---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the #8' character as italic4 ,superscripted characters are shown as1 e4g41 #8,ier'4 ,the single footnote has been placed to follow the paragraph in which it was referenced4 ,there are copious illustrations1 which appear here as ,illustration3 caption1 and have been moved slightly to fall on paragraph breaks4 ,minor errors1 attributable to the printer1 have been corrected4 ,please see the transcriber's note at the end of this text for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation4 ,illustration3 ,choragic ,monument of ,lysikrates4 ,,historic ,,ornament ,treatise on ,,decorative ,,art ,,and ,,architectural ,,ornament ,,treats ,,of ,,prehistoric ,,art2 ,,ancient ,,art ,,and ,,architecture2 ,,eastern1 ,,early ,,christian1 ,,byzantine1 ,,saracenic1 ,,romanesque1 ,,gothic1 ,,and ,,renaissance ,,architecture ,,and ,,ornament4 ,,by ,,james ,,ward ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,ornament40 99 ,with ,four ,hundred and ,thirty-,six ,illustrations ,,london3 ,,chapman ,,and ,,hall1 ,,limited #aiji ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,duke ,,street1 ,,stamford ,,street1 ,s4,e41 ,,and ,,great ,,windmill ,,street1 ,w4 ,,preface4 ,the comprehensive nature of the subject of this work renders it impossible to deal with its various divisions and sub-divisions1 except in a very condensed manner1 within the limits of a handbook for students4 ,i have endeavoured to present to the reader1 and to the student of ornamental and decorative art1 some of the salient features which characterize the historic styles of ornament1 and those that seem to me to show themselves as landmarks in the wide domain of ,historic ,ornament4 ,realistic decoration was the earliest form of all art1 as we find it in the etchings on the bones drawn by the prehistoric cave-dwellers2 but ornamental design or pattern drawing is a kind of invention which implies the orderly decoration of architectural forms and other objects1 and is generally applied to such objects with the view of adding some enrichment that shall make them more pleasing to the sight4 ,the former belongs more to pictorial art1 while the latter is purely decorative4 ,as the construction of ornament1 in a great measure1 ought to be based on the laws that govern the design of good architecture--this we gather from the design of the best ornament of the historic styles--it has been thought necessary to give a slight sketch of each of the principal orders and styles of architecture1 placing them1 as far as possible1 in a chronological sequence in regard to the periods of their existence1 and countries in which they flourished4 ,in some cases ,i have also thought it desirable to give a brief account of the religion of those nations that have created distinct styles of architecture and ornament2 for in many cases1 such as in the art of the ancient world and of the ,middle ,ages1 we find that the art of a country was so bound up with the religion of its people1 that to understand the former it is indispensable to have some knowledge of their religious ceremonies and beliefs4 ,i have here to express my indebtedness to various writers on ornamental art whom ,i have named in the pages of these volumes for some useful points of information1 and to them and the publishers of this work for the use of the greater portion of the blocks of illustrations4 ,i have also to thank ,mr4 ,t4 ,m4 ,lindsay for the use of his drawing of the monument of ,lysikrates1 and the ,science and ,art ,department for permission to use many of the illustrations of their excellent handbooks on decorative art4 ,in a succeeding volume to this work1 the various divisions of the ,industrial ,arts and ,crafts will be treated in their historical developments of decoration and workmanship4 ,in conclusion1 ,i trust that the contents of these pages will be helpful to students in art schools1 and to others who may desire to have an introduction to the fascinating study of ,historic ,ornament4 ,j4 ,,ward4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,introductory ,,chapter #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,prehistoric ,,ornament--,,pal,,olithic ,,period ,,or ,,early ,,stone ,,age--,,river #g ,,drift ,,and ,,cave-,,men ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,neolithic ,,stone ,,period #ad ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,bronze ,,age #ba ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,iron ,,age #ce ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,lake ,,dwellings ,,of ,,switzerland ,,and ,,other ,,parts ,,of ,,europe #dh ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,egyptian ,,art--,,history--,,architecture--,,indu strial ,,arts #ee ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,chaldean ,,and ,,assyrian ,,art--,,history--,,architecture--,,indu strial ,,art #aab ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,ph,,nician ,,art--,,history--,,trading--,,architect ure--,,industrial ,,art--,,art ,,in #aeh ,,cyprus ,,chapter ,x4 ,,art ,,in ,,ancient ,,persia--,,history--,,architecture--,,d ecoration #ahc ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,grecian ,,art--,,people--,,mythology #bjh ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,art ,,in ,,primitive #bbe ,,greece--,,mycen--,,troy--,,tiryns--,,a rchitecture--,,industrial ,,art ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,orders ,,of ,,architecture--,,lycian ,,tombs--,,greek #bdb ,,orders--,,etruscan ,,architecture--,,roman ,,orders ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,architectural ,,ornament--,,pompeian ,,architecture #bfb ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,indian ,,art ,,and ,,architecture #bga ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,chinese ,,and ,,japanese ,,architecture #bha ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,early ,,christian ,,architecture--,,byzantine ,,architecture #bhe ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,saracenic ,,architecture ,,and ,,ornament #cja ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,romanesque ,,architecture ,,and ,,ornament #ccj ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,and ,,ornament #cdh ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture ,,and ,,ornament #cfi ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,fig4 ,,page ,monument of ,lysikrates ,frontispiece #bgh4 ,alabaster ,frieze #bbg #bgi4 ,alabaster ,frieze ,plan #bbg #cdc4 ,alhambra ,diaper1 ,superposed ,ornament #cje #cca4 ,ambo or ,pulpit from ,st4 ,george's at ,salonica #bhg #hc4 ,amen or ,ammon #eh #ic4 ,amenophis ,,iii4 ,presenting an ,offering to ,amen #fg #cai4 ,ancient ,panel1 ,florence #bfg #aic4 ,andro-,sphinx1 ,robe of ,assurbanipal #add #afb4 ,anou1 or ,dagon1 ,nimroud #abj #cad4 ,anthemion1 ,carved #bfd #ga4 ,animal ,ornamented ,patterns1 ,corrupted ,figures #dd of ,lions #gb4 0 0 0 0 #dd #gc4 0 0 0 0 #dd #acb4 ,antelope and ,papyrus #ig #bgj4 ,apollo ,belvedere #bah #cda4 ,arabesque ,ornament from the ,wekla of ,kit ,bey #cjb #cej4 ,arcades in the ,mosque of ,ibn-,tln #cab #ceb4 ,arches3 a1 ,ogee2 b1 ,horseshoe2 c1 #cac ,pointed #bhb4 ,architrave and ,frieze1 ,mycenian ,palace #bbi #afa4 ,assyrian ,standard #abj #ahj4 ,assyrian ,base in ,limestone #acf #afc4 ,assurbanipal ,attacked by ,lions #aba #aha4 ,assyrian ,capital #acg #ahc4 ,assurbanipal and his ,queen after his ,victory #acg over ,teuman #ahe4 ,assyrian ,stool #aci #bag4 ,astarte1 ,terra-cotta #afd #bfh4 ,athene ,polias 7,villa ,albani7 #baf #afi4 ,babylonian ,brick #abi #fb4 ,barbarian ,copy of a ,roman ,medallion #dj #bec4 ,base of ,pillar at ,susa #aif #bed4 ,base and ,capital from ,persepolis1 ,propyla #aih #bee4 ,base and ,capital1 from ,hypostyle ,hall of #aii ,xerxes1 ,persepolis #cjg4 ,bas-,relief on the ,arch of ,titus #beh #chb4 ,berkeley ,castle1 ,gloucestershire #cda #djj;,a4 ,bishopstone ,church1 ,wilts1 ,priests' ,entrance #cfa #bcd4 ,bottle with ,incised ,ornament1 from ,cesnola #agf #bce4 ,bottle with ,geometric ,decoration #agf #bcg4 ,bowl in the ,piot ,collection #agh #aif4 ,bouquet of ,flowers and ,buds #adf #abe4 ,border from ,thebes #ic #da4 ,breast-plate1 with ,spiral ,ornaments #bd #bh4 ,bronze ,axes1 ,paalstabs1 and ,moulds #bb #bi4 0 0 #bb #cj4 0 0 #bb #ca4 0 0 #bb #cb4 0 0 #bb #cc4 0 0 #bb #cd4 0 0 #bb #ce4 ,bronze ,swords and ,spear-head #bc #cf4 0 0 #bc #cg4 0 0 #bc #ch4 0 0 #bc #ci4 ,bronze ,button for ,sword ,belt #bd #dj4 0 0 #bd #de4 ,bronze ,bowl found in ,sweden #bf #dg4 ,bronze ,hatchet found in ,sweden #bg #ej4 ,bronze ,horn #bi #ed4 0 #cb #eg4 ,bronze and ,gold ,buttons #cc #eh4 0 0 #cc #fc4 ,bracteate1 ,golden #dj #fd4 0 #da #ahf4 ,bronze ,foot of a ,piece of ,furniture #adj #bjd4 ,bronze ,platter #aec #bje4 ,bronze ,cups #aed #bjf4 ,bronze ,cup1 ,border of #aee #bji4 ,bronze ,bucket #aeg #cbf4 ,brahminical ,rock ,temple at ,ellora #bge #agj4 ,brick from ,erech #abi #cci4 ,byzantine ,capital from ,santa ,sophia #bih #bfd4 ,cameo of ,athenion #baa #agg4 ,capital of ,temple1 ,assyrian #ace #agh4 0 0 #ace #bba4 ,capital1 ,cypriot #afh #bbb4 0 #afh #bbc4 ,capital at ,djezza1 ,limestone #afi #bbd4 ,capital from ,kition #afi #bbe4 ,capital from ,golgos #agj #cjb4 ,capital of the ,lysikrates ,monument #bea #ccf4 ,capital from ,santa ,sophia #big #ccg4 ,capital from ,st4 ,demetrius at ,salonica #big #cch4 ,capital from ,st4 ,demetrius #big #cgb4 ,capital from ,wartburg #cce #cgh4 ,capital from ,palace of ,barbarossa #cch #cgi4 ,capital from ,st4 ,cross1 ,winchester #cch #adh4 ,carpenters ,making ,chairs #ajh #bab4 ,carthaginian ,coin1 ,silver #afa #bac4 ,carthaginian ,coin1 ,electrum #afa #chh4 ,cathedral of ,ntre ,dame1 ,paris #cdi #abc4 ,ceiling ,decoration at ,thebes #ib #dca4 ,ceiling by ,serlio #dja #dcb4 ,ceiling by ,sansovino #djb #daj4 ,certosa of ,pavia1 portion of #cgf #adf4 ,chair1 ,egyptian #ajg #adg4 0 #ajg #aia4 ,chariot ,horses #adb #dbf4 ,cinquecento ,ornament #cih #dbh4 0 0 #cii #dbi4 0 0 #djj #dcj4 0 0 #djj #baf4 ,coin of ,byblos1 ,enlarged1 with ,sacred ,cone #afc #bfe4 ,coins of ,elis1 with the ,phidian ,zeus #bab #adi4 ,coffer in ,wood #ajh #ee4 ,collar of ,bronze #cc #cij4 ,cologne ,cathedral1 ,window ,gable #ceb #aji4 ,column of ,thothmes ,,iii41 from the ,ambulatory #hc of ,thothmes #aaj4 ,column from ,hypostyle ,hall of the ,ramesseum #hd #aah4 ,column from ,bas-,relief #hh #beb4 ,column with ,volute ,capital1 ,persepolis #aif #ahi4 ,combat between a ,lion and a ,unicorn #adb #cce4 ,cornice from ,santa ,sophia #bif #fi4 ,corrupted ,figures of ,lions #dd #gj4 0 0 #dd #cig4 ,crockets1 ,lincoln #cei #beh4 ,crowing ,wall of the ,staircase1 ,palace of #bjb ,xerxes1 at ,persepolis #cec4 ,cusped ,inter-,arching1 ,mosque of ,cordova #cad #cfc4 ,cursive ,writing from the ,alhambra #cbc #bjg4 ,cylinder from ,soldi #aef #bjh4 ,cylinder1 ,assyrian4 ,worship of ,sacred ,tree #aef #ef4 ,danish ,bronze ,knives #cc #cag4 ,decorated ,mouldings from ,temple of ,minerva1 #bff ,polias #aee4 ,demons1 from the ,palace of ,assurbanipal #aae #aid4 ,detail from the ,enamelled ,archivolt1 ,khorsabad #ade #bch4 ,detail of the ,decoration of a ,cup #agi #bgc4 ,diana of ,versailles #bba #dda4 ,dietterlin's ,architecture #djh #bge4 ,dionysus and the ,lion #bbc #be4 ,dolmen at ,hesbon #bj #cei4 ,doorway of a ,private ,house #cbj #chd4 ,door of ,st4 ,gabriel's1 ,south of ,france #cdb #aij4 ,dog used for ,lion ,hunting #adb #cii4 ,dog's ,tooth ,ornament1 ,stone ,church1 ,kent #cfj #g;,a4 ,drawing of ,human and ,animal ,forms by ,bushmen #ab #g;,b4 ,drawing of ,animals by ,bushmen #ac #aeg4 ,eagle-headed ,divinity from ,nimrod1 with ,sacred #aag ,tree #bcc4 ,earring1 ,gold1 from ,cesnola #age #ba4 ,earthenware of the ,new ,stone ,age #ah #bb4 0 0 0 #ah #bc4 0 0 0 #ah #bd4 0 0 0 #ah #cde4 ,east ,colonnade of the ,mosque of ',amr #cjg #aeb4 ,egyptian ,ship #aaj #bdh4 ,elevations and ,sections of ,doorways and #aib ,windows of a ,palace at ,persepolis #afb;,a4 ,embroidery from a ,royal ,mantle1 ,assyrian #abc #afc;,a4 ,embroidery on the ,upper ,part of a ,king's #abd ,mantle #afd4 ,embroidery ,detail of ,upper ,part of ,king's #abe ,mantle #afe4 0 0 0 #abe #bfj4 ,enamelled ,ornament on ,bricks from ,susa #bjd #adj4 ,enamelled ,earthenware ,dish #ajb #ada4 ,enamelled ,earthenware ,bowl #ajb #bbj4 ,entablature from a ,temple at ,byblos #afg #bhc4 ,entablature ,restored1 ,mycenian ,palace #bcj #bhd4 ,entablature of ,c4 ,selinous' ,temple #bca #cja4 ,entablature1 ,capital1 and ,base of ,greek ,ionic #bdi ,temple #cjf4 ,entablature of ,jupiter ,tonans #beg #if4 ,entrance to ,hypostyle1 ,hall of ,temple ,amen #ga #d4 ,esquimaux ,carving #i #e4 ,etching of ,reindeer on ,bone #aj #f4 ,etching of ,reindeer on ,slate #aa #g4 ,etching of ,mammoth on a ,piece of ,mammoth ,ivory #aa #cjc4 ,etruscan ,door #beb #ih4 ,faade of the ,great ,rock-cut ,temple1 ,ipsamboul #gc #aib4 ,fantastic ,animal #adc #dji4 ,farnese ,palace1 ,upper ,story of #cge #ahd4 ,feast of ,assurbanipal1 ,enlarged ,detail #ach #ff4 ,fibula in ,gilt ,bronze #dc #fg4 0 0 #dc #aeh4 ,figure of a ,goddess in ,act of ,adoration #aah #bde4 ,fire ,altars at ,naksh-i-,rustem #ahi #abf4 ,flattened form of ,lotus-,leaf ,ornament #ic #djd4 ,flamboyant ,panel #cfe #dje4 ,flamboyant ,panelling #cfe #h4 ,flint ,implements of the ,neolithic ,period #ae #i4 0 0 0 #ae #aj4 0 0 0 #ae #aa4 0 0 0 #ae #ab4 0 0 0 #af #ac4 0 0 0 #af #ad4 0 0 0 #af #ae4 0 0 0 #ag #af4 0 0 0 #ag #dbd4 ,floral ,ornament1 ,italian #cif #cif4 ,florence ,cathedral1 ,window ,gable #ceh #add4 ,fragment of an ,ivory ,castanet #aje #afg4 ,fragment of ,border of ,fig4 #aff2 from a #abg ,threshold of ,khorsabad #agi4 ,fragment of an ,assyrian ,building1 from a #acf ,bas-,relief #bdg4 ,fragment of ,door ,frame1 from ,hypostyle ,hall1 #aia ,susa #bha4 ,fragment of ,frieze1 ,mycen #bbh #caj4 ,frets1 ,greek #bfb #caa4 ,fret1 ,greek1 ,carved #bfc #bdd4 ,funeral ,tower at ,naksh-i-,rustem #ahg #aga4 ,gates of the ,harum at ,dur ,sargini #acj #ccj4 ,gateway of ,temple of ,confucius #bhb #bg4 ,giant's ,tomb1 ,sardinia #bj #hf4 ,goddess ,bast or ,pasht #fj #ec4 ,gold ,bowl #cb #ei4 ,gold-plated ,ornament #ch #adc4 ,golden ,hawk1 ,egyptian #ajd #bcj4 ,gold ,bracelet1 from ,tharros #agd #bia4 ,gold ,pendant1 from ,troy #bcg #bib4 ,gold ,ornaments1 from ,troy #bcg #bic4 ,gold ,plate1 from ,troy #bch #bid4 ,gold ,disc1 from ,troy #bch #bie4 0 0 #bci #bif4 ,gold ,cup1 from ,troy #bdj #big4 ,gold ,ewer1 from ,troy #bda #aja4 8,gorge10 ,egyptian #gf #djf4 ,gothic ,arches #cff #djg4 ,gothic ,tracery #cfg #dja4 ,gothic ,mouldings #cfb #ajb4 ,general ,appearance of an ,egyptian ,temple #gg #hg4 ,great ,pyramid of ,kheops #fb #ia4 ,great ,sphinx #fe #cae4 ,greek ,border with ,fret ,bands #bfe #caf4 ,greek ,ivy ,meander ,border #bfe #aef4 ,griffin in ,egyptian ,style #aaf #bjj4 ,guilloche ,ornament on ,enamelled ,brick #adi #cab4 ,guilloche1 ,treble ,ornament #bfc #cac4 ,guilloche1 ,ornament1 ,double #bfd #cjd4 ,half ,capital1 ,mars ,ultor #bed #fe4 ,harness in ,gilt ,bronze1 ,fibula ,decorations #db #aad4 ,hathoric ,pier #he #abj4 ,hathor-headed ,campaniform ,capital1 ,temple of #hi ,nectanebo1 at ,phil #bfc4 ,head of one of the ,lions from ,frieze at ,susa #bjg #bfg4 ,head of ,hera #bad #bgb4 ,hermes1 ,statue of #bbj #dad4 ,holland ,house1 ,ancient ,parlour of #che #a4 ,horse1 ,upper ,cave ,earth1 ,robin ,hood ,cave #h #abg4 ,hunting in a ,marsh1 from a ,bas-,relief in the #id ,tomb of ,ti #aca4 ,hunting in the ,desert #if #b4 ,ibex ,carved on an ,antler #h #hj4 ,ideal ,lake ,settlement #eb #cfj4 ,illuminated ,koran of the ,sultan ,sha' ,ban #cba #bda4 ,intaglio on ,chalcedony #ahb #dbg4 ,italian ,panel #cih #agb4 ,interior of a ,temple after ,layard's #aca ,restoration #cbi4 ,interior of the ,palace at ,delhi #bgi #cfi4 ,intersecting ,blind ,arcade #ccc #hb4 ,isis ,nursing her ,son ,horus #ef #ade4 ,ivory ,plaque #ajf #bja4 0 #aej #bjb4 ,ivory ,plaque found at ,nimroud #aea #bjc4 ,ivory ,fragment in ,british ,museum #aeb #bhj4 ,ivory ,plaque from ,mycen #bbh #cjh4 ,jewish ,candlestick from ,arch of ,titus #bei #ig4 ,khita1 ,rout of the #gb #cfb4 ,kufic ,writing1 from the ,alhambra #cbc #gh4 ,lacustrine ,habitation in ,lake ,mohrya1 ,central #di ,africa #gi4 ,lake ,dwellings1 ,sections and ,plans #ej #che4 ,landgrave's ,room at ,wartburg #cdd #ha4 ,lake ,dwellings1 ,objects from #ec #cef4 ,lattice-work1 ,saracenic #cag #ceg4 0 0 #cah #ceh4 0 0 #cah #ach4 ,lion from a ,theban ,bas-,relief #aja #ahg4 ,lion coming out of his ,cage #adj #ahh4 ,lion and ,lioness in a ,park #ada #bfb4 ,lion from the ,lion ,frieze in ,enamelled ,bricks #bjf at ,susa #bgg4 ,lion's ,gate1 ,mycen #bbf #abb4 ,lotus1 ,drawing from the ,tomb of ,ptah-,hotep #ia #abd4 ,lotus and ,water-,leaf ,ornament #ic #ajf4 ,luxor1 ,plan of ,temple #hj #ajg4 ,luxor1 as ,restored1 ,bird's-eye ,view #ha #bih4 ,lycian ,rock-built ,tomb #bdc #bii4 0 0 0 #bdd #cie4 ,marienberg ,town ,hall #ceg #bij4 ,marseilles ,ewer #bcf #cdh4 ,mausoleum at ,cairo #cji #bbh4 ,medallion from a ,cup from ,griffi #agc #bgd4 ,melpomene1 ,vatican #bbb #bf4 ,menhirs1 ,sardinia #ai #ib4 ,memnon at ,thebes1 ,statues of1 ,colossi of #ff ,amenophis ,,iii4 #cdg4 ,minaret of the ,mosque at ,kaloum1 ,cairo #cji #aje4 ,model of an ,egyptian ,house #gi #fj4 ,mountings1 ,metal #ci #fa4 0 0 #ci #bah4 ,model of a ,small ,temple in ,terra ,cotta #afe #cea4 ,moorish ,capital #cac #cdi4 ,mosque of ,kit ,bey1 ,cairo #caj #acj4 ,mummy-,case1 ,painting on #if #dbj4 ,mural ,painting1 ,pompeii #cib #cbc4 ,mural ,painting1 from ,pompeii #bgj #bdb4 ,naksh-i-,rustem1 ,general ,view of the ,rock-cut #ahd ,tombs #daf4 ,nest of ,scroll1 ,roman #chh #acc4 ,netting ,birds1 from a ,tomb #ih #cha4 ,norman ,doorway1 ,semperingham ,church1 #cdj ,lincolnshire #aba4 ,nympha ,nelumbo #ij #ajd4 ,oblong ,building1 ,egyptian #gh #bci4 noch1 ,new ,york ,museum #ahj #bdj4 0 0 0 0 #aha #cbb4 ,ogee ,decorated--,astragal1 ,jupiter ,stator #bfi #cbd4 ,ornament from ,asoka's ,pillar #bgb #cfa4 ,ornament from the ,portal of ,sultan ,hasan #cbb #dbb4 ,ornament1 ,ghiberti ,gates #cic #cfe4 ,ornament on an ,arch of the ,wekla ,kit ,bey #cbf #dci4 ,ornament from ,doorway1 ,crewe ,hall #djg #cba4 ,ogee and ,fluted ,cavetto ,moulding2 ,jupiter #bfh ,tonans #he4 ,osiris #fj #cah4 ,ovolo with ,egg and ,tongue1 from the ,erectheum #bff #cbj4 ,ovolo and ,astragal ,mouldings1 ,roman #bfh #ccd4 ,opus ,alexandrinum ,pavement #bic #aih4 ,painted ,ornament on ,plaster #adh #ccb4 ,painting from the ,catacombs of ,st4 ,agnese #bhi #bfi4 ,pallus ,athene1 ,naples #bag #aai4 ,palm ,capital from ,sesebi #hh #cjj4 ,parthenon2 ,greek ,doric #bdg #cff4 ,panel from the ,maristan of ,kalaun #cbh #cfg4 0 0 0 0 #cbh #dcd4 ,panel1 ,carved1 ,henri ,,ii4 ,style #djd #dce4 0 0 0 0 #djd #dcf4 0 0,french1 ,sixteenth ,century #djd #dcg4 0 0from ,louvre #dje #ddj4 0 0,elizabethan #djg #dch4 ,panelling1 ,elizabethan #djf #bbg4 ,patera from ,curium #agb #adb4 ,pectoral2 ,egyptian #ajc #djb4 ,pedestal1 ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel #cfc #bcb4 ,pendant1 ,wild ,goat2 ,gold #age #aej4 ,perfume ,spoons #aji #aea4 0 0 #aji #bdc4 ,persepolis2 ,tomb on the ,north-east #ahe #bdf4 ,persepolis2 ,staircase of the ,palace of ,darius #aij #bdi4 ,persepolis2 ,doorway to ,royal ,tomb #aic #aac4 ,pier with ,capital #he #dcc4 ,pilasters1 ,louis ,,xii4 #djc #dba4 ,pilaster by ,donatello #cic #bhg4 ,pilgrim ,bottle #bcd #aae4 ,pillar1 ,octagonal1 ,beni-,hassan #hf #aaf4 ,pillar1 ,sixteen-sided1 ,fluted #hf #aag4 ,pillar ,osiride1 from ,medinet-,abou #hg #cbh4 ,pillar and ,bracket1 ,doorway of a ,pagoda #bgh #baj4 ,phnician ,merchant ,galley #aei #baa4 ,phnician ,war ,galley #afj #bbf4 ,phnician ,silver ,platter #aga #ea4 ,pinak or ,plate1 from ,rhodes #cj #aci4 ,pitcher of ,red ,earth #ajb #djc4 ,place ,house1 ,cornwall #cfd #afh4 ,plan and ,elevation of a part of a ,faade at #abh ,worka #cdf4 ,plan of the ,mosque of ',amr #cjh #chc4 ,pointed ,arcading from the ,cathedral of ,palermo #cda #ag4 ,polished ,stone ,hammer and ,celts1 ,neolithic #ag ,period #ah4 0 0 0 0 0 #ag #ai4 0 0 0 0 0 #ag #bj4 0 0 0 0 0 #ag #dag4 ,pompeian ,objects #chi #cga4 ,porch of the ,heilsbronn ,monastery #ccd #chj4 ,porch of ,st4 ,zeno at ,verona #cci #gf4 ,pottery of the ,iron ,age #df #c4 ,prehistoric ,carving #i #ii4 ,principal ,hall in the ,great ,temple #gd #ajh4 ,principal ,faade of the ,temple of ,luxor #hb #hd4 ,ptah #eh #ced4 ,pulpit of the ,sultan ,kit ,bey #cae #cfd4 ,pulpit in the ,mosque of ,barkuk2 ,stone #cbh #aaa4 ,quadrangular ,pier #hd #aab4 ,quadrangular ,pier1 ,tapering #he #acd4 ,quadruped with ,head of a ,bird #ih #acf4 ,ram or ,krisosphinx #ajj #ajj4 ,rameses ,,ii41 ,louvre1 ,portrait of #ge #fh4 ,rim of ,fig4 #fg1 ,part of #dc #aec4 ,river ,transport of a ,mummy #aaj #cje4 ,roman ,corinthian1 ,pantheon #bee #cgc4 ,romanesque ,shaft and ,base #cce #cge4 ,romanesque ,ornament1 late #cce #cgf4 ,romanesque ,moulding ,ornaments #ccf #chf4 ,romanesque ,ornament from ,hinge from 8,notre #cde ,dame0 #chg4 ,romanesque ,panel from a ,church at ,bonn #cdf #cgd4 ,roof ,cornice of ,church at ,alstadt #cce #cgj4 ,rose ,window #ccc #cdb4 ,rosette in ,mosque of ,suyurghatmish #cjc #aie4 ,rosette of ,lotus ,flowers and ,buds #adf #dae4 ,rosette from ,trajan's ,scroll #chg #cfh4 ,round-,arch ,frieze #ccc #cji4 ,roman ,composite ,order2 ,arch of ,titus #bfj #bae4 ,sacred ,emblems from ,carthaginian ,votive ,stele #afb #daa4 ,san ,marco ,library #cgg #cbe4 ,sanchi ,tope2 ,bhopal1 ,central ,india #bgd #agd4 ,sargon's ,palace #acc #age4 ,sargon's ,palace1 a ,bedroom in the ,harem #acd #bea4 ,sarvistan1 ,palace of1 ,principal ,faade #aie #hh4 ,section through the ,great ,pyramid of ,kheops #fc #ie4 ,seti with ,attributes of ,osiris between ,amen #gj and ,chnoum #aff4 ,sill of a ,door from ,khorsabad #abf #bca4 ,silver ,pin2 ,cesnola #age #eb4 ,silver ,brooch #ca #gd4 ,silver ,goblet1 with ,gold-plated ,decorations #de #ij4 ,southern ,pyramid of ,dashour #fd #id4 ,solar-,disk1 ,adoration of1 by ,amenophis ,,iv4 #fi #ajc4 ,square ,building2 ,egyptian #gh #beg4 ,staircase ,wall of the ,palace of ,xerxes at #bja ,persepolis #cdd4 ,stalactite ,vaulting #cjf #hi4 ,stepped ,pyramid #fd #dab4 ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,louis faade #cha #cdj4 ,st4 ,nicholas at ,moscow #bii #djh4 ,strozzi ,palace1 portion of #cgd #cee4 ,street in ,cairo #caf #dh4 ,sun ,signs #bg #di4 ,sun ,snakes #bg #djj4 ,spandrel1 ,stone ,church1 ,kent #cfj #ace4 ,sphinx1 or ,man-headed ,lion2 from ,tanis #ii #acg4 ,sphinx with ,human ,hands #aja #cia4 ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,porch of #cec #cib4 ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,interior of #ced #cic4 ,st4 ,sebaldus1 ,shrine of #cee #cid4 ,st4 ,sebaldus1 ,bride's ,door of #cef #aig4 ,tabernacle from the ,balwt ,gates #adg #dbc4 ,tabernacle1 ,fifteenth ,century #cie #agf4 ,temple on the ,bank of a ,river1 ,khorsabad #ace #bei4 ,temple in a ,royal ,park #bjc #cbg4 ,temple of ,biskurma at ,ellora #bgf #cih4 ,temple ,church1 ,from the #cei #bai4 ,tomb at ,amrit1 restored #aff #cgg4 ,towers and ,round-,arch ,frieze1 ,abbey of ,komberg #ccg #aii4 ,tree of ,life1 ,upper ,portion of #adi #agc4 ,triumphal ,gate at ,entrance of the ,palace #acb #bhh4 ,three-handled ,amphora #bcd #ge4 ,under ,side of a ,fibula #de #db4 ,urns of the ,bronze ,age #be #dc4 0 0 0 0 #be #dd4 0 0 0 0 #be #df4 ,urn of the ,stone ,age1 found in ,swedish ,dolmen #bf #bfa4 ,upper ,part of ,parapet ,wall of ,staircase1 ,susa #bje #bef4 ,upright of ,royal ,throne1 ,naksh-i-,rustem #bjj #bhe4 ,vase in ,woman's ,form #bcb #bhf4 0 0 0 0 #bcc #bhi4 ,vase with ,geometric ,decoration #bce #bga4 ,venus of ,milo #bbj #dbe4 ,venetian ,panel #cig #bbi4 ,vessels ,figured in ,tomb of ,rekhmara #agd #bcf4 ,vessel in ,shape of a ,goat #agg #bgf4 ,victory1 ,figure of #bbd #bej4 ,view of a ,group of ,domed ,buildings1 from an #aid ,assyrian ,bas-,relief #bad4 ,votive ,stele from ,carthage1 with ,sacred #afb ,emblems #abh4 ,vultures on a ,ceiling #ie #ccc4 ,wall ,painting1 from ,catacombs of ,s4 ,calixtus #bij #dah4 ,wall ,painting1 ,pompeii #cij #dai4 ,wall ,painting1 ,herculaneum #cia #chi4 ,westminster ,abbey #cea #abi4 ,winged ,globe with ,urus #ie #aed4 ,winged ,bull1 ,assyria #aad #aei4 ,winged ,globe1 with the ,figure of a ,god #aai #afj4 ,winged ,globe #aai #ahb4 ,winged ,sphinx carrying ,base of ,capital #acg #dac4 ,wollaton ,house #chd #gg4 ,woollen ,cloth with ,gold and ,silver ,threads1 #df ,piece of #bff4 ,zeus of ,otricoli #bac ,,historic ,,ornament4 ,,introductory ,,chapter4 ,it can hardly be doubted that1 for the education of the student in ornamental design1 or in architecture1 a study of the history of ornament and a knowledge of the principal historic styles of architecture is indispensable4 ,historic styles of ornament remain for us1 vast accumulations of tried experiments1 for the most part in the character of conventional renderings of natural forms2 for however remote from nature some of these may be1 they can1 as a general rule1 be traced back without much difficulty to their natural origin1 where in most cases they were used symbolically4 ,even the most arbitrary forms--for instance1 those found in ,saracenic ornament--were only developments from natural forms1 and the innocent ,greek key pattern1 that has earned the reputation of being the ornament most unlike anything in nature1 is supposed by some to be but a rectilineal development of the rippling waves2 and1 on the other hand1 there is the hypothesis that it is developed from the fylfot1 a sacred sign that is supposed to symbolize the rotary motion of the planets4 ,there is no ornament more common or so universal in prehistoric1 savage1 ,egyptian1 ,assyrian and ,medival decoration than the ubiquitous zigzag1 or chevron1 and though extremely simple in itself1 at least two-thirds of all conventional ornament is based or constructed on its lines3 yet this simple ornament has been used as a symbol of totally opposite and different things1 by nearly all the various tribes and nations that have used it in decoration4 ,with the ,egyptians and ,assyrians it has been a symbol of water1 with some savage tribes it denotes lightning1 with others it does duty for a serpent1 with some others it represents a series of bats1 birds1 and butterflies2 as with the original tribes of ,brazil1 with the magic-loving ,semang tribes of ,east ,malacca1 it means a frog1 and in some instances the branches of trees2 and lastly1 with the natives of the ,hervey ,islands1 it symbolizes the human figure when placed in duplicate parallel rows4 7,for a fuller description1 and illustrations of this and cognate savage ornament1 the reader is referred to ,haddon's 8,evolution in ,art10 #ahie47 ,we can hardly think of an ornament more simple or more common than the zigzag1 and yet how varied in different countries are the sources from which it springs4 ,this may be taken as a warning that it is not safe to accept the same forms as always having the same origin1 when we find them in the art of different countries4 ,apart from the symbolic origin of ornamental forms1 students of to-day may learn1 from examples of the past1 how far they can go1 in the converting of natural forms to conventional ornament1 without absolutely adapting such examples to their present needs4 ,the past styles in ornament have1 in one sense1 died out with the nations that created them1 and can never be satisfactorily revived1 although1 as we have often seen1 a new style may be built on their foundations4 ,the tendency of to-day is to undervalue the teachings of historic art1 and1 as a result1 we see much work in which both fitness and beauty are conspicuous by their absence4 ,in any notice of the historical development of ornamental art1 the concurrent styles of architecture should1 in their general features at least1 be illustrated1 for it is not always possible to divorce ornament from architecture1 and it is hardly possible to design or construct good ornament otherwise than according to the laws that govern good architecture4 ,of course1 we must admit that some very beautiful ornament1 or rather decoration1 has been designed otherwise than on architectural lines1 but this kind of decoration has its beauty of technique and execution to recommend it1 rather than its constructive qualities4 ,chinese and ,japanese ornament will occur to the reader as examples of this kind of work1 but the best ornament the world has ever seen has been constructed and is based on the laws that govern good architecture4 ,some of these laws1 such as stability1 repose1 variety1 and proportion1 are derived from nature4 ,as all architectural styles1 however1 possess them more or less in common1 we must look elsewhere for the sources from which the peculiar characteristics that distinguish the styles are developed and derived4 ,the causes and forces are so subtle and the developments so gradual1 that it is almost impossible to arrive at a satisfactory explanation1 as religions1 inventive faculty1 and symbolism play an important rle in style development4 ,it is rather to the inventive faculties of man1 than to hints supplied by nature1 that we must look for the origin and development of what is called style in architecture or ornament4 ,in every case this is arrived at by a slow process1 and by the extensive and persistent use of distinguishing features selected according to the needs and requirements of the time1 to satisfy the prevailing tastes4 8,style0 is then the something that man has invented or created2 it may be called the soul of architecture1 without which1 a building1 however pretentious1 ceases to exist as an artistic conception4 ,apart from the greatest or more striking features in the various divisions of historic architecture1 such as the horizontal beam in ,greek1 the round arch in ,roman and ,romanesque1 the pointed arch in ,gothic and ,mohammadan buildings1 there are the mouldings that are so important in determining the period--they alone of themselves will often determine the style or date of a building--and these features1 above all others1 are the least derived from nature4 ,on the other hand1 the decoration of mouldings1 though suggested by their contours1 is generally derived from natural forms4 ,the 8best period0 in the life of historic styles and its duration corresponds with that of the highest culture and religious thought of the people1 at their settled and most flourishing epochs4 ,when a change or revolution in the order of things sets in1 we find generally the style of architecture changing also to adapt itself to the new laws and new thought4 ,this illustrates1 to a certain degree1 the reason why the so-called ,victorian ,gothic has not developed to any great extent in ,england1 although some of our best architects sought to revive the earlier ,gothic some years ago4 ,the ,medival mysticism1 love for symbolism1 and reverence are wanting in the mass of the people of this century1 which characterized the people of ,europe in the palmy days of ,gothic architecture4 ,it has always been found that whatever the people ask for the artist is generally able to give1 although he may not be always willing2 but he must satisfy the popular demand if he is to live by his work1 otherwise he must make way for others who are willing to produce work that will reflect the taste of the period4 ,we are handicapped in the development of anything new in the way of an architectural style by traditions of the past4 ,our knowledge of what has been done in the past1 paradoxical as it may appear1 has proved itself a great stumbling-block to the progress of new ideas4 ,this partly accounts for the slowness of style-development in the present century4 ,if fashion does not step in and disturb the march of events in the immediate future1 we may hope for something distinct1 if not exactly new1 as an architectural style1 in which a mixture of ,gothic and ,renaissance forms will be seen1 the latter perhaps predominating4 ,it may happen that later generations will look back and be able to discern something distinct in the way of style in buildings erected in the last quarter of this century1 in the midst of much that is somewhat chaotic and confused4 ,in a book like this1 which is intended chiefly as an introduction to the study of historic ornament1 one cannot pretend to criticise the various styles of ornament1 either from an artistic or scientific standpoint4 ,it will be enough to attempt to point out the principal beauties or characteristics1 to trace the history and overlapping of one style with another1 and to trace1 where possible1 some units of ornamental forms to their symbolic ancestry4 ,it is absurd to criticise the ornament of any period or country dogmatically1 for we must remember1 that although certain forms of art may not conform to the critics' idiosyncrasy1 they may be quite orthodox and good art when judged by the artistic laws of their own country4 ,the difference in race1 religion1 manners1 and customs1 must always be taken into account1 before we begin to criticise the art of a nation to which we do not belong4 ,as already remarked1 we are hampered by tradition in our attempts to produce originality in ornament1 but there is very little tradition for the absolute copying of a particular style1 except from nations who have had no decided art of their own4 ,as far as we know of the history and practice in the whole field of ornamental design1 from its remote beginnings it has been mostly all along a series of systems of developments1 sometimes for good and sometimes for the opposite1 but rarely1 if ever1 a system of copying4 ,some notable exceptions to this may be noticed1 as when1 for the expediencies known as 8tricks of the trade10 the ,phnicians made ivory carvings in exact imitation of ,egyptian designs1 and sold them to the ,assyrians2 and likewise bronze bowls and platters in both ,assyrian and ,egyptian imitations1 and traded with them throughout the gean and ,mediterranean1 or when the ,siculo-,arabian silks were made at ,palermo in imitation of ,saracen designs1 with mock-,saracenic inscriptions1 and sold for the real articles4 ,other instances might be cited1 but these were among the most successful4 ,as regards the purity of styles it may be safely said1 that1 with rare exceptions1 it is well-nigh impossible to find a well-designed and complete scheme of decoration1 or a building that will stand the test of having perfect unity in style2 in fact1 it may be more artistic on account of its incompleteness in this respect1 for any work of art that is designed by receipt1 like the ,egyptian temples or ,mohammadan ornament1 is rather wearisome4 ,it is pleasant to see at times a little bit showing here and there of the designer's individuality4 ,when the monotonous repetition of the laws peculiar to any arbitrary style are broken by a wilful and1 perhaps1 sinful artist1 we often get a refreshing and original rendering that is not by any means displeasing4 ,in transitional design from one style to another1 much beautiful work may be seen4 ,in connection with this the ,byzantine style may be mentioned1 with its ,classic and ,oriental forms1 ,elizabethan1 ,jacobean1 ,lombard ,gothic1 and the ,french styles of ,henri ,deux and ,franois #a;er1 in most of which ,gothic and ,renaissance forms are happily blended2 and in the beautiful ,siculo-,arabian textiles1 where ,italian and ,saracenic forms make an interesting union4 ,we learn from these examples that the successful designer of ornament should have a thorough knowledge of the historic styles1 not for the purpose of reproducing their forms1 but in order to discover for himself the methods by which the old artists arrived at the successful treatment of nature and of former styles1 so that by the application of his knowledge1 derived from the study of nature and the works of former artists1 he may be enabled to give to the world some original and interesting work4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,prehistoric ,,ornament--,,pal,,olithic ,,period ,,or ,,early ,,stone ,,age--,,river ,,drift ,,and ,,cave-,,men4 ,the first indications of the presence of man in ,britain was brought to light in the shape of a flint flake found by the ,rev4 ,o4 ,fisher1 in the presence of ,professor ,w4 ,boyd ,dawkins1 in the lower brick earth of the ,stoneham pit at ,crayford1 in ,kent1 in the year #ahgb4 ,in the year #ahgf a second flake was found in a similar situation at ,erith1 in ,kent1 considerably worn by use4 ,this form of implement was used in the late ,pleistocene age1 and also in the ,neolithic 7,newer ,stone age7 and ,bronze ages4 ,it was employed in the historic ages by the ,egyptians1 and by the ,romanized ,britons of ,sussex1 in whose tombs it has been found4 ,this implement is the latest survival of the ,palolithic age4 ,geologists have proved that ,ireland1 ,england and ,europe were united in the ,palolithic age1 and this accounts for the similarity of stone implements and other remains found in the river-drift deposits1 in caves1 and other situations in the river valley over this vast area4 ,the roughly chipped flint implements are termed ,palolithic1 or of the ,old ,stone age1 in contradistinction to the smoother1 finer chipped1 or polished implements of the ,neolithic or ,newer ,stone age4 ,it seems highly probable that the ,asiatic ,palolithic man first swarmed off the great plateau of ,central ,asia1 which in later times was the home of all those tribes that invaded ,europe1 ,india1 and ,china1 and certainly were of a race that is now as extinct as the prehistoric ,mammoth itself4 ,the relation between the ,river-drift men of ,asia and ,europe is doubtful4 ,we may not be able to refer the ,palolithic ,cave-men to any present branch of the human race1 but as regards their artistic abilities1 the only savage people that bear any analogy to them in the present day is the ,south ,african tribe of ,bushmen4 ,these people1 however1 are much inferior as artists to the early ,cave-men1 which may be seen by comparing the work of both 7,figs4 #g;,a and #g;,b74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,horse1 ,upper ,cave ,earth1 ,robin ,hood ,cave4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,ibex ,carved on ,antler4 ,from the drawings of animals which have been found etched and carved on bone1 horn1 and stones1 we can judge of the high qualifications of the ,cave-men as artists4 ,their work in animal drawing ranks higher than that of any historic savage race1 and as artists they were infinitely of a higher order than their more scientific successors1 the ,neolithic men1 or the men of the ,bronze age4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,prehistoric ,carving4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,esquimaux ,carving4 ,it was owing to the discovery of these bone and ivory etchings that geologists were able to definitely connect the ,cave-men of the ,thames ,valley with those of ,france1 ,belgium1 and ,switzerland4 ,at ,cresswell ,crags1 in ,derbyshire1 in the caves1 caverns1 and fissures known as the ,pin ,hole1 ,robin ,hood's ,cave1 ,mother ,grundy's ,parlour1 a great quantity of bones have been found1 some of which were broken by the hand of man1 and amongst these some flint implements in the lower cave earth4 ,above this in the stalagmatic breccia more bones were found and implements made of quartzite and flint1 together with fragments of charcoal4 ,lance heads1 flint borers1 a bone awl1 and a fragment of bone ornamented with a zigzag or chevron pattern--probably the oldest bit of ornament known--were found together with the most important find of all1 namely1 a piece of rib bone with an etching of a horse's head and neck with a hogged mane 7,fig4 #a71 the first instance of an animal form found in ,england4 ,these objects may be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,etching of ,reindeer on ,bone1 ,kesslerloch ,cavern4 ,evidences of the ,palolithic men have been found in the ,mendip ,hill caves in ,somerset1 and at ,kent's ,hole1 near ,torquay1 ,devon4 ,harpoons of deers' antlers1 barbed on one or both sides1 also hammer stones1 half spherical in shape1 have been brought to light from these places4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,etching of ,reindeer on ,slate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,etching of ,mammoth on a piece of ,mammoth ,ivory4 ,the ,river-drift men preceded the ,cave-men1 as two different sets of implements found at different depths testify4 ,those found at the greatest depths are rougher1 rounder1 and more massive in character1 with the outer surface of flint or quartzite nodule still remaining1 as seen in some wedge-shaped hches and hammer stones1 they consequently belong to the ,older ,drift period2 while the oval carefully chipped all round1 and occasionally polished implements1 belong to a much later and higher cultured state of the ,palolithic period4 ,both the ,river-drift men and the ,cave-men lived in caverns in this country and in ,france1 as some savages do now4 ,implements of the ,palolithic age have been found in ,europe1 ,north ,africa1 ,asia ,minor and ,india4 ,the earlier ,river-drift man was a savage and lived by hunting1 as no evidence of culture has been found that can be ascribed to him4 ,after unknown ages perhaps had elapsed the ,cave-men appear with more perfect instruments1 and at least cultured in the knowledge of drawing and carving1 which they did1 as can be judged by the illustration given1 with astonishing ability4 ,the accurate forms of animals1 as horses1 mammoths1 bears1 aurochs1 elks1 reindeers1 fish1 seals1 c41 and even attempts at the human figure1 are evidences of this4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g;,a4--,human and ,animal ,form1 drawn by ,bushmen of ,south ,africa4 ,some authors see a certain analogy between the ,cave-men and the ,esquimaux of the present day4 ,in artistic culture1 however1 the ,cave-men are immeasurably superior to the latter1 as may be seen by comparing their respective efforts 7,figs4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e74 ,the ,cave-men disappeared from ,britain after it became an island4 ,similar discoveries of implements and other remains in ,europe and ,britain prove that the ,cave-men of both countries were in the same stage of culture4 ,pottery has never been found in connection with the remains of these people4 ,in ,france many important finds have been brought to light illustrating the art work of the ,european ,cave-men4 ,in the caves at ,perigord1 at ,bruniquel on the ,aveyron1 at ,le ,moustier1 at ,la ,madelaine in the ,dordogne1 and in the ,duruthy cave at ,laugerie ,basse1 in the ,western ,pyrenees1 have been found many engravings of animals1 and carvings on bone1 smooth teeth1 and antlers1 also on sandstone1 slate1 and schist4 ,evidences of the ,cave-men using skins for clothing is inferred from the engraving of skin-gloves and other things found incised on the teeth of the great cave-bear in the ,duruthy caves4 ,hunting scenes were often engraved with great fidelity1 and carved dagger-handles made from the antlers of deer1 with the animal itself sometimes carved on them4 ,one of the highest art examples yet found is that of a reindeer grazing1 and is the only object on which an attempt is made to represent herbage1 and perhaps water 7,fig4 #e74 ,this interesting relic was found in the ,kesslerloch ,cavern4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g;,b4--,animal ,forms1 drawn by ,bushmen4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,neolithic ,,stone ,,period4 ,this period is divided from the ,palolithic ,stone age by a great unknown gap4 ,it is sometimes called the ,later or ,newer ,stone age4 ,in this period the flint implements were better shaped1 many of them were ground and polished 7,figs4 #ag1 #ah74 ,some of the flint and other stone implements were very like in form to those of the ,bronze period1 and as these implements were made1 and continued to be used1 in ,northern ,europe after the ,bronze periods of the ,east had developed1 it is quite possible that they were copied from the bronze objects 7,figs4 #aj1 #aa1 #ag1 #ah74 ,a remarkable sickle or knife fourteen inches long is seen at ,fig4 #aa2 a flint saw 7,fig4 #ab71 semicircular knives or saws at ,figs4 #ae1 #af1 and a bone and flint harpoon at ,fig4 #i4 ,some of the stone hammers or axes are of great beauty in shape and in workmanship 7,figs4 #ag1 #ah72 also pottery slightly burnt1 but well decorated by incised straight lines and zigzags 7,figs4 #ba to #bd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,figs4 #h to #aa4--;,flint ,implements of the ,neolithic ,period 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,figs4 #ab1 #ac1 #ad4--;,flint ,implements of the ,neolithic ,period4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,figs4 #ae1 #af4--;,flint ,implements of the ,neolithic ,period4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,figs4 #ag to #bj4--,polished ,stone ,hammers and ,celts1 ,neolithic ,period4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,figs4 #ba to #bd4--,pottery of the ,neolithic ,age4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,the cultivation of land1 the breeding and rearing of domestic animals1 plaiting1 and weaving was known and practised by these people4 ,amber1 bone beads1 and shells were used as personal adornments4 ,their burials were with or without cremation4 ,the burial-places of these people are found all over the world1 in ,europe1 ,japan1 ,india1 and other parts of ,asia1 and in ,north ,america4 ,they are named 8,cromlechs0 7stone circles71 8,dolmen0 7stone tables7 7,fig4 #be71 8,menhir0 7long stone74 ,the burial-place1 called a 8,tumulus10 is a great mound of earth1 usually containing a burial chamber constructed in stone in the centre of the mound4 ,the illustrations of the 8,menhir0 7long stones7 7,fig4 #bf71 and of the so-called ,giants' ,tombs 7,fig4 #bg7 belong to the ,stone age1 and are found in the island of ,sardinia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,dolmen at ,hesbon 7,p4 ,c474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,menhirs1 ,sardinia 7,p4 ,c474 ,we have seen that the ,palolithic men were hunters1 and evidently had a lot of leisure time on their hands1 which they turned to good account by devoting some of it to their artistic culture2 while the ,neolithic men were more of a race of mechanics and farmers1 who had neither time nor inclination for the cultivation of art1 but were altogether more scientific and mechanical than the men of the ,palolithic period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,giants' ,tomb1 ,sardinia 7,p4 ,c474 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,bronze ,,age4 ,the people of the ,bronze age introduced a higher civilisation into the world than their predecessors of the ,stone ages4 ,there appears to be a great overlap between the ,neolithic1 ,bronze1 and ,iron ages of ,central and ,northern ,europe1 and the historic periods of the ,eastern countries bordering on the ,mediterranean4 ,we have evidence that great periods of time must have marked the epochs of the prehistoric ages1 and that the ,bronze age1 like the ,stone and ,iron ages1 began at different times in different countries4 ,the tribes who brought with them the age of ,bronze into ,europe composed the ,celtic van of the ,aryan race4 ,the earliest productions of this period were the simple wedges resembling flat stone axes1 the sides of which are slightly thickened to form ridges or flanges2 the centres are also raised1 which produces a ridge to prevent the head from going in too far in the handle2 in some the flanges are much developed1 and have also a loop cast on the side for the purpose of tying it on to the haft4 ,some are made with a socket and loop2 these have been called 8,paalstabs10 and have a flat chisel-like shape 7,figs4 #bh1 #cj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,figs4 #bh to #cj4--;,bronze and ,paalstabs4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,figs4 #ca to #cd4--;,bronze ,axes1 ,paalstabs1 and ,moulds4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,figs4 #ce to #ch4--;,bronze ,swords and ,spear-,head4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ci and #dj4--;,bronze ,button for ,sword ,belt4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,these earlier implements are often made of pure copper4 ,bronze is a mixture of copper and tin1 generally from two to four per cent4 of tin1 and is consequently harder than copper4 ,knives1 hammers1 gouges1 sickles1 daggers1 spears1 swords1 shields1 many kinds of vessels1 and articles of personal adornment made in bronze1 belong to the earlier time of the ,bronze period1 and similar articles were made in this material in the prehistoric ,bronze ages all over the known world 7,figs4 #ce to #dj74 ,an interesting object is a breast-plate1 belonging to this early ,bronze period2 it is decorated with zigzags in bands1 and a well-arranged scheme of spiral ornamentation 7,fig4 #da74 ,urns of earthenware1 sometimes decorated with zigzags and sacred signs1 have been found in graves4 ,these urns contained ashes of the dead 7,figs4 #dc1 #dd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,breast-plate1 with ,spiral ,ornaments4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,many of the bronze implements and other articles have been found in tombs1 in caves in great quantities1 both finished and unfinished1 in 8,kitchen ,middens10 or refuse heaps1 in river-beds1 and in bogs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,figs4 #db1 #dc1 and #dd4--,urns of the ,bronze ,age 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--;,bronze ,bowl found in ,sweden4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--,urn of the ,stone ,age found in ,swedish ,dolmen4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,some of the objects found in ,north ,germany1 and particularly in ,denmark1 ,sweden1 and ,norway1 are exceedingly beautiful in their shape and decoration4 ,from nowhere else in the world come so many objects1 and so much that is characteristic of the prehistoric ,bronze age4 ,this period has been ably treated1 and at great length1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,a4 ,worsaae1 in his 8,danish ,arts10 and by ,mr4 ,hans ,hildebrand1 in his 8,arts of ,scandinavia10 to which books we are indebted for the accompanying illustrations4 ,it may be noticed that much of the decoration on these objects consists of a few simple elements with much geometric repetition4 ,the varied forms are chiefly spirals interlocking at regulated distances1 concentric rings1 triangles1 zigzag lines1 and bands formed of lines which are reminiscences of the earlier withy lashings1 with which the stone celts were fastened to their hafts4 ,the raised1 as well as the flat twisted-like bands1 are derivatives from the twisted strings that would naturally be tied around the pottery of an early date to carry it by 7,fig4 #de74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--;,bronze ,hatchet found in ,sweden4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,the spirals1 zigzags1 ring-crosses1 wheels1 triskeles1 reciprocal meanders1 semicircles1 c41 are geometrical developments of sun-snake1 lightning1 the sun itself1 cloud-forms1 moon-forms1 star-forms1 and the sacred fylfot or swastika1 all of which had their origin in ,egypt1 ,india1 ,central ,asia1 or ,greece4 ,at first they were used as isolated signs1 or pictographs1 to represent physical phenomena1 that were objects of ,nature-worship with almost all the nations of the world after the dawn of civilisation1 and when these signs migrated into the art of other nations or later peoples1 who were either ignorant of their meaning or understood them in an imperfect way1 they ceased to be employed as isolated signs of the various divinities they originally represented1 and were copied1 and repeated1 as required1 to fill in a geometrical way the space at hand to be ornamented4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,sun ,signs4 ,a1 ,wheel ,cross or ,wheel2 ,b1 ,sun ,god ,signs2 ,c1 ,fylfot1 or ,swastika2 ,d1 ,triskele2 ,e1 ,stars or ,sun ,signs4 ,a beautiful piece of workmanship is the bronze horn 7,fig4 #ej74 ,worsaae thinks that this horn was used in the worship of the gods in the early ,bronze age1 owing to the great number of sacred signs engraved on it4 ,sun-wheels1 sun-snakes1 and sun-boats1 developed into spiral ornament1 may be seen on it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,sun ,signs4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,f1 ,sun-snakes2 ,g4 ,swastika2 ,h1 ,triskele2 ,i1 ,star or ,sun4 ,n4,b4--,the ,swastika here is evidently a double ,sun-snake4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,bronze ,horn or ,trumpet1 found at ,wismar1 in ,mecklenburg4 7,from ,danish ,arts47 ,there is one ornament that plays an important part in the ,bronze and ,iron periods1 of which much has been written1 the 8fylfot0 or 8swastika40 ,it has been found in nearly every quarter of the ancient world1 except ,egypt and ,assyria1 both in savage ornament and in the art of cultured races4 ,the 8fylfot0 or 8many0 or 8full-footed0 cross in ,anglo-,saxon1 it is also known by the names of 8gammadion10 8croix gamme10 8croix crampone10 8tetraskele10 c4 ,the ,indian name for it is the 8swastika0 or 8svastika10 which means 8good luck10 or 8it is well40 ,the fylfot1 according to the opinion of many archologists1 was originally the sign of the sun1 and used as a sacred symbol in the worship of the sun2 others think it was a sign used to symbolize the rotatory motion of the planets2 it is quite likely it has been used by different early peoples for both4 ,it has been associated with other sun signs1 as the circle1 concentric circles1 with the ,s-shaped sun-snakes1 as on the prehistoric whorls from ,hissarlik1 and very frequently with the solar divinities1 as the horse1 boar1 ram1 lion1 ibex1 and goose1 c4 ,it is found on ,cyprian and ,rhodian pottery and on the 8geometric0 pottery of ,greece4 ,its appearance on many objects of early ,christian art can be accounted for4 ,in these cases the ,christian missionaries permitted the continued use of it to their pagan converts1 but they themselves attached a new meaning to it1 regarding it as merely a substitute for the symbol of the cross4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,pinak or ,plate1 ,archaic ,period1 from ,camiros1 ,rhodes1 showing ,fylfot1 and ,sun ,signs1 and ,sacred ,boar4 7,british ,museum47 ,some writers have argued1 with a good deal of plausibility1 that the ,greek fret pattern1 ,chinese and ,japanese frets1 were only developments from the fylfot4 ,this is purely conjectural1 for as regards the ,greek fret1 it is more likely that it had an ,egyptian source1 as so many of the ,greek ornaments are but developments of ,egyptian and ,assyrian forms4 ,the fret used by the ,greeks has been found in ,egypt in the ceiling ornament of tombs more than a thousand years before it appeared in ,greece4 ,the ,chinese frets may have in some instances a fylfot origin1 but at present this is doubtful1 as it has not yet been proved4 ,the drawing of the archaic ,greek plate 7pinak71 in the ,british ,museum1 given at ,fig4 #ea1 from the ,greek colony of ,rhodes1 is very interesting1 as it shows a well-developed fylfot between the legs of the boar1 and an early ,greek fret band2 the fret here may only be a water-sign1 or a river-edge representation4 ,the spaces around the boar 7animal sacred to the sun7 are filled up with sun-signs and star-signs2 even the large segment of radiating lines1 and the form over the animal's back may typify the sun4 ,the whole decoration has a high religious meaning in reference to sun-worship1 and is evidently a copy by a ,greek artist of an oriental embroidery motive4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,silver ,brooch1 ,plated with ,gold1 in the form of a ,double ,sun-snake or ,swastika2 found in ,iceland4 7,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,gold ,bowl1 with ,bronze ,handle and ,sacred ,horse's ,head4 7,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--;,bronze ,horn found in ,denmark4 7,danish ,arts47 ,the fylfot has been found stamped on the pottery of the lake dwellings of the ,zuni1 ,yucatan1 and other ,american pottery1 and on objects from ,iceland1 ,ireland1 and ,scandinavia4 ,a circular form of it is seen on the gold ,scandinavian ornament 7,fig4 #eb74 ,whether it originally was a pure sun-sign1 or whether it signified the axial rotation of the earth round the ,north ,pole1 it is full of remarkable interest1 and enters more than any other symbolic sign into historic ornament generally4 ,in ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan1 it has been much used2 this was owing to the spread of the ,buddhist religion in these countries4 ,it is found on the toes of the 8,footprint0 of ,buddha1 at the ,amarvati ,tope1 ,india2 and owing to its great religious significance in ,china1 ,japan1 and ,ceylon1 we find it stamped on the account books1 coins and dresses of both the living and the dead1 as a universal sign of good luck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--;,collar of ,bronze found in ,sweden4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--;,danish ,bronze ,knives1 decorated with ,sun-ships and other ,sacred ,figures4 7,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,figs4 #eg and #eh4--;,bronze and ,gold ,buttons found in ,women's ,graves1 with the ,triskele1 ,moon-,signs1 and ,sun ,snakes4 7,danish ,arts47 ,the swastika1 both straight and curved-armed variety1 was used indiscriminately in the decoration of objects of the ,iron age1 whether in bronze1 iron1 gold1 silver1 wood1 or stone4 ,it was the sign among the ,romans of ,jupiter ,tonans1 who wielded the thunder and lightning2 was the sign used for ,thor1 the god of thunder and lightning1 with the early ,german peoples1 and the curved variety of it was used as a symbol of their highest divinity by the northern nations of ,scandinavia4 ,from this widespread use of the swastika it is conjectured that it is an ,aryan symbol1 brought by the people of the ,bronze age from their primitive home in the plateau of ,central ,asia4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,iron ,,age4 ,the age of ,iron1 like the ,bronze ages1 varies very much in point of time in ,europe as compared with ,asia1 and also there is a great overlapping between the times of the ,iron age in the northern1 middle1 and southern parts of ,europe4 ,it is safe to say that the early part of this age belongs to prehistoric times as far as ,central and ,northern ,europe is concerned1 and although the ,grecian ,archipelago and ,western ,asia were in a high state of civilised culture five or six centuries before the ,christian era1 and were acquainted with the use of iron1 it is clear that the extensive employment and decoration of iron implements and arms were chiefly in ,switzerland1 ,northern ,italy1 and in the ,valley of the ,danube4 ,this iron culture soon spread over to ,gaul and ,spain1 and to the ,british ,islands in the ,west1 and ,scandinavia in the ,north4 ,the ,romans1 under their first emperors1 imported their swords and other arms from ,spain and the ,west on account of their good workmanship4 ,from the many 8finds0 that have been brought to light in the above countries it is evident that1 for five or six centuries before the commencement of the ,christian era1 there was a great activity going on in the manufacture of iron objects in these countries1 principally swords and other warlike arms4 ,the two most important 8finds0 are the 8,halstaat0 in ,austria1 and the ,la ,tne 8finds0 near ,marin1 ,lake ,neuchtel4 ,the ,halstaat find was composed of many gold and bronze articles1 pottery1 and a few iron weapons4 ,the place where these things were found was a ,celtic tomb1 and the iron articles found in it are among the earliest known in ,europe1 which proves them to have been made at the transition period from the ,bronze to the ,iron ages4 ,besides the purely geometric work the decoration on these articles consists of sun and moon signs1 wheel crosses1 half moons1 the sacred ship1 the swastika1 triskele1 c42 crude representations of men and animals1 as horses1 oxen1 stags1 he-goats1 and geese1 all of which have a religious and symbolic meaning4 ,all these forms were used in the ,bronze and ,iron ages alike4 ,the find at ,la ,tne1 near ,marin1 ,lake ,neuchtel1 belongs to a later period and is more important from an art point of view1 for besides the usual sacred decorations engraved on the objects1 some of the sword handles and sheaths are beautifully sculptured or chiselled in iron1 with well-designed ornament and animal forms4 7,see ,fig4 #ha1 ,d1 of ,gaulish or late ,celtic workmanship47 ,the shapes and materials of the weapons found at ,la ,tne1 or of what is called the 8,la ,tne ,period10 do not bear much resemblance to the weapons of the ,bronze age1 and the sheaths of the swords and daggers are sometimes bronze and sometimes iron1 but the blades are of iron4 ,communication with the ,etruscans and the ,greeks by the people of ,central ,europe is proved by the coins1 vases1 and objects of personal ornament1 and by the imitations of ,greek and ,macedonian coins found in great quantities in ,middle and ,western ,europe and in ,britain1 that belong to this late ,celtic period4 ,this accounts for the more 8advanced0 nature of the decoration on the ,marin swords and daggers of the 8,la ,tne ,period10 and this particular culture-wave brought with it the beginnings of that ornament which1 in later centuries1 developed into the peculiar ,celtic and ,runic twistings and interlacings that are so common to ,danish1 ,norwegian1 ,swedish1 ,anglo-,saxon and ,irish phases of decorative art1 that was practised so largely from the first to the twelfth centuries of our era4 ,this ,celtic interlacing1 though often more distressing than a ,chinese puzzle1 and in some instances barbarous in the extreme1 yet is often very interesting and beautiful in execution4 ,most of it can be traced to its origin in sacred signs and animal forms in classical ornament4 ,it will be interesting to trace briefly some of these developments of the ,northern ,runic and ,celtic art of the ,iron age4 ,in the development of nearly all historic art1 we find that the religious aspirations of man were the chief factors4 ,in ,egypt1 ,asia1 ,europe1 or ,america1 wherever art had an individuality1 the greatest monuments were erected1 and the finest works of art were created for the honour of the nation's gods4 ,we have seen how the forms of ornament were generally derived from the figurative signs of sacred animals1 plants1 and other mystic symbols of a religious meaning1 and were in the end converted in meaningless but sthetic ornament4 ,this is the history of nine-tenths of historic ornament that has survived the decay of nations4 ,the ancient religion and beliefs of the pre-,christian peoples were those which they had brought with them when they first migrated from their ,asiatic home1 namely1 the worship of the sun1 moon1 and lightning4 ,csar mentions in his 8,de ,bello ,gallico10 ,,vi41 #ba1 that the 8,germani people worshipped the visible helping gods1 the sun1 moon1 and fire1 and knew nothing whatever of other divinities40 ,the symbolic signs and animal forms sacred to these phenomena1 already mentioned1 are found more or less on the utensils and weapons of the ,gallic-,german peoples of the ,iron age1 and in addition to these we see the representation of the ,northern gods1 the ,trinity of the ,north1 ,thor1 ,odin and ,frey1 with and without the sacred animals peculiar to each4 ,in the earlier times close intercourse with the ,romans brought about a high degree of culture to the barbarian people of the ,rhine ,valley and more northern places2 many statuettes of bronze inlaid with gold and silver1 representing ,roman gods1 have been dug up in ,denmark and other places in the north4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--;,gold-plated ,ornament found at ,thorsberg4 7,danish ,arts47 ,these statuettes were transformations of the ,roman and ,etruscan gods that served for the ,gallo-,germanic gods4 ,an illustration of the ,roman influence is seen in a round ornament of this period plated with gold1 found at ,thorsberg1 ,slesvig4 ,it is the decoration of an iron coat of mail4 ,the illustration of this 7,fig4 #ei7 is taken from ,worsaae's 8,danish ,arts10 and is thus described by him3 8,five suns are placed crosswise1 and between two of the outer ones is seen a barbarised figure of ,jupiter with horns on his helmet2 the sun in the centre is surrounded by a circle of helmeted heads4 ,just as this recalls to our minds the ,germanic and ,scandinavian god of thunder1 ,thor1 who1 later1 was often represented with a helmet on his head1 so the thin barbaric golden figures of horses1 geese1 and fish1 riveted on the ornament or brooch itself1 remind us of the sun-god ,frey40 ,the ,figs4 #fj and #fa are metal mountings decorated with the triskele formed of sun-snakes1 the swastika with straight arms1 and the compound variety of the fylfot on the larger mounting4 ,these illustrate a transition of the sacred sun form to more purely ornamental designs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj ,illustration3 ,fig4#fa ,figs4 #fj and #fa4--,metal ,mountings from ,thorsberg4 7,danish ,arts47 ,the imitation of ,roman coins and medallions of the time of ,constantine to ornaments that have been called 8bracteates0 was extensively carried on by the ,germanic people4 ,these bracteates have the design on one side only1 with a loop or ring at the top to suspend them around the neck as an amulet4 ,these golden bracteates have been found in great numbers in ,scandinavia and ,denmark1 and scarcely anywhere else1 which proves they were indigenous to these countries4 ,it is interesting to notice how they have been transformed from their ,roman and ,byzantine originals to purely sacred ,celtic amulets of a new national type of ornament4 ,fig4 #fb1 from ,hildebrand's 8,scandinavian ,arts10 is a barbaric copy of a ,roman medallion4 ,it is a poor attempt to copy the ,imperial head1 and the inscription is badly and meaninglessly copied4 ,on the reverse is a figure of ,victory1 with signs of the cross1 surrounded by a wreath and legend4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--;,barbarian ,copy of a ,roman ,medallion found in ,sweden4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,it appears that after the age of the ,constantines1 the intercourse of the ,germanic people with the ,romans was broken1 owing to the invasion of the ,huns1 and for a long time afterwards they were left to themselves without foreign influence1 and were enabled to develop their national art on the foundation of ,roman culture1 at the same time substituting their own emblems of their national gods in place of the classic ones in their decorative work4 ,we can safely gather from this that the ,hunnic invasion of the ,roman ,empire was the indirect means of giving to ,northern ,europe a distinct national style of art4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--;,golden ,bracteate from ,scandinavia4 7,danish ,arts47 ,the illustrations of the golden bracteates here given 7,figs4 #fc1 #fd7 partly show how this development began4 ,on ,fig4 #fc is ,thor's head with his tiara or helmet1 the he-goat sacred to ,thor1 the triad three dots1 and the swastika4 ,on the border is the triskele 7,odin's sign71 ,frey's cross1 and the zigzag or lightning4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--;,golden ,bracteate from ,scandinavia4 7,danish ,arts47 ,the larger bracteate 7,fig4 #fd7 has ,thor with the he-goat surrounded by the swastika1 triskele1 and the cross 7four suns forming the cross71 the signs for ,thor1 ,odin1 and ,frey4 ,the inner border has the three dots1 or triad2 next border1 ,thor's head2 and the outer border is composed of he-goats4 ,on the loop are signs of the sun and moon1 and under it sun-snakes 7developed into spirals74 ,the above descriptions of the bracteates are chiefly taken from the 8,danish ,arts40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--,parts of ,harness in ,gilt ,bronze1 ,gotland4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,characteristic ornament of this period is shown at ,fig4 #fe1 which are parts of a harness in gilt bronze from a tomb in ,gotland2 the patterns are composed of corrupted animal and bird forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--;,fibula in ,gilt ,bronze1 ,gotland4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,fibula in ,gilt ,bronze1 ,gotland4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,figs4 #ff to #fh are fibula decorations of the interlacing animal forms1 which are characteristic of the more attenuated and later development of ,scandinavian art4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,part of ,rim of ,fig4 #fg4 ,the series of designs1 ,figs4 #fi to #gc1 are of great interest in showing the development of patterns from lion forms to the twisted snake ornament4 ,the figures are taken from ,hildebrand's 8,scandinavian ,arts40 ,according to that author1 ,fig4 #fi is a ,scandinavian copy or adaptation of a ,roman design1 which consists of two lions couchant4 ,the other patterns 7,figs4 #gj to #gc7 are further developments of corrupted lion forms4 ,it is quite possible that the peculiar interlacings of ,scandinavian ornament may have been the result of imperfect copying of lion and bird forms4 ,they were never intended for snake forms1 as many of these have legs and feet1 and serpents and snakes were unknown in the north4 ,many stranger derivatives of ornament have existed in the ornament of savage tribes4,a ,when the ,gotlandic artist had reduced his lion forms to snakes he carried his work to the verge of monotony with interminable interlacings4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,haddon's 8,evolution of ,ornamental ,art10 #ahie4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,figs4 #fi and #gj4--;,corrupted ,figures of ,lions4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,figs4 #ga1 #gb1 #gc4--;,animal ,ornamental ,patterns1 ,corrupted ,figures of ,lions4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,silver ,goblet1 with ,gold-plated ,decoration1 found in ,zeeland4 7,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,under ,side of a ,fibula4 7,scand4 ,arts47 ,the decoration on the goblet 7,fig4 #gd7 is the sun-god ,frey1 with his horse and geese2 the masks are intended for those of ,thor2 his he-goat and sun signs are also seen4 ,this goblet was evidently used in the sun-worship festivals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--,pottery of the ,iron ,age4 7,danish ,arts47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,piece of ,woollen ,cloth with ,gold and ,silver ,threads1 ,viking ,period4 7,danish ,arts47 ,a restrained and agreeable design is seen on the under side of a fibula 7,fig4 #ge72 a well-shaped earthen pot is decorated with zigzag work1 and has the symbolical triad mark impressed on it 7,fig4 #gf72 and a remnant of woollen cloth1 woven with silver and gold threads1 has the swastika and the hammer of ,thor as decoration4 ,this was found in a grave at ,randers of the tenth century4 ,it belongs to the ,viking period of the ,iron age 7,fig4 #gg74 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,lake ,,dwellings ,,of ,,switzerland ,,and ,,other ,,parts ,,of ,,europe4 ,in ,switzerland and in ,upper ,italy evidences have been found of numerous lake dwellings1 and in ,ireland and ,scotland analogous dwellings on islands in lakes and morasses have been found1 to which the name of 8crannoges0 78wooden islands07 has been given4 ,the exact age of these dwellings has not been accurately defined1 but an approximate date has been assigned to them4 ,from the nature1 kind1 and decoration of the numerous articles that have been dug up from the foundation relic beds in the lakes of ,switzerland1 it appears that the duration of the 8lake dwellings0 period was from about the time of the later ,stone age to the early ,iron age2 it therefore embraces portions of the ,stone age1 the ,bronze age1 and early ,iron ages of ,europe4 ,the lake dwellings were erected by certain tribes of the early inhabitants of ,europe1 for the better security of themselves and their property from the savage animals of the mainland1 and from their enemies1 the still more savage fellow-men4 ,as far as can be made out from the remains found in the lakes1 the lake dwellers were more civilised and less warlike than their neighbours that lived on land4 ,the lake dwellings are the most ancient evidences of man's first constructive capabilities in the art of building4 ,herodotus tells us of a settlement on ,lake ,prasias 7,tachyus71 in ,rumelia1 where 8men live on platforms supported by tall piles40 ,some tribes of the ,papuans of ,new ,guinea still live on pile dwellings4 ,the lacustrine habitation 7,fig4 #gh71 from 8,les ,races ,sauvages10 by ,m4 ,bertillon1 is a representation of a pile dwelling on the ,lake ,mohrya1 in ,central ,africa1 of the present day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,lacustrine ,habitation in ,lake ,mohrya1 ,central ,africa4 7,from ,les ,races ,sauvages1 by ,m4 ,bertillon47 ,the substructures1 ,fig4 #gi1 ,a1 ,b1 and ,c1 taken from ,keller's 8,lake ,dwellings10 will give general ideas of the foundations of the dwellings in ,switzerland and ,upper ,italy4 ,at ,a is seen the earliest type1 which reveals the section of the piles1 upper flooring1 water-line1 and sloping bank of the lake4 ,the piles were sometimes composed of split trees or stems1 but more often of stems with the bark on1 and were of various kinds of wood2 they were sharpened at the end by stone hatchets1 and in later times by bronze or iron axes1 and were driven into the sand or mud at a short distance from the shore4 ,the heads of the piles were brought to a level1 and planks or whole trees were fastened on them as beams2 sometimes they were fastened on by wooden pins1 and sometimes were 8notched0 into the heads of the piles4 ,cross-beams were often forced in between the uprights under the platform to steady the structure1 and outside there was often fastened a clothing of wattle-work to act as a fender from various accidents4 ,if it were found difficult to drive the piles into the bed of the lake to any great depth1 artificial raising of the bottom was resorted to1 by bringing cargoes of stones in boats and dropping them between the piles1 thereby securing a perfectly secure substructure 7,fig4 #gi1 ,b74 ,these artificial risings are called 8stein-bergs40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--,section and ,plans1 ,lake ,dwelling ,substructures from ,keller4 ,a1 ,general idea of arrangement of ,piles2 ,b1 shows the ,piles driven into the mud1 with stones thrown between them2 ,c1 ,section of ,fascine ,dwelling2 ,d1 ,diagram of ,floor ,fascine ,construction from ,niederwyl2 ,e1 ,section of ,irish ,crannoge in ,ardakillin ,lough2 ,f1 ,construction of ,wooden ,form 7,niederwyl72 ,g1 ,section of ,lake ,dwelling ,beds at ,robenhausen4 ,another and later variety of substructure is known as 8fascine-work0 7,fig4 #gi1 ,c74 ,probably this fascine construction was the safest when the water of the lake rose in height4 ,it consisted of layers of small trees or stems laid lengthwise1 built from the bottom of the lake2 these sticks or trees were interwoven1 and at intervals upright piles were driven in to keep them in position1 and on the top of this structure1 above high-water mark1 the flooring platform was laid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--;,an ,ideal ,lake ,settlement or ,town4 7,from ,keller's ,lake ,dwellings47 ,the 8crannoges0 or 8wooden islands10 of ,ireland and ,scotland1 resemble very much the ,swiss fascine dwellings4 ,the ,irish 8crannoges0 were often placed on natural islands1 or on shallows or loughs1 but sometimes were built up1 like those in ,switzerland1 from the bottom of the lake4 ,these 8crannoges0 were used as chieftains' fastnesses or places of retreat4 ,they were built chiefly in the ,stone age1 and were used long after the age of ,iron4 ,at ,fig4 #gi1 ,e1 may be seen a section of an ,irish 8crannoge0 in ,ardakillin ,lough4 ,at ,fig4 #gi1 ,f and ,d1 are shown diagrams of platform and floor construction respectively of a lake dwelling at ,niederwyl1 ,switzerland4 ,on the top of this floor a plaster made of mud1 loam1 and gravel1 was laid and beaten firmly down4 ,as far as can be ascertained from the remains of upright corner posts that have been found in position1 the houses were rectangular1 though some may have been round like the huts of the contemporary people on the mainland4 ,the walls of the houses are supposed to have been built of wattle-work plastered over with mud and thatched1 as evidences of this are seen in the large pieces of burnt clay with wattle impression on it that have been found2 this also points out the fact of the houses or settlements being burnt down4 ,in some cases the walls were of fascine construction4 ,every hut was provided with its hearth1 which consisted of three or four large flat stones4 ,clay weights used for the loom have been found in great quantities1 which proves1 together with many fragments of flax cloth and woven 8bast0 which have come to light1 that weaving was known and practised by the lake dwellers 7,fig4 #ha1 ,k74 ,pottery has been found in the relic beds1 but is usually of a very coarse description4 ,many broken bits of pottery have been found ornamented with lines1 chevrons1 or zigzags1 and often with the 8rope0 ornament1 raised or impressed by a twisted string or rope2 this kind of decoration is evidently suggested by the band of string tied around the primitive vessels of clay to keep them together1 or for carrying purposes4 ,see ,fig4 #ha1 ,b1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,i1 and ,j4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4--,objects from the ,lake ,dwellings 7from ,keller74 ,a1 ,bronze ,knife 7,lake of ,bienne72 ,b1 ,ornamented ,pottery2 ,c1 ,moon ,image of earthenware2 ,d1 ,part of an ,iron ,sword 7,gaulish work72 ,e1 ,moon ,image of bronze2 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,earthenware ,vessels2 ,k1 ,embroidered ,cloth4 ,the builders of the lake dwellings are supposed to have been a branch of the ,celtic population of ,switzerland1 belonging to prehistoric times1 and was in its last stage of decadence before the ,celts took their place in the history of ,europe4 ,although many remains of bronze and iron implements have been brought to light from the relic beds of the lake dwellings1 this does not prove that the inhabitants were acquainted with their manufacture1 for most of the articles were probably obtained by barter from the people of the mainland4 ,a beautiful bronze knife is seen at ,fig4 #ha1 ,a1 found in the lake of ,bienne1 and part of a sword in iron1 of ,gaulish1 or 8late ,celtic0 workmanship1 from ,marin1 ,lake ,neuchtel 7,fig4 #ha1 ,d74 ,highly interesting are the 8moon-stones0 and 8moon-images0 of this period1 made in stone1 earthenware1 and bronze4 ,these crescent moon-images have a religious significance1 and have doubtless been used to decorate the tops of their entrance doors 7,keller7 or other conspicuous places in their dwellings1 as emblematic images of their worship of the moon4 ,the figure at ,c represents an earthenware moon-image with a flat base for standing purposes4 ,the decoration on this is peculiarly interesting1 as showing one of the earliest fascine patterns1 doubtless derived from the floor construction of the dwellings1 or from the lashings of withy bands used to fasten the stone axes and celts to their hafts4 ,this kind of ornament has been used very much in the ,bronze age weapons1 implements1 and other objects4 ,the moon-image at ,e is made of bronze1 with a handle and a ring to hang it by4 ,it was probably worn as an amulet or decoration suspended from the neck of a ,celtic priest4 ,remains of many kinds of plants1 seeds1 corn1 and fruit have been found1 usually in coarse earthen pots2 also cakes and loaves of bread1 and mill-stone 8crushers0 for grinding corn4 ,domestic animals1 such as cows1 goats1 and dogs1 were kept by the lake dwellers4 ,fishing and fish-curing1 as may be easily inferred1 was an important industry with these interesting people4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,egyptian ,,art4 ,according to their most ancient traditions1 the ,egyptian race descended from a point high up on the ,nile1 or the land of ,ethiopia1 but modern science proves them to belong to a ,caucasian race1 and not of the ,negro type4 ,the name ,egypt has been derived from 8,het-ka-,ptah10 one of the titles of the city of ,memphis1 which means 8,the ,temple of the ,genius of ,ptah10 and has been interpreted by the ,greeks as 8,aiguptos10 the latter being the old name for the ,nile4 ,on the south of ,egypt dwelt the ,nubians or ,ethiopians2 on the west the ,libyans1 a fair-skinned race1 who1 being a warlike people1 were employed by the ,egyptians as mercenary troops2 and on the north-east the nomadic ,semitic tribes of ,edom and ,southern ,syria4 ,the latter people often wandered west to feed their flocks in the ,delta of ,lower ,egypt1 and in course of time formed1 with the ,phnician traders1 a large proportion of the population of the lower kingdom of ,egypt4 ,it was on the north-east frontier1 on the ,isthmus of ,suez1 that ,egypt had most to fear from her foreign enemies4 ,nearly all the art of the various peoples and nations of the world was developed in relation to their religion1 and most of it--as elsewhere stated--originated in symbolic signs that represented1 under various forms1 human or otherwise1 the original objects or phenomena which they worshipped4 ,this was the case especially so in ,egypt2 and this must be our plea to describe here briefly the principal outlines of the ,egyptian religion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4--;,isis nursing her ,son1 ,horus4 7,p4 ,c47 ,height1 #ai ins4 ,the religion of the ,egyptians had two developments1 one tending towards ,monotheism1 and the other to ,polytheism4 ,they believed in one god1 who was the king of all gods2 and1 on the other hand1 they had their mythical gods1 who personified whatever was permanent in natural phenomena1 such as the sun1 moon1 sky1 stars1 earth1 light1 darkness1 floods1 the seasons1 the year1 and the hours4 ,the goddess ,nut represented the sky1 and was known also under the names of ,neith1 ,isis1 ,hathor1 ,sekhet1 c41 which were the names of the sky at sunrise or sunset 7,fig4 #hb74 ,the sun had names without number1 as ,r1 ,horus1 ,ptah1 ,tmu1 ,setek1 ,amen1 c4 7,figs4 #hc1 #hd74 ,osiris and ,sekru are names of the sun after he has set1 or is 8dead and buried0 7,fig4 #he74 ,osiris is king of the dead1 and1 in mythological language1 he is slain by his brother ,set1 who personified night1 who in his turn is slain by ,horus 7,fig4 #hb71 who is the heir of ,osiris4 ,horus signifies the 8one above10 and ,amen-,r1 the great king of all the gods1 signifies 8the one who hides himself40 ,the great ,amen-,r was the mightiest god in all the ,egyptian pantheon4 ,he was the great god of ,thebes4 ,the gods were represented in human shape1 and also m animal form4 ,the animals1 or animal combinations1 were simply symbolical of the gods on account of certain attributes common to each1 or in some cases because they bore the same name4 ,the ,egyptians were intense believers in a future state1 hence the great care bestowed on their dead1 for they believed that the body should be preserved in order to insure a state of bliss for the soul in the future world4 ,every human being had its 8double10 or ghost 8,ka10 as well as its ghost 8,ba10 which we often find represented under the form of a human being with a hawk's head4 ,sometimes the image of a man was buried with him4 ,this was to represent his 8double10 and is1 therefore1 called a 8,ka0 statue1 or image4 ,the 8,ba10 or soul1 was supposed to be 8luminous40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--;,amen1 or ,ammon1 bronze4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--,ptah1 from a bronze ,actual ,size4 7,p4 ,c47 ,it is supposed that many of the animals and animal forms buried with and painted on the coffins of the ,egyptian dead were1 in remote times1 the sacred animals or 8,totems0 belonging to the dead man's family4 8,totem worship0 may have been the most ancient form of the ,egyptian religion4 ,the ,temple of ,bubastis 7in the ,delta7 was sacred to the goddess ,bast1 or ,pasht1 the cat-headed goddess 7,fig4 #hf74 ,the cat was1 therefore1 a sacred animal or a 8,totem10 in ancient ,egypt1 like the ibis1 hawk1 asp1 beetle1 c41 totems2 and so in the district or town of ,bubastis the ,cat ,clan1 or worshippers of the cat-headed goddess ,pasht1 built the rock-cut temple called ,speos ,artemidos1 near ,beni-,hasan1 and dedicated it to her worship4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--,osiris4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--,the ,goddess ,bast1 or ,pasht4 ,actual ,size4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the writing of the ,egyptians is classified under three heads3 the 8,hieroglyphic10 or the form in which it appears on the monuments2 the 8,hieratic10 or priestly writing1 as used on the papyrus documents2 and the 8,demotic10 a cursive or running kind of writing similar to the ,hieratic1 and a later development of it4 ,in the year #agih the famous 8,rosetta ,stone10 now in the ,british ,museum1 was found near the ,rosetta mouth of the ,nile by a ,french officer4 ,it passed into the hands of the ,british in #ahjb4 ,on this stone is inscribed a decree of the priests of ,memphis conferring divine honours on ,ptolemy ,v41 ,king of ,egypt1 ,b4,c4 #aie4 ,the inscription is in three forms1 the ,hieroglyphic1 the ,demotic1 and in ,greek characters4 ,from this inscription was first obtained the key to the decipherment of the hieroglyphics1 and interpretation of the ancient language of ,egypt1 and the names of the kings which in the hieroglyphics are enclosed in cartouches or oblong rings4 ,thus the clue was obtained to the identification of the letters of the ,egyptian alphabet1 which had hitherto baffled all the attempts of ,egyptologists to find out4 ,the credit of the identification is chiefly due to the ,french savant1 ,champollion1 but a considerable share of the honour must be given to ,thomas ,young1 who was the first to find out the correct value of many of the phonetic signs4 ,the ,egyptians1 from the earliest period known1 were acquainted with and skilled in medicine1 in astronomy1 in mathematics1 philosophy1 poetry1 and fiction4 ,the oldest literary papyrus at present known dates from the ,third to the ,fifth ,dynasties 7#ciff to #cccc ,b4,c474 ,egyptian art was at its best in the earliest ,dynasties4 ,the ,fourth ,dynasty was the great pyramid-building period1 and the statues of this great epoch were more natural and artistic1 and altogether were less conventional than those of later times4 ,it is notable that in the ,eighteenth and ,twenty-sixth ,dynasties1 after a long period of art depression1 the artists went back for inspiration and better models to the work of the men of the ,fourth and ,twelfth ,dynasties4 ,the history of ,egypt can be traced back from #d1djj years before the ,christian era1 and is divided into thirty ,dynasties1 whose succession was the result of failure in any of the original lines of marriage1 or marriage with a female of lower rank1 or of a revolution4 ,the thirty ,dynasties are divided into three groups3-- ,dynasties ,i4-,,xi4 7,b4,c4 #ddjj-bdff7 ,the ,ancient ,empire4 0 ,,xii4-,,xix4 7,b4,c4 #bdff-abjj7 ,the ,middle ,empire4 0 ,,xx4-,,xxx4 7,b4,c4 #abjj-cdj7 ,the ,new ,empire4 ,these dates and arrangements are formulated chiefly on the basis of a work written in ,greek1 and compiled by ,manetho1 an ,egyptian priest who lived in the third century ,b4,c4 ,the kings of ,egypt have been named ,pharaohs from the title 8,peraa0--great house4 ,the seat or centre of the government shifted its position according to dynastic reasons1 or from policy4 ,during the ancient empire it was first at ,memphis1 and then moved to ,abydos and other places in the south as the empire extended4 ,when ,egypt was in the height of its glory the centre of government was chiefly at ,thebes1 but moving often according to revolution or foreign oppression4 ,rameses and his near successors held their court at the northern city of ,san1 or ,tanis4 ,the time of the ,new ,empire was chiefly a period of foreign rule and slow decadence1 the seat of the empire shifted to nearly all the former places or capitals and to ,bubastis or ,sais with each political change4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,the ,great ,pyramid of ,kheops1 and ,small ,pyramids2 from ,perring4 7,p4 ,c47 ,menes was the first historical king of ,egypt1 and was supposed to have founded ,memphis1 where the worship of the god ,ptah1 8,creator of gods and men10 was first instituted1 as well as that of ,apis or ,hapi1 the sacred bull--the ,serapis of the ,greeks4 ,for the next six hundred years we know scarcely anything of ,egyptian history except the names of the kings1 until we come to the great period of the ,fourth ,dynasty 7,b4,c4 #cgff-ceff74 ,seneferu was the founder of this ,dynasty4 ,he conquered the peninsula of ,sinai1 and worked the valuable mines of copper and turquoise found in that country4 ,his son and successor1 ,khufu1 better known as ,kheops 7,b4,c4 #cgcc-cgjj71 was the builder of the ,great ,pyramid at ,gizeh 7,fig4 #hg71 which he erected for his tomb4 ,the king ,kha-f-,r 7,kephren7 7,b4,c4 #cfff-cfjj71 built the ,second ,pyramid1 and his son1 ,men-kau-,r 7,mykerinos7 was the builder of the ,third ,pyramid4 ,men-kau-,r was a wise and humane sovereign1 and it is recorded to his honour1 as an exceptional qualification1 that 8he did not oppress his people40 ,in this he was different to most of the ,pharaohs4 ,his mummified remains are now in the ,british ,museum4 ,the ,sphinx1 or man-headed lion1 carved out of the solid rock1 is near the ,great ,pyramid1 and is supposed to be the work of a much earlier period 7,fig4 #ia74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--,section through the ,great ,pyramid of ,kheops4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the ,fifth ,dynasty 7,b4,c4 #ceff-ccjj7 is not an important one as far as art is concerned4 ,the ,sixth 7,b4,c4 #ccjj-cajj7 was noted for the erection of its pyramid tombs and for the religious texts that were inscribed on their interior walls4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4--,the ,stepped ,pyramid4 7,p4 ,c47 ,supposed to be the most ancient building in ,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--,the ,southern ,pyramid of ,dashour4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4--,the ,great ,sphinx4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4--;,colossi of ,amenophis ,,iii4 ,statues of ,memnon at ,thebes4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4--;,amenophis ,,iii4 ,presenting an ,offering to ,amen4 7,p4 ,c47 ,from the ,seventh to the ,eleventh ,dynasty 7,b4,c4 #cajj-bdff7 is a period whose history is almost lost4 ,it meant to the ,egyptians a period of more than six hundred years of tribal jealousies and fighting1 at the end of which ,egypt was consolidated from north to south1 and a powerful ,dynasty succeeded these internal struggles4 ,the ,twelfth ,dynasty was a brilliant one for the arts1 and for great works of engineering skill4 ,the names of the ,pharaohs of this dynasty1 ,amenemht and ,usertsen1 are among the most renowned in ,egyptian history4 ,great temples were restored or newly built at ,thebes1 ,heliopolis1 ,tanis1 and ,abydos4 ,the great artificial lake1 ,mauur 7,moeris of the ,greeks71 or 8great water10 was constructed to receive the surplus waters of the ,nile1 and to control its floods4 ,the ,arabs call this lake 8,el-,fayyum10 from another of its ,egyptian names 8,phiom10 the sea4 ,it was completed in the reign of ,amenemht ,,iii4 7,b4,c4 #bcjj-bbff74 ,the same king built the celebrated ,labyrinth1 the 8,erpa-re-hent10 or 8,temple at the entrance of the ,lake10 in which the king himself was interred4 ,his successor was the last king of the ,twelfth ,dynasty4 ,the ,thirteenth and ,fourteenth ,dynasties are dark periods in which the invasion of the ,elamites and the ,nomad tribes from ,syria and ,western ,asia took place4 ,the ,fifteenth and ,sixteenth ,dynasties are the 8,hyksos0 dynasties4 ,the ,hyksos1 or ,shepherd ,kings1 were the chief of the above ,nomad ,asiatic tribes1 and consequently usurpers of the native rule4 ,a revolt took place in the reign of one of these kings of the ,seventeenth ,dynasty1 and under ,amsis ,i41 the founder of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 the ,shepherd ,kings were finally driven out of ,egypt4 ,about the end of the ,hyksos rule the patriarch ,joseph was sold into ,egypt4 ,king ,nubti 7,b4,c4 #agej7 is supposed to have been the ,pharaoh of that time1 and the ,hyksos king1 ,apepa ,,ii41 is supposed to have been the king that raised ,joseph to power4 ,the explorer1 ,m4 ,jacques de ,morgan1 expresses the opinion that the ,shepherd ,kings were the tomb-robbers1 who1 either from cupidity1 or a wish to annihilate the last traces of a conquered race1 pillaged every pyramid of its dead1 and the treasures there concealed1 for not a single pyramid has been found unviolated that was built before the ,hyksos ,dynasty4 ,thothmes ,,iii4 7,b4,c4 #afjj7 was a powerful and warlike king who compelled ,assyria to pay him tribute4 ,in the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 ,egypt was more powerful than at any other period of her history4 ,the great ,temples of ,thebes1 ,karnak1 and ,luxor were built during this dynasty4 ,a later monarch of this dynasty1 ,amenophis ,,iii41 erected on the west of the ,nile at ,thebes two colossal statues of himself1 that the ,greeks have named the statues of ,memnon1 the fabled king of ,egypt that was supposed to have been slain in the ,trojan wars 7,fig4 #ib74 ,another king of this dynasty1 ,amenophis ,,iv41 made himself exceedingly notorious by trying to introduce a new religion1 and for this he had his memory execrated1 and was deeply cursed as a heretic by priests and people of the succeeding generations4 ,it appears he had imbibed from his mother1 ,ti1 who was an ,assyrian princess1 certain religious opinions which he determined to force on his own people4 ,in order to do this he removed his capital from ,thebes1 where the national worship of the great god ,amen was celebrated1 to ,khu-en-aten1 the modern ,tell-el-,amarna1 which name he took for himself1 and which means the 8splendour of the sun-disk02 there he set up the sun-disk god1 ,aten 7the radiant sun74 ,the new religion1 however1 was obnoxious to the conservative ,egyptians1 and soon died out 7,fig4 #id74 ,the ,nineteenth ,dynasty 7,b4,c4 #adjj-abjj7 was founded by ,rameses ,i4 ,he was a successful king1 but his son ,seti 7,fig4 #ie7 was a greater one1 and had the reputation of being a great builder4 ,it was he who built the great 8,hall of ,columns10 at ,karnak1 which joins the pylon of ,amenophis ,,iii4 7,fig4 #if74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4--,the ,adoration of the ,solar-disk by ,amenophis ,,iv4 7,p47 ,he also built the temple at ,krnah1 and remains of his work is seen at ,abydos1 ,memphis1 and ,heliopolis4 ,he was succeeded by his famous son ,rameses ,,ii41 the ,sesostris of the ,greeks1 the supposed oppressor of the ,israelites4 ,he was a very powerful monarch1 and1 from all accounts1 in order to glorify himself in the eyes of posterity1 did not scruple to erase the names of former kings from off their cartouches on their monuments and inscribe his own in their place4 ,that he has accomplished the end he had in view by so doing there is not the slightest doubt1 for no monarch of ,egypt is better known than he4 ,but apart from this he was certainly a mighty chieftain1 who 8enriched the land with memorials of his name40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4--,seti with ,attributes of ,osiris between ,amen and ,chuoam4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the greatest of his many battles 7he was always fighting7 was fought with the ,khita 7,hittites71 under the walls of ,kadesh1 in the valley of the ,orontes4 ,his forces were almost defeated when by his personal valour he turned the tide of the battle and entirely routed the ,khita 7,fig4 #ig74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,entrance to the ,hypostyle ,hall of the ,temple of ,amen at ,karnak4 7,m47 ,the most famous building of his time is the rock-hewn temple1 the 8,great ,temple10 that he built and dedicated to ,amen1 ,ptah1 and ,harmachis1 which faces the ,nile at ,ipsamboul1 in ,nubia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4--,the ,rout of the ,khita2 ,egyptians to the left1 the ,khita to the right4 7,m47 ,on the faade of this temple are sculptured in situ four seated colossal figures of ,rameses1 two on each side of the doorway4 ,from the soles of the feet to the top of the pschent on the head measures sixty-five feet2 they are the largest statues in ,egypt1 and the workmanship is careful in finish4 ,over the entrance is carved in relief on the rock a colossal figure of the god ,r1 and on either side of it are single figures in low-relief of ,rameses in the act of adoration 7,fig4 #ih74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--;,faade of the ,great ,rock-cut ,temple at ,ipsamboul4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4--,principal ,hall in the ,great ,temple4 7,h42 ,p4 ,c47 ,menephthah 7,b4,c4 #acjj-abff7 was the successor of ,rameses ,,ii4 and his successor was ,seti ,,ii4 ,the latter was the last king of the ,middle ,empire4 ,with the commencement of the ,twentieth ,dynasty the ,new ,empire dates 7about ,b4,c4 #abjj-ceh74 ,towards the ,twenty-second ,dynasty 7,b4,c4 #iff-ggf7 ,egypt began to pass into a state of dissolution4 ,in the ,twenty-fourth ,dynasty 7,b4,c4 #gcc-gjj7 she was at the mercy of ,assyria on the north and ,ethiopia on the south4 ,in #fgb ,b4,c4 the ,assyrian ,king ,esarhaddon invaded ,egypt and occupied the whole of the ,delta1 afterwards capturing ,memphis and ,thebes1 which he pillaged4 ,the ,assyrian king died suddenly1 and ,taharka1 a native usurper1 succeeded in driving out the ,assyrians1 but soon after ,egypt was again conquered by ,ashurbanipal1 a powerful ,assyrian ,king 7,b4,c4 #fff74 ,the ,assyrians1 however1 after a short time of occupation withdrew from ,egypt1 owing to their troubles at home with the ,medes1 who were laying siege to ,nineveh1 and ,egypt again revived4 ,under ,amsis the country enjoyed peace for about forty years 7,b4,c4 #egb-ebh74 ,the ,egyptians possessed a fleet at this time with which they advanced to the ,phnician coast and took the city of ,sidon1 and also annexed the island of ,cyprus to ,egyptian rule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--,portrait of ,rameses ,,ii4 7,louvre2 ,p4 ,c47 ,egypt submitted to the ,persian army under ,cambyses in ,b4,c4 #ebg1 and was for more than one hundred years afterwards a mere vassal of ,persia4 ,the ,twenty-seventh ,dynasty 7,b4,c4 #ebg-dbd7 was composed solely of ,persian kings4 ,a successful revolt broke out in the last ,persian king's reign1 ,darius ,,ii41 when ,egypt was free once more4 ,amenrut was the only king of the ,twenty-eighth ,dynasty1 and after the ,twenty-ninth and ,thirtieth ,dynasties were ended1 the latter1 by the conquest of ,egypt once more by the ,persians under ,artaxerxes ,,iii4 7,b4,c4 #cdj71 we find the country under ,persian rule for the space of eight years4 ,about this time the ,persian monarch was defeated by ,alexander the ,great1 which brought ,egypt under the ,greek rule4 ,at the death of ,alexander ,egypt was governed by the ,macedonian kings1 the ,ptolemies1 from #ccj to #cj ,b4,c4 ,after the ,roman wars and the death of ,cleopatra1 ,egypt found itself a ,roman province4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--,the ,egyptian 8,gorge40 ,in ,a4,d4 #fch the ,arabs under ,omar conquered the country1 and it was ruled by them till #aeag1 when it passed into the hands of the ,turks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--;,general ,appearance of an ,egyptian ,temple4 ,the ,pyramids of ,egypt have doubtless derived their shape from the prehistoric grave mounds4 ,although elaborately and ingeniously contrived for the concealment of the remains of the kings1 and are stupendous monuments of building skill1 they are not examples of architecture in the true sense of the word4 ,perhaps the earliest examples of ,egyptian architecture1 properly speaking1 are seen in the ancient shrines1 with sloping walls and flat roof1 and having the peculiar cavetto cornice moulding called the ,egyptian 8,gorge0 7,figs4 #aja and #aji74 ,horizontally is the great feature of ,egyptian architecture1 which is typically expressed by the illustration ,fig4 #ajb1 an ideal generalisation of an ,egyptian temple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--,square ,building4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--,oblong ,building4 ,as hardly any1 or no1 rain falls in most parts of ,egypt1 a sloping roof was not a necessity4 ,the external walls in the case of a square building are in the form of a trapezium1 making the whole edifice of the shape of a truncated pyramid1 and pyramid-like in either the square or rectangular-planned buildings 7,figs4 #ajc and #ajd71 except when the end walls are vertical 7,fig4 #ajd71 then it tends toward the ridge-form4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4--,model of an ,egyptian ,house4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--,plan of the ,temple of ,luxor4 7,p4 ,c47 ,in regard to the scarcity of voids and narrow sloping doorways1 the similarity in ,egyptian buildings of every kind is very striking 7,fig4 #aje74 ,this absence of voids gives a dark and gloomy character to the buildings1 when compared with the architecture of other countries4 ,the horizontal element and solidity of construction impart a look of powerful strength and of deep repose to the ,egyptian temple4 ,even the tall and slender obelisks placed in front of the mighty pylons have little1 if any1 effect in removing the horizontal appearance of the whole building4 ,we give the ground plan1 perspective view1 and front elevation of the great ,temple of ,luxor1 as a typical illustration of an ,egyptian temple from restorations by ,chipiez 7,figs4 #ajf1 #ajg1 and #ajh74 ,its construction is described by ,champollion as the 8,architecture of giants40 ,this double-temple was the work of two kings4 ,from the second pylon to the further end of the ,temple is the portion built first1 by the ,king ,amenophis ,,iii4 ,the other portion1 from first to the second pylon1 is the part built by ,rameses ,,ii4 ,the sanctuary is placed in the centre of a hall1 surrounded by small chambers4 ,it has two doors1 one at either end1 and on the axis of the building it has a vestibule in front and a hall beyond1 supported by twelve columns4 ,another hall in front of the ,naos 7or interior apartment7 is supported by thirty-two lofty columns4 ,in front of this again is a large square open court4 ,this court is connected to the larger front peristylar court by a grand and lofty gallery1 similar to a hypostyle hall4 ,it is #agf ft4 long1 enclosed and covered1 and richly decorated like the hypostyle hall at ,karnak 7,fig4 #if74 ,four colossal seated statues are in front of the first pylon1 and two obelisks1 one on each side of the door-way4 ,four large flagstaffs and a double row of sphinxes in front of the temple complete the accessories to this great edifice4 ,the whole building and obelisks were covered over with bas-reliefs and inscriptions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--;,bird's-eye ,view of ,luxor1 as restored by ,chipiez4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--,principal ,faade of the ,temple of ,luxor1 restored by ,chipiez4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4--;,column of ,thothmes ,,iii42 from the ,ambulatory of ,thothmes at ,karnak4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--;,column of the ,hypostyle ,hall of the ,ramesseum2 from ,horeau4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the typical ,egyptian columns or supports are of two distinct and well-marked kinds1 the lotus-headed and the campaniform or bell-shaped4 ,the former is so called from its resemblance to a closed lotus-bud 7,fig4 #aji71 and the latter from its resemblance to a bell with the mouth uppermost 7,fig4 #aaj74 ,an earlier and simpler form of column or support is the quadrangular pier 7,fig4 #aaa71 and the next development is the tapering quadrangular pier 7,fig4 #aab71 both undecorated4 ,next we have the pier with a capital which1 in profile1 is a simple cavetto or 8gorge10 and square abacus 7,fig4 #aac74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--,quadrangular ,pier 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4--,tapering ,quadrangular ,pier4 7,p4 ,c47 ,between the abacus and the entablature or beam is a square thickness of stone2 this is the great defect in the ,egyptian orders1 and distinguishes the latter from the ,greek orders4 ,this space between the abacus and the architrave is bad1 both from a scientific and artistic point of view4 ,it robs the capital of its legitimate appearance as a supporting member4 ,this pier1 with capital and the ,hathoric pier 7,fig4 #aad71 with the head of the goddess ,hathor1 are both decorated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4--,pier with ,capital4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4--;,hathoric ,pier4 7,p4 ,c47 ,we next come to the octagonal 7,fig4 #aae71 and the sixteen-sided pillars 7,fig4 #aaf71 which are almost ,greek in their classic simplicity2 the latter is fluted4 ,all forms of ,egyptian columns have either square slabs or circular discs as bases1 on which the column rests4 ,the two latter mentioned pillars are exceptional1 and therefore not typical ,egyptian1 in having the abacus directly under the architrave2 the sixteen-sided pillar is especially ,doric-like in this respect1 and also in its fluted shaft 7,fig4 #aaf74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4--,octagonal ,pillar1 ,beni-,hassan4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--,sixteen-sided ,pillar2 ,fluted4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4--,osiride ,pillar from ,medinet-,abou4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4--;,column from ,bas-,relief4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the supports known as 8,osiride0 pillars are chiefly of the date of the ,nineteenth ,dynasty4 ,they have a kind of analogy to the caryatid ,grecian pillars1 but are unlike them in respect that they do not support the entablature1 as they are only placed in front of the quadrangular supporting pier for purposes of decoration1 and are usually meant as representations of the kings who erected the temples they decorate1 with a head-dress ornament consisting of the attributes of ,osiris 7,fig4 #aag74 ,another variety of column has a fanciful combination of floral forms for its capital 7,fig4 #aah74 ,this and others of fanciful design are from the bas-reliefs and wall-paintings1 and remind us of similar creations of the artist's pencil1 as seen in the ,pompeian wall decorations4 ,the upper parts of the capital are developments from the calyx of the lotus1 with the sepals curled outwards1 and look very much like the first notions of the ,greek ,ionic capital1 as indeed we shall find the ,ionic volute to be a development of the lotus calyx more than anything else4 ,an example of the faggot-shaped column1 with its base1 lotus-capital1 and entablature1 is given at ,fig4 #aji4 ,the ornamental parts of this column were painted in bright yellow and blue1 and1 as a rule1 the sculptured ornament of the ,egyptian columns1 architrave1 and cornices were relieved by the painter in bright colours4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4--,palm-,capital from ,sesebi4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the illustration at ,fig4 #aai is that of the palm-shaped capital from ,sesebi4 ,this type of capital is a frank imitation of a bunch of palm-leaves tied by the circular bands around the top of a column4 ,a later development of the palm capital shows the bell shape with a more complicated decoration1 and has the ,hathor-headed abacus1 surmounted by a ,naos 7,fig4 #abj74 ,,egyptian ,,ornament ,,and ,,industrial ,,art4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4--;,hathor-headed ,campaniform ,capitals1 ,temple of ,neetanebo1 at ,phil4 7,p4 ,c47 ,a great part of ,egyptian ornament and decoration is composed of symbolic forms1 the remainder is made up of geometrical ornament1 such as checkers1 meanders1 frets1 rosettes1 diapers of lotus and other forms4 ,natural forms of flowers and foliage were not copied direct1 but only used in shape of geometric abstractions1 and their arrangement as diapers in surface decoration was derived1 in the first instance1 from the older arts of weaving and matting4 ,the old ,egyptians were skilled in weaving both plain and figured fabrics1 chiefly from flax and hemp fibre4 ,the lotus form was pre-eminently the leading motive in ,egyptian floral ornament4 ,the papyrus 7from which our word paper is derived7 and the palm are next in importance as motives from which ,egyptian ornament is derived4 ,the lotus-plant 7,nympha nelumbo7 the variety in which the leaves grow up out of the water and do not lie on its surface1 is shown at ,fig4 #aba1 and drawings1 evidently from nature1 at ,fig4 #abb1 from the tomb of ,ptah-,hotep4 ,the lotus flower in ornament may be seen in the ceiling decorations from tombs at ,fig4 #abc1 ,nos4 #c and #e2 at ,figs4 #aah1 #abd2 and in the painted frieze from ,thebes 7,fig4 #abe71 where the similarity between this and the ,assyrian lotus1 fir-cone and daisy may be noticed 7see ,fig4 #afg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4--,the ,nympha nelumbo2 ,flower1 ,leaf1 and ,fruit4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the bi-lateral rendering of the lotus plant is not common in ,egyptian ornament1 though it is the oldest form of the lotus known1 as it occurs on the prehistoric pottery of ,koptos1 and on tombs of the ,fourth ,dynasty 7,fig4 #abf71 and earlier4 ,two lotus flowers are here seen tied together2 the general outline of the flower is only rendered which would enclose the sepals and petals when seen in a side view4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4--;,drawings of the ,lotus from the ,tomb of ,ptah-,hotep4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the lotus flower and bud alternating in a border ornament may be regarded as the prototype of the ,greek palmate borders4 ,we are inclined to believe in ,professor ,goodyear's theory1 that the egg and tongue decoration on the ,greek ovolo moulding is nothing more than a disrupted lotus and bud ornament developed in transition through the ,rhodian pottery decoration4 ,the shells and the tongue were originally the lotus calyx1 and the egg or pebble the lotus bud4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4--,specimens of ,ceiling ,decoration at ,thebes2 from ,prisse4 7,p4 ,c47 ,other plants1 as the thistle1 convolvulus1 daisy1 vines1 and grapes1 c41 were used very much in decoration1 especially during the ,akhenaten period 7,eighteenth and ,nineteenth ,dynasties71 when the decoration was of a florid kind4 ,the papyrus is seen in the ceiling ornament ,fig4 #abc1 ,no #f1 at ,fig4 #abg1 and on the perfume spoon of carved wood 7,fig4 #aea74 ,the ceiling decorations 7,fig4 #abc71 from the ,theban tombs1 show the fine sense and feeling the ,egyptians had for the appropriate decoration of flat surfaces1 and the judicious balance maintained in the contrasting units of the ornament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4--,lotus and ,water ,ornament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4--,painted ,border3 from ,thebes1 after ,prisse4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4--;,flattened ,form of ,lotus-leaf ,ornament2 ,front ,view and ,section #a4 7,p4 ,c47 ,in animal forms found in ,egyptian decoration there are a few distinct and typical varieties1 that have been used times without number1 both in painting and in carving in the round1 and in the bas-reliefs of stone1 wood1 and in gold1 silver1 ivory1 and bronze4 ,among the most frequent is the vulture1 with outstretched wings1 having sacred symbols in his claws4 ,it has been used appropriately in this form as ceiling decoration in the great temples at ,thebes1 on a blue ground diapered with golden stars2 the ceilings thus are symbolic representations of the heavens at night 7,fig4 #abh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4--;,hunting in a ,marsh2 from a ,bas-,relief in the ,tomb of ,ti4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4--,vultures on a ,ceiling4 7,p4 ,c47 ,similar outstretched wings have been added to the scarabs or sacred beetles4 ,these winged scarabs1 together with similar winged-globe and urus creations1 have been used as ceiling decorations in tombs and on mummy-cases1 and sometimes the goddess ,isis1 or ,nepththys1 was furnished with these wings as guardian of the tomb 7,figs4 #abi and #acj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4--,winged-,globe with ,urus4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the ,urus and winged-globe was a favourite decoration for cornices and for heads of doorways 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,the colouring of the winged-globe decoration was generally1 in the case of the globe1 a red colour1 as the emblem of the sun2 the wings green1 and the striped ground behind the figure was painted in alternating stripes of red1 blue1 and white1 which produced an effective arrangement of colour4 ,the ,egyptians excelled in the drawing of animals and birds in outline1 and in bas-relief carvings of them1 some examples of which are given at ,figs4 #aca1 #acb1 #acc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4--,painting on ,mummy-,case4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4--;,hunting in the ,desert4 7,m47 ,many chimerical animals or monsters were used in ,egyptian decoration1 as sphinxes1 or imaginary animals of the desert1 which were really fanciful creations of the artist's pencil 7,figs4 #acd1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg74 ,their representations of lions always have an expression of dignity1 though more mild in aspect than the ,assyrian lion in art 7,fig4 #ach74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4--;,antelope and ,papyrus4 7,p4 ,c47 ,pottery1 glass1 and earthenware were manufactured in ,egypt from the earliest times4 ,the country was well supplied with good potter's clay2 bricks were made and dried in the sun1 not burned1 and were used very much in building4 ,the common pottery was unglazed1 and their decorated pottery was in glazed earthenware1 but not so highly decorated as many other objects of industrial art4 ,fig4 #aci is a common pitcher of fairly good form1 in red earth4 ,the decoration on the enamelled earthenware dish 7,fig4 #adj7 is composed of bouquets of lotus flowers2 and that on the larger basin or bowl is a design of lotus and mystic signs 7,fig4 #ada74 ,the three objects are in the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4--,netting ,birds2 from a ,tomb4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4--,quadruped with ,head of a ,bird4 7,p4 ,c47 ,rosettes and plaques have been found enamelled in colours1 and probably used for floor or wall tiles4 ,the doorway to the stepped pyramid at ,sakkarah is decorated with rows of convex-shaped rectangular plaques of enamelled earthenware of a greenish-blue glaze4 ,some are black in colour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4--,sphinx or ,man-,headed ,lion1 in ,black ,granite1 from ,tanis4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the ,egyptians were particularly skilful in glass making1 but they never produced quite a clear glass2 it was always slightly opaque1 but generally bright and rich in colour4 ,vases1 cups1 pater1 statuettes1 necklaces1 goblets1 bracelets1 and1 above all1 enormous quantities of beads1 which they used to make a network of to cover their dead4 ,great quantities of glass objects were exported in trade with the ,phnicians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4--,ram1 or ,kriosphinx1 from ,karnak4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the ,venetians during the ,middle ,ages imported soda in large quantities from ,alexandria1 for purposes of glass making1 the soda of ,egypt being famed for this purpose1 as it was prepared from the many marsh-loving plants that grew luxuriantly in the ,delta4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4--,sphinx with ,human ,hands2 ,bas-,relief from ,prisse4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4--,lion from a ,theban ,bas-,relief4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4--,pitcher of ,red ,earth1 ,british ,museum4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4--;,enamelled ,earthenware ,dish1 ,british ,museum4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4--;,enamelled ,earthenware ,bowl1 ,british ,museum4 7,p4 ,c47 ,gold had always been more plentiful than silver in ancient ,egypt4 ,it was found in the hills of ,ethiopia1 but silver had to be imported from ,asia4 ,this accounts for the great quantities of gold objects and ornaments that have been found in the tombs1 and the scarcity of silver ornaments4 ,the ,egyptian goldsmiths made all kinds of vessels and personal jewellery in gold1 set with lapis lazuli and other precious stones4 ,we shall have to be content with giving1 as examples of this art1 the famous pectoral of ,kha-em-uas1 son of ,rameses ,,ii4 7,fig4 #adb71 and the golden hawk 7,fig4 #adc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4--,pectoral2 ,actual ,size4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4--;,golden ,hawk2 ,actual ,size4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the former is a splendid and unique specimen of a pectoral1 or breast ornament for the dead4 ,these pectorals have been found in great numbers1 made of wood1 metal1 and earthenware4 ,the general shape is that of a naos1 or little temple4 ,the ,kha-em-uas pectoral is made of gold inlaid with lapis lazuli1 and is thus described by ,m4 ,pierret3 8,jewel in the form of a naos1 in which a vulture and an urus are placed side by side2 above them floats a hawk with extended wings1 in his claws are seals1 emblems of eternity4 ,under the frieze of the naos an oval1 with the prenomen of ,rameses ,,ii41 is introduced4 ,two tet 7or dad1 symbol of stability7 are placed in the lower angles of the frame40 ,the golden hawk is a similar kind of ornament1 with crescent wings and seals in its claws1 emblems of reproduction and eternity4 ,the workmanship in these articles looks like that of cloisonn enamels1 but they are not enamels4 ,the thin ribs of gold that surround the lapis lazuli stones in the pectoral and hawk are cloisons1 but the stones are cut to fit into the spaces accurately1 and are therefore inlaid1 while in the true enamels the enamel is put in the cells and fused to the metal by fire afterwards4 ,enamelling as known to the ,chinese was not practised in ,egypt4 ,as ivory could be obtained from ,ethiopia in great quantities1 it was natural that the ,egyptians would make good use of it4 ,it was a favourite material with the sculptors1 and many fine examples of ivory carvings and incised work have been found in the tombs4 ,the incised outlines on the ivory were usually filled in with black 7,figs4 #add and #ade74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4--;,fragment of an ,ivory ,castanet1 ,louvre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4--;,ivory ,plaque2 ,late ,work4 7,p4 ,c47 ,gold1 silver1 ivory1 and ebony were worked in usually by the same ,egyptian artist1 as we learn from an inscription on a stele of ,iritesen1 an ,egyptian sculptor1 thus translated by ,maspero3 8,ah6 there is no one excels at this work except myself1 and the eldest of my legitimate sons4 ,god decided that he should excel1 and ,i have seen the perfection of his handiwork as an artist1 as the chief of those who work in precious stones1 in gold1 silver1 ivory1 and ebony40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4--;,egyptian ,chair4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4--;,chair or ,throne4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4--,the ,carpenters ,making ,chairs4 7,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4--;,coffer in ,wood4 7,p4 ,c47 ,judging from the small remains left to us1 the furniture and woodwork of the ,egyptians must have been of an excellent description4 ,we have evidence also of this in the wall paintings and bas-reliefs that give representations of tables1 chairs1 and couches4 ,some of the chairs or thrones are of special beauty 7,figs4 #adf and #adg74 ,a carpenter's shop showing the workmen making chairs is seen at ,fig4 #adh1 and a coffer 7,fig4 #adi74 ,the feet of chairs and thrones were usually imitated from those of animals4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #aej-ea4--,perfume ,spoons1 ,louvre4 7,p4 ,c47 ,in wood-carving nothing could be daintier than the perfume spoons with figures and water plants decoratively treated 7,figs4 #aej1 #aea74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--;,an ,egyptian ,ship1 ,sailing and ,rowing4 7,m47 ,the ,egyptian ships were singularly beautiful in their outlines1 with their prows and sterns ending usually in a metal stalk and carved lotus flower or ram's head 7,figs4 #aeb1 #aec74 ,the 8bari10 or sacred boat which transported the dead1 decorated at each end with the carved metal lotus1 and pavilion or chapel in the centre1 with its freight of the mummy and the mourners 7,fig4 #aeb71 is represented as it sails off towards ,abydos1 the city of the dead1 to the west of ,thebes1 and the crowds of friends on the banks of the river will salute the dead1 saying3 8,in peace1 in peace towards ,abydos6 ,descend in peace towards ,abydos1 towards the ,western ,sea60 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4--,the ,river ,transport of a ,mummy from ,maspero4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,chaldean ,,and ,,assyrian ,,art4 ,the ,chaldeans or ,babylonians and the ,assyrians came from one great stock1 the ,assyrians being mostly colonists from ,babylonia4 ,the original inhabitants of ,chaldea spoke a ,semitic dialect4 ,at an early date ,eastern ,chaldea was invaded by the ,sumerians or ,accadians1 a ,turanian race which is supposed to have come from the plateau of ,central ,asia4 ,the two languages were used side by side1 the ,semitic as the common tongue1 and the ,accadian as a literary language4 ,the earliest known king of ,chaldea was named ,eannadu 7,b4,c4 #dejj74 ,the ,chaldeans advanced slowly along the ,tigris and pushed their kingdom towards ,assyria in the north1 where they built the cities of ,ashur 7,kal'at ,sherkt71 ,calah 7,nimroud71 and ,ninua 7,nineveh74 ,the northern portion of the ,chaldeo-,assyrian empire asserted its independence about #agjj ,b4,c41 and ,assyria became a separate kingdom4 ,from ,b4,c4 #abge1 when ,tukulti-,adar ,i41 the ,assyrian king1 conquered ,babylonia1 down to the destruction of ,nineveh1 ,b4,c4 #fji1 the ,chaldean kingdom took a place of secondary importance1 while ,assyria became the greatest power of ,western ,asia4 ,tiglath-,pileser ,i4 7,b4,c4 #aajj71 and ,ashur-nasir-pal 7,b4,c4 #hhe71 were amongst the greatest kings of ,assyria4 ,the latter was a great builder4 ,he built the great palace at ,calah 7,nimroud71 the place to which he removed his seat of government from ,ashur4 ,assyrian art reached a high state of development in his reign4 ,his son and successor1 ,shalmaneser ,,ii4 7,b4,c4 #hfj-hbe7 was no less powerful2 he extended his kingdom by wars from the ,persian ,gulf to the ,armenian mountains1 and from ,media to the ,mediterranean4 ,jehu1 ,king of ,israel1 sent him tribute4 ,after his death ,assyria declined and shrank within its borders1 but under ,tiglath-,pileser ,,iii4 regained its lost ground again 7,b4,c4 #gde74 ,sargon1 the 8,son of no one0 7,b4,c4 #gbb-gje71 usurps the throne1 makes great wars1 is the first ,king of ,assyria that comes in contact with the ,egyptians4 ,he built the great palace at ,khorsabad1 which in late years has been excavated4 ,sennacherib1 his son1 succeeded him1 whose wars with ,hezekiah1 ,king of ,judah1 are recorded in the ,bible in the ,book of ,kings4 ,he built a great palace at ,nineveh1 many of the wall slabs of which are now in the ,british ,museum4 ,the death of the succeeding monarch1 ,esarhaddon1 took place before he had completed his great palace at ,calah 7,nimroud74 ,another palace supposed to be his has lately been excavated at ,nineveh4 ,it lies buried under the mound of ,nebi ,yunus4 ,the ,assyrian kings were great builders of palaces4 ,each one1 it appears1 thought it his duty either to add a large portion to a palace of his predecessor1 or to build a new one for himself4 ,ashur-bani-pal1 who reigned for forty-two years 7,b4,c4 #ffh-fbf71 was one of the most powerful and most cruel of all the ,assyrian monarchs4 ,his victory over the ,elamites is depicted on the sculptured slabs that enrich the ,ninevite gallery of the ,british ,museum4 ,at his death the ,assyrian power was broken up1 partly by the ,scythian hordes that swept over that part of ,asia1 and partly by the ,medes4 ,nineveh was besieged by ,cyaxares of ,media1 and by ,nabopolassar1 an ,assyrian general who held command in ,babylonia4 ,it was at length captured and destroyed 7,b4,c4 #fji74 ,the whole empire was then divided between the ,medes and the ,babylonians4 ,the new ,babylonian empire lasted seventy years1 and in the reign of its last king1 ,nabonidus1 when under the command of ,belshazzar1 his son1 ,babylon was captured by ,cyrus of ,persia 7,b4,c4 #eci74 ,from this time until its subjugation by ,alexander the ,great ,babylon was under the ,persians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4--;,a ,winged ,bull1 ,assyria4 7,m7 ,the religion of the ,chaldeo-,assyrian nation was the worship of the sun1 moon1 stars1 and the various powers of nature4 ,their chief gods were ,shamash1 the sun2 ,sin1 the moon2 ,marduk1 a sun-god1 the carrier of prayers from earth to heaven2 ,anum1 the sky god2 ,bel1 the god of the earth2 and ,ea1 the god of great knowledge3 the last three were the ,trinity4 ,other gods were ,dagon1 the fish-god2 ,ishtar1 their ,venus2 ,nabu1 their ,mercury and scribe of the gods2 ,rammnu1 the god of wind and thunder2 and ,negral1 the god of war and hunting4 ,the ,assyrian and ,babylonian people have a proverbial name for being a warlike and cruel race1 in opposition to their contemporaries1 the more peaceful and gentle ,egyptians4 ,at the same time they have the reputation of being highly skilled in arts and sciences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4--;,demons1 from the ,palace of ,assurbanipal1 ,british ,museum4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the greatness of the ,chaldeans in astronomy1 in astrology1 and as wise men generally1 is too well known to be repeated4 ,their skill in the arts of building1 sculpture1 in the use of metals1 in pottery1 tiles1 gem cutting1 painting1 embroidery and weaving1 excites our wonder and admiration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4--;,a ,griffon in the ,egyptian ,style4 7,m47 ,the art of the ,assyrians is intensely earnest and full of realism1 vigorous in the highest degree1 and true art of its kind4 ,it is the art of a people who were brave and powerful1 and of princes that were despotic and stern4 ,the keynote of their art was force1 whether displayed in its physical and realistic aspects1 in the sculptural representations of ferocious animals1 as their lions and dogs1 or embodied in their mysterious and wonderful creations of human-headed bulls1 and other monsters and demons 7,figs4 #aed1 #aee71 or in the haughty self-consciousness of strength and power1 with which their sculptors sought to invest the representations of the monarchs going forth to battle or to the lion hunt 7,fig4 #afc72 everywhere1 in the higher aspects of ,assyrian art1 physical force1 or personal force of will1 is the culminating point of expression aimed at in all their efforts4 ,the sculptured lion of the ,egyptians is couchant1 half slumbering2 the ,assyrian lion is rampant and roaring for his prey4 ,the simile may be used to illustrate the characteristic difference of the ,art of both countries4 ,the ,assyrian made his art minister to his worldly uses and delights1 the ,egyptian lavished his on the tomb and for the hereafter4 ,the ,assyrian religion and the ,chaldean magicians' and astrologers' exposition of its mysteries1 doubtless gave the subject-matter for the creation of those strange combinations of chimeras1 monsters1 and bi-form deities that are so common in ,assyrian art4 ,the griffons and other curious hybrid creatures of the ,middle ,ages1 and those that adorn the ,gothic buildings of our own days1 can be traced to their birthplace in ,assyrian art4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg--;,eagle-headed ,divinity from ,nimroud1 with the ,sacred ,tree4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--;,figure of a ,goddess in ,act of ,adoration1 ,british ,museum4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the great god of the ,assyrians was named ,assur1 the all-powerful god of battles4 ,in his name all kinds of cruelty and torture were practised on heretics and apostates1 and in his name1 and to extend his kingdom of ,assyria1 the ,ninevite kings found their excuses to make war with nations far and near4 ,he seems to have been a later creation of the ,assyrian gods1 but became supreme as ,nineveh rose in power4 ,he was supposed to have descended from ,sin1 the moon-god4 ,the winged-globe1 with the god in the centre holding the bow and arrow1 or thunder-bolt 7,fig4 #aei71 is by some thought to be a representation of ,assur4 ,a similar figure is seen at the top of the ,assyrian standard1 as the 8,director of ,armies0 7,fig4 #afa74 ,this figure in the centre of the ring or solar disk1 who is evidently divine1 by reason of his feathered lower garment1 and his wings that raise him in mid-air1 above all humanity1 is quite likely to be the original type of the later ,persian supreme god1 ,athur-,mazda 7see ,fig4 #bdc71 and the emblematic symbol of his divinity is quite likely to have been designed and adapted from the winged disk or 8globe0 of the ,egyptians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei--,the ,winged ,globe with the ,figure of a ,god4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4--,the ,winged ,globe2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the winged globe 7,fig4 #afj7 of the ,assyrians is an imitation of that of ,egypt2 this emblem having found its way into ,assyria on many carvings in ivory and on articles in bronze1 carried hither by the trading ,phnicians from ,egypt1 and the emblem in question was1 according to ,perrot1 appropriated by the ,assyrians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4--,the ,assyrian ,standard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4--;,dagon1 the ,fish-,god4 7,p4 ,c47 ,in their ornament and decoration they were more free and natural than the ,egyptians1 and the execution was careful and refined1 as witnessed by their bronze bowls1 gem-engraving1 and the patterns on the enamelled bricks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4--;,assurbanipal ,attacked by ,lions1 ,british ,museum4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the bronze gates from ,balwt in the ,british ,museum are examples of highly skilful repouss work4 ,their palaces must have presented a gorgeous and glittering appearance in their rich colouring and enamelled brilliancy4 ,although not a single specimen of ,assyrian weaving has been discovered1 we have abundant and sufficient evidence from the sculptured patterns of textiles and embroideries on the kings' robes and wall decorations that both weaving and embroidery must have been one of their most glorious arts4 ,the ,asiatic love of colour would lead us to suppose that these embroideries were excessively rich in colour 7,figs4 #afb;,a1 #afc;,a1 #afd1 #afe7 as they were in design4 ,the details of this embroidery design 7,fig4 #afb;,a7 are well drawn1 and the design is full of rich variety without heaviness or too much crowding4 ,the king is seen twice represented in the circle doing homage to the sacred tree and to the winged disk2 and in other places he is between two genii or deities2 combats of lions and bulls1 palmate borders1 fir-cones1 and spirals1 with bands that divide the work in varied spaces1 complete these rich designs in embroidery1 which are among the very finest efforts of ,assyrian decorative art4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb;,a4--,embroidery upon a ,royal ,mantle2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc;,a4--,embroidery on the upper part of a ,royal ,mantle2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,details of embroidery patterns are shown at ,figs4 #afd1 #afe4 ,the sills or thresholds of the doors of the palaces were sometimes sculptured in low relief on large slabs of alabaster stone4 ,the design is evidently copied from an embroidered carpet2 perhaps the central part of the one given 7,fig4 #aff7 is a copy from a fabric woven in the loom1 and the border1 enlarged at ,fig4 #afg1 would have its original in embroidery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4--;,detail of ,embroidery2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4--;,detail of ,embroidery2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the figure of the plan and elevation of part of a ,chaldean faade in enamelled bricks1 from ,warka1 is decorated with patterns that1 no doubt1 had their origin in weaving and matting 7,fig4 #afh74 ,the surface of this faade is composed of terra-cotta cones1 with their bases turned outwards4 ,these bases were previously dipped in enamelled colours before they were inserted into the clay cement2 so they form a kind of terra-cotta mosaic work 7,loftus74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4--,sill of a ,door from ,khorsabad3 ,length1 #dj ins4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the land of ,chaldea was devoid of stone for building purposes1 but extremely rich in immense banks of clay1 which was used for brick making from the earliest times in ,chaldea4 ,the ,chaldean brick is rather more than one ,english foot square1 and about four inches in thickness2 of a dark red colour to light yellow4 ,nearly all of them have an inscription with the name of the king1 c4 7,fig4 #afi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4--;,fragment of ,border of ,fig4 #aff2 from a ,threshold of ,khorsabad4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the brick from ,erech1 or ancient ,warka1 gives a good idea of one of the oldest forms of ,chaldean writing known 7,fig4 #agj74 ,it consists of an abridgment of the representation of natural objects1 as all alphabets in their original state were merely pictures or pictographs4 ,this inscription shows the stage of conventional signs or ideographic writing before it underwent the change into the cuneiform1 or wedge-shaped writing of the ,assyrians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4--,plan and ,elevation of ,part of a ,faade at ,warka2 from ,loftus4 7,p4 ,c47 ,some of the bricks were made wedge-shaped1 for use in the building of arches and vaults4 ,the common bricks were sometimes used in the crude state1 or unburnt1 and burnt4 ,enamelled bricks were greatly used in ,chaldea1 but the clay of which they were made was softer and more friable4 ,this was used purposely1 so that the enamel would sink deeper into the soft material1 and thereby make a more lasting surface protection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4--;,babylonian ,brick1 #af ins4 square1 #d ins4 thick4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4--;,brick from ,erech4 7,p4 ,c47 ,assyria copied most of her art and sciences from her older sister in civilisation1 and had the advantage over ,chaldea in a good supply of building stone1 that formed the substructural bed for the clay deposits4 ,this was a sulphate of chalk known as alabaster1 grey in colour1 and easy to work4 ,the great wall slabs used for the bas-reliefs and the winged bulls and other statuary1 were carved out of this material2 but the ,assyrians used bricks for the main structure of their buildings1 like the ,chaldeans4 ,timber was scarce in ,assyria1 but was used very much in the palaces4 ,it was brought from the mountains of ,upper ,mesopotamia1 on the left bank of the ,tigris1 and1 later1 cedar and other woods were transported from the forests of ,lebanon for the beams of the palaces and temples4 ,all kinds of metals1 burnished and unburnished1 were used as decorative accessories1 especially by the ,chaldeans4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4--,one of the ,gates of the ,harumat1 ,dur-,sarginu4 7,m47 ,the historians' descriptions1 the foundations that have been excavated1 and the sculptured buildings on the bas-reliefs1 are the materials1 together with well-preserved fragments of architecture1 which archologists and architects have used to enable them to restore some of the wonderful temples and palaces of ancient ,assyria 7,fig4 #agb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4--;,interior of a ,temple1 after ,layard's ,restoration4 ,the bird's-eye view of the palace of ,dur-,sarginu will give a good idea of the typical ,assyrian palaces 7,fig4 #agd71 and the triumphal gate with its man-headed winged bulls at the base and sides 7,fig4 #agc71 and also the other gate at ,fig4 #agb1 both with their crenallated battlements1 serve to show the imposing character of these edifices4 ,it will be noticed from the bird's-eye view and the gateways that the general character of ,assyrian architecture was rectangular in the highest degree4 ,the arch and vaulted structures were known to the ,assyrians1 who used them to great advantage 7,figs4 #age and #bej71 and much more so than the ,egyptians1 although the latter people occasionally employed them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4--,triumphal ,gate at the entrance of the ,palace4 7,m47 ,the ,chaldeans1 as would naturally be expected1 used the arch construction very much in their brick buildings1 as it would be the only means of carrying roofs and upper floors1 where stone and timber could not easily be obtained 7,fig4 #age74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4--,the ,royal ,palace of ,dur-,sarginu 7,sargon's ,palace72 restored by ,chipiez4 7,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4--;,a ,bedroom in the ,harem at ,dur-,sarginu 7,sargon's ,palace74 7,m47 ,the use of the column in ,chaldea is proved by the bas-reliefs before it developed itself in ,assyria2 but in either country it was not an important feature in the architecture1 being mostly used for awnings supporting light tents or tabernacles2 sometimes1 indeed1 used in a disengaged way1 as proved by the views of small temples on the bas-reliefs 7,figs4 #agf1 #agg1 #agh74 ,the use of the column was not in accord with the principles of their architecture1 and was only to be found in small porches1 or in an engaged way against outer walls and piers 7,fig4 #agi74 ,the only capital found in a fragment1 and restored by ,place1 is shown at ,fig4 #aha1 and two bases 7,figs4 #ahj and #ahb74 ,from these remains it is assumed that the shaft was smooth and cylindrical4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4--,temple on the bank of a river1 ,khorsabad1 from ,batta4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4--;,capital of ,temple at ,fig4 #agf4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4--;,capital4 7,p4 ,c47 ,an incipient form of the ,ionic volute is seen at ,fig4 #agg in the capital of the small columns to the little temple 7,fig4 #agf74 ,the kings of ,assyria had in their palaces a great deal of luxurious furniture4 ,the couches1 chairs1 and tables were made of wood1 with bronze fittings1 and decorated with ivory1 gold1 and lapis lazuli4 ,the bas-relief in the ,british ,museum representing ,assurbanipal and his queen at a banquet 7,figs4 #ahc and #ahd7 will give a good idea of the extreme richness in design and decoration of these sumptuous articles of furniture 7,fig4 #ahe74 ,bronze sockets 7,fig4 #ahf7 and all kinds of fragments in metal and ivory fittings1 and decorations corresponding to the designs on the bas-reliefs1 all indicate that the anathemas of the prophet ,nahum 7,nahum ii4 #i7 gave a good picture of ,nineveh's richness in the sumptuary arts4 8,take ye the spoil of silver10 he exclaims1 8take the spoil of gold2 for there is none end of the store and glory out of all the pleasant furniture40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4--;,fragment of an ,assyrian ,building from a bas-relief1 ,b4,m4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,ornamented ,base of ,limestone4 7,p4 ,c47 ,animals have been represented with such faithfulness1 especially in their most vigorous and ferocious aspects1 by the sculptors of ,assyria1 that in any notice of ,assyrian art they must have a place4 ,lions especially were rendered in all their ferociousness1 and were the favourite game for kingly sport 7,figs4 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi74 ,lions were kept in cages1 and let out when the monarch decided to have a day's hunting 7,fig4 #ahg74 ,dogs were specially trained for lion-hunting 7,fig4 #aij74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4--;,assyrian ,capital compiled from ,place4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,winged ,sphinx carrying ,base of ,capital4 ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--;,assurbanipal and his ,queen feasting in the gardens of the ,harem after the battle4 ,the head of ,teuman1 the ,elamite ,king1 hangs on the left on the sacred tree4 7,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4--,the ,feast of ,assurbanipal4 7,b4,m47 7,p4 ,c47 ,enlarged detail of ,fig4 #ahc1 showing the ,assyrian ,furniture4 ,drawn by ,gautier4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--;,assyrian ,stool2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,we add two illustrations of the sphinx variety of fantastic animals2 one is the most remarkable creation of all the fantastic animals of ,assyria 7,fig4 #aib74 ,it has the horns of a ram1 a bull's head1 a bird's beak2 body1 tail1 and fore-legs of a lion2 and the hind-legs and wings of the eagle4 ,the ,andro-,sphinx 7,fig4 #aic7 from the robe of ,assurbanipal foreshadows the fabulous centaurs of ,grecian art4 ,other bi-form creations have been found in ,assyrian art bearing a close resemblance to the ,greek centaur4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--;,bronze ,foot of a ,piece of ,furniture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--,lion coming out of his ,cage4 7,b4,m47 7,p4 ,c47 ,the purely ornamental forms from the vegetable world that have been used in ,assyrian and ,chaldean art are limited in number4 ,the daisy or rosette is the commonest 7,figs4 #aid and #aih74 ,in the illustration of the 8,lion and ,lioness in a ,park0 7,fig4 #ahh7 the daisy is beautifully though conventionally rendered2 the large leaves at the bottom are typically the common daisy leaves2 the vine is no less well executed1 and the lioness on the same bas-relief is treated with consummate skill4 ,the vine is also seen to great advantage in its conventional treatment at ,figs4 #ahd and #ahh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--,lion and ,lioness in a ,park4 7,b4,m47 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--;,combat between a ,lion and a ,unicorn2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4--;,dog used for ,lion ,hunting4 7,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4--;,chariot ,horses2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4--;,fantastic ,animal1 drawn by ,gautier4 7,p4 ,c47 ,there is an ,assyrian ornament called the 8knop and flower0 ornament1 which occurs in various forms and in endless profusion in ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,persian1 and ,greek1 and even is copied down to ,indian and ,roman ornament4 ,it may be native1 or some forms of it at least1 to ,assyrian ornament1 but is undoubtedly ,egyptian in its earliest source2 we have spoken of it before in our notice of ,egyptian ornament as being derived from the lotus 7page #ij74 ,it appears on the rich border of the carved threshold 7,fig4 #afg72 the flower there is undoubtedly a lotus1 and the bud or 8knop0 may be a representation of a 8fir-cone10 or may be meant for the closed lotus-bud4 ,another form of the same elements occurs at ,fig4 #aie1 in a beautiful design enclosed in a square1 forming one of the central patterns of a similar sill or threshold1 and this form of it would doubtless also be used for a ceiling decoration of the palaces4 ,a bouquet of similar flowers is seen at ,fig4 #aif of the date of ,assurbanipal 7#hhe-hfj ,b4,c474 ,it is very difficult to say whether this bouquet represents the lotus or not1 as1 according to the testimony of ,layard1 the lotus flower is only to be found on the most recent of ,assyrian monuments dating from the eighth and seventh centuries ,b4,c41 at the time when ,assyria had invaded and occupied the ,delta of ,egypt4 ,if not the lotus flower1 something very like has been found on monuments in ,assyria much older than these dates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4--;,andro-,sphinx1 ,robe of ,assurbanipal2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4--;,detail from the ,enamelled ,archivolt1 ,khorsabad2 from ,place4 7,p4 ,c47 ,as the result of some recent scientific examinations into the origin of pattern1 some investigators have decided that the 8knop and flower0 patterns of ,assyrian ornament 7,figs4 #afg1 #aie1 and #aih7 are but evolutions of tassels1 and knotted fringes of matting and embroideries1 just because they bear a not very clear resemblance to such trimmings as we see on the tabernacle on the ,balwt gates 7,fig4 #aig71 c4 ,we admit that there is a fancied resemblance in many ornamental forms to patterns that have been evolved from constructed articles1 especially from woven and matted examples1 but it is an insult to the intelligence of an artist to ask him to believe that the beautiful and clearly distinctive floral bud and palmate borders in ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 and ,greek art have resulted from tyings and knottings of the fringed ends of mats1 when one can clearly see the daisy--in some cases turned to a disk--the palm1 and1 above all1 the lotus1 almost naturally drawn and modelled2 even the connecting lines of flower and buds1 where scientific connection with the fringed-end idea seems the strongest in the eyes of the evolutionist1 will be found on examination to be always used in the exact reverse way to that which is formed by the constructive joinings of the knotted fringe4 7,see ,figs4 #aih and #afg47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4--,rosette of ,lotus ,flowers and ,buds4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4--;,bouquet of ,flowers and ,buds2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4--,tabernacle from the ,balwt ,gates4 7,b4,m47 7,p4 ,c47 ,date1 ,b4,c4 #hei to #hbd4 ,it will require an amazing quantity of scientific proof to get rid of the lotus in ,egyptian ornament1 and much also to turn it and the daisy into tassel knots in ,assyrian ornament1 when we have overwhelming evidence as to the natural representations of such floral forms1 as well as the conventional designs derived from them1 on the very oldest monuments in both countries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4--,painted ,ornament on ,plaster2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the 8,sacred ,tree10 or 8,tree of ,life10 is often represented in ,assyrian art1 and under different forms1 but generally with a king or some divinity on either side of it1 paying homage 7,figs4 #aeg1 #afb;,a1 #bjh74 ,an enlarged portion of it is seen at ,fig4 #aii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4--,upper ,portion of a ,tree of ,life2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the exact meaning of the 8,sacred ,tree0 has not yet been satisfactorily explained1 but1 at any rate1 it seems likely enough that it represents a palm-tree1 shown by the palmate head and by the conventional markings on the trunk1 no doubt meant for the bark roughening lines4 ,the surrounding palmates may be meant to represent a leafy enclosure for the sacred tree in the centre1 or the whole thing may be a conventional picture of a sacred grove4 ,owing to the comparative lateness of the universal use of the lotus in ,assyrian art1 we can well imagine that this flower form was introduced into ,assyria by the articles in bronze1 ivory1 and other material by the ,phnician traders1 that were both of ,egyptian and ,phnician design1 as there was scarcely an article of commerce on which the lotus was not represented in those early days of ,phnician trade 7#ijj to #cjj ,b4,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--;,guilloche ,ornament on ,enamelled ,brick4 7,b4,m47 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4--;,ivory ,plaque2 ,actual ,size4 ,drawn by ,gautier4 7,p4 ,c47 ,another very characteristic ornament of the ,assyrian decorations is the double-interlacing meander1 or guilloche 7,figs4 #bjj and #bja74 ,it is generally found in combination with the other ornaments just spoken of1 both on tiles and in ivory engraving4 ,it is sometimes called 8cable ornament0 or 8snare-work10 from the appearance it has to a rope or cable twisted around the eyes of posts4 ,it has been used very much by the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--;,ivory ,plaque found at ,nimroud4 7,b4,m47 7,p4 ,c47 ,the art of ivory carving and engraving was practised in ,assyria1 judging from some plaques and carvings that have been found that are distinctly ,assyrian in motive and design 7,fig4 #bja71 and from many elephants' tusks that have come to light from the ruins of the buried palaces2 but it has been clearly established that the art was first introduced into ,assyria by the importation of the ,egyptian plaques and other carvings1 and also by the imitations of ,egyptian articles made by ,phnician artists1 and probably sold to the ,assyrians as the product of ,egypt4 ,fig4 #bjb1 a small plaque1 is quite likely to be one of these imitations of ,egyptian design with the lotus-tree of life which rests on a support or top of a capital4 ,this form of lotus capital is found everywhere in ,cyprus1 and in all countries where ,phnician trade extended4 ,it is distinctly ,egyptian in origin1 and more than likely is the origin of the ,ionic volute capital of the ,greeks4 ,the small and beautifully carved sphinx 7,fig4 #bjc7 is one of the many ,egyptian ivories that had found its way to ,assyria1 and is immeasurably superior in workmanship to any of the ,assyrian carvings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--;,ivory ,fragment in ,british ,museum2 ,actual ,size4 ,drawn by ,gautier4 7,p4 ,c47 ,it may be remarked here that the ,assyrian artist excelled in the flat or engraved treatment of his designs in nearly every branch of art1 but was inferior in workmanship to the ,egyptian in carved work in the round2 though in expressing intense life1 virility1 and movement1 especially in the representation of animals1 he was superior to the ,egyptian artist4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--;,bronze ,platter1 #i ins4 diameter4 7,b4,m47 ,drawn by ,wallet4 7,p4 ,c47 ,there is one important product of ,assyrian art that deserves notice--the exquisite bronze bowls1 cups1 and platters1 made in repouss and finished off with the engraver's burin 7,fig4 #bjd1 #bje74 ,in these products we may recognise the renaissance of ,assyrian art1 based on the art of the ,egyptians4 ,that they must have had their origin in ,assyria no one can doubt1 when we think that the working in bronze was so well known in ,assyria and ,babylonia2 for example1 we quote the magnificent ,balwt plates1 of repouss bronze1 of ,shalmaneser ,,ii4 7,b4,c4 #hei-hbd7 now in the ,british ,museum2 and although the designs on some of them are distinctly ,egyptian 7,fig4 #bjd71 not one specimen of such bowls or platters has yet been found in the ,valley of the ,nile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4--;,bronze ,cup1 diameter #aa ins42 from ,layard4 ,it may be reasonably assumed that the ,egyptian motives were copied from ivories or painted vases brought to ,assyria by the ,phnicians1 and that those master workers in bronze1 the ,assyrians1 copied such designs on their platters and cups1 and afterwards introduced their own distinctive designs1 as may be seen in ,fig4 #bje1 a design which is ,assyrian in every detail1 with no ,egyptian trace4 ,designs like the latter disprove the theory that these bronze bowls and dishes were altogether made in workshops of ,tyre and ,byblos1 but undoubtedly the ,phnician artists--who really invented nothing--may have in their turn copied these designs on their wares1 when they found such handy and portable goods might be easily transported1 and would be sure to find a ready market in other countries bordering on the ,mediterranean1 as we shall see when treating of ,phnician ,art4 ,the importance of the design on such handy and indestructible articles on the art of the ,greeks1 ,cypriots1 and ,etruscans1 not only from the workmanship point of view1 but from the themes portrayed on them suggesting ornament1 and other subject matter1 perhaps religious motives as well1 to the rising civilisation of the countries named1 can hardly be exaggerated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--;,border of a ,bronze ,cup2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,in painting on plaster 7,fig4 #aih7 or enamelling on tiles 7,figs4 #aid and #bjj7 and bricks1 the ,babylonians and ,assyrians used very few colours1 not more than five or six1 but they used them with great advantage and decorative effect1 and always in flat tints4 ,their painted figures were1 as a rule1 not intended for any other meaning than their geometric ornament1 and merely used as units in the ornamental scheme 7,fig4 #aid74 ,the colours were3 blue from the lapis lazuli2 yellow1 an antimoniate of lead and a little tin2 white1 an oxide of tin2 black1 an animal charcoal2 red1 an oxide of iron2 and another blue from the oxide of copper completes1 as near as possible1 the range of their palette4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,cylinder2 from ,soldi4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4--;,assyrian ,cylinder4 ,worship of ,sacred ,tree4 7,b4,m47 7,p4 ,c47 ,the nearly universal colour of the groundwork was blue1 a deep dark blue from the lapis lazuli4 ,at ,khorsabad ,m4 ,place found a mass of powdered blue1 over two pounds in weight1 that was found to be made from the lapis lazuli for the purpose of enamelling4 ,the main portion of the decoration was yellow1 but often white was used with black outlines1 and red sparingly4 ,a green tint was less common1 but was supposed to be obtained from a mixture of the yellow and copper blue oxide4 ,remains of pottery are not very plentiful1 and the forms have nothing distinctive that calls for special notice4 ,the vessels1 such as vases1 cups1 and buckets of bronze1 are elegant in form and decoration 7,fig4 #bji74 ,jewellery and personal decoration have only been found in a limited quantity1 and not of a very good quality in design or material3 the bas-reliefs furnish our best information on what existed in these articles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4--;,bronze ,bucket2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,gem cutting and cylinder engraving were arts very much practised in ,babylonia and ,assyria 7,fig4 #bjh74 ,the cylinders usually were engraved with subjects of a religious character4 ,the illustration shows one of the best engraved ,assyrian cylinders that has yet been found4 ,it represents the king and deities at the worship of the ,sacred ,tree1 and the ,god ,assur4 ,in the hands of the deities may be seen the bronze buckets shown at ,fig #bji4 ,this subject is supposed to be a copy from a bas-relief4 ,the material of these cylinders was generally of serpentine1 chalcedony1 agate1 black marble1 jasper1 c41 and they were used to impress clay documents with1 in a similar way as in the use of ordinary seals 7,fig4 #bjg74 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,ph,,nician ,,art4 ,the origin of the ,phnician people remains in obscurity4 ,according to ,herodotus1 we learn that they came as an ,eastern branch of the ,canaanitish peoples1 of which race the ,greeks were also a part1 and who settled at the foot of ,lebanon1 on the ,syrian sea-coast1 between ,mounts ,carmel and ,casius4 ,the ,phnician and ,hebrew languages resembled each other very closely1 and from this it has been argued that the ,phnicians belonged to the ,semitic race of the ,hebrews4 ,ancient ,phnicia was a narrow strip of land1 #acj miles long by only a few miles in width at its widest part4 ,the three principal towns in ancient times were ,tyre1 ,sidon1 and ,joppa2 three others of importance were ,arvad1 ,gebal or ,byblos1 and ,accho or ,acre4 ,arvad in the north1 was1 like ,tyre in the south1 built on a rock some little distance from the mainland4 ,tyre was for a long time impregnable on its rocky seat1 with a channel of about three-quarters of a mile dividing it from the coast of the mainland4 ,owing to its peculiar position1 it could defy all unmaritime nations1 and it was not until ,alexander the ,great built an isthmus connecting it with the ,phnician coast that it fell4 ,the inhabitants of ,gebal or ,byblos were1 according to ,rnan1 more ,jewish-like than any other ,phnician people4 ,sidon was the first town of ,phnicia to rise to importance1 and ,tyre afterwards1 with greater vigour1 rose to power and greatness2 and both1 from being originally colonies of poor fishermen1 became the famous ports which sent forth ships to all points of the ,mediterranean1 and even to the ,british ,isles1 carrying all kinds of merchandise to barter for silver1 gold1 and tin1 as well as for other raw materials from the barbarians beyond the seas1 and carrying these raw materials back to supply the artists and artificers of the ,east4 ,no two cities of the ancient world did so much for the spread and progress of human civilisation as the maritime cities of ,tyre and ,sidon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4--,phnician ,merchant ,galley2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,like the rest of ,phnicia1 ,sidon1 the first in power1 accepted without resistance the supremacy of ,egypt4 ,this was indeed to her great advantage1 for the ships of ,sidon could fly the ,egyptian flag in any part of the ,mediterranean or other seas1 and so exist secure under the protection of the mighty monarchs of that great country4 ,in return for this protection the ,phnicians carried on a successful trade with ,egyptian goods1 thus benefiting themselves1 and their masters to even a greater degree4 ,the ,phnician fleets were1 in fact1 at the entire disposal of the ,egyptians1 who possessed1 in the early days1 no fleet of their own4 ,sidon was sacked and taken by the ,philistines about ,b4,c4 #ajjj or #ijj1 and from that period ,tyre rose in supremacy4 ,the first ,tyrian king known by name was ,abibaal1 the contemporary of ,david2 his son was ,hiram1 the friend of ,solomon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4--,phnician ,war ,galley2 from ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,afterwards ,tyre1 with its close intercourse with ,egypt1 established colonies on the ,delta of the ,nile1 the most renowned of which was called the 8,new ,city10 ,karthadast1 called by the ,greeks ,carchedon1 and by the ,romans ,carthage4 ,this daughter of ,tyre rose to great prosperity1 but never forgot her allegiance to the mother city4 ,their combined fleets sailed to1 and founded1 colonies in ,sardinia1 ,cyprus1 the ,grecian ,archipelago1 and to ,spain1 doing enormous trade with both ,east and ,west4 ,the ,phnician ships that are known to us from the relief representations are of two kinds1 the round-prowed galleys1 or cargo-carriers 7,fig4 #baj71 and the ram-stemmed vessels1 or war galleys 7,fig4 #baa74 ,there is no record that has been found of their larger sea-going 8merchantmen0 ships4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4--;,carthaginian ,coin1 ,silver4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the growing power of the ,greeks and ,etruscans1 and their improvement in shipbuilding1 was a new competition with the ships of ,tyre in the ,east1 and at length forced the ,tyrians to find new markets in the ,west4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4--;,carthaginian ,coin1 ,electrum4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the staple trade of the ,tyrians had now become that of metals1 the chief of which was tin1 owing to the great demand for it in the manufacture of bronze in this period4 ,their ships went as far as the ,scilly ,isles1 to ,cornwall1 and to ,ireland4 ,diodorus mentions that the inhabitants of ,great ,britain were much softened in their manners by their intercourse with the 8strangers0 who came to their shores for tin4 ,it is supposed that the strangers alluded to were the ,phnician ,carthaginians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4--,votive ,stele1 from ,carthage1 with ,sacred ,emblems4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4--,sacred ,emblems1 from a ,carthaginian ,votive ,stele4 7,p4 ,c47 ,in the fourth century ,b4,c4 the ,carthaginians waged a war against the ,sicilian ,greeks1 and carried off the statues of gods from their temples1 and went so far as to copy their money the early ,phnician coins being copies of ,greek ones 7,figs4 #bab1 #bac74 ,the votive stele 7,fig4 #bad71 from ,carthage1 shows the ,greek ,ionic-like columns1 with the 8blessing hand10 and a collection of sacred ,phnician emblems4 ,greek architects were employed in ,carthage about this time4 ,phnician architecture in every case consisted of borrowed forms from surrounding nations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4--;,coin of ,byblos1 with ,sacred ,cone1 enlarged4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the sacred emblems 7,fig4 #bae7 are supposed to represent the cone-shaped stones1 betyl1 from ,bethel1 the 8,house of ,god10 the great worship of the ,phnicians4 ,the sign at the top is meant for a rude idea of the head and arms of a god 7,tanit1 face of ,baal874 ,the figure on the right is the cone again1 with the emblems of the goddess ,astarte 7,aphrodite71 the lunar signs4 ,the sacred cone is seen surrounded by the temple court on the coin of ,byblos 7,fig4 #baf74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4--;,astarte1 terra-cotta1 height #aj ins4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the small statuettes of the ,phnician gods and goddesses 7,fig4 #bag7 were the originals from which the ,greeks developed their sculptured figures in the round4 ,among the gods of the ,phnicians were3 ,baal1 the ,master1 the ,bel of ,assyria1 which seems to be a generic title for any chief divinity of a town or place1 such as ,baal ,peor1 ,baal-,sidon1 ,baal-,tsour1 or the ,baal of ,tyre2 ,tanit1 or the face of ,baal1 worshipped at ,carthage2 ,moloch1 or ,melek4 ,melkart-,baal-,tsour was the full name of the ,great ,god of ,tyre1 which means 8,melkart1 ,master of ,tyre40 ,baalat was the title for 8mistress10 the goddess who shared the throne of ,baal4 ,sidon-,astoret was the ,baalat of ,sidon1 the goddess ,astarte1 the ,istar of the ,assyrians1 and the ,aphrodite or ,venus of the ,greeks and ,romans 7,fig4 #bag74 ,she was a favourite divinity with the ,phnicians1 and more personal than any of their other divinities4 ,she was nature itself1 the great goddess of life1 presiding over creation and also destruction4 ,this ,syro-,phnician goddess of the ,sidonians was adopted by ,cyprus1 ,cythera1 ,paphos1 and ,eryx1 in ,sicily4 ,she is also supposed to be the ,moon-,goddess4 ,the dove was sacred to her1 and was offered to her in sacrifice2 a ,phnician statuette 7,fig4 #bag7 represents her with a dove in her hand4 ,the ,phnicians had many other minor gods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4--,model of a ,small ,temple1 in terra-cotta1 ,louvre4 7,p4 ,c7 ,a terra-cotta model of a small temple is peculiar in design 7,fig4 #bah72 it was found in ,cyprus1 and may have been the model of the shrine sacred to ,astarte4 ,as before mentioned1 ,phnician architecture1 from the few remains of it that have been found1 consists of borrowed forms from other nations1 and if any development even in the ornamental forms is noticeable1 it can generally be traced to the rising influence of the ,greeks1 especially in ,cyprus and ,carthage4 ,the tomb at ,amrit 7,fig4 #bai7 is1 on the other hand1 decidedly ,assyrian in every detail1 and is a happy example of architectural proportion4 ,the fragment of an entablature from a temple at ,byblos 7,fig4 #bbj7 is of a later date1 and has for design and decoration of the moulding the strongly marked features of ,grco-,roman work1 with the addition of the ,egyptian winged globe and asps4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4--,tomb of ,amrit1 restored from ,renan4 7,p4 ,c47 ,cyprus was a ,phnician dependency2 many vases1 and a great multitude of other objects of art and treasures1 have been brought to light from tombs and from the subterranean chambers of former temples1 mainly through the instrumentality of ,general di ,cesnola4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--;,entablature1 from a ,temple at ,byblos4 ,drawn by ,wallet4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the series of capitals 7,figs4 #bba to #bbd7 show strongly the principle of the ,ionic volutes4 ,the first 7,fig4 #bba7 is the simplest1 the next 7,fig4 #bbb7 has the triangular point between the lower volutes that we see in so many lotus forms in ,egyptian work 7see ,fig4 #bjb71 and has besides the curious double boat-shaped volutes above1 with other lotus-buds under the abacus4 ,another capital 7,fig4 #bbc7 has all the elements of the ,erectheum ,ionic capital1 but arranged in a totally different order1 and is more ,byzantine than anything else4 ,the capital found at ,kition1 in ,cyprus1 is decidedly ,ionic ,greek1 but in its earlier stage1 just before the period of the fully developed ,ionic 7,fig4 #bbd74 ,it can hardly be doubted that the first two of decidedly ,egyptian elements are derived from the lotus1 and may certainly be taken as the forerunners of the pure ,ionic ,greek4 ,the capital from ,kition belonged to a temple of ,astarte1 that once stood on the mound at ,kition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4--;,cypriot ,capital4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4--;,cypriot ,capital4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the capital found at ,golgos 7,fig4 #bbe7 is distinctly an early form of ,greek ,doric4 ,if little remains of ,phnician architecture have been found1 on the other hand many objects of minor art have been brought to light1 bearing on their face the unmistakable stamp of ,phnician workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4--;,capital at ,djezza1 limestone4 ,drawn by ,saladin4 ,height1 #bf ins4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4--;,capital from ,kition1 height #ah ins4 ,drawn by ,saladin4 7,p4 ,c47 ,some of the bronze bowls and platters1 and cups of silver1 and also carvings in ivory1 although generally composed of ,egyptian or ,assyrian design1 were really the work of ,phnician artificers4 ,the latter were not slow in copying the motives of the above-named nations1 but the workmanship1 especially in bronze and silver1 was their own4 ,the ,phnicians were highly skilled in metal work1 and we have proof that they were employed in the building and decorating of the ,temple at ,jerusalem4 ,the bronze and silver bowls and platters were carried to all countries where the ,phnicians had trading transactions1 and they have been found at ,mycen1 ,etruria1 ,cyprus1 ,sardinia1 c4 ,as stated before in our notice of these objects in ,assyrian art1 the ,assyrians were the first to make these articles from copies of ,egyptian design1 and then producing others with purely ,assyrian designs4 ,the ,phnicians in their turn imitated both1 and did a great trade with them4 ,the silver platter 7,fig4 #bbf7 was found1 in #ahgf1 in the ,necropolis of ancient ,prneste1 in ,latium1 and in the same tomb was found a quantity of vases1 diadems1 and jewels1 all of ,phnician workmanship4 ,on this platter a clearly engraved inscription occurs in ,phnician characters1 giving the name of the first owner1 ,esmunjair-ben-,asto4 ,the ,phnician inscriptions1 and above all1 the want of method or arrangement of themes or motives on the articles1 stamp them to be of ,phnician origin4 ,the silver platter has more meaning in the use of the ,egyptian motives than some others1 but the hieroglyphics are not to be relied on as correctly ,egyptian4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--;,capital from ,golgos 7,ceccaldi74 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4--,phnician ,platter1 ,silver1 diameter #g ins4 ,drawn by ,wallet4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the silver-gilt cup or patera from ,curium 7,fig4 #bbg7 is a fair illustration of this mixture of ,egyptian and ,assyrian ideas put together from a multitude of stock-in-trade subjects or patterns4 ,the centre piece is ,assyrian1 and also the cable ornament4 ,the inner row of animals are ,assyrian in feeling1 but an ,egyptian sphinx is introduced amongst them2 but the outer border is the most curious of all1 as it contains six or seven distinct ,egyptian scenes1 each divided by the tree of life or palmates1 taken at haphazard from designs of bas-reliefs4 ,the ,phnician goldsmith1 evidently not understanding the story of these ,egyptian mysteries1 used them merely as decorative units4 ,the workmanship is admirable2 first the work is beaten up in repouss and then chased afterwards1 and may be described as a mixture of the two methods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4--,patera from ,curium1 diameter #h ins4 7,p4 ,c47 ,a beautiful ,egyptian design of a cow and calf in a papyrus brake forms the centre medallion of a ,phnician cup found at ,caere 7,fig4 #bbh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--;,centre ,medallion2 from a ,cup from ,griffi4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the ,egyptian vessels figured in the tomb of ,rekhmara 7,fig4 #bbi7 are mostly made in metal and are of ,phnician design4 ,they would be sold to the ,egyptians1 as the former supplied the latter in most articles of metal workmanship2 many rims and handles of elaborate workmanship have been found1 but scarcely any whole forms of these vases1 though we have many of their forms preserved in ,greek and ,etruscan work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--,vessels figured in the ,tomb of ,rekhmara2 from ,wilkman4 ,in articles of personal jewellery the ,phnicians were as skilful as the ,greeks and ,etruscans2 it was only in the matter of higher motives in design that the ,greeks excelled the ,phnicians4 ,we give one or two specimens of their jewellery at ,figs4 #bcj to #bcc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--;,gold ,bracelet2 from ,tharros4 7,b4,m47 7,p4 ,c47 ,cyprus was inhabited from the earliest time with a mixture of races in which the ,greek or ,hellenic element was represented1 and though nominally a ,phnician dependency1 the ,greek superiority of artistic genius asserted itself at a very early date in the art of the country4 ,some of the architectural features already noticed1 notably the ,ionic capitals1 may be given as examples of this2 and another very important branch1 the minor art of pottery1 may furnish further examples of the ,greek art tendency1 though infused with a mixture of ,phnician influences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4 ,silver ,pin1 ,cesnola4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4--,pendant1 ,wild ,goat1 ,gold4 7,b4,m47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,earring1 ,gold1 from ,cesnola4 ,cyprus has always been particularly noted for its ceramic products4 ,the island is rich in potter's clay of two kinds--a black earth1 and a red kind4 ,the oldest kind of ,cyprian known is of a good shape1 and is generally furnished with handles according to the uses of the vase4 ,the making and fitting on of handles is only achieved when the art of the potter has been well advanced4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--;,bottle with ,incised ,ornament1 from ,cesnola4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4--;,bottle with ,geometric ,decoration4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the two vases 7,figs4 #bcd1 #bce7 are of the oldest dates1 and are decorated purely in the oldest form of geometric ornament4 ,the one with the handle is particularly good in form1 and has the decoration incised like sgraffito work4 ,fantastic shapes of animals made as vases and drinking vessels were very common in ,cyprus4 ,although not many of them can be called beautiful1 still it required considerable skill and knowledge to model them 7,fig4 #bcf74 ,the goat-shaped vessel is very lifelike4 ,the bowl or crater 7,fig4 #bcg7 has the lotus flower and geometric bands and divisions for its decoration2 it is painted with light brown and red on a cream-coloured ground4 ,the decoration from a cup is more elaborate1 it has a new element in the shape of some kind of water bird arranged ,assyrian-like on each side of the sacred tree1 and has a sun sign filling up a space close to one of the bird's legs 7,fig4 #bch74 ,another very interesting and beautiful vase is the nocho 7,fig4 #bci74 ,another bird is painted on this1 and at the same time the geometric checkers and lines still cling to it as part of the decoration4 ,on this vase1 also1 may be seen two moon signs1 and the sacred sun sign1 the fylfot1 or swastika1 repeated four times4 ,these sacred signs are often found on ,cyprian pottery4 ,the latter vase in shape and decoration is more ,greek in feeling than most ,cyprian vases4 ,the larger nocho 7,fig4 #bdj7 has the human figure with some kind of water fowls2 it has a sacred sign on its lips4 ,though the subject recalls ,egypt1 the design and execution might have been done by a clever ,greek artist4 ,the style of execution and drawing on these vases may be a little archaic1 but the design and bold manner of execution is eminently correct and could not be better for the decoration of pottery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--,vessel in the ,shape of a ,goat4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4--;,bowl in the ,piot ,collection1 height #f ins4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the discovery of glass making has been attributed to the ,phnicians1 but this is not correct2 the ,egyptians made glass articles1 and used glass in their vitreous enamelled tiles and bricks long before the ,phnicians had any connection with ,egypt4 ,it was most likely because the ,phnicians traded so much in glass1 and for the reasons also that they had large glass manufactories at ,tyre and other places1 that they have received the credit from early times of being the inventors of glass4 ,the oldest dated glass bottle or vase in the world is one from ,egypt1 and now in the ,british ,museum4 ,it bears the name of ,thothmes ,,iii4 7,b4,c4 #afjj74 ,the body is turquoise blue with yellow details of decoration and hieroglyphics2 the handle is dark blue with yellow and white markings4 ,the ,phnicians at a later period were extensive makers of glass articles1 and made glass of three kinds1 the clear and transparent1 but always with a slight greenish hue1 the coloured and transparent1 and the opaque4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4--;,detail of the ,decoration of a ,cup4 7,p4 ,c47 ,a great quantity of glass bottles1 statuettes1 vases1 plaques1 and beads have been found in ,cyprus4 ,the bottles and vases that were prized most highly were decorated chiefly in alternating lines of bright colours1 such as blues1 greens1 yellows1 white1 and purple4 ,beads1 cones1 amulets1 scarabs1 heads of animals1 and statuettes1 as well as bottles and vases1 were made both by ,phnician and ,egyptian workmen1 some cast in moulds and some blown4 ,there is a cup in the ,french ,national ,library called the cup of ,chosroes ,,ii41 made of glass1 and decorated with artificial gems4 ,the finest work of art in glass is the famous ,portland vase in the ,british ,museum4 ,the decoration on this vase is in relief in cameo glass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4--nocho1 ,new ,york ,museum4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the small cylindrical perfume bottles in glass known as alabastrons are of the highest antiquity2 they were usually placed in the hands of the dead4 ,in the art of weaving and making textiles the ,phnicians are not credited with making anything different from the ,orientals or ,egyptians1 and perhaps supplied themselves with the ,egyptian muslins and linens1 and had their rugs and carpets from the ,east1 which were famed then as now for their soft nature and brightness of colouring4 ,we have evidence from ,homer that the ,sidonian slaves were very skilful at embroidery4 8,with threads of gold1 or with a colour contrasting with that of the ground1 they drew fantastic beasts of every kind40 ,these embroideries would likely have similar decoration to that which is found on the metal platters1 and perhaps imitations of those decorations we see on the embroidered robes of the ,assyrian kings' mantles 7,figs4 #afb;,a1 #afc;,a71 and the scheme of decoration would likely be a division of the field into bands and circles1 each filled with ,egyptian or ,assyrian motives4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--nocho1 ,new ,york ,museum4 7,p4 ,c47 ,in ,cyprus1 we can easily infer that the textiles would be strongly influenced1 as other manufactures were1 by ,egyptian art4 ,the ,phnicians were noted for their famous purple dye obtained from the ,murex and ,purpura families of shell-fish4 ,this purple dye was of world-wide renown4 ,its great advantage was that on its exposure to light and sunshine it became more fast and more intense in colour1 which is contrary to most dyes4 ,it was very costly by reason of the difficulty in extracting it from the fish1 and of the enormous quantities required to produce even a small quantity of the dye4 ,the city of ,tyre had extensive factories for the manufacture of the ,tyrian purple4 ,it is not obtained now from the shell-fish1 as1 of course1 many other ways and cheaper have been found to produce a similar colour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4--;,intaglio on ,chalcedony4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the ,phnicians were adepts at ivory-carving1 shell-engraving1 and gem-cutting 7,fig4 #bda71 as many examples of these arts have been found1 but we regret that the limitations of this volume prevent us from going into these subjects as fully as we might wish4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,art ,,in ,,ancient ,,persia4 ,persia occupies what is known as the tableland of ,iran1 and is a plateau bounded on the north by the ,elburz ,mountains1 ,armenia1 and ,afghanistan2 the ,bol-ur and ,hindu-,kush in the east2 the heights that are parallel to the ,indian ,ocean in the south2 and the ,persian ,gulf1 the chains of ,zagros1 and ,ararat in the west4 ,the ,zagros ,mountains separated ,persia on that portion of the ,iran plateau from ,assyria1 which was known as part of ,media4 ,the ,assyrians under ,tiglath-,pileser scaled these mountains and conquered the ,medes4 ,the ,medes have always been considered with the ,persians as forming part of one nation1 being closely related to each other in language1 religion1 manners1 and customs4 ,the ,medes were the first to emerge from barbarism1 owing to their nearness to the ,assyrians4 ,after the conquest of ,babylon 7,b4,c4 #eci7 the ,medes and the ,persians descended from their mountains into the valley of the ,tigris1 under ,cyrus1 the first ,persian king of the ,achmenidan dynasty4 ,the name ,achmenid was given by the ,greeks to the descendants of a native chief called ,akhamanish1 and one of the oldest families of ,persia4 ,cyrus marched through ,asia ,minor to ,asiatic ,greece1 seized all the cities on his way1 and made them pay tribute4 ,under ,cambyses 7,b4,c4 #ebg7 the countries of ,syria1 ,palestine1 ,phnicia1 ,assyria1 ,babylonia1 and ,egypt--nearly all the old-world civilisation from the ,mediterranean to the ,indus--belonged to the ,persian ,empire4 ,hostilities were kept up between the ,asiatics and ,hellenes for two hundred years1 until ,alexander the ,great ended them at the battles of ,issus and ,arbela 7#ccd-ccj ,b4,c474 ,for nearly a century ,persia was under the vassalage of the ,greeks1 but still kept her ancient customs and her ancient cult of fire-worship1 the national religion1 although this was in a great measure undermined and weakened by the teachings of the ,greek conquerors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--,naksh-i-,rustem1 ,general ,view of the ,rock-cut ,tombs4 7,f4,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--,persepolis4 ,tomb on the ,north-east4 ,elevation4 7,f4,c47 ,the ,greeks were1 in turn1 overthrown by the ,parthians1 a northern ,asiatic tribe who ruled in ,persia down to ,b4,c4 #bbf1 when the native ,sassanid family of the south restored ,persia to her former freedom1 and installed again the ancient worship of ,ahur-,mazda1 and also tried to restore the art of the ,first ,dynasty4 ,the ,greek and ,roman influence was1 however1 too strong at this period to be entirely shaken off1 in spite of the renewed display of patriotism4 ,for instance1 a great quantity of ,greek furniture1 utensils1 and figures of ,greek gods must have found their way into ,persia during the reign of the ,seleucid--the ,greek rulers--and must have influenced the native ,persian art2 besides borrowed ideas from the art objects and other things that the ,persians at a former time pillaged from the ,greek temples and carried home with them4 ,when the ,arabs finally overthrew the ,sassanid ,dynasty and conquered ,persia1 the state religion of fire-worship was proscribed1 but the ,moslem religion never took the same hold in ,persia as it did in other countries1 the ,persians adopting the secular form of it--the ,shiah--as opposed to the more devout form1 the ,sunni4 ,to this reason is assigned the independence of ,persia to the present day amongst the other ,moslem countries of the world4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--;,funeral ,tower at ,naksh-i-,rustem4 7,d47 7,p4 ,c47 ,it was during the period of the ,first ,empire that the greatest works in architecture first appeared in ,persia4 ,it is clear from the remains of this period that the national architecture of ,persia was composed of a mixture of ,assyrian1 ,egyptian1 and ,greek elements1 blended together in an original way4 ,the artists and architects who produced the national ,persian style were hardly native ,persians1 as there was no previous style of any importance in ,persia on which such great works as the famous palaces could be founded or developed from4 ,it is1 therefore1 quite likely that the artists and architects were of ,phnician or ,greek nationality4 ,indeed1 records of ,greek names appear on the buildings as architects of some of the palaces of the best periods1 and ancient history mentions the names of more than one ,greek sculptor that was brought to ,persia for this purpose by the victorious kings1 and induced to work for them by being well treated and cared for4 ,many of the ,greek artists were also political refugees who found employment and a hearty welcome in ,persia4 ,it was when ,cyrus had become master of ,western ,asia that the ,persians began to think of building the famous palaces at ,persepolis1 ,susa1 and ,pasargad4 ,most of these palaces and the tombs were built of a close-grained limestone that is found very plentiful in the mountainous country of ,persia4 ,the royal tombs were1 as a rule1 cut out of the living limestone rock 7,fig4 #bdb74 ,they are of the time of ,darius1 and are all of one type that seems to have been invented by one mind1 and1 after the first was cut1 speos-like1 out of the native rock--probably that of ,darius itself--the rest were copied faithfully from it4 ,the great height from the ground of the tomb itself was arranged for safety from violation4 ,the sculptured figure of the king is represented near the top1 in the act of worshipping the sacred fire seen on the right2 at the centre of the top of the field is seen the emblem of the god ,ahur-,mazda and the sun disk 7,fig4 #bdc74 ,an older form of tomb1 the 8built0 tomb1 is seen at the right of the rock-cut tombs1 and a larger illustration of this rectangular cemetery is seen at ,fig4 #bdd4 ,the latter type of tomb belongs to the time of ,cyrus4 ,we must not look for much in the way of religious architecture in ,ancient ,persia4 ,where temples in other countries were required1 fire-altars took their place in ,persia 7,fig4 #bde74 ,these altars1 by reason of their uses1 were generally found in 8high places10 on summits of hills and on rocks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4--;,fire ,altars1 ,naksh-i-,rustem4 7,f4,c47 7,p4 ,c47 ,the fire-altars at ,naksh-i-,rustem are really one with the rock on which they stand4 ,remains of a fire-temple have been discovered at ,ferz-abad1 which is supposed to have had a roof2 but the ends of the temple would be open1 with the sacred hearth on the top and centre of a lofty flight of steps1 on a quadrangular plan4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4--,persepolis2 ,staircase of the ,palace of ,darius4 7,d47 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4--;,fragment of a ,door-,frame from a ,hypostyle ,hall1 ,sausa4 7,d47 7,p4 ,c47 ,the buildings in ,persia of the ,achmenid ,dynasty1 both palaces and tombs1 are of the pillar and beam1 or the architrave system of construction4 ,the horizontal ceilings were of wood1 and were panelled very elaborately1 and rested on stone supports4 ,the doorways and windows are square-headed1 upholding a lintel 7,fig4 #bdh74 ,illustration3 ,face and ,profile of ,principle ,doorways4 ,face and ,profile of ,lateral ,doorways4 ,profile of ,window4 ,face of ,cornice4 ,profile of ,niche4 ,fig4 #bdh4--;,elevations and ,sections of ,doorways and ,windows of a ,palace at ,persepolis4 7,f4,c47 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4--,persepolis1 ,doorway to ,royal ,tomb4 7,d47 7,p4 ,c47 ,the doorway1 at ,fig4 #bdi1 of a royal tomb1 is a very rich specimen of a decorated ,persian doorway4 ,the ,egyptian 8gorge0 is seen in the cornice1 but the ,persian treatment of this feature is shown in the channelled grooves1 with imbricated markings between each channel4 ,the rosettes1 too numerous here to be in good taste1 are evidently borrowed from the ,assyrians4 ,the door-frame1 from ,susa 7,fig4 #bdg71 restored by ,dieulafoy1 is1 on the contrary1 a beautiful example of good proportion and restraint in decoration4 ,it would pass for an example of ,greek work in its classic simplicity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4--,view of a ,group of ,domed ,buildings1 from an ,assyrian ,bas-relief4 ,layard4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the walls of the palaces were usually crenellated or embattled 7,figs4 #bdf and #bfa74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4--,palace at ,sarvistan1 ,principal ,faade4 7,f4,c47 7,p4 ,c47 ,example of ,domed and ,vaulted ,structure4 ,the staircase walls and other parts of the buildings were often covered with tiles made of a white cement1 and enamelled in colour decoration4 ,these have been found chiefly at ,susa4 ,the principal parts or body of the building were of stone or brick1 and the upper parts were supposed to be of wood4 ,this is correctly inferred by the stepped notches still to be seen in the ant1 or corner piers of stone1 which must have been cut in this way to receive the ends of the ceiling beams 7,perrot ,chipiez74 ,wood was a scarce material in ,persia1 and must have been brought from the ,elburz ,mountains at a great cost of time and labour2 but this would be nothing to a king like ,darius1 whose revenue was reckoned at about #bg1jjj1jjj of ,english money4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beb4--;,column with ,volute ,capital1 ,persepolis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4--;,base of ,pillar at ,susa4 7,d47 7,p4 ,c47 ,remains of ,persian buildings of another order1 the vaulted structures 7,fig4 #bea71 have been found at ,sarvistan and ,ferz-abad1 in the province of ,fars 7,ancient ,persia71 which some archologists have ascribed to the time of the ,sassinid ,dynasty1 the construction of which is supposed to have been derived from their prototypes1 the domed and vaulted buildings of ,assyria 7see ,fig4 #bej74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4--;,base and ,capital from ,persepolis2 ,propyla4 7,f4,c47 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4--;,capital and ,base from ,hypostyle ,hall of ,xerxes1 ,persepolis4 7,f4,c47 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4--,upright of ,royal ,throne1 ,naksh-i-,rustem4 7,f4,c47 7,p4 ,c47 ,the most distinctly ,persian feature in all the architecture of ,persia is undoubtedly the column with its double-bull-headed capital 7,fig4 #bed74 ,archologists are divided in opinion as to whether it is derived from ,egyptian or from ,assyrian sources4 ,if it is a borrowed idea1 the ,persians may certainly be credited with developing the supposed idea into something wonderfully unique and interesting as a capital4 ,the name ,zoophoros 7life-bearing7 has been given to it4 ,perrot and ,chipiez 7from whom the illustrations are taken7 say that the capital was in design an inspiration from the ,assyrian national standard 7,fig4 #afa71 while ,dieulafoy ascribes to it an ,egyptian origin4 ,the former appear to have the best of the argument1 for there is nothing in ,egyptian ornament that comes so near it as the animals of the ,assyrian standard1 as regards position1 but the supposed resemblance of idea even is not very clear in this case4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beg4--,staircase ,wall of the ,palace of ,xerxes at ,persepolis4 7,f4,c47 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beh4--;,crowning ,wall of ,staircase1 ,palace of ,xerxes1 ,persepolis4 ,the base of the ,persian bull-headed columns is almost as unique in its way as the capital4 ,it is of the shape known as ,campaniform1 and consists of an inverted bell of beautiful contour1 richly decorated with falling leaves1 a torus moulding and fillet connecting it with the shaft 7,fig4 #bec74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4--,temple in a ,royal ,park4 7,b4,m47 7,p4 ,c47 ,another capital has1 instead of the bull heads1 a lion's head1 with the horn of a unicorn4 ,this capital is wanting in the volutes and lower capital4 ,it is as poor1 in this respect1 as the voluted capital is doubly rich1 and can hardly be called beautiful 7,fig4 #bee74 ,it belongs to the hypostyle hall of ,xerxes1 at ,persepolis4 ,the shaft of the ,persian column is channelled or fluted in nearly all cases1 and the number of flutings is very great1 being from thirty-two to fifty-two1 while the ,egyptian column has never more than sixteen1 and the ,greek from sixteen to twenty-four4 ,the great characteristic of the ,persian column is its slender and airy appearance4 ,at ,persepolis the total height is twelve diameters of its shaft4 ,some are even more slender than this4 ,the ,egyptian averages1 in contrast1 from five to six diameters1 and the ,greek seven to nine4 ,the ,persian column had its origin in timber supports4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4--;,enamelled ,ornament on ,bricks from ,susa4 ,drawn by ,gautier4 7,p4 ,c47 ,besides the unique capitals and bases in ,persian art there is not much of the ancient ,persian ornament and decoration that does not strongly partake of foreign influences4 ,the upright support of the royal throne 7,fig4 #bef7 is distinctly ,assyrian in feeling1 and the upper horizontal moulding is very like ,greek work4 ,a moulding is seen on the upper rounded edges of the staircase 7,fig4 #bdf7 and on the inner portion of the parapet wall 7,fig4 #beg7 of an elongated egg shape1 which is one of the rare exceptions of ornament that is really ,persian4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4--,upper ,part of ,parapet ,wall1 ,susa4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the ,assyrian daisy1 patera1 or rosette is a very characteristic ornament in ,persian decoration 7,figs4 #bdi1 #beh74 ,this is also a typical ornament in ,greek architecture4 ,two well-known ornamental forms of ,assyrian ornament occur on the crowning wall of the staircase of the ,palace of ,xerxes 7,fig4 #beh71 the cone-shaped pine-tree form1 and the palmate-crowned tree stem4 ,the prototype of the former may be seen as an ideal rendering from nature of the cypress or pine-tree 7,fig4 #bei7 in the ,assyrian illustration of a royal park4 ,the contour of this ornament may have reminded the ,persian fire-worshippers of the flame shape1 which circumstance may have accounted for their fondness for using it so much4 ,the other adjoining palmate ornament is distinctly ,assyrian2 as also are the daisy borders4 ,a common form of ornament is seen on the enamelled bricks from ,susa 7,fig4 #bfj7 consisting of a double palmate or lotus form of flower1 alternating and joined to concentric circles to form a band4 ,below is an ,egyptian chevron rather out of proportion to the rest of the design4 ,the whole thing has a decided ,egyptian look1 and may be a copy of the enamelled ornament of that country4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4--,lion1 from the ,lion ,frieze in ,enamelled ,bricks at ,susa4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the ,persian palaces were richly decorated with enamelled bricks and tiles1 in strong blue1 orange1 white1 and brown colouring1 as the archer's and lion's friezes from ,susa 7now in the ,louvre7 testify4 ,these two works are reproduced in colours in ,perrot and ,chipiez' 8,history of ,art in ,persia40 ,the upper part of the crenellated parapet wall of the staircase at ,susa gives an idea of the extreme richness of the decoration in glazed tiles with enamelled covering 7,fig4 #bfa74 ,the ,persians learnt their art of enamelling tiles and bricks from the ,chaldeans1 and they have never lost it4 ,under the ,moslem rule in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 the tiles and majolica that were made for the decoration of the mosques reached a high stage of perfection1 especially in the colouring4 ,this beauty is seen more particularly in the deep azure grounds1 and in their treatment of conventional flower decoration that has never been surpassed in any country4 ,this subject will be further treated in the future notice of modern ,persian ornament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4--;,head of one of the ,lions from the ,frieze at ,susa4 7,p4 ,c47 ,in animal and figure design1 the ,persians closely imitated the ,assyrians and ,chaldeans1 but were not so successful in their general treatment of them4 ,the lion was one of the most favourite animals in ,persian art4 ,the lions in the 8lion frieze0 at ,susa were represented with more than usual vigour and ability4 ,this frieze remains the finest work of ,persian design that is yet known to us1 and probably was the work of a ,chaldean artist employed by the great ,persian king1 ,darius1 to decorate his palace at ,susa4 7,see ,figs4 #bfb1 #bfc74 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,grecian ,,people ,,and ,,mythology4 ,the early inhabitants of ,greece were the ,pelasgians1 a people who had the reputation of being great builders4 ,at ,athens1 around the ,acropolis1 and at other places1 remains of huge walls1 made of unsquared stones laid in mud1 have been found2 these are the remains of the ,pelasgian walls4 ,the oldest historians were not disposed to make any difference between the ,hellenes and the ,pelasgians1 but see in the former a continuation merely of the old ,pelasgi stock4 ,the ,dorians came from the mountains of ,thessaly1 and steadily gained an ascendancy over the other tribes of ,greece4 ,the ,ionians in the ,east gave an ,oriental colouring to ,hellas1 both in manners1 customs1 and in art4 ,there were three dialects in the language of the ,greeks3 the ,doric1 broad and soft2 the ,ionic1 melodious and rich2 and the olic1 a mixture to which nothing of a special character is given1 except that it is the nearest to the ,latin4 ,the ,greeks were a light-hearted and joyous race3 they worshipped their gods in everything they did--in running1 wrestling and dancing1 in building1 carving1 and painting1 in writing and reciting of poetry2 their whole life was one of intense artistic devotion1 and all their works of art were so many prayers to their gods4 ,whatever may have been the racial differences of the ,hellenic peoples1 they united all their physical and intellectual efforts to perfect their civilisation4 ,they emerged from archaic barbarism step by step1 to such a refinement of culture that has had no parallel in the history of nations4 ,it would be impossible to give an outline of ,grecian or ,roman art without describing at least the outlines of their religious beliefs as shadowed forth in their myths and in their plastic representations of the same4 ,it would be advisable1 therefore1 to sketch1 in as brief a manner as possible1 some of the superior deities and their attributes1 in order to understand better the art that was the glory of ,greece and the grandeur of ,rome4 ,the ,theogony1 or myths that relate to the origin of the ,greek gods1 includes that of the ,romans1 since the latter did not trouble themselves with the inventing of any origins for their gods1 but simply borrowed them1 as they did all their art1 direct from the ,greeks1 merely substituting ,latin names for their borrowed deities1 instead of the original ,greek ones4 ,zeus 7,jupiter7 was the ,supreme god of the ,greeks1 chief of the ,olympian deities1 the 8,sky ,father10 the ruler and controller of the universe1 dispenser of the thunder and lightning1 rain1 hail1 and fertilising dew4 ,before the birth of ,zeus1 the ,greek poets tell us that ,ge 7the earth7 first emerged from ,chaos1 and separated itself immediately from ,tartarus 7the abyss beneath71 and that ,eros1 or love1 then first sprang into existence4 ,ge 7the earth7 then begat ,uranus 7the mountains and the heavens71 and ,pontus 7the sea74 ,by the union of the earth and ,uranus1 the twelve ,titans came into existence4 ,they represented the elementary forces of nature2 there were also from this union the three ,cyclops1 thunder1 lightning1 and sheet-lightning1 and the three ,centimanes 7hundred-handed71 which are supposed to represent the stormy winds1 the stormy sea1 and the earthquakes4 ,by union with ,pontus1 the earth became the mother of many fabulous sea-deities4 ,other deities1 offspring of the ,titans1 are ,helios1 the ,sun2 ,selene1 the ,moon2 ,eos1 the dawn4 ,from ,cus and ,phbe1 deities of the night1 are ,leto 7dark night7 and ,asteria1 7starry night74 ,cronus and ,rhea1 of the family of the ,titans1 had six children1 the youngest of whom was the great god ,zeus4 ,he was rescued from the fate of being swallowed by his father1 as his five brothers and sisters had been1 and was brought up secretly in a grotto1 on ,mount ,dicte1 in ,crete1 was nursed by nymphs and the she-goat ,amalthea1 whilst the bees brought him honey to eat4 ,thus the youthful ,zeus grew up in secrecy until he became a mighty god4 ,the first of his exploits was to attack his father1 and compel him to restore to life again his five brothers and sisters4 ,he then found it was necessary for his supremacy to fight the ,titans1 who disputed his authority1 which he did from his stand on ,mount ,olympus1 in ,thessaly1 while the ,titans fought from the opposite ,mount ,othrys4 ,this fight lasted for ten years1 and ended in the defeat of the ,titans4 ,after this battle ,zeus shared the ruling of the world with his two brothers1 ,poseidon 7,neptune7 and ,hades 7,pluto72 the former he set as ruler over the sea1 and the latter as king of the infernal regions4 ,about this time the earth had produced another enemy to vex the peace of ,zeus--,typhus1 a monster with a hundred fire-breathing dragons' heads1 which ,zeus was obliged to fight also4 ,after a mighty battle the thunderbolts of ,zeus prevailed1 and the monster was cast into ,tartarus1 or as ,virgil and ,pindar have it1 into ,mount tna1 in ,sicily1 where he still shows his anger at times1 by breathing out fire and flames against the majesty of heaven4 ,another battle still is recorded to the credit of ,zeus before he was able to enjoy his undisputed dominion over the world1 that is the battle with the ,giants1 when they attempted to scale the sacred ,olympus by 8piling ,ossa on ,pelion40 ,zeus and his adherent gods were again victorious1 and remained ever after the undisputed lords of ,olympus4 ,the story of the battle with the ,giants1 the ,giganto-,machia1 formed a favourite subject for illustration with the ,greek sculptors4 ,the cameo of ,athenion depicts ,zeus in his chariot1 and the ,giants attacking1 having snakes for their legs 7,fig4 #bfd74 ,zeus was the national god of the ,greeks1 and was first worshipped on high places and mountain tops long before any temples were raised to his honour4 ,he was worshipped all over ,greece1 and one of his earliest shrines was at ,dordona1 in ,epirus4 ,the greatest of all his shrines was at ,olympia1 on the northern banks of the ,alpheus4 ,it was here that the ,olympian games were celebrated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4--;,cameo of ,athenion4 ,it was also here that the great statue of ,zeus was set up1 which was the work of the renowned ,greek sculptor ,phidias 7,b4,c4 #ejj-dcb74 ,this famous statue of the supreme god of the ,greeks was a seated figure on a lofty throne1 and was more than #dj feet high4 ,it was made of1 or probably covered over with1 plates of ivory and gold 7chryselephantine72 the ivory plates covered the exposed parts of the flesh4 ,in his right hand he held a figure of ,victory1 also made of ivory and gold4 ,the sculptor sought to give his statue a look of sublime majesty1 as the ruler of gods and men1 and1 at the same time1 a kindly expression of benevolence1 as the gracious father and dispenser of good gifts to mankind4 ,thousands are said to have come from great distances in order to gaze on this masterpiece of the greatest sculptor of ,greece4 ,it remained in its place for more than eight hundred years1 and was supposed to have been destroyed by fire in the time of ,theodosius ,,iii4 ,the coins of ,elis have a seated figure1 and the head of ,zeus on them 7,fig4 #bfe74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4--;,coins of ,elis with the ,phidian ,zeus 7after ,overbeck74 ,a supposed copy of the head of the god is in the ,vatican ,museum4 ,it was found at ,otricoli in the last century 7,fig4 #bff74 ,the worship of ,jupiter was also universal in ,italy2 many temples have been erected to his honour4 ,the most famous of these was the one erected by ,tarquin on the ,capitol at ,rome4 ,it had a statue of ,jupiter1 the work of the ,greek artist ,apollonius1 made of ivory and gold1 and said to be a copy of the ,phidian ,zeus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bff4--,zeus of ,otricoli1 ,vatican ,museum4 ,zeus is credited with a numerous family4 ,he produced ,pallas ,athene from his own head2 the birth of ,athene is supposed to have formed part of the subject of the sculptures on the pediment of the ,parthenon 7,temple of ,athene at ,athens7 the remains of which are in the ,british ,museum1 but unfortunately the central figures of the pediment are wanting which depicted the event4 ,one of his goddess-wives was ,themis1 of the ,titan family1 whose children are the ,fates4 ,dione was his ,dodonian wife1 by whom he had as daughter ,aphrodite 7,venus74 ,the ,arcadian ,zeus had for his wife ,maia1 who was the mother of ,hermes 7,mercury74 ,by ,demeter 7,ceres7 he had a daughter ,persephone 7,proserpina71 the flower goddess4 ,by ,eurynome1 the ,graces1 and by ,leto 7,latona7 ,apollo and ,artemis 7,diana74 ,later mythology recognises ,hera 7,juno71 his sister1 to be his only legitimate wife 7,fig4 #bfg71 and by her he had his children ,ares 7,mars71 ,hephstus 7,vulcan71 and ,hebe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4--;,head of ,hera1 perhaps after ,polycletus4 ,his earthly mistresses were ,semele1 daughter of ,cadmus1 ,king of the ,greek ,thebes1 and mother of ,dionysus 7,bacchus7 and others2 ,leda1 ,dana1 ,alcmene1 ,europa1 and ,io4 ,the ,roman ,jupiter had at first no family1 nor wives1 but later1 when the ,greek influences were more strongly developed in ,roman mythology1 he was made to be the son of ,saturn1 and had ,juno for his wife1 and ,minerva 7,athene7 for his daughter4 ,hera 7,juno7 is the feminine counterpart of ,zeus 7,jupiter74 ,she represents air or atmosphere1 is the queen of heaven1 and is the guardian goddess of marriage ties with both ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the peacock1 goose1 and the cuckoo as the herald of spring1 are sacred to her4 ,the beautiful head 7,fig4 #bfg7 of ,hera is supposed to be the work of ,polycletus1 a celebrated ,greek sculptor4 ,pallas ,athene 7,minerva7 is the great virgin goddess of wisdom1 of the dawn1 and of war4 ,according to some ,greek accounts she sprang forth to life from her father's head 7,zeus7 fully armed with helmet and spear1 chanting a war song1 at which event the whole earth and sea trembled with commotion4 ,she is represented in sculpture as the war goddess1 in flowing robes with helmet and spear1 and wearing the dreadful gis1 the breastplate of mail1 with the snakes and head of ,medusa1 that 8turned all men to stone who gazed on it0 7,fig4 #bfh74 ,the serpent1 the owl1 and the cock are sacred to her4 ,apollo was the favourite son of ,zeus1 and was a great god with both ,greeks and ,romans4 ,he is the god of light1 of music1 and of healing4 ,he is sometimes the god of death1 sending out his arrows of sunshine that often breeds pestilence1 as well as giving health4 ,his favourite instrument is the lyre1 which he plays at the feasts of the gods4 ,his sons were ,orpheus1 the god of music1 and ,asclepius 7sculapius71 god of healing4 ,delphi was the chief seat of his worship1 where a gorgeous temple was erected to him4 ,there the priestess ,pythia uttered the oracles that were supposed to come to her ears alone1 from out of a cleft in the rock under the sacred tripod1 from which also issued gaseous vapours4 ,these oracles were sacred words of advice or warning for those who came to consult them4 ,other oracles of ,apollo were at ,didyma near ,miletus1 at ,clarus1 and at ,thebes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4--;,athene ,polias 7,villa ,albani74 ,the ,roman ,emperor ,augustus erected a great temple to ,apollo on the ,palatine ,hill1 in which was placed the celebrated statue of ,apollo ,cithardus 7,apollo with the lyre71 a work by the famous ,greek sculptor ,scopas4 ,the statues of ,apollo are of two kinds3 one represents him as a conquering deity1 strong and handsome1 of youthful beauty both in face and body 7,fig4 #bgj72 the other is in the more benign character of the ,pythian lute player1 with long flowing garments of a feminine nature1 and with a pleasing expression4 ,scopas and ,praxiteles made many statues of ,apollo2 copies of some of these are still in existence4 ,these sculptors flourished about ,b4,c4 #djj4 ,the celebrated statue of the youthful ,apollo known as the ,apollo ,sauroctonus 7the lizard slayer7 is a work of ,praxiteles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4--,pallas ,athene1 ,naples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4--;,apollo ,belvedere1 ,vatican4 ,aphrodite 7,venus7 was 8born of the sea foam10 as some say near to the island of ,cyprus1 where she was first supposed to touch the land2 many temples were built to her worship in this island4 ,she was the goddess of love and beauty1 and of the generative and creative forces in nature2 the goddess of spring1 and all kinds of fertility1 both in celestial and terrestrial regions4 ,she was the favourite deity of the ,grecian mariners1 and was worshipped in ,cyprus and the isles of ,greece more than any other divinity4 ,iris in the ,tempest1 in referring to ,venus1 says-- 8,i met her deity ,cutting the clouds towards ,paphos1 and her son ,dove-drawn with her40 ,the story of her love for ,adonis1 and of his death and coming to life again1 is but the decay of nature in autumn1 and its resuscitation in the spring4 ,the ,seasons and the ,graces are her attendants1 who dress and adorn her4 ,she is accompanied by ,eros and ,hymen1 the gods of love and marriage4 ,venus of the ,romans is the goddess of spring1 and the month of ,april was held sacred to her by the early ,italians4 ,she was also1 with them1 the goddess of love and marriage4 ,the best artists of ,greece put forth all their powers in painting and sculpture in their representations of the seaborn ,aphrodite1 and if we except ,zeus himself1 there is no other divinity of the ,greek mythology that has served so much as a model for the loveliest creations of the plastic genius of the ,greeks4 ,the grandest conception of the goddess as a work of art is the ,venus of ,milo1 found in #ahbj in the island of ,melos 7,milo7 7,fig4 #bga71 and now in the ,louvre4 ,the grandeur and majesty of this famous piece of sculpture is beyond praise4 ,it ought to be seen in the ,louvre1 to be appreciated at its worth1 as drawings and casts do not give an adequate idea of its beauty4 ,the ,medicean ,venus is a work of the ,athenian artist ,cleomenes1 of the later ,attic school1 in the second century ,b4,c4 ,a statue of ,venus ,anadyomene 7rising from the sea71 of 8,venus crouching in the ,bath0 7,vatican collection71 and of 8,venus loosing her ,sandal10 are all of this later and declining period of ,greek sculpture1 where the goddess is represented undraped and more realistic in conception4 ,venus had many attributes4 ,the dove1 sparrow1 and the dolphin1 and in plants the myrtle1 rose1 apple1 poppy1 and lime-tree1 were sacred to her1 but varied according to the locality and times4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4--,venus of ,milo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4--,statue of ,hermes1 ,capitol4 ,hermes 7,mercury7 is the god of shepherds and of pastures1 and also of commerce and trade4 ,when a child he invented the lyre from a tortoise-shell which he was forced to give up to ,apollo4 ,he is represented with wings on his cap and feet1 and a herald's staff as the messenger of the gods1 and with a well-filled purse as an emblem of trade 7,fig4 #bgb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4--;,diana of ,versailles4 ,artemis 7,diana7 was the twin-sister of ,apollo1 and was at first the goddess of the moon4 ,her favourite amusement is the chase1 but in the statue 7,fig4 #bgc7 from the ,villa ,hadrian1 now in the ,louvre1 she is represented as the protectress of wild animals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgd4--,melpomene1 ,vatican4 ,mnemosyne 7,memory7 is the mother of the ,muses4 ,the nine ,muses are--,clio 7history71 ,melpomene 7tragedy7 7,fig4 #bgd71 ,terpsichore 7dancing71 ,polyhymnia 7religious service71 ,thalia 7comedy71 ,urania 7astronomy71 ,euterpe 7lyric poetry71 ,erato 7erotic poetry and geometry71 and ,calliope 7epic poetry and science generally74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bge4--;,dionysus and the ,lion1 from the ,monument of ,lysikrates4 ,dionysus or ,bacchus is1 with both ,greeks and ,romans1 the god of wine1 of vineyards1 and of autumn blessings4 ,naxos was the chief seat of his worship4 ,it was on this island that he met and married ,ariadne1 the daughter of ,minos1 ,king of ,crete1 who had been deserted here by ,theseus1 her former lover4 ,the story of ,dionysus punishing the ,tyrrhenian pirates who took him prisoner1 intending to sell him as a slave1 and of his changing himself to a lion and so terrifying the sailors1 who jumped overboard and were changed into dolphins1 is the subject of the fine relief on the frieze of the ,lysikrates monument 7,fig4 #bge and ,frontispiece74 ,the lion1 tiger1 bull1 and ram are his favourite animal attributes4 ,among plants1 the vine1 the ivy1 and the laurel were sacred to him4 ,bacchanalian subjects and festivals of ,dionysus occupy a large and important place in the art of ,greece1 ,rome1 and ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgf4--,victory1 ,munich ,collection4 ,nice1 ,victoria1 or ,victory is always represented with wings1 a palm branch1 and holding a laurel wreath1 and1 as would be expected1 was more extensively venerated at ,rome than in ,greece4 ,in the latter country her statues are generally of a small size1 and she is an accompanying goddess to ,athene and ,zeus 7,fig4 #bgf74 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,art ,,in ,,primitive ,,greece4 ,it was not only on their temples and images of their gods that the ,greeks put their best efforts in art2 but in their vases1 jewellery1 furniture1 and humbler utensils of the household and of every-day life1 we find the ,greek artist pouring out some of his richest fancies1 and the same spell of beauty is cast over them all4 ,and did not ,pericles1 the son of ,xanthippus1 eulogise his countrymen in his famous speech on those who had fallen in the ,peleponnesian ,war1 as 8lovers of justice and wisdom10 8philosophers1 lovers of beauty1 and foremost among men08 ,in ,egypt1 ,assyria1 and ,persia we find all the artistic knowledge of these countries was lavished on the temples1 and to the glorification of their autocratic rulers2 but scarcely any remains are found that would imply a fostering of the minor arts among the common people4 ,on the contrary1 in ,greece art impregnated the life and work of all classes1 from the highest to the lowest in the state4 ,this was only possible when entire freedom prevailed1 as it did in the mass of the ,greek people4 ,some of the oldest monuments of primitive ,greece have been found at ,mycen1 ,troy 7,hissarlik71 and ,tiryns4 ,these consist of domed tombs1 such as the tomb of ,agamemnon1 or the so-called 8,treasure-house0 of ,atreus1 and others1 as the rock-cut tombs4 ,the site of ancient 8,troy divine0 was discovered by ,dr4 ,schliemann in the year #ahge1 under the mound of the modern ,hissarlik1 in the ,trojan plain1 in the north-west corner of ,asia ,minor4 ,the character of the stone1 clay1 wood1 and lime materials1 and similarity of the construction1 enable the archologist to place the remains found at these three places as belonging to the same epoch of time and style of art which has been called ,mycenian4 ,the oldest monument of ,greek sculpture yet discovered is supposed to be the ,lion's ,gate of the ,mycenian ,acropolis 7,fig4 #bgg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgg4--,perspective ,view of the ,lion's ,gate4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgh4--;,alabaster ,frieze1 ,tiryns4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgi4--,plan of ,fig4 #bgh1 ,alabaster ,frieze4 7,p4 ,c47 ,pausanias thus alludes to ,mycen and ,tiryns3--,a portion of the enclosure wall still remains1 and the principal gate1 with the lions over it4 ,these 7the walls7 were built by the ,cyclops who made the wall at ,tiryns for ,prteus4 ,among the ruins at ,mycen is the fountain called ,perseia1 and the subterraneous buildings of ,atreus and his children1 in which their treasures were stored4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhj4--;,ivory ,plaque from ,mycen4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bha4--;,fragment of ,frieze from ,mycen4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the sculptured lions are still there1 so is the spring ,perseia1 and the wonderful treasure-house of ,atreus is still the best preserved of all the domed tomb buildings of ,mycen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhb4--,mycenian ,palace1 ,second ,epoch4 ,architrave and ,frieze4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhc4--,mycenian ,palace1 ,second ,epoch4 ,restoration of ,entablature4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhd4--;,entablature of ,c4 ,selinous ,temple4 7,p4 ,c47 ,from the remains of ,mycenian architecture1 ,messrs4 ,perrot and ,chipiez have ingeniously restored some of the wooden construction of the palaces of that early period1 and have assumed that1 from these early wooden constructions of ,mycen1 the ,greeks developed the renowned order of ,doric architecture4 ,we have seen that1 in most countries1 stone architecture1 in its earliest stages1 was but copies of the earlier wooden construction4 ,the ,doric order seems to have been no exception to this rule1 for here again the stone-cutter has borrowed from the carpenter4 ,to go back for some of the supposed beginnings of the ,doric frieze1 the alabaster frieze1 shown in plan and elevation at ,figs4 #bgh and #bgi1 has been found in the ruins of a palace at ,tiryns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhe4--,vase of ,woman's ,form1 ,troy4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the pattern of this frieze is the same as that which has been frequently found on other fragments from ,mycen4 ,it resembles the ,doric triglyphs and metopes in consisting of a double design2 two semicircles back to back1 divided by a vertical rectangular band1 which is subdivided by a vertical central division1 having rosettes arranged vertically on either side4 ,two similar designs are seen on the ivory plaque 7,figs4 #bhj and #bha7 and fragment of frieze from ,mycen4 ,the same design appears also on the red porphyry fragments of the faade decoration on the ,mycenian beehive tombs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhf4--,vase from ,troy4 7,p4 ,c47 ,an illustration from ,perrot and ,chipiez shows an assemblage of the component parts of this frieze pattern1 with a portion of the architrave in wood 7,fig4 #bhb74 ,we refer the reader for a fuller description of the transition of the ,doric entablature from the ,mycenian wood construction to ,perrot and ,chipiez' 8,art in ,primitive ,greece10 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,we extract a portion in explanation of the illustrations 7,figs4 #bhb and #bhc71 where the analogy between the wooden construction of the former and the stone construction of the latter is clearly established4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhg4--,pilgrim's ,bottle1 ,ialysos4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhh4--,three-,handled ,amphora1 ,ialysos4 7,p4 ,c47 ,in ,fig4 #bhd we have the entablature of the ,c4 ,temple of ,selinous 7one of the oldest examples of ,doric architecture71 rendered famous by the archaic sculptures embellishing its metopes4 ,there is not one of all the members we have passed in review but which appears in it4 ,thus1 a pair of stone beams1 corresponding with the like number of timbers in the ,mycenian wood frame1 constitute the architrave2 and under listel ,c surmounting it1 peers1 flush with the triglyphs1 the small plank ,b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhi4--,vase with ,geometric ,decoration4 7,p4 ,c47 ,its lower section is adorned by the ornament known as gutt1 the origin and meaning of which had hitherto been unsatisfactorily explained4 ,the gutt are cylindrical in shape detached from the walls1 and in every respect identical with the wooden pegs which occur in this situation below the timber entablature4 ,these same pegs again appear above the frieze in the semblance of another ornamental form1 the 8mutules0 which1 until lately1 had seemed every whit as strange and problematical as the gutt4 ,the stone table ,n1 in the lower surface of which the gutt are carved1 is no other than our old wood-plate1 which in the ,mycenian carpentry work exhibits these same saliences or pegs1 and served to fix the lining of the joists below4 ,if the ,selinous mutules are sloped1 it is because they are associated with a ridged roof2 but as a flat covering has been assumed for ,mycen1 it involved--without prejudice to the system--a horizontal position for the mutules4 ,as regards the frieze1 both here and in every ,doric building1 it invariably consists1 like the alabaster frieze1 of pillars ,d alternating with slabs ,e4 ,the function of the pillars 7triglyphs7 is to maintain the slabs 7metopes7 in place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij4--,the ,marseilles ,ewer4 7,p4 ,c47 ,comparison between these two figures will further show all the details1 with slight modifications1 to be practically similar4 ,thus1 the whole of the ,doric order1 the basis of all ,greek architecture1 including the column1 longitudinal beams1 and joists supporting the roof1 as well as the secondary decorative construction1 had its origin in wooden construction1 and there is hardly any doubt but that the ,mycenian palace was its prototype4 ,the ,greeks of later days forgot the borrowing of the timber construction1 and have given names to some parts1 such as 8gutt0 7drops71 which ought to be more correctly pegs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bia4--;,gold ,pendant1 from ,troy4 7,p4 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bib4--;,gold ,ornaments1 from ,troy4 7,p4 ,c47 ,great quantities of pottery and objects of industrial art in metal--more especially in gold--have been found in the excavations at ,mycen1 ,tiryns1 and ,troy4 ,the earthenware pottery is generally decorated in colours of brown1 red1 and greyish white4 ,the patterns are very simple1 bands and squares arranged in rows1 some animal forms1 leaves with wavy stems1 and spirals2 some of the pottery is decorated with marine animals1 such as the octopus1 cuttle-fish1 argonaut1 and with seaweed4 ,some curious shaped vases of woman forms 7,figs4 #bhe1 #bhf7 have been found by ,dr4 ,schliemann4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bic4--;,gold ,plate ,ornament1 from ,troy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bid4--;,gold ,disc4 7,p4 ,c47 ,a pilgrim's bottle from ,ialysos decorated with circular bands1 and an amphora with three handles1 from the same place1 decorated with bands and lily forms with curled-back petals1 are very beautiful1 and a small vessel with geometric ornament are all of the same character 7,figs4 #bhg1 #bhh1 and #bhi74 ,the most beautiful form of ,mycenian pottery is the ,marseilles vase or ewer1 in the ,borly collection 7,fig4 #bij74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bie4--;,gold ,disc4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the decoration is a brown-black on a light ground1 and consists of the argonaut shellfish and seaweed4 ,it is likely to have been a copy from a metal object owing to its shape1 which is characteristic of metal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bif4--;,gold ,cup1 ,troy4 7,p4 ,c47 ,in metal-work generally1 and in the inlaying of gold and electrum in a bronze ground1 the ,mycenian artists have produced some splendid work4 ,there are six chromolithographs in ,messrs4 ,perrot and ,chipiez's 8,art in ,primitive ,greece0 of bronze ,mycenian daggers inlaid with gold and electrum of various shades3 one has the representation of panthers hunting birds on a river-bank--the river is stocked with fish2 another has a lion hunt by armed men2 a third1 lions hunting gazelles2 a fourth has running lions2 a fifth1 spiral ornamentation2 and the sixth a free rendering of lilies both on handle and blade4 ,the art and workmanship of them all are of a high order4 ,some gold ornaments from ,troy 7,figs4 #bia and #bib7 show their skill in hand-wrought jewellery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #big4--;,gold ,ewer1 ,troy4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the golden butterfly 7,fig4 #bic7 and the two gold discs 7,figs4 #bid and #bie7 are stamped on the metal1 and were used as dress decorations2 they were found in great quantities in the tombs of the women at ,mycen4 ,one is an octopus design1 and the other a butterfly4 ,the gold cup 7,fig4 #bif7 and ewer 7,fig4 #big71 found at ,troy along with many others in silver1 gold1 and bronze1 give a fair idea of the beauty of shape and design of such articles of this period4 ,they show marks of injury by fire4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,orders ,,of ,,architecture4 ,although ,egypt and ,assyria are justly credited with the creation of the models and the invention of the methods that subsequently aroused to life the artistic genius of the ,greeks1 yet the fact remains that1 from all the wealth of artistic forms bequeathed to succeeding ages by the nations of hoary antiquity1 prior to the ,grecian period1 nothing has survived except those forms which ,greece has selected from her predecessors1 and after remodelling them by her own standards of beauty and fitness1 has left them as imperishable models of art for all nations that follow her4 ,all historic art and architecture1 whether classic or what not1 since the days of ,pericles1 is based on ,greek art1 notwithstanding the many modifications which we see in ,byzantine1 ,saracenic1 ,romanesque1 and their offshoots4 ,all of them owe their life and vitality to ,greek traditions and to ,greek principles4 ,we have seen that in the earlier ,greek buildings1 such as ,mycenian palaces1 timber construction must have largely entered into the architecture of that period1 and it is quite likely that timber was used for the greater part of the ,greek domestic dwellings1 which may account for no remains of them having been found4 ,the rock-cut tombs of ,lycia1 in ,asia ,minor1 afford to us a further proof of timber construction which may have been in use in the ,early ,greek period in ,europe1 and these tombs of ,lycia tend to throw a side light on the probable forms of ,greek construction that existed between the date of the ,mycenian buildings and that of the oldest ,doric remains that are at present known1 for the ,lycians had free intercourse with the ,ionians and ,european ,greeks4 ,the earlier ,lycian tombs are of a great antiquity1 and the same form of tomb has been used in ,lycia down to periods when ,greece was far advanced in art 7,figs4 #bih and #bii74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bih4--,lycian ,rock-built ,tomb at ,pinara4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the ,lycians formed a connecting link with the ,anterior ,asiatics and the ,ionian ,greeks4 ,their origin and their language were ,asiatic1 but the greater part of their art was the product of ,hellenic artists from ,ionian ,greece1 and1 therefore1 the ,lycians must have been intimately connected with the ,greeks1 and must have played an important part in the development of ,hellenic culture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bii4--,lycian ,rock-built ,tomb at ,pinara4 7,p4 ,c47 ,the ,greek temples were in some respects related to the ,egyptian temple4 ,the pillar and beam construction was copied from ,egypt1 and also the rectangular plan4 ,the great distinction between the two was that rows of columns were placed outside the temples of the ,greeks1 which gave to them a light and airy appearance1 while in contradistinction the ,egyptians had their rows of columns inside the great hypostyle halls and galleries of their temples which gave to them the effect of oppressive gloominess4 ,broadly speaking1 the ,greek temple was something of the model of an ,egyptian temple turned inside out4 ,the interior of a ,greek temple was simply a rectangular cella or cell where the statue of the god or goddess was set up1 and sometimes a smaller chamber behind called the treasury4 ,the smaller temples consisted of the cella only4 ,a row of lighter columns sometimes supported the roof of the cella1 as in the case of the ,parthenon4 ,it was only in the case of the larger temples that we find more than one cell1 while the ,egyptian temple was often a maze of large and small chambers1 the multitude adding to the mystery sought for in all ,egyptian architecture4 ,the ,greek temples were usually placed on a basement of steps1 and built on elevated positions4 ,the ,greeks sought all publicity in the honouring of their deities1 and in pleasing the passer-by with the sight of their beautiful buildings1 on which their best decoration was shown on the outside4 ,greek architecture dates from the end of the ,archaic age down to the death of ,alexander the ,great1 from about ,b4,c4 #fjj to ,b4,c4 #ccc4 ,it is usually divided into three ,styles or1 as they are called1 8,orders10 namely1 the ,doric1 the ,ionic1 and the ,corinthian4 ,the ,doric represents the ,european phase of the ,greek style1 the ,ionic and ,corinthian having more of the ,asiatic features4 ,the three orders were in use in ,greece at the same time1 that is to say1 a more severe and correct phase of the ,doric--the older order--was used after buildings in the newer orders had appeared4 ,thomson1 in his 8,ode to ,liberty10 has alluded to the orders in the lines-- 8,first1 unadorn'd ,and nobly plain1 the manly ,doric rose2 ,the ,ionic then1 with decent matron grace1 ,her airy pillar heaved2 luxuriant last1 ,the rich ,corinthian spread her wanton wealth40 ,the ,greeks made use of the vertical and horizontal line in their architecture2 the curved line was not used1 except1 of course1 in decoration4 ,the half-diameter of the column was the module or unit by which the whole building was measured1 and the column was limited in height according to the diameter of its base4 ,this did not preclude freedom in design2 on the contrary1 freedom was allowed and practised to such an extent that hardly two ,grecian buildings of any one order were alike in proportion or design4 ,even the mouldings were varied in curve and proportion2 these members that were with the ,romans merely segments of circles1 were in section with the ,greeks either parts of the curve of the ellipse or parabola1 and in many cases were designed by freehand4 ,some very subtle devices to overcome natural optical effects when viewing the buildings have been discovered by ,mr4 ,pennethorne and ,mr4 ,penrose1 more especially in the ,parthenon4 ,it is well known that the entasis1 or slight swelling made in ,greek columns1 which makes a convex line of their profiles1 is done to prevent the column from looking hollowed in the centre1 which it would do if it were perfectly straight2 but in addition to this the architects above named have discovered in the ,parthenon a correction in the vertical lines1 to prevent the apparent tendency which all high vertical lines have to spread out at the top1 in the making of the columns to incline slightly inwards2 and the steps of the basement and horizontal lines of the architraves are found to be slightly curved upwards in the middle to prevent the tendency that all long horizontal lines have to droop in the middle4 ,thus we learn how admirably painstaking1 and how well the ,greeks applied their profound knowledge to their architecture1 as they did in everything else4 ,the joints of their marble masonry were as a rule so fine and accurate in the fitting together1 that it has been said a razor edge could not be inserted between them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjj4--,the ,parthenon4 ,greek ,doric1 enlarged ,section of ,annulets at ,a4 ,the ,greek ,doric order 7,fig4 #cjj7 is without a base2 the shaft of the column has twenty flutings2 sunk lines or rings encircle the shaft a little below the moulding of the capital4 ,this moulding--the echinus--is of the best possible profile that a supporting member could have2 it is divided from the shaft by three or five annulets4 ,above the echinus rests the square tile-like cap--the abacus--which carries the architrave4 ,the latter is a marble beam with square ends1 and above the architrave is the frieze separated by a band 7taenia74 ,the frieze has triglyphs alternating with metopes4 ,the former consists of channelled pier-like forms one over and one between each column1 and the metopes are square panels between two triglyphs on which are usually found sculptured subjects4 ,at the bottom of each triglyph1 separated by a fillet1 is a row of pegs1 cylindrical or conical in shape1 called 8gutt0 or drops4 ,above the frieze the cornice projects1 which in profile consists of a flat band--the corona--and the crowning member1 an ovolo moulding4 ,under the projecting eave of the cornice are slanting slabs of marble--parallel to the roof tiles--placed one over each triglyph1 and one over each metope4 ,these are called mutules1 and they have rows of gutt on their under surface4 ,the crowning members of the cornice are carried around the sloping lines of the triangular pediments at each end of the building4 ,on the pediments were sculptured the figure subjects that had usually some relation to the divinity to whom the temple was dedicated2 as1 for example1 on the ,parthenon pediment the story of the birth of ,athene was the subject executed and designed by ,phidias1 who also was the sculptor of the celebrated ,panathenic frieze that adorned the outer part of the cella of the ,parthenon4 ,ictinus was the architect of the ,parthenon and also of the temples of ,apollo ,epicurius at ,bass and at ,phigallia1 both in ,arcadia4 ,the ,parthenon was finished about ,b4,c4 #dch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cja4--,temple on the ,ilissus2 ,greek ,ionic4 ,the ,greek ,ionic order in its capital and ornaments is quite distinct from the ,doric1 and has more mouldings4 ,the general plan of the temple is the same as in the ,doric1 but the proportions of the various parts are more slender4 ,it has been generally thought that the ,ionic volute was a development of the volutes from the ,persian capital at ,persepolis1 but it is more likely1 as before stated 7on page #hg71 that their prototype is found on capitals derived from the ,egyptian lotus4 ,the architrave is sometimes plain and sometimes divided into three facias4 ,the frieze was usually occupied with sculpture1 and the base of the column was composed of a double torus1 with a hollow between2 the lower torus was plain1 and the upper one fluted 7,fig4 #cja74 ,the ,temple of ,diana at ,ephesus1 the ,erectheum1 and the ,mausoleum of ,halicarnassus were among the finest examples of the ,ionic order4 ,the ,corinthian order was more ,roman than ,greek1 though of ,greek invention1 and was a rich type of architecture that suited the growing vanity for love of display with the ,romans1 who eagerly appropriated it in the second century ,b4,c41 and erected many fine buildings in this order2 but often enriching the mouldings and all plain spaces almost beyond recognition4 ,the most perfect and truly beautiful example of the ,greek ,corinthian is the small ,choragic monument of ,lysikrates at ,athens 7,frontispiece74 ,its praises and merits have been spoken and written of by almost every architect of eminence2 it may be said of it and of the ,parthenon that for proportion1 and for marvellous unity of parts1 and also for the perfect marriage of sculpture with architecture1 no buildings have ever been erected to equal them4 ,the bell of the ,corinthian capital1 as in the ,lysikrates monument1 is surrounded at the base by a row of water-plant leaves2 acanthus leaves spring from these1 and out of the latter spring volutes 7cauliculi71 the larger ones of which meet at the upper corners2 the four smaller ones meet in the middle1 and from the junction of the upper middle ones an upright palmate appears2 rosettes are placed between each of the eight acanthus leaves4 ,the abacus is moulded and curved in plan4 ,the capital1 as a whole1 is designed in a masterly way1 so as to give the utmost variety and contrast of beautiful forms 7,fig4 #cjb74 ,the frieze is sculptured with figures which illustrate the story of ,dionysus and the ,tyrrhenian pirates 7,frontispiece74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjb4--;,capital of the ,lysikrates ,monument2 ,greek ,corinthian4 ,the ,etruscans were a race of people who settled in the west of ,italy1 between the ,arno and the ,tiber1 at a very early date4 ,their origin is uncertain1 but they are supposed to have come from ,asia ,minor4 ,they were known as great builders1 and were well skilled in all the arts4 ,in their larger works of fortifications and great walls they used stones of an enormous size 7,cyclopean74 ,many places in ,italy still attest to the presence of the ,etruscans by the remains of these ,cyclopean walls4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjc4--;,etruscan ,door from ,perugia4 ,they were considerably advanced in architecture and the minor arts at the time when ,rome was first beginning to show its signs of power1 and were the architects and builders who executed all the works for the early ,romans4 ,the ,etruscans used the arch very much in building1 a feature that the ,greeks1 although they were acquainted with its use1 did not think it necessary in their trabeated system of building4 ,it was1 on the other hand1 a very favourite feature with the ,etruscans1 from whom the ,romans learnt the use of it4 ,the ,tarquins were an ,etruscan family who were masters of ,rome in the sixth century ,b4,c41 and it was under these ,emperors that the great sewer1 known as the ,cloaca ,maxima1 was built1 part of which is still in existence4 ,this work consists of an arched waterway built in three concentric rings of large wedge-shaped stones 7voussoirs74 ,the ,etruscans constructed temples1 palaces1 and dwelling-houses1 all of which have perished or have been destroyed1 and only a few remains of their walled cities survive4 ,the gate of ,perugia 7,fig4 #cjc7 is the remains of a characteristic ,etruscan building4 ,the arch is seen in perfect construction1 and the ,doric frieze2 above is seen a little ,ionic column4 ,etruscan architecture was mostly a kind of ,doric with a round shaft4 ,according to ,vitruvius the ,etruscan temple consisted of three cells1 with one or more rows of columns in front1 the distance between the columns1 or intercolumniation1 being much greater than in ,greek temples4 ,sometimes the temple consisted of a circular cell only and a porch1 like the later development of this form in the ,roman temple at ,tivoli1 and the ,mausoleum of ,hadrian4 ,many ,etruscan tombs have been found1 consisting of rock-built and detached structures4 ,some of the rock-built tombs at ,castel d',asso have beams and rafters cut out of the rock in imitation of wooden construction1 and also figures cut out in high relief all around the chambers4 ,great quantities of vessels in pottery and metal-work objects1 and also jewellery1 have been found in recesses of the walls and roofs of these chambers4 ,the temple of ,jupiter ,capitolinus at ,rome was an ,etruscan building4 ,the ,etruscan religion was dark and full of superstition2 their gods were mostly deities of the thunder and lightning and subterranean spirits rather than divinities of comfort and mercy1 and the ,romans adopted most of them in their mythology4 ,the ,romans having mastered the principle of the arch1 made very good use of it4 ,the greater number of their principal buildings were erected in a mixture of the arch and trabeated system4 ,the ,roman ,doric and ,ionic orders were ill-proportioned in their various members1 bad in profiling1 and also very heavy in appearance4 ,the ,theatre of ,marcellus is an example of the former in its lower columns1 and the ,temple of ,fortuna ,virilis an example of the latter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjd4--,roman ,corinthian1 half ,capital of ,mars ,ultor4 ,the ,tuscan order is noted for a more elegant development of the ,etruscan smooth column1 and a great projection of cornice4 ,a good example of this order may be seen in the portico of ,st4 ,paul's ,church in ,covent ,garden1 ,london1 designed by ,inigo ,jones4 ,illustration3 ,fig #cje4--,roman ,corinthian1 ,entablature1 ,capital1 and ,base of the ,pantheon4 ,the ,corinthian order received better treatment at the hands of the ,romans2 some of their buildings are fine examples of this order4 ,some of the ,roman ,corinthian capitals are well designed1 and have a very grand and imposing effect1 as that of the ,mars ,ultor 7,fig4 #cjd7 and the ,pantheon4 ,the ,mars ,ultor capital is undoubtedly fine and rich in the extreme2 that of the ,pantheon is more restrained2 and in both of them is used the olive-leaf variety of acanthus1 each tine or leaflet of which is hollowed out2 and thus the whole capital in a full light would have a sparkling effect of light and shade1 so that even at a great height and distance from the eye none of the modelling would be lost to sight4 ,the ,roman ,corinthian has more mouldings1 and has modillions or brackets in the cornice instead of the usual ,greek dentils 7,fig4 #cje74 ,the entablature from the ,temple of ,jupiter ,tonans 7,fig4 #cjf7 is an example of the inordinate love of over-richness and display that was so characteristic of the ,romans4 ,the ,baths of ,caracalla and of ,diocletian are the only ones that have remained to us in any state of preservation1 and show from the remains what splendid examples of public buildings they must have been4 ,they were built of brick mostly1 and lined with stucco on which frescoes were painted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjf4--,roman ,corinthian1 ,entablature of ,jupiter ,tonans4 ,the ,baths of ,caracalla1 at the foot of the ,aventine ,hill1 were erected ,a4,d4 #bag4 ,they covered a rectangular piece of ground about #a1aej feet each way1 and were a great assemblage of bath-rooms1 public and private1 of cold1 vapour1 and hot baths2 swimming and other kinds of bath1 gymnasium hall1 libraries1 reading-rooms1 assembly halls1 c41 all comprised under the one roof1 surrounding the open courtyard in which was the principal swimming bath1 in a building #gcj ft4 by #chj ft4 in dimension4 ,in the centre and at the back of this group of buildings was a circular hall1 with a domed roof1 called the ,solar cell1 the walls of which were lined with brass4 ,some of the finest of ,roman statuary adorned these halls4 ,the principal hall of the ,baths of ,diocletian1 erected at the beginning of the fourth century ,a4,d4 is called the ,ephebeum1 and is still used as the ,church of ,santa ,maria ,degli ,angeli4 ,it is almost #cjj ft4 long by #ij ft4 wide1 and was restored by ,michelangelo4 ,its roof consists of three great cross vaults supported by eight granite columns1 #de ft4 in height4 ,another class of buildings that the ,romans were fond of was the amphitheatres4 ,remains of them have been found throughout the ,roman ,empire1 the most stupendous of which was the ,coliseum or ,flavian ,amphitheatre4 ,it was begun by the ,emperor ,vespasian and finished by his son ,titus1 and its ruins still attest to its greatness4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjg4--;,bas-relief on the ,arch of ,titus4 7,p4 ,c47 ,it is elliptical in plan1 is four stories in height2 the three lowest are pierced with eighty openings1 semi-circular arched1 with columns and piers between4 ,the first story is ,doric1 the second ,ionic1 and the third ,corinthian4 ,each column and pier is raised on a stylobate1 and the columns carry entablatures continuously around the building4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjh4--;,jewish ,candlestick1 ,arch of ,titus4 7,p4 ,c47 ,an almost solid wall is the feature of the fourth story1 which has a series of ,corinthian pilasters1 and projecting brackets for carrying the awning poles4 ,the faade is built of stone quarried from the neighbouring hills1 and the interior portions are built of brick4 ,the dimensions are #fbj ft4 in length1 #eac ft4 wide1 and #afb ft4 in height4 ,double corridors run around the building on each floor1 and it had seats for more than #hj1jjj spectators4 ,chariot races1 mimic sea-fights1 when the arena would be flooded artificially with water1 gladiatorial combats1 and fights with wild animals and bulls1 were among the amusements of the ,romans that were performed in the amphitheatres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cji4--,roman ,composite ,order1 from the ,arch of ,titus4 ,other monuments1 such as triumphal columns and arches1 were erected by the ,emperors to commemorate their victories1 and these were of the most elaborate and rich description4 ,the column of ,marcus ,aurelius1 known as the ,antonine column1 and the column of ,trajan set up by that ,emperor in ,trajan's ,forum at ,rome in commemoration of his victory over the ,dacians1 are the two best known of these commemorative monuments4 ,the latter column has been reproduced1 and a cast of it may be seen in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,the original is nearly #acc ft4 high1 and is richly sculptured with bas-reliefs on marble slabs fastened together in a spiral form around the central structure4 ,the order is ,doric1 the shaft being set up on a large pedestal with very fine sculptures of figures1 armour1 and inscriptions4 ,the triumphal arches are rectangular masses of masonry with arched openings1 sometimes with one arch and sometimes three1 a large one and two smaller ones1 as the arches of ,constantine and ,septimus ,severus2 and sometimes smaller ones had piers and pilasters with a lintel entablature instead of an arch1 as in the ,goldsmith's ,arch in ,rome4 ,the arch of ,titus 7erected to commemorate the taking of ,jerusalem ,a4,d4 #gj71 which is one of the finest of these monuments1 is interesting for two reasons3 one is that it has reliefs on it recording the capture of ,jerusalem1 with the representation of the seven-branched golden candlestick of the ,temple 7,figs4 #cjg1 #cjh71 and the other is that the arch itself is one of the finest examples of the architectural order that was created by the ,romans--the ,composite--7,fig4 #cji71 which is a grafting of the ,ionic on the ,corinthian4 ,the decoration of this order is extremely rich in character3 the lower half of the capital has the ,corinthian leaves1 while the upper half is almost the whole of the ,ionic voluted capital added2 the cornice has both the ,ionic dentils and the ,corinthian modillions4 ,the arch of ,septimus ,severus and the ,baths of ,diocletian are of the ,composite order4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,ornament4 ,greek ornament--as found on the carved mouldings1 friezes1 acroteria1 antifexes1 and capitals1 or1 as in the painted variety1 found on vases1 plain mouldings1 bands1 plates1 and other surface decorations1 or incised on the bronze cist and mirrors--was of a severe and refined order1 almost all of which had its birthplace in ,egyptian and ,assyrian forms1 that in the first instances were used in a symbolic sense1 but under the hands of ,greek artists had lost all their former meaning1 and were developed and partly transformed into a wealth of purely sthetic forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caj4--;,greek ,frets4 ,the simplest forms were frets or the so-called key pattern 7,figs4 #caj1 #caa1 and #cae74 ,the word meander is sometimes applied to the ,greek frets2 this is not correct1 as the word implies a curved line1 not a rectangular one4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caa4--;,greek ,carved ,fret4 ,the guilloche1 snare-work1 or cable ornament1 is used on flat bands1 and also as the decoration of torus mouldings 7,figs4 #cab and #cac74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cab4--,treble ,guilloche ,ornament4 ,the ,greeks used the honeysuckle pattern in an endless variety of forms both in carving and in painting1 examples of which are at ,figs4 #cad and #cae4 ,the ivy was used very much in borders of their painted vases 7,fig4 #caf74 ,the ogee moulding was usually decorated with the water-leaf and tongue ornament1 and the ovolo with the characteristic egg and tongue1 and the round fillets with beads and reels4 ,a fine example of this group of decorated mouldings comes from the ,temple of ,minerva ,polias at ,athens 7,fig #cag74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cac4--;,double ,guilloche4 ,an elongated type of the egg and tongue comes from the ,erectheum 7,fig4 #cah74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cad4--;,anthemion 7carved71 from ,apollo ,epicurius4 ,the ,greeks seldom used large scrolls in ornament2 an exception is the scroll ornament from the roof of the ,lysikrates monument1 and in the ,corinthian cauliculi or volutes 7see ,fig4 #cjb74 ,the ,greek variety of acanthus foliage is seen in the capital from the same monument4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cae4--;,greek ,border with ,fret ,bands4 ,roman architectural ornament was simply ,greek with a few variations1 not always improvements4 ,it was less refined1 but in some cases1 especially in the examples of large acanthus scrolls on friezes1 panels1 and pilasters 7,fig4 #cai71 and in their large capitals1 the ornament was designed with great skill and virility4 ,they used the softer-leaved variety of acanthus--the mollis--while the ,greeks used the spinosus1 or prickly-leaved variety4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caf4--;,greek ,ivy ,meander ,border4 ,the decorations of the ,roman mouldings were less elegant than those of the ,greeks1 owing to the contours being segments of circles where the ,greeks used forms like conic sections1 and the execution was less artistic in the ,roman mouldings 7,figs4 #cbj1 #cba1 #cbb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cag4--;,decorated ,mouldings from the ,temple of ,minerva ,polias2 ,ogee ,ovolo1 and ,beads4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cah4--,the ,ovolo1 with ,egg and ,tongue1 from the ,erectheum4 ,the domestic architecture of ,greece is guessed at by the remains of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum1 which1 though ,roman provincial cities1 were in style and decoration a fair reflection of ,greek art4 ,the remains of the art found in these cities have been styled ,greco-,roman4 ,the destruction of ,pompeii was in the year ,a4,d4 #gi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cai4--;,ancient ,roman ,panel1 ,florence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbj4--,ovolo and ,astragal ,mouldings2 ,roman4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cba4--,ogee and ,fluted ,cavetto ,moulding2 ,jupiter ,tonans4 ,the general arrangement of a ,roman house was rectangular in plan1 with1 and sometimes without1 a vestibule in front4 ,the front door opened on a passage called the prothyrum which led to the atrium1 an open court partly roofed2 the opening was in the centre1 and was called the impluvium2 exactly under it in the floor was a tank called the compluvium2 this received the rain water4 ,in large houses the atrium roof was supported by columns1 then the atrium was sometimes called the cavdium1 at the end of which opened out three rooms the larger and central one was called the tablinum1 and the two side ones al2 these were the rooms where the family records1 documents1 histories1 deeds1 c41 were kept4 ,a passage led from the atrium to the principal private reception-room1 called the peristylium1 which had a roof partly open to the sky4 ,this room was the finest in the house1 and was richly decorated with rare marbles1 bronzes1 and fresco paintings where the owner was wealthy4 ,round the peristyle were arranged the smaller rooms1 such as the parlours called exedr1 the chapels lararia1 and the picture galleries pinacothec4 ,kitchens and other offices were behind1 as also were the various sleeping-rooms4 ,some of the rooms were badly lighted1 and had to depend for the light from the doors or artificial light1 but in some cases windows1 rather small in size1 were placed high up in the walls4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbb4--,ogee ,decorated1 and ,astragal2 ,jupiter ,stator4 ,the walls of the ,pompeian houses were richly decorated in strong colouring1 where vermilion1 black1 green1 and orange predominated4 ,the subjects were figure groups1 animals1 birds1 and grotesques of all kinds1 encased in fantastic architectural framings 7,fig4 #cbc74 ,sometimes a dead wall of the yard would be painted elaborately to represent a garden4 ,sculpture also decorated the apartments1 the floors were in mosaic1 and the ceiling richly panelled and decorated4 ,roman1 ,greek1 and ,pompeian ornament will again be noticed in the second volume under the minor arts of these countries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbc4--,mural ,painting from ,pompeii4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,indian ,,art ,,and ,,architecture4 ,an ,aryan race of people came into ,india about ,b4,c4 #bjjj across the ,upper ,indus4 ,they settled in the first instance in the ,punjab1 in the watershed of the ,sutlej and the ,jumna1 and finally in ,oude and the east4 ,after one thousand years they lost their purity of race by mixing with the aboriginal natives4 ,about this time the prophet ,sakya ,muni1 or ,buddha1 arose1 and apparently succeeded in converting nearly the whole of ,northern ,india to ,buddhism4 ,he died in ,b4,c4 #edc1 and three hundred years after his death1 or about ,b4,c4 #bej1 ,king ,asoka proclaimed ,buddhism as the state religion1 and for about one thousand years after it continued as the state religion of ,india1 although at the present day there are said to be no native ,buddhists in ,india4 ,historic art in ,india began in ,asoka's reign4 ,the earlier rock-tombs and other architecture of ,asoka's time are evidently stone copies of still earlier wooden constructions4 ,monuments consisting of edict columns or lats1 peculiar to this period1 have been found in isolated positions erected to the honour of ,buddha in the neighbourhood of ,allahabad and ,delhi2 they are above thirty-three feet in height1 and have a curved1 inverted1 bell-shaped capital on which probably stood a wheel1 the emblem1 or a lion1 the symbol1 of ,buddha4 ,this capital is similar in form to the base of a ,persian column1 and some of the ornamentation around the neck of the column is composed of ,greek and ,assyrian forms1 all of which proves that the early ,indian art owes something to ,assyria1 ,persia1 and ,greece 7,fig4 #cbd74 ,probably this came about by the subjugation of ,persia by ,alexander the ,great1 who is said to have pushed his conquests as far as the banks of the ,indus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbd4--,ornament from ,asoka's ,pillar1 ,allahabad4 7,b47 ,the next great immigration that we hear about is that of the ,southern ,dravidian people1 who crossed the ,lower ,indus to ,guzerat1 and in course of time had settled themselves in the southern angle of ,india1 in the ,madras ,presidency4 ,they were a great building race of people4 ,another immigration took place in the first or second century ,b4,c41 and continued for some centuries after the ,christian era4 ,these people occupied nearly the western half of ,india1 and erected buildings from ,mysore in the south to ,delhi in the north4 ,this architecture is known as the ,chalukya and ,jaina styles4 ,the fourth great immigration was that of the ,mohammedans from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries4 ,the four principal styles of ,indian architecture are the ,buddhist1 the ,dravidian1 the ,northern ,hindoo1 and the ,chalukyan or ,jaina4 ,in addition to the edict-pillars as illustrations of ,buddhist architecture1 many solid mounds of masonry1 called topes1 dagobas1 or stupas1 are found in some parts of the ,punjab and north of ,india4 ,these are relic-mounds1 erected over the supposed relics of ,buddha and of ,buddhist priests1 and are sometimes erected alone to the honour of ,buddha4 ,one of the most important is the ,sanchi ,tope in ,bhopal1 ,central ,india 7,fig4 #cbe74 ,mr4 ,ferguson1 in his 8,study of ,indian ,architecture10 describes this remarkable monument as follows3 8,it was built probably 7the tope7 ,b4,c4 #ejj1 the stone railing ,b4,c4 #bej1 and the gateways ,a4,d4 #ai to #cg4 ,the principal part of the building consists of a dome #ajf feet in diameter and #db feet in height4 ,the fence by which this tope is surrounded is extremely curious4 ,it consists of stone posts #h feet #h inches in height1 and a little more than #b feet apart1 surmounted by a plain architrave1 and between every two uprights three horizontal cross-pieces of stone are inserted4 ,still more curious are the four stone torans or gateways1 one of which--the eastern--is shown at ,fig4 #cbe4 ,it consists of two square pillars covered with sculptures1 and with bold elephant capitals1 rising to a height of #ah feet #d inches4 ,above these are four lintels slightly curved upwards in the centre1 and ending in ,ionic scrolls2 they are supported by continuations of the columns1 and three uprights are inserted between the lintels4 ,all this construction is covered over with elaborate sculpture1 and surmounted by emblems4 ,the total height is #cc feet #f inches40 ,sir ,g4 ,birdwood says3 8,the symbols are the trisula1 the wheel1 and the lion1 representing the ,buddhistic triad1 ,buddha1 the law1 and the congregation4 ,the ground plan of the stupas or topes1 with the return railings and the projecting doorways or entrances1 form a gigantic swastika 7#8auspicious''71 the mystic cross 7fylfot7 of the ,buddhists40 ,ferguson says the ,buddhist dagoba is a direct descendant of the sepulchral tumulus of the ,turanian races1 like those found in ,etruria1 ,lydia1 and among the ,scyths of the ,northern ,steppes4 ,it is plainly seen that the details of ,buddhistic ornament are derived from ,greek and ,assyrian sources mixed with ,buddhist emblems2 a few native ideas may be seen in the construction1 and in the substituting of the ,indian elephant for the ,assyrian or ,persian bull4 ,a fine cast of the ,sanchi gateway may be seen in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbe4--,the ,sanchi ,tope1 ,bhopal1 ,central ,india4 ,as an example of ,hindu or ,brahminical architecture the rock-cut temple at ,ellora1 called the ,kylas1 or 8,paradise10 is one of the finest and most wonderful 7,fig4 #cbf74 ,the interior of the temple is not only cut out of the solid rock1 but the exterior also1 with its wonderfully rich square porch1 and its two great square pillars or deepdans 7lamposts7 left standing in front1 all literally cut out of the solid rock4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbf4--;,brahminical ,rock-,temple at ,ellora4 ,the interior1 which has excited the wonder and admiration of all travellers1 is rectangular in plan2 the pillars are square and very short in proportion to their breadth2 the bases are composed of plinth1 circular hollows1 and a torus moulding2 the square shaft is fluted1 the upper extremity of which is convex and ornamented with foliage2 and above this are rings1 neck1 and a capital in the shape of a depressed sphere4 ,above the capital are bracket supports1 on which the beams rest4 ,the roof is panelled1 and each panel has a central floral decoration4 ,the ,kylas was supposed to have been cut out of the rock by the ,southern ,dravidians4 ,the ,hindu or ,brahminical temples of the earliest type exhibit a marked imitation of timber construction in almost every detail 7,fig4 #cbg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbg4--,temple of ,biskurma at ,ellora4 ,brahminical architecture has three varieties--the ,dravidian1 which is common to the ,dakhan1 south of the ,kistna2 the ,chalukyan1 between the ,kistna and the ,mahanuddi2 and the ,indo-,aryan1 which prevails in ,hindustan4 ,the ,dravidian temple is characterized by a horizontal system of storied towers1 and has a grand and imposing look of solemnity4 ,examples of ,dravidian architecture occur in the temples at ,seringham1 ,tinnevelly1 ,madura1 ,perin1 ,vellore1 c4 ,the ,chalukyan is distinguished by its star-like plan and pyramidal tower4 ,the great double temple of ,siva at ,hullabeed1 ,mysore1 is an example of this architecture4 ,it is remarkable for its rich system of sculptured friezes4 ,the building is raised from the ground by a terrace five or six feet in height2 above this is an extraordinary frieze of two thousand sculptured elephants2 the next frieze above is composed of lions1 then a band of rich floriated scroll-work2 above this is a frieze of horsemen1 then another band of scroll-work2 and over this appears the frieze with the conquest of ,ceylon by ,rama2 other friezes and bands above this are divided by mouldings1 and have celestial birds and beasts2 a scroll-work cornice over all supporting a rail divided into panels1 in each of which are two figures4 ,windows of pierced stone are over these1 and groups of sculptured gods of the ,hindu pantheon at regular intervals4 ,the usual towers are wanting in this wonderful building1 and doubtless would have been added afterwards had not the work been stopped owing to the ,mohammedan invasion in ,a4,d4 #acaj4 ,other temples of the ,chalukyan style are seen at ,somnathpur1 at ,baillur1 in ,mysore1 and at ,buchropully4 ,the ,jainas sect makes its appearance in ,india about the seventh or eight century4 ,they did not believe in the divine inspiration of the ,vedas1 or sacred books of the ,hindus1 but as long as they observed caste and acknowledged the gods of the ,hindu pantheon--which they strictly did--the ,brahmans did not question any other of their particular beliefs1 and refrained from persecuting them4 ,if the ,buddhists1 for instance1 had only conformed to the observance of caste1 they would never have been driven out of ,india by the ,hindu devotees of caste4 ,the ,jainas are peculiar in their worship of their four-and-twenty saints called 8,jins40 ,the architecture of the ,jainas began when the ,buddhist was dying out4 ,one of the characteristics of ,jaina architecture is the horizontal archway1 and another is the bracket form of capital 7,fig4 #cbh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbh4--,pillar and ,bracket1 ,doorway of a ,pagoda4 ,jaina temples are found at ,palatina and ,girnar in ,gujarat1 and the famous 8,tower of ,victory10 erected to commemorate the victory of the ,rajput raja ,khambo over ,mahmud of ,malwa1 ,a4,d4 #adci4 ,an interesting illustration of the transition of ,indian architecture to ,mohammedan forms occurs in the ,mosque of ,mohfiz ,khan1 at ,ahmedabad4 ,this mosque was built in the sixteenth century1 and is ,hindu in character1 with a ,saracenic influence in the decoration and other details4 ,the great omissions in the sculptures are the animal and figure forms1 so dear to the ,hindu artist1 but the ,moslem religion forbids the representation of these1 and in place of figures in the window spaces we see some of the first indications of ,saracenic tracery1 executed most likely by ,hindu workmen4 ,these windows are typical of1 and similar to1 the exceedingly fine tracery of the windows of the ,buddha at ,ahmedabad1 which consist of beautiful stems and floral tracery4 ,from the eighth to the eighteenth centuries ,india was subject to the invasions of the ,arabs1 the ,afghans1 and ,mongols1 who devastated the country and sacked and pillaged many of the finest ,hindu shrines1 and1 on the other hand1 built some magnificent mosques and palaces1 in which the ,saracenic influences are predominant4 ,the palace of ,delhi was built in #afbg-afeh by the ,mongol ,emperor ,shah ,jehan1 the king who built the present city of ,delhi1 which city contains the finest examples of the ,mohammedan style in ,india4 ,the ,dewanne ,khas1 or principal hall of the palace of ,delhi 7,fig4 #cbi71 is a very rich and ornate example of this style4 ,it is vaulted like a ,gothic cathedral and is inlaid throughout with rich marbles and mosaic work4 ,it has a niche inlaid with precious stones in which once stood the famous peacock throne of ,delhi4 ,the throne was made in enamelled work1 in the shape of a peacock with a spread-out tail1 and was set with diamonds and precious stones to imitate the natural colours of the peacock4 ,it was carried off by ,nadir ,shah at the sacking of ,delhi1 ,a4,d4 #agch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbi4--;,interior of the ,palace at ,delhi2 ,seventeenth ,century4 ,around the frieze of one of the halls of this palace runs the famous inscription1 8,if there is a heaven on earth1 it is this1 it is this40 ,one of the loveliest and most impressive buildings in ,india is the ,taj ,mehal at ,agra1 on the river ,jumna4 ,it is in ,mohammedan style with domes and minarets1 and is erected on a platform #cjj feet square and #ah feet in height4 ,it was erected by the ,emperor ,shah ,jehan about #afde as the tomb of his favourite wife4 ,the ,emperor himself is also buried in the ,taj4 ,on the centre of the platform is the tomb1 #ahf feet square1 with the corners cut off2 over this rises the dome1 #eh feet in diameter and #hj feet in height4 ,the outside of the building is faced with white marble1 inlaid with beautiful designs in coloured marbles and precious stones4 ,the effect of this beautiful building in its dazzling whiteness surrounded by luxuriant vegetation1 as seen under a moonlit sky1 is said to be enchanting and beyond description4 ,the industrial arts of ,india will be noticed in the second volume of this work4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,chinese ,,and ,,japanese ,,architecture4 ,the architecture of ,china does not possess what we might call a serious character4 ,founded mainly on ,buddhistic elements1 as far as the more important efforts of their temple architecture is concerned1 the only original development that marks the ,chinese structural design is the pagoda tower--in itself really a ,buddhistic idea--but the ,chinese have the credit of carrying it further in their ,taas or ,pagodas by placing story upon story until sometimes a great height was attained2 as1 for example1 in the great porcelain tower at ,nankin1 which is #bjj feet in height1 consists of nine stories1 and is #dj feet in diameter at the base4 ,each story diminishes in size1 and the concave roof of every lower story is in front of the receding one above4 ,varnished pillars1 resting on a deep stone basement1 support the verandah-like roof of the lowest story1 and a fence of gilded trellis-work surrounds the lower half of the pillars4 ,the eaves of the roofs curl upwards and end in points from which bells are suspended4 ,carved dragons peer out from under the rafters1 and the whole building1 inside and out1 as well as the roof tiles1 is faced with white porcelain slabs or tiles fastened to the inner brick structure2 some parts--the roofs especially--are painted in alternating bands of green1 yellow1 and red4 ,the greater part of the ,chinese houses are wooden constructions1 and have movable walls of various materials1 which slide in framework4 ,the walls do not support the roof1 which is1 as a rule1 supported on posts1 independent of them4 ,in the gateways to the ,confucian temples some attempts at architectural construction are seen1 where a column would have a proper capital and a base1 and a lintel or arched opening would appear4 ,these ,pae-lus or triumphal gates have the usual fantastic curled roofs so peculiar to ,chinese architecture 7,fig4 #ccj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccj4--;,gateway of the ,temple of ,confucius1 ,shanghai4 ,the genius of the ,chinese as great builders and engineers is expressed better in their works of public utility1 as in their finely-constructed bridges1 their canals1 and more particularly in the ,great ,wall1 built to protect their country from the incursions of the ,northern hordes1 and which is a monument at the same time to their native love of exclusiveness from surrounding nations4 ,the ,great ,wall was built about ,b4,c4 #bjj1 is #a1djj miles long1 #ae to #cj feet in height1 #be feet thick at the base1 and slopes upwards to #bj feet in width at the top4 ,it has bastions or towers of defence at intervals1 which are #dj feet square at the base1 and the wall is carried over hills and mountains regardless of all obstacles4 ,their country is a network of canals1 some of which are #gjj miles in length4 ,notwithstanding all this1 they are no further advanced in architecture than they were two thousand years ago1 or1 indeed1 in hardly any of the arts4 ,at the same time the ,chinese are remarkably skilled in porcelain manufacture1 silk weaving1 embroidery1 colour printing1 ivory and jade carving1 enamelling1 metal-working1 casting1 and decorative painting4 ,their ornament is very conventional and rich in colouring1 but their ornamental forms are limited1 and their decoration so full of repetition that it becomes very monotonous when judged by a ,european standard4 ,the architecture of ,japan differs very slightly from that of ,china1 as it is either an offshoot from the older civilisation of ,china1 or has been derived from the same sources1 through the ,buddhist religion4 ,some changes have occurred in the architecture of ,japan in recent years owing to the more extended use of stone in their buildings1 which has been brought about by their interchange of ideas with ,western nations4 ,their ,buddhist temples are similar to the ,chinese1 with their curious turned-up roofs1 but the ,shinto temples are usually covered with roofs that have great projecting eaves1 which do not turn up at the angles4 ,the porches or gateways 7,torii7 to the temples are built in stone1 but in imitation of their earlier wooden construction2 they are of the pillar-and-beam order1 and recall somewhat the construction1 on a smaller scale1 of the 8torans0 or gateways of the ,sanchi ,tope in ,india 7,fig4 #cbe74 ,the ,japanese carve their wooden rafters1 beams1 posts1 lintels1 and stringcourses very skilfully1 with conventional ornament1 dragons1 and grotesque animals4 ,the better class of ,japanese dwellings are usually of two stories2 the lower story has a verandah1 and the upper one is recessed back1 and is smaller than the lower1 which produces a pleasing effect4 ,their walls are1 like the ,chinese1 more or less movable partitions4 ,japanese ornament and industrial art 7which will be treated in another place7 is more virile1 has more variety1 and is more artistic in execution1 though governed less by architectural arrangement1 than the art of the ,chinese4 ,the ,japanese are1 however1 every day becoming more impregnated with ,western ideas1 and1 as a consequence1 their wonderful artistic feeling and native refinement of design1 execution1 and colouring are in a fair way of losing those seductive qualities that hitherto have characterized the artistic productions of these interesting people4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,early ,,christian ,,and ,,byzantine ,,architecture4 ,for the first three centuries after the birth of ,christ the early ,christians suffered much persecution and martyrdom4 ,the new religion was ridiculed and despised1 and the converts of the new faith were obliged to hold their meetings and to worship in secret1 which they did in the narrow but extensive catacombs in which they secretly buried their dead4 ,the catacombs are found chiefly in the neighbourhood of ,rome and ,naples1 and are cut in the dark soft tufa stone1 in the nature of long passages1 winding and doubling in their labyrinthine twistings4 ,some of these passages are so narrow as to barely admit of one person to pass in height or width4 ,on either side of these narrow ways are cut out openings just large enough for the bodies of deceased persons to be deposited4 ,the body of the deceased was thus thrust into the narrow tomb1 and with it was buried a flask of sacred oil4 ,the entrance was then closed with a stone1 on which would be engraved the name or initials of the dead4 ,some of the catacombs were hollowed out in places into lofty and capacious chambers and niches4 ,these were used as chapels for the early ,christian worship1 the walls and ceilings of which were decorated with paintings of a very primitive character4 ,the more important of these catacombs in which chapel-like rooms are found are those of ,s4 ,calisto1 ,s4 ,sebastiano1 ,s4 ,lorenzo1 and ,s4 ,agnese1 at ,rome2 and at ,naples those of ,s4 ,mario della ,sanita1 ,s4 ,gennara de ,poveri1 and ,s4 ,maria della ,vita4 ,constantine became ,emperor of the ,romans 7,a4,d4 #cab-ccg71 and in the course of his reign embraced1 or professed1 ,christianity1 and proclaimed it the state religion4 ,after this event freedom was allowed the converts of the new faith to celebrate their love-feasts in a public and open manner4 ,it was found difficult all at once to provide the necessary buildings for this purpose1 and we hear of the heathen temples and great halls of the ,roman baths being used as ,christian churches--the ,pantheon at ,rome was used for this purpose--but few of these buildings were large enough or of the right shape to hold large masses of the faithful1 and at the same time to provide for the celebration of the worship by the bishops and priests in presence of the congregation1 besides the objection of having the odour of heathenism still clinging to them4 ,the supposed model for the early ,christian churches was found in the halls of justice and commerce of the ,roman times4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether the early ,christian architecture owed so much to the basilica form of justice halls as has been so generally supposed4 ,the general plan of the basilica churches was rectangular1 with a semicircular portion added to the back1 as the plan of the apse2 in the front was the atrium1 a free quadrangular fore-court surrounded with pillars4 ,this was usually roofed on the four sides1 with an opening in the centre1 like the atrium of a ,roman house4 ,next to the atrium was the narthex1 or porch1 which led to the church direct4 ,sometimes there was only the narthex without the atrium4 ,a central avenue1 or nave1 with two aisles1 and the semicircular apse at the end of the nave1 was the usual interior form of the early basilicas4 ,the nave was wide and lofty1 and was usually divided from the aisles by two rows of columns1 and from the apse by a large semicircular arch4 ,the capitals of the columns carried the arcaded upper story1 in the walls of which were the windows that lighted the church4 ,in the oldest type of the basilica there was no window in the apse1 so this portion of the church was bathed in a mysterious twilight1 adding a poetic charm to the gold mosaics with which the roof of the apse was decorated4 ,sometimes windows were introduced into the low walls of the aisles2 the aisles were covered with shed-like wooden roofs1 which were supported on trussed framework4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cca4--;,ambo or ,pulpit from ,st4 ,george's at ,salonica4 ,sometimes the trusses were ceiled1 and on the ceilings were painted scriptural subjects4 ,the wall spaces of the second story in the nave were also occupied with paintings of sacred subjects4 ,the floor of the apse was raised higher than that of the nave1 and was approached by steps2 seats were placed around the wall of the apse for the priests1 and in the centre was the elevated throne for the bishops4 ,a portion of the nave space was sometimes appropriated for the choir1 screened off by a marble structure1 and at either end of the choir were placed the 8ambos0 or pulpits 7,fig4 #cca74 ,the altar was in the centre of the apse1 generally over the tomb of a ,christian martyr1 and underneath all1 or sometimes a portion only of the church1 was the crypt4 ,the nave usually had three entrance doors1 and the aisles one or more each4 ,as the heathen religions1 and consequently the ancient temples1 fell into disuse1 there was plenty of building materials ready formed and dressed1 which the architects of the new buildings appropriated for their own purposes in the erection of the basilicas4 ,this accounts for the great number of ,roman ,corinthian and ,ionic columns found in the buildings of the early ,christian architecture1 and we often find that when an ancient column was too short1 it was simply raised on a higher base1 and if too long it was cut down to fit its new position4 ,it was generally in the later basilicas that this occurred1 as might be expected1 for the earlier basilicas are richer and better decorated in their beautiful details1 seeing that the early ,christian builders had the first choice of the rich ornamental work of architectural sculpture that had belonged to the ancient ,roman temples4 ,the church of ,s4 ,apollinare in ,classe at ,ravenna may be cited as one of the most finished and most beautiful of the early basilicas1 which was erected with much of this old material4 ,although the ,christian architects and artists were slow in producing new forms of plastic art1 as long as they could adapt the existing fragments of architectural sculpture to their uses2 on the other hand1 the art of painting and decorating by mosaic pictures on the great spaces of the walls and ceilings of the basilicas was developed to a high degree of monumental splendour1 and brilliant effects were gained by the use of gold and bright colours4 ,mosaics as wall decoration in the basilicas were suggested by the paintings in the catacombs4 ,these primitive paintings were borrowed in their form and essence from ancient mythological works4 ,at first1 some of the earliest efforts at decoration in the catacombs consisted merely of monograms and symbols1 such as the ,greek letters ,alpha and ,omega1 and the initials or monogram of ,christ4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccb4--,painting from the ,catacomb of ,s4 ,agnese4 ,the use of these doubtless arose from the desire to deprecate anything that savoured of the images of heathendom1 but evidently the early ,christians soon arrived at the idea that painting might be admissible in a church where sculptured images could not be tolerated--the latter reminding them too much of the sculptured deities of the ancients--and consequently we find that the painted subjects from the heathen ,pantheon were adapted by the artists who decorated the catacombs1 but the figure of ,christ was introduced where formerly a ,roman god was the personage1 thereby giving the mythological subject a new ,christian meaning4 ,in the catacombs of ,s4 ,agnese ,christ is represented as the 8,good ,shepherd10 carrying on his shoulders the lamb that had been lost 7,fig4 #ccb72 and in the catacombs of ,s4 ,calixtus1 on a wall painting1 he is portrayed under the type and figure of ,orpheus1 charming all nature with his music 7,fig4 #ccc74 ,in the central octagonal panel he is represented with a harp1 surrounded by the beasts and birds of the field4 ,in the eight compartments around the central panel1 four landscapes alternate with four figure subjects3--,moses striking water out of the rock1 and opposite1 ,christ raising ,lazarus1 who is represented as a mummy2 ,daniel in the lions' den1 and opposite this1 ,david with the sling4 ,the heathen subjects of ,cupid and ,psyche1 and others1 have been used to represent ,christian symbols4 ,in sculpture1 there are some remains of early ,christian art in which the figures of ,christ and his ,apostles are clothed in the dress1 and worked somewhat in the spirit1 of the antique4 ,the sarcophagus under the pulpit of ,s4 ,ambrogio at ,milan is a good example of this kind of art4 ,some ivory carvings of this period have been executed as tablets1 with scriptural subjects1 after the manner of the ,roman ,consular diptychs4 ,these ivory carvings1 that exhibit a true spirit of the antique in their design1 are not to be confounded with the later ,byzantine diptychs that were executed in a more archaic style4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccc4--,wall ,painting from the ,catacombs of ,s4 ,calixtus4 ,during the fifth century1 and even in the latter part of the fourth1 we see the more cheerful spirit of the antique character dying out1 and the art of the time exhibits a greater importance and attention which is given to large masses1 while smaller or minor surfaces are left empty1 and decorative detail suppressed4 ,there is an apparent striving to render the figure of the ,redeemer--the chief personage--larger and more important in the scale of the decoration1 and at the same time to give him more individuality4 ,as the technical qualities of the ,christian art diminished1 the majesty and sublimity of the ,great ,teacher was expressed in a more spiritual conception of his divinity4 ,several examples of decoration illustrating this phase of ,christian art occur in the wall paintings in the catacombs of ,s4 ,ponziano at ,rome4 ,the face of ,christ in these representations is full of earnest and mild serenity2 the right hand is raised as if in blessing1 and the left holds the book of life4 ,in the fourth century1 mosaic was used in the basilicas as a means of decorating the apse and walls1 as the ,romans before had used it in their floors and dados4 ,in the hands of the early and inexperienced artists1 the character of the material in mosaic had a great deal to do1 but not all1 in the creating of the type of angular and rigid forms of the figures1 which was transmitted to all subsequent ,christian mosaics4 ,at the same time there was the intense desire to make the figures of ,christ and of other sacred personages of a sorrowful and austere character4 ,we can1 however1 trace in these figures the magisterial dignity that invests the sculptured figures of the ,emperors and ,senators of ,roman art4 ,in ,italy1 the ,christian mosaics assumed more and more a decided breaking away from the traditions of the antique4 ,large masses as single figures were symmetrically arranged1 ornamental details were suppressed1 and bands with inscriptions framed the large spaces of the walls and the apse4 ,the figures were more isolated1 attenuated1 severe of expression1 and leaving much to be desired in their anatomical construction or in the natural movement of the body2 but all this tended to give them that expression of devotional simplicity aimed for by those early mystics1 who only looked on the world as a 8vale of tears40 ,in the vaulted roof of the funeral chapel erected to the memory of the daughter of ,constantine at ,rome--,sta4 ,costanza--some of the earliest mosaic work is to be found1 consisting of an antique treatment of the vine and tendrils used in a symbolic sense2 and in another chapel1 that of the ,empress ,galla ,placida1 at ,ravenna1 similar work is seen1 mixed with symbolic signs1 as the hart--panting for water brooks--a symbol of the soul thirsting for salvation4 ,this chapel was erected ,a4,d4 #ddj4 ,after this time1 and towards the end of the fifth century1 we find the characteristic features of ,christian art more insisted in3 such as the colossal portraits and figures of ,christ1 the isolation of single figures1 the symmetrical grouping of crowds of smaller figures1 and of the representatives of the angel1 bull1 eagle1 and lion1 as winged symbols of the ,evangelists1 all rendered the more impressive by the architectural spacing1 and the plain blue ground which surrounded most of the figures4 ,two churches may be mentioned that contained fine examples of the above type of early ,christian mosaics2 one is the great basilica of ,st4 ,paul1 without the walls at ,rome1 built under ,theodosius and ,honorius about ,a4,d4 #chf1 and the other that of ,st4 ,cosmo e ,damiano in ,rome4 ,the great mosaics in the apse of the latter church were executed between ,a4,d4 #ebf and #ecj by ,pope ,felix ,,iv4 ,the floors of these churches are made of what is known as 8,opus ,alexandrinum10 the finest and grandest floor decoration that exists 7,fig4 #ccd74 ,circular slabs of porphyry and serpentine marble sawn in disks from antique columns are laid down1 and twisted interlacings and rings surround them as bands composed of triangular bits of white1 black1 or coloured marble1 forming simple and effective patterns in a quiet harmony of colour4 ,some of this work may be seen in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccd4--,opus ,alexandrinum ,pavement1 ,san ,marco1 ,rome4 ,in the early part of the sixth century ,christian art in ,italy was at a low ebb1 as by this time nearly all the antique remains and culture had been used up2 but fortunately1 the ,eastern and ,western ,churches were not as yet divided in doctrine1 and a fresh life had been imparted to ,italian art from the ,byzantine culture of the ,eastern ,empire4 ,besides the basilica form of building1 another antique form of early ,christian architecture was developed1 called a 8baptistery10 which generally took the form of a detached building1 with a circular or polygonal plan4 ,in some cases the baptistery adjoins the atrium of the basilica1 but often is a detached building of considerable importance4 ,the structure is supposed to have been suggested by the circular portion of the ,roman baths1 and consists of a circular row of columns supporting the upper structure2 the central portion is surrounded by a low cloister-like aisle1 and the fountain is in the middle of the building4 ,the circular building known as the ,church of ,santa ,costanza in ,rome--the funeral chapel before mentioned--the octagonal baptistery of ,constantine1 and the fine baptistery at ,ravenna1 are examples of this kind of building4 ,another beautiful example is the octagonal baptistery of the ,lateran1 belonging to the fifth century2 it has eight large antique columns1 which support an architrave1 upon which rest another series of eight smaller columns1 carrying another architrave and the domed roof4 ,the whole building has a pleasant and agreeable effect of extreme airiness4 ,,byzantine ,,architecture4 ,the ancient town of ,byzantium1 the modern ,constantinople1 was mostly in ruins when ,constantine the ,great selected it for the new capital of the ,roman ,empire4 ,he rebuilt the old town and named it after himself1 and in the year ,a4,d4 #ccj the inauguration of the new capital was celebrated4 ,later on1 under ,theodosius1 the ,roman ,empire was divided1 and ,constantinople became the capital of the ,eastern portion4 ,it was the great connecting-point between the countries of the ,east and the ,west4 ,the inhabitants of the new city being mostly ,greeks1 the native artists and architects employed by ,constantine imparted a decided ,grecian character to the ornament and decoration1 especially of the churches and other buildings that were erected by this emperor4 ,the occasion of the new political change and the rapid spread of the ,christian religion served to give a great impetus to the building and lavish decoration of churches and public edifices4 ,although the new architecture was founded on the ,roman originals1 yet in the hands of the ,greeks both architecture and ornament assumed a new and original character4 ,from the time of the founding of ,constantinople to the date of ,justinian's reign 7,a4,d4 #ebg-efe71 when the great church of ,santa ,sophia--holy wisdom--was built1 on the ruins of an older church that was said to have been burnt down1 we can guess that it must have been a time of experiments and developments from the basilica type of building to the well-defined domed style of architecture known as the ,byzantine4 ,the timber-roofed and vaulted style of structure now gave place to the dome1 which resulted also in a change of the plan to the square form1 instead of the rectangle4 ,during the two hundred years previous to the building of ,santa ,sophia1 the problem of dome construction1 with others of a difficult nature in building1 had been successfully solved by the ,greek architects of the ,eastern ,empire4 ,justinian employed the ,greeks1 ,anthemius of ,thralles and ,isidorus of ,miletus1 as the architects of ,santa ,sophia1 and they succeeded in erecting a marvellous structure that may justly be reckoned as one of the wonders of the world4 ,four vast piers1 arranged on a square plan1 support four solid arches of masonry1 semicircular in shape1 and #ajj feet span each4 ,the four triangular spaces at the corners and the spaces formed by the angles1 the semicircular arches and portions of the ring of the dome1 are filled with 8pendentives10 which may be described as continuations of the dome4 ,these pendentives partly support the dome1 and the other points of support are on the backs of the great arches4 ,the four pendentives meet in the circular ring from which the dome springs4 ,the dome is #df feet in height from the level of its base1 and #ajg feet in diameter1 and is rather flattish in shape4 ,on the side of the dome1 east and west1 are two half-domes1 which crown apsidal walls4 ,other small apses are domed over at lower levels1 and vaulted aisles of two stories run round the higher portions of the building1 the whole forming almost a cube-like shape4 ,after ,constantinople was captured by the ,turks 7,a4,d4 #adec71 ,santa ,sophia was converted into a mosque and four minarets1 or ,moslem towers1 were added to its outer angles4 ,the interior of this church1 besides the stupendous effect of its unrivalled architectural construction1 has its added beauties and splendour in its inlaid marbles1 its richly carved cornices and arcades 7,fig4 #cce71 and its vaults and domes glittering with gold mosaics of cherubim1 and dignified though gaunt and archaic figures4 ,in the capitals of the columns was used the sharply-edged and undercut acanthus foliage1 more in accordance with the old ,greek type than the ,roman1 but have a distinctly ,byzantine character of its own4 ,sacred signs1 emblems1 and birds were often introduced into the capitals2 the general shape of the latter was a cubical form1 the four faces slanting inwards from above1 this form giving a decided appearance of great supporting and sustaining power 7,figs4 #ccf and #cch74 ,sometimes they were bossed out1 and often contained the elements of the ,ionic and ,corinthian orders 7,figs4 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cci74 ,the wedge-shaped portion on the top of the capital is an ugly but distinctive feature of the ,byzantine style 7,fig4 #cch74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cce4--;,cornice from ,santa ,sophia4 ,the splendour and magnificence of the decoration in ,byzantine churches is proverbial3 the columns were often of porphyry and serpentine marble1 and the supports to the altar canopy 7baldacchino71 the screen 7iconostasis7 and the pulpit 7ambo7 were often inlaid with gold1 silver1 and precious stones4 ,the altar itself was a gorgeous piece of workmanship1 resplendent with gold and enamels1 decorated with hanging lamps1 vases1 and candlesticks1 all wrought in precious metal work1 though the actual design and workmanship was rough and less refined than antique work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccf4--;,capital from ,santa ,sophia1 showing the bossing-out of the ornament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccg4--;,capital from ,st4 ,demetrius at ,salonica4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cch4--;,capital from ,st4 ,demetrius4 ,the floor mosaics had patterns consisting of the cross1 the circle1 and the cube1 with interlacing lines1 the ornamental forms here as elsewhere being of a symbolical character4 ,reliquaries1 shrines1 and chalices in gold1 and enamels1 crosses1 and other accessories of the altar1 and sculptured ivories of a devotional character1 of ,byzantine workmanship1 were made in great abundance4 ,the larger churches especially1 such as ,santa ,sophia1 and ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice1 possessed great quantities of these treasures4 ,sculpture was subordinate to painting as plastic art was not encouraged1 because of the dislike to images shown by the early ,christians1 and so painting which led to the mosaic picture1 which in its turn led to enamelling on metals1 was favoured to a great extent by the ,byzantine artists4 ,even flat bands with inscriptions and ornament were used instead of mouldings in relief4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cci4--;,byzantine ,capital from ,santa ,sophia1 showing the bossing-out of the ornament4 ,the city of ,ravenna being situated between ,constantinople and ,rome possessed some remarkable buildings1 that do not belong exactly to the ,eastern or ,western type of architecture2 but on the other hand have strongly marked influences of each4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdj4--,st4 ,nicholas at ,moscow4 ,the most important is that of the ,church of ,st4 ,vitale2 it is octagonal in plan1 and is like ,santa ,sophia in having a principal central dome1 half-domes1 and vaulted aisles4 ,it is resplendent in elaborate decoration and carvings4 ,the cathedral of ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice is so well known from illustrations and photographs that it requires very little description4 ,it was built in the years ,a4,d4 #igg-ajga1 and its plans are said to have been drawn by ,greek architects at ,constantinople4 ,originally it possessed all the features of a genuine ,byzantine edifice1 but has been altered externally1 and in some places internally in both ,gothic and ,renaissance periods4 ,the ,byzantine domes have had bulbous coverings placed over them in later times4 ,st4 ,mark's like ,santa ,sophia is square in plan1 but has five principal domes1 one in the centre1 and one at each angle or end of the ,greek cross plan4 ,the aisles1 with their series of low-level dome roofs1 make the whole building nearly square4 ,the surrounding countries of ,bulgaria1 ,servia1 ,roumania1 ,armenia1 and ,russia1 which embraced the ,christian religion of the ,greek ,church1 possess examples of ,byzantine architecture4 ,the ,russian type in its later developments has distinctive characteristics of its own1 particularly in the use and shape of the dome4 ,russian churches consist usually of a storied tower on which is placed five small domes of a bulbous shape2 these are built on the tops of elongated drums4 ,the bulbous tops of the domes grow into points1 on which are placed tall crosses4 ,these and other fantastic elements are derived from the timber edifices of ,persia and other ,asiatic countries 7,fig4 #cdj74 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,saracenic ,,architecture ,,and ,,ornament4 ,the architecture of the ,saracens in its most perfect examples has a thoroughly distinctive style of its own1 and their ornament in its pure form is unlike the ornament of any style that has hitherto existed4 ,the originality of the latter arose from the experimenting in ornamental patterns that should have no likeness to plants1 animals1 or other natural forms4 ,this prohibition of the use of objects from nature in their ornament was one of the articles of the ,moslem religion2 but to get any pleasing variety in ornament and leave out all natural reminiscences in the designs is out of human power1 so consequently we have1 even in ,saracenic ornament1 natural forms put through a geometrical process of draughtsmanship4 ,saracenic ornament in what is sometimes called ,arabian has leaf and bud-like forms interlaced with strap-work1 which is often very beautiful and is known under the name of 8,arabesque0 7,figs4 #cda1 #cdb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cda4--;,arabesque ,ornament from the ,wekla of ,kit ,bey4 7,l4-,p47 ,the ,saracens were originally composed of ,arab herdsmen1 nomadic wanderers of the desert1 carriers or merchants1 and dwellers in villages1 who cultivated the land around them4 ,the earliest building of any importance that can be called ,saracenic is the 8,kaaba0 or ,moslem temple at ,mecca1 which contained the sacred brownish-black stone placed by ,mahomet in the south-east angle of this square temple4 ,this black stone is supposed to be a meteorolite1 hemispherical in shape1 and about #f by #h inches in the widest dimension4 ,some hundreds of stone images or 8gods0 used to be worshipped at ,mecca by the ,mohammedans in their early days1 or in what they call their 8days of ignorance10 but these were destroyed by the prophet's orders4 ,mohammed himself was a fanatic that could neither read nor write2 he made up the ,korn from many sources1 such as the ,bible1 the ,apocryphal gospels1 the ,talmud1 and possibly a good many original passages of his own1 which he says he received from the mouth of the angel ,gabriel in visions4 ,the ,mohammedan creed contains its essence in the words3--,there is no ,god1 but ,god1 and ,mohammed is his ,prophet4 ,this text is found very frequently as a decorative legend on the walls of the mosques and on painted tiles4 ,at first ,mohammed's new religion was not favourably received1 for1 after converting his near relations and a few other followers1 he had to fly from ,mecca to ,medina1 to escape assassination4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdb4--,rosette in ,mosque of ,suyurghatmish2 ,seventeenth ,century4 7,l4-,p47 ,the 8,hegira10 or flight of ,mohammed1 took place ,a4,d4 #fbb4 ,he compiled more of his ,korn at ,medina1 and altered parts of it1 especially as regards the punishment of idolaters1 which naturally included his late persecutors4 ,the punishment was to be of an eternal nature in the next world1 and extirpation in this1 unless they embraced ,islmism4 ,mohammed very soon began to make his power felt2 he made a few marauding expeditions throughout the country1 and gained many converts1 especially when they became convinced that ,islm was to conquer the whole world by the sword4 ,his army1 however1 was nearly annihilated by the ,byzantine emperor1 ,heraclius1 in a battle at ,muta1 but he recovered himself1 and marched on to ,mecca1 where he put to the sword all those that did not embrace his religion1 and destroyed all the remaining idols in the city4 ,he allowed his army all the plunder they could get1 after he had a tithe to himself1 but it is said that he led a very abstemious life1 dressed poorly1 and resided with his wives in the shabbiest type of dwellings4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #fcb1 or ten years after the ,hegira1 from which event is dated the ,mohammedan era4 ,after his death many of the converts became backsliders1 but his successor1 ,abu-,bekr1 and more especially the renowned ,omar--the second caliph--brought the ,saracens to a great power4 ,they were very warlike1 and capable of enduring great hardships1 and as they had everything to gain and nothing to lose1 they made war their sole trade1 and carried their successful arms to ,india1 ,persia1 ,mesopotamia1 ,syria1 ,palestine1 and ,egypt4 ,the islands of the ,mediterranean1 the northern coast of ,africa1 ,spain1 and the south-east of ,france1 were by them also invaded1 ravaged1 and partly conquered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdc4--;,alhambra ,diaper1 ,superposed ,ornament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdd4--,stalactite ,vaulting4 ,in the youthful days of ,saracenic power1 as early as the second caliphate1 ,persia and ,asia ,minor had been plundered and pillaged of their costly and valuable objects in silver1 gold1 embroidered carpets1 and silken goods4 ,the wealth of the ,moslem conquerors was now considerable1 and was accumulating fast2 the sight of so much that was fine and striking in the arts and architecture of the countries they had conquered1 in the eyes of these people--who were no better than barbarians or banditti--began to have a more civilising effect on them4 ,add to this the influence of the ,byzantine architecture1 especially at ,constantinople1 with the ,saracens1 whose religion was in some respects not unlike the ,christian1 especially as in both cases there was the stern prohibition of idols or graven images2 and so it was quite natural that the ,moslem mosque should be built and decorated on the main lines of the ,byzantine ,christian church4 ,the dome and the niche 7mehrab7 came from the ,byzantine2 the minarets--which are not strictly essential in ,moslem architecture--probably from the ,perseopolitan columns4 ,the ,moslem dome1 however1 may have had its origin in the domed palaces of ,persia1 of the ,achmedian dynasty4 ,saracenic ornament is mostly1 however1 derived from the geometric ,byzantine with a strong dash of ,indian forms in its mixture4 ,the super-posing in their ornament of different planes 7,fig4 #cdc71 the class of ornament known as 8mnemonic0 7,figs4 #cfb1 #cfc71 and the stalactite decoration of vaults and domes 7,fig4 #cdd7--;all these three classes deserve the credit of being distinctly ,saracenic1 although some say that the stalactite ornament was known in ,persia before the days of ,mahomet4 ,among the earliest mosques we may mention that of ,omar at ,jerusalem1 which was supposed to be a small wooden mosque1 now destroyed4 ,ferguson says it was the ,mosque of ,el ,aksah4 ,the ,mosque of ',amr at ,old ,cairo was built ,a4,d4 #fda by ,amru-,ibn-al-,as1 the general and governor who conquered ,egypt1 ,a4,h4 #ba 7after the ,hegira74 ,it has been frequently restored and enlarged4 ,the columns which support the arcaded arches are classical in character1 the arches are slightly horseshoe in the curve1 and are tied together4 ,the building is nearly square in plan 7,figs4 #cde1 #cdf74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cde4--;,east ,colonnade of the ,mosque of ',amr4 7,l4-,p47 ,the mosque of ,ibn-,tln 7,son of ,tln7 in ,old ,cairo was built by ,ahmad-ibn-,tln1 founder of the house of the ,tln governors of ,egypt1 ,a4,h4 #bfc-e4 ,this mosque and that of ',amr are what are known as 8cloistered0 mosques4 ,the plan of the latter 7,fig4 #cdf7 gives a general idea of a cloistered mosque4 ,the essential requirements of a mosque are very few and simple4 ,mahomet's mosque at ,medina was a small square brick-built structure1 with a wooden roof plastered over3 the chief thing required was retirement from the public for meditation and prayer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdf4--,plan of the ,mosque of ',amr4 7,l4-,p47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdg4--,minaret of the ,mosque of ,kaloum at ,cairo4 ,it was not essential that all the rectangular or square court that forms the mosque should be covered with a roof1 provided there was sufficient shelter for the number of worshippers1 which was generally small at a time1 and if a larger space were required1 a portion or all of the open court could be roofed in4 ,what we would call the east end of a church corresponded to that part of a mosque where the kibla1 or line of direction1 would be indicated--towards ,mecca--there the mihrab or niche would be fixed4 ,close to the mihrab is the mimbar1 or pulpit1 for the sermon1 and in close vicinity the dikka or tribune1 a raised platform1 from which the imm intones the prayers and reads passages from the ,korn4 ,the minaret is a later addition1 but is seen on every mosque2 it is used by the ,muezzin1 who ascends to its galleries and calls the faithful to prayer five times a day 7,fig4 #cdg74 ,a fountain is necessary for the lawful ablutions before prayer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdh4--,mausoleum at ,cairo4 ,the dome is not a necessary feature to a mosque2 it only occurs over the tomb of some sultan or other dignitary1 and may be used as a chapel1 but only when it covers a tomb4 ,the majority of mosques1 however1 have a dome1 either as a principal feature1 or attached to some part of the building4 ,cairo is particularly rich in domed mausoleum structures 7,fig4 #cdh74 ,the domes or cupolas in ,moslem buildings generally swell up beyond the semicircle1 and are raised considerably by having their lower parts straight-sided or cylindrical2 this part is sometimes pierced with a row of small windows1 and is recessed back on a pyramid-like story1 with a square or polygonal base1 which in its turn rests on the top of a square embattled tower4 ,the dome is usually built of brick1 the courses projecting roughly one over the other1 diminishing towards the top1 and thickly plastered over inside and out to get an even surface2 sometimes the mortar is thicker than the bricks in ,saracen buildings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdi4--,mosque of ,kit ,bey1 ,cairo4 7,l4-,p47 ,wooden frames are often used in the construction of domes which support the plaster work4 ,some domes are built with slabs of stones on which a geometric pattern is carved on the outside 7,figs4 #cdh1 #cdi72 these are generally of a late period1 as the tomb mosque of ,kit ,bey1 built about ,a4,d4 #adfh 7,fig4 #cdi74 ,the oldest mosque in ,cairo is that of ,ibn ,tln 7,fig4 #cej74 ,it is a cloistered mosque1 is built in a massive style1 and has a high plain wall around it2 it covers about four hundred square feet of ground4 ,in the centre of the inner courtyard is a square stone building surmounted by a dome1 one of the earliest carried on stalactites4 ,this building is a century later than the cloisters1 and is built over a well or fountain4 ,the great court is surrounded by arcades of pointed arches1 that have a slight tendency to turn inwards at the base1 and are built as piers of plastered brick2 it is said to be the first mosque built on piers1 instead of the usual round columns4 ,the ,saracens did not make columns themselves1 but took them from the ruins of ,roman buildings1 or even from existing ,christian churches1 and as often as not used the capitals turned upside down as bases4 ,the ,saracens have a form of capital of ,moorish design which harmonizes with their architecture2 it has a slightly tapering1 smooth1 long neck1 a heavy projecting head1 and is well covered with characteristic foliated work 7,fig4 #cea74 ,in the mosque of ,ibn-,tln there are only two columns2 these are placed at the niche or mihrab4 ,three sides of this mosque have two rows of arches1 and the fourth--the side towards ,mecca--which is the liwn or sanctuary1 has five4 ,the architect of this mosque was a ,coptic ,christian1 who received #e1jjj and a costly dress of honour as his fee4 ,the total cost of the building was #fj1jjj 7,lane-,poole74 ,around the arches and the windows1 which were placed high up between the arches1 are bands of palmated ornament4 ,these borders1 according to ,mr4 ,stanley ,lane-,poole1 are the earliest examples of geometrical design and scroll-work that afterwards became so characteristic of ,saracenic ornament4 ,they were made in plaster or stucco-work by hand1 while the plaster was wet1 and not cast in moulds1 which was the case of later ,moorish plaster ornament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cej4--;,arcades in the ,mosque of ,ibn-,tln4 7,l4-,p47 ,the arcades were roofed over with sycamore planks resting on heavy beams1 and the whole structure was crowned with crenellations or embattlements4 ,one of the back walls of the arcades is pierced with grilles of stone1 of beautiful tracery design4 ,the ,arabian or ,saracen arches are of three kinds--the ,ogee1 the ,horseshoe1 and the ,pointed 7,fig4 #ceb1 a1 b1 c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cea4--,moorish ,capital4 ,a peculiar arrangement of cusped inter-arching1 combined with the horseshoe arch1 is seen in the maksura1 or space in front of the mihrab1 of the mosque of ,cordova1 built ,a4,d4 #ghf 7,fig4 #cec74 ,this arrangement of cusping1 though characteristically ,moorish1 is anything but beautiful4 ,the ,mosque of ,cordova was begun by the ,caliph ,abd-al-,rahman in the year before he died1 and was continued by his son ,hisham1 and his grandson ,el-,hakim4 ,it is one of the great congregational mosques1 and occupied a space of ground #ehj feet by #dce feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceb4--;,arches2 a1 ogee2 b1 horseshoe2 c1 pointed4 ,the minaret is often a feature of great beauty1 and is pre-eminently distinctive of ,saracenic mosque architecture2 it may be called the belfry of the mosque4 ,sometimes it is engaged to the main building1 and sometimes starts from the roof of the mosque4 ,the base plan is generally polygonal1 and the upper stories above the main gallery are often circular2 the top is crowned with a pear-shaped cupola4 ,that of the mosque of ,sultan ,hasan is one of the highest1 being about #ccj feet in height4 ,one of the most ornate and beautiful is the minaret that adorns the mosque of ,kit ,bey1 at ,cairo 7see ,fig4 #cdi74 ,from the roof of the mosque it starts on a solid square base1 and develops into an octagon story1 which is pierced with window openings1 and has an elaborate cornice gallery1 consisting of a pierced balustrade1 supported by stalactite brackets4 ,the next upper division is cylindrical1 decorated with geometrical interlaced ornament2 another story is above this1 crowned with a cupola1 on the top of which is placed a pear-shaped ball1 ending in a finial4 ,wooden bracket-like forms project out of this1 from which lamps are suspended at festivals4 ,the minaret and dome are covered with elaborate carvings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cec4--;,cusped inter-arching1 ,mosque of ,cordova4 ,the mimbars or pulpits are singular in construction1 and are usually well covered with decoration 7,fig4 #ced74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ced4--,pulpit of the ,sultan ,kit ,bey3 ,fifteenth ,century4 7,l4-,p47 ,the remains of domestic architecture are not very plentiful--at least1 of any examples of the best period of the ,saracen style4 ,the main idea in the design of the houses was to have them built so that people outside should see as little as possible of the inmates or inside1 and that the women especially should see as little of street life as possible2 so the first row of the windows was placed high up1 and all the windows were thickly latticed1 so that little could be seen from the inside and nothing from the outside 7,fig4 #cee74 ,an interesting and picturesque feature was the meshrebiyas1 or drinking-places1 so called because they were little projecting shaded structures of lattice-work1 supported on brackets1 that contained the water in vessels and other drinks2 the currents of air that rushed through the lattice-work served to keep the drinking water cool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cee4--;,a ,street in ,cairo4 7,l4-,p47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cef4--,lattice-work1 ,s4,k4,m4 7,l4-,p47 ,the meshrebiyas are often very beautiful with their varied patterns of elaborate lattice-work1 which is peculiarly ,arabian in design4 ,it is composed of many pieces of turned and carved pieces that are ingeniously fitted into each other to form the pattern 7,figs4 #cef-g-h74 ,in the museum at ,kensington many examples of these lattice patterns may be seen1 and also some of the meshrebiyas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceg4--,lattice-work1 ,s4,k4,m4 7,l4-,p47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceh4--,lattice-work1 ,s4,k4,m4 7,l4-,p47 ,in the illustration of a 8,street in ,cairo0 7,fig4 #cee71 two of these meshrebiyas project on brackets from a house front4 ,a richer style of the lattice-work decoration was used in open panels and balustrades of the pulpits1 where the triangles and hexagons that form part of the design are carved on the surface1 and inlaid back and front with ivory or ebony4 ,the houses in ,cairo of the purest ,saracen style have the best part of the carvings and decoration in the inside2 they are generally two or three stories in height1 but were much higher in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4 ,the lower parts are built of stone1 and the upper stories of brick and wood1 plastered white4 ,the lower story has the stones coloured in alternate courses of red ochre and white limewash4 ,the doorways are sometimes decorated by having peculiar voussoirs and interlaced ornament 7,fig4 #cei74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cei4--;,doorway of a ,private ,house4 7,l4-,p47 ,there is an illustration of a shop-front in ,m4 ,bourgoin's 8,elments de l',art ,arabe0 which is an exquisite example of ,saracen work of good proportion and design in its doors and windows4 ,saracenic ornament1 as it appears in plaster1 stone1 wood1 and mosaic decoration1 of the mosques1 pulpits1 and weklas or khans1 deserves special notice on account of its extreme originality of design and treatment1 inasmuch as1 whatever may be its true origin1 we must certainly admit that there is a marked difference between it and the ornament of any other historic style4 ,the mosques built anterior to that of ,suyurghatmish 7,a4,d4 #acef7 were decorated in plaster4 ,the rosette 7,fig4 #cdb7 shows a transitional piece of work of great beauty1 that looks like a copy in stone of low-relief plaster-work1 and has every sign of a ,byzantine-like origin1 seen more especially in the leaf-like markings and general treatment of the six large central flowers2 the interlacing and other details are also ,byzantine4 ,it is quite likely that this example was designed by a ,christian ,coptic artist1 as1 indeed1 nearly all the ,saracen art in ,egypt of this period was designed by ,coptic ,egyptians4 ,compare with this the illuminated ,korn of the ,sultan ,sha' ,ban1 of a year or two later 7,a4,d4 #acfh74 ,all the floral work in this is distinctly ,persian in character1 without any reminiscence of ,byzantine1 but shows rather a ,chinese or ,indian influence 7,fig4 #cfj74 ,it is probably copied from a ,persian embroidery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfj4--;,illuminated ,korn of the ,sultan ,sha' ,ban2 ,fourteenth ,century4 7,l4-,p47 ,another example of ,saracenic ornament is the stone sculptured decoration from the portal of the mosque of ,sultan ,hasan1 in ,cairo 7,a4,d4 #aceh71 7,fig4 #cfa74 ,from being carved in stone the ornament is much stiffer than the two previous examples1 but it is more thoroughly ,saracenic or ,arabian than either of them2 the large flower-like forms in elevation are evidently developments of the ,assyrian form of the lotus1 and have here almost the form of the fleur-de-lis4 ,this type of design was successfully developed in the ,moresque diapers of the ,alhambra1 where the conventional leaves and flower forms were mixed with ,saracenic inscriptions1 and were redeemed from their aridity by the almost sensuous character of the colouring1 which has a combination of red1 blue1 white1 and gold1 and further by the superimposed planes of the ornamental composition 7see ,fig4 #cdc74 ,it may be noticed that some of the leaf-work in these diapers have a feather-like decoration1 which gives richness and variety to the ornament3 these markings are evidently derived from the parallel veining of ,byzantine acanthus leaf-work4 ,the larger strap-work running through is interlaced in the form of pointed and horseshoe arches1 which makes the ornament in appropriate harmony with the ,moorish architecture1 while the flat treatment of the whole is distinctively characteristic of all ,saracenic ornament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfa4--,ornament from the ,portal of ,sultan ,hasan4 ,two examples of ,mnemonic ornament are given at ,figs4 #cfb and #cfc4 ,the former is a ,kufic inscription arranged so as to form a band ornament4 ,this is in the angular and older form of writing4 ,the latter is an example of the cursive ,arabian hand which was more generally adopted1 and is termed the ,vaskhy3 it is more round and flowing than the ,kufic4 ,the typical feather ornament forms a background to most of these inscriptions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfb4--,kufic ,writing1 from the ,alhambra4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfc4--;,arabian ,cursive ,writing1 from the ,alhambra4 ,some of the finest specimens of purely ,saracenic ornament are found on the singularly ornate mimbars or pulpits 7,figs4 #ced and #cfd74 ,the simplicity of their straight-lined silhouettes is in restrained contrast to the extreme elaboration of their carved surfaces4 ,the stone pulpit from the mosque of ,barkuk is early fifteenth century work4 ,it is made of solid stone slabs1 with doorway1 staircase1 and canopy raised on small pillars and surmounted by the usual pear-shaped cupola4 ,the stone slabs are elaborately carved with geometrical patterns1 arabesques1 and inscriptions1 and are said to be the finest examples of stone carving in ,cairo4 ,another pulpit 7,fig4 #ced7 of the fifteenth century1 made by order of the ,sultan ,kit ,bey1 is built in wood2 it is now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 and bears the name of this ,mamlk ,sultan1 who was the ruler of ,egypt at the end of that century4 ,the folding doors and the niche of this pulpit are decorated with stalactite ornament2 the cupola is copper2 the carving is most elaborate1 and is also inlaid with ebony and ivory4 ,some of the carved panels from the building known as the wekla or khan of ,kit ,bey1 show ,saracenic ornament in its purest form--both the geometrical variety and arabesques4 ,this ,sultan and his artists have shown the most refined taste of all the great ,saracen builders4 ,the wekla or khan is a rectangular building with an open court in the centre1 and consists of numerous chambers that were occupied by merchants for a short season when they came to buy and sell in ,cairo1 and was1 in fact1 a sort of ,eastern hotel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfd4--,stone ,pulpit in ,mosque of ,barkuk2 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,the stabling was placed behind on the ground floor1 and the exterior consisted of a row of small shops4 ,the wekla of ,kit ,bey had thirteen of these shops on one exterior1 and between the seventh and eighth was placed a splendid arched gateway4 ,it is a pointed arch of eight feet in width1 the edge of which is decorated with three tiers of stalactites that are carved on the sides of the archway1 and has a fine band of carved scroll-work running round the face of the archway and spandrels4 ,one of the most beautiful examples of alternating interlacing and arabesque ornament is that which forms an arch over a horizontal panel of carved ornament4 ,this arch is shown at ,fig4 #cfe4 ,a fine characteristic piece of carved ornament from the same building is the subject of the illustration ,fig4 #cda4 ,figure and animal representation1 though prohibited by the ,moslem religion1 was in many cases practised by the ,saracen sculptors2 for instance1 in the ,baptistery of ,st4 ,louis is a large copper bowl inlaid with silver figures 7,msil work7 made at ,msil in the thirteenth century4 ,these figure and animal designs are from ,mesopotamian sources1 as may easily be seen in the examples given--from the ,marstan of ,kalaun 7,figs4 #cff and #cfg71 where on the last a centaur is shooting an arrow at a unicorn1 balanced by a similar animal on the opposite side2 and on the other example is a peacock in the centre1 with figures of men on either side having drinking vessels and musical instruments1 an evident representation of a concert and dances4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfe4--,ornament on an ,arch of the ,wekla ,kit ,bey4 7,l4-,p47 ,the scroll borders around this panel1 and the execution of the work1 are in the ,saracenic manner1 but the motives of the designs are ,persian4 ,other similar carvings in which animals figure and birds are introduced are to be seen in the same building1 and are of late thirteenth century work4 ,these illustrations are taken from ,mr4 ,stanley ,lane-,poole's 8,saracenic ,art in ,egypt10 after 8,prisse d',avennes10 to which the student is referred for an exhaustive account of the ,saracen art in ,egypt4 ,we extract the following summary of this art from the above author1 who quotes from ,franz ,pasha1 the architect to the ,government of the ,khedive4 8,while bestowing their full meed of praise on the wonderfully rich ornamentation and other details of ,arabian architecture1 one cannot help feeling that the style fails to give entire sthetic satisfaction2 want of symmetry of plan1 poverty of articulation1 insufficiency of plastic decoration1 and an incongruous mingling of wood and stone are the imperfections which strike most ,northern critics4 ,the architects1 in fact1 bestowed the whole of their attention on the decoration of surfaces2 and down to the present day the ,arabian artists have always displayed far greater ability in designing the most complicated ornament and geometrical figures on plane surfaces than in the treatment and proportioning of masses4 ,although we occasionally see difficulties of construction well overcome 444 these instances seem rather to be successful experiments than the result of scientific workmanship4 ,the real excellence of the ,arabian architects lay in their skill in masking abrupt angles by the use of stalactites1 or brackets10 c4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #cff1 #cfg4--;,carved ,panels from the ,maristan of ,kalaun 7after ,prisse d',avennes73 ,late ,thirteenth ,century4 7,l4-,p47 ,this architect is right1 generally speaking1 in his admirable remarks1 but we think1 although it is admitted that ,saracenic architecture lacks the cohesion and unity of parts that is the chief beauty in ,greek and best examples of the ,gothic1 that in some instances1 in the mosques and more particularly in the weklas and in domestic architecture1 the ,saracen architects have proved themselves masters in the creation of architectural works second to none in point of beauty1 while in their architectural application of ornament to the decoration of the various surfaces and other features of their buildings they are unrivalled4 ,they have not only invented a new style of ornament1 but in their correct application of it they have scarcely ever been equalled4 ,the decoration of surfaces1 which is the chief glory of all ,saracenic art and architecture1 was the first and last lesson they learnt from their ,persian masters in art1 for ,persian art1 like the manners and customs of the people1 has all its beauty and politeness on the surface4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,romanesque ,,architecture ,,and ,,ornament4 ,romanesque is the name given to the architectural style developed by the ,western barbarians who overran the ,roman ,empire1 after their partial civilisation1 when they had learned the art of building4 ,the style arose chiefly from the copying of ,roman buildings and their remains1 with some added features of ,byzantine buildings4 ,out of this ,romanesque1 in its turn1 there sprang another style which was founded on the ,romanesque and on the architecture of the ,saracens4 ,towards the end of the eleventh century the new masters of the ,roman ,empire1 in the course of their military expeditions to ,asia ,minor1 ,syria1 and ,palestine1 were brought in contact with the ,saracens and their architecture1 and in coming back to ,europe they brought with them new ideas of building1 such as the pointed arch of the ,saracens1 which feature together with new forms of ornament were added by them to the prevalent ,romanesque style1 the mixture producing an entirely new style1 which has been curiously named after the early ,northern barbarians--the ,gothic4 ,the subsequent ,crusades against the ,mohammedans had the effect1 among others1 of extending the knowledge of mathematics and geometry among the ,crusaders1 sciences in which the ,saracens excelled2 and in coming home again to the ,west1 they applied their geometrical knowledge to the development of ,gothic architecture to such an extent that1 towards the end of the fourteenth century1 this architecture could show examples of the most lofty and daring constructions in stone that were marvels in the science of building4 ,some ,gothic buildings present with their fretted pinnacles1 spires1 flying buttresses1 intersecting and pierced work1 in flamboyant tracery1 daring vaulting1 and inter-penetrating mouldings1 a worked-out solution of some intricate mathematical problem4 ,in its complicated phases ,gothic construction is more scientific than artistic1 however much one may admire the grouping or design of the ,gothic pile as a picturesque conception4 ,returning to the ,romanesque style1 we find that in the sixth century ,theodoric the ,ostrogoth had1 in the erections of churches1 palaces1 and of his tomb in ,ravenna--his capital--sown the first seeds of the future developments of the ,german ,romanesque1 and in some degree of the later ,german ,gothic style4 ,in producing these works his ambition was to emulate the grandeur of ,imperial ,rome4 ,the ,longobards1 the successors of the ,ostrogoths1 continued this building activity through the ,middle ,ages1 and have left to us monuments of their genius in the early and rude ,duomo ,vecchio of ,brescia1 and amongst many others of their noblest works were ,sant' ,ambrogio at ,milan1 and ,san ,zeno at ,verona4 ,prior to the ,carlovingian era1 the ,germanic people began to cultivate the fine arts in a tentative manner4 ,this was brought about by the contact of ,german chiefs and warriors with ,italian pomp and splendour1 which also bred in them a love for personal adornment1 that strongly marked the nobles and warriors of this period4 ,charlemagne was crowned ,emperor of ,germany at ,rome1 on ,christmas ,day in the year ,a4,d4 #hjj4 ,the dream and ambition of this great ,german ,prince was to establish a mighty ,christian ,empire in the ,west of ,europe that should rival pagan ,rome itself1 not only in military power1 but in a widespread culture of literature1 science1 and artistic excellence4 ,these were the days of ,chivalry1 of the ,crusaders2 the days when men were rich in high and lofty ideals2 when those knightly mystics1 ,wolfram von ,eschenbach and ,vogelweide1 sang of the ,parsival and the ,quest of the ,holy ,graal1 of songs of love and chivalry1 of deliverance from wrongs1 and of many stirring and tuneful themes4 ,though ,charlemagne never learned to read or write1 he thoroughly appreciated the value of learning4 ,he gathered together learned men1 architects1 and artists1 and established a school of religious music4 ,he built many churches1 palaces1 and bridges1 and collected many statues from ,rome and elsewhere for the adornment of his great church at ,aix-la-,chapelle2 he organized and encouraged the professions and trades of his towns and cities4 ,the great tomb-church at ,aix-la-,chapelle--or ,aachen--was built by ,charlemagne1 and became the prototype of all subsequent churches erected in the ,romanesque style in ,germany4 ,it was in the region bordering on the ,rhine that the great church building activity was developed in ,germany4 ,the cities of the powerful bishoprics rivalled each other in pomp and splendour1 as we see in such buildings as the ,doms of ,spiers1 ,mayence1 and ,cologne1 and in the ,romanesque churches of ,swabia1 ,franconia1 ,westphalia1 and ,lower ,saxony4 ,the ,romanesque style is also found in the churches or ,doms of ,bamberg1 ,brunswick1 and ,osnabruck2 the ,godehardi and ,michael's churches at ,hildesheim1 the carving in which excels that in the churches of the ,rhineland4 ,the distinctive characteristics of the ,german ,romanesque are the great octagonal dome-like towers that arise from the crossing of the nave and transept1 and the flanking towers at each end that are sometimes united to the central tower by an outside western gallery or faade4 ,a fine modern church1 built in the ,romanesque style1 is that of the ,cathedral of ,fourvire1 on the hill overlooking the city of ,lyons in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfh4--,round ,arch ,frieze4 ,illustration3 #cfi4--;,intersecting ,blind ,arcade4 ,some ,german ,romanesque churches have a western as well as an eastern apse1 and the church known as the ,apostelkirche in ,cologne has the transept1 both of which features are disturbing elements in any church where the chief attention should be directed to the culminating point where the choir1 reredos1 or altar are usually found--in the apse or chancel1 and at the eastern end only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgj4--,rose ,window4 ,the church architecture of the ,west--the ,romanesque followed closely the requirements of the ,western ritual1 while the churches which observed the ,eastern ritual kept to the ,greek or ,byzantine models4 ,romanesque churches of the tenth century are distinguished by the basilica plan1 the apsidal east end1 round-headed arches1 and single or double-light windows4 ,the walls have generally a decoration1 consisting of a series of flat pilasters--reminiscences of classic architecture--and the roofs in many cases were vaulted4 ,arcaded decoration1 with or without small columnar supports 7,figs4 #cfh and #cfi7 and rose windows 7,fig4 #cgj7 are features of the ,romanesque4 ,some of the round-headed doorways are especially rich in character1 and have often five or six recessed columns 7,fig4 #cga7 that carry richly moulded heads1 and carved capitals of quaint animal and bird decoration 7,fig4 #cgb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cga4--,porch of the ,heilsbronn ,monastery1 near ,nremberg4 ,the shafts of the columns are usually plain1 though in some instances1 for the sake of contrast1 they are twisted or imbricated1 and the bases are copies of the classic orders 7,fig4 #cgc74 ,above the lintel and under the round arch mouldings is the lunette or tympanum2 this space often has rich decoration of figures and ornament2 sometimes it is divided into two spaces1 when the entrance doorway is divided by a central pillar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgb4--;,capital from ,wartburg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgc4--,romanesque ,shaft and ,base4 ,the details and motives of ,romanesque decoration are derived from classic ornament--mostly ,roman--and are1 as a rule1 debased forms of the latter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgd4--,roof ,cornice of ,church at ,alstadt-,rottweil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cge4--,later ,romanesque ,ornament4 ,the cable or rope torus-ornament1 the scale or imbricated work1 the chevron or zigzag1 bead and reel1 scroll1 billet1 checkers1 and diapers1 were all extensively used in the ,romanesque1 many of which have been retained in the later forms of ,gothic ornament4 ,figs4 #cgd1 #cge1 and #cgf are examples of the above ornaments4 ,illustration a1 ,arcaded4 b1 ,checkers4 c1 ,waved ribbon4 d1 ,cable or ,torus4 e1 ,chevron or ,zigzag4 f1 ,billet4 g1 ,nail-head4 h1 ,scales or ,imbrication4 i1 ,lozenge4 k1 ,tooth ,ornament4 ,fig4 #cgf4--,various ,romanesque ,moulding ,ornaments4 ,the tower was a feature of later ,romanesque work1 which marked the broad difference between the latter and ,byzantine architecture2 these towers had their stories decorated with semicircular arches on corbels or on small pillars 7,fig4 #cgg74 ,the corbels usually consisted of masks or grotesque figures1 animals1 dragons1 or twisted snakes4 ,these forms of decoration were also used in the capitals and cornices1 both in the ,romanesque transitional and ,gothic periods4 ,grotesque forms were used very much as sculptural decoration in the ,lombardic ,gothic architecture4 ,in ,scandinavia and in ,ireland this kind of ornament assumed the forms of snakes1 serpents1 and interlacings developed from them4 7,see ,fig4 #fe1 #fi1 #gj47 ,the capitals were at first rude copies of the ,roman ,corinthian order 7,fig4 #cji71 developed later--after the character of the ,byzantine cubical forms--to a solid cubic shape1 called in the ,norman style of ,romanesque in ,england1 the 8cushion-headed0 capital4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgg4--,towers and ,round-arched ,frieze1 ,abbey of ,komberg4 ,window-openings were usually small1 and the grouping of two or more lights under one arcaded head occurs in ,byzantine1 ,romanesque1 and ,gothic buildings4 ,the light came usually from the clerestory1 but sometimes smaller circular windows were introduced into the end gables1 which subsequently were developed into windows of greater importance and intricacy of design in the great ,gothic chancels and in western lights4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgh4--;,capital from ,palace of ,barbarossa1 ,gelnhausen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgi4--;,capital from ,st4 ,cross1 ,winchester4 ,romanesque architecture1 and especially its decorative ornamentation1 was never quite free from ,byzantine or ,saracenic influences4 ,it was of itself an incongruous mixture1 out of which1 when the pointed arch of the ,saracens was adopted1 and the ornamental features modified to conform with it1 the new ogival or ,gothic style arose4 ,in every part of ,europe in which the ,romanesque took root1 there may be noticed so many distinct varieties4 ,the style in ,rome and ,central ,italy naturally followed1 as we have seen1 the antique ,roman forms4 ,in the cathedral of ,pisa the capitals are ,corinthian1 and there is a greater display here of mosaics and coloured marbles1 both on the exterior and in the interior1 than in most ,romanesque buildings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chj4--,porch of ,st4 ,zeno at ,verona4 ,the style in ,lombardy and ,upper ,italy is1 on the other hand1 different to that of ,central ,italy1 as it there inherited the ,german traditions4 ,the columns had in their capitals leafage of a different character to that of the classic orders1 and had birds and animals carved amongst it1 and the bases of the columns rested on animals4 ,doorways were square-headed1 and had also a circular arch1 over which was a pedimented canopy 7,fig4 #chj74 ,one of the finest examples of ,lombardic ,romanesque is the ,st4 ,zeno ,church at ,verona1 which has a doorway of this description4 ,the ,church of ,monreale in ,sicily 7,a4,d4 #aagd71 and the ,cathedral of ,palermo1 exhibit a mixture in which ,byzantine and ,saracenic influences are well defined2 this was owing to the successive powers that were at different periods masters of that country4 ,the ,normans at a later date made changes in the architecture of ,sicily1 and ,norman architecture was developed to a great extent in this place4 ,it was in ,sicily that ,norman architecture first developed the characteristic zigzag feature that is seen so much in the ,norman portals and window-heads in ,england 7,figs4 #cha and #chb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cha4--,norman ,doorway1 ,semperingham ,church1 ,lincolnshire4 7,g47 ,the pointed arch of the ,saracens was added to the ,norman ,romanesque in ,sicily4 ,the ,cathedral of ,cefalu 7#aacb71 and the palace of ,la ,ziza at ,palermo1 are examples4 ,nowhere else was the ,romanesque of so mixed a character4 ,the illustration from ,palermo 7,fig4 #chc7 clearly shows the pointed ,saracenic arch1 used after the manner of the ,romanesque round arching1 while some other portions of the details are distinctly ,byzantine4 ,in the south of ,france ,romanesque architecture is far more ornate than that of the ,norman style in ,normandy1 or other parts of the ,north2 in fact1 the latter style in ,france has its ornament confined to purely linear decoration2 but the churches that were built at the end of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth centuries1 which represent ,norman architecture in its purest phases1 were noble edifices1 plain and solidly built1 of which the church of ,st4 ,etienne is a good example4 ,its arcades rest on piers1 it has a vaulted nave and aisles1 and has a fine transept4 ,the gable of the nave is flanked by two western towers1 the western front is built in three stories1 and has two ranges of five-light windows4 ,the ,cathedrals of ,bayeux and ,evreux may be mentioned as two other fine examples of ,norman architecture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chb4--;,berkeley ,castle1 ,gloucestershire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chc4--,pointed ,arcading from the ,cathedral of ,palermo4 ,the ,romanesque doorway 7,fig4 #chd7 from the ,south of ,france illustrates the somewhat motley character of this architecture in that part of the country4 ,some churches of this locality show the receding arches in the doors and arcading1 supported by engaged columns1 which feature was developed very much in the later ,gothic4 ,the ,romanesque style in ,england is seen in buildings that were erected before the ,norman ,conquest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chd4--;,door of ,st4 ,gabriel's1 ,south of ,france4 ,the buildings of this period--the eleventh century--have received the name of 8,anglo-,saxon40 ,they are characterized by the round openings of doors and windows1 the latter being sometimes triangular-headed4 ,the tower of ,earl's ,barton1 in ,northamptonshire1 is an example of ,anglo-,saxon4 ,it has pilaster-like strips of stone decorating and tying the masonry together2 small triangular and circular stone-work connecting the perpendicular strips--a reminiscence of arcading--gives a distinctive appearance of wood-framing to the whole work1 which is probably a copy of the earlier timber construction4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon tower at ,sompting1 ,sussex1 and the ,saxon church at ,bradford-on-,avon 7,a4,d4 #gje71 are also examples of early work executed in ,england prior to the ,norman ,conquest 7#ajff74 ,the work we understand as ,norman in ,england was in existence long before the ,conqueror's time1 and it is quite likely that the subsequent ,english ,gothic would have developed just the same if the ,normans had not invaded ,england4 ,the ,english ,romanesque1 or ,early ,norman style1 dates1 as near as possible1 from ,edward the ,confessor's time 7#ajda-ajfe74 ,this king founded the great ,abbey of ,westminster1 of which the ,dormitory substructure walls and vaulting still remain1 but the rest of the original church has disappeared4 ,on the ,continent and in ,england1 just after the year #ajjj1 a great building period set in1 as for many years prior to this date a corresponding period of an opposite kind1 or a lethargy in the life of the ,christian peoples1 and consequently an inactivity in all building operations1 was manifested1 owing to the prophecy that the end of the world would come in the year #ajjj4 ,when this was found to be a delusion1 a building craze spread over ,europe1 and the eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth centuries were the great building ages1 when both ,christian and ,saracenic architecture advanced with leaps and bounds4 ,the ,normans in ,england after the ,conquest1 no doubt1 hastened the advancement of architecture2 for the rule seems to have been that wherever they found a small or old church of the ,anglo-,saxon type or period1 they invariably pulled it down1 re-dressed the stones1 and built a much larger and better church on the same site1 using up the old material when available1 besides building many churches on new sites4 ,the ,normans were also much better builders than the ,saxons1 and at this time great numbers of ,norman masons were brought over from ,france4 ,the strongholds1 or castles1 with their massive keeps1 were built at this period by the new ,norman barons1 in order not only to have stately dwellings for themselves1 but to protect their newly-acquired honours and possessions from their ,saxon foemen4 ,remains of many of these strongholds1 especially of the keeps1 are still to be seen at ,hedingham ,castle at ,rochester2 ,gundulph's ,tower--the oldest--at ,malling1 ,kent2 ,newcastle1 ,guildford1 ,colchester1 ,richmond1 and ,conisborough in ,yorkshire1 c4 ,one of the earliest is the great ,white ,tower of ,london1 in which is found the beautiful little ,norman ,chapel1 one of the best and most perfect examples of ,norman architecture in ,england4 ,the ,norman keeps1 or towers1 are uniform in design1 having a square plan1 with a square projecting turret at each angle1 and a flat1 thin buttress in the centre of the walls2 windows were small1 and were round or square-headed4 ,the doorways were round-headed1 recessed1 and were generally ornamented4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #che4--,the ,landgrave's ,room at the ,wartburg4 ,portions of ,canterbury ,cathedral1 as indeed1 of almost all the principal ,english cathedrals1 and many old churches1 were built in the ,norman period1 which shows how extensively church building must have been carried on from the ,conquest 7#ajff7 to the commencement of the reign of ,richard ,i4 7#aahi74 ,the ,norman and oldest parts of ,canterbury ,cathedral1 built by ,archbishop ,lanfranc 7#ajgj-ajhi71 are the towers forming the choir transepts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chf4--,romanesque ,ornament1 ,iron ,hinge from ,notre-,dame1 ,paris4 ,prior ,ernulf1 under ,st4 ,anselm1 rebuilt much of ,canterbury ,cathedral 7#aacj71 and added richer elements to the ornamentation4 ,the peculiar plain cushion1 or cubic capital1 found so much in ,england in ,norman work1 was meant to be carved or enriched afterwards1 but often the want of funds1 or haste and carelessness in after years1 were the causes that left them plain1 until it was too late1 when the style had changed1 and they were superseded by later developments4 ,it is certain that they were not intended to remain so1 for many have been left half-finished in the carving1 and some plain ones are found to alternate with others of the same type1 but richly carved1 as at ,canterbury and some other places4 ,sometimes the intention seems to have been to decorate them with painted ornament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chg4--,romanesque ,panel from a ,church at ,bonn4 ,at ,winchester and ,rochester ,cathedrals1 ,st4 ,peter's ,church1 ,northampton1 the transepts of ,exeter1 ,peterborough1 and1 above all1 at ,durham1 the ,norman style is seen both in its best earlier and later developments4 ,the ornaments are very few1 the zigzag being the chief4 ,the lozenge and billet are also used in the early work1 but in the later1 as in the rich doorways1 such as that at ,iffley1 ,oxfordshire 7#aafj71 grotesque masks1 frets1 interlacings1 birds1 dragons1 fishes1 and the quadruple form of the zigzag are added4 ,the columns in some cases are twisted and banded1 and ,ionic volutes appear in the capitals4 ,in some late ,norman work the tympana are richly carved with figures and ornament4 ,many examples of ,romanesque non-ecclesiastical buildings are still in existence in ,germany1 or have been skilfully restored as such1 which give a tolerably good idea of the private dwellings of this period4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #che7 is an example of the domestic ,romanesque4 ,it is the interior of the ,landgrave's room at the ,wartburg1 ,germany4 ,examples of ,romanesque ornament are given in the iron hinge from the ,church of ,ntre ,dame1 ,paris 7,fig4 #chf71 and the panel from ,bonn 7,fig4 #chg74 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,and ,,ornament4 ,the ,gothic or 8,pointed0 style grew1 as we have seen1 out of the ,romanesque4 ,churches were built in which the pointed arch was used side by side with the round arch of ,romanesque4 ,these were the buildings of the transitional period4 ,in ,france1 ,germany1 and in ,england some of the earlier ,gothic buildings were purer in style than those of the later period4 ,the work of the thirteenth century is more correct in artistic principles1 more restrained1 and less bewildering in the principles of construction than the work of any subsequent period4 ,the true home of the ,gothic style was in ,france1 from which country it extended to ,germany and ,england almost simultaneously4 ,the ,cathedral of ,soissons in ,france may be mentioned as one of the transitional buildings 7#abab71 though portions of it are of a still earlier date4 ,it is noted for its early plate tracery and very ornate foliated capitals4 ,the hall of the ,hospital of ,st4 ,john at ,angers shows many features of the transitional style4 ,its vaulted roofs and arching are in the ,gothic or ,pointed style1 and the windows are in the round-headed ,romanesque4 ,the hospital was built by ,henry ,,ii41 and completed ,a4,d4 #aahd4 ,in ,england1 portions of ,canterbury ,cathedral1 the hall at ,oakham ,castle1 ,rutlandshire1 and the ,temple ,church1 ,london1 may be given as examples of the transitional ,romanesque or ,norman to the ,early ,english ,gothic4 ,in all the above examples1 the square-moulded abacus with debased ,corinthian foliage on the bell underneath may be seen1 which indicates the transitional type of capital4 ,the buildings of the transitional style may be distinguished from those of the earlier one by being much lighter in construction3 the masons1 having learned their trade better1 found they could economise the material--which was a great thing in those days of rapid church building--by having more slender proportions1 which led to the more refined and elegant style of the ,early ,gothic both in ,england and on the ,continent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chh4--;,cathedral of ,notre-,dame ,paris4 ,the ,church of ,ntre-,dame in ,paris is a fine example of the ,early ,french style 7,fig4 #chh74 ,the towers look unfinished1 but they had at one time wooden spires4 ,chartres 7#abfj71 ,rheims 7#abej71 and ,rouen 7#abhj7 are other typical examples of this period4 ,the period of the ,early ,english style lasted from about ,a4,d4 #aaij to #abgj1 embracing the reigns of ,richard ,i41 ,john1 and ,henry ,,iii4 ,this style is distinguished from the ,norman transitional by the light and lofty pillars used singly or in groups and clusters1 lancet windows1 pointed arches1 and by the additional use made of buttresses and pinnacles4 ,the slope or pitch of the roof is in harmony with the pointed arches and lancet windows1 and also the pyramidal towers or spires4 ,the greatest possible difference is thus exhibited between the ,norman ,romanesque and the ,early ,english ,gothic4 ,although the ground plan is hardly altered in the latter style1 the general lightness and soaring vertical character of almost every detail1 and the multiplication of buttresses and pinnacles1 give to the ,gothic erections of this period a triumphal look of mastery over the material that in the science of building was hitherto unknown4 ,the ,early ,pointed style in ,england is seen at its best in ,lincoln1 ,york1 and ,salisbury ,cathedrals and in ,westminster ,abbey 7,fig4 #chi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chi4--,westminster ,abbey4 ,the ,cathedral of ,cologne founded by ,conrad von ,hochstaden--that wonderful and huge pile of ,gothic architecture--belongs partly to the thirteenth but more properly to the fourteenth century1 having its foundations laid in #abdh and consecrated in #acbg4 ,it has been added to considerably even until modern days4 ,it presents a slightly wearisome repetition of parts1 especially in the buttresses1 pinnacles1 and other vertical forms of the exterior1 that in a measure robs it of some part of the grandeur and sublimity which we should naturally expect in an edifice of its size and proportions4 ,it is based partly on the design of the great ,cathedral of ,amiens in ,france4 ,the very rich canopies and windows of geometrical tracery 7,fig4 #cij7 are later than the thirteenth century1 and correspond closely to the ,decorated period in ,england 7#abgj to #achj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cij4--,window1 ,gable1 and ,parapet in ,cologne ,cathedral4 ,the interior of the ,cologne ,cathedral is strikingly illustrative of the real spirit of the ,gothic style4 ,the consistent unity and simplicity of its stupendous and upward-soaring nave1 and its still simpler choir--which has only as its ornamental features the stringcourse below the triforium and the carved capitals of the shafts--combine to produce in the spectator that feeling of reverence and deep respect1 not only for the sacred associations of the building1 but for the great master-spirits who conceived the design1 and who were able to work out to such a degree of perfection this great mathematical problem in stone4 ,this triumphal achievement of 8stylistic orthodoxy0 on ,german soil is as much1 if not more so than any other ,gothic building in ,germany1 indebted to ,french inspiration and ,french models4 ,there are also many other churches in ,germany1 in the country bordering on the ,rhine--,strasburg ,cathedral for instance--that have strongly marked features of the ,french ogival style4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cia4--,porch of ,st4 ,lawrence1 at ,nremberg4 ,the towers of ,st4 ,lawrence's at ,nremberg are somewhat ,romanesque2 but the windows1 door openings1 buttresses1 and pinnacles are in the ,gothic style4 ,the recessed porch has a square-headed double doorway1 richly decorated 7,fig4 #cia74 ,the interior 7,fig4 #cib7 of this church is extremely artistic in its general effect4 ,the stonework is of that dark brown colour that is seen in so many ,german churches2 the rich colour of the stained glass1 the pictures1 and shields hung up round the piers and on the walls1 with their rich tones of gold and colours1 the graceful piers ending in the ribs and supporting the vaulting of the ceilings1 the carved rood-cross and pulpit1 and above all the great carved wood medallion of the ,annunciation1 by ,veit ,stoss 7#aeah71 make up the richest of pictures1 which is a sample of what may be seen in many interiors of ,german churches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cib4--;,interior of ,st4 ,lawrence1 at ,nremberg4 ,another interesting church in ,nremberg is that of ,st4 ,sebaldus1 more from its association with the name and works of ,adam ,kraft1 who carved the figure work on the exterior1 and ,peter ,vischer1 whose celebrated work is the chief glory of this church--the ,shrine of ,st4 ,sebaldus 7,fig4 #cic71 one of the most important works of the fifteenth century--than from its merits as an architectural work4 ,the plan of this church is bad in having its nave and aisles of equal width1 which is at utter variance with all ideas of good proportion and of the ,gothic style4 ,the shrine of ,st4 ,sebaldus is modelled and cast in bronze2 ,peter ,vischer and his five sons laboured on it for twelve years before it was completed4 ,it is ,gothic entirely in construction1 but most of the forms and details of the ornament and figure work are purely ,italian2 for at this time--the beginning of the sixteenth century--,germanic artists were fascinated and strongly influenced by the art that flourished beyond the ,alps4 ,a fine cast of this monument is in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,the 8,bride's ,door0 of ,st4 ,sebaldus 7,fig4 #cid7 has an interesting canopy of ,german tracery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cic4--,shrine of ,st4 ,sebaldus1 at ,nremberg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cid4--,the 8,bride's ,door0 of ,st4 ,sebaldus1 at ,nremberg4 ,art having gradually passed into the hands of the bourgeois element1 the principal cities in ,germany1 especially those of the north1 vied with each other in the erection of town halls and civic buildings 7,fig4 #cie74 ,in the ,netherlands1 in ,brussels1 ,bruges1 ,antwerp1 ,louvain1 ,nremberg1 ,augsberg1 and ,marienberg1 many quaint edifices are still found of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 consisting often of brick glazed black and red1 and wide-jointed1 or of stone throughout4 ,they have mostly steep roofs1 battlemented cornices1 and stepped gables4 ,they are decorated with little spires or pinnacles1 and have horizontal or pointed openings to doorways and windows1 richly decorated friezes and stringcourses1 open arcades under the first story1 picturesques balconies1 and corner turrets ending in corbels1 which were often richly carved4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cie4--,town ,hall1 ,marienberg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cif4--,window ,gable1 from the ,cathedral of ,florence4 ,the ,gothic style was introduced into ,italy in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 but it never took any great root in that country4 ,in ,rome there are no ,gothic buildings of this period3 there is one of the fifteenth century1 the ,church of ,minerva1 but is a bad example of the style4 ,on the other hand1 there are some exceptionally fine examples of ,gothic canopies1 of tombs and altars in several churches in ,italy4 ,it is believed that they were copies of ,french or ,english ,gothic and were all the work of one family of artists called the ,cosmati4 ,mixed with these ,gothic forms in stonework they introduced bands and panels of coloured mosaic1 and also are credited with the execution of much of the mosaic beautiful pavement work known as opus ,alexandrinum4 ,a particular form of the ,gothic style appears in the north of ,italy1 and has been called the 8,lombardic0 or the 8,pisan0 style4 ,this style of ,italian ,gothic was never quite free from classical influences4 ,it is distinguished by having numerous small columns employed to decorate exteriors and interiors4 ,examples occur in the neighbourhood of ,pisa1 ,lucca1 and in places bordering on the ,rhine4 ,the ,leaning ,tower of ,pisa 7#aagd-acej7 is an example4 ,part of the ,baptistery 7#abgh7 and the earlier portion of the ,duomo or ,cathedral of ,pisa are built in this style4 ,lombard ,gothic was therefore contemporary with the ,early ,english and ,french4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cig4--;,crockets1 ,lincoln4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cih4--;,from the ,temple ,church4 ,in ,florence a very beautiful mixture of the dome feature with ,gothic is seen in the ,duomo or ,cathedral1 a well-known and magnificent building4 ,the window gable 7,fig4 #cif7 gives a good idea of ,italian ,gothic4 ,the ,cathedrals of ,orvieto are other examples of ,italian churches in which ,gothic forms are used4 ,in all these churches the faades are inlaid with coloured marbles of elaborate panelling4 ,the ,cathedral of ,milan is the finest example of a church in the ,gothic style in ,italy1 though it is by no means pure ,gothic4 ,it is built of white marble and has some remarkably good stained-glass windows4 ,the ,palazzo ,publico at ,florence and that of ,siena are built in the ,italian ,gothic style4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cii4--;,dog's ,tooth or ,nail-head ,ornament1 from ,stone ,church1 ,kent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djj4--,spandrel1 from ,stone ,church1 ,kent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djj;,a4--,priests' ,entrance1 ,bishopstone ,church1 ,wilts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dja4--,norman and ,gothic ,mouldings4 a b c1 ,norman2 d e f1 ,early ,english2 g h1 ,decorated2 i j k1 ,perpendicular4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djb4--,pedestal1 ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel4 ,one of the most beautiful buildings in the world is the well-known ,doges' ,palace at ,venice4 ,the predominant forms are ,gothic1 especially the lower arcading and the pointed window openings4 ,it rests on columns and arches which compose the lower story1 and has also the second story arcaded1 and pierced in its upper part with quatre-foiled openings4 ,above this is a high rectangular story1 built with lozenge-shaped slabs of pink marble1 and pierced with a row of large pointed windows1 and has smaller circular openings above these4 ,a richly designed battlement crowns the walls of the upper story4 ,the caps of the columns are beautifully carved1 and sculptured figure subjects decorate the corners of the building4 ,this palace was a long time in building2 before it was completed the style had perceptibly changed1 so in consequence the portico in some parts belongs to the fourteenth and some to the fifteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djc4--,place ,house1 ,cornwall4 ,throughout ,venice the architecture with ,gothic pretensions is mixed very much with fifteenth and sixteenth ,venetian or ,renaissance forms4 ,the ogee arch was used very much1 and the ,decorated style of windows and doorways1 arcadings1 and balconies with ,italian forms made a quaint mixture that gives a very pleasing appearance to some of the ,venetian palaces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djd4--;,flamboyant ,panel4 ,french1 ,fifteenth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dje4--;,flamboyant ,panelling4 ,french4 ,gothic architecture in ,england has been divided into three styles2 the ,early ,english1 which lasted from about ,a4,d4 #aahi-abgb1 in the reigns of ,richard ,i41 ,john1 and ,henry ,,iii42 the ,decorated1 ,a4,d4 #abgb-acgg1 in the reigns of ,edward ,i41 ,,ii41 and ,,iii42 and the ,perpendicular style1 ,a4,d4 #acgg-aedg1 from the time of ,richard ,,ii4 to ,henry ,,viii4 ,after this it became debased1 and finally merged into the ,tudor or ,english ,renaissance1 sometimes called the 8,elizabethan40 ,a still later mixture of ,english ,gothic with ,italian or ,flemish ,renaissance details was developed in the reign of ,james ,i41 which has been called 8,jacobean40 ,the two latter styles never found much favour in ecclesiastical architecture1 but were developed mostly in domestic and civic buildings1 and used in the designs of pulpits1 screens1 and church furniture4 ,a great quantity of carved oak and chestnut furniture was made in the ,jacobean style4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djf4--;,forms of ,gothic ,arches4 a1 ,pointed2 b1 ,cusped2 c1 ,depressed2 d1 ,flamboyant4 ,the various styles of ,english ,gothic have their transitional periods that extend and overlap them so much1 that makes it extremely difficult in some buildings to determine which style they belong to2 the difficulty is usually got over by assigning them to their respective periods as the beginning1 middle1 or end of a style4 ,we have already noticed ,early ,english1 which is the best and purest form of the ,gothic in ,england4 ,in it we see the finest development of window tracery based on geometric lines4 ,mullions take the place of piers1 windows have two or more lights1 the beginnings of the flying buttress1 pinnacles1 crockets 7,fig4 #cig71 columns in clusters1 round-headed capitals with or without the characteristic trefoil foliage 7,fig4 #cih7 known as ,early ,english foliage 7,fig4 #cih71 which has been developed from the ,romanesque4 ,the ornament called 8dog's tooth0 is common to the early examples of this style1 and is also a ,romanesque decoration 7,fig4 #cii74 ,the ,decorated style is a rich and more ornate phase of the preceding style1 and is further marked by the extensive use of the ogee arch in doorways and windows 7see ,fig4 #djj;,a71 and by the greater profusion of sculptured foliage1 flowers1 and ornament in the decoration4 ,the ball flower used in the hollow mouldings is characteristic of this style1 as the tooth ornament is of the ,early ,english4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djg4--;,forms of ,gothic ,tracery4 a1 ,trefoil2 b1 ,quartrefoil2 c1 ,cinquefoil2 d1 ,cusped ,quartrefoil2 e1 ,pointed and ,cusped2 f1 ,flamboyant4 ,the ,perpendicular style1 as its name denotes1 is characterized by its long and narrowly divided windows and similar panellings4 ,instead of the flowing lines of tracery in the windows1 the mullions are of a straight lined and vertical character1 and are divided at intervals by transoms1 or horizontal divisions4 ,the pedestal 7,fig4 #djb7 from ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel is of ,perpendicular panelling4 ,the beautiful fan tracery seen in ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel in ,westminster ,abbey and in ,gloucester ,cathedral is a variety of this panelling4 ,the doorways in this style have pointed but depressed arches1 and as a rule are enclosed with square-headed mouldings or labels4 ,the spandrels formed by this arrangement are filled with tracery and shields4 ,towers and cornices have battlements1 c4 7,fig4 #djc74 ,a general squareness is given to all the ornaments1 and a more severe and dry character is the chief feature of the ,perpendicular decoration4 ,the ,flamboyant ,gothic style of the ,continent is contemporaneous with the ,english ,perpendicular4 ,the panels at ,figs4 #djd and #dje are very good examples of ,flamboyant panel decoration4 ,forms of ,gothic arches and tracery are given at ,figs4 #djf and #djg4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture ,,and ,,ornament4 ,many things tended to bring about the art of the ,renaissance4 ,the great impulse given to learning by the study of the writings of the ,greek and ,roman poets1 lawyers1 and philosophers1 and the keen study of the rich legacy of art and architecture left by ,greece and ,rome1 may be reckoned among the chief causes which led to the development during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries of the ,re-,birth or ,renaissance both of literature and art4 ,dante1 and his successors ,petrarch and ,boccaccio1 were called 8,humanists10 for the reason that they studied and advocated the knowledge that was needful to man in his progress and in relation to his life in this world1 and did not confine themselves wholly to theology1 which was the case with those who devoted themselves to learning in the ,middle ,ages4 ,this led to a wider spread of knowledge among the people1 which was greatly stimulated by the invention of printing4 ,the rulers of the people also encouraged learning and promoted the arts to an extent unknown before4 ,in ,florence1 especially1 under the powerful and beneficent rule of the ,medici family1 art and literature received every attention1 and made rapid progress in every department of cultured knowledge and skilful handicraft4 ,great artists like ,niccola ,pisano1 ,brunellesco1 ,donatello1 ,giotto1 ,alberti1 and others of the early period1 whose individuality and great personality did more than anything else to bring about the epoch and the art of the ,renaissance1 studied with evident purpose the existing remains of the art of ,ancient ,rome4 ,in this they only followed the movement of the day in every branch of art and learning3 all classes in every walk of life were then directing their footsteps to ,rome in the pursuit of knowledge4 ,about the year #adad the discovery was made in the ,monastery of ,st4 ,gall of the celebrated codex of ,vitruvius1 a work wherein the learned writer had set forth the principles of ,roman architecture of the ,augustan era4 ,this work was reprinted later at ,rome1 and was very much used by architects as a guide for the better understanding of the ,roman temples and other buildings4 ,as the ,gothic style in ,france1 ,germany1 and in ,england was approaching its climax1 the art of the ,renaissance in ,italy was developing1 and the period of decadence in the former was contemporaneous with the finest period of the latter--towards the end of the fifteenth century4 ,the transition1 or early beginnings of the ,renaissance1 has been called the ,trecento 7#acjj7 style1 which in its ornamental features is characterised by a free use of conventional foliage1 mixed with ,saracenic or with ,byzantine ornament1 interlacings1 and scroll work2 in sculpture and painting by a closer study of nature and of antique remains1 with an endeavour to shake off the former stiff ,byzantine traditions2 and in architecture by the use of the round arch and a revival of some other features of the classic orders4 ,niccola ,pisano1 ,arnolfo di ,lapo1 ,orcagna1 and ,giotto were some of its exponents4 ,the next division is known as the ,quattrocento 7#adjj71 which is more properly the early form of the ,renaissance4 ,to this period belong the real founders of the style3 ,filippo ,brunellesco 7#acgg-addf71 ,lorenzo ,ghiberti 7#acha-adee71 and ,donatello 7#achf-adfh72 the former more particularly in architecture1 and the latter two in sculpture4 ,the ornament of the ,quattrocento period--the fifteenth century--is distinguished by its prominence of elaborate natural forms in festoons1 scroll work1 and other compositions2 all the ornament was decoratively arranged more or less geometrically1 but the details and actual working out were closely copied from nature4 ,the bronze gates of the ,baptistery of ,san ,giovanni 7#adbe-eb7 are the finest examples of the ,quattrocento style1 both as regards ornament and figure work4 ,the modelled work in high relief of fruit1 flowers1 and foliage on these gates1 and similar work on great medallions and altar-pieces of ,luca della ,robbia 7#acee-adcj7 is characteristic of this style4 ,these natural forms1 mixed with tracery ornamentation1 acanthus foliage1 treated in symmetrical arrangements1 and occasionally cartouche or strap-work1 were used in the ,italian ornament of this period4 ,the panel forms were usually ,byzantine1 but the rest of the ornament had no symbolic meaning4 ,besides ,luca della ,robbia1 the name of ,jacopo dell' ,quercia 7#acgd-adch71 the ,sienese sculptor1 may be mentioned as one who executed some of the finest work in figure and ornament in the above style4 ,the ,cinquecento style 7#aejj7 was the culminatory effort of the ,renaissance4 ,it is the art of ,italy in the sixteenth century1 and is entirely devoid of symbolism in its ornament4 ,although the difference is great in the matter of style between the classic ornament of the ,greeks and that of the ,italian ,cinquecento1 yet in their aim and expression they are identical1 for in both there is the same striving to reach the highest possible sthetic ideal1 the same delight in the production of beautiful lines and forms for their own sakes1 and a similar expression of appropriate fitness--the outcome of a correct conformity to architectural principles--pervades the ornament of both styles4 ,returning to the art of the early ,renaissance1 we have to mention two great names1 already referred to--,giotto in painting1 and ,niccola ,pisano in sculpture1 who may be justly called the harbingers of the new era of ,italian art4 ,the latter was the first to go to the antique for his inspiration and style in sculpture4 ,it appears--according to ,vasari--that in ,pisa there had been accumulated a great collection of antique sculpture--the spoils of war--and among them a sarcophagus1 on which the ,hunt of ,meleager and the ,calydonian boar was wrought with great skill1 which was placed for ornament on the faade of the ,cathedral3 this and other antique remains in the city were studied to great advantage by ,niccola1 to the great improvement of his style4 ,one fine work of his1 executed in the spirit of the antique1 was the pulpit for the ,church of ,san ,giovanni in ,pisa1 on which are great numbers of figures1 representing the ,universal ,judgment4 ,for the ,cathedral of ,siena he also executed a similar work with subjects from various passages in the life of ,christ4 ,on this pulpit he had the assistance of ,arnolfo and ,lapo1 his pupils1 and probably also that of his son ,giovanni4 ,these works proved the great turning-point in sculpture1 from the archaic productions of the ,middle ,ages to an era of better things1 although in execution they left much to be desired4 ,giotto was not only the great painter who first invested his works with poetry1 feeling1 and expression1 but was also a skilful architect1 as his fine ,campanile1 or bell-tower1 in his native city of ,florence bears witness4 ,dante and ,petrarch were his friends1 the former especially so2 the portrait of ,dante by ,giotto still exists in the ,chapel of the ,podesta at ,florence4 ,brunellesco1 as we learn from ,vasari1 was one of the most interesting of men1 and one of the most capable artists of his time1 a man of acute genius and ready resource4 ,in the early ,renaissance period architecture was studied by nearly all sculptors and painters1 and many1 as we have seen1 were apprenticed in their youth as goldsmiths4 ,brunellesco was no exception to this rule1 for we find that he was a clever goldsmith and worker in niello4 ,the greatest work of his life was the building of the cupola or dome of the ,cathedral of ,florence--he was the only architect of his day that was found able to do it4 ,the ,cathedral was the work of the ,florentine architect1 ,arnolfo di ,lapo1 the foundations of which were laid in the year #abih4 ,brunellesco also built the sacristy and dome on the ,church of ,san ,lorenzo1 which was decorated with sculpture by ,donatello1 and was the architect of the ,pitti ,palace1 besides many other works4 ,he gained his knowledge of the construction of domes in ,rome1 more particularly from that of the ,pantheon1 having drawn from and made models of the domes of all that was worth copying of the ancient remains at ,rome1 in company with his friend ,donatello1 the sculptor4 ,the latter1 with ,brunellesco1 ,ghiberti1 and a few other sculptors1 competed with their designs for the work of making the celebrated bronze doors of the ,baptistery of ,san ,giovanni at ,florence1 when ,ghiberti's design was adjudged the best1 and of which ,michelangelo at a later period said1 when speaking of the gates1 that they were 8fit to be the gates of ,paradise40 ,brunellesco's design was good1 was more restrained in character1 and was more consistent with correct architectural principles than ,ghiberti's2 but the latter's design was so fresh and so vigorous1 that in spite of its being too picturesque for sculpture it won universal admiration4 ,the next great name in architecture is that of ,leon ,battista ,alberti 7#adjd-adgb71 who naturally follows ,brunellesco4 ,his most complete work is the ,rucellai ,palace at ,florence2 he built and restored many churches1 tombs1 and palaces2 was a great mathematician1 and very learned in ,latin1 in which language he wrote poems1 plays1 and treatises on painting and architecture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djh4--,portion of the ,strozzi ,palace4 ,the ,rucellai ,palace is a very fine work of the ,renaissance4 ,it has the three orders of architecture in its pilasters1 with their entablatures4 ,the lower story has a small square window placed high from the ground between every two pilasters1 and has two square-headed doorways4 ,between each pair of pilasters in the upper stories are round-headed windows1 which have each a double light divided by a small column4 ,the style of building is called 8rusticated10 like so many of the ,italian palaces 7,fig4 #djh74 ,this is a roughened form of stonework1 and was copied from ,roman buildings1 which1 together with the heavy cornices and symmetrical repetition of windows1 gave these palaces a heavy and imposing look4 ,another palace of the ,rucellai type is the ,cancelleria at ,rome1 which was built by ,bramante 7#addd-aead71 a native of ,castel-,durante1 in ,urbino1 who also built ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 and who was the greatest architect of the ,renaissance1 of whom ,michelangelo testified 8that ,bramante was equal to any architect who has appeared from the time of the ancients to our own1 can by no means be denied40 ,michelangelo himself was the architect of the dome of ,st4 ,peter's1 and his sublime works in sculpture and fresco adorn the interior4 ,the ,cancelleria ,palace is a masterpiece of elegance and good proportion4 ,it has two imposing doorways1 and the plainness of its lower story contrasts agreeably with the upper two1 which have rows of round-headed windows enclosed in flat or square-headed architraves1 and are placed at agreeable distances above the entablatures of the lower stories4 ,the two upper stories are divided alternately into wide and narrow divisions by pilasters1 the windows being placed in the wide divisions4 ,this building is a marked improvement in point of beauty on the ,pitti and ,rucellai palaces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dji4--,upper ,story of the ,farnese ,palace1 ,rome4 ,designed partly by ,m4 ,angelo4 ,the ,farnese ,palace is another typical building of the ,renaissance4 ,the design of it is attributed to ,antonio ,picconi1 who took the surname of ,san ,gallo 7#adh8-aedf74 ,it is built in three stories1 without pilasters1 with a widely projecting cornice1 and has rather a monotonous look with its numerous windows of equal size4 ,michelangelo is said to have designed some of the windows and the cornice 7,fig4 #dji71 though some say that the architect ,vignola was the designer of the cornice1 ,the central doorway is 8rusticated0 and arched1 and the angles of the building are of dressed stones4 ,the celebrated building known as the ,certosa 7,charter-house7 of ,pavia was begun by ,borgognone in the year #adgc1 is an example of the most ornate phase of the ,renaissance1 and offers a widely-marked contrast to the almost bald simplicity of the palace just described 7,fig4 #daj74 ,as a whole1 the faade of this building cannot be called a model of good architectural composition1 but it is easier to criticise its faults in this respect than to suggest improvements4 ,it contains1 however1 many striking elements of beauty1 and is full of useful suggestions to the architect and decorative artist4 ,the plan and shell of ,renaissance buildings were usually of the ,romanesque or ,gothic types2 the dome1 columns1 and ornament generally were all borrowed from the ,roman remains4 ,the column1 round arch1 and horizontal lintel or architrave feature were extensively used in the palaces and other buildings of ,venice 7,fig4 #daa71 though the ,renaissance style had a difficult task to make headway in ,venice against the strong ,byzantine and ,gothic traditions that had hitherto prevailed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #daj4--,portion of the ,certosa of ,pavia4 ,the general type of the ,venetian palaces is a solid panelled wall and pier arrangement or rusticated lower story1 which supports a central loggia1 or arcaded second story1 that has circular-headed windows and heavy cornices and balconies4 ,the whole faade is richly decorated with engaged columns and pilasters4 ,the ,cornaro1 now the ,mocenigo ,palace1 the ,grimani on the ,grand ,canal1 now the ,post ,office1 and the ,spinelli ,palace1 are said to have originally been built from the designs of the great military architect1 ,san ,michele1 of ,verona 7#adhd-aehh71 to whom the ,signori of ,venice owed so much as the designer of their fortifications4 ,jacopo ,sansovino1 who built the ,library of ,san ,marco at ,venice 7,fig4 #daa72 ,palladio 7#aeah-aehj71 the well-known writer on architecture2 ,scamozzi1 and the ,lombardi family1 may be mentioned as other celebrated architects and ornamentists1 who executed many works in ,venice and in ,verona1 ,florence1 ,padua1 ,vicenza1 ,rome and ,milan1 etc41 during the sixteenth century4 ,it was the tendency of the ,renaissance period to build palaces and castles1 and in the later times municipal and private dwellings1 as learning and the arts were getting into the hands of the laymen1 in contrast to the days of the ,middle ,ages1 when the clergy and monks were the architects and master-builders3 in those days hardly anything but churches had architectural pretensions2 but the case was different in the ,renaissance times1 when the architects were not bound by the strict canonical laws of style2 hence we find a greater variety and wider range of ideas expressed in the art of the period1 due in a great measure to the individuality of the artists1 which has given to the art of the ,renaissance a different character in every country1 district1 or city to which it had spread4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #daa4--,library of ,san ,marco1 ,venice4 ,by ,sansovino4 ,the greatest ,venetian architect of the seventeenth century1 ,longhena1 flourished 7#afjb-hb7 when the ,renaissance had entered into its ,baroque phase or period of decadence4 ,he built many churches and palaces in ,venice and in some other cities of ,italy1 but his greatest work is the celebrated ,church of the ,salutation--,santa ,maria della ,salute--in ,venice1 a picturesque building that has been painted and photographed more frequently than any other church in the world4 ,with its domes and bell-towers1 and its great buttresses decorated with figures that support the drum of the dome1 it presents a striking object of picturesque beauty4 ,this church and the ,pesaro and ,rezzonico palaces are exceedingly rich and ornate1 but are overloaded with figures and decorative details--the ,pesaro ,palace especially--which is very characteristic of the florid work of the seventeenth century4 ,their magnificence of style reflects the palmy days of ,venetian grandeur1 and contrasts strongly with the simpler and better architecture of the early ,renaissance period4 ,the influence of the ,italian ,renaissance spread to ,france in the days of ,louis ,,xii41 and ,francis ,i41 the monarch who did so much for ,french art4 ,afterwards1 in the reign of ,henry ,,ii4 and ,catherine de' ,medici1 who greatly favoured ,italian art and artists1 we find the ,renaissance taking a deep root in ,france4 ,fra ,giocondo was summoned to ,france from ,italy by ,louis ,,xii41 who reigned #adie to #aeae1 and caused to be built the ,chteau de ,blois1 and the ,chteau de ,gaillon in ,normandy 7#aejb-aj7 ,in these two buildings the native ,french ,gothic received a grafting of the ,italian forms4 ,this was the case in ,france for a long time1 as in that country the ,gothic style was then in the full zenith of its ,flamboyant period4 ,the ,castle of ,chambord is one of the finest examples1 and a portion of the ,chteau de ,blois1 by ,viart1 the architect of ,francis ,i4 ,the early ,french ,renaissance is quite different from the ,italian1 partly from the reasons we have stated1 but it has a liveliness and exuberance that is full of inventive resource4 ,the buildings are noted for their pointed roofs1 and for their multitude of picturesque towers and pinnacles1 and also rich carvings of a refined class of ornament4 ,the ,french ,flamboyant ,gothic and the ,italian ,decorative forms are happily blended in this style1 to which the name of 8,franois ,premier0 7,ier7 has been given4 ,this style was chiefly brought about by the employment of the ,italian sculptors and architects1 ,serlio1 ,vignola1 ,primaticcio1 ,il ,rosso1 ,cellini1 and others who had been invited by ,francis ,i4 to build and decorate his chteaux and palaces4 ,primaticcio was also entrusted with the task of collecting a series of antique casts and copies of antiques from ,rome for the gardens of the palace at ,fontainebleau4 ,this1 no doubt1 had the effect of helping to form the taste for classic art among ,french artists4 ,owing to all the above circumstances1 ,french art began to show more of the influence of the ,italian style4 ,the ,roman orders were henceforth invariably used1 but still the new style was modified in a great measure to suit the ,french taste4 ,what is known as the ,henri ,deux 7,henry ,,ii47 style is another ,french development of the ,cinquecento1 in which there is a preponderance of strap-work1 with figures1 masks1 grotesques1 cartouches of all kinds1 and much of the conventional ,saracenic ornament4 ,the monogram of ,henry ,,ii4 and the arms of ,catherine de' ,medici often appear in this ornament1 as seen in the decorations of the ,chteau d',anet 7#aedh7 and on the ,oiron or ,henri ,deux pottery4 ,pierre ,lescot 7#aeaj-aegh7 designed the western faade of the ,louvre1 in ,paris1 and ,jean ,buillant designed the oldest parts2 these two architects and another1 ,philibert ,delorme1 brought the ,renaissance to such a head in ,france that it became immediately the national style4 ,the great names in architectural sculpture of the early ,french ,renaissance were ,jean ,goujon and ,paul ,ponce1 who carved the principal figures of the faades of the ,louvre4 ,towards the early part of the seventeenth century the architecture began to assume a more florid character1 under the hands of ,lepautre and ,du ,cerceau4 ,it became richer1 but less pure in style1 an example of which is the ,apollo ,gallery of the ,louvre1 designed by ,lepautre4 ,by the time of the latter half of the seventeenth century the desire for show and the expression of magnificence1 especially brought about by the 8,grand ,monarque10 ,louis ,,xiv41 assisted by the efforts of his architects1 ,mansard1 ,perrault1 ,lemercier1 and ,blondel1 who ministered to the whims of the powerful ,king1 speedily laid the foundations for the loose and unrestrained ,baroque or ,rococo style which subsequently followed4 ,the name of 8,louis ,quatorze0 has been given to the style developed in the reign of this king4 8,louis ,quinze0 and 8,louis ,seize0 are names of subsequent ,french styles1 which will be considered under the head of ,renaissance ,ornament4 ,the tame and spiritless palace of ,versailles was designed by ,franois ,mansard1 who invented the ,mansard roofs which have been used together with this style for nearly all the palatial buildings of ,europe4 ,the purity of the ,italian ,renaissance was forgotten or ignored by the nations of ,europe1 and the stiff and pompous buildings of ,louis ,,xiv4 were accepted as the patterns that all civilization was eager to copy4 ,even old churches and medival castles were transformed in some portions of their interiors into ,louis ,,xiv4 imitations4 ,in ,windsor ,castle the great ballroom has been vilely treated with the meaningless incrustations of this period1 by the way of decorations1 endeavouring1 however1 to make amends for its tasteless poverty of invention by the arrogant display of its rich covering of gold leaf4 ,in the late seventeenth and during the eighteenth centuries1 the ,rococo or ,baroque phase of the ,renaissance was in vogue in ,italy and ,france1 and indeed everywhere in ,europe4 ,the main characteristic of the ,baroque style is the undue prominence given to the ornament and decoration1 which arose from a gradual forgetfulness of the ,roman and ,greek principles of construction1 and a want of order in the arrangement of the principal forms in the architecture4 ,by degrees these forms took a secondary position3 columns supported nothing or only a few mouldings1 cornices and pediments were broken1 brackets and consoles were inverted1 mouldings ended in scrolls1 hanging curtains were represented on stone carving1 also wreaths of roses2 pediments and gables had weak outlines of carved forms1 shells and rock-work 7rococo7 ending in weedy scrolls1 which doubtless was a ,chinese inspiration1 grafted on the prevailing style2 in fact1 the utmost license and riot in decoration seemed to be allowed1 as it aimlessly sprawled over architecture1 furniture1 and interiors1 until art had almost evaporated from the decorative productions of the age4 ,in spite of this1 however1 something must be said in favour of the ,rococo3 at the least it was homogeneous in its way2 some of the figure work that forms part of the ornament is very fine1 the finish and perfection also of the carved1 painted1 and gilt surfaces1 from a technical point of view1 leave usually nothing to be desired4 ,the curved and broken character of the ornament is excellent for showing the play of light and shade on the gilded surface1 and the effect of some interiors is very rich and brilliant2 but when decoration takes the place of construction1 however well executed it may be1 it becomes more of an incrustation than a requirement4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dab4--,portion of the ,faade of ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,louis at ,paris4 ,lorenzo ,bernini 7#aehi-afhj7 and ,francesco ,borromini 7#aeii-affg7 were ,italian architects who chiefly brought about the ,rococo in ,italy4 ,they treated the classical forms with extraordinary freedom4 ,the column especially was degraded in its use4 ,it sometimes supported only a few mouldings1 and at other times was carried through two or three stories1 when its proper function is to represent one story4 ,one kind of architectural style a little later than this period was called the 8,jesuit ,style0 7,fig4 #dab71 in which churches of the ,jesuit ,order were built4 ,on the vaulted ceilings of these churches a florid type of painting of sacred subjects was used as decoration4 ,in ,spain the ,renaissance1 mixed with some ,saracenic features1 produced some very good work2 the typical example of ,spanish ,renaissance is the ,escurial1 the great palace of the ,spanish kings4 ,in ,germany the ,italian ,renaissance made but a tardy advance1 and was never thoroughly at home in that country4 ,german ,renaissance is far less refined than that of other countries which were influenced by the ,italian style4 ,it is chiefly in painting1 furniture1 book illustration1 and in goldsmiths' work that it appears at its best1 and not in architecture4 ,this was owing to the art of ,germany being at that time in the hands of the burghers when the advent of the ,renaissance took place1 and also that the mass of the people were more concerned in the study of ethics and philosophy than the arts4 ,another reason may be added1 that the nation was unsettled1 and occupied with the great religious upheaval of the ,reformation4 ,all these things proved to be sufficient to retard the advancement of the ,renaissance in ,germany for more than a hundred years4 ,one of the best examples of the ,renaissance we can point to in ,germany is the ,castle of ,heidelberg1 built by the ,elector ,otto ,heinrich 7#aeef-aeei74 ,the two faades of this castle1 which are now in ruins1 have engaged columns and pilasters2 the windows have rather heavy-headed features1 and are richly carved2 statues are placed in the niches between the windows4 ,the portico of the ,town ,hall at ,cologne is another example1 and the ,cloth ,hall at ,brunswick is a very interesting specimen of ,german ,renaissance4 ,it is deficient in proportion1 however1 by the extreme horizontality of its eight series of low stories in the principal faade1 but is otherwise very picturesque4 ,the ,german ,renaissance towards the later periods was characterised by its elaborate carving of ornament1 figures1 and animals in wood and stone2 armorial bearings1 escutcheons1 shields1 and cartouches or ornamental labels were very common in ,german work1 and in most other forms of ,renaissance ornament in ,europe1 except in the purest form of the ,italian ,cinquecento1 when highly decorative vase forms and labels took the place of the shield and cartouche work of the ,quattrocento period4 ,the ,renaissance in ,england made its earliest appearance in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,john of ,padua was an ,italian architect employed by that king4 ,hampton ,court ,palace in its earlier portions1 built by ,cardinal ,wolsey in #aeae1 is ,gothic1 but it has been considerably added to since1 and partly rebuilt in the time of ,william ,,iii4 in a kind of ,renaissance4 ,in the reigns of ,queen ,elizabeth and ,james ,i41 the ,elizabethan or ,english ,renaissance and the ,jacobean respectively were predominant4 ,the latter style was developed by ,dutch architects working in ,england on the ,elizabethan models1 and is distinguished by shield work and carvings in high relief1 in opposition to the lower relief cartouche and strap-work of the ,elizabethan style4 ,the ,elizabethan ,renaissance is more like ,german work than the ,french1 but1 of course1 has its native peculiarities1 developed from its mixture with the ,tudor ,gothic of the time4 ,this mixture is seen in many of the old halls and mansions built about this time in ,england4 ,wollaton ,hall is a fine example of the ,elizabethan 7,fig4 #dac71 and ,holland ,house1 ,kensington1 is another fine mansion of the same style 7,fig4 #dad74 ,these castellated buildings of the ,elizabethan style1 in red brick and stone dressings1 are in singular and pleasant harmony with the grand parks and richly wooded ,english landscape with which they are usually surrounded4 ,inigo ,jones1 in the early part of the seventeenth century1 and ,sir ,christopher ,wren1 his successor1 were the greatest names in architecture of the ,english ,renaissance period4 ,the former was a close follower of the ,italian architect ,palladio1 and designed1 usually1 his buildings after the ,roman models4 ,the palace at ,whitehall1 the church and piazza in ,covent ,garden1 and ,crewe ,hall in ,cheshire were built from his designs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dac4--;,elizabethan1 ,north ,entrance1 ,wollaton ,house4 ,the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,paul's is too well known to need description4 ,it may be mentioned as the most important example of the late ,renaissance in ,england4 ,it was thirty-five years in building 7#afge-agaj71 and although some details and the ornament generally incline to the ,baroque1 the building as a whole is one of the finest and most impressive works ever produced in any country4 ,wren built a great many churches in ,london during the time that was occupied in the building of ,st4 ,paul's1 ,st4 ,stephen's1 ,walbrook1 being one of his finest4 ,chelsea ,hospital1 the ,royal ,exchange1 together with some ,city ,halls and twenty-five churches1 were built from his designs or under his directions4 ,the architecture of the present day in ,france leans mostly to ,renaissance traditions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dad4--,the ,ancient ,parlour1 ,holland ,house4 ,in ,germany1 ,greek and ,roman styles find favour1 but ,gothic and ,renaissance1 and sometimes ,romanesque style of buildings are now erected4 ,in ,england about one hundred years ago there was a ,greek revival1 due in a great measure to the publication of ,stuart and ,revett's works in connection with their close study of ,grecian architectural remains4 ,st4 ,pancras ,church1 in ,london1 is one of the outcomes of this revival4 ,sir ,william ,chambers was the architect of the beautiful riverside building--,somerset ,house1 on the ,thames ,embankment 7#agbe-agif72 he also designed a great deal of furniture and the ,state carriage4 ,he published important works on architecture and furniture1 which had considerable influence on the design of the latter in ,england4 ,in the first half of this century a ,gothic revival took place1 which was greatly brought about and assisted by the writings and architectural work of ,a4 ,w4 ,pugin4 ,the ,houses of ,parliament1 built by ,barry1 are the finest examples of the ,gothic revival in ,england4 ,they are built in the ,perpendicular or ,tudor style4 ,sir ,gilbert ,scott was a late exponent of the modern ,gothic style 7#ahaa-gh71 and was the architect of the ,albert ,memorial in ,kensington ,gardens1 ,st4 ,pancras ,railway ,station and ,hotel1 ,london1 besides building and restoring many churches in the ,gothic style4 ,the architecture of the present day in ,england tends to the ,renaissance1 with a slight mixture of ,gothic and much that is original in the ornamental details1 but ,gothic is still a favourite style for churches4 ,,ornament ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,the ornament of the ,renaissance period was founded on the ,roman4 ,before describing the former it will be necessary to say a few words concerning its prototype1 the ,roman4 ,more than anything else the great use of the acanthus foliage characterizes the ornamental art of the ,romans4 ,the treatment of the acanthus in ,roman architecture has already been noticed in the first part of this work4 ,a fine boldness and freedom was everywhere apparent in the ,roman treatment of this foliage 7,figs4 #bh and #bi74 ,large scrolls of acanthus 7see ,fig4 #cai7 in which birds1 reptiles1 and insects are arranged to fill the unoccupied spaces are used in pilasters1 friezes1 and panels4 ,chimeras as whole or half figures with foliage endings1 griffins1 and large vases well decorated1 were used as symmetrical arrangements in friezes4 ,the well-known acanthus scroll frieze from ,trajan's ,forum is a very typical example of the soft-leaved acanthus4 ,the rosette of the scroll1 as in nearly all classic ornament1 is made up from acanthus-leaves arranged in a radiating manner1 like a flower 7,fig4 #dae74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dae4--,rosette from ,scroll1 ,forum of ,trajan4 ,some of the ornament on the antique ,roman bronze and silver work is particularly beautiful and delicate1 as may be seen on the silver wine crater found at ,hildesheim in ,hanover1 which is one object of a collection found at that place in the year #ahfi4 ,these and the treasures found at ,pompeii and ,herculaneum1 together with the wall paintings at the same places1 give us a good idea of ,roman art in domestic decoration and the minor arts and crafts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #daf4--,nest of ,scroll1 ,roman ,panel1 ,florence4 ,the ,pompeian objects1 chiefly in bronze 7,fig4 #dag7 and the wall paintings 7,figs4 #dah-bj7 are as much ,greek as ,roman in style1 as they are chiefly the work of ,greek artists executed for the ,romans4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dag4--,objects of ,art handiwork1 from ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dah4--,the ,goddess ,demeter enthroned4 ,wall painting from ,pompeii4 7,b47 ,the ,baths of ,titus and ,diocletian and the palace of the ,csars on the ,palatine ,hill1 ,rome1 were decorated with grotesques similar to those of ,pompeii1 and were studied to great advantage by ,raphael and his pupils and assistants when decorating the ,loggia of the ,vatican4 ,thin tendrils1 festoons of fruit1 animals1 masks1 all kinds of grotesque forms and birds flying and playing in and out of light scrolls1 architectural constructions of a light and fantastic character1 and panels of landscapes formed the subjects that were painted on the walls1 which were often divided into friezes1 panels1 and dados4 ,these decorations were executed in tempera colours of bright reds1 greens1 yellows1 blues1 and black4 ,the antique grotesques1 so called from being found on the walls of underground chambers1 or 8grottos10 together with the figure subjects taken from ,greek gems1 furnished ,raphael and his celebrated pupils ,giovanni da ,udine 7#adhg-aefa7 and ,perino del ,vaga 7#aejj-dg7 with fanciful ideas for the decoration of the ,loggia of the ,vatican1 and the ,villa ,madama1 at ,rome4 ,these grottesches were painted in a kind of fresco or tempera on a white ground with a fairly bright variety of colouring4 ,some portions of the decorations were executed in stucco relief made of a composition of lime and marble dust1 and were sometimes gilded4 ,giovanni da ,udine1 or ,ricamatore1 as he is also called1 was especially celebrated at this stucco-work1 and in the drawing of animals and birds4 ,he1 and another celebrated artist1 ,primaticco1 assisted ,raphael's great pupil ,giulio ,romano 7#adib-aedf7 in a similar kind of decoration at the ducal palace of ,mantua4 ,the latter artist executed the principal figure work at ,mantua1 and also at the ,villa ,madama4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dai--,pan4 ,wall ,painting at ,herculaneum4 7,b47 ,there is no lack of good examples of ,italian ornament1 especially in carved marble and wood1 in the churches and palaces of ,italy and ,france4 ,the ,museum at ,south ,kensington is rich in casts and in real examples of ,italian ornament1 has excellent copies of the ,raphael pilasters and other examples of painted decorations4 ,in addition to this the maiolica plates and vases furnish good examples of painted decoration of the ,renaissance period4 ,it is only necessary here to illustrate and describe a few examples of the style1 as they appear in architectural decoration1 for under the heads of the various historic industrial arts many examples of ,renaissance ornament will come under our notice in a succeeding volume4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbj4--,mural ,painting4 ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dba4--,pilaster by ,donatello4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbb4--,ornament from ,baptistery ,gates1 ,florence4 ,belonging to the ornament of the fifteenth century1 or as it is called the 8,quattrocento0 7#adjj71 we have a beautiful little pilaster 7,fig4 #dba71 designed by ,donatello 7#achf-adch74 ,the portion of the ornament of the architecture from ,ghiberti's bronze gates of the ,baptistery of ,florence 7,fig4 #dbb7 shows the use of natural forms ornamentally arranged1 which was one of the characteristics of the ,quattrocento style2 and the tabernacle 7,fig4 #dbc7 shows the transition between the use of the natural forms and the more severe conventional ornament of the ,cinquecento period4 ,luca della ,robbia 7#adjj-ha7 was one of the ablest masters of the ,quattrocento1 and ,riccio1 called ,briosco1 was also an artist of this period who was engaged on the decorative work of the ducal palace at ,venice4 ,the ,cinquecento 7#aejj7 is the name given to the style of the sixteenth century4 ,so many brilliant names belong to this period that it becomes a difficulty to give in our space an adequate selection of this work4 ,it was towards the end of the fifteenth century that many of the ancient monuments had been excavated2 and the ,italian artists from ,michelangelo and his great contemporaries down to the artists of lesser powers1 followed the strong inclination of the times in their deep study of the antique1 and sought more and more to invest their creations with the spirit of ancient art4 ,the lingering traditions of ,byzantine forms that were in some degree a part of the ,quattrocento style were now entirely excluded from the purer art of the ,cinquecento1 and anything that had a precedent for existence in the antique was copied or imitated in a modified manner1 and improved upon in point of delicacy in the treatment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbc4--,tabernacle4 ,end of ,fifteenth ,century4 ,italian4 7,p47 ,though the arabesques of ,raphael and his pupils in the ,loggia of the ,vatican 7#aeae7 have been severely criticised as being full of coarse absurdities and designed with questionable taste1 still1 taking them as a whole1 they were a decided improvement on the grosser absurdities of the ,pompeian school of grotesque decoration1 and they are certainly distinguished by good drawing and clever execution4 ,doubtless the later achievements in painted decoration at the ,villa ,madama and the ducal palace of ,mantua had less incongruities of design and were more refined than the ,vatican pilasters1 but they lack the freshness1 the boldness1 and virility of the latter4 ,it is not always a good argument1 for instance1 to say--which has often been said of the decoration in question--that a thick stem should be used to support heavy masses1 for it can be said with equal truth that a thick stem may be painted to look like a weak vegetable flabby stalk--like that of a cabbage--and so have really a weaker appearance than one painted to represent the fibrous stem of a woody tree2 and besides1 if a thin stem supporting a heavy mass is vigorously drawn1 it will look strong enough1 and be useful also in giving the necessary amount of contrast that is wanted in decoration4 ,such a thing may be quite admissible in painted ornament that would be out of place in sculptured work or in architectural forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbd4--;,cinquecento ,floral ,ornament4 ,acanthus1 ,oak1 ,convolvulus1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbe4--,venetian ,panel4 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,the ,cinquecento artists were better craftsmen than the ,romans4 ,the design and delicacy of finish on some of the sculptured ornament of the sixteenth century have never been excelled in any period of the world's art history4 ,it is strange that many of our would-be teachers in design of the present day are not in sympathy with it2 perhaps however1 it is not to be wondered at1 for they may have tried1 and found how difficult it really is to get within measurable distance of its excellence4 ,it is cheap and plausible to say that a style is dead with the people who created it2 but this is not what the artists of the sixteenth century said1 and we know what they produced out of a dead style4 ,by all means let us have originality1 if it is good art1 but let us have the good art first4 ,in the ,cinquecento ornament we find that a greater variety of plants1 animals1 and designed objects1 such as vases1 candelabra1 and armour1 were made use of than is generally found in antique ornament4 ,the acanthus1 vine1 oak1 and poppy foliage have all been simplified to a general type of acanthoid leafage 7,fig4 #dbe74 ,such animals as the lion1 goat1 and the dolphin fish form occur frequently1 sometimes almost naturally1 but more often with foliated endings 7,figs4 #dbe and #dbf74 ,some compositions are made up entirely with well-chosen vase and candelabra forms 7,fig4 #dbg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbf4--;,cinquecento2 from the ,martinengo ,tomb1 ,brescia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbg4--;,candelabra and ,vase ,panel4 ,in the ,cinquecento1 the ,greek guilloche pattern with rosettes is used1 and an ,italian rendering of the anthemion1 and also of the ,greek honeysuckle band pattern 7,fig4 #dbh74 ,the ,lombardi family of ,venice were celebrated as sculptors in ornament4 ,pietro the elder 7#adha7 was the architect of ,dante's tomb in ,san ,francesco at ,ravenna1 but his greatest work was the ,church of ,santa ,maria de' ,miracoli at ,venice1 in which he was assisted by his sons ,tullio and ,antonio in the sculptured decorations4 ,tullio was the most gifted as a sculptor1 and his ornament is the best of the ,cinquecento period at ,venice 7,fig4 #dbi74 ,martino ,lombardo was the architect of the ,scuda di ,san ,marco at ,venice1 in the decorations of which he was aided by ,tullio4 ,some of the best specimens of the ornament of this period are to be found on the ,martinengo tomb1 in the ,church of the ,corpo di ,cristo 7#aecj74 ,the ornament bears a strong resemblance to the ,lombardi1 but the sculptor is not known 7,fig4 #dbf74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbh4--;,from a ,marble ,fountain in the ,louvre4 7#aejh47 ,the ceilings from ,serlio's book of architecture1 and from ,san ,spirito1 by ,sansovino1 are good examples of the ,renaissance panelling and decorative filling 7,figs4 #dca and #dcb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbi4--,panel from ,santa ,maria de' ,miracoli1 ,brescia4 ,by ,tullio ,lombardo4 7#aejj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dcj4--,panel from the ,facade of ,santa ,maria de' ,miracoli1 ,brescia4 7#aecj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dca4--,renaissance ,ceiling4 7,from ,serlio's ,architecture47 ,one of the purest examples of the ,cinquecento in ,france is the ornament found on the pilasters of the monument erected to ,louis ,,xii4 at ,st4 ,denis1 ,paris 7,fig4 #dcc74 ,the sculptors are said to have been ,jean ,just and ,franois ,gentil4 ,the figure work on this monument was executed by ,trebatti1 a ,florentine sculptor4 ,another phase of the ,renaissance in ,france is the ,henry ,deux style4 ,it is illustrated in the carved door-panels from the ,chteau d',anet 7,figs4 #dcd and #dce7 7#aedh71 where the tracery1 interlaced work1 and shields are combined to form the features of this ornament4 ,the initial letter ,h of the king and the crescent arms of ,diana of ,poitiers are seen very often on the shields4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dcb4--;,ceiling ,decoration1 from ,san ,spirito1 ,florence4 ,by ,sansovino4 ,jean ,goujon and ,jean ,cousin were employed on the decoration of this castle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dcc4--,pilasters1 from the ,monument to ,louis ,,xii41 ,st4 ,denis1 ,paris4 ,an extremely rich example of ,french carved wood is the panel from the ,chteau ,gaillon1 in ,normandy 7#aeae7 7,fig4 #dcf74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dcd4--;,carved ,panel1 ,henry ,,ii4 style1 from the ,chteau d',anet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dce4--;,carved ,panel1 ,henry ,,ii4 style1 from the ,chteau d',anet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dcf4--;,carved ,wood2 ,chteau ,gaillon4 7#aeje47 ,the above examples1 and the chimney-piece panel by ,germain ,pilon 7#aefj7 7,fig4 #dcg71 another sculptor employed by ,catherine de' ,medici1 are a few of the best specimens of the ,cinquecento period in ,france4 ,elizabethan ornament1 or that of the ,renaissance in ,england1 is characterized by a preponderance of strap-work1 and has animals1 masks1 rosettes1 half-lion or half-human terminals1 debased class of mouldings1 and very little foliage4 ,the example given--the panelling from the ,old ,guard ,chamber1 ,westminster 7#afjj71 exhibits a strong influence of ,saracenic tracery that was prevalent in much of the later furniture and textiles of the ,renaissance 7,fig4 #dch74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dcg4--,panel from ,chimneypiece2 ,louvre4 ,by ,germain ,pilon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dch4--;,elizabethan ,panelling1 from the ,old ,guard ,chamber1 ,westminster4 ,shield-work was not so prominent in the pure ,elizabethan as in the ,jacobean 7,james ,i47 style2 the carved stone escutcheon-like work from ,crewe ,hall1 ,cheshire1 attributed to ,inigo ,jones 7,fig4 #dci71 shows the beginning of the ,jacobean shield-work4 ,this style is best seen in the carved-wood furniture of the period1 and both it and the ,elizabethan are generally speaking offshoots of the ,flemish and ,german phases of the ,renaissance4 ,elizabethan ornament is of great variety1 the panelling and other arrangements are sometimes composed purely of strap-work of a rectangular flat perforated appearance1 sometimes seen in the doorways and chimney fronts1 as at ,hardwick ,hall1 ,haddon ,hall1 ,speke and ,crewe ,halls4 ,another kind is of a more curved variety1 with figures and animals1 as seen in the illustration from an old house at ,exeter now in ,kensington ,museum 7,fig4 #ddj72 another kind is carved in rectangular or curved and notched frames of cartouche work with the smaller spaces and little panels carved in imitation of jewels with oval or lozenge-shaped facets4 ,columns of ,ionic or ,corinthian orders1 and classic mouldings1 dentils1 and the egg and tongue were frequently used4 ,the ceilings were often panelled and moulded1 inclining in this respect more to the ,gothic than classic4 ,a bizarre kind of ,renaissance architectural feature was prevalent in ,holland and in some parts of ,germany1 which seems to have been the model for much of the 8bolt and lock0 style of some ,elizabethan gateways4 ,the architect ,dietterlin1 of ,strassburg 7#aeej-aeii71 was an extraordinary exponent of this twisted and bolted form of fantastic architecture1 which had become only too fashionable at this period4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #dda7 shows an example of what might be called a mild specimen of the style of ,dietterlin4 ,the popularity of the ,dietterlin craze was owing to the circulation of several volumes he had published of his impossible designs1 some of which designs were evidently adapted by the ,elizabethan architects1 but in a much more reticent spirit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dci4--;,doorway1 ,crewe ,hall4 ,inigo ,jones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ddj4--;,elizabethan ,carved ,ornament1 from an old house at ,exeter4 7#aeij47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dda4--;,example of ,dietterlin's ,architecture2 ,german1 ,sixteenth ,century4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,duke ,,street1 ,,stamford ,,street1 ,s4,e41 ,,and ,,great ,,windmill ,,street1 ,w4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,art ,,publications4 ---------- ,,broome--,brush-work for ,schools4 ,by ,,florence ,,broome4 ,with forty-eight ,designs in ,colour4 ,small #dto4 ,new ,edition4 #es4 net4 ,,bullmore--,memory ,drawing of ,plant ,form and ,design4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,bullmore4 ,in ,two ,parts1 each consisting of six ,artistically ,printed ,plates in ,portfolio4 ,price #as4 net each ,part2 postage #b;d4 ,,bullmore--,copies in ,silhouette for ,brush-,drawing4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,bullmore4 ,part ,i4 ,natural ,forms4 ,part ,,ii4 ,simple ,patterns4 ,books1 #f;d4 each net2 postage extra4 ,,bullmore--,senior ,brush-,drawing ,cards4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,bullmore4 ,part ,i4 ,natural ,forms4 ,part ,,ii4 ,simple ,patterns4 ,each consisting of twelve ,cards4 #as4 #c;d4 net each2 postage #b;d4 ,this work contains the same examples as the author's 8,copies in ,silhouette10 ,parts ,i and ,,ii1 but printed on stout cards instead of in book form4 ,,dawson--,elementary ,design4 ,by ,,charles ,,frederick ,,dawson4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #bs4 net4 ,,douglas--,a ,system of ,brush-drawing4 ,by ,r4 ,,smeaton ,,douglas and ,,ada ,,hill ,,walker4 ,oblong #dto4 #cs4 net4 ,,furniss--,how to draw in ,pen and ,ink4 ,by ,,harry ,,furniss4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,harbutt--,harbutt's ,plastic ,method1 and the use of ,plasticine in the ,arts of ,writing1 ,drawing1 and ,modelling in ,educational ,work4 ,by ,,william ,,harbutt4 ,with fifty-six ,illustrations4 ,crown #dto4 #ds4 ,,harbutt--,plastic ,methods for ,plastic ,minds3 ,a ,teacher's ,handbook of easy ,lessons in ,modelling in ,plasticine for ,infants and ,young ,children4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,harbutt4 ,with thirty-four ,illustrations4 ,a ,new and ,revised ,edition4 ,small #dto4 #as4 net4 ,,harper--,a ,practical ,handbook of ,drawing1 for modern methods of ,reproduction1 with many ,illustrations showing comparative results4 ,by ,,charles ,g4 ,,harper4 ,new ,edition1 ,revised and added to4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,hatton--,the ,craftsman's ,plant-,book3 or ,figures of ,plants selected from the ,old ,herbals4 ,with numerous ,illustrations in colour and black and white4 ,arranged with ,notes and additional ,drawings1 and an ,essay on the ,use of ,plants in ,decorative ,design4 ,by ,,richard ,g4 ,,hatton1 ,hon ,a4,r4,c4,a4 7,lond474 ,demy #hvo4 ,in the press4 ,,hatton--,perspective for ,art ,students1 ,artists and ,draughtsmen4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,,hatton4 ,with #bjh ,illustrations4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,,hatton--,design4 ,an ,exposition of the ,principles and ,practice of ,decoration4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,,hatton4 ,with #agg ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,hatton--,figure-,drawing4 ,a new work for ,artists and ,students4 ,by ,,richard ,g4 ,,hatton4 ,with nearly #djj ,diagrams4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,hatton--,figure ,composition4 ,a companion to 8,figure-,drawing40 ,by ,,richard ,g4 ,,hatton4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,jackson--,wood-,carving as an ,aid to the ,study of ,elementary ,art4 ,by ,f4 ,g4 ,,jackson4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #cs4 net4 ,,jackson--,metal ,work3 ,chasing and ,repouss for ,home ,art ,workers4 ,by ,,frank ,g4 ,,jackson4 ,with numerous ,illustrations and ,diagrams4 ,demy #hvo4 #cs4 net4 ,,jackson--,decorative ,design4 ,an ,elementary ,text-book of ,principles and ,practice4 ,by ,,frank ,g4 ,,jackson4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,large4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,jackson--,the ,theory and ,practice of ,design4 ,an ,advanced ,textbook on ,decorative ,art4 ,by ,,frank ,g4 ,,jackson4 ,with #gjj ,illustrations4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #is4 ,,jackson--,the ,a ,b ,c of ,drawing and ,design4 ,by ,,frank ,g4 ,,jackson4 ,crown #dto4 ,in two parts1 with numerous ,illustrations4 #bs4 #f;d4 each net4 ,these ,illustrations1 with additional exercises1 have also been prepared on stout cards4 ,to correspond with ,part ,i4 ,set ,i4 #cj cards1 #bs4 net4 ,,ii4 #cj 0 #bs4 ,,iii4 #cj 0 #bs4 ,to correspond with ,part ,,ii4 ,,iv4 #bd 0 #bs4 ,v4 #ab 0 #as4 ,,lanteri--,modelling4 ,a ,guide for ,teachers and ,students4 ,by ,e4 ,,lanteri1 ,professor of ,sculpture at the ,royal ,college of ,art1 ,south ,kensington4 ,,volume ,i4--,with a ,portrait ,drawing of the ,author by ,professor ,a4 ,legros and forty-two full-page ,plates and other ,illustrations and ,diagrams4 ,e4 ,,onslow ,,ford1 ,r4,a41 contributes a ,preface4 ,crown #dto4 #afb pages4 #aes4 net4 ,,volume ,,ii4--,with numerous ,illustrations and a ,preface by ,sir ,w4 ,b4 ,,richmond1 ,r4,a4 ,crown #dto4 #aes4 net4 ,,lindsay--,geometrical ,drawing4 ,by ,c4 ,t4 ,,lindsay4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,,lunn--,pottery4 ,a ,practical ,handbook for ,art ,teachers and ,students4 ,by ,r4 ,,lunn1 ,teacher at the ,royal ,college of ,art1 ,south ,kensington4 ,demy #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,mann--,the ,art of ,shading4 ,a ,complete and ,graduated ,guide to the ,principles and ,practice of ,drawing in ,light and ,shade4 ,by ,,william ,,mann4 ,with forty ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #cs4 net4 ,,midgley and ,,lilley--,studies in ,plant ,form and ,design4 ,by ,w4 ,,midgley and ,a4 ,e4 ,v4 ,,lilley4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,tenth ,thousand4 ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 ,,midgley--,the ,life and ,leaf ,set of ,drawing and ,design ,cards4 ,by ,w4 ,,midgley1 ,a4,r4,c4,a4 ,london4 #dto4 #bs4 net4 ,,muybridge--,the ,human ,figure in ,motion4 ,an ,electro-,photographic ,investigation of ,consecutive ,phases of ,muscular ,actions4 ,by ,,eadward ,,muybridge4 ,illustrated with numerous full-page ,photo-,mezzotint ,engravings reproduced from the ,original ,negatives4 ,oblong4 #bjs4 net4 ,,muybridge--,animals in ,motion4 ,an ,electro-,photographic ,investigation of ,consecutive ,phases of ,progressive ,movements4 ,by ,,eadward ,,muybridge4 ,ninety-five full-page ,photo-,mezzotint ,engravings1 reproduced from the ,original ,negatives1 and more than #a1fjj ,half-tone ,figures of ,horses1 ,dogs1 ,elephants1 ,lions1 and other ,animals1 while engaged in walking1 galloping1 leaping1 or some other act of motion1 and of ,birds while flying4 ,oblong4 #bjs4 net4 ,,poynter--,ten ,lectures on ,art4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,,poynter1 ,r4,a4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #is4 ,,rhead--,studies in ,plant ,form and ,natural ,objects4 ,by ,,george ,,wolliscroft ,,rhead1 ,r4,e4 ,set #a4--,,plant ,,forms4 ,set #b4--,,natural ,,objects4 ,per ,set1 #fs4 net4 ,each contains ,six ,outline and ,six ,tinted subjects4 ,,rhead--,memory ,drawing of ,plant ,form1 and ,blackboard ,drawing4 ,twelve ,cards of ,plant ,form to meet the above ,syllabuses1 drawn from ,nature by ,g4 ,w4 ,,rhead4 ,r4,e4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,size1 #aj in4 #g in4 ,,seeman 7,o47--,the ,mythology of ,greece and ,rome1 with ,special ,reference to its ,use in ,art4 ,edited by ,g4 ,h4 ,,bianchi4 ,sixty-four ,illustrations4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,,statham--,modern ,architecture4 ,a ,book for ,architects and the ,public4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,,statham4 ,with numerous ,illustrations of ,contemporary ,buildings4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,statham--,architecture for ,general ,readers4 ,a ,short ,treatise on the ,principles and ,motives of ,architectural ,design4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,,statham4 ,with #bej ,illustrations drawn by the ,author4 ,third ,edition1 ,revised4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #abs4 ,,taylor--,elementary ,art ,teaching4 ,an ,educational and ,technical ,guide for ,teachers and ,learners4 ,by ,e4 ,r4 ,,taylor4 ,with over #fjj ,diagrams and ,illustrations4 ,second ,edition4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,,tebbs--,the ,new ,lace ,embroidery 7,punto ,tagliato74 ,by ,,louisa ,a4 ,,tebbs4 ,with thirty-four ,illustrations4 ,new ,edition4 #dto4 #es4 net4 ,,tebbs--,the ,art of ,bobbin ,lace4 ,a ,practical ,text-book of ,workmanship1 ,illustrated with original designs in ,italian1 point de ,flandre1 ,bruges ,guipure1 ,duchesse1 ,honiton1 8,raised0 ,honiton1 ,appliqu1 and ,bruxelles4 ,also how to clean and repair valuable lace1 etc4 ,by ,,louisa ,a4 ,,tebbs4 #dto4 #es4 net4 ,,vinycomb--,fictitious and ,symbolic ,creatures in ,art4 ,with ,special ,references to their ,use in ,british ,heraldry4 ,by ,,john ,,vinycomb4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,ward and ,,aitchison--,the ,principles of ,ornament4 ,by ,j4 ,,ward4 ,ed4 by ,,george ,,aitchison1 ,a4,r4,a4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,ward--,colour ,harmony and ,contrast4 ,for the use of ,art ,students1 ,designers1 and ,decorators4 ,by ,,james ,,ward4 ,with sixteen ,coloured ,illustrations and several ,half-tone ,pictures4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,ward--,floral ,studies for ,decorative ,design4 ,by ,,james ,,ward4 ,in ,portfolio4 #bjs4 net4 ,,ward--,progressive ,design for ,students4 ,by ,,james ,,ward4 ,with forty-two full-page ,plates1 comprising upwards of #a1gjj ,drawings4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,ward--,historic ,ornament4 ,a ,treatise on ,decorative ,art and ,architectural ,ornament4 ,by ,,james ,,ward4 ,,volume ,i4--,prehistoric ,art2 ,ancient ,art and ,architecture2 ,eastern1 ,early ,christian1 ,byzantine1 ,saracenic1 ,romanesque1 ,gothic1 and ,renaissance ,architecture and ,ornament4 ,with #dcf ,illustrations4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,volume ,,ii4--,pottery1 ,enamels1 ,ivories1 ,metal ,work1 ,furniture1 ,textile ,fabrics1 ,mosaics1 ,glass1 and ,book ,decoration4 ,with #cag ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,ward--,fresco ,painting3 its ,art and ,technique4 ,with special reference to the ,buono and ,spirit ,fresco ,methods4 ,by ,,james ,,ward4 ,with four ,plates in ,colour and thirty-one ,half-tone ,illustrations of ,italian and other ,fresco ,paintings4 ,royal #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,wornum--,the ,analysis of ,ornament--,the ,characteristics of ,styles4 ,by ,r4 ,n4 ,,wornum4 ,new ,edition4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,royal #hvo4 #hs4 ------------------------------------ ,,plants ,,and ,,animals ,,as ,,foundations ,,for ,,designs ,,in ,,form ,,and ,,colour4 ,,verneuil--,the ,animal in ,decoration4 ,by ,m4 ,p4 ,,verneuil4 ,introduction by ,,eugene ,,grasset4 ,this magnificent work consists of ,ten ,parts1 each containing six ,coloured ,plates1 treating of the use of certain animal forms in decorative design4 ,sixty ,plates4 ,in ,ten ,parts1 each containing six ,plates1 #hs4 net per part4 ,,grasset--,plants and ,their ,application to ,ornament4 ,edited by ,,eugene ,,grasset4 ,first ,series4 ,this magnificent work contains seventy-two ,coloured ,plates4 ,in ,twelve ,parts1 #hs4 net per part4 ,,grasset--,plants and ,their ,application to ,ornament4 ,edited by ,,eugene ,,grasset4 ,second ,series4 ,this magnificent work contains seventy-two ,coloured ,plates4 ,in ,twelve ,parts1 #hs4 net per part4 ,,london3 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,ltd4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note ,some inconsistencies in formatting conventions have been corrected1 without further mention4 ,occasionally1 diacritical marks are used 7or not used7 inconsistently as well1 and been been made regular to facilitate searches4 ,a quoted passage on p4 #cbf1 begins with 8,it was built probably44401 and apparently continues into the following paragraph 7without the conventional opening quotation mark7 and ends with 8444 total height is #cc feet #f inches40 ,it is unclear how much of this passage is a direct quotation1 since it includes a reference to an illustration in the current text4 ,in any case1 it is given here as printed4 ,any errors deemed most likely to be the printer's have been corrected1 and are noted here4 ,the references are to the page and line in the original4 ,the following issues should be noted1 along with the resolutions4 xiv4#b #bge4 ,dionysus and the ,lion ,added4 xv4#ae #aj_/fg4 ,fragment of ,border of ,fig4 #aff ,replaced4 xvi4#ce ,lake ,dwellings1 ,objects from ,added4 xvii4#ah ,mosque of ,ka_/it ,bey1 ,cairo ,corrected4 xvii4#cc ,ornament on an ,arch of the ,wekla ,ka_/it ,bey ,replaced4 xviii4#df ,pulpit of the ,sultan ,ka_/it ,bey ,corrected4 #ace4d there is none end ,sic ,king ,james version #gi4ab appearance of the whole building4 ,restored4 #ij4;f#aba ,nymph_/a nelumbo2 ,flower1 ,leaf1 and ,fruit4 ,corrected4 #add4;f#aib drawn by ,gautier4 7,p4 ,c47 ,added4 #afc4ah their sculptured figures in the round4 ,restored4 #agj4bc but the hierolygglyphics are not to be ,transposed4 relied #bbc4bb his favourite animal attributes4 ,restored4 #bbe4ba the mass of the ,greek people4 ,added4 #bda4ac ,they show marks of injury by fire4 ,restored4 #bgf4f aa_/nd the ,indo-,aryan ,corrected4 #cdb4bg are also examples of early work executed in ,inserted4 ,england #cdi4aj ,the ,church of ,no_/tre-,dame ,corrected4 #cec4ah in many interiors of ,german churches4 ,added4 #cef4ae battlemented cornices1 and stepped gables4 ,added4 #cfe4b with fifteenth and sixteenth ,venetian or sic3 ,renaissance forms century8 #cgf4e ,san ,michele1 of ,verona 7#adhd-aehh7 sic d4 #aeei4 #cgi4af ,what is known as the ,henri ,deux 7,henry ,,ii47 ,added4 style #chc4bd built about this time in ,england4 ,added4 #chf4bg was founded on the ,roman ,restored4