,transcriber ,note ,text emphasis denoted as ,italics and ,bold4 ,whole numbers and fractional parts denoted as #ab-c_/d4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,u4 ,s4 ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,,farmers' ,,bulletin ,no4 #adji ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,turkey ,,raising ,illustration ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,turkey raising is usually carried on as a side line on general farms1 though in some parts of the ,united ,states it constitutes the chief source of revenue from farming4 ,the number of turkeys in this country decreased for a time after the #ahij census1 but during recent years the industry has been growing1 largely because of improved methods of controlling turkey diseases and better methods of management4 ,this bulletin has been prepared primarily to inform those interested in turkey raising on modern methods of management4 ,most of the recommendations are adaptable to both small and large scale production4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,issued ,april #aibd ,slightly revised ,february #aici ,,turkey ,,raising ,by ,stanley ,j4 ,marsden and ,alfred ,r4 ,lee1 associate poultry husbandmen1 ,animal ,husbandry ,division1 ,bureau of ,animal ,industry#a #a ,this publication is a revision of former editions prepared by ,m4 ,a4 ,jull1 senior poultry husbandman1 and ,a4 ,r4 ,lee4 ,,contents ,page ,the turkey industry of the ,united ,states #a ,varieties #b ,the ,bronze #c ,the ,white ,holland #d ,the ,bourbon ,red #d ,the ,narragansett #d ,the ,black #e ,the ,slate #f ,standard weights of turkeys #f ,selecting breeding stock #f ,managing breeding stock #h ,breeding pens or enclosures #h ,mating #i ,egg production #aj ,care of hatching eggs #aa ,feeding #ab ,combating diseases and pests #ad ,incubating turkey eggs #af ,natural incubation #ag ,artificial incubation #ag ,raising poults #ah ,brooding #ai ,sanitation #ba ,litter #bb ,early development #bc ,marking #bc ,feeding growing turkeys #bc ,feed consumption and cost of growing #bh ,equipment for raising turkeys #cj ,containers for feed and water #cj ,houses and fences #cc ,protection against dogs #cf ,devices that prevent tail-feather picking #cf ,range management of growing turkeys #cg ,fattening turkeys for market #ch ,marketing turkeys #ci ,when to market #ci ,selecting birds for market #dj ,withholding feed before slaughter #dj ,killing and picking #dj ,cooling #db ,packing #dc ,dressed-turkey grades #dc ,,the ,,turkey ,,industry ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,turkey ,,raising has long been an important enterprise in the ,united ,states because great quantities of turkey meat are required annually and its use throughout the year is becoming more popular4 ,producers should endeavor to make turkey raising more profitable by overcoming heavy losses from diseases that heretofore have been a serious handicap4 ,the enterprise is very adaptable1 extending to practically all parts of the ,united ,states4 ,the more important areas of production are the ,middle ,western1 ,northwestern1 and ,southwestern ,states1 where large numbers of small flocks are raised annually on farms and ranches and where there are also many large commercial flocks4 ,the number of turkeys in this country began to decrease about #ahij1 but by #aiaj interest in turkey raising revived1 and in recent years the industry has been growing1 largely because of increased knowledge of blackhead disease and its control4 ,according to the census there were #c1fhh1jjj turkeys on farms in the ,united ,states in #aiaj and about the same number in #aibj4 ,the #aicj census showed #af1gid1jjj turkeys1 but this was the number raised to market age instead of the number of breeding turkeys kept4 ,this new census figure provides a much better measure of the industry's actual size4 ,the #aicj figure indicates a moderate increase between #aibj and #aicj in the number of breeding turkeys kept4 ,the nine ,states leading in turkey production1 as shown by the #aicj census1 are ,texas1 ,north ,dakota1 ,minnesota1 ,california1 ,oklahoma1 ,oregon1 ,colorado1 ,virginia1 and ,idaho4 ,where conditions are suitable and proper methods of management are followed turkeys can be raised successfully with very simple equipment2 therefore the capital outlay in the enterprise may be quite small4 ,except during the growing season managing the flock is fairly simple4 ,of course1 constitutional vigor must be maintained in the breeding stock2 the flock must be kept relatively free from disease2 and the soil1 especially where the poults are fed1 must be kept sanitary4 ,moreover1 turkeys1 even when veil fed1 will make good use of at least a limited range and in doing so will destroy many injurious insects1 eat great quantities of succulent green feed1 and pick up much waste grain1 weed seeds1 and other sources of nutriment4 ,this fact reduces the cost of production and increases the profits4 ,illustration3 ,figure #a4--;,bronze turkey1 male4 ,,varieties ,all domestic varieties of turkeys have descended from the ,north ,american wild stock1 comprising the eastern wild turkey1 which ranged over the eastern part of the ,united ,states from ,maine to ,florida2 the ,florida wild turkey1 which ranged over southern ,florida2 the ,rio ,grande wild turkey1 which ranged over southern ,texas and northwestern ,mexico2 and the ,mexican wild turkey1 which ranged over ,arizona1 western ,new ,mexico1 southern ,colorado1 and ,mexico4 ,it is probable1 however1 that these four wild turkeys were of common origin and that most of our domesticated varieties1 especially the ,bronze1 have descended from the ,mexican wild turkey4 ,six standard varieties of domestic turkeys are recognized by the ,american ,poultry ,association1 an organization having as its primary function the promotion of standard qualities in all breeds and varieties of poultry in ,north ,america4 ,the association publishes the ,standard of ,perfection1 which contains concise descriptions of breeds and varieties of poultry1 with illustrations of the most important ones4 ,the following is a brief description of each of the six varieties1 namely1 the ,bronze1 ,white ,holland1 ,bourbon ,red1 ,narragansett1 ,black1 and ,slate4 ,illustration3 ,figure #b4--;,bronze turkey1 female4 ,,the ,,bronze ,the ,bronze1 often called the ,mammoth ,bronze1 is the heaviest and also the most popular variety4 ,the male 7fig4 #a7 is distinguished by 7#a7 the rich1 iridescent1 red-green sheen of the plumage on the neck1 wing bows1 wing fronts1 wing coverts1 breast1 front half of the back1 and lower thighs2 and 7#b7 the lighter1 brilliant1 copper-colored bronzing of the rear half of the back1 tail coverts1 tail itself1 and body4 ,the bronzing in the tail1 tail coverts1 and body is bordered by a distinct narrow black band1 which in turn is bordered by a wide edging of pure white4 ,the rear portion of the back has the broad bronze bar with the narrow edging of black but does not have the white tips4 ,the plumage of the female 7fig4 #b7 is similar to that of the male1 except for an edging of white on the black bars on the back1 wing bows1 wing coverts1 breast1 and body4 ,this white edging is narrow in the front of the body and gradually widens toward the rear4 ,both sexes have the same color pattern in the large wing feathers and in the main tail feathers and coverts4 ,the main tail feathers and coverts have brown penciling 7narrow bars7 on a dull black background2 the large wing feathers are evenly barred with black and white1 the bars of the secondaries becoming indistinct as the back is approached4 ,creaminess1 yellow1 or yellowish brown in the pure white edging of the main tail feathers and coverts of the ,bronze indicates an admixture of wild-turkey blood and is a serious defect in the standardbred ,bronze4 ,lack of the copper-colored bronzing or a tendency for it to be greenish is also a serious color defect4 ,,the ,,white ,,holland ,the ,white ,holland 7fig4 #c7 probably originated as a sport from the ,bronze or the wild turkey4 ,its plumage should be pure white in color and free in all sections from black flecking or ticking4 ,the shanks and toes in this variety should be pinkish white4 ,,the ,,bourbon ,,red ,the ,bourbon ,red male 7fig4 #d7 is of a rich1 deep brownish-red color in all sections except the wings1 tail1 and breast4 ,the primaries and secondaries of the wings are pure white1 and the main tail feathers are pure white except for an indistinct bar of red crossing each feather near the end4 ,the breast feathers are red with a very narrow edging of black4 ,the color of the female is similar to that of the male1 but there is a very narrow edging of white on the tips of the breast feathers4 ,more than one-third of any other color except white showing in the large feathers of the wing or tail constitutes a standard disqualification in this variety4 ,the rich reddish color1 without some black1 is rather difficult to obtain and this black ticking or flecking is a rather common fault4 ,a faded red1 approaching buff1 is also undesirable4 ,illustration3 ,figure #c4--,white ,holland turkey1 male4 ,,the ,,narragansett ,the ,narragansett 7fig4 #e7 generally resembles the ,bronze in color pattern1 but has no iridescent red-green sheen and no bronzing4 ,the ,narragansett colors are metallic black with light steel-gray edging and barring bordered1 in certain sections1 by a narrow black band on the end of the feathers4 ,the plumage1 as a whole1 has a dark background of metallic black with a broad1 light steel-gray edging1 showing more of the light color in this edging as the body is approached4 ,in the male1 the colors of the wing fronts1 wing bows1 and wing coverts are the reverse of the colors found elsewhere1 being light steel gray1 ending in a narrow band of black4 ,the wing coverts form a broad silvery bar across the folded wings4 ,the neck and saddle are black1 ending in a broad steel-gray band4 ,the back is rich metallic black1 free from bronzing4 ,the breast1 body1 and fluff are black1 the feathers ending in a broad silvery-gray band edged with black4 ,the large wing and tail feathers and the primary coverts are barred with black and white similarly to those of the ,bronze1 the barring of the upper secondaries becoming indistinct as the back is approached4 ,the plumage of the female is similar to that of the male in this variety1 except that an extra edging of silvery gray is added to the ends of the feathers on the back1 wing bows1 wing coverts1 breast1 and body4 ,the light edging should be narrow toward the front of the bird and broader toward the rear4 ,the female in general presents a lighter appearance than the male4 ,there should be a rich metallic black but no bronze barring in either sex4 ,the offspring of a ,narragansett mating sometimes have a bronze color1 but such birds should not be kept for breeders4 ,illustration3 ,figure #d4--;,bourbon ,red turkey1 male4 ,,the ,,black ,the ,black 7fig4 #f71 known in ,england as the ,norfolk turkey1 is lustrous greenish black in all sections of the plumage4 ,objectionable white tipping in the feathers of young turkeys of this variety often disappears after the first molt4 ,any variation from the solid black color should be carefully avoided in breeding this variety4 ,the shanks and toes should be pink in mature birds and almost black in young birds4 ,,the ,,slate ,the ,slate 7fig4 #g7 has an ashy-blue or slate-colored plumage1 sometimes dotted with tiny black spots1 which are undesirable4 ,feathers of any other color1 such as white1 buff1 or red1 constitute a standard disqualification4 ,this variety does not breed true to color1 and many of the offspring have both solid white and solid black as well as black-and-white ticking and splashing4 ,the shanks and toes should be pink4 ,,standard ,,weights ,,of ,,turkeys ,the standard weights of the different varieties of turkeys as given in the ,standard of ,perfection are given in table #a4 ,table #a4--,standard weights of turkeys at various ages ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,yearling ,adult cock 7#a ,cockerel ,hen ,pullet ,variety cock 7#b year old 7less 7#a year 7less years old and less than #a old or than #a or over7 than #b7 year old7 over7 year old7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds ,bronze #cf #cc #be #bj #af ,white ,holland #cc #cj #bc #ah #ad ,bourbon ,red #cc #cj #bc #ah #ad ,narragansett #cc #cj #bc #ah #ad ,black #cc #cj #bc #ah #ad ,slate #cc #cj #bc #ah #ad ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,illustration3 ,figure #e4--,narragansett turkey1 female4 ,,selecting ,,breeding ,,stock ,the breeding stock is the foundation of the turkey industry1 and the greatest care must be used in selecting both male and female breeders4 ,failure in this respect has undoubtedly been one of the principal reasons why satisfactory results have not been obtained on many farms and commercial plants4 ,one of the first steps in improving conditions1 therefore1 is more careful selection of the breeding stock4 ,the most satisfactory time of the year to select breeding stock is in ,november or ,december1 especially before large numbers of turkeys are sold for the ,thanksgiving and ,christmas markets4 ,selecting birds early in the season makes possible a choice from a larger number and1 what is more important1 saves the best-developed and most vigorous birds for breeding instead of marketing them4 ,new blood may be introduced into the flock or a beginning with turkeys may be made by obtaining hatching eggs1 day-old poults1 or breeding stock1 but the purchase of eggs or poults is recommended4 ,new breeding stock should be treated for worms and lice and should be quarantined for #b or #c weeks to detect any disease4 ,illustration3 ,figure #f4--;,black turkey1 male4 ,turkeys are raised for meat rather than for egg production4 ,the breeders1 therefore1 should have compact1 meaty bodies4 ,the breastbone should be straight1 the back broad1 especially at the shoulders1 and the breadth carried well back toward the tail4 ,the body should be deep1 with the breast so broad1 full1 and well rounded that the breastbone does not protrude prominently4 ,other important points are full1 bright eyes1 a broad head1 and stout legs set well apart and rather short4 ,above all else1 the birds should be vigorous4 ,when1 pedigrees and performance records of the birds' ancestors are available1 selection should be based on fertility1 hatchability1 livability1 early maturity1 and other desirable factors1 as well as on the physical points mentioned above4 ,it is wise to select or build up a flock of purebred turkeys4 ,it costs no more to raise purebred stock than mongrels and the purebreds are usually heavier and command higher market prices4 ,also1 if good standard qualities of shape and color are maintained1 some of the birds can be sold for breeding purposes at increased prices4 ,,managing ,,breeding ,,stock ,results in turkey raising depend to a large extent on the kind of breeding stock used each year and the manner in which it is managed4 ,,breeding ,,pens ,,or ,,enclosures ,until a few years ago breeding flocks were ordinarily allowed free range throughout the breeding and laying season 7fig4 #h74 ,this practice often gives unsatisfactory results because the nests cannot be found readily and therefore the eggs cannot be gathered daily4 ,many breeding flocks are now kept in good-sized breeding pens or enclosures with nests conveniently located inside or outside the roosting shed 7fig4 #i74 ,for a pen of #ab to #ah birds a yard of #aj to #ae square rods is large enough4 ,frequently an orchard is very satisfactory4 ,a hog-proof fence about #f feet high will confine the turkeys2 they are not likely to fly over the fence1 because they cannot rest on the top wire4 ,fences should be tightly stretched and should be dog-proof1 because dogs and coyotes are very destructive in turkey flocks4 ,solid-top fences1 gates1 and buildings less than #i feet high should be topped with strips of poultry fence #c feet wide to prevent turkeys from perching on them4 ,if turkey hens persist in flying over the fence the flight feathers of one wing may be cut1 but the wing of a breeding male should never be clipped1 as the clipping may interfere with mating4 ,sanitation in the breeding yards must not be neglected4 ,either the fences and shelters should be made portable and moved each year to clean ground1 or double yards should be constructed for use only in the breeding season1 during which time one yard is occupied for #b successive weeks and then the other1 which in the meantime has been kept free of all poultry4 ,illustration3 ,figure #g4--,slate turkey1 male4 ,if two or more breeding pens are maintained1 they must be isolated from each other4 ,this can be done with double fences1 #ab feet or more apart1 or with single fences built solid for about #c feet above the ground1 so that the turkeys cannot see those in other pens4 ,,mating ,best results in mating are obtained when from #aj to #ae females are mated to #a male1 although as many as #ah hens can be mated to #a young tom under favorable conditions4 ,as a rule good fertility will result when several toms are kept with a flock of hens4 ,however1 if the toms are quarrelsome and mating is seriously interfered with the males must be alternated1 #a tom being allowed to run with the hens #a day and another tom the next day4 ,surplus toms should be penned out of sight of the breeding birds4 ,illustration3 ,figure #h4--;,breeding flock of ,bronze turkeys on free range4 ,the soundest breeding program is one of using yearlings and #b-year-old hens which have been selected as breeders alter they have passed through one full breeding season successfully4 ,however1 if pedigreeing can be done1 it is practicable to use well-matured pullets selected from parents that lived through their first breeding season and showed good production1 fertility1 hatchability1 and poult livability4 ,the breeding males may be young or old but1 in general1 well-matured young toms give better results4 ,proved sires1 of course1 are valuable and can well be used so long as they will breed4 ,reserve breeding toms should always be kept1 especially when older toms are used1 as the latter are sometimes sterile4 ,the spurs of a yearling or older tom should be trimmed smooth1 as should the toe-nails of all breeding males1 regardless of age1 to avoid needless tearing of the backs of the females4 ,all breeding hens and toms that are not to be used for another breeding season should be marketed about ,june #a4 ,if older hens are used in breeding1 it is advisable to replace #c-year-old females with young birds1 since egg production decreases rapidly after that age4 ,immature stock should never be used but1 as mentioned before1 well-matured young toms and pullets make good breeders especially if trap nesting and pedigreeing can be carried on1 thus enabling the breeder to cull properly and sell as market birds the offspring of all hens that die during their first laying season4 ,it is not advisable for the average producer to inbreed turkeys1 as this practice has been found to lower the vitality of the stock4 ,when only one breeding pen or flock is kept1 it is advisable to obtain new blood every season from a reliable outside source4 ,,egg ,,production ,the time of year at which turkeys naturally lay depends largely on the climate of the region in which they are raised1 being earliest in the ,south4 ,however1 climate need not be permitted to hold back egg production as artificial light can be used to obtain early eggs1 as with chickens4 ,soon after mating begins1 the female looks for a nesting place1 and about #aj days after the first mating she begins to lay4 ,one nest should be provided for every #c or #d hens4 ,the number of eggs produced per bird depends on the breeding of the stock as well as on management4 ,under ordinary circumstances in the ,northern ,states1 young turkey hens should average #ce to #dj eggs and yearling hens #be to #cj eggs each during the normal breeding season if they are broken up whenever broodiness occurs4 ,by normal breeding season is meant the time between the date the first egg is laid 7late in the winter or early in the spring7 and ,june #a4 ,if artificial lights are used1 starting about ,february #e1 the breeders should average #ej to #ee eggs each1 or an increase of about #ae eggs by ,june #a1 due to the lighting4 ,a few turkey raisers have used lights in ,december or ,january1 thereby securing very early hatched turkeys and further increasing turkey-egg production4 ,turkeys are not extensively trap-nested1 but the practice is carried on by producers who wish to pedigree the poults and carry on selective breeding4 ,one trap nest is needed for each two hens4 ,the hens should have free access to the trap nests before they start to lay1 and they should be carefully watched to see that they do not lay their eggs anywhere except in the trap nests4 ,secluded places in the house or yard should be eliminated4 ,a simple form of trap nest is illustrated in figure #i4 ,the turkey enters at the front1 through the trap door1 which closes automatically when the turkey is inside4 ,the door at the top of the coop is opened to release the bird from the nest4 ,when incubators or chicken hens are used to hatch the eggs1 the turkey hens may be broken of their broodiness so that they will continue laying4 ,breaking the hens of broodiness by confining them to a wire-floored coop is very desirable because it permits the hatching of a relatively large number of early turkeys and a larger number from each hen4 ,the birds hatched no later than ,june are the ones that grow and mature most satisfactorily and therefore attain the best size for the ,thanksgiving and ,christmas markets4 ,early hatched birds should be marketed at ,thanksgiving or before1 and those of later hatches can be used to supply the ,christmas and ,new ,year demand4 ,there is some demand for freshly dressed turkeys at all times of the year4 ,to meet this demand turkeys may be hatched from eggs laid during summer and fall4 ,by the use of artificial light and proper feeds1 hatchable eggs can be produced in the winter and early in the spring4 ,it is natural for turkey hens to seek secluded places to lay their eggs4 ,yards that have comparatively short vegetation and are free from bushes or other places of concealment are best1 because such conditions discourage the birds from laying outside the nests provided for them4 ,a lookout for hidden nests must be maintained1 otherwise eggs may not be collected regularly and may be frozen1 partly incubated1 or destroyed by animals4 ,sometimes the hidden nests can be found by watching the turkey hens carefully as they make their way to them1 but an easier and quicker method is to confine the hens early some morning soon after they come from the roosts and then let them out about #b p4 m42 the laying hens will make straight for their nests in order to lay the eggs they have been holding4 ,nests are easily made of boxes or barrels placed inside the shelter or outside in the yards4 ,some turkey growers prefer to build nesting batteries with nests about #ab by #bd inches4 ,illustration3 ,figure #i4--,turkey trap nests4 ,the dimensions of this nest are as follows3 ,width1 #ad inches2 depth1 #bd inches2 height in front1 #ai inches2 and height in hack1 #de ,inches4 ,the trap-nest fronts may be home-made1 or commercial fronts may be used4 ,,care ,,of ,,hatching ,,eggs ,hatchability can be seriously damaged by holding eggs at temperatures above #fe or below #ce ,f4 ,it is most important to hold eggs in a room that can be kept below #fe1 preferably between #ej and #fj4 ,eggs should be collected several times daily and held on their sides or on the small end4 ,it is best to turn eggs gently once daily while they are being held for hatching1 but this is probably not necessary unless they are to be kept longer than a week4 ,for best results they should not be held longer than #aj days but if they are held at a suitable temperature and are turned once a day1 fair hatchability will be retained for as long as #c weeks4 ,,feeding ,feeding young breeding turkeys is a matter of supplying a growing ration in the fall and early in the winter1 a laying ration late in the winter and in the spring1 and a maintenance ration during the summer4 ,unless breeders are to be kept over for another year1 they should be marketed1 if possible1 about ,june #a in order to reduce feed costs and to aid in preventing the spread of blackhead and other diseases that may affect adult turkeys during the summer4 ,if breeders are to be held over for the next season or until fall and if a good summer and fall range is available well away from the growing stock1 the breeders are best carried through the summer on a daily feeding of whole grain such as a mixture of equal parts of corn1 oats1 and wheat4 ,this mixture should be fed at the rate of one-fifth pound per hen daily as a supplement to feed obtained from the range4 ,the toms1 if ranged with the hens1 should have access to grain in a feeder too high for the hens to reach4 ,a better method is to pen the toms in a separate range lot and give them each one-half pound of grain daily in troughs4 ,breeding stock so managed during the summer respond economically to a fattening diet offered in the fall4 ,beginning about #d weeks before they are to be marketed1 usually early in ,october1 the birds may be offered all they will eat daily of the grain mixture4 ,within #d weeks they will acquire a fine finish and make a gain in weight of #b-a_/b pounds or more per hen and #d pounds or more per tom4 ,about #e-c_/d pounds of grain per pound of gain is required for the #d-week fattening period4 ,a little better finish is acquired in #f weeks2 but the grade is not improved1 and the gains are more expensive4 ,breeding stock that are to be kept over should be held in the range lots as long as possible and should also be fed liberally in the fall1 in order to put them in good condition for the winter4 ,later in the fall and through the winter the rations for breeders1 especially young breeders1 may be the same as the growing rations normally fed to young stock4 ,scratch grain and a simple mash1 such as that suggested for growing poults1 make a good feed for carrying the breeders through the winter1 since they meet the demands of the birds for continued growth or for maintenance4 ,if the climate is such that green feed and sunshine are not available1 as in the ,northern ,states1 add #e percent of alfalfa-leaf meal and #a percent of cod-liver oil to the mash4 ,the birds should have all the mash and scratch they will eat during the fall and winter4 ,breeders will not become too fat if fed in accordance with this method4 ,they will be fat1 but this is desirable if heavy egg production is expected4 ,for the production of large numbers of hatchable eggs turkeys require a ration containing the various nutrients and vitamins4 ,good results can be obtained with a simple laying ration1 such as laying mixture ,no4 #a1 if the birds get an abundance of fresh green feed and have range4 ,when ground oats or ground barley is included in any mixture it should be finely ground4 ,alfalfa leaf meal should be bright green in color4 ,the cod-liver oil should be a standard good-quality product1 or the equivalent in fortified cod-liver oil may be used if thoroughly mixed4 ,laying ,mixture ,no4 #a ,,mash ,parts by ,,scratch weight ,yellow corn or barley 7ground7 #bj ,mixture of equal parts of ,wheat middlings or ground wheat #ae yellow corn1 wheat1 and ,oats or barley 7ground7 #bj heavy oats4 7,grain sorghum ,meat scrap 7#ej- to #ee-percent may be used in place of the protein7 #aj corn47 ,fish meal 7#fj- to #gj-percent protein7 #aj ,wheat bran #ab ,ground oystershell or limestone #g ,dried milk #e ,salt 7fine1 sifted7 #a --- ,total #ajj ,laying mash should be kept before the birds at all times beginning about a month before eggs are expected4 ,scratch mixture should be fed in troughs1 at the rate of one-fifth of a pound per day per bird1 so that the consumption during laying will be about equal parts of the mash and scratch4 ,the birds must have access to growing green feed1 direct sunshine1 and water4 ,if the birds cannot obtain fresh succulent green feed and direct sunshine in abundance1 as in the case of those kept in confinement or in cold climates1 the ration must be more inclusive4 ,such a ration may be compounded as follows3 ,laying ,mixture ,no4 #b ,,mash ,parts by ,,scratch ,parts by weight weight ,yellow corn or barley 7ground7 #bf ,yellow corn or grain ,wheat middlings or ground wheat #bj sorghum #dj ,wheat bran #ab ,heavy oats #cg-a_/b ,alfalfa leaf meal #aj ,wheat #bj ,meat scrap 7#ej- to #ee-percent ,cod-liver oil #b-a_/b protein7 #h ------- ,dried milk #h ,total #ajj ,fish meal 7#fj- to #gj-percent protein7 #h ,ground oystershell or limestone #g ,salt 7fine1 sifted7 #a --- ,total #ajj ,as with the simpler ration1 the mash should be kept before the birds at all times1 and the scratch can be hand-fed in troughs at the rate of one-fifth of a pound per bird per day4 ,clean water should be provided at all times4 ,the same ingredients can be mixed and fed as an all-mash ration with good results4 ,the all-mash formula is as follows3 ,laying ,mixture ,no4 #c 7,all-mash feed7 ,parts by ,parts by weight weight ,yellow corn 7coarsely ground7 #cj ,dried milk #e ,oats 7finely ground7 #bj ,fish meal 7#fj- to ,wheat middlings 7standard or brown7 #ba #gj-percent protein7 #c ,wheat bran #f ,ground oystershell or ,alfalfa leaf meal #e limestone #d ,meat scrap 7#ej- to #ee-percent ,cod-liver oil #a-a_/d protein7 #d ,salt 7fine1 sifted7 #c_/d ------- ,total #ajj ,this all-mash mixture is kept before the breeders at all times4 ,just enough to carry the birds through each day should be given4 ,in this way its freshness is assured1 an important consideration in all-mash feeding4 ,if desired1 the oyster shell or limestone may be fed separately in hoppers1 but mixing it in the mash saves labor and prevents excessive consumption4 ,gravel or granite grit should be provided to furnish grinding material4 ,clean water1 placed in contamination-proof vessels1 should be provided at all times4 ,alfalfa hay probably cannot be depended upon to supply adequate amounts of green-feed substitute for hatching-egg production4 ,only by fresh green feed or green-feed substitutes and fish oils can those requirements be met4 ,the oil should be freshly mixed in the feed every week or two4 ,all feed should be fed in feeders1 never on the ground or in the litter4 ,feeders should be constructed so as to prevent waste and contamination with droppings4 ,turkey hens consume a little less than one-half pound of mash and scratch grain per day when practically all of their feed is furnished4 ,toms consume about #j4g pound daily2 eating mostly scratch grains4 ,,combating ,,diseases ,,and ,,pests ,turkey raisers1 to be permanently successful1 must follow some system of sanitation4 ,many growers have prevented disease and the attacks of parasites in their flocks by providing range on clean soil2 that is1 soil on which no poultry manure has been spread2 feeding their birds from feeders that cannot be contaminated by droppings2 and keeping the quarters sanitary at all times4 ,separation of the turkeys from chickens and other poultry at all times is essential4 ,diseases and parasites of turkeys are discussed in detail in ,farmers' ,bulletin #afeb1 ,diseases and ,parasites of ,poultry4 ,coccidiosis often causes heavy losses in young turkeys4 ,it is best combated by carefully cleaning the brooder house and changing the litter once a week during the brooding period1 keeping the litter dry1 and using wire-covered feeding platforms4 ,turkeys are subject also to the attacks of various species of worms1 but treatment for worms should not be undertaken until the presence of worms has been determined by examining the droppings or by post-mortem examination4 ,,blackhead ,although other infectious diseases sometimes affect turkeys1 blackhead is by far the most destructive ailment4 ,it is caused by one of the ,protozoa and is primarily a disease of the caeca 7the blind pouches of the intestines7 and the liver1 but the fact that the head of the affected bird often becomes discolored has given the disease its common name1 blackhead4 ,it attacks turkeys most frequently1 but chicks are often affected by it without showing symptoms2 thus the chickens carry and spread the infection to turkeys when allowed to range with them4 ,a combination of spotted liver and ulcerated caeca indicates that the birds have blackhead infection4 ,although blackhead affects adult turkeys1 it occurs principally among poults between the ages of #f weeks and #f months4 ,it is found to a greater or lesser extent throughout the ,united ,states4 ,the turkeys affected by blackhead1 like all birds having infectious diseases1 should be removed immediately from the flock to prevent the spread of the disease4 ,the best procedure is to kill the sick birds and burn or bury the bodies1 as no treatment has been found satisfactory4 ,move the flock to clean ground1 if possible2 but if this cannot be done1 clean out and disinfect the roosting place1 plow the ground in the yards1 and install a system of yard sanitation4 ,keep chickens and all other poultry away from turkey yards at all times in order to prevent infection from this source4 ,the organisms which cause the disease may be carried by flies1 blown with dust1 conveyed in contaminated soil on the feet of the caretaker1 or spread for considerable distances in other ways4 ,several measures for preventing blackhead are practiced1 the chief of which are3 7#a7 ,obtaining eggs or stock from flocks known to be healthy2 7#b7 quarantining and worming all new stock2 7#c7 cleaning and changing the litter at least weekly during the brooding period2 7#d7 keeping both young and mature turkeys on clean ground at a considerable distance from chickens2 7#e7 excluding1 so far as possible1 pigeons1 sparrows1 and persons from the turkey houses and yards2 7#f7 frequently cleaning and occasionally disinfecting growing houses1 feed troughs1 and all other equipment2 7#g7 feeding only in clean feeders1 never on the ground2 7#h7 immediately killing and deeply burying or completely burning all diseased birds2 and 7#i7 eliminating all stagnant water pools where the turkeys range4 ,clean range1 clean quarters1 clean feed1 and clean water are most important4 ,,lice ,,and ,,mites ,lice may cause high mortality among young poults1 those badly infested gradually becoming weaker until they die4 ,head lice are the most troublesome and are found close to the skin near the top of the head1 above and in front of the eyes1 and under the throat4 ,applying an insect powder1 preferably sodium fluoride1 when the hen is set1 is an easy method of preventing lice from getting a start among poults4 ,apply the sodium fluoride among the leathers1 working it well down next to the skin1 #a pinch on the head1 #a on the neck1 #b on the back1 #a on the breast1 #a below the vent1 #a at the base of the tail1 #a on each thigh1 and #a scattered on the underside of each wing when spread4 ,if this treatment is not applied1 hen-hatched poults are almost certain to have lice4 ,if the hen has been treated in this manner before being set and the poults are not exposed to infested stock or premises1 they will remain free from lice indefinitely4 ,it is well1 however1 to examine the poults occasionally and1 if lice are found1 to apply sodium fluoride sparingly4 ,it should not be applied until the poults are at least a week old1 and then only two very small pinches should be used4 ,distribute one of these on the neck1 the top of the head1 and the throat1 and the other on the back and below the vent4 ,after the poults are old enough to roost1 control lice by applying nicotine sulphate solution in a thin line on the top surface of the roosts4 ,repeat as often as necessary to keep down the lice and be sure that each bird is exposed to the treatment4 ,sodium fluoride applied as directed for delousing setting hens or as a dip will completely eliminate all species of lice from mature stock4 ,the dipping method consists in immersing mature fowls in a large tub of solution made by mixing #a ounce or sodium fluoride to each gallon of tepid water4 ,immerse the birds for only a few seconds1 raising the feathers at the same time to allow the dip to penetrate to the skin4 ,dip the birds on a warm day1 preferably in the morning1 so as to give them time to dry before night4 ,destroy red mites in the roosting quarters by painting the under side of the roosts and the roost supports with anthracene oil1 crude oil1 crank-case oil1 or any coal-tar disinfectant4 ,make the application light but thorough1 and do it preferably in the morning4 ,the fowl tick or blue bug is one of the worst pests of turkeys in the ,southwest4 ,it can be controlled by the methods advised for controlling red mites4 ,,protection ,,from ,,cold1 ,,dampness1 ,,and ,,enemies ,protection from adverse weather conditions and enemies is required if turkeys are to be raised successfully4 ,an open-front shed with a reasonably tight roof and dry floor1 so arranged that the north1 west1 and east sides can be closed against storms1 will give ample protection for full-grown turkeys4 ,boosts may be made from good-sized poles or #b by #d's nailed flat to supports which should be slightly higher at the rear than at the front1 where they should be about #b-a_/b feet above the floor4 ,the space between the roosts should be about #b feet and the space underneath enclosed with poultry wire4 ,in the southern part of the ,united ,states there is little need for well-built turkey houses1 but during damp1 cold1 or stormy weather the turkeys should have protection of some kind4 ,they should not be exposed to dampness1 but they can stand a considerable amount of dry cold4 ,in many localities protection from dogs must be provided in some way4 ,high roosts or well-built shelters provide this at night4 ,keeping the birds confined to high roosts or in dog-proof shelters at night and during the early morning hours gives a good protection4 ,an attendant or a good watchdog is needed to protect the turkeys when they are off their roosts or out of their shelters4 ,,incubating ,,turkey ,,eggs ,the vigor of the breeding stock1 the manner in which it has been fed and managed1 and the care given the eggs will determine to a high degree the hatchability of the eggs4 ,an important measure of success in turkey raising is the number of fully matured turkeys raised in proportion to the number of hens in the breeding flock4 ,an average of #be mature birds raised per hen is considered very good in well-managed turkey flocks1 whereas in most general-farm flocks #aj to #ae mature birds per hen would be a good average4 ,the period of incubation of turkey eggs is #bh days1 and the method is much the same as that used with chicken eggs4 ,turkey eggs can be successfully hatched by turkey hens or chicken hens1 or in incubators4 ,hatching in incubators is best and is coming into more general use1 especially on farms and ranches where turkeys are raised in large numbers4 ,turkeys hatched and reared by hens1 especially chicken hens1 are likely to contract disease and become infested with parasites at an early age4 ,sitting turkey hens can cover from #ae to #ah eggs2 chicken hens1 from #g to #aj eggs4 ,,natural ,,incubation ,hatching the eggs under turkey hens is widely practiced and is often the most practical method4 ,when the turkey hen becomes broody and has remained consistently on the nest for #b or #c days1 she should be given her eggs4 ,if several turkey hens are sitting at the same time1 care should be taken that each gets back into her own nest4 ,nests are most conveniently arranged on the ground1 in boxes about #b feet square or in barrels4 ,if rats are a menace1 the nest should furnish protection against them and should always be made proof against larger animals so that the turkey hens will not be disturbed or the eggs destroyed4 ,the nests should be flat and shallow1 as deep nests may result in crushed eggs or crushed baby poults4 ,nests with damp sod bottoms and only a little straw to keep the eggs from rolling into the corners are generally satisfactory4 ,nesting batteries in which each hen is provided with a small individual run so that she can get off and on the nest at will are very good4 ,with this method the only care necessary is to see that feed and water are always before the hens and that each one remains broody4 ,if individual runs are not provided1 the hens should be taken off daily1 allowed to exercise and eat1 and then returned to their own nests4 ,plenty of water to drink and clean1 wholesome grain feed1 such as a mixture of wheat1 oats1 and corn1 should be provided1 and fresh green feed or good alfalfa hay should be made available4 ,turkey or chicken hens1 before being set on turkey eggs1 should be treated with sodium fluoride1 as previously directed4 ,,artificial ,,incubation ,correct incubator temperatures are much the same for turkey eggs as for chicken eggs1 but the greater size of the turkey eggs may necessitate some adjustment of the apparatus used in measuring the temperature4 ,this is true in nearly all kinds of incubators except those of the forced-draft type4 ,the relative position of the thermometer in the egg chamber is important in the accuracy with which it records the temperature4 ,for hatching turkey eggs the proper position of the thermometer is usually indicated in the directions that are furnished by the manufacturer of the incubator4 ,as a general rule1 with the bottom of the bulb #a-g_/h inches above the egg tray1 the thermometer should read #ajj4e ,f4 for the first week1 #aja4e the second1 #ajb4e the third1 and #ajc the last week4 ,forced-draft incubators are usually run at about #ii4e4 ,temperature can best be regulated1 however1 by using the thermometer that goes with the machine1 placing it in the position recommended by the manufacturer1 and then following the manufacturer's instructions for hatching turkey eggs1 making sure that the egg trays do not sag4 ,turkey eggs lose about #c4e percent less moisture during incubation than do chicken eggs1 notwithstanding the fact that turkey eggs require about #g days longer to hatch4 ,excellent hatches have been obtained when the loss of moisture based on the weight of the eggs just before they were set1 ranged within the following limits3 ,after #f days of incubation1 #b to #h percent2 after #ab days of incubation4 #d4a to #f percent2 after #ah days of incubation1 #f4b to #i percent2 and after #bd days of incubation1 #i to #ab percent4 ,on this basis1 a dozen turkey eggs of normal size should lose about #a ounce for every #f days of incubation4 ,the air cells of turkey eggs are smaller in proportion to the size of the eggs than are those of chicken eggs because normal evaporation in turkey eggs during incubation is considerably less than that in chicken eggs4 ,when more moisture is needed in the incubator it can be provided by putting in water pans1 or by placing burlap wicks in the pans4 ,when less moisture is needed the water pans may be removed or the ventilation increased4 ,as a rule the eggs should be turned at least #c and preferably #d to #f times daily4 ,four times daily1 every #f hours1 day and night1 is an excellent plan4 ,they should be tested preferably on the eighth or ninth and again on the twentieth to twenty-second days1 and all infertile eggs and those having dead germs should be removed4 ,cooling the eggs once or twice a day until they feel slightly cool to the face may be of value in small incubators4 ,turning and cooling should be discontinued about the twenty-third day1 and the incubator door should be darkened and kept closed until hatching is completed4 ,the poults may then be left in the incubators for about #bd hours or else put in the brooder and fed as soon as hatching is completed and the poults thoroughly dried off4 ,poults held in the incubator should be kept at about #ie ,f4 and should have a rough surface such as #a_/d-;inch-mesh hardware cloth to stand on4 ,keeping the incubator dark helps to keep the poults quiet and tends to prevent spraddle legs4 ,there is no good reason for withholding feed longer than #bd hours4 ,if feed is withheld for a much longer period when the poults are in the brooder1 they may eat the litter4 ,therefore1 poults should be fed when they are put in the brooder house4 ,shipping day-old poults in specially built strawboard boxes has been found to be satisfactory4 ,the container is larger than that ordinarily used for baby chicks1 #fj poults commonly being placed in each box4 ,,raising ,,poults ,there are few turkey-raising problems so important as brooding and rearing the poults1 because the greatest losses in turkey raising usually occur in the first few weeks of the birds' lives4 ,heavy mortality among the poults may indicate that the breeding stock used was low in vitality or was poorly managed1 but it more often indicates poor feeding or management of the poults4 ,the importance of keeping both the poults and the breeding turkeys on ground free from infection and away from chickens cannot be overemphasized4 ,improper brooding methods cause great losses1 because turkey poults are very susceptible to cold1 dampness1 overcrowding1 overheating1 unsuitable feeds1 and unsuitable litter1 and they succumb readily to attacks of diseases and parasites4 ,,brooding ,the poults may be brooded naturally by turkey hens or artificially by brooders4 ,brooding by turkey hens provides a never-failing source of heat1 allows the poults to be raised in small flocks1 and permits taking advantage of free-range conditions4 ,its disadvantages are that the young turkeys may contract disease or become infected with parasites from the hens and they may wander too far and be killed by storms or predatory animals4 ,artificial brooding makes it easier to maintain proper sanitation1 keeps down costs1 puts the poults more directly under the control of the operator1 and is more adaptable to large-scale production4 ,,natural ,,brooding ,brooding poults by turkey hens is not difficult1 although several details should receive careful attention4 ,as soon as the hatch is completed and the poults begin to run out from under the sitting hen1 transfer the hen and her brood to a coop4 ,a coop of simple design1 such as the ,a-shaped type 7fig4 #aj71 large enough to accommodate a turkey hen comfortably1 and well built to protect the brood from rains and natural enemies1 is all that is required4 ,it should be about #e feet long1 #c feet wide1 and #c feet high1 with a raised1 rat-proof floor4 ,provide good-sized screened openings for ventilation in hot weather4 ,these openings should be so fixed that rain will not beat into the coop4 ,have a separate coop for each hen1 and if there are several broods1 place the coops some distance apart on well-drained soil where the grass is fairly short4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aj4--;,a well-built brood coop which can be used either for setting a turkey hen or for raising a brood of poults4 ,for the first day or so it is well to confine the poults in the coop with the mother hen4 ,then make a small yard1 using boards or wire around the front of the coop1 and allow the poults to run in and out at will4 ,however1 they should not be allowed to run in long1 wet grass1 and during heavy rains they should be confined to the coop4 ,move the coop and yard to fresh ground every few days1 clean it once a week or more frequently1 and disinfect it occasionally4 ,when the poults are about a week old the mother hen may be allowed to roam with her brood1 but care should be taken to see that the entire brood returns in the evening and is protected at night from predatory animals4 ,good results may be obtained by keeping the mother hens confined and allowing the poults to range1 but the brood should be properly sheltered during rainstorms or damp weather1 which are likely to cause high mortality4 ,the poults may be kept with the mother hen for #c months or more1 but better results are usually obtained by moving them to a separate rearing field on clean ground when they are from #h to #aj weeks old4 ,if they have shelter and will roost1 they are better off without the hens after that age4 ,a turkey hen will raise up to #bj poults successfully1 but more than #bj can sometimes be placed with a hen in warm weather4 ,,artificial ,,brooding ,the practice of brooding poults artificially is becoming more popular and is usually more successful than brooding with turkey hens4 ,the methods used in artificial brooding are very similar to those used in raising chicks1 which are discussed in ,farmers' ,bulletin #aech1 ,incubation and ,brooding of ,chickens4 ,however1 one point of great importance in brooding poults artificially is to make sure that they do not crowd together while in the brooder house4 ,this can be avoided by frequent attention1 by providing an even temperature1 and by having good ventilation in the brooder house4 ,a colony house or permanent brooder house that is suitable for brooding chicks is equally suitable for turkeys1 but fewer birds should be put in the house1 as turkey poults are larger than chicks4 ,between #ge and #abe poults should be placed under one #eb-;inch hover in the average colony brooder ,house4 ,larger hovers and larger brooding rooms will accommodate #bbe poults or more1 but only an experienced operator should attempt2 to raise groups larger than #aej4 ,the prevailing custom is to use brooder stoves in portable colony houses or permanent brooding quarters4 ,the colony houses may be moved several times each season1 thereby giving the poults plenty of free range on clean soil4 ,since blackhead is closely associated with insanitary conditions1 special effort must be made to keep the houses1 runs1 and yards clean4 ,if permanent brooder houses are used1 a floor of concrete from #ab to #ad feet wide or a small gravel or cinder-floored yard is often used in front of the house4 ,a skeleton framework covered with to #a-;inch-mesh wire may also be used to floor the outside run either with the permanent brooder houses or with the colony houses 7fig4 #aa74 ,poults are regularly confined to this small yard for the first #h weeks and in some cases have been successfully reared to market age in it4 ,however1 a clean yard containing growing green feed is an advantage in brooding4 ,if it is used only for about #h weeks each year1 there seems little danger of contamination4 ,the brooder and brooder house should be operated to keep the young turkeys comfortable4 ,a dim light under or above the hover at night has a quieting effect on the poults4 ,the temperature should be high enough to keep the poults comfortable but not high enough to be detrimental to their health4 ,when the poults are first put into the colony house with the brooder stove1 the temperature #c inches above the floor under the hover should be from1 #ie to #aaj ,f4 ,this temperature should be lowered gradually as the poults get larger until they are #f or #h weeks old1 when they require little or no heat1 especially in the daytime4 ,it is a common practice in cold weather to keep the general room temperature at the floor rather high1 about #ge1 to prevent crowding4 ,the exact temperature1 however1 is of minor importance provided the poults are kept comfortable and good ventilation is maintained4 ,the poults1 if comfortable1 will be active and contented4 ,this is the real test of temperature4 ,all warm points and surfaces except those at the brooder itself should be eliminated4 ,free access from all parts of the brooder room to the hover must be provided4 ,all corners in the brooding room1 especially back of the hover1 should be rounded1 preferably by using #a_/b-;inch-mesh poultry wire4 ,a fence of the same material should be set up around the hover for the first #b or #c days until the poults become accustomed to their surroundings and learn to return to the source of heat4 ,flat roosts #b to #b-a_/b inches wide and slightly tilted up at the rear may be placed at graduated levels in the brooder house when the poults are from #b to #c weeks old1 to encourage them to begin roosting at an early age4 ,this provision lessens the danger of night crowding4 ,the front roost should be #f inches above the floor and each of the others a few inches higher than the one in front of it and about #h-a_/b inches apart1 center to center4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aa4--,young turkeys in a colony house equipped with wire-floored sun porch4 ,,sanitation ,the brooder house should be thoroughly cleaned and the litter changed once every #g days1 or oftener if disease occurs1 regardless of the type of litter used4 ,this cleaning schedule must be adhered to rigidly if blackhead1 coccidiosis1 and other diseases are to be prevented4 ,thoroughly clean and disinfect brooder houses and equipment used for turkeys at the end of each brooding season or oftener if disease occurs4 ,first clean the house thoroughly and burn all litter and droppings or haul them to land that is not to be used for poultry and from which there will be no drainage into the turkey range4 ,then scrub the floor and sides of the house1 if it is of board construction1 with boiling hot lye solution 7one-third of a can to a pail of water7 and allow them to dry out4 ,next1 thoroughly spray the entire inside of the building with a #c- or #d-percent solution of cresol compound or any other approved disinfectant4 ,give the same treatment once a year to the quarters occupied by the breeding stock4 ,the fire gun1 a large kerosene torch which involves the blow-torch principle1 has proved to be valuable in disinfecting1 if it is properly used and the house has been thoroughly cleaned4 ,,litter ,sand or gravel is recommended for litter for the first #b or #c weeks2 after that1 clean wheat straw is advised as a means of saving labor4 ,gravel or sand makes the best litter2 but with large flocks1 using it for more than #b or #c weeks may require too much labor4 ,straw or hay1 if used during the first #b weeks1 may cause a stunting of growth and a high mortality4 ,many growers have been successful in using1 as a substitute for litter1 #a_/b-;inch wire mesh stretched tightly a few inches above the floor of the house1 but it requires much labor to clean this1 and it seems to have no advantage over clean litter4 ,a wire-floored sun porch makes a good substitute1 for an outside yard during the brooding period although1 as previously stated1 a clean yard in grass is preferable4 ,,early ,,development ,the poults1 when first hatched1 are covered with soft down4 ,when they are about #aj days old1 feathers begin to appear where the wings join the body1 and in about #c weeks the tail feathers begin to appear4 ,from then on feather growth is rapid1 and when the poults are #b months old they are well feathered4 ,about the fifth week fleshy protuberances called caruncles begin to appear1 and by the seventh week they begin to extend down the neck4 ,the appearance of caruncles in the poults is termed shooting the red4 ,on the top of the head of both males and females a fleshy protuberance develops into what is called the dew bill or snood2 on males it is larger and more elastic than on females4 ,the sex of young turkeys can be distinguished by the appearance of a tuft of hairs on the breast of males between #c and #d months old4 ,the tuft usually does not appear on the breasts of the females until they are much older1 and the hairs of the tuft are shorter and finer than those on males4 ,the hock joints on the males are much broader and heavier than on the females4 ,the sex of well-grown ,bronze turkey poults can be distinguished by examining the mature breast feathers which appear at #ab to #ad weeks4 ,those of the males are bronze black with no white1 whereas the tip of those of the females have a narrow white edge4 ,day-old poults may be sexed as is done with baby chicks by examining that part of the sex organs that can be seen at the vent4 ,,marking ,when large numbers of turkeys are raised it is advisable to adopt some system of marking the poults that enables the grower to keep a record of the age and breeding of the different broods1 as this is of assistance in selecting early hatched birds for breeding and slaughter purposes4 ,such a system also makes it possible to separate the poults out of special matings from the rest of the flock or from neighboring flocks4 ,the poults may be marked by punching holes in the webs between the toes or slitting these webs4 ,different webs may be punched or slit for different broods1 and thus provide a record of all turkeys raised4 ,heavy1 aluminum1 clinch pigeon-wing bands are well adapted for marking young turkeys4 ,the bands can be applied in two ways3 ,according to the first1 the band is first made round and clinched1 then slipped over the baby poult's toes and flattened so that it will not come off but at the same time will allow for some growth of the leg4 ,when the poult is about #d weeks old the band is transferred to the wing by unclinching and inserting it in a hole made in the middle of the web between the first and second joints of the wing and about one-fourth inch from the edge4 ,the band is again clinched and made round so that it is not easily flattened and its lettering can be read easily4 ,according to the second method of application the band is put directly into the wing at hatching time1 a thin knife blade being used to make the hole for the band1 near the edge of the web and midway between the joints of the wing4 ,turkey poults1 when good sized1 may be tattooed on the wing for identification4 ,when the breeding turkeys are selected as they approach maturity1 heavy wing bands or heavy permanent leg bands may be used if the birds were not marked at an earlier age4 ,,feeding ,,growing ,,turkeys ,success in turkey raising depends mainly upon the combination of feeds given the young poults4 ,poor-quality feeds1 lack of vitamins1 and shortage of proteins1 especially if the poults are closely confined1 are the more common causes or failures4 ,some difficulty may be experienced in getting artificially brooded poults to eat1 as a young poult is much less active than a chick2 but if several small troughs are provided there should be no serious trouble from this cause4 ,dipping the beaks of backward poults in milk or water1 or feeding oatmeal flakes may induce them to eat4 ,poults brooded with hens1 of course1 do not need this special attention4 ,after the poults are from #f to #h weeks old they may get some of their living from a good range1 but the use of additional feed1 preferably a balanced ration of mash and scratch grain1 will give better growth and result in early maturity and greater returns above feed cost4 ,in natural brooding the turkey hen1 while confined to the coop1 should be fed mash and given some tender green feed4 ,water and gravel or grit should1 of course1 be kept before her all the time4 ,in feeding the hen and her brood it is advisable to feed the poults outside the coop and the hen inside in order to prevent the hen from wasting the feed intended for the poults4 ,for the first #bd to #gb hours after hatching1 poults can live without feed1 the yolk of the egg which they absorb before hatching being sufficient to maintain them for that length of time4 ,as soon as they are put into the brooder house or with the hen they should be fed4 ,if they are not fed for the first day or two they should be kept in a darkened coop or incubator4 ,however1 leaving the poults in a darkened incubator for only #ab to #bd hours and feeding them as soon as they are removed to the brooder seems to be better and is now becoming a general practice4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ab4--;,cross section of trough feeders for turkey poults of various ages2 ,a1 ,lath feeder for first week2 ,b1 feeder for second to fourth weeks2 ,c1 feeder for fifth to twelfth weeks4 ,feeder ,c will give better results if equipped with a reel1 at the top1 similar to that shown in figure #ad4 ,the first feed may be a mixture of finely chopped1 tender green feed1 and dry starting mash4 ,hard-boiled eggs1 ground or crumbled1 may also be added if desired4 ,this feed should be placed on clean boards or in little feeders made of laths as illustrated in figure #ab4 ,it is a good plan to keep the feed before the poults at all times from the very beginning so that the backward poults will learn to eat and their growth rate will not be retarded4 ,milk1 if not too high priced1 may be kept before them in easily cleaned crockery1 tin1 wooden1 or graniteware receptacles which the poults cannot get into or contaminate4 ,after the first few days the green feed1 unless it is available in the yards1 may be spread on top of the mash in the feeders4 ,turkey poults appear to be easily harmed by eating large quantities of tough1 fibrous litter or green feed2 hence the selection of a tender green feed is most important4 ,,feeding ,,during ,,the ,,first #f ,,to #h ,,weeks ,the use of a well-balanced1 all-mash ration is the simplest and most practical method of feeding poults during the first few weeks of their lives4 ,many commercial starting mashes are available or good home-mixed mashes may be used with excellent success4 ,the protein1 mineral1 and vitamin contents are the main points to be considered4 ,milk in some form is very desirable1 dried milk being preferable4 ,liquid milk is a fair feed1 but the dried form is preferable at least for starting rations4 ,the following starting mashes are recommended for feeding turkey poults during the first #f to #h weeks4 ,mash ,no4 #a1 fed without liquid milk1 is preferable4 ,,starting ,,mash ,,no4 #a ,parts by weight ,yellow corn 7ground7 #ag ,whole oats 7pulverized7 #ae ,meat scrap 7#ej- to #ee-percent protein7 #ab ,wheat bran #ab ,wheat middlings or shorts #ab ,dried milk #aj ,alfalfa leaf meal #aj ,fish meal 7#fj-percent protein7 #aj ,cod-liver oil #a-a_/b ,salt 7fine1 sifted7 #a_/b ------- ,total 7crude protein #be percent2 crude fiber #f percent7 #ajj ,,starting ,,mash ,,no4 #b ,parts by weight ,yellow corn 7ground7 #cc ,wheat middlings or shorts #bj ,wheat bran #aj ,whole oats 7pulverized7 #aj ,meat scrap 7#ej- to #ee-percent protein7 #aj ,alfalfa leaf meal #aj ,fish meal 7#fj-percent protein7 #e ,cod-liver oil #a-a_/b ,salt 7fine1 sifted7 #a_/b ------- ,total 7crude protein #ai percent2 crude fiber #f percent7 #ajj ,starting mash ,no4 #b is advised for feeding when liquid skim milk or buttermilk is kept before the poults at all times4 ,some water is furnished1 allowing one dish of water to several of milk4 ,these starting mashes are fed without scratch grain2 but water1 green feed1 and hard grit such as fine gravel1 coarse sand1 or commercial granite grit should be supplied4 ,the green feed should be chopped fine and scattered on top of the mash in the feeders once or twice daily1 allowing all the poults will consume in about half an hour4 ,tender alfalfa tops1 onion tops1 lettuce1 and tender1 short lawn clippings1 preferably those containing clover1 are all good feeds4 ,tough green feed should be avoided as it may cause impaction4 ,green feed as picked by the birds from the yards is most desirable4 ,in that case hand feeding is not necessary4 ,the mash in dry form should be kept before the poults at all times1 but only enough mash to last for a day or two should be supplied at one time4 ,about #a inch of feeder space per poult 7including both sides of the feeders7 is desirable4 ,this should be increased to #b or #c inches after about #b or #c weeks4 ,plans for feeders are shown in figure #ab4 ,,feeding ,,from #f ,,to #h ,,weeks ,,to ,,marketing ,,time ,rations for growing the poults after the age of #f to #h weeks may include mash and whole grain or liquid milk and whole grain4 ,many turkeys are grown and fattened on grain supplemented with whatever insects and green feed can be obtained from the range4 ,a better plan is to provide sufficient protein and minerals to give normal growth4 ,the minimum feeding advised is to allow each day one liberal feeding of a #bj-percent protein mash1 or to furnish all the milk the birds will drink with a feeding of whole grain4 ,either the mash or the liquid milk should be used with liberal feedings of whole grain for fattening in the fall4 ,good growing mashes suitable for different conditions may be made as follows3 ,,growing ,,mash ,,no4 #a ,parts by weight ,yellow corn or barley 7ground7 #be ,oats or grain sorghum 7ground7 #be ,wheat middlings or shorts #bj ,meat scrap 7#ej- to #ee-percent protein7 #ai ,wheat bran #aj ,salt 7fine1 sifted7 #a ------- ,total 7crude protein #ai to #ba percent7 #ajj ,,growing ,,mash ,,no4 #b ,parts by weight ,yellow corn or barley 7ground7 #cb ,soybean oil meal #bf ,wheat middlings or shorts #ae ,wheat bran #aj ,oats or grain sorghum 7ground7 #aj ,steamed bonemeal #d ,ground oystershell or limestone #b ,salt 7fine1 sifted7 #a ------- ,total 7crude protein #ai-a_/b percent7 #ajj ,,growing ,,mash ,,no4 #c ,parts by weight ,yellow corn 7ground7 #ce ,meat scrap 7#ej- to #ee-percent protein7 #ae ,wheat bran #aj ,wheat middlings or shorts #aj ,oats or barley 7ground7 #aj ,alfalfa leaf meal #aj ,dried milk #i ,salt 7fine1 sifted7 #a ------- ,total 7crude protein #bj to #ba percent7 #ajj ,,growing ,,mash ,,no4 #d ,parts by weight ,yellow corn 7ground7 #bj ,wheat middlings 7standard or brown7 #ae ,oats 7finely ground7 #ae ,wheat bran #aj ,alfalfa leaf meal #aj ,yellow corn gluten meal #aj ,dried milk #aj ,meat scrap 7#ej- to #ee-percent protein7 #e ,steamed bonemeal #b ,ground oystershell or limestone #b ,salt 7fine1 sifted7 #a ------- ,total 7crude protein #bj percent2 crude fiber #f percent7 #ajj ,these growing mashes are all fed with scratch grains consisting of such grains as corn1 wheat1 barley1 and oats4 ,corn1 wheat1 or barley may be used as the only scratch grain except with growing mash ,no4 #d1 which should contain from #ej to #ge percent of oats4 ,a good grain mixture may be made of #dj parts of corn1 #dj parts of wheat1 and #bj parts of oats4 ,mashes #a and #b are for flocks having access to a good green range4 ,in mash ,no4 #b soybean oil meal1 which has proved to be a good source of protein and is also good for fattening1 is substituted for meat scrap4 ,mash ,no4 #c is a more complete ration and is advised for all conditions where the turkeys do not have an abundance of growing green feed4 ,other combinations of grains and byproducts may be used successfully1 the exact selection depending largely on availability and cost of feeds4 ,it is best to use at least two grains1 and preferably three or four1 in the ration4 ,corn is the grain most commonly used in feeding turkeys4 ,not more than #fj percent of the entire growing ration should consist of oats or barley or a combination of the two4 ,yellow corn tends to produce a deep-yellow skin color while white corn1 barley1 and wheat produce turkeys with light-colored skins4 ,if the birds have all the milk they will drink along with whole grains1 they will consume enough milk to make good growth1 if no water is fed4 ,a mixture of #cj percent of corn1 #cj percent of oats1 #bj percent of wheat1 and #bj percent of barley is satisfactory2 so is a free choice of several grains4 ,however1 the whole-grain and liquid-milk method works well only when the birds are on a good1 green range and is practical to use only when milk products are cheap4 ,some loss from pendulous crops is to be expected when liquid milk is consumed liberally and this is one of the chief objections to its use4 ,the milk receptacles should be set on a wire screen and covered to protect them from the weather and from contamination with droppings4 ,sanitation is especially important when milk is used4 ,,general ,,suggestions ,,for ,,feeding ,feed should be kept before the birds constantly from hatching to market age4 ,during the first #f weeks feed starting mash4 ,during the seventh and eighth weeks feed a mixture of equal parts of the starting and growing mashes4 ,from #i to #ab weeks feed the growing mash4 ,from #ac weeks to marketing feed growing mash and scratch grain4 ,no scratch grain is fed during the first #ab weeks4 ,if a change is made from mash to the whole-grain and liquid-milk method1 cut down the mash gradually until the poults learn to drink the milk and to eat the whole grain freely4 ,cod-liver oil is necessary in starting rations1 but as a rule it is not necessary in a growing ration unless the birds are confined4 ,in that case1 about #a percent should be added to the mash4 ,a good grade of plain cod-liver oil is advised for use in turkey feeds4 ,fish meal1 though an excellent feed1 may impart an undesirable flavor to turkey meat4 ,fish meal and cod-liver oil should be omitted from the fattening ration during the last #h weeks before the birds are marketed4 ,birds should not be moved1 or feeding arrangements radically changed in the last #f weeks before marketing4 ,feeding the growing mash wet is a common practice in some localities4 ,like the dry-mash and scratch-grain system1 it produces fine-quality turkeys although the labor in feeding may be greater4 ,with this method the turkeys are fed all they will eat of a moist1 crumbly mash placed in troughs with sufficient trough space provided to accommodate all the flock at one time4 ,only as much mash as the birds will clean up in #cj to #fj minutes is fed twice daily4 ,tail picking seldom occurs during moist-mash feeding if the ration is complete4 ,grit may be furnished in the form of commercial granite grit or coarse sand for little poults and fine gravel for the larger birds4 ,limestone grit does not serve well as grinding material and is unnecessary with the rations as listed4 ,the poults may be put on the rearing ground when they are from #h to #ab weeks old4 ,an alfalfa field is an ideal rearing ground and may be used as a permanent1 fenced1 rearing range divided into #b or #c sections4 ,when the rearing range is divided into #b sections1 #a may be used for #b seasons in succession while the other is rested for #b seasons4 ,a better plan is to divide it into #c parts1 allowing #a season's use followed by #b seasons' rest for each of the #c sections4 ,with portable houses and fences a method known as the ,minnesota plan 7p4 #cg7 permits the turkey poults to be moved to a new section once a week and to an entirely new plot each year4 ,land on which no poultry of any kind have run for #b years and on which no poultry manure has been spread1 may be considered clean ground4 ,the feed should not be put on the ground but in hoppers or troughs which should be moved frequently or set on wire-covered framework to prevent contamination with droppings4 ,it is very important that the drinking water be fresh and clean and that the growing turkeys should not have access to stagnant water pools4 ,watering dishes should be placed on wire-covered platforms with a device to prevent contamination from the birds' perching on the top or sides4 ,the limited-range method with full feeding1 as described1 is recommended in preference to free range with limited feeding4 ,however1 conditions sometimes demand that free range be permitted1 and limited feeding practiced4 ,in such cases1 when natural feed is abundant1 good results can be obtained by feeding the poults1 after they are from #h to #aj weeks old1 only once daily1 as previously suggested4 ,any of the growing mashes previously listed should make a good supplement to range feeds4 ,this extra feed will tend to keep the birds nearer home and keep them growing at a reasonably good rate4 ,scratch grains should also be fed and as marketing time approaches1 will be eaten more liberally by the birds4 ,for turkeys on free range1 plenty of water in convenient locations should be provided4 ,water helps to maintain good health and may help to prevent the condition known as crop bound4 ,turkeys which are well fed should make increases in weight comparable to those given in table #b1 which gives the average weights1 at various ages1 ox ,bronze turkeys raised in an experiment conducted at the ,united ,states ,range ,livestock ,experiment ,station at ,miles ,city1 ,mont4 ,these birds were fed starting and growing mashes containing about #bb percent of protein4 ,table #b4--;,average weights of ,bronze turkey poults from hatching time to market age ------------------------------------ ,average live weight -------------------- ,age ,males ,females ----------------------------------- ,pounds ,pounds ,newly hatched #j4ac #j4ac #b weeks #j4cc #j4cj #d weeks #j4hf #j4ge #h weeks #c4ac #b4fh #ab weeks #f4fd #e4bh #af weeks #aj4ce #g4fg #bj weeks #ad4dg #i4fg #bd weeks #ah4bc #aa4ae #bf weeks #bj4ah #ab4jd #bh weeks #ba4ce #ab4dh ----------------------------------- ,,feed ,,consumption ,,and ,,cost ,,of ,,growing ,the quantity and cost of feed used in raising a flock of #aef ,bronze turkeys in ,montana in #aicd are shown in tables #c and #d4 ,these poults 7#gj males and #hf females7 had well-balanced dry mashes 7containing #bb percent of protein7 before them at all times and scratch grain beginning with the second week4 ,the birds were allowed to range on #b-;acre nonirrigated lots after they were #h weeks of age4 ,the costs were based on local feed prices in ,miles ,city1 ,mont41 in #aicd4 ,by using the data in tables #b and #c1 the feed consumption and cost for an average turkey can be estimated for any period of growth4 ,table #c4--;,average feed consumption and cost per pound of gain in #d-week periods for #gj male and #hf female ,bronze turkeys in #aicd at ,miles ,city1 ,mont4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,cost of feed ,feed consumed per pound for each of gain in live weight pound of ,age -------------------------- gain in ,mash ,scratch ,total live weight grain ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,pounds,pounds ,pounds ,cents #a to #d weeks #b4dd #j4ba #b4fe #e4i #e to #h weeks #b4da #j4af #b4eg #e4g #i to #ab weeks #b4db #j4dc #b4he #f4a #ac to #af weeks #c4dg #j4db #c4ij #h4h #ag to #bj weeks #c4je #a4eb #d4eg #i4h #ba to #bd weeks #c4ji #c4de #f4ed #ac4e #be to #bh weeks #b4df #e4fd #h4aj #af4a ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,table #d4--;,average feed consumption per bird in periods for #gj male and #hf female ,bronze turkeys in #aicd at ,miles ,city1 ,mont4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,age ,mash ,scratch ,total grain ---------------------------------------- -- ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds #a to #d weeks #a4ci #j4ab #a4ea #e to #h weeks #d4de #j4bi #d4gd #i to #ab weeks #f4fg #a4ai #g4hf #ac to #af weeks #i4if #a4ba #aa4ag #ag to #bj weeks #i4je #d4eb #ac4eg #ba to #bd weeks #g4fd #h4ec #af4ag #be to #bh weeks #e4ai #aa4hi #ag4jh ---------------------------------------- -- ,using the data contained in tables #b and #c1 it will be found that it took approximately #if pounds of mash and scratch feed to raise a #ba-pound tom to #bh weeks of age1 and about #eg-a_/b pounds of mash and grain to raise a #ab-a_/b-pound hen to that age1 or about #d4f pounds of feed for each pound of live weight1 when practically all feed was furnished4 ,it took about #d pounds of feed for each pound of live weight up to #bd weeks of age4 ,the birds had access to a moderate sized range lot containing native grasses1 but very little feed was obtained from it during the #aicd season4 ,,deformed ,,breastbones ,crooked and dented breastbones in turkeys are common and sometimes cause a considerable loss to growers when the birds are marketed1 since a severely crooked or very deeply dented breastbone causes the carcass to be graded as no4 #b4 ,it is generally believed that faulty nutrition causes most of the deformed breastbones1 although level roosts narrower than #b-a_/b inches have been known to cause deformities of this kind4 ,if turkeys are supplied with green feed1 fed liberally on one of the rations suggested1 provided with tilted #b by #d roosts or medium-sized poles 7see page #ce71 and have plenty of direct sunlight1 there will be few crooked breastbones among them4 ,a small number 7from #a to #b percent7 is to be expected as it seems to be impossible to eliminate them entirely4 ,the addition to the ration of steamed bone meal and limestone grit or oyster shell as a mineral reinforcement is recommended by some poultrymen4 ,however1 the various rations1 as listed1 supply adequate quantities of the bone-building ingredients4 ,further additions are unnecessary and may even be harmful4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ac4--,mash hopper for feeding young turkeys #ab weeks old or older4 ,the end plan of the same hopper is shown in figure #ad4 ,,equipment ,,for ,,raising ,,turkeys ,,containers ,,for ,,feed ,,and ,,water ,during the first #c or #d weeks after the poults hatch1 two-piece crockery fountains are excellent milk containers4 ,for water1 galvanized metal containers are more convenient4 ,when the poults are from #d to #aj weeks old1 water pails1 metal troughs1 or shallow tin or graniteware pans provided with wire or wooden guards are more satisfactory than fountains4 ,a good method is to place the water or milk outside the wall of the brooder room so that the poults can drink it through a wire screen4 ,from the age of #i weeks until market age1 a supply of running water is preferable1 although ordinary water pails set inside the range house on the wire floor or nails or tubs set outside the fence1 with openings in the wire for the birds' heads1 are satisfactory4 ,changing the position of the watering devices every few days or setting them on wire-covered platforms will aid in providing sanitary conditions near the watering places where filth is likely to accumulate rapidly4 ,a watertight barrel provided with a drip faucet and a trough also makes a good watering device4 ,shade should be provided to prevent the drinking water from getting hot4 ,suitable equipment for feeding mash and scratch feed is shown in figure #ab4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ad4--;,diagram of end of mash hopper for feeding young turkeys4 ,side view of same hopper shown in figure #ac4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ae4--;,a waste-proof1 portable1 outdoor shelter for feeder4 ,the wire floor helps to prevent contamination from the soil and the roof provides shelter when the birds are eating4 ,illustration3 ,figure #af4--,large range house for turkeys4 ,this type is equipped with a wire-floored alleyway1 as shown in figures #ag and #ah4 ,the antiflies on the roof prevent turkeys from roosting there4 ,small trough feeders made of lath 7fig4 #ab1 ,a7 may be used from the first day in the brooder and until the poults are a week old4 ,such feeders are made with #a lath for the bottom1 #b for the sides1 small sections for end pieces1 and another lath for a guard to keep poults out of the trough4 ,for poults from #h days to #d weeks old it is better to use large trough feeders made of #a_/b- by #b-a_/d-;inch boards for the sides with a top guard consisting of a free-turning reel4 ,baling wire stretched inside the troughs 7fig4 #ab1 ,c7 aid in preventing waste of feed and also serve as beak cleaners for the birds4 ,to prevent waste1 it is better not to fill most trough feeders more than two-thirds full4 ,in the brooder house it is important to place feeders on a wire platform made of #a-;inch mesh1 #af-;gage wire1 and #a- by #d- or #a- by #f-;inch boards4 ,poults #e to #ab weeks old should have trough feeders made of #a_/b- by #e-;inch boards for the sides1 with a free-turning reel at the top4 ,for poults from #ab weeks old to market age the feeders should be even larger1 as illustrated in figures #ac and #ad4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ag4--;,end elevation of turkey range house with alleyway4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ah4--;,floor plan of turkey range house with alleyway4 ,after the age of about #ab weeks1 and when feeding is done under shelter1 use a flat-bottomed trough from #ab to #ah feet long or several short feeders made with a #a- by #aj-;inch board as a bottom1 #a- by #h-;inch boards as sides1 and with a guard of #a- by #d-;inch center piece topped with a free-turning roller or reel 7fig4 #ad74 ,for outside feeding a similar trough is advisable4 ,it should be divided into two sections each #f to #i feet long1 set on #b- by #h- or #b- by #aj-;inch skids covered with #a-;inch hexagonal mesh1 #af-;gage wire or heavy gage #a-;inch-mesh hardware cloth1 and provided with a gable roof and side boards to protect the feed and the birds from sun1 wind1 and rain 7fig4 #ae74 ,the troughs can be removed to be used as inside feeders and for replenishing the feed4 ,two #i-;foot feeders are sufficient for #aej to #age birds4 ,inside feeding is preferred whenever possible to provide it4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ai4--;,interior of #aj- by #be-;foot ran so house showing wire floor and wire under roosts4 ,figure #ag shows the wire nailed on the underside of the roost supports4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bj4--,this shed-roof range house will accommodate from #acj to #aej growing turkeys to market age4 ,the plan of this house is shown in figure #ba4 ,,houses ,,and ,,fences ,a verminproof1 weatherproof roosting shelter for growing poults is an important piece of equipment4 ,a square or rectangular structure with a shed or gable roof makes a satisfactory range house4 ,a shed roof is more easily constructed4 ,the use of wire guards called antiflies will keep turkeys off the roof4 ,allowing for a #e-;foot wire-floored alleyway to hold the feeders and waterers1 a house about #aj feet wide and #be feet long 7figs4 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 and #ai7 will accommodate #aej to #age growing turkeys to market age2 a similar house about #af by #ah feet is large enough for #ajj birds4 ,feeding and watering can be done inside4 ,for a permanent house1 a height of #e or #e-a_/b feet at the caves and about #h feet at the front 7or the peak1 if gable-roofed7 is sufficient4 ,if no alleyway is used1 a house #i by #bf feet containing roosts only should care for #acj to #aej turkeys to market age 7figs4 #bj and #ba74 ,illustration3 ,figure #ba4--;,end elevation of range shelter for turkeys4 ,this type is built without an alleyway and measures #i by #bj feet4 ,with the latter type of house1 feeding and watering must be done outside1 preferably with a covered feeder1 as shown in figure #ae4 ,a cheaper portable coop1 not so high and with framework of lighter material1 is shown in figure #bb4 ,this coop is built on #d- by #aj-;inch skids and is equipped with raised wire floor and with roosts4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bb4--,portable turkey range houses equipped with wire floors and antiflies4 ,the house on the left is #af by #bj feet and has a feed storage room at one end4 ,a permanent house should face south or in a southerly direction so that the front is not exposed to storms4 ,board sides on the north and west are desirable4 ,practically open-air conditions1 combined with good protection1 may be obtained by leaving wire-covered openings about #b or #b-a_/b feet wide across the north1 west1 and east sides at about the level of the roosts4 ,these ,openings should be made closable by shiplap doors that may be partly opened in warm weather and closed during cold weather and storms4 ,the south side may be left entirely open except for #a-;inch hexagonal mesh of #af- or #ah-;gage wire and enough boards to give strength to the building and protect the birds from rainstorms4 ,as mentioned on page #bi1 desirable roosts may be made of #b by #d's with edges beveled and laid flatwise but slightly titled up at about the angle of a quarter-pitch roof in the direction toward which the birds are likely to face4 ,roosts made of #b by #d's or other sawed lumber may cause dents in the breastbones if they are laid perfectly flat4 ,smooth poles #b-a_/b to #e inches in diameter also make good roosts4 ,material less than #b-a_/b inches wide is not recommended for turkeys half grown or older4 ,roosts should be placed preferably #bj to #bd inches apart 7center to center71 about #ad inches from the wall and lengthwise or the building4 ,those nearest the back wall of the shelter should be the highest1 and each of the others should be about #f inches lower than the one back of it4 ,this arrangement insures an even distribution of the birds on the roosts without crowding4 ,allow about #a foot of roost space per bird as they require as much space as this when approaching market age4 ,the space beneath the roosts should be fenced off and covered with #a-a_/b-;inch1 #ah-;gage wire mesh to prevent the birds from getting at the droppings4 ,this wire should be placed either on the under side of the roost supports 7fig4 #ag7 or on special wire supports 7fig4 #ba71 and it should be #f to #ab inches below the top of the roosts4 ,when a wire-floored alleyway is used1 removable vertical panels made of #a- by #d-;inch boards covered with the #a-a_/b-;inch hexagonal1 #ah-;gage wire mesh should be placed directly under the roosts which border the alleyways in such a way as to close the opening underneath the roosts 7fig4 #ai74 ,in very dry regions1 it the space underneath the roosts and wire floors is entirely enclosed1 the droppings may be allowed to accumulate throughout the entire growing season to save labor4 ,in damp climates1 however1 the droppings should be removed frequently4 ,wire floors may be used1 as described1 in the alleyways of roosting shelters to provide a place for inside feeding and watering and may also be used in the outside yards when close-confinement rearing is practiced4 ,a practical method of construction is to make the floor in removable sections1 each about #e feet square4 ,the framework should be made of #b by #d's placed on edge1 with the top edge beveled to present about three-fourths inch of surface2 the center supports may be of #a by #d's1 also placed on edge1 spaced #ab to #af inches apart1 and laid lengthwise of the alleyway 7fig4 #ai74 ,this frame should be covered with #a-;inch hexagonal1 #af-;gage wire mesh or chain-link fabric wire4 ,hardware cloth in a #a-;inch mesh made of #ad-;gage wire is perhaps more satisfactory and will last longer1 but the first cost would be greater4 ,the wire may be fastened with eight-penny nails and #a-;inch staples alternated1 one for each strand of wire1 but fastened only to the top or sides of the #b- by #d-;inch framework1 not to the center supports4 ,the sections should be set loosely in the alleyway and held #a inch apart by nails driven into the sides of the framework4 ,supports made of either #b by #d or #b by #f inch material should be placed on both sides of the alleyway1 directly under the outer framework of the floor panels1 and blocked up so as to hold the floor frames #a foot above the ground4 ,since hen turkeys fly well1 it is sometimes difficult to keep them in their runways4 ,clipping the large outer feathers 7called primaries7 of one wing will do much to prevent the turkeys from flying1 but it is usually necessary to put a #c- or #d-;foot guard made of #a by #d or #b by #b inch material and lightweight poultry wire around the edge of the roof of the roosting shelters1 on gates1 and on the fences themselves for #b or #c rods out from the buildings4 ,whenever practicable1 these antiflies should be slanted in toward the yard 7figs4 #af and #bj74 ,clipping the wings of the toms is undesirable and is usually unnecessary when antiflies are properly constructed4 ,a #e-;foot fence is usually high enough to confine turkeys1 except near buildings and over gates1 where the fence should be #h or #i feet high4 ,even a #d-;foot fence has been reported as satisfactory by some growers4 ,steel posts and square-mesh poultry fencing of full standard weight make good turkey fences4 ,,protection ,,against ,,dogs ,dogs cause heavy losses among turkeys in many localities4 ,turkey houses must be well constructed to exclude dogs4 ,wire of #af-;gage to #ah-;gage weight is necessary1 and it must be very tightly nailed4 ,the #af-;gage weight should be used for the outside of buildings where it comes close to the ground4 ,confining the turkeys to their shelters all night and through the early morning hours is frequently a necessary precaution unless an attendant is present or protection is afforded by a good watchdog4 ,fences for confining poultry are not always entirely dog-proof4 ,high roosts1 provided by some growers1 give protection at night1 but in the early morning hours when the turkeys are off the roosts1 an attendant should be in the vicinity4 ,feeding the flock inside the shelter is advantageous when turkeys must be confined during the early morning hours as this greatly increases the feeding period4 ,,devices ,,that ,,prevent ,,tail-,,feather ,,picking ,tail-feather picking seems to begin by the birds' using each others' tail feathers to clean their beaks of mash4 ,although it does not ordinarily damage the birds for market1 the habit ruins their appearance and decreases their salability as breeding stock4 ,it is not always possible to prevent tail-feather picking entirely1 especially in flocks raised in confinement or in small range lots1 but it may be prevented partially by providing tightly stretched wire in or over the mash feeders4 ,baling wire stretched tightly or strips of ordinary light-weight poultry wire may be used4 ,feeding the mash moist will also aid in preventing tail-feather picking4 ,the kind of mash may also be a factor4 ,a rather coarse mash containing considerable ground corn1 some bran1 and some coarsely ground oats or barley1 including the hulls1 seems to be more palatable than a fine mash and is not so likely to clog the beaks of the birds4 ,,range ,,management ,,of ,,growing ,,turkeys ,in ,minnesota a successful system of moving poults around the colony brooder house has been devised and is giving excellent results4 ,the house is built with a small opening in each side1 and a portable frame is so placed that the ground on each side of the house can be used as a small outside run4 ,the birds are allowed to range to the south for from #e to #aj days2 then the house is thoroughly cleaned and the range changed to the west2 and so on until the land on all four sides of the house has been utilized4 ,the house is then moved to a clean spot1 and the rotation is repeated4 ,after the birds are from #h to #ab weeks old the house is again moved to a clean place4 ,turkeys may be raised successfully on a small acreage if they are moved to a clean area each week or two and to an entirely different1 clean area each year4 ,other systems of yarding have been devised1 but the value of most of them has not been proved experimentally4 ,some system of rotation is necessary on a farm where turkeys are raised regularly4 ,for fenced ranges where the semiconfinement method is to be used1 the ,minnesota plan is entirely satisfactory for small flocks4 ,for large flocks the use of large yards in the double or triple yarding system has given good results4 ,under this system1 after #h or #aj weeks of brooding1 the poults are put on range1 which may be divided into #b or #c equal parts4 ,the range used is changed yearly or biennially either by moving the equipment or by having permanent equipment for each range4 ,in the absence of fences1 turkeys may be herded so that they are protected from enemies and kept within the clean area allotted to them each season4 ,the use of portable fences and portable roosting shelters enables the grower to move the entire flock to clean range each season or several times each season4 ,this method is practical where large areas of suitable range are available1 so that the birds can be reared each season on land that has not been used1 or on which no droppings have been spread1 for the preceding #b years4 ,in wet climates it is probably safer to allow a rest of #c or #d years4 ,enough range should be provided so that plenty of growing green feed is available in each yard at all times during the season4 ,when the same ground is used for a whole season1 and rainfall or irrigation is adequate1 an acre of grass pasture should provide range and green feed for about #ajj growing turkeys4 ,an acre of alfalfa or clover would probably provide feed for #aej birds1 under favorable conditions4 ,in arid or semiarid sections1 during very dry seasons1 it may be advisable to provide fresh1 green feed1 or legume hay in abundance to discourage the turkeys from eating undesirable green feed on the range4 ,a complete ration must be provided for such conditions4 ,where the range is limited to small areas of fenced land1 the use of a number of permanent range houses set in a row1 preferably #bjj feet or more apart1 in the middle of the range and along the dividing fence is a practical method of range utilization4 ,the dividing fence should be double so as to provide a neutral area between the two ranges4 ,under this plan the birds can use one-half of the range for #b years in succession and the other half for #b years without the buildings being moved4 ,if individual range lots are desired for each flock of birds1 permanent range shelters arranged on either side of a service lane1 each with double or triple yards1 are a solution to the clean-range problem4 ,if double yards are used for each house or if the range as a whole is divided into #b sections1 a rotation of #b seasons of use1 followed by #b seasons of rest may be the best plan4 ,where #c yards for each house can be arranged or where the whole range is divided into #c large yards1 each yard can be used for #a season and allowed #b seasons of rest4 ,under any system of permanent yards1 certain sanitary precautions are essential4 ,among these are the following3 7#a7 ,select such a location or modify the one available in such a way that there is as little drainage as possible from the yards that are being used to those that are being rested2 7#b7 each season1 or several times each season1 remove the accumulations of droppings from the ground around the houses1 feeders1 and water vessels2 7#c7 grade up around each house with fresh earth each season or whenever it is necessary1 to prevent water from standing near the buildings2 7#d7 fill in or drain all depressions so that water does not stand for any length of time anywhere on the range2 7#e7 use antiflies and1 if necessary1 clip one wing of each bird to keep it from flying into and contaminating the yards that are being rested2 7#f7 prevent birds or persons from going in and out of yards that are being rested2 7#g7 move feeders and water vessels frequently1 feed and water the birds inside the range shelters on the wire floors1 or place the feeders and water vessels outside on roofed wire platforms so that the droppings that accumulate near them will not become sources of infection2 7#h7 use contamination-proof feeders and water vessels2 7#i7 see that flies do not breed extensively in or near the houses and feeders2 7#aj7 place wide boards set into the ground1 an inch or two at the bottom of the fences and extending for about #aj yards out from the buildings to prevent refuse spreading to the adjoining yards4 ,when birds are herded on free range some growers move the roosts1 feeders1 and water vessels to clean ground several times each season1 whereas others use permanent roosting and feeding quarters and bring the birds back each night4 ,in either case excessive contamination at any one point should be prevented so far as possible4 ,,fattening ,,turkeys ,,for ,,market ,in general1 the best method of raising turkeys is to keep them growing at a normal rate so that at the age of about #f months they are in prime market condition1 no special fattening period being necessary4 ,such a method calls for liberal feeding of balanced rations throughout the growing period4 ,a good range will supply a large quantity of feed at a very reasonable cost1 but not even the best range will furnish enough of the right kinds of feed to produce large numbers of prime turkeys without supplementary feeding4 ,in many instances1 however1 turkey growers believe that it is more profitable to force the birds to forage for most of their livelihood until a few weeks before marketing time4 ,a good plan for fattening these range-grown birds is to begin early in the fall to feed the birds mash and scratch1 allowing them all they will eat of both4 ,as they approach maturity they will eat mostly scratch grain4 ,the mash may be fed moist or dry4 ,milk is an excellent fattening feed1 and if plenty of liquid milk is available it may be fed with scratch grain only and no mash4 ,some turkey raisers feed equal parts of corn1 wheat1 and oats during the first part of the fattening season and gradually change to all corn as the weather becomes cooler4 ,this system is satisfactory if plenty of milk can be fed in addition4 ,without milk or some other high-protein feed1 the results are likely to be unsatisfactory4 ,if too heavy feeding of corn alone is begun before the range turkeys become accustomed to it1 the disease known as scours often results1 especially if new corn is used4 ,old corn is a much better feed than new corn1 but the new crop is safe after it is well matured and dry4 ,as a general rule1 turkeys that have been raised on free range cannot be successfully fattened in close confinement4 ,they may be successfully fattened1 however1 if they are confined to moderate-sized yards containing growing alfalfa or other green crops or stacks of alfalfa or clover hay4 ,there is no advantage in confining turkeys which have been raised in semiconfinement to smaller quarters for fattening4 ,,marketing ,,turkeys ,the marketing season for the bulk of the turkey crop is usually comparatively short1 extending from the middle of ,november to the latter part of ,december4 ,there is an increasing demand in the fall and winter and even in late summer for young turkeys4 ,many turkey raisers sell their birds alive to poultry dealers1 who either dress them or ship them alive to city dealers4 ,in sections where turkeys are grown in large numbers1 as in ,texas1 dressing plants have been built by cooperative associations and poultry dealers who collect the live birds and dress them for the various city markets4 ,as soon as possible after reaching the dressing plant1 the turkeys are killed1 dry-picked1 cooled1 and packed in barrels or boxes for shipment4 ,farmers near the city markets often dress their turkeys and sell them direct either to the consumer or to the city dealer4 ,in territory adjacent to large cities marketing both live and dressed birds at roadside stands has become common4 ,,when ,,to ,,market ,experiments with ,bronze turkeys have indicated that well-fed1 young birds of this popular variety are marketed to best advantage at from #bd to #bh weeks of age1 if they are in good flesh and reasonably free from short pinfeathers4 ,if they are kept longer than #bh weeks1 the cost of maintenance and gains and the extra labor of their care cause the costs of production to rise rapidly4 ,under ordinary conditions #bf to #bh weeks is the best age for marketing full-fed ,bronze turkey toms4 ,for turkeys fed for rapid growth #bd weeks is a more profitable age if the birds are ready for market then1 as is often the case with young hens which mature more quickly than the toms4 ,data obtained on more than #fjj birds at the ,united ,states ,range ,livestock ,experiment ,station at ,miles ,city1 ,mont41 show that at #bd weeks of age the feed cost of producing live turkeys was #a cent per pound lower than at #bf weeks of age1 and #b4e cents per pound lower than at #bh weeks4 ,these figures1 of course1 will vary in different years1 depending on the price of feeds4 ,besides this cost for feed the extra labor in caring for the birds1 often during unfavorable weather1 must be considered4 ,with the expansion of the turkey industry1 the chain stores have become one of the large wholesale buyers of turkeys4 ,they desire various sizes1 according to the nature of the patronage in different localities1 and as a result create a considerable market demand for hens and small toms4 ,this is particularly true of their ,thanksgiving and ,christmas trade4 ,other channels of trade1 such as restaurants1 hotels1 steamships1 and railroad lines1 prefer large toms4 ,as turkeys become more generally used throughout the year an increase in the trade for small birds may be expected4 ,,selecting ,,birds ,,for ,,market ,practically all turkeys that are full fed are ready for market at from #bf to #bh weeks of age1 and in many cases at #bd weeks1 depending on sex1 breeding1 feeding1 and weather4 ,however1 with range birds on limited feed1 the grower can probably afford to hold his turkeys longer than #bf or #bh weeks1 if necessary1 because the feed costs were low during the growing period4 ,it is1 of course1 very important to market only turkeys that are fat and free from small pinfeathers4 ,sufficient protein and minerals in the feed during the fall months are essential to proper growth and economical gains as well as to proper feather development4 ,a prime turkey1 especially a young one1 is not expected to be excessively fat1 but it must have an even covering of fat so that the skin appears white or yellowish white rather than dark or bluish4 ,the breast must be meaty and the whole body free from small pinfeathers1 bruises1 and abrasions4 ,great care should be taken1 therefore1 not to allow the birds to bruise themselves by flying or running against obstructions2 they should be handled gently and not frightened4 ,,withholding ,,feed ,,before ,,slaughter ,birds with feed in their crops are usually graded as no4 #b and sold at a lower price because feed in the crop spoils readily1 and also detracts from the appearance of the carcass4 ,mash feed passes out of the crop quickly so that crops will be empty if the mash is removed at dusk on the day before slaughter and no scratch grain fed on that day4 ,if the birds are kept without feed for more than #ah or #bd hours they may eat soil1 litter1 droppings1 or feathers1 and thus defeat the main purpose of withholding feed4 ,this applies especially to old hens4 ,if the birds are not to be killed until late afternoon or evening1 give them a light feed of mash early in the morning4 ,scratch grain should be fed only until about #ah hours before slaughter4 ,feeding should always be planned so that feed is not withheld more than #bd hours4 ,all birds being held for slaughter should have free access to water up to killing time4 ,,killing ,,and ,,picking ,when the bird is to be killed1 hang it up by the feet1 holding its head in one hand and taking care not to compress the veins in the neck4 ,open the mouth and cut the jugular vein far back in the throat1 just below the base of the skull4 ,for this purpose use the point of a sharp1 narrow-bladed knife4 ,as soon as profuse bleeding begins1 thrust the knife up through the groove in the roof of the mouth and into the rear lobe of the brain at the back of the skull so as to render the bird unconscious4 ,when the correct stick is obtained1 the bird usually gives a peculiar squawk1 the tail feathers spread1 and all the feathers are loosened by a quivering of the muscles4 ,after sticking1 continue to hold the bird's head and attach a blood cup to the lower jaw4 ,the bird's wings should never be locked1 as this often results in their being broken1 which usually reduces the bird to a low grade4 ,likewise1 no attempt should be made to hold the bird's wings tightly4 ,blood cups weighing #e pounds are needed for large birds1 whereas cups weighing #c to #d pounds are best for small and medium-sized birds4 ,in dry picking it is essential that the feathers be plucked immediately after the bird is killed4 ,if the bird has been properly stuck1 they come out very easily4 ,first remove the tail and large wing feathers and then the body feathers1 leaving the small wing feathers and neck and upper breast feathers until last4 ,pull out all feathers a few at a time1 but do not rub them off as this injures the skin and often lowers the grade4 ,dry picking can be learned best by personal instructions4 ,the semiscald method of picking turkeys is used in some sections at commercial dressing plants1 but nearly all home-dressed turkeys are dry-picked4#b #b ,detailed information on killing1 grading1 and marketing turkeys is given in ,farmers' ,bulletins #afid4 ,dressing and ,packing ,turkeys1 and #ahae1 ,grading ,dressed ,turkeys4 ,clean-picked turkeys are now preferred1 but a single row of short fan feathers on the last joint of each wing may be left4 ,leave no feathers on any other part of the body4 ,remove all pinfeathers1 especially from the breast1 but do not attempt to dig out pinfeathers too short to be pulled4 ,after picking1 snap the blood from the bird's mouth with a quick motion and squeeze the vent to remove any droppings that may be there4 ,the feet1 if dirty1 should be washed and dried4 ,these methods make for clean carcasses1 good grades1 and good keeping quality4 ,after picking and chilling the birds1 cover the heads with head wraps made of heavy waxed paper1 to prevent blood soaking through and smearing the carcasses4 ,whenever the skin is torn1 sew it neatly with white thread4 ,when birds have been killed with feed in their crops1 remove the entire crop4 ,through a #b- or #c-;inch slit in the neck1 beginning where the neck joins the body1 the crop can be completely loosened and withdrawn1 the gullet being cut well below the crop4 ,then sew the opening with ,no4 #cf white thread4 ,turn in the edges of the skin so as to make a neat job that will not be noticeable when the bird is put on the market4 ,according to data on ,bronze turkeys1 killing and picking after the birds had been starved overnight resulted in a loss of about #i percent of weight for large birds and #aj percent for small birds4 ,the turkeys were weighed both before and after they were killed and picked and again after they had cooled overnight4 ,the larger birds had the lower percentages of loss in weight and therefore the higher dressing percentages4 ,the weight loss of dressed turkeys while chilling overnight is very small1 only about one-sixth of #a percent4 ,therefore1 practically all the loss in weight that occurs during picking and chilling results from the loss of blood and feathers4 ,the weight loss of turkeys overnight just before slaughter when they received no feed was about #c percent1 on an average1 making the total loss from their normal weight1 due to withholding feed1 picking1 and chilling1 about #ac percent4 ,when dressed turkeys are drawn1 with head and feet removed and giblets replaced1 there is a further loss of about #ae percent of the dressed weight4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bc4--,single-layer box of #aj turkey hens4 ,,cooling ,hanging the birds indoors by the legs for #bd hours or more1 or laying them on their backs on a clean surface where the temperature of the air ranges from #cj to #cf ,f4 will properly chill the carcasses4 ,they should be thoroughly chilled but not frozen1 since frozen birds sweat and1 because of their rigid condition1 cannot be packed without great waste of space4 ,in mild weather it is often impossible to cool the carcasses properly without the use of refrigeration or ice water4 ,cooling in water spoils the appearance of dry-picked carcasses and should be done only as a last resort4 ,a suitable thermometer is an indispensable part of the chilling equipment4 ,,packing ,boxes and barrels are generally used for packing dressed turkeys4 ,packing in clean barrels1 while easier and slightly cheaper1 is not so satisfactory as box packing1 although barrels are often more readily available4 ,boxes are greatly preferred by the trade and by organized pools4 ,in box packing1 the single-layer pack of #f to #ad birds1 depending on their size1 is preferred4 ,the boxes are usually large enough to hold from #aj to #ab medium-sized birds 7fig4 #bc74 ,when barrels are used1 a large size is necessary for large toms4 ,smaller barrels are suitable for hens and small toms4 ,line the barrel with white wrapping paper or common white parchment paper4 ,lay the birds with their backs against the sides of the barrel1 and if it is necessary to pack larger birds in the same barrel1 place them in the center4 ,when the barrel is full1 turn down the paper1 take off the top hoop1 place a piece of clean burlap over the top1 and replace and renail the hoop over the burlap4 ,boxes1 barrels1 or any other containers used should be free from objectionable odor1 as the turkey meat may absorb it4 ,there is considerable risk for the producer who does not have access to proper refrigerating facilities in shipping dressed turkeys during mild weather4 ,if the birds are to be sold in mild weather1 it is safest to market them alive or else sell them dressed to local purchasers as losses from improper cooling of dressed turkeys and from exposure to warm weather during transit are likely to occur4 ,when turkeys are to be shipped only a short distance it may be feasible to chill the dressed birds in ice water and then to pack them in barrels with cracked ice between layers and at each end of the barrel4 ,a top layer of ice placed between two layers of burlap tacked securely over the top of the barrel is desirable4 ,the internal temperature of the turkeys should be reduced to #cd ,f4 before they are shipped4 ,,dressed-,,turkey ,,grades ,grading systems for dressed turkeys differ somewhat in different markets but1 in general1 are similar4 ,greatest uniformity is provided where the ,united ,states grades are used4 ,the ,united ,states grading system is more comprehensive than other systems and is intended to satisfy the demands of the consumers more fully and to promote more uniform grading4 ,the ,united ,states ,government grading system was developed and is sponsored by the ,bureau of ,agricultural ,economics1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,under this system as now used there are four grades3 ,u4 ,s4 ,special or ,u4 ,s4 grade ,,aa2 ,u4 ,s4 ,prime or ,u4 ,s4 grade ,a2 ,u4 ,s4 ,choice or ,u4 ,s4 grade ,b2 and ,u4 ,s4 ,commercial or ,u4 ,s4 grade ,c4 ,each grade is subdivided into four classes according to the age and sex of the birds4 ,these classes are3 ,young hen1 young tom1 old hen1 and old tom4 ,the quality specifications for individual birds apply to each class with due allowance for fleshing condition characteristic of its sex and age4 ,detailed descriptions are provided for each grade4 ,for the ,u4 ,s4 ,special grade it is required that turkeys have broad1 full-fleshed breasts and that the carcasses be fully covered with fat4 ,the birds must also have been well bled1 carefully dry-picked or semiscalded1 and must be free from bruises1 skin tears1 and broken joints4 ,the breastbone must be straight or only slightly dented 7not more than one-fourth inch in depth74 ,for the ,u4 #c4 ,prime grade it is required that birds be well fleshed1 well fattened1 and well bled1 but they may have slight imperfections such as scattered pinfeathers1 slight flesh or skin abrasions1 and one disjointed but not broken wing or leg4 ,slightly curved and slightly dented breastbones1 not to exceed one-half inch in depth1 are permitted4 ,to grade ,u4 ,s4 ,choice1 turkeys must have fairly well-fleshed breasts and carcasses fairly well covered with fat4 ,these birds need be only fairly well bled and dressed and may have slight flesh or skin bruises1 small skin tears1 or larger sewn-up tears1 and one broken leg or wing4 ,turkeys not meeting these grade requirements1 including birds poorly fleshed1 poorly bled1 or slightly deformed1 but suitable for food1 make up the lowest or ,u4 ,s4 ,commercial grade4 ,another system of grading in common use in buying dressed turkeys is to make only #b or #c grades1 except that sometimes the birds within the top grades are divided into classes based on weight and sex4 ,the no4 #a grade usually consists of young toms weighing #ab pounds or more and young and old hens weighing #h pounds or more1 dressed4 ,for this grade the birds must be well finished and free from serious tears1 bruises1 and severely crooked breastbones4 ,the crops must be empty and the carcasses reasonably free from pinfeathers and reasonably well bled4 ,the no4 #b grade includes all old toms and such young toms1 young hens1 and old hens as are too light for the no4 #a grade4 ,the no4 #b grade also includes turkeys with severely crooked breastbones1 broken wings1 bad blemishes1 bad tears1 bad abrasions1 feed in crops1 numerous pinfeathers1 and birds that have been poorly bled or poorly fleshed4 ,the no4 #c grade includes birds not good enough for the no4 #b grade but still fit for food4 ,these are culls that never should have been marketed4 ,the no4 #c grade is not always used1 since turkeys of this kind are often rejected by the buyers4 ,on some markets a medium grade of birds--between the no4 #a and the no4 #b grades--is used4 ,when graded and packed for market turkeys are further graded as to size1 birds of similar weight being placed in the same container1 which is labeled according to the grade4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,,when ,,this ,,publication ,,was ,,last ,,printed ,secretary of ,agriculture ,henry ,a4 ,wallace4 ,undersecretary ,m4 ,l4 ,wilson4 ,assistant ,secretary ,harry ,l4 ,brown4 ,coordinator of ,land ,use ,planning and ,m4 ,s4 ,eisenhower4 ,director of ,information4 ,director of ,extension ,work ,c4 ,w4 ,warburton4 ,director of ,finance ,w4 ,a4 ,jump4 ,director of ,personnel ,roy ,f4 ,hendrickson4 ,director of ,research ,james ,t4 ,jardine4 ,solicitor ,mastin ,g4 ,white4 ,agricultural ,adjustment ,h4 ,r4 ,tolley1 ,administrator4 ,administration ,bureau of ,agricultural ,economics ,a4 ,g4 ,black1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,agricultural ,engineering ,s4 ,h4 ,mc,crory1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,animal ,industry ,john ,r4 ,mohler1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,biological ,survey ,ira ,n4 ,gabrielson1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,chemistry and ,soils ,henry ,g4 ,knight1 ,chief4 ,commodity ,exchange ,administration ,j4 ,w4 ,t4 ,duvel1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,dairy ,industry ,o4 ,e4 ,reed1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,entomology and ,plant ,lee ,a4 ,strong1 ,chief4 ,quarantine ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,james ,t4 ,jardine1 ,chief4 ,farm ,security ,administration ,w4 ,w4 ,alexander1 ,administrator4 ,food and ,drug ,administration ,walter ,g4 ,campbell1 ,chief4 ,forest ,service ,ferdinand ,a4 ,silcox1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,home ,economics ,louise ,stanley1 ,chief4 ,library ,claribel ,r4 ,barnett1 ,librarian4 ,bureau of ,plant ,industry ,e4 ,c4 ,auchter1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,public ,roads ,thomas ,h4 ,mac,donald1 ,chief4 ,soil ,conservation ,service ,h4 ,h4 ,bennett1 ,chief4 ,weather ,bureau ,francis ,w4 ,reichelderfer1 ,chief4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,government ,,printing ,,office3 #aici ,for sale by the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,price #e cents 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber ,note ,illustrations were moved to avoid splitting paragraphs4 ,display of numbers was standardized in the tables to show leading zeros4