,the ,semitic ,series ,,development ,,of ,,muslim ,,theology1 ,,jurisprudence ,,and ,,constitutional ,,theory ,,by ,,duncan ,b4 ,,macdonald1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,d4 ,,series ,,of ,,hand-,,books ,,in ,,semitics ,,edited ,,by ,,james ,,alexander ,,craig ,,professor ,,of ,,semitic ,,languages ,,and ,,literatures ,,and ,,hellenistic ,,greek ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,michigan ,recent scientific research has stimulated an increasing interest in ,semitic studies among scholars1 students1 and the serious reading public generally4 ,it has provided us with a picture of a hitherto unknown civilization1 and a history of one of the great branches of the human family4 ,the object of the present ,series is to state its results in popularly scientific form4 ,each work is complete in itself1 and the ,series1 taken as a whole1 neglects no phase of the general subject4 ,each contributor is a specialist in the subject assigned him1 and has been chosen from the body of eminent ,semitic scholars in ,europe and in this country4 ,this ,series will be composed of the following volumes3 ,i4 ,,hebrews4 ,history and ,government4 ,by ,professor ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,curdy1 ,university of ,toronto1 ,canada4 ,,ii4 ,,hebrews4 ,ethics and ,religion4 ,by ,professor ,archibald ,duff1 ,airedale ,college1 ,bradford1 ,england4 ,now ,ready4 ,,iii4 ,,hebrews4 ,the ,social ,life4 ,by the ,rev4 ,edward ,day1 ,springfield1 ,mass4 ,now ,ready4 ,,iv4 ,,babylonians ,,and ,,assyrians1 with introductory chapter on the ,sumerians4 ,history to the ,fall of ,babylon4 ,by ,dr4 ,hugo ,winckler1 ,university of ,berlin4 ,in ,press4 ,v4 ,,babylonians ,,and ,,assyrians4 ,religion4 ,by ,professor ,j4 ,a4 ,craig1 ,university of ,michigan4 ,,vi4 ,,babylonians ,,and ,,assyrians4 ,life and ,customs4 ,by ,professor ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,university of ,oxford1 ,england4 ,now ,ready4 ,,vii4 ,,babylonians ,,and ,,assyrians4 ,excavations and ,account of ,decipherment of ,inscriptions4 ,,viii4 ,,syria ,,and ,,palestine4 ,early ,history4 ,by ,professor ,lewis ,bayles ,paton1 ,hartford ,theological ,seminary4 ,now ,ready4 ,,ix4 ,,development ,,of ,,muslim ,,theology1 ,,jurisprudence ,,and ,,constitutional ,,theory4 ,by ,professor ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald1 ,hartford ,theological ,seminary4 ,now ,ready4 ,the following volumes are to be included in the ,series1 and others may be added3 ,x4 ,,ph,,nicia4 ,history and ,government1 including ,colonies1 ,trade1 and ,religion4 ,,xi4 ,,arabia1 ,discoveries in1 and ,history and ,religion until ,muhammad4 ,,xii4 ,,arabic ,,literature ,,and ,,science ,,since ,,muhammad4 ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,semitic ,,art ,,and ,,mythology ,,on ,,western ,,nations4 ,the ,semitic ,series ,,development ,,of ,muslim ,theology1 ,jurisprudence and ,constitutional ,theory ,,by ,,duncan ,b4 ,,macdonald1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,d4 ,,sometime ,,scholar ,,and ,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,glasgow2 ,,professor ,,of ,,semitic ,,languages ,,in ,,hartford ,,theological ,,seminary ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #aijc ,,copyright1 #aijc1 ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,published2 ,march1 #aijc ,,trow ,,directory ,,printing ,,and ,,bookbinding ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,memori ,,matris ,,sacrvm ,,preface ,it is with very great diffidence that ,i send out this book4 ,of the lack and need of some text-book of the kind there can be little doubt4 ,from the educated man who wishes to read with intelligence his 8,arabian ,nights0 to the student of history or of law or of theology who wishes to know how it has gone in such matters with the great ,muslim world1 there is demand enough and to spare4 ,still graver is the difficulty for the growing body of young men who are taking up the study of ,arabic4 ,in ,english or ,german or ,french there is no book to which a teacher may send his pupils for brief guidance on the development of these institutions2 on the development of law there are only scattered and fragmentary papers1 and on the development of theology there is practically nothing4 ,but of the difficulty of supplying this need there can be even less doubt4 ,goldziher could do it fully and completely2 no other ,arabist alive could approach the task other than with trepidation4 ,the following pages therefore form a kind of forlorn attempt1 a rushing in on the part of one who is sure he is not an angel and is in grave doubt on the question of folly1 but who also sees a gap and no great alacrity on the part of his betters toward filling it4 ,one thing1 however1 ,i would premise with emphasis4 ,all the results given here have been reached or verified from the ,arabic sources4 ,these sources are seldom stated either in the text or in the bibliography1 as the book is intended to be useful to non-,arabists1 but1 throughout1 they lie behind it and are its basis4 ,by this it is not meant that the results of this book are claimed as original4 ,every ,arabist will recognize at once from whose wells ,i have drawn and who have been my masters4 ,among these ,i would do homage in the first instance to ,goldziher2 what ,arabist is not deep in his debt8 ,with ,goldziher's influence through books ,i would join the kindred influence of the living voice of my teacher ,sachau4 ,to him ,i render thanks and reverence now for his kindly sympathy and guidance4 ,others in whose debt ,i am are ,nldeke1 ,snouck ,hurgronje1 von ,kremer1 ,lane--many more4 ,those who are left of these will know their own in my pages and will be merciful to my attempts to tread in their steps and to develop their results4 ,what is my own1 too1 they will know2 into questions of priority ,i have no desire to enter4 ,foot-notes which might have given to each scholar his due have been left unwritten4 ,for the readers of this book such references in so vast a subject would be useless4 ,such references1 too1 would have in the end to be made to ,arabic sources4 ,more direct help ,i have to acknowledge on several sides4 ,to the atmosphere and scholarly ideals of ,hartford ,seminary ,i am indebted for the possibility of writing such a book as this1 so far from the ordinary theological ruts4 ,among my colleagues ,professor ,gillett has especially aided me with criticism and suggestions on the terminology of scholastic theology4 ,dr4 ,talcott ,williams1 of ,philadelphia1 illumined for me the ,idrisid movement in ,north ,africa4 ,one complete sentence on p4 #he ,i have conveyed from a kindly notice in ,the ,nation of my inaugural lecture on the development of ,muslim ,jurisprudence4 ,finally1 and above all1 ,i am indebted to my wife for much patient labor in copying and for keen and luminous criticism in planning and correcting4 ,with thanks to her this preface may fitly close4 ,,duncan ,b4 ,,macdonald4 ,,hartford1 ,december1 #aijb4 ,as it has proved impracticable to give in the body of the book a full transliteration of names and technical terms1 the learner is referred for such exact forms to the chronological table and the index4 ,in these hamza and ayn1 the long vowels and the emphatic consonants are uniformly represented1 the last by italic4 ,,contents ,,page ,,introduction #c ,,part ,i ,,constitutional ,,development ,,chapter ,i ,,from ,,death ,,of ,,muhammad ,,to ,,rise ,,of ,,abbasids #g ,,chapter ,,ii ,,to ,,rise ,,of ,,ayyubids #cd ,,chapter ,,iii ,,to ,,present ,,situation #ej ,,part ,,ii ,,development ,,of ,,jurisprudence ,,chapter ,i ,,to ,,close ,,of ,,umayyad ,,period #fe ,,chapter ,,ii ,,to ,,present ,,situation #ia ,,part ,,iii ,,development ,,of ,,theology ,,chapter ,i ,,to ,,close ,,of ,,umayyad ,,period #aai ,,chapter ,,ii ,,to ,,foundation ,,of ,,fatimid ,,khalifate #aec ,,chapter ,,iii ,,to ,,triumph ,,of ,,ash#8,,arites ,,in ,,east #ahf ,,chapter ,,iv ,,al-,,ghazzali #bae ,,chapter ,v ,,to ,,ibn ,,sab#8,,in ,,and ,,end ,,of ,,muwahhids #bdc ,,chapter ,,vi ,,to ,,present ,,situation #bff ,,appendices ,i4 ,,illustrative ,,documents ,,in ,,translation #bia ,,ii4 ,,selected ,,bibliography #ceh ,,iii4 ,,chronological ,,table #cfh ,,index #cgc ,,errata ,page #cj1 line #e1 for al-,mukanna read al-,muqanna4 0 #hf1 l4 #ai1 for first ,khalifa read second ,khalifa4 0 #bja1 l4 #bf1 for tasalsal read tasalsul4 0 #bcg1 for ,mansell read ,mansel4 0 #bfg1 l4 #cj1 for ,haqqari read ,hakkari4 0 #bii1 l4 #aj1 for ,mushriqs read ,mushriks4 0 #cjj1 l4 #d1 for kalimatan ash-shahada read kalimata-sh-shabada4 0 #cbe1 l4 #bc1 for wihdaniya read wahdaniya4 0 #cci1 l4 #aa1 for ihtiyaz read ihtiyaj4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the errata have been corrected4 ,,development ,,of ,,muslim ,,theology1 ,,jurisprudence1 ,,and ,,constitutional ,,theory ,,introduction ,in human progress unity and complexity are the two correlatives forming together the great paradox4 ,life is manifold1 but it is also one4 ,so it is seldom possible1 and still more seldom advisable1 to divide a civilization into departments and to attempt to trace their separate developments2 life nowhere can be cut in two with a hatchet4 ,and this is emphatically true of the civilization of ,islam4 ,its intellectual unity1 for good and for evil1 is its outstanding quality4 ,it may have solved the problem of faith and science1 as some hold2 it may have crushed all thought which is not of faith1 as many others hold4 ,however that may be1 its life and thought are a unity4 ,so1 also1 with its institutions4 ,it might be possible to trace the developments of the ,european states out of the dying ,roman ,empire1 even to watch the patrimony of the ,church grow and again vanish1 and yet take but little if any account of the ,catholic theology4 ,it might be possible to deal adequately with the growth of that system of theology and yet never touch either the ,roman or the civil law1 even to leave out of our view the canon law itself4 ,in ,europe the ,state may rule the ,church1 or the ,church may rule the ,state2 or they may stand side by side in somewhat dubious amity1 supposedly taking no account each of the other4 ,but in ,muslim countries1 ,church and ,state are one indissolubly1 and until the very essence of ,islam passes away1 that unity cannot be relaxed4 ,the law of the land1 too1 is1 in theory1 the law of the ,church4 ,in the earlier days at least1 canon and civil law were one4 ,thus we can never say in ,islam1 8he is a great lawyer2 he1 a great theologian2 he1 a great statesman40 ,one man may be all three1 almost he must be all three1 if he is to be any one4 ,the statesman may not practice theology or law1 but his training1 in great part1 will be that of a theologian and a legist4 ,the theologian-legist may not be a man of action1 but he will be a court of ultimate appeal on the theory of the state4 ,he will pass upon treaties2 decide disputed successions2 assign to each his due rank and title4 ,he will tell the ,commander of the ,faithful himself what he may do and what1 by law1 lies beyond his reach4 ,it was1 then1 under the pressure of necessity only that the following sketch of the development of ,muslim thought was divided into three parts4 ,by no possible arrangement did it seem feasible to treat the whole at once4 ,intolerable confusions and unintelligible complications would1 to all appearance1 be the result4 ,as the most concrete and simple side1 the development of the state is taken first4 ,second1 on account of the shortness of the course which it ran1 comes the development of the legal ideas and schools4 ,third comes the long and thrice complicated thread of theological thought4 ,it is for the student to hold firmly in mind that this division is purely mechanical and for convenience only2 that it corresponds to little or nothing in the real nature of the case4 ,this will undoubtedly become clear to him as he proceeds4 ,he will meet with the same names in all three divisions2 he will meet with the same technicalities and the same scholastic system4 ,a treatise on canon law is certainly different from one on theology1 but each touches the other at innumerable points2 their authors may easily be the same2 each will be in great part unintelligible without the other4 ,he must then labor to merge these three sections again into one another4 ,his principal helps in this1 along with diligent parallel reading1 will be the chronological table and the index4 ,in the table he will watch the succession of men and events grouped from all the three sections2 from the index he will trace the activities of each man in these different spheres4 ,the index1 too1 will give him the technical terms and he will observe their recurrence in historical1 legal1 and theological theory4 ,further1 it will serve him as a vocabulary when he comes to read technical texts4 ,but1 again1 another warning is necessary4 ,the sketch given here is incomplete1 not only in details but in the ground that it covers4 ,important phases of ,muslim law1 theology1 and state theory are of necessity passed over entirely4 ,thus ,babism is not touched at all and the ,shi#8ite theology and law hardly at all4 ,the ,ibadite systems have the merest mention and ,turkish and ,persian mysticism are equally neglected4 ,for such weighty organizations the ,darwish ,fraternities are most inadequately dealt with1 and ,muslim missionary enterprise might well be treated at length4 ,guidance on these and other points the student will seek in the bibliography4 ,it1 too1 makes no pretence to completeness and consists of selected titles only4 ,but it will serve at least as an introduction and clew to an exceedingly wide field4 ,and it may be well to state here1 in so many words1 that no work can be done in this field without a reading knowledge of ,french and ,german1 and no satisfactory work without some knowledge of ,arabic4 ,and1 again1 this sketch is incomplete because the development of ,islam is not yet over4 ,if1 as some say1 the faith of ,muhammad is a cul-de-sac1 it is certainly a very long one2 off it many courts and doors open2 down it many peoples are still wandering4 ,it is a faith1 too1 which brings us into touching distance with the great controversies of our own day4 ,we see in it1 as in a somewhat distorted mirror1 the history of our own past4 ,but we do not yet see its end1 even as the end of ,christianity is not yet in sight4 ,it is for the student1 then1 to remember that ,islam is a present reality and the ,muslim faith a living organism1 a knowledge of whose laws may be of life or death for us who are in another camp4 ,for there can be little doubt that the three antagonistic and militant civilizations of the world are those of ,christendom1 ,islam1 and ,china4 ,when these are unified1 or come to a mutual understanding1 then1 and only then1 will the cause of civilization be secure4 ,to aid some little to the understanding of ,islam among us is the object of this book4 ,,part ,i ,constitutional ,development ,,chapter ,i ,the death of ,muhammad and the problem of the succession2 the parties2 families of ,hashimids1 ,umayyads and ,abbasids2 election of ,abu ,bakr2 nomination of ,umar2 his constitution2 election of ,uthman2 ,umayyads in power2 murder of ,uthman2 origin of ,shi#8ites2 election of ,ali2 civil war2 ,mu#8awiya first ,umayyad2 origin of ,kharijites2 their revolts2 ,ibadites2 development of ,shi#8ites2 al-,husayn at ,karbala2 different ,shi#8ite constitutional theories2 doctrine of the hidden ,imam2 revolts against ,umayyads2 rise of ,abbasids2 ,umayyads of ,cordova4 ,with the death of ,muhammad at al-,madina in the year #aa of the ,hijra 7,a4,d4 #fcb71 the community of ,islam stood face to face with three great questions4 ,of the existence of one they were conscious1 at least in its immediate form2 the others lay still for their consciousness in the future4 ,the necessity was upon them to choose a leader to take the place of the ,prophet of ,god1 and thus to fix for all time what was to be the nature of the ,muslim state4 ,muhammad had appointed no ,joshua2 unlike ,moses he had died and given no guidance as to the man who should take up and carry on his work4 ,if we can imagine the people of ,israel left thus helpless on the other side of the ,jordan with the course of conquest that they must pursue opening before them1 we shall have a tolerably exact idea of the situation in ,islam when ,muhammad dropped the reins4 ,certainly1 the people of ,islam had little conception of what was involved in the great precedent that they were about to establish1 but1 nevertheless1 there lies here1 in the first elective council which they called1 the beginning of all the confusions1 rivalries1 and uncertainties that were to limit and finally to destroy the succession of the ,commanders of the ,faithful4 ,sidenote3 ,,early ,,parties ,muhammad had ruled as an absolute monarch--a ,prophet of ,god in his own right4 ,he had no son2 though had he left such issue it is not probable that it would have affected the direct result4 ,of ,moses's son we hear nothing till long afterward1 and then under very suspicious circumstances4 ,the old free spirit of the ,arabs was too strong1 and as in the ,ignorance 7al-jahiliya71 as they called the pre-,muslim age1 the tribes had chosen from time to time their chiefs1 so it was now fixed that in ,islam the leader was to be elected by the people4 ,but wherever there is an election1 there are parties2 and this was no exception4 ,of such parties we may reckon roughly four4 ,there were the ,early ,believers1 who had suffered with ,muhammad at ,mecca1 accompanied him to al-,madina and had fought at his side through all the ,muslim campaigns4 ,these were called ,muhajirs1 because they had made with him the ,hijra or migration to al-,madina4 ,then there was the party of the citizens of al-,madina1 who had invited him to come to them and had promised him allegiance4 ,these were called ,ansar or ,helpers4 ,eventually we shall find these two factions growing together and forming the one party of the old original believers and ,companions of ,muhammad 7sahibs1 i4e41 all those who came in contact with the ,prophet as believers and who died in ,islam71 but at the first they stood apart and there was much jealousy between them4 ,then1 in the third place1 there was the party of recent converts who had only embraced ,islam at the latest moment when ,mecca was captured by ,muhammad1 and no other way of escape for them was open4 ,they were the aristocratic party of ,mecca and had fought the new faith to the last4 ,thus they were but indifferent believers and were regarded by the others with more than suspicion4 ,their principal family was descended from a certain ,umayya1 and was therefore called ,umayyad4 ,there will be much about this family in the sequel4 ,then1 fourth1 there was growing up a party that might be best described as legitimists2 their theory was that the leadership belonged to the leader1 not because he was elected to it by the ,muslim community1 but because it was his right4 ,he was appointed to it by ,god as completely as ,muhammad had been4 ,this idea developed1 it is true1 somewhat later1 but it developed very rapidly4 ,the times were such as to force it on4 ,those1 then1 were the parties of which account must be taken1 but before proceeding to individuals in these parties1 it will be well to fix some genealogical relationships1 so as to be able to trace the family and tribal jealousies and intrigues that were so soon to transfer themselves from the little circle of ,mecca and al-,madina and to fight themselves out on the broad field of ,muslim history4 ,for1 in truth1 in the development of no other state have little causes produced such great effects as here4 ,for example1 it may be said1 broadly and yet truly1 that the seclusion of ,muslim women1 with all its disastrous effects at the present day for a population of two hundred millions1 runs back to the fact that ,a'isha1 the fourteen-year-old wife of ,muhammad1 once lost a necklace under what the gossips of the time thought were suspicious circumstances4 ,as to the point now in hand1 it is quite certain that ,muslim history for several hundred years was conditioned and motived by the quarrels of ,meccan families4 ,the accompanying genealogy will give the necessary starting-point4 ,the mythical ancestor is ,quraysh2 hence 8the ,quraysh10 or 8,quraysh0 as a name for the tribe4 ,within the tribe1 the two most important families are those of ,hashim and ,umayya2 their rivalries for the succession of the ,prophet fill the first century and a half of ,muslim history1 and the immediately pre-,islamic history of ,mecca is similarly filled with a contest between them as to the guardianship of the ,ka#8ba and the care of the pilgrims to that sanctuary4 ,whether this earlier history is real1 or a reflection from the later ,muslim times1 we need not here consider4 ,the next important division is that between the families of al-,abbas and ,abu ,talib1 the uncles of the ,prophet4 ,from the one were descended the ,abbasids1 as whose heir-at-law the ,sultan of the ,ottoman ,empire now claims the ,khalifate1 and from the other the different conflicting lines of ,shi#8ites1 whose intricacies we shall soon have to face4 ,illustration3 ,,genealogical ,,chart ,,for ,,earliest ,,history ,,of ,,islam4 ,names of ,khalifas are in black letters2 their order in ,khalifate is indicated by prefixed ,roman numerals2 all dates after ,a4,d4 #fbb are ,a4,h4 ,illustration3 ,,chronological ,,table ,,of ,,alids4 ,sidenote3 ,,abu ,,bakr2 ,,umar ,to return3 in this first elective council the choice fell upon ,abu ,bakr4 ,he was a man distinguished by his piety and his affection for and close intimacy with ,muhammad4 ,he was the father of ,muhammad's favorite wife1 ,a'isha1 and was some two years younger than his son-in-law4 ,he was1 also1 one of the earliest believers and it is evident that this1 with his advanced age1 always respected in ,arabia1 went far to secure his election4 ,yet his election did not pass off without a struggle in which the elements that later came to absolute schism and revolution are plainly visible4 ,the scene1 as it can be put together from ,arabic historians1 is curiously suggestive of the methods of modern politics4 ,as soon as it was assured that the ,prophet1 the hand which had held together all those clashing interests1 was really dead1 a convention was called of the leaders of the people4 ,there the strife ran so high between the ,ansar1 the ,muhajirs and the ,muslim aristocrats of the house of ,umayya1 that they almost came to blows4 ,suddenly in the tumult1 ,umar1 a man of character and decision1 8rushed the convention0 by solemnly giving to ,abu ,bakr the hand-grasp of fealty4 ,the accomplished fact was recognized--as it has always been in ,islam--and on the next day the general mass of the people swore allegiance to the first ,khalifa1 literally ,successor1 of ,muhammad4 ,on his death1 in ,a4,h4 #ac 7,a4,d4 #fcd71 there followed ,umar4 ,his election passed off quietly4 ,he had been nominated by ,abu ,bakr and nothing remained but for the people to confirm that nomination4 ,there thus entered a second principle--or rather precedent--beside that of simple election4 ,a certain right was recognized in the ,khalifa to nominate his successor1 provided he chose one suitable and eligible in other respects4 ,unlike ,cromwell in a similar case1 ,abu ,bakr did not nominate one of his own sons1 but the man who had been his right hand and who1 he knew1 could best build up the state4 ,his foresight was proved by the event1 and ,umar proved the second founder of ,islam by his genius as a ruler and organizer and his self-devotion as a man4 ,through his generals1 ,damascus and ,jerusalem were taken1 ,persia crushed in the great battles of al-,qadisiya and ,nahawand1 and ,egypt conquered4 ,he was also the organizer of the ,muslim state1 and it will be advisable to describe part of his system1 both for its own sake and in order to point the contrast with that of his successors4 ,he saw clearly what were the conditions under which the ,muslims must work1 and devised a plan1 evidently based on ,persian methods of government1 which1 for the time at least1 was perfect in its way4 ,sidenote3 ,,constitution ,,of ,,umar ,the elements in the problem were simple4 ,there was the flood of ,arabs pouring out of ,arabia and bearing everything down in their course4 ,these must be retained as a conquering instrument if ,islam were to exist4 ,thus they must be prevented from settling down on the rich lands they had seized1--from becoming agriculturists1 merchants1 and so on1 and so losing their identity among other peoples4 ,the whole ,arab stock must be preserved as a warrior caste to fight the battles of ,god4 ,this was secured by a regulation that no new lands should be held by a ,muslim4 ,when a country was conquered1 the land was left to its previous possessors with the duty of paying a high rent to the ,muslim state and1 besides1 of furnishing fodder and food1 clothing and everything necessary to the ,muslim camp that guarded them4 ,these camps1 or rather camp-cities1 were scattered over the conquered countries and were practically settlements of ,muslims in partibus infidelium4 ,the duty of these ,muslims was to be soldiers only4 ,they were fed and clothed by the state1 and the money paid into the public treasury1 consisting of plunder or rents of conquered lands 7kharaj71 or the head-tax on all non-,muslims 7jizya71 was regularly divided among them and the other believers4 ,if a non-,muslim embraced ,islam1 then he no longer paid the head-tax1 but the land which he had previously held was divided among his former co-religionists1 and they became responsible to the state4 ,he1 on the other hand1 received his share of the public moneys as regularly distributed4 ,within ,arabia itself1 no non-,muslim was permitted to live4 ,it was preserved1 if we may use the expression1 as a breeding-ground for defenders of the faith and as a sacred soil not to be polluted by the foot of an unbeliever4 ,it will readily be seen what the results of such a system must have been4 ,the entire ,muslim people was retained as a gigantic fighting machine1 and the conquered peoples were machines again to furnish it with what was needed4 ,the system was communistic1 but in favor of one special caste4 ,the others--the conquered peoples--were crushed to the ground beneath their burdens4 ,yet they could not sell their land and leave the country2 there was no one to buy it4 ,the ,muslims would not1 and their fellow-co-religionists could not1 for with it went the land-tax4 ,sidenote3 ,,uthman ,such was1 in its essence1 the constitution of ,umar1 forever famous in ,muslim tradition4 ,it stood for a short time1 and could not have stood for a long time2 but the cause of its overthrow was political and not social-economic4 ,with the next ,khalifa and the changes which came with him1 it went1 in great part1 to the ground4 ,the choice of ,umar to the ,khalifate had evidently been dictated by a consideration of his position as one of the earliest believers and as son-in-law of the ,prophet4 ,the party of ,early ,believers had thus succeeded twice in electing their candidate4 ,but with the death of ,umar in ,a4,h4 #bc 7,a4,d4 #fdd7 the ,meccan aristocratic party of the family of ,umayya that had so long struggled against ,muhammad and had only accepted ,islam when their cause was hopelessly lost1 had at last a chance4 ,umar left no directions as to his successor4 ,he seems to have felt no certainty as to the man best fitted to take up the burden1 and when his son sought to urge him to name a ,khalifa1 he is reported to have said1 8,if ,i appoint a ,khalifa1 ,abu ,bakr appointed a ,khalifa2 and if ,i leave the people without guidance1 so did the ,apostle of ,god40 ,but there is also a story that after a vain attempt to persuade one of the ,companions to permit himself to be nominated1 he appointed an elective council of six to make the choice after his death under stringent conditions1 which went all to wreck through the pressure of circumstances4 ,the ,umayyads succeeded in carrying the election of ,uthman1 one of their family1 an old man and also a son-in-law of ,muhammad1 who by rare luck for them was an ,early ,believer4 ,after his election it was soon evident that he was going to rule as an ,umayyad and not as a ,muslim4 ,for generations back in ,mecca1 as has already been said1 there had been1 according to tradition1 a continual struggle for pre-eminence between the families of ,umayya and of ,hashim4 ,in the victory of ,muhammad and the election of the first two ,khalifas1 the house of ,hashim had conquered1 but it had been the constant labor of the conquerors to remove all tribal and family distinctions and frictions and to bring the whole body of the ,arabs to regard one another as brother ,muslims4 ,now1 with a ,khalifa of the house of ,umayya1 all that was swept away1 and it was evident that ,uthman--a pious1 weak man1 in the hands of his energetic kinsfolk--was drifting to a point where the state would not exist for the ,muslims but for the ,umayyads4 ,his evil spirit was his cousin ,marwan ibn al-,hakam1 whom he had appointed as his secretary and who eventually became fourth ,umayyad ,khalifa4 ,the father of this man1 al-,hakam ibn al-,as1 accepted ,islam at the last moment when ,mecca was captured1 and1 thereafter1 was banished by ,muhammad for treachery4 ,not till the reign of ,uthman was he permitted to return1 and his son1 born after the ,hijra1 was the most active assertor of ,umayyad claims4 ,under steady family pressure1 ,uthman removed the governors of provinces who had suffered with ,muhammad and fought in the ,path of ,god 7sabil ,allah71 and put in their places his own relations1 late embracers of the faith4 ,he broke through the ,constitution of ,umar and gifted away great tracts of state lands4 ,the feeling spread abroad that in the eyes of the ,khalifa an ,umayyad could do no wrong1 and the ,umayyads themselves were not backward in affording examples4 ,to the ,muhajirs and ,ansar they were godless heathen1 and probably the ,muhajirs and ,ansar were right4 ,finally1 the indignation could no longer be restrained4 ,insurrections broke out in the camp-cities of al-,kufa and al-,basra1 and in those of ,egypt and at last in al-,madina itself4 ,there1 in ,a4,h4 #ce 7,a4,d4 #fee71 ,uthman fell under the daggers of conspirators led by a ,muhammad1 a son of ,abu ,bakr1 but a religious fanatic strangely different from his father1 and the train was laid for a long civil war4 ,in the confusion that followed the deed the chance of the legitimist party had come1 and ,ali1 the cousin and son-in-law of the ,prophet1 was chosen4 ,sidenote3 ,,shi#8,,ites ,,and ,,sunnites ,fortunately this is not a history of ,islam1 but of ,muslim political institutions1 and it is1 therefore1 unnecessary to go into the manifold and contradictory stories told of the events of this time4 ,these have evidently been carefully redacted in the interests of later orthodoxy1 and to protect the character of men whose descendants later came to power4 ,the ,alids built up in favor of ,ali a highly ingenious but flatly fictitious narrative1 embracing the whole early history and exhibiting him as the true ,khalifa kept from his rights by one after the other of the first three1 and suffering it all with angelic patience4 ,this varies from the extreme ,shi#8ite position1 which damns all the three at a sweep as usurpers1 through a more moderate one which contents itself with cursing ,umar and ,uthman1 to a rejection of ,uthman only1 and even1 at the other extreme1 satisfies itself with anathematizing the later ,umayyads4 ,at this point the ,shi#8ites join hands with the body of orthodox believers1 who are all sectaries of ,ali to a certain degree4 ,yet this tendency has been counteracted to some extent by a strongly catholic and irenic spirit which manifests itself in ,islam4 ,after a controversy is over and the figures in it have faded into the past1 ,islam casts a still deeper veil over the controversy itself and glorifies the actors on both sides into fathers and doctors of the ,church4 ,an attempt is made to forget that they had fought one another so bitterly1 and to hold to the fact only that they were brother ,muslims4 ,the ,shi#8ites well so-called1 for ,shi#8a means sect1 have never accepted this2 but it is the usage of orthodox1 commonly called ,sunnite1 ,islam4 ,a concrete expression of any result reached by the body of the believers then often takes the form of a tradition assigned to ,muhammad4 ,in this case1 it is a saying of his that ten men1 specified by name and prominent leaders in these early squabbles1 were certain of ,paradise4 ,it has further become an article in ,muslim creeds1 that the ,companions of the ,prophet are not to be mentioned save with praise2 and one school of theologians1 in their zeal for the historic ,khalifate1 even forbade the cursing of ,yazid1 the slayer of al-,husayn 7p4 #bh below71 and reckoned as the worst of all the ,umayyads1 because he had been a ,khalifa in full and regular standing4 ,this catholic recognition of the unity of ,islam we shall meet again and again4 ,sidenote3 ,,ali2 ,,civil ,,war ,abandoning1 then1 any attempt to trace the details and to adjust the rights and wrongs of this story1 we return to the fixed fact of the election of ,ali and the accession to power of the legitimist party4 ,this legitimist party1 or parties1 had been gradually developing1 and their peculiar and mutually discordant views deserve attention4 ,these views all glorified ,ali1 the full cousin of ,muhammad and husband of his daughter ,fatima1 but upon very different grounds4 ,there could not but exist the feeling that a descendant of the ,prophet should be his successor1 and the children of ,ali1 al-,hasan and al-,husayn were his only grandchildren and only surviving male descendants4 ,this1 of course1 reflected a dignity upon ,ali1 their father1 and gave him a claim to the ,khalifate4 ,again1 ,ali himself seems to have made a great and hardly comprehensible impression upon his contemporaries4 ,the proverb ran with the people1 8,there is no sword save ,dhu-l-faqar1 and no youth save ,ali40 ,he was not1 perhaps1 so great a general as one or two others of his time1 but he stood alone as a warrior in single combat2 he was a poet and an orator1 but no statesman4 ,as one of the earliest of the ,early ,believers1 it might be expected that the ,muhajirs would support him1 and so they did2 but the matter went much farther1 and he seems to have excited a feeling of personal attachment and devotion different from that rendered to the preceding ,khalifas4 ,strange and mystical doctrines were afloat as to his claim4 ,the idea of election was thrown aside1 and his adherents proclaimed his right by the will and appointment of ,god to the successorship of the ,prophet4 ,as ,god had appointed ,muhammad as ,prophet1 so ,he had appointed ,ali as his helper in life and his successor in death4 ,this was preached in ,egypt as early as the year #cb4 ,it will easily be seen that with such a following1 uniting so many elements1 his election could be brought about4 ,thus it was2 but an evil suspicion rested upon him4 ,men thought1 and probably rightly1 that he could have saved the aged ,uthman if he had willed1 and they even went the length of accusing him of being art and part in the murder itself4 ,the ground was hollow beneath his feet4 ,further1 there were two other old ,companions of the ,prophet1 ,talha and az-,zubayr1 who thought they had a still better claim to the ,khalifate2 and they were joined by ,a'isha1 the favorite wife of ,muhammad1 now1 as a finished intrigante1 the evil genius of ,islam4 ,ali had reaped all the advantage of the conspiracy and murder1 and it was easy to raise against him the cry of revenge for ,uthman4 ,then the civil war began4 ,in the struggle with ,talha and az-,zubayr1 ,ali was victorious4 ,both fell at the battle of the ,camel 7,a4,h4 #cf71 so called from the presence of ,a'isha mounted on a camel like a chieftainess of the old days4 ,but a new element was to enter4 ,the governorship of ,syria had been held for a long time by ,mu#8awiya1 an ,umayyad1 and there the ,umayyad influence was supreme4 ,there1 too1 had grown up a spirit of religious indifference1 combined with a preservation of all the forms of the faith4 ,mu#8awiya was a statesman by nature1 and had moulded his province into an almost independent kingdom4 ,the ,syrian army was devoted to him1 and could be depended upon to have no other interests than his4 ,from the beginning of ,ali's reign1 he had been biding his time2 had not given his allegiance1 but had waited for the hour to strike for revenge for ,uthman and power for himself4 ,the time came and ,mu#8awiya won4 ,we here pass over lightly a long and contradictory story4 ,it is enough to note how the irony of history wrought itself out1 and a son of the ,abu ,sufyan who had done so much to persecute and oppose ,muhammad in his early and dark days and had been the last to acknowledge his mission1 became his successor and the ruler of his people4 ,but with ,ali ends the revered series of the four 8,khalifas who followed a right course0 7al-khulafa ar-rashidun71 reverenced now by all orthodox ,muslims1 and there begins the division of ,islam into sects1 religious and political--it comes to the same thing4 ,sidenote3 ,,kharijites ,the ,umayyads themselves clearly recognized that with their accession to power a change had come in the nature of the ,muslim state4 ,mu#8awiya said openly that he was the first king in ,islam1 though he retained and used officially the title of ,khalifa and ,commander of the ,faithful4 ,yet such a change could not be complete nor could it carry with it the whole people--that is clear of itself4 ,for more than one hundred years the house of ,umayya held its own4 ,syria was solid with it and it was supported by many statesmen and soldiers2 but outside of ,syria and north ,arabia it could count on no part of the population4 ,an anti-,khalifa1 ,abd ,allah1 son of the az-,zubayr of whom we have already heard1 long held the sacred cities against them4 ,only in ,a4,h4 #ge 7,a4,d4 #fib7 was he killed after ,mecca had been stormed and taken by their armies4 ,southern ,arabia and ,mesopotamia1 with its camp-cities al-,kufa and al-,basra1 ,persia and ,egypt1 were1 from time to time1 more or less in revolt4 ,these risings went in one or other of two directions4 ,there were two great anti-,umayyad sects4 ,at one time in ,mu#8awiya's contest with ,ali1 he trapped ,ali into the fatal step of arbitrating his claim to the ,khalifate4 ,it was fatal1 for by it ,ali alienated some of his own party and gained less than nothing on the other side4 ,part of ,ali's army seceded in protest and rebellion1 because he--the duly elected ,khalifa--submitted his claim to any shadow of doubt4 ,on the other hand1 they could not accept ,mu#8awiya1 for him they regarded as unduly elected and a mere usurper4 ,thus they drifted and split into innumerable sub-sects4 ,they were called ,kharijites--goers out--because they went out from among the other ,muslims1 refused to regard them as ,muslims and held themselves apart4 ,for centuries they continued a thorn in the side of all established authority4 ,their principles were absolutely democratic4 ,their idea of the ,khalifate was the old one of the time of ,abu ,bakr and ,umar4 ,the ,khalifa was to be elected by the whole ,muslim community and could be deposed again at need4 ,he need be of no special family or tribe2 he might be a slave1 provided he was a good ,muslim ruler4 ,some admitted that a woman might be ,khalifa1 and others denied the need of any ,khalifa at all2 the ,muslim congregation could rule itself4 ,their religious views were of a similarly unyielding and antique cast1 but with that we have nothing now to do4 ,sidenote3 ,,ibadites ,it cannot be doubted that these men were the true representatives of the old ,islam4 ,they claimed for themselves the heirship to ,abu ,bakr and ,umar1 and their claim was just4 ,islam had been secularized2 worldly ambition1 fratricidal strife1 luxury1 and sin had destroyed the old bond of brotherhood4 ,so they drew themselves apart and went their own way1 a way which their descendants still follow in ,uman1 in east ,africa1 and in ,algeria4 ,to them the orthodox ,muslims--meaning by that the general body of ,muslims--were antipathetic more than even ,christians or ,jews4 ,these were 8people of a book0 7ahl kitab71 i4e41 followers of a revealed religion1 and kindly treatment of them was commanded in the ,qur'an4 ,they had never embraced ,islam1 and were to be judged and treated on their own merits4 ,the non-,kharijite ,muslims1 on the other hand1 were renegades 7murtadds7 and were to be killed at sight4 ,it is easy to understand to what such a view as this led4 ,numberless revolts1 assassinations1 plunderings marked their history4 ,crushed to the ground again and again1 again and again they recovered4 ,they were ,arabs of the desert2 and the desert was always there as a refuge4 ,it is probable1 but as yet unproved1 that mingled with the political reasons for their existence as a sect went tribal jealousies and frictions2 of such there have ever been enough and to spare in ,arabia4 ,naturally1 under varying conditions1 their views and attitudes varied4 ,in the wild mountains of ,khuzistan1 one of their centres and strongholds1 the primitive barbarism of their faith had full sway4 ,it drew its legitimate consequence1 lived out its life1 and vanished from the scene4 ,the more moderate section of the ,kharijites centred round al-,basra4 ,their leader there was ,abd ,allah ibn ,ibad1 and from about the year #fj on the schism between his followers and the more absolute of these 8come-outers0 can be traced4 ,it is characteristic of the latter that they aided for a time ,abd ,allah ibn az-,zubayr when he was besieged in ,mecca by the ,umayyads1 but deserted him finally because he refused to join the names of ,talha and his own father1 az-,zubayr1 with those of ,uthman and ,ali in a general commination4 ,the ,kharijites were all good at cursing1 and the later history of this section of them shows a process of disintegration by successive secessions1 each departing in protest and cursing those left behind as heathen and unbelievers4 ,characteristic1 too1 for the difference between the two sections1 were their respective attitudes toward the children of their opponents4 ,the more absolute party held that the children of unbelievers were to be killed with their parents2 the followers of ,abd ,allah ibn ,ibad1 that they were to be allowed to grow up and then given their choice4 ,again1 there was a difference of opinion as to the standing of those who held with the ,kharijites but remained at home and did not actually fight in the ,path of ,god4 ,these the one party rejected and the other accepted4 ,again1 were the non-,kharijites ,muslims to the extent that the ,kharijites might live amongst them and mix with them8 ,this the severely logical party denied1 but ,abd ,allah ibn ,ibad affirmed4 ,from this it will be abundantly clear that the only party with a possible future was that of ,ibn ,ibad4 ,his sect survives to the present day under the name of ,ibadites4 ,very early it spread to ,uman1 and1 according to their traditions1 their first ,imam1 or president1 was elected about ,a4,h4 #acd4 ,he was of a family which had reigned there before ,islam1 and from the time of his election on1 the ,ibadites have succeeded in holding ,uman against the rest of the ,muslim world4 ,naturally1 the election of the ,imam by the community has turned into the rule of a series of dynasties2 but the theory of election has always held fast4 ,they were sailors1 merchants1 and colonizers already by the tenth century ,a4,d41 and carried their state with its theology and law to ,zanzibar and the coast of ,east ,africa generally4 ,still earlier ,ibadite fugitives passed into ,north ,africa1 and there they still maintain the simplicity of their republican ideal and their primitive theological and legal views4 ,their home is in the ,mzab in the south of ,algeria1 and1 though as traders and capitalists they may travel far1 yet they always return thither4 ,any mingling in marriage with other ,muslims is forbidden them4 ,sidenote3 ,,shi#8,,ites ,at the opposite extreme from these in political matters stands the sect that is called the ,shi#8a4 ,it1 as we have seen1 is the name given to the party that glorifies ,ali and his descendants and regards the ,khalifate as belonging to them by right divine4 ,how early this feeling arose we have already seen1 but the extremes to which in time the idea was carried1 the innumerable differing views that developed1 the maze of conspiracies1 tortuous and underground in their methods1 some in good faith and some in bad1 to which it gave rise1 render the history of the ,shi#8a the most difficult side of a knowledge of the ,muslim ,east4 ,yet some attempt at it must be made4 ,if there was ever a romance in history1 it is the story of the founding of the ,fatimid dynasty in ,egypt2 if there was ever the survival of a petrifaction in history1 it is the survival to the present day of the ,assassins and the ,druses2 if there was ever the persistence of an idea1 it is in the present ,shi#8ite government in ,persia and in the faith in that ,mahdi for whom the whole world of ,islam still looks to appear and bring in the reign of justice and the truth upon the earth4 ,all these have sprung from the devotion to ,ali and his children on the part of their followers twelve centuries ago4 ,in ,a4,h4 #dj 7,a4,d4 #ffj7 ,ali fell by the dagger of a ,kharijite4 ,these being at the opposite pole from the ,shi#8ites1 are the only ,muslim sect that curses and abhors ,ali1 his family and all their works4 ,orthodox ,islam reveres ,ali and accepts his ,khalifate2 his family it also reverences1 but rejects their pretensions4 ,the instinct of ,islam is to respect the accomplished fact1 and so even the ,umayyads1 one and all1 stand in the list of the successors of the ,prophet1 much as ,alexander ,,vi and his immediate predecessors do in that of the ,popes4 ,to ,ali succeeded his son1 al-,hasan1 but his name does not stand on the roll of the ,khalifate as usually reckoned4 ,it shows some ,shi#8ite tinge when the historian says1 8,in the ,khalifate of al-,hasan10 and1 thereafter1 proceeds with1 8,in the days of ,mu#8awiya10 the ,umayyad ,khalifa who followed him4 ,mu#8awiya had received the allegiance of the ,syrian ,muslims and when he advanced on al-,kufa1 where al-,hasan was1 al-,hasan met him and gave over into his hands all his supposed rights4 ,that was in ,a4,h4 #da2 in ,a4,h4 #di he was dead by poison4 ,twelve years later al-,husayn1 his brother1 and many of his house fell at ,karbala in battle against hopeless odds4 ,it is this last tragedy that has left the deepest mark of all on the ,muslim imagination4 ,yearly when the fatal day1 the day of ,ashura1 the tenth of the month ,muharram1 comes round1 the story is rehearsed again at ,karbala and throughout1 indeed1 all the ,shi#8ite world in what is a veritable ,passion ,play4 ,no ,muslim1 especially no ,persian1 can read of the death of al-,husayn1 or see it acted before his eyes1 without quivering and invoking the curse of ,god upon all those who had aught to do with it or gained aught by it4 ,that curse has clung fast through all the centuries to the name of ,yazid1 the ,umayyad ,khalifa of the time1 and only the stiffest theologians of the traditional school have labored to save his memory through the merits of the historical ,khalifate4 ,but even after this tragedy it was not out with the blood of ,muhammad4 ,many descendants were left and their party lived on in strange1 half underground fashion1 as sects do in the ,east1 occasionally coming to the surface and bursting out in wild and1 for long1 useless rebellion4 ,sidenote3 ,,shi#8,,ite ,,constitutional ,,theories ,in these revolts the ,shi#8a was worthy of its name1 and split into many separate divisions1 according to the individuals of the house of ,ali to whom allegiance was rendered and who were regarded as leaders1 titular or real4 ,these subdivisions differed1 also1 in the principle governing the choice of a leader and in the attitude of the people toward him4 ,shi#8ism1 from being a political question1 became theological4 ,the position of the ,shi#8ite was and is that there must be a law 7nass7 regulating the choice of the ,imam1 or leader of the ,muslim community2 that that law is one of the most important dogmas of the faith and cannot have been left by the ,prophet to develop itself under the pressure of circumstances2 that there is such an ,imam clearly pointed out and that it is the duty of the ,muslim to seek him out and follow him4 ,thus there was a party who regarded the leadership as belonging to ,ali himself1 and then to any of his descendants by any of his wives4 ,these attached themselves especially to his son ,muhammad1 known from his mother as ,muhammad ibn al-,hanafiya1 who died in #ha1 and to his descendants and successors4 ,it was in this sect that the most characteristic ,shi#8ite views first developed4 ,this ,muhammad seems to have been the first concerning whom it was taught1 after his death1 that he was being preserved by ,god alive in retirement and would come forth at his appointed time to bring in the rule of righteousness upon the earth4 ,in some of the innumerable sub-sects the doctrine of the deity1 even1 of ,ali was early held1 in others a doctrine of metempsychosis1 generally among men and especially from one ,imam to his successor2 others1 again1 advanced the duty of seeking the rightful ,imam and rendering allegiance to him till it covered the whole field of faith and morals--no more was required of the believer4 ,to one of these sects1 al-,muqanna1 8the ,veiled ,prophet of ,khorasan10 adhered before he started on his own account4 ,we have seen already that so early as #cb the doctrine had been preached in ,egypt that ,ali was the ,god-appointed successor of the ,prophet4 ,here we have its legitimate development1 which was all the quicker as it had1 or assumed1 a theological basis1 and did not simply urge the claims to leadership of the family of the ,prophet after the fashion in which inheritance runs among earthly kings4 ,that was the position at first of the other and far more important ,shi#8ite wing4 ,it regarded the leadership as being in the blood of ,muhammad and therefore limited to the children of ,ali by his wife ,fatima1 the daughter of ,muhammad4 ,again1 the attitude toward the person of the leader varied1 as we have already seen4 ,one party held that the leadership was by the right of the appointment of ,god1 but that the leader himself was simply a man as other men4 ,these would add to 8the two words0 7al-kalimatani7 of the creed1 8,there is no god but ,god1 and ,muhammad is the ,apostle of ,god10 a third clause1 8and ,ali is the representative of ,god40 ,others regarded him as an incarnation of divinity2 a continuing divine revelation in human form4 ,his soul passed1 when he died1 to his next successor4 ,he was1 therefore1 infallible and sinless1 and was to be treated with absolute1 blind obedience4 ,here there is a mingling of the most strangely varied ideas4 ,in ,persia the people had been too long accustomed to looking upon their rulers as divine for them to be capable of taking up any other position4 ,a story is told of the governor of a ,persian province who wrote to the ,khalifa of his time that he was not able to prevent his people from giving him the style and treatment of a god2 they did not understand any other kind of ruler2 it was as much as his authority was worth to attempt to make them desist4 ,from this attitude1 combined with the idea of the transmigration of souls1 the extreme ,shi#8ite doctrine was derived4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,hidden ,,imam ,but though the party of ,ali might regard the descendants of ,ali as semi-divine1 yet their conspiracies and revolts were uniformly unsuccessful1 and it became a very dangerous thing to head one4 ,the party was willing to get up a rising at any time1 but the leader was apt to hang back4 ,in fact1 one of the most curious features of the whole movement was the uselessness of the family of ,ali and the extent to which they were utilized by others4 ,they have been1 in a sense1 the cat's-paws of history4 ,gradually they themselves drew back into retirement and vanished from the stage1 and1 with their vanishing1 a new doctrine arose4 ,it was that of the hidden ,imam4 ,we have already seen the case of ,muhammad ibn al-,hanafiya1 whom ,muslims reckon as the first of these concealed ones4 ,another descendant of ,ali1 on another line of descent1 vanished in the same way in the latter part of the second century of the ,hijra1 and another about ,a4,h4 #bfj4 ,their respective followers held that they were being kept in concealment by ,god and would be brought back at the appointed time to rule over the world and bring in a kind of ,muslim millennium4 ,this is the oriental version of the story of ,arthur in ,avalon and of ,frederick ,barbarossa in ,kyffhaser4 ,but that has led us far away and we must go back to the fall of the ,umayyads and the again disappointed hopes of the ,alids4 ,by the time of the last ,khalifa of the ,umayyad house1 ,marwan ,,ii1 ,a4,h4 #abg-acb 7,a4,d4 #gdd-gej71 the whole empire was more or less in rebellion1 partly ,shi#8ite and partly ,kharijite4 ,the ,shi#8ites themselves had1 as usual1 no man strong enough to act as leader2 that part was taken by as-,saffah1 a descendant of al-,abbas1 an uncle of ,muhammad4 ,the rebellion was ostensibly to bring again into power the family of the ,prophet1 but under that the ,abbasids understood the family of ,hashim1 while the ,alids took it in the more exact sense of themselves4 ,they were made a cat's-paw1 the ,abbasid dynasty was founded1 and they were thrown over4 ,thus1 the ,khalifate remained persistently in the hands of those who1 up to the last1 had been hostile to the ,prophet4 ,this al-,abbas had embraced the faith only when ,mecca was taken by the ,muslims4 ,later historians1 jealous for the good name of the ancestor of the longest line of all the ,successors1 have labored to build up a legend that al-,abbas stayed in ,mecca only because he could there be more useful in the cause of his nephew4 ,this is one of the perversions of early history of which the ,muslim chronicles are full4 ,sidenote3 ,,umayyads ,,of ,,spain ,but the story of the ,umayyads is not yet out4 ,from the ruin that overwhelmed them1 one escaped and fled to ,north ,africa4 ,there1 he vainly tried to draw together a power4 ,at last1 seeing in ,spain some better prospect of success1 he crossed thither1 and by courage1 statesmanship1 and patience1 carved out a new ,umayyad empire that lasted for #cjj years4 ,one of his descendants in ,a4,h4 #cag 7,a4,d4 #ibi7 took the title of ,khalifa and claimed the homage due to the ,commander of the ,faithful4 ,there is a story that al-,mansur1 the second ,abbasid1 once asked his courtiers1 8,who is the ,falcon of ,quraysh80 ,they named one after another of the great men of the tribe1 beginning1 naturally1 with his majesty himself1 but to no purpose4 8,no10 he said1 8the ,falcon of ,quraysh is ,abd ar-,rahman1 the ,umayyad1 who found his way over deserts and seas1 flung himself alone into a strange country1 and there1 without any helper but himself1 built up a realm4 ,there has been none like him of the blood of ,quraysh40 ,,chapter ,,ii ,shi#8ite revolts against ,abbasids2 ,idrisids2 ,zaydites2 ,imamites2 the ,twelvers2 constitutional theory of modern ,persia2 origin of ,fatimids2 ,maymun the oculist2 plan of the conspiracy2 the ,seveners2 the ,qarmatians2 ,ubayd ,allah al-,mahdi and founding of ,fatimid dynasty in ,north ,africa2 their spread to ,egypt and to ,syria2 al-,hakim ,bi'amrillah2 the ,druses2 the ,assassins2 ,saladin and the ,ayyubids4 ,sidenote3 ,,idrisids ,it is not in place here to deal with all the numberless little ,shi#8ite revolts against the ,abbasids which now followed4 ,those only are of interest to us which had more or less permanent effect on the ,muslim state and states4 ,earliest among such comes the revolt which founded the dynasty of the ,idrisids4 ,about the middle of the second century the ,abbasids were hard pressed4 ,the heavens themselves seemed to mingle in the conflict4 ,the early years of their rule had been marked by great showers of shooting stars1 and the end of the age was reckoned near by both parties4 ,messianic hope was alive1 and a ,mahdi1 a ,guided of ,god1 was looked for4 ,this had long been the attitude of the ,alids1 and the ,abbasids began to feel a necessity to gain for their de facto rule the sanction of theocratic hopes4 ,in #adc ,halley's comet was visible for twenty days1 and in #adg there were again showers of shooting stars4 ,on the part of the ,abbasids1 homage was solemnly rendered to the eldest son of al-,mansur1 the ,khalifa of the time1 as successor of his father1 under the title al-,mahdi1 and several sayings were forged and ascribed to the ,prophet which told who and what manner of man the ,mahdi would be1 in terms which clearly pointed to this heir-apparent4 ,the ,alids1 on their side1 were urged on to fresh revolts4 ,these risings were still political in character and hardly at all theological2 they expressed the claims to sovereignty of the house of the ,prophet4 ,on the suppression of one of them at al-,madina in #afi1 ,idris ibn ,abd ,allah1 a grandson of al-,hasan1 escaped to ,north ,africa--that refuge of the politically disaffected--and there at the far-off ,volubilis of the ,romans1 in the modern ,morocco1 founded a state4 ,it lasted till #cge1 and planted firmly the authority of the family of ,muhammad in the western half of ,north ,africa4 ,other ,alid states rose in its place1 and in #ifa the dynasty of the ,sharifs of ,morocco was established by a ,muhammad1 a descendant of a ,muhammad1 brother of the same ,abd ,allah1 grandson of al-,hasan4 ,this family still rules in ,morocco and claims the title of ,khalifa of the ,prophet and ,commander of the ,faithful4 ,strictly1 they are ,shi#8ites1 but their sectarianism sits lightly upon them2 it is political only and they have no touch of the violent religious antagonism to the ,sunnite ,muslims that is to be found in ,persian ,shi#8ism4 ,as adherents of the legal school of ,malik ibn ,anas1 their ,sunna is the same as that of orthodox ,islam4 ,the ,sahih of al-,bukhari 7see below1 p4 #gi7 is held in especially high reverence1 and one division of the ,moorish army always carries a copy of it as a talisman4 ,they are really a bit of the second century of the ,hijra crystallized and surviving into our time4 ,another ,shi#8ite line which lasts more or less down to the present day1 is that of the ,zaydites of al-,yaman4 ,they were so called from their adherence to ,zayd1 a grandson of al-,husayn1 and their sect spread in north ,persia and south ,arabia4 ,the north ,persian branch is of little historic importance for our purpose4 ,for some sixty-four years1 from #bej on1 it held ,tabaristan1 struck coins and exercised all sovereign rights2 then it fell before the ,samanids4 ,the other branch has had a much longer history4 ,it was founded about #bhj1 at ,sa#8da in al-,yaman and there1 and later at ,san#8a1 ,zaydite ,imams have ruled off and on till our day4 ,the ,turkish hold upon south ,arabia has always been of the slightest4 ,sometimes they have been absolutely expelled from the country1 and their control has never extended beyond the limits of their garrisoned posts4 ,the position of these ,zaydites was much less extreme than that of the other ,shi#8ites4 ,they were strictly ,fatimites1 that is1 they held that any descendant of ,fatima could be ,imam4 ,further1 circumstances might justify the passing over1 for a time1 of such a legitimate ,imam and the election as leader of someone who had no equally good claim4 ,thus1 they reverenced ,abu ,bakr and ,umar and regarded their ,khalifate as just1 even though ,ali was there with a better claim4 ,the election of these two ,khalifas had been to the advantage of the ,muslim state4 ,some of them even accepted the ,khalifate of ,uthman and only denounced his evil deeds4 ,further1 they regarded it as possible that there might be two ,imams at the same time1 especially when they were in countries widely apart4 ,this1 apparently1 sprang from the sect being divided between north ,persia and south ,arabia4 ,theologically1 or philosophically--it is hard to hold the two apart in ,islam--the ,zaydites were accused of rationalism4 ,their founder1 ,zayd1 the grandson of al-,husayn1 had studied under the great ,mu#8tazilite1 ,wasil ibn ,ata1 of whom much more hereafter4 ,sidenote3 ,,imamites ,but if the ,zaydites were lax both in their theology and in their theory of the state1 that cannot be said of another division of the ,shi#8ites1 called the ,imamites on account of the stress which they laid on the doctrine of the person of the ,imam4 ,for them the ,imam of the time was explicitly and personally indicated1 ,ali by ,muhammad and each of the others in turn by his predecessor4 ,but it was hard to reconcile with this a priori position that an ,imam must have been indicated1 the fact that there was no agreement as to the ,imam who had been indicated4 ,down all possible lines of descent the sacred succession was traced until1 of the seventy-two sects that the ,prophet had foretold for his people1 seventy1 at least1 were occupied by the ,imamites alone4 ,further1 the number of ,hidden ,imams was constantly running up2 with every generation1 ,alids found it convenient to withdraw into retirement and have reports given out of their own deaths4 ,then two sects would come into existence--one which stopped at the ,alid in question1 and said that he was being kept in concealment by ,god to be brought back at ,his pleasure2 and another which passed the ,imamship on to the next generation4 ,out of this chaos two sects1 adhering to two series of ,imams1 stand clear through their historical importance4 ,the one is that of the ,twelvers 7,ithna#8ashariya72 theirs is the official creed of modern ,persia4 ,about ,a4,h4 #bfj a certain ,muhammad ibn al-,hasan1 twelfth in descent from ,ali1 vanished in the way just described4 ,the sect which looked for his return increased and flourished until1 at length1 with the conquest of ,persia in ,a4,h4 #ijg 7,a4,d4 #aejb7 by the ,safawids--a family of ,alid descent which joined arms to sainthood--,persia became ,shi#8ite1 and the series of the ,shahs of ,persia was begun4 ,the position of the ,shah is therefore essentially different from that of the ,khalifa of the ,sunnites4 ,the ,khalifa is the successor of ,muhammad1 with a dignity and authority which inheres in himself2 he is both king and pontiff2 the ,shah is a mere locum tenens1 and reigns only until ,god is pleased to restore to men the true ,imam4 ,that ,imam is still in existence1 though hidden from human eyes4 ,the ,shah1 therefore1 has strictly no legal authority2 he is only a guardian of the public order4 ,true legal authority lies1 rather1 with the learned doctors of religion and law4 ,as a consequence of this1 the ,shi#8ites still have ,mujtahids1 divines and legists who have a right to form opinions of their own1 can expound the original sources at first hand1 and can claim the unquestioning assent of their disciples4 ,such men have not existed among the ,sunnites since the middle of the third century of the ,hijra2 from that time on all ,sunnites have been compelled to swear to the words of some master or other1 long dead4 ,sidenote3 ,,fatimids ,this division of the ,shi#8ites is the only one that exists in great numbers down to the present day4 ,the second of the two mentioned above came to power earlier1 ran a shorter course1 and has now vanished from the stage1 leaving nothing but an historical mystery and two or three fossilized1 half-secret sects--strange survivals which1 like the survivals of geology1 tell us what were the living and dominant forces in the older world4 ,it will be worth while to enter upon some detail in reciting its history1 both for its own romantic interest and as an example of the methods of ,shi#8ite propaganda4 ,its success shows how the ,abbasid empire was gradually undermined and brought to its fall4 ,it itself was the most magnificent conspiracy1 or rather fraud1 in all history4 ,to understand its possibility and its results1 we must hold in mind the nature of the ,persian race and the condition of that race at this time4 ,herodotus was told by his ,persian friends that one of the three things ,persian youth was taught was to tell the truth4 ,that may have been the case in the time of ,herodotus1 but certainly this teaching has had no effect whatever on an innate tendency in the opposite direction2 and it is just possible that ,herodotus's friends1 in giving him that information1 were giving also an example of this tendency4 ,travellers have been told curious things before now1 but certainly none more curious than this4 ,as we know the ,persian in history1 he is a born liar4 ,he is1 therefore1 a born conspirator4 ,he has great quickness of mind1 adaptability1 and1 apart from religious emotion1 no conscience4 ,in the third century of the ,hijra 7the ninth ,a4,d471 the ,persians were either devoted ,shi#8ites or simple unbelievers4 ,the one class would do anything for the descendants of ,ali2 the other1 anything for themselves4 ,this second class1 further1 would by preference combine doing something for themselves with doing something against ,islam and the ,arabs1 the conquerors of their country4 ,so much by way of premise4 ,in the early part of this third century1 there lived at ,jerusalem a ,persian oculist named ,maymun4 ,he was a man of high education1 professional and otherwise2 had no beliefs to speak of1 and understood the times4 ,he had a son1 ,abd ,allah1 and trained him carefully for a career4 ,abd ,allah1 however--known as ,abd ,allah ibn ,maymun--though he had thought of starting as a prophet himself1 saw that the time was not ripe1 and planned a larger and more magnificent scheme4 ,this was to be no ordinary conspiracy to burst after a few years or months1 but one requiring generations to develop4 ,it was to bring universal dominion to his descendants1 and overthrow ,islam and the ,arab rule4 ,it succeeded in great part1 very nearly absolutely4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,unique ,,conspiracy ,his plan was to unite all classes and parties in a conspiracy under one head1 promising to each individual the things which he considered most desirable4 ,for the ,shi#8ites1 it was to be a ,shi#8ite conspiracy2 for the ,kharijites1 it took a ,kharijite tinge2 for ,persian nationalists1 it was anti-,arab2 for free-thinkers1 it was frankly nihilistic4 ,abd ,allah himself seems to have been a sceptic of the most refined stamp4 ,the working of this plan was achieved by a system of grades like those in freemasonry4 ,his emissaries went out1 settled each in a village and gradually won the confidence of its inhabitants4 ,a marked characteristic of the time was unrest and general hostility to the government4 ,thus1 there was an excellent field for work4 ,to the enormous majority of those involved in it the conspiracy was ,shi#8ite only1 and it has been regarded as such by many of its historians2 but it is now tolerably plain how simply nihilistic were its ultimate principles4 ,the first object of the missionary was to excite religious doubt in the mind of his subject1 by pointing out curious difficulties and subtle questions in theology4 ,at the same time he hinted that there were those who could answer these questions4 ,if his subject proved tractable and desired to learn further1 an oath of secrecy and absolute obedience and a fee were demanded--all quite after the modern fashion4 ,then he was led up through several grades1 gradually shaking his faith in orthodox ,islam and its teachers and bringing him to believe in the idea of an ,imam1 or guide in religious things1 till the fourth grade was reached4 ,there the theological system was developed1 and ,islam1 for the first time1 absolutely deserted4 ,we have dealt already with the doctrine of the ,hidden ,imam and with the present-day creed of ,persia1 that the twelfth in descent from ,ali is in hiding and will return when his time comes4 ,but down the same line of descent seven ,imams had been reckoned to a certain vanished ,isma#8il1 and this ,isma#8il was adopted by ,abd ,allah ibn ,maymun as his ,imam and as titular head of his conspiracy4 ,hence1 his followers are called ,isma#8ilians and ,seveners 7,sab#8iya74 ,the story which is told of the split between the ,seveners and the ,twelvers1 which were to be1 is characteristic of the whole movement and of the wider divergence of the ,seveners from ordinary ,islam and its laws4 ,the sixth ,imam was ,ja#8far as-,sadiq 7d4 ,a4,h4 #adh72 he appointed his son ,isma#8il as his successor4 ,but ,isma#8il was found drunk on one occasion1 and his father in wrath passed the ,imamship on to his brother1 ,musa al-,qazam1 who is accordingly reckoned as seventh ,imam by the ,twelvers4 ,one party1 however1 refused to recognize this transfer4 ,isma#8il's drunkenness1 they held1 was a proof of his greater spirituality of mind2 he did not follow the face-value 7zahr7 of the law1 but its hidden meaning 7batn74 ,this is an example of a tendency1 strong in ,shi#8ism1 to find a higher spiritual meaning lying within the external or verbal form of the law2 and in proportion as a sect exalted ,ali1 so it diverged from literal acceptance of the ,qur'an4 ,the most extreme ,shi#8ites1 who tended to deify their ,imam1 were known on that account as ,batinites or ,innerites4 ,on this more hereafter4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,sevens ,but to return to the ,seveners3 in the fourth grade a further refinement was added4 ,everything went in sevens1 the ,prophets as well as the ,imams4 ,the ,prophets had been ,adam1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,moses1 ,jesus1 ,muhammad and ,isma#8il1 or rather his son ,muhammad1 for ,isma#8il himself had died in his father's lifetime4 ,each of these ,prophets had had a helper4 ,the helper of ,adam had been ,seth2 of ,noah1 ,shem2 and the helper of ,muhammad1 the son of ,isma#8il1 was ,abd ,allah ibn ,maymun himself4 ,between each pair of ,prophets there came six ,imams--it must be remembered that the world was never left without an ,imam--but these ,imams had had no revelation to make2 were only guides to already revealed truth4 ,thus1 we have a series of seven times seven ,imams1 the first1 and thereafter each seventh1 having the superior dignity of ,prophet4 ,the last of the forty-nine ,imams1 this ,muhammad ibn ,isma#8il1 is the greatest and last of the ,prophets1 and ,abd ,allah ibn ,maymun has to prepare the way for him and to aid him generally4 ,it is at this point that the adherent of this system ceases to be a ,muslim4 ,the idea of a series of ,prophets is genuinely ,islamic1 but ,muhammad1 in ,muslim theology1 is the last of the ,prophets and the greatest1 and after him there will come no more4 ,such1 then1 was the system that those who passed the fourth degree learned and accepted4 ,the great majority did not pass beyond2 but those who were judged worthy were admitted to three further degrees4 ,in these degrees1 their respect for religious teaching of every kind1 doctrinal1 moral1 ritual1 was gradually undermined2 the ,prophets and their works were depreciated and philosophy and philosophers put in their place4 ,the end was to lead the very few who were admitted to the inmost secrets of the conspiracy to the same position as its founder4 ,it is clear what a tremendous weapon1 or rather machine1 was thus created4 ,each man was given the amount of light he could bear and which was suited to his prejudices1 and he was made to believe that the end of the whole work would be the attaining of what he regarded as most desirable4 ,the missionaries were all things to all men1 in the broadest sense1 and could work with a ,kharijite fanatic1 who longed for the days of ,umar2 a ,bedawi ,arab1 whose only idea was plunder2 a ,persian driven to wild cries and tears by the thought of the fate of ,ali1 the well-beloved1 and of his sons2 a peasant1 who did not care for any family or religion but only wished to live in peace and be let alone by the tax-gatherers2 a ,syrian mystic1 who did not know very well what he thought1 but lived in a world of dreams2 or a materialist1 whose desire was to clear all religions out of the way and give humanity a chance4 ,all was fish that came to their net4 ,so the long seed-planting went on4 ,abd ,allah ibn ,maymun had to flee to ,salamiya in ,syria1 died there and went to his own place--if he got his deserts1 no desirable one--and ,ahmad1 his son or grandson1 took up the work in his stead4 ,with him the movement tends to the surface1 and we begin to touch hard facts and dates4 ,in southern ,mesopotamia--what is called the ,arab ,iraq--we find a sect appearing1 nicknamed ,qarmatians1 from one of their leaders4 ,in ,a4,h4 #bgg 7,a4,d4 #hij-a7 they were sufficiently numerous and knew their strength enough to hold a fortress and thus enter upon open rebellion4 ,they were peasants1 we must remember1 ,nabateans and no ,arabs1 only ,muslims by compulsion1 and thus what we have here is really a ,jacquerie1 or ,peasants' ,war4 ,but a disturbance of any kind suited the ,isma#8ilians4 ,from there the rising spread into ,bahrayn and on to south ,arabia1 varying in its character with the character of the people4 ,sidenote3 ,,ubayd ,,allah ,,al-,,mahdi ,but there was another still more important development in progress4 ,a missionary had gone to ,north ,africa and there worked with success among the ,berber tribes about ,constantine1 in what is now ,algeria4 ,these have always been ready for any change4 ,he gave himself out as forerunner of the ,mahdi1 promised them the good of both worlds1 and called them to arms4 ,the actual rising was in ,a4,h4 #bhi 7,a4,d4 #ijb74 ,then there appeared among them ,sa#8id1 the son of ,ahmad1 the son of ,abd ,allah1 the son of ,maymun the oculist2 but it was not under that name4 ,he was now ,ubayd ,allah al-,mahdi himself1 a descendant of ,ali and of ,muhammad ibn ,isma#8il1 for whom his ancestors were supposed to have worked and built up this conspiracy4 ,in ,a4,h4 #bif 7,a4,d4 #iji7 he was saluted as ,commander of the ,faithful1 with the title of al-,mahdi4 ,so far the conspiracy had succeeded4 ,this ,fatimid dynasty1 so they called themselves from ,fatima1 their alleged ancestress1 the daughter of ,muhammad1 conquered ,egypt and ,syria half a century later and held them till ,a4,h4 #efg 7,a4,d4 #aaga74 ,when in ,a4,h4 #cag the ,umayyads of ,cordova also claimed the ,khalifate and used the title1 there were three ,commanders of the ,faithful at one time in the ,muslim world4 ,yet it should be noticed that the constitutional position of these ,umayyads was essentially different from that of the ,fatimids4 ,to the ,fatimids1 the ,abbasids were usurpers4 ,the ,umayyads of ,cordova1 on the other hand1 held1 like the ,zaydites and some jurisconsults of the highest rank1 that1 when ,muslim countries were so far apart that the authority of the ruler of the one could not make itself felt in the other1 it was lawful to have two ,imams1 each a true ,successor of the ,prophet4 ,the good of the people of ,muhammad demanded it4 ,still1 the unity of the ,khalifate is the more regular doctrine4 ,sidenote3 ,,al-,,hakim ,but only half of the work was done4 ,islam stood as firmly as ever and the conspiracy had only produced a schism in the faith and had not destroyed it4 ,ubayd ,allah was in the awkward position1 on the one hand1 of ruling a people who were in great bulk fanatical ,muslims and did not understand any jesting with their religion1 and1 on the other hand1 of being head of a conspiracy to destroy that very religion4 ,the ,syrians and ,arabs had apparently taken more degrees than the ,egyptians and ,north ,africans1 and ,ubayd ,allah found himself between the devil and the deep sea4 ,the ,qarmatians in ,arabia plundered the pilgrim caravans1 stormed the holy city ,mecca1 and1 most terrible of all1 carried off the sacred black stone4 ,when an enormous ransom was offered for the stone1 they declined--they had orders not to send it back4 ,everyone understood that the orders were from ,africa4 ,so ,ubayd ,allah found it advisable to address them in a public letter1 exhorting them to be better ,muslims4 ,the writing and reading of this letter must have been accompanied by mirth1 at any rate no attention was paid to it by the ,qarmatians4 ,it was not till the time of the third ,fatimid ,khalifa that they were permitted to do business with that stone4 ,then they sent it back with the explanatory or apologetic remark that they had carried it off under orders and now sent it back under orders4 ,meanwhile the ,fatimid dynasty was running its course in ,egypt but without turning the people of ,egypt from ,islam4 ,yet it produced one strange personality and two sects1 stranger even than the sect to which it itself owed its origin4 ,the personality is that of al-,hakim ,bi'amrillah1 who still remains one of the greatest mysteries that are to be met with in history4 ,in many ways he reminds us curiously of the madness of the ,julian house2 and1 in truth1 such a secret movement as that of which he was a part1 carried on through generations from father to son1 could not but leave a trace on the brain4 ,we must remember that the ,khalifa of the time was not always of necessity the head of the conspiracy1 or even fully initiated into it4 ,in the latter part of the ,fatimid rule we find distinct traces of such a power behind the throne1 consisting1 as we may imagine1 of descendants and pupils of those who had been fully initiated from the first and had passed through all the grades4 ,in the case of al-,hakim1 it is possible1 even1 to trace1 to a certain extent1 the development of his initiation4 ,during the first part of his reign he was fanatically ,muslim and ,shi#8ite4 ,he persecuted alternately the ,christians and the ,jews1 and then the orthodox and the ,shi#8ites4 ,in the latter part1 there was a change4 ,he had1 apparently1 reached a point of philosophical indifference1 for the persecutions of ,christians and ,jews ceased1 and those who had been forced to embrace ,islam were permitted to relapse4 ,this last was without parallel1 till in #ahdd ,lord ,stratford de ,redcliffe wrung from the ,porte the concession that a ,muslim who apostatized to ,christianity should not be put to death4 ,but1 mingled with this indifference1 there appeared a strange but regular development of ,shi#8ite doctrine4 ,some of his followers began to proclaim openly that the deity was incarnate in him1 and it was evident that he himself accepted and believed this4 ,but the ,egyptian populace would have none of it1 and the too rash innovators had to flee4 ,some went to the ,lebanon and there preached to the native mountain tribes4 ,the results of their labors are the ,druses of to-day1 who worship al-,hakim still and expect his return to introduce the end of all things4 ,finally1 al-,hakim vanished on the night of ,february #ab1 ,a4,d4 #ajba1 and left a mystery unread to this day4 ,whether he was murdered1 and if so why1 or vanished of free-will1 and if so again why1 we have no means of telling4 ,our guess will depend upon our reading of his character4 ,so much is certain1 that he was a ruler of the autocratic type1 who introduced many reforms1 most of which the people of his time could not in the least understand and therefore misrepresented as the mere whims of a tyrant1 and many of which1 from our ignorance1 are still obscure to us4 ,if we can imagine such a man of strong personality and desire for the good of his people but with a touch of madness in the brain1 cast thus in the midst between his orthodox subjects and a wholly unbelieving inner government1 we shall perhaps have the clew to the strange stories told of him4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,assassins ,another product of this conspiracy1 and the last to which we shall refer1 is the sect known as the ,assassins1 whose ,grand ,master was a name of terror to the ,crusaders as the ,old ,man of the ,mountain4 ,it1 too1 was founded1 and apparently for a purpose of personal vengeance1 by a ,persian who began as a ,shi#8ite and ended as nothing4 ,he came to ,egypt1 studied under the ,fatimids--they had established at ,cairo a great school of science--and returned to ,persia as their agent to carry on their propaganda4 ,his methods were the same as theirs1 with a difference4 ,that was the reduction of assassination to a fine art4 ,from his eagle's nest of ,alamut--such is the meaning of the name--and later from ,masyaf in the ,lebanon and other mountain fortresses1 he and his successors spread terror through ,persia and ,syria and were only finally stamped out by the ,mongol flood under ,hulagu in the middle of the seventh century of the ,hijra 7the #acth ,a4,d474 ,of the sect there are still scattered remnants in ,syria and ,india1 and as late as #ahff an ,english judge at ,bombay had to decide a case of disputed succession according to the law of the ,assassins4 ,finally1 the ,fatimid dynasty itself fell before the ,kurd1 ,salah ad-,din1 the ,saladin of our annals1 and ,egypt was again orthodox4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,the problem of the ,abbasids2 the ,house of ,barmak2 the crumbling of the empire2 the ,prtorians of ,baghdad2 the ,buwayhids2 the situation of the ,khalifa under them2 the ,saljuqs2 the possibilities of development under them2 the ,mongols and the ,abbasid end2 the ,egyptian ,abbasids2 the ,ottoman ,sultans1 their heirs2 theory of the ,khalifate2 the modern situation2 the signs of sovereignty for ,muslims2 five grounds of the claim of the ,ottoman ,sultan2 the consequences for the ,sultan2 other ,muslim constitutions2 the ,shi#8ites2 the ,ibadites2 the ,wahhabites2 the ,brotherhood of as-,sanusi4 ,sidenote3 ,,crumbling ,,of ,,the ,,empire ,we must now return to the ,abbasids1 whose empire we left crumbling away4 ,it was a shrewd stroke of policy on the part of its founder to put the new capital1 ,baghdad1 on the ,tigris1 right between ,persia1 ,syria and ,arabia4 ,for the only hope of permanence to the empire lay in welding these into a unity4 ,for a short time1 in the hands of the first vigorous rulers1 and1 especially1 during fifty years of guidance by the ,house of ,barmak--,persians who flung in their lot with the ,abbasids and were their stay till the madness of ,harun ar-,rashid cast them down--this seemed to be succeeding2 but1 just as the empire of ,charlemagne melted under his sons1 so did the empire of al-,mansur and al-,ma'mun4 ,the ,bedawi tribes fell back into the desert and to the free chaos of the old pre-,islamic life4 ,as the great philosophical historian1 ,ibn ,khaldun1 has remarked1 the ,arabs by their nature are incapable of founding an empire except when united by religious enthusiasm1 and are of all peoples least capable of governing an empire when founded4 ,after the first ,abbasids1 it is a fatal error to view the ,muslim dynasties as ,arab or to speak of the ,muslim civilization as ,arabian4 ,the conquered peoples overcame their conquerors4 ,persian nationalism reasserted itself and in native independent dynasties flung off the ,arab yoke4 ,these dynasties were mostly ,shi#8ite2 ,shi#8ism1 in great part1 is the revolt of the ,aryan against ,semitic monotheism4 ,the process in all this was gradual but certain4 ,governors of provinces revolted and became semi-independent4 ,sometimes they acknowledged a shadowy sovereignty of the ,khalifa1 by having his name on their coins and in the ,friday prayers2 sometimes they did not4 ,at other times they were1 or claimed to be1 ,alids1 and when ,alids revolted1 they revolted absolutely4 ,with them1 it was a question of conscience4 ,at last1 not even in his own ,city of ,peace or in his own palace was the ,khalifa master4 ,as in ,rome1 so in ,baghdad1 a body-guard of mercenaries assumed control and their leader was de facto ruler4 ,later1 from ,a4,h4 #cbj to #ddg 7,a4,d4 #icb-ajee71 the ,sunnite ,khalifa found himself the ward and puppet of the ,shi#8ite ,buwayhids4 ,baghdad itself they held from #ccd4 ,but still1 a curious spiritual value--we cannot call it authority--was left to the shadowy successors of ,muhammad4 ,muslim princes even in far-off ,india did not feel quite safe upon their thrones unless they had been solemnly invested by the ,khalifa and given their fitting title4 ,those very rulers in whose power the ,khalifa's life lay sought sanction from him for their rule4 ,at one time there seemed to be some hope that the fatal unity of theocratical ,islam would be broken and that a dualism with promise of development through conflict--such as the rivalry between ,pope and ,emperor which kept ,europe alive and prevented both ,state and ,church from falling into decrepit decay--might grow up2 that the ,khalifa might become a purely spiritual ruler with functions of his own1 ruling with mutual subordination and co-ordinate jurisdiction beside a temporal ,sultan4 ,the ,buwayhids were ,shi#8ites and merely tolerated1 for state reasons1 the impieties of the ,sunnite ,khalifas4 ,but in #ddg 7,a4,d4 #ajee71 ,tughril ,beg1 the ,saljuq1 entered ,baghdad1 was proclaimed ,sultan of the ,muslims and freed the ,khalifa from the ,shi#8ite yoke4 ,by #dgj1 all western ,asia1 from the borders of ,afghanistan to those of ,egypt and the ,greek ,empire1 were ,saljuq4 ,with the ,saljuq ,sultan as ,emperor and the ,khalifa as ,pope1 there was a chance that the ,muslim ,state might enter on a stage of healthy growth through conflict4 ,but that was not to be4 ,neither ,state nor ,church rose to the great opportunity and the experiment was finally and forever cut off by the ,mongol flood4 ,when the next great ,sultanate--that of the ,ottoman ,turks--arose1 it gathered into its hands the reins of the ,khalifate as well4 ,this is what might have been in ,islam1 built on actual history in ,europe4 ,the situation that did arise in ,islam may become more clear to us if we can imagine that in ,europe the vast plans of ,gregory ,,vii4 had been carried out and the ,pope had become the temporal as well as the spiritual head of the ,christian world4 ,such a situation would have been similar to that in the world of ,islam at its earliest time during some few years under the dynasty of the ,umayyads1 when the one temporal and spiritual sovereign ruled from ,samarqand to ,spain4 ,then we can imagine how the vast fabric of such an imperial system broke down by its own weight4 ,under conflicting claims of legitimacy1 an anti-,pope arose and the great schism began4 ,thereafter the process of disintegration was still more rapid4 ,provinces rose in insurrection and dropped away from each rival ,pope4 ,kingdoms grew up and the sovereigns over them professed themselves to be the lieutenants of the supreme ,pontiff and sought investiture from him4 ,last1 the ,states of the ,church itself--all that was left to it--came under the rule of some one of these princes and the ,pope was1 to all intents1 a prisoner in his own palace4 ,yet the sovereignty of the ,khalifa was not simply a legal fiction1 any more than that of the ,pope would have been in the parallel just sketched4 ,the ,muslim princes thought it well to seek spiritual recognition from him1 just as ,napoleon ,i4 found it prudent to have himself crowned by ,pius ,,vii4 ,sidenote3 ,,sovereignty ,,of ,,khalifate ,but a wave was soon to break in and sweep away all these forms4 ,it came with the ,mongols under ,hulagu1 who passed from the destruction of the ,assassins to the destruction of ,baghdad and the ,khalifate4 ,in ,a4,h4 #fef 7,a4,d4 #abeh71 the city was taken and the end of the ,abbasids had come4 ,an uncle of the reigning ,khalifa escaped and fled to ,egypt1 where the ,mamluk ,sultan received him and gave him a spiritual court and ecclesiastical recognition4 ,he found it good to have a ,khalifa of his own to use in any question of legitimacy4 ,the name had yet so much value4 ,finally1 in #aeag1 the ,mamluk rule went down before the ,ottoman ,turks1 and the story told by them is that the last ,abbasid1 when he died in #aech1 gave over his rights to their ,sultan1 ,sulayman the ,great4 ,since then1 the ,ottoman ,sultan of ,constantinople has claimed to be the ,khalifa of ,muhammad and the spiritual head of the ,muslim world4 ,such were the fates of the ,commanders of the ,faithful4 ,we have traced them through a long and devious course1 full of confusions and complications4 ,leaving aside the legitimist party1 the whole may be summed in a word4 ,the theoretical position was that the ,imam1 or leader1 must be elected by the ,muslim community1 and that position has never1 theoretically1 been abandoned4 ,each new ,ottoman sovereign is solemnly elected by the ,ulama1 or canon lawyers and divines of ,constantinople4 ,his temporal sovereignty comes by blood2 in bestowing this spiritual sovereignty the ,ulama act as representatives of the ,people of ,muhammad4 ,thus the theoretical position was liable to much modification in practice4 ,the ,muslim community resolves itself into the people of the capital2 still further1 into the body-guard of the dead ,khalifa2 and1 finally1 as now1 into the peculiar custodians of the ,faith4 ,among the ,ibadites the position from the first seems to have been that only those learned in the law should act as electors4 ,along with this1 the doctrine developed that it was the duty of the people to recognize un fait accompli and to do homage to a successful usurper--until another more successful should appear4 ,they had learned that it was better to have a bad ruler than no ruler at all4 ,this was the end of the democracy of ,islam4 ,sidenote3 ,,constitutional ,,question ,,of ,,to-,,day ,finally1 it may be well to give some account of the constitutional question as it exists at the present day4 ,the greatest of the ,sultans of ,islam is undoubtedly the ,emperor of ,india4 ,under his rule are far more ,muslims than fall to any other4 ,but the theory of the ,muslim ,state never contemplated the possibility of ,muslims living under the rule of an unbeliever4 ,for them1 the world is divided into two parts1 the one is ,dar al-,islam1 abode of ,islam2 and the other is ,dar al-harb1 abode of war4 ,in the end1 ,dar al-harb must disappear into ,dar al-,islam and the whole world be ,muslim4 ,these names indicate with sufficient clearness what the ,muslim attitude is toward non-,muslims4 ,it is still a moot point among canon lawyers1 however1 whether ,jihad1 or holy war1 may be made1 unprovoked1 upon any ,dar al-harb4 ,one thing is certain1 there must be a reasonable prospect of success to justify any such movement2 the lives of ,muslims must not be thrown away4 ,further1 the necessity of the case--in ,india1 especially--has brought up the doctrine that any country in which the peculiar usages of ,islam are protected and its injunctions--even some of them--followed1 must be regarded as ,dar al-,islam and that ,jihad within its borders is forbidden4 ,we may doubt1 however1 if this doctrine would hold back the ,indian ,muslims to any extent if a good opportunity for a ,jihad really presented itself4 ,the ,shi#8ites1 it may be remarked1 cannot enter upon a ,jihad at all until the ,hidden ,imam returns and leads their armies4 ,sidenote3 ,,theories ,,of ,,the ,,khalifate ,again the two signs of sovereignty for ,muslims are that the name of the sovereign should be on the coinage and that he should be prayed for in the ,friday sermon 7khutba74 ,in ,india1 the custom seems to be to pray for 8the ruler of the age0 without name2 then each worshipper can apply it as he chooses4 ,but there has crept in a custom in a few mosques of praying for the ,ottoman ,sultan as the ,khalifa2 the ,english government busies itself little with these things until compelled1 and the custom will doubtless spread4 ,the ,ottoman ,sultan is certainly next greatest to the ,emperor of ,india and would seem1 as a ,muslim ruling ,muslims1 to have an unassailable position4 ,but in his case also difficult and ambiguous constitutional questions can be raised4 ,he has claimed the ,khalifate1 as we have seen1 since #aech1 but the claim is a shaky one and brings awkward responsibilities4 ,as stated at the present day1 it has five grounds4 ,first1 de facto right2 the ,ottoman ,sultan won his title by the sword and holds it by the sword4 ,second1 election2 this form has been already described4 ,third1 nomination by the last ,abbasid ,khalifa of ,egypt2 so ,abu ,bakr nominated ,umar to succeed him1 and precedent is everything in ,islam4 ,fourth1 possession and guardianship of the two ,harams1 or ,sacred ,cities1 ,mecca and al-,madina4 ,fifth1 possession of some relics of the ,prophet saved from the sack of ,baghdad and delivered to ,sultan ,salim1 on his conquest of ,egypt1 by the last ,abbasid4 ,but these all shatter against the fixed fact that absolutely accepted traditions from the ,prophet assert that the ,khalifa must be of the family of ,quraysh2 so long as there are two left of that tribe1 one must be ,khalifa and the other his helper4 ,still1 here1 as everywhere1 the principal of ,ijma1 ,agreement of the ,muslim people1 7see p4 #aje7 comes in and must be reckoned with4 ,these very traditions are probably an expression in concrete form of popular agreement4 ,the ,khalifate itself is confessedly based upon agreement4 ,the canon lawyers state the case thus3 ,the ,imamites and ,isma#8ilians hold that the appointment of a leader is incumbent upon ,god4 ,there is only the difference that the ,imamites say that a leader is necessary in order to maintain the laws unimpaired1 while the ,isma#8ilians regard him as essential in order to give instruction about ,god4 ,the ,kharijites1 on the other hand1 recognize no fundamental need of an ,imam2 he is only allowable4 ,some of them held that he should be appointed in time of public trouble to do away with the trouble1 thus a kind of dictator2 others1 in time of peace1 because only then can the people agree4 ,the ,mu#8tazilites and the ,zaydites held that it was for man to appoint1 but that the necessity was based on reason2 men needed such a leader4 ,yet some ,mu#8tazilites taught that the basis was partly reason and partly obedience to tradition4 ,on the other hand1 the ,sunnites hold that the appointment of an ,imam is incumbent upon men and that the basis is obedience to the tradition of the ,agreement of the ,muslim world from the earliest times4 ,the community of ,islam may have disputed over the individual to be appointed1 but they never doubted that the maintenance of the faith in its purity required a leader1 and that it was1 therefore1 incumbent on men to appoint one4 ,the basis is ,ijma1 ,agreement1 not ,scripture or tradition from ,muhammad or analogy based on these two4 ,it will be seen from this that the de facto ground to the claim of the ,ottoman ,sultan is the best4 ,the ,muslim community must have a leader2 this is the greatest ,muslim ruling ,muslims2 he claims the leadership and holds it4 ,if the ,english rule were to become ,muslim1 the ,muslims would rally to it4 ,the ground of election amounts to nothing1 the nomination to little more1 except for antiquarians2 the possession of the ,prophetic relics is a sentiment that would have weight with the crowd only2 no canon lawyer would seriously urge it4 ,the guardianship of the two ,harams is precarious4 ,a ,turkish reverse in ,syria would withdraw every ,turkish soldier from ,arabia and the great ,sharif families of ,mecca1 all of the blood of the ,prophet1 would proclaim a ,khalifa from among themselves4 ,at present1 only the ,turkish garrison holds them in check4 ,sidenote3 ,,pan-,,islamism ,but a ,khalifa has responsibilities4 ,he absolutely cannot become a constitutional monarch in our sense4 ,he rules under law--divine law--and the people can depose him if he breaks it2 but he cannot set up beside himself a constitutional assembly and give it rights against himself4 ,he is the successor of ,muhammad and must rule1 within limitations1 as an absolute monarch4 ,so impossible is the modern ,khalifate1 and so gigantic are its responsibilities4 ,the millions of ,chinese ,muslims look to him and all ,muslims of central ,asia2 the ,muslims of ,india who are not ,shi#8ite also look to him4 ,so1 too1 in ,africa and wherever in the world the ,people of ,muhammad have gone1 their eyes turn to the ,bosphorus and the ,great ,sultan4 ,this is what has been called the modern ,pan-,islamic movement2 it is a modern fact4 ,the position of the other ,muslim sects we have already seen4 ,of ,shi#8ite rulers1 there are the ,imamites in ,persia2 scattered ,zaydites still in south ,arabia and fugitive in ,africa2 strange secret bodies of ,isma#8ilians--,druses1 ,nusayrites1 ,assassins--still holding their own in mountain recesses1 forgotten by the world2 oldest of all1 the ,sharifs of ,morocco1 who are ,sunnites and antedate all theological differences1 holding only by the blood of the ,prophet4 ,at ,zanzibar1 ,uman and the ,mzab in ,algeria are the descendants of the ,kharijites4 ,probably1 somewhere or other1 there are some fossilized descendants of every sect that has ever arisen1 either to trouble the peace of ,islam or to save it from scholastic decrepitude and death4 ,insurrections and heresies have their own uses4 ,it only remains to make mention of two modern movements which have deeply affected the ,islam of to-day4 ,the ,pan-,islamic movement1 noticed above1 strives as much as anything to bring the ,muslim world into closer touch with the science and thought of the ,christian world1 rallying all the ,muslim peoples at the same time round the ,ottoman ,sultan as their spiritual head and holding fast by the kernel of ,islam4 ,it is a reform movement whose trend is forward4 ,the other two1 to which we now come1 are reform movements also1 but their trend is backward4 ,they look to the good old days of early ,islam and try to restore them4 ,the first is that of the ,wahhabites1 so called from ,muhammad ibn ,abd al-,wahhab 7,slave of the ,bountiful71 its founder1 a native of ,najd in central ,arabia1 who died in #aghg4 ,his aim was to bring ,islam back to its primitive purity and to do away with all the usages and beliefs which had arisen to cloud its absolute monotheism4 ,but attempts at reformation in ,islam have never led to anything but the founding of new dynasties4 ,they may begin with a saintly reformer1 but in the first or the second generation there is sure to come the conquering disciple2 religion and rule go together1 and he who meddles with the one must next grasp at the other4 ,the third stage is the extinction of the new dynasty and the vanishing of its party into a more or less secret sect1 the vitality of which is again directed into religious channels4 ,the ,wahhabites were no exception4 ,their rule extended from the ,persian ,gulf to the ,red ,sea1 touched al-,yaman and ,hadramawt and included some districts of the ,pashalik of ,baghdad4 ,that was early in the nineteenth century2 but now1 after many dynastic changes1 the rule of the ,wahhabites proper has almost ceased1 although the ,turks have not gained any new footing in ,najd4 ,there1 a native ,arab dynasty has sprung up which is free from ,turkish control in every respect1 and has its seat in ,ha'il4 ,but the zeal of the ,wahhabites gave an impulse to reform in the general body of ,muslims which is not yet1 by any means1 extinct4 ,especially in ,india1 their views have been widely spread by missionaries1 and at one time there was grave fear of a ,wahhabite insurrection4 ,but dead parties in ,islam seldom rise again1 and the life of ,wahhabism has passed into the ,muslim ,church as a whole4 ,politically it has failed1 but the spirit of reform remains and has undoubtedly influenced the second reform movement to which we now come4 ,sidenote3 ,,brotherhood ,,of ,,as-,,sanusi ,that is the ,brotherhood of as-,sanusi1 founded in #ahcg by ,muhammad ibn ,ali as-,sanusi in order to reform and spread the faith4 ,the tendency to organize has always been strong among ,orientals1 and in ,islam itself there have risen1 as we have seen1 from the earliest times1 secret societies for conspiracy and insurrection4 ,but apart from these dubious organizations1 religious feeling has also expressed itself in brotherhoods closely corresponding to the monastic orders of ,europe1 except that they were1 and are1 self-governing and under no relations but those of sentiment to the head of the ,muslim ,faith4 ,rather1 these orders of darwishes have been inclined toward heresies of a mystical and pantheistic type more than toward the development and support of the severely scholastic theology of orthodox ,islam4 ,this is a side of ,muhammadanism with which we shall have to deal in some detail hereafter4 ,in the meantime1 it is enough to say that the ,brotherhood of as-,sanusi is one of the orders of darwishes1 but distinguished from all its predecessors in its severely reforming and puritanic character4 ,it has taken up the task of the ,wahhabites and is working out the same problem in a rather different way4 ,its principles are of the strictest monotheism2 all usages and ideas that do not accord with their views of the exact letter of the ,qur'an are prohibited4 ,the present head of the ,brotherhood1 the son of the founder1 who himself died in #ahei1 claims to be the ,mahdi and has established a theocratic state at ,jarabub1 in the eastern ,sahara1 between ,egypt and ,tripolis4 ,the mother house of the order is there1 and from it missionaries have gone out and established other houses throughout all north ,africa and ,morocco and far into the interior4 ,the ,head himself has of late retreated farther into the desert4 ,there is also an important centre at ,mecca1 where the pilgrims and the ,bedawis are initiated into the order in great numbers4 ,from ,mecca these brethren return to their homes all over the ,muslim world1 and the order is said to be especially popular in the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,the ,,future ,so there has sprung up in ,islam1 in tremendous ramifications1 an imperium in imperio4 ,all the brethren in all the degrees--for1 just as in the monastic orders of ,europe1 there are active members and lay members--reverence and pay blind obedience to the ,head in his inaccessible oasis in the ,african desert4 ,there he works toward the end1 and there can be little doubt what that end will be4 ,sooner or later ,europe--in the first instance1 ,england in ,egypt and ,france in ,algeria--will have to face the bursting of this storm4 ,for this ,mahdi is different from him of ,khartum and the southern ,sudan in that he knows how to rule and wait2 for years he has gathered arms and munitions1 and trained men for the great ,jihad4 ,when his plans are ready and his time is come1 a new chapter will be opened in the history of ,islam1 a chapter which will cast into forgetfulness even the recent volcanic outburst in ,china4 ,it will then be for the ,ottoman ,sultan of the time to show what he and his ,khalifate are worth4 ,he will have to decide whether he will throw in his lot with a ,mahdi of the old ,islam and the dream of a ,muslim millennium1 or boldly turn to new things and carry the ,successorship and the ,people of ,muhammad to join the civilized world4 ,,part ,,ii ,development of ,jurisprudence ,,chapter ,i ,the scope of jurisprudence among ,muslims2 the earliest elements in it1 ,arab custom1 ,jewish law1 personality of ,muhammad2 his attitude toward law2 elements after death of ,muhammad2 ,qur'an1 ,usage of the ,prophet1 common law of al-,madina2 conception of ,sunna before ,muhammad and after2 traditions and their transmission2 traditions in book form2 influence of ,umayyads2 forgery of traditions2 the ,muwatta of ,malik ibn ,anas2 the ,musnad of ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal2 the musannafs2 al-,bukhari2 ,muslim2 ,ibn ,maja2 at-,tirmidhi2 an-,nasa'i2 al-,baghawi2 the problem of the ,muslim lawyers2 their sources2 ,roman law2 the influence of the doctrine of the ,responsa prudentium2 ,opinion in ,islam2 the ,law of ,nature or ,equity in ,islam2 istihsan2 istislah2 ,analogy2 the patriarchal period in ,islam2 the ,umayyad period2 the growth of the canon law4 ,in tracing the development of ,muslim jurisprudence few of the difficulties are encountered which surrounded ,sir ,henry ,maine when he first examined the origins and history of ,european law4 ,we do not need to push our researches back to the primitive family1 nor to work our way through periods of centuries guided by the merest fragments of documents and hints of usage4 ,our subject was born in the light of history2 it ran its course in a couple of hundred years and has left at every important point authoritative evidences of its whence1 its how1 and its whither4 ,our difficulties are different1 but sufficiently great4 ,shortly1 they are two4 ,the mass of material is overpowering2 the strangeness of the ideas involved is perplexing4 ,the wealth of material will become plain1 to some extent at least1 as the history is traced2 but for the strangeness of the contents1 of the arrangement and the atmosphere of these codes some preparation must be given from the outset4 ,how1 indeed1 can we meet a legal code which knows no distinction of personal or public1 of civil or criminal law2 which prescribes and describes the use of the toothpick and decides when a wedding invitation may be declined1 which enters into the minutest and most unsavory details of family life and lays down rules of religious retreat8 ,is it by some subtle connection of thought that the chapter on oaths and vows follows immediately that on horse-racing1 and a section on the building line on a street is inserted in a chapter on bankruptcy and composition8 ,one thing1 at least1 is abundantly clear4 ,muslim law1 in the most absolute sense1 fits the old definition1 and is the science of all things1 human and divine4 ,it tells what we must render to ,csar and what to ,god1 what to ourselves1 and what to our fellows4 ,the bounds of the ,platonic definition of rendering to each man his due it utterly shatters4 ,while ,muslim theology defines everything that a man shall believe of things in heaven and in earth and beneath the earth--and this is no flat rhetoric--,muslim law prescribes everything that a man shall do to ,god1 to his neighbor1 and to himself4 ,it takes all duty for its portion and defines all action in terms of duty4 ,nothing can escape the narrow meshes of its net4 ,one of the greatest legists of ,islam never ate a watermelon because he could not find that the usage of the ,prophet had laid down and sanctioned a canonical method of doing so4 ,sidenote3 ,,scope ,,of ,,muslim ,,law ,it will1 therefore1 be well for the student to work through the sketch of a code of ,muslim law which is inserted in ,appendix ,i4 ,one has been chosen which belongs to the school of ash-,shafi#8i because of its general accessibility4 ,it should be remembered that what is given is the merest table of contents4 ,the standard ,arabic commentary on the book extends to eight hundred and eleven closely printed quarto pages4 ,even a mere reading of this table of contents1 however1 will show in how different a sphere of thought from ours ,muslim law moves and lives4 ,but we must return to the beginning of things1 to the egg from which this tremendous system was hatched4 ,the mother-city of ,islam was the little town of ,yathrib1 called ,madinat an-,nabi1 the ,city of the ,prophet1 or1 shortly1 al-,madina1 ever since the ,hijra or ,migration of ,muhammad to it in the year #fbb of the ,christian era4 ,here the first ,muslim state was founded1 and the germinal principles of ,muslim jurisprudence fixed4 ,both state and jurisprudence were the result of the inter-working of the same highly complicated causes4 ,the ferments in the case may be classified and described as follows3 ,first1 in the town itself before the appearance of ,muhammad on its little stage--little1 but so momentous for the future--there were two parties1 often at war1 oftener at peace4 ,there was a genuine ,arab element and there was a large settlement of ,jews4 ,to the ,arabs any conception of law was utterly foreign4 ,an ,arab tribe has no constitution2 its system is one of individualism2 the single man is a sovereign and no writ can lie against him2 the tribe can cast him forth from its midst2 it cannot otherwise coerce him4 ,so stands the case now in the desert1 and so it was then4 ,some slight hold there might be on the tribe through the fear of the tribal ,god1 but on the individual ,arab1 always a somewhat cynical sceptic1 that hold was of the slightest4 ,further1 the avenging of a broken oath was left to the ,god that had witnessed the oath2 if he did not care to right his client1 no one else would interfere4 ,there was customary law1 undoubtedly1 but it was protected by no sanction and enforced by no authority4 ,if both parties chose to invoke it1 well2 if not1 neither had anything to fear but the anger of his opponent4 ,that law of custom we shall find again appearing in the system of ,islam1 but there it will be backed by the sanction of the wrath of ,god working through the authority of the state4 ,the ,jewish element was in a different case4 ,they may have been ,jewish immigrants1 they may have been ,jewish proselytes--many ,arab tribes1 we know1 had gone over bodily to ,judaism--but their lives were ruled and guided by ,jewish law4 ,to the primitive and divine legislation on ,sinai there was an immense accretion by legal fiction and by usage2 the ,roman codes had left their mark and the customary law of the desert as well4 ,all this was working in the life of the town when ,muhammad and his little band of fugitives from ,mecca entered it4 ,being ,meccans1 they must have brought with them the more developed legal ideas of that trading centre2 but these were of comparatively little account in the scale4 ,the new and dominating element was the personality of ,muhammad himself4 ,his contribution was legislation pure and simple1 the only legislation that has ever been in ,islam4 ,till his death1 ten years later1 he ruled his community as an absolute monarch1 as a prophet in his own right4 ,he sat in the gate and judged the people4 ,he had no need of a code1 for his own will was enough4 ,he followed the customary law of the town1 as it has been described above1 when it suited him1 and when he judged that it was best4 ,if not1 he left it and there was a revelation4 ,so the legislative part of the ,qur'an grew out of such scraps sent down out of heaven to meet the needs of the squabbles and questions of the townsfolk of al-,madina4 ,the system was one of pure opportunism2 but of what body of legislation can that not be said8 ,of course1 on the one hand1 not all decisions were backed by a revelation1 and ,muhammad seems1 on the other1 to have made a few attempts to deal systematically with certain standing and constantly recurring problems--such1 for example1 as the conflicting claims of heirs in an estate1 and the whole complicated question of divorce--but in general1 the position holds that ,muhammad as a lawyer lived from hand to mouth4 ,he did not draw up any twelve tables or ten commandments1 or code1 or digest2 he was there and the people could come and ask him questions when they chose1 and that was enough4 ,the conception of a rounded and complete system which will meet any case and to which all cases must be adjusted by legal fiction or equity1 the conception which we owe to the genius and experience of the ,roman lawyers1 was foreign to his thought4 ,from time to time he got into difficulties4 ,a revelation proved too wide or too narrow1 or left out some important possibility4 ,then there came another to supplement or correct1 or even to set the first quite aside--,muhammad had no scruples about progressive revelation as applied to himself4 ,thus1 through these interpretive acts1 as we may call them1 many flat contradictions have come into the ,qur'an and have proved the delight of generations of ,muslim jurisconsults4 ,sidenote3 ,,muhammad ,,as ,a ,,legislator ,such1 then1 was the state of things legal in al-,madina during the ten years of ,muhammad's rule there until his death in ,a4,d4 #fcb4 ,of law there was1 strictly speaking1 none4 ,in his decisions1 ,muhammad could follow certainly the customary law of the town2 but to do so there was no necessity upon him other than prudence1 for his authority was absolute4 ,yet even with such authority and such freedom1 his task was a hard one4 ,the ,jews1 the native ,arabs of al-,madina1 and his fellow fugitives from ,mecca lived in more or less of friction4 ,he had to see to it that his decisions did not bring that friction to the point of throwing the whole community into a flame4 ,the ,jews1 it is true1 were soon eliminated1 but the influence of their law lasted in the customary law of the town long after they themselves had become insignificant4 ,still1 with all this1 the suitor before ,muhammad had no certainty on what basis his claims would be judged2 whether it would be the old law of the town1 or a rough equity based on ,muhammad's own ideas1 or a special revelation ad hoc4 ,so far1 then1 we may be said to have the three elements--common law1 equity1 legislation4 ,legal fiction we shall meet later2 ,muhammad had no need of it4 ,sidenote3 ,,qur',,an2 ,,usage ,,of ,,muhammad ,but with the death of ,muhammad in ,a4,d4 #fcb the situation was completely changed4 ,we can now speak of ,muslim law2 legislation plays no longer any part2 the process of collecting1 arranging1 correlating1 and developing has begun4 ,consider the situation as it must have presented itself to one of the immediate successors of ,muhammad1 as he sat in his place and judged the people4 ,when a case came up for decision1 there were several sources from which a law in point might be drawn4 ,first among them was the ,qur'an4 ,it had been collected from the fragmentary state in which ,muhammad had left it by ,abu ,bakr1 his second ,khalifa1 some two years after his death4 ,again1 some ten years later1 it was revised and given forth in a final public recension by ,uthman1 the third ,khalifa4 ,this was the absolute word of ,god--thoughts and language--and stood and1 in theory1 still stands first of all sources for theology and law4 ,if it contained a law clearly applying to the case in hand1 there was no more to be said2 divine legislation had settled the matter4 ,if not1 recourse was next had to the decisions of the ,prophet4 ,had a similar one come before him1 and how had he ruled8 ,if the memories of the ,companions of the ,prophet1 the ,sahibs1 could adduce nothing similar from one of his decisions1 then the judge had to look further for an authority4 ,but the decisions of ,muhammad had been many1 the memories of his ,companions were capacious1 and possessed further1 as we must recognize with regret1 a constructive power that helped the early judges of ,islam out of many close corners4 ,but if tradition even--true or false--finally failed1 then the judge fell back on the common law of al-,madina1 that customary law already mentioned4 ,when that1 too1 failed1 the last recourse was had to the common-sense of the judge--roughly1 what we would call equity4 ,at the beginning1 therefore1 of ,muslim law1 it had the following sources--legislation1 the usage of ,muhammad1 the usage of al-,madina1 equity4 ,naturally1 as time went on and the figure of the founder drew back and became more obscure and more venerated1 equity fell gradually into disuse2 a closer search was made for decisions of that founder which could in any way be pressed into service2 a method of analogy1 closely allied to legal fiction1 was built up to assist in this1 and the development of ,muslim jurisprudence as a system and a science was fairly begun4 ,further1 in later times1 the decisions of the first four ,khalifas and the agreement 7ijma7 of the immediate ,companions of ,muhammad came to assume an importance only second to that of ,muhammad himself4 ,later still1 as a result of this1 the opinion grew up that a general agreement of the jurisconsults of any particular time was to be regarded as a legitimate source of law4 ,but we must return to consider our subject more broadly and in another field4 ,sidenote3 ,,legal ,,classes ,,of ,,actions ,the fact has already been brought out that the sphere of law is much wider in ,islam than it has ever been with us4 ,by it all the minutest acts of a ,muslim are guarded4 ,europe1 also1 passed through a stage similar to this in its sumptuary laws2 and the tendency toward inquisitorial legislation still exists in ,america1 but not even the most medivally minded ,american ,western ,state has ventured to put upon its statute-book regulations as to the use of the toothpick and the wash-cloth4 ,thus1 the ,muslim conception of law is so wide as to reach essential difference4 ,a ,muslim is told by his code not only what is required under penalty1 but also what is either recommended or disliked though without reward or penalty being involved4 ,he may certainly consult his lawyer1 to learn how near the wind he can sail without unpleasant consequences2 but he may also consult him as his spiritual director with regard to the relative praiseworthiness or blameworthiness of classes of actions of which our law takes no cognizance4 ,in consequence1 actions are divided by ,muslim canon lawyers 7faqihs7 into five classes4 ,first1 necessary 7fard or wajib72 a duty the omission of which is punished1 the doing rewarded4 ,secondly1 recommended 7mandub or mustahabb72 the doing is rewarded1 but the omission is not punished4 ,thirdly1 permitted 7ja'iz or mubah72 legally indifferent4 ,fourthly1 disliked 7makruh72 disapproved by the law1 but not under penalty4 ,fifthly1 forbidden 7haram72 an action punishable by law4 ,all this being so1 it will be easily understood that the record of the manners and customs of the ,prophet1 of the little details of his life and conversation1 came to assume a high importance4 ,much of that was too petty ever to reach expression in the great digests of law2 not even the most zealous fixer of life by rule and line would condemn his fellow-religionist because he preferred to carry a different kind of walking-stick from that approved by the ,prophet1 or found it fitting to arrange his hair in a different way4 ,but still1 all pious ,muslims paid attention to such things1 and fenced their lives about with the strictest ,prophetic precedent4 ,sidenote3 ,,sunna2 ,,hadith ,in consequence of this1 there early arose in ,islam a class of students who made it their business to investigate and hand down the minutest details as to the habits of ,muhammad4 ,this was a separate thing from the study of law1 although fated to be eventually connected with it4 ,even in the time of the ,jahiliya--the period before ,islam1 variously explained as the ignorance or as the rudeness1 uncivilizedness--it had been a fixed trait of the ,arab mind to hold closely to old paths4 ,an inherent conservatism canonized the sunna--custom1 usage--of the ancients2 any stepping aside from it was a bid#8a--innovation--and had to win its way by its merits1 in the teeth of strong prejudice4 ,with the coming of ,muhammad and the preaching of ,islam1 this ancestral sunna had in great part to yield4 ,but the temper of the ,arab mind remained firm1 and the sunna of ,muhammad took its place4 ,pious ,muslims did not say1 8,such was the usage of our fathers1 and it is mine20 but1 8,i follow the usage of the ,prophet of ,god40 ,then1 just as the old sunna of the heathen times had expressed itself through the stories of great warriors1 of their battles and loves2 through anecdotes of wise men1 and their keen and eloquent words2 so it was with the sunna of the one man1 ,muhammad4 ,what he said1 and what he did2 what he refrained from doing2 what he gave quasi-approval to by silence2 all was passed on in rapidly increasing1 pregnant little narratives4 ,first1 his immediate ,companions would note1 either by committing to memory or to a written record1 his utterances and table-talk generally4 ,we have evidence of several such ,boswells1 who fixed his words as they fell4 ,later1 probably1 would come notes of his doings and his customs1 and of all the little and great happenings of the town4 ,above all1 a record was being gathered of all the cases judged by him1 and of his decisions2 of all the answers which he gave to formal questions on religious life and faith4 ,all this was jotted down by the ,companions on sahifas--odd sheets--just as they had done in the ,ignorance with the proverbs of the wise and their dark sayings4 ,the records of sayings were called hadiths2 the rest1 as a whole1 sunna--custom1 for its details was used the plural1 sunan--customs4 ,at first1 each man had his own collection in memory or in writing4 ,then1 after the death of the ,prophet and when his first ,companions were dropping off1 these collections were passed on to others of the second generation4 ,and so the chain ran on and in time a tradition came to consist formally of two things--the text or matter 7matn7 so handed on1 and the succession 7isnad7 over whose lips it had passed4 ,a said1 8,there narrated to me ,b1 saying1 #8,there narrated to me ,c1 saying1'0 so far the isnad1 until the last link came1 and the matn1 the ,prophet of ,god said1 8,some of my injunctions abrogate others10 or 8,the ,jann were created of a smokeless flame10 or whatever it might be4 ,what has just been said suggests that it was at first indifferent whether traditions were preserved orally or in writing4 ,that is true of the first generation2 but it must be remembered at the same time1 that the actual passing on was oral2 the writing merely aided the memory to hold that which was already learned4 ,but with time1 and certainly by the middle of the second century of the ,hijra1 two opposing tendencies in this respect had developed4 ,many continued to put their trust in the written word1 and even came to pass traditions on without any oral communication4 ,but for others there lay grave dangers in this4 ,one was evidently real4 ,the unhappy character of the ,arabic script1 especially when written without diacritical points1 often made it hard1 if not practically impossible1 to understand such short1 contextless texts as the traditions4 ,a guide was necessary to show how the word should be read1 and how understood4 ,at the present time a ,european scholar will sometimes be helpless before even a fully vocalized text1 and must take refuge in native commentaries or in that oral tradition1 if it still exists and he has access to it1 which supplies at least a third of the meaning of an ,arabic book4 ,strengthening this came theological reasons4 ,the words of the ,prophet would be profaned if they were in a book4 ,or1 again1 they would be too much honored and the ,qur'an itself might be neglected4 ,this last fear has been justified to a certain extent by the event4 ,on these grounds1 and many more1 the writing and transmitting in writing of traditions came to be fiercely opposed2 and the opposition continued1 as a theological exercise1 long after many books of traditions were in existence1 and after the oral transmission had become the merest farce and had even frankly dropped out4 ,sidenote3 ,,traditions ,,in ,,literature ,it is to the formation of these books of traditions1 or1 as we might say1 traditions in literature1 that we must now turn4 ,for long1 the fragmentary sahifas and private collections made by separate scholars for their own use sufficed4 ,books dealing with law 7fiqh7 were written before there were any in that department of literature called hadith4 ,the cause of this is tolerably plain4 ,law and treatises of law were a necessity for the public and thus were encouraged by the state4 ,the study of traditions1 on the other hand1 was less essential and of a more personal and private nature4 ,further1 under the dynasty of the ,umayyads1 who reigned from ,a4,h4 #da to ,a4,h4 #acb1 theological literature was little encouraged4 ,they were simple heathen in all but name1 and belonged1 and recognized that they belonged1 not to ,islam but to the ,jahiliya4 ,for reasons of state1 they encouraged and spread--also freely forged and encouraged others to forge--such traditions as were favorable to their plans and to their rule generally4 ,this was necessary if they were to carry the body of the people with them4 ,but they regarded themselves as kings and not as the heads of the ,muslim people4 ,this same device has been used after them by all the contending factions of ,islam4 ,each party has sought sanction for its views by representing them in traditions from the ,prophet1 and the thing has gone so far that on almost every disputed point there are absolutely conflicting prophetic utterances in circulation4 ,it has even been held1 and with some justification1 that the entire body of normative tradition at present in existence was forged for a purpose4 ,with this attitude of the ,umayyads we shall have to deal at greater length later4 ,it is sufficient now to note that the first real appearance of hadith in literature was in the ,muwatta of ,malik ibn ,anas who died in ,a4,h4 #agi4 ,yet even this appearance is not so much of hadith for its own sake1 as of usages bearing upon law and of the law that can be drawn from these usages4 ,the book is a corpus iuris not a corpus traditionum4 ,its object was not so much to separate from the mass of traditions in circulation those which could be regarded as sound of origin and to unite them in a formal collection1 as to build up a system of law based partly on tradition4 ,the previous works dealing with law proper had been of a speculative character1 had shown much subjective reliance on their own opinion on the part of the writers and had drawn little from the sacred usage of the ,prophet and quoted few of his traditional sayings4 ,against that the book of ,malik was a protest and formed a link between such law books pure and the collections of traditions pure with which we now come to deal4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,musnads ,to ,malik the matn1 or text1 of a tradition had been the only thing of importance4 ,to the isnad1 or chain of authority running back to the ,prophet1 he had paid little attention4 ,he1 as we have seen1 was a lawyer and gathered traditions1 not for their own sake but to use them in law4 ,to others1 the tradition was the thing1 and too much care could not be given to its details and its authenticity4 ,and the care was really called for4 ,with the course of time and the growing demand1 the supply of traditions had also grown until there was no doubt in the mind of anyone that an enormous proportion were simple forgeries4 ,to weed out the sound ones1 attention had to be given to the isnad2 the names upon it had to be examined2 the fact of their having been in intercourse to be determined2 the possibility of the case in general to be tested4 ,thus there were formed real collections of supposedly sound traditions1 which were called ,musnads1 because each tradition was musnad--propped1 supported--against the ,companions from whom it proceeded4 ,in accordance with this also they were arranged according to the ,companions4 ,after the name of the ,companion were given all the traditions leading back to him4 ,one of the earliest and greatest of these books was the ,musnad of ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal1 who died ,a4,h4 #bda2 of him more hereafter4 ,this book has been printed recently at ,cairo in six quarto volumes of #b1hhe pages and is said to contain about thirty thousand traditions going back to seven hundred ,companions4 ,but another type of tradition-book was growing up1 less mechanical in arrangement4 ,it is the ,musannaf1 the arranged1 classified--and in it the traditions are arranged in chapters according to their subject matter4 ,the first ,musannaf to make a permanent mark was the ,sahih--sound--of al-,bukhari1 who died in ,a4,h4 #beg4 ,it is still extant and is the most respected of all the collections of traditions4 ,the principle of arrangement in it is legal2 that is1 the traditions are classified in these chapters so as to afford bases for a complete system of jurisprudence4 ,al-,bukhari was a strong opponent of speculative law and his book was thus a protest against a tendency which1 as we shall see later1 was strong in his time4 ,another point in which al-,bukhari made his influence felt and with greater effect1 was increased severity in the testing of traditions4 ,he established very strict laws1 though of a somewhat mechanical kind1 and was most scrupulous in applying them4 ,his book contains about seven thousand traditions1 and he chose those1 so at least runs the story1 out of six hundred thousand which he found in circulation4 ,the rest were rejected as failing to meet his tests4 ,how far the forgery of traditions had gone may be seen from the example of ,ibn ,abi ,awja1 who was executed in ,a4,h4 #aee1 and who confessed that he had himself put into circulation four thousand that were false4 ,another and a similar ,sahih is that of ,muslim1 who died in ,a4,h4 #bfa4 ,he was not so markedly juristic as al-,bukhari4 ,his object was rather to purify the mass of existing tradition from illegitimate accretions than to construct a basis for a complete law code4 ,he has prefixed a valuable introduction on the science of tradition generally4 ,in some slight details his principle of criticism differed from that of al-,bukhari4 ,these two collections1 called the two ,sahihs--as-,sahihan--are technically jami#8s1 i4e4 they contain all the different classes of traditions1 historical1 ethical1 dogmatic and legal4 ,they have also come to be1 by common agreement1 the two most honored authorities in the ,muslim world4 ,a believer finds it hard1 if not impossible1 to reject a tradition that is found in both4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,sunan ,but there are four other collections which are called ,sunan--,usages--and which stand only second to the two ,sahihs4 ,these are by ,ibn ,maja 7d4 #cjc71 ,abu ,da'ud as-,sijistani 7d4 #bge71 at-,tirmidhi 7d4 #bgi7 and an-,nasa'i 7d4 #cjc74 ,they deal almost entirely with legal traditions1 those that tell what is permitted and what is forbidden1 and do not convey information on religious and theological subjects4 ,they are also much more lenient in their criticisms of dubious traditions4 ,to work exclusion with them1 the rejection needed to be tolerably unanimous4 ,this was required by their stand-point and endeavor1 which was to find a basis for all the minutest developments and details of jurisprudence1 civil and religious4 ,these six books1 the two ,sahihs and the four ,sunans1 came to be regarded in time as the principal and all-important sources for traditional science4 ,this had already come about by the end of the fifth century1 although even after that voices of uncertainty continued to make themselves heard4 ,ibn ,maja seems to have been the last to secure firm footing1 but even he is included by al-,baghawi 7d4 #eaf7 in his ,masabih as-sunna1 an attempted epitome into one book of what was valuable in all4 ,still1 long after that1 ,ibn ,khaldun1 the great historian 7d4 #hjh71 speaks of five fundamental works2 and others speak of seven1 adding the ,muwatta of ,malik to the six above4 ,others1 again1 especially in the ,west1 extended the number of canonical works to ten1 though with varying members2 but all these must be regarded as more or less local1 temporary1 and individual eccentricities4 ,the position of the six stands tolerably firm4 ,so much it has been necessary to interpolate and anticipate with regard to the students of tradition whose interest lay in gathering up and preserving1 not in using and applying4 ,from the earliest time1 then1 there existed these two classes in the bosom of ,islam1 students of tradition proper and of law proper4 ,for long they did not clash2 but a collision was inevitable sooner or later4 ,yet1 if the circle of the ,muslim horizon had not widened beyond the little market-town of al-,madina1 that collision might have been long in coming4 ,its immediate causes were from without1 and are to be found in the wave of conquest that carried ,islam1 within the century1 to ,samarqand beyond the ,oxus and to ,tours in central ,france4 ,consider what that wave of conquest was and meant4 ,within fourteen years of the ,hijra1 ,damascus was taken1 and within seventeen years1 all ,syria and ,mesopotamia4 ,by the year #ba1 the ,muslims held ,persia2 in #da they were at ,herat1 and in #ef they reached ,samarqand4 ,in the ,west1 ,egypt was taken in the year #bj2 but the way through northern ,africa was long and hard4 ,carthage did not fall till #gd1 but ,spain was conquered with the fall of ,toledo in #ic4 ,it was in ,a4,d4 #gcb1 the year of the ,hijra #aad1 that the wave at last was turned and the mercy of ,tours was wrought by ,charles the ,hammer2 but the ,muslims still held ,narbonne and raided in ,burgundy and the ,dauphin4 ,the wealth that flowed into ,arabia from these expeditions was enormous2 money and slaves and luxuries of every kind went far to transform the old life of hardness and simplicity4 ,great estates grew up3 fortunes were made and lost2 the intricacies of the ,syrian and ,persian civilizations overcame their conquerors4 ,all this meant new legal conditions and problems4 ,the system that had sufficed to guard the right to a few sheep or camels had to be transformed before it would suffice to adjust the rights and claims of a tribe of millionnaires4 ,but it must not be thought that these expeditions were only campaigns of plunder4 ,with the ,muslim armies everywhere went law and justice1 such as it was4 ,jurists accompanied each army and were settled in the great camp cities which were built to hold the conquered lands4 ,al-,basra and al-,kufa and ,fustat1 the parent of ,cairo1 owe their origin to this1 and it was in these new seats of militant ,islam that speculative jurisprudence arose and moulded the ,muslim system4 ,sidenote3 ,,rise ,,of ,,speculative ,,jurisprudence ,the early lawyers had much to do and much to learn1 and it is to their credit that they recognized both necessities4 ,muslim law is no product of the desert or of the mind of ,muhammad1 as some have said2 but rather of the labor of these men1 struggling with a gigantic problem4 ,they might have taken their task much more easily than they did2 they might have lived as ,muhammad had done1 from hand to mouth1 and have concealed their own sloth by force and free invention of authorities4 ,but they recognized their responsibility to ,god and man and the necessity of building up a stable and complete means of rendering justice4 ,these armies of ,muslims1 we must remember1 were not like the hordes of ,attila or ,chingis ,khan1 destroyers only4 ,the lands they conquered were put to hard tribute1 but it was under a reign of law4 ,they recognized frankly that it was for them that this mighty empire existed2 but they recognized also that it could continue to exist only with order and duty imposed upon all4 ,they saw1 too1 how deficient was their own knowledge and learned willingly of the people among whom they had come4 ,and here1 a second time1 ,roman law--the parent-law of the world--made itself felt4 ,there were schools of that law in ,syria at ,csarea and ,beyrout1 but we need not imagine that the ,muslim jurists studied there4 ,rather1 it was the practical school of the courts as they actually existed which they attended4 ,these courts were permitted to continue in existence till ,islam had learned from them all that was needed4 ,we can still recognize certain principles that were so carried over4 ,that the duty of proof lies upon the plaintiff1 and the right of defending himself with an oath upon the defendant2 the doctrine of invariable custom and that of the different kinds of legal presumption4 ,these1 as expressed in ,arabic1 are almost verbal renderings of the pregnant utterances of ,latin law4 ,sidenote3 ,,responsa ,,prudentium2 ,,opinion ,but most important of all was a liberty suggested by that system to the ,muslim jurisconsults4 ,this was through the part played in the older school by the ,responsa ,prudentium1 answers by prominent lawyers to questions put to them by their clients1 in which the older law of the ,twelve ,tables was expounded1 expanded1 and often practically set aside by their comments4 ,sir ,henry ,maine thus states the situation3 8,the authors of the new jurisprudence1 during the whole progress of its formation1 professed the most sedulous respect for the letter of the code4 ,they were merely explaining it1 deciphering it1 bringing out its full meaning2 but then1 in the result1 by placing texts together1 by adjusting the law to states of fact which actually presented themselves1 and by speculating on its possible application to others which might occur1 by introducing principles of interpretation derived from the exegesis of other written documents which fell under their observation1 they educed a vast variety of canons which had never been dreamt of by the compilers of the ,twelve ,tables1 and which were in truth rarely or never to be found there40 ,all this precisely applies to the development of law in ,islam4 ,sidenote3 ,,equity2 ,,legal ,,fiction ,the part of the ,twelve ,tables was taken by the statute law of the ,qur'an and the case law derived from the ,usage of ,muhammad2 that of the ,roman ,iurisprudentes by those speculative jurists who worked mostly outside of al-,madina in the camp cities of ,mesopotamia and ,syria--the very name for lawyer in ,arabic1 faqih1 plural fuqaha1 is a translation of prudens1 prudentes2 and that of the ,responsa1 the answers1 by the 8,opinion0 which they claimed as a legitimate legal method and source4 ,further1 the validity of a general agreement of jurisconsults 8reminds us of the rescript of ,hadrian1 which ordains that1 if the opinions of the licensed prudentes all agreed1 such common opinion had the force of statute2 but if they disagreed1 the judge might follow which he chose40 ,the ,arabic term1 ra'y1 here rendered ,opinion1 has passed through marked vicissitudes of usage4 ,in old ,arabic1 before it1 in the view of some1 began to keep bad company1 it meant an opinion that was thoughtful1 weighed and reasonable1 as opposed to a hasty dictate of ill-regulated passion4 ,in that sense it is used in a tradition--probably forged--handed down from ,muhammad4 ,he was sending a judge to take charge of legal affairs in al-,yaman1 and asked him on what he would base his legal decisions4 8,on the ,qur'an10 he replied4 8,but if that contains nothing to the purpose80 8,then upon your usage40 8,but if that also fails you80 8,then ,i will follow my own opinion40 ,and the ,prophet approved his purpose4 ,a similar tradition goes back to ,umar1 the first ,khalifa1 and it1 too1 is probably a later forgery1 written to defend this source of law4 ,but1 with the revolt against the use of ,opinion1 to which we shall soon come1 the term itself fell into grave disrepute and came to signify an unfounded conclusion4 ,in its extremest development it went beyond the ,responsa1 which professed always to be in exact accord with the letter of the older law1 and attained to be ,equity in the strict sense2 that is1 the rejection of the letter of the law for a view supposed to be more in accordance with the spirit of justice itself4 ,thus1 ,equity1 in the ,english sense1 is the law administered by the ,court of ,chancery and claims1 in the words again of ,sir ,henry ,maine1 to 8override the older jurisprudence of the country on the strength of an intrinsic ethical superiority40 ,in ,roman law1 as introduced by the edict of the ,prtor1 it was the law of ,nature1 8the part of law #8which natural reason appoints for all mankind4'0 ,this is represented in ,islam under two forms1 covered by two technical terms4 ,the one is that the legist1 in spite of the fact that the analogy of the fixed code clearly points to one course1 8considers it better0 7istihsan7 to follow a different one2 and the other is that1 under the same conditions1 he chooses a free course 8for the sake of general benefit to the community0 7istislah74 ,further scope of ,equity ,muslim law never reached1 and the legitimacy of these two developments was1 as we shall see1 bitterly contested4 ,the freedom of opinion1 with its possibility of a system of ,equity1 had eventually to be given up1 and all that was left in its place was a permissibility of analogical deduction 7qiyas71 the nearest thing to which in ,western law is ,legal ,fiction4 ,in a word1 the possibility of development by ,equity was lost1 and ,legal ,fiction entered in its place4 ,but this anticipates1 and we must return to the strictly historical movement4 ,during the first thirty years after the death of ,muhammad--the period covered by the reigns of the four theocratic rulers whom ,islam still calls 8the ,four ,just1 or ,rightly ,guided ,khalifas0 7al-,khulafa ar-rashidun7--the two twin studies of tradition 7hadith7 and of law 7fiqh7 were fostered and encouraged by the state4 ,the centre of that state was still in al-,madina1 on ground sacred with the memories of the ,prophet1 amid the scenes where he had himself been lord and judge1 and under the conditions in which his life as ruler had been cast4 ,all the sources1 except that of divine revelation1 which had been open to him1 were open to his successors and they made full use of all4 ,round that mother-hearth of ,islam was still gathered the great body of the immediate ,companions of ,muhammad1 and they formed a deliberative or consulting council to aid the ,khalifa in his task4 ,the gathering of tradition and the developing of law were vital functions2 they were the basis of the public life of the state4 ,this patriarchal period in ,muslim history is the golden age of ,islam4 ,it ended with the death of ,ali1 in the year #dj of the ,hijra1 and the succession of ,mu#8awiya in the following year4 8,for thirty years10 runs a tradition from the ,prophet1 8my ,people will tread in my ,path 7sunna72 then will come kings and princes40 ,sidenote3 ,,growth ,,of ,,canon ,,law ,and so it was2 ,mu#8awiya was the first of the ,umayyad dynasty and with him and them ,islam1 in all but the name1 was at an end4 ,he and they were ,arab kings of the old type that had reigned before ,muhammad at al-,hira and ,ghassan1 whose will had been their law4 ,the capital of the new kingdom was ,damascus2 al-,madina became a place of refuge1 a ,cave of ,adullam1 for the old ,muslim party4 ,there they might spin theories of state and of law1 and lament the good old days2 so long as there was no rebellion1 the ,umayyads cared little for those things or for the men who dreamt them4 ,once1 the ,umayyads were driven to capture and sack the holy city1 a horror in ,islam to this day4 ,after that there was peace1 the peace of the accomplished fact4 ,this is the genuinely ,arab period in the history of ,islam4 ,it is a period full of color and light and life2 of love and song1 battle and feasting4 ,thought was free and conduct too4 ,the great theologian of the ,greek ,church1 ,john of ,damascus1 held high office at the ,umayyad court1 and al-,akhtal1 a ,christian at least in name1 was their poet laureate4 ,it is true that the stated services of religion were kept up and on every ,friday the ,khalifa had to entertain the people by a display of eloquence and wit in the weekly sermon4 ,but the old world was dead and the days of its unity would never come again4 ,so all knew1 except the irreconcilable party1 the last of the true ,muslims who still haunted the sacred soil of al-,madina and labored in the old paths4 ,they gathered the traditions of the ,prophet2 they regulated their lives more and more strictly by his usage2 they gave ghostly council to the pious who sought their help2 they labored to build up elaborate systems of law4 ,but it was all elaboration and hypothetical purely4 ,there was in it no vitalizing force from practical life4 ,from this time on ,muslim law has been more or less in the position held by the canon law of the ,roman ,church in a country that will not recognize it yet dares not utterly reject it4 ,the ,umayyads were statesmen and opportunists2 they lived1 in legal things1 as much from hand to mouth as ,muhammad had done4 ,he cut all knots with divine legislation2 they cut them with the edge of their will4 ,under them1 as under him1 a system of law was impossible4 ,but at the same time1 in quiet and in secret1 this canon law of ,islam was slowly growing up1 slowly rounding into full perfection of detailed correlation4 ,it was governing absolutely the private lives of all the good ,muslims that were left1 and even the godless ,umayyads1 as they had to preach on ,fridays to the ,people of ,muhammad1 so they had to deal with it cautiously and respectfully4 ,of the names and lives of these obscure jurists little has reached us and it is needless to give that little here4 ,only with the final fall of the ,umayyads1 in the year of the ,hijra #acb1 do we come into the light and see the different schools forming under clear and definite leaders4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,abbasid revolution2 the compromise2 the problem of the ,abbasids2 the two classes of canon lawyers and theologians2 the rise of legal schools2 ,abu ,hanifa2 his application of ,legal ,fiction2 istihsan2 the ,qadi ,abu ,yusuf2 ,muhammad ibn al-,hasan2 ,sufyan ath-,thawri2 al-,awza#8i2 ,malik ibn ,anas2 the ,usage of al-,madina2 istislah2 the doctrine of ,agreement2 the beginning of controversy2 traditionalists or historical lawyers versus rationalists or philosophical lawyers2 ash-,shafi#8i1 a mediator and systematizer2 the ,agreement of the ,muslim people a formal source2 8,my ,people will never agree in an error20 the resultant four sources1 ,qur'an1 ,usage1 ,analogy1 ,agreement2 the traditionalist revolt2 ,da'ud az-,zahiri and literalism2 ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal2 the four abiding schools2 the ,agreement of ,islam2 the ,disagreement of ,islam2 iurare in verba magistri2 the degrees of authority2 the canon and the civil codes in ,islam2 their respective spheres2 distribution of schools at present day2 ,shi#8ite law2 ,ibadite law4 ,that great revolution which brought the ,abbasid dynasty to power seemed at first to the pious theologians and lawyers to be a return of the old days4 ,they dreamt of entering again into their rights2 that the canon law would be the full law of the land4 ,it was only slowly that their eyes were opened1 and many gave up the vain contest and contented themselves with compromise4 ,this had been rare under the ,umayyads2 the one or two canon lawyers who had thrown in their lot with them had been marked men4 ,az-,zuhri 7d4 #abd71 a man of the highest moral and theological reputation who played a very important part in the first codifying of traditions1 was one of these1 and the later pious historians have had hard work to smooth over his connection with the impious ,umayyads4 ,probably--it may be well to say here--the stories against the ,umayyads have been much heightened in color by their later tellers and also az-,zuhri1 being a man of insight and statesmanship1 may have recognized that their rule was the best chance for peace in the country4 ,muslims have come generally to accept the position that unbelief on the part of the government1 if the government is strong and just1 is better than true belief and anarchy4 ,this has found expression1 as all such things do1 in traditions put in the mouth of the ,prophet4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,the ,,abbasids ,but while only a few canonists had taken the part of the ,umayyads1 far more accepted the favors of the ,abbasids1 took office under them and worked in their cause4 ,the ,abbasids1 too1 had need of such men4 ,it was practically the religious sentiment of the people that had overthrown the ,umayyads and raised them to power2 and that religious sentiment1 though it could never be fully satisfied1 must yet be respected and1 more important still1 used4 ,there is a striking parallel between the situation then1 and that of ,scotland at the ,revolution ,settlement of #afhh4 ,the power of the ,stuarts--that is1 of the worldly ,umayyads--had been overthrown4 ,the oppressed ,church of the ,covenant--that is1 the old ,muslim party--had been freed4 ,the state was to be settled upon a new basis4 ,what was that basis to be8 ,the ,covenanting party demanded the recognition of the ,headship of ,christ--that the ,kirk should rule the state1 or should be the state1 and that all other religious views should be put under penalty4 ,the old ,muslim party looked for similar things4 ,that religious life should be purified2 that the canon law should be again the law of the state2 that the constitution of ,umar should be restored4 ,how the ,covenanters were disappointed1 how much they got and how much they failed to get1 needs no telling here4 ,exactly in the same way it befell the old ,muslims4 ,the theological reformation was sweeping and complete4 ,the first ,abbasids were pious1 at least outwardly2 the state was put upon a pious footing4 ,the canon law also was formally restored1 but with large practical modifications4 ,canon lawyers were received into the service of the state1 provided they were adaptable enough4 ,impossible men had no place under the ,abbasids2 their officials must be pliable and dexterous1 for a new modus vivendi was to be found4 ,the rough and ready ,umayyad cutting of the knot had failed2 the turn had now come for piety and dexterity in twisting law4 ,the court lawyers learned to drive a coach and four through any of the old statutes1 and found their fortunes in their brains4 ,so the issue was bridged4 ,but a large party of malcontents was left1 and from this time on in ,islam the lawyers and the theologians have divided into two classes1 the one admitting1 as a matter of expediency1 the authority of the powers of the time and aiding them in their task as rulers2 the other1 irreconcilable and unreconciled1 denouncing the state as sunk in unbelief and deadly sin and its lawyers as traitors to the cause of religion4 ,to pursue our parallel1 they are represented in ,scotland by a handful of ,covenanting congregations and in ,america by the much more numerous and powerful ,reformed ,presbyterian ,church4 ,it is a significant fact that with the lifting of the ,umayyad pressure and the encouragement of legal studies--such as it was--by the ,abbasids1 definite and recognized schools of law began to form4 ,what had so long been in process in secret became public1 and its results crystallized under certain prominent teachers4 ,we will now take up these schools in the order of the death dates of their founders2 we will establish their principles and trace their histories4 ,we shall find the same conceptions recurring again and again which have already been brought out1 ,qur'an1 tradition 7hadith71 agreement 7ijma71 opinion 7ra'y71 analogy 7qiyas71 local usage 7urf71 preference 7istihsan71 in the teeth of the written law--till at length1 when the battle is over1 the sources will have limited themselves to the four which have survived to the present day--,qur'an1 tradition1 agreement1 analogy4 ,and1 similarly1 of the six schools to be mentioned1 four only will remain to the present time1 but these of equal rank and validity in the eyes of the ,believers4 ,sidenote3 ,,abu ,,hanifa ,the ,abbasids came to power in the year of the ,hijra #acb1 and in #aej died ,abu ,hanifa1 the first student and teacher to leave behind him a systematic body of teaching and a missionary school of pupils4 ,he was a ,persian by race1 and perhaps the most distinguished example of the rule that ,muslim scientists and thinkers might write in ,arabic but were seldom of ,arab blood4 ,he does not seem to have held office as a judge or to have practised law at all4 ,he was1 rather1 an academic student1 a speculative or philosophical jurist we might call him4 ,his system of law1 therefore1 was not based upon the exigencies of experience2 it did not arise from an attempt to meet actual cases4 ,we might say of it1 rather1 but in a good sense1 that it was a system of casuistry1 an attempt to build up on scientific principles a set of rules which would answer every conceivable question of law4 ,in the hands of some of his pupils1 when applied to actual facts1 it tended to develop into casuistry in a bad sense2 but no charge of perverting justice for his own advantage seems to have been brought against ,abu ,hanifa himself4 ,his chief instruments in constructing his system were opinion and analogy4 ,he leaned little upon traditions of the usage of ,muhammad1 but preferred to take the ,qur'anic texts and develop from them his details4 ,but the doing of this compelled him to modify simple opinion--equivalent to equity as we have seen--and limit it to analogy of some written statute 7nass74 ,he could hardly forsake a plain res iudicata of ,muhammad1 and follow his own otherwise unsupported views1 but he might choose to do so if he could base it on analogy from the ,qur'an4 ,thus1 he came to use what was practically legal fiction4 ,it is the application of an old law in some sense or way that was never dreamt of by the first imposer of the law1 and which may1 in fact1 run directly counter to the purpose of the law4 ,the fiction is that it is the original law that is being observed1 while1 as a matter of fact1 there has come in its place an entirely different law4 ,so ,abu ,hanifa would contend that he was following the divine legislation of the ,qur'an1 while his adversaries contended that he was only following his own opinion4 ,but if1 on the one hand1 he was thus limited from equity to legal fiction1 on another he developed a new principle of even greater freedom4 ,reference has already been made to the changes which were of necessity involved in the new conditions of the countries conquered by the ,muslims4 ,often the law of the desert not only failed to apply to town and agricultural life2 it was even directly mischievous4 ,on account of this1 a consideration of local conditions was early accepted as a principle1 but in general terms4 ,these were reduced to definiteness by ,abu ,hanifa under the formula of 8holding for better0 7istihsan74 ,he would say1 8,the analogy in the case points to such and such a rule1 but under the circumstances ,i hold it for better to rule thus and thus40 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,qadi ,,abu ,,yusuf ,this method1 as we shall see later1 was vehemently attacked by his opponents1 as was his system in general4 ,yet that system by its philosophical perfection--due to its theoretical origin--and perfection in detail--due to generations of practical workers--has survived all attack and can now be said to be the leading one of the four existing schools4 ,no legal writings of ,abu ,hanifa have reached us1 nor does he seem to have1 himself1 cast his system into a finished code4 ,that was done by his immediate pupils1 and especially by two1 the ,qadi ,abu ,yusuf1 who died in #ahb1 and ,muhammad ibn al-,hasan1 who died in #ahi4 ,the first was consulting lawyer and chief ,qadi to the great ,khalifa ,harun ar-,rashid1 and1 if stories can be believed1 proved himself as complaisant of conscience as a court casuist need be4 ,innumerable are the tales afloat of his minute knowledge of legal subtleties and his fertility of device in applying them to meet the whims of his master1 ,harun4 ,some of them have found a resting place in that great mirror of medival ,muslim life1 ,the ,thousand and ,one ,nights2 reference may be made to ,night #bif4 ,through his influence1 the school of ,abu ,hanifa gained an official importance which it never thereafter lost4 ,he wrote for ,harun a book which we have still1 on the canon law as applied to the revenues of the state1 a thorny and almost impossible subject1 for the canon law makes really no provision for the necessary funds of even a simple form of government and much less for such an array of palaces and officials as had grown up around the ,abbasids4 ,his book is marked by great piety in expression and by ability of the highest kind in reconciling the irreconcilable4 ,but all the canon lawyers did not fall in so easily with the new ways4 ,many found that only in asceticism1 in renunciation of the world and engaging in pious exercises was there any chance of their maintaining the old standards in a state that was for them based on oppression and robbery4 ,one of these was ,sufyan ath-,thawri1 a lawyer of high repute1 who narrowly missed founding a separate school of law and who died in #afa4 ,there has come down to us a correspondence between him and ,harun1 which1 though it cannot possibly be genuine1 throws much light on the disappointment of the sincerely religious section4 ,harun writes on his accession to the ,khalifate 7#agj71 complaining that ,sufyan had not visited him1 in spite of their bond of brotherhood1 and offering him wealth from the public treasury4 ,sufyan replied1 denouncing such use of public funds and all the other uses of them by ,harun--many enough--except those precisely laid down in the codes4 ,on the basis of these1 ,harun would have had to work for his own living4 ,there are also other denunciations for crimes in the ruler which he punished in others4 ,harun is said to have kept the letter and wept over it at intervals1 but no change of life on his part is recorded4 ,apparently1 with the accession of the ,abbasids ascetic and mystical ,islam made a great development4 ,it became plain to the pious that no man could inherit both this world and the next4 ,while ,abu ,hanifa was developing his system in ,mesopotamia1 al-,awza#8i was working similarly in ,syria4 ,he was born at ,baalbec1 lived at ,damascus1 and at ,beyrout where he died in #aeg4 ,of him and his teaching we know comparatively little4 ,but so far it is clear that he was not a speculative jurist of the same type as ,abu ,hanifa1 but paid especial attention to traditions4 ,at one time his school was followed by the ,muslims of ,syria and the entire ,west to ,morocco and ,spain4 ,but its day was a short one4 ,the school of ,abu ,hanifa1 championed by ,abu ,yusuf with his tremendous influence as chief ,qadi of the ,abbasid empire1 pushed it aside1 and at the present day it has no place except in history4 ,for us1 its interest is that of another witness to the early rise and spread of systems of jurisprudence outside of ,arabia4 ,sidenote3 ,,malik ,,ibn ,,anas ,in ,a4,h4 #agi1 three years before the death of ,abu ,yusuf and twenty-nine after that of ,abu ,hanifa1 there died at al-,madina the founder and head of an independent school of a very different type4 ,this was ,malik ibn ,anas1 under whose hands what we may call1 for distinction1 the historical school of al-,madina took form4 ,al-,madina1 it will be remembered1 was the mother-city of ,muslim law4 ,it was the special home of the traditions of the ,prophet and the scene of his legislative and judicial life4 ,its pre-,islamic customary law had been sanctioned1 in a sense1 by his use4 ,it had been the capital of the state in its purest days4 ,from the height of all these privileges its traditionists and lawyers looked down upon the outsiders and parvenus who had begun to intermeddle in sacred things4 ,but it must not be thought that this school was of a rigid traditionism4 ,the case was quite the reverse1 and in many respects it is hard to make a distinction between it and that of ,abu ,hanifa4 ,its first source was1 of necessity1 the ,qur'an4 ,then came the usage of the ,prophet4 ,this merged into the usage of the ,successors of the ,prophet and the unwritten custom of the town4 ,it will be seen that here the historical weight of the place came to bear4 ,no other place1 no other community1 could furnish that later tradition with anything like the same authority4 ,further1 ,malik ibn ,anas was a practical jurist1 a working judge4 ,he was occupied in meeting real cases from day to day4 ,when he sat in public and judged the people1 or with his pupils around him and expounded and developed the law1 he could look back upon a line of canon lawyers who had sat in his place and done as he was doing4 ,in that lies the great difference4 ,he was in practical touch with actual life2 that was one point2 and1 secondly1 he was in the direct line of the apostolic succession1 and in the precise environment of the ,prophet4 ,so when he went beyond ,qur'an1 prophetic usage1 agreement1 and gave out decisions on simple opinion1 the feeling of the community justified him4 ,it was a different thing for ,malik ibn ,anas1 sitting there in state in al-,madina1 to use his judgment1 than for some quick-brained vagabond of a ,persian or ,syrian proselyte1 some pauvre diable with neither kith nor kin in the country1 to lay down principles of law4 ,so the pride of the city of the ,prophet distinguished between him and ,abu ,hanifa4 ,but though the speculative element in the school of ,malik1 apart from its local and historical environment1 which gave it unifying weight1 was essentially the same as in the school of ,abu ,hanifa1 yet it is true that at al-,madina it played a less important part4 ,malik used tradition more copiously and took refuge in opinion less frequently4 ,without opinion1 he could not have built his system2 but for him it was not so much a primary principle as a means of escape4 ,yet one principle of great freedom he did derive from it and lay down with clearness2 it is the conception of the public advantage 7istislah74 ,when a rule would work general injury it is to be set aside even in the teeth of a valid analogy4 ,this1 it will be seen1 is nearly the same as the preference of ,abu ,hanifa4 ,the technical term istislah1 chosen by ,malik to express his idea1 was probably intended to distinguish it from that of ,abu ,hanifa1 and also to suggest in the public advantage 7maslaha7 a more valid basis than the mere preference of the legist4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,agreement ,another conception which ,malik and his school developed into greater exactitude and force was that of the agreement 7ijma74 ,it will be remembered that from the death of ,muhammad all the surviving ,companions resident in al-,madina formed a kind of consultive council to aid the ,khalifa with their store of tradition and experience4 ,their agreement on any point was final2 it was the voice of the ,church4 ,this doctrine of the infallibility of the body of the believers developed in ,islam until at its widest it was practically the same as the canon of catholic truth formulated by ,vincent of ,lerins1 ,quod ubique1 quod semper1 quod ab omnibus4 ,but ,malik1 according to the usual view1 had no intention of granting any such deciding power to the outside world4 ,the world for him was al-,madina and the agreement of al-,madina established catholic verity4 ,yet there are narratives which suggest that he approved the agreement and local usage of al-,madina for al-,madina because they suited al-,madina4 ,other places might also have their local usages which suited them better4 ,in the next school we shall find the principle of agreement put upon a broader basis and granted greater weight4 ,finally1 ,malik is the first founder of a system from whom a law book1 the ,muwatta mentioned above1 has come down to us4 ,it is not in the exact sense1 a manual or code2 rather a collection of materials for a code with remarks by the collector4 ,he gives the traditions which seem to him of juristic importance--about seventeen hundred in all--arranged according to subject1 and follows up each section1 when necessary1 with remarks upon the usage of al-,madina1 and upon his own view of the matter4 ,when he cannot find either tradition or usage1 he evidently feels himself of sufficient authority to follow his own opinion1 and lay down on that basis a binding rule4 ,this1 however1 as we have seen1 is very different from allowing other people1 outsiders to al-,madina1 to do the same thing4 ,the school founded by ,malik ibn ,anas on these principles is one of the surviving four4 ,as that of ,abu ,hanifa spread eastward1 so that of ,malik spread westward1 and for a time crushed out all others4 ,the firm grip which it has especially gained in western ,north ,africa may be due to the influence of the ,idrisids whose founder had to flee from al-,madina when ,malik was in the height of his reputation there1 and also to hatred of the ,abbasids who championed the school of ,abu ,hanifa4 ,but now we pass from simple development to development through conflict4 ,open conflict1 so far as there had been any1 had covered points of detail2 for example1 the kind of opinion professed by ,abu ,hanifa1 on the one hand1 and by ,malik1 on the other4 ,one of the chiefest of the pupils of ,abu ,hanifa1 the ,muhammad ibn al-,hasan already mentioned1 spent three years in study with ,malik at al-,madina and found no difficulty in thus combining his schools4 ,the conflict of the future was to be different and to touch the very basis of things4 ,the muttering of the coming storm had been heard for long1 but it was now to burst4 ,exact dates we cannot give1 but the reaction must have been progressing in the latter part of the life of ,malik ibn ,anas4 ,sidenote3 ,,historical ,v4 ,,philosophical ,,lawyers ,the distinction drawn above between traditionists and lawyers will be remembered1 and the promise of future collision which always has come between historical or empirical1 and speculative or philosophical students of systems of jurisprudence4 ,the one side points to the absurdities1 crudities1 and inadequacies of a system based upon tradition and developing by usage2 the other says that we are not wise enough to rewrite the laws of our ancestors4 ,these urge a necessity2 those retort an inability4 ,add to this a belief on the part of the traditionists that they were defending a divine institution and the situation is complete as it now lay in ,islam4 ,the extreme right said that law should be based on ,qur'an and tradition only2 the extreme left1 that it was better to leave untrustworthy and obscure traditions and work out a system of rules by logic and the necessities of the case4 ,to and fro between these two extremes swayed the conflict to which we now come4 ,in that conflict three names stand out3 ash-,shafi#8i who died in #bjd1 ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal who died in #bda and ,da'ud az-,zahiri who died in #bgj4 ,strangely enough1 the first of these1 ash-,shafi#8i1 struck the mediating note and the other two diverged further and further from the via media thus shown toward a blank traditionism4 ,ash-,shafi#8i is without question one of the greatest figures in the history of law4 ,perhaps he had not the originality and keenness of ,abu ,hanifa2 but he had a balance of mind and temper1 a clear vision and full grasp of means and ends that enabled him to say what proved to be the last word in the matter4 ,after him came attempts to tear down2 but they failed4 ,the fabric of the ,muslim canon law stood firm4 ,there is a tradition from the ,prophet that he promised that with the end of every century would come a restorer of the faith of his people4 ,at the end of the first century was the pious ,khalifa1 ,umar ibn ,abd al-,aziz1 who by some accident strayed in among the ,umayyads4 ,at the end of the second came ash-,shafi#8i4 ,his work was to mediate and systematize and bore especially on the sources from which rules of law might be drawn4 ,his position on the positive side may be stated as one of great reverence for tradition4 8,if you ever find a tradition from the ,prophet saying one thing10 he is reported to have said1 8and a decision from me saying another thing1 follow the tradition40 ,an absolutely authentic--according to ,muslim rules of evidence--and clear tradition from the ,prophet he regarded as of equally divine authority with a passage in the ,qur'an4 ,both were inspired utterances1 if slightly different in form2 the ,qur'an was verbally inspired2 such traditions were inspired as to their content4 ,and if such a tradition contradicted a ,qur'anic passage and came after it in time1 then the written law of the ,qur'an was abrogated by the oral law of the tradition4 ,but this involved grave difficulties4 ,the speculative jurists had defended their position from the beginning by pointing to the many contradictory traditions which were afloat1 and asking how the house of tradition could stand when so divided against itself4 ,a means of reconciling traditions had to be found1 and to this ash-,shafi#8i gave himself4 ,we need not go over his methods here2 they were the same that have always been used in such emergencies4 ,the worship of the letter led to the straining of the letter1 and to explaining away of the letter4 ,sidenote3 ,,agreement ,,as ,a ,,source ,but there lay a rock in his course more dangerous than any mere contradiction in differing traditions4 ,usages had grown up and taken fast hold which were in the teeth of all traditions4 ,these usages were in the individual life1 in the constitution of the state1 and in the rules and decisions of the law courts4 ,the pious theologian and lawyer might rage against them as he chose2 they were there1 firmly rooted1 immovable4 ,they were not arbitrary changes1 but had come about in the process of time through the revolutions of circumstances and varying conditions4 ,ash-,shafi#8i showed his greatness by recognizing the inevitable and providing a remedy4 ,this lay in an extension of the principle of agreement and the erection of it into a formal source4 ,whatever the community of ,islam has agreed upon at any time1 is of ,god4 ,we have met this principle before1 but never couched in so absolute and catholic a form4 ,the agreement of the immediate ,companions of ,muhammad had weight with his first ,successors4 ,the agreement of these first ,companions and of the first generation after them1 had determining weight in the early church4 ,the agreement of al-,madina had weight with ,malik ibn ,anas4 ,the agreement of many divines and legists always had weight of a kind4 ,among lawyers1 a principle1 to the contrary of which the memory of man ran not1 had been determining4 ,but this was wider1 and from this time on the unity of ,islam was assured4 ,the evident voice of the ,people of ,muhammad was to be the voice of ,god4 ,yet this principle1 if full of hope and value for the future1 involved the canonists of the time in no small difficulties4 ,was it conceivable that the agreement could override the usage of the ,prophet8 ,evidently not4 ,there must1 then1 they argued1 once have existed some tradition to the same effect as the agreement1 although it had now been lost4 ,some such lost authority must be presupposed4 ,this can remind us of nothing so much as of the theory of the inerrant but lost original of the ,scriptures4 ,and it had the fate of that theory4 ,the weight of necessity forced aside any such trifling and the position was frankly admitted that the agreement of the community was a safer and more certain basis than traditions from the ,prophet4 ,traditions were alleged to that effect4 8,my ,people will never agree in an error10 declared ,muhammad1 or1 at least1 the later church made him so declare4 ,sidenote3 ,,analogy2 ,,the ,,four ,,sources ,but ash-,shafi#8i found that even the addition of agreement to ,qur'an and ,prophetic usage did not give him basis enough for his system4 ,opinion he utterly rejected2 the preference of ,abu ,hanifa and the conception of the common welfare of ,malik ibn ,anas were alike to him4 ,it is true also that both had been practically saved under agreement4 ,but he held fast by analogy1 whether based on the ,qur'an or on the usage of the ,prophet4 ,it was an essential instrument for his purpose4 ,as was said1 8,the laws of the ,qur'an and of the usage are limited2 the possible cases are unlimited2 that which is unlimited can never be contained in that which is limited40 ,but in ash-,shafi#8i's use of analogy there is a distinction to be observed4 ,in seeking to establish a parallelism between a case that has arisen and a rule in the ,qur'an or usage1 which is similar in some points but not precisely parallel1 are we to look to external points of resemblance1 or may we go further and seek to determine the reason 7illa7 lying behind the rule and from that draw our analogy8 ,the point seems simple enough and the early speculative jurists sought the reason4 ,for that they were promptly attacked by the traditionists4 ,such a method was an attempt to look into the mysteries of ,god1 they were told2 man has no business to inquire after reasons1 all he has to do is to obey4 ,the point thus raised was fought over for centuries and schools are classified according to their attitude toward it4 ,the position of ash-,shafi#8i seems to have been that the reason for a command was to be considered in drawing an analogy1 but that there must be some clear guide1 in the text itself1 pointing to the reason4 ,he thus left himself free to consider the causes of the divine commands and yet produced the appearance of avoiding any irreverence or impiety in doing so4 ,such then are the four sources or bases 7asls7 of jurisprudence as accepted and defined by ash-,shafi#8i--,qur'an1 prophetic usage1 analogy1 agreement4 ,the last has come to bear more and more weight4 ,every ,shafi#8ite law book begins each section with words to this effect1 8,the basis of this rule1 before the agreement 7qabla-l-ijma71 is0 ,qur'an or usage as the case may be4 ,the agreement must put its stamp on every rule to make it valid4 ,further1 all the now existing schools have practically accepted ash-,shafi#8i's classification of the sources and many have contended that a lawyer1 no matter what his school1 who does not use all these four sources1 cannot be permitted to act as a judge4 ,ash-,shafi#8i has accomplished his own definition of a true jurist1 8,not he is a jurist who gathers statements and prefers one of them1 but he who establishes a new principle from which a hundred branches may spring40 ,sidenote3 ,,da',,ud ,,az-,,zahiri ,but the extreme traditionists were little satisfied with this compromise4 ,they objected to analogy and they objected to agreement2 nothing but the pure law of ,god and the ,prophet would satisfy them4 ,and their numbers were undoubtedly large4 ,the common people always heard traditions gladly1 and it was easy to turn to ridicule the subtleties of the professional lawyers4 ,how much simpler1 it struck the average mind1 it would be to follow some clear and unambiguous saying of the ,prophet2 then one could feel secure4 ,this desire of the plain man to take traditions and interpret them strictly and literally was met by the school of ,da'ud az-,zahiri1 ,david the literalist4 ,he was born three or four years before the death of ash-,shafi#8i1 which occurred in #bjd4 ,he was trained as a ,shafi#8ite and that1 too1 of the narrower1 more traditional type2 but it was not traditional enough for him4 ,so he had to cut himself loose and form a school of his own4 ,he rejected utterly analogy2 he limited agreement1 as a source1 to the agreement of the immediate ,companions of ,muhammad1 and in this he has been followed by the ,wahhabites alone among moderns2 he limited himself to ,qur'an and prophetic usage4 ,in another point also1 he diverged4 ,ash-,shafi#8i had evidently exercised a very great personal influence upon his followers4 ,all looked up to him and were prepared to swear to his words4 ,so there grew up a tendency for a scholar to take a thing upon the word of his master4 8,ash-,shafi#8i taught so2 ,i am a ,shafi#8ite and ,i hold so40 ,this1 too1 ,da'ud utterly rejected4 ,the scholar must examine the proofs for himself and form his own opinion4 ,but he had another peculiarity1 and one which gained him the name of literalist4 ,everything1 ,qur'an and tradition1 must be taken in the most exact sense1 however absurd it might be4 ,of course1 to have gone an inch beyond the very first meaning of the words would have been to stray in the direction of analogy4 ,yet1 as fate would have it1 to analogy1 more or less1 he had in the end to come4 ,the inexorable law that the limited cannot bound the unlimited was proved again4 8,analogy is like carrion10 confessed a very much earlier traditionist1 8when there is nothing else you eat it40 ,da'ud tried to make his meal more palatable by a change in name4 ,he called it a proof 7dalil7 instead of a source 7asl72 but what difference of idea he involved in that it is hard to determine4 ,this brought him to the doctrine of cause1 already mentioned4 ,were we at liberty to seek the cause of a divine word or action and lead our 8proof0 from that8 ,if the cause was directly stated1 then ,da'ud held that we must regard it as having been the cause in this case2 but we were not at liberty1 he added1 to look for it1 or on it1 as cause in any other case4 ,it is evident that here we have to do with an impossible man and school1 and so the ,muslim world found4 ,most said roundly that it was illegal to permit a ,zahirite to act as judge1 on much the same grounds that objection to circumstantial evidence will throw out a man now as juror4 ,if they had been using modern language1 they would have said that it was because he was a hopeless crank4 ,yet the ,zahirite school lasted for centuries and drew long consequences1 historical and theological1 for which there is no space here4 ,it never held rank as an acknowledged school of ,muslim law4 ,we now come to the last of the four schools1 and it1 strange as its origin was1 need not detain us long4 ,the ,zahirite reaction had failed through its very extremeness4 ,it was left to a dead man and a devoted ,shafi#8ite to head the last attack upon the school of his master4 ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal was a theologian of the first rank2 he made no claim to be a constructive lawyer4 ,his ,musnad has already been dealt with4 ,it is an immense collection of some thirty thousand traditions1 but these are not even arranged for legal purposes4 ,he suffered terribly for the orthodox faith in the rationalist persecution under the ,khalifa al-,ma'mun1 and his sufferings gained him the position of a saint4 ,but he never dreamed of forming a school1 least of all in opposition to his master1 ash-,shafi#8i4 ,he died in #bda1 and after his death his disciples drew together and the fourth school was founded4 ,it was simply reactionary and did not make progress in any way4 ,it minimized agreement and analogy and tended toward literal interpretation4 ,as might be expected from its origin1 its history has been one of violence1 of persecution and counter-persecution1 of insurrection and riot4 ,again and again the streets of ,baghdad ran blood from its excesses4 ,it has now the smallest following of the four surviving schools4 ,sidenote3 ,,principles ,,of ,,unity ,,and ,,variety ,there is no need to pursue this history further4 ,with ash-,shafi#8i the great development of ,muslim jurisprudence closes4 ,legislation1 equity1 legal fiction have done their parts2 the hope for the future lay1 and lies1 in the principle of the agreement4 ,the common-sense of the ,muslim community1 working through that expression of catholicity1 has set aside in the past even the undoubted letter of the ,qur'an1 and in the future will still further break the grasp of that dead hand4 ,it is the principle of unity in ,islam4 ,but there is a principle of variety as well4 ,the four schools of law whose origin has been traced are all equally valid and their decisions equally sacred in ,muslim eyes4 ,the believer may belong to any one of these which he chooses2 he must belong to one2 and when he has chosen his school1 he accepts it and its rules to the uttermost4 ,yet he does not cast out as heretics the followers of the other schools4 ,in every chapter their codes differ more or less2 but each school bears with the others2 sometimes1 it may be1 with a superior tone1 but still bears4 ,this liberty of variety in unity is again undoubtedly due to the agreement4 ,it has expressed itself1 as it often does1 in apocryphal traditions from the ,prophet1 the last rag of respect left to the traditionist school4 ,thus we are told that the ,prophet said1 8,the disagreement of ,my ,people is a ,mercy from ,god40 ,this supplements and completes the other equally apocryphal but equally important tradition3 8,my ,people will never agree upon an error40 ,but there is a third principle at work which we cannot view with the same favor4 ,as said above1 every ,muslim must attach himself to a legal school1 and may choose any one of these four4 ,but once he has chosen his school he is absolutely bound by the decisions and rules of that school4 ,this is the principle against which the ,zahirites protested1 but their protest1 the only bit of sense they ever showed1 was in vain4 ,the result of its working throughout centuries has been that now no one--except from a spirit of historical curiosity--ever dreams of going back from the text-books of the present day to the works of the older masters4 ,further1 such an attempt to get behind the later commentaries would not be permitted4 ,we have comment upon comment upon comment1 abstract of this and expansion of that2 but each hangs by his predecessor and dares not go another step backward4 ,the great masters of the four schools settled the broad principles2 they were authorities of the first degree 7mujtahidun mutlaq71 second to ,muhammad in virtue of his inspiration only4 ,second1 came the masters who had authority within the separate schools 7mujtahidun fi-l-madhahib7 to determine the questions that arose there4 ,third1 masters of still lesser rank for minor points 7mujtahidun bil-fatwa74 ,and so the chain runs on4 ,the possibility of a new legal school arising or of any considerable change among these existing schools is flatly denied4 ,every legist now has his place and degree of liberty fixed1 and he must be content4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,canon ,,and ,,civil ,,codes ,these three principles1 then1 of catholic unity and its ability to make and abrogate laws1 of the liberty of diversity in that unity1 and of blind subjection to the past within that diversity1 these three principles must be our hope and fear for the ,muslim peoples4 ,what that future will be none can tell4 ,the grasp of the dead hand of ,islam is close1 but its grip at many points has been forced to relax4 ,very early1 as has already been pointed out1 the canon law had to give way to the will of the sovereign1 and ground once lost it has never regained4 ,now1 in every ,muslim country1 except perhaps the ,wahhabite state in central ,arabia1 there are two codes of law administered by two separate courts4 ,the one judges by this canon law and has cognizance of what we may call private and family affairs1 marriage1 divorce1 inheritance4 ,its judges1 at whose head in ,turkey stands the ,shaykh al-,islam1 a dignity first created by the ,ottoman ,sultan ,muhammad ,,ii in #adec1 after the capture of ,constantinople1 also give advice to those who consult them on such personal matters as details of the ritual law1 the law of oaths and vows1 etc4 ,the other court knows no law except the custom of the country 7urf1 ada7 and the will of the ruler1 expressed often in what are called ,qanuns1 statutes4 ,thus1 in ,turkey at the present day1 besides the codices of canon law1 there is an accepted and authoritative corpus of such ,qanuns4 ,it is based on the ,code ,napolon and administered by courts under the ,minister of ,justice4 ,this is the nearest approach in ,islam to the development by statute1 which comes last in ,sir ,henry ,maine's analysis of the growth of law4 ,the court guided by these ,qanuns decides all matters of public and criminal law1 all affairs between man and man4 ,such is the legal situation throughout the whole ,muslim world1 from ,sulu to the ,atlantic and from ,africa to ,china4 ,the canon lawyers1 on their side1 have never admitted this to be anything but flat usurpation4 ,there have not failed some even who branded as heretics and unbelievers those who took any part in such courts of the world and the devil4 ,they look back to the good old days of the rightly guided ,khalifas1 when there was but one law in ,islam1 and forward to the days of the ,mahdi when that law will be restored4 ,there1 between a dead past and a hopeless future1 we may leave them4 ,the real future is not theirs4 ,law is greater than lawyers1 and it works in the end for justice and life4 ,sidenote3 ,,distribution ,,of ,,schools ,finally1 it may be well to notice an important and necessary modification which holds as to the above statement that a ,muslim may choose any one of the four schools and may then follow its rules4 ,as might be expected1 geographical influences weigh overwhelmingly in this choice4 ,certain countries are ,hanifite or ,shafi#8ite2 in each1 adherents of the other sects are rare4 ,this geographical position may be given roughly as follows3 central ,asia1 northern ,india1 and the ,turks everywhere are ,hanifite4 ,lower ,egypt1 ,syria1 southern ,india and the ,malay ,archipelago are ,shafi#8ite4 ,upper ,egypt and ,north ,africa west of ,egypt are ,malikite4 ,practically1 only the ,wahhabites in central ,arabia are ,hanbalites4 ,further1 the position holds in ,islam that the country1 as a whole1 follows the legal creed of its ruler1 just as it follows his religion4 ,it is not only cuius regio eius religio1 but cuius religio eius lex4 ,again and again1 a revolution in the state has driven one legal school from power and installed another4 ,yet the situation occurs sometimes that a sovereign finds his people divided into two parties1 each following a different rite1 and he then recognizes both by appointing ,qadis belonging to both1 and enforcing the decisions of these ,qadis4 ,thus1 at ,zanzibar1 at present1 there are eight ,ibadite judges and two ,shafi#8ite1 all appointed by the ,sultan and backed by his authority4 ,on the other hand1 the ,turkish government1 ever since it felt itself strong enough1 has thrown the full weight of its influence on the ,hanifite side4 ,in almost all countries under its rule it appoints ,hanifite judges only2 valid legal decisions can be pronounced only according to that rite4 ,the private needs of non-,hanifites are met by the appointment of salaried ,muftis--givers of fatwas1 or legal opinions--of the other rites4 ,sidenote3 ,,ibadites ,in the above sketch there have been of necessity two considerable omissions4 ,the one is of ,shi#8ite and the other of ,ibadite law4 ,neither seems of sufficient importance to call for separate treatment4 ,the legal system of the ,shi#8ites is derived from that of the so-called ,sunnites and differs in details only4 ,we have seen already 7p4 #ch7 that the ,shi#8ites still have ,mujtahids who are not bound to the words of a master1 but can give decisions on their own responsibility4 ,these seem to have in their hands the teaching power which strictly belongs only to the ,hidden ,imam4 ,they thus represent the principle of authority which is the governing conception of the ,shi#8a4 ,the ,sunnites1 on the other hand1 have reached the point of recognizing that it is the ,people of ,muhammad as a whole which rules through its agreement4 ,in another point the ,shi#8ite conception of authority affects their legal system4 ,they utterly reject the idea of co-ordinate schools of law2 to the doctrine of the varying 7ikhtilaf7 as it is called1 and the liberty of diversity which lies in it1 they oppose the authority of the ,imam4 ,there can be only one truth and there can be no trifling with it even in details4 ,among the ,shi#8ites of the ,zaydite sect this was affected also by their philosophical studies and a philosophical doctrine of the unity of truth2 but to the ,imamites it is an authoritative necessity and not one of thought4 ,thus on two important points the ,shi#8ites lack the possibility of freedom and development which is to be found with the ,sunnites4 ,of the jurisprudence of the ,ibadites we know comparatively little4 ,a full examination of ,ibadite fiqh would be of the highest interest1 as the separation of its line of descent goes far back behind the formation of any of the orthodox systems and it must have been codified to a greater or less extent by ,abd ,allah ibn ,ibad himself4 ,its basis appears to be threefold1 ,qur'an1 prophetic usage1 agreement--naturally that of the ,ibadite community4 ,there is no mention of analogy1 and traditions seem to have been used sparingly and critically4 ,qur'an bore the principal emphasis4 ,see above1 7p4 #bf7 for the ,ibadite position on the form of the state and on the nature of its headship4 ,,part ,,iii ,theology4 ,,chapter ,i ,the three principles in the development2 first religious questionings2 ,murji'ites1 ,kharijites1 ,qadarites2 influence of ,christianity2 the ,umayyads and ,abbasids2 the ,mu#8tazilites2 the ,qualities of ,god2 the ,vision of ,god2 the creation of the ,qur'an4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,three ,,principles ,before entering upon a consideration of the development of the theology of ,islam1 it will be well to mark clearly the three principles which run continuously through that development1 which conditioned it for evil and for good and which are still working in it4 ,in dealing with jurisprudence and with the theory of the state1 we have already seen abundantly how false is the current idea that ,islam has ceased to grow and has no hope of future development4 ,the organism of ,islam1 like every other organism1 has periods of rest when it appears to have reached a cul de sac and to have outlived its life4 ,but after these periods come others of renewed quickening and its vital energy pours itself forth again alter et idem4 ,in the state1 we saw how the old realms passed into decrepitude and decay1 but new ones rose to take their places4 ,the despotism by the grace of ,god of formal ,islam was tempered by the sacred right of insurrection and revolution1 and the ,people of ,muhammad1 in spite of kings and princes1 asserted1 from time to time1 its unquenchable vitality4 ,in theology the spirit breathes through single chosen men more than through the masses2 and1 in consequence1 our treatment of it will take biographical form wherever our knowledge renders that possible4 ,but whether we have men or naked movements1 the begetters of which are names to us or less1 three threads are woven distinctly through the web of ,muslim religious thought4 ,there is tradition 7naql72 there is reason 7aql72 and there is the unveiling of the mystic 7kashf74 ,they were in the tissue of ,muhammad's brain and they have been in his church since he died4 ,now one would be most prominent1 now another1 according to the thinker of the time2 but all were present to some degree4 ,tradition in its strictest form lives now only with the ,wahhabites and the ,brotherhood of as-,sanusi2 reason has become a scholastic handmaid of theology except among the modern ,indian ,mu#8tazilites1 whom orthodox ,islam would no more accept as ,muslims than a ,trinitarian of the ,westminster confession would give the name of ,christian to a ,unitarian of the left wing2 the inner light of the mystic has assumed many forms1 running from plainest pantheism to mere devout ecstasy4 ,but in the church of ,muhammad they are all working still2 and the catholicity of ,islam1 in spite of zealots1 persecutions and counter-persecutions1 has attained here1 too1 as in law1 a liberty of variety in unity4 ,two of the principles we have met already in the students of hadith and of speculative law4 ,the ,hanbalites maintained in theology their devotion to tradition2 they fought for centuries all independent thinking which sought to rise above what the fathers had told2 they fought even scholastic theology of the strictest type and would be content with nothing but the rehearsal of the old dogmas in the old forms2 they fought1 too1 the mystical life in all its phases4 ,on the other hand1 ,abu ,hanifa was tinged with rationalism and speculation in theology as in law1 and his followers have walked in his path4 ,even the mystical light has been touched in our view of the theory of the state4 ,it has flourished most among the ,shi#8ites1 who are driven to seek and to find an inner meaning under the plain word of the ,qur'an1 and whose devotion to ,ali and his house and to their divine mission has kept alive the thought of a continuous speaking of ,god to mankind and of an exalting of mankind into the presence of ,god4 ,it is for the student1 then1 to watch and hold fast these three guiding threads4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the development of ,muslim theology1 like that of jurisprudence1 could not begin till after the death of ,muhammad4 ,so long as he lived and received infallible revelations in solution of all questions of faith or usage that might come up1 it is obvious that no system of theology could be formed or even thought of4 ,traditions1 too1 which have reached us1 even show him setting his face against all discussions of dogma and repeating again and again1 in answer to metaphysical and theological questions1 the crude anthropomorphisms of the ,qur'an4 ,but these questions and answers are probably forgeries of the later traditional school1 shadows of future warfare thrown back upon the screen of the patriarchal age4 ,again1 in the first twenty or thirty years after ,muhammad's death1 the ,muslims were too much occupied with the propagation of their faith to think what that faith exactly was4 ,thus1 it seems that the questioning spirit in this direction was aroused comparatively late and remained for some time on what might be called a private basis4 ,individual men had their individual views1 but sects did not quickly arise1 and when they did were vague and hard to define in their positions4 ,it may be said1 broadly1 that everything which has reached us about the early ,muslim heresies is uncertain1 confused and unsatisfactory4 ,names1 dates1 influences and doctrines are all seen through a haze1 and nothing more than an approximation to an outline can be attempted4 ,vague stories are handed down of the early questionings and disputings of certain ahl-al-ahwa1 8people of wandering desires10 a name singularly descriptive of the always flighty and sceptical ,arabs2 of how they compared ,scripture with ,scripture and got up theological debates1 splitting points and defining issues1 to great scandal and troubling of spirit among the simpler-minded pious4 ,these were not yet heretics2 they were the first investigators and systematizers4 ,sidenote3 ,,murji',,ites ,yet two sects loom up through the mist and their existence can be tolerably conditioned through the historical facts and philosophical necessities of the time4 ,the one is that of the ,murji'ites1 and the other of the ,qadarites4 ,a ,murji'ite is literally 8one who defers or postpones10 in this case postpones judgment until it is pronounced by ,god on the ,day of ,judgment4 ,they arose as a sect during and out of the civil war between the ,shi#8ites1 the ,kharijites and the ,umayyads4 ,all these parties claimed to be ,muslims1 and most of them claimed that they were the only true ,muslims and that the others were unbelievers4 ,this was especially the attitude of the ,shi#8ites and ,kharijites toward the ,umayyads2 to them1 the ,umayyads1 as we have seen already1 were godless heathen who professed ,islam1 but oppressed and slaughtered the true saints of ,god4 ,the ,murji'ites1 on the other hand1 worked out a view on which they could still support the ,umayyads without homologating all their actions and condemning all their opponents4 ,the ,umayyads1 they held1 were de facto the rulers of the ,muslim state2 fealty had been sworn to them and they confessed the ,unity of ,god and the apostleship of the ,prophet4 ,thus1 they were not polytheists1 and there is no sin that can possibly be compared with the sin of polytheism 7shirk74 ,it was1 therefore1 the duty of all ,muslims to acknowledge their sovereignty and to postpone until the secrets of the ,last ,day all judgment or condemnation of any sins they might have committed4 ,sins less than polytheism could justify no one in rising in revolt against them and in breaking the oath of fealty4 ,such seems to have been the origin of the ,murji'ites1 and it was the origin also of the theory of the accomplished fact in the state1 of which we have had to take account several times4 ,thus1 between the fanatical venerators of the canon law1 to whom all the ,khalifas1 after the first four1 were an abomination1 and the purely worldly lawyers of the court party1 there came a group of pious theologians who taught that the good of the ,muslim community required obedience to the ruler of the time1 even though his personal unworthiness were plain4 ,as a consequence1 success can legitimate anything in the ,muslim state4 ,but with the passing away of the situation which gave rise to ,murji'ism1 it itself changed from politics to theology4 ,as a political party it had opposed the political puritanism of the ,kharijites2 it now came to oppose the uncompromising spirit in which these damned all who differed from them even in details and brandished the terrors of the wrath of ,god over their opponents4 ,it is true that this came natural to ,islam4 ,the earlier ,muslims seem in general to have been oppressed by a singularly gloomy fatalism4 ,to use modern theological language1 they labored under a terrible consciousness of sin4 ,they viewed the world as an evil temptress1 seducing men from heavenly things4 ,their lives were hedged about with sins1 great and little1 and each deserved the eternal wrath of ,god4 ,the recollection of their latter end they kept ever before them and the terrors that it would bring1 for they felt that no amount of faith in ,god and ,his ,prophet could save them in the judgment to come4 ,the roots of this run far back4 ,before the time of ,muhammad and at his time there were among the ,arab tribes1 scattered here and there1 many men who felt a profound dissatisfaction with heathenism1 its doctrines and religious rites4 ,the conception of ,god and the burden of life pressed heavily upon them4 ,they saw men pass away and descend into the grave1 and they asked whither they had gone and what had become of them4 ,the thought of this fleeting1 transitory life and of the ocean of darkness and mystery that lies around it1 drove them away to seek truth in solitude and the deserts4 ,they were called ,hanifs--the word is of very doubtful derivation--and ,muhammad himself1 in the early part of his career1 reckoned himself one of them4 ,but we have evidence from heathen ,arab poetry that these ,hanifs were regarded as much the same as ,christian monks1 and that the term hanif was used as a synonym for rahib1 monk4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,wrath ,,of ,,god ,,in ,,islam ,and1 in truth1 the very soul of ,islam sprang from these solitary hermits1 scattered here and there throughout the desert1 consecrating their lives to ,god1 and fleeing from the wrath to come4 ,even in pre-,islamic ,arabic poetry we feel how strong was the impression made on the ,arab mind by the gaunt1 weird men with their endless watchings and night prayers4 ,again and again there is allusion to the lamp of the hermit shining through the darkness1 and we have pictures of the caravan or of the solitary traveller on the night journey cheered and guided by its glimmer4 ,these ,christian hermits and the long deserted ruins telling of old1 forgotten tribes--judged and overthrown by ,god1 as the ,arabs held and hold--that lie throughout the ,syrian waste and along the caravan routes were the two things that most stirred the imagination of ,muhammad and went to form his faith4 ,to ,muhammad1 and to the ,semite always1 the whole of life was but a long procession from the great deep to the great deep again4 ,where are the kings and rulers of the earth8 ,where are the peoples that were mighty in their day8 ,the hand of ,god smote them and they are not4 ,there is naught real in the world but ,god4 ,from ,him we are1 and unto ,him we return4 ,there is nothing for man but to fear and worship4 ,the world is deceitful and makes sport of them that trust it4 ,such is the oversong of all ,muslim thought1 the faith to which the ,semite ever returns in the end4 ,to this the later ,murji'ites opposed a doctrine of ,faith1 which was ,pauline in its sweep4 ,faith1 they declared1 saved1 and ,faith alone4 ,if the sinner believed in ,god and ,his ,prophet he would not remain in the fire4 ,the ,kharijites1 on the other hand1 held that the sinner who died unrepentant would remain therein eternally1 even though he had confessed ,islam with his lips4 ,the unrepentant sinner1 they considered1 could not be a believer in the true sense4 ,this is still the ,ibadite position1 and from it developed one of the most important controversies of ,islam as to the precise nature of faith4 ,some extreme ,murji'ites held that faith 7iman7 was a confession in the heart1 private intercourse with ,god1 as opposed to ,islam1 public confession with the lips4 ,thus1 one could be a believer 7mu'min71 and outwardly confess ,judaism or ,christianity2 to be a professed ,muslim was not necessary4 ,this is like the doctrine of the ,imamites1 called taqiya1 that it is allowable in time of stress to dissemble one's religious views2 and it is worth noticing that ,jahm ibn ,safwan 7killed1 #aca871 one of these extreme ,murji'ites1 was a ,persian proselyte in rebellion against the ,arab rule1 and of the loosest religious conduct4 ,but these ,antinomians were no more ,muslims than the ,anabaptists of ,munster had a claim to be ,christians4 ,the other wing of the ,murji'ites is represented by ,abu ,hanifa1 who held that faith 7iman7 is acknowledgment with the tongue as well as the heart and that works are a necessary supplement4 ,this is little different from the orthodox position which grew up1 that persuasion1 confession1 and works made up faith4 ,when ,murji'ism dropped out of existence as a sect it left as its contribution to ,islam a distinction between great and little sins 7kabiras1 saghiras71 and the position that even great sins1 if not involving polytheism 7shirk71 would not exclude the believer forever from the ,garden4 ,sidenote3 ,,qadarites ,the second sect1 that of ,qadarites1 had its origin in a philosophical necessity of the human mind4 ,a perception of the contradiction between man's consciousness of freedom and responsibility1 on the one hand1 and the absolute rule and predestination of ,god1 on the other1 is the usual beginning of the thinking life1 both in individuals and in races4 ,it was so in ,islam4 ,in theology as in law1 ,muhammad had been an opportunist pure and simple4 ,on the one hand1 his ,allah is the absolute ,semitic despot who guides aright and leads astray1 who seals up the hearts of men and opens them again1 who is mighty over all4 ,on the other hand1 men are exhorted to repentance1 and punishment is threatened against them if they remain hardened in their unbelief4 ,all these phases of a wandering and intensely subjective mind1 which lived only in the perception of the moment1 appear in the ,qur'an4 ,muhammad was a poet rather than a theologian2 just as he was a prophet rather than a legislator4 ,as soon1 then1 as the ,muslims paused in their career of conquest and began to think at all1 they thought of this4 ,naturally1 so long as they were fighting in the ,path of ,god1 it was the conception of ,god's absolute sovereignty which most appealed to them2 by it their fates were fixed1 and they charged without fear the ranks of the unbelievers4 ,in these earliest times1 the fatalistic passages bore most stress and the others were explained away4 ,this helped1 at least1 to bring it about that the party which in time came to profess the freedom of man's will1 began and ended as an heretical sect4 ,but it only helped1 and we must never lose sight of the fact that the eventual victory in ,islam of the absolute doctrine of ,god's eternal decree was the victory of the more fundamental of ,muhammad's conflicting conceptions4 ,the other had been much more a campaigning expedient4 ,this sect of ,qadarites1 whose origin we have been conditioning1 derived its name from their position that a man possessed qadar1 or power1 over his actions4 ,one of the first of them was a certain ,ma#8bad al-,juhani1 who paid for his heresy with his life in ,a4,h4 #hj4 ,historians tell that he with ,ata ibn ,yassar1 another of similar opinions1 came one day to the celebrated ascetic1 al-,hasan al-,basri 7d4 #aaj71 and said1 8,o ,abu ,sa#8id1 those kings shed the blood of the ,muslims1 and do grievous things and say that their works are by the decree of ,god40 ,to this al-,hasan replied1 8,the enemies of ,god lie40 ,the story is only important as showing how the times and their changes were widening men's thoughts4 ,very soon1 now1 we come from these drifting tendencies to a formal sect with a formal secession and a fixed name4 ,the ,murji'ites and the ,qadarites melt from the scene1 some of their tenets pass into orthodox ,islam2 some into the new sect4 ,sidenote3 ,,origin ,,of ,,mu',,tazilites ,the story of its founding again connects with the outstanding figure of al-,hasan al-,basri4 ,he seems to have been the chief centre of the religious life and movements of his time2 his pupils appear and his influence shows itself in all the later schools4 ,someone came to him as he sat among his pupils and asked what his view was between the conflicting ,murji'ites and ,wa#8idites1 the first holding that the committer of a great sin1 if he had faith1 was not an unbeliever1 was to be accepted as a ,muslim and his case left in the hands of ,god2 the other laying more stress upon the threats 7wa#8id7 in the ,book of ,god and teaching that the committer of a great sin could not be a believer1 that he had1 ipso facto1 abandoned the true faith1 must go into the ,fire and abide there4 ,before the master could reply1 one of his pupils--some say ,amr ibn ,ubayd 7d4 circ4 #add71 others1 ,wasil ibn ,ata 7d4 #aca7--;broke in with the assertion of an intermediate position4 ,such an one was neither a believer nor an unbeliever4 ,then he left the circle which sat round the master1 went to another part of the mosque and began to develop his view to those who gathered round him4 ,the name believer 7mu'min71 he taught1 was a term of praise1 and an evil-doer was not worthy of praise1 and could not have that name applied to him4 ,but he was not an unbeliever1 either1 for he assented to the faith4 ,if he1 then1 died unrepentant1 he must abide forever in the ,fire--for there are only two divisions in the next world1 heaven and hell--but his torments would be mitigated on account of his faith4 ,the position to which orthodox ,islam eventually came was that a believer could commit a great sin4 ,if he did so1 and died unrepentant1 he went to hell2 but after a time would be permitted to enter heaven4 ,thus1 hell became for believers a sort of purgatory4 ,on this secession1 al-,hasan only said 8,i#8tazala anna0--,he has seceded from us4 ,so the new party was called the ,mu#8tazila1 the ,secession4 ,that1 at least1 is the story1 which may be taken for what it is worth4 ,the fixed facts are the rise at the beginning of the second century after the ,hijra of a tolerably definite school of dissenters from the traditional ideas1 and their application of reason to the dogmas of the ,qur'an4 ,we have noted already the influence of ,christianity on ,muhammad through the hermits of the desert4 ,from it sprang the asceticism of ,islam and that asceticism grew and developed into quietism and thence into mysticism4 ,the last step was still in the future1 but already at this time there were wandering monks who imitated their ,christian brethren in the wearing of a coarse woollen frock and were thence called ,sufis1 from suf1 wool4 ,it was not long before ,sufi came to mean mystic1 and the third of the three great threads was definitely woven into the fabric of ,muslim thought4 ,but that was not the limit of ,christian influence4 ,those anchorites in their caves and huts had little training in the theology of the schools2 the dogmas of their faith were of a practical simplicity4 ,but in the development of the ,murji'ites and ,qadarites it is impossible to mistake the workings of the dialectic refinements of ,greek theology as developed in the ,byzantine and ,syrian schools4 ,it is worth notice1 too1 that1 while the political heresies of the ,shi#8ites and ,kharijites held sway mostly in ,arabia1 ,mesopotamia1 and ,persia1 these more religious heresies seem to have arisen in ,syria first and especially at ,damascus1 the seat of the ,umayyads4 ,sidenote3 ,,influence ,,of ,,john ,,of ,,damascus ,the ,umayyad dynasty1 we should remember1 was in many ways a return to pre-,muslim times and to an easy enjoyment of worldly things2 it was a rejection of the yoke of ,muhammad in all but form and name4 ,the fear of the wrath of ,god had small part with the most of them2 sometimes it appeared in the form of an insane rebellion and defiance4 ,further1 as ,muslim governments always have done1 they sought aid in their task of governing from their non-,muslim subjects4 ,so it came about that ,sergius1 the father of ,johannes ,damascenus1 was treasurer under them and that after his death1 this ,john of ,damascus himself1 the last great doctor of the ,greek ,church and the man under whose hands its theology assumed final form1 became wazir and held that post until he withdrew from the world and turned to the contemplative life4 ,in his writings and in those of his pupil1 ,theodoras ,abucara 7d4 ,a4,d4 #hbf71 there are polemic treatises on ,islam1 cast in the form of discussions between ,christians and ,muslims4 ,these represent1 there can be little doubt1 a characteristic of the time4 ,the close agreement of ,murji'ite and ,qadarite ideas with those formulated and defended by ,john of ,damascus and by the ,greek ,church generally can only be so explained4 ,the ,murji'ite rejection of eternal punishment and emphasis on the goodness of ,god and ,his love for ,his creatures1 the ,qadarite doctrine of free-will and responsibility1 are to be explained in the same way as we have already explained the presence of sentences in the ,muslim fiqh which seem to be taken bodily from the ,roman codes4 ,in this case1 also1 we are not to think of the ,muslim divines as studying the writings of the ,greek fathers1 but as picking up ideas from them in practical intercourse and controversy4 ,the very form of the tract of ,john of ,damascus is significant1 8,when the ,saracen says to you such and such1 then you will reply44440 ,this1 as a whole1 is a subject which calls for investigation1 but so far it is clear that the influence of ,greek theology on ,islam can hardly be overestimated4 ,the one outstanding fact of the enormous emphasis laid by both on the doctrine of the nature of ,god and ,his attributes is enough4 ,it may even be conjectured that the harsher views developed by western ,muslims1 and especially by the theologians of ,spain1 were due1 on the other hand1 to ,augustinian and ,roman influence4 ,it is1 to say the least1 a curious coincidence that ,spanish ,islam never took kindly to metaphysical or scholastic theology1 in the exact sense1 but gave almost all its energy to canon law4 ,sidenote3 ,,influences ,,at ,,baghdad ,but there were other influences to come4 ,with the fall of the ,umayyads and the rise of the ,abbasids1 the intellectual centre of the empire moved to the basin of the ,euphrates and the ,tigris4 ,the story of the founding of ,baghdad there1 in #ade1 we have already heard4 ,we have seen1 too1 that the victory of the ,abbasids was1 in a sense1 a conquest of the ,arabs by the ,persians4 ,grcia capta and the rest came true here2 the battles of al-,qadisiya and ,nahawand were avenged2 ,persian ideas and ,persian religion began slowly to work on the faith of ,muhammad4 ,at the court of the earliest ,abbasids it was fashionable to affect a little free thought4 ,people were becoming enlightened and played with philosophy and science4 ,greek philosophy1 ,zoroastrianism1 ,manichism1 the old heathenism of ,harran1 ,judaism1 ,christianity--all were in the air and making themselves felt4 ,so long as the adherents and teachers of these took them in a purely academic way1 were good subjects and made no trouble1 the earlier ,abbasids encouraged their efforts1 gathered in the scientific harvest1 paid well for translations1 instruments1 and investigations1 and generally posed as patrons of progress4 ,but a line had to be drawn somewhere and drawn tightly4 ,the victory of the ,abbasids had raised high hopes among the ,persian nationalists4 ,they had thought that they were rallying to the overthrow of the ,arabs1 and found1 when all was done1 that they had got only another ,arab dynasty4 ,so revolts had begun to break out afresh1 and now1 curiously enough1 they were of a marked religious character4 ,they were an expression of religious sects1 ,buddhistic1 ,zoroastrian1 ,manichan1 and parties with prophetic leaders of their own2 all are swept together by ,muslim writers as ,zindiqs1 probably literally1 8initiates10 originally ,manichans1 thereafter1 practically non-,muslims concealing their unbelief4 ,for when not in open revolt they must needs profess ,islam4 ,in #afg1 we find al-,mahdi1 who was also1 it is true1 much more strict than his father1 al-,mansur1 appointing a grand inquisitor to deal with such heretics4 ,al-,mansur1 however1 had contented himself with crushing actual rebellion2 and ,christian1 ,jew1 ,zoroastrian1 and heathen of ,harran were tolerated so long as they brought to him the fruits of ,greek science and philosophy4 ,that they did willingly1 and so1 through three intermediaries1 science came to the ,arabs4 ,there was a heathen ,syrian source with its centre at ,harran1 of which we know comparatively little4 ,there was a ,christian ,syrian source working from the multitudinous monasteries scattered over the country4 ,there was a ,persian source by which natural science1 and medicine especially1 were passed on4 ,already in the fifth century ,a4,d4 an academy of medicine and philosophy had been founded at ,gondeshapur in ,khuzistan4 ,one of the directors of this institution was summoned1 in #adh1 to prescribe for al-,mansur1 and from that time on it furnished court physicians to the ,abbasids4 ,on these three paths1 then1 ,aristotle and ,plato1 ,euclid and ,ptolemy1 ,galen and ,hippocrates reached the ,muslim peoples4 ,sidenote3 ,,golden ,,age ,,of ,,muslim ,,science ,the first hundred years of the ,abbasid ,khalifate was the golden age of ,muslim science1 the period of growth and development for the ,people of ,muhammad fairly as a whole4 ,intellectual life did not cease with the close of that period1 but the ,khalifate ceased to aid in carrying the torch4 ,thereafter1 learning was protected and fostered by individual rulers here and there1 and individual investigators and scholars still went on their own quiet paths4 ,but free intellectual life among the people was checked1 and such learning as still generally flourished fell more and more between fixed bounds4 ,scholasticism1 with its formal methods and systems1 its subtle deductions and endless ramifications of proof and counter-proof1 drew away attention from the facts of nature4 ,the oriental brain studied itself and its own workings to the point of dizziness1 and then turned and clung fast to the certainties of revelation4 ,under this spell heresy and orthodoxy proved alike sterile4 ,we return1 now1 to the beginnings of the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,these served themselves heirs upon the ,qadarites and denied that ,god predestined the actions of men4 ,death and life1 sickness1 health1 and external vicissitudes came1 they admitted1 by ,god's qadar1 but it was unthinkable that man should be punished for actions not in his control4 ,the freedom of the will is an a priori certainty1 and man possesses qadar over his own actions4 ,this was the position of ,wasil ibn ,ata1 of whom we have already heard4 ,but to it he added a second doctrine1 the origin of which is obscure1 although suggestive of discussions with ,greek theologians4 ,the ,qur'an describes ,god as willing1 knowing1 decreeing1 etc4--strictly as the ,willing ,one1 the ,knowing ,one1 the ,decreeing ,one1 etc4--and the orthodox hold that such expressions could only mean that ,god possesses as ,qualities 7sifat7 ,will1 ,knowledge1 ,power1 ,life1 etc4 ,to this ,wasil raised objections4 ,god was ,one1 and such ,qualities would be separate ,beings4 ,thus1 his party and the ,mu#8tazilites always called themselves the ,people of ,unity and ,justice 7,ahl-at-tawhid wal#8adl72 the ,unity being of the divine nature1 the ,justice consisting in that they opposed ,god's qadar over men and held that ,he must do for the creature that which was best for it4 ,orthodox ,islam held and holds that there can be no necessity upon ,god1 even to do justice2 ,he is absolutely free1 and what ,he does man must accept4 ,it flatly opposes the position held by the ,mu#8tazilites in general1 that good and evil can be perceived and distinguished by the intellect 7aql74 ,good and evil have their nature by ,god's will1 and man can learn to know them only by ,god's teachings and commands4 ,thus1 except through revelation1 there can be neither theology nor ethics4 ,sidenote3 ,,abu ,,hudhayl ,the next great advance was made by ,abu ,hudhayl ,muhammad al-,allaf 7d4 circa #bbf71 a disciple of the second generation from ,wasil4 ,at his hands the doctrine of ,god's qualities assumed a more definite form4 ,wasil had reduced ,god to a vague unity1 a kind of eternal oneness4 ,abu ,hudhayl taught that the qualities were not in ,his essence1 and thus separable from it1 thinkable apart from it1 but that they were ,his essence4 ,thus1 ,god was omnipotent by ,his omnipotence1 but it was ,his essence and not in ,his essence4 ,he was omniscient by ,his omniscience and it was ,his essence4 ,further1 he held that these qualities must be either negations or relations4 ,nothing positive can be asserted of them1 for that would mean that there was in ,god the complexity of subject and predicate1 being and quality2 and ,god is absolute ,unity4 ,this view the ,muslim theologians regard as a close approximation to the ,christian ,trinity2 for them1 the persons of the ,trinity have always been personified qualities1 and such seems really to have been the view of ,john of ,damascus4 ,further1 ,god's ,will1 according to ,abu ,hudhayl1 as expressed in ,his ,creative ,word1 did not necessarily exist in a subject 7fi mahall1 in subiecto74 ,when ,god said1 8,be60 creatively1 there was no subject4 ,again1 he endeavored--and in this he was followed by most of the ,mu#8tazilites--to cut down the number of ,god's attributes4 ,his will1 he said1 was a form of ,his knowledge2 ,he knew that there was good in an action1 and that knowledge was ,his will4 ,his position on the qadar question was peculiar4 ,with regard to this world1 he was a ,qadarite2 but in the next world1 both in heaven and in hell1 he thought that all changes were by divine necessity4 ,otherwise1 that is1 if men were free1 there would be obligation to observe a law 7taklif72 but there is no such obligation in the other world4 ,thus1 whatever happened there happened by ,god's decree4 ,further1 he taught that1 eventually1 nothing would happen there2 that there would be no changes1 but only an endless stillness in which those in heaven had all its joys and those in hell all its pains4 ,this is a close approximation to the view of ,jahm ibn ,safwan1 who held that after the judgment both heaven and hell would pass away and ,god remain alone as ,he was in the beginning4 ,to these doctrines ,abu ,hudhayl seems to have been led by two considerations1 both significant for the drift of the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,first1 there was about their reasonings a grimness of logic touched with utilitarianism4 ,thus1 from their position that man could come by the light of his reason to the knowledge of ,god and of virtue1 they drew the conclusion that it was man's duty so to attain1 and that ,god would damn eternally every man who did not4 ,their utilitarianism1 again1 comes out strikingly in their view of heaven and hell4 ,these1 at present1 were serving no useful purpose because they had no inhabitants2 therefore1 at present1 they did not exist4 ,but this made difficulties for ,abu ,hudhayl4 ,what has a beginning must have an end4 ,so he explained the end as the ceasing of all changes4 ,second1 he shows clear evidence of influence from ,greek philosophy4 ,the ,qur'an teaches that the world has been created in time2 ,aristotle1 that it is from eternity and to eternity4 ,the creation1 ,abu ,hudhayl applied to changes2 before that1 the world was1 but in eternal rest4 ,hereafter1 all changes will cease2 rest will again enter and endure to all eternity4 ,we shall see how largely this doctrine was advanced and developed by his successors4 ,but there were further complications in the doctrine of man's actions and into some of these we must enter1 on account of their later importance4 ,not everything that comes from the action of a man is by his action4 ,god has a creative part in it1 apparently as regards the effects4 ,especially1 knowledge in the mind of a pupil does not come from the teacher1 but from ,god4 ,the idea seems to be that the teacher may teach1 but that the being taught in the pupil is a divine working4 ,similarly1 he distinguished motions in the mind1 which he held were not altogether due to the man1 and external motions which were4 ,there is given1 too1 to a man at the time of his performing an action an ability to perform the action1 which is a special accident in him apart from any mere soundness of health or limb4 ,in these ways1 ,abu ,hudhayl recognized ,god's working through man4 ,another of his positions had a similar basis and was a curious combination of historical criticism and mysticism1 a combination which we shall find later in al-,ghazzali1 a much greater man4 ,the evidence of tradition for things dealing with the ,unseen ,world 7al-ghayb7 he rejected4 ,twenty witnesses might hand on the tradition in question1 but it was not to be received unless among them there was one1 at least1 of the ,people of ,paradise4 ,at all times1 he taught1 there were in the world these ,friends of ,god 7awliya ,allah1 sing4 wali71 who were protected against all greater sins and could not lie4 ,it is the word of these that is the basis for belief1 and the tradition is merely a statement of what they have said4 ,this shows clearly how far the doctrine of the ecstatic life and of knowledge gained through direct intercourse between the believer and ,god had already advanced4 ,but ,abu ,hudhayl was only one in a group of daring and absolutely free-minded speculators4 ,they were applying to the ideas of the ,qur'an the keen solvent of ,greek dialectic1 and the results which they obtained were of the most fantastically original character4 ,thrown into the wide sea and utter freedom of ,greek thought1 their ideas had expanded to the bursting point and1 more than even a ,german metaphysician1 they had lost touch of the ground of ordinary life1 with its reasonable probabilities1 and were swinging loose on a wild hunt after ultimate truth1 wielding as their weapons definitions and syllogisms4 ,the lyric fervors of ,muhammad in the ,qur'an gave scope enough of strange ideas from which to start1 or which had to be explained away4 ,their belief in the powers of the science of logic was unfailing1 and1 armed with ,aristotle's 8,analytics10 they felt sure that certainty was within their reach4 ,it was at the court and under the protection of al-,ma'mun that they especially flourished1 and some account of the leading spirits among them will be necessary before we describe how they reached their utmost pride of power and how they fell4 ,sidenote3 ,,an-,,nazzam ,an-,nazzam 7d4 #bca7 has the credit among later historians of having made use1 to a high degree1 of the doctrines of the ,greek philosophers4 ,he was one of the ,satans of the ,qadarites1 say they2 he read the books of the philosophers and mingled their teachings with the doctrines of the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,he taught1 in the most absolute way1 that ,god could do nothing to a creature1 either in this world or in the next1 that was not for the creature's good and in accordance with strict justice4 ,it was not only that ,god would not do it2 ,he had not the power to do anything evil4 ,evidently the personality of ,god was fast vanishing behind an absolute law of right4 ,to this1 orthodox ,islam opposed the doctrine that ,god could do anything2 ,he could forgive whom ,he willed1 and punish whom ,he willed4 ,further1 he taught that ,god's willing a thing meant only that ,he did it in accordance with ,his knowledge2 and when ,he willed the action of a creature that meant only that ,he commanded it4 ,this is evidently to evade phrases in the ,qur'an4 ,man1 again1 he taught1 was spirit 7ruh71 and the body 7badan7 was only an instrument4 ,but this spirit was a fine substance which flowed in the body like the essential oil in a rose1 or butter in milk4 ,in a universe determined by strict law1 man alone was undetermined4 ,he could throw a stone into the air1 and by his action the stone went up2 but when the force of his throw was exhausted it came again under law and fell4 ,if he had only asked himself how it came to fall1 strange things might have happened4 ,but he1 and all his fellows1 were only playing with words like counters4 ,further1 he taught that ,god had created all created things at once1 but that ,he kept them in concealment until it was time for them to enter on the stage of visible being and do their part4 ,all things that ever will exist are thus existing now1 but1 in a sense1 in retentis4 ,this seems to be another attempt to solve the problem of creation in time1 and it had important consequences4 ,further1 the ,qur'an was no miracle 7mu#8jiz7 to him4 ,the only miraculous elements in it are the narratives about the ,unseen ,world1 and past things and things to come1 and the fact that ,god deprived the ,arabs of the power of writing anything like it4 ,but for that1 they could easily have surpassed it as literature4 ,as a high ,imamite he rejected utterly agreement and analogy4 ,only the divinely appointed ,imam had the right to supplement the teaching of ,muhammad4 ,we pass over some of his metaphysical views1 odd as they are4 ,the ,muslim writers on theological history have classified him rightly as more of a physicist than a metaphysician4 ,he had a concrete mind and that fondness for playing with metaphysical paradoxes which often goes with it4 ,sidenote3 ,,bishr2 ,,ma#8,,mar ,another of the group was ,bishr ibn al-,mu#8tamir4 ,his principal contribution was the doctrine of tawlid and tawallud1 begetting and deriving4 ,it is the transmission of a single action through a series of objects2 the agent meant to affect the first object only2 the effect on the others followed4 ,thus1 he moves his hand1 and the ring on his finger is moved4 ,what relation of responsibility1 then1 does he bear to these derived effects8 ,generally1 how are we to view a complex of causes acting together and across one another8 ,the answer of later orthodox ,islam is worth giving at this point4 ,god creates in the man the will to move his hand2 ,he creates the movement of the hand and also the movement of the ring4 ,all is by ,god's direct creation at the time4 ,further1 could ,god punish an infant or one who had no knowledge of the faith8 ,bishr's reply on the first point was simply a bit of logical jugglery to avoid saying frankly that there was anything that ,god could not do4 ,his answer on the second was that ,god could have made a different and much better world than this1 a world in which all men might have been saved4 ,but ,he was not bound to make a better world--in this ,bishr separates from the other ,mu#8tazilites--,he was only bound to give man free-will and1 then1 either revelation to guide him to salvation or reason to show him natural law4 ,with ,ma#8mar ibn ,abbad1 the philosophies wax faster and more furious4 ,he succeeded in reducing the conception of ,god to a bare1 indefinable something4 ,we could not say that ,god had knowledge4 ,for it must be of something in ,himself or outside of ,himself4 ,if the first1 then there was a union of knower and known1 and that is impossible2 or a duality in the divine nature1 and that was equally impossible4 ,here ,ma#8mar was evidently on the road to ,hegel4 ,if the second1 then ,his knowledge depended on the existence of something other than ,himself1 and that did away with ,his absoluteness4 ,similarly1 he dealt with ,god's ,will4 ,nor could ,he be described as qadim1 prior to all things1 for that word1 in ,arabic1 suggested sequence and time4 ,by all this1 he evidently meant that our conceptions cannot be applied to ,god2 that ,god is unthinkable by us4 ,on creation1 he developed the ideas of an-,nazzam4 ,substances 7jisms7 only were created by ,god1 and by 8substances0 he seems to mean matter as a whole2 all changes in them1 or it1 come either of necessity from its nature1 as when fire burns1 the sun warms2 or of free-will1 as always in the animal world4 ,god has no part in these things4 ,he has given the material and has nothing to do with the coming and going of separate bodies2 such are simple changes1 forms of existence1 and proceed from the matter itself4 ,man is an incorporeal substance4 ,the soul is the man and his body is but a cover4 ,this true man can only know and will2 the body perceives and does4 ,the last of this group whose views we need consider1 is ,thumama ibn ,ashras4 ,he was of very dubious morals2 was imprisoned as a heretic by ,harun ar-,rashid1 but highly favored by al-,ma'mun1 in whose ,khalifate he died1 ,a4,h4 #bac4 ,he held that actions produced through tawallud had no agent1 either ,god or man4 ,that knowledge of good and evil could be produced by tawallud through speculation1 and is1 therefore1 an action without an agent1 and required even before revelation4 ,that ,jews1 ,christians1 ,magians will be turned into dust in the next world and will not enter either ,paradise or ,hell2 the same will be the fate of cattle and children4 ,that any one of the unbelievers who does not know his ,creator is excusable4 ,that all knowledge is a priori4 ,that the only action which men possess is will2 everything besides that is a production without a producer4 ,that the world is the act of ,god by ,his nature1 i4e41 it is an act which ,his nature compels ,him to produce2 is1 therefore1 from eternity and to eternity with ,him4 ,it may be doubted how far ,thumama was a professional theologian and how far he was a free-thinking1 easy-living man of letters4 ,in all this1 the influence of ,greek theology and of ,aristotle can be clearly traced4 ,with ,aristotle had come to them the idea of the world as law1 an eternal construction subsisting and developing on fixed principles4 ,this conception of law shows itself in their thought frankly at strife with ,muhammad's conception of ,god as will1 as the sovereign over all4 ,hence1 the crudities and devices by which they strove to make good their footing on strange ground and keep a right to the name of ,muslim1 while changing the essence of their faith4 ,the anthropomorphic ,god of ,muhammad1 who has face and hands1 is seen in ,paradise by the believer and settles ,himself firmly upon ,his throne1 becomes a spirit1 and a spirit1 too1 of the vaguest kind4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,vision ,,of ,,god ,it remains now only to touch upon one or two points common to all the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,first1 the ,beatific ,vision of ,god in ,paradise4 ,it was a fixed agreement of the early ,muslim ,church1 based on texts of the ,qur'an and on tradition1 that some believers1 at least1 would see and gaze upon ,god in the other world2 this was the highest delight held out to them4 ,but the ,mu#8tazilites perceived that vision involved a directing of the eyes on the part of the seer and position on the part of the seen4 ,god must1 therefore1 be in a place and thus limited4 ,so they were compelled to reject the agreement and the traditions in question and to explain away the passages in the ,qur'an4 ,similarly1 in ,qur'an vii4 #eb1 we read that ,god settled ,himself firmly upon ,his throne4 ,this1 with other anthropomorphisms of hands and feet and eyes1 the ,mu#8tazilites had to explain away in a more or less cumbrous fashion4 ,with one other detail of this class we must deal at greater length4 ,it was destined to be the vital point of the whole ,mu#8tazilite controversy and the test by which theologians were tried and had their places assigned4 ,it had a weighty part also in bringing about the fall of the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,there had grown up very early in the ,muslim community an unbounded reverence and awe in the presence of the ,qur'an4 ,in it ,god speaks1 addressing ,his servant1 the ,prophet2 the words1 with few exceptions1 are direct words of ,god4 ,it is1 therefore1 easily intelligible that it came to be called the word of ,god 7kalam ,allah74 ,but ,muslim piety went further and held that it was uncreated and had existed from all eternity with ,god4 ,whatever proofs of this doctrine may have been brought forward later from the ,qur'an itself1 we can have no difficulty in recognizing that it is plainly derived from the ,christian ,logos and that the ,greek ,church1 perhaps through ,john of ,damascus1 has again played a formative part4 ,so1 in correspondence with the heavenly and uncreated ,logos in the bosom of the ,father1 there stands this uncreated and eternal ,word of ,god2 to the earthly manifestation in ,jesus corresponds the ,qur'an1 the ,word of ,god which we read and recite4 ,the one is not the same as the other1 but the idea to be gained from the expressions of the one is equivalent to the idea which we would gain from the other1 if the veil of the flesh were removed from us and the spiritual world revealed4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,word ,,of ,,god ,that this view grew up very early among the ,muslims is evident from the fact that it is opposed by ,jahm ibn ,safwan1 who was killed toward the end of the ,umayyad period4 ,it seems to have originated by a kind of transfusion of ideas from ,christianity and not as a result of controversy or dialectic about the teachings of the ,qur'an4 ,we find the orthodox party vehemently opposing discussion on the subject1 as indeed they did on all theological subjects4 8,our fathers have told us2 it is the faith received from the ,companions20 was their argument from the earliest time we can trace4 ,malik ibn ,anas used to cut off all discussions with 8,bila kayfa0 7,believe without asking how72 and he held strongly that the ,qur'an was uncreated4 ,the same word kalam which we have found applied to the ,word of ,god--both the eternal1 uncreated ,logos and its manifestation in the ,qur'an--was used by them most confusingly for 8disputation20 8he disputed0 was takallam and 8one who disputed0 was mutakallim4 ,all that was anathema to the pious1 and it is amusing to see the origin of what became later the technical terms for scholastic theology and its students in their shuddering repulsion to all 8talking about0 the sacred mysteries4 ,this opposition appeared in two forms4 ,first1 they refused to go an inch beyond the statements in the ,qur'an and tradition and to draw consequences1 however near the surface these consequences might seem to lie4 ,a story is told of al-,bukhari1 7d4 #beg71 late as he is1 which shows how far this went and how long it lasted4 ,an inquisition was got up against him out of envy by one of his fellow-teachers4 ,the point of attack was the orthodoxy of his position on the lafz 7utterance7 of the ,qur'an2 was it created or uncreated8 ,he said readily that the ,qur'an was uncreated and was obstinately silent as to the utterance of it by men4 ,at last1 persistent questioning drove him to an outburst4 8,the ,qur'an is the ,word of ,god and is uncreated4 ,the speech of man is created and inquisition 7imtihan7 is an innovation 7bid#8a740 ,but beyond that he would not go1 even to draw the conclusion of the syllogism which he had indicated4 ,some1 as we may gather from this story1 had felt themselves driven to hold that not only the ,qur'an in itself but also the utterance of it by the lips of men and the writing of it by men's hands--all between the boards1 as they said--was uncreated4 ,others were coming to deny absolutely the existence of the eternal ,logos and that this revealed ,qur'an was uncreated in any sense4 ,but others1 as al-,bukhari1 while holding tenaciously that the ,qur'an was uncreated1 refused to make any statement as to its utterance by men4 ,there was nothing said about that in ,qur'an or tradition4 ,the second form of opposition was to any upholding of their belief by arguments1 except of the simplest and most apparent4 ,that was an invasion by reason 7aql7 of the realm of traditional faith 7naql74 ,when the pious were eventually driven to dialectic weapons1 their arguments show that these were snatched up to defend already occupied positions4 ,they ring artificial and forced4 ,thus1 in the ,qur'an itself1 the ,qur'an is called 8knowledge from ,god40 ,it is1 then1 inseparable from ,god's quality of knowledge4 ,but that is eternal and uncreated2 therefore1 so too1 the ,qur'an4 ,again1 ,god created everything by the word1 8,be40 ,but this word cannot have been created1 otherwise a created word would be a creator4 ,therefore1 ,god's word is uncreated4 ,again1 there stands in the ,qur'an 7vii1 #eb71 8,are not the creation and the command ,his80 ,the command here is evidently different from the creation1 i4e41 not created4 ,further1 ,god's command creates2 therefore it cannot be created4 ,but it is ,god's word in command4 ,it will be noticed here how completely ,god's word is hypostatized4 ,this appears still more strongly in the following argument4 ,god said to ,moses1 7,qur4 vii1 #ada71 8,i have chosen thee over mankind with my apostolate and my word40 ,god1 therefore1 has a word4 ,but1 again 7,qur4 iv1 #afb71 ,he addresses ,moses with this word 7kallama-llahu ,musa taklima1 evidently regarded as meaning that ,god's word addressed ,moses7 and said1 8,lo1 ,i am thy ,lord40 ,this argument is supposed to put the opponent in a dilemma4 ,either he rejects the fact of ,moses being so addressed1 which is rejecting what ,god has said1 and is1 therefore1 unbelief2 or he holds that the kalam which so addresses ,moses is a created thing4 ,then1 a created thing asserts that it is ,moses' ,lord4 ,therefore1 ,god's kalam with which ,he addresses the prophets1 or which addresses the prophets1 is eternal1 uncreated4 ,but if this doctrine grew up early in ,islam1 opposition to it was not slow in appearing1 and that on different sides4 ,literary vanity1 national pride1 and philosophical scruples all made themselves felt4 ,even in ,muhammad's lifetime1 according to the legend of the poet ,labid and the verses which he put up in challenge on the ,ka#8ba1 the ,qur'an had taken rank as inimitable poetry4 ,at all points it was the ,word of ,god and perfect in every detail4 ,but1 among the ,arabs1 a jealous and vain people1 if there was one thing on which each was more jealous and vain than another1 it was skill in working with words4 ,the superiority of ,muhammad as a ,prophet of ,god they might endure1 though often with a bad grace2 but ,muhammad as a rival and unapproachable literary artist they could not away with4 ,so we find satire of the weaknesses of the ,qur'an appearing here and there1 and it came to be a sign of emancipation and freedom from prejudice to examine it in detail and balance it against other products of the ,arab genius4 ,the rival productions of ,musaylima1 the ,false ,prophet1 long enjoyed a semi-contraband existence1 and ,abu ,ubayda 7d4 #bjh7 found it necessary to write a treatise in defence of the metaphors of the ,qur'an4 ,among the ,persians this was still more the case4 ,to them1 ,muhammad might be a prophet1 but he was also an ,arab2 and while they accepted his mission1 accepting his books in a literary way was too much for them4 ,as a prophet1 he was a man2 as a literary artist1 he was an ,arab4 ,so ,jahm ibn ,safwan may have felt2 so1 certainly1 others felt later4 ,the poet ,bashshar ibn ,burd 7killed for satire1 in #afg71 a companion of ,wasil ibn ,ata and a ,persian of very dubious orthodoxy1 used to amuse himself by comparing poems by himself and others with passages in the ,qur'an1 to the disadvantage of the latter4 ,and ,ibn al-,muqaffa 7killed about #adj71 the translator of 8,kalila and ,dimna0 and many other books into ,arabic1 and a ,persian nationalist1 is said to have planned an imitation of the ,qur'an4 ,sidenote3 ,,mu#8,,tazilite ,,attitude ,added to all this came the influence of the ,mu#8tazilite theologians4 ,they had a double ground for their opposition4 ,the doctrine of an absolutely divine and perfect book limited them too much in their intellectual freedom4 ,they were willing to respect and use the ,qur'an1 but not to accept its ipsissima verba4 ,regarded as the production of ,muhammad under divine influence1 it could have a human and a divine side1 and things which needed to be dropped or changed in it could be ascribed to the human side4 ,but that was not possible with a miraculous book come down from heaven4 ,in a word1 they were meeting the difficulty which has been met by ,christianity in the latter half of the nineteenth century4 ,the least they could do was to deny that the ,qur'an was uncreated4 ,but they had a still more vital1 if not more important1 philosophical base of objection4 ,we have seen already how they viewed the doctrine of ,god's qualities 7sifat7 and tried to limit them in every way4 ,these qualities ran danger1 they held1 of being hypostatized into separate persons like those in the ,christian ,trinity1 and we have just seen how near that danger really lay in the case of ,god's kalam4 ,in orthodox ,islam it has become a plain ,logos4 ,the position in this of an-,nazzam has been given above4 ,it is interesting as showing that the ,qur'an1 even then1 was given as a probative miracle 7mu#8jiz7 because it deprived all men of power 7i#8jaz7 to imitate it4 ,that is1 its sthetic perfection was raised to the miraculous degree and then regarded as a proof of its divine origin4 ,but al-,muzdar1 a pupil of ,bishr ibn al ,mu#8tamir and an ascetic of high rank1 called the ,monk of the ,mu#8tazilites1 went still further than an-,nazzam4 ,he flatly damned as unbelievers all who held the eternity of the ,qur'an2 they had taken unto themselves two ,gods4 ,further1 he asserted that men were quite capable of producing a work even finer than the ,qur'an in point of style4 ,but the force of this opinion is somewhat diminished by the liberality with which he denounced his opponents in general as unbelievers4 ,stories are told of him very much like those in circulation with us about those who hold that few will be saved1 and it is worth noticing that upon this point of salvability the ,mu#8tazilites were even narrower than the orthodox4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,al-,ma'mun and the triumph of the ,mu#8tazilites2 the ,mihna and ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal2 al-,farabi2 the ,fatimids and the ,ikhwan as-,safa2 the early mystics1 ascetic and pantheistic2 al-,hallaj4 ,such for long was the situation between the ,mu#8tazilites and their orthodox opponents4 ,from time to time the ,mu#8tazilites received more or less protection and state favor2 at other times1 they had to seek safety in hiding4 ,popular favor they seem never to have enjoyed4 ,as the ,umayyads grew weak1 they became more stiff in their orthodoxy2 but with the ,abbasids1 and especially with al-,mansur1 thought was again free4 ,as has been shown above1 encouragement of science and research was part of the plan of that great man1 and he easily saw that the intellectual hope of the future was with these theological and philosophical questioners4 ,so their work went slowly on1 with a break under ,harun ar-,rashid1 a magnificent but highly orthodox monarch1 who understood no trifling with things of the faith4 ,it is an interesting but useless question whether ,islam could ever have been broadened and developed to the point of enduring in its midst free speculation and research4 ,as the case stands in history1 it has known periods of intellectual life1 but only under the protection of isolated princes here and there4 ,it has had ,augustan ages2 it has never had great popular yearnings after wider knowledge4 ,its intellectual leaders have lived and studied and lectured at courts2 they have not gone down and taught the masses of the people4 ,to that the democracy of ,islam has never come4 ,hampered by scholastic snobbishness1 it has never learned that the abiding victories of science are won in the village school4 ,sidenote3 ,,al-,,ma',,mun ,but most unfortunately for the ,mu#8tazilites and for ,islam1 a ,khalifa arose who had a relish for theological discussions and a high opinion of his own infallibility4 ,this was al-,ma'mun4 ,it did not matter that he ranged himself on the progressive side2 his fatal error was that he invoked the authority of the state in matters of the intellectual and religious life4 ,thus1 by enabling the conservative party to pose as martyrs1 he brought the prejudices and passions of the populace still more against the new movement4 ,he was that most dangerous of all beings1 a doctrinaire despot4 ,he had ideas and tried to make other people live up to them4 ,al-,mansur1 though a bloody tyrant1 had been a great statesman and had known how to bend people and things quietly to his will4 ,he had sketched the firm outlines of a policy for the ,abbasids1 but had been cautious how he proclaimed his programme to the world4 ,the world would come to him in time1 and he could afford to wait and work in the dark4 ,he knew1 above all1 that no people would submit to be school-mastered into the way in which they should go4 ,al-,ma'mun1 for all his genius1 was at heart a school-master4 ,he was an enlightened patron of an enlightened ,islam4 ,those who preferred to dwell in the darkness of the obscurant1 he first scolded and then punished4 ,discussions in theology and comparative religion were his hobby4 ,that some such interchange of letters between ,muslims and ,christians as that which crystallized in the ,epistle of al-,kindi took place at his court seems certain4 ,bishr al-,marisi1 who had lived in hiding in ar-,rashid's time on account of his heretical views1 disputed1 in #bji1 before al-,ma'mun on the nature of the ,qur'an4 ,he founded at ,baghdad an academy with library1 laboratories1 and observatory4 ,all the weight of his influence was thrown on the side of the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,it appeared as though he were determined to pull his people up by force from their superstition and ignorance4 ,at last1 he took the final and fatal step4 ,in #bjb a decree appeared proclaiming the doctrine of the creation of the ,qur'an as the only truth1 and as binding upon all ,muslims4 ,at the same time1 as an evident sop to the ,persian nationalists and the ,alids1 ,ali was proclaimed the best of creatures after ,muhammad4 ,the ,alids1 it should be remembered1 had close points of contact with the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,such a theological decree as this was a new thing in ,islam2 never before had the individual consciousness been threatened by a word from the throne4 ,the ,mu#8tazilites through it practically became a state church under erastian control4 ,but the system of ,islam never granted to the ,imam1 or leader of the ,muslim people1 any position but that of a protector and representative4 ,its theology could only be formed1 as we have seen in the case of its law1 by the agreement of the whole community4 ,the question then naturally was what effect such a new thing as this decree could have except to exasperate the orthodox and the masses4 ,practically1 there was no other effect4 ,things went on as before4 ,all that it meant was that one very prominent ,muslim had stated his opinion and thrown in his lot with heretics4 ,for six years this continued1 and then a method was devised of bringing the will of the ,khalifa home upon the people4 ,in #bag a distinguished ,mu#8tazilite1 ,ahmad ibn ,abi ,duwad1 was appointed chief qadi1 and in #bah the decree was renewed4 ,but this time it was accompanied by what we would call a test-act1 and an inquisition 7mihna7 was instituted4 ,the letter of directions for the conduct of this matter1 written by al-,ma'mun to his lieutenant at ,baghdad1 is decisive as to the character of the man and the nature of the movement4 ,it is full of railings against the common people who know not the law and are accursed4 ,they are too stupid to understand philosophy or argument4 ,it is the duty of the ,khalifa to guide them and especially to show them the distinction between ,god and ,his book4 ,he who holds otherwise than the ,khalifa is either too blind or too lying and deceitful to be trusted in any other thing4 ,therefore1 the qadis must be tested as to their views4 ,if they hold that the ,qur'an is uncreated1 they have abandoned tawhid1 the doctrine of ,god's ,unity1 and can no longer hold office in a ,muslim land4 ,also1 the qadis must apply the same test to all the witnesses in cases before them4 ,if these do not hold that the ,qur'an is created1 they cannot be legal witnesses4 ,other letters followed2 the ,mihna was extended through the ,abbasid empire and applied to other doctrines1 e4g41 that of free-will and of the vision of ,god4 ,the ,khalifa also commanded that the death penalty for unbelief 7kufr7 should be inflicted on those who refused to take the test4 ,they were to be regarded as idolaters and polytheists4 ,the death of al-,ma'mun in the same year relieved the pressure4 ,it is true that the ,mihna was continued by his successor1 al-,mu#8tasim1 and by his successor1 al-,wathiq1 but without energy2 it was more a handy political weapon than anything else4 ,in #bcd1 the second year of al-,mutawakkil1 it was abolished and the ,qur'an decreed uncreated4 ,at the same time the ,alids and all ,persian nationalism came under a ban4 ,practically1 the status quo ante was restored and ,mu#8tazilism was again left a struggling heresy4 ,the ,arab party and the pure faith of ,muhammad had reasserted themselves4 ,sidenote3 ,,ahmad ,,ibn ,,hanbal ,in this long conflict1 the most prominent figure was certainly that of ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal4 ,he was the trust and strength of the orthodox2 that he stood fast through imprisonment and scourging defeated the plans of the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,in dealing with the development of law1 we have seen what his legal position was4 ,the same held in theology4 ,scholastic theology 7kalam7 was his abomination4 ,those who disputed over doctrines he cast out4 ,that their dogmatic position was the same as his made no difference4 ,for him1 theological truth could not be reached by reasoning 7aql72 tradition 7naql7 from the fathers 7as-salaf7 was the only ground on which the dubious words of the ,qur'an could be explained4 ,so1 in his long examinations before the officials of al-,ma#8mun and al-,mu#8tasim1 he contented himself with repeating either the words of the ,qur'an which for him were proofs or such traditions as he accepted4 ,any approach to drawing a consequence he utterly rejected4 ,when they argued before him1 he kept silence4 ,what1 then1 we may ask1 was the net result of this incident8 for it was nothing more4 ,the ,mu#8tazilites dropped back into their former position1 but under changed conditions4 ,the sympathy of the populace was further from them than ever4 ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal1 saint and ascetic1 was the idol of the masses2 and he1 in their eyes1 had maintained single-handed the honor of the ,word of ,god4 ,for his persecutors there was nothing but hatred4 ,and after he had passed away1 the conflict was taken up with still fiercer bitterness by the school of law founded by his pupils4 ,they continued to maintain his principles of ,qur'an and tradition long after the ,mu#8tazilites themselves had practically vanished from the scene1 and all that was left for them to contend against was the modified system of scholastic theology which is now the orthodox theology of ,islam4 ,with these reactionary ,hanbalites we shall have to deal later4 ,sidenote3 ,,schools ,,of ,,mu#8,,tazilites ,the ,mu#8tazilites1 on their side1 having seen the shipwreck of their hopes and the growing storm of popular disfavor1 seem to have turned again to their scholastic studies4 ,they became more and more theologians affecting a narrower circle1 and less and less educators of the world at large4 ,their system became more metaphysical and their conclusions more unintelligible to the plain man4 ,the fate which has fallen on all continued efforts of the ,muslim mind was coming upon them4 ,beggarly speculations and barren hypotheses1 combats of words over names1 sapped them of life and reality4 ,what the ill-fated friendship of al-,ma'mun had begun was carried on and out by the closed circle of ,muslim thought4 ,they separated into schools1 one at al-,basra and another at ,baghdad4 ,at ,baghdad the point especially developed was the old question1 ,what is a thing 7shay78 ,they defined a thing1 practically1 as a concept that could be known and of which something could be said4 ,existence 7wujud7 did not matter4 ,it was only a quality which could be there or not4 ,with it1 the thing was an entity 7mawjud72 without it1 a non-entity 7ma#8dum71 but still a thing with all equipment of substance 7jawhar7 and accident 7arad71 genus and species4 ,the bearing of this was especially upon the doctrine of creation4 ,practically1 by ,god's adding a single quality1 things entered the sphere of existence and were for us4 ,here1 then1 is evidently an approach to a doctrine of pre-existent matter4 ,at al-,basra the relation of ,god to ,his qualities was especially discussed1 and there it came to be pretty nearly a family dispute between al-,jubba#8i 7d4 #cjc7 and his son ,abu ,hashim4 ,orthodox ,islam held that ,god has qualities1 existent1 eternal1 added to ,his essence2 thus1 ,he knows1 for example1 by such a quality of knowledge4 ,the students of ,greek philosophy and the ,shi#8ites denied this and said that ,god knew by ,his essence4 ,we have seen already ,mu#8tazilite views as to this point4 ,abu ,hudhayl held that these qualities were ,god's essence and not in it4 ,thus1 ,he knew by a quality of knowledge1 but that quality was ,his essence4 ,al-,jubba#8i contented himself with safeguarding this statement4 ,god knew in accordance with ,his essence1 but it was neither a quality nor a state 7hal7 which required that ,he should be a knower4 ,the orthodox had said the first2 his son1 ,abu ,hashim1 said the second4 ,he held that we know an essence and know it under different conditions4 ,the conditions varied but the essence remained4 ,these conditions are not thinkable by themselves1 for we know them only in connection with the essence4 ,these are states2 they are different from the essence1 but do not exist apart from it4 ,al-,jubba#8i opposed to this a doctrine that these states were really subjective in the mind of the perceiver1 either generalizations or relationships existing mentally but not externally4 ,this controversy spun itself out at great length through centuries4 ,it eventually resolved itself into the fundamental metaphysical inquiry1 ,what is a thing8 ,a powerful school came to a conclusion that would have delighted the soul of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer4 ,things are four1 they said1 entities1 non-entities1 states and relationships4 ,as we have seen above1 al-,jubba#8i denied the reality of both states and relationships4 ,orthodox ,islam has been of a divided opinion4 ,but all this time1 other movements had been in progress1 some of which were to be of larger future importance than this fossilizing intellectualism4 ,in #bee al-,jahiz died4 ,though commonly reckoned a ,mu#8tazilite he was really a man of letters1 free in life and thought4 ,he was a maker of books1 learned in the writings of the philosophers and rather inclined to the doctrines of the ,tabi#8iyun1 deistic naturalists4 ,his confession of faith was of the utmost simplicity4 ,he taught that whoever held that ,god had neither body nor form1 could not be seen with the eyes1 was just and willed no evil deeds1 such was a ,muslim in truth4 ,and1 further1 if anyone was not capable of philosophical reflection1 but held that ,allah was his ,lord and that ,muhammad was the ,apostle of ,allah1 he was blameless and nothing more should be required of him4 ,here we have evidently in part a reaction from the subtilties of controversy1 and in part an attempt to broaden theology enough to give even the unsettled a chance to remain in the ,muslim ,church4 ,something of the same kind we shall find1 later1 in the case of ,ibn ,rushd4 ,finally1 we have probably to see in his remark that the ,qur'an was a body1 turned at one time into a man and at another into a beast1 a satirical comment on the great controversy of his time4 ,sidenote3 ,,al-,,jahiz2 ,,al-,,kindi ,al-,jahiz may be for us a link with the philosophers proper1 the students of the wisdom of the ,greeks4 ,he represents the stand-point of the educated man of the time1 and was no specialist in anything but a general scepticism4 ,in the first generation of the philosophers of ,islam1 in the narrower sense1 stands conspicuously al-,kindi1 commonly called the ,philosopher of the ,arabs4 ,the name belongs to him of right1 for he is almost the only example of a student of ,aristotle1 sprung from the blood of the desert4 ,but he was hardly a philosopher in any independent sense4 ,his rle was translating1 and during the reigns of al-,ma'mun and al-,mu#8tasim a multitude of translations and original works de omni scibili came from his hands2 the names of #bfe of these have come down to us4 ,in the orthodox reaction under al-,mutawakkil he fared ill2 his library was confiscated but afterward restored4 ,he died about #bfj1 and with him dies the brief1 golden century of eager acquisition1 and the scholastic period enters in philosophy as in theology4 ,sidenote3 ,,plato2 ,,plotinus2 ,,aristotle ,that the glory was departing from ,baghdad and the ,khalifate is shown by the second important name in philosophy4 ,it is that of al-,farabi1 who was born at ,farab in ,turkestan1 lived and worked in the brilliant circle which gathered round ,sayf ad-,dawla1 the ,hamdanid1 at his court at ,aleppo4 ,in music1 in science1 in philology1 and in philosophy1 he was alike master4 ,aristotle was his passion1 and his ,arabic contemporaries and successors united in calling him the second teacher1 on account of his success in unknotting the tangles of the ,greek system4 ,it was in truth a tangled system which came to him1 and a tangled system which he left4 ,the ,muslim philosophers began1 in their innocence1 with the following positions3 ,the ,qur'an is truth and philosophy is truth2 but truth can only be one2 therefore1 the ,qur'an and philosophy must agree4 ,philosophy they accepted in whole-hearted faith1 as it came to them from the ,greeks through ,egypt and ,syria4 ,they took it1 not as a mass of more or less contradictory speculation1 but as a form of truth4 ,they1 in fact1 never lost a certain theological attitude4 ,under such conditions1 then1 ,plato came to them2 but it was mostly ,plato as interpreted by ,porphyrius1 that is1 as neo-,platonism4 ,aristotle1 too1 came to them in the guise of the later ,peripatetic schools4 ,but in ,aristotle1 especially1 there entered a perfect knot of entanglement and confusion4 ,during the reign of al-,mu#8tasim1 a ,christian of ,emessa in the ,lebanon--the history in details is obscure--translated parts of the 8,enneads0 of ,plotinus into ,arabic and entitled his work 8,the ,theology of ,aristotle40 ,a more unlucky bit of literary mischief and one more far-reaching in its consequences has never been4 ,the ,muslims took it all as solemnly as they took the text of the ,qur'an4 ,these two great masters1 ,plato and ,aristotle1 they said1 had expounded the truth1 which is one4 ,therefore1 there must be some way of bringing them into agreement4 ,so generations of toilers labored valiantly with the welter of translations and pseudographs to get out of them and into them the one truth4 ,the more pious added the third element of the ,qur'an1 and it must remain a marvel and a magnificent testimonial to their skill and patience that they got even so far as they did and that the whole movement did not end in simple lunacy4 ,that al-,farabi should have been so incisive a writer1 so wide a thinker and student2 that ,ibn ,sina should have been so keen and clear a scientist and logician2 that ,ibn ,rushd should have known--really known--and commented his ,aristotle as he did1 shows that the human brain1 after all1 is a sane brain and has the power of unconsciously rejecting and throwing out nonsense and falsehood4 ,but it is not wonderful that1 dealing with such materials and contradictions1 they developed a tendency to mysticism4 ,there were many things which they felt compelled to hold which could only be defended and rationalized in that cloudy air and slanting light4 ,especially1 no one but a mystic could bring together the emanations of ,plotinus1 the ideas of ,plato1 the spheres of ,aristotle and the seven-storied heaven of ,muhammad4 ,with this matter of mysticism we shall have to deal immediately4 ,of al-,farabi it is enough to say that he was one of the most patient of the laborers at that impossible problem4 ,it seems never to have occurred to him1 or to any of the others1 that the first and great imperative was to verify his references and sources4 ,the oriental1 like the medival scholastic1 tests minutely the form of his syllogism1 but takes little thought whether his premises state facts or not4 ,with a scrupulous scepticism in deduction1 he combines a childlike acceptance on tradition or on the narrowest of inductions4 ,sidenote3 ,,al-,,farabi ,but there are other and more ominous signs in al-,farabi of the scholastic decline4 ,there appears first in him that tendency toward the writing of encyclopdic compends1 which always means superficiality and the commonplace4 ,al-,farabi himself could not be accused of either1 but that he thus claimed all knowledge for his portion showed the risk of the premature circle and the small gain4 ,another is mysticism4 ,he is a neo-,platonist1 more exactly a ,plotinian2 although he himself would not have recognized this title4 ,he held1 as we have seen1 that he was simply retelling the doctrines of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,but he was also a devout ,muslim4 ,he seems to have taken in earnest all the bizarre details of ,muslim cosmography and eschatology2 the ,pen1 the ,tablet1 the ,throne1 the ,angels in all their ranks and functions mingle picturesquely with the system of ,plotinus1 his 1 his 1 his 1 his receptive and active intellects4 ,but to make tenable this position he had to take the great leap of the mystic4 ,unto us these things are impossible2 with ,god1 i4e41 on another plane of existence1 they are the simplest realities4 ,if the veil were taken from our eyes we would see them4 ,this has always been the refuge of the devout ,muslim who has tampered with science4 ,we shall look for it more in detail when we come to al-,ghazzali1 who has put it into classical form4 ,again1 he was1 in modern terms1 a monarchist and a clericalist4 ,his conception of the model state is a strange compound of the republic of ,plato and ,shi#8ite dreams of an infallible ,imam4 ,its roots lie1 of course1 in the theocratic idea of the ,muslim state2 but his city1 which is to take in all mankind1 a ,holy ,roman ,empire and a ,holy ,catholic ,church at once1 a community of saints ruled by sages1 shows a later influence than that of the mother city of ,islam1 al-,madina1 under ,abu ,bakr and ,umar4 ,the influence is that of the ,fatimids with their capital1 al-,mahdiya1 near ,tunis4 ,the ,hamdanids were ,shi#8ites and ,sayf ad-,dawla1 under whom al-,farabi enjoyed peace and protection1 was a vassal of the ,fatimid ,khalifas4 ,this brings us again to the great mystery of ,muslim history4 ,what was the truth of the ,fatimid movement8 ,was the family of the ,prophet the fosterer of science from the earliest times8 ,what degree of contact had they with the ,mu#8tazilites8 ,with the founders of grammar1 of alchemy1 of law8 ,that they were themselves the actual beginners of everything--and everything has been claimed for them--we may put down to legend4 ,but one thing does stand fast4 ,just as al-,ma'mun combined the establishment of a great university at ,baghdad with a favoring of the ,alids1 so the ,fatimids in ,cairo erected a great hall of science and threw all their influence and authority into the spreading and extending of knowledge4 ,this institution seems to have been a combination of free public library and university1 and was probably the gateway connecting between the inner circle of initiated ,fatimid leaders and the outside1 uninitiated world4 ,we have already seen how unhappy were the external effects of the ,shi#8ite1 and especially of the ,fatimid1 propaganda on the ,muslim world4 ,but from time to time we become aware of a deep undercurrent of scientific and philosophical labor and investigation accompanying that propaganda1 and striving after knowledge and truth4 ,it belongs to the life below the surface1 which we can know only through its occasional outbursts4 ,some of these are given above2 others will follow4 ,the whole matter is obscure to the last degree1 and dogmatic statements and explanations are not in place4 ,it may be that it was only a natural drawing together on the part of all the different forces and movements that were under a ban and had to live in secrecy and stillness4 ,it may be that the students of the new sciences passed over1 simply through their studies and political despair--as has often happened in our day--into different degrees of nihilism1 or1 at the other extreme1 into a passionate searching for1 and dependence on1 some absolute guide1 an infallible ,imam4 ,it may be that we have read wrongly the whole history of the ,fatimid movement2 that it was in reality a deeply laid and slowly ripened plan to bring the rule of the world into the control of a band of philosophers1 whose task it was to be to rule the human race and gradually to educate it into self-rule2 that they saw--these unknown devotees of science and truth--no other way of breaking down the barriers of ,islam and setting free the spirits of men4 ,a wild hypothesis6 ,but in face of the real mystery no hypothesis can seem wild4 ,sidenote3 ,,ikhwan ,,as-,,safa ,closely allied with both al-,farabi and the ,fatimids is the association known as the ,sincere ,brethren 7,ikhwan as-safa74 ,it existed at al-,basra in the middle of the fourth century of the ,hijra during the breathing space which the free intellectual life enjoyed after the capture of ,baghdad by the ,buwayhids in #ccd4 ,it will be remembered how that ,persian dynasty was ,shi#8ite by creed and how it1 for the time1 completely clipped the claws of the orthodox and ,sunnite ,abbasid ,khalifas4 ,the only thing1 thereafter1 which heretics and philosophers had to fear was the enmity of the populace1 but that seems to have been great enough4 ,the ,hanbalite mob of ,baghdad had grown to be a thing of terror4 ,it was1 then1 an educational campaign on which this new philosophy had to enter4 ,their programme was by means of clubs1 propagating themselves and spreading over the country from al-,basra and ,baghdad1 to reach all educated people and introduce among them gradually a complete change in their religious and scientific ideas4 ,their teaching was the same combination of neo-,platonic speculation and mysticism with ,aristotelian natural science1 wrapped in ,mu#8tazilite theology1 that we have already known4 ,only there was added to it a ,pythagorean reverence for numbers1 and everything1 besides1 was treated in an eminently superficial and popularized manner4 ,our knowledge of the ,fraternity and its objects is based on its publication1 8,the ,epistles of the ,sincere ,brethren0 7,rasa'il ikhwan as-safa7 and upon scanty historical notices4 ,the ,epistles are fifty or fifty-one in number and cover the field of human knowledge as then conceived4 ,they form1 in fact1 an ,arabic ,encyclopdie4 ,the founders of the ,fraternity1 and authors1 presumably1 of the ,epistles1 were at most ten4 ,we have no certain knowledge that the ,fraternity ever took even its first step and spread to ,baghdad4 ,beyond that almost certainly the development did not pass4 ,the division of members into four--learners1 teachers1 guides1 and drawers near to ,god in supernatural vision--and the plan of regular meetings of each circle for study and mutual edification remained in its paper form4 ,the society was half a secret one and lacked1 apparently1 vitality and energy4 ,there was among its founders no man of weight and character4 ,so it passed away and has left only these ,epistles which have come down to us in numerous ,,mss41 showing how eagerly they have been read and copied and how much influence they at least must have exercised4 ,that influence must have been very mixed4 ,it was1 it is true1 for intellectual life1 yet it carried with it in a still higher degree the defects we have already noticed in al-,farabi4 ,to them must be added the most simple skimming of all real philosophical problems and a treatment of nature and natural science which had lost all connection with facts4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,ikhwan ,,and ,,the ,,fatimids ,it has been suggested1 and the suggestion seems luminous and fertile1 that this ,fraternity was simply a part of the great ,fatimid propaganda which1 as we know1 honey-combed the ground everywhere under the ,sunnite ,abbasids4 ,descriptions which have reached us of the methods followed by the leaders of the ,fraternity agree exactly with those of the missionaries of the ,isma#8ilians4 ,they raised difficulties and suggested serious questionings2 hinted at possible answers but did not give them2 referred to a source where all questions would be answered4 ,again1 their catch-words and fixed phrases are the same as those afterward used by the ,assassins1 and we have traces of these ,epistles forming a part of the sacred library of the ,assassins4 ,it is to be remembered that the ,assassins were not simply robber bands who struck terror by their methods4 ,both the western and the eastern branches were devoted to science1 and it may be that in their mountain fortresses there was the most absolute devotion to true learning that then existed4 ,when the ,mongols captured ,alamut1 they found it rich in ,,mss4 and in instruments and apparatus of every kind4 ,it is then possible that the elevated eclecticism of the ,ikhwan as-safa was the real doctrine of the ,fatimids1 the ,assassins1 the ,qarmatians and the ,druses2 certainly1 wherever we can test them there is the most singular agreement4 ,it is a mechanical and sthetic pantheism1 a glorification of ,pythagoreanism1 with its music and numbers2 idealistic to the last degree2 a worship and pursuit of a conception of a harmony and beauty in all the universe1 to find which is to find and know the ,creator ,himself4 ,it is thus far removed from materialism and atheism1 but could easily be misrepresented as both4 ,this1 it is true1 is a very different explanation from the one given in our first ,part2 it can only be put along-side of that and left there4 ,the one expresses the practical effect of the ,isma#8ilians in ,islam2 the other what may have been their ideal4 ,however we judge them1 we must always remember that somewhere in their teaching1 at its best1 there was a strange attraction for thinking and troubled men4 ,nasir ibn ,khusraw1 a ,persian ,faust1 found peace at ,cairo between #dcg and #ddd in recognizing the divine ,imamship of al-,mustansir1 and after a life of persecution died in that faith as a hermit in the mountains of ,badakhshan in #dha4 ,the great ,spanish poet1 ,ibn ,hani1 who died in #cfb1 similarly accepted al-,mu#8izz as his spiritual chief and guide4 ,sidenote3 ,,ibn ,,karram ,another eclectic sect1 but on a very different principle1 was that of the ,karramites1 founded by ,abu ,abd ,allah ibn ,karram1 who died in #bef4 ,its teachings had the honor to be accepted and protected by no less a man than the celebrated ,mahmud of ,ghazna 7#chh-dba71 ,mahmud the ,idol-breaker1 the first invader of ,india and the patron of al-,beruni1 ,firdawsi1 ,ibn ,sina and many another4 ,but that1 to which we will return1 belongs to a later date and1 probably1 to a modified form of ,ibn ,karram's teaching4 ,for himself1 he was an ascetic of ,sijistan and1 according to the story1 a man of no education4 ,he lost himself in theological subtleties which he seems to have failed to understand4 ,however1 out of them all he put together a book which he called 8,the ,punishment of the ,grave10 which spread widely in ,khurasan4 ,it was1 in part1 a frank recoil to the crassest anthropomorphism4 ,thus1 for him1 ,god actually sat upon the throne1 was in a place1 had direction and so could move from one point to another4 ,he had a body with flesh1 blood1 and limbs2 ,he could be embraced by those who were purified to the requisite point4 ,it was a literal acceptance of the material expressions of the ,qur'an along with a consideration of how they could be so1 and an explanation by comparison with men--all opposed to the principle bila kayfa4 ,so1 apparently1 we must understand the curious fact that he was also a ,murji'ite and held faith to be only acknowledgment with the tongue4 ,all men1 except professed apostates1 are believers1 he said1 because of that primal covenant1 taken by ,god with the seed of ,adam1 when ,he asked1 8,am ,i not your ,lord80 7,alastu bi-rabbikum7 and they1 brought forth from ,adam's loins for the purpose1 made answer1 8,yea1 verily1 in this covenant we remain until we formally cast it off40 ,this1 of course1 involved taking ,god's qualities in the most literal sense4 ,so1 if we are to see in the ,mu#8tazilites scholastic commentators trying to reduce ,muhammad1 the poet1 to logic and sense1 we must see in ,ibn ,karram one of those wooden-minded literalists1 for whom a metaphor is a ridiculous lie if it cannot be taken in its external meaning4 ,he was part of the great stream of conservative reaction1 in which we find also such a man as ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal4 ,but the saving salt of ,ahmad's sense and reverence kept him by the safe proviso 8without considering how and without comparison40 ,all ,ahmad's later followers were not so wise4 ,in his doctrine of the state ,ibn ,karram inclined to the ,kharijites4 ,before we return to al-,jubba#8i and the fate of the ,mu#8tazilites1 it remains to trace more precisely the thread of mysticism1 that kashf1 revelation1 which we have already mentioned several times4 ,its fundamental fact is that it had two sides1 an ascetic and a speculative1 different in degree1 in spirit and in result1 and yet so closely entangled that the same mystic has been assigned1 in good and in bad faith1 as an adherent of both4 ,sidenote3 ,,women ,,saints ,it is to the form of mysticism which sprang from asceticism that we must first turn4 ,attention has been given above to the wandering monks and hermits1 the sa'ihs 7wanderers7 and rahibs who caught ,muhammad's attention and respect4 ,we have seen1 too1 how ,muslim imitators began in their turn to wander through the land1 clad in the coarse woollen robes which gave them the name of ,sufis1 and living upon the alms of the pious4 ,how early these appeared in any number and as a fixed profession is uncertain1 but we find stories in circulation of meetings between such mendicant friars and al-,hasan al-,basri himself4 ,women1 too1 were among them1 and it is possible that to their influence a development of devotional love-poetry was due4 ,at least1 many verses of this kind are ascribed to a certain ,rabi#8a1 an ascetic and ecstatic devotee of the most extreme other-worldliness1 who died in #ace4 ,many other women had part in the contemplative life4 ,among them may be mentioned1 to show its grasp and spread1 ,a'isha1 daughter of ,ja#8far as-,sadiq1 who died in #ade2 ,fatima of ,naysabur1 who died in #bbc1 and the ,lady ,nafisa1 a contemporary and rival in learning with ash-,shafi#8i and the marvel of her time in piety and the ascetic life4 ,her grave is one of the most venerated spots in ,cairo1 and at it wonders are still worked and prayer is always answered4 ,she was a descendant of al-,hasan1 the martyred ex-,khalifa1 and an example of how the fated family of the ,prophet was an early school for women saints4 ,even in the ,heathenism we have traces of female penitents and hermits1 and the tragedy of ,ali and his sons and descendants gave scope for the self-sacrifice1 loving service and religious enthusiasm with which women are dowered4 ,all these stood and stand in ,islam on exactly the same footing as men4 ,the distinction in ,roman ,christendom that a woman cannot be a priest there falls away1 for in ,islam is neither priest nor layman4 ,they lived either as solitaries or in conventual life exactly as did the men4 ,they were called by the same terms in feminine form2 they were ,sufiyas beside the ,sufis2 ,zahidas 7ascetics7 beside the ,zahids2 ,waliyas 7friends of ,god7 beside the ,walis2 ,abidas 7devotees7 beside the ,abids4 ,they worked wonders 7karamat1 closely akin to the of #a ,cor4 xii1 #i7 by the divine grace1 and still1 as we have seen1 at their own graves such are granted through them to the faithful1 and their intercession 7shafa#8a7 is invoked4 ,their religious exercises were the same2 they held dhikrs and women darwishes yet dance to singing and music in order to bring on fits of ecstasy4 ,to state the case generally1 whatever is said hereafter of mysticism and its workings among men must be taken as applying to women also4 ,to return3 one of the earliest male devotees of whom we have distinct note is ,ibrahim ibn ,adham4 ,he was a wanderer of royal blood1 drifted from ,balkh in ,afghanistan to al-,basra and to ,mecca4 ,he died in #afa4 ,contempt for the learning of lawyers and for external forms appears in him2 obedience to ,god1 contemplation of death1 death to the world formed his teaching4 ,another1 ,da'ud ibn ,nusayr1 who died in #afe1 was wont to say1 8,flee men as thou fleest a lion4 ,fast from the world and let the breaking of thy fast be when thou diest40 ,another1 al-,fudayl ibn ,iyad of ,khurasan1 who died in #ahg1 was a robber converted by a heavenly voice2 he cast aside the world1 and his utterances show that he lapsed into the passivity of quietism4 ,reference has already been made in the chapter on jurisprudence to the development of asceticism which came with the accession of the ,abbasids4 ,the disappointed hopes of the old believers found an outlet in the contemplative life4 ,they withdrew from the world and would have nothing to do with its rulers2 their wealth and everything connected with them they regarded as unclean4 ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal in his later life had to use all his obstinacy and ingenuity to keep free of the court and its contamination4 ,another was this al-,fudayl4 ,stories--chronologically impossible--are told how he rebuked ,harun ar-,rashid for his luxury and tyranny and denounced to his face his manner of life4 ,with such an attitude to those round him he could have had little joy in his devotion4 ,so it was said1 8,when al-,fudayl died1 sadness was removed from the world40 ,sidenote3 ,,passage ,,of ,,asceticism ,,to ,,ecstasy ,but soon the recoil came4 ,under the spur of such exercises and thoughts1 the ecstatic oriental temperament began to revel in expressions borrowed from human love and earthly wine4 ,such we find by ,ma#8ruf of al-,karkh1 a district of ,baghdad1 who died in #bjj1 and whose tomb1 saved by popular reverence1 is one of the few ancient sites in modern ,baghdad2 and by his greater disciple1 ,sari as-,saqati1 who died in #beg4 ,to this last is ascribed1 but dubiously1 the first use of the word tawhid to signify the union of the soul with ,god4 ,the figure that the heart is a mirror to image back ,god and that it is darkened by the things of the body appears in ,abu ,sulayman of ,damascus1 who died in #bae4 ,a more celebrated ascetic1 who died in #bbg1 ,bishr al-,hafi 7bare-foot71 speaks of ,god directly as the ,beloved 7habib74 ,al-,harith al-,muhasibi was a contemporary of ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal and died in #bdc4 ,the only thing in him to which ,ahmad could take exception was that he made use of kalam in refuting the ,mu#8tazilites2 even this suspicion against him he is said to have abandoned4 ,sari and ,bishr1 too1 were close friends of ,ahmad's4 ,dhu-n-,nun1 the ,egyptian ,sufi1 who died in #bde1 is in more dubious repute4 ,he is said to have been the first to formulate the doctrine of ecstatic states 7hals1 maqamas72 but if he went no further than this1 his orthodoxy1 in the broad sense1 should be above suspicion4 ,islam has now come to accept these as right and fitting4 ,perhaps the greatest name in early ,sufiism is that of al-,junayd 7d4 #big72 on it no shadow of heresy has ever fallen4 ,he was a master in theology and law1 reverenced as one of the greatest of the early doctors4 ,questions of tawhid he is said to have discussed before his pupils with shut doors4 ,but this was probably tawhid in the theological and not in the mystical sense--against the ,mu#8tazilites and not on the union of the soul with ,god4 ,yet he1 too1 knew the ecstatic life and fell fainting at verses which struck into his soul4 ,ash-,shibli 7d4 #ccd7 was one of his disciples1 but seems to have given himself more completely to the ascetic and contemplative life4 ,in verses by him we find the vocabulary of the amorous intercourse with ,god fully developed4 ,the last of this group to be mentioned here shall be ,abu ,talib al-,makki1 who died in #chf4 ,it is his distinction to have furnished a text-book of ,sufiism that is in use to this day4 ,he wrote and spoke openly on tawhid1 now in the ,sufi sense1 and got into trouble as a heretic1 but his memory has been restored to orthodoxy by the general agreement of ,islam4 ,when1 in #dhh1 al-,ghazzali set himself to seek light in ,sufiism1 among the treatises he studied were the books of four of those mentioned above1 ,abu ,talib1 al-,muhasibi1 al-,junayd1 and ash-,shibli4 ,sidenote3 ,,growth ,,of ,,fraternities ,in the case of these and all the others already spoken of there was nothing but a very simple and natural development such as could easily be paralleled in ,europe4 ,the earliest ,muslims were burdened1 as we have seen1 with the fear of the terrors of an avenging ,god4 ,the world was evil and fleeting2 the only abiding good was in the other world2 so their religion became an ascetic other-worldliness4 ,they fled into the wilderness from the wrath to come4 ,wandering1 either solitary or in companies1 was the special sign of the true ,sufi4 ,the young men gave themselves over to the guidance of the older men2 little circles of disciples gathered round a venerated ,shaykh2 fraternities began to form4 ,so we find it in the case of al-,junayd1 so in that of ,sari as-,saqati4 ,next would come a monastery1 rather a rest-house2 for only in the winter and for rest did they remain fixed in a place for any time4 ,of such a monastery there is a trace at ,damascus in #aej and in ,khurasan about #bjj4 ,then1 just as in ,europe1 begging friars organized themselves4 ,in faith they were rather conservative than anything else2 touched with a religious passivism which easily developed into quietism4 ,their ecstasies went little beyond those1 for instance1 of ,thomas ,kempis1 though struck with a warmer oriental fervor4 ,the points on which the doctors of ,islam took exception to these earlier ,sufis are strikingly different from what we would expect4 ,they concern the practical life far more than theological speculation4 ,as was natural in the case of professional devotees1 a constantly prayerful attitude began to assume importance beside and in contrast to the formal use of the five daily prayers1 the salawat4 ,this development was in all probability aided by the existence in ,syria of the ,christian sect of the ,euchites1 who exalted the duty of prayer above all other religious obligations4 ,these1 also1 abandoned property and obligations and wandered as poor brethren over the country4 ,they were a branch of ,hesychasts1 the quietistic ,greek monks who eventually led to the controversy concerning the uncreated light manifested at the transfiguration on ,mount ,tabor and added a doctrine to the ,eastern ,church4 ,considering these points1 it can hardly be doubted that there was some historical connection and relation here1 not only with earlier but also with later ,sufiism4 ,there is a striking resemblance between the ,sufis seeking by patient introspection to see the actual light of ,god's presence in their hearts1 and the ,greek monks in ,athos1 sitting solitarily in their cells and seeking the divine light of ,mount ,tabor in contemplation of their navels4 ,but our immediate point is the matter of constant1 free prayer4 ,in the ,qur'an 7xxxiii1 #da7 the believers are exhorted to 8remember 7dhikr7 ,god often20 this command the ,sufis obeyed with a correlative depreciation of the five canonical prayers4 ,their meetings for the purpose1 much like our own prayer-meetings1 still more like the 8class-meetings0 of the early ,methodists1 as opposed to stated public worship1 were called dhikrs4 ,these services were fiercely attacked by the orthodox theologians1 but survived and are the darwish functions which tourists still go to see at ,constantinople and ,cairo4 ,but the more private and personal dhikrs of individual ,sufis1 each in his house repeating his ,qur'anic litanies through the night1 until to the passer-by it sounded like the humming of bees or the unceasing drip of roof-gutters1 these seem1 in the course of the third century1 to have fallen before ridicule and accusations of heresy4 ,sidenote3 ,,tawakkul ,another point against the earlier ,sufis was their abuse of the principle of tawakkul1 dependence upon ,god4 ,they gave up their trades and professions2 they even gave up the asking for alms4 ,their ideal was to be absolutely at ,god's disposal1 utterly cast upon ,his direct sustenance 7rizq74 ,no anxiety for their daily bread was permitted to them2 they must go through the world separated from it and its needs and looking up to ,god4 ,only one who can do this is properly an acknowledger of ,god's unity1 a true ,muwahhid4 ,to such1 ,god would assuredly open the door of help2 they were at ,his gate2 and the biographies of the saints are full of tales how ,his help used to come4 ,to this it may be imagined that the more sober1 even among ,sufis1 made vehement objection4 ,it fell under two heads4 ,one was that of kasb1 the gaining of daily bread by labor4 ,the examples of the husbandman who casts his seed into the ground and then depends upon ,god1 of the merchant who travels with his wares in similar trust1 were held up against the wandering but useless monk4 ,as always1 traditions were forged on both sides4 ,said a man--apparently in a spirit of prophecy--one day to the ,prophet1 8,shall ,i let my camel run free and trust in ,god80 ,replied the ,prophet1 or someone for him with a good imitation of his humorous common-sense1 8,tie up your camel and trust in ,god40 ,the other head was the use of remedies in sickness4 ,the whole controversy parallels strikingly the 8mental science0 and 8,christian science0 of the present day4 ,medicine1 it was held1 destroyed tawakkul4 ,in the fourth century in ,persia this insanity ran high and many books were written for it and against it4 ,the author of one on the first side was consulted in an obstinate case of headache4 8,put my book under your pillow10 he said1 8and trust in ,god40 ,on both these points the usage of the ,prophet and the ,companions was in the teeth of the ,sufi position4 ,they had notoriously earned their living1 honestly or dishonestly1 and had possessed all the credulity of semi-civilization toward the most barbaric and multifarious remedies4 ,so the agreement of ,islam eventually righted itself1 though the question in its intricacies and subtilties remained for centuries a thing of delight for theologians4 ,in the end only the wildest fanatics held by absolute tawakkul4 ,sidenote3 ,,speculative ,,sufiism ,but all this time the second form of ,sufiism had been slowly forcing its way4 ,it was essentially speculative and theological rather than ascetic and devotional4 ,when it gained the upper hand1 zahid 7ascetic7 was no longer a convertible term with ,sufi4 ,we pass over the boundary between ,thomas ,kempis and ,st4 ,francis to ,eckhart and ,suso4 ,the roots of this movement cannot be hard to find in the light of what has preceded4 ,they lie partly in the neo-,platonism which is the foundation of the philosophy of ,islam4 ,probably it did not come to the ,sufis along the same channels by which it reached al-,farabi4 ,it was rather through the ,christian mystics and1 perhaps1 especially through the ,pseudo-,dionysius the ,areopagite1 and his asserted teacher1 ,stephen bar ,sudaili with his ,syriac 8,book of ,hierotheos40 ,we need not here consider whether the ,monophysite heresy is to be reckoned in as one of the results of the dying neo-,platonism4 ,it is true that outlying forms of it meant the frank deifying of a man and thus raised the possibility of the equal deifying of any other man and of all men4 ,but there is no certainty that these views had an influence in ,islam4 ,it is enough that from ,a4,d4 #ecc we find the ,pseudo-,dionysius quoted and his influence strong with the ultra ,monophysites1 and still more1 thereafter1 with the whole mystical movement in ,christendom4 ,according to it1 all is akin in nature to the ,absolute1 and all this life below is only a reflection of the glories of the upper sphere1 where ,god is4 ,through the sacraments and a hierarchy of angels man is led back toward ,him4 ,only in ecstasy can man come to a knowledge of ,him4 ,the ,trinity1 sin and the atonement fade out of view4 ,the incarnation is but an example of how the divine and the human can join4 ,all is an emanation or an emission of grace from ,god2 and the yearnings of man are back to his source4 ,the revolving spheres1 the groaning and travailing nature are striving to return to their origin4 ,when this conception had seized the ,oriental ,church2 when it had passed into ,islam and dominated its emotional and religious life2 when through the translation of the ,pseudo-,dionysius by ,scotus ,erigena in #hej1 it had begun the long contest of idealism in ,europe1 the dead school of ,plotinus had won the field1 and its influence ruled from the ,oxus to the ,atlantic4 ,but the roots of ,sufiism struck also in another direction4 ,we have already seen an early tendency to regard ,ali and1 later1 members of his house as incarnations of divinity4 ,in the ,east1 where ,god comes near to man1 the conception of ,god in man is not difficult4 ,the ,semitic prophet through whom ,god speaks easily slips over into a divine being in whom ,god exists and may be worshipped4 ,but if with one1 why not with another8 ,may it not be possible by purifying exercises to reach this unity8 ,if one is a ,son of ,god1 may not all become that if they but take the means8 ,the half-understood pantheism which always lurks behind oriental fervors claims its due4 ,from his wild whirling dance1 the darwish1 stung to cataleptic ecstasy by the throbbing of the drums and the lilting chant1 sinks back into the unconsciousness of the divine oneness4 ,he has passed temporarily from this scene of multiplicity into the sea of ,god's unity and1 at death1 if he but persevere1 he will reach that haven where he fain would be and will abide there forever4 ,here1 we have not to do with calm philosophers rearing their systems in labored speculations1 but with men1 often untaught1 seeking the salvation of their souls earnestly and with tears4 ,sidenote3 ,,pantheistic ,,school ,one of the earliest of the pantheistic school was ,abu ,yazid al-,bistami 7d4 #bfa74 ,he was of ,persian parentage1 and his father had been a follower of ,zarathustra4 ,as an ascetic he was of the highest repute2 he was also an author of eminence on ,sufiism 7al-,ghazzali used his books7 and he joined to his devout learning and self-mortification clear miraculous gifts4 ,but equally clear was his pantheistic drift and his name has come down linked to the saying1 8,beneath my cloak there is naught else than ,god40 ,it is worth noticing that certain other of his sayings show that1 even in his time1 there were ,sufi saints who boasted that they had reached such perfection and such miraculous powers that the ordinary moral and ceremonial law no longer applied to them4 ,the antinomianism which haunted the later ,sufiism and darwishdom had already appeared4 ,sidenote3 ,,al-,,hallaj ,but the greatest name of all among these early pantheists was that of al-,hallaj 7the cotton carder71 a pupil of al-,junayd1 who was put to death with great cruelty in #cji4 ,it is almost impossible to reach any certain conclusion as to his real views and aims4 ,in spite of what seem to be utterances of the crassest pantheism1 such as1 8,i am the ,truth10 there have not been wanting many in later ,islam who have reverenced his memory as that of a saint and martyr4 ,to ,sufis and darwishes of his time and to this day he has been and is a patron saint4 ,in his life and death he represents for them the spirit of revolt against dogmatic scholasticism and formalism4 ,further1 even such a great doctor of the ,muslim ,church as al-,ghazzali defended him and1 though lamenting some incautious phrases1 upheld his orthodoxy4 ,at his trial itself before the theologians of ,baghdad1 one of them refused to sign the fatwa declaring him an unbeliever2 he was not clear1 he said1 as to the case4 ,and it is true that such records as we have of the time suggest that his condemnation was forced by the government as a matter of state policy4 ,he was a ,persian of ,magian origin1 and evidently an advanced mystic of the speculative type4 ,he carried the theory to its legitimate conclusion1 and proclaimed the result publicly4 ,he dabbled in scholastic theology2 had evident ,mu#8tazilite leanings2 wrote on alchemy and things esoteric4 ,but with this mystical enthusiasm there seem to have united in him other and more dangerous traits4 ,the stories which have reached us show him of a character fond of excitement and change1 surrounding himself with devoted adherents and striving by miracle-working of a commonplace kind to add to his following4 ,his popularity among the people of ,baghdad and their reverence for him rose to a perilous degree4 ,he may have had plans of his own as a ,persian nationalist2 he may have had part in one of the ,shi#8ite conspiracies2 he may have been nothing but a rather weak-headed devotee1 carried off his feet by a sudden tide of public excitement1 the greatest trial and danger that a saint has to meet4 ,but the times were not such then in ,baghdad that the government could take any risks4 ,al-,muqtadir was ,khalifa and in his weak hands the ,khalifate was slipping to ruin4 ,the ,fatimids were supreme in ,north ,africa2 the ,qarmatians held ,syria and ,arabia1 and were threatening ,baghdad itself4 ,in eight years they were to take ,mecca4 ,persia was seething with false prophets and nationalists of every shade4 ,thirteen years later ,ibn ash-,shalmaghani was put to death in ,baghdad on similar grounds2 in his case1 ,shi#8ite conspiracy against the state was still more clearly involved4 ,we can only conclude in the words of ,ibn ,khallikan 7d4 #fha71 8,the history of al-,hallaj is long to relate2 his fate is well known2 and ,god knoweth all secret things40 ,with him we must leave1 for the present1 consideration of the ,sufi development and return to the ,mu#8tazilites and to the people tiring of their dry subtilties4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,the rise of orthodox kalam2 al-,ash#8ari2 decline of the ,mu#8tazilites2 passing of heresy into unbelief2 development of scholastic theology by ,ash#8arites2 rise of ,zahirite kalam2 ,ibn ,hazm2 persecution of ,ash#8arites2 final assimilation of kalam4 ,as we have already seen1 the traditionalist party at first refused to enter upon any discussion of sacred things4 ,malik ibn ,anas used to say1 8,god's istiwa 7settling ,himself firmly upon ,his throne7 is known2 how it is done is unknown2 it must be believed2 questions about it are an innovation 7bid#8a740 ,but such a position could not be held for any length of time4 ,the world cannot be cut in two and half assigned to faith and half to reason4 ,so1 as time went on1 there arose on the orthodox side men who1 little by little1 were prepared to give a reason for the faith that was in them4 ,they thus came to use kalam in order to meet the kalam of the ,mu#8tazilites2 they became mutakallims1 and the scholastic theology of ,islam was founded4 ,it is the history of this transfer of method which we have now to consider4 ,sidenote3 ,,rise ,,of ,,orthodox ,,kalam ,its beginnings are wrapped in a natural obscurity4 ,it was at first a gradual1 unconscious drift1 and people did not recognize its existence4 ,afterward1 when they looked back upon it1 the tendency of the human mind to ascribe broad movements to single men asserted itself and the whole was put under the name of al-,ash#8ari4 ,it is true that with him1 in a sense1 the change suddenly leaped to self-consciousness1 but it had already been long in progress4 ,as we have seen1 al-,junayd discussed the unity of ,god1 but it was behind closed doors4 ,ash-,shafi#8i held that there should be a certain number of men trained thus to defend and purify the faith1 but that it would be a great evil if their arguments should become known to the mass of the people4 ,al-,muhasibi1 a contemporary of ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal1 was suspected1 and rightly1 of defending his faith with argument1 and thereby incurred ,ahmad's displeasure4 ,another contemporary of ,ahmad's1 al-,karabisi 7d4 #cde71 incurred the same displeasure1 and the list might easily be extended4 ,but the most significant fact of all is that the movement came to the surface and showed itself openly at the same time in the most widely separated lands of ,islam4 ,in ,mesopotamia there was al-,ash#8ari1 who died after #cbj2 in ,egypt there was at-,tahawi1 who died in #cca2 in ,samarqand there was al-,mataridi1 who died in #ccc4 ,of these at-,tahawi is now little more than a name2 al-,mataridi's star has paled before that of al-,ash#8ari2 al-,ash#8ari has come in popular view to be the solitary hero before whom the ,mu#8tazilite system went down4 ,it will perhaps be sufficient if we take his life and experiences as our guide in this period of change2 the others must have followed very much in the same path4 ,he was born at al-,basra in #bfj1 the year in which al-,kindi died and ,muhammad al-,muntazar vanished from the sight of men4 ,he came into a world full of intellectual ferment2 ,alids of different camps were active in their claim to be possessors of an infallible ,imam2 ,zaydites and ,qarmatians were in revolt2 the decree of #bcd that the ,qur'an was uncreated had had little effect1 so far1 in silencing the ,mu#8tazilites2 in #bfa the ,sufi pantheist1 ,abu ,yazid1 died4 ,al-,ash#8ari himself was of the best blood of the desert and of a highly orthodox family which had borne a distinguished part in ,muslim history4 ,through some accident he came in early youth into the care of al-,jubba#8i1 the ,mu#8tazilite1 who1 according to one story1 had married al-,ash#8ari's mother2 was brought up by him and remained a stanch ,mu#8tazilite1 writing and speaking on that side1 till he was forty years old4 ,sidenote3 ,,return ,,of ,,al-,,ash#8,,ari ,then a strange thing happened4 ,one day he mounted the pulpit of the mosque in al-,basra and cried aloud1 8,he who knows me1 knows me2 and he who knows me not1 let him know that ,i am so and so1 the son of so and so4 ,i have maintained the creation of the ,qur'an and that ,god will not be seen in the world to come with the eyes1 and that the creatures create their actions4 ,lo1 ,i repent that ,i have been a ,mu#8tazilite and turn to opposition to them40 ,it was a voice full of omen4 ,it told that the intellectual supremacy of the ,mu#8tazilites had publicly passed and that1 hereafter1 they would be met with their own weapons4 ,what led to this change of mind is strictly unknown2 only legends have reached us4 ,one1 full of psychological truth1 runs that one ,ramadan1 the fasting month1 when he was worn with prayer and hunger1 the ,prophet appeared to him three times in his sleep1 and commanded him to turn from his vain kalam and seek certainty in the traditions and the ,qur'an4 ,if he would but give himself to that study1 ,god would make clear the difficulties and enable him to solve all the puzzles4 ,he did so1 and his mind seemed to be opened2 the old contradictions and absurdities had fled1 and he cursed the ,mu#8tazilites and all their works4 ,it can easily be seen that in some such way as this the blood of the race may have led him back to the ,god of his fathers1 the ,god of the desert1 whose word must be accepted as its own proof4 ,the gossips of the time told strange tales of rich relatives and family pressure2 we can leave these aside4 ,when he had changed he was terribly in earnest4 ,he met his old teacher1 al-,jubba#8i1 in public discussions again and again till the old man withdrew4 ,one of these discussions legend has handed down in varying forms4 ,none of them may be exactly true1 but they are significant of the change of attitude4 ,he came to al-,jubba#8i and said1 8,suppose the case of three brothers2 one being ,god-fearing1 another godless and a third dies as a child4 ,what of them in the world to come80 ,al-,jubba#8i replied1 8,the first will be rewarded in ,paradise2 the second punished in ,hell1 and the third will be neither rewarded nor punished40 ,al-,ash#8ari continued1 8,but if the third said1 #8,lord1 ,thou mightest have granted me life1 and then ,i would have been pious and entered ,paradise like my brother1' what then80 ,al-,jubba#8i replied1 8,god would say1 #8,i knew that if thou wert granted life thou wouldst be godless and unbelieving and enter ,hell4'0 ,then al-,ash#8ari drew his noose1 8,but what if the second said1 #8,lord1 why didst ,thou not make me die as a child8 ,then had ,i escaped ,hell4'0 ,al-,jubba#8i was silenced1 and ,al-,ash#8ari went away in triumph4 ,three years after his pupil had left him the old man died4 ,the tellers of this story regard it as disproving the ,mu#8tazilite doctrine of 8the best0--al-aslah--namely1 that ,god is constrained to do that which may be best and happiest for ,his creatures4 ,orthodox ,islam1 as we have seen1 holds that ,god is under no such constraint1 and is free to do good or evil as ,he chooses4 ,but the story has also another and somewhat broader significance4 ,it is a protest against the religious rationalism of the ,mu#8tazilites1 which held that the mysteries of the universe could be expressed and met in terms of human thought4 ,in this way it represents the essence of al-,ash#8ari's position1 a recoil from the impossible task of raising a system of purely rationalistic theology to reliance upon the ,word of ,god1 and the tradition 7hadith7 and usage 7sunna7 of the ,prophet and the pattern of the early church 7salaf74 ,the stories told above represent the change as sudden4 ,according to the evidence of his books that was not so4 ,in his return there were two stages4 ,in the first of these he upheld the seven rational ,qualities 7sifat aqliya7 of ,god1 ,life1 ,knowledge1 ,power1 ,will1 ,hearing1 ,seeing1 ,speech3 but explained away the ,qur'anic anthropomorphisms of ,god's face1 hands1 feet1 etc4 ,in the second stage1 which fell1 apparently1 after he had moved to ,baghdad and come under the strong ,hanbalite influences there1 he explained away nothing1 but contented himself with the position that the anthropomorphisms were to be taken1 bila kayfa wala tashbih1 without asking how and without drawing any comparison4 ,the first phrase is directed against the ,mu#8tazilites1 who inquired persistently into the nature and possibility of such things in ,god2 the second1 against the anthropomorphists 7mushabbihs1 comparers2 mujassims1 corporealizers71 mostly ultra ,hanbalites and ,karramites1 who said that these things in ,god were like the corresponding things in men4 ,at all stages1 however1 he was prepared to defend his conclusions and assail those of his adversaries by dint of argument4 ,sidenote3 ,,system ,,of ,,al-,,ash#8,,ari ,the details of his system will be best understood by reading his creed and the creed of al-,fudali1 which is essentially ,ash#8arite4 ,both are in the ,appendix of ,translated ,creeds4 ,here1 it is necessary to draw attention to two1 only1 of the obscurer points4 ,on the vexed question1 8,what is a thing80 he anticipated ,kant4 ,the early theologians1 orthodox and theoretical1 and those later ones also who did not follow him1 regarded1 as we have seen1 existence 7wujud7 as only one of the qualities belonging to an existing thing 7mawjud74 ,it was there all the time1 but it lacked the quality of 8existence02 then that quality was added to its other qualities and it became existent4 ,but al-,ash#8ari and his followers held that existence was the 8self0 7ayn7 of the entity and not a quality or state1 however personal or necessary4 ,see1 on the whole1 ,appendix of ,creeds4 ,on the other vexed question of free-will1 or1 rather1 as the ,muslims chose to express it1 on the ability of men to produce actions1 he took up a mediating position4 ,the old orthodox position was absolutely fatalistic2 the ,mu#8tazilites1 following their principle of ,justice1 gave to man an initiative power4 ,al-,ash#8ari struck a middle path4 ,man cannot create anything2 ,god is the only creator4 ,nor does man's power produce any effect on his actions at all4 ,god creates in ,his creature power 7qudra7 and choice 7ikhtiyar74 ,then ,he creates in him his action corresponding to the power and choice thus created4 ,so the action of the creature is created by ,god as to initiative and as to production2 but it is acquired by the creature4 ,by acquisition 7kasb7 is meant that it corresponds to the creature's power and choice1 previously created in him1 without his having had the slightest effect on the action4 ,he was only the locus or subject of the action4 ,in this way al-,ash#8ari is supposed to have accounted for free-will and entailed responsibility upon men4 ,it may be doubted whether the second point occupied him much4 ,it was open to his ,god to do good or evil as ,he chose2 the ,justice of the ,mu#8tazilites was left behind4 ,he may have intended only to explain the consciousness of freedom1 as some have done more recently4 ,the closeness with which al-,ash#8ari in this comes to the pre-established harmony of ,leibnitz and to the ,kantian conception of existence shows how high a rank he must take as an original thinker4 ,his abandoning of the ,mu#8tazilites was due to no mere wave of sentiment but to a perception that their speculations were on too narrow a basis and of a too barren scholastic type4 ,he died after #cbj with a curse on them and their methods as his last words4 ,sidenote3 ,,al-,,mataridi ,a few words only need be given to al-,mataridi4 ,the creed of an-,nasafi in the ,appendix of ,creeds1 pp4 #cjh-cae belongs to his school4 ,he and at-,tahawi were followers of the broad-minded ,abu ,hanifa1 who was more than suspected of ,mu#8tazilite and ,murji'ite leanings4 ,muslim theologians usually reckon up some thirteen points of difference between al-,mataridi and al-,ash#8ari and admit that seven of these are not much more than combats of words4 ,those which occur in an-,nasafi's creed are marked with a star4 ,we are now in a position to finish shortly with the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,their work1 as a constructive force1 is done4 ,from this time on there is kalam among the orthodox1 and the term mutakallim denotes nothing but a scholastic theologian1 whether of one wing or another4 ,and so1 like any other organ which has done its part and for the existence of which there is no longer any object1 they gradually and quietly dropped into the background4 ,they had still1 sometimes1 to suffer persecution1 and for hundreds of years there were men who continued to call themselves ,mu#8tazilites2 but their heresies came to be heresies of the schools and not burning questions in the eyes of the masses4 ,we need now draw attention to only a few incidents and figures in this dying movement4 ,the ,muslim historians lay much stress on the orthodox zeal of the ,khalifa al-,qadir1 who reigned #cha-dbb1 and narrate how he persecuted the ,mu#8tazilites1 ,shi#8ites and other heretics and compelled them1 under oath1 to conform4 ,but there are several difficulties in the way of this persecution1 which make it probable that it was more nominal than otherwise4 ,al-,qadir was bitterly orthodox2 he had written a treatise on theology and compelled his unhappy courtiers to listen to a public reading of it every week4 ,but he enjoyed1 outside of his palace1 next to no power4 ,he was in the control of the ,shi#8ite ,buwayhids1 who1 as we have seen1 ruled ,baghdad and the ,khalifate from #cbj to #ddg4 ,these dubious persecutions are said to have fallen in #djh and #dbj4 ,again1 a ,muslim pilgrim from ,spain visited ,baghdad about #cij and has left us a record of the state of religious things there4 ,he found in session what may perhaps best be described as a ,parliament of ,religions4 ,it seems to have been a free debate between ,muslims of all sects1 orthodox and heretical1 ,parsees and atheists1 ,jews and ,christians--unbelievers of every kind4 ,each party had a spokesman1 and at the beginning of the proceedings the rule was rehearsed that no one might appeal to the sacred books of his creed but might only adduce arguments founded upon reason4 ,the pious ,spanish ,muslim went to two meetings but did not peril his soul by any further visits4 ,in his narrative we recognize the horror with which the orthodox of ,spain viewed such proceedings--,spain1 ,muslim and ,christian1 has always favored the straitest sect2 but when such a thing was permitted in ,baghdad1 religious liberty there at least must have been tolerably broad4 ,possibly it was sittings of the ,ikhwan as-safa upon which this scandalized ,spaniard stumbled4 ,he himself speaks of them as meetings of mutakallims4 ,sidenote3 ,,mahmud ,,of ,,ghazna ,but if the mixture of ,sunnite and ,shi#8ite authority in ,baghdad gave all the miscellaneous heretics a chance for life1 it was different in the growing dominions of ,mahmud of ,ghazna4 ,that iconoclastic monarch had embraced the anthropomorphic faith of the ,karramites1 the most literal-minded of all the ,muslim sects4 ,in consequence1 all forms of ,mu#8tazilism and all kinds of mutakallims were an abomination to him1 and it was a very real persecution which they met at his hands4 ,that al-,qadir1 his spiritual suzerain1 urged him on is very probable2 it is also possible that respect for the growing power of ,mahmud may have protected al-,qadir to some extent from the ,buwayhids4 ,in #dbj ,mahmud took from them ,ispahan and held there a grand inquisition on ,shi#8ites and heretics of all kinds4 ,to proceed with the ,mu#8tazilites2 when we come to al-,ghazzali and his times we shall find that they have ceased to be a crying danger to the faith4 ,though their views might1 that doctor held1 be erroneous in some respects1 they were not to be considered as damnable4 ,again1 in #ech1 there died az-,zamakhshari1 the great grammarian1 who is often called the last of the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,he was not that by any means1 but his heresies were either mild or were regarded mildly4 ,a single point will show this4 ,his commentary on the ,qur'an1 the ,kashshaf1 was revised and expurgated in the orthodox interest by al-,baydawi 7d4 #fhh7 and in that form is now the most popular and respected of all expositions4 ,the ,kashshaf itself1 in its original1 unmodified form1 has been printed several times at ,cairo4 ,again1 ,ibn ,rushd1 the ,aristotelian1 who died in #eie1 when he is combating the arguments of the mutakallims1 makes little difference between the ,mu#8tazilites and the others4 ,they are only1 to him1 another variety of scholastic theologian1 with a rather better idea1 perhaps1 of logic and argument4 ,he considered1 as we shall find later1 all the mutakallims as sadly to seek in such matters4 ,since then1 and into quite modern times1 there have been sporadic cases of theologians called ,mu#8tazilites by themselves or others4 ,practically1 they have been scholastics of eccentric views4 ,finally1 the use of this name for themselves by the present-day broad school ,muslims of ,india is absolutely unhistorical and highly misleading4 ,we turn now to suggest1 rather than to trace1 some of the non-theological consequences of the preceding theology4 ,sidenote3 ,,al-,,beruni2 ,,ibn ,,sina ,increasingly1 from this time on1 it is not heresy which has to be met so much as simple unbelief1 more or less frank4 ,it is evident that the heretics of the earlier period are now dividing in two directions1 one part inclining toward milder forms of heresy and the other toward doubt in the largest sense1 passing over to ,aristotelian neo-,platonic philosophy1 and thence dividing into materialists1 deists1 and theists4 ,thus we have seen earlier the workings of al-,farabi and of the ,ikhwan as-safa4 ,the teachings of the latter pass on to the ,isma#8ilians who developed them in the mountain fortresses1 the centres of their power1 scattered from ,persia to ,syria4 ,these were otherwise called ,assassins2 otherwise ,batinites in the narrower sense--in the broader that term meant only those who found under the letter of the ,qur'an a hidden1 esoteric meaning2 otherwise ,ta#8limites or claimers of a ta#8lim1 a secret teaching by a divinely instructed ,imam1 and with them we shall have much to do later4 ,it is sufficient here to notice how the peaceful and rather watery philosophy of the 8,sincere ,brethren0 was transmuted through ambition and fanaticism into belligerent politics at the hands and daggers of these fierce sectaries4 ,into this period1 too1 fall some well-known names of dubious and more than dubious orthodoxy4 ,al-,beruni 7d4 #ddj7 even at the court of ,mahmud of ,ghazna managed to keep his footing and his head4 ,yet it may be doubted how far he was a ,karramite or even a ,muslim4 ,he was certainly the first scientific student of ,india and ,indica and of chronology and calendars1 a man whose attainments and results show that our so-called modern methods are as old as genius4 ,on religion1 he maintained a prudent silence1 but earned the favor of ,mahmud by an unsparing exposure of the weakness in the ,fatimid genealogy4 ,in this sketch he has a place as a man of science who went his own way without treading on the religious toes of other people4 ,his contemporary ,ibn ,sina 7d4 #dbh71 for us ,avicenna1 was of a different nature1 and his lines were cast in different places4 ,he was a wanderer through the courts of northern ,persia4 ,the orthodox and stringent ,mahmud he carefully avoided2 the ,buwayhids and those of their ilk took such heresies as his more easily4 ,endowed with a gigantic memory and an insatiable intellectual appetite1 he was the encyclopdist of his age1 and his scientific work1 and especially that in medicine1 went further than anything else to put the ,muslim ,east and medival ,europe in the strait waistcoat from which the first has not yet emerged and the second only shook itself free in the seventeenth century4 ,he was a student of ,aristotle and a mystic1 as all ,muslim students of ,aristotle have been4 ,how far his mysticism enabled him to square the ,qur'an with his philosophy is not clear2 such men seldom said exactly what they meant and all that they thought4 ,he was also a diligent student and reader of the ,qur'an and faithful in his public religious duties4 ,yet the ,muslim world asserts that he left behind him a testamentary tractate 7wasiya7 defending dissimulation as to the religion of the country in which we might be2 that it was not wrong for the philosopher to go through religious rites which for him had no meaning4 ,he1 too1 is significant for his time1 and1 if our interest were philosophy1 would call for lengthened treatment4 ,as it is1 he marks for us the accomplished separation between students of theology and students of philosophy4 ,an equally well known and by us much better loved name is that of ,umar al-,khayyam1 who died later1 about #eae1 but who may fitly be grouped with ,ibn ,sina4 ,he1 too1 was a bon vivant1 but of a deeper1 more melancholy strain4 ,his wine meant more than friendly cups2 it was a way of escape from the world and its burden4 ,his science1 too1 went deeper4 ,he was not a gatherer and arranger of the wisdom of the past2 his reformed calendar is more perfect than that which we even now use4 ,his faith is a riddle to us1 as it was to his comrades4 ,but it was because he had no certain truth to proclaim that ,umar did not speak out clearly4 ,his last words were almost those of ,rabelais1 8,i go to meet the great ,perhaps40 ,anecdotage connects his name with that of al-,ghazzali4 ,neither had escaped the pall of universal scepticism which must have descended upon their time4 ,but al-,ghazzali1 by ,god's grace1 as he himself reverently says1 was enabled to escape4 ,umar died under it4 ,sidenote3 ,,abu-,l-,,ala ,,al-,,ma#8,,arri ,a very different man was ,abu-l-,ala al-,ma#8arri1 the blind poet and singer of intellectual freedom4 ,in ,arabic literature there is no other voice like his1 clear and confident4 ,he was a man of letters2 no philosopher nor theologian nor scientist1 though at one time he seems to have come in contact with a circle like that of ,ikhwan as-safa1 perhaps the same2 and his spirit was like that of one of the heroic poets of the old desert life1 whose hand was taught to keep his head1 whose tongue spared nothing from heaven to earth1 and who lived his own life out in his own way1 undaunted4 ,in his darkness he nourished great thoughts and flung out a sva indignatio on hypocrisy and subservience which reminds of ,lessing4 ,but ,abu-l-,ala was a great poet1 and his scorn of priests and courtiers and their lies1 his pity for suffering humanity and his confidence in the light of reason are thrown into scraps of burning1 echoing verse without their like in ,arabic4 ,he died at the town of his birth1 ,ma#8arrat an-,nu#8man1 in northern ,syria1 in #ddi4 ,the problem is how he was suffered to live out his long life of eighty-six years4 ,we can now return to the development of scholastic theology in the orthodox church at the hands of the followers of al-,ash#8ari4 ,they had to fight their way against many and most differing opponents4 ,at the one extreme were the dwindling ,mu#8tazilites1 passing slowly into comparatively innocuous heretics1 and the growing party of unbelievers1 philosophical and otherwise1 open and secret4 ,at the other extreme was the mob of ,hanbalites1 belonging to the only legal school which laid theological burdens on its adherents4 ,the theologians1 in this case1 certainly varied as to the weight of their own anathemas against all kalam1 but were at one in that they carried the bulk of the multitude with them and could enforce their conclusions with the cudgels of rioters4 ,in the midst were the rival orthodox 7pace the ,hanbalites7 developers of kalam1 among whom the ,mataridites probably held the most important place4 ,thus1 the ,ash#8arite school was the nursling as well as the child of controversy4 ,it was1 then1 fitting that the name joined1 at least in tradition1 with the final form of that system1 should be that of a controversialist4 ,but this man1 ,abu ,bakr al-,baqilani the ,qadi1 was more than a mere controversialist4 ,it is his glory to have contributed most important elements to and put into fixed form what is1 perhaps1 the most fantastic and daring metaphysical scheme1 and almost certainly the most thorough theological scheme1 ever thought out4 ,on the one hand1 the ,lucretian atoms raining down through the empty void1 the self-developing monads of ,leibnitz1 pre-established harmony and all1 the ,kantian 8things in themselves0 are lame and impotent in their consistency beside the parallel ,ash#8arite doctrines2 and1 on the other1 not even the rigors of ,calvin1 as developed in the ,dutch confessions1 can compete with the unflinching exactitude of the ,muslim conclusions4 ,sidenote3 ,,ash#8,,arite ,,metaphysics ,first1 as to ontology4 ,the object of the ,ash#8arites was that of ,kant1 to fix the relation of knowledge to the thing in itself4 ,thus1 al-,baqilani defined knowledge 7ilm7 as cognition 7ma#8rifa7 of a thing as it is in itself4 ,but in reaching that 8thing in itself0 they were much more thorough than ,kant4 ,only two of the ,aristotelian categories survived their attack1 substance and quality4 ,the others1 quantity1 place1 time and the rest1 were only relationships 7i#8tibars7 existing subjectively in the mind of the knower1 and not things4 ,but a relationship1 they argued1 if real1 must exist in something1 and a quality cannot exist in another quality1 only in a substance4 ,yet it could not exist in either of the two things which it brought together2 for example1 in the cause or the effect4 ,it must be in a third thing4 ,but to bring this third thing and the first two together1 other relationships would be needed and other things for these relationships to exist in4 ,thus we would be led back in an infinite sequence1 and they had taken over from ,aristotle the position that such an infinite series backward 7tasalsul7 is inadmissible4 ,relationships1 then1 had no real existence but were mere phantoms1 subjective non-entities4 ,further1 the ,aristotelian view of matter was now impossible for them4 ,all the categories had gone except substance and quality2 and among them1 passion4 ,matter1 then1 could not have the possibility of suffering the impress of form4 ,a possibility is neither an entity nor a non-entity1 but a subjectivity purely4 ,but with the suffering matter1 the active form and all causes must also go4 ,they1 too1 are mere subjectivities4 ,again1 qualities1 for these thinkers1 became mere accidents4 ,the fleeting character of appearances drove them to the conclusion that there was no such thing as a quality planted in the nature of a thing2 that the idea 8nature0 did not exist4 ,then this drove them further4 ,substances exist only with qualities1 i4e41 accidents4 ,these qualities may be positive or they may be negative2 the ascription to things of negative qualities is one of their most fruitful conceptions4 ,when1 then1 the qualities fall out of existence1 the substances themselves must also cease to exist4 ,substance as well as quality is fleeting1 has only a moment's duration4 ,but when they rejected the ,aristotelian view of matter as the possibility of receiving form1 their path of necessity led them straight to the atomists4 ,so atomists they became1 and1 as always1 after their own fashion4 ,their atoms are not of space only1 but also of time4 ,the basis of all the manifestation1 mental and physical1 of the world in place and time1 is a multitude of monads4 ,each has certain qualities but has extension neither in space nor time4 ,they have simply position1 not bulk1 and do not touch one another4 ,between them is absolute void4 ,similarly as to time4 ,the time-atoms1 if the expression may be permitted1 are equally unextended and have also absolute void--of time--between them4 ,just as space is only in a series of atoms1 so time is only in a succession of untouching moments and leaps across the void from one to the other with the jerk of the hand of a clock4 ,time1 in this view1 is in grains and can exist only in connection with change4 ,the monads differ from those of ,leibnitz in having no nature in themselves1 no possibility of development along certain lines4 ,the ,muslim monads are1 and again are not1 all change and action in the world are produced by their entering into existence and dropping out again1 not by any change in themselves4 ,but this most simple view of the world left its holders in precisely the same difficulty1 only in a far higher degree1 as that of ,leibnitz4 ,he was compelled to fall back on a pre-established harmony to bring his monads into orderly relations with one another2 the ,muslim theologians1 on their side1 fell back upon ,god and found in ,his will the ground of all things4 ,sidenote3 ,,ash#8,,arite ,,theology ,we here pass from their ontology to their theology1 and as they were thorough-going metaphysicians1 so now they are thorough-going theologians4 ,being was all in the one case2 now it is ,god that is all4 ,in truth1 their philosophy is in its essence a scepticism which destroys the possibility of a philosophy in order to drive men back to ,god and ,his revelations and compel them to see in ,him the one grand fact of the universe4 ,so1 when a darwish shouts in his ecstasy1 8,huwa-l-haqq10 he does not mean1 8,he is the ,truth10 in our ,western sense of ,verity1 or our ,new ,testament sense of 8,the ,way1 the ,truth1 and the ,life10 but simply1 8,he is the ,fact0--the one ,reality4 ,to return3 from their ontology they derived an argument for the necessity of a ,god4 ,that their monads came so and not otherwise must have a cause2 without it there could be no harmony or connection between them4 ,and this cause must be one with no cause behind it2 otherwise we would have the endless chain4 ,this cause1 then1 they found in the absolutely free will of ,god1 working without any matter beside it and unaffected by any laws or necessities4 ,it creates and annihilates the atoms and their qualities and1 by that means1 brings to pass all the motion and change of the world4 ,these1 in our sense1 do not exist4 ,when a thing seems to us to be moved1 that really means that ,god has annihilated--or permitted to drop out of existence1 by not continuing to uphold1 as another view held--the atoms making up that thing in its original position1 and has created them again and again along the line over which it moves4 ,similarly of what we regard as cause and effect4 ,a man writes with a pen and a piece of paper4 ,god creates in his mind the will to write2 at the same moment he gives him the power to write and brings about the apparent motion of the hand1 of the pen and the appearance on the paper4 ,no one of these is the cause of the other4 ,god has brought about by creation and annihilation of atoms the requisite combination to produce these appearances4 ,thus we see that free-will for the ,muslim scholastics is simply the presence1 in the mind of the man1 of this choice created there by ,god4 ,this may not seem to us to be very real1 but it has1 certainly1 as much reality as anything else in their world4 ,further1 it will be observed how completely this annihilates the machinery of the universe4 ,there is no such thing as law1 and the world is sustained by a constant1 ever-repeated miracle4 ,miracles and what we regard as the ordinary operations of nature are on the same level4 ,the world and the things in it could have been quite different4 ,the only limitation upon ,god is that ,he cannot produce a contradiction4 ,a thing cannot be and not be at the same time4 ,there is no such thing as a secondary cause2 when there is the appearance of such1 it is only illusional4 ,god is producing it as well as the ultimate appearance of effect4 ,there is no nature belonging to things4 ,fire does not burn and a knife does not cut4 ,god creates in a substance a being burned when the fire touches it and a being cut when the knife approaches it4 ,sidenote3 ,,ethical ,,consequences ,in this scheme there are certainly grave difficulties1 philosophical and ethical4 ,it establishes a relationship between ,god and the atoms2 but we have already seen that relationships are subjective illusions4 ,that1 however1 was in the case of the things of the world1 perceived by the senses--contingent being1 as they would put it4 ,it does not hold of necessary being4 ,god possesses a quality called ,difference from originated things 7al-mukhalafa lil-hawadith74 ,he is not a natural cause1 but a free cause2 and the existence of a free cause they were compelled by their principles to admit4 ,the ethical difficulty is perhaps greater4 ,if there is no order of nature and no certainty1 or nexus1 as to causes and effects2 if there is no regular development in the life1 mental1 moral1 and physical of a man--only a series of isolated moments2 how can there be any responsibility1 any moral claim or duty8 ,this difficulty seems to have been recognized more clearly than the philosophical one4 ,it was met formally by the assertion of a certain order and regularity in the will of ,god4 ,he sees to it that a man's life is a unity1 and1 for details1 that the will to eat and the action always coincide4 ,but such an answer must have been felt to be inadequate and to involve grave moral dangers for the common mind4 ,therefore1 as we have seen1 the study of kalam was hedged about with difficulties and restrictions4 ,theologians recognized its trap-falls and doubts1 even for themselves1 and lamented that they were compelled by their profession to study it4 ,the public discussion of its questions was regarded as a breach of professional etiquette4 ,theologians and philosophers alike strove to keep these deeper mysteries hidden from the multitude4 ,the gap between the highly educated and the great mass--that fundamental error and greatest danger in ,muslim society--comes here again to view4 ,further1 even among theologians1 there was some difference in degree of insight1 and books and phrases could be read by different men in very different ways4 ,to one1 they would suggest ordinary1 ,qur'anic doctrines2 another would see under and behind them a trail of metaphysical consequences bristling with blasphemous possibilities4 ,thus1 ,muslim science has been always of the school2 it has never learned the vitalizing and disinfecting value of the fresh air of the market-place4 ,this applies to philosophers even more than to theologians4 ,the crowning accusation which ,ibn ,rushd1 the great ,aristotelian commentator1 brought against al-,ghazzali was that he discussed such subtilties in popular books4 ,sidenote3 ,,spread ,,of ,,ash#8,,arism ,this1 then1 was the system which seems to have reached tolerably complete form at the hands of al-,baqilani1 who died in #djc4 ,but with the completion of the system there went by no means its universal or even wide-spread acceptance in the ,muslim world4 ,that of al-,mataridi held its own for long1 and1 even yet1 the ,mataridite creed of an-,nasafi is used largely in the ,turkish schools4 ,in the fifth century it was considered remarkable that ,abu ,dharr 7d4 #dcd71 a theologian of ,herat1 should be an ,ash#8arite rather than1 apparently1 a ,mataridite4 ,it was not till al-,ghazzali 7d4 #eje7 that the ,ash#8arite system came to the orthodox hegemony in the ,east1 and it was only as the result of the work of ,ibn ,tumart1 the ,mahdi of the ,muwahhids 7d4 #ebd71 that it conquered the ,west4 ,for long its path was darkened by suspicion and persecution4 ,this came almost entirely from the ,hanbalites4 ,the ,mu#8tazilites had no force behind them1 and while the views of deists and materialists were steadily making way in secret1 their public efforts appeared only in very occasional disputes between theologians and philosophers4 ,as we have seen1 ,muslim philosophy has always practised an economy of teaching4 ,the ,hanbalite crisis seems to have come to a head toward the close of the reign of ,tughril ,beg1 the first ,great ,saljuq4 ,in #dbi1 as we have seen1 the ,saljuqs had taken ,merv and ,samarqand1 and in #ddg ,tughril ,beg had entered ,baghdad and freed the ,khalifa from the ,shi#8ite domination of the ,buwayhids who had so long enforced toleration4 ,it was natural that he1 a theologically unschooled ,turk1 should be captured by the simplicity and concreteness of the ,hanbalite doctrines4 ,added to this political factor there was a theological movement at work which was deeply hostile to the ,ash#8arites as they had developed4 ,an important point in the method of al-,ash#8ari himself1 and1 after him1 of his followers1 was to put forth a creed1 expressed in the old-fashioned terms and containing the old-fashioned doctrines as nearly as was at all possible1 and to accompany it with a spiritualizing interpretation which was1 naturally1 accessible to the professional student only4 ,accordingly what had at first seemed a weapon against the ,mu#8tazilites came to be viewed with more and more suspicion by the holders to the old1 unquestioning orthodoxy4 ,the duty also of religious investigation and speculation 7nazr7 came to have more and more stress laid upon it4 ,the bila kayfa dropped into the background4 ,a ,muslim must have a reason for the faith that was in him1 they said2 otherwise1 he was no true ,muslim1 was in fact an unbeliever4 ,of course1 they limited carefully the extent to which he should go4 ,for the ordinary man a series of very simple proofs would be prepared2 the student1 on the other hand1 when carefully led1 could work his way through the system sketched above4 ,all this1 naturally1 was anathema to the party of tradition4 ,sidenote3 ,,ibn ,,hazm ,it is significant that at this time the ,zahirite school of law 7fiqh7 developed into a school of kalam and applied its literal principles unflinchingly to its new victim4 ,the leader in this was ,ibn ,hazm1 a theologian of ,spain4 ,he died in #def1 after a stormy life filled with controversy4 ,the remorseless sting of his vituperative style coupled him1 in popular proverb1 with al-,hajjaj1 the blood-thirsty lieutenant of the ,umayyads in al-,iraq4 8,the sword of al-,hajjaj and the tongue of ,ibn ,hazm10 they said4 ,but for all his violence of language and real weight of character and brain1 he made little way for his views in his lifetime4 ,it was almost one hundred years after his death before they came into any prominence4 ,the theologians and lawyers around him in the ,west were devoted to the study of fiqh in the narrowest and most technical sense4 ,they labored over the systems and treatises of their predecessors and neglected the great original sources of the ,qur'an and the traditions4 ,the immediate study of tradition 7hadith7 had died out4 ,ibn ,hazm1 on the other hand1 went straight back to hadith4 ,taqlid he absolutely rejected1 each man must draw from the sacred texts his own views4 ,so the whole system of the canon lawyers came down with a crash and they1 naturally1 did not like it4 ,analogy 7qiyas71 their principal instrument1 he swept away4 ,it had no place either in law or theology4 ,even on the principle of agreement 7ijma7 he threw a shadow of doubt4 ,but it was in theology rather than in law that ,ibn ,hazm's originality lay4 ,strictly1 his ,zahirite principles when applied there should have led him to anthropomorphism 7tajsim74 ,the literal meaning of the ,qur'an1 as we have seen1 assigns to ,god hands and feet1 sitting on and descending from ,his throne4 ,but to ,ibn ,hazm1 anthropomorphism was an abomination only less than the speculative arguments with which the ,ash#8arites tried to avoid it4 ,his own method was purely grammatical and lexicographical4 ,he hunted in his dictionary until he found some other meaning for 8hand0 or 8foot10 or whatever the stumbling-block might be4 ,but the most original point in his system is his doctrine of the names of ,god1 and his basing of that doctrine upon ,god's qualities4 ,the ,ash#8arites1 he contended with justice1 had been guilty of a grave inconsistency in saying that ,god was different in nature1 qualities1 and actions from all created things1 and yet that the human qualities could be predicated of ,god1 and that men could reason about ,god's nature4 ,he accepted the doctrine of ,god's difference 7mukhalafa7 on highly logical1 but1 for us1 rather startling grounds4 ,the ,qur'an applies to ,him the words1 8,the ,most ,merciful of those that show mercy10 but ,god1 evidently1 is not merciful4 ,he tortures children with all manner of painful diseases1 with hunger and terror4 ,mercy1 in our human sense1 which is high praise applied to a man1 cannot be predicated of ,god4 ,what then does the ,qur'an mean by those words8 ,simply that they--arhamu-r-rahimin--are one of ,god's names1 applied to ,him by ,himself and that we have no right to take them as descriptive of a quality1 mercy1 and to use them to throw light on ,god's nature4 ,they form one of the ,ninety-nine ,most ,beautiful ,names 7al-asma al-husna7 of which the ,prophet has spoken in a tradition4 ,similarly1 we may call ,god the ,living ,one 7al hayy71 because ,he has given us that as one of ,his names1 not because of any reasoning on our part4 ,do we not say that ,his life is different from that of all other living beings8 ,these names then1 are limited to ninety-nine and no more should be formed1 however full of praise such might be for ,god1 or however directly based on ,his actions4 ,he has called ,himself al-,wahib1 the ,giver1 and so we may use that term of ,him4 ,but ,he has not called ,himself al-,wahhab the ,bountiful ,giver1 so we may not use that term of ,him1 though it is one of praise4 ,of course1 you may describe ,his action and say that ,he is the guider of ,his saints4 ,but you must not make from that a name1 and call ,him simply the ,guider4 ,further1 if we regard these names as expressing qualities in ,god1 we involve multiplicity in ,god's nature2 there is the quality and the thing qualified4 ,here we are back at the old ,mu#8tazilite difficulty and it is intelligible that ,ibn ,hazm dealt more gently with the ,mu#8tazilites than with the ,ash#8arites4 ,the one party were ,muslims and sinned in ignorance--invincible ignorance1 a ,roman ,catholic would call it2 the others were unbelievers4 ,they had turned wilfully from the way4 ,the ,mu#8tazilites had tried to limit the qualities as much as possible4 ,at the best they had said that they were ,god's essence and not in ,his essence4 ,al-,ash#8ari and his school had fairly revelled in qualities and had mapped out the nature of ,god with the detail--and daring--of a phrenological chart4 ,naturally1 ,ibn ,hazm made his ethical basis the will of ,god only4 ,god has willed that this should be a sin and that a good deed4 ,lying1 he concedes1 is always saying what does not agree with the truth4 ,but1 still1 ,god may pronounce that one lie is a sin1 and one not4 ,muslim ethics1 it is true1 have never branded lying as sinful in itself4 ,for the ,shi#8ites and their doctrine of an infallible ,imam1 ,ibn ,hazm cannot find strong enough expressions of contempt4 ,in ,ibn ,hazm's time1 and he praises ,god for it1 there were but few ,ash#8arites in the ,west4 ,theology generally did not find many students4 ,so things went on till long after his death4 ,to this fiery controversialist the worst blow of all would have been if he could have known that the men who were at last to bring his system1 in part and for a time1 into public acceptance and repute1 were also to complete the conquest of ,islam for the ,ash#8arite school4 ,that was still far in the future1 and we must return to the persecution4 ,the accounts of the persecution which set in are singularly conflicting4 ,some assign it to ,hanbalite influence2 others tell of a ,mu#8tazilite wazir of ,tughril ,beg4 ,that the traditionalist party was the main force in it seems certain4 ,in all probability1 however1 all the other anti-,ash#8arite sects1 from the ,mu#8tazilites on1 took their own parts4 ,the ,ash#8arite party represented a via media and would be set upon with zest by all the extremes4 ,they were solemnly cursed from the pulpits and1 what added peculiar insult to it1 the ,rafidites1 an extreme ,kharijite sect1 were joined in the same anathema4 ,al-,juwayni1 the greatest theologian of the time1 fled to the ,hijaz and gained the title of ,imam of the two ,harams 7,imam al-,haramayn71 by living for four years between ,mecca and al-,madina4 ,al-,qushayri1 the author of a celebrated treatise on ,sufiism1 was thrown into prison4 ,the ,ash#8arite doctors generally were scattered to the winds4 ,only with the death of ,tughril ,beg in #dee did the cloud pass4 ,his successor1 ,alp-,arslan1 and especially the great wazir1 ,nizam al-,mulk1 favored the ,ash#8arites4 ,in #dei the latter founded the ,nizamite ,academy at ,baghdad to be a defence of ,ash#8arite doctrines4 ,this may fairly be regarded as the turning-point of the whole controversy4 ,the ,hanbalite mob of ,baghdad still continued to make itself felt1 but its excesses were promptly suppressed4 ,in #eaj ash-,shahrastani was well received there by the people1 and in #eaf the ,khalifa himself attended ,ash#8arite lectures4 ,sidenote3 ,,triumph ,,of ,,ash#8,,arism ,it is needless to spend more time over the other theologians who were links in the chain between al-,ash#8ari and the ,imam al-,haramayn4 ,their views wavered1 this way and that1 only the rationalizing tendency became stronger and stronger4 ,there was danger that the orthodox system would fossilize and lose touch with life as that of the ,mu#8tazilites had done4 ,it is true that ,sufiism still held its ground4 ,all theologians practically were touched by it in its simpler form2 and the cause of the higher ,sufiism of ecstasy1 wonders by saints 7karamat7 and communion of the individual soul with ,god had been eloquently and effectively urged by al-,qushayri 7d4 #dfe7 in his ,risala4 ,but in spite of the labors of so many men of high ability1 the religious outlook was growing ever darker4 ,keen observers recognized that some change was bound to come4 ,that it might be an inflowing of new life by a new al-,ash#8ari was their prayer4 ,it is more than dubious whether even the keenest mind of the time could have recognized what form the new life must take4 ,they had not the perspective and could only feel a vague need4 ,but from what has gone before it will be plain that ,islam had again to assimilate to itself something from without or perish4 ,such had been its manner of progress up till now4 ,new opinions had arisen2 had become heresies2 conflict had followed2 part of the new thought had been absorbed into the orthodox church2 part had been rejected2 through it all the life of the church had gone on in fuller and richer measure1 being always1 in spite of everything1 the main stream2 the heresy itself had slowly dwindled out of sight4 ,so it had been with ,murji'ism2 so with ,mu#8tazilism4 ,with the orthodox1 tradition 7naql7 still stood fast1 but reason 7aql7 had taken a place beside it4 ,kalam1 in spite of ,hanbalite clamors1 had become fairly a part of their system4 ,what was to be the new element1 and who was to be its champion8 ,,chapter ,,iv ,al-,ghazzali1 his life1 times1 and work2 ,sufiism formally accepted into ,islam4 ,with the time came the man4 ,he was al-,ghazzali1 the greatest1 certainly the most sympathetic figure in the history of ,islam1 and the only teacher of the after generations ever put by a ,muslim on a level with the four great ,imams4 ,the equal of ,augustine in philosophical and theological importance1 by his side the ,aristotelian philosophers of ,islam1 ,ibn ,rushd and all the rest1 seem beggarly compilers and scholiasts4 ,only al-,farabi1 and that in virtue of his mysticism1 approaches him4 ,in his own person he took up the life of his time on all its sides and with it all its problems4 ,he lived through them all and drew his theology from his experience4 ,systems and classifications1 words and arguments about words1 he swept away2 the facts of life as he had known them in his own soul he grasped4 ,when his work was done the revelation of the mystic 7kashf7 was not only a full part but the basal part in the structure of ,muslim theology4 ,that basis1 in spite1 or rather on account of the work of the mutakallims had previously been lacking4 ,such a scepticism as their atomic system had practically amounted to1 could disprove much but could prove little4 ,if all the categories but substance and quality are mere subjectivities1 existing in the mind only1 what can we know of things8 ,an ultra-rational basis had to be found and it was found in the ecstasy of the ,sufis4 ,but al-,ghazzali brought another element into fuller and more effective working4 ,with him passes away the old-fashioned kalam1 a thing of shreds and patches1 scraps of metaphysics and logic snatched up for a moment of need1 without grasp of the full sweep of philosophy1 and incapable1 in the long run1 of meeting it4 ,even its atomic system is a philosophy of amateurs1 with all their fantastic one-sidedness1 their vigor and rigor4 ,but al-,ghazzali was no amateur4 ,his knowledge and grasp of the problems and objects of philosophy were truer and more vital than in any other ,muslim up to his time--perhaps after it1 too4 ,islam has not fully understood him any more than ,christendom fully understood ,augustine1 but until long after him the horizon of ,muslims was wider and their air clearer for his work4 ,then came a new scholasticism1 reigning to this day4 ,so much by way of preface4 ,we must now give some account of the life and experiences1 the ideas and sensations1 of this great leader and reformer4 ,for his life and his work were one4 ,everything that he thought and wrote came with the weight and reality of personal experience4 ,he recognized this connection himself1 and has left us a book--the ,munqidh min ad-dalal1 8,rescuer from ,error0--almost unique in ,islam1 which1 in the form of an apology for the faith1 is really an ,apologia pro vita sua4 ,this book is our main source for what follows4 ,sidenote3 ,,early ,,career2 ,,renunciation ,al-,ghazzali was born at ,tus in #dej4 ,he lost his father when young and was educated and brought up by a trusted ,sufi friend4 ,he early turned to the study of theology and canon law1 but1 as he himself confesses1 it was only because they promised wealth and reputation4 ,very early he broke away from taqlid1 simple acceptance of religious truth on authority1 and he began to investigate theological differences before he was twenty4 ,his studies were of the broadest1 embracing canon law1 theology1 dialectic1 science1 philosophy1 logic and the doctrines and practices of the ,sufis4 ,it was a ,sufi atmosphere in which he moved1 but their religious fervors do not seem to have laid hold of him4 ,pride in his own intellectual powers1 ambition and contempt for others of less ability mastered him4 ,the latter part of his life as a student was spent at ,naysabur as pupil and assistant of the ,imam al-,haramayn4 ,through the ,imam he stood in the apostolic succession of ,ash#8arite teachers1 being the fourth from al-,ash#8ari himself4 ,there he remained till the death of the ,imam in #dgh1 when he went out to seek his fortune and found it with the great wazir1 ,nizam al-,mulk4 ,by him al-,ghazzali was appointed1 in #dhd1 to teach in the ,nizamite ,academy at ,baghdad4 ,there he had the greatest success as a teacher and consulting lawyer1 and his worldly hopes seemed safe4 ,but suddenly he was struck down by a mysterious disease4 ,his speech became hampered2 his appetite and digestion failed4 ,his physicians gave him up2 his malady1 they said1 was mental and could only be mentally treated4 ,his only hope lay in peace of mind4 ,then he suddenly quitted ,baghdad1 in #dhh1 ostensibly on pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,this flight1 for it was so in effect1 of al-,ghazzali was unintelligible to the theologians of the time2 since that time it has marked the greatest epoch in the church of ,islam after the return of al-,ash#8ari4 ,that it should be unintelligible was natural4 ,no cause could be seen on the surface1 except some possible political complications2 the cause in reality lay in al-,ghazzali's mind and conscience4 ,he was wandering in the labyrinth of his time4 ,from his youth he had been a sceptical1 ambitious student1 playing with religious influences yet unaffected by them4 ,but the hollowness of his life was ever present with him and pressing upon him4 ,like some with us1 he sought to be converted and could not bring it to pass4 ,his religious beliefs gradually gave way and fell from him1 piece by piece4 ,at last1 the strain became too great and at the court of ,nizam al-,mulk he touched for two months the depths of absolute scepticism4 ,he doubted the evidence of the senses2 he could see plainly that they often deceived4 ,no eye could perceive the movement of a shadow1 but still the shadow moved2 a gold piece would cover any star1 but a star was a world larger than the earth4 ,he doubted even the primary ideas of the mind4 ,is ten more than three8 ,can a thing be and not be8 ,perhaps2 he could not tell4 ,his senses deceived him1 why not his mind8 ,may there not be something behind the mind and transcending it1 which would show the falsity of its convictions even as the mind showed the falsity of the information given by the senses8 ,may not the dreams of the ,sufis be true1 and their revelations in ecstasy the only real guides8 ,when we awake in death1 may it not be into a true but different existence8 ,all this--perhaps4 ,and so he wandered for two months4 ,he saw clearly that no reasoning could help him here2 he had no ideas on which he could depend1 from which he could begin4 ,but the mercy of ,god is great2 ,he sends ,his light to whom ,he wills1 a light that flows in1 and is given by no reasoning4 ,by it al-,ghazzali was saved2 he regained the power to think1 and the task which he now set before him was to use this power to guide himself to truth4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,seekers ,,of ,,his ,,time ,when he looked around1 he saw that those who gave themselves to the search for truth might be divided into four groups4 ,there were the scholastic theologians1 who were much like the theologians of all times and faiths4 ,second1 there were the ,ta#8limites1 who held that to reach truth one must have an infallible living teacher1 and that there was such a teacher4 ,third1 there were the followers of philosophy1 basing on logical and rational proofs4 ,fourth1 there were the ,sufis1 who held that they1 the chosen of ,god1 could reach knowledge of ,him directly in ecstasy4 ,with all these he had1 of course1 been acquainted to a greater or less degree2 but now he settled down to examine them one by one1 and find which would lead him to a certainty to which he could hold1 whatever might come4 ,he felt that he could not go back to the unconscious faith of his childhood2 that nothing could restore4 ,all his mental being must be made over before he could find rest4 ,he began with scholastic theology1 but found no help there4 ,grant the theologians their premises and they could argue2 deny them and there was no common ground on which to meet4 ,their science had been founded by al-,ash#8ari to meet the ,mu#8tazilites2 it had done that victoriously1 but could do no more4 ,they could hold the faith against heretics1 expose their inconsistencies2 against the sceptic they availed nothing4 ,it is true that they had attempted to go further back and meet the students of philosophy on their own ground2 to deal with substances and attributes and first principles generally2 but their efforts had been fruitless4 ,they lacked the necessary knowledge of the subject1 had no scientific basis1 and were constrained eventually to fall back on authority4 ,after study of them and their methods it became clear to al-,ghazzali that the remedy for his ailment was not in scholastic theology4 ,sidenote3 ,,materialists2 ,,deists2 ,,theists ,then he turned to philosophy4 ,he had seen already that the weakness of the theologians lay in their not having made a sufficient study of primary ideas and the laws of thought4 ,three years he gave up to this4 ,he was at ,baghdad at the time1 teaching law and writing legal treatises1 and probably the three years extended from the beginning of #dhd to the beginning of #dhg4 ,two years he gave1 without a teacher1 to the study of the writings of the different schools of philosophy1 and almost another to meditating and working over his results4 ,he felt that he was the first ,muslim doctor to do this with the requisite thoroughness4 ,and it is noteworthy that at this stage he seems to have again felt himself to be a ,muslim1 and in an enemy's country when he was studying philosophy4 ,he speaks of the necessity of understanding what is to be refuted2 but this may be only a confusion between his attitude when writing after #ejj1 and his attitude when investigating and seeking truth1 fifteen years earlier4 ,he divides the followers of philosophy in his time into three3 ,materialists1 ,deists 7,tabi#8is1 i4e4 ,naturalists71 and ,theists4 ,the materialists reject a creator2 the world exists from all eternity2 the animal comes from the egg and the egg from the animal4 ,the wonder of creation compels the deists to admit a creator1 but the creature is a machine1 has a certain poise 7i#8tidal7 in itself which keeps it running2 its thought is a part of its nature and ends with death4 ,they thus reject a future life1 though admitting ,god and ,his attributes4 ,he deals at much greater length with the teachings of those whom he calls theists1 but through all his statements of their views his tone is not that of a seeker but that of a partisan2 he turns his own experiences into a warning to others1 and makes of their record a little guide to apologetics4 ,aristotle he regards as the final master of the ,greek school2 his doctrines are best represented for ,arabic readers in the books of ,ibn ,sina and al-,farabi2 the works of their predecessors on this subject are a mass of confusion4 ,part of these doctrines must be stamped as unbelief1 part as heresy1 and part as theologically indifferent4 ,he then divides the philosophical sciences into six1 mathematics1 logic1 physics1 metaphysics1 political economy1 ethics2 and discusses these in detail1 showing what must be rejected1 what is indifferent1 what dangers arise from each to him who studies or to him who rejects without study4 ,throughout1 he is very cautious to mark nothing as unbelief that is not really so2 to admit always those truths of mathematics1 logic1 and physics that cannot intellectually be rejected2 and only to warn against an attitude of intellectualism and a belief that mathematicians1 with their success in their own department1 are to be followed in other departments1 or that all subjects are susceptible of the exactness and certainty of a syllogism in logic4 ,the damnable errors of the theists are almost entirely in their metaphysical views4 ,three of their propositions mark them as unbelievers4 ,first1 they reject the resurrection of the body and physical punishment hereafter2 the punishments of the next world will be spiritual only4 ,that there will be spiritual punishments1 al-,ghazzali admits1 but there will be physical as well4 ,second1 they hold that ,god knows universals only1 not particulars4 ,third1 they hold that the world exists from all eternity and to all eternity4 ,when they reject the attributes of ,god and hold that ,he knows by ,his essence and not by something added to ,his essence1 they are only heretics and not unbelievers4 ,in physics he accepts the constitution of the world as developed and explained by them2 only all is to be regarded as entirely submitted to ,god1 incapable of self-movement1 a tool of which the ,creator makes use4 ,finally1 he considers that their system of ethics is derived from the ,sufis4 ,at all times there have been such saints1 retired from the world--,god has never left himself without a witness2 and from their ecstasies and revelations our knowledge of the human heart1 for good and for evil1 is derived4 ,sidenote3 ,,failure ,,of ,,philosophy ,thus in philosophy he found little light4 ,it did not correspond entirely to his needs1 for reason cannot answer all questions nor unveil all the enigmas of life4 ,he would probably have admitted that he had learned much in his philosophical studies--so at least we may gather from his tone2 he never speaks disrespectfully of philosophy and science in their sphere2 his continual exhortation is that he who would understand them and refute them must first study them2 that to do otherwise1 to abuse what we do not know1 brings only contempt on ourselves and on the cause which we champion4 ,but with his temperament he could not found his religion on intellect4 ,as a lawyer he could split hairs and define issues2 but once the religious instinct was aroused1 nothing could satisfy him but what he eventually found4 ,and so1 two possibilities and two only were before him1 though one was hardly a real possibility1 if we consider his training and mental powers4 ,he might fall back on authority4 ,it could not be the authority of his childish faith1 8,our fathers have told us10 he himself confesses1 could never again have weight with him4 ,but it might be some claimer of authority in a new form1 some infallible teacher with a doctrine which he could accept for the authority behind it4 ,as the ,church of ,rome from time to time gathers into its fold men of keen intellect who seek rest in submission1 and the world marvels1 so it might have been with him4 ,or again1 he might turn directly to ,god and to personal intercourse with ,him2 he might seek to know ,him and to be taught of ,him without any intermediary1 in a word to enter on the path of the mystic4 ,he came next to examine the doctrine of the ,ta#8limites4 ,they1 a somewhat outlying wing of the ,fatimid propaganda1 had come at this time into alarming prominence4 ,in #dhc ,hasan ibn as-,sabbah had seized ,alamut and entered on open rebellion4 ,the sect of the ,assassins was applying its principles4 ,but the poison of their teaching was also spreading among the people4 ,the principle of authority in religion1 that only by an infallible teacher could truth be reached and that such an infallible teacher existed if he could only be found1 was in the air4 ,for himself1 al-,ghazzali found the ,ta#8limites and their teaching eminently unsatisfactory3 ,they had a lesson which they went over parrot-fashion1 but beyond it they were in dense ignorance4 ,the trained theologian and scholar had no patience with their slackness and shallowness of thought4 ,he labored long1 as ash-,shahrastani later confesses that he1 too1 did1 to penetrate their mystery and learn something from them2 but beyond the accustomed formul there was nothing to be found4 ,he even admitted their contention of the necessity of a living1 infallible teacher1 to see what would follow--but nothing followed4 8,you admit the necessity of an ,imam10 they would say4 8,it is your business now to seek him2 we have nothing to do with it40 ,but though neither al-,ghazzali nor ash-,shahrastani1 who died #dc 7lunar7 years after him1 could be satisfied with the ,ta#8limites1 many others were4 ,the conflict was hot1 and al-,ghazzali himself wrote several books against them4 ,sidenote3 ,,study ,,of ,,sufiism ,the other possibility1 the path of the mystic1 now lay straight before him4 ,in the ,munqidh he tells us how1 when he had made an end of the ,ta#8limites1 he began to study the books of the ,sufis1 without any suggestion that he had had a previous acquaintance with them and their practices4 ,but probably this means nothing more than it does when he speaks in a similar way of studying the scholastic theologians2 namely1 that he now took up the study in earnest and with a new and definite purpose4 ,he therefore read carefully the works of al-,harith al-,muhasibi1 the fragments of al-,junayd1 ash-,shibli1 and ,abu ,yazid al-,bistami4 ,he had also the benefit of oral teaching2 but it became plain to him that only through ecstasy and the complete transformation of the moral being could he really understand ,sufiism4 ,he saw that it consisted in feelings more than in knowledge1 that he must be initiated as a ,sufi himself2 live their life and practise their exercises1 to attain his goal4 ,on the way upon which he had gone up to this time1 he had gained three fixed points of faith4 ,he now believed firmly in ,god1 in prophecy1 and in the last judgment4 ,he had also gained the belief that only by detaching himself from this world1 its life1 enjoyments1 honors1 and turning to ,god could he be saved in the world to come4 ,he looked on his present life1 his writing and his teaching1 and saw of how little value it was in the face of the great fact of heaven and hell4 ,all he did now was for the sake of vainglory and had in it no consecration to the service of ,god4 ,he felt on the edge of an abyss4 ,the world held him back2 his fears urged him away4 ,he was in the throes of a conversion wrought by terror2 his religion1 now and always1 in common with all ,islam1 was other-worldly4 ,so he remained in conflict with himself for six months from the middle of #dhh4 ,finally1 his health broke down under the strain4 ,in his feebleness and overthrow he took refuge with ,god1 as a man at the end of his resources4 ,god heard him and enabled him to make the needed sacrifices4 ,he abandoned all and wandered forth from ,baghdad as a ,sufi4 ,he had put his brilliant present and brilliant future absolutely behind him2 had given up everything for the peace of his soul4 ,this date1 the end of #dhh1 was the great era in his life2 but it marked an era1 too1 in the history of ,islam4 ,since al-,ash#8ari went back to the faith of his fathers in #cjj1 and cursed the ,mu#8tazilites and all their works1 there had been no such epoch as this flight of al-,ghazzali4 ,it meant that the reign of mere scholasticism was over2 that another element was to work openly in the future ,church of ,islam1 the element of the mystical life in ,god1 of the attainment of truth by the soul in direct vision4 ,sidenote3 ,,on ,,the ,,path ,,of ,,the ,,sufis ,he went to ,syria and gave himself up for two years to the religious exercises of the ,sufis4 ,then he went on pilgrimage1 first to ,jerusalem2 then to the tomb of ,abraham at ,hebron2 finally to ,mecca and al-,madina4 ,with this religious duty his life of strict retirement ended4 ,it is evident that he now felt that he was again within the fold of ,islam4 ,in spite of his former resolution to retire from the world1 he was drawn back4 ,the prayers of his children and his own aspirations broke in upon him1 and though he resolved again and again to return to the contemplative life1 and did often actually do so1 yet events1 family affairs1 and the anxieties of life1 kept continually disturbing him4 ,this went on1 he tells us1 for almost ten years1 and in that time there were revealed to him things that could not be reckoned and the discussion of which could not be exhausted4 ,he learned that the ,sufis were on the true and only path to the knowledge of ,god2 that neither intelligence nor wisdom nor science could change or improve their doctrine or their ethics4 ,the light in which they walk is essentially the same as the light of prophecy2 ,muhammad was a ,sufi when on his way to be a prophet4 ,there is none other light to light any man in this world4 ,a complete purifying of the heart from all but ,god is their ,path2 a seeking to plunge the heart completely in the thought of ,god1 is its beginning1 and its end is complete passing away in ,god4 ,this last is only its end in relation to what can be entered upon and grasped by a voluntary effort2 in truth1 it is only the first step in the ,path1 the vestibule to the contemplative life4 ,revelations 7mukashafas1 unveilings7 came to the disciples from the very beginning2 while awake they see angels and souls of prophets1 hear their voices and gain from them guidance4 ,then their ,state 7hal1 a ,sufi technicality for a state of ecstasy7 passes from the beholding of forms to stages where language fails and any attempt to express what is experienced must involve some error4 ,they reach a nearness to ,god which some have fancied to be a hulul1 fusion of being1 others an ittihad1 identification1 and others a wusul1 union2 but these are all erroneous ways of indicating the thing4 ,al-,ghazzali notes one of his books in which he has explained wherein the error lies4 ,but the thing itself is the true basis of all faith and the beginning of prophecy2 the karamat of the saints lead to the miracles of the prophets4 ,by this means the possibility and the existence of prophecy can be proved1 and then the life itself of ,muhammad proves that he was a prophet4 ,al-,ghazzali goes on to deal with the nature of prophecy1 and how the life of ,muhammad shows the truth of his mission2 but enough has been given to indicate his attitude and the stage at which he had himself arrived4 ,during this ten years he had returned to his native country and to his children1 but had not undertaken public duty as a teacher4 ,now that was forced upon him4 ,the century was drawing to a close4 ,everywhere there was evident a slackening of religious fervor and faith4 ,a mere external compliance with the rules of ,islam was observed1 men even openly defended such a course4 ,he adduces as an example of this the ,wasiya of ,ibn ,sina4 ,the students of philosophy went their way1 and their conduct shook the minds of the people2 false ,sufis abounded1 who taught antinomianism2 the lives of many theologians excited scandal2 the ,ta#8limites were still spreading4 ,a religious leader to turn the current was absolutely needed1 and his friends looked to al-,ghazzali to take up that duty2 some distinguished saints had dreams of his success2 ,god had promised a reformer every hundred years and the time was up4 ,finally1 the ,sultan laid a command upon him to go and teach in the academy at ,naysabur1 and he was forced to consent4 ,his departure for ,naysabur fell at the end of #dii1 exactly eleven years after his flight from ,baghdad4 ,but he did not teach there long4 ,before the end of his life we find him back at ,tus1 his native place1 living in retirement among his disciples1 in a ,madrasa or academy for students and a ,khanqah or monastery for ,sufis4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,tahafut ,there he settled down to study and contemplation4 ,we have already seen what theological position he had reached4 ,philosophy had been tried and found wanting4 ,in a book of his called ,tahafut1 or 8,destruction10 he had smitten the philosophers hip and thigh2 he had turned1 as in earlier times al-,ash#8ari1 their own weapons against them1 and had shown that with their premises and methods no certainty could be reached4 ,in that book he goes to the extreme of intellectual scepticism1 and1 seven hundred years before ,hume1 he cuts the bond of causality with the edge of his dialectic and proclaims that we can know nothing of cause or effect1 but simply that one thing follows another4 ,he combats their proof of the eternity of the world1 and exposes their assertion that ,god is its creator4 ,he demonstrates that they cannot prove the existence of the creator or that that creator is one2 that they cannot prove that ,he is incorporeal1 or that the world has any creator or cause at all2 that they cannot prove the nature of ,god or that the human soul is a spiritual essence4 ,when he has finished there is no intellectual basis left for life2 he stands beside the ,greek sceptics and beside ,hume4 ,we are thrown back on revelation1 that given immediately by ,god to the individual soul or that given through prophets4 ,all our real knowledge is derived from these sources4 ,so it was natural that in the latter part of his life he should turn to the traditions of the ,prophet4 ,the science of tradition must certainly have formed part of his early studies1 as of those of all ,muslim theologians1 but he had not specialized in it2 his bent had lain in quite other directions4 ,his master1 the ,imam al-,haramayn1 had been no student of tradition2 among his many works is not one dealing with that subject4 ,now he saw that the truth and the knowledge of the truth lay there1 and he gave himself1 with all the energy of his nature1 to the new pursuit4 ,the end of his wanderings came at ,tus1 in #eje4 ,there he died while seeking truth in the traditions of ,muhammad1 as al-,ash#8ari1 his predecessor1 had done4 ,the stamp of his personality is ineffaceably impressed on ,islam4 ,the people of his time reverenced him as a saint and wonder-worker4 ,he himself never claimed to work karamat and always spoke modestly of the light which he had reached in ecstasy4 ,after his death legends early began to gather round him1 and the current biographies of him are untrustworthy to a degree4 ,it says much for the solidity of his work that he did not pass into a misty figure of popular superstition4 ,but that work remained and remains among his disciples and in his books4 ,we must now attempt to estimate its bearing and scope4 ,sidenote3 ,,volition ,,as ,a ,,basis ,for him1 as for the mutakallims in general1 the fundamental thing in the world and the starting-point of all speculation is will4 ,the philosophers in their intellectualism might picture ,god as thought--thought thinking itself and evolving all things thereby4 ,their source was ,plotinus2 that of the ,muslims was the terrific 8,be60 of creation4 ,but how can we know this will of ,god if we are simply part of what it has produced8 ,in answering this1 al-,ghazzali and his followers have diverged from the rest of ,islam1 but not into heresy4 ,their view is admitted to be a possible interpretation of ,qur'anic passages1 if not that commonly held4 ,the soul of man1 al-,ghazzali taught1 is essentially different from the rest of the created things4 ,we read in the ,qur'an 7xv1 #bi2 xxxviii1 #gb7 that ,god breathed into man of ,his spirit 7ruh74 ,this is compared with the rays of the sun reaching a thing on the earth and warming it4 ,in virtue of this1 the soul of man is different from everything else in the world4 ,it is a spiritual substance 7jawhar ruhani71 has no corporeality1 and is not subject to dimension1 position or locality4 ,it is not in the body or outside of the body2 to apply such categories to it is as absurd as to speak of the knowledge or ignorance of a stone4 ,though created1 it is not shaped2 it belongs to the spiritual world and not to this world of sensible things4 ,it contains some spark of the divine and it is restless till it rests again in that primal fire2 but1 again1 it is recorded in tradition that the ,prophet said1 8,god ,most ,high created ,adam in ,his own form 7sura740 ,al-,ghazzali takes that to mean that there is a likeness between the spirit of man and ,god in essence1 quality1 and actions4 ,further1 the spirit of man rules the body as ,god rules the world4 ,man's body is a microcosm beside the macrocosm of this world1 and they correspond1 part by part4 ,is1 then1 ,god simply the anima mundi8 ,no1 because ,he is the creator of all by ,his will1 the sustainer and destroyer by ,his will4 ,al-,ghazzali comes to this by a study of himself4 ,his primary conception is1 volo ergo sum4 ,it is not thought which impresses him1 but volition4 ,from thought he can develop nothing2 from will can come the whole round universe4 ,but if ,god1 the ,creator1 is a ,willer1 so1 too1 is the soul of man4 ,they are kin1 and1 therefore1 man can know and recognize ,god4 8,he who knows his own soul1 knows his ,lord10 said another tradition4 ,this view of the nature of the soul is essential to the ,sufi position and is probably borrowed from it4 ,but there are in it two possibilities of heresy1 if the view be pushed any further4 ,it tends 7#a7 to destroy the important ,muslim dogma of ,god's ,difference 7mukhalafa7 from all created things1 and 7#b7 to maintain that the souls of men are partakers of the divine nature and will return to it at death4 ,al-,ghazzali labored to safeguard both dangers1 but they were there and showed themselves in time4 ,just as the ,aristotelian neo-,platonic philosophers reached the position that the universe with all its spheres was ,god1 so1 later1 ,sufis came to the other pantheistic position that ,god was the world4 ,before the atomic scholastics the same danger also lay4 ,it is part of the irony of the history of ,muslim theology that the very emphasis on the transcendental unity should lead thus to pantheism4 ,al-,ghazzali's endeavor was to strike the via media4 ,the ,hegelian ,trinity might have appealed to him4 ,sidenote3 ,,divine ,,origin ,,of ,,sciences ,to return1 his views on science1 as we have already seen1 were the same as those of the contemporary students of natural philosophy4 ,their teachings he accepted1 and1 so far1 he can be compared to a theologian of the present day1 who accepts evolution and explains it to suit himself4 ,his world was framed on what is commonly called the ,ptolemaic system4 ,he was no flat-earth man like the present ,ulama of ,islam2 ,god had 8spread out the earth like a carpet10 but that did not hinder him from regarding it as a globe4 ,around it revolve the spheres of the seven planets and that of the fixed stars2 ,alphonso the ,wise had not yet added the crystalline sphere and the primum mobile4 ,all that astronomers and mathematicians teach us of the laws under which these bodies move is to be accepted4 ,their theory of eclipses and of other phenomena of the heavens is true1 whatever the ignorant and superstitious may clamor4 ,yet it is to be remembered that the most important facts and laws have been divinely revealed4 ,as the weightiest truths of medicine are to be traced back to the teaching of the prophets1 so there are conjunctions in the heavens which occur only once in a thousand years and which man can yet calculate because ,god has taught him their laws4 ,and all this structure of the heavens and the earth is the direct work of ,god1 produced out of nothing by ,his will1 guided by ,his will1 ever dependent for existence on ,his will1 and one day to pass away at ,his command4 ,so al-,ghazzali joins science and revelation4 ,behind the order of nature lies the personal1 omnipotent ,god who says1 8,be60 and it is4 ,the things of existence do not proceed from ,him by any emanation or evolution1 but are produced directly by ,him4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,three ,,worlds ,further1 there is another side of al-,ghazzali's attitude toward the physical universe that deserves attention1 but which is very difficult to grasp or express4 ,perhaps it may be stated thus3 ,existence has three modes2 there is existence in the alam al-mulk1 in the alam al-jabarut1 and in the alam al-malakut4 ,the first is this world of ours which is apparent to the senses2 it exists by the power 7qudra7 of ,god1 one part proceeding from another in constant change4 ,the alam al-malakut exists by ,god's eternal decree1 without development1 remaining in one state without addition or diminution4 ,the alam al-jabarut comes between these two2 it seems externally to belong to the first1 but in respect of the power of ,god which is from all eternity 7al-qudra al-azaliya7 it is included in the second4 ,the soul 7nafs7 belongs to the alam al-malakut1 is taken from it and returns to it4 ,in sleep and in ecstasy1 even in this world1 it can come into contact with the world from which it is derived4 ,this is what happens in dreams--8sleep is the brother of death10 says al-,ghazzali2 and thus1 too1 the saints and the prophets attain divine knowledge4 ,some angels belong to the world of malakut2 some to that of jabarut1 apparently those who have shown themselves here as messengers of ,god4 ,the things in the heavens1 the preserved tablet1 the pen1 the balance1 etc41 belong to the world of malakut4 ,on the one hand1 these are not sensible1 corporeal things1 and1 on the other1 these terms for them are not metaphors4 ,thus al-,ghazzali avoids the difficulty of ,muslim eschatology with its bizarre concreteness4 ,he rejects the right to allegorize--these things are real1 actual2 but he relegates them to this world of malakut4 ,again1 the ,qur'an1 ,islam1 and ,friday 7the day of public worship7 are personalities in the world of malakut and jabarut4 ,so1 too1 the world of mulk must appear as a personality at the bar of these other worlds at the last day4 ,it will come as an ugly old woman1 but ,friday as a beautiful young bride4 ,this personal ,qur'an belongs to the world of jabarut1 but ,islam to that of malakut4 ,but just as those three worlds are not thought of as separate in time1 so they are not separate in space4 ,they are not like the seven heavens and seven earths of ,muslim literalists1 which stand1 story-fashion1 one above the other4 ,rather they are1 as expressed above1 modes of existence1 and might be compared to the speculations on another life in space of n dimensions1 framed1 from a very different starting-point and on a basis of pure physics1 by ,balfour ,stewart and ,tait in their 8,unseen ,universe40 ,on another side they stand in close kinship to the ,platonic world of ideas1 whether through neo-,platonism or more immediately4 ,sufiism at its best1 and when stripped of the trappings of ,muslim tradition and ,qur'anic exegesis1 has no reason to shrink from the investigation either of the physicist or of the metaphysician4 ,and so it is not strange to find that all ,muslim thinkers have been tinged with mysticism to a greater or less degree1 though they may not all have embraced formal ,sufiism and accepted its vocabulary and system4 ,this is true of al-,farabi1 who was avowedly a ,sufi2 true also of ,ibn ,sina1 who1 though nominally an ,aristotelian1 was essentially a neo-,platonist1 and admitted the possibility of intercourse with superior beings and with the ,active ,intellect1 of miracles and revelations2 true even of ,ibn ,rushd1 who does not venture to deny the immediate knowledge of the ,sufi saints1 but only argues that experience of it is not sufficiently general to be made a basis for theological science4 ,in ethics1 as we have already seen1 the position of al-,ghazzali is a simple one4 ,all our laws and theories upon the subject1 the analysis of the qualities of the mind1 good and bad1 the tracing of hidden defects to their causes--all these things we owe to the saints of ,god to whom ,god ,himself has revealed them4 ,of these there have been many at all times and in all countries1 and without them and their labors and the light which ,god has vouchsafed to them1 we could never know ourselves4 ,here1 as everywhere1 comes out al-,ghazzali's fundamental position that the ultimate source of all knowledge is revelation from ,god4 ,it may be major revelation1 through accredited prophets who come forward as teachers1 divinely sent and supported by miracles and by the evident truth of their message appealing to the human heart1 or it may be minor revelation--subsidiary and explanatory--through the vast body of saints of different grades1 to whom ,god has granted immediate knowledge of ,himself4 ,where the saints leave off1 the prophets begin2 and1 apart from such teaching1 man1 even in physical science1 would be groping in the dark4 ,sidenote3 ,,agnostic ,,attitude ,this position becomes still more prominent in his philosophical system4 ,his agnostic attitude toward the results of pure thought has been already sketched4 ,it is essentially the same as that taken up by ,mansel in his ,bampton lectures on 8,the ,limits of ,religious ,thought40 ,mansel1 a pupil and continuator of ,hamilton1 developed and emphasized ,hamilton's doctrine of the relativity of knowledge1 and applied it to theology1 maintaining that we cannot know or think of the absolute and infinite1 but only of the relative and finite4 ,hence1 he went on to argue1 we can have no positive knowledge of the attributes of ,god4 ,this1 though disguised by the methods and language of scholastic philosophy1 is al-,ghazzali's attitude in the ,tahafut4 ,mansel's opponents said that he was like a man sitting on the branch of a tree and sawing off his seat4 ,al-,ghazzali1 for the support of his seat1 went back to revelation1 either major1 in the books sent down to the prophets1 or minor1 in the personal revelations of ,god's saints4 ,further1 it was not only in the ,muslim schools that this attitude toward philosophy prevailed4 ,yehuda ,halevi 7d4 ,a4,d4 #aade2 al-,ghazzali1 d4 #aaaa7 also maintains in his ,kusari the insufficiency of philosophy in the highest questions of life1 and bases religious truth on the incontrovertible historical facts of revelation4 ,and ,maimonides 7d4 ,a4,d4 #abjd7 in his ,moreh ,nebuchim takes essentially the same position4 ,of his views on dogmatic theology little need be said4 ,among modern theologians he stands nearest to ,ritschl4 ,like ,ritschl1 he rejects metaphysics and opposes the influence of any philosophical system on his theology4 ,the basis must be religious phenomena1 simply accepted and correlated4 ,like ,ritschl1 too1 he was emphatically ethical in his attitude2 he lays stress on the value for us of a doctrine or a piece of knowledge4 ,our source of religious knowledge is revelation1 and beyond a certain point we must not inquire as to the how and why of that knowledge4 ,to do so would be to enter metaphysics and the danger-zone where we lose touch with vital realities and begin to use mere words4 ,on one point he goes beyond ,ritschl1 and1 on another1 ,ritschl goes beyond him4 ,in his devotion to the facts of the religious consciousness ,ritschl did not go so far as to become a mystic1 indeed rejected mysticism with a conscious indignation2 al-,ghazzali did become a mystic4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,ritschl refused absolutely to enter upon the nature of ,god or upon the divine attributes--all that was mere metaphysics and heathenism2 al-,ghazzali did not so far emancipate himself1 and his only advance was to keep the doctrine on a strictly ,qur'anic basis4 ,so it stands written2 not1 so man is compelled by the nature of things to think4 ,sidenote3 ,,work ,,and ,,influence ,his work and influence in ,islam may be summed up briefly as follows3 ,first1 he led men back from scholastic labors upon theological dogmas to living contact with1 study and exegesis of1 the ,word and the traditions4 ,what happened in ,europe when the yoke of medival scholasticism was broken1 what is happening with us now1 happened in ,islam under his leadership4 ,he could be a scholastic with scholastics1 but to state and develop theological doctrine on a ,scriptural basis was emphatically his method4 ,we should now call him a ,biblical theologian4 ,second1 in his teaching and moral exhortations he reintroduced the element of fear4 ,in the ,munqidh and elsewhere he lays stress on the need of such a striking of terror into the minds of the people4 ,his was no time1 he held1 for smooth1 hopeful preaching2 no time for optimism either as to this world or the next4 ,the horrors of hell must be kept before men2 he had felt them himself4 ,we have seen how other-worldly was his own attitude1 and how the fear of the ,fire had been the supreme motive in his conversion2 and so he treated others4 ,third1 it was by his influence that ,sufiism attained a firm and assured position in the ,church of ,islam4 ,fourth1 he brought philosophy and philosophical theology within the range of the ordinary mind4 ,before his time they had been surrounded1 more or less1 with mystery4 ,the language used was strange2 its vocabulary and terms of art had to be specially learned4 ,no mere reader of the ,arabic of the street or the mosque or the school could understand at once a philosophical tractate4 ,greek ideas and expressions1 passing through a ,syriac version into ,arabic1 had strained to the uttermost the resources of even that most flexible tongue4 ,a long training had been thought necessary before the elaborate and formal method of argumentation could be followed4 ,all this al-,ghazzali changed1 or at least tried to change4 ,his ,tahafut is not addressed to scholars only2 he seeks with it a wider circle of readers1 and contends that the views1 the arguments1 and the fallacies of the philosophers should be perfectly intelligible to the general public4 ,of these four phases of al-,ghazzali's work1 the first and the third are undoubtedly the most important4 ,he made his mark by leading ,islam back to its fundamental and historical facts1 and by giving a place in its system to the emotional religious life4 ,but it will have been noticed that in none of the four phases was he a pioneer4 ,he was not a scholar who struck out a new path1 but a man of intense personality who entered on a path already blazed and made it the common highway4 ,we have here his character4 ,other men may have been keener logicians1 more learned theologians1 more gifted saints2 but he1 through his personal experiences1 had attained so overpowering a sense of the divine realities that the force of his character--once combative and restless1 now narrowed and intense--swept all before it1 and the ,church of ,islam entered on a new era of its existence4 ,so much space it has been necessary to give to this great man4 ,islam has never outgrown him1 has never fully understood him4 ,in the renaissance of ,islam which is now rising to view his time will come and the new life will proceed from a renewed study of his works4 ,sidenote3 ,,later ,,ash#8,,arites ,from this time on1 the ,ash#8arites may be fairly regarded as the dominant school so far as the ,east is concerned4 ,saladin 7d4 #ehi7 did much to aid in the establishment of this hegemony4 ,he was a devout ,muslim with the taste of an amateur for theological literature4 ,anecdotes tell how he had a special little catechism composed1 and used himself to instruct his children in it4 ,he founded theological academies in ,egypt at ,alexandria and ,cairo1 the first there except the ,fatimid ,hall of ,science4 ,one of the few blots on his name is the execution of the pantheistic ,sufi1 ,shihab ad-,din as-,suhrawardi1 at ,aleppo in #ehg4 ,meanwhile1 in the farther ,east1 ,fakhr ad-,din ar-,razi 7d4 #fjf7 was writing his great commentary on the ,qur'an1 the ,mafatih al-,ghayb1 8,the ,keys of the ,unseen10 and carrying on the work of al-,ghazzali4 ,the title of his commentary itself shows the dash of mysticism in his teaching1 and he was in correspondence with ,ibn ,arabi1 the arch-,sufi of the time4 ,he studied philosophy1 too1 commented on works of ,ibn ,sina1 and fought the philosophers on their own ground as al-,ghazzali had done4 ,kalam and philosophy are now1 in the eyes of the theologians1 a true philosophy and a false4 ,philosophy has taken the place of ,mu#8tazilism and the other heresies4 ,the enemies of the faith are outside its pale1 and the scholasticizing of philosophy goes on steadily4 ,according to some1 a new stage was marked by al-,baydawi 7d4 #fhe71 who confused inextricably philosophy and kalam1 but the newness can have been comparative only4 ,a century later al-,iji 7d4 #gef7 writes a book1 al-,mawaqif1 on kalam1 half of which is given to metaphysics and the other half to dogmatics4 ,at-,taftazani is another name worthy of mention4 ,he died in #gia1 after a laborious life as a controversialist and commentator4 ,when we reach ,ibn ,khaldun 7d4 #hjh71 the first philosophical historian and the greatest until the nineteenth century of our era1 we find that kalam has fallen again from its high estate4 ,it has become a scholastic discipline1 useful only to repel the attacks of heretics and unbelievers2 and of heretics1 says ,ibn ,khaldun1 there are now none left4 ,reason1 he goes on1 cannot grasp the nature of ,god2 cannot weigh ,his unity nor measure ,his qualities4 ,god is unknowable and we must accept what we are told about ,him by ,his prophets4 ,such was the result of the destruction of philosophy in ,islam4 ,,chapter ,v ,islam in the ,west2 ,ibn ,tumart and the ,muwahhids2 philosophy in the ,west under ,muwahhid protection2 ,ibn ,bajja2 ,ibn ,tufayl2 ,ibn ,rushd2 ,ibn ,arabi2 ,ibn ,sab#8in4 ,we have now anticipated one of the strangest and most characteristic figures and movements in the history of ,islam4 ,the preceding account1 except as relates to ,ibn ,khaldun1 has told of the triumphs of the ,ash#8arites in the ,east only4 ,in the ,west the movement was slower1 and to it we must now turn4 ,the ,maghrib--the ,occident1 as the ,arabs called all ,north ,africa beyond ,egypt--had been slow from the first to take on the ,muslim impress4 ,the invading army had fought its way painfully through1 but the ,berber tribes remained only half subdued and one-tenth ,islamized4 ,egypt was conquered in ,a4,h4 #bj1 and ,samarqand had been reached in #ef2 but it was not till #gd that the ,muslims were at ,carthage4 ,and even then and for long after there arose insurrection after insurrection1 and the national spirit of the ,berbers remained unbroken4 ,broadly1 but correctly1 ,islam in ,north ,africa for more than three centuries was a failure4 ,the tribal constitutions of the ,berbers were unaffected by the conception of the ,khalifate and their primitive religious aspirations by the ,faith of ,muhammad4 ,not till the possibility came to them to construct ,muslim states out of their own tribes did their opposition begin to weaken4 ,and then it was rather political ,islam that had weakened4 ,when the ,fatimids conquered ,egypt in #cef and moved the seat of their empire from al-,mahdiya to the newly founded ,cairo1 ,islam assumed a new meaning for ,north ,africa4 ,the ,fatimid empire there quickly melted away1 and in its place arose several independent states1 ,berber in blood though claiming ,arab descent and bearing ,arab names4 ,islam no longer meant foreign oppression1 and it began at last to make its way4 ,again1 in the preceding period of insurrection the ,berber leaders had frequently appeared in the guise and with the claim of prophets1 men miraculously gifted and with a message from ,god4 ,these wild tribesmen1 with all their fanaticism for their own tribal liberties1 have always been peculiarly accessible to the genius which claims its mission from heaven4 ,so they had taken up the ,fatimid cause and worshipped ,ubayd ,allah the ,mahdi4 ,and so they continued thereafter1 and still continue to be swayed by saints1 darwishes1 and prophets of all degrees of insanity and cunning4 ,the latest case in point is that of the ,shaykh as-,sanusi1 with whom we have already dealt4 ,as time went on1 there came a change in these prophet-led risings and saint-founded states4 ,they gradually slipped over from being frankly anti-,muhammadan1 if also close imitations of ,muhammad's life and methods1 to being equally frankly ,muslim4 ,the theology of ,islam easily afforded them the necessary point of connection4 ,all that the prophet of the day need do was to claim the position of the ,mahdi1 that ,guided ,one1 who according to the traditions of ,muhammad was to come before the last day1 when the earth shall be filled with violence1 and to fill it again with righteousness4 ,it was easy for each new ,mahdi to select from the vast and contradictory mass of traditions in ,muslim eschatology those which best fitted his person and his time4 ,to the story and the doctrine of one of these we now come4 ,sidenote3 ,,ibn ,,tumart ,at the beginning of the sixth century a certain ,berber student of theology1 ,ibn ,tumart by name1 travelled in the ,east in search of knowledge4 ,an early and persistent western tradition asserts that he was a favorite pupil of al-,ghazzali's1 and was marked out by him as showing the signs of a future founder of empire4 ,this may be taken for what it is worth4 ,what is certain is that ,ibn ,tumart went back to the ,maghrib and there brought about the triumph of a doctrine which was derived1 if modified1 from that of the ,ash#8arites4 ,previously all kalam had been under a cloud in the ,west4 ,theological studies had been closely limited to fiqh1 or canon law1 and that of the narrowed school of ,malik ibn ,anas4 ,even the ,qur'an and the collections of traditions had come to be neglected in favor of systematized law-books4 ,the revolt of ,ibn ,hazm against this had apparently accomplished little4 ,it had been too one-sided and negative1 and had lacked the weight of personality behind it4 ,ibn ,hazm had assailed the views of others with a wealth of vituperative language4 ,but he had been a controversialist only4 ,there is a story1 tolerably well authenticated1 that the books of al-,ghazzali were solemnly condemned by the ,qadis of ,cordova1 and burnt in public4 ,yet1 against that is to be set that all the ,spanish theologians did not approve of this violence4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,zahirite ,,imamite ,ibn ,tumart started in life as a reformer of the corruptions of his day1 and seems to have slipped from that into the belief that he had been appointed by ,god as the great reformer for all time4 ,as happens with reformers1 from exhortation it came to force2 from preaching at the abuses of the government to rebellion against the government4 ,that government1 the ,murabit1 went down before ,ibn ,tumart and his successors1 and the pontifical rule of the ,muwahhids1 the asserters of ,god's tawhid or unity1 rose in its place4 ,the doctrine which he preached bears evident marks of the influence of al-,ghazzali and of ,ibn ,hazm4 ,tawhid1 for him1 meant a complete spiritualizing of the conception of ,god4 ,opposed to tawhid1 he set tajsim1 the assigning to ,god of a jism or body having bulk4 ,thus1 when the theologians of the ,west took the anthropomorphic passages of the ,qur'an literally1 he applied to them the method of ta'wil1 or interpretation1 which he had learned in the ,east1 and explained away these stumbling-blocks4 ,ibn ,hazm1 it will be remembered1 resorted to grammatical and lexicographical devices to attain the same end1 and had regarded ta'wil with abhorrence4 ,to ,ibn ,tumart1 then1 this tajsim was flat unbelief and1 as ,mahdi1 it was his duty to oppose it by force of arms1 to lead a jihad against its maintainers4 ,further1 with ,ibn ,hazm1 he agreed in rejecting taqlid4 ,there was only one truth1 and it was man's duty to find it for himself by going to the original sources4 ,this is the genuine ,zahirite doctrine which utterly rejects all comity with the four other legal rites2 but ,ibn ,tumart1 as ,mahdi1 added another element4 ,it is based on a very simple ,imamite philosophy of history4 ,there has always been an ,imam in the world1 a divinely appointed leader1 guarded by isma1 protection against error4 ,the first four ,khalifas were of such divine appointment2 thereafter came usurpers and oppressors4 ,theirs was the reign of wickedness and lies in the earth4 ,now he1 the ,mahdi1 was come of the blood of the ,prophet and bearing plainly all the necessary1 accrediting signs to overcome these tyrants and anti-,christs4 ,he thus was an ,imamite1 but stood quite apart from the welter of conflicting ,shi#8ite sects--the ,seveners1 ,twelvers1 ,zaydites and the rest--as far as do the present ,sharifs of ,morocco with their ,alid-,sunnite position4 ,the ,mahdi1 it is to be remembered1 is awaited by ,sunnites as by ,shi#8ites1 and is guarded against error as much as an ,imam1 since he partakes of the general isma which in divine things belongs to prophets4 ,such a leader1 then1 could claim from the people absolute obedience and credence4 ,his word must be for them the source of truth4 ,there was1 therefore1 no longer any need of analogy 7qiyas7 as a source1 and we accordingly find that ,ibn ,tumart rejected it in all but legal matters and there surrounded it with restrictions4 ,analogical argument in things theological was forbidden4 ,but where he absolutely parted company from the ,ash#8arites was with regard to the qualities of ,god4 ,in that1 too1 he followed the view of ,ibn ,hazm sketched above4 ,we must take the ,qur'anic expressions as names and not as indicating attributes to us4 ,it is true that his creed shows signs of a philosophical width lacking in ,ibn ,hazm4 ,like the ,mu#8tazilites1 e4g4 ,abu ,hudhayl1 he defines largely by negations4 ,god is not this2 is not affected by that4 ,it is even phrased so as to be capable of a pantheistic explanation1 and we find that ,ibn ,rushd wrote a commentary on it4 ,but it may be doubted whether ,ibn ,tumart was himself a pantheist4 ,all phases of ,islam1 as we have seen1 ran toward that2 and here there is only a little indiscretion in the wording4 ,but it may easily have been that he had besides1 like the ,fatimids1 a secret teaching or exposition of those simpler declarations which were intended for the mass of the people4 ,among his successors distinct traces of such a thing appear2 both ,aristotelian philosophers and advanced ,sufis are connected with the ,muwahhid movement4 ,that1 however1 belongs to the sequel4 ,the success of ,ibn ,tumart1 if halting at first1 was eventually complete4 ,as a simple lawyer who felt called upon to protest--as1 indeed1 are all good ,muslims in virtue of a tradition from ,muhammad--against the abuses of the time1 he accomplished comparatively little4 ,as ,mahdi1 he and his supporter and successor1 ,abd al-,mu'min1 swept the country4 ,for his movement was not merely ,imamite and ,muslim1 but an expression as well of ,berber nationalism4 ,here was a man1 sprung from their midst1 of their own stock and tongue1 who1 as ,prophet of ,god1 called them to arms4 ,they obeyed his call1 worshipped him and fought for him4 ,he translated the ,qur'an for them into ,berber2 the call to prayers was given in ,berber2 functionaries of the church had to know ,berber2 his own theological writings circulated in ,berber as well as in ,arabic4 ,as ,persia took ,islam and moulded it to suit herself1 so now did the ,berber tribes4 ,and a strange jumble they made of it4 ,with them1 the ,zahirite system of canon law1 rejected by all other ,muslim peoples1 enjoyed its one brief period of power and glory4 ,shi#8ite legends and superstitions mingled with philosophical free thought4 ,the book of mystery1 al-,jafr1 written by ,ali1 and containing the history of the world to the end of time1 was said to have passed from the custody of al-,ghazzali at his death to the hands of the ,mahdi and was by him committed to his successors4 ,if only in view of the syncretism practised by both1 it was fitting that al-,ghazzali and ,ibn ,tumart should be brought closely together4 ,yet it is hard to explain the persistence with which the great ,ash#8arite is made the teacher and guide of the semi-,zahirite4 ,there must have been something1 now obscure to us1 in their respective systems which suggested to contemporaries such intimate connection4 ,the rule of the ,muwahhids lasted until #ffg1 nearly one hundred years1 and involved in its circle of influence many weighty personalities4 ,with some of these we will now deal shortly4 ,it has been told above how narrow in general were the intellectual interests of the ,west4 ,canon law1 poetry1 history1 geography were eagerly pursued1 but little of original value was produced4 ,originality and the breaking of ground in new fields were under a ban4 ,subtilty of thought and luxury of life took their place4 ,above all1 and naturally1 this applied to philosophy4 ,and so it comes that the first philosophic name in the ,muslim ,west is that of ,abu ,bakr ibn ,bajja1 for medival ,europe ,avenpace1 who died comparatively young in #ecc4 ,for him1 as for all1 and still more in the ,west than in the ,east1 the problem of the philosopher was how to gain and maintain a tenable position in a world composed mostly of the philosophically ignorant and the religiously fanatical4 ,this problem had two sides1 internal and external4 ,the inner and the nobler one was how such a mind could in its loneliness rise to its highest level and purify itself to the point of knowing things as they really are and so reach that eternal life in which the individual spirit loses itself in the ,active ,intellect 7 1 al-aql al-fa#8#8al7 which is above all and behind all4 ,the other1 and baser1 was how to so present his views and adapt his life that the life and the views might be possible in a ,muslim community4 ,sidenote3 ,,ibn ,,bajja ,ibn ,bajja was a close disciple of al-,farabi1 who is to be regarded as the spiritual father of the later ,arabic philosophy2 ,ibn ,sina practically falls out4 ,in logic1 physics1 and metaphysics he followed al-,farabi closely4 ,but we can see how the times have moved and the philosophies with them4 ,the essential differences have appeared and ,ibn ,bajja can no longer1 with a good conscience1 appear as a pious ,muslim4 ,the ,sufi strain also is much weaker4 ,the greatest joy and the closest truth are to be found in thought1 and not in the sensuous ecstasies of the mystic4 ,the intellect is the highest element in man's being1 but is only immortal as it joins itself to the one ,active ,intellect1 which is all that is left of ,god4 ,here we have the beginning of the doctrine which1 later1 under the name of ,averroism and pampsychism ran like wild-fire through the schools of ,europe4 ,further1 only by the constant exercise of its own functions can the intellect of man be thus raised4 ,he must live rationally at all points2 be able to give a reason for every action4 ,this may compel him to live in solitude2 the world is so irrational and will not suffer reason4 ,or some of the disciples of reason may draw together and form a community where they may live the calm life of nature and of the pursuit of knowledge and self-development4 ,so they will be at one with nature and the eternal1 and far removed from the frenzied life of the multitude with its lower aims and conceptions4 ,it is easy to see how the iron of a fight against overwhelming odds had entered this soul4 ,only the friendship of some of the ,murabit princes saved him2 but he died in the end1 says a story1 by poison4 ,with the next names we find ourselves at a ,muwahhid court1 and there the atmosphere has changed4 ,it is evident that1 whatever might be the temper of the people1 the chiefs of the ,muwahhids viewed philosophy with no disfavor4 ,their problem1 as in the case of the ,fatimids1 seems rather to have been how much the people might be taught with safety4 ,their solution of the problem--here we proceed on conjecture1 but the basis is tolerably sound--was that the bulk of the people should be taught nothing but the literal sense of the ,qur'an1 metaphors1 anthropomorphisms and all2 that the educated lay public1 which had already some inkling of the facts1 should be assured that there was really no difference between philosophy and theology--that they were two phases of one truth2 and that the philosophers should have a free hand to go on their own way1 always provided that their speculations did not spread beyond their own circle and agitate the minds of the commonalty4 ,it was a beautiful scheme1 but like all systems of obscurantism it did not work4 ,on the one hand1 the people refused to be blindfolded1 and1 on the other1 philosophy died out of inanition4 ,in accordance with this1 we find the ,muwahhid chiefs installing the ,zahirite fiqh as the official system and sternly stopping all speculative discussing either of canon law or of theology4 8,the ,word so stands written2 take it or the sword10 is the significant utterance which has come to us from ,abu ,ya#8qub 7reg4 #eeh-ehj71 son of ,abd al-,mu'min4 ,the same continued under his son ,abu ,yusuf al-,mansur 7reg4 #ehj-eie71 who added a not very carefully concealed contempt for the ,mahdiship of ,ibn ,tumart4 ,all such things were ridiculous in his philosophic eyes4 ,sidenote3 ,,ibn ,,tufayl2 ,,ibn ,,rushd ,under these men and in adjustment with their system lived and worked ,ibn ,tufayl and ,ibn ,rushd1 the last of the great ,aristotelians4 ,ibn ,tufayl was wazir and physician to ,abu ,ya#8qub and died a year after him1 in #eca4 ,his was a calm1 contemplative life1 secluded in princely libraries4 ,but his objects were the same as those of ,ibn ,bajja4 ,he has evidently no hope that the great body of the people can ever be brought to the truth4 ,a religion1 sensuous and sensual alike1 is needed to restrain the wild beast in man1 and the masses should be left to the guidance of that religion4 ,for a philosopher to seek to teach them better is to expose himself to peril and them to the loss of that little which they have4 ,but in his methods1 on the other hand1 ,ibn ,tufayl is essentially at one with al-,ghazzali4 ,he is a mystic who seeks in ,sufi exercises1 in the constant purifying of mind and body and in the unwearying search for the one unity in the individual multiplicity around him1 to find a way to lose his self in that eternal and one spirit which for him is the divine4 ,so at last he comes to ecstasy and reaches those things which eye hath not seen nor ear heard4 ,the only difference between him and al-,ghazzali is that al-,ghazzali was a theologian and saw in his ecstasy ,allah upon ,his throne and around ,him the things of the heavens1 as set forth in the ,qur'an1 while ,ibn ,tufayl was a philosopher1 of neo-,platonic ,aristotelian stamp1 and saw in his ecstasy the ,active ,intellect and ,its chain of causes reaching down to man and back to ,itself4 ,the book by which his name has lived1 and which has had strange haps1 is the romance of ,hayy ibn ,yaqzan1 8,the ,living ,one1 ,son of the ,waking ,one40 ,in it he conceives two islands1 the one inhabited and the other not4 ,on the inhabited island we have conventional people living conventional lives1 and restrained by a conventional religion of rewards and punishments4 ,two men there1 ,salaman and ,asal1 have raised themselves to a higher level of self-rule4 ,salaman adapts himself externally to the popular religion and rules the people2 ,asal1 seeking to perfect himself still further in solitude1 goes to the other island4 ,but there he finds a man1 ,hayy ibn ,yaqzan1 who has lived alone from infancy and has gradually1 by the innate and uncorrupted powers of the mind1 developed himself to the highest philosophic level and reached the ,vision of the ,divine4 ,he has passed through all the stages of knowledge until the universe lies clear before him1 and now he finds that his philosophy thus reached1 without prophet or revelation1 and the purified religion of ,asal are one and the same4 ,the story told by ,asal of the people of the other island sitting in darkness stirs his soul and he goes forth to them as a missionary4 ,but he soon learns that the method of ,muhammad was the true one for the great masses1 and that only by sensuous allegory and concrete things could they be reached and held4 ,he retires to his island again to live the solitary life4 ,the bearing of this on the system of the ,muwahhids cannot be mistaken4 ,if it is a criticism of the finality of historical revelation1 it is also a defence of the attitude of the ,muwahhids toward both people and philosophers4 ,by the favor of ,abu ,ya#8qub1 ,ibn ,tufayl had practically been able to live on an island and develop himself by study4 ,so1 too1 ,abu ,ya#8qub might stand for the enlightened but practical ,salaman4 ,yet the meaning evidently is that between them they failed and must fail4 ,there could only be a solitary philosopher here and there1 and happy for him if he found a princely patron4 ,the people which knew not the truth were accursed4 ,perhaps1 rather1 they were children and had to be humored and guided as such in an endless childhood4 ,it is evident that such a solitary possessor of truth had two courses open to him4 ,he could either busy himself in his studies and exercises1 as had done ,ibn ,bajja and ,ibn ,tufayl1 or he could boldly enter public life and trust to his dialectic ingenuity and resource--perhaps1 also1 to his plasticity of conscience--to carry him past all whispers of heresy and unbelief4 ,the latter course was chosen by ,ibn ,rushd4 ,he was born at ,cordova1 in #ebj1 of a family of jurists and there studied law4 ,from his legal studies only a book on the law of inheritance has reached us1 and it1 though frequently commented on1 has never been printed4 ,in #edh he was presented to ,abu ,ya#8qub by ,ibn ,tufayl and encouraged by him in the study of philosophy4 ,in it his greatest work was done4 ,in spite of the shreds and patches of neo-,platonism which clung to him1 he was the greatest medival commentator on ,aristotle4 ,it is only part of the eternal puzzle of the ,muslim mind that the utility of ,greek for a student of ,aristotle seems never to have struck him4 ,thereafter he acted as judge in different places in ,spain and was court physician for a short time in #egh to ,abu ,ya#8qub4 ,in #ege he had written his tractates1 to which we shall come immediately1 mediating between philosophy and theology4 ,toward the end of his life he was condemned by ,abu ,yusuf al-,mansur for heresy and banished from ,cordova4 ,this was in all likelihood a truckling on the part of al-,mansur to the religious prejudices of the people of ,spain1 who were probably of stiffer orthodoxy than the ,berbers4 ,he was in ,spain1 at ,cordova1 at the time1 and was engaged in carrying on a religious war with the ,christians4 ,on his return to ,morocco the decree of exile was recalled and ,ibn ,rushd restored to favor4 ,we find him again at the court in ,morocco1 and he died there in #eie4 ,this is not the place to enter upon ,ibn ,rushd's philosophical system4 ,he was a thorough-going ,aristotelian1 as he knew ,aristotle4 ,that was probably much better than any of his predecessors2 but even he had not got clear from the fatal influence of ,plotinus4 ,above all1 he is essentially a theologian just as much as they4 ,in ,aristotle there had been given what was to all intents a philosophical revelation4 ,only in the knowledge and acceptance of it could truth and life be found4 ,and some must reach it2 one at least there must always be4 ,if a thing is not seen by someone it has existed in vain2 which is impossible4 ,if someone at least does not know the truth1 it also has existed in vain1 which is still more impossible4 ,that is ,ibn ,rushd's way of saying that the esse is the percipi and that there must be a perceiver4 ,and he has unlimited faith in his means of reaching that ,truth--only by such capitalization can we express his theologic attitude4 ,the logic of ,aristotle is infallible and can break through to the supreme good itself4 ,ecstasy and contemplation play no part with him2 there he separates from ,ibn ,tufayl4 ,such intercourse with the ,active ,intellect may exist2 but it is too rare to be taken into account4 ,obviously1 ,ibn ,rushd himself1 who to himself was the percipient of truth for his age1 had never reached that perception4 ,solitary meditation he cannot away with2 for him the market-place and contact with men2 there he parts with ,ibn ,bajja4 ,in truth1 he is nearer to the life in life of ,ibn ,sina1 and that1 perhaps1 explains his constant attacks on the ,persian bon vivant4 ,sidenote3 ,,attack ,,on ,,al-,,ghazzali ,all his predecessors he joys in correcting1 but his especial bte noire is al-,ghazzali4 ,with him it is war on life or death4 ,he has two good causes4 ,one is al-,ghazzali's 8,destruction of the ,philosophers20 of it1 ,ibn ,rushd1 in his turn1 writes a 8,destruction40 ,this is a clever1 incisive criticism1 luminous with logical exactitude1 yet missing al-,ghazzali's vital earnestness and incapable of reaching his originality4 ,but al-,ghazzali had not only attacked the philosophers2 he had also spread the knowledge of their teachings and reasonings1 and had said that there was nothing esoteric and impossible of grasp in them for the ordinary mind4 ,he had thus assailed the fundamental principles of the ,muwahhid system4 ,against this1 ,ibn ,rushd wrote the tractates spoken of above4 ,they were evidently addressed to the educated laity2 not to the ignorant multitude1 but to those who had already read such books as those of al-,ghazzali and been affected by them1 yet had not studied philosophy at first hand4 ,that they were not intended for such special students is evident from the elaborate care that is taken in them to conceal1 or1 if that were not possible1 to put a good face upon obnoxious doctrines4 ,thus1 his philosophy left no place in reality for a system of rewards and punishments or even for any individual existence of the soul after death1 for a creation of the material world1 or for a providence in the direct working of the supreme being on earth4 ,but all these points are involved or glossed over in these tractates4 ,further1 it is plain that their object was to bring about a reform of religion in itself1 and also of the attitude of theologians to students of philosophy4 ,in them he sums up his own position under four heads3 ,first1 that philosophy agrees with religion and that religion recommends philosophy4 ,here1 he is fighting for his life4 ,religion is true1 a revelation from ,god2 and philosophy is true1 the results reached by the human mind2 these two truths cannot contradict each other4 ,again1 men are frequently exhorted in the ,qur'an to reflect1 to consider1 to speculate about things2 that means the use of the intelligence1 which follows certain laws1 long ago traced and worked out by the ancients4 ,we must1 therefore1 study their works and proceed further on the same course ourselves1 i4e41 we must study philosophy4 ,second1 there are two things in religion1 literal meaning and interpretation4 ,if we find anything in the ,qur'an which seems externally to contradict the results of philosophy1 we may be quite sure that there is something under the surface4 ,we must look for some possible interpretation of the passage1 some inner meaning2 and we shall certainly find it4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,multiform ,,truth ,third1 the literal meaning is the duty of the multitude1 and interpretation the duty of scholars4 ,those who are not capable of philosophical reasoning must hold the literal truth of the different statements in the ,qur'an4 ,the imagery must be believed by them exactly as it stands1 except where it is absolutely evident that we have only an image4 ,on the other hand1 philosophers must be given the liberty of interpreting as they choose4 ,if they find it necessary1 from some philosophical necessity1 to adopt an allegorical interpretation of any passage or to find in it a metaphor1 that liberty must be open to them4 ,there must be no laying down of dogmas by the church as to what may be interpreted and what may not4 ,in ,ibn ,rushd's opinion1 the orthodox theologians sometimes interpreted when they should have kept by the letter1 and sometimes took literally passages in which they should have found imagery4 ,he did not accuse them of heresy for this1 and they should grant him the same liberty4 ,fourth1 those who know are not to be allowed to communicate interpretations to the multitude4 ,so ,ali said1 8,speak to the people of that which they understand2 would ye that they give the lie to ,god and ,his messenger80 ,ibn ,rushd considered that belief was reached by three different classes of people in three different ways4 ,the many believe because of rhetorical syllogisms 7khitabiya71 i4e41 those whose premises consist of the statements of a religious teacher 7maqbulat71 or are presumptions 7maznunat74 ,others believe because of controversial syllogisms 7jadliya71 which are based on principles 7mashhurat7 or admissions 7musallamat74 ,all these premises belong to the class of propositions which are not absolutely certain4 ,the third class1 and by far the smaller1 consists of the people of demonstration 7burhan74 ,their belief is based upon syllogisms composed of propositions which are certain4 ,these consist of axioms 7awwaliyat7 and five other classes of certainties4 ,each of these three classes of people has to be treated in the way that suits its mental character4 ,it is wrong to put demonstration or controversy before those who can understand only rhetorical reasoning4 ,it destroys their faith and gives them nothing to take its place4 ,the case is similar with those who can only reach controversial reasoning but cannot attain unto demonstration4 ,thus ,ibn ,rushd would have the faith of the multitude carefully screened from all contact with the teachings of philosophers4 ,such books should not be allowed to go into general circulation1 and if necessary1 the civil authorities should step in to prevent it4 ,if these principles were accepted and followed1 a return might be looked for of the golden age of ,islam1 when there was no theological controversy and men believed sincerely and earnestly4 ,on this last paragraph it is worth noticing that its threefold distinction is 8conveyed0 by ,ibn ,rushd from a little book belonging to al-,ghazzali's later life1 after he had turned to the study of tradition1 ,iljam al-,awamm an ilm al-kalam1 8,the reining in of the commonalty from the science of kalam40 ,such was1 practically1 the end of the ,muslim ,aristotelians4 ,some flickers of philosophic study doubtless remained4 ,so we find a certain ,abu-l-,hajjaj ibn ,tumlus 7d4 #fbj7 writing on ,aristotle's 8,analytics10 and the tractates of ,ibn ,rushd described above were copied at ,almeria in #gbd4 ,but the fate of all ,muslim speculation fell1 and this school went out in ,sufiism4 ,it was not ,ibn ,rushd that triumphed but ,ibn ,tufayl1 and that side of ,ibn ,tufayl which was akin to al-,ghazzali4 ,from this point on1 the thinkers and writers of ,islam become mystics more and more overwhelmingly4 ,dogmatic theology itself falls behind1 and of philosophical disciplines only formal logic and a metaphysics of the straitest scholastic type are left4 ,philosophy becomes the handmaid of theology1 and a very mechanical handmaid at that4 ,it is only in the schools of the ,sufis that we find real development and promise of life4 ,the future lay with them1 however dubious it may seem to us that a future in such charge must be4 ,sidenote3 ,,ibn ,,arabi ,the greatest ,sufi in the ,arabic-speaking world was undoubtedly ,muhyi ad-,din ibn ,arabi4 ,he was born in ,murcia in #efj1 studied hadith and fiqh at ,seville1 and in #eih set out to travel in the ,east4 ,he wandered through the ,hijaz1 ,mesopotamia and ,asia ,minor1 and died at ,damascus in #fch1 leaving behind him an enormous mass of writings1 at least #aej of which have come down to us4 ,why he left ,spain is unknown2 it is plain that he was under the influence of the ,muwahhid movement4 ,he was a ,zahirite in law2 rejected analogy1 opinion1 and taqlid1 but admitted agreement4 ,his attachment to the opinions of ,ibn ,hazm especially was very strong4 ,he edited some of that scholar's works1 and was only prevented by his objections to taqlid from being a formal ,hazmite4 ,but with all that literalness in fiqh1 his mysticism in theology was of the most rampant and luxurious description4 ,between the two sides1 it is true1 there existed a connection of a kind4 ,he had no need for analogy or opinion or for any of the workings of the vain human intelligence so long as the divine light was flooding his soul and he saw the things of the heavens with plain vision4 ,so his books are a strange jumble of theosophy and metaphysical paradoxes1 all much like the theosophy of our own day4 ,he evidently took the system of the mutakallims and played with it by means of formal logic and a lively imagination4 ,to what extent he was sincere in his claim of heavenly illuminings and mysterious powers it would be hard to say4 ,the oriental mystic has little difficulty in deceiving himself4 ,his opinions--so far as we can know them--may be briefly sketched as follows3 ,the being of all things is ,god3 there is nothing except ,him4 ,all things are an essential unity2 every part of the world is the whole world4 ,so man is a unity in essence but a multiplicity in individuals4 ,his anthropology was an advance upon that of al-,ghazzali toward a more unflinching pantheism4 ,he has the same view that the soul of man is a spiritual substance different from everything else and proceeding from ,god4 ,but he obliterates the difference of ,god and makes souls practically emanations4 ,at death these return into ,god who sent them forth4 ,all religions to ,ibn ,arabi were practically indifferent2 in them all the divine was working and was worshipped4 ,yet ,islam is the more advantageous and ,sufiism is its true philosophy4 ,further1 man has no free-will2 he is constrained by the will of ,god1 which is really all that exists4 ,nor is there any real difference between good and evil2 the essential unity of all things makes such a division impossible4 ,sidenote3 ,,ibn ,,sab#8,,in ,the last of the ,muwahhid circle with whom we need deal--and1 perhaps1 absolutely the last--is ,abd al-,haqq ibn ,sab#8in4 ,he was as much a mystic as ,ibn ,arabi1 but was apparently more deeply read in philosophy and did not cast his conceptions in so theological and ,qur'anic a mould4 ,he1 too1 was born in ,murcia about #fac1 and must very early have founded a school of his own1 gathered disciples round him and established a wide reputation4 ,high skill in alchemy1 astrology1 and magic is ascribed to him1 which probably means that he claimed to be a wali1 a friend of ,god1 gifted with miraculous powers4 ,he is accused of posing as a prophet1 although in orthodox ,islam ,muhammad is the last and the seal of the prophets4 ,but against this1 it may be said that he had no need of the actual title1 8prophet02 many mystics held--heretically1 it is true--that the wali stood higher than the prophet1 nabi or rasul4 ,he had evidently besides this a more solid reputation in philosophy1 as is shown by his correspondence with ,frederick ,,ii1 the great ,hohenstaufen 7d4 #abej ,a4,d474 ,the story is told on the ,muslim side only1 but has vraisemblance and seems to be tolerably authentic4 ,according to it1 ,frederick addressed certain questions in philosophy--on the eternity of the world1 the nature of the soul1 the number and nature of the categories1 etc4--to different ,muslim princes1 begging that they would submit them to their learned men4 ,so the questions came to ar-,rashid1 the ,muwahhid 7reg4 #fcj-fdj71 addressed to ,ibn ,sab#8in as a scholar whose reputation had reached even the ,sicilian court4 ,ar-,rashid passed them on2 ,ibn ,sab#8in accepted the commission with a smile--this is the ,muslim account--and triumphantly and contemptuously expounded the difficulties of the ,christian monarch and student4 ,in his replies he certainly displays a very complete and exact knowledge of the ,aristotelian and neo-,platonic systems1 and is far less a blind follower of ,aristotle than is ,ibn ,rushd4 ,but his schoolmasterly tone is most unpleasant1 and we discover in the end that all this is a mere preliminary discipline1 leading in itself to agnosticism and a recognition that there is nothing but vanity in this world1 and that only in the ,vision of the ,sufi can certainty and peace be found4 ,so we have again the circle through which al-,ghazzali went4 ,as distinguished from ,ibn ,rushd1 the prophet1 with ,ibn ,sab#8in1 takes higher rank than the sage4 ,beyond the current division of the soul into the vegetative1 the animal and the reasonable1 he adds two others1 derived from the reasonable1 the soul of wisdom and the soul of prophecy4 ,the first of these is the soul of the philosopher1 and the other of the prophet2 and the last is the highest4 ,of the reasonable soul upward1 he predicates immortality4 ,his position otherwise must have been practically the same as that of ,ibn ,arabi4 ,like him he was a ,zahirite in law and a mystic in theology4 8,god is the reality of existing things10 he taught1 and it is evident that he belonged to the school of pantheism in which ,god is all1 and separate things are emanations from him4 ,in life we have flashes of recognition of the heavenly realities1 but only at death--which is our true birth--do we reach union with the eternal1 or1 to speak technically1 with the ,active ,intellect4 ,sidenote3 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,muwahhids ,apparently it was quite possible for him to hold these views in public so long as the ,muwahhids were strong enough to protect him4 ,but their empire was rapidly falling to pieces and the time of freedom had passed4 ,an attack on him at ,tunis1 where the ,hafsids now ruled1 drove him to the ,east about #fdc1 and there he took refuge at--of all places--,mecca4 ,the refuge seems to have been secure4 ,he lived there more than twenty years amid a circle of disciples1 among whom was the ,sharif himself1 and died about #ffg4 ,there is a poorly authenticated story that he died by suicide4 ,the man himself1 with so many of his time and kind1 must remain a puzzle to us4 ,for all his haughty pride of learning1 it is noted of him that his first disciples were from among the poor4 ,his contemporaries described him as 8a ,sufi after the manner of the philosophers40 ,the last vestige of the ,muwahhid empire passed away in the year of his death4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,the rise and spread of darwish ,fraternities2 the survival and tradition of the ,hanbalite doctrine2 ,abd ar-,razzaq2 ,ibn ,taymiya1 his attacks on saint-worship and on the mutakallims2 ash-,sha#8rani and his times2 the modern movements2 ,wahhabism and the influence of al-,ghazzali2 possibilities of the present4 ,our sources now begin to grow more and more scanty1 and we must hasten over long intervals of time and pass with little connection from one name to another4 ,preliminary investigations are also to a great extent lacking1 and it is possible that the centuries which we shall merely touch may have witnessed developments only less important than those with which we have already dealt4 ,but that is not probable2 for when1 after a long silence1 the curtain rises again for us in the twelfth ,muslim century1 we shall find at work only those elements and conditions whose inception and growth we have now set forth4 ,one name in our rapid flight deserves mention1 at least4 ,it is that of ,umar ibn al-,farid1 the greatest poet that ,arabic mysticism has produced4 ,he was born at ,cairo in #ehf1 lived for a time at ,mecca1 and died at ,cairo in #fcb4 ,he led no new movement or advance1 but the ,east still cherishes his memory and his poems4 ,sidenote3 ,,darwish ,,fraternities ,we have already noticed 7p4 #agg7 the beginnings of darwish ,fraternities and the founding of monasteries or khanqahs4 ,during the period over which we have just passed1 these received a great and enduring impetus4 ,the older ascetics and walis gathered round them groups of personal followers and their pupils carried on their names4 ,but it was long1 apparently1 before definite corporations were founded of fixed purpose to perpetuate the memory of their masters4 ,one of the earliest of these seems to have been the fraternity of ,qadirite darwishes1 founded by ,abd al-,qadir al-,jilani1 who died in #efa at ,baghdad1 where pilgrimage is still made to his shrine4 ,so1 too1 the ,rifa#8ite ,fraternity was founded at ,baghdad by ,ahmad ar-,rifa#8a in #egf4 ,another is that of the ,shadhilites1 named after their founder1 ash-,shadhili1 who died in #fef4 ,again another is that of the ,badawites1 whose founder was ,ahmad al-,badawi 7d4 #fge72 his shrine at ,tanta in ,lower ,egypt is still one of the most popular places of pilgrimage4 ,again1 the order of the ,naqshbandite darwishes was founded by ,muhammad an-,naqshbandi1 who died in #gia4 ,among the ,turks by far the most popular religious order is that of the ,mawlawites1 founded by the great ,persian mystical poet1 ,jalal ad-,din ar-,rumi 7d4 #fgb71 whose ,mesnevi is read over all ,islam4 ,these and very many others1 especially of later date1 are still in existence4 ,others1 once founded1 have again become extinct4 ,thus1 ,ibn ,sab#8in1 though he was surrounded by disciples who for a time after his death carried on the order of ,sab#8inites1 does not seem now to have any to do him honor4 ,the same holds of a certain ,adi al-,hakkari who founded a cloister near ,mawsil and died about #eeh4 ,it is significant that al-,ghazzali1 though he founded a cloister for ,sufis at ,tus and taught and governed there himself1 left no order behind him4 ,apparently in his time the movement toward continuous corporations had not yet begun4 ,it is true that there are at present in existence darwish ,fraternities which claim to be descended from the celebrated ascetics and walis1 ,ibrahim ibn ,adham 7d4 #afa71 ,sari as-,saqati 7d4 #beg7 and ,abu ,yazid al-,bistami 7d4 #bfa71 but it may be gravely doubted whether they can show any sound pedigree4 ,the legend of ,shaykh ,ilwan1 who is said to have founded the first order in #di1 may be safely rejected4 ,it is significant that the ,awlad ,ilwan1 sons of ,ilwan1 as his followers are called1 form a sect of the ,rifa#8ites4 ,further1 just as the ,sufis have claimed for themselves all the early pious ,muslims1 and especially the ten to whom ,muhammad made specific promise of ,paradise 7al-ashara al-mubashshara71 so these ,fraternities are ascribed in their origin to1 and put under the guardianship of the first ,khalifas1 and1 in ,egypt at least1 a direct descendant of ,abu ,bakr holds authority over all their orders4 ,in these orders all are darwishes1 but only those gifted by ,god with miraculous powers are walis4 ,those of them who are begging friars are faqirs4 ,they stand under an elaborate hierarchy grading in dignity and holiness from the ,qutb1 or ,axis1 who wanders1 often invisible and always unknown to the world1 through the lands performing the duties of his office1 and who has a favorite station on the roof of the ,ka#8ba1 through his naqibs or assistants1 down to the lowest faqir4 ,but the members of these orders are not exclusively faqirs4 ,all classes are enrolled as1 in a sense1 lay adherents4 ,certain trades affect certain fraternities2 in ,egypt1 for example1 the fishermen are almost all ,qadirites and walk in procession on their festival day1 carrying colored nets as their banners4 ,much the same thing held1 and holds1 of the monastic orders of ,europe1 but the ,muslim does not wait till he is dying to put on the weeds of ,ahmad al-,badawi or ash-,shadhili4 ,finally1 reference may be made again to the last and most important of all these orders1 the militant ,brotherhood of as-,sanusi4 ,sidenote3 ,,mystics v4 ,,traditionalists ,we have now returned to the period of al-,iji and at-,taftazani1 when philosophy definitely descended from the throne and became the servant and defender of theology4 ,from this time on1 the two independent forces at work are the unveiling of the mystic 7kashf7 and tradition 7naql74 ,the only place for reason 7aql7 now is to prove the possibility of a given doctrine4 ,that done1 its actual truth is proven by tradition4 ,these two then1 kashf and naql1 hold the field1 and the history of ,muslim theology from this point to the present day is the history of their conflicts4 ,the mystics are accused of heresy by the traditionalists4 ,the traditionalists are accused by the mystics of formalism1 hypocrisy1 and1 above all1 of flat inability to argue logically4 ,both accusations are certainly true4 ,no fine fence on personality can conceal the fact that ,muslim mysticism is simple pantheism of the ,plotinian type1 the individuals are emanations from the ,one4 ,on the other hand1 the formalism of the traditionalists can hardly be exaggerated4 ,they pass over almost entirely into canon lawyers1 meriting richly the fine sarcasm of al-,ghazzali1 who asked the faqihs of his day what possible value for the next world could lie in a study of the ,qur'anic law of inheritance or the like4 ,tradition 7hadith71 in the exact sense of the sayings and doings of ,muhammad1 falls into the background1 and fiqh1 the systems built upon it by the generations of lawyers1 from the four masters down1 takes its place4 ,again1 the accusation of illogical reasoning is also thoroughly sound4 ,the habit of unending subdivision deprived the minds of the canonists of all breadth of scope1 and their devotion to the principle of acceptance on authority 7taqlid7 weakened their feeling for argument4 ,it is true1 further1 that the mystics1 such as they were1 had heired all the philosophy left in ,islam1 and were thus become the representatives of the intellectual life4 ,they had so much of an advantage over their more orthodox opponents4 ,but the intellectual life with them1 as with the earlier philosophers1 remained of a too subjective character4 ,the fatal study of the self1 and the self only--that tramping along the high a priori road--and neglect of the objective study of the outside world which ruined their forerunners1 was their ruin as well4 ,outbursts of intellectual energy and revolt we may meet with again and again2 there will be few signs of that science which seeks facts patiently in the laboratory1 the observatory1 and the dissecting-room4 ,sidenote3 ,,abd ,,ar-,,razzaq ,curiously enough1 there fall closely together at this time the death dates of two men of the most opposite schools4 ,the one was ,ibn ,taymiya1 the anthropomorphist free lance1 who died in #gbh1 and the other was ,abd ar-,razzaq1 the pantheistic ,sufi1 who died in #gcj4 ,abd ar-,razzaq of ,samarqand and ,kashan was a close student and follower of ,ibn ,arabi4 ,he commented on his books and defended his orthodoxy4 ,in fact1 so closely had ,ibn ,arabi come to be identified with the ,sufi position as a whole that a defence of him was a favorite form in which to cast a defence of ,sufiism generally4 ,but ,abd ar-,razzaq did not follow his master absolutely4 ,on the freedom of the will especially he left him4 ,for ,ibn ,arabi1 the doctrine of the oneness of all things had involved fatalism4 ,whatever happens is determined by the nature of things1 that is1 by the nature of ,god4 ,so the individuals are bound by the whole4 ,abd ar-,razzaq turned this round4 ,his pantheism was of the same type as that of ,ibn ,arabi2 ,god1 for him1 was all4 ,but there is freedom of the divine nature1 he went on4 ,it must therefore exist in man also1 for he is an emanation from the divine4 ,his every act1 it is true1 is predetermined1 in time1 in form1 and in place4 ,but his act is brought about by certain causes1 themselves predetermined4 ,these are what we would call natural laws in things1 natural abilities1 aptitudes1 etc41 in the agent2 finally1 free choice itself4 ,and that free choice is in man because he is of and from ,god4 ,further1 it is evident that ,abd ar-,razzaq's anxiety is to preserve a basis for morals4 ,among the predetermining causes he reckons the divine commands1 warnings1 proofs in the ,qur'an4 ,the guidance of religion finds thus its place and the prophets their work4 ,but what of the existence of evil and the necessity of restraint in a world that has emanated from the divine8 ,this problem he faces bravely4 ,our world must be the best of all possible worlds2 otherwise ,god would have made it better4 ,difference1 then1 among men and things belongs to its essence and necessity4 ,next1 justice must consist in accepting these different things and adapting them to their situations4 ,to try to make all things and men alike would be to leave some out of existence altogether4 ,that would be a great injustice4 ,here1 again1 religion enters4 ,its object is to rectify this difference in qualities and gifts4 ,men are not responsible for these1 but they are responsible if they do not labor to correct them4 ,in the hereafter all will be reabsorbed into the divine being and taste such bliss as the rank of each deserves4 ,for those who need it there will be a period of purgatorial chastisement1 but that will not be eternal1 in sha ,allah4 ,like his predecessors1 ,abd ar-,razzaq divides men into classes according to their insight into divine things4 ,the first is of men of the world1 who are ruled by the flesh 7nafs7 and who live careless of all religion4 ,the second is of men of reason 7aql74 ,they through the reason contemplate ,god1 but see only ,his external attributes4 ,the third is of men of the spirit 7ruh7 who1 in ecstasy1 see ,god face to face in ,his very essence1 which is the substrate of all creation4 ,in his cosmogony1 ,abd ar-,razzaq follows1 of course1 the neo-,platonic model and shows great ingenuity in weaving into it the crude and materialistic phrases and ideas of the ,qur'an4 ,like all ,muslim thinkers he displays an anxiety to square with his philosophy the terms dear to the multitude4 ,sidenote3 ,,ibn ,,taymiya ,to ,ibn ,taymiya all this was the very abomination of desolation itself4 ,he had no use for mystics1 philosophers1 ,ash#8arite theologians1 or1 in fact1 for anyone except himself4 ,a contemporary described him as a man most able and learned in many sciences1 but with a screw loose4 ,however it may have been about the last point1 there can be no question that he was the reviver for his time and the transmitter to our time of the genuine ,hanbalite tradition1 and that his work rendered possible the ,wahhabites and the ,brotherhood of as-,sanusi4 ,he was the champion of the religion of the multitude as opposed to that of the educated few with which we have been dealing so long4 ,this popular theology had been going steadily upon its way and producing its regular riots and disputings4 ,it is related of a certain ,ash#8arite doctor1 ,fakhr ad-,din ibn ,asakir 7d4 #fbj71 that1 in ,damascus1 he never dared to pass by a certain way through fear of ,hanbalite violence4 ,the same ,fakhr ad-,din once gave1 as in duty bound1 the normal salutation of the ,peace to a ,hanbalite theologian4 ,the ,hanbalite did not return it1 which was more than a breach of courtesy1 and indicated that he did not regard ,fakhr ad-,din as a ,muslim4 ,when people remonstrated with him1 he turned it as a theological jest and replied1 8,that man believes in #8,speech in the ,mind' 7kalam nafsi1 hadith fi-n-nafs71 so ,i returned his salutation mentally40 ,the point is a hit at the ,ash#8arites1 who contended that thought was a kind of speech without letters or sounds1 and that ,god's quality of ,speech could therefore be without letters or sounds4 ,but even the simple orthodoxy of the populace had not remained unchanged4 ,it had received a vast accretion of the most multifarious superstitions4 ,the cult of saints1 alive and dead1 of holy sites1 trees1 garments1 and the observance of all manner of days and seasons had been developing parallel to the advance of ,sufiism among the educated4 ,the walis were untiring in the recital of the karamat which ,god had worked for them1 and the populace drank in the wonders greedily4 ,the metaphysical and theological side they left untouched4 8,this is a holy man10 they said1 8who can work miracles2 we must fear and serve him40 ,and so they would do without much thought whether his morality might not be antinomian and his theology pantheistic4 ,to abate this and other evils and bring back the faith of the fathers was the task which ,ibn ,taymiya took up4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,mujtahid ,he was born near ,damascus in #ffa and educated as a ,hanbalite4 ,his family had been ,hanbalite for generations1 and he himself taught in that school and was reckoned as the greatest ,hanbalite of his time4 ,his position1 too1 was practically that of ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal1 modified by the necessities imposed by new controversaries4 ,thus he was an anthropomorphist1 but of what exact shade is obscure4 ,he was accused of teaching that ,god was above ,his throne1 could be pointed at1 and that ,he descended from ,his seat as a man might1 i4e41 that ,he was in space4 ,but he certainly distinguished himself from the crasser materialists4 ,he refused to be classed as the adherent of any school or of any system save that of ,muhammad and the agreement of the fathers4 ,he claimed for himself the rights of a mujtahid and went back to first sources and principles in everything4 ,his self-confidence was extreme1 and he smote down with proud words the ,rightly ,guided ,khalifas1 ,umar and ,ali1 themselves4 ,his bases were ,qur'an1 tradition from the ,prophet and from the ,companions and analogy4 ,agreement1 in the broad sense of the agreement of the ,muslim people1 he rejected4 ,if he had accepted it he would have been forced to accept innumerable superstitions1 beliefs1 and practices--especially the whole doctrine of the walis and their wonders--for their basis was agreement4 ,the agreement of the ,companions he did accept1 while convicting them right and left of error as individuals4 ,his life was filled up with persecutions and misfortune4 ,he was a popular idol1 and inquiries for his judgment on theological and canonical questions kept pouring in upon him4 ,if there was no inquiry1 and he felt that a situation called for an expression of opinion from him1 he did not hesitate to send it out with all formality4 ,it is true that it is the duty of every ,muslim1 so far as he can1 to do away or at least to denounce any illegality or unorthodox view or practice which he may observe4 ,this duty evidently weighed heavily on ,ibn ,taymiya1 and there was fear at one time at the ,mamluk court lest he might go the way of ,ibn ,tumart4 ,in one of these utterances he defined the doctrine of ,god's qualities as ,ibn ,hazm had done1 and joined thereto denunciations of the ,ash#8arite kalam and of the ,qur'anic exegesis of the mutakallims as a whole4 ,they were nothing but the heirs and scholars of philosophers1 idolaters1 ,magians1 etc42 and yet they dared to go beyond the ,prophet and his heirs and ,companions4 ,the consequence of this fatwa or legal opinion was that he was silenced for a time as a teacher4 ,on another occasion he gave out a fatwa on divorce1 pronouncing tahlil illegal4 ,tahlil is a device by which an awkward section in the canon law is evaded4 ,if a man divorces his wife three times1 or pronounces a threefold divorce formula1 he cannot remarry her until she has been married to another man1 has cohabited with him and been divorced by him4 ,muslim ideas of sexual purity are essentially different from ours1 and the custom has grown up1 when a man has thus divorced his wife in hasty anger1 of employing another to marry her on pledge of divorcing her again next day4 ,sometimes the man so employed refuses to carry out his contract2 such refusal is a frequent motif in oriental tales4 ,to avoid this1 the husband not infrequently employs one of his slaves and then presents him to his former wife the next day4 ,a slave can legally marry a free woman1 but when he becomes her property the marriage is ipso facto annulled1 because a slave cannot be the husband of his mistress or a slave woman the wife of her master4 ,it is to ,ibn ,taymiya's credit that he was one of the few to lift up their voices against this abomination4 ,his independence is shown at its best4 ,sidenote3 ,,controversy ,,with ,,sufis ,but it was with the ,sufis that he had his worst conflicts1 and at their hands he suffered most4 ,in many points his career is parallel to that of ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal1 the ,sufi movement taking the place that was played by ,mu#8tazilism in the life of the earlier saint4 ,one great difference1 it may be remarked1 was that al-,ma'mun urged the persecution of ,ibn ,hanbal1 while an-,nasir1 the great ,mamluk ,sultan 7reg4 #fic1 #fih-gjh1 #gji-gda71 supported ,ibn ,taymiya as far as he possibly could4 ,the beginning of the ,sufi controversy was characteristic4 ,ibn ,taymiya heard that a certain an-,nasr al-,manbiji 7d4 #gai871 a reputed follower of ,ibn ,arabi and of ,ibn ,sab#8in1 had reached a position of influence in ,cairo4 ,that was enough to make ,ibn ,taymiya address an epistle to him1 intended to turn him from his heresies4 ,it is needless to give in detail the position and content of the epistle4 ,he wrote as a strong monotheist of the old-fashioned type and exposed and assailed unmercifully the doctrine of ,unity 7ittihad7 of the mystics4 ,al-,manbiji retorted with countercharges of heresy1 and1 as he had behind him all the ,sufis of ,egypt--as great an army as the ,christian monks and ascetics or earlier ,egypt and much like to them--,ibn ,taymiya had to pay for his eagerness for a fight with long and painful imprisonment at ,cairo1 ,alexandria and ,damascus4 ,here it is evident that he had lost touch with the drift of popular1 and especially ,egyptian1 feeling4 ,but his fearlessness was like that of ,ibn ,hanbal himself1 and in #gbf he gave out a fatwa which ran still straighter in the teeth of the beliefs of the people and which sent him to a prison which he never left alive4 ,it had long been a custom in ,islam to make pious pilgrimage to the graves of saints and prophets and there to do reverence to their memory and to ask their aid4 ,it was part of that cult of saints which had so overspread and overcome the earlier simplicity of ,islam4 ,the most outstanding case in point was1 and is1 the pilgrimage to the tomb of ,muhammad at al-,madina1 which has come to be a more or less essential part of the ,hajj to the ,ka#8ba itself4 ,against all this ,ibn ,taymiya lifted a voice of emphatic protest4 ,these shrines were in great part false1 and when they were genuine the visitation of them was an idolatrous imitation of heathen practices4 ,equally idolatrous was all invoking of saints or prophets1 including ,muhammad himself2 to ,god alone should prayer be directed4 ,the clamor raised by this fatwa was tremendous4 ,this was no doctrine of the schools which he had touched1 but a bit of concrete religiosity which appealed to everyone4 ,his public life practically ended1 and the practices which he had denounced abide to this day4 ,it is a bitter satire on his position that when he died in #gbf the populace paid to his relics all these signs of superstitious reverence against which he had protested4 ,he became a saint1 malgr lui4 ,his work had been to keep alive the ,hanbalite doctrine and pass it on unchanged to modern times4 ,he did not destroy philosophy3 it was dead of itself before he came4 ,nor ,sufiism3 it is still very much alive4 ,nor kalam3 it still continues in the form to which it had crystallized by his time4 ,but he and his disciples made possible the ,wahhabites and the monotheistic revival of our day4 ,the faith of ,muhammad himself was not to perish entirely from the earth4 ,sidenote3 ,,ash-,,sha#8,,rani ,it would now be possible to pass at once to the ,wahhabite movement in the latter part of the twelfth century of the ,hijra4 ,all the elements for the explanation of it and of the modern situation are in our hands4 ,but there is one figure which stands out so clearly in an otherwise most obscure picture and is so significant for the time1 that some account must be taken of it4 ,it is that of ash-,sha#8rani1 theologian1 canonist1 and mystic4 ,he was a ,cairene and died in #igc4 ,the rule of ,egypt had passed half a century before to the ,ottoman ,turks1 and they governed by means of a ,turkish ,pasha4 ,the condition of the people1 as we find it sketched by ash-,sha#8rani1 was a most unhappy one4 ,they were bent down1 and especially the peasantry1 under a load of taxation4 ,the ,turks found it advisable1 too1 to cultivate the friendship of the canon lawyers and professional theologians in order to maintain their hold upon the people4 ,these canonists1 in consequence1 were rapidly becoming an official class with official privileges4 ,further1 the process1 the beginnings of which we have already seen1 by which religious science was narrowed to fiqh1 had gone still further4 ,practically1 the two classes of theologians left were the canonists and the mystics4 ,and the mystics had fallen far from their pride of power under the ,mamluks4 ,they now were of the poor of the land1 a kind of ,essenes over against the ,pharisees of the schools4 ,such1 at least1 is the picture of his time which ash-,sha#8rani gives4 ,how far it is exact must remain uncertain4 ,for1 of the many puzzling personalities in ,islam1 ash-,sha#8rani is perhaps for us the most unintelligible4 ,he combined the most abject superstitions of a superstitious age and country with lofty ethical indignation2 social humility of the most extreme with an intellectual pride and arrogance rarely paralleled1 a keen and original grasp of the canon law of the four schools with an utter submission of the intellect to the inbreathings of the divine from without2 a power of discreet silence as to the inconvenient with an open-mouthed vehemence in other things4 ,he was a devoted follower of ,ibn ,arabi and defended his memory against the accusation of heresy4 ,yet his position is singularly different from that of ,ibn ,arabi1 and a doubt cannot but rise as to either his knowledge1 his intelligence1 or his honesty4 ,practically where he differs from the ordinary ,muslim is in his extension of the doctrine of saints4 ,as to the ,most ,beautiful ,names 7al-asma al-husna71 he follows ,ibn ,hazm4 ,so1 too1 as to ,god's qualities1 he follows the older school and would prefer to leave them unconsidered4 ,but he is1 otherwise and in general1 a sound ,ash#8arite1 e4g41 on the doctrine of predestination1 and of man's part in his works 7iktisab74 ,there is in him no sign of the ,plotinian pantheism of ,ibn ,arabi4 ,the doctrine of ,god's difference 7mukhalafa7 he taught1 and that ,he created the world by ,his will and not by any emanation of energy4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,unseen ,,world ,but truth for him is not to be reached by speculation and argument3 its only basis is through the unveiling of the inner eye which brings us to the immediate ,vision of the ,divine4 ,those who have reached that ,vision1 guide and teach those who cannot or have not4 ,upon that ,vision all systems are built1 and reason can only serve the visionary as a defence against the gainsayer or against his own too wild thoughts4 ,naturally1 with such a starting-point as this the supernatural side of things 7al-ghayb7 receives strong emphasis4 ,the ,jinn and the angels are most intense realities4 ,ash-,sha#8rani met them in familiar converse4 ,he met1 too1 al-,khadir1 the undying pilgrim saint who wanders through the lands1 succoring and guiding4 ,the details of these interviews are given with the greatest exactness4 ,a ,jinni in the form of a dog ran into his house on such a day by such a door1 with a piece of ,european paper in his mouth--this is a touch of genius--on which certain theological questions were written4 ,the ,jinni wished ash-,sha#8rani's opinion as to them4 ,such was the origin of one of his books1 and another sprang from a similarly exactly described talk with al-,khadir4 ,yet he was content also with smaller mercies and reckons as a karama that he was enabled to read through a certain book for some time at the rate of two and a half times daily4 ,to all this it would be possible of course to say flatly that he lied4 ,but such a judgment applied to an oriental is somewhat crude1 and the knot of the mystic's mind in any land is not to be so easily cut4 ,further1 the doctrine of the walis is developed by him at length4 ,they possess a certain illumination 7ilham71 which is1 however1 different from the inspiration 7wahy7 of the prophets4 ,so1 too1 they never reach the grade of the prophets1 or a nearness to ,god where the requirements of a revealed law fall away from them1 i4e41 they must always walk according to the law of a prophet4 ,they are all guided by ,god1 whatever their particular ,rule 7tariqa7 may be1 but the ,rule of al-,junayd 7p4 #agf7 is the best because it is in most essential agreement with the ,law 7shari#8a7 of ,islam4 ,their karamat are true and are a consequence of their devout labors1 for these are in agreement with the ,qur'an and the ,sunna4 ,the order of nature will not be broken for anyone who has not achieved more than is usual in religious knowledge and exercises4 ,all walis stand under a regular hierarchy headed by the ,qutb2 yet above him in holiness stand the ,companions of the ,prophet4 ,this marks a very moderate position4 ,many ,sufis had contended that the walis stood higher than even the prophets1 not to speak of their ,companions4 ,it will be seen that his position is essentially a mediating one4 ,he wishes to show that the beliefs of the mystics and of the mutakallims are really one although they are reached by different paths4 ,in fiqh he made a similar attempt4 ,the ,sufis had always looked down on those theologians who were canonists pure and simple4 ,a study of canon law was a necessity1 they thought2 but as a propdeutic only4 ,the canonists who went no further never reached religion at all4 ,especially they held that no ,sufi should join himself to any of the four contending schools4 ,their controversies were upon insignificant details which had nothing to do with the life in ,god4 ,but could it not be shown that their differences were not actual--one view being true and the other false--but were capable of being reduced to a unity8 ,this was the problem that ash-,sha#8rani attacked4 ,these differing opinions1 he held1 are adapted to different classes of men4 ,some men of greater gifts and endurance can follow the hardest of these opinions1 while the easier are to be recognized as concessions 7rukhsa7 from ,god to the weakness of others4 ,each man may follow freely the view which appeals to him2 ,god has appointed it for him4 ,ash-,sha#8rani was one of the last original thinkers in ,islam3 for a thinker he was despite his dealings with the ,jinn and al-,khadir4 ,egypt keeps his memory4 ,a mosque in ,cairo bears his name1 as does also a division of the ,badawite darwishes4 ,in modern times his books have been frequently reprinted1 and his influence is one of the ferments in the new ,islam4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,wahhabites ,we must now pass over about two hundred years and come to the latter part of the twelfth century of the ,hijra1 a period nearly coinciding with the end of the eighteenth of our era4 ,there these two movements come again to light4 ,wahhabism1 the historical origin of which we have already seen 7p4 #fj71 is a branch of the school of ,ibn ,taymiya4 ,manuscripts of the works of ,ibn ,taymiya copied by the hand of ,ibn ,abd al-,wahhab exist in ,europe4 ,so the ,wahhabites refused to accept as binding the decisions of the four orthodox sects of canon law4 ,agreement as a source they also reject4 ,the whole ,people of ,muhammad can err and has erred4 ,only the agreement of the ,companions has binding force for them4 ,it is1 therefore1 the duty and right of every man to draw his own doctrine from the ,qur'an and the traditions2 the systems of the schools should have no weight with him4 ,again1 they take the anthropomorphisms of the ,qur'an in their literal sense4 ,god has a hand1 ,god settles ,himself on ,his throne2 so it must be held 8without inquiring how and without comparison40 ,they profess to be the only true ,muslims1 applying to themselves the term ,muwahhids and calling all others ,mushriks1 assigners of companions to ,god4 ,again1 like ,ibn ,taymiya1 they reject the intercession of walis with ,god4 ,it is allowable to ask of ,god for the sake of a saint but not to pray to the saint4 ,this applies also to ,muhammad4 ,pilgrimage to the tombs of saints1 the presenting of offerings there1 all acts of reverence1 they also forbid4 ,no regard should be paid even to the tomb of the ,prophet at al-,madina4 ,all such ceremonies are idolatrous4 ,whenever possible the ,wahhabites destroy and level the shrines of saints4 ,over other details1 such as the prohibition of the use of tobacco1 we need not spend time4 ,wahhabism as a political force is gone4 ,it has1 however1 left the ,sanusi revolt as its direct descendant and what may be the outcome of that ,brotherhood we have no means of guessing4 ,it has also left a general revival and reformation throughout the ,church of ,islam1 much parallel1 as has been remarked1 to the counter-reformation which followed the ,protestant ,reformation in ,europe4 ,sidenote3 ,,influence ,,of ,,al-,,ghazzali ,the second movement is the revival of the influence of al-,ghazzali4 ,that influence never became absolutely extinct and it seems to have remained especially strong in al-,yaman4 ,in that corner of the ,muslim world generations of ,sufis lived comparatively undisturbed1 and it was the ,sayyid ,murtada1 a native of ,zabid in ,tihama1 who by his great commentary on the ,ihya of al-,ghazzali practically founded the modern study of that book4 ,there have been two editions of this commentary in ten quarto volumes and many of the ,ihya itself and of other works by al-,ghazzali4 ,whether his readers understand him fully or not1 there can be no question of the wide influence which he is now exercising4 ,at ,mecca1 for example1 the orthodox theological teaching is practically ,ghazzalian and the controversy throughout all ,arabia is whether ,ibn ,taymiya and al-,ghazzali can be called ,shaykhs of ,islam4 ,the ,wahhabites hold that anyone who thus honors al-,ghazzali is an unbeliever1 and the ,meccans retort the same of the followers of ,ibn ,taymiya4 ,these two tendencies then--that back to the simple monotheism of ,muhammad and that to an agnostic mysticism--are the hopeful signs in modern ,islam4 ,there are many other drifts in which there is no such hope4 ,simple materialism under ,european1 mostly ,french1 influence is one4 ,a seeking of salvation in the study of canon law is another4 ,canon law is still the field to which an enormous proportion of ,muslim theologians turn4 ,again1 there are various forms of frankly pantheistic mysticism4 ,that is especially the case among ,persians and ,turks4 ,for the body of the people1 religion is still overburdened1 as in ,ibn ,taymiya's days1 with a mass of superstition4 ,lives of walis containing the wildest and most blasphemous stories abound and are eagerly read4 ,the books of ash-,sha#8rani are especially rich in such hagiology4 ,it is difficult for us to realize that stories like the most extravagant in the ,thousand and ,one ,nights are the simplest possibilities to the masses of ,islam4 ,the canon lawyers1 still1 in their discussions1 take account of the existence of ,jinn1 and no theologian would dare to doubt that ,solomon sealed them up in brass bottles4 ,of philosophy1 in the free and large sense1 there is no trace4 ,ibn ,rushd's reply to al-,ghazzali's 8,destruction of the ,philosophers0 has been printed1 but only as a pendant to that work4 ,in it1 too1 ,ibn ,rushd carefully covers his great heresies4 ,his tractates on the study of kalam1 spoken of above1 have also been reprinted at ,cairo from the ,european edition4 ,but these tractates are arranged to give no clew to his real philosophy4 ,the ,arabic ,aristotelianism has perished utterly from the ,muslim lands4 ,of the modern ,indian ,mu#8tazilism no account need be taken here4 ,it is derived from ,europe and is ordinary ,christian ,unitarianism1 connecting with ,muhammad instead of with ,jesus4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,the ,,future ,from the above sketch some necessary conditions are clear1 which must be fulfilled if there is to be a chance for a future development in ,islam4 ,education must be widely extended4 ,the proportion of trained minds must be greatly increased and the barrier between them and the commonalty removed4 ,the economy of teaching has failed2 it has destroyed the doctrine which it sought to protect4 ,again1 the slavery of the disciple to the master must cease4 ,it must always be possible for the student1 in defiance of taqlid1 to go back to first principles or to the primary facts and to disregard what the great ,imams and ,mujtahids have taught4 ,so much of health there was in the ,zahirite system4 ,third1 these primary facts must include the facts of natural science4 ,the student1 emancipated from the control of the schools1 must turn from the study of himself to an examination of the great world4 ,and that examination must not be cosmological but biological2 it must not lose itself in the infinities but find itself in concrete realities4 ,it must experiment and test rather than build lofty hypotheses4 ,but can the oriental mind thus deny itself8 ,the ,english educational experiment in ,egypt may go far to answer that question4 ,,appendices ,i4 ,,illustrative ,,documents ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,arabic4 ,,ii4 ,,selected ,,bibliography4 ,,iii4 ,,chronological ,,table4 ,,appendix ,i #a4 ,,ash-,,shahrastani ,,on ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,muslim ,,sects4 #b4 ,,two ,,traditions ,,from ,,muhammad ,,on ,,the ,,essentials ,,of ,,islam4 #c4 ,a ,,short ,,creed ,,by ,,al-,,ash#8,,ari4 #d4 ,a ,,short ,,creed ,,by ,,al-,,ghazzali4 #e4 ,a ,,short ,,creed ,,by ,,an-,,nasafi 7,,mataridite74 #f4 ,a ,,scholastic ,,exposition ,,of ,,the ,,fundamentals ,,of ,,theology4 #g4 ,,analysis ,,of ,a ,,treatise ,,in ,,canon ,,law4 ,notes have been added where such appeared called for1 but the index1 facilitating reference to the body of the book1 renders a full commentary unnecessary4 ,the student should use the index as a vocabulary of technical terms1 referring for their explanation to the passages where they occur4 ,i ,,ash-,,shahrastani ,,on ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,muslim ,,sects ,then ,i applied myself to what of arrangement was easy of attainment and to what of attainment was easy of arrangement1 until ,i had crowded them the different opinions into four fundamentals1 which are the great principles4 ,the first fundamental concerns the ,qualities 7sifat7 with the ,unity 7tawhid72 it embraces the question of the eternal 7azali7 ,qualities1 affirmed by some and denied by others1 and of the exposition of the essential ,qualities 7sifat adh-dhat7 and of the active ,qualities 7sifat al-fi#8l7 and of what is necessary in ,god ,most ,high and what is possible for ,him and what is impossible2 it involves the controversies between the ,ash#8arites and the ,karramites and the ,anthropomorphists 7mujassims7 and the ,mu#8tazilites4 ,the second fundamental concerns decree 7qadar7 and justice 7adl72 it embraces the question of destiny 7qada7 and decree 7qadar72 of force 7jabr7 and acquisition 7kasb72 of the willing of good and of evil and of the decreed and the known1 affirmed by some and denied by others2 it involves the controversies between the ,qadarites and ,najjarites and ,jabarites and ,ash#8arites and ,karramites4 ,the third fundamental concerns promise 7wa#8d7 and the decisions 7hukms72 it embraces the question of faith 7iman7 and repentance 7tawba7 and threatening 7wa#8id7 and postponing 7irja7 and pronouncing anyone an unbeliever 7takfir7 and leading anyone astray 7tadlil71 affirmed by some and denied by others2 it involves the controversies between the ,murji'ites and the ,wa#8idites and the ,mu#8tazilites and the ,ash#8arites and the ,karramites4 ,the fourth fundamental concerns tradition 7sam7 and reason 7aql7 and the prophetic mission 7risala7 and the imamate2 it embraces the questions of the determination of actions as good 7tahsin7 or vile 7taqbih72 of the advantageous 7salah7 and most advantageous 7aslah72 of benignity 7lutf72 of the prophets being guarded against sin 7isma72 of the condition of the imamate1 by statute 7nass7 according to some and by agreement 7ijma7 according to others1 and how it is transferred on the view of those who say it is by statute1 and how it is fixed on the view of those who say it is by agreement2 it involves the controversies between the ,shi#8ites and the ,kharijites and the ,mu#8tazilites and the ,karramites and the ,ash#8arites4--,translated from ,cureton's ,arabic text1 p4 #d4 ,,ii ,,the ,,prophet ,,in ,a ,,tradition 8,islam is built upon five things2 testimony that there is no god but ,god and that ,muhammad is the ,apostle of ,god4 ,prayer 7salat71 the ,poor-rate 7zakat71 ,pilgrimage 7hajj7 and ,fast 7sawm7 in ,ramadan40 ,a ,,tradition ,,of ,,the ,,prophet ,jibril came in the form of an ,arab of the desert and sat down so that his knees touched the knees of the ,prophet and said1 8,o ,apostle of ,god1 what is ,islam80 ,he said1 8,that thou should bear witness that there is no god save ,god and that ,i am the ,apostle of ,god2 that thou shouldest perform the prayers 7salat7 and bring the poor-rate 7zakat7 and fast in the month of ,ramadan and pilgrimage to the ,house if the way is possible for thee40 ,he said1 8,thou hast spoken truly40 ,then he said1 8,what is ,faith 7iman780 ,the ,prophet said1 8,that thou should believe in ,god and ,his angels and ,his books and ,his messengers and in the ,last ,day1 and that thou should believe in the decreeing 7qadar7 both of good and of evil40 ,he said1 8,thou hast spoken truly40 ,then he said1 8,what is right doing 7ihsan780 ,the ,prophet said1 8,that thou should serve ,god as though thou sawest ,him2 for though thou seest ,him not1 ,he sees thee40 ,he said1 8,thou hast spoken truly40 ,then he said1 8,when shall be the ,last ,day 7as-sa#8a780 ,the ,prophet said1 8,the questioned knoweth not more of that than the questioner40 ,then he arose and went out4 ,and the ,prophet said1 8,that was ,jibril2 he came to you to teach you your religion 7din740--,translated from ,cureton's text of ash-,shahrastani1 p4 #bg4 ,,iii ,a ,,short ,,creed ,,by ,,al-,,ash#8,,ari ,our doctrine which we teach and our religion 7diyana7 which we follow consists in clinging fast to the ,book of ,god and the ,usage 7sunna7 of ,his ,prophet and to that which is handed down from the ,companions1 their immediate followers 7tabi#8s7 and from the leaders 7imams7 in tradition--with that we take refuge2 and we teach that which ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal--may ,god illumine his face1 exalt his rank and make great his reward--followed2 and we shun that which is opposed to his doctrine4 ,for he is the excellent leader1 the perfect chief1 through whom ,god made plain the truth1 when error was made manifest1 and showed the path and smote down the innovations of the innovators1 the deviations of the deviators and the doubts of the doubters4 ,so1 the mercy of ,god be upon him for an appointed leader and an instructed chief1 and upon all the leaders of the ,muslims4 ,the sum of our doctrine is this1 that we believe in ,god1 ,his ,angels1 ,his ,books1 ,his ,apostles1 in all that has come from ,god1 and what trustworthy men 7thiqat7 have reported from the ,apostles of ,god2 we oppose nothing thereof4 ,that ,god is ,one ,god1 ,single1 ,one1 ,eternal2 beside ,him no ,god exists2 ,he has taken to ,himself no wife 7sahiba71 nor child 7walad72 and that ,muhammad is ,his ,servant 7abd7 and ,his ,apostle4 ,that ,paradise and ,hell are ,verity and that the ,hour 7as-sa#8a7 will come without doubt1 and ,god will arouse those that are in the graves4 ,that ,god has settled ,himself 7istawa7 upon ,his throne1 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #bj1 #d72 8the ,rahman has settled ,himself upon ,his throne40 ,that ,god has a countenance1 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #ee1 #bg72 8and the countenance of thy ,lord will abide1 full of majesty and glory20 and two hands1 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #e1 #fi72 8much more6 both ,his hands are spread out10 and 7,qur4 #ch1 #ge72 8that which ,i have created with both ,my hands20 and two eyes1 without asking how 7bila kayfa71 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #ed1 #ad72 8which swims forth under ,our eyes40 ,that whoever thinks that ,god's name is other than ,he1 is in error4 ,that ,god has ,knowledge 7ilm71 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #ce1 #ab72 8,not one woman becomes pregnant and brings forth1 except by ,his knowledge40 ,we maintain that ,god has ,power 7qudra71 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #da1 #ad72 8and have they not seen that ,god who created them is stronger than they80 ,we maintain that ,god has ,hearing 7sam7 and ,seeing 7basar7 and do not deny it1 as do the ,mu#8tazilites1 ,jahmites and ,kharijites4 ,we teach that ,god's ,word 7kalam7 is uncreated1 and that ,he has never created anything except by saying to it1 8,be60 and it forthwith became1 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #af1 #db72 8,our speech to anything when ,we willed it was1 #8,be' and it was40 ,nothing exists upon earth1 be it good or bad1 but that which ,god wills2 but all things are by ,god's ,will 7mashya74 ,no one is able to do anything before ,god does it1 neither is anyone independent of ,god1 nor can he withdraw himself from ,god's ,knowledge4 ,there is no ,creator but ,god4 ,the works 7amals7 of creatures are created and predestined by ,god1 as ,he said1 7,qur4 #cg1 #id72 8and ,god has created you and what ye do40 ,man is able to create nothing2 but they are created1 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #ce1 #ca72 8,is there any ,creator except ,god80 and 7,qur4 #af1 #ag7 8and is ,he who created like him who created not80 and 7,qur4 #eb1 #ce72 8were they created out of nothing1 or are they the creators80 and such passages are many in the ,qur'an4 ,and ,god maintains the believers in obedience to ,him1 is gracious unto them1 cares for them1 reforms them1 and guides them aright2 but the unbelievers ,he leads astray1 guides them not aright1 vouchsafes them not ,faith 7iman71 by ,his ,grace1 as the ,people of error and pride maintain4 ,for should ,he be gracious unto them and help them aright1 then would they be pious1 and should ,he guide them aright1 then would they allow themselves to be guided aright1 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #g1 #agg72 8whom ,god guideth aright1 he allows himself to be guided aright1 and whom ,he leads astray1 they are the losers40 ,god is able to help the unbelieving aright and to be gracious unto them1 so that they shall become believing1 but ,he wills that they shall be unbelieving as is known4 ,for ,he has made them impervious to all help and sealed their hearts4 ,good and ,evil happen according to the ,destiny 7qada7 and ,decree 7qadar7 of ,god for good and evil1 for the sweet and the bitter4 ,we know that the misfortune that befalls us is not in order that we may go astray1 and that the good fortune which befalls us is not in order that we may go aright4 ,we have no control over that which is good or hurtful to us1 except so far as ,god wills4 ,we flee from our anxieties to ,god and commit at all times our distress and poverty to ,him4 ,we teach that the ,qur'an is ,god's ,word1 and that it is uncreated1 and that whosoever says that it is created is an unbeliever 7kafir74 ,we believe that ,god at the ,day of ,resurrection 7yawm al-qiyama7 will be visible to the eyes1 as the moon is seen upon the night of the full moon2 the believers will see ,him1 according to traditions which have come down from the ,prophet4 ,we teach that while the believers will see ,him1 the unbelievers will be separated from ,him by a wall of division1 as ,god has said1 7,qur4 #hc1 #ae72 8,surely not6 ,they will be separated from their ,lord1 upon that ,day40 ,we teach that ,moses besought ,god that he might see ,him in this world2 then ,god revealed ,himself to the mountain and turned it into dust and taught ,moses thereby that he could not see ,him in this world 7,qur4 #g1 #aci74 ,we are of the opinion that we may not accuse anyone of unbelief 7kufr71 who prays towards ,mecca1 on account of sin committed by him1 such as unchastity1 theft1 wine drinking1 as the ,kharijites believe1 who judge that these thereby become unbelievers4 ,we teach that whoever commits a great sin 7kabira71 or anything like it1 holding it to be allowed1 is an unbeliever1 since he does not believe in its prohibition4 ,we teach that ,islam is a wider idea than ,faith 7iman71 so that not every ,islam is ,faith4 ,we believe that ,god turns the hearts upside down1 and holds them between two of ,his fingers1 that ,he lays the heavens upon a finger and the earth upon a finger1 according to the tradition from the ,prophet4 ,we believe that ,god will not leave in ,hell any of those who confess ,his ,unity 7muwahhid7 and hold fast to the ,faith1 and that there is no ,hell for him whom the ,prophet has by his witness appointed to ,paradise4 ,we hope for ,paradise for sinners and fear on their account1 that they will be punished in ,hell4 ,we teach that ,god will release a few out of ,hell1 on account of ,muhammad's intercession 7shafa#8a7 after they have been scorched there4 ,we believe in the punishment of the grave4 ,we believe that the ,tank 7hawd7 and the ,balance are ,verities3 that the ,bridge as-,sirat is a ,verity2 that the ,arousing 7ba#8th7 after death is a ,verity2 that ,god will set up ,his creatures in a place 7mawqif7 and will hold a reckoning with the ,believers4#a ,we believe that ,faith 7iman7 consists in word 7qawl7 and in work 7amal7 and that it increases and diminishes4 ,we trust in the sound ,traditions handed down from the ,apostle of ,god1 which trustworthy people 7thiqat71 just man from just man1 up to the ,apostle1 have transmitted4 ,we hold by the love of the early ,believers 7salaf71 whom ,god chose to be ,companions to the ,prophet1 and we praise them with the praise with which ,god praised them1 and we carry on their succession4 ,we assert that the ,imam succeeding the ,apostle of ,god was ,abu ,bakr2 that ,god through him made the ,religion 7din7 mighty1 and caused him to conquer the ,apostates 7murtadds74 ,the ,muslims made him their ,imam1 just as ,muhammad had made him ,imam at prayers4 ,then followed as legal ,imam ,umar ibn al-,khattab2 then ,uthman ibn ,affan2 his murderers killed him out of wickedness and enmity2 then ,ali ibn ,abi ,talib4 ,these are the ,imams after the ,apostle1 and their ,khalifate is that of the ,prophetic office i4e41 they are1 though not prophets1 successors of the ,prophet4 ,we bear witness of ,paradise for the ,ten 7al-asharatu-l-mubashshara71 to whom the ,apostle bore witness of it1 and we carry on the succession of the other ,companions of the ,prophet and hold ourselves far from that which was in dispute between them4 ,we hold that the four ,imams were in the true way1 were rightly guided and excellent1 so that no one equals them in excellence4 ,we hold as true the traditions which the ,people of ,tradition 7naql7 have established1 concerning the descent of ,god to the lowest heaven 7sama ad-dunya71 and that the ,lord will say1 8,is there a supplicant8 ,is there a seeker for forgiveness80 and the rest of that which they have handed down and established1 contrary to that which the mistaken and misled opine4 ,we ground ourselves in our opposition on the ,qur'an1 the ,sunna of the ,prophet1 the agreement of the ,muslims and what is in accordance therewith1 but put forth no novelty 7bid#8a7 not sanctioned by ,god1 and opine of ,god nothing that we have not been taught4 ,we teach that ,god will come on the ,day of ,resurrection1 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #hi1 #bc72 8,when the earth shall be turned to dust1 and the ,lord shall appear and the angels1 rank on rank10 and that ,god is near to ,his servants1 in what way 7kayfa7 ,he wills1 as ,he has said1 7,qur4 #ej1 #ae72 8and ,we are nearer to him than the artery in his neck20 and 7,qur4 #ec1 #h72 8,then ,he approached and came near and was two bows' length distant or even nearer40 ,to our ,religion 7din7 belongs further1 that we on ,fridays and on festival days pray behind every person1 pious and profane--so are the conditions for congregational prayers1 as it is handed down from ,abd ,allah ibn ,umar that he prayed behind al-,hajjaj4 ,to our ,religion belongs the wiping 7mash7 of the inner boots 7khuffs7 upon a journey and at home1 in contradiction to the deniers of this4#b ,we uphold the prayer for peace for the ,imams of the ,muslims1 submission to their office1 and maintain the error of those who hold it right to rise against them whenever there may be apparent in them a falling away from right4 ,we are against armed rebellion against them and civil war4 ,we believe in the appearance of anti-,christ 7ad-,dajjal7 according to the tradition handed down from the ,prophet2 in the punishment of the grave1 and in ,munkar and ,nakir and in their questions to the buried in their graves4 ,we hold the tradition of the journey to heaven 7mi#8raj1 ,qur4 #ag7 of ,muhammad as true1 and declare many of the visions in sleep to be true1 and we say that there is an explanation for them4 ,we uphold the alms for the dead of the ,muslims and prayer for them1 and believe that ,god will help them therewith4 ,we hold as true that there are enchanters in the world1 and that enchantment is and exists4 ,we hold as a religious duty the prayer which is held over the dead of those who have prayed toward ,mecca1 whether they have been believers or godless2 we uphold also their right of testation4 ,we acknowledge that ,paradise and ,hell are created1 and that whoever dies or is killed1 dies or is killed at his appointed time 7ajal72 that the articles of sustenance 7rizq7 from ,god1 with which ,he sustains ,his creatures1 are permitted 7halal7 and forbidden 7haram72#c that ,satan makes evil suggestions to men1 and puts them in doubt1 and causes them to be possessed1 contrary to that which the ,mu#8tazilites and the ,jahmites maintain1 as ,god said1 7,qur4 #b1 #bgf72 8,those who take usury will at the ,resurrection stand there like one whom ,satan causes to be possessed by madness10 and 7,qur4 #aad1 #d ff472 8,i take my refuge in ,god1 from the evil suggestion1 from the stealthy one who makes suggestions in the hearts of men1 by means of men and ,jinn40 ,we affirm that ,god may distinguish the pious by signs which ,he manifests through them4 ,our teaching concerning the little children of the polytheists 7mushriks7 is this1 that ,god will kindle a fire in the other world for them1 and will say1 8,run in there20--as the tradition says4#d ,we believe that ,god knows what men do and what they will to do1 what happens and how that which does not happen1 if it should happen1 would happen4 ,we believe in the obedience of the ,imams and in their counsel of the ,muslims4 ,we consider right the separation from every inciter to innovation 7bid#8a7 and the turning aside from the ,people of wandering desires 7ahl al-ahwa74--,translated from the ,arabic text in ,spitta's ,zur ,geschichte al-,as#8ari's1 pp4 #acc ff4 ,,iv ,a ,,short ,,creed ,,by ,,al-,,ghazzali ,an exposition of the ,creed of the ,people of the ,sunna on the two ,words of ,witnessing 7kalimata-sh-shabada7 which form one of the ,foundations of ,islam4 ,intended to be committed to memory by children4 ,it forms the first section of the second book of his ,ihya1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #ag-db of edit4 of ,cairo with commentary of the ,sayyid ,murtada4 ,we say--and in ,god is our trust--,praise belongeth unto ,god1 the ,beginner1 the ,bringer back1 the ,doer of what ,he willeth1 the ,lord of the ,glorious ,throne and of ,mighty ,grasp1 the ,guider of ,his chosen creatures to the right path and to the true way1 the ,granter of benefits to them after the witness to the ,unity 7tawhid7 by guarding their articles of belief from obscurities of doubt and opposition1 ,he that bringeth them to follow ,his ,apostle1 the ,chosen one 7al-,mustafa71 and to imitate the traces of his ,companions1 the most honored1 through ,his aid and right guidance revealed to them in ,his essence and ,his works by ,his beautiful qualities which none perceives1 save he who inclines his ear4 ,he is the witness who maketh known to them that ,he in ,his essence is ,one without any partner 7sharik74 ,single without any similar1 ,eternal without any opposite1 ,separate without any like4 ,he is ,one1 ,prior 7qadim7 with nothing before ,him1 from eternity 7azali7 without any beginning1 abiding in existence with none after ,him1 to eternity 7abadi7 without any end1 subsisting without ending1 abiding without termination4 ,he hath not ceased and ,he will not cease to be described with glorious epithets2 finishing and ending1 through the cutting off of the ages and the terminating of allotted times1 have no rule over ,him1 but ,he is the ,first and ,last1 the ,external and the ,internal1 and ,he knoweth everything4 ,we witness that ,he is not a body possessing form1 nor a substance possessing bounds and limits3 ,he does not resemble bodies1 either in limitation or in accepting division4 ,he is not a substance and substances do not exist in ,him2 and ,he is not an accident and accidents do not exist in ,him1 nay ,he does not resemble an entity1 and no entity resembles ,him2 nothing is like ,him and ,he is not like anything2 measure does not bound ,him and boundaries do not contain ,him2 the directions do not surround ,him and neither the earth nor the heavens are on different sides of ,him4 ,lo1 ,he is seated firmly upon ,his ,throne 7arsh71 after the manner which ,he has said1 and in the sense in which ,he willed a being seated firmly 7istiwa71 which is far removed from contact and fixity of location and being established and being enveloped and being removed4 ,the ,throne does not carry ,him1 but the ,throne and those that carry it are carried by the grace of ,his power and mastered by ,his grasp4 ,he is above the ,throne and the ,heavens and above everything unto the limit of the ,pleiades1 with an aboveness which does not bring ,him nearer to the ,throne and the ,heavens1 just as it does not make ,him further from the earth and the ,pleiades4 ,nay1 ,he is exalted by degrees from the ,throne and the ,heavens1 just as ,he is exalted by degrees from the earth and the ,pleiades2 and ,he1 in spite of that1 is near to every entity and is 8nearer to a creature than the artery of his neck0 7,qur4 #ej1 #ae71 and ,he witnesseth everything1 since ,his nearness does not resemble the nearness of bodies1 just as ,his essence does not resemble the essence of bodies4 ,he does not exist in anything1 just as nothing exists in ,him3 ,he has exalted ,himself far therefrom that a place should contain ,him1 just as ,he has sanctified ,himself far therefrom that time should limit ,him4 ,nay1 ,he was before ,he had created ,time and ,place and ,he is now above that which ,he was above1 and distinct from ,his creatures through ,his qualities4 ,there is not in ,his essence ,his equal1 nor in ,his equal ,his essence4 ,he is far removed from change of state or of place4 ,events have no place in ,him1 and mishaps do not befall him4 ,nay1 ,he does not cease1 through ,his glorious epithets1 to be far removed from changing1 and through ,his perfect qualities to be independent of perfecting increase4 ,the existence of ,his essence is known by reason2 ,his essence is seen with the eyes1 a benefit from ,him and a grace to the pious1 in the ,abiding ,abode and a completion in beatitude from ,him1 through gazing upon ,his gracious face4 ,we witness that ,he is living1 powerful1 commanding1 conquering2 inadequacy and weakness befall ,him not2 slumber seizes ,him not1 nor sleep4 ,passing away does not happen to ,him1 nor death4 ,he is ,lord of the ,worlds1 the ,visible and the ,invisible1 that of ,force and that of ,might2 ,he possesses ,rule and ,conquest and ,creation and ,command2 the heavens are rolled in ,his right hand and the created things are overcome in ,his grasp2 ,he is separate in creating and inventing2 ,he is one in bringing into existence and innovating2 ,he created the creation and their works and decreed their sustenance and their terms of life2 not a decreed thing escapes ,his grasp and the mutations of things are not distant from ,his power2 the things which ,he hath decreed cannot be reckoned and the things which ,he knoweth have no end4 ,we witness that ,he knoweth all the things that can be known1 comprehending that which happeneth from the bounds of the earths unto the topmost heavens2 no grain in the earth or the heavens is distant from ,his knowledge4 ,yea1 ,he knows the creeping of the black ant upon the rugged rock in a dark night1 and ,he perceives the movement of the mote in the midst of the air2 ,he knows the secret and the concealed and has knowledge of the suggestions of the minds and the movements of the thoughts and the concealed things of the inmost parts1 by a knowledge which is prior from eternity2 ,he has not ceased to be describable by it1 from the ages of the ages1 not by a knowledge which renews itself and arises in ,his essence by arrival and removal4 ,we witness that ,he is a ,willer of the things that are1 a ,director of the things that happen2 there does not come about in the world1 seen or unseen1 little or much1 small or great1 good or evil1 advantage or disadvantage1 faith or unbelief1 knowledge or ignorance1 success or loss1 increase or diminution1 obedience or rebellion1 except by ,his will4 ,what ,he wills is1 and what ,he wills not is not4 ,not a glance of one who looks1 or a slip of one who thinks is outside of ,his will3 ,he is the ,creator1 the ,bringer back1 the ,doer of that which ,he wills4 ,there is no opponent of ,his command and no repeater of ,his destiny and no refuge for a creature from disobeying ,him1 except by ,his help and ,his mercy1 and no strength to a creature to obey ,him except by ,his will4 ,even though mankind and the ,jinn and the ,angels and the ,shaytans were to unite to remove a single grain in the world or to bring it to rest without ,his will1 they would be too weak for that4 ,his will subsists in ,his essence as one of ,his qualities2 ,he hath not ceased to be described through it as a ,willer1 in ,his infinity1 of the existence of things at their appointed times which ,he hath decreed4 ,so they come into existence at their appointed times even as ,he has willed in ,his infinity without precedence or sequence4 ,they happen according to the agreement of ,his knowledge and ,his will1 without exchange or change in planning of things1 nor with arranging of thoughts or awaiting of time1 and therefore one thing does not distract ,him from another4 ,and we witness that ,he is a ,hearer and a ,seer4 ,he hears and sees1 and no audible thing is distant from ,his hearing1 and no visible thing is far from ,his seeing1 however fine it may be4 ,distance does not curtain off ,his hearing and darkness does not dull ,his seeing2 ,he sees without eyeball or eyelid1 and hears without earholes or ears1 just as ,he knows without a brain and seizes without a limb and creates without an instrument1 since ,his qualities do not resemble the qualities of created things1 just as ,his essence does not resemble the essences of created things4 ,and we witness that ,he speaks1 commanding1 forbidding1 praising1 threatening1 with a speech from all eternity1 prior1 subsisting in ,his essence not resembling the speech of created things4 ,it is not a sound which originates through the slipping out of air1 or striking of bodies2 nor is it a letter which is separated off by closing down a lip or moving a tongue4 ,and the ,qur'an and the ,tawrat the ,law of ,moses and the ,injil the ,gospel and the ,zabbur the ,psalms are ,his book revealed to ,his ,apostles4 ,and the ,qur'an is repeated by tongues1 written in copies1 preserved in hearts3 yet it1 in spite of that1 is prior1 subsisting in the essence of ,god1 not subject to division and separation through being transferred to hearts and leaves4 ,and ,musa heard the speech of ,god without a sound and without a letter1 just as the pious see the essence of ,god1 in the other world1 without a substance or an attribute4 ,and since ,he has those qualities1 ,he is ,living1 ,knowing1 ,powerful1 a ,willer1 a ,hearer1 a ,seer1 a ,speaker1 through ,life1 ,power1 ,knowledge1 ,will1 ,hearing1 ,seeing1 ,speech1 not by a thing separated from ,his essence4 ,we witness that there is no entity besides ,him1 except what is originated from ,his action and proceeds from ,his justice1 after the most beautiful and perfect and complete and just of ways4 ,he is wise in ,his actions1 just in ,his determinations2 there is no analogy between ,his justice and the justice of creatures1 since tyranny is conceivable in the case of a creature1 when he deals with the property of some other than himself1 but tyranny is not conceivable in the case of ,god4 ,for ,he never encounters any property in another besides ,himself1 so that ,his dealing with it might be tyranny4 ,everything besides ,him1 consisting of men and ,jinn and ,angels and ,shaytans and the heavens and the earth and animals and plants and inanimate things and substance and attribute and things perceived and things felt1 is an originated thing1 which ,he created by ,his power1 before any other had created it1 after it had not existed1 and which ,he invented after that it had not been a thing1 since ,he in eternity was an entity by ,himself1 and there was not along with ,him any other than ,he4 ,so ,he originated the creation thereafter1 by way of manifestation of ,his power1 and verification of that which had preceded of ,his ,will1 and of that which existed in eternity of ,his ,word2 not because ,he had any lack of it or need of it4 ,and ,he is gracious in creating and in making for the first times and in imposing of duty--not of necessity--and ,he is generous in benefiting2 and well-doing and gracious helping belong to ,him1 since ,he is able to bring upon ,his creatures different kinds of punishment and to test them with different varieties of pains and ailments4 ,and if ,he did that1 it would be justice on ,his part1 and would not be a vile action or tyranny in ,him4 ,he rewardeth ,his believing creatures for their acts of obedience by a decision which is of generosity and of promise and not of right and of obligation1 since no particular action toward anyone is incumbent upon ,him1 and tyranny is inconceivable in ,him1 and no one possesses a right against ,him4 ,and ,his right to acts of obedience is binding upon the creatures because ,he has made it binding through the tongues of ,his prophets1 not by reason alone4 ,but ,he sent apostles and manifested their truth by plain miracles1 and they brought ,his commands and forbiddings and promisings and threatenings4 ,so1 belief in them as to what they have brought is incumbent upon the creation4 ,,the ,,second ,,word ,,of ,,witnessing is witnessing that the apostolate belongs to the apostle1 and that ,god sent the unlettered ,qurayshite prophet1 ,muhammad1 with his apostolate to the totality of ,arabs and foreigners and ,jinn and men4 ,and ,he abrogated by his law the other laws1 except so much of them as ,he confirmed2 and made him excellent over the rest of the prophets and made him the ,lord of ,mankind and declared incomplete the ,faith that consists in witnessing the ,unity1 which is saying1 8,there is no god except ,god10 so long as there is not joined to that a witnessing to the ,apostle1 which is saying1 8,muhammad is the ,apostle of ,god40 ,and ,he made obligatory upon the creation belief in him1 as to all which he narrated concerning the things of this world and the next4 ,and that ,he would not accept the faith of a creature1 so long as he did not believe in that which the ,prophet narrated concerning things after death4 ,the first of that is the question of ,munkar and ,nakir2 these are two awful and terrible beings who will cause the creature to sit up in his grave1 complete1 both soul and body2 and they will ask him1 8,who is thy ,lord1 and what is thy religion 7din71 and who is thy ,prophet80 ,they are the two testers in the grave and their questioning is the first testing after death4 ,and that he should believe in the punishment of the grave--that it is a ,verity and that its judgment upon the body and the soul is just1 according to what ,god wills4 ,and that he should believe in the ,balance--it with the two scales and the tongue1 the magnitude of which is like unto the stages of the heavens and the earth4 ,in it1 deeds are weighed by the power of ,god ,most ,high2 and its weights in that day will be of the weight of motes and mustard seeds1 to show the exactitude of its justice4 ,the leaves of the good deeds will be placed in a beautiful form in the scale of light2 and then the ,balance will be weighed down by them according to the measure of their degree with ,god1 by the grace of ,god4 ,and the leaves of evil deeds will be cast in a vile form into the scale of darkness1 and the ,balance will be light with them1 through the justice of ,god4 ,and that he should believe that the ,bridge 7as-sirat7 is a ,verity2 it is a bridge stretched over the back of ,hell 7jahannam71 sharper than a sword and finer than a hair4 ,the feet of the unbelievers slip upon it1 by the decree of ,god1 and fall with them into the ,fire4 ,but the feet of believers stand firm upon it1 by the grace of ,god1 and so they pass into the ,abiding ,abode4 ,and that he should believe in the ,tank 7hawd71 to which the people shall go down1 the ,tank of ,muhammad from which the believers shall drink before entering the ,garden and after passing the ,bridge4 ,whoever drinks of it a single draught will never thirst again thereafter4 ,its breadth is a journey of a month2 its water is whiter than milk and sweeter than honey2 around it are ewers in numbers like the stars of heaven2 into it flow two canals from al-,kawthar 7,qur4 #ajh74 ,and that he should believe in the ,reckoning and in the distinctions between men in it1 him with whom it will go hard in the ,reckoning and him to whom compassion will be shown therein1 and him who enters the ,garden without any reckoning1--these are the honored 7muqarrab74 ,god ,most ,high will ask whomsoever ,he will of the prophets1 concerning the carrying of ,his message1 and whomsoever ,he will of the unbelievers1 concerning the rejection of the messengers2 and ,he will ask the innovators 7mubtadi#8s7 concerning the ,sunna2 and the ,muslims concerning works4 ,and that he should believe that the attestors of ,god's ,unity 7muwahhids7 will be brought forth from the ,fire1 after vengeance has been taken on them1 so that there will not remain in ,hell an attestor of ,god's ,unity4 ,and that he should believe in the intercession 7shafa#8a7 of the prophets1 next of the learned 7ulama71 next of the martyrs1 next of the rest of the believers--each according to his dignity and rank with ,god ,most ,high4 ,and he who remains of the believers1 and has no intercessor1 shall be brought forth of the grace of ,god1 whose are ,might and ,majesty4 ,so there shall not abide eternally in the ,fire a single believer1 but whoever has in his heart the weight of a single grain of faith shall be brought forth therefrom4 ,and that he should confess the excellence of the ,companions--,may ,god be well pleased with them6--and their rank2 and that the most excellent of mankind1 after the ,prophet1 is ,abu ,bakr1 next ,umar1 next ,uthman1 next ,ali--,may ,god be well pleased with them6 ,and that he should think well of all the ,companions and should praise them like as he praises ,god1 whose are ,might and ,majesty1 and ,his ,apostles4 ,all this is of that which has been handed down in traditions from the ,prophet and in narratives from the followers4 ,he who confesses all this1 relying upon it1 is of the ,people of the ,truth and the ,company of the ,sunna1 and hath separated himself from the band of error and the sect of innovation 7bid#8a74 ,so we ask from ,god perfection of certainty and firm standing in the ,faith 7din7 for us and for all ,muslims through ,his compassion4--lo6 ,he is the ,most ,compassionate6--and may the blessing of ,god be upon our ,lord ,muhammad and upon every chosen creature4 ,v ,,articles ,,of ,,belief ,,of ,,najm ,,ad-,,din ,,abu ,,hafs ,,an-,,nasafi ,a ,mataridite who d4 ,a4,h4 #ecg4 ,this creed is still used as a text-book in schools4 ,it is translated from ,cureton's edition 7,london1 #ahdc7 with the assistance of at-,taftazani's commentary 7,constantinople1 ,a4,h4 #acaj74 ,the asterisks mark the points on which al-,mataridi differed from al-,ash#8ari4 ,in the name of ,god1 the merciful ,compassionator4 ,the ,shaykh1 the ,imam1 ,najm ad-,din ,abu ,hafs ,umar ibn ,muhammad ibn ,ahmad an-,nasafi--may ,god have mercy upon him6--said2--,the ,people of ,verity1 contradicting the ,sceptics ,sufistiqiya1 i4e41 ,sophists say that the real natures of things are validly established and that the science of them is certain4 ,further1 that the sources of knowledge for mankind are three3 the sound ,senses1 true ,narration 7khabar71 and ,reason 7aql74 ,as for the ,senses1 they are five3 ,hearing1 ,sight1 ,smell1 ,taste and ,touch1 and by each sense you are informed concerning that for which it is appointed4 ,true ,narration1 again1 is of two kinds4 ,the one is ,narration handed down along a large number of lines of tradition 7mutawatir72 that is1 it is established by the tongues of a number of people of whom we cannot imagine that they would agree in a lie4 ,it compels a knowledge which is of necessity 7daruri71 such as the knowledge of departed kings in past times and of distant countries4 ,and the second is ,narration by the ,apostle 7rasul7 aided by miracle i4e41 ,muhammad1 and it compels deduced knowledge 7istidlali71 and the knowledge established by it resembles in certainty and fixity the knowledge established by necessity4 ,then as for ,reason1 it is a cause of knowledge also2 and whatever is established by intuition 7badaha7 is of necessity1 as the knowledge that everything is greater than its parts2 and whatever is established by inference is acquired knowledge 7iktisabi71 as the existence of fire from the appearance of smoke4 ,and the ,inner ,light 7ilham7 with the ,people of ,verity is not one of the causes of knowledge as to the soundness of anything4#e ,further1 the world in the totality of its parts is a thing originated 7muhdath71 in that it consists of ,substances 7ayns7 and ,attributes 7arads74 ,the ,substances are what exist in themselves1 and a substance is either a compound1 that is a body 7jism71 or not compounded like an essence 7jawhar71 namely a division that is not further divided4 ,and the attributes are what do not exist in themselves but have a dependent existence in bodies or essences1 such as colors1 tastes1 conditions 7kawns71 odors4 ,the ,originator 7,muhdith7 of the world is ,god ,most ,high1 the ,one1 the ,eternal1 the ,decreeing1 the ,knowing1 the ,hearing1 the ,seeing1 the ,willing4 ,he is not an attribute1 nor a body1 nor an essence1 nor a thing formed1 nor a thing bounded1 nor a thing numbered1 nor a thing divided1 nor a thing compounded1 nor a thing limited2 and ,he is not described by quiddity 7mahiya71 nor by modality 7kayfiya71 and ,he does not exist in place or time1 and there is nothing that resembles ,him and nothing that is outwith ,his knowledge and power4 ,he has qualities 7sifat7 from all eternity 7azali7 existing in ,his essence4 ,they are not ,he nor are they any other than ,he4 ,they are ,knowledge and ,power and ,life and ,strength and ,hearing and ,seeing and ,doing and ,creating and ,sustaining and ,speech 7kalam74 ,and ,he1 whose ,majesty is majestic1 speaks with a ,word 7kalam74 ,this ,word is a quality from all eternity1 not belonging to the genus of letters and sounds1 a quality that is incompatible with coming to silence and that has no weakness4 ,god ,most ,high speaks with this ,word1 commanding and prohibiting and narrating4 ,and the ,qur'an is the uncreated ,word of ,god1 repeated by our tongues1 heard by our ears1 written in our copies1 preserved in our hearts1 yet not simply a transient state 7hal7 in these i4e41 the tongues1 ears1 etc44 ,and ,creating 7takwin7 is a quality of ,god ,most ,high from all eternity1 and it is the ,creating of the world and of every one of its parts at the time of its becoming existent1 and this quality of ,creating is not the thing created1 according to our opinion499 ,and ,willing is a quality of ,god ,most ,high from all eternity1 existing in ,his essence4 ,and that there is a ,vision 7ru'ya7 of ,god ,most ,high is allowed by reason and certified by tradition 7naql74 ,a proof on authority has come down with the affirmation that believers have a ,vision of ,god ,most ,high in ,paradise and that ,he is seen1 not in a place or in a direction or by facing or the joining of glances or the placing of a distance between him who sees and ,god ,most ,high4 ,and ,god ,most ,high is the ,creator of all actions of ,his creatures1 whether of unbelief or belief1 of obedience or of rebellion2 all of them are by the will of ,god and ,his sentence and ,his conclusion and ,his decreeing4 ,and to ,his creatures belong actions of choice 7ikhtiyar7199 for which they are rewarded or punished1 and the good in these is by the good pleasure of ,god 7rida7 and the vile in them is not by ,his good pleasure499 ,and the ability to do the action 7istita#8a7 goes along with the action and is the essence of the power 7qudra7 by which the action takes place1 and this word 8ability0 means the soundness of the causes and instruments and limbs4 ,and the validity of the imposition of the task 7taklif7 is based upon this ability199 and the creature has not a task imposed upon him that is not in his power4 ,and the pain which is found in one who is beaten as a consequence of being beaten by any man1 and the state of being broken in glass as a consequence of its being broken by any man1 and such things1 all that is created by ,god ,most ,high1 and the creature has no part in its creation and a slain man is dead because his appointed time 7ajal7 has come2 and death exists in a slain man and is created by ,god ,most ,high1 and the appointed time is one4#f ,and that which is forbidden 7haram7 is still ,sustenance 7rizq71 and each one receives his own ,sustenance whether it consists of permitted or of forbidden things2 and let no one imagine that a man shall not eat his ,sustenance or that another than he shall eat his ,sustenance4 ,and ,god leadeth astray whom ,he wills and guideth aright whom ,he wills1 and it is not incumbent upon ,god ,most ,high to do that which may be best 7aslah7 for the creature4 ,the punishment of the grave for unbelievers and for some rebellious ones of the believers1 and the bliss of the obedient in the grave1 and the questioning by ,munkar and ,nakir are established by proofs of authority4 ,and the ,quickening of the ,dead 7ba#8th7 is a ,verity1 and the ,weighing is a ,verity1 and the ,book is a ,verity and the ,tank 7hawd7 is a ,verity1 and the ,bridge1 as-,sirat1 is a ,verity1 and the ,garden is a ,verity1 and the ,fire is a ,verity1 and they are both created1 existing1 continuing2 they shall not pass away and their people shall not pass away4 ,a great sin 7kabira7 does not exclude the creature who believes from the ,belief 7iman7 and does not make him an unbeliever4 ,and ,god does not forgive him who joins another with ,himself1 but ,he forgives anything beneath that to whom ,he wills1 of sins small 7saghira7 or great4 ,and there may be punishment for a small and pardon for a great one1 if it be not of the nature of considering lawful what is forbidden1 for that is unbelief 7kufr74 ,and the intercession 7shafa#8a7 of the ,apostles and of the excellent on behalf of those who commit great sins is established4 ,and those believers who commit great sins do not remain eternally in the ,fire although they die without repentance4 ,belief 7iman7 is assent 7tasdiq7 to that which comes from ,god and confession 7iqrar7 of it4 ,then1 as for ,works 7amal71 they are acts of obedience and gradually increase of themselves1 but ,belief does not increase and does not diminish4 ,and ,belief and al-,islam are one499 ,and whenever assent and confession are found in a creature1 it is right that he should say1 8,i am a believer in truth40 ,and it is not fitting that he should say1 8,i am a believer if ,god will4099 ,the happy one sometimes becomes miserable and the miserable one sometimes becomes happy199 and the changing is in happiness and misery1 and not in making happy and making miserable3 for those are both qualities of ,god ,most ,high1 and there is no changing in ,him nor in ,his qualities4 ,and in the sending of ,apostles 7rasuls7 is an advantage and ,god has sent ,apostles of flesh unto flesh with good tidings1 warning and explaining to men the things of the world and of faith1 of which they have need4 ,and ,he has aided them with miracles 7mu#8jizat7 which break the order of nature4 ,the first of the ,prophets 7nabis7 was ,adam and the last is ,muhammad1 ,upon both of them be ,peace6 ,a statement of their number has been handed down in several traditions1 but the more fitting course is that there should be no limiting to a number in naming them2 ,god ,most ,high has said1 8,of them are those concerning whom ,we have recited to thee1 and of them are those concerning whom ,we have not recited to thee40 ,and there is no security in a statement of number against there being entered among them some that are not of them1 or of there being excluded from them some that are of them4 ,they all give intelligence concerning ,god ,most ,high1 are veracious and sincere1 and the most excellent of the ,prophets is ,muhammad--,upon him be ,peace6 ,the ,angels are servants of ,god and work according to ,his commands4 ,they are not described as masculine or feminine4 ,and ,god has books which ,he has revealed to ,his ,prophets1 and in them are ,his commands and ,his promises4 ,the ,night ,journey 7mi#8raj7 of the ,apostle of ,god--,upon whom be ,blessing and ,peace6 while awake1 in the body1 to ,heaven1 then to what place ,god ,most ,high willed of the ,exalted ,regions1 is a ,verity4 ,the ,wonders 7karamat7 of the ,saints 7walis7 are a ,verity4 ,and a ,wonder on the part of a ,saint appears by way of a contradiction of the ordinary course of nature1 such as passing over a great distance in a short time1 and the appearing of meat and drink and clothing at a time of need1 and walking upon the water and in the air1 and the speech of stones and of beasts1 and the warding off of an evil that is approaching1 and the guarding of him who is anxious from enemies1 and other things of the same kind4 ,and such a thing is to be reckoned as an evidentiary miracle 7mu#8jiza7 on behalf of the ,apostle followed by the ,saint on whose part the wonder appears4 ,for it is evident by it that he is a ,saint and he could never be a ,saint unless he were right in his religion and worship and in abiding by the message committed to his ,apostle4 ,the most excellent of mankind after the ,prophets are ,abu ,bakr1 the ,very ,veracious 7as-,siddiq71 then ,umar1 the ,divider 7al-,faruq71 then ,uthman1 he of the ,two ,lights 7,dhu-n-,nurayn71 then ,ali--,the good-will of ,god be upon them6 ,their ,khalifates were in this order1 and the ,khalifate extended to thirty years2 then1 thereafter1 came kings and princes4 ,the ,muslims cannot do without a leader 7,imam7 who shall occupy himself with the enforcing of their decisions1 and in maintaining their boundaries and guarding their frontiers1 and equipping their armies1 and receiving their alms1 and putting down robberies and thieving and highwaymen1 and maintaining the ,friday services and the ,festivals1 and removing quarrels that fall between creatures1 and receiving evidence bearing on legal claims1 and marrying minors1 male and female1 and those who have no guardians1 and dividing booty4 ,and it is necessary that the leader should be visible1 not hidden and expected to appear 7muntazar71 and that he should be of the tribe of ,quraysh and not of any other4 ,and he is not assigned exclusively to the sons of ,hashim nor to the children of ,ali4 ,and it is not a condition that he should be protected by ,god from sin 7isma71 nor that he should be the most excellent of the people of his time1 but it is a condition that he should have administrative ability1 should be a good governor and be able to carry out decrees and to guard the restrictive ordinances 7hadds7 of ,islam and to protect the wronged against him who wrongs him4 ,and he is not to be deposed from the leadership on account of immorality or tyranny4 ,prayer is allowable behind anyone whether pure or a sinner4 ,and we give the salutation of ,peace to the pure and to the sinner4 ,and we abstain from the mention of the ,companions 7sahibs7 of the ,prophet except with good4 ,and we bear witness that ,paradise is for the ten to whom the ,prophet--,god bless him and give him ,peace6--gave good tidings of ,paradise 7al-asharatu-l-mubashshara74 ,and we approve the wiping 7mash7 of the inner-shoes 7khuffs7 both at home and when on a journey4 ,and we do not regard nabidh as forbidden4 ,and the ,saint does not reach the level of the ,prophets4 ,and the creature does not come to a point where commands and prohibitions and the details of the statutes in their outward sense 7zahir7 fall away from him2 and the turning aside from these to the views which the ,people of the ,inner ,meaning 7batin7 assert is a deviation 7ilhad7 through unbelief4 ,and feeling safe from ,god is unbelief4 ,and despairing of ,god is unbelief4 ,and rejection of the statutes and contempt for the law is unbelief4 ,and believing a diviner 7kahin7 in what he tells of the ,unseen 7ghayb7 is unbelief4 ,and what does not exist 7ma#8dum7 is known of ,god ,most ,high just as what exists 7mawjud7 is known of ,him and it i4e41 what does not exist is neither a thing 7shay7 nor an object of vision 7mar'an74 ,and in prayer of the living for the dead1 and in alms offered for them there is an advantage to them4 ,and ,god ,most ,high answers prayers and supplies needs4 ,and what the ,prophet has reported of the conditions of the last day 7as-sa#8a71 of the appearance of ad-,dajjal and of the beast of the earth cf4 ,revelations xiii1 #aa ff4 and of ,yajuj and ,majuj and the descent of ,isa from heaven and the rising of the sun in the west1 that is verity4 ,and the ,mujtahids sometimes err and sometimes hit the mark4 ,and the ,apostles of mankind are more excellent than the ,apostles of the angels2 and the ,apostles of the angels are more excellent than the generality of mankind2 and the generality of mankind of the true believers is more excellent than the generality of the angels4 ,,vi ,,the ,,creed ,,called ,,the ,,sufficiency ,,of ,,the ,,commonalty ,,in ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,scholastic ,,theology1 ,,by ,,muhammad ,,al-,,fudali ,d4 ,,first ,,half ,,of ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,century ,,of ,,the ,,hijra ,translated from the ,arabic text of ,cairo1 ,a4,h4 #acae1 with the commentary of al-,bayjuri4 ,in the name of ,god1 the merciful ,compassionator4 ,praise belongeth unto ,god who alone bringeth into existence1 and blessing and peace be upon our ,lord ,muhammad1 his family and companions1 possessors of beauty and guidance4 ,to proceed3 ,the creature who stands in need of the mercy of his exalted ,lord1 ,muhammad ibn ash-,shafi#8i al-,fudali says3 ,one of the brethren asked me that ,i should compose a tractate on the divine unity 7tawhid71 and ,i agreed to that1 following the example of the most learned ,shaykh1 as-,sanusi1 d4 #hie1 in the establishing of proofs1 except that ,i adduced each proof 7dalil7 in connection with the doctrine that was to be proved1 and added to it an exposition on account of my knowledge of the limitations of that student4 ,so1 in the ascription of praise to ,god ,most ,high1 it became a tractate1 useful and excellent for the establishing of that which is in it4 ,and ,i called it1 ,,the ,,sufficiency ,,of ,,the ,,people ,,in ,,that ,,which ,,is ,,necessary ,,to ,,them ,,of ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,scholastic ,,theology 7kalam74 ,and ,i pray ,god ,most ,high that ,he will make it useful1 for ,he is my sufficiency1 and excellent is the ,guardian4 ,know that it is incumbent upon every ,muslim that he should know fifty articles of belief 7aqidas71 and for each article that he should know a proof1 general 7ijmali7 or detailed 7tafsili74 ,some say that it is required that he should know a detailed proof1 but the common opinion is that a general proof suffices for each article of the fifty4 ,an example of a detailed proof is when someone says1 8,what is the proof of the existence 7wujud7 of ,god80 that the answer should be1 8,these created things40 ,that the asker should then say1 8,do the created things prove the existence of ,god on the side of their possibility or on the side of their existence after non-existence 7adam780 and that his question should be answered4 ,and if the further question is not answered1 but the only answer is1 8,these created things10 and the answerer does not know whether it is on the side of their possibility or of their existence after non-existence1 then the proof is said to be general2 but it is sufficient according to the common position4 ,and with regard to taqlid 7blind acceptance71 which is that fifty articles are known but no proof of them is known1 either general or detailed1 the learned differ4 ,some say that it does not suffice1 and that the mukallad 7blind accepter7 is an unbeliever 7kafir74 ,ibn al-,arabi d4 #edc held this and as-,sanusi1 and the latter gave in his commentary on his kubra a lengthy refutation of those who hold that taqlid is sufficient4 ,yet there is a report that he retired from this position1 and acknowledged the sufficiency of taqlid2 but ,i have never seen in his books anything but the opinion that it does not suffice4 ,,introduction ,know that an understanding of the fifty following articles must be based upon three things--the necessary 7wajib71 the impossible 7mustahil71 and the possible 7ja'iz74 ,the necessary is that the non-existence of which cannot be apprehended by the intellect 7aql71 that is1 the intellect cannot affirm its non-existence1 as boundary to a body 7jirm71 i4e41 its taking up a certain measure of space 7faragh74 ,an example of a body is a tree or a stone4 ,then1 whenever a person says to you1 that a tree1 for example1 does not take up room 7mahall7 in the earth1 your intellect cannot affirm that1 for its taking up room is a necessary thing1 the absence of which your intellect cannot affirm4 ,the impossible is that the existence of which cannot be apprehended2 that is1 the intellect cannot affirm its existence4 ,then1 whenever anyone says that such a body is bare of motion and rest at the same time1 your intellect cannot affirm that1 because being bare of motion and rest at the same time is an impossibility1 the occurrence and existence of which the intellect cannot affirm1 and whenever it is said that weakness 7ajz7 is impossible in ,god1 the meaning is that the occurrence or existence of weakness in ,god is unthinkable4 ,so1 too1 with the other impossibilities4 ,and the possible is that the existence of which at one time1 and the non-existence at another1 the intellect can affirm1 as the existence of a child of ,zayd's4 ,when1 then1 someone says that ,zayd has a child1 your intellect acknowledges the possibility of the truth of that2 and whenever he says that ,zayd has no child1 your intellect acknowledges the possibility of the truth of that4 ,so the existence and the non-existence of a child of ,zayd is possible2 the intellect can believe in its existence or in its non-existence4 ,and whenever it is said that ,god's sustaining ,zayd with a dinar is a possibility1 the meaning is that the intellect assents to the existence of that sustaining 7rizq7 at one time and to its non-existence at another4 ,on these three distinctions1 then1 is based the science of the articles of belief2 and these three are necessary for every mukallaf one who has a task imposed upon him2 in this case of religious duty1 male and female1 for that upon which the necessary is based is necessary4 ,the ,imam al-,haramayn 7d4 #dgh7 even held that an understanding of these three constituted reason itself and that he who did not know the meaning of necessary1 impossible and possible1 was not a reasoning being4 ,so1 whenever it is said here that ,power is necessary 7wajib7 in ,god1 the meaning is that the intellect cannot affirm its non-existence1 because the necessary is that the non-existence of which the intellect cannot affirm1 as has preceded4 ,but necessary 7wajib1 incumbent7 in the sense of that the not doing of which is punished1 is an idea which does not enter into the science of the divine ,unity4 ,so1 do not let the matter be confused for you4 ,it is true that if one says that belief in the ,power of ,god is incumbent 7wajib7 on the mukallaf1 the meaning is that he is rewarded for that and punished for omitting that4 ,thus there is a distinction between saying that belief in such and such is incumbent and that the knowledge1 for example1 is necessary4 ,for when it is said that knowledge is necessary in ,god1 the meaning is that the intellect cannot affirm the non-existence of knowledge in ,god4 ,but when it is said that belief in that knowledge is incumbent1 the meaning is that belief in it is rewarded and lack of belief punished4 ,so1 apply thyself to the distinction between the two and be not of those who regard taqlid in the articles of ,religion as right1 that so your faith 7iman7 should differ from the truth and you should abide in the ,fire1 according to those who hold that taqlid does not suffice4 ,as-,sanusi said1 8,a person is not a ,believer when he says1 #8,i hold by the ,articles and will not abandon them though ,i be cut in pieces2' nay1 he is not a ,believer until he knows each ,article of the fifty1 along with its proof40 ,and this science of theology must be studied first of all sciences1 as may be gathered from the commentary by at-,taftazani1 d4 #gia on as-,sanusi's ,articles2 for he made this science a foundation on which other things are built4 ,so a judgment as to anyone's ceremonial ablution 7wudu7 or prayer is not valid unless the person in question knows these articles or1 on the other hand1 holds them without proof4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now1 let us state to you the fifty articles shortly1 before stating them in detail4 ,know1 then1 that twenty qualities are necessary in ,god ,most ,high1 that twenty are impossible in ,him and that one is possible4 ,this makes up forty-one4 ,and in the case of the ,apostles1 four qualities are necessary1 four impossible and one possible4 ,this makes up the fifty4 ,and there shall come an accurate account of doctrines along with the statement of them1 if it be the will of ,god ,most ,high4 ,the first of the qualities necessary in ,god is existence 7wujud72 and there is a difference of opinion as to its meaning4 ,all except the ,imam al-,ash#8ari and his followers hold that existence is the state 7hal7 necessary to the essence so long as the essence abides2 and this state has no cause 7illa74 ,and the meaning of it being a state is that it does not attain to the degree of an entity 7mawjud7 and does not fall to the degree of a non-entity 7ma#8dum71 so that it should be non-existence pure1 but is half way between an entity and a non-entity4 ,so the existence of ,zayd1 for example1 is a state necessary to his essence2 that is1 it cannot be separated from his essence4 ,and when it is said that it has no cause1 the meaning is that it does not originate in anything1 as opposed to ,zayd's potentiality 7qadir1 powerful71 for example1 which originates in his power 7qudra74 ,so ,zayd's potentiality and his existence are two states which subsist in his essence1 unperceived by any of the five senses2 only1 the first has a cause in which it originates1 and it is power1 and the second has no cause4 ,this is the description of a personal state 7hal nafsi7 and every state subsisting in an essence1 without a cause1 is a personal quality 7sifa nafsiya74 ,it is that without which the essence is unthinkable2 that is1 the essence cannot be apprehended by the intellect and comprehended except through its personal quality1 like limitation for a body4 ,for1 if you apprehend and comprehend a body1 you have comprehended that it is limited4 ,so1 according to this doctrine--that existence is a state--the essence of ,god is not ,his existence and the essences of the created things are not their existences4 ,but al-,ash#8ari and his followers hold that existence is the self 7ayn7 of an entity1 and according to their view the existence of ,god is the self of ,his essence and not an addition to it externally1 and the existence of a created thing is the self of its essence4 ,and1 on this view1 it is not clear how existence can be reckoned as a quality1 because existence is the self of the essence1 and a quality1 on the other hand1 as we have seen already1 is something else than the essence4 ,but if he makes existence a quality1 then the thing is plain and the meaning that existence is necessary in ,god1 according to the first view1 is that the personal quality is a state established in ,god2 and its meaning1 on the second view1 is that the essence of ,god is an entity with external reality1 so that if the veil were removed from us we would see it4 ,the essence of ,god1 then1 is a reality2 only1 its existence is something else than it1 on the one view1 and is it1 on the other4 ,and the proof of the existence of ,god is the origin 7huduth7 of the world2 that is1 its existence after non-existence4 ,the world consists of bodies 7jirms7 like essences2 and accidents 7arads7 like motion1 and rest and colors4 ,and the origin of the world is a proof of the existence of ,god only because it is not sound reasoning that it should originate through itself without someone bringing it into existence4 ,before it existed1 its existence equalled its non-existence2 then1 when it entered existence and its non-existence ceased1 we know that its existence overbalanced its non-existence4 ,but this existence had previously equalled the non-existence2 and it is not sound reasoning that it could overbalance the non-existence through itself2 so that it is clear that there must have been one who caused the overbalancing1 other than itself1 and it is ,he that brought it into existence2 for it is impossible that one of two equal things could overbalance the other without an overbalancer4 ,for example1 before ,zayd exists it is possible that he may come into existence in such and such a year and also that he may remain in non-existence4 ,so1 his existence is equal to his non-existence4 ,so1 then1 when he exists and his non-existence ceases1 in the time in which he exists1 we know that his existence is by a bringer-into-existence and not through himself4 ,the proof1 in short1 is that you say3--,the world1 consisting of bodies and accidents1 is a thing originated 7hadith71 i4e41 an entity after non-existence4 ,and every originated thing cannot help but have an originator 7muhdith74 ,therefore1 the world must have had an originator4 ,this is what can be gained by an intellectual proof4 ,but as for the ,originator being named by the ,glorious and ,lofty ,expression i4e41 ,allah1 ,god or the other ,names 7asma71 knowledge of that is to be gained from the ,prophets only4 ,so note this point carefully and also the proof which has preceded1 that the originating of the world is a proof of the existence of ,him ,most ,high4 ,but as for the proof that the world has had an origin1 know that the world consists of bodies and accidents only1 as has preceded4 ,and the accidents1 like motion and rest1 are originated1 because you observe their changing from existence to non-existence and from non-existence to existence4 ,you see it is so in the motion of ,zayd4 ,his motion is lacking if he is at rest2 and his rest is lacking if he is in motion4 ,then his rest1 which comes after his motion1 exists after that it has been lacking through motion2 and his motion1 which comes after his rest1 exists after that it has been lacking through his rest4 ,and existence after non-existence means having an origin4 ,and bodies are inseparable from attributes1 because they are never free from either motion or rest4 ,and whatever is inseparable from a thing having origin must have origin2 i4e41 must be an entity after non-existence4 ,so1 the bodies are originated also1 like the attributes4 ,the proof1 in short1 is that you say3 ,bodies are inseparable from attributes and these have an origin2 everything that is inseparable from that which has an origin1 itself has an origin2 therefore1 bodies have an origin4 ,and the origin of the two things--bodies and attributes--that is their existence after non-existence1 is a proof of the existence of ,him ,most ,high1 because everything having an origin must have an originator1 and there is no originator of the world save ,god ,most ,high alone1 who has no partner 7sharik7 as shall be shown in the proof of ,his ,unity4 ,this1 then1 is the general proof1 a knowledge of which is incumbent upon every mukallaf1 male and female1 according to the opinion of ,ibn al-,arabi and as-,sanusi1 who hold those who do not know it to be unbelievers4 ,so1 beware lest there be a contradiction in your faith4 ,the second ,quality necessary in ,god is ,priority 7qidam72 its meaning is lack of beginning4 ,and the meaning of ,god's being ,prior 7qadim7 is that there was no beginning to ,his existence1 as opposed to ,zayd1 for example4 ,zayd's existence had a beginning and it was the creation from the drop from which he was created4 ,and there is a difference of opinion whether ,prior and ,azali 7eternal with respect to past time7 mean the same or not4 ,those who hold that they mean the same1 define them as that which has no beginning1 and explain 8that which0 by thing 7shay74 ,that is1 prior and azali are the thing which has no beginning2 so the essence of ,god and ,his qualities are included4 ,and those who hold that their meaning is different define prior as the entity which had no beginning and azali as that which had no beginning1 covering thus both entity and non-entity4 ,so azali is broader than prior1 but they both come together in the essence of ,god and ,his existential qualities4 ,the essence of ,god is azali and ,his ,power 7qudra7 is azali4 ,but only azali is said of the states 7hals7 like ,god's being powerful1 in accordance with the doctrine of the states4 ,for ,god's being powerful is called azali1 in accordance with that doctrine1 and is not called prior1 because in prior there must be existence1 and 8being powerful0 does not rise to the level of existence to being an entity1 but is only a state 7hal74 ,and the proof of ,god's ,priority is that if ,he were not ,prior ,he would be a thing originated 7hadith71 because there is no medium between the prior and the thing originated2 to everything of which priority is denied1 origin belongs4 ,but if ,god were a thing originated1 ,he would need an originator1 and ,his originator would need an originator1 and so on4 ,then1 if the originators did not coincide1 there would be the ,endless ,chain 7tasalsul71 that is a sequence of things1 one after another to infinity2 and the ,endless ,chain is impossible4 ,and if the series of originators comes to an end by it being said that the originator of ,god was originated by ,him1 then we have the ,circle 7dawr7 and it is that one thing depends on another thing which again depends on the first4 ,for if ,god had an originator1 ,he would depend on this originator2 but the hypothesis is that ,god originated this originator and so the originator depends on ,him4 ,but the ,circle is impossible2 that is1 its existence is unthinkable4 ,and that which leads to the ,circle and to the ,chain1 both being impossible1 involves the originating of ,god4 ,so1 the originating of ,god is impossible2 for what involves an impossibility is impossible4 ,the proof1 in short1 is that you say1 8,if ,god were other than ,prior1 through being a thing originated1 ,he would have need of an originator4 ,then the ,circle or the ,chain would be unavoidable2 but they are both impossible4 ,so1 the originating of ,god is impossible and ,his ,priority is established2 and that is what has been sought40 ,this is the general proof of the ,priority of ,god1 and by it the mukallaf escapes from the noose of taqlid1 the remainer in which will abide eternally in the ,fire1 according to the opinion of ,ibn al-,arabi and as-,sanusi1 as has preceded4 ,the third ,quality necessary in ,god is ,continuance 7baqa74 ,the meaning of it is lack of termination of the existence2 and the meaning of ,god's being continuing is that there is no end to ,his existence4 ,and the proof of ,god's continuance is that if it were possible that any lack could be joined to ,him1 then ,he would be a thing originated and would need an originator and then the ,circle or the ,chain would necessarily follow4 ,a definition of each one of these two has preceded in the proof of ,priority and in the explanation that to a thing with which non-existence is possible1 priority must be denied4 ,for the existence of everyone to whom non-existence is joined is possible1 and everything whose existence is possible is a thing originated1 and everything originated requires an originator4 ,but ,priority has been established for ,god by the preceding proof1 and non-existence is impossible for everything for which ,priority has been established4 ,so the proof of ,continuance in ,god is the same as the proof of ,priority4 ,that proof1 in short1 is that you say1 8,if ,continuance is not necessary in ,him1 then ,priority must be negated of ,him4 ,but ,priority cannot be negated on account of the preceding proof40 ,this is the general proof of ,continuance1 a knowledge of which is incumbent on every individual4 ,and similarly a knowledge of every article is necessary and of its general proof4 ,then1 if some of the articles are known with their proofs1 and the rest are not known with their proofs1 that is not sufficient according to the opinion of those who do not regard taqlid as sufficient4 ,the fourth ,quality necessary in ,god is difference 7mukhalafa7 from originated things4 ,that is1 from created things 7makhluqat71 for ,god is different from every created thing1 men1 ,jinn1 angels and the rest2 and it is not good that ,he should be described with the descriptions which apply to created things1 as walking1 sitting1 having members of the body1 for ,he is far removed 7munazzah7 from members of the body1 as mouth1 eye1 ear and the like4 ,then1 from everything that is in your mind of length and breadth and shortness and fatness1 ,god is different2 ,he has removed ,himself far from all descriptions which apply to the creation4 ,and the proof of the necessity of this difference in ,god is that if any originated thing resembled ,him1 that is1 if it were laid down that ,god could be described with any of the things with which an originated thing is described1 then ,he would be an originated thing4 ,and if ,god were an originated thing1 then ,he would need an originator1 and ,his originator1 another originator1 and so we would come necessarily to the circle or the chain1 and both of these are impossible4 ,this proof1 in short1 is that you say1 8,if ,god resembles a created thing in anything1 ,he is an originated thing1 because what is possible in one of two things resembling each other1 is possible in the other4 ,but that ,god should be originated is impossible1 for priority is necessary in ,him4 ,and when being originated is denied in ,him1 ,his difference from created things stands fast and there is absolutely no resemblance between ,him and the originated things40 ,this is the general proof1 the knowledge of which is necessary1 as has preceded4 ,the fifth ,quality necessary in ,god is self-subsistence 7qiyam bin-nafs74 ,that is in the essence2 and its meaning is that there is independence of a locus 7mahall1 subject7 and a specifier 7mukhassis74 ,the locus is the essence and the specifier is the bringer-into-existence 7mujid72 then the meaning of ,god's subsisting in ,himself is that ,he is independent of an essence in which ,he may subsist1 or of a bringer-into-existence2 for ,he is the bringer-into-existence of all things4 ,the proof that ,he subsists in ,himself is that you say1 8,if ,god had need of a locus1 that is an essence1 in which ,he might subsist1 as whiteness has need of an essence in which it may subsist1 ,he would be a quality1 as whiteness1 for example1 is a quality4 ,but it is not sound to say of ,him that ,he is a quality1 for ,he is described by qualities1 and a quality is not described by qualities1 so ,he is not a quality4 ,and if ,he had need of a bringer-into-existence1 ,he would be an originated thing1 and ,his originator would be an originated thing also1 and the ,circle or the ,chain would necessarily follow4 ,then it stands fast that ,he is the absolutely independent1 that is1 ,he is independent of everything4 ,but the created thing that is independent is independent in a limited sense only2 that is1 of one thing in place of another4 ,and may ,god rule thy guidance40 ,the sixth ,quality in ,god is ,unity 7wahdaniya74 ,it is unity in essence and qualities and acts in the sense of absence of multiplicity4 ,and the meaning of ,god's being one in ,his essence is that ,his essence is not compounded of parts1 and this compounding is called internal quantity 7kamm muttasil74 ,and in the sense that there is not in existence or in possibility an essence which resembles the essence of ,god1 this impossibility of resemblance is called external quantity 7kamm munfasil74 ,the unity1 then1 in the essence denies both quantities1 external and internal4 ,and the meaning of ,god's ,oneness in qualities is that ,he has not two qualities agreeing in name and meaning1 like two ,powers1 or two ,knowledges or two ,wills--for ,he has only one ,power and one ,will and one ,knowledge1 in opposition to ,abu ,sahl1 who held that ,he had knowledges to the number of the things known4 ,and this1 ,i mean multiplicity in qualities1 is called internal quantity in qualities4 ,or the sense is1 that no one has a quality resembling a quality of ,god4 ,and this1 ,i mean anyone possessing a quality1 etc41 is called external quantity in qualities4 ,oneness1 then1 in qualities1 negates quantity in them1 internal and external4 ,and the meaning of ,god's ,oneness in acts is that no created thing possesses an act1 for ,god is the creator of the acts of created things1 prophets1 angels and the rest4 ,and as for what happens when an individual dies or falls into pain on opposing himself to a saint 7wali71 that is by the creation of ,god1 who creates it when the saint is angry with the man who opposes him4 ,do not then explain ,oneness in acts by saying that no other than ,god has an act like ,god's act1 for that involves that some other than ,god has an act1 but that it is not like the act of ,god4 ,that is false4 ,god it is who is the creator of all acts4 ,what comes from you by way of movement of the hand1 when you strike ,zayd1 for example1 is by the creation of ,god4 ,he has said 7,qur4 #cg1 #ii71 8,god created you1 and what do ye do80 ,and another than ,god being possessor of an act is called external quantity in acts4 ,so the unity necessary in ,god denies the five impossible quantities4 ,internal quantity in the essence makes the essence a compound of parts2 external quantity means that there is an essence which resembles it4 ,internal quantity in the qualities is that ,god has two ,powers1 for example2 external quantity in them means that someone else has a quality which resembles one of ,his qualities4 ,external quantity in acts means that some other than ,god possesses an act4 ,these five quantities deny the unity necessary in ,god4 ,the meaning of quantity is number 7adad74 ,the proof that ,unity is necessary in ,god is the existence of the world4 ,if ,god had a partner 7sharik7 in divinity 7uluhiya71 the case could not be in doubt4 ,either they would agree on the existence of the world1 in that one of them would say1 8,i will cause the world to exist10 and the other would say1 8,i will cause it to exist along with thee1 that we may help one another in it40 ,or they would disagree1 and one of them would say1 8,i will cause the world to exist by my power10 and the other1 8,i will that the existence be lacking40 ,then1 if they agreed upon the existence of the world in that both of them together caused it to exist1 and it existed through their action1 that would necessarily involve the coincidence of two impressors upon one impression1 which is impossible4 ,and if they disagreed1 it is plain that the will of one either would be carried out or it would not be carried out4 ,if the will of one1 rather than the other1 is carried out1 then the other whose will is not carried out must be weaker4 ,but our hypothesis was that he was equal in divinity to the one whose will was carried out4 ,so whenever weakness is established in the case of the one1 it is established in the case of the other1 for he is like the other4 ,and if the wills of both are not carried out1 they are both weak4 ,and upon every alternative1 that they agree or differ1 the existence of a single thing of the world is impossible2 because if they agree on its existence1 there necessarily follows the coincidence of two impressors upon one impression if their will is carried out1 and that is impossible4 ,so the carrying out of their will is not affected1 and it is not possible that a single thing of the world should come into existence then4 ,and if they disagree and the will of one of them is carried out1 the other is weak4 ,but he is his like4 ,so it is not possible that there should come into existence a single thing of this world1 for he is weak4 ,so the ,god is not except one4 ,and if they differ and their will is not carried out1 they are weak and not able to cause the existence of a thing of the world4 ,but the world exists1 by common witness 7mushahada74 ,so it stands fast that the ,god is one2 and that was what was sought4 ,so the existence of the world is proof of the ,unity of ,god and that ,he has no partner in any act1 and no second cause in an action4 ,he is the independent 7al-,ghani71 the absolutely independent4 ,and from this proof it may be known that there is no impression1 by fire or a knife or eating1 upon anything1 consisting of burning or cutting or satiety1 but ,god makes the being burnt in a thing which fire touches1 when it touches it1 and being cut in a thing with which a knife is brought into contact1 when it is brought into contact with it1 and satiety at eating and satisfaction at drinking4 ,and he who holds that fire burns by its nature 7tab71 and water satisfies by its nature1 and so on1 is an unbeliever 7kafir7 by agreement 7ijma74 ,and he who holds that it burns by a power 7quwa7 created in it by ,god1 is ignorant and corrupt1 because he knows not the true nature 7haqiqa7 of ,unity4 ,this is the general proof a knowledge of which is incumbent upon every individual1 male and female3 and he who knows it not is an unbeliever1 according to as-,sanusi and al-,arabi4 ,and may ,god rule thy guidance4 ,and ,priority and ,continuance and ,difference from originated things and ,self-,subsistence and ,unity are negative qualities 7sifat salabiya71 that is1 their meaning is negation and exclusion1 for each of them excludes from ,god what does not beseem ,him4 ,the seventh ,quality necessary in ,god is ,power 7qudra74 ,it is a quality which makes an impression on a thing that is capable of existence or non-existence4 ,so it comes into connection 7ta#8allaqa7 with a non-entity and makes it an entity1 as it came into connection with you before you existed4 ,and it comes into connection with an entity and reduces it to a non-entity1 as it comes into contact with a body which ,god desires should become a non-entity1 that is1 a not-thing 7la shay74 ,this connection is called accomplished 7tanjizi7 in the sense that it is actual 7bil-fi#8l71 and this accomplished connection is a thing that takes place 7hadith74 ,but this quality has also an eternal1 potential connection 7saluhi qadim71 and it is its potentiality from eternity of bringing into existence4 ,it is potential in eternity to make ,zayd tall or short or broad1 or give him knowledge2 but its accomplished connection is conditioned by the state in which ,zayd is4 ,so it has two connections2 one eternal1 potential1 which has been described1 and one accomplished1 happening4 ,the last is its connection with a non-entity1 when it makes it an entity2 and with an entity1 when it makes it a non-entity4 ,and this1 ,i mean its connection with an entity or a non-entity1 is a real 7haqiqi7 connection4 ,but it has also a figurative 7majazi7 connection4 ,that is1 its connection with an entity after it has become so and before it has become a non-entity1 as it is connected with us after we have come to exist and before we have ceased to exist4 ,it is called the connection of grasping 7ta#8alluqu-l-qabdati7 in the sense that the entity is in the grasp 7qabda7 of the ,power of ,god4 ,if ,god will1 ,he makes it remain an entity2 and if ,he will1 ,he reduces it to non-entity4 ,and its connection with the non-entity before that ,god wills its existence is like its connection with ,zayd at the time of the ,flood 7tufan71 for example2 it also is a connection of grasping in the sense that the non-entity is in the grasp of the ,power of ,god4 ,if ,god wills1 ,he makes it remain in non-existence1 and if ,he wills1 ,he brings it out into existence4 ,and similar is its connection with us after our death and before the resurrection 7ba#8th74 ,it1 too1 is called a connection of grasping in the sense of what has preceded4 ,so the quality of ,power has seven connections3 7#a7 eternal1 7#b7 connection of grasping 7that is1 its connection with us before ,god wills our existence71 7#c7 actual connection 7that is1 ,god's bringing the thing into existence71 7#d7 connection of grasping 7that is1 connection with a thing after existence and before ,god has willed non-existence71 7#e7 actual connection 7that is1 ,god's making a thing a non-entity71 7#f7 connection of grasping after non-existence and before the resurrection1 7#g7 actual connection 7that is1 ,god's making us exist on the day of resurrection74 ,but the real connections of these are two2 ,god's bringing into existence and bringing into non-existence4 ,this is a detailed statement2 and a general statement would be that ,god's ,power has two connections--as is commonly accepted--a potential and an accomplished2 but the accomplished is limited to actual bringing into existence and non-existence4 ,and the connection of grasping is not to be described as accomplished1 nor as eternal4 ,and what has preceded about this quality connecting with existence and non-existence is the opinion of the multitude on the subject4 ,but some hold that it does not connect with non-existence2 that whenever ,god desires the non-existence of an individual1 ,he takes away from him the aids 7imdadat7 which are the cause of his continuance4 ,the eighth ,quality necessary in ,god is ,will 7irada74 ,it is the quality which specifies the possible with one of the things possible to it4 ,for example1 tallness and shortness are possible to ,zayd2 then ,will specifies him with one1--tallness1 say4 ,power brings tallness out of non-existence into existence4 ,so ,will specifies and ,power brings out4 ,and the possibilities 7mumkinat7 with which ,power and ,will connect are six3 7#a7 existence1 7#b7 non-existence1 7#c7 qualities1 like tallness and shortness1 7#d7 times1 7#e7 places1 7#f7 directions4 ,and the possibilities are called 8the mutual opposers0 7mutaqabilat71 existence opposes non-existence and tallness opposes shortness and direction upward opposes direction downward1 and one place1 like ,egypt1 opposes another place1 like ,syria4 ,and this1 in short1 means that it is possible in the case of ,zayd1 for example1 that he should remain in non-existence and also that he should enter existence at this time4 ,then1 whenever he enters existence1 ,will has specified existence instead of non-existence1 and ,power has brought out existence4 ,and it would have been possible that he might have entered existence at the time of the ,flood 7tufan7 or at some other time2 so that which specifies his existence at this time instead of any other is ,will4 ,and it is possible that he should be tall or short2 then that which specifies his tallness instead of shortness is ,will4 ,and it is possible that he should be in the direction upward1 then that which specifies him in the direction downward is ,will4 ,and ,power and ,will are two qualities subsisting in ,god's essence--two entities2 if the veil were removed from us we could see them4 ,they have connection with the possible only2 but none with the impossible1 such as a partner for ,god4 ,he is far removed from that6 ,nor with the necessary1 like the essence of ,god and ,his qualities4 ,ignorance is the saying of those who hold that ,god has power to take a son 7walad72 for ,power has no connection with the impossible and taking a son is impossible4 ,but it should not be said that because ,he has no power to take a son1 ,he is therefore weak4 ,we say that weakness would follow only if the impossible were of that which is allotted to ,power4 ,but ,power has not been connected with that1 seeing that nothing is allotted to it except the possible4 ,and ,will has two connections1 one eternally potential1 and it is its potentiality to specify from all eternity4 ,so1 in the case of the tall or the short ,zayd1 it is possible that he might be otherwise than what he is1 so far as relationship to the potentiality of ,will is concerned4 ,for ,will is potential that ,zayd should be a ,sultan or a scavenger1 so far as the potential connection is concerned4 ,and ,will has also an eternal accomplished connection1 and it is the specifying by ,god of a thing with a quality which it possesses4 ,so ,god specified ,zayd from all eternity by ,his ,will with the knowledge that he possesses4 ,and his being specified with knowledge1 for example1 is eternal and is called an eternal accomplished connection4 ,and the potentiality of ,will to specify him with knowledge1 etc41 in relationship to the essence of ,will1 cutting off all consideration of actual specifying1 is called an eternal potential connection4 ,and some say that ,will has also a temporal1 accomplished connection4 ,it is1 for example1 the specifying of ,zayd with tallness1 when he is actually brought into existence4 ,according to this view1 ,will has three connections2 but the truth is that this third is not a connection but is the making manifest of the eternal1 accomplished connection4 ,and the connection of ,power and ,will is common to every possible thing to the extent that the affections of the mind 7khatarat7 which arise in the mind of an individual are specified by the ,will of ,god and created by ,his ,power as the ,shaykh al-,malawi ,ahmad al-,malawi1 d4 #aaha has said in some of his books4 ,but know that the attributing of specifying to ,will and of bringing out into existence to ,power is only metaphorical2 for the true specifier is ,god by ,his ,will and the true producer and bringer-into-existence is ,god by ,his ,power4 ,then1 in the case of the saying of the common people that ,power does such and such to so and so1 if it is meant that the doing belongs to ,power actually1 or to it and to the essence of ,god1 that is unbelief 7kufr74 ,rather1 the doing belongs to the essence of ,god by ,his ,power4 ,the ninth ,quality necessary in ,god is ,knowledge 7ilm74 ,it is an eternal quality subsisting in the essence of ,god1 an entity by which what is known is revealed with a revealing of the nature of complete comprehension 7ihata71 without any concealment having preceded4 ,it is connected with the necessary1 the possible and the impossible4 ,he knows ,his own essence and qualities by ,his ,knowledge4 ,and ,he knows impossibilities in the sense that ,he knows that a partner is impossible to ,him and that1 if one existed1 corruption would accrue from it4 ,and ,knowledge has an eternal1 accomplished connection only4 ,for ,god knows these things that have been mentioned from all eternity with a complete knowledge that is not by way of opinion 7zann7 or doubt 7shakk72 because opinion and doubt are impossibilities in ,god4 ,and the meaning of the saying1 8without any concealment having preceded10 is that ,he knows things eternally2 ,he is not first ignorant of them and then knowing them4 ,but an originated being 7hadith7 is ignorant of a thing and then knows it4 ,and ,god's ,knowledge has no potential connection in the sense that there is a potentiality that such and such should be revealed by it1 because that involves that the thing in question has not been actually revealed1 and lack of actual revealing of it is ignorance4 ,the tenth ,quality necessary in ,god is ,life 7hayah74 ,it is a quality which in him in whom it subsists validates perception1 as knowledge and hearing and seeing3 that is1 it is valid that he should be described therewith4 ,but being characterized by actual perception does not necessarily follow from possessing the quality1 ,life4 ,and it is not connected with anything1 entity or non-entity4 ,the proof that ,knowledge and ,power and ,will and ,life are necessary is the existence of the created things4 ,because1 if any one of these four is denied1 why does the created world exist8 ,so1 since the created things exist1 we know that ,god is to be described by these qualities4 ,and the reason of the existence of the created things depending on these four is this4 ,he who makes a thing does not make it except when he knows the thing4 ,then he wills the thing which he would make and1 after his willing1 he busies himself with making it by his power4 ,further1 it is known that the maker cannot but be living4 ,and ,knowledge and ,will and ,power are called qualities of impression 7sifat at-ta'thir71 for making an impression depends upon them4 ,because he who wills a thing must have knowledge of it before he aims at it2 then1 after he has aimed at it1 he busies himself with doing it4 ,for example1 when there is something in your house and you wish to take it1 your knowledge precedes your wish to take it1 and after your wish to take it1 you take it actually4 ,the connection of these qualities1 then1 is in a certain order1 in the case of an originated being2 first comes the knowledge of the thing1 then the aiming at it1 then the doing4 ,but in the case of ,god1 on the other hand1 there is no sequence in ,his qualities1 except in our comprehension2 in that1 ,knowledge comes first1 then ,will1 then ,power4 ,but as for the making of an impression externally1 there is no sequence in the qualities of ,god4 ,it is not said that ,knowledge comes into actual connection1 then ,will1 then ,power2 because all that belongs to originated beings4 ,order is only according to our comprehensions4 ,the eleventh and twelfth ,qualities of ,god are ,hearing 7sam7 and ,seeing 7basar74 ,these are two qualities subsisting in the essence of ,god and connected with every entity2 that is1 by them is revealed every entity1 necessary or possible4 ,and ,hearing and ,seeing are connected with the essence of ,god and ,his qualities2 that is1 ,his essence and qualities are revealed to ,him by ,his ,seeing and ,hearing1 besides the revealing of ,his ,knowledge4 ,and ,god hears the essences of ,zayd and ,amr and a wall and ,he sees them4 ,and ,he hears the sound of the possessor of a sound and ,he sees it1 that is the sound4 ,then1 if you say1 8,hearing a sound is plain1 but hearing the essence of ,zayd and the essence of a wall is not plain2 so1 too1 the connection of seeing with sounds1 for sounds are heard only10 we reply1 8,belief in this is incumbent upon us because these two qualities are connected with every entity2 but the how 7kayfiya7 of the connection is unknown to us4 ,god hears the essence of ,zayd1 but we do not know how hearing is connected with that essence4 ,and it is not meant that ,he hears the walking of the essence of ,zayd1 for the hearing of his walking enters into the hearing of all the sounds 7sawt71 but what is meant is that ,he hears the essence of ,zayd and his body 7juththa71 besides hearing his walking4 ,but we do not know how the hearing of ,god is connected with the person 7nafs7 of the essence4 ,this is what is binding upon every individual1 male and female--,our trust is in ,god60 ,the proof of ,hearing and ,seeing is the saying of ,god that ,he is a ,hearer and ,seer4 ,and know that the connection of ,hearing and ,seeing in relation to originated things is an eternal1 potential connection before the existence of these1 and after their existence it is a temporal1 accomplished connection4 ,that is1 after their existence1 they are revealed to ,god by ,his ,hearing and ,seeing besides the revealing of ,his ,knowledge4 ,so they have two connections4 ,and in relation to ,god and ,his qualities1 the connection is eternal1 accomplished1 in the sense that ,his essence and ,his qualities are revealed to ,him from all eternity through ,his ,hearing and ,seeing4 ,so1 ,god hears ,his essence and all ,his existential qualities all except the states and the negative qualities1 ,power1 ,hearing1 and all the rest2 but we do not know how the connection is1 and ,he sees ,his essence and ,his qualities of existence1 ,power1 ,seeing and the rest1 but again we do not know how the connection is4 ,the preceding statement that ,hearing and ,seeing are connected with every entity is the opinion of as-,sanusi and those who follow him2 it is the preponderating one4 ,but it is said1 also1 that ,hearing is only connected with sounds and ,seeing with objects of vision4 ,and ,god's ,hearing is not with ear or ear-hole1 and ,his ,seeing is not with eyeball or eyelid4 ,the thirteenth ,quality of ,god is ,speech 7kalam74 ,it is an eternal quality1 subsisting in ,god's essence1 not a word or sound1 and far removed from order of preceding and following1 from inflection and structure1 opposed to the speech of originated beings4 ,and by the ,speech that is necessary to ,god is not meant the ,glorious ,expressions 7lafz7 revealed to the ,prophet1 because these are originated and the quality that subsists in the essence of ,god is eternal4 ,and these embrace preceding and following1 inflection and chapters and verses2 but the eternal quality is bare of all these things4 ,it has no verses or chapters or inflections1 because such belong to the speech which embraces letters and sounds1 and the eternal quality is far removed from letters and sounds1 as has preceded4 ,and those ,glorious ,expressions are not a guide to the eternal quality in the sense that the eternal quality can be understood from them4 ,what is understood from these expressions equals what would be understood from the eternal quality if the veil were removed from us and we could hear it4 ,in short1 these expressions are a guide to its meaning1 and this meaning equals what would be understood from the eternal ,speech which subsists in the essence of ,god4 ,so meditate this distinction1 for many have erred in it4 ,and both the ,glorious ,expressions and the eternal quality are called ,qur'an and the ,word 7kalam7 of ,god4 ,but the ,glorious ,expressions are created and written on the ,preserved ,tablet 7al-lawh-al-mahfuz72 ,jibril brought them down i4e41 revealed them to the ,prophet after that they had been brought down in the ,night of ,decree 7laylatu-l-qadr2 ,qur4 #ig1 #a7 to the ,mighty ,house 7baytu-l-izza71 a place in the ,heaven nearest to the earth2 it was written in books 7sahifas7 and placed in the ,mighty ,house4 ,it is said that it was brought down to the ,mighty ,house all at once and then brought down to the ,prophet in twenty years1 and some say1 in twenty-five4 ,and it is also said that it was brought down to the ,mighty ,house only to the amount that was to be revealed each year and not all at once4 ,and that which was brought down to the ,prophet was expression and meaning4 ,and it is said also that only the meaning was brought down to him4 ,there is a conflict of opinion on this2 some say that the ,prophet clothed the meaning with expressions of his own1 and others1 that he who so clothed the meaning1 was ,jibril4 ,but the truth is that it was sent down in expressions and meaning4 ,in short1 the quality subsisting in the essence of ,god is not a letter nor a sound4 ,and the ,mu#8tazilites called in doubt the existence of a kind of ,speech without letters4 ,but the ,people of the ,sunna answered that because thoughts in the mind 7hadith an-nafs71 a kind of speech with which an individual speaks to himself1 are without letter or sound1 there exists a kind of speech without letters or words4 ,by this the ,people of the ,sunna do not wish to institute a comparison between the ,speech of ,god and thoughts in the mind2 for the ,speech of ,god is eternal and thoughts in the mind are originated4 ,they wished to disprove the contention of the ,mu#8tazilites when they urged that speech cannot exist without letter or sound4 ,the proof of the necessity of ,speech in ,god is ,his saying 7,qur4 #d1 #afb72 8and ,god spoke to ,moses40 ,so ,he has established ,speech for ,himself4 ,and ,speech connects with that with which ,knowledge connects1 of necessary and possible and impossible4 ,but the connection of ,knowledge with these is a connection of revealing1 in the sense that they are revealed to ,god by ,his ,knowledge2 and the connection of ,speech with them is a connection of proof1 in the sense that if the veil were taken away from us and we heard the eternal ,speech we would understand these things from it4 ,the fourteenth ,quality subsisting in ,god is ,being ,powerful 7kawn qadir74 ,it is a ,quality subsisting in ,his essence1 not an entity and not a non-entity4 ,it is not ,power1 but between it and ,power is a reciprocal inseparability4 ,when ,power exists in an essence1 the quality called 8,being ,powerful0 exists in that essence1 equally whether that essence is eternal or originated4 ,so1 ,god creates in the essence of ,zayd ,power actual1 and ,he creates also in it the quality called ,zayd's ,being ,powerful4 ,this quality is called a state 7hal7 and ,power is a cause 7illa7 in it in the case of created things4 ,but in the case of ,god1 ,power is not said to be a cause in ,his ,being ,powerful2 it is only said that between ,power and ,god's ,being ,powerful there is a reciprocal inseparability4 ,the ,mu#8tazilites hold also the reciprocal inseparability between the ,power of an originated being and its ,being ,powerful4 ,but they do not say that the second quality is by the creation of ,god1 only that when ,god creates ,power in an originated being1 there proceeds from the ,power a quality called ,being ,powerful1 without creation4 ,the ,fifteenth ,quality necessary in ,god is ,being a ,willer 7kawn murid74 ,it is a quality subsisting in ,his essence1 not an entity and not a non-entity4 ,it is called a state 7hal7 and it is not ,will1 equally whether the essence is eternal or created4 ,so1 ,god creates in the essence of ,zayd ,will actual1 and ,he creates in it the quality called ,zayd's ,being a ,willer4 ,and what is said above1 about the disagreement between the ,mu#8tazilites and the ,people of the ,sunna on ,being ,powerful1 applies also to ,being a ,willer4 ,the same thing applies exactly to ,qualities ,sixteen1 ,seventeen1 ,eighteen1 ,nineteen and ,twenty1--,being a ,knower 7alim71 a ,living ,one 7hayy71 a ,hearer 7sami71 a ,seer 7basir71 a ,speaker 7mutakallim74 ,,notice4 ,the ,qualities1 ,power1 ,will1 ,knowledge1 ,life1 ,hearing1 ,seeing1 ,speech1 which have preceded1 are called1 8,qualities consisting of ideas0 7sifat al-ma#8ani1 thought-qualities as opposed to active qualities2 see below72 on account of the connection of the general with the particular 7idafatu-l-amm lil-khass71 or the explanatory connection 7al-idafatu-l-bayaniya74 ,and those which follow these1 ,god's ,being ,powerful1 etc41 are called 8,qualities derived from ideas0 7sifat ma#8nawiya71 by way of derivation 7nisba7 from the 8,qualities consisting of ideas10 because they are inseparable from them in a thing eternal and proceed from them in a thing originated1 according to what has preceded4 ,and the ,mataridites added to the 8,qualities consisting of ,ideas10 an ,eighth ,quality and called it1 ,making to ,be 7takwin74 ,it is a quality and an entity like the rest of the 8,qualities consisting of ,ideas02 if the veil were removed from us we would see it1 just as we would see the other 8,qualities consisting of ,ideas0 if the veil were removed from us4 ,but the ,ash#8arites opposed them and urged that there was no advantage in having a quality1 ,making to ,be1 besides ,power1 because the ,mataridites said that ,god brought into existence and out of existence by the quality of ,making to ,be4 ,then these replied that ,power prepared the possibility for existence1 that is1 made it ready to receive existence after it had not been ready2 that thereafter ,making to ,be brought it into existence actually4 ,the ,ash#8arites replied that the possible was ready for existence without anything further4 ,and on account of their having added this quality1 they said that the active qualities 7sifat al-af#8al71 such as ,creating 7khalq71 ,bringing to ,life 7ihya71 ,sustaining 7razq71 ,bringing to ,death 7imata71 were eternal1 because these expressions are names of the quality ,making to ,be1 which is a quality and an entity1 according to them4 ,but it is eternal2 therefore these active qualities are eternal4 ,but according to the ,ash#8arites1 the active qualities are originated1 because they are only names of the connections of ,power4 ,so ,bringing to ,life is a name for the connection of ,power with ,life1 and ,sustaining is a name for the connection of ,power with the creature to be sustained1 and ,creating is a name for its connection with the thing to be created1 and ,bringing to ,death1 a name for its connection with death4 ,and the connections of ,power1 according to them1 are originated4 ,and among the ,fifty ,articles are twenty which express the opposites of the twenty above4 ,they are ,non-existence1 the opposite to ,existence4 ,the ,second1 ,origin 7huduth71 is the opposite of ,priority4 ,the ,third1 ,transitoriness 7fana71 is the opposite of ,continuance4 ,the ,fourth1 ,resemblance 7mumathala71 is the opposite of ,difference4 ,it is impossible that ,god should resemble originated things in any of those things with which they are described2 time has no effect upon ,him and ,he has not a place or movement or rest2 and ,he is not described with colors or with a direction2 it is not said with regard to ,him that ,he is above such a body1 or on the right of such a body4 ,and ,he has no direction from ,him4 ,so it is not said1 8,i am under ,god40 ,and the saying of the commonalty1 8,i am under our ,lord10 and 8,my ,lord is over me10 is to be disapproved4 ,unbelief is to be feared on the part of him who holds the use of it to be an article of his faith4 ,the ,fifth is having need of a locus 7ihtiyaj ila mahall71 that is1 an essence in which ,he may subsist1 or a ,specifier1 that is a bringer-into-existence4 ,this is the opposite of ,self-subsistence4 ,the ,sixth is ,multiplicity 7ta#8addud71 in the sense of combination in the essence or the qualities1 or the existence of a being similar in essence or qualities or acts4 ,this is the opposite of ,unity4 ,the ,seventh is ,weakness 7ajz7 and it is the opposite of ,power4 ,so1 being unequal to any possibility is impossible in ,god4 ,the ,eighth is ,unwillingness 7karaha1 lit4 dislike74 ,it is the opposite of ,will1 and it is impossible in ,god that ,he should bring into existence anything of the world1 along with ,unwillingness toward it1 that is1 lack of ,will4 ,entities are possibilities which ,god brought into existence by ,his ,will and ,choice 7ikhtiyar74 ,and it is derived from the necessity of ,will in ,god1 that the existence of created things is not through causation 7ta#8lil71 or by way of nature 7tab74 ,and the difference between the two is that the entity which exists through causation is whatever exists whenever its cause exists1 without dependence on another thing4 ,the movement of the finger is the cause of the movement of the ring2 when the one exists1 the second exists1 without dependence on anything else4 ,and the entity which exists1 by way of nature1 depends upon a condition and upon the nullifying of a hindrance4 ,so1 fire does not burn except on the condition of contact with wood and the nullifying of moistness which is the hindrance of its burning4 ,for fire burns by its nature according to those who hold the doctrine of nature--,whom may ,god curse6--,but the truth is1 that ,god creates the being burned in the wood when it is in contact with the fire1 just as ,he creates the movement of the ring when movement of the finger exists4 ,and there is no such thing as existence through causation or nature4 ,so it is an impossibility in ,god that there should be a cause in the world which proceeds from ,him without ,his choice1 or that there should be a course of nature and that the world should exist thereby4 ,the ,ninth is ,ignorance 7jahl74 ,ignorance of any possible thing is impossible in ,god1 equally whether it is simple1 that is1 lack of knowledge of a thing2 or compound1 that is1 perception of a thing as different from what it really is4 ,and ,inattention 7ghafala7 and ,neglect 7dhuhul7 are impossible in ,god4 ,this is the opposite of ,knowledge4 ,the ,tenth is ,death 7mawt74 ,it is the opposite of ,life4 ,the ,eleventh is ,deafness 7samam74 ,it is the opposite of ,hearing4 ,the ,twelfth is ,blindness 7ama74 ,it is the opposite of ,seeing4 ,the ,thirteenth is ,dumbness 7kharas74 ,in it is the idea of ,silence 7bakam7 and it is the opposite of ,speech4 ,the ,fourteenth is ,god's ,being ,weak 7kawn ajiz74 ,it is the opposite of ,his ,being ,powerful4 ,the ,fifteenth is ,his ,being an ,unwilling ,one 7kawn karih74 ,it is the opposite of ,his ,being a ,willer4 ,the ,sixteenth is ,his ,being an ,ignorant ,one 7kawn jahil74 ,it is the opposite of ,his ,being a ,knower4 ,the ,seventeenth is ,his ,being a ,dead ,one 7kawn mayyit74 ,it is the opposite of ,his ,being a ,living ,one4 ,the ,eighteenth is ,his ,being ,deaf 7asamm74 ,it is the opposite of ,his ,being a ,hearer4 ,the ,nineteenth is ,his ,being ,blind 7a#8ma74 ,it is the opposite of ,his ,being a ,seer4 ,the ,twentieth is ,his ,being ,silent 7abkam74 ,in it is the idea of ,dumbness 7kharas7 and it is the opposite of ,his ,being a ,speaker4 ,all these twenty are impossible in ,god4 ,and know that the proof of each one of the twenty qualities necessary in ,god establishes the existence of that quality in ,him and denies to ,him its opposite4 ,and the proofs of the seven thought-qualities are proofs of the seven derived from these4 ,thus1 there are ,forty ,articles2 twenty of them are necessary in ,god2 twenty are denied in ,him2 and there are twenty general proofs1 each proof establishing a quality and annulling its opposite4 ,,notice4 ,some say that things are four1 entities1 non-entities1 states and relations 7i#8tibarat74 ,the entities are like the essence of ,zayd which we see2 the non-entities are like your child before it is created2 the states are like ,being ,powerful2 and so1 too1 the relations1 like the establishing of standing in ,zayd4 ,this--,i mean that things are four--is the view which as-,sanusi follows in his ,sughra1 for he asserts in it the existence of states and makes the necessary qualities to be twenty4 ,but elsewhere1 he follows the opinion which denies states1 and that is the right view4 ,according to that view1 the ,qualities are thirteen in number1 because the seven derived qualities--,god's ,being ,powerful1 etc41 drop out4 ,god has no quality called ,being ,powerful1 because the right view is denial that states are things4 ,according to this1 then1 things are three3--entities1 non-entities and relations4 ,then when the seven derived qualities drop out from the twenty necessary qualities1 seven drop also from the opposites1 and there is no quality called1 ,being ,weak1 etc41 and there is no need to number these among the impossibilities4 ,so1 the impossibilities are thirteen also2 at least1 if existence is reckoned as a quality4 ,that it should be is the opinion of all except al-,ash#8ari4 ,but the opinion of al-,ash#8ari was that ,existence is the self 7ayn7 of an entity4 ,so1 the existence of ,god is the self of ,his essence and not a quality4 ,the necessary qualities1 on that view1 are twelve4 ,priority and ,continuance and ,difference and ,self-subsistence--expressed also as ,absolute ,independence--and ,unity and ,power and ,will and ,knowledge and ,life and ,hearing and ,seeing and ,speech2 and the derived qualities drop out1 because their existence is based upon the view that there are things called states2 but the right view is the opposite4 ,and if you wish to instruct the commonalty in the qualities of ,god1 then state them as names 7asma7 derived from the qualities just mentioned4 ,so it is said that ,god is an ,entity4 ,prior1 ,different from originated things1 ,independent of everything1 ,one1 ,powerful1 a ,willer1 a ,knower1 ,living1 a ,hearer1 a ,seer1 a ,speaker4 ,and they should know their opposites4 ,and know that some of the ,shaykhs distinguish between states and relationships and say of both that they are not entities and also not non-entities4 ,but each has a reality in itself1 except that a state has a connection with and a subsistence in an essence1 and a relation has no connection with an essence4 ,and it is said that a relation has a reality outside of the mind4 ,but to this it is opposed that a relation is a quality1 and if it has no connection with an essence and has a reality outside of the mind1 where is the thing qualified by it8 ,a quality does not subsist in itself1 but must needs have a thing which it qualifies4 ,so the truth is that relations have no reality except in the mind4 ,and they are of two kinds2 the invented relation 7i#8tibara ikhtira#8i71 it is that which has no ground in existence1 as your making a generous man niggardly2 and second1 the apprehended relation 7intiza#8i1 claiming71 it is that which has ground outside of your mind1 as asserting the subsistence of ,zayd1 for that may be claimed from your saying1 8,zayd subsists02 so the describing of ,zayd as subsisting is existent outside of your mind4 ,the forty-first ,article is ,possibility in the case of ,god4 ,it is incumbent upon every mukallaf that he should believe that it is possible for ,god to create good and evil1 to create ,islam in ,zayd and unbelief in ,amr1 knowledge in one of them and ignorance in the other4 ,and another of the things1 belief in which is incumbent upon every mukallaf1 is that the good and the bad of things is by ,destiny 7qada7 and ,decree 7qadar74 ,and there is a difference of opinion as to the meaning of destiny and decree4 ,it is said that destiny is the will of ,god and the eternal 7azali7 connection of that will2 and decree is ,god's bringing into existence the thing in agreement with the will4 ,so the ,will of ,god which is connected eternally with your becoming a learned man or a ,sultan is destiny2 and the bringing knowledge into existence in you1 after your existence1 or the ,sultanship1 in agreement with the ,will1 is decree4 ,and it is said that destiny is ,god's eternal knowledge and its connection with the thing known2 and decree is ,god's bringing things into existence in agreement with ,his knowledge4 ,so1 ,god's knowing that which is connected eternally with a person's becoming a learned man after he enters existence is destiny1 and the bringing knowledge into existence in that man after he enters existence is decree4 ,and according to each of these two views1 destiny is prior 7qadim71 because it is one of the qualities of ,god1 whether ,will or ,knowledge2 and decree is originated1 because it is bringing into existence1 and bringing into existence is one of the connections of ,power1 and the connections of ,power are originated4 ,and the proof that possible things are possible in the case of ,god is that there is general agreement on their possibility4 ,if the doing of any possible thing were incumbent upon ,god1 the possible would be turned into a necessary thing4 ,and if the doing of a possible thing were hindered from ,him1 the possible would be turned into an impossible4 ,but the turning of the possible into a necessary or an impossible is false4 ,by this1 you may know that there is nothing incumbent upon ,god1 against the doctrine of the ,mu#8tazilites1 who say that it is incumbent upon ,god to do that which is best 7salah7 for the creature4 ,so1 it would be incumbent upon ,him that ,he should sustain the creature1 but this is falsehood against ,him and a lie from which ,he is far removed4 ,he creates faith in ,zayd1 for example1 and gives him knowledge out of ,his free grace1 without there being any necessity upon ,him4 ,and one of the arguments which may be brought against the ,mu#8tazilites is that afflictions come upon little children1 such as ailments and diseases4 ,and in this there is not that which is best for them4 ,so1 if doing that which is best is incumbent upon ,him1 why do afflictions descend upon little children8 ,for they say that ,god could not abandon that which is incumbent upon ,him1 for abandoning it would be defect1 and ,god is far removed from defect1 by ,agreement4 ,and ,god's rewarding the obedient is a grace from ,him1 and ,his punishing the rebellious is justice from ,him4 ,for obedience does not advantage ,him1 nor rebellion injure ,him2 ,he is the ,advantager and the ,injurer4 ,and these acts of obedience or rebellion are only signs of ,god's rewarding or punishing those described by them4 ,then him whom ,he wills to draw near to ,himself1 ,he helps to obedience3 and in him whose abandoning and rejection ,he wills1 ,he creates rebellion4 ,and all acts of good and bad are by the creation of ,god1 for ,he creates the creature and that which the creature does1 as ,he has said 7,qur4 #cg1 #id71 8and ,god hath created you and that which ye do40 ,and the belief is also incumbent that ,god may be seen in the ,other ,world by believers1 for ,he has joined the seeing 7ru'ya7 of ,him with the standing fast of the mountain in ,his saying 7,qur4 #g1 #aci71 8,and if it standeth fast in its place1 thou wilt see ,me40 ,and the standing fast of the mountain was possible3 then1 that which is connected with it of seeing must also have been possible2 because what is connected with the possible is possible4 ,but our seeing ,god must be without inquiring how 7bila kayfa72 it is not like our seeing one another4 ,god is not seen in a direction1 nor in a color1 nor in a body2 ,he is far removed from that4 ,and the ,mu#8tazilites--may ,god make them vile6--deny the seeing of ,god4 ,that is one of their perverse and false articles of belief4 ,and another of their corrupt articles is their saying that the creature creates his own actions4 ,for this1 they are called ,qadarites1 because they say that the actions of the creature are by his own qudra 7power71 just as the sect which holds that the creature is forced to the action he does1 is called ,jabrite1 derived from their holding a being forced 7jabr7 on the part of the creature1 and a being compelled4 ,it1 too1 is a perverse article4 ,and the truth is that the creature does not create his own actions and is not forced1 but that ,god creates the actions which issue from the creature1 along with the creature's having a free choice 7ikhtiyar7 in them4 ,as-,sa#8d ,sa#8d ad-,din at-,taftazani1 see above said1 in his commentary on the ,articles1 8,it is not possible to render this free choice by any expression1 but the creature finds a difference between the movement of his hand when he moves it himself and when the wind moves it against his will40 ,and to that which is possible in ,god belongs also the sending of a number of ,apostles 7rasuls74 ,and ,god's sending them is by ,his grace1 and by way of necessity1 as has preceded4 ,and it is necessary to confess that the most excellent of created beings1 absolutely1 is our ,prophet ,muhammad1 and there follow him in excellency the rest of the ,endowed with ,earnestness and ,patience 7ulu-l-azm2 see ,qur4 #df1 #cd72 they are our ,lord ,ibrahim1 our ,lord ,musa1 our ,lord ,isa1 and our ,lord ,nuh2 and this is their order in excellency4 ,and that they are five along with our ,prophet1 and four after him is the correct view4 ,and it is said1 too1 that the ,endowed with ,earnestness and ,patience are more numerous4 ,and there follow them in excellency the rest of the ,apostles4 ,then1 the rest of the ,prophets 7nabis71 then the ,angels4 ,and it is necessary to confess that ,god has aided them with miracles 7mu#8jizat7 and that ,he has distinguished our ,prophet in that he is the seal of the ,apostles1 and that his law 7shar7 will not be abrogated till time is fulfilled4 ,and ,isa1 after his descent1 will judge according to the law of our ,prophet4 ,it is said that he will take it from the ,qur'an and the ,sunna4 ,it is said also that he will go to the ,glorious ,tomb of ,muhammad and learn from him4 ,and know that he will abrogate one part of the law of our ,prophet with a later part1 just as the waiting period of a woman after the death of her husband was changed from a year to four months and ten days4 ,and in this there is no defect4 ,and it is necessary also that every mukallaf1 male and female1 should know in detail the ,apostles who are mentioned in the ,qur'an1 and should believe in them in detail4 ,as for the other ,prophets1 belief is necessary in them as a whole4 ,as-,sa#8d handed down an authority in his commentary on the ,maqasid that belief in all the ,prophets as a whole suffices1 but he was not followed4 ,and someone put them into verse as follows3 8,there is imposed upon every mukallaf a knowledge ,of ,prophets in detail1 who have been named ,in that document of ours i4e41 the ,qur'an4 ,of them are eight ,after ten i4e41 eighteen4 ,and there remain seven who are ,idris1 ,hud1 ,shu#8ayb1 ,salih1 and similarly1 ,dhu-l-,kifl1 ,adam1 with the ,chosen ,one ,muhammad they close40 ,and it is necessary to confess that the ,companions 7sahibs7 of the ,prophet are the most excellent of the generations4 ,then their followers 7tabi#8s72 then the followers of their followers4 ,and the most excellent of the ,companions is ,abu ,bakr1 then ,umar1 then ,uthman1 then ,ali--in this order4 ,but al-,alqami said that our ,lady ,fatima and her brother1 our ,lord ,ibrahim1 were absolutely more excellent than the ,companions1 including the ,four ,khalifas4 ,and our ,lord ,malik ibn ,anas was wont to say1 8,there is none more excellent than the children of the ,prophet40 ,this is that the confession of which is incumbent2 and we will meet ,god confessing it1 if it is ,his ,will4 ,and of that the confession of which is also necessary1 is that the ,prophet was born in ,mecca and died in al-,madina4 ,it is incumbent on fathers that they teach that to their children4 ,al-,ajhuri said1 8,it is incumbent on the individual that he know the genealogy of the ,prophet on his father's side and on his mother's40 ,a statement of it will come in our ,conclusion1 if ,god will4 ,the learned have said1 8,every individual ought to know the number of the children of the ,prophet and the order in which they were born1 for an individual ought to know his ,lords1 and they are the ,lords of the ,people40 ,but they do not explain1 in what ,i have seen1 whether that is required 7mawjub7 or desired 7mandub72 the analogy 7qiyas7 of things similar to it would say it was required4 ,his children were seven1 three male and four female1 according to the right view4 ,their order of birth was3 al-,qasim1 he was the first of his children1 then ,zaynab1 then ,ruqayya1 then ,fatima1 then ,umm ,kulthum1 then ,abd ,allah1 he had the to-names 7laqab7 at-,tayyib and at-,tahir1 which are to-names of ,abd ,allah1 not names of two other different persons4 ,these were all children of our ,lady ,khadija4 ,and the seventh was our ,lord ,ibrahim1 born of ,mariya1 the ,copt4 ,so it stands4 ,let us now return to the conclusion of the ,articles4 ,the ,forty-second is the ,veracity 7sidq7 of the ,apostles in all their sayings4 ,the ,forty-third is their trustworthiness 7amana71 that is1 their being preserved 7isma7 from falling into things forbidden 7muharram7 or disliked 7makruh74 ,the ,forty-fourth is their ,conveying 7tabligh7 to the creatures that which they were commanded to convey4 ,the ,forty-fifth is intelligence 7fatana74 ,these four things are necessary in the ,apostles in the sense that the lack of them is unthinkable4 ,and ,faith depends on the knowledge of these1 according to the controversy between as-,sanusi and his opponents4 ,the opposites of these four are impossible in the ,apostles1 that is1 ,lying 7kidhb71 ,unfaithfulness 7khiyana7 in a thing forbidden or disliked1 ,concealment 7kitman7 of a thing they have been commanded to convey1 and ,stupidity 7balada74 ,these four are impossible in them1 in the sense that the existence of them is unthinkable4 ,and ,faith depends upon the knowledge of these1 as has preceded4 ,these are ,nine and ,forty ,articles and the ,fiftieth is the possibility of the occurrence of such fleshly accidents in them as do not lead to defect in their lofty rank4 ,and the proof of the existence of ,veracity in them is that if they were to lie1 then information from ,god would be a lie1 for ,he has guaranteed the claim of the ,apostles by the manifestation of miracles at their hands4 ,for the miracle is revealed in place of an utterance from ,god1 8,my servant is truthful in all that he brings from ,me40 ,that is1 whenever an ,apostle comes to his people and says1 8,i am an ,apostle to you from ,god10 and they say to him1 8,what is the proof of your apostolate80 then he shall say1 8,the splitting of this mountain10 for example4 ,and when they say to him1 8,bring what you say10 ,god will split that mountain at their saying1 as a guarantee of the claim of the ,apostle to the apostolate4 ,so1 ,god's splitting the mountain is sent down in place of an utterance from ,god1 8,my servant is truthful in all which he brings to you from ,me40 ,and if the ,apostle were lying1 this information would be lying4 ,but lying is impossible in the case of ,god1 so lying on the part of the ,apostles is impossible4 ,and whenever lying is denied in them1 ,veracity is established4 ,and as for the proof of the ,trustworthiness1 that is1 their being preserved internally and externally from forbidden and disliked things2 if they were unfaithful in committing such things1 we would be commanded to do the like4 ,but it is impossible that we could be commanded to do a forbidden or disliked thing1 8for ,god does not command a vile thing0 7,qur4 #g1 #bg74 ,and it is evident that they did nothing except obedience1 whether required or desired1 and 8permitted0 7mubah7 things entered among their actions only to show1 whenever they did a 8permitted0 thing1 that it was allowable 7ja'iz74 ,and as for the proof of ,intelligence1 if it were failing in them1 how would they be able to establish an argument against an adversary8 ,but the ,qur'an indicates in more than one place1 that they must establish arguments against adversaries4 ,and such establishing of arguments is only possible with intelligence4 ,and the proof that fleshly accidents do befall them is that they do not cease to ascend in their lofty rank2 for the occurrence of such accidents is in them for increase in their lofty rank1 for example1 and that others may be consoled1 and that the thoughtful may know that the world is not a place of recompense for the lovers of ,god2 since if it were1 why should aught of the defilements of the world befall the ,apostles8 ,the ,blessing of ,god be upon them and upon their ,mighty ,head1 our ,lord ,muhammad1 and upon his family and ,companions and descendants1 all6 ,the ,fifty ,articles are completed with their ,glorious ,proofs4 ,let us mention to you now somewhat of that which must be held of the things whose proofs are authority 7sam#8i73 ,know that it must be believed that our ,prophet has a ,tank 7hawd72 and ignorance as to whether it is on one side or the other of the ,bridge 7as-sirat7 does not hurt4 ,on the ,day of ,resurrection 7yawm al-qiyama7 the creatures will go down to drink of it4 ,it is different from al-,kawthar1 which is a ,river in the ,garden4 ,and it must also be believed that he will make intercession 7shafa#8a7 on the ,day of ,resurrection in the midst of the ,judgment1 when we shall stand and long to depart1 even though it be into the ,fire4 ,then he shall intercede that they may depart from the ,station 7mawqif72 and this intercession belongs to him only4 ,and it must also be believed that falling into great sins 7kabiras71 other than ,unbelief 7kufr71 does not involve ,unbelief1 but repentance 7tawba7 from the sin is necessary at once2 and if the sin be a small one 7saghira7 repentance is necessary to him who is liable to fall into it4 ,and repentance is not injured by returning to sin2 but for the new sin a new repentance is necessary4 ,and it is incumbent upon the individual that he set aside arrogance 7kibr7 and jealousy 7hasad7 and slander 7ghiba7 on account of what the ,prophet has said1 8,the gates of the ,heavens have curtains which reject the works of the people of arrogance1 jealousy and slander40 ,that is1 they prevent them from rising1 and so they are not received4 ,jealousy is a desiring that the well-being of another should pass away1 equally whether it is desired that it should come to the jealous one or not4 ,and arrogance is considering the truth to be falsehood and rejecting it1 and despising ,god's creation4 ,and it is incumbent also upon him that he should not spread malicious slanders among the people1 for a tradition has come down1 8,a slanderer 7qattat7 shall not enter the ,garden40 ,and jealousy is forbidden1 as is said above1 when the well-being does not lead its possessor to transgression1 and if it does1 then desire that the well-being should pass away is allowable4 ,it is necessary also to hold that some of those who commit great sins will be punished1 though it is only one of them4 ,,conclusion4 ,faith 7iman71 in the usage of the language1 is acknowledgment that something is true 7tasdiq71 in general4 ,in that way it is used by ,god1 when he reports the words of the sons of ,ya#8qub 7,qur4 #ab1 #ag74 8,but thou dost not believe us art not a believer 7mu'min7 in us40 ,legally1 it is belief in all that the ,prophet has brought4 ,but there is a difference of opinion as to the meaning of belief1 when used in this way4 ,some say that it means knowledge 7ma#8rifa7 and that everyone who knows what the ,prophet has brought is a believer 7mu'min74 ,but this interpretation is opposed by the fact that the unbeliever 7kafir7 knows1 but is not a believer4 ,nor does this interpretation agree with the common saying1 that the muqallad is a believer1 although he does not know4 ,and the right view as to the interpretation of belief is that it is a mental utterance 7hadith an-nafs7 following conviction1 equally whether it is conviction on account of proof1 which is called knowledge1 or on account of acceptance on authority 7taqlid74 ,this excludes the unbeliever because he does not possess the mental utterance1 the idea of which is that you say1 8,i am well pleased with what the ,prophet has brought40 ,the mind of the unbeliever does not say this4 ,and it includes the muqallad2 for he possesses the mental utterance following conviction1 though the conviction is not based on a proof4 ,and of that which must be believed is the genealogy of the ,prophet1 both on his father's side and on his mother's4 ,on his father's side he is our ,lord1 ,muhammad1 son of ,abd ,allah1 son of ,abd al-,muttalib1 son of ,hashim1 son of ,abd ,manaf1 son of ,qusay1 son of ,kilab1 son of ,murra1 son of ,ka#8b1 son of ,lu'ay1 or ,luway1 son of ,ghalib1 son of ,fihr1 son of ,malik1 son of ,nadr1 son of ,kinana1 son of ,khuzayma1 son of ,mudrika1 son of ,alyas1 son of ,mudar1 son of ,nizar1 son of ,ma#8add1 son of ,adnan4 ,and the ,agreement 7ijma7 unites upon this genealogy up to ,adnan4 ,but after him to ,adam there is no sure path in that which has been handed down4 ,and as to his genealogy on his mother's side1 she is ,amina1 daughter of ,wahb1 son of ,abd ,manaf1 son of ,zuhra--this ,abd ,manaf is not the same as his ancestor on the other line--son of ,kilab1 who is already one of his ancestors4 ,so the two lines of descent join in ,kilab4 ,and it is necessary also to know that he was of mixed white and red complexion1 according to what some of them have said4 ,this is the last of that which ,god has made easy by ,his grace4 ,his ,blessing be upon our ,lord ,muhammad and upon his family and his ,companions and his descendants1 so so long as the mindful are mindful of him and the heedless are heedless of the thought of him4 ,and ,praise belongeth unto ,god1 the ,lord of the ,worlds4 ,,vii ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,taqrib ,,of ,,abu ,,shuja ,,al-,,ispahani#g ,book ,i4 ,of ,ceremonial ,purity 7,tahara7 #a4 ,the water which may be used for ceremonial ablutions4 #b4 ,legal materials for utensils2 what can be purified and what cannot4 #c4 ,the use of the toothpick4 #d4 ,description of the different stages of a ceremonial ablution 7wudu74 #e4 ,on cleansing from excrement and its ritual generally4 #f4 ,the five things which require a fresh wudu4 #g4 ,the six things which require a complete ablution of the whole body 7ghusl7 and its ritual4 #h4 ,the seventeen occasions on which a ghusl is prescribed4 #i4 ,when it is allowable to wash the inner shoes 7khuffs7 instead of the feet4 #aj4 ,the conditions and ritual for the use of sand 7tayammum7 instead of water4 #aa4 ,on uncleannesses 7najasat7 and how and how far they can be removed4 #ab4 ,on ailments of women2 duration of pregnancy and their conditions4 ,book ,,ii4 ,of ,prayer #a4 ,the times of prayer 7salat74 #b4 ,upon whom prayer is incumbent1 and #c4 ,on what occasions4 #d4 ,the antecedent requirements of prayer4 #e4 ,the eighteen essential parts of prayer4 #f4 ,the four things in which the prayer of a woman differs from that of a man4 #g4 ,the eleven things which nullify prayer4 #h4 ,a reckoning of the occurrences of certain frequently repeated elements in prayer4 #i4 ,on omissions in prayer4 #aj4 ,the five occasions on which prayer is not allowable4 #aa4 ,the duty and ritual of congregational prayer4 #ab4 ,the prayer of a traveller4 #ac4 ,the conditions under which congregational prayer is required and those under which it is lawful4 #ad4 ,the requirements in congregational prayer4 #ae4 ,the prayers of the ,two ,festivals and their ritual4 #af4 ,the prayers on occasion of an eclipse4 #ag4 ,prayer for rain4 #ah4 ,prayer in presence of the enemy4 #ai4 ,what is forbidden of clothing4 #bj4 ,the ritual of the dead4 ,book ,,iii4 ,of ,rates for the ,poor1 etc4 #a4 ,the condition of the rate 7zakat7 and of the rate-payer2 what it is levied on and consists of4 #b4 ,on camels4 #c4 ,on cattle4 #d4 ,on sheep4 #e4 ,how it affects partners4 #f4 ,on gold and silver4 #g4 ,on grain-stuff4 #h4 ,on merchandise4 #i4 ,the conditions and nature of the rate to be paid at the end of the fast4 #aj4 ,uses to which the rate may be applied4 ,book ,,iv4 ,of the ,fast #a4 ,the conditions for the fast 7siyam72 its description2 what breaks it4 #b4 ,what is meritorious in fasting2 when and for whom it is forbidden2 how breaking the fast must be expiated4 #c4 ,the conditions and nature of religious retreat 7i#8tikaf74 ,book ,v4 ,of the ,pilgrimage #a4 ,the conditions of pilgrimaging 7hajj72 its essentials and other elements4 #b4 ,the ten things forbidden on pilgrimage4 #c4 ,the five sacrifices of the pilgrimage4 ,book ,,vi4 ,of ,barter and ,other ,business ,transactions #a4 ,conditions and kinds of barter 7bay72 what may be bartered and what not4 #b4 ,description and conditions of the bargain with payment in advance 7salam74 #c4 ,of pledging 7rahn74 #d4 ,of those who are not to be permitted to administer their own property 7hajar as-safih74 #e4 ,of bankruptcy and composition and common rights in a highway 7sulh74 #f4 ,the conditions for the transfer of debts and credits 7hawala74 #g4 ,of security for debts 7daman74 #h4 ,of personal security for debts 7kafala74 #i4 ,of partnership 7shirka74 #aj4 ,of agency 7wakala74 #aa4 ,of confession 7iqrar74 #ab4 ,of loans 7i#8ara74 #ac4 ,of illegal seizure and use of property2 indemnity for it and its damage 7ghasb74 #ad4 ,of right of pre-emption 7shuf#8a74 #ae4 ,the conditions of advancing capital with participation in the profits 7qirad74 #af4 ,of the letting of date-palms and vines 7musaqat74 #ag4 ,of hiring a thing out 7ijara74 #ah4 ,of reward for return of a thing lost 7ja#8ala74 #ai4 ,that land may not be let for a fixed amount of its produce 7mukhabara74 #bj4 ,of irrigation of waste lands 7ihya al-mawat74 #ba4 ,of foundations in mortmain 7waqf74 #bb4 ,of gifts 7hiba74 #bc4 ,of found property 7luqta74 #bd4 ,of foundlings 7laqit74 #be4 ,of deposits 7wadi#8a74 ,book ,,vii4 ,of ,inheritance and ,wills #a4 ,of legal heirs 7warith74 #b4 ,the conditions and proportions of inheritance 7farida74 #c4 ,of legacies 7wasiya74 ,book ,,viii4 ,of ,marriage and ,related ,subjects #a4 ,the conditions of marriage 7nikah74 ,what women a man may see and to what extent4 #b4 ,the form of a legal marriage4 #c4 ,the conditions of asking 7khitba7 and giving in marriage2 whom a man may not marry2 conditions for nullity of marriage4 #d4 ,the settlement 7mahr7 on a wife by her husband4 #e4 ,on the wedding feast 7walima74 #f4 ,on the equality of the rights of the wives and the authority of the husband4 #g4 ,on divorce for incompatibility 7khul74 #h4 ,the forms of divorce 7talaq74 #i4 ,on taking a wife back and the threefold divorce4 #aj4 ,the oath not to cohabit 7ila74 #aa4 ,the temporary separation by the formula1 zihar ,qur4 #eh4 #ab4 ,the form of accusation of adultery and the defence 7li#8an74 #ac4 ,the period during which a previously married woman cannot remarry 7idda74 #ad4 ,of relations with female slaves4 #ae4 ,the support and behavior of a woman1 divorced or a widow2 mourning4 #af4 ,law of relationship through suckling 7irda74 #ag4 ,the support 7nafaqa7 due to a wife4 #ah4 ,the support due to children and parents1 slaves and domestic animals4 #ai4 ,of the custody of children 7hidana74 ,book ,,ix4 ,of ,crimes of ,violence to the ,person 7jinaya7 #a4 ,on murder1 homicide and chance medley4 #b4 ,the lex talionis 7qisas7 for murder1 and #c4 ,for wounds and mutilations4 #d4 ,the blood-wit 7diya74 #e4 ,use of weak evidence in case of murder4 #f4 ,personal penance for homicide4 ,book ,x4 ,of ,restrictive ,ordinances of ,god 7hadd7 #a4 ,of fornication 7zina7 of one who has been or is married 7muhsan71 and of one who has not been or is not married4 #b4 ,of accusing of fornication4 #c4 ,of drinking wine or any intoxicating drink4 #d4 ,of theft4 #e4 ,of highway robbery4 #f4 ,of killing in defence4 #g4 ,of rebelling against a just government4 #h4 ,of apostasy4 #i4 ,of abandoning the usage of prayer4 ,book ,,xi4 ,of the ,holy ,war 7jihad7 #a4 ,the general law of jihad4 #b4 ,the distribution of booty taken in the field 7ghanima74 #c4 ,the law of the tax on unbelievers 7fay74 #d4 ,the law of the poll-tax on unbelievers 7jizya74 ,book ,,xii4 ,of ,hunting and the ,slaughter of ,animals #a4 ,how an animal may be killed in the chase or otherwise4 #b4 ,what flesh may be eaten4 #c4 ,the ritual of sacrifice 7udhiya74 #d4 ,the ritual of sacrifice for a child 7aqiqa74 ,book ,,xiii4 ,of ,racing and ,shooting with the ,bow ,book ,,xiv4 ,of ,oaths and ,vows 7yamin1 nadhr7 #a4 ,what oaths are allowable and binding2 how expiated4 #b4 ,lawful and unlawful vows4 ,book ,,xv4 ,of ,judgments and ,evidence 7qada1 shahada7 #a4 ,of the judge 7qadi7 and court usage4 #b4 ,the division 7qasm7 of property held in common4 #c4 ,of evidence and oaths4 #d4 ,the conditions of being a legal witness 7adil74 #e4 ,the difference of claims 7haqq71 on the part of ,god1 and on the part of man1 and their legal treatment4 ,book ,,xvi4 ,of ,manumission of ,slaves #a4 ,general conditions of manumission 7itq74 #b4 ,the clientship which follows 7wala74 #c4 ,of freeing at death 7tadbir74 #d4 ,of the slave buying his freedom 7kitaba74 #e4 ,of the slave 7umm walad7 that has borne a child to her master or to another and of her children4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,i4 ,,books ,,and ,,articles1 ,,general ,,and ,,fundamental1 ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,islam4 ,,ii4 ,,on ,,muslim ,,history ,,and ,,on ,,present ,,condition ,,of ,,muslim ,,world4 ,,iii4 ,,on ,,muslim ,,traditions ,,and ,,law4 ,,iv4 ,,on ,,muslim ,,theology1 ,,philosophy ,,and ,,mysticism4 ,i ,,books ,,and ,,articles1 ,,general ,,and ,,fundamental1 ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,islam ,the non-,arabist will gain much insight into ,muslim life and thought by reading such translations as that of ,ibn ,khallikan by ,de ,slane 7,paris-,london2 #ahdc-ga71 the ,persian ,tabari1 by ,zotenberg 7,paris2 #ahfg-gd71 ,ibn ,batuta by ,defrmery and ,sanguinetti 7,paris2 #ahec-eh71 ,mas#8udi by ,c4 ,barbier de ,meynard and ,pavet de ,courteille 7,paris2 #ahfa-gg71 ,ibn ,khaldun's ,prolgomnes by ,de ,slane 7,paris2 #ahfb-fh71 ad-,dimishqi by ,mehren 7,copenhagen2 #ahgd71 al-,beruni's ,chronology by ,sachau 7,london2 #ahgi74 ,the translations and notes in ,de ,sacy's ,chrestomathie arabe 7,paris2 #ahbf7 can also be used to advantage4 ,very many valuable articles will be found scattered through the ,zeitschrift of the ,german ,oriental ,society 7hereafter ,,zdmg71 the ,journal asiatique 7hereafter ,,ja71 the ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society 7hereafter ,,jras7 and the ,vienna ,zeitschrift fr die ,kunde des ,morgenlandes 7hereafter ,,wz74 ,it is always worth while to consult the ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,the best translations of the ,qur'an into ,english are those by ,e4 ,h4 ,palmer 7#b vols41 ,oxford2 #ahhj7 and ,j4 ,m4 ,rodwell 7,london2 #ahga74 ,the first more perfectly represents the spirit and tone1 and the second more exactly the letter4 ,the commentary added by ,sale to his version and his introduction are still useful4 ,the ,thousand and ,one ,nights should be read in its entirety in ,arabic or in a translation by every student of ,islam4 ,english translation by ,lane 7incomplete but accurate and with very valuable commentary72 ,burton 7last edition almost complete2 #ab vols41 ,london3 #ahid74 ,payne's translation is complete1 as is also ,burton's privately printed edition2 but1 while exceedingly readable1 ,payne hardly represents the tone of the original4 ,there is an almost complete and very cheap ,german version by ,henning 7published by ,reclam1 ,leipzig72 ,mardrus' ,french version is inaccurate and free to such an extent as to make it useless4 ,galland's version is a work of genius2 but it belongs to ,french and not to ,arabic literature4 ,r4 ,p4 ,a4 ,,dozy3 ,essai sur l'histoire de l'islamisme4 ,leyden1 #ahgi4 ,a readable introduction4 ,a4 ,m,,ller3 ,der ,islam im ,morgen-und-,abendland4 #b vols4 ,berlin1 #ahhe1 #ahhg4 ,the best general history of ,islam4 ,,stanley ,,lane-,,poole3 ,the ,mohammedan ,dynasties2 chronological and genealogical tables with historical introductions4 ,westminster1 #ahid4 ,an indispensable book for any student of ,muslim history4 ,c4 ,,brockelmann3 ,geschichte der arabischen ,litteratur4 #b vols4 ,weimar1 #ahih1 #ahii4 ,indispensable for names1 dates1 and books1 but not a history in any true sense4 ,t4 ,b4 ,,hughes3 ,a ,dictionary of ,islam4 ,london1 #ahif4 ,very full of information1 but to be used with caution4 ,based on ,persian sources largely4 ,e4 ,w4 ,,lane3 ,an ,account of the ,manners and ,customs of the ,modern ,egyptians4 ,first edition1 ,london1 #ahcf2 third1 #ahdb4 ,many others4 ,indispensable4 ,c4 ,m4 ,,doughty3 ,travels in ,arabia ,deserta4 #b vols4 ,cambridge1 #ahhh4 ,by far the best book on nomad life in ,arabia4 ,gives the fullest and clearest idea of the nature and workings of the ,arab mind4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,burckhardt3 ,notes on the ,bedouins and ,wahabys4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahca4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,burckhardt3 ,travels in ,arabia4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahbi4 ,r4 ,f4 ,,burton3 ,personal ,narrative of a ,pilgrimage to al-,madinah and ,meccah4 #b vols4 ,last edition1 ,london1 #ahih4 ,on the ,hajj and ,muslim life1 thought and studies generally in the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,readable and accurate to a degree4 ,c4 ,,snouck ,,hurgronje3 ,mekka4 #b vols4 and portfolio of plates4 ,haag1 #ahhh1 #ahhi4 ,is somewhat dull beside ,burton1 but very full and accurate4 ,w4 ,,robertson ,,smith3 ,lectures on the ,religion of the ,semites4 ,first ,series4 ,new edition1 ,london1 #ahid4 ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia4 ,cambridge1 #ahhe4 ,,ignaz ,,goldziher3 ,muhammedanische ,studien4 ,i1 ,halle a4 ,s41 #ahhi4 ,,ii1 #ahij4 ,epoch-marking books2 as are all ,goldziher's contributions to the history of ,muslim civilization4 ,,alfred ,,von ,,kremer3 ,geschichte der herrschenden ,ideen des ,islams4 ,leipzig1 #ahfh4 ,,alfred ,,von ,,kremer3 ,culturgeschichte des ,orients unter den ,chalifen4 #b vols4 ,wien1 #ahge-gg4 ,culturgeschichtliche ,streifzge4 ,leipzig1 #ahgc4 ,,edward ,g4 ,,browne3 ,a ,year ,among the ,persians4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,a most valuable account of modern ,persian life1 philosophy1 and theology1 and especially of ,sufiism and ,babism4 ,,edward ,g4 ,,browne3 ,a ,literary ,history of ,persia4 ,new ,york1 #aijb4 ,really political and religious prolegomena to such a history4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,herklots3 ,qanoon-e-,islam1 or the ,customs of the ,moosulmans of ,india4 ,london1 #ahcb4 ,,ii ,,on ,,muslim ,,history ,,and ,,on ,,present ,,condition ,,of ,,muslim ,,world ,,august ,m,,ller3 ,die ,beherrscher der ,glubigen4 ,berlin1 #ahhb4 ,a very brightly written sketch based on thorough knowledge4 ,,gustav ,,weil3 ,geschichte der ,chalifen4 #c vols4 ,mannheim1 #ahdf-ahea4 ,,sir ,,william ,,muir3 ,the ,caliphate1 its ,rise1 ,decline and ,fall4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,,theodor ,n,,ldeke3 ,zur tendentisen ,gestaltung der ,urgeschichte des ,islams4 ,,zdmg1 lii1 pp4 #af ff4 ,all ,nldeke's papers on the early history of ,islam are worthy of the most careful study4 ,g4 ,,von ,,vloten3 ,zur ,abbasiden ,geschichte4 ,,zdmg1 lii1 pp4 #bac ff4 ,on the early ,abbasids4 ,r4 ,e4 ,,br,,nnow3 ,de ,charidschiten unter den ersten ,omayyaden4 ,leyden1 #ahhd4 ,,eduard ,,sachau3 ber eine ,arabische ,chronik aus ,zanzibar4 ,mitth4 a4d4 ,sem4 f4 ,orient4 ,sprachen4 ,berlin1 #ahih4 ,on ,ibadites4 ,,george ,,percy ,,badger3 ,history of the ,imams and ,seyyids of ,oman1 by ,sall-ibn-,razk4 ,london3 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahga4 ,valuable for ,ibadite history1 law and theology4 ,m4 ,j4 ,,de ,,goeje3 ,mmoire sur les ,carmathes du ,bahran et les ,fatimides4 ,leyden1 #ahhf4 ,,john ,,nicholson3 ,an ,account of the ,establishment of the ,fatemite ,dynasty in ,africa4 ,tbingen and ,bristol1 #ahdj4 ,,quatrem,,re3 ,mmoires historiques sur la dynastie des ,khalifes ,fatimites4 ,,ja1 #c1 ii4 ,,sylvestre ,,de ,,sacy3 ,expos de la religion des ,druzes et la vie du ,khalife ,hakem-biamr-allah4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahch4 ,f4 ,w,,stenfeld3 ,geschichte der ,fatimiden-,khalifen4 ,gttingen1 #ahha4 ,,stanley ,,lane-,,poole3 ,a ,history of ,egypt in the ,middle ,ages4 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,for the origin and founding of the ,fatimid ,dynasty1 the ,khalifa al-,hakim1 etc4 ,h4 ,l4 ,,fleischer3 ,briefwechsel zwischen den ,anfhrern der ,wahhabiten und dem ,pasha von ,damaskus4 ,kleinere ,schriften1 iii1 pp4 #cda ff4 ,first published in ,,zdmg for year #aheg4 ,e4 ,,rehatsek3 ,the ,history of the ,wahhabys in ,arabia and in ,india4 ,journal of ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal4 ,no4 xxxviii 7read ,january1 #ahhj74 ,turkey in ,europe1 by 8,odysseus40 ,london1 #aijj4 ,the present situation1 with its historical antecedents in ,european ,turkey and the ,balkans generally4 ,h4 ,o4 ,,dwight3 ,constantinople and its ,problems4 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,a4 ,s4 ,,white3 ,the ,expansion of ,egypt4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,the present situation in ,egypt and its historical antecedents4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,hunter3 ,our ,indian ,mussulmans4 ,london1 #ahga4 ,,sir ,,lewis ,,pelly3 ,the ,miracle ,play of ,hasan and ,husain4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,w4 ,s4 ,,blunt3 ,the ,future of ,islam4 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,,iii ,,on ,,muslim ,,traditions ,,and ,,law ,the ,mishkat1 translated by ,matthews4 ,calcutta1 #ahji4 7,a collection of traditions47 ,the ,hidaya1 translated by ,c4 ,hamilton4 ,,ii edition4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,n4 ,b4 ,e4 ,,baillie3 ,a ,digest of ,muhammadan ,law4 ,hanifi ,code4 ,london1 #ahfe4 ,the same4 ,imameea ,code4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,the first volume deals with ,sunnite1 the second with ,shi#8ite law4 ,s4 ,,keijzer3 ,prcis de ,jurisprudence ,musulmane selon le rite ,chfeite par ,abu ,chodja2 texte arabe avec traduction et annotations4 ,leyden1 #ahei4 ,to be used with caution4 ,,eduard ,,sachau3 ,muhammadanisches ,recht nach ,schafiitischer ,lehre4 ,stuttgart ,berlin1 #ahig4 ,based largely on al-,bajuri's commentary to ,abu ,shuja3 covers rather less than half the material of a corpus of canon law and is the best general introduction to the subject4 ,,ignaz ,,goldziher3 ,die ,zhiriten1 ihr ,lehrsystem und ihre ,geschichte4 ,leipzig1 #ahhd4 ,,ignaz ,,goldziher3 ,neue ,materialien zur ,litteratur des ,ueberlieferungswesen bei den ,muhammedanern4 ,,zdmg1 ,i1 pp4 #dfe ff4 ,deals with ,musnad of ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal4 ,,ignaz ,,goldziher3 ,zur ,litteratur des ,ichtilf al-madhhib4 ,,zdmg1 xxxviii1 pp4 #ffi ff4 ,contains a notice of ash-,sha#8rani4 ,,ignaz ,,goldziher3 ber eine ,formel in der judischen ,responsen-litteratur4 ,,zdmg1 liii1 pp4 #fde ff4 ,on fatwas and ijtihad4 ,,ignaz ,,goldziher3 ,das ,princip des ,istishab in muham4 ,gesetzwissenschaft4 ,,wz1 i1 pp4 #bbh ff4 ,,eduard ,,sachau3 ,muhammedanisches ,erbrecht nach der ,lehre der ,ibaditischen ,araber von ,zanzibar und stafrika4 ,sitzungsberichte der kn4 preuss4 ,akad41 #ahid4 ,,eduard ,,sachau3 ,zur ltesten ,geschichte des muhammedanischen ,rechts4 ,wien4 ,akad41 #ahgj4 ,,snouck ,,hurgronje3 ,le droit musulman4 ,revue de l'histoire des religions1 xxxvii1 pp4 #a ff1 and #agd ff4 ,,snouck ,,hurgronje3 ,muhammedanisches ,recht nach schafiitischer ,lehre von ,eduard ,sachau2 ,anzeige1 ,,zdmg1 liii1 pp4 #abe ff4 ,s4 ,k4 ,,keun ,,de ,,hoogerwoerd3 ,studien zur ,einfhrung in das ,recht des ,islam4 ,erlangen1 #aija4 ,contains introduction and part of section on law of marriage4 ,gives a good but miscellaneous bibliography and is written from a ,persian point of view2 transliteration is peculiarly eccentric and ,arabic scholarship is unsound4 ,j4 ,,wellhausen3 ,medina vor dem ,islam4 ,muhammad's ,gemeindeordnung von ,medina4 ,in 8,skizzen und ,vorarbeiten10 ,viertes ,heft4 ,berlin1 #ahhi4 ,,huart3 ,les ,zindiqs en droit musulman4 ,eleventh ,congress of ,orientalists1 part iii1 pp4 #fi ff4 ,d4 ,b4 ,,macdonald3 ,the ,emancipation of ,slaves under ,muslim ,law4 ,american ,monthly ,review of ,reviews1 ,march1 #aijj4 ,,iv ,,on ,,muslim ,,theology1 ,,philosophy ,,and ,,mysticism ,,theodor ,,haarbr,,cker3 ,asch-,schahrastni's ,religionsparteien und ,philosophenschulen bersetzt und erklrt4 #b vols4 ,halle1 #ahej-ea4 ,the ,arabic text1 without which ,haarbrcker's ,german is sometimes hardly intelligible1 was published by ,cureton1 ,london1 #ahdf4 ,t4 ,j4 ,,de ,,boer3 ,geschichte der ,philosophie im ,islam4 ,stuttgart1 #aija4 ,unsatisfactory but the best that there is4 ,it is only a sketch and takes hardly sufficient account of theology and mysticism4 ,,stanley ,,lane-,,poole3 ,studies in a ,mosque4 ,,ii edition4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,miscellaneous essays1 lightly written but trustworthy4 ,,krehl3 ,beitrge zur ,characteristik der ,lehre vom ,glauben in ,islam4 ,leipzig1 #ahgg4 ,g4 ,,von ,,vloten3 ,les ,hachwia et ,nabita4 ,eleventh ,congress of ,orientalists1 part iii1 pp4 #ii ff4 ,on early religious sects4 ,g4 ,,von ,,vloten3 ,irdja4 ,,zdmg1 xiv1 pp4 #aha ff4 ,on the ,murji'ites4 ,,eduard ,,sachau3 ber de religiosen ,anschauungen der ibaditischen ,muhammedaner in ,oman und stafrica4 ,mitth4 a4 d4 ,sem4 f4 ,orient4 ,sprachen4 ,berlin1 #ahii4 ,h4 ,,steiner3 ,die ,mu#8taziliten oder die ,freidenker im ,islam4 ,leipzig1 #ahfe4 ,,wilhelm ,,spitta3 ,zur ,geschichte ,abu l-,hasan al-,ash#8ari's4 ,leipzig1 #ahgf4 ,the best as yet on al-,ash#8ari1 but to be used with caution1 especially in the translations of theological texts4 ,,martin ,,schreiner3 ,zur ,geschichte des ,ash#8aritenthums4 ,in ,actes du huitime ,congress ,international des ,orientalistes1 ,i1 i1 pp4 #gg ff4 ,leiden1 #ahia4 ,m4 ,a4 ,f4 ,,mehren3 ,expos de la rforme de l',islamisme commence au troisime sicle de l',hgire par ,abou-l-,hasan ,ali el-,ash#8ari et continue par son cole4 ,third ,international ,congress of ,orientalists1 vol4 ii4 ,g4 ,,fl,,gel3 ,al-,kindi genannt 8der ,philosoph der ,araber40 ,ein ,vorbild seiner ,zeit und seines ,volkes4 ,leipzig1 #aheg4 ,,sir ,,william ,,muir3 ,the ,apology of al-,kindy1 written at the court of al-,mmn4 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,e4 ,,sell3 ,the ,faith of ,islam4 ,london1 #ahif4 ,,ii edition4 ,a valuable book1 but from the point of view of an ,indian missionary4 ,hence the tone is polemic and the technicalities are ,persian rather than ,arabic4 ,,walter ,m4 ,,patten3 ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal and the ,mihna4 ,leyden1 #ahig4 ,there is a valuable review by ,goldziher in ,,zdmg1 lii1 pp4 #aee ff4 ,it traces connection of ,hanbalites with ,ibn ,taymiya and ,wahhabites4 ,,heinrich ,,ritter3 ,ueber unsere ,kenntniss der ,arabischen ,philosophie4 ,gttingen1 #ahdd4 ,,friedrich ,,dieterici3 ,alfarabi's philosophische ,abhandlungen herausgegeben4 ,leiden1 #ahij4 ,aus dem arabischen bersetzt4 ,leiden1 #ahib4 ,,al-,,farabi3 ,der ,musterstaat4 ,herausgegeben und bersetzt von ,frdr4 ,dieterici4 ,leiden1 #aijj4 ,g4 ,,fl,,gel3 ,ueber ,inhalt und ,verfasser der arabischen ,encyclopdie der ,ikhwan as-,safa4 ,,zdmg1 xiii1 pp4 #a ff4 ,see1 too1 an excellent article by ,august ,mller in ,ersch und ,gruber1 ii1 #db1 pp4 #bgb ff41 and ,stanley ,lane-,poole in his ,studies in a ,mosque4 ,,friedrich ,,dieterici3 ,die ,philosophie der ,araber im ,x4 ,jahrhundert n4 ,chr4 aus der ,schriften der lauteren ,brder herausgegeben4 ,berlin and ,leipzig1 #ahfa-ahgi4 ,,ignaz ,,goldziher3 ,materialien zur ,entwickelungs-geschichte des ,sufismus4 ,,wz1 xiii1 pp4 #ce ff4 ,,theodor ,n,,ldeke3 ,sufi4 ,,zdmg1 xlviii1 pp4 #de ff4 ,on the derivation and early usage of the name ,sufi4 ,,adelbert ,,merx3 ,idee und ,grundlinien einer allgemeinen ,geschichte der ,mystik4 ,heidelberg1 #ahic4 ,,john ,p4 ,,brown3 ,the ,derwishes or ,oriental ,spiritualism4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,a valuable but uncritical description of modern ,turkish and ,persian ,darwishes4 ,,sir ,,james ,,redhouse3 ,the ,mesnevi of ,jelal eddin ar-rumi translated into ,english4 ,book ,i4 ,london1 #ahha4 ,see1 too1 a translation by ,whinfield1 ,london1 #ahhg1 and an edition of selected ghazels from the ,diwan with translation and valuable introduction by ,r4 ,a4 ,nicholson1 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #ahih4 ,e4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,gibb3 ,a ,history of ,ottoman ,poetry4 ,vol4 i4 ,london1 #aijj4 ,a valuable statement of the later ,persian and ,turkish mysticism and metaphysic on pp4 #ac-gj4 ,e4 ,h4 ,,palmer3 ,oriental ,mysticism4 ,cambridge1 #ahfg4 ,,carra ,,de ,,vaux3 ,avicenne4 ,paris1 #aijj4 ,contains an introductory sketch of philosophy and theology up to the time of ,ibn ,sina4 ,algazali4 ,paris1 #aijb4 ,a continuation of the first4 ,a4 ,,von ,,kremer3 ber die philosophischen ,gedichte des ,abul ,ala ,ma#8arry4 ,wien1 #ahhh4 ,a4 ,,von ,,kremer3 ,gedichte des ,abu-l-,ala ,ma#8arri4 ,,zdmg1 xxix1 #cjd2 xxx1 #dj2 xxxi1 pp4 #dga ff42 xxxviii1 #dii ff4 ,,abu-,l-,,ala ,,al-,,ma#8,,arri3 ,letters ,arabic and ,english1 with notes1 etc41 edited by ,d4 ,s4 ,margoliouth4 ,oxford1 #ahih4 ,see1 too1 papers by ,r4 ,a4 ,nicholson in ,,jras1 ,october1 #aijj1 ff42 and by ,margoliouth1 for ,april1 #aijb4 ,e4 ,,fitzgerald3 ,the ,ruba#8iyat of ,omar ,khayyam4 ,with a commentary by ,h4 ,m4 ,batson and a biographical ,introduction by ,e4 ,d4 ,ross4 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 ,the biography by ,ross is the only at all adequate treatment of the life and times of ,umar which yet exists4 ,of the ,ruba#8iyat themselves there are several adequate translations1 e4g4 by ,whinfield1 ,payne and ,mrs4 ,cadell4 ,,martin ,,schreiner3 ,zur ,geschichte der ,polemik zwischen ,juden und ,muhammedanern4 ,,zdmg1 xlii1 pp4 #eia ff4 ,deals with ,ibn ,hazm and ,fakhr ad-,din ar-,razi4 ,,martin ,,schreiner3 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der theologischen ,bewegungen in ,islam4 ,,zdmg1 lii1 pp4 #dfc ff42 #eac ff42 liii1 pp4 #ea ff4 ,a most valuable collection of materials with considerable gaps and imperfect digestion4 ,d4 ,b4 ,,macdonald3 ,the ,life of al-,ghazzali4 ,in the ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 vol4 xx1 pp4 #ga-acb4 ,d4 ,b4 ,,macdonald3 ,emotional ,religion in ,islam as affected by ,music and ,singing4 ,being a translation of a book of the ,ihya of al-,ghazzali4 ,in ,,jras for ,april and ,october1 #aija1 and ,january1 #aijb4 ,,miguel ,,asin ,,palacios3 ,algazel1 dogmatica1 moral1 ascetica4 ,zaragoza1 #aija4 ,c4 ,,barbier ,,de ,,meynard3 ,traduction nouvelle du ,trait de ,ghazzali1 intitul ,le ,preservatif de l',erreur4 ,in ,,ja1 vii1 #i1 pp4 #e ff4 ,t4 ,j4 ,,de ,,boer3 ,die ,widersprche der ,philosophie nach al-,ghazzali und ihr ,ausgleich durch ,ibn ,roshd4 ,strassburg1 #ahid4 ,a translation of al-,ghazzali's ,tahafut has been begun by ,carra de ,vaux in ,le ,muson1 xxviii1 p4 #adc 7,june1 #ahii74 ,,ignaz ,,goldziher3 ,materialien zur ,kenntniss der ,almohadenbewegung in ,nordafrika4 ,,zdmg1 xli1 pp4 #cj ff4 ,,ignaz ,,goldziher3 ,die ,bekenntnissformeln der ,almohaden4 ,,zdmg1 xliv1 pp4 #afh ff4 ,,robert ,,flint3 ,historical ,philosophy in ,france and ,french ,belgium and ,switzerland4 ,new ,york1 #ahid4 ,contains an excellent estimate of ,ibn ,khaldun as a philosophical historian4 ,a4 ,,von ,,kremer3 ,ibn ,chaldun und seine ,culturgeschichte der islamischen ,reiche4 ,wien1 #ahgi4 ,,ernest ,,renan3 ,averroes et l',averroisme4 ,,iii edition4 ,paris1 #ahfa4 ,reviewed by ,dozy in ,,ja1 #e1 ii1 pp4 #ic ff4 ,this review contains a curious description of a ,parliament of ,religions at ,baghdad about ,a4,d4 #ajjj4 ,philosophie und ,theologie von ,averroes4 ,aus dem ,arabischen bersetzt von ,m4 ,j4 ,mller4 ,mnchen1 #ahge4 ,the ,arabic text was published by ,mller in #ahei4 ,,leon ,,gauthier3 ,ibn ,thofail-,hayy ben ,yaqdhan1 roman philosophique4 ,texte arabe 444 et traduction franaise4 ,alger1 #aijj4 ,there is an earlier edition of ,ibn ,tufayl's romance by the younger ,pocock with a ,latin version4 ,oxford1 #afga4 ,m4 ,a4 ,f4 ,,mehren3 ,correspondance du ,philosophe ,soufi ,ibn ,sab#8in ,abd oul-,haqq avec l',empereur ,frdric ,,ii4 de ,hohenstaufen4 ,in ,,ja1 vii1 #ad1 pp4 #cda ff4 ,s4 ,,guyard3 ,abd ar-,razzaq et son trait de la ,prdestination et du libre arbitre4 ,in ,,ja1 vii1 #a1 pp4 #abe ff4 ,a4 ,,de ,,kremer3 ,notice sur ,sha'rany4 ,in ,,ja1 vi1 #aa1 pp4 #bec ff4 ,g4 ,,fl,,gel3 ,scha#8rani und sein ,werk uber die muhammadanische ,glaubenslehre4 ,,zdmg1 xx1 p4 #a ff4 ,,ignaz ,,goldziher3 ,beitrge zur ,litteraturgeschichte der ,shi#8a4 ,wien1 #ahgd4 ,,james ,l4 ,,merrick3 ,the ,life and ,religion of ,mohammed1 as contained in the ,sheeah ,traditions of the ,hyat-ul-,kuloob4 ,boston1 #ahej4 ,j4 ,b4 ,r,,ling3 ,beitrge zur ,eschatologie des ,islam4 ,leipzig1 #ahie4 ,l4 ,,gauthier3 ,ad-dourra al-fakhira2 la perle prcieuse de ,ghazali4 ,genve1 #ahgh4 ,in ,arabic and ,french2 a valuable account of ,muslim eschatology4 ,m4 ,,wolff3 ,muhammedanische ,eschatologie4 ,leipzig1 #ahgb4 ,in ,arabic and ,german2 an account of popular ,muslim eschatology4 ,,depont ,,et ,,cappolani3 ,les ,confrries religieuses ,musulmanes4 ,alger1 #ahig4 ,,snouck ,,hurgronje3 ,les ,confrries religieuses1 la ,mecque et le ,panislamisme1 in ,revue de l'histoire des religions1 xliv1 pp4 #bfb ff4 ,,appendix ,,iii ,for typographical reasons the smooth guttural ,ha1 the palatals ,sad1 ,dad1 ,ta1 ,za1 and the long vowels are indicated by italic4 ,the same system is followed in the index4 ,,chronological ,,table ,a4,h4 #aa ,m4d42 ,abu ,bakr ,kh4 #ac #8,umar ,kh4 #ad ,battle of al-,qadisiya2 fall of ,jerusalem2 al-,basra founded2 fall of ,damascus4 #ag ,al-,kufa founded2 ,syria and ,mesopotamia conquered4 #bj ,conquest of ,egypt4 #ba ,battle of ,nahawand2 ,persia conquered4 #bc #8,uthman ,kh4 #cj ,final redaction of the ,qur'an4 #ce #8,ali ,kh4 #cf ,battle of ,carmel4 #dj #8,ali d4 #da ,mu#8awiya ,i4 ,kh42 ,herat4 #di ,al-,hasan d4 #ef ,samarqand4 #fj ,schism of ,ibadites from ,kharijites4 #fa ,karbala d4 of al-,husayn4 #gc ,storm of ,mecca d4 of #8,abd ,allah b4 az-,zubayr4 #gd ,carthage4 #hj ,ma#8bad executed4 #ha ,m4 b4 al-,hanafiya d4 #ic ,toledo4 #ii-aja #8,umar ,,ii4 ,kh4 #aaj ,hasan al-,basri d4 #aad ,charles the ,hammer at ,tours 7,a4,d4 #gcb74 #aba ,zayd b4 ,zayn al-#8,abidin d4 #abd ,az-,zuhri d4 #abg-acb ,marwan ,,ii4 ,kh4 #acj ,jahm b4 ,safwan killed8 #aca ,wasil b4 #8,ata d4 #acb ,fall of ,umayyads2 as-,saffah first #8,abbasid ,kh4 #acd ,first ,ibadite ,imam4 #ace ,rabi#8a d4 #acf-aeh ,al-,mansur ,kh4 #ach-dbb ,umayyads of ,cordova4 #adj ,ibn al-,muqaffa#8 killed4 #adc ,halley's comet4 #add #8,amr b4 #8,ubayd d48 #ade ,baghdad founded2 #8,a'isha d4 of ,ja#8far as-,sadiq d4 #adg ,homage to al-,mahdi as successor in ,kh4 #adh ,ja#8far as-,sadiq d4 #aej ,abu ,hanifa d42 trace of ,sufi monastery in ,damascus4 #aeg ,al-,awza#8i d4 #aeh-afi ,al-,mahdi ,kh42 ,john of ,damascus d48 #afa ,sufyan ath-,thawri d42 ,ibrahim b4 ,adham d4 #afe ,da'ud b4 ,nusayr d4 #afg ,bashshar b4 ,burd killed4 #agj-aic ,harun ar-,rashid ,kh4 #agb-cge ,idrisids4 #agi ,malik b4 ,anas d4 #ahb ,the ,qadi ,abu ,yusuf d4 #ahg ,fall of ,barmecides2 al-,fudayl b4 #8,iyad d4 #ahi ,m4 b4 al-,hasan d4 #aih-bah ,al-,ma'mun ,kh4 #bjj ,ma#8ruf of al-,karkh d42 trace of ,sufi monastery in ,khurasan4 #bjd ,ash-,shafi#8i d4 #bjh ,abu #8,ubayda d42 the ,lady ,nafisa d4 #baa ,theodorus ,abucara d4 #bab ,decree that the ,qur'an is created4 #bac ,thumama b4 ,ashras d4 #bae ,abu ,sulayman of ,damascus d42 #bnd decree4 #bah-bcd ,the ,mihna2 ,al-,mu#8tasim ,kh4 #bbj ,ma#8mar b4 #8,abbad4 #bbc ,fatima of ,naysabur d4 #bbf ,abu ,hudhayl ,m4 al-#8,allaf d4 #bbg ,bishr al-,hafi d42 al-,wathiq ,kh4 #bca ,an-,nazzam d4 #bcb ,al-,mutawakkil ,kh4 #bcd ,decree that ,qur'an is uncreated2 ,scotus ,erigena transl4 pseudo-,dionysius1 ,a4,d4 #hej4 #bdj ,ibn ,abi ,duwad d4 #bda ,ahmad b4 ,hanbal d4 #bdc ,al-,harith al-,muhasibi d4 #bde ,dhu-n-,nun d42 al-,karabisi d4 #bej-caf #8,alids of ,zaydite branch in north ,persia4 #bee ,al-,jahiz d4 #bef ,ibn ,karram d4 #beg ,al-,bukhari d42 ,sari as-,saqati d4 #bfj ,al-,kindi d48 ,m4 b4 al-,hasan al-,muntazar vanished4 #bfa ,muslim d42 ,abu ,yazid al-,bistami d4 #bgj ,da'ud az-,zahiri d4 #bgc ,ibn ,maja d4 #bge ,abu ,da'ud as-,sijistani d4 #bgg ,qarmatians hold fortress in ,arab #8,iraq4 #bgi ,at-,tirmidhi d4 #bhj ,zaydite ,imams at as-,sa#8da and ,san#8a4 #bhi #8,ubayd ,allah al-,mahdi in ,north ,africa4 #bie-cbj ,al-,muqtadir #8,abbasid ,kh4 #big ,first ,fatimid ,kh42 al-,junayd d4 #cjj ,return of al-,ash#8ari4 #cjc ,an-,nasa#8i d42 ,al-,jubba#8i d4 #cji ,al-,hallaj executed4 #cag ,umayyads of ,cordova take title of ,commander of the ,faithful2 ,qarmatians in ,mecca4 #cbj-ddg ,buwayhids2 al-,ash#8ari d48 #cbb ,ibn ash-,shalmaghani4 #cca ,at-,tahawi d4 #ccc ,al-,mataridi d4 #ccc-cef ,sayf ad-,dawla4 #ccd ,buwayhids in ,baghdad2 ash-,shibli d4 #cci ,return of ,black ,stone by ,qarmatians2 al-,farabi d4 #cef ,fatimids conquer ,egypt2 ,cairo founded4 #cfj ,ikhwan as-,safa fl4 #cfb ,ibn ,hani d4 #cha-dbb ,al-,qadir ,kh4 #chf ,abu ,talib al-,makki d4 #chh-dba ,mahmud of ,ghazna4 #djc ,al-,baqilani d4 #djh ,persecution of ,mu#8tazilites under al-,qadir4 #daa ,al-,hakim ,fatimid ,kh4 vanished2 ,firdawsi d4 #dbh ,ibn ,sina d4 #dcd ,abu ,dharr d4 #ddj ,al-,beruni d4 #ddg ,tughril ,beg1 the ,saljuq1 in ,baghdad4 #ddi ,abu-l-#8,ala al-,ma#8arri d4 #dej ,persecution of ,ash#8arites4 #dee ,alp-,arslan2 ,nizam al-,mulk ,wazir2 end of persecution of ,ash#8arites4 #def ,ibn-,hazm az-,zahiri d4 #dfe ,al-,qushayri d4 #dgh ,imam al-,haramayn d4 #dha ,nasir b4 ,khusraw d4 #dhc ,hasan b4 as-,sabbah seizes ,alamut4 #dhe ,nizam al-,mulk assass4 #dhh ,al-,ghazzali leaves ,baghdad4 #eje ,al-,ghazzali d4 #eae #8,umar al-,khayyam d4 #eaf ,al-,baghawi d4 #ebd ,ibn ,tumart al-,mahdi d4 #ebd-eeh #8,abd al-,mu'min4 #ebd-ffg ,the ,muwahhids4 #ecc ,abu ,bakr b4 ,bajja d4 #ecg ,abu ,hafs an-,nasafi d4 #ech ,az-,zamakhshari d4 #edj ,yehuda ,halevi d4 ,a4,d4 #aade4 #edf ,abu ,bakr b4 al-#8,arabi d4 #edh ,ash-,shahrastani d4 #eeh #8,abd al-,mu'min the ,muwahhid d4 #eeh #8,adi al-,hakkari d4 #eeh-ehj ,abu ,ya#8qub the ,muwahhid4 #efa #8,abd al-,qadir al-,jilani1 founder of order of darwishes1 d4 #efg ,conquest of ,egypt by ,saladin and end of ,fatimids4 #egf ,order of ,rifa#8ites founded4 #ehj ,abu ,ya#8qub d4 #ehj-eif ,abu ,yusuf al-,mansur4 #eha ,ibn ,tufayl d4 #ehg ,as-,suhrawardi executed4 #ehi ,saladin d4 #eij ,abu ,shuja#8 d48 #eie ,ibn ,rushd d42 ,abu ,yusuf al-,mansur the ,muwahhid d4 #fja ,maimonides d4 ,a4,d4 #abjd4 #fjf ,fakhr ad-,din ar-,razi d4 #fbj ,abu-l-,hajjaj b4 ,tumlus d42 ,fakhr ad-,din b4 #8,asakir d42 ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi d4 ,a4,d4 #abbf4 #fbe-ida ,hafsids at ,tunis4 #fcj-fdj ,ar-,rashid the ,muwahhid4 #fcb #8,umar b4 al-,farid4 #fch ,ibn #8,arabi d4 #fdh ,frederick ,,ii4 d4 ,a4,d4 #abej4 #fed ,end of ,assassins by ,mongols2 ,ash-,shadhili1 founder of order of darwishes1 d4 #ffg ,ibn ,sab#8in d42 end of ,muwahhids4 #fgb ,jalal ad-,din ar-,rumi d4 #fge ,ahmad al-,badawi1 founder of order of darwishes1 d4 #fha ,ibn ,khallikan d4 #fhe ,al-,baydawi d4 #fic1 #fih-gjh1 #gji-gda ,muhammad ,an-,nasir1 ,mamluk ,sultan1 reg4 #gai ,an-,nasr al-,manbiji d48 #gbd ,ibn ,rushd is still studied at ,almeria4 #gbh ,ibn ,taymiya d42 ,meister ,eckhart d4 ,a4,d4 #acbh4 #gcj #8,abd ar-,razzaq d4 #gef ,al-#8,iji d42 ,heinrich ,suso d4 #gia ,at-,taftazani d42 an-,naqshbandi1 founder of order of darwishes1 d4 #hjh ,ibn ,khaldun d4 #heg ,capture of ,constantinople by ,ottomans and office of ,shaykh al-,islam created ,a4,d4 #adec4 ,thomas ,kempis d4 ,a4,d4 #adga4 #hie ,m4 b4 ,yusuf as-,sanusi d4 #ijg ,accession of ,safawids4 #ibb ,conquest of ,egypt by ,ottoman ,turks4 #ide ,death of al-,mutawakkil1 last #8,abbasid4 #iea ,beginning of ,sharifs of ,morocco4 #igc ,ash-,sha#8rani d4 #abja #8,abd al-,wahhab d4 ,a4,d4 #aghg4 #abje ,sayyid ,murtada d42 al-,fudali fl4 circ4 #abbj4 #abeb ,foundation of ,brotherhood of as-,sanusi ,a4,d4 #ahcg4 #abfj ,ibrahim al-,bajuri d42 ,decree of ,porte that apostate ,muslims should not be put to death4 #abge ,death of founder of ,brotherhood of as-,sanusi ,a4,d4 #ahei4 ,,footnotes #a ,for ,muslim eschatology reference may still be made to ,sale's introduction to the ,qur'an1 #d4 ,the punishment of the grave is what1 in the case of unbelievers1 follows the inquisition by the two angels ,munkar and ,nakir2 see on them ,lane's ,modern ,egyptians1 chap4 xxviii2 on the whole subject1 see translations by ,gautier and ,wolff and tractate by ,rling 7,bibliography1 p4 #cfg74 #b ,this1 one of the dividing questions between ,sunnites and ,shi#8ites1 belongs to theology as well as law4 ,see p4 #cad and ,goldziher1 ,zur ,literaturgeschichte der ,si#8a1 p4 #hg4 #c ,the ,mu#8tazilites held that articles of sustenance of a forbidden nature1 such as pork or wine1 could not be called rizq in this technical sense2 that ,god could not so use them4 ,the orthodox retorted that a man might live his life out on forbidden things2 had he then been independent of ,god as to his sustenance8 ,the ,mu#8tazilites defined rizq as 8a possession which its possessor eats0 and as 8that from which one is not hindered from profiting02 the orthodox1 as a name for that which ,god sends to man and the other animals and they eat it and profit by it4 #d ,some will run into the fire and find themselves immediately in ,paradise2 these would have been believers4 ,others will refuse1 and will be treated as their parents4 #e ,this is not the normal doctrine of ,islam and the commentators have to explain this passage away4 ,consult in the chapters on theology1 the whole ,sufi development and especially the views of al-,ghazzali4 ,al-,mataridi was greatly influenced by ,abu ,hanifa1 who was hostile to mystics4 ,notice1 too1 the philosophical basis and beginning of this creed4 #f ,a sect of the ,mu#8tazilites held that a man could have two ajals1 one his end by a natural death appointed by ,god1 the other his end by a violent death1 not so appointed4 ,the 8,philosophers0 are said to have held that one ajal would be when the mechanism of the body ceased to work through the failing of its essential moisture and heat1 and another ajal might come through sicknesses and accident generally4 #g ,see in bibliography1 ,s4 ,keijzer1 ,prcis1 etc4 ,much help as to details of religious ritual and law will be found in ,hughes's ,dictionary of ,islam1 ,sachau's ,muhammedanisches ,recht1 ,lane's ,modern ,egyptians1 and commentary to his translation of the ,arabian ,nights1 ,burton's ,pilgrimage1 and ,sell's ,faith of ,islam4 ,,index ,,of ,,names ,,and ,,arabic ,,words ,abadi1 #cjj ,al-#8,abbas1 #aj1 #cb #8,abbasids1 #aj1 #cb1 #cd1 #ci1 #de1 #ej1 #ea1 #ec1 #ed1 #ef1 #eg1 #ia1 #ib-id1 #ig1 #ih1 #acb-ace1 #aec1 #aed1 #afg1 #afi1 #agd #8,abd1 #bid #8,abd ,allah1 father of ,muhammad1 #cej1 f4 #8,abd ,allah ibn az-,zubayr1 #bc1 #be #8,abd ,allah ibn ,maymun1 #dj1 #db-dd #8,abd ,allah ibn #8,umar1 #bih #8,abd al-,mu'min1 #bdh1 #beb #8,abd al-,muttalib1 #cea #8,abd al-,qadir al-,jilani1 #bfg #8,abd ar-,rahman1 the ,umayyad1 #cc #8,abd ar-,razzaq1 #bga1 f4 #8,abid1 #agc1 #agd #8,abida1 #agd ,abkam1 #cdj ,abraham1 also ,ibrahim1 #dc1 #bbf1 #cde ,abu #8,abd ,allah ibn ,karram2 see ,ibn ,karram ,abu-l-#8,ala al-,ma#8arri1 #aii ,abu ,bakr1 #ast ,kh41 #ac-af1 #bc1 #bd1 #cf1 #ef1 #ga1 #afe1 #bjj1 #bej1 #bfh1 #big1 #cjg1 #cac1 #cdf ,abu ,da'ud as-,sijistani1 #ha ,abu ,dharr1 #bjg ,abu-l-,hajjaj ibn ,tumlus1 #bfj ,abu ,hanifa1 #id-ajb1 #ajf1 #aba1 #abg1 #aic1 #cji ,abu ,hashim1 #aei1 f4 ,abu ,hudhayl1 #acf-aci1 #aei1 #bdh ,abu ,sahl1 #cbe ,abu ,shuja#8 al-,ispahani1 #cea ,abu ,sufyan1 #bb ,abu ,sulayman of ,damascus1 #age ,abu ,talib1 #aj ,abu ,talib al-,makki1 #agf1 f4 ,abu #8,ubayda1 #aej ,abu ,ya#8qub ibn #8,abd al-,mu'min1 #beb-bee ,abu ,yusuf1 the ,qadi1 #if-ii ,abu ,yusuf al-,mansur1 #beb1 #bee ,active ,intellect1 #bcf1 #bej-bec1 #bef1 #bfe #8,ada1 #aac #8,adad1 #cbf ,adam1 #db1 #dc1 #aga1 #bcb1 #cab1 #ccb1 #cdf #8,adam1 #caf #8,adi al-,hakkari1 #bfg #8,adil1 #cef #8,adl1 #bia ,africa1 #ei ,africa1 ,east1 #bd1 #bf ,africa1 ,north1 #bf1 #ce1 #de1 #df1 #fb1 #bdc ,ahl al-ahwa1 #abb1 #bii ,ahl at-tawhid wal-#8adl1 #acf ,ahl kitab1 #bd ,ahmad al-,badawi1 #bfg1 #bfi ,ahmad al-,malawi1 #cca ,ahmad ar-,rifa#8a1 #bfg ,ahmad ibn #8,abd ,allah ibn ,maymun1 #dd ,ahmad ibn ,abi ,duwad1 #aef ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal1 #gi1 #ajc1 #aaj1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #agb1 #age1 #agf1 #ahg1 #bgd1 #bgg1 #bic #8,a'isha1 wife of ,muhammad1 #aj1 #ac1 #ba #8,a'isha1 daughter of ,ja#8far as-,sadiq1 #agc ,ajal1 #bih1 #caa ,al-,ajhuri1 #cdf #8,ajz1 #cag1 #cci ,al-,akhtal1 #hi #8,alam al-jabarut1 #bcd #8,alam al-malakut1 #bcd1 #bce #8,alam al-mulk1 #bcd ,alamut1 #di1 #afi1 #bbd ,alastu bi-rabbikum1 #aga ,aleppo1 #afb ,alexandria1 #bda ,algeria1 #bd1 #bf1 #fb #8,alids1 #ah1 #cb-ce1 #cg1 #ea1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aff1 #ahg #8,ali ibn ,abi ,talib1 #ah-ca1 #cf1 #cg1 #dd1 #de1 #hh1 #aba1 #aee1 #ahb1 #bdi1 #bei1 #bge1 #big1 #cjg1 #cac1 #cad1 #cdf #8,alim1 #ccg2 cf4 #8ulama ,allah1 #abg1 #afa1 #cba1 #cbg ,almeria1 #bfj ,alp ,arslan1 #bac ,alphonso the ,wise1 #bcc ,al-#8,alqami1 #cdf ,a#8ma1 #cdj #8,ama1 #cdj #8,amal1 #bid1 #bif1 #cab ,amana1 #cdg #8,amr ibn #8,ubayd1 #abi ,amina1 mother of ,muhammad1 #cea ,anima ,mundi1 #bcb ,ansar1 #i1 #ac1 #ah #8,aqida1 #caf #8,aqiqa1 #cef #8,aql1 #abj1 #acf1 #adh1 #aeg1 #bad1 #bfi1 #bgb1 #bib1 #cjh1 #caf ,al-'aql al-fa#8 #8al2 see ,active ,intellect ,arabs1 #h1 #ad1 #ag1 #bd1 #dj1 #dd-df1 #ej1 #ea1 #fj1 #fg1 #fh1 #gd1 #abd1 #abe1 #abg1 #acc1 #acd1 #aej1 #aeg1 #bdc1 #cje ,arabia1 #ae1 #bc1 #be1 #cf1 #cg1 #aca ,arabia1 ,south1 #bh1 #cf1 #cg1 #de1 #ei ,arab #8,iraq2 see al-#8,iraq #8,arad1 #aei1 #cji1 #cbj ,arhamu-r-rahimin1 #baj ,aristotelians1 ,aristotelianism1 #acd1 #adj1 #add1 #afa-afc1 #afh1 #aif1 #aih1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bhf ,aristotle1 #acd1 #ach1 #adj1 #add1 #afa-afd1 #aih1 #bba1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #bdh1 #bec1 #bee1 #bef1 #bfj1 #bfd #8,arsh1 #cja ,asal1 #bec1 #bed ,asamm1 #cdj ,al-asharatu-l-mubashshara1 #bfh1 #big1 #cad ,al-,ash#8ari1 #ahg-aij1 #aib1 #aic1 #bjj1 #bjh1 #bad1 #bag1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bbf1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bic1 #cjh1 #cai1 #cda ,ash#8arites1 #aia1 #bja1 #bjg-bac1 #bda-bdg1 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bgf1 #bhj1 #bia1 #bib1 #cch #8,ashura1 day of1 #bh ,asl1 #ajg1 #aji ,aslah1 #aij1 #bib1 #caa2 see1 too1 salah ,al-asma al-husna1 #baj1 #bhj1 #cba1 #cda ,assassins1 #bg1 #di1 #ec1 #ei1 #afi1 #agj1 #aif2 see1 too1 ,isma#8ilians1 ,batinites1 ,ta#8limites #8,ata ibn ,yassar1 #abh ,athos1 ,mount1 #agh ,augustine1 #acb1 #bae1 #baf ,avenpace1 #bej2 see1 too1 ,ibn ,bajja ,averroes1 ,averroism1 #bea2 see1 too1 ,ibn ,rushd ,avicenna1 #aig2 see1 too1 ,ibn ,sina ,awlad #8,ilwan1 #bfh ,awwaliyat1 #bfj ,al-,awza#8i1 #ih #8,ayn1 #aia1 #cji1 #cai1 #cda ,azali1 #bia1 #cjj1 #cji1 #cbb1 #cdc ,babism1 #e ,badaha1 #cjh ,badakhshan1 #agj ,badan1 #ada ,badawite darwishes1 #bfg ,al-,baghawi1 #ha1 #bjg ,baghdad1 #e1 #ej-ec1 #ef1 #aaa1 #acc1 #aei1 #afb1 #aff-afh1 #age1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #aij1 #aid1 #aie1 #bjg1 #bac1 #bag1 #bbj1 #bbf1 #bfg ,baghdad1 ,pashalik of1 #fj ,bakam1 #cdj ,balada1 #cdg ,balkh1 #agd ,baqa1 #cbc ,al-,baqilani1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjg ,barmak1 ,barmecides1 #ej ,basar1 #bid1 #ccc ,bashshar ibn ,burd1 #aej ,basir1 #ccg ,al-,basra1 #ah1 #bc1 #be1 #hc1 #aej1 #aei1 #afg1 #agd1 #ahg1 #ahh ,ba#8th1 #bif1 #caa1 #cbi ,batin1 #cad ,batinites1 #db1 #aif ,batn1 #db ,bay#81 #cec ,al-,baydawi1 #aie1 #bda ,al-,bayjuri1 #cae ,baytu-l-#8izza1 #cce ,bedawis1 #fb ,berbers1 #de1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bdh1 #bdi ,al-,beruni1 #agj1 #aig ,beyrout1 #hd ,bid#8a1 #gd1 #gh1 #adh1 #ahf1 #big1 #bii1 #cjg ,bila kayfa wala tashbih1 #adg1 #aga1 #aia1 #bjh1 #bid1 #cdd2 cf4 kayfa ,bil-fi#8l2 see ,fi#8l ,bishr al-,hafi1 #age1 #agf ,bishr al-,marisi1 #aee ,bishr ibn al-,mu#8tamir1 #adb1 #adc1 #aea1 #aeb ,al-,bistami1 ,abu ,yazid1 #ahc1 #ahh1 #bbe1 #bfh ,brotherhood of as-,sanusi1 #fa1 ff4 ,buddhists1 #acd ,al-,bukhari1 #gi1 #hj1 #adg1 #adh ,burgundy1 #hc ,burhan1 #bei1 #bfj ,buwayhids1 #ea1 #eb1 #afg1 #aid1 #aie1 #aig1 #bjh ,csarea1 #hd ,cairo1 #di1 #aff1 #agc1 #aie1 #bda1 #bdd1 #bgg ,camel1 ,battle of the1 #ba ,carthage1 #hb1 #bdc ,charles the ,hammer1 #hc ,chinese ,muslims1 #ei ,christians1 ,christianity1 #bd1 #dg1 #dh1 #abe1 #acj-acd1 #acg1 #add1 #adg1 #aea1 #aha1 #aid ,companions2 see ,sahibs ,code ,napolon1 #aad ,constantine in ,algeria1 #de ,constantinople1 #ed1 #aac ,crusaders1 #di ,ad-,dajjal1 #bih1 #cae ,dalil1 #aji1 #cae ,daman1 #ced ,damascus1 #ad1 #hb1 #hh1 #aca1 #age1 #agg ,dar al-,harb1 #ee ,dar al-,islam1 #ee ,daruri1 #cjh ,darwishes1 #e1 #fa1 #agi1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #bjc1 #bdd1 #bff1 #bfh ,da'ud az-,zahiri1 #ajc1 #ajh-aaj ,da'ud ibn ,nusayr1 #agd ,dauphin1 ,le1 #hc ,dawr1 #cbc ,dhikrs1 #agd1 #agh1 #agi ,dhuhul1 #cdj ,dhu-l-faqar1 #bj ,dhu-l-,kifl1 #cdf ,dhu-n-,nun1 #agf ,dhu-n-,nurayn1 #cac ,din1 #bic1 #big1 #bih1 #cje1 #cjg ,diya1 #cee ,diyana1 #bic ,druses1 #bg1 #dh1 #ei1 #agj ,eckart1 the mystic1 #ahj ,edict of the ,prtor1 #hg ,egypt1 ,egyptians1 #ad1 #ba1 #bc1 #cj1 #de-di1 #ec1 #fb1 #hb1 #ahg1 #bdd1 #bgg1 #bhg ,emessa1 #afc ,erigena1 ,scotus1 #ahb ,euchites1 #agh ,euclid1 #acd ,euphrates1 #acc ,fakhr ad-,din ar-,razi1 #bda ,fakhr ad-,din ibn #8,asakir1 #bgc ,fana1 #cch ,faqih1 fuqaha1 #gc1 #he1 #bgj ,faqirs1 #bfh ,al-,farabi1 #afb-afd1 #afe1 #afg1 #afi1 #aha1 #aif1 #bae1 #bba1 #bcf1 #bej ,faragh1 #cag ,fard1 #gc ,farida1 #ced ,al-,faruq1 #cac ,fatana1 #cdg ,fatima1 daughter of ,muhammad1 #bj1 #cj1 #cf1 #cdf1 #cdg ,fatima of ,naysabur1 #agc ,fatimids1 #bg1 #cf1 #de1 #dg1 #di1 #afe-afg1 #afi1 #agc1 #ahd1 #aig1 #bbd1 #bda1 #bdd1 #bea ,fatwa1 #aae1 #ahd1 #bgf1 #bgg ,fay'1 #cef ,bil-fi#8l1 #cbh ,fi mahall2 see mahall ,fiqh1 #gg1 #hg1 #aaf1 #acb1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bde1 #beb1 #bfa1 #bgj1 #bgi1 #bhb2 cf4 faqih ,firdawsi1 #agj ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi1 #ahj ,frederick ,,ii41 the ,hohenstaufen1 #bfc ,friday1 #ce1 #ea1 #bce1 #bih1 #cac ,al-,fudali1 #aia1 #cae ,al-,fudayl ibn #8,iyad1 #agd1 #age ,fustat1 #hc ,galen1 #acd ,ghafala1 #cdj ,al-,ghani1 #cbg ,ghanima1 #cef ,ghasb1 #ced ,al-,ghayb1 #aci1 #bha1 #cad ,al-,ghazzali1 #aci1 #afe1 #agf1 #ahc1 #aie1 #aii1 #bjg1 #bae-bda1 #bde-bdi1 #bec1 #beg1 #bfj-bfd1 #bfg1 #bgj1 #bhd-bhf1 #cjj1 #cji ,ghiba1 #cdi ,ghusl1 #ceb ,gondeshapur1 #acd ,greek monks1 #agh ,greek philosophy1 science1 etc41 #acc1 #ach1 #adj1 #add1 #aei1 #afa1 #afb ,habib1 #age ,hadd1 #cad1 #cee ,hadith1 #ge1 #gg1 #gh1 #hg1 #id1 #aba1 #aij1 #bji1 #bfa1 #bgj ,hadith1 #cbj1 #cbb1 #cbh1 #ccb ,hadith an-nafs1 #bgc1 #ccf1 #cej ,hadramawt1 #fj ,hafsids1 #bfe ,ha'il1 #fj ,hajar as-safih1 #ced ,hajj1 #bge1 #bgh1 #bib1 #cec ,al-,hajjaj1 #bji1 #bih ,al-,hakim ,bi'amrillah1 #dg1 #dh ,al-,hakam ibn abi-l-#8,as1 #ag ,hal1 #afj1 #agf1 #bbg1 #caj1 #cai1 #cbb1 #ccg ,hal nafsi1 #cai ,halal1 #bih ,al-,hallaj1 #ahc-ahe1 #bih ,halley's comet1 #cd ,hamdanids1 #afb1 #afe ,hamilton1 ,sir ,william1 #bcg ,hanbalites1 #aae1 #aba1 #aeh1 #afg1 #aij1 #aia1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bab-bad1 #bcg1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bgh ,hanif1 #abe ,hanifites1 #aae ,haqiqa1 #cbh1 #cbi ,haqq1 #cef ,haram1 #gc1 #bih1 #caa ,al-,haraman1 #ef1 #bac ,al-,harith al-,muhasibi1 #age1 #agg1 #ahg1 #bbe ,harran1 #acc1 #acd ,harun ar-,rashid1 #ej1 #ig1 #ih1 #add1 #aec1 #aee1 #age ,hasad1 #cdi ,al-,hasan1 #bj1 #bg1 #bh1 #ce ,al-,hasan al-,basri1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #agb1 #agc ,hasan ibn as-,sabbah1 #bbd ,hashim1 #aj1 #ag1 #cb1 #cac1 #cea ,hawala1 #ced ,hawd1 #bdi1 #bif1 #cjf1 #caa1 #cdi ,hayah1 #ccb ,hayy1 #ccg ,al-,hayy1 #baa ,hayy ibn ,yaqzan1 #bec1 #bed ,hebron1 #bbf ,hegel1 #adc1 #bcc ,herat1 #hb1 #bjg ,hesychasts1 #agh ,hiba1 #ced ,hidana1 #cee ,hidden ,imam1 #ca1 #cg1 #da1 #ef1 #aaf2 cf4 ,imam1 ,imamites ,hierotheos1 #aha ,al-,hijaz1 #bab ,hippocrates1 #acd ,hud1 #cdf ,huduth1 #cbj1 #cch2 cf4 hadith1 muhdath ,hukm1 #bib ,hulagu1 #di1 #ec ,hulul1 #bbh ,hume1 #bbi1 #bcj ,al-,husayn1 #bj1 #bh ,huwa-l-haqq1 #bjc ,i#8ara1 #ced ,ibadites1 #e1 #bf1 #ed1 #aae1 #aag1 #abf ,ibn#8,abd al-,wahhab2 see ,muham1 mad ibn #8,abd al-,wahhab ,ibn ,abi #8,awja1 #hj ,ibn al-#8,arabi1 #caf1 #cbb1 #cbc1 #cbh ,ibn #8,arabi1 #bda1 #bfa1 #bfd1 #bga1 #bgg1 #bhj ,ibn ash-,shalmaghani1 #ahe ,ibn ,bajja1 #bej1 #beb1 #bee1 #beg ,ibn ,hani1 #agj ,ibn ,hazm1 #bji-bab1 #bde-bdh1 #bfa1 #bge1 #bhj ,ibn ,ibad1 #8,abd ,allah1 #be1 #bf1 #aaf ,ibn ,karram1 #agj1 ff4 ,ibn ,khaldun1 #ej1 #ha1 #bdb1 f4 ,ibn ,khallikan1 #ahe ,ibn ,maja1 #ha ,ibn al-,muqaffa#81 #aej ,ibn ,rushd1 #afa1 #afc1 #aie1 #bjf1 #bae1 #bcf1 #bdh1 #beb1 #bee1 #bef-bfa1 #bfd-bhf ,ibn ,sab#8in1 #8,abd al-,haqq1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bfg1 #bgg ,ibn ,sina1 #afc1 #aga1 #aig1 #bba1 #bbh1 #bcf1 #bda1 #bej1 #beg ,ibn ,taymiya1 #bgj-bgh1 #bhc-bhe ,ibn ,tufayl1 #beb-bef1 #bfa ,ibn ,tumart1 #bjg1 #bde-bdh1 #beb1 #bge ,ibrahim ibn ,adham1 #agd1 #bfh ,al-idafatu-l-#8amm lil-khass1 #ccg ,al-idafatu-l-bayaniya1 #ccg #8,idda1 #cee ,idris1 #cdf ,idris ibn #8,abd ,allah1 #ce ,idrisids1 #cd1 #ajb ,ihata1 #ccb ,ihsan1 #bic ,ihtiyaj ila mahall1 #cci ,ihya1 #cch ,ihya of al-,ghazzali1 #bhe1 #cjj ,ihya al-mawat1 #ced ,ijara1 #ced ,i#8jaz1 #aea ,al-#8,iji1 #bda1 #bfi ,ijma#81 #eg1 #eh1 #gb1 #id1 #aja1 #aje1 #bji1 #bib1 #cbh1 #cea ,ijmali1 #caf ,ikhtilaf1 #aaf ,ikhtiyar1 #aib1 #caj1 #cci1 #cde ,ikhwan as-safa1 #afg1 #afi1 #aid1 #aif1 #aii ,iktisab1 #bhj2 cf4 kasb ,iktisabi1 #cji ,ila1 #cee ,ilhad1 #cad ,ilham1 #bha1 #cji ,iljam al-#8awamm#8an #8ilm al-kalam of al-,ghazzali1 #bfj #8,illa1 #ajg1 #cai1 #ccg2 cf4 ta#8lil #8,ilm1 #bja1 #bid1 #ccb #8,ilwan1 the ,shaykh1 #bfh ,imam1 #bf1 #bi1 #ca1 #cf-ch1 #da-dc1 #df1 #ed1 #eg1 #adb1 #aee1 #afe1 #afg1 #ahh1 #aig1 #bab1 #bbd1 #bhf1 #bib1 #bic1 #big-bii1 #caa1 #cac1 #cah1 #cej ,imam al-,haramayn1 #bab1 #bac1 #bag1 #bcj1 #cag ,imamites1 #cg1 #eg1 #ei1 #aaf1 #abf1 #adb1 #bdg ,iman1 #abf1 #abg1 #bib-bif1 #caa1 #cab1 #cah1 #cej ,imata1 #cch ,imdadat1 #ccj ,imtihan1 #adh2 cf4 mihna ,india1 #ea1 #ee1 #ef1 #ei1 #fa ,india1 ,emperor of1 #ee ,indian ,mu#8tazilism1 #bhf ,injil1 #cjd ,in sha' ,allah1 #bgb ,iqrar1 #cab1 #ced ,irada1 #ccj ,al-#8,iraq1 #bji #8,iraq1 ,arab1 #dd ,irda1 #cee ,irja1 #bib2 cf4 ,murji'ites #8,isa2 see ,jesus ,islam1 #g1 #ac-ae1 #ai-bg1 #cg1 #dj-dh1 #eb-ee1 #eh1 #ei1 #fh1 #ga-gd1 #aah-abj1 #abd1 #acj1 #acf1 #ada1 #adb1 #adi1 #aea-aed1 #aeh-afa1 #afg1 #agc1 #agf1 #agg1 #ahj-ahc1 #ahf1 #aij1 #aia1 #bjf1 #bab-bae1 #bah1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcc1 #bce1 #bch-bdd1 #bdh1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bgj1 #bgh1 #bhb-bhd1 #bib1 #bif1 #cab #8,isma1 #bdg1 #bib1 #cad1 #cdg ,isma#8il1 #da1 #db1 #dc ,isma#8ilians1 #db1 #dd1 #eg1 #ei1 #afi1 #agj1 #aif ,isnad1 #ge1 #gh1 #gi ,ispahan1 #aie ,istawa1 ,istiwa1 #ahf1 #bid1 #cja ,istidlali1 #cjh ,istihsan1 #hg1 #id1 #if ,istislah1 #hg1 #ajj1 #aja ,istita#8a1 #caj ,istiwa2 see ,istawa ,i#8tazala #8anna1 #acj ,ithna #8,ashariya1 #ch ,i#8tibar1 #bja1 #cda ,i#8tibar ikhtira#8i1 #cdb ,i#8tibar intiza#8i1 #cdb ,i#8tidal1 #bba ,i#8tikaf1 #cec #8,itq1 #ceg ,ittihad1 #bbh1 #bgg ,ja#8ala1 #ced ,jabarites1 #bib1 #cdd ,jabr1 #bia1 #cdd ,jacob1 #cej ,jadliya1 #bei ,ja#8far as-,sadiq1 #db1 #agc ,al-,jafr1 #bdi ,jahannam1 #cjf ,al-,jahiliya1 the ,barbarism1 or the ,ignorance1 #h1 #gd1 #gg1 #agc ,al-,jahiz1 #afj1 #afa ,jahl1 #cdj ,jahm ibn ,safwan1 #abf1 #ach1 #adf1 #aej ,jahmites1 #bid1 #bii ,ja'iz1 #gc1 #caf1 #cdh ,jalal ad-,din ar-,rumi1 #bfg ,jami#81 #hj ,jarabub1 #fb ,jawhar1 #aei1 #cji ,jawhar ruhani1 #bca ,jerusalem1 #ad1 #dj1 #db1 #adf1 #bbf ,jesus1 #8,isa1 #db1 #adf1 #cae1 #cde ,jews1 #bd1 #dg1 #fh1 #gj1 #acc1 #acd1 #add1 #aid ,jibril1 #bib1 #bic1 #cce1 #ccf ,jihad1 #ee1 #fc1 #bdf1 #cef ,jinaya1 #cee ,jinn1 ,jinni1 ,jann1 #gf1 #bha1 #bhc1 #bhf1 #bii1 #cjd1 #cje1 #cbd ,jirm1 #cag1 #cbj ,jism1 #adc1 #cji ,jizya1 #ae1 #cef ,john of ,damascus1 #hi1 #aca1 #acb1 #acg1 #adf ,al-,jubba#8i1 #aei1 #afj1 #agb1 #ahh-aij ,al-,junayd1 #agf1 #agg1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #bbe1 #bhb ,jurisprudentes1 #he1 #hf ,juththa1 #ccd ,al-,juwayni2 see ,imam al-,haramayn ,ka#8ba1 #adi1 #bfh1 #bgh ,kabira1 #abg1 #bif1 #caa1 #cdi ,kafala1 #ced ,kafir1 #bie1 #caf1 #cbh1 #cej2 cf4 kufr1 takfir 8,kalila and ,dimna10 #aej ,kahin1 #cad ,kalam1 #adg1 #adi1 #aea1 #aeg1 #age1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #aic1 #bjj1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bad1 #baf1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bde1 #bgf1 #bgh1 #bhf1 #bid1 #cji1 #cae1 #cce ,kalam ,allah1 #adf ,kalam nafsi1 hadith fi-n-nafs1 #bgc1 #ccf ,kalimata-sh-shahada1 #cjj ,al-kalimatan1 #cj ,kallima-llahu ,musa taklima1 #adi ,kamm munfasil1 #cbe ,kamm muttasil1 #cbe ,kant1 #aia1 #bjj1 #bja ,al-,karabisi1 #ahg ,karaha1 #cci ,karama1 #agd1 #bac1 #bbh1 #bcj1 #bgd1 #bha1 #bhb1 #cac ,karbala1 #bh ,karramites1 #agj1 #aia1 #aie1 #bia1 #bib ,kasb1 #agi1 #aib1 #bib2 cf4 iktisab ,kashf1 #abj1 #agb1 #agi1 #bae1 #bfi ,kashshaf of az-,zamakhshari1 #aie ,kawn1 #cji2 cf4 takwin ,kawn #8ajiz1 #cdj ,kawn jahil1 #cdj ,kawn karih1 #cdj ,kawn mayyit1 #cdj ,kawn murid1 #ccg ,kawn qadir1 #ccf ,al-,kawthar1 #cjf1 #cdi ,kayfa1 #big ,kayfiya1 #cji1 #ccd ,kempis1 ,thomas 1 #agg1 #ahj ,khabar1 #cjh ,khadija1 #cdg ,al-,khadir1 #bha1 #bhc ,khalifa1 ,khalifate1 #ac-bh1 #cb-ch1 #de1 #dg1 #ea-eh1 #big1 #cac2 cf4 al-,khulafa ,khalq1 #cch ,khanqah1 #bbi1 #bff ,kharaj1 #ae ,kharas1 #cdj1 #cda ,kharijites1 #bc-bg1 #cb1 #dj1 #dd1 #eg1 #ei1 #abc-abf1 #aca1 #agb1 #bab1 #bib1 #bid1 #bif ,khatarat1 #cca ,khitabiya1 #bei ,khitba1 #cee ,khiyana1 #cdg ,khuffs1 #bih1 #cad1 #cdg1 #ceb1 #cee ,khul#81 #cee ,al-,khulafa-ar-rashidun1 #bb1 #hg1 #ii1 #aje1 #aad ,khurasan1 #aga1 #agd1 #agg ,khutba1 #ef ,khuzistan1 #be1 #acd ,kibr1 #cdi ,kidhb1 #cdg ,al-,kindi1 #aee1 #afa1 #ahg ,kitaba1 #ceg ,kitman1 #cdg ,kubra of as-,sanusi1 #caf ,al-,kufa1 #ah1 #bc1 #bh1 #hc ,kufr1 #aeg1 #bif1 #caa1 #ccb1 #cdi2 cf4 takfir1 kafir ,labid1 #adi ,lafz1 #adg1 #cce ,laqab1 #cdg ,laqit1 #ced ,la shay'1 #cbh ,al-lawh al-mahfuz1 #cce ,laylatu-l-qadr1 #cce ,lebanon1 #dh ,leibnitz1 #aib1 #bjj1 #bjc ,li#8an1 #cee ,logos1 #adf-adh1 #aea ,lucretius1 #bjj ,luqta1 #ced ,lutf1 #bib ,ma#8bad al-,juhani1 #abh ,al-,madina1 #g1 #h1 #ah1 #ce1 #ef1 #fg1 #fi-ga1 #gb1 #hb1 #hg1 #hh1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajb1 #afe1 #bac1 #baf1 #bbf1 #bgh1 #bhd1 #cdf ,madrasa1 #bbi ,ma#8dum1 #aei1 #cad1 #cai2 cf4 #8adam ,mafatih al-ghayb of ar-,razi1 #bda ,magians1 #add ,al-,maghrib1 #bdc ,mahall1 #cag1 #cbe ,mahall 7fi71 #acg ,al-,mahdi1 #bg1 #cd1 #de1 #fc1 #aad1 #bdd-bdi ,al-,mahdi1 the #8,abbasid ,khalifa1 #ce1 #acd ,al-,mahdiya1 #afe1 #bdd ,mahiya1 #cji ,mahmud of ,ghazna1 #agj1 #aie1 #aig ,mahr1 #cee ,maimonides1 #bcg ,maine1 ,sir ,henry1 #fe1 #he1 #aad ,majazi1 #cbi ,majuj1 #cae ,makhluqat1 #cbd ,makruh1 #gc1 #cdg ,malay ,archipelago1 #fb ,malik ibn ,anas1 #ce1 #gh1 #ii-ajc1 #ajf1 #adg1 #ahf1 #bde1 #cdf ,malikites1 #aae ,ma#8mar ibn #8,abbad1 #adc ,mamluks1 #ec1 #ed1 #bge ,al-,ma'mun1 #ej1 #aaj1 #adj1 #add1 #aed-aei1 #afb1 #aff1 #bgg ,mandub1 #gc1 #cdg ,manichans1 #acc1 #acd ,mansel1 ,h4 ,l41 #bcg ,al-,mansur1 #8,abbasid ,kh41 #cc1 #cd1 #ej1 #acd1 #aec1 #aed ,maqama1 #agf ,al-,maqasid1 #cdf ,maqbulat1 #bei ,mar'an1 #cad ,ma#8rifa1 #bja1 #cej ,mariya the ,copt1 #cdg ,ma#8ruf of al-,karkh1 #age ,marwan ,,ii41 #cb ,marwan ibn al-,hakam1 #ag ,masabih as-sunna of al-,baghawi1 #ha ,mash1 #bih1 #cad ,mashhurat1 #bei ,mashya1 #bid ,maslaha1 #aja ,masyaf1 #di ,al-,mataridi1 #ahg1 #aic1 #bjg1 #cjh ,mataridites1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #ccg1 #cch ,matn1 #ge1 #gh ,mawaqif of al #8,iji1 #bda ,mawjub1 #cdg2 cf4 wajib ,mawjud1 #aei1 #aia1 #cad1 #cai2 cf4 wujud ,mawlawite darwishes1 #bfg ,mawqif1 #bif1 #cdi ,mawsil1 #bfg ,mawt1 #cdj ,maymun1 #dj ,maznunat1 #bei ,mecca1 #i1 #ag1 #bc1 #be1 #cb1 #df1 #ef1 #fb1 #fh1 #agd1 #ahd1 #bac1 #bag1 #bbf1 #bfe1 #bhe1 #bif1 #cdf ,merv1 #bag ,mesnevi1 ,the1 #bfg ,mesopotamia1 #bc1 #dd1 #hb1 #aca1 #ahg ,mihna1 #aef1 #aeg ,minister of ,justice1 #aad ,mi#8raj1 #bih1 #cab ,mongols1 #di1 #eb1 #ec1 #afi ,monophysites1 #aha ,morocco1 #ce1 #fb ,moses1 #db1 #adi1 #aib1 #bie1 #bif1 #cjd1 #ccf1 #cde ,mu#8awiya1 #ba-bc1 #bh1 #hh ,mubah1 #gc1 #cdh ,mubtadi#81 #cjg2 cf4 bid#8a ,mufti1 #aae2 cf4 fatwa ,muhajirs1 #h1 #ac1 #bj ,muhammad1 the ,prophet1 #g-ac1 #af-bb1 #bh1 #cj1 #ce1 #cg1 #db-de1 #ef1 #eg1 #eh1 #fg-ge1 #hc1 #hf-hi1 #ie1 #ajd-ajf1 #aab1 #abj-acc1 #adj-aej1 #aee1 #afj1 #afa1 #afd1 #afe1 #aga1 #agb1 #age-ahj1 #ahh1 #baj1 #bbg-bca1 #bdc1 #bde1 #bdi1 #bec1 #bed1 #bfc1 #bgj1 #bge-bgh1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #bib-bid1 #bih1 #cje1 #cjh1 #cab1 #cce1 #ccf1 #cde1 #cdf1 #cdi1 #cej1 #cea ,muhammad ,,ii41 ,ottoman ,sultan1 #aac ,muhammad al-#8,allaf2 see ,abu ,hudhayl ,muhammad al-,muntazar1 #ahg ,muhammad an-,naqshbandi1 #bfg ,muhammad ibn #8,abd al-,wahhab1 #fj1 #bhc ,muhammad ibn ,abi ,bakr1 #ah ,muhammad ibn al-,hanafiya1 #bi1 #ca ,muhammad ibn al-,hasan1 #ch1 #if1 #ajb ,muhammad ibn #8,ali as-,sanusi2 see as-,sanusi ,muhammad ibn ,isma#8il1 #db1 #dc1 #de ,muharram1 #cdg ,al-,muhasibi2 see ,al-,harith ,muhdath1 #cji2 cf4 hadith1 huduth ,muhdith1 #cji1 #cba ,muhsan1 #cee ,muhyi ad-,din ibn #8,arabi2 see ,ibn #8,arabi ,al-,mu#8izz1 ,fatimid ,khalifa1 #agj ,mujassim1 #aia1 #bia2 cf4 jism'1 tajsim ,mujid1 #cbe ,mu#8jiza1 #ada1 #aea1 #cac1 #cde ,mujtahid1 #ch1 #aaf1 #bge1 #bhg1 #cae ,mujtahidun bil-fatwa1 #aac ,mujtahidun fi-l-madhahib1 #aac ,mujtahidun mutlaq1 #aab ,mukallaf1 #bhj1 #cag1 #cah1 #cba1 #cbc1 #cdb1 #cde2 cf4 taklif ,mukashafa1 #bbg ,mukhabara1 #ced ,mukhalafa lil-hawadith1 #bje1 #baj1 #bcb1 #bhj1 #cbd ,mukhassis1 #cbe ,mumathala1 #cch ,mu'min1 #abf1 #acj1 #cej ,mumkinat1 #ccj ,munkar1 #bif1 #bih1 #cje1 #caa ,munazzah1 #cbd ,muntazar1 #cac2 see1 too1 ,muhammad al-,muntazar ,muqallad1 #caf1 #cej2 cf4 taqlid ,al-,muqanna#81 #cj ,munqidh min ad-dalal of al-,ghazzali1 #baf1 #bbe1 #bci ,muqarrab1 #cjf ,al-,muqtadir1 #8,abbasid ,kh41 #ahd ,murabits1 #bdf1 #bea ,marji'ites1 #abb-abg1 #abi1 #aca1 #acb1 #aga1 #aic1 #bad1 #bib ,murtadd1 #bd1 #big ,musa1 see ,moses ,musa al-,qazam1 #db ,musaqat1 #ced ,musallamat1 #bei ,musannaf1 #gi ,musaylima1 #aej ,mushabbih1 #aia2 cf4 bila kayfa ,mushahada1 #cbg ,mushrik1 #bhd1 #bii2 cf4 shirk1 sharik ,muslim1 #hj ,musnad1 #gi1 #aaj ,al-,mustafa1 #cjj ,mustahabb1 #gc ,mustahil1 #caf ,mustansir1 ,fatimid ,kh41 #agj ,mutakallims1 #adg1 #ahf1 #aic-aif1 #bae1 #bca1 #bfb1 #bgf1 #ccg ,al-,mu#8tasim1 #8,abbasid ,kh41 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afb1 #afc ,mutaqabilat1 #ccj ,al-,mutawakkil1 #8,abbasid ,kh41 #aeg1 #afb ,mutawatir1 #cjh ,mu#8tazilites1 #cg1 #eg1 #abj1 #acj1 #ace-ach1 #adj1 #adc-adf1 #aea-aei1 #aff1 #afh1 #aga1 #agb1 #age1 #agf1 #ahd-aif1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #baa-bad1 #bbj-bbf1 #bda1 #bdh1 #bia-bid1 #bih1 #bii1 #caa1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cdc1 #cdd ,muwahhids1 #agi1 #bjg1 #bdf-beg1 #bfa-bfe1 #bhd1 #bif1 #cjg ,muwatta' of ,malik ibn ,anas1 #gh1 #hb1 #aja1 #ajb ,al-,muzdar1 #aea ,mzab in ,algeria1 #bf1 #ei ,nabateans1 #dd ,nabi1 #bfc1 #cab1 #cde ,nabidh1 #cad ,nadhr1 #cef ,nafaqa1 #cee ,nafisa1 ,the ,lady1 #agc ,nafs1 #bcd1 #bgb1 #ccd ,nahawand1 #ad1 #acc ,najasat1 #ceb ,najd1 #fj ,najjarites1 #bib ,nakir1 #bif1 #bih1 #cje1 #caa ,naqib1 #bfh ,naql1 #abj1 #adh1 #aeg1 #bad1 #bfi1 #big1 #caj ,naqshbandite darwishes1 #bfg ,narbonne1 #hc ,an-,nasafi1 #aic1 #bjg1 #bgg1 #cjh ,an-,nasa'i1 #ha1 #aeb ,nasir ibn ,khusraw1 #agj ,an-,nasir1 ,mamluk ,sultan1 #bgg ,an-,nasr al-,manbiji1 #bgg ,nass1 #bi1 #ie1 #bib ,naysabur1 #bag1 #bbi ,nazr1 #bjh ,an-,nazzam1 #adj1 #adc1 #aeb ,neo-,platonism1 #afc1 #afd1 #afh1 #ahj1 #aha1 #aif1 #bcb1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bec1 #bee1 #bfd1 #bgb ,nikah1 #ced ,nisba1 #ccg ,nizam al-,mulk1 #bac1 #bag1 #bah ,nizamite ,academy1 #bac1 #bag ,noah1 or ,nuh1 #db1 #dc1 #cde ,nusayrites1 #ei ,old ,man of the ,mountain1 ,shaykh al-jabal1 #di ,ottoman ,sultan1 #aj1 #ef1 #eh1 #ei ,ottoman ,turks1 #cf1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #fj ,pan-,islamic movement1 #ei ,parsees1 #aid ,people of ,paradise1 #aci ,people of the ,sunna1 #ccf1 #ccg ,persia1 ,persian1 #ad1 #bc1 #ca1 #cf-da1 #dd1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #hb1 #aca-acd1 #aej1 #aee1 #aeg1 #ahd ,persian ,gulf1 #fj ,persian mysticism1 #e ,plato1 #acd1 #afb-afe1 #bce ,plotinus1 ,plotinian1 #afc-afe1 #ahb1 #bca1 #bef1 #bfi1 #bhj ,porphyrius1 #afc ,pseudo-,dionysius the ,areopagite1 #aha1 #ahb ,ptolemaic system1 #bcc ,ptolemy1 #acd ,pythagoreanism1 #afh1 #agj ,qada1 #bia1 #bie1 #cdb1 #cef ,qadar1 #abh1 #ace-acg1 #bdb1 #bia1 #bic1 #bie1 #cdb ,qadarites1 #abb1 #abg-acb1 #ace1 #acg1 #adj1 #bib1 #cdd ,qadi1 #aae1 #aef1 #bde1 #cef ,qadim1 #adc1 #cjj1 #cbb1 #cdc ,al-,qadir1 #8,abbasid ,kh41 #aic-aie ,qadir1 #cai ,qadirite darwishes1 #bfg1 #bfi ,al-,qadisiya1 #ad1 #acc ,qanuns1 #aad ,qarmatians1 #dd1 #df1 #agj1 #ahd1 #ahh ,qasm1 #cef ,qattat1 #cej ,qawl1 #bif ,qidam1 #cbb ,qirad1 #ced ,qisas1 #cee ,al-,qiyama1 #cdi2 cf4 ,yawm ,qiyam bin-nafs1 #cbe ,qiyas1 #hg1 #id1 #bji1 #bdg1 #cdg ,qubda1 #cbi ,qudra1 #aib1 #bcd1 #bid1 #caj1 #cai1 #cbb1 #cbh1 #cdd ,al-,qudra al-azaliya1 #bcd ,qur'an1 #bd1 #db1 #fb1 #fi-ga1 #gf1 #gg1 #he1 #id-if1 #ii1 #ajc-ajf1 #aji1 #aag1 #aba1 #abh-acj1 #ace1 #ach-ada1 #ade-aeb1 #aee-aeh1 #afa-afc1 #aga1 #agh1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aie-aih1 #bjf1 #bji1 #baj1 #bca1 #bce1 #bch1 #bda1 #bde-bdi1 #beb1 #bec1 #beg-bei1 #bfc1 #bga1 #bgb-bge1 #bhb-bhd1 #bie1 #big1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #caj1 #cce1 #cde1 #cdf ,quraysh1 #aj1 #eg1 #cje1 #cac ,al-,qushayri1 #bac ,qutb1 #bfh1 #bhb ,quwa1 #cbh ,rabelais1 #aii ,rabi#8a1 #agc ,rafidites1 #bab ,rahib1 #abe1 #agb ,rahn1 #ced ,ramadan1 #ahh1 #bib1 #bic ,ar-,rashid1 the ,muwahhid1 #bfc1 #bfd ,rasa'il ikhwan as-safa1 #afh ,rasul1 #bfc1 #cjh1 #cab1 #cde ,ra'y1 #hf1 #id ,razq1 #cch ,red ,sea1 #fj ,responsa prudentium1 #he ,rida1 #caj ,rifa#8ite darwishes1 #bfg1 #bfh ,risala1 #bib ,risala of al-,qushayri1 #bac ,ritschl1 #bch ,rizq1 #agi1 #bih1 #bii1 #caa1 #cag ,ruh1 #ada1 #bca1 #bgb ,rukhsa1 #bhc ,ru'ya1 #caj1 #cdd ,as-sa#8a1 #bic1 #bid1 #cae ,sabil ,allah1 #ah ,sab#8inite darwishes1 #bfg ,sab#8iya1 #db ,sa#8da1 #cf ,sa#8d ad-,din2 see at-,taftazani ,safawids1 #ch ,as-,saffah1 #8,abbasid ,kh41 #cb ,saghira1 #abg1 #caa1 #cdi ,sahara1 #fb ,sahiba1 #bid ,sahibs1 #i1 #af1 #ai1 #ga1 #gb1 #ge1 #gi1 #hh1 #aja1 #aje1 #adg1 #ahj1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bic1 #big1 #cjg1 #cad1 #cdf ,sah'fa1 #ge1 #gg1 #cce ,sahifa of al-,bukhari1 #ce1 #gi-ha ,sahih of ,muslim1 #hj1 ff4 ,sa#8id ibn ,ahmad ibn #8,abd ,allah1 #de ,sa'ihs1 #agb ,saladin2 see ,salah ad-,din ,as-salaf1 #aeg1 #aij1 #big ,salah1 #bib1 #cdc2 cf4 ,aslah ,salah ad-,din1 #di1 #bda ,salam1 #cec ,salaman1 #bec1 f4 ,salamiya1 #dd ,salat1 ,salawat1 #agh1 #bib1 #bic1 #ceb ,salih1 the prophet1 #cdf ,salim1 ,ottoman ,sultan1 #ef ,saljuqs1 #bjg ,saluhi qadim1 #cbh ,sam#81 #bib1 #bid1 #ccc ,sama' ad-,dunya1 #big ,samam1 #cdj ,samanids1 #cf ,samarqand1 #hb1 #ahg1 #bjg ,sami#81 #ccg1 #cdi ,san#8a1 #cf ,as-,sanusi1 ,muhammad ibn #8,ali1 #fa1 #abj1 #bdd1 #bfi1 #bgc1 #bhd ,as-,sanusi1 ,muhammad ibn ,yusuf1 #cae-cah1 #cbb1 #cbc1 #cbh1 #ccd1 #cda1 #cdg ,sari as-,saqati1 #age-agg1 #bfh ,satan1 #bih1 #bii2 cf4 shaytan ,sawm1 #bib2 cf4 ,siyam ,sayf ad-,dawla1 the ,hamdanid1 #afb1 #afe ,sayyid ,murtada1 #bhe1 #cjj ,semites1 ,semitic1 #e1 #ea1 #abe1 #abf1 #ahb ,sergius1 father of ,john of ,damascus1 #aca ,seth1 #dc ,ash-,shadhili1 #bfg1 #bfi ,shadhilite darwishes1 #bfg ,shahada1 #cef ,shafa#8a1 #agd1 #bif1 #cjg1 #caa1 #cdi ,ash-,shafi#8i1 #fg1 #ajc-aaa1 #agc1 #ahg ,shafi#8ites1 #aaj1 #aae ,shahs of ,persia1 #ch ,shakk1 #ccb ,shar'1 #cde ,ash-,sha#8rani1 #bgi1 #bha1 #bhc1 #bhe ,ash-,shahrastani1 #bac1 #bbd1 #bia1 #bic ,shari#8a1 #bhb ,sharifs of ,mecca1 #eh1 #bfe ,sharifs of ,morocco1 #ce1 #ei1 #bdg ,sharik1 #cjj1 #cba1 #cbf2 cf4 shirk1 mushrik ,shay'1 #aei1 #cad1 #cbb ,shaykh1 #agg ,shaykh al-,islam1 #aac ,shaykh #8,ilwan1 #bfh ,shaytans1 #cjd ,shem1 #dc ,ash-,shibli1 #agf1 #agg1 #bbe ,shihab ad-,din as-,suhrawardi1 #bda ,shi#8ites1 ,shi#8a1 #e1 #ac1 #ai1 #bf-cf1 #ci-da1 #dh1 #ea1 #eb1 #ef1 #ei1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aba1 #abc1 #aca1 #aei1 #afe1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #aic-aie1 #bab1 #bdg1 #bdi1 #bib1 #bih ,shirk1 #abc1 #abg2 cf4 sharik1 mushrik ,shirka1 #ced ,shu#8ayb1 #cdf ,shuf#8a1 #ced ,as-,siddiq1 #cac ,sidq1 #cdg ,sifa nafsiya1 #cai ,sifat1 #acf1 #aea1 #bia1 #cji ,sifat adh-dhat1 #bia ,sifat al-fi#8l1 #bia1 #cch ,sifat al-ma#8ani1 #ccg ,sifat #8aqliya1 #aij ,sifat at-ta'thir1 #ccc ,sifat ma#8nawiya1 #ccg ,sifat salabiya1 #cbh ,sijistan1 #aga ,as-,sirat1 #bif1 #cjf1 #caa1 #cdi ,siyam1 #cec ,solomon1 #bhf ,spain1 #cc1 #hb1 #acb1 #aid1 #bji1 #bdf ,spanish ,islam1 #acb ,stephen bar ,sudaili1 #aha ,stewart 7,balfour7 and ,tait1 #bce ,lord ,stratford de ,redcliffe1 #dh ,suf1 #acj ,sufi1 ,sufiism1 #acj1 #agb1 #agc1 #agf-agh1 #ahe1 #bac1 #baf-bai1 #bbb1 #bbe-bbi1 #bcb1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bci1 #bdh1 #bej1 #beb1 #bec1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfd1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bgd1 #bgf-bgh1 #bhb1 #bhd1 #cji ,sufistiqiya1 #cjh ,sufiya1 #agc ,sufyan ath-,thawri1 #ig1 #ih ,sughra of as-,sanusi1 #cda ,as-,suhrawardi2 see ,shihab ad-,din ,sulayman the ,great1 #ed ,sulh1 #ced ,sunna1 #gd1 #ge1 #hh1 #aij1 #bhb1 #bic1 #big1 #bih1 #cjg1 #cde ,sunan1 #ge1 #ha ,sunnites1 #ai1 #ce1 #ch1 #ea1 #eb1 #ei1 #aaf1 #aid1 #bdg1 #bih ,sura1 #bcb ,suso1 the mystic1 #ahj ,syria1 #ba-bc1 #bh1 #de1 #df1 #di1 #ej1 #hb1 #hd1 #ih1 #aca1 #bbf ,ta#8addud1 #cci ,ta#8allaqa1 #cbh ,ta'alluqu-l-qabdati1 #cbi ,tab#81 #cbh1 #cci ,tabaristan1 #cf ,tabi#8iyun1 #afa1 #bba1 #bic1 #cdf ,tabligh1 #cdg ,tabor1 ,mount1 #agh ,tadbir1 #ceg ,tadlil1 #bib 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#e ,tus1 #baf1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bfg ,the ,twelve ,tables1 #he #8,ubayd ,allah al-,mahdi1 #de1 #df1 #bdd ,udhiya1 #cef #8,ulama1 #ed1 #bcc1 #cjg ,uluhiya1 #cbf ,ulu-l-#8azm1 #cde #8,uman1 #bd1 #bf1 #ei #8,umar ibn #8,abd al-#8,aziz1 ,umayyad ,kh41 #ajd #8,umar ibn al-,khattab1 #bnd ,kh41 #ac-ai1 #bc1 #bd1 #cf1 #dd1 #ef1 #hf1 #ic1 #afe1 #bge1 #big1 #cjg1 #cac1 #cdf #8,umar al-,khayyam1 #aih1 #aii #8,umar ibn al-,farid1 #bff ,umayya1 #aj1 #af ,umayyads1 #i1 #ag-ai1 #bb1 #be1 #bg1 #cb1 #cc1 #ec1 #gg1 #gh1 #hh-ic1 #ajd1 #abc1 #aca1 #acc1 #aec1 #bji ,umayyads of ,cordova1 #de ,umm walad1 #ceg #8,urf1 #id1 #aac #8,uthman ibn #8,affan1 #crd ,kh41 #ag-bb1 #be1 #cf1 #ga1 #big1 #cjg1 #cac1 #cdf ,vincent of ,lerins1 #aja ,volubilis1 #ce ,wa#8d1 #bib ,wadi#8a1 #ced ,wahdaniya1 #cbe ,al-,wahhab1 #baa ,wahhabites1 #fj-fb1 #aji1 #aac1 #aae1 #abj1 #bgc1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #bhc-bhe ,al-,wahib1 #baa ,wahy1 #bha ,wa#8id1 ,wa#8idites1 #abi1 #bib ,wajib1 #gc1 #caf1 #cah ,wakala1 #ced ,wala1 #ceg ,walad1 #bid1 #ccj ,wali1 #aci1 #agc1 #bfc1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bha-bhe1 #cac1 #cbf ,walima1 #cee ,waliya1 #agc ,waqf1 #ced ,warith1 #ced ,wasil ibn #8,ata1 #cg1 #abi1 #ace1 #acf1 #aej ,wasiya1 #ced ,wasiya of ,ibn ,sina1 #aih1 #bbh ,al-,wathiq1 #8,abbasid ,kh41 #aeg ,wudu1 #cah1 #ceb ,wujud1 #aei1 #aia1 #caf-cai1 #ceb ,wusul1 #bbh ,yajuj1 #cae ,al-,yaman1 #fj1 #bhd ,yamin1 #cef ,ya#8qub2 see ,jacob ,yathrib1 #fg ,yawm al-qiyama1 #bie1 #cdi ,yazid1 #ai1 #bh ,yehuda ,halevi1 #bcg ,zabbur1 #cjd ,zabid in ,tihama1 #bhe ,zahid1 #agc1 #ahj ,zahida1 #agc ,zahir1 #cad ,zahirites1 #aaj1 #aab1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bdg1 #bdi1 #beb1 #bfa1 #bfd1 #bhg ,zahr1 #db ,zakat1 #bib1 #bic1 #cec ,az-,zamakhshari1 #aie ,zann1 #ccb ,zanzibar1 #bf1 #ei1 #aae ,zaydites1 #cf1 #cg1 #df1 #eg1 #ei1 #aaf1 #ahh ,zihar1 #cee ,zina1 #cee ,zindiqs1 #acd ,zoroastrianism1 #acc1 #acd1 #ahc ,az-,zubayr1 #ba1 #be ,az-,zuhri1 #ia ,the ,semitic ,series ,edited by ,,james ,,alexander ,,craig1 ,professor of ,semitic ,languages and ,literature and ,hellenistic ,greek1 ,university of ,michigan ,an important new series of standard handbooks on the ,babylonians1 ,assyrians and allied ,semitic races of ancient history4 ,now ,ready ,the ,social ,life of the ,hebrews ,by the ,rev4 ,,edward ,,day4 ,price #a4be net1 postpaid ,babylonians and ,assyrians ,life and ,customs 7,with ,special ,reference to the ,contract ,tablets and ,letters7 ,by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,h4 ,,sayce1 ,professor of ,assyriology at ,oxford4 ,price #a4be net1 postpaid ,the ,early ,history of ,syria and ,palestine ,by ,,lewis ,,bayles ,,paton1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,old ,testament ,exegesis and ,criticism1 and ,instructor in ,assyrian1 in ,hartford ,theological ,seminary4 ,price #a4be net1 postpaid ,the ,theology and ,ethics of the ,hebrews ,by ,,archibald ,,duff1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,b4,d41 ,professor of ,old ,testament ,theology in the ,yorkshire ,united ,independent ,college1 ,bradford1 ,england4 ,price #a4be net 7postage #aa;c47 ,development of ,muslim ,theology1 ,jurisprudence and ,constitutional ,theory ,by ,,duncan ,b4 ,,macdonald1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,d41 ,sometime ,scholar and ,fellow of the ,university of ,glasgow2 ,professor of ,semitic ,languages in ,hartford ,theological ,seminary4 ,price #a4ej net 7postage #ab;c47 ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #aec-aeg ,fifth ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,the ,historical ,series ,for ,bible ,students ,edited by ,professor ,,charles ,f4 ,,kent1 ,ph4,d41 of ,yale ,university1 and ,professor ,,frank ,k4 ,,sanders1 ,ph4,d41 of ,yale ,university ,in response to a wide-spread demand for non-technical yet scholarly and reliable guides to the study of the history1 literature1 and teaching of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 and of the contemporary history and literature1 this series aims to present in concise and attractive form the results of investigation and exploration in these broad fields4 ,based upon thoroughly critical scholarship1 it will emphasize assured and positive rather than transitional positions4 ,the series as a whole is intended to present a complete and connected picture of the social1 political1 and religious life of the men and peoples who figure most prominently in the biblical records4 ,arrangement of ,volumes ,history of the ,hebrew ,people3 ,i4 ,history of the ,united ,kingdom4 7,now ,ready47 ,,ii4 ,history of the ,divided ,kingdom4 7,now ,ready47 ,by ,prof4 ,,charles ,,foster ,,kent1 ,ph4,d4 ,each volume with maps1 #abmo4 ,history of the ,jewish ,people3 ,,iii4 ,the ,babylonian1 ,persian and ,greek ,periods4 7,now ,ready47 ,by ,prof4 ,,charles ,,foster ,,kent1 ,ph4,d4 ,,iv4 ,the ,maccabean and ,roman ,periods 7,now ,ready47 ,by ,prof4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,riggs1 ,d4,d41 of ,auburn ,theological ,seminary4 ,contemporary ,old ,testament ,history3 ,v4 ,the ,egyptians4 ,by ,prof4 ,,james ,,henry ,,breasted1 ,ph4,d41 of the ,university of ,chicago4 ,,vi4 ,the ,babylonians and ,assyrians4 7,now ,ready47 ,by ,prof4 ,,george ,s4 ,,goodspeed1 ,ph4,d41 of the ,university of ,chicago4 ,new ,testament ,histories3 ,,vii4 ,the ,life of ,jesus4 7,now ,ready47 ,by ,pres4 ,,rush ,,rhees1 ,d4,d41 of the ,university of ,rochester4 ,,viii4 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age4 7,now ,ready47 ,by ,rev4 ,,geo4 ,t4 ,,purves1 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,d4 ,outlines for the ,study of ,biblical ,history and ,literature3 ,,ix4 ,from ,earliest ,times to the ,captivity4 ,x4 ,from the ,exile to #bjj ,a4,d4 ,by ,prof4 ,,frank ,k4 ,,sanders1 ,ph4,d4 #aj volumes4 #abmo1 #a4be each1 net 7postage #ab;c47 ,specimen ,pages and ,full ,descriptive ,circular sent free on request ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #aec-aeg ,fifth ,avenue1 ,new ,york