,the ,underworld of ,oregon ,caves ,national ,monument by ,,roger ,j4 ,,contor ,published by ,crater ,lake ,natural ,history ,association ,illustration3 ,,national ,,park ,,service ,department of the ,interior ,produced in cooperation with the ,national ,park ,service ,copyright #aifc by ,crater ,lake ,natural ,history ,association ,printed in ,u4,s4,a4 ,,craft ,,printers1 ,,inc #abje ,klamath ,avenue ,klamath ,falls1 ,oregon #igfja ,about the ,author ,roger ,j4 ,contor attended the ,university of ,idaho and ,montana ,state ,college1 concentrating in the fields of zoology1 botany1 forestry1 and big game management4 ,his association with the ,national ,park ,service began as a seasonal employee in #aidi in ,yellowstone where he served intermittently in various capacities into #aiee4 ,later that year1 he joined the permanent staff of the ,national ,park ,service as a park ranger1 serving in ,yellowstone1 ,rocky ,mountain1 and ,bryce ,canyon ,national ,parks4 ,in #aifj1 ,mr4 ,contor became management assistant for ,oregon ,caves ,national ,monument1 where he remained until early #aifb4 ,he then returned to ,rocky ,mountain ,national ,park1 also as a management assistant4 ,he is a member of ,the ,wildlife ,society and ,phi ,beta ,kappa and has authored wildlife articles for ,national ,parks ,magazine1 ,field and ,stream1 ,outdoor ,life1 ,wyoming ,wildlife and ,denver ,post4 ,illustration3 ,,cave ,,tour ,,entrance ,,tree ,,root ,,river ,,styx ,,bridge ,,whale ,,dry ,,room ,,wigwam #aaj ft4 ,,exit ,,banana ,,room ,,niagara ,,kings ,,palace ,,grand ,,column ,,chapel ,,rimstone ,,paradise ,,lost ,,ghost ,,room ,,exit ,,tunnel ,,contents ,,introduction #a ,,how ,,oregon ,,caves ,,were ,,formed #c ,the ,raw ,material--,rock #c ,underground ,erosion #g ,decoration #ad ,the ,cave's ,age #bd ,other ,cave ,features #be ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,caves #bg ,plant ,life #bi ,,the ,,future #cj ,,human ,,history #cj ,,conservation ,,and ,,preservation #ca ,,glossary ,,of ,,cave ,,terms #cd ,,suggested ,,readings #cf ,,rules ,,regulations #cg ,,administration #cg ,illustration3 ,paradise ,lost ,,introduction ,three tired men unsaddled their horses where the mountain stream disappeared into the ground4 ,they had fought their way #ae miles over wild1 rugged mountains since leaving ,williams ,valley at dawn4 ,yet rest was far from their minds4 ,hurriedly they stuck tallow candles into lanterns made from tin cans1 untied a lariat from a saddle1 then walked down the valley4 ,they stopped where the stream1 now larger1 reappeared from a shadowy crevice under a cliff4 8,this must be it10 said one of them eagerly1 8just like ,davidson said40 ,and with mixed feelings of excitement1 fear1 and the overwhelming grip of adventure1 they followed flickering candlelight into the dark opening4 ,tales of persons lost for days in other caves were fresh in their minds1 so they uncoiled a ball of string as they went4 ,later they could follow it back out4 ,soon they knew the ,davidson story was true1 more than true4 ,crawling from one chamber to another1 they found a fairyland of weird grottoes and exquisite stone formations--pillars and spires1 drapes1 frozen waterfalls and grotesque forms--in shapes and sizes beyond their imaginations4 ,some they named from resemblance to familiar objects4 ,at others they could only stare in awe and wonder how can it be8 ,using the rope in steep places1 they probed upward into another level of caverns where they were thrilled to find even more elaborate formations4 ,at one place they wrote their names and the date1 ,july #aa1 #ahgi4 ,here and there they saw evidence left by the few others who had entered the cave in the five years since it was discovered by their neighbor1 ,elijah ,davidson4 ,on and on they explored1 returning to the entrance only when their last candle was growing short4 ,outside1 stars lighted a midnight sky4 ,exhausted1 happy1 they vowed to return1 then fell into bedrolls4 ,thus early visitors responded to the lure of ,oregon ,caves3 to see the unseen and to know the unknown4 ,today1 thousands of people enjoy the caves under less demanding circumstances4 ,yet the joy of personal discovery endures4 ,for each visitor about to enter the cave1 the thrill of learning something new and interesting about the earth beneath us is born anew4 ,throughout the world1 caves loom large in the scope of history4 ,early man used them as dwelling and fortifications4 ,fugitives hid in them and thieves used them to cache their loot4 ,others have found them fine places to grow mushrooms4 ,during the ,war of #ahab and the ,civil ,war1 ,americans mined certain caves for saltpetre which was desperately needed to make gunpowder4 ,much of our knowledge of long extinct mammals has been gleaned from perfectly preserved remains1 and even prehistoric drawings1 uncovered by cave-probing scientists4 ,to most of us1 however1 the greatest value of caves is the delight of seeing the strange beauties wrought by nature through countless centuries4 ,and from this comes the challenge to understand the imperceptibly slow1 relentless forces which produce them4 ,this booklet sketches the processes which form1 alter and eventually destroy caves4 ,it is an attempt to share present knowledge with those who visit ,oregon ,caves ,national ,monument4 ,before going on1 let us define the word cave as we consider it here4 ,true caves are formed in soluble rock--limestone1 marble1 gypsum or dolomite4 ,they usually contain some redeposited mineral in the form of stalactites1 etc4 ,as most caves occur in limestone1 the term limestone cave is often used to describe any true cave1 even though it may actually occur in dolomite or marble4 ,the cave-forming process will be basically the same for either type of soluble rock4 ,we exclude from this definition mines1 lava tubes1 ice caves1 and sandstone depressions such as those used by cliff-dwellers in the ,southwest4 ,while they are 8holes in the ground10 they are formed in different ways than are the limestone type caves1 and therefore are not usually referred to in geological discussions of caves4 ,,how ,,oregon ,,caves ,,were ,,formed ,the ,raw ,material--,rock ,if we could turn back some #ahj million years into geologic time1 we would find the ,north ,american continent a much different place4 ,this was the ,triassic ,period4 ,early dinosaurs thrived in primitive forests over much of the ,united ,states4 ,the area around southwestern ,oregon was not yet part of the continent2 it was a shallow arm of the sea4 ,smoldering volcanoes jutted out as cone-shaped islands or poured forth fumes and lava from the distant mainland4 ,during quieter centuries the age-old process of life and death went on within the sea waters4 ,fish1 clams1 coral--even tiny one-celled creatures too small to be seen--extracted a mineral called calcium carbonate from the water4 ,with it they built bones1 shells and skeletons4 ,when these animals died1 their hard parts settled to the ocean bottom4 ,gradually1 layers of calcium carbonate were built up4 ,at the same time certain chemical functions of ocean plants extracted carbon dioxide from the water and caused still more calcium carbonate to precipitate and add to the sediments4 ,the layers deepened4 ,eventually the weight of overlying sediments and the ocean above compressed them into a rock called limestone4 ,in different parts of the sea1 and under varied conditions1 other ocean sediments were deposited4 ,near the shore1 wave-swept sand accumulated and eventually became sandstone4 ,fine silt and clay carried to the sea by rivers settled in bluish layers which were to become shale4 ,near rocky headlands1 course gravel deposits became cemented into a hard mass called conglomerate4 ,this steady formation of sedimentary layers was periodically interrupted by volcanic activity4 ,heavy clouds of volcanic ash and fragments settled into the sea4 ,molten lava poured into shallow bays or welled up from subsurface volcanoes to mix with calcium carbonate muds4 ,when volcanism subsided1 the seas went back to the quiet deposition of limestone4 ,today at ,oregon ,caves we find evidence of this interbedding of sedimentary and volcanic materials4 ,an example of such interbedding can be seen above the parking area near the ,chateau4 ,illustration3 ,marble outcrop ,thus mixed deposits of volcanic and ocean sediments continued to collect for several million years4 ,apparently this steady transfer of material from one part of the earth's crust to another created a crustal imbalance4 ,the edge of the continent was under a strain4 ,then1 like an accordion1 a tremendous folding of the lands along the ,pacific ,coast occurred4 ,the floor of the sea was lifted above the ocean's surface to form a new coast line in this vicinity4 ,violent stresses in the earth's crust created intense heat and pressure which changed1 or metamorphosed1 the rocks4 ,shales were altered to slate4 ,sandstone became quartzite4 ,limestone became the marble so important to ,oregon ,caves4 ,even the volcanic materials were altered considerably from their original form4 ,the resultant geological belt composed of inter-bedded layers of slate1 quartzite1 marble1 and metamorphosed volcanics is known as the ,applegate ,group4 ,after the uplift1 there was a long period of crustal stability4 ,the folded mountains were eroded away and the area became a flattened plain near sea level4 ,as a result1 its streams were sluggish and meandered slowly to the ocean4 ,then1 in various stages1 the plain was uplifted in another period of crustal adjustments which produced a flat-topped plateau1 so to speak1 known as the ancient ,klamath ,peneplane4 ,this restored the vigor of the stream erosion1 which helped at times by glacier sculpture1 dissected the plateau into the mountains we know today4 ,the ,siskiyou ,range surrounding ,oregon ,caves ,national ,monument is part of the ,klamath ,mountain ,system4 ,let us focus on one of the ancient marble layers of the ,applegate ,group1 for this is the rock strata in which ,oregon ,caves were formed4 ,it is actually a narrow1 tilted belt1 varying in thickness up to #djj feet4 ,it dips eastward into the earth at an angle of about #fj and can be followed in a southwest-northeast direction for about #d miles along the west shoulder of ,mt4 ,elijah 7see illustrations on page #d74 ,examination of the marble layers inside the exit tunnel or the outcrop at the beginning of ,cliff ,nature ,trail reveals many fractures caused by the stresses of upheaval4 ,some are vertical cracks1 but there are also many cross fractures at varying angles4 ,illustration3 ,oregon ,caves marble--#h inches wide ,when tested for chemical composition1 ,oregon ,caves marble samples have averaged #ic percent pure calcium carbonate 7,ca,c,o74 ,its bluish color is derived from the remaining percentage of impurities4 ,without these1 it would be white4 ,a good example of nearly pure calcium carbonate is the white chalk used on blackboards4 ,without this belt of soluble marble1 and without the fractures within it1 natural processes could not have produced the 8,marble ,halls of ,oregon40 ,it is the foundation1 the framework1 and the raw material of the caves4 ,underground ,erosion ,the first requirement in the genesis of ,oregon ,caves--the right kind of rock--was met4 ,next came the erosive agent which was to carve it into caverns4 ,this was the flow of underground water4 ,the present rainfall in this area averages #ej inches a year4 ,during the many thousands of years the caves were forming1 the climate may have varied from wetter to drier many times1 but it is safe to assume this has always been an area of relatively heavy precipitation4 ,the steep1 mountainous terrain and deep-cut valleys of southwestern ,oregon are characteristic of aggressive stream erosion that goes hand-in-hand with a healthy supply of rainfall4 ,some of the rain evaporates and returns to the air4 ,some of it soon runs into streams and is carried rapidly to the ocean4 ,the rest of it seeps into the ground where it is delayed for a time in its inevitable return to the sea4 ,under the force of gravity1 it trickles downward rather steeply through joints and cracks in the rocks1 or seeps between particles of sand1 gravel1 or clay4 ,below the ground surface it joins a zone of saturation1 or phreatic zone4 ,illustration3 ,,ground ,,water ,,rain ,,fall ,vadose zone3 water moves from surface to water table 7vertically7 --,water table ,phreatic zone3 total saturation1 water moves slowly and nearly 7horizontally7 ,here cracks1 pores1 and all spaces within the rock are completely filled with water4 ,there are no airspaces4 ,water movement within the phreatic zone is comparatively slow1 varying from a few inches a year to a few feet a day1 depending upon the permeability of the rock structure4 ,and the movement is usually horizontal1 following the contours of the land in the same direction as surface streams4 ,eventually this water will find its way back to the surface at a lower elevation where it usually emerges as a spring4 ,it is phreatic water which feeds the mountain streams and rivers many weeks or months after the last rainfall4 ,it might also be pumped from a well for human use4 ,a large portion of the earth's population depends upon well water from these great underground reservoirs4 ,how deep does phreatic water exist8 ,this depends upon the porosity of the rock1 or its ability to contain water4 ,most mines that penetrate many hundreds of feet encounter little water at great depths4 ,pressure of the overlying rocks is so great that open spaces capable of holding water cannot exist4 ,so the earth's crust contains available well water only in restricted zones not far from the surface4 ,the top of the zone of saturation is called the water table4 ,it is here that the most rapid flow of phreatic water occurs1 for the joints and interspaces are wider nearest the surface4 ,between the water table and the surface is the vadose zone1 in which the spaces are partly filled with water and partly filled with air4 7,see illustrations on page #g74 ,vadose water content varies greatly with weather conditions4 ,as rainfall is scant in southwest ,oregon during the summer1 visitors find the caves relatively dry at that time4 ,in the winter1 however1 the passages will be veritably 8raining0 vadose water within a few days after snow or rain4 ,the water table itself is more stable1 but varies somewhat from winter to summer1 or during extended periods of unusually wet or dry seasons4 ,its lowest possible level is ultimately controlled by the elevation of the largest nearby surface stream or lake1 which acts as a base level4 ,when the streams and lakes are lowered by erosion1 the water table of a given locality keeps pace by slowly sinking until eventually it lies scarcely above sea level4 ,illustration3 ,solution ,rills in ,ghost ,room ceiling ,illustration3 ,crack widened by solution--,watson's ,grotto ,rain falling on the mountains above the cave seeps into the surface cover of vegetation and humus4 ,here it absorbs carbon dioxide released from the process of organic decay4 ,seeping further through the vadose zone and down to the water table1 this water carries many times the normal amount of carbon dioxide found in the atmosphere4 ,in fact1 it becomes acid4 ,for water 7,h,o7 and carbon dioxide 7,,co7 unite to form a mild solution of carbonic acid 7,h,,co74 ,in this manner1 phreatic water is constantly charged with mild acids4 ,not the kind that harm us1 of course4 ,the fountain water by the chalet1 and probably that in your home1 is actually mild carbonic acid4 ,so is bottled pop4 ,illustration3 ,,solution ,,rain ,,carbon ,,dioxide ,,mild ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,molecules 7,h,o7 7,,co7 7,h,,co7 ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,calcium ,,calcium ,,bicarbonate ,,solution ,,carbonate ,,molecules ,,from ,,marble ,,strata 7,h,,co7 7,ca,c,o7 7,ca,h7,,co77 ,,deposition ,,calcium ,,carbon ,,dioxide1 ,,for ,,each ,,carbon ,,dioxide ,,molecule ,,bicarbonate ,,calcium ,,carbonate ,,escaping ,,into ,,cave ,,air1 ,,an ,,reaching ,,cave ,,equivalent ,,molecule ,,of ,,calcium ,,air ,,carbonate ,,must ,,be ,,redeposited ,,as ,,solid ,,dripstone1 ,,flowstone1 ,,etc4 ,it was thus that phreatic water1 charged with soil acids1 percolated century after century through cracks in the marble4 ,the acids ate away at all exposed rock surfaces--sideward1 downward1 and upward4 7,the solution rills in the original ,ghost ,room ceiling reveal the upward dissolving of water-filled cavities1 see illustration page #i74 ,to fully understand this1 we must recall that the marble is #ic percent calcium carbonate 7,ca,c,o74 ,to dissolve it1 carbonic acid mixes with the calcium carbonate to form an unstable liquid compound called calcium bicarbonate1 7,ca,h7,,co774 ,the removal of solid calcium carbonate in a liquid is the key cave forming process and is called solution 7see illustration page #aj74 ,in ,watson's ,grotto we find several examples of early crack-widening by phreatic solution 7see illustration page #i74 ,the enlarged cracks allowed faster movement of water against an increased surface area1 and a subsequent increase in solution activity4 ,partitions between them fell apart and were dissolved4 ,a series of water-filled passages evolved deep underground4 ,their pattern and orientation followed the pre-cave network of joints and cracks in the original strata4 ,gradually the openings were further enlarged into the cave system we know today4 ,there is more to it than that1 of course4 ,you may ask1 8,why aren't there caves continuously throughout the belt of marble8 ,the joints and cracks are everywhere4 ,and certainly all the marble near the surface has been subjected to ground water action at some time or another4 ,why are ,oregon ,caves limited to one particular part of the marble belt80 ,the answer to this involves several considerations4 ,to begin with1 we do find small cavities and solution cracks throughout the exposed marble4 ,so there has been varying degrees of solution activity nearly everywhere1 although not sufficient to produce caverns comparable to ,oregon ,caves4 ,secondly1 we must reconsider the mineralized water1 calcium bicarbonate4 ,we called it an unstable compound1 meaning it will alter readily with slight changes in conditions4 ,once the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in the water has united with an equivalent amount of calcium carbonate 7marble71 the solution is saturated4 ,no more marble can be dissolved until additional carbon dioxide is absorbed by the water4 ,if the solution loses some of its carbon dioxide into the air1 then an equivalent amount of calcium carbonate must be redeposited as solid stone4 ,the balance can be delicate4 ,in an underground pool of mineralized water1 solution may be going on at one end of the pool and deposition at the other4 ,so a state of chemical balance tends to develop in normal phreatic drift through the marble4 ,water saturated with minerals might easily move through many hundreds of feet of marble strata without further enlarging the openings4 ,instead1 it might even deposit some of the dissolved minerals1 filling small cracks and veins1 possibly even blocking its own passage during dry cycles when phreatic flow is at a low ebb4 ,the 8dry0 room in the cave is an example of vein filling4 ,clay1 gravel1 and other surface sediments can also be washed into the openings1 plugging them up and halting further solution for a time4 ,all these factors lead toward a stabilization of the solution process4 ,openings and small passages continue to be formed1 yet normal phreatic movement at ,oregon ,caves seems to lack the force for large scale cave sculpture4 ,this opens the door to our third consideration2 we know the greatest amount of solution occurs in the water table zone4 ,therefore1 to gain the impetus needed to carve out a cave system1 some local condition must have increased the water table flow in the immediate vicinity of ,oregon ,caves4 ,the solution process was magnified as larger quantities of freshly acidic phreatic waters were channeled into a restricted zone4 ,surging on1 they scoured through the marble1 dissolving larger volumes of calcium carbonate and sweeping it away4 ,the early solution pattern of enlarged cracks had set the stage for the onset of this swift phreatic erosion4 ,but some geologically sudden event was necessary to trigger the forces which completed the act4 ,we do not know exactly what the triggering action was4 ,we know that the water table either received a sudden increase in supply from surface drainage1 or found a larger or lower outlet downslope which tapped phreatic water over a widespread zone and channeled it through a localized area4 ,there are several possibilities4 #a4 ,a perched water table may have been held in the cave zone by a lower and impervious layer of rock4 ,this barrier may have been suddenly cut through by erosion1 as if the plug were pulled in a bathtub4 ,the perched water would now pass through the barrier1 rather than over it1 evacuating parts of the former phreatic zone1 and inducing surface streams to channel underground through the same route4 ,with such a subterranean diversion of water from a higher to a lower drainage pattern1 the water table flow would increase considerably4 ,a cave-forming condition would exist4 ,several small streams lose their identity and sink into the ground a few hundred yards above the caves4 ,doubtless1 they join the water table inside the caverns to emerge at the entrance as the ,river ,styx 7called ,cave ,creek outside74 ,possibly they aided in the early stages of cave formation in a manner described above4 #b4 ,it is difficult to imagine what the surface topography was like when the cave was forming1 yet we know it hasn't always been the same4 ,the mountains were higher4 ,the streams occupied higher positions in the valleys4 ,the ridges lay in a somewhat different pattern4 ,now and then stream piracy1 or drainage rearrangement1 took place when a rapidly eroding stream cut away the ridge separating it from a less active stream4 ,suddenly the slower stream was diverted into the drainage system of its captor4 ,both surface and phreatic waters of the aggressive drainage were increased4 ,the flow at the water table speeded up in response4 ,if stream piracy occurred in the drainage overlying the caves1 it might have played an important part in cave carving4 #c4 ,nor can we omit the conditions that occurred here during periods of glaciation4 ,shifting masses of ice and glacial debris characteristically cause damming and rechanneling of water in minor stream valleys4 ,the temporary results are similar to stream piracy4 ,coupled with this is the great volume of water which drains from melting glaciers4 ,evidence of partial glaciation in the ,siskiyou ,mountains lends serious consideration to its effect on early cave development4 ,the whole process might have involved all three of the above situations in varying degrees1 for a 8geologically sudden0 event may take several thousand years4 ,several distinct levels of cave erosion indicate that the water table moved along at a certain level for a time1 then rapidly dropped to a lower course where it was stable for another extended period4 ,this was repeated until it now stands near the level of the ,river ,styx4 ,successively1 the caverns at higher levels were drained and left empty4 ,so as your tour climbs from the cave entrance to the highly developed sections near the ,ghost ,room1 you encounter galleries that are progressively older4 ,the first room inside the entrance1 ,watson's ,grotto1 is the best example we have of a cavern 8recently0 drained4 ,a word about the ,river ,styx4 ,above it in several places you can see very smooth walls left by the familiar erosive action of a stream4 7,see illustration page #ad74 ,most of the cave walls show the more pitted1 concave surface left by the acidic dissolving action of phreatic water4 ,the water which produced the main cave system moved much slower than the ,river ,styx1 and over a wider area4 ,the stream as we see it did not produce the cave4 ,rather1 the caverns1 when drained1 left a free flowing course for ground water to channel into4 ,the only true underground streams occur in caves4 ,they are a by-product of the cave-forming process4 ,illustration3 ,smooth-walled erosion of ,river ,styx ,decoration ,surface erosion continued to tear away at the mountains4 ,streams cut their valleys deeper4 ,in response1 the water table gradually sank below the level of the caverns and they1 in turn1 were drained4 ,air entered the rooms4 ,the basic excavation process was completed except for a few minor changes3 ,in some places1 vadose water continued to dissolve away portions of the cave ceilings into dome shapes4 ,in other rooms previously drained1 water re-flooded certain portions during wet cycles4 ,and some rooms were filled with clay and gravel brought in from the surface1 then washed clean again in later stages4 ,most important is the entrance of air1 which ushered in the second major stage in cave formation4 ,the unadorned grottoes were now to be decorated4 ,nature1 through the process of deposition1 next created the eerie beauty which delights today's cave visitors4 ,in fact the process continues even now1 for ,oregon ,caves are 8live0 caves1 meaning they are still being decorated by natural deposition4 ,the weak carbonic acid in vadose water kept eating away the roof marble above the caves4 ,reaching the caverns1 drops of vadose water evaporated into the air and left their load of calcium carbonate as thin layers of solid mineral4 ,the amount left by each drop was infinitesimal1 yet millions of drops eventually left thick deposits coated on the walls1 ceilings and floors of the cave4 ,the crusty white deposits in the ,beehive ,room are fine examples of deposition by evaporation4 ,they were left there in much the same way as the coating in the bottom of a teakettle or steam iron4 ,however1 evaporation is important only near the surface4 ,deeper inside ,oregon ,caves the relative humidity averages #ih percent4 ,evaporation here is almost non-existent4 ,instead1 loss of carbon dioxide becomes the chief agent of deposition4 ,we have learned that vadose water contains #be to #ij times the normal amount of carbon dioxide found in the atmosphere4 ,much of it1 of course1 unites with calcium carbonate to form calcium bicarbonate solution4 ,when this mineralized water reaches the caverns1 large quantities of carbon dioxide are able to escape into the air due to the difference in carbon dioxide amounts in the water and air4 ,the chemical balance is upset4 ,for each molecule of escaping carbon dioxide1 an equivalent molecule of solid mineral is deposited 7see illustrations page #aj74 ,an interesting side effect of the loss of carbon dioxide is experienced by the cave visitor4 ,although cave air is constantly replenished by outside air through natural exchange1 it has a rather high carbon dioxide content due to release of this gas by vadose waters4 ,this partly explains the heavy breathing you find necessary inside the cave1 because the nerve centers which control our breathing are stimulated by a high percentage of carbon dioxide in the air we breathe4 ,it also explains the odd 8peroxide0 odor many people notice when they reach the exit4 ,the odor is oxygen4 ,we notice it because our senses have become adjusted to slightly lower oxygen percentages inside the cave4 ,illustration3 ,cave deposits in ,joaquin ,miller's ,chapel ,illustration3 ,drapery in ,ghost ,room ,cave deposits are collectively termed speleothems4 ,their variety is infinite3 ,those left by dripping water are called dripstone1 and take on two basic forms--if they hang down from the ceiling they are called ,stalactites1 if they grow up from the floor they are stalagmites4 ,the two may join together to form a column4 ,where the water drips rapidly and the loss of carbon dioxide is slow1 stalagmite growth is favored because little deposition can take place on the ceiling4 ,if the drip rate is slow and loss of carbon dioxide is rapid1 stalactite formation is favored4 ,illustration3 ,formations on page #af ,contrasted with dripstone is flowstone--smooth layered deposits left along walls and floors by flowing water4 ,in ,joaquin ,miller's ,chapel1 flowstone deposits are many inches thick4 7,see illustration on page #af74 ,a close look at the structure of dripstone and flowstone reveals six-sided crystals called calcite1 which is merely the crystalline form of calcium carbonate4 7,see illustration on page #ai74 ,banded crystal layers in cave deposits are often called alabaster1 or cave onyx4 ,these can be easily seen at the 8wishing post40 ,other shapes and forms accrue4 ,flowstone forming on backsloping walls tends to produce graceful sheets called drapery4 7,see illustration on page #ag74 ,reddish bands may develop in drapery where iron oxide is imbedded with the calcite4 ,contrasted with the pure white layers of calcium carbonate1 this gives the appearance of bacon4 ,good examples of 8bacon0 can be seen in the ,ghost ,room4 ,most shapes and forms of dripstone and flowstone are occasionally duplicated by freezing water4 ,stalactites form on the edges of roofs1 stalagmites form on the sidewalk beneath them1 etc4 ,but one of several cave formations which can't be thus copied is the soda straw 7see illustration page #bj74 ,deposition begins as a ring of calcium carbonate around a water drop4 ,the ring has the unique feature of being a single crystal4 ,as more drops leave their deposits1 the ringed crystals form one on the other to create a tube4 ,the water continues to seep through the inside of the tube1 eventually producing the fragile1 crystalline pipe with the obvious name4 ,the diameter of a soda straw is apparently determined by the specific gravity and surface tension of water1 for they are all nearly the same diameter1 about one-quarter inch4 ,in a cave in western ,australia one soda straw has reached a length of #bj feet1 #f inches1 yet is still only one-quarter inch in diameter4 ,if the drip rate decreases1 the tip of the soda straw may sometimes seal itself closed4 ,illustration3 ,calcite crystals in layer of flowstone1 #h inches high4 ,illustration3 ,some speleothems apparently defy gravity4 ,now and then internal hydrostatic pressure causes secondary formations to project out from others in unusual directions4 ,these are helictites 7see illustration on page #ba74 ,a related form is popcorn 7see illustration on page #bb71 the mat of small nodules which coat the 8beehive0 and other objects in the cave4 ,also called 8cave coral10 popcorn can form under water or along wet walls in response to air currents4 ,illustration3 ,helictite formed on soda straw ,soft1 fibrous mats of calcium carbonate deposited near the surface at ,oregon ,caves are termed moonmilk4 ,in time moonmilk may harden into popcorn mats4 ,its manner of formation is not fully understood4 ,illustration3 ,popcorn in ,adam's ,tomb ,illustration3 ,rimstone ,at the 8,devil's ,washboard10 and at the foot of ,paradise ,lost1 we find still another type of speleothem--rimstone--which forms in pools of water4 ,agitated by dripping or flowing water1 some of the carbon dioxide in the pool escapes4 ,the resultant deposition of mineral takes place on irregularities in the bottom of the pool1 or creates stone wavelets where the pool spills over4 ,ridges and dams subsequently build up1 often constricting the pool surface 7see illustration on page #bb74 ,another type of rimstone1 or cave ice1 develops when flowstone builds up around the edge of a pool and gradually closes across it4 ,the pool may be completely sealed over1 just like a pond in winter1 except that 8cave ice0 can never melt4 ,cave students are often confused by another deposition found in the form of thin blades jutting out of the wall 7see illustration below74 ,they have a woven1 crystalline texture4 ,prior to removal by solution1 some of the marble cracks were filled with calcium carbonate4 ,being less soluble than marble1 the sheets of calcite crystals remain for a time after the surrounding rock is dissolved away4 ,illustration3 ,blade formation ,so far we have discussed cave features--speleothems--created by deposition of mineral from the solid to liquid1 and back to solid state4 ,but certain objects in the caves are simply what remains of a piece of marble after some of it is dissolved away4 ,these are speleogens1 cave features created by the dissolving of mineral 7see illustration page #bd 74 ,they can be striking1 but primarily it is the speleothems which make ,oregon ,caves a thing of wonder and beauty4 ,the zenith of such spectacular development as seen at ,paradise ,lost leaves little doubt of this4 ,we have followed the mineral calcium carbonate through many forms3 from sea creatures to ocean mud1 to limestone and then marble1 next to a liquid solution called calcium bicarbonate1 and lastly as calcite crystals in cave formations4 ,the size1 shape and variety of cave deposits are determined by many factors which seem to prevent any two being exactly alike4 ,changes in temperature1 relative humidity1 available carbon dioxide1 amounts of vadose water1 air circulation1 surface tension1 permeability of roof rock1 vegetation above the cave1 bacteria action1 and the amount and kind of impurities in vadose water may all combine to vary the nature of cave formations4 ,illustration3 ,detail in ,paradise ,lost ,illustration3 ,speleogen above ,river ,styx ,the ,cave's ,age ,the many variables make it difficult to accurately estimate the age of cave deposits4 ,we have no way of determining past conditions which have influenced the rate of development4 ,oh1 we know the formations are many thousands of years old1 beyond that we can only guess4 ,some crude examples of known age are the tiny1 one-half-inch stalactites formed in the exit tunnel since it was completed some #ch years ago 7see illustration below74 ,bathed in warm1 dry air from the outside1 they have probably developed much faster than those inside the main cave4 ,other active formations deep in the cave show very little visible depositing over names written on them by early explorers in the #ahhj's4 ,so the true secret of the age of the formations must rest with the cave itself4 ,perhaps this is best4 ,illustration3 ,stalactites formed since exit tunnel was completed in #aicc ,other ,cave ,features ,an obvious feature you may see in ,neptune's ,grotto is the brown lacework on the walls4 ,they are lines of clay4 ,molecular attraction causes the clay particles to cling together into what we call clay worms4 7,see illustrations on page #bg74 ,where does the clay come from8 ,some of it may be washed in from the ground above4 ,the rest of it is the remnant of marble solution4 ,oregon ,caves marble is #ic percent calcium carbonate4 ,the remaining #g percent is non-soluble clay and remains in the cave after the calcium carbonate is carried away in fluid state4 ,clay worms are temporary features2 vadose water or the touch of a careless hand can easily remove them4 ,in the ,ghost ,room we find an interesting object4 ,projecting from the ceiling is an #h-;inch thick slab of angular brown rock4 ,its edges have been broken1 rather than dissolved4 ,this is a clastic dike4 ,evidence is lacking to definitely state its origin or manner of emplacement4 ,but at some time in the past1 there was an extensive crack in the marble which was filled by a mudlike material made up of bits of quartz1 plagioclase1 horneblende1 epidote1 clay1 and other minor ingredients4 ,it may have been washed in from the surface1 or it could have been injected from below by earthquake shocks which cracked the marble and forced the pliable material into the cracks4 ,eventually it hardened into rock4 ,due to its non-soluble ingredients1 the dike was not dissolved when the ,ghost ,room was formed4 ,like the 8blades0 we discussed previously1 it remained as a projection into the room while the marble walls receded under solution activity4 ,being brittle1 it has apparently been broken off periodically by the jar of earthquakes or cave collapse4 ,another obvious discrepancy in the marble framework of the caves is the thin layer of slate found in the #fe-;foot tunnel4 ,this reveals an interruption in the limestone sedimentation of the ,triassic sea4 ,a thin layer of shale was deposited between limestone layers4 ,later1 when the limestone became marble1 the shale became slate4 ,it should be mentioned here that limestone and shale vary greatly in their contents and often interblend with each other4 8,pure0 limestone is white4 ,different shades occur with different amounts of claylike impurities4 ,when the impurities overshadow the limestone1 then the rock may be called shale4 ,the whitest marble in ,oregon ,caves came from the purest limestone4 ,the darker1 blue-banded marble is rich in slate impurities4 ,illustration3 ,the lacework effect of clay 8worms0 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,caves ,if the ,indians of southwest ,oregon knew of ,oregon ,caves they left no evidence of the fact4 ,possibly its remote and rugged setting was too far away from their normal haunts near the fertile valleys and salmon-rich rivers4 ,or they may have known of the cave1 but superstitions forbade their entering it4 ,to our knowledge1 ,elijah ,davidson was the first person to penetrate its depths4 ,other creatures used it regularly4 ,bears1 mountain lions1 coyotes1 bobcats1 skunks and other predators found the outer chambers ideal dens or resting places4 ,within the 8twilight zone0--the galleries near the surface where some light penetrates--rodents of several kinds entered freely and even made nests4 ,today1 we find the industrious woodrat still gathering mounds of sticks1 leaves1 flashbulbs1 and hairpins to store near the #aaj-;foot exit4 ,mice and rabbits are frequently seen in the cave4 ,occasionally the tracks of the ringtail betray his secretive hunting trips into the cave4 ,in #aice1 even a mountain beaver was found in the ,ghost ,room4 ,however1 there is only one mammal truly adjusted to normal living inside the dark portions of the caves4 ,this is the bat4 7,see illustration below74 ,there are eight species of bats that use ,oregon ,caves4 ,most common is the long-eared myotis4 ,none are abundant1 and most visitors do not see them1 for this is not a 8bat cave0 in the same sense as ,carlsbad and other caves4 ,also1 the bats prefer the undisturbed sections of the caves1 where people seldom enter4 ,in spite of this1 they attract much interest and are the subject of much discussion4 ,the only mammal capable of flight1 bats are also unique in their ability to fly in total darkness deep within caves4 ,illustration3 ,hibernating bat in 8dry0 room ,this latter skill puzzled scientists for many years until1 in the #aicj's1 it was learned that bats navigate in darkness by echo-location1 a system similar to the ,navy's sonar4 ,the animal emits high-pitched squeaks1 above the threshold of human hearing4 ,the echo of the squeaks bounces off nearby objects and the bat is able to decipher1 from a flood of up to sixty echoes a second1 the size1 shape1 and distance of objects before them4 ,so precise is this system that the animal is able to locate and capture flying insects in pitch darkness4 ,not only can they navigate in the dark1 they can also remember echo patterns that help them to return again and again to the same place deep inside a cave4 ,they feed at night1 eating great numbers of insects4 ,in winter a few of them hibernate in ,oregon ,caves and may be easily observed clinging head downward from the walls and ceilings for months at a time4 ,during a bat-banding study a few years ago1 #gej bats were fitted with tiny aluminum identification bands and released4 ,to date1 however1 none of these bats have been found elsewhere1 nor have any foreign bands turned up here4 ,some bats are migratory1 for each year in late ,august or ,september there is an influx of several hundred that may be seen in the caves for only a few days4 ,then they are gone again4 ,certain arthropods--millepedes1 spiders1 moths and small wingless insects called collemboles--are abundant in the 8twilight zone0 of the caves1 where they feed on organic matter and upon each other4 ,thus animal life in the cave is more prominent than many people suspect4 ,plant ,life ,when the cave lights were installed in #aicb1 conditions were established for the entrance of another type of life--plants4 ,carried into the cave by water or air currents1 spores of primitive plants could now germinate and live4 ,near the light fixtures we find interesting colonies4 ,the green coating several feet from the lights are clusters of algae4 ,they have no leaves1 stems or roots2 in fact they are the simplest and most universal of the earth's green plants4 ,they require much less light energy than the mosses which grow only a few inches from the lights4 ,in one or two places we also find fleshy green liverworts which look like blobs of spilled paint4 ,and now and then we find the cave's highest type of plants1 the sword ferns4 ,diminutive in comparison with their kin outside the cave1 these tiny ferns are nevertheless able to survive near the lights which burn at least part of every day during the year4 ,,the ,,future ,what next8 ,like lakes and waterfalls1 caves are temporary features of the drainage pattern of an area4 ,the same processes which produce them will eventually destroy them4 ,at ,paradise ,lost we see that an appreciable part of the original room has already been filled with cave deposits4 ,many side passages in the caves have similarly been blocked off by the accumulation of flowstone4 ,on the outside1 surface erosion will wear away the roof rock until the caverns collapse4 ,the rooms will be filled with sunlight and exposed to rapid weathering4 ,the calcium carbonate that was laid down in the ,triassic sea1 then lifted into mountains1 then changed to calcite cave deposits1 will again be dissolved by water and carried back to the sea4 ,we know this because remnants of other caves reveal the pattern of creation and destruction common to all caves4 ,the end will not come at ,oregon ,caves for thousands or millions of years4 ,but it will come4 ,the work of water and other erosive forces never ceases4 ,,human ,,story ,oregon ,caves have been known since a day in #ahgd when ,elijah ,j4 ,davidson went hunting in the ,siskiyou ,mountains4 ,the story goes that1 after killing a deer1 he followed his dog to a large hole in the mountain4 ,here he heard sounds of fighting coming from within4 ,being undecided as to what to do1 he stood waiting--then his dog gave vent to a weird howl1 as if in great pain4 ,hesitating no longer1 ,davidson rushed into the opening4 ,he soon found the chase difficult to pursue without a light1 whereupon he resorted to a few matches that he had in his shot-pouch4 ,striking match after match1 he expected that he would soon be at the scene of the struggle4 ,before arriving there1 however1 his supply of matches gave out1 leaving him in the dark4 ,davidson finally found his way back to a running stream of water1 and following it1 came to the mouth of the cave4 ,soon after1 the dog came splashing down the creek1 unhurt4 ,as it was well on in the evening1 ,davidson decided to go back to camp and return the next day4 ,before leaving1 however1 he placed near the entrance to the cave the buck he had recently killed4 ,he anticipated that a bear would come out for food1 eat all it could and then lie down by the remaining part4 ,returning early the next morning1 ,davidson found a monstrous black bear lying near the carcass of the deer4 ,davidson told others of his discovery1 and the cave soon became an attraction for the adventuresome1 portions of it being explored and opened4 ,early interest in commercializing the cave were thwarted by its remote location1 far from roads and populous communities4 ,in #aijg1 ,joaquin ,miller1 the 8,poet of the ,sierra10 and ,chandler ,b4 ,watson1 author of ,prehistoric ,siskiyou ,island and the ,marble ,halls of ,oregon1 visited the cave4 ,they were highly impressed and promoted the cave as the 8,marble ,halls of ,oregon40 ,public attention was aroused and the cave was established as ,oregon ,caves ,national ,monument on ,july #ab1 #aiji4 7,see illustration on page #cb74 ,appreciable public use was not attained until #aibb1 when an automobile road was completed to the caves4 ,the next year1 #aibc1 the ,forest ,service granted a concession to the ,oregon ,caves ,company1 which has provided public accommodations and cave guide service since then4 ,in #aicc1 the ,monument was transferred to the ,national ,park ,system4 ,concurrently1 the completion of the #eab-;foot exit tunnel that same year greatly improved cave tour circulation4 ,the public use pattern1 relatively unchanged for the next three decades1 was established after the opening of the concessioner's chateau building in #aicd4 ,the chateau is noted for its charming architecture1 complementing the steep1 forested setting4 ,,conservation ,,and ,,preservation ,oregon ,caves have been set aside as a national monument because of their outstanding natural features4 ,the ,national ,park ,service is charged by ,congress to provide for the public use and enjoyment of the area 8in such manner and by such means as will leave it unimpaired for 444 future generations40 ,illustration3 ,a visit to ,oregon ,caves in #aiab ,natural things and natural processes are paramount4 ,manmade facilities such as trails1 lights and steps are necessary to allow visitors to enjoy the cave4 ,but they are kept at a minimum4 ,your guide will ask you not to touch any of the cave formations4 ,this is to keep them from being stained or broken4 ,prior to the establishment of the ,national ,monument in #aiji1 fragile formations were the object of severe vandalism and thoughtless destruction by souvenir hunters 7see illustration page #cc74 ,it is doubly important to preserve the remaining features for the benefit of those who will come here tomorrow and in later years4 ,illustration3 ,vandalism3 ,nature required many thousands of years to create these stalactites4 ,a thoughtless person needed only a few moments to destroy them4 ,outside the cave1 the ,monument is a place where flowers are enjoyed in their natural state and not picked1 where birds and wild animals are unmolested by hunters or trappers4 ,the forest is undisturbed4 ,on the trails away from the cave area1 the hiker may see animals and plants fulfilling their existence as they did centuries ago4 ,it is to this philosophy that the national parks and monuments are dedicated4 ,,glossary ,,of ,,cave ,,terms ,bacon ,a thin sheet of calcite drapery having alternating dark and light bands which give it the appearance of a strip of bacon4 ,the dark1 reddish bands are usually caused by an iron oxide stain4 ,bedding plane ,the stratification or meeting place of two different layers of sedimentary rock4 ,blade ,a calcite sheet originally deposited in a crack1 then later exposed4 ,breakdown ,heaps of rubble on a cavern floor caused by the collapse of walls or ceiling4 ,calcium bicarbonate ,an unstable compound occurring when carbonic acid contacts calcium carbonate4 ,calcium carbonate ,a mineral with the chemical formula ,ca,c,o4 ,calcite ,a crystalline form of calcium carbonate4 ,carbonic acid ,a weak acid occurring as a liquid1 having the formula ,h,,co1 a mixture of carbon dioxide and water4 ,clastic dike ,a dike made up of fragments of pre-existing rocks4 ,column ,a speleothem formed when a stalactite and a stalagmite meet4 ,deposit ,a natural occurrence of mineral material1 such as an iron ore deposit2 or in the vocabulary of the speleologist1 any cave formation originating from deposition4 ,drapery ,hanging speleothem in the form of a curtain or drape4 ,dripstone ,a calcite deposit left by dripping water4 ,flowstone ,a calcite deposit left by flowing water along a cave wall or floor4 ,fracture ,a break in rock4 ,gallery ,an underground passage4 ,ground water ,water within the earth1 such as feeds wells4 ,helictite ,a variant form of stalactite which does not hang vertically or which has side growths resembling twisted roots4 ,joint ,a crack1 which in limestone forms at an angle to a bedding plane4 ,a series of joints often intersect each other in a four-sided pattern4 ,limestone ,a rock consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate1 usually an accumulation of organic remains such as shells4 ,marble ,limestone crystallized by metamorphism4 ,metamorphose ,to change into a different form1 such as changing sedimentary rock 7limestone7 into a metamorphic rock 7marble74 ,moonmilk ,a rare form of hydromagnesite or calcium carbonate which is semisolid4 ,phreatic zone ,the region1 below the water table1 in which rock is saturated with water4 ,popcorn ,nodules of mineral deposits formed in such a way as to resemble popcorn4 ,rimstone ,a calcite deposit around the edge of a pool of water4 ,sedimentary rock ,formed from deposits of sediments or from fragments of other minerals4 ,shale ,a sedimentary rock formed from deposits of clay or silt4 ,solution ,the process by which a substance is chemically combined with a liquid4 ,also1 the state of being chemically so combined4 ,soda straw ,a small1 hollow stalactite inside which drops of water descend4 ,speleogen ,a cave feature produced by solution of base rock4 ,speleologist ,one who makes a scientific study of caves4 ,speleology ,the scientific study of caves in all their aspects4 ,speleothem ,a cave feature produced by deposition of mineral4 ,spelunker ,one who explores caves as a sportsman or amateur speleologist4 ,stalactite ,a calcite speleothem which grows downward1 icicle-fashion1 as a result of deposition by dripping water4 ,stalagmite ,a calcite speleothem which grows upward from a cave floor as a result of deposition by dripping water4 ,vadose zone ,the region lying between the surface of the earth and the water table4 ,water which seeps or flows through this region under the pull of gravity is called vadose water4 ,water table ,the meeting place of the phreatic and vadose zones4 ,below it1 the rock is saturated with water2 above it1 water under the pull of gravity is continuously flowing downward4 ,,suggested ,,reading ,davidson1 ,e4 ,j41 8,history of the ,discovery of the ,marble ,halls of ,oregon40 ,oregon ,historical ,quarterly1 ,vol4 #bc1 pp4 #bgd-bgf 7#aibb74 ,folsom1 ,franklin1 ,exploring ,american ,caves4 ,new ,york1 ,crown ,publishers1 ,inc41 #aief4 ,halliday1 ,william ,r41 ,adventure ,is ,underground4 ,new ,york1 ,harper and ,brothers1 ,publishers1 #aiei4 ,mohr1 ,charles ,e41 and ,howard ,n4 ,sloane1 ,celebrated ,american ,caves4 ,new ,jersey1 ,rutgers ,university ,press1 #aiee4 ,wells1 ,francis ,g41 ,preliminary geological map of southwest ,oregon4 ,u4,s4,g4,s4 ,mineral ,investigation ,map1 ,,mf #ch1 #aiee4 ,,rules ,,and ,,regulations 7,briefed7 #a4 ,no person shall enter ,oregon ,caves unless accompanied by an authorized guide4 #b4 ,children under #f years of age are not permitted in the caves4 ,a nursery is provided4 #c4 ,the destruction1 injury1 defacement or removal of any of the natural features1 rocks1 plants1 or animals in the caves or ,monument is prohibited4 #d4 ,no canes1 umbrellas or sticks of any kind may be taken into the caves4 #e4 ,dogs and cats must be kept under physical control and are not allowed on trails or in the buildings4 #f4 ,careless disposal of trash is prohibited2 please use the containers placed nearby4 ,,this ,,is ,,your ,,national ,,monument ,please help keep it clean and undamaged for those who follow you4 ,,administration ,oregon ,caves ,national ,monument is a unit of the ,national ,park ,service4 ,inquiries should be addressed to the ,park ,manager1 ,oregon ,caves ,national ,monument1 ,p4,o4 ,box #cgg1 ,cave ,junction1 ,oregon #igebc4 ,illustration3 ,cave entrance ,transcriber's ,notes --,silently corrected a few typos4 --,added links to images mentioned in the text2 reworded some references to fit a presentation without page facing4 --,retained publication information from the printed edition3 this e,book is public-domain in the country of publication4 --,in the text versions only1 text in italics is delimited by underscores4