,,an ,,attempt                     ,,to 
,,explain ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,meaning
                          ,,of ,,the    
,,early ,,interlaced                    
,,ornamentation                         
,,found ,,on ,,the                      
,ancient ,sculptured ,stones            
,,of                         ,,scotland1
 ,,ireland1 ,,and ,,the                 
,,isle ,,of ,,man4                      
,,by                                    
,,gilbert ,j4 ,,french1                 
,,of ,,bolton4                          
,,printed ,,for ,,presentation ,,only4  
,,manchester3                           
,,printed ,,by ,,charles ,,simms ,,and  
,,co4                                   
#aheh4     ,,an ,,attempt ,,to          
,,explain1 c4   ,any reasonable and     
honest attempt to explain the origin of 
the singularly elegant interlaced       
ornamentation1 familiar to archologists 
as the very earliest style of artistic  
decoration known in the ,british        
islands1 must be entitled to1 and ,i    

feel assured will receive1 favourable   
consideration4 ,even should the         
attempted explanation fail to obtain    
entire sanction1 it will at least lead  
to attentive and accurate observations  
upon an interesting subject1 which may  
at some future time refute or establish 
the theory which ,i venture to propound4
  ,the style of interlaced ornament to  
which ,i refer is found in an infinite  
variety of devices on the earliest      
sculpture1 whether of stone or metal1   
and in the oldest manuscripts and       
illuminations of ,britain and ,ireland4 
,it retained its peculiar distinctive   
character throughout the ,roman         
occupation of ,britain1 slightly        
modified by1 and often mixed with1      
classical ornaments4 ,these1 however1 in
 a great measure disappeared during the 
,saxon period1 a circumstance which     
induces the belief that1 whatever its   
origin and purpose1 interlaced          
ornamentation was equally familiar to   
the ,saxon invaders and to the ,british 

aborigines4 ,it entered largely into    
,norman architecture2 but from the time 
of the ,conquest it gradually became    
less used1 though traces of it are to be
 met with at nearly every period in the 
history of ,british art4 ,thus it was   
revived with the introduction of        
printing1 when many beautiful capital   
letters1 copied from ancient            
manuscripts1 were reproduced as         
wood-cuts4 ,it reappeared in the        
strap-work peculiar to the architecture 
and ornamentation of the ,elizabethan   
and ,jacobean eras4 ,it is found in the 
bone-lace patterns of this country and  
of ,northern ,europe in the sixteenth   
and seventeenth centuries1 and was      
retained in almost its original purity  
for the decoration of the dirks1        
targets1 brooches and powder horns of   
the ,scottish ,highlanders within the   
last hundred years4#a  ,very striking   
examples of interlaced ornament are met 
with on the ancient sculptured stones   
and crosses so plentifully scattered    

over our islands4 ,they have been of    
late brought into prominent notice by   
three invaluable publications which     
graphically represent and accurately    
describe these interesting relics of    
ancient art as they are now found in    
,scotland#b1 ,ireland#c and the ,isle of
 ,man#d4 ,it is to be regretted that    
those of ,england and ,wales--though    
many of them have been separately       
engraved--have not yet been collected in
 a well-edited volume1 since a careful  
comparison of their details would prove 
an immense assistance to antiquaries1   
bringing before them a new and          
delightful chapter1 richly full of      
pre-historic suggestions4  ,my remarks  
are confined to sculptured stones only1 
though the subject would be greatly     
elucidated and my argument enforced by  
references to manuscripts and metal     
ornamentation4 ,this ground1 however1 is
 so well occupied by gentlemen who have 
made palography and metallic art their  
peculiar study that ,i decline intruding

 upon it1 even had it been possible to  
treat it satisfactorily within the      
limits of this paper4  ,the aborigines  
of this or any other country of         
corresponding climate1 after discovering
 some natural cave1 or making for       
themselves a rude hut1 would probably   
take their next step in constructive art
 by attempting to form such utensils as 
might contain1 and enable them to       
preserve1 the fruits and seeds necessary
 for food4 ,assuming that they were then
 unprovided with even the rudest        
tools1--for we refer to a time before   
our far-off ancestors knew the use of   
bronze or iron1--they would form these  
utensils by twisting together the long1 
pliant osiers with which the land       
abounded1 and of which1 by the unaided  
action of the fingers1 they could form  
baskets excellently adapted for the     
required purpose4  ,no other branch of  
art is even now so independent of tools1
 and none has been so universally       
diffused or so long and uninterruptedly 

practised as basket making4 ,it is the  
humble parent of all textile art1 the   
most elaborate tissues produced by the  
loom or the needle being but progressive
 developements proceeding from the rude 
wattle-work of unclothed savages4       
,basket making is the first natural step
 in the path of civilization4 ,to this  
day the earliest effort of infantile    
ingenuity among the rural population is 
directed to making 7as it were by       
intuitive instinct7 personal ornaments  
of plaited rushes1 and that1 too1 in    
patterns1 some of which are identical   
with the devices engraved by our        
pre-historic ancestors on their old     
sculptured stones4  ,the earliest       
authentic records of ,britain refer to  
its inhabitants as expert basket makers2
 their houses were made of willows and  
reeds2 their fences and fortifications  
were living trees1 with intertwisted    
branches2 their boats were baskets1     
covered with skins2 their domestic      
furniture1 defensive armour1 even the   

images employed in their erroneous      
religion1 were each of wicker-work2 and 
though we have no absolute proof that   
such was the case1 it is at least       
probable that those famous chariots so  
formidable to the ,roman invaders were  
similarly constructed1 for it appears   
altogether impossible that the feats    
recorded of these celebrated charioteers
 could have been performed with         
carriages of wood and iron2 though if we
 can suppose them to have been of small 
size1 constructed of elastic            
wicker-work1 and placed upon low wheels1
 the accounts of their marvellous       
movements become reasonable1 and within 
the bounds of credibility4  ,the        
monastic historians of the succeeding   
ages continue to mention wicker-work as 
the principal architectural material    
used in ,britain and ,ireland1 not only 
for the rude dwellings of the           
inhabitants1 but also for their more    
important public edifices and churches4 
,thus we find that so late as the sixth 

century ,dermot ,mac,kervel assisted    
8the ,abbot ,st4 ,keyran to make a house
 to dwell in0 by 8thrusting down the    
peirs or wattles0 of which it was       
made4#e ,the monastery founded by ,st4  
,columba in the same century1 though of 
much theological repute1 must have had  
little material grandeur1 as it is known
 that the great apostle of the ,scots   
8sent forth his monks to gather twigs to
 build their hospice10 and the abode of 
,st4 ,woloc1 a bishop of the same age1  
was 8a simple hut of wattles40          
,glastonbury1 supposed to have been the 
earliest ,christian church in ,england1 
was1 on the authority of ,william of    
,malmesbury1#f 8a mean structure of     
wattle-work20 and there are numerous    
other references to churches and        
monasteries constructed altogether or in
 part of the same material4 ,vestiges of
 such structures are now occasionally   
met with1 which verify the records of   
the ,roman and ,medival historians4     
,recently1 on the ,etive in             

,argyleshire1 the progress of           
agricultural improvement has uncovered  
rough pavements of stone1 bearing marks 
of fire strewed with charred ashes1     
surrounded with the remains of hazel    
stakes1 the relics of the frame-work of 
ancient ,caledonian hearths1 which have 
been concealed for centuries under a    
cover of eight or ten feet of moss4#g   
,many of the purposes to which the      
ancient ,briton applied his manufacture 
of baskets were singularly useful1 and  
so well were they adapted to their      
peculiar purposes that they are employed
 almost unchanged even to the present   
day4 ,the coracle of basket and hide is 
still used by sportsmen and poachers on 
the waters of ,north ,wales4#h ,the     
bothies of the ,scottish ,highlanders   
are yet constructed of wattles2 and even
 in the cottages of a better kind the   
doors and sleeping cribs are frequently 
of the same fabric3 so also are their   
rude little sledges and carts2 and until
 of late their horse harness also4#i    

,modern civilization does not now       
disdain to use for drags1 dog-carts1 and
 ,german waggons the same strong yet    
light and elastic materials which the   
ancient ,briton probably employed for   
his formidable war-chariot2 and our     
ancestors of the last century knew well 
the value of the stage-coach 8basket0 as
 a convenient means of conveyance over  
their rough roads4  8,hanapers 7or      
hampers7 of twyggys0 were long the      
official receptacles for certain        
documents connected with the ,court of  
,chancery1 and the name is still1 or was
 recently1 applied to an officer of that
 court4  ,the firm hold with which      
long-established customs1 combined with 
convenience1 fix themselves upon the    
reason of men1 and the pertinacity with 
which nations cling to their old habits1
 refusing1 for the sake of old          
associations1 alterations of the most   
obvious utility1 is altogether          
marvellous4 ,speaking of this power and 
permanency of custom1 ,lord ,bacon      

curiously illustrates this subject by an
 anecdote pertinent to the matter before
 us4 8,i remember1 in the beginning of  
,queen ,elizabeth's time1 of ,england1  
an ,irish rebel condemned1 put up a     
petition to the ,deputy that he should  
be hanged in a withe1 and not in an     
halter1 because it had been so used with
 former rebels40#aj ,another author1 in 
his version of the same story1 says that
 this 8favour of being hanged in gads   
7twisted withes1 so called after the    
manner of the country71 was not         
refused40#aa ,this1 though probably an  
extreme1 is by no means an unique       
prejudice in favour of ancient modes of 
execution1 a prejudice which extends    
beyond life1 influencing nations in     
their adherence to old-established      
sepulchral customs4  ,a manufacture     
which was probably progressing for many 
centuries before the ,romans invaded    
,britain1 must necessarily have acquired
 a certain amount of refined ornament as
 a result of so much experience and     

practice4 ,we have1 indeed1 direct      
evidence that the ,romans greatly       
admired the ornamental baskets of the   
,british1 which were exported in large  
quantities to ,rome1 and became         
fashionable appendages among the        
extravagantly luxurious furniture of the
 imperial city4 ,juvenal1 writing about 
,a4,d4 #abj1 mentions the popularity of 
these baskets2#ab and that they were    
productions of the ,british islanders is
 distinctly stated by the epigrammatist 
,martial1#ac who wrote about the end of 
the first century4 ,it is not improbable
 that these ,british baskets were       
enriched with colour1 and even gilding4 
,the former we know was profusely and   
permanently applied to the persons of   
the aborigines2 the latter--probably one
 of the earliest discovered metals--was 
used in the middle of the fifth century 
for so common a purpose as decorating   
the roofs of important buildings4#ad ,it
 is not1 therefore1 likely that they    
were denied as additional means of      

ornament to these highly valued baskets4
  ,when the aboriginal ,briton had made 
his first step in domestic civilization 
by constructing useful baskets1 he would
 still be subjected to a great          
inconvenience from the absence of any   
suitable vessel of sufficient size to   
convey or store a supply of water4      
,nature in this country did little to   
assist him1 denying even the slight aid 
of the gourd and calabash common in     
warmer climates4 ,to invent a water     
vessel would thus become to him a       
necessity2 without it he must have been 
compelled to reside on the bank of some 
river or brook1 in which he and his     
family could quench their thirst in the 
same manner and as frequently as the    
wild animals of the surrounding forests4
 ,nor is it improbable that many        
generations of people were restricted to
 such localities for this reason4       
,there appears at first sight to be no  
possible analogy between baskets and    
water vessels2 yet ,i apprehend that    

they are in reality almost twin         
inventions4 ,the same reasoning which   
induced the naked ,briton to line the   
wicker walls of his hut with clay for   
the purpose of excluding cold1 would1   
after some experience1 lead to an       
application of the same material as a   
coating to the inside of his baskets1   
which1 when dried in the sun or hardened
 by fire applied to the inside1 would   
then be enabled to retain liquids at    
least for a time1 and consequently      
permit the desired migration from the   
immediate margin of a river4 ,this is of
 course a gratuitous assertion1 of no   
value without proof2 but it is also a   
reasonable induction1 and one which is1 
,i venture to think1 worthy the         
considerate attention of archologists4  
,fortunately vessels of this description
 have been preserved in the ancient     
burial places of the ,britons1 and are  
occasionally exhumed in a state of      
tolerable preservation4 ,they are for   
the most part not turned on the potter's

 wheel1 but moulded by the hand1 and    
marked on the exterior by ornaments1 not
 in relief1 but always depressed or     
incised1 having the appearance of       
indentations made in the soft clay by   
plaited osiers1 rushes1 or strips of    
hide1 more or less distinct1 but1 so far
 as ,i know1 all referrible to such an  
origin4#ae ,in some the coating of clay 
appears not to be carried to the mouth  
of the basket1 but the plaited rushes   
seem to have been folded inside1 and    
thus the interior of the urn is on its  
upper portions indented with the same   
pattern of basket-work as that on the   
outer side4 ,all ,british urns are1     
comparatively with ,roman or with ,saxon
 examples1 wide-mouthed1 a condition    
essential to their being made by hand on
 an exterior frame-work of plaited      
rushes or willows2 and some appear to   
have been constructed on two separate   
baskets1 one inverted over the other4   
,there is rarely any attempt at         
ansation1 the nearest approach to       

handles being heavy perforated knobs    
placed a little beneath the mouth1 for  
the evident purpose of attaching to them
 the twigs1 withes1 or thongs1 which    
served both to protect and to suspend   
these fragile vessels4  ,i must not be  
supposed to assert that the ornaments   
found on ,british1 occasionally on      
,anglo-,roman1 and abundantly on        
,anglo-,saxon urns1 were in all cases   
real impressions of basket-work2 but    
merely that the use of that style of    
ornament probably originated in the     
manner ,i have described1 and that it   
was continued after the introduction of 
the potter's wheel by force of habit and
 long-continued custom4 ,this induced   
the potter to stamp or incise on the    
surface of the vessels he made          
ornamental devices similar to those on  
the honoured urns of an earlier people2 
for that they were honoured and held in 
high estimation is apparent from the    
sacred purposes to which they were      
applied as receptacles for the ashes of 

the dead4 ,in absence of all direct     
proof of this assumed origin of urn     
ornamentation1 ,i have thought it right 
to test the possibility of the          
process2--with a result entirely        
satisfactory4 ,taking such small baskets
 as ,i found used by my family for      
ordinary domestic purposes1 ,i have     
roughly coated them inside with         
different clays1 subjecting some to the 
action of fire in the kiln1 while others
 ,i have left exposed to the sun1 and to
 a few ,i have applied heat inside only4
 ,on all the indentations of the        
basket-work are sufficiently marked2 but
 they are best defined on the sun-dried 
specimens1 since the shrinking of the   
clay under the action of fire in the    
kiln obliterates some of the more       
salient ridges4 ,a comparison of these  
jars with ancient ,british urns will1 ,i
 apprehend1 be more satisfactory and    
convincing than any elaborate argument1 
leaving little doubt that both have been
 produced by similar processes1 and that

 the ,british urn is1 in truth1 a       
secondary application of the ,british   
basket4  ,mr4 ,birch1 in his learned and
 most valuable ,history of ,ancient     
,pottery1 applies the term 8bascaud10   
employed by ,juvenal and ,martial1 not  
to baskets but to sepulchral urns with  
basket-like ornamentation4#af ,though   
most unwilling to hazard a contrary     
opinion1 ,i still cannot avoid          
suggesting that such urns1 judging from 
the specimens which have been preserved 
for our inspection1 were not likely to  
be acceptable ornaments on the tables of
 the luxurious ,romans1 accustomed as   
they must have been to elegant products 
of high art in the plastic manufactures 
of ,etruria1 ,greece1 and ,egypt4 ,it   
is1 ,i think1 greatly more probable that
 ornamental baskets to contain fruit or 
flowers were indicated by that name4    
,though there is good proof that the    
,britons had acquired much skill in the 
art of basket making at the time of the 
occupation of this island by the        

,romans1 it is equally certain that they
 were ignorant of the art of            
constructive masonry2 for when the      
legions left the ,british to their own  
resources1 they advised them to build a 
wall between the two seas across the    
island1 to keep off their northern      
enemies4 ,they1 indeed1 8raised the wall
 as they had been directed10 but 8not of
 stone as having no artist capable of   
such work1 but of sods which made it of 
no use40#ag ,from this it is apparent   
that the ,british people at that time1  
and probably for some centuries         
afterwards1 were unaccustomed to the use
 of building materials of a kind more   
permanent than wood1 wattle-work and    
clay4 ,such an arrangement quite accords
 with the manners of the people and the 
state of the country at that period1    
covered as it was with extensive        
forests1 and swamps abounding with      
osiers4 ,a people of migratory habits1  
occupied in perpetual warfare1 and      
depending in a great measure on the     

chase for their food1 must have had     
little inducement to build residences of
 great durability2 and this would       
happily lead to the more rapid clearing 
of the country1 and consequently to its 
earlier civilization4  ,such was the    
condition of art in ,britain and        
,ireland at the time that the first     
,christian missionaries commenced their 
labours in these countries4 ,so signal  
was their success that ,tertullian1     
writing of his own time 7the third      
century71 tells us that 8some countries 
of the ,britains that proved impregnable
 to the ,romans are yet subjected to    
,christ40 ,it was the custom of those   
earnest and indefatigable men 7so pious 
in their lives that after their death   
they were usually honoured with the     
title of ,saint7 to place crosses in    
every place where they succeeded in     
making converts1 or in which they       
planted a church1 chapel1 or monastery2 
and it becomes a question of some       
interest to ascertain the materials of  

these early symbols of the ,christian   
faith1 which must have been extensively 
spread over the land4  ,clearly they    
were not of stone1 since we know that   
even after the ,romans left ,england the
 natives had not sufficient skill to    
build a wall of that material2 nor have 
we any reason to believe that they had  
the ability or the tools requisite for  
the construction of a cross of timber1  
which would demand the use of cutting   
instruments with finer edges than those 
necessary for stone4 ,under these       
circumstances it is only natural that   
the ,british convert would dedicate to  
the glory of ,god the products of that  
talent which had acquired for him a     
continental celebrity4 ,the basket-work1
 so prized at ,rome1 was the most       
valuable oblation that the pious ancient
 ,briton could offer to the services of 
his new religion1 and thus it was that  
the first emblems of ,christianity      
erected in ,england were 7almost        
necessarily7 constructed of basket-work4

  ,the perishable nature of the         
materials forbids us to expect almost   
any other than inferential evidence that
 crosses of basket-work ever existed1   
but happily this is not denied to us4 ,a
 careful examination of the admirable   
engravings of the sculptured stones of  
,scotland1 the ancient ,irish crosses1  
and the curious monumental remains of   
the ,isle of ,man1 together with many   
existing carved crosses in ,england and 
,wales1 cannot fail to convince any     
unprejudiced observer that the beautiful
 interlaced ornamentation so lavishly   
employed on these sculptures derived its
 origin from the earlier decorations of 
that ,british basket-work which the     
,romans had learned to value and admire4
  ,before attempting to describe the    
method by which such crosses may be1 and
 probably were constructed1 ,i beg to   
call attention to the fact that         
basket-work and the earlier ,pagan or   
,druidical religion were closely        
connected4  ,csar1 writing of the       

,druids1 states that 8they have images  
of enormous size1 the limbs of which1   
formed of wicker-work1 they fill with   
living men1 which being set on fire1 the
 men perish enveloped in flames#ah20 and
 ,strabo says1 8having prepared a       
,colossus of hay and thrown wood upon   
it1 they burn together oxen1 all sorts  
of wild beasts1 and men4#ai0 ,it has    
been assumed that these wicker-work     
images were in the human form1 but ,i   
apprehend that there is nothing in      
either text to warrant this conclusion4 
,the word colossus implies a figure of  
large size1 which may quite as probably 
have been that of some enormous animal4 
,on the ,shandwick stone1#bj one of the 
most interesting of the ,scottish       
series1 figures of men1 horses1 stags1  
birds1 and other animals are carved with
 much spirit1 and with more than usual  
attention to their relative proportions4
 ,the animals are represented in        
life-like attitudes1 as if moving about4
 ,but there is one remarkable           

exception1#ba a colossal four-legged    
creature1 of a form peculiar to these   
,scottish stones1 differs from the      
others as much in figure as in size4    
,compared with two sheep and a dog which
 occur on the same panel1#ba its height1
 if erect1 would be about thirteen feet1
 its length about eighteen feet1 while  
its ungainly leaning posture is         
singularly suggestive of its being a    
sculptured representation of some huge  
beast built up of wicker-work4 ,certain 
marks on its surface warrant this       
supposition1 which is strengthened by   
the fact that other representations of a
 similar animal1 which occur on the same
 series1 have the most distinct         
indications of a basket-work origin4    
,well marked examples are to be found on
 the stones at ,brodie and at           
,glenferness4#bb ,resembling no known   
animal1 these curious figures--which are
 represented above twenty times on the  
,scottish stones and are nowhere else to
 be met with--have a general likeness to

 each other2 they are all in postures by
 no means indicating life or motion1 and
 all distinguished by the striking      
peculiarity of having no feet2 the limbs
 terminate in long wands rolled up after
 the manner of volutes1 obviously       
suggesting the idea that if opened out  
they would serve1 on being thrust deeply
 into the ground1 to keep the colossus  
in a standing attitude4 ,similar volutes
 are represented terminating the base of
 the well-known cross at the gate of    
,st4 ,michael's church yard in the ,isle
 of ,man4 ,they were probably used in   
the same way to fix to the ground an    
earlier cross of wicker-work1 of which  
the existing monument is a copy engraved
 on stone4  ,i dare not of course take  
it upon me to assert that there is any  
positive connection between the huge    
animal on the ,shandwick stone and the  
colossal images mentioned by ,csar and  
,strabo1 as being employed by the       
,druids in their human sacrifices1 but  
the coincidence 7if indeed it be not    

something more7 is sufficiently curious 
and interesting to demand a passing     
notice4 ,it is supposed that these and  
some other as yet inexplicable devices  
found on the same stones are symbols of 
a religion prior to ,christianity2 a    
circumstance by no means improbable1 as 
it is known that convents among the     
,saxons and probably the ,britons also1 
clung with much pertinacity to some of  
their ,druidical and ,pagan customs long
 after they had assumed the outward     
emblems of ,christianity4 ,this may     
account for the juxtaposition of the    
cross with devices of unknown meaning1  
and explain in some degree the          
remarkable circumstance that ,pagan and 
,christian emblems both derive their    
ornamentation from the same             
source--basket-work4  ,having shown that
 at the time when ,christianity was     
introduced into ,britain the native     
population1 totally unacquainted with   
practical masonry1 were yet expert and  
experienced manufacturers of highly     

ornamental baskets2 and suggested the   
reasonable probability that they would  
employ their best talents in the service
 of their new religion1 as they had     
previously devoted them to their earlier
 ,pagan or ,druidical superstitions1 ,i 
proceed to offer some reasons for       
believing that the first crosses erected
 by ,christian missionaries in ,britain1
 ,ireland1 and the ,isle of ,man1 were  
constructed of plaited osiers4  ,many of
 the ,medival biographers narrate with  
much minuteness the particulars of stone
 crosses set up by ,christian bishops2  
but no such notices occur before the    
sixth century1 and from the great       
importance attached to them by the      
monastic historians1 it is evident that 
they were objects of extraordinary      
interest1 and moreover1 of exceptional  
material4 ,such crosses were erected by 
,st4 ,columba1 ,st4 ,oswald1 ,st4       
,cuthbert1 ,bishop ,ethelwold1 and other
 holy men4 ,of ,st4 ,kentigern--better  
known in ,scotland as ,st4 ,mungo--it is

 said that1 among many crosses which he 
put up1 one in the city of ,glasgow was 
taken from the quarry by his orders1    
and1 by the united efforts of many men1 
erected in the cemetery of the ,church  
of the ,holy ,trinity1 in which his     
episcopal throne was set up4 ,that this 
particular cross was of more than usual 
importance may be inferred from the     
statement of his biographer1 that it was
 the custom of ,st4 ,kentigern to erect 
a cross in any place where he had       
converted the people1 or had for a time 
resided4 ,such crosses1 therefore1 must 
have been executed by some less         
laborious process than was used for the 
one which he erected near his cathedral 
about the end of the sixth century1 and 
which is said to have still marked the  
spot where the original edifice stood1  
when the ,cathedral of the ,west was    
reconstructed five hundred years        
afterwards4  ,but ,st4 ,kentigern       
erected one other cross1 which demands  
the attention and consideration of      

archologists4 ,we are informed that at  
,locherward1 a parish in ,mid-,lothian  
now called ,borthwick1 he set up a cross
 constructed of sea sand4 ,there is no  
hint of any miraculous assistance in the
 erection of this cross1 and therefore  
we are constrained to look for some     
mechanical appliance by which sea sand  
could be made to cohere in the form of a
 cross4#bc  ,but first ,i may be        
permitted to suggest a possible motive  
for the adoption of a material so       
unstable1 and apparently so little      
fitted for the purpose4  ,locherward    
7now ,borthwick7 is a considerable      
inland property in the east of          
,scotland1 and for some reasons1 not    
requisite to be inquired into here1 this
 parish was appended to the ,western    
,diocese of ,cumbria1 which comprised   
the valley of the ,clyde and much of the
 west coast of ,scotland during the     
episcopate of ,st4 ,kentigern4 ,it is   
not improbable1 then1 that this         
cross-rearing ,bishop would commemorate 

so important an event1 in his accustomed
 manner1 by sending to ,locherward a    
cross of baskets made of the osiers and 
filled with the sea sand of his western 
diocese1 which1 having been sanctified  
by his episcopal benediction1 would be  
appropriately set up in his new         
territory as a visible sign of the      
transfer1 and a practical assertion of  
his accession to the property4 ,here    
again1 however1 ,i am compelled to say  
that ,i have not a shadow of proof to   
offer in support of my surmise4 ,st4    
,kentigern may have set up the sea-sand 
cross by other means1 and for another   
purpose4 ,i have only endeavoured to    
suggest a reason in accordance with     
possibility and the customs of the times
 in which he lived4  ,before asking you 
to believe that the earliest existing   
stone crosses were reproductions of     
still earlier crosses of twigs1 ,i may  
well be expected to offer some evidence 
that any such basket-work crosses ever  
existed4  ,of all the superstitious     

legends of the middle ages1 none was    
more widely popular than that of ,st4   
,patrick's purgatory4 ,the little island
 in gloomy ,lough ,derg1 in which it was
 believed that both the pains and       
advantages of purgatory could be        
anticipated1 and the duration of its    
torments abridged1 was visited by great 
and powerful pilgrims1 who enriched its 
clerical guardians by their offerings4  
,suppressed at the ,reformation1 and its
 rude buildings more than once          
demolished by the orders of government1 
it nevertheless still retains so strong 
a grasp on the superstitious feelings of
 the poor and ignorant of the present   
day1 that1 actuated by religious        
enthusiasm1 crowds of such pilgrims at  
certain seasons pour themselves upon    
this miserable little islet1 consisting 
of three roods of barren surface2 and so
 numerous are these visitors that the   
tenant pays the landlord a yearly rent  
of #cjj 7the greater part in sixpences71
 derived from a small charge imposed on 

them at the ferry toll4#bd  ,in this    
place1 where ancient superstitious      
practices still linger1 the remembrance 
of its founder and his imputed miracles 
would naturally be longest retained1 and
 any relics appertaining to him         
preserved with pertinacious care4 ,none 
such can now be found2 but it is        
recorded that about or before the year  
#afcj1 a certain ,lord ,dillon visited  
the island1 accompanied by a government 
surveyor1 and they gave a detailed      
description of the place1 which was     
published by the then ,bishop of the    
,diocese4 ,in their report it is stated 
that 8at the east end of the church     
there is a heap of stones1 on which     
there is a cross made of interwoven     
twigs2 this is known by the name of ,st4
 ,patrick's ,altar1 on which there do   
lie three pieces of a bell1 which they  
say ,st4 ,patrick used to carry in his  
hand10 c4#be ,this is the only record ,i
 have met with of any actual cross of   
twigs or basket-work4 ,it was probably  

the last of innumerable crosses of the  
same kind1 and was found in the place   
where1 of all others1 the latest example
 was likely to be met with4 ,doubtless  
it was a many times repeated copy of    
some ancient cross attributed originally
 to the hands of the patron saint of    
,ireland4#bf  ,the devices sculptured on
 a majority of the ,scottish and ,manx  
monoliths must have been executed before
 the artists possessed such skill or    
such tools as would enable them to cut  
the outline of the stone itself to any  
required form2 they do not appear at    
that time to have set up crosses1 but   
they engraved representations of that   
symbol on the surface of huge stones    
many of which were already fixed in an  
erect position and most probably had    
been for a long series of years employed
 in the services of an earlier religion4
 ,upon such stones they imitated the    
ornamentation of wicker-work by         
innumerable reiterated blows of their   
small celts of flint1 bronze1 or iron1  

working out the design in low relief1   
and showing one half of the round1 or as
 much only of the osier wands as could  
be seen when plaited together4 ,it is   
only in the later examples that the     
outline of the stone assumes the form of
 the cross2 and this change is          
accompanied by a considerable alteration
 in the ornamental details1 the         
interlacings become less elegant but    
more complicated1 and terminate in the  
heads1 tails1 and limbs of various      
animals1 often grotesque in expression2 
or1 the wands burst into buds and       
leaves1 or give place entirely to       
sculptured representations of men and   
animals of the rudest execution4 ,it is 
a curious proof of the earlier use of   
the interwoven ornamentation that it may
 be found in elegantly arranged and     
highly-finished devices on the same     
stones with representations of the human
 figure so rudely carved as to appear to
 be the work of mere children4  ,it may 
be objected1 that the ,british or ,saxon

 artisan1 when working on a new         
material1 would adopt a style of        
ornament appropriate to it1 and discard 
the totally irrelevant system of        
decoration which had been used by his   
ancestors2 but it must be remembered    
that he had many inducements to adhere  
to the ancient patterns4 ,the force of  
custom and education would be a powerful
 motive1 and no other style of ornament 
was then known to the people1 who were  
accustomed to and well understood these 
endless intricacies which appear to us a
 mass of confusion2 probably1 however1  
the best reason was an earnest desire to
 perpetuate in durable material those   
crosses of perishable basket-work1      
before which he and his ancestors had   
bowed themselves in worship in the      
depths of their primval                 
forests1--crosses1 which had been       
sanctified by the holy men who at first 
erected them1 and to many of which      
miraculous powers were undoubtedly      
attributed4  ,a majority of the ,irish  

examples differ from those of ,scotland 
and the ,isle of ,man1 in being         
elaborately carved in their outline to  
the form of richly ornamented crosses4  
,this argues either an earlier          
developement of art in ,ireland1 or a   
later execution of the work2 but the    
plaited ornaments are found to prevail  
in each locality1 though they probably  
gave place to sculptured representations
 of men and animals somewhat earlier in 
,ireland than elsewhere4 ,the usual form
 of these crosses is fairly expressed by
 the example engraved#bg representing   
the interesting ,irish cross at         
,kilklespeen4  ,it may at first sight be
 supposed that crosses of timber would  
precede those of stone1 the material    
being abundant and the workmanship      
apparently more easy2 but a little      
consideration will show that timber     
required tools of a higher order than   
stone2 the blunt celt would be far from 
efficient as an instrument to carve     
wood1 and sharp-edged tools were not    

then attainable4 ,irrespective of this1 
the superior durability of stone would  
of itself induce the choice of that     
material4  ,there is a common           
arrangement in most of the ,scottish and
 ,irish crosses to which ,i desire to   
call attention2 whether sculptured into 
true crosses1 or merely engraved on the 
surface of the stone1 they are divided  
into irregular compartments1 each for   
the most part ornamented with a         
different device of interlaced work1 or1
 in late examples1 subjects in          
sculpture4 ,these compartments are      
usually broad at the base and gradually 
decrease in size towards the apex of the
 cross1 as would be the case with a     
series of baskets piled upon each other1
 and then firmly bound together by      
continuous bands of twisted withes4 ,a  
wheel or ring1 connecting the horizontal
 with the perpendicular limbs almost    
invariably accompanies the interlaced   
ornamentation on these early crosses4   
,this ring ,i long supposed to represent

 a nimbus or glory1 but remembering that
 that usual symbol of divinity is of    
,eastern origin1 and that it is commonly
 met with on crosses where there is no  
representation of the figure of our     
,lord1 ,i was induced to seek for some  
other meaning1 and have now no          
hesitation in saying that its original  
purpose was not symbolical1 or even     
merely ornamental1 but that it was a    
necessary appliance in the construction 
of the earlier wicker-work crosses1     
reproduced on the stone crosses for the 
same reasons which induced the retention
 of the interlaced ornaments4  ,it is   
obvious that the horizontal arms of a   
basket-work cross must require some     
extraneous aid to enable them to retain 
that position even for a short time4    
,for this purpose the ring seemed to me 
to have been adopted2 but ,i was quite  
unable to discover the manner in which  
it was applied1 until on application to 
a practical basket-maker ,i was at once 
told that he could not construct a cross

 of willows without the ring1 which he  
must make first1 and then work the cross
 upon it4 ,that such was its use is     
confirmed by the arrangement of some of 
the rude crosses in the ,isle of ,man4  
,on the sculptured stone in the         
church-yard of ,kirk ,michael#bh is a   
cross of interlaced work without any    
ring2 but to compensate for its absence 
another contrivance has been adopted4   
,the horizontal arms are sustained by a 
series of plaited twigs hung over the   
top of the upper limb1 and interwoven   
with the arms4 ,on the reverse of the   
same stone#bh the cross has a ring      
composed of one thick and two slender   
stems1 which last appear to pass through
 and fasten together the limbs and the  
ring by a curious and ingenious knot4   
,another example of a similar fastening 
may be observed on the fragment of stone
 also at ,kirk ,michael#bi sculptured   
with a rude representation of the       
crucifixion4 ,these knots are doubtless 
the origin of the richly ornamented     

bosses often covered with basket-work1  
so frequently met with in exactly the   
same positions on the ,irish and        
,scottish crosses4  ,some of the human  
figures sculptured on the ,scottish and 
,manx stones1 are so executed as to     
suggest that they also are reproductions
 from originals formed of twigs4 ,this  
is particularly the case with a fragment
 at ,forteviot1#cj the ancient ,celtic  
capital of ,scotland1 on which four men1
 some animals and a cross are carved    
with curious rudeness2 and with a       
portion of another crucifixion from the 
,isle of ,man4#ca ,both of these have a 
considerable resemblance to the rustic  
work of rough twigs with which many     
gardeners of the present day delight to 
ornament their summer houses and garden 
seats4 ,these examples suggest a common 
origin with the extraordinary           
illuminations which ,mr4 ,westwood has  
reproduced from ancient manuscripts1    
particularly with those engraved in the 
,journal of the ,archological           

,institute1#cb it being remembered that 
the sculpture and the illuminations were
 both probably enriched with colour and 
gilding4  ,i have made careful copies of
 very numerous examples of ancient      
interlaced ornaments1 and placed them in
 the hands of various artisans1         
particularly basket-makers1             
straw-plaiters1 wire-workers1 and       
plaiters of ornamental hair4 ,they all  
inform me that with a few exceptions the
 devices may be worked out in their     
respective materials1 and several       
thanked me for putting new patterns     
before them1 which they said would be   
useful in their business4 ,some of these
 drawings ,i gave to my own workpeople1 
who reproduced the devices very         
effectively in braid-work and           
embroidery4 ,they tell me they could1   
with time and patience1 copy many of the
 most elaborate devices4  ,i must guard 
myself1 however1 against being supposed 
to assert that all the interlaced       
devices found on the old crosses may be 

reproduced in modern plait work2 such is
 not the case4 ,many of them may claim  
some other and very different origin1   
and there are others which the sculptor 
has doubtless modified and altered4 ,the
 first ,corinthian capital is said to   
have been modelled from a flower-pot    
covered with a tile between which the   
leaves of an acanthus had forced        
themselves1 an arrangement which skilful
 architects have varied a hundred       
different ways1 though retaining still  
the expression of the original idea4 ,in
 the same spirit the ancient ,briton    
treated the panels of basket-work1 when 
he reproduced them on his crosses of    
stone4  ,there are many other branches  
of ,british and ,irish art which may    
have been influenced in their origin by 
the long established basket-work of     
these islands1 such as the early        
enamelling of metals1 the ,norman       
arcades1 especially those found on very 
early fonts1 the branching arrangement  
of the oldest window glass1 as well as  

the reticulated manner of placing       
glazing quarries1 and very numerous     
varieties of medival diapering2 but ,i  
omit farther notice of these4 ,my       
purpose in this paper is merely to call 
attention to the probable origin of one 
branch of ancient art which ,i believe  
to have escaped previous notice4 ,if ,i 
have in any degree established my       
position1 or even excited curiosity     
respecting it1 it will doubtless induce 
further inquiry and discussion1 since it
 is beyond doubt a subject of very      
considerable interest4  ,,finis4        
,charles ,simms and ,co41 ,printers1    
,manchester4     ,,footnotes   #a       
,archological and ,pre-historic ,annals 
of ,scotland1 pp4 #bba1 #ejd1 #eje4  #b 
,the ,sculptured ,stones of ,scotland1  
privately printed by the ,spalding      
,club1 and liberally presented to many  
antiquarian societies4  #c ,the         
,sculptured ,crosses of ,ancient        
,ireland1 by ,henry ,o',neill4  #d ,the 
,runic and other ,monumental ,remains of

 the ,isle of ,man1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4
 ,cumming4  #e ,annals of ,clanmacnoise1
 quoted in notes to the ,annals of the  
,four ,masters1 vol4 i4 p4 #aha4  #f    
,william of ,malmesbury1 book i4 c4 #bj4
  #g ,pre-historic ,annals of ,scotland1
 p4 #gf4  #h ,information from ,mr4     
,hughes1 of ,chester1 #aheh4  #i        
,mc,ian's ,highland ,clans--,mc,niel4   
#aj ,essay on ,custom and ,education4   
#aa ,thomas ,dinley's ,journal of a     
,tour in ,ireland3 ,proceedings of the  
,kilkenny ,archological ,society1 vol4  
i4 p4 #ahj1 ,new ,series4  #ab          
,adde et bascaudas et mille escaria4    
,juvenal1 ,sat4 #ab1 v4 #df4  #ac       
,barbara de pictis veni bascauda        
,britannis     ,sed me jam mavult dicere
 ,roma suam4                            
,martial1 lib4 #ad1 epig4 #ii4  #ad ,in 
the ,saxon poem ,beowulf1 translated by 
the late ,mr4 ,kemble1 there occurs this
 passage3--8,he went to the hall1 stood 
on the steps1 and beheld the steep roof 
with gold adorned40 ,line #ahdd4  #ae   

,see on ,plate ,no4 #f1 examples of     
,british urns1 copied from ,plate iii4  
of the ,archological ,index1 by ,j4 ,y4 
,a4 ,kerman ,esq41 ,f4,s4,a4  #af       
,history of ,ancient ,pottery1 vol4 ii4 
pp4 #cha-chd4  #ag ,bede's              
,ecclesiastical ,history1 book i4 chap4 
#ab4  #ah ,de ,bell4 ,gal41 lib4 vi4    
#ai ,strabo1 lib4 iv4  #bj ,plate xxvi4 
,sculptured stones of ,scotland4  #ba   
,plate ,no4 #c4  #bb ,plate ,no4 #d4    
#bc ,pinkerton's ,vit ,sanctorum ,scoti1
 pp4 #bhf-g1 quoted in the preface to   
the ,sculptured ,stones of ,scotland1 p4
 #e4  #bd ,ulster ,journal of           
,archology1 vol4 v4 p4 #ha4  #be ,from  
,patricius ,his ,purgatory1 attributed  
to ,spottiswood ,bishop of ,clogher1 and
 also to his successor ,bishop ,jones1  
quoted in the ,ulster ,journal of       
,archology1 vol4 v4 p4 #ga1 and in      
,carleton's tale of 8,the ,lough ,derg  
,pilgrim40  #bf ,though a poetical      
authority is of no weight in antiquarian
 argument1 it would be wrong to omit    

quoting ,sir ,walter ,scott's account of
 the famous fiery cross formed of twigs4
      8,the grisly priest1 with         
murmuring prayer1     ,a slender        
crosslet framed with care1     ,a       
cubit's length in measure due2     ,the 
shaft and limbs were rods of yew4       
444     ,the cross1 thus formed1 he held
 on high1     ,with wasted hand and     
haggard eye40                      ,the 
,lady of the ,lake1 canto iii4 stanza   
viii4  #bg ,plate ,no4 #b4  #bh ,plate  
,no4 #e4 ,i am indebted to the ,rev4    
,george ,cumming ,m4,a4 for permission  
to re-engrave this and plates ,nos4 #f  
and #h from his interesting work on the 
crosses of the ,isle of ,man2 and to my 
nephew and assistant1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4      
,brown1 for drawing all the             
illustrations of this brochure on stone4
  #bi ,plate ,no4 #f4  #cj ,plate ,no4  
#g4 ,from ,the ,sculptured ,stones of   
,scotland4  #ca ,plate ,no4 #h4  #cb    
,vol4 vii4 pp4 #ag-ai1 #bc1 #bd4        
,illustration3 ,no4 #a  ,,drainie       

,,meigle  ,,govan  ,,govan  ,,shandwick 
,,govan  ,,clonmacnoise  ,,mountblow    
,,house  ,,clonmacnoise  ,,meigle       
,,clonmacnoise  ,,monasterboise         
,illustration3 ,no4 #b  ,,kilklespeen   
,illustration3 ,no4 #c  ,,shandwick     
,illustration3 ,no4 #d  ,,brodie        
,,glenferness  ,illustration3 ,no4 #e   
,,in ,,the ,,churchyard ,,of ,,kirk     
,,michael  ,,isle ,,of ,,man            
,illustration3 ,no4 #f  ,,british ,,urns
  ,,fragment ,,of ,a ,,cross ,,at ,,kirk
 ,,michael  ,illustration3 ,no4 #g      
,,from ,a ,,sculptured ,,stone ,,at     
,,forteviot  ,illustration3 ,no4 #h     
,,from ,,the ,,old ,,chapel1 ,,calf ,,of
 ,,man