,,tr,,bner',s ,,oriental ,,series4 ,illustration ,,the ,,life ,,or ,,legend ,,of ,,gaudama ,,the ,,buddha ,,of ,,the ,,burmese4 ,with ,annotations4 ,,the ,,ways ,,to ,,neibban1 ,,and ,,notice ,,on ,,the ,,phongyies ,,or ,,burmese ,,monks4 ,,by ,,the ,,right ,,reverend ,p4 ,,bigandet1 ,,bishop ,,of ,,ramatha1 ,,vicar ,,apostolic ,,of ,,ava ,,and ,,pegu4 ,,in ,,two ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,,london3 ,,kegan ,,paul1 ,,trench1 ,,tr,,bner ,,co4 ,,ltd4 ,,broadway ,,house1 ,,carter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 #aiab4 ,the rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved4 ,printed by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,,co4 ,at the ,ballantyne ,press1 ,edinburgh ,,contents4 ,,legend ,,or ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,burmese ,,buddha1 ,,called ,,gaudama4 ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,buddha1 being seventy-nine years old1 delivers instructions to the ,rahans--,preachings in the village of ,patalie--,miraculous crossing of the ,ganges--,conversion of a courtesan--,sickness of ,buddha--,his instructions to ,ananda--,last moments and death of ,thariputra--,his eulogium by ,buddha--,death of ,maukalan--,reflections of ,buddha on that event #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,voyage to ,wethalie--,last temptation of ,manh--,causes of earthquake--,new instructions to the ,rahans--,last meal of ,buddha--,his painful distemper--,his conversation with one of the ,malla ,princes--,sign foreshowing ,buddha's coming death--,arrival in the ,kootheinaron forest--,buddha lays himself on his couch--,wonders attending that event--,instructions to ,ananda--,eulogium of ,ananda by ,buddha--,conversion of ,thoubat--,last words of ,buddha to the ,rahans--,his death #bh ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,stanzas uttered after ,buddha's death--,ananda informs the ,malla ,princes of ,buddha's demise--,preparations for the funeral--,arrival of ,kathaba at the spot where the body was exposed to public veneration--,he worships the body--,wonder on that occasion--,the burning of the corpse--,partition of the relics made by a ,pounha called ,dauna--,extraordinary honours paid to the relics by ,king ,adzatathat--,death of that king and of ,kathaba #ge ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,after ,buddha's death1 zeal of ,kathaba in upholding genuine doctrines--,he selects five hundred elders to become members of a council or assembly--,radzagio is fixed upon for the holding of the council--,he repairs thither with a portion of the appointed members--,behaviour of the amiable ,ananda previous to his departure for ,radzagio--,king ,adzatathat supports ,kathaba in his views--,the hall for holding the council is prepared by his orders--,ananda is qualified in a miraculous manner for sitting as a member of the council--,holding of the council under the presidency of ,kathaba--,establishment of the ,religious era--,destruction of ,wethalie by ,adzatathat--,the successors of that ,prince--,in the days of ,king ,kalathoka a second council is held at ,pataliputra under the presidency of ,ratha--,causes that provoked the holding of a second assembly #aja ,,chapter ,v4 ,kalathoka is succeeded by his eldest son1 ,baddasena--,and finally by the youngest1 ,pitzamuka--,this prince is killed and succeeded by a chief of robbers1 named ,ouggasena-nanda--,king ,tsanda-gutta--,king ,bandasura--,miraculous dreams of ,athoka's mother--,king ,athoka--,his conversion--,his zeal for ,buddhism--,finding of the relics--,distribution of them--,third council held under the presidency of ,mauggalipata--,preaching of religion in various countries1 and particularly in ,thaton--,voyage of ,buddhagosa to ,ceylon--,establishment of religion in ,pagan--,various particulars relating to the importation of the ,scriptures in ,burmah #abc ,,an ,,abstract ,,of ,a ,,few ,,small ,,dzats1 ,,and ,,of ,,two ,,principal ,,ones1 ,,known ,,as ,,nemi ,,and ,,dzanecka #aec ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,sites ,,and ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,places ,,mentioned ,,in ,,the ,,legend ,,or ,,life ,,of ,,gaudama #agg ,,the ,,seven ,,ways ,,to ,,neibban #ahi ,art4 ,i4--,of the ,precepts #aia ,art4 ,,ii4--,of ,meditation and its various ,degrees #bjb ,art4 ,,iii4--,of the ,nature of ,beings #bab ,art4 ,,iv4--,of the ,cause of the ,form and of the ,name1 or of ,master and ,spirit #bah ,art4 ,v4--,of the ,true ,meggas or ,ways to ,perfection #bbg ,art4 ,,vi4--,of the ,progress in ,perfect ,science #bcc ,,notice ,,on ,,the ,,phongyies1 ,,or ,,buddhist ,,monks1 ,,sometimes ,,called ,,talapoins #bda ,art4 ,i4--,a short ,parallel between the ,brahminical and ,buddhistic ,religious ,orders #bdd ,art4 ,,ii4--,nature of the ,religious ,order of ,phongyies #bea ,art4 ,,iii4--,hierarchy of the ,order #bfa ,art4 ,,iv4--,ordination1 or ,ceremonies observed at the ,admission into the ,society #bgb ,art4 ,v4--,rules of the ,order #bhb ,art4 ,,vi4--,occupations of the ,buddhist ,monks #bif ,art4 ,,vii4--,religious ,influence of the ,phongyies--,respect and ,veneration paid to them by the ,laity #cjc ,,addenda #cba ,,on ,,the ,,word 8,,nat0 #cbd ,,legend ,,of ,,the ,,burmese ,,buddha ,,called ,,gaudama4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,buddha1 being seventy-nine years old1 delivers instructions to the ,rahans--,preachings in the village of ,patalie--,miraculous crossing of the ,ganges--,conversion of a courtesan--,sickness of ,buddha--,his instructions to ,ananda--,last moments and death of ,thariputra--,his eulogium by ,buddha--,death of ,maukalan--,reflections of ,buddha on that event4 ,during all this time ,buddha was travelling about the country1 preaching the law to those that were worthy to obtain the deliverance4 ,he had reached his seventy-ninth year4#a ,at that time there were eighteen monasteries in the neighbourhood of ,radzagio1 peopled by a great number of religious4 ,on a certain day1 ,buddha said to ,ananda1 8,invite all the ,rahans to assemble in the ,gny-,moora hall40 ,when they had gathered together in that place1 ,buddha repaired thither1 and spoke to them as follows3 8,beloved ,bickus1 as long as you shall remain united1 and continue to hold regular meetings1 you shall certainly prosper and flourish--as long as you shall agree together1 and come unitedly to a decision on all principal affairs1 so that you will impose no obligation where there is no precept1 and that you will fervently observe all the commands1 strictly adhering to all the rules of your profession1 you will ever be in a prosperous condition4 ,it is required that you should behave respectfully towards your superiors1 yielding due obedience to their injunctions4 ,beware of passions1 and particularly of concupiscence1 lest you should ever be brought under their tyrannical yoke4 ,love retreat and solitude2 endeavour to observe your regulations1 as well as all the ordinances and ceremonies of the law4 ,let it be a pleasure to you to receive kindly good religious who may come to your monasteries1 and converse with them4 ,avoid carefully to take pleasure in what you do or say1 or pride yourselves in the number of your attendants4 ,shun bad company2 apply yourselves diligently to acquire knowledge and wisdom2 meditate on the great truths1 mutability1 pain1 and unreality4 ,as long as you observe those important points and adhere to them1 you shall prosper and be ever respected by all4 ,moreover1 you will be thereby enabled to avoid all that which is base and unbecoming in your sacred calling40 ,when the instruction was over1 ,buddha called ,ananda and bade him inform the ,rahans to hold themselves ready for going to ,ampaladaka4 ,whilst staying in a dzeat or bungalow1 ,thariputra approached ,buddha1 and having paid him his respects1 said to him1 8,o most illustrious ,buddha1 there is no one that surpasses1 or that is even equal to you in the knowledge of the law4 ,there has never been1 nor will ever be1 a being that can be compared to you4 ,this is what elicits my admiration towards and love for your person40 ,buddha replied1 8,you are not mistaken1 ,thariputra2 blessed are they who1 like you1 know the value and the science of a ,buddha40 ,desiring to try the wisdom of his great disciple1 he added1 8,beloved son1 how do you know that no one can be compared to me1 and that my knowledge of the law is unrivalled80 ,thariputra answered1 8,i have not the knowledge of the present1 nor of the past and future1 but ,i understand the law2 through you1 ,o most glorious ,buddha1 ,i have come to that understanding2 you have said that you have infinite wisdom1 hence ,i conclude that you know the present1 the past1 and the future--you are to be ever praised2 you are most excellent1 ever glorious1 and free from all passions1 and therefore to you ,i attribute all the qualities inherent in him who is invested with the ,buddhaship40 ,from ,ampaladaka ,buddha went to the large village of ,nalanda1 where he was well received by the inhabitants4 ,he preached to them and made a short stay with them4 ,phra summoned again ,ananda to his presence1 and directed him to tell the ,rahans to be ready for a voyage1 as he desired to go to the village of ,patalie4 ,when he arrived at that place1 the people prepared for him the dzeat#b or hall1 which had been erected by the order of ,king ,adzatathat1 for receiving the ,letziwy princes of ,wethalie1 who had come to a conference for settling some affairs with him4 ,everything being ready1 they invited ,phra1 who by his silence testified his acceptance of their invitation4 ,water to drink1 rinse the mouth1 and wash his hands and feet1 was ready4 ,buddha sat leaning against the central post of the hall1 facing the east4 ,his disciples remained behind in a humble posture1 whereas the people sat opposite to him1 having their faces turned towards the west4 ,phra began to explain to the numerous hearers the demerits and punishments attending the trespassing of the precepts of the law1 and the advantages reserved to those who religiously observe them4 8,darakas10 said he1 8whoever trespasses the moral precepts1 or is remiss in observing them1 will see his happiness and fortune gradually decreasing1 and his good character falling away4 ,he will ever live in a sad state of doubt and uncertainty1 and at last1 when death shall have put an end to his present existence1 he will fall into hell4 ,but the lot of the faithful observer of the great precepts shall be widely different4 ,he will obtain riches and pleasures1 and gain an honourable reputation4 ,he will be welcome in the assemblies of princes1 pounhas1 and ,rahans2 doubt shall never enter his mind1 and his death will open before him the way to the pleasant seats of ,nats40 ,the people were so much taken up with the preaching that they remained in the dzeat until a very late hour4 ,at last they paid their homage to ,buddha1 rose up1 turned on the right1 and departed4 ,it is in the following year that the same king built the city of ,patalibot or ,pataliputra1 on that same spot4 ,in anticipation of that event1 ,buddha foretold that the village would become a great city1 which would obtain a renowned celebrity among all other cities4 ,thither countless merchants would resort from all parts of ,dzampoodipa4 ,at the same time he predicted the great calamities that would befall it4 ,internal discords1 fire1 and inundation of the ,ganges would gradually work out its total destruction4 ,in the morning ,buddha went to the southern bank of the ,ganges1 and preached the law to some pounhas1 who1 in return1 made him offerings and paid him much respect4 ,he stood on that place as if waiting for some boat to cross the mighty stream4 ,some of the people were looking out for boats1 others were busily engaged in preparing rafts4 ,whilst they were making all the necessary arrangements1 ,buddha stretched both arms and found himself1 with all his ,rahans1 on the opposite bank4 ,turning his face in the direction of those who were in search of boats and rafts1 he said3 8,he who has crossed the sea of passions is an ,ariah4 ,the practice of the great duties are the boats and rafts whereupon he contrives to cross the sea of passions4 ,he who desires to pass a river wants the aid of rafts and boats1 which are made up of different pieces of wood joined together2 but he who has become an ,ariah by the knowledge of the great roads that lead to perfection1 weakens all passions and extricates himself from the whirlpool of concupiscence3 he can also1 without the help of boats or rafts1 cross rivers40 ,phra informed ,ananda that he intended to go to the village of ,kantikama4 ,having reached that place1 he explained to the ,rahans the glorious and sublime prerogatives of ,ariahs4 ,thence he passed over to the village of ,nadika4 ,it was in that place that ,ananda asked him what had become of a certain ,rahan1 named ,thamula1 and of a certain ,rahaness1 named ,anaunda1 who had both just died4 8,the ,rahan10 answered ,buddha1 8has conquered all his passions and obtained the state of ,neibban4 ,as to the ,rahaness1 she has gone to one of the seats of ,brahmas3 thence she will migrate to ,neibban without reappearing in the world of passions40 ,buddha went to the country of ,wethalie with his disciples1 and dwelt in a beautiful grove of mango-trees4 ,there he earnestly recommended his disciples to have their minds always attentive and ready to engage in serious reflections and meditations4 ,in ,wethalie lived a famous courtesan1 named ,apapalika4 ,she had her dwelling in a beautiful place1 near to an extensive and delightful grove1 planted with mango-trees4 ,she went along with others to hear the preaching of ,gaudama1 which had the good effect of disposing her to make a great offering to the distinguished preacher and his followers4 ,buddha was submissively requested to come on the following day with all the ,rahans to receive his food4 ,the invitation was graciously accepted4 ,the courtesan hastened to prepare the meal for ,buddha and his followers4 ,on the same day he preached the law to a number of young princes who had offered to supply him with his meal on the following day4 ,he refused to accept the invitation1 because he had already promised to ,apapalika to go to her place for the same purpose4 ,the princes had come in their finest and richest dress2 in their deportment they vied in beauty with the ,nats4 ,but foreseeing the ruin and misery that was soon to come upon them all1 ,buddha exhorted his disciples to entertain a thorough contempt for things that are dazzling to the eyes1 but essentially perishable and unreal in their nature4 ,the princes were greatly disappointed at the preference given to the courtesan4 ,on the following day1 ,gaudama went to the grove of mango-trees1 attended by all his ,rahans4 ,after the meal1 ,apapalika presented the grove to ,gaudama1 who readily accepted the pious gift4 ,having remained a while on this spot1 ,buddha went to the village of ,weluwa1 where he spent the forty-fifth and the last season4 ,there he assembled the ,rahans and said to them3 8,i intend to spend the season in this place1 but you have my permission to go and remain in the neighbouring districts40 ,the reason that induced him to part for a while with his disciples was the smallness of the place and the difficulty of procuring rice1 whilst in the contiguous districts there were many monasteries and an abundance of all the necessaries of life4 ,he would not1 however1 allow them to withdraw to too great a distance1 for two reasons3 first1 because he knew that in ten months hence he would attain the state of ,neibban2 and1 second1 because he desired to see them assembled in his place several times every month1 that he might have opportunity to preach the law1 and deliver to them his final instructions4 ,whilst he was living in that place ,buddha was visited with a most painful distemper1 which threw him into a state of prolonged agony4 ,but owing to the absence of his disciples1 and knowing besides that this was not the spot he was to select for his last moments1 he overcame1 by his incomparable power1 the evil influence of the illness1 and entering soon into a state of absolute trance1 he remained therein for a while4 ,awakening from that situation1 he appeared anew with his strength and usual vigour4 ,when he came out from the monastery to take his wonted walk1 ,ananda went into his presence1 and expressed to him the profound grief felt by all those who had heard of his illness4 8,when ,i saw you ill1 ,o illustrious ,buddha10 said the faithful ,ananda1 8,i was so deeply affected that ,i could scarcely hold up my head or draw my breath4 ,i always cherished the hope that you would not go to ,neibban ere you had preached once more the law to us all40 8,ananda10 replied ,buddha1 8why are the ,rahans so much concerned about my person8 ,what ,i have preached has no reference to what is within me or without me4 ,besides me there is no one else to preach the law4 ,were they not looking upon me as such1 it would be perfectly useless to attempt to preach to them4 ,i am now very old2 my years number eighty4 ,i am like an old cart1 the iron wheels and wood of which are kept together by constant repairing2 my earthly frame is kept entire and whole by the force and power of trance4 ,o ,ananda1 ,i feel truly happy whenever ,i consider the state of ,arahat1 which is the deliverance from all the miseries of this world1 whilst at the same time it sets a being free and disentangled from all visible and material objects4 ,as to my disciples1 as long as my religion shall last they ought to rely on themselves1 and take refuge in the law1 for there is no other refuge4 ,they will truly rely on themselves when1 by a careful attention1 profound reflection1 and true wisdom1 they will be bent upon the destruction of concupiscence and anger1 and engaged on meditating upon the constituent elements of this body40 ,such were the instructions he gave to ,ananda4 ,having spent the season in the village of ,welouwa1 the most excellent ,buddha desired to return by the same way he had previously followed to the country of ,thawattie4 ,having arrived there1 he took up his residence in the monastery of ,dzetawon4#c ,the great disciple ,thariputra1 having just returned from begging his rice1 hastened to render to ,buddha the usual services4 ,he swept the place1 spread the mat1 and washed his feet4 ,these duties being performed1 he sat in a cross-legged position1 entered into a state of trance for a while1 whence having awakened1 he thought within himself as follows3 ,has it been the custom in former ages for the ,buddhas to arrive first at the state of ,neibban1 or for their great disciples to precede them in that way8 ,having ascertained that the latter alternative always happened1 ,thariputra examined his own existence1 and found that the period of his life was not to extend beyond seven days4 ,he next considered what place was the fittest for him to depart from and go to ,neibban4 ,the remembrance of his mother occurred to his mind1 and he said to himself1 ,my mother has given birth to seven ,rahandas1 and she has not as yet taken refuge in the three precious things--,buddha1 the law1 and the assembly of the perfect4 ,is she capable of understanding and knowing the four ways to perfection8 ,yes1 she is indeed4 ,but who is destined to preach to her8 ,i am the person who ought to perform such a good office to her4 ,i will go1 teach her1 and1 by my instructions1 make her renounce her false belief and embrace the true one4 ,the very room ,i was born in shall be the spot wherefrom ,i shall depart for the rest of ,neibban4 ,on this day ,i will ask ,buddha's leave to go to my birthplace4 ,having come to this resolution1 he called the faithful ,tsanda1 and said to him1 8,go and summon my five hundred ,rahans to attend at my place40 ,tsanda departed forthwith1 and said to the ,rahans1 8,the great ,thariputra desires to go to the village of ,nalanda2 be ready to accompany him2 arrange everything in your own place1 take up your pattas and tsiwarans40 ,the five hundred ,rahans immediately complied with the request1 and were ready to follow their master4 ,thariputra1 having disposed everything in his own cell1 rose up1 and casting an attentive and serious look upon the place he was wont to sit on during the day1 he said1 8,this is the last time ,i will ever see this place2 never will ,i any more enter into this cell40 ,thereupon he left the spot followed by the five hundred ,rahans1 went to the presence of ,gaudama1 and humbly requested permission to go and quietly enter into the state of ,neibban1 and thereby be delivered from the whirlpool of endless existences4 ,gaudama asked him in what place he intended to obtain ,neibban8 ,thariputra replied3 8,in the country of ,magatha1 in the village of ,nalanda1#d in the very room where ,i was born40 8,you alone1 ,o ,thariputra10 said ,buddha1 8know the time of your entering the state of ,neibban4 ,as it is difficult1 if not impossible1 ever to find among all my disciples one like unto you1 ,i desire you to preach once more to the assembly of ,rahans40 ,thariputra1 knowing that ,buddha wished him at the same time to show a display of his power1 prostrated himself before him1 then rose up in the air to the height of one palm-tree1 and came down to worship ,buddha4 ,he rose seven times in succession1 each time higher by the length of a palm-tree than the preceding one4 ,on the last time he stood in the air for a while1 and announced the law to the multitude of ,rahans and people2 then coming down1 he submissively requested ,buddha to withdraw into the interior of the monastery4 ,buddha1 complying with his wishes1 entered into a hall studded with diamonds4 ,thariputra1 having bowed towards the four points of the compass1 said3 8,o most glorious ,buddha1 a hundred thousands of worlds ago ,i was prostrated at the feet of ,buddha ,anaumadathi1 and earnestly prayed that ,i might enjoy the happiness of seeing all successive ,buddhas that would appear during the period of my countless existences4 ,my prayer has been heard1 and now ,i contemplate you1 ,o most glorious ,buddha1 and it is the last time that ,i will ever enjoy your presence4 ,now1 ,o ,buddha1 worthy to be adored by all rational beings1 ,i will soon be free from the thraldom of existences1 and this existence shall be the last2 this my prostration before you shall be the last4 ,the end of my life is near at hand3 seven days hence1 like a man who rids himself of a heavy load1 ,i will be freed from the heavy burden of my body40 ,he raised his joined hands to his forehead1 and from the extremities of his ten fingers rays of glory shot forth4 ,in this position he bowed to ,buddha1 and withdrawing slowly1 with his face towards ,buddha1 he continued bowing down as long as he could see him1 because it was for the last time4 ,when ,buddha was out of sight he took his departure4 ,at the same time the earth trembled with a tremendous shake4 ,buddha said to the ,rahans that surrounded ,thariputra3 8,beloved children1 your elder brother is departing2 accompany him for a while40 ,the people1 too1 hearing that ,thariputra was going away1 came forward1 and gathering in large crowds1 said to each other3 8,the great ,thariputra1 having obtained leave from ,buddha1 is going to prepare himself for the state of ,neibban2 let us follow him1 that we may still enjoy his presence40 ,whereupon taking flowers and perfumes in their hands1 they ran in the direction he had taken1 with dishevelled hair1 crying aloud1 with tears and lamentations1 8,where is ,thariputra80 ,having come up to him1 they said3 8,illustrious ,rahan1 you have left ,buddha2 whom do you now intend to join80 ,thariputra1 full of the most affectionate feelings towards the people1 mildly desired them not to accompany him farther1 and he added a few last words1 enjoining upon them ever to remember ,buddha and the ,rahans4 ,during the seven days that his journey lasted1 ,thariputra never ceased to praise and exalt the affection and kindness the people bore to him4 ,it was a little before dark when the great ,rahan arrived at the entrance of the ,nalanda village4 ,he went to rest at the foot of a banyan-tree close to that spot4 ,at that time there came a young man1 his nephew1 named ,ooparewata1 who1 perceiving ,thariputra1 bowed down before him1 and stood in that place4 ,the great ,rahan said to him3 8,is your grandmother at home80 ,having been answered in the affirmative1 he continued addressing him3 8,go now to her1 and tell her to prepare for me the room wherein ,i was born1 and a place for these five hundred ,rahans that accompany me4 ,i will stay for awhile in the village1 and will go to her house somewhat later40 ,the lad went in all haste to his grandmother's house1 and said to her3 8,my uncle is come1 and is staying at the entrance of the village40 8,is he alone80 inquired the grandmother1 8or has he with him a numerous retinue8 ,for what purpose is he coming here80 ,the young man related to her all the particulars of his interview with his uncle4 ,noopathari1 the mother of ,thariputra1 thought within herself1 ,perhaps my son1 who has been a ,rahan from his youth1 desires in his old age to leave his profession4 ,she1 however1 gave orders to have the desired room cleaned1 and a place prepared for all his attendants4 ,in the evening1 the great disciple went to his mother's house with all his followers4 ,he ascended to the room prepared for him and rested therein4 ,he bade all the ,rahans withdraw and leave him alone4 ,they had scarcely departed1 when a most violent disease seized ,thariputra1 which caused an abundant vomiting of blood1 so great1 indeed1 that the vessel into which it flowed could not hold it4 ,his mother1 at the sight of such an awful distemper1 did not dare to approach1 but retired1 with a broken heart1 into her own room1 and leaned against the door4 ,at that time1 four great ,nats1 a ,thagia their chief1 and four ,brahmas1 came to see him1 and to minister to him during his painful illness2 but he bade them retire4 ,his mother1 seeing the coming and going of so many distinguished visitors1 and the respect they paid to her son1 drew near to the door of his room1 and calling the faithful ,tsanda1 inquired of him wherefore so many distinguished individuals had come4 ,tsanda explained to her that the great ,nats and a chief ,thagia had come to visit and assist her son1 and enjoy the presence of the great ,rahan4 ,meanwhile he informed the patient that his mother wished to see him4 ,thariputra replied1 that the moment was not a proper one1 and he asked his mother the motive of her untimely visit4 8,beloved son10 said she1 8,i am come here to contemplate your ever dear countenance4 ,but who are they that have just come to see you80 ,thariputra explained to her how he had been visited by ,nats1 ,thagias1 and ,brahmas4 ,his mother inquiring of him if he were greater than any one of these1 he unhesitatingly replied1 that he was more excellent than any of them4 ,his mother thought within herself3 ,if my son be so exalted1 how much more must ,buddha be6 ,her heart then overflowed with the purest joy4 ,thariputra rightly understood that the moment had come to preach the law to his mother4 ,he said to her1 8,woman1 at the time my great teacher was born1 when he obtained the supreme intelligence1 and preached the most excellent law1 a great earthquake was felt throughout ten thousand worlds4 ,no one has ever equalled him in the practice of virtue1 in understanding1 wisdom1 and in the knowledge of and affection for the transcendent excellencies of the state of ,arahat40 ,he then went on explaining to her the law1 and many particulars relating to the person of ,buddha4 8,beloved son10 said his mother1 delighted with all that she heard1 8why have you been so late in acquainting me with such a perfect law80 ,at the conclusion of the instruction1 she attained the state of ,thautapan4 ,thariputra replied1 8,now1 woman1 ,i have repaid you for all the labours you have bestowed on me in bearing1 nursing1 and educating me2 depart from me and leave me alone40#e ,thariputra inquired of the devoted ,tsanda whether the moment had come4 ,having been informed that it was nearly daylight1 he requested to be set up4 ,by his order all the ,rahans were called to his presence1 and he said to them1 8,for the last forty-four years you have ever been with me2 if ,i have offended any one of you during all that time1 ,i beg to be pardoned40 ,the ,rahans answered him3 8,great teacher1 we have lived with you during the last forty-four years1 and have been your inseparable attendants1 following you everywhere1 as the shadow follows the body4 ,we have never experienced the least dissatisfaction with you1 but we have to request your forbearance with us and pardon for ourselves40 ,it was on the evening of the full moon ,tatsaongmon 7,november71 when ,thariputra went to his mother's place1 and lay down in the room wherein he had been born4 ,during the night he was attacked with the most distressing distemper4 ,in the morning1 at daylight1 he was habited with his tsiwaran and made to lie on his right side4 ,he entered into a sort of ecstasy1 passed successively from the first state of ,dzan to the second1 third1 and fourth1 and thence dived into the bottomless state of ,neibban1 which is the complete exemption from the influence of passions and matter4 ,noopathari1 bathed in her tears1 gave full vent to her grief and desolation4 8,alas60 exclaimed she1 looking on the lifeless body1 8is this my beloved son8 ,his mouth can no more utter a sound40 ,rising up1 she flung herself at his feet1 and with a voice ever interrupted by sobs and lamentations1 said1 8,alas6 beloved son1 too late have ,i known the treasure of perfections and excellencies that was in you4 ,had ,i been aware of it1 ,i would have invited to my house more than ten thousand ,rahans1 fed them1 and made a present of three suits of dresses to each of them4 ,i would have built a hundred monasteries to receive them40 ,day#f having dawned1 she sent for the most skilful goldsmiths1 opened her chests1 and gave them a great quantity of gold4 ,by her command1 five hundred small piathats and as many dzedis were prepared3 the outsides were all covered with gold leaves4 ,the great ,thagia sent down on the spot a number of ,nats1 who made also the same number of religious ornaments4 ,in the middle of the city a high square tower was erected2 from its centre a tall spire rose to an immense height4 ,this principal one was surrounded by a great number of smaller ones4 ,men and ,nats mingled together1 uniting in their endeavours to do honour to the deceased4 ,the whole place was lined with countless beings1 vieing with each other in their efforts to show the utmost respect1 joy1 and exultation on this extraordinary occasion4 ,the nurse of ,thariputra1 named ,rewati1 came and deposited round the mortal remains three golden flowers4 ,at that very moment the great ,thagia made his appearance1 surrounded with myriads of ,nats4 ,as soon as the multitudes perceived him1 they withdrew hastily to make room for him4 ,in the midst of the confusion1 ,rewati fell down1 was trampled upon1 and died4 ,she migrated to the fortunate seat of ,tawadeintha1 became a daughter of ,nats1 and inhabited a niche made with the most consummate skill1 and adorned with the richest materials4 ,her body shone like a beautiful statue of gold1 and was three gawoots tall4 ,her dress exceeded in richness1 variety1 and beauty all that had ever been hitherto seen4 ,on the following day1 ,rewati came from her glorious seat to the spot where crowds of people surrounded the body of the deceased4 ,she approached with the dignified countenance and majestic bearing of a queen of ,nats4 ,no one recognised her1 though the eyes of all were riveted on her person1 encompassed with the splendour of ,nats4 ,while all the spectators1 overawed by the presence of that celestial being1 remained motionless with a silent admiration1 ,rewati said to them1 8,how is it that none of you recognise me8 ,i am ,rewati1 the nurse of the great ,thariputra4 ,to the offering of the three golden flowers made by me and placed at the feet of the mortal remains of the great ,rahan1 ,i am indebted for the glory and splendour of my present position40 ,she explained at great length the advantages procured by doing meritorious actions4 ,having stood for awhile above the cenotaph1 whereupon they had deposited the body of the deceased1 she came down1 turned three times round it1 bowing down each time1 and then returned to the blissful seat of ,tawadeintha4 ,during seven consecutive days1 rejoicings1 dancings1 and amusements of every description were uninterruptedly kept up in honour of the illustrious deceased4 ,the funeral pile was made of scented wood2 upon it they scattered profusely the most rare and fragrant perfumes4 ,the pile was ninety-nine cubits high4 ,the corpse having been placed upon it1 fire was set to it by means of strings made of flowers and combustibles4 ,during the whole night that the ceremony lasted1 there was a constant preaching of the law4 ,anoorouda extinguished the fire with perfumed water4 ,tsanda carefully and piously collected the remaining relics1 which were placed in a filter4 8,now10 said he1 8,i will go to ,buddha with these relics1 and lay them in his presence40 ,with his companion ,anoorouda1 he took1 together with the relics1 the patta and tsiwaran of the deceased1 and returned to ,buddha to relate to him all the particulars concerning the last moments of his great disciple4 ,tsanda was the younger brother of the great ,thariputra4 ,it was to him that the honour belonged of being the person selected to convey to ,buddha the precious relics4 ,when1 however1 he had come to the monastery1 he was unwilling to go alone into ,buddha's presence4 ,he went first to ,ananda1 his intimate friend1 and said to him1 8,my brother ,thariputra has obtained the state of ,neibban4 ,here are the patta1 tsiwaran1 and relics10 exhibiting before him1 one after the other1 those precious articles4 ,both went together to ,buddha's place1 and laid at his feet the patta1 tsiwaran1 and relics of the great disciple4 ,buddha1 placing the relics on the palm of his right hand1 called all the ,rahans and said to them1 8,beloved ,rahans1 this is all that remains of one who1 a few days ago1 was performing wonders in your presence1 and has now reached the state of ,neibban1 something resembling a pure white shell4 ,during an a thingie and hundred thousands of worlds1 he has perfected himself by the practice of virtue4 ,beloved children1 he could preach the law like another ,buddha4 ,he knew how to gain friends2 crowds of people followed him to hear his instructions4 ,excepting me1 no one in ten thousand worlds was equal to him4 ,his wisdom was at once great and cheerful1 his mind quick and penetrating4 ,he knew how to restrain his desires1 and to be easily satisfied with little4 ,he loved retirement4 ,he severely rebuked evil-doers4 ,beloved children1 ,thariputra renounced all pleasures and gratifications to become a ,rahan2 he always shunned strifes and contentions1 as well as long and idle conversations4 ,his patient zeal for the diffusion of my religion equalled the thickness of the globe4 ,he was like a bull1 the horns of which have been broken4 ,my beloved ,rahans1 look once more at the relics of my wise son1 ,thariputra40 ,buddha in this manner eulogised the virtues of the illustrious deceased in five hundred stanzas4#g ,on hearing all that ,buddha had said to honour the memory of ,thariputra1 ,ananda was filled with sentiments of the tenderest emotion4 ,he could not refrain from shedding abundant tears4 ,buddha quickly remarked all that was taking place in his faithful and loving attendant1 and said to him1 8,ananda1 on former occasions ,i have1 in my preachings1 endeavoured to shelter your soul from the impressions caused by such and like emotions4 ,two things can alone keep us separated from father1 mother1 brothers1 sisters1 c41--in a word1 from all that we most cherish1 viz41 death and distance4 ,i1 though a ,buddha1 have been exposed to all those changes brought on by distance when ,i practised the great virtues in the solitude1 when ,i displayed wonders and spent a season in the seat of ,tawadeintha4 ,in those circumstances1 distance kept me far from all those that were dearest to me4 ,would it not have been considered as useless1 if not unbecoming1 to shed tears either on my account or that of others8 ,can there ever be a time when any1 how painful soever1 occurrence may warrant wailing and lamenting80 ,with these and other considerations1 ,buddha soothed the affliction of ,ananda1 and filled his soul with consolations4 ,buddha1 to complete1 as it were1 the work of praises in favour of his great disciple1 caused a dzedi to be erected in his honour near the entrance of the ,dzetawon monastery4 ,having satisfied the sacred duty of gratitude towards the greatest of his disciples1 ,gaudama resolved to leave the monastery of ,dzetawon for the country of ,radzagio4 ,ananda was1 as usual1 directed to inform the ,rahans to hold themselves ready for immediate departure4 ,the most excellent ,phra having reached ,radzagio1 which he was to visit for the last time1 took his abode into the ,weloowon monastery4 ,he had not stayed long in that place when the other great disciple1 ,maukalan1 went to ,neibban4 ,here are the particulars respecting the last moments of the illustrious companion of ,thariputra4 ,the heterodox ,rahans1 who lived in a state of complete nakedness1 were extremely jealous of the popularity of ,buddha1 and coveted the abundant alms that were offered to him and his disciples4 ,maukalan1 who was living on the ,isigili mountain1 in the cave of the dark rock1 was supposed1 on account of his great attainments and profound science1 to be the cause of the great respect the people paid to his master4 ,they resolved to kill him4 ,for that purpose they armed five hundred robbers1 and gave them one thousand pieces of silver to perpetrate the horrible crime4 ,the assassins went twice to the cave2 but their victim twice escaped their fury4 ,at last1 owing to the influence of a former bad deed1 ,maukalan resigned himself into the hands of the ruffians1 who put him to death4 ,they beat him so severely1 that his lifeless remains were no more than a heap of mangled flesh1 which they threw into the midst of bushes4 ,the news of the appalling murder spread rapidly through the country4 ,king ,adzatathat had the murderers arrested4 ,having known from their own confession that the naked ,rahans were the instigators of the murder1 he had them likewise arrested4 ,in front of his palace he ordered one thousand holes to be dug2 in each hole a criminal was sunk up to his navel4 ,all the ground was then overspread with straw1 which being set fire to1 all the wretches soon perished4 ,on hearing such news the disciples were greatly grieved1 and asked each other what might have been the cause which had brought the aged ,maukalan to such a cruel end4 ,buddha1 appearing suddenly among them1 said1 8,beloved sons1 what is the subject of your conversation80 ,they replied that they were conversing on the tragical death of their great companion4 8,i declare unto you10 retorted ,buddha1 8that ,maukalan has met a well-merited death4 ,in one of his former existences1 my beloved son1 at the instigation of his wife1 misled his aged and blind parents into a forest1 where1 leaving them alone1 he went away for awhile4 ,on his return1 affecting the manners and voice of a highwayman1 he killed his parents1 and threw their bodies into a thicket4 ,for this crime he has suffered the torments of hell during one thousand years1 and has had to undergo the cruel death that has put an end to his last existence40 ,having thus spoken1 he ordered that a dzedi should be erected in honour of ,maukalan near the gate of the ,weloowon monastery4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,voyage to ,wethalie--,last temptation of ,manh--,causes of earthquake--,new instructions to the ,rahans--,last meal of ,buddha--,his painful distemper--,his conversation with one of the ,malla princes--,sign foreshowing ,buddha's coming death--,arrival in the ,kootheinaron forest--,buddha lays himself on his couch--,wonders attending that event--,instructions to ,ananda--,eulogium of ,ananda by ,buddha--,conversion of ,thoubat--,last words of ,buddha to the ,rahans--,his death4 ,having left ,radzagio ,buddha intimated to ,ananda that he wished to return to ,wethalie4 ,on his way to the right bank of the ,ganges1 he arrived at a place called ,oukkatsela1 where he preached on the death of his two greatest disciples4 ,thence he crossed the mighty stream and shaped his course towards ,wethalie4 ,on the day that he entered the city he went in quest of his food4 ,having partaken of what he had received1 he called ,ananda1 bade him take his mat and cushion1 and follow him to the ,tsapala dzedi1 where he intended to spend a part of the day4 ,complying with the command1 ,ananda followed ,buddha1 and with him went to the beautiful site of ,tsapala1 to the place prepared for his master4 ,ananda approached ,phra1 and1 respectfully prostrated1 said to him1 8,this is1 indeed1 a very agreeable place40 ,whereupon ,buddha1 rejoicing1 praised the different sites of that country which were in the neighbourhood of the ,wethalie city1 as well as the dzedis that adorned them1 and added1 8,ananda1 every wise person ought to be earnest in perfecting himself in the four laws of edeipat4 ,having advanced in the practice of these laws1 he can1 if he choose to do so1 remain in a state of fixity during a whole revolution of nature1 and even more4 ,i1 the ,buddha1 have become perfect in those laws1 and ,i may remain as ,i am now during an innumerable number of years40 ,three times the same words were repeated4 ,but ,ananda1 entangled as yet in the meshes of the tempter ,manh ,nat1 remained prostrated before ,buddha4 ,it never came to his mind to entreat him to remain longer on earth for the benefit of mortals1 who would derive the greatest advantages from his presence4 ,at that time ,ananda rose up1 with his mind troubled by the influence of the evil one1 withdrew from ,buddha's presence and went to the foot of a tree at a small distance4 ,he had scarcely left ,buddha alone when the ,nat ,manh1 perceiving that ,buddha remained alone for awhile1 approached near his person1 and keeping at a respectful distance1 said to him1 8,great1 illustrious1 and glorious ,phra1 who preachest an excellent law1 it is now time for you to enter into the state of ,neibban4 ,you said in former times1 that as long as your disciples were not much advanced in knowledge1 as long as they had not obtained a thorough command over their heart1 mouth1 and senses1 as long as they were still wanting in firmness and diligence for hearing and understanding the law1 or unequal to the task of preaching the law1 you would not go to ,neibban4 ,now the ,rahans1 members of the assembly and your disciples1 both males and females1 are thoroughly instructed in all the parts of the law2 they are firm in controlling their passions2 they can preach the law to the other mortals2 the ,nats and ,brahmas have heard your preachings1 and countless numbers among them have obtained the deliverance2 the time1 therefore1 is come for you to enter into the state of ,neibban40 ,buddha knowing the wicked one1 with his evil dispositions1 replied1 8,ha6 wretched ,manh1 do not concern yourself about me4 ,ere long ,i will go to ,neibban40 ,whilst he was near the dzedi of ,tsapala1 ,buddha1 in a moment of perfect calmness of mind1 entered into a sort of extraordinary state of contemplation1 in which1 for the first time1 he mastered completely the principles of life1 and appeared as if he had abandoned life4 ,but it ought not to be understood that he parted with life1 as a man lets go a stone that he has in his hands2 but he estranged himself from the material life1 renounced it1 and placed himself beyond the reach of the influence that produces reward in the material or immaterial seats1 and above that other influence which1 procuring merits or demerits1 keeps a being in the whirlpool of transmigration4 ,as a mighty warrior on the battle-field throws down every barrier or obstacle that he meets1 so ,buddha broke down all the ties that had hitherto linked him to the state of existence4#h ,at that very instant the earth trembled with such violence that it caused the hairs of one's head to stand on end4 ,then he said to all present1 8,i am delivered from the influence of the world of matter1 of the world of passions1 and from every influence that causes the migration from one existence to another4 ,i enjoy now a perfect calm of mind2 like the mighty warrior who on the field of battle has conquered all his enemies1 ,i have triumphed over all passions4 ,i have mastered existence itself by destroying the principle that causes it40 ,these words were uttered by ,phra1 lest perhaps some people might infer that he entered into the extraordinary state on which he mastered the elements of life1 from fear caused by the language of the tempter1 inviting him to go forthwith to ,neibban4 ,ananda1 having felt the earthquake1 respectfully approached ,buddha and prostrated himself before him4 ,withdrawing then to a becoming distance1 he asked him the causes that produce the extraordinary and terrifying phenomenon of earthquakes4 8,my son10 answered ,buddha1 8eight causes make the earth tremble3 #ast1 ,the earth lies on a mass of water1 which rests on the air1 and the air on space2 when the air is set in motion1 it shakes the water1 which in its turn shakes the earth2 #b;d1 any being gifted with extraordinary powers2 #c;d1 the conception of ,phralaong for his last existence2 #dth1 his birth2 #eth1 his becoming a ,buddha2 #fth1 his preaching the law of the wheel2 #gth1 his mastering and renouncing existence2 #hth1 his obtaining the state of ,neibban4 ,these are the eight causes of earthquakes4 ,ananda1 a little while after having become a ,buddha1 ,i was in the solitude of ,ouroowela1 on the banks of the river ,neritzara1 under the shade of a banyan-tree planted by some shepherds4 ,the wicked ,nat came into my presence and requested me to go forthwith to ,neibban4 ,i refused then to comply with his demand1 and said to him1 #8,wretched ,manh1 my disciples1 members of the assembly1 either males or females1 the believers1 either men or women1 have not yet acquired sufficient knowledge1 prudence1 and penetration1 courage1 and resolution4 ,they have not been as yet properly instructed in the most essential and highest articles of the law2 they are unable to teach others3 my religion is not yet resting on a strong foundation4 ,the time1 therefore1 is not yet come for me to enter into the state of ,neibban4 ,now1 near this very dzedi of ,tsapala1 he has come anew and told me the same thing4 ,do not trouble yourself1 miserable wretch1 have ,i said to him2 three months hence1 ,i will obtain the state of ,neibban4 ,on this occasion ,i have fallen into the state in which ,i have mastered the principles of life by the means of the four laws of edeipat4'0#i ,ananda said to ,phra3 8,illustrious ,buddha1 please to remain during a whole ,kalpa in this world for the benefit of men1 ,nats1 and ,brahmas40 8,ananda10 replied ,phra1 8your present request is too late and cannot be granted40 ,three times the faithful disciple begged of his great teacher this favour1 and three times he received the same refusal4 8,do you believe1 ,o ,ananda1 that ,i know the four ways that lead to science and wisdom1 and that ,i am perfect in the four laws of edeipat80 8,i do believe it10 answered ,ananda4 8,do you recollect1 ,o ,ananda1 that a little while ago ,i said to you three times that he who was perfect in the laws of edeipat could remain1 if he chose1 during an entire ,kalpa in this world8 ,i added that ,i was thoroughly acquainted with these four laws2 but you remained silent1 and made no demand of me to remain longer in this world4 ,the time for making this request is now irrevocably past4 ,the term of my life is for ever fixedly determined4 ,now1 ,ananda1 let us go to ,mahawon ,kootagara in the forest of the sala-trees40 ,having reached the place and stayed therein for a few days1 he desired his faithful attendant to go to ,wethalie and assemble all the ,rahans in the ,gnyipoora hall4 ,when they had all assembled in that place1 ,ananda informed ,buddha that his order had been duly executed4 ,phra went to the hall1 and sat in the place prepared for him4 ,he then1 addressing the assembly1 said3 8,my beloved children1 the law which my supreme wisdom has discovered1 ,i have announced for your benefit and advantage4 ,you have attentively and perseveringly listened to it1 firmly adhered to its tenets1 and zealously propagated them4 ,now my religion shall last for a long period1 and prove the source of great blessings to all ,nats4 ,but to the end that my religion may last long1 shine forth with splendour1 and be productive of incalculable benefits1 it is necessary that great attention should be paid to the thirty-seven laws from which all good works proceed4#aj ,these laws you have been acquainted with by my preachings2 it is to you to announce them to all beings4 ,meditate with unremitting attention on the principles of change and mutability4 ,as to me1 ere long ,i will go to ,neibban2 three months more1 and this last drama shall be over40 ,in the morning ,buddha1 putting on his dress1 went out to beg his food1 carrying the patta on his left arm4 ,when he had eaten his meal1 he looked with the steadiness of an elephant over the whole country4 ,the reason why he cast a look like an elephant over ,wethalie is1 as he explained it to ,ananda1 the following3--,the neck-bone of all ,buddhas is not like the links of a chain1 but consists of one single solid bone3 hence when they wish to consider some object lying behind they cannot turn their heads backwards1 but the whole body1 like that of the elephant1 must follow the same motion4 ,on this and other occasions of this kind1 our ,buddha had not to make any effort1 but the earth turning round1 like the wheel of the potter1 brought the object to be looked at before him4 ,the great city of ,wethalie was within three years to be destroyed by ,king ,adzatathat4 ,as ,buddha had always received many marks of respect and attention from the inhabitants of that city1 he felt the greatest commiseration for them4 ,his last glance was a sorrowful farewell he bade to the devoted city4 ,this is the motive that induced ,buddha to cast a last look over it4 ,buddha went to a place called ,pantoogama4 ,he passed successively through ,hatti1 ,tsampou1 and ,appara1 and thence to ,bauga4 ,in the latter place he preached the four laws of ,padesa4 ,summoning ,ananda to his presence1 he desired him to inform the ,rahans to hold themselves ready to go to the ,pawa country4 ,having reached that district1 he went with all his ,rahans to live in a monastery built in a grove of mango-trees erected by ,tsonda1 the son of a wealthy goldsmith4 ,tsonda had previously seen ,buddha1 and obtained the state of ,thautapan4 ,his gratitude induced him to build a monastery1 which1 together with the grove1 he had given over to ,buddha4 ,his arrival at that place happened on the #adth of the waxing moon of ,katson4 ,informed that ,phra had come to the monastery1 ,tsonda repaired hastily thither1 prostrated himself before him1 and having taken a seat at a becoming distance1 requested ,buddha to accept the meal he would prepare for him and all the ,rahans4 ,buddha by his silence acquiesced in the request4 ,tsonda rose up1 bowed down1 and turning to the right1 left the monastery4 ,during the whole night1 all sorts of the choicest dishes were prepared4 ,he had a young pig1 neither fat nor lean1 killed1 and the flesh dressed with rice in the most exquisite manner4 ,the ,nats infused into it the most delicious flavour4 ,at daybreak1 everything being ready1 ,tsonda went to the monastery1 and invited ,buddha and all the ,rahans to come and partake of the meal that was ready for them4 ,buddha rose up1 and1 carrying his patta1 went to ,tsonda's house1 where he sat in the place prepared for his reception4 ,he took for himself the pork and rice1 but his attendants feasted upon the other dishes4 ,when he had eaten1 he desired ,tsonda to bury in the earth the remains of the pork and rice1 because no one in the ,nats' or ,brahmas' seats but himself could digest such a food4 ,a little while after1 ,buddha was seized with a violent attack of dysentery1 the pain whereof he bore with the greatest patience and composure4 ,he suffered so much1 not because of the food he had taken1 as he would otherwise have been exposed to the same distemper4 ,the pain was rather alleviated by the eating of the pork and rice1 because the ,nats had infused therein the choicest flavour4 ,buddha desired ,ananda to be ready to go to the town of ,koutheinaron4 ,while on the way he felt very weak1 and retired under the shade of a tree1 commanding ,ananda to fold his dugout to sit upon4 ,when he had rested a little1 he called ,ananda and said to him3 8,ananda1 ,i am very thirsty2 bring me some water40 ,ananda replied3 8,one of the ,malla princes1 named ,poukatha1 has just passed through the ,kakouda river with five hundred carts1 and the water is quite muddy40 ,the ,malla princes ruled by turn over the country4 ,when the time for ruling had not yet come1 or had passed1 many of them devoted their time to the pursuit of trade4 ,notwithstanding this objection1 ,buddha repeated three times the injunction4 ,ananda at last took up ,phra's patta and went to the stream to fetch water4 ,how great was his surprise when he found the water clear and limpid4 ,he said to himself3 8,great indeed is the power of ,buddha1 who has worked such a wonderful change in this stream40 ,he filled the patta with water and brought it to his great teacher1 who drank of it4 ,prince ,poukatha had been a disciple of the ,rathee ,alara4 ,he came to ,buddha1 and said to him1 whilst he was under the shade of the tree3 8,great indeed is the peace and calm composure of mind of the ,rahans4 ,on a former occasion10 added he1 8whilst the ,rathee ,alara was travelling1 he went to rest under the shade of a tree1 at a small distance1 by the wayside4 ,a merchant with five hundred carts happened to pass by4 ,a man that followed at a distance came to the place where ,alara was resting1 and inquired of him if he had seen the five hundred carts that had just passed by4 ,alara replied that he was not aware that any cart had come in sight4 ,the man at first suspected that ,alara was unsound in his mind1 but he was soon convinced that what he was at first inclined to attribute to mental derangement was caused by the sublime abstraction of the ,rathee from all that was taking place40 ,buddha having heard this story1 rejoined3 8,which is1 in your opinion1 the more wonderful occurrence1 to see a man in his senses and awake not to notice the passing of five hundred carts or even of one thousand1 or to see another man1 equally awake and in the enjoyment of his mental faculties1 who did not hear the violence of a storm1 a heavy fall of rain1 accompanied with loud peals of thunder and uninterrupted flashes of lightning8 ,in former times1 ,i1 the ,buddha1 was sitting under a small shed4 ,a most violent storm came on2 peals of thunder resounded more awfully than the roaring of the sea1 and lightnings seemed to rend the atmosphere in every direction4 ,at that time two brothers were ploughing in a field with four bullocks4 ,they were all killed1 men and bullocks1 by lightning4 ,a man came to me whilst ,i was walking in front of the shed1 and told me that he came to see the accident that had just happened1 and asked me some particulars concerning it4 ,i answered him that ,i was not aware that any storm had raged near this place1 nor any accident attended it4 ,the stranger inquired of me whether ,i was asleep2 or if not1 whether ,i was in possession of my senses4 ,i answered him that ,i was not asleep1 and that ,i was in the perfect enjoyment of my mental and physical faculties4 ,my answer made a powerful impression upon him3 he thought within himself that great and wonderful is the power of ,thamabat1 which procures to the ,rahans such an imperturbable calm of mind1 which cannot be disturbed by the mightiest convulsions of nature4 ,now1 ,prince ,poukatha1 in whom do you think that the greatest calm of mind has prevailed80 8,most excellent ,phra10 replied the prince1 8the great respect ,i bore formerly unto the ,rathee ,alara has disappeared like the chaff before the wind1 and run out like the water of a rapid stream4 ,i am now like a man to whom the true road has been pointed out1 who has discovered hidden things1 and who has a shining light before him4 ,you have announced to me the true law1 which has dispelled the cloud of ignorance and brought happiness and calm to my hitherto disturbed soul4 ,from this moment ,i believe in ,buddha1 the law1 and the assembly1 and to the end of my life ,i will ever remain a believer40 ,the ,prince called a young man1 and directed him to go and bring two beautiful and rich pieces of cloth having the colour of pure gold thread4 ,when they had been brought over1 the prince1 holding them in his hand1 said3 8,o most glorious ,buddha1 these pieces of cloth ,i have occasionally worn3 they are in colour like gold1 and the tissue is of the finest description2 please to accept them as an offering ,i make to you40 ,phra desired him to present one of the pieces to himself1 and the other to ,ananda1 that his merits might be greater1 since the offering would be made to ,buddha and to the assembly in the person of ,ananda4 ,this attention in favour of ,ananda was also intended to reward him for his unremitting exertions during the twenty-five years he had served ,buddha with the utmost respect1 care1 and affection1 without having received any adequate return for his services4 ,buddha preached afterwards the law to the prince4 ,when the instruction was over1 ,poukatha believed in1 and firmly adhered to1 the three precious things1 and became a sincere convert4 ,he rose up1 prostrated himself before ,buddha1 turned on the right1 and departed4 ,ananda1 after the prince's departure1 brought the two dresses to the great ,phra1 who put one on his shoulders1 whilst the other was girded round his waist4 ,his body appeared shining like a flame4 ,ananda was exceedingly surprised4 ,nothing of this kind had as yet happened4 8,your exterior appearance10 said he to ,buddha1 8is at once white1 shining1 and beautiful above all expression40 8,what you say1 ,o ,ananda1 is perfectly true4 ,there are two occasions when my body becomes extraordinarily beautiful and shining3 the first was on the night ,i obtained the supreme intelligence2 and the second now1 when ,i am about to enter into the state of ,neibban4 ,doubtless1 ,o ,ananda1 on the morning after this very night1 in a corner1 near the ,koutheinaron city1 that belongs to the princes ,malla1 in the forest of sala-trees1 ,i will go to ,neibban4 ,the shining light emanating from my body is the certain forerunner of this great event40 ,ananda1 summoned by ,buddha to his presence1 received the order to move to the banks of the ,kakouda stream4#aa ,having reached the place1 ,buddha descended into the stream1 bathed1 and drank some water4 ,thence he directed his steps towards a grove of mango-trees4 ,ananda had remained to dry the bathing-robes of his master4 ,phra called the ,rahan ,tsanda1 and directed him to fold in four his dugout1 because he wished to rest4 ,the order having been complied with1 ,buddha sat down1 lying on his right side1 with the solemn and fearless appearance of a lion4 ,during his short sleep ,tsanda watched by his side4 ,ananda soon came up4 ,buddha called him1 and said1 8,the meal which the goldsmith's son has prepared for me1 which ,i have eaten1 is my last meal4 ,he is1 forsooth1 much grieved because of the illness that has come upon me after having eaten at his place4#ab ,go now to him1 and make him acquainted with the merits he has gained in making an offering to me4 ,two meals that ,i have taken during this existence are equally deserving of the greatest rewards4 ,the first was the ,nogana1 served up to me a little while before ,i obtained first the ,neibban of ,kiletha1 or the destruction of passions1 and subsequently the supreme intelligence2 the second is the one just offered to me by the goldsmith's son1 when ,i ate the dish of rice and pork4 ,that is the last food ,i will ever take until ,i attain the state of ,neibban1 that is to say1 the ,neibban of ,khandas1 or the destruction of all the supports of existence4 ,both these meals were excellent1 and are deserving of an equal reward2 viz41 beauty1 a long life1 happiness1 a large crowd of attendants1 the happiness of the ,nats' seats1 and all sorts of honours and distinction4 ,such are the merits reserved to ,tsonda1 the son of the goldsmith2 go and mention them to him1 that his sorrow may be assuaged40 ,gaudama uttered on this occasion the following stanzas3#ac 8,alms-deeds can defend from and protect against the influence and the sources of demerits1 which are man's true enemies4 ,he alone who is full of merits and wisdom shuns evil doings1 puts an end to concupiscence1 anger1 and ignorance1 and reaches ,neibban40 ,buddha1 calling ,ananda1 said to him1 8,let us now go to the bank of the river ,hignarawati1 in the forest of sala-trees belonging to the ,malla princes40 ,attended by a crowd of ,rahans1 he went to the bank of the stream4 ,the forest was on a tongue of land1 encircled on three sides by the river4 8,ananda10 said ,buddha1 8you see those two lofty trees on the skirt of the wood2 go and prepare a resting-place for me between those two trees1 in such a way that1 when reclining thereupon1 my head should be turned towards the north4 ,the couch must be arranged in such a manner that one extremity may be near one tree1 and the other extremity close to the opposite tree4 ,ananda1 ,i am much fatigued1 and desire to rest40 ,though ,buddha's strength was equal to that of a thousand koudes of black elephants1 it forsook him almost entirely from the time he had eaten the dish of ,tsonda's rice and pork4 ,though the distance from the place of ,pawa to the forest of sala-trees in the district of ,koutheinaron is but three gawots1 he was compelled to rest in traversing it twenty-five times1 and it was by dint of great exertions that he reached the place after sunset4 ,four places along the road from ,pawa to ,koutheinaron became subsequently celebrated by the resort of many pilgrims who visited them4 ,remarks of the ,burmese ,translator4--,it has been often asked why ,phra allowed his body to experience fatigue4 ,the reason of his conduct was to convey instruction to all men1 and to make them fully prepared to bear pain and sickness4 ,should any one ask why ,buddha exerted himself so much to go to ,neibban in that particular place1 it should be answered that ,buddha saw three reasons for acting in the manner he did4 #ast4 ,to preach the great ,soodathana4 7,this is the story of a prince called ,maha ,soudana1 who ruled over the country of ,kousawatti4 ,at the conclusion ,buddha declares that in that great prince the law of mutability has acted throughout his life with an irresistible force2 while1 as for himself1 he now delights at being emancipated from its thraldom1 and longs to be freed from the prison of his body47 #b;d4 ,to instruct ,thoubat and lead him to perfection4 #c;d4 ,to secure that the disputes that were to arise on account of the division and possession of his relics should be quieted by the ,pounha ,dauna1 who would fairly and peaceably effectuate the partition of those sacred remains4 ,phra1 having reached the couch1 lay down on his right side with the noble composure and undaunted fearlessness of a lion4#ad ,the left leg was lying directly on the right one2 but in order to avoid pain and the accompanying trouble1 the situation of the two legs was such as to prevent the immediate contact of the two ankles and knees4 ,the forest of sala-trees lies at the south-west of the city of ,koutheinaron4 ,should any one wish to go to the city from the forest1 he must first go due east1 and then turn north4 ,the place1 therefore1 where ,phra stood was a tongue of land1 surrounded on three sides by the river4 ,when ,buddha was reclining on the couch1 the two sala-trees became suddenly loaded with fragrant blossoms1 which gently dropped above and all round his person1 so as almost to cover it4 ,not only these two trees1 but all those of that forest1 and also those in ten thousand worlds1 exhibited the same wonderful and graceful appearance4 ,all the fruit-trees yielded out of season the best fruits they had ever produced2 their beauty and flavour exceeded all that had ever been seen4 ,the five kinds of lilies shot forth from the bosom of the earth1 and from every plant and tree2 they displayed to the astonished eyes the most ravishing sight4 ,the mighty mountain of ,hymawonta1 which is three thousand youdzanas in extent1 shone with all the richness of the colours of the peacock's tail4 ,the ,nats1 who watched over the two ingien or sala-trees1 showered down without interruption the most fragrant flowers4 ,from the seats of ,nats1 the flower ,mandarawan1 which grows on the banks of the lake ,mandawan1 and glitters like the purest gold1 with leaves expanding like an umbrella1 was showered down by the ,nats1 together with powder of sandal-wood and other odoriferous plants4 ,the ,nagas and ,galongs1 joining the ,nats1 brought from their respective seats all kinds of flowers and perfumes1 which they let drop like dew over and about ,buddha's sacred person4 ,phra1 seeing the wonderful display performed by men1 ,nats1 ,nagas1 and ,galongs1 to do him honour1 and hearing the sweet accents of ,nats' voices1 singing his praises1 called ,ananda and said to him1 8,you witness all that display#ae which is intended to do me honour2 it is not as yet worthy of me1 who possess the knowledge of the most sublime law4 ,no one can be my true follower1 or accomplish the commands of the law1 by such a vain and outward homage4 ,every ,rahan or ,rahaness1 every believer1 man or woman1 who practises the excellent works leading to perfect happiness1 these are the persons that render me a true homage1 and present to me a most agreeable offering4 ,the observance of the law alone entitles to the right of belonging to my religion4 ,ever remember this1 ,o ,ananda1 and let every believer in my religion act up to it40 ,why did ,buddha1 on this last occasion1 lay little stress on the offerings that were made1 whilst on former occasions he had much extolled the innumerable merits to be derived from the making of offerings8 ,the reason of his conduct was to give every one to understand that religion could not subsist unless by the practice of all the duties it commands1 and that it would soon disappear were it supported only by alms-deeds1 offerings1 and other outward ceremonies4 ,alms-deeds are productive of great rewards1 but the practice of virtue alone secures to religion a prolonged existence4 ,at that time an illustrious ,rahaness1 named ,oupalawana1#af at a single word from ,buddha1 lowered her fan and went to sit at a certain distance4 ,ananda1 who had seen this ,rahaness attending assiduously on ,buddha's person during more than twenty seasons1 was surprised at seeing that1 without any apparent reason1 she had been desired on that occasion to withdraw to a distance4 ,phra1 reading in the soul of ,ananda his innermost thoughts1 said to him1 8,ananda1 ,i am not displeased with ,oupalawana2 but her body being of a very large size1 it prevents the myriads of ,nats that have come from ten thousand worlds to see and contemplate me on this supreme moment4 ,the ,nats can see through the bodies of the generality of men1 but this power falls short with persons much advanced in merits4 ,i therefore desired her to remove a little far1 that the ,nats might not be angry at not seeing my person40 ,ananda put a great many questions to ,buddha1 which are related at full length in the ,parinibana ,thoots4 ,he asked him1 among other topics1 how the ,rahans were to behave when women should resort to their monasteries4#ag 8,ananda10 answered ,buddha1 8a ,rahan1 desirous to free himself from the sting of concupiscence and keep his heart firm and steady1 ought to have his door shut1 and never look at the women coming to the monastery or standing at the entrance2 because through the eyes concupiscence finds its way into the heart1 and shakes its firmest purposes40 8,but10 replied ,ananda1 8what is to be done when they come over to bring food to the inmates of the monastery80 8,ananda10 said ,buddha1 8in such a case no conversation is to take place with them4 ,much safer and better it would be to hold conversation with a man who1 sword in hand1 would threaten to cut off our head1 or with a female ,biloo ready to devour us the moment we open the mouth to speak4 ,by conversing with women1 one becomes acquainted with them2 acquaintance begets familiarity1 kindles passion1 leads to the loss of virtue1 and precipitates into the four states of punishment4 ,it is1 therefore1 most prudent not to have any conversation with them40 8,what is to be done1 ,o ,buddha1 in cases when women come to the monastery to hear religious instructions1 to expose their doubts1 to seek for spiritual advice1 to learn the practice of religious duties1 and render becomingly certain services to the ,rahans8 ,should a ,rahan be silent on such occasions1 they will ridicule him and say1 #8,this ,rahan1 forsooth1 is deaf or too well fed2 he therefore cannot speak4'0 8,ananda10 replied ,buddha1 8when on such occasions a ,rahan is obliged to speak1 let him consider as mothers those who are old enough to be mothers1 as elder sisters those who appear a little older than he1 as younger sisters or children those that are younger than he4 ,never1 ,o ,ananda1 forget these instructions40 ,ananda inquired of ,buddha what ceremonies were to be performed on his mortal remains after his demise4 8,ananda10 replied ,buddha1 8do not be much concerned about what shall remain of me after my ,neibban1 but be rather earnest to practise the works that lead to perfection4 ,be not over solicitous concerning the affairs of this life1 where the principle of change is ever entire2 put on those inward dispositions which will enable you to reach the undisturbed rest of ,neibban4 ,there are many among the princes1 rich men and pounhas who are well disposed towards me1 and who will gladly perform all the usual ceremonies on my remains40 8,they will10 replied ,ananda1 8no doubt come to me1 and ask advice as to the most suitable mode of arranging everything in a becoming manner40 8,ananda10 answered ,buddha1 8here are the funeral ceremonies performed after the death of a ,tsekiawaday king4 ,when such a monarch is dead1 they wrap his body with a new fine cloth of ,kathicaritz1 surround it with a thick layer of the whitest cotton1 wrap it again with a second cloth of the same country1 place over it another layer of cotton1 and repeat the same process five hundred times4 ,the body1 thus prepared1 is deposited in an open coffin1 gilt outside1 and rubbed inside with fragrant oil4 ,another coffin1 also gilt1 is turned over it as a covering4 ,the pile is made of sandal and other odoriferous woods2 flowers1 perfumes1 and scented water are profusely spread over it4 ,the coffin having been placed on the pile1 fire is set to it4 ,similar ceremonies shall be performed on my body after my death4 ,on the spot where four roads meet1 a dzedi is to be erected4 ,whoever shall come to that place and make offerings of flags1 umbrellas1 flowers1 and perfumes1 shall thereby perform an act of religion1 and give a token of his respect and affection for my person4#ah ,he shall gain many merits2 among others1 a complete exemption from all troubles and disquietudes during a long period4 ,ananda1 four sorts of persons are deserving of the honour of having dzedis erected after their death3 #a4 ,the ,buddha who possesses the infinite science2 #b4 ,a semi-,buddha2 #c4 ,a ,rahanda2 #d4 ,the ,tsekiawaday king4 ,he who builds a dzedi in honour of ,buddha1 shall1 after his death1 migrate to a place of rest in the seats of ,nats4 ,to him that shall build a dzedi in honour of a semi-,buddha1 an inferior honour shall be awarded in a lower seat of ,nats1 and a similar reward shall be enjoyed by those who erect dzedis in honour of ,rahandas and ,tsekiawaday kings4 ,it may be asked why the honour of a dzedi is conferred on a king who lives in the world1 enjoys its pleasures1 c41 whilst it is denied to a ,rahan1 who has renounced the world1 and practised the excellent works4 ,formerly1 in ,ceylon1 the dzedis erected in honour of deceased ,rahans became so numerous that they threatened to cover the superficies of the whole country4 ,it was then resolved that none should be built for ,rahans1 though it is acknowledged that they deserve such distinction4 ,the same reason does not exist for a ,tsekiawaday king1 who is alone1 and appears in the world at but distant intervals4 ,but all the ,rahans that are full of merits are deserving1 after their demise1 of all honours1 except that of a dzedi40 ,when ,buddha had finished his instruction1 ,ananda thought within himself3 ,phra1 the most excellent among all beings1 has just taught me how to honour dzedis and other religious monuments raised to the glory of religion2 he has pointed out to me the source of merits2 he has indicated to me the sure way to deal with women1 when they resort to our monasteries for the purpose of hearing the preaching of the law1 and1 finally1 he has declared that there were but four sorts of persons deserving of the honour of a dzedi after their death4 ,from the tenor of these instructions1 ,i know with certainty that on this very day ,buddha is to enter the state of ,neibban4 ,unwilling to show his profound affliction in the presence of his illustrious master1 he retired into the hall of the ,malla princes close by1 and leaning on the door-bolt1 wept bitterly1 and said1 8,alas6 the most excellent ,buddha soon shall be no more4 ,by what means shall ,i obtain the three last degrees of perfection8 ,who shall be my teacher8 ,to whom shall ,i henceforth bring water in the morning to wash the face8 ,whose feet shall ,i have to wipe dry8 ,for whom shall ,i prepare the place for sitting1 and the couch for sleeping8 ,whose patta and tsiwaran shall ,i have to hold ready1 and to whom shall ,i render the ordinary services80 ,in the midst of sobs and wailings1 he was giving vent to his deep affliction4 ,it was not long ere ,buddha1 not observing the faithful ,ananda among the ,rahans1 said1 8,my dear ,rahans1 where is ,ananda80 ,having been informed of all that was taking place1 he desired a ,rahan to go and call ,ananda4 ,the message having been conveyed rapidly to ,ananda1 he hastened to come back into the presence of ,buddha1 whom he saluted as usual1 and then took his seat4 ,buddha1 addressing him1 said1 8,o ,ananda1 your tears and lamentations are to no purpose2 do not give yourself up to disquietude2 cease to shed tears4 ,have ,i not previously said to you that distance or death must separate us from the dearest objects8 ,in the body there is a principle which causes its existence and its preservation as long as the opposite principle of destruction does not prevail4 ,it is true you have ministered unto me for many years with all your strength and the most perfect devotedness4 ,but you shall reap the reward due for so many good offices4 ,apply yourself to the exercise of ,kamatan1 and soon you shall be freed from the world of passions and the influence of mutability40 ,addressing then with a gentle voice all the ,rahans present1 ,buddha began to praise ,ananda1 saying1 8,beloved ,rahans1 ,ananda#ai has been during many years my faithful and devoted attendant4 ,he has served him who is worthy to receive all offerings1 and is1 moreover1 acquainted with all the laws of the physical and moral world4 ,ananda is a true sage2 he is well versed in all that relates to my person2 he can show to the male ,rahans and female ,rahans1 as well as to the crowds1 the time1 the moment1 and the place to approach my person and pay the honours due to me4 ,ananda is graceful and full of amiability amidst all other ,rahans4 ,he has heard and seen much2 he shines in the midst of the assembly4 ,rahans will come from a distance1 on hearing all that is said of his graces1 to see and admire him2 and all will agree in saying that what they observe surpasses all that they had heard4 ,ananda will make inquiries regarding their health2 they1 on hearing his words1 will be filled with joy4 ,he will then keep silent1 and they will retire with an increased desire to listen to him4 ,he will say to the female ,rahans that will come to see him1 #8,sisters1 observe the eight precepts4' ,on hearing ,ananda1 they will be exceedingly glad4 ,he will then remain silent1 and his silence will grieve them4 ,the laymen and laywomen on hearing all that is said of ,ananda shall come to contemplate him4 ,he will say to them1 #8,adhere to the three precious things2 observe the five great commands2 keep the four days of worship of each month2 pay honour and respect to your father and mother2 feed the ,rahans and pounhas that observe strictly the law4' ,they will all be delighted at hearing his instructions4 ,his silence will leave them earnestly wishing to hear something else from him4 ,beloved ,rahans1 ,ananda much resembles a ,tsekiawaday king4 ,like him1 he is exceedingly beautiful1 amiable1 and lovely2 he can fly through the air2 he can teach the people and justly administer the law40 ,when ,buddha had finished his discourse1 ,ananda said3 8,o illustrious ,buddha1 it is not becoming your dignity that you should go to ,neibban near such a small city1 and in a place almost surrounded by forests4 ,we are in the neighbourhood of the great countries of ,tsampa1 ,thawattie1 ,thakila1 and ,baranathee4 ,the kings1 pounhas1 noblemen1 and people of those countries are full of love and reverence for your person4 ,they could render greater honours to your mortal remains40 8,ananda10 replied ,buddha1 8do not call the country of ,koutheinaron a small country4 ,i have on former occasions often been to this place and extolled its riches and crowded population4 ,this is the place where it is most becoming ,i should enter into the state of ,neibban4 ,go now to the city and inform the ,malla princes that to-morrow morning1 at the break of the day1 the most excellent ,buddha shall go to ,neibban4 ,let them not have reason to complain hereafter that they have not received a timely information of this event1 nor say that they had not had a last opportunity to come and see me40 ,ananda1 putting on his dress and carrying his patta1 went alone to the city4 ,at that moment the princes were assembled in the hall to deliberate upon some important affair4 ,as soon as the message was delivered1 the princes1 with their wives1 their sons1 and daughters1 began to cry aloud1 8,alas6 the most excellent ,buddha is too soon going to ,neibban40 ,some appeared with dishevelled hair2 some lifted their hands to their foreheads2 some1 crying out and wailing1 threw themselves on the ground1 rolling and tossing about1 as persons whose hands and feet had been cut off4 ,they all set out in haste with ,ananda at their head towards the place where ,buddha was lying on his couch4 ,all of them were admitted into the presence of ,buddha and paid their respects to him4 ,in the city of ,koutheinaron lived a certain personage holding heretical opinions4#bj ,his name was ,thoubat1 a pounha of the ,oudeitsa race1 who wore a white dress4 ,his mind1 hitherto uncertain and unfixed1 hesitated between the belief in ,buddha's doctrines and his former opinions4 ,having been informed that there was a ,buddha in the neighbourhood1 and that he was soon to go to ,neibban1 he desired to see him1 and1 in his conversation1 to clear up his doubts4 ,his age was not great1 but he enjoyed such a renown for learning that he was called the master of masters4 ,thoubat went at first to ,ananda1 stated to him that he felt irresistibly a strong attachment to1 and a sincere affection for1 the great ,buddha1 that his mind was preyed upon by doubts and uncertainties1 and that he hoped a short conversation with the great ,gaudama would relieve his mind from its present painful situation4 ,ananda1 fearing that such a conversation might be much protracted1 refused to admit ,thoubat into the presence of ,buddha1 representing his extreme weakness and inability to speak much4 ,thoubat made several entreaties1 but with no better success4 ,ananda persisted in his refusal to introduce him4 ,buddha1 hearing some noise1 inquired from ,ananda what was the cause of the noise he heard4 ,ananda related to him all that had taken place between him and ,thoubat4 8,allow him to come10 said ,buddha2 8,i wish to hear him4 ,soon he shall be enlightened and convinced4 ,i have come to this spot for the very purpose of preaching to him the most perfect law40 ,ananda returned to ,thoubat1 and said to him1 8,the most excellent ,buddha desires to see you40 ,thoubat1 full of joy1 arrived in the presence of ,buddha1 saluted him1 and1 sitting at a becoming distance1 said to him1 8,do the six celebrated teachers1 who are always attended by a great number of disciples1 who are famous amidst other doctors1 know all laws8 ,are there some laws they are unacquainted with8 or do they teach some doctrines which they but partially understand80 ,buddha having gently reminded ,thoubat that such questions were not suitable and unprofitable1 said1 8,o ,thoubat1 ,i will preach to you the law2 listen with attention to my words1 and treasure them in your heart4 ,no heretic has ever known the right ways that lead to perfection1 and1 in the religion of heretics1 no one can obtain the state of ,thautapan1 and become a ,rahanda4 ,but in my religion there are found persons that have become ,thautapan1 ,anagam1 c41 and finally ,rahandas4 ,except in my religion1 the twelve great disciples who practise the highest virtues1 and stir up the world to free it from its state of indifference1 are not to be met with4 ,they are not to be found among heretics4 ,o ,thoubat1 from the age of twenty-nine years up to this moment1 ,i have striven to obtain the supreme and perfect science1 and ,i have spent to that end fifty-one years1 following the ways of ,ariahs1 that lead to ,neibban40 ,on hearing these words1 ,thoubat1 overwhelmed with joy1 endeavoured1 by several similitudes1 to express to his great instructor the pleasure he had derived from his preaching4 8,o most illustrious ,buddha10 added he1 8now ,i believe in you1 and adhere to all your doctrines2 ,i wish to become a ,rahan4 ,but it is a custom with you1 not to admit to the dignity of ,rahan a heretic who is newly converted1 except after a four months' probation4 ,i wish to remain during that period as a probationer1 and beg afterwards to be admitted among the ,rahans40 ,buddha1 who knew the fervour of the new convert1 desired to dispense in his case with the four months' probation4 ,he called ,ananda and commanded him to admit ,thoubat to the dignity of ,rahan4 ,ananda forthwith led ,thoubat into a becoming place1 poured water over his head1 whilst repeating certain forms of prayer1 shaved his head and beard1 put on him the tsiwaran1 and taught him to repeat the formulas whereby he professed to take refuge in ,buddha1 the law1 and the assembly4 ,when this was done1 ,thoubat was conducted into the presence of ,phra1 who desired he should be promoted to the dignity of ,patzin1 and instructed in the knowledge of ,kamatan4 ,thoubat went into the garden1 walked for a while1 and soon learnt the forty ,kamatans4 ,he was the last convert ,buddha made1 before he entered the state of ,neibban4 ,buddha1 calling ,ananda and all the ,rahans1 said to them3 8,when ,i shall have disappeared from the state of existence1 and be no longer with you1 do not believe that the ,buddha has left you1 and ceased to dwell among you4 ,you have the ,thoots and ,abidama which ,i have preached to you2 you have the discipline and regulations of the ,wini4 ,the law1 contained in those sacred instructions1 shall be your teacher after my demise4 ,by the means of the doctrines which ,i have delivered to you1 ,i will continue to remain amongst you4 ,do not1 therefore1 think or believe that the ,buddha has disappeared or is no more with you40 ,a little while after1 ,buddha1 addressing the ,rahans1 gave them some instructions regarding the attention and respect the ,rahans were to pay to each other4 8,as long10 said he1 8as ,i have been with you1 you have called one another by the name of ,awoothau1 but after my demise you will no more make use of such a title4 ,let those who are more advanced in dignity and in years of profession call those that are their inferiors by their names1 that of their family1 or some other suitable appellation2 let the inferiors give to their superiors the title of ,bante4 ,ananda1 let a ,rahan ,hauna be visited with the punishment of ,brahma40 8,but what is this punishment80 replied ,ananda4 8,the ,rahan ,hauna is indiscreet in his speech2 he says indiscriminately all that comes into his head4 ,let the other ,rahans avoid speaking with him1 or even rebuking him4 ,this is the punishment of ,brahma40 ,addressing again all the assembled ,rahans1 ,buddha said to them#ba3 8,my beloved ,bickus1 if among you there be one that has any doubt respecting ,buddha1 the law1 the assembly1 the ways of perfection1 and the practice of virtues1 let him come forward and make known his doubts1 that ,i may clear them up40 ,the ,rahans remained all silent4 ,the same question was three times repeated1 and three times the ,rahans continued silent4 ,then he added3 8,my beloved ,bickus1 if you have any respect for my memory1 communicate your dispositions towards my person and doctrines to the other ,rahans whom you shall hereafter meet with40 ,the ,rahans still remained silent4 ,ananda then said to ,buddha3 8,o most exalted ,buddha1 is it not truly surprising that among so many not one should be found entertaining any doubt respecting your doctrine1 but all should feel so strong an attachment to it80 8,ananda10 replied ,buddha1 8,i knew well that doubt and false doctrine could never be harboured in the soul of a true ,rahan4 ,supposing a number of five hundred ,rahans1 and taking the one who is the last in merits1 he is at least a ,thautapan1 and as such there is no demerit in him that could lead him to one of the four states of punishment2 his heart is fixed upon the first way that leads to perfection1 and he constantly strives to advance to the three superior ways of perfection4 ,no doubt1 therefore1 and no false doctrine can ever be found in a true ,rahan40 ,after a short pause1 ,buddha1 addressing the ,rahans1 said3 8,beloved ,bickus1 the principle of existence and mutability carries along with it the principle of destruction4 ,never forget this2 let your minds be filled with this truth2 to make it known to you1 ,i have assembled you40 ,these are the last words ,buddha ever uttered4 ,as a man who is about to undertake a long journey takes an affectionate farewell of every one of his relatives and friends1 and fondly embraces successively all of them1 ,buddha likewise wished to visit for the last time the abodes wherein his soul had so amorously dwelt during his long and lofty mental peregrinations4 ,he entered into the first state of dzan1 then the second1 the third1 and the fourth3 he ascended therefrom successively to the first1 second1 third1 and fourth immaterial seats4 ,when he had reached the fourth state1 which is the farthest boundary of existence1 ,ananda asked the ,rahan ,anoorouda whether ,phra had completed his ,neibban4 8,not as yet10 answered ,anoorouda1 8but he has reached the last stage of existence40 ,a little while after1 ,buddha had entered into the perfect state of ,neibban4#bb ,thus in the first watch of the night he had preached the law to the ,malla princes2 at midnight he had converted the heretic ,thoubat2 and in the morning watch he had instructed the ,rahans4 ,it was not quite full dawn of the day when he entered the state of ,neibban1 in the #adhth year of the ,eetzana era1 on the full moon of ,katson1 on a ,tuesday1 a little before daybreak4#bc ,not to leave out a single particular connected with the epochs of ,gaudama's life1 the ,burmese author sums up all that has already been related on this subject1 by stating that he was conceived in his mother's womb1 in the year #fg of the ,eetzana era1 under the constellation ,outtarathan1 and born in #fh1 under the constellation ,withaka1 on a ,friday4 ,he went into the solitude in the year #if1 on a ,monday4 ,he became a ,buddha in the year #ajc1 on a ,wednesday 7,withaka74 ,in the year #adh1 on the full moon of ,katson1 on a ,tuesday 7,withaka71 he expired2 on the #abth1 after the full moon of the same month1 his corpse was laid on the funeral pile4 ,at the very moment he had yielded up the ghost1 a tremendous earthquake was felt throughout the whole world2 it took place with such a violence that it filled every one with fear and trembling1 and caused their hair to stand on end4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,stanzas uttered after ,buddha's death--,ananda informs the ,malla princes of ,buddha's demise--,preparations for the funeral--,arrival of ,kathaba at the spot where the body was exposed to public veneration--,he worships the body--,wonder on that occasion--,the burning of the corpse--,partition of the relics made by a pounha called ,dauna--,extraordinary honours paid to the relics by ,king ,adzatathat--,death of that king and of ,kathaba4 ,on the occasion of the ,buddha's ,neibban1 the chief of ,brahmas uttered the following stanzas3--8,o ,rahans1 the great ,buddha who has appeared in this world1 who knew everything1 who was the teacher of ,nats and men1 who stood without an equal1 who was mighty and knew all laws and all the great principles1 the most excellent and glorious ,buddha1 is gone to ,neibban4 ,where is the being who shall ever escape death8 ,all beings in this world must be divested of their terrestrial and mortal frame40 ,the chief ,thagia1 on the same occasion1 repeated aloud the following words3--8,o ,rahans1 the principle of mutability is opposed to the principle of fixity4 ,it carries with it the elements of creation and destruction4 ,there is no happiness but in the state of ,neibban1 which puts an end to all changes40 ,the great ,anoorouda said in his turn3 8,o ,rahans1 the most excellent ,buddha1 free from all passions1 has entered1 by this death1 into the state of ,neibban4 ,he whose soul1 ever firm and unshaken1 was a stranger to impatience and fear1 has gone out from the whirlpool of existences1 and is no longer subject to the coming into existence and to the going out therefrom4 ,passions have no more influence upon him4 ,he is disengaged from the trammels of mutability1 and has ended like the light of a lamp1 the oil of which is exhausted40 ,ananda added3 8,o ,rahans1 when the great ,buddha1 full of the most transcendent excellencies1 attained the state of ,neibban1 the earth quaked with that violence which fills the soul with fear1 and causes the hair of the head to stand on an end40 ,after the demise of ,buddha1 the ,rahans that had reached the two states of ,thautapan and ,thakadagan1 lifting to the forehead their joined hands1 began to wail and loudly lament4 ,men threw themselves down on the ground1 bitterly lamenting the loss the world had sustained4 ,they all exclaimed1 8,the glorious and illustrious ,buddha has too soon gone to ,neibban4 ,he who never spoke but good and instructive words1 he who has been the light of the world1 has gone too soon to ,neibban40 ,in these and other words they gave utterance to their grief and affliction1 with tears and lamentations4 ,the ,rahans who had reached the two last states of perfection1 the ,anagans and ,rahandas1 more calm and steady in their mind1 were satisfied with repeating in solemn tones1 8,there is nothing fixed in the principle of mutability4 ,buddha1 entering in the current of change1 could not but die2 his body was to be destroyed40 ,they remained meditating on this great truth1 retaining an unchangeable and calm composure4 ,anoorouda1 assembling together all the ,rahans1 said to them1 8,cease now to weep and lament2 banish sorrow and affliction from your hearts2 remember presently what the most excellent ,buddha has told us1 that all that exists is liable to destruction1 which it can never escape4 ,what will become of ,nats and men8 ,what will they say when they see the ,rahans delivered up to grief1 and giving vent to it in loud wailings80 ,ananda inquired from ,anoorouda what actually took place among the ,nats on the occasion of the death of the great ,buddha4 ,he was told that some of them1 lifting up the joined hands to the forehead1 loudly wept and lamented2 but others more wise1 bearing in mind what ,buddha had said on the subject of the principle of mutability1 remained wrapt up in a solemn and resigned composure of mind4 ,anoorouda spent the remainder of the night in preaching the law4 ,he said to ,ananda1 8,go now to the city of ,kootheinaron1 say to the ,malla princes that the great ,buddha is gone to ,neibban2 that they ought to dispose everything for the funeral40 ,at daybreak ,ananda put on his tsiwaran1 and1 taking his patta1 went alone to the city4 ,he met the princes assembled in the public hall1 deliberating on what was to be done when ,phra should have gone to ,neibban4 ,he said to them1 8,o princes of the ,wathita race1 the great ,buddha has gone to ,neibban2 the moment is come for you to go to the spot where are his mortal remains40 ,when the princes heard this sad news from the mouth of ,ananda1 they1 with their wives and children1 began to wail and lament1 and give all the marks of the deepest grief1 unceasingly repeating1 8,the most excellent ,buddha1 who was infinitely wise and knew all laws1 has too soon gone to ,neibban40 ,the princes1 now selecting one of their family1 directed him to go throughout the city and collect all the richest and rarest perfumes1 to keep in readiness the drums1 harps1 flutes1 and all other musical instruments1 and have them carried to the place where the remains of ,buddha were lying4 ,having reached the spot1 the princes began to make offerings of flowers and perfumes with the greatest profusion1 in the midst of dancings1 rejoicings1 and the uninterrupted sounds of all the musical instruments4 ,a temporary canopy was erected with the finest pieces of cloth1 and they remained under it during seven consecutive days4 ,after this lapse of time1 eight of the youngest and strongest princes1 having washed their heads and put on their finest and best dresses1 prepared to carry the corpse to a place situated in the south of the city1 where they intended to have it burned4 ,in spite of their united efforts1 they could not remove it from the place it was laid on4 ,anoorouda1 consulted on the subject of this extraordinary and unexpected occurrence1 said1 8,o princes1 your intent does not agree with that of the ,nats4 ,you wish1 after having performed all ceremonies about the corpse1 to carry it to a certain place in the south of the city2 but the ,nats will not agree to this2 they intend to accompany the corpse with music1 dancings1 singings1 and offerings of flowers and perfumes4 ,they desire that the corpse should be carried to the western side of the city1 thence to the northern one1 afterwards to re-enter through the northern gate1 and go to the middle square2 thence to sally forth1 through the eastern one1 and take the body to the place called ,makula-bandan1 where the ,malla princes are wont to assemble for their festivals and rejoicings40 8,let it be done10 answered all the princes1 8according to the wishes of the ,nats40 ,the funeral procession then set out4#bd ,the ,nats in the air honoured the corpse with their music1 singing1 and the showering down of flowers and perfumes4 ,men did the same all round the corpse4 ,the way which the procession slowly moved through was strewed with the finest and choicest flowers4 ,when the cortge had reached the centre of the city1 the widow of ,general ,bandoola1 named ,mallika1 hearing of the approach of the funeral procession1 took a magnificent piece of cloth1 called ,mahalatta1 which she had never worn since her husband's death4 ,she perfumed it with the choicest essences1 and1 holding it in her hands until the procession reached the front of her house1 she desired the bearers to wait for a while1 that she might offer to the body her beautiful piece of cloth1 and extend it over it4 ,her request was granted4 ,by a very happy chance1 the cloth had the desired dimensions in breadth and length4 ,nothing could equal the magnificent sight of the body2 it looked beautiful1 like a statue of gold1 when covered with that splendid cloth1 finely worked and adorned with the richest embroidery4 ,the cortge having reached the place ,matulabandana1 where the funeral pile was erected1 the corpse was lowered down4 ,the princes inquired from ,ananda what was to be done to perform in a becoming manner the last rites over ,buddha's remains4 ,faithful to the last request of ,buddha1 ,ananda said to them that on this occasion they were to observe the same ceremonies as were prescribed for the funerals of a ,tsekiawade prince4 ,the body was forthwith wrapt up with a fine cloth1 covered with a thick layer of cotton2 to which a second succeeded1 and then another layer of cloth1 and so on1 until the same process was repeated five hundred successive times4 ,when this was done1 the corpse was placed in a golden coffin1 and another of the same form and size was turned over it as a covering4 ,a funeral pile1 made with fragrant wood and sprinkled with the choicest perfumes1 was prepared4 ,upon it the coffin was pompously deposited4 ,at that time1 the great ,kathaba1 attended by five hundred ,rahans1 was going from the city of ,pawa to the city of ,kootheinaron4 ,on their way1 at noon1 the heat was so excessive that the soil appeared to burn like fire under their feet4 ,the ,rahans1 extremely fatigued1 desired to rest during the remainder of the day1 intending to enter the city of ,kootheinaron during the cool of the night4 ,kathaba withdrew to a small distance from the road1 and1 having extended his dugout under the shade of a large tree1 rested upon it1 refreshing himself by washing his hands and feet with water poured from a vessel4 ,the ,rahans followed the example of their chief1 and sat down under the trees of the forest1 conversing among themselves upon the blessings and advantages of the three precious things4 ,whilst they were resting1 a heretic ,rahan appeared1 coming from the city of ,kootheinaron1 on his way to that of ,pawa1 carrying in his hand a stick1 at the extremity of which there was a large flower1 round like a broad cupboard1 forming as it were an umbrella over his head4 ,kathaba perceiving the man at a distance with that extraordinary flower1 the ,mandawara1 ,erithrina fulgens1 thought within himself1 8,it is very rare ever to see such a kind of flower2 it appears only through the miraculous power of some extraordinary personage and on great and rare occasions4 ,it shot forth when my illustrious teacher entered his mother's womb1 when he was born1 when he became ,buddha1 wrought miracles at ,thawattie1 and came down from the seat of ,tawadeintha4 ,now that my great master is very old1 the appearance of this flower indicates that he has gone to ,neibban40 ,whereupon he rose from his place1 wishing to question the traveller2 but he desired to do it in such a way as to show his great respect for the person of ,buddha4 ,he put on his cloak1 and1 with his joined hands raised over his forehead1 went to the traveller and asked him whether he knew his great teacher1 the most excellent ,buddha4 ,the ascetic answered that he knew him well2 but that seven days ago he had reached the state of ,neibban1 and it was from the place where this occurrence happened that he had brought the ,mandawara flower4 ,he had scarcely said this word1 when those among the ,rahans who had but entered into the two first ways of perfection began to wail and loudly lament over this untimely occurrence1 exhibiting every sign of the deepest grief and greatest desolation4 ,the others that were more advanced in perfection remained calm and composed1 remembering the great maxim of ,buddha1 that everything that has come into existence must also come to an end4 ,the name of this heretic was ,thoubat4#be ,he had been previous to his apparent conversion a hermit1 leading an ascetic's life4 ,subsequently he became a disciple of ,gaudama1 but retained in his heart an ill feeling towards his spiritual master1 which revealed itself in the manner he communicated the sad news to ,kathaba and his companions4 ,seeing them penetrated with the deepest affliction1 and exhibiting in an unfeigned manner the grief which weighed on their heart1 he said to them3 8,why do you weep and cry8 ,you have no reason for doing so2 we are now freed from the control of the great ,rahan4 ,he was always telling us3 ,do this1 or do not do that4 ,in every way he annoyed and vexed us4 ,now every one can act as he pleases40 ,the ,rahan ,thoubat bore envy and revenge towards ,buddha for the following reason4 ,formerly he was a barber in the village of ,atooma1 where he then became a ,rahan4 ,at the time we speak of1 ,buddha was coming to that place1 attended by twelve hundred ,rahans4 ,thoubat wished to make an offering to ,buddha and his followers and give them food4 ,for this purpose he resorted to the following very questionable expedient for obtaining from the villagers rice and other eatables1 and preparing them for the great occasion4 ,thoubat had two sons who wore the dress of ,samane4 ,he gave to each of them a pair of scissors1 and desired them to go through the street of the village and shave the head of all the children they might meet with1 as a token of their entering into religion4 ,the order was punctually executed4 ,the parents of the lads were then told1 that on such an occasion it was customary to make considerable offerings4 ,the offered articles1 however1 would be on this occasion employed for feeding the great ,gaudama1 who was expected in the place with a great number of disciples4 ,all the people brought in large offerings of various articles of food1 such as rice1 oil1 butter1 and other comestibles4 ,in this manner1 by means of such an expedient1 the cunning ,thoubat1 without any cost to himself1 was able to make a great display of the choicest dishes to be laid before ,gaudama and his disciples on their arrival to ,atooma1 and earn for himself the reputation of a very liberal and generous man4 ,buddha1 acquainted with his conduct on the occasion1 refused to accept the offering1 and forbade all his followers to eat of the food prepared by ,thoubat4 ,from that time the latter ever entertained ill-feeling towards ,buddha1 though he did not dare openly to give vent to his passion4 ,kathaba was thunderstruck at hearing such an unbecoming language#bf from the mouth of the ,rahan ,thoubat4 ,he said to himself3 8,if at this time1 when there are only seven days since ,buddha entered ,neibban1 there are to be found people holding such a language1 what will happen hereafter8 ,these persons will soon have followers who will embrace the profession of ,rahans1 and then the true religion shall be totally subverted3 the excellent law shall be in the hands of such persons like a heap of unstrung flowers that are scattered by the wind4 ,the only remedy to such an impending misfortune is to assemble a council composed of all the true disciples1 who1 by their decisions1 shall insure stability to religion1 and fix the meaning of every portion of the law1 contained in the ,wini1 the ,thoots1 and the ,abidama4 ,i am1 as it were1 bound to watch over the religion of ,buddha because of the peculiar predilection he has ever shown to me4 ,on one occasion ,i walked with ,buddha the distance of three gawots2 during that time he preached to me1 and at the end of the instruction we made an exchange of our tsiwarans1 and ,i put on his own4 ,he said3 #8,kathaba is like the moon3 three times he has obtained the inheritance of the law4 ,his affection to my person1 his zeal for my religion1 have never been equalled4 ,after my demise1 it will behove him to stem the current of evil1 to humble the wicked1 and condemn their false teachings as subversive of the genuine doctrine4 ,with such energetic means1 my religion shall remain pure and undefiled1 and its tenets shall not be lost and drowned in the midst of the raging waves of errors4' ,therefore10 said the great disciple1 8,i will hold an assembly of all the disciples1 for the promotion and exaltation of the holy religion40 ,this design ,kathaba kept perfectly secret1 and made known to no one4 ,at that time1 four of the ablest ,malla princes1 having washed their heads1 and each put on a fine new dress1 tried to set fire to the funeral pile1 made of sandal and other odoriferous woods1 and one hundred and twenty cubits high4 ,their efforts proving useless1 all the other princes joined them1 in the hope that1 by their united exertions1 they would be able to set fire to the pile4 ,fans made of palm-leaves were vigorously agitated over the heap of coals2 bellows made of leather blew in the same direction2 but all the efforts were of no avail4 ,the princes1 surprised and disheartened1 consulted ,anoorouda as to the cause of such a disappointment4 ,anoorouda said to them1 that the ,nats did not approve of their proceedings2 they wished that the great ,kathaba should arrive and venerate the corpse1 ere it be consumed by fire4 ,no fire could be lighted before the great ,rahan had made his appearance4 ,the people1 hearing the answer of ,anoorouda1 wondered at the transcendent merit of the great ,kathaba1 and anxiously waited for his arrival4 ,they said to each other1 8,who is this distinguished ,rahan8 ,is he white or black1 short or tall80 ,they took perfumes1 flowers1 and flags1 and went out to meet him and honour him in a becoming manner4 ,when the great ,kathaba arrived in the city of ,kootheinaron1 he without delay repaired to the place where the funeral pile was erected4 ,he adjusted his clothes in the most becoming manner1 and1 with his hands joined to the forehead1 three times turned round the pile1 saying at each turn1 8,this is the place of the head2 that is the place of the feet40 ,standing then on the spot opposite to the feet1 he entered into the fourth state of dzan for a while4 ,his mind having emerged therefrom1 he made the following prayer3--8,i wish to see the feet of ,buddha1 whereupon are imprinted the marks that formerly prognosticated his future glorious destiny4 ,may the cloth and cotton they are wrapped with be unloosened1 and the coffin1 as well as the pile1 be laid open1 and the sacred feet appear out and extend so far as to lie on my head40 ,he had scarcely uttered his prayer1 when the whole was suddenly opened1 and there came out the beautiful feet1 like the full moon emerging from the bosom of a dark cloud4 ,the whole assembly burst into loud applauses and continued cheers on seeing this matchless prodigy4 ,kathaba1 stretching his two hands1 that resembled two lilies just blooming1 held both feet firmly by the heels1 placed them on his head1 and worshipped4 ,all his disciples followed his example1 and worshipped4 ,perfumes and flowers were profusely offered by the crowd4 ,when this was done1 the feet slowly withdrew into their place1 the pile and coffin resumed their natural position4 ,as the sun and the moon disappeared below the horizon1 so the feet of ,buddha disappeared1 buried as it were1 in the folds of cloth and cotton4 ,the people1 at this moment1 wept and loudly wailed3 their affection for ,buddha was evinced on this occasion more forcibly than when he entered the state of ,neibban4 ,the feet had hardly been concealed from the sight of the people1 when1 without the interference of any one1 fire caught the pile1 and soon set it in a blaze of flames4 ,the skin1 the flesh1 the muscles1 the entrails1 and liver of the body were all consumed1 without leaving any trace of ashes and charcoal2 as butter or oil1 poured on a great fire1 burn and are consumed without anything remaining4 ,of the body all had disappeared except the relics4 ,all the pieces of cloth that served to wrap up the body1 except the outermost and innermost1 were all consumed4 ,the relics of former ,buddhas1 whose lives were very long1 resembled a lump of gold4 ,our ,buddha1 whose life had been comparatively of a short duration1 had said whilst yet alive3 8,during my lifetime1 religion has not been sufficiently diffused2 those1 therefore1 who1 after my ,neibban1 shall obtain of my relics a small portion1 be it but of the size of a mustard-seed1 and build a dzedi to place them in1 and worship and make offerings to them1 shall obtain a place of happiness in one of the seats of ,nats40 ,among the relics were the four canine teeth1 the two bones that connect the shoulders with the neck-bone1 and the frontal bone4 ,these are the seven great relics4 ,they were in a state of perfect preservation1 not at all damaged by fire1 and are called ,athambinana4 ,besides these relics there were some others of a smaller dimension1 in sufficient quantity to fill up seven tsarouts4 ,here is the size and shape of those sacred remains3 the smallest were of the size of a mustard-seed1 and resembled the bud of the ,hing-kow2 the middle ones equalled the size of a rice-grain1 divided into two parts1 and looked like pearls2 the largest were of the size of a pea1 and appeared like gold4 ,when the pile was consumed by fire1 water came down from the sky1 as thick as the arm1 which soon extinguished the fire4 ,the ,malla princes poured also upon it an immense quantity of scented water4 ,during all the while the pile was burning1 streams of flames issued from the leaves and branches of the trees1 shining forth with uncommon brightness1 without burning the trees2 insects of every description were seen flying in swarms on those trees1 without receiving the least injury4 ,in the place where the corpse had been exposed during seven days1 the relics were deposited during the same length of time1 and offerings of perfumes and flowers were incessantly made4 ,above them1 a canopy bespangled with gold and silver stars was raised1 and bouquets of flowers and perfumes were hanging therefrom4 ,from that place to the one where the ornaments were deposited1 the road was lined on both sides with fine cloth2 the road itself was covered with the finest mats4 ,above the road was spread a splendid canopy bespangled with golden stars and flowers4 ,the interior of the building was richly decorated2 perfumes and flowers were seen hanging from the canopy4 ,around the building1 masts were planted1 and adorned with the five sorts of flags4 ,plantain-trees were planted on both sides of the road1 and jars of cool water were laid down at a very short distance one from the other4 ,from posts of well-polished wood were suspended lamps to be lighted day and night4 ,the box1 containing the relics1 was placed on the back of a richly-caparisoned elephant1 and the precious remains were honoured in every possible way by offerings of flowers and perfumes2 by dancing1 singing1 music1 rejoicings1 and loud acclamations4 ,the ,malla princes1 to insure the safety of the relics1 had a line of elephants drawn round the place1 then a second line of horses1 then a third of chariots1 then a fourth of warriors4 ,such precautions were taken both for insuring the safety of the relics1 and allowing time to everybody to come and do honour to them4 ,at that time the courtiers of ,king ,adzatathat1#bg knowing well the tender affection their royal master bore to ,buddha's person1 were reluctant to convey to him the sad intelligence of his demise1 for fear of causing in him too great an affliction4 ,they took every possible precaution1 and devised various means for preparing the king's mind to bear with composure the loss he had sustained4 ,as soon as the monarch understood what the courtiers intended to say1 he fainted three times in succession4 ,each time steam baths and an abundant pouring of water over the head restored him to consciousness4 ,when he became sensible1 he wailed and lamented for a long time4 ,recovering from the shock of his deep affliction1 he desired to assuage the grief caused by ,buddha's death by procuring some of his relics4 ,for that purpose a messenger was despatched to the ,malla princes with the following request3 8,you are the descendants of the great ,thamadat2 ,i too1 who rule over the ,magatha country1 boast of the same noble origin4 ,for this reason1 ,i put forward my claim for obtaining the possession of some of ,buddha's relics1 which are now his representatives4 ,i will give directions for the erection of a beautiful and tall dzedi wherein they shall be deposited4 ,i and my people shall have thus an object of worship40 ,the princes of ,wethalie and of the neighbouring states sent a similar request4 ,those of ,kapilawot and ,alekapa followed their example4 ,the kings of ,rama and ,pawa1 the pounhas of ,withadipa also sent in their reclamations1 with a threat of having recourse to the force of arms1 if their demands should be disregarded4 ,they soon followed their messengers at the head of their troops4 ,the ,malla princes1 on receiving those messages1 consulted among themselves as to what was to be done4 ,they agreed that1 the relics of ,buddha being the most valuable possessions in the world1 they would not part with them4 ,many angry words were exchanged among contending parties4 ,they were almost ready to draw the sword when a celebrated pounha1 named ,dauna1 made his appearance4 ,he stood on an elevated spot1 and making a sign with his hand1 began to speak in a language calculated to soothe the irritation of the parties4 ,great was his influence over all1 since there was scarcely a man in the island of ,dzampoudipa who did not acknowledge ,dauna as his teacher4 8,o kings and princes10 said he1 8hear one word that ,i have to say to you4 ,our most excellent ,buddha always extolled the virtue of forbearance2 but you are ready to fight for the possession of his relics4 ,this is not good4 ,let all of you be now of one mind1 with cheerful dispositions4 ,i will divide the relics into eight equal portions4 ,let every one be ever solicitous to multiply in all directions dzedis in honour of him1 who was possessed of the five visions1 that many may feel affection for the most excellent one40 ,dauna went on explaining more fully the two stanzas he had recited1 saying3 8,o kings and princes1 our most excellent ,buddha1 previous to his obtaining the ,buddhaship1 whilst he was even an animal1 still more a man and a ,nat1 practised the virtue of patience2 he always recommended it in all his subsequent preachings4 ,how could you have recourse to open violence1 to warlike weapons1 for his relics8 ,you are kings of eight countries2 come to a quiet and peaceable arrangement on this subject2 speak to each other words of peace and good-will4 ,i will have the relics divided into eight equal parts4 ,you are all equally worthy to receive your share40 ,the kings1 on hearing the words of ,dauna1 came to the place where he stood1 and entreated him to make eight equal portions of the relics4 ,dauna assented to their request4 ,they went with him to the place of the relics4 ,the golden coffin that contained them was opened1 and there appeared to their regards all the relics beautiful like gold4 ,the princes seeing them said3 8,we have seen the most excellent ,buddha gifted with the six glories1 and all the bodily qualifications of the most accomplished person3 who could believe that these are the only things that remain of him80 ,they all wept and lamented4 ,whilst they were overwhelmed with grief1 ,dauna abstracted one of the canine teeth and concealed it in the folds of his turban4 ,all the relics were duly apportioned to all the kings4 ,a ,thagia1 who had seen the doing of ,dauna1 took adroitly the tooth1 and without being perceived carried it into the ,nats' seats1 and placed it in the ,dzoolamani dzedi4 ,when the partition was over1 ,dauna was surprised not to find the tooth he had stolen3 he did not1 however1 dare to complain1 as his pious fraud would have been discovered4 ,to console himself for such a loss1 he asked for the possession of the golden vessel wherein the relics had been kept4 ,his demand was favourably received1 and the golden vessel was given to him4 ,the ,maurya princes1 who ruled over the country of ,pipilawana1 hearing what had been done by ,adzatathat and other kings1 went also with a great retinue to the city of ,kootheinaron4 ,the ,malla princes informed them that the relics had already been divided1 and that there remained nothing but the coals of the funeral pile4 ,they took them away1 built a large pagoda over them1 and worshipped4 ,the places where the relics were deposited are ,radzagio1 ,kootheinaron1 ,wethalie1 ,kapilawot1 ,allakapata1 ,rama1 ,pawa1 and ,witadipakka4 ,king ,adzatathat ordered a beautiful and well-levelled road1 eight oothabas broad1 to be made from the city of ,kootheinaron to that of ,radzagio4 ,the distance is twenty-five youdzanas4 ,he wished to adorn it1 in all its length1 in the same manner as the ,malla princes had done the road leading from the place where the cremation of the corpse had taken place to that where the relics had been deposited4 ,at fixed and proper distances houses were built for resting and spending the night4 ,the king1 attended by a countless crowd of people1 went to take the relics and carry them into his country4 ,during the journey1 singing1 dancing1 and playing of musical instruments were uninterrupted4 ,offerings of perfumes and flowers were incessantly made by the people4 ,at certain intervals they stopped during seven days1 when fresh honours were paid to the relics in the midst of the greatest rejoicings4 ,in this manner seven months and seven days were employed in going over the distance between the two countries4 ,at ,radzagio the relics were deposited in a place prepared for that purpose1 and a dzedi was erected over them4 ,the seven other kings built also dzedis over the relics they had obtained4 ,dauna built one1 too1 over the golden vessel1 and the ,maurya princes erected likewise one religious monument over the coals4 ,thus there were at that time ten dzedis1 situated respectively in ,radzagio1 ,kootheinaron1 ,wethalie1 ,kapilawot1 ,allakapata1 ,witadipaka1 ,rama1 ,pawa1 the ,dauna village1 and ,papilawana4 ,the partition of the relics happened on the fifth of the waxing moon of ,nayon 7,june74 ,there were altogether eight tsarouts of relics2 that is to say1 a basketful4 ,each prince had one tsarout2 that is to say1 two pyis4 ,the upper right canine tooth was taken to the ,nats' seats2 the lower right tooth was carried to the ,gandala country2 the upper left tooth was removed to ,kalingga1 and the lower left tooth to the ,naga seat4 ,the other teeth and hairs of the head and body were distributed by the ,nats in a great number of other worlds4 ,when the funeral ceremonies were completed1 and the distribution of the relics effected in a manner satisfactory to all parties1 ,kathaba1 who was the acknowledged head of the assembly1 advised ,king ,adzatathat to do away with the ,eetzana era1 and establish a new one1 that would be called the era of religion1 beginning with the year of ,buddha's ,neibban1 that is to say1 on the year #adh of the ,eetzana era4 ,the king joyfully assented to the pious request of the ,buddhist patriarch1 and was exceedingly rejoiced to have this opportunity of affording a fresh token of the great esteem he had for ,buddha's person4 ,many years afterwards1 the great ,kathaba entertained some fear in his mind respecting the safety of the relics1 distributed over eight distinct places1 viz41 ,kootheinaron1 ,radzagio1 ,kappila1 ,allakabat1 ,watadipaka1 ,rama1 ,pawa1 and ,wethalie4#bh ,he wished to have them all put together in a safe and secure place1 where they could be preserved until better circumstances would afford an opportunity to bring them forth1 and expose them to the respect and veneration of the true believers all over the ,dzampoudipa island4 ,for this purpose1 in the year of religion #bj1 he went to ,king ,adzatathat and said to him that precautions were to be taken for securing the preservation of the relics4 ,the king asked him by what means all the relics could be had from those who now possessed them4 ,kathaba replied that he would know how to manage such a delicate affair4 ,he went to the seven kings1 who gave to him all the principal relics1 keeping beside themselves only what was strictly necessary to be deemed an object of worship and good-will towards ,buddha's person4 ,one exception was made in favour of the relics deposited in the village of ,rama1 because they were in future times to be carried to ,ceylon and placed in the great wihara or pagoda4 ,all the relics having been brought to ,radzagio1 ,kathaba took with him those pious articles1 and went out of the city4 ,he directed his steps in a south-eastern direction1 loaded with this precious burden1 which he carried all the way4 ,having reached a certain spot1 he made the following prayer3--8,may all the rocks and stones of this place disappear1 and there be1 in place thereof1 a fine sandy soil2 may water never issue from this spot40 ,adzatathat ordered the soil to be dug very deep4 ,with the earth bricks were made1 and eight dzedis were built4 ,this was done for the express purpose of preventing people suspecting the real object that both ,kathaba and the king had in view4 ,the depth of the hole was eighty cubits4 ,its bottom was lined with iron bars4 ,to that bottom was lowered a chapel monastery made of brass1 similar in shape and proportions to the great wihara of ,ceylon4 ,six gold boxes containing the precious relics were placed in this chapel monastery4 ,each box was enclosed in one of silver1 the latter in one adorned with precious stones1 and so on1 until eight boxes were placed one within the other4 ,there were also arranged #eej statues1 representing ,buddha in #eej preceding existences described in the sacred writings1 the statues of the eighty great disciples1 with those of ,thoodaudana and ,maia4 ,there also were arranged #ejj lamps of gold and #ejj lamps of silver1 filled with the most fragrant oil1 with wicks made of the richest cloth4 ,the great ,kathaba1 taking a leaf of gold1 wrote upon it the following words3--8,in aftertimes a young man1 named ,piadatha1 shall ascend the throne1 and become a great and renowned monarch under the name of ,athoka4 ,through him the relics shall be spread all over the island of ,dzampoodipa40 ,king ,adzatathat made new offerings of flowers and perfumes4 ,all the doors of the monastery were shut1 and fastened with an iron bolt4 ,near the last door he placed a large ruby1 upon which the following words were written3 8,let the poor king who shall find this ruby present it to the relics40 ,a ,thagia ordered a ,nat to watch over the precious deposit4 ,the ,nat disposed around it the most hideous and terrifying figures1 armed with swords4 ,the whole was encompassed by six walls made of stone and brick2 a large slab of stone covered the upper part1 and upon it he built a small dzedi4 ,five years afterwards1 that is to say1 in the twenty-fifth year of the religious era1#bi ,king ,adzatathat died2 and1 likewise1 all those that had been present on this occasion disappeared one after the other from the scene of this world4 ,a small dzedi indicated the place where the sacred relics had been religiously deposited4 ,but in due course of time1 the place1 being no longer heeded by the people1 soon became overgrown with bushes1 which screened from sight the modest monument itself4 ,the relics remained buried in that manner in the bosom of the earth1 until after a long period of time there was to appear at last a mighty ruler1 full of zeal for the promotion of religion1 who would be worthy to render a becoming honour to the relics1 and to distribute them throughout the length and breadth of the island of ,dzampoodipa4 ,this great event shall be narrated in a following chapter4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,after ,buddha's death1 zeal of ,kathaba in upholding genuine doctrines--,he selects five hundred elders to become members of a council or assembly--,radzagio is fixed upon for the holding of the council--,he repairs thither with a portion of the appointed members--,behaviour of the amiable ,ananda previous to his departure for ,radzagio--,king ,adzatathat supports ,kathaba in his views--,the hall for holding the council is prepared by his orders--,ananda is qualified in a miraculous manner for sitting as a member of the council--,holding of the council under the presidency of ,kathaba--,establishment of the religious era--,destruction of ,wethalie by ,adzatathat--,the successors of that prince--,in the days of ,king ,kalathoka a second council is held at ,pataliputra1 under the presidency of ,ratha--,causes that provoked the holding of a second assembly4 ,having completed the narrative of all that relates to the relics1 we have to trace back our steps1 and give an account of the development and spread of ,buddhism into various countries4 ,after the cremation of ,buddha's mortal remains and the distribution of the relics1 peaceably managed by the ,pounha ,dauna1 ,kathaba1 on account of the high esteem ,buddha ever had for him--esteem which he had manifested in a striking manner when he invested him with his one robe--considered himself as having been thereby especially appointed to provide effectual means for placing the law on an unshaken foundation4 ,as a monarch before his death appoints his son to succeed him1 to wield the supreme power and keep it in his family1 in a like manner ,buddha had appointed his eldest spiritual son to take his place4 ,being1 therefore1 the acknowledged head of the assembly1 he had but one object in view1 the maintenance of the doctrines and institutions of his great master in their original purity1 and the establishment of religion on a firm basis4 ,when on his way from the town of ,pawa to that of ,kootheinaron1 to be present at the funeral of ,buddha1 he had met with a ,rahan1 who had given him particulars respecting the last moments and death of ,gaudama1 and at the same time had dared to express feelings of satisfaction on that mournful occasion in the following manner3 8,now that our master has gone to ,neibban1 he will be no longer amongst us1 to tell us1 #8,you must do this1 you have to shun that2 such a regulation ought to be observed2 such a duty is to be performed4' ,we shall hear no longer the reproaches he was wont to address to us4 ,at present we are at liberty to do what we like1 and to follow our own inclinations40 ,such unbecoming1 nay1 impious language1 stung to the quick the ardent soul of the venerable ,kathaba4 ,from that moment he was daily engaged in revolving in his mind1 and examining within himself1 what would be the best course to be entered upon1 in order to keep intact the doctrines he had heard from the mouth of ,buddha himself1 and establish upon a firm basis the religious institutions he so much valued4 8,as soon10 said he within himself1 8as the funeral of the most excellent ,phra shall have been performed with a becoming solemnity1 ,i shall congregate together the most zealous and learned members of the assembly1 and1 with their united efforts and energy1 ,i will oppose the spreading of false doctrines1 which obscure the true ones4 ,i will put down the newly-invented erroneous disciplinary regulations1 by setting in a strong light the genuine ones4 ,to prevent1 in future1 the re-occurrence of similar evils so detrimental to religion1 all the preachings of ,buddha as well as the disciplinary rules shall be arranged under several heads1 and committed to writing4 ,the books containing the above shall be held up as sacred40#cj ,agreeably to the plan he had fixed upon twenty days after ,buddha's demise1 the great ,kathaba1 profiting by the circumstance that had brought together so many ,rahans from all parts to the town of ,kootheinaron1 communicated his views to all the ,rahans congregated in that place4 ,having received from all his brethren a suitable encouragement1 ,kathaba selected from among them four hundred and ninety-nine of the most learned4 ,they were all ,rahandas1 that is to say1 they had all reached the last degree of perfection1 with the exception of ,ananda1 who was but a ,thautapan1 and1 therefore1 had only entered into the current that was to drift him to perfection4 ,it may be asked why ,ananda was selected as a member of the future council1 since1 in point of spiritual attainments1 he was very inferior to all his brethren upon whom ,kathaba's selection had fallen4 ,let it not be believed that he owed this distinction to his royal extraction1 or to his being first cousin to ,buddha and the friend of ,kathaba1 or to the venerable appearance which grey hairs imparted to his person4 ,his brethren were full of love and esteem for him4 ,they had the greatest regard for all that he said1 because1 having always attended on ,buddha's person during twenty-five years1 lived with him in the greatest intimacy1 and followed him as the shadow does the body1 he was perfectly conversant with the doctrines of ,gaudama1 which he had heard expounded on all occasions and to all sorts of people4 ,all the religious were unanimous in declaring him worthy to be associated with those who were to compose the synod4 ,kathaba was delighted at such an opinion1 which agreed so well with his own4 ,kathaba examined afterwards what was the most befitting place for holding the council4 ,having reviewed successively the various cities situated in the neighbourhood of ,kootheinaron1 he was pleased with none of them4 ,radzagio appeared to him in every respect the best place that could be selected4 ,the city and its suburbs were very populous2 the people lived in affluent circumstances2 alms could easily be procured even for a large assembly during any period of time2 monasteries about the city were both numerous and of great extent4 ,all these advantages combined together induced ,kathaba to give the preference to that city4 ,to this his brethren unanimously assented4 ,when these preliminaries had been settled1 ,kathaba1 on the fifth of the waxing moon of ,nayon1 spoke as follows to the members of the future council3 8,brethren1 you have before you forty days to prepare yourselves1 and dispose everything to hold yourselves ready for beginning the great and important affair for which we have to assemble at ,radzagio4 ,let none of you bring forward any pretext for postponing his going to the place that has been fixed upon1 such as sickness1 or the consideration of parents1 friends1 relatives1 or even teacher4 ,every one of us must be prepared to forsake everything to promote the great object we have in view1 the exaltation of religion40 ,when he had spoken in this manner he took with himself two hundred and fifty religious1 and shaped his course in the direction of ,radzagio4 ,some while afterwards ,anoorouda1 attended by nearly a similar number of brethren1 went to the same place by following another road4 ,the venerable pounha remained in ,kootheinaron with seven hundred brethren4 ,the other religious1 not designated by ,kathaba1 withdrew into various other localities4 ,whilst these things were taking place1 the ever kind-hearted and affectionate ,ananda availed himself of a portion of the forty days allowed by ,kathaba to proceed to ,radzagio1 to give full scope to the feelings of love he entertained for the person of ,buddha4 ,he employed a part of that time in revisiting the various places that had been the favourite resorts of his beloved departed master1 the ,dzetawon monastery in particular4 ,full of love for the memory of ,buddha1 he was seen entering into the monasteries where he was wont to serve him daily with a most affectionate regard1 his eyes bathed in tears1 and doing1 out of respect for him1 the same humble but devoted services4 ,he swept the room1 made the bed1 brought the water in the same way as if ,buddha had been present4 ,with a low tone of voice1 often interrupted by sobs1 he was heard repeating1 with the accent of a deep sadness1 tempered by love1 8,this is the place where the most excellent ,phra sat down2 this is the bed upon which he slept2 this is the verandah through which he paced to and fro2 this is the place where he bathed20 and on each spot he stood awhile and shed abundant tears4 ,at such a sight the people felt their love towards ,buddha's person increasing tenfold4 ,they accompanied his loving disciple1 joined him in his pious offices1 and with him wept as bitterly1 in remembering the person of the great teacher1 his manners and his preachings1 as they did when they heard of his death4 ,having performed all these pious duties1 ,ananda left that place1 and hastened to the city of ,radzagio4 ,when all the religious had congregated1 the occupants of the eighteen monasteries that were spread in the neighbourhood of ,radzagio had to leave them1 and make them over to the new-comers4 ,all the five hundred religious spent the festival day of the full moon of ,watso together with the occupants of those places4 ,after the performance of the usual devotions they were left alone in the undisturbed possession of the above-named monasteries4 ,but the buildings were found in such a bad order that they required important and immediate repairs4 ,moreover1 they were in a state of unbearable uncleanness1 and it was deemed necessary to have them well rubbed and washed4 ,the cause of this disordered state was this3 when the occupants of those places heard of the approaching death of their great teacher1 they had hastened to ,kootheinaron1 and there was no one left to take care of the dwellings and keep them in good order4 ,to have the evil remedied1 ,kathaba1 accompanied by a large retinue of his most remarkable brethren1 went on the second day after the full moon of ,watso to the palace of ,king ,adzatathat1 who received him with every mark of respect1 and immediately inquired about the object of his visit4 ,kathaba explained to the monarch the purpose of his coming to ,radzagio with five hundred of the most distinguished religious4 8,i desire10 said he1 8to confute error and to proclaim truth4 ,my greatest wish is to promote the sacred cause of our holy religion4 ,for that purpose ,i have1 with the concurrence of all my brethren1 resolved to hold a synod composed of the principal members of the assembly4 ,we ask from you1 ,o ,king1 the favour of causing the eighteen monasteries of ,radzagio to be repaired for our dwelling1 and also to give orders for the erection of a spacious hall1 which shall be the place of our meetings for discussing various subjects relating to religion40 ,adzatathat joyfully assented to the proposal and demands of the ,buddhist patriarch4 ,he gave full liberty for the holding of the council1 saying1 8,my power and that of the law are now at your command40 ,he gave immediate orders for putting in perfect order the dwelling-place of the ,rahans4 ,on the southern face of ,mount ,webhara there was a cave which had been a favourite place of resort with ,buddha during the seasons that he spent at ,radzagio in the ,weloowon or bamboo-grove monastery4 ,that spot was fixed upon as the fittest for the holding of the assembly4 ,adzatathat summoned to his presence the most skilful workmen1 and commanded them to exert all their skill and talents in erecting a hall worthy of the assembly that was to meet within its precincts4 ,the ground was first encircled with a fence4 ,a fine flight of steps1 made with the utmost care1 led from the bottom of the hill to the spot where was built the magnificent hall1 decorated with a profusion of the choicest ornaments1 and surpassing in beauty and elaborate work the stately dwellings of princes4 ,five hundred mats for the accommodation of the religious were disposed in the south of the hall4 ,the seat of the president was placed opposite1 in the northern part4 ,in the centre1 but facing the east1 a seat resembling a pulpit was raised2 upon it was laid a beautiful fan1 made of ivory4 ,when the work was finished1 ,adzatathat informed ,kathaba that the work was completed1 and the hall ready for the projected meetings4 ,it was on the full moon of the ,wakhaong 7,august7 that the first conference was to take place and the council to be opened4 ,on the day previous some ,rahans made a remark on the circumstance of ,ananda being allowed to become a member of the council1 though he was but a ,thautapan1 and had still to ascend the three other steps of ,thakadagan1 ,anagan1 and ,rahanda before he became an ,arahat4 ,this remark1 made with very little moderation1 greatly affected and grieved the tender heart of ,ananda4 ,no time was to be lost2 he knew that on the following day the council would be opened1 and he could scarcely hope to be tolerated as an exception in the midst of his brethren4 ,he withdrew to a quiet and retired place1 and resolved to do his utmost to obtain that which he felt he was in need of4 ,he began to meditate with much attention2 but the desired object of his wishes was as yet far from him4 ,he thought of ,buddha4 ,whilst he was continuing his mental labour until midnight1 he heard a voice telling him to apply himself to the labour of a higher order1 to ,kamatan4 ,this was a flash of light that illuminated his mind4 ,the exercise lasted until a little before daybreak4 ,at that time ,ananda left the walking place1 and went to his room to take a little rest4 ,he sat on his bed4 ,between the short time that it took to raise his feet from the ground and lay the head over the pillow1 ,ananda was delivered from the bands that keep a being in the whirlpool of existences1 and he became a ,rahanda4 ,on the fifth of the waxing moon of ,wakhaong the #dii venerable members1 attired in their cloaks and carrying the mendicants' pots1 assembled in the hall at the entrance of the ,webhara cave4 ,each member occupied his own place2 ,ananda's alone was without its occupant4 ,on a sudden1 by the power of the virtue now inherent in his person1 ,ananda appeared among his brethren4 ,the appearance of his face resembled a ripe palm fruit4 ,it was beautiful as the moon at its full emerging from the bosom of a cloud2 as a newly polished precious stone on a piece of fine cloth2 as the water-lily blooming in the rays of the morning sun4 ,it reflected the inward perfection which had just been communicated to him1 and exhibited it in unmistakable signs to the assembled religious4 ,every arrangement being completed1 and the members occupying in silence their respective seats1 ,kathaba three times praised ,buddha4 ,he then asked the fathers of the assembly which of the three parts--the instructions1 the discipline1 or the metaphysics--deserved the priority in the discussions that were to begin4 ,they answered that the discipline1 being the soul and ornament of religion1 deserved the preference4 ,he asked them to appoint him whom they thought the fittest to occupy the pulpit4 ,they were unanimous in selecting ,oopali1 though ,ananda was worthy of such a distinction4 ,the reason of the selection is the following3 ,on one occasion ,buddha had openly declared that among all the religious1 or the members of the assembly1 ,oopali was the most fervent in observing the regulations of the ,wini4 ,then ,kathaba said1 8,brethren1 since you have given the preference to the venerable ,oopali1 let him have it40 ,the venerable ,oopali said in his turn1 8,brethren1 hearken to my words3 having been selected by the assembly to answer all the questions relating to the ,wini1 ,i accept the honourable task thus imposed upon me40 ,when he had spoken he rose from his place1 threw a part of his cloak upon one shoulder1 bowed to the members of the assembly1 went to the pulpit1 sat down1 and held the ivory fan in his hand4 ,kathaba1 from his own seat1 addressed ,oopali1 and said1 8,venerable ,oopali1 in what place has the most excellent ,phra enacted the commandment respecting the first of the four sins1 called ,paradzika80 ,oopali answered1 8,in the country of ,wethalie40 8,to whom was allusion made when this commandment was published80 8,allusion was made to ,thoudein1 the son of ,tananda ,pounha40 8,what was the cause of such an enactment80 8,the sin of fornication he had committed40 ,the president1 addressing the assembled fathers1 said1 8,brethren1 you have all heard what regards the circumstances connected with the first ,paradzika4 ,let this article be noted down1 and its admission and sanction be proclaimed aloud40 ,it was done so4 ,all the members accepted it4 ,at that moment an earthquake was felt4 ,the same method was observed as regards the three other ,paradzika4 ,they were unanimously accepted by the members of the assembly4 ,oopali was successively questioned by the president upon the other regulations of the ,wini1 viz41 the #ac ,thingaditheit1 the #b ,donay-a-niga1 the #cj ,niseggi ,padzeit1 the #ib ,padzeit1 the #d ,walidathani1 the #ge ,theikkabot1 which are named ,adikarana-thama2 in all1 #bbg regulations4 ,moreover1 there were added the #hj 7,banawara7 ,khandaca and the #be ,parawira4 ,these several divisions form the collection called ,wini ,pitagat4 ,when the final sanction had been given to all those points a mighty earthquake was felt a second time4 ,the venerable ,oopali laid down the ivory fan1 rose up1 came down from the pulpit1 reverentially saluted all the brethren1 and returned to his own seat4 ,the president1 addressing the company1 said1 8,brethren1 hearken to my words4 ,if it be your good pleasure1 we shall discuss at present the thoots or the instructions orally delivered unto us by our most excellent master4 ,whom shall we appoint to answer the questions ,i shall put him on this subject80 ,they unanimously elected ,ananda1 who1 having always and on all occasions accompanied ,buddha1 was better acquainted with his preachings than any other religious4 ,then the president added1 8,brethren1 if it be agreeable to you1 ,i will duly question the venerable ,ananda40 ,the latter likewise said1 8,brethren1 hearken to my words4 ,since it is acceptable to you1 ,i will answer all the questions on the thoots which our venerable president shall put to me40 ,then he rose from his seat1 arranged his cloak on one of his shoulders1 respectfully bowed to the assembly1 and1 ascending the steps of the pulpit1 he sat down1 and held in his hand the ivory fan4 ,the president1 addressing the assembly1 said1 8,brethren1 in the thoots there are several parts or divisions4 ,there is the division called ,thingiti1 which has also subdivisions4 ,which shall ,i fix upon to begin our session80 ,they answered1 8,let us begin with the ,diga-thingiti1 which contains thirty-five thoots1 and out of this the ,silakhanda which includes thirteen sermons or thoots40 ,it was on the first1 called ,bhramadzala1 that the questions were put4 ,the president put the following questions to the venerable ,ananda3 8,in what place was the ,bhramadzala thoot preached80 ,he answered1 8,in the ,mingoon hall1 situated in the middle of a grove of mango-trees half-way between ,radzagio and the village of ,nalanda40 8,to whom was allusion made80 8,to ,thouppya1 a holder of false doctrines1 and to a young man named ,bramada40 8,for what reason was such allusion made80 8,because both had been ungrateful to ,buddha40 ,similar questions were put for each thoot of this division1 and suitable answers were given in a like manner4 ,the same mode of proceeding was observed for each sermon or thoot of the following divisions4 ,when all the explanations had been given by the speaker1 all the assembled brethren1 with a perfect unanimity1 assented to all that had been said4 ,when the work on the thoots was completed1 the whole collection was called the ,pitagat ,thoots4 ,ananda rose from the pulpit1 placed the ivory fan upon the table1 respectfully bowed to the assembly1 and returned to his own place4 ,the president1 addressing again the assembly1 requested them to designate him who1 in their opinion1 appeared to be best fitted for answering all questions on the third part of the sacred scriptures1 the ,abidama4 ,they unanimously selected the venerable ,anooroudha4 ,when the choice had been fixed upon and agreed to1 ,anooroudha accepted the honour conferred on him1 rose from his seat and saluted his brethren4 ,he then gravely ascended the pulpit1 sat down1 and held the ivory fan in his hand4 ,the president questioned him on the seven divisions of the ,abidama1 following the same order he had observed previously in treating of the two first parts called ,pitagat4 ,the occupant of the pulpit having returned due answers1 and the assembly having testified their approbation in a unanimous manner1 the council was brought to a close4 ,it had lasted seven months1 from the full moon of ,wakhaong to the full moon of ,tabaong4#ca ,the first council is called ,pitzasatika ,sangarana1 because it was composed of five hundred religious4 ,it is also named ,terika-sangarana1 because it was composed of religious of the first order4 ,the soul of ,kathaba1 at the happy conclusion of this important undertaking1 overflowed with the purest joy4 ,he felt that with such a work the religious institutions rested on a strong basis1 and would last the whole period of #ejjj years assigned to the duration of religion by ,gaudama himself4 ,it was at the conclusion of the council that ,king ,adzatathat1 with the concurrence of the ,buddhist patriarch1 did away with the ,eetzana era1 and substituted the religious era beginning in the year #adh of the said era2 that is to say1 on the year of ,gaudama's death1 on a ,monday1 the first of the waxing moon of ,tabaong4 ,here is inserted1 as a genealogical link1 the names of the kings who reigned at ,pataliputra1 from ,adzatathat to ,kalathoka1 under whose reign the second council was held4 ,agreeably to the prediction of ,gaudama respecting the calamities that were to befall ,wethalie on the third year of the religious era1 ,adzatathat1 having contrived to sow1 through the instrumentality of a famous pounha1 the seed of dissension among the princes of that city1 flung himself on a sudden with a large force on the devoted city1 possessed himself of it1 and totally destroyed it4 ,on his return to his own territories1 the conqueror carried away as captives three hundred of the princes and nobles of the conquered state4 ,his reign lasted altogether thirty-five years4 ,he died in the year #be of the religious era4 ,he was slain by his own son ,oudaia-badda1 who succeeded him and reigned until the year #dj4 ,he was in his turn murdered by his son ,anoorouda1 who also fell after a short reign by the hand of his son and successor1 ,manta4 ,this prince reigned until the year #di4 ,he met with a similar tragical end4 ,his son ,nagata-saka killed him and ascended the throne4 ,he reigned until the year #ec4 ,the people of ,pataliputra1 justly shocked at the horrible and barbarous murders which incessantly sullied the very steps of the throne1 revolted against the race of these bloody princes1 and put an end to the line of kings who are aptly called the parricide kings4 ,among the three hundred princes and nobles whom ,adzatathat had brought over from ,wethalie1 one of them had a daughter remarkable for the attractions of her person and the accomplishments of her mind4 ,she was by the order of the king raised to the position of a courtezan in ,radzagio4 ,whilst engaged in that course she had a male child1 whom1 with unnatural feelings1 she ordered to be thrown during the night into the midst of bushes1 outside the city4 ,a ,naga guardian of the place watched over the infant and carefully protected him4 ,on the following morning1 the king1 happening to pass by1 heard the sound thoo-thoo many times repeated4 ,it was the ,naga who made this noise in order to attract his attention4 ,the king having sent one of his officers to the spot the sound was coming from1 was informed that an infant still alive was lying there under the guard of a ,naga4 ,moved with compassion1 he ordered the child to be forwarded to his palace and had him carefully brought up4 ,on account of the sound thoo-thoo which had been heard1 and of the ,naga that had been met on the spot1 the child was named ,thoo-thoo-naga4 ,he grew up and became an accomplished prince4 ,the people1 who had rid themselves of the line of parricide kings1 unanimously proclaimed him king in #fc4 ,that monarch1 not unmindful of his mother's origin1 re-established the city of ,wethalie1 and fixed in it the royal residence4 ,from that time ,radzagio lost her rank of royal city1 which she never after recovered4 ,he died in #ha1 and was succeeded by his son ,kalathoka1 who1 as we shall see subsequently1 had a long reign of twenty-eight years4 ,we must show now how there has ever been a regular and uninterrupted succession of eminent doctors1 who have successively communicated to each other the genuine doctrine1 from ,buddha down to the time of the third council1 that is to say1 during more than two hundred years4 ,the venerable ,oopali had learned the ,wini at the feet of ,buddha himself1 and had for his chief pupil the venerable ,dantaka1 who in his turn became the teacher of the venerable ,thaunaka4 ,the latter was the instructor of the venerable ,seiggiwa1 who also brought up in the knowledge of the true doctrine the venerable and renowned ,mauggalipatta4 ,dantaka belonged1 by birth1 to the pounha race of ,wethalie4 ,having become a patzin1 he attained to so great a proficiency in the religious science1 that ,oopali appointed him the instructor of a thousand religious in the three ,pitagats4 ,thaunaka was the son of a rich merchant4 ,he became a convert to ,buddhism1 and entered as a religious at ,radzagio4 ,his remarkable mental attainments induced his superior to give him the charge of initiating others into the knowledge of the sacred doctrines4 ,seiggiwa was the son of a nobleman of ,pataliputra4 ,on a certain day he went with many companions into the monastery of ,thaunaka1 and found him in a state of trance4 ,the young visitor wondered at what he saw4 ,from admiration he passed to respect and love1 and wished to become a disciple under him4 ,he succeeded so well in his studies that he merited to become the master of the most celebrated of all1 ,mauggalipatta4 ,previous to his present existence1 the latter was in one of the seats of ,brahmas4 ,he was incarnated in the womb of a pounha woman4 ,when he was born1 he grew up and showed a decided inclination to become a ,buddhist1 and tread in the footsteps of ,gaudama4 ,it was in #afc that the future president of the third council became a patzin4 ,in the #bjth year of the reign of ,kalathoka1 in the year #ajj1 there happened a sort of schism amongst the ,rahans of ,wethalie4 ,those of the ,weitzi district1 little regarding the positive injunctions of the ,wini1 indulged in certain practices openly at variance with them4 ,this occasioned strong remonstrance on the part of the ,rahans living in the western district1 called ,pawera4 ,the dispute among the religious was soon noised abroad and caused some scandal4 ,it was the following incident which revealed all the peril4 ,the venerable ,ratha was then living in the monastery1 situated in the ,mahawon1 in the district of ,wethalie4 ,chancing to travel through the ,weitzi district1 he heard that on festival days the ,rahans were wont to place near the entrance of their monasteries certain vessels half full of water1 and advised the people to put therein1 each of them1 a piece of silver1 saying that the produce would be employed in purchasing dresses and the other utensils required by the ,rahans4 ,they also allowed as lawful the use of spirits1 and were not very particular respecting the observance of the law of celibacy4 ,ratha was greatly scandalised at all that he saw4 ,he boldly told the people that it was not good to make offerings of money1 because it was unlawful for religious to possess any4 ,he made similar observations respecting the other trespassings4 ,on the following festival day no money was offered4 ,the ,rahans were much incensed at such a neglect4 ,ratha said to the people3 8,laymen1 because of such irregularities1 the beauty of the days of worship is fading1 the glory of religion is darkened4 ,buddha in his days forbade the offering of money1 the use of liquors1 and several other practices which are now introduced in this place4 ,by the innovators ,i am held up as a reviler of the ,rahans1 and as one deficient in benevolence towards you4 ,i1 as well as the ,rahans of the royal race1 attend only to the prescriptions of the ,wini1 such as they have been laid down and published by ,buddha40 ,the people replied to him3 8,venerable ,ratha1 you are a true ,rahan1 and you follow the right way4 ,pray stay with us and be our teacher2 we will abundantly supply you with the necessaries of life40 ,ratha1 going on his way1 was always followed by the people1 who1 in token of their respect and love1 accompanied him to the ,kootagara monastery1 in the midst of the forest of sala trees4 ,the guilty ,rahans1 hearing of all that had been said and fearing the paramount influence of the venerable ,ratha over the people1 said to them3 8,we shall not join with the ,rahans of the royal race4 ,we shall hold no intercourse with them4 ,we shall expel ,ratha from this district40 ,with these dispositions they encouraged each other in the determination to offer a most decided opposition and maintain their newly invented practices4 ,on his side1 the venerable ,ratha1 anxious for the safety of the genuine practices1 and zealous for the exaltation of religion1 hastened to ,kothambi to warn the religious of that and the neighbouring districts against the evil practices of the ,weitzi ,rahans4 ,to those whom he could not meet in person he sent letters and messengers to say to them3 8,brethren1 before the evil-doers succeed in their iniquitous efforts to subvert religion1 and render doubtful and uncertain the genuine regulations of the ,wini1 ere they have time to set up false tenets1 let us assemble1 and with our united efforts give strength and confidence to the good and righteous1 and crush the wicked and the impious40 ,at that time there lived on a mountain1 in the ,upper ,ganges1 a celebrated religious1 named ,samputa-kami4 ,he was #abj years old1 and had been a disciple of ,ananda4 ,to him the zealous ,ratha applied in order to have the questions at issue with the ,weitzi ,rahans finally settled4 ,he minutely explained to him the ten points of discipline on which they were at variance with the ,wini4 ,samputa-kami fully agreed with the proposal1 and was of opinion that there should be held a general assembly1 in which the points in dispute should be examined and the schism put an end to4 ,some religious1 about sixty in number1 appeared to have a leaning towards the schismatical party4 ,they resolved to go to ,thaurya1 where lived the celebrated ,rewati1 whose extraordinary wisdom equalled the quickness and flash of the lightning4 ,the venerable ,rewati1 hearing of their wicked design1 would not1 in his abhorrence for their opinions1 meet them on any account4 ,he left his own place1 and went from ,thaurya to the town of ,sankasa4 ,when he had heard that they were following him1 and were already close to the place he lived in1 he removed to ,kaiinna-goutra1 then to ,oudampara1 subsequently to ,eggalamoura and to ,tharaudzati4 ,at the same time1 it happened that ,ratha1 with the venerable ,tsamputa1 wished to go and have a meeting with ,rewati1 in order to place him on his guard and to bring him over to their party4 ,they met him at ,tharaudzati in the evening1 and during the whole night made him acquainted with all the doings of the ,weitzi ,rahans1 and begged him to declare openly which of the two parties was in the right4 ,rewati at once pronounced in favour of the ,pawera ,rahans1 and condemned the opposite party on each of the ten points in dispute1 and looked upon them as innovators and schismatics4 ,during that time the schismatic ,rahans were not idle4 ,they wished also to draw ,rewati to their party4 ,having ascertained that he lived in ,tharaudzati1 they went by boat and ascended the river as far as that place4 ,they carried with them many presents suitable for religious4 ,having landed1 they took their quarters under a large tree4 ,rewati1 knowing their wicked intent1 would not receive their presents1 nor hold communion with them4 ,undismayed by this first check which they had received1 they tried to obtain access to the master by means of the disciple4 ,they offered him some presents1 which in his simplicity he accepted4 ,meanwhile they urged him to prevail upon his teacher to give them a favourable hearing4 ,he only once made the attempt to introduce the subject with the greatest caution4 ,rewati1 however1 was on his guard3 he administered to his imprudent disciple such a rebuke as to deter him from making any further attempt4 ,his name was ,outtara4 ,he and all the ,rahans went to ,wethalie4 ,to calm the heat of discussion1 and bring the question at issue to a complete settlement1 the ,walikarama monastery in ,wethalie was selected as the fittest place for holding a general assembly1 where both parties would attend1 and endeavour to come to a mutual understanding4 ,out of an immense number of religious1 #gjj1 the most conspicuous for their learning were selected by ,ratha and ,rewati to be members of the assembly4 ,but to render the discussion clearer and easier1 it was agreed that each of the ten points should be first discussed by eight ,rahans1 four from each party4 ,rewati1 ,samputa1 ,ratha1 and ,thoumana represented the western or orthodox party3 ,samputa-kami1 ,thala1 ,koudyabantaka1 and ,wathakami acted for the opposite party4 ,it was evident that in this dispute the question was not about the ,pitagat itself2 this was admitted by both parties4 ,the difficulty affected certain points of discipline1 ten in number1 which were to be settled by the authority of the ,kambawa and ,patimauk4 ,the eight delegates having met in a private hall of the monastery1 ,rewati was desired to question the venerable ,samputa-kami on the ten points on which there was disagreement4 ,he said3 8,is it lawful to add to the food that is received some salt or other condiments80 ,samputa-kami answered3 8,it is not lawful40 8,in what place was that point settled80 8,in ,wethalie1 as being contrary to the spirit of the ,wini40 8,what sin is entailed on him who does such a thing80 8,the sin of ,patzeit40 ,questions of a similar import were put as regards the drinking of milk in the afternoon1 the use of waters half-fermented1 the drinking of spirits1 the receiving of gold and silver4 ,answers were given agreeably to the tenor of the ,wini regulations4 ,when the eight delegates had come to a decision upon the ten points of discipline1 they went into the great hall where the #gjj ,rahans were assembled4 ,ratha was the president of the assembly4 ,samputa-kami was desired to ascend the pulpit and hold the fan4 ,the president said to the assembled ,rahans3 8,brethren1 if it be pleasing to you1 ,i will interrogate the venerable ,samputa-kami on the ,wini1 and on the ten points in discussion40 ,he followed the same order that had been observed in the first meeting of the eight ,rahans4 ,the answers were unanimously received and approved of by the whole assembly4 ,then the president said3 8,all discussion concerning the ten points is now over2 let every one accept the decisions of the assembly and act agreeably to them40 ,this second council is called ,thattasakita1 or the assembly of the #gjj ,rahans4 ,it was held in #ajb1 under the reign of ,kalathoka4 ,that prince appears to have favoured the party of the ,weitzi ,rahans4 ,the assembly lasted eight months4 ,the canon of scriptures was likewise arranged and determined as it had been done by ,kathaba in the first council4 ,among the principal members of the assembly were ,samputa-kami1 ,thala1 ,koudzasambita1 ,rewati1 ,thauna1 and ,samputa1 who had been disciples of ,ananda4 ,thoumana and ,wauthabakami had been disciples of the venerable ,anoorouda4 ,partly from the countenance given by the king to the condemned party1 and partly from the obstinacy shown by the easterners in resisting the decisions of the council1 the ,buddhistic society was divided into two great factions4 ,the latter1 that is to say the ,weitzi ,rahans1 established the great school called the ,maha ,thingika4 ,the ,tera-thaka was that of the orthodox2 it never changed in doctrine or in discipline4 ,until the third council1 that is to say1 during the space of more than a century1 eighteen different schools branched off4#cb ,of these1 seventeen offered the sad spectacle of important changes in points of discipline and of doctrine4 ,but the ,terawada never changed3 it retained both doctrine and discipline in their original purity4 ,all the different schools received their denomination from their respective founders4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,kalathoka is succeeded by his eldest son1 ,baddasena--,and finally by the youngest1 ,pitzamuka--,this prince is killed and succeeded by a chief of robbers1 named ,ouggasena-nanda--,king ,tsanda-gutta--,king ,bandasura--,miraculous dreams of ,athoka's mother--,king ,athoka--,his conversion--,his zeal for ,buddhism--,finding of the relics--,distribution of them--,third council held under the presidency of ,mauggalipata--,preaching of religion in various countries1 and particularly in ,thaton--,voyage of ,buddhagosa to ,ceylon--,establishment of religion in ,pagan--,various particulars relating to the importation of the scriptures in ,burmah4 ,at the conclusion of the synod1 ,samputa-kami and several of the most distinguished members of the ,buddhistic assembly1 astonished at the progress of schism and dissension which the united voices of seven hundred religious had not been able entirely to root up1 endeavoured to divine1 as far as human wisdom could reach1 what would be in after times the fate of religion4 ,they foresaw that one hundred and twenty years hence1 there would be at ,pataliputra a mighty ruler full of love for religion1 and zealous for its propagation1 who would do much to promote its exaltation4 ,but before the reign of that pious monarch they saw distinctly that there would appear many heretics1 fond of their own will1 coining doctrines of their own invention1 and that they would thereby inflict the most serious harm on religion4 ,they had1 however1 the consolation to know that this was to come to pass after their death4 ,but who was the fortunate being who was destined to check effectually the coming evil8 ,they saw him in one of the seats of ,brahmas4 ,his name was ,teissa4 ,in due time he would come down to the seat of man1 operate his incarnation in the womb of a pounha female1 named ,maugali1 and would afterwards become a famous religious under the name ,mauggalipatta4 ,this vision filled their souls with the purest joy1 which was increased by the view of the expansion and development which religion would receive through the zeal of that great personage4 ,after a reign of twenty-eight years1 ,king ,kalathoka died1 leaving nine sons1 the eldest of whom was named ,baddasena4 ,they all reigned one after the other through a period of thirty-three years4 ,the last of them1 ,pitzamuka1 was the youngest4 ,during his reign a gang of robbers desolated the country of ,magatha4 ,on a certain day a man named ,ouggasena1 having fallen in with that gang1 inquired of them what pursuit they followed in order to obtain their livelihood4 ,they plainly told him that they knew nothing about the tillage of the fields1 and were unacquainted with the business of trade2 they had no other way left for maintaining themselves but to seize by force whatever they chanced to meet4 ,ouggasena1 taken up with the boldness of these desperadoes1 offered to join their company with his eight brothers4 ,the offer was gladly accepted4 ,it happened afterwards that in one of their depredatory expeditions their chief was slain4 ,ouggasena was appointed by common consent to take his place4 ,being of a bold and lofty daring1 he said to his associates3 8,friends1 it does not suit brave and enterprising men as you are to confine your attacks to petty villages and small towns3 you ought to aim higher40 ,he then represented to them in forcible language that ,king ,pitzamuka was deficient in courage1 and neglected entirely the duties of a king4 8,the moment is favourable10 added he1 8to attack ,pataliputra itself40 ,his opinion was universally accepted4 ,the king1 fonder of pleasure than of business1 offered little resistance4 ,he was killed at the taking of his capital1 and ,ouggasena sat on the throne1 under the name of ,ouggasena-nanda4 ,he was succeeded by his eight brothers4 ,they reigned successively during the short period of twenty-two years4 ,the last of them was called ,dzananda4 ,these princes were not followers of ,buddha1 but they supported the party of the pounhas1 to which they adhered4 ,their generosity towards the pounhas was very great4 ,they fed daily a great number of them in their own palace4 ,among the pounhas who were maintained by the king's liberality1 there was one named ,dzanecka1 who was much versed in the science of astrology4 ,being once in the country1 he saw in himself certain signs indicating that one day he would become a king4 ,having communicated this intelligence to his mother1 she wisely advised him to ignore such dangerous signs1 which would inevitably bring the king's anger upon him1 and expose him to great perils4 ,dzanecka was wise enough to comply with his mother's wishes4 ,on a certain day ,dzanecka returned to ,pataliputra1 from the country place where his mother lived4 ,on his arrival1 he1 in company with his brethren1 went to the palace to receive alms1 that were to be distributed in the king's presence in a large hall1 fitted for that special purpose4 ,he occupied the foremost rank4 ,the king1 who saw him1 could not help remarking something extraordinary in his person4 ,suspicions arose in his bosom respecting the fidelity of that pounha4 ,he instantly felt angry with him4 ,unable to control his passions1 he ordered one of his officers to turn him out of the palace without giving him anything4 ,the pounha had but to obey the unwelcome summons4 ,stung to the quick by shame and rage1 he rose from his place4 ,when he was just crossing the threshold of the hall's entrance1 he took off his caste's string1 and cut it in pieces2 he likewise broke his mendicant's pot1 and flung all against one post of the door of the hall1 uttering at the same time imprecations1 and praying that the king might never from that day enjoy rest4 ,he ran away as far as he could1 and under a disguise he eluded the pursuit of those that had been sent to arrest him4 ,he escaped into ,tekkaso4 ,there he plotted the destruction of the king4 ,in one of his rambles through the country1 ,dzanecka met by chance a child1 whom he knew to belong to a royal race4 ,he at once adopted him1 and brought him up with the greatest care and attention4 ,it was not long1 however1 ere he found out that the signs prognosticating promotion to royalty were rather doubtful and somewhat insufficient4 ,he could not rely on him for the execution of the important and long-cherished design he had in his heart4 ,he had now to look out for some other one1 who could afford him a greater subject for hope and confidence4 ,chance soon served him admirably well1 to the utmost of his wishes4 ,after the destruction of ,wethalie by ,adzatathat1 the princes that had escaped from the massacre had fled in an eastern direction1 and built a city called ,maurya4 ,new misfortunes having befallen them1 they were obliged to search for safety in precipitate flight4 ,one of the wives of those princes1 being in the family way1 was led to the city of ,pouppaya4 ,having been delivered of a son1 she had the barbarity to order the little creature to be put into a jar1 which was cast in a neighbouring cow-pen4 ,the ,nats watched over the child1 and the bull of the herd1 stationing itself near the infant1 kept1 with his horns and feet1 at a distance any animal that came near4 ,the cow-keeper1 observing what was taking place1 took the child and gave it to his wife ,tsanda to bring him up as if he were their own child4 ,he was called from the name of his adopted parents1 ,tsanda-gutta4 ,when the lad had come to the age to play the cowherd1 he assumed among his fellow-herdsmen all the ways and manners and deportment of a king4 ,he appointed some of them his ministers2 others were invested with other mock dignities4 ,he would sit on a tribunal1 decide small cases1 and strictly enforce the execution of his sentences4 ,the ,pounha ,dzanecka1 who was living in the neighbourhood1 hearing all this1 wished to see the extraordinary boy4 ,he recognised at a glance in the lad the sure signs foreshadowing his coming greatness4 ,he purchased him for the sum of one thousand pieces of silver1 and brought him up along with his other adopted son4 ,each of the boys had a splendid necklace of gold4 ,on a certain day1 ,dzanecka ordered ,pouppata1 for such was the name of the first adopted son1 to take a sword and go to ,tsanda-gutta whilst asleep1 and take from him his necklace of gold1 without1 however1 cutting the thread1 or even unloosing it4 ,pouppata1 agreeably to his father's order1 went near the place where his brother was sleeping4 ,he stood over him1 and examined attentively by what means he could execute his father's order4 ,after many fruitless combinations1 finding it impossible to do so1 he went back to his father and related his disappointment4 ,dzanecka1 without addressing him a word of blame1 remained silent4 ,a few days afterwards1 ,dzanecka called ,tsanda-gutta1 and commissioned him to take a sword1 and during his brother's sleep to steal away from him his gold necklace1 carefully avoiding either to cut the string or to untie it4 ,tsanda-gutta went to the place where his brother was sleeping4 ,after a few moments of reflection1 seeing but one way to obey his father's order1 he cut off at once his brother's head1 and brought entire the necklace of gold1 which he placed at his father's feet4 ,the latter1 without giving a sign of approbation or displeasure1 remained silent4 ,dzanecka gave all his treasures to ,tsanda-gutta4 ,having pointed out to him and minutely explained the course he had to follow for obtaining the high station he was destined to1 the pounha repaired to some other place1 bidding him remember him after he became a king4 ,with the treasures left at his disposal1 ,tsanda-gutta levied men1 and went on from success to success1 until he possessed himself of ,pataliputra and killed ,dananda4 ,he received the water of consecration1 and began his reign in #afc4 ,that monarch seems to have been accustomed to the use of poisons4 ,for it happened that1 on a certain day1 his first queen1 belonging to the ,maurya race1 tasted a mouthful of a dish prepared for the king4 ,this caused her death4 ,at the time of that fatal occurrence she was far advanced in pregnancy4 ,the king1 without a moment's delay1 ordered her belly to be opened2 the infant was taken out and put in the belly of a goat freshly slain4 ,the child lived1 and was called ,bandasura4 ,tsanda-gutta1 after a reign of twenty-four years1 died in #ahg1 and was succeeded by his son ,bandasura1 only sixteen years old4 ,both the father and the son were supporters of the pounhas1 and fed daily an immense number of them in their palace4 ,bandasura reigned twenty-seven years1 that is to say1 until the year #bad4 ,he had altogether #aja sons4 ,his first queen1 called ,damma1 had become the mother of two sons1 called ,athoka and ,teissa4 ,when she was pregnant of the first1 she had five dreams3 ,first1 she thought she was stretching her two feet1 one resting on the sun1 and the other on the moon2 second1 it appeared to her that she was devouring the stars2 third1 she fancied she was eating the clouds2 fourth1 she imagined she was eating the worms' dunghills2 fifth and finally1 she imagined she was eating the leaves of all the trees4 ,according to the prediction of the soothsayers1 the five dreams meant that the son whom she had in her womb would rule over the whole of the island of ,tsampoudipa2 that he would destroy all his brothers1 who would unite to dispute the throne with him2 that he would disperse all the heretics or upholders of false tenets1 who1 like clouds1 obscure the glory of religion2 that he would possess all above the earth to the height of one youdzana1 and all below the earth to an equal depth4 ,when ,athoka was sixteen years old1 his father sent him to ,outzeni to govern that city1 and the territories annexed to it4 ,on his way to that city1 ,athoka had to pass through ,wedika1 distant fifty youdzanas from ,pataliputra1 in an eastern direction4 ,the town had been founded by the princes of ,kapilawot1 when that city had been almost destroyed in the days of ,buddha4 ,in that place he married the daughter of a rich man1 named ,dewa4 ,after his arrival at ,outzeni1 ,athoka's wife presented him first with a son1 who was named ,maheinda1 and subsequently with a daughter1 called ,seingamitta4 ,athoka remained nine years at ,outzeni4 ,at the end of that period1 hearing that his father lay dangerously ill1 he hastened to ,pataliputra1 to assist him and render all the services dictated by filial love4 ,on his return1 having to pass through ,wedika1 he left in that place his wife and his two children4 ,a little while after his arrival at his father's capital1 the king breathed his last1 and ,athoka was proclaimed king4 ,the new monarch1 however1 found himself soon surrounded by many enemies4 ,with the exception of ,teissa1 who was born from the same mother1 all his brothers conspired against him4 ,the oldest of all1 named ,thoumana1 was the originator and leader of the rebellion4 ,after a protracted struggle1 ,athoka's good fortune prevailed4 ,his rebellious brother ,thoumana was overcome and made a prisoner2 soon after1 he was put to death4 ,the same sad and cruel fate befel the other ninety-eight brothers4 ,but it took three years before ,athoka could free himself from all his enemies4 ,on the fourth year after his accession to the throne1 that is to say1 in #bah1 he received the royal consecration1 and in honour of his mother took the name of ,dammathoka4 ,he obtained a universal sway all over ,dzampoudipa4 ,up to the period of his consecration1 ,athoka had always favoured the pounhas4 ,in imitation of his father's conduct1 he fed daily an immense number of them in his palace4 ,they all dressed in white clothes4 ,it was only after he had received the royal consecration that he became a convert to ,buddhism1 through the instrumentality of his own nephew1 the ,rahan ,nigrauda4 ,a few particulars respecting this celebrated religious may not be unacceptable to the reader4 ,after ,thoumana's death1 his wife ,thoumana-dewi was near the moment of her confinement4 ,under disguise1 she contrived to baffle the snares of her husband's enemies and elude their pursuit4 ,she went to the neighbourhood of the village of ,dountsanka1 a little distant from ,pataliputra in an eastern direction1 and rested under a banyan tree4 ,a small shed was provided for her1 and the head man of the village1 who looked upon her as his daughter1 supplied her with food4 ,she was delivered of a son1 whom she named ,nigrauda4 ,when he was about seven years old he was confided to the care of the venerable ,varuna1 who instructed him in his monastery1 and taught him the ,kamatan4 ,he became a religious1 and was made a patzin4 ,the monastery of the venerable ,varuna was not very distant from the southern gate of the city4 ,on a certain day the young religious ,nigrauda rose up at an early hour1 and having paid his respects to his great instructor1 put on his cloak1 and1 taking under his arm the mendicant's pot1 left his monastery1 entered the city by the southern gate1 and shaped his course towards the eastern one1 with the intention of going to visit his mother4 ,at that very moment ,king ,athoka was standing over the lion's gate of his palace enjoying the cool of the morning breeze4 ,he saw the young religious passing with a grave and steady step4 ,all was graceful and dignified in his deportment4 ,a placid joy1 a serene modesty1 and a majestic appearance beautified his countenance to such an extent that1 at the first look1 the king felt an irresistible affection for the young ,samane4 ,without a moment's delay he despatched an officer to call him4 ,with a kind and affectionate tone the king invited him to ascend the steps of his palace1 and insisted on serving him with his meal4 ,when the repast was over1 ,athoka said3 8,young ,samane1 do you know well all the doctrines taught by your instructor80 8,i am somewhat acquainted with them10 replied ,nigrauda modestly4 8,if such be the case1 will you be pleased to explain them to me80 ,he then said in reply3 8,he who is diligent in practising the duties that procure merits enjoys true happiness2 he shall be exempt from death4 ,he who neglects the duties that procure merits is unhappy1 and is in a state of death40 ,the king1 delighted with the instruction delivered to him by the young ,samane1 offered him several presents suitable to the religious profession4 ,but ,nigrauda would not accept them1 except in the name and for the benefit of his instructor2 because it was he who had the charge of teaching people to avoid evil1 to do good1 and to practise the religious duties4 ,as to him1 he was but a disciple4 ,athoka was greatly pleased with the modesty and disinterestedness of the young ,samane4 ,on other occasions the king sent for ,nigrauda1 and heard his instructions with such a good result that he gradually became a perfect convert4 ,by the advice of his spiritual guide1 ,athoka made daily presents to a certain number of religious of the ,buddhistic persuasion4 ,the number of the religious who every day attended the court to receive presents gradually swelled to the amount of #fj1jjj4 ,nigrauda instructed his royal pupil on the three ,saranans and the five precepts4 ,he infused into his soul a tender love for ,buddha and his religion4 ,the great change in the king's dispositions happened on the fourth year after his coronation4 ,up to that time he had favoured the party of the pounhas1 as his father and grandfather had done4 ,he was in the habit of daily affording food and maintenance to sixty thousand pounhas wearing the white dress4 ,not satisfied with the liberal offerings of every day1 the king said to the ,rahans3 8,my intention is to build a great number of dzedis in all the cities of ,dzampoudipa4 ,but where are to be found the relics of the most excellent ,buddha1 that they may be divided and enshrined in the principal dzedis80 ,by his order the relics were searched for in every direction4 ,the dzedis already built in ,wethalie1 ,kapilawot1 ,allakappa1 ,pawa1 and ,koutheinaron were all demolished4 ,an exception was made in favour of the dzedi in the village of ,rama4 ,the ,nagas1 guardians of the place1 would not allow that monument to be touched4 ,in vain did the workmen strive with pickaxes to demolish the dzedi4 ,their instruments broke in pieces as soon as they came in contact with the building4 ,but in none of them could the precious deposit be found4 ,the king commanded that the demolished sacred monuments should be rebuilt precisely in the same shape and form as they stood previously4 ,athoka1 disappointed but undismayed by his want of success1 directed his steps towards ,radzagio1 and resolved not to relax in his exertions until he had found the precious object of his eager desires4 ,having arrived at that place1 he assembled all the ,rahans and people1 and inquired if there was no person who could lead him in the way to discover the relics4 ,in the crowd there was a ,rahan one hundred and twenty years old1 who said that when he was a ,samane about seven years old1 his superior directed him to take some flowers and perfumes1 and1 leading him to a retired place1 said to him1 8,you see that dark bush in the middle of which there is a small stone dzedi2 let us prostrate ourselves before it and make our offering40 ,when this was done he added with a solemn tone of voice1 8,young ,samane1 observe well this spot1 and ever remember it40 ,he said nothing more1 and we returned to our home4 8,this is doubtless10 said the king1 8the very spot ,i am searching after1 without having ever been able hitherto to discover it40 ,the king and his people hastened to the indicated place4 ,great offerings were made to the guardian ,nat in order to propitiate him4 ,the ,nat1 assuming the shape of a young man1 removed all the obstacles that obstructed the way to the place4 ,when the king was near the first door1 he discovered the ruby whereupon was seen the above-related inscription4 ,on touching the bolt the door was suddenly opened1 when1 to the great surprise of all present1 the lamps that had been lighted two hundred and eighteen years ago were found burning and full of oil2 the flowers1 without the least sign of withering1 were as fresh and beautiful as those in the gardens2 the smell of the perfumes seemed to be even more exquisite than that of new ones4 ,the king1 taking the gold leaf1 read the inscription concerning him4 ,he took all the relics1 except a few that he left therein1 replaced and arranged everything as he had found it4 ,the finding of the relics happened in #bah4cc ,all that has been herein above related respecting the partition of the relics by ,dauna1 c41 has been extracted from the book called ,nibana ,thoot4 ,but he who wishes to know all the particulars concerning the places where the relics have been deposited1 c41 must have recourse to the books called ,data ,win and ,nalatadata ,win4 ,on a certain day a likeness of ,buddha was placed before the eyes of ,athoka4 ,the king was delighted with it4 ,he wished to multiply the number of statues1 so that they could be seen in every part of his dominions4 ,he gave orders for the building of monasteries in the #hd1jjj towns of his immense dominions4 ,this happened in #bbj of the religious era4 ,it was but three years afterwards1 that is to say1 in #bbc1 that the dedication or consecration of the dzedis took place1 in which portions of the relics were to be enshrined4 ,throughout his realm the king issued a proclamation inviting all the people to attend to the observance of the eight precepts4 ,the royal mandate was duly attended to1 and the religious festival celebrated with the greatest solemnity4 ,on that occasion the king made abundant donations to the religious1 and strove to display his zeal for the promotion of religion4 ,delighted with all that he had done1 the king said to the venerable ,mauggalipata3 8,i have endeavoured to labour for the exaltation of religion by every means in my power4 ,i have built religious monuments through the length and breadth of my dominions2 ,i have made offerings on the grandest scale4 ,may ,i now consider myself as entitled to the inheritance of religion80 ,the venerable ,mauggalipata replied3 8,great prince1 you have indeed done much towards the advancement of the good cause4 ,but something else more excellent still is to be performed that you may acquire a right to the inheritance of religion40 8,what is that80 asked the king4 8,it is most perfect and meritorious10 replied ,mauggalipata1 8that you should consecrate your son ,maheinda and your daughter ,singameitta to the service of religion40 ,athoka immediately asked his son1 who was eighteen years old1 whether he would like to become a religious4 ,maheinda answered in the affirmative4 ,he was forthwith ordained ,samane4 ,mauggalipata acted on the occasion as president1 and ,mahadewana as master of the ceremonies4 ,singameitta was similarly ordained4 ,the president was ,dammapata1 and the person acting in the ceremony was ,oopali4 ,this happened in #bbc4 ,maheinda learned the ,pitagat under the immediate superintendence and tuition of ,mauggalipata himself4 ,his proficiency both in the study of religious science and in the practice of virtue was so great that his teacher placed him at the head of a thousand ,rahans1 whom he was commissioned to instruct4 ,the great liberality of the king towards the ,buddhists1 the efforts that he made for the promotion of the new religion he had embraced1 alarmed those who belonged to the opposite party4 ,the pounhas saw themselves without support1 and unable to provide for their maintenance4 ,they had recourse to the following expedient to secure their livelihood1 and also a well-concerted plan to weaken their enemies4 ,they all assumed the yellow dress1 entered into the ,buddhistic monasteries1 and affected to be converts1 without being so in reality4 ,they retained their own opinions1 and even as regards regulations they refused to comply with some of the ordinances of the ,wini4 ,some of them fed large fires2 others exposed themselves to various degrees of excessive heat2 others affected the mania of fixing their eyes upon the sun in the morning1 and following it in its course during the whole day4#cd ,many appeared to lay little stress on several portions of the ,pitagat4 ,as a matter of course1 the true religious were much scandalised at such a conduct1 and refused to hold communion with them on the days of worship4 ,this state of things1 after having lasted seven years1 produced an irritation that could be no longer tolerated4 ,mauggalipata1 disgusted at such a perturbation1 left ,maheinda at the head of the community1 and withdrew to the ,ahan ,ginga mountain to enjoy some tranquillity4 ,king ,athoka was informed of the prevailing disorder4 ,with the view of pacifying the inmates of the monasteries1 he sent an officer of his household with stringent orders to oblige the two parties to come to an understanding1 to communicate with each other1 and to worship in common on the festival days4 ,the officer went to one of the monasteries1 explained the royal order1 and drew his sword1 threatening to cut off the head of the first ,rahan who would dare to offer opposition4 ,one of the orthodox party came forward1 and having explained the true state of things1 concluded by firmly stating that he would not hold communion with heretics4 ,the officer in vain expostulated1 and entreated the religious not to be so tenacious in his views1 but rather to show a willingness to obey the king's orders1 for the sake of peace4 ,the latter persisted in his refusal4 ,the officer1 carried away by passion1 struck off the head of the refractory ,rahan4 ,an immense uproar followed this tragical occurrence4 ,all hopes of bringing about a pacification were then at an end4 ,the officer withdrew from the monastery1 and related to the king all the particulars as they had occurred4 ,athoka bitterly deplored the murder that had been committed on a saintly personage1 and reproached the officer with having outstepped the orders he had received4 ,his religious feelings were grievously hurt1 and his conscience greatly alarmed4 ,he sent for several religious1 and consulted them as to whether he was responsible for the murder committed by his officer4 ,the spiritual advisers did not agree in their decision4 ,some of them were of opinion that the king was answerable for the doing of his messenger2 others declared that the king1 having given no order to the effect of using violence1 the officer alone was responsible for the murder4 ,such conflicting opinions increased the king's perplexities1 and threw him in a state of great anxiety and uneasiness4 ,some courtiers1 grieved at the sadness which overspread their master's mind1 advised him to send for the celebrated ,mauggalipata1 and abide by the decision of that eminent man1 whose knowledge was unsurpassed4 ,the king gladly accepted the proposal4 ,a messenger with a great retinue was at first sent to the place of ,mauggalipata4 ,the king's desires were respectfully explained4 ,but the old ascetic refused to quit his abode of peace4 ,a second messenger was despatched1 but with no better success4 ,at last a third one was sent on the same errand1 with several religious4 ,the latter1 who knew the great zeal of ,mauggalipata for promoting the cause of religion1 represented to him the imminent dangers religion was threatened with1 and entreated him to come1 and by his presence save it from an approaching ruin4 ,on hearing this sad news the old man no longer hesitated4 ,he immediately left his abode1 went in the boat prepared for him1 and gently sailed down the mighty stream to ,pataliputra4 ,the news of his coming down was spread in a moment4 ,when the boat was reported to be near the city1 the king1 with his whole court1 hastened to the banks of the ,ganges4 ,on her nearing the bank1 ,athoka went knee-deep into the stream1 and helping the venerable ,mauggalipata with his royal hand out of the boat1 led him into a garden1 where a suitable place had been prepared for his residence4 ,there he sat at his feet1 and rendered to him the same humble services which a disciple is wont to tender to his teacher4 ,the king1 anxious to alleviate his scruples and relieve his much-troubled conscience1 related the particulars of the case of the ,rahan's murder1 and concluded by asking whether he was to be considered as responsible for the death of the religious4 ,mauggalipata said1 8,o king1 had you1 when you despatched the officer1 the intention of having any refractory ,rahan put to death80 8,no10 replied the king4 8,since you gave no such order to your officer1 and you had no intention that any disobedience to your orders should be visited with capital punishment1 the murder of the religious can in no way be imputed unto you1 because intention is the thing that makes actions good or bad1 and entails merits or sin on the perpetrator40 ,athoka recovered at once his peace and tranquillity of mind4 ,meanwhile he entreated the venerable ,mauggalipata to labour for the extinction of schism and the exaltation of religion4 ,seven days after the arrival of the great religious1 a vast hall was erected in the grove where ,mauggalipata was living4 ,at the end of it a fine pavilion made of cloth of various and bright colours was prepared for the accommodation of the monarch4 ,each religious had then to be examined separately in the presence of ,mauggalipata on the doctrines and practices he held as genuine and good4 ,those whose doctrines and observances were found to be at variance with the ,pitagat were expelled from the assembly1 stripped of the canonical robe1 and compelled to resume the white dress1 that is to say1 the one befitting the pounhas4 ,the presence of the king silenced all murmurs1 and rendered any attempt at resistance impossible4 ,in this manner the orthodox ,rahans were separated from the heterodox ones4 ,to heal the wounds inflicted on religion by schism1 to restore purity of doctrine1 and confirm the genuineness of the canon of scriptures1 such as had been done by ,kathaba in the first council1 and by ,ratha in the second one1 ,mauggalipata1 with the concurrence of the pious ,dammathoka1 resolved to hold a third council4 ,from the ,rahans then present at ,palibotra he selected a thousand1 and with them he regulated the ,pitagat4 ,the council was opened in the year #bce1 and ended in #bcf to #cjg ,b4,c4 ,it was presided over by ,mauggalipata1 who was seventy-two years old4#ce ,at the conclusion of the council1 the president1 who was acknowledged the head of the ,buddhists1 thought of extending the sway of the new religion through the whole of ,dzampoudipa4 ,hitherto it had been confined within the limits of ,magatha4 ,now the time had come to extend it far and wide among the nations and tribes of the whole world4 ,to carry out such a bold and comprehensive plan1 ,mauggalipata made an appeal to the ablest and most zealous members of the council1 and charged a certain number of them to go and preach the true law in the countries beyond the boundaries of ,magatha4 ,the venerable ,mitzaganti with four companions1 was directed to proceed to the country of ,kashmera-gandara4 ,rewati was ordered to go to ,mahithakan-pantala4 ,gaunaka-damma ,reckita went to ,aparanta4 ,maha-damma ,reckita was sent to the ,mahrata country4 ,damma ,reckita received a mission to proceed to ,yaunaka1 which is the country inhabited by the ,pantsays4 ,the venerable ,mitzi directed his steps1 in company with several brethren1 towards some parts in the ,himalayas4 ,thauna and ,outtara proceeded in a south-eastern direction to the country of ,souwana-boumi4 ,finally ,maheinda1 ,ittia1 ,outtia1 ,thamala1 and ,baddathala went to establish religion into the island of ,tappapani 7,ceylon74#cf ,great success attended the preachings of the ,buddhist heralds4 ,if credit can be given to all that is related in the books on this subject1 religion must have taken deep root in the heart of the people dwelling in those distant lands4 ,as regards ,ceylon1 there is an important fact to be stated4 ,it appears that until the year of religion #ded1 the knowledge of the ,pitagat was transmitted by means of oral tradition4 ,the heads of monasteries required from their pupils to know the whole collection by heart4 ,it is probable that one portion of the scriptures was learned by one section of the community1 and another by another4 ,in this manner the whole ,pitagat was known in each monastery1 and could be rehearsed in full by the inmates4 ,this state of things lasted two hundred years4 ,the great inconvenience necessarily attending it was soon felt so keenly that some means had to be devised in order to render the study of the sacred books surer and easier4 ,in the reign of ,king ,watakamani five hundred religious assembled in the village of ,mallaya1 and wrote the whole ,pitagat in ,sanscrit1 and with the ,sanscrit characters4 ,under the reign of that monarch a great dearth prevailed all over the island4 ,numerous ,buddhist religious crossed over to the continent1 and established religion in many parts of the southern portion of the peninsula4 ,that prince also built the famous ,bayagiri monastery4 ,with the ,mahawihara already existing1 and the ,dzetawon monastery subsequently erected1 there sprung up three distinct schools4 ,the latter was erected in #haa1 in the time of ,king ,mathena of ,ceylon4 ,but the teaching of the ,mahawihara was the only one truly orthodox4 ,after a protracted existence1 they were all merged in the ,mahawihara school1 under the reign of ,thiri ,singa-bodiparanna-maba1 in the year of the ,pouppa-dzau era 7,pagan era71 #ebb2 of religion1 #agad to #aafa ,a4,d4 ,the venerable ,thauna and ,outtara of the pounha race came to the district of ,thaton1#cg which is called ,souwana-boumi1 in the country of ,ramagnia1 for the purpose of establishing religion in that distant land1 which lies south-east of ,mitzima4 ,thiri-mathauka was the king who at that time reigned at ,thaton4 ,previous to the arrival of the ,buddhist messengers of peace1 the town was desolated by the ravages of ,biloos1 who1 coming from the sea1 devoured all the newly-born infants4 ,a great consternation and panic had seized the inhabitants when they saw the two strangers1 clothed in yellow robes1 setting their feet upon the shore4 ,they mistook them for monsters of a new description1 who were coming to increase their misfortune4 ,they ran to arms1 and were preparing to attack the two religious4 ,the latter1 perceiving the danger that threatened them1 said with a meek tone of voice to the infuriated mob1 8,why do you attack us8 ,we are not ,biloos1 nor are we come hither with any hostile intention4 ,know ye that we profess a religion which forbids us to take away intentionally the life of even the smallest insect1 to rob1 to commit adultery1 and to use spirituous and intoxicating liquors4 ,by our regulations we are allowed to eat rice but once in a day40 ,on hearing the explanations given by the two strangers1 the people of ,thaton were quieted4 ,they received them with kindness1 and treated them with great respect4 ,by the power inherent in the two religious1 the sea-,biloo was put to flight1 and was seen no longer4 ,the king and the people1 grateful for the service they had received1 and delighted with the new doctrine preached to them1 accepted joyfully the five precepts1 and promised to observe them4 ,an immense number of men and women were converted4 ,among the new converts1 a great many embraced the religious life4 ,king ,thiri-mathauka was informed that1 a little while after ,gaudama's death1 a ,rahan1 named ,gambawatti1 had brought thirty-three teeth of ,buddha1 and deposited them in a dzedi upon the mount ,inda-danoo1 which lies north-east of ,thaton4 ,moreover1 he had heard that after the eighth season1 ,gaudama had gone to ,mitila4 ,whilst he dwelt into that place1 it happened that a certain ,rahan came to remember of some of his relatives whom he had known during a former existence4 ,he saw them living in ,thaton4 ,he then earnestly supplicated his great master to condescend to go to that place and preach the law to his relatives4 ,gaudama1 complying with the request1 resorted thither through the air1 attended by a great retinue4 ,he preached the law1 and previous to his departure1 gave to the ruler of ,thaton eight hairs of his head4 ,relying on the accuracy of the information1 ,thiri-mathauka felt a great desire to find out the precious relics1 in order to have them distributed in eleven towns of ,henzawatti1 in eleven towns of ,kouthein1 and in eleven towns of ,mouttama4 ,these three countries constitute what is called ,ramagnia4 ,all happened agreeably to his wishes4 ,the relics were duly found on mount ,inda-danoo1 in the very dzedi in which they had been enshrined1 and were distributed in the various towns1 as above mentioned4 ,it is probable that there occurred at ,thaton the same curious fact which we know to have taken place in ,ceylon1 viz43 ,religion was propagated at first by the means of oral tradition4 ,the first one who made an attempt to possess himself of a copy of the sacred scriptures was ,buddhagosa1 a religious of ,thaton1 of the pounha race4 ,that man embarked at ,thaton1 which was then on or near the sea4 ,that place is in the ,ramagnia country1 and is inhabited by a people called ,moun4 ,he sailed to ,ceylon in the year of religion #idc1ch under the reign of ,king ,mahanama4 ,he resided three years on that island1 wrote the ,pitagat on palm leaves with the ,burmese characters which was found written in the language and characters of ,ceylon4 ,in another manuscript we read that he translated into ,pali the scriptures which were in the language of ,ceylon4 ,buddhagosa remained three years in ,ceylon1 in order to complete the work he had undertaken4 ,during his stay in that island the people were so much pleased with him that they made him many and costly presents on his leaving their country4 ,he brought over with him to ,souwana-boumi1 which is in the ,ramagnia country1 a complete collection of the scriptures4 ,in or about the year of the ,pagan era #dai1ci the forty-second1 some say1 the forty-fourth king of ,pagan1 named ,anaurata1 having invaded the ,ramagnia country1 possessed himself of the ,moun's territories and entered triumphant into the venerable city of ,thaton4 ,he took away from that place the collection of scriptures brought over from ,ceylon by ,buddhagosa1 as well as the most learned among the ,rahans4 ,with the aid of these distinguished ,rahans1 religion was then firmly established in ,pagan4 ,he became master of the whole of the ,ramagnia country1 which includes ,henzawatti1 ,mouttama1 and ,kouthein4 ,we have alluded briefly to the reconciliation that has taken place in ,ceylon between the three great schools4 ,two of them1 the ,bayagiri and the ,dzetawon1 merged into the great ,mahawihara school1 which had always held up the orthodox doctrines4 ,in the year that followed that event--that is to say1 in the year of religion #agad of the ,pagan's era #ebbdj--many ,rahans1 natives of ,thaton1 ,pagan and other places in ,ramagnia1 attended by a large retinue1 crossed over to ,ceylon for the express purpose of worshipping the relics and the ,bodi tree1 and making themselves perfectly acquainted with the genuine doctrine and discipline4 ,as a matter of course1 they joined the ,mahawihara school4 ,they remained on that island during nearly one year4 ,one of the party1 named ,tsapada1 who was but a young ,samane1 was raised to the dignity of ,patzin1 according to the rules and regulations adopted by the ,mahawihara4 ,the party1 having performed their devotions1 and penetrated themselves with the spirit of the community in which they had spent a year1 returned to their countries4 ,the young religious1 who had been but recently ordained1 applied to his superior and obtained permission to remain behind in ,ceylon for the purpose of studying the ,pitagat and mastering its contents4 ,after ten years of unwearied application he went back with four companions1 named ,maheinda1 ,thiwali1 ,ananda1 and ,rahula4 ,after their landing in the neighbourhood of ,cape ,negrais1 they spent a year in ,kouthein1 and finally reached ,pagan in the eighth year of the reign of ,king ,narapati-sisoo of the ,pagan era #ecd to #aagc ,a4,d4 ,in this manner1 by the exertions of those five religious1 the religion of ,ceylon was firmly established and set up in ,pagan4 ,in this manner the doctrines and institutions preached and set up in ,ceylon by ,maheinda and his companions were blended with the doctrines and institutions which the venerable ,thauna and ,outtara had established in ,thaton4 ,both flourished in ,pagan and were much extended4#da ,the brilliant and glorious reign of ,narapati-sisoo was soon followed by a series of misfortunes1 which contributed to the weakening of his great empire1 and finally brought on its total overthrow4 ,pagan was taken by foreign invaders4 ,in the midst of such calamities three noblemen1 named ,radzasingian1 ,asinkara1 and ,sihasoo1 set themselves up as kings1 the first in ,miyntsain1 the second in ,pekkara1 and the third in ,pinlay1 in the year #ffb to #acja ,a4,d4 ,the ,king of ,miyntsain1 having treacherously enticed ,kiantza1 the king of ,pagan1 to visit him in his new capital1 detained him under various pretexts1 and finally had him murdered4 ,thaunit1 the son of ,kiantza1 hearing of his father's detention1 ascended the throne of ,pagan1 and reigned twenty-two years4 ,he was succeeded by his brother ,mouhnit1 who reigned forty-three years4 ,with him ended the line of ,pagan kings in #gcj to #acfi ,a4,d4 ,sihasoo1 the ,king of ,pinlay1 reigned in that place twelve years1 and in #fhd removed the seat of royalty to ,panya4 ,in that place there were successively five kings1 whose aggregate number of years on the throne amounts to fifteen4 ,one son of ,sihasoo1 named ,athinkara-dzau-goun1 established royalty in ,tsitkain in #fhd to #acbc ,a4,d4 ,under the reign of his son and successor1 named ,thirimega1 a canine tooth of ,gaudama was brought to ,tsitkain4 ,the king had the precious relic placed in a golden casket1 and enshrined in a turret of his palace4 ,he daily worshipped it4 ,thirimega having died1 his two sons ,dzeta and ,tissa quarrelled about the crown4 ,neither of them ever had the title of king2 both of them oppressed the country during nine years4 ,the son of ,dzeta1 named ,budadasa1 became king1 and reigned during twenty-nine years4 ,it was under the reign of that monarch that five venerable religious1 who were well versed in the science of the ,pitagat1 translated the whole compilation1 which was in ,sanscrit1 into the language of ,ceylon 7,pali74#db ,tsitkain ceased to be a royal residence in #gbe to #acfd ,a4,d41 and in the following year the city of ,ava was founded on the sixth of the waxing moon of ,tabaong1 on a ,tuesday at noon1 under the constellation ,pounna-pha-shou4 ,on the following year1 ,mouhnit1 king of ,pagan1 died at the age of sixty-four1 after a reign of forty-three years1 with whom ended the line of the ,pagan monarchs4 ,in the great city of ,ava religion greatly flourished1 and in #aacd to #aggc ,a4,d41 this book was composed#dc in the province of ,dybayen4 ,for the purpose of creating and increasing feelings of affection towards the most excellent ,buddha1#dd who is greater than the three rational beings1 towards his glorious perfections1 as well as the law and the assembly1 ,i have1 to the best of my abilities1 endeavoured to translate from the ,pali into ,burmese the sacred book called ,malla-linkara-wouttoo1 or history of the most excellent flower4 ,,an ,,abstract ,,of ,a ,,few ,,small ,,dzats1 ,,and ,,of ,,two ,,principal ,,ones1 ,,called ,,nemi ,,and ,,dzanecka4 ,the writer has thought that it would not be without interest to the reader to make a few remarks respecting the five hundred and ten ,dzats so famous amongst the ,burmese1 and to give as a specimen of those compositions the abbreviated translation of some of those fabulous accounts4 ,we will begin with a few of the small ,dzats1 and end with the compendious summaries of two of the great ones1 known under the names of ,nemi and ,dzanecka4 ,the ,buddhists of these parts maintain that all the ,dzats contain a short and concise narrative of some of the circumstances attending certain existences of ,gaudama1 when he was born in the state of animal1 man1 prince1 nobleman1 poor1 rich1 ,nat1 c4 ,the narrator is no other than ,gaudama himself1 who is supposed to have condescended to make his disciples and the crowds of hearers acquainted with certain particulars relating to his person whilst he was passing through the slow process of metempsychosis and gradually gravitating towards the perfection he had at last reached4 ,in fact1 each of these pieces is prefaced with these words3 ,when the most excellent ,buddha was in such a monastery1 surrounded with his disciples1 he spoke as follows1 c4 ,it is not improbable that some of these stories may have been told by ,gaudama for the two following purposes3 ,first1 to impress his hearers with a profound respect for his incomparable wisdom1 which enabled him to penetrate into the deep recesses of the past1 and to bring to light some events hitherto buried in its dark bosom4 ,the second and principal object he had in view was to give some important lessons to his disciples1 to correct some of their defects1 and stir up others to the practice of the highest deeds which he had himself performed during former existences4 ,on his respect ,gaudama followed the practice of all ,eastern sages1 who had recourse to the use of parables1 similitudes1 apologues1 c41 in order to convey1 under a gentle1 amiable1 graceful1 and interesting form1 the most important instructions1 designed to enlighten the mind and correct the heart4 ,the collection or compilation comprises most of those fables that are to be met with amongst most of the ,asiatic nations1 whence they have found their way to ,europe1 first among the ,greeks1 and next the ,western nations4 ,the writer has been not a little surprised to find in that collection a number of fables the very same as those so inimitably narrated by the great ,french fabulist1 the good ,la ,fontaine4 ,this is another confirmation to the old adage1 ,there is nothing new under the sun4 ,these stories have certainly an ,indian origin2 at least the ,burmans have received them1 as almost all the things that are connected with their religion1 from that quarter4 ,under despotic governments1 the plain and naked truth cannot show itself1 or make its voice to be heard1 without exposing its friends to the most imminent dangers on the part of those tyrants who practically maintain that their will must ever stand above truth and reason4 ,stories nicely told were the pleasing and innocent but necessary dress which that sacred goddess was obliged to wear in order to make her presence supportable to the despots1 and help her friends to find favour with those whose absolute and uncontrollable sway made everybody bow the head in their awful though detested presence4 ,the first five hundred stories have1 it seems1 no historical value whatever4 ,they are most of them short and concise4 ,but the last ten may very likely contain many facts or allusions to individuals and places that might afford a clue to some parts of the history and geography of ,india in days of a remote antiquity4 ,a complete translation of the ten ,dzats might not be without interest1 provided such a work be accompanied with copious notes1 made by a competent person1 well acquainted with the ancient history of ,india4 ,all the stories end with a most important disclosure made by ,gaudama himself4 ,the personage that has played the most important and praiseworthy rle is1 as a matter of course1 our ,buddha himself4 ,those who befriended him1 assisted him1 and rendered him any services1 are those who subsequently became his favourite and most distinguished disciples and hearers2 whilst those who acted in any reprehensible manner1 who opposed him and did him harm1 afterwards became the individuals who were in his days heretics or holders of false doctrines1 and in particular his arch enemy1 the notoriously wicked ,dewadat4 ,the compilation of all these stories is prefaced as follows3--,in the country of ,amarawadi lived a pounha named ,thoumeda4 ,after the death of his father he became the owner of a considerable estate4 ,having enjoyed it during many years1 he began to reflect on the many and various accidents attending human life1 and came to the resolution of leaving the world4 ,he therefore distributed in alms all his riches1 and withdrew into solitude1 to lead an ascetic life4 ,he soon reached a high degree of perfection4 ,at that time ,deipinkara1 one in the series of the twenty-eight ,buddhas1 came to that country1 attended by #djj1jjj ,rahans1 to beg his food4 ,our ,rathee ,thoumeda1 having nothing to offer to the great ,buddha and the assembly1 came1 threw himself at his feet1 and delivered himself up soul and body to his service4 ,in another compilation it is stated that ,thoumeda had volunteered his services to level a portion of a road that ,deipinkara was to follow4 ,the work was finished1 with the exception of a small gap that was not yet filled1 when the ,buddha made his appearance4 ,the hermit1 without a moment's hesitation1 flung himself on the ground1 and bridged the place with his own body4 ,it was at the sight of such a perfect abnegation of self that ,buddha gave to ,thoumeda the assurance that one day he would become a ,buddha4 ,on that occasion great wonders took place4 ,from that time he began to practise with a fervent earnestness the great virtues and perfections prescribed by the law4 ,the whole period of time that elapsed from the time ,gaudama was the pounha ,thoumeda to the time he became ,prince ,wethandara--that is to say1 reached that existence which immediately preceded the last one1 when he became ,buddha--is of four thingies and one hundred thousand worlds or revolutions of nature4 ,a detailed account of the most meritorious and interesting actions performed by him during several existences that illustrated that almost incalculable period is to be found in the great dzedi of ,ceylon4 ,the accounts must be short and concise1 otherwise the dzedi above referred to1 how large soever we may suppose it to have been1 could never have held them4 ,,the ,,fox ,,and ,,the ,,lion4 #a4 ,when the most excellent ,buddha was in the ,dzetawon monastery1 surrounded by his disciples1 desiring to correct a religious who was in the habit of keeping bad company1 he narrated the following story3 ,at the time that the ,princes ,bramanas reigned at ,baranathee1 ,phralaong was then a lion1 father to two little ones1 one male and the other female4 ,the first was named ,menandza4 ,the lion's household1 when ,menandza was grown up and had married1 was composed in all of five individuals4 ,menandza1 strong and bold1 went out every day in quest of prey for the support of his four relations that remained in the den4 ,one day1 in the middle of one of his predatory excursions1 he happened to meet with a fox1 which was lying on his belly1 in a most respectful posture4 ,on being asked by the proud lion1 with a terrific voice1 heightened by a threatening glance1 what he was doing1 the fox respectfully answered3 8,i am humbly prostrated here to do homage and pay my respects to your majesty40 8,well10 said ,menandza2 and he took him alive to his den4 ,as soon as the father saw the fox1 he said to his son3 8,my son1 the fox is an animal full of cunning and deceit1 faithless1 without honour1 addicted to all wicked practices1 and always engaged and embroiled in some bad affairs2 be on your guard2 beware of such a companion1 and forthwith send him away40 ,unheeding his father's wise advice1 ,menandza persisted in his resolution1 and kept his new friend with him4 ,on a certain day the fox intimated to ,menandza that he longed to eat the flesh of a young colt4 8,where is the place these animals are wont to graze80 asked ,menandza4 8,on the banks of the river of ,baranathee10 replied the fox4 ,both started immediately for the indicated spot4 ,they saw there a great number of horses bathing in the river4 ,menandza1 in an instant1 pounced upon a young one1 and carried it to his den4 8,it is not prudent10 said the old father1 8to eat those animals which belong to the king4 ,one day he will cause you to be shot from a distance with arrows1 and kill you4 ,no lion that eats horse-flesh has ever lived long4 ,from this day cease to attack those animals40 ,deaf to such wholesome warnings1 ,menandza continued to carry destruction among the horses4 ,news was soon conveyed to the king that a lion and a fox were making great havoc among his horses4 ,he ordered the animals to be kept within the town4 ,the lion1 however1 contrived to seize some and carry them away4 ,orders were given to keep them in an enclosure4 ,despite this precaution1 some horses disappeared4 ,enraged at this1 the king called a bowman and asked him whether he could transfix a lion with his arrows4 ,the bowman said that he could do it4 ,hereupon1 leaving the king1 he went and hid himself behind a post1 waiting for the offender4 ,it was not long ere he made his appearance2 but the cautious fox had remained somewhat to the rear1 hidden in a drain4 ,in one start1 the lion1 with the quickness of lightning1 was on the wall1 and straightway he went to the stable4 ,the bowman said within himself3 8,the lion's movements are very quick2 ,i will wait until he come back loaded with his prey40 ,he had scarcely revolved this thought in his mind1 when the lion was already on his way back carrying a horse4 ,the bowman1 all ready1 shot an arrow that transfixed the fierce animal4 ,the lion made a start1 crying with a terrific voice1 8,i am wounded40 ,the fox1 hearing his friend's accents1 and the sharp whistling of the bow-string1 knew at once what had happened4 ,he said to himself1 shaking his head3 8,there is no friendship1 forsooth1 with the dead2 my friend has fallen under the bowman's arrow2 my life is safe2 ,i will go back to my former place40 ,the wounded lion1 making a last effort1 went back to his den1 and dropped dead at its entrance4 ,menandza's relatives1 perceiving the wound and the blood gushing out of it1 understood at once that he had been shot through with an arrow1 and that the fox was the cause of his miserable and untimely end4 ,his mother gave vent to her grief as follows3 8,whoever associates with the wicked shall not live long2 behold my ,menandza is no more1 because he followed the fox's advice40 ,the father1 in his turn1 bewailed the loss of his son3 8,he who goes in company with the wicked shall meet with some evil fate2 witness my son1 whom his desolate mother sees weltering in the very blood she gave him40 ,his sister cried aloud3 8,he who does not follow the advice of the good shall repent of it2 he is mad1 and1 like my brother1 shall come to an untimely and cruel end40 ,menandza's wife exclaimed3 8,he who belongs to a superior rank ought to beware to associate with those of a rank inferior to his own1 otherwise he soon becomes as despicable as those he associates with4 ,he loses his position1 and becomes the laughing-stock of all40 ,buddha concluded his discourse with this reflection1 that no one ought to keep company with those that are wicked and of an inferior position4 ,the religious profited so well by the lecture that he broke at once with his former friends1 and soon reached the state of ,thautapan4 ,the fox has been since ,dewadat1 ,menandza1 the religious1 the object of the lecture1 ,menandza's sister1 ,oopalawon2 his wife1 ,kema2 his mother1 ,yathaudara2 his father1 ,phralaong4 ,,the ,,jackal ,,and ,,the ,,hunter4 #b4 ,when the most excellent ,phra was in the ,weloowon monastery1 alluding to ,dewadat1 who aimed at harming him1 he spoke as follows3 8,at the time the ,princes ,bramanas reigned at ,baranathee1 ,phralaong was then a jackal1 presiding over #ejj other jackals of his own tribe4 ,his dwelling-place was in a cemetery4 ,one day it happened that the inhabitants of ,radzagio made a great feast1 where every one ate and drank as much as he liked4 ,the repast was nearly over when some one asked for a last piece of meat1 to give the finishing-stroke to his appetite4 ,he was told that not the smallest morsel remained4 ,on hearing this unwelcome news1 he rose up1 laying hold of a wooden club1 and went straight to the cemetery4 ,then stretching himself on the ground1 he lay down as if dead4 ,phralaong1 cautiously drawing near to the pretended dead body1 smelt it from a becoming distance1 and soon discovered the snare laid for him4 ,coming up close to him1 he suddenly seized the club with his teeth1 pulling it with all his might4 ,the young man did not let go his hold4 ,the animal1 withdrawing1 said to the hunter3 8,young man1 ,i perceive now that you are not dead40 ,the hunter1 goaded with shame and anger1 rose up1 and with more energy than dexterity flung his club at the jackal2 but he missed him4 8,go away10 said he1 8wretched beast2 you may boast that you have escaped this time40 8,yes10 mildly replied the jackal2 8,i have been saved from your club2 but no one shall ever be able to preserve you from the punishment in the eight great hells40 ,having thus spoken1 he soon disappeared4 ,the young man1 having washed away in the ditch the dust that covered him1 walked back1 quite disappointed1 into the town4 ,the hunter was the same that subsequently became ,dewadat4 ,as to the jackal1 he is the same that has since become ,buddha4 ,,the ,,pigeon ,,and ,,the ,,hunter4 #c4 ,when ,phra was in the ,dzetawon monastery1 desiring to give instruction to the young son of a nobleman1 named ,ootara1 he spoke as follows4 ,at the time the ,princes ,bramanas reigned at ,baranathee1 ,phralaong was a pigeon4 ,there was then a man in that country who was wont to catch pigeons1 bring them to his house1 and carefully feed them until they became fat1 when he then sold them at a high rate4 ,together with other pigeons1 ,phralaong was caught and brought over to the house4 ,but he would not peck the grain that was spread before him4 8,should ,i eat10 said he to himself1 8,i will soon get fat1 and then be sold like others40 ,he soon became wretchedly thin4 ,surprised at this1 the hunter took the pigeon out of the cage1 placed it on the palm of his hand to examine it more closely and find the cause of its great leanness4 ,phralaong1 watching the opportunity of a favourable moment when the attention of his guardian was called to some other object1 flew away to his own old place1 leaving the hunter quite vexed at and ashamed of his confiding simplicity4 ,the hunter is in these days ,dewadat2 and the pigeon is now ,buddha himself4 ,here is the abridgment of two stories1 well known to the readers of fables4 #d4 ,when ,phralaong was a deer1 he became intimate friend with the bird khaoukshia and a turtle4 ,on a certain night it happened that a hunter having laid down his net1 the deer was caught4 ,a tortoise that was near to the place came and bit the net2 the deer then soon made his escape from the dangerous position he was in4 ,whilst this was going on the friendly khaoukshia1 perceiving the danger his friend was in1 amused the hunter by flying right and left close to him1 to retard his progress towards the place where the net was laid4 ,mad at the escape of the deer1 he seized the turtle and thrust her into his bag4 ,but the wily bird contrived by its peckings to make a large hole in the bag1 and the tortoise too made her escape4 #e4 ,one day ,phralaong1 being then a husbandman1 observed once1 to his great surprise1 that a lion of an uncommon size paid frequent visits to his rice field1 and ate and destroyed many of the young plants4 ,on a certain occasion he examined closely the intruder1 and perceiving the extremities of his feet1 he discovered that the pretended lion was but a colt that had clothed himself in a lion's skin4 ,,nemi4 ,when the most excellent ,buddha was in the country of ,mitila1 he went1 attended by a great many ,rahans1 to the monastery of ,meggadawa1 situated in the middle of a beautiful grove of mango trees4 ,he spoke as follows to the assembly3 8,beloved ,bickus1 in former times ,i lived in this very place where we are now congregated1 and was the ruler of the country of ,mitila40 ,he then remained silent4 ,ananda respectfully entreated him to condescend to narrate to them some of the principal events that happened at that time4 ,buddha assented to the request1 and said3 8,formerly there reigned at ,mitila a prince named ,minggadewa4 ,during #hb1jjj years he remained a prince1 and spent all his time in the enjoyment of all sorts of pleasure2 he was crown prince of that country during the same space of time1 and reigned as king during a similar period40 ,on a certain day the barber of the king having detected a grey hair on the royal head1 exhibited it to his astonished regards4 ,the king1 struck at such a sight1 soon understood that this object was the forerunner of death4 ,he gave up the throne1 and resolved to become a ,rahan4 ,having put into execution his resolve1 he practised with the greatest zeal the highest virtues1 and after his death migrated to one of the fortunate seats of ,brahmas4 ,the #hb1jjj princes who succeeded him followed his footsteps1 inherited his virtues1 and after their demise obtained a place in the same seat4 ,prince ,minggadewa1 who had opened the way to such a succession of pious monarchs1 perceiving that his race was near being extinct1 left the seat of ,brahmas and took flesh in the womb of the queen of the king who then governed ,mitila4 ,on the tenth month the queen was delivered of a son1 who received the name of ,nemi4 ,the pounhas who were invited to the palace to tell the horoscope of the royal child assured the king that this child would follow the example of all his predecessors who had left the throne and embraced the profession of ,rahans4 ,from his tender age the young prince displayed the most liberal and pious dispositions in making abundant alms1 and fervently observing all the religious practices4 ,all the inhabitants of that kingdom followed his example1 and when some one died1 he migrated to one of the ,nats' seats4 ,during those happy times1 hell seemed to have become quite unnecessary4 ,on a certain day ,nemi appeared to be most anxious to know which was the most excellent practice1 the bestowing of alms1 or the observance of the precepts4 ,the great ,thagia came down from his glorious seat1 encompassed with an incomparably shining brightness1 and went to the place where the prince was busy revolving this thought in his mind4 ,the angelical visitor told him that the bestowing of alms could only procure an admittance into the seats of ,nats1 but that a perfect compliance with the ordinances of the law opened the way to the seats of ,brahmas4 ,as soon as he had given his decision1 he returned to his blissful seat4 ,on his arrival he found crowds of ,nats given up to rejoicings4 ,the ,thagia gave them a detailed narrative of all that he had seen on earth during his errand1 and in particular eulogised at great length the religious dispositions of ,prince ,nemi4 ,enraptured with the heart-moving description they heard1 all the ,nats at once exclaimed that they wished to see in their seats so accomplished and virtuous a prince4 ,the ,thagia commanded a young ,nat1 named ,matali1 to have his carriage ready1 depart for the country of ,mitila1 and bring to this fortunate seat the ruler of that country4 ,matali1 bowing before the ,thagia1 forthwith left the seat of ,nats in a magnificent chariot4 ,it was then the day of the full moon1 when all the inhabitants of ,mitila were busily engaged in discharging their prescribed religious duties4 ,on a sudden there appeared1 issuing from the east1 the magnificent and bright equipage of the ,nat1 splendidly emerging from the bosom of clouds at the same time as the moon in its full4 ,surprised at such an unexpected sight1 all wondered1 and believed that two moons were miraculously rising on that occasion4 ,they were soon undeceived by the nearer approach of ,matali's carriage4 ,the messenger went to the king1 and conveyed to him the intelligence that the ,nats were exceedingly anxious to see him4 ,without a moment's hesitation the king stepped into the carriage1 and abandoned himself to the guidance of his heavenly guide4 8,two roads are now opened before us10 said ,matali1 8the one through the dismal dungeons1 where the wicked are consigned to undergo punishment for their offences1 and the other through the blissful seats1 where the good are enjoying the rewards allotted to them for their virtues4 ,which of the two do you wish to follow80 ,the prince said that he wished to visit both places4 ,matali answered in a mild tone of voice that his request should be complied with4 ,the celestial guide directed his rapid course through the regions of desolation1 where dwells an eternal horror4 ,the first object they met with was a broad and deep river1 filled with frightful whirlpools1 where the water seemed as if boiling4 ,it was glowing like a flame1 and the whole mass of water appeared like a lake of fire4 ,the river is called ,wattoorani4 ,on the banks of that river stand the infernal ministers1 armed with all sorts of sharp-edged instruments1 cutting1 wounding1 piercing the unfortunate wretches1 who try to get out of that horrible and burning water4 ,they are forcibly pushed again into the same place of torments1 and tumble over pointed darts1 whence they are taken up and roasted on living coals4 ,nothing is heard but the horrifying howlings and yells of those unfortunate beings1 who are waiting with the greatest impatience the moment of their deliverance4 8,what are the crimes10 asked the terrified prince1 8that have committed the unfortunate inhabitants of this place to undergo such unheard-of sufferings80 8,they are10 replied ,matali1 8the persecutors of the weak1 the heartless oppressors of the poor1 c41 who are doomed to undergo such punishments40 ,thence the guide drove rapidly to another place1 where dogs1 each with five hideous heads1 famished eagles1 and devouring crows1 fed with a ravenous hunger on the bodies of unfortunate victims1 the flesh of which is incessantly reproduced to afford a continual prey to these never-satiated ferocious animals4 8,these10 said ,matali1 8suffer for having done no good to their fellow-creatures1 for preventing others to do some1 and for having borne envy to their neighbours40 ,here follows a long description of the other places of hell1 given to ,nemi by his celestial guide4 ,we omit it1 lest its tedious and revolting particulars tire and disgust the reader4 ,suffice it to mention that the torments of ,tantalus are described here with a horrifying correctness1 such as almost casts into the shade the description given to us by the ,latin poet4 ,having ranged the various regions of hell1 and heard all the particulars given to him by ,matali1 ,nemi was suddenly brought over to the beautiful1 smiling1 and blissful seats of the blessed4 ,he soon descried at a distance the celebrated palace1 made of diamonds1 disposed in an immense square of twelve youdzanas on each side1 and five stories high2 then the garden1 the tank1 and the padetha tree4 ,in that palace ,biranee occupied a splendid apartment2 she was then lying on a soft sofa1 surrounded by more than a thousand beauties4 8,what good works10 asked ,nemi1 8has ,biranee practised1 to deserve such a magnificent reward80 ,matali replied1 8,this daughter of ,nats was formerly a slave in the house of a pounha4 ,she was always very attentive to all the duties of her position1 and at the same time regularly observed the precepts of the law4 ,on a certain day her mistress1 who was wont to feed eight ,rahans daily1 fell into a fit of anger1 and said that she was unable to bear any longer the fatigue attending the maintenance of these religious4 ,but the young slave1 full of religious zeal1 took upon herself the labour of feeding the ,rahans4 ,for this good and meritorious work she is enjoying the happiness of her present position40 ,nemi was successively led into the various seats of the inhabitants of those blissful regions1 and his guide explained at great length the good works that had procured to each of them the respective happy situation which they enjoyed1 and occasionally mentioned the period of time they were allowed to dwell in those abodes of unparalleled happiness4 ,he was finally introduced to the presence of the great ,thagia1 who is the chief of all ,nats4 ,having finished the survey of all the seats of ,nats1 ,nemi was brought back to the seat of men in his own capital by the same celestial guide4 ,on his return ,nemi saw himself surrounded by his pious subjects1 who eagerly inquired of him all the particulars respecting his journey4 ,he minutely explained to them all that he had seen both in the region of hell and in those of ,nats1 and concluded by exhorting his people to be liberal in bestowing alms1 that they might hereafter be admitted to share in the enjoyment of the ,nats' happiness4 ,nemi1 perceiving that his hairs were turning grey1 became still more zealous in the practice of alms-deeds1 and resolved to embrace the profession of ,rahans4 ,but previous to his taking such a step he had his son ,ralaradzana appointed to succeed him4 ,with that prince terminated the long succession of kings who in the decline of their lives became ,rahans4 ,,dzanecka4 ,this is one of the best written ,dzats possessed by the ,burmese4 ,the writer has translated it from beginning to end2 but he will give here only an outline of its contents4 ,the narrator1 as usual1 is our ,buddha himself1 when he was in the ,weloowon monastery1 surrounded by the members of the assembly and a crowd of hearers4 ,in the country of ,mitila there reigned a king named ,dzanecka1 who had two sons called ,arita ,dzanecka and ,paula ,dzanecka4 ,after a long and prosperous reign he passed to another existence4 ,arita ,dzanecka1 having celebrated his father's obsequies and made the usual purifications1 ascended the throne4 ,he confirmed his younger brother in the situation of commander-in-chief1 which he had hitherto held4 ,on a certain day a vile courtier1 by a false report1 awakened in the king's breast sentiments of jealousy and suspicion against his brother's fidelity4 ,the innocent prince was cast into a dungeon2 but in the virtue of his innocence he found means to make his escape1 went to a part of the country where he had powerful supporters1 and soon found himself in a condition to bid defiance to his brother4 ,the king assembled his troops2 a battle ensued1 in which the king was slain1 and ,paul ,dzanecka ascended the throne4 ,the queen1 who was with child1 on hearing the news of such a disaster1 went to the treasury1 took some ornaments of the purest gold and the most valuable precious stones1 and placed the whole in a basket4 ,she then spread out rice so as to cover the treasure1 and extended an old and dirty cloth over the opening of the basket4 ,putting on the dress of one of the meanest women1 she went out of the town1 carrying the basket over her head4 ,she left the city through the southern gate and passed into the country without being noticed by the guards4 ,having gone to a certain distance from the place1 the queen did not know which way to direct her steps4 ,she sat in a dzeat during the heat of the day4 ,whilst in the dzeat she thought of the country of ,tsampa1 where some of her relatives lived1 and resolved to go thither4 ,she began to make inquiries at the people that were passing by respecting the route she would have to follow4 ,during this time the attention of a ,nat was suddenly attracted by the inspiration of ,phralaong1 who was in the queen's womb1 to the sad position his mother was in4 ,he1 leaving forthwith his blissful seat1 assumed the appearance of an old man guiding a carriage along the road4 ,he came close to the dzeat and invited the queen to ascend his carriage1 assuring her that he would convey her safely to ,tsampa4 ,the offer was accepted4 ,as the queen was far advanced with child1 she had some difficulty in getting into the conveyance1 when that portion of the earth which she was standing upon suddenly swelled and rose to the level of the carriage4 ,the queen stepped into the chariot and they departed4 ,during the night they arrived at a beautiful place close to the neighbourhood of ,tsampa4 ,the queen alighted in a dzeat4 ,her celestial guide bade her to wait until daybreak before she ventured into the city1 and returned to the seat of ,tawadeintha4 ,during that very night a famous pounha1 attended by five hundred of his disciples1 had left the town at a late hour1 to take a walk by moonlight and enjoy the cool of the night and a bath in the river4 ,pamaouka1 for such is the name of the pounha1 came by chance to the very place where the queen was seated4 ,his disciples continued their walk and went on the bank of the river4 ,she appeared full of youth and beauty4 ,but by the virtue of ,phralaong the pounha knew that she was in the family way1 and that the child she bore was a ,phralaong4 ,pamaouka alone approached close to the queen and entreated her to entertain no fear whatever2 that he looked upon her as his sister4 ,the queen related to him all the particulars of her misfortune4 ,the great pounha1 moved with compassion1 resolved to become her supporter and protector4 ,at the same time he recommended her to say that he was her brother1 and when his disciples should come back1 to shed tears in token of the tender emotion she felt at meeting with him4 ,everything having been arranged1 ,pamaouka called his disciples1 told them how happy he was at having found his sister1 from whom he had parted many years ago4 ,meanwhile he directed them to take her to his house1 and recommended her to the special care of his wife4 ,as for him1 he would be back soon after having performed the usual ablutions4 ,the queen was welcome in the pounha's house1 and treated with the greatest care and tenderest affection4 ,a little while after she was delivered of a beautiful child1 resembling a statue of gold4 ,they gave him the name of ,dzanecka4 ,having reached the years of boyhood1 he was one day playing with boys of his own age1 when1 by way of teazing1 they called him the son of the widow4 ,these keen tauntings made him urge his mother to reveal to him the name of his father4 ,it was then that he knew the author of his birth4 ,pamaouka taught him all the sciences known in those days1 such as medicine1 mathematics1 c4 ,at the age of sixteen years young ,dzanecka had completed all his studies4 ,dzanecka resolved to devote himself to trade1 and acquire thereby ample means to reconquer one day the throne of his ancestors4 ,with a part of the treasure his mother had brought with her1 he was in a position to fit out a ship in company with several other merchants4 ,he resolved to sail for a place called ,caumawatoura4 ,he had scarcely been at sea two days when a mighty storm came on4 ,the vessel1 after having held out some time against the roaring and raging billows1 at last gave way1 and was broken in pieces4 ,all the crew and passengers1 amounting to #gjj1 miserably perished in the sea1 without making the least effort to save themselves4 ,our ,phralaong1 on the contrary1 seizing the extremity of a log of wood1 swam with all his strength1 resolved to struggle to the last against adversity4 ,mighty were his efforts for several days4 ,at last a daughter of ,nats1 whose duty it was to watch over the sea1 saw his generous and courageous behaviour1 took pity on him1 and came to his assistance4 ,there followed a sort of dialogue between her and ,dzanecka4 ,the latter displayed his undaunted courage and firm purpose4 ,the former admired the more his determined resolution4 ,she resolved to save him from the dangerous position4 ,taking him in her arms1 she carried him1 according to his wishes1 to the country of ,mitila1 in the garden of mango-trees1 and placed him on the very table-stone where his ancestors were wont to enjoy themselves with a numerous retinue4 ,phralaong immediately fell asleep4 ,the daughter of ,nats1 having enjoined the ,nat1 guardian of the place1 to watch over the prince1 returned to her blissful seat4 ,on the very day that the vessel was wrecked the ruler of ,mitila died1 leaving one daughter1 named ,thiwalee4 ,previous to his giving up the ghost and ascending to the seats of ,nats1 the king had ordered his ministers into his presence1 and enjoined on them to select for the husband of his daughter a man remarkable for the beauty and strength of his body1 as well as by the acuteness and penetration of his mind4 ,he was to be able to bend and unbend an enormous bow1 a feat which the united efforts of a thousand soldiers could scarcely achieve1 and find the place where he had concealed sixteen golden cups4 ,on the seventh day after his death1 the ministers and pounhas began to deliberate among themselves about the choice of a match worthy of the princess4 ,several competitors offered themselves for the hand of ,thiwalee1 but they were all rejected4 ,at last1 not knowing what to do1 they resolved to leave to chance the solution of the difficulty4 ,they sent out a charmed chariot1 convinced that by the virtue inherent in it they would find out the fortunate man whose destinies were to be united to those of the princess4 ,the chariot was sent out attended by soldiers1 musicians1 pounhas1 and noblemen4 ,it came straight forward to the mango-trees garden1 and stopped by the side of the table-stone ,phralaong was sleeping upon4 ,the pounhas1 on inspecting the hands and feet of the stranger1 saw unmistakable signs foreshowing his elevation to the royal dignity4 ,they awakened him by the sound of musical instruments1 saluted him king1 and begged of him to put on the royal dress1 mount on the chariot1 and proceed triumphantly to the royal city4 ,he entered the palace through the eastern gate4 ,having been informed of the king's last intentions1 he forthwith bent and unbent the bow1 found out the sixteen golden cups1 and was duly united to the beautiful and youthful ,thiwalee4 ,all the people showed signs of the greatest rejoicings2 the rich made him all sorts of offerings2 the pounhas in white costume1 holding the sacred white shell1 adorned with flowers and filled with water1 with their bodies bent forward1 poured respectfully the water1 imploring blessings on the new monarch4 ,when the rejoicings were over1 the king rewarded the pounha ,pamaouka1 who had been as a father to him during his exile4 ,he applied himself to do as much good as he could in relieving the poor1 and promoting the welfare of all4 ,he delighted in mentioning to his courtiers his misfortune1 and the great efforts he had made to extricate himself from difficulties4 ,he praised the reward which attended generous efforts1 and exhorted them never to flinch under difficulties1 but always to exhibit a strong and unconquerable resolution under all trials1 because it must sooner or later be crowned with success4 ,during the #gjjj years that he reigned over ,mitila with the queen ,thiwalee1 he faithfully practised the observances of the law1 governed justly1 fed the ,rahans and ,pitzega-buddhas1 and gave abundant alms to the poor4 ,on the #ajth month ,thiwalee was delivered of a son1 whom they called ,digaout4 ,on a certain day1 the king1 having received from his gardener some mangoes full of flavour and beauty1 wished to go to the garden to see the tree that yielded such delicious fruits4 ,when he arrived at the place1 he saw two mango-trees1 one with a luxuriant foliage1 but without fruits1 the other loaded with fruits4 ,the monarch approached the tree1 riding his elephant1 and plucked some mangoes1 which he ate and found delicious4 ,thence he proceeded further to inspect the other parts of the extensive garden4 ,the courtiers and the people that followed plucked fruits from the same tree1 and did it with such eagerness that they left neither fruits nor leaves on the tree4 ,on his return the king was surprised to see the fruitful tree destitute of both leaves and fruits1 whilst the barren one had a beautiful appearance4 ,the monarch1 after a lengthened dialogue with his courtiers1 concluded as follows3 8,the riches of this world are never without enemies2 he who possesses them resembles the fruitful mango-tree4 ,we must look out for goods that excite neither envy1 jealousy1 nor other passions4 ,the ,rahans and ,pitzega-buddhas alone possess such riches4 ,i will take a lesson from the barren mango-tree4 ,that ,i may cut off and eradicate the troubles1 vexations1 and anxieties of life1 ,i will renounce everything and embrace the profession of ,rahan40 ,with this idea strongly impressed on his mind1 ,dzanecka came back to his palace4 ,he forthwith sent for the general of his troops1 and directed him to place a strong guard in front of his apartment1 and allow no one for four consecutive months to come into his presence1 not even the queen1 but only him who would bring his daily meal4 ,he gave orders to his ministers to judge with impartiality1 agreeably to the law4 ,having thus arranged everything1 he withdrew alone to the upper apartment of his palace4 ,here follows a stanza in praise of the prince1 who had separated from his queen1 concubines1 and all the pleasures and honours attending royalty4 ,dzanecka alone began to meditate on the happiness of the life of pounhas and ,pitzega-buddhas2 he admired their poor diet1 their zeal in practising the observances of the law1 their earnest longings after the happiness of ,neibban1 their disengagement from the ties of passions1 the state of inward peace and fixity which their souls enjoyed4 ,in his enthusiasm he venerated them with a holy fervour1 called them his masters and preceptors1 and exclaimed3 8,who will teach me to imitate their lives1 and help me to become similar to them80 ,in ten stanzas ,dzanecka reviews successively all that had belonged to him1 his capital with its stately edifices1 fine gates1 the three walls and ditches1 the beautiful and fertile country of ,wintzearitz1 the palace with its lofty domes and massive towers1 the beautifully ornamented throne1 the rich and magnificent royal dresses1 the royal garden and tank1 the elephants1 horses1 and chariots1 the soldiers1 the pounhas1 the princes1 his queen and concubines4 ,he then concludes each stanza with the following words3 8,when shall ,i leave all these things1 become poor1 put on the humble habit of ,rahans1 and follow the same mode of a perfectly retired life80 ,with these and similar reflections ,dzanecka endeavoured to sunder one after the other many threads of passions1 to pull down successively the branches of the impure tree1 until he could give a final stroke to the roots4 ,at the conclusion of four months' retirement1 ,dzanecka sent for a faithful servant1 and directed him to procure for him the various articles of the dress of a ,rahan4 ,he had his head and beard shaved2 put on the cherished habit1 and placing a staff in his hand walked out of his apartments1 and directed his course towards the gate1 with the dignified deportment of a ,rahan of sixty years' profession4 ,queen ,thiwalee was tired of having been so long deprived of her husband's company4 ,she summoned seven hundred of the handsomest damsels of the palace to go with her to the king1 and by the efforts of their united charms entrap him in the net of passion and prevail upon him to come back to their society4 ,when they ascended the stair-case1 they met with ,dzanecka in his new attire4 ,none recognised him2 but all paid him due reverence as some holy personage that had come to give instructions to the king4 ,having reached the apartment and seen the royal dress set aside1 and the beautiful and long black hairs laid on one of the sofas1 the queen and her attendants soon understood the sad and heart-rending intimation which these objects were designed to convey4 ,she ran in all haste with all her retinue down the stairs and overtook the new ,rahan at the moment he was crossing the outer gate of the palace4 ,every means that could be devised to make impression on the king's heart were resorted to by the queen and the damsels1 in order to prevail upon him to forego his resolution4 ,tears1 cries1 wailings1 striking of the breast1 display of the most graceful and seducing forms1 supplications1 entreaties1 were all used in vain2 the new ,rahan1 unmoved and firm1 continued his course1 protesting that passions and concupiscence were dead in him1 and that what could be said or done to engage him to change his resolution was in vain4 ,during his progress towards the solitude of ,himawonta1 he was comforted and encouraged by the advice and instruction of two ,rathees1 who from their solitude flew through the air to witness the beautiful struggle between passions and virtue1 and help him not to flinch before the repeated obstacles the queen put in his way1 to retard1 impede1 and prevent the execution of his holy design4 ,the names of these two instructors were ,narada and ,migalzein2 they were clothed in the skins of panthers4 ,they instructed him in the duties of his new calling1 and exhorted him to root out of his heart with perseverance all passions1 and in particular concupiscence and pride4 ,comforted with such timely instructions1 the new ,rahan felt himself more than ever fixed in his resolution4 ,on his way to the solitude1 ,dzanecka arrived one evening at the gates of a town called ,daunu4 ,he passed the night under a tree1 at a distance from the queen and the crowd that followed her4 ,on the morning he entered the town1 and went1 as usual1 along the streets to beg his food4 ,he happened to stop for a while at the shop of a man that was fabricating arrows4 ,dzanecka1 seeing the workman shutting one eye and looking with the other to see if the shaft of the arrow was straight1 asked him the reason of his doing so1 as he would see better with both eyes than with one4 ,the workman told him that it was not always good that each object in this world should have a match4 8,should ,i10 said he1 8look on this shaft with both eyes1 my sight1 distracted by several objects1 could not perceive the defects of the wood1 c41 but by looking on it with only one eye the least irregularity is easily detected4 ,when we have a work to perform1 if there be two opposite wills in us1 it cannot be regularly made4 ,you have put on the habit of ,rahan2 you have apparently renounced the world2 how is it that you are followed by such a large retinue of women and other attendants8 ,it is impossible to attend well to the duties of your profession1 and at the same time keep such a company40 ,this cutting remark made a deep impression on ,dzanecka4 ,he had gone over a little distance1 when he met a number of little girls playing together4 ,one of them had a silver bangle on each hand1 with one of gold on the right hand4 ,when she agitated the right hand1 the two bangles hitting each other produced a sound4 ,dzanecka1 willing to try the wit of the little creature1 asked her the reason why the movement of one hand produced a sound1 whilst that of the other did not4 ,she replied1 8,my left hand1 that has but one bangle1 is the image of the ,rahans who ought to be alone4 ,in this world1 when an object has its match1 some collision and noise inevitably result4 ,how is it that you1 who have put on the habit of ,rahan1 allow yourself to be followed by that woman who is still full of freshness and beauty8 ,is she your wife or sister8 ,should she be only your sister1 it is not good that she should be with you4 ,it is dangerous for ,rahans to keep the company of women40 ,this sharp lecture1 from the mouth of a little girl1 produced a deep impression on our ,rahan4 ,he left the city4 ,a large forest was in the vicinity3 he resolved to part company with the queen at once4 ,at the entrance he stopped awhile1 and paused for a moment4 ,there1 on a sudden1 stretching his arm1 he broke the small branch of a tree1 and showing it to ,thiwalee he said1 8,princess1 you see this small branch2 it can never be reunited to the stem it has been taken from4 ,in like manner1 it is impossible that ,i should ever go back with you40 ,on hearing the fatal words the queen fainted4 ,all her attendants crowded round her1 to afford her some relief4 ,dzanecka himself1 in the tumult and confusion that was going on1 stole away with rapidity and disappeared in the forest4 ,the queen was then carried back to ,daunu by her attendants1 whence they all returned to ,mitila4 ,alone in the solitude1 ,phralaong enjoyed the sweets of perfect contemplation during a period of three thousand years4 ,thiwalee1 on her part1 resolved to renounce the world and follow the example of her husband4 ,she became a ,rahaness1 in one of the royal gardens1 during the same period of years1 and subsequently migrated to one of the seats of ,brahmas1 called ,brahma-parithitsa4 ,at the conclusion of the narrative ,buddha added3 8,mani-megala1 the daughter of ,nats1 who saved me in the midst of the sea1 is now my beloved fair disciple of the left1 ,oopalawon4 ,the little girl who gave me such a wholesome instruction1 at the gate of the town of ,daunu1 is now ,kema1 my fair disciple of the right4 ,the ,rathee ,narada has since become my great disciple ,thariputra1 whose wisdom is second only to my own4 ,the other ,rathee ,miga-dzein is now my disciple ,maukalan1 whose power for displaying wonders yields only to mine4 ,the arrow-maker has since become ,ananda1 my faithful and dutiful attendant4 ,queen ,thiwalee has become the ,princess ,yathaudara4 ,as to ,prince ,dzanecka1 he is now the ,phra who is before you and addresses you1 who is perfectly acquainted with all the laws and principles1 and who is the teacher of men1 ,nats1 and ,brahmas40 ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,sites ,,and ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,places ,,mentioned ,,in ,,the ,,legend4 ,the identification of the places mentioned in the course of the ,life of ,gaudama is certainly a great desideratum4 ,this difficult and laborious task has been boldly undertaken by several government servants of both services4 ,great and important successes have attended their efforts4 ,one of the most successful among them has been ,major-,general ,cunningham1 the archological surveyor to the government of ,india4 ,the sphere of his laborious and scientific researches has extended over north and south ,behar1 the cradle of ,buddhism1 and some parts of the ,punjaub and ,peshawar4 ,under his direction excavations have been made1 inscriptions found and deciphered1 the nature and dimensions of old ruined monuments correctly ascertained4 ,in his valuable reports may be found important elements for reconstructing the history and geography of ancient ,india4 ,he has been greatly assisted by the history of the voyages of the ,chinese pilgrim1 ,hwen ,thsang1 who spent sixteen years in travelling throughout ,india1 and visiting all the places rendered famous by the actions connected with the life of ,buddha1 and the spread of his doctrines and institutions4 ,the voyage began in #fbi and ended in #fde of the ,christian era4 ,the itinerary begins with the starting of the traveller from a city on the banks of the ,hoang-ho4 ,he shaped his course through the centre of ,tartary1 entered by the northern extremity of the plateau of ,panin into what is called now ,independent ,tartary1 visited ,samarcand1 where there were no ,buddhists1 but only fire worshippers4 ,thence he passed over to ,balk1 where he found religion in a flourishing condition4 ,he ascended the mighty ,hindu ,kush mountains1 penetrated into ,cabul and ,peshawar1 crossed the ,indus at ,attock1 and turning abruptly to the north1 visited ,oudiana1 where he found dzedis and monasteries on the grandest and most magnificent scale1 and came back to ,attock1 following the western bank of the ,indus4 ,he then proceeded through the ,punjaub to ,mathura1 and minutely examined all the ,buddhistic monuments to be found in the territories situated between the ,ganges1 the ,gunduck1 and ,nepaul4 ,he went to ,benares1 ,pataliputra1 and all the places in ,magatha1 or south ,behar1 where his religious curiosity could be satisfied4 ,thence he shaped his course in an eastern direction1 and visited the whole of ,bengal4 ,he passed to ,orissa1 visited many places in ,central ,india and a portion of the ,upper ,deccan4 ,he went to ,molwa and ,guzerat1 returned to ,magatha1 and began his homeward voyage4 ,he recrossed the ,indus at ,attock1 followed up the valley of the ,cabul river1 and with unheard-of difficulties and dangers passed over the ,hindu ,kush range4 ,his route across ,chinese ,tartary led him back through ,kashgar1 ,yarkand1 and ,khotan1 to his native place4 ,it is a matter of surprise to see how acute in his observations1 correct in his descriptions1 and exact in his measurements1 our pilgrim has been4 ,with his book in hand1 the above-named eminent archologist was enabled1 in many instances1 to identify at once mere mounds of ruins1 and satisfy himself that they were the remnants of the monuments described by our pilgrim4 ,when he entertained any doubts in his mind1 he had recourse to excavations1 which1 in most instances1 demonstrated the perfect accuracy of ,hwen ,thsang4 ,nearly two hundred years previous to the voyage of ,hwen ,thsang1 another ,chinese pilgrim named ,fa-hian had undertaken a similar journey4 ,impelled by a purely religious zeal1 he came to ,india for the sole purpose of visiting the places rendered famous and venerable by the birth1 life1 doings1 and death of ,foe1 the same personage who is known in these parts under the name ,buddha ,gaudama4 ,his object was also to make a complete collection of all the religious books acknowledged as genuine in ,india1 and carry them with him to ,china4 ,the errand of ,hwen ,thsang had a similar object4 ,our worthy traveller1 according to his account1 passed through ,southern ,thibet1 ,little ,tartary1 and visited successively ,cabul1 ,cashmere1 ,candahar1 and the ,punjaub4 ,following a nearly south-eastern direction1 he reached ,mathura on the ,upper ,jumna1 crossed the ,ganges at ,kanouj1 at the confluence of the ,kali with that river1 travelled almost in an eastern direction through ,oude1 and crossed the ,gogra near the ,fyzabad4 ,keeping close to the eastern bank of that stream1 he struck in a slightly northern direction1 passing the ,rapti south of ,goruckpore1 and followed the same course1 nearly to the western bank of the ,gunduck4 ,from thence he shaped his course in a south-easterly direction1 parallel to the course of that river1 which he crossed a little higher up the place where it empties into the ,ganges4 ,following then a southern direction1 he crossed the ,ganges near the place where the city of ,patna is now4 ,from thence our pilgrim travelled in a south-easterly direction1 crossed successively the ,morhar and the ,fulgo1 examined all the places in the neighbourhood1 south and south-west of ,behar1 which are so celebrated in ,buddhistic annals4 ,after having spent three years in ,india1 busy in mastering the ,pali language and collecting copies of the religious works1 he then embarked on the ,ganges4 ,near its mouth he went on board of a ship bound to ,ceylon4 ,after having visited that celebrated island1 ,fa-hian sailed in the direction of the ,malayan ,archipelago1 called at ,java1 and safely arrived at his country1 after having performed one of the most extraordinary and difficult journeys any man could have undertaken in those ancient times4 ,it was in the beginning of the fifth century that this feat was performed in the space of more than seven years4 ,he spent three years in ,india1 and two at ,ceylon4 ,the ,chinese original of ,fa-,hian has been translated into ,french by ,a4 ,remusat4 ,the ,english version from the ,french is accompanied by the annotations of ,remusat and those of other celebrated ,orientalists4 ,the book of ,hwen ,thsang has been translated by ,m4 ,julien4 ,for the loan of these two works the writer is indebted to the ever-obliging kindness of the worthy and learned ,chief ,commissioner of ,british ,burma1 ,col4 ,a4 ,p4 ,phayre4 ,from these works we have extracted the above and following particulars4 #a4 ,the name given by northern ,buddhists to ,buddha is ,thakiamuni1 which means the religious of the ,thakia family4 ,he belonged to the ,kshatria1 or the warriors' caste4 ,the name ,gaudama1 according to the opinion of the late ,e4 ,burnouf1 is the name of the religious instructor of his family1 which members of families of that caste often adopted4 ,this instructor might have been a descendant of the celebrated philosopher ,gotama1 mentioned in certain writings1 but distinct from our ,buddha4 #b4 ,kapila1 or ,kapilawot1 the birthplace of ,buddha1 was situated on the left bank of the ,gogra1 straight north of ,benares4 ,it was a heap of ruins when ,fa-,hian visited it1 and the country almost a desert4 ,some are of opinion that it was situated near the mountains that separate ,nepaul from ,goruckpore1 on the river ,rohini1 a mountain stream1 feeder of the ,rapti4 ,but this assertion has very few supporters1 and appears improbable4 #c4 ,the river ,anauma cannot be the ,amanat in ,behar1 south of ,patna4 ,it is probably one of the feeders of the ,gogra1 and to be met with half-way between ,kapila and ,radzagio1 the site of which city1 as will be subsequently seen1 lies close to modern ,behar4 ,the legend bears out this supposition4 ,buddha travelled thirty youdzanas from ,kapila to the river ,anauma1 thence thirty to ,radzagio4 ,the youdzana of those times in ,magatha is supposed to have been equal probably to seven miles4 #d4 ,oorouwela was one of the mountains famous for the number of the hermits that withdrew thither for the purpose of meditation4 ,it is not far from ,gaya ,buddha4 #e4 ,the river ,neritzara1 in ,mongol1 ,nirandzara1 is a considerable stream flowing from the south-west4 ,it unites with the ,monah and forms the ,fulgo4 #f4 ,baranathee is beyond doubt the famous city of ,benares4 ,the ,burmans call it by name of ,baranathee1 or rather ,varanasi4 ,the town is so named from its situation between the small river ,varana and the ,asi1 a mere brook4 ,the solitude of ,migadawon1 whither ,buddha went to preach the law to the five ,rahans that had served him during the six years of mortification which he spent in the forest of ,oorouwela1 lies in its vicinity4 ,benares is famous in the ,buddhistic annals1 because in its neighbourhood the law of the wheel1 or rather the super-excellent law of the four sublime truths1 was announced for the first time4 ,migadawon means the deer-forest4 ,it lies three and a half miles from ,benares in a northern direction4 ,it is said that1 after having travelled nine miles from the ,bodi tree1 ,buddha had to go over a distance of eighteen youdzanas ere he reached ,benares1 making a total of about #abj miles4 #g4 ,radzagio1 or ,radzagihra1 was the capital of ,magatha or ,south ,behar4 ,its situation is well ascertained4 ,its ruins have been minutely described by several travellers4 ,it was situated on the left bank of the same small river as ,behar1 but a few miles south of that place4 ,the mountains or peaks surrounding that ancient city are full of caves1 tenanted in former ages by ,buddhist ascetics4 ,the mountain ,gayathitha1 where ,buddha preached his famous sermon1 lies in the neighbourhood4 ,it is perhaps the same as the ,gridrakuta1 or the ,vulture's ,peak4 #h4 ,the ,buddhist annals often mention the country of the middle or ,mitzima-desa4 ,it comprised the countries of ,mathura1 ,kosala1 ,kapila1 ,wethalee1 and ,magatha2 that is to say1 the provinces of ,agra1 ,delhi1 ,oude1 and ,south ,behar4 ,magatha1 south of the ,ganges1 had for capital at first ,radzagio1 until ,kalathoka1 a hundred years after the death of ,gaudama1 transferred the seat of his empire to ,pataliputra1 or ,palibothra4 ,the celebrated ,weloowon monastery was situated in the neighbourhood of ,radzagio1 and was offered to ,buddha by ,king ,pimpathara1 the ruler of that country4 #i4 ,kosala is the same as the kingdom of ,ayodya1 now called ,oude4 ,thawattie1 or ,crawastu1 was the capital of a district of that country4 ,it was situated nearly at the same place where at present stands the modern town of ,fyzabad4 ,according to the legend1 the distance from ,radzagio to ,thawattie is forty-five youdzanas of about seven miles4 ,twelve hundred paces from that city was to be met the renowned monastery of ,dzetawon1 or the grove of the victorious4 ,many ruins that have been visited and examined leave no doubt regarding the certain position of ,thawattie4 #aj4 ,thing-ka-tha1 or ,tsam-pa-tha1 lies in an eastern direction between ,mathura and ,kanouj1 near the site occupied by the town of ,ferruckabad4 ,captain ,a4 ,cunningham has met with the ruins of that place in the village of ,samkassa1 on the left bank of the ,kalinadi1 twelve cos from ,ferrukabad4 ,according to a popular tradition1 it was destroyed in #aahc by the ,king of ,kanouj1 at the instigation of the ,brahmins1 who endeavoured by every means in their power to sweep all the remnants of ,buddhism from those parts of the peninsula4 ,it was in that place that ,buddha arrived on his return from the seats of ,nats1 whither he had gone to preach the law to his mother4 ,according to the legend1 the distance from ,thawattie to ,thing-ka-tha is thirty youdzanas in a westerly direction4 ,fa-,hian says that he saw in one of the temples of that place the ladder ,buddha had used when he came down from the seats of ,nats4 #aa4 ,the village of ,patali is the very place where was subsequently established the renowned city of ,palibothra1 capital of ,magatha4 ,the place had reached the height of its glory when ,megasthenes1 the ambassador of ,seleucus1 visited it in the reign of ,chandragupta4 ,in the time of ,buddha it was but an insignificant place4 ,there was1 however1 a sort of fort to arrest the inroads of some troublesome neighbours4 ,buddha1 when he passed through that place1 predicted that it would become a flourishing town4 ,the prediction began to have its accomplishment one hundred years after his death1 when ,king ,kalathoka left ,radzagio1 and removed the seat of his empire to ,palibothra near the place where the modern city of ,patna stands4 #ab4 ,the town of ,wethalie is supposed to have stood north of ,patna on the ,gunduck1 not far from the place where that river joins the ,ganges4 ,the large village of ,besarh1 twenty miles north of ,hajipur1 occupies a portion of the place on which stood ,wethalie4 ,in the seventh century ,buddhism was there on its decline2 false doctrines1 as says one of the ,chinese pilgrims1 were much prevailing4 ,nothing was to be seen at that time but a ruined town and many monasteries1 almost deserted1 and also falling into decay4 ,many signs of ancient ruins are also to be met with between ,besarh and ,bakra2 they belong to the same city1 which was both populous and wealthy4 ,its circumference was about twelve miles1 including the two modern places of ,bakra and ,besarh4 ,all the mounds of ruins have been carefully searched and described by ,a4 ,cunningham1 and the sites of ancient tanks exactly laid down4 ,there is a curious episode in the legend connected with the name of ,wethalie4 ,a courtesan1 who1 despite her dishonourable calling1 occupied a brilliant position in the country1 courted the favour of feeding ,buddha with all his followers4 ,the latter accepted her invitation1 and received a beautiful grove1 which she presented to him and to the assembly4 ,it does not appear that her avocation was looked upon as a disgraceful one4 ,it is probable that persons of this description were as much for the intellectual as for the sensual enjoyments of their visitors4 ,there existed in ,greece and at ,rome something similar to what is here alluded to4 ,according to ,plutarch1 ,aspasia at ,athens was courted by ,pericles on account of her high literary attainments and political abilities4 ,socrates visited her sometimes in company with his disciples4 ,visitors took occasionally their wives to her place1 for the purpose of enjoying the charms of her highly refined and instructive conversation4 ,the same philosophical biographer does not scruple to quote sometimes the sayings of the celebrated ,roman courtesan1 named ,flora4 #ac4 ,nala or ,nalanda was a ,brahmin village about seven miles north of ,radzagio4 ,it was the birthplace of the great disciple ,thariputra4 ,it seems that there was there a sort of ,academia1 whither the learned of ,radzagio resorted to discourse on moral and philosophical subjects4 ,the magnificent ruins1 which subsist up to this day in that locality1 have been minutely examined1 measured1 and described by several visitors4 ,the great temple must1 in the opinion of ,a4 ,cunningham1 have been built in the sixth century of our era4 #ad4 ,kootheinaron is the place in the neighbourhood of which ,buddha entered into the state of ,neibban1 or died4 ,some antiquarians1 laying much stress on the name of a village up to this day called ,kushia1 have placed the position of ,kootheinaron on the road between ,betiah and ,goruckpore4 ,on that spot is to be seen a pyramidical-looking mound of bricks1 over which spreads a large banyan tree4 ,but1 from the narrative of the legend1 we must look for the site of ,kootheinaron nearer to the river ,higniarati or ,gunduck1 since the spot where ,gaudama died was near to the city1 and is described as surrounded on three sides by the river4 ,kootheinaron was situated a little north or north-west of ,betiah1 on or near the banks of the ,gunduck4 ,there too ruins are to be seen1 which doubtless will prove to be those of ,kootheinaron4 ,the name may have subsequently migrated to the locality above mentioned4 #ae4 ,papilawana1 the capital of the ,mauria princes1 was situated between the ,rapti and the ,gunduck1 nearly east of ,goruckpore4 ,south of that place ,fa-,hian visited the dzedi of the coals4 ,the ,mauria princes1 agreeably to the text of the legend1 having come too late for sharing in the partition of the relics1 took with them the coals that remained after the cremation of ,buddha's remains1 carried them into their country1 and built a dzedi over them4 ,it was not far from that place that the ,brahmin ,dauna built another dzedi over the vessel that had contained ,buddha's relics4 #af4 ,the village of ,rama is the same as the ,ramaganio of the ,cingalese collection4 ,the two ,chinese pilgrims in their relations call that place ,lan-mo4 ,can it be that the modern ,ramnagar is indicative of the ancient ,ramaganio8 ,at all events we would not be far from the truth if we place it between the ,gogra and the ,rapti1 but nearer to the latter1 almost due west of ,goruckpore4 #ag4 ,the ,pawa town is supposed by ,a4 ,cunningham to have occupied the same site as the large village of ,padarawana1 twelve miles to the west of the river ,gunduck1 and forty miles north-north-east of ,goruckpore4 ,a large mound of more than #bjj feet in length by #abj in breadth exists in that locality4 ,from the excavations made on the place1 it is supposed that there was a courtyard1 with cells for monks1 on each side1 the centre being1 as was often the case1 occupied by a dzedi4 ,the people of ,pawa obtained one-eighth of the relics1 after the cremation of ,buddha's remains1 and built one dzedi over them4 #ah4 ,kapilawot1 or ,kapilawastu1 was situated between ,fyzabad and ,goruckpore1 but a little nearer to the latter place4 ,it was on or near the banks of the ,gogra4 ,the small river ,rohini formed the boundary between the territory of ,kapilawot and that of ,kaulia4 #ai4 ,gaya and ,buddha-,gaya are two distinct places4 ,the first is well known as the town of ,gaya4 ,the second lies six miles southward1 and is famous as the locality of the ,pipal or ,bodi tree1 under which ,gaudama obtained the ,buddhahood4 ,a tree of the same description is still to be seen on the same spot4 ,the present one was in full vigour in #ahaa1 when ,dr4 ,buchanan saw it4 ,he describes it as not being more than a hundred years old4 ,a4 ,cunningham says that it is now much decayed4 ,one large stem with three branches on the westward side are still green2 but the other branches are barkless and rotten4 ,hwen ,thsang1 in his itinerary1 speaks of an early renewal of that tree by ,king ,purna ,varmma1 after its destruction by ,king ,sasangka1 who1 with a true ,brahminical and inimical feeling1 dug up the very ground on which it had stood1 and moistened the earth with sugar-cane juice1 to prevent its renewal4 ,the same eminent archologist describes a massive brick temple1 standing east of the ,bodi tree1 and with great plausibility maintains that it is the same which has been described by the above-named ,chinese pilgrim4 ,as ,fa-,hian is silent respecting that temple1 ,a4 ,cunningham concludes that it was erected during the sixth century of the ,christian era1 when ,buddhism1 under the favour of ,king ,amara-sinha and some of his successors1 regained a vigorous ascendancy at least in ,magatha4 ,it is probable that all the temples1 the ruins of which have been examined at ,buddha-,gaya1 ,nalanda1 and ,behar1 having a similarity in architectural plans and ornaments1 were erected during the sixth and a part of the seventh century of our era4 ,the inference therefrom is that ,buddhism was flourishing in ,magatha at that period4 ,hwen ,thsang1 who has visited and described those monuments in or about #fbe1 speaks of them in the highest terms4 ,how long lasted the prosperous days of ,buddhism in those parts8 ,it is difficult to state with any degree of accuracy4 ,but it seems probable that it maintained itself in a satisfactory condition until the beginning of the tenth century4 ,it had then to give way before the irresistible and triumphant ascendancy of ,brahminism4 ,to the south-east of the great temple is a small tank which is probably that of the ,naga1 who protected ,buddha during one of the several stations that he made round the ,bodi tree4 #bj4 ,anawadat is the name of a lake famous in ,buddhist sacred history4 ,its etymological meaning is1 agreeably to some savans1 exempt of tumult1 and1 according to others1 not brightened4 ,this last appellation is owing probably to the high peaks that surround it and prevent its being brightened by the rays of the sun4 ,this is certainly the famous and extensive lake1 which covers a portion of the high table-land of ,pamir4 ,it has been visited and described by ,lieutenant ,wood4 ,what he states from a careful observation on the spot agrees well with what is found in the itineraries of the ,chinese travellers4 ,from that high plateau which embosoms the lake flows in an eastern direction one of those small streams that form the river ,ganges2 whilst1 in an opposite direction1 the ,oxus1 issuing from the western slope1 shapes its course nearly towards the west4 #ba4 ,udiana is a country the position of which is fixed on the banks of the ,indus1 between ,cabul and ,cashmere1 west of the latter country4 ,gandara is1 it appears1 the country called ,candahar by the ,mussulmans1 lying between the ,swat and the ,indus4 ,the ,burmese author mentions always ,kashmera along with ,gandara4 ,this would indicate that the two places are in the vicinity of each other1 and that they formed primitively one and the same state4 ,yaunaka is perhaps the peninsula of ,guzerat4 ,but the writer entertains serious doubts on this subject4 ,it might be the countries situated west of the ,hindu ,kush1 that is to say1 the ancient ,bactriana4 ,the ,burmese author states that ,yaunaka was inhabited by a people called ,pantsays4 ,what people were they8 ,is it an allusion to the ,greeks that had settled in ,bactriana8 ,it is not without interest to hear our ,chinese traveller stating that religion was flourishing in the above-mentioned countries1 whilst in the ,punjaub he met with religious with whom he declined holding intercourse1 and of whom he speaks in rather unfavourable terms4 ,hence we may conclude that heretical opinions were then prevailing in that country1 and that doctrines at variance with those of ,buddha had already taken a deep root1 and in their growth almost choked genuine ,buddhism1 if it had ever been the prevailing creed in the land of the five rivers4 #bb4 ,on his way down the ,ganges1 our pilgrim does not appear to have left his boat for any considerable time2 he contents himself with mentioning a fact that to some may appear somewhat doubtful1 viz41 the flourishing condition of the ,buddhist religion as far as the neighbourhood of the present metropolis of ,india4 ,he speaks of the kingdom of ,champa4 ,campapuri1 or ,karnapura1 was the capital of that state4 ,it was situated on the site of the present ,bhagulpore1 or not far from it4 ,thence ,fa-,hian came to the state of ,tamaralipti4 ,the town which bore that name is the modern ,tumlook1 on the right bank of the ,hoogly1 not far from ,calcutta4 ,it was at that port that he embarked on board of a ship bound to ,ceylon4 ,tamaralipti must have been a famous sea-port several centuries before ,fa-,hian's days4 ,we are informed that ,maheinda and his companions1 who were appointed to proceed to ,ceylon to preach ,buddhism to the people of that island1 embarked at the same place4 ,,the ,,seven ,,ways ,,to ,,neibban4 ,this is an abridgment of all the principles that constitute the system of ,buddhism4 ,in the ,,legend ,,of ,,buddha the reader has become acquainted with the life of the founder of ,buddhism1 the establishment of his religion1 and the promulgation of his chief doctrine4 ,in the following pages he will find compressed within narrow limits the several observances to be attended to in order to reach the goal of quiescence4 ,as it is chiefly and principally by the help of meditation and contemplation that such a point can ever be attained1 the reader must be prepared to wade up to his very chin in the somewhat muddy waters of metaphysics if he has a wish to penetrate into the very sanctuary of ,buddhism4 ,to encourage the reader1 and console him in the midst of his fatiguing journey through such dreary tracts1 the writer would remind him that he has first borne up the fatigues of such a journey1 and that1 impelled by friendly feelings1 he has endeavoured to smooth the rugged path in behalf of those that would follow him on the same errand4 ,how far he has succeeded in his well-meant efforts he will not presume to state4 ,but he will say this much1 that if his success be commensurate with his exertions he may entertain a well-founded hope that he will not be altogether disappointed in his anticipation1 and feel somewhat confident that he has afforded to the uninitiated some help to go over the difficult ground of metaphysics4 ,following1 in this instance1 the line of conduct he has adopted through the foregoing pages of this book1 the writer will allow the ,buddhist author to speak for himself and explain his own views on the different subjects under consideration4 ,his sole aim will ever be to convey as faithfully and as succinctly as possible the meaning of the original he has under his eyes4 ,the task1 however simple it may appear1 is far from being an easy one1 as the ,burmese are utterly incapable of fully understanding the metaphysical portion of their religious system4 ,their ignorance is calculated to render even more obscure what is per se almost beyond the range of comprehension1 because they must have frequently put an erroneous interpretation on many ,pali words1 the meaning of which is far from being accurately determined4 ,our ,buddhist doctor begins his work with enumerating the advantages to be derived from a serious and constant application to the earnest study of these seven ways4 8,such an exercise10 says he1 8has the virtue to free us from all evils2 it expands the intelligence in the highest degree1 and leads straight to ,neibban4 ,man1 through it1 is delivered from all errors1 is happy1 and becomes during his life an honour to the holy religion of ,buddha40 ,the various subjects he intends to treat of in this work are arranged under seven heads1 which are laid down in his own original way as follows3--,the observance of the precepts and the practice of meditation are the two-fold foundation of the spiritual edifice4 ,the consideration of the nature and form of matter shall be the right foot of the sage2 the investigation about the causes and principles of living beings shall be as his left foot2 the application of the mind to find out the four high-roads to perfection1 and the obtaining the freedom from all passions1 shall be as his right and left hands2 and the possession of the perfect science or knowledge shall be as his head4 ,the happy man who shall have reached so far will be certain to obtain the deliverance4 ,this summary is thus divided by our guide into seven distinct parts1 which will be condensed into six articles4 ,it is as well to add that this work1 an abridged translation of which is now set before the reader1 was composed at first in the ,siamese language at ,bangkok1 and has been subsequently translated into ,burmese4 ,we find1 therefore1 that all the principles expounded throughout are received as genuine on the banks of the ,irrawaddy as well as on those of the ,meinam1 and may be looked upon as a faithful exposition of the highest tenets of ,buddhism1 such as they are held in both countries4 ,this observation confirms a notion which has been denied by many1 viz41 that the chief doctrines of ,buddhism are pretty nearly the same in all the places where it has become the dominant creed4 ,the discrepancies to be met here and there relate principally to practices and observances which present to the eyes of the observer an infinite variety of hues and forms4 ,when ,buddhism was established in several countries1 it did not destroy many observances and practices that were found deeply engrafted on the customs and manners of the people2 it tolerated them1 and made with them a tacit compromise4 ,as1 for instance1 the worship of ,nats existed among the tribes of the ,irrawaddy valley long before the introduction of ,buddhism4 ,most of the superstitious rites now prevailing in ,burmah originate from that belief4 ,with the ,chinese the worship of ancestors continues to subsist side by side with ,buddhism1 though the latter creed has nothing to do with it4 ,in ,nepaul and at ,ceylon1 ,hindu superstitions obtrude themselves on the view of the observer to such an extent that it is not easy to state which of the two creeds obtains the preference4 ,,article ,i4 ,,of ,,the ,,precepts4 ,our author1 in a truly philosophical spirit1 at first puts to himself the three following questions3 ,what is the origin of the law8 ,what is man1 the subject of the law8 ,what is the individual who is the promulgator of the law8 ,the three questions he answers in the following manner3 #ast4 ,all that exists is divided into two distinct parts1 the things which are liable to change and obey the principle of mutability1 such as matter1 its modifications1 and all beings which have a cause2#de and those which are eternal and immutable1 that is to say1 the precepts of the law and ,neibban4 ,these have neither author nor cause2 they are self-existing1 eternal1 and placed far beyond the reach of the influence that causes mutability4 #b;d4 ,as to the publisher of the law1 ,buddha1 he is a mere man1 who during myriads of centuries has accumulated merits on merits1 until he has obtained the ,neibban of ,kiletha1 or the deliverance from all passions4 ,from that moment till his death this eminent personage is constituted the master of religion and the doctor of the law4 ,owing to his perfect science he finds out and discovers all the precepts that constitute the body of the law4 ,impelled by his matchless benevolence towards all beings1 he promulgates them for the salvation of all4 ,he is not the inventor of those precepts2 he merely discovers them by the power of the supreme intelligence1 in the same manner as we perceive clearly during the night1 by the help of a light1 objects hitherto wrapped in utter darkness4 #c;d4 ,man1 who is to be subjected to the observance of the law1 is distinguished by the following characteristics4 ,he possesses more knowledge than the animals and other beings1 except the ,nats and ,brahmas2 his intelligence and thoughts reach farther than those of other beings2 he is capable of reflecting1 comparing1 drawing inferences1 and observing freely the rules of life2#df despite the allurement of his passions1 he can free himself from the three great passions1 concupiscence1 anger1 and ignorance2 finally1 he is a descendant from those ,brahmas who1 in the beginning of this world1 came from their seat1 lived on earth1 and1 by their eating the rice ,tsale1 lost all their glorious privileges1 and became beings similar to those who are known to us under the denomination of men4 ,the great end to be aimed at in the observance of the precepts of the law and the exercise of meditation is the obtaining of a state of complete indifference to all things4 ,the state of indifference alluded to does not consist in a stupid carelessness about the things of this world4 ,it is the result of a knowledge acquired with much labour and pain4 ,the wise man who has possessed himself of such science is no longer liable to the influence of that vulgar illusion which makes people believe in the real existence of things that have no reality about them1 but subsist only on an ephemeral basis1 which incessantly changes and finally vanishes away4 ,he sees things as they truly are4 ,he is full of contempt for things which are at best a mere illusion4 ,this contempt generates a complete indifference for all that exists1 even for his own being4 ,he longs for the moment when it shall be given to him to cast away his own body1 that he may no longer move within the circle of endless and miserable forms of existence4 ,in this sense must be understood the state of perfect quietism or indifference1 which is the last stage the wise man may reach by the help of the science he possesses4 ,the religious of the ,brahminical creed have professed the same indifference for all the accidents of life4 ,hence our ,buddha1 when he became a perfected being1 looked on the wicked ,dewadat with the same feelings as he did on the great ,maia1 his mother4 ,numberless ,rathees or anchorites have ever been eulogised for having allowed themselves to be devoured by ferocious beasts or bit by venomous snakes1 rather than offer the least resistance that could exhibit a sign of non-indifference4 ,entire was their unconcern towards their very body1 which they knew well is1 as everything else1 a compound of the four elements1 a mere illusion1 totally distinct from self4 ,five commandments constitute the very basis whereupon stand all morals1 and are obligatory on all men without exception4 ,they include five prohibitions4 7,it is not a little surprising that the five precepts obligatory on all men are merely five prohibitions designed not to teach men what they have to do1 but warning them not to do such things as are interdicted to them4 ,this supposes that man is prone to do certain acts which are sinful4 ,the ,buddhist law of the five precepts forbids him to yield to such propensities1 but it does not teach him particular duties to perform4 ,it does not elevate man above his original level1 but it aims at preventing him from falling lower47 ,the five prohibitions are3 ,not to destroy the life of any being2 not to steal2 not to commit adultery2 not to tell lies2 not to drink any intoxicating liquors or beverages4 ,our author seems to be a perfect master in casuistry1 as he shows the greatest nicety and exactness in explaining all the requisite conditions that constitute a trespassing of those precepts4 ,we will give here but a few samples of his uncommon proficiency in this science4 ,as regards the first prohibition1 he says1 five things are necessary to constitute an offence against the first commandment1 viz41 a being that has life1 the intention and will of killing that being1 an act which is capable of inflicting death1 and the loss of life of that being consequent on the inflicting of that action4 ,should but one of these conditions be wanting1 the sin could not be said to have taken place1 and therefore no complete trespassing of the first prohibition4 ,again1 as regards the second precept1 five circumstances or conditions are necessary to constitute a trespassing1 viz41 an object belonging to another person1 who neither by words nor signs showed any intention to part with it2 the knowing that the owner intends to keep possession of it2 having the actual intention to take away secretly or forcibly that object2 an effort to become possessed of the thing by deceiving1 injuring1 or by mal-practices causing the owner or keeper of the thing to fall asleep2 and1 finally1 removing the thing from its place1 however short may be the distance1 should it be but that of the length of a hair of the head4 ,for the infraction of the third precept the following conditions are required3 the intention and will of sinning with any person of another sex1 which comes within the denomination of ,akamani-jathan1 that is to say1 persons whom it is forbidden to touch2 acting up to that intention and the consummating of such an act4 ,women that fall under the above denomination are divided into twenty classes4 ,the eight first classes include those that are under the guardianship of their parents or relatives2 the ninth class comprises those affianced before they be of age2 the tenth1 those reserved for the king4 ,within the ten other classes come all those who1 owing to their having been slaves1 or from any other cause1 have become concubines to their masters1 or married their seducers1 c4 ,the fourth prohibition extends not only to lies1 but likewise to slander1 coarse and abusive expressions1 and vain and useless words4 ,the four following conditions constitute a lie1 viz41 saying a thing that is untrue2 the intention of saying such a thing2 making manifest such an intention by saying the thing2 and some one's hearing and clearly understanding the thing that is uttered4 ,that the sin of medisance may be said to exist1 it is required that the author of it should speak with the intention of causing parties to hate each other or quarrel with each other1 and that the words spoken to that end should be heard and understood by the parties alluded to4 ,the fifth precept forbids the drinking of ,sura and ,meria1 that is to say1 of distilled liquors and of intoxicating juices extracted from fruits and flowers4 ,the mere act of putting the liquor in the mouth does not constitute a sin2 the swallowing of it is implied4 ,besides these five general precepts1 obligatory on all the faithful without exception1 there are three other precepts1 or rather counsels1 that are strongly recommended to the ,upasakas1 or pious laymen4 ,they are designed as barriers against the great propensity inherent in nature which causes men to exceed in all that is used1 through the senses of taste1 hearing1 seeing1 smelling1 and feeling4 ,they are so many means that help to obtain a sober moderation in the daily use of the things of the world4 ,the first counsel regulates all that regards eating4 ,it forbids using any comestible from noon to daybreak of the following morning4 ,the second interdicts the assisting at plays1 comedies1 and the use of flowers and essences with the intention of fondly handling and smelling them4 ,the third prescribes the form and size of beds1 which ought never to be more than one cubit high1 plain and without ornaments4 ,the use of mattresses and pillows1 filled with cotton or other soft substances1 is positively prohibited4 ,the very intention of lying upon these enervating superfluities1 and a fortiori reclining on them1 constitutes the breaking of such a command4 ,these three latter precepts are to be observed chiefly in the following days1 on the #eth1 #hth1 #adth1 and #aeth of the waxing moon1 and on the #eth1 #hth1 and #adth of the waning moon1 as well as on the new moon4 ,the pious ,upasakas sometimes observe them during the three consecutive months of the season of ,lent4 ,in the opinion of our author those men and women are deserving of the respectable title of ,upasakas who have the greatest respect for and entertain a pious affection towards the three precious things1 ,buddha1 the law1 and the assembly of the perfect4 ,they must ever view them as the haven of salvation and the securest asylums4 ,they must be ready to sacrifice everything1 their very life1 for the sake of these three perfect things4 ,during their lifetime1 under all circumstances1 they must aim at following scrupulously the instructions of ,buddha1 such as they are embodied in the law and preached by the ,rahans4 ,five offences disqualify a man for the honourable title of ,upasaka1 viz41 the want of belief and confidence in the three precious things1 the non-observance of the eight precepts1 the believing in lucky and unlucky days1#dg or in good and bad fortune1 the belief in omens and signs1 and keeping company with the impious1 who have no faith in ,buddha4 ,we now come to the rules which are prescribed to all the ,buddhist religious4 ,they are #bbg in number1 and are found in a book called ,patimauk4 ,this book is the vade mecum of all religious4 ,they study it and often learn it by heart4 ,on certain days of each month the religious assemble in the ,thein4 ,the ,patimauk is then read1 explained1 and commented upon by one of the elders of the fraternity4 ,it is an abridgment of the ,wini1 the great book of discipline4 ,it teaches the various rules respecting the four articles offered by the faithful to the religious2 that is to say1 vestments1 food1 mats1 and the ingredients for mastication4 ,these rules likewise regulate all that relates to the mode of making prayers1 devotions1 walking1 sitting1 reclining1 travelling1 c4 ,everything is described with a minute particularity4 ,here1 if any interest could be awakened1 would be the place to enter into the system of casuistry carried by ,buddhist religious to a point of nicety and refinement truly astonishing4 ,suffice it to state that they have gone over the boundless field of speculative conjectures respecting all the possible ways of fulfilling or trespassing the precepts and regulations that concern the body of religious4 ,every law and precept must have a sanction4 ,this essential requisite is not wanting in the ,buddhist system4 ,let us examine in what consists the reward attending a regular and correct observance of the precepts1 and what is the punishment inflicted on the transgressors of these ordinances4 ,as usual1 we will follow our author and allow him to make known his own opinions on this important subject4 ,it is often inquired of us1 says he1 why some individuals live here during many years1 whilst others appear but for a short time on the scene of this world4 ,the reason of the difference in the respective condition of these persons is obvious and evident4 ,the first1 during their former existence1 have faithfully observed the first command and refrained from killing beings1 hence their long life2 the second1 on the contrary1 have been guilty of some trespassings of this precept1 and therefore the influence of their former crimes causes the shortness of their life4 ,in a similar manner we account for all the differences that exist in the conditions of all beings4 ,the observance or trespassing of one or several precepts creates the positions of happiness and unhappiness1 of riches and poverty1 of beauty and ugliness1 that chequer the lives and positions of mortals in this world4 ,in addition to the rewards bestowed immediately in this world1 there are the six seats of ,nats1 where all sorts of recompenses are allotted1 during immense periods1 to those who have correctly attended to the ordinances of the law4 ,there are likewise places of punishment in the several hells1 reserved to the transgressors of the precepts4 ,the conditions of animal1 ,athoorikes and ,preittas1 are other states of punishment4 ,a lengthened account of all that relates to the blissful regions of ,nats and the gloomy abodes of hell is found in one of the great ,dzats1 or accounts of the former existences of ,gaudama1 given by himself to his disciples1 when he was a prince under the name of ,nemi4 ,the writer has read and partly translated this work1 which delightfully reminded him of the fine episodes on similar subjects he had read in the sixth book of the neid4 ,the wildest1 most fertile1 and inventive imagination seems to have exhausted its descriptive powers1 on the one hand1 in multiplying the pleasures enjoyed in the seats of ,nats1 and beautifying and adorning those delightful regions2 and1 on the other1 in representing with a dark and bloody pencil the frightful picture of the numberless and horrid torments of the regions of desolation1 despair1 and agony4 ,all that is so abundantly related of the fortunate abodes of ,nats in their sacred writings supplies the ,buddhist religious with agreeable and inexhaustible topics of sermons which they deliver to their hearers1 to excite them more effectually to bestow on them abundant alms4 ,the credulous hearers are always told that the most conspicuous places in those regions are allotted to those who have distinguished themselves by their great liberalities4 ,we think it idle and superfluous1 uninteresting and fatiguing to repeat those fabulous accounts of the seats of ,nats and abodes of hell1 as given at great length by ,buddhist authors4 ,the only particulars deserving to be attended to are these3 the reward is always proportionate to the sum of merits1 and punishment to that of demerit4 ,there is no eternity of reward or of punishment4#dh ,this first article shall be concluded by an important remark bearing upon the system under consideration4 ,the seats of happiness1 as already mentioned1 are divided into two great classes2 the one including the superior1 and the other the inferior seats4 ,the latter are the six seats of ,nats1 and are tenanted by beings as yet under the influence of concupiscence and other passions4 ,those who observe the five general precepts have placed1 and1 as it were1 established themselves on the basis whereupon stands perfection1 but not yet in perfection itself2 they have just crossed the threshold thereof4 ,they are as yet imperfect2 but they have prepared themselves for entering the way that leads towards perfection2 that is to say1 meditation1 or the science of ,dzan4 ,the very reward enjoyed in those seats is1 therefore1 as yet an imperfection4 ,the superior seats can only be reached by those who apply themselves to mental exercises4 ,these exercises are the real foundation of the lofty structure of perfection and the high-road to it4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,,of ,,meditation ,,and ,,its ,,various ,,degrees4 ,this and the following articles contain subjects of so abstruse and refined a nature1 that it would require one to possess the science of a ,buddha to come to a right understanding of them4 ,the difficulties arising from this study are due to the confused and very unsatisfactory ideas of the ,buddhist philosophers respecting the soul and its spirituality1 and perhaps to the inability of the writer to understand the vague and undefined terms employed to convey their ideas on these matters4 ,the field of ,buddhist metaphysics is1 to a ,european1 in a great measure a new one2 the meaning of the terms is half-understood by the ,burmese translators2 definitions of terms do not convey explanations such as we anticipate1 and ideas seem to run in a new channel2 they assume1 if we may say so1 strange forms3 divisions and subdivisions of the various topics have no resemblance to what a ,european is used to in the study of philosophy4 ,the student feels himself ushered into a new region2 he is doomed to find his way by groping4 ,finally1 the false position assumed by the ,indian philosophers1 and the false conclusions they arrive at1 contribute to render more complicated the task of elucidating this portion of the ,buddhist system4 ,that the difficulties may be somewhat lessened1 and the pathway rendered less rugged and a little smooth1 the writer proposes to avoid as much as it is in his power overcharging with ,pali terms the explanations he is about to afford1 under the guidance of the ,buddhist author4 ,in the preceding article we have treated of meritorious actions that are purely exterior1 and briefly alluded to the nature of the rewards bestowed on earth and in the six seats of ,nats upon those who have performed these good actions4 ,now we leave behind all the exterior good deeds1 and turn the attention of our mind to something more excellent1 to those acts that are purely interior1 and are performed solely by the soul and the right exercise of its faculties2 that is to say1 by meditation and contemplation4 ,the root of all human miseries is ignorance4 ,it is the generating principle of concupiscence and other passions4 ,it is the dark but lofty barrier that encircles all beings and retains them within the vortex of endless existences2 it is the cause of all existences1 and of all those illusions to which beings are miserably subjected2 it causes those continual changes which take place in the production of all beings4 ,this great cause once found and proclaimed by ,buddha1 it was necessary to procure a remedy to counteract the action of ignorance1 and successfully oppose its progress4 ,another antagonistic and opposite principle had to be found1 adequate to resist the baneful agency of ignorance and stem its sad and misfortune-creating influence4 ,that principle is science or knowledge4 ,ignorance is but a negative agent3 it is only the absence of science4 ,let knowledge be1 and ignorance shall vanish away in the same manner as darkness is noiselessly but irresistibly dissipated by the presence of light4 ,all beings in this universe1 says our author1 are doomed to be born and die4 ,we quit this place to go and live in another2 we die here to be born elsewhere4 ,we can never be freed from pain1 old age1 and death4 ,whether we like it or not1 we must suffer and always suffer4 ,but why is it so8 ,because we do not possess the perfect science4 ,were we blessed with it1 we would infallibly look towards ,neibban1 and then1 escaping from the pursuit of pain and miseries1 we would infallibly obtain the deliverance from those evils which now incessantly press upon us4 ,it rests with us only to perfect our intelligence1 so that we might gradually attain to the perfect science1 the source of all good4 ,but by what means is so desirable an end to be obtained8 ,by the exercise of meditation1 answers1 with a decided tone1 our philosopher4 ,this word implies1 besides1 our intellectual operations of a superior order1 such as contemplation1 visions1 ecstasy1 union1 c41 which are the more or less complete results of that intellectual exercise4 ,the act of meditating can take place but in the heart1 where resides the mano1 or the faculty of knowing4 ,its object can never be but the nam-damma1 literally the name of the thing2 or1 in other terms1 the things of a purely intellectual nature4 ,but it can by no means happen in the seats of the other senses or organs1 such as the eyes1 the ears1 c41 which are only channels to communicate impressions to the faculty of mano4 ,the constitutive parts of meditation are five in number4 ,witteka1 the action of raising the mind to an object2 ,witzara1 the attentive consideration of that object2 ,piti1 the bringing of the soul and body to a state of satisfaction2 ,suka1 the pleasure enjoyed in the thing considered2 ,ekatta1 the perseverance or stability of the mind in that object4 ,there is also ,upekka1 which implies a greater and more intense degree of fixity of the mind1 extending not only to one object in particular1 but to all things4 ,it may be called the absolute quietism of the soul1 and the net result of a complete course of general meditation on the universality of things4 ,it is the last and highest point that can ever be reached4 ,to explain more fully the nature and definitions of the two first parts1 our philosopher has recourse to the following comparison4 ,let us suppose a man that has to cleanse a rusty copper vessel4 ,with one hand he grasps the vessel1 and with the other he rubs it up and down1 right and left4 ,this is exactly what is done by the means of ,witteka and ,witzara4 ,the first gets hold of the object of meditation1 and the second causes the mind to pass and repass over it1 until it has perfectly seen it in all its particulars4 ,the third stage in the exercise of meditation is that of ,piti1 which consists in a sort of transitory delectation1 experienced by him who has reached that third step of mental labour4 ,it produces on the whole frame the following effects3--,it seems to him that is engaged in that exercise that the hairs of his head stand on an end1 so strong is the sensation he then feels2 at other times it produces in the soul sensations similar to that of the lightning that rends the atmosphere4 ,sometimes it is in a commotion resembling that of mighty waves breaking on the shore2 at other times the subject is1 as it were1 carried through the air1 or only raised above the ground1 and occasionally it causes a chill running throughout all the limbs4 ,when these results have been1 through persevering efforts1 repeatedly experienced with an ever-increasing degree of intensity1 the following effects are attained3--,the body and the soul are completely restrained1 subdued1 and composed2 they are almost beyond the influence of concupiscence4 ,both acquire a remarkable lightness1 so that the exercise of meditation offers no further trouble or labour2 the natural repugnance or opposition to self-recollection is done away with1 then the exercise of meditation becomes pleasing from the pleasurable state of the soul and body1 and finally both parts are in a true and genuine condition1 so that what there was previously in them either vicious or opposed to truth disappears at once and vanishes away4 ,such are the various effects experienced by the soul that has reached the degree of ,piti1 or mental satisfaction4 ,when the soul and body have thus been perfectly subdued1 and freed from all that could wrongly affect them1 the soul then reaches the state of ,suka1 that is to say1 of perfect and permanent pleasure and inward delight4 ,the effects or results thereof are called ,samati1 or peace or quiescence of the soul4 ,as a matter of course1 that state of inward peace has several degrees both as regards the time it lasts and the intensity of the affection4 ,it lasts sometimes for a moment1 or for a period of uncertain duration1 as it happens when we reflect on some subject1 or we listen to a sermon4 ,at other times its duration is longer2 when1 for instance1 we are about to enter into contemplation or ecstasy1 and it lasts as long as we are in one of these states4 ,from ,piti originates the ,samati-tseit1 the idea or consciousness of inward quiescence4 ,it is the secondary cause of the real joy and delight1 and is followed by an unshaken resolution to adhere to all the precepts of the law4 ,it produces in the soul a certain freshness1 expansion1 and ravishment in the practice of virtue4 ,such a state is illustrated by the following comparison4 ,a traveller has to go over a very difficult road2 he is exposed to an intense heat1 and tormented with a burning thirst4 ,let us imagine the intensity of his delight when he finds himself on the brink of a rivulet of clear and cool water2 such is precisely the state of the soul under the influence of ,piti4 ,the state of ,suka follows it very soon4 ,it is exemplified by the condition of the traveller who has been perfectly refreshed and relieved from thirst and fatigue1 and enjoys the delightful and pleasurable effects resulting therefrom4 ,the last state or the crowning point to be arrived at by the means of meditation is that of ,upekka1 or perfect fixity1 whence originates an entire indifference to love or hatred1 pleasure or pain4 ,passions can no more affect the soul in that happy condition4 ,but in this1 as well in the preceding states1 there are several degrees1 according to the various objects it refers to4 ,in the ,upekka1 relating to the five senses1 man is no more affected by beautiful or unseemly objects1 by harsh or melodious sounds1 c4 ,as to what refers to creatures1 man has neither love nor dislike for them4 ,man obtains the state of ,upekka1 relating to science or knowledge1 by examining and considering all things through the medium of the three great principles1 aneitsa1 duka1 anatta1 that is to say1 change1 pain1 and illusion4 ,there is also the uirya upekka2 as when a man1 after great struggles and efforts to obtain a certain object1 sees that he cannot reach it1 he becomes indifferent to it1 and without trouble or the least disquiet gives up the undertaking4 ,there are many other effects of the ,upekka mentioned by our author1 the enumeration of which would prove tedious4 ,what has been just stated is sufficient to afford a correct idea of the nature of the highest state of meditation that the human mind can ever reach4 ,the last and most transcendent result of the condition of ,upekka is this3 when an individual1 by successful exertions1 has ascended to the top of the spiritual ladder1 there is a certain virtue that attracts everything to him4 ,he becomes a centre to which all appear to converge4 ,he is like the central point of our planet1 that ever remains distinct from the bodies it incessantly draws to itself4 ,seated in the centre of the most complete quietism1 the sage contemplates1 without the least effort1 the unclouded truth that indefinitely unfolds itself before him4 ,hence1 as our author observes1 the sage that has reached the state of ,upekka has no more to pass successively through the four preceding stages to be enabled to meditate2 that is to say1 he no more requires the help of thought1 reflection1 satisfaction1 and pleasure4 ,he is in the middle of the cloudless atmosphere of truth which he enjoys1 and therein remains as unmoved as truth itself4 ,as stated in the previous article1 the observance of the precepts1 or the performance of exterior good actions1 draws abundant rewards upon those who faithfully comply with them4 ,these rewards are bestowed either in the seat of man or in the six abodes of ,nats1 which we will agree to call the six inferior heavens1 where concupiscence as yet holds its empire4 ,the inward good deeds produced by the operation of the intellectual faculties of the soul being of an incomparably greater value than the external ones1 the recompense of the former is of a higher order than that of the latter4 ,hence there are twenty superior heavens reserved to the sages that have made progress in meditation4#di ,the accounts of the ,buddhists respecting the extent of these seats1 their respective distance in a perpendicular direction1 the myriads of centuries to stay in each of them1 c41 are puerilities not worth attending to1 and in no way belonging to the genuine and original ,buddhism4 ,they are the inventions in subsequent ages of individuals who wished to emulate their neighbours and rivals1 the ,hindus1 at a time when the latter substituted the gross and revolting idolatry of the ,puranas for the purer doctrines of the ,vedas4 ,but what is directly to our purpose is the distinction of these twenty seats into two classes4 ,the first comprises sixteen seats1 under the designation of ,rupa1 or matter2 the second includes four seats1 called ,arupa1 or immaterial abodes or conditions4 ,here are located on a grand and immense scale1 according to their respective proficiency in science and meditation1 the beings that have striven to advance in knowledge by the exertion of the mental faculties4 ,the general appellation given to each class bears a great meaning1 and therefore deserves explanation4 ,in the sixteen seats of ,rupa are placed the contemplatives who have as yet a body1 and have not been hitherto able to disengage themselves from some affection to matter4 ,the subjects of their meditations are still the beings inhabiting this material world1 together with some of the ,kathain1 or coarser portion of their being4 ,but in the four seats called ,arupa1 which terminate the series of ,buddhist heavens1 the contemplatives are destitute of shape and body2 they are almost brought to the condition of pure spirits4 ,in their sublime and lofty flight in the regions of spiritualism1 they seem to have bid a last farewell to this world1 and to be no longer concerned with material things4 ,let us glance rapidly over these various seats1 and pay a visit to the beings that have been rewarded with a place in them1 owing to their great proficiency in the mental exercise of meditation4 ,we will begin with the lowest seat1 and from it successively ascend to the loftiest4 ,we must bear in remembrance that there are1 as above stated1 five degrees of meditation or five parts1 viz41 perception1 reflection1 satisfaction1 happiness1 and fixity4 ,he who has been much exercised in the first degree shall inhabit one of the three first seats of ,rupa4 ,those who1 leaving aside the first degree1 shall delight in the second and third1 shall inhabit1 according to their respective progress1 one of the three following seats4 ,those who take delight only in the fourth degree1 having no further aid of the three first parts1 perception1 consideration1 and satisfaction1 shall be located in the seventh1 eighth1 and ninth seats4 ,when the fifth degree of ,dzan1 or meditation1 has been attained1 that is to say1 when a privileged contemplative is able to meditate and contemplate1 without having recourse to the representation and consideration of the object1 without allowing himself to be influenced by pleasures or joy1 then he has attained to the state of fixity and indifference2 he occupies the tenth and eleventh seats4 ,the five remaining seats bear the collective name of ,thoodawata1 or abodes of the pure or perfect1 that is to say1 the dwelling-place of those who have entered into the current of perfection4 ,they are inhabited by the ,kaliana ,putadzans1 and the four sorts of contemplatives called ,thautapan1 ,thakadagan1 ,anagan1 and ,rahandas4 ,the latter have entered into the ,thoda1 or current of perfection4 ,the ,thautapans and ,thakadagans are pure and exempt from all influence of demerits2 the ,anagans are delivered from the five concupiscences4 ,the ,rahandas are enjoying a perfect indifference for all4 ,they are strangers to such language as this3 ,i am great1 ,i am greater1 ,i am greatest4 ,such terms of comparison are but mere illusions2 they are deceitful sounds that confuse1 distract1 and bewilder the ignorant4 ,above the ,thoodawata seats are the four called ,arupa1 or immaterial4 ,the denizens of these places first recognise that the miseries attending man in this world have their origin in the body4 ,they then conceive the utmost disgust and horror for it2 they long for the dissolution of this agent to all wickedness4 ,so great is their horror for bodies and matter1 that they no longer select them for subjects of meditation2 they endeavour to cross beyond the limits of materiality1 and launch forth into the boundless space1 where this material world does not seem to reach4 ,the inhabitants of the first seat have assumed for their subject of meditation the ,akasa1 the air1 the fluid of the atmosphere1 or the space4 ,those of the second meditate on the ,winiana1 or the spirit1 or life of beings1 taken in an abstract sense2 those of the third contemplate the ,akintzi1 or immensity2 those of the fourth1 ,newathagnia1 lose themselves in the infinity4 ,by what mental process has the sage to pass in order to reach the first degree of sublime contemplation8 ,he will have to begin with the consideration of the form of some material object1 say one of the four elements4 ,let him afterwards set aside those ,kathain1 or material portions of the element brought under consideration1 and occupy his mind with the ether1 or fluid1 or space2 the former1 that is to say1 the kathain1 shall disappear to give place to something divested of all those coarser forms1 and the mind shall be fixed only on the akatha4 ,the sage then shall repeat ten hundred thousand times these words1--,the space or air is infinite1 until there will appear at last the first tseit1 or idea of arupa4 ,in a similar manner1 the tseit akan1 or the idea of conformity with purpose1 disappears2 then begins the science of upekka1 or indifference1 with its four degrees2 the idea that then succeeds is precisely that of akasa ananda1 or infinite ether1 or space4 ,this unintelligible mental process is explained by a comparison4 ,if they shut with a white cloth the opening of a window1 the persons inside the room1 turning their eyes in the direction of the opening1 see nothing but the white cloth4 ,should the cloth be suddenly removed1 they perceive nothing but that portion of the space corresponding with the extent of the window4 ,the piece of cloth represents the material forms1 that are the subjects of meditation1 or contemplation1 of those living in the seats of ,rupa2 the free opening of the window exemplifies the subjects of contemplation reserved to the first class of arupa4 ,having reached so far1 the contemplative soon feels the utmost disgust for all material forms1 and is entirely delivered from the three ,thagnia1 or false persuasions1 supplied by matter1 by the action of the senses1 and by the result of merits and demerits4 ,he is displeased with all the coarser forms of beings4 ,the action of the contemplative has its sphere in the mano1 or seat of knowledge4 ,the ideas originating from the action of the senses have no share in that purely intellectual labour4 ,in that state1 the sage has fallen into a condition of so perfect abstraction1 that all the accidents on the part of the elements can produce no effect over him4 ,the action of the senses is completely suspended during all the time that the contemplation lasts4 ,in fact this is nothing else but thamabat1 or ecstasy4 ,the same course of meditation must be followed by the sages inhabiting the other three seats2 only the object to be contemplated will be different4 ,having explained the important subject of meditation1 endeavoured to show the different parts or degrees of that intellectual exercise1 and given a faint outline of the recompenses bestowed on those that have distinguished themselves by proficiency in that exercise1 we have now to follow our author1 and1 with him1 make ourselves acquainted with the principal subjects that attract the attention of the contemplative4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,,of ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,beings4 ,the ,buddhist philosopher1 in his earnest prosecution after the antidote of ignorance1 that is1 science1 rightly states that all beings1 and man1 in particular1 must ever be the first and most interesting subject the sage has to study4 ,the knowledge of man in particular constitutes a most important portion of the science he must acquire1 ere he can become a perfect being1 and be deemed worthy to be admitted to the state of ,neibban4 ,in the very limited sketch of this part of the work under consideration1 the attention of the reader will be directed on man as the most interesting of all beings4 ,with our ,buddhist author1 therefore1 he will take human beings as the subject of his investigations4 ,provided with the philosophical dissecting knife1 he will anatomise all the component parts of that extraordinary being1 whose nature has ever presented an insoluble problem to ancient sages4 ,what is to be said on this subject will be sufficient to convey a correct idea of the mode of reasoning and arguing followed by ,buddhist philosophers1 when they analyse other beings and select them for the subjects of their meditations4 ,at the very beginning1 our author proclaims this great maxim3 ,all beings living in the three worlds1 heaven1 earth1 and hell1 have in themselves but two things or attributes1 ,rupa and ,nam1 form and name4 ,accustomed as we are to a language that expresses clear and distinct notions1 we would like to hear him say1 in nature there are but two things1 matter and spirit4 ,but such is not the language of ,buddhists1 and ,i apprehend that were we giving up their somewhat extraordinary1 and1 to us1 unusual way of expressing their ideas1 we could not come to a correct knowledge of the notions they entertain respecting the nature of man4 ,let us allow our author to speak for himself1 and1 as much as possible1 express himself in his own way4 ,by rupa1 we understand form and matter2 that is to say1 all that is liable per se to be destroyed by the agency of secondary causes4 ,nam1 or nama1 is the thing1 the nature of which is known to the mind by the instrumentality of mano1 or the knowing principle4 ,in the five aggregates constituting man1 viz41 materiality or form1 the organs of sensation1 of perception1 of consciousness1 and those of intellect1 there is nothing else to be found but form and name4 ,we are at once brought to this materialist conclusion1 that in man we can discover no other element but that of form and that of name4 ,to convey a sort of explanation of this subject1 our author gives here a few notions respecting the six senses4 ,i say six senses1 because with him1 besides the five ordinary senses1 he mentions the mano1 or the knowing principle that resides in the heart1 as one of the senses4 ,the organs or faculties of seeing1 hearing1 feeling1 tasting1 smelling1 and knowing1 he calls the inward senses4 ,these same organs1 as they come in contact with exterior objects1 are called exterior senses4 ,the faculty inherent in each of the senses whereby is operated the action between the organ and its object is designated by the appellation of the life of the senses1 as1 for instance1 the eye seeing1 the ear hearing1 c4 ,in this treble mode of considering the senses1 what do we meet with but form and name1 ideas and matter8 ,supposing the organ of seeing to exist1 and an object to be seen1 there will necessarily result1 as an essential consequence1 the perception or idea of such a thing4 ,even as regards the mano1 where there exists the heart on one side1 and truth on the other1 there will follow immediately the idea or perception of truth4 ,this materialist doctrine1 if the meaning of our author be accurately understood1 is further confirmed by the method he proposes for carrying on the investigation respecting the nature of things4 ,he who desires to penetrate deeply into such a sublime science must have recourse to the help of meditation4 ,having selected an object1 he considers it by the means of witekka4 ,he passes successively through the ideas and impressions he derives from the contemplation of such an object4 ,he then says to himself3 the ideas obtained by means of witekka1 or the first degree of dzan1 or meditation1 are nothing but nam-damma1 since their nature is to offer themselves to the arom1 as the thought to its object4 ,but where is the seat of that arom8 ,it resides in the substance of the heart1 which1 in reality1 affords asylum both to it and to the nam-damma4 ,it is nowhere else to be found4 ,but what is the heart8 ,whence does it come8 ,by what is it formed8 ,to these three questions we answer1 that the heart is composed of the four elements4 ,it is but one and the same thing with them4 ,this startling doctrine is explicit1 and excludes at once the idea of a spiritual substance4 ,our author has now reached the elements of the parts constituting all that exists with a form4 ,he boldly asserts that all that has an existence is but an aggregate of earth1 water1 fire1 and air2 all the forms are but modifications and combinations of the four elements4 ,the bare enumeration of this general principle is not sufficient to satisfy our philosopher4 ,he wishes to know and explain the reason of everything4 ,here begins an analysis entirely unknown to our chemists and philosophers of the west4 ,the body is divided into thirty-two parts1 which are often enumerated in formulas of prayer by pious ,buddhists4 ,each of these thirty-two parts is subdivided into forty-four4 ,the hair1 how slender soever it appears1 is submitted to that minute analysis4 ,the result of this subtle division is to show what is the proportion of each element that enters into the formation of these atomical parts4 ,we have not the patience to write down these uninteresting details1 nor do we believe that the reader will be displeased if we spare him the trouble of going over such worthless nomenclature4 ,there is another division of matter1 or body1 into forty-two parts1 called akan4 ,this is based upon the distinction of the four elements that enter unequally into the formation of the body2 twenty parts belong to the earth1 twelve to water1 six to fire1 and six to wind4 ,then again the body is divided into sixty parts2 the division is based upon the distinction of the ten constitutive parts belonging to each of the senses1 as it will be hereafter explained4 ,the object which ,buddhist philosophers have in view in entering into so many divisions and subdivisions of the forms of the body is to prove1 in their opinion to demonstration1 that1 by the nicest analysis of every part of the body1 we find in the end nothing but the primary elements that are called the supports of all that exist4 ,we have now to follow our author through a path more difficult than the preceding one1 and hear him explain the theory of ideas and their various modifications4 ,these1 says he1 are known1 not by their forms1 since they have none1 but only by their name4 ,through the practice of reflection and meditation we become acquainted with them4 ,we call them arupa damma1 things without a form or shape4 ,they are designated under the name of tseit and tsedathit1#ej that is to say1 ideas and the result of ideas4 ,where are these ideas to be met8 ,where have they their seat8 ,in the six senses and nowhere else1 is the answer4 ,having already become acquainted with the organs of the senses1 it will be easy to find out the ideas that are as the tenants of the senses4 ,all the tseits inhabiting the organs of sense are called loki tseit1 that is to say1 ideas of the world1 because they are to be met with in all the beings as yet subjected to concupiscence4 ,they are distinct from lokoudra tseits1 which belong properly to the beings free from passions1 and who have entered into the four megga1 or ways to perfection4 ,the tseits of this world are eighty-one in number1 classified as follows3 the perception of each of the five organs1 and the perception of the respective faculties of those organs4 ,this gives ten tseits4 ,there are three for the sense of the heart1 the perception of the substance of the heart1 of its faculty of knowing1 and of the object of its knowledge4 ,each of the six senses has ten constitutive forms or parts1 viz43 earth1 water1 fire1 air1 colour1 odour1 taste1 fluid1 life1 and the body attached primitively thereto4 ,now there is an action from each of these forms upon the subject4 ,thence ten tseits to each of the six senses4 ,there are no words so ill defined and so ill understood by our philosopher as the two words ,tseit and ,tsedathit4 ,the first in a moral sense means idea1 thought1 perception1 etc42 in a physical sense it means that secondary cause created by kan1 producing the living being1 the senses wherein reside the moral tseit4 ,tsedathit1 being the result of ideas1 must1 of course1 have likewise two meanings4 ,in the first place it will designate the impressions made upon us by ideas2 in the second1 it will mean the secondary cause or life in the body1 or the modifications of the principles of corporeal life4 ,this being premised1 we may a little understand our author when he says3 ,there are seven tsedathits existing at the same time as the eighty-one above-mentioned tseits1 viz43 pasa tsedathit1 so called because it is the real effect of the tsedathit to attain its object1 and1 as it were1 to touch it4 ,we may call it the agreement between the idea and its object4 ,wedana tsedathit1 the feeling of the impression of an idea2 thagnia tsedathit1 the comprehension of the object2 dzetana tsedathit1 the inclination for the object2 eketa tsedathit1 the fixity on the object2 dziwi-teindre tsedathit1 the observance of what relates to form and name2 and mana sikaramana tsedathit1 consciousness4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the tsedathit is neither the idea nor the object of the idea1 but the result from the idea that has come in contact with an object4 ,these seven results are1 if we may say so1 the third part of the idea4 ,they do not give occasion to modifications of ideas4 ,but those which really give rise to the greatest variety of results are the akuso tsedathit1 or the results of evil thoughts and ideas1 and their opposite1 or kuso tsedathit1 or the consequence of good and virtuous thoughts4 ,to mention here all the kuso and akuso tsedathit would be but a dry exposition of the nomenclature of the vices and virtues1 such as is met with in the catalogues of ,buddhist moralists4 ,they are all enumerated in the preceding note4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,,of ,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,the ,,form#ea ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,name1 ,,or ,,of ,,matter ,,and ,,spirit4 ,the duty of our intelligence is to investigate the cause of all the modifications of forms and names4 ,this being effected1 we are delivered from all doubts and disquietude4 ,when we perceive such a form1 such an idea1 c41 we are able forthwith to account for its causes4 ,in this study we must copy the conduct of the physician1 who1 when attending a patient1 sits by his bedside1 closely examines the nature of the distemper and the causes that have given rise to it1 in order to find out counteracting agents or remedies to check its progress at first1 and gradually to uproot it from the constitution4 ,in the moral order1 the philosopher too has to examine the nature of all moral distempers1 ascertain the principles or causes they spring from1 and thereby become qualified to cure those disorders4 ,the beings that inhabit the three worlds1 says our author1 must have a cause4 ,to say that they exist of themselves and without a cause is an absurdity4 ,the very dissimilarity we observe among them indicates that their mode of existence results from certain causes4 ,we1 however1 cannot agree with our antagonists1 the ,brahmins1 who maintain that ,maha ,brahma is the cause of all that exists4 ,this being is not out of the circle of ,rupa and ,nam2 he is himself a compound of ,nam and ,rupa1 that is to say1 effect but not cause4 ,in vain our opponents will add that all that is distinct of ,maha ,brahma is subjected to a cause1 but that the ,rupa and ,nam1 constituting his essence1 are without a cause4 ,this is removing the difficulty a little further1 without advancing a step towards its solution2 our answer must ever be the same4 ,before expounding the opinions of our philosopher on this important subject1 it is necessary to state the views entertained by that class of philosophers whose doctrines appear to have taken root in these parts4 ,it is easy to perceive that they are modifications of the opinion of the ,hindus on the same subject1 and akin to that respecting the ,adi ,buddha1 or supreme ,buddha4 ,some doctors maintain that there is a first cause or being that has made matter and spirit4 ,others1 admitting the eternal co-existence of matter and of the supreme being1 say that he is the remote cause of the organisation of matter1 as we at present see it4 ,but all agree in this1 that no one can ever come to the knowledge of that first cause1 and it is impossible ever to have an idea of it4 ,hence it is the height of folly and rash presumption to attempt to come to the knowledge of what is placed beyond the range of human investigation4 ,it behoves us to apply all the powers of the mind to discover the immediate cause that certainly produces existence4 ,the sage1 to be worthy of his sublime calling1 must remain satisfied with striving to find out that immediate cause which brings into action the form and name1 and causes the appearance of all those modifications which we call beings or forms of existence4 ,he ought to strive to account for the organisation of matter and all its modifications1 by discovering the hidden spring that effectually sets all in motion1 in action1 in combination of existences4 ,now1 our author puts this important question3 ,what thing is to be considered as the mover of the forms and ideas8 ,we know1 says he1 that the human body has its beginning in the womb of the mother2 we are acquainted with its position in that ftid and narrow prison2 its being surrounded with nerves1 veins1 c41 having above it the new elements1 and under it the old ones4 ,the manner in which the body originates in the womb much resembles the process by which worms and insects are formed in rotten substances1 and in putrid and stagnant water4 ,but this is not accounting for the real cause of living bodies4 ,the real causes1 according to some doctors1 are five in number1 viz41 ignorance1 concupiscence1 desire1 kan 7the influence of merits and demerits71 and ahan 7the aliments74 ,they concur together in the formation of the living body in the following manner4 ,ignorance1 concupiscence1 and desire give asylum to the body1 as the mother supplies the infant with a refuge in her womb4 ,kan1 like the father1 is the cause productive of the body4 ,ahan affords nourishment to the body4 ,the ideas are but the result of the formation of the organs of senses4 ,let us suppose1 for instance1 the organ of seeing4 ,the ,tsekkou ,wignian1 that is to say1 the life of the eyes1 or the ideas connected with the use of that sense1 presupposes two things1 the organ and a form or an object on which the organ acts4 ,these existing1 there necessarily result the idea of vision1 the perception1 c41 in a word1 all the ideas arising from the action of the eyes upon various objects4 ,the same mode of arguing is employed relatively to the other five senses4 ,other philosophers argue in the following way4 ,the primary causes of all ideas and thoughts are disposed under two heads1 that of ideas which have a fixed place1 and that of those that have no fixed place4 ,under the first head are comprised the six ,ayatana1 or seats of senses1 and the six ,arom1 or the objects of senses4 ,thence flow all the ideas and consequences that relate to merit and demerit4 ,under the second head are placed the causes or agents that produce ideas and thoughts1 the exercise of the intellect holding the first rank4 ,he who applies his mind to the meditation of what is good1 such as the commands and other parts of the most excellent law1 and labours to find out that all that is in this world is subjected to change1 pain1 and illusion1 opens at once the door to the coming in of the tseit1 or ideas connected with merit4 ,on the other hand1 the application of the mind to things bad and erroneous1 contrary to the prescriptions of the holy law1 generates the idea of demerit4 ,such are the causes of the ideas and thoughts4 ,as to the cause of form1 they assert that kan1 tseit1 fire1 and ahan are the sole agents in the formation of the living body4 ,kan1 as the workman1 makes the body and sets in it all that relates to its good and bad qualities4 ,the tseit1 seventy-five in number1 are also principles of the existence of the body1 of which forty-four are called ,kamawatzara tseit2 they relate to the demerit and merit of those who are still under the influence of concupiscence2 fifteen rupa watzara tseit1 relating to beings in the seats of rupa2 eight arupa watzara tseit1 relating to those in the seats of arupa2 eight lokoudara tseit1 relating to the beings that have entered on the four ways of perfection4 ,the ,tedzo-dat1 or the element of fire1 contributes its share by the head and rays of light1 and ahan by supplying the required aliments4 ,some other philosophers account for the causes of form and ideas following this course of argument4 ,the form and ideas that constitute all beings are liable to miseries1 old age1 and death1 because there is generation and death4 ,generation exists because there are worlds1 worlds exist because there is desire1 desire exists because there are organs1 organs exist because there are form and name1 form and name exist because there are concepts1 concepts exist because there is merit and demerit1 merit and demerit exist because there is ignorance4 ,the latter is1 indeed1 the real cause of all forms and ideas4 ,there is no doubt but this latter opinion is the favourite one with our author4 ,it is based upon the theory of the twelve ,nidanas1 or causes and effects1 and appears to be the orthodox opinion1 and bears the stamp of great antiquity4 ,having thus accounted in the best way he could for the existence of all that relates to the beings in the three worlds1 our author fondly dwells on the benefits that accrue from the knowledge of causes4 ,it dissipates all the doubts that had previously darkened the mind2 it quiets all the anxieties of the heart1 and affords perfect peace4 ,for want of it1 the impious fall from one error into another2 the disciples of ,buddha are chiefly perfected by its help4 ,we read in the ,buddhist scriptures that a ,brahmin went to consult ,buddha on some points that much perplexed his mind4 ,he said to him1 8,i am beset with doubts respecting the past1 the present1 and the future4 ,respecting the past1 ,i ask myself1 ,have ,i passed through former generations or not8 ,what was my condition during those existences8 ,my answer is1 ,i am ignorant on all those points4 ,what was my position previous to those generations8 ,i know it not4 ,as to the present1 is it true that ,i exist8 or is my existence but an illusion8 ,shall ,i have to be born again or not8 ,what are those living beings that surround me at present8 ,are they but so many illusions which deceive me by their appearance of reality8 ,on these points ,i am sunk in complete ignorance4 ,the future is likewise full of doubts and most perplexing uncertainties4 ,shall ,i have other generations or not8 ,what shall be my condition during these coming existences8 ,a thick veil hides from my eyes all that concerns my future destiny4 ,what are the means to clear up all those doubts that encompass me on all sides80 ,buddha said to him1 8,reflect first on this main point1 that what we are wont to call self1 or moi1 is nothing but name and form--that is to say1 a compound of the four elements1 which undergoes perpetual changes under the action or influence of ,kan4 ,having acquired the conviction of the truth of this principle1 it remains with you to investigate carefully the causes which produce both name and form4 ,this simple examination will lead you at once to the perfect solution of all your doubts4 ,behold the difference that exists between the holders of false doctrines and the true believers4 ,the former1 whom we may almost call animals1 never take the trouble to examine the nature of beings or the causes of their existence4 ,they are stubbornly attached to their false theories1 and persist in saying that what the ignorant1 delivered up to illusion1 are used to call an animal1 a king1 a subject1 a foot1 and a hand1 c41 is really an animal1 a king1 a subject1 a foot1 and a hand1 c42 whilst all living beings and their component parts are nothing else but name and form--that is to say1 a compound made up of the four elements4 ,those impious are delivered up to error2 hence it happens that they follow all different ways4 ,we reckon among them more than sixty different sects1 all at variance among themselves1 but all uniting in a common obstinacy to reject the true doctrine of ,buddha4 ,they are doomed to move incessantly within the circle of endless and wretched existences4 8,how different is the condition of the true believers1 our followers6 ,they know that the living beings inhabiting the world have a beginning4 ,but they are sensible of the folly of attempting to reach this beginning or first cause4 ,this is above the capacity of the loftiest intelligence4 ,it is evident1 for instance1 that the seeds of plants and trees1 which are continually in a state of reproduction1 have a beginning2 but what that beginning is1 no one presumes to determine4 ,so it is with man and all living beings4 ,they know well1 too1 that what is vulgarly called man1 woman1 eyes1 mouth1 are all illusory distinctions1 vanishing away in the presence of the sage1 who sees nothing in all that but name and form1 the production of ,kan and ,wibek1 that is to say1 of the first and second causes4 ,these two things are not the man and the woman1 c41 but they are the efficient causes of both4 ,what we say respecting man and woman may be applied to animals and to all other beings4 ,they are all the productions or results of ,kan and ,wibek1 quite as distinct from these two agents as effect is distinct from its cause4 ,to explain this doctrine1 ,buddhists have recourse to the comparison of a burning-glass4 ,when there is such an instrument in one hand1 and the rays of the sun pass through it to the other1 fire is then produced2 but fire is quite distinct from the two causes that have concurred jointly in producing it4 ,our disciples1 too1 are aware that the five khandas1 or aggregates constituting a living being1 succeed each other at each generation1 but in such a way that the second generation partakes or retains nothing of the khandas of the first4 ,but the causes producing them--such as ,kan and ,wibek--never change2 they ever remain the same4 ,let us suppose lamps lighted up4 ,if they burn always1 it is owing to the action of individuals that supply them with oil1 and light them as soon as they are extinguished4 ,such is the condition of the khandas4 ,those which belong to one existence have no more in common with those of the following one than the fire of the lamp just lighted anew has with that of the fire of the lamp that has just died away4 ,as to the way beings are reproduced1 we say that when a man is dying1 the last tseit having appeared and soon disappeared1 it is succeeded forthwith by the patti tseit or the tseit of the new existence2 the interval between both is so short that it can scarcely be appreciated4 ,this first tseit has nothing in common with the last one4 ,it is1 let it be well remembered1 the production of kan1 or of the influence of merits and demerits1 as well as the khandas above alluded to40 ,this article is by far the most important of all4 ,the latter part1 in particular1 elucidates in a distinct manner the genuine opinions of ,buddhism on points of the greatest concern4 ,we may sum up the whole as follows3-- #a4 ,there is a first cause that has acted in bringing into being all that exists2 but that first cause is unknown1 nor can we ever come to the knowledge of it4 #b4 ,the immediate causes of all the modifications of beings1 or states of being1 are ignorance and kan4 #c4 ,all beings are but compounds of the four elements4 ,the intellectual operations are carried on by the instrumentality of the heart1 in the same manner as vision is obtained by the means of the eye and of an object to act upon4 #d4 ,each succeeding existence is brought on and modified by the action of ,kan1 or the influence of merits and demerits4 #e4 ,the component parts of a new being are in no way connected with those of the previous being4 ,this is the key to the difficulty many persons find in accounting1 in a ,buddhistic sense1 for the process of metempsychosis4 ,a new term ought to be coined to express that doctrine4 #f4 ,the question respecting ,neibban may be theoretically resolved without difficulty1 by application of the principles contained in this and the preceding article4 ,there is no doubt that the solution forced upon the mind from what has been above stated is that the end of the perfected being is annihilation4 ,horrifying as this conclusion is1 it is not1 after all1 worse than that which is the terminus of the theories of some modern schools4 ,what an abyss is the poor human mind liable to fall into when it ceases to be guided by ,revelation6 ,,article ,v4 ,,of ,,the ,,true ,,meggas ,,or ,,ways ,,to ,,perfection4 ,the subject under consideration is a very important one4 ,it comprehends and comprises a summary of many particulars already alluded to in the foregoing two articles4 ,the reader will find the path he has to follow less rugged1 and the ground he will have to go over not so arid4 ,our author seems to lay great stress on this special point4 ,the sage1 says he1 who is desirous to arrive at the supreme perfection1 must apply all the powers of his mind to discern the true ways from the false ones4 ,many are deceived in the midst of their researches after wisdom4 ,the real criterion between the true and false ways is this3 when1 in considering an object1 and making a philosophical analysis of it1 the sage finds it somehow connected with concupiscence and other passions so far that he cannot1 as it were1 dissolve it by the application of the three principles of aneitsa1 duka1 and anatta--that is to say1 change1 pain1 and illusion1 then he must conclude that he is out of the right ways2 the high road to perfection is barred before him4 ,but on the contrary1 whenever1 by the appliance of the three great principles1 he sees that all the objects brought under his consideration are nothing more or less than the mere compound of the four elements1 divested of these illusory appearances which deceive so many1 then he may be certain that he is in the right position1 and is sure of making progress in the way to perfection4 ,to facilitate the study of the ,meggas1 ,buddhists have classified all real and imaginary beings under a certain number of heads4 ,the sage1 to complete his laborious task1 has to examine separately each of these subjects and submit them to the following lengthened1 difficult1 and complicated process4 ,he takes up one subject1 attentively considers its exterior and interior compound parts1 its connection and relation with other things1 its tendency to adhere to or part with surrounding objects4 ,pursuing his inquiries into the past1 he endeavours to make himself acquainted with the state and condition of that object during several periods that have elapsed2 when his mind is satisfied on this point he follows up in future the same object1 and calculates from the experience of the past what change it may hereafter become subjected to4 ,this study enables him to perceive distinctly that it is subjected to the three great laws of mutability1 pain1 and illusion4 ,this conviction once deeply seated in his soul1 the sage holds that object in supreme contempt2 far from having any affection for or attachment to it1 he feels an intense disgust at it1 and longs for the possession of ,neibban1 which is the exemption from the influence of mutability1 pain1 and illusion4 ,what we have now stated is tolerably clear and intelligible2 but what follows is less evident4 ,it partakes of that obscurity and complication so peculiar to ,buddhist metaphysics4 ,this state of things is created and maintained chiefly by a mania for divisions and subdivisions that would have puzzled even the schoolmen of the middle ages4 ,we have to listen to what our author says respecting the method to be observed in carrying on the great examination of all subjects of investigation4 ,if that labour be patiently and perseveringly prosecuted until all the objects of inquiry be exhausted1 ample and magnificent shall be the reward for such labours4 ,the sage will be in possession of the perfect science2 ,neibban will appear to him2 he will long for it1 and unremittingly shape his course in its direction3 in a word1 he shall have reached the acme of perfection4 ,seated on that lofty position1 enjoying a perfect calm in the bosom of absolute quietism1 the sage is beyond the reach of passions2 there is no illusion for him2 he has cut the last thread of future generations by the destruction of the influence of merits and demerits2 he has obtained the deliverance from all miseries2 he has reached the peaceful shores of ,neibban4 ,but such a prize is not easily obtained2 it is to be purchased only at the expense of an immense amount of lasting and strenuous mental exertion4 ,the sage1 agreeably to the old and always true saying1 ,know thyself1 very properly begins his mightily difficult task with the examination of the five aggregates constituting a living being1 the organs of the six senses1 and all that relates to them4 ,then he applies himself to the studies of the five ,dzan1 or the parts of meditation and contemplation1 and to all that is connected with the seats of ,rupa and ,arupa4 ,all the objects of examination ranged on that scale are #fjj in number4 ,we shall rapidly glance over this table1 indicating but the heads of the principal divisions4 ,we ought not to forget that the five aggregate1 or khandas1 constituting a living being1 are form1 sensation1 perception1 consciousness1 and intellect4 ,supposing that we take the first of those attributes as subject of examination4 ,we must represent it to the mind1 carefully examine it in all its bearings and properties1 respecting the past1 the present1 and the future4 ,we must proceed on and bring it in contact with the three great principles of aneitsa1 duka1 and anatta1 and inquire whether form be changeable or not1 passive or impassive1 transient or permanent4 ,we thereby acquire the knowledge of the following great truth2 viz41 form is essentially liable to change1 pain1 and illusion4 ,the examination of each of the four other attributes is proceeded on in a like manner1 and a similar result ensues4 ,the six organs of the senses come next under consideration4 ,these are the eyes1 the ears1 the nose1 the tongue1 the body1 or rather the skin that envelops it1 and the heart in a physical sense1 and mano in a moral one4 ,each of the six senses partakes of the eleven conditions or attributes we are about to describe2 and each of these eleven attributes being brought successively into relation with each of the six senses1 must be considered1 as above stated1 under the treble relation to mutability1 pain1 and illusion4 ,this will supply the inquirer with a good amount of information4 ,but to shorten this long enumeration1 we will mention now successively those eleven attributes the senses may be affected by1 and make the application of all to one of the senses1 the eye4 ,the same process may be easily repeated for each of the other senses4 ,nothing is to be changed but the name of the sense that has become the subject of examination4 #a4 ,ayatana1 the door1 the opening of each of the senses4 ,applied to the eye1 it is the opening through which exterior sensations are communicated to the heart by the organ of seeing4 #b4 ,arom1 the object of each of the senses4 ,with regard to the eye1 it is the appearance or form perceived by the eye2 with respect to the ear1 it is the sound4 #c4 ,winian1 the action of perceiving and knowing4 ,applied to the eyes1 it is the eye seeing and perceiving1 or the sight4 #d4 ,phasa1 literally the feeling or coming in contact with objects1 applied to each of the senses4 ,with the eye1 it is the passive and active impression it derives from the objects it considers1 and which it conveys to the heart4 ,with the ear it is the impression it receives1 and similarly communicates to the heart4 #e4 ,wedana1 the sensation of pain or pleasure obtained through the senses4 ,with the eye it is the sensation created by the sight of objects perceived by the eye1 and communicated to the heart4 #f4 ,thangia1 the idea or persuasion resulting from the six senses1 or1 according to some doctors1 the identity of the appearance with reality4 ,with the eye1 it is the conviction we have that such an object1 perceived by the eyes1 is round or square1 c41 according to the impressions received by that organ4 #g4 ,dzetana1 the inclination or rather adhesion to good or bad1 consequently to the impressions received from each of the six senses4 #h4 ,tahna1 concupiscence originating from the impressions of agreeableness communicated by the six senses4 #i4 ,witeka1 the idea or representation of objects to the mind through the agency of the senses4 #aj4 ,witzara1 the consideration of the objects offered to the mind by the instrumentality of the senses4 #aa4 ,dat1 the matter or elements of the six senses1 or1 to speak the language of our author1 that on which the organs rest1 that which supports them4 ,after the examination of the senses and of the eleven subjects just related1 we find the almost boundless field of inquiry to expand in proportion as we appear to make rapid progress4 ,then come successively for examination3 #a4 ,the ten ,kasaings1 or the ten parts or elements to be found in each part of a living being1 viz41 earth1 water1 fire1 colour1 odour1 flavour1 and grease1 to which we add the ,dziwa or life1 and that of the organ to which belongs the part under consideration4 #b4 ,the thirty-two ,akan1 or thirty-two parts of the living body1 of which the first are the hairs1 the beard1 the nails1 the teeth1 c4 #c4 ,the twelve ,ayatana1 or seats of the six senses4 ,each sense is double1 as far as it is considered in a double capacity1 that of receiving and that of transmitting the impressions4 #d4 ,the eighteen ,dat1 or matter of the six senses4 ,the organs afford six ,dat2 the objects that act upon the organs supply six other ,dat2 and the last six are afforded by the objects submitted to the action of the senses4 #e4 ,the twenty-two indre1 or faculties or capabilities of the organs4 ,each organ has three4 ,the eye1 for instance1 is capable of receiving an impression and of transmitting it2 the eye really receives and transmits impressions4 ,the mano1 or heart1 being a double organ1 has six faculties2 three if it be considered physically1 and three if morally or intellectually4 #f4 ,the nine ,bon1 or seats occupied by the ,brahmas4 #g4 ,the five ,rupa ,dzan1 or degrees of contemplation proper to the ,brahmas who have a form4 #h4 ,the four ,megga1 or ways that lead near to ,neibban4 ,they are followed by the ,brahmas occupying the four superior seats of ,rupa4 #i4 ,the ,arupa ,dzan1 or contemplation proper to those who inhabit the four immaterial seats4 #aj4 ,the nineteen ,damma4 ,this word means what we know as certain by the use of our mental faculties4 ,when the mano1 by a right use of its three faculties1 has freed itself from the principle of illusion and error1 then there will be the sixteen virtues or good qualities1 known by the name of ,phola and ,megga4 #aa4 ,finally1 the twelve ,patan1 or elements that are in the mano1 which constitute the memory1 and enable man to remember1 and silently repeat the impressions transmitted by the senses4 ,such is the immense extent of observations the sage has to range for obtaining the perfect science4 ,this task is truly an ,herculean one2 very few can perform it4 ,before coming to the last article1 the writer will make a remark tending to show that there is more of the analytic spirit in all what is told us by ,buddhist philosophers respecting those abstruse subjects than one may be tempted to give them credit for4 ,we have seen that the number of precepts and counsels is almost countless1 yet it is agreed by all doctors that the five general precepts are the basis of all1 and that he who observes them in all their bearings is as much advanced in the path of righteousness as can be expected4 ,again1 ,buddhists can never exhaust the stores of all that they have to say about the mental operations and meditation4 ,yet all is summed up in the comparatively short doctrine of tseit and tsedathit4 ,the living beings are by them infinitely modified1 yet after all we find everything condensed in two words1 ,nama and ,rupa4 ,the theory respecting the generation of beings and their mutual dependence upon each other is a boundless field4 ,we find1 however1 that1 after all1 kan1 or the influence of merits and demerits1 is the sole cause of and agent in the existence and modification of all beings4 ,mental operations are numbered by hundreds1 but the six senses are1 after all1 the foundation on which that enumeration is raised4 ,the general principles and primary ideas of all these metaphysical theories doubtless belong to genuine and early ,buddhism4 ,but such plain and elementary principles having been got hold of by heads of philosophical schools1 and worked upon in their intellectual laboratory1 there have come out therefrom at various periods those theories which have given to the doctrines of ,buddhism so many different hues1 and at the same time contributed so much to puzzle and torment the ,european student4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,,of ,,the ,,progress ,,in ,,perfect ,,science4 ,in the preceding article we have reviewed the whole scale of beings1 and analysed summarily some of them1 merely to show the way to the general analysis of all others4 ,the ultimate result of such an investigation is to acquire the conviction that all beings are subjected to mutability1 pain1 and illusion4 ,this conviction1 once seated in the soul1 generates a generous contempt for such miserable objects4 ,in this article we must see by what means this philosophical sentiment may be firmly rooted in the soul1 and man may finally entertain a thorough disgust for all creatures1 even for his own body4 ,this loathsomeness for all that exists is immediately followed up by an ardent desire of becoming free and disentangled from all the ties and trammels that encompass other beings4 ,when a man has become familiar with such a conviction to the extent that his thoughts1 desires1 and actions are entirely regulated by its immediate influence1 he is free from the errors that deceive almost all other beings2 he sees things as they are in their nature1 and appreciates them by their real value4 ,he estranges himself from them4 ,he is in mind in the state of ,neibban1 until death will complete outwardly what was already existing inwardly in his mind4 ,we are all aware1 says our author1 that the principle of instability pervades all that exists in hell1 on earth1 and in the superior seats4 ,but this important science is with many too superficially and but imperfectly understood4 ,our great object is to root it deeply in our mind1 so that we might ever be preserved from those false impressions which too often tempt us to believe that mutability and changes are not affecting all beings4 ,what are the obstacles that oppose in us the progress to true science8 ,there are three4 ,the first is ,santi1 or duration of existence4 ,we allow ourselves to be lulled into the opinion that our life shall be much longer prolonged2 that we have as yet many days1 months1 and years to spend in this world4 ,this groundless supposition prevents us from attending to the principle of mutability4 ,to counteract this dangerous impression1 let us examine how all things are born only soon to die1 and therefore let us have always death present to our mind4 ,let us consider the short duration and vanity of our being1 then we will soon be convinced that the form of the body is like the waves of the sea1 that swell for a moment and soon disappear2 that sensation is produced like froth from the dashing of the waves2 that the ,thangia1 or persuasion we acquire1 has no more stability or reality than lightning2 that the ,sangkara1 or concept1 or production1 is like the plantain-tree without strength1 and that the view of objects through our senses deserves no more credit than the words of a quack4 ,let us reason in a similar manner on the ephemeral existence of all the beings that are in this world2 we will easily come to a similar conclusion1 that they are the victims of mutability1 incessantly tossed about as a piece of wood by the billows of the sea4 ,a second obstacle to our perceiving the great principle that pain is heavily weighing on all creatures is the iriabot1 or the four situations or positions which the body assumes1 viz41 sitting1 standing1 lying1 and walking4 ,if a man enjoys good health1 he owes it chiefly to the change of situation4 ,were he doomed to occupy always the same place1 or remain in the same situation1 he would feel quite miserable4 ,he momentarily relieves himself from his temporary afflictions by a change of situation4 ,this relief makes him forgetful of the great principle of duka4 ,but in truth our body is like a patient that requires the constant attendance of the physician4 ,we must feed it1 refresh it1 wash it1 clothe it1 c41 to save it from hunger1 thirst1 dirt1 and cold4 ,what is all that but a sad and constant proof that we are slaves to pain8 ,there is nothing but pain and affliction in this wretched world4 ,the same fate awaits all other beings2 they are all in a state of endurance and suffering1 proclaiming aloud the irresistible action of duka4 ,a third obstacle to our being convinced that all is illusion in this world is that false persuasion which makes us to say1 ,this is a foot1 a hand1 a woman1 c42 whilst these things have no reality1 no consistence1 but are mere shades1 ready at any moment to vanish and disappear4 ,these and like expressions being always used1 impart at last a sort of conviction that they are true2 but1 after all1 what are all these things but a compound of the four elements1 or more simply nama and rupa8 ,in addition to this examination1 the sage considers also our ideas and the operations of our mental faculties4 ,here he sees these ideas appearing for a moment and then disappearing2 he concludes that ideas are likewise subjected to the great law of mutability4 ,he finds as much misery in his own mind as he has met with in the exterior objects2 all around his mind is only illusion4 ,when he has reached this point1 he is delivered at once of the three ,nimeit that make one believe that there is something real in birth1 existence1 and action4 ,the destruction of all beings1 of all things1 is ever present to his mind4 ,in such a state1 the sage is free from all erroneous doctrines2 he is disgusted with life2 the exercise of meditation is easy to him1 and almost uninterrupted4 ,he is free from all passions4 ,our author has another chapter devoted to the consideration of the miseries attending all living beings4 ,to make us better informed on this subject1 he desires the sage to meditate upon the miseries attending birth1 existence1 old age1 and death2 he wishes him to examine attentively the condition of all creatures1 that he might never be seduced by the dazzling appearance that encompasses them4 ,he insists at great length upon the dangers surrounding the wise man1 as yet compelled to remain in contact with this material world4 ,to make us better understand this subject1 he makes use of the following similitude4 ,a man worn out with fatigue enters a cave wherein he longs to enjoy a refreshing rest4 ,he is just lying down in the hope of abandoning himself to the sweet delight of undisturbed repose1 when1 on a sudden1 he perceives close by him an infuriated tiger4 ,at that moment all idea of rest1 of sleep1 of happiness1 vanishes away2 he is taken up solely with the imminent danger of his position4 ,such is the position of the sage who1 living among creatures1 may be tempted to allow himself to look on them with an idea of enjoyment4 ,but when he has come to that state1 to be disgusted with all the modifications matter is subjected to1 he is likened to the pure swan who never sets his feet in low and dirty places1 but delights to rest on the bosom of a beautiful lake1 of limpid and clear water4 ,our sage1 who has in abhorrence all the filth of this miserable world1 is delighted only in the consideration of truth4 ,he is displeased with the world and all things that are therein4 ,his mind is busily engaged in finding out the most effectual means to break with this world1 and rend asunder the ties that retain him linked to it4 ,he is like a fish caught in the net1 or a frog seized by a snake1 or a man shut up in a dungeon4 ,all three strive1 to their utmost1 to escape the danger that threatens them and regain their liberty4 ,such is the condition of the perfect who has attentively considered the many snares that are around them4 ,he1 too1 has but one object in view1 that of freeing himself from them and obtaining the deliverance4 ,the best and surest means to save himself from the dangers attending existence is a profound and unremitting meditation on the three great principles3 aneitsa1 duka1 and anatta4 ,we will select among many reflections supplied by our author1 a few on each of these principles1 to convey to the reader some ideas respecting the subjects that engross much of the attention of the ,buddhist sage4 ,most of these reflections are strikingly true1 and could as well find place in the mind of a ,christian as in that of a ,buddhist4 ,speaking of aneitsa1 our author says3 ,let us reflect on this1 that there is nothing permanent or stable in this world4 ,we hold all things as a sort of borrowed property1 or on tenure2 we are by no means proprietors of what we possess4 ,we acquire goods but to lose them very soon4 ,all in nature is subjected to pain1 old age1 and death2 everything comes to an end1 either by virtue of its own condition1 or by the agency of some external cause4 ,shall we ever be able to find in this world anything stable8 ,no2 we leave one place1 but only to go and occupy another1 which1 in its turn1 is soon vacated4 ,no one is able to enumerate the countless changes that incessantly take place4 ,what exists to-day disappears to-morrow4 ,in fact1 all nature is pervaded from beginning to end by the principle of mutability1 which incessantly works upon it4 ,on the miseries of this world our philosopher speaks as follows3 ,pain is the essential appendage of this world4 ,survey1 if you can1 the whole of this universe1 and everywhere you will find a heavy load of pain and afflictions1 so harassing and oppressing that we can scarcely bear them with a tolerable amount of patience4 ,look at birth1 examine existence during its duration1 consider senses1 the organs of our life4 ,in every direction our eyes will meet with an accumulation of pain1 sufferings1 and miseries2 on every side we are beset with dangers1 difficulties1 and calamities2 nowhere lasting joy or permanent rest is to be found4 ,in vain we may go in quest of health and happiness2 both are chimerical objects nowhere to be met with4 ,everywhere we meet with afflictions4 ,in speaking of the anatta1 or illusion in which we are miserably rocked as long as we stay in this world1 our philosopher is equally eloquent4 ,if we consider with some attention this world1 we will never be able to discover in it anything else but name and form2 and1 as a necessary consequence1 all that exists is but illusion4 ,here is the manner we must carry on our reasoning4 ,the things that ,i see and know are not myself1 nor from myself1 nor to myself4 ,what seems to be myself is in reality neither myself nor belongs to myself4 ,what appears to me to be another is neither myself nor from myself4 ,the organs of senses1 such as the eyes1 the ears1 c41 are neither myself nor to myself4 ,they are but illusions1 or as nothing relatively to me4 ,the form is not a form2 the attributes of a living being are not attributes2 beings are not beings4 ,all that is an aggregate of the four elements1 and these again are but form and name1 and these two are but an illusion1 destitute of reality4 ,in a being1 then1 there are two attributes1 form and sensation1 that appear to have some more consistency than other things4 ,yet they have no reality2 their nature and condition is to be destitute of all reality and stability4#eb ,penetrated with the truth of these and like considerations1 the sage declares at once that all things are neither himself nor belong to himself4 ,nothing1 therefore1 appears worthy his notice4 ,he at once divorces himself from the world and all the things that are therein4 ,he would fain have nothing to do with it2 he holds it in supreme contempt and utter disgust4 ,he who has reached this lofty point of sublime science is at once secure from the snares of seduction and the path of error4 ,he will escape from the whirlpool of human miseries1 and infallibly reach the state of ,neibban4 ,the most perfect among the perfect are so much taken upon with and deeply affected by the view of ,neibban1 that they tend in that direction without effort4 ,others1 somewhat less advanced in the sublime science1 discover1 it is true1 the state of ,neibban at a distance1 but its sight is as yet dimmed and somewhat obscured4 ,they want as yet to train up their mind to and perfect it in the exercise of that meditation of which we have given an abbreviated analysis4 ,,notice ,,on ,,the ,,phongyies1 ,,or ,,buddhist ,,monks1 ,,sometimes ,,called ,,talapoins4#ec ,in the foregoing pages we have first given a sketch of the life of the founder of ,buddhism1 and in the accompanying notes endeavoured to explain the more important particulars respecting the extraordinary religious system he has established4 ,subsequently1 in the way to ,neibban1 we have laid down1 in as few words as possible1 the great metaphysical principles upon which is raised the great structure of ,buddhism1 and pointed out the way leading to the pretended perfection1 or rather the end of perfection1 ,neibban4 ,it seems to be necessary to devote a particular notice to the religious ,order which forms the most striking feature of that religion1 which has extended its sway over so many nations4 ,the association of devotees holds the first rank among the followers of ,buddha2 it comprises the lite of that immense body4 ,the system of discipline to which the ,buddhist religious are subjected1 is the highest practical illustration of the doctrines and practices of ,buddhism4 ,we may see reflected in that corporation the greatest results that the working of these religious institutions can ever produce4 ,all that ,buddha1 in his efforts1 has been able to devise as most fit to lead man to the perfection1 such as he understood it1 will be found in the constitutions of that order4 ,it is a living mirror in which we may contemplate the masterpiece of his creation4 ,the ,buddhist religious constitute the thanga1 or assembly of the perfect1 that is to say1 of the disciples who have left the world1 conformed their life to that of their teacher1 and striven to acquire the science that will qualify them for entering into the way leading to perfection4 ,they are the strict followers of ,buddha1 who1 like him1 have renounced the world1 to devote themselves to the two-fold object of mastering their passions and acquiring the true wisdom which alone can lead to the deliverance4 ,the best method for obtaining correct information respecting the ,buddhist religious is not1 it seems1 to consider their order from an abstract point of view1 but rather in connection with the religion it has sprung from1 as affording a perfect exemplification of its highest practices1 maxims1 and tendencies1 as well as of the real nature and true spirit of that creed4 ,buddhism is evidently an off-shoot of ,brahminism4 ,we find it replete with principles1 practices1 observances1 and dogmas belonging to the great ,hindu system4 ,gaudama1 being himself a ,hindu1 reared in a ,hindu society1 trained up in the ,hindu schools of philosophy1 could not but imbibe1 to a great extent1 the opinions and observances of his contemporaries4 ,he dissented from them1 it is true1 in many important points1 but in the generality of his teachings he seems to have agreed with them4 ,he found existing in his times a body of religious and philosophers1 whose mode of life was peculiar and quite distinct from that of the people4 ,when he laid the plan for the religious institution he contemplated to establish1 he found around him most of the elements he required for that work4 ,he had but to improve on what he saw existing1 and make his new order agree with the religious tenets he innovated4 ,in the hope of tracing up the ties of relationship that must have existed between the religious of the ,brahminical order1 and those of the ,buddhist one1 the writer will begin this notice with establishing a short parallel between the former1 such as they are described in the ,institutes of ,menoo1 and the institution of the latter1 such as it is explained in the ,wini1 or ,book of discipline4 ,afterwards the nature of the ,buddhist order and the object its members have in view in embracing it will be examined2 next to that1 the constituent parts of that body and its hierarchy shall receive a due share of attention4 ,we will describe at the same time the ceremonies observed on the solemn occasion of admitting individuals into the religious society1 and expound briefly the rules that direct and regulate the whole life of a professed member as long as he remains in the brotherhood4 ,it will not be found amiss to inquire into the cause and nature of the great religious influence undoubtedly possessed by the members of the order1 and examine the motives that induce the votaries of ,buddhism to show the greatest respect and give unfeigned marks of the deepest veneration to the ,talapoins or ,phongyies4 ,this will be concluded with a short account of the low and degraded state into which the society has fallen in these parts1 particularly in what has reference to knowledge and information4 ,,article ,i4 ,a ,,short ,,parallel ,,between ,,the ,,brahminical ,,and ,,the ,,buddhistic ,,religious ,,orders4 ,it has been stated1 on apparently incontrovertible grounds1 in the foregoing pages1 that ,buddhism has originated to a considerable extent from ,brahminism4 ,the following remarks will corroborate the statement1 and give an additional weight to the reasons already brought forward4 ,in fact1 both systems have the same objects in view1 viz41 the disentangling of the soul from passions and the influence of the material world1 and its perfect liberation from metempsychosis and the action of matter4 ,the final end to be arrived at is1 however1 widely different4 ,the perfected ,brahmin longs for his absorption in the infinite being2 the perfect ,buddhist thirsts after a state of complete isolation1 which is nothing short of total annihilation4 ,but the means for obtaining the ardently coveted perfection are in many respects the same4 ,the moral observances enforced by both creeds differ so little from each other that they appear to be almost identical4 ,in both systems1 moreover1 we find a body of individuals who aim at a complete and perfect observance of the highest injunctions1 striving to reach the very summit of that perfection pointed out by the founders of their respective institutions3 these are the ,brahminical and ,buddhist religious4 ,to glance over the regulations enjoined on the ,brahmins1 such as we find them in the ,institutes of ,menoo1 and those prescribed by the ,wini to the ,talapoins1 cannot fail to be truly interesting4 ,a summary comparison will enable the reader to perceive at once how closely allied are the two creeds1 and how great is the resemblance between them both4 ,he will see on the clearest evidence that to ,buddha is not to be ascribed the merit of having originated so many fine moral precepts and admirable disciplinary regulations1 but that he found in his own country1 in the schools where he studied wisdom1 already well-known1 pure moral precepts1 actually discussed1 studied1 and by many strictly observed1 together with the disciplinary regulations4 ,he was brought up in a society which beheld with astonishment and admiration a body of religious men entirely devoted to the great work of securing the triumph of the spiritual principle over the material one1 and endeavouring by dint of the greatest and severest austerities1 the most rigorous penances1 and the most entire renouncing of all this material world1 to break down the material barriers that had hitherto kept the soul captive1 and prevented her from taking her flight into regions of blissful freedom and perfect quiescence4 ,there is1 however1 a remarkable difference between the sacerdotal caste of ,brahmins and the members of the ,buddhist monkish institution4 ,the position of the former is hereditary2 he is rendered illustrious by his lineage and descent4 ,that of the second is personal1 and ends with him2 it is the result of his own free choice2 he derives all the glory that shines round him from his virtuous life and a strict adherence to the institutions of the ,wini4 ,the ,brahmin owes everything to religion and to birth4 ,the ,buddhist religious is indebted for all that he is solely to religion2 the monk's title to distinction is the holy mode of the saintly life that he has embraced4 ,both are the greatest and most distinguished in their respective societies2 but merit and intrinsic worth alone elicit veneration and respect in behalf of the humble religious1 whilst the casual birth of the ,brahmin from individuals belonging to the highest caste centres upon his person the reluctant homage of men belonging to inferior castes1 who1 in virtue of the prejudices in which they are reared1 consider themselves obliged to do homage to him4 ,the person of both is sacred and looked upon with awe and veneration1 but from somewhat opposite and different motives4 ,notwithstanding these and many other differences and discrepancies1 it is not the less striking to find in the ,brahminical body1 such as it is constituted by the regulations of the ,vedas1 the germ of all the principal observances enjoined on the ,buddhist that leaves the world1 to follow the path leading to perfection4 ,the life of a ,brahmin1 not as it is now1 but as it originally was1 and now ought to be1 if the regulations of the ,vedas had not been partly set aside1 is one of laborious study1 austerity1 self-denial1 and retirement4 ,the first quarter of his life is spent in the capacity of student4 ,his great and sole object is the study of the ,vedas1 and the mastering of their contents4 ,worldly studies are not to be thought of4 ,he is entirely under the control of his preceptor1 to whom he has to yield obedience1 respect1 and service in all that relates to his daily wants4 ,he must1 moreover1 daily beg his food from door to door4 ,the ,buddhist novice likewise withdraws from his family1 enters the monastery1 lives under the discipline of the head of the house1 whom he obeys and serves in his daily necessities1 and devotes all his undivided attention to the study of religious books4 ,he pays no regard to worldly knowledge4 ,he has likewise to go out every morning to beg the food that he will use during the day4 ,the second quarter of the ,brahmin's life is thus employed4 ,he marries and lives with his family1 but he must consider his chief employment to be the teaching of the ,vedas and a zealous discharge of the religious observances and of all that relates to public worship4 ,he must sedulously abstain from too sensual and worldly enjoyments1 even from music1 dancing1 and other amusements calculated to lead to dissipation4 ,the ,buddhist monkish institution being not hereditary1 and its continuance and development having not to depend upon generation1 its members are bound to a strict celibacy1 and to an absolute and entire abstinence from all sensual and worldly enjoyments inconsistent with gravity1 self-recollection1 and self-denial4 ,their chief occupation is teaching to children the rudiments of reading and writing1 that they might read religious books1 which are the only ones used in schools4 ,he must pay a strict regard to devotional practices1 and take care that the religious observances and ceremonies be regularly attended to in his monastery4 ,the third quarter of his life is spent by the ,brahmin in solitude as an anchorite4 ,he dwells in the forests1 where he must procure what is necessary for food and raiment4 ,the latter article is looked after when he thinks it to be a requisite to cover his nakedness4 ,with many of them fanaticism has so far prevailed over reason and the sense of decency that they live in a state of disgusting nakedness4 ,the roots of plants1 the fruits and leaves of wild trees1 will supply the needful for the support of nature4 ,that time too must be devoted to the infliction of the severest penances and to the practice of the hardest deeds of mortification4 ,to the ,buddhist monk solitude and retirement must ever be dear4 ,ascetic life is much recommended1 and praised as most excellent4 ,it was formerly much in use among religious ,buddhists4 ,in ,burmah several places are pointed out with respect as having been sanctified by the residence of holy anchorites4 ,now in our days a few zealots1 to bear1 as it were1 witness to this ancient observance1 retire into solitude during a portion of the three months of ,lent4 ,the spirit of mortification and self-renouncing is eminently ,buddhist2 but from the very days of ,gaudama we remark a positive tendency on the part of his religious to give up and renounce those unnatural and ultra-rigorous penances regularly observed by their brethren of the opposite creed4 ,the principle is cherished by them1 but the mode of carrying it into practice is more mild1 and more consonant with reason and modesty4 ,the last portion of the ,brahmin's life is devoted likewise to meditation and contemplation4 ,he is no more subjected to the ordeal of rigorous penances2 nature has been subdued2 passions silenced and destroyed2 the soul has obtained the mastery over the body and the material world4 ,she is free from all the trammels and obstacles that impeded her contemplation of truth4 ,she is ready to quit this world1 as the bird leaves the branch of the tree when it pleases him4 ,the ,buddhist religious1 having likewise crushed his passions and disentangled his soul from affection to matter1 delights only in the contemplation of truth4 ,as the mighty whale sports in the bosom of the boundless ocean1 so the perfected ,buddhist launches forth into abstract and infinite truth1 delights in it1 completely estranged from this world1 which meditation has taught him to consider as a mere illusion1 as destitute of reality4 ,he is then ripe for the so ardently coveted state of ,neibban4 ,when ,buddha originated the plan of a society of religious1 and framed the regulations whereby it was to be governed1 he had but to look around him for patterns of a religious life4 ,the country where he had been born1 the society in which he had been brought up1 swarmed with religious following the different systems of philosophy prevailing in those days4 ,he saw them1 conversed with them1 and for some time lived in their company under the same disciplinary institutions4 ,he was1 therefore1 thoroughly conversant with all that in his days constituted a religious life4 ,but the same bold and enterprising spirit which made him dissent from his masters and contemporaries on many important questions of morals and metaphysics1 and induced him to improve1 as he thought1 and perfect theories in speculative and practical philosophy1 impelled him also to do something similar respecting the disciplinary regulations to which his religious were to be hereafter subjected4 ,we freely confess that on this latter point he was eminently successful4 ,the body of ,buddhist religious is infinitely superior in most respects to the other societies of ,indian religious4 ,the regulations of the former breathe a spirit of modesty1 mildness1 and unaffectation1 which in a striking manner contrasts with those disgusting exhibitions of self-inflicted penances so fondly courted by ,brahmins1 where immodesty seems to dispute the palm with cruelty4 ,buddha opened the door of his society to all men without any distinction or exception1 implicitly pulling down the barriers raised by the prejudices of caste4 ,did he in the beginning of his public career lay down the plan of destroying all vestiges of caste1 and proclaiming the principle of equality amongst men8 ,it is1 to say the least1 very doubtful4 ,the equalising principle itself was never distinctly mentioned in his discourses4 ,but he had sown all the elements constitutive of that principle in his instructions4 ,every member put on the religious dress of his own free choice1 and set it aside at his pleasure2 no hereditary right1 therefore1 could be thought of2 the dying religious could bequeath to his brethren but the example of his virtues4 ,his complete separation from the world had broken all the ties of relationship4 ,the double vow of strict poverty and of celibacy1 cutting the root of cupidity and sensual enjoyments1 precluded him from aiming at the influence and power which is conferred by wealth and rank4 ,with the ,brahminical religious the case is the very reverse4 ,his sacerdotal caste1 exclusive of his personal merits1 confers on him an almost divine sacredness1 which is to be propagated by generation4 ,he may possess riches and have a numerous posterity4 ,he is1 therefore1 almost irresistibly impelled to seize on a power which is forced on him by the treble influence of birth1 religion1 and wealth4 ,the subject of the comparison between the two societies of religious might receive further developments1 but what has been briefly stated appears sufficient to bear out the point it was intended to establish1 viz41 the close resemblance subsisting between the two religious orders in both systems1 and the necessary inference that the order of ,buddhist religious is an improvement on the orders of religious subsisting in ,india in the days of ,gaudama4 ,there is another characteristic of the religious order of ,buddhists which has favourably operated in its behalf1 and powerfully contributed to maintain it for so many centuries in so compact and solid a body that it seems to bid defiance to the destructive action of revolutions4 ,we allude to its regularly constituted hierarchy1 which is as perfect as it can be expected1 particularly in ,burmah and ,siam4 ,the power and influence of him whom we may call the general of the order in ,burmah1 and who is known under the appellation of ,tha-thana-paing1 when1 as was very often the case1 backed by the temporal power1 was felt throughout the whole country1 and much contributed to maintain good order and discipline in the great body of religious4 ,the action of the provincial or superior of the religious houses of a province is more directly and immediately felt by all the subordinates4 ,it does not appear that the religious of the ,hindu schools1 at least in our days1 possess such an advantage that they may well envy their brethren of the ,buddhist sect4 ,the members of the ,brahminical body are not kept together by the power and government of superiors1 but by regulations that are so deeply rooted and firmly seated in the mind of individuals that they are faithfully observed4 ,the superiority of caste1 connected too with a certain amount of spiritual pride1 has been hitherto sufficient to maintain that body distinct and separate from all that is without itself4 ,the religious spirit that pervades that body in our days seems to have abated from its original fervour and energy4 ,the ,brahmin has maintained with the utmost jealousy the superiority that caste confers upon him1 but appears not to have been so particular in keeping up the genuine spiritual supremacy1 which a strict adherence to the prescriptions of the ,vedas must have ever firmly secured to him4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,religious ,,order ,,of ,,phongyies4 ,he who has not seriously studied the religious system of ,buddhism1 nor acquired accurate notions of its doctrinal principles1 is scarcely capable of forming a correct opinion of the religious order of those austere recluses1 whom ,europeans1 with a mind biassed by educational influence1 denominate priests of ,buddha4 ,were we to apply to the members of that order the notions generally entertained of a priesthood1 we would form a very erroneous conception of the real character of their institution4 ,for in every religious system admitting of one or several beings superior to man1 whose providential action influences his destinies either in this or the next world1 persons invested with a sacerdotal character have always been considered as mediators between men and the acknowledged deity1 offering to the supreme being on all public occasions the prayers and sacrifices of the people1 and soliciting in return his gracious protection4 ,when in the early ages of the world the sacerdotal dignity was coupled with the patriarchal or regal ones1 when in the succeeding ages there existed a regular and distinct priesthood1 such as subsisted under the ,mosaic dispensation1 or among the ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,gauls1 c41 the priests were looked upon as delegates of the people in all that related to national worship1 carrying on in the name of the ,deity the mysterious intercourse that links heaven to earth4 ,priesthood1 therefore1 necessarily implies the belief in a being superior to man and controlling his destinies4 ,the moment such a belief is disregarded1 the very idea of priesthood vanishes4 ,buddhism1 such at least as it is found existing in ,ceylon1 ,burmah1 ,siam1 and other places1 is a purely atheistical religious system1 and presents the solitary instance1 at least as far as my information goes1 of a religious creed1 admitted by various nations1 the doctrines of which are not based upon the notion of a supreme being controlling more or less the affairs of this world4 ,in support of an assertion that may appear to many somewhat hazardous1 we will briefly lay down the leading tenets of the ,buddhistic doctrine4 ,according to that system1 matter is eternal4 ,the existence of a world1 its duration1 destruction1 and reproduction1 all the various combinations and modifications matter is liable to1 are the immediate results of the action of eternal and self-existing laws4 ,through life man is subjected to the continual but successive influences of his good and bad deeds4 ,this double influence always attends him through his numberless existences1 and inevitably awards him happiness or misfortune1 according as the respective sum of good or evil predominates4 ,there exists an eternal law1 which1 when obliterated from the memory of men1 can be known again1 and1 as it were1 recovered only and thoroughly understood by the incomparable genius and matchless wisdom of certain extraordinary personages1 called ,buddhas1 who appear successively and at intervals during the various series or successions of worlds4 ,these ,buddhas announce that law to all the then existing rational beings4 ,the great object of that doctrine is to point out to those beings the means of freeing themselves from the influence of passions1 and becoming abstracted from all that exists4 ,being thereby delivered from the action of good or evil influence1 which causes mortals to turn incessantly in the whirlpool of never-ending existences1 men can obtain the state of ,neibban1 or rest1 that is to say1 according to the popular opinion1 a situation wherein the soul1 disentangled from all that exists1 alone with herself1 indifferent to pain as well as to pleasure1 folded1 as it were1 upon herself1 remains for ever in an incomprehensible state of complete abstraction and absolute rest4 ,i say that such is the popular opinion1 fortunately unbiassed by scholastic theories4 ,but the opinion of the ,buddhist doctors respecting ,neibban is that it means the negation of all states of being2 that is to say1 a desolating and horrifying annihilation4 ,a ,buddha is a being who1 during myriads of existences1 slowly and gradually gravitates towards this centre of an imaginary perfection by the practice of the highest virtues4 ,having attained thereto1 he becomes on a sudden gifted with a boundless genius1 wherewith he at once discovers the wretched state of beings and the means of delivering them from it4 ,he thoroughly understands the eternal law which alone can lead mortals in the right way1 and enable them to come out of the circle of existences1 wherein they have been unceasingly turning and moving in a state of perpetual agitation1 opposite to that of fixity or rest4 ,he preaches that law whereby man is taught the practice of those virtues which destroy gradually in him all evil influences1 together with every affection for all that exists1 and brings him at last to the end of existence1 the possession of ,neibban4 ,his task fulfilled1 ,buddha dies1 or rather1 to use the language of ,buddhists1 he enters into the state ,neibban4 ,in that situation1 which is truly inexplicable1 he knows nothing of and enters no wise into the affairs of this world4 ,he is as if he was not or had never been4 ,he is indeed annihilated4 ,buddhists venerate three precious things--,buddha1 his law1 and the assembly of the just or perfect--in the same sense as we venerate and admire what is morally good and beautiful1 such as virtue considered abstractedly1 and the acts originating from it4 ,the statues of the last ,buddha ,gaudama are honoured by his followers1 not with the idea that certain powers or virtues are inherent in them1 but solely because they are the visible representations of ,buddha1 who1 according to ,buddhists1 desired that the same honours should be paid to them as would be offered to his person1 were he yet living among them4 ,this faint outline of the ,buddhistic creed is sufficient to bear out the above assertion1 that it is in no wise based on the belief in a supreme being1 but that it is strictly atheistical1 and therefore that no real priesthood can ever be found existing under such a system4 ,it may prove1 too1 of some assistance for better understanding what is to be said regarding the subjects of this notice4 ,the ,talapoins are called by the ,burmese ,phongyies1 which term means great glory3 or ,rahans1 which means perfect4 ,they are known in ,ceylon1 ,siam1 ,thibet1 under different names1 conveying nearly the same meaning and expressing either the nature or the object of their profession4 ,what induces a follower of ,buddha to embrace the ,talapoinic state8 ,what is the object of his pursuit in entering on such a peculiar and extraordinary course of life8 ,the answer to these questions will supply us with accurate notions of the real nature of this singular order of devotees4 ,a ,buddhist on becoming a member of the holy society proposes to keep the law of ,buddha in a more perfect manner than his other co-religionists4 ,he intends to observe not only its general ordinances obligatory on every individual1 but also its prescriptions of a higher excellency1 leading to an uncommon sanctity and perfection1 which can be the lot of but a comparatively small number of fervent and resolute persons4 ,he aims at weakening within himself all the evil propensities that give origin and strength to the principle of demerits4 ,by the practice and observance of the highest and sublimest precepts and counsels of the law1 he establishes1 confirms1 and consolidates in his own soul the principle of merits1 which is to work upon him during the various existences he has as yet to go through1 and gradually lead him to that perfection which will qualify him for and entitle him to the state of ,neibban1 the object of the ardent desires and earnest pursuit of every true and genuine disciple of ,buddha4 ,the life of the last ,buddha ,gaudama1 his doctrines as well as his examples1 he proposes to copy with a scrupulous fidelity and to follow with unremitting ardour4 ,such is the great model that he proposes to himself for imitation4 ,gaudama withdrew from the world1 renounced its seducing pleasures and dazzling vanities1 curbed his passions under the yoke of restraint1 and strove to practise the highest virtues1 particularly self-denial1 in order to arrive at a state of complete indifference to all that is within or without self2 which is1 as it were1 the threshold of ,neibban4 ,the ,talapoin1 fixing his regards on that matchless pattern of perfection1 would fain reproduce1 as far as it lies in his power1 all its features in his own person4 ,like ,buddha himself1 he parts with his family1 relatives1 and friends1 and seeks for admission into the society of the perfect2 he abandons and leaves his home1 to enter into the asylum of peace and retirement2 he forsakes the riches of this world to practise the strictest poverty2 he renounces the pleasures of this world1 even the lawful ones1 to live according to the rules of the severest abstinence and purest chastity2 he exchanges his secular dress for that of the new profession he enters on2 he gives up his own will1 and fetters his own liberty1 to attend1 through every act and all the particulars of life1 to the regulations of the brotherhood4 ,he is a ,talapoin for himself and for his own benefit1 to acquire merits which he shares with nobody else4 ,on the occasion of certain offerings or alms being presented to him by some benevolent admirers of his holy mode of life1 he will repay his benefactors by repeating to them certain precepts1 commands1 and points of the law2 but he is not bound by his professional character to expound the law to the people4 ,separated from the world by his dress and his peculiar way of living1 he remains a stranger to all that takes place without the walls of his monastery4 ,he is not charged with the care of souls1 and therefore never presumes to rebuke any one that trespasses the law1 or to censure the conduct of the profligate4 ,the ceremonies of the ,buddhistic worship are simple and few4 ,the ,talapoin is not considered as a minister whose presence is an essential requisite when they are to be performed4 ,pagodas are erected1 statues of ,buddha are inaugurated1 offerings of flowers1 tapers1 and small ornaments are made1 particularly on the days of the new and full moon1 but on all those solemn occasions the interference of the ,phongyie is in no way considered as necessary1 so that the whole worship exists independently of him4 ,he is not to be seen on the particular occasions of births and marriages4 ,he is1 it is true1 occasionally asked to attend funerals2 but he then acts1 not as a minister performing a ceremony1 but as a private person4 ,he is present for the sake of receiving alms that are profusely bestowed upon him by the relatives of the defunct4 ,the ,buddhists have three months of the year1 from the full moon of ,july to the full moon of ,october1 particularly devoted to a stricter observance of the practices and ceremonies of the law4 ,crowds of people of both sexes resort to the pagodas1 and often spend whole nights in the buildings erected close to those places4 ,the most fervent among them fast and abstain from profane amusements during that period2 they devote more time to the reading of their sacred books and the repetition of certain formulas calculated to remind them of certain important truths1 or intended to praise the last ,buddha ,gaudama and the law he has published4 ,alms pour more abundantly into the peaceable dwellings of the pious recluses4 ,during all the time the ,talapoin quietly remains in his place1 without altering his mode of life1 or deviating in the least from his never-changing usages and ordinary habits4 ,by the rules of his profession he is directed to pay1 during that time1 a particular regard to religious observances1 to join his brethren from time to time in the recital of certain formulas1 and in the reading of the book embodying the regulations of the profession4 ,he enjoys1 as usual1 the good things which his liberal co-religionists take pleasure in proffering to him4 ,on two occasions the writer has seen1 and on many has heard of ,talapoins withdrawing during the three months of ,lent to some lonely place1 living alone in small huts1 shunning the company of men1 and leading an eremitical life1 to remain at liberty to devote all their time to meditations on the most excellent points of the law of ,buddha1 combating their passions1 and enjoying in that retired situation a foretaste of the never-troubled rest of ,neibban4 ,in many respects the ,talapoinic institutions may be likened to those of some religious orders that appeared successively in almost every ,christian country previous to the era of the ,reformation1 and that are1 up to this day1 to be met with amidst the ,churches of the ,latin and ,greek rites4 ,like the monk1 the ,talapoin bids a farewell to the world1 wears a particular dress1 leads a life of community1 abstracts himself from all that gives strength to his passions1 by embracing a state of voluntary poverty and absolute renunciation of all sensual gratifications4 ,he aims at obtaining1 by a stricter observance of the law's most sublime precepts1 an uncommon degree of sanctity and perfection4 ,all his time is regulated by the rules of his profession1 and devoted to repeating certain formulas of prayers1 reading the sacred scriptures1 begging alms for his support1 c4 ,these features of exterior resemblance1 common to institutions of creeds so opposite to each other1 have induced several writers1 little favourable to ,christianity1 to pronounce without further inquiry that ,catholicism has borrowed from ,buddhism many ceremonies1 institutions1 and disciplinary regulations4 ,some of them have gone so far as to pretend to find in it the very origin of ,christianity4 ,they have1 however1 been ably confuted by ,abel ,remusat1 in his ,memoir entitled 8,chronological ,researches into the ,lamaic ,hierarchy of ,thibet40 ,without entertaining in the least the presumptuous idea of entering into a controversy entirely foreign to his purpose1 the writer will confine himself to making one or two remarks calculated to show that the first conclusion is1 to say the least of it1 a premature one4 ,when in two religious creeds1 entirely opposed to each other in their ultimate object1 there are several minor objects equally set forth by both1 it will necessarily happen that1 in many instances1 means nearly similar will be prescribed on both sides for effectually obtaining them1 independent of any previously concerted plan or imitation4 ,the ,christian system and the ,buddhistic one1 though differing from each other in their respective objects and ends1 as much as truth from error1 have1 it must be confessed1 many striking features of an astonishing resemblance4 ,there are many moral precepts equally commanded and enforced in common by both creeds4 ,it will not be deemed rash to assert that most of the moral truths prescribed by the ,gospel are to be met with in the ,buddhistic scriptures4 ,the essential1 vital1 and capital discrepancy lies in the difference of the ends to which the two creeds lead1 but not in the variance of the means they prescribe for the attainment of them4 ,the ,gospel tends to reunite man to his ,maker1 points out to him the way he must follow for arriving at the possession and enjoyment of ,him who is the great principle and end of all things1 and teaches him1 as a paramount duty1 to conform his will and inclinations to ,his commands4 ,buddhism tends to abstract man from all that is without self1 and makes self his own and sole centre4 ,it exhorts him to the practice of many eminent virtues1 which are to help him to rise to an imaginary perfection1 the summit of which is the incomprehensible state of ,neibban4 ,it is the mildest expression which the writer can command when he has to speak of so sad a subject1 the final end of a ,buddhist4 ,it would be more correct to say at once that the pretended perfect being is led1 by the principles of his creed1 into the dark and fathomless abyss of annihilation4 ,if the end aimed at by the followers of ,buddha is widely different from that which the disciples of ,christ strive to obtain1 the means prescribed for the attainment of these two ends are1 in many respects1 very much similar to each other4 ,both creeds teach man to combat1 control1 and master the passions of his heart1 to make reason predominate over sense1 mind over matter1 to root up from his heart every affection for the things of this world1 and to practise the virtues required for the attainment of these great objects4 ,is there anything surprising that persons1 having1 in many respects1 views nearly similar1 resort to means or expedients nearly alike for securing the object of their pursuit1 without having ever seen or consulted each other8 ,he who intends to practise absolute poverty must of course abandon all his earthly property4 ,he who proposes renouncing the world ought to withdraw from it4 ,he who will lead a contemplative life must look out for a retired place1 far from the gaze and agitation of the world4 ,to control passions1 and particularly the fiercest of all1 the sensual appetite1 it is required that one should keep himself separate from all that is calculated to kindle its fires and feed its violence4 ,every profession has its distinctive marks and peculiar characteristics4 ,hence peculiarity of dress1 manners1 and habits in those who have adopted a mode of life differing from that of the rest of the community4 ,he who has bound himself to the daily recitation of certain prayers or devotional formulas a certain number of times will have recourse to some instrument1 or devise some means for ascertaining the number of times he has complied with his regulation in this respect4 ,he1 too1 who is eager to acquire self-knowledge and to carry on a successful war with himself will apply to a guide to whom he will lay open his whole soul1 and ask spiritual advice that will enable him to overcome the obstacles he meets on his way to perfection4 ,these and many other points are common to all those that intend to observe not only the precepts but also the mere counsels of their respective creeds4 ,causes being the same1 in many instances1 in both systems1 consequences almost analogous must inevitably result therefrom4 ,religious institutions always bear the stamp of the religious ideas that have given rise to them4 ,they1 together with their rules and regulations1 are not the principle1 but the immediate consequence or offspring of religion1 such as it is understood by the people professing it4 ,they exemplify and illustrate religious notions already entertained1 but they never create such as are not yet in existence4 ,when the learned shall have collected sufficient materials for giving an accurate history of the origin1 progress1 spread1 and dogmatical revolutions of ,buddhism1 it will not be uninteresting to inquire into the causes that have operated in communicating to two religious systems essentially differing in their respective tendencies so many points of resemblance4 ,but that study is yet to be made4 ,we know very little on all those points4 ,the best informed are compelled to acknowledge that in the present state of information we are still in the dark1 the thickness of which is occasionally relieved by a few transient and uncertain glimpses which are insufficient to enlighten the mind1 and enable the searcher after truth to guide safely his steps4 ,in reading the particulars of the life of the last ,buddha ,gaudama1 it is impossible not to feel reminded of many circumstances relating to our ,saviour's life1 such as it has been sketched out by the evangelists4 ,the origin of the close affinity between many doctrinal points and maxims common both to ,christianity and ,buddhism having been ascertained1 it will not be difficult to find out and explain how the votaries of both have come to adopt so many practices1 ceremonies1 observances1 and institutions nearly similar4 ,having endeavoured to explain the nature of the institution of the ,talapoins1 and the object aimed at by its professed members1 we will now proceed to examine its systematical organisation1 or sacred hierarchy4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,,hierarchy ,,of ,,the ,,order4 ,it is somewhat surprising to find in the middle of half-civilised nations1 such as the ,burmese1 ,siamese1 ,cingalese1 and ,thibetans1 a religious order1 with a distinct and well-marked hierarchy1 constitutions and regulations1 providing for the admission of members1 determining their occupations1 duties1 obligations1 and their mode of life1 and forming1 as it were1 a compact1 solid1 and perfect body1 that has subsisted1 almost without change1 during several centuries1 and survived the destruction of kingdoms1 the fall of royal dynasties1 and all the confusion and agitation produced by political commotions and revolutions4 ,it is in ,thibet that the order is found existing in the greatest perfection1 under the fostering care of the ,grand ,lama1 or ,high ,priest1 who combines in his own person the regal as well as the sacerdotal dignity and power4 ,in the city of ,lassa1 a pontifical court1 an elective sacerdotal chief1 and a college of superior ,lamas impart to the order dignity1 decency1 respectability1 and stability1 which insure its continued existence1 and more or less extend its influence over its members living in distant countries4 ,the period of the introduction of ,buddhism from ,india into ,thibet is very uncertain1 if not quite unknown4 ,buddhist annals mention that after the holding of the third council1 #bcf years after ,gaudama's death1 some missionaries were deputed by the president of that assembly to go and preach religion in some parts of the ,himalayan range4 ,we may suppose that this had reference to the southern slopes of the mountains4 ,be that as it may1 it appears certain that the establishment of a pontifical chief or sovereign1 with royal prerogatives1 was set up by one of the grandsons of the great ,tartar warrior ,gengis in or about the middle of the thirteenth century4 ,in other countries1 where the order has no connection whatever with the civil power1 we can scarcely expect to see it surrounded with an equal splendour1 or subsisting in the same state of splendour and regularity4 ,though this is the case in ,burmah1 it is impossible not to acknowledge the fact that the regulations of the ,wini are more carefully attended to in this country than in ,thibet4 ,the conduct of the monks here is incomparably more regular4 ,the public could not bear an open dereliction of the duties imposed by the vows of poverty and chastity4 ,but1 if credit be given to the narratives of travellers1 the ,thibetan monks do not scruple to forsake occasionally those duties1 without appearing to fear the rising of a popular cry of indignation1 on account of their misbehaviour in points considered of such vast importance4 ,extraordinary1 indeed1 would be its vital energies1 were the remotest parts of this great and far-spread body to receive the same impulse and exhibit the same symptoms of vitality as those nearest to the heart or principle of life4 ,having never met with any detailed particulars regarding the ,thibetan monks1 we must remain satisfied with laying before the reader an account of all that relates to the constituent parts of the order1 such as they are found existing in ,burmah and developed in the sacred writings4 ,the whole fraternity is composed1 #ast1 of young men who have put on the ,talapoinic dress without being considered professed members of the fraternity1 or having hitherto passed through a certain ordeal somewhat resembling an ordinary2 they are called ,shyins2 #b;d1 of those who1 having lived for a while in the community in a probationary state1 are admitted professed members with the ceremonies usually observed on such occasions1 whereby the title and character of ,phongyie are solemnly conferred2 they are denominated ,patzins2 #c;d1 of the heads of each house or community1 who have the power to control all the inmates of the house2 #dth1 of a provincial1 whose jurisdiction extends over all the communities spread in the towns and villages of the province or district2 #eth1 of a superior general1 residing in the capital or its suburbs1 called ,tsaia-dau1 or great master1 having the general management and direction of all the affairs of the order throughout the empire4 ,he is emphatically called by the name of ,tha-thana-paing1 which means that he has the power over religion4 ,let us say something upon each of these five degrees of the ,buddhistic hierarchy4 ,it is an almost universal custom among the ,burmese and ,siamese to cause boys who have attained the age of puberty1 or even before that time1 to enter for a year or two one of the many ,talapoinic houses1 to put on the yellow dress1 for the double purpose of learning to read and write1 and of acquiring merits for future existences4 ,on the occasion of the death of certain persons1 it happens sometimes that a member of the family will enter the community for six months or a year4 ,when a young lad is to make his first entrance into a house of the order1 he is led thereto1 riding on a richly caparisoned pony1 or sitting in a fine palanquin carried on the shoulders of four or more men4 ,he is allowed to use one or several gold umbrellas1 which are held opened over his head4 ,during the triumphal march he is preceded by a long line of men and women1 attired in their richest dresses1 carrying a large quantity of presents destined for the use of the inmates of the ,kiaong 7such is the general name given to all the houses of the brotherhood in ,burmah7 which the young postulant is to reside in4 ,in this stately order the procession1 attended with a band playing on various musical instruments1 moves on slowly and circuitously through the principal streets of the town towards the monastery that has been fixed upon4 ,this display of an ostentatious pomp is1 on the part of the parents and relatives1 an honour paid to the postulant who generously consecrates himself to so exalted a calling1 and on the part of the youth a last farewell to worldly vanities4 ,he has no sooner descended from his splendid conveyance and crossed the threshold of the kiaong than he is delivered by his parents into the hands of the superior1 and placed under his care4 ,his head is instantly shaved2 he is stripped of his fine secular dress1 and habited in the plain and humble yellow garb2 he must lay aside every sort of ornament1 and remain contented with the unassuming simplicity becoming his new position4 ,the kiaong is to become his home1 and its inmates are substituted in the room of his father and mother1 brothers and sisters4 ,the duty of the young shyin is to minister to the wants of the elders of the house1 to bring and place before them at fixed times the usual supply of water1 the betel-box1 and the daily food2 to attend them on some pious errand through the town or the country4 ,a portion of his time is devoted to acquiring the art of reading and writing1 and occasionally the elements of arithmetic4 ,there are five general precepts obligatory on all men2 but the shyin is bound to the observance of five additional ones1 making ten altogether1 by which he is forbidden--#ast1 to kill animals2 #b;d1 to steal2 #c;d1 to give himself up to carnal pleasures2 #dth1 to tell lies2 #eth1 to drink wine or other intoxicating liquors2 #fth1 to eat after mid-day2 #gth1 to dance1 sing1 or play on any musical instrument2 #hth1 to colour his face2 #ith1 to stand on elevated places1 not proper for him2 #ajth1 to touch or handle gold or silver4#ed ,the trespassing of the five first precepts is visited with expulsion from the kiaong2 but that of the five last may be expiated by a proper penance4 ,the young shyins1 as before observed1 do not remain in the kiaong beyond the period of one or two years2 they generally leave it and return to a secular life4 ,there are1 however1 some of them1 who1 fond of the easy and quiet life of ,talapoins1 or actuated by other motives1 prefer remaining longer in those places of retirement4 ,they betake themselves to the study of the duties1 rules1 and obligations of the professed members of the society2 they pay more attention to the reading of religious books1 and endeavour to obtain the required qualifications4 ,being sufficiently instructed on all these points1 and having attained the age of twenty years1 they are solemnly admitted among the professed members of the brotherhood under the name of ,patzin4 ,the interesting ceremonies observed on the occasion will hereafter be fully described4 ,the state of ,patzin is1 therefore1 properly speaking1 that of ,phongyie1 though that name is sometimes reserved for him who is the head of a monastery4 ,every other step or promotion in the hierarchy is purely honorary1 in so far that it does not impose upon him who is so promoted any new duty or obligation different from what is obligatory on every professed member2 but it confers a power or jurisdiction for commanding1 controlling1 and governing all the brethren under his care4 ,in virtue of such distinctions1 a superior1 how high soever his rank may be1 is bound to the observance of the same rules1 duties1 and obligations as the last ,patzin2 his sacred character is not enlarged or altered2 he is only entrusted with a certain amount of jurisdiction over some of his brethren4 ,the ,talapoin is bound to his community1 so that in every kiaong or house of the order there are ordinarily to be met several ,patzins and a good number of shyins4 ,each kiaong has a chief who presides over the community1 under the appellation of ,tsaya1 or1 as is more often the case1 under that of ,phongyie4 ,he is1 in most instances1 the nominee of the individual who has built the monastery1 and who is vested with a kind of right of patronage to appoint whom he likes to be the head of the house he has erected4 ,he who is the head of the house has power over all the inmates1 and every one acknowledges him as his immediate superior4 ,he has the management of all the little affairs of the community1 enforces the regular observance of the rules and duties of the profession1 corrects abuses1 rebukes the trespassers1 spurs the lazy1 excites the lukewarm1 keeps peace and maintains good understanding amongst his subordinates4 ,he receives1 in his official character1 the pious visitors who resort to his monastery1 either for the sake of making voluntary offerings in token of their respect for and admiration of his eminent sanctity1 or for conversing with him on some religious subjects1 which1 let it be said quietly1 out of deference to human frailty1 sometimes make room for those of a worldly character4 ,if the alms-givers or advice-seekers belong1 as often happens1 to the fair and devout sex1 they must remain at a distance of six or twelve cubits1 as the place may allow1 from their pious adviser4 ,it is supposed that a nearer proximity might endanger the virtue of the holy recluse4 ,in every town a considerable number of kiaongs are found1 either in the suburbs or within the walls1 in a quarter reserved for the purpose4 ,in every village the kiaong is to be met with1 as the parson's house in our villages of ,europe4 ,the poorest place is not without a small and often very humble house for the ,phongyie who resides there1 if not during the whole year1 at least during the rainy season4 ,one or several dzedis1 a sort of flagstaff painted1 and with some of its parts gilt1 bearing the emblem of the sacred bird henza1 or ,brahminical duck1 at three-fourths of its height1 from which hang down gracefully several streamers1 amid a grove of fruit trees1 indicate to the traveller the habitation--sometimes humble1 sometimes stately--with its superposed three roofs1 where the ,rahans dwell4 ,the kiaong is also a place where the traveller is well received1 and can stay for a day or two4 ,during the dry season1 when there are few boys remaining with the ,phongyies1 it is a place much safer than the dzeats4 ,the inmates are generally very glad to receive strangers1 who by their conversation afford them some moments of pleasant diversion which relieve the habitual monotony of their life4 ,these various communities are placed under the jurisdiction of a general superior1 or a provincial named ,tsaia-dau1 or great master2 they form1 under his authority1 a province of the order2 a division much similar to that of several religious orders in ,europe4 ,he enjoys a large share of public respect and veneration4 ,his kiaong outshines the others in splendour and decorations4 ,the first and wealthiest inhabitants of the place are proud to call themselves his disciples and supporters1 and to supply him liberally with all that he may require4 ,his chief duty is to settle disputes that not unfrequently arise between rival communities4 ,the demon of discord often haunts these abodes of peace and retirement4 ,the authority of the provincial interferes to put down feuds and contentions1 which envy and jealousy1 the two great enemies of devotees1 not unfrequently excite4 ,when a ,talapoin is accused of incontinence or other serious infringement of the vital rules of the profession1 he is summoned to the tribunal of the ,tsaya-dau1 who1 assisted and advised by some elders1 examines the case and pronounces the sentence4 ,superior intellectual attainments do not appear to be the essential qualifications for obtaining this high dignity4 ,the writer has met with two or three of these dignitaries who1 in his opinion1 were vastly inferior to many of their subordinates in talents and capacity4 ,they were old and good-natured men1 who had spent almost all their lives within the precincts of the monastery4 ,their dress1 manners1 and habits were entirely similar to those of their brethren of inferior grade4 ,in the capital1 or its suburbs1 of the kingdom of ,ava1 where is the key-stone of the ,talapoinic fabric1 the superlatively great master resides4 ,his jurisdiction extends over all the fraternity within the realm of his ,burmese majesty4 ,his position near the seat of government1 and his capacity of king's master or teacher1 must have at all times conferred upon him a very great degree of influence over all his subordinates4 ,he is honoured with the eminent title of ,tha-thana-paing1 meaning that he has power and control over all that appertains to religion4 ,it does not appear that peculiarly shining qualifications or high attainments are required in him who is honoured with such a dignity4 ,the mere accidental circumstance of having been the king's instructor when he was as yet a youth is a sufficient1 nay1 the only necessary recommendation for the promotion to such a high position4 ,hence it generally happens that each king1 at his accession to the throne1 confers the highest dignity of the order on his favourite ,phongyie4 ,in that case the actual incumbent has to resign the place to his more influential brother1 and becomes an ordinary member of the fraternity1 unless he prefers leaving the society altogether1 and re-entering the lay condition4 ,great indeed is the respect paid by the king to the head ,phongyie4 ,when on certain days of worship he is invited to go to the palace and deliver some instructions to his majesty1 the proud monarch quits the somewhat elevated place he occupies1 and takes one almost on a level with that of the courtiers1 whilst the venerable personage goes to sit on the very same carpet just vacated by the king4 ,when he happens to go out and visit some monasteries or places of worship1 he is generally carried on a gilt litter1 in great state1 attended by a large number of his brethren and a considerable retinue of laymen4 ,during the passage1 marks of the greatest respect are given by the people4 ,the monastery he lives in is on a scale of splendor truly surprising4 ,its form and appearance are similar to that of other religious houses1 but in variety and richness of decorations it surpasses them all4 ,it is entirely gilt both inside and out2 not only are the posts covered with gold leaves1 but often they are inlaid with rubies1 which ,i suppose are of the commonest description and of little value4 ,to confer an additional sacredness to his person and position1 the ,tha-thana-paing lives by himself1 with but one or two ,phongyies1 whom we may consider as his secretaries or major-domos1 who remain in an apartment near to the entrance1 to receive visitors and usher them into the presence of the great personage4 ,besides1 there are lay guardians who take good care that not the least noise should ever disturb the silence of the place4 ,when the writer first visited that dignitary1 he was much amused1 on his approach to the place1 to meet with those mute guardians1 who by all sorts of signs and gestures were endeavouring to make him understand that he must walk slowly and noiselessly1 and beware to speak aloud4 ,when admitted to the presence of the ,tsaya-dau1 he was not a little surprised to find a man exceedingly self-conceited1 who thought that to him alone belonged the right of speaking4 ,his language was that of a master to whom no one was expected to presume to offer the least contradiction4 ,he appeared quite offended when his visitor was compelled to dissent from him on certain points brought forward during the conversation4 ,he was then about fifty years old4 ,he was1 for a ,burman1 of a tall stature1 with regular and handsome features4 ,the face was a little emaciated1 as becomes a monk4 ,his spiritual pride cast a darkish and unpleasant appearance on his person4 ,he spoke quickly and sententiously2 appearing all the while scarcely to notice his interlocutor4 ,admiration of self and vanity pierced through the thin veil which his affected humility spread over his countenance4 ,the writer left him with an impression very different from that which a worthy ,english envoy1 in the end of the last century1 entertained of a similar personage1 whose mild1 benign1 and pious exterior captivated him to such an extent as to elicit from him a request to be remembered in his prayers4 ,in our days1 the power of the ,tha-thana-paing is merely nominal2 the effects of his jurisdiction are scarcely felt beyond his own neighbourhood4 ,such1 however1 was not the case in former times4 ,spiritual commissioners were sent yearly by him1 to examine into and report on the state of the communities throughout the provinces4 ,they had to inquire particularly whether the rules were regularly observed or not1 whether the professed members were really well qualified for their holy calling or not4 ,they were empowered to repress abuses1 and whenever some unworthy brother1 or black sheep1 was found within the enclosure of a monastery1 he was forthwith degraded1 stripped of the yellow garb1 and compelled to resume a secular course of life4 ,unfortunately for the welfare of the order1 those salutary visits no more take place2 the wholesome check is done away with4 ,left without a superior control1 the order has fallen into a low degree of abjectness and degradation4 ,the situation of ,talapoins is often looked upon now as one fit for lazy1 ignorant1 and idle people1 who1 being anxious to live well and do nothing1 put on the sacred dress for a certain time1 until1 tired of the duties and obligations of their new profession1 they retire and betake themselves anew to a secular life4 ,this practice1 as far as my observation goes1 is pretty general1 if not almost universal4 ,there are1 however1 a few exceptions4 ,though labouring under many serious disadvantages1 the society continues to subsist with all its exterior characteristics2 the various steps of its hierarchy are as well marked and defined now as they were before under more favourable circumstances4 ,its framework remains entire1 but the materials composing it are somewhat imperfect and unsound4 ,there is in that religious body a latent principle of vitality1 that keeps it up and communicates to it an amount of strength and energy that have hitherto maintained it in the midst of wars1 revolutions1 and political convulsions of all descriptions4 ,whether supported or not by the ruling power1 it has remained always firm and unchanged4 ,it is impossible to account satisfactorily for such a phenomenon1 unless we find a clear and evident cause of such an extraordinary vitality2 a cause independent of ordinary occurrences1 time1 and circumstances2 a cause deeply rooted in the very soul of the populations1 that exhibit before the observer this great and striking religious feature4 ,that cause appears to be the strong religious sentiment1 the firm faith that pervades the masses of ,buddhists4 ,the laity admire and venerate the religious1 and voluntarily and cheerfully contribute to their maintenance and welfare4 ,from its ranks the religious body is constantly recruited4 ,there is scarcely a man that has not been a member of the fraternity for a certain period of time4 ,surely such a general and continued impulse could not last long1 unless it were maintained by a powerful religious conviction4 ,the members of the order preserve1 at least exteriorly1 the decorum of their profession4 ,the rules and regulations are tolerably well observed2 the grades of hierarchy are maintained with a scrupulous exactitude4 ,the life of the religious is one of restraint and perpetual control4 ,he is denied all sorts of pleasures and diversions4 ,how could such system of self-denial be ever maintained1 were it not for the belief which the ,rahans have in the merits that they amass1 by following a course of life which1 after all1 is repugnant to nature8 ,it cannot be denied that human motives often influence both the laity and the religious1 but divested of faith and of the sentiments inspired by even a false belief1 their action could not produce1 in a lasting and persevering manner1 the extraordinary and striking fact we witness in ,buddhistic countries4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,,ordination1 ,,or ,,ceremonies ,,observed ,,at ,,the ,,admission ,,into ,,the ,,society4 ,we will now explain rather minutely1 and describe as accurately as possible1 the various ceremonies performed on the occasion of the promotion of a shyin to the rank of patzin1 or professed member4 ,it must be borne in mind that this ordeal through which he has to pass1 or ordination1 as we may aptly perhaps term it1 which he has to receive1 does not confer any peculiar character1 or give any special spiritual power to the admitted candidate2 but it merely initiates him to a more perfect course of life1 and makes him the member of a society composed of men aiming at a higher degree of sanctity or perfection4 ,the incumbent must be provided for the ceremony with a dress such as is used in the community2 he must be found exempt from certain moral and physical defects that would render him unworthy of being admitted a member of the order2 he must pledge himself to a rigorous observance of certain regulations which form the constitutions of the society4 ,the place where the ceremony is to be performed is a hall measuring at least twelve cubits in length1 not including the space occupied by the ,rahans whose presence is required on the occasion4 ,the assembly of ,phongyies1 or ,rahans1 must include ten or twelve members at least if the ceremony be performed in towns1 and four or six if it be in the country4 ,he who presides over the ceremony is called ,upitze1 meaning master or guide2 he has an assistant1 named ,cambawa ,tsaia1 whose office it is to read the sacred ,cambawa1 or book of ordination1 to present the candidate to the ,upitze and his assembled brethren1 to put to him the requisite questions as prescribed by the ritual1 and to give him instructions on certain points1 the ignorance of which would prove highly prejudicial to and greatly offensive in a professed member of the order4 ,all the regulations prescribed and the ceremonies observed on the occasion are contained in a book written in ,pali1 the sacred language4 ,this book may be aptly termed the ritual of the ,buddhists4 ,it is held in great respect1 and some copies written on sheets of ivory with gilt edges are truly beautiful1 and bespeak the high value ,buddhists set on the work4 ,the copyists have retained the use of the old square ,pali letters1 instead of employing the circular ,burmese characters4 ,all the ordinances and prescriptions in this book are supposed to have been promulgated and sanctioned by no less an authority than ,gaudama himself1 the last ,buddha and the acknowledged originator and founder of the ,talapoinic order4 ,hence the high respect and profound veneration all ,buddhists bear to its contents4 ,the candidate1 previously to the beginning of the ceremony1 must be provided1 as aforesaid1 with his patta1 or mendicant's pot1 and a tsiwaran1 the clerical dress or monkish habit4 ,the patta is an open-mouthed pot of a truncated spheroidal form1 wherein each member of the brotherhood must receive the alms which every morning he goes to collect in the streets4 ,the tsiwaran or yellow#ee garment1 the only dress becoming a ,rahan1 is composed first of a piece of cloth bound to the loins with a leathern girdle1 and falling down to the feet2 second1 of a cloak of a rectangular form1 covering the shoulders and breast and reaching somewhat below the knee2 and1 third1 of another piece of cloth of the same shape1 which is folded many times and thrown over the left shoulder1 the two ends hanging down before and behind4 ,another article always required for completing the full dress of the ,rahan is the awana1 a sort of fan made of palm leaves1 set in light oval-shaped wooden frame1 with a serpentine handle1 somewhat resembling in appearance the letter ,s4 ,the ,burmese translator of the ,pali text has interpolated his work with many remarks tending to elucidate the text1 and to show the various motives and reasons that have induced ,gaudama to decree and publish as obligatory the regulations laid down in the sacred ,cambawa4 ,it must be borne in mind1 too1 that the omission of some essential parts of the ceremonies annuls de facto the ordination1 whilst the non-compliance with others of minor importance1 though not invalidating the act of admission into the sacred family1 entails sin upon all members of the brotherhood assembled ex officio for the ceremony4 ,the reader must be prepared to observe many points of close resemblance between the ceremonies observed at the reception of a monk1 or the ordination of a priest1 and those performed in these parts on the solemn occasion of admitting a candidate to the dignity of ,patzin4 ,the preparations for the solemnity being completed1 and the assembled fathers having occupied their respective seats under the presidence of the ,upitze1 the candidate is introduced into their presence attended by the assistant or reader of the ,cambawa1 and carrying his patta and yellow garments4 ,he is enjoined to repeat distinctly thrice the following sentence to the ,upitze1 kneeling down1 and his body bent forward1 with his joined hands raised to the forehead3 8,venerable ,president1 ,i acknowledge you to be my ,upitze40 ,these words having been three times repeated1 the assistant1 addressing himself to the candidate1 says3 8,dost thou acknowledge this to be thy patta1 and these thy sacred vestments80 ,to which he audibly answers1 8,yes40 ,upon this the translator remarks that1 on a certain day1 a ,rahan that had been ordained without being supplied with either patta or tsiwaran went out quite naked1 and received in the palms of his joined hands the food offered to him4 ,so extraordinary1 one would have said so unedifying1 a proceeding having been mentioned to ,gaudama1 he ordered that henceforward no ,rahan should ever be ordained unless he had been previously interrogated regarding the patta and the vestments4 ,any disobedience to this injunction would entail sin on the assembled fathers4 ,the assistant having desired the candidate to withdraw from the assembly to a distance of twelve cubits1 and the latter having complied with his request1 he turns towards the assembled fathers and addresses them as follows3 8,venerable ,upitze1 and you brethren herein congregated1 listen to my words4 ,the candidate who now stands in a humble posture before you solicits from the ,upitze the favour of being honoured with the dignity of patzin4 ,if it appears to you that everything is properly arranged and disposed for this purpose1 ,i will duly admonish him4 ,o candidate1 be attentive unto my words1 and beware lest on this solemn occasion thou utterest an untruth or concealest aught from our knowledge4 ,learn that there are certain incapacities and defects which render a person unfit for admittance into our order4 ,moreover1 when before this assembly thou shalt be interrogated respecting such defects1 thou art to answer truly1 and declare what incapacities thou mayest labour under4 ,now this is not the time to remain silent and decline thy head2 every member of the assembly has a right to interrogate thee at his pleasure1 and it is thy bounden duty to return an answer to all his interrogations40 8,candidate1 art thou affected with any of the following complaints3 the leprosy1 or any such odious maladies8 ,hast thou the scrofula or other similar complaints8 ,dost thou suffer from asthma or coughs8 ,art thou afflicted with those complaints that arise from a corrupted blood8 ,art thou affected by madness or the other ills caused by giants1 witches1 or evil spirits of the forests and mountains80 ,to each separate interrogation he answers3 8,from such complaints and bodily disorders ,i am free40 8,art thou a man80 8,i am40 8,art thou a true and legitimate son80 8,i am40 8,art thou involved in debts80 8,i am not40 8,the bounden man and underling of some great man80 8,no1 ,i am not40 8,have thy parents given consent to thy ordination80 8,they have given it40 8,hast thou reached the age of twenty years80 8,i have attained it40#ef 8,are thy vestments and sacred patta prepared80 8,they are40 8,candidate1 what is thy name80 8,my name is ,wago10 meaning1 metaphorically1 a vile and unworthy being4 8,what is the name of thy master80 8,his name is ,upitze40 ,the assistant1 having finished the examination1 turns his face towards the assembled fathers1 and thus proceeds3 8,venerable ,upitze1 and ye assembled brethren1 be pleased to listen to my words4 ,i have duly admonished this candidate1 who seeks from you to be admitted into our order4 ,does the present moment appear to you a meet and proper time that he should come forward8 ,if so1 ,i shall order him to come nearer40 ,then turning to the candidate1 he bids him come close to the assembly and ask their consent to his ordination4 ,the order is instantly complied with by the candidate1 who1 having left behind him the distance of twelve cubits that separated him from the fathers1 squats on his heels1 the body bending forward and the hands raised to his forehead1 and says3 8,i beg1 ,o fathers of this assembly1 to be admitted to the profession of ,rahan4 ,have pity on me2 take me from the state of layman1 which is one of sin and imperfection1 and advance me to that of ,rahan1 a state of virtue and perfection40 ,these words must be repeated three times4 ,the assistant then resumes his discourse as follows3 8,o ye fathers here assembled1 hear my words4 ,this candidate1 humbly prostrated before you1 begs of the ,upitze to be admitted into our holy profession2 it seems that he is free from all defects1 corporal infirmities1 as well as mental incapacities1 that would otherwise debar him from entering our holy state2 he is likewise provided with the patta and sacred vestments2 moreover1 he has asked1 in the name of the ,upitze1 permission of the assembly to be admitted among the ,rahans4 ,now let the assembly complete his ordination4 ,to whomsoever this seems good1 let him keep silence3 whosoever thinks otherwise1 let him declare that this candidate is unworthy of being admitted40 ,and these words he repeats three times4 ,afterwards he proceeds3 8,since1 then1 none of the fathers object1 but all are silent1 it is a sign that the assembly has consented2 so1 therefore1 be it done4 ,let therefore this candidate pass out of the state of sin and imperfection into the perfect state of ,rahan1 and thus1 by the consent of the ,upitze and of all the fathers1 let him be ordained40 ,and he further says3 8,the fathers must note down under what shade1 on what day1 at what hour1 and in what season the ordination has been performed40 ,this being done1 the reader of the sacred ,cambawa adds3 8,let the candidate attend to the following duties1 which it is incumbent on him to perform1 and to the faults hereafter enumerated1 which he must carefully avoid4 8#a4 ,it is the duty of each member of our brotherhood to beg for his food with labour1 and with the exertion of the muscles of his feet2 and through the whole course of his life he must gain his subsistence by the labour of his feet4 ,he is allowed to make use of all the things that are offered to him in particular1 or to the society in general1 that are usually presented in banquets1 that are sent by letter1 and that are given at the new and full moon and on festivals4 ,o candidate1 all these things you may use for your food40 ,to this he replies1 8,sir1 ,i understand what you tell me40 ,the assistant resumes his instructions3 8#b4 ,it is a part of the duty of a member of our society to wear1 through humility1 yellow clothes1 made of rags thrown about in the streets or among the tombs4 ,if1 however1 by his talents and virtue one procures for himself many benefactors1 he may receive from them for his habit the following articles1 cotton and silk1 or cloth of red#eg and yellow wool40 ,the elect answers1 8,as ,i am instructed1 so ,i will do40 ,the instructor goes on3 8#c4 ,every member of the society must dwell in houses built under the shade of lofty trees4#eh ,but if1 owing to your proficiency and zeal in the discharge of your duties1 you secure to yourself powerful supporters who are willing to build for you a better habitation1 you may dwell in it4 ,the dwellings may be made of bamboo1 wood1 and bricks1 with roofs adorned with turrets or spires of pyramidal or triangular form40 ,the elect answers3 8,i will duly attend to these instructions40 ,after the usual answer1 the instructor proceeds3 8#d4 ,it is incumbent upon an elect to use1 as medicine1 the urine of the cow1 whereon lime and the juices of lemon or other sour fruits have been poured4 ,he may also avail himself1 as medicines1 of articles thrown out of bazaars and picked up in corners of streets4 ,he may accept1 for medicinal purposes1 nutmegs and cloves4 ,the following articles may also be used medicinally--butter1 cream1 and honey40 ,now the assistant instructs the new religious on the four capital offences he must carefully avoid1 under penalty of forfeiting the dignity he has just attained to1 and solemnly warns him against committing one of them4 ,those sins are fornication1 theft1 murder1 and spiritual pride4 ,the committing of one of these sins by religious after their ordination1 in the days of ,gaudama1 induced him to declare those excluded de facto from the society who had been guilty of such offences2 and he enjoined that the assistant should immediately after the ceremony solemnly admonish the newly ordained ,patzin carefully to shun such odious offences4 ,the assistant1 without delay1 proceeds as follows3 8,o elect1 being now admitted into our society1 it shall be no longer lawful for you to indulge in carnal pleasures1 whether with yourself or animals4 ,he who is guilty of such sin can no longer be numbered among the perfect4 ,sooner shall the severed head be joined again to the neck1 and life be restored to the breathless body1 than a ,patzin who has committed fornication recover his lost sanctity4 ,beware1 therefore1 lest you pollute yourself with such a crime4 8,again1 it is unlawful and forbidden to an elect to take things that belong to another1 or even to covet them1 although their value should not exceed about six annas 7one-fourth of a tical74 ,whoever sins even to that small amount is hereby deprived of his sacred character1 and can no more be restored to his pristine state than the branch cut from the tree can retain its luxuriant foliage and shoot forth buds4 ,beware of theft during the whole of your mortal journey4 8,again1 an elect can never knowingly deprive any living being of life1 or wish the death of any one1 how troublesome soever he may prove4 ,sooner shall the cleft rock reunite so as to make a whole1 than he who kills any being be readmitted into our society4 ,cautiously avoid so heinous a crime4 8,again1 no member of our brotherhood can ever arrogate to himself extraordinary gifts or supernatural perfections1 or1 through vainglory1 give himself out as a holy man2 such1 for instance1 as to withdraw into solitary places1 and1 on pretence of enjoying ecstasies like the ,ariahs1 afterwards presume to teach others the way to uncommon spiritual attainments4 ,sooner may the lofty palm-tree that has been cut down become green again1 than an elect guilty of such pride be restored to his holy station4 ,take care for yourself that you do not give way to such an excess40 ,the elect replies as before3 8,as ,i am instructed1 so ,i will perform40 ,here ends the ceremony4 ,the elect joins the body of ,rahans1 and withdraws in their company to his own kiaong4 ,it has already been mentioned that this ceremony or ordination does not impart any spiritual character inherent in the person of the elect2 but it is a mere formality he has to go through1 to enter into the family of the perfect4 ,the admitted member is not linked indissolubly to his new state2 he is at liberty to leave it when it pleases him1 and re-enter secular life4 ,he may1 moreover1 if inclined1 apply for re-admission into the order1 but he must go through the same ceremonies that were observed on his first ordination4 ,it is not very common to meet among the ,burmese ,rahans men who from their youth have persevered to an old age in their vocation4 ,those form the rare exceptions4 ,they are very much respected1 and held in high consideration during their lifetime1 and the greatest honours are lavished upon their mortal remains after their demise4 ,they are often designated by the honourable denomination of 8pure from their infancy40 ,,article ,v4 ,,rules ,,of ,,the ,,order4 ,the obligations inherent in the dignity of ,patzin1 and the multifarious duties prescribed to the ,buddhist monks1 are contained in a book called ,patimauk1 which is1 properly speaking1 the manual of the order1 and the ,vade ,mecum of every ,talapoin1 who is obliged to study it with great care and attention4 ,it is even ordered that on festival days a certain number of recluses shall meet in a particular place called ,thein1 to listen to the reading of that book1 or at least a part of it2 that every brother should have always present to his mind the rules and regulations of his profession1 and be prompted to a strict observance of all the points they enforce4 ,this injunction is a very proper one1 since it is a fact confirmed by the experience of ages that relaxation and dissipation find their way in all communities at the very moment the rules are partially lost sight of4 ,so attentive to this duty are some ,phongyies that they can repeat by heart all the contents of the ,patimauk4 ,we have read the book with a good deal of attention4 ,many wise and well-digested rules are to be met with here and there1 but they are merged in a heap of minute1 not to say ridiculous and childish1 details1 not worth repeating4 ,in order1 however1 to give a correct and distinct outline of the mode of life1 manners1 habits1 and occupations of the ,talapoins1 we will extract from it all that has appeared to be interesting and calculated to attain the above purpose1 leaving aside the incongruous mass of useless rubbish4 ,every member of the order1 on his entering the profession1 must renounce his own will and bend his neck under the yoke of the rule4 ,so anxious indeed has been the framer of its statutes to leave no room or field open to the independent exertions of the mind1 that every action of the day1 the manner of performing it1 the time it ought to last1 the circumstances that must attend it1 have all been minutely regulated4 ,from the moment a ,rahan rises in the morning to the moment he is to go to enjoy his natural rest in the evening1 his only duty is to obey and follow the ever-subsisting will and commands of the founder of the society4 ,he advances in perfection proportionately to his fervent compliance with the injunctions of1 and to his conscientiously avoiding all that has been forbidden by1 the sagacious legislator4 ,the trespassing of one article of the rule constitutes a sin4 ,the various sins a ,rahan is liable to commit are comprised under seven principal heads4 #ast1 the ,paradzekas2 #b;d1 the ,thinga-de-ceits2 #c;d1 the ,patzei2 #dth1 the ,toolladzi2 #eth1 the ,duka2 #fth1 the ,dupaci2 and #gth1 the ,pati-de-kani4 ,these seven kinds of sins are subdivided and multiplied to the number of #bbg1 which constitute the total amount of sins either of commission or omission that a ,phongyie may commit during the time that he remains a member of the holy society4 ,the ,paradzikas are four in number3 fornication1 theft1 killing1 and vainglory in attributing to one's self high attainments in perfection4 ,a recluse1 on the day of his admission1 is1 as before related1 warned never to commit these four sins1 under the penalty of being excluded from the society4 ,they are irremissible in their nature4 ,the meaning of this is1 ,he who has had the misfortune of yielding to temptation1 and committing one of these four offences1 is no longer to be considered as a member of the ,thanga1 or of the assembly of the perfect4 ,he is de facto excluded from the society4 ,he may exteriorly continue to be a member of the ,thanga1 but inwardly he really no longer belongs to it4 ,all other offences are subjected to the law of confession1 and can be expiated by virtue of the penances imposed upon the delinquent after he has made a public avowal of his sins4 ,the reader will no doubt be startled by the unexpected information that the practice of confession has been established among the ,talapoins1 and is up to this day observed1 though very imperfectly1 by every fervent religious4 ,some zealous ,patzins will resort to the practice once1 and sometimes twice a day4 ,here is what is prescribed on this subject in the ,wini1 or book of scriptures1 which contains all that relates to the ,phongyies1 the ,patimauk being but a compendium of it3 when a ,rahan has been guilty of a violation of his rule1 he ought immediately to go to his superior1 and1 kneeling before him1 confess his sin to him4 ,sometimes he will do this in the ,thein1 the place where the brothers assemble occasionally to speak on religious subjects or listen to the reading of the ,patimauk in the presence of the assembly4 ,he must confess all his sins1 such as they are1 without attempting to conceal those of a more revolting nature1 or lessening aggravating circumstances4 ,a penance is then imposed1 consisting of certain pious formulas to be repeated a certain number of times during the night4 ,a promise must be made by the penitent to refrain in future from such trespasses4 ,this extraordinary practice is observed now1 one would say1 pro forma4 ,the penitent approaches his superior1 kneels down before him1 and having his hands raised to his forehead1 says3 8,venerable superior1 ,i do confess here all the sins that ,i may be guilty of1 and beg pardon for the same40 ,he enters upon no detailed enumeration of his trespasses1 nor does he specify anything respecting their nature and the circumstances attending them4 ,the superior remains satisfied with telling him3 8,well1 take care lest you break the regulations of your profession2 and henceforward endeavour to observe them with fidelity40 ,he dismisses him without inflicting any penance on him4 ,thus an institution1 so well calculated to put a restraint and a check upon human passions1 so well fitted to prevent man from occasionally breaking commands given to him1 or at least from slipping into the dangerous habit of doing it1 is now1 by the want of fervour and energy in the hands of that body1 reduced to be no more than an useless and ridiculous ceremony1 a mere shadow of what is actually prescribed by the ,wini4 ,the punishments inflicted for the repeated transgressions of one or several points of the rule are1 generally speaking1 of a light nature1 and seldom or never corporeal1 as flagellations1 c4 ,the superior sometimes orders a delinquent to walk through the courtyard during the heat of the day for a certain time1 to carry to a distance a certain number of baskets-ful of sand1 or a jug of water4 ,meekness1 being a virtue most becoming a recluse1 forbids the resort to penances of a more severe nature4 ,humility1 poverty1 self-denial1 and chastity are to him who has received the order of ,patzin cardinal and most essential virtues1 which he ought to practise on all occasions4 ,he must1 in all his exterior deportment1 give unequivocal marks of his being always influenced by the spirit they inspire4 ,the framer of the rules and regulations of the order seems to have had no other object in view than that of leading his brethren by various ways and means to the practice of these virtues1 and inculcating on their minds the necessity of attending to the observances prescribed for this purpose4 ,it is from this point we must view the statutes of the fraternity in order to understand them well and rightly1 and appreciate them according to their worth and merit4 ,we would indeed form a very erroneous opinion of institutions of past ages if we were to examine them1 to praise or blame them1 without a due regard being paid to the spirit that guided the legislator1 and to the object he aimed at when he laid them down4 ,our own ideas1 customs1 manners1 and education will often dispose us to disapprove at first of institutions made in former ages1 amongst nations differing from us in all respects1 under the pretext that they are not such as we would have them to be now1 making unawares our own prejudices the standard whereby to measure the merit or demerit of all that has been established previously to our own times4 ,the institutions of the middle ages1 a celebrated modern historian has said1 are intelligible to him that has entered into the spirit of those days1 and who thinks1 feels1 and believes as did the people of those bygone centuries4 ,this observation holds good to a certain extent1 and1 mutatis mutandis1 in respect to ,buddhistic institutions4 ,the whole religious system must be understood1 the object which the founder of the order had in view ought to be distinctly remarked and always borne in mind1 ere we presume to pronounce upon the fitness or unfitness of the means he has employed for obtaining it4 ,for humility's sake every ,talapoin is bound to shave every part of his body4 ,in complying with this regulation he must consider that the hairs that are shaved off are useless things1 serving merely for the purposes of vanity1 and he ought to be as unconcerned about them as a great mountain which has been cleared of the trees on its summit4 ,influenced by the same spirit1 the religious must always walk barefooted1 except in case of his labouring under some infirmity1 or for some other good reason2 he is then allowed to use a certain kind of plain and unornamented slipper1 the shape1 colour1 and dimensions of which are carefully prescribed by the rule4 ,when the ,rahans travel from one place to another1 they are allowed to carry with them the broad fan1 made of palm-leaves1 and a common paper umbrella to protect their bare head from the inclemency of the weather1 or screen it from the heat of the sun4 ,their dress1 consisting1 as above mentioned1 of three parts1 is as plain as possible4 ,according to the ,patimauk1 each separate part must be made of rags picked up here and there1 and sewed together by themselves4 ,this regulation1 though disregarded by many1 is to a certain extent observed by the greater number1 but in a manner rather contrary to the spirit1 if not to the letter1 of the rule4 ,on their receiving from benefactors a piece of silk or cotton1 they cut it into several small square parts1 which they afterwards contrive to have stitched in the best way they can1 so as to make their vestments according to the prescription of the statutes4 ,the vestment ought to be of one colour1 yellow in those countries in which ,mahometanism does not prevail4 ,the yellow colour is a mark of mourning1 as the black is amongst most of the nations of ,europe4 ,seven articles are considered as essential to every member of the holy family1 viz41 the kowot1 thin-bain1 dugout 7the three pieces constituting his vestment71 a girdle1 a patta1 a small hatchet1 a needle1 and a small apparatus for straining the water he drinks4 ,the entire number of articles he is permitted to use and possess amounts to sixty4 ,they are all plain1 common1 almost valueless1 offering no incentive to cupidity and leaving him who is only possessed of them in the humble state of strict poverty4 ,the possession of temporal goods is strictly forbidden to the ,rahans1 as calculated to hinder them from meditating upon the law and attending to the various duties of the profession4 ,nothing indeed opposes a stronger barrier to the attainment of the perfect abnegation of self and a thorough contempt for material things1 than the possession of worldly property4 ,hence a true ,rahan has no object which he can1 properly speaking1 call his own4 ,the kiaong wherein he lives has been built by benefactors1 and is supplied by them with all that is necessary or useful to him4 ,food and raiment are procured for him without his having to feel concerned about them4 ,the pious liberality of his supporters assiduously provides for his wants4 ,but it is expected that he shall never concern himself with worldly business or transactions1 of whatever nature they may be4 ,he can neither labour1 plant1 traffic1 nor do anything with the intent of deriving profit therefrom4 ,agreeably to the maxim1 8,sufficient to the day is the evil thereof10 the ,rahan cannot make any stores for the time to come4 ,he must trust in the never-failing generosity and ever-watchful attention of his supporters for his daily wants4 ,now1 let it be said to the praise of the ,buddhists1 that he is seldom disappointed in the reliance he places on them4 ,that he may be more effectually debarred from a too easy and frequent use of the things of first necessity1 a ,talapoin is bound to go through a tedious ceremony1 called ,akat1 or presentation1 before he can lawfully touch anything4 ,when he has occasion for food1 drink1 or anything else1 he turns to his disciples and tells them to do what is lawful4 ,whereupon one of them1 or several1 as circumstances may require1 rises from his place1 and1 taking the thing or things he wants with both hands1 approaches him respectfully1 and presents to him the articles1 saying1 ,this is lawful4 ,then the ,rahan takes the things into his own hands1 and uses them or lays them by1 as may suit his convenience4 ,when a thing is presented1 the disciple must be at a distance of some cubits1 otherwise the recluse is guilty of a sin2 and if what he receives is food1 he commits as many sins as he eats mouthfuls4 ,gold and silver being the two greatest feeders of covetousness1 the rule forbids the ,phongyies to touch them1 and a fortiori to have them4 ,but on this point1 however1 human covetousness has broken through the strong barriers the framer of the statutes has wisely devised for effectually protecting recluses from its dangerous allurement4 ,gold and silver are not indeed touched by the pious devotees1 but the precious and dazzling metals are conventionally handed to the disciples1 who put them into the box of the superior1 who1 whilst bowing obsequiously to the letter of the rule1 disregards its spirit4 ,sometimes an innocent ruse is resorted to by a greedy religious for silencing the remorse of his conscience2 he covers his hands with a handkerchief1 and without scruple receives the sum that is offered to him4 ,it would be unfair to pass a general and sweeping sentence of condemnation for covetousness upon all the members of the fraternity4 ,there are some whose hands have not been polluted by the handling of money1 and whose hearts have always been1 we may say1 strangers to the cravings of the auri sacra fames2 but it cannot be denied that many among them are insatiable in their lust for riches1 and not unfrequently ask for them4 ,no ,rahan can ever ask for anything2 he is allowed to receive what is spontaneously offered to him4 ,in this point too the spirit of the rule is frequently done away with4 ,the recluse will not ask an object he covets 7,i beg his pardon for making use of such a term7 in direct words2 but by some indirect means or circuitous ways he will give significantly to understand that the possession of such an object is much needed by him1 and that the offering of it would be a source of great merits to the donor4 ,in this manner he moves the heart of his visitor1 and soon kindles in his breast a desire to present the thing1 almost as eager as his own is to receive it4 ,celibacy is strictly enjoined on every professed member of the society4 ,on the day of his reception he is solemnly warned by the instructor never to do anything contrary to that most essential virtue4 ,the founder of the order and the framer of its statutes has entered1 on this subject1 into the most minute details1 and prescribed a multitude of regulations tending to fortify the ,rahans in the accomplishment of the solemn vow they have made1 and to remove from them all occasions of sin1 even the most distant4 ,we must give him credit for an uncommon acquaintance with the weakness of human nature1 as well as with the violence of the fiercest passion of the heart1 since he has laboured so much to strengthen and uphold the former1 and bridle the latter by every means his anxious mind could devise4 ,he was deeply read in the secrets of the human heart1 and knew well that the surest tactics for carrying on successfully the warfare between the spirit and the flesh consist in rather avoiding carefully the encounter of the enemy1 and skilfully manuvring at a distance from him1 than in boldly encountering him in the open field4 ,hence the repeated injunctions to shun all the occasions of sin4 ,the ,phongyies are forbidden to stay under the same roof1 or to travel in the same carriage and boat1 with women2 they cannot receive anything from their hands4 ,to such a height are precautions carried that the religious are not permitted to touch the clothes of a woman1 or caress a female child1 however young1 or even handle a female animal4#ei ,when visited in their dwellings by women1 who resort thither for the purpose of making offerings1 or listening to the recital of a few passages of the sacred books1 they must remain at a great distance from them1 and be surrounded by some of their disciples4 ,the ,phongyies are to look upon the old ones as mothers and upon the young as sisters4 ,the conversation must be as short as decency allows1 and no useless or light expressions be ever uttered4 ,on the festival days1 when crowds of people1 men and women1 go to the kiaongs to hear the tara1 or some parts of the law repeated1 the ,rahans1 arrayed in front of the congregation1 keep their fans before their faces all the while1 lest their eyes should meet with dangerous and tempting objects4 ,much greater precautions are still required in their intercourse with the ,rahanesses1 a sort of female recluses1 whose institute is greatly on its decline in almost all parts of ,burmah4 ,for better securing the observance of continence1 a ,phongyie never walks out of his monastery1 or enters a private dwelling1 without being attended by a few disciples4 ,popular opinion is inflexible and inexorable on the point of celibacy1 which is considered essential to every one that has a pretension to be called a ,rahan4 ,the people can never be brought to look upon any person as a priest or minister of religion unless he live in that state4 ,any infringement of this most essential regulation on the part of a ,rahan is visited with an immediate punishment4 ,the people of the place assemble at the kiaong of the offender1 sometimes driving him out with stones4 ,he is stripped of his clothes2 and often public punishment1 even that of death1 is inflicted upon him by order of government4 ,the poor wretch is looked upon as an outcast1 and the woman whom he has seduced shares in his shame1 confusion1 and disgrace4 ,such an extraordinary opinion1 so deeply rooted in the mind of a people rather noted for the licentiousness of their manners1 certainly deserves the attention of every diligent observer of human nature4 ,whence has originated among corrupted and half-civilised men such a high respect and profound esteem for so exalted a virtue8 ,why is its rigorous practice deemed essential to those who professedly tend to an uncommon degree of perfection8 ,owing partly to the weight of public opinion1 and partly to some other reasons1 the law of celibacy1 externally at least1 is observed with a great scrupulosity1 and a breach of it is a rare occurrence4 ,as the rule1 in this respect1 binds the ,phongyie only as long as he remains in the profession1 he who feels his moral strength unable to cope successfully with the sting of passion prefers leaving the fraternity and returning to a secular life1 when he can safely put an end1 by a lawful alliance1 to the internal strife1 rather than expose himself to a transgression which is to entail upon him consequences so disgraceful4 ,the sagacious legislator of the ,buddhistic religious order1 pre-occupied with the idea of elevating the spiritual principle above the material one1 and securing to reason a thorough control over bodily appetites1 has prescribed temperance as a fundamental virtue essential to every ,rahan4 ,in common with all their fellow-religionists1 the ,rahans are commanded to abstain from the use of spirituous liquors and of intoxicating substances4 ,such a prohibition is the wisest step that ,gaudama could have adopted to preserve his followers from the shameful vice of drunkenness4 ,all uncivilised people make use of spirits for the sole purpose of creating in them the effects of intoxication4 ,were it not for such an excellent regulation1 the members of the ,thanga would soon become1 by their excesses1 the laughing-stock of the laity4 ,the time allotted for taking their meals extends from daybreak to the moment the sun has reached the middle of its course2 but as soon as the luminous globe has passed the meridian1 the use of food is strictly interdicted4 ,a stomach1 more or less loaded with nutritive substances taken in the evening1 weighs down the body1 enervates the energies of the soul1 clouds the intellect1 and renders a man rather unfit to devote himself to the high exercises of study1 meditation1 and contemplation1 which ought to be the principal occupations of a fervent ,rahan4 ,he is allowed to make two meals in the forenoon1 but it is expected that he will eat no more than is required to support nature4 ,he must always take his meals in company with the members of his community4 ,to stifle the craving of gluttony and eradicate immoderate desires1 he ought to repeat frequently within himself the following sentence3 8,i eat this rice1 not to please my appetite1 but to satisfy the wants of nature20 just as he says when he puts on the habit1 8,i dress myself1 not for the sake of vanity1 but to cover my nakedness40 ,rice and vegetables are1 according to the statutes1 the staple food of the ,phongyies2 the use of fish and meat is tolerated1 and now it has become a daily prevailing custom which has rendered the practice a lawful one4 ,strictly speaking1 a ,talapoin must remain satisfied with rice and various sorts of boiled vegetables which he has received in his patta during his morning perambulations through the streets of the place4 ,as it happened among the ,romans that the law repressing convivial sumptuousness and luxury proved an ineffectual barrier against gluttony and other passions1 so amidst the ,rahans the strict regulations prescribing a poor and unsavoury diet have been obliged to yield before the tendencies to satisfy the ever-increasing demands of appetite4 ,most of the ,phongyies give to dogs1 or to the boys who live in the monastery1 the vulgar food they have begged in the streets1 and feed on aliments of better quality supplied to them regularly by some persons in easy circumstances1 who call themselves supporters of the kiaong and of its inmates4 ,the ordinary fare consists of rice and several small dishes for seasoning the rice1 in which are some little pieces of flesh1 dressed according to the culinary abilities of the cooks of the country1 which are not certainly of the highest order4 ,to this are added some of the fruits of the season accompanied by sweetmeats1 which female devotees are wont everywhere so carefully to prepare and so fondly to offer to those who are the objects of their pious admiration and respect4 ,the aliments supplied to the humble recluses are of the best description for the country they live in4 ,one would say that they live on the fat of the land4 ,the most delicate rice and the finest fruits invariably find their way to the monasteries4 ,but withal1 the ,phongyies are not to be charged with the sin of intemperance or gluttony4 ,the quantity of food they may take is also an object of regulation1 as well as the very mode of taking1 and even of swallowing it4 ,each mouthful must be of a moderate size2 a second ought not to be carried to the mouth before the first has been completely disposed of by the masticatory process1 and found its way down through the sophagus4 ,the contrary would be considered gluttony1 and an evident sign that the eater has something else in view besides appeasing the mere wants of nature4 ,it is rather an amusing sight to gaze at the solemn indifference of a ,talapoin taking his meal4 ,one would be tempted to believe that he is reluctantly submitting to the dire necessity of ministering to the wants of a nature too low and material4 ,the rule forbids ,talapoins to eat human flesh1 or that of the monkey1 snake1 elephant1 tiger1 lion1 and dog4#fj ,as a mitigation of the severity of the disciplinary regulation prohibiting the recluses from taking any food from twelve o'clock in the day until the next morning1 the use of certain beverages is permitted during that time1 such as cocoa-nut water1 the juice of the sugar-cane1 and other refreshing draughts4 ,the rule being silent regarding the consumption of the betel-leaf and other ingredients constituting the delicious mouthful for masticatory purposes1 the ,talapoins avail themselves largely of the liberty left to them on this subject4 ,the quantity of betel and other accompanying substances which they consume is truly enormous4 ,these articles hold a pre-eminent place amongst the objects that are presented to the inmates of monasteries4 ,the dark-red substance adhering to the teeth and occasionally accumulating at the corners of the mouth1 the incessant motion of the lower jaw1 the stream of reddish spittle issuing frequently from the lips of the ,talapoins1 are unquestionable proofs of both their ardent fondness and copious consumption of that harmless narcotic4 ,except during the short moments allotted for taking meals1 a ,rahan's mouth is always full of betel1 and the masticating or chewing process is incessantly going on4 ,a great modesty must distinguish a member of the family of the perfect from a layman2 that virtue must shine forth in his countenance1 demeanour1 gait1 and conversation4 ,any sign on his face indicating the inward action of anger or any other passion is found unbecoming in a person whose composedness and serenity of soul ought never to be disturbed by any inordinate affection4 ,he never speaks precipitately or loudly1 lest it might be inferred that passion rather than reason influences him4 ,worldly or amusing topics of conversation are strictly interdicted1 either with his brethren or laymen4 ,the rule requires him to walk through the streets with affected simplicity1 avoiding hurry as well as slowness1 keeping his eye fixed on the ground in front1 looking not further than ten or fifteen cubits4 ,curiosity tends to expand the soul on surrounding objects2 but a ,rahan's principal aim being to attend diligently to himself1 to prefer the care of self before all other cares1 and to concern himself very little about all that takes place without1 he assiduously labours to keep his soul free from vain inquiry1 from eager desire of hearing news1 and from an idle or unnecessary interference in things or matters strange to him4 ,it seems that he has the wise saying always present to his mind1 8,where art thou when thou art not present to thyself8 ,and when thou hast run over all things1 what profit will it be to thee if thou hast neglected thyself80 ,during his perambulations he never salutes or notices the persons he meets on his way2 he is indifferent to the attentions and marks of the highest veneration paid to him by the people2 he never returns thanks for offerings made to him1 nor does he repay with a single regard the kindness proffered to him4 ,objects most calculated to awaken curiosity by their novelty and interest ought to find him cold1 indifferent1 and unconcerned4 ,his self-collection accompanies him everywhere1 and disposes his soul to an uninterrupted meditation on some points of the law4 ,it is a counsel of the ,wini to observe particularly the four cleannesses1 viz41 great modesty in the streets and public places1 the confession of all failings1 the avoiding of all occasions of sins1 and the keeping oneself free from the seven kinds of sin4 ,such a wise injunction can only be attended to and observed by keeping a vigilant watch over the senses1 which are the very gates leading into the sanctuary of the soul4 ,we could enter into fuller and more particular details regarding the regulations of the ,talapoinic order1 but they would prove little interesting1 and only corroborate what has been previously stated1 that every action of a brother1 even the most common1 such as the manner of sitting1 rising up1 sleeping1 eating1 c41 has become the object of the legislative attention of the founder of the order4 ,nothing seems to have escaped his clear foresight1 and he has admirably succeeded in leaving no room for the exercise of individual liberty4 ,the rule is as a great moral being whose absolute commands must be always obeyed4 ,every individual is bound to lay aside his own self1 and unconditionally follow the impulse of his guiding influence4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,,occupations ,,of ,,the ,,buddhist ,,monks4 ,the whole life of a recluse being confined within a narrow compass1 we will have very little to say regarding his daily occupations4 ,as soon as a ,talapoin has left at an early hour the sleeping horizontal position1 he rinses his mouth1 washes his face1 and recites a few formulas of prayers1 which he lengthens or shortens according to his devotion4 ,he attires himself in his professional costume1 gets hold of his mendicant's pot1 and sallies forth1 in company with some brethren or disciples1 in quest of his food4 ,he perambulates the streets in various directions1 and1 without any solicitation on his part1 receives the rice1 curry1 vegetables1 and fruits which pious donors have been preparing from two to three o'clock in the morning1 watching at the door of their houses the arrival of the yellow-clad monks4 ,having received what is considered sufficient for the day1 he returns to the monastery1 and sets himself to eat either what he has brought1 or something more delicate and better dressed which his supporter1 if he has any1 has sent to him4 ,on the principal festivals1 or on extraordinary occurrences1 abundant alms are brought to his domicile4 ,sometimes he is called by a pious donor to come and receive them in the pagodas1 or in large temporary sheds erected for the purpose reserved for the occasion4 ,they consist chiefly of mattresses1 pillows1 betel-boxes1 mats1 tea-cups1 and various articles he is allowed to make use of4 ,on these occasions he repays his benefactors by repeating to them the five great precepts1 and some of the principal tenets of the ,buddhistic creed1 and the chief points of the law4 ,he enumerates at great length the numerous merits reserved to alms-givers4 ,on this point it must be confessed that he is truly eloquent1 and his language flowing and abundant3 his expressions are ready at hand and most glowing1 calculated to please the ears of his hearers and warm their souls to make fresh efforts in procuring him more copious alms4 ,occasionally he will recite long praises in honour of ,gaudama1 the last ,buddha1 for having during his previous existence practised eminent virtues1 and thereby qualified himself for the high dignity of ,phra4 ,the sermon goes on sometimes in ,pali or sacred language1 which neither he nor his hearers can understand4 ,the ,phongyies are sometimes requested to visit the sick1 not so much for the purpose of ministering to the spiritual wants of the sufferer as for affording him some relief by his presence4 ,it is believed that the appearance of a holy personage may have some effect in freeing the diseased from his distemper1 and frightening the evil spirits that may be the mischievous agents in harming patients4 ,the visitor repeats over them some points of the law that are intended to act as antidotes against the agency of the wicked one4 ,phongyies are very particular on the point of etiquette4 ,when one of them has to enter into upper-storied houses1 the yellow-habited religious1 previous to his venturing into the lower story1 will make it sure that there is no one1 and particularly no woman1 in the upper apartments1 as it would be highly unbecoming that any man1 and a fortiori a woman1 should have their feet above his head4 ,to avoid such an indecorous contingency1 in case the sick person lies in a room upstairs1 the ,phongyie has recourse to an expedient few1 ,i presume1 would have thought of4 ,by his direction a ladder is brought1 the lower part of which rests on the street1 and the upper leans on one of the upper windows2 up goes the pious visitor1 who by such a contrivance reconciles the observance of etiquette with the compliance to his duty4 ,the writer confesses that he was much amused the first time that he witnessed such a feat performed at ,penang by a ,siamese ,phongyie4 ,the little crowd1 attracted by this novelty1 exhibited a curious mixture of feelings4 ,some laughed2 many remained silent2 but their deportment was evidently indicative of the respect and admiration that seemed to them to inspire the scrupulously tender conscience of the religious4 ,we must allow that the ,talapoins confer a truly invaluable benefit upon the people of these countries by keeping up schools1 where the boys resort for the purpose of learning to read1 write1 and acquire the rudiments of arithmetic4 ,in this respect they are eminently useful1 and the institution1 though to a certain extent burthensome to the people1 in this respect deserves well of the country4 ,the many abuses that at present attend it are almost fully atoned for by the great service its members gratuitously render to their countrymen4 ,there are no other schools than those under their management4 ,the tyrannical governments of ,siam and ,burmah do not take any steps to propagate instruction among their subjects1 whom they look upon as slaves1 fit only for bodily labour4 ,the houses of ,talapoins are so many little seats of elementary learning2 and as they are very numerous throughout the country1 every facility is afforded to male children to learn to read and write4 ,the female children are excluded from partaking of this great boon by the strictness of the monastic regulations4 ,it is a great misfortune1 much to be lamented1 as one half of the population is thus doomed to live in perpetual ignorance4 ,owing to the gratuitous education given by the ,buddhist monks1 there are very few men throughout the breadth and length of ,burmah who are not able to read and write4 ,it is true that too often the knowledge thus acquired is very superficial and incomplete4 ,but as regards the other half of the population1 it may be stated that scarcely a woman among thousands can be found capable of spelling one word4 ,the ,talapoins being much addicted to sloth and indolence1 the schools are undoubtedly miserably managed4 ,the boys are often left to themselves without regular control or discipline4 ,when a boy enters the monastery as student1 his teacher places into his hands a piece of blackened board1 whereupon are written the first letters of the alphabet4 ,the poor lad has to repeat over and over the name of the letters1 crying aloud with all the powers of his lungs4 ,he is left for several weeks at the same subject1 until his instructor is satisfied that he knows his letters4 ,in the next step the boy is directed to study the symbols of the vowels which are to be joined with consonants so as to form syllables and words4 ,when this is done he is initiated into the art of uniting together and articulating properly the several consonants with the symbolic characters4 ,he slowly shapes his course through the apparently much-complicated system of all the combinations of letters1 so as to be able to spell correctly all the words of the language4 ,owing to the lack of order and method on the part of the teachers1 boys spend a long time1 sometimes one or two years1 in mastering those difficulties1 which1 if properly explained1 would much shorten the time usually devoted to such a study4 ,the ,burmese alphabet1 with the various combinations of letters and symbols for making words1 is based on a most perfect and scientific methodical and simple process1 borrowed from the ,sanscrit4 ,the method is plain and easy1 as soon as it is understood4 ,any person that has received some education1 and whose mind is somewhat developed1 will be able1 with the occasional assistance of an intelligent master1 to go all over the various combinations in less than two months4 ,the results derived from the method adopted by the ,burmans are so great and complete that1 after having gone over the general alphabet with attention1 the beginner is able to read all the ,burmese words he may meet with4 ,we do not mean1 of course1 to say that he will be able to pronounce every word correctly4 ,this is another thing altogether4 ,but it is no less evident that the system used by ,burmese in the combinations of letters leads to results infinitely more satisfactory than those obtained through the system of elementary reading and spelling used in ,europe4 ,unacquainted with the rules of grammar1 the teachers are incapable of imparting any sound knowledge of the vernacular language to their numerous pupils4 ,hence writing1 as far as orthography goes1 is extremely imperfect2 the spelling of words1 having no fixed standard1 varies to an indefinite extent4 ,as soon as the scholars have mastered the difficulties of the long and complicated alphabet1 some portions of the sacred writings are put into their hands for reading4 ,the result is that the ,burmese in general acquire some knowledge1 more or less extensive1 of their religious creed4 ,though none among them can be found who understands comprehensively the ,buddhistic system1 yet most of them are possessed of a certain amount of more or less limited information concerning ,buddha and his law4 ,in this respect they are perhaps ahead of many nominal ,christians in several countries of ,europe1 who dwell in large manufacturing towns and remote country districts and belong to the lower classes1 and who live without even a slight acquaintance with the essential tenets of the ,christian creed4 ,in addition to the eminently useful task of teaching youth1 the ,buddhistic recluse devotes occasionally some portion of his time to the useful labour of copying manuscripts on palm-leaves1 either for his personal use or to increase the small library of his monastery4 ,the work is considered as a very excellent one1 deserving of great merits1 and much recommended by the rules of the society4 ,it is a matter of regret that the native laziness of the ,phongyies1 as well as their total want of order in acquiring knowledge1 thwart to a great extent the practical working of the wise provisions made by the framer of the rules4 ,were it not for such causes1 copies of all the best and most interesting works on the religious system of ,buddhism would be greatly multiplied1 and could be easily procured2 whilst now they are exceedingly scarce and hardly to be had at all4 ,the few copies to be had with much difficulty are to be paid for very high4 ,all the books are made of palm-leaves4 ,the leaves are about twenty inches in length1 and from three to four in breadth4 ,on each face of the leaf from seven to nine or ten lines are written4 ,a copyist uses a style of iron by way of pen4 ,with the sharp point he scratches the epidermis of the leaf to form the letters4 ,in order to render the letters perfectly visible1 he rubs over the page just written with a piece of rag some petroleum1 which1 penetrating into the parts scratched by the style1 causes the letters to become quite distinct and apparent4 ,the ,talapoins spend the best part of the day sitting in a cross-legged position1 chewing betel and conversing with the many idlers that are always to be found in great numbers about their dwellings4 ,when tired of the vertical position1 they adopt the horizontal one1 reclining the head on pillows and gently submitting to the soporific influence of good ,morpheus4 ,they have always in their hands a string of beads1 on which they are wont to repeat certain devotional formulas4 ,the most common is the following1 8,aneitsa1 duka1 anatta20 meaning that everything in this world is subjected to the law of change and mutability1 to that of pain and suffering1 and to that of entire and uninterrupted illusion4 ,there is1 indeed1 an immense field opened to a reflecting mind by these three very significative expressions for carrying on serious and prolonged meditation2 but none of the ,talapoins1 at least of those ,i have been acquainted with1 are capable of understanding comprehensively their meaning4 ,they often repeat the forty great subjects of meditation1 and the rule enjoins them to be zealously addicted to contemplation1 which is pronounced to be the chief exercise of a true follower of ,buddha4 ,but how can there ever be expected from weak and ignorant persons the habitual practice of so high an exercise1 requiring an intellectual vigour of the very first order8 ,they must repeat on their beads at least a hundred and twenty times a day the four following considerations on the four things more immediately necessary to men1 food1 raiment1 habitation1 and medicine3 8,i eat this rice1 not to please my appetite1 but to satisfy the wants of nature4 ,i put on this habit1 not for the sake of vanity1 but to cover my nakedness4 ,i live in this kiaong1 not for vainglory1 but to be protected from the inclemency of the weather4 ,i drink this medicine merely to recover my health1 that ,i may with greater diligence attend to the duties of my profession40 ,,article ,,vii4 ,,religious ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,phongyies--,,respect ,,and ,,veneration ,,paid ,,to ,,them ,,by ,,the ,,laity4 ,when we speak of the great influence possessed by the religious order of ,buddhist monks1 we do not intend to speak of political influence4 ,it does not appear that in ,burmah they have ever aimed at any share in the management or direction of the affairs of the country4 ,since the accession of the house of ,alomphra to the throne1 that is to say1 during a period of above a hundred years1 the history of ,burmah has been tolerably well known4 ,we do not recollect having ever met with one instance when the ,phongyies1 as a body1 have interfered in the affairs of the ,state4 ,they also seem to remain indifferent to family or domestic affairs4 ,the regulations they are subjected to1 and the object which they have in view in entering the religious profession1 debar them from concerning themselves in affairs that are foreign to their sacred calling4 ,but in a religious point of view alone1 their influence is a mighty one4 ,upon that very order hinges the whole fabric of ,buddhism4 ,from it1 as from a source1 flows the life that maintains and invigorates religious belief in the masses that profess that creed4 ,we may view the members of the order as religious1 and as instructors of the people at large1 and principally of youth4 ,in that double capacity they exercise a great control and retain a strong hold over the mind of the people4 ,there is in man a natural disposition and inclination to admire individuals who1 actuated by religious feelings1 are induced to leave the world and separate from society in order to devote themselves more freely to the practice of religious duties4 ,the more society is corrupted1 the more its members value those persons who have the moral courage to estrange themselves from the centre of vice1 that they may preserve themselves from contamination4 ,in fact1 religious are esteemed in proportion to the extent of the contempt they have for this world4 ,the ,phongyies occupy precisely this position in the eyes of their co-religionists4 ,their order stands in bold relief over the society they belong to4 ,their dress1 their mode of life1 their voluntary denial of all gratification of sensual appetites1 centre upon them the admiring eyes of all4 ,they are looked upon as the imitators and followers of ,buddha2 they hold ostensibly before ordinary believers the pattern of that perfection they have been taught so fondly to revere4 ,the ,phongyies are as living mementoes1 reminding the people of all that is most sacred and perfect in practical religion4 ,no one will deny that the view of a body of religious existing in a community1 keeping an intercourse with its members1 must ever have a powerful tendency to foster religious feelings in the mind of a half-civilised people as the ,burmese are4 ,it is in this manner that the ,phongyies command the respect and veneration of the people1 and exercise a considerable amount of religious influence over the masses4 ,but in the capacity of instructors of the people1 the members of the order act as yet more directly and actively upon the people4 ,in ,burmah there are no schools but those kept by the religious4 ,the monasteries are as so many little seminaries where male children receive elementary instruction4 ,the knowledge that is imparted to them by their masters is not secular1 but purely religious4 ,it is a point upon which the undivided attention of a keen observer must be centred in order to understand the full meaning of the following remarks4 ,we do not mean to say that the instructor has always present to his mind1 as a professor1 the direct teaching of religious tenets2 but the fact is that no information is conveyed to the pupils except that which comes from religious books4 ,no other books are ever used in schools4 ,as soon as boys are able to read1 religious books are put into their hands4 ,during all the time they remain at school they go over books that have a direct reference to religion4 ,without even being aware of it1 they imbibe religious notions1 and become acquainted with some parts of the religious creed1 particularly with what relates to ,gaudama's preceding and last existence4 ,when they grow up to manhood1 if they happen to read1 they have1 as a general practice1 no other books but such as have a reference to religion4 ,when people assemble together1 either in the dzeats on the occasion of festival days1 or at home on other public occasions1 particularly in the days following the death of some relatives1 one or several elders read some passage of their scriptures1 and thereby supply topics for conversation of a religious turn4 ,this state of things originates almost entirely in the early education received in the monasteries at the hands of their masters1 the ,phongyies4 ,it powerfully contributes to popularise and foster religious notions1 whilst it indirectly heightens and brightens in the eyes of the people the position of the religious4 ,moreover1 the early intercourse between the youth and their masters tends to bring into closer contact and union both the religious and the laity4 ,it draws nearer the ties that bind together these two fractions of the ,buddhist society4 ,the relation thus established between the teachers and the taught is further strengthened by the fact that the greatest number of the male portion of the community become affiliated1 during a longer or shorter period1 to the society1 and subjected to its rules and regulations2 they are cast in the mould of religious1 and retain during the remainder of their life some of the features that have been at an early period stamped on their young minds4 ,their memory remains loaded with all that they learned by heart during the days they spent in the monasteries as students or members of the society4 ,though the ,phongyies or ,talapoins are not remarkable for their zeal in delivering instructions or sermons to the people1 they discharge occasionally that duty on the eve of and during festival days1 and on all occasions when considerable offerings are brought to them in their monasteries4 ,sometimes1 too1 they are requested to go to certain places prepared for that purpose1 to deliver instructions and receive offerings tendered to them by some pious laymen4 ,the preaching never consists in expounding the text of the religious books1 and developing certain points of the law2 it is a mere rehearsal and repetition of the precepts of the law or of regular formulas in praise of ,gaudama1 and an enumeration of the merits to be gained by those who bestow alms on them4 ,these and similar circumstances much contribute to keep up the position of the religious1 and aid them in retaining a powerful religious hold over their respective communities4 ,we repeat it as our deliberate opinion1 that upon the religious association under consideration principally rests1 as on a strong basis1 the great fabric of ,buddhism4 ,were such an institution to give way and crumble to the dust1 the vital energies of that false creed would soon be weakened and completely paralysed4 ,buddhism would yield before the first attack that would be skilfully and vigorously directed against it4 ,in ,burmah the ,phongyies are highly respected by every member of the community4 ,when they appear in public1 walking in the streets1 they are the objects of the greatest attention4 ,the people withdraw before them to leave a free passage4 ,women are seen squatting on both sides of the way1 through respect for the venerated personages4 ,when visited in their dwellings1 even by persons of the highest rank1 the etiquette is that every visitor should prostrate himself three times before the head of the monastery1 uttering the following formula3--8,to the end of obtaining the remission of all the faults ,i have committed through my senses1 my speech1 and my heart1 ,i make a first1 second1 and third prostration in honour of the three precious things--,phra1 his law1 and the assembly of the perfect4 ,meanwhile1 ,i earnestly wish to be preserved from the three calamities1 the four states of punishment1 and the five enemies40 ,to which the recluse answers3--8,for his merit and reward1 may he who makes such prostrations be freed from the four states of punishment1 the three calamities1 the five sorts of enemies1 and from all evil whatsoever4 ,may he obtain the object of all his wishes1 walk steadily in the path of perfection1 enjoy the advantages resulting therefrom1 and finally obtain the state of ,neibban40 ,on the visitor withdrawing from his presence1 the three prostrations must be repeated2 he then stands up1 falls back to a distance of ten feet1 as it would be highly unbecoming to turn the back suddenly on the holy man1 wheels round on the right1 and goes out4 ,this usage is doubtless very ancient1 and is at the same time looked upon as a very important one4 ,in the ,life of ,gaudama we have seen it mentioned on all occasions when visitors went to pay their respects to him4 ,princes and nobles observed the ceremony with the utmost punctuality4 ,the best proof of the high veneration the people entertain for the ,talapoins is the truly surprising liberality with which they gladly minister to all their wants4 ,they impose upon themselves great sacrifices1 incur enormous expenses1 place themselves joyfully in narrow circumstances1 that they might have the means to build monasteries with the best and most substantial materials1 and adorn them with all the luxury the country can afford4#fa ,gold is often profusely used for gilding the posts1 ceiling1 and other parts of the interior1 as well as several trunks or chests for storing up manuscripts4 ,two or three roofs superposed upon each other 7a privilege exclusively reserved to royal palaces1 pagodas1 and kiaongs7 indicate to the stranger that the building is a monastery4 ,the recluse's house is well supplied with the various articles of furniture becoming the pious inmates4 ,the individual who builds at his own expense such a house1 assumes the much-envied title of ,kiaong-taga1 or supporter of a monastery4 ,this title is for ever coupled with his name3 it is used as a mark of respect by all persons conversing with him1 and it appears in all papers or documents which he may have to sign4 ,the best1 finest1 and most substantial articles1 if allowed by the regulations as fit for the use of the ,talapoins1 are generously and abundantly afforded by benevolent persons4 ,when the king is religiously inclined1 the best and most costly presents he receives are deposited in the monasteries1 to adorn the place or hall where the principal idol is4 ,government does not interfere or give any assistance in building pagodas or kiaongs2 nor does it provide for the support of the pious ,rahans2 but the liberality of the people amply suffices for all contingencies of the kind4 ,when a man has made some profit by trading1 or any other way1 he will almost infallibly bestow the best portion of his lucre in building a kiaong1 or feeding the inmates of a religious house for a few months1 or in giving general alms to all the recluses of the town4 ,such liberality1 which is by no means uncommon1 has its root1 we believe1 in a strong religious sentiment1 and also in the insecurity--nay1 the danger--of holding property to a large amount4 ,when a ,talapoin is addressed by a layman1 the latter assumes the title of disciple2 and the former calls him simply ,taga1 or supporter4 ,the attitude of the layman in the presence of the ,phongyie is indicative of the veneration he entertains towards his person4 ,he squats down1 and he never addresses the yellow-dressed individual without joining his hands in token of respect1 and raising them up with a little motion indicative of intended prostration4 ,as there is in ,burmah a court language1 so there is a language1 or rather a certain number of expressions1 reserved to designate things used by ,talapoins1 as well as most of the actions they perform in common with other men1 such as eating1 walking1 sleeping1 shaving1 c4 ,the very turn of the commonest sentence is indicative of respect when speaking to a ,rahan4 ,he is called ,phra1 the most honourable term the language can afford4 ,his person is sacred1 and no one would dare to offer him the least insult or violence4 ,the influence of the ,talapoin upon the people is considerable1 in proportion to the great respect borne to his sacred character4 ,so extraordinary has it been on certain occasions1 that ,phongyies have been seen rescuing forcibly from the hands of the police culprits on their way to the place of execution4 ,no resistance1 then1 could be made by the policemen without exposing themselves to the danger of committing a sacrilege1 by lifting their hands against them when such an occurrence takes place4 ,the liberated wretches are then forthwith led to the next monastery4 ,their heads having been shaved1 they are attired in the yellow garb1 and their persons become at once sacred and inviolable4 ,the veneration paid to ,talapoins during their lifetime accompanies them after their death4 ,their state is considered as one of peculiar sanctity4 ,it is supposed that their very bodies too partake of the holiness inherent in their sacred profession4 ,hence their mortal remains are honoured to an extent scarcely to be imagined4 ,as soon as a distinguished member of the brotherhood has given up the ghost1 his body is opened1 the viscera extracted and buried in some decent place without any particular ceremony1 and the corpse embalmed in a very simple manner by putting ashes1 bran1 and other desiccative substances into the abdominal cavity4 ,it is then swathed with bands of linen1 wrapped round it many times1 and a thick coat of varnish laid upon the whole4 ,on this fresh varnish gold leaves are sometimes placed1 so that the whole body is gilded over from head to feet4 ,when the people are poor and cannot afford to buy gold for the above purpose1 a piece of yellow cloth is considered as the most suitable substitute4 ,the body1 thus attired1 is laid in a very massive coffin1 made1 not with planks1 but of a single piece of timber hollowed in the middle for receiving the earthly frame of the deceased4 ,a splendid cenotaph1 raised in the centre of a large building erected for the purpose1 is prepared to support a large chest wherein the coffin is deposited4 ,the chest is often gilt inside and out1 and decorated with flowers made of different polished substances of various colours4 ,pictures1 such as native artists contrive to make1 are disposed round the cenotaph4 ,they represent ordinarily religious subjects4 ,in this stately situation the body remains exposed for several days1 nay several months1 until preparations are completed for the grand day of the obsequies4 ,during that period festivals are often celebrated about it1 bands of music play1 and people resort in crowds to the spot for the purpose of making offerings to defray the expense to be incurred for the funeral ceremony4 ,when the appointed day for burning the corpse at last arrives1 the whole population of the town will be seen flocking in their finest dresses to witness the display of fireworks which takes place on the occasion of burning the corpse4 ,a funeral pile of a square form is erected on the most elevated spot4 ,its height is about fifteen feet1 and it ends with a small room made for receiving the coffin4 ,the corpse having been hoisted up and laid in the place destined for its reception1 fire is set to the pile in a rather uncommon way4 ,an immense rocket1 placed at a distance of about forty yards1 is directed towards the pile by means of a fixed rope guiding it thereto4 ,sometimes the rocket is placed on a huge cart1 and pushed in the direction of the pile4 ,in its erratic and uncertain course it happens occasionally that it deviates from its course1 and plunges into the ranks of the crowd1 wounding and killing those it meets4 ,as soon as it comes in contact with the pile1 the latter immediately takes fire by means of combustibles heaped for that purpose1 and the whole is soon consumed4 ,the few remaining pieces of bones are religiously collected1 and buried in the vicinity of some pagoda4 ,here ends the profound veneration1 amounting almost to worship1 which ,buddhists pay to their recluses during their life and after their demise4 ,two chief motives induce the sectaries of ,buddha to be so liberal towards the ,talapoins1 and to pay them so high a respect2 viz41 the great merits and abundant rewards they expect to derive from the plentiful alms they bestow upon them1 and the profound admiration they entertain for their sacred character1 austere manners1 and purely religious mode of life4 ,the first motive originates from interested views2 the second has its root in that regard men naturally have for persons who distinguish themselves from others by a more absolute self-denial1 a greater restraint and control of their passions1 a renouncement of permitted pleasures and sensual gratifications from religious motives4 ,according to the fundamental dogma of ,buddhism1 any offering made to1 or indeed any action done for the benefit of1 a fellow-man is deserving of reward during future existences1 such as digging a well1 building a resting-place1 a bridge1 c42 but far more abundant are the merits resulting from presenting a ,talapoin with one or several articles necessary to his daily use1 as they increase proportionately to the dignity of the person to whom the things are offered4 ,we may judge from the following instance of the plentiful harvest of merits which a supporter of ,phongyies is promised to reap hereafter3 ,he who shall make an offering of a mendicant's pot or ,thabeit shall receive as his reward cups and other utensils set with jewels2 he shall be exempted from misfortunes and calamities1 disquietude and trouble2 he shall get without labour all that is necessary for his food1 dress1 and lodging2 pleasure and happiness shall be his lot2 his soul shall be in a state of steadiness and tranquillity1 and his passion for the sex shall be considerably weakened4 ,the offering of other objects secures to the donor wealth1 dignity1 high rank1 pleasure1 and an admittance into the fortunate countries or seats of the ,nats1 where all the things are to be met with and enjoyed that are calculated to confer on man the greatest sum of happiness4 ,the people believe unhesitatingly all that is said to them in this respect1 and they gladly strip themselves of many valuable things in order to obtain and enjoy1 during coming existences1 the riches and pleasures promised to them by their ,rahans4 ,the insecurity of property under tyrannical rulers may operate to a certain extent in determining people to part with their riches1 and consecrate them to religious purposes1 rather than see themselves violently deprived of them by the odious rapacity of the vile instruments of the avarice1 tyranny1 and cruelty of their heartless princes and governors4 ,it can scarcely be a matter of wonder that ,buddhists so much honour and respect a ,talapoin1 when we consider that1 in their opinion1 he is a true follower of ,buddha1 who strives to imitate his great prototype in the practice of the highest virtues1 particularly in his incomparable mortification and self-denial1 that he might secure the ascendancy of the spiritual principle over the material one1 weaken passions which are the real causes of the disorder that reigns in our soul1 and finally disengage her from their baneful influences1 and from that of matter in general4 ,he is exceedingly reserved and abstemious regarding food1 the use of creatures1 and the enjoyment of pleasures1 in order to secure to reason the noblest faculty of an intelligent being1 a perfect control over the senses4 ,he is indeed in the right way leading to ,neibban1 the summit of perfection4 ,in the opinion of a ,buddhist1 nobody can be compared to a true and fervent ,rahan in sterling worth and merit4 ,his moral dignity and elevation cast into the shade the dazzling splendour that surrounds loyalty4 ,he is a pious recluse1 a holy personage1 a true member of the holy ,thanga1 and deserving1 therefore1 of the highest admiration and respect4 ,as a consequence of the profound veneration in which ,talapoins are publicly held1 they are exempted from contributing to public charges1 tribute1 corves1 and military service4 ,it is an immense favour1 particularly among the nations of ,eastern ,asia1 where the rulers look upon their subjects as mere slaves and tools under their command for executing the absolute orders of their capricious fancy4 ,under the present ruler of ,burmah1 the fathers and mothers of ,phongyies are benefited by the fact of their sons being in a monastery4 ,they are exempted from paying taxes1 and are treated with some attention by the officials who wish to ingratiate themselves in the favour of his most ,buddhist majesty4 ,they have often the honorary affixes joined to their names4 ,in concluding this notice1 we will briefly sketch the actual situation of the ,talapoinic order in those parts where we have had the opportunity of observing it1 and will allude to the causes that have operated in seducing it into vices1 abuses1 and imperfections which are lowering it greatly in the opinion of all foreigners and of a few well-informed natives4 ,the first and principal cause that has brought the ,society into disrepute and opened the door to numberless abuses is the total absence of discernment in the selection of the individuals that seek for an admittance therein4 ,every applicant is indiscriminately received as a member of the brotherhood4 ,no previous examination takes place for ascertaining the dispositions1 capacity1 and science of the postulant4 ,no inquiry is ever made regarding the motives that may have induced him to forsake the world and take so important a step4 ,his vocation is exposed to no trial4 ,he has but to present himself and he is sure to be immediately received1 provided he consent to conform exteriorly to the usual practices of his brethren4 ,no account is taken of his former conduct4 ,the very fact of his applying to be admitted into the society of the perfect atones amply for all past irregularities4 ,the only respectability inherent in the modern ,talapoins is that derived from the sacred yellow dress he wears4 ,it may aptly be said of him that he is monk by the fact of his wearing the canonical dress4 ,the houses of the order are1 in many instances1 filled with worthless individuals totally unfit for the profession1 who have been induced by the basest motives to enter into them1 chiefly by laziness1 idleness1 and the hope of spending quietly their time beyond the reach of want1 and without being obliged to work for their livelihood4 ,in confirmation of this1 ,i will mention the following instance4 ,during the second year of my stay in ,burmah1 ,i had with me1 in the capacity of servant1 an old stupid native4 ,on a certain day he gravely told me that he intended to leave my service and become a ,phongyie4 ,i laughed at first at what ,i considered to be very presumptuous and impertinent language4 ,the old man1 however1 kept his word4 ,having left my house a few days after our conversation on the subject of his new vocation1 ,i heard no more of him till it happened a few months after that ,i met him in a monastery1 attired in the full dress of a ,phongyie1 and so proud of his new position that he hardly condescended to put himself on a footing of equality with his former master4 ,ignorance prevails to an extent scarcely to be imagined among the generality of the ,phongyies4 ,i have met with a great number of laymen who were incomparably better informed1 and far superior in knowledge to them4 ,their mind is of the narrowest compass4 ,though bound by their profession to study with particular care the various tenets of their creed and all that relates to ,buddhism1 they are sadly deficient in this respect4 ,they have no ardour for study4 ,while they read some book1 they do it without attention or effort to make themselves fully acquainted with the contents4 ,there is no vigour in their intellect1 no comprehensiveness in their mind1 no order or connection in their ideas4 ,their reading is of a desultory nature1 and the notions stored up in their memory are at once incoherent1 imperfect1 and too often very limited4 ,they possess no general or correct views of ,buddhism4 ,i never met with one who could embrace the whole system in his mind and give a tolerably accurate account of it4 ,the only faculty that they cultivate with great care is memory4 ,it is surprising to hear them repeating by heart the contents of a book they have studied4 ,as the number of books is very limited in countries where the art of printing has not been introduced1 the pupils of the monasteries are compelled to commit to memory the greatest portion of the books they study4 ,he who has lived in ,burmah must have often heard1 to his great surprise1 laymen repeating1 during sometimes a whole hour1 formulas in ,pali1 or religious stories in ,burmese1 which they had learned in the school1 or when they had put on the monkish habit4 ,phongyies are fond of exhibiting their knowledge of the ,pali language1 by repeating from memory1 and without stammering or stumbling1 long formulas and sentences2 but ,i have convinced myself that very few among them understood even imperfectly a small part of what they recited4 ,those who enjoy popularly a reputation for uncommon knowledge affect to speak very little1 show a great reserve1 despising as ignorant the person that approaches their abodes or holds conversation with them4 ,but silence1 which in a learned man is a sign of modesty1 is too often with them a cloak to cover their ignorance1 and a cunning device for disguising pride under the garb of humility4 ,the latter virtue1 though much recommended in the ,wini1 is not a favourite one with the ,talapoins4 ,it is indeed impossible that they could ever understand or practise it1 since they are unacquainted with the two great ways that lead to it1 viz41 a profound knowledge of ,god and a thorough knowledge of self4 ,talapoins1 who are distinguished among their brethren for their great austerity of manners and more perfect observance of their regulations1 are the most unpleasing beings the writer has ever met with4 ,they are cold1 reserved1 speaking with affected conciseness3 their language is sententious1 seasoned with an uncommon dose of pretension4 ,sentences falling from their lips are half finished1 and involved in a mysterious obscurity1 calculated to fill with awe and admiration their numerous hearers2 a certain haughtiness and contempt of others always shows itself through their affected simplicity and humble deportment4 ,vanity and selfishness1 latent in their hearts1 force themselves on the attention of an acute observer4 ,in their manners they are occasionally so affected by a ridiculous reserve that one might be tempted to think that their brain is not quite sound4 ,talapoins1 in general1 entertain a very high idea of their own excellence2 and the great respect paid to them by the people contributes not a little to foster it1 and make them believe that nobody on earth can ever be compared to them4 ,to such a height has their pride reached that they believe it would be derogatory to their dignity to return civility for civility1 or thanks for the alms people bestow on them4 ,the most striking feature in the character of the ,talapoins is their incomparable idleness4 ,we may say that1 in this respect1 they resemble their countrymen1 who are very prone to that vice4 ,two causes of a very different nature seem1 in our opinion1 to act together on the people of these countries to produce such a result4 ,the first is a physical one2 the heat of the climate1 coupled with a perpetual uniformity in the temperature1 producing a general relaxation in the whole system1 which is never combated or counteracted by an opposite action or influence4 ,the second cause is a moral one1 the tyranny of the despotic governments ruling over the populations of ,eastern ,asia4 ,property is everywhere insecure4 ,he who is suspected of being rich is exposed to numberless vexations on the part of the vile satellites of tyranny1 who soon find out some apparent pretext for confiscating a part or the whole of his property1 or depriving him of life1 should he dare to offer resistance4 ,in such a state of things every one is satisfied with the things of first necessity4 ,want forms the strongest tie that binds together individuals and races1 and at the same time holds out the most powerful incentive to exertion4 ,the people of these parts have but few wants1 and therefore they lack inducement to labour for acquiring anything beyond what is strictly necessary4 ,emulation1 ambition1 the desire of growing rich1 which are the main springs that move man to exertion1 disappear and leave him in an abject and servile indolence1 which soon becomes his habitual state1 and the grave wherein is entombed all his moral energy4 ,like their countrymen1 ,phongyies are exposed to the influence of the above causes1 but their mode of life is a third additional reason why they are more indolent than others4 ,they have not to trouble or exert themselves for the articles required for their subsistence and maintenance2 these are abundantly supplied to them by their co-religionists4 ,they are bound1 it is true1 to read1 study1 and meditate2 but their ignorance and laziness incapacitate them for such intellectual exercises4 ,they remain during the best part of the day sitting in a cross-legged position1 or reclining1 or sleeping1 or at least attempting to do so4 ,they occasionally resume the vertical position to get rid of ennui1 one of their deadliest enemies1 and by repeated stretchings of arms and legs1 and successive yawnings1 try to free themselves from that domestic foe4 ,the teaching of their scholars occupies a few of them for a short time in the morning and in the evening4 ,they are often relieved from their mortal ennui by visitors as idle as themselves1 who resort to their dwellings to kill time in their company4 ,to keep up respectability before the public1 the ,rahans assume an air of dignity and reserve4 ,they avoid all that could lead them into dissipation4 ,exterior continence is generally observed1 and though there are occasional trespasses1 it would be unfair to lay on them generally the charge of incontinence4 ,their life so far may be considered as exemplary4 ,though partly divested of that open-heartedness which is a peculiar characteristic of their countrymen1 they are tolerably kind and affable with strangers4 ,they1 however1 cannot relinquish in their conversation with them a certain air of superiority1 inspired by the admiration of self and the high opinion they entertain of their exalted profession and sacred character4 ,they are unwilling to see them sitting unceremoniously close to themselves2 and when this cannot be avoided1 they seek for an opportunity of removing to another place a little more elevated than that occupied by the visitor1 as it would be highly unbecoming that laymen should ever presume to sit on a level with a recluse4 ,such a step would imply a sort of equality between them both1 which is never to be dreamt of4 ,their smooth and quiet countenance1 their meek deportment1 are1 as it were1 slightly fretted with a certain roughness and rudeness peculiar to individuals leading a retired life1 and estranging themselves1 to a certain extent1 from the place of society4 ,in the foregoing pages we have endeavoured to give a faithful account of the great religious order existing in countries where genuine ,buddhism is the prevailing creed4 ,we have been obliged1 for the sake of truth1 to mention many abuses that have slowly crept into it2 but we never entertained the slightest intention of casting a malignant contempt or a sneering ridicule upon its members4 ,most sincerely we pity those unfortunate victims of error and superstition who are wasting their time and energies in the fruitless pursuit of an imaginary felicity4 ,no language can adequately express the ardour and intensity of our desires1 sighs1 and prayers to hasten the coming of the day when the thick mist and dark cloud that encompass their souls shall be dissipated1 and the ,sun of ,righteousness shall shed into them his vivifying beams4 ,however deplorable their intellectual blindness may be1 we always felt that they have a right to be fairly and impartially dealt with4 ,the religious order they belong to is1 after all1 the greatest in its extent and diffusion1 the most extraordinary and perfect in its fabric and constituent parts1 and the wisest in its rules and prescriptions1 that has ever existed either in ancient or modern times without the pale of ,christianity4 ,,addenda4 ,many persons have often put to the writer the following question3--,is it credible that the founder of ,buddhism established from the beginning a body of religious1 with so perfect an hierarchy and so complete an organisation as to elicit the wonder and astonishment of all those who contemplate it with a serious attention8 ,no doubt1 ,buddhists attribute to ,gaudama all the regulations contained in the ,patimauk1 or the book of the enfranchisement2 they maintain that the contents of ,cambawa1 or book for the ordination of ,patzins1 have been arranged by the same hand4 ,but the absurdity of such an assertion cannot fail to strike the eyes of even a superficial observer4 ,these two books1 with their elaborate divisions and subdivisions1 must have been gradually prepared and arranged at an epoch when ,buddhism had taken deep root and spread its branches far and wide1 and had become the dominant religion in the countries where it is flourishing4 ,to confer splendour on the admittance of individuals into the body of monks1 the rules of the ,cambawa were enacted4 ,to render the life of religious an object of greater veneration in the eyes of the community1 the regulations of the ,patimauk were devised1 and were very likely brought1 by a slow process1 to the state of completeness we see them at present4 ,though ,gaudama had nothing to do with the redaction of the books under examination1 he is1 nevertheless1 the author of the principal and most important regulations4 ,it is in the ,thoots or instructions he has delivered on different occasions that we must search for discovering the germ and origin of the principal points contained in the ,patimauk and the ,cambawa4 ,at the conclusion of many of his instructions we find some hearers believing in him1 and applying for admittance into the society of his disciples4 ,when he approved of their dispositions1 the applicants had but to renounce the ordinary pursuits of life1 exchange their dress for the one regularly prescribed1 and engage to live in a state of strict chastity3 they then became at once members of the ,thanga1 without having to go through a prescribed ordeal4 ,faith in ,buddha on the one hand1 and on the other willingness to live in poverty and chastity1 were the only requisites for obtaining admittance into the spiritual family of ,buddha4 ,the applicants were obliged to live in poverty1 and depend for their food on the alms they could procure by begging4 ,hence they were called ,bickus1 or mendicants4 ,they had to wear a dress made with rags picked up in cemeteries and stitched together4 ,they placed themselves under the guidance of ,gaudama1 and denied to themselves all sensual gratifications4 ,such were the first and principal obligations imposed on the new converts who embraced a religious life4 ,the ,bickunies1 or women who had embraced the holy profession1 were gradually subjected to the same regulations4 ,the minor details of the rule were introduced as consequences flowing from the general principles4 ,this has been the work of time1 and perhaps of one of the councils4 ,it does not appear from the instructions of ,gaudama that the steps of the hierarchy were defined and fixed by him1 as they have subsequently been4 ,we remark in the assembly1 the ,bickus1 or mendicants1 constituting the great mass of the religious1 then the ,thera1 or1 as the ,burmans write it1 ,mathera1 the ancients1 or members of the assembly distinguished by their age and proficiency in learning and virtue1 and the ,aryias1 or those who had made the greatest progress in meditation and contemplation1 and had entered into the current of perfection4 ,it has been asked also whether those who had reached one of the four ,meggas--that is to say1 who had become a ,thautapan1 a ,sakadagam1 c4--were always members of the ,thanga1 and could not live in the world4 ,from the tenor of certain passages in the life of ,gaudama we see that many pious laymen became ,thautapan1 ,sakadagam1 and even ,anagam2 that is to say1 followed the three first ,meggas1 though they continued to live in the world4 ,the father of ,buddha1 ,king ,thoodaudana1 the father of ,ratha and many others1 reached one of the above-mentioned states1 though they continued to follow the ordinary pursuits of life4 ,this fact deserves attention1 because it shows that the institutions of ,gaudama rested on a broad basis1 and that a life in the world was not an obstacle to following the ways of perfection4 ,,on ,,the ,,word 8,,nat40 ,in a note on the ,nats1 the writer1 having expressed the opinion that the word 8,nat10 used by ,burmans1 was derived from the ,sanscrit term ,nath1 which means lord1 ,major ,phayre gave it as his decided opinion that the expression was a purely ,burmese one1 not at all derived from the ,sanscrit4 ,leaving aside the etymological question1 of which it may be said that adhuc sub judice lis est1 we are happy to communicate to the reader the following reflections that have come from the pen of that distinguished scholar1 who is so intimately acquainted with all that relates to ,buddhism4 8,the modern ,burmans acknowledge the existence of certain beings which1 for want of a better term1 we will call #8almost spiritual beings4' ,they apply to them the name ,nat4 ,now1 according to ,burmese notions1 there are two distinct bodies or systems of these creatures4 ,the one is a regularly constituted company1 if ,i may say so1 of which ,thagya ,meng is the chief4 ,most undoubtedly that body of #8,nat' was unknown to the ,burmans until they became ,buddhists4 ,those are the real ,dewah or ,dewata4 8,but the other set of ,nats are the creatures of the indigenous system1 existing among all the wild tribes bordering on ,burmah4 ,the acknowledgment of these beings constitutes their only worship4 ,on these grounds ,i consider that the ,burmese acknowledged and worshipped such beings before they were converted to ,buddhism4 8,now1 if they acknowledged such beings1 they1 no doubt1 had a name for them1 similar in general import to the #8fairy1 elf1' and so on among the inhabitants of ,britain for beings of a quasi-spiritual nature4 ,i may observe there is a complete analogy in the state of ,burmese belief in the existence of such beings and that which prevailed formerly in ,europe1 and some remnants of which may be found even now existing among the uneducated4 ,i mean that before the ,anglo-,saxon tribes were converted to ,christianity the belief in fairies and elfs was universal4 ,with ,christianity came a belief in a different order of spiritual beings1 and with that a new name derived from the ,latin1 angel4 ,this is somewhat analogous to the state of things among the ,burmese before and after their conversion to ,buddhism4 8,but to return to the ,burmese4 ,they1 when they received ,buddhism1 appear to have generally retained their vernacular name for the beings called in ,pali ,dewa4 ,why this should be done is certainly not apparent4 ,why have the ,english and all ,teutonic nations retained the ancient name ,evil1 and spirits1 though they adopted with ,christianity a new term for good spirits generally8 ,i allude to the term ,devil1 which1 there is no doubt1 is philologically connected with that ,pali word ,dew-a or ,dev-a4 8,regarding the meaning of the word ,nat in ,pali1 ,i have no ,pali dictionary1 but ,i have the ordinary ,oordoo ,dictionary1 which includes all ordinary ,sanscrit words4 ,i find there the ,sanscrit word #8,nath1' and the meaning rendered #8master1 husband1 lord4' ,there is nothing to show that it refers to any supernatural being1 but is only a term of respect4 ,as such it might in ,pali be made applicable to ,nats4 ,in ,burmese1 the people who believe in ,nats seldom use that word1 but some honorific phrase4 ,some fishermen ,i knew quarrelled about their shares in a pool of water4 ,in the case they constantly referred to the share of the #8,ashing-gyee1' who was no other than the presiding ,nat of the said pool40 ,,footnotes #a ,the first particular related at length by the compiler of this work is one of peculiar interest4 ,buddha summons the ,rahans to his presence1 through the ever faithful and dutiful ,ananda1 and addresses to them instructions which form the basis of the duties and obligations of all true disciples4 ,he styles them ,bickus--that is to say1 mendicants--to remind them of the spirit of poverty and of the contempt of worldly things which must ever be dear to them4 ,the epithet 8beloved0 is always prefixed to the word ,bickus1 as conveying an idea of the true and pure affection the master bore to his disciples1 or rather his spiritual children4 ,buddha charges them at first to be always diligent in holding assemblies1 where religious subjects should be discussed1 controversies settled1 and unity of faith secured4 ,this obligation has long been held as a binding one by the primitive ,buddhists1 as mention is always made in their books of the three great assemblies held during the three first centuries of the ,buddhistic era1 when the sacred writings were carefully revised1 amended1 and1 as it were1 purged of all spurious doctrines4 ,it was during the last council that the canon of scriptures was adopted1 which has ever since been maintained by orthodox ,buddhists4 ,nothing can be wiser than the desire he so strongly expresses that no one should ever presume to alter the true and genuine nature of the precepts1 by making1 according to his whim1 light what is heavy1 or obligatory what is but a matter of counsel4 ,he expresses the strongest wish to see them always united among themselves1 and fervent in the observance of the precepts of the law4 ,he establishes as a fundamental principle the obedience to superiors4 ,there is no society of a religious character among heathens where the various steps of the hierarchy are so well marked and defined as in the ,buddhistic institution4 ,the whole body of religious has a general superior in each province1 exercising a thorough control over all the houses within the limits of the province2 he may be looked upon as a regular diocesan4 ,in each house of the order there is a superior1 having power and jurisdiction over all the inmates of the place4 ,under him we find the professed members of the society1 then those who may be called novices1 and last of all the postulants and disciples allowed to wear the clerical dress1 or yellow garb1 without any power or authority1 and being looked upon merely as students in the way of probation4 ,in his charge to his disciples1 ,buddha lays much stress upon the necessity of destroying in themselves the principle of passion1 and in particular concupiscence4 ,the general tendency of all his preachings is to teach men the means of freeing themselves from the tyrannical yoke of passions4 ,no one1 indeed1 can obtain the state of perfect quiescence or ,neibban unless he has annihilated in himself all passions1 and thereby qualified himself for the practice of all virtues4 ,the character of the great body of religious ,buddhists is clearly set forth in the exhortations their great master directs to them to love retreat and solitude4 ,the noise1 tumult1 and bustle necessarily attending the position of a man living in the world are entirely opposed to the acquirement of self-knowledge1 self-possession1 and self-control1 so much required in a religious4 ,as long1 concludes ,buddha1 as you shall remain faithful to your regulations you will prosper1 and secure to yourselves and your order the respect and admiration of all4 ,he winds up his speech by exhorting them to act in a manner ever becoming their sacred calling4 ,the greatest moralist1 possessing the most consummate and perfect knowledge of human nature1 could not lay down wiser regulations for setting on a firm and lasting foundation a great and mighty institution1 destined to spread itself far and wide amidst nations and tribes1 and subsist during an unlimited period4 #b ,a dzeat is a building erected by the piety of ,buddhists for the purpose of affording shelter and a place of rest to devotees1 travellers1 and strangers4 ,these buildings are to be found at the entrance of towns1 in villages1 and often in the neighbourhood of pagodas4 ,those of ,burmah are erected in the plainest manner4 ,a verandah in front extends to the full length of the building1 a spacious hall running parallel to the verandah occupies the remaining place4 ,there is no partition between the hall and the verandah4 ,it happens sometimes that a space at one of the hall's corners1 screened by mats or dry leaves1 offers an asylum to him who does not like to mix with the vulgus4 ,the carelessness of ,government in all that relates to the comfort of the people is amply compensated by the zeal of pious laymen1 who readily undertake the erection of those works of public utility in the hope of securing to themselves the attainment of merits to be enjoyed perhaps in this1 but certainly in some future existences4 ,in ,burmah proper some of the dzeats are1 for the country1 beautiful buildings4 ,the edge of the roof and the front part are covered with a profusion of sculptures and carvings that vie with those that adorn the finest monasteries4 ,this fact1 among many1 indicates the truly beneficent and philanthropic influence exercised by some tenets of ,buddhism over the followers of that creed4 ,pride and vainglory may have their share in the erection of those monuments of benevolence1 but it is not the less certain that those who build them yield first and principally to the strong influence of religious feeling4 ,on this occasion ,buddha preached to the crowd1 when we see a line of distinction well drawn between the assembly of the disciples of ,buddha and those we may merely style hearers4 ,the latter are addressed by the name of darakas1 meaning laymen that hear the preaching4 ,a daraka is not as yet a perfect convert1 and therefore not a member of the assembly of the perfect4 ,the daraka differs from the ,upasaka4 ,the latter is not only a mere hearer of the law2 he is a firm believer1 and fervently practises the precepts3 he is among laymen a pious ,buddhist2 the former is not so forward3 he begins to hear and believe the doctrines preached to him4 ,he has already some faith in ,buddha2 he is under instruction1 but he cannot be called a professed disciple4 ,the rewards of faith are both of a natural and supernatural order4 ,riches1 happiness1 an honourable reputation1 are promised to the faithful observer of the law4 ,he is to be ever free from doubts1 since faith makes him adhere firmly to all the instructions of ,buddha2 and after his death he is to migrate to some of the seats of ,nats4 ,the trespassing of the law is to be attended with poverty1 shame1 and misery1 doubts in an unsettled mind1 and at last punishment in hell4 ,that place of suffering is minutely described in ,buddhistic works4 ,such a description appears1 in the opinion of the writer1 of no importance to those who desire to understand not the superficial portion of ,buddhism1 but its fundamental and constitutive parts4 ,hell is a place of punishment and torment1 as the ,nats' seats are places of reward and happiness4 ,there is no eternity of sufferings2 the unfortunate inhabitant of those dark regions is doomed to remain there1 until the sum of his offences has been fully atoned for by sufferings4 ,when the evil influence created by sin is exhausted1 punishment ceases too1 and the wretched sufferer is allowed to migrate to the seat of man in order to acquire merits and prepare himself for happier future existences4 ,in recording the account of the conversion of a courtesan named ,apapalika1 her liberality and gifts to ,buddha and his disciples1 and the preference designedly given to her over princes and nobles1 who1 humanly speaking1 seemed in every respect better entitled to attentions1 one is almost reminded of the conversion of the woman that was a sinner mentioned in the ,gospel4 #c ,the duties performed by ,thariputra on this occasion exhibit more fully than language can express the profound veneration he entertained for ,buddha4 ,he was with ,maukalan the most distinguished member of the assembly2 he occupied the first rank among the disciples2 in point of intellectual and spiritual attainments and transcendent qualifications1 he stood second to none but to ,buddha4 ,notwithstanding his exalted position1 he did not hesitate to render to his superior the lowest services4 ,the high opinion he had of ,buddha's supereminent excellencies prompted him to overlook his own merit1 and to admire without reserve that matchless pattern of wisdom and knowledge4 ,hence the inward satisfaction he sweetly enjoyed in serving as an humble disciple him whose unutterable perfections cast in the shade his far-famed and much-praised acquirements4 ,the unaffected humility of the disciple does the greatest credit to the sterling worth of his inward dispositions1 and conveys the highest idea of the respect and veneration entertained for the master's person4 ,in the houses where ,buddhist monks are living it is a fixed rule that the superior and elders of the institution should be attended in the minutest services by the youngest members wearing the canonical dress4 ,the framer of the disciplinary regulations1 intending1 on the one hand1 to confer dignity on the assembly1 and1 on the other1 to oppose a strong barrier to covetousness and to all inordinate worldly affections1 wisely laid down a stringent order to all the members of the society never to touch or make use of any article of food1 dress1 c41 unless it had previously been presented to them by some attendant1 layman or clerical4 ,hence when water is needed for washing the head1 hands1 and feet1 or for rinsing the mouth1 when meals are served up1 when offerings are made1 a young postulant1 holding a vessel of water on the board whereupon are placed the dishes1 or the articles intended to be offered1 respectfully approaches the elder1 kneels before him1 squatting on his heels1 lays before him the object to be presented1 bows down with the joined hands raised to the forehead1 resumes then the article with his two hands1 presents it1 with the upper part of the body bent in token of respect4 ,before accepting it the elder asks1 ,is it lawful8 ,the answer1 ,it is lawful1 having been duly returned1 the article is either taken from the hand of the offerer1 or he is directed to place it within the reach of the elder4 ,any infraction of this ceremonial is considered as a sin4 ,in the presence of the people the monks never fail to submit to that somewhat annoying etiquette4 ,their countenance on such occasions assumes a dignified and grave appearance1 that has always much amused the writer whenever he had the opportunity of witnessing this ceremony1 which is called ,akat4 ,there is no doubt but this custom is a very ancient one4 ,we find it blended to a certain extent with the manners of the nations inhabiting eastern ,asia4 ,it is minutely described in the ,wini1 and carefully observed by the inmates of the ,buddhistic monasteries4 ,it agrees remarkably well with the spirit that has originated1 promulgated1 and sanctioned the disciplinary regulations4 ,he who in this instance would look at the mere skeleton of the rule without any reference to the object aimed at by the legislator would show himself in the light of a very superficial observer4 ,this1 unfortunately1 is too often the case when we scorn and laugh at customs1 the demerit of which consists simply in not being similar to ours1 whereas the commonest sense tells us that we ought to judge them in connection with the institutions they have sprung from1 and the end aimed at by him who has established them4 ,the narrative of ,thariputra's departure for his birthplace and of his last moments suggests to the mind several reflections4 ,he is certain of the last day of his existence2 he foresees with a prophetic glance that his mother is well prepared for hearing profitably the preaching of the most perfect law4 ,by the incomparable powers of his memory he relates to ,buddha that #ajj1jjj revolutions of nature ago he was possessed with the strong desire of seeing him and hearing his instructions1 c4 ,how can these particulars be accounted for1 according to ,buddhistic notions8 ,the spring all evils or demerits flow from is ignorance4 ,a being is imperfect in proportion to his being sunk deeper in the bosom of ignorance4 ,on the contrary1 a being perfects himself in proportion to the efforts he makes for dispelling the thick cloud of ignorance that encompasses his mind4 ,the more a man grows in the knowledge of truth the farther he removes the horizon of darkness4 ,he who has made the greatest and most persevering efforts in fervently prosecuting the work of searching truth by studying the law that teaches the way of reaching it1 contemplates and enjoys a portion of truth commensurate to his efforts and success4 ,a ,buddha1 who has reached the last boundaries of knowledge1 has therefore triumphed over ignorance and indefinitely enlarged the sphere of truth4 ,he enjoys1 in fact1 a cloudless sight of all that exists2 his science is unlimited1 extending over all the countless series of worlds1 which1 in the opinion of the ,buddhists1 are supposed to form a system of nature4 ,thariputra1 though much advanced in perfection1 had not as yet reached its acme4 ,his knowledge1 however1 was wonderfully great and extensive2 it enabled him to obtain a clear insight into the darkness of the past and a distinct foresight of the future4 #d ,the village of ,nalanda1 the site of which is at present occupied by that of ,baragaon1 was the birthplace of the great disciple ,thariputra4 ,his illustrious companion in religion1 ,maukalan1 was born in the village of ,kaulita1 about one and a half miles south-west of that place4 ,nalanda1 says ,fa-,hian1 the ,chinese traveller1 lies one youdzana north of ,radzagio1 that is to say1 seven ,english miles according to ,cunningham's measurement1 and is seven youdzanas or forty-nine miles distant from the tree ,bodi4 ,it was the great seat of ,buddhistic learning1 renowned all over ,india4 ,now the whole site is covered with ancient tanks and mounds of ruins on an immense scale1 offering fine specimens of sculpture4 ,the great monastery and five smaller ones were all within one enclosure4 ,a row of lofty conical mounds1 running north and south1 #afjj feet by #djj1 indicates the place and extent of those religious buildings4 ,outside of the enclosure there were several temples4 ,general ,cunningham fixes the era of the construction of those edifices between ,a4,d4 #dbe and #fbe4 ,among the several proofs adduced in support of his opinion there is one that appears conclusive4 ,fa-,hian1 who visited all the places famous in the history of ,buddhism1 and describes them with a minute attention1 simply alludes to ,nalanda as the birthplace of ,thariputra1 without saying a word about monasteries or temples1 whilst ,hwe-,thsang1 who visited the same spot in the beginning of the seventh century1 describes the splendid temples and monasteries which he saw1 and from his statement we infer that the principal edifices were not inferior to those of ,buddha ,gaya in size and height4 ,some of them reached to a height of #agj and #bjj feet4 ,the greatest was #cjj feet high4 ,the number and extent of the tanks is truly surprising4 ,two of them1 in the north-east1 were nearly a mile in length1 while another in the south was half a mile4 ,the inference to be drawn from the above is1 that during the fifth and the sixth century of our era1 ,buddhism was in a flourishing condition in the country of ,magatha or ,south ,behar1 since the finest and loftiest structures in the shape of monasteries and temples have been raised within that period1 both at ,nalanda and ,buddha ,gaya4 ,it appears that1 during the three first centuries of the ,christian era1 its fortune alternated1 and met with varied results1 agreeably to the favourable or unfavourable dispositions of the rulers of the country towards the followers of the philosopher of ,kapilawot4 ,this succession of successes and reverses reveals the important fact that ,buddhism had not struck deep root in the heart of the inhabitants of ,central ,india1 since its fate depended from the will and opinions of the monarch1 and was almost at the mercy of his caprices4 ,moreover1 in the country north of the ,ganges1 such as ,wethalie1 ,thawattie1 ,kapilawot1 places which had been favoured with ,buddha's incessant preachings1 religion was on its decline at the time of ,fa-,hian's visit1 that is to say1 in the beginning of the fifth century2 monasteries were deserted and emptied1 dzedies were crumbling down and fast decaying4 ,in some instances1 heretics1 that is to say1 pounhas1 occupied the dwellings formerly tenanted by holders of the genuine doctrines4 ,this unexpected sight very much grieved the heart of the good ,chinese pilgrim4 ,it must be regretted that we have not the written journals of some other ,chinese travellers in the eighth or ninth century to reveal to us the state and condition in which they found the magnificent temples of ,nalanda and ,buddha ,gaya when they visited them4 #e ,the conduct of ,thariputra on this occasion wears an appearance of rudeness towards his aged mother1 which at first hurts the feelings of human nature4 ,but a close examination of all the circumstances connected with this last episode of the great disciple's life1 shows that he was far from being divested of filial piety4 ,he leaves his beloved master1 undertakes a long and fatiguing journey for the sole purpose of preaching the law to his mother1 and conferring upon her a boon of greater value than that he had received from her4 ,in return for all the favours bestowed upon him by his mother1 he initiates her in the knowledge of truth1 and enables her to enter into the great ways that lead to the deliverance1 that is to say1 to the state of ,neibban4 ,it cannot be denied that his language on this occasion partook of an austere tone1 sounding harsh to the ears of worldly men1 but it must be borne in mind that ,thariputra was an old ascetic1 dead to all affections of nature1 looking upon truth alone in an abstractively pure form1 without any regard to material objects4 ,he loved the law of truth1 which he had learned from ,buddha1 and afterwards preached to others with an unparalleled zeal and fervour4 ,the spirit of ,buddha lived in him3 he desired to see all beings availing themselves of the means of salvation which he had it in his power to impart unto them2 he loved them all with an equal affection2 the state of ignorance they were sunk in deeply affected his compassionate soul1 and he had but one desire1 that of dispelling the thick mist of ignorance by the pure light of truth4 ,when the instruction to his mother was over1 ,thariputra desired to be left alone with his disciples4 ,his last words to them bespeak the humble sentiments of his mind4 ,though the first member of the assembly of the perfect1 he begs pardon of his inferiors for the causes of offence he may have unwillingly given them during the period they had lived together3 regardless of all the good he had done unto them1 he feels that he could not well part with them ere he had atoned to them for any wrong1 however involuntary1 he might have done to some of them4 ,for those uninitiated in ,buddhistic metaphysics it is not easy to understand and distinctly to appreciate the situation of ,thariputra at his last moments4 ,it is stated that he fell into ecstasy or trance1 though his soul remained as yet connected with this world by slender and almost invisible ties4 ,this was the last and mighty struggle of a being to disengage himself from the trammels of existence and become free from all exterior influence4 ,soaring above all that exists1 ,thariputra's soul passed successively through the four stages he had so often visited1 whilst engaged in the arduous effort of investigating truth1 preparing to enter the fifth and last one1 where he was to stay finally and perpetually1 without any further change1 in a state of quiescence4 ,when the sage1 during his meditations1 has brought his mind to bear upon some object1 he wishes to contemplate attentively and thoroughly to comprehend1 he at first gets hold of that object by his thought1 he then examines it by means of reflection3 the knowledge he thus acquires never fails to create a pleasurable sensation2 this pleasure or satisfaction conveys to the soul enjoyment and happiness2 he loves the truth he has discovered1 and he rests fixedly in it4 ,this is the last stage he ever can or wish to reach4 ,what has human mind1 indeed1 to do1 after having found truth1 but to cling to it1 and remain ever attached to it8 ,during the last trance1 ,thariputra1 with his almost immensely developed mental faculties1 knew comprehensively truth1 reflected on it1 felt a pleasure in considering it1 enjoyed it1 or rather fed upon it1 and at last adhered so perfectly to it1 that he became1 as it were1 merged into it4 ,he then had reached the state of ,neibban1 where he was for ever exempt from the influences created and put in motion and activity by matter and passions in every state of existence4 ,buddhists1 in ,burmah1 at least1 owing to their very limited and imperfect education1 are unable to give any satisfactory or even intelligible account of the state of ,neibban or perfection4 ,what is here but superficially stated1 has been found in one of the last ,buddhistic compositions on this and other metaphysical subjects4 ,fuller particulars shall1 hereafter1 be given as to the state of ,neibban1 when the death of one greater than ,thariputra shall be related4 #f ,in ,burmah1 when a person has just given up the ghost1 the inmates of the house send for musicians1 who soon make their appearance with their respective instruments4 ,they forthwith set to work1 and keep up an incessant noise during the twenty-four hours that elapse before the corpse is removed to the place where it is to be burnt4 ,relatives1 friends1 and elders resort to the deceased's house for the ostensible purpose of condoling with those who have lost their kinsman1 but in reality for sharing in the mirth and amusements that go on in such occasions4 ,strange to say1 the thought of death strikes no one's mind2 the fate of the deceased is scarcely pitied1 nay1 remembered4 ,were it not for the presence of the corpse1 and the perhaps conventional cries and lamentations of some old women at certain intervals1 no one could imagine1 still less find out1 the real motive that has induced such a crowd to assemble on that spot4 ,if the departed belong to a respectable family in tolerably good circumstances1 the funeral ceremony is arranged in the following manner3 ,presents1 intended as offerings for the ,buddhist monks1 having been made ready1 they are invited for the occasion1 and their presence is expected in numbers proportionate to the amount of offerings4 ,the procession starts from the deceased's house1 and directs its course towards the place of burning or the cemetery4 ,it is headed by the yellow-dressed monks1 carrying their broad1 palm-leaf fans on the shoulder1 and attended by their disciples4 ,next follow the bearers of the offerings in two lines4 ,they are partly men and partly women1 but walk separately and apart from each other4 ,the coffin appears next1 laid on thick poles1 and carried by six or eight men4 ,in front of the coffin1 and sometimes at the sides1 are arranged the musicians1 who perform all the way without an instant's interruption4 ,behind the coffin are grouped the male relatives1 friends1 c41 and lastly the procession is closed by crowds of women1 attired in their finest dress4 ,the coffin is beautifully decorated1 and carried on the shoulders of six or eight stout young men by means of bamboos or poles4 ,an unnatural merriment is allowed1 and generally kept up all the way to the cemetery1 and fantastic gestures and dances are performed by the bearers and their friends to the imminent danger of upsetting the coffin4 ,the burning place is generally without the precincts of the town1 and in the vicinity of some large pagodas4 ,the funeral pile is of a very simple structure2 its shape is that of an oblong square of a moderate size4 ,two large pieces of wood are at first laid parallel1 at a distance of eight feet2 other logs of wood1 disposed at about six or eight inches from each other1 are laid across the two first mentioned1 so that their extremities are supported on these two pieces4 ,a second set of logs is laid at right angles with the first2 a third one placed across the second1 and so on1 until the pile is three1 four1 or five feet high4 ,the coffin is deposited upon it4 ,fire is set below the pile by means of inflammable materials which soon communicate fire to the logs the pile is made of4 ,the whole is soon in a blaze and rapidly consumed by the devouring flames4 ,the bystanders talk1 laugh1 or busy themselves in stirring the fire4 ,as to the ,talapoins1 they sometimes take position under a neighbouring shed1 repeat a few passages of ,buddha's law1 and when they are tired they give orders to their disciples to take up the offerings and then go back to their peaceable abodes4 ,very often they do not take the trouble of muttering prayers2 they depart forthwith1 followed by the offerings intended for them4 ,the fire being extinguished1 the ashes1 charcoal1 c41 are carefully searched1 and the particles of bones discovered are piously collected by the nearest relatives1 and then buried in a hole dug for that purpose near some pagoda4 ,persons in good circumstances keep up for seven days in their houses a sort of solemnisation of the funeral4 ,every day1 in the evening particularly1 musicians are kept up playing until a very late hour at night4 ,the house is all the while crowded with people1 who come for the purpose of enjoyment4 ,some play at various games2 others drink tea2 all chew betel-leaves' tobacco in profusion4 ,sometimes stories relating to ,gaudama's former existences are read and listened to by the elders of the party4 ,this mode1 intended either to do honour to the deceased's memory or to afford relief to the grief of relatives1 is rather expensive1 and might often prove a heavy drain on the limited means of most of the families4 ,but the spirit of mutual assistance on this occasion removes the difficulty4 ,every visitor1 according to his means1 makes a present of some money to the master of the house4 ,though the present of the greatest numbers of visitors is comparatively small1 yet1 when added together1 there is a considerable sum1 which is generally more than sufficient to defray all expense that may be incurred4 ,this custom or system of voluntary contributions burdens no one in particular1 whilst it enables a family to make a show of liberality which1 otherwise1 would almost prove ruinous in many instances4 ,the custom of burning the dead prevails amongst the ,hindus1 the ,cingalese1 ,nepaulese1 ,burmese1 ,siamese and ,cambodians4 ,though holding the tenets of ,buddhism1 the ,chinese have never adopted this usage4 ,the ,mahomedans1 living in ,hindustan and the countries of eastern ,asia1 retain the custom of burying the dead4 ,buddhists have doubtless received that practice from the ,hindus4 #g ,the custom of making funeral orations for the purpose of eulogising distinguished individuals after their demise is of the highest antiquity4 ,the sacred records bear witness to its existence amongst the ,jews4 ,the present legend offers repeated instances of eulogia made to honour the memory of the dead4 ,on this occasion ,buddha would not leave to another the honour of extolling the extraordinary merits and transcendent excellencies of the illustrious ,thariputra4 ,but he had a higher object in view when he exhibited to the eyes of the assembled ,rahans the relics of the deceased1 which were all that remained of so celebrated a disciple1 who had lived with them for so many years1 and had just parted from them4 ,it was impossible to give them a more forcible illustration of the truth he had so often announced to them1 that there is nothing permanently subsisting in this world1 but that all things are liable to a perpetual and never-ending change4 ,the stern ,buddha gently rebuked the amiable ,ananda for the signs of inordinate grief he gave on this occasion2 because1 said he1 the law of mutability acting upon all that surrounds us1 we must ever be prepared to be separated from what is dearest to our affections2 grief on such occasions is useless1 and quite inconsistent with the principles of a wise man4 ,to honour the memory of ,thariputra1 and perpetuate the remembrance of his virtues1 ,buddha directed that a dzedi should be erected on the very spot where he had heard the news of his death4 ,a dzedi is a religious monument very common in ,burmah1 and to be seen on all rising grounds in the neighbourhood of towns4 ,within the enclosure of all monasteries1 a dzedi is invariably erected2 it is the only purely religious building to be found in ,burmah4 ,the traveller in that country is always delighted1 and experiences the most pleasurable sensations on approaching some town or village1 when he sees several dzedis of various heights raising their white cones capped with the gilt crown from the bosom of beautiful groves of tall cocoa-nut trees1 graceful areca palms1 and massive tamarind1 mango1 and jack trees1 all loaded with a green and luxuriant foliage4 ,when the monument is on a grand scale1 niches are made in the middle of each side of the square1 facing the four points of the compass4 ,in those niches are placed statues of ,buddha1 exhibiting him in the usual cross-legged position4 ,the size of those religious monuments varies much in dimensions4 ,they range from the height of a few feet to the colossal proportions of the tall ,dagon ,pagoda at ,rangoon4 ,the custom of raising monuments over the ashes of religious distinguished by their virtues and extraordinary attainments1 is a very ancient one1 coeval in all probability with the first ages of ,buddhism4 ,they were real tumuli1 surmounted with some ornaments in the shape of a cone4 ,such ornaments are seen towering over nearly all the religious monuments in ,burmah4 ,royalty1 in its head paraphernalia1 and in its abode1 has appropriated them to its own uses4 ,we may at once infer that they are of a ,hindu origin4 ,the great monarchs who are called ,tsekiawade kings1 because they ruled over the whole of the ,dzampoudipa island1 were1 according to ,buddha's opinion1 entitled to the honour of a dzedi after their demise4 #h ,it is very difficult to understand the extraordinary state in which ,buddha placed himself on this occasion4 ,it must have been a remarkable occurrence1 since it caused a violent commotion which shook our planet4 ,the only interpretation that can be put on the terms used to describe this particular action of ,buddha is this3 ,he renounced existence1 that is to say1 not only the actual existence that he enjoyed1 but also all other forms of existence4 ,he severed connection with this and other worlds2 he broke the ties that had hitherto retained him linked to a form of existence4 ,he had come now to the end of all transmigrations4 ,by the power of his will1 he placed himself in the state of complete isolation from all that exists1 even from self1 that is to say1 into ,neibban1 a state which death was soon to realise and render visible to the eyes of his disciples4 ,it is not death that causes a being to reach the state or condition of ,neibban1 but it is the abstraction from all conceivable forms of existence that constitutes its very essence4 ,the expression made use of by our author to designate the particular condition in which ,gaudama brought himself1 and which caused a terrific shake of the earth1 is this3 ,he parted with the life of change1 of mutability1 that is to say1 he had nothing more to do with existences1 which1 in the opinion of ,buddhists1 are produced by the principle of mutability4 ,buddha called himself ,zina1 or conqueror1 after he had obtained the perfect mastery over his passions4 ,we may give him the same title on the occasion when he has obtained the mastery over existence itself4 ,this last achievement is the greatest of all3 the first one was only preparatory to securing the second one4 ,the writer is well aware that such a language is at variance with the notions that the reader is familiar with4 ,to understand its true and correct meaning one must be initiated into the doctrines of ,buddhism4 ,the preaching of the law of the wheel1 which is mentioned as one cause that produces the phenomena of earthquake1 took place1 as above related1 in the ,migadawon forest1 or the ,deer's grove1 near ,benares1 in the very beginning of ,buddha's public life1 after he had left the ,bodi tree4 ,the preaching of the law of the wheel is nothing else than the manifestation of the four sublime and transcendent truths1 which1 as mentioned in foregoing pages1 constitute the essence of ,buddha's doctrines4 #i ,the particulars of the apparition of the evil one1 or the tempter1 related by ,buddha himself to the faithful and amiable ,ananda1 show the incessant efforts made by ,manh to render abortive1 to a certain extent1 the benevolent mission undertaken by ,buddha to procure deliverance to numberless beings1 and supply others with adequate means for entering into1 and steadily following1 the way that leads to it4 ,he had been defeated in his endeavours to prevent ,phra from leaving the world and obtaining the ,buddhaship4 ,he had been thwarted in his wicked designs to weaken the effects of ,buddha's preachings4 ,heretics of all sorts had been summoned to his standard1 to carry on a most active warfare against his opponents1 but he had failed in all his attempts4 ,buddha had now almost completed the great and beneficial work he had undertaken3 his religious institutions1 known over a vast extent of territory1 and zealously propagated by fervent and devoted disciples1 seemed to be now firmly established4 ,the edifice1 indeed1 was raised1 but it required the action of a finishing hand2 the key-stone was yet wanting in the vault to render it complete and durable4 ,manh was aware of all that2 hence his last and wily effort for impeding the finishing and perfecting of a work he had vainly opposed in its beginning and during its progress4 ,the line of distinction between the members of the assembly and the mass of those who merely believed in the doctrines of ,buddha1 without leaving the world1 is plainly drawn by ,buddha himself2 therefore1 there can be no doubt that1 from the origin of ,buddhism1 there existed a marked difference between the body of laymen and that of ,rahans4 ,again1 the body of the perfect1 or those who formed what may emphatically be termed the assembly1 was composed of men and women1 living1 as a matter of course1 separately1 in a state of continence1 and subjected to the disciplinary regulations which we find embodied in the ,wini4 ,in ,burmah1 vestiges of female devotees1 living secluded from the world1 are to be met with in many places1 but1 as already noticed in a foregoing remark1 the order of religious females has much fallen off4 ,its professed members are few in number1 and the exterior observance of the regulations is much neglected4 ,the comprehensiveness of ,buddhism1 its tendency to bring all men to the same level1 and allow of no difference between man and man but that which is established by superiority in virtue1 its expansive properties1 all those striking characteristics have mightily worked in elevating the character of the woman1 and raising it to a level with that of man4 ,who could think of looking upon the woman as a somewhat inferior being1 when we see her ranking1 according to the degrees of her spiritual attainments1 among the perfect and foremost followers of ,buddha8 ,hence in those countries where ,buddhism has struck a deep root and exercised a great influence over the manners of nations1 the condition of the woman has been much improved and placed on a footing far superior to what she occupies in those countries where that religious system is not the prevalent one1 or where it has not formed or considerably influenced the customs and habits of the people4 #aj ,the ,buddhists of these parts1 following the track of their ancestors1 or rather copying their writings1 are fond of arbitrary divisions in all that concerns the different parts of their metaphysics4 ,buddha1 on this occasion1 alludes to thirty-seven articles1 which may be considered as the foundation whereon rests philosophical and moral wisdom4 ,they are called ,bodi-pek-kera2 meaning1 ,i believe1 points or articles of wisdom4 ,they are subdivided into seven classes4 ,in the first are enumerated the four subjects most deserving of attention1 viz41 the body1 the heart1 the sensations1 and the law4 ,in the second are described four objects extremely worthy of our efforts1 viz41 preventing the law of demerits to come into existence2 preventing its developments1 when it exists2 causing the law of merits to come into existence1 and furthering its progress when it is already existing4 ,in the third are found likewise four points meriting control1 viz41 one's will1 one's heart1 one's efforts1 and one's exertions4 ,in the fourth class we find enumerated five pre-eminently necessary dispositions or inclinations2 that is to say1 disposition to benevolence1 to diligence1 to attention1 to steady direction towards what is excellent1 and to considerate wisdom4 ,the fifth class comprises the pola1 or rewards or good effects resulting from the above inclination1 viz41 perfect benevolence1 diligence1 attention1 steadiness in what is excellent1 and considerate wisdom4 ,the sixth class comprehends the seven following virtues1 which enable man to raise himself very high in the scale of perfection3--,attention1 consideration of the law1 diligence1 equanimity of the soul1 constancy in good1 fixity1 and delight4 ,the seventh class comprises the ways that lead to good and perfection4 ,they are eight in number3--,perfect doctrine1 intention1 language1 actions1 regular mode of life1 diligence1 attention1 and fixity in good4 ,a volume might be written upon these thirty-seven principles or points of moral philosophy1 by way of comment and explanation2 but we think it better to leave the reader to make his own reflections1 and run at liberty over this broad field of metaphysics4 #aa ,the ,kakouda stream was one of the arms or channels of the little ,gundak4 ,it is at present dried up1 but up to this day are to be seen several marks indicating the ancient bed of that stream4 ,the river ,hiranyawati is one of the channels of the little ,gundak1 which was flowing a little west of the city of ,koutheinaron4 ,the ,gundak being very winding in its course1 and the mass of water being sometimes very considerable1 there is to be seen a great number of old channels1 now dried up1 or occasionally filled in the time when inundation is prevailing4 ,for this reason1 it becomes difficult in some instances to follow the ,chinese pilgrim1 ,hwen ,thsang1 through his minute and accurate description of the places he has visited4 ,the mounds of ruins which stud the ground may not be always correctly identified1 because they are not at present1 relatively to the river1 in the same position as that mentioned in his interesting itinerary4 ,however1 there are here and there some remnants of the old channels which are sufficient to guide safely the sure and patient ,government ,archological ,surveyor1 who now does so much1 with the assistance derived from the books of the two ,chinese pilgrims1 to find out and identify on the spot most of the places and localities mentioned in the ,buddhist writings4 ,it is not a little surprising that we should have to acknowledge the fact that the voyages of two ,chinese travellers1 undertaken in the fifth and seventh centuries of our era1 have done more to elucidate the history and geography of ,buddhism in ,india1 than all that has hitherto been found in the ,sanscrit and ,pali books of ,india and the neighbouring countries4 ,the young religious who is called ,tsanda was the younger brother of ,thariputra4 ,he seems to have shared with ,ananda the honour of attending on ,buddha's person4 ,the forest which was close to the vicinity of ,koutheinaron was planted with trees which the ,burmans call ingien1 the ,bengalies1 sal4 ,the latter name is evidently the ,sanscrit and ,pali appellation of the tree1 which the ,burmese author has retained but once or twice throughout the course of his work1 and wrote ,sala4 ,it is the ,shorea robusta4 ,the four laws of edeipat1 which1 in the opinion of ,buddha1 can confer to him who knows and possesses them the extraordinary privilege of an indefinitely prolonged existence1 are1 absolute power over the will1 absolute power over the mind1 absolute power of exertion1 absolute power over the means to attain any object4 ,how can a man1 in the present state of existence1 obtain the possession of such a power8 ,the only way that a ,buddhist has to account for it is the following3--,a perfect being1 having estranged himself from all passions1 from matter and its concomitant influences1 solely by the power and energy of his will1 acquires a freedom from all impediments1 an unbounded liberty of motion1 and a lightness and swiftness which enable him to do all that he pleases4 ,he is independent of the elements of this world1 which can no more offer obstacles and resistance to his wishes4 ,several instances of something approaching to those wonderful attainments have been mentioned in the course of this work4 ,we have seen how those much advanced in perfection could raise themselves very high1 and travel through the air with an almost incredible velocity4 ,this was but the beginning of far superior and transcendent qualifications obtained only by those that had made greater progress in science1 in virtue1 and in the renouncing of all things2 in a word1 by those who had mastered the four laws of edeipat4 ,mahawon ,kootagara means the hall of the upper story in the great forest4 ,not far from ,wethalie there was a monastery of great celebrity1 situated in a forest of sala-trees4 ,it had1 at least1 an upper story1 in which was the hall where ,gaudama often preached to his disciples and to the people4 #ab ,the meal ,buddha partook of in company with his disciples at ,tsonda's residence is the last repast he ever made4 ,the violent distemper which followed immediately is not1 says the author of the legend1 to be attributed to the food he took on this occasion4 ,on the contrary1 that very food1 owing to the virtue infused therein by the agency of ,nats and ,brahmas1 was rather an antidote against the illness that was to come inevitably upon ,phra's person4 ,previous to the dissolution of his bodily frame1 it was decreed that ,buddha should suffer4 ,no occurrence could ever cause or avert this tragical circumstance4 ,he had foreseen it1 and with perfect resignation submitted to what was absolutely to happen4 ,in the early days of ,buddhism1 when a deadly antagonism with ,brahminism began to fill the peninsula of ,hindustan with endless disputes between the supporters of the rival systems1 ,brahmins1 with a cutting sneer1 insulted their opponents by reminding them that the founder of their creed1 whom they so much revered and exalted1 had died from the effects of his having indulged too much in pork4 ,about twenty-two years ago1 when the writer was in ,burmah1 he chanced to meet with a shrewd old ,christian1 who1 by the way1 was fonder of disputing about religion than paying regard to the practice thereof4 ,he boasted of having at his command deadly weapons against ,buddhists1 and unanswerable arguments to bear with an irresistible force on the vital parts of their creed4 ,the chief one1 which he always brought forward with a ,brahminical scorn and laugh1 was that ,gaudama had died from his having eaten pork4 ,he always did it with so much mirth and wit that his poor ignorant adversaries were completely overawed and effectually silenced by his bold and positive assertion1 and left to him uncontested the field of battle1 and allowed him to carry away undisputed the palm of victory4 ,this way of arguing may prove a very amusing one1 but it can never be approved of1 as error is never to be combated by another error or a false supposition4 ,the ,burmese translator was doubtless aware of the weak side offered to the attacks of malignant opponents by the unpleasant distemper that followed the last meal of ,buddha4 ,he strenuously labours to defend the character of his hero by proving1 in the best way he can1 that such a bodily disorder was necessarily to take place1 in order to set in relief the patience1 composure1 and other sterling virtues of the founder of ,buddhism4 ,the text of the legend has been read over several times with the greatest attention1 for the purpose of ascertaining the reasons put forward to account for such an occurrence1 but the result has proved unsatisfactory4 ,a thick veil wraps in complete obscurity this curious episode of ,buddha's life4 ,all that can be said is this3 it was preordained that ,buddha should be visited with a most painful distemper ere he attained ,neibban2 and so it happened4 ,to prove that the eating of pork had nothing to do with the distemper that followed1 we have the authority of ,gaudama himself1 who commended the delicacy and flavour of that dish1 and placed it on the same footing with the delicious ,nogana he ate on the morning of the day previous to his obtaining the ,buddhaship4 ,he desired his ever-faithful attendant1 ,ananda1 to repair to ,tsonda's place1 and explain to him the great rewards reserved to him for having made the offering of such an excellent food4 ,the practical working of the ,buddhistic system relatively to almsgiving deserves some notice4 ,a man bestows alms on the ,rahans1 or spends money towards promoting some religious purpose2 he does so with the belief that what he bestows now in the way of alms will secure to him countless advantages in future existences4 ,those favours1 which he anticipates to enjoy hereafter1 are all of a temporal nature1 relating only to health1 pleasures1 riches1 honours1 and a long life either in the seat of man or in the seats of ,nats4 ,such is the opinion generally entertained by all ,buddhists in our days4 ,talapoins make the preaching of the law consist chiefly in enumerating the merits and rewards attending the bestowing of alms on persons devoted to a religious mode of life4 ,in this respect the practical result of their sermons is certainly most beneficial to themselves4 ,the spiritually-minded ,buddha seems to have levelled a blow at concupiscence and covetousness by openly stating that alms have not the power to stem the current of demerits1 to give rise and energy to the principle of merits1 or to lead to wisdom1 which enables man to weaken gradually concupiscence1 anger1 and ignorance1 and to open and prepare the path to ,neibban4 ,true knowledge1 attended by the practice of the virtues peculiar to those who have entered into the current of perfection by following the four ,meggas1 can alone enable a man to reach ,neibban4 ,many excellent practices enforced by ,buddhism have1 so to speak1 been reduced to a mere lifeless skeleton by ignorance and passions1 but they would appear in a very different light were they animated with the spirit that has brought them into existence4 #ac ,the observance of the five precepts incumbent upon all ,buddhists is the foundation whereupon is to be erected the spiritual edifice2 it is the first step towards the great ways leading to perfection2 it is preparatory for the great exercise of meditation1 by which true wisdom may be acquired4 ,the faithful who observe the five precepts and the three additional counsels show that faith is living in their hearts1 and give unmistakable marks of their zeal in the practice of religion4 ,they are real ,upasakas1 or laymen1 fervently adhering to and taking refuge in ,buddha1 the law1 and the assembly2 but they cannot take rank among the members of the assembly or ,thanga4 ,practice of and progress in meditation can alone usher an ,upasaka into the sanctuary of the perfect4 ,the rewards destined to the faithful after their death are exactly proportionate to their merits and the real worth of their deeds4 ,the seats of ,nats1 placed immediately above the seat of men1 but under the sixteen seats reserved to the perfect1 are opened to the pious ,upasaka who migrates from the seat of probation and trial4 ,the nature of the pleasures enjoyed in the ,nats' seats are all referable to the senses4 ,all that can be imagined best fitted for the delectation of the five senses is accumulated in those blissful regions1 and proffered with an ever-renewed profusion to their fortunate inhabitants4 ,the vivid imagination of ,asiatics has1 one would say1 exhausted its stores in picturing with an amazing variety the riches to be possessed there4 ,it would be of no utility to attempt to give a compendious narrative of what we meet with in ,buddhistic compositions respecting those regions4 ,suffice it for our purpose to say that the distinction of sexes remains in the ,nats' countries4 ,in the two lowest seats connection takes place between the sexes1 but no procreation ever results from it2 in the third seats the ,nats of different sexes are fully gratified by a simple kiss2 in the fourth1 by the touch of the hand2 in the fifth1 by merely looking at each other2 and in the sixth1 by the mere fact of their being in the same place1 upon which we may make two observations4 ,the first is that pleasures therein enjoyed lose their coarseness1 and become more refined and more perfect in proportion as the seats are more elevated4 ,the greater are the merits of the ,upasaka in this life1 the higher is the seat he is destined to occupy1 and the more refined are the pleasures and enjoyments allotted to him4 ,hence our ,gaudama having1 during the existence preceding this last one1 practised moral virtues of the highest order1 migrated to ,toocita1 the fourth seat of ,nats4 ,the second observation is1 that the duration of the enjoyments in the ,nats' seats increases in an arithmetical progression2 that is to say1 the pleasures of the second seat last twice as long as those of the first or lowest seat4 ,those of the third seat last twice as long as those of the second1 and so on to the last or highest seat4 ,in the sermons that the ,talapoins address to the people for stirring up their zeal chiefly in making alms to them1 they are most fluent and abundant in the promises of rewards in the ,nats' seats1 as a powerful inducement held out to them for keeping up their zeal in bestowing alms4 ,they admirably succeed in obtaining their object with most of their hearers4 ,it cannot be denied that those poor deluded followers of ,buddha are fully convinced of all that is narrated to them by ,talapoins respecting the ,nats' seats4 ,such is the implicit faith of the mass of the ,buddhists4 ,one may occasionally meet with a few individuals who laugh at those fables1 but these are looked upon in no better light than that of rationalists or freethinkers by the orthodox portion of the community4 #ad ,the posture assumed by ,buddha at this last stage of his life has supplied the subject of an artistic composition to the ,southern ,buddhist sculptors4 ,a statue representing ,phra in that reclining position is to be seen in almost every pagoda4 ,some of these statues are made on truly gigantic proportions4 ,i have measured one that was forty-five feet long4 ,if we take such rough works as exhibiting the amount of skill possessed by natives in the art of carving1 we must confess that that art is with them yet in its infancy4 ,the huge idols ,i have met with are never made of wood or hewed stones1 but are built up with bricks4 ,the artist1 having made in this way the principal parts of the statue1 covers the whole with a thick coat of mortar1 the softness of which enables him without much labour to put the finishing hand to his work4 ,these statues are invariably made after a certain pattern belonging to the antiquity1 and to an epoch when the art was yet in its very infancy3 they are1 in an artistic point of view1 the worst1 rudest1 and coarsest attempts at statuary ,i have ever seen4 ,gold is1 however1 profusely lavished on those shapeless and formless works4 ,the big idol above referred to was covered with gold1 that is to say1 gilt from head to feet4 ,idols of smaller dimensions1 those in particular representing ,buddha sitting in a cross-legged position1 in the attitude of meditation1 are likewise wretched specimens of art4 ,a great many are made of a soft stone1 almost white1 resembling marble in appearance1 and capable of receiving a most perfect polish4 ,about three miles west of the old and ruined city of ,tsagain is a place where the manufacturing of marble idols is carried on to a great extent4 ,the stone used by the carvers is brought from a place north of ,amerapoora1 where it is abundant4 ,it is soft1 transparent1 white1 and sometimes1 when polished1 exhibits a slightly bluish appearance4 ,the instruments used by the artists are simple and few4 ,were it not for the custom which obliges them to follow always the same patterns1 the ,burmese workmen would much improve in that branch of the fine arts4 #ae ,if ,buddha ever deserved the surname of sage1 it was assuredly on this occasion that he entitled himself to such an honourable distinction4 ,all nature reversed its course on his account3 wonders of the most extraordinary character loudly proclaimed his supereminent excellencies3 the most exalted beings united their voices in extolling his transcendent merits1 and showing their unbounded respect for his person2 all that could dazzle the eye1 please the ear1 and flatter the heart1 was displayed on an unparalleled scale to do honour to him who was about to leave this terrestrial abode4 ,buddha1 however1 solemnly declares1 and unhesitatingly says to ,ananda1 that such a display is infinitely below his merits and perfections1 and can bear no comparison with his fathomless wisdom and boundless knowledge of truth4 ,such things1 in his opinion1 are mere externals1 quite destitute of substantial worth2 they confer no real honour to him4 ,they1 adds he1 who truly do honour to me are those who practise all that is enjoined by the most excellent law2 nothing short of the observance of the law can please me2 the practice of the virtues leading to perfection alone give the right to be called my disciple4 ,my religion can rest firmly only on such solid foundation4 ,these expressions make every reader understand that1 in ,buddha's opinion1 religion is not a mere theory1 teaching fine moral precepts1 destined to excite a vain admiration in the mind1 or elicit useless applauses2 but it is a moral and practical system1 making man acquainted with the duties he has to perform in order to shun vice and practise virtue4 ,nothing can be more explicit and positive than the notions he entertains of religion4 ,they are worthy of the founder of a religious system now believed and admitted1 with more or less considerable variety1 by nearly one-fourth1 or at least one-fifth1 of the great human family4 ,it must be admitted that the high religious sense entertained by ,buddha1 and communicated in all its purity to his immediate disciples1 has almost vanished away in all ,buddhist countries4 ,with the people religion consists in certain exterior observances1 such as giving alms to the ,talapoins1 building pagodas1 and making offerings during the three months especially consecrated to religious duties4 ,the influence of religious teachers1 owing to ignorance and want of zeal1 may be thought by many to be almost null1 and scarcely felt by the masses of nominal ,buddhists4 ,two causes1 however1 seem to be the generators and supporters of the religious sentiment that influences the people1--education1 and the political institutions4 ,the male portion of the community is brought up in the monasteries by the ,phongyies4 ,all the books that are put into their hands1 and most of those that they subsequently read1 are treatises on religious subjects4 ,this system keeps up1 in a wonderful manner1 the knowledge of religion1 which exercises a great control over the actions of individuals1 and regulates their conduct4 ,but1 besides1 the religious element almost predominates in the body of the civil laws2 it acts indirectly upon the people1 and must be allowed a great share of influence in all that regards their morals4 ,it is1 therefore1 to political institutions that ,buddhism owes much for the continuation of its existence in these regions4 ,were it deprived of such a powerful support1 there is every reason to believe that it could not perhaps long retain its hold over the masses1 when regularly and extensively attacked by the followers of another system4 ,but the first cause is by far the weightier and the more influential4 #af ,in the first edition of this work the writer had made an error in supposing ,oupalawana to have been a male religious4 ,another palm-leaf manuscript that he has consulted leaves no doubt about her real character4 ,she was1 among the female body of religious1 the disciple of the left2 and ,kema1 who had been for many years the first wife of ,king ,pimpathara1 was the disciple of the right4 ,oupalawana belonged to a distinguished family of ,kapilawot4 ,the female portion of the ,thanga or assembly was constituted after the mode of the ,rahans4 ,thariputra and ,maukalan were respectively the disciples of the right and of the left4 ,one of the duties of the ,rahaness of the left was to fan ,buddha on certain occasions1 and render to him such services as were compatible with her sex4 ,the order of nuns in ,burmah in our days has fallen very low4 ,instead of the yellow colour1 they have adopted the white one for their dress1 which1 in other respects1 resembles that of the ,phongyies4 ,their head is shaved4 ,they are to be seen in the neighbourhood of pagodas1 and in the streets1 going about to beg the food required for their maintenance4 ,the only large convent of those nuns which ,i have ever met is one on the right bank of the ,irrawaddy1 about five miles north of ,tsagain4 ,it contains about forty or fifty inmates4 ,some of them belong to good families1 and reside in the house for a few years1 after which they return into their home4 ,that house is under the special protection of the king1 who supplies the nuns with all the necessaries of life4 ,in the valley of ,tavoy a small convent also has been pointed out to the writer4 ,it was situated on a beautiful spot1 west of the river4 ,when he went to see it1 he was surprised to meet with two or three old women1 habited in the canonical dress1 who appeared to be wretchedly poor and slovenly in their habits4 ,the house was in every respect in keeping with the exterior appearance of the tenants4 ,the nuns do absolutely no work1 except in certain localities where they try to do away with a portion of their time in clearing the weeds which grow so luxuriantly in the enclosure of some famous pagoda4 ,they have no schools to teach girls the rudiments of reading and writing4 ,they are on this head greatly behind the ,buddhist monks1 who have assumed to themselves the great and important task of teaching boys in the towns and villages4 #ag ,the founder of ,buddhism shows himself on this particular subject a consummate moralist4 ,he who could have spoken as he did on this truly delicate point must have been deeply versed in the knowledge of human nature1 and thoroughly acquainted with its frailties and weaknesses4 ,buddha desired to maintain the members of the assembly in a state of spotless purity4 ,to attain that desirable object he raised the strongest barrier against the wildest passion of the heart4 ,no virtue1 in his opinion1 can withstand the incessant assaults directed against it by daily and familiar intercourse with persons of another sex4 ,he would have1 if possible1 the inmate of a cell in a monastery out of the reach of temptation itself2 he knows that the best tactics against such an enemy do not consist in boldly meeting the adversary1 but rather in carefully avoiding encounter with him1 manuvring in such a way as to keep far from him4 ,hence idle conversations with female visitors are not only forbidden in a most positive manner1 but the very sight of women is to be1 if possible1 avoided4 ,when duty shall oblige a recluse to come face to face with the enemy1 it is his bounden obligation to keep at as great a distance from female visitors as practicable4 ,the subject of the conversation ought to be of a purely religious character2 some portions of the law may be expounded1 doubts of conscience may be proposed1 and a solution given to them1 c4 ,on such occasions the spiritual adviser is never to be left alone1 but he must be surrounded by some of his brethren or disciples1 at all times very numerous in the monasteries4 ,it is not without interest to place one's self in the centre of the ,buddhistic system1 and examine therefrom the motives that have induced ,buddha to enjoin celibacy on all the members of the assembly1 and enforce it with the utmost rigour by all the means that the profoundest moralist could devise4 ,the philosophy of ,buddhism has for its primary object to lead man into the way of freeing himself from the influence produced upon the soul by exterior objects1 through the medium or channel of the senses4 ,that influence sets in motion the various passions which darken the intellect and trouble the heart1 opposing an insuperable barrier to the acquirement and intuition of truth1 and to the progress towards the state of quiescence1 so ardently coveted and longed for by every true ,buddhist4 ,no one is ripe for the state of ,neibban as long as he retains affection for things without self4 ,the last and greatest effort of wisdom is the emancipation of self from every possible influence created and produced by objects or things distinct from self4 ,concupiscence1 as the meaning of the word implies1 is that disposition of the soul to search after1 long for1 and cleave to things placed without self4 ,such a disposition is diametrically opposed to the perfect independence aimed at by a perfect ,buddhist1 and leads to results the very reverse of those to be arrived at2 it retains man in the vortex of never-ending existences1 and precludes him from the possibility of ever reaching the state of ,neibban4 ,concupiscence1 taken in a more restricted and limited meaning1 signifying the propensity to the indulgence of sensual pleasures by the union of sexes1 must ever prove the greatest obstacle in the way leading to perfection1 inasmuch as it fosters in men the strongest affection to external objects4 ,buddha is great1 in his own opinion1 because he has conquered all passions1 not by curbing them under the yoke of reason1 but by rooting them out of his very being4 ,when he wished to become an ascetic1 he practised at first self-renouncing1 not merely by giving up riches1 palaces1 dignities and honours1 but chiefly and principally by denying to himself and for ever the enjoyment of sensual pleasures4 ,a firm and unshaken resolution of parting for ever with his wife and concubines1 and living in a perpetual celibacy1 was considered as a preliminary and essential step for entering upon the course of life of a sincere searcher after truth and perfection4 ,during the six years he spent in solitude1 he laboured with unremitting zeal for securing to the spiritual principle an undisputed control over the material one1 by stifling the vehemence and ardour of his passions4 ,his austerities and mortifications during that long period had no other object than that of first weakening and then finally destroying passions1 and in particular concupiscence4 ,when he is praised in the writings1 he is much extolled for having come out from the net of passions4 ,his victory over concupiscence is repeatedly alluded to as the greatest of all achievements4 ,the master1 therefore1 having laid such stress on this favourite and important maxim1 could not but preach and enjoin it on all his future imitators and disciples4 ,the earliest records of ,buddhism bear testimony to the paramount importance attached to the practice of chastity4 ,it has ever been considered as an essential requirement in all those that have desired to follow the footsteps of ,buddha and imitate his mode of life4 ,no qualification1 ever so great and shining1 could be admitted as a substitute for chastity4 ,science1 talent1 zeal1 and fervour could never entitle an individual to the distinction of member of the assembly of the perfect without having previously given up the gratification of sensual pleasures4 ,independently of what is found written on this subject in the ,wini1 or book of discipline1 the opinion of the ,buddhist public is on this subject positive1 universal1 and absolute4 ,he who leaves the condition of layman to become a religious must live in a state of perfect continence4 ,an infraction of the regulations on this point is looked upon with horror and indignation by the people at large4 ,the guilty individual is inexorably expelled from the religious house1 after having been previously stripped of his religious dress and subjected to a humiliating degradation in the presence of the assembled members of the community4 ,nothing short of such a severe treatment could satisfy a public so deeply hurt and offended in their religious feelings4 ,how is it that the practice of perfect continence is not merely a desideratum in an individual consecrated to religion1 but an absolutely required qualification1 which can never be equivalently supplied by any other moral or scientific attainment8 ,how is it that such a notion is universally adhered to by nations noted for the undoubted laxity of their morals8 ,can a notion so generally believed and so tenaciously retained1 in spite of its direct opposition to the wildest and the dearest passion of the heart1 be ever called a prejudice8 ,is it possible to trace its connection with some of the noblest feelings of our nature and the most refined ideas of our mind8 ,to a superficial and biassed observer1 many things appear contradictory and irreconcilable1 which a serious1 acute1 and dispassionate inquirer after truth readily comprehends1 easily connects and accounts for1 and satisfactorily reconciles one with the other4 #ah ,it is curious to investigate the origin and the real nature of the worship and honour paid by ,buddhists to ,gaudama1 to his relics1 to his statues1 as well as to monuments erected for enshrining and sheltering those objects of devotion4 ,the attempt at elucidating this point is beset with difficulties4 ,the more we attentively reflect on the inward operations of the soul in all that relates to religion1 the more we find ourselves puzzled and hesitating in qualifying and selecting the appellation most befitting them4 ,all the simple terms of our language intended to express the several sorts of acts of worship and adoration paid to objects partaking of a religious nature1 are inadequate to represent to us1 by sounds1 the nature of the inward workings of the soul when she carries on a pious intercourse with the object of her devotion4 ,the terms that are used merely express to us the exterior acts of worship1 as manifested by peculiar attitudes of the body 7which vary according to the habits and customs of various nations71 or singing1 making offerings1 and other visible signs4 ,they may be1 in fact they are1 used with equal fitness all over the world by the worshippers of the true ,god as well as by the adorers of idols4 ,the difference between the true and false worship does not consist1 therefore1 in the externals1 nor in the ceremonies or exterior signs that make impression on the ear and the eye1 but it is to be found in reality in the objects that the adorers have in view4 ,here lies the essential difference between the true and false worship4 ,this being premised1 we have naturally to ask3 ,what is ,gaudama1 the great and principal object of worship to all ,buddhists8 ,gaudama1 in their opinion1 is a mere man1 that has attained1 by the practice of virtue1 and principally by his almost infinite science1 the highest point of perfection a being can ever reach4 ,the first qualification entitles him to the unbounded admiration of his followers2 it inspires them with expressions the best calculated to eulogise him1 and represent him as the first and greatest of all beings4 ,again1 ,gaudama is represented to them full of benevolence and compassion for all beings1 whom he earnestly wishes to deliver from their miseries1 and help to obtain that state in which they come for ever to a perfect rest from all transmigrations1 or to what they emphatically call the deliverance4 ,the second qualification is much insisted upon by ,buddhists1 and from it originate those feelings of love and tender affection for him who has laboured so much for enlightening all beings1 and showing to them the way that leads to the deliverance4 ,buddhists on this subject are very eloquent4 ,the writer has often admired many fine thoughts and truly beautiful expressions he has met in some writings devoted to the praises of ,buddha4 ,it may be asked whether the followers of ,gaudama in the worship they pay the author of their religion expect any aid or assistance from him4 ,the answer is an easy one4 ,gaudama to them is no more4 ,his interference with the affairs of this world or of his religion absolutely ceased with his existence4 ,he sees no one2 he hears no prayer2 he can afford no help neither here on earth nor in any other state of existence4 ,in fact1 to the ,buddhists there is no ,providence1 and1 consequently1 there can be no real prayer1 none of the feelings that constitute its essence4 ,all the worship of ,gaudama may be summed up in a few words3 he is admired as the greatest1 wisest1 and most benevolent of all beings2 he is praised1 eulogised as much as language can express2 he is the object of a tender affection for the good that he has done4 ,no idea whatever of a supreme being is to be met in the genuine worship paid to ,gaudama by his most enthusiastic adherents4 ,it cannot be denied that1 in practice1 ,buddhists of these parts betray often without perceiving it that they have some vague idea about a supreme being1 who has a controlling power in the affairs of this world and the destiny of man4 ,but such an idea does not come from their religious creed2 it is the offspring of that innate sentiment adherent in our nature1 as is maintained by some philosophers3 or it is a remnant of a primitive tradition1 which error has never been able entirely to obliterate1 as asserted by others4 ,the worship paid to ,buddha does not extend further than it has been above stated1 since it is always placed on a footing of equality with the one due to the law and to the assembly4 ,these three precious things are always enumerated together2 no distinction is made between them2 they are equally entitled to the veneration of all believers4 ,let us come now to the veneration offered to the statues and relics of ,gaudama1 and to the religious monuments called dzedis4 ,in the foregoing pages we have seen ,buddha giving to two brothers who had requested him to supply them with some object of worship eight hairs of his head4 ,after his death and the combustion of his body1 the remaining bones1 or parts of bones1 even the very ashes and charcoals1 were piously coveted1 with an eagerness that indicated the high value people set on these articles4 ,according to several ,buddhist authors1 ,gaudama1 previous to his death1 intimated to his disciples that his religion was to last five thousand years2 that1 as he would be no longer among his believers in a visible manner1 he wished that they would keep up his statues as his representatives1 and pay to them the same honour they would pay to his own person4 ,relying upon this positive injunction1 the ,buddhist looks on the statues of ,buddha as objects destined to remind him of ,buddha3 they are the visible mementoes of him who is infinitely dear to his affections2 they put him1 by their variety of shapes and form1 in remembrance of the principal events connected with his existence4 ,the princes that have been most remarkable for their religious zeal and piety1 such as ,adzatathat and ,athoka1 were anxious to multiply the statues of ,buddha and the religious monuments1 to nourish in the soul of all the faithful1 as says our ,burmese author1 a feeling of tender affection1 of lovely disposition for the person of ,buddha and his holy religion4 ,the relics being articles that have been most intimately connected with ,buddha's person1 are designed to act on the religious feelings of the people even more powerfully than the statues4 ,they are treasured up with the greatest care1 worshipped with the profoundest respect1 looked upon with a most affectionate regard4 ,no earthly treasure can be compared with them4 ,as ,buddha's sacred person is more valuable in their eyes than the whole world1 his relics partake of that invaluable estimation4 ,it becomes evident that the statues and relics are so much valued1 esteemed1 and worshipped because of the intimate connection they have with the person of ,buddha1 and the great help they afford in keeping alive a religious spirit and a tender affection for him4 ,in the worship of statues and relics1 superstition has had its share too in giving an undue extension and development to the religious sentiment4 ,this development has brought into existence the belief in prodigies and miracles wrought by the virtue of the relics4 ,this popular error has always found a powerful support among the ignorant masses2 it has been much propagated by that inordinate and irrational tendency towards all that is new and extraordinary4 ,man wants but a pretext1 even a very futile one1 to give credit to the most incredible occurrences1 when they have a reference to a deeply cherished1 and1 as it were1 favourite object4 ,but in no way do we find genuine ,buddhism countenancing such spiritual eccentricities or extravagances1 which have their origin in ignorance and an inordinate fondness for the marvellous4 ,the articles of worship offered to or placed before the statues of ,buddha1 and the shrines supposed to contain some of his relics1 are few and remarkable for their simplicity4 ,they consist in flowers arranged in fine bouquets1 in flags and streamers made of cloth1 sometimes of paper1 and cut into a great variety of figures1 with considerable taste and skill4 ,there are to be seen also small wax candles1 little earthen lamps1 and sometimes incense and scented wood1 which are consumed in large burners1 placed on pedestals made of masonry4 ,the worshippers are generally in a squatting position1 the back resting on the heels1 the body slightly bending forward1 the joined hands raised to the forehead4 ,ordinarily a string of flowers1 or little bits of wood adorned each with a small paper flag1 are held on these occasions4 ,on the days of worship1 particularly during the three months of ,lent1 the crowd of people of every age1 sex1 and condition1 resorting to the most venerated pagoda of the place1 is truly extraordinary4 ,men and women of a certain age have in their hands a string of beads1 upon which they repeat the formula ,aneitsa1 ,duka1 ,anatta1 or some other4 ,since the ,buddhist knows that his ,buddha is no more1 and1 therefore1 can afford him no assistance whatever1 that there is no virtue inherent in his relics or images1 in fact1 that there is no ,providence1 it is difficult to account for the zeal that he often displays in honouring the great founder of his religion1 and all that has a reference to him4 ,to account satisfactorily for such a moral phenomenon1 we must bear in mind the belief that he has in the intrinsic worth of the devotional practices he performs4 ,those works are good per se2 they give rise1 power1 and energy to the law of merits1 or to the good influence which will procure to him abundant rewards in future existences1 and gradually lead him to the harbour of deliverance1 the object of his most ardent wishes4 ,that hope is1 as it were1 the great feeder of his devotion4 #ai ,on a former occasion1 ,buddha had raised his voice to bestow praises on the memory of the great ,thariputra1 whose relics he was holding on the palm of one of his hands in the presence of the assembled ,rahans4 ,now1 a short time before he yields up the ghost1 he summons all his strength1 and at great length passes the highest encomium on his amiable and ever-devoted attendant1 the truly kind-hearted ,ananda4 ,these are the only two instances mentioned in this compilation1 when ,buddha has condescended to eulogise the great virtues and eminent merits of two disciples4 ,in ,thariputra1 ,buddha extolled the transcendent mental attainments1 the heroic achievements in the practice of virtue1 the fervour and zeal for the propagation of religion1 which had ever distinguished the illustrious friend of ,maukalan4 ,in ,ananda1 the searching and keen eye of ,buddha discovered excellencies of a less shining and bright hue1 but1 in point of sterling worth1 second to none4 ,ananda is a matchless pattern of gentleness1 amiability1 devotedness1 and placid religious zeal4 ,he loves all his brethren1 and he is1 in return1 beloved by them all4 ,his superior goodness of heart and placidity of temper secure to him an almost undisputed precedence over the other members of the assembly4 ,tearing the veil that conceals futurity from our eager regards1 ,buddha foretells the future conquests to be made by the mild and persuasive eloquence of his ever dearly beloved disciple4 ,the far-spread fame of ,ananda shall in days to come attract crowds of visitors1 eager to see and hear him4 ,the sight of his graceful and lovely appearance shall rivet to his person the attention and affection of all4 ,enraptured at the flow of this tender1 touching1 and heart-moving eloquence1 visitors shall eagerly listen to him2 they will experience sadness only when his silence shall deprive them of that food which their mind and heart were feasting on4 ,the eulogium of ,ananda by ,buddha is unquestionably one of the finest passages of the legend4 ,divested of its original beauties by having passed through several translations1 it retains1 however1 something that charms and pleases4 ,the reader is involuntarily reminded of similar specimens found here and there in the earliest records of antiquity4 ,in the instructions that ,ananda is to give to laymen1 it is somewhat curious to see ,buddha distinctly stating that ,ananda will exhort the people to make offerings both to ,rahans and to pounhas2 that is to say1 to the members of the assembly1 and to the ,brahmins4 ,from this passage1 it becomes evident that1 in the days of our ,buddha1 the two sects that were subsequently to struggle during many ages for superiority over the ,indian ,peninsula1 subsisted free from inimical feelings towards each other4 ,it might be said that no line of separation kept them apart1 indicating or pointing out their respective limits4 ,the wide gap that was during succeeding centuries to intervene between those two great religious sects was not perceptibly felt4 ,the levelling results of ,buddhism had not yet awakened the susceptibilities of the proud ,brahmins4 ,buddhists and ,brahminists lived on friendly terms1 and looked upon each other as brethren4 ,the discrepancies in the respective creeds were regarded with indifference1 as involving only philosophical subtleties1 well suited to afford occupation to ideologists1 and give to disputants the opportunity of displaying their abilities in arguing1 reasoning1 and defining4 ,it is not easy to determine whether the conduct of ,buddha was regulated by a well-calculated policy1 intended to calm the suspicious scruples of his opponents1 or whether he was actuated by plain and straightforward principles4 ,it is probable that at that time many ,brahmins followed a mode of life almost similar to that of the disciples of ,buddha2 they were1 therefore1 entitled to the same honours and support4 #bj ,buddha had so much at heart the conversion of the heretic ,thoubat1 that the earnest desire of performing this great and meritorious action was one of the three motives that induced him to select the comparatively insignificant city of ,koutheinaron for the last stage of his existence4 ,particulars regarding that personage would prove interesting1 because he is the last convert ,buddha made4 ,from what has been alluded to in some ,buddhistic writings regarding ,thoubat1 it is certain that he was of the caste of pounhas or ,brahmins4 ,he had studied in some of the numerous schools of philosophy1 at that time so common in ,india4 ,from his way of addressing ,buddha1 there is no doubt but he was acquainted with the principal theories upheld by the most renowned masters in those days4 ,it is related of ,thoubat that1 in a former existence1 he was tilling a field with one of his brothers1 when some ,rahans happened to pass by4 ,his brother gave abundant alms to the holy personages1 whilst ,thoubat showed less liberal dispositions4 ,when1 then1 ,buddha appeared1 the law was announced to the generous donor1 and in company with eighteen koudes of ,brahmas he obtained the state of ,thautapan4 ,the rather parsimonious ,thoubat obtained the favour of conversion at the eleventh hour4 ,he must have1 however1 subsequently atoned for this offence1 as his dispositions seem to have been of the highest order when he came into ,buddha's presence4 ,in a few hours he had gone over the four ways leading to perfection1 and had become a ,rahanda4 ,in the days of ,buddha1 the philosophical schools of ,india seem to have had six eminent teachers1 whose doctrines exhibited on some points a considerable variance4 ,in a book of religious controversy between a ,christian and a ,buddhist1 composed more than a hundred years ago by a ,catholic priest at ,ava1 the writer had the chance of meeting with a faint outline of the leading tenets maintained by the six teachers1 so often alluded to in this compilation4 ,one of them maintained the existence and agency of numberless genii1 who1 at their will1 could favour man with fortune and every possible temporal benefits1 as well as visit him with their displeasure1 by depriving him of all happiness and heaping misery and all sorts of calamities over his head4 ,geniolatry was the necessary consequence flowing from such a principle4 ,a second teacher denied at once the dogma of metempsychosis1 and maintained that every being had the innate power of reproducing by way of generation1 c41 another being of similar nature4 ,a third one had singular notions regarding the nature of man4 ,he said that he had his beginning in the womb of his mother1 and that death was the end and destruction of his being3 such a destruction he called ,neibban4 ,a fourth teacher taught that all beings were without beginning and ending1 and that there existed no influence of good and bad deeds4 ,a fifth doctor defined ,neibban1 a long life like that of ,nats and ,brahmas4 ,he saw no harm in the killing of animals1 and he asserted the existence of a state of reward and punishment4 ,the last teacher boldly asserted the existence of a ,supreme ,being1 creator of all that exists1 and alone worthy of receiving adorations4 ,thoubat's mind was rather perplexed by so many contradictory and opposite opinions and doctrines4 ,he had lived1 it appears1 in a state of doubt and uncertainty1 fluctuating1 as it were1 between conflicting theories which could not carry conviction to his soul4 ,he had heard of ,buddha and wished to see him1 hoping that perhaps he might fall in with the truth he was so ardently panting after4 ,with these dispositions1 he came to the spot where ,buddha was lying on his couch1 in the hope of easing his mind from the state of doubt and fixing it in truth4 ,like a man of consummate abilities in the way of arguing and convincing his adversary1 ,buddha sets aside all that was put forward by his antagonist1 and1 coming at once to the point1 preaches to him the true doctrine4 ,as light dispels darkness1 so truth disperses the mist of error4 ,thoubat1 seeing truth1 at once embraced it1 gladly ridding himself of the burden of errors that had hitherto weighed down his soul4 ,all his doubts vanished away1 and he found himself1 on a sudden1 safely anchored in the calm and never-agitated harbour of perfect truth4 ,next to the conversion of ,thoubat1 follows an interesting instruction delivered to ,ananda and the assembled ,rahans4 ,here ,buddha displays the superiority of his lofty mind4 ,clinging to the principles of abstract truth1 he has no regard for persons or things4 ,this material world1 man included1 is1 in his opinion1 a mere illusion1 exhibiting nothing real1 but only an uninterrupted succession of changes1 which exclude the idea of immutable fixity4 ,he apparently has no wish to infuse consolation into the afflicted souls of his disciples4 ,he supposes that1 being all initiated in the knowledge of truth1 and having entered in the ways of perfection1 they must know that the person of a ,buddha is subjected to the law of mutability1 and1 therefore1 to destruction or to death4 ,he says plainly to them that his absence from among them is a circumstance scarcely worth noticing3 by his doctrines contained in the ,abidama1 the ,thoots and the ,wini1 he will ever be present among them4 ,in these sacred writings they will possess something more valuable than his material being3 they will have and enjoy the truth that was in him1 and that he has communicated to them by his oral instructions4 ,he earnestly invites them to lay stress only on that doctrine which they have received from him4 ,it is hardly necessary to notice a serious anachronism made by the unskilful compiler of this legend on this occasion4 ,we know that ,buddha wrote nothing1 and that the compilation of his doctrines with its division in three distinct portions was the work of the three great councils held after ,gaudama's death or ,neibban4 ,how could the dying originator of ,buddhism speak of compilations of his doctrines1 which were not as yet existing8 #ba ,buddha's zeal is not chilled in the least by the cold of approaching death4 ,his boundless knowledge enabled him at a glance to obtain the most intimate acquaintance with the inward dispositions of his disciples' minds4 ,if1 therefore1 he asked them three successive times whether they entertained doubts on any doctrinal points1 it was not to satisfy himself that their faith was firm and unshaken4 ,he wished to make them conscious of a fact which was felt and clearly understood by every one in particular1 but was not as yet fully appreciated by the universality of his disciples4 ,every individual in particular was well aware of the unwavering dispositions of his mind respecting ,buddha's teachings1 but no one ever had the opportunity of ascertaining that all his brethren had the same firmness of belief4 ,on this solemn occasion they witnessed the most comforting sight of a perfect unity of faith in all the members of the assembly4 ,buddha revealed then one great truth which no one but himself could be acquainted with4 ,a true ,rahan1 says he1 has entered at last in the first way that leads to perfection2 he is1 therefore1 no more exposed to the danger of wavering in his belief2 he knows enough of truth to adhere firmly to it1 and is enabled to prosecute safely his researches after what is still unknown to him4 ,every member of the assembly is a true believer1 more or less advanced in the knowledge of the law1 it is true1 but at least he is conscious of his being in the right way4 ,on this subject no doubt subsists in his mind2 he adheres to ,buddha and his doctrines as to the centre of truth1 and never thinks for a moment to question the veracity of his doctor1 or to call in doubt any portion of his instructions4 ,the last words of ,buddha to the assembled ,bickus are designed to remind them of the great and vital principle he has endeavoured to inculcate in their minds during the forty-five years of his preaching1 viz41 that change and mutability are acting upon all that exists1 and are inherent in all parts of nature4 ,this world1 therefore1 offering but an endless vicissitude of forms1 that appear and disappear1 has no real existence4 ,it is an illusion from beginning to end4 ,as long as man remains tied up1 so to speak1 to nature1 he is carried away by the ever-acting principle of change3 nowhere can he find any rest or fixity2 he quits one existence to pass into another2 he leaves one form to assume a different one4 ,what happens to man befalls all other parts of nature4 ,from this notion1 ,buddha infers that there is nothing existing but name and form4 ,there is no substance in nature1 and therefore no reality4 ,so much stress was laid by ,buddha on this capital principle that he bequeathed it1 as his last ,will1 to his disciples3 he wished that they should ever bear in their minds and remember that he came among them for the purpose of making them thoroughly acquainted with it4 ,from this cardinal point he inferred the chief conclusions that form his religious system1 viz41 metempsychosis1 the contempt of the world1 and ,neibban4 ,by the law of endless changes1 man is hurried from one state into another1 or from one form of being into another form4 ,where is the wise man that could love a world1 or an existence therein1 when he finds no substance1 no reality in it8 ,is he not induced1 or rather compelled1 to search after a state in which he can find fixity1 reality1 and truth1 or at least an exemption from the harassing condition of perpetual migration from one state into another8 ,the reader who has been almost born with and educated in theistic notions1 and who sees in the world nothing but what has been created by a supreme and all-wise ,being1 is at a loss to understand how a grave philosopher1 as undoubtedly ,buddha was1 gifted with great powers for observing1 arguing1 discussing1 and inferring conclusions1 could have fallen into errors so glaring and so contrary to his reason4 ,that we might properly appreciate the efforts of such a genius1 and have some correct ideas about his process of arguing1 we must divest ourselves of the knowledge supplied to us by revelation1 and descend to the level occupied by the founder of ,buddhism4 ,unacquainted with a first cause1 or with the existence of a ,supreme ,being1 he studies nature as he finds it4 ,what does he see in it8 ,perpetual changes1 endless vicissitudes4 ,the form that he perceives to-day has undergone some change on the following day4 ,everything about him grows1 reaches a certain point1 and then falls into decay4 ,he finds nothing that stands always in the same condition4 ,hence he proclaims the great law of mutability pervading all nature1 and concludes that all that we feel1 see1 or hear1 is illusion and deception1 c42 deprived of all reality1 fixity1 and substance4 ,his philosophical mind is not satisfied with such a discovery4 ,he pants after truth and reality1 which are not to be found here4 ,he feels that he must disentangle himself from the condition of illusion and deception4 ,but where is reality and fixity to be found8 ,beyond all1 that exists in ,neibban4 #bb ,the epoch of ,gaudama's death is a point on which the various nations professing ,buddhism do not agree4 ,the ,cingalese1 ,burmese1 and ,siamese annals place that event somewhat before the middle of the sixth century before the ,christian era4 ,the difference of dates is but of a few years1 and is so inconsiderable as not to be worth notice4 ,the ,thibetans1 and1 as a consequence1 the ,mongolians with the ,chinese1 place that event several hundred years previous to the epoch just mentioned4 ,notwithstanding this discrepancy1 it seems difficult not to adopt the chronology of the southern ,buddhists4 ,the savans in ,europe1 who have bestowed a considerable degree of attention on this interesting subject1 give a decided preference to the opinion of the former4 ,we have not to depend solely on the chronological tables of kings1 supplied by the ,hindus1 for settling this point1 but fortunately we are put indirectly by ,greek writers in possession of a fixed and well-established epoch1 from which we can take with a sufficient degree of certainty our departure for arriving at a satisfactory conclusion4 ,after the death of ,alexander the ,great1 ,seleucus1 one of his lieutenants1 obtained for his share all the provinces situated east of the ,euphrates1 in which the ,indian conquered territories were included4 ,seleucus1 at first in person1 and next by an ambassador1 came in contact with a powerful ,indian king1 named ,chandragupta1 who had the seat of his empire at ,palibotra or ,pataliputra4 ,this intercourse took place about #caj ,b4,c4 ,the ,hindu chronological tables mention the name of this prince as well as that of his grandson1 called ,athoka1 who1 according to the testimony of the ,burmese authors1 ascended the throne of ,palibotra two hundred and eighteen years after ,gaudama's death4 ,we may suppose that ,athoka reigned in or about #bgj or #bhj ,b4,c4 ,these two periods added together will give but a sum of five hundred years4 ,there will remain a difference of only forty years1 for which it is not easy to account with sufficient precision1 unless we suppose that the reign of ,athoka began earlier than is generally admitted4 ,cunningham has given very strong reasons for fixing the period of ,gaudama's death sixty-six years later than the usual one1 hitherto generally admitted1 #edc2 that is to say1 in the year #dgg ,b4,c4 ,this new epoch enables us to adhere at once with perfect safety to the computation above related1 and does away with the small discrepancy of a few years that has been mentioned4 ,tradition and ancient inscriptions leave almost no doubt upon this important point4 ,our legend is positive in stating that ,gaudama died under the reign of ,adzatathat1 as will hereafter be seen4 ,but the ,hindu chronologists place the reign of that monarch about #bej or #bfj years before that of ,chandragupta1 who1 as stated1 was a contemporary of ,seleucus ,nicator4 ,we have1 therefore1 the combined authority of both foreigners and natives for admitting the chronology of the southern ,buddhists respecting the epoch of ,gaudama's death1 in preference to that of the northern ,buddhists1 and for fixing that event during the first part of the sixth century before the ,christian era1 or rather sixty-six years later1 in the beginning of the fourth part of the fifth century4 #bc ,what is ,neibban1 the end a true ,buddhist ever longs for throughout his great struggles in the practice of virtue and his constant efforts for attaining the knowledge of truth1 which he finally reaches when he has become perfect8 ,the writer confesses at once his inability to answer satisfactorily this question1 because ,buddhists do not agree among themselves in explaining the nature of the state of ,neibban4 ,from the earliest period of their religion we see the ,brahmins keenly taunting their opponents for the discordance of their opinions on a subject of the utmost importance--a subject which had ever been prominent in ,buddha's teachings1 and held up as the only one worthy of the most earnest and ardent desires1 the fittest reward of the generous and extraordinary exertions of a perfected being1 and the final state in which his soul1 wearied after such a prolonged spiritual warfare1 longed to rest for ever4 ,a certain school of ,buddhists has maintained that ,neibban implied the destruction of the state of being1 and consequently complete annihilation4 ,this opinion is at once practically rejected by the portion of the southern ,buddhists1 who are not so well acquainted with the more philosophical part of their creed4 ,they assert that a perfected being1 after having reached ,neibban1 or having arrived at the end of his last existence1 retains his individuality1 but they utterly fail in their attempts at explaining the situation and condition of a being in ,neibban4 ,at a later period the opinion about a supreme ,buddha1 uncreated1 eternal1 and infinite1 began to gain ground1 and modified to a considerable extent on many points the views of the earlier ,buddhists4 ,neibban1 according to the comparatively modern school1 is but an absorption into the supreme and infinite ,buddha4 ,this opinion so much approximates to that of the ,brahmins that we may say it is almost the same4 ,the means of obtaining perfection are somewhat different in both systems1 but the end to be obtained is precisely the same4 ,setting aside idle speculations1 let us try to form some idea of ,neibban by explaining the meaning of the term1 and the definition such as we find it in the ,burmese writings4 ,the word ,neibban1 in ,sanscrit ,nirvana1 according to its etymology1 means what is no more agitated1 what is in a state of perfect calm4 ,it is composed of the negative prefix nir and va1 which means to be set in motion1 as the wind4 ,it implies the idea of rest in opposition to that of motion or existence4 ,to be in the state of ,neibban is therefore to be carried beyond the range of existence1 as understood by ,buddhists2 there can be no longer migration from one state of being to another4 ,this point is admitted by all sects of ,buddhists4 ,to the idea of ,neibban is often attached that of extinction1 as a lamp which ceases to burn and whose light becomes extinct when the oil is exhausted4 ,the sum of existence being exhausted1 a being ceases to be or to move within the range of existence2 he becomes extinct relatively1 at least to all kind of existences we have a notion of4 ,in conversing with the ,buddhists of ,burmah1 the writer has observed that the ideas of rest and extinction are invariably coupled with the notion of ,neibban4 ,in their rough attempt at explaining the inexplicable nature of that state they had recourse to several comparisons intended to convey to the mind that they believed ,neibban to be a state of undisturbed calm and a never-ending cessation of existence1 at least such as we have an idea of in this world4 ,when questioned on the situation of ,buddha in ,neibban1 they answer that they believe him to be in a boundless space or vacuum beyond the boundaries ever reached by other beings1 alone by himself1 enjoying1 if the expression be correct1 a perfect rest1 unconcerned about this world1 having no further relation with all existing beings4 ,they assert that he is to remain for ever a stranger to all sensations of either pain or pleasure4 ,but it must be borne in mind that this is the popular opinion rather than the philosophical one4 ,talking one evening with a well-informed ,burman on ,neibban1 the light of a lamp that was burning on the writer's table happened to die away for want of oil4 ,the ,buddhist1 with an exulting tone of voice1 exclaimed1 8,do not ask any more what ,neibban is2 what has happened to the lamp just now1 tells you what ,neibban is4 ,the lamp is extinct because there is no more oil in the glass4 ,a man is in ,neibban at the very moment that the principle or cause of existence is at an end or entirely exhausted40 ,how far such an answer can satisfy a superficial mind like that of a half-civilised ,burman1 it is difficult to say2 but it appears certain that he does not carry his researches nor pursue his inquiries beyond these narrow boundaries4 ,any further attempt to penetrate deeper into the darkness of ,neibban is1 in his opinion1 presumptuous and rash4 ,buddhist metaphysicians in ,india1 in their foolish efforts to survey that terra incognita1 have originated several opinions that have had their supporters in the various schools of philosophy4 ,the more ancient philosophers or heads of schools1 in attempting to give an analysis of a thing they knew nothing about1 approximated to the opinion that ,neibban is nothing more or less than a complete or entire annihilation4 ,following the course of arguments1 and admitting their premises1 one is reluctantly compelled to come to the awful conclusion that the final end of a perfected ,buddha is the destruction of his being1 or annihilation4 ,this opinion is still further corroborated by the short exposition of ,buddhist metaphysics at the end of this volume4 ,the crudest materialism is openly and distinctly professed4 ,there is nothing in man distinct from the six senses4 ,the faculty of perceiving the object they come in contact with is inherent in their nature4 ,the sixth sense1 that is to say1 the heart1 has the power of perceiving ideas1 that is to say1 things that have no form or shape4 ,but this power is not distinct from the living sense2 it disappears when the life of that sense is extinct1 or1 in other terms1 when the heart is destroyed4 ,to the holders of such an opinion the cessation of existence1 the going out of the circle of existences1 by the destruction of kan1 or the influence of merits and demerits1 must be and cannot but be complete annihilation4 ,from a long period the plain sense of the masses of believers1 unprejudiced by sophistical bias1 revolted against such a doctrine1 and at once rejected the horrible conclusion arrived at by former disputants4 ,no one in practice openly admits that ,neibban and annihilation are synonymous terms4 ,if their views can be properly understood1 we may infer from what they say that a being in ,neibban retains his individuality1 though isolated from all that is distinct from self4 ,he sees the abstract truth1 or truth as it is in itself1 divested of the material forms under which we in our present state of existence but imperfectly see it4 ,passions and affections are not to be found in such a being2 his position1 in truth1 can scarcely be understood and still less expressed by us1 who can never come in communication with an object but through our passions and affections4 ,we know that there exists a spiritual substance1 but we can have no distinct idea of it4 ,we vouch for its existence by what we observe of its operations1 but it is impossible for us to explain its nature4 ,it is not1 therefore1 surprising that ,buddhists should be at a loss to account for the state in which a perfected being is when in ,neibban4 ,the idea of a state of apathy or rest must be understood as expressing simply a situation quite opposite to that of motion1 in which all beings are as long as they are within the pale of existences4 ,if it be admitted that the perfected being retains in ,neibban his individuality1 it must be inferred that he becomes1 as it were1 merged into the abstract truth in which he lives and rests for ever4 ,but we must distinctly state anew that this view is in opposition to the doctrines of the earliest ,buddhists1 and the philosophical principles and inferences maintained as genuine4 ,this contradiction illustrates the truth of a remark made above1 that error can never entirely obliterate from man's mind the knowledge of certain fundamental truths1 which are almost constitutive of his moral being4 ,let us come now to a definition of ,neibban translated from ,pali by the ,burmans4 ,neibban is the end of all existences1 the exemption from the action of kan1 i4e41 the good or bad influence produced by merits or demerits2 of ,tsit1 i4e41 the principle of all volitions1 desires1 and passions2 of the seasons1 and of taste or sensations4 ,what means this rather curious1 not to say almost unintelligible1 definition8 ,to understand it the reader must be aware that kan is the principle which causes all beings to move incessantly from one existence into another1 from a state of happiness to one of unhappiness1 from a position where merits are acquired into another where further merits are to be obtained and greater proficiency in perfection secured1 from a state of punishment or demerits into a worse one1 c4 ,kan may be called the soul of transmigration1 the hidden spring of all the changes experienced by an existing being4 ,in ,neibban the law of kan is destroyed1 and therefore there are no more changes or transmigrations4 ,by ,tsit is understood the principle of all volitions and desires4 ,buddhist metaphysicians1 always fond of divisions and classifications1 reckon one hundred and twenty ,tsits4 ,some are the root of all demerits1 and their opposites are the principles of merits4 ,some have for object matter this material world2 others have for object the immaterial world1 or1 as ,i believe1 ideas and things that have no form4 ,the last of tsits1 and of course the most perfect1 is entire fixity4 ,this is the last stage ever to be reached by a perfected being in the world of existences4 ,one step further1 and he has reached the undisturbed shores of ,neibban4 ,in that latter state there is no more operation of the mind or of the heart2 or at least there is no intellectual working1 such as we conceive it in our actual condition4 ,the word ,udoo1 or season1 is evidently used for designating a revolution of nature4 ,the meaning is obvious1 and affords no difficulty4 ,in ,neibban there is neither nature nor revolutions of nature4 ,neibban1 if a state it be1 lies in vacuum or space far beyond the extensive horizon that encircles the world or worlds1 or systems of nature4 ,the word ,ahara1 which literally means taste1 is intended to designate all sensations acquired through the senses4 ,by means of the senses1 indeed1 we obtain perceptions and acquire knowledge2 but the perfected being having come to the possession of universal science1 no further knowledge is needed2 the senses are1 therefore1 useless4 ,the senses1 moreover1 are the appendage of our nature1 as it is during its existences4 ,neibban putting an end to further existences1 it destroys also the constituent parts or portions of our being4 ,admitting that the above definition of ,neibban is a correct one1 and that it has been understood in a purely ,buddhistic sense1 we may conclude that in that state there is no more influence1 and consequently no transmigration1 no volition of the mind1 no desires of the heart1 no materiality1 and no sensations4 ,the difficulty as to whether ,neibban is annihilation seems all but entirely and completely solved4 ,there is another way of arriving at a similar conclusion4 ,let us ascertain what are the constituent parts of an intelligent being1 and then inquire whether these parts are entirely destroyed and annihilated in ,neibban4 ,in an intelligent being1 according to all doctors1 we find materiality1 sensations1 perceptions1 consciousness1 and intellect4 ,these five aggregates constitute a thinking being4 ,these1 assert the same doctors1 do not exist in ,neibban2 they are destroyed4 ,one word more and the question would be settled2 but that word has not been1 at least to my knowledge1 ever distinctly uttered4 ,it is probable that these five aggregates or component parts are1 in the opinion of many1 the conditions of existence such as we now understand it4 ,but it would be too hasty to conclude that a being under different conditions of existence could not retain his individuality though deprived of these five component parts4 ,buddhists1 as already said1 have very imperfect notions of a spiritual substance4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that they cannot express themselves in a manner more distinct1 precise1 and intelligible when they treat of subjects so abstruse and difficult4 ,in practice they admit the existence of something distinct from matter1 and surviving in man after the destruction of the material portion of his being2 but their attempts at giving a satisfactory explanation of the nature of that surviving individuality have always proved abortive4 ,in their process of arguing the learned reject such an admission4 ,the question1 as may be inferred from the foregoing lines1 if considered in the light of purely theoretical notions1 is philosophically left little open to discussion1 though it will probably ever remain without a perfect solution4 ,but the logical inferences to be deduced from the principles of genuine ,buddhism inevitably lead to the dark1 cold1 and horrifying abyss of annihilation4 ,if examined from a practical point of view1 that is to say1 taking into account the opinions of the masses of ,buddhists1 the difficulty may be considered as resolved too1 but in an opposite sense4 #bd ,the lengthened description of ,buddha's funeral has suggested the idea of laying before the reader a brief account of the ceremonies observed by ,buddhists in ,burmah1 when funeral rites are performed on the mortal remains of ,talapoins1 who have been eminent in the profession and have spent their whole lives in monasteries4 ,by comparing the following account with the narrative of the legend1 we will see that the rubrics of the funeral service1 in our days1 are nearly the same as those existing at the origin of ,buddhism4 ,when a ,buddhist recluse has given up the ghost1 the corpse is carefully and diligently washed by laymen1 or the younger inmates of the monastery4 ,a large incision is made in the abdomen2 its contents are taken out and buried in the earth without any ceremony being observed on the occasion4 ,the empty cavity is filled up with ashes1 bran1 or some other desiccative substances for preventing putrefaction4 ,the corpse is then tightly wrapt with bands or swathes of a white colour from head to foot1 and then covered with the yellow habit of the profession4 ,sometimes a coat of black varnish is put over and then leaves of gold1 so that the whole body is gilt4 ,it is afterwards bound all over with ropes tightened as much as possible1 so as to bring it within the narrowest dimensions4 ,when thus prepared1 the corpse is placed in an open coffin4 ,the coffin is made of the trunk of a tree1 rudely hollowed1 and often so imperfectly scooped out as not to afford sufficient room for the corpse4 ,in the middle of the interior part of the coffin1 an opening1 about two inches in diameter1 has been made1 to afford issue to the humours that may ooze out through the swathes4 ,the coffin is unceremoniously laid on the floor of the monastery4 ,a bamboo1 #g or #h feet long1 is procured2 one of its ends is inserted in the hole made in the coffin1 and the other is sunk into the ground below2 it is the channel through which the humours flow into the earth4 ,after a lapse of ten or twelve days1 the body is supposed to be quite dry2 they set about putting a covering over the coffin and effectually shutting it4 ,whilst residing at ,tavoy1 ,i wished1 on a certain day1 to go and witness all the particulars observed on such occasions4 ,a most opportune event favoured the prosecution of my wishes4 ,a ,talapoin of my acquaintance had died a fortnight before1 after thirty years of profession4 ,his body1 laid in the coffin1 was to be for ever concealed from human sight4 ,i went into the monastery1 where ,i met a large party of the brethren of the deceased1 who had assembled for the ceremony4 ,most of them were known to me4 ,my reception was at once kind and cordial4 ,great was my surprise at seeing1 instead of the grief and mourning which the circumstance seemed to demand1 laughing1 talking1 and amusement1 going on at a rate which is to be called scandalous4 ,no one appeared to take the least notice of the deceased1 whose corpse was lying at our feet4 ,a momentary stop was put to the indecorous behaviour of the assistants by the appearance of two stout carpenters bringing a board four or five inches thick1 designed for the cover4 ,they vainly tried to fit it in its place2 the hollow of the coffin was neither broad nor deep enough for holding the corpse1 though reduced to the smallest proportions4 ,the operation was not a very easy one to bring the board in contact with the sides of the coffin1 despite the resistance that was to be offered by the corpse4 ,the carpenters were determined not to be disappointed4 ,at the two ends and in the middle of the coffin1 ropes were passed several times round it with the utmost tension1 in such a manner as to have six or seven coils in the same place4 ,enormous wooden wedges were inserted right and left in three places between the sides and the coils4 ,on these wedges the workmen hammered with their whole strength during about twenty minutes1 to the great amusement of all the bystanders4 ,each blow of the hammer lessened the distance between the cover and the brim of the coffin4 ,every perceptible success1 gained over the latent resisting power1 elicited a burst of applause1 and a cheer to the persevering workmen4 ,at last all resistance being overcome1 the cover rested fixedly in its place4 ,it is needless to add that the corpse inside was but a hideous mass of mangled flesh and broken bones4 ,according to the custom observed on such occasions1 a rude building was erected for the purpose of placing therein the mortal remains of the deceased1 until preparations on a grand scale should have been made for doing honour to the illustrious departed individual4 ,that building1 as well as those made for a similar purpose1 is but a temporary edifice raised for the occasion1 and made of bamboos with an attap roof4 ,in the centre of that large bungalow was erected a kind of estrade1 about twelve feet high1 well decorated4 ,the upper part is often gilt1 but always plated with thin metal leaves and tinsels of various colours4 ,from the sides hang rough drawings1 representing animals1 monsters of various kinds1 religious subjects1 and others1 but rarely of great indecency4 ,around this estrade are disposed posts1 from the top of which are suspended small flags and streamers of different forms and shapes4 ,on the summit is arranged a place for the coffin1 but the four sides at that place are about two or three feet higher than the level whereupon rests the coffin1 so that it is concealed entirely from the sight of the visitors4 ,things remained in that state for four months1 that is to say1 until all the arrangements had been made for the grand ceremony1 the expense of which is commonly defrayed by voluntary contributions4 ,the arrangements being all complete1 a day was appointed at the sound of gongs1 for burning the corpse of the pious recluse4 ,at noon of that day1 the whole population of the town flocked to a vast and extensive plain beyond the old wall and ditch in the north4 ,men and women1 dressed in their finest attire1 swarmed in every direction1 selecting the most suitable and convenient situations for enjoying a commanding view of the fte4 ,the funeral pile occupied nearly the centre of the plain2 it was about fifteen feet high1 of a square shape1 encased with planks1 which gave to it a neat appearance4 ,it was large at the base1 and went on diminishing in size in the upper part1 terminating in a square platform where the coffin was to be deposited4 ,a small roof1 supported on four bamboo posts1 elegantly adorned1 overshaded the platform4 ,a huge four-wheeled cart1 decorated in the most fantastic manner1 was descried at a distance2 it was drawn by a great number of men1 and brought to the foot of the pile4 ,upon it was the coffin4 ,immense cheers1 shouts of thousands1 had announced the progress of the cart with its precious relics1 as it passed through the crowd4 ,the coffin was forthwith hoisted on the platform4 ,mats were then spread round the pile1 whereupon sat numbers of ,talapoins1 reciting aloud long formulas in ,pali4 ,the devotions being performed1 they rose up and prepared to depart1 attended with a retinue of their disciples1 who loaded themselves with the offerings made on the occasion4 ,these offerings consisted of plantains1 cocoa-nuts1 sugar-canes1 rice1 pillows1 mats1 mattresses1 c4 ,masters and disciples returned to their monasteries with their valuable collections4 ,the place being cleared1 the eyes were all riveted on two large rockets1 placed horizontally1 each between two ropes1 to which they were connected by two side rings4 ,one of the ends of the ropes was strongly fixed at posts behind the rockets1 and the other was made as tight as possible at the foot of the pile4 ,at a given signal1 the rockets1 emitting smoke1 rushed forward with a loud1 hissing1 and irregular noise1 tremulously gliding along the ropes1 and in an instant penetrating into the interior of the pile1 and setting fire to a heap of inflammable materials1 amassed beforehand for that purpose4 ,in a short while the whole pile was in a blaze1 and soon entirely consumed with the coffin and the corpse4 ,the bones or half-burnt bits of bones that remained1 were carefully collected1 to be subsequently interred in a becoming place4 #be ,in the course of this work1 allusion is often made to pounhas who appear to have led a mode of life not altogether the same1 but varying considerably according to circumstances4 ,all the pounhas were doubtless religious1 who practised certain duties not regarded as obligatory by ordinary people1 and lived under certain regulations1 which separated them more or less from society1 and distinguished them from those who followed the ordinary pursuits of life4 ,the difference among them originated in a sort of religious enthusiasm1 which impelled many to perform penitential deeds of the most cruel and sometimes revolting nature4 ,some of the pounhas are described as living in villages or towns1 and wearing a white dress4 ,in many of their practices they appear to have approximated to the ,buddhist monks1 except that in many instances they married4 ,others are mentioned as living in a state of complete nakedness1 staying in the midst of filth and dirt4 ,it seems that those whom ,alexander the ,great met in some parts of the ,punjaub1 belonged to this class4 ,many of these disgusting fanatics delivered themselves up to cruel tortures1 much in the same way as we see some fakhirs and jogies do even in our days1 and under our eyes4 ,a third class of pounhas affected to live in lonely places1 on high mountains1 in small huts made of branches of trees1 and sometimes at the foot of trees1 exposed to the inclemency of the weather4 ,they were hermits4 ,they clothed themselves in the skins of wild beasts1 allowed the hairs of the head to grow to the greatest length1 divided them into several parts which they twisted separately like a rope1 so that1 when looking at them1 one would have thought that instead of hairs1 several small ropes were hanging down on the back and the shoulders1 giving to them the wildest and most fantastic appearance4 ,some of those hermits1 famous for their science1 attracted round their persons many pupils eager to acquire science and discipline under them4 ,such were the three ,kathabas1 whom ,gaudama converted during the first year of his public life4 ,others travelled through the country1 exhibiting themselves in the capacity of preachers and mendicants4 #bf ,the virtuous and zealous ,kathaba was at once convinced of the absolute necessity of soon holding a meeting of the wisest members of the assembly1 for the purpose of ascertaining1 and authoritatively determining1 the genuineness of ,buddha's doctrines4 ,human passions were already at work1 deforming more or less in various ways the instructions of the great preacher4 ,many1 laying more stress on their talents than on the authority of their departed instructor1 began to entertain on certain questions views and opinions evidently at variance with those of ,buddha4 ,the enemies of truth were numerous even during his lifetime1 when as yet overawed by his presence and matchless wisdom4 ,kathaba sagaciously foresees that their number and boldness would soon increase to a fearful extent and threaten the very existence of religion4 ,he was roused to exertions by such considerations1 and on that very moment he resolved to assemble the elders of the assembly1 as soon as convenient after ,buddha's funeral4 ,he was1 it appears1 acknowledged by common consent the first of the disciples4 ,he was entitled to that distinction by the renown of his abilities before his conversion1 and by his great proficiency under ,buddha's teachings subsequently to that event4 ,but a circumstance related by ,kathaba clearly indicates the intimate familiarity existing between the master and the disciple1 and the unbounded confidence the former placed in the latter4 ,during a walk1 the two friends1 if such an expression be allowed1 had entered into a more than usual intimate communion of thoughts and feelings2 the soul of the one had passed into the person of the other1 or rather both souls were blended together1 and united so as to become one in the bosom of a virtuous1 high1 refined1 sublime1 and philosophic friendship4 ,they made an exchange of their cloaks4 ,kathaba1 by putting on ,buddha's cloak1 inherited as it were his spirit and his authority4 ,hence his legitimate right to be appointed president or head of the first council1 assembled a little while after ,gaudama's ,neibban4 ,our author maintains that the first council was held three months after ,gaudama's demise4 ,this important step was taken at ,radzagio1 the capital of the kingdom of ,king ,adzatathat1 who doubtless made use of his royal power to secure tranquillity during the deliberations of this assembly1 under the presidency of ,kathaba4 ,the number of religious that formed the council is reckoned at five hundred4 ,its object was1 as mentioned by ,kathaba himself1 to silence the voice of many who wished to innovate in religious matters1 and follow their own views1 instead of the doctrines of ,buddha4 ,they wished to shake off the yoke of authority1 and arrange all things in their own way4 ,the second general assembly of the ,buddhist religious was held one hundred years later at ,wethalie1 in the tenth year of the reign of ,king ,kalathoka1 under the presidency of ,ratha1 who was assisted by seven hundred religious4 ,the object of this assembly was to regulate several matters of discipline4 ,it is probable that a spirit of innovation had reappeared and begun to undermine the strictness of the disciplinary institutions1 threatening to weaken the ties that kept together the members of the religious body1 and deprive it of that halo of sacredness that had hitherto rendered it an object of so profound and general esteem1 respect and veneration4 ,the council1 moreover1 revised the canon of sacred books1 and purified it from all the imperfections and spurious writings that had been embodied in it4 ,two hundred and eighteen years after ,gaudama's death1 ,king ,damathoka or ,athoka ascended the throne of ,palibotra1 which was the capital of a vast and powerful empire4 ,it was in the seventeenth year of that monarch's reign that the third and last general assembly was held at ,palibotra1 under the presidency of ,maugalipata4 ,the last and final revision of the sacred scriptures was made with the greatest care and labour4 ,the pious ,athoka lent to the decisions of the assembly the influence of the secular power4 ,the ,pittagat1 or the collection of the religious books1 such as it now exists1 is supposed to be the work of that council4 ,in the two following chapters1 the subject of the councils shall receive the attention it deserves4 ,there is a most important fact to be noticed here1 which must be considered as a most remarkable result of the third assembly4 ,it forms the grandest era in the history of ,buddhism1 and it is carefully noted down by our ,burmese author4 ,i mean the extraordinary zeal and fervour which seemed at that time to have simultaneously and powerfully acted for the bringing about of this mighty but peaceful religious commotion1 that was to be felt1 not only in the ,indian ,peninsula1 but far beyond the valley of ,cashmere1 the country of ,guzerat in the west and north-west1 beyond the snowy ranges of the ,himalaya in the north1 and the territories and kingdoms in an eastern direction4 ,king ,athoka was then at the height of his power4 ,his religious zeal induced him to make use of all the vast resources at his command to favour the development of the comparatively new religion4 ,during the holding of the council1 the religious tempered1 as it were1 their zeal1 fervour1 devotion1 and ardour for their religious creed1 in the middle of their conferences4 ,they resolved to propagate with unremitting zeal the tenets of the holy religion1 and extend it all over the world4 ,the spirit of ,gaudama seemed to have been infused into the soul of every individual religious4 ,his ardent fervour glowed in the soul of all1 who from that period had but one desire1 that of extending the boundaries of their spiritual empire4 ,this is certainly one of those extraordinary epochs1 when the indolent and apathetic mind of the ,hindus1 after centuries of a profound slumbering1 seems on a sudden to awake1 and1 with an unexpected vigour and youthful energy1 bursting forth as a terrific hurricane1 brings about the most astounding revolutions1 or commotions1 that sweep away with irresistible power the old political and religious forms1 to establish new ones on the ruins of the former4 ,the religious zeal that seized on the ,buddhists of those days1 and impelled them with an unheard-of resolution to disseminate their doctrines1 coupled with the astonishing success that attended their preachings1 forms one of the most prominent periods in the religious history of the world4 #bg ,it is not easy to determine with precision in what year occurred the conversion of ,king ,adzatathat to ,buddhism4 ,though his father ,pimpathara was a zealous ,buddhist from the very beginning of the preaching of ,gaudama1 his son seems to have kept aloof from the religious movement that took place in the royal city of ,radzagio1 within the precincts of the royal palace1 and continued to adhere to the tenets of the ancient creed4 ,his faith1 however1 in the hitherto national religion1 that is to say1 ,brahminism1 does not appear to have been deeply seated in his soul4 ,he was a shrewd1 ambitious1 and crafty politician2 and from what we know of the beginning of his reign1 his political principles were of the most elastic nature4 ,even after his conversion to ,buddhism1 he does not appear to have scrupled in the least to resort to the most questionable means for satisfying his ambition4 ,the disputes between the upholders of the contending systems had1 as is often the case1 shaken his former convictions without imparting new ones4 ,perhaps he remained in that ambiguous position for a political object4 ,he was glad to place himself at the head of the malcontents1 who1 on account of the king's religious innovations1 must have been numerous4 ,be that as it may1 we see the ,crown ,prince of ,radzagio receiving with open arms ,dewadat1 the enemy of ,buddha1 espousing his party1 and looking upon him as his spiritual adviser4 ,this occurred about ten or twelve years before ,buddha's death4 ,with the advice of his new friend1 he compassed and effected the destruction of his father three or four years afterwards1 and became king in the seventh year before ,phra's ,neibban4 ,his conversion probably took place after the death of ,dewadat1 four or five years subsequent to that event2 but it appears to have been sincere and earnest4 ,his love for ,buddha's person was so intense that it atoned fully for the harm which1 under his name and protection1 ,dewadat had endeavoured to inflict on his great relative4 ,adzatathat reigned thirty-two years1 that is to say1 twenty-five years after ,gaudama's death4 ,under his reign1 the first council was held with his consent1 and a promise to make the decisions of the assembly be received with respect and strictly attended to4 ,this is the first direct interference of the secular power in matters of a purely ecclesiastical nature4 ,adzatathat was1 however1 too prudent in his policy to persecute directly the holders of anti-,buddhistic opinions1 who as yet formed the great mass of the people4 ,he zealously supported the new creed he had adopted1 but he left full liberty to the followers of the pounhas4 ,by the advice of ,kathaba1 ,adzatathat fixed the beginning of the religious era in the year of ,buddha's demise4 ,it is the one which is followed by all the southern ,buddhists4 ,it was not the necessity of correcting certain errors in the calendar which induced the king to adopt that measure1 since a correction had been made a hundred and forty-eight years ago by ,king ,eetzana with the assistance of a celebrated hermit4 ,a religious motive alone induced the king to obtemper the solicitations of ,kathaba on this subject1 and lay1 as the point of departure for the reckoning of years1 the great event of the death of the founder of religion4 ,the two names of ,pimpathara and of his son ,adzatathat are indissolubly connected with the origin of ,buddhism and its spread through the ,magatha country4 ,to the first1 ,gaudama owed much for the extraordinary success that attended his preachings and the conversion of remarkable personages4 ,in a country like ,india1 the example of the king must have exerted an extraordinary influence over the courtiers and the wealthy and powerful persons4 ,the second rendered no less important services to the cause of religion1 by supporting openly the great ,kathaba1 the patriarch of ,buddhism1 and countenancing the decisions of the first council1 which secured unity among the members of the assembly at the very time that evil-minded individuals endeavoured to sow the seeds of dissension among the religious1 and upset the fabric which ,buddha's genius and zeal had just set up4 ,under the reign of those two sovereigns religion gained a firm footing in ,magatha1 and secured for itself an ascendancy which it retained with various successes for many centuries4 #bh ,we are without any direct information concerning the history of ,buddhism during the twenty years that elapsed after ,gaudama's death4 ,but we have allusions made in several places which clearly indicate that the new religion had to struggle with many difficulties before it could gain a firm footing in the places lying north of the ,ganges4 ,though they had been the seat of ,buddha's preachings1 though the people had been intimately acquainted with all his doings1 it appears that the pounhas contrived to thwart to a great extent the results of his labours4 ,at ,kootheinaron1 on the very spot rendered illustrious by his death1 we have seen an individual rejoicing at ,buddha's demise1 because he would be now at liberty to act according to his wishes4 ,he was not a solitary instance of open insubordination1 since ,kathaba felt that it was necessary1 in order to check the growing evil1 to assemble a council three months after the death of ,gaudama4 ,this step does not appear to have produced all the good effects that were anticipated4 ,the patriarch of the ,buddhistic ,church is represented to us as trembling for the safety of the relics4 ,what could have caused this great anxiety8 ,doubtless there was a strong party1 either within or without the assembly1 which was inimical to the worship paid to the remains of ,buddha1 and aimed at procuring their total destruction4 ,in the relation of ,hwen-,thsang the writer has met with a passage in which mention is made of a period of time when the pure doctrine alone was held1 and of a subsequent period when the worship of relics would be prevailing4 ,it is not improbable that in this passage allusion is made to the time when the relics were buried secretly1 by the care of ,kathaba1 in the neighbourhood of ,radzagio1 and remained concealed during two hundred years4 ,the conduct of ,kathaba in securing the safety of the relics reveals an important fact1 viz41 that there existed from the earliest days of ,buddhism a great antipathy1 in a fraction of the community1 against keeping and venerating ,buddha's remains4 ,it created a schism among the disciples which was never healed up1 as the sequel will show4 #bi ,in the previous note on ,neibban1 the writer1 having forgotten to mention the application which the ,burmese make of this term to three distinct objects1 supplies here the omission1 in the hope that what follows may enable the reader to come nearer to the true ,buddhistic meaning of ,neibban4 ,there are1 say the ,buddhist doctors1 three kinds of ,neibban respecting the person of ,gaudama--the ,neibban of ,kiletha1 or passions2 the ,neibban of ,khandas1 or supports of the existence of a living being2 and the ,neibban of ,datou1 or of the relics4 ,the first took place at the foot of the gniaong or bodi-tree1 when ,gaudama became ,buddha4 ,then1 to make use of the language of ,buddhists at that moment1 the fifteen hundred passions--that is to say1 all passions--were quieted1 extinguished1 and for ever put an end to4 ,the second kind of ,neibban happened near the town of ,kootheinaron1 when the five ,khandas1 or the constitutive parts of ,gaudama's being1 were quieted1 that is to say1 ceased to act1 and were absolutely destroyed4 ,the third kind will take place at the end of the period of five thousand years1 reckoning from the death of ,gaudama4 ,this is the period which he has assigned to the duration of his religion4 ,then all the relics of ,buddha that will be still existing will be miraculously congregated on the spot where stood the tree ,bodi4 ,after having been the centre of the display of several extraordinary wonders1 they will be consumed by a fire that is to come out of them4 ,they will disappear and vanish for ever1 as the flame that has consumed them4 ,the idea suggested to us by the application of the word ,neibban to these three objects is that of a cessation of action1 cessation of existence1 and cessation of being4 ,indeed1 it is impossible not to see in the meaning of this word the horrifying idea of absolute annihilation4 ,the writer frankly avows that he has been1 during many years1 unwilling to adopt a conclusion which the obvious meaning of the words point out in a clear manner4 ,he hoped that a deeper insight into the system of ,buddhism would lead him to a conclusion more consonant with reason4 ,but he has been completely disappointed in his expectations4 ,by what process of arguing has the founder of ,buddhism arrived to such a despairing terminus8 ,how has he been led into that horrible abyss8 ,how has he contrived to silence the voice of conscience1 and set aside the clearest innate notions of the human mind8 ,gaudama took his departure from a true principle1 viz43 that there are miseries in this world1 attending the condition of all beings moving within the circle of existences4 ,but ignorant of the real cause that has imported miseries into this world1 he never could discover the way by which man can convert them to a useful and beneficial result4 ,he declared that all the efforts of a wise man ought to converge towards one point1 that of freeing himself from all the states of existence4 ,the four meggas or ways to perfection lead to that great result4 ,by science1 connected with the practice of virtue1 the wise man frees himself from all passions1 which are the real causes which make a being move in the circle of existences4 ,when they are not subdued but exterminated1 there is no longer a cause that impels man into another existence4 ,the end of a being has come4 ,when we speak of the end of a being1 we understand its complete and entire destruction1 or1 in other terms1 its ,neibban4 ,nothing remains of him4 ,the materialistic principles of genuine ,buddhism forbid us to think of a soul or spiritual substance surviving the destruction of the terrestrial portion of man's being4 ,when ,gaudama unfolds his precepts and maxims for guiding man in the acquisition of science and the destruction of his passions1 he elicits the admiration1 nay1 the astonishment of the reader1 at the sight of the profound knowledge of human nature which he displays4 ,but this feeling soon gives place to another of pity1 sadness1 and horror1 when one sees that he has been led to the brink of ,neibban4 #cj ,kathaba speaks of the ,pitagat or collection of the scriptures as of a compilation that was to be put in writing for better securing its fixity and permanency1 and preventing1 as far as human wisdom could reach1 the introduction of new and heterodox doctrines4 ,i feel inclined to believe that this expression is put into the mouth of the patriarch1 and that in all likelihood he never uttered it4 ,it is probable that1 during the first ages of ,buddhism1 the doctrines were not put in writing1 but orally transmitted4 ,for supporting this apparently incredible assertion1 we have the testimony of the authors of the ,cingalese collection1 who distinctly state that1 during more than two hundred years after the introduction of the religion in ,ceylon1 tradition was the only vehicle for transmitting the contents of the ,pitagat4 ,moreover1 it is by no means certain that the inhabitants of the ,irrawaddy valley possessed a copy of the sacred scriptures previous to the voyage of ,buddhagosa from ,thaton to ,ceylon in the beginning of the fifth century of our era4 ,he went to that island for the express purpose of making a copy of the ,pitagat1 and bringing it over to his countrymen4 ,be that as it may1 the question on this subject is far from being settled4 ,it well deserves the attention of the learned4 ,a satisfactory solution may throw a much wanted light upon the history of early ,buddhism4 ,when we consider that ,maheinda1 the son of the mighty and pious ,athoka1 was the head of the mission1 which1 after the termination of the third council1 went to preach religion in ,ceylon1 it is impossible not to suppose that he would have brought over with him a copy of the collection of the sacred scriptures1 had that collection been put in writing at the time that he left ,pataliputra on his pious errand4 #ca ,the collection of the ,buddhist scriptures is divided into three parts1 called the three ,pitagats1 or the three baskets1 respectively named the ,wini ,pitagat1 the ,thoots ,pitagat1 and the ,abidama ,pitagat4 ,the manuscript that the writer has had for his use1 though correct in the main1 is certainly defective in the enumeration of the divisions and subdivisions of the three great collections4 ,he will1 however1 mention them1 such as they are enumerated by the ,burmese author2 the few errors that may be detected can easily be corrected by those who have in their possession the ,ceylonese collection1 as there is no doubt that the work now under consideration is an abridgment of a more voluminous compilation to be found in ,ceylon4 ,the divisions of the ,wini are3 ,bikoo ,patimouk1 ,bikoonee ,patimouk1 ,bikoo ,witin 7probably ,bikoo ,win71 ,bikooni ,win1 twelve ,kandaka1 and sixteen ,pariwara4 ,the thoots are considered as the instructions orally delivered by ,gaudama himself1 either to his disciples in private1 or to the assembled multitudes1 during the forty-five years of his public mission4 ,in this collection the disciples have learned the doctrines of the master1 and found all the elements necessary to compose all the treaties1 which subsequently have formed the collections called ,wini ,pitagat and ,abidama ,pitagat4 ,no one could ever believe that the author of ,buddhism could have busied himself in writing treatises on metaphysics1 or minutely and elaborately publishing the regulations under which the body of his followers1 called the ,sanga1 were to live and spend their time4 ,in his instructions ,gaudama gave utterance to certain principles1 which1 being appropriated by his disciples and their successors1 were enlarged1 developed1 and reduced to the shape of a treatise4 ,in fact1 he sowed the seed which1 being let into the soil of the mind of enthusiastic disciples1 grew up and multiplied into the voluminous above-named collections4 ,genuine ,buddhism must be found in the thoots of the oldest stamp4 ,anywhere else we meet with the ,buddhism such as it has been developed by doctors and commentators4 ,there are four collections of the thoots1 named ,nidia ,nike1 ,midzima ,nike1 ,thangoutta ,nike1 and ,engouttara ,nike4 ,they are likewise arranged under fifteen heads1 called3 ,koudakapata1 ,dammapata1 ,oodana1 ,ithi1 ,wouthaka1 ,thouttanibat1 ,wi1 ,mama-wouttoo1 ,pita-wouttoo1 ,terakatta1 ,terikatta1 ,dzattakani1 ,piti-sambika1 ,apadana1 ,buddha-wattoo4 ,the ,abidamma has seven divisions1 viz41 ,dammathingakani1 ,wittin1 ,datoogatta1 ,pouggala-pignia1 ,kathawattoo1 ,yamaik1 ,patan4 ,the attentive reader cannot be but surprised to see how the three great divisions of the ,buddhistic scriptures are mentioned by the members of the first council as things already existing and arranged with the same method as they have been disposed during succeeding ages4 ,it is certain that such divisions of ,gaudama's doctrines did not then exist at that time4 ,are we to conclude therefrom that the fact of the holding of the first council is to be rejected as a mere invention1 because the mode of relating some particulars concerning that great assembly is liable to be seriously objected to8 ,it seems that such a conclusion would be a too hasty one4 ,for establishing the fact of the holding of the first council1 we have the evidence supplied to us by all the ,buddhistic writings1 found in the various countries where that religion has been established4 ,moreover1 several monuments of great antiquity allude to that first assembly4 ,we can scarcely raise a doubt upon the existence of the fact4 ,but how are we to account for the manner in which mention is made of compilations which undoubtedly were not existing at that time8 ,the redaction of all the particulars connected with the first assembly must have been made a considerable time after the holding of the said assembly1 at an epoch when the ,buddhistic scriptures had already been arranged under three distinct heads4 ,the author1 familiar with the division or compilation into three parts1 called ,pitagats1 has arranged his narration in such a way as to give it a sort of agreement with a form which he thought must have been as familiar to others as it was to himself4 ,it is probable that most of the points of discussion1 such as we find them in the narrative1 were actually brought forward before the assembly1 but in a shape more simple and general1 and less technical and positive4 ,this is what can be said in the present imperfect knowledge of the history of ,buddhism1 for extenuating the charge of wilful forgery1 which might be brought against the author of the redaction4 ,on the other hand1 whilst prudent discretion commands us not to be too hasty in passing a sweeping condemnation upon the compilation1 we must be very cautious in not admitting at once1 and not giving an absolute credit to all that is found in writings which do convey to us many things of great antiquity1 but evidently mixed with multifarious details of a comparatively modern origin4 ,this last remark ought to be ever present to the mind of him who peruses some portions of the ,pitagats4 ,the huge mass of rubbish which constitutes the largest portion of the scriptures is the production of the various ,buddhistic schools which flourished eight and ten centuries after the first council4 #cb ,the few and meagre particulars which we possess respecting the causes that have occasioned the holding of the second council1 disclose a curious state of things as existing in the ,buddhist community4 ,the disciplinary regulations appear to have occupied a conspicuous part in the discussions that took place during the period of the first century4 ,some of those regulations were of trifling importance4 ,we wonder how the religious could lay so much stress upon such a trifle as this1 8,is is lawful to put salt or other condiments into articles of food1 that would have been offered without such requisites80 ,the activity displayed by both parties in the controversy indicates the gradual working of opinions which in those parts had been always inimical to genuine ,buddhism4 ,in ,wethalie and ,thawattie1 the holders of false tenets had been at all times bold and numerous4 ,in the days of ,buddha1 heretics were swarming in those places4 ,in the beginning of the fifth century of our era1 ,fa-hian1 when he visited those places1 says that he found that religion had almost disappeared1 and that heretics were prevailing in every direction4 ,we must conclude from these two circumstances that ,buddhism never flourished in those places1 or1 at least1 that it was never the prevailing creed of the mass of the people4 ,the disputes that took place in those days were not looked upon as of serious moment1 since we see several religious of eminence supporting the anti-orthodox party4 ,king ,kalathoka himself was in favor of those whose opinions were condemned by the council4 ,we may also infer from this sate of things1 that the disciplinary regulations were far from being settled at that time4 ,it required the experience of succeeding generations to determine exactly what was best fitted for promoting the well-being of the religious body1 and causing its members to live agreeably to the spirit which ,gaudama desired to infuse into the souls of his followers4 ,it cannot therefore be a matter of surprise to see the assembly striving1 in the midst of discussions1 to elaborate the framing of the rules destined to guide the religious in the details of their daily duties4 ,under such circumstances there could not but be a great variety of opinions1 supported with that heat and ardour so peculiar to individuals who live estranged from the world4 ,moreover1 the conflicting opinions were maintained by the various schools1 which1 from the early period of the existence of ,buddhism1 sprung up and divided the members of the religious body4 ,circumstantial details respecting the various schools we allude to1 would prove of the greatest advantage for elucidating the state of the great religious system under consideration1 for enabling us to enter into the history of its internal development1 and witnessing the various incidents that have marked its progress through ages1 down to the period when it gradually lost its footing in the ,indian ,peninsula4 ,the eighteen different schools which have obtained celebrity throughout the ,buddhist world are mentioned in the ,cingalese collection1 and in that of all the northern ,buddhists1 including the ,chinese4 ,in the manuscript which the writer possesses nothing is mentioned respecting these schools but their respective names4 ,had the chief opinions held out by each school been given out1 they would have been expounded here at great length and with a scrupulous correctness4 ,such not being the case1 the author has thought that it was useless to the reader to lay before him a dry and uninteresting array of names4 #cc ,it has been thought of some importance to mention in a particular note all the principal epochs named in the course of this work1 and to show how they stand relatively to the ,christian era4 ,as a matter of course1 the starting-point for the reckoning and computing of years is the epoch of ,gaudama's death1 which is fixed by the southern ,buddhists in the year #edc ,b4,c4 ,the exactness of this epoch has been contested by ,a4 ,cunningham1 one of the greatest authorities in such matters4 ,in his opinion1 the epoch of ,gaudama's ,neibban ought to be placed seventy years later4 ,but as his views on this subject have not as yet been universally received by the learned in ,europe1 we will remain satisfied with the hitherto generally accepted data4 ,the first era is that of ,king ,eetzana1 the grandfather of ,gaudama by his mother's side4 ,it was made by the help and under the guidance of a famous hermit1 named ,deweela1 who is mentioned as highly versed in the science of astronomy1 such as it existed in those days4 ,the king's object was to correct the glaring errors that had crept into the calendar4 ,it is said that he did away with the era #hfdj on a ,saturday1 on the day of the new moon of ,tabaong 7,march71 and fixed the beginning of the new era on the following day1 that is to say1 on a ,sunday1 the first day after the new moon of the same month4 ,this happened in the year #fia ,b4,c4 ,this new reckoning of years lasted only a hundred and forty-eight years1 the epoch of ,gaudama's ,neibban1 #edc ,b4,c4 ,the second era1 the most celebrated of all1 is the religious one4 ,king ,adzatathat and the venerable ,kathaba1 actuated by the desire of rendering ever memorable the death of the founder of their religion1 and paying to him a homage that would be re-echoed by succeeding generations1 came to the resolution of doing away with the ,eetzana computation1 and fixed a new reckoning of years1 from the annual revolution which witnessed that event1 which1 in the opinion of ,buddhists1 is the greatest of all4 ,in the year #adh1 the first day of the month of ,tagoo 7,april71 which fell on a ,sunday1 was fixed as the beginning of the new computation1 emphatically called the era of religion1 #edc ,b4,c4 ,it is adopted by all the southern ,buddhists4 ,in addition to this general era1 ,buddhist nation has had1 for one reason or for another1 particular periods1 from which they have reckoned time and computed years4 ,it is probable that the reform in the calendar1 necessitated by the errors introduced into it owing to incorrect computations1 have given rise to several eras1 which are generally known by the name of the kings under whose reign they have taken place1 and by whose authority they have been introduced and brought into common use4 ,the ,burmans have the era called ,dandoratha4 ,it was introduced by ,thamugdara1 or1 as spelt by others1 ,thamugdaritz1 king of ,prome1 in the year of religion #fbe to #ha ,a4,d4 ,that monarch is represented as well informed and skilled in the knowledge of the astronomical calculations4 ,the months were no longer in unison with the seasons4 ,what did the royal reformer of the calendar do to remedy the evil8 ,no other particular is mentioned in the manuscript which the writer has in his possession1 except that the king did away with #fbb1 and began the reformed computation with two1 so that its beginning must be made to agree with the year #gi ,a4,d4 ,that era lasted only #efb years4 ,the reformer on this occasion was ,pouppa-dzau1 king of ,pagan1 who is represented to us as well versed in the science of astronomical computations4 ,this monarch imitated in this reform the conduct of the king of ,prome4 ,he did away with #efj years1 and had his new era to begin with two4 ,this happened in the year of religion #aahb to #fci ,a4,d4 ,this is the common era used by the ,burmese up to this day1 and is known as the ,pagan or ,pouppa-dzau era4 ,we find also mentioned occasionally the ,thaton era4 ,it is made to begin with the year of the arrival of the two ,buddhist missionaries1 ,thauna and ,outtara1 in the great place of ,thaton1 in the year of religion #bcg to #cjf ,b4,c4 ,thirimathoka was1 at that time1 king of that country4 ,that period of years has lasted #acfb years4 ,it ended in the year of religion #aeii #aaef ,a4,d41 when the king of ,pagan1 ,naurata-dzau1 invaded the country1 possessed himself of ,thaton1 and carried away captive the last king1 ,mein-hnit4 ,it is perhaps as well to mention here an epoch which has been1 at all times1 famous in the history of ,buddhism in ,burmah4 ,i allude to the voyage which a religious of ,thaton1 named ,buddhagosa1 made to ,ceylon in the year of religion #idc to #djj ,a4,d4 ,the object of this voyage was to procure a copy of the scriptures4 ,he succeeded in his undertaking4 ,he made use of the ,burmese or rather ,talaing characters1 in transcribing the manuscripts1 which were written with the characters of ,magatha4 ,the ,burmans lay much stress upon that voyage1 and always carefully note down the year in which it took place4 ,in fact1 it is to ,buddhagosa that the people living on the shores of the ,gulf of ,martaban owe the possession of the ,buddhist scriptures4 ,from ,thaton1 the collection made by ,buddhagosa was transferred to ,pagan1 #fef years after it had been imported from ,ceylon4 ,without the knowledge of those various epochs1 it is difficult to understand with anything approaching to clearness and exactness the dates that we find alluded to and mentioned in the ,burmese literary compositions4 ,the foregoing particulars appear to be sufficient for all practical purposes4 #cd ,from this passage we see that1 in those days of remote antiquity1 there existed in the ,indian ,peninsula individuals who1 led away by a fanaticism still existing in our own days1 devoted themselves to rigorous and extravagant penances1 often in a state of complete nakedness4 ,in the days of ,alexander the ,great1 the same fanatics were met with in the ,punjaub4 ,such ridiculous and unnatural exhibitions1 far from being approved of and countenanced by the founder of ,buddhism1 were positively prohibited4 ,though he aimed at subduing passions1 and elevating the spiritual principle above the material one1 he recommended in the spiritual warfare a line of conduct more consonant with reason1 and supplied his disciples with weapons of a far better quality and a superior description4 #ce ,it is much to be regretted that no details concerning that third assembly of the ,buddhists in ,pataliputra could be found by the writer in the manuscript he has in his possession4 ,the cause that occasioned the holding of the council was the desire to establish a perfect unity in the practices of discipline among the religious1 and to come to an agreement on the subject of the genuineness of the scriptures4 ,during the period of #bcf years that elapsed from the death of ,gaudama1 ,buddhism seems to have remained confined within the limits of ,magatha1 that is to say1 north and south ,behar4 ,its hold over the mind of the people within those limits appears to have been very imperfect and uncertain1 particularly in the parts north of the ,ganges4 ,it is from the reign of ,king ,athoka that the propagation of ,buddhism in every direction dates4 ,the uninterrupted successes which attended his arms enabled him to afford a powerful support to the propagators of the new religion in the remotest parts which they visited4 ,but we have no reason to suspect that he had recourse to violence in order to gain proselytes4 ,no doubt he protected them1 and supplied all their wants on a liberal scale4 ,he does not appear to have extended farther the effects of the countenance he lent to the heralds of the new religion4 ,he built monasteries and dzedis throughout the length and breadth of his immense dominions2 he erected stone pillars1 which he covered with inscriptions commemorative of his piety and zeal1 a few of which exist up to this day4 ,athoka may be looked upon as a monarch who did more for the propagation of ,buddhism in foreign parts than any of those who preceded him or came after him4 ,the establishment of ,buddhism in ,ceylon is mentioned at great length in the writer's manuscript1 but he has thought it unnecessary to relate all that he has found on this subject1 as being foreign to the purpose he has had in view in the publication of this book4 ,in a foregoing note it has been stated how extraordinary is the fact that during more than two hundred years ,buddhism was propagated in ,ceylon solely by means of oral tradition without writing4 ,the ,cingalese authors are so unanimous on this point that it cannot be doubted4 ,but in the ,burmese manuscript we have found stated1 in unmistakable expressions1 that the religious who assembled in the village of ,malliya wrote the ,pitagat in ,sanscrit1 and with the ,sanscrit characters4 ,the word made use of is ,sanskarain1 which surely is designed to mean ,sanscrit4 ,how can this be reconciled with the undoubted fact that all the southern ,buddhists have the scriptures in ,pali and not in ,sanscrit1 whilst the northern nations that have embraced ,buddhism possess the scriptures in ,sanscrit8 ,until we can obtain further information on the subject1 ,i have no hesitation in stating that the ,burmans1 ignorant of the existence of the two distinct languages--the ,pali and the ,sanscrit--are very apt to mistake the one for the other1 and that in their opinion what they call the language of ,magatha1 ,pali1 and ,sanscrit are but one and the same language1 to which different names have been given by ancient authors4 ,as the translator of a manuscript1 the writer was bound to render into ,english what he has found written in ,burmese4 ,this is the reason why he has1 against his intimate conviction1 made use of the word ,sanscrit1 applied to the first compilation of scriptures made in ,ceylon under the reign of ,king ,watakamani4 #cf ,the island of ,ceylon was called1 says the ,burmese author1 in former times1 by different names--,audzadipa1 ,waradipa1 ,mautadipa1 ,singgadipa1 ,sihala1 and ,tappapani4 ,there is no doubt but the last name was corrupted by the ,greeks into ,tapobrane4 #cg ,the ,burmans have1 from the time of their conversion to ,buddhism1 or at least from the period they became familiar with the scriptures1 had the mania of giving ,pali names to countries1 large towns1 and new places that were settled by the authority of the rulers1 in addition to the ordinary and common names4 ,what has been the result of such a measure8 ,the people have continued to designate such places by the vulgar names1 whilst in most of the public documents and in the court they have always used the scientific and uncommon names4 ,hence has arisen a confusion in the minds of the people to such an extent that in many instances they believe that two names given to the same place indicate two distinct towns and localities4 ,the position of ,thaton is well known1 and is between the mouths of the ,salween and the ,tsitang rivers4 ,its actual distance from the sea is about eight or nine miles4 ,in the days of ,buddhagosa1 that is to say1 in the beginning of the fifth century of our era1 it was a sea-port4 ,the ,burmese writers invariably call ,thaton1 not by the name of city1 but by that of country4 ,they add the epithet of ,souwana-boumi1 the land of gold4 ,according to the same writers1 ,thaton was situated in the state or kingdom of ,ramagnia4 ,from what is found mentioned about ,ramagnia1 it appears that it comprised three distinct parts or districts2 that of ,kouthein1 which is the present ,pouthein or ,bassein1 including the territory situated between the ,irrawaddy and the mountains of ,arracan2 that of ,henthawati1 between the ,irrawaddy and the ,tsitang river2 and that of ,mouttama1 or ,martaban1 between the ,tsitang and the ,salween4 ,it seems that the kingdom of ,ramagnia extended in the north as far as ,akaouk-taong1 south of ,prome4 ,the limits that are assigned must have undergone considerable changes1 on account of the continual wars that have raged in those parts1 but they are those assigned by several native authors4 ,the people that dwelt in ,ramagnia are called ,moun4 ,they are the ,talaings or ,peguans of modern times4 ,they had attained a considerable degree of civilisation at a time when the ,burmans were in a state of barbarism4 ,the proximity of the sea afforded them opportunities of coming in contact with other nations--the ,hindus in particular1 who appear to have settled at ,thaton in great numbers4 ,the ,rahan ,buddhagosa is said to have belonged to the pounha race1 though he was a fervent ,buddhist4 ,the town which was the capital of the territory called ,henzawati cannot1 we believe1 be the town which is called at present ,pegu1 but another one1 much more ancient1 the ruins of which are still visible close to the eastern side of ,pegu4 ,the language of the ,talaings is totally different from that of the ,burmans1 but the characters for writing are somewhat the same4 ,it is from them that the latter have received their religion1 the scriptures1 and the characters used in writing4 ,since the final conquest of ,pegu by ,alaong-phra in the middle of the last century1 and the extermination of a great number of its inhabitants1 the remaining ,peguans have gradually amalgamated with the ,burmans4 ,with their nationality they have lost also their language to such an extent that it is now spoken only in a few isolated places4 ,it is not unusual to meet with descendants of ,peguans whose aged parents still speak their native language1 whilst they know and speak only ,burmese4 #ch to #djj ,a4,d4 #ci to #ajeh ,a4,d4 #dj to #aafa ,a4,d4 #da ,it is obvious from the testimony of ,burmese writers that they acknowledge the fact that the ,scriptures brought from ,ceylon by ,buddhagosa1 and the institutions flourishing in ,thaton1 found their way to ,pagan in the reign of ,king ,naurata-dzau4 ,they likewise affirm that under the reign of ,narapati-sisoo the religious who came from ,ceylon1 imbued with the spirit of the ,mahawihara school1 set up practices which were little1 if at all1 observed in ,pagan at that time4 ,there was no doubt a great revival of ,buddhism in ,pagan1 from the days of ,king ,naurata-dzau to those of ,narapati-sisoo4 ,most of the great monuments which excite the admiration of the travellers who visit ,pagan were raised during that period4 #db ,it is probable that our ,burmese author makes here a mistake similar to the one alluded to in a foregoing note4 #dc ,when the writer set at work to publish the second edition of this book he had at his disposal a ,burmese palm-leaf manuscript1 in which he found a vast amount of information respecting the history of ,buddha1 which was wanting in the work called ,malla-linkara-wouttoo1 the translation of which has afforded matter for the first edition of the legend of ,gaudama4 ,the work is named ,tathagatha-oudana1 the meaning of which is1 ,praises of him who has come like all his predecessors4 ,this is one of ,buddha's titles of honour4 ,he is sometimes called ,bagawat1 the blessed or benevolent2 ,sugatha1 he who has happily come2 ,dzina1 the conqueror4 ,from what is stated at the end of the work1 it appears that it was composed in the town of ,dibayen1 sometimes called ,tabayin1 lying west of the river ,mu1 at a distance of about fifteen miles4 ,the place is at present in a ruinous condition4 ,though the province continues to bear the name of ,tabayin1 the residence of the governor is in the town of ,ye-ou1 on the right bank of the ,mu4 ,the compiler of the work was a ,phongyie1 who1 according to his own testimony1 finished his task on the thirty-eighth year after he had become a ,patzin1 ninety-three years ago4 ,he was1 therefore1 at least fifty-eight years old1 as he could not become a ,patzin before he had reached his twentieth year4 ,the compilation contains #fcf pages of ten lines each1 is written on palm leaves1 and forms two huge volumes4 ,we may well say that the narration begins at the beginning4 ,the author informs us of the origin1 not of ,gaudama1 since he has obtained the ,buddhaship1 but of the being who was indeed hereafter to become a ,buddha1 but who had to move into the circle of countless existences1 slowly gravitating towards that perfected state in which he was to be fitted for discharging the duties of a deliverer4 ,he presents us with a sketch of the origin of the country of ,kapilawot1 and of the kings from whom ,gaudama's father descended4 ,the above particulars were not to be found in the ,malla-linkara4 ,in all that relates to the birth1 boyhood1 c41 of ,gaudama1 both compilations agree in the main4 ,the variations are few and unimportant4 ,the author of the ,tathagatha-oudana is immensely diffuse when he relates all that took place in ,buddha's mind during the forty-nine days that he spent around the tree ,bodi4 ,besides the important theory of the twelve ,nidanas1 or causes and effects1 he supplies us with a complete exposition of the whole ,buddhistic system of metaphysics1 ontology1 geography1 and cosmography1 the various seats in which all rational beings are placed1 from the lowest hell to the last or the highest of the immaterial seats4 ,all these details are purposely omitted by the compiler of the ,malla-linkara4 ,finally1 the author supplies us with a few particulars respecting ,buddha1 during the twenty first seasons or years of his public life4 ,the story of ,dewadat is presented at great length4 ,but what is more important1 we possess in the compilation of the ,tathagatha-oudana a concise account of the three great assemblies or councils held in ,radzagio1 ,wethalie1 and ,pataliputra1 with the names of the sovereigns who have ruled over ,magatha from ,adzatathat1 under whose reign ,gaudama died1 to ,athoka1 who promoted religion more than any of his predecessors1 and who by his royal influence supported the decisions of the last council4 ,he likewise mentions the names of the religious1 who1 after the third council1 were commissioned to go and preach religion in various countries out of ,magatha4 ,from this last expression we learn that ,buddhism1 until #bcf after ,gaudama's death1 had not extended its influence beyond the boundaries of ,magatha4 ,as a matter of course1 our author dwells more particularly on the two missions that were sent1 the one to ,ceylon and the other to ,thaton4 ,he enables us to follow the development of ,buddhism in ,pegu and ,burmah1 by informing us that ,king ,naurata-dzau of ,pagan1 after the conquest of ,thaton1 took the king prisoner1 seized upon the collection of the scriptures1 and therewith carried to his capital all the best informed of the ,phongyies1 in #ajef ,a4,d4 ,our author brings his narration to the time of the foundation of ,ava1 in #acfe ,a4,d4 ,in imitation of all other compilers1 our author ends his narrative with the following pious wishes4 ,as a fit reward of the good work that ,i have happily brought to a close1 ,i desire to become in some future existence a true ,buddha1 possessing all the science which will enable me to know all beings1 their state and condition1 and all the relations subsisting between them1 and likewise to be gifted with a true compassion for and benevolence towards all beings1 which will prompt me to labour for their deliverance4 ,i desire that during the existences which are to precede the last one1 ,i may continually practise the ten great and principal virtues4 ,may my father1 mother1 relatives1 teachers1 and friends1 have their share in this my good work6 ,though far more comprehensive than that of the author of ,malla-linkara1 the compilation of the ,tathagatha-oudana is very inferior to it as regards the drawing up of the subject and the disposition of its parts4 ,both are made by ,burmans4 ,we do not mean to say that the ,burmans have made works of an original character4 ,the authors have extracted from various parts of the scriptures all the materials they wanted for composing a work which might be considered as the history of the founder of their religion4 #dd ,the ,burmese translator of the ,malla-linkara finishes his work by candidly stating the motives that have induced him to undertake it4 ,he desires to create1 promote1 and propagate1 in the heart of future generations1 religious sentiments1 and feelings of the tenderest affection for the person of ,buddha and his doctrine1 that is to say1 the law and the assembly of the perfect4 ,such are the lofty objects he had in view when he began to write4 ,he was encouraged in his difficult task by purely religious considerations1 viz41 the promotion and triumph of ,buddhism4 ,for securing the attainment of what he considered to be a most desirable end1 he summoned all his abilities with a most praiseworthy energy and perseverance4 ,with a somewhat different object in view1 the ,burmese work has been translated into a ,european language4 ,the translation has been accompanied with notes intended to explain the text1 which would otherwise prove1 in many parts1 almost unintelligible to the generality of readers4 ,the principles of ,buddhism1 such as they are held and professed by ,buddhists in general1 but in particular by those inhabiting ,burmah1 have received a certain degree of attention1 and have been examined as carefully as possible from a ,buddhistic point of view4 ,that great religious system has been considered1 as it is in itself1 without any regard to its intrinsic merits or demerits4 ,the notes are not designed to be an apology or a confutation of ,buddhism1 but an exposition of its doctrines1 such as they are found in the best writings and believed by its votaries4 ,when certain tenets or practices were to be accounted for1 recourse has always been had to the general principles of ,buddhism and to the notions certainly prevailing at various periods in ,buddhist countries4 ,it is needless to add that the notes1 having been hurriedly written in the midst of almost uninterrupted and time-absorbing occupations1 are destitute of pretension either to deep research or scientific merit4 ,in former years1 the writer bestowed a certain amount of time and efforts on the study of ,buddhism in ,burmah1 where it has been for centuries the only religious creed4 ,a portion of the knowledge thus acquired has been embodied in the foregoing notes1 with the intention of compressing within a narrow compass the elementary principles and general notions of ,buddhism1 affording thereby to the readers1 who cannot have access to the voluminous writings of the ,french and ,german ,orientalist savans1 on the great religious system of ,eastern ,asia1 comparatively easy means to obtain some information on a religion1 which1 false as it is1 deserves to be known and understood1 since in point of antiquity it is second to none except to ,brahminism1 and as regards diffusion extends its sway over probably one-fifth of the human race4 #de ,the distinction alluded to by our author is a most important one4 ,what does he mean when he states that all things in this world obey the principle of mutability1 and are liable to perpetual changes and modifications1 and that they have a cause8 ,one would be tempted to believe that the ,buddhists admit of a first cause4 ,but such is not the case4 ,to understand such a language coming from a ,buddhist's mouth1 we must bear in mind the theory of the twelve ,nidanas1 or causes and effects4 ,each of the ,nidanas is an effect relatively to the preceding one1 and a cause to the following one4 ,all existing beings are1 relatively to each other1 effects and causes4 ,all undergo the irresistible influence of mutability and change4 ,the beings that reside in the seats of ,brahma are not beyond the reach of that influence1 not even those who dwell in the four immaterial seats4 ,are there things which are fixedly and everlastingly the same1 upon which no change1 no vicissitude can ever act8 ,there is the law1 there is the state of ,neibban4 ,the law is the expression of truth1 which is reality1 in contradistinction to the unreality of the visible world4 ,the essence of the law is contained in the four sublime truths1 which are emphatically called the ,law of the ,wheel4 ,they are the declaration of the true state and condition of all beings2 they proclaim the necessity of putting an end to such a miserable state of things1 and point out the sure means of freeing oneself from the miseries attending existence4 ,these truths are eternal1 insomuch that what they proclaim has ever been true in all the worlds that have preceded the present one1 since they always resemble each other1 and will ever be equally true during the endless series of worlds that will follow4 ,in this sense the law1 in the opinion of ,buddhists1 being the declaration of truth1 or of what is1 must be eternal1 as truth itself is everlasting4 ,the state of ,neibban1 in contradistinction to that of existence such as we comprehend it1 is likewise a thing which never changes1 since it is the end of changes4 ,it remains always the same2 it is the opposite of existence4 ,what is then called here everlasting1 or eternal1 is1 in the opinion of ,buddhists1 but the things that are conceived as subsisting abstractively per se1 and never affected by the great principle of mutability that pervades all beings4 ,to sum up the whole in a few words1 the science which points out the means of coming out of the whirlpool of existences1 and the being out of that circle1 such are the two things which are always the same1 never undergo any change1 and are eternal4 #df ,in the definition of man which is given by the ,buddhist author1 we find the words intelligence1 capacity for reflecting1 comparing and drawing inferences1 c4 ,he who is not familiar with the revolting materialist doctrines of ,buddhism would be tempted to believe that they admit of a soul or spiritual principle subsisting in man4 ,but such is not the case4 ,the faculty for performing all the functions which we rightly attribute to the soul resides in the sixth sense1 called mano1 or the heart1 or the knowing principle4 ,but this sense1 in their opinion1 is as material as the eye1 the ear1 and the other senses4 ,it is delightful to the ,christian reader to find in the midst of a heap of rubbish and fables a few fragments of the primitive revelation4 ,we see man coming from a noble origin1 appearing in this world with the most glorious privileges1 which he forfeits by eating the rice called ,tsale1 which produced on his being the same destructive effects which the eating of the forbidden fruit caused on our first parents in the garden of ,eden4 #dg ,buddhists lay the greatest stress on the belief in the three precious things4 ,it is the foundation on which rests the whole spiritual edifice4 ,but it is somewhat extraordinary to see that the superstition of believing in lucky and unlucky days1 in good and bad luck1 is openly condemned1 and entails upon him who is addicted to it the severest penalty4 ,though such childish belief is so exceedingly common in ,burmah that it influences man in his daily and hourly affairs1 yet we must admit that it is opposed to the tenets of strict ,buddhism4 ,there can never be any good or bad luck in the opinion of him who has faith in the influence of merits and demerits4 ,there is no other agent in this world but that one2 it is it alone that brings in and regulates all the accidents which attend the life of man4 ,such is indeed the theory of the true ,buddhist4 ,but how widely differs the practice from the theory8 ,he who has lived for some time in a ,buddhist country1 and made himself acquainted with the intimate habits of the people1 will soon discover that superstitious ideas1 and1 as a necessary consequence1 superstitious practices1 are the spring and prime mover of all actions from morning to night4 ,in this respect1 ,buddhist monks differ not from the laity2 nay1 they are often seen as the leaders of the people in the performance of rites at variance with the tenets of their creed4 #dh ,this is a consequence of the axiom established by our author1 viz41 that the principle of mutability pervades all the beings which reside in the thirty-one seats allotted to them4 ,it cannot be supposed for a moment1 according to ,buddhists1 that a being1 whatever may be the amount of his merits and demerits1 can ever be placed without the pale of the influence of his good or bad deeds4 ,it accompanies him in all positions1 and causes the vicissitudes that attend his existence4 ,it works upon him in hell1 as well as on earth1 and in the seats of ,nats and ,brahmas4 ,fixity is to be found nowhere except in going out of the circle of existences1 that is to say1 in ,neibban4 ,when we speak of existence in a ,buddhistic sense1 we mean a state of being in any conceivable form or situation or place4 ,fixity in the enjoyment of reward or in the undergoing of punishment is a contradiction with the first principle of ,buddhism4 ,the awarder of reward or punishment is the above-named influence1 which proceeds from the actions performed1 and in its turn allots good or evil in exact proportion with the cause that has created it4 ,gaudama1 having wilfully and unwilfully ignored a first cause from which all the things that exist draw their being and life1 has been forced to allow to an imaginary agent the very same attributes which belong exclusively to the supreme being4 ,on the rock of atheism he has made a sad shipwreck4 ,apart from this capital error it is surprising to see him maintaining with an admirable acuteness the existence of many fundamental truths2 such1 for instance1 as the reward of good actions and the punishment of bad ones4 ,with him the doing of evil is ever attended with consequences fatal to the perpetrator1 whilst the performance of good is always accompanied with beneficial results4 ,one would be inclined to believe that ,gaudama has appropriated to himself with a great tact all the truths emanating from the belief in a supreme being2 and whilst he has1 with a barefaced and impious audacity1 denied to the eternal author of all things the very existence1 he has been placed under the necessity of accounting1 in a most unlogical manner1 for the existence of this world4 #di ,it will perhaps be of some interest to a few of our readers to mention the names of the thirty-one seats in which ,buddhists have located all beings4 ,let us begin with the lowest step of that immense ladder4 ,the four first steps are the four states of punishment4 ,in them are to be found living the unfortunate beings who1 pursued by the inflexible law of their demerits1 are doomed to atone in different ways for the evil that they have done4 ,the lowest seat is ,nga-yai or hell4 ,it is placed in the centre of our planet1 and subdivided into eight principal quarters1 the last of which is called ,awidzi4 ,the second step of the ladder is occupied by the seat of ,animals2 the third by certain monsters called ,preittas2 and the fourth by another kind of inferior beings named ,athourikes4 ,these four seats are tenanted by beings who undergo punishment for the evil deeds they have performed4 ,the fifth seat is that of ,manusa1 or men4 ,the beings that occupy it are in a state in which they can merit or demerit4 ,it may be called a position of probation4 ,above the seat of man are the six seats of ,nats called ,tsadoomaritz1 ,tawadeintha1 ,yama1 ,toocita1 ,nimanarati1 ,pare-neimittawasawati4 ,the denizens of those seats enjoy the reward awarded to them for the performance of good and meritorious exterior works4 ,the three places above those of ,nats1 called ,brahma-parisitsa1 ,brahmah-parau-hita1 ,maha-,brahma1 are occupied by the contemplatives who have reached the first step of ,dzan1 or meditation4 ,the three following1 ,pareitta-ba1 ,appa-ma-naba1 ,appa-sara1 are tenanted by the beings who have attained the second degree of contemplation4 ,the three next to those just enumerated are3 ,paweitta-sou-ba1 ,appa-mana-sou-ba1 ,souba-kannaka4 ,they are the abodes of the contemplatives who have ascended to the third step of meditation4 ,the two following steps of the ladder1 ,wa-happala1 ,a-sou-gna-sat1 are tenanted by the contemplatives of the fourth degree2 and the five that follow1 viz41 ,awiha1 ,atabpa1 ,sou-dasa1 ,sou-dasi1 ,agga-nita1 are occupied by the contemplatives of the fifth degree2 that is to say1 by the beings who have entered the ,thoda1 or current of perfection1 and who have qualified themselves for obtaining the state of deliverance1 or ,neibban4 ,above those seats we find the four and last abodes of ,arupa1 without form4 ,they are called3 ,akasanitza-yatana1 ,wigniana-witza-yatana1 ,akeitsignia-yatana1 ,newa-thagnia-nathagnia-yatana4 #ej ,the number of tseits or ideas is one hundred and twenty1 divided as follows3-- #a4 ,the tseits or ideas of the beings as yet under the influence of passion2 they are named ,kama-watsara-tseits4 #b4 ,the tseits or ideas peculiar to beings who have not as yet been able to raise themselves entirely above materiality2 they are called ,rupa-watzara-tseits4 #c4 ,there are four tseits peculiar to those beings1 who1 setting aside the coarser portions of this world1 launch forth into abstract truth1 and delight in the contemplation of the highest1 purest1 and most boundless things the mind may imagine4 ,they are known as the ideas working on what may be called immaterial1 impalpable objects4 ,the ideas of the first series belong to all the beings located in the four states of punishment1 in the seat of man1 and in the six seats of ,nats1 that is to say1 in the eleven seats where is the reign of passions4 ,those of the second series belong to the beings located in the sixteen seats of the ,brahmas1 including those who have entered into the current of perfection1 by following the four ,meggas1 and enjoying the merits and rewards connected with the condition of the perfect4 ,the ideas of the third series are the happy lot of those superior beings who soar high in the regions of pure spiritualism1 leaving below them all the things that have a reference to this world1 such as we see it4 ,the ,tsedathits1 or results essentially connected with ideas1 are fifty-two in number4 ,the seven enumerated at the end of this article are3 contact1 sensation1 perception1 inclination1 fixity1 command over self1 and remembrance3 they are inherent in all ideas4 ,six ,tsedathits are connected with the act of perception1 viz41 thought1 reflection1 decision1 energy1 pleasure1 and liberty4 ,fourteen others are connected with the ideas of demerits1 viz41 impudence1 audacity in evil1 unsteadiness1 concupiscence1 pride1 boasting1 grievous offence1 envy1 anxiety1 want of respect1 lowness of feelings1 doubt or indecision1 covetousness4 ,the ,tsedathits connected with merits are3 affection for all that refers to religion1 remembrance of all that is good1 shame of all that is bad1 fear of evil1 exemption from concupiscence and from anger1 serenity of soul1 freedom from evil inclinations and evil thoughts1 swiftness of the body and of the mind1 good habits of the body and of the soul1 uprightness in the feelings and the thoughts1 good words1 good actions1 good behaviour1 compassion1 joy at the prosperity of others1 wisdom1 or the acquirement of the knowledge of truth by reflection4 #ea ,having in two previous notes explained what regards the ideas1 and the results from or the things connected with ideas1 we must come to the third great principle1 viz41 ,rupa1 or form1 or matter1 and state further the curious divisions of our ,burmese metaphysicians4 #a4 ,the form of all that is visible is found in the four elements3 earth1 water1 fire1 and air4 #b4 ,the form for coming in contact are the five senses1 the eyes1 the ear1 the nose1 the tongue1 and the body1 or rather the skin of the body4 #c4 ,the form of the objects of the senses is likewise divided into five parts1 essentially connected with the five above-enumerated senses4 #d4 ,the forms peculiar to the living beings are the male and female sexes4 #e4 ,the forms of life taken abstractedly are the life of the body and the life of language or uttered words4 #f4 ,the forms in which appearance exhibits itself are swiftness1 softness1 and acting4 #g4 ,the forms of the signs of being are3 the appearance of being1 on coming into being1 the remaining into being1 the fulness of the state of being1 and the destruction of being4 ,the last great principle is ,neibban1 that is to say1 the exemption from the action of the influence originating from merits and demerits1 from the volitions of the mind1 from the seasons or time1 and from nourishment1 which are the causes of mutability2 it is the end of existence4 ,as regards the state of man and that of other rational beings1 there are several notions which are arranged in a curious manner under several heads1 which it is thought necessary to notice as briefly as possible4 #a4 ,the five ,khandas1 or supports of man's being3 materiality1 sensation1 perception1 mutability1 and intellect or thought4 #b4 ,the inward five ,ayatana1 or seats of the senses of seeing1 of hearing1 of smelling1 of tasting1 and of feeling4 #c4 ,the outward five ,ayatana1 or seats of what is perceived by the senses1 viz41 appearance or form1 sound1 odour1 taste1 tangibility1 and idea4 #d4 ,the ten ,dat1 or constitutive parts of the five senses1 and of the five results of the perception of the five senses1 as above enumerated4 #e4 ,the four ,thitsa1 or truths3 the truth of the miseries attending existence2 the truth of concupiscence or passions1 the cause of all miseries2 the truth of the ,neibban of passions1 or the destruction of passions1 the summit of which is ,neibban1 the truth of the ,megga or ways to ,neibban4 #f4 ,the twenty-two ,indray1 or dispositions or capacities for acting1 viz41 the capacity of seeing1 hearing1 smelling1 tasting1 feeling1 of uniting one sex with the other1 of thinking1 of enjoying peace1 of bearing pain1 of yielding to anger1 of enjoying pleasure1 of remaining indifferent1 of using exertions1 of being attentive1 of adhering to true doctrine1 of putting on sentiments of benevolence1 of searching after wisdom1 of using meekness1 of entering the four ways of perfection1 and of enjoying the happiness resulting from following those ways4 #g4 ,the nine ,phola1 or rewards resulting from walking in the path of perfection are3 intensity of benevolence1 of diligence1 of attention1 of fixity of wisdom1 of shame of all that is bad1 of fear for all that is bad1 of diligence in avoiding evil1 and the fear of hardness in sin4 #h4 ,the ,megga1 or ways1 are3 good doctrine1 good thinking1 good language1 and good actions4 ,what follows is but a completive of the above1 viz41 good conduct1 good diligence1 good attention1 and good fixity4 #i4 ,the ,dzan1 or meditation1 have five parts1 viz41 thought of the object1 reflection on the object1 satisfaction resulting therefrom1 affectionate inclination for the object1 fixity in the object4 ,the writer craves the reader's indulgence in setting before him such a dry nomenclature2 but no one can understand the language of ,buddhist metaphysicians1 unless he has made himself familiar with the terms they use1 and the arbitrary distinctions they have adopted4 #eb ,in this latter part our author clearly explains his opinion on this world1 that is to say1 on all that exists4 ,he states at first1 in general terms1 that what we see and perceive by means of our senses1 possesses no reality2 it is a mere illusion4 ,our ignorance of the real state of things deceives us1 by making us believe in the reality of objects that have nothing but an ephemeral and illusory existence4 ,he proceeds a little farther1 and treats our senses in like manner4 ,they are the instruments that procure unto us a general illusion4 ,but the senses1 what are they8 ,they are distinct from us4 ,by a strict analysis we find them to be but a compound of the four elements1 liable to dissolution and destruction4 ,a living being has certain attributes which are the supports of his existence2 but those attributes are equally a compound of the elements1 subjected to the same modifications of reproduction and destruction and deprived of consistence4 ,the attributes of the living beings being disposed of in this manner1 the being itself vanishes away4 ,there remain but name and form4 ,but does what we call form possess a real existence8 ,undoubtedly not4 ,it is a mere phantom1 an illusion4 ,our author comes to the necessary and final consequence that there is no world really existing4 ,in fact1 he denies the existence of matter and spirit4 ,with such an abuse of the powers of reasoning1 there is no wonder that he looks upon ,neibban1 or annihilation1 as the only end to be arrived at4 ,man in his opinion being but a compound of the four elements1 which have no real existence1 cannot be himself but an illusion without a reality4 ,gracious ,heavens6 what an excess of mental aberration will man reach when he is left to himself1 deprived of the light from above6 ,never has the writer witnessed such a total eclipse of human intellect4 #ec ,the word ,talapoin1 imported into ,europe by the writings of early ,portuguese authors in the ,east ,indies1 derives its origin probably from two ,pali words1 ,tala-pat1 meaning the leaf of the palm-tree4 ,these two words1 coupled together1 are used by the ,siamese to designate the large fan made of palm-leaves1 set in a slender wooden frame1 which ,talapoins carry with them on certain occasions when they go abroad4 ,in the course of this notice we will indiscriminately make use of the words ,phongyies1 ,talapoins1 and ,rahans to designate the ,buddhist religious4 #ed ,in glancing over the latter part of ,buddha's life1 the reader has seen that the less important points of discipline have been the subject of much discussion in the early days of ,buddhism4 ,among those points of dispute and contention were the last five articles above enumerated4 ,the second council was assembled for the purpose of settling warm disputes which distracted the ,buddhist ,thanga1 or ,assembly1 and caused great disturbances4 ,the venerable ,rasa1 who lived in ,wethalie1 a city situated on the ,gunduck1 north of ,hajipoor1 undertook a long journey1 as far as ,kosambi1 for the express purpose of warning the religious of that country against the dangerous innovations which were introduced by a considerable body of ,rahans belonging to the eastern districts of ,wethalie4 ,the journey was certainly a long one in a western direction4 ,the ruins of the famous city of ,kosambi have been discovered at a place called ,kosam1 thirty miles above ,allahabad1 on the ,jumna4 ,they are most extensive1 and at once indicate the importance that place must have had in the days of its prosperity4 ,a broken pillar1 the polished shaft of which must have measured #cd feet1 is covered with inscriptions2 it is one of the most important ,buddhist relics4 ,it is probably one of those pillars erected by ,athoka in every part of his extensive dominions4 ,it bears no inscription more ancient than the second and third century of the ,christian era4 ,a similar one was erected at ,prayag1 an ancient city mentioned by ,hwen ,thsang as being situated at the confluence of the ,ganges and the ,jumna1 and finally destroyed by the gradual encroachments of the rivers4 ,the place remained abandoned until the days of the ,emperor ,akhbar1 who built a fort called ,illahabas4 ,the new city received the name of ,allahabad from the ,emperor ,shah ,jehan4 ,the famous pillar called the ,allahabad ,pillar bears three inscriptions4 ,the first is that of ,asoka1 #bdj years ,b4,c41 recording his edicts for the propagation of ,buddhism2 the second is that of ,samudra ,gupta1 in the second century of our era1 commemorative of his extensive dominions2 the third is that of ,jehangir1 mentioning his accession to the throne4 ,the last re-setting up of this famous pillar took place in #ahch4 #ee ,among southern ,buddhists1 preference is given to the yellow colour for the monk's habit4 ,the juice extracted from the ,jack-tree wood1 by the process of boiling1 supplies the necessary ingredient for dyeing4 #ef ,the writer does not think it worth repeating the reasons that induced ,gaudama to lay down those several regulations4 ,they owe their origin to the fact that some individuals contrived to be ordained though labouring under physical defects1 and thereby became a sort of standing disgrace to the society4 ,it was at the request of his father that ,buddha forbade receiving to ordination sons who had not the consent of the parents1 and fixed twenty years as the age requisite in him who would offer himself for the promotion to the order of ,patzin4 ,no slave1 no debtor1 could be ordained1 because a man in such a condition does not belong to himself1 and cannot dispose of his person1 which to a certain extent is the property of his master and creditor4 #eg ,it is probable that the allusion to the red colour has a ,thibetan origin4 ,the ,buddhist monks of that country have adopted the red for their dress1 in preference to the yellow1 which is the canonical colour of the habit of all the monks among the southern ,buddhists4 #eh ,in this part of the regulations the elect is reminded of the primitive condition of the members of the society4 ,in imitation of their brethren of the ,brahminical persuasion1 and also for the purpose of living in seclusion1 the ,rahans1 in the beginning1 were satisfied with dwelling in huts raised at the foot of some tall tree4 ,as soon1 however1 as ,buddhism gained footing in various countries1 we see that kings1 nobles1 and wealthy persons vied with each other in erecting splendid houses for the use of the monks4 ,gaudama himself was presented by ,king ,pimpathara at ,radzagio with the splendid ,weloowon monastery4 ,in ,thawattie the rich man ,anatapein offered him the famous ,dzetawon monastery2 and the rich lady ,withaka of the same country gave him1 as a gift1 the no less splendid mansion named ,pouppayon4 ,general ,a4 ,cunningham has discovered the ruins of ,thawattie1 fifty-eight miles north of ,fyzabad1 on the ,rapti1 in a place called ,sahet ,mahet1 situated between ,akaona and ,bulrampur1 five miles from the former and twelve from the latter4 ,it was the capital of ,king ,pathenadi1 situated in north ,kosala4 ,in the ,legend of ,buddha we have seen how that monarch was dispossessed of his throne by one of his sons1 and died while on his way to the capital of ,adzatathat1 his son-in-law4 ,the ruins of the renowned ,dzetawon monastery have been identified by means of the information supplied by the writings of the ,chinese pilgrims we have often mentioned4 ,the monastery was distant #abjj paces from the southern gate of the city4 ,the scarcely less famous ,pouppayon monastery was erected to the east of the ,dzetawon4 ,mounds of ruins in that very same direction leave no doubt that in their bosom the last remains of that celebrated place are entombed4 ,it is said that ,gaudama1 being fifty-five years old1 began to reside permanently in monasteries built for him1 and that he spent1 out of the last twenty-five seasons1 nineteen in the ,dzetawon and six in the ,pouppayon4 ,according to ,hwen ,thsang1 the place occupied by the ,dzetawon monastery was a square1 having #ajjj cubits on each face or side4 ,besides the monastery1 there were two temples and two tanks within the enclosure4 #ei ,in treating of the precept of never touching women1 it is added in the ,wini that this prohibition extends to one's own mother2 and even should it happen that she fall into a ditch1 her son1 if a ,talapoin1 must not pull her out4 ,but in case no other aid is near at hand1 he may offer her his habit1 or a stick1 to help her out2 but at the same time he is to imagine that he is only pulling out a log of wood4 #fj ,the ,phongyies profess to have a tender compassion for the life of animals1 and would not on any account allow themselves to be suspected of having contributed to the killing of an animal for the sake of feeding on his flesh4 ,the writer has often taken a pleasure in taunting them on this account when he happened to see them eating pieces of boiled meat1 by showing to them that their practice was little in accordance with their theory4 ,they always answered that 8they had not killed the animal1 the flesh of which they were eating2 but had merely received a piece of meat that had no life4 ,as to the man who had deprived the animal of its life1 he had certainly sinned1 and would suffer for his misdeed4 ,but that was an affair for which the perpetrator of the deed was alone answerable1 and which concerned him alone40 ,to this answer1 of a rather elastic nature1 the writer jocosely replied that 8if there was no eater of meat there would be no killer of animals2 and that1 in his opinion1 if sin there was1 both had a share in it40 ,whereupon the yellow-dressed interlocutors invariably laughed1 and feeling that they stood on insecure ground1 adroitly changed the subject of conversation4 ,there is no doubt that the ,phongyies believe that it is sinful to kill animals1 but at the same time they confess that it is difficult1 nay1 almost impossible1 to live in this world without committing such a trespass4 #fa ,the writer1 when he visited ,bhamo two years ago1 had the opportunity of witnessing a striking illustration of the above assertion4 ,living in a fine and substantial dzeat1 in the vicinity of a large pagoda1 he remarked an elderly ,burmese woman coming every morning with some flowers1 which she respectfully deposited in front of a niche tenanted by a huge marble idol4 ,she was poorly dressed1 but her mien and countenance indicated that she had seen better days4 ,entering into conversation with her1 the writer learned from her that she was the widow of a wealthy man who had been the principal writer of the governor4 ,her husband had spent twelve thousand rupees in building the pagoda in front of us and the dzeat1 and had just died when the work was completed1 leaving to her and her only daughter nothing but the house they now dwelt in4 ,she was without any means of support4 ,having been asked whether she did not feel some regret that nothing had been left for her subsistence1 and whether she did not think her husband would have behaved better in bestowing one-half of his money for religious purposes and keeping the other half for the maintenance of his family1 the old lady gently smiled1 and said1 without hesitation or showing the least sign of repining1 that her husband had acted very well and for the best2 that she and her daughter1 by their exertions1 would always be able to support themselves in their humble and poor condition4 ,in many places the traveller's eyes are attracted by the sight of a lofty and roomy kiaong1 adorned with fine carvings4 ,when he inquires about the individual whose pious liberality has erected that edifice1 he is surprised and astonished to see him living in the poor and wretched house which is pointed out to him4 ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,printed by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,,co4 ,edinburgh ,london