,,the ,,psychology ,,and ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,anger ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,copyright1 #aiah ,,by ,,warwick ,,york1 ,inc4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,educational ,psychology ,monographs ,this volume1 which is number #ai in the series1 was edited by ,j4 ,carleton ,bell ,,the ,,psychology ,,and ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,anger ,by ,,roy ,,franklin ,,richardson ,professor of ,education1 ,university of ,maine ,,baltimore ,,warwick ,,york1 ,,inc4 #aiah ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents ,preface #c ,introduction #e ,,chapter ,,one ,mental ,situation ,stimulating ,anger #aa ,,chapter ,,two ,behavior of ,consciousness #ca ,,chapter ,,three ,disappearance of ,anger #ec ,,chapter ,,four ,conscious ,after-,effects #fe ,,chapter ,,five ,educational ,function #hc ,bibliography #ii ,index #ajc ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,preface ,the importance of the study of the emotions in relation to human conduct is well understood4 ,just how consciousness behaves under the influence of the fundamental human emotions like fear and anger1 is one of vital interest to the psychologist and educator4 ,it has always been difficult to study the structural side of our emotions because of an inability to control voluntarily our emotions for purposes of introspection4 ,the structure of emotions is primarily important in so far as structure may allow an interpretation of function4 ,the study of the emotions has for the most part been limited to theoretical discussions based on the observations of normal and abnormal persons and on the casual introspection of individual authors4 ,this work is an attempt to study systematically the emotion of anger in relation to the behavior of consciousness1 the ideas and feelings associated in the development of anger1 the reactive side of consciousness under the influence of anger1 individual differences in behavior1 manner of the disappearance and diminution of anger1 devices used in the control and facilitation of the emotion1 and the conscious after-effects including the inter-relation of anger and other feelings1 emotions and attitudes which follow4 ,the education of the emotions was first voiced by ,aristotle who indicated that one of the aims of education should be to teach men to be angry aright4 ,the author is under great obligations to ,president ,g4 ,stanley ,hall1 for without his inspiration the investigation would never have been begun or completed4 ,a number of persons cooperated in the study both by criticism and observation of emotional experiences4 ,the study would not have been possible without the kindly co-operation of the following3 ,professor and ,mrs4 ,g4 ,e4 ,freeland1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,hamilton1 ,dr4 ,g4 ,e4 ,jones1 ,dr4 ,george ,bivin1 ,dr4 ,frank ,e4 ,howard1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,sangor1 ,dr4 ,k4 ,k4 ,robinson1 ,mr4 ,d4 ,i4 ,pope1 ,mrs4 ,r4 ,f4 ,richardson1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,o4 ,finkenbinder1 ,dr4 ,raymond ,bellamy4 ,r4 ,f4 ,r4 ,university of ,maine ,june #bj1 #aiag ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,introduction ,although the emotions are recognized as among the most important mental phenomena1 exerting a marked influence on other mental processes1 they have had comparatively little systematic investigation4 ,we have our casual descriptions of emotions in terms of feelings1 sensations and physiological effects4 ,we have our theories1 accounting for the expression of the emotions1 and our theories of the constituents of the emotive consciousness4 ,the functional side of emotions1 emphasizing the behavior of consciousness1 has been for the most part neglected4 ,in looking over the literature on emotions1 one is impressed by its theoretical and opinionated trend4 ,much of it is based on casual individual observations4 ,attention has for the most part been directed to the most intense emotional experiences1 neglecting the smaller emotions1 important as they are in the behavior of consciousness4 ,then psychology has concerned itself with the exciting period of the emotion1 disregarding the consciousness preceding the emotion and that after the emotion has disappeared4 ,from the functional aspect of emotions1 some of the questions which invite study are as follows3 #a4 the mental situation1 including the fore-period from which the emotion develops2 #b4 the behavior of consciousness during the period the emotion exists2 #c4 the manner of disappearance and diminution of the emotion2 #d4 the effect in consciousness after the emotion has disappeared2 #e4 individual differences in emotional life4 ,the statement of ,wundt 7#ba7 and ,klpe 7#ad7 concerning voluntary action1 that its mere period of duration is but a small part of its psychological significance1 may well be said of emotions4 ,wundt suggests the close relation between the emotion and volitional action4 ,a volitional process that passes into an external act1 he defines as an emotion which closes with a 8pantomimetic0 movement4 ,ach 7#a71 in his experiments with the will1 distinguishes in each experiment a fore1 mid and after period4 ,in our emotional experiences1 it is true to a marked degree that we are predisposed and predetermined to a specific emotional excitement by temporary or permanent dispositions and attitudes4 ,,methods4 ,the method in the present study has been to observe anger introspectively as it appears in every-day life4 ,ten graduate students of ,clark ,university and two persons outside of the ,university volunteered to observe their emotions for a period of at least three months and report to the writer each day from the notes of their introspections4 ,these persons were asked to observe all instances of anger and fear no matter how minute4 ,only anger will be used in the present study4 ,they were asked to observe the conscious fore-period before the emotion begins1 the development of the emotion1 the disappearance1 the diminution and the consciousness after the emotion has disappeared1 which is recognized as having been influenced by the emotion4 ,historically1 three methods have been used in studying the emotions4 ,casual individual introspection is the earliest and is consequently the basis for most of the literature4 ,bain 7#b7 and ,ribot 7#af7 were among the first to employ this method extensively4 ,observations of the behavior of normal and abnormal persons have given some results4 ,the questionnaire method used by ,dr4 ,hall 7#aa7 has shown the wide range of objective reactions and objects of anger4 ,both anger and fear are deep rooted psychic strata4 ,introspections reveal motives of selfish1 unsocial and unlawful character1 springing from a level lower than the social man4 ,all observers have been quite frank in giving the full introspections1 even when their most private and personal matters were concerned4 ,where illustrative material is used it has been necessary to remove the personal element1 as in many instances1 others besides the observer were concerned4 ,this revision has been the work of the writer4 ,the essential psychological factor is unchanged and the words of the observers are used as nearly as possible4 ,the twelve persons will be called by the first twelve letters of the alphabet1 and other persons named in the introspections will be called ,x4 ,y4 and ,z4 ,ten of the observers were graduate men students of psychology4 ,seven of these had had considerable experience in introspection under controlled laboratory conditions4 ,most of the illustrative data will be taken from the observations of ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ,f4 and ,g4 who are the most experienced observers4 ,no apology is offered for this study because of the uncontrolled conditions of introspection4 ,emotions are involuntary processes and consequently do not lend themselves to voluntary control necessary for laboratory technique4 ,the emotion springs from an antecedent complex combined with a present idea4 ,the fact that anger does not develop from a single experience but is a predetermined consciousness usually cumulative in character1 makes voluntary origin difficult4 ,even when the individual is aware of the antecedent which tends to give rise to anger1 the voluntary combination with a present idea is unsuccessful4 ,a further difficulty in introspection is the tendency of the emotion to disappear as a result of the act of introspection4 ,it occurs frequently in the data that a further development of the emotion is entirely cut off by introspection4 ,however1 attention to the situation giving rise to anger frequently reinstates the emotion1 if the feeling background is intense enough4 ,it was necessary to instruct the observers to allow their emotions to run their usual course and note the facts of behavior at convenient times4 ,the purpose of this study is to investigate the behavior of consciousness in the development1 expression and disappearance of anger4 ,the observers were asked to direct their observation especially to the behavior side of consciousness4 ,it is believed1 that regardless of the necessary uncontrolled conditions of introspection1 that a systematic observation of both mild and intense experiences of anger by a number of observers over an extended period of time will add to a better comprehension of the functional character of this one of the fundamental emotions4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,one ,,mental ,,situation ,,stimulating ,,anger ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,professor ,titchener 7#ai7 states concerning emotions in general three essential factors for their formation4 ,first1 a series of ideas shall be interrupted by a vivid feeling2 second1 the feeling shall mirror a situation or incident in the outside world2 and third1 the feeling shall be enriched by organic sensations created by the course of bodily adjustment to the situation4 ,it has been well agreed from casual introspection that the stimulus to an emotion is a total mental situation or predicament4 ,it is evidently necessary in the psychology of the emotions that each emotion should be studied in connection with its predetermining mental situation giving rise to it4 ,anger because of its slowness to develop1 lends itself more readily to a study of the situation from which it arises1 than some other emotions4 ,it is well known that there is little constancy in the outside situation1 associated with the emotion of anger4 ,what one will take as an insult1 another will regard as a joke4 ,with the same individual1 what will at one time excite anger1 will at another be scarcely noticed4 ,we commonly say1 referring to some incident1 8,there was nothing for him to be angry about10 and the statement may be correct if the outside situation is viewed as the stimulus to the emotion4 ,with the insane and hysterical1 an observer is often baffled by the apparently harmless idea that will excite anger4 ,the fact is1 the situation stimulating anger is a psychic one4 ,we fail in viewing our emotional life in the same manner as we do in observing our sensations4 ,whatever the outside conditions1 it is the psychic situation as only a partial reflection of outside conditions1 that is of primary importance4 ,a few instances of the current views of the situation exciting anger may be given4 ,what may be called a genetic view is illustrated in ,mc,dougall's 7#ae7 statement1 8,the condition of its 7anger7 excitement is rather any opposition to the free exercise of any impulse1 any obstruction to the activity to which the creature is impelled by any one of the other instincts40 ,dewey 7#f7 in his conception of instincts has pointed out that we are not angry when we are fighting successfully4 ,only when the pugnacious instinct is impeded does emotion arise4 ,an introspective view may be taken from ,bain 7#b71 8,when we have suffered harm at the hands of another1 it leaves a sting in the violation of the sanctity of our feelings4 ,this pre-supposes a sentiment of self regarding pride1 the presence of which gives rise to the best developed form of anger40 ,david ,irons 7#ab71 who did some keen work in the analysis of the emotions1 does not qualify his statement that anger appears only when we feel that we have been injured4 ,from the pathological side1 ,fr 7#g7 and ,magnan 7#aa7 have described slow accumulation of anger in paranoiacs1 which seems to re-enforce the casual introspective view stated above4 ,these insane persons first believe they are persecuted4 ,they suspect all about them4 ,even their very best friends are trying to injure their business or reputation4 ,gradually reactionary impulses begin and they themselves become the persecutors and concern themselves with the business of revenge4 ,they find gratification in every sort of angry outburst1--insult1 abuse1 threat1 murderous attack1 irony1 witticism1 etc4 ,the same view has been advanced by ,steinmetz 7#ah7 in the observation of the behavior of primitive people4 ,he holds that revenge is essentially rooted in the feeling of power and superiority4 ,it arises upon the experience of injury and its aim is to enhance self-feeling1 which has been lowered by the injury suffered4 ,the next few pages will be devoted to an examination of the mental situations from which anger develops as found in the results of the introspections4 ,about six hundred introspections from the various observers have been used for this study4 ,feelings of ,irritation4 ,one of the characteristic mental situations from which anger arises is that connected with feelings of irritation4 ,these feelings are described as unpleasant nervous tension with a tendency to motor activity4 ,awareness of the feeling may be present while attention is directed elsewhere4 ,it may or may not be referred to any particular incident4 ,c4--8,it is a sort of diffused unpleasant consciousness that things in general are going wrong40 ,irritation in connection with pain or illness is a condition from which anger may develop4 ,from this a trivial incident may give rise to anger4 ,a note from ,e4's records says1 8,i had a severe headache to-day and felt irritable4 ,when ,x4 would try to sympathize with me1 the irritation would increase and ,i tended to be angry40 ,g1 who has relatively few emotions of anger1 introspected upon ten cases of anger1 arising from a fore-period of irritation during a day's illness4 ,subject ,i4 states with reference to pain1 8,while the pain was on ,i felt as though ,i wanted to be angry at somebody or something1 ,x4 spoke to me and at once ,i was angry40 ,feelings of irritation may increase1 gradually1 accompanying the increased intensity of pain4 ,a4 states1 8,irritableness at the first beginning of the pain increased to intense anger at the moment the pain was most severe4 ,there was a strong motor tension in the hands and face muscles with the impulse to look about1 vaguely aware that ,i was trying to find something to refer the anger to4444 ,a decrease of the pain was accompanied by a decrease of the anger to a feeling of irritation again40 ,feelings of irritation follow as a result of the thwarting of some desire or mental attitude and are consequently predetermined by the attitude of the moment4 ,from this1 anger develops for the most part1 as a result of a series of stimuli1 which have a cumulative effect4 ,each thwarting of the impulse intensifies the irritation until anger is developed4 ,one or two failures may stimulate unpleasant feelings1 which at the time are ignored2 but with an increase of the number of stimuli1 there is an accumulative effect in which the awareness of the previous failures becomes more intense than at the moment when they occurred4 ,the following from ,b4's observations will illustrate1 8,i was writing a letter to an important personage and was making special effort to write it neatly4 ,i made an error and felt unpleasantly irritated4 ,still feeling quite unpleasant1 ,i turned to look for my eraser and could not find it4 ,i looked in several places4 ,each failure was followed by a sudden increase in intensity of unpleasant feelings40 ,finally ,b4 found himself using defamatory language prolifically1 giving expression to a rather well developed case of anger4 ,one is usually aware in anger of this type1 that the emotion is the cumulative effect of a number of previous stimuli4 ,it appears from the reports1 that if the mental predisposition is intense enough1 one or two failures may suffice to excite anger4 ,in general the stronger the predisposition1 the less number of failures is required before anger is fully developed4 ,another characteristic of the feeling of irritation is its indefinite objective reference4 ,it may not refer definitely to any object at first4 ,the tendency is usually present to refer it to some object or person1 regardless of the real cause of the feeling4 ,e4 states1 8,i felt ,i wanted to get angry at somebody or something and ,i did not care much what40 ,while it is common with all the persons studied1 to be irritated and burst out angrily at objects1 the tendency to transfer the anger from objects which may be the real objective cause to unoffending persons1 is a matter in which there is a wide individual difference4 ,c4 when irritated by objects1 finds a partial relief if he can lay the blame on some person and take an imaginary vent against him4 ,he states1 8,i have been cross and grouchy all day2 #8felt out' with everybody4 ,several times the association of ,x4 and ,y4 came up with a little rising anger and an attitude that they were somehow to be blamed4 ,i was aware that they were not to be blamed1 but at times ,i would find myself ignoring this and taking pleasure in criticising them adversely40 ,this tendency to personify the source of anger is illustrated in another incident from ,c4 ,he lost his umbrella4 ,he looked for it in several places with an increased feeling of irritation2 following a line of other associations1 he imagined ,z41 a person whom he dislikes1 walking off with it4 ,he says1 8,all this was mildly pleasant4 ,i was scarcely aware how improbable it was that ,z4 had taken it1 till the act of introspecting on the emotion4 ,i really wanted to believe that he had taken it40 ,the personal objective reference to somewhat suppressed feelings of irritation frequently facilitates the sudden development of the emotion4 ,the tendency to refer the anger to some innocent person1 ignoring for the moment the real facts and forgetting one's sense of justice for the time being1 is a matter in which there are marked individual differences in the subjects studied4 ,it is a common characteristic of the initial stage of anger1 that although there is an awareness that the emotion is due to a series of irritating stimuli1 the entire situation exciting the anger is ignored and the anger is referred to some person1 frequently one recently associated in time4 ,thus objectified1 anger seems to find a more ready expression4 ,anger is more successfully developed from a fore-period of irritation if the present predicament is in any way associated with a person or situation against which there is already an emotional disposition of dislike4 ,a feeling of pleasurable satisfaction is often reported to follow the successful expression of anger after feelings of irritation4 ,anger with a fore-period of irritation is common with all the subjects studied1 but the manner in which the anger arises from these feelings is a matter of wide individual difference4 ,they all get angry at objects when they act as hindrances4 ,with ,b4 and ,c41 who live alone1 this tendency is more marked4 ,with all the persons studied1 anger with a fore-period of irritation occurs more frequently against objects and situations than against persons4 ,when persons are involved in anger of this type1 they are usually those with whom there is close intimacy or with servants and children4 ,the sentiment of justice may facilitate the development of anger arising from feelings of irritation4 ,irritable feelings may more readily develop into anger if a situation is associated in which fairness and justice are violated1 although the point of justice may be far removed from the actual cause of the irritation4 ,under the influence of irritation1 there is frequently a little more sensitiveness to injustice if the idea of unfairness can facilitate in the objective reference to the emotion4 ,the following instance will illustrate4 ,a4 was walking along the street at night in an irritable state of mind in connection with a series of incidents just past4 ,in this state of mind he came to a place where a new house was being built and the builders had left an accumulation of dirt on the sidewalk4 ,when it rained1 the water would collect making the walk bad4 ,he had previously noted that they had made enough progress with the building that it was unnecessary to leave the dirt on the walk4 8,on this occasion10 he states1 8,i now become quite indignant1 and suddenly found myself in imagination telephoning the street commissioner in an angry attitude and tone of voice1 telling him about the dirt and where the house was located1 and ending with the sentence1 #8,it is an outrage to tax payers4'0 ,but this did not fully satisfy his resentment4 ,he imagined himself the next day walking up to the overseer of the construction gang and assuming a rather indignant air1 telling him among other things that the way he had left the walk was an outrage to the public4 ,on the other hand1 the sense of justice may be ignored for the time if it does not aid expression4 ,in some extreme cases the subject may assume a make-believe attitude and trump up reasons to suit his own ends regardless of the facts4 ,the tendency is strong to give some justifiable expression to the present mental predicament4 ,in such cases reason serves the purpose of feeling4 ,all other mental processes may become subservient to the rising indignation till the point of anger is reached1 but with the expression of anger1 the illusion of fairness usually disappears4 ,the behavior that seemed so commendable while angry may excite shame or regret after the emotion has been vented4 ,negative ,self-feeling4 ,a second characteristic mental situation from which anger arises1 is that connected with negative self-feeling2 the self-feeling has been lowered and anger follows4 ,in the observation of all the observers1 it appears at times in the initial stage of anger4 ,whatever outside situation occasions lowered self-feeling may indirectly give rise to anger4 ,and just as there are feelings of irritation1 which do not pass into anger1 so there are negative self-feelings which are not followed by anger4 ,in the description of this feeling1 it appears in marked contrast to the anger that follows4 ,as to time1 it may last but a moment before anger arises4 ,in other instances the feeling of humiliation may be rather prolonged or repeated before anger arises4 ,the feeling is described as unpleasant1 as a lack of motor tension1 a feeling like shrinking up1 an impulse to get away1 a confused inco-ordinated state of mind4 ,a rather wide vocabulary referring to self and the feeling side of experience is used by the subjects to designate this feeling in colloquial language4 ,examples of such phrases from the observations are as follows3--8,i felt sat on10 8,was humiliated10 8,felt inefficient10 8,felt imposed upon10 8,felt stepped on10 8,a feeling of self depreciation10 8,felt offended10 8,a feeling of subjection10 8,felt as if he thought ,i were no good10 8,felt worried10 8,felt as if he were hitting at me10 8,felt that what he said reflected on my ability10 8,disappointed in myself10 8,felt ashamed10 8,my feelings were wounded10 8,felt that that was insult added to injury10 8,felt slighted10 8,feeling of abasement10 8,i was embarrassed10 8,felt as if ,i had been caught with the goods on40 ,unlike the feeling of irritation1 negative self-feeling has a more definite reference to the outside situation and for the most part refers to persons4 ,it will be noted that the origin of anger from the mental situation of lowered self-feeling1 and that from a condition of irritable feelings1 comes about by quite different processes4 ,the latter is reached by an increased complexity till the anger point is suddenly attained4 ,in the former case the anger comes about as a rather sudden reaction from a state of consciousness that is in marked contrast to anger4 ,notes from the reports will illustrate this characteristic4 ,b4 had made some errors at a public meeting4 ,x4 in a speech jokingly called attention to the errors4 ,at first ,b4 was confused and felt a little worried and embarrassed4 ,in a few moments he found himself mildly angry at ,x4 and was planning to retaliate4 ,b4 states that his anger did not refer to the fact that he had made the error1 but to ,x4 who had humiliated him by calling public attention to it4 ,f4 went to get a check cashed and was refused4 ,he states1 8,i felt belittled and became indignant as ,i walked away4444 ,with the appearance of the imagery of another person getting his check cashed the day before1 ,i became quite angry40 ,he adds that he was not angry because of the failure to get the check cashed1 but because of the discrimination against himself4 ,the anger referred to the cashier4 ,the idea that he was acting according to rules and not personally responsible1 appeared1 but was ignored by a recall of the imagery of the other person getting his check cashed4 ,negative self-feeling appears rather suddenly without any definite conscious fore-period of its own4 ,it is a state of consciousness predetermined by pleasurable feelings of self regard4 ,in taking the report of ,c4's emotions one evening1 there was found to be an unusual number4 ,he had been usually observing from one to four emotions each day1 with occasionally a day having no experiences of anger4 ,on this particular day he had observed and taken notes on twelve rather strongly developed cases of anger4 ,an inquiry into the cause showed nothing except that he had felt extra well all day and had turned off more than the usual amount of work4 ,this was a disturbing situation in connection with evidence that had previously been collected from ,g4 and ,d4 ,these two persons have few emotions of anger and have gone over a week with no experience of anger4 ,on ,december #dth1 ,d4 took observations on four cases of anger4 ,on inquiry it was found that he had been ill and not slept the night before4 ,g4 on the two days that he was ill introspected on ten cases of anger4 ,an examination of ,g4's and ,d4's reports indicate a fore-period of irritable feelings or a lack of immediate conscious fore-period4 ,in none of these cases was there any indication of lowered self-feeling in the fore-period of the emotion1 while with each of the introspections of ,c4 on the day he felt extra well and reported on the unusual number of twelve cases1 there was a fore-period of negative self-feeling4 ,with ,a4 on the days when he feels best1 there is an increase in the number of cases of anger with an initial lowered self- feeling4 ,such evidences as we have1 indicate that anger with a fore-period of negative self-feeling occurs most readily when the sentiment of self-regard is active1--on the days when the person is well pleased with himself4 ,it is true that the play of this sentiment only appears in consciousness1 when it has been interfered with or enhanced4 ,it makes up an essential mental predisposition in connection with the situation stimulating anger4 ,the following note from ,c4's observations will illustrate4 ,c4 met ,x4 and spoke to him2 ,x4 paid no attention4 ,c4 states1 8,for a moment ,i felt humiliated4444 ,i said to myself1 #8,he does not know my importance4'0 ,c4 then became quite angry thinking cutting remarks about ,x4 and ending the emotion by finding an excuse for ,x4's not seeing him4 ,any remark1 suggestion1 chance association1 it may be1 attitude of another or incident1 which in any way lowers the sentiment of self-respect may stimulate anger4 ,in this regard there is a wide individual difference with the persons studied and with the same person at different times4 ,a trivial incident may lower the play of the self-regarding sentiment and consequently give rise to anger1 while at other times a direct thrust at one's honor may be ignored4 ,the personality of the offender1 his social and intellectual standing1 his general demeanor and attitude1 play an important part in the entire emotional situation1 but at times personality is ignored and a 8chip is carried on the shoulder0 for the chance passer-by4 ,it appears in the results that the anger of the person who is not in authority against the one who is1 or the anger of the man lower down against the one higher up1 usually has a fore-period of negative self-feeling4 ,a mental disposition toward the one in power in addition to the sentiment of self-regard1 is a predetermining mental situation in exciting lowered self-feeling and consequently anger4 ,the most intense instances of anger that ,c41 ,d4 and ,e4 experienced were against persons in power4 ,d4--8,i was aware they were in authority and were taking advantage of it to run us out4 ,i felt a little humiliated but not angry as ,i left the room4 ,it occurred to me they were rather small in usurping the place40 ,a little later ,d4 became quite angry and carried on in imagination a rather extensive verbal combat with the usurpers in which he came out victor4 ,e4 states in his observation1 8,if ,x4 had been an ordinary man1 ,i would not have given the occasion a second thought4 ,but being very high up 444 ,i was inclined to take less off of him than those ,i consider as not knowing better40 ,on the other hand a certain mental disposition toward the person lower down in connection with the self-regarding sentiment may be a precondition of anger4 ,too great familiarity from an inferior may momentarily lower the self-regarding sentiment to his level and in consequence excite anger2 we do not resent a slap on the back by one whom we admire or recognize as our superior1 but we do from our inferior4 ,the same act from the one may heighten our self-respect while from the other it is lowered4 ,d4 reports a case of anger when he was in a crowd4 ,a boy kept purposely stepping on his heels4 ,he states1 8,i was not hurt but he acted too familiar for a boy under the circumstances4 ,i took his attitude as a personal matter and felt a little humiliated40 ,a4 reporting a case of anger stimulated by a person whom he holds in low esteem1 says1 8,it was not what ,x4 did so much1 but it was his familiar confidential attitude before others that embarrassed me40 ,it appears frequently in the observations that it is not what is done or said1 so much as it is the attitude of the person1 that is so offensive4 ,a too positive and aggressive action1 a too great display of wisdom1 a too familiar or condescending demeanor1 may be the essential element in the stimulus to anger4 ,the following phrases are noted by the different subjects as being an important part of the situation stimulating anger of the type now being treated4 ,c4--8,i resented his too dignified air more than anything else40 ,g4--8,what angered me most was his condescending attitude as if he knew it all40 ,i4--8,he acted too wise and ,i was aware he was trying to lord it over us4 ,that was the most offensive part40 ,h4--8,he sat and stared at me as if he thought ,i didn't know what ,i was talking about40 ,f4--8,he took on a wise air implying that he had already passed through the stage in which ,i now was40 ,e4--8,it was not his statement so much as it was his rather spiteful attitude that angered me40 ,a4--8,it was not what he said4 ,it was his haughty air and little condescending laugh in dismissing the matter that rang in my ears40 ,while in the presence of a situation that lowers self-feeling1 even though persons may not be connected with the situation1 it is a common characteristic to refer the anger to some person4 ,the bounds of justice may be1 for the moment1 overstepped4 ,the dim awareness with some1 that the person is not to be blamed1 is ignored for the time1 while the tendency is strongest in consciousness to give expression to the emotion4 ,the individual differences here are quite marked4 ,g4 apparently has developed a habit of referring his anger to a principle1 ignoring the personality4 ,in many of his observations1 persons were connected with a situation1 but were neglected in his attention to the principle violated4 ,a business man had told him an untruth causing him difficulty4 ,g4 states1 8,i was not angry at the man4 ,that was his way of doing business40 ,in the course of his emotional experience1 his anger became rather intense1 referring to the business ethics practiced4 ,the degree in which the sense of justice is ignored under the influence of anger of this type is also a matter of wide individual difference4 ,in the observations collected1 anger at one's self appears quite frequently4 ,there have been no cases found1 in which anger at one's self develops purely from a fore-period of irritation4 ,the subject takes the matter to himself and feels a little humiliated and degraded and may react against his own personality in the same manner that he would against another4 ,two observers1 ,b4 and ,g41 quite frequently get angry at themselves4 ,a4 reports that this sort of anger rarely occurs with him4 ,g4 observes the following case4 ,after he had been repeatedly humiliated by his own failure1 he says1 8,i felt as if ,i were so inefficient4 ,i said to myself1 #8,if ,i had a man working for me and he should do work in that manner ,i would discharge him4'0 ,g4 then continued to talk to himself like another person in rather severe condemnatory language4 ,b4 was reading a book4 ,he could not understand the author's demonstration4 ,he had made several trials at it4 ,he states1 8,i felt as if ,i must be stupid1 somehow2 there was a slight feeling of worry and dejection4 ,the idea of my stupidity was followed by anger at myself for being so stupid4 ,i clinched my fists and threw my arms in angry demonstration1 feeling as if ,i would like to pummel myself4 ,i went over the demonstration again with an attitude of carefulness and finally concluded that it was the author who was hazy instead of myself4 ,i slammed the book down on the table and broke forth angrily1 #8,you1 ,x41 are the one who is stupid1 you don't make it clear4' ,this anger at the author was rather pleasant in quality4 ,i felt a sort of triumph over him40 ,another situation quite common in the origin of anger with a fore-period of lowered self-feeling1 is its appearance at times with greater intensity after the actual outside stimulus is passed4 ,one becomes more angry in recalling afterward what was said1 than he was at the time of the offense4 ,this belated origin of anger appears in the observations of all the subjects studied4 ,it may be noted that anger with a fore-period of irritation does not appear in this retarded manner4 ,in the recall of an incident in imagination1 anger may become quite intense2 while it may be at the time of the incident1 there was no awareness of any tendency to anger4 ,mild anger at the time of the initial stimulus may become intensified in its recall4 ,in such cases there was evidently some element lacking in the mental situation stimulating anger4 ,an offensive statement in the heat of an irascible discussion may be ignored4 ,a rather severe thrust may seem proper1 but when recalled in connection with another mental situation1 the emotional content may be entirely changed4 ,x4 in the course of an argument with ,e4 implied1 8,you never will know as much about the subject under discussion as ,y40 8,at the time ,i noted his statement and was aware that it was a thrust at myself1 but ,i had no feeling about the matter then4 ,i considered that ,i was producing the better argument1 and his personal thrust ,i was aware was an admission on his part that he knew ,i was4 ,to-day ,i recalled his statement and felt degraded and angry40 ,then ,c4 proceeded to plan a series of cutting remarks that he would like to tell ,x4 ,in some instances the presence of a too active aggressive attitude at the time of the stimulus seems to predispose against a too easy lowering of self-esteem1 and consequently anger with a fore-period of negative self-feeling does not appear4 ,but let one momentarily lose faith in his point of view or fail in words to express it1 and he becomes more sensitive to the thrusts of his opponent's argument4 ,another factor partly accounts for the greater emotional intensity of the recalled incident4 ,the conventional control of emotions during social contact may be relaxed during the memory recall4 ,the same ethical standard is not required for one's private thinking as in actual contact with others4 ,in this respect there is rather wide individual difference with the subjects studied4 ,though in general with persons of rather intense emotions1 there is a marked difference in the ethical standard they practice1 when the incident is present to consciousness1 and the standard used when the anger occurs from the imaged situation2 with all persons studied at times during their most intense anger emotions1 the imaginative reaction is far more crude and unethical1 and consequently the imaged anger may be more intense4 ,a third factor may be involved here4 ,a personal thrust may be partly ignored at the time without lowered dignity because it is given with a smile or a friendly attitude1 but when recalled later1 the friendliness may be neglected and consequently anger is more intense4 ,a fourth condition that partly accounts for more intense anger in the imaged situation1 is that the anger consciousness of this type is usually cumulative4 ,with an entirely novel experience1 a certain amount of resistance must be broken down before the emotion develops4 ,the emotion seems to develop by a cumulative process through a series of stimuli4 ,one personal thrust in a situation in which there is involved no previous emotional excitement1 may be ignored or the humiliation may be borne at the time with no anger reactions2 but when it is repeated one or more times under similar circumstances1 there is present a characteristic mental situation for the development of anger4 ,the repeated occurrence of the incident in the imagination intensifies the feelings till anger becomes fully developed4 ,e4's observations will illustrate4 8,during the argument with ,x41 ,i was in splendid humor1 enjoying myself to the fullest and naturally supposed everybody was40 ,referring to a statement made by ,x4 during the argument1 ,e4 states1 8,the glow of the conflict had not entirely departed when ,i began to see his statement in an entirely new light as reflecting on myself1 then ,i felt somewhat distressed and overcome to a slight degree1 by a feeling of abasement but no resentment against ,x4 ,the next day at ten o'clock ,i was recalling the events of the argument4 ,there was still a feeling of abasement but now it stirred me to anger4 ,i found myself going over it and thinking what ,i might have said1 and what ,i would say the next time40 ,anger ,without an ,immediate ,feeling ,fore-period4 ,this study was begun tentatively with the view held by ,wundt 7#ba7 that each emotion of anger has an immediate feeling fore-period4 ,the study had not progressed far till this view had to be abandoned4 ,it early appeared in the observations that anger may begin rather suddenly with no initial feeling fore-period1 which the observer is able to find4 ,the subject reports that he suddenly finds himself in the midst of an emotion of anger before he is scarcely aware of it1 and is giving verbal and motor expressions usually accompanying such emotions4 ,in many of the emotions of this type there is evidence in the observations that the emotion refers to a previous emotional experience4 ,from the mental disposition left over from the previous emotion1 the emotion suddenly emerges without passing through the cumulative process that is necessary with an entirely novel emotional experience4 ,in other words the way has previously been broken so that it is not necessary to break down the same amount of resistance4 ,a4 observes1 8,sitting in my room1 ,i imaged ,x4 ,at once ,i was angry1 motor expression not marked at first4 ,x4 was imaged in a rather positive and demonstrative attitude which he sometimes takes4 ,i found myself with quite a good deal of motor activity saying in voco-motor fashion as if talking to ,x4----,i was partly aware of three former disagreements with ,x41 the imagery of the circumstances of the last one was most clearly defined4 ,i imagined ,x4 a little humbled by my remark4 ,the emotional experience from the first was pleasant4 ,i felt a little victorious in the imaginary act of dealing a telling thrust40 ,with all persons studied1 there is evidence of a previously developed mental disposition against certain persons and against certain principles which allows the anger point to be reached in a short cut fashion4 ,anger is easily attained without the initial feeling either of irritation or lowered self-feeling4 ,anger that rises from this situation is usually pleasant in quality4 ,the mental disposition which is connected with this sudden origin of anger may be present during the later recall of the emotion4 ,it is also shown by the frequent re-occurrence that the same situation may repeatedly give rise to anger4 ,b4 has a rather strongly developed sentiment against ministers who preach what they do not believe2 ,g4 against persons who do their work carelessly1 especially manufacturers who send out goods of inferior quality4 ,i4 has a marked sentiment against acts of cruelty in the treatment of animals4 ,d4 reacts rather vigorously against persons who are disloyal to friendship4 ,these sentiments go back to early experiences in the life of the individuals4 ,b4 in talking with ,x4 directed the conversation to ministers who preach what they really do not believe4 ,he took ,dr4 ,y4 as an example4 ,he had previously seen ,dr4 ,y4 drinking beer with the boys and had resented his behavior4 ,he began to vituperate to ,x4 against ,y41 giving instances and telling his opinion rather vigorously about such men who have a double personality4 8,before ,i was scarcely aware of it1 ,i was in the midst of motor and verbal expressions of righteous indignation4 ,i enjoyed it all very much4 ,i always take delight in making myself angry with ministers of this sort40 ,b4 has reported other instances of his anger against ministers of this type4 ,a case from ,i4 will illustrate further4 8,i had the same recurring anger for three weeks4 ,a delivery boy who passes about the same time each day goes by whipping and abusing his horse4 ,anger arises each time the incident occurs4 ,the sight made me pleasantly indignant4 ,i have the image of an old ,german1 living near my home as a child1 who treated his horse so cruelly4 ,the idea of telephoning to the police occurs to me1 but the boy goes on and the idea is abandoned40 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,two ,,behavior ,,of ,,consciousness ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,wundt 7#ba7 has pointed out that there are two types of reaction to an emotion1 what he calls outer and inner volitional acts4 ,the first refers to the external bodily expression of an emotion and the latter to the mental behavior4 ,in the study of the emotions1 attention has for the most part been directed to the former4 ,darwin's study of the emotions in man and animals1 early called attention to the finer physical expressions of each emotion1 explaining them as instinctive habits which were formerly useful4 ,darwin's study partly paved the way for the ,james-,lange theory1 which maintains that what we experience as an emotion is but the sensation of the instinctive physical expression4 ,the aim of this chapter is to study the mental behavior during the conscious period the anger exists4 ,it is recognized that the motor and physical expressions is primary and fundamental4 ,for that reason it has served so adequately in the objective study of the emotion4 ,what we shall attempt to study is the mental behavior of persons under the influence of anger4 ,ethics tells us how we ought to act when angry1 but psychology has neglected to find out how in reality consciousness does behave when the emotional excitement is on4 ,david ,iron's 7#ab7 statement is still apropos4 ,he writes1 8,the neglect of the reactive side of human consciousness is nowhere more conspicuous than in the case of the emotions40 ,the anger consciousness is characterized by heightened mental activity4 ,a multiple number of images1 attitudes1 fluctuations of the emotional and feeling content appear in rapid succession till the emotion disappears4 ,this statement is true for even the more tenuous instances of anger4 ,in fact some of the milder experiences have the most marked changeableness of conscious content4 ,objectively there may be little activity1 while simultaneously on the mental side1 there is a wealth of processes which must be considered in the psychology of the emotions4 ,after making a rather minute collection of the different kinds of mental reaction to anger1 as shown by the introspections1 it is observed that they fall into three rather clear types of conscious behavior4 ,the first type is in the general direction of the emotive tendency and is the one that most impulsively follows on the stimulus of the emotion4 ,it expresses pugnacity in some form4 ,this type of reaction expresses a tendency similar to the basal instinct of the emotion of anger1 such as thinking cutting remarks1 imagining the offender's humiliation1 hostile witticism1 joking and sarcasm4 ,this type of a reaction will be called attributive reaction4 ,a second type is contrary to pugnacity2 the instinctive impulse is reversed4 ,a friendly attitude may be assumed toward the offender1 an adequate excuse it found for his offense1 an over polite attitude may be taken4 ,this type of behavior will be called the contrary reaction4 ,a third type is one that is entirely of a conscious attitudinal character4 ,the subject becomes indifferent to the whole situation exciting the emotion4 ,the offense may suddenly be apathetically ignored and the subject behaves unconcerned and assumes an 8,i don't care10 or a 8,what-is-the-use0 attitude4 ,this will be called indifferent reaction4 ,these three types of behavior are characteristic of the reactive consciousness to anger4 ,the emotion may contain one1 or it may contain all three of these types before it finally ends4 ,going over the results of the observations of all the subjects1 about fourteen hundred sixty eight reactions are counted in the six hundred cases of anger studied4 ,seventy one percent of such reactions are classified as attributive reaction1 eighteen percent are the contrary type1 and eleven percent are the indifferent4 ,the initial reaction to anger is always of the attributive type4 ,whatever other reactions may follow in the course of the entire anger period1 the attributive reaction in some form is characteristic of the early stage of the emotion4 ,the contrary and indifferent types are secondary in point of time and occur after the initial hostile tendencies have been restrained4 ,if an emotion of anger is made up entirely of the attributive type1 which frequently occurs1 and continues for any length of time1 it is always noted that some of the reactions are more crude and unsocial and others are refined1 disguised it may be1 covered up1 and when the emotion is most intense whether it be in the initial stage or elsewhere1 the unsocial attributive tendencies are usually found at those places4 ,,attributive ,,reaction ,the anger consciousness in its development1 especially in its initial stage is characterized by restraint4 ,the subject is aware of hostile unlawful impulses that must be controlled4 ,its initial stage is usually reported as unpleasant4 ,the second characteristic of the anger consciousness is reaction of some sort4 ,what takes place on the mental side1 is along the line of least resistance for the moment4 ,mental life is rather versatile in providing subjective reaction to anger4 ,motor and visual imagery play an important role involving lessened resistance4 ,a third characteristic of the anger consciousness is what the ,germans call 8,verschiebung40 ,the emotive tendency is inhibited4 ,a substitution follows for the tendencies restrained4 ,it may be purely subjective or only partly subjective4 ,but the subject in the observation of his anger is fully aware that he would behave in some more drastic fashion if the restraint were off4 ,substitution of ,visual and ,motor ,imagery4 ,with the subjects studied there occurred no real pugnacious attack in which blows were struck except with those persons who have the correction of children2 there are also but few real quarrels reported4 ,but the versatility of consciousness in substituting and providing merely mental reaction for other hostile tendencies that the subject really wished fulfilled is quite striking4 ,visual and motor imagery may take the place of tendencies which are inhibited and allow a successful expression4 ,an observation from ,a4 will illustrate4 8,i found myself saying cutting remarks as if speaking directly to ,x41 and ,i planned a course of behavior toward him that ,i considered would humiliate him4 ,i finally ended by imagining myself kicking him down the street1 telling him ,i wanted no more to do with him4 ,the imagery of this act was pleasant4 ,i felt victorious4 ,x4 was imagined as penitent40 ,the imagery of the pugnacious attack in some form is a quite common characteristic of the mental reaction to anger4 ,it occurs after a period of restraint when there seems nothing else to be done2 imagination and fancy appear at such a crisis and assume the role of a surrogate for hostile tendencies1 which the subject has controlled4 ,the awareness of the direct end of the initial tendency of the anger may be present in consciousness or the aim may be indefinite4 ,subject ,i4 observes1 8,i felt as if ,i wanted to say something or do something at once that would get even with ,x4 ,the thing to do was vague1 but the impulse to do something in a hostile manner was strong40 ,the aim of behavior may be rather definitely formed in the early stage of the anger consciousness as soon as the irascible feelings are definitely referred to some object4 ,an illustration from ,a4 follows3--8,the impulse to take ,x4 7a child7 and shake him1 was strong on the first stimulus of the emotion2 suppressing this ,i spoke crossly to him1 at the same time there appeared motor imagery of my holding him with both hands and shaking him40 ,another instance from the same subject3 8,i had an impulse to punish ,x41 restraint was immediately followed by a motor and visual imagery of the act of punishment40 ,subject ,c4 observes1 8,the first impulse was to kick ,x41 the restraint was accompanied by motor images of kicking him1 followed by the image of his being hurt in the face40 ,e4 states1 8,i felt as if ,i would like to shake him and imagined myself doing it40 ,g4 developed a case of anger from a series of irritating stimuli4 ,describing his anger1 he says1 8,i felt like ,i wanted to bite or hit something40 ,b4 reports a case when he had been humiliated by some boys along the street4 ,the tendency to anger at the time was controlled1 but as he passed on1 the emotion arose with greater intensity4 8,i imagined myself beating one of the boys1 ,i gave him several good punches2 he had no show at all4 ,i came out victor and was enjoying it all40 ,one of the many sorts of mental reactions that ,h4 reports to a case of anger that extended over three quarters of an hour1 is1 8,i imagined myself charging at him and his looking frightened at my behavior40 ,substitution of ,irascible ,play4 ,the imagined fight and victory take the place of tendencies which would have a more objective expression4 ,another sort of substitution of the initially restrained emotional reaction1 is first to lessen the restraint by inhibition and react in some less crude manner in a slightly disguised form1 which gives a feeling of satisfaction in inner victory and at the same time lacks the objective hostility4 ,a4 felt humiliated because of ,x4's remark in the presence of others4 8,resenting his familiarity1 ,i went out of my way to pass him2 ,i grabbed his arm and gave it a tremendous grip1 at the same time ,i smiled playfully4 ,i really aimed to hurt him and was fully aware that ,i wished to hurt him worse than ,i did4 ,what ,i did was merely a substitution1 but now that the act was over1 ,i felt fully satisfied and pleased with what ,i had done40 ,the playful attack is a rather common sort of reaction to resentment with observers ,a41 ,c4 and ,d4 ,d4 observes1 8,i was angry at ,x4 and was trying to control myself2 suddenly ,i grabbed him and punched him several times in the ribs1 at the same time ,i smiled4 ,i did not want him or the others to know ,i was angry4 ,i enjoyed pummelling him1 as ,i felt ,i had demonstrated to him that ,i could handle him40 ,in such observations the subject's awareness that what he does in a playful fashion is but a substitution of what he would like to do in another manner1 is significant4 ,this sort of awareness seems to be ignored in the every-day experience of our emotional life4 ,attention is directed to the reaction2 we involuntarily seek a place of lessened resistance1 but the act of introspection allows the subject to be more clearly aware of the inhibited reaction and the substituted expression which follows4 ,substitution of ,imaginary ,invective and ,cutting ,remarks4 ,the vocal expression of anger is one of primary significance4 ,swearing1 grumbling1 invective1 quarrelling1 interjectional obloquy1 etc41 are very common signs of anger4 ,the results would very strongly suggest that anger rarely1 if ever1 occurs without its vocal expression in some manner1 if not by direct vocalization either by inner speech or voco-motor imagery4 ,introspection of slight emotions or anger lasting momentarily1 show as their most marked sensation1 one of tightening of the throat muscles4 ,defamatory language or mild swearing is common with all the subjects studied while in the privacy of their own rooms when the restraint is off4 ,the expression of the vocal cords is one of the most successful vents4 ,b4 was instructed to abandon himself to vigorous invective and interjectional obloquy when the emotion first began and note the result4 ,he followed these instructions on three occasions when the emotion from the beginning was unpleasant1 developing from a fore-period of irritation4 ,with this sort of voluntary vigorous vocal expression1 the anger soon passed into rather pleasurable excitement4 ,the reaction to anger in its initial stage may be a vocal tendency to express one's anger1 referring the emotion directly to some person or to an object4 ,when the restraint is on1 either from motives of decency or the absence of the offender1 the thinking of cutting remarks may be substituted for the actual verbal attack4 ,the subject is aware that what he says to himself he would like to say to the offender4 ,methods of procedure are elaborately planned for a future verbal attack1 just what he expects to say and wants to say1 how he will say it1 the inflection of the voice1 the emphasis of words and dramatic attitude4 ,he may imagine the effect of the attack on his opponent1 the latter may talk back4 ,the imagined verbal combat is usually a one-sided affair and ends in victory for the subject4 ,drastic remarks and the most cutting sarcasms are planned at times by the subjects studied4 ,however there are wide individual differences which cannot be referred entirely to the difference in intensity of the emotional life4 ,habit apparently plays an important role4 ,d4 felt that he had been imposed upon by ,x4 and ,y4 ,after the humiliating incident had passed1 ,d4 suddenly found himself in the midst of an anger reaction4 8,i found myself having a verbal combat with them4 ,i imagined ,i was telling ,x41 #8,i should think it costs but little to act like a gentleman1 but ,i presume this is an illustration of your piggishness4' ,then ,i imagined ,y4 beginning to talk4 ,just what he was saying was not clear1 but ,i was aware that he was helping ,x4 ,i interrupted by telling him1 #8,i understand you are from ---- and of course ,i can't expect anything better of you4' ,they began to talk back several times1 but ,i got the better of them and felt pleased about it40 ,the cutting remarks are at times crude and abusive4 ,the subject may swear at the offender4 ,persons who do not swear in actual life frequently do in imagination4 ,in such imaginative verbal attacks the offender's bad qualities are displayed before him1 at other times the same subject may resort to imagery1 sarcasm1 witticism or joking of a hostile nature4 ,the motivation seems to be to imagine remarks that would humiliate the offender4 ,the visual imagery of the astonished humble opponent is usual in these imaginary attacks4 ,crude and abusive remarks may at times seem entirely appropriate2 at others1 sarcasm and irascible joking seem more adequate4 ,sarcasm usually develops rather slowly with a period of restraint preceding it1 unless it is ready made for the occasion4 ,when the fitting sarcastic remark is found1 it is usually accompanied by pleasantness in some degree4 ,f4 observes1 8,i could get no imaginative remark that would suit me at first1 but after the emotion appeared several times in succession ,i suddenly discovered one and found myself saying it over and over again4 ,it rather pleased me1 ,i practiced it to get the right inflection and emphasis that ,i desired40 ,the imaginative cutting remark may be in the second person as if addressed directly to the offender1 especially when the emotion is intense4 ,it may be in the third person about the offender1 his unfavorable qualities are recalled with no plan or intention of repeating his remarks to him4 ,the contemplation of his unworthiness is accompanied by an agreeable feeling4 ,b4 became righteously indignant at ,x4 because of an incident of ungentlemanly conduct toward a friend4 ,he observes1 8,a moment later 7that is after the first instance of anger7 ,i imagined myself in my alcove in the ,library1 and imagined some other person1 ,i did not know1 who came in and said to me1 #8,what do you think of ,x8' ,i replied with a good deal of pleasurable indignation1 #8,i think he is a damned ass4' ,three-quarters of an hour later as ,i was walking along the street1 the emotion arose again1 and ,i imagined some one asking the same question1 ,i replied the same as before with a like feeling of pleasure4 ,i really wanted some one to ask me what ,i thought of ,x40 ,the subject may be aware that what he says to and about the opponent is a little unfair1 but at the time that the emotion is progressing1 he ignores it and wants to believe ill of the offender4 ,the results of this study abundantly show that a make-believe attitude plays an important role in the anger consciousness1 in both the development of the anger and the reactive consciousness4 ,it is believed momentarily1 when the anger is most intense1 that the offender is really a bad man4 ,pausing for introspection in the midst of such emotional reaction1 it is frequently reported1 8,i knew very well ,i would say nothing of the sort and that ,x4 was not so bad as ,i believed him40 ,while the emotion is most intense1 ill reports about the offender which were previously ignored are now believed and assumed as true1 and satisfaction is derived by degrading the best qualities of the offender1 by believing stories of ill repute1 by suspecting or imagining evil of him4 ,the degree in which this tendency is present1 depends partly on the intensity of the emotion1 and evidently in part on the individual habits of reaction to anger4 ,the chronic irascible gossiper is evidently a characteristic type of person who has specialized in this mode of reaction to anger4 ,substitutions by ,witticism and ,irony4 ,witticism1 sarcasm1 irony1 teasing and joking make up a large class of vocal and imaginal reactions which may take the place of the initially restrained emotional tendency4 ,the crude remarks1 transformed into wit or fitting sarcasm1 overcome the consciousness restraint that was initially present in the emotion and lessen resistance4 ,it is accompanied by a pleasant feeling and may be keenly delightful4 ,a thrust in a half serious tone accompanied by a smile1 the jest and hostile joke follow a state of mind characterized by restraint4 ,in the observations of the subjects studied there is evidence supporting ,freud's 7#h7 theory of wit4 ,what he calls 8tendency wit02 that is1 wit with a definite aim has two divisions1 the hostile joke and the obscene joke4 ,the first is a reaction to irascible anger and the latter to the sexual emotions4 ,the introspection of the reactive stage of anger consciousness shows the ,freudian mechanism for 8tendency wit40 ,the following case will illustrate a crude kind of wit4 ,h4 whose husband had stayed out late at night became angry following a period of worry4 ,fluctuating intensities of anger and periods of worry lasted over an hour4 ,after a number of reactions such as planning verbal attacks2 recalling his thoughtless behavior at other times2 crying1 assuming an attitude of self-pity2 devising some means of making him sorry2 at times trying to assume the attitude that it was no use to be angry2 taking observations of the emotion at a number of places1 motivated by a wish that her husband would see the results and feel sorry2 imagining herself going to him and talking rather abusively4 ,finally she found a remark that gave the keenest pleasure of all4 8,i imagined myself saying1 #8,petty dear1 you have been out pretty late tonight4'0 ,this was a condensed veiled statement expressing about all she would like to say4 8,petty0 is a character portrayed in a current illustrated newspaper as being mean to his wife and flaring up angrily at every little incident4 ,the character of 8,petty0 was fully understood by her husband4 ,the crude hostile reaction was followed by a rather condensed acute remark2 it was reported as pleasant1 8because it seemed so fitting40 ,c4 in a discussion with ,x4 became angry and gives the following observation1 8,i noted ,i was getting angry and wanted to say something hostile1 but instead ,i turned away suddenly and laughed1 saying in a joking1 half-serious manner1 #8,oh you old bottle head1 you don't know anything4' ,although ,i laughed1 ,i really meant it4 ,that gave complete satisfaction4 ,he laughed too40 ,let us illustrate further4 ,a41 with four others1 was walking along the street1 coming from a clinic at the hospital1 where a case of flight of ideas had just been observed4 ,x41 one of the party1 was talking in a manner that seemed to ,a4 a little superfluous4 ,he resented his attitude1 and turning he said to ,x4 in a joking manner1 8,what did you say8 ,the malady must be catching10 7referring to the case observed74 ,x4 retorted1 8,i never have any fixed ideas40 ,a4 replied1 8,no1 they do fly away pretty fast40 ,a4 observed1 8,i felt pleased and victorious with my remark1 my resentment was entirely gone and ,i entered into conversation with ,x4 in a friendly manner40 ,witticism is one of the more refined modes of substitution for the more directly hostile attack4 ,sarcasm is cruder4 ,its mechanism depends for the most part upon the inflection and tone of voice in speaking4 ,the words themselves in sarcasm are innocent enough1 but the mode of expression and the meaning involved are the sources of hostility4 ,the following statement represent sarcastic remarks4 ,a4--8,i think ,i will come around to your ,club10 emphasis on the word 8your40 ,a4--again1 8,you surely must be right10 emphasis on 8surely40 ,j4--8,you are not the boss1 then80--emphasis on 8not10 with a little sneer and an accompanying laugh4 ,sarcasm is a rather cheap and easy reaction to anger4 ,it is consequently more easily attained than wit4 ,the period of conscious restraint preceding sarcasm is usually less1 unless the witticism is already made for the occasion4 ,its feeling effect is also not so pleasant as of wit4 ,at times sarcasm may be combined with rather crude wit1 but wit of a more refined type will exclude sarcasm4 ,the following is a combination of this kind4 ,c41 having become angry at ,x4 for his 8bragging attitude10 says1 8,i was conscious of the tendency to say something hostile1 but could think of nothing appropriate4 ,in the course of his remarks ,x4 finally said1 #8,i never read anything for an experiment as ,i fear it might bias my results4' ,i suddenly found a remark that seemed entirely fitting at the time and at once the restraint was off4 ,i said a little sarcastically1 #8,no1 you never want to read anything1 it might hurt your intellect4' ,as soon as the statement was made ,i saw ,i had gone too far and felt a little cheap4 ,i at once noted that he did not take my remark seriously1 and felt relieved4 ,my former resentment had entirely disappeared40 ,substitution by ,disguise4 ,there are many devices less refined than wit which are commonly resorted to in slightly disguising the hostile attack4 ,the offender may be attacked indirectly and impersonally4 ,the following case will illustrate4 ,f4 became angry at a merchant because1 when he went to pay for an article1 the price was marked more than he had previously agreed to pay4 ,feeling resentful1 he said1 8,i suppose the bill is all right1 the clerk said it would be less1 but people in this town don't know what they are talking about anyway40 ,f4 observes1 8,what ,i really meant was that you don't know what you are talking about40 ,to avoid making the direct attack1 the indefinite pronoun is substituted at times for the definite4 ,the use of 8some one0 or 8somebody0 instead of 8you10 in talking to the offender blunts the remark4 ,the device is rather cheap affording little pleasure and has but a short fore-period of restraint4 ,it is carried to an extreme when the subject pretends he does not know the perpetrator of the offense and in fact may assume it is some one else1 so that he may speak his mind directly to the offender4 ,i4 observes1 8,i was angry1 and talked to her about the affair as if ,i did not know that she did it4 ,i wouldn't have had her to know that ,i knew for anything4 ,i told her what ,i thought of a person who had acted in that way and noted that she looked cheap4 ,that pleased me40 ,some gossip and vituperate against their enemies and derive a moiety of ill-gotten pleasure if a sympathetic hearer is found4 ,one subject states1 8,i went to tell ,x41 hoping he would be angry too1 and felt just a little disappointed when he was not40 ,hints and insinuations often become devices to avoid a too hostile direct attack4 ,imaginary ,exaltation of ,self4 ,another rather important reaction of the attributive type is an idealistic one4 ,imagination and ideational processes are active4 ,lowered self-feeling has been accomplished in the subject usually by a number of repeated offenses by some one that the subject really respects4 ,the offender is frequently not imagined as degraded1 but he is left as he is1 and the subject proceeds to imagine1--it may be to fancy or day-dreams that he is the offender's superior4 ,as the reaction to moments of humiliation1 he may later plan to surpass him4 ,an attitude of make-believe may be momentarily assumed that he is already the offender's superior4 ,fantastic schemes of a successful career may appear in which he imagines some distant future1 in which he has gained renown and the offender is glad to recall that he knew him in other days4 ,sometimes he is imagined as seeking his friendship or advice1 or favor1 and is refused with dignity4 ,at the next moment he may be graciously bestowing favors upon the offender4 ,such imaginative processes are observed to afford pleasure to the subject at the time and may lead to a new level of self-confidence which has important influences on later behavior4 ,usually idealistic reactions of this character appear in consciousness after more directly hostile reactions have failed to satisfy the subject4 ,a few cases will illustrate4 ,a41 recalling an incident of the day before which humiliated him1 became angry4 ,at first he began saying in voco-motor fashion as if talking directly to ,x41 8,you are a conceited fellow4 ,you are hard to get along with4 ,i will beat you4 ,you are too nervous to get very far40 8,i imagined myself treating him in a superior1 dignified manner40 ,a4 then laid plans how he would work1 stick to one thing1 make himself a recognized authority1 and how he would have little to do with ,x4 ,he imagined ,x4 coming to him for favors when he had attained the success he had planned1 and himself taking a rather indifferent attitude toward his requests4 ,a4 observes that his entire reverie was pleasant1 although the anger was unpleasant in the beginning4 ,c4 reports a case of anger at ,x4 who had taken a rather critical attitude toward a problem which he was studying4 ,he observes1 8,at first there was a slight humiliated feeling4 ,this was displaced by resentment4 ,i imagined myself standing before ,x4 and giving him two good retorts which ,i considered would have their ill effects on him4 ,at this point the theme changed1 #8,i will leave you alone and have nothing to do with you1' ,i felt as if this behavior would somehow punish him1 and that pleased me a little40 ,but as a third and final reaction ,c4 observes the following4 8,i planned to do my work so well that ,x4 would feel sorry for what he had said1 ,i imagined ,x4 complimenting me after it was finished40 ,the early stage of the emotion above was reported as unpleasant1 the final ending in which ,c4 imagines ,x4 complimenting him on his success was a point of marked pleasure4 ,subject ,e4 who had felt humiliated by ,x4 whom he considered had underestimated him1 observed as a final reaction1 8,i will show him in the next ten years1 ,i am young and can work1 and he will see40 ,then followed a number of plans for the future4 ,one subject reacts for a moment at times to resentment by day dreams in which he imagines himself a man of wealth and deals out favors to all except his enemy4 ,he even uses his wealth and influence against him4 ,the feeling is rather pleasant in tone till the moment he comes back to a sense of reality4 ,the transition decreases the pleasantness rather suddenly4 ,attitudinal ,reactions4 ,attitudinal reactions of a hostile nature are an important part of the anger consciousness4 ,what may be called 8resolutional attitudes0 frequently occur as one of the final mental reactions in the diminution of the emotion4 ,the resolutional attitude to do something in the future at a more convenient time when the effects will be greater1 becomes a convenient substitute for conscious tendencies that require present restraint4 ,the subject definitely settles on a course of action which cannot be carried out at once4 ,the feeling tone of such conscious attitudes is pleasant4 ,it is not unusual to have a settled resolution and come to a definite conclusion in the initial reactive stage of the emotion4 ,unless the attitude is ready made for the occasion1 it appears as one of the final resorts4 ,a characteristic of 8nowness0 belongs to anger4 ,an attitude that portends to future behavior is secondary1 appearing after the possibilities of present reactions are exhausted4 ,much of the initial restraint in inhibitions is preparatory to the attainment of a settled conclusion2 in some cases initial reaction behaves in a trial and error fashion4 ,the results of a number of hostile impulses are imagined and are followed to their end until finally one is selected that seems most fitting4 ,the conclusion reached may be temporary4 ,although it may be abandoned on the reappearance of the emotion1 there is a temporary satisfaction in having attained a conclusive attitude even momentarily4 ,the following case from ,c4 will illustrate4 ,c4 became angry on being told of ,x4's behavior4 ,he first recalled a number of previous similar instances2 second1 he transferred the anger momentarily to another person who told him of the offense2 third1 he imagined himself cutting off all business relations with ,x4 and as a fourth reaction he observes1 8,i took on a pugnacious attitude and concluded to fight it out according to the rules of the game1 and planned what ,i would do and say to make him come my way40 ,the attitude of waiting for further developments1 biding one's time1 being cautious1 is a frequent substitute for rising tendencies demanding present action4 ,subject ,e4 observes1 8,i finally came to the conclusion not to lie in wait for the opportunity to get back at the offender1 but to be on guard against a future attack1 but even after the conclusion was formed it was not at once carried out though it pleased me4 ,i still found myself planning what ,i would say if the thing should be repeated40 ,a4 angry at ,x4 and ,y41 finally came to the following hostile conclusive attitude1 8,they had better be doing nothing like that1 ,i will watch them1 and when ,i get a chance they will hear from me4 ,i will be cautious and sure first1 with which final conclusion my anger disappeared40 ,,the ,,contrary ,,reaction ,the second general type of reaction to anger is what we have called contrary reaction4 ,the subject suddenly reacts contrary to the emotive tendency of the emotion4 ,he behaves contrary to what he actually wishes at the time4 ,religion and morals have idealized this type of behavior in its extreme form4 8,turn the other cheek10 8,love your enemy10 8,do good to those that hate you10 are exhortations of more than one religion4 ,as compared with the type described above1 relatively a small percent of the mental reactions under the influence of anger1 as shown by the observations of all the subjects studied1 are classed as the contrary reactive type1 eighteen percent as compared with seventy one percent4 ,the contrary reaction is not so rich in versatile behavior as the one just described1 in fact it is limited to a few set reactions4 ,the subject suddenly reacts to a state of mind contrary to anger4 ,it may take strong effort to make the change and the attitude is not heartily entered into at first and does not usually occur when the emotion is most intense1 but after it is partly diminished1 consequently it is usually delayed till a later stage of the emotion4 ,if it appears in the initial stage it precludes a complete development of the emotion4 ,subject ,g4 has apparently acquired the habit of championing1 in the initial stage of the emotion1 the offender's point of view and forestalling the development of anger against persons4 ,his anger is attained most fully against objects and situations4 ,he considers this due to his training in early childhood4 ,e4 has developed a partial habit of assuming an attitude of forgiveness toward the offender4 ,c4 and ,a4 when in a quandary and unable to find other adequate means of expression1 suddenly revert to the contrary reaction4 ,it becomes a habitual device toward close and intimate friends or toward persons with whom it is necessary to get along4 ,after the anger has gone so far1 the subject suddenly assumes a friendly attitude as if there were no emotion4 ,there are various conditions under which this sort of mental reaction to anger occurs4 ,it is a frequent device in a social situation when there is rising anger and it becomes necessary to adopt a sudden and quick control4 ,it is forced upon the subject to meet a sudden crisis4 ,he may at once assume an over-friendly or over-polite behavior1 when in reality he would like to behave in a hostile manner4 ,a little over-solicitude for the offender may be conspicuously displayed4 ,a few cases will illustrate4 ,b4 was met on the stairs by his landlady1 who requested him not to write on his machine after ten o'clock1 also to put on his slippers on coming home late before ascending the stairs4 ,he observes1 8,before she had finished ,i felt uncomfortable and was vaguely aware of the inconvenience that these limitations would cause me4 ,i recalled that she had said that ,i could use the typewriter all ,i wished when ,i took the room2 ,i found myself becoming angry1 but at once ,i took the attitude of excusing her4 ,i noted that she looked tired while she was talking1 and thought perhaps ,i had kept her awake4 ,i then said with an extra pleasant tone1 #8,that is all right1 ,i am very glad you speak of it1 ,i wish you had told me before4' ,the pleasantness was assumed1 ,i did not feel pleasant as ,i spoke1 ,i was still mildly angry4 ,five minutes later ,i recalled what she had said and began to get angry again1 but at once imaged her tired appearance and excused her as before40 ,a4's observation illustrates further4 ,a4 was humiliated and angry at ,x4's statement4 8,i wanted to say something cutting1 several hostile remarks appeared which were inhibited one after the other4 ,i felt extremely confused and unpleasant but ,i suddenly began to agree with ,x4 ,i told him in an over-polite manner he was quite right and that ,i was glad he had mentioned it4 ,in reality ,i did not agree with him nor was ,i glad40 ,a4 states that on leaving the presence of ,x4 the emotion reappeared many times in the course of the next half day and in no case did he find any excuse for ,x4's behavior but blamed him severely4 ,when the contrary reaction is resorted to as a device to gain quick control1 it is reported as unpleasant4 ,the emotion reappears again and is usually followed by unpleasant feelings1 but when it is not forced upon the subject and is entered into spontaneously with zest1 as a means of finding some sort of satisfaction for the emotional restraint1 it is accompanied by pleasant feelings4 ,subject ,a4 sometimes takes keen delight in assuming a dignified attitude toward an offender and treating him rather friendly as if he were far above getting angry4 ,he states1 8,i always feel ,i am victor1 that ,i am master of the situation1 and it is pleasing when ,i do this40 ,it may be said that whenever the attributive reaction is satisfactory1 the contrary reaction is not resorted to4 ,the latter type occurs for the most part when the subject is mentally obstructed and there seems nothing else to be done but to ally himself heartily with the opponent for the moment until the storm of his mental stress is passed4 ,subject ,j4 in a situation1 when it would be rude to display his anger1 observes1 8,each time ,i found myself becoming angry at ,x4's remarks1 ,i would take a negative attitude toward the rising impulse and laugh quite good naturedly at his statement4 ,the laugh was not forced1 ,i entered into it heartily40 ,subject ,c4 finds himself at times suddenly laughing at the most commonplace remarks when mildly angry at an offence4 ,it is a common device of subject ,b4 to burst out laughing at his behavior when mildly angry1 as if he were merely a spectator of his emotion and not a partaker of it4 8,i recalled the offensive behavior of ,x4 which had happened two hours before4 ,i found myself in an emotion of slight anger1 followed by an explosive1 #8,damn that ,x4' ,there was present much motor tension in arms and face muscles1 then noting my angry demonstrations ,i laughed outright at myself and felt pleased40 ,the anger disappeared entirely with the act4 ,it is frequently reported that a sudden pause in the midst of unpleasant anger to introspect1 is pleasant when attention is directed to the behavior1 but when attention passes to the situation exciting the emotion1 anger tends to be reinstated again4 ,observations like the following are reported3 8,pausing to observe my emotion1 my whole behavior seemed so ludicrous that ,i had to laugh40 ,the subject may suddenly assume his opponent's point of view1 find a number of probable excuses for his behavior and at times actually imagine himself as champion for his enemy against himself4 ,he does this heartily at times when there is no outside compulsion and derives a feeling of pleasure in the act4 ,the contrary reaction may be hostilely resorted to in some instances4 ,the subject is aware that his aim is to humiliate his opponent by making him ashamed and sorry2 but it is usually reported that1 after he has assumed the over-friendly attitude with its hostile intent1 there is a self-satisfaction in the sudden breaking up of the unpleasant conscious restraint4 ,subject ,d4 observes1 8,i knew ,i was doing the favor to make him feel ashamed2 watching him1 ,i saw he was not ashamed in the least but ,i continued my friendliness and felt pleased in doing it4 ,there was no regret when ,i saw that he did not take the matter as ,i had at first wished40 ,in the contrary reaction1 a joke or witticism may be employed1 but it has an entirely different aim from the joke discussed in attributive reaction4 ,it lacks hostility4 ,its aim is friendliness1 the theme is contrary to the situation giving rise to anger and serves to distract the attention from the emotion4 ,,the ,,indifferent ,,reaction ,the third class of mental reactions to anger is what has been called the indifferent type4 ,it is attitudinal in character4 ,the subject assumes for the time an indifferent attitude toward the situation and person exciting the emotion4 ,eleven percent of the reactions of all the subjects studied may be classified under this type4 ,it occurs as one of the last resorts when there is nothing else to be done4 ,if it appears in the initial stage of anger1 the emotion does not fully develop4 ,it is not reported as actually pleasant but rather passively relieving for the time4 ,subject ,b4 had received a piece of adverse information in a letter4 ,he observes1 8,at first1 ,i was angry and at once threw the letter down on the table in an attitude of not caring anything about it4 ,i felt that nothing could be done4 ,i had really wanted the information badly4 ,i threw up my hands and moved my body suddenly with a #8don't care' feeling40 ,b4 reports that he recalled the situation several times later1 but the anger did not appear again4 ,the same subject recalling the offensive behavior of ,x4 and ,y4 became angry1 and observes1 8,i found myself saying aloud1 #8,oh confound them1 ,i don't care anything about them1' and at once started to attend to something else4 ,my saying ,i did not care1 made me feel as if ,i did not care2 in fact now ,i really did not care40 ,the sudden assuming of an apathetic attitude toward the developing anger is a frequent device of subject ,b4 ,a4 after a rather prolonged emotional reaction in which he imagined cutting remarks and planned how he would retaliate1 suddenly changed his attitude1 saying1 8,what is the use anyway1 it is just ,x41 ,i don't care anything about him1 ,i will let him go his way40 ,c4 when angry at times reenforces an assumed attitude of indifference by saying to himself1 8,here1 you must not be bothered about such things1 be a good sport and play the game40 ,one at times assumes an attitude of accepting the situation as it is1 and dropping the matter4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,three ,,disappearance ,,of ,,anger ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,the anger consciousness is one of variability and change4 ,the emotion may disappear rather suddenly with the appearance of a new emotion or it may disappear gradually4 ,there are usually fluctuating nodes of increasing and diminishing intensity accompanying the changing direction of attention1 ideational behavior1 and motor and mental activity in general4 ,attention again to the situation exciting anger tends to increase its intensity1 if the situation from which it arises remains unchanged4 ,any behavior1 whether mental or motor1 which changes the total mental situation from which anger originates1 tends to modify the emotion itself4 ,this total mental situation cannot remain unchanged long4 ,the affective processes which have been aroused usually serve to redirect attention again and again to the situation exciting anger4 ,the aim of angry behavior may be said to be three fold1 referring to the total mental situation from which the three main types of anger arise2 7#a7 to enhance self-feeling which has been lowered2 7#b7 to get rid of the opposing obstacle to the continuity of associative processes2 7#c7 to recover from one's wounded sense of justice4 ,the total feeling situation becomes modified in the course of the disappearance or diminution of the emotion4 ,anger which springs from a fore-period of irritable feelings disappears by a different set of ideas than from anger arising from a fore-period of negative self-feeling4 ,pleasantness is an important condition in the diminution of anger4 ,there are but few instances that show no pleasantness in some degree somewhere in the reactive stage of the emotion4 ,the pleasantness ranges from momentary mild relief to active delight4 ,periods of restraint during anger are periods of unpleasantness4 ,periods of lessened restraint are accompanied by relief or pleasantness4 ,two periods in the development of anger are most unpleasant4 7#a7 ,the entire cumulative development of anger is unpleasant4 ,it is a frequent observation in the immediate fore-period1 8,i wanted to get angry at somebody or something1 ,i felt ,i would feel better if ,i did40 7#b7 ,often during the active stage of anger1 there are found one or more periods of unpleasant inhibition and restraint4 ,this is often a stage of experiment in imagination1 foreseeing unpleasant results of too drastic behavior1 inhibiting1 choosing and selecting in the effort to discover some reaction which may successfully meet the emotional crisis of the moment4 ,there are cases of anger with all the persons studied1 which do not get beyond this inhibitive unpleasant stage4 ,anger may be almost entirely unpleasant or mostly pleasant4 ,some persons have a greater mental versatility than others in finding a successful expression to anger1 consequently they have relatively a greater proportion of pleasantness4 ,under the influence of fatigue1 the ability for successful expression is lessened and there is a correspondingly increased tendency to emotive excitation and decreased emotional control4 ,when a fully successful reaction is not found1 anger dies hard4 ,it may become necessary to attend to something else voluntarily for self protection4 ,anger disappearing unsuccessfully tends to recur again and again1 it may be4 ,its reappearance frequently allows the unpleasant initial stage to be shortened or dropped entirely leaving a mildly pleasant experience4 ,anger disappears suddenly and pleasantly if the subject can gain the subjective end of the emotion4 ,subject ,j4 observes in the case of an anger arising from a feeling of irritation1 8,at this moment 7the moment of successful expression7 ,i felt pleased1 my anger now disappeared leaving a pleasant after-effect40 ,a case from ,a4 will illustrate further4 ,a4 got on the wrong street car4 ,the conductor refused to allow him to get off at his corner of the street4 ,he observes he was angry1 not because he was hindered from getting off1 but because of the insulting attitude and remark of the conductor1 who said in a hostile manner1 8,why did you not pay attention to what ,i said1 this car does not stop1 you will have to go on40 ,a4 then became angry and demanded in rather severe language to have the car stopped4 ,at this point the conductor changed his attitude and stopped with no further words4 ,a4 observes1 8,as ,i stepped off ,i had a distinct feeling of pleasantness4 ,i felt ,i had been victorious4 ,i was no longer angry4 ,sensations were still present in chest1 arm and leg muscles but these were now pleasant4 ,upon recalling the incident1 ,i had not the least resentment against the conductor4 ,on the whole1 ,i now felt glad the incident had occurred40 ,pleasantness may appear on the observation of the offender's failure or humiliation4 ,c4 becoming angry at ,x41 who was manipulating some laboratory apparatus1 observes1 8,i let him proceed rather hoping he would spoil his results4 ,when ,i noted he was failing and observed his discomposure1 ,i felt pleased4 ,that satisfied my anger against him at once40 ,the imaginal humiliation and trouble coming to the offender1 also increases the feeling of pleasantness and diminishes for the moment the anger4 ,the imaginative verbal or physical attacks usually allow a subject to come out victor4 ,what ,d4 observes is typical4 8,i imagined he was stunned by my attack1 and the result pleased me2 that satisfied my anger40 ,if the offender acts friendly and accommodating1 that affords a relief to the offended person and is a condition for the rapid disappearance of anger4 ,f4 observes1 8,he behaved so friendly that ,i thanked him and felt relieved4 ,my anger was now almost gone40 ,c4 became angry at ,x4 for what he had interpreted as a hostile attitude4 ,five minutes later ,x4 sat down by him4 ,c4 observes1 8,he acted sociable and ,i felt relieved1 my anger was entirely gone1 in fact ,i now felt quite friendly toward him40 ,it is also commonly reported that when the offender becomes submissive1 it affords a relief to the subject and usually kills the emotion4 ,c4 observes1 8,after he had submitted1 my anger had disappeared and ,i now felt a little repentant at what ,i had done40 ,the same subject sometimes observes that he imagines the absent offender at whom he is angry1 smiling and acting friendly in the usual way1 and the imagined friendly attitude is a relief to the emotion4 ,anger which develops from a fore-period of negative self-feeling1 disappears when the subject is able to acquire a positive feeling attitude toward the offender4 ,it may be accomplished subjectively4 ,the subject tends to lower his opinion of his opponent1 he enjoys an idle gossip1 it may be1 at his expense1 recalls ill reports he had previously heard but ignored1 and in fact may employ a number of devices of imagination and make-believe4 ,he at times tends to magnify the offender's unworthiness1 and may come to the conclusion that he is scarcely worth troubling about4 ,mental behavior of this sort is commonly reported to enhance self-feeling4 ,on the other hand the subject may accomplish the same end by magnifying his own personal feelings directly by dwelling on his own good qualities and worth in comparison with that of the offender4 ,such comparisons are almost always to the disadvantage of the opponent4 ,subject ,c41 in a controversy with ,x41 became angry and walked away when the emotion was still intense4 8,i now began to recall how insignificant he is and how important ,i am4 ,he is narrow1 pedantic and incapable of seeing a large point of view4 ,i am not so narrow4 ,all was slightly pleasant and was accompanied by a decreased intensity of my emotion4 ,i now met ,x4 and joked with him2 my anger was entirely gone40 ,the feeling of superiority kills anger of the type which arises from a fore-period of humiliation4 ,it has already been indicated that when a positive feeling is maintained in receiving an injury1 anger does not arise4 ,the would-be offender if he is regarded as unworthy or unaccountable for his act1 does not usually excite anger4 ,the same person1 however1 may stimulate anger by a process of increased irritable feelings4 ,subject ,a4 beginning to get angry at ,x41 7a person he holds in low esteem7 observes the following association4 8,oh1 it is just ,x41 no use in my getting angry at a fellow like that1 he is not responsible anyway1 and ,i would be foolish to be bothered by him4 ,i had started to ridicule him but now my emotion was gone40 ,a contemplated victory gives pleasure and diminishes anger even before the victory is attained4 ,the emotion disappears on assuming a positive determined mental attitude1 it may pass off in vehement resolution as to further behavior4 ,in fact1 one may begin and finish his fight through the medium of ideas and have no enthusiasm left for the actual encounter4 ,with a third condition for the disappearance of anger1 pleasantness is present but usually in the form of mild relief4 ,positive self-feeling is not so clearly marked in consciousness4 ,the subject looks at the offender's point of view1 finds excuses for his behavior1 elevates his opinion it may be of him4 ,a new idea is added to the mental situation exciting anger which entirely alters the feeling content1 and consequently anger disappears4 ,subject ,i4 observes1 8,when ,i finally concluded that ,x4 meant well1 my anger was almost gone40 ,g4 resentful at ,x4 because he did not speak to him states1 8,i recalled suddenly that he is cross-eyed and probably did not see me4 ,i said to myself1 #8,he is a good fellow and is friendly toward me all right4' ,my emotion was now gone40 ,b4 mildly angry at ,x4 and ,y4 for intruding upon him1 observes the following soliloquy4 8,no1 they have more right here than ,i have4 ,this room is for people to converse in rather than for one man to occupy alone4 ,my anger was now decreased but not entirely gone40 ,even a tentative excuse for the offender's behavior allays anger temporarily4 ,the emotion may last for several days1 appearing at intervals1 and with a sudden introduction of a new idea providing an adequate excuse for the offence1 the condition exciting the emotion will be completely changed4 ,anger diminishes and disappears more frequently in the change of attention than by any other one condition4 ,a pause in the midst of anger to attend to one's mental behavior affords a diminution of the affective process4 ,it is often reported as amusing when a subject suddenly ceases attending to the situation exciting the emotion and observes his mental behavior2 laughter at this point is often reported4 ,close attention to the act of managing the irritating or humiliating incident1 allows a rather gradual diminution of anger4 ,anger does not arise when the subject is rigidly attending to the damage done1 but only when he begins to feel the damage as humiliating1 irritating or as contrary to justice4 ,one subject hums or sings when angry4 ,a joke or witticism will break the crust of conscious tension allowing the attention to be distracted elsewhere4 ,the subject may suddenly assume an apathetic attitude toward the whole incident and kill the emotion at least temporarily4 ,the mental situation from which anger arises1 is one contrary to indifference1 in fact1 the lack of indifference is one of the essential characteristics of the fore-condition of anger1 and consequently when this attitude is present1 anger is cut off4 ,a resolution or a settled judgment has a relieving effect4 ,whenever the subject comes to a definite conclusion whether it refers to the emotional situation or a contemplated mode of behavior toward the offender1 there is reported a sudden drop in the intensity of the emotion1 even though the attitude is but a tentative and temporary one4 ,the reason for this is evidently that such a mental attitude is contrary to the immediate mental situation from which anger arises4 ,anger springs from the fact that there is lacking a definite mental attitude as to what should be done during the reactive stage of the emotion4 ,one of the most efficient controls is to have a well planned reaction to meet the emotional crisis before it appears2 when the injury occurs1 if there is a preparedness as to what should be done1 even though the response is but a subjective one purely attitudinal in its nature1 anger fails to develop to its intense stage4 ,,successful ,,disappearance ,the success with which the emotion of anger disappears is a matter of wide individual difference with the persons studied4 ,with some the reporting of the emotion from the introspection notes tended to reinstate the emotion4 ,one subject was frequently disturbed by the reappearance of the emotion during the report4 ,in one instance he refused to report to the writer for three days afterward4 ,he reports he could not recall the situation without the reappearance of the anger in its unpleasant form4 ,other persons could rarely reinstate an emotion in any unpleasant form over night4 ,at times the anger was reinstated in its pleasant aspect4 ,sometimes a feeling of exaltation was displayed4 ,the subject showed he enjoyed recalling the emotion4 ,imagined and carefully devised schemes of retaliation were often rehearsed with pleasure4 ,again the observation would be a feeling of indifference1 as something past and finished4 ,often the statement was given1 8,the whole thing seems ludicrous and amusing to me now40 ,it is rather pleasing to recall the situation exciting anger when the original emotion is short-circuited1 as it were1 allowing a pleasurable1 gossipy vituperation against the offender without the initially unpleasant stage of anger4 ,in fact the subject may re-experience a little of the unpleasant humiliation through imaginative stimulus1 if the pleasantly reactive stage is successful enough to compensate4 ,if the subject is aware he has a sympathetic hearer1 it is far easier to pass over the initially unpleasant stage of the reinstated anger and enjoy a hostile1 gossipy reaction4 ,the writer in the course of the study became so intimately acquainted with the private emotional life of the subjects studied and had been a sympathetic listener of the emotional experiences so long1 that after the period of observation had ended1 he would find himself the recipient of emotional confidences which the subjects took pleasure in relating to him4 ,says one on reporting1 8,i really was not interested so much in the scientific side of this emotion as ,i was to tell you of my resentment1 and as ,i look over it now1 ,i am really aware that ,i assumed a scientific interest as a means of gaining full sympathy and giving me full freedom to speak everything in mind40 ,another subject says1 8,i went to tell ,x4 for ,i believed he would get angry too and ,i hoped that he would40 ,the same situation does not usually allow anger to continue to reappear in its unpleasant form1 for repeated appearance tends to eliminate the active unpleasant stage4 ,an emotion of anger which has been unsuccessfully expressed may continue to reappear in consciousness again and again4 ,crowded out1 it will suddenly return at times by chance associations4 ,it may become so insistent that it is an unpleasant distraction from business affairs and the subject must find some sort of reaction to satisfy it4 ,f4 observes1 8,i could not do my work4 ,just as ,i would get started1 the idea would reappear suddenly and ,i would find myself angry1 tending to think cutting remarks and planning what ,i should do4 ,each time ,i tried to escape from it1 it would come back again4 ,finally ,i determined deliberately to get rid of it4 ,i recalled all the good qualities of ,x41 what favors he had bestowed upon me and in fact felt quite friendly toward him4 ,before ,i had finished1 the anger had disappeared and did not return4 ,later1 as ,i recalled the situation incidentally1 ,i felt indifferent toward it40 ,such deliberate behavior is unusual4 ,the reaction to an emotion is mostly involuntary4 ,in many instances1 when emotion is prolonged1 it is much like a trial and error process1 one reaction after another is tried out in imagination until a rather successful one is found4 ,this reappearance of an emotion when it has been repressed gives opportunity for a new trial and mode of attack4 ,there are two general conditions under which anger disappears most successfully4 ,first1 if the mental situation from which anger arises is changed directly by the addition of a new idea that gives an entirely new meaning content to the incident so that it will no longer be humiliating or irritating1 as when the subject can thoroughly come to believe that the motives of the opponent's offense were not hostile but friendly1 anger disappears rather successfully with no unpleasant after effects2 the anger is cut off directly at its source4 ,to illustrate1 ,c4's anger at ,x4 which had been a source of unpleasant disturbance for two days1 completely disappeared when he was finally informed that what ,x4 did was not meant as personal4 ,the subject at times finds himself trying to assume a little of the attitude of make-believe4 ,he really wants to believe the offender meant well4 ,a second successful condition for the removal of anger is when the subject reacts so that he feels he has fully mastered his opponent4 ,he has given full restitution for the offense and feels a pleasureable satisfaction in the results4 ,feeling is an essential factor1 whatever the method employed4 ,if a feeling of complete victorious satisfaction is accomplished in connection with the disappearance of anger it is usually successful4 ,the circumstances are rare in which the direct verbal or physical attack would be fully satisfactory4 ,a substitution in the form of hostile wit1 teasing1 irony1 or it may be a favor bestowed with a hostile intent1 may accomplish the same result as far as feelings are concerned and completely satisfy the anger4 ,the imagined victory1 or a make-believe one1 may serve the same purpose4 ,the most unsuccessful condition for the disappearance of anger is one commonly used in emergencies--that of changing the attention and avoiding the offensive idea4 ,intense anger usually returns when diminished in this manner4 ,the attitude of indifference and over-politeness usually serves only as a temporary device of removal for the purpose of expeditious control4 ,mere repression is not always most successful4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,four ,,conscious ,,after-,,effects ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,anger has an important influence upon mental life and behavior long after the emotion itself has disappeared4 ,the functional effect of anger may be disclosed in a period after the emotion proper has disappeared4 ,other emotions may immediately follow anger1 such as pity1 regret1 sorrow1 joy1 shame1 remorse1 love and fear4 ,feelings and tendencies are left over which the subject is fully aware are directly related to the previous emotion4 ,for purposes of study1 the period after the emotion will be divided into two parts2 first1 that immediately after the emotion has disappeared1 and second1 the more or less remote period of indefinite time4 ,the reaction while the emotion is present1 and the way in which the emotion disappears1 are conditions which determine to a large extent what will consciously appear after the emotion has passed away4 ,with the aim of finding out what mental factors follow in the wake of anger1 the subjects were instructed to keep account of any sort of consciousness of which they were aware as referring either directly or indirectly to the previous emotion observed4 ,pity is frequently associated with anger4 ,mild anger may merge into pity at the point where attention changes from the situation exciting anger to the effects of angry behavior on the offender4 ,pity often follows the imaginal humiliation of the person committing the offense4 ,it follows more readily when the emotion is against children1 servants1 dependents or persons with whom there is close intimacy4 ,a kind of self-pity is sometimes associated with anger4 ,with one subject1 a mildly pleasant self-pity would frequently follow anger at an injury4 ,at times there is found a curious mixture of anger and self-pity4 ,h4 observes1 8,at times ,i would be angry1 then at other times ,i would find myself taking a peculiar pleasure in rehearsing my injuries and feeling rather pitiful for one who had been mistreated like myself40 ,an observation from ,c4 will illustrate the suddenness of the transition from mild anger to pity4 ,angry at a clerk for a slight offense1 he observes1 8,as ,i turned away ,i said to myself1 #8,i wish that fellow would lose his place1' but at once ,i felt a little pity for him and said1 #8,no1 that would be too bad1 he has a hard time putting up with all these people4'0 ,subject ,a41 angry at a child observes1 8,i found myself tending to punish him1 ,i saw his face1 it looked innocent and trusting1 that restrained me1 ,i now thought1 #8,poor little fellow1 he does not know any better1' and ,i felt a pity for him to think that such a person as myself had the correcting of him40 ,shame may follow in the wake of anger4 ,it arises rather suddenly in the disappearing stage of the emotion when attention is directed to the results of the angry behavior just finished4 ,both shame and pity1 following anger1 are usually a condition of immunity against the reappearance of the same emotion4 ,after shame appears1 a reaction usually follows in the effort to compensate in some fashion4 ,subject ,c4 observes1 8,becoming aware of my act and how it appeared1 ,i now felt ashamed and humiliated at what ,i had said4 ,in a few minutes ,i brought it about to offer him a favor and felt pleased when it was accepted4 ,i had really been trying to convince him that ,i was not angry1 and now felt that ,i was doing it40 ,subject ,c4 observes1 8,i noted that they saw ,i was angry and at once ,i felt ashamed4 ,i now began to laugh the matter off as if trying to show ,i was not40 ,at times during mild anger when the emotion is displayed too impulsively and the bounds of caution have been overstepped1 exposing one's self to a too easy attack from an opponent1 an uncomfortable feeling of chagrin appears4 ,the anger may be displayed in too crude a fashion1 consequently an advantage is given to the opponent which was not intended4 ,anxiety that the opponent may take the hostile thrust too seriously or fear of the consequence1 may suddenly displace anger4 ,instead of an offending person1 the same person now suddenly becomes one exciting anxiety or fear4 ,a fourth affective condition of the immediate after-period of anger is an active pleasantness4 ,anger disappears and joy takes its place4 ,the condition1 originally exciting anger1 is no longer able to reproduce the emotion as the subject has become the victor and the offense is recompensed4 ,the goal of anger from its impulsive and feeling side is to be found in the pleasurable victorious affection in the after-period of the emotion4 ,any anger possesses possibilities of pleasantness in its after-stage4 ,if an objective victory cannot be had1 a subjective one plays the part of a surrogate4 ,the processes of imagination1 make-believe and disguise1 as previously discussed1 become devices directly referring to the aim of pleasurable feelings in the after-period of anger4 ,the motivation is to avoid the unpleasant emotions and feelings in the wake of anger and acquire the feeling of victory4 ,the tendency to humor and jocular behavior after anger is sometimes observed4 ,the subject tends to recall his feelings of success and relive them1 self-confidence and positive self-feelings are increased4 ,the feeling of friendliness toward the offender may follow anger which has been successfully expressed4 ,spinoza was right when he said1 8,an act of offense may indirectly give origin to love40 ,it is frequently observed in the after-period of anger1 8,i felt more friendly toward him after my emotion had disappeared40 ,in fact an unusual friendliness with a desire to bestow favors was often observed4 ,we like a man better after we have been angry at him in a successful manner4 ,the emotional attitude is entirely changed toward an opponent who has been overcome1 if he allows the victory4 ,it is the unreasoning person who never becomes aware of his defeat1 against whom hate follows anger4 ,feelings of unpleasant irritation usually follow anger when social or other conditions prevent adequate expression4 ,these feelings seem to be the medium by which the situation exciting anger is repeatedly recalled4 ,the emotion which appears from the imagined situation usually does not leave such intense unpleasant feelings1 as the subject tends to attain in his deliberate moments1 to some degree1 an inner victory over his opponent1 or to find an adequate excuse for his behavior4 ,either of these reactions may be successful enough to exclude irritable feelings in the after-period4 ,irritation after controlled anger is the medium for the so-called transfer of the emotion from an offending to an unoffending object1 which is so often observed4 ,in the after-period of irritation1 it is a rather common observation of the subjects1 8,i was looking for something or somebody at whom ,i could get angry40 8,i felt ,i wanted to hurt somebody40 ,in fact irritation in the after-period becomes an essentially affective element in a situation from which may arise a new anger of a different type4 ,the first anger may have arisen from a fore-period of humiliation1 while the latter is from that of irritation4 ,there is evidence that the affective state in the after-period of anger has a compensating relation to the emotion that has just passed1 not unlike the compensation role played between the anger proper and the feeling fore-stage from which it arises4 ,the reactive stage of anger tends to over-compensate for the unpleasant feelings of irritation and humiliation in the fore-period of anger by either increasing the pleasantness or diminishing unpleasantness4 ,if the reaction is incomplete and has not adequately met the emotional crisis of the moment1 irritation may follow with a tendency to continue further the emotion1 or if the reaction has gone too far1 it is paid for by the appearance in the after-stage of other emotions of social origin1 such as fear1 shame1 pity1 etc4 ,the feeling of relief occurs after the expression has nearly restored consciousness to about the same affective level as before the beginning of the emotion2 but with active pleasure1 a higher affective level has been attained and the subject feels he was glad to have been angry4 ,there is a heightened effect in the affective state following anger2 a sort of over-compensation1 which is a little out of proportion to the behavior apart from the anger itself4 ,if the after-period is one of pleasantness1 the feeling is increased far more because of what the subject has done during the emotion1 for it is evident if the same mental processes and behavior occur without anger1 the pleasantness is less4 ,joy is a good example of the intensification of the emotion in the after-period of anger which is out of proportion to the idea stimulating it4 ,the relation between the fore-period1 the anger proper1 and the after-period is so intimate in anger that the writer has had it repeatedly impressed upon him in making the present study1 that to solve some of the important problems of our emotional life1 this relation must be taken into account4 ,the entire gamut of the emotional consciousness for each emotion must be studied from the initial feeling stage to the termination of the conscious content after the emotion has disappeared4 ,the emotions do not appear as separate effective entities1 but have an intimate relation which is important in the study of their psychology4 ,mild anger may leave the subject in a state of curiosity4 ,a feeling of doubt as to the motivation of the offender may appear1 and curiosity follows with an awareness of a tendency for anger to reappear if the occasion should arise4 ,after the emotion has passed1 the subject is aware of tendencies or attitudes1 referring directly to the mental behavior1 which were present during the emotion4 ,an attitude of indifference toward the offender and offending situation follows what has been called the indifferent type of reaction4 ,the emotion of anger may leave the subject in a state of confidence toward himself1 positive self-feelings have been reached as a result of the entire experience4 ,on the other hand1 slightly reduced self-feelings may follow if the reaction to anger has been unsuccessful4 ,it may leave the subject in either a heightened or a lowered opinion of the offender4 ,a previously friendly interest in the person committing the offense may be increased or otherwise4 ,a feeling of amusement at one's behavior when recalling it after the emotion has disappeared1 is often reported4 ,the subject stands off1 as it were1 and views his own response to anger as if he were a spectator rather than a partaker of his emotion4 ,what the subject did when angry seems so incongruous with his mental state after the emotion has disappeared1 that it strikes him as ludicrous4 ,laughter and amusement frequently appear in the recall of the emotional situation4 ,an attitude of caution often follows4 ,after a period of stressed inhibition1 in which the evil consequences of a too impulsive behavior have been pre-perceived1 there is assumed an attitude of control and at the same time a readiness to respond to a suitable stimulus4 ,anger may leave in its place an attitude of greater determination to make one's point1 or if the emotion has been entirely satisfactory1 the subject takes the attitude that the score has been settled4 ,an attitude of belief or conviction as to a future course of action toward a like offense may follow in the period after anger1 which is a direct result of the conclusion reached when the emotion was present4 ,mild anger may have changed the feeling tone but little1 but leaves the subject primed and ready to respond more quickly to another offense4 ,the result of anger may be purely a practical attitude as to what should be done in such cases with little marked feeling accompanying it4 ,the subject is left not in a fighting attitude1 but in one of preparedness to prevent the offense recurring4 ,it is usually necessary in the after-period to reconstruct or modify the revengeful plans or conclusions which were formed when the emotion was intense4 ,what seemed so justifiable during the emotion proper1 after it has disappeared becomes strikingly inopportune4 ,if the emotion has disappeared unsuccessfully and resentful feelings still linger1 the subject wishes to execute the plans previously formed2 but in the act of doing it1 he usually finds difficulties of which he was not aware when the emotion was intense4 ,an instance from ,a4 will illustrate4 ,he had been intensely angry at ,x4 and had planned to tell him his opinion of his conduct4 ,by the time he had opportunity to speak1 the emotion had subsided4 ,he observes1 8,i had at this point a severe struggle with myself4 ,i wanted to tell him what ,i had planned2 ,i felt ,i was inconsistent if ,i did not4 ,on the other hand ,i was slightly apprehensive1 not of ,x41 but of making myself ludicrous4 ,i recognized what ,i had not before1 that ,i was not fully justified1 and partially excused him for what he had done4 ,but the tendency to do what ,i had planned still persisted1 and ,i felt ,i would give anything if ,i could do it40 ,he reports further that although the emotion was now fear1 at this point 8the tendency to execute the plan1 formed during the anger1 persisted for about fifteen minutes of intense struggle with myself before it disappeared40 ,tendencies in the after-period of the emotion1 which refer to conclusions or resolutions reached during its active stage1 at times1 when they appear are passed over lightly and even with amusement4 ,the effects of anger may extend far beyond the period immediately after the emotion has disappeared4 ,the more remote after-period1 after the immediate effects have passed off or been modified1 have important results in our mental life4 ,the momentum1 acquired during anger by determined emotional outburst1 may be a reenforcement to volitional action and may allow old habits to be more quickly broken down and new ones formed4 ,if an error has been repeatedly made with increased irritation1 till the subject has been thoroughly aroused to anger at himself1 the tendency to repeat the error is usually successfully forestalled by an attitude of caution and determination following the emotion4 ,the possible failure may be prevented by mild anger at the imagined humiliating result1 which increases volitional action to a point insuring success1 and a new momentum is acquired which may have far reaching influences4 ,slight habitual mistakes1 like errors in typewriting or speaking1 repeated forgetting of details1 and social blunders1 are reported as cured by anger4 ,mild prolonged anger which has not had a fully satisfactory expression may leave in its wake a fighting attitude which if transferred into work enables the subject to acquire new levels of activity4 ,a record from ,c4 will illustrate4 ,he observes1 8,i would not allow myself to be dejected1 but have planned to fight and dig into it like everything4 ,these emotions are the greatest stimuli ,i have4 ,i get angry1 then ,i want to get down to work for all ,i am worth40 ,on the other hand1 anger which has been successfully expressed may be followed by a feeling of satisfaction in the result and an attitude of success1 which gives momentum for increased volitional action in the future4 ,there is usually a residuum from intense anger which may appear long after the anger has consciously disappeared4 ,the recall of the situation which had previously excited anger may have little or no feeling2 merely indifference is present4 ,sometimes feelings of resentment and dislike are observed1 while at other times1 there is amusement4 ,it frequently happens that while the situation which has previously excited the emotion may be accompanied by indifference upon its being recalled either voluntarily or involuntarily1 there follows an emotion of dislike and hate4 ,the incident itself may be almost forgotten1 or not recalled at all1 but the result of anger is to be observed in tendencies and emotional dispositions left in the wake of the emotion4 ,an over-critical attitude1 with something of a gossipy tendency and hostile suspicion in which the bounds of justice are partly ignored1 may long continue to reappear after the emotion itself has passed away and the situation has been forgotten4 ,it is rather probable that a single strong outburst of anger does not leave the hostile emotional disposition in its wake4 ,it is usually the mild anger1 preceded by much feeling of humiliation and anger which tends to recur again and again till it has settled to a hostile disposition toward the offender4 ,it is reported in some instances to refer to the offender's way of talking1 laughing1 manner of walking1 his mode of dressing2 in fact any chance idea of the offender's behavior may be sufficient to allow a feeling of dislike and disgust to appear4 ,it may be said that anger which disappears in an unsatisfactory manner leaves an emotional disposition which possesses potentialities of both pleasant and unpleasant feelings4 ,some persons seem to derive much satisfaction in picking the sores of their unhealed resentments2 little acts of revenge and retaliation are suddenly hit upon2 even hate may have its pleasures4 ,small acts of revenge and retaliation are observed with an affective state which cannot be called anger1 but the subject is aware that it refers to the anger which is passed4 ,one subject became severely angry at his grocer and went to trade with another merchant near by4 ,he states that on several occasions just after the anger1 when buying at another place he felt pleased at the other man's having lost his trade4 ,once he observes1 8,i believe ,i bought several things ,i did not need1 ,i felt ,i was retaliating and enjoyed it40 ,the emotional disposition following anger may be a source of rather intense enjoyment4 ,laughter and mirth are observed with the appearance of an idea that has humiliated the offender4 ,in such cases the laughter is purely spontaneous with no recall of anger4 ,subject ,j4 broke out laughing when told that ,x4 was on unfavorable terms with ,y4 ,his laughter1 he observes1 referred to a resentment a few days before against ,x4 ,in fact laughter frequently springs rather suddenly from the mental disposition which has followed from anger4 ,such cases afford another instance of the close intimacy of our emotions with each other4 ,the residuum of potential feelings from an emotion of anger appears in the form of less active pleasantness4 ,there is a relation between the immediate after-period of anger and the more remote one that is important4 ,if anger is immediately followed by such emotions as pity1 shame1 regret or fear1 any positive tendency left over in the remote after-period from the emotion itself is apparently lacking4 ,there is1 however1 a negative effect4 ,the subject is immune to re-experience the same emotion from the same emotional situation again1 but anger which has disappeared with unpleasant feelings may tend to recur in a rather prolonged after-period and may finally settle into an emotional disposition and mental attitude which play an important role in behavior and later feelings4 ,it seems to be true1 that when anger disappears consciously in such a manner that the subject is aware that his wishes have not been satisfied and the disappearance is followed by unpleasant feelings1 the immediate after-period is rather barren as compared with the out-cropping which appears in a more remote period after the emotion4 ,in anger1 when sudden control is required1 the subject is forced to attend to something else or react contrary to the emotional tendency to save himself a later humiliation4 ,the immediate after-period is usually one of unpleasantness and tension4 ,under such circumstances1 the tendency to recur again and again is characteristic and if1 in some later recurrence or expression through the imaginative process1 it does not end satisfactorily1 it may settle down to an emotional disposition and mental attitude4 ,anger that arises from a fore-period of irritation in which the subject suddenly bursts out with emotion may have an immediate after-period of irritation1 but it leaves little in the remote after-period2 the subject is aware that the emotion is finished4 ,anger which ends with active pleasantness of victory leaves an attitude of confidence and success toward the situation which has excited the emotion4 ,there is little tendency for the emotion1 disappearing in this fashion1 to reappear except in its pleasant stage4 ,with a consciousness of complete victory in the immediate after-period1 there is established an attitude of positive self-feeling and confidence toward the situation exciting the emotion so that a practical immunity against the reappearance of anger in its unpleasant stage is reached as a negative result of the emotion4 ,there are wide individual differences in the ability of the subjects studied to allow anger to disappear1 leaving a pleasant after-period4 ,c4 reports but few instances in which his anger disappeared with a fully satisfactory result4 ,he consequently has a wealth of emotional dispositions and mental attitudes following anger4 ,on the other hand ,f4 and ,e41 whose anger emotions are less intense1 are early able either to attain an inner victory or to react contrary to the emotion and leave an after-period of immunity against its reappearance from the same mental situation4 ,hence the tendencies and dispositions left over in the after-period of their anger are less4 ,e4's dislikes are short lived4 ,it is probable that some subjects have acquired the habit of shortening their emotions of anger1 short-cutting the unpleasant period of restraint and early acquiring the after-period of relief1 humor or it may be indifference1 before the emotion has developed far4 ,classifications4 ,anger might be classified according to a number of schemes that would serve the purpose of emphasizing its characteristics4 ,from the standpoint of feeling1 anger might be classed as pleasant or unpleasant4 ,some emotions of anger are observed to be almost entirely pleasant from their early beginning including their final ending4 ,other cases have fluctuating pleasant and unpleasant stages4 ,there are few instances of anger that have no flash of pleasantness anywhere1 in some degree before the emotion is finally completed4 ,the unsatisfactorily expressed emotion is almost entirely unpleasant4 ,even anger of this kind usually shows some flash of pleasantness or relief at the moment of the angry outburst4 ,secondly1 anger might be classified as exciting or calm4 ,the exciting anger has greater tension during the period of the emotion proper4 ,there is usually less co-ordination and greater intensity of feeling which may be either pleasant or unpleasant4 ,the motor reactions are more prominent than the mental reactions4 ,on the other hand1 calm anger usually has a longer observable fore and after-period of the emotion4 ,mental processes are intensified1 the motor expression is correspondingly less4 ,anger may be classified according to its function4 ,the emotion may be merely an end in itself4 ,it relieves the tension of unpleasant feelings4 ,it is purgative in its effect in removing an unpleasant mental situation4 ,the underlying purpose of such anger is not to increase volitional action1 in fact1 it may disturb co-ordination to any purposive end4 ,this type serves primarily to remove the tension of unpleasant accumulations of feelings in some act of expression4 ,if successful in its purpose1 it may have an indirect hygienic effect on mental action4 ,further1 anger may be of a kind which intensifies volitional action1 accomplishes work1 and serves the end of survival4 ,a residuum in mental attitude and emotional disposition follows1 which has possibilities either of morbidity or a source of energy which is sublimated into work4 ,anger may be classified genetically on the basis of sentiments which are violated in its origin4 ,anger which springs from a thwarting of desires is primary in its origin4 ,this is the usual type of anger of young children and animals4 ,anger which has its source in the self-feelings1 such as the sentiments of honor and self respect and in social feelings1 of injustice1 of fairness1 are genetically later in their development4 ,types4 ,three rather definite types appear4 ,first is anger which rises from a fore-period of irritable feelings4 ,it develops by a cumulative process of irascible feelings1 through a series of stimuli till the point of anger is suddenly reached4 ,an idea is present at the point of anger which serves as a vehicle of expression4 ,it may be an idea not directly associated with the situation exciting the emotion4 ,in fact an apparently irrelevant idea may break the crust of unpleasant feeling tension and serve as an objective reference for the emotion4 ,anger of this type is scattered4 ,it is not necessary that the emotion be referred to the actual thwarting idea1 it frequently refers to inanimate objects and often arises from the irritation accompanying pain4 ,the active period of this type of emotion is mostly voco-motor tension and reaction of larger muscles4 ,the immediate after-period may be a feeling of relief1 irascible irritation1 or other emotions such as pity1 shame1 regret and fear4 ,its increased volitional action may establish a mental attitude of caution and determination against a future thwarting when it is finished4 ,a new emotion may arise however from the same background of irritation4 ,the after effects of an emotion of this type are shallow and easily forgotten4 ,it does not leave hate or dislike in its wake1 there is nothing left over for revengeful behavior4 ,a second type of anger is predetermined by another sort of mental disposition4 ,self-feelings are its source4 ,an idea excites negative self-feeling and anger follows as a reaction with the purpose of restoring positive feelings of self4 ,it usually has a greater proportion of pleasantness than the type described above4 ,its end is to attain pleasantness in some form of positive self-feeling1 and when that is successfully reached the emotion disappears4 ,any idea from a subjective or objective source which intensifies positive feelings of self1 tends to diminish emotion of this type4 ,the thwarting of a desire1 due to the damage and inconvenience done1 is insignificant as compared with the thrust that one's pride and self-respect have received4 ,in the type above1 there is thwarting of desire2 while in this type1 there is humiliation4 ,in fact in the latter type1 serious inconvenience may be suffered in the effort to heal a wounded self respect4 ,anger of this type is not so indefinite in its objective reference4 ,it has direct reference to an offender before the point of anger has been reached1 and another person or object cannot be substituted with any degree of satisfaction4 ,anger of this type leaves an important residuum after the emotion has disappeared in the form of other affective processes1 in tendencies1 mental attitudes and dispositions1 some of which have possibilities of morbidity1 others mere pleasantness or sublimation into work4 ,a third type of anger is that which springs from social sentiments involving justice and fairness4 ,it has little unpleasant fore-period and arises suddenly without the initial cumulative feeling development which is usual with the other types described4 ,the point of anger is more readily reached2 the emotion is nearer the surface as if it were ready for a sudden rise4 ,the origin of anger of this type is not unlike anger which springs rather suddenly from an emotional disposition left over from the second type described above4 ,the expression of the emotion in this type is less restrained1 it is usually reported as pleasant throughout4 ,while anger of this type is sensitive to justice and fairness1 the two types above may grossly disregard these sentiments4 ,in its wake is often observed the tendency to reappear4 ,the after-period has not the possibilities of so intense pleasure as the second type above1 nor of morbidity1 nor of a disposition capable of being sublimated into work4 ,the three types above may occur in a rather pure form but frequently they are mixed4 ,when desire has been thwarted or pride has been wounded1 a sense of miscarried justice or fairness with reference to self1 intensifies the emotion4 ,in addition to lowered self-feeling1 the social sentiment of justice and fairness may re-enforce the irascible feelings or negative feelings of self4 ,at times make-believe of offended fairness is assumed to justify the angry behavior1 and consequently increases the intensity and allows pleasurable expression when the subject is vaguely aware that the real cause is his own selfish pride which has been wounded4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,five ,,educational ,,function ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,from the present study1 anger may be said to have a two fold functional meaning4 ,first it intensifies volitional action in a useful direction4 ,second1 viewed from the mental conditions under which it occurs1 it may be a superfluous affectivity and is largely an end in itself4 ,these two functions are not to be separated4 ,in fact any single emotion of anger in its different stages of reaction may be merely hedonic1 it may serve a directly useful purpose or it may be both4 ,these two functional aspects of anger are the basis for pedagogical conclusions4 ,sublimation4 ,anger in a modified form has been the theme of the poet and artist4 ,with its running mate fear1 it has played an important role in religion4 ,primitive magic with its self assertive coercion of the supernatural1 is not unlike anger4 ,the curse prayer of backward religion is motivated by resentment4 ,a deity with an irascible temper like that of the ancient ,hebrews suggests the role of righteous indignation in the discipline of the soul4 ,plato#a held that anger is at the foundation of the organization of the ,state4 ,ribot 7#af7 has suggested that it is at the basis of justice4 ,more recently ,bergson writes1 8,no society can reach civilization unless throughout its members1 there exists the nervous organization which supports the sentiment of anger and hostility against criminals2 and this physical organization is the foundation of what we call our moral code40 ,president ,hall 7#aj71 ,james 7#ac71 and ,dewey 7#e7 have suggested that much of the best work of the world and the great deeds of valor have been done by anger4 ,dr4 ,hall states1 8,a large part of education is to teach men to be angry aright1--it should be one aim of pedagogy to show how the powers of the soul should be utilized4--,man has powers of resentment which should be hitched onto and allowed to do good and profitable work4 ,we should keep alive our emotions and allow them to do our labor40 7,from lecture notes47 ,it has been suggested by ,wundt 7#bb71 ,james 7#ac7 and ,stanley 7#ag7 that the function of anger is to increase volitional action4 ,the latter author writes1 8,at some point in the course of evolution1 anger comes in as a stimulant to aggressive willed action4 ,some favored individual first attained the power of getting mad1 in violently attacking his fellows and so attaining sustenance likely in the struggle for food40 ,the same author further writes1 8,we take it then that it was a most momentous day in the progress of mind when anger was first achieved and some individuals really got mad40 ,education has to do with the function of anger in human needs1 in growth and development and in mental hygiene4 ,ethics has at times advocated the elimination of anger as if it were a noxious product4 ,from a pedagogical view1 it should be cultivated and excited aright4 ,the familiar moral exhortations1 8,let not the sun go down on your wrath10 8,love your enemies and do good to those that hate you10 and others like them1 are in accord with some satisfactory individual reactions to anger from the feeling side1 which have been cited2 but their universal application would not always serve the purpose of ethics4 ,in pedagogical practice1 they would fall short4 ,a good healthy resentment is1 at times1 a good thing and should be kept alive4 ,the emotion1 if it works1 must not die out too satisfactorily at the cost of real effort4 ,there should be a working residuum for the time when it is needed4 ,an injury may be forgiven too quickly and resentment given up too easily4 ,a healthy fighting attitude1 increased caution and willed action turned into productive work is often subverted for an immediate satisfactory ending of the emotion4 ,there are none of the subjects studied but observe this wholesome effect of anger at times4 ,anger may disappear successfully and satisfactorily on the side of the feelings4 ,the subject may attain the full sense of victory by a number of devices of make-believe1 substitution1 disguise1 etc4 ,an inner victory may be a good thing4 ,in fact1 all subjects would1 at times1 resort to imaginative processes motivated by the feeling and impulsive side of the emotion4 ,a subjective satisfaction may in fact save the day1 clear the mental atmosphere1 so to speak1 and allow mental life to continue along its habitual lines4 ,on the other hand1 a subjective victory may become too easy4 ,on the verge of defeat1 victory is at times imagined which takes the place of real volition4 ,the fight may be carried too far through the medium of ideas leaving little enthusiasm for actual effort4 ,a too easy habit of excusing the offender at times serves an unprofitable end4 ,anger should not be cut off too near its beginning by finding excuses too readily for the offender or offending situation4 ,it should at least be allowed to get a little above the initial feeling stage to keep the emotional life alive or there is danger of lapsing into obliviousness to essential rights2 mental life becomes too prosaic and commonplace1 on a plateau with no capacity to acquire new levels4 ,a second point of which the writer is convinced1 is that in order to study the emotions1 especially the deep seated primary emotions like fear and anger1 it is necessary to take into account the finer working of the emotion in its feeling and impulsive stage of development and disappearance4 ,in fact1 the milder tenuous emotions of anger are markedly important from the educational side as well as psychologically4 ,the normal function of the emotion is better exemplified in the less intense experiences4 ,anger1 as it is usually thought of1 is the emotion in its excited uncontrolled stage4 ,anger1 sublimated into keener intellectual and willed action1 is no less anger though its affective side is less intense2 its reactive side is working in better accord with the evolutionary function of the emotion1--to intensify action in a needed direction4 ,in fact1 affective processes of indignation1 resentment and irascible feelings which are not called anger in the popular sense1 from the scientific side should be considered a part of the anger consciousness4 ,they have the feeling fore-stage of humiliation and an intellectual reaction2 the residuum of the affective process has every mark of that victorious satisfaction1 which is typical of anger4 ,such tenuous emotions are reported to have far reaching results in mental behavior and personal development4 ,one subject1 resentful at an implication against the value of his work1 considers that it stimulated him to increased determined action and intensified endeavor for several months in order to show the offender he was wrong4 ,a41 resentful of ,x4's adverse suggestion1 put in three days of severe intellectual labor to prove his point4 ,e4 observes that a humiliation and mild resentment was a keen stimulus to his ambition4 ,his ambitious behavior1 he considers was accompanied by increased friendliness toward the offender4 ,the question was privately put to a number of persons as to the effects of resentment on some of their ambitions in the past4 ,every person who was asked1 after a careful recall1 was able to find one and some times several instances of important results of anger of this kind4 ,some persons from early childhood have habitually reacted to little resentments to beat the offender in an ambitious way4 ,one person with defective eyes early became sensitive about it4 ,any implication against his defect was always reacted to1 he says1 by saying to himself1 8,i will show you ,i can do more with poor eyes than you can with good ones1 and you will be sorry some day40 ,m4 #bh--8,resentful because the parents of a lady to whom ,i was paying attention did not approve of me1 ,i determined to make so much of myself that they would be sorry4 ,it was one of the main incentives to my entering on a career4 ,with this aim ,i went to the ,university2 ,i worked hard with success4 ,many times during the year ,i would recall the incident and would resolve again and again to show them some day4 ,for two years this idea was pretty constantly in my mind4 ,in the course of four years ,i now take keen satisfaction in recalling that ,i have partly accomplished my purpose40 ,m4 #be4--8;,four years ago a friend whom ,i admire much1 told me that ,i would never make a scientist4 ,i have resented it ever since and have laid plans to show him1 which ,i have partly carried out4 ,every once in a while ,i recall his statement in connection with my work4 ,it spurs me on4 ,i imagine myself sending him a copy of my scientific problem on which ,i am working40 ,m4 #cd4--8;,in my sophomore year in college1 ,i failed to be elected president of our literary society4 ,i became resentful against the one who beat me in the election4 ,this person was ambitious in college contests4 ,i now laid plans to beat him4 ,i went into an oratorical contest first with the sole aim of surpassing him4 ,i did not care about the others4 ,i am certain that ,i would never have gone into this contest and others if it had not been for a deep set resentment developed against him4 ,i recall yet how in practicing and writing in contests during the two years of my college work my aim principally was to surpass this person4 ,we were good friends all the time40 ,such tenuous resentments which persist for years1 it may be1 against people with whom one is on friendly terms1 and which are accompanied by a rather sudden rise in the curve of personal growth1 are evidently an essential part of the anger consciousness4 ,smaller achievements of individual worth are often reported to be the direct result of a healthy sort of reaction from resentment4 ,it is entirely probable that most persons1 especially those of irascible disposition1 could point to sudden spurts in their own personal development and achievement1 which were motivated by anger which never reached the stage of intense excitability or from the residuum of exciting anger which disappeared unsuccessfully4 ,freud 7#i7 has taken the view that much of biography should be rewritten to include the part that sexual motives1 which have been sublimated1 play in personal ambitions4 ,evidently anger cannot be neglected by one who seeks for motives of personal growth whether biographer or educator4 ,a too soft pedagogy which would heal over too soon the injury to self-feelings1 has its disadvantages4 ,encouragement at times by superficial means may cut off a good healthy angry reaction which may be needed4 ,in fact a little lowered self-feeling with an irascible response is a good thing and it may be a signal for 8hands off10 or a little skillful and judicious suggestion4 ,it is frequently observed by the subjects studied that anger at self intensifies a lagging willed action and breaks up interfering habits4 ,a quotation from ,b4 will illustrate4 8,i turned the anger inward and vituperated against myself for being such a lazy man4 ,the emotion of the moment was relieved and ,i feel now like getting down to work at the stuff and getting it out of the way40 ,some subjects work at their very best when mildly angry4 ,attention and association processes are intensified to the point that real difficulties disappear4 ,anger in the exciting stage and at a situation too remote from the problem at hand1 interferes with mental work4 ,bryan and ,harter 7#c7 in their study of skill in telegraphy1 found that the skillful operator may work best when angry1 but the inexperienced worker is less efficient4 ,michael ,angelo is said to have worked at his best in a state of irascible temper4 ,the mass of mankind are sluggish and need a hearty resentment as a stimulant4 ,if the circumstances are too soft and easy1 the best which is in a man may be dormant2 there is no tonic to a strong nature capable of bearing it like anger4 ,many a good intellect has lacked the good powers of resentment necessary for the most efficient work4 ,the boy who has not the capacity for anger should be deliberately taught it by some means4 ,gthe1 who was a rather keen observer of human nature1 said1 8,with most of us the requisite intensity of passion is not forth-coming without an element of resentment1 and common sense and careful observation will ,i believe confirm the opinion that few people who amount to anything are without a good capacity for hostile feelings upon which they draw freely when they need it40 ,need of ,expression4 ,the second condition for the expression of anger is that in which reaction is an end in itself4 ,it may be said that while on the one hand from a genetic and utilitarian point of view the function of anger is to do work1 to aid in behavior1 where increased willed action is needed2 on the other1 the mere expressional side in connection with feeling and impulse assumes an important role in every emotion4 ,in fact with intense and exciting anger1 utility may be ignored and actually thwarted1 volitional action is exerted contrary to objective needs4 ,there is much in the expression of anger in both the subjective and objective reaction to the emotion whose impulsive aim is merely to release unpleasant feeling tension1 to clear the mental atmosphere1 so to speak4 ,a brief resum of the reactive consciousness to anger will illustrate4 ,first on the feeling side there occurs a mental situation accompanied by a tendency to expression in order to remove or modify the situation4 ,irritation may be relieved or turned into pleasantness by the reaction4 ,lowered self-feeling may be restored with extra compensation in pleasurable feelings of victory1 if the reaction has been successful4 ,second1 the expression of anger involves restraint1 the cruder unsocial tendencies are controlled and others are substituted of a less objectionable and offensive nature4 ,by both objective and subjective reactions1 devices of disguise1 transfer and modification of the unsocial pugnacious tendencies may allow the restraint to be released and the emotive tendency fully satisfied1 in which a feeling of pleasantness follows4 ,third1 the reaction which has been fully satisfactory from the feeling side1 is followed by a partial or complete immunity against the recurrence of the anger from the same mental situation1 as the successful reaction has removed the mental situation from which the emotion arose4 ,anger from the point of view stated above1 touches upon the second educational aim4 ,so large a part of the reactive consciousness to anger is motivated to find a successful surrogate for cruder and unsocial tendencies which are objectional1 that this side of anger expression is educationally important4 ,it is a desirable personal equipment to have strong potentialities of anger4 ,however there should be a mentality which is versatile and active enough by training and habit to react successfully to the emotion1 in the first place to use such reservoirs of energy for work1 and second1 to react satisfactorily from the feeling-side1 where the instinctive tendencies are restrained1 and break up morbid and unpleasant mental tension which may be an inference4 ,a good angry outburst at times may be a good thing1 but most frequently some sort of surrogate is more satisfactory4 ,habits of witticism1 refined joking1 a little good-natured play and teasing within the limits of propriety serves a worthy end for mental hygiene1 and often leaves a basis for good will and a friendship which would otherwise be in danger4 ,the habit of suddenly breaking up an angry tension by a good thrust of wit or joke would be a good one to inculcate with the irascibly inclined4 ,many persons suffer in feelings and lack of good friendship because they have never learned to be good mental sparrers and to relieve their emotions by socially appropriate reaction rather than by a method of repression which is cheaper at the moment but more expensive in the end4 ,their anger is too absorbing and serious4 ,it lacks the necessary flexibility1 their emotions are too near the instinctive level and when the instinctive tendencies are restrained they lack mental habits of purging their feelings in a satisfactory way1 consequently suppression is resorted to as a self-defense4 ,anger and ,instruction4 ,as ,terman 7#bj7 has pointed out1 the emotions employed in the act of instruction need a systematic investigation4 ,the emotions brought into play in school control1 as incentive to work1 emotional reactions which retard1 and those which accelerate learning and efficient work in classes1 these are little known scientifically4 ,anger1 or1 perhaps1 better potentialities of anger in both teacher and pupils1 is impulsively used in the role of teaching4 ,skill in using this emotion aright is part of the teacher's stock in trade4 ,pugnacity in the form of rivalry is a common device4 ,individual ,differences4 ,first1 there is the problem of individual differences in the emotional life of students2 and the teacher1 too1 for that matter4 ,with some1 the dominant emotion is fear and anxiety4 ,the material of the present study shows a wide variation in the type and character of emotional reactions of the subjects studied in which anger is one of the most frequently occurring emotions4 ,this difference is illustrated by the following summary from three subjects3 ,with ,j41 anger predominates over fear2 he knows but little of the latter emotion4 ,anger usually occurs from a fore-period of lowered self-feeling1 the feeling intensity of the fore-period is not strong4 ,the reactive stage of the anger does not reach a high degree of excitement4 ,with him1 anger usually disappears into indifference and unpleasantness1 leaving tendencies of passive dislike4 ,he observed no cases of anger at injustice or unfairness except when the latter sentiments referred to himself4 ,his anger for the most part is an unsuccessful experience and is unpleasant4 ,he consequently tries to avoid getting angry and has relatively few emotions4 ,the after-period of his anger tends to be a little morbid1 lacking any strongly marked disposition which is the source of tendencies to do more work4 ,subject ,g4 has anger as a dominant emotion over fear4 ,he scarcely knows anger which arises from a fore-period of humiliation except anger at himself when he has been inefficient4 ,he does not hold resentments against persons but against situations and principles4 ,anger is usually unpleasant except a mild after-period of relief4 ,with him1 anger is a means of throwing off superfluous feelings of irritation and serves but little the purpose of work1 except to increase volitional action for the moment4 ,his anger often refers to himself4 ,anger at unfairness tends to refer to the principle rather than to the person4 ,the emotion occurs more frequently when he is unwell4 ,it is rather slow to appear1 by a gradual accumulation1 till the point of anger is reached2 the emotion does not attain a high degree of excitement4 ,with subject ,c4 the character and type of anger reaction is in marked contrast to the two subjects mentioned above4 ,he knows but little of fear except in extreme situations4 ,his anger nearly all springs from a fore-period of humiliation and is often intense in its most active stage4 ,for a time during the most intense stage of the emotion1 he almost loses the sense of justice2 but as the emotion begins to die down1 he has a habit of excusing the offender and looking at his side of the question4 ,his anger is frequently followed by pity1 remorse1 shame and fear4 ,the emotion is both pleasant and unpleasant4 ,the disappearance is usually unpleasant and leaves a wealth of affective tendencies and mental attitudes which are later a source of both pleasant and unpleasant feelings4 ,anger is one of the greatest stimuli he has to do work4 ,he will work for days preparing some subject in which he has had opposition that excited his resentment in order to even up with the offender1 and takes extreme delight in making his point4 ,his tendency to anger is greater when feeling well pleased with himself4 ,the residuum of his emotion involves attitudes of determination and idealization which plays an important role in his ambition in general4 ,the description above will suffice to show the problem in individual differences in emotional life4 ,with some subjects fear is the ruling passion4 ,subjects ,a4 and ,b4 have almost an even proportion of fear and anger during the period of observation4 ,however these instances represent adult persons4 ,how far the habitual emotional reactions are determined by training and instruction1 is an important question4 ,it is highly probable that the character of training in childhood and early adolescence plays a leading part4 ,subject ,c4 above was an only child and took considerable license1 almost getting beyond the control of his parents at an early age4 ,j4 reports that at early adolescence1 anger was much more frequent and intense than at present4 ,he believes that an early philosophical notion that intelligence should dominate the emotions1 had an influence in establishing his present emotional habits4 ,g4 was early taught that it was sinful to get angry1 an idea which he accepted at the time4 ,his anger rarely refers to persons but vents on objects1 principles and situations involved4 ,he has relatively few emotions of anger4 ,he believes that his early religious training was of importance in moulding the habitual reactions which he now assumes when angry4 ,such material as we have makes it entirely probable that a large part of the habitual mental reactions assumed in anger is the result of training4 ,it may be said further that when instruction involves affairs of emotional life1 individual difference become a still more pressing problem than when intelligence is the criterion4 ,other inferences of the role of anger in the act of instruction are suggested from the present study4 ,if the teacher himself does not possess the ability of well defined resentment against an infringement of fairness1 advantage of this defect may be taken by the alert pupil unless there is compensation for it in another direction as by the principle of co-operation1 by love or pride appealed to4 ,cooley however puts the matter a little too strongly when he says1 8,no teacher can maintain discipline unless his scholars feel that in some manner he will resent a breach of it40 7,human ,nature and the ,social ,order 7#d71 ,page #bdd47 ,the method of school control itself refers to some extent to the individual emotional life of the teacher1 as well as pupil4 ,when anger enters into the role of discipline1 of the three types already discussed1 that which springs from the sentiment of justice is most efficient in instruction4 ,anger which arises from irritable feelings1 from its nature becomes a dangerous emotion to be used in discipline4 ,emotion of this type develops by a cumulative process till the point of anger has been reached4 ,it too readily ignores justice and is easily transferred from the real offender and may finally break out against an innocent party who may have unwittingly touched off the feelings which have been accumulated by previous stimuli1 consequently anger of this type which is so frequently displayed in school rooms usually defeats the ends of discipline4 ,anger with a fore-period of lowered self-feeling because of the personal element entering into this type of anger and the tendency to ignore justice can evidently be resorted to but sparingly in school control unless it also involves the sense of justice4 ,another point the teacher has to take into account is that from his position1 if he is held in respect1 the anger he excites in the student will usually be preceded by humiliation and1 if he has been unfair1 it will be intensified by the sense of offended fairness4 ,anger of this type is the one most frequently followed by an emotional disposition against the offender4 ,it is the residuum of unsuccessfully expressed anger of this type which becomes a disturbing element in school control with the student who is irascibly inclined4 ,the wise teacher who understands the individual emotional life of the pupil and the nature of the after-period of anger1 will skillfully remove the morbid residuum and ally the resentful pupil on his side4 ,dislike following anger1 is skillfully removed1 will frequently increase the friendship of the offender more than before the offense4 ,this principle of compensation in the after-period is thus to be utilized in discipline4 ,it may be a good plan deliberately to bring a moody pupil to the point of anger and let him vent his wrath4 ,any punishment in discipline has the possibilities of being dangerous to school control1 especially with the student of pugnacious disposition1 if the justice of the punishment cannot be recognized by the offending pupil4 ,evidently a mistake in control is not to recognize the individual differences in emotional life and to attempt to use the discipline of fear with an irascible boy who knows no fear4 ,anger1 disappearing unsuccessfully1 may leave a morbid residuum which completely disqualifies the student for efficient learning1 consequently when it exists1 it is the business of the educator to remove the morbidity1 transform it into work or to have the pupil transferred2 for it may be as serious a hindrance to learning as adenoids or defective sense organs4 ,there is every reason to believe that a large part of the mental reactions to anger is individually acquired habits1 consequently successful and satisfactory reactions are a matter of training4 ,potentialities of anger may actually be taught indirectly by building up the sentiments and mental disposition from which anger arises4 ,whatever will increase ideals and new desires1 achievements in school which allow a better opinion of self and build up the sentiment of self-regard1 of fairness and justice1 are at work at the very root of anger consciousness4 ,the study of the mental situation from which anger arises allows every reason to believe that when there is a lack of potentialities to anger1 it may be built up in this indirect manner4 ,the student who lacks good healthy resentment when the proper stimulus is at hand evidently is weak in the sentiment of self-regard1 desire to achieve1 or sense of fairness4 ,whatever exercises will excite the pugnacious instinct1 if done satisfactorily may involve a training in emotional habits4 ,habits of good fighting in work and play1 the give and take in debate1 class discussion1 the witty retort1 boxing1 the team games if carried on aright1 afford good exercise for the emotions4 ,to acquire good habits of behavior when under fire1 to fight clean and to the finishing point1 to take defeat in a sportsman-like manner1 are valuable acquisitions educationally whether they are acquired in athletics or the rivalry of intellectual work4 ,on the other hand1 athletics and mental contests may be carried on under conditions of emotional reaction1 which defeat the aim of healthy emotional habits and consequently lack their better educational significance4 ----- ,footnote #a4 ,the ,republic ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,bibliography ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #a4 ,,ach1 ,n4 ,ueber die ,willenstatigkeit und das ,denken4 ,eine ,experimentelle ,undersuchung mit einem ,anhang3 ,ueber das ,hippsche ,chronoskop4 ,gottingen4 ,vandenhoech and ,ruprecht4 #aije4 #b4 ,,bain1 ,,alexander4 ,the emotion and the ,will4 ,third ,edition4 ,london4 ,longman4 #ahge4 #c4 ,,bryan1 ,w4 ,d4 ,,and ,,harter ,n4 ,studies in the ,physiology and ,psychology of the ,telegraphic ,language4 ,psychological ,review1 ,vol4 #d3 #bg-eh4 #d4 ,,cooley1 ,c4 ,h4 ,human ,nature and the ,social ,order4 ,c4 ,scribner's ,sons4 #aijb4 #e4 ,,dewey1 ,,john4 ,psychology4 ,new ,york4 ,american ,book ,company4 #ahij4 #f4 ,,dewey1 ,,john4 ,the ,theory of ,emotions4 ,psychological ,review4 ,,ii4 pp4 #ac-cb4 #g4 ,f,r1 ,c4 ,l'antithse dans l'expression des motions4 ,rev4 ,philos4 #ahif4 ,,xlii1 #dih-eja4 #h4 ,,freud1 ,s4 ,der ,witz und seine ,beziehung zum ,unbewussten4 ,leipzig und ,wien ,f4 ,deuticke4 #aije4 pp4 #bje4 #i4 ,,freud1 ,s4 ,drei ,abhandlungen zur ,sexualtheorie4 ,wien4 ,deuticke4 #aiaj4 #aj4 ,,hall1 ,g4 ,,stanley4 ,adolescence4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co4 #aiji4 #aa4 ,,hall1 ,g4 ,,stanley4 ,a ,study of ,anger4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology4 ,vol4 #aj4 pp4 #eaf-eia4 #ab4 ,,irons1 ,,david4 ,psychology of ,ethics4 ,edinburgh4 ,blackwood and ,sons1 #aijc4 #ac4 ,,james1 ,w4 ,principles of ,psychology4 ,henry ,holt and ,co4 #ahif4 #ad4 ,k,,lpe1 ,o4 ,grundis der ,psychologic4 ,leipzig ,engelmann4 #ahic4 p4 #dgh4 #ae4 ,,mcdougall1 ,w4 ,an ,introduction to ,social ,psychology4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,london4 ,b4 ,luce4 #aiac4 #af4 ,,ribot1 ,,th4 ,a4 ,the ,psychology of the ,emotions4 ,london4 ,walter ,scott ,ltd41 ,paternoster ,square4 #ahig4 #ag4 ,,stanley1 ,h4 ,m4 ,studies in the ,evolutionary ,psychology of ,feelings4 ,macmillan4 #ahii4 #ah4 ,,steinmetz1 ,s4 ,r4 ,ethnologische ,studien zur ersten ,entwicklung der ,strafe nebst einer ,psychologischen ,abhandlung ,uber ,grausamkeit und ,rachsucht4 ,vol4 #b4 ,leyden4 #aije4 #ai4 ,,titchener1 ,e4 ,b4 ,outlines of ,psychology4 ,macmillan4 #aijf4 #bj4 ,,terman1 ,l4 ,the ,teacher's ,health1 ,a ,study in the ,hygiene of an ,occupation4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company4 #aiac4 #ba4 ,,wundt1 ,w4 ,outlines of ,psychology4 ,translated by ,c4 ,h4 ,judd4 ,third ,edition4 ,stechert4 #aijg4 #bb4 ,,wundt1 ,w4 ,human and ,animal ,psychology4 ,translated by ,j4 ,f4 ,creighton and ,e4 ,b4 ,titchener4 ,macmillan4 #ahif4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,index ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,ach3 ,on study of will1 #f4 ,anger3 ,on voluntary control of1 #g2 introspection of1 #g1 #ab-ac2 function of1 #h1 #fh2 mental situation giving rise to1 ch4 ,i2 fore-period of1 ch4 ,i2 referring to persons1 #ae1 #af1 #bf2 referring to objects2 #ad1 #af1 #gg1 #ic2 referring to self1 #bb-bc2 delayed disappearance of1 #bc-be2 without immediate fore-period1 #be-bg2 behavior of consciousness during1 ch4 ,,ii1 #ec2 vocal expression of1 #cf-ch2 attributive reaction to1 #cc-df2 contrary reaction to1 #df-ej2 indifferent reaction to1 #ej2 disappearance of1 ch4 ,,iii1 #fj-fb2 conscious after-effects of1 ch4 ,,iv1 #gd2 classification of1 #ge1 #gg2 types of1 #gg-gi2 education of1 ch4 ,v2 at servants and children1 #ae2 in relation to justice1 #af1 #bb1 #hc2 after period of1 #gd1 ch4 ,,iv2 control of1 #ec1 #eh1 #ei2 in school control1 #ia-id4 ,aristotle3 ,on education of emotions1 #a4 ,attention3 ,change of in disappearance of anger1 #eh4 ,attitude3 ,reaction to anger1 #dd-df1 #eh1 #gj4 ,attributive ,reaction3 ,in expression of anger1 #cb4 ,bain3 ,on introspective view of anger1 #ab4 ,behavior3 ,importance in study of emotions1 #c1 #g4 ,bergson3 ,concerning anger and society1 #hc4 ,bryan and ,harter3 ,effects of anger during practice1 #hh4 ,dewey1 ,john3 ,on relation of instinct and emotions1 #ab2 concerning the function of anger1 #hc4 ,emotion3 ,function of1 #e1 #he-hh2 introspection of1 #a2 importance of structure of1 #a2 method of study of1 #f2 factors in development of1 #aa2 initial steps of1 #ae4 ,feelings3 ,irritable feelings in development of anger1 #ac1 #ad-ae4 ,see pleasantness and unpleasantness4 ,fr3 ,concerning anger with paranoices1 #ab4 ,freud3 ,on sex as a motive in conduct1 #hh2 on theory of wit1 #ci-dj4 ,function3 ,referring to anger1 #h1 #fh1 #gb1 ch4 ,v ,gthe3 ,on function of resentment1 #hi4 ,gossip3 ,and anger1 #ci1 #db1 #ef1 #ei1 #gb4 ,hall3 ,concerning education of anger1 #hc2 on education of emotions1 #hd4 ,habits3 ,and expression of anger1 #ie4 ,hate3 ,development from anger1 #gb4 ,individual ,differences3 ,in emotional behavior1 #ei1 #ge1 #ia-id4 ,instruction3 ,and anger1 #ia-ic4 ,introspection3 ,difficulty of with emotions1 #a4 ,imagination3 ,a factor in control and expression of anger1 #cg1 #fb1 #he2 invective1 #cf-ch4 ,imagery3 ,visual and motor in expression of anger1 #cc-ce4 ,irony3 ,a means of reaction to anger1 #cf-db4 ,irons1 ,david3 ,appearance of anger1 #ab2 behavior of consciousness during anger1 #ca4 ,james1 ,william3 ,on function of anger1 #cc1 #hd4 ,joy3 ,following anger1 #fi1 #gc-gd4 ,justice3 ,facilitates development of anger1 #af2 ignoring of when angry1 #bb1 #hc4 ,klpe3 ,concerning voluntary action and emotions1 #ab4 ,make-believe3 ,in expression of anger1 #ci1 #fb4 ,magnan3 ,concerning anger in paranoices1 #ab4 ,mc,dougall3 ,on genetic view of origin of anger1 #aa4 ,pity3 ,following anger1 #fe1 #ff4 ,pedagogy3 ,danger of too soft1 #hh4 ,play3 ,a means of expression of anger1 #ce-cf4 ,pleasantness3 ,a condition of disappearance of anger1 #fj1 #ec1 #ee1 #eg1 #ei2 in after-period of anger1 #fg1 #gc4 ,ribot3 ,on anger and justice1 #hc4 ,sarcasm3 ,in expression of anger1 #ch1 #da4 ,self3 ,imaginary exaltation of1 #dc-dd4 ,sentiment of ,self ,regard3 ,fore-period of anger1 #bj-ba4 ,steinmetz3 ,on danger with primitive people1 #ab4 ,shame3 ,following anger1 #ag1 #ff4 ,sublimation3 ,in expression of anger1 #hc-ib4 ,swearing3 ,in expression of emotions1 #cg4 ,titchener3 ,on factors in development of emotions1 #aa4 ,unpleasantness3 ,during anger1 #ed1 #fj1 #gd4 ,witticism3 ,in expression of anger1 #ci-db1 #eh4 ,wundt3 ,concerning voluntary action1 #e1 #hd4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,the table of contents has been changed to include ,chapters ,four and ,five to match the book's contents4 ,variations in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4