarkable4  ,after the execution1  
in the year #hei1 of ,eulogius1 a       
fanatical priest1 and the leader of     
these misguided martyrs1 who was        
fruitlessly entreated by his judges to  
retract his maledictions against the    
,prophet and be restored to freedom1 the
 mad movement flickered and died out4   
,but the devotion displayed by the      
,cordovan ,christians had made its      

effects felt in widespread rebellion in 
the provinces1 and a series of incapable
 sovereigns had reduced the throne to   
the state of an island surrounded by a  
rivulet of foreign soldiers1 in a       
country bristling with faction          
jealousies and discontent4 ,spain had   
fallen a prey to anarchy1 and the end of
 ,mohammedan rule appeared imminent4    
,petty kings and governors had thrown   
off their allegiance2 ,berbers1 ,arabs1 
,mohammedan ,spaniards and ,christians  
had each asserted their absolute        
independence2 and the sultan at ,cordova
 was 8suffering all the ills of         
beleaguerment40 ,the last vestige of the
 power of the ,omeyyads was falling away
 when ,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii4 came to the
 throne to reconquer ,spain1 and bring  
the rebel nobles to their knees4 ,the   
new sultan was a lad of twenty-one1 but 
he knew his countrymen1 and he realised 
that after a century of lawlessness and 
wasting strife1 the people were ripe for
 a strong and effectual government4 ,the

 ,cordovans were won by his handsome    
presence and gallant bearing4 ,the      
boldness of his programme brought him   
adherents1 and the weariness of         
internecine warfare1 which had          
devastated the country1 prepared the    
rebellious provinces for his coming4    
,seville opened her gates to receive    
him1 the ,prince of ,algarve rendered   
tribute1 the resistance of the          
,christians of ,regio was overcome1 and 
,murcia volunteered its allegiance4     
,toledo alone1 that implacable          
revolutionist1 rejected all             
,abd-er-,rahman's overtures1 and        
confidently awaited the issue of the    
siege4 ,but the haughty ,toledans had   
not reckoned upon the metal of which the
 new despot was made4 ,abd-er-,rahman   
had no stomach for the suicidal tactics 
of scaling impregnable precipices1 but  
he was possessed of infinite patience4  
,he calmly set himself to build a town  
on the mountain over against ,toledo1   
and to wait until famine should compel  

the inhabitants to capitulate4 ,with the
 fall of ,toledo1 the whole of          
,mohammedan ,spain was once more        
restored to the sultans of ,cordova4    
,the power1 once regained1 was never    
relaxed in the lifetime of              
,abd-er-,rahman4 ,the ,christians of    
,galicia might push southward as far as 
the great ,sierra1 ,ordono ,,ii4 of     
,leon might bring his marauding hosts to
 within a few leagues of ,cordova1 and  
cause ,abd-er-,rahman to exert all his  
personal and military influence to beat 
back the obstinate ,northerners1 but the
 stability of the throne was never again
 imperilled4 ,during his fifty years of 
strenuous sovereignty1 the great        
,abd-er-,rahman saved ,spain from       
,african invasion and ,christian        
aggression2 he established an absolute  
power in ,cordova that brought          
ambassadors from every ,european monarch
 to his court2 and he made the          
prosperity of ,andalusia the envy of the
 civilised world4 ,this wonderful       

transformation was effected by a man    
whom the ,moorish historians describe as
 8the mildest and most enlightened      
sovereign that ever ruled a country4    
,his meekness1 his generosity1 and his  
love of justice became proverbial4 ,none
 of his ancestors ever surpassed him in 
courage in the field1 and zeal for      
religion2 he was fond of science1 and   
the patron of the learned1 with whom he 
loved to converse40  ,in #ifa1          
,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii41 the last great  
,omeyyad ,sultan of ,cordova1 died4 ,his
 son ,hakam ,,ii4 employed the peace    
which he inherited from his illustrious 
father in the study of books and the    
formation of a library1 which consisted 
of no fewer than four hundred thousand  
works4 ,but in his reign1 the note of   
absolute despotism which had            
re-established the ,empire of ,cordova1 
was less evident2 and when at his death1
 his twelve-year-old son1 ,hisham ,,ii41
 ascended the throne1 the government was
 ripe for the delegation of kingly power

 to favourites and ministers4 ,the      
,sultana ,aurora1 the ,queen ,mother1   
had already abrogated that power1 and   
was wielding an influence that          
,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii4 would not have   
tolerated for an instant1 and her       
favourite--an undistinguished student of
 ,cordova1 named ,ibn-,aby-,amir--was   
waiting to turn her influence and favour
 to his own advantage4 ,this youth1 who 
is known to history as ,almanzor1 or    
8,victorious by the grace of ,god0--a   
title conceded to him by virtue of his  
many victories over the ,christians--was
 possessed of pluck1 genius1 and        
ambition in almost equal proportions2   
and by the opportunity for their        
indulgence which the harem influence    
afforded1 he made himself virtual master
 of ,andalusia4  ,in his capacity of    
professional letter-writer to the court 
servants1 ,almanzor won the patronage of
 the ,grand ,chamberlain1 and his       
appointment to a minor office brought   
him into personal contact with          

,aurora--who fell in love with the      
engaging young courtier--and with the   
princesses1 whose good graces he        
assiduously cultivated4 ,his charm of   
manner and unfailing courtesy gained for
 him the countenance of many persons of 
rank1 and his kindness and lavish       
generosity secured him the allegiance of
 his inferiors4 ,by degrees he acquired 
a plurality of important and lucrative  
posts2 he earned the gratitude of the   
,queen ,mother by arranging the         
assassination of a rival claimant who   
opposed the accession of her son ,hisham
 to the throne2 and he volunteered to   
lead the sultan's army against his      
insurrectionary subjects of ,leon4      
,almanzor was without military training 
or experience1 but he had no misgivings 
upon the score of his own ability1 and  
his faith in himself was justified4 ,his
 victories over the ,leonese made him   
the idol of the army2 and on the        
strength of his increased popularity he 
appointed himself ,prefect of ,cordova1 

and speedily rendered the city a model  
of orderliness and good government4 ,by 
a politic impeachment of the ,grand     
,chamberlain for financial              
irregularities1 he presently succeeded  
his own patron in the first office in   
the ,state1 and became supreme ruler of 
the kingdom4  ,almanzor had allowed no  
scruple or fear to thwart him in his    
struggle for the proud position he had  
attained1 and he now permitted nothing  
to menace the power he had so hardly    
won4 ,he met intrigue with intrigue1 and
 discouraged treachery by timely        
assassination4 ,he placated hectoring1  
orthodox ,moslems2 he curtailed the     
influence of his formidable rival1      
,ghalib1 the adored head of the army2 he
 conciliated the ,cordovans by making   
splendid additions to the mosque2 he    
terrorised the now jealous ,aurora and  
the palace party into quiescence2 and he
 kept the khalif himself in subjection  
by the magnetism of his own masterful   
personality4 ,his ,african campaigns    

extended the dominion of ,spain along   
the ,barbary coast1 and his periodical  
invasions of ,leon and ,castile kept the
 ,northern provinces in subjection1 and 
his army contented and rich with the    
spoils of war4 ,the ,christians had     
terrible reason to hate this invincible 
upstart1 and it is not surprising to    
read in the ,monkish annals1 the record 
of his death transcribed in the         
following terms3 8,in #ajjb died        
,almanzor1 and was buried in hell40 ,but
 if his death meant hell to ,almanzor1  
as the ,christians doubtless believed1  
it meant the recurrence of the hell of  
anarchy for the ,kingdom of ,spain4     
,within half a dozen years of the great 
,chamberlain's death1 the country which 
had been held together by the might of  
one man1 was torn to pieces by jealous  
and tyrannical chiefs and rebellious    
tribal warriors4 ,hisham ,,ii4 was      
dragged from his harem seclusion1 and   
the reins of ,government were thrust    
into his incompetent hands4 ,he failed1 

and was compelled to abdicate1 and      
another khalif was set up in his place4 
,for the next twenty years khalifs were 
enthroned and replaced in monotonous    
succession4 ,assassination followed     
coronation1 and coronation              
assassination1 until the princes of     
every party looked askance at the       
blood-stained throne1 where monarchs and
 murderers played their several intimate
 parts4 ,outside the capital1 anarchy   
and devastation was ravaging the        
country4 ,berbers and ,slavs were       
carrying desolation into the ,south and 
,east of the country1 and in the ,north 
the ,christians were uniting to throw   
off their dependence4 ,alfonso ,,vi4 was
 selling his aid to the rival chieftains
 in their battles amongst themselves1   
and storing up his subsidies against the
 day when he would undertake the        
re-conquest of ,spain4 ,the ,cid had    
established his ,castilian soldiers in  
,valencia1 and the voluptuous1          
degenerate ,mohammedan princes were     

panic-stricken by the growing           
disaffection and the instant danger     
which they were powerless to overcome4  
,in their extremity they sent for       
assistance to ,africa1 where ,yusuf1 the
 king of a powerful set of fanatics whom
 the ,spaniards named ,almoravides1 had 
made himself master of the country from 
,algiers to ,senegal4 ,yusuf came with  
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,ancient     
,,arab ,,tower1 ,,now ,,the ,,church    
,,of ,,st4 ,,nicholas ,,de ,,la ,,villa4
  ,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,orange    
,,court ,,in ,,the ,,mosque1 ,,moorish  
,,style1 ,,built #ieg1 ,,by ,,said ,,ben
 ,,ayout4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova     
,,exterior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4         
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4
  his ,berber hosts in #ajhf1 defeated  
the ,christians1 under ,alfonso1 near   
,badajoz1 and leaving three thousand of 
his men to stiffen the ranks of the     
,andalusians in maintaining the         
struggle1 he returned to ,africa4 ,four 

years later the ,spanish ,mohammedans   
again besought ,yusuf to bring his      
legions against their ,christian        
despoilers1 offering him liberal terms  
for his assistance1 and stipulating only
 that he should retire to his own       
dominions as soon as the work was       
completed4 ,the ,almoravide king        
subscribed the more readily to this     
condition1 since his priestly           
counsellors absolved him from his oath1 
and had little difficulty in convincing 
him that his duty lay in the            
pacification of the unhappy ,kingdom of 
,andalusia4 ,yusuf organised a force    
capable of contending with both the     
,christians of ,castile and his ,moorish
 allies4 ,the capitulation of ,granada  
provided him with the means of          
distributing vast treasure among his    
avaricious followers1 and promises of   
even greater booty inspired them to     
further faithful service4 ,tarifa1      
,seville1 and the rest of the important 
cities of ,andalusia1 fell before the   

treasure-hunting ,berbers2 and with the 
surrender of ,valencia1 on the death of 
the ,cid1 the re-conquest of ,mohammedan
 ,spain was practically completed4      
,order was temporarily restored1 lives  
and property were once more respected1  
and a new era of peace and prosperity   
appeared to have begun4 ,but the        
degenerating influence of wealth and    
luxurious ease1 which in the course of  
generations had sapped the manhood of   
,spain's successive conquerors1 played  
swift havoc with the untutored ,berbers4
 ,at the end of a score of years1 the   
,castilians1 led by ,alfonso 8the       
,battler10 had resumed the offensive1   
sacking and burning the smaller towns1  
and carrying their swords and torches to
 the gates of ,seville and ,cordova4    
,the ,almoravides were powerless to     
resist their vigorous forays4 ,the      
people of ,andalus1 recognising the     
powerlessness of their protectors1      
declared their independence1 and rallied
 to the ranks of the score of petty     

chiefs who raised their standards in    
every city and castle in ,andalusia1 and
 who fought with1 or bribed their       
,christian adversaries for the          
maintenance of their vaunted power4  ,at
 this crisis in the history of ,spain1  
when the dominion of the enfeebled and  
dissolute ,arab and ,berber leaders was 
weakening before the resolute onslaughts
 of the rude1 hard-living1 and          
hard-fighting ,christians of the ,north1
 a new force was created to turn the    
scale of ,empire and prolong the rule of
 the ,moslem in ,europe4 ,before the    
,almoravides had been overthrown in     
,andalus1 the ,almoravides in ,africa   
had been vanquished and dispersed by the
 mighty ,almohades1 who now regarded the
 annexation of ,mohammedan ,spain as the
 natural and necessary climax to the    
work of conquest4 ,andalusia had been a 
dependence of the ,almoravide ,empire2  
it was now to be a dependence of the    
,almoravides's successors4 ,between     
#aade and #aaej the transfer was        

completed2 but although the ,almohades  
had wrested the kingdom from the        
,almoravides1 they had not subdued the  
,christian provinces4 ,the new rulers1  
under-estimating the potentiality of    
this danger1 left the country to be     
governed by viceroys--an error in       
statecraft1 which ultimately lost ,spain
 to the ,mohammedan cause4 ,in #aaie    
they sent from ,morocco a huge force to 
check the ,christian aggressive         
movement1 and the ,northern host was    
routed at ,alarcos1 near ,badajoz4 ,that
 success was the last notable victory   
that was to arrest the slow1 but        
certain1 recovery of all ,spain to      
,catholic rule4 ,in #abab1 the ,almohade
 army suffered a disastrous defeat at   
the battle of ,las ,navas2 in #abce they
 were driven out of the ,peninsula2     
three years later1 on the death of      
,ibn-,hud1 the ,moslem dominion in      
,spain was restricted to the ,kingdom of
 ,granada2 and1 although this ,moorish  
stronghold was destined to endure for   

another two and a-half centuries1 it    
existed only as a tributary to the      
throne of the ,christian kings of       
,spain4  ,for the purposes of this book1
 the history of ,moorish ,spain closes  
with the expulsion of the ,mohammedans  
from ,cordova1 ,toledo1 and ,seville4   
,that more modern1 and1 in some ways    
more wonderful1 ,moorish monument--the  
,red ,palace of ,granada--,i have dealt 
with in my book on 8,the ,alhambra10 to 
which this work is intended to be the   
companion and complement4     ,,cordova 
,of the four great cities of the        
,mohammedan domination in ,spain1       
,cordova1 as the seat of the ,khalifate 
established by ,abd-er-,rahman ,i41 is  
rightly regarded as chief4 ,the sun of  
the ,moslem era shone with dazzling     
brilliance on ,seville1 and pierced the 
shadows of grim ,toledo ere it set upon 
the decaying grandeur of ,granada2 but  
it had risen first on ,cordova1 and from
 8that abode of magnificence1           
superiority1 and elegance0 its glory had

 been reflected to the furthest corner  
of the civilised world4 ,for ,cordova1  
by reason of its climate1 its situation1
 and its surroundings has1 since the    
beginning of time1 been one of the      
garden spots of ,europe4 ,the           
,carthaginians had aptly styled it 8the 
,gem of the ,south10 and the ,romans had
 founded a city there in #aeb ,b4,c41   
which they called ,corduba4 ,but        
,corduba had sided with ,pompey against 
,csar in the struggle for the mastership
 of the ,roman ,empire1 and the mighty  
,julius visited this act of hostility   
with the destruction of more than half  
the city1 and the massacre of #bh1jjj of
 its inhabitants4 ,when the ,goths made 
themselves rulers of ,spain in the sixth
 century1 they selected ,toledo to be   
their capital1 and ,cordova sank into   
political insignificance4 ,in #gaa1 when
 ,tarik had defeated ,roderick near the 
banks of the ,guadalete1 he despatched  
,mughith with #gjj horse to seize       
,cordova4 ,taking advantage of a        

fortuitous storm of hail1 which deadened
 the clatter of the horses' hoofs1 and  
assisted by the treachery of a          
,christian shepherd1 the followers of   
the ,prophet obtained an unopposed      
entry1 and the city fell without a blow 
being struck4 ,forty-four years later   
,abd-er-,rahman ,i4 established the     
dynasty of the ,omeyyads of ,cordova1   
and for three centuries the capital of  
,mohammedan ,spain was to be1 in the    
language of the old chronicler1         
,ash-,shakand1 8the repository of       
science1 the minaret of piety and       
devotion1 unrivalled even by the        
splendours of ,baghdad or ,damascus40   
,science has long since deserted        
,cordova2 piety is not obtrusive there2 
its material magnificence has passed    
away4 ,to-day the once famous city is a 
sleepy1 smiling1 overgrown village2 a   
congregation of empty squares1 and      
silent1 winding1 uneven streets1 which  
have a more thoroughly ,african         
appearance than those of any other town 

in ,spain4 ,theophile ,gautier has      
described its 8interminable white-washed
 walls1 their scanty windows guarded by 
heavy iron bars10 and its pebbly1       
straw-littered pavement1 and the        
sensitive spirit of ,de ,amicis was     
caught by a vague melancholy in the     
midst of its white-washed1 rose-scented 
streets4 ,here1 he writes1 there is 8a  
marvellous variety of design1 tints1    
light1 and perfume2 here the odour of   
roses1 there of oranges1 further on of  
pinks2 and with this perfume a whiff of 
fresh air1 and with the air a subdued   
sound of women's voices1 the rustling of
 leaves1 and the singing of birds4 ,it  
is a sweet and varied harmony that1     
without disturbing the silence of the   
streets1 soothes the ear like the echo  
of distant music40 ,it has1 as ,i have  
observed elsewhere1 a charm that fills  
the heart with a sad pleasure2 there is 
a mysterious spell in its air that one  
cannot resist4 ,one may idle for hours  
in the sunshine that floods the deserted

 squares1 and try to reconstitute in    
one's mind1 that ,cordova1 which was    
described as 8the military camp of      
,andalus1 the common rendezvous of      
,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4  ,,cordova4  
,shell-like ,ornaments in the ,cupola of
 the ,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,plate   
,,ii4  ,,cordova4  ,shell-like          
,ornaments in the ,cupola of the        
,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 
,,cordova4  ,shell-like ,ornaments in   
the ,cupola of the ,mihrab4             
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4  ,,cordova4
  ,part of the ornamentation and        
keystone of one of the lower arches     
which gives light to the dome4          
,illustration3 ,ring of the ,cupola4    
those splendid armies which1 with the   
help of ,allah1 defeated at every       
encounter the worshippers of the        
,crucified40 ,this indolent1 lotus-fed1 
listless ,cordova was once1 says        
,el-,makkari1 8the meeting place of the 
learned from all countries1 and1 owing  
to the power and splendour of the       

dynasty that ruled over it1 it contained
 more excellencies than any other city  
on the face of the earth40 ,another     
,mohammedan author1 ,al-hijari1 ,abu    
,mohammed1 writing of the city in the   
twelfth century1 said3 8,cordova was1   
during the reign of the ,beni-,merwan1  
the cupola of ,islam1 the convocation of
 scholars1 the court of the sultans of  
the family of ,omeyyah1 and the         
residence of the most illustrious tribes
 of ,yemen and ,ma'd4 ,students from all
 parts of the world flocked thither at  
all times to learn the sciences of which
 ,cordova was the most noble repository1
 and to derive knowledge from the mouths
 of the doctors and ulema who swarmed in
 it4 ,cordova is to ,andalus what the   
head is to the body4 ,its river is one  
of the finest in the world1 now gliding 
slowly through level lawns1 or winding  
softly across emerald fields1 sprinkled 
with flowers1 and serving it for robes2 
now flowing through thickly-planted     
groves1 where the song of birds resounds

 perpetually in the air1 and now        
widening into a majestic stream to      
impart its waters to the numerous wheels
 constructed on its banks1 communicating
 fresh vigour to the land40  ,the extent
 of ancient ,cordova has been           
differently stated1 owing1 no doubt1 to 
the rapid increase of its population and
 the expansion of the buildings under   
the sultans of the dynasty of ,merwan on
 the one hand1 and1 on the other1 to the
 calamities and disasters by which it   
was afflicted under the last sovereigns 
of that house4 ,cordova is1 moreover1   
described by ,mohammedan writers as a   
city which never ceased augmenting in   
size1 and increasing in importance1 from
 the time of its subjugation by the     
,moors until ,a4,d4 #ajji-aj1 when1     
civil war breaking out within it1 the   
capital fell from its ancient splendour1
 gradually decaying1 and losing its     
former magnificence1 until its final    
destruction in ,a4,d4 #abcf1 when it    
passed into the hands of the            

,christians4  ,from #gaa until #gee1    
when ,abd-er-,rahman arrived in ,spain  
to seize the new ,moorish possession1   
which had fallen to the military skill  
and courage of ,tarik's ,berbers1 the   
conquerors had been too fully employed  
in capturing cities to devote much      
leisure to beautifying their prizes2    
now1 with the foundation of the ,omeyyad
 power1 ,cordova was to reap the first  
fruits of comparative peace4 ,but the   
repulsion of the ,abbaside invasion1 the
 subjugation of ,toledo1 and the        
suppression of the ,berber revolt in the
 ,northern provinces1 long delayed the  
commencement of the great mosque which  
the sultan projected as 8a splendid seal
 upon the works pleasing to the         
,almighty1 which he had accomplished40  
,by the building of the mosque1         
,abd-er-,rahman would secure a place for
 himself in ,paradise1 and would leave  
to his own honoured memory a ,mecca of  
the ,west to which the followers of the 
,prophet could go in pilgrimage4  ,the  

treasury of ,abd-er-,rahman was at this 
time in a flourishing condition1 despite
 the large sums spent in adding         
splendour to the growing khalifate1 and 
there appeared to be no difficulty in   
carrying out his project4 ,but ,umeya   
,ibn ,yezid1 the favourite secretary of 
the sultan1 who1 in his capacity of     
,katib1 was instructed to make overtures
 for the purchase of the church on whose
 site the khalif intended to build the  
new mosque1 soon found that the         
negotiations were beset by serious      
difficulties4 ,the ,christians held firm
 to the conditions of capitulation      
granted them by the ,saracen conquerors 
of ,cordova1 and were not at all        
inclined to sell to ,abd-er-,rahman the 
temple upon which he had set his heart4 
,this building is described by ,pedro de
 ,madrazo as a spacious basilica1 which 
they shared with the followers of the   
,prophet1 since the ,mohammedans1       
according to the practice established   
amongst them by the advice of the       

,khalif ,omar1 shared the churches of   
the conquered cities with the           
,christians1 and1 after taking ,cordova1
 had divided one of the principal       
basilicas in two parts1 one of which    
they conceded to the ,cordovans1        
reserving the other1 which they at once 
turned into a mosque1 for themselves4   
,the ,christians had religiously paid   
the tribute exacted from them that they 
might keep their churches1 bishops1 and 
priests1 but this had not protected them
 from unjust exactions and plunderings  
at the hands of the governors and       
representatives of the ,eastern khalifs4
 ,knowing this1 ,abd-er-,rahman was     
anxious to acquire the desired site     
without violence1 and1 with his natural 
sagacity1 he perceived that the         
religious zeal of the native ,christians
 was much less fervent than that of his 
own people4 ,captivity and affliction   
had damped the old ardour of the natives
 of ,cordova1 which1 in his day1 was no 
longer the heroic colony1 so anxious for

 martyrdom1 and so prodigal of its      
blood1 as it was at the time when the   
flock of ,christ was guided by the great
 ,osius under the persecutions of       
,diocletian and ,maximilian4 ,neither   
was it the ,cordova which had endured   
wars1 hunger1 and plague sooner than be 
contaminated with ,arianism1 and the    
khalif knew1 too1 that in spite of the  
education given to the ,christian youth 
in the schools and colleges of the      
monasteries1 where many young priests   
and secular scholars promised to be a   
future danger to the ,mohammedans1 the  
,church at ,cordova was suffering       
grievous wounds from the new doctrines  
of ,migencio and ,elipando4 ,he was1    
therefore1 the more surprised to receive
 a stubborn refusal to his offer1 but   
the estimation in which he held the     
vanquished people and their leaders1 led
 him to believe that he could overcome  
their obstinacy by quiet persistence1   
and by trusting to time to undermine    
their scruples4 ,his policy was         

justified by its eventual success4  ,how
 did ,abd-er-,rahman succeed in         
persuading the ,christians to make so   
great a sacrifice8 ,how came they to be 
induced to abandon their principal      
church to the infidels8 ,had not these  
walls been witnesses of the vows they   
had sworn at the most solemn epochs of  
their lives8 ,perhaps it was already a  
matter of indifference to them to see   
the ground1 sanctified by the blood of  
their martyrs1 defiled6 8,god ,almighty 
alone knows0 must be our only comment   
upon this unaccountable transaction1 and
 we leave it thus in accordance with the
 practice adopted by the ,arab          
historians1 when they were at a loss for
 an explanation4  ,it is certain that   
under the reign of ,abd-er-,rahman the  
,christians were no longer persecuted on
 account of their religion4 ,they paid  
tribute1 it is true1 as a conquered     
people1 but their faith was respected2  
they had their churches and monasteries1
 where they worshipped publicly2 and it 

is not recorded that any of their       
priests were molested by the first      
,moorish king of the ,west4 ,on the     
other hand1 when they compared their    
present lot with that of the past1 they 
must have considered themselves greatly 
fortunate1 as they escaped the tyranny  
under which their fathers had suffered  
during the years from the cruel ,alahor 
to the time of the covetous ,toaba4 ,it 
is certain that a new empire was rising 
in ,cordova1 which was very threatening 
to the law of ,christ2 but at first its 
menace was not revealed1 and for this   
reason it was more to be feared4 ,its   
intentions were not published1 but they 
were vaguely felt4 ,those who were      
wisest and most far-seeing could        
perceive1 though still far off1 the dark
 cloud of a bloody persecution drawing  
around the ,church of ,andalusia2 but   
for the generality of the ,christians   
there seemed to be no reason why the    
present toleration was not to continue1 
and it is certain that fear was not the 

motive that made them yield to the      
wishes of the khalif4  ,history is very 
reticent concerning this event2 in fact1
 as ,pedro de ,madrazo admits1 nothing  
definite has1 up to the present1 been   
discovered with regard to it4 ,the      
probabilities are that the ,bishop of   
,cordova1 upon receiving the message of 
the ,moorish king1 called a council1    
and1 after due discussion1 resolved to  
part amicably with that which1 despite  
the king's moderation1 would without any
 doubt be taken from them by force1     
should they persist in their refusal4   
,in parting with their church1 and      
transferring their place of worship1    
they hoped1 too1 to be released from the
 odious proximity of the infidels1 whose
 presence under the roof of their       
basilica must always have been looked   
upon as a desecration of the sacred     
building4 ,and1 finally1 the advantages 
to be gained by removing their holy     
relics to a more suitable sanctuary may 
have decided them to accept the khalif's

 offer1 under the condition that they   
should be allowed to re-build the       
basilica of the martyrs ,st4 ,faustus1  
,st4 ,januaris1 and ,st4 ,marcellus1    
which had been destroyed in recent      
years2 and this being conceded to them  
by the khalif1 the bishop authorised the
 transfer4 ,the ,arab ordered that the  
price agreed upon should be sent at once
 to the ,christians1 who were in turn to
 surrender their church forthwith1      
because ,abd-er-,rahman1 already        
advanced in years1 was anxious that the 
edifice he was going to raise should be 
commenced without delay4 ,no sooner had 
the ,christians departed than           
,abd-er-,rahman left his villa in       
,razafa and took up his residence at the
 alcazar of the city1 in order to       
superintend the projected work4 ,the    
destruction of the old building was     
immediately proceeded with4 ,devoured   
with the desire to see the work         
completed1 the indefatigable old man    
spent many hours each day on the scene1 

carefully examining the portions of the 
demolished buildings1 which were to be  
utilised for the new mosque1 and        
classifying them with rare skill4 ,the  
whole city was filled with movement and 
commotion4 ,there was not a trade       
amongst the people which did not receive
 fresh impetus from the new building4   
,whilst all were busy in the factories  
and workshop1 in the woods1 on the      
mountains1 and on the roads from the    
hills to the city2 whilst the furnaces  
and brick ovens were glowing2 whilst the
 ,syrian architect meditated on his     
plans and on those traced by the king's 
own hands1 and the ,katib wrote to ,asia
 and ,africa inviting the co-operation  
of famous artists2 the people1 lazy and 
curious1 swarmed around the spacious    
foundations1 and the whole city         
presented a scene of animation and      
excitement not easy to describe4        
,abd-er-,rahman1 who had a presentiment 
that he would not live to see the mosque
 finished1 pushed on the work with all  

speed1 that he might at least have the  
satisfaction of covering the arcades    
which formed its naves1 and of          
inaugurating the cult of ,islam with one
 of those eloquent harangues1 which he  
was in the habit of addressing to his   
people on the days of 8,juma10 or ,rest4
 ,barely two years after the foundations
 were laid the square fortress of ,islam
 rose above the groves by the river1    
surpassing in height the severe ,alcazar
 of ,rodrigo4 ,a few more moons1 and the
 interior walls1 the superb colonnades  
of bold and unusual form1--the mosque of
 ,cordova is probably the first edifice 
in which superposed arches were         
introduced--the graceful rows of double 
arches1 the ample porticos1 the handsome
 faade of eleven entrances1 the rich    
side doors1 flanked by fretted windows1 
and finally the incomparable roof of    
incorruptible wood1 carved and painted1 
would be finished4 ,still a few more    
moons1 and the 8hotba10 or harangue1 for
 the health of ,abd-er-,rahman was to be

 read to the people from the most       
beautiful 8nimbar10 or pulpit in the    
,west1 and repeated by two thousand     
believers as with one voice1 drowning in
 the vibrating surge of an immense and  
thundering contempt the shamed hymns of 
the vanquished ,nazarenes4  ,not only   
was the mosque to be ready for the      
celebration of the public ceremonies on 
the first day of 8,alchuma10 but already
 the sanctuary loomed at the extremity  
of the principal nave towards the       
,south1 covered with rich and dazzling  
,byzantine ornamentation1 the venerated 
copy of the holy house of ,mecca4 ,the  
great aljama was not yet complete1 it is
 true1 but the diligent architects would
 find a way to satisfy the impatience of
 the sultan by covering the walls with  
rich hangings from ,persia and ,syria4  
,a profusion of ,corinthian columns in  
the principal naves1 and of bold marble 
pillars from the ,roman monuments1 sent 
from the provinces as presents to the   
monarch from his walies1 would be in    

their place4 ,the columns taken from the
 old basilica of the ,visigoths1 would  
be found in the secondary naves1 with   
others1 as yet unchiselled4 ,the floor  
was to be covered with flowers and      
fragrant herbs1 and the sacred precincts
 would be inundated with light and      
perfume1 diffused by hundreds of        
candelabra and thuribles4 ,the fortunate
 ,abd-er-,rahman would be able at least 
once before he died to direct the rites 
of the religion1 for the propagation of 
which he had made so many sacrifices1 in
 his capacity of 8,imam0 of the law4    
,but it was not to be4 ,that day the    
news spread through the city that the   
angel of death was seated by the bedside
 of the khalif2 and soon after1 the body
 of ,abd-er-,rahman1 the wise1 the      
virtuous1 and the victorious1 lay in one
 of the chambers of his alcazar1 wrapped
 in the white garments1 distinctive of  
his great lineage4 ,the sad event was   
announced to the people by              
,abd-er-,rahman ,ibn ,tarif1 the        

superior of the ,aljama of ,cordova1    
from the very pulpit from which the dead
 monarch was to have addressed his      
subjects1 and the crowds departed from  
the mosque exclaiming3 8,may the ,amir  
rest in the sleep of peace1 ,allah will 
smile upon him on the day of reckoning40
  ,the great glory of completing the    
mosque was reserved for ,hisham1 the    
favourite son of ,abd-er-,rahman1 to    
whom all the walies had sworn fealty as 
the rightful successor4 ,this prince was
 at ,merida when his father died1 but he
 at once left that city for ,cordova1   
where he made the mosque the object of  
his special solicitude4  ,soon after his
 accession1 ,hisham consulted a famous  
astrologer as to his future4 ,the       
learned man1 who was called ,abh-dhobi1 
at first refused to gratify the sultan's
 curiosity1 but upon being pressed he   
said3 8,thy reign1 ,o ,amir1 will be    
glorious and happy1 and marked by great 
victories2 but1 unless my calculations  
are wrong1 it will only last some eight 

years40 ,hisham remained some time in   
silence upon hearing these words1 but   
presently his face cleared1 and he spoke
 thus to the astrologer3 8,thy          
prediction1 ,o ,abh-dhobi1 does not     
discourage me1 for if the days given me 
still to live by the ,almighty are      
passed in adoring ,him1 ,i shall say    
when my hour comes1 #8,thy will be      
done4'0  ,this monarch's brief reign was
 rich in notable deeds4 ,he repressed   
the rebellion of his two brothers       
,suleyman and ,abdullah1 carried the    
holy war as far as ,sardinia1 entered   
and sacked the town of ,narbonne1 and   
compelled the unhappy ,christians to    
carry the clay of the demolished walls  
of their city upon their shoulders as   
far as ,cordova1 in order to build a    
mosque in his alcazar4 ,hisham made     
himself feared by the ,franks1 and he   
did much to establish the empire of     
,islam in ,andalus1 enlarging its       
capital1 repairing  ,illustration3      
,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque4  ,,portal    

,,on ,,the ,,north ,,side1 ,,moorish    
,,style1 ,,built ,,under ,,hakam ,,iii41
 #ihh-ajja4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova   
,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4  
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,exterior    
,,angle ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4            
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,exterior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4         
,illustration3 ,,plate ,v  ,,cordova4   
,curvelinear triangles resulting from   
the intersection of the arches          
sustaining the dome4  ,setting of the   
arches sustaining the dome4  ,setting of
 the arches sustaining the dome4        
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4  ,,cordova4
  ,ornament running below the ,cupola4  
,ornament running below the ,cupola4    
,setting of one of the lower arches     
which gives light to the dome4          
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4           
,,cordova4  ,curvelinear triangles      
resulting from the intersection of the  
arches sustaining the dome4  ,architrave
 of one of the ,arches sustaining the   
,dome4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4  

,,cordova4  ,details de las ,portados de
 la ,maksurah4  ,keystone of the arch of
 the ,mihrab4  ,keystone of the arch of 
the right hand side gateway4            
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4  ,,cordova4
  ,arches of the ,portal of the ,mihrab4
  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x4  ,,cordova4
  ,detail of the ,framing of the ,side  
,gate4  ,detail of the ,window placed   
over the ,side ,door4  ,detail of the   
,framing of the ,arch of the ,mihrab4   
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi4  ,windows  
in an ,alcove4  ,illustration3 ,,plate  
,,xii4                 ft4 in4 ,height  
of ,vase  #d   #f                 ft4   
in4 ,diameter        #b  #aa  ,arab     
,vase of ,metallic ,lustre4             
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4  ,details
 of the ,arches4  ,illustration3 ,,plate
 ,,xiv4  ,centre ,painting on a         
,ceiling4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv4 
,divan4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4  
,detail of an ,arch4  its magnificent   
bridge1 creating useful public          
institutions1 and finally completing the

 grand mosque1 which his father had     
commenced1 founding and endowing in     
connection with it schools and colleges4
 ,moreover1 he did all this with the    
resources of the treasury1 and with his 
lawful part of the spoils of conquest1  
without levying any extraordinary taxes4
  ,tradition relates that there formerly
 was a bridge over the ,guadelquivir1   
erected on the site of the present      
structure1 about #bjj years before the  
arrival of the ,moors in ,spain3 but1   
this edifice being greatly decayed1 it  
was rebuilt by the ,arabs during the    
,viceroyship of ,assamh1 ,a4,d4 #gbj or 
#gba4 ,this noble structure is four     
hundred paces1 or one thousand feet1 in 
length1 and its breadth is twenty-two   
feet eight inches within the parapets4  
,the passage over the bridge is a       
straight line from one end to the other2
 the arches are sixteen in number1 and  
the buttresses of the piers are much    
stronger and better adapted for similar 
purposes than the modern tri-lateral    

cut-waters4 ,nearly eleven centuries    
have these buttresses withstood the     
rapid floods of the ,guadelquivir1      
without sustaining any material injury4 
,although ,hisham practically rebuilt   
the bridge1 the labour did not          
contribute to his personal convenience4 
,his great love of hunting caused the   
malcontents among his subjects to       
whisper that he had repaired the bridge 
to facilitate the outgoings and         
incomings of his hunting parties4 ,the  
rumour reached the king1 who vowed that 
he would never cross the bridge again--a
 vow he faithfully observed4  ,the great
 ,aljama was completed in the year      
,a4,d4 #gic4 ,the ,emir ,hisham took as 
great a personal interest in its        
progress as did his father1 the walies  
of the provinces contributed to its     
decoration with the spoils from ancient 
monuments1 the artificers with their    
genius1 victors with their booty1 the   
city with its workmen1 the mountains of 
,cordova and ,cabra by yielding the     

treasures of their quarries1 ,africa    
with the trunks of its imperishable     
larch-pines1 and ,asia by inoculating   
the growing ,arabic-,spanish art with   
its genius of ornament1 its aspirations 
and its poetry4  ,the superb mosque was 
finished1 the workmen rested from their 
labours1 and ,hisham was confident that 
he had secured a place in the garden of 
everlasting joys4 ,let us look at this  
new house of prayer1 majestically       
situated at the southern boundary of the
 great city1 close to the green banks of
 the wide river of ,andalus1 occupying  
an area of #dfj feet from north to      
south1 and #bhj from east to west1      
surrounded by high1 thick battlemented  
walls1 flanked by stout buttresses of   
watch towers1 and surmounted by a lofty 
minaret4 ,it is entered by the faithful 
by nine rich and spacious outer gates1  
and by eleven interior doors1 four in   
the east and west sides1 and a principal
 one to the north2 the eleven in the    
inner faade communicating with an equal 

number of naves in the temple4 ,the     
interior arrangement of this wonderful  
monument is most beautiful4 ,there is a 
great courtyard1 or atrium1 with wide   
gates in the north1 west1 and east      
sides1 having fountains for the         
ablutions and the purifications1 and    
orange and palm groves4 ,then comes the 
immense body of the house of prayer1    
divided into eleven principal naves1    
running from north to south1 and crossed
 at right angles by twenty-one smaller  
naves1 which run from east to west4 ,the
 elegant combination of the arcades1 in 
which the pilasters are superposed on   
the columns1 and the arches on other    
arches1 leaving a passage for the light 
between the upper and lower             
columniation1 is quite ideal4 ,finally1 
the mysterious hidden sanctuary1 within 
which the ,koran is kept1 in whose      
precincts ,oriental art has exhausted   
all the riches of its fascinating       
resources4  ,the eleven great doors     
leading from the courtyard to the       

,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,bridge4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova     
,,view ,,of ,,the ,,mosque ,,and ,,the  
,,bridge4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova     
,,section ,,of ,,the ,,mosque ,,of      
,,cordova ,,on ,,the ,,line ,,of ,,the  
,,plan ,l4 ,m4  ,,section ,,of ,,the    
,,mosque ,,of ,,cordova ,,on ,,the      
,,line ,,of ,,the ,,plan ,n4 ,o4        
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the ,,gates 
,,of ,,pardon4  mosque are superb double
 arches all in a row1 sustained by      
beautiful marble columns1 which1 four by
 four1 encircle the stout supporting    
pillars of stone in which they are      
consolidated4 ,from the courtyard the   
interior of the mosque is seen through  
these eleven doors glittering with      
golden fires1 and from the temple the   
courtyard1 seen through these same      
doors1 appears to be a glimpse of the   
longed-for ,garden of ,delights4 ,the   
,mohammedan poet1 ,mohammed ,ibn        
,mohammed ,al-baluni1 sings as follows  
of the holy ,house of ,prayer1 which    

surpasses in richness of colour1 beauty 
of design1 and boldness of ornamentation
 the most famous mosques of ,arabia1    
,syria1 and ,africa3                    
8,abd-er-,rahman1 for the love of ,god1 
and in honour of his religion1          
spent eighty thousand dinars of silver  
and gold40       8,he laid them out in  
constructing a temple for the use of his
 pious      nation1 and for the better  
observance of the religion of ,mahomet40
       8,here the gold lavished on the  
panelled ceilings shines with the       
same brilliancy as the lightning1 which 
pierces the clouds40  ,the design1 as   
completed by the ,sultan ,hisham ,i4 in 
the years #gid-ie1 received considerable
 improvements at the hands of his       
successors4 ,indeed1 it can be safely   
said that none of the sultans of the    
illustrious family of ,omeyyad who      
reigned in ,cordova failed to make some 
estimable addition1 or contributed in   
some way to the decoration of the       
sumptuous building4 ,hakam's son1       

,abd-er-,rahman ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #hbb-heb1 
ordered much                            
8,gilt-work0--,zak-hrafah--to be made1  
but died before the work was completed4 
,mohammed1 his son and successor--,a4,d4
 #heb-hhf--;continued the work          
undertaken by his father1 and brought it
 to a close4 ,mohammed's son1           
,abdallah--,a4,d4 #hhf-hhh--;is also    
recorded as having made improvements in 
the building4  ,in the time of the      
,great ,khalif1 ,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii41 
called ,an-nasir in order to distinguish
 him from the other monarchs of that    
name1 the old minaret was pulled down by
 the advice of a wise architect1 and a  
new one built on its site1 whose        
vastness surpassed all other minarets in
 the world4 ,forty-three days were spent
 in sinking its foundations1 which      
penetrated into the ground till water   
was struck1 and three months sufficed   
for its construction4 ,the superb tower 
is built of freestone and mortar in such
 a curious manner that1 though it       

contains two staircases in its interior1
 each flight containing #ajg steps1     
people can ascend to the top and go down
 again without seeing one another4 ,this
 elaborate tower measures fifty-four    
cubits from its foundations to the upper
 part of the open dome1 to which the    
priest1 who calls to prayers1 turns his 
back1 as he perambulates the projecting 
balcony1 whose elegant balustrade       
surrounds the four walls like a graceful
 ring4 ,from this balcony up to the top 
the tower rises eighty-three cubits     
more1 being crowned with three beautiful
 apples1 two of gold and one of silver1 
each three palms and a half in diameter1
 from which spring two lilies of six    
petals1 supporting a pomegranate of     
purest gold4 ,it has fourteen windows in
 its four faces4 ,in two of these faces 
there are three intervals1 and in the   
other two1 two intervals1 formed between
 columns of white and red jasper1 and   
over the windows there is a crowning of 
solid arches sustained by small columns 

of the same jasper4 ,these windows break
 up the mass of the walls in an         
admirable manner4 ,the minaret is       
covered1 both inside and out1 with      
beautiful tracery in relief4            
,abd-er-,rahman also rebuilt the wall   
which enclosed the mezquita to the      
north1 looking towards the ,orange      
,court1 and he had the entire floor of  
the mosque levelled4  ,illustration3    
,,cordova  ,a ,,view ,,in ,,the ,,garden
 ,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,mosque4       
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,lateral ,,gate4             
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,interior    
,,of ,,the ,,mosque1 ,,or ,,cathedral4  
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,interior    
,,of ,,the ,,mosque1 ,,moorish ,,style1 
,,built #ifa-ifg1 ,,under ,,hakam ,,ii4 
,in #ifa ,a4,d41 ,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii41
 the last great ,omeyyad ,sultan of     
,cordova died1 and among his papers was 
discovered a diary1 in his own          
handwriting1 in which he had carefully  
noted down the days which he had spent  

in happiness and without any cause of   
sorrow4 ,they numbered exactly fourteen4
 8,o1 man of understanding60 says the   
,arabian philosopher1 8wonder and       
observe the small portion of real       
happiness the world affords even in the 
most enviable position6 ,the ,khalif    
,an-nasir1 whose prosperity in mundane  
affairs1 and whose widely-spread empire 
became proverbial1 had only fourteen    
days of undisturbed enjoyment during a  
reign of fifty years1 seven months1 and 
three days4 ,praise be given to ,him1   
the ,lord of eternal glory and          
everlasting empire40  ,the ,sultan      
,hakam1 as soon as he succeeded to the  
,khalifate1 determined to enlarge the   
mosque1 which was too small to          
accommodate the numbers of those who    
went there to perform the 8azalas40 ,he 
called together the architects and      
geometricians1 who decided that the     
addition should extend from the         
8kiblah0--the point looking towards     
,mecca--of the mosque to the extreme end

 of the atrium1 thus running the entire 
length of the eleven naves4 ,the        
addition measured ninety-five cubits    
from north to south1 and as much from   
east to west as the width of the whole  
mosque4 ,the passage to the alcazar1    
used by the khalif when he came to the  
8azalas10 was intersected near the      
8nimbar10 or pulpit1 inside the         
8maksurrah40 ,in the year #ced of the   
,hegirah the cupola1 which crowned the  
8mihrab10 or sanctuary1 containing the  
,koran1 in the addition to the mosque   
made by ,hakam1 was completed4 ,in the  
same year the 8sofeysafa10 or enamelled 
mosaic work1 was commenced in the       
mosque1 and1 by the order of ,hakam1 the
 four incomparable columns1 which       
formerly had served as jambs for the    
doors of the old 8mihrab10 were set up  
again in the new one4 ,it is related    
that while the addition was being made1 
a lively dispute arose as to the exact  
spot of the 8kiblah10 and it was finally
 decided to erect the sanctuary at the  

limit of the prolongation of the eleven 
naves1 in the centre1 looking directly  
to the south4 ,between the interior     
southern wall and the exterior1 which   
was strengthened with round towers1 a   
space of some fifteen feet remained4    
,this was divided into eleven           
compartments1 corresponding with the    
eleven naves of the mosque1 that in the 
centre being destined for the sanctuary1
 and the others being reserved for the  
priests and other purposes4 ,in this    
manner the 8mihrab0 was placed in the   
exact centre of the south side1 with a  
wing on each side1 of precise           
resemblance4 ,in the west wing there was
 a secret passage leading from the      
mosque to the alcazar1 which extended   
very near the west wall of the mezquita4
 ,the doors of this passage were        
arranged in a most intricate fashion1   
doubtless for the greater security of   
the palace1 and they gave entrance to   
the interior of the 8maksurrah10 a      
sumptuous reserved space1 communicating 

on the north1 east1 and west with the   
great naves1 and on the south forming   
part of the interior wall of the mosque4
 ,this 8maksurrah0 was a privileged     
spot1 enclosed by a sort of wooden      
grating1 elegantly worked on both faces1
 and surmounted by turrets1 the object  
of which was to cut off all             
communication with the sultan4 ,this    
screen1 measuring twenty-two cubits to  
its summit1 gives its name to that part 
of the edifice which it occupies4 ,its  
ornamentation1 as well as that of the   
new part of the central nave1 extending 
from the old to the new 8mihrab10 is    
magnificent in the highest degree4 ,the 
plan of the 8maksurrah10 properly       
speaking1 was a large rectangle1 divided
 into three parts1 almost square1 from  
which rose three ,byzantine domes of    
rare beauty4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova  
,,the ,,mosque4  ,illustration3         
,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque--,,interior   
,,view4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova       
,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4  

,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the   
,,interior4  ,that in the centre served 
as a vestibule to the sanctuary1 and was
 the most remarkable for its            
proportions1 its outlines1 and its      
decorations4 ,this part of the mosque   
has been preserved in its principal     
features to the present day4 ,the       
edifice has lasted nine centuries1 and  
there is no indication that it will not 
endure for nine centuries more4  ,over  
the festooned arches1 which intersect   
each other1 rise seven light and        
graceful horse-shoe arches1 which       
disappear into the south wall1 thus     
closing the picture and terminating the 
lower body of the sumptuous vestibule4  
,above these double arches runs an      
impost1 beautifully worked and very     
graceful1 embracing and crowning the    
four faades1 and dividing the cupola    
into two zones--an upper and a lower4   
,on this impost rest beautiful columns  
in pairs1 oversetting great bold        

semi-circular arches1 arranged with such
 art that they seem to imitate the      
curves of the interlaced garlands of a  
choir of beautiful odalisques1 as the   
arches do not go from each column to the
 corresponding one of the next couple1  
but leave the intervening pair open4 ,in
 this way1 as there are two pairs of    
columns supporting the impost in each   
faade1 eight principal arches are formed
 in the space in two great              
quadrilaterals placed opposite each     
other1 their springing stones crossing  
and forming eight points of a star4     
,there is an octagonal ring in the      
centre with eight graceful pendants1 as 
an embellishment to the capitals of the 
eight pairs of columns4 ,a horseshoe    
arch from point to point1 to which a    
tablet of alabaster is fitted1 leaves an
 uncertain prospect of the vault of     
heaven1 which shines upon the cupola and
 the profusion of rich mosaic work with 
which it is adorned4  ,between the      
elegant arches1 which appear rather to  

hang from the cupola than to support it1
 the marvellous faade of the 8mihrab0   
appears in the background1 which        
glistens in the rays of the setting sun 
like a piece of brocade loaded with     
jewels1 and which must have been        
dazzling as a fairy palace when1 in the 
month of ,ramadhan1 the fourteen hundred
 and fifty-four lights of the great lamp
 shone under this enamelled             
8half-orange40 ,this faade1 in spite of 
its marvellous richness1 does not show  
the smallest confusion in its           
ornamentation1 each line is traced with 
the idea of giving greater beauty to the
 arch which forms the entrance to the   
sanctuary4 ,it is composed of the arch  
with its spacious architrave and its    
smooth jambs with small columns1        
together with its 8arraba0 surrounded by
 ,grecian frets1 and a light series of  
arches without vacuums1 upon which rest 
the imposts which divide the upper and  
lower bodies of the dome4 ,but such is  
the profusion and splendour of the      

ornamentation of each of these parts    
that it is impossible to describe them4 
,the keystones1 the architrave1 the     
circle drawn in squares1 the panels1 the
 trefoil arches and the tympana are     
incomparable1 and the combination of    
,grecian frets with ,persian and        
,byzantine ornaments and geometrical    
figures is as beautiful as it is        
bewildering4 ,these last1 moreover1 do  
not preponderate as was the case later  
in the degenerate ,mussulman            
ornamentation proper4 ,here the ,grecian
 frets are the most important1 being    
combined in a thousand different ways1  
the stems and leaves tracing the most   
graceful curves1 and all uniting to form
 an elegant border1 of the most         
capricious tracery4 ,the whole of this  
ornamentation is of marble1 delicately  
carved1 now smooth and white1 now       
covered with minute mosaic of various   
colours1 and loaded with crystal and    
gold4 ,the inscriptions seen here are   
also in gold1 on a ground of crimson1 or

 ultra-marine1 alternating with the     
shining 8sofeysafa40  8,sofeysafa0 is an
 obscure word1 which ,don ,pascual de   
,gayangos believes to be a transposition
 of the ,arabic  ,illustration3         
,,cordova  ,,the ,,central ,,nave ,,of  
,,the ,,mosque--#ifa-ifg4               
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,chief ,,entrance4           
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,interior    
,,view ,,of ,,the ,,cathedral4          
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,interior    
,,of ,,the ,,mosque--,,lateral ,,nave4  
,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,the    
,,mosque--,,east ,,side4  ,illustration3
 ,,plate ,,xvii4  ,,cordova4            
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4         
,,cordova4  ,detail of one of the niches
 of the ,cupola4  ,mosaic keystones of  
the great arch of the ,mihrab4  ,details
 of the ,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,plate
 ,,xix4  ,,cordova4  ,cufic inscription1
 over the arch of the ,mihrab4          
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xx4  ,,cordova4
  ,pieces of ,wood used in the ancient  

covering of the ,mosque4  ,details of   
the ,interior of the ,mosque4  word     
,foseyfasa1,a signifying enamel work of 
exceptional brilliancy1 laid down by    
,greek workmen whom ,abd-er-,rahman had 
brought to ,cordova for the task4  ,a   
,foseyfasa4 ,gayangos tells us that the 
word is not in the ,dictionaries1 but   
that1 according to an old ,arabian      
writer1 it is a substance of glass and  
small pebbles1 crushed and baked        
together1 uniting1 with great variety of
 colour1 great brilliancy1 and beauty2  
it is sometimes mixed with silver and   
gold4 ,one of the conditions of peace   
granted to the ,emperor of              
,constantinople by the ,khalif1         
,al-wald1 was that the ,emperor should  
provide a certain quantity of foseyfasa1
 or enamelled work1 for the great mosque
 at ,damascus4 ,idrisi1 in his          
description of the mosque of ,cordova1  
says that the enamel which covered the  
walls of the 8mihrab10 came from        
,constantinople4  ,two columns are built

 into the jamb of the entrance arch to  
the sanctuary--one of black marble1 the 
other of jasper1 with lavishly carved   
capitals4 ,if his blind enthusiasm did  
not deceive ,el-,makkari1 the four      
columns were of green jasper and        
lapis-lazuli1 two of each4 ,an impost   
rests upon them as a cornice1 and from  
this the arch springs2 and on the impost
 an inscription in golden characters    
upon a crimson ground is written1 which 
has the following meaning3  8,in the    
name of ,god1 clement and merciful1 let 
us give praise to ,him1 who directed us 
to this1 for we could not have directed 
ourselves if we had not been directed by
 ,god1 for which purpose the deputies of
 our ,lord came with the truth4 ,the    
priest ,al-mostaner ,billah ,abdallah   
,al-,hakam1 ,prince of the              
,faithful--may ,god be faithful to      
him--ordered the president and prefect  
of his court1 ,giafar ben               
,abd-er-,rahman--may ,god be pleased    
with him--to add these two columns1     

since he laid the foundations in the    
holy fear of ,god1 and with ,his good   
pleasure4 ,this work was concluded in   
the month of ,dhilhagia of the year #ced
 of the ,hegirah40  ,from this          
inscription it would seem that two of   
the columns supporting the arch of      
8sofeysafa0 were placed there by order  
of ,hakam ,,ii41 and that the others    
belonged to the old 8mihrab10 which had 
been demolished in order to lengthen the
 mosque2 but no one is capable of saying
 to-day whether the black marble        
columns1 or the jasper1 were those added
 by the order of the magnificent khalif2
 and whether the inestimable gift which 
was deemed worthy of being commemorated 
in letters of gold was of lapis-lazuli  
or not4 8,god alone knows60  ,the       
sanctuary is a small heptagonal space1  
with a pavement of white marble1 a socle
 formed by seven great slabs of the     
same1 and a dome1 also of marble1 shaped
 like a shell and made of a single      
piece1 edged with an elegant moulding4  

,the seven sides of the heptagon are    
decorated with exquisite trefoiled      
arches1 supported by marble columns1    
with gilt capitals of delicate          
workmanship2 the columns resting on a   
cornice1 below whose modules runs a     
fascia1 or fillet1 of gilded characters 
carved in the marble of the slabs1 which
 form the socle1 or sub-basement4       
,within this sanctuary was kept the     
famous 8nimbar0 of ,hakam ,,ii41 which  
was a sort of pulpit1 according to the  
,arab historian1 unequalled in the      
world1 either for its materials or its  
workmanship4 ,it was of ivory and       
precious woods--ebony1 red and yellow   
sandal1 ,indian aloe1 c4--and the cost  
of it was #ce1gje dineros and three     
adirmames4 ,it had ten steps1 and was   
said to consist of #cg1jjj pieces of    
wood joined by gold and silver nails1   
and incrusted with precious stones4 ,it 
took nine years to build1 eight         
artificers working at it each day4 ,this
 pulpit1 which must have been of mosaic 

of wood1 jewels and metals of price1 was
 reserved for the khalif1 and in it was 
deposited also the chief object of      
veneration of all the ,mohammedans of   
,andalusia1 a copy of the ,koran1       
supposed to have been written by        
,othman1 and still stained with his     
blood4 ,this copy was kept in a box of  
golden tissue studded with pearls and   
rubies1 and covered with a case of      
richest crimson silk1 and was placed on 
a desk or lectern1 of aloe wood with    
golden nails4 ,its weight was so        
extraordinary1 that two men could       
scarcely  ,illustration3 ,,cordova      
,,the ,,mosque--,,detail ,,of ,,the     
,,gate4  ,illustration3 ,,the           
,,mosque--,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the          
,,almanzor4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova   
,,view ,,in ,,the ,,mosque--#ifa-ifg4   
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,a ,,gate ,,on ,,one ,,of     
,,the ,,lateral ,,sides4  ,illustration3
 ,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque--,,side ,,of 
,,the ,,captive',s ,,column4  carry it4 

,it was placed in the pulpit in order   
that the ,imam might read in it during  
the 8azala20 and when the ceremony was  
concluded1 it was carried to another    
place1 where it remained1 carefully     
guarded1 with the gold and silver vases 
destined for the great celebration of   
,ramadhan4  ,the chronicler1 ,ambrosio  
de ,morales1 says that the 8nimbar0 was 
a sort of chariot on four wheels1 and   
that it had but seven steps4 ,it was to 
be seen in the cathedral of ,cordova as 
late as the middle of the sixteenth     
century1 when it was dismembered1 and   
its materials employed in the           
construction of a ,christian altar4     
,the place1 which from the slight       
indications of ,edrisi appears to have  
served as treasure-room1 was a sort of  
chapel1 which is situated to-day not far
 from the site of the ancient 8mihrab10 
to the north of the present 8maksurrah40
 ,in this way it can easily be supposed 
that the noblest apartment of the mosque
 was completely closed to the people on 

the north and south sides2 and1 being   
occupied by the principal personages of 
the court1 it would have been difficult 
for any irreverence to have been shown  
to the ,imam or to the venerated        
8,mushaf0--,koran4 ,the two 8maksurrahs0
 remained1 the one facing the other1    
both occupying exactly the same space2  
that is1 at least1 from east to west1   
supposing that they cut the three centre
 naves of the eleven which are in the   
mosque4 ,both these 8maksurrahs10 or    
screens1 have disappeared2 and at the   
present time we cannot form the         
slightest idea as to their design4      
,almost the only thing which has        
remained intact of that time is the     
sumptuous space of the three chapels    
occupied by the 8maksurrah0 of ,hakam2  
and of the spaces occupied by the old   
8maksurrahs10 only two disfigured       
chapels exist--that of the chief nave1  
and that of the next nave to the east4  
,the latter is divided into two parts by
 a platform some feet above the floor of

 the mosque4 ,in the upper portion the  
8,alicama0 or preliminary for the prayer
 was made2 and in the lower part1 which 
still has the form of an underground    
chapel1 the treasure was kept4 ,the     
centre chapel1 the present ,chapel of   
,villaviciosa1 was reserved for the     
khalif when he did not act as ,imam2 and
 in the west chapel1 which exists no    
longer1 was the seat of the ,cadi of the
 ,aljama4 ,no trace of the original     
interior decoration of these chapels    
remains at the present day1 and         
externally1 only the arches facing the  
8mihrab10 and which are similar to those
 of the faade of the vestibule1 are     
left4  ,when everything had been        
completed internally to the satisfaction
 of ,hakam1 it occurred to him that the 
fountains in the ,court of ,ablutions   
did not harmonise with the grandeur of  
the mosque2 he therefore commanded that 
they should be replaced by four splendid
 founts1 or troughs1 each cut out of a  
single piece of marble--two for the     

women in the eastern part1 and two for  
the men in the west4 ,it was his wish   
that these basins should be of          
magnificent proportions1 and made from  
the same quarry4 ,the work took much    
time1 engaged many people1 and          
necessitated the expenditure of a great 
deal of money2 but it was happily       
executed1 and the troughs were brought  
to their destination by a sloping way1  
specially constructed for the purpose1  
on great carts1 each drawn by seventy   
stout oxen4 ,the water1 which was       
brought by the aqueducts of             
,abd-er-,rahman ,,ii41 and was stored in
 a great reservoir covered with marble1 
flowed night and day2 and after         
supplying the wants of the mosque1 was  
carried off by three conduits to feed as
 many fountains for public use in the   
north1 east1 and west of the city4  ,the
 great ,vizier1 ,almanzor1 considerably 
enlarged the mosque2 many ,christians1  
loaded with chains1 being employed      
amongst the workmen4 ,the eastern wall  

was thrown  ,illustration3 ,,cordova    
,,mosque1 ,,north ,,side--,,exterior    
,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,st4 ,,pedro4 
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,general     
,,view ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the 
,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,masura ,,and ,,st4
 ,,ferdinand4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova 
,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of       
,,masura4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova     
,,the ,,mosque--,,elevation ,,of ,,the  
,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,sanctuary ,,of ,,the
 ,,koran4  down1 and the foundations of 
a new wall were laid one hundred and    
eighty feet from the old one1 throughout
 the entire length from north to south4 
,in the covered part of the building    
eight great naves were added1 all of    
equal size1 and having the same number  
of arches as those already existing2 so 
that the thirty-three minor naves1 which
 cut the principal naves at right       
angles1 were lengthened one hundred and 
eighty feet1 running from east to west4 
,the new part formed thirty-five        
transverse naves1 where there had       

formerly been only thirty-three1 because
 the wing1 with the residences which    
fell to the east of the 8mihrab0 which  
was not lengthened1 occupied the space  
of the two extra naves4 ,the            
prolongation of the minor naves was not 
carried out with the slavish and        
monotonous uniformity of modern days4   
,the ,arab architects did not understand
 symmetry as we do to-day1 and they     
satisfied themselves with producing     
unity by means of variety1 without      
seeking a forced correspondence of      
similar parts4 ,in the part added by    
,almanzor it was considered useless to  
give the same dimensions to the         
buttresses of the north wall as the     
primitive wall possessed1 and           
consequently a space of six feet in     
length was gained from the principal    
naves at the north side4 ,but as this   
extra width could not be given to the   
first of the lesser naves1 as the height
 of the columns would not allow of it1  
the architect doubtless thought that    

instead of dividing up this small excess
 equally among the thirty-three arches  
in the length from north to south1 it   
would be preferable and more effective  
to preserve the first three or four     
naves in line1 adding a nave in the     
space gained by the diminution in the   
bulk of the buttresses1 and by enlarging
 the succeeding naves wherever it seemed
 most convenient4 ,as a result of this1 
the first transverse nave of the        
lengthened part1 on account of the great
 narrowness of its intercolumniation1   
was not able to preserve the full span  
of its arches4 ,it was necessary1       
therefore1 to bring the latter nearer   
together and to break their curve1 in   
order to keep the desired height1 and   
thus probably for the first time1 ,pedro
 de ,madrazo considers1 was seen in the 
edifices of ,arab ,spain1 the pointed   
arch which was destined to totally      
change the physiognomy of monumental art
 in the ,middle ,ages4  ,the arch1      
broken in this manner at the culminating

 point of its curve1 presently adopted  
in this small nave all the varieties of 
decoration to which it was susceptible4 
,here in effect1 in this small space of 
barely seven feet wide and one hundred  
and eighty-five long1 architecture      
exhausted at one time1 and at the first 
attempt1 all the shapes of arches1 which
 were to be employed in the four        
following centuries2 a circumstance     
which was quite fortuitous4 ,it was not 
the intention to dissimulate the        
enlargement of which we are speaking2 on
 the contrary1 it was decided to        
signalise it in an unmistakable manner1 
for which purpose a row of stout pillars
 was raised1 where the old east wall    
stood1 and where at present is the      
dividing line between the eleventh and  
twelfth greater naves1 the pillars of   
which were suitably united to each other
 by great arches1 springing from        
beautiful columns in pairs1 built into  
the pillars4 ,the old classical art     
would never have confided such wide     

spaces to supports so delicate as are   
these columns1 which in couples send the
 bold festooned arches1 which serve as  
an opening to the edifice of ,almanzor1 
across to the opposite pair4 ,but the   
architects of the time of               
,abd-er-,rahman ,i4 and of ,hakam ,,ii4 
had already successfully attempted a    
similar feat in the grand arcade of the 
inner faade1 which looks on the ,court1 
and in the strengthening arcade which   
divides the primitive mosque from its   
prolongation to the south1 so there was 
no reason to fear its repetition4       
,to-day we pass1 with a certain respect1
  ,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the       
,,mosque--,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,sanctuary 
,,of ,,the ,,koran4  ,illustration3     
,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque--,,mosaic     
,,decoration ,,of ,,the ,,sanctuary1    
#ife-ajja4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova    
,,the ,,mosque--,,right-,,hand ,,side   
,,gate ,,within ,,the ,,precincts ,,of  
,,the 8,,maksurrah40  ,illustration3    
,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque--,,section    

,,of ,,the ,,cupola ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4
  under these bold arches of eight      
metres elevation1 and six1 seven1 and   
even eight metres in width1 when we     
consider that they rest on columns of   
some three metres high1 including their 
capitals2 and only the stoutness of the 
pillars into which these graceful pairs 
are built assures us that they will not 
fall to the ground1 wearied with such a 
supernatural effort4  ,for the greater  
solidity of the wide edifice1 added by  
,almanzor1 a line of great pillars and  
arches1 which marked the southern limit 
of the original mosque1 was lengthened  
as far as the eastern wall1 crossing at 
right angles the strengthening arcade   
already mentioned stretching from north 
to south2 so that the actual ,aljama was
 divided into four unequal parts1       
separated from each other1 probably1 by 
wooden screens and partitions4 ,the part
 added by ,hakam ,,ii41 at whose        
extremities rose the old and the new    
8maksurrah10 was called 8,the ,noble    

,apartment10 and was reserved for the   
nobility and the personages of the      
,court1 the portion close to the        
8mihrab0 being occupied by the ulema1   
alkatibes1 almocries1 and other         
ministers of the temple1 and the ,imam4 
,the three remaining parts were for the 
people1 and most likely the sexes were  
divided1 for it is certain1 from the    
assurances of an historian cited by     
,ahmed ,el-,makkari1 that there were two
 doors inside the naves leading to the  
women's part4  ,the art of the          
decorations of ,almanzor's prolongation 
is not particularly attractive1 the     
arches seem to be copied from those of  
the old door1 and the only circumstance 
worthy of mention is that all the       
capitals of the columns are equal1 and  
of the same form1 in contrast with the  
great variety and richness of the       
capitals in the primitive mosque1 and in
 the additions of ,hakam ,,ii4 ,the     
delicate and uniform construction of the
 mighty 8hagib0 may be mentioned as a   

purely archological item1 and also that 
the names of the artificers who made    
them are frequently to be seen in the   
foundations and shafts of the columns3  
e4g41 ,mondair1 ,mostauz1 ,motobarack1  
,fayr1 ,masud1 ,tasvir1 ,nassar1 ,kabir1
 ,amin1 ,jalem-al-,amery1 ,hachchi1     
,tsamil1 ,bekr1 ,casim4  ,with the part 
added by ,almanzor1 the mosque is said  
to have formed a great rectangular      
quadrilateral #gdb feet long from north 
to south1 and #dgb feet wide from east  
to west1 enclosed by four great         
battlemented walls1 fortified with      
square watch-towers1 varying in height4 
,the south wall1 which reached a        
formidable height on account of the     
declivity of the ground1 was adorned    
with nineteen towers1 including those   
flanking it at both angles1 which were  
more spacious and common to the two     
walls of east and west4 ,the western    
wall had fourteen towers1 and the north 
five1 including the majestic minaret    
over the principal door2 and1 finally1  

the eastern wall was fortified by ten   
towers1 all corresponding to the part   
which had to bear the pressure of the   
naves1 and the wall of the ,court at    
that side had no towers at all4 ,the    
greater number of these towers remain1  
and the wide old walls also exist4      
,there were twelve outer gates to the   
mosque1 ten leading into the edifice1   
and twenty-one interior doors1 without  
counting those of the dependencies to   
the temple and that of the khalif's     
private passage1 nineteen in the faade  
of the courtyard1 and two which led to  
the women's part of the building4 ,all  
the outer doors were for the most part  
rectangular1 formed by arched lintels   
set into ornamented horseshoe arches1   
their keystones were either white1 or of
 alternate colours1 the white being     
richly decorated with stucco ornaments  
in relief1 and the coloured with        
beautiful mosaic of red and yellow      
brick1 cut into tiny pieces4 ,the       
horseshoe arch is set in a beautiful    

frame1  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi4   
,,cordova4  ,white marble pilaster of   
principal nave4  ,ornaments and arches  
in the ,mihrab4  keystones of chapel of 
the  ,capitals rough-hewn4  ,finished   
capital specimen of ,arabian sculpture4 
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii4          
,,cordova  ,details of ,moorish ,work4  
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii4         
,details1 ,villaviciosa ,chapel and     
,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiv4
  ,details of ,moorish ,work4           
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,dome ,,of ,,the ,,sanctuary4
  ,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the       
,,mosque4  ,,roof ,,of ,,the ,,chapel   
,,of ,,the ,,masura ,,and ,,st4         
,,ferdinand4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova  
,,villaviciosa ,,chapel4  ,illustration3
 ,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque--,,detail    
,,of ,,the ,,hall ,,of ,,chocolate4     
richly ornamented as are the tympana    
between the arch and the lintel1 the    
facias and the little windows of        
perforated alabaster1 which1 now        

enclosed in arches resting on little    
marble pillars and grouped in graceful  
pairs1 flank the door4 ,some of these   
have projecting cornices forming a      
parapet with small dentalated towers1   
which give the sacred building the      
appearance of a fortress1 and recall the
 warlike origin of the ,mohammedan      
religion4 ,all the outer gates have     
inscriptions1 with invocations and      
verses taken from the ,koran4  ,hakam   
,,ii4 had an apartment constructed in   
the western part of the temple1 which   
was to serve for the distribution of    
alms1 and here any poor wanderer1 who   
happened to be in the city without      
protection or means of subsistence1     
could obtain the wherewithal to continue
 his journey4 ,for this purpose the     
khalif endowed the establishment in a   
splendid manner4 ,it was not exactly a  
hostel1 as its space was too limited2   
and1 besides1 ,hakam had already        
established other places of lodging for 
poor travellers outside the mosque1 one 

of these being quite near this          
8,dar-as-asdaca10 or 8,alms ,chamber40  
,poor students1 too1 were looked after1 
and received a daily meal1 and even     
small sums of money4 ,the wise men      
received annual pensions from the       
treasury1 according to their merit and  
personal circumstances4  ,the ,alms     
,chamber was1 properly speaking1 only   
intended for the distribution of alms to
 the poor4 ,its beautiful door1 to-day  
blocked up1 can still be seen1 both     
inside and out1 in the wall of the      
mosque1 and1 according to ,el-,makkari1 
it was the most beautiful of the western
 side4 ,it is no longer possible to form
 an exact idea of the aspect of the     
chamber as it was when ,hakam ,,ii4     
completed its decoration4 ,he covered it
 with gilded and painted stucco work1   
which turned its walls into beautiful   
filigree1 and to-day this apartment is  
half forgotten1 after having served as a
 vestibule to the first ,christian      
cathedral of ,cordova4 ,no one would    

think that this place1 beyond ,st4      
,michael's postern1 and separated from  
the body of the building by a wretched  
partition and a door of pine-wood1 is   
the ancient 8,dar-as-asdaca40 ,for many 
years it was used as a ,chapter ,hall1  
and the archives of the extinct         
music-school1 with its choir books1 were
 kept here4  ,the actual dimensions of  
the mosque varied at different periods1 
and are difficult to establish4 ,one    
authority says1 that in length from     
north to south the mosque measured six  
hundred and forty-two feet1 in width    
four hundred and sixty-two feet4 ,mr4   
,waring1 in his ,notes of an ,architect 
in ,spain1 describes the mosque as an   
oblong of three hundred and ninety-four 
feet by three hundred and sixty feet4   
,the famous ,orange ,court is in length 
two hundred and twenty feet1 and1 being 
within the boundary walls of the mosque1
 it is probably included in the former  
measurement4  ,it is also impossible to 
fix1 with any degree of certainty1 the  

number of columns contained in the      
mosque during the time of ,mohammedan   
supremacy4 ,ambrosio de ,morales1 and   
the ,infante ,don ,juan ,manuel1 both of
 whom described the mosque before the   
columns were reduced in number by the   
alterations to which the building has   
been subjected1 estimate the figures at 
one thousand and twelve1 but it is only 
too certain that when the mosque was    
converted into a ,christian church very 
many were removed to make room for      
altars and chapels4  ,no less than one  
hundred columns were comprised within   
the 8maksurrah10 which was further      
provided with three doors of exquisite  
workmanship1 one of which was           
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,entrance    
,,to ,,the ,,vestibule ,,of ,,the       
,,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova     
,,mihrab ,,or ,,sanctuary ,,of ,,the    
,,mosque4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova     
,,the ,,mosque--,,arch ,,and ,,front    
,,of ,,the ,,abd-,,er-,,rahman ,,and    
,,mihrab ,,chapels4  ,illustration3     

,,cordova  ,,entrance ,,to ,,the        
,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4  covered  
with plates of pure gold1 as were the   
walls of the 8mihrab40 ,the floor of the
 8maksurrah10 it is said1 was paved with
 silver1 and the pavements adjacent to  
it were covered with 8sofeysafa40  ,the 
ceiling of the mosque was formerly      
covered with oval cartouches1 bearing   
appropriate monitory inscriptions and   
pious sentences--such as1 8,be not one  
of the negligent10 8,felicity10         
8,blessing10 8,there is no ,god but     
,god1 to whom all beings address        
themselves in their need0--thus inciting
 the minds of the faithful to           
contemplation and prayer4 ,some few of  
the cartouches are still remaining2 but 
the inscriptions were1 for the most     
part1 carefully effaced when the mosque 
was transformed into a ,christian       
temple4 ,those in the 8mihrab10 and in  
the angles near the tower1 may yet be   
seen4  ,the number of brazen chandeliers
 of different sizes in the mosque is    

computed at upwards of two hundred1 and 
the number of cups attached1 and        
containing oil1 at upwards of seven     
thousand4 ,some of the oil-reservoirs   
for the great lamps were ,christian     
bells1 deprived of their clappers2      
inverted1 and suspended from the roof4  
,it is known that in the many           
expeditions against the ,christian1     
bells were frequently removed from the  
churches and brought to ,cordova4       
,sometimes the metal of the bells was   
recast into forms more in accordance    
with the ,moorish style of ornament4    
,the following rites had to be observed 
in the service of the mosque3 ,the      
ornaments were to consist only of brass1
 silver or glass lamps1 which were      
lighted at night when the doors were    
opened for prayer4 ,some striking design
 was painted on the west wall1 in order 
that the faithful should look in that   
direction4 ,there was only one pulpit1  
which was on wheels1 as the sermon was  
preached from any spot the ,talvi       

wished4  ,the courts of the mosque were 
paved with porcelain tiles1 over which  
pure water could flow4 ,those who did   
not wash themselves at home were obliged
 to do so in the ,court of ,ablutions   
before entering the sacred precincts4   
,all shoes had to be left at the door of
 the mosque1 and no buildings1 such as  
inns and hostelries1 and disreputable   
houses1 were allowed in the             
neighbourhood4 ,no ,jews were allowed to
 pass before it4 ,women were not        
permitted to enter some mosques1 because
 they were not circumcised1 the sultana 
alone having an oratory1 where she      
prayed for all women4  ,at midnight a   
mezzin mounted the minaret1 and cried   
out3 8,god is great1 to pray is better  
than to sleep02 at two o'clock in the   
morning he said the same2 at four       
o'clock he placed a lantern at the end  
of a rod and said1 8,day is breaking1   
let us praise ,god02 at the fourth      
prayer he hoisted a white flag1 which   
was lowered at one o'clock1 saying1     

8,god is great40 ,friday was their feast
 day1 and a blue banner was hoisted at  
dawn1 and left floating till half-past  
ten4 ,the fifth prayer was at four      
o'clock in the afternoon1 in winter at  
three2 when the evening star appeared1  
the sixth prayer was called out2 and at 
nine o'clock the last prayer of the day 
was said4 ,sand glasses were employed to
 mark the passage of the hours4  ,the   
state of ,cordova died with ,almanzor2  
and the races1 who alternately took     
possession of the throne1 did not leave 
the least trace in the mosque4 ,finally1
 ,st4 ,ferdinand1 ,king of ,castile and 
,toledo1 completely routed the ,moors1  
and the mezquita was purified and       
dedicated to ,our ,lady of the          
,assumption4 ,the following is an       
extract from the archives of the        
cathedral3 8,let it be known that ,i1   
,ferdinand1 by the grace of ,god1 ,king 
of ,castile1 with the consent and       
approval of ,dona ,berenguele1 my       
,mother1 and  ,illustration3 ,,cordova  

,,view ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the 
,,mihrab ,,chapel4  ,illustration3      
,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque--,,details    
,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the        
,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4           
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,marble ,,socle ,,in ,,the   
,,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova     
,,basement ,,panel ,,of ,,the ,,fa,,ade 
,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4  of ,dona ,juana1  
the ,queen my wife1 and of my children1 
,alfonso1 ,frederico1 and ,ferdinand1   
make a deed of gift to ,god of the      
,cathedral ,church of ,santa ,maria of  
,cordova1 and to you1 ,master ,lope1 my 
beloved chosen ,bishop of the same1 from
 now on1 and to your successors1 and the
 ,chapter of ,canons1 c4 ,november      
#abth1 #abch40 ,this pious monarch      
founded a chapel dedicated to ,st4      
,clement1 which was erected against the 
south wall1 embracing the space occupied
 by three naves from east to west1 and  
by four transverse naves from north to  
south4 ,this space was shut in with     

walls1 leaving the two ,arab arches     
inside intact1 the altar dedicated to   
the saint being placed against the east 
wall4 ,many nobles followed the king's  
example1 and founded chapels1 amongst   
them being that of ,st4 ,inez1 erected  
by ,piedro ,diaz de ,haro1 in #abej1 in 
the tenth principal nave1 counting from 
the west wall1 also against the south   
wall1 and only occupying two transverse 
naves4 ,st4 ,ferdinand endowed the      
cathedral so richly that on his death   
its benefices were very considerable4   
,he was succeeded by his son1 ,alfonso  
,x41 who showed the same religious      
spirit as his father1 giving large      
grants to the funds of the cathedral2   
and1 in the year #abeh1 erecting the    
grand chapel1 conceding many privileges 
to the work and the fabric4 ,the        
donations made by other ,christians up  
to this time had been of a very modest  
nature2 and1 as the ,jews of ,cordova   
were expending great sums on the        
erection of a synagogue1 it seems as    

though the ,christians were shamed into 
greater generosity to the cathedral1 for
 at the same time the famous commander1 
,domingo ,muoz1 erected the chapel of   
,st4 ,bartholomew1 and the chapter and  
the king decided to turn the mosque into
 a real ,christian cathedral in         
developing ,western architecture4 ,the  
commander made his chapel in the angle  
formed by the inner south wall and the  
west side of the vestibule1 or          
8maksurrah10 of ,hakam ,,ii41 taking the
 area of two principal and two          
transverse naves4 ,as this chapel could 
not be lighted from outside on account  
of the west wing of the 8mihrab10 and   
the khalif's secret passage being       
behind1 it was illuminated with light   
from the temple1 a pointed door and four
 windows being made in the north wall4  
,the chapter set about their work with  
more splendour4 ,they selected the three
 first transverse naves of the noble    
apartment1 beginning at the re-inforcing
 wall1 which marks the prolongation of  

,hakam1 giving to the single nave that  
they opened a length of one hundred feet
 from the inner door of the ,alms       
,chamber to the central apartment of the
 three enclosed in the old 8maksurrah40 
,they made the ,alms ,chamber into a    
vestibule1 leaving the re-inforcing wall
 as it was without touching the bold    
ultra-semi-circular arches resting on   
pairs of columns2 they pulled down the  
cadi's apartment in order to make way   
for the transept1 and also the three    
transverse naves it had occupied4 ,the  
three columns in front of the ,arab     
pillars1 which stood in the length from 
east to west1 were pulled down too1 and 
three handsomer pillars were erected in 
their place1 fortified at right angles  
by walls in the manner of buttresses1   
which intercepted the entire width of   
one transverse nave4 ,great pointed     
arches sprang from pillar to pillar1    
corresponding with the horse-shoe arches
 in front2 a light and graceful dome    
stretched from one side to the other1   

divided into four compartments by three 
great arches1 of which that nearest to  
the sanctuary rested on high columns1   
and the other two on well-carved        
brackets1 with open-work borders        
suspended at a regular height above the 
spaces4 ,finally1 they took the central 
apartment of the ancient 8maksurrah10   
where we presume the khalif sat1 and    
erected there the ,grand ,chapel4       
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,front ,,of ,,the            
,,trastamara ,,chapel4  ,illustration3  
,,cordova  ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the  
,,chapel ,,of ,,villaviciosa4           
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,north       
,,angle ,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of        
,,villaviciosa4  ,illustration3         
,,cordova  ,,villaviciosa ,,chapel4     
,this chapel was built at the king's    
expense1 for which the grateful chapter 
resolved to celebrate the anniversary of
 his death1 a practice which has been   
faithfully observed to the present day4 
,the arrangement of this space was      

perfectly adapted for the purpose of a  
,grand ,chapel2 the other room adjoining
 to the east being converted into a     
sacristy4 ,it was doubtless in the same 
condition as when finished by the       
architects of ,hakam ,,ii4 ,at the north
 side it had a horse-shoe arch          
corresponding with the re-inforcing wall
 of the same khalif1 and on the east    
side it had a great arched window and   
two little doors at the sides1 which    
communicated with the tribune of the    
8,alicama10 at the south side1 giving a 
splendid example of the rich ,byzantine 
style of the time of ,hakam1 and forming
 a combination of segment arches        
crossing in space and forming crosses of
 undulating ribbons in the              
intercolumniations1 the whole being     
similar to the decoration displayed in  
front of the vestibule of the 8mihrab40 
,we do not know how the west side was   
decorated1 where this space was united  
with the apartment of the cadi1 which   
had been pulled down4 ,in order to      

convert this into a ,grand ,chapel it   
was not necessary to disfigure it       
completely2 it was sufficient to fill up
 the great northern arch1 which in the  
time of the khalifs was closed by the   
first 8maksurrah10 and also to block up 
the great window at the east1           
communicating with the tribune of the   
8,alicama20 to leave the two little side
 doors open for communication with the  
sacristy1 and to enlarge the sanctuary  
as much as necessary1 to shut it in at  
the south side with glass windows1 and  
to place the customary chancel at its   
opening4 ,perhaps no more than this was 
done2 but who is capable to-day of      
saying how much respect the king's      
architects had for ,arab-,byzantine     
work8  ,in the year #abfj ,don ,gonzalo 
,yanez1 first gentleman of ,aguilar1    
founded the ,chapel of ,st4 ,john the   
,baptist4 ,five years later the ,bishop 
,fernando de ,mesa built the ,chapel of 
,santiago1 in the south-east corner1    
near the ,chapel of ,st4 ,clement4 ,this

 chapel was wide and commodious1 and the
 ,arab arches in its area were not      
disturbed4 ,in #abfc ,king ,alfonso ,x4 
had the ancient aqueducts repaired1 and 
in #abge ,prince ,ferdinand gave an     
order for four ,moors1 who should be    
free from taxation1 to be kept at work  
in the building operations of the       
cathedral4 ,two of these were to be     
carpenters1 and two masons4 ,this       
privilege was confirmed several times in
 succeeding years1 and a charter exists1
 dated ,cordova1 #beth ,october1 #abhb1 
which orders that all the ,moors living 
in the city1 whether they were          
artificers or not1 shall work for two   
days of the year in the cathedral4 ,it  
was thought that these workmen would    
understand the repairing of ,moorish    
work better than ,christians1 but the   
task was also meant as a humiliation4   
,as time went on1 these workmen1 more or
 less1 lost the traditions of their     
faith and their architecture1 so that   
they were really of little service in   

preserving the original character of the
 edifice4  ,in #abgh the first statue of
 ,st4 ,raphael the ,archangel was placed
 on the top of the minaret4 ,at that    
time ,cordova was visited by the plague1
 which worked terrible destruction      
amongst the inhabitants4 ,it is related 
that ,st4 ,raphael appeared to ,friar   
,simon de ,sousa1 of the ,convent of    
,our ,lady of ,mercy1 and told him that 
,god was moved with compassion1 and that
 ,he would take away the visitation if a
 statue of ,st4 ,raphael himself were   
placed on the tower of the ,cathedral1  
and if his ,feast were celebrated       
properly every year4 ,this was done1 and
 the plague immediately ceased4 ,a new  
chapel to ,st4 ,bartholomew was erected 
in #abhj by ,martin ,muoz1 nephew of the
 famous commander ,domingo ,muoz2 and   
after this1 the ,chapel of ,st4 ,paul1  
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,chapel ,,of ,,villaviciosa4 
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,arab        
,,tribune1 ,,to-,,day ,,the ,,chapel    

,,of ,,villaviciosa1 ,,left ,,side4     
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,ancient     
,,inscription ,,of ,,the ,,time ,,of    
,,khalifate1 ,,found ,,in ,,an          
,,excavation4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova 
,,the ,,mosque4  ,,detail ,,of ,,the    
,,trastamara ,,chapel4  ,illustration3  
,,the ,,mosque4  ,,chapel ,,of          
,,trastamara1 ,,south ,,side4  which    
belonged to the family of the ,godois4  
,then followed the foundation of the    
,chapel of ,st4 ,nicholas1 by a pious   
,archdeacon2 and of the ,chapels of ,st4
 ,benedict1 ,st4 ,vincent1 and ,st4     
,giles1 and that of ,our ,lady of the   
,snow4  ,it was not thought wise to make
 any great efforts to introduce the art 
of the ,west into a city which could not
 as yet be considered sure of not       
falling again into the hands of the     
infidels4 ,in the year #acfi ,don       
,enrique1 the ,fraticide1 came to the   
throne of ,castile4 ,he desired to carry
 out the wishes of his father1 and to   
give him a place of sepulchre worthy of 

his high renown4 ,for this purpose he   
ordered a ,royal ,chapel to be erected  
in the cathedral at the back of the     
,grand ,chapel in the ,arab ,tribune1   
which served as a sacristy4 ,he decided 
to bury here his grandfather1 ,don      
,fernando ,x41 whose body had been laid 
under the grand chapel by order of his  
,queen1 ,constanza4 ,this fabric must   
have taken some considerable time1 for  
the stucco1 wood and tile work are      
really wonderful4 ,mohammedan art had   
undergone a complete transformation2 the
 grandiose ,arab-,byzantine style had   
been succeeded by the effeminate        
,moorish school1 first practised by the 
,almoravides1 and after by the          
,almohades2 and the ,moorish architects 
and decorators of ,cordova could not    
remain uninfluenced by the taste which  
had become general through the          
artificers who had renovated the        
,alcazar at ,seville1 and who had       
embellished the ,alhambra at ,granada4  
,nothing was more unlike the            

architecture of the days of ,hakam ,,ii4
 than that employed now in the          
construction of the ,royal ,chapel4 ,two
 parts are noticed--an upper and a      
lower4 ,the ,moorish architect who      
directed the work had windows with      
ornamented arches in the new style      
opened in the east and west sides1 which
 were longer than the others4 ,he       
ordered1 too1 that ,saracen art1        
emancipated from the ,byzantine         
traditions1 should be stamped on the    
ornamentation of the four walls1 and on 
the cupola that crowned them4 ,these    
arches were given festoons with lobules1
 which boldly1 though corruptly1 hid the
 true object of the curves4 ,they were  
also set in square compartments1 forming
 many edges beautifully worked with     
hammer and chisel4 ,the framings were   
crowned with beautiful little cornices  
of small interlaced and open-worked     
arches1 and above them ran round all the
 four sides a wide facia of little      
pine-shaped domes1 which imitated       

stalactites of crystallised gold1 having
 a most surprising effect1 and of a sort
 until then unknown in the most famous  
mosque of the ,west4  ,in the east and  
west walls1 which were the longest of   
the rectangle1 the arches with lobules1 
which could not be opened1 were in      
relief2 and resting on the light cornice
 were two tablets with lions4 ,there    
were four of these lions--two on the    
western and two on the eastern facia1   
equi-distant from one another2 and from 
each lion to that which faced him sprang
 a great arch1 whose facing projected   
some feet over the lower zone1 and from 
each lion to that by his side sprang    
another great arch1 which did not       
project beyond the facing of the lower  
wall4 ,these four upper arches1 each one
 with twenty-one trefoil lobules1 formed
 a perfect square1 their four supports  
being at an equal distance1 thanks to   
the ingenious method of cutting the     
longer sides1 putting the lions         
perpendicularly over the great lower    

arches4 ,once this difficulty was       
overcome it was doubtless an easy matter
 to raise the cupola1 which was to crown
 the fabric4 ,the ancient dome must have
 been similar to that which has been    
discovered in the ,chapel of            
,villaviciosa1 but it must have seemed  
poor in the eyes of ,king ,henry ,,ii41 
so accustomed to seeing the ,moorish    
cupolas with stalactites2 so they placed
 a cornice on the arches described      
above1 and on this  ,illustration3      
,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque4  ,,interior  
,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4  ,illustration3    
,,the ,,mosque4  ,,arab ,,arcade ,,above
 ,,the ,,first ,,mihrab4  ,illustration3
 ,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque4  ,,details1 
,,arches ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4           
,illustration3 ,,the ,,mosque4  ,,detail
 ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4  ,illustration3   
,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque4  ,,exterior  
,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4
  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mosque4  ,,gate
 ,,of ,,the ,,sultan4  ,illustration3   
,,cordova  ,,principal ,,entrance ,,to  

,,the ,,mosque4  ,illustration3 ,,the   
,,mosque4  ,,detail ,,near ,,the        
,,mihrab4  rested the segments of the   
circle1 which form the elegant and      
strange ,african cupola4  ,the following
 distribution is seen in the lower      
portion3 ,towards the middle of the east
 side there is an arch formed of little 
domes with stalactites1 slightly        
pointed1 sufficiently deep1 enclosed in 
a sort of framing of gilded stucco1     
forming beautifully interlaced branches4
 ,the square compartment finishes at the
 lower end in a wide facia1 which runs  
on both sides on a high socle of minute 
and beautiful tiling1 and between the   
complicated ornaments in relief circles 
are formed1 enclosing the arms of       
,castile and ,leon4 ,to the right side1 
on this same facia1 is an ornamental    
arch of eleven lobules enclosed in      
another framing1 entirely covered with  
tracery in relief1 sustained by two very
 slight columns1 built into the wall4   
,joined to this is another arch1 much   

lower1 with seven lobules1 also         
ornamented1 and sustained by columns of 
the same style as those just described1 
bearing a shield with the same arms4    
,the left side has the same             
ornamentation1 with the difference that 
both the arches have seven lobules1     
because the wall has more frontage on   
this side3 and another difference was   
that in the north-east corner it had an 
ornamentation of minute open-work       
instead of a shield4 ,the wall opposite 
had the same distribution with a deep   
central arch and small arches at the    
side1 with little columns in the ,gothic
 style1 which show already that the     
style is no longer purely ,moorish1 but 
a sort of base mixture of the decorative
 art of the ,east and the ,west4        
,perhaps we may consider this the true  
concession of the ,moorish artificers to
 the art preferred by the ,court1 and as
 their final abandonment of the pure    
style1 which had been traditional with  
them4  ,in #aeba the ,bishop ,don       

,alonso ,manrique obtained permission   
from the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 to erect 
the ,gothic cathedral1 which is in      
existence to-day4 ,three years later1   
when he visited the buildings1 the      
,emperor repented having given his      
permission4 ,indeed the ,christian work 
appears cold and pallid by the side of  
that of the ,arabs4  ,as ,amados de los 
,rios1 a great ,spanish antiquary and   
,orientalist1 sings in his mournful     
requiem over the departed glories of the
 mosque3 8,neither the sumptuous        
,christian fabric that to-day rises in  
the midst of those countless columns1   
nor all the treasures of art lavished   
upon it by the celebrated artists of the
 sixteenth century who erected it1 nor  
that interminable series of chapels of  
every epoch which1 resting against the  
walls of the mosque disfigure it2 nor   
the clumsy angels that seem to suspend  
their flight to shed glory over the     
,divine service1 nor the words of the   
,evangelist sounding from the seat of   

the ,holy ,spirit1 can dispel or banish1
 in the slightest degree1 the majesty of
 those wandering shades that in vain    
seek in the sanctuary the sacred volume 
whose leaves1 according to tradition1   
were enamelled with the blood of the    
,khalif ,othman1 martyr to the faith4 ,a
 world of souvenirs here enthrals the   
mind of the traveller as he gazes with a
 feeling of sorrow upon these           
profanations--works dedicated by the    
intolerant1 yet sincere1 faith of our   
ancestors2 impelled by the desire of    
banishing for ever from that spot1      
consecrated to the law of ,jesus1 the   
spirit of ,mohammed and the ghosts of   
his slaves that haunt it1 and will for  
ever haunt it while it exists4 ,for1 in 
spite of the mutilations it has endured1
 and of the changes it has undergone1   
there is impressed upon it1 by a        
superior ineradicable law1 the seal of  
the art that inspired it1 and the       
character of the people by whom it was  
planned and erected40  ,don ,amados is  

not alone in his eloquent1 if           
unavailing1 protest4 ,when ,charles ,v4 
observed ,st4 ,peter's ,chapel rising   
out of the very centre of the mosque1 he
 rebuked the ,bishop1  ,illustration3   
,,cordova  ,,the ,,gates ,,of ,,pardon4 
,illustration3 ,,the ,,bishop',s ,,gate4
  ,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the       
,,mosque--,,pilasters ,,and ,,arabian   
,,baths4  ,alonso ,manriquez1 who had   
erected the incongruous edifice1 in no  
measured terms4 8,you have built here10 
said the king1 8what you or anyone might
 have built elsewhere2 but you have     
spoilt what was unique in the world40   
,alas6 the monarch had forgotten1 or did
 not choose to remember1 that the       
reprimand came with a very bad grace    
from one who1 for his never-completed   
palace at ,granada1 had torn down whole 
courts and halls of the ,alhambra4  ,the
 mosque of ,cordova is still to-day1 by 
universal consent1 the most beautiful   
,mussulman temple1 and one of the most  
wonderful architectural monuments in the

 world4 ,the susceptible ,italian       
author1 ,edmondo de ,amicis1 has given  
us a vividly picturesque description of 
his first impression of the interior of 
the building4 8,imagine a forest10 he   
says1 8fancy yourself in the thickest   
portion of it1 and that you can see     
nothing but the trunks of trees4 ,so1 in
 this mosque1 on whatever side you look1
 the eye loses itself among the columns4
 ,it is a forest of marble1 whose       
confines one cannot discover4 ,you      
follow with your eye1 one by one1 the   
very long rows of columns that interlace
 at every step with numberless other    
rows1 and you reach a semi-obscure      
background1 in which other columns seem 
to be gleaming4 ,there are nineteen     
aisles1 which extend from north to      
south1 traversed by thirty-three others1
 supported 7among them all7 by more than
 nine hundred columns of porphyry1      
jasper1 breccia1 and marbles of every   
colour4 ,each column upholds a small    
pilaster1 and between them runs an arch1

 and a second one extends from pilaster 
to pilaster1 the latter placed above the
 former1 and both of them in the form of
 a horseshoe2 so that in imagining the  
columns to be the trunks of so many     
trees1 the arches represent the         
branches1 and the similitude of the     
mosque to a forest is complete4 ,the    
middle aisle1 much broader than the     
others1 ends in front of the            
8maksurrah10 which is the most sacred   
part of the temple1 where the ,koran was
 worshipped4 ,here1 from the windows in 
the ceiling1 falls a pale ray of light  
that illuminates a row of columns2 there
 is a dark spot2 farther on falls a     
second ray1 which lights another aisle4 
,it is impossible to express the feeling
 of mysterious surprise which that      
spectacle arouses in your soul4 ,it is  
like the sudden revelation of an unknown
 religion1 nature1 and life1 which bears
 away your imagination to the delight of
 that paradise1 full of love and        
voluptuousness1 where the blessed1      

seated under the shade of leafy palm    
trees and thornless rose bushes1 drink  
from crystal vases the wine1 sparkling  
like pearls1 mixed by immortal children1
 and take their repose in the arms of   
charming black-eyed virgins6 ,all the   
pictures of eternal pleasure1 which the 
,koran promises to the faithful1 present
 themselves to your bright mind1        
gleaming and vivid1 at the first sight  
of the mosque1 and cause you a sweet    
momentary intoxication1 which leaves in 
your heart an indescribable sort of     
melancholy6 ,a brief tumult of the mind1
 and a spark of fire rushes through your
 brain--such is the first sensation one 
experiences upon entering the cathedral 
of ,cordova40  ,listen again to the     
musings of this same impressionable     
writer1 as he gazes at the ceiling and  
walls of the principal chapel1 the only 
part of the mosque that is quite intact4
 8,it is10 he says1 8a dazzling gleam of
 crystals of a thousand colours1 a      
network of arabesques1 which puzzles the

 mind1 and a complication of            
bas-reliefs1 gildings1 ornaments1 minuti
 of design and colouring1 of a delicacy1
 grace and perfection sufficient to     
drive the most patient painter          
distracted4 ,it is impossible to retain 
any of the pretentious work in the mind4
 ,you might turn a hundred times to look
 at it1 and it would only seem to you1  
in thinking it over1 a  ,illustration3  
,,cordova  ,,inscriptions ,,and         
,,arabian ,,chapters4  ,illustration3   
,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque--,a ,,cufic   
,,inscription ,,in ,,the ,,place        
,,appropriated ,,to ,,the ,,performance 
,,of ,,ablutions4  ,illustration3       
,,cordova  ,,arabic ,,inscriptions4     
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,a ,,cufic    
,,inscription ,,on ,,the ,,additions    
,,made ,,to ,,the ,,mosque1 ,,by ,,order
 ,,of ,,the ,,khalif ,,al-,,hakam4      
mingling of blue1 red1 green1 gilded1   
and luminous points1 or a very intricate
 embroidery1 changing continually1 with 
the greatest rapidity1 both design and  

colouring4 ,only from the fiery and     
indefatigable imagination of the ,arabs 
could such a perfect miracle of art     
emanate40  ,but if the mere shell of    
this majestic edifice1 this voiceless   
testimony to the glory of a world-power 
that has gone the way of all temporal   
empires is still eloquent in decay1 and 
still a force to stir the imagination1  
what must it have been when the spirit  
of ,moslemism filled its courts1 and the
 temple resounded with praise and       
devotion8 ,we can get some idea of the  
impressiveness of a ,mohammedan service 
in the pages of ,frederick ,schack's    
,poetry and ,art of the ,arabs in ,spain
 and ,sicily4 ,the following vivid      
passage is a description of the mosque  
of ,cordova on a solemn fte day3 8,on   
both sides of the pulpit wave two       
standards to signify that ,islam has    
triumphed over ,judaism and             
,christianity1 and that the ,koran has  
conquered the ,old and ,new ,testaments4
 ,the #8,almnedian' climb upon the      

gallery of the high minaret and intone  
the #8salam' or salutation to the       
,prophet4 ,then the nave of the mosque  
fills with believers1 who1 clothed in   
white and wearing a festive aspect1     
gather for the oration4 ,in a few       
moments1 throughout the edifice nothing 
is to be seen but kneeling people4 ,by  
the secret way which joins the temple to
 the alcazar1 comes the khalif1 who     
seats himself in his elevated place4 ,a 
reader of the ,koran reads a ,sura on   
the reading-desk of the ,tribune4 ,the  
voice of the ,muezzin sounds again1     
inviting people to the noon-day prayers4
 ,all the faithful rise and murmur their
 prayers1 making obeisances4 ,a servant 
of the mosque opens the doors of the    
pulpit and seizes a sword1 with which1  
turning towards ,mecca1 he admonishes   
all to praise ,mohammed1 while the      
,prophet's name is being celebrated from
 the ,tribune by the singing of the     
#8mubaliges4' ,after this the preacher  
ascends the pulpit1 taking from the hand

 of the servant the sword1 which recalls
 and symbolises the subjection of ,spain
 to the power of ,islam4 ,it is the day 
on which #8,djihad1' or the holy war1 is
 to be proclaimed1 the call for all     
able-bodied men to descend into the     
battle-field against the ,christians4   
,the multitude listen with silent       
devotion to the discourse 7woven from   
the head of the ,koran7 which begins    
like this3  8#8,praised be ,god1 who has
 increased the glory of ,islam1 thanks  
to the sword of the champion of the     
,faith1 and who1 in his ,holy ,book1 has
 promised aid and victory to the        
believer4  8#8,allah scatters his       
benefits over the world4  8#8,if he did 
not impel men to dash armed against each
 other1 the earth would be lost4        
8#8,allah has ordered that the people be
 fought against until they know there is
 but one ,god4  8#8,the flame of war    
will not be extinguished until the end  
of the world4  8#8,the ,divine          
benediction will fall upon the mane of  

the war-horse until the ,day of         
,judgment4  8#8,be you armed from head  
to foot1 or only lightly armed1 rise1   
and take your departure4  8#8,o1        
believers6 what will become of you if1  
when you are called to battle1 you      
remain with your face turned toward the 
ground8  8#8,do you prefer the life of  
this world to that of the future8       
8#8,believe me3 the gates of paradise   
stand in the shadow of the sword4       
8#8,he who dies in battle for the cause 
of ,god1 washes with the blood he sheds 
all the stains of his sins4             
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the ,,bridge
 ,,across ,,the ,,guadelquivir1 ,,with  
,a ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,cathedral        
7,,mezquita74 ,,the ,,scene ,,as ,,it   
,,appeared ,,in #aghj4  ,from           
,antigedades ,arabes de ,espaa4 ,madrid1
 #aghj1 fol4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova  
,,view ,,of ,,cordova ,,cathedral       
7,,mezquita71 ,,as ,,it ,,appeared ,,in 
#aghj4  ,from ,antigedades ,arabes de   
,espaa4 ,madrid1 #aghj4 fol4            

,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,wall ,,of   
,,the ,,mosque4  ,illustration3         
,,cordova  ,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the         
,,mihrab4  8#8,his body will not be     
washed like the other bodies1 because in
 the ,day of ,judgment his wounds will  
send out a fragrance like musk4         
8#8,when the warriors shall present     
themselves at the ,gates of ,paradise1 a
 voice from within will ask3 8,what have
 you done during your life80  8#8,and   
they will reply3 8,we have brandished   
the sword in the struggle for the cause 
of ,god40  8#8,then the eternal ,gates  
will open1 and the warriors will enter  
forty years before the others4  8#8,up1 
then1 ,o believers6 ,abandon women1     
children1 brothers1 and worldly         
possessions1 and go forth to the holy   
war6  8#8,and thou1 ,o ,god1 ,lord of   
the present and future world1 fight for 
the armies of those who recognise thy   
,unity6 ,destroy the incredulous1       
idolaters1 and enemies of thy holy      
faith6 ,overthrow their standards1 and  

give them1 with all they possess1 as    
booty to the ,mussulmans6'0  ,the       
preacher1 when he has finished his      
discourse1 exclaims1 turning towards the
 congregation3 8,ask of ,god60 and prays
 in silence4 ,all the faithful1 touching
 the ground with their foreheads1 follow
 his example4 ,the 8mubaliges0 sing3    
8,amen6 ,amen1 ,o ,lord of all beings60 
,like the intense heat which precedes   
the tempest1 the enthusiasm of the      
multitude 7restrained1 up to this time1 
in a marvellous silence7 breaks out in  
loud murmurs1 which1 rising like the    
waves of the sea1 and inundating the    
temple1 finally make the echo of a      
thousand united voices resound through  
the naves1 chapels1 and vaults in one   
single shout3 8,there is no ,god but    
,allah60  ,abd-er-,rahman ,i4 was old   
when he commenced the building of the   
,mosque1 and experienced in every       
description of architecture4 ,his       
passion for building was as eager as    
that of his predecessors of the house of

 ,omeyyad1 who had made ,damascus the   
envy of the world2 and1 during the      
frequent periods of peace1 he had turned
 all his thoughts to the adornment of   
his capital by works which he had       
himself superintended4 ,one of his first
 undertakings was to supply ,cordova    
with water by means of an aqueduct1     
which came from the distant hills1 and  
the vestiges of which are visible to    
this day4 ,the water thus brought from  
the mountains was conveyed to the       
palace1 and thence carried to every     
quarter of the city by means of         
conduits1 from which it flowed into     
basins1 as well as into lakes1 enormous 
tanks1 reservoirs and fountains4 ,the   
sultan then planted a most delightful   
garden1 to which he gave the name of    
,munyat-,arrissafah1 in remembrance of a
 country seat near ,damascus1 which his 
grandfather1 the ,khalif ,hisham1 had   
built1 and where he himself had spent   
the earliest years of his life4 ,finding
 the spot a very charming one1 he       

erected in the middle of it a           
magnificent palace2 and1 moreover1 made 
it his residence in preference to the   
old palace1 inhabited by the former     
governors of ,andalus4 ,having an ardent
 love of horticulture1 he commissioned a
 botanist to procure for him in the     
,east fruits and plants that could be   
easily naturalised in ,andalus2 and1 in 
this manner1 it is said1 ,abd-er-,rahman
 introduced the peach1 and the          
particular kind of pomegranate1 called  
8,safari10 into ,spain4 ,it is believed 
that this best species of pomegranate   
obtained its name from having been sent 
to ,abd-er-,rahman by his sister1 then  
residing in the ,east1 and was called   
8,safari10 or 8the ,traveller10 from    
this circumstance4 ,other derivations of
 the name are given1 all plausible      
enough4 ,one thing is certain1 the fruit
 is called to this day in ,spain1       
8,granada ,zafari10 and is considered   
the best of its kind in point of        
flavour1 smallness of seed1 and         

abundance of juice4  ,illustration3     
,,cordova  ,,the ,,mosque--,,arch ,,of  
,,one ,,of ,,the ,,gates4               
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,lattice4  ,abd-er-,rahman   
,,ii4 carried on the work of beautifying
 ,cordova with gardens1 palaces1 and    
bridges1 but it was the third sovereign 
of his name1 the ,great ,khalif1        
,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii41 who restored the
 ,moslem supremacy in ,spain1 and won   
for himself the title of ,en-,nasir     
li-dini-llah 78,the ,defender of the    
,faith of ,god071 who placed the crown  
on ,cordova's beauty and splendour4     
,byzantium1 perhaps1 compared with it in
 the loveliness of her buildings1 and   
the luxury and refinement of her life1  
but no other city of ,europe could      
approach the 8,bride of ,andalusia40    
8,to her10 sang the old ,arab writer1   
8belong all the beauty and the ornament 
that delight the eye and dazzle the     
sight4 ,her long line of ,sultans form  
her crown of glory2 her necklace is     

strung with the pearls which her poets  
have gathered from the ocean of         
language2 her dress is of the canvas of 
learning well knit together by her men  
of science2 and the masters of every art
 and industry are the hem of her        
garments40  8,the inhabitants of        
,cordova10 says ,ahmed-,el-,makkari1 the
 great ,arab historian1 8are famous for 
their courteous and polished manners1   
their superior intelligence1 their      
exquisite taste and magnificence in     
their meals1 dress1 and horses4 ,there  
thou wouldst see doctors1 shining with  
all sorts of learning2 lords1           
distinguished by their virtue and       
generosity2 warriors1 renowned for their
 expeditions into the country of the    
infidels2 and officers1 experienced in  
all kinds of warfare4 ,to ,cordova came 
from all parts of the world students    
eager to cultivate poetry1 to study the 
sciences1 or to be instructed in        
divinity or law2 so that it became the  
meeting-place of the eminent in all     

matters1 the abode of the learned1 and  
the place of resort for the studious2   
its interior was always filled with the 
eminent and the noble of all countries1 
its literary men and soldiers were      
continually vying with each other to    
gain renown1 and its precincts never    
ceased to be the arena of the           
distinguished1 the retreat of scholars1 
the halting place of the noble1 and the 
repository of the true and virtuous4    
,cordova was to ,andalus what the head  
is to the body1 or what the breast is to
 the lion40  ,to-day there is nothing   
left in ,cordova but the mosque1 the    
bridge1 and the ruins of the alcazar to 
mark the spot where1 in the time of     
,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii41 a city1 ten     
miles in length1 lined the banks of the 
,guadelquivir with mosques and gardens  
and marble palaces4 ,the royal palaces  
of the ,great ,khalif included the      
,palace of ,lovers1 the ,palace of      
,flowers1 the ,palace of ,contentment1  
the ,palace of the ,diadem1 and the     

palace which the ,sultan named          
,damascus1 of which the ,moorish poet   
sang1 8,all palaces in the world are    
nothing compared to ,damascus1 for not  
only has it gardens with the most       
delicious fruits and sweet-smelling     
flowers1 beautiful prospects1 and limpid
 running waters1 clouds pregnant with   
aromatic dew1 and lofty buildings2 but  
its night is always perfumed1 for       
morning pours on it her gray amber1 and 
night her black musk40 ,the city        
contained over fifty thousand palaces of
 the nobles1 and twice that number of   
houses of the common people1 while seven
 hundred mosques and nine hundred public
 baths had close companionship among a  
community who made cleanliness          
co-ordinate with godliness4  ,but       
perhaps the greatest monument of        
,moorish architecture that was ever     
created in ,spain1 the most wonderful   
city and palace that has ever been      
constructed1 is to-day a name and a     
memory of which not a trace is in       

existence4 ,that marvellous suburb of   
,cordova1 called ,ez-,zahra1 8the       
,fairest10 which was built at the       
suggestion of the favourite mistress of 
,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii41 and was         
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,the         
,,mosque--,,ornamental ,,arched         
,,window4  ,illustration3 ,,cordova     
,,the ,,mosque--,,capitals ,,of ,,the   
,,entrance ,,arch4  ,illustration3      
,,cordova  ,,details ,,of ,,the         
,,frieze4  ,illustration3 ,,plan4       
,illustration3 ,,keystone ,,of          
,,ornamental ,,arch4  ,illustration3    
,,cordova  ,,detail ,,of ,,the          
,,cornice4  ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,of
 ,,the ,,cornice4  forty years in the   
making1 has been entirely obliterated4  
,at the foot of the 8,hill of the       
,bridge10 at a distance of three miles  
from ,cordova1 the foundation of the    
city was laid in ,a4,d4 #icf4 ,a third  
of the royal income was expended every  
year in the prosecution of the work4    
,ten thousand labourers and three       

thousand beasts of burden were employed 
continually1 and six thousand blocks of 
stone were cut and polished each day for
 building purposes4 ,many of its four   
thousand columns came from ,rome1       
,constantinople1 and ,carthage2 its     
fifteen thousand doors were coated with 
iron and polished brass2 the walls and  
roof in the ,hall of the ,khalif were   
constructed of marble and gold4 ,a      
marble statue of ,ez-,zahra1 8the       
,fairest10 was erected over the         
principal gateway4  ,arabian chroniclers
 have exhausted their eloquence in      
attempting to do justice to the wonders 
of ,medinat-,ez-,zahra1 and the result  
is so monotonous a surfeit of           
superlatives that even the beauty that  
inspired them can scarcely reconcile us 
to the repetition4 ,but the historians  
occasionally drop into prose in         
recounting the marvels of the palace1   
and then we learn that 8the number of   
male servants employed by the khalif has
 been estimated at thirteen thousand    

seven hundred and fifty1 to whom the    
daily allowance of flesh meat1 exclusive
 of fowls and fish1 was thirteen        
thousand pounds2 the number of women of 
various kinds and classes1 comprising   
the harem of the sultan or waiting upon 
them1 is said to have amounted to six   
thousand three hundred and fourteen4    
,the ,slav pages and eunuchs were three 
thousand three hundred and fifty1 to    
whom thirteen thousand pounds of flesh  
meat were distributed daily1 some       
receiving ten pounds each1 and some     
less1 according to their rank and       
station1 exclusive of fowls1 partridges1
 and birds of other sorts1 game1 and    
fish4 ,the daily allowance of bread for 
the fish in the pond of ,ez-,zahra was  
twelve thousand loaves1 besides six     
measures of black pulse1 which were     
every day macerated in the waters40 ,it 
is small wonder that travellers from    
distant lands1 men of all ranks and     
professions in life1 following various  
religions--princes1 ambassadors1        

merchants1 pilgrims1 theologians1 and   
poets--all agreed that they had never   
seen in the course of their travels     
anything that could be compared to it4  
8,indeed10 writes one ,moorish          
chronicler1 8had this palace possessed  
nothing more than the terrace of        
polished marble overhanging the         
matchless gardens1 with the golden hall 
and the circular pavilion1 and the works
 of art of every sort and               
description--had it nothing else to     
boast of but the masterly workmanship of
 the structure1 the boldness of the     
design1 the beauty of the proportions1  
the elegance of the ornaments1 hangings1
 and decorations1 whether of shining    
marble or glittering gold1 the columns  
that seemed from their symmetry and     
smoothness as if they had been turned by
 lathes1 the paintings that resembled   
the choicest landscapes1 the artificial 
lake so solidly constructed1 the cistern
 perpetually filled with clear and      
limpid water1 and the amazing fountains1

 with figures of living beings--no      
imagination1 however fertile1 could have
 formed an idea of it40 ,so at least it 
struck the ,moorish author1 and the     
sight inspired him to ejaculate3        
8,praise be to ,god ,most ,high for     
allowing ,his humble creatures to design
 and build such enchanting palaces as   
this1 and who permitted them to inhabit 
them as a sort of recompense in this    
world2 and in order that the faithful   
might be encouraged to follow the path  
of virtue1 by the reflection that1      
delightful as were these pleasures1 they
 were still far below those reserved for
 the true believer in the celestial     
,paradise60  ,the effect of all this    
massed splendour upon the mind1         
,illustration3 ,,cordova  ,,capital ,,of
 ,,arch4  ,illustration3 ,,side ,,view  
,,of ,,the ,,cornice4  ,illustration3   
,,bases4  ,illustration3  ,,east        
,,fa,,ade1 ,,without ,,the ,,portico4   
even of those whose position and duties 
made familiar with the treasures of     

,abd-er-,rahman's palaces1 is           
illustrated by one of the ambassadors of
 the ,greek ,emperor4 ,the khalif       
received ,constantine's emissaries in   
the great hall of the palace of         
,ez-,zahra1 which was specially arranged
 for the occasion4 ,the richest carpets 
and rugs1 and the most gorgeous silk    
awnings1 covered the floor1 and veiled  
the doors and arches1 and in the midst  
of the apartment was set up the royal   
throne1 overlaid with gold1 and         
glittering with precious stones4 ,on the
 right and left of the throne stood the 
khalif's sons1 beside them were the     
viziers1 and behind them1 in the order  
of their rank1 were ranged the          
chamberlains1 the nobles1 and officers  
of the household4 ,the ambassadors were 
awed and amazed by the magnificence of  
the scene1 and the orator1 charged with 
the office of delivering the speech of  
welcome1 was literally struck dumb by   
the splendour of the spectacle4 ,with   
wide1 staring eyes and speechless lips  

he stood spellbound1 caught in a maze of
 wonder4 ,this man1 who had grown       
accustomed to superb beauty1 who had    
seen splendour piled upon splendour     
under the directing hand of his master1 
was paralysed by the effect it produced4
 ,his brain reeled1 and1 without        
uttering a word1 he fell senseless to   
the ground4 ,a second orator took the   
embossed scroll1 and faced the august   
assemblage1 but the witchery of the     
scene hypnotised his senses1 and he1    
too1 hesitated1 faltered1 and broke     
down4  ,the mere outward and visible    
aspect of this 8brightest splendour of  
the world10 as the nun ,hroswitha       
described it1 fired the imagination of  
man1 and deprived the practised orators 
of speech4 ,but the mind of ,cordova at 
this period of its history was as       
beautiful as its frame4 ,it was the     
fountain-head of learning1 the          
well-spring of art1 the scientific      
centre of ,europe4 ,literature became   
the study of every class1 poetry was the

 common language of the people4 ,the    
potters1 the silk weavers1 the glass    
blowers1 the jewellers1 swordmakers1 and
 brass workers of ,cordova were renowned
 throughout ,europe--in all that        
appertained to art she was acknowledged 
to stand pre-eminent4 ,the greatest     
doctors1 the most skilled surgeons1 had 
their homes in ,cordova2 and            
astronomers1 geographers1 chemists1     
philosophers1 and scientists of every   
kind resorted thither to study and      
prosecute their researches4  ,under     
,hakam ,,ii41 the ,royal library at     
,cordova became the largest and most    
celebrated collection of books in the   
world2 and under ,almanzor1 the powerful
 minister who ruled ,spain for the      
,khalif ,hisham1 the beauty of the      
,imperial city was jealously maintained4
 ,but the end of the ,omeyyad dynasty   
was even then in sight1 the sun of      
,cordova's glory was already commencing 
to set4 ,after the death of ,almanzor   
8,sultan after ,sultan with his pomp    

,abode his destin'd hour and went his   
way10  the puppet khalifs were enthroned
 and deposed at the will of successive  
prevailing factions4 ,anarchy had broken
 out again1 the mob was ,sultan1 and the
 work of pillage and plunder was begun4 
,the overthrow of the ,almanzor order   
was followed by the wrecking of the     
,almanzor palace1 which was ransacked   
and burned to the ground4 ,for four days
 the work of riot1 robbery1 and massacre
 went on unchecked4 ,palace after palace
 was reduced to ruins1 gardens were     
devastated1 the public squares ran with 
blood4 ,the brutal1 savage ,berbers     
captured the beautiful city of          
,ez-,zahra 7,a4,d4 #ajaj7 by treachery1 
and put its garrisons to the sword1     
while the flying inhabitants were chased
 into the sacred precincts of the mosque
 and butchered without mercy4           
,ez-,zahra1 8the city of the fairest10  
was pillaged2 its palaces and mosques   
were thrown down1 and the walls were    
given to the flames4 ,to-day its site   

alone remains1 and its glories exist    
only in name4     ,,seville   ,the      
beginning of the history of ,seville is 
buried1 with the date of its foundation1
 in oblivion4 ,it has its place in      
mythology as the creation of ,hercules2 
its origin being more reasonably        
credited to the ,phnicians1 who         
colonised the mineral-yielding region of
 ,andalusia1 which is watered by the    
,guadalquivir1 and called it ,tartessii4
 ,strabo states that they built the town
 of ,tartessus2 and some authorities    
favour the conclusion that ,seville     
stands on the site of that ,phnician    
stronghold4 ,in #bcg ,b4,c4 ,hamilcar   
,barca conquered ,andalusia1 and his    
son-in-law founded ,carthagena1 which   
was seized by ,publius ,cornelius       
,scipio1 or ,scipio ,africanus1 during  
the second ,punic ,war4 ,scipio founded 
,italica1 which was to serve as a       
sanatorium for his invalided soldiers1  
and for awhile its importance eclipsed  
that of the neighbouring city of        

,seville4 ,honoured by the gifts of     
three ,roman emperors born within its   
walls1 and adorned with the splendid    
edifices raised by ,trajan1 ,adrian1 and
 ,theodosius1 ,italica was advanced to  
the first rank among the ,roman cities  
of the ,peninsula4 ,julius ,csar        
restored the balance of power to        
,seville in #de ,b4,c41 when he made it 
his capital1 and changed its name to    
,julia ,romula4 ,the city was fortified 
and protected by walls1 which have been 
variously described as from five to ten 
miles in length4 ,to-day the remains of 
the great aqueduct1 the two high granite
 columns in the ,alameda de ,hercules1  
and the beautiful fragments of capitals 
and statues in the ,museo ,arqlogico1   
are the only existing relics of the     
,roman sway in ,seville1 while on the   
opposite bank of the ,guadalquivir a    
ruined1 grass-grown amphitheatre is all 
that is left of the once mighty town of 
,italica4 ,in #ehd ,leovigild repaired  
the walls of ,italica when he was       

beseiging ,seville1 and less than two   
centuries later those walls were greatly
 injured by the ,moors1 who further     
fortified and enlarged ,seville with the
 stones brought from ,italica4  ,in #gaa
 ,tarik captured ,cordova1 and in the   
following year ,musa1 the ,governor of  
,africa1 appeared before ,seville with  
an army of #ah1jjj warriors4 ,in a few  
weeks the city had fallen1 and for #ecf 
years the 8,pearl of ,andalusia0        
remained in the possession of the       
,moors4 ,the conquerors abandoned       
,italica to its fate1 or1 rather1 they  
used the remains of the city as a       
quarry1 while some of the sculpture of  
the deserted capital1 which appealed to 
the ,arabs by its surpassing beauty1 was
 removed to ,seville4 ,despite the      
injunctions contained in the ,koran1 the
 sculptures were not destroyed1 and a   
statue of ,venus was long preserved in  
one of the public baths of the city4    
,el-,makkari1 writing in the sixteenth  
century1 and quoting from an early      

,moorish manuscript1 records that 8there
 was once found a marble statue of a    
woman with a boy1 so admirably executed 
that both looked as if they were alive2 
such perfection human eyes never beheld4
 ,indeed1 some ,sevillians were so much 
struck with its beauty as to become     
deeply enamoured of it40 ,an anonymous  
poet1 a native of ,seville1 made a set  
of verses about it1 which have been     
translated by ,don ,pascual de ,gayangos
 as follows3      8,look at that marble 
statue1 beautiful in its proportions1   
surpassing everything in transparency   
and smoothness4      8,she has with her 
a son1 it is true1 but who her husband  
was ,i cannot tell1 neither was she ever
 in labour4      8,thou knowest her to  
be but a stone1 but yet thou canst      
not look at her1 for there is in her    
eyes something that      fascinates and 
confounds the beholder40  ,it has been  
said that the ,sevillians pretend to    
regard ,hercules as the builder of the  
city1 and the ,puerta de la ,carne is   

inscribed with the following distich3   
8,condidit ,alcides--renovavit ,julius  
urbem1      ,restituit ,christo         
,fernandus tertius heros40  ,this has   
been paraphrased in an inscription over 
the ,puerta de ,xerex3      8,hercules  
me edific      ,julio ,cesar me cerc    
,de muros y torres altas2      ,un ,rey 
godo me perdi1      ,el ,rey ,santo me  
gan1      ,con ,garci ,perez de         
,vargas40  ,hercules built me2 ,julius  
,csar encircled me with walls and lofty 
towers2 a ,gothic king 7,roderick7 lost 
me2 a saint-like king 7,st4 ,ferdinand71
 assisted by ,garci ,perez de ,vargas1  
regained me4  ,the inscription might    
well have included the name of the      
brother of ,garci ,perez1 ,diego de     
,vargas1 surnamed 8,el ,machuca10 or    
8the ,pounder10 who performed prodigies 
of valour at the breaking of the        
,moorish bridge of boats across the     
,guadalquivir1 when the destruction of  
that gallantly-defended means of access 
to the city led to the capture of       

,seville by the ,christians in #abdh4   
,these two brothers are the heroes of   
,spanish ballads1 and were greatly      
distinguished by ,st4 ,ferdinand2 the   
grateful monarch freely acknowledging   
their prowess by the bestowal of houses 
and lands wrested from the ,moors4 ,a   
curious 8,repartimiento10 or ,domesday  
,book of ,seville1 is still extant1 and 
many families can trace their actual    
possessions back to this original       
partition4  ,musa appointed his son1    
,abdelasis1 a brave soldier and a humane
 ruler1 to be governor of ,seville4     
,that he was a successful general1 that 
he married ,egilona1 the widow of the   
unfortunate ,king ,roderick1 and was    
murdered by the order of ,suleyman1     
brother and heir of the ,khalif of      
,damascus1 is all that history records  
of him4 ,a malignant rumour1 that he was
 scheming to make himself sole ruler of 
the ,berber dominion in ,spain1 reached 
,damascus4 ,suleyman immediately sent   
emissaries to ,seville with secret      

instructions that ,abdelasis should be  
put to death1 adding as an incentive to 
swift compliance with his order1 that   
whoever among them executed the deed1   
should be appointed his successor as    
,amir of ,seville4 ,the delegates were  
armed with friendly letters to          
,abdelasis1 who received them cordially1
 and entertained them in accordance with
 his exalted position as an amir under  
the khalif4 ,it appears1 according to   
the tradition1 that the scheme was      
revealed to ',abdullah ,ibn1 8who was   
the most eminent and most conspicuous   
officer in the army40 ',abdullah1       
however1 would have no hand in the      
projected assassination1 but1 on the    
contrary1 endeavoured to dissuade the   
conspirators from their purpose1 saying 
to them3 8,you know the hand of ,musa   
has conferred benefits on every one of  
you3 if the ,commander of the ,faithful 
has been informed as you represent1 he  
has been told a lie4 ,abdelasis has     
never raised his hand in disobedience to

 his master1 nor dreamt of revolting    
against him40 ,suleyman's emissaries1   
however1 disregarded his words1 and     
decided on the murder4 ,one morn they   
stood among the rest at the gates of the
 palace1 waiting till the governor      
should go to the mosque1 and1 when he   
appeared1 followed him to prayer4       
,scarcely had he entered the 8kiblah10  
and begun to read the ,koran1 than one  
of the conspirators rushed upon the     
governor and stabbed him4 ,abdelasis1   
leaving the 8kiblah10 took refuge in the
 body of the mosque1 whither he was     
followed and slain4 ,when the news      
spread through the city1 the inhabitants
  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxv          
,,seville4  ,frieze in the ,hall of     
,ambassadors4  ,illustration3 ,mosaic of
 the large ,court1 ,alcazar4            
,illustration3 ,stucco work1 ,hall of   
,ambassadors4  ,illustration3 ,mosaic of
 the large ,court4  ,illustration3      
,,seville  ,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the         
,,alcazar4  ,illustration3 ,,seville    

,,alcazar--,,gates ,,of ,,the           
,,principal ,,entrance4  were roused to 
fury4 ,the assassins produced the       
letters and commands of the khalif1 but 
to no purpose2 the people refused to    
abide by the sultan's behests1 and chose
 ',abdullah to be his successor4        
',abdullah was1 however1 quickly        
displaced by ,ayub1 ,suleyman's nominee1
 and the conspirators then departed to  
make their report at ,damascus1 carrying
 with them the head of the unfortunate  
,abdelasis4  ,the author of the         
tradition1 ,mohammed ,ibn1 says that    
when these emissaries arrived at        
,damascus and produced the head of      
,abdelasis before ,suleyman1 he sent    
immediately for ,musa4 ,upon his        
appearance1 ,suleyman1 pointing to the  
head1 said3 8,dost thou know whose head 
that is80 8,yes10 answered ,musa1 8it is
 the head of my son ,commander of the   
,faithful1 the head of ,abdelasis 7may  
,allah show him mercy7 is before thee1  
but by the life of ,allah there was     

never a ,moslem who less deserved such  
unjust treatment2 for he passed his days
 in fasting1 and his nights in prayer2  
no man ever performed greater deeds to  
serve the cause of the ,almighty1 or    
,his messenger ,mohammed2 no man was    
more firm in his obedience to thee4     
,none of thy predecessors would have    
served him thus4 ,thou even wouldest    
never have done what thou hast to him1  
had there been justice in thee40        
,suleyman retorted1 8,thou liest1 ,o    
,musa1 thy son was not as thou hast     
represented him2 he was impious and     
forgetful of our religion1 he was the   
persecutor of the ,moslems1 and the     
sworn enemy of his sovereign1 the       
,commander of the ,faithful4 ,such was  
thy son1 ,o doting1 foolish1 fond old   
man60 ,musa replied1 8,by ,allah6 ,i am 
no dotard1 nor would ,i deviate from    
truth1 wert thou to answer my words with
 the blows of death4 ,i speak as the    
honest slave should speak to his master1
 but ,i place my confidence in ,god1    

whose help ,i implore4 ,grant me his    
head1 ,o ,commander of the ,faithful1   
that ,i may close his eyes40 ,and       
,suleyman said3 8,thou mayest take it40 
,as ,musa was leaving the ,hall of      
,audience one who was present wished to 
interfere with him1 but ,suleyman said3 
8,let ,musa alone1 he has been sorely   
punished20 and added3 8,the old man's   
spirit is still unbroken40 ,but the old 
man1 whose name had once stood for the  
symbol of conquest1 whose initiative had
 won ,spain for the ,moor1 had received 
his death sentence4 ,grief1 which could 
not bend his spirit1 seized upon his    
frame4 ,the old man fell sick of grief  
and shame1 and in a little while he was 
dead4  ,suleyman's treachery had its    
first result in the removal of the seat 
of ,moorish rule in ,spain to ,cordova4 
,ayub1 the successor of ,abdelasis1     
recognising the insecurity of his tenure
 in ,seville1 forsook 8the ,pearl of    
,andalusia0 with all speed1 and when in 
#ggg1 ,abd-er-,rahman proclaimed himself

 sole ruler of ,spain1 it was from his  
palace at ,cordova that the fiat was    
sent forth to the world4 ,seville1 the  
first and the natural capital of the    
,south1 dropped into second place among 
the cities of the ,peninsula1 and it was
 not until #ajgh that it re-established 
its claim as the ,moorish metropolis4   
,for three hundred and fifty years the  
,moslems were faithful to the           
sovereignty of ,cordova2 and although   
,seville came1 by reason of its         
beautiful palaces1 gardens1 and baths1  
to be regarded as one of the fairest    
cities of earth2 the alcazar and the    
lordly mosque1 which now bear evidence  
of its former grandeur1 are of a later  
,moorish period4 ,and ,seville grew in  
beauty under1 and in spite of1 the      
destructive influence of strife and     
conflict4 ,while ,abd-er-,rahman was    
cultivating the graces of ,cordova1     
,seville was being desolated by many    
assaults4 ,yusuf1 and1 after his death1 
his three sons1 made attacks upon       

,seville1 and ,hixem ben ,adri el       
,fehri1 who had stirred the ,toledans to
 insurrection1 was  ,illustration3      
,,seville4  ,,alcazar4  ,hall of        
,ambassadors4 ,details4  ,illustration3 
,,seville  ,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the         
,,alcazar4  ,illustration3 ,,seville    
,,chief ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,alcazar1
 ,,moorish ,,style1 ,,built ,,under     
,,don ,,pedro ,i4 ,,the ,,cruel1        
#acfi-acgi4  subsequently defeated at   
the gates of ,seville by the ,governor1 
,abdelmelic4 ,at a later date1 ,cassim1 
the son of ,abdelmelic1 fled with his   
army before the advance of the ,wali of 
,mequinez1 and was stabbed to death by  
his father for cowardice4 ,abdelmelic1  
who threw himself upon the invaders1 was
 overcome and wounded in a night battle 
on the banks of the ,guadalquivir2 but1 
despite his hurt and his defeat1 he     
rallied his soldiers1 and drove the     
hitherto victorious ,wali through the   
streets of ,seville1 and out again into 
the open country1 where he was captured 

and killed4  ,under the shifty and      
opportunist rule of ,abdallah1 who had  
caused his brother ,mundhir to be       
murdered to make his way to the throne  
of ,cordova in #hhh1 ,andalusia was     
split up into a number of independent   
principalities4 ,the turbulent          
,ibn-,hafsun had made himself virtual   
,king of ,granada1 the governors of     
,lorca and ,zaragoza rendered but       
nominal homage to the khalif1 the walls 
of ,toledo rattled with the crash of    
contending revolutionary factions1 and  
in ,seville ,ibrahim ,ibn-,hajjaj       
treated with the ,king of ,cordova on   
equal terms4 ,in the time of            
,ibn-,hajjaj ,seville was the most      
orderly and best-governed city in the   
,peninsula4 ,the poets of ,cordova1 the 
singers of ,baghdad1 and the lawyers of 
,medina were attracted to the court of  
,ibn-,hajjaj1 of whom it was sung1 8,in 
all the ,west ,i find no right noble man
 save ,ibrahim1 but he is nobility      
itself4 ,when one has known the delight 

of living with him1 to dwell in any     
other land would be a misery40 ,yet in  
#iab-ac1 ,ibrahim ,ibn-,hajjaj1 who kept
 his state like an ,emperor1 opened the 
gates of ,seville to the masterful and  
gallant ,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii41 and the 
city became once more subject to the    
self-proclaimed ,khalif of ,cordova4 ,it
 was ,abd-er-,rahman who planted        
,seville with palm trees1 beautified her
 gardens1 increased the number of her   
palaces1 and made the ,guadalquivir     
navigable by narrowing the river's      
channel4 ,ibrahim 8the ,magnificent0    
received the ,great ,khalif with the    
homage which a feudal lord offers to his
 king1 and the independence of ,seville 
was at an end4  ,but ,seville at this   
period was the rival of ,cordova in     
intellectual eminence1 and much of the  
,moorish thought and research which was 
destined to influence ,spain in future  
ages was pondered1 and practised1 and   
published from the former city4 ,abu    
,omar ,ahmed ,ben ,abdallah1 called 8,el

 ,begi10 8the ,sage10 and unquestionably
 one of the most learned men of his     
time1 was a native of ,seville1 and here
 he wrote his encyclopdia of the        
sciences4 ,it was said that there was no
 man who could surpass him in knowledge 
of arts and sciences1 and 8even in his  
earliest youth10 says ,cond1 8the cadi  
very frequently consulted him in affairs
 of the highest importance40 ,chemists1 
philosophers1 astronomers1 and men      
famous in every branch of science1      
resorted to 8the ,pearl of ,andalusia20 
while art was fostered in silk and      
leather manufactures1 and the joy of    
life found expression in music1 poetry1 
and the dance4  ,the victorious         
expeditions of ,alfonso ,,vi4 found the 
,moors demoralised from the massacres of
 ,cordova and ,ez-,zahra1 and the whole 
of ,andalusia in a state of ferment1    
anarchy1 and military unpreparedness4   
,in every town of importance in the     
,south a new independent dynasty sprang 
into existence1 and the ,abbadites      

exercised kingly sway over the so-called
 republic of ,seville4 ,some of these   
usurpers and pretenders1 as ,mr4        
,lane-,poole has pointed out1 were good 
rulers2 most of them were sanguinary    
tyrants1 but 7curiously7 not the less   
polished gentlemen1 who delighted to do 
honour to learning and letters1 and made
 their courts the homes of poets and    
musicians4 ,mo'temid of ,seville1 for   
instance1 was a patron of the arts1 and 
a prince of many  ,illustration3        
,,seville4  ,details in ,hall of        
,ambassadors4  ,illustration3 ,,seville 
,,alcazar--,,principal ,,fa,,ade4       
,illustration3 ,,seville  ,,interior    
,,court ,,of ,,the ,,alcazar4           
attainments1 yet he kept a garden of    
heads cut off his enemies' shoulders1   
which he regarded with great pride and  
delight4 ,yet ,seville was secure and   
peaceful under these barbarous rulers   
until the menace of ,alfonso's inroads  
made ,mo'temid silence the fears of his 
court with the reflection1 8,better be a

 camel-driver in ,african deserts than a
 swine-herd in ,castile40 ,so they fled 
from the danger of the ,castilians to   
the succour that ,africa was waiting to 
send them4 ,a conference of ,moorish    
rulers was held in ,seville1 and a      
message imploring assistance was        
despatched to ,yusuf1 the ,almoravide   
king4 ,yusuf defeated the army of       
,alfonso near ,badajoz in #ajhf4 ,four  
years later the ,king of ,seville again 
besought the help of ,yusuf against the 
,christians of the ,north4 ,this time he
 came with a force of twenty thousand   
men at his back1 and before the end of  
#ajia the leader of the ,almoravides had
 captured ,seville and established a    
dynasty which was to last until its     
overthrow by the ,almohades in #aadg4   
,the ,almoravide rule1 which was        
distinguished in the beginning by piety 
and a love of honest warfare1 ended in  
tyranny and corruption1 and the         
,almoravides gave place to a race more  
pious and fanatical than the demoralised

 followers of ,yusuf had ever been4 ,for
 a hundred and one years the ,almohades 
remained masters of ,seville4 ,the      
monuments of their devotion and artistic
 genius are extant in the mosque and the
 alcazar1 and we know that under ,abu   
,yakub ,yusuf a new era of commercial   
prosperity set in for ,seville1 and a   
new light arose to illumine the fast    
deepening shadows which fell over the   
vanishing glory of ,cordova4 ,the       
thunder of the blows which had reduced  
8the ,city of the ,fairest0 to a heap of
 ruins still echoed in the air1 and     
mixed with the noise of the builders and
 artificers who were re-moulding        
,seville 8nearer to the heart's desire40
  ,the remains of ,moorish architecture 
which we find in ,cordova1 in ,seville1 
and in ,granada1 enable us to realise   
that the civilisation and art of the    
,spanish ,moslems were progressive1 and 
that each stage developed its varied and
 singular characteristics4 8,the        
monuments of ,seville10 says ,contreras 

in his ,monuments ,arabes1 8produce     
quite a peculiar effect on the mind1 a  
sublime reminiscence of ancient and     
profound social transformations1 which  
only the inartistic aspect of bad       
restorations can dissipate--a vandalism 
inspired by the desire to see the       
building shining with colour and gold1  
and which impelled people to restore it 
without paying the smallest heed to the 
most elementary principles of archology4
 ,the alcazar of ,seville is not a      
classic work2 we do not find in it the  
stamp of originality1 and the           
ineffaceable character that one admires 
in ancient works like the ,parthenon1   
and in more modern ones like the        
,escurial2 the first on account of their
 splendid simplicity1 and the latter for
 their great size and taciturn grandeur4
 ,in the alcazar of ,yakub ,yusuf1 the  
prestige of a heroic generation has     
disappeared1 and the existence of       
,christian kings1 who have lived there  
and enriched it with a thousand pages of

 our glorious history1 is perfectly     
represented there4 ,the ,almohades who  
left the purest ,african souvenirs      
there1 and ,jalubi who followed ,almehdi
 to the conquest of ,africa1 left on the
 walls ,roman remains1 taken from the   
vanquished people4 ,st4 ,ferdinand1 who 
conquered it2 ,don ,pedro ,i41 who      
re-built it2 ,don ,juan ,,ii41 who      
restored the most beautiful halls2 the  
,catholic monarchs1 who built chapels   
and oratories within its precincts2     
,charles ,v41 who added more than half1 
with the moderated style of this epoch  
of sublime renaissance2 ,philip ,,iii41 
and ,philip ,v41 who further increased  
it by erecting edifices in the          
surrounding gardens2 all these1 and many
 other princes and great lords1 who     
inhabited it  ,illustration3 ,,seville  
,,alcazar--,,arcade ,,in ,,the          
,,principal ,,court4  ,illustration3    
,,seville  ,,alcazar--,,view ,,of ,,the 
,,interior4  for six centuries1 changed 
its original construction in such a     

degree that it no longer resembles1     
to-day1 the original ,oriental monument1
 although we have covered it with       
arabesques1 and embellished it with     
mosaics and gilding40  ,all that        
succeeding generations have constructed 
in the alcazar has contributed to       
deprive it of its ,mohammedan character4
 ,transformed into a lordly mansion of  
more modern epochs1 one no longer sees  
there the voluptuous saloons of the     
harem1 nor the silent spaces reserved   
for prayer1 nor the baths1 nor the      
fountains1 nor the strong ramparts1     
supporting the galleries1 which1 by     
circular paths1 communicated with the   
rich sleeping apartments1 situated in   
the square towers4 ,it is not that ,arab
 art is in a different form here to that
 seen in other parts of ,spain2 but     
while the ,moors always built palaces in
 close proximity to fortified places1   
they here combined the two1 and for that
 reason they sacrificed the exterior    
decoration to the works of fortification

 and defence4 ,on approaching the       
palace1 one finds marks of grandeur1 but
 one must not look for them in the      
structure1 but rather in the numerous   
reparations and additions which have    
been made there1 and also in the solid  
walls1 dominating the ruins of those    
castles1 which seem to protest eternally
 against the cold indifference with     
which so many generations have passed   
over them4 ,and if1 on the one hand1    
there is no doubt that this is the old  
wall or the ancient tower1 on the other 
hand1 the traveller1 greedy for         
impressions left by a past world1 finds 
nothing but square enclosures1 gardens  
and rectangular saloons of the mansions 
of the #afth century4 ,here there is    
nothing so majestic as the ,giralda2    
nothing so essentially ,oriental as the 
mosque of ,cordova2 nothing so fantastic
 and so picturesque as the alcazar of   
,granada4 ,one only sees here the       
chronicle of an art1 carried out by a   
thousand artists1 obeying different     

beliefs1 and which presents rather the  
appearance of a game played by children 
who had invaded the spot where the most 
valued works of their ancestors were    
preserved1 rather than the passionate   
conception of the terrible descendants  
of ,hagar1 who in fifty years invaded   
half the globe4 ,but one still catches  
something of the spirit of an art that  
was almost a religion1 as one lingers in
 the quiet gardens of the alcazar2 the  
deep impress of the ,moor will never be 
entirely obliterated from the courts and
 saloons of this palace of dreams4 ,as  
,mr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,gallichan writes3 8,the   
nightingales still sing among the       
odorous orange bloom1 and in the tangle 
of roses1 birds build their nests4      
,fountains tinkle beneath gently waving 
palms2 the savour of ,orientalism clings
 to the spot4 ,here wise men discussed  
in the cool of summer nights1 when the  
moon stood high over the ,giralda1 and  
white beams fell through the spreading  
boughs of lemon trees1 and shivered upon

 the tiled pavements4 ,in this garden   
the musicians played1 and the tawny     
dancers writhed and curved their lissom 
bodies in dramatic ,eastern dances40    
,ichabod6 ,the moody potentate1 bowed   
down with the cares of high office1 no  
longer treads the dim corridor1 or      
lingers in the shade of the palm trees4 
,no sound of gaiety reverberates in the 
deserted courts1 no voice of orator is  
heard in the ,hall of ,justice4 ,the    
green lizards bask on the deserted      
benches of the gardens4 ,rose petals    
strew the paved paths4 ,one's footsteps 
echo in the gorgeous patios1 whose walls
 have witnessed many a scene of pomp1   
tragedy1 and pathos4 ,the spell of the  
past holds one2 and1 before the         
imagination1 troops a long procession of
 illustrious sovereigns1 courtiers1     
counsellors1 and warriors4  ,this       
wonderful monument1 which has moved     
generations of artists and poets to     
rhapsody and praise1 and inspired       
,illustration3 ,,seville4  ,,alcazar4   

,details of ,hall of ,ambassadors4      
,illustration3 ,,seville                
,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the ,,dolls4  
,illustration3 ,,seville                
,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the ,,dolls1  
,,moorish ,,style1 ,,built #acfi-acgi4  
that picturesque ,italian author1 ,de   
,amicis1 to people the gardens of the   
alcazar with ,mo'temid and his beautiful
 favourite1 ,itamad1 who had been dead  
nearly a century before the alcazar was 
erected1 failed to create any impression
 in the mind of ,mr4 ,john ,lomas1 whose
 strictures upon the place in his       
,sketches of ,spain must ever be a      
standing reproof to those who dare to   
see ,oriental beauty in this ,sevillian 
castle4 8,greater far10 says ,mr4       
,lomas1 8is the alcazar in reputation   
than in intrinsic worth4 ,like the      
,mother ,church1 it forms a sort of     
sightseers' goal1 and it shares equally 
in the good fortune of so entirely      
satisfying the requirements of          
superficial observers1 that it is       

esteemed a kind of heresy to take       
exception to its noble rank as a typical
 piece of ,moorish work4 ,yet it is just
 a great house1 of southern and somewhat
 ancient construction--say the fifteenth
 century--with a number of square rooms 
and courts1 arranged and decorated after
 ,arab models as far as was possible in 
the case of a building designed to      
fulfil the requirements of ,western     
civilisation4 ,nothing else4 ,of course1
 if the courts and towers of the        
,alhambra have not been seen--or are not
 to be compassed--there will be found   
here an infinity of fresh loveliness in 
design and colouring1 together with a   
vast amount of detail which will repay  
study4 ,but even then it must all be    
looked upon as an exceedingly clever    
reproduction of beautiful and artful    
forms1 not as their best possible       
setting forth1 or type4 ,there are dark 
winding passages--evidently dictated by 
the exigencies of the work--but they    
yield none of the delicate surprises    

which form so great a charm of the old  
,moorish monuments4 ,there is any amount
 of rich decoration and ,moresque       
detail2 but never the notion of the     
luxury and voluptuousness of ,eastern   
life1 or a suggestion of its            
thousand-and-one adjuncts4 ,there are1  
here and there1 indubitable traces of   
the original ,eleventh ,century alcazar 
of ,yakub ,yusuf0 7it was not built     
until the latter part of the twelfth    
century7 8but there is nothing either   
distinctive or precious about them1 and 
the rest is a record rather of          
,christian than ,arab ways40  ,mr4      
,lomas is perfectly correct in          
suggesting that the alcazar of ,seville 
is1 in great measure1 a reproduction of 
the delights of the ,alhambra1 a        
reproduction due1 without any doubt1 to 
that school of architecture which       
embellished the sumptuous palace of     
,granada for the kings of the second    
,nazarite dynasty4 ,in it we see the    
record of the ingenious almizates1 of   

its gates and ceilings1 of those        
stalactited domes1 which dazzle and     
confuse1 of those wall-facings encrusted
 with rich ornamentation1 of those      
graceful ,byzantine and ,moorish        
geometrical designs1 which even to-day  
are the despair of perspective painters1
 of those enchanting saloons where the  
genius of harmony seems to rest1 and of 
those balmy gardens which invite repose1
 meditation1 and melancholy4  ,while it 
is generally accepted that the city of  
,seville possessed no alcazar of        
striking importance until the declining 
power of the khalifate of ,cordova made 
,seville the capital of an independent  
kingdom1 there is substantial reason for
 believing that in the foundations of   
the present superb edifice there are    
unmistakable relics of an earlier work  
of truly ,arab architecture4 ,the       
,almohades so thoroughly effaced and    
distorted the magnificence of their     
predecessors' work that it would be     
impossible to point with certainty to   

any of the original remains of this     
many-times-restored palace4 ,the        
ultra-semi-circular arches which are    
seen in the ,hall of the ,ambassadors1  
those graceful arches which carry the   
mind from ,seville to the graceful      
arcades of the mosque of ,cordova1      
incline one to regard this apartment as 
a relic of ,abbadite antiquity1 while   
the rich columns with  ,illustration3   
,,plate ,,xxix4  ,blank ,window4        
,illustration3 ,,seville                
,,alcazar--,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the     
,,dolls4  ,illustration3 ,,seville      
,,alcazar--,,right ,,angle ,,of ,,the   
,,court ,,of ,,the ,,dolls4             
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxx4  ,soffit  
of ,arch4  their gilded capitals of the 
,corinthian style appears to contain    
authentic proof of their                
,arabic-,byzantine origin4 ,seor ,pedro 
de ,madrazo1 whilst admitting the       
difficulty of determining the period to 
which the various parts of the alcazar  
belong1 disregards the conclusions of   

,seores ,jos ,amador de los ,rios and   
his son ,rodrigo1 who resolutely denied 
the antiquity of these                  
ultra-semi-circular arches1 and declares
 the ,hall of ,ambassadors to be an     
example of ,abbadite architecture4 ,he  
further attributes to the same epoch1   
the showy ascending arcade of the narrow
 staircase which leads from the entrance
 court to the upper gallery1 and rises  
near the balcony or choir of the chapel1
 and the three beautiful arches1        
sustained by exquisite capitals1 which  
remain as the sole relic of the         
decoration of the abandoned apartment   
situated close to the 8,princes'        
,saloon40  ,in his work on 8,sevilla10  
the same authority distinguishes between
 the art of the ,mudejare1 or transition
 artificers1 and that of the ,almohado  
,moors4 8,the latter art10 he observes1 
8is less simple1 less select in its     
ornamentation1 discloses less rational  
regularity1 and is1 generally speaking1 
more affected40 ,these differences may  

be seen in a comparison between the     
,moorish ,giralda of ,seville and the   
beautiful creation of artists of the    
,arab-,andalusian period which are to be
 studied in the ornamental parts of the 
,alhambra4 ,the ,almohade architecture  
displays a base taste1 which imitates   
rather than feels1 and creates forms by 
exaggerations which are unsuitable to   
the design1 and thus differs in sthetic 
principles from the ,mudejaren-,moorish 
work of the #acth1 #adth1 and #aeth     
centuries1 which reveals an instinctive 
feeling for the beautiful in            
ornamentation1 which never loses sight  
of the elegant1 the graceful1 and the   
bold1 and consequently never falls into 
aberration4 ,the ,almohade period1 in   
short1 discloses at once the force of   
the barbarous spirit civilised by       
conquest1 while the latter offers the   
enduring character of cultured taste and
 wisdom in all the epochs of prosperous 
or adverse fortune2 both are the        
faithful expression of people of        

different ages1 origins1 and aptitudes4 
8,it is certain10 declares ,seor de     
,madrazo1 8that the innovations which   
characterise ,mussulman architecture in 
,spain in the #aath and #abth centuries1
 cannot be explained as a natural       
mutation from the ,arab art of the      
khalifate1 or as a preparation or       
transition to the art of ,granada1      
because there is very little similarity 
between the style called secondary or   
,moorish and the ,arab-,byzantine and   
,andalusian1 while on the other hand it 
is evident that the ,saracen monuments  
of ,fez and ,morocco1 of the reigns of  
,yusuf ben ,texpin1 ,abdel-ben-,ali1    
,elmansur and ,nasser1 bear the         
principal character of the ornamentation
 which the ,almohades made general in   
,spain40  ,it must always be remembered 
when approaching the forbidding exterior
 of the alcazar1 that it was erected to 
serve the purpose of a fortress as well 
as a palace4 ,yusuf is supposed to have 
used a ,roman prtorium as the foundation

 of his castle1 and there are parts of  
the wall which date back to ,roman      
times4 ,but the principal gateway which 
gives entrance to the palace is of ,arab
 origin1 and it is evident that all the 
upper part1 from the frieze with the    
,gothic inscription1 is purely          
,mohammedan1 according to the ,persic   
style1 very much used in the entrances  
to mosques of the first period1 in      
,asia4 ,the two pilasters1 in their     
entire height1 as well as the sculptured
 framing of the lower part1 are of the  
,arab style2 but the balconies with     
arches1 and ,byzantine columns1 the     
,roman capitals1 the lintels of the     
doors and windows with ,gothic springs1 
are indications1 which prove the        
reconstruction of the time of ,don      
,pedro4 ,the later restorations have not
 completely  ,illustration3 ,,seville   
,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the ,,dolls4  
,illustration3 ,,seville                
,,alcazar--,,upper ,,part ,,of ,,the    
,,court ,,of ,,the ,,dolls4  changed the

 primitive form1 but have only modified 
it4 ,on entering the palace one finds   
other works less ,arab than these1 the  
ornaments do not form an integral part  
of the decoration1 and one can observe  
that in order to place them it was      
necessary to remove inscriptions and    
,mohammedan shields which filled the    
little spaces4  ,but in passing this    
square entrance1 whose form recalls     
,egypt1 and which began to be used when 
the horseshoe arch was no longer in     
vogue1 we find ourselves in the chief   
courtyard of the alcazar1 which makes a 
slight detour in order not to be        
overlooked from the street1 and which   
offers an extravagant assemblage of     
lines without departing from exactness4 
,the actual lines of this superb        
edifice1 mentioning principally the two 
types of architecture which prevail1 are
 the ,moorish of the works erected from 
#acec to #acfd1 and the ,renaissance1 in
 the works carried out under the        
monarchs of the house of ,austria4  ,it 

is curious that while the ,alhambra was 
allowed to fall into decay1 and suffered
 periods of neglect that could be       
reckoned by scores of years at a        
stretch1 the alcazar has seldom been    
free from the hands of the restorers4   
,the fact accounts1 of course1 for the  
splendid state of preservation in which 
it is to be found to-day1 but it also   
owes to it the weird incongruity of     
style and decoration which lovers of    
pure ,moorish art deplore4 ,after ,pedro
 had almost entirely reconstructed the  
palace--and to him the alcazar owes many
 of its best portions--it came under the
 restoring influence of ,juan ,,ii41    
that weak but artistic monarch1 whose   
handiwork is seen in some of the chief  
apartments4 ,the arch-vandal1 ,charles  
,v41 whose palace in the ,alhambra would
 be a work of art anywhere save on the  
spot on which he chose to erect it1     
could not be expected to spare the      
alcazar4 ,under his direction the       
greater portion of the ,renaissance     

additions were made1 and the portraits  
of ,spanish kings hung in the ,hall of  
,ambassadors were introduced by his     
successor4 ,in the #agth century this   
favourite residence of the kings of     
,spain attained to the zenith of its    
magnificence2 and then for a whole      
century the palace was allowed1 for the 
first and only time1 to fall into a     
state of disrepair4 ,spain was passing  
through troublous times1 and its rulers 
had weightier matters to absorb their   
attention4 ,the alcazar1 stricken by    
neglect1 shrank to something like its   
original proportions1 and its beauties  
fell into decay4 ,in the middle of the  
#aith century ,queen ,isabella ,,ii4    
rescued the ancient structure from the  
ravages of time1 and the present order  
and distinction which it now enjoys is  
largely due to her timely efforts4      
,after the restorations made by ,don    
,pedro were finished1 the alcazar had   
various entrances1 but the principal    
were the two opened in the old ,arab    

wall1 which lead to the courts called   
the 8,banderas y de la ,monteria40 ,the 
delicate pointed arches which composed  
them were almost hidden between the     
massive towers of the neighbouring      
minaret2 nothing externally reveals the 
dazzling beauty which is to be seen     
behind these walls4  ,in the courtyard  
one sees very fine ornaments placed     
hap-hazard1 which had been left over    
from the last restorations of the palace
 of ,granada1 and which were sent here  
without any consideration for period or 
style4 ,that this system prevailed can  
be proved by reference to the archives  
of the royal patrimony1 where there is a
 document requesting1 on the part of the
 keeper of the alcazar1 that some of the
 8best0 arabesques1 which were being    
used for the restorations at ,granada1  
should be sent to ,seville4 ,these      
ornaments1 of different epochs and      
styles1 can be seen on the walls of the 
alcazar1 face to face with others       
corresponding to the  ,illustration3    

,,seville  ,,alcazar--,,upper ,,portions
 ,,of ,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,dolls4 
,illustration3 ,,seville                
,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the ,,dolls4  
infancy of the art4 ,the ,alhambra does 
not suffer from these incongruities1    
because it has not suffered a great     
transformation similar to that which the
 alcazar underwent at the hands of ,don 
,pedro4 ,it has not been altered to suit
 the requirements of a ,christian court1
 and it has never been occupied by great
 personages1 with large revenues at     
their disposal1 to reconstruct it       
according to their caprice4  ,the       
ornaments of the ceilings of the alcazar
 are magnificent1 because1 as ,contreras
 points out1 the ,moorish workmen were  
beginning to understand all the majesty 
and grandeur that ,christian art stamped
 upon the complicated and minute        
assemblage of ,mussulman edifices2 they 
began to make rich coverings1 with bolts
 or stays with apertures1 and with      
hollows in the form of an arch1 and     

keystones imitating rhombus1 stars1 and 
bow ornaments4 ,the famous ,gothic roofs
 and ceilings of the ,bretonne buildings
 of the ninth century have never been   
able to equal this one1 because here one
 finds more beautiful specimens than in 
the other edifices1 when the vaults with
 little stalactites had not yet acquired
 their complete development4 ,the       
perfectly-worked and carved designs of  
the doors give a great relief to the    
palace4 ,one remarks here that the      
ceilings are less magnificent or        
luxurious1 when the ornamentation is    
less classic1 and1 as at ,fez1 the walls
 were covered with hangings instead of  
reliefs in plaster2 and then they used  
more gold in the cornices1 in the       
friezes1 in the domes1 in the lintels1  
and in the crownings1 whilst the walls  
remained bare1 as in the ,moz-,arabian  
constructions4 ,there was here such a   
mixture of styles1 such a confusion of  
ideas1 and such a number of little      
quadrangular windows1 which interrupt   

the general line of the ornamentation1  
as one does not see anywhere else4 ,one 
sees1 too1 walls covered with           
arabesques1 stretching like pieces of   
tapestry or coverings of bright colours1
 and which produce a rich effect1       
beautiful and varied1 thought-out and   
elegant--but not at all simple--which is
 the chief condition of art in the      
epochs of great culture4  ,in going     
through this alcazar one sees nothing   
but square saloons1 one following the   
other1 of the same shape and dimensions1
 occasionally varied by the composition 
of the arabesques traced there4         
,symmetry has been sacrificed to        
convenience1 and the central arches to  
the alignment of the doors4 ,in the time
 of the ,arabs the alcazar constituted a
 series of constructions1 flanked by the
 walls and the towers1 which surrounded 
the town1 which had not the symmetrical 
form of the rectangular plan of the     
buildings of the ,renaissance4 ,neither 
does it resemble the palaces of ,egypt  

or of ,syria4 ,these quays1 placed side 
by side1 give this edifice the          
appearance of a ,christian house of the 
fifteenth century2 and one can only     
confidently give the name 8,arab0 to the
 ,court of the ,damsels1 the ,hall of   
,ambassadors1 and the apartments        
immediately adjoining it4  ,the ,court  
of the ,banners1 and of the ,hunters1   
lead to the ,court of the ,principal    
,faade1 where one sees the first        
specimen of ,mussulman decoration6 ,in  
all these divisions the monument is only
 revealed by the vestiges of battlements
 of the towers and of the walls1 in     
which the original doors were opened1   
and where the sultans had the chambers  
for judging the quarrels of their       
subjects1--a custom perpetrated by the  
,christian monarchs4 ,in the ,court of  
the ,hunters one can still see the      
apartment named the ,hall of ,justice1  
where all writers suppose that the      
audiences were held4 ,here ,don ,pedro  
held his tribunal2 and the traveller1   

,don ,antonio ,ponz1 asserts that he saw
 one of the columns of the memorable    
seat occupied by the monarch when he    
held those famous audiences1 which were 
an imitation of the  ,illustration3     
,,seville  ,,alcazar--,,the ,,little    
,,court4  ,illustration3 ,,seville      
,,alcazar--,,view ,,in ,,the ,,little   
,,court4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxi4
  ,cornice at ,springing of ,arch of    
,doorway at one of the ,entrances4      
judgments of the ,east and of the feudal
 lords of the ,west1 and which magnified
 the idea of justice in the eyes of     
foolish and irreflective people1 but    
which were held by men of good sense to 
be a mere pretence of equity1 with which
 to mask his tyranny4 ,the place where  
justice was administered in the time of 
the ,almohadan kings was in the ,court  
of the ,monteria--a vast and beautiful  
apartment1 one of the oldest            
constructions in the alcazar1 and of a  
more purely ,moorish style4  ,the ,court
 of the ,hunters leads to another larger

 court1 known as the ,princes' ,hall4   
,this is more regular in form1 and in it
 rises the chief entrance1 dazzling and 
richly ornamented with painting and     
gilding1 from its twin windows to the   
topmost moulding of its projecting      
eaves1 of the purest ,almohadan style4  
,how can one describe it8 ,not only the 
entrance1 but the whole faade is of     
precious marbles1 the capitals of the   
columns being in the most exquisite     
,moorish taste2 and the facia of        
interlaced arches above the doorway     
display the escutcheons of ,castile and 
,leon2 while round another facia1       
running between the brackets over the   
twin windows of the principal floor1    
there is a legend in ,gothic characters1
 which says3 8,the very high1 and very  
noble1 and very powerful1 and very      
victorious ,don ,pedro1 ,king of        
,castile and ,leon1 commanded these     
alcazars1 and these palaces1 and these  
doorways to be made1 which was done in  
the era of one thousand four hundred and

 two40 ,the cupola of the ,princes'     
,hall rises above this faade1 its outer 
walls being adorned with little arches  
and blue tile work1 in imitation of a   
pyramid1 and bearing at its summit1 in  
the ,oriental fashion1 a weather-cock   
with gilded spheres4  ,on entering the  
vestibule1 one sees first the result of 
unfortunate modern reformations1 little 
rooms or recesses to right and left1 now
 almost stripped of their ancient       
ornamentation4 ,on taking the corridor1 
which is at the back of a sort of       
ante-chamber1 nearly square1 one arrives
 at the chief inner court called the    
,court of the ,damsels4 ,there is an    
unfounded tradition which says this     
court derives its name from the         
disgraceful tribute of one hundred      
damsels levied by ,mauregato1 and paid  
to the khalifs of ,cordova1 it being    
supposed that the throne upon which the 
,moorish king sat when receiving this   
tribute was situated in this court4 ,in 
point of fact1 as ,pedro de ,medrazo    

reminds us1 there were no ,moorish kings
 in ,spain1 and neither was ,seville the
 capital of the ,andalusian khalifate1  
nor can it be asserted that there was a 
,saracen palace there before the        
eleventh century4 ,without any doubt    
this court was part of the great        
restorations of the fourteenth century4 
,its plan is a rectangle1 with galleries
 of marble columns in couples and       
pointed mitred arches2 the central      
arches of each side are higher than the 
rest1 and instead of resting1 as these  
do on the columns1 they are supported by
 small square pillars1 which appear to  
be held up by the capitals4 ,these small
 pillars have beautiful little columns  
at their angles1 which at first sight   
seem to be a prelude to the caprices of 
the ,renaissance1 which loved so much to
 surmount one style by another2 but here
 it is really an accident very          
characteristic of the ,arabic-,granadian
 architecture1 such as is often to be   
noticed in the ,courts of the ,alhambra4

  ,these arches are only seen in the    
faade here1 in the ,house of ,pilate1   
and in the buildings of the eighth      
century in the ,east4 ,one could not    
explain them unless there were hanging  
decorations1 such as tapestries attached
 to the walls1 which were neither seen  
nor guessed in the intercolumniations4  
,it is a strange shape1 which is elegant
 on account of the lobules1 the point1  
and the horseshoe-formed  ,illustration3
 ,,seville  ,,alcazar--,,view ,,of ,,the
 ,,hall ,,of ,,ambassadors ,,from ,,the 
,,little ,,court4  ,illustration3       
,,seville  ,,alcazar--,,hall ,,of       
,,ambassadors4  span1 which at a later  
period regulated the arches of the      
palaces of ,fez1 of ,tunis1 and of      
,cairo4  ,the second gallery of the     
,court of the ,damsels1 added to the    
ancient construction1 is an addition of 
little importance2 but it is a fine     
court1 if one considers the             
modifications of its style1 its socles  
showing beautiful panels of decorated   

porcelain of admirable delicacy4        
,different doors lead to the saloon of  
,charles ,v41 to that of the            
,ambassadors1 and to those of the       
8,caracol10 or of ,don ,maria de        
,padilla4 ,they have scarfs cut into    
polygons1 which cover them on both      
sides1 but this fine work has been badly
 restored with stucco barbarously       
painted4  ,the ,hall of ,ambassadors is 
a square apartment of a solemn aspect1  
with four frontages composed of high    
arches1 which enclose twin windows1     
placed on slender columns1 whose little 
arches are more than semi-circular1     
without having the characteristic form  
of the horse-shoe1--a curve which marks 
the decadent transition4 ,the capitals  
are degenerate ,greco-,roman2 but the   
great decorative arch with running      
knots1 although it has an ,arab curve1  
has not the two squares in height from  
the floor of the hall1 and that deprives
 it of elegance in its ornamentation4   
,the spaces1 or triangles1 are not      

original1 the work is interrupted1 as in
 the inner side of the wall of the      
frontage1 by shutters which open1 as    
though escaping from the tympan of the  
twin windows4 ,a wide frieze of windows1
 or painted transparencies1 stretches   
above1 in an admirable manner1 and      
higher still there is a geometrical band
 of ornaments in the form of knots1 and 
then come architraves and supports on   
which the roof rests4 ,the sub-basements
 of porcelain are adorned with          
arabesques1 and the connecting doors are
 decorated with almost exaggerated      
profusion4 ,the open balconies1 with the
 eagles on their consols1 are an eternal
 affront for him who had them made2 and 
we may say the same thing of the        
portraits with ,gothic frames1 placed   
under the arch-like hollows of the      
walls1 and also of the gilding1 which   
has not the fine ornamentation of blue1 
red1 and black1 which renders these     
little vaults more graceful1 when they  
are done by ,arabs4 ,the spherical      

cupola1 with rafters with arabesques    
forming stars of symmetrical polygons1  
may have been constructed for stained   
glass windows at a higher light1 but    
later it was ineffectively decorated    
with little mirrors4 ,the mosaics have  
been restored with pieces larger than   
the originals1 and the jasper columns   
seem to be ,roman and not ,arab1 as do  
many others of the decadence2 and the   
capitals too1 without uniformity1 and   
unsuited to the columns1 appear to be   
,moz-,arabian work1 which is seen in    
many of the ,saracen mosques4  ,the type
 of the ,african inscriptions in the    
alcazar is not as fine or as pure as are
 those in the ,hall of ,comares at      
,granada2 but on the other hand the     
classic character of the cufic          
inscriptions here is more uniform and   
more simple4 ,the ornaments1 in the     
shape of leaves1 of pine cones1 and of  
palms interlaced with ribbons1 with     
geometrical outlines1 is a style that is
 no longer seen after the beginning of  

the ,thirteenth ,century4 ,the little   
windows1 in parallelograms above the    
doors1 the ,roman imposts1 the ,gothic  
carvings1 and the escutcheons with      
broken chiselings shown in this palace1 
are the work of several generations who 
were wanting in the consciousness of    
art4  ,yet the ,hall of ,ambassadors is 
beyond dispute the most splendid and    
beautiful apartment of all the palaces  
of ,moorish architecture belonging to   
the ,crown in ,spain4 ,the painting and 
gilding of arabesques1 the lovely carved
 wooden ceilings1 now shaped like       
inverted bowls1 now like sections of a  
sphere1 and now like capricious         
many-sided  ,illustration3 ,,seville    
,,alcazar--,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,hall 
,,of ,,ambassadors4  ,illustration3     
,,seville  ,,alcazar--,,hall ,,of       
,,ambassadors4  figures1 which reflect  
the light and shade with a marvellous   
effect2 the inscriptions in ,african    
characters2 the rich doors of marquetry1
 surrounded by ,arabic invocations 7a   

beautiful work done by artificers of    
,toledo72 the columns of various marbles
 with capitals of exquisite cut1 now    
primitive1 now ,almohadan1 now ,moorish2
 the variegated marble of the pavement1 
the perforated stucco of the partitions1
 the ingenious work1 with birds         
introduced in the doorways2 and finally 
this strange combination of five        
different styles1 which in theory is so 
impossible1 and in practice so          
harmonious--,arabic1 ,almohadan1        
,gothic1 ,granadian1 and                
,renaissance--to be seen in so many     
apartments of the alcazar1 but more     
especially in this hall1 are things     
which the pen could never describe      
satisfactorily1 and which must be left  
to the impression produced by a sight of
 the original1 or to a contemplation of 
its pictured representation4 ,for this  
reason one may not endeavour to         
describe1 either technically or         
minutely1 this magnificent hall1 to the 
gradual architectural composition of    

which overseers and workmen of so many  
different times contributed4 ,the       
,abbaditas made the bold horse-shoe     
arches of the lower part2 the           
,almohadans1 and afterwards the school  
of ,christians of ,granada which arose1 
carried out the work of ornamenting the 
walls with the ornamental arches1 the   
perforated windows1 the facias of little
 interlaced arches1 and the             
inscriptions2 and they covered the hall 
with the marvellous dome shaped like an 
inverted bowl4 ,it is probable that the 
architects of the ,catholic monarchs    
constructed the third body in the       
pointed style1 forming a series of      
corrupted trefoils bordered with lilies1
 in whose centres the portraits of the  
kings of ,spain1 from ,chindasvinto1 are
 reproduced2 and1 finally1 the kings of 
the ,house of ,austria added the third  
body of the decoration1 four balconies1 
of great projection1 which doubtless    
formerly were twin windows 7ajimeces7   
with one or more columns1 supported by  

griffons gilded1 and of bold outline4   
,it was probably in this saloon that the
 ceremonious and perfidious reception of
 ,abu ,said1 ,king of ,granada1 by ,don 
,pedro took place4 ,the usurper of the  
,throne of ,granada presented himself to
 the owner of the alcazar1 thinking he  
had ensured his personal safety by the  
gifts he had forwarded1 and by his      
complete submission to the wishes of his
 host4 ,but after being entertained at a
 splendid supper1 he was rewarded with  
prison1 and death1 accompanied with the 
most horrible mockeries4 ,amongst the   
jewels1 with which the unhappy ,abu     
,said is supposed to have hoped to win  
the heart of his faithless enemy1 was   
the immense ruby1 which to-day shines in
 the royal crown of ,edward ,,vii4 ,it  
was given by ,don ,pedro to the ,black  
,prince2 it later came into the         
possession of ,queen ,mary ,stuart of   
,scotland1 and through her son1 ,james  
,i41 returned once more to ,england4    
,if the ,hall of ,ambassadors is rich1  

the ,court of the ,dolls is not less so 
in its own style4 ,this1 with some other
 saloons1 constituted one of the        
remaining splendours of the alcazar     
which are associated with ,don          
,fadrique1 ,master of the ,order of     
,santiago1 the timid son of ,alonso     
,,xi4 ,we cannot tell from what source  
this court has received its modern      
denomination4 ,in the old chronicles    
there is no trace of such a name2 but   
they1 and tradition1 have handed us down
 copious notes1 all of which make this  
part of the alcazar the theatre of that 
sanguinary drama of the ,fourteenth     
,century4 ,after reading these          
chronicles and romances1 one imagines   
the ghosts of the actors moving about   
the apartments2 one sees ,don ,pedro1   
who has already planned his execrable   
plot1 receiving1 with false expressions 
of interest1 his half-brother ,don      
,fadrique2 one sees the lovely ,padilla1
  ,illustration3 ,,seville              
,,alcazar--,,throne ,,of ,,justice4     

,illustration3 ,,alcazar--,,hall ,,of   
,,ambassadors4  ,illustration3 ,,seville
  ,,alcazar--,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the       
,,court ,,of ,,the ,,virgins4           
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxii4         
,borders of ,arches4  sad and terrified 
in her room1 in the 8caracol0           
apartments1 wishing to reveal the danger
 which awaits him to the ,master1 but   
not daring to do so2 and one also seems 
to feel the impending doom of the       
eccentric prince1 when he is deprived of
 the help of his servants1 whom the     
porters force to leave the courtyard    
with their mules1 where they were       
waiting for their lord4 ,and finally we 
see the return of ,don ,fadrique to the 
presence of the irritated monarch1 who  
has called him1 and who has ordered that
 his companions shall be detained       
outside the doors1 whilst the stewards  
of the king kill his unfortunate        
brother4 ,fadrique1 after a desperate   
struggle1 manages to escape from the    
murderers and to reach the court1       

looking for the postern of the corral1  
which he fancies is open--all the time  
making unavailing efforts to draw his   
sword1 the handle of which has become   
entangled in the cords of his sash--and 
there at last he falls1 his head being  
crushed by a blow of a club4 ,other     
accounts declare that when ,fadrique    
returned to ,don ,pedro's apartment1    
after paying a courtesy visit to ,maria 
de ,padilla1 he was met with the        
sentence1 shouted in the king's voice1  
8,kill the ,master of ,santiago60 ,don  
,fadrique drew his sword and made a     
valorous defence1 but was overpowered   
and struck down by blows on the head4   
,seeing that his half-brother was still 
breathing1 the king handed his own drawn
 dagger to an attendant and commanded   
him to kill the ,master outright4       
,to-day we cannot say positively which  
was the 8,palacio del ,yeso10 or        
8,palace of stucco or lime10 where ,don 
,pedro received his unhappy             
half-brother1 nor yet which were the    

apartments of the 8caracol40 ,it is     
thought the court which has the chief   
faade of the alcazar was that which in  
the chronicle is called the 8caracol10  
and that the 8postern0 was that which   
led from this court to that of the      
8banderas40 ,it is true that tradition  
persists in pointing out the ,court of  
the ,dolls and the ,hall of ,ambassadors
 as the theatre of this horrible        
fraticide1 without taking into account  
the notes of the historian1 who relates 
that ,don ,fadrique1 pursued by his     
murderers1 ran in the direction of the  
postern1 where he had been warned that  
he could make a stand1 but found that   
all his escort had been driven out4     
,the ,king ,don ,pedro fills with his   
grand sinister figure the apartments    
which he occupied1 and even those added 
by later monarchs1 just as the whole    
gloomy pile of the ,escurial seems to be
 haunted by the ambiguous personality of
 ,philip ,,ii4 ,sad privilege of        
despots2 the terror which they inspire  

in life1 survives them1 freezing the    
smile of happiness on the lips of       
generations1 who are free from their    
malevolent actions1 even in the very    
chambers which they dedicate to their   
pleasures4  ,the architecture of the    
,court of the ,dolls is purely in the   
style of ,granada4 ,the surface of the  
arches is covered with minute mosaic    
work1 and they rest upon beautiful brick
 pillars1 sustained by marble columns   
with delicate capitals1 while the double
 partitions1 covered with perforated    
work1 are of brick1 wood1 and stucco4   
,delicate tints cover the ornamentation 
with a beautiful veil1 which is like a  
lovely ,persian tapestry4 ,this court is
 a rectangle with unequal sides2 there  
is a great arch in those looking towards
 the ,hall of ,ambassadors1 somewhat    
pear-shaped1 between two smaller arches 
of the same form2 in the other two sides
 there is a large arch and a smaller    
one1 all resting upon graceful columns  
of different colours1 in the capitals of

 which 7believed to belong to the       
primitive epoch1 on account of their    
resemblance with those of the primitive 
part of the ,mosque of ,cordova7 there  
is a freshness and delicacy of line     
which holds the imagination captive4    
,the  ,illustration3 ,,seville          
,,alcazar--,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,court
 ,,of ,,the ,,virgins1 ,,moorish        
,,style1 ,,built #acfi--acgi4           
,illustration3 ,,seville                
,,alcazar--,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the  
,,court ,,of ,,the ,,hundred ,,virgins4 
entablatures1 which are borne by the    
columns1 are finely decorated with      
vertical borders1 formed by inscriptions
 in cufic characters4 ,the upper part of
 this lovely court has been spoilt by   
bad restorations4  ,the ,hall of        
,ambassadors1 as well as the ,court of  
the ,dolls1 is surrounded by beautiful  
saloons1 starting from the chief faade  
of the alcazar1 running round the       
north-east angle of the building1 and   
forming a series of mysterious and      

voluptuous rooms adjoining the galleries
 of the 8,gardens0 of the 8,princes0 of 
the 8,grotto0 and of the 8,dance10 till 
they terminate at the other south-west  
corner of the ,court of the ,damsels    
where the chapel used to be1 and where  
it is believed the luxurious apartments 
of the 8caracol0 stood4 ,according to   
tradition they were at the eastern side 
of the ,court of the ,damsels where the 
lower chapel stands to-day2 this space  
adjoins at its north-east corner the    
baths1 which still bear the name of the 
unhappy favourite1 more worthy of pity  
than of hatred2 and they also lead1 by a
 narrow and almost hidden               
staircase1--the oldest in the           
alcazar1--to the bedroom of ,don ,pedro1
 situated in the story above4 ,nothing  
remains of the dwelling which the       
enamoured king prepared for the woman he
 loved most in his distracted and       
changeful life4  ,the entrance to the   
famous and regal baths of ,doa ,maria de
 ,padilla is in the garden of the       

8,dance10 below the saloons constructed 
in the time of ,charles ,v4 ,it is      
supposed they were used by the sultanas1
 whilst the ,saracen court was at       
,seville4 ,they are surrounded by orange
 and lemon trees1 and not enclosed by   
those massive walls which give the      
appearance of a gloomy dungeon4 ,at the 
eastern extremity of the garden of the  
8,dance0 there is a tank or fountain4   
,it is said that one day the king1 being
 much preoccupied with the choice of a  
judge to whom to confide a very         
complicated and obscure case1 drew near 
this tank1 and cutting an orange in two1
 threw one half on the surface of the   
water1 where it floated4 ,he then sent  
for one of his judges and asked him what
 he saw floating on the water4 8,an     
orange1 ,sire10 was the reply4 ,he      
received the same answer from several   
other judges whom he summoned2 but      
finally came one who1 when asked the    
question1 broke off a branch of one of  
the trees near by1 and with it drew the 

fruit floating on the water to the edge1
 when he answered1 8,half an orange1    
,sire40 ,whereupon the monarch decided  
to entrust him with the conduct of the  
case4  ,the strange character of ,don   
,pedro1 and his manner of administering 
justice1 take us now to the upper floor 
of the alcazar1 to the south-east       
corner1 where1 at the end of a series of
 saloons of little interest1 with rich  
bowl-shaped ceilings and cornices of    
mosaic1 there is the king's sleeping    
chamber1 whose walls still preserve the 
high socle of inlaid tile work1 the     
stucco ornaments with borders of        
inscriptions in ,african characters1 and
 the recessed windows with shutters1 the
 frieze with stalactites1 the ceiling of
 good design and beautiful gilding1 and 
an alcove with a mosaic arch4 ,near one 
of the corners there is a bas-relief in 
one of the walls1 representing a man    
seated with his body twisted towards the
 entrance door1 and his head turned     
upwards1 as though contemplating the    

skull which is to be seen above the     
facia of ,african characters4 ,it       
appears that this horrible emblem was   
placed there by order of ,don ,pedro1 in
 order to perpetuate the memory of his  
summary punishment of some deceitful    
judges4  ,the ,princes' ,hall and the   
,oratory are the only upper apartments1 
prior to the ,renaissance1 which are    
left for us to examine1--a fire in the  
year #agfb having destroyed many of the 
rooms of the upper story4 ,but we must  
first  ,illustration3 ,,seville         
,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the ,,hundred 
,,virgins4  ,illustration3 ,,seville    
,,alcazar--,,court ,,of ,,the ,,virgins4
  take note of the external objects     
which surround us4 ,don ,pedro's bedroom
 looks on the south over the gardens2   
the ,princes' ,hall looks north1 and    
occupies the upper floor of the chief   
faade1 whose elegant 8ajimeces0         
illuminate it4 ,the oratory is in the   
east wall4 ,in the bedroom there is a   
balcony1 which leads to a wide gallery1 

with other little balconies1 with seats 
running round them1 at the end of which 
there is a sort of turret1 with three   
semi-circular arches1 supported by pairs
 of marble columns1 with capitals of the
 purest ,arab style4 ,the spacious      
gardens stretch at our feet1 forming a  
delightful spectacle4 ,from the         
,princes' ,hall one can perceive1 above 
the watch-towers of the alcazar1 the    
innumerable perforated weather-cocks of 
the cathedral2 and1 towering over all1  
like a gigantic sentinel1 the ,giralda1 
crowned with the sacred sign of the     
conversion to the faith of ,christ4  ,in
 the ,princes' ,hall and in the ,oratory
 the influence of the pointed style of  
architecture is very noticeable2 and yet
 in studying the arches of the ,oratory 
and the little pillars1 which surmount  
the columns in the centre1 the influence
 of ,moorish architecture on the ,gothic
 or pointed architecture of the third   
period is most striking4 ,the columns of
 the ,princes' ,hall1 and of the other  

adjoining apartments1 are of marble1    
with very rich capitals4 ,according to  
,jeronimo ,zurita1 these columns were in
 the royal palace of ,valencia1 and were
 removed after the defeat of ,don       
,pedro1 ,king of ,aragon1 by the ,king  
of ,castile4 ,there are luxurious divans
 all round the hall1 and everything is  
rich except the ceiling1 now destroyed1 
and the floor1 which is poor and in very
 bad repair4 ,the ,oratory was built by 
order of the ,catholic monarchs in      
#aejd2 its altar screen has a picture in
 the centre1 representing the           
,visitation1 with the signature1        
8,niculoso ,francisco ,italiano10 me    
fecit1 which is notable for the mixture 
of the pure ,italian school1 and the    
realistic ,dutch school in its design4  
,the blue tile plaques of this oratory  
are purely ,italian1 and perhaps they   
are the most beautiful examples of this 
class of ,christian ornamentation in    
,andalusia4  ,ford says that the        
,emperor1 ,charles ,v41 married ,doa    

,isabella of ,portugal in this oratory1 
but the statement is not correct4       
,sandoval1 better informed1 describes   
the happy event in the following        
words3--8,eight days after the empress  
entered ,seville1 the emperor entered1  
being greeted with the same ceremonies4 
,he went direct to the principal church1
 and from there passed to the alcazar1  
where the empress awaited him1          
accompanied by the ,duchess of          
,medina-,sidonia1 ,doa ,ana of ,aragon1 
and the ,marchioness of ,cenete1 wife of
 the ,count of ,nassau1 and by other    
great ladies2 the empress and her ladies
 being all most richly dressed4         
,afterwards the emperor arrived2 they   
were married that same night by the     
,cardinal ,legate1 in the great room    
which is called the 8half orange0 7the  
,hall of ,ambassadors71 in the presence 
of all the prelates and grandees        
assembled there4 ,the empress appeared  
to all present one of the most beautiful
 women in the world1 as is testified to 

by those who saw her1 and by her        
portraits4 ,the hour of supper came1 and
 the emperor and empress retired to     
their apartments2 and after midnight1   
the emperor wishing it thus for         
religious reasons1 an altar was erected 
in one of the apartments of the alcazar1
 and the ,archbishop of ,toledo1 who had
 remained for the purpose1 said mass    
there40  ,this marriage1 as ,m4 de      
,latour rightly says1 was the last      
memorable page in the history of the    
alcazar2 and the works completed by the 
emperor are the last notable            
improvements made in the monument4 ,the 
architects1 ,louis and ,gaspar de ,vaga1
 were responsible for important works   
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiii4        
,borders of ,arches4  ,illustration3    
,,seville  ,,alcazar--,,gallery ,,in    
,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,hundred      
,,virgins4  ,illustration3 ,,seville    
,,alcazar--,,the ,,sultana',s           
,,apartment ,,and ,,court ,,of ,,the    
,,virgins4  in the alcazar1 the high    

gallery of the ,court of the ,damsels1  
and those looking south over the gardens
 and over the baths of ,doa ,maria de   
,padilla4 ,new habitations were then    
erected1 which shone with the art of the
 ,renaissance1 intertwined with the     
,arab adornments of the style called    
8plateresco40 ,but the emperor did not  
confine himself to restoring1           
re-building1 and to erecting fresh works
 in the old alcazar2 nor were the       
above-mentioned architects the only ones
 who worked1 but he also enlarged and   
embellished the gardens1 and in that    
which is called the 8,lion ,garden10 he 
had built by a certain ,juan ,hernandez1
 in the year #aedj1 an elegant dining   
hall1 of singular architecture--half    
,italian1 half ,moorish--which1 without 
doubt1 is a worthy dwelling place for a 
fairy princess of the days of chivalry4 
,this supper hall1 or pavilion1 has a   
square plan1 and measures ten steps in  
each frontage2 a gallery of five arches 
surrounds it on each side1 which rest on

 graceful pillars of the rarest marbles 
with capitals in the ,moorish style4 ,a 
frieze is seen1 externally made of      
arabesques1 forming ribbons1 cutting    
each other at angles1 and making stars2 
all the lower part is faced with blue   
tiles of ,triana1 with the outlines of  
the designs in bold relief4 ,inside     
there is another frieze in the          
8plateresque0 style1 cleverly           
perforated1 and a socle of blue tiles   
with a border1 in which shine the arms  
of ,castile and the imperial eagles4 ,in
 the centre rises a beautiful fountain  
with a white marble basin4 ,a facia of  
blue tiles1 in imitation of inlaid tile 
work1 runs around1 and between the work 
one can read the date of its            
construction and the abbreviated name of
 the artificer4 ,the dome is of a       
decadent taste4  ,the wall which        
encloses these gardens to the west is   
decorated in the style called           
8vignolesque10 with stout pilasters1 and
 a frontispiece of two bodies above the 

pond in the garden of the 8,dance10 and 
light arches which form a long 8loggia0 
of beautiful effect4  ,the works carried
 out under ,philip ,,iii41 and ,philip  
,v41 and ,ferdinand ,,vi4 are not worthy
 of close attention4 ,they constructed  
the parts which face the gateway of the 
8banderas10 containing the 8apeadero0   
and the 8armeria40 ,the 8apeadero0 is a 
portico thirty-eight yards long and     
fifteen wide1 with two rows of marble   
columns in pairs4 ,the 8armeria10 or    
armoury1 is a spacious apartment above1 
destined for the object indicated by its
 name4 ,the epoch of the construction of
 both is testified to by a stone set in 
the faade1 which bears the following    
inscription3 8,reigning in ,spain       
,philip ,,iii41 he erected this work in 
the year ,,mdcvii42 ,philip ,v4 enlarged
 and repaired it1 and destined it for   
the royal armoury in the year           
,,mdccxxviii40  ,ferdinand ,,vi4 only   
constructed the offices above the baths 
of ,doa ,maria de ,padilla1 repairing   

the damage caused by the terrible       
earthquake of #agee4  ,the greater part 
of the halls on the upper story looking 
on the gardens perished in the dreadful 
fire of #agfb2 and the ,government      
doubtless fearing the expense which     
would be incurred by a regular          
restoration in the original style1      
ordered all the roofs and ceilings      
destroyed by the fire to be repaired in 
the 8modern manner40 ,the unhappy result
 of this order was to make the ceiling  
of many of the apartments much too low1 
and to scrape away many of the ancient  
arabesques from the walls4 ,in the year 
#ahje the unhappy idea was conceived of 
changing the principal entrance1 and of 
white-washing with hideous lime the     
magnificent stucco work in the ,princes'
 ,hall1 and of other ancient apartments4
 ,the unfortunate reformation even went 
so far as to substitute a plaster       
ceiling1 which makes one shudder1 for   
the beautiful ,arab bowl-shaped one1 and
  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiv4       

,border of ,arches4  ,illustration3     
,,seville  ,,alcazar--,,entrance ,,to   
,,the ,,sleeping ,,saloon ,,of ,,the    
,,moorish ,,kings4  ,illustration3      
,,seville  ,,alcazar--,,dormitory ,,of  
,,the ,,kings4  to put modern windows in
 the hall over the principal faade1     
called the ,hall of the ,princes1 near  
the ,court of the ,dolls2 and also to   
spoil the ceiling of the ,hall of       
,ambassadors with heavy beams and       
supports1 quite ruining the beauty of   
this enamelled half-orange4 ,one is     
curious to know who it was who first    
tried to repair in a measure the harm   
done by these so-called 8restorations40 
,in #ahcc a rational restoration of the 
,court of the ,dolls1 and of the hall   
near it to the north1 was begun with    
laudible zeal by the ,don ,joaquin      
,cortes1 professor of painting1 and the 
intelligent overseer1 ,antonio ,raso1   
and the official1 ,manuel ,cortes4 ,the 
real work of restoration commenced about
 the year #ahdb1 thanks to the          

praiseworthy efforts of ,don ,domingo de
 ,alcega1 administrator of the royal    
patrimony1 and to those who helped him  
in his difficult task1 the distinguished
 artist1 ,don ,joaquin ,dominguez       
,becquer1 and the master artificer1 ,jos
 ,gutierrez y ,lopez4 ,seor ,becquer    
designed the ,arab cornice which to-day 
decorates the outer part of the edifice 
defining the dome of the ,hall of       
,ambassadors1 which had been half       
destroyed in #ahje1 and he never ceased 
to devote his genius to the restoration1
 now in part and again general1 of the  
most precious monument of ,moorish art  
of the fourteenth century4 ,during the  
years #aheb and #ahec the alcalde of the
 royal palaces completed the work of    
replacing some of the stucco ornaments  
in various apartments4 ,afterwards the  
vice-alcalde1 ,don ,alonso ,nuez de     
,prado1 assisted by ,seor ,becquer1     
brought a complete restoration to a     
successful end1 which1 though it may not
 be faultless in the eyes of a modern   

critic1 is still worthy of praise1      
considering the period in which it was  
undertaken4 ,in #ahee the administrator 
of the alcazar invited the ,queen1 ,doa 
,isabella ,,ii41 to interest herself in 
the works1 with the result that he was  
able to cover the ,court of the ,dolls  
with glass1 and to re-build the         
thirty-six arches of the ,court of the  
,damsels4  ,there is no inscription in  
the alcazar which offers a real         
historical or literary interest to the  
archologist4 ,one does not find here the
 fragments of poems on the walls which  
in the ,alhambra rest the eye and speak 
to the intelligence in praising the     
heroic deeds of warriors and the        
beauties of the sumptuous habitations4  
,in the alcazar one reads the ,koran    
with its repeated salutations and some  
praises of ,don ,pedro1 in which the    
praises of the ,mohammedan sultans have 
been suppressed1 also the word1         
,islamism2 but we must draw attention to
 the fact that the greater number of the

 inscriptions are the same as those     
employed in the alcazar of ,granada1    
repeated a thousand times1 and it would 
be tedious and tiresome to accompany the
 artistic description with the same     
verse1 repeated a hundred times1 which  
is to be found in the different         
apartments1 and interrupted a hundred   
times also by others put in at the time 
of the restorations4 ,as the persons who
 were charged with the work of restoring
 the inscriptions did not know the      
ancient language1 they very often placed
 the inscriptions upside down4  ,on the 
faade1 and over the principal entrance  
of the alcazar1 around the twin windows1
 one reads the well-known verses3       
8,glory to our ,lord the ,sultan20      
8,eternal ,glory for ,allah1 the        
perpetual empire for ,allah20 8,lasting 
happiness20 8,benediction20 8,the       
kingdom of ,god1 the power of ,god1     
glory to ,god20 8,happiness and peace1  
and the glory and generosity of         
perpetual felicity20 8,in prosperous    

fortune this palace is the only one40   
,the inscription1 8,there is no         
conqueror but ,god10 placed above and   
below the wide frieze of painted        
porcelain1 in cufic characters1 in our  
opinion1 must be the work of an artist  
from ,granada4  ,illustration3 ,,seville
  ,,alcazar--,,the ,,dormitory4         
,illustration3 ,,seville  ,,alcazar4    
,,front ,,of ,,the ,,sleeping ,,saloon  
,,of ,,the ,,moorish ,,kings4           
,illustration3 ,,alcazar4  ,,sleeping   
,,saloon ,,of ,,the ,,moorish ,,kings4  
,then comes the vestibule1 where one    
sees almost the same inscriptions4 ,the 
,african characters are changed into    
cufic1 or neskis4 ,these are what are in
 the frieze3  8,happiness and prosperity
 are the benefits of ,god20 and after3  
8,glory to our ,lord the ,sultan ,don   
,pedro1 may his victories be            
magnificent40  ,in the ,court of the    
,damsels we find very much the same     
thing3 8,praise to ,god1 on account of  
,his benefits40  ,it must be remarked   

that1 in all the inscriptions mentioned 
above1 the word 8,islamism0 has been    
suppressed1 which proves that the       
artists were the same ,arabs who1 under 
the ,christian dominion1 took advantage 
of the traditional formulas in effacing 
the religious part of the verse4  ,on a 
frieze of the same court3  8,glory to   
our ,sultan ,don ,pedro1 may ,god lend  
him ,his aid and make him victorious10  
c41 c4  ,then follow a number of        
inscriptions of no importance1 where one
 sees repeated3 8,happiness1 ,praise1   
,grandeur2 ,god is ,unique1 the         
,fulfilment of ,hopes20 and this one1   
more worthy of notice1 8,god is ,unique1
 ,he does not ,beget1 ,he was not       
,begotten1 ,he has no ,companion40 ,this
 inscription is also found at ,granada  
on the ,charcoal ,gateway1 in cufic     
characters1 and it proves that it could 
not have been constructed under the     
,christian dominion1 because it is      
completely contrary to the religion of  
,christ2 and1 consequently1 that ,don   

,pedro profited by the work of ,yusuf as
 much as was possible4 ,amador do los   
,rios1 the well-known savant1 supposes  
that artists were brought from ,toledo  
to construct this alcazar2 but this is  
not exact1 they only did the repairs and
 restorations4  ,on one of the doors1   
which like all the rest in this edifice 
has undergone many restorations1 the    
most interesting legend is found3 8,the 
,sultan our ,lord1 the exalted1 noble   
,don ,pedro1 ,king of ,castile and of   
,leon--may ,god perpetuate his          
happiness--ordered ,jalabi1 his         
architect1 to make the doors of worked  
wood for this magnificent portal of     
happiness2 he ordered this in honour of 
the ,ambassadors4 ,joy broke out for    
their construction and dazzling         
embellishment4 ,the chiselings are the  
work of artists from ,toledo1 and it was
 done in the year of grace #adjd4       
8,similar to the twilight of the        
evening1 and very similar to the light  
at dawn of day1 this work is dazzling on

 account of its brilliant colours and   
the intensity of its splendours1 from   
which abundance of felicity flows for   
the happy town where the palaces were   
built1 and these habitations1 which are 
for our ,lord and ,master1 the only one 
who communicates life to his splendour1 
the pious ,sultan1 who is also severe1  
had it built in the town of ,seville1   
with the aid of his intercessor1 in     
honour of ,god40  ,one sees the same    
inscriptions repeated in the ,hall of   
,ambassadors1 and in the room to the    
left one reads3  8,oh6 entrance to the  
habitation newly dazzling and noble1    
,lord of protection1 of magnificence1   
and of virtues40  ,in the ,court of the 
,dolls1 and round the entrance arch1 one
 reads3  8,there is no protection if it 
is not ,allah1 in whom ,i trust1 for ,i 
shall return to him40 8,all that thou   
dost possess comes from ,god10 c41 c4   
,and in the same court 7cufic73 8,oh6   
incomparable ,master1 issue of a royal  
race1 protect it40 8,praise ,god for    

,his benefits40 8,god1 my ,master40  ,in
 the sleeping apartment1 called that of 
the ,moorish kings1 amongst other known 
inscriptions this one is found3 8,oh6   
illustrious new dwelling1 thy splendid  
happiness has progressively increased on
 account of the lasting brilliancy      
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxv4          
,ornament in ,panels on the ,wall4      
,illustration3 ,,seville                
,,alcazar--,,room ,,of ,,the ,,infanta4 
,illustration3 ,,seville                
,,alcazar--,,columns ,,where ,,don      
,,fadrique ,,was ,,murdered4            
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvi4  ,bands1
 ,side of ,arches4  of the greatest     
beauty4 ,thou wert chosen for the place 
where the feasts should be celebrated4  
,he is the support and the rule for all 
good1 source of benefits1 and food of   
courage6 ,for thee44440  ,we left the   
story of ,seville somewhat abruptly to  
deal in detail with the alcazar4 ,under 
,almohade rule1 and while the alcazar   
and the mosque were in course of        

construction1 the city knew peace1 and  
its commerce flourished4 ,but the days  
of its security were limited2 the end of
 the ,moslem domination in ,seville was 
drawing to its close4 ,the revived      
prosperity of the ,mohammedans spurred  
the ,christian ,spaniards to renewed    
efforts to encompass the overthrow of   
the infidels4 ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4    
declared a crusade1 and numbers of      
adventurous ,french and ,english        
free-lances travelled to ,spain in      
answer to the call4 ,but in #aaie the   
,christians were defeated at ,alarcos1  
near ,badajoz1 and again the ambitious  
projects of ,san ,fernando were         
temporarily frustrated4 ,in #abab the   
,almohade army1 it is said to the number
 of #fjj1jjj men1 was almost destroyed  
on the disastrous field of ,las ,navas1 
and the work of the expulsion of the    
,moors from ,spain was begun4 ,city     
after city was captured by the soldiers 
of ,fernando ,,iii41 ,cordova fell in   
#abce1 and the conqueror1 with the help 

of the ,king of ,granada1 who had sworn 
allegiance to the ,christian monarch1   
marched against ,seville4  ,the army    
brought by the holy king to ,seville was
 the most brilliant and numerous ever   
seen in ,christian or ,mohammedan       
,spain4 ,no smaller force would have    
been sufficient for the taking of a city
 which contained #ab1jjj ,mussulman     
families divided into twenty-four       
tribes1 and which had been in the hands 
of the followers of ,islam for more than
 five centuries4 ,in the spring of the  
year #abce the army was moved from      
,cordova and divided into two parts1 one
 under the command of the ,prince of    
,molina and the ,master of ,santiago1   
which was to march to the ,ajarafe2 and 
the other under the direction of the    
,king of ,granada and the ,master of    
,calatrava1 which was to harass the     
country near ,jerez4 ,the attack on     
,seville and its territories commenced  
immediately1 and a series of            
uninterrupted victories prefaced the    

happy termination which was to crown the
 constant and generous efforts of the   
,christian warriors4  ,seville1 at this 
period the court and seat of the        
,islamite empire1 was a city calculated 
to defy the strategy of the most skilful
 generals1 the valour of the most       
devoted men at arms4 ,in form it would  
resemble a shield1 stretching from      
north-east to south-west4 ,its head and 
right side were formed by the walls with
 its towers1 defended by a barbican and 
a moat1 with eight gates and a narrow   
side entrance4 ,these gates were        
veritable fortresses4 ,they were        
defended by towers and bastions4 ,their 
exits were narrow1 and never in front2  
the exterior passages to the city had   
angles and turnings1 and very often the 
first turning opened into a square armed
 place1 with narrow doorways at both    
sides4 8,the gates of ,seville10 says   
,morgado1 8were constructed of planks of
 iron1 fastened on to strong hides with 
steel bolts4 ,and because it was best   

defended on its west side by the river  
,guadalquivir1 which protected more than
 half the city1 with the six gates in   
that side1 it was thought well to place 
the strongest walls and the best        
fortified towers1 with as many          
barbicans1 and the widest and deepest   
moats on the other side40  ,the left    
side of the shield boasted the majestic 
curve of the river1 the arsenal1 and    
another series of walls and gates2 but  
at this part1 there were no moats nor   
false entrances1 because it had the     
strong towers of the ,ajarafe opposite  
to defend it4 ,there were four gates on 
this side1 not counting  ,illustration3 
,,seville  ,,alcazar4  ,,gate ,,of ,,the
 ,,hall ,,of ,,san ,,fernando4          
,illustration3 ,,alcazar4  ,,gallery    
,,of ,,the ,,hall ,,of ,,san ,,fernando4
  ,illustration3 ,,seville              
,,alcazar--,,hall ,,in ,,which ,,king   
,,san ,,fernando ,,died4  ,illustration3
 ,,plate ,,xxxvii4  ,bands4 ,side of    
,arches4  that of ,bib-,ragel1 which    

occupied the north angle of the city2   
and1 in addition to these1 it is        
believed there was a small postern1     
afterwards called the 8atarazanas10     
through which it is supposed that       
,axataf1 or 8,sakkf0 his ,moorish name1 
went out to receive ,king ,ferdinand1   
and to deliver up the keys of ,seville4 
,the old wharf of ,saracen ,seville came
 as far as this2 and in all the space1  
which to-day is called ,el ,barrio de   
los ,humeros1 or the ,chimney ,quarter1 
the ,mohammedans had their arsenal and  
shipbuilding yard1 while the sailors and
 fishermen of the ,guadalquivir were    
also housed in this district4 ,the ,gate
 of the ,triana must have been in the   
vicinity2 and the ,gate of ,hercules was
 directly opposite the ,ajarafe1 which  
was also called the ,garden of          
,hercules4 ,with the gardens and        
orchards of the ,macarena1 which adorned
 it to the north1 the plains and woods  
of ,tablada1 which supplied it with corn
 and wood to the east and south1 with an

 abundant supply of fresh water brought 
from ,carmona by the aqueduct1 with the 
river which was its principal commercial
 artery to the west1 with the castles on
 the opposite side of the ,guadalquivir1
 protecting the river and its bridge1   
and occupying all the heights from      
,azalfarache nearly as far as ,italica1 
,seville was one of the best situated1  
best supplied1 best defended1 and most  
prosperous cities of the ,mussulman     
empire in ,andalusia4 ,to attack her she
 must be cut off from the ,ajarafe1 and 
her bridge of boats must be taken4 ,it  
would have been useless to descend to   
,italica and be exposed to the assaults 
of the city and of ,triana1 as long as  
the bridge existed1 and this task was   
thought to be beyond the power and      
ingenuity of any enemy4  ,the bridge of 
boats1 protected by a great wooden      
chain1 linked by iron rings1 kept the   
communication open between the city and 
the ,ajarafe1 that vast and fertile     
district from which the ,sevillians     

received all sorts of supplies1 and     
where the ,saracen magnates had their   
country villas4 ,this delightful ,garden
 of ,hercules1 in whose praise many     
,arab writers have exhausted the        
treasure of their rich and exalted      
imagination1 has been described in the  
following manner by an anonymous poet1  
in some verses dedicated to the         
,abbadite ,sultan ,almutamed3 8,seville 
is a young widow1 her husband is ,abbad1
 her diadem the ,aljarafe1 her collar   
the winding river40 ,indeed1 says the   
poet ,ibn ,saffar1 8the ,aljarafe       
surpasses in beauty and fertility all   
the lands of the world1 the oil of its  
olives goes even to far ,alexandria1 its
 farms and orchards are superior to     
those of other countries on account of  
their extension and convenience2 and1   
always white and pure1 they seem to be  
so many stars in a sky of olive         
gardens40 ,travelled ,arab historians   
recall with pleasure the delights of    
,andalus2 preferring ,seville to either 

,baghdad or ,cairo1 saying3 8,the       
,aljarafe is a luxuriant wilderness     
without wild beasts1 and its            
,guadalquivir is a ,nile without        
crocodiles40 ,one of the authors1 quoted
 by ,el-,makkari1 gives the following   
exact description of the ,aljarafe3 8,it
 is an immense district1 measuring forty
 miles long1 and almost as many broad1  
formed of pleasing hills of reddish     
earth1 on which there are woods of olive
 and fig-trees1 which offer a delicious 
shade to the traveller in the hours of  
the mid-day heat4 ,this district        
contains a numerous population1         
scattered in beautiful farms or         
collected in villages1 none of which are
 wanting for markets1 clean baths1 fine 
buildings1 and other conveniences1 such 
as are usually only to be found in      
cities of the first order40  ,this      
fertile territory1 which the ,saracens  
called the 8,orchard of ,hercules10 rose
 gradually to the west of ,seville1     
after stretching along the right bank of

 the river4  ,illustration3 ,,seville   
,,alcazar--,,room ,,of ,,the ,,prince4  
,illustration3 ,,seville                
,,alcazar--,,view ,,of ,,the ,,gallery  
,,from ,,the ,,second ,,floor4  ,its    
heights were covered with farmhouses and
 hamlets1 as the ,arab writer indicates1
 which formed1 as it were1 a continuous 
population1 rich in provisions1 from    
which ,seville usually received abundant
 supplies of all necessaries4 ,there    
were four principal villages3           
,aznalfarche 7to-day1 ,san ,juan de     
,alfarache71 ,aznalcazar1 ,aznalcollar1 
and ,solucar de ,albayda1 strong walled 
places1 where the ,mohammedans collected
 the revenues of the district4 ,the     
fringe1 formed by the heights of the    
,aljarafe1 was given the name of        
8,mountain of ,mercies0 7,jebl arrahmah7
 by the ,mohammedans1 on account of its 
extraordinary fertility1 a surprising   
abundance of figs1 known as 8,al-kuiti0 
and 8,ash-shari10 being produced there4 
,the ,sevillians faced the ,christian   

attack with boldness1 bred of           
confidence1 and a determination to      
strain every nerve1 and exhaust every   
resource1 in repelling the invaders4    
,they were engaging upon their last     
throw for the sovereignty of ,andalusia4
 ,fernando's warships encountered the   
,moorish fleet at the mouth of the      
,guadalquivir1 and drove them from their
 position1 and the infidels collected   
their forces to make a last stand on    
land4 ,but their stubborn front was     
broken by the ,christian host1 and the  
war-worn remnant of the ,moorish army   
prepared to withstand a siege4 ,even    
when the bridge of boats was destroyed1 
and all communications with the suburb  
of ,triana and the surrounding country  
was cut off1 the ,moors still fought on 
within the city walls1 and it was not   
until fifteen months had elapsed that   
,seville was starved into submission4   
,on the #bcrd ,february1 #abce1         
,fernando entered the city1 and ,abdul  
,hassan1 rejecting the king's invitation

 to become a dependent officer of the   
,spanish ,crown1 retired with thousands 
of his vanquished ,almohades to ,africa4
  ,fernando's first act was to have the 
mosque purified for the celebration of a
 high and imposing ,mass2 he took up his
 quarters in the alcazar2 divided the   
,moorish possessions among his knights1 
and rested his army after their long and
 arduous campaign4 ,four years later he 
died of dropsy4 ,he was succeeded by    
,alfonso ,x41 who founded the           
,university of ,seville1 devoted his    
leisure to the study of poetry1 history1
 and ancient laws1 and merited the title
 of 8,el ,sabio10 8the ,learned40 ,but  
although the beautiful alcazar appealed 
to the studious temperament of 8,el     
,sabio10 the fortress-palace is more    
closely associated with his son1 ,pedro 
,i41 ,pedro1 8the ,cruel10 the most     
renowned of all the ,christian          
sovereigns who ruled ,andalusia from    
,seville4  ,pedro's character has been  
made the study of many biographers and  

historians1 and he has not been without 
his literary whitewashers1 but the      
8incidents0 which illuminate his career 
do not place him in a favourable light4 
,his ,bohemianism endeared him to the   
people1 and a certain sense of justice1 
in cases in which his own interests were
 not concerned1 has gained for him the  
title of 8,the ,justiciary40 ,it may be 
that the plottings of ,albuquerque1 his 
father's chancellor1 and the perfidious 
behaviour of his relatives1 including   
his own mother1 served to warp and      
embitter his nature2 but he had no      
sooner1 at the instigation of his       
mistress1 ,maria de ,padilla1 taken up  
the reigns of government1 than he       
revealed the cruelty and malignity of   
his character4 ,leonora de ,guzmar1 the 
mother of ,alfonso's illegitimate son1  
,enrique1 was done to death in his      
prisons2 ,abu ,said1 the ,king of       
,granada1 was seized by treachery1      
robbed1 and executed2 ,urraca ,osorio1  
for refusing ,pedro's addresses1 was    

burned to death in the market-square of 
,seville2 his wife1 ,blanche of         
,bourbon1 was mysteriously murdered2    
,don ,fadrique1 his half-brother1 was   
assassinated with ,pedro's dagger2 and  
he himself was eventually defeated      
,illustration3 ,,seville  ,,tower ,,of  
,,the ,,giralda4  ,illustration3        
,,seville  ,,details ,,of ,,the         
,,giralda ,,tower4  in battle by the    
troops of his brother ,henry and        
,bertrand du ,guesclin1 and killed in   
single combat by ,henry4  ,pedro wearied
 of his first wife1 ,blanche of         
,bourbon1 in forty-eight hours2 and1    
having had his marriage annulled1 he    
espoused the handsome ,juaa de ,castro1 
only to desert her a few days later to  
return to his beautiful mistress1 ,maria
 de ,padilla4 ,this woman appears to    
have been the only person who inspired  
,pedro with more than a transitory      
passion1 and the courtiers testified to 
the power she wielded by chivalrously   
drinking the waters of her bath in ,el  

,jardin del ,crucero4 ,but ,pedro's     
passion for his mistress1 though        
lasting1 was not monopolising1 and his  
amours supply us with an incident which 
reveals at once the king's ferocity1 his
 humour1 and his alleged respect for    
justice4 ,it was his custom at night to 
muffle himself in a cloak and adventure 
alone into the city in quest of         
entertainment4 ,on one of these         
excursions he encountered a hidalgo     
serenading a lady1 whose favours he     
himself coveted4 ,cloaked by the dim    
light1 and made secure by the emptiness 
of the street1 the king fought and slew 
his rival1 in defiance of his own order1
 which made street fighting punishable  
upon the officers of the city when they 
failed to bring the disturbers of the   
peace to justice4 ,he had not bargained 
for the noise to disturb the rest of an 
old lady in the vicinity2 he had not    
observed a venerable head protruding    
through an upper window4 ,believing the 
incident to be 8wrapped in mystery10 he 

summoned the alcade of the city to his  
presence1 acquainted him with the fact  
that the body of a hidalgo1 pierced to  
the heart1 had been found in the street1
 and gave him the option of discovering 
the murderer within forty-eight hours1  
or of being hanged in his stead4 ,and   
hanged he doubtless would have been but 
for the timely confidence of the old    
lady who had witnessed the fight4 ,the  
alcade came again to the king with the  
news that the murderer had been found1  
and would be on view upon the gallows   
within the time specified by ,pedro4    
,curious to see who had been secured to 
expiate his sin1 or eager to fasten a   
new dereliction of duty upon the alcade1
 the king went to the place of execution
 and found1 suspended from the gallows1 
an effigy of himself4 8,good10 said the 
king1 8justice has been done6 ,i am     
satisfied40 ,there is a street in       
,seville which is called the ,calle     
della ,cabeza del ,rey ,don ,pedro1 to  
commemorate the duel2 and the alley from

 which the old lady observed the issue  
is known as the ,calle del ,candilejo1  
8the street of the candlestick40  ,the  
alcazar extends along the river as far  
as the ,golden ,tower1 built during the 
reign of ,yusuf ,almotacid ,ben ,nasir1 
by the ,almohadan governor ,abulala4    
,the view of ,seville1 from the         
,christina promenade1 the famous        
thoroughfare1 which extends from the    
palace of the ,duke of ,montpensier to  
the ,golden ,tower1 is a spectacle of   
which the ,sevillians never tire1 and   
visitors are never weary of praising4   
,the tower itself1 which took its       
present name either from the fact that  
it held the gold which the ,spanish     
ships brought from ,america1 or because 
,don ,pedro secreted his treasures      
there1 is octagonal in shape1 with three
 receding floors1 crowned with          
battlements1 and washed by the          
,guadalquivir4 ,the shimmering ,torre   
del ,oro1 reflecting its light upon the 
broad bosom of the rose-coloured river  

beneath the setting sun1 has inspired   
poets and painters of every age and     
nationality4 ,george ,borrow believes it
 probable that it derived its name from 
the fact that the beams of the setting  
sun focussed upon it makes it appear to 
be built of pure gold2 and then1 carried
 away by the loveliness of the picture1 
he cries3 8,cold1 cold must the heart be
 which can remain insensible to the     
beauties of this magic  ,illustration3  
,,plate ,,xxxviii4  ,ornaments on       
,panels4  ,illustration3 ,,seville      
,,court ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of         
,,pilatos4  ,illustration3 ,,seville    
,,court ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of         
,,pilatos4  scene1 to do justice to     
which the pencil of ,claude himself were
 barely equal4 ,often have ,i shed tears
 of rapture whilst ,i beheld it1 and    
listened to the thrush and the          
nightingale piping forth their melodious
 songs in the woods1 and inhaled the    
breeze laden with the perfume of the    
thousand orange gardens of ,seville40   

,of the great mosque of ,seville1 which 
was built by ,abu ,yakub ,yusuf in      
#aaga1 and completed by the addition of 
the tower in #aaif by his son1 only the 
barest traces now remain4 ,it is        
impossible to determine who really      
designed the famous ,tower1 now called  
the ,giralda2 but historians favour the 
claims of the renowned architect1 whose 
name is variously spelt ,gever1 ,hever1 
or ,djabir1 and who is erroneously      
supposed to have been the inventor of   
algebra4 ,in its original state this    
structure was an immense and stately    
pile1 planned on the model of the mosque
 of ,cordova1 and decorated with lavish 
magnificence4 ,in #abce it was dedicated
 to the service of ,god and the ,virgin1
 but it retained all its ,moorish       
characteristics until #adja4 ,the ,moors
 would have destroyed the building and  
the beautiful ,muezzin tower before it  
fell into the hands of ,san ,fernando's 
soldiers1 and thus save their sacred    
temple from desecration by the          

8infidels10 but the king's son1 ,alonso 
8el ,sabio10 threatened to visit such   
spoliation upon the garrison by sacking 
the city4 ,this threat had the desired  
effect1 and for nearly two centuries the
 religious spirit of ,seville found     
expression in a temple which had been   
built to the glory of ,allah4 ,but at   
the beginning of the fifteenth century  
the mosque was razed to the ground1 and 
,seville cathedral began to take that   
huge and splendid form which1 in the    
words of the pious originators1 was to  
inspire succeeding generations with the 
idea that its designers were mad4 ,it   
was to be the greatest cathedral in     
,spain1 and it ended in being second    
only to that of ,cordova1 but still the 
third largest ,christian church in the  
world4 ,its area of #abe1jjj square feet
 is #ce1jjj square feet less than       
,cordova cathedral1 and #aje1jjj square 
feet less than ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome2  
but it is #ae1jjj square feet greater   
than that of ,milan ,cathedral1 and     

greater by #da1jjj square feet than ,st4
 ,paul's in ,london4  ,the ,moors1 in   
building their mosque1 employed the     
remains of ruined ,roman and ,gothic    
structures1 and the ,spaniards in #adja 
used the ,arab foundations in the       
construction of their cathedral1 while  
the ,moorish tower was preserved to do  
duty as a spire4 ,in its original form  
the ,giralda was only #bej feet high1   
the additional #ajj feet which forms the
 belfry being added by ,fernando ,ruiz  
in #aefg4 ,in #aejf the cathedral was   
completed4 ,five years later the dome   
collapsed1 and was re-erected by ,juan  
,gil de ,hontanon4 ,extensive           
restoration work was carried out in     
#ahhb1 under the superintendence of     
,cassova2 but six years after this work 
was completed1 the dome again gave way1 
and workmen have been constantly        
employed ever since in reconstructing   
this part of the vast building4         
,according to ,contreras1 the ,giralda  
is the most expressive monument of the  

,mohammedan dominion2 and1 despite all  
that has been said of its ,moorish      
structure and primitive ,african style1 
it is in his opinion a perfect work of  
,arab art4 ,the construction is anterior
 by four centuries1 at least1 to that of
 any tower of ,granadian architecture   
such as that which to-day belongs to the
 ,church of ,st4 ,john of the ,kings1   
but there is not the slightest          
difference in the manner of their       
ornamentation1 and the rhomboids of     
painted bricks1 the festoons of terra   
cotta1 the windows with double arches1  
following the segments of a circle1     
present all the variety of the alcazar  
of ,granada4  ,illustration3 ,,plate    
,,xxxix4  ,ornaments on ,panels4        
,illustration3 ,,seville  ,,house ,,of  
,,pilatos--,,view ,,in ,,the ,,court    
,,by ,,the ,,door ,,of ,,the ,,chapel4  
,illustration3 ,,seville  ,,house ,,of  
,,pilatos--,,chapel4  8,here one sees   
plainly10 ,contreras says1 8the origin  
of the superposed arch of the belvedere 

of ,lindaraja of the ,alhambra1 of the  
hanging arch of the three entrances of  
the ,lions' ,court1 of the festoons of  
the ,court of the ,fountain1 and of all 
those forms1 so delicate and so         
luxurious1 that they are without equal  
in architecture4 ,it is in the ,giralda 
that one finds the beginning of truly   
decorative art4 ,built of varnished     
bricks1 with a stout construction1 as is
 demanded by the faade of a very high   
tower1 it is to be regretted that such a
 beautiful edifice should be crowned by 
so strange a body as its gilded         
frontages and painted porcelains40      
,with the exception of the ,giralda1 and
 part of the lower portions of the      
walls1 the ,moorish remains that are to 
be recognised in the cathedral are few  
and not remarkable4 ,the ,puerta del    
,perdon in the ,calle de ,alemanes was  
reconstructed by ,alfonso ,,xi41 after  
the victory of ,salado1 and the         
plateresque ornamentations were added by
 ,bartolome ,lopez about #aebb4 ,but    

although the bronze-covered doors have  
been disfigured by paint1 their ,moorish
 character is still distinctly          
traceable4 ,through the gateway we enter
 the old ,moorish courtyard1 the ,patio 
de los ,naranjas 7,court of ,oranges71  
robbed of its former grandeur1 but still
 distinguished by its beautiful ,arabic 
fountain1 with an octagonal basin1 which
 occupies the centre of the court4 ,from
 this spot we get a splendid view of the
 cathedral and the massive yet delicate 
,giralda tower1 which has been declared 
to be even more to ,seville than        
,giotto's ,campanile is to ,florence1 or
 that of ,st4 ,mark's to ,venice4 8,long
 before the traveller reaches the city10
 writes an imaginative admirer1 8the    
,giralda seems to beckon him onwards to 
his promised land2 during all his       
peregrinations through the intricate    
streets and lanes it is his trusted     
guide1 always ready to serve him1       
soaring as it does far above all        
surroundings1 it is a thing of unfailing

 beauty and interest as day by day he   
passes and repasses it1 or wanders about
 its precincts2 it tells him even afar  
off1 how the day moves on1 and how the  
night2 and it dwells in his thoughts the
 fairest memory of his sojournings in   
the queen of the ,southern cities40     
,from the ,court of ,oranges to the     
,giralda the way leads through the      
,capilla de la ,granada of the          
cathedral4 ,a solitary horseshoe arch   
reminds us of the ,moorish origin of the
 building2 and the huge elephant's tusk 
suspended from the roof1 a bridle that  
tradition declares belonged to the      
,cid's steed1 and a stuffed crocodile1  
are ,oriental rather than ,christian    
relics4 ,and the ,giralda1 in spite of  
its added belfry--its surmounting figure
 symbolic of the ,christian faith--and  
the fact that it is under the special   
patronage of the two ,santas ,justa and 
,rufina1 8who are much revered at       
,seville10 is still a ,moorish monument4
 ,at its base the tower is a square of  

fifty feet1 and it rises by a series of 
stages1 or cuerpos1 which are named     
after the architecture1 decoration or   
use for which they are designed4 ,at the
 ,cuerpo de ,campanas is hung a peal of 
bells1 of which the largest1 ,santa     
,maria1 eighteen tons in weight1 and    
referred to in the vernacular as 8the   
plump10 was set up in #aehh by the order
 of the ,archbishop ,don ,gonzola de    
,mena1 at a cost of ten thousand ducats4
 ,above1 we come to the cuerpo of the   
,azucenas1 or white lilies1 with which  
it is embellished2 and1 going still     
higher1 we reach ,el ,cuerpo del ,reloj1
 the clock-tower1 in which was erected1 
in #adjj1 the first tower-clock ever    
made in ,spain4 ,portions of this old   
timepiece were employed by the ,monk    
,jose ,cordero in making1 in #agfe1 the 
clock which is working to this day4 ,the
 belfry1 which is the home of a colony  
of pigeons and hawks1 is girdled with a 
motto from the proverb1 8,nomen ,domini 
fortissima turris0--78,the name of the  

,lord is a strong tower407 ,the         
,illustration3 ,,seville  ,,gallery ,,of
 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,pilatos4          
,illustration3 ,,seville  ,,gallery ,,of
 ,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of  
,,pilatos4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xl4
  ,ornaments on ,panels4  ,moorish      
summit was crowned with four brazen     
balls1 so large that in order to get    
them into the building it was necessary 
to remove the keystone of a door called 
the ,gate of the ,muezzin1 leading from 
the mosque to the interior of the tower4
 ,the iron bar1 which supported the     
balls1 weighed about ten cwt41 and the  
whole was cast by a celebrated          
alchemist1 a ,sicilian1 named ,abu      
,leyth1 at a cost of #ej1jjj sterling4  
,these particulars were set down by a   
,mohammedan writer of the period1 and   
their accuracy was proved in #acie 7#aeg
 years after the overthrow of the ,arab 
dominion71 when the earthquake threw the
 entire mechanism1 balls and supports1  
to the ground1 where they were weighed1 

and the figures were found to be        
absolutely correct4 ,the figure of ,la  
,f1 8,the ,faith10 which now tops the   
,giralda1 was cast by ,bartolom ,morel  
in #aefh4 ,it stands fourteen feet high1
 and weighs twenty-five cwts41 yet so   
wonderful is the workmanship that it    
turns with every breath of the wind4    
,the head of the female figure is       
crowned with a ,roman helmet1 the right 
hand bears the ,labaro1 or banner1 of   
,constantine1 and in the left it holds  
out a palm branch1 symbolical of        
conquest4  ,but when we return from this
 8strange composite fane10 with its     
,christian summit surmounting a ,moslem 
tower1 which again has its foundations  
in a ,roman temple1 when we re-cross the
 ,court of ,oranges1 with its ,moorish  
fountain1 flanked by a ,christian       
pulpit1 and enter the cathedral1 the    
mind is transported at a bound from the 
fairy-like beauties of ,morisco         
ornamentation to the sombre1            
awe-inspiring majesty1 which prompted   

,theophile ,gautier to the reflection   
that 8the most extravagant and          
monstrously prodigious ,hindoo pagodas  
are not to be mentioned in the same     
century as the ,cathedral of ,seville4  
,it is a mountain scooped out1 a valley 
turned topsy-turvy2 ,notre ,dame1 at    
,paris1 might walk erect in the middle  
nave1 which is of frightful height2     
pillars as large round as towers1 and   
which appear so slender that they make  
you shudder1 rise out of the ground1 or 
descend from the vaulted roof1 like     
stalactites in a giant's grotto40       
,lomas1 who finds the exterior of the   
cathedral 8simply beneath criticism10   
and deplores that 8age after age a great
 band of glorifiers of self1 through    
self's handiwork1 should have been      
employed in producing what they         
determined should be a world's marvel10 
is compelled to admit that 8the first   
view of the interior is one of the      
supreme moments of a lifetime4 ,the     
glory and majesty of it are almost      

terrible4 ,no other building1 surely1 is
 so fortunate as this in what may be    
called its presence40 ,even ,george     
,borrow1 who thought more of his beloved
 testaments than of ,spanish monuments  
erected to 8the spiritual tyranny of the
 ,court of ,rome10 was feign to declare 
that it is impossible to wander through 
the cathedral of ,seville 8without      
experiencing sensations of sacred awe   
and deep astonishment02 and ,caveda     
describes the general effect as 8truly  
majestic40  ,the ,italian rhapsodist1   
,edmondo de ,amicis1 who always succeeds
 in conveying a strikingly convincing   
impression of the spectacles that       
fascinate his sensitive mind1 is at his 
best in his description of ,seville     
cathedral4 8,at your first entrance10 he
 says1 8you are bewildered1 you feel as 
if you are wandering in an abyss1 and   
for several moments you do nothing but  
glance around you in that immense space1
 almost as if to assure yourself that   
your eyes are not deceiving you1 nor    

your fancy playing you some trick4 ,then
 you approach one of the pillars1       
measure it1 and look at the more distant
 ones1 which1 though as large as towers1
 appear so slender that it makes you    
tremble to think that the building is   
resting upon them4 ,you traverse them   
with  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xli4     
,ornaments on ,panels4  ,illustration3  
,,seville  ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,palace  
,,of ,,medina-,c,,li4  a glance from    
floor to ceiling1 and it seems as if you
 could almost count the moments it would
 take for the eye to climb them4 ,there 
are five aisles1 each one of which might
 form a church4 ,in the centre one1     
another cathedral1 with its cupola and  
bell tower1 could easily stand4 ,all of 
them together form sixty-eight bold     
vaulted ceilings1 which seem to expand  
and rise slowly as you look at them4    
,every thing is enormous in this        
cathedral4 ,the principal chapel1 placed
 in the centre of the great nave1 and   
almost high enough to touch the ceiling1

 looks like a chapel built for giant    
priests1 to whose knees the ordinary    
altars would not reach4 ,the paschal    
candle seems like the mast of a ship1   
and the bronze candlestick which holds  
it1 like the pillars of a church4 ,the  
choir is a museum of sculpture and      
chiselling4 ,the chapels are worthy of  
the church1 for they contain the        
masterpieces of sixty-seven sculptors   
and thirty-eight painters4444 ,the      
chapel of ,san ,ferdinand1 which        
contains the sepulchres of this king and
 his wife ,beatrice1 of ,alonso the     
,wise1 the celebrated minister1 ,florida
 ,blanca1 and other illustrious         
personages1 is one of the richest and   
most beautiful of all4 ,the body of     
,ferdinand1 who redeemed ,seville from  
the dominion of the ,arabs1 clothed in  
his uniform1 with crown and mantle1     
rests in a crystal casket1 covered with 
a veil4 ,on one side1 is his sword which
 he carried on the day of his entrance  
into ,seville2 on the other1 a staff of 

cane1 an emblem of command4 ,in that    
same chapel is preserved a little ivory 
,virgin1 which the holy king carried to 
war with him1 and other relics of great 
value40 ,and here also1 although ,de    
,amicis makes no mention of them1 are   
the keys of ,seville which ,abdul       
,hassan handed to ,ferdinand at the     
surrender of the city4 ,one key is of   
silver1 and bears the inscription1 8,may
 ,allah grant that ,islam may rule for  
ever in this city40 ,the other key is   
made of iron gilt1 and is of ,mudejar   
workmanship4 ,it is inscribed1 8,the    
,king of ,kings will open2 the ,king of 
the ,earth will enter40  ,in its        
churches and its old houses1 ,seville is
 rich in ,moorish influences1 and       
exhibits abundant traces of ,morisco    
art1 which prevailed against the        
material dominancy of the ,christian    
conquerors4 ,the reconciled ,arabs who  
remained as subjects of ,ferdinand      
became the chief of the most            
lavishly-remunerated artisans of the    

city4 ,they pursued their craft in the  
dwellings of the rich2 and in the       
churches of the 8infidel40 ,untrammelled
 by religion and uninspired by faith1   
they worked for art's sake1 and the     
substantial pecuniary award that        
sweetened their labours4 ,the church of 
,san ,marco has a beautiful ,moorish    
tower built in imitation of the         
,giralda1 and second only to the minaret
 tower of the cathedral in point of     
height2 ,san ,gil is a ,christianised   
,mezquita2 ,santa ,catalina reveals the 
survival of ,moorish art in its faade1  
while its principal chapel is ,gothic4  
,in nearly all the sacred edifices of   
antiquity the combination of ,moorish   
and ,renaissance architecture betrays an
 incongruity of style and sentiment     
which is only to be found among the     
,christian churches of ,spain4 ,and if  
the ,catholic kings1 who were sworn to  
the extirpation of the ,moslems1 allowed
 the ,moors to build their churches in  
the style of temples devoted to ,allah1 

it is not surprising that many of the   
finest private residences of the city   
retain a ,moorish design1 and possess a 
distinctly ,oriental atmosphere4  ,the  
,casa de ,pilatos1 which has been       
pronounced the fourth great monument of 
older ,seville1 was commenced in #aejj  
by ,don ,pedro ,enriquez1 in the then   
popular decadent ,saracenic style1 and  
was completed by his son1 ,fadrique1 in 
imitation of ,pilate's palace at        
,jerusalem4 ,in accordance with this    
scheme1 he fashioned a reception-hall1  
called the  ,illustration3 ,,plate      
,,xlii4  ,frieze in the ,upper ,chamber1
 ,house of ,sanchez4  ,prtorium1 erected
 an upright column--a gift of ,pope     
,pius ,v4--copied from the pillar at    
which ,christ was scourged1 and made a  
replica of the basin into which the     
thirty pieces of silver were counted4   
,when the house came into the possession
 of the first ,duke of ,alcal1 he was   
acting as the ,spanish viceroy at       
,naples1 and he filled the rooms and    

corridors with ,roman busts and         
statuary1 gathered from ,italy and the  
ruins of ,italica4 ,on every side the   
art treasures of the ,romans adorn the  
perfect ,moorish colonnades1 and the    
shadows of ,roman sculptures are thrown 
upon diapered marble pavements from     
light that enters through ,arab lattices
 and ajimez windows4 ,it has been       
described as a great curiosity shop1 but
 to the art lover it is a treasure house
 of almost infinite beauty and variety4 
,the ,moorish palace of the ,duke de    
,alba1 in the ,calle de las ,dueas1 once
 consisted of eleven courtyards1 nine   
fountains1 and more than a hundred      
marble pillars1 and was surrounded by a 
garden1 which is a forest of orange     
trees and myrtles4 ,in ,seville one     
wanders through streets which are       
redolent of ,arabia1 and peep into      
countless ,oriental patios1 cool with   
fountains1 and shaded by palms and      
,eastern canopies4 ,one 8feels the ,east
 a-calling0--the colour1 the scent1 the 

witchery of it gets into one's          
blood--and one recognises the truth that
 inspired the old ,spanish saying3 8,to 
whom ,god loves ,he gives a house in    
,seville40     ,,toledo   ,toledan      
history proper1 as distinguished from   
the mixture of fable and tradition which
 are associated with the story of this  
ancient and royal city1 dates from the  
invasion of the ,goths4 ,toledo was old 
when ,euric successfully scaled its     
seven rocks and stormed its             
battlements--how old1 cannot be         
determined4 ,legend claims that the town
 was in existence when ,god made the    
sun2 less exalted imagination dates its 
foundation no further back than the days
 of ,tubal1 the grandson of ,noah4      
,alphonsus1 8the ,learned10 and ,diego  
,mossem ,valera1 the historian of       
,isabel the ,catholic1 agree that it was
 built by ,pyrrhus1 the son-in-law of   
,king ,hispan1 and a captain of the army
 of ,cyrus4 ,hercules has been claimed  
as the father of ,toledo by ,rufo ,festo

 ,avieno1 and ,ferecio1 one of the      
companions of ,ulysses1 is held by some 
to have retreated to this spot to escape
 the blood-vengeance of that little band
 of ,greek adventurers4 ,other legends  
declare the city to be of ,jewish       
origin2 and its builders1 the ,judians1 
who fled from ,jerusalem before the     
victorious hosts of ,nebuchadnezzar4    
,don ,rodrigo ,jimenez de ,rada         
discovers the founders of ,toledo in    
,tolemon and ,brutus1 two ,roman consuls
 in the reign of ,ptolemy ,evergetes1   
and more reasonable supposition favours 
the theory that it was first settled by 
nomadic ,celtic shepherds1 who forsook  
their flocks to erect walls and         
fortifications on the rocky eminence    
above the ,tagus4 ,the little that is   
known of the origin and beginning of    
,toledo2 the very mystery and obscurity 
of its earliest days1 is accepted by the
 old historian1 ,alcocer1 as a proof of 
its antiquity and nobility4 ,rais1 the  
,moorish writer1 says that ,tago1 at    

,toledo1 was one of the eleven governors
 of ,carpetania4 ,tago was foully       
murdered by ,hasdrubal1 the successor of
 ,hamilcar1 and the assassination of    
,hasdrubal was followed by so determined
 an insurrection that even ,hannibal was
 forced to retreat before the infuriated
 ,carpetanians4 ,but ,hannibal          
retreated1 only to return with a        
reinforced army1 and break ,carpetania  
beneath the might of ,carthagenian rule4
 ,in #aia ,b4,c41 after the fall of     
,carthage1 ,hilermo surrendered ,toledo 
to the ,roman forces1 under ,marcus     
,fulvius ,nobilior4 ,but ,toledo held   
itself sullenly and haughtily aloof from
 the affairs of ,rome4 ,viriate and     
,caius ,plancius might cut each other's 
throats on the banks of the ,tagus2     
,sertorius might nurse his hates within 
the city2 ,csar and ,pompey might be    
locked in a death struggle--those things
 mattered nothing to the contemptuous   
and independent ,toledans4 ,the ,goth   
was the first real conqueror of ,toledo2

 and the city1 outwearing the scars of  
,rome1 and throwing off the marks of the
 ,moors1 is1 to-day1 as insistently     
,gothic as ,cordova and ,seville are    
unmistakably ,moorish4  ,one sees       
,toledo from the distance1 from the     
bridges1 and from the heart of the city1
 and recognises that it is as it has    
always been--that it will go down into  
the tomb of the centuries unchanged4 ,it
 grew 8out of the night of ages0--its   
rocky throne has defied the ravages of  
time and the transforming ingenuity of  
man4 ,maurice ,barrs1 who has felt the  
majesty and melancholy of this gaunt    
monument of medivalism1 writes3 8,the   
landscape of ,toledo1 and the banks of  
the ,tagus1 are amongst the saddest and 
most ardent things of this world4       
,whoever lives here has  ,illustration3 
,,plate ,,xliii4  ,cornice at ,springing
 of ,arches in a ,window4               
,illustration3 ,,toledo  ,,santa ,,maria
 ,,la ,,blanca--,,interior1 #aajj-aaef4 
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliv4  ,panels 

on ,walls4  no need to consider the     
grave youth1 the #8,penseroso1' of the  
,medicis ,chapel2 he may also do without
 the biography and the #8,penses' of    
,blaise ,pascal4 ,with the very         
sentiment realised by these great       
solitary works he will be filled1 if he 
but give himself up to the tragic       
fierceness of the magnificences in ruins
 upon these high rocks4 ,toledo1 on its 
hillside1 with the tiny half circle of  
the ,tagus at its feet1 has the colour1 
the roughness1 the haughty poverty of   
the sierra on which it is built1 and    
whose strong articulations from the very
 first produce an impression of energy  
and passion4 ,it is less a town1 a noisy
 affair yielding to the commodities of  
life1 than a significant spot for the   
soul4 ,beneath a crude illumination1    
which gives to each line of its ruins a 
vigour1 a clearness1 by which the least 
energetic characters acquire backbone1  
at the same time it is mysterious1 with 
its cathedral springing towards the sky1

 its alcazars and palaces1 that only    
take sight from their invisible patios4 
,thus1 secret and inflexible1 in this   
harsh1 overheated land1 ,toledo appears 
like an image of exaltation in solitude1
 a cry in the desert40  ,grim1 austere1 
and forbidding is the general type of   
the ,gothic character2 the history of   
their kings in ,spain is a long story of
 menace1 bloodshed1 and persecution2 and
 that history covers ,toledo as with a  
suit of battered mail4 ,christianity    
without the practice of the ,christian  
virtues1 valour divorced from mercy1    
power disjoined from justice--the       
religion1 the might and majesty of the  
,gothic sovereigns1 is a record of      
gloomy and revengeful despotism4        
,hermengildo1 the ,gothic saint1 used   
his religion as an excuse for attempting
 to wrest the throne of ,toledo from his
 father1 ,leovigildo1 whom he denounced 
as a minister of the devil2 ,recaredo1  
who has been painted by historians as a 
model of all the ,christian virtues1    

practiced a rigorous system of cruelty  
and vindictive bigotry2 and his         
successors were notorious for their     
queer morality1 and their persecution of
 the ,jews4 ,yet ,san ,ildephonso1 the  
most famous archbishop of ,toledo under 
the ,goths1 has enriched the history of 
,spain with many splendid fables of     
heavenly manifestations2 and the piece  
he cut from the veil of a visiting      
saint1 and the chasuble1 with which the 
,virgin invested him with her own hands1
 are still displayed among the treasures
 of ,toledo cathedral4 ,the figures of  
,wamba and ,rodrigo--the warrior king   
who was offered the alternative of the  
crown of ,toledo1 or the thrust of a    
,toledan dagger1 and 8the ,last of the  
,goths0--stand out with dominating      
prominence on the stage of ,gothic      
history1 on which warriors and priests  
are the principal actors4  ,the doctrine
 of the ,gothic priesthood has been     
described as the 8hardest1 meanest1 and 
brutallest imaginable10 and the ,gothic 

warriors as men who were never other    
than savage tyrants1 who 8aped a culture
 which they could not understand1 and   
with whose aims and tendencies their    
inmost character was powerless to       
sympathise40 ,these are the people who  
gave ,toledo its character1 a character 
which the art-adoring ,arabs were unable
 to change or even to greatly modify4   
,it is so important to understand the   
influence which was at work in the      
creation of the ,toledan character1 the 
atmosphere in which it was reared1 and  
the discipline under which it developed1
 that ,i make no excuse for quoting the 
following illuminating appreciation of  
the ,gothic nature from ,mr4 ,leonard   
,williams' chapter on ,toledo3          
8,originally barbaric in their ferocity1
 the ,goths became as their domination  
approached its inevitable end1 barbaric 
in their effeminacy4 ,so1 too1 with     
their religious beliefs4 ,excepting the 
clergy1 who were men of some education  
and unlimited unscrupulousness1         

,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlv4  ,from one
 of the centre arches4  ,from the       
entrance to the ,divan4  ,spandrils of  
,arches4  ,illustration3 ,,toledo  ,,the
 ,,gate ,,of ,,blood4  the ,christian   
,visigoth was every whit as barbaric as 
the heathen2 barbaric1 either in his    
violent fanaticism1 or else in his total
 lack of individuality1 and idiotic     
acquiesence in the schemes of a         
designing priesthood4 ,an intermediate  
type was wholly1 or almost wholly1      
wanting1 and there is little to choose  
between ,leovigildo1 the ignorant and   
cruel desperado1 and his meek successor1
 ,recaredo1 the unresisting prey of the 
ambitious metropolitan of ,toledo4444   
,the morals of the ,visigoths were on a 
par with their refinement and their mode
 of living4 ,serfdom was the            
distinguishing mark of the commons2     
arrogance of the nobility2 avarice and  
ambition of temporal power of the       
clergy2 regicide and tumult of the      
,crown4 ,it is clear that a people1     

disunited in this manner1 could never   
have exercised a long supremacy in any  
case2 and destiny1 or chance1           
precipitated their downfall by the      
arrival of the one-eyed ,tarik and his  
host1 and the defeat of #8the ,last of  
the ,goths1' beside the memory-haunted  
osiers of the ,guadalete40  ,arrogance1 
avarice1 ambition1 regicide1            
tumult--here we have the distinguishing 
qualities of the nobles1 the priests1   
and the kings of ,toledo under the      
,gothic rule4 ,the sovereigns and the   
nobles stamped their personality upon   
the city1 and were themselves moulded   
and dominated by the priests4 ,the      
priestly influence in ,spain has ever   
been for austerity and heartless        
magnificence2 it has ever sought to     
impress by fear and superstition4 ,in   
the time of the ,goths1 ,christianity   
developed through the increasing power  
of the bishops4 ,the ,church was        
terrible and forbidding2 the nobility   
was arrogant and cruel2 the monarchy was

 tyrannical and despotic4 ,hallam       
dismisses the consideration of the      
,visigoths in a sentence3 8,i hold10 he 
says1 8the annals of barbarians so      
unworthy of remembrance that ,i will not
 detain the reader by naming one        
sovereign of that obscure race40 ,but1  
under those sovereigns1 and by the hands
 of that obscure race1 ,toledo was      
established upon its rocky eminence1 and
 it bears its character on its face     
to-day1 as it did in the opening quarter
 of the eighth century1 when the        
one-eyed ,tarik entered its melancholy1 
deserted streets4  ,the plunder that    
fell to the ,moorish invader is         
variously reported1 but all accounts are
 agreed that it was beyond calculation4 
,according to the learned ,mohammedan   
author1 ,al-leyth ,ibn ,said1 the spoils
 were so abundant that the rank and file
 of the army all shared in the rewards1 
and it was a common thing for the       
humblest bowmen to be possessed of      
costly robes1 magnificent gold chains of

 exquisite workmanship1 and strings of  
matchless pearls1 rubies1 and emeralds4 
,so great1 in many instances1 was the   
greed for plunder1 and so grossly       
ignorant were the ,berbers of the value 
of the spoil1 that whenever a party of  
them happened upon a rich fabric1 they  
did not hesitate to cut it up between   
them1 without regard to its worth or    
workmanship4 ,it is recorded that two   
,berbers secured a superb carpet1       
composed of the most splendid           
embroidery1 interwoven with gold1 and   
ornamented with filigree work of the    
purest gold1 with pearls and other gems4
 ,the men carried it for awhile between 
them1 but1 finding this method of       
conveyance cumbersome1 they carved the  
gem-encrusted fabric in twain with their
 swords4 ,in this fashion1 masterpieces 
of art were heedlessly destroyed for the
 sake of the raw material of which they 
were composed4  ,among the precious     
objects seized in the palace and church 
of ,toledo were twenty-five golden and  

jewelled crowns--the crowns of the      
different ,gothic kings who had reigned 
in ,spain--the psalms of ,david1 written
 upon gold leaf in water made of        
dissolved rubies1 vases filled with     
precious stones1 quantities of robes of 
cloth of gold and  ,illustration3       
,,plate ,,xlvi4  ,spandrils of ,arches4 
tissue1 tunics of every variety of      
costly skirts and satins1 magnificent   
suits of chain armour and mail inlaid   
with jewels1 and jewel-studded swords   
and daggers1 weapons of every           
description1 and ,solomon's emerald     
table1 wrought in burnished silver and  
gold4 8,this table10 says the ,arabian  
chronicler1 8was the most beautiful     
thing ever seen1 with its golden vases  
and plates of a precious green stone1   
and three collars of rubies1 emeralds1  
and pearls40 ,other ,arabian historians 
have claimed that it was composed of a  
solid emerald1 and they are practically 
agreed that it was brought to ,toledo   
after the sacking of ,jerusalem1 and    

that it was valued in ,damascus at a    
hundred thousand dinars--about #ej1jjj4 
,washington ,irving1 who invariably goes
 the whole hog when dealing with        
legendary history1 says that this       
8inestimable table0 was composed 8of one
 single and entire emerald1 and         
possessed talismanic powers2 for        
tradition affirms that it was the work  
of genii1 and had been wrought by them  
for ,king ,solomon the ,wise1 the son of
 ,david4 ,this marvellous relic was     
carefully preserved by ,tarik1 as the   
most precious of all his spoils1 being  
intended by him as a present to the     
khalif2 and1 in commemoration of it1 the
 city was called by the ,arabs1 ,medina 
,almeyda2 that is to say1 #8,the ,city  
of the ,table4'0  ,but the historian1   
,ibnu ,hayyau1 the greatly trusted      
authority of ,el-,makkari1 gives1 in the
 translation of ,don ,pascual de        
,gayangos1 the following account of the 
origin of this article of virtue3 8,the 
celebrated table which ,tarik found at  

,toledo1 although attributed to         
,solomon1 and named after him1 never    
belonged to the poet-king4 ,according to
 the barbarian authors1 it was customary
 for the nobles and men in estimation of
 the ,gothic ,court1 to bequeath a      
portion of their property to the        
,church4 ,from the money so amassed the 
priests caused tables to be made of pure
 gold and silver1 gorgeous thrones and  
stands on which to carry the gospels in 
public processions1 or to ornament the  
altars on great festivals4 ,the         
so-called ,solomon's table was          
originally wrought with money derived   
from this source1 and was subsequently  
emulously increased and embellished by  
successive kings of ,toledo1 the latest 
always anxious to surpass his           
predecessors in magnificence1 until it  
became the most splendid and costly gem 
ever made for such a purpose4 ,the      
fabric was of pure gold1 set with the   
most precious pearls1 rubies1 and       
emeralds4 ,its circumference was        

encrusted with three rows of these      
valuable stones1 and the whole table    
displayed jewels so large and refulgent 
that never did human eye behold anything
 comparable with it4444 ,when the       
,moslems entered ,toledo it was found on
 the great altar of the ,christian      
church1 and the fact of such a treasure 
having been discovered soon became      
public and notorious40  ,the history    
here assigned to the table is1 it must  
be confessed1 somewhat less improbable  
than the supposition of ,gibbon1 who is 
under the impression that if it ever    
existed it may have been carried away by
 ,titus at the sacking of ,jerusalem1   
and1 later1 to have fallen into the     
hands of the ,goths at the taking of    
,rome by ,alaric4 ,don ,pascual1        
however1 asks1 very pertinently1 whether
 it is likely that ,bishop ,sindered1   
and those who accompanied him in his    
flight1 would have left behind them so  
valuable an object4 ,and the conundrum  
still remains as to the present         

whereabouts of the table4 ,it has been  
asserted that it forms part of the      
inestimable treasures of the ,vatican1  
but as the devout ,moslem would say1    
8,allah alone knoweth40  ,tarik1 who    
perceived in ,musa's haste to join him  
in ,toledo and take possession of the   
spoils1 an indication of the governor's 
envy1 decided to conceal one of the feet
 of  ,illustration3 ,,toledo  ,,interior
 ,,of ,,santa ,,maria ,,la ,,blanca4    
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlvii4         
,spandrils of ,arches4  the table       
against future emergencies4 ,musa1 who  
met ,tarik with savage upbraidings for  
exceeding his instructions--and some go 
so far as to say that he supplemented   
his speech with strokes of his          
whip--demanded the production of        
,solomon's table1 and questioned ,tarik 
as to the absence of the missing fourth 
foot4 ,the wily general declared that he
 had found it in that condition1 and    
,musa had the missing emerald supplied  
by a foot of gold4 ,subsequently ,musa  

had ,tarik cast into prison1 and1 it is 
said1 that he would have encompassed his
 death but for the prompt intervention  
of the khalif1 who sent peremptory      
commands that the successful campaigner 
should be restored to his command of the
 ,moorish army4 ,thereupon ,musa        
professed to restore ,tarik to his      
confidence and friendship2 but he must  
have regretted that he had not executed 
his original purpose1 when1 on the      
occasion of his presenting the famous   
table as his own discovery to the khalif
 at ,damascus1 ,tarik proclaimed himself
 to be the discoverer1 and1 as proof of 
his contention1 produced the missing    
emerald foot4  ,the ,moorish conquerors 
recognised the importance of ,toledo as 
the capital of the ,gothic empire1 but  
these art-adoring1 sun-worshipping      
warriors1 who found their ,eden in      
,andalusia1 lavished their affection and
 culture on ,cordova and ,seville1 and1 
for a time1 ,toledo became a secondary  
town4 ,musa's son1 ,abdelasis1 or       

,balacin1 as ,rasis el ,moro calls him1 
married the widow of ,king ,roderick1   
who has been variously styled ,egilona1 
,exilona1 and ,blanche1 and insisted    
upon every noble of the ,moorish ,court 
paying her extravagant homage2 but the  
sultan held his ,court at ,cordova1 and 
the ,toledans never forgave this affront
 to their honour and dignity4 ,they     
brooded in their stormy sullenness and  
independence4 ,their revolutionary      
instincts were never crushed2 their     
discontent was never appeased through   
the three and a-half centuries of the   
,arab occupation of the city4 ,cassin1  
the ,moorish ruler1 became impregnated  
with the principles of independence1 and
 threw off the yoke of ,cordova1 only to
 be betrayed in his turn by the         
,toledans1 who1 wearied of his tyranny1 
welcomed ,abd-er-,rahman to the city1   
and submitted their allegiance to his   
throne4 ,but throughout his reign the   
turbulent ,toledans proved uncertain and
 prone to revolution1 and his son1      

,hakam1 who succeeded him1 sought to    
conciliate them by appointing as        
governor a renegade ,christian1 one     
,amron1 of ,huesca4 8,by a condescension
 which proves our extreme solicitude for
 your interests10 the sultan wrote to   
his disaffected subjects1 8instead of   
sending you one of our own subjects1 we 
have chosen one of your compatriots40   
,hakam's error of judgment resulted in  
one of the most terrible deeds in the   
history of ,toledo1 perhaps the most    
disgraceful blot on the ,moslem         
domination of ,spain4 ,amron was        
entrusted with the mission of humbling  
his fellow countrymen to the rule of the
 sultan1 and he achieved his object by  
the practice of a fiendish policy of    
perfidious cunning4  ,by affecting an   
aversion to the sultan1 and preaching   
the gospel of the independence of       
,toledo1 he won the confidence of the   
nobles1 and concerted with them in plots
 to reconquer the city4 ,in furtherance 
of their plans1 the people consented to 

have soldiers quartered upon them2 they 
welcomed the building of a fortress     
commanded by a strong guard at the      
extremity of the city2 and it was at    
their own suggestion that a castle was  
erected in the middle of the town as a  
stronghold for the valiant governor4    
,then1 having fortified himself with the
 trust of the people1 and packed the    
city with troops1 ,amron secretly       
advised the sultan that the ,toledans   
were ready for the lesson that was      
,illustration3 ,,toledo  ,,gate ,,of    
,,the ,,sun4  to be read to them4       
,abd-er-,rahman1 the son of ,hakam1     
advanced towards the city at the head of
 a great army4 ,the governor proposed   
that the nobles should go out to meet   
the young prince1 and historians record 
that these implacable ,gothic           
revolutionists were infatuated by the   
courtesy and cordiality with which they 
were received4 ,the future sultan       
conquered their aversion by his grace   
and charm1 and they loudly applauded    

,amron's suggestion that he should be   
invited to accept the hospitality of the
 city4 ,abd-er-,rahman1 instated in the 
castle of the governor1 invited the     
nobles and representative men of ,toledo
 to a great feast4 ,they came in crowds1
 they were admitted to the castle       
singly1 and not a single invited guest  
returned to his home4 ,as each man      
crossed the courtyard of the castle he  
walked past an executioner1 who stood in
 the shadow with uplifted blade awaiting
 his approach4 ,no guest passed him4    
,the nobles entered1 the blade fell1 and
 ready hands rolled the body into a     
ditch4 ,in ,spanish history that bloody 
day is known as the 8,day of the ,foss40
  8,only conceive10 writes ,hannah      
,lynch1 8the horrible picture in all its
 brutal nakedness6 ,the gaily-apparelled
 guest1 scented1 jewelled1 smiling1     
alights from his carriage1 looking      
forward to pleasure in varied forms1    
brilliant lights1 delicate viands1      
exquisite wines1 lute1 song1 flowers1   

sparkling speech4 ,then the quick       
entrance into a dim courtyard1 a step   
forward1 perhaps in the act of          
unclasping a silken mantle1 the         
soundless movement of a fatal arm in the
 shadowy silence1 the invisible         
executioner's form probably hidden by a 
profusion of tall plants or an ,oriental
 bush1 and body after body1 head upon   
head1 roll into the common grave till   
the ditch is filled with nigh upon five 
thousand corpses4 ,not even the famous  
,st4 ,bartholomew can compete with this1
 in horror1 in gruesomeness4 ,compared  
with it1 that night of ,paris was       
honourable and open warfare4 ,it is the 
stillness of the hour1 the quickness of 
doing1 the unflinching and awful        
personality of the executioners1 who so 
remarkably struck down life as ever it  
advanced with smiling lips and          
brightly-glancing eye1 that lend this   
scene its matchless colours of cruelty  
and savagery4 ,beside it1 few shocking  
hours in history will seem deprived of  

all sense of mitigation and humanity40  
,only a people rebellious by blood1 by  
training1 and by every tradition of     
their implacable race1 could have thrown
 off the prostration that followed this 
terrible blow1 and risen from their     
stupor with renewed determination to    
seize their independence4 ,yet ,toledo  
survived this blow1 and many others1    
which1 if not so sudden and appalling1  
were sufficient to crush the spirit and 
deaden the aspiration of a more vincible
 nation4 ,it is impossible to determine 
whether ,abd-er-,rahman was an accessory
 to this deed of butchery1 or to say if 
,amron planned the massacre in the      
belief that it was necessary to the     
maintenance of ,moslem rule1 to         
terrorise the ,toledans into submission1
 or if the deed was inspired by the more
 subtle and diabolical intention of     
making the ,moors more odious in the    
sight of the unmanageable citizens4     
,when the people were sufficiently      
recovered from the horror of the        

atrocity to concoct a scheme of revenge1
 they acted with ferocious promptness4  
,the cry for vengeance spread from the  
,zocodover into the surrounding country1
 and the people1 hastily summoned into  
the city1 surrounded the castle of      
,amron1 and burnt the hateful fortress  
and its inmates to the ground4 ,there1  
for the time1 the insurrectionary       
movement stopped4 ,an ,arab governor was
 appointed1 and the people1 ,christians 
and ,jews as well as ,moors1 entered    
upon a new state of material prosperity4
 ,under ,aben ,magot ben ,ibraham the   
,moorish artistic influence             
,illustration3 ,,toledo  ,,door ,,of    
,,the ,,hall ,,of ,,mesa4               
,illustration3 ,,exterior ,,of ,,the    
,,chapel ,,of ,,cristo ,,de ,,la ,,vega4
  began to make itself felt4 ,the       
architecture bore the imprint of the    
governing race1 beautiful gardens were  
laid out along the ,vega1 ,arabian      
palaces sprang into being1 and on the   
ruins of ,amron's castle there was built

 a new alcazar4  ,but the respite from  
open tumult was only temporary4 ,the    
,wali1 finding the merchants increasing 
in riches1 raised their tribute to the  
state1 and smouldering discontent was   
immediately fanned into a flame4 ,led by
 a wealthy young ,toledan1 named ,hacam1
 who subsequently earned the affix of   
8,el ,durrete0--8,the ,striker of       
,blows0--the people murdered the        
,moorish officials and captured the     
alcazar4 ,the ,moslem troops retaliated 
by recapturing that stronghold and      
routing the revolutionists4 ,hacam went 
into retirement until the ,moors1 lulled
 into security1 relaxed their vigilance 
in the guardianship of the city1 and    
then1 striking swiftly through the      
neglected gates1 he recovered the city  
between sunset and morning4 ,the greater
 part of the upper town was burnt1 the  
troops sent by ,abd-er-,rahman ,,ii4    
were repulsed2 and1 although the        
,toledans were incidentally routed by   
the renegade ,spaniard1 ,maisara1       

,toledo was not then retaken4 ,in #hgc  
the city was besieged for a whole year1 
and only surrendered when famine had    
rendered the citizens too weak to       
further resist the assaults of the      
,moorish troops4  ,the next firebrand to
 project itself into the inflammatory   
fabric of ,toledan discontent was the   
fanatical martyr1 ,eulogius4 ,in        
,cordova this frenzied religionist had  
fired the ,christians into reviling     
,mohammed1 and thereby exasperating the 
,moslems into persecution4 ,to the      
tolerant and broad-minded ,moors1       
religious observances were prejudices to
 be respected4 ,they permitted1 to      
,christians and ,jews1 the fullest      
licence in the matter of worship2 they  
only demanded that a similar respect    
should be observed towards their own    
faith4 ,the ,christians were not asked  
to reverence the ,prophet of ,islam1 but
 the ,moslems could not allow him to be 
openly blasphemed by the infidels4 ,it  
was against the articles of their creed1

 and it was contrary to human nature4   
,to-day the ,christian who rebelled     
against such a reasonable restriction   
would be accounted a bigot1 undeserving 
of sympathy2 in the days of ,eulogius1  
the revilers of ,moorish religious      
prejudices were regarded as saints4     
,toledo jumped at their rulers'         
resentment of the ,christians' wanton   
insult to their faith as an excuse for  
an outburst of religious indignation1   
and ,sindola seized the city and        
declared war against the khalifate by   
way of protesting against the execution 
of ,eulogius's disciples4 ,ordoo1 king  
of ,leon1 sent reinforcements to        
,sindola1 and the allied armies were    
caught in an ambush by the ,moors1 who  
struck off #h1jjj ,christian heads for  
public exhibition in the various        
disaffected towns4 ,this reverse had the
 desired effect1 and the ,toledans made 
no further move until the death of      
,wistremir afforded them an opportunity 
of exasperating the sultan ,mohammed by 

electing ,eulogius to the vacant        
archbishopric of ,toledo4 ,the sultan1  
who retaliated by investing the city1   
had the bridge undermined while it was  
in the occupation of his troops1 and1 by
 making a feigned retreat1 enticed the  
impetuous ,spaniards to give chase4 ,the
 depleted structure collapsed beneath   
the sudden burden of the pursuing army1 
and hundreds of men met their death in  
the sullen depths of the ,tagus4  ,but  
neither massacre nor misfortune could   
shake the dogged ,toledans from their   
purpose4 ,with the king of ,leon at     
their back1 they put forth new efforts1 
and in #hgc they forced ,mohammed to    
acknowledge their independence as a     
,republic in return for the payment of  
an annual tribute4 ,the treaty made with
 ,mohammed was ratified by his          
successors1 ,mundhir and ,abdallah4     
,even the ,great ,khalif1               
,abd-er-,rahman1 was at first content to
 send from ,cordova a royal             
proclamation1 commanding ,toledo to     

surrender her independence to the       
khalifate1 and acknowledge him as liege 
lord1 and it was not until #icj1 or     
eighteen years after he had ascended the
 throne1 that he went up with his army  
against the arrogant and rebellious     
city4 ,the siege of ,toledo by          
,abd-er-,rahman lasted for eight years4 
,the ,moorish king built the city1 which
 he called 8,victory10 on a mountain    
commanding ,toledo1 and here he         
quartered his troops until famine and   
privation should open the gates for him4
 ,the long years of waiting culminated  
in a swift assault1 and1 at the close of
 a day's fighting1 the emaciated heads  
of the insurgent chiefs were impaled on 
spears to keep their last sightless     
watch from the walls of the city they   
had defended with such heroic fortitude4
  ,after the death of the ,great        
,khalif1 and1 thenceforth until the     
,christian conquest1 ,toledo maintained 
a partial independence1 tolerating the  
rule of ,moslem princes1 but paying no  

allegiance to ,cordova4 ,and in the end 
she was recovered to the ,christians by 
a piece of picturesque treachery4       
,alfonso of ,leon 7,alfonso ,,vi47 had  
fled from the monastery of ,sagahun1 and
 sought the protection of ,king ,almamon
 of ,toledo1 from whom he received the  
most generous hospitality1 including    
gifts of palaces1 farms1 and orchards1  
and the government of the ,christian    
section of the inhabitants4 ,the        
,moorish king demanded only the         
subscription of his guest's allegiance1 
and1 in return1 he gave a sincere       
affection1 and promises of faithful     
protection4 ,almamon1 whose one vague   
but ever present concern was the        
possibility of ,toledo ever falling     
again into the hands of the ,christians1
 was discussing the subject one day with
 his courtiers in the garden of         
,alfonso's palace1 and engrossed in the 
consideration of the possible           
misfortune1 he described minutely the   
only plan by which1 in his opinion1 the 

city might be taken4 ,alfonso1 who was  
one of the company1 affected to be      
asleep while this dissertation was in   
progress1 and the courtiers1 who were   
unable to restrain the eloquence of the 
king1 endeavoured to obtain ,almamon's  
consent to the execution of his         
,christian guest4 ,but the king refused 
to listen to this inhospitable          
proposition1 and on the death of ,sancho
 of ,castile 7who was murdered by       
,bellido1 under the walls of ,zamora71  
his brother1 ,alfonso of ,leon1 returned
 to his own kingdom1 loaded with        
honours1 and carrying with him the      
secret of ,toledo's vincibility4 ,before
 he departed the two kings swore eternal
 amity1 and entered into an offensive   
and defensive alliance against the      
enemies of either1 and the enemies of   
,almamon's son1 ,yahya4 ,but after the  
death of ,almamon1 ,alfonso1 forgetting 
his oath to his friend1 and remembering 
only the plan of siege he had overheard 
in the garden of ,toledo1 adopted the   

principles invented by the ,moorish     
theorist1 and1 in #ajhe1 entered the    
city as its conqueror4  ,what has       
,toledo to show to-day for the three and
 a-half centuries of the artistic       
influence of ,morisco culture and       
influence8 ,surprisingly little6 ,and   
yet it would be an even greater surprise
 if she had more to show4 ,the village  
that climbs the bosom of a mountain does
 not alter the contour of its impassive 
resting-place2 the etchings traced upon 
a ,toledo blade does not affect the     
temper of the steel4 ,the city is still 
8,moorish in appearance10 to employ the 
guide-book phrase1 but it is gradually  
divesting itself of the marks which at  
one time1 and then only in part1        
disguised its ,gothic ancestry4 ,since  
,alfonso1 the tyrant of the ,galicians1 
seized the town of ,toledo1 8that pearl 
of the necklace1 that highest tower of  
the empire in this ,peninsula0          
,illustration3 ,,toledo  ,,ancient      
,,gate ,,of ,,visagra4  ,illustration3  

,,castle ,,of ,,st4 ,,servando4  7to    
quote ,abon ,i ,hasan71 the ,moorish    
bridge1 near ,santa ,leocadia1 and the  
other1 which crossed the old ,roman     
waterway1 have disappeared1 and the     
legendary ,palace of ,galiana is let out
 in miserable tenements to the lowest   
class of peasants4  ,moratin has        
immortalised ,galiana de ,toledo1 8most 
beautiful and marvellous10 and ,calderon
 has written of the palace built for her
 by her father1 ,galafre1 who ruled over
 ,toledo for ,abd-er-,rahman ,i4        
,galafre took the old ,visigoth shell1  
and transformed the edifice1 by the     
witchery of ,moorish windows and arches 
and staircases1 into a palace of        
delight4 ,he devoted his knowledge of   
hydraulics to the unkempt ,toledan      
,vega1 and made of it a paradise of leaf
 and bloom and rill4 ,in the fairy      
garden1 ,charlemagne1 according to      
tradition1 found the 8most beautiful and
 marvellous0 ,galiana1 and carried her  
away from the unwelcome addresses of her

 ,moorish admirer1 ,prince ,bradamante1 
to reign over ,france as his queen4 ,the
 arms of the ,guzmans1 into whose       
possession the palace passed under      
,castillian rule1 may still be descried 
upon its dismantled front4  ,the        
wonderful clepsydras1 or water clocks of
 ,toledo1 the invention of              
,abou-l'-,casem1 ,abdo-er-,rahman1 or   
,az-,zarcal1 as he is more usually      
styled1 are quaintly and vaguely        
described in the following ,moorish     
document3 8,one of the greatest towns of
 ,spain is ,toledo1 and ,toledo is a    
large and well-populated city4 ,on all  
sides it is washed by a splendid river1 
called the ,tagus4444 ,among the rare   
and notable things of ,toledo is that   
wheat may be kept more than seventy     
years without rotting1 which is a great 
advantage1 as all the land abounds in   
grain and seed of all kinds4 ,but what  
is still more marvellous and surprising 
in ,toledo1 and what we believe no other
 inhabited town of all the world has    

anything to equal1 are some clepsydras1 
or water clocks4 ,it is said that       
,az-,zarcal1 hearing of a certain       
talisman1 which is in the city of ,arin1
 of ,eastern ,india1 and which1 ,masudi 
says1 shows the hours by means of aspas1
 or hands1 from the time the sun rises  
till it sets1 determined to fabricate an
 artifice by means of which the people  
could know the hour of day or night1 and
 calculate the day of the moon4 ,he made
 two great ponds in a house on the bank 
of the ,tagus1 not far from the ,gate of
 the ,tanners1 making them so that they 
should be filled with water or emptied  
according to the rise and fall of the   
moon40  ,in ,babylonia1 ,india1 and     
,egypt1 the clepsydra was used from     
before the dawn of history1 especially  
in astronomical observations1 and ,latin
 and ,greek writers refer to a type     
which resembled the modern sand glass1  
and was used in the courts of law to    
limit the length of the pleadings4 ,the 
general form of the clepsydra1 which    

,pliny ascribed to ,scipio ,nasica1     
consisted essentially of a float1 which 
slowly rose by the tricklings of water  
from above through a small hole in a    
plate of metal4 ,as the float rose it   
pointed to a scale of hours at the side 
of the water vessel2 or1 in the more    
elaborate forms1 moved a wheel by means 
of a ratchet1 and thus turned a hand on 
a dial4  ,the ,moorish recounter of the 
wonders of the water clocks of ,toledo  
tells us that its movements were        
regulated by the moon4 ,as soon as the  
moon became visible by means of         
invisible conducts1 the water began to  
flow into the ponds1 and1 by day rise1  
the ponds were four-sevenths full4 ,at  
night another seventh was added1 so that
 by day or night the ponds continued to 
increase in water a seventh every       
twenty-four hours1 and were quite full  
by the time the moon was full4 ,on the  
#adth of the month1 when the moon began 
to fall1 the ponds also fell in like    
proportion4 ,on the #bast of the month  

they were half empty1 and on the #bith  
,illustration3 ,,moorish ,,sword4       
completely so4 ,the exact working of    
those clepsydras1 however1 is lost1 as a
 bungling astronomer1 who was deputed by
 ,alfonso 8the ,learned0 to examine them
 and discover the secret1 broke the     
delicate machinery1 and was forthwith   
dubbed a ,jew by the indignant and      
exasperated ,moors4  ,beyond the walls  
of the city is a stretch of fertile land
 beside the ,tagus1 which is called the 
,garden of the ,king2 and at the further
 end of it is the country palace of     
,galiana4 ,this pleasure house is of a  
later date than the palace of the same  
name within the city2 but1 like that    
debased edifice1 it is a ruin1 its walls
 of extreme thickness1 flanked with two 
massive towers1 only remaining to       
represent what was once      8,a palace 
lifting to eternal summer      ,its     
marble walls1 from out a glossy bower   
,of coolest foliage1 musical with       
birds40  ,in the ,war of ,independence  

the ,french soldiers made a ruin of the 
one-time magnificent ,casa de ,vargas1  
which was built by ,juan de ,herrera1   
and has been described by ,antonio ,ponz
 as one of the architectural splendours 
of ,toledo4 ,ponz tells us that 8the    
faade is perfect ,doric1 of exquisite   
marble1 with fluted columns on either   
side1 and the pedestals have military   
emblems in bas-relief4 ,the frieze      
consists of helmets1 heads of bulls1 and
 goblets4 ,the coat of arms above the   
cornice is most beautiful1 and the      
women's forms1 seated on each side1 are 
life-size4 ,nothing could be finer than 
the details1 as well as the whole of    
this faade1 and for sure it is the most 
serious1 the most lovely1 and most      
finished of all ,i have seen in ,toledo4
 ,you enter a spacious courtyard with   
lofty galleries running round it above  
and below the lower gallery1 sustained  
by ,doric pillars and by the upper      
,ionic columns4 ,the staircase is truly 
regal1 and likewise the various inner   

chambers4 ,they contain different       
chimney pieces1 ornamented with graceful
 fancies executed in bas-relief2 and    
thus1 in the lower quarters1 as in the  
principal1 are other galleries with     
columns like those of the courtyard1    
with delicious views of the meadows and 
the ,tagus40  ,in the most miserable    
quarter of the town1 far up above the   
river1 the visitor may see some huge    
blocks of stone1 and a few broken       
arches--all that remains of the once    
magnificent ,moorish palace of ,henry of
 ,aragon1 lord of ,villena4 ,henry of   
,aragon was an enlightened prince and   
erudite scholar1 and the possessor of a 
superb collection of books1 which were  
publicly burnt on the plea that their   
owner had intercourse with the devil4   
,don ,enrique is said to have used the  
subterranean chambers and passages of   
the palace as a meeting-place for       
witches1 and here he is supposed to have
 entertained his ,satanic majesty4      
,samuel ,levi1 ,pedro the ,cruel's      

treasurer1 turned the palace vault into 
a strong-room1 but the prince1 in a     
needy moment1 proved stronger2 and the  
,toledans1 following the example of     
their king1 completed the sacking of the
 mansion4 ,the ,duke of ,escalona1 in   
the reign of ,charles ,quint1 burnt the 
palace to the ground1 and fled the city 
with his family1 rather than give       
house-room to the treacherous ,bourbon1 
the ,constable of ,france1 at the       
bidding of his royal master4  ,there is 
in the little plaza of ,santa ,isabel1 a
 half-obliterated ,arabian inscription1 
wishing 8,lasting prosperity and        
perpetual glory to the master of this   
edifice40 ,this inscription identifies  
the ruin as the palace of ,king ,pedro4 
,the beautiful ,casa de ,mesa bears     
scarcely a trace of the exquisite       
,moorish workmanship which characterised
 the palace of the ,dukes of ,alva2 it  
is impossible to determine from the     
dilapidated ,casa de las ,tormerias     
whether it was originally built for a   

,moorish palace or a mezquita2 while    
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlviii4        
,plaster ,ornaments1 used as ,upright   
and ,horizontal ,bands enclosing ,panels
 on the ,walls4  some few scraps of     
,moorish inscription in the wood-work of
 a ruined wall still testify to the     
origin of the ,casa de ,munarriz4 ,the  
alcazar1 which was twice destroyed by   
fire1 is represented by the faades1 the 
three towers1 the patio1 and the        
enormous staircase--perhaps the only    
parts of the building that were not     
rebuilt by ,charles ,quint4 ,the edifice
 commenced by that monarch1 and         
completed by ,philip ,,ii41 was for long
 the most splendid and colossal palace  
in ,spain4 ,staremberg's troops         
destroyed the building by fire in #agaj2
 and1 a century later1 the ,french      
troops fired the structure which ,carlos
 ,,iii4 had recomposed out of the ashes 
of ,charles ,v4's alcazar4 ,the ,casa de
 ,mesa1 the palace of ,estevan de       
,illan1 is reduced to a single chamber  

of exquisite ,moorish workmanship2 the  
remaining ,moorish part of the ,taller  
del ,moro is used as a common workshop2 
the regal staircase of the alcazar1 so  
wide that a whole army might march up   
its noble steps1 ends in space4  ,as    
with the palaces of ,toledo1 so it is   
with its temples--the traces of ,moorish
 art are nearly all defaced or          
obliterated4 ,the mosque1 which was     
replaced by the church of ,san ,roman1  
possesses the purest mudejar steeple of 
,toledo1 erected by ,esteban de ,illan1 
and another1 if smaller1 ,moorish       
steeple1 adorns the ,santa ,magdalena4  
,a monument1 which ranks among the most 
interesting in ,spain1 is the ,cristo de
 la ,luz1 located between the ,puerta   
del ,sol and the ,puerta ,bisagra--a    
little gem of ,moorish-,byzantine       
architecture1 which is regarded as the  
oldest and most perfect specimen of its 
kind in the ,peninsula4 ,on the walls of
 this church1 which remains to this day 
a perfect mosque1 the conquering        

,alfonso ,,vi4 hung up his shield in    
#ajce to commemorate the first mass that
 was celebrated in ,toledo after the    
defeat of the ,moors4 ,until ,tarik came
 to ,toledo the mosque had been a       
,gothic temple1 before which hung a     
cross1 bearing an effigy of the         
crucified ,christ4 ,legend declares that
 two impious ,jews pricked the          
greatly-venerated body with a dagger1   
and that from the wound blood instantly 
gushed forth4 ,the ,jews1 who attempted 
to evade the penalty of their folly by  
hiding the crucifix1 were traced by the 
stains of blood to their house1 and torn
 to pieces by the infuriated            
,christians4 ,tradition further asserts 
that the ,jews planned a revenge by     
poisoning the feet of the restored      
statue1 but that when a woman knelt     
before it the figure withdrew its foot  
from her kiss4 ,many other legends      
attach to the sacred relic1 which was   
removed from before the church when the 
city was captured by the ,moors1 and    

secreted in a cavity in the wall1 with a
 burning lamp placed before it4 ,when   
the ,moorish dominion came to an end1   
#cgj years later1 and the cavity was    
revealed1 the unreplenished lamp was    
found to be still alight before the     
crucifix in the wall of the ,moorish    
mosque4 ,from this legend the church    
takes its name of the ,christ of the    
,light4  ,this wonderful little         
monument1 which is only twenty-two feet 
by twenty-five feet1 possesses six short
 naves1 which cross each other under    
nine vaults1 and in the centre are four 
short1 stout columns1 surmounted by     
sculptured capitals1 from which spring  
sixteen heavy horseshoe arches4 ,this   
forest of naves and arches comprises a  
miniature reproduction of the mosque of 
,cordova4 ,arcades1 cusped in ,moorish  
fashion1 and supported on shafts1 pierce
 the walls2 the inevitable 8half orange0
 ceiling domes the centre1 and above the
 principal arch is the shield of        
,alfonso ,,vi41 embellished with a white

 cross on a crimson ground1 which the   
victorious king handed to ,archbishop   
,bernardo to supply the place of a cross
 above the dismantled altar4 ,this gem  
of ,moorish-,byzantine architecture1 so 
small yet so perfect1  ,illustration3   
,,arab ,,fragment ,,at ,,tarragona4  so 
simple yet so fantastic1 conveys an     
impression of amazing strength1 and     
presents an admirable example of early  
,arabian work4  ,the nunnery of ,santa  
,fe1 which was originally a regal       
,moorish palace1 has been shorn of      
nearly all its ancient beauty1 which is 
now only traceable in the arcaded       
brickwork of the wall1 almost           
obliterated by exuberant foliage4 ,there
 are still the remnants of ,moorish     
ornamentation in the convent halls and  
corridors of ,san ,juan de la           
,penitencia1 and the influence of       
,moorish art is also seen in some good  
azulejo and the artesonade ceiling of   
,santa ,isabel4  ,the ,alcantara bridge1
 which was originally a ,roman          

structure1 was repaired by the ,goths in
 #fhg1 and rebuilt by the ,moors of     
#hff4 ,it was of this ,moorish bridge   
that ,rasis el ,moro wrote3 8,it was    
such a rich and marvellous work1 and so 
subtly wrought1 that never man with     
truth could believe there was any other 
such fine work in ,spain40 ,since then  
it has been repaired and restored       
wholly1 or in part1 no fewer than eight 
times2 and while these alterations have 
changed its style and appearance1 it    
still remains one of the finest and most
 picturesque monuments of ,toledo4 ,the 
bridge of ,san ,martin1 which compares  
with it in interest and beauty1 was     
built in #abjc1 and is guarded at either
 end with a tower and gateway adorned   
with ,moorish arches and battlements4   
,the bridge of ,san ,martin gives       
entrance to the city through the gate of
 the ,cambron4 ,it is no longer         
,moorish1 as it was in the time of      
,alfonso ,,vi42 but on its              
half-renaissance1 half-classical        

architecture1 one may still read the    
remains of some of those grandiloquent  
utterances of the ,moorish spirit which 
prompted ,ponz to style ,toledo the city
 of magnificent inscriptions4 ,it was a 
devout1 if somewhat credulous1 spirit   
which inspired the transcription of the 
following article of faith3 8,there is  
but one ,god on earth1 and ,mohammed is 
,his messenger4 ,all the faithful who   
believe in our prophet ,mohammed1 and   
continue to kiss the hands and feet of  
,murabite ,muley ,abda ,alcadar every   
day1 will be without sin1 will not be   
blind1 nor deaf1 nor lame1 nor wounded2 
and receiving his benediction1 when the 
time of his death comes1 will only be   
three days ill and dying1 will go with  
open eyes to ,paradise forgiven of all  
sins40 ,another inscription bore the    
following exhortation and compensatory  
promise3 8,prayer and peace over our    
lord and prophet ,mohammed4 ,all the    
faithful1 when they went to lie down in 
their beds1 mentioning the ,alfagiu     

,murabito ,abdala1 and recommending     
themselves to him1 will enter no battle 
out of which they will not come         
victorious2 and in whatever battle      
against ,christians they may stain their
 lances with ,christian blood1 dying    
that same day1 will go alive and whole  
with eyes open to ,paradise1 and his    
descendants will remain till the fourth 
generation forgiven40  ,the present     
,visagra ,gate1 rebuilt under ,charles  
,v41 dates back to the ,moors4 ,it is   
entirely ,moorish in character1 with the
 heavy simple features1 the triple      
horseshoe arches and upper crenellated  
apertures which we associate with the   
first period of ,morisco architecture4  
,through this gate1 which is now blocked
 up1 ,alfonso ,,vi4 entered ,toledo4    
,the two graceful square towers1 roofed 
with green and white tiles1 which       
compose the edifice1 are joined by the  
high turreted walls of a square         
courtyard1 and the decorations include  
the ,senate's dedication of the gate to 

,charles ,quint1 the sculptured arms of 
the emperor1 a statue of ,st4 ,eugenie1 
two others of ,gothic kings1 and a      
life-sized angel holding an unsheathed  
sword4 ,this cold1 bare inventory of the
 ornaments of the gate convey no idea of
 the splendid impressiveness of the     
structure1 the splendour and charm of   
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlix4  ,blank  
,window4  which sink into comparative   
insignificance beside its glorious      
neighbour1 the ,gate of the ,sun4  ,this
 magnificent gate of rough stone1 with  
its towers of brown granite1 has been   
rightly described as one of the world's 
masterpieces4 ,yet here again the pen is
 powerless to do justice to its beauty2 
and to describe its proportions and     
decoration is to complicate1 rather than
 explain1 the impression that is        
conveyed by the camera4 ,the square     
towers1 with their semi-circular fronts1
 and the great central arch resting on  
two ,moorish columns1 and the zones of  
ornamental arches above the horse-shaped

 openings1 comprise a ,moorish gem      
against a ,spanish sky1 a miracle of    
loveliness upon a rough and naked       
rampart4 ,but how1 cries ,hannah ,lynch1
 to write of this ,puerta del ,sol1 that
 8thing of beauty even among crowded    
enchantments6 ,it is to pick one's way  
through superlatives and points of      
exclamation and call in vain on the     
goddess of sobriety to subdue our       
tendency to excess and incoherence4 ,put
 this matchless gate in the middle of   
the desert of ,sahara2 it would then be 
worth while making the frightful journey
 alone to look at it4 ,however far you  
may have journeyed1 you would still be  
for ever thankful to have seen such a   
masterpiece--incontestably a work of    
supreme art1 perhaps the rarest thing of
 the world40 ,whether the writer intends
 her high eulogy to be applied generally
 to any 8work of supreme art10 or to the
 ,puerta del ,sol in particular1 most   
people who have come under the witching 
influence of the art of the ,moors1 will

 not deny that it is well deserved4     
,illustration3 ,,plate ,l4  ,rafters of 
a ,roof over a ,doorway1 now destroyed1 
beneath the ,tocador de la ,reyna4      
,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,arabian      
,,baths ,,at ,,palma1 ,,majorca4        
,,moorish ,,ornament  ,a ,,note ,,on    
,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,arab ,,art   ,in
 art1 precept is subservient2 practice  
is supreme4 ,the idea which may be      
hidden in a picture is of little moment2
 it is the design1 fully accomplished1  
which is prized4 ,its inspiration may   
become a 8light to shine before men10   
but it attains its paramount value only 
when realised4  ,refinement of manners  
and acuteness of intellect have1 in the 
,east1 nothing in common with what we   
call education4 ,in this social state1  
ignorance1 which1 among us1 condemns a  
man1 may be the condition of great      
originality4 ,the ,arab tent-dweller    
was1 and is1 often1 a very superior man2
 for the tent is a kind of school1      
always open1 where1 from contact with   

educated guests who have seen men and   
cities1 was produced an intellectual    
movement which led the ,arab1 in        
exchanging his nomadic life for a       
settled habitation1 to translate the    
tent to a more solid form2 to commute   
the tent-pole for a slender marble      
column2 and to transform luxurious      
products of the loom1 which had adorned 
his former dwelling1 to a semblance of  
their golden tissues on fairy-decorated 
diapery4  ,if the poetry and refinement 
of the ,south of ,europe in modern times
 cannot be traced1 as many authors would
 have us believe--notably ,father       
,andres1 a learned ,spaniard1 anxious to
 give to his own country the honour of  
imparting to the rest of ,europe the    
first impulse of refinement after the   
fall of the ,roman ,empire--to the      
,arabs of ,spain1 much must still be    
allowed to their influence2 for their   
progress in refinement was hardly less  
brilliant and rapid than their progress 
in ,empire4 ,at the period of the glory 

of ,cordova1 which began about ,a4,d4   
#gej1 and continued to the time of its  
conquest by the ,christians in #abcf1   
the scholars of ,spain were in a higher 
state of cultivation than could be found
 elsewhere2 and if the ,kingdom of      
,granada--the last stronghold of the    
,moslem--which ended in #adib1 was less 
refined1 it was perhaps more splendid   
and luxurious4 ,the public schools and  
libraries of the ,spanish ,arabs were   
resorted to1 not only by those of their 
own faith at home and in the ,east1 but 
by ,christians from different parts of  
,europe2 and ,pope ,sylvester the       
,second 7,gerbet1 a ,frenchman1 ,pope   
#iii-ajjc71 one of the most remarkable  
men of his age1 is believed to have owed
 his elevation to the culture he        
absorbed in ,seville and ,cordova4      
,arab art takes its place with the arts 
of ,greece and ,japan as one of the     
three great schools into which all      
styles of ornament naturally fall4      
,beauty and simplicity--the restrained  

rhythm and order which form the         
essential foundation of ,greek art--is  
as distinct from the vivacious realism  
and unsymmetrical1 haphazard decoration 
of the ,japanese1 as from that elegance 
and complexity produced by geometrical  
involutions symmetrically constructed1  
which constitute the basis of ,moorish  
art4 ,these three styles have been      
compared by ,monsieur ,j4 ,bourgoin1 in 
his ,elements of ,arab ,art1 to the     
three kingdoms of ,nature4 ,greek art he
 likens to the animal kingdom1 the      
,japanese art to the vegetable kingdom1 
and ,arabian art1 from the symmetry     
which recalls the crystallisation of    
minerals in its uniformity of           
configuration1 and its elementary       
structure1 he compares with the mineral 
kingdom4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,li4  
,band at ,springing of ,arch at the     
,entrance to one of the ,halls4  ,in the
 art of the ,arabs the inspiration is   
completely independent of living nature4
 ,the ,arab artist proceeds from within 

to the exterior2 he sets himself        
problems1 and transfers them by means of
 the compass and rule4 ,the decorative  
impulse of ,arab art consists of        
geometrical diagrams either carved into 
relief1 or inlaid1 or simply laid flat4 
,since the inspiration is dry1 and      
purely abstract1 the artistic           
development is slight and unimportant2  
and1 since the motive is restricted1    
,arab decorative art has remained       
simple1 but still of an incomparable    
elegance1 because the harmony between   
inspiration and execution is perfect4   
,by their creed ,mohammedan artists were
 forbidden to represent living forms1   
yet they adopted the principles they    
found in ,nature1 and developed them    
with absolute fidelity4 ,thus1 as ,i    
showed in dealing with the architecture 
of the ,alhambra1 in surface decoration 
by the ,moors the lines flow from a     
parent stem2 every ornament1 however    
distant1 can be traced to its branch and
 root4 ,in all cases we find the lines  

radiating from a parent stem1 as we may 
see exemplified in ,nature by the human 
hand1 or in a leaf4 ,we are never       
offended1 as in modern practice1 by the 
random introduction of an ornament set  
down without a reason for its existence4
 ,however irregular the expanse they    
have to decorate1 they always commence  
by dividing the field into equal areas1 
and round these main lines they fill in 
their details1 which invariably return  
to their parent stem1 a system which    
proves them to have been absolute       
masters of space4  ,in the introduction 
to my volume on the ,alhambra1 ,i       
emphasised this fact1 that the ,moors   
ever had regard to the first principle  
of architecture--to decorate            
construction1 never to construct        
decoration4 ,in ,arabian architecture1  
not only does the decoration arise      
naturally out of the construction1 but  
the constructive idea is carried out in 
every detail of the ornamentation of the
 surfaces4 ,a superfluous or useless    

ornament is never found in ,moorish     
decoration2 every ornament arises       
naturally and inevitably from the parent
 design4 ,the general forms were first  
laid down2 they were subdivided by      
general lines2 the interstices were then
 filled in with ornament1 to be again   
subdivided and enriched for closer      
inspection4 ,the principle was carried  
out with the greatest refinement1 and   
the harmony and beauty of all ,moorish  
ornamentation is derived from its       
observance4 ,the highest distinction was
 thereby obtained2 the detail never     
interfering with the general form4 ,seen
 at a distance1 the main lines strike   
the eye2 on nearer approach1 the        
ornamentation comes into the            
composition2 and a minute inspection    
reveals the detail on the surface of the
 ornaments themselves4  ,monsieur ,a4   
,rhone1 in his ,l',egypte  ,petites     
,journes1 holds that1 8seeing the       
marvellous resources which the ,arabs   
have found in geometry for decorating   

surfaces1 one regrets less for art that 
the laws of ,islamism have forbidden    
them1 as an idolatrous act1 to introduce
 representations of animated forms4     
,although these laws were not so        
strictly observed as is generally       
believed1 who knows1 if in turning the  
,arabian artists away from sculpture and
 statuary1 they have not been the means 
of preserving this special and almost   
transcendant aptitude that the ,semites 
have for all subtle combinations1 and   
especially for those of geometrical     
numbers1 lines1 and figures80  ,although
 the principles of ,moorish art are so  
rigid and severe1 the ,arabs have not   
remained exempt from exterior influence1
 but have adapted and incorporated      
foreign feeling into their art1 and     
modified it to their purpose4 ,a note by
 the late ,owen ,jones greatly          
emphasises this fact4 ,he says3--8,when 
the ,mohammedan religion and            
civilisation  ,illustration3 ,,plate    
,,lii4  ,panelling of a ,recess4  rose  

with such astonishing rapidity in the   
,east1 the ,arabs1 in their mosques1    
made use of the materials which they    
found ready to their hands in the ruins 
of old ,roman buildings which they      
purposely destroyed2 they took columns  
with their ,corinthian capitals1 etc41  
and adapted them to the arrangement     
required for their own temples4 ,in     
their subsequent works they did not1 as 
we should have done1 continue to copy   
and reproduce the models which were at  
first so convenient to them2 but1       
applying to them their own peculiar     
feelings1 they gradually departed from  
the original model1 to such an extent at
 last1 that but for the intermediate    
steps we should be unable to discover   
the least analogy between them4 ,yet by 
this process the capitals of their      
columns can be traced back to the       
,corinthian order which they1 in the    
first instance1 found so abundantly for 
their use40  ,arab art must ever remain 
distinct from every other school and    

style1 because the essential foundation 
of it is fixed and limited4 ,now1 those 
who resign themselves to a style of art 
reduce themselves to formulas1 to       
copies1 or to diagrams4 ,greco-,roman   
art has its formulas of ordinance and   
propositions2 ,chino-,japanese art has  
its characteristic copies2 and          
,syro-,arabian art its abstract and     
geometrical diagrams4 ,the general      
elements of ,arabian art1 as applied to 
architecture and decoration1 consist of 
stalactites1 intertwinings1 and         
ornaments4 ,stalactites1 which are at   
the same time ornaments and members of  
architecture1 are employed in           
corbelling1 in coving1 and in           
pendentives1 and are modelled and       
superposed by tapia1 or cut in wood and 
placed side by side1 or opened into     
hollows by superficial casings in wire  
and tressing4 ,the intertwinings which  
embellish the surfaces are carved and   
trimmed in splitboards of carpentry1 or 
laid in compartments1 or carved in open 

work1 or engraved in stone1 wood1 and   
metal2 or set in filigree1 vignettes1 or
 mosaics4 ,the ornaments1 which divide  
themselves into decoration by embroidery
 or embellishment in sections1 reduce   
themselves to a small number of         
elements1 or flower-work cut flat in    
outline4 ,the outlines1 complete in the 
boundary which limits them1 are quite   
characteristic4 ,they do not resemble in
 any way1 except in so far as the       
unalterable laws of geometry decree1 the
 outline drawn by ,europeans1 nor the   
cursive traits used by the ,chinese and 
,japanese4 ,all ,arab ornament is by    
involution of lines2 in short1 it may be
 said to be entirely geometric4  ,the   
art of the ,mohammedan1 so powerful in  
appeal to the imagination1 not only by  
beauty and grace1 but by the doctrine of
 the ,koran inscribed in their temples  
on every side in ornamented             
characters1--so admirably traced that   
they appear to form part of a perfected 
design proclaiming the power of ,allah1 

and impressing upon the believer respect
 for the laws and the love of           
virtue2--produces an effect little short
 of magical4 ,still does that art       
accompany its religion in a lingering   
death4 ,crushed by the rapid strides    
which surrounding nations have made in  
the progress of civilization1 and which 
have outrun and ruined it1 yet do a few 
bright emanations appear1 to show that  
as in religion they are faithful to     
their creed1 so in art do their         
crumbling monuments preserve their      
shattered remains on which the observer 
still may see1 in deep characters1 the  
chronicles of the times4  ,in the       
illustrations which accompany these     
brief notes1 the ,arab's mastery of line
 in the composition of design may be    
studied1 and its mystery revealed2 but  
to reduce these geometrical             
intertwinings to their original elements
 demands patience1 application1 and very
 much time4 ,at first sight these       
diagrams may appear monotonous1 but each

 is constructed on a particular theme4  
,most of them spread  ,illustration3    
,,plate ,,liii4  ,blank ,window4        
throughout the ,orient1 and may be more 
particularly studied in the ,moorish    
monuments in ,spain1 where they are     
employed indifferently in carvings1 in  
mosaic and inlaid work1 in application  
to chased bronze1 and in compartments of
 decoration and embroidery4 ,the        
infinite variety the artists are able to
 introduce while working on strict      
rules1 which admit of no exception1 is  
the result of instinct perfected by     
centuries of practice4 ,that in their   
work was something to be learned1 as    
well as to be felt1 is evident from the 
,moorish poet's exhortation to us to    
attentively contemplate the adornments  
of their palaces1 and thereby reap the  
benefit of a commentary on decoration4  
,it is1 then1 for the benefit of        
students who would know something more  
of ,arabian ornamentation than can be   
derived from the sensation produced by  

broad effects1 and for lovers of the    
fine arts who would understand the      
inwardness of ,moorish refinement and   
reduce its mysteries to their primary   
bases1 that the accompanying diagrams   
have been reproduced4  ,at foot of each 
diagram is added a short explanatory    
note2 but it is expedient for the       
student to give consideration to the    
plan which is1 in every case1 set out in
 dotted lines4 ,by this means1 he will  
discover1 if he approaches his subject  
with a free mind1 that his task will    
offer less difficulty than would appear 
at the outset4 ,to minutely describe the
 construction of each diagram1 and1 at  
the same time comply with the stringent 
rules of geometry1 would occupy much too
 great a space2 nor would the result1   
perhaps1 be proportioned to the labour4 
,illustration3  #a ,,greek1             
,,rectilinear4 #a' ,,greek1             
,,curvilinear4 #b ,,chinese1            
,,rectilinear4 #b' ,,greek1             
,,curvilinear4 #c and #d1 ,,greek1      

,,alternating     ,,pattern4 #e1 #f1 #g1
 #h1 #i1 #aj1 ,,greek1 ,,intercalary    
,,patterns4  #aa ,,chinese4 #ab         
,,assyrian4 #ac ,,pompeian4 #ad ,,greek4
 #ae ,,greek4 #af ,,greek4 #ag          
,,chinese1 ,,alternating ,,pattern4  #ah
 ,,greek1 ,,alternating ,,pattern4 #ai  
,,chinese4 #bj ,,chinese4 #ba ,,arabian4
 #bb ,,chinese4 #bc ,,greek4 #bd        
,,renaissance4  #be ,,arabian4 #bf      
,,chinese4 #bg ,,chinese4 #bh ,,persian4
 #bi ,,pompeian4 #cj ,,chinese4 #ca     
,,chinese4 #cb ,,greek4  ,illustration3 
,,plate ,,liv4  ,ornaments on the       
,walls1 ,house of ,sanchez4             
,illustration3  #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,,greek 
,,and ,,albanian4 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1       
,,renaissance4 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1  
#ad1 ,,italian4 #ae1 #af1               
,,gallo-,,roman4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1         
,,italian4 #bj ,,italian4 #ba1 #bb1     
,,italian ,,fa,,ence4 #bc ,,pondichery4 
#bd ,,arabian4 #be1 #bf1 ,,greek4       
,illustration3  #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 
#g1 #h1 #aj1 ,,arabian4 #i ,,chinese4   

#aa ,,renaissance4 #ab ,,greek4 #ac     
,,arabian4 #ad ,,arabian4 #ae ,,greek1  
,,alternating ,,pattern4 #af ,,greek4   
#ag ,,mexican ,,and ,,arabian4 #ah      
,,greek4 #ai ,,arabian4 #bj ,,american1 
,,ancient ,,pottery4 #ba1 #bb1          
,,arabian4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lv4
  ,ornament in panels on the ,walls4    
,illustration3  #a1 #b1 ,,egyptian4 #c  
,,egyptian ,,necklace4 #d ,,assyrian4 #e
 ,,pompeian4 #f ,,italian4 #g           
,,egyptian4 #h ,,frieze4 #ah,,th        
,,century4 #i ,,greek4 #aj ,,uncertain4 
#aa ,,arabian4 #ab ,,frieze4 #ah,,th    
,,century4  ,illustration3  #a1 #b1 #c1 
#d1 ,,from ,,painted ,,vases4 #e        
,,greek4 #f ,,oriental ,,filigree4 #g1  
#h1 ,,greek4 #i ,,persian4 #aj ,,greek4 
#aa ,,chinese4 #ab ,,oriental           
,,filigree4 #ac ,,indian4 #ad1 #ae1     
,,persian4 #af ,,arabian4 #ag ,,greek4  
#ah ,,persian4 #ai ,,oriental ,,chasing4
 #bj ,,arabian4 #ba ,,persian4 #bb      
,,turkish4 #bc ,,greek4 #bd             
,,passementerie4 #be ,,neapolitan4      

,illustration3  #a1 #a1 ,,damascene4 #b1
 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,,arabian4 #c1 #c1         
,,arabian4 #d1 #d1 #d1 ,,damascene      
7,,analogous ,,to ,,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c74  
#e1 #e1 ,,arabian4 #f1 #f1 ,,arabian4   
#g1 #h1 #i1 ,,arabian4 #aj1 #aj1 #aa1   
#aa'1 ,,chinese4 #ab1 #ab1 ,,greek4 #ac1
 #ad1 ,,persian4 #ae1 #af1              
,,anglo-,,saxon4  ,illustration3        
,ornament in spandrils of arches4       
,illustration3  #a1 #b1 #c1 ,,greek4 #d 
,,egyptian4 #e ,,style 8,,labrouste40 #e
 ,,byzantine4 #f ,,greek4 #g1 #g1       
,,greek4 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aj1 #aa1 #aa1    
,,greek 7,,parthenon74  ,illustration3  
,arabian ,construction4  #a1 #a1 ,,one  
,,spiral4 #b1 #b1 ,,two ,,spirals4 #c1  
#c1 ,,three ,,spirals4 #d ,,cross       
,,quarterly ,,indicating ,,positions    
,,essential ,,to ,,the motif ,,number   
#c4 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 ,,repetitions ,,of  
motif ,,number #c ,,variously ,,treated4
 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1           
,,arrangements ,,by ,,alternating       
,,treatment     ,,of motif ,,number #c4 

,,these ,,arrangements ,,afford         
,,excellent ,,examples ,,of ,,the       
,,endless ,,diversity ,,of ,,geometric  
,,forms4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lvii4
  ,centre ,ornament of the ,window4     
,dado4      ,dado4  ,pilaster4          
,pilasters4  ,mosaic ,dado in a window4 
,the recess or divan containing these   
beautiful ,mosaics was1 doubtless1 the  
throne of the ,moorish kings4 ,the      
,mosaics are as perfect as when         
originally executed1 and seem1 indeed1  
to be imperishable4 ,they are formed of 
baked clay squeezed into moulds of the  
different figures1 glazed on the        
surface4  ,illustration3 ,,plate        
,,lviii4  ,mosaic ,dados on pillars     
between windows4  ,the ,mosaic ,dados on
 the pillars present a great variety in 
their patterns1 although the component  
parts are in each the same4             
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lix4  ,mosaic  
,dados on pillars between windows4      
,these ,mosaics1 though in appearance so
 different from those of the preceding  

plate1 will be found on examination to  
be composed of the same pieces          
differently combined4  ,illustration3   
,,plate ,,lx4  ,lining of one of        
,pilaster4 the columns4  ,dado4         
,dado4      ,dado4  ,the beautiful      
,mosaic in the centre of this plate is  
part of the ,dado4  ,illustration3      
,,plate ,,lxi4  ,pavement of the ,hall  
of the ,baths4  ,mosaic ,dado round the 
internal walls of the ,mosque4          
,mosaics from the ,mosque and the ,hall 
of the ,baths4 ,the ,mosaic ,dados      
round the walls of the ,mosque appear to
 be the only portions of the            
ancient private ,mosque attached to the 
,palace which have been      preserved  
intact in their original situation4 ,the
 motto of the      ,kings of ,granada1  
8,there is no conqueror but ,god10 was  
replaced      by 8,nec plus ultra0 of   
,charles ,v41 when the ,mosque was      
converted      by him into a chapel4    
,the beautiful ,mosaic at the top of the
 plate      is placed round the fountain

 of the ,chamber of ,repose of the      
,baths4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxii4 
,azulejos4      ,painted ,tiles4  ,on   
the floor of one of the alcoves of the  
,hall of ,justice are to be seen the    
painted tiles delineated in the centre  
of this plate4  ,illustration3 ,,plate  
,,lxiii4  ,mosaics in the ,baths4       
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxiv4  ,mosaic 
from the portico of the ,generalife4    
,illustration3 #a1 #b1 #c1 ,,variations 
,,on ,a ,,chinese motif4  #d1 #e1 #f1   
,,variations ,,on ,a motif              
,,hispano-,,arabian4  #g1 #h1 #i1       
,,variations ,,on ,a motif1             
,,syro-,,arabian4  #aj1 #aa1 #ab1       
,,variations ,,on ,a motif1             
,,gallo-,,roman4  ,illustration3 ,,plate
 ,,lxv4  ,ornaments in ,panels4         
,illustration3 #a ,,simple ,,plait1     
,,undulated4  #b ,,double ,,plait4  #c  
,,simple ,,plait1 ,,intersected4  #d    
,,plait1 ,,from ,a ,,greek ,,vase4  #e  
,,redoubled ,,plait1 ,,greek4  #f       
,,inflected ,,plait1 ,,greek4  #g       

,,inflected ,,plait1 ,,greek4  #h       
,,quadrupled ,,plaits1 ,,interlaced1    
,,sicilian4  #i ,,sicilian4  #aj        
,,triple ,,plait1 ,,greek4  #aa ,,triple
 ,,plait1 ,,greek4  #ab ,,diversified   
,,plait1 ,,neapolitan4  #ac ,,greek4    
#ad ,,greek4  #ae ,,arabian4  #af       
,,persian 7,,three ,,plaits1            
,,intersected74  #ag ,,greek4           
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxvi4          
,ornaments over ,arches at one of the   
,entrances4  ,illustration3             
,egypto-,arabian ,knot1 or ,net-work4   
#a ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,pentagon4   
#b ,,variety ,,of ,,proceeding4  #c1 #d1
 ,,trigonometrical4  #e ,,octagonal4  #f
 ,,heptagonal4  #g ,,quadrilateral4  #h 
,,octagonal4  ,illustration3            
,indo-,syro-,arabian ,knot1 or          
,net-work4  #a ,,squares ,,and          
,,octagons4  #b ,,derived ,,from        
,,squares4  #c ,,derived ,,from ,,the   
,,square3 ,,from ,,the ,,centre ,a      
,,dodecagon ,,and ,,other ,,figures     
,,are ,,formed ,,by ,,sub-,,division4   

#d ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,square3     
,,the ,,angles ,,being ,,divided1 ,,the 
,,resulting ,,rays ,,determine ,,the    
,,figures ,,by ,,intersection4  #e      
,,analogous ,,to ,,figure #b4  #f       
,,trigonometrical4  #g ,,hexagonal4     
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxvii4         
,ornaments on the ,walls4               
,illustration3 #a1 #a'1 ,,brick         
,,facings ,,from ,,rosetta4  #b1 #c1 #d1
 ,,arabian4  #e ,,japanese4  #f         
,,greco-,,assyrian4  #g ,,arabian4  #h  
,,chinese4  ,illustration3 #a ,,arabian4
  #b ,,ornamented ,,brick1 ,,rosetta4   
#c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 ,,four ,,analogous      
motifs1 ,,respectively ,,chinese1       
,,arabian 7bis7 ,,and                   
,,greco-,,assyrian4  #g ,,arabian4  #h  
,,greco-,,egyptian4  ,illustration3     
,,plate ,,lxviii4  ,ornaments in ,panels
 on the ,walls4  ,illustration3 #a      
,,arabian 7,,damascus74  #b ,,ceiling1  
,,louis ,,xiii4  #c1 #d1 #e1 ,,arabian  
7,,damascus78  #f ,,indian4             
,illustration3 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1  

#g1 #h1 ,,arabian4  ,illustration3 #a   
,,incrustation ,,on ,,pottery1 ,,from   
,,oiron4  #b ,,renaissance4  #c         
,,mexican4  #d ,,chinese4  #e           
,,egyptian4  #f ,,arabian4  #g1 #h1 #i1 
,,early ,,tiles1 ,,from ,,damascus1     
,,rome1 ,,and ,,florence ,,respectively4
  #aj ,,italian4  #aa1 #aa'1 ,,egyptian4
  #ab ,,italian4  ,illustration3 ,,plate
 ,,lxix4  ,small ,panel in ,jamb of a   
,window4  ,illustration3 #a ,,persian4  
#b ,,arabian ,,ceiling1 ,,from ,,cairo4 
#c ,,ceiling1 ,,painted ,,by ,,duban4   
#d ,,byzantine4  #e ,,chinese4  #f      
,,pompeian4  ,illustration3 ,,plate     
,,lxx4  ,small ,panel in ,jamb of a     
,window4  ,illustration3 #a1 #b1        
,,lace-,,work4  #c1 #c'1 ,,egyptian4    
#d1 #d'1 ,,egyptian4  #e1 #f1           
,,egyptian4  ,illustration3 #a1 #b1 #c1 
,,anglo-,,saxon4  #d ,,egyptian4        
,,strangely ,,analogous ,,to ,,number   
#c4  #e1 #f1 #g1 ,,anglo-,,saxon4  #h   
,,egyptian4  ,illustration3 #a          
,,arabian4  #b ,,italian4  #c           

,,renaissance4  #d ,,arabian4  #e       
,,arabian4  #f ,,arabian4               
,illustration3 #a1 #b1 #c1 ,,from ,,the 
,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,croix1            
,,jerusalem4  #d ,,sicilian4  #e1 #f1   
#g1 #h1 ,,arabian4  #i1 #aj1            
,,chisellings ,,on ,,stone1 ,,jerusalem4
  #aa ,,marble ,,chasing1 ,,jerusalem4  
#ab1 #ac1 ,,arabian ,,chasings1 ,,on    
,,copper4  ,illustration3 ,,plate       
,,lxxi4  ,panel in the ,upper ,chamber  
of the ,house of ,sanchez4              
,illustration3 #a1 #b1 #c1 8,,palmettes0
 ,,from ,,the ,,prows ,,of dahabiehs    
7,,nile ,,boats7  #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1   
,,greek1 ,,from ,,examples ,,at         
,,athens4  ,illustration3 #a-i4 ,,this  
,,plate ,,is ,,devoted ,,to             
,,curvilinear ,,figures1 ,,chiefly      
,,from ,,athens4  ,,figure #g ,,is      
,,from ,a ,,mural ,,decoration ,,at     
,,pompeii4  ,,description ,,of ,,the    
,,plates  ,,hexagonal ,,family          
,illustration3 #a ,,plan1 ,,triangular4 
,,to ,,describe ,,the ,,hexagon4        

,illustration3 #b ,,plan1 ,,triangular4 
,,large ,,and ,,smaller ,,hexagons4     
,illustration3 #c ,,plan1 ,,triangular4 
,,curvilineal ,,transformation ,,of     
,,the ,,preceding ,,figure4             
,illustration3 #d ,,triangles           
,,curtailed2 ,,or1 ,,ternary ,,hexagons 
,,intersected4  ,illustration3 ,,plate  
,,lxxii4  ,spandril from ,niche of      
,doorway at one of the ,entrances4      
,illustration3 #e ,,intersections ,,in  
,,compartments4 ,,five                  
,,figures--,,large ,,and ,,smaller      
,,hexagon2 ,,hexagon ,,of ,,unequal     
,,length2 ,,dove-,,tailed ,,hexagon2    
,,hexagonal ,,star2 ,,triangle4         
,illustration3 #f ,,hexagons            
,,intersected ,,circularly ,,by ,,the   
,,six ,,points1 ,,the ,,apices ,,united 
,,by ,a ,,triangle4 ,,four              
,,figures--,,star1 ,,pentagon1          
,,triangle1 ,,lozenge4  ,illustration3  
#g ,,hexagons1 ,,intersected ,,by ,,the 
,,apices4 ,,three ,,figures--,,star1    
,,lozenge1 ,,dodecagon4  ,illustration3 

#h ,,triangular ,,plan4 ,,from ,,the    
,,apices ,,of ,,the ,,triangles ,,of    
,,division ,,draw ,,hexagonal ,,stars4  
,,the ,,plan ,,is ,,intersected ,,by    
,,detached ,,hexagons ,,enclosing ,,the 
,,stars4  ,illustration3 #i ,,triangles 
,,enclosed1 ,,and ,,leaving ,,hexagonal 
,,stars1 ,,the ,,stars ,,being ,,joined 
,,by ,,zig-,,zag ,,bands4               
,illustration3 #aj ,,hexagonal ,,star1  
,,of ,,which ,a ,,side ,,from ,,each    
,,apex ,,is ,,extended ,,in ,,revolving2
 ,,three ,,stars ,,thus ,,revolved ,,are
 ,,joined ,,by ,a ,,band4               
,illustration3 #aa ,,bands ,,enveloping 
,a ,,hexagon4  ,illustration3 #ab       
,,rectangles ,,intersecting ,,regularly 
,,by ,,threes1 ,,and ,,interlaced ,,by  
,,their ,,smaller ,,sides1 ,,their      
,,extremities1 ,,penetrating1 ,,forming 
,,three ,,pairs ,,of ,,pentagons4       
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxiii4        
,lintel of a ,doorway4  ,illustration3  
#ac ,,from ,,the ,,apices ,,of          
,,triangles ,,of ,,division ,,describe  

,,circumferences2 ,,divide ,,the        
,,circumferences ,,in ,,twelve ,,equal  
,,parts1 ,,and ,,take ,,the ,,diagonals 
,,of ,,five ,,in ,,five ,,divisions2    
,,thus ,,stars ,,of ,,six ,,points ,,are
 ,,obtained4 ,,these ,,stars ,,contain  
,,in ,,the ,,enclosure ,a ,,hexagon ,,of
 ,,ternary ,,symmetry1 ,,with ,,angles  
,,alternately ,,right ,,and ,,obtuse4   
,illustration3 #ad  ,illustration3 #ae  
,,from ,,the ,,apices ,,of ,,the        
,,triangles ,,of ,,division ,,describe  
,a ,,circumference4 ,,with ,a ,,radius  
,,equal ,,to ,,that ,,of ,,the          
,,triangle4 ,,inscribe ,a ,,dodecagon2  
,,then ,,take ,,the ,,diagonals ,,of    
,,three ,,in ,,three ,,divisions ,,from 
,,the ,,other ,,diagonals ,,which ,,form
 ,,the ,,squares4  ,illustration3 #af   
,,figure ,,analogous ,,to ,,figure #h4  
q4v4  ,illustration3 #ag ,,from ,,the   
,,apices ,,of ,,the ,,triangles ,,of    
,,division ,,describe ,,circumferences  
,,having ,a ,,radius ,,equal ,,to       
,,one-,,third ,,of ,a ,,side2           

,,sub-,,divide ,,them ,,into ,,twelve   
,,equal ,,parts1 ,,then ,,take ,,the    
,,diagonals ,,of ,,three ,,in ,,three   
,,divisions4 ,,the ,,radius ,,of ,,the  
,,circumferences ,,would ,,be ,,smaller 
,,or ,,larger ,,than ,,the ,,one-,,third
 ,,of ,,the ,,side2 ,,and ,,then1 ,,by  
,,means ,,of ,,an ,,adjustment1 ,,the   
,,squares ,,between ,,the ,,apices      
,,would ,,have ,a ,,side ,,equal ,,to   
,,that ,,of ,,the ,,stars4              
,illustration3 #ah ,,dodecagons         
,,intersected ,,by ,,each ,,other1      
,,which ,,are ,,obtained ,,by           
,,sub-,,division ,,of ,,the ,,angles    
,,of ,,the ,,triangles ,,into ,,four    
,,equal ,,parts4  ,illustration3 #ai    
,,dodecagons ,,containing               
,,six-,,pointed ,,stars ,,sub-,,divided 
,,by ,,bands4 ,,the ,,radius ,,of ,,the 
,,dodecagons ,,is ,,equal ,,to ,,half ,a
 ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,triangles ,,of     
,,division4  ,illustration3 #bj ,,from  
,,the ,,apices ,,of ,,the ,,triangles   
,,describe ,a ,,circumference1 ,,with   

,,its ,,radius ,,equal ,,to ,,half ,a   
,,side ,,of ,,the ,,triangles4 ,,the    
,,six-,,pointed ,,stars ,,and ,,bands   
,,which ,,are ,,derived ,,from ,,them   
,,could ,,be ,,of ,,different           
,,proportions4  ,illustration3 #ba      
,,distribution ,,proceeding ,,from      
,,hexagons ,,and ,,triangles4           
,illustration3 #bb ,,six-,,pointed      
,,stars ,,and ,,hexagons1 ,,from ,,which
 ,,proceed ,,band-,,work ,,and          
,,lozenges4  ,illustration3 #bc         
,,hexagons1 ,,triangles1 ,,and          
,,six-,,pointed ,,stars4  ,illustration3
 #bd ,,subject ,,similar ,,to ,,number  
#ba4  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxiv4   
,capital of ,columns4  ,illustration3   
#be ,,large ,,hexagons ,,crossed ,,and  
,,cut ,,by ,,figures ,,quartered ,,by   
,,eight ,,sides2 ,,horizontal ,,and     
,,vertical ,,bands ,,proceeding ,,from  
,,six-,,pointed ,,stars4  ,illustration3
 #bf ,,from ,,the ,,apices ,,of ,,the   
,,triangles ,,of ,,division ,,describe  
,,the ,,circumferences1 ,,and ,,divide  

,,them ,,into ,,twelve ,,equal ,,parts4 
,,by ,,the ,,points ,,of ,,the ,,star   
,,thus ,,made1 ,,describe ,,six         
,,half-,,circles1 ,,in ,,each ,,case    
,,forming ,a ,,rosette4 ,,small         
,,intercalary ,,circles ,,unite ,,the   
,,rosettes4  ,illustration3 #bg ,,each  
,,six-,,pointed ,,star ,,is ,,surrounded
 ,,by ,a ,,rosette ,,of ,,six           
,,hexagons1 ,,which1 ,,in ,,their       
,,turn1 ,,distribute ,,their ,,lines    
,,to ,,form ,,larger ,,hexagons4        
,illustration3 #bh ,,each               
,,six-,,pointed ,,star ,,is ,,surrounded
 ,,by ,a ,,rosette ,,of ,,six           
,,hexagons1 ,,which ,,are ,,supplemented
 ,,by ,,perpendicular ,,lines1 ,,which1 
,,by ,,intersecting ,,octagons          
,,themselves1 ,,are ,,the ,,means ,,of  
,,completing ,,small ,,hexagons4        
,illustration3 #bi ,,from ,,the ,,upper 
,,angles ,,of ,,the ,,squares ,,of      
,,division ,,trace ,,stars              
,,six-,,pointed1 ,,rotating             
,,alternately ,,as ,,shown ,,in         

,,diagram4 ,,the ,,junction ,,of ,,the  
,,lines ,,of ,,division ,,determine     
,,the ,,points ,,of ,,the ,,figure4     
,illustration3 #cj ,,alternating        
,,dispositions ,,of ,,six-,,pointed     
,,star1 ,,with ,,exterior ,,rosette ,,of
 ,,six ,,hexagons4 ,,the ,,angles ,,of  
,,the ,,square ,,being ,,divided ,,into 
,,three ,,equal ,,parts ,,by ,a ,,first 
,,and ,,second ,,radius1 ,a             
,,circumference ,,is ,,made1 ,,within   
,,which ,,is ,,inscribed ,,the ,,star   
,,of ,,six ,,points4 ,,the ,,rest       
,,follows4  ,illustration3 #ca ,,subject
 ,,analogous ,,to ,,numbers #bh1 #bi4   
,illustration3 #cb ,,alternating        
,,disposition ,,of ,,six-,,pointed      
,,star1 ,,surrounded ,,by ,,six         
,,hexagons4 ,,sub-,,divide ,,the        
,,angles ,,of ,,the ,,square ,,into     
,,three ,,equal ,,parts4 ,,the          
,,conjunction ,,of ,,the ,,radii ,,with 
,,them1 ,,and ,,with ,,the ,,medials    
,,of ,,the ,,square1 ,,make ,,the       
,,figure4 ,,in ,,the ,,centre ,,of ,,the

 ,,square ,a ,,lineal ,,subject1        
,,alternating4  ,illustration3 ,,plate  
,,lxxv4  ,capital of ,columns4          
,illustration3 #cc ,,hexagonal ,,and    
,,octagonal ,,distribution4             
,illustration3 #cd ,,hexagonal          
,,distribution4 ,,pentagonal ,,stars    
,,and ,,hexagons4  ,illustration3 #ce   
,,hexagonal ,,star ,,inscribing ,a      
,,second ,,six-,,pointed ,,star4 ,,the  
,,intersections ,,give ,,lozenges ,,and 
,,hexagons4  ,illustration3 #cf ,,square
 ,,plan4 ,,divide ,,opposite ,,lines    
,,into ,,three1 ,,and ,,by ,,the        
,,centre ,,of ,,the ,,square ,,carry    
,,two ,,cross ,,lines4  ,illustration3  
,,plate ,,lxxvi4  ,capital of ,columns4 
,illustration3 #cg ,,triangular ,,plan4 
,,hexagonal ,,star ,,and ,,hexagonal    
,,rosette ,,enclosed ,,by ,,regular     
,,hexagon4  ,illustration3 #ch          
,,hexagonal1 ,,square1 ,,and            
,,triangular ,,plan4 ,,hexagonal        
,,distribution4 ,,dodecagon ,,star ,,in 
,,centres4  ,illustration3 #ci          

,,triangular ,,plan4 ,,hexagonal        
,,disposition4  ,illustration3 #dj      
,,triangular ,,plan4 ,,hexagons ,,and   
,,triangles2 ,,intersected ,,hexagons2  
,,hexagonal ,,curvilinear ,,rosettes4   
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxvii4        
,,seville4  ,socle of the ,entrance     
,arch to the ,antechapel4               
,illustration3 #da ,,triangular ,,plan4 
,,dodecagonal ,,stars2 ,,hexagonal      
,,stars ,,enclosed ,,by ,,regular       
,,hexagon4  ,illustration3 #db ,,square 
,,plan4 ,,from ,,the ,,centre ,,describe
 ,a ,,circumference2 ,,divide           
,,circumference ,,into ,,eight ,,equal  
,,parts1 ,,starred ,,octagons ,,are     
,,thus ,,obtained1 ,,the ,,prolonged    
,,sides ,,of ,,which ,,determine        
,,quadrilateral ,,stars4  ,illustration3
 #dc ,,curvilineal ,,transformation ,,of
 ,,figure #db4  ,illustration3 #dd      
,,octagonal ,,stars2 ,,intersecting     
,,lozenges1 ,,squares1 ,,trilaterals4   
,illustration3 #de ,,divide ,,the       
,,square ,,into ,,four ,,equal ,,parts4 

,,the ,,meeting ,,of ,,the ,,first      
,,line ,,with ,,the ,,median ,,of ,,the 
,,square ,,gives ,,the ,,radius ,,of ,a 
,,circumference4 ,,the ,,diagonal       
,,lines ,,give ,,an ,,octagonal ,,star4 
,illustration3 #df ,,square ,,plan4     
,,from ,,the ,,centre ,a                
,,circumference1 ,,and ,,by ,,diagonals 
,a ,,starred ,,octagon4  ,illustration3 
#dg ,,curvilinear ,,and ,,undulating    
,,octagons ,,and ,,pentagons4           
,illustration3 #dh ,,distribution ,,of  
,,starred ,,and ,,regular ,,octagons1   
,,with ,,starred ,,pentagons4           
,illustration3 #di ,,octagonal          
,,rosettes ,,following ,,isoceles       
,,triangle ,,with ,,pentagonal ,,stars  
,,and ,,regular ,,octagons              
,,intercalary4  ,illustration3 #ej      
,,describe ,,circumferences ,,as ,,shown
 ,,in ,,plan1 ,,in ,,which ,,are        
,,carried ,,diagonals4 ,,from ,,the     
,,centre ,,inscribe ,a ,,square4 ,,the  
,,intersections ,,of ,,the ,,lines ,,of 
,,the ,,star ,,complete ,,the ,,figure4 

,illustration3 #ea ,,describe           
,,circumferences ,,equal ,,and          
,,tangent1 ,,and ,,divide ,,into        
,,sixteen ,,equal ,,parts4 ,,by ,,the   
,,angles ,,of ,,division ,,describe ,a  
,,pentagon ,,starred4 ,,by ,,the        
,,centre ,,of ,,the ,,square ,,an       
,,octagon ,,starred1 ,,from ,,which     
,,emanates ,,an ,,octagon ,,rosette4    
,,hexagons ,,regular ,,and ,,starred4   
,illustration3 #eb ,,divide ,,tangent   
,,circumferences ,,into ,,sixteen       
,,equal ,,parts4 ,,similar ,,disposition
 ,,to ,,figure ,,number #di1 ,,but      
,,with ,,different ,,treatment4         
,illustration3 #ec ,,describe           
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,plan2      
,,inscribe ,,therein ,,by ,,the         
,,diagonals ,a ,,star1 ,,the ,,sides    
,,of ,,which1 ,,prolonged ,,and         
,,intersected ,,by ,,the ,,octagonal    
,,star1 ,,determine ,,the ,,rosettes4   
,illustration3 #ed ,,divide             
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,plan ,,into
 ,,thirty-,,two ,,equal ,,parts4 ,,from 

,,the ,,centre ,,of ,,the ,,square      
,,inscribe ,a ,,star ,,of ,,sixteen     
,,points1 ,,the ,,prolongation ,,of     
,,its ,,lines ,,forming ,,the ,,rosette 
,,of ,,sixteen4  ,illustration3 #ee     
,,describe ,,circumferences ,,as ,,in   
,,plan4 ,,from ,,the ,,centre ,,of ,,the
 ,,plan ,,by ,,radiating ,,lines        
,,inscribe ,a ,,starred ,,octagon2 ,,the
 ,,prolongation ,,and ,,meeting ,,of    
,,its ,,lines ,,in ,,repetition         
,,complete ,,the ,,figure4              
,illustration3 #ef ,,describe           
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,in 
,,the ,,centre ,,of ,,four ,,equal      
,,squares ,,trace ,,an ,,octagonal      
,,rosette1 ,,after ,,having ,,taken ,,in
 ,,the ,,large ,,rosette ,,of ,,sixteen 
,,points1 ,,which ,,lends ,,its ,,lines 
,,to ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,eight     
,,surrounding ,,cruciform ,,figures4    
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxviii4       
,,seville4  ,socle of the ,entrance     
,arch to the ,chapel4  ,illustration3   
#eg ,,from ,,the ,,centre ,,of ,,four   

,,equal ,,squares ,,describe            
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,plan4      
,,inscribe ,,therein ,,the ,,starred    
,,octagon1 ,,the ,,prolonged ,,sides    
,,of ,,which ,,determine ,,the          
,,quadrilateral ,,rosette4              
,illustration3 #eh ,,the ,,square ,,of  
,,distribution ,,is ,a ,,rectangle      
,,lengthened1 ,,from ,,which ,,octagons 
,,are ,,traced4 ,,ternary ,,stars1 ,,yet
 ,,with ,,six ,,points1 ,,and ,,paired  
,,stars ,,with ,,five ,,points ,,fill   
,,in ,,the ,,rectangle4  ,illustration3 
#ei ,,design ,,of ,,four ,,figures4 ,,an
 ,,octagon1 ,a ,,hexagon ,,paired1 ,a   
,,starred ,,pentagon1 ,,and ,a ,,starred
 ,,hexagon4  ,illustration3 #fj         
,,analogous ,,to ,,number #eh1 ,,with   
,,closer ,,development4  ,illustration3 
#fa ,a ,,starred ,,octagon1 ,,the       
,,prolonged ,,lines ,,of ,,which ,,form 
,,an ,,octagonal ,,rosette1 ,,separated 
,,by ,a ,,regular ,,hexagon4            
,illustration3 #fb ,,divide             
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,plan ,,into

 ,,sixteen ,,equal ,,parts4 ,,the       
,,diagonals ,,will ,,give ,a ,,star ,,of
 ,,sixteen ,,points1 ,,the ,,lines ,,of 
,,which1 ,,extended1 ,,form ,a ,,rosette
 ,,of ,,sixteen ,,points ,,within ,a    
,,square4 ,,the ,,angles ,,of ,,the     
,,square ,,intersect ,,regular          
,,hexagons4  ,illustration3 #fc         
,,describe ,,the ,,circumferences ,,as  
,,in ,,the ,,plan4 ,,inscribe ,,from ,a 
,,centre ,a ,,starred ,,octagon         
,,enclosed ,,within ,a ,,regular        
,,octagon1 ,a ,,starred ,,hexagon       
,,within ,,alternate ,,hexagons1 ,,and  
,a ,,cruciform ,,figure ,,within ,a     
,,four-,,pointed ,,star4  ,illustration3
 #fc' ,,describe ,,circumferences ,,as  
,,in ,,the ,,plan1 ,,and ,,from ,a      
,,centre ,,inscribe ,a ,,starred        
,,octagon2 ,,from ,,the ,,extended      
,,lines ,,is ,,formed ,a ,,cruciform    
,,figure4 ,,from ,,other ,,centres      
,,inscribe ,,starred ,,and ,,regular    
,,hexagons4  ,illustration3 ,,seville4  
,detail of the ,tiles of the ,altar4    

,illustration3 #fd ,,describe           
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,the ,,plan4
 ,,from ,a ,,centre ,,inscribe ,a       
,,starred ,,octagon ,,of ,,which ,,the  
,,sides ,,are ,,prolonged4 ,,by ,,these 
,,prolongations1 ,,and ,,by ,,octagonal 
,,figures ,,in ,,pairs1 ,,the ,,tracing 
,,is ,,complete4  ,illustration3 #fe    
,,divide ,,circumferences ,,as ,,in     
,,the ,,plan ,,into ,,twenty-,,four     
,,equal ,,parts1 ,,and ,,inscribe ,,from
 ,a ,,centre ,a ,,starred ,,dodecagon1  
,,the ,,extended ,,lines ,,of ,,which   
,,determine ,,the ,,intersecting ,,lines
 ,,of ,,the ,,rosette4  ,illustration3  
#ff ,,describe ,,circumferences ,,as    
,,in ,,the ,,plan4 ,,from ,a ,,centre   
,,inscribe ,a ,,starred ,,dodecagon     
,,analogous ,,to ,,number #fe4          
,illustration3 #fg ,,triangular ,,plan4 
,,describe ,,circumferences ,,as ,,in   
,,the ,,plan4 ,,from ,a ,,centre        
,,inscribe ,a ,,starred ,,dodecagon1    
,,the ,,extended ,,lines ,,of ,,which   
,,form ,,the ,,unequal ,,limbs ,,of ,a  

,,rosette1 ,,and ,a ,,cruciform ,,figure
 ,,within ,a ,,square4  ,illustration3  
,,plate ,,lxxx4  ,,seville4  ,socle in  
the ,interior of the ,chapel4           
,illustration3 #fh ,,divide ,,as ,,in   
,,the ,,plan4 ,,inscribe ,a ,,starred   
,,dodecagon1 ,,the ,,sides ,,of ,,which 
,,prolonged ,,inscribe ,,the ,,lines    
,,of ,,the ,,rosette4 ,,four ,,rosettes 
,,penetrate ,,each ,,other1 ,,and ,,are 
,,each ,,invaded ,,by ,a ,,star ,,having
 ,,triangular ,,webs4  ,illustration3   
#fi ,,from ,a ,,centre ,,as ,,in ,,the  
,,plan ,,describe ,a ,,starred          
,,dodecagon1 ,,the ,,sides ,,of ,,which 
,,prolonged ,,form ,,the ,,lines ,,of   
,,the ,,rosette4 ,,the ,,rosette1 ,,by  
,,extending ,,lines1 ,,is ,,surrounded  
,,by ,,twelve ,,hexagons4               
,illustration3 #gj ,,divide ,,as ,,in   
,,the ,,plan4 ,,design ,,analogous ,,to 
,,number #fi4 ,,by ,,extension ,,of     
,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,rosette ,,hexagons 
,,are ,,grouped4  ,illustration3 #ga    
,,divide ,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,design     

,,analogous ,,to ,,number #gj4          
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxxi4         
,,seville4  ,socle in the ,interior of  
the ,chapel4  ,illustration3 #gb        
,,divide ,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,the        
,,circumferences ,,divided ,,into       
,,twenty-,,four ,,equal ,,parts         
,,determine ,,the ,,rosette1 ,,the      
,,extended ,,lines ,,of ,,which         
,,describe ,,the ,,starred ,,pentagon4  
,illustration3 #gc ,,curvilinear        
,,transformation ,,of ,,number #gb ,,by 
,,the ,,substitution ,,of ,,arcs ,,for  
,,rectilineal ,,features4               
,illustration3 #gd ,,divide ,,the       
,,circumferences ,,into ,,twenty-,,four 
,,equal ,,parts4 ,,inscribe ,,the       
,,starred ,,dodecagon1 ,,the ,,extended 
,,lines ,,of ,,which ,,describe ,,the   
,,rosette4  ,illustration3 #ge          
,,describe ,,three ,,concentric         
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,the
 ,,rosette ,,becomes ,,entire ,,by      
,,lines ,,extended ,,from ,,the         
,,starred ,,dodecagon4 ,,crossed ,,lines

 ,,from ,,the ,,rosette ,,determine     
,,the ,,square4  ,illustration3 #gf     
,,transformation ,,of ,,number #ge4     
,,rosette ,,identical4 ,,in ,,the       
,,centre ,,of ,a ,,square ,,describe    
,,an ,,octagon1 ,,the ,,prolonged       
,,sides ,,of ,,which ,,invade ,,the     
,,square ,,which ,,figures ,,around     
,,the ,,rosette4  ,illustration3 #gg    
,,divide ,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,from ,a    
,,centre ,,trace ,a ,,starred ,,hexagon1
 ,,the ,,extended ,,lines ,,of ,,which  
,,cut ,,the ,,prolonged ,,lines ,,of    
,,the ,,rosette4  ,illustration3 #gh    
,,describe ,,circumferences ,,as ,,in   
,,plan4 ,,from ,a ,,centre ,,trace ,a   
,,starred ,,dodecagon4 ,,thus ,,are     
,,determined ,,rosettes ,,placed ,,end  
,,to ,,end1 ,,each ,,in ,a ,,regular    
,,hexagon4  ,illustration3 #gi          
,,describe ,,circumferences ,,as ,,in   
,,plan4 ,,the ,,rosette ,,is            
,,determined ,,by ,,the ,,starred       
,,dodecagon4 ,,this ,,design ,,is ,,most
 ,,diversified1 ,,and ,,capable ,,of    

,,exhaustive ,,forms ,,of ,,ornament4   
,illustration3 #hj ,,from ,a ,,centre   
,,draw ,a ,,starred ,,dodecagon1 ,,which
 ,,determines ,,the ,,rosette1 ,,the    
,,crossed ,,lines ,,at ,,the ,,points   
,,of ,,the ,,rosette ,,determining ,,the
 ,,many ,,regular ,,hexagons ,,and      
tricles4  ,illustration3 #ha ,,hexagonal
 ,,distribution4 ,,from ,a ,,centre     
,,draw ,a ,,starred ,,dodecagon         
,,determining ,,the ,,rosette1 ,,the    
,,alternately ,,crossed ,,lines ,,of    
,,which ,,form ,a tricle1 ,,within ,a   
,,second ,,circumference1 ,,as ,,in     
,,the ,,plan1 ,,draw ,a ,,starred       
,,hexagon1 ,,the ,,extended ,,lines     
,,forming ,,six ,,regular ,,hexagons4   
,illustration3 #hb ,,from ,a ,,centre ,a
 ,,starred ,,dodecagon4 ,,the ,,lines   
,,extended ,,form ,,an ,,outer ,,starred
 ,,dodecagon1 ,,and ,,by ,,crossing     
,,describes ,a ,,starred ,,hexagon ,,and
 ,a ,,lozenge1 ,,within ,,which ,,is ,a 
,,cruciform ,,figure4  ,illustration3   
#hb' ,,the ,,radius ,,of ,,the          

,,circumference ,,is ,,equal ,,to ,a    
,,third ,,of ,,the ,,height ,,of ,,the  
,,triangle1 ,,and ,,the ,,square ,,makes
 ,a ,,star ,,of ,,four ,,points ,,at    
,,each ,,angle4  ,illustration3 #hc     
,,draw ,,circumferences ,,and ,,divide  
,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,the ,,starred       
,,dodecagon ,,determined ,,by           
,,intertwined ,,squares4 ,,the ,,lines  
,,of ,,the ,,dodecagon1 ,,extended ,,at 
,,intervals1 ,,form ,a ,,star ,,of      
,,four ,,points4  ,illustration3 #hd    
,,describe ,,circumferences ,,as ,,in   
,,plan4 ,,from ,a ,,centre ,,an ,,inner 
,,and ,,outer ,,starred ,,dodecagon1    
,,the ,,lines ,,of ,,which ,,extended   
,,form ,a ,,starred ,,and ,,regular     
,,hexagon1 ,,including ,a ,,starred     
,,octagon ,,which ,,merges ,,into ,a    
,,cruciform ,,figure4  ,illustration3   
#he ,,trace ,,the ,,net-,,work ,,of     
,,the ,,dodecagon1 ,,the ,,hexagon1     
,,and ,,the ,,four-,,pointed ,,stars4   
,,follow ,,diagonals ,,as ,,in ,,plan4  
,illustration3 #hf ,,draw               

,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,plan4      
,,from ,a ,,centre ,,an ,,inner ,,and   
,,outer ,,starred ,,dodecagon4          
,,extended ,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,inner   
,,dodecagon ,,form ,,six ,,squares      
,,which ,,invade ,a ,,regular           
,,dodecagon4  ,illustration3 ,mosaics   
from ,various ,halls4  ,illustration3   
#hg ,,square ,,plan4 ,,an ,,inner ,,and 
,,outer ,,starred ,,dodecagon1 ,,and ,a 
,,regular ,,dodecagon ,,by ,,diagonals4 
,illustration3 #hh ,,square ,,plan4     
,,describe ,,circumferences ,,and       
,,divide ,,them ,,into ,,twenty-,,four  
,,equal ,,parts1 ,,and ,,draw ,,the     
,,diagonals ,,of ,,eight ,,in ,,eight   
,,divisions4 ,,the ,,rest ,,follows4    
,illustration3 #hi ,,net-,,work ,,of    
,,the ,,dodecagon ,,and ,,the ,,triangle
 ,,assembled4 ,,by ,,extended ,,lines   
,,of ,,the ,,starred ,,dodecagon ,,an   
,,irregular ,,polygon1 ,,and ,a         
,,rosette ,,of ,,twelve ,,limbs ,,are   
,,formed4  ,illustration3 #ij ,,isoceles
 ,,plan4 ,a ,,circumference ,,is ,,drawn

 ,,in ,a ,,square ,,and ,,divided ,,into
 ,,twenty-,,four ,,equal ,,parts4 ,a    
,,circumference1 ,,concentric ,,to ,,the
 ,,first1 ,,completes ,,the ,,rosette   
,,by ,,means ,,of ,,diagonals4 ,,the    
,,small ,,hexagon ,,and ,,the ,,octagon 
,,are ,,traced4  ,illustration3 #ia     
,,describe ,,circumference ,,and        
,,divide ,,into ,,twenty-,,four ,,equal 
,,parts4 ,,the ,,regular ,,dodecagon    
,,is ,,drawn4 ,,the ,,inner ,,and       
,,outer ,,starred ,,dodecagons ,,are    
,,described ,,by ,,radiating ,,lines4   
,illustration3 #ib ,,net-,,work ,,of    
,,the ,,hexagon ,,and ,,the ,,triangle4 
,,the ,,rosette ,,of ,,twelve ,,points  
,,springing ,,from ,a ,,starred         
,,dodecagon ,,is ,,enclosed ,,by ,a     
,,hexagon1 ,,trellised1 ,,from ,,which  
,,the tricles ,,are ,,drawn4            
,illustration3 #ic ,,of ,,similar       
,,intention ,,to ,,number #ib1 ,,but    
,,an ,,irregular ,,hexagon ,,receives   
,,intercalary ,,lozenges4               
,illustration3 #id ,,triangular ,,plan4 

,,traced ,,by ,,trellised ,,net-,,work4 
,,the ,,hexagon ,,enveloped ,,in        
,,spirals4  ,illustration3 #ie          
,,triangular ,,plan4 ,,hexagon          
,,enveloped ,,in ,,spirals4 ,,analogous 
,,to ,,number #id4  ,illustration3 #if  
,,net-,,work ,,of ,,the ,,octagon1      
,,hexagon1 ,,and ,,circle1 ,,assembled4 
,,from ,,the ,,starred ,,octagons ,a    
,,curvilineal ,,rosette4  ,illustration3
 #ig ,,square ,,plan4 ,,stars ,,and     
,,rosettes4 ,,describe ,,circumferences 
,,as ,,indicated4 ,,the ,,octagonal     
,,stars ,,receive ,,the ,,extended      
,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,hexagonal ,,and    
,,pentagonal ,,stars4 ,,the ,,rest      
,,follows4  ,illustration3 #ih ,,divide 
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,the ,,plan4
 ,,from ,,the ,,centre ,,of ,,the       
,,hexagonal ,,rosette ,,describe ,a     
,,circumference ,,tangent ,,to ,,the    
,,first1 ,,and ,,divide ,,into ,,twelve 
,,parts4 ,,by ,,the ,,aid ,,of ,,the    
,,pentagon ,,comprised ,,complete ,,the 
,,rosette2 ,,then1 ,,depending ,,on     

,,the ,,pentagon--,,which1 ,,though     
,,irregular1 ,,rules ,,all--,,trace     
,,the ,,pentagonal ,,figure ,,which     
,,stands ,,on ,,the ,,points ,,of ,,the 
,,rosettes4  ,illustration3 ,,plate     
,,lxxxiii4  ,mosaics from ,various      
,halls4  ,illustration3 #ii ,,isoceles  
,,plan4 ,,divide ,,the ,,space          
,,surrounding ,,the ,,acute ,,apices    
,,of ,,the ,,lozenge ,,into ,,twenty    
,,equal ,,parts1 ,,and ,,of ,,the       
,,obtuse ,,apices ,,into ,,sixteen4 ,,in
 ,,the ,,one ,,draw ,a ,,starred        
,,decagonal1 ,,and ,,in ,,the ,,other ,a
 ,,starred ,,octagonal ,,rosette4 ,,the 
,,adjustment ,,of ,,two ,,types ,,so    
,,different ,,is ,,not ,,considered     
,,successful4  ,illustration3 #ajj      
,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,dodecagon1       
,,hexagon ,,and ,,square4 ,,in ,,the    
,,centre ,,of ,,the ,,square ,a         
,,regular ,,octagon1 ,,which ,,is       
,,supreme4 ,,then ,,from ,,the ,,starred
 ,,dodecagon ,,inscribe ,a ,,rosette    
,,of ,,twelve ,,points2 ,,lastly1 ,,from

 ,,the ,,starred ,,hexagon ,,inscribe ,a
 ,,rosette ,,of ,,six ,,points4         
,illustration3 #aja ,,divide ,,the      
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,the ,,plan1
 ,,the ,,one ,,into ,,twenty-,,four     
,,and ,,the ,,other ,,into ,,twelve     
,,equal ,,parts4 ,,for ,,the ,,rest1    
,,the ,,centres ,,being ,,indicated1    
,,it ,,is ,,easy ,,to ,,trace ,,the     
,,arcs1 ,,and ,,so ,,complete ,,the     
,,figure4  ,illustration3 #ajb ,,the    
,,lozenge ,,and ,,trellised ,,rosette   
,,emanating ,,from ,,starred ,,hexagon1 
,,alternating ,,row ,,by ,,row ,,with   
,,dodecagonal ,,rosette ,,springing     
,,from ,,starred ,,dodecagon4           
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxxiv4  ,part 
of ,ceiling of a ,portico4              
,illustration3 #ajc ,,describe ,,the    
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,by 
,,the ,,points ,,of ,,the ,,starred     
,,hexagon ,,describe ,a ,,regular       
,,hexagon4 ,,by ,,lines ,,extended      
,,from ,,the ,,starred ,,hexagon ,,the  
,,twelve-,,pointed ,,rosette ,,is       

,,formed1 ,,constructing ,,at ,,the     
,,same ,,time ,,the ,,starred           
,,dodecagon4  ,illustration3 #ajd       
,,design ,,analogous ,,to ,,number #ajc1
 ,,but ,,with ,,change ,,of motif4      
,illustration3 #aje ,,square ,,plan4    
,,divide ,,as ,,indicated ,,and         
,,inscribe ,a ,,starred ,,dodecagon1    
,,the ,,extended ,,lines ,,of ,,which   
,,form ,,an ,,outer ,,star ,,also ,,of  
,,twelve ,,points2 ,,the ,,starred      
,,octagon ,,is ,,constituted ,,by       
,,points ,,prolonged ,,from ,,the       
,,dodecagon4  ,illustration3 #ajf       
,,square ,,plan4 ,,similar              
,,ground-,,work ,,to ,,that ,,of        
,,number #aje4 ,,the ,,dodecagonal ,,and
 ,,octagonal ,,rosettes ,,are           
,,described ,,by ,,concentric           
,,circumferences4  ,illustration3 #ajg  
,,square ,,plan4 ,,similar              
,,ground-,,work ,,to ,,numbers #aje     
,,and #ajf4 ,,the ,,treatment           
,,considerably ,,changed4               
,illustration3 #ajh ,,square ,,plan4    

,,sub-,,divide ,,as ,,indicated4        
,,inscribe ,,the ,,pentagon1 ,,the      
,,extended ,,lines ,,of ,,which         
,,establish ,,the ,,octagonal ,,star    
,,and ,,rosette1 ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,the 
,,dodecagonal ,,rosette ,,and ,,star4   
,illustration3 #aji ,,square ,,plan4    
,,divide ,,as ,,indicated4 ,,the        
,,flower-,,work ,,which ,,accompanies   
,,the ,,irregular ,,octagon1 ,,though   
,,independent ,,of ,,geometric          
,,construction1 ,,is ,,yet ,,within     
,,the ,,propulsion ,,of ,,the ,,lines4  
,illustration3 #aaj ,,ground-,,work     
,,analogous ,,to ,,number #ajh1 ,,but   
,,on ,a ,,triangular ,,plan4 ,,the      
,,extended ,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,pentagon
 ,,govern ,,the ,,enneagonal ,,and      
,,dodecagonal ,,star ,,and ,,rosette4   
,illustration3 #aaa ,,curvilinear       
,,transformation ,,of ,,number #aaj4    
,illustration3 #aab ,,triangular ,,plan4
 ,,distribution ,,of ,,enneagonal ,,and 
,,dodecagonal ,,stars ,,and ,,rosettes4 
,,the ,,dodecagon ,,only ,,partially    

,,displayed4  ,illustration3 #aac       
,,triangular ,,plan4 ,,similar          
,,construction ,,to ,,number #aab4 ,,the
 ,,dodecagonal ,,star1 ,,rosette1 ,,and 
,,outer ,,star1 ,,which ,,are ,,in ,,the
 ,,diagram ,,number #aab ,,only         
,,partially ,,seen1 ,,are ,,here        
,,displayed4  ,illustration3 #aad       
,,triangular ,,plan4 ,,from ,a ,,centre 
,,as ,,in ,,plan ,,describe             
,,circumferences1 ,,which ,,rule ,,the  
,,dodecagonal ,,star1 ,,rosette1 ,,and  
,,outer ,,star4 ,,many ,,of ,,the       
,,figures ,,are ,,drawn ,,independently1
 ,,though ,,governed ,,by ,,divisions4  
,illustration3 #aae ,,divide ,,as ,,in  
,,plan4 ,,inscribe ,a ,,decagonal       
,,rosette1 ,,from ,,the ,,prolonged     
,,lines ,,of ,,which ,,proceed ,,the    
,,pentagonal ,,star1 ,,the ,,regular    
,,octagon1 ,,and ,,other ,,figures4     
,illustration3 #aaf ,,divide ,,as ,,in  
,,plan4 ,,two ,,different ,,rosettes1   
,,one ,,of ,,twelve ,,and ,,the ,,other 
,,of ,,fifteen ,,points4 ,,the          

,,dodecagonal ,,rosette ,,is1 ,,however1
 ,,only ,,partially ,,shown ,,here4     
,illustration3 #aag ,,describe          
,,circumferences ,,and ,,trace ,,rosette
 ,,of ,,sixteen ,,points4 ,,the ,,lines 
,,extended ,,will ,,complete ,,the      
,,figure4  ,illustration3 #aah          
,,curvilinear ,,transformation ,,of     
,,number #aag4  ,illustration3 #aai     
,,divide ,,as ,,indicated1 ,,and ,,the  
,,resulting ,,rosette ,,of ,,sixteen    
,,points1 ,,which ,,would ,,naturally   
,,be ,,rectilinear1 ,,may ,,be ,,easily 
,,transformed ,,to ,,curvilinear2       
,,while ,,the ,,pentagonal ,,stars1     
,,treated ,,in ,,undulating ,,form1     
,,become ,,flower-,,work ,,or ,,foliage4
  ,illustration3 #abj ,,same            
,,ground-,,work ,,as ,,number #aai4     
,,but ,,here ,,the ,,rosette ,,is       
,,starred1 ,,end ,,on ,,end1 ,,about    
,,the ,,points4  ,illustration3 #aba    
,,sub-,,divide ,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,the  
,,circumference ,,governing ,,the       
,,heptagon ,,is ,,divided ,,into ,,equal

 ,,parts2 ,,by ,,prolonging ,,the       
,,sides ,,of ,,the ,,heptagon ,,the     
,,rosette ,,of ,,sixteen ,,points ,,is  
,,inscribed4  ,illustration3 #abb       
,,circumferences ,,tangent ,,to ,,those 
,,of ,,the ,,pentagon ,,inscribe ,,the  
,,rosette ,,of ,,sixteen ,,points4      
,illustration3 #abc ,,transformation    
,,of ,,the ,,rectilineal ,,rosette      
,,number #abb4 ,,the ,,figures ,,in     
,,other ,,respects ,,identical4         
,illustration3 #abd ,,divide ,,as       
,,indicated4 ,,the ,,extended ,,lines   
,,of ,,the ,,hexagon ,,inscribe ,,the   
,,rosette ,,of ,,eighteen ,,points ,,and
 ,,that ,,of ,,nine ,,points4 ,,the     
,,rest ,,is ,,but ,a ,,matter ,,of      
,,adjustment4  ,illustration3 #abe      
,,design ,,analogous ,,to ,,number #abd4
 ,,in ,,this ,,arrangement1 ,,two       
,,sides ,,of ,,the ,,heptagon           
,,prolonged ,,determine ,,the ,,rosette 
,,of ,,eighteen ,,and ,,that ,,of       
,,twelve ,,points4  ,illustration3 #abf 
,,square ,,plan4 ,,divide ,,as          

,,indicated4 ,,inscribe ,a ,,rosette    
,,of ,,twenty ,,points 7,,the ,,half    
,,of ,,which ,,is ,,shown ,,in ,,the    
,,diagram74 ,,in ,a ,,tangent           
,,circumference ,,inscribe ,,the        
,,rosette ,,of ,,twelve ,,points4 ,,the 
,,rest ,,follows4  ,illustration3 #abg  
,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,dodecagon1  
,,hexagon1 ,,and ,,square ,,assembled4  
,,by ,,the ,,middle ,,points ,,of ,,the 
,,sides ,,of ,,the ,,dodecagon          
,,inscribe ,a ,,star ,,and ,a ,,rosette 
,,of ,,twenty-,,four ,,points4 ,,within 
,,the ,,hexagon ,,inscribe ,,two        
,,triangles ,,from ,a ,,tangent         
,,circumference4 ,a ,,lozenge ,,is      
,,inscribed ,,between ,,opposite ,,sides
 ,,of ,,the ,,square4 ,,lastly1 ,,by    
tricles rvolvs1 ,,all ,,the ,,prolonged 
,,lines ,,are ,,reconciled4             
,illustration3 #abh ,,distribution ,,of 
,,the ,,dodecagon1 ,,hexagon1 ,,and     
,,square ,,assembled4 ,,in ,,the        
,,dodecagon ,,inscribe ,a ,,rosette ,,of
 ,,twenty-,,four ,,points2 ,,in ,,the   

,,hexagon ,a ,,rosette ,,of ,,twelve    
,,points2 ,,and1 ,,lastly1 ,,in ,,the   
,,square ,a ,,rosette ,,of ,,eight      
,,points4 ,a ,,little ,,pentagonal      
,,star ,,reconciles ,,the ,,prolonged   
,,lines4  ,illustration3 #abi           
,,sub-,,divide ,,as ,,in ,,plan4        
,,dodecagon1 ,,hexagon1 ,,and ,,square  
,,assembled4 ,,in ,,the ,,dodecagon ,a  
,,rosette ,,of ,,twelve ,,points4 ,,in  
,,the ,,tangent ,,circumference ,,six   
,,hexagons4 ,,the ,,square ,,governs    
,,the ,,prolonged ,,lines4              
,illustration3 #acj ,,the ,,rosettes    
,,are ,,as ,,in ,,number #abi4 ,,the    
,,smaller ,,hexagons ,,govern ,,the     
,,principal ,,figures4  ,illustration3  
#aca ,,square ,,plan2 ,,distribution    
,,follows ,,the ,,net-,,work ,,of ,,the 
,,octagon ,,and ,,square4 ,,the         
,,rosette ,,is ,,linked ,,by ,,the      
,,smaller ,,octagons4  ,illustration3   
#acb ,,analogous ,,to ,,number #aca4    
,illustration3 #acc ,,octagons ,,and    
,,squares ,,assembled4 ,,the ,,octagonal

 ,,rosette ,,governs4  ,illustration3   
#acd ,,sub-,,divide ,,as ,,indicated4   
,,describe ,a ,,circle ,,in ,,which ,,is
 ,,inscribed ,a ,,star ,,with ,,sides   
,,prolonged1 ,,determining ,,an         
,,octagonal ,,rosette4 ,,by ,,concentric
 ,,circles1 ,,somewhat ,,arbitrary1     
,,the ,,rosette ,,of ,,sixteen ,,points 
,,is ,,determined4  ,illustration3 #ace 
,,sub-,,divide ,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,in ,a
 ,,circle ,,is ,,inscribed ,,an         
,,octagonal ,,rosette1 ,,and ,,take ,a  
,,tangent ,,circumference ,,in ,,which  
,,to ,,inscribe ,,the ,,rosette ,,of    
,,sixteen ,,points4 ,,the ,,rest        
,,follows4  ,illustration3 #acf         
,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,octagon     
,,and ,,square4 ,a ,,concentric ,,circle
 ,,contains ,,arcs ,,composing ,a       
,,curvilinear ,,rosette1 ,,within       
,,which ,,is ,a ,,rosette ,,of ,,five   
,,points4 ,,in ,,the ,,centre ,,of ,,the
 ,,square ,,plan ,a ,,curvilinear       
,,rosette ,,enclosing ,,an ,,octagonal  
,,rosette ,,with ,,sides ,,prolonged1   

,,bringing ,,into ,,accord ,,the        
,,pentagonal ,,rosettes4  ,illustration3
 #acg ,,sub-,,divide ,,the ,,main       
,,circle ,,into ,,thirty-,,two ,,equal  
,,parts1 ,,and ,,inscribe ,,the         
,,rosette ,,of ,,sixteen ,,points4      
,,other ,,circles ,,are ,,inscribed1    
,,each ,,containing ,a ,,perfect        
,,octagon4  ,illustration3 #ach         
,,net-,,work ,,of ,,octagon ,,and       
,,square4 ,,inscribe ,a ,,rosette ,,of  
,,eight ,,points1 ,,and ,,in ,a         
,,circumference ,,tangent ,,inscribe ,a 
,,rosette ,,of ,,twenty-,,four ,,points4
 ,,the ,,rosettes ,,are ,,brought ,,into
 ,,accord ,,by ,,the ,,hexagons4        
,illustration3 #aci ,,in ,a             
,,circumference ,,indicated ,,in ,,the  
,,square ,,plan ,,inscribe ,,the        
,,octagonal ,,rosette4 ,,extended       
,,sides ,,determine ,,the ,,perfect     
,,octagons4  ,illustration3 #adj        
,,square ,,plan4 ,,octagonal ,,and      
,,square ,,distribution4 ,,two          
,,rosettes1 ,,one ,,of ,,sixteen ,,and  

,,one ,,of ,,eight ,,points4 ,,the      
,,diagonals ,,from ,,the ,,angles ,,of  
,,the ,,pentagon ,,complete ,,the       
,,rosette ,,of ,,sixteen ,,points1 ,,and
 ,,the ,,extended ,,sides ,,of ,,the    
,,pentagon ,,determine ,,the ,,octagonal
 ,,rosette4  ,illustration3 #ada        
,,square ,,plan4 ,,net-,,work ,,of ,,the
 ,,octagon ,,and ,,square ,,assembled4  
,,describe ,,circumferences ,,as ,,in   
,,the ,,plan4 ,,in ,,joining ,,the      
,,points ,,of ,,division1 ,,there ,,is  
,,on ,,the ,,one ,,part ,,the ,,hexagon1
 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,other ,,part ,,the  
,,rosette ,,of ,,sixteen ,,points4 ,,the
 tricle rvolv ,,assists ,,in            
,,elucidating ,,the ,,net-,,work4       
,illustration3 #adb ,,curvilinear       
,,net-,,work ,,composed ,,of ,,stars    
,,of ,,five1 ,,six1 ,,and ,,eight       
,,points4 ,,describe ,,the              
,,circumferences ,,as ,,in ,,the ,,plan4
 ,,one ,,circle ,,describes ,,the ,,star
 ,,of ,,five ,,points2 ,,another        
,,circle ,,inscribes ,a ,,curvilinear   

,,irregular ,,hexagon2 ,,still ,,another
 ,,circle ,,inscribes ,a ,,star ,,of    
,,eight ,,points1 ,,and ,,the ,,last    
,,circle ,a ,,star ,,of ,,six ,,points4 
,illustration3 #adc ,,sub-,,divide ,,as 
,,indicated4 ,,the ,,prolonged ,,lines  
,,of ,,the ,,pentagonal ,,star          
,,determine ,,the ,,decagonal ,,star    
,,and ,,rosette4  ,illustration3 #add   
,,divide ,,as ,,in ,,the ,,plan4 ,,by   
,,tangent ,,circumferences ,,inscribe   
,,the ,,rosettes4 ,,by ,,sides          
,,extended ,,the ,,rest ,,follows4      
,illustration3 #ade ,,octagonal1        
,,decagonal1 ,,and ,,dodecagonal ,,stars
 ,,and ,,rosettes4 ,,by ,,sides         
,,prolonged ,,the ,,rest ,,follows4     
,illustration3 #adf ,,octagonal1        
,,decagonal1 ,,and ,,dodecagonal ,,stars
 ,,and ,,rosettes4 ,,by ,,extended      
,,lines ,,and ,,the ,,adjustment ,,of   
,,the ,,regular ,,octagons ,,the        
,,diagram ,,is ,,completed4             
,illustration3 #adg ,,in ,a             
,,circumference ,,as ,,indicated        

,,inscribe ,a ,,star ,,of ,,nine        
,,points1 ,,and ,,by ,,sides ,,prolonged
 ,a ,,rosette ,,of ,,nine ,,points2 ,,in
 ,a ,,second ,a ,,star ,,and ,,rosette  
,,of ,,twelve ,,points2 ,,and ,,in ,a   
,,third ,,circumference ,a ,,star ,,and 
,,rosette ,,of ,,ten ,,points4 ,,the    
,,rest ,,follows ,,by ,,extension4      
,illustration3 #adh ,,the ,,central     
,,circumference ,,divided ,,into        
,,thirty-,,two ,,equal ,,parts          
,,produces ,a ,,star ,,and ,,rosette    
,,of ,,sixteen ,,points4 ,,divide       
,,other ,,circumferences ,,to ,,produce 
,,stars ,,and ,,rosettes ,,of ,,twelve  
,,and ,,ten ,,points4 ,,the ,,rest      
,,follows4  ,illustration3 #adi         
,,circumferences ,,divided ,,as         
,,indicated4 ,,inscribe ,,stars ,,of    
,,nine1 ,,ten1 ,,and ,,twelve ,,points4 
,illustration3 #aej ,,net-,,work        
,,analogous ,,to ,,number #adh4 ,,the   
,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,heptagon1          
,,extended1 ,,join ,,the ,,lines ,,of   
,,the ,,rosettes4  ,illustration3 #aea  

,,this ,,example ,,exhibits ,,the       
,,marvellous ,,ingenuity ,,of ,,the     
,,arabian ,,designer ,,in ,,composition1
 ,,rosettes ,,of ,,five1 ,,six1 ,,seven1
 ,,and ,,eight ,,points ,,being         
,,adjusted4 ,,the ,,design ,,is         
,,evidently ,,the ,,production ,,of ,,an
 ,,art-,,workman4 ,,if ,,the            
,,net-,,work ,,is ,,not ,,actually      
,,perfect1 ,,it ,,approaches            
,,perfection ,,so ,,nearly ,,that ,,it  
,,may ,,be ,,considered ,,exact4        
,illustration3 #aeb ,,isoceles ,,or     
,,lozenge ,,plan4 ,,the ,,rosette ,,of  
,,fourteen ,,points ,,result ,,from     
,,the ,,extended ,,lines ,,of ,,the     
,,heptagons4  ,illustration3 #aec       
,,analogous ,,to ,,number #aeb1 ,,but   
,,with ,,diagonals ,,somewhat           
,,differently ,,treated4  ,illustration3
 #aed ,,rosette ,,of ,,fourteen ,,points
 ,,governed ,,by ,,heptagons4           
,illustration3 #aee ,,rosette ,,of      
,,fourteen ,,points ,,from ,,extended   
,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,heptagons4 ,,the   

,,rest ,,follows4  ,illustration3 #aef  
,,pentagonal ,,adjustment4 ,a           
,,circumference ,,tangent ,,to ,,those  
,,of ,,the ,,pentagon ,,inscribes ,a    
,,starred ,,rosette ,,of ,,fourteen     
,,points4  ,illustration3 #aeg ,,by ,a  
,,concentric ,,circumference ,,is       
,,inscribed ,,the ,,rosette ,,of        
,,fourteen ,,points4 ,,the ,,pentagon   
,,which ,,governs ,,has ,,one ,,of ,,its
 ,,sides ,,extended ,,to ,,greater      
,,length ,,than ,,the ,,six ,,others4   
,illustration3 #aeh ,,by ,,the ,,aid    
,,of ,a ,,circumference1 ,,indicated1   
,,is ,,inscribed ,,the ,,heptagonal     
,,star ,,from ,,which ,,the ,,other     
,,figures ,,proceed4  ,illustration3    
#aei ,,decagonal ,,stars ,,and          
,,rosettes1 ,,with ,,intercalary        
,,pentagons4 ,,also ,,with ,,intercalary
 ,,meshes1 ,,which ,,are ,,equal ,,to   
,,those ,,of ,,the ,,rosettes4          
,illustration3 #afj ,,analogous ,,to    
,,number #aei4  ,illustration3 #afa     
,,sub-,,divide ,,the ,,space            

,,surrounding ,,the ,,isoceles          
,,triangle ,,as ,,indicated4 ,,the      
,,circumferences ,,being ,,described4   
,,the ,,diagonals ,,extended ,,complete 
,,the ,,figure4  ,illustration3 #afb    
,,plan ,,and ,,circumferences ,,the     
,,same ,,as ,,number #afa4 ,,the ,,aid  
,,of ,a ,,concentric ,,circumference    
,,is ,,called ,,in ,,to ,,form ,,the    
,,rosette ,,of ,,ten ,,points4 ,,the    
,,rest ,,follows4  ,illustration3 #afc  
,,describe ,,equal ,,and ,,tangent      
,,circumferences ,,to ,,form ,a ,,star  
,,of ,,ten ,,points1 ,,and ,,take ,,the 
,,diagonals ,,of ,,six ,,in ,,six       
,,divisions4  ,illustration3 #afd       
,,describe ,,circumferences ,,as        
,,indicated1 ,,and ,,take ,,the         
,,diagonals ,,of ,,six ,,in ,,six       
,,divisions4 ,,draw ,a ,,horizontal     
,,line ,,at ,,the ,,higher ,,line ,,of  
,,the ,,little ,,pentagon1 ,,and        
,,repeat ,,the ,,construction ,,below   
,,the ,,line4  ,illustration3 #afe      
,,divide ,,circumferences ,,and ,,draw  

,,parallel ,,lines ,,as ,,indicated4    
,,take ,,the ,,diagonals ,,of ,,six ,,in
 ,,six ,,divisions1 ,,and ,,the ,,rest  
,,follows4  ,illustration3 #aff         
,,describe ,,circumferences ,,equal     
,,and ,,tangent1 ,,and ,,take ,,the     
,,diagonals ,,of ,,four ,,in ,,four     
,,divisions2 ,,then ,,in ,,the          
,,concentric ,,circumferences ,,take    
,,the ,,diagonals ,,of ,,six ,,in ,,six 
,,divisions4  ,illustration3 #afg       
,,sub-,,divide ,,as ,,in ,,plan4        
,,inscribe ,,the ,,rosette ,,of ,,ten   
,,points2 ,,the ,,little ,,pentagons    
,,and ,,lozenges ,,follow1 ,,and ,,the  
,,rest ,,follows4  ,illustration3 #afh  
,,analogous ,,to ,,number #afg1 ,,but   
,,in ,,place ,,of ,,the ,,rosette       
,,stars ,,are ,,formed4  ,illustration3 
#afi ,,curvilinear ,,transformation ,,of
 ,,numbers #afg ,,and #afh4 ,,the       
,,points ,,of ,,central ,,distribution  
,,are ,,marked ,,by ,,minute ,,crosses4 
,illustration3 #agj ,,similar ,,ground  
,,work ,,to ,,the ,,three ,,foregoing   

,,diagrams4 ,,the ,,little ,,pentagons  
,,govern ,,the ,,design4  ,illustration3
 #aga ,,describe ,,the ,,circumferences 
,,as ,,in ,,plan1 ,,and ,,inscribe ,,the
 ,,decagonal ,,star4 ,,the ,,small      
,,decagons ,,in ,,the ,,centre ,,of     
,,the ,,triangles ,,of ,,the ,,plan1    
,,by ,,extended ,,lines1 ,,form ,,the   
,,rosette4  ,illustration3 #agb ,,divide
 ,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,upon ,,the ,,lesser
 ,,side ,,trace ,,an ,,isoceles         
,,triangle4 ,,by ,,the ,,apex ,,of ,,the
 ,,triangle ,,trace ,a ,,circumference1 
,,in ,,which ,,take ,,the ,,diagonals   
,,of ,,three ,,in ,,three ,,divisions4  
,illustration3 #agc ,,lozenge ,,plan1   
,,with ,,combining ,,lines4 ,,the       
,,lozenge ,,is ,,imaginary1 ,,and ,,does
 ,,not ,,indicate ,,the ,,radii ,,in    
,,extension ,,one ,,with ,,the ,,other1 
,,but ,,only ,,the ,,order ,,of         
,,sub-,,division ,,of ,,the ,,pentagonal
 ,,and ,,decagonal ,,rosettes4          
,illustration3 #agd ,,sub-,,divide ,,as 
,,in ,,plan ,,the ,,space ,,surrounding 

,a ,,point ,,into ,,twenty ,,equal      
,,parts4 ,,at ,,the ,,meeting ,,of ,,the
 ,,horizontal ,,with ,,the ,,vertical   
,,line ,,draw ,a ,,concentric           
,,circumference ,,in ,,which ,,is       
,,inscribed ,,the ,,starred ,,decagonal 
,,rosette4 ,,the ,,small ,,pentagon ,,is
 ,,dominant4  ,illustration3 #agd ,,same
 ,,ground-,,work ,,as ,,number #agb1    
,,but ,,with ,a ,,greater ,,interval    
,,between ,,the ,,rosettes4 ,,one ,,of  
,,the ,,rosettes1 ,,instead ,,of ,,being
 ,,rectilinear1 ,,is ,,curvilinear4     
,illustration3 #age ,,sub-,,divide ,,as 
,,indicated4 ,,describe ,,circumferences
 ,,equal ,,and ,,tangent1 ,,and ,,take  
,,the ,,diagonals ,,of ,,four ,,in      
,,four ,,divisions4 ,,lastly1 ,,the     
,,rosettes ,,are ,,effected4            
,illustration3 #age' ,,draw             
,,circumferences ,,and ,,sub-,,divide   
,,as ,,in ,,plan4 ,,take ,,the          
,,diagonals ,,of ,,four ,,in ,,four     
,,divisions1 ,,which1 ,,prolonged1      
,,complete ,,the ,,design4              

,illustration3 #agf ,,describe          
,,circumferences ,,and ,,take ,a        
,,perpendicular ,,line ,,to ,,the       
,,border ,,of ,,the ,,radius2 ,,take    
,,the ,,diagonals ,,of ,,four ,,in      
,,four ,,divisions1 ,,which ,,prolonged1
 ,,complete ,,the ,,figure4             
,illustration3 #agf' ,,rectangle ,,plan 
,,of ,,diagonal ,,symmetry4 ,,take ,,the
 ,,diagonals ,,of ,,four ,,in ,,four    
,,divisions4 ,,then ,,by ,a ,,concentric
 ,,circumference4 ,,set ,,out ,,the     
,,rosette4 ,,there ,,are1 ,,in ,,fact1  
,,three ,,rosettes ,,of ,,ten ,,points  
,,equal ,,and ,,tangent4  ,illustration3
 #agg ,,lozenge ,,plan1 ,,with          
,,combining ,,lines ,a ,,concentric     
,,circumference ,,describes ,a ,,star   
,,the ,,rosette ,,is ,,then ,,drawn4    
,,then ,,gradually1 ,,by ,,the ,,aid    
,,of ,,the ,,pentagonal ,,adjustment1   
,,the ,,net-,,work ,,is ,,described4    
,illustration3 #agh ,,lozenge ,,plan1   
,,where ,,the ,,great ,,axis ,,is       
,,three ,,times ,,that ,,of ,,the       

,,lesser ,,axis4 ,,sub-,,divide ,,as    
,,in ,,plan4 ,,trace ,,circumferences   
,,equal ,,and ,,tangent1 ,,in ,,which   
,,are ,,inscribed ,,regular ,,pentagons4
 ,,the ,,rest ,,is ,,easily ,,followed4 
,,the ,,net-,,work ,,is ,,composed ,,of 
,,five ,,series ,,of ,,lines4           
,illustration3 ,,finis4