,what ,have the ,greeks ,done ,for ,modern ,civilisation8 ,the ,lowell ,lectures of #aijh-ji ,by ,john ,pentland ,mahaffy ,c4,v4,o41 ,d4,c4,l4 7,oxon471 etc4 ,of ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,new ,york and ,london ,the ,knickerbocker ,press ,,copyright1 #aiji ,,by ,j4 ,p4 ,,mahaffy ,illustration3 colophon ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america ,,sanct ,,memori ,,uxoris ,,carissim ,,cujus ,,dulci ,,consortio ,,ingenii ,,sui ,,primitias ,,abhinc ,,jam ,,annos ,,xl ,,dedicavit ,,nunc ,,serum ,,laborem ,,consecrat ,,auctor ,,preface ,these lectures1 delivered in ,boston at the invitation of the ,curator of the ,lowell ,institute1 in ,december and ,january1 #aijh-i1 are now published owing to many requests both from those that heard them and from those that did not4 ,they are an attempt to cover the whole field of ,greek influence1 not only in the various arts in which such influence is generally realised1 but also in those departments of thinking in which moderns arrogate to themselves an unquestioned superiority4 ,yet it will be found1 even in the following necessarily brief and popular sketch1 that1 as regards thinking1 the ,greeks were as supreme in science as in other departments1 and1 though they did not discover the powers of steam or electricity1 they nevertheless carried out in mechanics works that no modern builder1 with all his vaunted control of nature1 has yet equalled1 and so in other pursuits1 not only ,greek form1 but ,greek thought1 has been the greatest and the clearest that the world has yet seen4 ,and yet ,i believed that the high honour in which ,greek studies were long held had been exchanged for indifference1 or even contempt1 especially in ,america1 where a hurried education planned for 8practical life0 was said to be taking the place of the old liberal education intended to breed gentlemen4 ,but ,i found1 during my actual visit to ,america1 that ,i had been misled as to the completeness of this degradation of ,greek4 ,as is usual1 the stranger begins by getting false impressions of the country he visits1 and can only correct these gradually by detailed experience4 ,there were many symptoms that public opinion in the ,states is by no means satisfied with the thought of an absolute reign of modern science1 or of specialising education at the fancy of the ignorant youth or the more ignorant parent4 ,even employers in factories are beginning to find out1 with that plain good sense which marks the solid core of ,american society1 that young men who receive a liberal education are more intelligent and useful as tradesmen or mechanics than those who have mastered only one subject4 ,the intellectual outlook tells even upon the handicraft of the apprentice4 ,there is therefore some prospect that the mistakes of the last generation 7possibly due to the influence of ,harvard and other universities7 will be corrected1 and that a proper college education will again replace the bread-and-butter studies in the earlier years of all good courses of training4 ,if such a recovery of sound education takes place1 it is impossible that ,greek shall not resume its old importance4 ,we now know far more of ,hellenic work than did our fore-fathers4 ,we can vindicate ,greek studies in a manner wholly strange to them1 had they ever thought a vindication called for4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the teaching of ,greek must be reformed4 ,it must be made a human and lively study1 taught like a modern language by dictation and recitation1 as well as by written composition and reading of authors4 ,in many ,english public schools1 there has been a fashion not only of teaching the old languages as if they were indeed dead1 but of spoiling the teaching of modern languages by copying this mistake4 ,much of the prejudice against the learning of ,greek has been created by this blunder1 and by its radiation into kindred studies4 ,but this also ,i trust will be mended1 and we shall have a more intelligent method of teaching all languages as living vehicles of human expression4 ,among these1 the ,greek is far the most perfect4 ,if this little book may help toward this great reformation1 it will have amply succeeded in its purpose4 ,i must not send it out without thanking my many ,american friends for their sympathy and encouragement4 ,during my visit1 everybody seemed ready to hear what ,i had to say1 and in some of the discussions which were the result1 notably at ,philadelphia1 there seemed to be quite a body of opinion in my favour4 ,two observations are worth making here before ,i conclude3 ,the ,american professors of ,greek and ,latin have exactly the same experience that we have in ,ireland regarding the abandonment of ,greek while professing to retain ,latin4 ,neither there nor in ,ireland have we failed to note the deterioration of ,latin teaching1 and the conviction grows upon us that a teacher who knows no ,greek cannot be a ,latin scholar in any real sense4 ,so much for the boasted retaining of ,latin while sacrificing ,greek4 ,the next observation concerns the now fashionable attending of courses in ,english ,literature4 ,in no case during my visit did ,i hear a literary conversation spring up among these students of ,english4 ,they have no doubt admirable professors in great numbers1 specialists on every ,english poet and prose writer worth naming4 ,but apparently poetry learnt without labour in the mother tongue is not assimilated or appreciated as is the poetry of classical languages1 and from them the delight in literature as such spreads into kindred studies4 ,wherever ,i cited the poets1 or indeed great prose such as the ,bible1 among the young people who had studied ,english as a subject for graduation1 ,i found a strange ignorance of what ought to have been most familiar4 ,i was almost driven to believe the paradox that without a classical education even the proper appreciation of ,english literature is unusual4 ,j4 ,p4 ,m4 ,on board ,s4 ,s4 ,celtic1 ,january #bj1 #aiji4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface ii ,i4 ,,introductory #a ,,ii4 ,,greek ,,poetry #ca ,,iii4 ,,greek ,,prose #fe ,,iv4 ,,greek ,,art--,i3 ,,architecture ,,and ,,sculpture #ih ,v4 ,,greek ,,art--,,ii3 ,,painting ,,and ,,music #abe ,,vi4 ,,science3 ,,grammar--,,logic--,,mathematics--,,med icine #adg ,,vii4 ,,politics--,,sociology--,,law #aha ,,viii4 ,,higher ,,thinking1 ,,philosophy1 ,,speculative ,,and ,,practical ,,theology #bac ,what ,have the ,greeks ,done for ,modern ,civilisation8 ,i ,,introductory ,after more than half a century spent on the study of old ,greek life in its art1 politics1 literature1 philosophy1 and science1 ,i gladly adopt this ample and dignified occasion to give a review of what ,i have learned to this audience1 whose intellectual standard1 and whose sympathy with the work of a student1 are recognised throughout the world4 ,it is a great honour for any man from ,europe to speak on this platform1 but it implies1 in consequence1 a grave responsibility1 and it is impossible to stand before you here without some feeling of awe1 for ,i feel ,i am addressing not merely this most fastidious audience1 or even the larger ,american public1 with whom ,i gladly claim an old acquaintance through my books1 but the great congregation of the educated classes in many and diverse lands4 ,i do not suppose that any of you will be disposed to dispute the fact 7which the very title of these lectures presupposes7--that modern civilisation1 from various points of view1 owes a great debt to the old ,greeks4 ,if there be any such sceptic here1 ,i trust he will be converted in the course of my conversation with him from this platform4 ,but even to those who readily admit the fact1 explicit proofs of it may not be useless1 for they will show you the reasons that have long since persuaded the world of teachers to make ,greek essential in a liberal education4 ,assuming1 however1 for the present the main fact1 ,i think ,i shall begin this discourse most profitably by discussing the supposed causes which gave the ,greeks this curious pre-eminence4 ,it is perhaps1 to use familiar words1 putting the cart before the horse1 but you need hardly be reminded that if in logic we often do not explain a statement until we have established its truth1 in time the order is different4 ,the causes of every great result are hidden in past ages1 shrouded by the mists of antiquity1 covered with the cloud of oblivion1 so that in the present case the consideration of the prehistoric causes of the greatness of the ,greek intellect may well precede the evidence of that greatness1 which we gather by the lamp1 often dim1 of history1 if not by the searchlight of archological science4 ,though this subject cannot but prove dull to some of you1 ,i shall do my best to relieve the dulness by illustrations or even by digressions into kindred fields of knowledge4 ,i know that there are two considerations which1 in the minds of people who are easily satisfied1 pass for an adequate account of this extraordinary genius of the ,greeks4 ,it is usual1 especially among those who will not take the trouble to learn ,greek1 to say that it was really through ,rome that the greatness of the ,hellenic race was created4 ,rome conquered the ,western world with her roads1 her armies1 her laws1 her language1 and impressed even on barbarians the culture which she had herself adopted and developed4 ,the ,latin races which were in the van of civilisation up to the seventeenth century were the daughters of ,rome and had little direct teaching from ,greece4 ,all this is perfectly true1 but it only moves the problem one step backward4 ,assuming that the ,romans were the carriers of enlightenment to the ,north and ,west of ,europe1 why did they depend so completely on ,greek teaching2 why did they one and all confess that this was the unique source of their progress8 ,they came in due time into contact with the culture of ,carthage1 of ,syria1 of ,egypt4 ,but the splendours of these countries were never to the ,romans more than mere curiosities1 whereas ,greek culture was the very breath of their intellectual life4 ,virgil1 a very great poet1 frames every one of his works on ,greek models1 and translates even from second-rate ,greek work4 ,horace1 a very great artist1 prides himself on having made ,greek lyrics at home in his country1 and ,lucretius1 whose reputation for originality among modern critics is mainly due to the total loss of the original which he copied1 himself claims as his main credit that he had ventured to reproduce a yet uncopied species of ,greek poetry4 ,it is hard to conceive a more complete case made out for the unparalleled influence of ,hellenic genius upon proud and dominant neighbours4 ,i will merely remind you how a fresh wave of ,greek influence1 coming into ,romanised ,europe in the fifteenth century1 caused such a revolution in literature and art as to be called a new birth 7,renascence74 ,let us turn to a widely different kind of explanation1 which is wont to be set forth at the opening of most modern histories of ,greece1 as a vera causa to account for a wonderful and exceptional result4 ,this theory is the echo of the famous opening of ,buckle's great book on ,civilisation1 wherein it is asserted that man is the creature of external circumstances and that these determine not only his physical1 but his intellectual increase4 ,in particular1 the greatness of ,egypt and its early victory over the obstacles of nature are attributed to the heat and moisture of the climate2 and so we are told that the temperate airs of the gean1 the multitude of its islands1 its indented coast1 its fiords1 its broken outlines1 and varied scenery--these are such that the people living among them would naturally develop the qualities which have given the primacy in its turn to ,greece4 ,such conclusions are based upon very superficial and inaccurate observation4 ,it was assumed that ,egypt had been necessarily an unity1 owing to the isolation of its land from neighbours1 and to the fact that its great high-road1 the ,nile1 traversed the whole country4 ,we now know this to be false1 and that the reduction of ,egypt first to two1 and then to one state was not accomplished till after ages of separation among its nomes1 and was accomplished not by natural necessity but by the genius of a conqueror4 ,as regards the physical peculiarities of that country1 they are all to be found again on the ,indus1 with its affluents from far inland ,alps bringing down a periodical inundation1 with its great delta spreading from ,hyderabad1 with its long course through a desert which affords it not a rivulet of increase3 yet the peoples of the ,indus have never thriven and waxed great like the ,egyptians4 ,so far as our evidence leads us1 we may assert that had the ,egyptians been settled on the ,indus1 and the population of the ,indus on the ,nile1 the respective parts played by these rivers in civilisation would have been reversed4 ,i am equally convinced that had the ,greek race been settled on the ,adriatic1 with many fiords and islands1 and over against ,italy1 instead of ,asia ,minor1 or on the west coast of ,italy1 with its headlands and bays1 its great and fruitful islands within sight1--these circumstances would have been equally favourable to their genius1 whereas they were not sufficient to raise the ,corsicans and ,sardinians1 perhaps the best situated of all1 from a very low level among nations4 ,i will not cite ,sicily1 drawn from its obscurity by the ,greeks1 for they were already great in the scale of nations when they transformed that splendid island1 long undistinguished under ,sikels1 ,sicans1 ,phnicians1 into a brilliant province of ,hellenedom4 ,it may perhaps occur to some of you that the special qualities of the race came from its being a purer branch of the great ,aryan stock than its brethren2 that it was pre-eminently ,japhet dwelling in the tents of ,shem1 unalloyed with the dross of lower races1 whose animalism has survived in the defects of other ,aryan stocks that dwelt among them4 ,but the very opposite seems to be the case4 ,the more we study the ,greek language1 the more we are impressed with the number of strange roots1 which point to a non-,aryan origin4 ,many of the words in commonest use1 such as and 1 are not to be explained from ,aryan roots1 and anyone who has studied such place-names as ,tiryns1 ,assos1 and their congeners will fairly conclude that the ,greeks were not purer from admixture than the ,slavs or the ,celts4#a ,after all that has been adduced1 therefore1 to account for the intellectual supremacy of the ,greeks1 we are compelled to fall back on the ultimate fact--which has not been explained--that they possessed a national genius denied to their brethren and their neighbours4 ,it is as yet an ultimate fact that the human race is not promoted1 except in numbers1 by heat and moisture4 ,some have been higher from the earliest moment that we can observe1 or infer1 their conditions4 ,others have remained lower in spite of the most favourable circumstances4 ,this is a riddle which no historian has yet solved4 ,but is it stranger1 ,i ask1 than the sporadic and unaccountable appearance1 in a settled and known society1 of individual genius8 ,this is the parallel case wherewith ,i cannot explain1 but only vindicate my position4 ,is it stranger that one nation should emerge into history with exceptional gifts than that there emerges into life1 according to no law that we know1 individual genius8 ,if you look back at the family history of those that have made or upset empires1 that have added new domains to science1 that have created the poetry of the world1 you will find no law or reason to explain their sporadic appearance1 like that of brilliant meteors across the orderly stars of the sky4 ,they generally come from undistinguished parents2 they have undistinguished brothers and sisters2 they do not transmit their great qualities1 save in some rare occasions1 as if to show that there is even here no prohibitive law4 ,they may be single1 or eldest1 or youngest1 children1 or in the middle of a large family4 ,they need not be noted for physical health4 ,there was once a posthumous and yet prematurely born infant1 so puny and wretched that1 but for the sorrows of the widowed mother1 little pains would have been taken to keep it alive1 for it was her first born4 ,charitable neighbours nursed it with amazing care1 and so saved its miserable spark of life from extinction4 ,after a delicate and monotonous youth1 the child went to ,cambridge2 he was known in later years as ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,but if1 so long as civilised societies cloak the first beginnings of individual human life in mystery1 we can only refer the sporadic occurrence of genius to chance1 is it any wonder1 after the lapse of ages has covered with its mists the childhood of nations1 that we should be unable to give any better answer to explain the occurrence of national genius in one race1 while its brothers and sisters are not above the vulgar average8 ,on one thing only ,i insist3 let us not deny a great fact because we cannot explain it4 ,assuming then as ultimate that one nation may be gifted above the rest with genius1 let us consider in what the pre-eminence consists4 ,and here again we shall be aided by the analogy of individual genius4 ,the first and most superficial answer is that genius is original1 that it strikes out new ideas1 new solutions of problems1 new lines of research1 while the average man can only learn what others have already discovered for him4 ,but a deeper and more careful inquiry reveals to us that absolutely new ideas are of the very rarest occurrence2 almost the whole work of human genius consists in assimilating what others have thought1 in combining what others have imagined separate1 in recasting the form of their thought1 and so producing what seems a perfectly new thing1 and yet is only the old under a new aspect4 ,no instance of this is more signal than that of a great composer in music4 ,the gift of original melody1 as it is called1 is rare and precious4 ,the possessor of it is justly considered a genius4 ,but no melody could possibly speak to us except a combination of perfectly well known elements4 ,the only originality is in their assimilation and reproduction4 ,if then we admit that the assimilation of what others have done is a most important feature in genius1 we can affirm not only that the ,greeks were gifted with this power1 but we can go further and say that they settled in a part of the world eminently suited to suggest new ideas and to afford scope for all the combinations which their genius prompted them to make4 ,i have already explained how widely ,i differ from those who have laid great stress on the characteristics of the country occupied by this race4 ,external nature was the very thing that the ,greeks1 all through their great history1 felt less keenly than we should have expected4 ,their want of a sense of the picturesque in nature has even been cited as a notable defect4 ,but1 though repudiating all this kind of argument1 ,i am quite ready for widely different reasons to lay much weight on the geographical position of ,greece4 ,it is an argument which you will not find1 ,i think1 in your histories4 ,this people established their home on the confines of two very diverse civilisations1 so that they were able to assimilate ideas from both and to weave them into a fabric of their own4 ,concerning the influences coming from the south-east1 there was never any doubt4 ,all the legends about ,cadmus1 ,danaus1 and the like assert the importation of the culture of ,phnicia and of ,egypt into ,greece4 ,the same thing is said of the empire of ,minos of ,crete1 which is now found to have been a reality1 and from which a very early culture passed through the gean ,islands to the coasts of ,greece4 ,whether the early graphic systems used at ,cnossos made their way to ,mycen or ,tiryns we have no evidence to determine4 ,most probably they did1 and these may have been the 8dire symbols0 which ,homer mentions as sent with ,bellerophon to seal his fate with the ,lycian king4 ,but in any case the ,phnician alphabet came in2 the use of engraved seals was carried by the same traders from ,babylon2 the ostrich eggs1 the ivory from ,africa1 the designs on many objects1 tell no uncertain tale4 ,for all that1 the earliest art of ,greece--,i will not call it ,hellenic as yet--is not ,oriental but ,european1 and with features of its own4 ,and this need not be referred to its originality2 far more probably was it caused by assimilating another kind of culture1 which had features of its own and which can be shown to have had its influence on ,mycenan art4 ,this civilisation dwelt in central ,europe and came from the north to ,greece4 ,it has been called ,keltic1 it has been called ,pelasgian2 we find it in tombs1 and in raths even as far as ,ireland4 ,it was from this source that came the fancy for ,baltic amber as an ornament--a thing as strange in ,greece as the ostrich egg4 ,from here too came the shape of early bronze weapons1 probably the habit of burying the dead in beehive tombs2 actually many of the patterns used for ornament on tools and weapons4 ,and who can tell how much more filtered in from this source1 which the old ,greeks called ,pelasgian8 ,thus the ,hellenic race was on the verge of two kinds of culture1 and created from both that distinct type which ultimately became the most perfect in the world4 ,the genius for assimilating might seem to imply a collateral weakness--the danger of absorption or degeneration into the nations whose ideas are adopted and developed4 ,there are cases in the history of man where a conquered race has abandoned its language and religion and adopted those of its conquerors4 ,there are other cases where the conqueror has been absorbed and the subject race has reasserted itself in spite of dominant language and legislation intended to secure its ultimate absorption4 ,it is one of the salient features of the ,hellenic race that1 though very receptive of foreign ideas1 though always ready to profit by the discoveries of neighbours1 it never abandoned its primacy in type1 and was never absorbed into any other population1 except perhaps in isolated cases and after centuries of separation from the mother stock4 ,the ,eretrians whom ,darius brought as prisoners to ,asia and settled in the rich fields of ,babylonia were doubtless in the long run absorbed by the surrounding nationalities1 but they were still recognisable when ,alexander conquered his ,empire nearly two hundred years later1 and possibly they too may have kept up the affecting custom of the people of ,posidonia 7,pstum in ,italy7 at the other extremity of the civilised world1 who were indeed1 as ,strabo tells us1 centuries later1 barbarised out and out by the ,samnites1 but who nevertheless still met once a year to lament their fate1 and to deplore their loss of ,hellenic life4 ,apart from these few and small exceptions1 this race has absolutely refused to be absorbed by any other1 however civilised1 however dominant1 and has remained the same in language and in characteristics from the days when ,homer composed for the ,achan chiefs1 down to this day1 when every scholar or student looks upon ,athens as the goal of his pilgrimage4 ,the permanence of the ,greek language is a great and striking evidence4 ,there was never1 ,i suppose1 a generation of ,greeks from the #hth century ,b4,c4 to the #bjth ,a4,d4 which did not understand ,homer2 but if you are disposed to ascribe this to sentimental causes1 then ,i say that the earliest ,attic prose differs from the ,attic prose of to-day so little as to afford us an unique example of persistency4 ,let me state it in this way3 ,herodotus1 if you recalled him from his grave and put a ,greek newspaper of to-day into his hands1 would at first find the type novel1 but would presently recognise in it his own alphabet4 ,he would then discover a dialect of his ,greek1 as he heard it at ,athens1 and though he would doubtless call it very vulgar1 and even barbarised1 he would in a day or two read it quite fluently4 ,so far as my knowledge goes1 you will find nothing like this in ,europe4 ,turning to persistence of characteristics1 it is superfluous for me to expound to you this topic at any length1 for in the book which forms the basis of the old acquaintance between you and me1 ,i mean my ,social ,life in ,greece1 the main thesis1 then1 but now no longer1 a paradox1 was that1 though the classical ,greeks did great intellectual and artistic work which their descendants could not attempt to rival1 yet the moral features of the ,homeric1 the ,alcaic1 the ,pindaric1 the ,platonic1 the ,xenophontic1 the ,demosthenic ,greek were much the same as those of our friends who are now laying claim to ,macedonia4 ,there is the same cleverness1 not without a special delight in overreaching an opponent1 the same diligence1 the same genuine patriotism1 but also the same undying jealousy of the success of others1 the same want of spirituality in religion1 the same light esteem for veracity4 ,the models of ,phidias and ,polycletus1 of ,scopas and ,praxiteles1 were doubtless to be found in real life#b2 so were the characters of ,plato's ,dialogues1 and in this consisted the genius of their art and their literature1 that they apprehended and perpetuated the ideal1 while the average man and average society in ,greece formed a standard of cultivated society1 high1 but by no means perfect4 ,i only mention their average qualities in order to emphasise the fact that ,i do not stand before you a pedant seeing nothing but the greatness of his favourite study1 but as a plain man estimating the history of the past in the light of common-sense4 ,yet this is not easy when we stand face to face with the wonderful performances of this undying race4 ,what have the ,greeks not accomplished on the stage of the world's history since they accepted the heritage of the older and richer civilisations8 ,first they dominated and so far absorbed the pre-existing population as to feel themselves the only possessors of the country4 ,some of them even boasted1 and without raising any controversy1 that they were indigenous to that soil4 ,then they spread themselves over all the ,mediterranean coast1 beginning with ,asia ,minor1 where they collided with the successive empires of ,mesopotamia4 ,they went to ,italy and ,sicily1 which became ,greek lands1 so far as they were civilised1 and then they successfully resisted the great effort of the ,persian ,empire to make them a subject province4 ,even their ,asiatic brethren1 who did fall under ,persian sway for several generations1 never lost their nationality1 nor could they be said to have resumed it again when the ,persian ,empire fell under ,macedonian sway4 ,when the ,hellenic nationality came to dominate the kingdoms of ,macedonia1 hither ,asia1 and ,egypt1 and even when the ,romans supervened1 who treated it first with respect1 presently with contempt1 these arrogant conquerors could never shake off the spiritual domination of ,greek literature1 ,greek philosophy1 ,greek art1 and ,greek urbanity4 ,nay1 so imperishable was the ,greek influence that it caused a new boundary line to be drawn between ,east and ,west1 and founded on the old ,greek ,byzantium a new capital1 where ,hellenic refinement and ,hellenic art were still to all the ruder ,western world the acme of dignity and of splendour4 ,even when this magnificence had been plundered by barbarous crusaders1 and again by less barbarous ,turks1 the fugitive handful of learned ,greeks1 with their immortal heritage of letters1 lit up an intellectual flame in ,western ,europe that has never since been quenched4 ,this last great revival by means of the ,greeks is1 ,i think1 peculiarly instructive to us to-day4 ,for nothing can show more clearly1 or in a larger example1 how different is the effect of second-hand or traditional knowledge from that of direct contact with the originals4 ,it was no doubt held in the later ,roman ,empire1 and in the early ,middle ,ages1 that all the value of ,hellenic culture had passed into ,roman life1 that ,roman law1 ,roman architecture1 ,roman organisation were far more perfect than those of their teachers4 ,even the latest bloom of ,greek architecture1 that ,byzantine style which is still living in the unapproachable ,st4 ,sophia of ,constantinople1 had been carried into ,italy1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,england1 where1 under the name of decorated ,norman1 it holds its place of honour in our church architecture4 ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice is the richest because it is a decadent example of that ,greek style1 and so other ,latin adaptations of ,greek were supposed to afford all the benefits of the originals2 nay1 in one case--that of the ,latin ,vulgate--,saint ,jerome went so far as to compare his version1 with the ,greek and ,hebrew originals written on each side of it1 to ,christ crucified between the two thieves4 ,there were ,greek statues and ,greek temples in plenty to copy4 ,aristotle1 confessedly the greatest and most encyclopedic of ,greek philosophers1 could be had in a ,latin translation and narrowly escaped being canonised as a ,latin saint4 ,was not ,virgil far deeper and more artistic than ,homer8 ,was not the ,dies ir far grander in sound1 as well as in sense1 than the trivialities of ,horace or ,ovid8 ,so the ,western world became ,latin1 and men were content with the echoes of ,greek in their ,roman culture4 ,but when the real thing came to them again1 as it were by accident1 mark the sudden and astonishing change4 ,it was at once discovered that the ,romanised culture of previous centuries had degenerated from the nobler types1 that new influences from the north had in architecture and in art altered its purity2 that the gloomy splendour of ,dante1 the mightiest outcome of the ,middle ,ages1 had put out the cheerfulness and light of ,greek life1 even as ,virgil understood them1 with a cruel and relentless creed4 ,with the return of ,hellenic serenity1 there was no doubt much irreligion and paganism associated1 but even to that point a revolt against the spiritual tyranny of the ,roman ,church cannot be regretted by those who refuse to believe that men can only be kept from crime by threatening them with greater crime--,i mean the infliction of eternal torture upon any sentient being4 ,the ,gothic fane was no doubt the ideal gloom wherein to worship a relentless ,god and his tortured ,christ2 the ,renaissance palace was a place of light and gladness1 wherein men could read with amazement the epic of ,homer1 the tragedy of schylus1 the comedy of ,aristophanes1 and learn from them what human culture had once attained4 ,and so ,greek studies resumed their place as the noblest part of a liberal education4 ,we got to know and appreciate ,greek letters deeply and thoroughly as no ,roman had ever known them2 we got to analyse and understand ,greek logic and philosophy and what is still more subtle1 the delicacies of ,greek art4 ,we began to add to the treasures unearthed for us by the ,renaissance1 by probing for buried temples in ,greece1 and searching the sands of ,egypt for new texts4 ,the culture of the nineteenth century may fairly be called a culture that owes its greatness largely to a thorough appreciation of the unique excellence of classical ,greek work4 ,never was ,i more impressed with this fact than in visiting1 three or four years ago1 a little collection of old ,greek fragments gathered from private owners1 and exhibited by the ,burlington ,art ,club in ,london4 ,they were small things1 bronze statuettes1 busts1 ornaments1 vases1 but no intelligent man could avoid the strong and instant conviction that all was essentially patrician art in the highest sense4 ,there was not a plebeian note in the whole exhibition4 ,these things being so1 it seemed to men brought up as ,i have been1 that the supremacy of ,greek studies1 especially for the education of the rising generation1 was a fact that no man could contest4 ,yet1 strange to say1 within the last twenty years1 and possibly due to the reaction of ,american influences upon ,europe1 the tide has turned and the great flow of ,greek studies is being succeeded by an ebb4 ,higher education--formerly and indeed in the truest sense always--an aristocratic privilege1 is now to be the right of the democracy1 which has no time for it1 and all of us1 poor and rich1 workers for our bread and those whose bread is provided1 are to pursue the same ends1 and attain the same cultivation4 ,need ,i add that the domain of modern science is so enlarged as to demand a high place in the instruction of those who will presently earn their living by some of its applications8 ,thus the program has been enlarged and diversified beyond the capacity of any learner1 and we begin to think what can best be sacrificed in order to save the rest4 ,the advocates of modern science naturally set themselves against what they are pleased to call the dead languages1 and so1 as ,greek seemed more remote to them1 because of its strange alphabet1 they have so far prevailed as to get rid1 from a vast number of schools1 of the study of that language4 ,even in the universities of ,europe there is an irresistible tendency to make it a voluntary subject of study4 ,the innovators1 most of whom are ignorant in any proper sense both of ,greek and ,latin1 still profess a great respect for ,latin and loudly assert its importance even in modern education4 ,but do not be deceived4 ,the day will come shortly when the same attack will be directed against the second 8dead language10 as they call it1 and we shall be expected to throw out another member of our spiritual family to the wolves4 ,for the attack is made in total ignorance of the relative value of the topics assailed4 ,anyone with the smallest insight into the matter knows full well that the loss of ,latin is as nothing compared to that of ,greek4 ,i am not going to argue that question before the present audience4 ,if at least three quarters of the good we get from ,latin is because ,latin civilisation is based on ,greek1 is it not infinitely better to study the great original than any copy1 however successful8 ,and this brings us to the point for the sake of which ,i have made an apparent digression4 ,quite apart from the scientists 7a very plebeian1 but expressive1 modern term7 who pretend that ,latin is sufficient for the department of language or the study of grammar1 or of ancient history1 we hear a great many1 both in ,england and in ,america1 who are really fond of higher cultivation1 who feel obscurely that it is from ,greek that such cultivation comes1 and who long to obtain from it what they find lacking in modern refinement4 ,but they strive to do this merely through second-hand sources4 ,they have recourse to ,english translations and ,english commentaries and to lectures like the present1 in order to fill up the gap which they feel in their own early training4 ,now ,i will not deny that modern translations are far more faithful than those of more independent imitators1 who were not afraid to colour ,greek art with hues from their own palette4 ,i will not deny that the skill of the photographer has reproduced for us the outlines of buildings and statues far more accurately than the best of painters1 albeit ,turner's conception of ,pstum 7for example7 is truer in its own way than all the photographs ever taken of that temple4 ,but this brings me to state a somewhat subtle truth1 of the greatest import in the present context2 a great original is generally susceptible of divers interpretations1 whereas a copy1 however excellent1 seldom gives us more than one2 so that1 while the former is eminently suggestive1 the latter limits our appreciation4 ,the copy of a copy1 in law worthless1 is so also in matters of art4 ,in each reproduction something is lost1 and remember that the more minutely careful the copying1 the more slavish is the work likely to be4 ,i know that there are such things as copies greater than their originals4 ,that is true of the ,gospels in our ,english ,bible2 it is also true of those portions of ,virgil's ,georgics which are translated from ,aratus4 ,but these rare exceptions do not invalidate the general truth of the principle ,i have enounced4 ,and when even ,virgil1 probably the most competent translator that ever lived1 came to deal with a master like ,theocritus1 how feeble the result6 ,i may safely say that if we had no knowledge of ,theocritus save through ,virgil's ,eclogues1 he would never have ranked as more than a third-rate poet with us4 ,the plain deduction is this3 get at the originals at all cost4 ,do not be satisfied with essays1 or dissertations1 or commentaries4 ,go and see the originals1 unlock the secrets of the tongue in which they were first presented1 and then there will open upon you such a ,renaissance as dawned upon the astonied humanists of the #aeth century4 ,the main use of such a lecture as that which ,i am now delivering is that you should be discontented with it1 and should desire to pass from the illustration1 the commentary1 the appreciation1 to a direct study of the great originals4 ,such a course may indeed be impracticable for many of you1 who in middle life cannot turn aside to the labour of acquiring another language2 for the mastering of a language is always an arduous task1 and all the more so as we advance in years4 ,but if we cannot ourselves learn1 this generation ought at least to stimulate and direct the next4 ,for ,i fear that the present knowledge of ,greek in this country is confined to a small minority1 while there is still a great majority who have some ambition to be really cultivated4 ,i remember some years ago undertaking to teach a class at ,chautauqua the ,alcestis of ,euripides4 ,the difficulty that confronted me was that a score of ,greek texts of the play were not forthcoming1 and that even in ,new ,york they were not found without search and delay4 ,the ,greek masterpieces share indeed this quality with other examples of perfect art1 that even a copy is well worth having1 and so the many excellent translations from the ,greek which you have in all your libraries1 are by no means to be despised4 ,but if you can attain the originals1 and master them1 the translations1 even if they have helped you in this task1 lose all their value4 ,i remember seeing in ,mr4 ,gladstone's library at ,hawarden a whole section of his great accommodation for books devoted to translations of the ,iliad into many languages4 ,there were scores1 perhaps hundreds1 of versions in ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 ,italian1 ,spanish1 ,danish1 ,norwegian1 ,russian1 ,hindustani1 and many other tongues1 sent to him by the translators as tributes of esteem for his own ,homeric studies4 ,i asked him did he ever open any of them8 ,he said1 8,no2 all the time ,i can spare ,i devote to studying the great originals40 ,but was there ever a clearer demonstration than these myriad translations of the greatness of a literary masterpiece8 ,even when there are many excellent versions already published in their own language men will not be content with these efforts1 but will ever attempt again the fascinating1 never ending1 never convincing task4 ,you could tell1 without knowing any tongue but ,english1 that there are four supreme poems which have exercised a fascination over men that never grows old4 ,they are the ,iliad of ,homer1 the ,agamemnon of schylus1 the ,inferno of ,dante1 the ,faust of ,goethe4 ,two of these are ,greek2 but note also that1 while we could find in ,greek several rivals#c which are of hardly less importance and by various poets1 there is neither in ,german nor in ,italian any poem that can for one moment compare with the supreme pieces ,i have named4 ,so pre-eminent are the ,greeks in literature4 ,their other art has not survived save in ruins or fragments4 ,but ask any real specialist1 such as the late ,mr4 ,penrose1 or ,dr4 ,drpfeld1 what place the best ,greek architecture holds in the buildings of the world1 and he will tell you that never again can anything equal to the ,parthenon at ,athens be constructed4 ,the huge temple at ,karnak in ,egypt1 the marvellous church of ,justinian at ,constantinople1 the lovely cathedral of ,rheims are probably the best specimens of perfection in building which we possess1 yet the ,parthenon1 with its apparent simplicity1 shows a subtle depth of artistic knowledge which justifies us in calling it the finest of earthly buildings4 ,need ,i say one word of ,greek supremacy in other arts here1 seeing that the details must form the subject of subsequent lectures8 ,the danger ,i see before this generation is that which came upon the ,roman world insensibly and which resulted in a decadence not arrested till it sank into the night of the dark ages4 ,the later empire was content to take ,greek art and ,greek letters at second hand1 and to substitute ,latin culture for the models which had educated their greatest masters4 ,but as ,i have already told you the copy had not the life of the original4 ,so we too1 with all our science1 with our increase of material knowledge and our restless running to and fro1 may sink into an ugly1 tame1 joyless conglomeration of societies1 for whom new discoveries supply hosts of new conveniences1 but no return to the happiness and the contentment of a simpler age4 ,our purblind toothless children may have their congenital defects vamped up by science1 and without it we should indeed be stranded upon the reefs of despair4 ,but happiness does not lie here1 no1 nor in motors1 nor in turbines1 nor in wireless messages across the globe1 nor in daily newspapers full of inextricable fact and falsehood4 ,i cannot believe that the civilised world will remain satisfied with this dark outlook1--the monopoly of these factories of material discovery1 where furnace and electric light replace the glorious rays of the ,sun-,god worshipped by the ,greeks4 ,there has generally been a great power of recovery in our race at large2 and periods of decay have been followed by periods not only of renascence but of rejuvenescence4 ,at all epochs when the world grew dull and desponding and the times were out of joint1 we have the mystical tendency1 the inclination to brush aside human joys and cares and to fix the mind on the ,eternal1 on the ineffable delights of communion with the ,spirit of the ,universe4 ,that this tendency is alive even in modern ,america1 cannot but be obvious to those who have studied the pathology of so-called ,christian ,science4 ,the other tendency is the humanist1 that which seeks to recover for us the joys and beauties of life1 enhanced by art and protected by the refinement of a sound education4 ,this was the aspect of human happiness which is most perfectly represented1 so far as the world has yet run1 by the ,greeks1 and hence the careful and minute study of their life must always appeal to those who desire the sthetic reformation of modern society4 ,once and again the ,greeks have exercised this vast and beneficent influence2 is it vain to hope that even still it is not exhausted1 but potent to cure the ills of man8 ,peradventure1 the prophecy of our great and most ,hellenic of poets may yet come true1 with a fulfilment wider and deeper than even his large vision could compass3-- ,a brighter ,hellas rears its mountains1 from waves serener far2 ,a new ,peneus rolls his fountains against the morning star4 ,where fairer ,tempes bloom1 there sleep ,young ,cyclads on a sunnier deep6 ,,ii ,,greek ,,poetry ,in coming before you to-day to treat of the influence of ,greek poetry on the modern world1 ,i feel under a special advantage1 which is also a disadvantage4 ,many of you will know that two volumes of my ,history of ,greek ,literature are devoted to ,greek poetry1 and those of you who have read them must already be familiar with my treatment of the authors and their works in detail4 ,to such of you1 there can be no difficulty in following the course of the present lecture4 ,but on the other hand1 it is hard for me to give to such hearers new material1 seeing that ,i have already done my best in two volumes to satisfy their curiosity4 ,to those that are not familiar with the subject1 there is the disadvantage1 in hearing a man whose intimacy with the subject is of such long standing1 that he may allude to things as obvious which to his audience are not so1 being beyond the bounds of their ordinary reading4 ,but ,i may very possibly be underrating the cultivation of this audience1 which is said to be on a very different level from that of any similar audience in ,england4 ,if so1 you1 like all competent critics1 in contrast to the vulgar and the ignorant1 will appreciate the difficulties of my task and will judge it with due allowance for these difficulties4 ,it is obviously my first duty to-day to put before you the general features of ,greek poetry which have made it a model for succeeding ages and nations4 ,then ,i shall proceed1 with as much detail as time permits1 to give instances of the effects1 direct or indirect1 of ,greek poetry on the poetry of ,english-speaking nations4 ,you will find that the features which are really the most important are not the obvious features1 and hardly those which we might name if we spoke hastily1 or at random4 ,the chiefest and most remarkable1 which permeates every ,greek poet from ,homer to ,theocritus1 is that their work is carefully studied1 and in no sense the mere spontaneous outpouring of the human heart4 8,i lisped in numbers1 for the numbers came10 said1 as a matter of pride1 a very artificial poet4 ,nothing would seem less worthy of it to a ,greek poet4 ,he always despised what we call an untutored genius4 ,we hear talk indeed of divine madness and of the inspiration of the ,muses1 but so far as we know1 they never inspired an ignorant man1 and never taught an educated man to violate the traditions of his school4 ,this studied work comes before us in its full artificiality in the ,homeric poems4 ,it is more than doubtful whether such a language was ever spoken4 ,it is full of strange forms1 and the mixed dialect1 sometimes even to us ungrammatical1 was the dialect invented or perfected by a school of bards who did not profess to reproduce ordinary speech1 but something far higher and better1 which only the educated poet could compose4 ,and when ,i use the term artificial1 which has come in modern ,english to signify something contrasted with natural1 and therefore inferior1#d ,i must say a word in explanation of my meaning4 ,it is not the proper province of art to attain to a perfect representation of nature1 but a representation of perfect nature4 ,for example1 the more the art of sculpture developed in ,greece1 the more they attained to the representation of a natural but an ideally beautiful figure1 such as the ,hermes of ,praxiteles4 ,so the last triumph of a great actor is to reproduce perfectly human nature in its general features1 if not in its ideal features1 and so the philosopher exclaims in wonder at the plays of ,menander1 8,o ,menander and human life1 which of you has copied the other80 ,but if anyone imagines that art consists merely in photographing vulgar everyday life1 he can easily lapse into absurdity4 ,all our habits1 so far as they are civilised1 depart from mere nature and employ artifice to conceal or improve it4 ,if any of you came here in purely natural attire1 imagine the scene6 ,i believe such things were attempted in the wild society of ,paris in the heyday of the great ,revolution1 but even then their attire1 though inferior in quantity1 was in quality not less artificial than the opinions of the wearers4 ,it follows from these considerations that ,greek poetry was always developed in schools possessing fixed traditions1 and following strict laws both in metre and in diction4 ,if any man thought to break loose from these restrictions1 and write in a manner wholly free and unchecked1 he would get no hearing in ,greece4 ,such a phenomenon1 for example1 as your ,walt ,whitman would have been impossible1 or at least we should never have heard of it4 ,it is indeed quite true that this does not exclude the rise of new schools of thought and new modes of expression4 ,when epic poetry was exhausted new sorts of poetry arose2 when these proved insufficient there was still further development1 but all this is to be accounted for with adherence to law and tradition of some kind4 ,i will take the last and therefore the most obvious case first4 ,we have in ,theocritus1 the latest bloom of pure ,greek poetry1 bucolic scenes and pastoral language which were long thought to be the mere echo of the primitive shepherds who fed their flocks in the uplands of ,sicily4 ,we know better now4 ,theocritus was a learned man1 full of literary jealousies1 who wrote in the sultry atmosphere of the university of ,alexandria and at the highly artificial court of the second ,ptolemy4 ,he was probably as remote from what we call simple human nature as any modern ,american could be4 ,but he was a great literary artist1 and he felt that while all the other schools of poetry had gradually lost their contact with real life1 and were becoming obtrusively artificial and outworn in public estimation1 there was still a vein of folk-song1 in scenery contrasting utterly with the crowded sandhills of ,alexandria1 which might1 if treated with delicate art1 appeal once more to the sympathy of a weary and decadent society4 ,no doubt there were plenty of pedants in ,alexandria1 who despised this return to homely and common life1 with its vulgar passions1 just as the great ,french critics repudiated with scorn the homely scenes and characters in the tragedies of ,shakespeare4 ,the experiment nevertheless succeeded1 and this thoroughly artificial but artistic representation of the sorrows and joys of illiterate peasants1 in lovely metre and with carefully chosen liberties of diction1 fascinated the ,greek1 then the ,roman world1 and incited the ,renaissance to similar1 but unsuccessful attempts4 ,it has produced its effects upon ,english poetry down to the work of ,tennyson1 who shows more traces of the influence of ,theocritus than of the influence of any other ,greek poet4 ,the secret of it was that1 when other schools became exhausted1 ,theocritus went back to the people1 found among them rude and simple songs which had never yet been adopted by any school or put into artistic form1 and raised these from the coarseness of nature into the refinement of a subtle and learned art4 ,was not the same process the origin of ,greek dramatic poetry1 though in an earlier and far less conscious age8 ,are we not told that tragedy1 and comedy too1 arose from the rude songs of the people and the rude attempts at acting among simple country folk8 ,the tragedy of schylus1 nay1 even the perfect diction and metre of ,aristophanes1 are as far removed from popular song as it is possible to conceive1 yet these too arose and matured with marvellous quickness from the rude essays of untutored peasants1 whose efforts were wholly beneath the attention of civilised society4 ,we know nothing1 alas6 of the cradles of the lyric poetry of ,archilochus1 of ,alcus1 of ,sappho2 we can tell you nothing of the incunabula of that great and varied development which comprised several schools4 ,over the whole surface of those primeval waters1 which cover the world of ,greek literature down to the #gth century ,b4,c41 we have but the one great solitary beacon1 the poetry of ,homer1 which tells us1 like the ,nantucket light-ship1 that we are far1 and yet not far1 from the utterances of a literary age3 ,as the tall ship1 that many a dreary year1 ,knit to some dismal sandbank far at sea1 ,all thro' the livelong hours of utter dark ,showers slanting light upon the dolorous wave6 ,but so much the scanty lyric fragments do tell us with a clear voice3 these poets were thoroughly and even elaborately artistic1 and their very careful workmanship1 if it did arise from an appeal to the songs of the people1 shows the very same fastidious care which we find in ,theocritus1 to purify their art from the clay or the dross of everyday language4 ,hence follows as a natural consequence1 among a people of genius like the ,greeks1 a perfection both in form and in spirit1 which we justly call classical and which forms the model for almost all subsequent poetry4 ,there are no vagaries of metre or diction2 there are no exaggerations of sentiment4 ,every civilised man of any epoch1 every critic of judgment1 who masters the poetry in the original1 finds in it models of taste which have not since been excelled and only seldom equalled4 ,i need not delay long over a few apparent or real exceptions1 so few that they are only enough for cavil1 not for serious criticism4 ,we have recovered recently the ,persians of ,timotheus1 whose musical performances were very popular in his day4 ,the poem is the worst that we know coming from its age and country4 ,but we also know that we should merely regard it as the libretto of a musical performance1 such as the libretti of the ,italian operas we used to frequent in our youth1 in which the text was not of the slightest importance and was generally very bad4 ,the music was the only part of the performance we criticised4 ,so the ,persians of ,timotheus is ridiculous as a poem on the great battle of ,salamis1 but even so is pronounced by the authorities on metre1 such as ,wilamowitz1 to be very careful and polished in that respect4 ,the ,mimes of ,herondas1 another recent discovery1 are also bad poetry1 but then they are mere versifications of prose pieces1 such as those of ,sophron were1 and meant1 ,i believe1 for acting on a cheap stage or for dramatic recitation4 ,they can hardly be called poetry4 ,in much earlier days1 there was a good deal of tame moral teaching and proverbial philosophy expressed in verse4 ,but that also was so1 because as yet prose had not become an ordinary vehicle of writing1 and any man who desired to teach1 such as ,solon1 or ,theognis1 or ,empedocles1 must express himself in verse4 ,i will mention but one more feature in which ,greek poetry had obviously an advantage over modern art of the same kind4 ,being almost altogether composed1 not for a reading1 but a listening public1 it was closely associated with other arts1 especially those of music and dancing1 so as to form an essential part of many great public festivals4 ,it was the soul which animated the frame of every national pageant4 ,if a poet laureate nowadays is asked to celebrate a great public occasion by a poem1 he writes an ode or an elegy1 such as ,tennyson's 8,bury the ,great ,duke1 with a nation's lamentation10 and sends it out to countless readers4 ,the ,greek poet1 on similar occasions1 would have a solemn procession1 or a dance1 or a scenic display1 with appropriate music1 to assist him4 ,these environments secured two great qualities1 or rather tended to secure them1 for we must not assume perfection as a general result in any human product4 ,it secured that the poet would aim at dignity1 avoiding all mean and trivial topics4 ,it also secured brevity1 avoiding discursiveness1 which is a fault of much modern poetry4 ,thus ,wordsworth's ,excursion would have been intolerable to the poet himself1 had he been a ,greek1 and to come to a more appropriate illustration1 the exuberant and unlimited choruses in ,mr4 ,swinburne's ,atalanta--otherwise a splendid reflection of ,greek tragedy--would not have been tolerated on account of their redundancy1 but the poet would have compressed them within such limits as would not put his chorus out of breath1 or produce dizziness in his hearers4 ,the production of poetry for local and special public occasions was also a main cause of the use of distinct dialects1 which did not become national property till some great work had sanctioned their literary use4 ,thus the artificial ,homeric dialect became the lingua franca of all epic poets1 whatever their country or their date1 down to the end of old ,greek history4 ,doric choral hymns were adopted by the ,attic tragedies and put into the interludes of ,attic dialogue4 ,luckily for us the ,greeks wrote phonetically and did not conceal their local speech under the cloak of an artificial and false orthography4 ,thus the poetry of the nation has come to us in various dialects1 but never1 except with deliberate dramatic aim at vulgarity1#e in the mere language of the common people4 ,but ,i must now abandon these general considerations and turn to the task of showing you1 in some famous examples1 how ,greek poetry1 possessing the excellence requisite for a high model1 acted upon the greatest and best of our own poets1 as well as on others in modern ,europe4 ,every one knows that the ,greeks have left us three long epic poems--one the epic of war1 the second the epic of voyage1 the third1 that of ,apollonius ,rhodius1 the epic of adventure combined with a great love story4 ,there were many other early epic poems composed in imitation of the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 but they have been laid aside and forgotten1 most probably because their material has been worked up by the ,greeks into the nobler form of tragedy4 ,for1 as you know1 the ,greeks1 who confined themselves to mythical subjects for these tragedies1 avoided the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 and utilised what were called the ,cyclic poets4 ,it is mere commonplace to tell you that the ,iliad and ,odyssey have been the unapproachable ideals for all subsequent time4 ,the first and greatest foreign imitator was ,virgil1 and through his immortal epic1 indirectly more even than directly1 the world of poets has been swayed4 ,it is nevertheless very remarkable that these two masterpieces1 coming complete from the early genius of ,greece1 as ,athena leaped full-armed from the brain of ,zeus1 appearing1 like ,melchisedec1 without father1 mother1 or descent1 to bless the father of the faithful1 should never again have been equalled among men4 ,the best epic of modern ,europe since the classical ,renaissance is the ,paradise ,lost of ,milton4 ,he has given us ample evidence that he was a great poet1 and yet how far below the ,iliad and ,odyssey does he fall6 ,i need hardly tell you that the controversies which agitated his mind1 and the mind of his age1 disturbed the serenity of his poetic vision and dictated to him many digressions which are blots on the purity of his golden pages4 ,but that is not to my mind his greatest defect4 ,the action of the gods which in the ,iliad is a mere preamble to the general action of the poem1 or an irrelevant episode1 and hardly interferes with its thoroughly human character1 is in the theological poet far too prominent4 ,it occupies in ,milton's poem the forefront1 compared to which the episodes in ,eden are but a small matter4 ,the tremendous part of the poem is not ,paradise lost by man1 but heaven lost by the angels that fell4 ,it is the conflict between gods and ,titans1 as the ,greeks would have put it1 and not the conflicts or mortal heroes that fascinate us4 ,another remark obtrudes itself as we pass on4 ,the weakest book in all the ,iliad is the ,battle of the ,gods4 ,it might readily be expunged from the poem without loss4 ,in ,milton the ,divine wholly outweighs the human in grandeur and is the essence of the poem4 ,there is another feature in this epic which disturbs our admiration--the great richness and even redundancy of the learned similes4 ,in this ,milton seems to have taken as his model the third ,greek epic1 which is now forgotten1 but which had a great vogue in the ,renaissance1 ,i mean the ,argonautics of ,apollonius4 ,his direct obligations to this poet have been noticed in many places by the commentators4 ,i have no doubt that a careful study would show many more1 and it is all the more interesting to reflect how a now forgotten ,greek source has had so lasting an influence4 ,the greatest contribution ,i know from ,apollonius to modern poetry is the famous scene at the opening of ,goethe's ,faust1 where the world-weary philosopher determines to take a cup of poison1 but is suddenly recalled to life by the ,easter dawn with its ,resurrection hymn4 ,you have but to read the scene where ,medea1 wracked by what she believes a hopeless passion1 turns at the end of a night of wakeful agony to the same escape1 a cup of poison4 ,but with the dawn and the awakening of human life1 the sounds of men react upon her troubled spirit and cause her to put aside her dread resolve4 ,with her also1 and with the ,greek poet1 the conception is fresher and better4 ,it is the youth and health of ,medea1 the wine of life glowing in her veins which calls her back from suicidal gloom when cheerful sounds of human life illumine the dawn4 ,the effect of the ,easter hymn on ,faust1 beautiful as it is with our ,christian associations1 does not seem so natural and is therefore on a lesser scale as poetry4 ,but when ,i have started upon the effects of the ,greek epic in moulding the great ,english epic1 which strives so hard to assume a different tone1 with a different subject1 ,i am understating the general influence of ,greek poetry on ,milton4 ,in the days before him we may assume that most of the ,english poets knew their ,greek at second hand1 through ,latin copies1 or through ,french translations4 ,ben ,jonson indeed1 we are assured1 knew ,greek1 and ,chapman had in his excellent translation made the ,english world acquainted with ,homer's ,iliad4 ,it is easy to underrate this second-hand influence and to say that after all it was ,latin and not ,greek4 ,nothing would be more misleading4 ,a poet may feel the greatness of another even though he does not comprehend his tongue4 ,thus ,shakespeare1 whose drama as a whole was clearly outside of all ,hellenic influences of style1 as soon as he read in ,north's translation ,plutarch's ,lives1 saw in them subjects fit for his immortal plays4 ,and not only as to subject1 but as to treatment1 he adheres so closely to the ,greek master of biography that you can feel the profound respect and admiration the playwright had for his work4 ,thus the ,antony and ,cleopatra1 to cite but one example1 adheres point for point to the famous narrative of ,plutarch1 and adds nothing to his picture4 ,the influence of ,plutarch on the ruffians of the ,french ,revolution is not less remarkable1 and will1 ,i think1 occupy us in another connection4 ,but then these men had for a century previously been taught by their classical drama to look to the ,greeks for lofty principles and ideal characters4 ,yet for my purpose it is more relevant to cite a modern instance4 ,no one would say for a moment that the ,greek tone in ,keats was got through ,latin or ,french versions4 ,yet he seems never to have known ,greek enough to read the originals1 whose spirit he caught from the echoes of classical dictionaries4 ,but the indirect knowledge of earlier poets1 such for example as the stray citation by ,shakespeare of the words of ,eteocles from ,gascoigne's play1 are as nothing when we come to ,milton1 who shows himself transfused not only with ,greek epic1 but with the ,greek drama4 ,and from ,milton1 as the great master1 comes that perfection of poetic style and of metre which has moulded all ,english poetry from his time onward4 ,matthew ,arnold even speaks of him as standing above all his successors in this unique distinction4 ,but when ,arnold compares this excellence with that of ,virgil1 he should have added that ,virgil also owed it to the ,greeks4 ,nor do ,i find in ,virgil's neid anything like the familiarity with ,greek tragedy which ,i find in ,milton4 ,thus the whole situation at the opening of ,paradise ,lost is not due to ,homer1 but rather to the ,prometheus ,vinctus of schylus1 where the ,titan1 overcome and chained to ,mt4 ,caucasus by the superior might of ,zeus1 nevertheless proclaims his undaunted spirit2 and of course this struggle between gods and ,titans1 which appears so frequently in ,greek mythology1 and hence in ,greek poetry1 is constantly present to ,milton1 and suggests to him simile and metaphor all through his poem4 ,but why delay over these desultory allusions mixed with those of other legendary cycles1 all grasped by his vast erudition8 ,consider the ,samson ,agonistes4 ,here we have the poet deliberately going back to strictly ,greek form and even1 in his notable preface to the play1 defending dramatic poetry against ,puritan objections by appealing to schylus1 ,sophocles1 and ,euripides1 8the three tragic poets10 he says1 8unequalled yet by any1 and the best rule to all who endeavour to write tragedy40 ,you wonder when you consider that he had ,shakespeare before him1 whom he mentions elsewhere with admiration4 ,but the same preface tells us clearly why he would not concede to ,shakespeare's tragedy the rank he gives to the ,greek masters4 ,he says tragedy had fallen into 8low esteem or rather infamy1 happening through the poet's error of intermixing comic stuff with tragic sadness and gravity1 or introducing trivial and vulgar characters1 which by all judicious persons has been counted absurd40 ,he took therefore exactly the view of ,voltaire1 who is shocked at the gravedigger in ,hamlet1 and the drunken porter in ,macbeth4 ,such was also the view of ,milton's great ,french contemporary ,racine1 who believed that he had composed his plays in the strictest accordance with the principles of the ancients4 ,and yet the school of ,shakespeare might easily have defended themselves by citing the practice of those very masters1 whose example they were recommended to follow4 ,in the first place every ,greek tragic poet composed a merry afterlude1 called from its official chorus of ,satyrs1 a ,satyric drama1 and this followed immediately upon their tragedy4 ,secondly1 even in this1 the greatest master1 schylus1 does not disdain to bring 8vulgar and trivial persons0 upon his stage1 such as the watchman at the opening of the ,agamemnon1 and the nurse ,kilissa1 who intermix comic stuff with the tragic sadness of the play1 and even enhance the gloom by the contrast4 ,of course the tragedy of ,euripides1 who deliberately sought to bring his stage nearer to our ordinary life1 could not but exhibit such passages1 as any student of him knows perfectly well4 ,taking however ,milton's own view of the nature of ,greek tragedy1 we have his ,samson ,agonistes not only constructed on the frame of an ,attic play1 but in every scene full of reminiscences and allusions showing a minute familiarity with the tragic ,three4 ,the opening1 with its blind and world-worn hero1 seeking for repose1 is taken from the opening of the second dipus of ,sophocles4 ,so is the entry of the chorus1 with their surprise at the doleful sight1 but presently they assume much the same part as the ocean nymphs in the ,prometheus of schylus1 and it is from these two plays that he has borrowed most freely4 ,in the development there is no doubt that ,euripides was his real master4 ,the litigious element1 if ,i may so call it1 which was dear to the ,athenians2 the introduction of an insolent giant2 of the treacherous ,dalila1 who put forth arguments to be refuted by ,samson1 and so to fill up long scenes in the play--all this is in ,euripides' best manner4 ,so is the irruption of the distracted messenger near the close1 who narrates the catastrophe4 ,but nowhere is the thorough appreciation of the spirit of ,greek tragedy1 as well as its form1 more manifest than in the choruses1 and in the lyrical monodies which are the finest features of the play4 ,he tells us in the preface1 already quoted1 that he did not observe the form of strophe and antistrophe1 strictly corresponding1 because this implies a musical accompaniment and performance in singing which was foreign to his purpose4 ,still less would he bind himself to rhyme1 a shackle unknown or rather very rare in the poetry of the ,greeks4 ,he writes both lyrical complaints of ,samson1 and the choral odes which are interludes to the action1 in irregular rythm1 which we can hardly call metre1 and which are yet in the strictest sense lofty poetry4 ,these things are not to the taste of the ordinary commentator4 ,thus ,sir ,egerton ,brydges1 in a handsome and indeed learned edition adorned by ,turner's drawings1 says at the end of the first chorus3 8,though there are magnificent passages in this chorus1 ,i cannot quite reconcile my ear to the rythm1 nor to some of the expressions1 which are1 ,i confess1 too like prose40 ,it is interesting for you to know that ,cicero said nearly the same thing about ,pindar4 ,his elaborate metres sounded to the ,roman like prose4 ,but to any one who is intimate with ,greek choruses1 nothing has ever been composed in ,english which reproduces their effect so perfectly4 ,i need not add that in substance these odes1 partly poetic reflections of a general sort1 partly in direct sympathy with the action of the play1 are exactly the rle of the chorus in ,greek tragedy4 ,in one point only we may say that here ,milton is deficient--in that lyrical sweetness which marks many of the choruses of ,sophocles and ,euripides1 so that we can recite them as independent poems4 ,probably ,milton felt his subject too great and gloomy for such poetical digressions4 ,for when he chose to give us lyrical sweetness1 what can exceed his ,comus8 ,nor do ,i know anything more ,greek than the lovely though learned lyrical poetry toward the close of that immortal masque4 ,i now pass from the father of ,english classical poetry to later but not more varied manifestations of ,greek influence4 ,the most remarkable work in the early eighteenth century1 which took all ,england by storm1 was ,pope's translation of the ,iliad4 ,chapman's was already there1 a very meritorious work1 and now rated more highly than its successor4 ,but in ,pope's day style was paramount4 ,the ,iliad must read as a great ,english poem1 and we have ,homer dressed in eighteenth-century costume1 just as the boys that played ,terence at ,westminster played him in wigs1 powder1 and patches4 ,it is very easy to criticise ,pope's translation4 ,his whole attitude was like that of ,watteau in landscape2 his epithets were generally wrong1 and wrong in principle4 8,and the conscious swain blesses the useful light0 is the conclusion of a simile4 ,now ,homer's swain was not conscious1 nor did he bless the light as useful4#f ,thus we see in ,jacques ,carrey's now invaluable drawings of the ,parthenon--for they were done a few years before its disaster--that he could not even copy ,phidias's work before him1 without importing the style of the seventeenth-century ,frenchman4 ,all these things are true and obvious1 and yet the poet1 who in translating another1 recasts him into his own mould1 though he be faithless as a translator1 may be far greater as a poet4 ,ever since ,i was introduced to ,homer by ,pope1 more than fifty years ago1 ,i have felt that1 with all its anachronisms1 ,pope's poem is the greatest and best version of the ,greek master1 and a proper one for those to read who cannot approach the original4 ,no prose translation1 however scholarly and accurate1 can give the least idea of the swing of the great epic1 and so ,i feel that the influence of ,homer through ,pope has been wide and lasting and that the very defects of so great a performance have stimulated oft-renewed attempts at reproducing the great masterpiece4 ,dryden's ,virgil of course led public taste in the same direction1 so that we have an age very diverse from ,greek in taste1 and very incongruous to it1 nevertheless dominated1 perhaps even more than people then imagined1 by ,greek classical models4 ,the case of lyrical poetry is not dissimilar4 ,the poets of the eighteenth century had before them ,horace's versions of ,alcus and ,sappho1 and the text of ,pindar1 who was1 as ,horace had told them1 the greatest master of all4 ,but as he was difficult even for ,horace to understand1 so he was to the eighteenth-century poets but vaguely intelligible4 ,above all1 the very essence of his studied1 careful1 and learned genius was wholly misunderstood4 ,he was conceived to be a poet beyond the bounds of strict art1 drunk with the muse and pouring forth a torrent of splendid thoughts in disregard of all the shackles of metre1 which was so obvious in the olic school4 ,thus they strove to imitate his apparent impetuosity1 and the supposed irregularities of his metre1 and produced many good poems1 inspired indeed by the ,greek1 but wholly foreign to their model4 ,the greatest of them was he who knew the originals far better than the rest1 and took the pains to master them with scholarly care4 ,we have in ,gray a poet of really ,greek temper and spirit1 very learned1 very fastidious1 very strict in form1 though that form be rich and various1 and to my thinking well worthy of comparison with ,simonides or ,bacchylides1 both in purity of style and splendour of diction4 ,an excellent ,american critic 7,w4 ,l4 ,phelps7 has shown very clearly how ,gray1 beginning with classical training and making the pseudo-classical ,dryden his model1 was nevertheless in middle life swept away by the ,romantic wave which flooded ,england and which made him prefer ,keltic and national subjects to those derived from ,greek and ,latin traditions4 ,all this is perfectly true1 yet equally true is it1 that no change of subject could change or mar the splendid form1 the pure diction1 the delicate taste which ,gray derived from his careful study of the ,greek poets1 and which is as clear in his 8,welsh bard10 as in his 8progress of classical poesy40 ,no ,english poet had hitherto grasped the real splendour of ,pindar1 not even ,milton1 and so the ,pindaric odes of lesser men1 such as ,cowley and ,shenstone1 have not survived as popular poems1 whereas ,dryden's ,ode to ,st4 ,cecilia1 and a whole series of ,gray's poems1 show clearly the matchless training which ,greek poetry affords the modern poet1 whatever be his subject or his school4 ,it is in fact much more important and interesting to point out these indirect influences1 than to lay stress on the direct borrowing from the ,greek in form and diction4 ,this very conflict or contrast may be exemplified in ,byron's poetry4 ,he was a leading member of the ,romantic school or fashion1 and yet all his life he loved and honoured the classical perfection of the ,greeks1 and not infrequently by a stray passage proves how minute his knowledge even of fragments of ,greek poetry4#g ,the political circumstances of modern ,greece in the early nineteenth century1 the great struggle of the population against ,turkish tyranny--all this gave a romantic foreground to the classical taste fostered by the higher schools and colleges throughout ,europe2 and so the admiration of the old ,greeks in art1 politics1 and literature was a sort of classical justification for the ,romanticists who had sprung from the reaction against the false ,french classicism of an earlier generation4 ,byron was first in adding the realities of actual ,greece to its interest as a mere frame or imaginary locus for classical poetry4 ,none of the eighteenth-century poets1 or even the earlier historians of ,greece1 showed the smallest curiosity about the actual home of ,greek literature1 the actual cradle that nursed all this unequalled genius4 ,even ,grote and ,thirlwall1 long after the poets had discovered what inspiration was to be derived from the mountains and fiords of ,hellas1 wrote their immortal histories1 without any feeling that they would have gained1 by a knowledge of the ground1 a new and living flavour4 ,for they had both means and leisure to travel and yet they sought no help outside the books of their libraries4 ,but ,byron brought into poetry at least that realism about ,greece which made a study of ,greek and of ,greece at first-hand the desire of poets and of artists4 ,of ,keats1 who had not the opportunities1 ,i have spoken4 ,in ,shelley1 we have that perfect combination of romantic imagination with profound ,greek culture that makes him the greatest and probably the most lasting of that galaxy that illumined the early nineteenth century4 ,the least ,greek of them all was ,wordsworth1 and ,i venture to say that had he studied ,greek poetry1 it would have taught him the essential differences which separate it from prose--lofty style1 select diction1 above all1 compression within strict bounds and moderate limits--and thus have saved both us and him from the dreariness of his prosaic ,excursion4 ,let none of you think that ,i underrate his poetic work4 ,but in his highest moments it is the glow of ,greek splendour1 the spiritual lessons of the august ,plato that illumine his sober genius1 and translate him for the hour into the company of the immortals4 ,in the latter half of the nineteenth century1 we see the strong desire to reproduce the ,greek masterpieces not only by people who were poets for the occasion1 like ,lord ,derby or ,miss ,swanwick1 but also by the masters who had already proved their greatness to the ,english world4 ,robert ,browning has given us versions of several plays1 the ,agamemnon1 the ,mad ,herakles1 the ,alkestis4 ,in the last1 he lays stress rather on the psychological attitude of ,euripides1 on his character-drawing1 than on the lyrical portions1 which are not reproduced in lyrical metre4 ,but how easily he could do this he proved to me when ,i asked him to render a famous ode of the poet in a form approaching the original4 ,writing to ,london from ,dublin on a ,monday1 ,i had his version on ,wednesday evening4 ,the original manuscript ,i have given to an ,american friend who treasures it2 the words appear in my little monograph on ,euripides published years ago4 ,swinburne and ,matthew ,arnold have not translated old ,greek dramas1 but have composed plays after that model4 ,to an intelligent reader who has no knowledge of ,greek1 ,i know no better approach than to read the ,atalanta or the ,erechtheus of ,swinburne1 or1 if he prefer it1 the ,merope of ,arnold1 which is not so great a poem as either of the others1 but just as faithful a mirror of ,greek mind2 for the exuberance of ,swinburne's choruses1 the unrestrained riot of his ebullitions against the providence of the ,gods1 may be splendid poetry--they are foreign to the chaste and moderate diction which characterises almost all ,greek literature4 ,if there be a great exception1 it is in the gloomy grandeur of schylus1 and accordingly no play has been so often attempted in ,english as the ,agamemnon4#h ,when we pass from this large influence of ,greek drama to that of the lyric fragments or the idylls and love stories of our modern poets1 ,i am met by an old assertion of the pedants1 that the ,greeks were wanting in that love and feeling for nature which is the prerogative of the ,romantic school4 ,i see no such contrast between ,classical and ,romantic4 ,gray1 the most classical of our lyric poets1 was the first to insist upon the necessity of a poet refreshing his soul with the wild beauties of mountain scenery4 ,if we had more of ,sappho1 we should find that she too was romantic in that as in every other reasonable sense4 ,the last fragment recovered1 which prophesies that her girl friend will shine at ,sardis like the moon among the stars in a summer night1 paints the splendours of such a night in the glowing colours of a true poet of nature4 ,there is in ,theocritus1 there is in ,apollonius1 ample evidence of a delight in the sights1 and still more the sounds1 of nature1 and so the most classical of our modern lyric poets1 ,tennyson1 shows great intimacy with ,theocritus1 and takes not only his images but still more his tone from that delightful original4 ,such images as ,sleep that gentlier on the spirit lies ,than tired eyelids upon tired eyes1 and again1 ,the moan of doves in immemorial elms1 ,and murmurings of innumerable bees1 are1 if not translated from ,theocritus1 certainly suggested by him4 ,a more explicit borrowing from the ,greek will be found in the comparison of a strong man's biceps to the passing of running water over a stone that does not break it3 ,and bared the knotted column of his throat1 ,the massive square of his heroic breast1 ,and arms on which the standing muscle sloped ,as slopes a wild brook o'er a little stone1 ,running too vehemently to break upon it4 ,but in every page of that poet which is not mere familiar home life1 ,i feel in the splendour of his style the very echo of ,greek work1 and ,i can well imagine how ,euripides would have revelled in the lines1 ,his honour rooted in dishonour stood1 ,and faith unfaithful kept him falsely true4 ,the influence of ,greek comedy is too complicated to be discussed at the close of this discourse4 ,for the greatest of the ,greek masters1 ,aristophanes1 has so intensely ,attic a quality that we might as well try to imitate the work of ,phidias4 ,but his genteel successor ,menander has become1 through the versions of ,plautus and ,terence1 the father of genteel comedy in ,europe4 ,he was extravagantly praised and popular in decadent ,greece4 ,i for one cannot hold that his legacy stands high among the priceless treasures bequeathed to us by his nation4 ,but of his influence there can be no question4#i ,it remains for me to say a word to those who ask how far this great poetry of the ,greeks was reduced to theory1 among a nation who loved to reduce everything to theory4 ,the climax of this tendency is shown in the work of ,aristotle1 as we shall see in another connection1 and ,aristotle has either written1 or caused to be written1 among his multifarious tracts1 an essay called the ,poetic1 which is mainly1 so far as we have it1 an analysis of the meaning of ,tragic poetry4 ,there are1 no doubt1 some very important utterances in this tract1 notably the famous definition of tragedy1 upon which so many volumes have been written4 ,but1 on the whole1 ,i know no poorer and more jejune exposition of a great subject1 so much so that ,i cannot but suspect that it is one of the many outlying researches that he entrusted to his pupils4 ,here is the kind of criticism to which ,i take exception as unworthy of ,aristotle3 ,in the ,iphigenia in ,aulis ,euripides has given us one distinct type in his wonderful gallery of heroines1 all facing death for the real or supposed public good1 either freely or under the coercion of cowardly or cruel princes4 ,this ,iphigenia is a young fresh creature just blooming into life1 and she hears the first news of her fate with an outburst of passionate tears1 and of supplication against the cruel sentence4 ,yet presently1 when she finds her doom sealed1 she resigns herself with the splendid dignity of an inborn gentlewoman1 and so adds greatly to the 8pity and the terror0 of the tragedy4 ,the author of the ,poetic says the character is not consistently drawn1 and therefore faulty4 ,what a contemptible judgment6 ,it is only to be matched by the observation of the worthless pedant who tells us in his scholium that the ,medea of ,euripides had no business to shed tears over her children1 as she was a hard and cruel character and about to murder them4 ,so again this ,aristotle says that poetry is essentially different from prose1 and gives as an example that the work of ,herodotus would not cease to be history even were it cast in metrical form4 ,this observation misses the deeper distinction of poetic and prosaic thought1 which does not depend on metrical form4 ,there are many passages in ,herodotus which despite their prose form are essentially poetry1 as we shall see in the next lecture4 ,these criticisms will1 ,i trust1 console you when ,i add that ,i have no time left for a full consideration of the ,poetic4 ,it is not always given to those who do great work to expound how they did it4 ,even among the ,greeks there was a current theory that the poet suffered under that divine madness which we call inspiration1 and knew not the full force of what the ,muse spoke through his lips4 ,that this inspiration did not dispense with careful preparation1 with elaborate metrical perfection1 ,i have already told you4 ,we have but recently learned from the ,persians of ,timotheus that this metrical perfection may also be used to convey the most ludicrously silly conceits4 ,let us therefore take what ,time has left us with thankfulness1 and not disturb ourselves or mar our enjoyment by the application of barren theories4 ,from ,homer to the ,anthology1 you can find great poems and splendid fragments that will exalt you into the higher world reserved for those that can lay aside material cares4 ,there you will enlarge the wealth of your souls2 there you will enter upon the heritage left you by those that had attained and taken possession of the ideal to which all our love of beauty tends as its goal4 ,but let me repeat to those who cannot quaff this poetry at the source3 take it from the vessels of the ,english poets that are ready to your hands1 not from the laboured prose of the modern scholar4 ,take ,calverley's ,theocritus2 take ,browning's ,euripides2 take ,whitelaw's ,sophocles2 take ,frere's ,aristophanes4 ,thus may you reach not the real shrine1 but1 like some proselyte of old1 the outer court of the matchless ,temple4 ,,iii ,,greek ,,prose ,i suppose the ordinary critic1 when reviewing the great subject before us1 would hardly think to-day's title one of sufficient importance to occupy a ,boston audience1 and yet it ought to be shown that in prose1 fully as much as in poetry1 the ,greeks have been the teachers of civilised ,europe4 ,probably also the subject will have to you this interest1 that it is not at all so obvious as that of the last lecture4 ,everyone knows about the ,greek poets2 many of them are the household property of the modern world4 ,but the origin and the development of ,greek prose is not so generally studied1 and its far-reaching influence not so widely understood4 ,moreover1 we know something more of the early stages of its history1 and though it also surprises us with its absolute perfection in our earliest authors1 and seems to leap from the brain of the god as fully armed as the poetry of ,homer1 yet we have some traces of earlier efforts2 we have some inkling of what went before ,herodotus1 more than we have of what went before ,homer4 ,that is mostly due to the late origin of prose writing among the ,greeks4 ,at first1 verse form was universal for recording all topics of interest4 ,even genealogies were composed in hexameters4 ,all the proverbial wisdom of the ,seven ,sages was in metrical form4 ,solon1 the greatest of these sages1 even preaches his politics1 and gives us his autobiography1 in elegiac metre4 ,we seem to have travelled a long way from the epoch when such a man as ,mr4 ,gladstone or ,mr4 ,roosevelt would address the ,senate or the people in verse2 yet for all that ,solon was a lawgiver1 probably as great as either of them1 and a very modern man1 too1 far more modern in tone and spirit than ,mr4 ,gladstone4 ,nor am ,i sure that ,mr4 ,roosevelt would not enjoy composing his messages to his ,senate in verse2 still less should ,i affirm that the ,german ,emperor would not revel in heroic verse1 as the proper vehicle for his exhortations to his subjects4 ,i note this in order to bring home to you the fact that late in ,greek spiritual history the greatest men and their audiences remained satisfied with the shackles of metre1 as conveying serious teaching in a more permanent and more popular form than prose4 ,for of course at the beginning of society1 when there are no written records1 men are wont to clothe their legends and tales in that form1 as it is a great aid to the memory1 and can be easily taught to children1 who remember the sound long before they pay attention to the sense4 ,i will not speak of inscriptions in prose1 as they are not intended in early days for works of art1 any more than the earliest letters1 which are mere messages conveyed by writing4 ,but there was an early attempt made1 in the rich society of ,ionia1 to clothe thought in an artistic form without the shackles of metre1 and that was the writing of the philosopher ,heracleitus4 ,i will speak of his great and pregnant theory hereafter2 what concerns us now is that his obscure aphorisms were intended to strike the reader by their form1 as well as their matter4 ,he had apparently a single predecessor in ,pherecydes of ,syros4 ,the subjugation of ,ionia by the ,persians1 and especially the fall of ,miletus1 seem to have put an end to this early picturesque writing and thinking until it woke up as the scientific vehicle of the ,greek school of ,hippocrates1 the ,father of ,medicine4 ,it was in the opposite extreme of the ,greek world1 the far west1 peopled mainly not by ,ionians but by ,dorians1 that literary prose made a new beginning1 which no political changes were able to crush1 till all ,greece fell under foreign domination4 ,the first of these attempts was the composition1 at ,syracuse1 of a treatise teaching citizens how to plead their cases in court4 ,it was a time when revolutions in the state and consequent changes of property1 arising from confiscations and exiles1 often reversed by a turn of the wheel of fortune1 made it vital for every plaintiff or defendant to be able to prove his case to a jury by persuasion4 ,this school1 though ,doric in origin1 passed to ,attica1 bred there a school of famous pleaders1 from ,antiphon to ,demosthenes1 who paid the closest attention to the form of their speeches1 and so perfected the eloquence of the bar for all time4 ,in strong contrast to this school was the eloquence of display1 referred to ,gorgias as its earliest master1 which made elegant composition and splendid delivery an end in itself1 and1 in the hands of the educators called ,sophists1 often chose a contemptible or repulsive subject in order to show how even the most trivial cause was capable of glorification by art1 just as ,teniers makes the pothouse and its drunken boors fit to take their place among the treasures that decorate a great mansion4 ,in these widely contrasted pursuits of careful speaking1 there were several points in common4 ,in both1 the subject was either ephemeral or might be trivial2 it was the treatment which was the great point of interest and which gave rise to theories and systems4 ,in neither was it the intention to instruct or improve the hearer4 ,in the one1 to effect persuasion for the moment1 in the other to gain admiration for the moment1 was the object of the speaker4 ,in both also1 though most carefully composed1 was the written word wholly subordinate to the spoken sound4 ,when these studies first arose1 there was as yet no reading public1 no gathering of books1 and studying them at home2 but a public vastly fond of talking1 and of hearing brilliant talk4 ,there were other occasions and interests in ,greek life1 where the subject was of such paramount importance1 that for a long time style was regarded with suspicion1 as giving a flavour of unreality to the statements of the speaker or writer4 ,one was the narrative of those events that had taken place in past time2 the other was the grave deliberation of public men regarding the future of the state1 questions of justice and of policy in the treatment of citizens1 or in the dealing with neighbouring powers4 ,the earlier leaders of ,greece1 such as ,aristides1 ,themistocles1 ,pericles1 and the ambitious men who made themselves tyrants1 all must have studied the art of persuasion with due care1 but it was not for some generations that a professional orator like ,demosthenes was intrusted with the charge of public affairs1 and that the words orator and politician came to mean the same thing4 ,yet even here1 the tendency in the ,greek mind to submit everything to law and training1 to turn every kind of human work into an art1 was so strong1 that no form of prose writing escaped this schooling1 and all of it shows a strictness of rhetorical form which seems1 at first study of it1 artificial1 until we come to learn that the highest products of human art are not spontaneous1 but the result of careful reflection4 ,while these various efforts towards spoken eloquence were occupying men1 we find that early annalists set down either in rude metrical form1 or even in prose1 past events1 thus laying the foundation for the greatest development of prose4 ,i mean history1 not merely as a record of past events1 but as an artistic product1 on the same level as dramatic poetry or as fresco painting4#aj ,the earlier attempts are known to us only through names and scraps of writing2 we cannot now tell how far ,hecatus and ,xanthus the ,lydian were historians in the artistic sense2 but there is no doubt whatever that in ,herodotus the ,greeks have given not only to the ancient1 but to the modern world1 a model of the art of history which has never been excelled4 ,and as if that were not enough1 we have in ,thucydides another model 7one which professes not the charm of artistic narrative1 but the strict analysis of positive facts7 and in this model1 which has imposed itself1 or has imposed1 on generations of historians1 we have another specimen of the use of prose1 which is likewise the highest model of the so-called science of history4 ,this latter instance is all the more remarkable because the writer did not1 like ,herodotus1 chose a great world-subject1 but a long and dull civil war1 in which no gigantic interests were at stake1 and yet by his consummate art1 by his intense seriousness1 little skirmishes in which a few hundreds of men were engaged have become household words in modern life1 while elsewhere many a shock of myriads has past into oblivion4 ,thus the little actions of the ,athenian ,phormio with his well trained boats against a superior force have given rise to a far larger literature than the great world-battles of ,actium or ,lepanto in the same seas4 ,there was no ,thucydides to write about these latter4 ,as ,i think it easier to impress a modern audience with the importance of ,greek prose style in this particular branch of its excellence1 ,i shall put it in the foremost place4 ,nothing strikes a reader of the ,poetic of ,aristotle 7or of the treatise so called7 as more incompetent than the illustration the writer uses to show that dramatic poetry is more philosophical than history4 ,he says that the former portrays the general features of human character1 as they must naturally develop1 whereas history has no object but to narrate the details of what has happened1 e4g4 what ,alcibiades did or suffered4 ,i have already pointed out to you the astounding stupidity with which he has criticised the development of a noble tragic character by a great dramatist--the ,iphigenia in ,aulis of ,euripides4 ,his notion of the portraiture of human nature as it ought to develop is one of commonplace consistency1 excluding all those storms and passions which suddenly supervene and which give to human character all its interest and its variety4 ,i have spoken to you of ,aristotle's judgments on tragic characters2 but ,i am now concerned with his view of history1 as a mere narrative of particulars1 and ,i come to consider again his statement that ,herodotus if put into metre would nevertheless be only history1 and not dramatic poetry4 ,it is a curious thing that we can here refute the critic from historical facts which he should have1 nay must have1 known4 ,one episode in the history of ,herodotus had already become a famous tragedy in the hands of schylus1 whom we may fairly assert to be a very excellent judge of what was proper for a tragic subject4 ,another historic episode1 the ,fall of ,miletus1 was made the subject of a tragedy by ,phrynichus1 and if it displeased the ,attic audience1 who fined the poet1 it was not because the subject was failing in tragic interest1 but because it possessed too much1 for it melted the whole audience into tears1 and brought home to them their present misfortunes1 as well as their recent blunders in policy1 and their craven desertion of their kindred in ,ionia4 ,the whole essence of prose history1 as an art1 first comprehended by ,herodotus1 is to regard the course of human affairs not as a mere catalogue of events but as a great human drama depending on large and eternal principles1 wherein the rise and fall of great nations1 still more the rise and fall of the great men who sway great nations1 afford us the contemplation of 8deeds1 or series of events of importance and completeness1 producing through the excitement of the feelings of pity and terror in the reader the purification of these emotions40 ,aristotle adds to this his definition of tragedy that the subject must be sweetened by graces of diction in every part1 and this is exactly what the first great historian did1 and what every one of his successors is bound to do1 if his work is to live as a work of art1 and not to be laid by as a mere repertory for learned reference4 ,history as a matter of style is therefore one of the great legacies of the ,greeks to mankind4 ,but not only in the style does ,herodotus agree with the definition of tragedy in ,aristotle4 ,he does so also in his subject4 ,this must be great or dignified1 it must have completeness in itself1 and it must contain those changes of fortune which are so peculiarly affecting to every reader4 ,the struggle between ,persia and ,greece1 its inception1 its varying fortunes1 the subjugation of ,ionia1 the anguish of ,greece--all leading to the climax at ,salamis and ,platea1 and the craven flight of ,xerxes to his home--what greater or more complete subject could a historian choose8 ,and in order to sweeten it with words1 there are many pauses in the action1 filled with delightful digressions1 far more various and more restful than the choruses in a ,greek tragedy4 ,these1 and all the main narrative1 and the dramatic dialogues which he composes for his actors1 are presented to us in that easy and flowing style which seems natural and obvious1 because it is the most perfect art4 ,i do not know whether this admirable simplicity is ever the spontaneous product of human genius4 ,whenever ,i have been able to reach the evidence1 ,i have found it the result of great labour and fastidious care4 ,i will give you an instance4 ,there was no one more remarkable in ,europe in his generation for pellucid simplicity of style than ,ernest ,renan4 ,i once saw in a friend's room a proof which ,renan had sent him for revision4 ,i was not allowed to study it1 but a glance showed me that a thin strip of printed matter1 the first draft1 had been laid down on a large blue sheet of paper1 all the wide margins of which were covered with corrections1 alterations1 and rehandlings of the printed sentences4 ,there was much erased1 much added1 much changed more than once4 ,there was perhaps three times as much in the corrections as in the original draft4 ,the result1 as we know1 was something so easy and natural that it seemed to have flowed without the smallest effort from his pen4 ,but ,herodotus is not the only model by whom the ,greeks have established a standard for modern writers4 ,he has about him the air of a story-teller1 and he repeats many legends and wonders1 so that graver and more sceptical generations set him down as a credulous traveller easily deceived by lying reports1 if not as a deliberate writer of fiction4 ,so many of these so-called lies or inventions have turned out after all to be true or probable 7e4g41 the tradition that the ,etruscans came to ,italy from the coast of ,asia ,minor by sea7 that even from this point of view ,herodotus has been vindicated by modern research4 ,if you want a model of the other kind of history--that which professes to be a sober record of carefully sifted facts1 which professes to discard all that is miraculous or legendary1 and insist upon testimony1 then in the opinion of all the ages you find its perfection in ,thucydides4 ,there used to be a general agreement that in contrast to the obviously artistic turn of ,herodotus1 his successor had exalted history1 as far as was possible1 to the rank of an exact science4 ,we now know that this view is very far from the truth4 ,thucydides1 as his speeches should always have clearly demonstrated1 was an artist just as consciously as ,herodotus1 nay rather a more subtle artist1 in that he concealed his art and deluded mankind under the guise of a solemn and dignified person1 telling nothing but the unvarnished truth4#aa ,for he too felt that the tragedies of human affairs were a fit and noble subject for the contemplation of men2 he too felt that the lessons conveyed by the catastrophes in the affairs of brilliant polities and brilliant men are as valuable as those borrowed from legendary story for the tragic stage4 ,the speeches he puts into the mouths of his characters are not those actually delivered1 either in language1 or probably even in substance4 ,they are rather rhetorical expositions of the political situations1 as the historian conceived them1 and reflections which he thinks the reader ought to make4 ,he also knows the more modern way of dealing with this side of history4 ,his reflections on the ,corcyrean massacre#ab are a famous specimen of this artistic or subjective writing4 ,i have taken pains elsewhere to show that his picture of the degradation of politics in ,greece so far as he represents it to be new and sudden1 is false4 ,all the vices which make up his brilliant but lurid sketch were old1 well known1 and ingrained in the ,greek character4#ac ,but it was part of his artistic scheme to represent the vices of that age1 and especially at ,athens1 culminating in a brutal and wholly unhistorical dialogue with the ,melians1 as the proper prelude to the great disaster in ,sicily and the consequent fall of ,athens4 ,thus choosing a far smaller and poorer subject than ,herodotus1 treating it also in a far poorer and narrower way1 he has by those very restrictions intensified his book1 and infused into it such dignity and pathos as to make it artistically worthy of the age of ,phidias1 of ,aristophanes1 of ,socrates4 ,when we ask whether the diction of this great work is adequate to its artistic conception1 the answer is not1 ,i think1 far to seek4 ,there are two kinds of diction in ,thucydides1 a clear1 chaste attractive narrative of facts1 without ornament1 but rising with its subject to a pathetic earnestness1 which has seldom been surpassed4 ,this narrative1 like the dialogue of tragedy1 is interrupted at suitable moments by the pretended speeches of the actors1 which by a curious inversion are like the chorus in the play1 giving the motives of the action and often the disguised opinions of the writer4 ,these are expressed in obscure and contorted language1 which ancient critics did not hesitate to stigmatise as thoroughly bad style4 ,with models of clearness before him1 such as ,herodotus1 ,euripides1 ,antiphon1 this fault is an idiosyncrasy of ,thucydides1 and yet a defect which has not failed to bring to him certain advantages4 ,for obscurity always produces the impression of profundity1 especially when it occurs in a solid and weighty author4 ,thus the many platitudes in ,thucydides' speeches1 and the recurrence of obvious ideas1 are disguised by contortions of expression1 so that the discovery of the meaning is a mental exercise which flatters and thus pleases the reader1 if he be curious in such things1 still more the commentator1 who finds wonderful scope for his often mediocre talent in such labour4 ,this is the quality in ,mr4 ,george ,meredith who makes his admirers think highly of themselves1 while they despise others4#ad ,time fails me to illustrate further1 in ,xenophon and in ,polybius1 this artistic conception of a period of human history as a great drama1 in which the rise1 the splendour1 and the fall of great men1 great cities1 great nations are told us with artistic selection of the details and artistic perfection of style4 ,this was the conception which moved ,gibbon to write the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,he saw around him1 at ,rome1 the gigantic relics of a bygone civilisation4 ,he felt within him the power of style to present the facts in adequate form2 and so we obtained another work of art1 in which the presentation of the facts is not less important than the facts themselves4 ,as the ,greeks put it over and over again1 and as ,cicero repeats it1 history is a form of eloquence1 and that history only will last which possesses the sine qua non of a great or an attractive style4 ,this is what the ,greeks have taught us1 and what many of us have ignored to our own ruin as permanent teachers4 ,i will conclude this part of my subject by reminding you that in biography1 which as the idyll gives a single scene1 or as a cameo gives the portrait of an individual--,plutarch has been the model to all modern biographers4 ,how truly dramatic was his conception and his treatment of individual great lives will come home to you at once when ,i remind you that ,shakespeare found in his ,lives subjects for a series of tragedies1 and in his diction language which required very little paraphrase4 ,let us now turn back to the sister developments of eloquence1 wherein the writing of history had accomplished such triumphs4 ,these are in brief the eloquence of debate1 and the eloquence of display4 ,and the eloquence of debate may either be that of the courts1 wherein private individuals1 the plaintiff and defendant1 are pitted one against the other1 or that of the public assembly1 where political deliberations are held and in which the orator seeks to persuade the majority to adopt his policy or to reject the policy of a political opponent4 ,remember that in all these cases the ,greeks were equally adverse to extemporaneous effusions4 ,they believed in the artistic arrangement and polished expression of every argument4 ,in the law courts1 where litigants had to appear in person1 and not by counsel1 it was the advocate's duty to compose the client's speech for him beforehand1 and probably to instruct him in its proper delivery4 ,as we never hear of any breaking down in court1 of any client unable to remember or speak out what the advocate had prepared for him1 ,i think it possible that the litigants were allowed to read their speeches4 ,in any case1 the composition of these speeches became a well-known and lucrative profession1 and was accordingly adopted by the ablest men4 ,the practice had long suggested the theory1 and so from early times there were treatises composed1 known as 1 wherein the subtleties of the art of persuasion were carefully analysed and reduced to rule4 ,the early treatises of this kind are lost1 but we feel their results in the remains of ,antiphon and ,isus1 and can affirm that they were eminently practical1 and thoroughly opposed to the froth and fury of what we call popular eloquence4 ,the use of figures of speech is reduced to a minimum1 the so-called flowers of rhetoric are wholly absent4 ,all is tame1 severe1 temperate1 not pretending to influence the passions but to convince the reason4 ,and yet this latter is to be done not by speaking the language of the heart1 but by the careful training of the intellect1 and the perfection of the delivery4#ae ,to us moderns these things appear at first hearing to flavour of artificiality2 the great bugbear of the modern mind1 which contrasts it with the purity and sincerity of nature4 ,the ,greeks knew this contrast perfectly1 and they met it1 not by the folly of leaving nature to follow its own devices1 but by making nature the highest artistic product4 ,thus the court advocates1 composing for various clients1 studied not only the proper arguments to be urged1 but that these arguments must be presented 8in character0 and so they carefully kept before them the personality of the speaker4 ,in ,lysias especially1 this expression of character in the speaker is part of his art1 which so perfectly apes simplicity that it requires a careful analysis to detect behind the simple utterance of the homely citizen the subtle rhetorician4 ,this refinement of legal rhetoric seems to me to have been disregarded or abandoned when the pleaders became so celebrated that the fiction of a client speaking for himself was no longer plausible1 and when the public that thronged the courts went to hear an oration of ,demosthenes or ,hypereides delivered by his client4 ,hence the speeches of ,demosthenes are not so various in ethos1 and many of them being delivered about his own private affairs1 had already taught the public to recognise his great style4 ,in particular1 so many of his orations were not court speeches but political harangues that this latter branch of eloquence may be regarded as that in which he best showed his pre-eminence4 ,and there are not a few instances where the ostensible case was only an excuse for promoting or vindicating a great policy4 ,the acme of all this branch of ,greek literature is the famous de ,corona of ,demosthenes1 which great lawyers and political orators like ,lord ,brougham have declared to be the very ne plus ultra of eloquence intended not only to persuade1 but also to persuade by all the arts of subtle logic1 of brilliant sophistry1 of red hot argument4 ,and remember men like ,lord ,brougham1 though infinitely better practical judges of the effect of such a speech than are mere scholars1 did not know one tithe of the subtleties of style1 which have only been detected by the minute studies1 not only of the old ,greek critics1 but of modern ,german scholars4 ,even in such a mighty speech as this you will notice the very scanty use of ornament4 ,there are none of what we moderns call the flowers of rhetoric2 there is no sounding peroration4 ,it is the picture of a grave patriot vindicating his life's work against the carping of his enemies and the criticism of his opponents4 ,there are indeed passages of gross vituperation1 wherein by scathing reflections on his opponent's previous life1 he replies to schines' insinuations about his private character4 ,nor has the character of schines ever recovered from this 8raking of his record10 which was probably not at all kept within the limits of the truth4 ,but the restraints which have been usual among modern gentlemen in debate1 especially the modern ,english gentlemen of the last century1 were not regarded as essential to the dignity of the highest ,greek court oration1 and that was probably because the jury was composed of the middle and lower classes who were not shocked by any want of refinement4 ,notwithstanding this limitation1 there can be no question that in the oratory of debate the ,greeks taught the ,romans1 then through them ,medival ,europe1 then after the ,renaissance1 modern ,europe directly1 so that even now they are the acknowledged masters in this splendid art4 ,it is all the more astonishing1 as we might naturally think that a society without printing and consequently without a great reading public would not have aimed at producing an eloquence which was not only splendid to read when the heat of controversy was allayed1 but worthy of study and of analysis by the critics of succeeding generations4 ,nevertheless1 with no better means of publication for readers than manuscript copies1 and without any hope of great celebrity1 or of great profit as the authors of written speeches1 these ,greeks produced work which has perfectly stood the test even of new and exacting conditions4 ,in spite of their limited public1 the orators had attained to as clear a notion as we have of the importance of appealing to a reading and thinking public which could study their arguments and their style at full leisure1 and so1 not content with the orations primarily intended for delivery1 they also perfected the prose essay1 and even the prose dialogue1 a very peculiar form of literature1 inasmuch as it is the literary stereotyping of an apparently spontaneous conversation4 ,but when ,i speak of a reading public1 perhaps ,i should limit it somewhat1 and say a public accustomed to hear reading aloud4 ,that is the intermediate stage between a mere audience and the mere readers of books4 ,i am quite accustomed to that intermediate stage in ,ireland4 ,you may see there any day groups of people hearing a newspaper or book read out1 and if the great body of the public is of this class1 then the writer must think not only of what he has to say but how it will sound when read aloud4 ,i take the same principle to have animated the composers of the splendid ,english ,book of ,common ,prayer4 ,they desired to affect the hearer not only by the sentiment1 but by the sound of their ,liturgy4 ,now this is the very step in prose writing which was taken by the ,greek students of eloquence1 and most notably by ,isocrates1 the father of the political prose essay in ,europe4 ,there were no doubt accidental or personal causes which conspired to this result at this moment4 ,isocrates1 with great natural gifts for style and for composition1 was wholly deficient in voice and in physique for the profession of public speaking1 nor had he the extraordinary energy and perseverance shown by ,demosthenes in overcoming these defects4 ,so it occurred to him that he might exercise his influence by prose writing in the form of open letters or political pamphlets1 where he puts his thoughts into the most polished periods and the most refined language4 ,i cannot but quote to you a curious parallel of a man of genius turning a natural defect into a splendid success4 ,when ,richard ,wagner began to compose operas of the received form1 he failed because of his want of facility to produce a sustained melody4 ,he then bethought himself of the use of short phrases instead of sustained songs1 and in spite of his original defect he has obtained a very great and deserved popularity4 ,there are1 of course1 other great qualities in ,wagner1 especially his novel and splendid use of the orchestra4 ,but the question of melody is always the vital one in music1 and no man ever attained the first rank that has left us so few sustained melodies4 ,his ,rienzi shows what he could do when he attempted them4 ,the laws of prose composition1 as devised and perfected by ,isocrates1 are the most subtle and complete ever put into practice by any living man1 and though of course some of them are only applicable to the ,greek language1 and indeed to ,attic ,greek1 the general principles he expounded have been applied by many writers and in many languages4#af ,it is well known that ,cicero modelled himself on this style and through him it became dominant in ,europe4 ,the greatest ,english example in older days is the ,areopagitica of ,milton1 who though manifestly inspired by ,isocrates1 is far from possessing his perfect control of language1 perfect smoothness of period1 perfect clearness of thinking1 all of which make up the charm of the great master4 ,isocrates was the teacher of this great style1 not only to pleaders and pamphleteers1 but to historians1 and he was blamed for making men like ,ephorus and ,theopompus1 his favourite pupils1 in writing their once famous works1 think more of their diction than of their impartiality or their research4 ,but surely the duty of making history eloquent1 such as we have it in ,gibbon1 is of paramount value4 ,to this ,i shall not now return4 ,i rather desire to call your attention to the supremacy of a great periodic style even in ,english1 and in these latter days1 when brevity1 epigram1 impatience of style and an affected neglect of form are in high fashion4 ,among the writers of the #aith century1 ,i take by far the greatest stylist to be ,john ,ruskin1 and ,i consider that far the largest part of his influence arose not from his ideas1 which were often fantastic1 but from the admirable way in which they were set forth4 ,but he was essentially the master of the long period1 for with him you may find a whole page consisting of one grand sentence1 in which many clauses are co-ordinated1 many lesser ideas balanced1 many strands woven into the one great tissue which comes from the writer's pen as from a loom4 ,and that is the reason why he was a greater stylist than all the ,froudes and ,newmans and ,paters1 who either use short sentences1 or if they attempt the period1 are neither melodious nor clear4 ,the same law holds good in eloquence1 when we can find a master to illustrate it4 ,the two greatest ,english orators ,i have heard during the last generation were ,mr4 ,gladstone and ,archbishop ,magee4 ,both dealt in the long period--the former from constant habit1 which was even notable in his ordinary life1 and which spoilt his conversation2 the other1 who was brief and pungent enough in ordinary talk1 trained himself upon the model of ,chalmers1 a great ,scotch orator before my day4 ,i have seen ,magee's copy of ,chalmers1 and have noted how minutely he had dissected and analysed it4 ,but both produced the same wonderful effect by 7if ,i may say so7 embarking the audience with them on the billows of great periods1 which excited wonder how they would ever come safely to land4 ,the rounding off and concluding of such a period not only with safety but with splendour produced an effect upon their audience unlike anything else that ,i have experienced4 ,the style of neither1 though both knew ,greek well1 was based directly on ,isocrates2 but most certainly their speech was based upon the principles he had taught and impressed so well upon ,cicero and his like1 upon ,milton1 upon ,jeremy ,taylor1 upon ,edmund ,burke1 all of whom appreciated and practised this supreme prose style4 ,but if the ,greeks here showed the modern world the model of the highest perfection in the prose essay1 they would not have been ,greeks if they had not also shown us the perfection of easy conversation1 of everyday talk1 of the play of various styles1 and the expression of various characters in the cultivated language of the day4 ,and so ,plato in his ,dialogues has shown the world an unapproachable example of conversation raised to a high art1 which again created a distinct literary form that has never died out4#ag ,all these developments are 7with the exception of biography7 those of the ,golden ,age of ,greek ,literature1 and are the discovery of great masters who were the glory of that age4 ,but as we shall see frequently in the course of these lectures1 the silver age of ,greece was almost as fruitful in the creation of models for the imitation of modern ,europe4 ,it was only after a great body of splendid authors had lived1 that we could expect to find literary criticism assuming an important place4 ,for the literary critic is after all a sort of parasite1 who lives on the bodies of greater and more dignified animals4 ,we know that when the library of ,alexandria came to be collected1 and the sifting of authors and of the texts of authors became necessary1 there arose a great school of critical scholars1 who purified the received copies1 who apportioned the respective value of the texts1 and who developed that censorious attitude toward the classical masterpieces which is the bane of the modern world4 ,we still have in the critical essays of ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus and still more in the ,tract on the ,sublime1 belonging to the #ast century ,a4,d41 excellent models of what is good and useful in this reflexive attitude of a later age1 and of second rate ability4 ,the great age of production had been very simple and nave in criticism2 the attitude of ,aristophanes1 and even of ,plato1 in judging poets is merely a moral judgment and seems never to take into consideration sthetic questions4 ,in the ,tract on the ,sublime we find quite a modern standpoint1 and the judgments of this author have had no small effect on the literature of the last century4 ,no less a person than ,edmund ,burke thought it worth while to translate this tract1 and how wide was the author's sympathy will appear at once from this fact1 that he quotes as a signal instance of the sublime the opening of a work far removed in spirit from classical ,greek literature--the book of ,genesis1 in the ,greek version4 ,i need not delay over the many and various ,epistles left us by the ,greeks1 and which you may see collected in one of ,didot's big volumes of ,epistolographi ,graeci4 ,but ,i do not think that we can call letter writing a distinct form of literature1 and it is very certain that every nation that could use writing materials could hardly fail to adopt it in some form4 ,nor do ,i think the letters extant are in any way remarkable1 perhaps because most of them are the compilations of men attributing these documents falsely to the great ancients4 ,the letters ascribed to ,plato1 ,isocrates1 and others give us nothing additional of literary importance4#ah ,i will therefore pass from these1 as well as from the moral harangues of the later rhetors and sophists of whom ,dion ,chrysostom is far the most interesting4 ,i wish modern sermons would borrow more from this admirable and little used source1 for ,dion was a man of the world1 a traveller1 a sound moral teacher1 and gifted with a great taste for the picturesque4 ,but ,i cannot conclude without a word about the prose novel of the ,greeks1 who here also founded a form of literature that has assumed gigantic importance in the modern world4 ,the novel may be regarded as the last legitimate offering1 a child born out of due time1 as ,saint ,paul calls himself1 but like ,saint ,paul a greater influence in our modern life than any of his older brethren4 ,it might have been thought that from the modern ,comedy of ,menander and his rivals to a prose novel in the modern sense was but a small and inevitable step1 and yet no branch of ,greek literature had less influence upon the rise and development of so kindred a subject4 ,the very frame on which all ,menander's plays were stretched with wearisome iteration1 ,i mean the rehabilitation of a respectable girl1 who solely through the neglect or the violence of others1 has become a mother without being a wife--such a topic would be wholly repugnant to any ,greek novelist we know4 ,for in all the stories we possess the main interest turns upon the preservation of the heroine's purity through every sort of temptation1 and every sort of attempted violence4 ,this was a topic quite strange to ,greek sentiment and foreign to ,greek literature till it was imported from the ,east by those who had there learned that sort of love-story4 ,there are indications of it in the romantic episodes of ,xenophon's ,cyrus1 but the adoption of it as a striking topic is later1 and due to ,callimachus1 whose poem called ,acontius and ,cydippe was perhaps the first love-story of our modern type offered to the ,greek world4 ,a youth and a maiden1 whose beauties were described in great detail1 meet at a religious ceremony1 and fall deeply in love at first sight4 ,the various and commonplace obstacles to their union which are familiar in every modern society--worldly parents1 a richer suitor for the maiden1 threats of broken hearts and of suicide--these occupy the story1 which through many untoward delays ends in a happy marriage4#ai ,it may cause amazement in this audience that such a plot should ever have been new in literature1 especially in that of the ,greeks1 who had every sort of human experience before them4 ,yet it was new in the ,alexandria of the ,ptolemies1 and made its fortune in that world-weary and artificial society4 ,in all the ,greek novels we possess1 some such love-story is the necessary thread which glitters through the tissue1 so much so that the ,german pedants edit them under the title ,scriptores ,erotici ,graeci4 ,yet the relation between the lovers being absolutely pure1 any temptations which occur arise from the passions of violent people who create no interest in the reader4 ,by far the best specimen we have1 owing to its simplicity and its natural scenery1 is the famous ,daphnis and ,chloe1 which has found so many imitators ever since the ,french of ,amyot has made it accessible to modern ,europe4 ,we feel indeed that the unknown author was far from possessing the innocence of his characters1 or the spontaneous appreciation of the nature he describes4 ,the work is from the time of ,decadence in ,greek literature1 and has the faults of its generation4 ,but for all that it is a beautiful work of art1 just as the ,idylls of ,theocritus are beautiful1 just as the ,hero and ,leander of ,musus is beautiful1 just as the ,martinmas summer of your woods is beautiful1 and all the more beloved because we feel it is but 8the gilded halo hovering round decay60 ,i said it was our best specimen because of its simplicity1 and yet it is not wanting in violent and improbable adventures toward its close4 ,but these are as nothing compared to the adventures of lovers in the other stories of this kind1 because there then was a wholly different vein of prose story1 which came into fashion with the love-story1 and became amalgamated with it1 to the great detriment of both--,i mean the stories of wild adventures in strange and fabulous lands4 ,with the wonderful invasion of the ,east1 there were opened to the astonished ,greeks new regions of fabulous splendour1 of astounding treasure1 of amazing nature4 ,so violently was their imagination stimulated by what they saw that they set themselves to construct books of travels beyond the rising sun and beneath the ocean wave1 into the homes of monstrous beasts1 and still more monstrous men4 ,the schemes of ,alexander himself were baulked by his soldiers1 who positively refused to embark in his wild dreams of universal conquest1 but there was nothing to impede the imagination of the writers of his deeds1 who combined the real narrative of his conquests with his quest after the hidden wonders of the ,east4 ,hence we have the so-called ,life of ,alexander1 which ,i consider to have originated shortly after his death1 but to have been amplified and glorified by succeeding generations of those that told their stories to delighted audiences4 ,in this ,life and ,acts we have the starting point of a whole literature of ,fabulous ,travels1 mixed with descriptions not only of odious savages1 but of ideal societies that lived hidden away from the vices and troubles of old and decrepit civilisation4 ,but this literature1 so popular in the ,middle ,ages1 is outside the pale of ,hellenism4 ,it is not only the last child1 but the illegitimate child of their once pure and lofty imagination4 ,,iv ,,greek ,,art--,i3 ,,architecture ,,and ,,sculpture ,it is of course an illogical division to separate art from literature4 ,among the ,greeks1 at all events1 literature in all its forms1 was not only an art but the most perfect art4 ,no statue of ,lysippus is more perfect than a drama of ,sophocles4 ,but for convenience' sake1 and in this age where literature is seldom an art1 we may speak of ,greek art as that division of their work where they dealt not with words1 but with other materials1 and where they combined the uses of life with the love of the beautiful1 as no other nation ever did4 ,we may add that in regard to ,greek influence on modern life 7which is our proper subject71 none has been greater and more permanent than that of art in this sense4 ,thousands of men have copied1 or imagined they copied1 ,greek art1 who were never able to read one word of ,greek and who never cared one jot about ,greek literature4 ,i take to-day its more solid and larger expressions--architecture and sculpture1 reserving for my next lecture the more subjective arts and those of mere ornament4 ,it is not true1 as you might suppose1 that these latter were later in development than the art of architecture4 ,far from it4 ,in rude pre-historic ages1 when the knowledge of building had not advanced beyond the question of mere safety1 we find delicate and beautiful ornaments put upon arms and on personal decorations4 ,the most elaborate tattooing of the savage is consistent with extreme rudeness in his dwelling4#bj ,the earliest form of house we know1 which was designed not only for shelter and durability1 but also for safety1 is the underground beehive house4 ,beehive huts of stone are common in many nations1 and may perhaps best be seen now in the huts of the monks on the wild rock of ,skellig ,michael1 which is the nearest land in the ,british ,islands to the traveller coming from ,america4 ,but such huts are not easily defended against an enemy4 ,this latter advantage is obtained by making the hut a chamber underground1#ba and only to be entered by a passage long1 narrow1 and low1 in fact a sort of horizontal shaft into which the enemy can only creep on hands and feet1 and so can have his head chopped off as soon as it appears within the chamber1 without possibility of using his weapons4 ,i have seen this form of house in the most primitive village of the stone and bone age1 which is known as the ,weem of ,scale1 on a very wild bay of the main island of the ,orkneys1 looking northwest into the ,atlantic4 ,there1 under the sands accumulated by the gales of thousands of years1 we find small subterranean huts1 with nooks in the stone work to hold rude vessels and implements1 and with a low covered way for the owner to creep in and find himself at home4 ,the weapons found in such houses1 many of which are yet unexplored1 are either of stone or bone or shell4 ,these dwellings1 once a very general type--for remember1 similar wants in mankind produce similar satisfactions of that want in the most widely severed parts of the world--usually come to us in the stage of survival1 when men had already learned other kinds of architecture4 ,hence they often preserved for the dwellings of the dead this type of underground beehive house with a long and narrow approach1 though as time went on the house was made higher1 and the avenue of approach better 7as we have it in the famous ,new ,grange in ,ireland71 and they even ornamented the inner surface of the slabs that formed the walls4 ,as usual1 the prehistoric ,greeks did it all more perfectly than the rest of the world4 ,the beehive house known in former days as the ,treasury of ,atreus1 but now recognised as a tomb of some prehistoric king1 is a splendid building fifty feet high1 and made of thirty-three horizontal courses of stone overlapping as they rise1 with the inner surfaces cut to form a conical chamber4 ,not only are large lintel stones used1 but there were rosettes of bronze ornamenting the inner surface of the walls1 and the stately avenue 7dromos7 lined with stone work of great finish and open to the sky1 led to an ornamented gate or entrance4 ,a restoration of this entrance1 made by the aid of the actual pillars carried home long ago by the ,marquis of ,sligo1 now astonishes the student of prehistoric art in the ,british ,museum4#bb ,why do ,i1 however1 delay over this very perfect and beautiful kind of building of which another noted specimen is the ,tomb of the ,miny at ,orchomenos in ,botia8#bc ,in the first place1 to show you how the highly developed and finished forms were the gradual perfection of the oldest and rudest protected house1 to which they merely added height1 careful finish1 and ornament1 which ornament we know from ,egyptian parallels to date some fifteen centuries before ,christ2 secondly1 to bring home to you the important fact that the beehive or round house was at an early date abandoned to the use of the dead1 and not employed for the use of the living till quite late in ,greek history1 when a few round public buildings show that the idea had not been lost4 ,the men that built the great and elaborate tomb of ,atreus probably never themselves lived in a round or beehive1 but in a square house4 ,they only maintained the round form out of respect for the dead1 and indeed for the sake of the safety of the treasures buried with the dead4 ,to the square house 7of course ,i include under this short word all rectangular buildings7 we now turn4 ,it seems to me that the earliest model which suggested this form was the hut of logs1 laid one over the other alternately at right angles so as to enclose a square space4 ,two upright posts with a horizontal beam over them would supply the first rude doorway in an opening left by using shorter logs on each side of it1 and then it was very obvious that a gable roof to cover the house would be made by laying logs from the top of the wall to rest one against the other at their upper ends1 or of course a flat roof in a similar way4 ,we can derive from this simple form the whole classical architecture of ,europe4 ,in the first place1 the gaps between the logs were filled with clay1 and so even the great stones at ,tiryns are treated4 ,thus the wall was made staunch against rain and wind4 ,but then someone discovered that by making clay into bricks and drying them slowly in the sun1 they would have a building material much more serviceable than wooden logs or stones4 ,and so the filling up stuff became the main stuff of the wall2 yet how persistent the idea of using wood can be inferred from the fact that early brick walls have wooden beams built into them longitudinally by way of giving firmness1 but also affording a danger of complete ruin1 if the building was attacked by fire4 ,the door posts and the lintels were of wood2 for the mud brick wall ending beside the door would rapidly suffer if not protected by a facing of wood1 and later on1 terra cotta casing was used to replace the wood4 ,ultimately1 stone door frames and pillars replaced the older wooden work4 ,but everywhere the traces of the primitive wood work survives4 ,the oldest pillars were tree stems set on a stone base4 ,at the top where the weight laid on them tended to flatten them out1 they were probably bound with a metal band4 ,this you see perpetuated by the ,doric pillar1 standing on its base without plinth1 and at the top we have a band running round1 and over it a splaying capital with a slab or abacus over it1 to protect the inwards of the wood from being soaked with rain4 ,there is no more persistent ornament in a ,doric ,temple than that course over the actual wall which consists of what are called metopes and triglyphs4 ,the metopes are not foreheads 77 as even some persons who know ,greek might imagine1 but interstices 771 in fact open spaces or holes between the triglyphs4 ,originally1 when the roofs were of opaque tiles1 these openings were necessary to let in light4 ,but the triglyphs1 what were they8 ,vitruvius notes them as beam ends1 for he calls the metopes intertignia2 and why were they always marked with three grooves1 as their name implies8 ,apparently because two horizontal beams1 intended to make a ceiling1 had a third pinned between them which rose to the gable1 where it met another1 and so formed the skeleton of the sloping roof4 ,when marble tiles1 which were semi-transparent1 or when a higher false roof was set on1 the metopes were no longer necessary to let in light1 and the ,greeks made the now closed interstice an ornamented surface1 showing groups1 either painted1 or carved in relief1 to vary the severe lines of the building4 ,we have drifted into some of the leading features of temples1 and they are indeed the buildings which have most influenced subsequent centuries1 but the features of the temple were originally those of the stately house1 as we can see clearly in the remains discovered at ,tiryns4 ,the roofs and upper stories are all gone1 but the arrangements of the doorways are quite the same in principle as those of the historic temples1 except that in the ,tirynthian doorways1 there are many evidences remaining of the actual use of wooden pilasters and pillars4 ,pausanias in the second century still found one or two wooden pillars surviving in the ancient temple of ,hera at ,olympia4 ,as they got worn out1 they were replaced by stone1 and ,dr4 ,drpfeld found that these substitutions were not all uniform1 but in accord with the altering taste of the day4 ,the capitals in particular varied from pillar to pillar1 to judge from those found among the dbris of the temple1 which1 by the way1 contained the famous ,hermes of ,praxiteles4 ,the ultimate separation between the dwelling house and the temple was that the house included a central court with rooms around it1 which was too large to roof over1 and so the model was handed on to all southern ,europe4 ,the ,italian palaces1 for example1 are all dark and fortified toward the street1 and contain an inner court and a gallery running round it on the building within1 on which the rooms open4 ,so permanent are the right principles of architecture when once discovered by a race of genius4 ,the temple or house of the gods was1 of course1 a single chamber of moderate size with a treasure house behind it1 and the gradual development of it from a simple square chamber with one end opened for a door1 and adorned with two pillars between the pilasters which formed the ends of the house wall--the doorway in antis1 to the elaborate peripteral temple with double rows of pillars running round it--all this is to be found in any handbook of ancient art4 ,from the very use of the temple as compared with the private house1 it followed that while the temple looked outward1 and was meant to show its beauty to those that approached it1 the private house looked inward--all its beauties were reserved for the occupants1 and care was even taken to prevent any curious observation on the part of the public4 ,but it is only of recent years that the extant ruins have been minutely measured and studied1 and now we know that1 in addition to building this rectangular house for the god1 there were the most elaborate and minute laws observed in the proportions of the various parts1 and in the optical corrections of straight lines1 which were found to appear curved4 ,this perfection1 therefore1 of ,greek religious architecture was not merely the adoption of a good practical form1 and the carrying out of it in precious materials and with clear and competent workmanship4 ,the most delicate adaptation of curves1 the most curious and subtle applications of harmonies in lengths and heights1 were utilised to produce an effect which all observers have long felt to be the most marvellous in the world4 ,but before ,i go further ,i will dispose of an interesting point which many have thought a defect in the architectural genius of the ,greeks4 ,you will see in every book that the use of the arch was unknown to them1 and that for this capital feature in our buildings we are wholly indebted to the ,romans4 ,that the arch was not in use among the ,greeks1 ,i attribute to the fact that the round house and conical roof were deliberately rejected by them in favour of the square house and wooden structure of doorways and roofs4 ,as already observed1 this form was long since devoted to funeral purposes and to the burying 7not burning7 of the dead1 and so its associations were gloomy4 ,but it seems to me absurd to say that people who could frame a conical stone roof1 by horizontal layers of stones gradually closing inwards1 should not have advanced to the principle of the arch with its keystone4 ,this in fact ,pausanias assumed them to have done in the ,tomb of the ,miny at ,orchomenos4 ,he says the top stone of the vault is the of the whole vault4 ,if this was not accurate in the case of ,orchomenos1 it at least shows that ,pausanias1 a very experienced observer of old ,greek building1 did not hold that this generic distinction existed between ,greek and ,roman building4 ,but1 as ,i said1 the ,greeks rejected round or conical forms for rectangular1 and the ,roman combination of the two1 which passed on to the ,renaissance1 is distinctly a modification of form to which the ,greeks would not have agreed4 ,still less would they have approved of the use of arches and of architraves as the mere ornament of a building1 and supporting nothing4 ,to the ,greeks every member of their building was there for use4 ,a pillar was set to support an architrave1 this latter to support the beams of a roof4 ,flat surfaces were decorated with painting1 or with reliefs1 but these flat surfaces were necessary to close in the building from the weather4 ,thus1 to illustrate bad building by an example1 when you look at the portal of ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice1 you will see groups of marble pillars with a highly decorated arch over them1 making a rich doorway4 ,but there are more pillars than are wanted to support the arch1 so that some of them stand idle1 as a mere added ornament4 ,that is only one instance of the tawdriness which infects the decadence of a great style--in this case of the ,romanesque architecture of eastern ,italy and ,sicily4 ,there is a very widespread belief that the arch was invented and first used in ,italy1 and high authorities1 like ,viollet-le-,duc in his famous ,entretiens sur l'architecture1 put forth the theory that the ,romans learned its use from the ,etruscans1 from whom they borrowed so much of their early civilisation4 ,but if they did1 is it certain that the real origin was not ,greek8 ,is it likely that this enigmatical nation found out a great principle of construction unknown to the ,greeks8 ,i think not2 and all the more so1 as ,i hold all the early ,etruscan culture to have been stimulated by the ,greeks1 with whom ,etruria had an older and deeper connection than was suspected a generation ago4 ,for now we come back to the statement of ,herodotus1 that this nation came from ,asia ,minor1 and by sea1 to ,italy4 ,the settlers of the earliest ,greek colony in ,italy--,cum--followed in their track1 and their immigration seems not to have been very early4 ,hence they may very well have borrowed their use of the arch from early ,greek teachers1 and thus imposed it upon the ,romans and upon the world4 ,but does it really matter to my argument8 ,even the ,romans1 who perfected the use of the arch1 were not satisfied with it unless they had put it inside a ,greek face of pillars and architraves4 ,the ,greek temple has afforded a model which has been copied in every capital of ,europe1 and in its most perfect form has an artistic splendour which is second to none among the buildings of the world4 ,i will repeat that1 as the ,greeks determined at a very early age that domed or circular buildings were the proper receptacle of the dead1 so they have transmitted that decision through the ,romans to modern ,europe4 ,the ,pantheon1 whatever its original use1 has come to be the solemn resting-place of national heroes4 ,the great tomb of ,hadrian1 now the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo1 was built under the same prepossession1 and so through all ages down to the ,invalides in ,paris1 and the memorial to ,shelley at ,oxford1 all these houses of the dead are the offspring artistically of the ,treasure-house of ,atreus1 of the ,tomb of the ,miny1 and of the rest1 consecrated by the old ,greeks4 ,quite recently1 when our ,king brought me to see the ,mausoleum of ,queen ,victoria and her ,consort at ,frogmore1 ,i was able to point out to him that the builders of this circular chamber also1 though they probably knew it not themselves1 were copying the ancient and almost universal model of a house for the dead4 ,the ,greeks very possibly derived this old idea from a northern race4 ,the occurrence of similar forms in the early tombs of ,ireland and of other parts of ,europe seem to show that there was some prehistoric agreement about this form of tomb--the most distinguished1 as well as the safest1 residence they could devise1 first for living men1 then for departed kings or chiefs who demanded cult and sacrifice4 ,that may be all very true1 but it does not alter the fact that it was from the ,greeks that civilised ,europe adopted the idea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i now pass to another field of art1 in which this gifted nation has exercised an undoubted supremacy down to the present day4 ,the very idea of exceeding the excellence of a great ,greek statue hardly enters the mind of the modern sculptor4 ,if he could but approach the work of ,praxiteles1 or even of the nameless workers who carved the great tomb of ,sidon1 he would regard it as an astounding achievement4 ,we shall find not a few who attribute this perfection of ,greek sculpture to the great opportunities they had of observing the play of limb and muscle in their daily exercises in the palstra1 where men and boys exercised naked4 ,that ,i take to be so far true1 that ,i have often suggested to modern sculptors1 who complain of the insufficiency of their models1 to make a pilgrimage for a couple of years to ,samoa1 or the ,solomon ,islands1 where they may study very noble forms1 exercising in the purest state of nature1 so far as they have not been depraved into clothes by well-meaning1 but mischievous1 missionaries2 and ,i think that the first sculptor who ventures upon this education may do great things in his art4 ,but it only touches a fringe of the question as regards the old ,greek triumphs4 ,naked figures were not the earliest or greatest ,greek achievement in sculpture4 ,there are indeed some archaic nude ,apollos1 but all the early goddesses1 so far as ,i know1 were draped1 and it is in drapery also that ,greek sculpture is unique for its supreme grace4 ,need ,i add that it is not only in single figures1 but in composition that the ,greeks are still our masters8 ,if any of you will compare the frieze of the ,parthenon1 even as we have it1 with any modern composition of the same sort1 it will require no argument to persuade him of the truth of what ,i say4 ,there is another somewhat more subtle reason given for this strange superiority in art of a people who had not a tithe of our experience or of our mechanical resources3 ,i shall give it to you in the words of a gifted ,italian essayist4 ,professor ,pasquale ,villari3 8,the problem10 he says1 8set before the famous sculptor ,donatello1 at the dawn of the ,renaissance1 could not be solved by the mere study of ancient art4 ,the ,greeks had no means of expressing ,christian spirit or emotion4 ,their quest was for outward beauty of form1 and their nature1 being simpler1 more spontaneous1 and more harmonious than ours1 could be adequately expressed in marble4 ,they had no experience of the mental maladies1 the tortures of remorse1 or the whole inner life created by ,christianity4 ,in their times1 no ascetics1 no hermits1 no anchorites1 no martyrs1 no crusaders1 no knight errants had appeared in the world4 ,but in ,donatello's day all things were changed2 the faculties of the human mind had been altered and multiplied4 ,therefore1 a new art was needed to represent the new inner life4 ,assuredly1 ,christ and the ,virgin cannot be chiselled in the same way as a ,venus or an ,apollo4 ,outward beauty was no longer the sole aim of art4 ,it was now bound to express character1 which is the mind's outward form4 ,even the very soul of man1 with all its load of new struggles1 sorrows1 and uncertainties1 must show through the envelope of marble4 ,was this possible1 and if so1 to what extent8 ,that was the question put to ,donatello40#bd ,to criticise this interesting passage1 to show what a partial and imperfect view it expresses of ,greek genius1 might be a task instructive to my hearers1 but too wide and irrelevant to my present discourse4 ,some points1 however1 will help us directly to the understanding of ,greek sculpture4 ,it is only too true that the ,middle ,ages1 from which ,donatello's generation was emerging1 were a period of spiritual gloom and depression4 ,but this was due not to the larger troubles and experiences of men1 but to the spiritual tyranny of the ,church1 which had distorted the sweetness and benevolence of the ,gospel of ,christ to include a hideous engine of torture4 ,the clearest picture of this odious manufacture of artificial horrors may be seen not only in the many grotesque representations of the tortures of hell1 which were anything but grotesque to the public of the ,middle ,ages1 but by attending a medival play1 which has been brought out in ,boston1 as well as in ,london--the play called ,everyman1 which magnifies the horrors of death by representing the ,deity as a gloomy tyrant1 served by a greedy and heartless ,church1 which exacts half a man's fortune for the boon of saving him from eternal torments4 ,these artificial horrors were not indeed unknown to the ,greeks1 for we hear that the punishments of the wicked1 not to speak of ,tantalus1 ,ixion1 and the rest1 formed part of the revelations of the ,eleusinian ,mysteries1 but they would on no account have been permitted a place in ordinary life or in art4 ,if the ,attic public fined the poet ,phrynichus #aj1jjj drachmas for bringing before them their national sorrows in his ,fall of ,miletus1 what would they not have fined the author of ,everyman1 for importing darkness and horror into the day of death and libelling the gods as cruel tyrants with no mercy for the frailties of men8 ,but1 apart from this imported gloom1 it is in my opinion false to say that the ,greek was not just as experienced as any modern man in the great problems and the inevitable sorrows of human life4 ,the whole of ,greek tragedy consists in the representation of these dolours1 and if ,professor ,villari wants proofs that the terrors of conscience1 the agonies of remorse1 were perfectly known to the ,greeks1 ,i ask him to turn to the picture of the tyrant's soul in the eighth book of ,plato's ,republic or to ,xenophon's ,hiero4 ,the ,greeks were not at all that simple1 joyous1 spontaneous set of grownup children who appear in many of our books upon the subject4 ,they had a large and varied experience of life4#be ,but they had the good sense--or shall ,i say the genius8--to confine their art to what it ought to convey4 ,they felt that marble and bronze should not be used to represent the violent emotions of tragedy1 the violent moments in human life1 and when they lost this reserve1 their sculpture had begun its decadence4 ,the ,laocoon with the two little men representing his children is indeed a work of art of which a modern sculptor might well be proud4 ,it would not have been approved by the ,greeks of the ,golden ,age1 and ,phidias would have looked upon the group with contempt1 in spite of its technical excellence4 ,a brief sketch of the development of sculpture will illustrate this principle4 ,in the first place you must hold fast to the truth1 not frequently enough insisted upon1 that sculpture among the ,greeks developed with extraordinary quickness after a long infancy into its perfect manhood4 ,the work of #eej ,b4,c41 in the full brilliancy of the courts of ,polycrates and ,periander was still rude and helpless1 wanting altogether the beauty which we desiderate in that art4 ,as soon as we turn #ejj ,b4,c4 we have such things as the ,charioteer of ,delphi1 figures which are on the very threshold of perfection1 and indeed in some respects1 such as the modelling and texture of the arms and feet1 quite perfect4 ,in another fifty years we have the splendours of ,phidias4 ,not less remarkable than this rapid growth is the very gradual decay of the art4 ,the age of animals1 as is well known1 is in proportion to the period of gestation4 ,it was not so with ,greek sculpture4 ,coming to perfection in a couple of generations1 it lasted all through the greatness of ,greek history into ,macedonian times1 when it produced such wonders as the ,nike of ,samothrace1 down to the ,roman conquest1 when it gave us the ,aphrodite of ,melos1 and even still later1 when empresses borrowed from it those splendid portrait figures which we admire in the ,vatican and the ,lateran museums at ,rome4 ,and it is not only the ,golden ,age but the ,silver ,age of this sculpture which is the eternal model for modern artists4 ,the next feature of great importance which concerns us is that this branch of art began 7as did medival art7 in the service of religion4 ,it was to represent the figure of the god1 it was to decorate his temple1 that the sculptor made his great efforts4 ,and ,i hasten to add that the art was never dissociated from its sister art of painting1 for the ,greeks always called in the help of colour2 not only in architecture1 but even in representing single human figures4 ,they felt the utter coldness of ,parian or ,pentelican marble and they were not afraid to use rich colours and even kindred materials to increase the majesty of their representations of the ,divine4 ,it is very remarkable how timid and sporadic1 mainly from a misinterpretation of ,greek teaching1 have hitherto been the attempts to return to this sound principle4 ,in the twelfth century1 indeed1 admirable work was done by the sculptor in producing coloured statues1 generally1 ,i think1 of wood4 ,thus the kings and bishops of that time in the ,cathedral of ,henry the ,lion at ,brunswick are most striking and lifelike specimens of the art1 and there are many more in the churches and the museums of ,northern ,europe4#bf ,but it seems that the discovery in the ,renaissance of ,grco-,roman statues from which all the colour had been effaced by the action of time1 damp1 and the contact with clay1 misled the early sculptors of that day into the belief that ,greek statues were always in the purest white marble2 that form only and not colour was the aim of that art2 and so we have had our galleries flooded with cold figures1 which are only beginning to give way1 as may be seen in the recent exhibitions of the ,royal ,academy in ,london1 to more or less delicate tinting1 or even to relief in high colours1 using other materials than marble4 ,thus the ,greeks have been our masters as well in our mistakes as in our successes4 ,but we can now have no doubt as to their principles4 ,even in their bronze statues1 they were so anxious to give expression by colour that they commonly made the eyes of their figures in black and white4 ,i turn now to speak for a moment on the principles of composition in ,greek sculpture1 for in such a discourse as this it is obviously better to spend time on general considerations than in emphasising details4 ,there were1 of course1 from archaic times single figures1 first of gods1 then of men1 which ultimately became portrait statuary2 but in early days a composition of figures in stone or wood was unknown till they came to decorate architecture with friezes and pediments4 ,thus the statues which adorned the state entrance to the old temple at ,miletus were simply a row of sitting figures like the rows of sphinxes guarding the approach to the ,egyptian temple1 but there is no composition4 ,it was not till the rise of the fashion of ornamenting buildings with the sculptor's art that1 as before said1 compositions come into play2 and mainly in two forms--triangular pediments which filled the once open end or gable of a roof1 and bands of decoration along the walls of the building4 ,the form of the gable--a very flat triangle1 with the obtuse angle at the vertex--determined the sculptor1 just as the shackles of metre determine the poet4 ,but even as these apparent shackles have produced the most splendid effects in poetry1 so the limitations of space have suggested to the ,greek sculptors the most poetical devices4 ,we now know that even the pre-,persian ,parthenon had such a composition on its gable1 of which great serpentine monsters1 carved in local stone1 and then coloured1 have been recently recovered4 ,but when the art reached its perfection1 we have the device of a notable mythical event1 or a struggle1 with agitated or combating figures1 arranged symmetrically on either side of a central god1 who is greater1 calmer than the rest2 while in the acute angles1 the aspects of nature--rivers1 woods1 the rising and setting sun--were suggested by graceful lying figures1 which show that air of peaceful and silent indifference that is the usual aspect of nature around a great human tragedy4#bg ,these marvellous compositions1 full of symmetry and of variety1 have been the examples set before scores of ,european sculptors1 in their imitations of classical architecture2 but ,i cannot say that ,i know a single specimen that ,i should like to show here to you in direct comparison with the work of the ancients4 ,it is in this1 as in so many walks of art3 all the modern resources of science1 all the study of the old masterpieces1 have not sufficed to kindle the spark of genius in our inartistic age4 ,we have a thousand resources that the ,greeks had not--we have a thousand volumes of exposition1 analysis1 criticism1 telling how these things were done--yet we are like the civilised man trying to elicit flame from the sticks which furnish the primitive man with his fire4 ,all our efforts only succeed in producing smoke2 the living spark will not come4#bh ,much the same may be said of the second favourite form of ,greek composition in sculpture1 the ornamenting of long flat surfaces with rows or successions of figures1 of which the frieze of the ,parthenon is the most familiar1 but not the only example4 ,we now know from the recoveries at ,delphi1 especially the so-called treasury of ,siphnos1 that this theme was derived by ,phidias from older examples4 ,what is the strange fascination in this long row of figures8 ,there is that peculiar combination of sameness and of variety which affords us delight in all the occupations of our life4 ,this procession has one general scope4 ,it is bringing offerings to do honour to the gods1 and bringing them with pomp and circumstance4 ,but while all these men and maidens are bent on the same pursuit1 they are represented with an endless variety in detail4 ,some are on curvetting horses1 some are leading bulls both quiet and uneasy1 some are carrying weights upon their shoulders1 some have them on the ground--and are lifting them4 ,there is the unity and difference which in music we know as harmony1 and each figure is carried out with such simple perfection1 with such unassuming grace and beauty1 that it is hard indeed to point out any insufficiency or defect4 ,there is even this subtlety in the detail of the work--that1 as this band of figures was intended to be seen high above the spectator1 care was taken to carve the lower limbs in slightly flatter relief than the upper1 and the limbs of the horses were even made a little lighter than in nature1 in order to counterbalance the predominance which the part nearer to the spectator's vision might assume4 ,when such are the shattered fragments of an art which once adorned every city and every public building in ,greece1 it seems impossible to conjecture what would have been the effect on modern ,europe had the great mass of it survived4 ,perhaps not so great as we should be disposed to assert at the first blush of the suggestion4 ,for we could hardly avoid calling in the analogy of other arts1 and of other times1 where the works of genius preserved and known do not inspire modern artists4 ,there is plenty of splendid medival architecture existing1 and yet our modern architects have not been able to take their place as independent successors4 ,in literature we have had many similar facts discussed during previous lectures4 ,all the models in the world will not suffice without the divine spark in the teacher as well as the pupil1 and this gift is rare and sporadic not only in the individual1 but among the nations which have hitherto appeared in the course of history4 ,there is1 moreover1 in using workers of a remote age or country as models1 one concomitant circumstance which may make our efforts wholly incommensurate with theirs4 ,it is the atmosphere in which every society lives1 by which it has been created or at least fed1 and which it creates in its turn4 ,as the modern artist cannot possibly reproduce these surroundings1 it is wellnigh impossible that he should reproduce the subtle spirit1 once the very breath of ,greek art1 which has long vanished1 and which has never since been recalled by the wit of man4 ,v ,,greek ,,art--,,ii3 ,,painting ,,and ,,music ,when we pass from the monumental arts of architecture and sculpture to those of a more subjective character1 which use more fleeting vehicles for their expression1 we have in modern life painting and music1 which we may expect to be more independent of ,greek models than the rest4 ,for1 ex hypothesi1 pictures so far as they are on panels of wood or canvas can hardly survive the lapse of ages of neglect1#bi and as for music1 the notation is so small and poor a clue to its real meaning1 that even if we understood it perfectly1 we should still be a long way from grasping the full meaning as felt by the ,greek public4 ,i will give you an illustration of this from my own experience4 ,there is in our ,english and ,irish cathedrals a tradition of the way in which certain anthems are to be sung--a tradition generally derived from those who sang them in the composer's presence1 or under his influence4 ,the older editions of these anthems seldom give any expression marks1 the performance being entrusted to the taste of the choir or its knowledge of the composer's intentions4 ,a signal example is the finest of ,blow's anthems1 8,i beheld and lo6 a great multitude10 composed in the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 7#afhj71 and sung ever since by sundry cathedral choirs1 amongst others those of ,dublin1 where there has from long since been a great school of church music4 ,in ,dublin1 this is one of the most moving and dramatic anthems1 owing to the great liberties taken with the time by the ,vicars ,choral1 who have kept the tradition unbroken4 ,i chanced to hear it sung by the very excellent choir of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1 on their high day--,all ,saints' ,day1 when it is annually performed4 ,i was astonished to find that they merely sang it from the text without any of the traditional liberties4 ,the effect was so poor and unmeaning as to be almost ridiculous to one who had been taught to understand the inner sense of the work4 ,we are not quite so destitute as to ,greek painting1 for we have at least a good many fresco pictures1 by more or less obscure and incompetent workmen of the ,hellenistic age1 to show us what the ,greeks aimed at2 we have on the many beautiful examples of pottery preserved to us the representations of mythical or other scenes which must have had some analogy with the paintings of the same or similar scenes4 ,lastly1 we have many descriptions and epigrams from those who admired the masterpieces of this art1 and although these are inadequate1 and are often the observations of incompetent rhetorical critics1 they still give us far more definite ideas than any description of a musical work could possibly supply4 ,as to the ,golden ,age of painting1 we have nothing but these1 for our specimens of frescoes on the walls are all either from pre-historic palaces1 or from ,grco-,roman houses4 ,if we wish1 therefore1 to obtain any understanding of this side of ,greek art1 we must not be content with our poor and sporadic examples1 but must enter upon some general considerations which will afford a larger and deeper basis for our judgment4 ,for our inferences from the ,pompeiian frescoes to the lost masterpieces are just as hazardous as if we had lost all the masterpieces of sculpture1 and endeavoured to judge of their quality by reasoning from the terra cotta figurines of ,tanagra and other places1 which are often graceful1 but almost always faulty in their modelling4 ,should we indeed have inferred that the modelling of statues in marble and in bronze was absolutely perfect8 ,the two sthetic qualities requisite for success in painting are obviously a sense of form1 and a sense of colour2 without a natural appreciation of the beauty inhering in each of these1 the highest technical skill1 however valuable1 does not suffice4 ,after what you have heard about ,greek architecture and sculpture1 ,i need not say another word to show that in the sense of form the ,greeks were supreme and unapproachable4 ,but what about their sense of colour8 ,on this the evidence is not so clear and has given rise to divers interpretations4 ,first of all1 the ,homeric poets1 in their vivid pictures of old ,greek life1 are singularly vague and confused in their words for colour1 so much so that people used to imagine that the poet1 because he was blind1 or the poets1 because they were primitive1 had no distinct colour-sense4 ,i remember this latter view being pressed upon me by ,mr4 ,gladstone in conversation1 together with the reply he had from ,charles ,darwin1 which he gave me to read1 that as even insects are guided by a very clear sense of colour1 it was absurd to say that the most primitive men should not possess it4 ,this argument seamed both to him and to me hardly conclusive1 for the faculties which are now human need not have developed at the same rate from lower forms1 or kept abreast of one another in acuteness4 ,thus human development might not require an acute sense of colour1 while that of the insect made it essential1 and so lower forms of life might be infinitely more developed in some respects than those far higher in the general condition of their senses and their intelligence4 ,i therefore took another line in my objection3 that we know the ,egyptians1 centuries before the oldest date allowed for ,homer1 had at least ten distinct names for colour4 ,and this was not because they felt the difference more distinctly1 but because in their arts and crafts they produced the varied shades1 and therefore found names for them4 ,even nowadays1 it is not the poet1 or even the artist1 that invents names for subtle shades of colours1 but the milliner or the modiste4 ,when ,i was young1 there were two shades of grey known in the phraseology of these people--one as gris de souris1 the other as gris de souris poursuivie4 ,this is but a more minute subdivision of our sensations of colour invented by those that produce it for trade purposes4 ,the want of names for colours is therefore not confined to the ,greeks4 ,more important is the fact that their early painters are known to have used but a few and primary colours1 and also the further fact that their temples1 which they always coloured 7and1 to my mind1 rightly7 for effect1 were adorned on a simple and primitive plan1--red1 blue1 white1 yellow1 being1 so far as ,i know1 the colours generally used4 ,now these facts seem to me to harmonise with the small development of a sense of the picturesque in landscape1 which is characteristic of the ,greeks4 ,the principles of reproducing perspective with lines and colours on a flat surface were indeed discovered in the fifth century ,b4,c41 by a certain ,agatharchus1 whose book on shade painting seems1 however1 to have been a work on scene-painting1 as an aid to producing illusions on the stage4 ,nor does the idea of representing external nature seem to have been a want felt by ,greek artists1 seeing that they had adopted the very peculiar device of representing mountains and rivers by figures of the gods and nymphs which inhabited them and in which they were personified4 ,the heads of the horses rising from the sea represented on the ,parthenon the advent of the day4 ,the graceful figures of nymphs on the pediments of the great temple at ,olympia represented the scenery in which the action was laid4 ,looking down the whole history of ,greek painting1 from the rude frescoes at ,tiryns to the decorations of houses at ,pompeii1 ,i cannot find that landscape as such ever occupied ,greek artists1 and here therefore we have one of the very few departments in which the modern world may boast itself independent of its almost universal teacher4 ,it is not so in the case of portrait-painting1 and painting of scenes in mythical or in real life1 for here even the faint echoes of ,greek genius affected powerfully the artists of the ,renaissance4 ,in this field1 however1 the influence of ,hellenistic sculpture and of relief work was so combined with that of the few specimens of actual painting from ,herculaneum1 ,pompeii1 and other sites1 that the separate effect of ,greek painting on the modern artists is not so easily appreciated4 ,the mythical subjects at all events were told and glorified in countless epigrams of the ,anthology1 and as soon as this collection became known and popular1 it was sure to dominate the fancy of sentimental artists like ,botticelli4 ,but if the direct influence of ,greek on modern painting was baulked for want of models1 the indirect effect of ,greek art on the best of modern painters is very great4 ,consider for a moment the two most refined of modern ,english painters1 the late ,lord ,leighton1 and the still living and working ,sir ,edward ,alma-,tadema4 ,the latter generally calls his subjects ,roman1 but anyone that knows what the elegances of ,roman life owe to the ,greeks1 sees at once that the whole spirit of the artist1 and of the subjects he delights in1 is ,greek4 ,the case is still more undisguised with ,leighton4 ,all his most striking pictures are from ,greek life or from ,greek legend2 his whole conception of beauty is derived from the same models1 and ,i well remember1 when ,i used to visit him in his delightful studio in ,kensington1 seeing it all set round with copies of ,greek sculpture1 and his fervid utterance that to these unapproachable models he owed all his art4 ,in the absence of the actual paintings1 great use has been made of the scenes painted on ,greek vases of the best period1 some of which attain to quite a high level1 and we cannot but feel with ,sir ,alma-,tadema that from this source he has drawn not a few of his ideas4 ,surely the products that inspired ,keats with his exquisite ,ode make clear to us how the fruitfulness of ,greek genius is not dead or even exhausted1 but still kindles a pure light in modern minds sensitive enough to catch the flame4 ,it is to be observed1 before we pass on to another subject1 that the art of painting among the ,greeks began1 and long remained1 a branch of decoration1 and was therefore subsidiary to architecture1 or stately furniture1 or fine pottery4 ,the fashion of producing easel pictures painted for their own sake1 readily movable and therefore displayed in galleries1 as well as upon the walls of palaces1 only came in with the decadence or at least the full ripeness of other arts4 ,the products of the painter were akin to those of the epigrammatist1 whose elegance may well be called by a poorer word--finish--and is to us rather the exhibition of great cleverness than the outcome of genius4 ,it was the day also of social decadence1 when the mere artist became the idol of society1 and could parade his conceit and his vulgarity without fear of censure from patrons who only valued him as the ephemeral fashion4 ,the gossip we hear about the old painters often exhibits this painfully modern triviality4 ,i now turn to the topic of music1 in interest second to none1 but one in which ,i must endeavour to make my discussion intelligible to those who have only a practical knowledge of this subject4 ,in most histories of ,greek art1 music is simply omitted2 in the special works upon it1 there is much that is not only so difficult1 but so dry and technical that the average student of ,greek life can hardly be expected to approach it4 ,as regards existing specimens1 we are just as miserably provided as we are in the case of painting4 ,we have recovered a few scraps of the musical notation accompanying poetical words2 and as we understand this notation1 it is an easy task to reproduce the so-called melody4 ,we have also a scrap or two in the notation of instrumental music 7apparently an accompaniment71 a notation1 strange to say1 differing from the oral4 ,but here the melody is missing4 ,and let me tell you at once that no living musician could attempt to supply it with the smallest verisimilitude4 ,the same is the case with our texts of melody4 ,there was a much lauded hymn found a few years ago on the wall of one of the houses uncovered at ,delphi4 ,in some places the surface of the stone was broken2 so that there were gaps here and there of a bar or two in the music4 ,no living musician who knows his business would undertake to supply any one of these gaps4#cj ,were it a modern composition1 we could with certainty offer two or three alternatives1 and we could exclude a vast number of restorations as absolutely impossible4 ,such is not the case with the ,greek specimens we know1 neither do they appeal to our modern taste4 ,to say that these specimens1 when played for us1 are hideous1 is merely the expression of that violated taste4 ,there are many1 perhaps even some in this audience1 who would say the same thing of the plain song which the present ,pope has ordered to be used in ,roman ,catholic churches to the exclusion of more modern music4 ,the real conclusion is that so far ,greek music is to us unintelligible2 and yet in all the other arts nothing is more intelligible to modern minds than the products of ,greek taste which are our best and clearest models4 ,is it that a highly artistic nation may be wanting in one particular department8 ,we have before us the case of the modern ,japanese1 whose artistic work in most directions is of great excellence and fully appreciated by the world1 but who confess 7at least ,i have heard one most intelligent native confess7 that their music is far below the level of ,european compositions4 ,but here we probably start from a difference of scale1 whereas the ,greek scales 7or at least the diatonic7 are the parents of all modern ,european scales4 ,and now that you have before you the actual problem raised by the extant remnants of ,greek music1 let us turn to the ,greeks themselves1 and see what light their writings throw upon the matter4 ,in the first place music was not only popular but universal among the ,greeks4 ,those who did not cultivate it were worse than ,shakspere's 8man that has not music in his soul40 ,all ,greek poetry1 even the epic of ,homer1 was recited musically2 the lyric poets were as much musicians as poets2 great tragedians composed the music for their choral odes1 and indeed a ,greek tragedy when performed must have far more resembled an ,italian opera than a play in our sense4 ,this is the combination which ,richard ,wagner strove to realise4 ,but to be gifted in two directions of art is indeed very rare4 ,the music of schylus and ,sophocles was probably as inferior to their text as ,wagner's text is inferior to his music4 ,all ,greek educators imply that every boy can learn music2 we never hear a word about want of ear1 a want of musical faculty4 ,this was to me in former years a great puzzle1 for1 like all of you1 ,i was brought up in a society where a few had gifts for music1 and the remainder were incapable of singing in time or in tune1 or of learning to play an instrument with intelligence--and so we drifted away from the older fashion of making at least every girl play or sing as an inevitable infliction on society1 and now only those who show a keen desire for it spend their time at music4 ,but in the new schools1 where choirs are taught on the tonic sol-fa system1 ,i am informed by the most competent teachers that an inability to appreciate music1 or to sing in tune1 is quite rare1 and that the great body of our children can be taught to make and to appreciate good music4 ,if this be so1 the ,greeks were again right1 and we in our older generation less wise than they4 ,in their opinion1 this general possibility of learning music was a necessary condition of another settled conviction among educators1 which is foreign to us--,i mean the conviction that the practice of music has a direct and powerful effect upon the morals of average men4 ,on this point the ,greek educators were very explicit1 and it is of great practical importance to us nowadays to consider what they say4 ,it was not at all identical with a very widespread belief among modern parents that the pursuit of music generally is a refined pleasure1 and will save the young from some lower or more mischievous recreation4 ,that view was quite familiar to the ,greeks4 ,but their distinctive theory was this3 that the performing or hearing of certain kinds of music had a direct effect1 either moral or immoral1 upon the mind1 and that therefore wise educators must encourage the right sort of music only1 and banish the rest from their pupils4 ,i know very well that there were stray voices1 especially from the ,epicurean philosophers1 saying that this is all nonsense1 that music can have no such effect1 and that the only moral or immoral part of the performance lies in the words4#ca ,but this only shows that the opinion of the vast majority and of the wisest men was not adopted without criticism1 and without the other side of the question being clearly before them4 ,the modern world is under mental conditions such as the ,epicureans4 ,we have generally assumed that music as such had no influence in moulding morals4 ,we feel that it may be so in the accessories--that the constant singing of love duets and the associating with theatrical company may do harm and the associating with serious musicians may do good--but modern people seem hardly to dream that music such as ,wagner's1 apart from the words1 may have a direct effect upon morals4 ,and yet it is here that we might have incurred a great and honourable debt to the ,greeks1 and have used their wisdom to save our youth from serious danger4 ,this is a conviction of mine1 not of to-day or yesterday1 but of forty years' standing1 derived indeed from the suggestions of ,plato1 but verified by frequent contact with music and musicians4 ,i will here give you one striking illustration4 ,anyone at first hearing of ,wagner's ,tristan und ,isolde would perceive that it was a most immoral subject1 expressed in highly emotional music4 ,it is an artistic glorification of adultery1 palliated by the old and vulgar excuse of a magical love-potion4 ,all this is so obvious that ,i wonder sober people would not keep their children from witnessing the work just as they endeavour to keep them from reading immoral novels4 ,to me it seemed even worse1 for ,i could not but perceive1 and had often and long since asserted1 that the composer himself wrote the music under the influence of some such moral aberration1 and that1 apart from the words1 it was intended to express his criminal longings and disappointments4 ,it is only a year or two since the correspondence of a lady1 published after her death1 showed that this anticipation was literally true1 that these phrases of love-sickness were actually composed and sent to her because she had awakened in him a passion which she was not wicked enough to satisfy4 ,i know there are people who think transcendent genius such as that of ,napoleon1 or1 in his way1 of ,wagner1 affords a justification1 or at least an excuse1 for such lawlessness4 ,and you have heard much talk about the ,superman1 whose main attribute seems to me infra human1 when the rights of others are concerned4 ,to me the veritable ,superman is not the slave of his own passions1 who satisfies them at the expense of others1 but the master of himself1 who1 because he is pure1 feels and helps the weakness of his neighbours4 ,not ,sir ,lancelot but ,sir ,galahad is the ideal of chivalry4 ,of the one1 8,his honour rooted in dishonour stood1 ,and faith unfaithful kept him falsely true02 but of the other1 8,my strength is as the strength of ten1 because my heart is pure60 ,perhaps1 during this digression1 the objection may have been rising in your minds that if ,greek music was so universally believed to have a moral or immoral influence1 this was because it differed wholly in quality from that which we pursue1 and that therefore an inference from one to the other is very hazardous4 ,this is supported by the fact already adduced1 that the actual remains of ,greek music1 though legible and intelligible in the literal sense1 have no power whatever to speak to our musical emotions4 ,we must therefore turn back from practice to theory and prove to you that1 in spite of these difficulties1 ,greek music was distinctly the source and forerunner of our own4 ,and ,i may say by way of preface to this part of my discourse that the simplicity of music1 far from being a cause of its lesser emotional effect1 may be the very reason why the great mass of people feel it more deeply4 ,the intricacy and difficulty of our modern music tend to estrange it from the feelings of the larger public and to confine its influence to the special class of trained musicians4 ,the ,greeks left us no practical work on music1 no criticism of existing compositions1 no comparison of the effects produced on audiences by this or that artist1 by this or that kind of instrument4 ,we find only obvious generalities1 such as the flute being more exciting than the harp4 ,there is indeed one passage where ,plato goes deeper and inveighs against purely instrumental music as more exciting and therefore possibly more mischievous than vocal music with an accompaniment1 showing that he did not lay the stress of the emotion upon the words4 ,those who have gone deeply into modern music will agree with him2 they feel that the emotions produced by a symphony of ,beethoven are more subtle1 and1 because more subtle1 deeper and more lasting than those produced by any vocal music1 unless it be eight-part music1 which approaches the richness of an orchestra4 ,but this suggestive remark is quite an exception4 ,the extant musical tracts are wholly theoretical1 and are concerned with the scientific basis of music1 not its application to practice4 ,and the first problem to which they applied themselves1 which they solved1 and have handed down to us1 their heirs in art1 is the determination of the proper scale or scales in which music should be composed4 ,this was no easy thing to do1 and if you take the trouble to hear the music of any people who have not adopted the ,greek solution1 or one like it1 you will at once perceive the difference4 ,i well remember persuading1 with great difficulty1 a band of gipsies1 in ,hungary1 to play for me not the music of the ,hungarians1 for which they are so celebrated1 but some of their own ,oriental stuff1 which they play among themselves in private4 ,i found it wholly unintelligible on account of the scale1 which seemed to have thirteen or fourteen notes within the octave4 ,all this the ,greeks had contemplated1 and in some of their early scales they used quarter-tones and intervals strange and disagreeable to us4 ,but1 after much hesitation1 they fixed upon the diatonic scale1 which became the basis of their music1 and in due time of ours4 ,the varieties of this scale which they used were far greater than ours4 ,we are contented with the variation of major and minor1 and repeat the same intervals in the same order with a mere difference of pitch1 very slightly modified by the temperament of our tuning4 ,the ,greeks thought the position of the two semitones far more important1 and considered that the quality of the scale1 quite apart from pitch1 was produced by the variety in the placing of these intervals4 ,but ,i must repeat that our extant treatises are so absolutely scientific and not practical that it would be impossible to attempt an analysis of them in a popular lecture4 ,the discovery of the scientific basis of concord or harmony and its difference from discord had been made very early by the ,pythagoreans1 and ,i have often thought that their famous theory that numerical relations were the key of the universe was much stimulated and fortified by finding that octaves1 fifths1 and fourths1 which are recognised by the ear as concords1 can be produced by stopping a vibrating string at the points dividing it into portions represented by #a3b1 #b3c1 and #c3d4 ,they did not acknowledge our favorite major as a concord1 the proportion being more complex1 viz4 #d3e or #e3f2 and indeed if the major on our instruments be tuned to its full height of two full tones1 it sounds sharp and very disagreeable4 ,in this as in most detail we can follow and understand the ,greek theory4 ,when ,aristotle tells us that the middle note of the scale is that to which the melody always returns1 he is evidently speaking of the unaccompanied melody1 and there are scores of our melodies that move up and down round this keynote1 which may in these cases well represent the central note of the scale4 ,it is not possible for me to delay longer on this topic4 ,i therefore sum up the result thus3 the ,greeks had a music to some extent homogeneous with ours2 they attributed to its varieties great and direct effects on the morals of men4 ,seeing that in all their other arts they were so singularly modern and reasonable1 it is surely well worth the careful consideration of educators whether similar effects be not latent in our music1 e4g4 whether the study of ,handel1 ,corelli1 ,palestrina1 may not have a strengthening effect on the mind1 whereas the study of ,chopin1 of ,verdi1 even of ,beethoven1 with all the vague ,weltschmerz which they contain1 the unsatisfied longings1 the unreasoning discontent1 the suspended harmony1 may not contribute directly to the vices of modern society1 vices not unknown in the fashionable cities of this ,commonwealth4 ,we now turn to the subject of household furniture and decoration1 in which you will find that there are many and the best of our ideas borrowed from the ,greeks4 ,we have not had the good fortune to unearth a ,greek town of the best epoch from under lava or from beneath the dbris of an earthquake4 ,but it is likely that even if the ruins of ,antioch were cleared of the great rocks that tumbled down upon it1 in the many earthquakes of the early centuries of our era1 some splendid houses might be discovered4 ,so far1 however1 ,i do not know that1 except at ,delos1 we have been able to find clear evidences that the wall decorations and the furniture of a ,greek house were the same in kind as those which a century and a half of excavation has brought up from the dead in ,pompeii and ,herculaneum4 ,these towns1 as well as ,naples1 which was well known to ,cicero as an essentially ,greek town1 were in close proximity to ,puteoli1 which again was for several centuries the great port for all ,alexandrian luxuries since the second ,ptolemy had made friends with the ,romans4 ,through ,puteoli1 then1 ,greek artists and ,greek designs made their way to that coast1 and even the worship of ,isis1 and the frequent use of the ibis and the crocodile in their designs1 show that the ,hellenistic artists had felt the influence of native ,egyptian work1 just as the workman of the ,french 8,empire0 felt the breath of old ,egypt1 when ,napoleon's ,commission brought out its splendid work on that mysterious country4 ,although1 therefore1 all the little texts scrawled upon the walls by children are in ,latin1 ,i take it the furniture and decoration of the smart houses or villas uncovered are in ,greek style1 and may thus give us some suggestion of the inside of a ,greek house4 ,and let me add at once1 that the discoveries of such ruins and remains at ,rome in the time of the ,renaissance moulded all the taste of that age1 and produced house decoration1 in direct imitation of the antique1 which has been copied down to the present day4 ,,note4--,i thought that ,i could not bring before the audience the character of this decoration adequately1 except by showing some of the designs1 and some of the furniture1 on a screen4 ,some of the pictures were taken from ,niccolini's magnificent ,art of ,pompeii 7,naples1 #ahgf-ib71 the ,curator having allowed me to use the expensive process of photographing in colours1 in order to show not only the design1 but the rich colours of the ,pompeian walls4 ,,vi ,,science3 ,,grammar--,,logic--,,mathematics--,,med icine ,when ,i speak to you of ,greek ,science1 of course ,i use the word in the old and proper sense to include all strict reasoning1 especially of the deductive kind1 particularly therefore pure ,mathematics1 and not merely the inferences from observation and experiment which now commonly assume and even monopolise the title of ,science4 ,i often see in educational programmes ,science and ,mathematics contrasted as distinct things1 which indeed in this case they are1 only because the ,science so-called is often unworthy of the name4 ,sciences of observation were1 ,i think1 not formulated by the ,greeks except in the case of ,medicine1 in which their results are still quoted with respect2 in the case of ,hydrostatics1 as ,heron's great book shows2 and in the case of ,natural ,history1 in which they made the first collection of facts that modern men of science can use2 but we have lost what they said on their artistic observations1 namely their minute observations of the anatomy of the human body1 which1 as ,i have told you1 their sculptors learned to represent with such accuracy that no modern anatomist can find a flaw in their work4 ,this was done by careful external observation1 for the practice of dissecting the human body would have seemed to them impious and horrible4 ,but1 whenever it was possible1 the ,greeks went back to first principles and framed a theory from which they deduced the facts2 and this it is which has made their science so valuable4 ,it will not be hard to show you how in ,logic--the ,science of ,reasoning1--in ,arithmetic1 and in ,geometry--the science of the laws of lines1 of figures1 and of solid bodies in space--they are our teachers to the present day4 ,it is well to approach the subject of ,logic through the avenue by which the ,greeks approached it1 through the analysis of ordinary language and as the natural expression of thinking4 ,the early poets and great prose writers had so far perfected the use of language that the ,greeks in the catalogue of human acquisitions came to put their speech on a very high pedestal4 ,delighted with it1 and despising all other tongues as barbarous1 they convinced themselves that the ,greek word adequately expressed the nature of the thing it signified1 and therefore that to understand their language properly was to understand the nature of things4 meant not only speech 7oratio71 but reason 7ratio71 and so1 after first seeking to obtain clear conceptions of abstract ideas1 they advanced to the structure of sentences and analysed speech in so accurate a way that their technical terms are our technical terms of to-day4 ,when you talk of infinitives1 or genitives1 or participles1 you are only using words borrowed from ,latin translations1 often mistranslations1 of the ,greek4 ,you find these logical studies in their beginning1 but by no means in their infancy1 in the ,dialogues of ,plato4 ,whole conversations are employed in trying to fix the connotation of important moral terms1 such as holiness1 or valour1 or temperance4 ,and we also find in some of the dialogues an appreciation of the difficulties contained in the form of simple propositions1 the meaning of affirmation or negation1 and the nature of the deduction of one proposition from another4 ,but ,i need not detain you with particulars about these early preparations for science1 when we have before us in ,aristotle various treatises on the analysis of speech from its logical side1 and the laying down of the laws of formal thinking with such accuracy and completeness that nothing of importance has ever been added to it4 ,we hear it often said that a single man apprehended and systematised these laws4 ,that is not true2 there were plenty of tentative essays before his time4 ,but if there be one achievement which has made his name and fame everlasting1 it is his treatment of the theory of ,reasoning4 ,the medival universities knew this well1 and so do the modern universities of ,europe which are worthy of the name4 ,i need not bear witness to the vast importance of common ,logic by telling you that in my own youth nothing ever woke me up like having a good ,logic put into my hands at the age of fourteen4 ,for since that time ,i have been often teaching it and have watched its effects on hundreds of intelligent youths4 ,among all the subjects that we teach1 not for the purpose of supplying mere facts1 but for the purpose of training youth to judge facts and co-ordinate their knowledge1 ,i know nothing that benefits the average student like the study of ,aristotelian ,logic4 ,may ,i add that1 so far as ,i know ,american education1 the most serious defect ,i have observed in it is the small attention paid to this subject1 and hence the vast number of your men and women who are unable to distinguish a sound from an unsound argument1 still less to point out where the fallacy lies4 ,there are here present1 ,i have no doubt1 a large number of people1 otherwise highly educated1 who1 were ,i to propose a stock example for their criticism1 would feel at a loss how to deal with it4 ,let me give an illustration4 8,every hen comes from an egg2 every egg comes from a hen2 therefore every egg comes from an egg40 ,is this a correct argument8 ,if not1 where is it at fault8 ,if you had all been trained in ,whately's ,logic1 or any other ,logic of the kind1 as we were in our youth1 such a question would present no difficulty whatever4 ,but if you have failed to derive this lesson from the old ,greeks1 your ,english ancestors were better advised4 ,all the subtlety of the medival schools1 all the disputations of their universities1 were based on ,greek ,logic2 and1 if they often wasted their time on idle problems1 it must always be remembered that by this means ,europe was trained to accuracy and subtlety in argument1 and hence to weigh vague and random theorising and to make men competent critics of any new dogma4 ,we often remark from our side of the ,atlantic how many wild theories in religion1 how many sham theories in science1 blossom and flourish in this country1 inhabited though it may be by a most shrewd and intelligent population4 ,the simplest answer is to point to their ignorance of common ,logic1 and hence their liability to be deceived by the most vulgar fallacies4 ,it would be easy to mention a book popular in this country1 the pages of which any logically trained people would only use to wrap sardines or to heat a stove4 ,the ,greeks do not parade their logic in their writings1 though we know they were fond of subtleties2 there are indeed examples of it in the ,sophist of ,plato1 where this sort of thing is ridiculed in his travesty of two professional educators4 ,but there are two great and solid proofs of the power which strict ,logic had upon their minds4 ,the first comes out in their literature4 ,wherever they undertake to argue an issue1 whether political1 social1 or religious1 their reasoning is clear and easily followed4 ,they of course often start from traditional beliefs1 which may not now command assent1 but they always reason from these with clear and sober thinking4 ,there was no more important cause for the permanence of that great literature4 ,its sound thinking has kept it from all extravagance and made it acceptable to educated men of all ages and nations4 ,the second proof is my chief subject to-day3 it is the peculiarly logical character of ,greek mathematics which has made this too the model of the scientific thinking of the world4 ,let me go back to the infancy of ,greek science and give you evidence for this statement4 ,setting aside for the present the metaphysical thinkers1 who will occupy us in another chapter1 we may safely say that the earliest mathematicians were the school of ,pythagoras1 and also that their work started 7so far as they did not start from the highest of all--pure thinking7 from ,arithmetic4 ,to this science ,pythagoras and his school attached such importance that they were supposed to hold that numbers were the essence of the universe4 ,if you think that such a theory is mere nonsense1 ,i may tell you that ,i have often heard my colleagues1 distinguished in modern science1 discuss a theory1 alive at the present day1 that the so-called material universe consists of mere motion1 without anything to be moved6 ,at the root of these speculations lies the fundamental distinction of form and matter1 of the definite and the indefinite2 and the ,pythagoreans had got a glimpse of the eternal truth that it is only through our intuitions of space and time1 and through abstract concepts explicating these1 that we can bring the myriad phenomena of nature under intelligible law4 ,it was an early anticipation1 so far as we can explain it1 of the great theory of ,descartes1 that all the universe could be reduced to mathematical relations1 and these handled by algebra1 which is in its essence but a very abstract and generalised arithmetic4 ,if therefore all parts of the world stand in mutual arithmetical relations1 of which the chemical law of definite proportions is the most signal example1 the science of numbers must be the capital of every scientific man4 ,and remember that in ,greek parlance this was the strict meaning of their arithmetic--a pure science1 while they used the term logistic 7or computation7 for the working of practical rules4 ,at the basis of their theory of numbers lay of course the one great assumption which makes the science possible--,i mean the absolute equality of the units of any number used for the purpose of calculation4 ,this is not merely the abstraction from all their differences1 as when ,i say that the present audience consists of five hundred people1 regardless of the countless variations existing between the units of this crowd4 ,it is the assumption of an ideal and accurate identity between each of the units1 as to magnitude1 which makes the expression of geometrical truths arithmetically possible4 ,the truth that #c #d #e applies not only to numbers but to lines1 and probably suggested the geometrical proof to ,euclid 7#a1 #dg74 ,but it is only true if the units in the measurement of each line are exactly equal4 ,starting from this first assumption1 the ,pythagoreans began to speculate on the peculiarities of the natural series of units in use among men1 and to deduce from these general considerations various theorems1 which they believed might solve the secrets of nature4 ,at the very outset they were struck with the obvious contrast between odd and even1 which ,plato1 following them1 regarded as a fundamental distinction in nature4 ,had they been told that1 thousands of years later1 men of science would find that a most primitive and fundamental distinction among animals is founded on this difference1 ,i mean that of artio-dactyle1 and perisso-dactyle1 actually called by the ,greek words1 they would have said that this caused them no surprise1 as their arithmetic had long since laid down the distinction as a law of nature4 ,as simple specimens of the sort of treatment that the science of numbers received from them1 ,i may cite the following3 ,the successive additions of the odd numbers produce the squares of the series of even and odd4#cb ,the series of even numbers when added give us no such result1 but rather this--that the addition of even numbers gives us figures which are the products of successive numbers differing by only one1 e4g4 #b #d #c #b2 #b #d #f #d #c1 and so on4 ,these latter numbers were regarded as rectangles1 when expressed in lines4 ,it was by the discovery of the relation of the sides to the base of a right-angled triangle that they1 so to speak1 stumbled upon irrational numbers4 ,if the two sides are each equal to #a1 the hypothenuse is equal to #b1 which is no integral number1 but a problem in itself4#cc ,all the results of this ,pythagorean research lived through into the days of ,plato and ,aristotle and then1 as we know from ,euclid and ,theon1 into the learning of ,alexandria4 ,the importance recognised by them in the numbers ten and twelve was shown by the general adoption of a decimal system of notation1 and of the division of time on a duodecimal system4 ,you will ask me what symbols the ,greeks had which could enable them to treat arithmetical figures of any complexity1 and on this ,i could give you now a very definite reply1 but the details would lead us away from our subject1 seeing that this notation was lost in the ,dark ,ages and was ultimately replaced by the ,arabic numerals4 ,but we now know that they had a very practical system of decimal notation based on the use of the letters of the alphabet2 and the fact that several letters obsolete in the alphabet of the fifth century ,b4,c4 appear as symbols1 proves that it was current as early as ,pythagorean days4 ,the sign for #f is the digamma1 that for #ij is the koph of the ,phnician alphabet1 which is still found in ,locrian inscriptions2 the ,phnician letter known as sampi is used for #ijj4 ,we know the practical management of this easy notation perfectly from the mass of accounts both private and public found on ,egyptian papyri4 ,it can express large numbers far more compendiously than the ,roman system1 often more compendiously even than ours4 ,suppose you desire to express any large number1 say #bj1jej1 here it is _/2 say #dg1fgh1 it is _/1 and if there be small gain in simplicity here1 ,i will give you #hjj1jjj #aj1jjj #hj _/4 ,but these are practical matters1 though without an easy notation even the most scientific thinkers could not make large progress4#cd ,the next great step was to pass from arithmetic to geometry as the science of space and to show how far the same laws governed both4 ,if we are not well informed upon the beginnings of arithmetic1 we are more fortunate in the case of geometry1 and here1 if anywhere1 the old ,greeks have been the acknowledged teachers of modern ,europe4 ,for we have in the so-called ,elements of ,euclid1 composed most probably at ,alexandria about #cjj ,b4,c41 a summary of all that had been discovered up to his day1 doubtless with many new things of his own4 ,he had distinctly built upon his predecessors2 he has before him all through his book a problem discussed in ,plato1 that of the possible number of regular polyhedra1 and its solution forms the climax of his work4 ,but he begins from the very beginning and builds up his whole doctrine with such accuracy that a flaw in the demonstration is hard to be found4 ,how did this great master attain to such perfection8 ,the form of his demonstrations does not suggest an intimacy with the logic of his immediate predecessor ,aristotle2 but from him he might easily have obtained the whole notion of a strictly deductive science1 which1 starting from the smallest possible number of primary data1 proceeds to derive from these by strict demonstration proposition after proposition4 ,philosophers of our own time have often expressed wonder at the clearness with which these data are laid down4 ,they are three in kind3 first the common notions1 which apply to all science and all practical life1 such as 8the whole is greater than its part02 secondly1 the axioms peculiar to our intuition of space1 such as 8two right lines cannot enclose a space02 and thirdly the very simple postulates1 which amount to the use of a ruler and compass with a pencil4 ,there are besides very careful definitions1 so careful that they are at first obscure1 because they apply to the ideal construction of the mind in its intuition of pure space and do not concern themselves about the flaws of actual figures4 ,thus his 8point which has no parts0 is not nothing at all1 but the minimum of definite place2 his right line1 8which lies in the same way 77 between any two points taken upon its length10 is simply unity of direction4 ,every other line varies in direction in some of its successive parts4 ,this is a direct appeal to intuition1 without which we can make no beginning in the science of space4 ,such also is the axiom about parallel lines4 ,such is also the proof by superposition1 to show that two triangles1 if some of their measurements be the same1 must wholly coincide4 ,but ,i must not attempt to give you a lecture on the ,elements of ,euclid1 of which some of you may have evil recollections4 ,for it is the misfortune1 as well as the glory1 of a great work not only to be repeated for centuries1 but to be parroted and travestied by those who merely accept its greatness from the voice of ages1 and who come to think that the words of inspiration only require blind repetition to instruct men4 ,so if ,euclid has become in many classical schools a sort of amulet or fetish 7which must for common decency be put in the programme but which may be learned by committing the proofs to memory without any intelligence7 such a misfortune is not the fault of ,euclid1 but the most pathetic tribute to his genius4 ,let me also add1 for the benefit of those of you who have never seen more than six books of the ,elements1 and who probably thought six more than enough1 that these are but the introduction to the discussion of higher and more complex questions1 which show the large advance made by the ,greeks in this science1 and which explain also how in other arts1 such as architecture1 there is no defect for want of scientific accuracy4 ,books ,,vii-,x are not on geometry1 but on higher arithmetic1 and even treat1 as in ,book ,x1 of incommensurable or irrational quantities4 ,with ,,xi he begins to teach solid geometry1 the measurement of pyramids1 cones1 spheres1 and the like1 ending 7,,xiii7 with the discussion of the five regular polyhedra1 of which ,plato had long since spoken4 ,from the great sequence of discoverers and teachers of pure mathematics1 ,i need only here pick out three immortal names3 ,apollonius of ,perga1 living about #bjj ,b4,c41 whose geometrical treatment of conic sections is1 ,i am informed1 a splendid monument of genius1 which would still be the basis of modern study had not the treatment of these figures by analysis entirely superseded the geometrical method4 ,then there is ,pappus in the second century ,a4,d41 who gives us in eight books a review of all the previous masters1 with important additions of his own4 ,the third name is ,diophantus1 who lived much later1 perhaps in the fourth century1 and whose work is considered the first great step toward the science of ,algebra4 ,all these speculations were developed in the direction of mathematical physics by ,archimedes1 ,heron1 and other great men of the ,alexandrian school4 ,the triumphs of ,archimedes in mechanics astonished the ,romans1 who1 in the defence of ,syracuse against their attack1 found him equal to a host4 ,but how little ,archimedes confined himself to practical problems is shown by his famous method of determining the area of a circle by approximation1 by inscribing and circumscribing polygons of a great number of sides1 which can of course be treated and measured as a complex of triangles4 ,this is still1 ,i am told1 the proof admitted by modern mathematicians as the best4 ,the works of ,heron show not only an excellent practical knowledge of mechanics1 but of hydrostatics1 from which he deduces a number of most ingenious inventions1 such as our penny in the slot1 and even the construction of a whole scene acted by marionettes moving by a most elaborate hidden machinery4 ,it#ce is a fine specimen of his ingenuity in using the ordinary mechanical contrivances4 ,he postulates a tall hollow basis1 adorned with pilasters1 and having an architrave1 with boards covering its upper surface4 ,over this stands a little round temple1 visible from all sides1 with six pillars4 ,it is covered with a conical roof1 and on the apex is a figure of ,victory with outspread wings and holding in her right hand a garland4 ,under the centre of the roof stands a figure of ,bacchus1 holding a thyrsus in his left hand1 and a cup in his right4 ,at his feet lies a little stuffed panther4 ,before and behind ,bacchus1 and outside the temple1 stands an altar with dry shavings of wood4 ,also on each side1 outside the temple1 a ,bacchante1 in a proper costume and attitude4 ,the whole concern being set up at some suitable spot1 the exhibitor will retire1 and the automatic machine will presently move forward to a fixed spot4 ,the moment it stops1 the altar fire in front of ,bacchus will light up1 and from his thyrsus will flow milk or water1 and from his cup wine will be poured out on the panther beneath him1 the pilasters beneath will be adorned with garlands1 the ,bacchantes will dance round the temple2 drums and cymbals will be heard4 ,when this noise ceases1 the figure of ,bacchus will turn round to the other altar and all the movements be repeated in the other direction4 ,as soon as this has happened the second time1 the show is over1 and the whole machine will return to its original place4 ,we have felt bound1 he adds1 to make the measurements 7which he gives7 small1 for if made large1 the suspicion naturally arises in the audience that there is a man inside the machine producing all the movements4 ,this precaution1 then1 should be observed in making any automatic machine4 ,he then proceeds to give in great detail the construction of this machine4 ,it is as ingenious as any construction of the present day1 but cannot be presented to you without a series of figures1 which are given in his book4 ,any of you may read it in the ,greek 7,teubner text71 to which is added an excellent ,german translation4 ,it will be enough to mention that the lighting of the altar fires is done by concealing a lamp inside the altar immediately under the wood1 and by withdrawing a metal plate which separates them4 ,the flowing of milk and wine is produced by concealing two little reservoirs in the summit of the building1 and leading the liquor by pipes down the inside of the pillars1 and up the inside of the figure of ,bacchus1 so that1 when the cocks are turned by machinery1 the milk and wine flow and rise to the level of the thyrsus and the cup1 which are set underneath the level of the cisterns4 ,it is evident enough that people who could do these things were capable of inventing the sakia now in use throughout ,egypt1 where a horizontal wheel worked round a capstan by oxen moves another set perpendicularly1 at right angles to it1 furnished with jars1 which get filled below and1 when they pass over the highest point of their revolution1 are emptied into a water course1 and so irrigate a higher level4 ,this is well known to have been the invention of these ,alexandrian mechanicians1 whose theory had long preceded their practice1 and whose applications of science they never valued so highly as their pure speculations4 ,perhaps before leaving the subject ,i should tell you what was the moving force in the automatic machinery4 ,it was a weight suspended in the air by a rope over a pulley1 which1 as soon as it was allowed to sink from its support1 made the rope1 wrapped round the axle of a large wheel1 move the wheel1 that was in its turn connected with other wheels4 ,with very great and ingenious contrivance1 as the machinery was all carefully concealed1 the exhibitor could take his seat among the spectators1 and make the ignorant believe that the whole effect was produced by some magic4 ,nor were the laws of optics and the correction of the illusions of sight neglected4 ,euclid wrote a work on the subject which is now lost2 but the praise of it by competent men of the ,alexandrian school shows that it was on a level with his other scientific productions4 ,to our educated public1 the work of the ,greeks in most fields is known at least by hearsay2 the great library of ,greek mathematics1 scores of volumes1 some of which are only quite recently published1 is1 except for ,euclid1 absolutely unknown4 ,yet from it is derived not only the scanty knowledge of science that filtered through the ,romans into ,western ,europe1 but also that adopted by the ,arabs1 and which in translations from ,arabic versions came from them into awakening ,italy and ,germany and ,france4 ,but let me add that now1 when their discoveries in pure mathematics are being weighed by the light of expert knowledge1 we are assured by all those really competent to judge that in no field of learning have the old ,greeks shown their amazing originality and acuteness more signally than in higher arithmetic and in higher geometry4 ,the great fathers of the exact sciences are therefore in arithmetic the ,pythagoreans1 whose history is too obscure to mention from it any single name before ,archytas1 ,euclid1 and ,theon of ,smyrna2 in geometry1 ,euclid2 in mechanics1 ,archimedes2 in conic sections1 ,apollonius of ,perga2 in hydrostatics1 ,heron2 in astronomy1 ,eudoxus and ,hipparchus2 last1 but not least1 in higher arithmetic and algebra1 ,diophantus2 all of these were1 moreover1 men who did not confine themselves to any single department1 but promoted accurate thinking in many4 ,these1 and others hardly less great1 have left a record and a legacy to posterity second to none in its mighty consequences4 ,but among them all ,aristotle stands out as the 8master of those that knew0--the man who attained in the ,middle ,ages such celebrity and authority that he narrowly escaped being canonised as a saint in the ,roman calendar4 ,if that distinction really belonged to the benefactors of mankind1 ,i know not that any man ever lived who had a better claim to it4 ,for his life and activity mark an epoch not only in the progress of many sciences1 but in the general culture of the human mind1 to which ,i know no parallel4 ,he was brought up under the influence of the ,socratic method of inquiry as perfected by ,plato1 but1 though in some popular works 7now lost7 he adopted the dialogue as the correct method of teaching1 there can be no doubt that the sober and practical tone of his mind made him despise all the delays and delights of character-drawing1 and of spinning out the subject1 for what we have from him is pre-eminently plain and scientific in form4 ,there is seldom an unnecessary sentence2 if there be a metaphor1 it is a mere flash of colour across the cold severity of his argument4 ,he writes like a man who had no time to waste and a vast world of subjects to teach4 ,if it was still an age when the sciences had not entered upon the path of observation and experiment1 but were philosophical speculations1 ,aristotle did more than any man to establish a separation between philosophy and science1 while fully recognising1 what in our day most scientists ignore1 that positive science without a sound knowledge of philosophy is apt to run into fatal mistakes4 ,of course this immense programme which ,aristotle set before him could not be carried out without large collaboration1 and so we know that1 as ,plato seems to have underrated such collaboration1 and thus have failed in fruitfulness among his pupils1 ,aristotle1 who was not chosen as his successor by the school 7,i suppose as usual there were jealousies among the commonplace and docile pupils toward the great original thinker71 formed and stimulated a band of helpers1 who gathered special observations in botany1 mineralogy1 zology1 physics as the science of nature1 and others who put into shape his views on rhetoric and on poetry1 on ethics and on theology4 ,we have1 in my opinion1 a new specimen of such delegated work in the now famous ,constitution of ,athens1 which was known and quoted as ,aristotle's through later antiquity1 but which is rather the work of a pupil and not a brilliant one4 ,but then we know that ,aristotle either wrote or brought out #aeh of these tracts on ,greek constitutions4 ,to this ,i shall return in a subsequent lecture4 ,theophrastus1 ,eudemus1 and ,aristoxenus are among the best-known names of these helpers1 and from these we have valuable work extant4 ,physical geography was entrusted to ,dikarchus4 ,all these researches were carried out in the same spirit1 and with that unity of purpose that marks a school4 ,there was apparently but one division of all the domain of science in which ,aristotle did no original work1 and yet his contribution to it is not to be underrated4 ,this was the field of pure mathematics4 ,for we know that he entrusted to his ablest pupil1 ,eudemus the ,rhodian1 the task of writing the history of what other men had done in this field4 ,these books on the history of arithmetic1 of geometry1 and of astronomy 7then called astrology7 were well known and valued1 and the modern critics declare that whatever is now known about the earlier development of mathematics was derived from this pure and rich source4 ,still more remarkable is it that this1 the part of the edifice to which ,aristotle himself did not contribute1 should have been the only one that took root and flourished without any period of corruption or decay4 ,as to ,aristotle's personal competence in this matter1 ,i am assured by the best mathematicians that his not infrequent allusions to mathematics1 by way of metaphor or illustration1 show a clear and sound understanding of the subject4 ,it is not1 therefore1 the vagary of an idle admirer1 but the deliberate expression of a weighty judge1 when we learn from him in his ,discussion on ,beauty--which he1 being a ,greek1 of course seeks in form1 symmetry1 and proportion--that the highest and noblest examples of earthly beauty are to be found in mathematics4 ,euclid was almost the contemporary of ,aristotle1 and so the ,peripatetic ,mathematics found at ,alexandria a new home and a mighty development1 which lasted for centuries and is not stayed to this day4 ,but the rest of the vast system of ,aristotle seems1 after about two generations1 to have fallen into incompetent hands4 ,the activity of the ,greek intellect passed into other channels and became again purely philosophical and ethical instead of scientific1 as ,i shall show when ,i speak of the ,stoic and ,epicurean systems4 ,but there was another branch of practical science which1 if not created by ,aristotle1 was certainly promoted by his studies in zology and botany4 ,we still regard these sciences as a necessary introduction to medicine1 and we may be sure that in old days the order of such studies was not different4 ,the distinction of being the father of rational medicine need not be added to the other crowns which adorn the great sage4 ,both ,greeks and moderns are unanimous in awarding that honour to ,hippocrates of ,kos1 where there was an old guild of physicians1 of which he was neither the first nor the last of his name4 ,hence the works now known as those of ,hippocrates may not all be the actual writing of one man2 for as with ,aristotle1 so with ,hippocrates1 there was a school1 and the pupils followed in the master's path4 ,but there is no doubt whatever as to the character and tone of his teaching4 ,we find even a literary grandeur in his prose1 that is not the writing of any but a great master4 ,the famous opening of his ,aphorisms is probably known to most of my hearers4 ,but it is a puzzle to translate without dull amplification4 ,here is a paraphrase3 8,life is brief1 yet craft grows slowly2 the right time is instantaneous1 yet experience is treacherous1 and decision burdensome40 ,as is the style1 so is the thinking out of the problems before him4 ,starting from hygiene as the proper basis of medicine1 he thinks those should be regarded as the earliest physicians who improved the food of primitive men by crushing grain1 by cooking meat1 and by selecting edible vegetables4 ,from that time onward1 there was growing up an experience of what was healthy and what the reverse4 ,it is this experience which he seeks to systematise by careful observation and so to establish laws of hygiene1 and the probable natural prophylactics or remedies afforded by air1 water1 and climate4 ,he analyses with care the proper aspect for a town and decides 7in the latitudes which he knew7 for the eastern as the best and the western as the worst4 ,he discusses the quality of the water supply1 and lays great stress upon its altitude4 ,he sets down careful clinical records of cases of fever--typhus1 puerperal1 malarious1 and the like4 ,the results of this rational treatment of disease were far-reaching and permanent4 ,to cite to you the cloud of witnesses would be mere waste of time4 ,but ,i will take one instance1 closely related to the history of my great college and of medicine in ,ireland4#cf ,the founder of the ,college of ,physicians in ,ireland under the ,cromwellians and ,charles ,,ii4 was ,john ,stearne1 a grand-nephew of ,archbishop ,ussher1 himself also a theologian and metaphysician4 ,driven out of ,ireland by the stress of the ,rebellion of #afda1 and educated in all the medical learning of ,cambridge1 he returned with the ,cromwellian restoration of order and became not only a ,fellow of his college 7along with some eminent ,puritans from ,harvard7 but a distinguished practitioner in ,dublin4 ,by his influence was founded the ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 once an adjunct to the ,university and ever since a great and dignified corporation1 which has for many generations contributed eminent men to medical science4 ,but ,stearne1 like ,hippocrates1 not only practised2 he wrote works on life and death2 he was a theorist and a philosopher4 ,this man1 writing from the highest standpoint of ,cambridge and of ,dublin in the middle of the seventeenth century1 tells us over and over again that the works of ,hippocrates are wellnigh infallible1 and are the only sure guide to medical science in his day4#cg ,the causes of this attitude are not far to seek4 ,all medival medicine had been ruined by the admission of supernatural influences1 special interventions1 the action of evil spirits1 the conjunction of hostile constellations1 and other rubbish at which we now smile1 but which men of science then deplored4 ,the first great feature in ,hippocrates is the utter ignoring of any such influences as the special causes of disease or cure4 ,he is afraid of no ghost or goblin1 he never mentions an incantation4 ,and here is a momentous passage1 which probably few of you have ever read1 that expresses the mental attitude of his school4 ,he is speaking of a class of patients affected with impotence who are venerated among the ,scythians and even worshipped1 each man fearing for himself1 as he attributes the sickness to a special visitation of his ,god4 8,well now ,i also think that these diseases are of divine ordinance and so are all the rest1 but not one of them more divine or human than the rest1 but all are homogeneous1 and all from the gods4 ,yet each of them has its nature1 and nothing happens without a natural cause40 ,he then goes on to explain the disease from the practice of too much riding1 and observing that it attacks the rich more usually than the poor1 because the latter do not live on horseback1 he argues3 ,if this disease were indeed more divine in origin than the rest1 it ought not to attack the rich and well bred among the ,scythians1 but all alike2 nay rather the poor in preference1 if indeed the gods delight in honour and service from men1 and show them favour accordingly4 ,for it is but natural that the rich should offer many sacrifices to the gods as they have both wealth and honour2 but the poor less so1 either from want of means1 or want of good will toward the gods who have not favoured them1 so that the poor ought to be specially subject to punishment for their transgressions or mistakes4 ,but as ,i said before1 this disease is heaven-sent like the rest4 ,for everything happens according to nature4 ,this was the spirit that died out when the ,greek world decayed1 and ,europe fell a victim to ignorance and superstition4 ,then came the heyday of miraculous images1 of relics with power to cure1 of pilgrimages1 of intercessions1 of all that mental degradation which the ,medival ,church1 far from repudiating1 used for its own purposes4 ,and so the resurrection of medical science was connected with rebellion against the ,church4 ,among every three physicians1 are two atheists1 was the word1 and even the pious ,stearne1 whom ,i have mentioned1 preaches a purely ,stoic creed1 and systematically ignores all the rites of his church4 ,hippocrates and his school had in their day to combat similar superstitions1 just as the scientific medicine of our day has to deal with ,lourdes and with ,christian ,science4 ,within the last few years1 we have recovered from oblivion the ruins of the temple and town of ,epidauros1 where the god sculapius had a famous shrine1 and where hundreds of pilgrims assembled to seek cures for their several ailments4 ,their recreation was as well looked after as in any modern watering-place2 the theatre was the most splendid thing of the kind in ,greece1 and there were porticoes1 and baths1 and groves to secure that comfort and idle amusement which have a great effect on health4 ,but as we know from the ridicule of ,aristophanes1 corroborated by numbers of inscriptions commemorating cures1 the method of these ,asklepiads was far behind those of ,kos2 it was superstitious and not scientific4 ,dreams and omens1 charms and ceremonial acts still stood in the way of sound hygiene and careful clinical observation4 ,not that ,i deny the occurrence of cures under such treatment4 ,the most sceptical examination of the annals of ,lourdes shows that mental influences will cure not only mental diseases1 and diseases known as nervous1 but even those that seemed absolutely physical4 ,and what the ,blessed ,virgin does for the faithful of ,lourdes may doubtless be done by the influence of more human and tangible causes4 ,these admissions1 which ,i make freely1 will not change the opinion now held by every true man of science4 ,it is the opinion of ,hippocrates and his school1 and that which he sought to enforce by his theory and his practice4 ,the great truth that work is what exhausts the human frame1 and that food supplies this waste1 was laid down clearly in their practice4 ,the equally important principle1 that no organ will keep in health and vigour without exercise of its natural function and that if disused it will shrink or decay1 was also clearly pronounced4 ,they even guessed that the greatest problem of medicine 7which they failed to solve7 was the passage from inorganic into organic substances4 ,it is of course idle to say that these practitioners were not encumbered and shackled by many false guesses1 many pretended discoveries1 many groundless speculations of their predecessors4 ,but as the famous oath1 which every practitioner in the school of ,kos took1 expresses clearly the high moral aim with which even now the physician enters on his noble work1 the solemn declaration that he will not abuse his influence or intimacy in any house for selfish or immoral purposes1 so in their scientific aims these ,greeks sought to advance human knowledge by recording honestly their observations1 even by telling of their failures1 and by seeking to leave behind them such clinical work as might enlighten not only successors but opponents4 ,if we compare this truly modest and scientific attitude with that of the doctors whom ,molire scourged1 and whose practice is but too well known to us from the minute account of their treatment of princely or even royal patients1 we shall again come to the conclusion that where the ,greeks failed to teach modern ,europe it was not for want of rich suggestion and splendid anticipations of modern science4 ,i need hardly tell you 7in conclusion7 that ,i have not only confined myself to touching the fringes of these vast subjects2 ,i have deliberately omitted large topics such as optics1 and the correction of optical delusions1 which the ,greeks attained by a subtle use of curves1 not merely sections of a large circle1 but particularly by the use of the conic section still known by its ,greek name of hyperbola4 ,i have said nothing about their astronomy1 with its prediction of eclipses1 its application to the calendar1 and its use as the basis of scientific geography4 ,had ,i attempted to weave all these matters into the present lecture1 ,i must have given you a kaleidoscope and not a picture4 ,the main fact to be impressed upon you is that the great triumphs of the ,greeks in art and in literature were not attained without a strict education in hard thinking and close reasoning4 ,plato is said to have made it the first condition of entering on a course of philosophy that the pupil should have studied geometry4 ,it was in accordance with that principle that in our older universities every student1 though he were a specialist in classics1 must show an adequate knowledge of mathematics4 ,no man in ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 can take the degree in languages without having been taught1 and having qualified in1 pure mathematics1 physics1 and astronomy4 ,that was the kind of education given by the ,greeks4 ,so far as we have departed from it in our education2 so far as we have substituted hurry for deliberation1 quantity of facts for quality of knowledge1 miscellaneous information for systematic thinking1 so far we have rendered modern culture impotent to rival their excellence4 ,,vii ,,politics--,,sociology--,,law ,there is no department of ,greek life where we feel its modernness more intensely than when we come to consider political and social philosophy4 ,the ,greeks1 and the ,romans that learned from them1 write and talk like thoroughly modern men2 the discussions of ,aristotle and the treatises of ,cicero are quite fit to instruct us in the present day on the possibilities of organising human society4 ,the rights of women1 for example1 are a topic with which they were perfectly familiar4 ,pass into what are justly called the ,dark ,ages or early ,middle ,ages1 and you feel that the world has gone centuries back and not forward4 ,the reign of superstition1 the tyranny of the priest1 the miseries of the churl1 the childishness of art1 the utter stagnation of literature1 the substitution of fortresses for free cities1 violence for law1 savage rudeness for polished urbanity--these are the astounding conditions of an ,europe most of which once had enjoyed real civilisation4 ,among other causes of this strange retrogression in history1 not the least is the disappearance of ,greek life and culture into the ,east1 where ,constantinople still adhered to great ,hellenic traditions at least in law1 in language1 and in art4 ,all that ,roman life and thought had borrowed from ,greece was unable to make ,latin culture fruitful and permanent1 because it was borrowed from ,greece and not really assimilated2 so it came to pass that1 compared with the brightness and buoyancy of ,greek culture1 the reign of the ,latin through civilised ,europe was an epoch of standstill1 of formalism1 of intellectual barrenness1 of ossification4 ,so long as the ,romans were mere docile pupils of the ,greeks1 they made great progress in the arts of life2 as soon as they felt themselves the acknowledged masters of the world and came to look down upon their teachers1 their inborn coarseness and want of genius began to reassert itself1 and but for the influence of an ,oriental creed1 domesticated among them by the ,greeks1 they would have relapsed1 along with their barbarian invaders1 into intellectual insignificance4 ,when we inquire into the causes that made politics so developed a feature among the ,greeks1 we shall in the first place find1 even in ,homer's societies1 the habit of open discussion a leading fact in everyday life4 ,there is a sort of instinct to have things talked over and reasoned out1 so much so that the very king1 who has come to a decision with his council1 and has ample authority to fulfil it1 will not do so without calling together an assembly of the soldiers in the camp or the free citizens in the market-place1 and seeking to obtain their approval by acclamation4 ,this assembly1 called together to approve1 without any power of voting or of reversing the prince's decision1 is regarded by all historians as the embryo of the long-subsequent sovran assemblies of citizens in every ,greek democracy4 ,there seem even to have been assertions of absolute power in the mouth of the kings in some of the old texts of the ,iliad1 which were expunged by editors1 certainly not those of ,alexandria1 to whom such an assertion could contain no offence1 but by earlier editors who prepared the poems for the free cities of ,greece4#ch ,the next stimulant to the development of politics was the coexistence of many small city-states1 with only a few miles square of territory1 each a little sovranty where no king could maintain the mystery of seclusion or the obstacle of a solemn etiquette1 which ,xenophon perceived to be essential conditions of the great absolute monarchy of the ,persians4 ,so it came that the old sovranties1 which ,aristotle tells us had been hereditary and limited#ci as it were a model to later nations in constitutional sovranty1 passed away1 often without revolution1 into aristocracies1 which were the leading type throughout the civilised world both in classical and in medival times1 so long as the mass of the people were too ignorant to take upon them the management of public affairs4 ,aristotle tells us that the masses easily remain quiet and contented1 provided they are kept in employment and in comfort by the good management of the few4 ,such an example you are all familiar with in the ,venetian ,republic1 which1 like ,carthage of old1 maintained for a long period1 without serious internal disturbance1 a considerable empire with a population busy and rich by their trade4 ,where the violence or the selfishness of the few in power who were descendants of the old families of nobles which had once been the council of the kings1 or who had themselves been local chiefs--where1 ,i say1 the neglect or violence of these men produced intolerable hardships1 we have sanguinary revolutions1 at first usually under the leadership of an ambitious renegade or soldier of noble origin1 who set the masses against the classes4 ,later1 the masses were strong enough to make their revolutions by constitutional or semi-constitutional means1 and so gained a political power which they could seldom maintain without putting to death or exiling the leaders of the nobles4 ,a reader of ,thucydides or ,xenophon will recall the manner in which the exiles worked counter-revolutions1 and thus stained the face of ,greece with violence and bloodshed4 ,these scenes of violence play so large a part in our ,greek histories that you will wonder how any such people could be a model to others in methods of politics1 and it is for that reason that ,i think it necessary to notice the matter4 ,when we look below the surface we shall find that there were elements of order never eradicated1 and that the crimes of the leaders of society did not infect the common-sense1 or destroy the safety1 of the mass of the people1 until the general decadence in the days of ,polybius and the ,roman interference4 ,what is this evidence8 ,it is not to be found without some reflection1 for1 as ,i have said1 it is below the surface4 ,there is no commoner phrase in the mouth of ,greek revolutionists1 or in the mouth of those that dreaded them1 than 8abolition of debts1 and redivision of the land40#dj ,aristotle mentions these as the watchword of the mob-leaders4 ,but when ,i was asked1 years ago1 by the late ,henry ,sidgwick of ,cambridge1 to find him actual instances of such a revolution in authentic ,greek history1 ,i well remember my own surprise1 and his also1 when ,i said there were none to be found4 ,some such things may possibly have happened in the great ,sicilian troubles1 when a tyrant drove out the old free population1 and settled a town with the surrounding churls and his mercenary troops2 but on the general face of ,greek history1 and in the records of the well known states1 you will not find an instance4#da ,the most radical measure to which ,i can point is the reduction of debts twenty-seven per cent4 by ,solon1 who was a very conservative statesman1 and one most anxious to guard the mercantile good character of his city4 ,as there was no loss of public credit to ,athens in his time1 it is clear that the debts lightened by this exceptional proceeding must have been only the debts of a class1 probably those due from poor farmers or labourers to their oppressive landlords4 ,if so1 it was not more trenchant than the present land legislation of the ,english ,government in ,ireland and ,scotland1 where the annual rents of tenants have1 in violation of old and formal private contracts1 been cut down by the state1 often as much as twenty-seven per cent4 ,the ,greeks were great traders by sea and land and no trade can be carried on without assured public credit4 ,unless investments are fairly safe1 no mercantile society can thrive4 ,the ordinary rate of interest in ,greece1 twelve per cent4 per annum1 appears at first hearing to be evidence of insecurity4 ,it is nothing of the kind4 ,it was not higher than the average interest#db at ,rome when that dominant people held the trade of the world1 and made themselves as safe as could be4 ,the difference between that and our three per cent4 arises from the general scarcity at the time of great fortunes in money1 owing to the difficulty of transit and the imperfect knowledge of a token currency4 ,banks and bills of exchange they commonly used1 but to lend money to citizens of a neighbouring state1 living under different laws and with strange courts of law1 was never easy1 and so the areas of lending and borrowing were not as they are now1 a whole continent or even the whole globe4 ,you might imagine such a state of things here in your country if each ,state was confined to seek investments within its own limits1 in which case you might soon find a rate of interest for imported capital not lower than that among the ,greeks4 ,there was another strong checking power which must always have moderated the revolutionary transports of the ,greeks4 ,it was the existence in all the greater cities of a large population of slaves4 ,we know from the history both of ,argos and of ,sparta that this was a standing danger to the free population1 and we may be sure that in many cases free men composed their differences1 or at least moderated their victory over their opponents1 rather than risk having both subdued by a foreign element4 ,you will tell me perhaps that the fact that all the ,greek world held slaves is another antiquated standpoint1 which prevents them from being fit teachers for modern nations4 ,but to me that question does not appear so simple1 and perhaps with the experiences of the last forty years1 even the ,american public that has time for reflection may have some doubts on the matter4 ,so great a thinker as ,aristotle felt quite clear about it2 he believed that there were inferior races fit only to be controlled1 not to control1 and he held that it was for their good when these were coerced by the superior intelligence and education of ,greeks4 ,he does not express himself1 so far as ,i know1 about the many slaves who were ,greek prisoners of war1 but from his general views it is certain that he would not approve of this form of slavery4 ,let me add in this connection that he repeatedly says analogous things of those occupied with low handicrafts1 such as tinkers or cobblers1 which require all their time and leave them no leisure to educate themselves or to learn higher things4 ,he thinks these workers wholly unfit to be in the governing class of any state1 and maintains that wherever they gained power it was in an extreme democracy which soon displayed the vices of that sort of government4 ,you must remember that in the small ,greek polity1 which consisted of a city and a territory of twenty or thirty miles square1 the expedient of choosing representatives locally and sending them to the central assembly was never felt to be necessary4 ,the citizen must go himself to the assembly and spend his day there2 he was liable to be chosen 7often by lot1 that considers no convenience7 for duties either administrative or judicial4 ,it was evident that those bound to earn their daily bread must stand aside and permit the more leisured classes to do this work4 ,this leisured class1 moreover1 was greatly enlarged by the existence of slaves1 for even the poor ,athenian had his manual labour done for him and so had the necessary time for attending public duties4 ,the ,greeks never dreamt of giving their judges or politicians large salaries1 as we do1 holding that the state had a right to claim the whole life and energy of its citizens4 ,against one another these citizens were amply protected by the laws2 there was no protection against the demands of state1 even when these involved the sacrifice of life itself4 ,such being the general frame of mind among thoughtful ,greeks and the great object of the most perfect state being to secure the happiness1 and therefore of course the liberty1 of the mass of its citizens1 we need not wonder that they paid early and constant attention to the framing of their laws1 so that these offered1 first to the ,romans 7who used the ,attic ,code when drawing up the ,laws of the ,,xii ,tables7 and then to other nations1 models of prudent legislation4 ,all their theorists further insisted1 with no uncertain voice1 that the success of any code of laws must depend upon the enlightenment of the public that uses them4 ,i proceed therefore to speak briefly on three aspects of ,greek legislation1 the criminal1 the civil1 and what ,i may call the international1 in order to make clear in how many ways the ,greeks were our masters1 so that we may still study their methods of government with profit4 ,the criminal law naturally comes first1 for the most urgent essential of civilised life is public safety1 enabling the citizen to go about when and where he likes without fear of personal molestation1 or even of being the witness of violence4 ,the ,greeks were so well aware of this that they did not think any polity civilised till men had wholly abandoned the habit of carrying weapons1 and if ,aristotle or ,thucydides had been told that in ,america a number of respectable citizens of free states still go armed1 they would have said1 8,that was once the habit in ,greece also1 but now we are civilised1 and regard such a practice as essentially barbarous40 ,if there had been any likelihood of its being revived they would certainly have made it penal1 and such seems the proper course in any country where the losing of a man's temper may cause the losing of his life1 as well as that of others4 ,in modern ,europe we have happily reached that stage1 and even in ,ireland1 where there are often people threatened for agrarian disputes1 and protected by the police1 the rest of the population walks about securely night and day1 in crowded cities and in lonely wilds1 without ever thinking of carrying a weapon4 ,the ,attic law1 which represents the highest1 and also the purest ,greek feeling1 was extremely jealous not only of the safety1 but of the dignity of the citizen1 and any assault in the streets1 even if it caused no dangerous hurt1 was severely punished by the law4 ,as in modern societies1 even to touch a man rudely1 or against his will1 was punished as an assault1 and if the man assaulted happened to be performing any official duty for the state1 the offence might be considered in the light of lse-majest1 or treason against the dignity of the state4 ,the penalty of death was indeed inflicted1 especially in the older codes1 with a frequency reminding us of the ,european codes of a hundred years ago4 ,but as regards citizens there were two mitigations which made even these severe laws milder and more civilised than most of ours4 ,in the first place1 there was generally facility given to the man who was condemned to escape over the frontier1 and except in cases of great crimes against the state1 extradition was not thought of4 ,exile was of course a severe penalty1 for it meant living abroad as a foreigner1 not protected by the safeguards that encompassed the citizens around him4 ,secondly1 the manner in which the death sentence was carried out was infinitely more humane and polite than our abominable executions4 ,the case of ,socrates is no doubt familiar to you all4 ,he was left free of chains to talk with his friends and the cup of poison was placed beside him1 to be taken before the setting of the sun4 ,even the jailor is represented as a humane and civil man1 who carried out his function with every consideration4 ,i will not deny that these very advanced features in ,greek law were in contrast to some still barbarous survivals2 ,i mean the torturing of slaves and the severity of making a death sentence follow on the majority of one in a very large jury4 ,but survivals of barbarism were but yesterday frequent enough with ourselves4 ,let us now turn to the characteristics of the civil law1 by which ,i mean the laws controlling the holding of property1 the making of contracts1 and bequests by testament4 ,i cannot see in the many contracts we have from ,greece1 or from ,egyptian ,greece1 when settled by ,greece immigrants1 that the general spirit or the accuracy of these documents differs from those of our day1 except that the penalties for breach of contract seem much severer than ours4 ,in the case of a money obligation1 the debtor who did not repay within a fixed date was commonly fined fifty per cent4 for his delay4 ,there may have been many cases of loans in kind1 e4g41 of seed corn1 where such a penalty was not unreasonable1 for there are things which are very valuable at a certain season1 and which after that must lie useless for many months4 ,but on the whole ,i think the ,greek idea of keeping a contract was stricter than ours1 and the law more severe4 ,such was also the case with the ,roman law1 which was borrowed from the ,greek4 ,in so cursory a review of a large subject1 ,i can only select one or two points as illustrations1 and speak of them as specimens of the general enlightenment of the age4 ,i therefore turn to a particular class about which we now know a great deal1 more particularly owing to a large discovery of documents which ,i was fortunate enough to make in #ahij4 ,it is the ,greek will or testament4 ,lawsuits concerning such documents also form the majority of the speeches of ,isus1 the collection of which has been edited with great skill and learning by ,mr4 ,william ,wyse of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,it used to be thought that all this matter of testament was due to the ,romans4 ,it seems now tolerably certain that in this as in most of the other refinements of life the ,romans only transmitted to us what the ,greeks had taught them4 ,in most early states it is only gradually1 and not without some jealousy1 that the individual is permitted to bequeath his property as he pleases4 ,at first1 he is regarded as the member of a clan1 to which his property reverts under certain fixed conditions2 later on1 the state controls the division of it among the immediate family of the testator1 and will not permit any passing of it away to strangers1 still less to those who are not citizens4 ,whether the ,greek states ever left absolute liberty to their citizens in this matter may be doubted1 the interest of the state being much more jealously guarded among these small polities than among the large modern ,states1 when an occasional misuse of such a power does no grave public mischief1 and only excites moderate censure4 ,but the whole form of the wills we have in ,egyptian papyri1 and of which we have examples in stone inscriptions1 such as the record of the will of one ,epicteta who bequeathed her estate to public and religious objects1 is perfectly modern4 ,here ,i quote you the usual formula4 ,first comes the date according to the years of kings or eponymous magistrates4 ,then 8,this is the will of ,peisias the ,lycian1 son of ,x41 of sound mind and deliberate intention4 ,may it be my lot to live on in health and manage mine own property1 but should anything human happen to me1 ,i bequeath to my children so much1 to my wife such and such things 7often specifying the articles71 ,i set free certain slaves1 ,i set apart money for religious purposes4 ,and ,i appoint as executors such and such people10 in the case of soldiers in ,egypt generally the ,king and ,queen and their children2 and then there follow the names of several1 often seven or eight1 witnesses4#dc ,these habits1 which imply a settled society1 with ordinary habits and traditions1 had spread from ,greece to ,greek ,egypt three centuries before ,christ4 ,there is no doubt that they spread similarly not only to the west1 but throughout ,asia ,minor and ,syria so far as they were not in these regions already in vogue4 ,i will only add that if you desire to read how clearly and carefully a long case involving the claim of a ,greek in ,egypt against a native corporation was examined and decided1 you will find it in the ,papyrus ,i of ,turin#dd which was published years ago by ,amde ,peyron1 and which ought to be republished and made easier of access4 ,we have the whole final decision of the court extending over many pages of ,greek4 ,the record must have been found intact in the earthen jar in which it was preserved4 ,it rehearses the fortunes of the case from its outset1 forty years before the decision4 ,it gives the earlier decisions and a summary of the new evidence adduced2 and it sums up the whole and gives judgment for the native corporation against the ,greek with a clearness which could not be exceeded by the ,supreme ,court in ,america4 ,every word of it speaks strict law and plain common-sense4 ,it was a case of conflicting evidence1 and this is weighed with absolute fairness4 ,there is not a word of superstition1 of appeals to the providence of the gods or to any authority beyond that of educated human reason4 ,as such1 it is a document absolutely modern in the highest sense4 ,this then was the tone of the civil law transmitted by ,greece to succeeding centuries4 ,i now approach a larger subject1 and one of even more permanent interest--the lessons of ,greek history regarding the international relations of adjoining civilised states1 or the relations of one stronger state to others of lesser force or size4 ,the condition of ,greece all through its early history affords an unique field for the study of international law2 for these numerous small cities1 as we regard them1 were perfectly distinct polities or states1 each living under its own laws and traditions1 and as separate one from the other in idea as are the capitals of any two modern kingdoms4 ,in practice the separation was even greater1 for intermarriage between their citizens1 or the acquiring of property by citizens of another polity1 were against the spirit of the age1 and were generally forbidden by law4 ,the number1 therefore1 of treaties1 of alliances1 of quarrels between these city states was not only enormous1 but offered every variety1 so much so that if you look at any good edition of the earliest ,european work on this sort of law1 the famous treatise of ,hugo ,grotius1 ,de ,jure ,pacis et ,belli1 you will find that the great body of his illustrations is taken from ,greek history1 and acknowledged as ,greek in the margin of the text4 ,let us approach first the question of war4 ,even from ,homer's time1 there was a growing feeling which softened the hardships of war between ,hellenic peoples4 ,poisoned weapons were not tolerated1 and if the prisoners became the slaves of the victors1 ransom was very general1 and according to ,herodotus there was even an acknowledged tariff--two min--accepted throughout ,peloponnesus for the release of such a prisoner4 ,i will not pretend that the wars even of the ,golden ,age were not much fiercer and more cruel than the rose-water campaigns we now carry on1 when the wives and children of the enemy are supported in comfort1 and he is accordingly encouraged to prolong a conflict which only affects his personal convenience4 ,for war is a shocking thing1 and to sweeten it by such amenities is only to enhance its cost of life and of treasure to the victor4 ,but if you were to compare ,greek wars with those of the earlier centuries of modern ,europe1 say the ,thirty ,years' ,war in ,germany1 you would find the balance of humanity most decidedly on the side of the ,greeks4 ,the non-combatants in a stormed ,greek city1 though by the laws of war they became slaves1 were in a far better plight than the unfortunate people of a ,german town captured by the ,pandurs and ,croats of ,tilly or ,wallenstein4 ,i gladly turn from this grievous subject4 8,war10 says ,thucydides1 8is a stern taskmaker1 and makes men's hearts as hard as their circumstances40 ,let us enter on a more grateful and more instructive task1 the international relations of ,greek states in peace and particularly their political combinations or alliances for protection against external dangers4 ,it was obvious that a number of distinct small city-states must be at the mercy of a strong invading force which could conquer them one by one1 and that therefore combinations and alliances among them were absolutely necessary4 ,such combinations could also be made for offensive purposes1 as was the case with the ,homeric conception of the ,siege of ,troy1 and so in after times many ,greek theorists actually recommended this policy as an engine of conquest1 the very conquest carried out by ,alexander the ,great4 ,but for a long time1 alliances were only made for the moment1 and to ward off an imminent danger1 and they soon fell to pieces again1 owing usually to the reverting of both parties into a selfish and jealous policy of isolation4 ,from the seventh century ,b4,c41 onward1 the waxing of the power of ,sparta made a sort of semi-compulsory league among the smaller cities of the ,peloponnesus1 and later on1 after the crisis of the ,persian war was over1 the ,asiatic ,greeks put themselves under the leadership of ,athens4 ,let me call it by its technical name1 hegemony4 ,this was an alliance under a president state1 which was to guide the policy of the league in war1 but was not supposed to interfere with the several polities in peace4 ,you all know how the leading power gradually encroached upon the liberties of the allies1 who really became subjects paying tribute2 and when they attempted reassertion of their former independence1 it was treated by ,athens as revolt1 and crushed with military and naval force4 ,the conduct of ,sparta when she succeeded to the hegemony of ,greece was in no way different2 perhaps it was harsher1 and so we have a vast amount of protest against the tyranny of these leading states1 and their 8enslaving0 of the rest of ,greece4 ,they on their side pointed to the necessity of union to prevent foreign domination2 they pointed to the labours and sacrifices the citizens of the leading state had undergone1 to the security of the seas from pirates1 to the increase of trade1 and of the reputation of ,greek civilisation1 all produced by their efforts2 but generally this came in at the end of the argument3 that having acquired their power they intended to keep it4 ,here then was a great constitutional question and one still under dispute in the last century4 ,supposing that several independent states combine to promote common objects1 and make a solemn league or union2 is it lawful for any one of the contracting parties to withdraw from the union if it considers its liberties infringed8 ,i need not to take into account the further complication1 when some of the states involved were created subsequently by and for the union1 in fact were daughters and not mothers of the union4 ,you know how in this country that constitutional problem was only solved by a great war1 and this was but the echo of the same kind of conflict endemic in ,greece4 ,yet the tone and temper of the world had changed in the long interval4 ,the creation and success of many great states led men to appreciate the advantages thus obtained1 and though there was1 and still is1 a strong sentiment in favour of small nationalities coerced by the greater--you remember the sentiment of all the ,european press during the recent ,boer war--yet on the whole the imperial idea is not unpopular4 ,in ,greece it was the reverse4 ,from the outset to the end1 the right of the smaller members of an union to secede was always maintained in theory and produced fatal results in practice4 ,the very same problem assumed a slightly different form when twelve insignificant ,achan cities combined into the ,achan ,league which ,polybius has made so famous4 ,the council and governing officers were elected in an assembly convened in one of the cities1 whither all the members of the ,league were entitled to go1 but which of course only men of leisure could afford to attend4 ,moreover each city had one collective vote1 so that numbers were of no direct consequence4 ,the meetings were confined to three days1 and to business prepared for them by the executive4 ,the whole scheme 7which was an early and excellent essay in ,federation1 much studied by the founders of the ,american ,union7 shipwrecked on the question whether single states had a right to enter into separate agreements with powers foreign to the ,league4 ,perfect internal independence was of course essential to ,greek ideas1 but that the power of separate alliances with foreign powers should be allowed1 seems to us absurd4 ,nevertheless the sentiment of the ,greeks here as elsewhere was in favour of this absolute independence1 and so the ,league was pulled to pieces by the interference of jealous or ambitious neighbours4 ,thus you have a conglomerate of civilised communities1 all speaking the same language and with similar ideals of culture1 not separated by hostile creeds1 and with the power1 when united1 of exercising a dominant influence upon the world around them2 and yet their power and their development are paralysed by mutual jealousies and constant quarrels1 resulting in frequent and desolating wars4 ,we have no cases in ,europe at all parallel except the condition of ,italy in the ,renaissance and of ,germany in the middle of the last century4 ,when ,i was a boy and we travelled in a carriage through that country 7railways had not yet been introduced7 we used in the course of a day to pass through a whole principality and across a border with custom houses1 and a new flag1 and often a new coinage4 ,there were then1 ,i believe1 sixty-six reigning personages--grand dukes1 electors1 etc4--in ,germany4 ,you know how all were either absorbed or reduced to one empire1 or allowed to live on as vassal states1 to use rather a hard word1 within the compass of a few years4 ,that was what happened ultimately in ,greece1 where the ,macedonian power played a part analogous to that of ,prussia1 and made itself by a successful war against a foreign power not only accepted but popular4 ,the important point in which ,greece gives modern nations a further lesson is this2 ,revolutionary or extemporised monarchies in such a case will not succeed4 ,the ,greeks1 especially in ,asia ,minor and in ,sicily1 where there was danger from foreign powers1 had come to the conclusion that a monarch was necessary to combine them into a strong military and financial power1 and they were therefore again willing to submit themselves to tyrants or despots1 as they had been of old1 when they wanted relief from the internecine disputes between the classes and the masses4 ,there were some brilliant essays in this direction made1 notably by ,dionysius of ,syracuse1 and by ,mausollus of ,halicarnassus4 ,but they failed to found a dynasty1 even as the ,bonapartes failed1 in spite of their greatness and the benefits they had conferred4 ,thus not only the achievements1 but the failures of the ,greeks may convey to us valuable lessons1 because they constituted a thoroughly 8modern0 society and suffered from the weaknesses and vices of such societies4 ,as this last statement may seem to some of you a paradox1 ,i proceed in conclusion to illustrate it1 by some observations on the condition of ,greek society as described to us by ,aristotle and by ,polybius4 ,the former1 in describing his ideal 7for he had not yet renounced it7 of a small1 well-ordered state1 governed in the interest of the majority of the citizens by good laws and humane rulers1 makes it his sine qua non that the middle class shall outweigh in public importance both the wealthy and the indigent4 ,now that was exactly the condition which in the days of ,polybius was becoming rarer and rarer1 nay1 practically unknown4 ,this was the very class disappearing rapidly from every state in ,greece4 ,and why8 ,the economic conditions were changing1 and owing to the great influx of gold from the ,east and other causes1 living was becoming dearer every day4 ,luxuries were also coming to be regarded as necessities1 and so for the poor who had the bribe of large pay and great license offered them in the mercenary service of ,hellenistic kings1 emigration became the rule1 and the want of labour turned farming from the agricultural to the pastoral type4 ,hence the middle classes1 which had no capital to work large farms1 became poorer and the rich richer and more selfish4 ,and what was the remedy adopted by the middle classes to maintain themselves in comfort8 ,an expedient not unknown in this country and for not very dissimilar reasons4 ,it was the limitation of families1 the avoidance of the duty and cost of bringing up children1 so that ,polybius speaks of it as the signal feature of the ,greece of his day--the strange barrenness that had come upon the once prolific inhabitants of the land4 ,such a misfortune can be avoided only when great immigration exists1 and even then it results in replacing the old population1 the cream of the country1 by the scum gathered from abroad4 ,there were no inducements for immigration into ,greece and so the country which was once teeming with population sunk into somnolence and decay4 ,could ,i offer you a clearer proof of the modern character of this civilisation1 which had not only a youth and an age of gold1 but then a silver autumn or a ,martinmas summer1 when ,plutarch lived in his little deserted town1 surrounded by a complete and terrible decadence8 ,and it may not be out of place to remind you that even with many differences of age1 of place1 and of circumstances1 the same moral causes that produce decay in one civilisation are likely to produce it in another4 ,the societies that fell into these vices were not ignorant or uneducated4 ,the average ,greek public was probably better trained in the knowledge of great ideas and the enjoyment of great literature than any public nowadays4 ,grote said very deliberately that the ordinary ,attic citizen who attended the assemblies where ,pericles and ,theramenes and ,demosthenes spoke1 and where many others of like culture joined in the debate--that such a man was better educated1 in the political sense1 than the average member of the ,house of ,commons in his day2 and ,grote had attended to the business of that ,house for ten years of his life4 ,it was then1 moreover1 an assembly of ,english gentlemen1 of the middle and upper classes1 with a strong aristocratic flavour4 ,what language would he have used had he compared his ,periclean citizen to the ,house of ,commons of the twentieth century8 ,but in any case1 we may say one thing with certainty1 and it is one of the greatest lessons which the ,greeks have to tell us3 ,intellectual culture by itself is no certain antidote to decadence in any society--nay1 not even in that of ,boston1 ,massachusetts4 ,the moral conditions of refined ,attic life in these dying days are best known from the remains1 or from the ,latin translations of the society plays of the famous ,menander4 ,the life which ,menander portrayed has been discussed and estimated in a chapter of my ,greek ,life and ,thought1 and you will there see at length how trivial1 how selfish1 how immoral1 how ignoble that life was4 ,if such was indeed the true character of ,attic society in ,menander's days1 we may well congratulate the world that the ,macedonian conquerer arose to show the world that there were greater ideals than to while away one's time in the rotten refinements of decadent ,athens4 ,when ,i wrote that chapter1 we were still dependent for our estimate of ,menander and his society in the ,latin translations1 or adaptations1 by ,plautus and ,terence1 and there were those that thought the ,roman adapters had chosen the trivial side of a society which might be not only refined but serious and thoughtful4 ,the recent discovery of large fragments of four plays on a papyrus roll in ,egypt has dissipated any such hopes4 ,the same triviality1 the same stupid repetition of vulgar and immoral plots and topics meet us throughout these scenes4 ,if there be any moral lesson conveyed by the picture we here have of ,attic society1 it is this3 that the slave and the prostitute were not only more intelligent1 but less immoral than their masters4 ,in all these so-called pictures of life1 not a single person of the least distinction appears--not a single philosopher1 or politician1 or poet1 or man of letters1 or benefactor--though we know that the walls of temples and cities were being covered with panegyrics of leading citizens and their civic and private virtues4 ,not a single problem of religious or political importance is ever discussed4 ,there is not even1 in the new fragments1 any wealth of that vulgar proverbial wisdom1 or sententiousness posing as wisdom1 which was gathered from the plays of ,menander by diligent collectors1 and which1 surviving in thousands of lines1 has given him a false importance in the histories of ,greek literature4 ,but here1 as elsewhere1 the lapse of ages had separated the wheat from the chaff2 the later scholiasts and commentators gathered from ,menander the stray gems1 as one might pick from the array of a gay but stupid lady the real diamonds with which she had adorned her worthless person4 ,in relation to ,greek politics1 which is our subject to-day1 this is no idle digression4 ,for it shows us clearly that the higher society of ,athens had abandoned this great human interest and so had narrowed and impoverished their spiritual life4 ,it is usual to repeat in our histories that the growth of the ,macedonian power1 of the ,hellenistic kings1 of the ,roman ,republic1 killed all possibility of any serious ,greek politics1 and that in consequence serious men were driven into anti-social philosophy at home1 active men into mercenary service abroad4 ,in ,menander's day and long after it1 there was still plenty of work for honest and capable men in saving the liberties and the dignities of their native cities4 ,a century later1 ,polybius shows how the total ruin of ,greece and the disastrous conquest by ,mummius were mainly produced by the follies and violences of stupid and corrupt demagogues4 ,but these demagogues were invested with official power by the votes of those that still practised politics1 when the better classes had retired in disgust4 ,if this disgust dated from ,menander's time1 then we can only reflect that those who have abdicated their influence in the day of their country's prosperity1 are not likely to regain it when a crisis comes1 and when the masses have found for themselves other leaders4 ,i have seen a very similar catastrophe in the ,ireland of my own time4 ,i have seen the old landed gentry1 who had long lived a gay1 idle1 hospitable life1 when their privileges and their properties were attacked by a dangerous agitation1 show such want of public spirit1 such miserable mistrust in one another1 such reckless folly in not spending time1 money1 and energy in resisting their plunderers1 that they lost the sympathy of all their friends1 and while they called on ,english influence to protect them1 and railed against all concession and compromise1 they have seen their land filched from them by successive legislative inroads upon their rights1 and their fortunes ruined even by those on whom they relied to defend them4 ,many a time did ,i warn those about me of these inevitable consequences1 but there ,i have seen another instance1 and one which came home to me with poignant regret1 of the miseries induced by mere incompetence4 ,quem ,deus vult perdere1 prius dementat4 ,,viii ,,higher ,,thinking1 ,,philosophy1 ,,speculative ,,and ,,practical ,,theology ,in my last lecture ,i spoke of the small effect1 or want of effect1 which a mere intellectual training in the liberal arts might have upon the average morals of a large society4 ,to-day ,i propose to take you into a higher atmosphere1 and consider what occupied the lite of ,greek society in their advanced education1 and in their speculations on the nature of things4 ,you must not underrate the enormous advantages the well-born youth then possessed in training his mind1 as compared with the youth of to-day4 ,in the first place1 a very moderate income would keep a household in comfort1 and remove all the grinding care which1 in this our modern life with its myriad exigencies1 torments so many respectable families4 ,in the next place1 the demon of competition had not invaded these states1 nor was it possible to do as ,i and many others have done1 to be a slave for some years in order to obtain a competence by passing first in a single examination4 ,in the third place1 there was no object in travelling long distances4 ,what was worth seeing1 lay within easy reach4 ,in modern life there is only ,holland1 and perhaps ,northern ,italy1 which offers the same delights within short distances4 ,the huge amount of time spent by ,americans in travelling is perhaps one of the most serious obstacles to their intellectual advancement4 ,if ,north ,america were compressed into one tenth its size1 its inhabitants might gain some leisure for better education4 ,the obvious thing that will strike any intelligent ,american1 who has only heard of ,plato1 and wants to make his acquaintance through ,jowett's noble translation1 is the amount of time these ,dialogues waste in arriving at a conclusion4 ,nay often they represent a very long conversation which comes to no conclusion at all4 ,yet that feature is essential to all higher training of the human mind4 ,you may appear to the vulgar to be wasting time1 and yet it is not wasting time1 but doing the best you can for a great object4 ,the earth moving in its orbit need not delay its regular course because it revolves upon its axis1 and causes its whole surface to enjoy the blessed light of the sun4 ,and the next thing you will find in ,plato's ,dialogues 7the best exponent of higher education ,i know7 is that the objects in view are not those of sense1 or of the material needs of life1 or of obtaining success in the world4 ,they all1 like ,saint ,paul's reasonings with ,felix1 have to do with righteousness and temperance1 and judgment to come4 ,but even this field1 that of ethical inquiry1 is not the highest to which ,greek education attained4 ,for their early teachers taught them to think about the universe and its constitution1 the nature of mind1 the nature of matter1 and other high questions of abstract metaphysic4 ,a notable point about this ,greek philosophy is that the priest or the enchanter has nothing to say to it4 ,the sage was a layman1 who need fear no pope1 no ban of the ,church1 in using his reason freely upon the problems even of theology4 ,there were indeed isolated cases1 where a man who denied the existence of the traditional gods1 or was supposed so to do1 was pursued by popular indignation4 ,diagoras of ,melos1 called the atheist1 was driven from the societies which thought such teaching dangerous2 ,socrates was prosecuted in like manner1 because he was suspected of spreading scepticism among the youth1 but he was executed only because he behaved in a manner highly contumacious to the established order of the ,state4 ,had he defended himself in the ordinary routine1 he would at most have been subjected to a fine4 ,these isolated cases are only mentioned lest you should imagine that they were typical4 ,greek philosophy being secular1 was therefore free4 ,the earliest thinkers1 those of the ,ionic school1 set themselves to solve by speculation the very question which now engrosses our deepest researches in physics4 ,they thought out1 or they inferred from their observations1 that 8things are not as they seem02 they found out1 what we have attained by long experiment1 that the many qualities our senses perceive are not fundamental or primary1 that as ,descartes and ,locke and ,spinoza taught1 mechanical composition and varying degrees of motion in minute particles of the same kind may produce wholly diverse impressions4 ,the most obvious and striking of these to the ordinary man is the case of colour4 ,descartes had anticipated that the pace of the rotation of particles made the differences2 we know now that it is not rotation1 but vibration of ether1 and so with variation in tones4 ,but the differences both of colours and sounds are due to the more or less rapid motion of the vibration4 ,this was what ,thales and ,anaximenes and ,anaximander felt when they said that the world consisted of one element1 that moisture1 caloric1 ether1 were the primitive stuff of which the world was composed4 ,and these famous men were not mere metaphysicians1 they showed their intellectual greatness in various ways4 ,thales actually predicted an eclipse1 to the astonishment of his contemporaries4#de ,he showed them that the lesser bear1 ending in the pole star1 was a better indication for the sailor to use than the greater4 ,he solved the problem of measuring the height of an inaccessible object by comparing its shadow with that of a small one within reach4 ,he gave valuable advices in politics4 ,so that his metaphysic was both the source and the climax of a wide mental activity4 ,so with ,anaximander4 ,he attempted the first map of the known world and made signal advances in astronomy4 ,anaximenes declared that eclipses were the concealing of one heavenly body by the interposition of another4 ,these were great feats2 but they were nothing in comparison to the bold attempts at solving the problem of the origin and nature of the world1 wherein their speculations1 often erroneous1 nevertheless left a residuum of thoughts that were the seeds of all our higher philosophy4 ,if ,thales laid it down that in all the varieties of plant and animal life there was a common element which was their real or original substance1 ,anaximander thought that caloric 7or the igneous principle7 was necessary to develop the original material4 ,his book is lost1 and his views not clear to us1 but we know that his geological observations told him that our world had once been covered with water1 from which land had emerged4 ,he was moreover the first to maintain that nothing was eternal except the primeval substance of things4 ,the cloud-capped towers1 the gorgeous palaces1 ,the solemn temples1 the great globe itself1 ,yea1 all which it inherit1 shall dissolve1 ,and1 like the baseless fabric of this vision1 ,leave not a rack behind4 ,we are such stuff ,as dreams are made on2 and our little life ,is rounded with a sleep4 ,in the largest sense1 even applying it to the gods of the ,greek ,pantheon1 did he assert this colossal doctrine4 ,anaximenes went further1 and1 assuming that the particles of ether are the most subtle in the universe1 he set up the principle of rarification and condensation of matter1 asserting that this was the one great cause of the differences in the bodies we perceive4 ,this then was the first expression of the doctrine of the ,atomists1 which has lasted to the present day4 ,it is a common piece of arrogance among experimentalists to say that these wonderful anticipations of modern science were mere gropings in the dark1 supported not by experiment1 but by what we should call superficial observations4 ,the wonder is all the greater that these men should in their theories have gone to the root of the matter1 and thought out the metaphysical possibilities of the composition of the world4 ,abstract thinking--theory--is after all the true basis of every great discovery4 ,in complete disregard of the theological cosmogony derived from the old poets1 they openly inaugurated the birth of a natural science engendered by pure and high thinking4 ,this is even more signally the case with ,heracleitus of ,ephesus4 ,but ,i can only give you some of his marvellous anticipations in a few words2 to go into any one of these systems would require a whole lecture1 not a passage in this discourse4 ,in the first place he agreed with both his predecessors1 that one subtle element was the foundation of all nature and this he sought in what the vulgar call fire1 but with him a far more subtle essence1 never still for an instant4 ,from this all the universe had been evolved by a process of cooling1 and had developed into earth1 water1 and the rest1 but in the end these would return into their original condition1 8so that the earth would be rolled up as a scroll1 and the elements dissolved with fervent heat40 ,this far-off glimpse of ,laplace's theory1 which postulates our whole planetary system starting from a revolving mass at white heat1 is less striking than another that lays down the principle that there are endless motions in things which the senses cannot perceive1 and that absolute rest is impossible in nature4 ,the world was never made2 ,it will change1 but it will not fade4 ,so let the wind range ,for even and morn1 ever will be1 thro' eternity4 ,nothing was born1 nothing will die1 ,all things will change4#df ,it is but yesterday that the newest physical philosophers have declared themselves for this doctrine1 and tell us that every particle of matter is made up of lesser particles in perpetual motion4 ,heracleitus was no less clear on the relativity of the qualities of matter1 which are good or bad according to the percipient1 and from that he drew the conclusion that apparent contradictions may coexist and that all nature consists in a perpetual conflict between opposites4 ,nature is a state of war said he1 using the term in a far deeper sense than did later men4 ,these amazing conjectures were set down in a quaint1 picturesque1 but abstruse treatise1 which even ,aristotle found difficult to grasp1 but if ever a great imagination sowed seeds in the minds of men1 which after long generations germinated into modern science1 it was that of ,heracleitus4 ,his dark enigmas1 seasoned with pessimistic utterances1 with supreme contempt of the ordinary public1 were always attractive and stimulating to keen minds4 ,the next great name in this magnificent series is ,pythagoras1 whose influence revolutionised not only the science but the politics and ethics of ,greece1 and created new ideals among men1 higher and purer than those of traditional morality4 ,but as ,i have already said something of him in a former discourse1 ,i will hurry on to his contemporaries and his successors4 ,the founder of the great school of ,elea1 an old ,greek colony of ,ionians in the ,italian bay south of ,pstum1 was ,xenophanes1 whose main feature was a bold criticism of the popular theology1 as represented by the poetry of ,homer4 ,he could easily show the moral defects of the denizens of the ,homeric ,olympus1 and hence inferring their unreality1 he pressed home the great doctrine of the unity of the universe1 whether ideal or real1 and the identification of the ,maker 7if there ever was a ,maker7 with his work--a theory which has existed from that day to this under the name of ,pantheism1 and as such has fascinated the higher spirits even among the cold and practical ,anglo-,saxons4 ,this feeling of unity in all the world with the ,eternal ,cause of the world has indeed appeared in the far ,east in other and strange systems of philosophy2 but never was the doctrine discussed with such variety as among the ,greeks4 ,lofty poetry1 hard logic1 bitter controversy were all called in to support it1 and among a clear-sighted1 sceptical race1 like the ,greeks1 so vague and transcendent a theory is far more striking and therefore more fruitful in its spiritual consequences1 than when professed by mere ascetics or anchorites who have no contact with common life1 and who will not condescend to argument4 ,the ,greek ,pantheists of the early period were men of high character in public life1 respected for their practical wisdom and their literary eminence1 and it was they that forced upon the world the astounding theory that not only are all the data of our senses illusory and vain1 but that even the assumption of any number of original elements or substances is idle1 and must terminate in the great ,one1 which embraces them all1 and merges gods and men1 matter and mind1 into that all-embracing ,single ,being1 of whom a forgotten mystic in a later age 7but still a ,greek7 has used this tremendous metaphor3 the 8gods are his laughter1 the race of mortal men his tears40 ,the positive side of the doctrine was mainly due to ,parmenides1 of whom ,plato speaks with greater respect than of any other thinker except ,socrates1 and it was clearly a further development1 or urging to their extreme consequences1 of the older theories which reduced all the various qualities of the world of sense to the manifestations of a single substance4 ,but they had each made some one reservation and upheld one of the data of the senses1 but each a different one4 ,was not therefore the inference clear that this was but a half-way house1 and that what we call mind and matter are after all not radically distinct but only separate aspects of the primeval one8 ,if you think this old-world and idle speculation1 ,i need only refer you to ,descartes1 the father of modern scientific metaphysic1 who held that his two universal factors1 extension and thought1 were after all but qualities of the one all-embracing substance which he called ,god2 or ,i may refer to ,spinoza1 the spiritual pupil of ,descartes1 and the most important ,pantheist of the seventeenth1 or perhaps of any1 century4 ,the positive arguments in favour of this subtle speculation1 which to the vulgar public of any age must always remain absurd1 were in the first place the untrustworthy character of our senses1 which could be shown not only to be misleading but to give contradictory reports concerning the same thing2 next the general consent of all thinkers that there must be something permanent and indestructible in the midst of all the changes of phenomena2 then the inability of any perceived substance1 such as water1 or air1 however subtle1 to satisfy this condition of permanence1 and to take a position superior to the attacks of rival theories4 ,you must therefore abstract more and more from all qualities till you reach that pure ,being1 which is all and none1 spirit and body1 unity and infinity1 eternal1 indestructible1 invariable1 the source and substance of all that ever did or ever will exist4 ,you can well imagine how these splendid dreams were regarded by the clever and practical ,greek public1 as indeed they have been by average men from that day to this1 whenever the great theory has been stated afresh by metaphysicians or by mystics4 ,it was the special merit of the ,eleatic ,zeno 7not the great ,stoic who lived far later7 to show the carping critic that the difficulties which had led the philosopher to discard the senses as guides to truth1 can be raised in the case of the common facts of our everyday life1 and that the scoffer cannot solve them4 ,i lay stress on these intellectual puzzles1 because they have occupied philosophers perpetually down to the present day1 and in no particular case can we affirm more decidedly that the ,greeks were the fathers of modern thinking4 ,and do not for a moment imagine that because these subtleties lead to no immediate result1 they are therefore barren4 ,you might as well say that physical games and exercises are of no use1 because they merely result in strengthening and improving the human frame and the human temper1 apart from any further result4 ,now what were ,zeno's puzzles8 ,i will mention but the most obvious4 ,is it conceivable that sound should be made up of non-sounding things8 ,and yet this absurdity is demonstrable4 ,drop a single millet seed from your hand upon the grass4 ,it will not make the smallest noise4 ,go on with a second1 a third1 and so on1 till you reach thousands2 it is so with them all4 ,yet if you turn out a cartful of such seeds1 it will make a considerable noise4 ,how is it possible1 if each individual grain is silent8 ,again1 you imagine that if two bodies are moving in the same direction1 one slower1 the other faster1 the latter will soon overtake the former4 ,it is not so1 and can be proved impossible4 ,conceive the swift-footed ,achilles trying to overtake a tortoise1 and that he runs one hundred yards1 while the other is crawling but ten4 ,when he has completed his one hundred1 the tortoise is still one ahead1 when he has added this one1 the tortoise is still #a_/aj ahead1 then #a_/ajj1 then #a_/ajjj1 and so on ad infinitum1 for it is mathematically certain that neither series can ever reach the limit1 in the one case of ,,iii1 in the other of ,,ii yards4 ,therefore it is demonstrated that ,achilles can never in all time overtake the tortoise4 ,but we may go even farther and say that the very idea of motion is inconceivable4 ,every moving body must move in time1 and time is divided into moments of time4 ,at each moment the moving body must either be in the place where it is1 or the place where it is not4 ,the latter being manifestly absurd1 the body must be in the place where it is4 ,but then of course it is not moving1 for motion can only be defined as a change of place4 ,continuous motion is therefore inconceivable4 ,i need not do more than mention to you1 that these very problems1 handed down by ,zeno to the schools1 formed the subject of interminable disputes for centuries1 and if you even now1 with all your boasted progress1 take them in hand1 you will not easily find a logical solution4 ,happily we are no longer in the condition of those medival pedants1 of whom we hear that not a few went mad1 or died of brain fever1 because they could not reconcile the foreknowledge and foreordaining of things by ,god with the absolute free will of men4 ,nor are any of you1 ,i sincerely trust1 encumbered with the extraordinary fairness of mind of the medival ass of ,buridanus which being set between two bundles of hay exactly and precisely alike1 died of starvation because it could see no possible reason for preferring to eat the one before the other4 ,nevertheless1 ,i trust you will appreciate that the mental subtlety we inherit from the ,greeks is no small part of our education4 ,but it is not merely in the hard logic of controversy that the ,greek ,pantheists have left a great legacy to mankind4 ,if ,i mistake not1 the higher poetry of these latter days is deeply indebted to that grandiose theory1 that all nature is but one1 that all things whether mute or speaking1 whether still or moving1 whether fair or hideous1 are all the manifestations of the one great ,all1 the ineffable substance which some call a world-soul1 some the universe1 some ,god1 the supreme ,one1 without variableness or shadow of turning1 though only apprehended by man in myriad variations4 ,you can find that view of things in ,shelley1 in ,wordsworth1 in ,tennyson1 and it is not too much to say that at their highest moments1 and in their noblest verse1 they are all inspired with this ,divine intoxication4 ,it is common to call it ,platonism1 and my old friend ,mr4 ,shorthouse even wrote an essay to show that the respectable and orderly ,wordsworth could hardly be called a ,christian1 so saturated was he with this ,pantheistic feeling4 ,his visions of the pre-existence of the human soul--these were indeed ,platonic2 his ,pantheistic passages come from the influence which ,plato acknowledges1 but which he does not allow to subjugate him4 ,wordsworth is the most uneven and often prosaic of poets1 but in his greatest moments he too feels that intercommunion of all nature which is unmistakably ,greek and not ,english-- ,a sense sublime ,of something far more deeply interfused1 ,whose dwelling is the light of setting suns1 ,and the round ocean and the living air ,and the blue sky1 and in the mind of man1-- ,a motion and a spirit1 that impels ,all thinking things1 all objects of all thoughts1 ,and rolls through all things4 ,time fails me to go into the fascinating subject of the ,pantheism of ,tennyson1 and of other of our poets4 ,it is indeed only spasmodic1 but it is there1 and is a strange note in the singing of an otherwise tame and prosaic race4 ,let us now return to the great procession of the sages of ,hellas4 ,it does not seem necessary to delay long upon ,anaxagoras and ,empedocles1 though both were very great figures in their day4 ,the principle feature in both their systems was that they felt the want of some ideal1 or semi-ideal principle to work as a cause in producing the changes in nature4 ,anaxagoras postulated the original particles to be very diverse in quality and to enter into the composition of ordinary things so as to make up what we call their various qualities4 ,the food we eat1 for example1 affects all the various parts of human bodies1 however different1 such as the tissue of the flesh1 the hair1 the nails1 the viscera1 because there is in this food1 which is made up from corn or other vegetable and animal substances1 an assortment of particles each of which contributes to nourish the member or part akin to it4 ,if we ask how external bodies are brought together1 and made up into unities1 ,anaxagoras felt so keenly the necessity of a moving cause that he set up his famous ,nous1 which we cannot translate by the word mind1 for it was still a material cause1 though far more subtle and active than the rest1 such as we now imagine ether to be4 ,but even so1 ,aristotle speaks of ,anaxagoras as a great and fruitful innovator1 inasmuch as he saw that brute matter cannot begin to act or even to move without some non-material or spiritual1 or ideal cause4 ,from what we know of ,anaxagoras1 he advanced but a little step in this direction himself2 he was only groping his way1 but to have been pioneer to ,plato and to ,aristotle is itself no mean praise4 ,in a similar direction1 the famous ,empedocles postulated the principles of ,love and ,hate1 much as we now postulate ,attraction and ,repulsion1 to explain the varieties1 and the movements1 in external nature4 ,observe that not one of these ,ionic philosophers had yet asserted the great contrast of mind and matter1 the still greater contrast of a ,divine architect and his work4 ,the phenomena of mind seemed to them but to be the result of a subtle and more impalpable combination of elements not differing in kind from the nature of material substances4 ,so when a wholly different school came to review what the ancients had accomplished1 the ,nous of ,anaxagoras1 and the ,love and ,hate of ,empedocles1 were hardly felt to be steps in advance4 ,in fact for a while the development seemed to be the other way1 for the last great theory we have to notice1 before we come to the ideal philosophy of ,plato and his followers1 is more decidedly materialistic than all its predecessors4 ,that is the famous ,atomic theory of ,leucippus and ,democritus1 which maintained that the universe contains no elements but atoms and the void1 the atoms being hard physical particles of only one quality but capable of myriad mechanical combinations in and by means of the void1 or empty space which existed more or less in every body4 ,as a hypothesis1 this is the simplest that has ever been offered to explain the constitution of matter2 it has consequently lasted all through the ,renascence of learning into the newer age and has formed the very basis of the modern science of chemistry4 ,the original atoms were not conceived as mathematical points1 or as having any spiritual quality like the monads of ,leibnitz2 they were merely very small1 impenetrable1 and differing in figure4 ,it was the density of their combination and hence the small fraction of void spaces in any body which made the difference of specific gravity1 and the difference of their shape produced other qualities4 ,but how did these atoms come together8 ,here ,democritus showed a prophetic clearness of sight which may well astonish modern critics4 ,he regarded motion in these atoms as a primal fact1 probably deriving it from the theory of ,heracleitus4 ,he held that as these atoms collided in the void1 not always directly1 but obliquely1 the striking and the struck assumed a rotatory motion1 and so established vortices which either attracted suitable atoms or rejected others by the centrifugal force of this rotation4 ,thus were constructed not only the great spheres that we observe in the sky1 but all the ordinary objects around us4 ,into his explanations of the causes of the irregular forms of these objects ,i cannot enter1 by reason of their intricacy4 ,but to what consequences his theory led him may be told you in a sentence4 ,he maintained1 with the imagination of a great scientific mind1 that there were an endless number of world-systems through space1 differing merely in magnitude1 some furnished with several moons1 some in process of becoming1 others1 owing to collisions1 in process of destruction1 some of them wholly deficient in moisture1 and hence devoid of animal and plant life4 ,these are all consequences which we have drawn from the use of the telescope and even the spectroscope1 but which this wonderful man reached by way of philosophical thinking4 ,aristotle makes it his chief objection to the ,atomic theory that it is purely descriptive of phenomena without assigning any cause for the primeval motion of the atoms2 that it recognises no ,architect1 no ,demiurge who set the myriad crowd of particles into motion1 and then into regulated action4 ,but ,aristotle was misled by an assumption which has infected philosophy down to the present day--the assumption that a state of rest is prior to1 and more natural to matter than a state of motion4 ,this prejudice did not mislead ,democritus1 though it is an idol not only of the cave1 as ,bacon would say1 but also of the forum4 ,we have been misled and deceived by relative want of motion1 to consider that until disturbed by an active impulse matter occupies a fixed place4 ,but now1 ,i would almost say since the twentieth century dawned1 this old fallacy is giving way to the newer conception that there is no such thing as rest in nature1 nay not even within the particles of any solid body4 ,so then the primal assumption of the ,greek thinker that motion is the natural state of matter was a wonderful anticipation of science1 and shows once more what giant strides the human race may make by thinking as compared with the mere recording of experiments4 ,even now1 when students of experimental physics are degenerating into mere mechanics1 who seek to interrogate nature by the use of delicate machinery1 and carefully recorded occurrences1 ,i am assured by those in our great ,university who have been compelled in earlier life to acquire a sound knowledge of ,greek philosophy1 that the study of the old ,hylozoists--the ,ionic schools we have reviewed--is the very best introduction to the higher task of framing theories from experiments1 and when ,i have heard read in the schools essays written in ignorance of these theories1 ,i have often wondered at the absence of scientific logic of consistent thinking1 of clear imagining which characterises the modern scientist4 ,and when we are faced in our universities by the gigantic demands of modern scientists for laboratories1 machinery1 upkeep1 and what not1 by way of promoting what they call very ridiculously original research1 they should be told openly and constantly that no mere mechanic1 no mere tradesman1 however splendidly equipped1 will ever be worth one straw in original research4 ,such a high calling1 if it is not to be mere name1 a mere imposture1 requires as its first implement a trained intellect1 taught to speculate1 and to devise theories which may or may not be verified or illustrated by mechanical tools4 ,the greatest discoverers in modern science were men with bad tools1 and small equipment4 ,the old ,greeks had none at all1 and yet how many of the world's mysteries did they approach and solve1 merely by the force of pure and sound speculation6 ,when we hear little modern men of science wondering how the ,greeks could have got so far without modern instruments1 we feel rather inclined to tell them we wonder the moderns have done so much with the help of these1 for in abstract thinking lies the real basis of every great discovery4 ,so far1 the course of ,greek philosophy has led us to the side of science1 to the constitution of the world1 to the immensity of space1 to the physical construction of animal and vegetable life1 to the problem of the duration of the universe1 to the dreams about its origin4 ,regarding all this as natural philosophy 7to use an obsolete but convenient expression71 there remains another orb of ,greek speculation which took rise with ,socrates1 passed on through ,plato and ,aristotle to the ,stoic and ,epicurean schools1 and even illumined with its setting rays the old world passing into the night of the ,dark ,ages4 ,two things1 says the philosopher ,kant1 impress me always with their peerless majesty--the starry heaven above1 and the ,moral ,law within4 ,it is this latter aspect of human philosophy1 bound up as it is on the one side with profound metaphysic1 on the other with ordinary practical life1 that ,i must now speak4 ,but here1 where the material is large1 and our evidence very complete1 it is not expedient that ,i should detain you at any length4 ,it may be new to some of you that ,parmenides or ,leucippus have been the fathers of modern systems2 but none of you will doubt for a moment the colossal influence of ,plato and ,aristotle upon modern thought4 ,you must beware of exaggerating the revolution in philosophy produced by ,socrates and the ,sophists4 ,it may indeed be true in their case that they despised scientific speculation1 and did not care to make researches into the constitution of the universe4 ,gorgias even erected into a theory his scepticism regarding the reality of our knowledge1 and wrote a famous tract on the impossibility of knowing anything2 and he was by no means the only nihilist in the course of ,greek philosophy4 ,but when we come to ,plato1 we find high physical speculation1 we find high theories of the universe1 we find all the learning of his predecessors woven into his system1 or utilised by way of illustration4 ,the ideas of the ,pythagoreans in particular1 influenced him constantly1 and his advocacy of a training in geometry1 which may1 more than people think1 have shaped the curriculum of modern public schools in ,europe1 is ,pythagorean in spirit4 ,but in spite of this strong recommendation1 it does not appear that ,plato himself made any advances in that science4 ,his aim was for the moral reform of the individual1 and with him of society1 by metaphysical and ethical training4 ,he had a higher opinion of the value of education than even the modern democrat1 or ,english ,radical1 who imagines that by infusing knowledge into the masses1 you can make them equal to the classes in refinement and in the amenities of life4 ,but ,plato's education was intended strictly for the ruling minority2 he did not think the artisan or the labourer fit for this high privilege1 and in all his ideal schemes1 he set up either the exceptional man as a monarch 7in the ,politicus71 a small oligarchy of guardians 7in the ,republic71 or a fixed code of strict ,laws1 with severe penalties for any violation or even questioning of them--all clearly aristocratic forces1--as the safeguards of society4 ,and in spite of all these ethical safeguards1 he did not believe that any state1 even if ideally constructed1 would last for ever1 but that it must live through a youth and a maturity and ultimately reach the decrepitude of age4 ,i will not revert to the political speculations of ,plato1 which belong to another part of my subject4 ,my present concern is with his theology and his metaphysic4 ,is it any wonder that the early ,christian thinkers1 such as ,saint ,augustine1 delighted in him and called him the ,attic ,moses8 ,in his ,republic he goes so far as to propose for his ideal state the expulsion of ,homer and the other ,epic poets1 and the establishment of a loftier creed1 as necessary for pure and sound morals4 ,the true deity must be one1 and the author of all good4 ,he must be free from all disturbance of passion or caprice1 without love or jealousy1 without pride or interest4 ,any defects there may be in the world are due1 not to his want of benevolence1 but to his want of omnipotence in controlling the necessities of things1 or perhaps rather because no being1 omnipotent or not1 can possibly be conceived as reconciling absolute contradictories4 ,it may1 for example1 be better and nobler for the creation that beings should exist which have a free will of their own and which are not like machines controlled by invincible necessity4 ,but if they have indeed free will1 how is it possible they should not go wrong1 and cause evil in the world as the outcome of their liberty8 ,yet if this be the cause of evil in the world1 it implies a higher and better state than one of perfect order1 with the ideas of virtue and merit expunged from existence4 ,plato goes further than any but the highest ,christian theologians when he declares the ,moral ,law to be eternal and immutable1 and to be binding even on the ,author of the universe4 ,in other words1 the great medival controversy1--whether ,god does a thing because it is right1 or whether a thing must be right because ,god does it1--this controversy is solved in the sense of what the ,cambridge ,platonists have called ,immutable ,morality4 ,if such be the obligation under which even the ,deity acts1 it is an obvious corollary that nothing in the conduct of men is comparable to justice1 nothing in dignity equal to the obeying of the ,moral ,law1 without any regard of consequences4 ,nay more1 to be punished for wrong-doing is far happier and better than to escape the consequences1 and so to miss the great lesson that crime brings with it misery as a just consequence4 ,accordingly1 a clear knowledge of moral principles is of the first moment to all men1 and in ,plato's day it was often a more difficult problem to choose the right course1 than to follow it when discovered4 ,this is the meaning of those many researches into the proper connotation of terms expressing moral ideas4 ,what is justice1 what is temperance1 what is chastity1 what is holiness8 ,on all these1 there was little difficulty in showing by discussion that the popular notions were vague1 and often self-contradictory4 ,the first step to a purer life was to understand its conditions1 to bring the intellect1 as well as the will1 to bear upon the conduct of men4 ,hence a man who felt no difficulty in doing his duty1 when he once saw it plainly before him1 might well say with ,socrates and with ,plato1 that virtue was knowledge1 that right living was a science1 and that therefore a high education was the necessary condition of a noble character4 ,this attitude is foreign to the morals of ,christianity1 which accepts the child and the ignorant as better fitted for salvation than the wise and prudent4 ,but such a theory1 like that of a primitive ,church where the members had all things in common1 may be very practical at the opening of a revolution1 yet may afterwards be found impracticable4 ,it was not merely owing to its supposed corruption and decadence that the ,medival ,church came to ignore that poverty and equality of all ,christians which we find at ,jerusalem in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,there is an aristocracy among men which no system of religion1 of morals1 of politics can ignore without disastrous consequences1 and that is the aristocracy of intellect4 ,this was the lesson which ,plato taught in every page1 and this it was which made him speculate upon the nature of the soul1 and its relation to the ,author of the universe1 and to the knowledge of things higher and deeper than mere ordinary experience4 ,it was only gradually that he arrived at his conviction of the immortality1 or rather of the eternity of the soul2 probably it was suggested to him by the mystics and theologians among the ,greeks4 ,but in his dialogue known as the ,phdo1 he has discussed this now accepted belief with all its difficulties4 ,in the person of ,socrates1 he has courted all the objections1 and has endeavoured to show on metaphysical principles that the soul1 being a perfectly simple active principle1 distinct from1 and superior to1 the body1 will not pass away with the death of its tabernacle but will exist hereafter1 as it has existed1 from eternity to eternity4 ,the late ,erwin ,rohde1 a critic not at all favourable to revealed religion1 says1 ,i think with great truth1 that 8no human teacher has ever done so much as ,plato to extend this belief10 which has produced not only the noblest spiritual life1 but also the noblest poetry4 ,you know it in your ,english poets1 best of all perhaps in the sober ,wordsworth-- ,our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting2 ,the ,soul that rises with us1 our life's ,star1 ,hath had elsewhere its setting1 ,and cometh from afar4 ,and again3 ,hence in a season of calm weather ,though inland far we be1 ,our ,souls have sight of that immortal sea ,which brought us hither1 ,can in a moment travel thither1 ,and hear the children sporting on the shore1 ,and hear the mighty waves1 rolling for evermore4 ,need ,i pass on to ,aristotle1 and show in detail how his philosophy so dominated medival learning that it was adopted and protected by the ,church1 and that it became one of the efforts of the spirit of reform in logic and in psychology to break the shackles which this great thinker had1 as the modern spirits often complained1 forged to keep the human intellect from its advance8 ,need ,i tell you that this was owing to a travesty of the great man1 learned not from his own pregnant words but through translations and commentaries8 ,i will conclude with a reference to the two great systems that dominated the ,roman world after ,plato and ,aristotle had turned philosophy into an ethical channel--,i mean those of the ,stoics and of the ,epicureans1 who mapped out human character with a clearness that makes them our teachers to the present day4 ,not that they avoided speculating on the nature of the universe4 ,the physics of ,epicurus1 borrowed from ,democritus1 are among the most difficult of studies1 and the ,stoics embraced in their view as the motive of action of their wise man all the harmony of the universe4 ,these speculations may now be antiquated1 but as the teachers of ethical types1 as the expounders of what the highest human wisdom finds in its search for happiness1 these two schools have fixed the types of civilised men for all time4 ,every man in this audience is born either a ,stoic or an ,epicurean1 or what is perhaps far more common1 alternates from one to the other according to circumstances4 ,in its simplest form the great question is3 ,are we to live for duty1 or live for pleasure--not of course mere vulgar pleasure of the senses1 but that refined balance of intellectual and moral pleasure which you will find best explained in my old friend ,walter ,pater's ,marius the ,epicurean2 or else are we to seek for our standard outside ourselves1 in the laws which the ,moral ,governor of the world has established for its welfare1 and co-operate with ,him in the promotion of ,his great ends8 ,such is the ideal wise man of the ,stoics1 who despised all earthly delights1 all physical pleasures1 for the sake of the great law of duty1 and the great mission of living for some nobler purpose than mere animal or social comforts4 ,we have its best expression in the peroration of ,cicero's account of the system#dg2 or if you will have it in a more familiar shape1 in the loud clarion of ,saint ,paul3 8,as deceivers1 and yet true2 as unknown1 and yet well known2 as dying1 and behold1 we live2 as sorrowful1 yet alway rejoicing2 as poor1 yet making many rich2 as having nothing1 yet possessing all things40#dh ,for he too was bred a ,stoic1 and was not afraid in his addresses to cultivated men of his day to preach ,stoic theology1 akin to ,pantheism4 ,if the time should ever come when men will no longer be led by revelation1 when they will reject miracle and prophecy1 and determine to be led by the mere light of reason 7men have often anticipated such a future1 regardless of the fact that hitherto religious scepticism has always ended in a recoil from this liberty1 and a revival of positive and even superstitious creeds7--if1 ,i say1 such an age should ever lay aside the ,christian faith1 there will still remain the ethical types which ,zeno and ,epicurus have crystallised in their systems--there will always remain the man of duty and the man of pleasure1 the man who lives for others and he who lives for himself1 in terms of modern philosophic jargon1 the ,altruist and the ,egoist1 the ,spiritualist and the ,materialist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and here ,i break off my unfinished task1 unfinished indeed as it must be1 for beyond the many things that ,i have omitted though ,i knew them1 there are many more omitted because ,i knew them not1 because ,i have not fathomed the unfathomable depth and the myriad variety of that genius which is living1 and suggesting1 and working all through the ideal aspects of our modern life4 ,there are probably few men who have lived longer and more intimately with the old ,greeks1 in more phases of their life1 ever probing and seeking for deeper and better knowledge of their vast legacy to mankind1 of which the rodent tooth of time1 the sacrilegious hands of men1 have lost or destroyed so much4 ,the farther ,i seek1 the wider the vistas ,i see opening before me4 ,so now1 when my part in the race is nearly run1 there remains to me no higher earthly satisfaction than this1 that ,i have carried the torch of ,greek fire alight through a long life--no higher earthly hope than this1 that ,i may pass that torch to others1 who in their turn may keep it aflame with greater brilliancy perhaps1 but not with more earnest devotion1 8in the ,parliament of men1 the ,federation of the world40 ,,index ,a ,achan ,league1 organisation and dissolution1 #bjc1 #bjd ,acontius and ,cydippe1 love story of a modern type1 #id ,actium1 battle1 #ga neid of ,virgil1 see ,virgil olic school1 characteristic1 #ec schylus1 source of his tragedy1 #cf1 #cg2 one of the 8three tragic poets10 #dg2 ,milton's view of1 #dg2 characters of his plays1 #dh2 judge of tragedy1 #gc2 music of1 #acf ,agamemnon3 great play1 #bg2 opening of1 #dh2 8vulgar and trivial persons10 #dh2 contributes to ,byron1 #ee2 ,browning's version1 #eg2 often translated into ,english1 #eh ,prometheus ,vinctus3 model for ,paradise ,lost1 #dg sculapius1 shrine of1 #agf ,agamemnon1 see schylus ,agatharchus1 discovers principles of perspective1 #acj ,alcus1 poet1 #cg ,alexander1 ,life of1 #ig ,alexandria1 library1 collecting of1 gives impetus to literary criticism1 #ia ,alexandrian school1 development of mechanics1 #afb2 invention of the sakia1 #afe ,alkestis1 see ,euripides ,alma-,tadema1 ,sir ,edward1 influenced by ,greek art1 #aca1 #acb ,amyot1 imitated ,greek novel1 #if ,anatomy1 how studied by ,greeks1 #adh ,anaxagoras1 principal feature of his system1 #bbi2 on original particles1 #bbi2 ,aristotle on1 #bbi2 his famous ,nous1 #bcj1 #bca ,anaximander1 makes advances in astronomy1 #baf1 #bag2 geological observations of1 #bah ,anaximenes1 idea of the fundamental element of the world1 #baf1 #bag2 theory of eclipses1 #bag ,antiphon1 treatises of1 #hb ,antony and ,cleopatra1 see ,shakespeare ,aphrodite of ,melos1 mentioned1 #aah ,apollonius of ,perga1 treatment of conic sections1 #afa1 #afg ,apollonius ,rhodius1 delights in nature1 #ei ,argonautics3 great epic1 #da2 model for ,milton1 #dc2 and ,goethe's ,faust1 #dd ,arabic numerals1 #aeg ,archilochus1 poet1 #cg ,archimedes1 triumphs of1 in mechanics1 #afb1 #afg ,architecture1 earliest form of house1 #ii2 houses of the dead1 #ajj-ajb1 #aaj1 #aaa2 square house1 #ajb2 evolution of classical1 #ajc2 building materials1 #ajc2 ,doric1 #ajd2 temples1 #aje1 #aaj2 distinction between house and temple1 #ajf1 #ajg2 perfection of religious1 #ajf1 #ajg2 arch not used by ,greeks1 #ajg1 #ajh2 ,greek and ,roman1 compared1 #ajh2 purpose in parts of a building1 #aji2 origin of arch1 #aji2 ,roman use of arch1 #aaj2 ornamentation of1 by sculpture1 #abj ,archytas1 #afg ,areopagitica1 see ,milton ,argonautics1 see ,apollonius ,rhodius ,argos1 slaves in1 #ahh ,aristides1 studied oratory1 #gj ,aristocracies1 in classical and medival times1 #ahd ,aristophanes1 as critic1 #ib2 ridicules ,asklepiads1 #agf ,aristophanes1 diction and metre1 #cg2 greatest master of ,greek comedy1 #fj1 #fa2 ,frere's translation1 #fa1 #fd2 ,rogers's translation1 #fa2 influence and legacy1 #fa ,birds and ,frogs3 #bg ,aristotle1 almost canonised1 #ai2 criticism of ,iphigenia in ,aulis1 #fb1 #gb2 criticism of ,medea1 #fb2 distinction between prose and poetry1 #fb1 #fc2 on ,herodotus1 #fb1 #fc1 #gc2 on dramatic poetry and history1 #gb1 #gd2 and ,herodotus1 on style and subject of history1 #gd2 treatise on ,language1 #adi2 treatise on ,reasoning1 #aej2 arithmetical proof of theorem in geometry1 #aef2 on geometry1 #aei2 8master of those that knew10 #afg2 brought up in ,socratic method1 #afg2 style of writing1 #afg1 #afh2 system of collaboration1 #afh1 #aga2 collaborators1 #afi2 does no original work in mathematics1 #afi2 competence in mathematics1 #agj2 sciences promoted by1 #aga2 views on slavery1 #ahi2 views on craftsmen1 #ahi2 essential in his ideal of a state1 #bjf2 objection to atomic theory1 #bcc2 influence on modern thought1 #bcg2 his philosophy and the ,church1 #bdb ,constitution of ,athens3 #afi ,poetic3 on tragic poetry1 #fa2 on dramatic poetry and history1 #gb ,aristoxenus1 collaborator with ,aristotle1 #afi ,arithmetic1 starting-point of mathematics1 #aec2 importance of1 to ,pythagoras1 #aec2 numbers the essence of the universe1 #aec1 #aed2 ,greek meaning of1 #aed2 ,pythagorean speculations on natural series of units1 #aee2 specimens of treatment by ,pythagoras1 #aef2 importance of numbers ten and twelve1 #aef2 ,greek notation1 #aeg2 ,euclid's works on1 #afa2 books on history of1 #agj ,arnold1 ,matthew1 compares ,milton's style with ,virgil's1 #df2 writes plays after ,greek models1 #eh ,merope3 #eh ,art1 earliest ,greek1 #ab2 proper province of1 #cc1 #cd2 use of the term1 #ih ,artificiality of ,greek poetry1 defined1 #cc1 #cd ,asklepiads1 method of1 #agf ,assemblies1 in ,greek democracies1 #ahc ,astronomy1 books on history of1 #agj ,atalanta1 see ,swinburne ,athens1 debts in1 #ahf2 leadership1 #bja2 degeneration of spiritual life in1 #baj ,atomic theory1 developed by ,leucippus and ,democritus1 #bca1 #bcb2 results of1 #bcc2 ,aristotle's objections to1 #bcc ,atomists1 doctrine of1 #bah1 #bai ,atreus1 tomb of1 #ajb1 #aaa ,attic citizens1 character1 #bjh ,attic ,code of laws1 #aij1 #bfa ,attic life1 portrayed by ,menander1 #bjh1 #bji ,b ,bacchylides1 comparison of ,gray with1 #ed ,beehive huts1 earliest form of house1 #ii2 extant examples1 #ii1 #ajj2 not easily defended1 #ii2 once a general type1 #ajj2 houses of the dead1 #ajj-ajb2 ,treasury of ,athens1 #aja2 development of1 #ajb ,biography1 ,plutarch1 model1 #hj ,birds and ,frogs1 of ,aristophanes1 #bg ,blow's anthem1 8,i beheld and lo6 a great multitude10 #abf ,boccaccio1 and ,greek novels1 #ie ,botany1 promoted by ,aristotle1 #aga ,botticelli1 ,greek influence on1 #aca ,brougham1 ,lord1 on ,demosthenes1 #hd ,browning1 ,robert1 his version of ,agamemnon1 #eg2 version of ,euripides1 #eg1 #eh1 #fd ,brydges1 ,sir ,egerton1 on choruses in ,samson ,agonistes1 #ej ,buckle's ,civilisation1 famous opening1 #e ,burke1 ,edmund1 style influenced by ,isocrates1 #ij2 translation of the ,tract on the ,sublime1 #ib ,burlington ,art ,club of ,london1 collection of ,greek fragments1 #ba ,byron1 ,lord1 leader of ,romantic school1 #ee2 knowledge of ,greek poetry1 #ee2 borrows from schylus1 #ee2 interested in ,greek life and ,greece1 #ef2 interests ,romanticists in ,greece1 #ef ,byzantine architecture1 #ah ,c ,calverley's ,theocritus1 #fd ,cambridge ,platonists1 #bdj ,carrey1 ,jacques1 drawings of ,parthenon1 #eb ,cathedral of ,henry the ,lion at ,brunswick1 #aai ,chalmers1 ,thomas1 ,scotch orator1 style1 #ij ,chapman1 translation of the ,iliad1 #de1 #ea ,charioteer of ,delphi1 #aag ,choral hymns1 ,doric1 #da ,cicero on ,pindar1 #ej2 on history1 #hj2 style modelled on that of ,isocrates1 #hh1 #ij ,de ,finibus3 #bde ,city states1 in ,greece1 #ahc2 combinations and alliances1 #bjj ,colours1 use1 #aah ,comedy1 ,greek1 influence1 #fj1 #fa ,composition in sculpture1 #abj1 #abb ,comus1 see ,milton ,constantinople1 adheres to ,hellenic traditions1 #ahb ,constitution of ,athens1 #afi ,contracts1 civil1 #aid ,conversation1 perfection of ,greek style1 #ij1 #ia2 ,plato's ,dialogues1 #ia ,corcyrean massacre1 ,thucydides on1 #gg ,cornford1 ,mr41 ,thucydides ,mythistoricus1 referred to1 #gg ,criticism1 literary1 beginnings1 #ia2 models of1 #ib2 ,tract on the ,sublime1 #ib ,cyclic poets1 #db ,cyrus1 of ,xenophon1 #id ,d ,dante1 gloomy splendour1 #ai ,inferno3 #bg ,daphnis and ,chloe1 author unknown1 #if2 best specimen of ,greek novel1 #if ,dark ,ages1 conditions in1 #aha2 causes of retrogression1 #bhb ,darwin1 ,charles1 on sense of colour1 #abh ,death penalty1 #aib ,debts1 reduction of by ,solon1 #ahf ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 see ,gibbon ,decoration1 painting a branch of1 #acb1 #acc2 household1 #ade1 #adf ,de ,corona1 see ,demosthenes ,de ,finibus of ,cicero1 #bde ,de ,jure ,pacis et ,belli1 by ,hugo ,grotius1 #aih ,delos1 discoveries at1 #ade ,delphi1 treasury of ,siphnos1 #abb2 hymn discovered at1 #acd ,democritus1 development of ,atomic theory1 #bca1 #bcb2 consequences to which his theory led him1 #bcc ,demosthenes1 combined orator and politician1 #gj2 character of orations1 #hc1 #hd ,de ,corona3 greatest ,greek oration1 #hc2 style1 #hd ,derby1 ,lord1 translator1 #eg ,descartes1 teachings of1 #baf1 #bbd2 on colour1 #baf2 on extension and thought1 #bbd ,diagoras of ,melos1 atheist1 #bae ,dialects1 ,homeric1 #cc1 #dj1 #da2 main cause of their use1 #dj ,dialogues of ,plato1 see ,plato ,diatonic scale1 basis of ,greek music as well as of modern1 #ace1 #adb-add ,didot1 ,epistolographi ,graeci1 #ib ,dikarchus1 collaborator with ,aristotle1 #afi ,dion ,chrysostom1 rhetor and sophist1 #ic ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 essays of1 #ib ,dionysius of ,syracuse1 tyrant1 #bje ,diophantus1 work in arithmetic and algebra1 #afa1 #afb1 #afg ,donatello's problem1 #aac ,dorians1 literary prose had its origin among them1 #fg1 #fh ,doric choral hymns1 #da ,doric pillar1 #ajd ,doric temple1 #ajd ,drpfeld1 ,dr41 ,greek critic1 #bg2 discoveries at ,tiryns1 #aje ,drama1 ,greek1 beginnings1 #cf2 influence1 #df ff1 #eg1 #eh ,dryden1 ,john1 translation of ,virgil1 #ec2 model for ,gray1 #ed ,ode to ,st4 ,cecilia3 shows ,greek influence1 #ee ,e ,eclogues of ,virgil1 #bd ,education1 ,greek3 ethical inquiry1 #bae2 subjects of thought1 #bae2 relation of music to1 #acf1 #acg1 #add2 relation of mathematics and science to philosophy1 #agi2 higher3 and ,greek studies1 #bj2 relation of mathematics and philosophy1 #agi2 essential element1 #bad2 best exponent1 #bae2 relation to character1 #bda ,egypt1 greatness1 #e2 influence on ,greece1 #aa ,egyptian art1 influence on ,greek art1 #ade ,elea1 school of1 founder1 #bba ,eleusinian ,mysteries1 #aae ,empedocles1 wrote in verse1 #ci2 principal feature of his system1 #bbi2 postulated principles of ,love and ,hate1 #bcj1 #bca ,entretiens sur l'architecture1 see ,viollet-le-,duc ,epic poetry1 ,greek1 #da2 modern1 #db2 influence1 #db ,epicteta1 will of1 #aif ,epicureans1 on music and morals1 #ach2 and ,stoics1 #bdd ,epicurus1 system of1 #bde ,epidauros1 place of pilgrimage1 #agf ,epistolographi ,graeci1 #ib ,epoch of ,irish ,history1 see ,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p4 ,erechtheus of ,swinburne1 #eh ,etruscans1 and the arch1 #aje2 culture of1 #aaj ,euclid1 how attained perfection1 #aeh1 #aei2 on optics1 #aff2 father of geometry1 #afg2 founds ,peripatetic ,mathematics1 #agj ,elements3 summary of all principles discovered previously1 #aeh2 three kinds of data1 #aei2 careful definitions1 #aei2 misfortune of1 #afj2 thirteen books1 #afj1 #afa ,eudemus the ,rhodian1 collaborator with ,aristotle1 #afi2 his history of sciences1 #agj ,eudoxus1 astronomer1 #afg ,euripides1 ,milton's view of1 #dg2 introduces 8vulgar and trivial persons0 into his plays1 #dh2 influence on development of ,samson ,agonistes1 #di2 choruses of1 #ea2 ,browning's version of his plays1 #eg-eh1 #fd2 and ,tennyson1 #fj2 ,medea1 #fb ,alkestis3 ,browning's version of1 #eg ,iphigenia in ,aulis3 type of heroine1 #fb2 ,aristotle's criticism of1 #fb1 #gb ,mad ,herakles3 ,browning's version of1 #eg ,everyman1 represents horrors of ,middle ,ages1 #aae ,excursion1 see ,wordsworth ,f ,fall of ,miletus1 see ,phrynichus ,faust1 see ,goethe ,federation1 early example1 #bjc ,fick1 ,augustus1 on place-names1 #g ,frere's translation of ,aristophanes1 #fa1 #fd ,g ,geometry1 ,euclid's1 #aeh-afa1 #afg2 books on history of1 #agj ,georgics of ,virgil1 #bd ,germany1 reduction of many states into one empire1 #bjd ,gibbon1 ,edward1 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 conception which moved author to write1 #gi ,gladstone1 ,william ,e41 style of eloquence1 #hi ,goethe1 ,faust3 a world epic1 #bg2 borrowings from ,argonautics1 #dd ,golden ,age of ,greek ,literature1 #ia ,gray1 ,thomas1 ,greek temper1 #ed2 compared with ,simonides and ,bacchylides1 #ed2 swept away by ,romantic wave1 #ed2 prefers ,celtic and national subjects1 #ed2 ,greek style1 #ed2 grasps splendour of ,pindar1 #ed2 shows influence of ,greek poetry1 #ed1 #ee2 love of nature1 #ei ,greece1 advantageous position of1 #aa2 economic conditions in time of ,polybius1 #bjf2 modern character of civilisation1 #bjg ,greek culture1 vital essence1 #ahb2 ,latin1 compared with1 #ahb ,greek learning1 revival of1 #ag-bj ,greek scholars in ,western ,europe1 #ag1 #ah ,greek society1 conditions1 #bac1 #bad ,greek studies1 place in higher education1 #bj-bb2 and ,latin1 #bb1 #bc2 source of culture1 #bc2 comparative value of originals and translations1 #bc-bf ,greeks1 the1 explanations of pre-eminence insufficient1 #c-g2 pre-eminence unexplained1 #g-i2 originality1 #i2 genius of race analogous to genius of individual1 #i2 powers of assimilation and reproduction1 #aj-ab2 important position between two civilisations1 #aa2 effect of diverse influences1 #aa1 #ab2 receptive1 but not absorbed1 #ac1 #ad2 persistence of characteristics1 #ae2 accomplishments in world's history1 #af-ah2 influence of1 #ec2 not wanting in love for nature1 #ei2 why no means of expressing ,christian spirit1 #aac2 and ,christianity1 #aac2 race of varied experience1 #aaf2 sense of fitness in sculpture1 #aaf2 power of logic upon their minds1 #aeb2 triumphs gained by hard thinking1 #agi2 traders1 #ahg2 attitude toward monarchy1 #bje2 furnish lessons in failures as well as in achievements1 #bje1 #bjf2 middle classes most important1 #bjf2 adopt limitation of family1 #bjg ,grote1 ,george1 historian1 #ef2 not interested in travelling in ,greece1 #ef2 on ,attic citizens1 #bjh ,grotius1 ,hugo1 ,de ,jure ,pacis et ,belli1 #aih ,guesses at ,truth1 see ,hare ,h ,hamlet of ,shakespeare1 #dh ,hare1 ,guesses at ,truth1 quoted1 #eb ,hecatus1 historian1 #ga ,hegemony of ,greece1 what it was1 #bja2 leaders1 #bja ,hellenic race1 see ,greeks ,heracleitus of ,ephesus1 early writer of prose1 #fg2 his fundamental element of the world1 #bai2 on qualities of matter1 #bbj1 #bba ,herculaneum1 #ade ,hermes of ,praxiteles1 #ajf ,hero and ,leander1 #if ,herodotus1 ,father of ,history1 world model of art of history1 #ga-ge2 subject1 #ga1 #gd1 #gh2 essence of history as an art1 #gc2 agrees with ,aristotle as to style and subject of history1 #gd2 style1 #gd1 #ge2 so-called inventions of1 #gf2 vindicated1 #gf2 compared with ,thucydides1 #gf1 #gh2 on ,cyrene1 #gg2 quoted1 #aaf ,heron1 development of mechanics and hydrostatics1 #adg1 #afb1 #afg2 ingenious inventions of1 #afb-afd1 #afe ,herondas1 ,mimes1 inferior poetry1 #ci ,hiero of ,xenophon1 #aaf ,hipparchus1 astronomer1 #afg ,hippocrates of ,kos1 ,father of ,rational ,medicine1 #fg1 #aga2 founds school of medicine1 #aga2 style of writing1 #agb2 works out a system of treatment1 #agb2 ,aphorisms quoted1 #agb2 ,john ,stearne on works of1 #agd2 mental attitude of1 #agd2 ignores supernatural causes of diseases and cures1 #age2 quoted1 #age2 combats superstition1 #agf2 principles1 #agg2 oath of practitioners1 #agh ,hipponax1 #da ,history1 early annalists1 #gj2 ,herodotus and ,thucydides1 #ga2 models of the art and science of history1 #ga2 ,aristotle's view of1 #gb1 #gd2 ,herodotus on history as art1 #gc1 #gd2 views of ,herodotus and ,aristotle compared1 #gd2 simplicity1 #ge2 ,herodotus vindicated1 #gf2 ,thucydides compared with ,herodotus1 #gf2 views of ,thucydides1 #gg2 style of ,thucydides1 #gh1 #gi2 human history as a great drama1 #gi2 characteristics that will make it last1 #hj ,history of ,greek ,literature1 see ,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p4 ,homer1 understood by all generations1 #ad2 his influence through ,pope1 #ec ,homeric dialect1 #cc1 #dj1 #da ,homeric poems1 artificiality1 #cc2 beacon light1 #cg2 translations1 #de1 #ea1 #eb ,horace1 ,greek lyrics1 #d2 version of ,alcus1 ,sappho1 and ,pindar1 #ec ,hydrostatics1 development by ,heron1 #adg1 #afb ,hylozoists1 study of1 basis of higher work in science1 #bcd ,i ,iliad1 translated into many languages1 #bf2 a world epic1 #bg1 #da2 imitated1 #da2 model for all time1 #db2 and ,milton's ,paradise ,lost1 #db1 #dc2 ,chapman's translation1 #de1 #ea2 ,pope's translation1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec2 expunged texts1 #ahc ,immigration1 no inducements for1 in ,greece1 #bjg ,india1 civilisation1 #f ,inferno of ,dante1 #bg ,interest1 rate of1 in ,greece1 #ahg ,intermarriage1 #aih ,international relations of ,greek states1 #aih2 war1 #aii-bjj2 political combinations or alliances1 #bjj ff ,invalides in ,paris1 #aaa ,ionia1 subjugation of1 checks development of ,greek prose1 #fg ,ionic school1 subjects of speculation1 #baf2 study of1 important1 #bcd ,iphigenia in ,aulis1 see ,euripides ,ireland1 landed gentry1 #bab ,isus1 treatises of1 #hb2 speeches1 #aid-aif ,isocrates1 father of political essay1 #hf2 originates political pamphlets1 #hg2 devises and perfects laws of prose composition1 #hh2 teaches his style1 #hh ,j ,jonson1 ,ben1 knowledge of ,greek1 #de ,k ,keats1 ,john1 ,greek spirit1 #df2 not familiar with ,greek originals1 #df1 #ef ,ode on a ,greek ,vase3 #acb ,keltic influences on ,greece1 #ab ,kos1 school of1 #agf1 #agh ,l ,land legislation in ,greece compared with that in ,ireland and ,scotland1 #ahg ,language1 perfected use of1 by ,greeks1 #adh2 analysis of1 #adi2 ,greek3 ,non-,aryan roots1 #g2 permanence1 #ad ,laocoon1 #aaf ,laplace's theory1 #bbj ,latin1 place in higher education1 #bb1 #bc2 medium of ,greek influence1 #de ,latin culture1 why not permanent1 #ahb2 compared with ,greek1 #ahb ,latin races1 #c ,latin ,vulgate1 the1 ,st4 ,jerome compares it with ,greek and ,hebrew originals1 #ai ,law1 ,greek1 ,attic ,code model for ,romans and other nations1 #aij2 criminal1 #aia ff2 compared with that of ,modern ,europe1 #aib2 safety of citizens1 #aib2 death penalty1 #aib1 #aic2 civil1 #aic-aih2 contracts1 #aid2 testaments or wills1 #aid-aig2 international1 #aih ff ,leighton1 ,lord1 influenced by ,greek art1 #aca1 #acb ,lepanto1 battle1 #gb ,letter-writing1 ,greek letters not remarkable1 #ic2 ,cicero's formul1 #ic2 exceptions1 #ic ,leucippus1 development of ,atomic theory1 #bca2 father of modern systems1 #bcf ,literary criticism1 beginnings1 #ia2 models1 #ib2 ,tract on the ,sublime1 #ib ,loans1 #aid ,local government1 not representative1 but popular1 #ahi1 #aij ,locke1 teachings of1 #baf ,logic1 approached by ,greeks through analysis of language1 #adh2 beginnings of logical studies1 #adi2 treatises of ,aristotle on theory of ,reasoning1 #adi1 #aej2 importance of common logic1 #aej2 small attention paid to1 in ,american education1 #aej1 #aeb2 ,english and ,european training in1 #aea2 power of1 on ,greek minds1 #aea1 #aeb2 and ,greek mathematics1 #aec ,lourdes1 place of pilgrimage1 #agg ,lucretius1 claims1 #d ,lyric poetry1 beginnings1 #cg2 influence1 #ec-eg1 #ei1 #fj ,lysias1 presentation of argument in character1 #hc ,m ,macbeth1 of ,shakespeare1 #dh ,macedonian power1 #bje1 #baa ,machinery1 inventions of ,heron1 #afb-afd2 moving force of automatic sakia1 #afe ,mad ,herakles1 see ,euripides ,magee1 ,archbishop1 style of eloquence1 #hi2 modelled after ,chalmers1 #ij2 style based upon principles of ,isocrates1 #ij ,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p41 ,epoch of ,irish ,history3 referred to1 #agc ,history of ,greek ,literature3 on poetry1 #ca2 on obscurity of ,thucydides1 #gi2 on ,isocrates and ,demosthenes1 #hb2 on conversation1 #ia ,rambles and ,studies in ,greece3 on persistence of characteristics1 #ae1 #af ,social ,life in ,greece3 main thesis1 #ae ,marius the ,epicurean1 by ,walter ,pater1 #bdd ,mathematics1 school of ,pythagoras1 #aec1 #aee1 #aef1 #afa1 #afg2 theory of ,descartes1 #aed2 arithmetic1 #aec1 #aed2 geometry1 #aeh2 mathematical physics1 #afb2 library of ,greek1 #aff2 pure1 #aff1 #afi2 ,peripatetic1 #agj ,mausollus of ,halicarnassus1 tyrant1 #bje ,mechanics1 development by ,archimedes1 ,heron1 and ,alexandrian school1 #afb ,medival schools1 training in logic1 #aej1 #aea ,medicine1 formulated by ,greeks1 #adg2 school of ,hippocrates1 #aga ff2 medival1 #agd1 #age2 and superstition1 #agd1 #age2 resurrection of1 #agf ,menander1 character of plays1 #cd1 #id2 translations by ,plautus and ,terence1 #fa1 #bjh1 #bji2 influence1 #fa2 portrays ,attic society1 #bjh-baj2 fragments of plays discovered in ,egypt1 #bji ,meredith1 ,george1 characteristic of his work1 #gi ,merope1 of ,matthew ,arnold1 #eh ,middle ,ages1 a period of gloom1 #aad1 #aae2 conditions in1 #aha2 causes of retrogression in1 #ahb ,miletus1 fall of1 checks the development of ,greek prose1 #fg2 temple1 statues at entrance1 #abj ,milton1 ,john1 poetic vision disturbed by political controversies1 #db2 influenced by ,greek epic1 #db2 influenced by ,greek drama1 #df2 poetic style and metre1 #df2 ,matthew ,arnold on1 #df2 defence of dramatic poetry1 #dg2 on ,shakespeare and ,greek masters1 #dg2 on ,greek tragedy1 #dg-di2 choruses and lyrical monodies1 #ej2 inspired by ,isocrates1 #hh1 #ij ,areopagitica3 style1 #hh ,comus3 lyric sweetness1 #ea ,paradise ,lost3 best modern epic1 #db2 compared with the ,iliad1 #dc2 divine and human in1 #dc2 redundancy of similes1 #dc2 and ,argonautics1 #dc2 and ,prometheus ,vinctus1 #dg ,samson ,agonistes3 ,greek form1 #dg1 #di1 #ej2 borrowings from dipus and ,prometheus1 #di2 development influenced by ,euripides1 #di2 ,greek spirit1 #ej2 lyrics and choral odes1 #ej1 #ea2 ,sir ,egerton ,brydges on1 #ej ,mimes1 see ,herondas ,miny1 ,tomb of the1 #aja1 #ajh1 #aaa ,motion and matter1 #bcd ,mummius1 cause of conquest of1 #baa ,music1 first beginnings1 #ii1 #acc ff2 notation related to meaning1 #abe2 existing specimens of ,greek1 fragmentary1 #acd2 comparison of ,greek with ,japanese1 #ace2 ,greek scales1 #ace1 #adb-add2 and ,greek poetry1 #acf2 relation to education1 #acf1 #acg1 #add2 effect upon morals1 #acg-adj1 #add2 ,greek music source of modern1 #ada2 simplicity1 #ada2 ,greek works on1 #ada2 ,plato on instrumental and vocal1 #ada2 extant ,greek tracts on1 #adb2 ,hungarian1 #adb2 problems of ,greek1 #adb2 scientific basis of harmony discovered by ,pythagoreans1 #adc2 ,pythagorean theory1 #adc2 ,aristotle on melody1 #add2 summary of ,greek music1 #add ,n ,naples1 #ade ,natural history1 collection of facts by ,greeks1 #adg ,natural philosophy1 #bcf ,nike of ,samothrace1 #aag ,novel1 development among ,greeks1 #ic1 #id2 and ,menander's plays1 #id2 main topic imported from ,east1 #id ,o ,ode on a ,greek ,vase1 by ,keats1 #acb ,ode to ,st4 ,cecilia1 see ,dryden ,odyssey1 world epic1 #bg1 #da2 imitated1 #da2 unequalled1 #db dipus1 see ,sophocles ,optics1 ,euclid's work on1 #aff ,oratory1 school of pleaders1 #fh2 treatment of subject1 #fi2 subject of great importance1 #fi1 #gj2 eloquence of debate and eloquence of display1 #fh1 #ha2 ,greeks adverse to extemporaneous speaking1 #ha2 art of persuasion1 #hb2 arguments and manner of presenting1 #hb1 #hc2 legal rhetoric1 #hc2 speeches of ,demosthenes1 #hc2 ,de ,corona1 #hc2 ,greek oratory of debate still the model of modern world1 #he ,orchomenos1 #aja ,ornament1 earlier in development than architecture1 #ii2 in pre-historic ages1 #ii2 in ,doric temple1 #ajd ,p ,painting1 #abe ff2 examples of ,greek1 #abf1 #abg2 qualities requisite for success1 #abh2 ,greek sense of form1 #abh2 ,greek sense of colour1 #abh-acj2 landscape little developed among ,greeks1 #acj1 #aca2 portraits1 #aca2 mythical subjects1 #aca2 and sculpture1 #aca2 indirect influence on modern painting1 #aca1 #acb2 ,greek vases1 #acb2 branch of decoration1 #acb1 #acc ,pantheism1 doctrine of1 #bbb-bbd2 positive side of1 #bbc2 arguments for1 #bbd2 how regarded by ,greek public1 #bbe2 and ,wordsworth1 ,shelley1 ,tennyson1 #bbh1 #bbi ,pantheists1 ,greek1 character of1 #bbb2 legacy to mankind1 #bbh2 effect on modern poetry1 #bbh ,pantheon1 #aaa ,pappus1 work in geometry1 #afa ,papyrus ,i4 of ,turin1 #aig ,paradise ,lost1 see ,milton ,parmenides1 #bcf2 gives positive side of doctrine of pantheism1 #bbc ,parthenon1 unexcelled1 #bg2 ,j4 ,carrey's drawings of1 #eb2 frieze1 #aac1 #abb2 horses of1 #aba2 ornamentation1 #acj ,pastoral poetry developed by ,theocritus1 #ce ,pater1 ,walter1 ,marius the ,epicurean1 #bdd ,paul1 ,saint1 on ,stoicism1 #bde ,pausanias1 and temple of ,hera1 #aje2 and ,tomb of the ,miny1 #ajh ,peisias1 the ,lycian1 will of1 #aif ,peloponnesus1 cities of1 #bja ,penrose1 ,mr41 ,greek critic1 #bg ,pericles studied oratory1 #gj ,peripatetic ,mathematics1 #agj ,persians of ,timotheus1 see ,timotheus ,peyron1 ,amde1 #aig ,phdo1 of ,plato1 #bdb ,phelps1 ,w4 ,l41 on ,gray1 #ed ,pherecydes of ,syros1 predecessor of ,heracleitus1 #fg ,phidias1 and the ,laocoon1 #aaf2 his ornamentation of the ,parthenon1 #aba1 #abb2 his procession of figures1 #abb1 #abc ,philodemus1 ,tract on ,music1 on effect of music on morals1 #ach ,philosophy1 relation to science1 #afi1 #bcf2 secular and free1 #bae1 #baf ,phnicia1 influence on ,greece1 #aa1 #ab ,phnician alphabet1 #ab ,phormio1 #ga ,phrynichus1 ,fall of ,miletus3 displeasing to ,attic audience1 #gc1 #aae ,physical geography1 #afi ,physics1 mathematical1 #afb2 developed by ,archimedes1 #afb2 development of hydrostatics and mechanics by ,heron1 #afb1 #afg ,pindar1 ,cicero on1 #ej2 ,horace's appreciation1 #ec ,pindar1 ,odes1 #bg ,place-names1 ,greek1 #g ,plato1 influence on ,wordsworth1 #eg2 as critic1 #ib2 on influence of music1 #aci1 #ada2 philosophy of1 #bcg2 influence on modern thought1 #bcg2 views of education1 #bcg1 #bch2 theology1 #bch ff2 on moral law1 #bci1 #bdj2 on aristocracy of intellect1 #bda2 on immortality of soul1 #bdb ,dialogues3 model of conversation1 #ia2 logical studies in1 #adi2 character1 #bad2 subjects1 #bae ,phaedo3 #bdb ,politicus3 #bch ,republic3 picture of gloom1 #aaf2 ideal for safeguard of society in1 #bch ,sophist3 #aeb ,platonism1 #bbh ,plautus1 translation of ,menander1 #fa1 #bji ,plutarch1 model for modern biographers1 #hj ,lives3 ,north's translation furnished ,shakespeare with subjects1 #de1 #hj2 influence on ,french ,revolution1 #df ,poetic1 see ,aristotle ,poetry1 ,greek3 #ca ff2 carefully studied product1 #cb1 #cg2 dialects1 #cc1 #dj2 development1 #cd1 #ce2 pastoral1 #ce2 dramatic1 #cf2 lyric1 #cg2 form and spirit1 #ch2 diction and metre1 #ch2 best studied in the original1 #ch1 #fd2 examples of inferior1 #ch1 #ci2 associated with other arts1 #ci2 dignity and brevity1 #dj2 and modern poetry1 #da ff2 great epics1 #da2 influence1 #db ff2 how far reduced to theory1 #fa-fc2 translations1 #de1 #ea1 #eb1 #fd2 indirect influence through ,latin1 #de2 and music1 #acf ,politics1 causes of development1 #ahb1 #ahc ,politicus1 of ,plato1 #bch ,polybius1 artistic conception of history1 #gi2 and ,achan ,league1 #bjc2 on limitation of family1 #bjg2 on ruin of ,greece1 #baa ,pompeii1 #ade ,pope1 ,alexander1 translation of ,iliad1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec ,praxiteles unexcelled1 #aab ,praxiteles1 ,hermes1 #cc ,prometheus ,vinctus1 see schylus ,prose1 ,greek1 knowledge of early development of1 #fe2 late origin1 #ff2 poetry more popular than1 #ff2 early attempt at1 by ,heracleitus1 #fg2 ,hippocrates1 #fg2 beginnings among ,dorians1 #fh2 prose adapted for a listening public1 #hf2 political essay1 #hf2 laws of composition devised by ,isocrates1 #hh2 conversation easy1 #ij2 letter-writing1 #ib2 the novel1 #ic2 books of travel1 #ig ,puteoli1 gateway into ,italy1 #ade ,pythagoras1 effect of influence1 #bba2 contemporaries and successors1 #bba ,pythagorean school1 importance of arithmetic1 #aec2 theory of ,descartes1 #aed2 speculations on series of units1 #aee2 specimens of treatment in arithmetic1 #aef2 results of researches1 #aef2 importance of numbers ten and twelve1 #aef2 discoverers and teachers of science1 #aff1 #afg ,pythagoreans1 discover science of harmony1 #adc2 famous theory1 #adc ,r ,racine and his plays1 #dh ,rambles and ,studies in ,greece1 see ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy ,renaissance 7,renascence71 #d2 artists of1 #aca ,rnan1 ,ernest1 simplicity of style1 #ge ,renascence1 #d ,representation1 local1 #ahi ,republic1 see ,plato ,research1 original1 requisite for1 #bce ,rogers's translation of ,aristophanes1 #fa ,roman life and culture1 #ah1 #ai ,roman ,republic1 effect of growth1 #baa ,romanesque architecture1 example of tawdriness1 #aji ,romans1 medium through which ,greek learning was spread in ,western ,world1 #c1 #d1 #ah1 #ai1 #he1 #aij1 #aie2 compared with the ,greeks1 #ahb ,romantic school1 #ei ,rome1 ,greek ruins in time of ,renaissance1 #adf ,romeo and ,juliet1 see ,shakespeare ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 ,ireland1 #agc ,ruskin1 ,john1 style1 #hi ,s ,st4 ,angelo1 castle of1 #aaa ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice1 architecture of1 #ah1 #aji ,sakia1 invention of1 #afe ,samson ,agonistes1 see ,milton ,sappho1 #cg2 ,horace's version of1 #ec2 love for nature1 #ei ,satyric drama1 #dh ,science1 definition of term as used1 #adg2 relation to philosophy1 #afh2 abstract thinking necessary to experiment and discovery1 #bce ,sciences of observation1 #adg ,scriptores ,erotici ,graeci1 #ie ,sculpture1 ,greek3 reasons for pre-eminence #aab1 #aac2 nude and draped figures1 #aab1 #aac2 ,donatello's problem1 #aac1 #aad2 use of bronze and marble1 #aaf1 #aah2 development1 #aag1 #aah2 decay1 #aag2 never dissociated from painting1 #aah2 coloured statues1 #aah1 #aai2 principles of composition1 #abj2 second favourite form of composition1 #abb2 effect on ,europe1 #abc ,shakespeare1 indebted to ,plutarch's ,lives1 #de2 indirect knowledge of ,greek poets1 #df2 ,milton on1 #dg1 #dh2 school of1 defended #dh ,antony and ,cleopatra3 source in ,plutarch's ,lives1 #de ,hamlet3 ,voltaire's view of1 #dh ,macbeth3 ,voltaire's view of1 #dh ,romeo and ,juliet3 ,greek origin1 #ie ,shakespeare1 school of1 and ,greek masters1 #dh ,shelley1 combines ,greek culture with ,romantic imagination1 #ef1 and ,pantheism1 #bbh ,sicilian troubles1 #ahf ,sidon1 tomb of1 #aab ,silver ,age of ,greek ,literature1 #ia ,simonides1 ,gray compared with1 #ed ,skellig ,michael1 beehive huts at1 #ii ,slavery1 among ,greeks1 #ahh1 #aij2 ,aristotle on1 #ahi ,smyly1 ,prof41 ,essay2 on ,greek notation in arithmetic1 #aeh ,social ,life in ,greece1 see ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy ,socrates1 prosecution of1 #bae2 causes revolution in philosophy1 #bcf1 #bcg ,solon1 use of verse1 #ci2 modern1 #ff2 reduces debts in ,athens1 #ahf ,sophist1 of ,plato1 #aeb ,sophists1 attitude toward scientific speculation1 #bcg ,sophocles1 ,milton on1 #dg2 choruses1 #ea2 ,whitelaw's version of1 #fd2 music of1 #acf dipus2 and ,milton's ,samson ,agonistes1 #di ,sophron1 poet1 #ci ,sovranties1 pass into aristocracies1 #ahd1 #ahe2 models in constitutional government1 #ahd-ahf ,sparta1 slaves in1 #ahh2 power1 #bja ,spinoza1 teachings of1 #baf2 ,pantheist1 #bbd ,statuary1 portrait1 #abj ,stearne1 ,john1 ,founder of ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 ,ireland1 #agc2 theorist and writer1 #agc2 on works of ,hippocrates1 #agc2 and the ,church1 #agf ,stoics1 speculations1 #bdd-bdf2 and ,epicureans1 #bdd-bdf ,stylists1 modern ,english1 #hi ,swanwick1 ,miss1 translations1 #eg ,swinburne1 ,algernon1 writer of plays after ,greek models1 #eh ,atalanta3 choruses1 #dj1 #eh ,erechtheus2 #eh ,syracuse1 #fh ,t ,taylor1 ,jeremy1 style influenced by ,isocrates1 #ij ,temples1 ,greek3 ,doric ornament1 #ajd2 features1 #aje2 at ,tiryns1 #aje2 ,hera at ,olympia1 #aje2 distinction between dwellings and1 #ajf2 construction1 #ajf2 compared with houses1 #ajg2 proportions1 #ajg2 furnish models for all ,europe1 #aaj ,tennyson1 influenced by ,theocritus1 #cf1 #ei1 #fj2 and ,euripides1 #fj2 and ,pantheism1 #bbh1 #bbi ,terence1 translation of ,menander1 #fa1 #bji ,thales1 his primitive element of the world1 #baf1 #bag2 predicts an eclipse1 #bag ,themistocles1 studied oratory1 #gj ,theocritus1 ,virgil's translations1 #bd2 pastoral poet1 #ce2 goes back to life of people1 #ce1 #cf2 influence on ,tennyson1 #cf1 #ei1 #fj2 idealises the commonplace1 #ch2 delights in nature1 #ei2 best translation of1 #fd ,idylls3 #if ,theognis1 use of verse1 #ci ,theon of ,smyrna1 #afg ,theophrastus1 collaborator with ,aristotle1 #afi ,thirlwall1 history written without first-hand knowledge of ,greece1 #ef 8,three tragic poets10 the1 #dg1 #di ,thucydides1 has given to world model of the science of history1 #ga2 subject1 #ga1 #gg1 #gh2 compared with ,herodotus1 #gf1 #gh2 subtle artist1 #gf2 style1 #gg2 picture of politics in ,greece1 #gg2 artistic scheme1 #gh2 diction1 #gh2 obscurity1 #gh1 #gi2 on war1 #bjj ,thucydides ,mythistoricus1 see ,cornford ,timotheus1 ,persians3 inferior poetry1 #ch1 #ci1 #fc2 ,wilamowitz on1 #ci ,tiryns1 remains of temples at1 #aje ,tombs1 domed or circular buildings1 #aaj2 ,pantheon1 #aaj2 ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo1 #aaa2 ,invalides in ,paris1 #aaa2 ,mausoleum of ,queen ,victoria1 #aaa2 ,treasure ,house of ,atreus1 #aaa2 ,tomb of the ,miny1 #aaa2 early1 in ,ireland1 #aaa ,tract on the ,sublime1 translated by ,burke1 #ib2 point of view of1 #ib ,tragedy1 ,greek3 material1 #db2 ,milton's view of1 #dg1 #dh ,travels1 not thoroughly ,greek1 #ig ,treaties1 between ,greek city-states1 #aih ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin3 some of the requisites for degree1 #agi ,turin1 ,academy of1 ,transactions2 referred to1 #aig ,u ,unions or leagues1 question as to rights of contracting parties1 #bjb1 #bjc2 ,european examples1 #bjd ,v ,vases1 ornamentation of1 #acb ,venetian ,republic1 #ahd ,villari1 ,professor ,pasquale1 ,studies3 quoted1 on problem of art in ,renaissance1 #aac1 #aad ,viollet-le-,duc1 ,entretiens sur l'architecture3 his theory of the origin of the arch1 #aji ,virgil1 first foreign imitator of ,homer1 #db2 compared with ,milton1 #df neid3 ,m4 ,arnold compares style with ,milton's1 #dg2 ,dryden's translation1 #ec ,eclogues3 #bd ,georgics3 #bd ,vitruvius1 #ajd ,w ,wagner1 ,richard1 turned natural defect into success1 #hg2 effect of his attempt to combine poetry and music1 #acf2 effect of his music on morals1 #ach1 #aci ,tristan and ,isolde3 #aci ,war1 between ,hellenic peoples3 weapons and prisoners1 #aii ,weem of ,scale1 beehive huts at1 #ajj ,whitelaw's ,sophocles1 #fd ,wilamowitz1 on ,persians of ,timotheus1 #ci ,wills or testaments1 #aid-aig ,women's rights1 #aha ,wordsworth1 least ,greek of nineteenth-century poets1 #eg2 illuminated by ,plato1 #eg2 and ,pantheism1 #bbh1 #bbi2 immortality of soul1 #bdb1 #bdc ,excursion3 #dj1 #eg ,wyse1 ,william1 of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 #aie ,x ,xanthus the ,lydian1 historian1 #ga ,xenophanes1 founder of school of ,elea1 #bba2 doctrine of1 #bbb ,xenophon1 historian1 #gi ,cyrus3 #id ,hiero3 picture of gloom1 #aaf ,z ,zeno1 ,eleatic1 theory of sound1 #bbe1 #bbf ,zeno1 the ,stoic1 #bde ,zology promoted by ,aristotle1 #aga ,,footnotes3 #a ,the recent book of ,august ,fick upon the place-names in ,greek lands shows that the great majority are not ,greek1 and this is particularly the case with ,attica1 the purest home of culture1 showing that even here there survived a large indigenous population4 ,this is the new signification of the ,athenian claim to be autochthonous1 or native children of the soil4 #b ,the readers of my ,rambles and ,studies in ,greece will remember how ,i was once shipwrecked in the very harbour of gina1 and compelled to seek hospitality in a modest private house4 ,when ,i saw the woman of the house in the morning1 by the light of day1 ,i shouted to my companions that one of the figures of the ,parthenon had walked into the room4 ,the splendid type was there in its perfection4 #c ,the ,odyssey of ,homer1 the two tragedies on dipus of ,sophocles1 the ,birds and ,frogs of ,aristophanes1 the ,pythian odes of ,pindar1 not to speak of smaller gems such as the scraps of ,sappho and ,simonides1 the ,idylls of ,theocritus4 #d ,of course this common inference may be quite mistaken4 ,artificial things are often a real and great improvement on nature4 #e ,this is probably the case with ,hipponax4 #f ,this remark is from ,hare's almost forgotten ,guesses at ,truth1 an excellent book4 #g 8,keen were his pangs but keener far to feel ,he nursed the pinion which impelled the steel0 is straight from schylus4 #h ,i know no translation of the whole seven plays of schylus that ,i can recommend1 though there be many admirable versions of the ,agamemnon1 but among the ,english reproductions of ,sophocles let me call your attention to that of ,mr4 ,whitelaw1 of most of ,euripides to that of ,mr4 ,way4 ,both of these are eminently the work of scholars who are also poets4 #i ,i need hardly add that the brilliant comedies of ,aristophanes are to be found in the well known books of ,j4 ,hookham ,frere and of ,mr4 ,rogers1 who has quite recently brought out another play4 #aj ,i say fresco because this is usually occupied with historical scenes4 #aa ,the reader can now consult the brilliant and suggestive ,thucydides ,mythistoricus of ,mr4 ,cornford on this aspect of the historian and his work4 #ab ,book iii41 #hb-d #ac ,cf4 for example what ,herodotus tells us in his fourth book of the affairs of ,cyrene4 #ad ,i must refer the audience for details to the chapter on ,thucydides in my ,history of ,greek ,literature4 #ae ,the minuti of rythm and harmony to which they condescended are such that ,i could not possibly make them clear to you in a short passage of a lecture1 but must refer you to the chapters on ,isocrates and ,demosthenes in my ,history of ,greek ,literature4 #af ,cf4 #deg of my ,greek ,literature4 #ag ,on this ,cf4 #daf1 #dcg of my ,greek ,literature4 #ah ,an exception may be made for the genuine letters of which we have found the actual originals among the papyri of ,egypt4 ,here we find1 among ,greeks scattered abroad1 the offspring of adventurous and mercenary soldiers1 all the urbanities of modern letter writing4 ,all the ,roman formul of politeness we find in ,cicero's letters1 were derived from this source--the long current ,greek forms of correspondence4 #ai ,if ,shakspeare's ,romeo and ,juliet ends not in happiness1 but in disaster1 the devices of the play--the sleeping drug1 the hiding in the tomb where the lovers again unite1 these are the stock devices of our ,greek novels1 so clearly1 that the story must have been derived through ,italian versions from a ,greek novel of this kind4 ,boccaccio was clearly influenced by this literature4 #bj ,the first beginnings of music1 in the form of whistles or pipes1 are found among prehistoric remains of people who had never learned to write1 but only to draw pictures4 #ba ,in the rudest cases the house was not excavated but was built on the surface1 and then covered with a mound of earth4 #bb ,the inner lintel stone #cj feet long1 #af deep1 and over #c thick1 weighs about #aab tons4 ,the dromos is #aae long and #ai wide4 ,the doorway is #ag feet high and #h feet wide at the top swelling to #h at the ground4 ,the whole chamber about #ej feet high and #ej across the floor4 ,read description in ,baedeker1 p4 #cbd4 #bc ,the beehive chamber ,i take to be an importation from northern and central ,europe and therefore probably due to that strain in early ,greek civilisation4 #bd ,villari's ,studies1 p4 #beh4 #be ,god--says ,herodotus in the famous dialogue of ,xerxes and ,artabanus on the fugitive character of human happiness--,god1 that has given to man a sweet taste of life1 is found grudging in his dole4 #bf ,nothing is more striking in the old churches of such towns as ,lneburg1 ,wismar1 ,rostock1 than the representation of the ,crucifixion on the carved wooden work used as the reredos in various chapels as well as over the high altar4 ,the main figures are in high relief1 the crowd standing in front of them in the clear1 all coloured richly and in many colours as well as gilding4 ,but for the painful subject1 these triumphs of the carver are perhaps the most splendid in medival art4 ,the magnificent tombs of the ,dukes of ,burgundy at ,dijon are their worthy rivals in stone4 #bg ,the foaming heads of the horses of the rising sun at the left corner of the east pediment of the ,parthenon are a splendid exception to this calm in the angles of the pediment1 and the subdued calmness of the horses of ,selene1 which represent her setting1 accentuates this exception4 #bh ,this ,i tell you from the first-hand evidence of my son who was for years in the ,solomon ,islands and saw it done a hundred times by natives1 but never even after desperate efforts by any ,european4 #bi ,a curious exception is now to be made for the panels with portraits of the dead found on mummy cases of the first and second centuries in ,roman ,egypt4 #cj ,and yet there were several ignorant and random attempts made to reproduce it with modern harmonies4 #ca ,this is the view advocated in the ,tract on ,music by ,philodemus1 large fragments of which were recovered on a charred papyrus from ,herculaneum4 ,there is another fragment of a similar character recently discovered and printed by ,messrs4 ,grenfell and ,hunt4 #cb ,viz43 #a #c #b2 #a #c #e #c2 #a #c #e #g #d1 and so on4 #cc ,there is even an arithmetical proof mentioned by ,aristotle that the ratio of side to diagonal of a square cannot be one of whole numbers4 ,if it were1 the ratio will be that of two numbers in its lowest terms1 and hence one must be even and the other odd1 else both were still divisible by #b4 ,illustration3 graphic here b #b;a a is odd and b even4 ,now let b #b;c then #d;c #b;a and #b;c a a is even and b odd1 which is absurd4 #cd ,readers who wish to prosecute this subject further will find the best exposition of it in ,prof4 ,smyly's paper in the volume of ,essays dedicated to ,prof4 ,nicole of ,geneva4 #ce ,heron1 1 caps4 iii4 and iv4 #cf ,see my ,epoch of ,irish ,history1 last chapter4 #cg ,his theory is laid down in several now forgotten books brimful of learning4 ,it is the theory of four fundamental harmonies1 or elements1 the relations of which produce in every body health and disease4 #ch 11 said ,agamemnon1 according to the copy which ,aristotle quotes4 #ci 7,pol474 #dj and #da ,the abortive attempt of ,agis ,,iii4 of ,sparta only led to his own ruin4 #db ,centesim usur #dc ,the phrase of 8sound mind and deliberate intention0 7 7 points to what is told repeatedly in the speeches of ,isus2 on questions of disputed inheritances1 even if a will were proved genuine and fully attested1 it could be set aside if proof were given of undue influence1 such as lunacy1 the effects of a philtre1 or the cozening of women1 even the testator's wife4 ,the cases he argues might occur to-day1 and be discussed in like manner4 #dd ,in the ,transactions of the ,academy of ,turin1 #ahbf4 #de ,it happened ,may #bh1 #ehe ,b4,c4 #df ,so ,tennyson in a poem of his boyhood4 #dg ,de ,finibus1 lib4 iii41 sub4 fin4 #dh #b ,cor4 vi41 #i1 #aj4