,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author4 ,the ,foraminifera ,an ,introduction to the ,study of the ,protozoa by ,,frederick ,,chapman1 ,a4,l4,s41 ,f4,r4,m4,s4 ,this book has been written with a view of meeting a demand which has arisen for a concise account of the ,foraminifera1 suited to the requirements of the student of ,natural ,history and ,palaeontology4 ,with #ad plates and #db illustrations in the ,text4 ,,demy #hvo4 ,,cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,illustration3 ,the ,keystone ,printing ,co41 #eeb-d ,lonsdale ,st41 ,melb4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fossil ,,crinoid 7,helicocrinus plumosus71 about #e_/f nat4 size1 in ,silurian ,mudstone1 ,brunswick1 ,victoria4 7,spec4 in ,nat4 ,mus41 ,melbourne74 ,australasian ,fossils ,a ,students' ,manual of ,palaeontology ,by ,,frederick ,,chapman1 ,palaeontologist to the ,national ,museum1 ,melbourne4 ,formerly ,assistant in the ,geological ,department of the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,london4 ,assoc4 ,linnean ,soc4 ,lond41 ,f4,r4,m4,s41 etc4 ,author of ,the ,foraminifera1 ,a ,monograph of the ,silurian ,bivalved ,mollusca of ,victoria1 ,new or ,little-known ,victorian ,fossils in the ,national ,museum1 etc4 ,with an ,introduction by ,,professor ,e4 ,w4 ,,skeats1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,george ,,robertson ,,company ,,propy4 ,,ltd41 ,melbourne1 ,sydney1 ,adelaide1 ,brisbane and ,london4 #aiad4 ,to ,,professor ,,john ,,wesley ,,judd this work is dedicated as a slight tribute of esteem1 and in grateful acknowledgement of kindly help and encouragement through many years4 ,,contents4 ,page ,preface #aj ,introduction by ,professor ,e4 ,w4 ,skeats1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,g4,s4 #ac ,,part ,i4--,,general ,,principles4 ,chap4 ,i4--,nature and uses of ,fossils #ba ,,ii4--,classification of ,fossil ,animals and ,plants #cd ,,iii4--,the ,geological ,epochs and ,time-range of ,fossils #da ,,iv4--,how ,fossils are ,found1 and the ,rocks ,they ,form #ea ,,part ,,ii4--,,systematic ,,palaeontology4 ,chap4 ,v4--,fossil ,plants #hb ,,vi4--,fossil ,foraminifera and ,radiolaria #ie ,,vii4--,fossil ,sponges1 ,corals and ,graptolites #ajg ,,viii4--,fossil ,starfishes1 ,sea-lilies and ,sea-urchins #acc ,,ix4--,fossil ,worms1 ,sea-mats and ,lamp-shells #aeb ,x4--,fossil ,shell-fish #agd ,,xi4--,fossil ,trilobites1 ,crustacea and ,insects #bbj ,,xii4--,fossil ,fishes1 ,amphibians1 ,reptiles1 ,birds and ,mammals #beg ,appendix4--,notes on ,collecting and ,preserving ,fossils #cae ,index #cba ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,fig4 ,page #a4 ,fossil ,shells in clay #bb #b4 ,tracks1 probably of ,crustaceans #bb #c4 ,structure of ,silicified ,wood in tangential section3 ,araucarioxylon ,daintreei1 ,chapm4 #bd #d4 ,portrait of ,william ,smith #bf #e4 ,raised ,beach3 ,brighton1 ,england #bh #f4 ,raised ,beach3 ,torquay1 ,victoria #bh #g4 ,marine ,fossils in ,volcanic ,tuff3 ,summit of ,snowdon #bi #h4 ,kitchen ,middens3 ,torquay1 ,victoria #cj #i4 ,submerged ,forest on the ,cheshire ,coast #cj #aj4 ,pecten murrayanus1 ,tate4 ,a fossil shell allied to a living species #cb #aa4 ,cliff section3 ,torquay1 ,victoria #db #ab4 ,diagram of superposition of ,strata #db #ac4 ,diagram of the ,range-in-time of ,australasian ,fossils #ej #ad4 ,diprotodon skeletons in situ3 ,lake ,callabonna1 ,s4 ,australia #ea #ae4 ,bird remains on sand dunes3 ,king ,island1 ,bass ,strait #eb #af4 ,impression of ,bird's feather in ,ironstone3 ,western ,victoria #eb #ag4 ,a ,fossil ,turtle3 ,notochelone costata1 ,owen sp4 #eb #ah4 ,a ,ganoid ,fish3 ,pristisomus crassus1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodward #ed #ai4 ,a fossil ,insect in amber 7,tipula sp47 #ed #bj4 ,a fossil ,crustacean3 ,thalassina emerii1 ,bell #ee #ba4 ,an ,ammonite3 ,desmoceras flindersi1 ,mc,coy sp4 #ee #bb4 ,belemnites3 ,belemnites diptycha1 ,mc,coy #ef #bc4 ,a ,group of ,lamp-shells3 ,magellania flavescens1 ,lam4 sp4 #ef #bd4 ,zoarium of a living ,polyzoan3 ,retepora sp4 #eh #be4 ,a fossil ,polyzoan3 ,macropora clarkei1 ,t4 ,woods sp4 #eh #bf4 ,fossil ,worm-tubes3 787 ,serpula #fj #bg4 ,a living ,sea-urchin3 ,strongylocentrotus erythrogrammus1 ,val4 #fj #bh4 ,a fossil ,sea-urchin3 ,linthia antiaustrails1 ,tate #fj #bi4 ,a fossil ,brittle-,star3 ,ophioderma egertoni1 ,brod4 sp4 #fj #cj4 ,a fossil ,crinoid3 ,taxocrinus simplex1 ,phillips sp4 #fb #ca4 ,graptolites on ,slate3 ,tetragraptus fruticosus1 ,j4 ,hall sp4 #fb #cb4 ,a ,stromatoporoid3 ,actinostroma #fc #cc4 ,corals in ,devonian ,marble3 ,favosites #fd #cd4 ,siliceous ,skeleton of a living ,sponge3 787 ,chonelasma #fd #ce4 ,spicules of a fossil ,sponge3 ,ecionema newberyi1 ,mc,coy sp4 #fe #cf4 ,nummulites3 ,n4 gizehensis1 ,ehr4 var4 champollioni1 ,de la ,harpe #fe #cg4 ,cainozoic ,radiolaria #ff #ch4 ,radiolaria in ,siliceous ,limestone #fg #ci4 ,travertin ,limestone1 with leaves of ,beech 7,fagus7 #fg #dj4 ,freshwater ,limestone with shells 7,bulinus7 #fh #da4 ,hardened mudstone with ,brachiopods 7,orthis1 etc47 #fi #db4 ,diatomaceous ,earth #gb #dc4 ,lepidocyclina ,limestone #gc #dd4 ,coral in ,limestone3 ,favosites grandipora1 ,eth4 fil4 #gd #de4 ,crinoidal ,limestone #gd #df4 ,turritella ,limestone #ge #dg4 ,ostracodal ,limestone #ge #dh4 ,halimeda ,limestone #gg #di4 ,tasmanite3 a ,spore ,coal #gg #ej4 ,kerosene ,shale #gg #ea4 ,bone ,bed #gg #eb4 ,bone ,breccia #gi #ec4 ,cainozoic ,ironstone with ,leaves 7,banksia7 #hj #ed4 ,girvanella conferta1 ,chapm41 in ,silurian ,limestone #hc #ee4 ,palaeozoic ,plants #hc #ef4 ,restoration of ,lepidodendron #hd #eg4 ,stem of ,lepidodendron 7,lepidophloios71 showing leaf-scars #hd #eh4 ,upper ,palaeozoic ,plants #he #ei4 ,map of ,gondwana-,land #hg #fj4 ,mesozoic ,plants #hh #fa4 ,cainozoic ,plants #ij #fb4 ,eucalyptus leaves from the ,deep ,leads #ib #fc4 ,palaeozoic and ,mesozoic ,foraminifera #ig #fd4 ,lepidocyclina marginata1 ,mich4 sp4 ,sections of shell showing structure #ii #fe4 ,cainozoic ,foraminifera #ajj #ff4 ,fossil ,radiolaria #ajc #fg4 ,palaeozoic ,sponges and ,archaeocyathinae #ajh #fh4 ,cainozoic ,sponges #aaa #fi4 ,silurian ,corals #aaa #gj4 ,upper ,palaeozoic ,corals #aaf #ga4 ,cainozoic ,corals #aah #gb4 ,stromatoporoidea and ,cladophora #aba #gc4 ,lower ,ordovician ,graptolites #abe #gd4 ,lower ,ordovician ,graptolites #abe #ge4 ,upper ,ordovician and ,silurian ,graptolites #abg #gf4 ,fossil ,crinoids #ace #gg4 ,fossil ,starfishes #adj #gh4 ,protaster brisingoides1 ,gregory1 in ,silurian ,sandstone #adb #gi4 ,gregoriura spryi1 ,chapm41 in ,silurian ,mudstone #adc #hj4 ,cainozoic ,sea-urchins #ade #ha4 ,cainozoic ,sea-urchins #adg #hb4 ,fossil ,worms #aec #hc4 ,palaeozoic ,polyzoa #aef #hd4 ,cainozoic ,polyzoa #aeg #he4 ,lower ,palaeozoic ,brachiopods #aei #hf4 ,silurian and ,devonian ,brachiopods #afa #hg4 ,carbopermian ,brachiopods #afc #hh4 ,mesozoic ,brachiopods #afe #hi4 ,cainozoic ,brachiopods #afg #ij4 ,lower ,palaeozoic ,bivalves #agf #ia4 ,palaeozoic ,bivalves #agi #ib4 ,carbopermian ,bivalves #ahj #ic4 ,lower ,mesozoic ,bivalves #aha #id4 ,cretaceous ,bivalves #ahc #ie4 ,cainozoic ,bivalves #ahe #if4 ,cainozoic ,bivalves #ahf #ig4 ,fossil ,scaphopods and ,chitons #ahh #ih4 ,lower ,palaeozoic ,gasteropoda #aib #ii4 ,silurian ,gasteropoda #aid #ajj4 ,upper ,palaeozoic ,gasteropoda #aie #aja4 ,mesozoic ,gasteropoda #aig #ajb4 ,cainozoic ,gasteropoda #aii #ajc4 ,cainozoic ,gasteropoda #bjj #ajd4 ,late ,cainozoic and ,pleistocene ,gasteropoda #bja #aje4 ,palaeozoic ,cephalopoda #bjf #ajf4 ,mesozoic and ,cainozoic ,cephalopoda #bjh #ajg4 ,diagram restoration of an ,australian ,trilobite 7,dalmanites7 #bbd #ajh4 ,cambrian ,trilobites #bbf #aji4 ,older ,silurian ,trilobites #bbh #aaj4 ,newer ,silurian ,trilobites #bcj #aaa4 ,carboniferous ,trilobites and a ,phyllopod #bcb #aab4 ,silurian ,ostracoda #bcf #aac4 ,upper ,palaeozoic and ,mesozoic ,ostracoda #bch #aad4 ,cainozoic ,ostracoda #bci #aae4 ,fossil ,cirripedes #bdb #aaf4 ,cirripedes4 ,lepas anatifera1 ,linn43 living goose barnacle1 and ,l4 pritchardi1 ,hall3 ,cainozoic #bdb #aag4 ,ceratiocaris papilio1 ,salter #bdd #aah4 ,ordovician ,phyllocarids #bde #aai4 ,silurian ,phyllocarids #bde #abj4 ,fossil ,crabs and ,insects #bdg #aba4 ,silurian ,eurypterids #bdi #abb4 ,thyestes magnificus1 ,chapm4 #bei #abc4 ,gyracanthides murrayi1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,restoration #bfj #abd4 ,teeth and ,scales of ,palaeozoic and ,mesozoic ,fishes #bfj #abe4 ,cleithrolepis granulatus1 ,egerton #bfc #abf4 ,tooth of ,ceratodus avus1 ,a4 ,s4 ,w41 and phalangeal of a carnivorous ,deinosaur #bfd #abg4 ,scale of ,ceratodus 8 avus #bfe #abh4 ,the ,queensland ,lung-fish3 ,neoceratodus forsteri1 ,krefft #bff #abi4 ,leptolepis gregarius1 ,a4 ,s4 ,w4 #bff #acj4 ,cretaceous and ,cainozoic ,fish-teeth #bfh #aca4 ,cainozoic ,fish remains #bgj #acb4 ,bothriceps major1 ,a4 ,s4 ,w4 #bgc #acc4 ,ichthyosaurus australis1 ,mc,coy #bgg #acd4 ,fossil ,reptiles #bgh #ace4 ,impression of ,bird's feather1 magnified1 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria #bha #acf4 ,cnemiornis calcitrans1 ,owen #bhd #acg4 ,dinornis maximus1 ,owen4 ,great ,moa #bhd #ach4 ,pachyornis elephantopus1 ,owen #bhe #aci4 ,skeleton of ,sarcophilus ursinus1 ,harris sp4 #bhh #adj4 ,skull of fossil specimen of ,sarcophilus ursinus #bhh #ada4 ,thylacinus major1 ,owen4 ,hind part of mandible #bhi #adb4 ,phascolomys pliocenus1 ,mc,coy4 ,mandible #bij #adc4 ,cainozoic ,teeth and ,otolith #bia #add4 ,skeleton of ,diprotodon australis1 ,owen #bia #ade4 ,right hind foot of ,diprotodon australis #bib #adf4 ,restoration of ,diprotodon australis #bib #adg4 ,skull and mandible of ,thylacoleo carnifex1 ,owen #bic #adh4 ,wynyardia bassiana1 ,spencer #bid #adi4 ,tooth of ,scaldicetus macgeei1 ,chapm4 #big #aej4 ,impressions of footprints in dune sand-rock1 ,warrnambool #cja ,map of ,australia1 showing chief fossiliferous localities4 ,,preface4 ,the more important discoveries of fossils in the southern hemisphere have received1 as a rule1 very meagre notice in many of the text-books of ,geology and ,palaeontology published in ,england1 ,germany and ,america1 and used by ,australasian students4 ,it is thought1 therefore1 that the time has arrived when an attempt should be made to collect the main facts bearing upon this subject1 in order to present them from an ,australasian standpoint4 ,with this in view1 references to fossils occurring in the northern hemisphere are subordinated1 seeing that these may be easily obtained on reference to the accepted text-books in general use4 ,the present work does not presume to furnish a complete record of ,australasian palaeontology1 since that would mean the production of a much more extensive and costly volume4 ,sufficient information is here given1 however1 to form a groundwork for the student of this section of natural science1 and a guide to the collector of these medals of creation4 ,the systematic portion of this book has been arranged primarily from the biological side1 since ,palaeontology is the study of ancient life4 ,taking each life-group1 therefore1 from the lowest to the highest types1 all the divisions represented by fossils are dealt with in turn1 beginning with their occurrence in the oldest rocks and ending with those in the newest strata4 ,if a commendation of the study of fossils1 apart from its scientific utility1 were needed1 it could be pointed out that palaeontology as a branch of geology is1 par excellence1 an open-air study3 and since it requires as handmaids all the sister sciences1 is a subject of far-reaching interest4 ,microscopy and photography are of immense value in certain branches of fossil research1 the former in the examination of the minute forms of mollusca1 foraminifera and ostracoda1 the latter in the exact portraiture of specimens too intricate to copy with the brush1 or too evanescent to long retain1 when out of their matrix1 their clean fresh surfaces4 ,with geology or palaeontology as an objective1 a country walk may be a source of much enjoyment to its students1 for in their hand is ,nature like an open book2 and the specimens collected on a summer excursion may be closely and profitably studied in the spare time of the winter recess4 ,the author sincerely trusts that students may share the same pleasure which he has derived from the study of these relics of past life2 and that the present attempt to show their relationship both in geological time and biological organisation1 may be the means of inducing many to make further advances in this fascinating subject4 ,in the production of this work several friends and collaborators have materially assisted1 their aid considerably increasing its value4 ,it is therefore with grateful thanks that the author acknowledges the help and encouragement given by ,professor ,e4 ,w4 ,skeats1 ,d4,sc41 who has not only been good enough to write the ,introductory passages1 but who has carefully gone over the ,,ms4 and made many helpful suggestions4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,s4 ,dun1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,palaeontologist to the ,geological ,survey ,branch of the ,department of ,mines1 ,sydney1 has also rendered generous help in giving the benefit of his full acquaintance of the palaeontology of his own ,state4 ,to the ,trustees of the ,national ,museum the author is under special obligations for permission to photograph many unique fossil specimens in the ,museum collection1 comprising ,figs4 #c1 #af-ah1 #bj-bb1 #bh-ca1 #ce1 #ci1 #dj1 #de1 #df1 #ea-ed1 #eg1 #fb1 #gh1 #gi1 #abg1 #acc1 #acf1 #adg and #adh4 ,the author's thanks are also due to ,dr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,stirling1 ,m4,d41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 for permission to use ,figs4 #adc1 #add and #ade1 whilst similar privileges have been accorded by ,prof4 ,a4 ,g4 ,seward1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,dr4 ,f4 ,a4 ,bather1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,mr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,barrett4 ,prof4 ,t4 ,w4 ,edgeworth ,david1 ,f4,r4,s41 has kindly cleared up some doubtful points of stratigraphy and further increased the author's indebtedness by the loan of a unique slide of ,radiolaria figured on p4 #fi4 ,mr4 ,eastwood ,moore1 to whom special thanks are due1 has greatly added to the pictorial side of this work by his skillful help in preparing many of the illustrations for the press1 as well as in the drawing of the several maps4 ,the grouped sets of fossils have been especially drawn for this work by the author4 ,they are either copied from authentic specimens or from previously published drawings2 references to the authorities being given in the accompanying legends4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall has kindly read the section on ,graptolites and ,mammalia4 ,for many helpful suggestions and the careful reading of proofs1 thanks are especially owing to ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,g4 ,simons1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,keble1 and to my wife4 ,,introduction4 ,geological ,department1 ,the ,university1 ,melbourne4 ,william ,smith1 the ,father of ,english ,geology1 used to apologize for the study of palaeontology by claiming that the search for a fossil is at least as rational a proceeding as the pursuit of a hare4 ,those of us who are accustomed to take the field1 armed with a hammer1 in the search for medals of creation and from time to time have experienced the sporting enjoyment of bringing to light a rare or perfect specimen are quite prepared to support his claim4 ,but the student of fossils needs the help of a text book to guide him to the literature on the subject1 to help him with his identifications or to indicate that some of his finds are new and hitherto undescribed4 ,european and ,american workers have long been provided with excellent books treating generally of fossils1 but the illustrations have been quite naturally taken mainly from forms occurring in the ,northern ,hemisphere4 ,our own fossil forms both plants and animals are numerous1 interesting and in many cases peculiar1 but the literature concerning them is so widely scattered in various scientific publications that a warm welcome should be given to this book of ,mr4 ,chapman's1 in which the ,australian evidence is brought together and summarised by one1 whose training1 long experience1 and personal research qualify him to undertake the task4 ,especially will teachers and students of ,geology and ,palaeontology value such an undertaking4 ,workers in other countries who have only partial access to the ,australian literature on the subject should also find this a valuable book of reference4 ,in the study of fossils we are concerned with the nature1 evolution and distribution of the former inhabitants of the earth4 ,the study of ,palaeontology may be justified as a means of scientific discipline1 for the contributions the subject makes to the increase of natural knowledge and the unfolding of panoramas of ancient life4 ,it also provides perhaps the most positive evidence in the story of evolution4 ,so1 too1 the student of the present day distribution of animals and plants finds the key to many a problem in zoo-geography in the records of past migrations yielded by the study of fossils in different lands4 ,the stratigraphical geologist is of course principally concerned with two important aspects of the study of fossils4 ,the masterly generalisation of ,william ,smith that strata can be identified by their fossil contents established by close study of the rocks and fossils of the ,british ,oolites has been confirmed generally by subsequent work4 ,the comparative study of the fossil contents of rocks in widely separated areas has proved to be the most valuable means by which the correlation of the rocks can be effected and their identity of age established4 ,in some cases the recognition of a single fossil species in two areas separated1 perhaps1 by thousands of miles may suffice to demonstrate that the rocks are of the same age4 ,for example1 a graptolite such as ,phyllograptus typus is found in many parts of the world1 but has only a very restricted range in time4 ,it has been found only in rocks of ,lower ,ordovician age4 ,its occurrence in ,wales and in the rocks of ,bendigo practically suffices to establish the identity in age of the rocks in these widely separated areas4 ,generally1 however1 much closer study and a more detailed examination of a large number of the fossils of a rock series are required before the age of the rocks can be surely established and a safe correlation made with distant localities4 ,the stratigraphical generalisations to be made from the study of fossils however must be qualified by certain considerations4 ,among these are the fact that our knowledge of the life forms of a given geological period is necessarily incomplete1 that the differences in the fossil contents of rocks may depend not only on differences of age but also in the conditions under which the organisms lived and the rocks were accumulated1 and that forms of life originating in one area do not spread themselves immediately over the earth but migrate at velocities depending on their mode of life and the presence or absence of barriers to their progress4 ,our incomplete knowledge of the forms living in remote geological periods arises partly from the fact that some forms had no permanent skeleton and were therefore incapable of preservation1 partly to the obliteration of the skeletons of organisms through subsequent earth movements in the rocks or through the solvent action of water4 ,many land forms1 too1 probably disintegrated on the surface before deposits were formed over the area4 ,apart from these causes which determine that a full knowledge of the fossils from ancient rocks in particular1 will never be acquired1 our knowledge is incomplete by reason either of difficulty of access to certain areas or incomplete search4 ,as a result of later discoveries earlier conclusions based on incomplete evidence as to the age of a rock series1 have not infrequently been modified4 ,the study of the present distribution of animals and plants over the earth is a help in the attempt to decide how far the fossil differences in the sets of rocks are due to differences in the ages of the rocks or to differences in the conditions under which the organisms lived4 ,the present1 in this1 as in many other geological problems1 is the key to the past4 ,we know1 for instance1 that differences of climate largely control the geographical distribution of land animals and especially of land plants1 and for that reason among others1 fossil plants are generally less trustworthy guides to geological age than fossil animals4 ,in the distribution of marine animals at the present day we find that organisms of simple structure are generally more wide-spread and less susceptible to changes in their environment than are the more complex organisms with specialised structures4 ,hence we find1 for instance1 a fossil species of the ,foraminifera may persist unchanged through several geological periods1 while a species of fossil fish has in general not only a short range in time but often a restricted geographical extent4 ,if we consider the marine organisms found at the present day we find a number of free-swimming forms very widely distributed1 while a large number are restricted either by reason of climate or of depth4 ,certain organisms are only to be found between high and low tide levels1 others between low tide level and a depth of thirty fathoms1 while many quite different forms live in deeper waters4 ,if we confine our attention to shallow-water marine forms we note that certain forms are at the present day restricted to waters of a certain temperature4 ,we find1 therefore1 a contrast between arctic and tropical faunas1 while other types characterize temperate latitudes4 ,climatic and bathymetrical differences at the present day therefore lead to distinct differences in the distribution of certain organisms1 while other forms1 less sensitive to these factors1 range widely and may be almost universally distributed4 ,similar conditions obtained in past geological times1 and therefore in attempting to correlate the rocks of one area with those of another those fossils which are most wide-spread are often found to be the most valuable4 ,attention should also be paid to the conditions under which the deposits accumulated1 since it is clear that rocks may be formed at the same time in different areas and yet contain many distinct fossils by reason of climatic or bathymetrical differences4 ,among living marine organisms we find certain forms restricted to sandy or muddy sea-bottoms and others to clear water1 and these changes in the conditions of deposition of sediment have played their part in past geological periods in determining differences in the fossil faunas of rocks which were laid down simultaneously4 ,we not infrequently find mudstones passing laterally into limestones1 and this lithological change is always accompanied by a more or less notable change in the fossil contents of the two rock types4 ,such facts emphasize the close connection between stratigraphy and palaeontology1 and indicate that the successful tracing out of the geological history of any area is only possible when the evidence of the stratigrapher is reinforced by that provided by the palaeontologist4 ,the fact that species of animals and plants which have been developed in a particular area do not spread all over the world at once but migrate very slowly led ,huxley many years ago to put forward his hypothesis of homotaxis4 ,he agreed that when the order of succession of rocks and fossils has been made out in one area1 this order and succession will be found to be generally similar in other areas4 ,the deposits in two such contrasted areas are homotaxial1 that is1 show a similarity of order1 but1 he claimed1 are not necessarily synchronous in their formation4 ,in whatever parts of the world ,carboniferous1 ,devonian and ,silurian fossils may be found1 the rocks with ,carboniferous fossils will be found to overlie those with ,devonian1 and these in their turn rest upon those containing ,silurian fossils4 ,and yet ,huxley maintained that if1 say1 ,africa was the area in which faunas and floras originated1 the migration of a ,silurian fauna and flora might take place so slowly that by the time it reached ,britain the succeeding ,devonian forms had developed in ,africa1 and when it reached ,north ,america1 ,devonian forms had reached ,britain and ,carboniferous forms had developed in ,africa4 ,if this were so a ,devonian fauna and flora in ,britain may have been contemporaneous with ,silurian life in ,north ,america and with a ,carboniferous fauna and flora in ,africa4 ,this could only be true if the time taken for the migration of faunas and floras was so great as to transcend the boundaries between great geological periods4 ,this does not appear to be the case1 and ,huxley's idea in its extreme form has been generally abandoned4 ,at the same time certain anomalies in the range in time of individual genera have been noted1 and may possibly be explained on such lines4 ,for instance1 among the group of the graptolites1 in ,britain the genus ,bryograptus occurs only in the ,upper ,cambrian and the genus ,leptograptus only in the ,upper ,ordovician rocks4 ,in ,victoria these two genera1 together with typical ,lower ,ordovician forms1 may be found near ,lancefield preserved on a single slab of shale4 ,in the same way1 in a single quarry in ,triassic rocks in ,new ,south ,wales1 a number of fossil fish have been found and described1 some of which have been compared to ,jurassic1 others to ,permian1 and others to ,carboniferous forms in the ,northern ,hemisphere4 ,another point which the palaeontologist may occasionally find evidence for is the existence of biological asylums1 areas which by means of land or other barriers may be for a long period separated from the main stream of evolution4 ,we know that the present fauna and flora of ,australia is largely of archaic aspect1 as it includes a number of types which elsewhere have long ago become extinct or were never developed4 ,this appears to be due to the long isolation of ,australia and1 as ,professor ,gregory happily puts it--its development in a biological backwater4 ,we have some evidence that similar asylums have existed in past geological periods1 with the result that in certain areas where uniform conditions prevailed for a long time or where isolation from competition prevented rapid evolution1 some organisms which became extinct in other areas1 persisted unchanged in the asylum into a younger geological period4 ,the broad generalizations that rocks may be identified by their fossil contents and that the testimony of the rocks demonstrates the general order of evolution from simple to complex forms1 have only been placed on a surer footing by long continued investigations4 ,the modifications produced by conditions of deposit1 of climate and of natural barriers to migration1 while introducing complexities into the problems of ,palaeontology1 are every year becoming better known2 and when considered in connection with the variations in the characters of the rocks1 provide valuable and interesting evidence towards the solution of the ultimate problems of geology and palaeontology1 which include the tracing out of the evolution of the history of the earth from the most remote geological period to that point at which the geologist hands over his story to the archaeologist1 the historian1 and the geographer4 ,,ernest ,w4 ,,skeats4 ,,part ,i4 ,,general ,,principles4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,nature ,,and ,,uses ,,of ,,fossils4 ,scope of ,geology4-- ,the science of ,,geology1 of which ,,palaeontology or the study of fossils1 forms a part1 is concerned with the nature and structure of the earth1 the physical forces that have shaped it1 and the organic agencies that have helped to build it4 ,nature of ,fossils4-- ,the remains of animals and plants that formerly existed in the different periods of the history of the earth are spoken of as fossils4 ,they are found1 more or less plentifully1 in such common rocks as clays1 shales1 sandstones1 and limestones1 all of which are comprised in the great series of ,sedimentary ,rocks 7,fig4 #a74 ,according to the surroundings of the organisms1 whether they existed on land1 in rivers1 lakes1 estuaries1 or the sea1 they are spoken of as belonging to terrestrial1 fluviatile1 lacustrine1 estuarine1 or marine deposits4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,fossil ,shells ,embedded in ,sandy ,clay4 ,about #c_/d nat4 size4 ,of ,cainozoic or ,tertiary ,age 7,kalimnan ,series74 ,grange ,burn1 near ,hamilton1 ,victoria4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 7,g ,glycimeris4 ,l ,limopsis4 ,n ,natica74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,tracks probably of ,crustaceans 7,phyllocarids74 ,about #c_/d nat4 size4 ,impression of a ,slab of ,upper ,ordovician ,shale4 ,diggers' ,rest1 ,victoria4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,the name fossil1 from the ,latin 'fodere' to dig1--'fossilis1' dug out1--is applied to the remains of any animals or plants which have been buried either in sediments laid down in water1 in materials gathered together by the wind on land as sand-dunes1 in beds of volcanic ash1 or in cave earths4 ,but not only remains of organisms are thus called fossils1 for the name is also applied to structures only indirectly connected with once living objects1 such as rain-prints1 ripple-marks1 sun-cracks1 and tracks or impressions of worms and insects 7,fig4 #b74 ,preservation of ,fossils4-- ,in ordinary terms1 fossils are the durable parts of animals and plants which have resisted complete decay by being covered over with the deposits above-named4 ,it is due1 then1 to the fact that they have been kept from the action of the air1 with its destructive bacteria1 that we are able to still find these relics of life in the past4 ,petrifaction of ,fossils4-- ,when organisms are covered by a tenacious mud1 they sometimes undergo no further change4 ,very often1 however1 moisture containing mineral matter such as carbonate of lime or silica1 percolates through the stratum which contains the fossils1 and then they not only have their pores filled with the mineral1 but their actual substance may also undergo a molecular change1 whereby the original composition of the shell or the hard part is entirely altered4 ,this tends almost invariably to harden the fossils still further1 which change of condition is called petrifaction1 or the making into stone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,thin ,slice of ,petrified or ,silicified ,wood in ,tangential ,section4 ,araucarioxylon ,daintreei1 ,chapm4 ,dadoxylon australe1 ,arber2 #bh4 ,carbopermian3 ,newcastle1 ,new ,south ,wales4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,structure ,preserved4-- ,petrifaction does not necessarily destroy the structure of a fossil4 ,for example1 a piece of wood1 which originally consisted of carbon1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen1 may be entirely replaced by flint or silica3 and yet the original structure of the wood may be so perfectly preserved that when a thin slice of the petrifaction is examined under a high power of the microscope1 the tissues with their component cells are seen and easily recognised 7,fig4 #c74 ,early ,observers4-- ,remains of animals buried in the rocks were known from the earliest times1 and frequent references to these were made by the ancient ,greek and ,roman philosophers4 ,xenophanes4-- ,xenophanes1 who lived ,b4,c4 #ece1 wrote of shells1 fishes and seals which had become dried in mud1 and were found inland and on the tops of the highest mountains4 ,the presence of these buried shells and bones was ascribed by the ancients to a plastic force latent in the earth itself1 while in some cases they were regarded as freaks of nature4 ,leonardo da ,vinci4-- ,in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ,italian observers came to the fore in clearly demonstrating the true nature of fossils4 ,this was no doubt due in part to the fact that the ,italian coast affords a rich field of observation in this particular branch of science4 ,the celebrated painter ,leonardo da ,vinci 7early part of the sixteenth century71 who carried out some engineering works in connection with canals in the north of ,italy1 showed that the mud brought down by rivers had penetrated into the interior of shells at a time when they were still at the bottom of the sea near the coast4 ,steno4-- ,in #affi1 ,steno1 a ,danish physician residing in ,italy1 wrote a work on organic petrifactions which are found enclosed in solid rocks1 and showed by his dissection of a shark which had been recently captured and by a comparison of its teeth with those found fossil in the cliffs1 that they were identical4 ,the same author also pointed out the resemblance between the shells discovered in the ,italian strata and those living on the adjacent shores4 ,it was not until the close of the eighteenth century1 however1 that the study of fossil remains received a decided impetus4 ,it is curious to note that many of these later authors maintained the occurrence of a universal flood to account for the presence of fossil shells and bones on the dry land4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,william ,smith 7#agfi-ahci47 ,the ,father of ,english ,geology1 at the age of #fi4 7,from ,brit4 ,mus4 ,cat47 ,fossils an ,index to ,age4-- ,a large part of the credit of showing how fossils are restricted to certain strata1 and help to fix the succession and age of the beds1 is due to the ,english geologist and surveyor1 ,william ,smith 7,fig4 #d74 ,the ,father of ,english ,geology1 as he has been called1 published two works#a in the early part of last century1 in which he expressed his view of the value of fossils to the geologist and surveyor1 and showed that there was a regular law of superposition of one bed upon another1 and that strata could be identified at distant localities by their included fossils4 ,upon this foundation the work of later geologists has been firmly established2 and students of strata and of fossils work hand in hand4 ,footnote #a3 ,strata identified by ,organised ,fossils1 #ahaf-ahai2 and ,stratigraphical ,system of ,organised ,fossils1 #ahag4 ,stratigraphy4-- ,that branch of geology which discusses the nature and relations of the various sediments of the earth's crust1 and the form in which they were laid down1 is called ,stratigraphy4 ,from it we learn that in bygone times many of those places that are now occupied by dry land have been1 often more than once1 covered by the sea2 and thus ,tennyson's lines are forcibly brought to mind-- ,there where the long street roars hath been ,the stillness of the central sea4 ,elevated ,sea-beds4-- ,a striking illustration in proof of this emergence of the land from the sea is the occurrence of marine shells similar to those now found living in the sea1 in sea-cliffs sometimes many hundreds of feet above sea-level4 ,when these upraised beds consist of shingle or sand with shore-loving shells1 as limpets and mussels1 they are spoken of as ,raised ,beaches4 ,elevated beaches are often found maintaining the same level along coast-lines for many miles1 like those recorded by ,darwin at ,chili and ,peru1 or in the south of ,england 7,fig4 #e74 ,they also occur intermittently along the ,victorian coast1 especially around the indents1 where they have survived the wear and tear of tides along the coast line 7,fig4 #f74 ,they are also a common feature1 as a capping1 on many coral islands which have undergone elevation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,a ,raised ,beach at ,black ,rock1 ,brighton1 ,england4 7,original74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,raised ,beach 7a7 and ,native ,middens 7b7 ,torquay1 ,victoria4 7,original74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,marine ,fossils 7,orthis flabellulum1 ,sowerby47 ,about nat4 size4 ,in ,volcanic ,tuff of ,ordovician ,age4 ,from the ,summit of ,snowdon1 ,north ,wales1 at an elevation of #cega feet above sea level4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,sea-beds far from the ,present ,coast4-- ,marine beds of deeper water origin may be found not only close to the coast-line1 but frequently on the tops of inland hills some miles from the sea-coast4 ,their included sea-shells and other organic remains are often found covered by fine sediment forming extensive beds2 and they may frequently occur in the position in which they lived and died 7,fig4 #g74 ,although it is well known that sea-birds carry shell-fish for some distance inland1 yet this would not account for more than a few isolated examples4 ,raised ,beaches as ,distinct from ,middens4-- ,again1 it may be argued that the primitive inhabitants of countries bordering the coast were in the habit of piling up the empty shells of the edible molluscs used by them for food3 but these kitchen middens are easily distinguished from fossil deposits like shelly beaches1 by the absence of stratified layers2 and1 further1 by the shells being confined to edible species1 as the ,cockle 7,cardium71 the ,blood-cockle 7,arca71 the ,mussel 7,mytilus71 and the ,oyster 7,ostrea7 7,fig4 #h74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,remains of ,edible ,shell ,fish 7,kitchen-midden--native1 mirrn-yong7 in ,sand ,dunes near ,spring ,creek1 ,torquay1 ,victoria4 7,original74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,part of a ,submerged ,forest seen at low water on the ,cheshire coast at ,leasowe1 ,england4 7,from ,seward's ,fossil ,plants7 ,submerged ,forests4-- ,evidence of change in the coast-line is shown by the occurrence of submerged forest-land1 known as fossil forests1 which consist of the stumps of trees still embedded in the black1 loamy soil4 ,such forests1 when of comparatively recent age1 are found near the existing coast-line1 and may sometimes extend for a considerable distance out to sea 7,fig4 #i74 ,from the foregoing we learn that3-- #a4--;,fossils afford data of the various ,changes that have taken place in past times in the ,relative ,positions of ,land and ,water4 ,changes of ,climate in the ,past4-- ,at the present day we find special groups of animals 7fauna71 and plants 7flora71 restricted to tropical climates2 and others1 conversely1 to the arctic regions4 ,cycads and tree-ferns1 for example1 seem to flourish best in warm or sub-tropical countries3 yet in past times they were abundant in northern ,europe in what are now temperate and arctic regions1 as in ,yorkshire1 ,spitzbergen1 and ,northern ,siberia1 where indeed at one time they formed the principal flora4 ,the rein-deer and musk-sheep1 now to be found only in the arctic regions1 once lived in the ,south of ,england1 ,france and ,germany4 ,the dwarf willow 7,salix polaris7 and an arctic moss 7,hypnum turgescens71 now restricted to the same cold region1 occur fossil in the ,south of ,england4 ,in ,southern ,australia and in ,new ,zealand1 the marine shells which lived during the earlier and middle ,tertiary times belong to genera and species which are indicative of a warmer climate than that now prevailing2 this ancient fauna being like that met with in dredging around the northern coasts of ,australia 7,fig4 #aj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,a ,fossil ,shell 7,pecten murrayanus1 ,tate74 ,of ,oligocene to ,lower ,pliocene ,age in ,southern ,australia2 closely allied to1 if not identical with1 a species living off the coast of ,queensland4 ,about nat4 size4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,from the above evidence we may say that3-- #b4--;,fossils teach us that in ,former ,times the ,climate of certain parts of the earth's surface was ,different from that now existing4 ,fossils as ,guides to ,age of ,strata4-- ,in passing from fossil deposits of fairly recent origin to those of older date1 we find the proportion of living species gradually diminish1 being replaced by forms now extinct4 ,after this the genera themselves are replaced by more ancient types1 and if we penetrate still deeper into the series of geological strata1 even families and orders of animals and plants give place to others entirely unknown at the present day4 ,from this we conclude that3-- #c4--;,fossil ,types1 or ,guide ,fossils1 are of great value in indicating the ,relative ,age of ,geological ,formations4 ,gradual ,evolution of ,life-forms from ,lower to ,higher ,types4-- ,as a general rule the various types of animals and plants become simpler in organisation as we descend the geological scale4 ,for example1 in the oldest rocks the animals are confined to the groups of ,foraminifera1 ,sponges1 ,corals1 ,graptolites1 ,shell-fish and ,trilobites1 all back-boneless animals3 whilst it was not until the ,devonian period that the primitive fishes appeared as a well-defined group2 and in the next formation1 the ,carboniferous ,series1 the first traces of the ,batrachians 7,frog-like animals7 and ,reptiles are found4 ,birds do not appear1 so far as their remains are known1 until near the close of the ,jurassic2 whilst ,mammals are sparsely represented by ,monotremes and ,marsupials in the ,triassic and ,jurassic1 becoming more abundant in ,cainozoic times1 and by the ,eutheria 7,higher ,mammals7 from the commencement of the ,eocene period4 ,it is clear from the above and other facts in the geological distribution of animal types that3-- #d4--,the ,geological ,record supports in the main the ,doctrine of ,evolution from ,simpler to more ,complex types2 and fossils throw much light upon the ,ancestry of ,animals and ,plants now found ,living4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,fossil ,,animals ,,and ,,plants4 ,an elementary knowledge of the principles underlying the classification of animals and plants is essential to the beginner in the study of fossils4 ,the ,naming of ,animals4-- ,in order to make a clearly understood reference to an animal1 or the remains of one1 it is as necessary to give it a name as it is in the case of a person or a place4 ,before the time of ,linnaeus 7#agjg-aggh71 it was the custom to refer1 for example1 to a shell1 in ,latin#b as the little spiral shell1 with cross markings and tubercles1 like a ram's horn2 or to a worm as the rounded worm with an elevated back4 ,improvements in this cumbersome method of naming were made by several of the earlier authors by shortening the description2 but no strict rule was established until the tenth edition of ,linnaeus' ,systema ,naturae 7#ageh71 when that author instituted his binomial nomenclature by giving each form enumerated both a generic and specific name4 ,in plain words1 this method takes certain life-forms closely related1 but differing in minute particulars1 and places them together in a genus or kindred group4 ,thus the true dogs belong to the genus ,canis1 but since this group also includes wolves1 jackals1 and foxes1 the various canine animals are respectively designated by a specific name2 thus the dog 7,canis familiaris71 the dingo 7,c4 dingo71 the wolf 7,c4 lupus71 the jackal 7,c4 aureus71 and the fox 7,c4 vulpes74 ,the generic name is placed first4 ,allied genera are grouped in families1 7for example1 ,canidae71 these into orders 7ex4 ,carnivora71 the orders into classes 7ex4 ,mammalia71 and the classes into phyla or subkingdoms 7ex4 ,vertebrata74 ,footnote #b3 ,the ,latin description was used more commonly than it is at present1 as a universal scientific language4 ,plants are classified in much the same way1 with the exception that families and orders are1 by some authors1 regarded as of equal value1 or even reversed in value2 and instead of the term phylum the name series is used4 ,classification of the ,animal ,kingdom4 ,,name ,,of ,,phylum4 ,,forms ,,found ,,fossil ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,i4--,,protozoa ,foraminifera1 ,radiolaria4 ,,ii4--,,coelenterata ,sponges1 ,corals1 ,stromatoporoids1 ,graptolites4 ,,iii4--,,echinodermata ,crinoids1 ,starfishes1 ,brittle-stars1 ,sea-urchins4 ,,iv4--,,vermes ,worms 7tube-making and burrowing kinds74 ,v4--,,molluscoidea ,polyzoa or ,sea-mats1 ,brachiopods or ,lamp-shells4 ,,vi4--,,mollusca ,shell-fish3 as ,bivalves1 ,tusk-shells1 ,chitons or ,mail-shells1 ,gasteropods or ,snails1 ,pteropods or ,sea-butterflies2 ,cuttle-fishes4 ,,vii4--,,arthropoda ,joint-footed animals3 as ,trilobites1 ,cyprids1 ,crabs and ,lobsters1 ,centipedes1 ,spiders and ,insects4 ,,viii4--,,vertebrata ,fishes1 ,amphibians1 ,reptiles1 ,birds and ,mammals4 ,classification of ,animal ,kingdom4 ,the first seven groups of the above classification are back-boneless animals or ,invertebrata2 the eighth division alone comprising the animals with a vertebra or backbone4 ,characters of the ,several ,phyla4-- ,in the first group are placed those animals which1 when living1 consist of only one cell1 or a series of similar cells1 but where the cells were never combined to form tissues having special functions1 as in the higher groups4 ,,protozoa4-- ,the ,amoeba of freshwater ponds is an example of such1 but owing to its skin or cortex being soft1 and its consequent inability to be preserved1 it does not concern us here4 ,there are1 however1 certain marine animals of this simple type of the ,protozoa which secrete carbonate of lime to form a chambered shell 7,foraminifera72 or silica to form a netted and concentrically coated shell held together with radial rods 7,radiolaria72 and both of these types are found abundantly as fossils4 ,they are mainly microscopic1 except in the case of the nummulites and a few other kinds of foraminifera1 which are occasionally as large as a crown piece4 ,,coelenterata4-- ,the second group1 the ,coelenterata1 shows a decided advance in organisation1 for the body is multicellular1 and provided with a body-cavity which serves for circulation and digestion4 ,the important divisions of this group1 in which the organisms have hard parts capable of being fossilised1 are the limy and flinty ,sponges1 the ,corals1 and allied groups1 as well as the delicate ,graptolites which often cover the surface of the older slates with their serrated1 linear forms1 resembling pieces of fret-saws4 ,,echinodermata4-- ,the third group1 ,echinodermata1 comprises the ,sea-lilies 7,crinoids71 ,starfishes and ,sea-urchins1 besides a few other less important types2 and all these mentioned are found living at the present day4 ,their bodies are arranged in a radial manner1 the skin being strengthened by spicules and hardened by limy deposits ultimately forming plates4 ,they have a digestive canal and a circulatory system1 and are thus one remove higher than the preceding group4 ,,vermes4-- ,the fourth group1 ,vermes 7,worms71 are animals with a bilateral or two-sided body1 which is sometimes divided into segments1 but without jointed appendages4 ,those which concern the student of fossils are the tube-making worms1 the errant or wandering worms which form casts like the lob-worm1 and the burrowing kinds whose crypts or dwellings become filled with solid material derived from the surrounding mud4 ,,molluscoidea4-- ,group five1 the ,molluscoidea1 contains two types2 the ,flustras or ,sea-mats 7,polyzoa7 and the ,lamp-shells 7,brachiopoda74 ,they are at first sight totally unlike2 for the first-named are colonies of compound animals1 and the second are simple1 and enclosed between two valves4 ,they show in common1 however1 a bilateral symmetry4 ,the mouth is furnished with fine tentacles1 or with spirally rolled hair-like or ciliated processes4 ,,mollusca4-- ,the sixth group1 the ,mollusca1 includes all shell-fish4 ,they are soft-bodied1 bilaterally symmetrical animals1 without definite segments4 ,the shells1 on account of being formed of carbonate of lime on an organic basis1 are often found preserved in fossiliferous strata4 ,,arthropoda4-- ,the seventh group1 the ,arthropoda1 or joint-footed animals1 are distinguished by their segmented1 lateral limbs1 and by having a body composed of a series of segments or somites4 ,the body and appendages are usually protected by a horny covering1 the 'exoskeleton4' ,the group of the ,trilobites played an important part in the first era of the formation of the earth's crust2 whilst the other groups were more sparsely represented in earlier geological times1 but became more and more predominant until the present day4 ,,vertebrata4-- ,the great group of the ,vertebrata comes last1 with its chief characteristic of the backbone structure1 which advances in complexity from the ,fishes to the ,higher ,mammals4 ,a ,simplified ,classification of the ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,,series4 ,,forms ,,found ,,fossil4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,i4--,,thallophyta ,sea-weeds3 as ,corallines and ,calcareous ,algae4 ,,ii4--,,bryophyta ,mosses1 ,liverworts4 ,,iii4--,,pteridophyta ,fern-like plants1 as ,horse-tails1 ,club-mosses and true ,ferns4 ,,iv4--,,pteridospermeae,oldest ,seed-bearing plants1 with fern-like foliage4 ,v4--,,gymnospermeae ,plants with naked seeds1 as ,cycads 7,fern-palms71 ,ginkgo 7,maiden-hair ,tree71 and ,conifers 7,pine trees74 ,,vi4--,,angiospermeae ,flowering plants1 as ,grasses1 ,lilies and all ordinary trees and plants4 ,characters of the ,plant ,series4 ,,thallophyta4-- ,the first series1 the ,thallophytes1 are simple unicellular plants1 and occupy the same position in the vegetable kingdom as the ,protozoa do in the animal kingdom4 ,fossil remains of these organisms seem to be fairly well distributed throughout the entire geological series1 but1 owing to the soft structure of the fronds in most of the types1 it is often a matter of doubt whether we are dealing with a true thallophyte or not4 ,many of the so-called sea-weeds 7fucoids7 may be only trails or markings left by other organisms1 as shell-fish and crustaceans4 ,,bryophyta4-- ,the second series1 the ,bryophytes or moss plants1 are represented in the fossil state by a few unimportant examples4 ,,pteridophyta4-- ,the third series1 the ,pteridophytes1 includes the ,ferns found from the ,devonian up to the present day1 ,horse-tails and allied forms1 like ,equisetites1 and the ,club-mosses and ,lepidodendron of the ,carboniferous period in various parts of the world4 ,,pteridospermeae4-- ,the fourth series1 the ,pteridospermeae1 comprises some of the earliest seed-bearing plants1 as ,alethopteris and ,neuropteris4 ,they occur in rocks of ,upper ,palaeozoic age as far as known4 ,,gymnospermeae4 ,the fifth series1 the ,gymnospermeae1 contains the most important types of plants found fossil1 especially those of the primary and secondary rocks3 they were more abundant1 with the exception of the ,coniferae1 in the earlier than in the more recent geological periods4 ,,angiospermeae4-- ,the sixth series1 the ,angiospermeae1 comprises all the ,flowering ,trees and ,plants forming the bulk of the flora now living1 and is divided into the kinds having single or double seed-leaves 7,monocotyledones the ,dicotyledones respectively74 ,this important group came into existence towards the close of the ,cretaceous period simultaneously with the higher mammals1 and increased in abundance until modern times4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,geological ,,epochs3 ,,and ,,the ,,time ,,range ,,of ,,fossils4 ,superposition of ,strata4-- ,fossils are chiefly found in rocks which have been formed of sediments laid down in water1 such as sandstone1 shale and most limestones4 ,these rocks1 broadly speaking1 have been deposited in a horizontal position1 though really slightly inclined from shore to deep-water4 ,one layer has been formed above another1 so that the oldest layer is at the bottom1 and the newest at the top1 of the series 7,fig4 #aa74 ,let us1 for instance1 examine a cliff showing three layers3 the lower1 a sandstone1 we will ,call ,a2 the intermediate1 a shale or clay bed1 ,b2 and the uppermost1 a limestone or marl1 ,c 7,fig4 #ab74 ,in forming a conclusion about the relative ages of the beds1 we shall find that ,a is always older than ,b1 and ,b than ,c1 provided no disturbance of the strata has taken place4 ,for instance1 the beds once horizontally deposited may have been curved and folded over1 or even broken and thrust out of place1 within limited areas2 but occurrences like these are extremely rare4 ,moreover1 an examination of the surrounding country1 or of deep cuttings in the neighbourhood1 will tell us if there is any probability of this inversion of strata having taken place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,horizontal ,layers of ,fossiliferous ,clays and ,sands4 ,in ,sea ,cliff1 ,torquay ,coast1 ,victoria1 looking towards ,bird ,rock4 7,original74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,cliff-,section to ,show ,superposition of ,strata4 ,a ,sandstone4 ,b ,shale4 ,c ,limestone4 ,this law of superposition holds good throughout the mass of sedimentary rocks forming the crust of the earth4 7#a74 ,thus1 the position of the strata shows the relative ages of the beds4 ,differences in ,fossil ,faunas4-- ,turning once again to our ideal cliff section1 if we examine the fossils obtained from bed ,a1 we shall find them differing in the number of kinds or species common to the other beds above and below4 ,thus1 there will be more species alike in beds ,a and ,b or in ,b and ,c4 ,in other words the faunas of ,a and ,b are more nearly related than those of ,a and ,c4 ,this is explained by the fact that there is a gradual change in specific forms as we pass through the time series of strata from below upwards2 so that the nearer one collecting platform is to another1 as a rule1 the stronger is the community of species4 ,guide ,fossils4-- ,certain kinds of fossils are typical of particular formations4 ,they are known as guide fossils1 and by their occurrence help us to gain some idea of the approximate age of rocks widely separated by ocean and continent4 ,thus we find fossils typical of the ,middle ,devonian rocks in ,europe1 which also occur in parts of ,australia1 and we therefore conclude that the ,australian rocks containing those particular fossils belong to the same formation1 and are nearly of the same age4 7#b74 ,the included fossils1 therefore1 give evidence of the age of the beds4 ,value of ,lithological ,evidence4-- ,the test of age by rock-structure has a more restricted use1 but is of value when taken in conjunction with the sequence of the strata and the character of their included fossils4 ,to explain both the valuable and the uncertain elements of this last method as a determinant of age1 we may cite1 for instance1 the ,upper ,ordovician slates of ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales as an example of uniform rock formation2 whilst the yellow mudstones and the grey limestones of the ,upper ,silurian 7,yeringian series7 of the same states1 are instances of diverse lithological structures in strata of similar age4 ,a reference in the latter case to the assemblages of fossils found therein1 speedily settles the question4 7#c74 ,hence1 the structure and composition of the rocks 7lithology71 gives only partial evidence in regard to age4 ,strata ,vertically ,arranged4-- ,the ,stratigraphical ,series of fossiliferous sediments comprises bedded rocks from all parts of the world1 which geologists arrange in a vertical column according to age4 ,a general computation of such a column for the fossiliferous rocks of ,europe gives a thickness of about #ad miles4 ,this is equivalent to a mass of strata lying edgewise from ,melbourne to ,ringwood4 ,the ,australian sediments form a much thicker pile of rocks1 for they can hardly fall short of #cg miles1 or nearly the distance from ,melbourne to ,healesville4 ,this vertical column of strata was formed during three great eras of time4 ,the oldest is called the ,primary or ,palaeozoic 7ancient life71 in which the animals and plants are of primitive types4 ,this is followed by the ,secondary or ,mesozoic 7middle life71 in which the animals and plants are intermediate in character between the ,palaeozoic and the later1 ,cainozoic4 ,the third era is the ,tertiary or ,cainozoic 7recent life71 in which the animals and plants are most nearly allied to living forms4 ,these great periods are further subdivided into epochs1 as the ,silurian epoch2 and these again into stages1 as the ,yeringian stage4 ,vertical ,column of ,fossiliferous ,strata1 ,australia4 ,,era4 ,,epochs ,,in ,,equivalent ,,strata ,,europe4 ,,in ,,australia4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,holocene ,dunes1 ,beaches1 and ,shell-beds now forming4 ,,pleistocene ,raised ,beaches1 ,river ,terraces1 ,swamp ,deposits with ,diprotodon1 ,cave ,breccias1 ,helix ,sandstone4 ,,cainozoic ,,pliocene ,upper4--,estuarine beds of or bores in the ,murray basin1 ,,tertiary ,marine beds of 7,note #a74 ,limestone ,creek1 ,glenelg ,river1 ,vic4 7,werrikooian74 ,lower4--,kalimnan red sands 7terrestrial7 and shell marls 7marine7 of ,victoria1 ,deep ,leads 7fluviatile7 in part1 ,upper ,aldingan of ,south ,australia4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,cainozoic ,,miocene ,deep ,leads in part3 ,leaf-beds or of ,bacchus ,marsh1 ,,tertiary ,dalton and ,gunning4 7,continued74 ,janjukian ,series of ,c4 ,otway1 ,spring ,creek1 and ,table ,cape4 ,batesford ,limestone4 ,polyzoal ,rock of ,mt4 ,gambier and the ,nullarbor ,plains4 ,older ,cainozoic of ,murray basin1 ,lower ,aldingan ,series of ,s4 ,australia1 ,corio ,bay and ,bairnsdale ,series4 ,,oligocene ,shelly clays and leaf-beds of the ,balcombian ,series at ,mornington2 also ,shell-marls and clays with ,brown ,coal1 ,altona ,bay1 and lower beds at ,muddy ,creek1 ,w4 ,vict4 ,,eocene ,probably no representatives4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,mesozoic ,,cretaceous ,upper4--,leaf-beds of ,croydon1 or ,q4 ,desert ,sandstone1 ,,secondary ,q4 ,radiolarian ,rock1 ,n4 ,territory4 ,gin-gin ,chalk1 ,w4,a4 ,lower4--,rolling ,downs ,formn41 ,q4 ,lake ,eyre beds1 ,s4,a4 ,,jurassic ,marine4--,geraldton1 ,w4,a4 ,freshwater4--,carbonaceous sandstone of ,s4 ,gippsland1 the ,wannon1 ,c4 ,otway and ,barrabool ,hills4 ,ipswich ,series1 ,q4 ,mesozoic of ,tasmania1 ,talbragar beds1 ,n4,s4,w4 ,,triassic ,upper leaf-beds at ,bald ,hill1 ,bacchus ,marsh1 ,vict4 ,hawkesbury ,series 7,parramatta ,shales1 ,hawkesbury ,sandstone1 ,narrabeen beds71 ,n4,s4,w4 ,burrum ,beds1 ,q4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,palaeozoic ,,permian and ,carbopermian 7,note #b71 or ,,carboniferous1 ,coal ,measures of ,new ,,primary ,,upper ,south ,wales1 ,w4 ,australia1 ,queensland 7,gympie ,series7 and ,tasmania4 ,gangamopteris beds of ,bacchus ,marsh1 ,vict4 ,upper ,carboniferous of ,clarence ,town1 ,n4,s4,w4 ,,carboniferous1 ,fish and ,plant beds1 ,,lower ,mansfield1 ,vict4 ,grampian sandstone2 ,avon ,river sandstone1 ,vict4 787 ,star beds1 ,queensland4 ,lepidodendron beds of ,kimberley1 ,w4,a4 7,note #c74 ,,devonian ,upper4--,sandstones of ,iguana ,creek1 with plant remains4 ,lepidodendron beds with ,lingula1 ,nyrang ,creek1 ,n4,s4 ,wales4 ,middle4--,fossiliferous marbles and mudstones of ,buchan1 ,bindi and ,tabberabbera1 ,vict4 ,rocks of the ,murrumbidgee1 ,n4,s4 ,wales1 and of ,burdekin1 ,queensland4 ,,silurian ,upper4--7,yeringian stage74--,lilydale1 ,loyola1 ,thomson ,river1 and ,waratah ,bay1 ,vict42 ,bowning and ,yass 7in part71 ,n4,s4 ,wales2 ,queensland4 ,lower 7,melbournian stage74--,melbourne1 ,heathcote1 ,vict42 ,bowning and ,yass 7in part71 ,n4,s4 ,wales4 ,gordon ,r4 ,limestone4 ,,ordovician1 ,slates 7graptolitic74--,victoria ,,upper and and ,new ,south ,,lower ,wales4 787 ,gordon ,river ,limestone1 ,tas41 in part 7,note #d74 ,larapintine series of ,central ,australia4 ,,cambrian ,mudstones and limestones of ,tasmania1 ,south ,australia1 ,victoria and ,w4 ,australia4 ,,pre-,,cambrian ,fossiliferous rocks doubtful2 chiefly represented by schistose and other metamorphic rocks4 #a4--,the classification of the ,cainozoics as employed here is virtually the same as given by ,mc,coy in connection with his work for the ,victorian ,geological ,survey4 ,the writer has obtained further evidence to support these conclusions from special studies in the groups of the cetacea1 mollusca and the protozoa4 ,the alternative classification of the cainozoics as given by one or two later authors1 introducing the useful local terminology of ,hall and ,pritchard for the various stages or assises is as follows3-- ,,tate ,,and ,,dennant4 ,,hall ,,and ,,pritchard4 ,stages4 ,stages4 ,werrikooian ,pleistocene ,werrikooian ,pliocene4 ,pliocene ,kalimnan ,miocene ,kalimnan ,miocene4 ,janjukian 787 ,oligocene ,balcombian ,eocene4 ,balcombian ,eocene ,janjukian and ,aldingan ,eocene ,aldingan ,eocene4 7lower beds in part at that loc47 #b4--,or ,permo-carboniferous4 ,as the series is held by some authorities to partake of the faunas of both epochs1 it is preferable to use the shorter word1 which moreover gives the natural sequence4 ,there is1 however1 strong evidence in favour of using the term ,permian for this important series4 #c4--,mr4 ,w4 ,s4 ,dun regards the ,lepidodendron beds of ,w4 ,australia1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland as of ,upper ,devonian age4 ,there is no doubt1 from a broad view of the whole question as to the respective age of these beds in ,australia1 that the one series is continuous1 and probably represents the ,upper ,devonian and the ,lower ,carboniferous of the northern hemisphere4 #d4--,these limestones contain a fauna of brachiopods and corals which1 at present1 seems to point to the series as intermediate between the older ,silurian and the ,upper ,ordovician4 ,vertical ,column of ,fossiliferous ,strata1 ,new ,zealand4 ,,epochs ,,in ,,equivalent ,,strata ,,era4 ,,europe4 ,,in ,,new ,,zealand4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,holocene ,river ,alluvium4 ,beach ,sands and ,gravel4 ,,cainozoic ,,pleistocene ,raised ,beaches4 ,older ,gravel or ,drifts4 ,,tertiary ,moraines4 ,boulder ,clays4 ,,pliocene ,upper4--,petane series4 ,lower4--,waitotara ,wanganui and ,awatere series4 system4 ,,miocene ,oamaru series4 ,,oligocene ,waimangaroa series4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,cretaceous ,waipara series 7of ,hutton74 ,,mesozoic ,,jurassic ,mataura and ,putataka or series4 ,,secondary ,,triassic ,wairoa1 ,otapiri and ,kaihiku series4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,permian ,aorangi 7unfossiliferous7 series4 787,,carboniferous ,maitai series 7with ,spirifer and ,productus47 787,te ,anau series 7unfossiliferous74 ,,palaeozoic or ,,silurian ,wangapeka series4 ,,primary ,,ordovician ,kakanui series 7with ,lower ,ordovician graptolite facies74 ,,cambrian ,unfossiliferous4 ,metamorphic schists of the ,maniototo series4 #a4--;,based for the most part1 but with some slight modifications1 on ,prof4 ,j4 ,park's classification in ,geology of ,new ,zealand1 #aiaj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,range-in-,time of ,fossils in ,australasian ,sedimentary ,rocks4 ,e4,m41 del4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,skeleton of ,diprotodon australis1 ,owen4 ,uncovered in ,morass at ,lake ,callabonna1 ,south ,australia4 7,by permission of ,dr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,stirling74 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,how ,,fossils ,,are ,,found3 ,,and ,,the ,,rocks ,,they ,,form4 ,as already noticed1 it is the hard parts of buried animals and plants that are generally preserved4 ,we will now consider the groups of organisms1 one by one1 and note the particular parts of each which we may reasonably expect to find in the fossil state4 ,,mammals4--,the bones and teeth3 as the ,diprotodon remains of ,lake ,callabonna in ,south ,australia 7,fig4 #ad71 of ,west ,melbourne ,swamp1 ,victoria1 and the ,darling ,downs1 ,queensland4 ,rarely the skin1 as in the carcases of the frozen ,mammoth of the tundras of ,northern ,siberia2 or the dried remains of the ,grypotherium of ,south ,american caves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,bird ,bones4 ,exposed on ,sand-blow at ,seal ,bay1 ,king ,island4 7,photo by ,c4 ,l4 ,barrett74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,impression of a ,bird's ,feather in ,ironstone4 ,about #b_/c nat4 size4 ,of ,cainozoic 78 ,janjukian7 ,age4 ,redruth1 ,victoria4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,notochelone costata1 ,owen sp4 7,anterior portion of carapace47 ,about #a_/d nat4 size4 ,a ,marine ,turtle from the ,lower ,cretaceous of ,flinders ,river1 ,queensland4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,,birds3--,bones3 as the ,moa bones of ,new ,zealand and the ,emu bones of the ,king ,island sand-dunes 7,fig4 #ae74 ,very rarely the impressions of the feathers of birds are found1 as in the ironstone occurring in the ,wannon district of ,victoria 7,fig4 #af71 and others in fine clays and marls on the continent of ,europe and in ,england4 ,fossil eggs of sea-birds are occasionally found in coastal sand-dunes of ,holocene age4 ,,reptiles4--,skeletons of fossil turtles 7,notochelone7 are found in ,queensland 7,fig4 #ag74 ,whole skeletons and the dermal armour 7spines and bony plates7 of the gigantic1 specialised reptiles are found in ,europe1 ,north ,america1 and in other parts of the world4 ,,fishes4--,whole skeletons are sometimes found in sand and clay rocks1 as in the ,trias of ,gosford1 ,new ,south ,wales 7,fig4 #ah71 and in the ,jurassic of ,south ,gippsland4 ,the ganoid or enamel-scaled fishes are common fossils in the ,devonian and ,jurassic1 notably in ,germany1 ,scotland and ,canada3 and they also occur in the sandy mudstone of the ,lower ,carboniferous of ,mansfield1 ,victoria4 ,,insects4--,notwithstanding their fragility1 insects are often well preserved as fossils1 for the reason that their skin and wings consist of the horny substance called chitin4 ,the ,tertiary marls of ,europe are very prolific in insect remains 7,fig4 #ai74 ,from the ,miocene beds of ,florissant1 ,colorado1 ,u4,s4,a41 several hundred species of insects have been described4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,a ,fossil ,fish with ,ganoid ,scales 7,pristisomus crassus1 ,a4,s4 ,woodw474 ,about #a_/b nat4 size4 ,trias 7,hawkesbury ,series71 of ,gosford1 ,new ,south ,wales4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig #ai4--;,a ,fossil ,insect 7,tipula sp47 in ,amber4 ,nat4 size4 ,oligocene beds2 ,baltic ,prussia4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,a ,fossil ,lobster 7,thalassina emerii1 ,bell74 ,slightly reduced4 ,from the ,pleistocene of ,port ,darwin1 ,northern ,territory4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,an ,ammonite 7,desmoceras flindersi1 ,mc,coy sp47 ,half nat4 size4 ,showing complex sutures4 ,l4 ,cretaceous3 ,marathon1 ,flinders ,river1 ,queensland4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,,crustacea4--,the outer crust1 or exoskeleton1 of these animals is often hard1 being formed of a compound of carbonate and phosphate of lime on an organic1 chitinous base4 ,the earliest forms of this group were the trilobites1 commencing in ,cambrian times1 and of which there is a good representative series in ,australian rocks4 ,remains of crabs and lobsters are found in the various ,cainozoic deposits in ,australia 7,fig4 #bj71 and also in the ,jurassic in other parts of the world4 ,,mollusca4--,the ,cuttle-fish group 7,cephalopoda1 head-footed71 is well represented by the ,nautilus-like1 but straight ,orthoceras shells commencing in ,ordovician times1 and1 in later periods1 by the beautiful1 coiled ,ammonites 7,fig4 #ba74 ,the true cuttle-fishes possess an internal bone1 the sepiostaire1 which one may see at the present day drifted on to the sand at high-water mark on the sea-shore4 ,the rod-like ,belemnites are of this nature1 and occur abundantly in the ,australian ,cretaceous rocks of ,south ,australia and ,queensland 7,fig4 #bb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,belemnites 7,belemnites diptycha1 ,mc,coy74 #a_/c nat4 size4 ,lower ,cretaceous4 ,central ,south ,australia4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,a ,group of ,lamp ,shells 7,magellania flavescens1 ,lam4 sp47 ,attached to a ,polyzoan4 ,about #a_/c nat4 size4 ,dredged from ,westernport1 ,victoria4 7,c4,j4 ,gabriel ,coll47 ,elephant-tusk shells 7,scaphopoda7 are frequent in our ,tertiary beds3 they are also sparingly found in the ,cretaceous1 and some doubtful remains occur in the ,palaeozoic strata of ,australia4 ,the shells of the ordinary mollusca1 such as the snails1 whelks1 mussels1 and scallops1 are abundant in almost all geological strata from the earliest periods4 ,their calcareous shells form a covering which1 after the decay of the animal within1 are from their nature among the most easily preserved of fossil remains4 ,there is hardly an estuary bed1 lake-deposit1 or sea-bottom1 but contains a more or less abundant assemblage of these shell-fish remains1 or testacea as they were formerly called 7testa1 a shell or potsherd74 ,we see1 therefore1 the importance of this group of fossils for purposes of comparison of one fauna with another 7antea1 ,fig4 #a74 ,the chitons or mail-shells1 by their jointed nature1 consisting of a series of pent-roof-shaped valves united by ligamental tissue1 are nearly always represented in the fossil state by separate valves4 ,fossil examples of this group occur in ,australia both in ,palaeozoic rocks and1 more numerously1 in the ,cainozoic series4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,zoarium of a ,living ,polyzoan4 7,retepora7 #b_/c nat4 size4 ,flinders1 ,victoria4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,a ,fossil ,polyzoan 7,macropora clarkei1 ,t4 ,woods1 sp47 ,about #a_/b nat4 size4 ,cainozoic 7,balcombian74 ,muddy ,creek1 ,victoria4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,,molluscoidea4--,the ,brachiopods or ,lamp-shells consist generally of two calcareous valves as in the true mollusca 7,fig4 #bc71 but are sometimes of horny texture4 ,like the previous class1 they are also easily preserved as fossils4 ,they possess bent1 loop-like or spiral arms1 called brachia1 and by the movement of fine ciliated 7hair-like7 processes on their outer edges conduct small food particles to the mouth4 ,the brachia are supported by shelly processes1 to which are attached1 in the ,spirifers1 delicate spirally coiled ribbons4 ,these internal structures are often beautifully preserved1 even though they are so delicate1 from the fact that on the death of the animal the commissure or opening round the valves is so tightly closed as to prevent the coarse mud from penetrating while permitting the finer silt1 and more rarely mineral matter in solution1 to pass1 and subsequently to be deposited within the cavity4 ,at the ,murray ,river cliffs in ,south ,australia1 a bed of ,cainozoic limestone contains many of these brachiopod shells in a unique condition1 for the hollow valves have been filled in with a clear crystal of selenite or gypsum1 through which may be seen the loop or brachial support preserved in its entirety4 ,the ,sea-mats or ,polyzoa1 represented by ,retepora 7the ,lace-coral7 7,fig4 #bd7 and ,flustra 7the ,sea-mat7 of the present sea-shore1 have a calcareous skeleton1 or zoarium1 which is easily preserved as a fossil4 ,polyzoa are very abundant in the ,cainozoic beds of ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 and elsewhere 7,fig4 #be74 ,in the ,mesozoic series1 on the other hand1 they are not so well represented2 but in ,europe and ,north ,america they play an important part in forming the ,cretaceous and some ,jurassic strata by the abundance of their remains4 ,,worms 7,,vermes74--,the hard1 calcareous tubes of ,sea-worms1 the ,polychaeta 7many bristles7 are often found in fossiliferous deposits1 and sometimes form large masses1 due to their gregarious habits of life2 they also occur attached to shells such as oysters 7,fig4 #bf74 ,the burrows of the wandering worms are found in ,silurian strata in ,australia2 and the sedentary forms likewise occur from the ,devonian upwards4 ,,echinodermata4--,sea-urchins 7,echinoidea7 possess a hard1 calcareous1 many-plated test or covering and1 when living are covered with spines 7,fig4 #bg74 ,both the tests and spines are found fossil1 the former sometimes whole when the sediment has been quietly thrown down upon them2 but more frequently1 as in the ,shepherd's crown type 7,cidaris71 are found in disjointed plates1 owing to the fact that current action1 going on during entombment has caused the plates to separate4 ,the spines are very rarely found attached to the test1 more frequently being scattered through the marl or sandy clay in which the sea-urchins are buried4 ,the best conditions for the preservation of this group is a marly limestone deposit1 in which case the process of fossilisation would be tranquil 7,fig4 #bh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,fossil ,worm ,tubes 78 ,serpula47 ,attached to a ,pecten4 ,slightly ,enlarged4 ,cainozoic 7,balcombian74 ,muddy ,creek1 ,hamilton1 ,victoria4 7,f4 ,c4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,a ,regular ,sea-,urchin 7,strongylocentrotus erythrogrammus1 ,val47 ,about #b_/c nat4 size4 ,showing ,spines attached4 ,living4 ,victoria4 7,f4 ,c4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,a ,fossil ,sea-,urchin 7,linthia antiaustralis1 ,tate74 ,test denuded of ,spines4 ,about #b_/c nat4 size4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,curlewis1 ,victoria4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--,ophioderma egertoni1 ,broderip1 sp4 ,about #a_/b nat4 size4 ,a ,brittle ,star from the ,lias of ,seaton1 ,devon1 ,england4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,the true ,starfishes 7,asteroidea71 are either covered with calcareous plates1 or the skin is hardened by rough tubercles2 and these more lasting portions are preserved in rocks of all ages4 ,the shape of the animal is also often preserved in an exquisite manner in beds of fine mud or clay4 ,the ,brittle-stars 7,ophiuroidea7 have their body covered with hard1 calcareous plates4 ,their remains are found in rocks as old as the ,ordovician in ,bohemia but their history in ,australia begins with the ,silurian period 7,fig4 #bi74 ,from thence onward they are occasionally found in successive strata in various parts of the world4 ,the bag-like echinoderms 7,cystidea7 form a rare group1 restricted to ,palaeozoic strata4 ,the plates of the sack1 or theca1 and those of the slender arms are calcareous1 and are capable of being preserved in the fossil state4 ,a few doubtful remains of this group occur in ,australia4 ,the bud-shaped echinoderms 7,blastoidea7 also occur chiefly in ,devonian and ,carboniferous strata4 ,this is also a rare group1 and is represented by several forms found only in ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland4 ,the well known and beautiful fossil forms1 the ,stone-lilies 7,crinoidea7 have a very extended geological history1 beginning in the ,cambrian2 whilst a few species are living in the ocean at the present day4 ,the many-jointed skeleton lends itself well to fossilisation1 and remains of the crinoids are common in ,australia mainly in ,palaeozoic strata 7,fig4 #cj74 ,in ,europe they are found abundantly also in ,jurassic strata1 especially in the ,lias4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,a ,fossil ,crinoid 7,taxocrinus simplex1 ,phillips sp47 ,about #a_/b nat4 size4 ,wenlock ,limestone 7,silurian71 ,dudley1 ,england4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--;,graptolites on ,slate 7,tetragraptus fruticosus1 ,j4 ,hall1 sp47 ,nat4 ,size4 ,lower ,ordovician4 ,bendigo1 ,victoria4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,polished ,vertical ,section of a ,stromatoporoid4 7,actinostroma74 ,nat4 size4 ,middle ,devonian4 ,south ,devon1 ,england4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,,hydrozoa4--,the ,graptolites 7stone-writing7 have a chitinous skin 7periderm7 to the body or hydrosome1 which is capable of preservation to a remarkable degree2 for their most delicate structures are preserved on the surfaces of the fine black mud deposits which subsequently became hardened into slates4 ,in ,australia graptolites occur from the base of the ,ordovician to the top of the ,silurian 7,fig4 #ca74 ,another section of the ,hydrozoa is the ,stromatoporoidea4 ,these are essentially calcareous1 and their structure reminds one of a dense coral4 ,the polyps build their tiers of cells 7coenosteum7 in a regular manner1 and seem to have played the same part in the building of ancient reefs in ,silurian1 ,devonian and ,carboniferous times as the ,millepora at the present day 7,fig4 #cb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--;,fossil ,corals 7,favosites74 ,photograph of a ,polished ,slab1 #b_/c nat4 size4 ,in ,devonian ,limestone1 ,buchan1 ,victoria4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,siliceous ,skeleton of a ,living ,hexactinellid ,sponge4 ,probably ,chonelasma4 #d4 ,mauritius4 7,viewed in ,two ,directions47 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,,anthozoa4--,the true ,corals have a stony skeleton1 and this is capable of easy preservation as a fossil4 ,there is hardly any fossiliferous stratum of importance which has not its representative corals4 ,in ,australia their remains are especially abundant in the ,silurian1 ,devonian 7,fig4 #cc71 and ,carboniferous formations1 and again in the ,oligocene and ,miocene4 ,,sponges4--,the framework of the sponge may consist either of flinty1 calcareous1 or horny material 7,fig4 #cd74 ,the two former kinds are well represented in our ,australian rocks1 the first appearing in the ,lower ,ordovician associated with graptolites1 and again in the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary rocks 7,fig4 #ce72 whilst the calcareous sponges are found in ,silurian strata1 near ,yass1 and again in the ,cainozoic beds of ,flinders1 ,curlewis and ,mornington in ,victoria4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,spicules of a ,siliceous ,sponge 7,ecionema newberyi1 ,mc,coy sp47 ,highly magnified4 ,cainozoic ,shell-,marl4 ,altona ,bay ,coal-,shaft4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,nummulites 7,n4 gizehensis ,ehr4 var4 champollioni1 de la ,harpe74 ,about nat4 size4 ,middle ,eocene ,limestone4 ,cyrene1 ,northern ,africa4 7,coll4 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory74 ,,protozoa4--,the important and widely-distributed group of the ,foraminifera 7hole-bearers7 belonging to the lowest phylum1 the ,protozoa1 generally possess a calcareous shell4 ,the tests range in size from tiny specks of the fiftieth of an inch in diameter1 to the giant ,nummulite1 equalling a five shilling piece in size 7,fig4 #cf74 ,their varied and beautiful forms are very attractive1 but their great interest lies in their multifarious distribution in all kinds of sediments3 they are also of importance because certain of the more complex forms indicate distinct life zones1 being restricted to particular strata occurring in widely-separated areas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,siliceous ,skeletons of ,radiolaria4 #eh4 ,late ,cainozoic ,age4 ,bissex ,hill1 ,barbados1 ,west ,indies4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,members of the allied order of the ,radiolaria have a flinty shell 7,fig4 #cg72 and these organisms are often found building up siliceous rocks such as cherts 7,fig4 #ch74 ,,plants4--,the harder portions of plants which are found in the fossil state are1--the wood1 the coarser vascular 7vessel-bearing7 tissue of the leaves1 and the harder parts of fruits and seeds4 ,fossil wood is of frequent occurrence in ,palaeozoic1 ,mesozoic and ,cainozoic strata in ,australia1 as1 for instance1 the wood of the trees called ,araucarioxylon and ,dadoxylon in the ,coal measures of ,new ,south ,wales 7see antea1 ,fig4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,radiolaria in ,siliceous ,limestone4 #dj4 ,middle ,devonian3 ,tamworth1 ,new ,south ,wales4 7,from ,prof4 ,david's ,collection74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,travertin ,limestone with ,leaves of ,beech 7,fagus74 ,nat4 size4 ,pleistocene3 near ,hobart1 ,tasmania4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,fossil leaves frequently occur in pipe-clay beds1 as at ,berwick1 ,victoria1 and in travertine from near ,hobart1 ,tasmania 7,fig4 #ci74 ,fossil fruits are found in abundance in the ancient river gravels at several hundreds of feet below the surface1 in the deep leads of ,haddon1 ,victoria1 and other localities in ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland and ,tasmania4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj--;,freshwater ,limestone with ,shells 7,bulinus74 ,about #d_/e nat4 size4 ,mount ,arapiles1 ,western ,victoria4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,fossiliferous ,mudstone of ,silurian 7,yeringian7 ,age4 ,with ,brachiopods4 ,about #b_/c nat4 size4 ,near ,lilydale1 ,victoria4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,,fossiliferous ,,rocks4 ,section ,i4--,,argillaceous ,,rocks4 ,under this head are placed the muds1 clays1 mudstones1 shales and slates4 ,,muds are usually of a silty nature1 that is1 containing a variable proportion of sand 7quartz7 grains4 ,such are the estuarine muds of ,pleistocene and ,recent age1 containing brackish water foraminifera and ostracoda1 and those shells of the mollusca usually found associated with brackish conditions4 ,lacustrine mud can be distinguished by the included freshwater shells1 as ,limnaea1 ,coxiella 7brackish71 ,cyclas and ,bulinus1 as well as the freshwater ostracoda or cyprids 7,fig4 #dj74 ,,clays are tenacious mud deposits1 having the general composition of a hydrous silicate of alumina with some iron4 ,when a clay deposit tends to split into leaves or laminae1 either through moderate pressure or by the included fossil remains occupying distinct planes in the rock1 they are called ,,shales4 ,clays and ,shales of marine origin are often crowded with the remains of mollusca4 ,the shells are sometimes associated with leaves and other vegetable remains1 if forming part of an alternating series of freshwater and marine conditions4 ,an example of this type of sediments is seen in the ,mornington beds of the ,balcombian series in ,victoria4 ,,mudstone is a term applied to a hardened clay deposit derived from the alteration of an impure limestone1 and is more often found in the older series of rocks4 ,mudstones are frequently crowded with fossils1 but owing to chemical changes within the rock1 the calcareous organisms are as a rule represented by casts and moulds4 ,at times these so faithfully represent the surface and cavities of the organism that they are almost equivalent to a well preserved fossil 7,fig4 #da74 ,,slate4--,when shale is subjected to great pressure1 a plane of regular splitting called cleavage is induced1 which is rarely parallel to the bedding plane or surface spread out on the original sea-floor3 the cleavage more often taking place at an appreciable angle to the bedding plane4 ,the graptolitic rocks of ,victoria are either shales or slates1 according to the absence or development of this cleavage structure in the rock4 ,section ,,ii4--,,siliceous ,,rocks4 ,in this group are comprised all granular quartzose sediments1 and organic rocks of flinty composition4 ,,sandstones4--,although the base of this type of rock is formed of quartz sand1 it often contains fossils4 ,owing to its porous nature1 percolation of water containing dissolved ,,co#b tends to bring about the solution of the calcareous shells1 with the result that only casts of the shells remain4 ,,flints and ,,cherts4--,these are found in the form of nodules and bands in other strata1 principally in limestone4 ,in ,europe1 flint is usually found in the ,chalk formation1 whilst chert is found in the ,lower ,greensands1 the ,jurassics1 the ,carboniferous ,limestone and in ,cambrian rocks4 ,in ,australia1 flint occurs in the ,miocene or ,polyzoal-rock formation of ,mount ,gambier1 ,cape ,liptrap and the ,mallee borings4 ,flint is distinguished from chert by its being black in the mass1 often with a white crust1 and translucent in thin flakes2 chert being more or less granular in texture and sub-opaque in the mass4 ,both kinds appear to be formed as a pseudomorph or replacement of a portion of the limestone stratum by silica1 probably introduced in solution as a soluble alkaline silicate4 ,both flint and chert often contain fossil shells and other organic remains1 such as radiolaria and sponge-spicules1 which can be easily seen with a lens in thin flakes struck off by the hammer4 ,,diatomite is essentially composed of the tiny frustules or flinty cases of diatoms 7unicellular algae71 usually admixed with some spicules of the freshwater sponge1 ,spongilla4 ,it generally forms a layer at the bottom of a lake bed 7,fig4 #db74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,diatomaceous ,earth4 7,post-,tertiary74 ,containing freshwater forms1 as ,pinnularia1 ,cocconeis and ,synedra4 #aej4 ,talbot1 ,victoria4 ,section ,,iii4--,,calcareous ,,rocks4 ,,limestones ,,formed ,,by ,,organisms4--,organic limestones constitute by far the most important group of fossiliferous rocks4 ,rocks of this class are composed either wholly of carbonate of lime1 or contain other mineral matter also1 in varying proportion4 ,many kinds of limestones owe their origin directly to the agency of animals or plants1 which extracted the calcareous matter from the water in which they lived in order to build their hard external cases1 as for example the sea-urchins2 or their internal skeletons1 as the stony corals4 ,the accumulated remains of these organisms are generally compacted by a crystalline cement to form a coherent rock4 ,the chief groups of animals and plants forming such limestone rocks are3-- 7a7 ,,foraminifera4--,example4 ,foraminiferal limestone as the ,nummulitic limestone of the ,pyramids of ,egypt1 or the ,lepidocyclina limestone of ,batesford1 near ,geelong1 ,victoria 7,fig4 #dc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,limestone composed of ,polyzoa and ,foraminifera 7,lepidocyclina74 #f4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,batesford1 near ,geelong1 ,victoria4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 7b7 ,,corals4--,ex4 ,madrepore limestone1 or ,devonian marble1 with ,pachypora4 ,also the ,lilydale limestone1 with ,favosites1 of ,silurian age1 ,victoria 7,fig4 #dd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--;,a ,fossil ,coral 7,favosites grandipora74 #b_/c nat4 size4 ,from the ,silurian of ,lilydale1 ,victoria4 7,f4,c4 ,coll474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,polished ,slab of ,marble formed of ,joints of ,crinoids4 ,about #b_/c nat4 size4 ,silurian4 ,toongabbie1 ,gippsland1 ,victoria4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 7c7 ,,stone-,,lilies4--,ex4 ,crinoidal or ,entrochial limestone1 ,silurian1 ,toongabbie1 ,victoria 7,fig4 #de74 ,also the ,carboniferous or ,mountain limestone1 ,derbyshire1 ,england4 7d7 ,,worm-,,tubes4--,ex4 ,serpulite limestone of ,hanover1 ,germany4 ,ditrupa limestone of ,torquay and ,wormbete ,creek1 ,victoria4 7e7 ,,polyzoa4---,ex4 ,polyzoal limestone1 as the so-called ,coralline ,crag of ,suffolk1 ,england2 and the ,polyzoal ,rock of ,mount ,gambier1 ,s4 ,australia4 7f7 ,,brachiopoda4--,ex4 ,brachiopod limestone of ,silurian age1 ,dudley1 ,england4 ,orthis limestone of ,cambrian age1 ,dolodrook ,river1 ,n4 ,e4 ,gippsland4 7g7 ,,mollusca4--,ex4 ,shell limestone1 as the ,turritella bed of ,table ,cape1 ,tasmania1 and of ,camperdown1 ,victoria 7,fig4 #df71 or the ,purbeck ,marble of ,swanage1 ,dorset1 ,england4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--,turritella ,limestone4 7,t4 acricula1 ,tate72 #c_/d nat4 size4 ,cainozoic4 ,lake ,bullen ,merri1 near ,camperdown1 ,victoria4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,limestone composed of the ,valves of an ,ostracod 7,cypridea74 ,upper ,jurassic4 #i4 ,swanage1 ,dorset1 ,england4 7h7 ,,ostracoda4--,ex4 ,cypridiferous limestone1 formed of the minute valves of the bivalved ostracoda1 as that of ,durlston1 ,dorset1 ,england 7,fig4 #dg74 7i7 ,,caddis ,,fly ,,larvae4--,ex4 ,indusial limestone1 formed of tubular cases constructed by the larvae of the ,caddis fly 7,phryganea74 ,occurs at ,durckheim1 ,rhine ,district1 ,germany4 7j7 ,,red ,,seaweeds4--,ex4 ,nullipore limestone1 formed by the stony thallus 7frond7 of the calcareous sea-weed ,lithothamnion1 as in the ,leithakalk1 a common building stone of ,vienna4 7k7 ,,green ,,seaweeds4--,ex4 ,halimeda limestone1 forming large masses of rock in the late ,cainozoic reefs of the ,new ,hebrides 7,fig4 #dh74 7l7 787 ,,blue-,,green ,,seaweeds4--,ex4 ,girvanella limestone1 forming the ,peagrit of ,jurassic age1 of ,gloucester1 ,england4 ,section ,,iv4--,,carbonaceous and ,,miscellaneous ,,rocks4 ,,coals and ,,kerosene ,,shales 7,cannel ,coal74--,these carbonaceous rocks are formed in much the same way as the deposits in estuaries and lagoon swamps4 ,they result from the sometimes vast aggregation of vegetable material 7leaves1 wood and fruits71 brought down by flooded rivers from the surrounding country1 which form a deposit in a swampy or brackish area near the coast1 or in an estuary4 ,layer upon layer is thus formed1 alternating with fine mud4 ,the latter effectually seals up the organic layers and renders their change into a carbonaceous deposit more certain4 ,when shale occurs between the coal-layers it is spoken of as the under-clay1 which in most cases is the ancient sub-soil related to the coal-layer immediately above4 ,it is in the shales that the best examples of fossil ferns and other plant-remains are often found4 ,the coal itself is composed of a partially decomposed mass of vegetation which has become hardened and bedded by pressure and gradual drying4 ,spore coals are found in thick deposits in some ,english mines1 as at ,burnley in ,yorkshire4 ,they result from the accumulation of the spores of giant club-mosses which flourished in the coal-period4 ,they are generally referred to under the head of ,cannel ,coals4 ,the white coal or ,tasmanite of the ,mersey ,basin in ,tasmania is an example of an impure spore coal with a sandy matrix 7,fig4 #di74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,rock composed of the calcareous joints of ,halimeda 7a green sea-weed74 ,about #b_/c nat4 size4 ,late ,cainozoic4 ,reef-,rock4 ,malekula1 ,new ,hebrides4 7,coll4 by ,dr4 ,d4 ,mawson47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,thin ,slices of ,white ,coal or ,tasmanite1 showing crushed ,megaspores4 #bh4 ,carbopermian4 ,latrobe1 ,tasmania4 7,f4 ,c4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,thin ,slice of ,kerosene ,shale4 #bh4 ,carbopermian4 ,hartley1 ,new ,south ,wales4 7,f4 ,c4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--;,bone ,bed1 with ,fish and ,reptilian ,remains4 ,about #a_/b nat4 size4 7,rhaetic74 ,aust ,cliff1 ,gloucestershire1 ,england4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,the ,kerosene ,shale of ,new ,south ,wales is related to the ,torbanite of ,scotland and ,central ,france4 ,it occurs in lenticular beds between the bituminous coal4 ,it is a very important deposit1 commercially speaking1 for it yields kerosene oil1 and is also used for the manufacture of gas4 ,the rock is composed of myriads of little cell-bodies1 referred to as ,reinschia1 and first supposed to be allied to the freshwater alga1 ,volvox2 but this has lately been questioned1 and an alternative view is that they may be the megaspores of club-mosses 7,fig4 #ej74 ,the coals of ,jurassic age in ,australia are derived from the remains of coniferous trees and ferns2 and some beautiful examples of these plants may often be found in the hardened clay or shale associated with the coal seams4 ,the ,brown ,coals of ,cainozoic or ,tertiary age in ,australia are still but little advanced from the early stage1 lignite4 ,the leaves found in them are more or less like the present types of the flora4 ,the wood is found to be of the ,cypress type 7,cupressinoxylon74 ,in ,new ,zealand1 however1 important deposits of coal of a more bituminous nature occur in the ,oligocene of ,westport and the ,grey ,river ,valley1 in the ,nelson ,district4 ,,bone ,,beds4--,the bones and excreta of fish and reptiles form considerable deposits in some of the sedimentary formations2 especially those partly under the influence of land or swamp conditions4 ,they constitute a kind of conglomerate in which are found bone-fragments and teeth 7,fig4 #ea74 ,these bone-beds are usually rich in phosphates1 and are consequently valuable as a source of manure4 ,the ,miocene bone-bed with fish teeth at ,florida1 ,u4,s4,a41 is a notable example4 ,the nodule bed of the ,victorian ,cainozoics contains an assemblage of bones of cetaceans 7whales1 etc474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,bone ,breccia1 with remains of ,marsupials4 ,about #c_/d nat4 size4 ,pleistocene4 ,limeburners ,point1 ,geelong1 ,victoria4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,,bone ,,breccias4--,these are usually formed of the remains of the larger mammals1 and consist of a consolidated mass of fragments of bones and teeth embedded in a calcareous matrix4 ,bone-breccias are of frequent occurrence on the floors of caves which had formerly been the resort of carnivorous animals1 and into which they dragged their prey4 ,the surface water percolating through the overlying calcareous strata dissolved a certain amount of lime1 and this was re-deposited on the animal remains lying scattered over the cave floor4 ,a deposit so formed constitutes a stalagmite or floor encrustation4 ,as examples of bone-breccias we may refer to the limestone at ,limeburners ,point1 ,geelong 7,fig4 #eb72 and the stalagmitic deposits of the ,buchan ,caves4 ,,ironstone4--,rocks formed almost entirely of limonite 7hydrated peroxide of iron7 are often due to the agency of unicellular plants known as diatoms1 which separate the iron from water1 and deposit it as hydrous peroxide of iron within their siliceous skeletons4 ,in ,norway and ,sweden there are large and important deposits of bog iron-ore1 which have presumably been formed in the beds of lakes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,cainozoic ,ironstone with ,leaves 7,banksia 8 marginata1 ,cavanilles74 ,slightly enlarged4 ,below ,wannon ,falls1 ,redruth1 ,victoria4 ,clay ironstone nodules 7sphaerosiderite7 have generally been formed as accretions around some decaying organic body4 ,many clay ironstone nodules1 when broken open1 reveal a fossil within1 such as a coprolitic body1 fern frond1 fir-cone1 shell or fish4 ,oolitic ironstones are composed of minute granules which may have originally been calcareous grains1 formed by a primitive plant or alga1 but since replaced by iron oxide or carbonate4 ,the ,tertiary ironstone of western ,victoria is found to contain leaves1 which were washed into lakes and swamps 7,fig4 #ec72 and the ferruginous groundmass may have been originally due to the presence of diatoms1 though this yet remains to be proved4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,systematic ,,palaeontology4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,fossil ,,plants4 ,cambrian ,plants4-- ,the oldest ,australian plant-remains belong to the genus ,girvanella4 ,this curious little tubular unicellular organism1 once thought to be a foraminifer1 shows most affinity with the blue-green algae 7,cyanophyceae71 an important type of plant even now forming calcareous deposits such as the calcareous grains on the shores of the ,salt ,lake1 ,utah1 and the pea-grit of the ,carlsbad hot springs4 ,girvanella problematica occurs in the ,lower ,cambrian limestones of ,south ,australia1 at ,ardrossan and elsewhere4 ,silurian ,plants4-- ,amongst ,silurian plants may be mentioned the doubtful sea-weeds known as ,bythotrephis4 ,their branch-like impressions are fairly common in the mudstones of ,silurian age found in and around ,melbourne4 ,they generally occur in association with shallow-water marine shells and crustacea of that period4 ,the genus ,girvanella before mentioned is also found in the ,silurian 7,yeringian7 of ,lilydale and the ,tyers ,river limestone1 ,victoria 7,fig4 #ed74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,section through pellet of ,girvanella conferta1 ,chapm4 #ce4 ,from the ,silurian 7,yeringian7 ,limestone of ,tyers ,river1 ,gippsland1 ,victoria4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,haliserites is a primitive plant of the type of the club-mosses so common in the rocks of the ,carboniferous period4 ,this genus is found in some abundance in the ,yeringian stage of the ,silurian in ,gippsland 7,fig4 #ee74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,,palaeozoic ,,plants4 7,approximate dimensions in fractions74 ,a--,bythotrephis tenuis1 ,j4 ,hall4 ,silurian4 ,victoria4 ,b--,haliserites ,dechenianus1 ,gppert4 ,silurian4 ,victoria4 ,c--,cordaites australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,upper ,devonian4 ,victoria4 ,d--,sphenopteris iguanensis1 ,mc,coy4 ,upper ,devonian4 ,victoria4 ,e--,glossopteris ,browniana1 ,brongniart4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4,w4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,restoration of ,lepidodendron elegans4 7,after ,grand',eury47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,lepidodendron australe1 ,mc,coy4 ,portion of ,stem showing ,leaf-cushions4 ,slightly reduced4 ,carboniferous4 ,manilla ,river1 ,co4 ,darling1 ,n4,s4,w4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,devonian and ,carboniferous ,plants4-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,,upper ,,palaeozoic ,,plants4 ,a--,rhacopteris inaequilatera1 ,gppert sp4 ,up4 ,carboniferous4 ,stroud1 ,new ,south ,wales4 7,after ,feistmantel74 ,b--,gangamopteris spatulata1 ,mc,coy4 ,carbopermian4 ,bacchus ,marsh1 ,victoria4 ,plant-life was not abundant1 however1 until ,upper ,devonian and ,carboniferous times4 ,in the rocks of these periods we meet with the large strap-shaped leaves of ,cordaites and a fern1 ,sphenopteris1 in the first-named series2 and the widely distributed ,lepidodendron with its handsome lozenge-scarred stems in the later series 7,fig4 #ef74 ,cordaites has been found in ,victoria in the ,iguana ,creek beds 7,upper ,devonian71 and it also probably occurs at the same horizon at ,nungatta1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,lepidodendron occurs in the ,lower ,carboniferous sandstone of ,victoria and ,queensland 7,fig4 #eg73 in ,new ,south ,wales it is found at ,mt4 ,lambie1 ,goonoo1 ,tamworth and ,copeland in beds generally regarded as ,upper ,devonian4 ,both of these plants are typical of ,carboniferous 7,coal ,measure7 beds in ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,the fern ,rhacopteris is characteristic of ,upper ,carboniferous shales and sandstones near ,stroud1 and other localities in ,new ,south ,wales as well as in ,queensland 7,fig4 #eh74 ,these beds yield a few inferior seams of coal4 ,girvanella is again seen in the oolitic limestones of ,carboniferous age in ,queensland and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,carbopermian ,plants4-- ,the higher division of the ,australian ,carboniferous usually spoken of as the ,permo-carboniferous1 and here designated the ,carbopermian 7see ,footnote #b1 page #dh71 is typified by a sudden accession of plant forms1 chiefly belonging to ferns of the ,glossopteris type4 ,the lingulate or tongue-shaped fronds of this genus1 with their characteristic reticulate venation1 are often found entirely covering the slabs of shale intercalated with the coal seams of ,new ,south ,wales2 and it is also a common fossil in ,tasmania and ,western ,australia4 ,the allied form1 ,gangamopteris1 which is distinguished from ,glossopteris by having no definite midrib1 is found in beds of the same age in ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,tasmania4 ,these plant remains are also found in ,india1 ,south ,africa1 ,south ,america and the ,falkland ,islands4 ,this wide distribution of such ancient ferns indicates that those now isolated land-surfaces were once connected1 forming an extensive continent named by ,prof4 ,suess ,gondwana-,land1 from the ,gondwana district in ,india 7,fig4 #ei74 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,m4 del4 7,after ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory74 ,fig4 #ei4--,map of the ,world in the ,upper ,carboniferous ,era4 ,triassic ,plants4-- ,the widely distributed pinnate fern known as ,thinnfeldia is first found in the ,trias2 in the ,narrabeen shales near ,manly1 and the ,hawksbury sandstone at ,mount ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,it is also a common fossil of the ,jurassic of ,south ,gippsland1 and other parts of ,victoria4 ,the grass-like leaves of ,phoenicopsis are frequently met with in ,triassic strata1 as in the upper series at ,bald ,hill1 ,bacchus ,marsh1 and also in ,tasmania4 ,the large ,banana-palm-like leaves of ,taeniopteris 7,macrotaeniopteris7 are common to the ,triassic and ,lower ,jurassic beds of ,india3 they are also met with in ,new ,zealand1 and in the upper beds at ,bald ,hill1 ,bacchus ,marsh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,,mesozoic ,,plants4 ,a--,thinnfeldia odontopteroides4 ,morris sp4 ,trias4 ,n4,s4 ,wales4 ,b--,cladophlebis denticulata1 ,brongn4 sp4 var4 australis1 ,morr4 ,jurassic1 ,victoria4 ,c--,taeniopteris spatulata1 ,mc,clell4 var4 ,daintreei1 ,mc,coy4 ,jurassic1 ,victoria4 ,d--,brachyphyllum gippslandicum1 ,mc,coy4 ,jurassic1 ,victoria4 ,e--,ginkgo robusta1 ,mc,coy4 ,jurassic1 ,victoria4 ,jurassic ,plants4-- ,the ,jurassic flora of ,australasia is very prolific in plant forms4 ,these range from liverworts and horse-tails to ferns and conifers4 ,the commonest ferns were ,cladophlebis1 ,sphenopteris1 ,thinnfeldia and ,taeniopteris4 ,the conifers are represented by ,araucarites 7cone-scales1 leaves and fruits71 ,palissya and ,brachyphyllum 7,fig4 #fj74 ,the ,ginkgo or ,maiden-hair tree1 which is still living in ,china and ,japan1 and also as a cultivated plant1 was extremely abundant in ,jurassic times1 accompanied by the related genus1 ,baiera1 having more deeply incised leaves2 both genera occur in the ,jurassic of ,s4 ,gippsland1 ,victoria1 and in ,queensland4 ,the ,jurassic flora of ,australasia is in many respects like that of the ,yorkshire coast near ,scarborough4 ,in ,new ,zealand this flora is represented in the ,mataura series1 in which there are many forms identical with those of the ,australian ,jurassic1 and even of ,india4 ,cretaceous ,plants4-- ,an upper ,cretaceous fern1 787 ,didymosorus gleichenioides1 is found in the sandstones of the ,croydon ,gold-field1 ,north ,queensland4 ,plants of the ,cainozoic4--,balcombian ,stage4-- ,the older part of the ,cainozoic series in ,australasia may be referred to the ,oligocene4 ,these are marine beds with occasional1 thick seams of lignite1 and sometimes of pipe-clay with leaves1 the evidence of river influence in the immediate neighbourhood4 ,the fossil wood in the lignite beds appears to be a ,cupressinoxylon or ,cypress wood4 ,leaves referable to plants living at the present day are also found in certain clays1 as at ,mornington1 containing ,eucalyptus precoriacea and a species of ,podocarpus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--;,,cainozoic ,,plants4 ,a--,cinnamomum polymorphoides1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria4 ,b--,laurus werribeensis1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria4 ,c--,banksia ,campbelli1 ,ettingsh4 ,cainozoic4 ,vegetable ,creek1 ,n4,s4,w4 ,d--,fagus ,risdoniana1 ,ettingsh4 ,cainozoic4 ,tasmania4 ,e--,spondylostrobus ,smythi1 ,mueller4 ,cainozoic4 7,deep ,leads71 ,victoria4 ,miocene ,leaf-beds4--,janjukian ,stage4-- ,later ,cainozoic deposits1 evidently accumulated in lakes1 and sometimes ferruginous1 may be referred to the ,miocene4 ,they are comparable in age with the ,janjukian marine beds of ,spring ,creek and ,waurn ,ponds in ,victoria4 ,these occur far inland and occupy distinct basins1 as at the ,wannon1 ,bacchus ,marsh 7,maddingley71 and ,pitfield ,plains4 ,leaf-beds of this age occur also on the ,otway coast1 ,victoria1 containing the genera ,coprosmaephyllum1 ,persoonia and ,phyllocladus4 ,in all probability the ,dalton and ,gunning leaf-beds of ,new ,south ,wales belong here4 ,examples of the genera found in beds of this age are ,eucalyptus 7a species near ,e4 amygdalina71 ,banksia or ,native ,honeysuckle1 ,cinnamomum or ,cinnamon1 ,laurus or ,laurel1 and ,fagus 7,notofagus7 or ,beech 7,fig4 #fa74 ,in the leaf-beds covered by the older basalt on the ,dargo ,high ,plains1 ,gippsland1 leaves of the ,ginkgo ,murrayana occur4 ,in ,south ,australia several occurrences of leaf beds have been recorded1 containing similar species to those found in the ,cainozoic of ,dalton and ,vegetable ,creek1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,for example1 ,magnolia ,brownii occurs at ,lake ,frome1 ,bombax ,sturtii and ,eucalyptus ,mitchelli at ,elizabeth ,river1 and ,apocynophyllum ,mackinlayi at ,arcoona4 ,fruits of the ,deep ,leads4-- ,the ,deep ,leads of ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania probably begin to date from the period just named1 for they seem to be contemporaneous with the ,older ,gold ,drift of ,victoria2 a deposit sometimes containing a marine fauna of ,janjukian age4 ,this upland river system persisted into ,lower ,pliocene times1 and their buried silts yield many fruits1 of types not now found in ,australia1 such as ,platycoila1 ,penteune and ,pleioclinis1 along with ,cupressus 7,spondylostrobus7 and ,eucalyptus of the existing flora 7,fig4 #fb74 ,pleistocene ,plants4-- ,the ,pleistocene volcanic tuffs of ,mount ,gambier have been shown to contain fronds of the living ,pteris 7,pteridium7 aquilina or ,bracken fern1 and a ,banksia in every way comparable with ,b4 marginata1 a species of the ,native ,honeysuckle still living in the same district4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,leaves of a ,fossil ,eucalyptus4 7,e4 pluti1 ,mc,coy74 ,about #c_/d nat4 size4 ,from the ,cainozoic ,deep ,leads1 ,daylesford1 ,victoria4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,the siliceous valves of freshwater diatoms constitute the infusorial earths of ,victoria1 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,new ,zealand4 ,the commonest genera met with are ,melosira1 ,navicula1 ,cymbella 7or ,cocconema71 ,synedra1 ,tabellaria1 ,stauroneis and ,gomphonema4 ,they are1 generally speaking1 of ,pleistocene age1 as they are often found filling hollows in the newer basalt flows4 ,in ,victoria diatomaceous earths are found at ,talbot 7,see ,fig4 #db71 ,sebastopol and ,lancefield2 in ,queensland1 at ,pine ,creek2 in ,new ,south ,wales1 at ,cooma1 ,barraba1 and the ,richmond ,river2 and in ,new ,zealand at ,pakaraka1 ,bay of ,islands4 ,in the latter country there is also a marine diatomaceous rock in the ,oamaru ,series1 of ,miocene age4 ,,common ,,or ,,characteristic ,,fossils ,,of ,,the ,,foregoing ,,chapter4 ,girvanella problematica1 ,nicholson and ,etheridge4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,bythotrephis tenuis1 ,j4 ,hall4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,haliserites ,dechenianus1 ,gppert sp4 ,silurian and ,devonian3 ,victoria4 ,cordaites australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,upper ,devonian3 ,victoria4 ,lepidodendron australe1 ,mc,coy4 ,lower ,carboniferous3 ,victoria and ,queensland4 ,up4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,rhacopteris inaequilatera1 ,gppert sp4 ,carboniferous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,glossopteris ,browniana1 ,brongniart4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland1 ,tasmania and ,w4 ,australia4 ,gangamopteris spatulata1 ,mc,coy4 ,carbopermian3 ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania4 ,thinnfeldia odontopteroides1 ,morris sp4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,jurassic3 ,victoria1 ,queensland and ,tasmania4 ,cladophlebis denticulata41 ,brongn4 sp41 var4 australis1 ,morris4 ,jurassic3 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria1 ,tasmania and ,new ,zealand4 ,taeniopteris spatulata1 ,mc,clelland4 ,jurassic3 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria1 and ,tasmania4 787 ,didymosorus gleichenioides1 ,etheridge fil4 ,upper ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,eucalyptus precoriacea1 ,deane4 ,oligocene3 ,victoria4 ,eucalyptus1 ,banksia1 ,cinnamomum1 ,laurus and ,fagus4 ,miocene3 ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania4 ,spondylostrobus ,smythi1 von ,mueller4 7,fruits and wood74 ,lower ,pliocene3 ,victoria and ,tasmania4 ,pteris 7,pteridium7 aquilina1 ,linn1 and ,banksia cf4 marginata1 ,cavanilles4 ,pleistocene3 ,victoria and ,south ,australia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,literature4 ,girvanella4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,australia1 vol4 ,,xiii4 #ahij1 pp4 #ai1 #bj4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 and ,card1 ,g4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,queensland1 ,bull4 ,no4 #ab1 #aijj1 pp4 #bf1 #bg1 #cb4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,rep4 ,austr4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,adelaide ,meeting 7#aijg71 #aijh1 p4 #ccg4 ,devonian ,ferns and ,cordaites4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict4 ,dec4 ,v41 #ahgf1 p4 #ba4 ,dun1 ,w4 ,s4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,v4 pt4 #c1 #ahig1 p4 #aag4 ,lepidodendron4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,i4 #ahgd1 p4 #cg4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv1 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,ii41 pt4 #c1 #ahia1 p4 #aai4 ,idem1 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 p4 #aif4 ,carboniferous ,fungi4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,w4,a41 ,bull1 ,no4 #aj1 #aijc1 pp4 #be-ca4 ,carboniferous ,ferns4--,dun1 ,w4 ,s4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 #b1 #aije1 pp4 #aeg-afa1 pls4 ,,xxii4 and ,,xxiii4 ,glossopteris4--,feistmantel1 ,o4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #c1 #ahij4 ,arber1 ,n4 ,cat4 ,foss4 ,plants1 ,glossopteris ,flora1 ,brit4 ,mus41 #aije4 ,gangamopteris4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,,ii4 #ahge1 p4 #aa4 ,jurassic ,plants4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vic41 ,dec4 ,,ii4 #ahge1 p4 #ae4 ,woods1 ,t4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 ,i4 #ahhc1 p4 #cg4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 p4 #cad4 ,dun1 ,w4 ,s4 7,taeniopteris71 ,rep4 ,austr4 ,asso4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,sydney1 #ahih1 pp4 #chd-djj4 ,seward1 ,a4 ,c4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vic41 vol4 ,i4 pt4 #c1 #aijd2 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,ibid41 vol ,,ii4 pt4 #d1 #aijh2 vol4 ,,iii41 pt4 #a1 #aiji4 ,dun1 ,w4 ,s4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 #d1 #aiji1 p4 #caa4 ,older ,cainozoic ,plants4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vic41 ,dec4 ,,iv4 #ahgf1 p4 #ca4 ,ettingshausen1 ,c4 von4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #b1 #ahhh4 ,idem1 ,trans4 ,new ,zealand ,inst41 vol4 ,,xxiii4 7#ahij71 #ahia1 p4 #bcg4 ,deane1 ,h4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 vol4 ,i4 pt4 #a1 #aijb1 pp4 #ae1 #bj4 ,lower ,pliocene ,deep ,leads4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,,iv4 #ahgf1 p4 #bi4 ,mueller1 ,f4 von4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vic41 ,new ,veg4 ,foss41 #ahgd and #ahhc4 ,pleistocene and other ,diatom ,earths4--,card1 ,g4 ,w4 and ,dun1 ,w4 ,s41 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,v4 pt4 #c1 #ahig1 p4 #abh4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,fossil ,,foraminifera ,,and ,,radiolaria4 ,protozoans1 ,their ,structure4-- ,the animals forming the sub-kingdom ,,protozoa 7lowliest animals71 are unicellular 7one-celled71 as distinguished from all the succeeding higher groups1 which are known as the ,,metazoa 7animals beyond74 ,the former group1 ,protozoa1 have all their functions performed by means of a simple cell1 any additions to the cell-unit merely forming a repetitional or aggregated cell-structure4 ,a familiar example of such occurs in pond-life1 in the ,amoeba1 a form which is not found fossilised on account of the absence of any hard parts or covering capable of preservation4 ,foraminifera and ,radiolaria1 however1 have such hard parts1 and are frequently found fossilised4 ,foraminifera3 ,their ,habitats4-- ,the ,,foraminifera are a group which1 although essentially one-celled1 have the protoplasmic body often numerously segmented4 ,the shell or test formed upon1 and enclosing the jelly-like sarcode1 may consist either of carbonate of lime1 cemented sand-grains1 or a sub-calcareous or chitinous 7horny7 covering4 ,the ,foraminifera1 with very few exceptions1 as ,mikrogromia1 ,lieberkuehnia1 and some forms of ,gromia1 are all marine in habit4 ,some genera1 however1 as ,miliolina1 ,rotalia and ,nonionina1 affect brackish water conditions4 ,since ,foraminifera are of so lowly a grade in the animal kingdom1 we may naturally expect to find their remains in the oldest known rocks that show any evidence of life4 ,they are1 indeed1 first seen in rocks of ,cambrian age1 although they have not yet been detected there in ,australian strata4 ,cambrian ,foraminifera4-- ,in parts of ,siberia and in the ,baltic ,provinces1 both ,cambrian and ,ordovician rocks contain numerous glauconite casts of ,foraminifera1 generally of the ,globigerina type of shell4 ,in ,england some ,middle ,cambrian rocks of ,shropshire are filled with tiny exquisitely preserved spiral shells belonging to the genus ,spirillina1 in which all the characters of the test are seen as clearly as in the specimens picked out of shore-sand at the present day4 ,silurian ,foraminifera4-- ,the ,silurian rocks in all countries are very poor in foraminiferal shells1 only occasional examples being found4 ,in rocks of this age at ,lilydale1 ,victoria1 the genus ,ammodiscus1 with fine sandy1 coiled tests1 is found in the ,cave ,hill ,limestone4 ,so far as known1 hardly any forms of this group occur in ,devonian strata1 although some ill-defined shells have been found in the ,eifel1 ,germany4 ,carboniferous ,foraminifera4-- ,the ,carboniferous rocks in many parts of the world yield an abundant foraminiferal fauna4 ,such1 for instance1 are the ,saccammina and ,endothyra ,limestones of the ,north of ,england and the ,north of ,ireland4 ,the ,australian rocks of this age have not afforded any examples of the group1 since they are mainly of estuarine or freshwater origin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,,palaeozoic and ,,mesozoic ,,foraminifera4 ,a--,nubecularia stephensi1 ,howchin4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4,w4 ,b--,frondicularia woodwardi1 ,howchin4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4,w4 ,c--,geinitzina triangularis1 ,chapman and ,howchin4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4,w4 ,d--,valvulina plicata1 ,brady4 ,carbopermian4 ,west ,australia4 ,e--,vaginulina intumescens1 ,reuss4 ,jurassic4 ,west ,australia4 ,f--,flabellina dilatata1 ,wisniowski4 ,jurassic4 ,west ,australia4 ,g--,marginulina solida1 ,terquem4 ,jurassic4 ,west ,australia4 ,h--,frondicularia gaultina1 ,reuss4 ,cretaceous4 ,west ,australia4 ,carbopermian ,foraminifera4-- ,in ,australia1 as at ,pokolbin1 ,new ,south ,wales1 in the ,mersey ,river district1 ,tasmania1 and in the ,irwin ,river district1 ,western ,australia1 the ,permian rocks1 or ,permo-carboniferous as they are generally called1 often contain beds of impure limestone crowded with the chalky white tests of ,nubecularia3 other interesting genera occur at the first named locality as ,pelosina1 ,hyperammina1 ,haplophragmium1 ,placopsilina1 ,lituola1 ,thurammina1 ,ammodiscus1 ,stacheia1 ,monogenerina1 ,valvulina1 ,bulimina1 787,pleurostomella1 ,lagena1 ,nodosaria1 ,frondicularia1 ,geinitzina1 ,lunucammina1 ,marginulina1 ,vaginulina1 ,anomalina and ,truncatulina4 ,the sandy matrix of certain ,glossopteris leaf-beds in the ,collie ,coal measures in ,w4 ,australia have yielded some dwarfed examples belonging to the genera ,bulimina1 ,endothyra1 ,valvulina1 ,truncatulina and ,pulvinulina2 whilst in the ,irwin ,river district similar beds contain ,nodosaria and ,frondicularia 7,fig4 #fc74 ,triassic ,foraminifera4-- ,the ,triassic and ,rhaetic clays of ,europe occasionally show traces of foraminiferal shells1 probably of estuarine habitat1 as do the ,wianamatta beds of ,new ,south ,wales1 which also belong to the ,triassic epoch4 ,the ,australian representatives are placed in the genera ,nubecularia1 ,haplophragmium1 ,endothyra1 ,discorbina1 ,truncatulina1 and ,pulvinulina4 ,these shells are diminutive even for foraminifera1 and their starved condition indicates uncongenial environment4 ,jurassic ,foraminifera4-- ,the ,jurassic limestones of ,western ,australia1 at ,geraldton1 contain many species of ,foraminifera1 principally belonging to the spirally coiled and slipper-shaped ,cristellariae4 ,other genera present are ,haplophragmium1 ,textularia1 ,bulimina1 ,flabellina1 ,marginulina1 ,vaginulina1 ,polymorphina1 ,discorbina1 and ,truncatulina4 ,cretaceous ,foraminifera4-- ,in the ,lower ,cretaceous rocks known as the ,rolling ,downs ,formation in ,queensland1 shells of the ,foraminifera are found in some abundance at ,wollumbilla4 ,they are represented chiefly by ,cristellaria and ,polymorphina4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,structure in ,lepidocyclina4 ,a--,vertical section through test of ,lepidocyclina marginata1 ,michelotti sp43 showing the equatorial chambers 7eq4 c7 and the lateral chambers 7l4c47 ,b--,section through the median disc1 showing the hexagonal and ogive chambers4 #ah4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,batesford1 near ,geelong1 ,victoria4 7,f4,c4 ,coll47 ,cainozoic ,foraminifera4-- ,the ,cainozoic strata in all parts of the world are very rich in ,foraminifera1 and the genera1 and even many species are similar to those now found living4 ,certain types1 however1 had a restricted range1 and are therefore useful as indicators of age4 ,such are the ,nummulites and the ,orbitoides of the ,eocene and the ,oligocene of ,europe1 ,india and the ,west ,indies2 and the ,lepidocyclinae of the ,miocene of ,europe1 ,india1 ,japan and ,australia 7,fig4 #fd74 ,the genus ,lepidocyclina is typically represented in the ,batesford beds near ,geelong1 ,victoria by ,l4 tournoueri1 a fossil of the ,burdigalian stage 7,middle ,miocene7 in ,europe1 as well as by ,l4 marginata4 ,a limestone with large1 well-preserved tests of the same genus1 and belonging to a slightly lower horizon in the ,miocene has lately been discovered in ,papua4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--;,,cainozoic ,,foraminifera4 ,a--,miliolina vulgaris1 d',orb4 sp4 ,oligocene-,recent4 ,vict4 and ,s4,a4 ,b--,textularia gibbosa1 d',orb4 ,oligocene and ,miocene4 ,vict4 ,s4,a4 ,c--,nodosaria affinis1 d',orb4 ,oligocene4 ,victoria4 ,d--,polymorphina elegantissima4 ,p4 and ,j4 ,oligocene-,recent4 ,vict4 and ,s4,a4 ,e--,truncatulina ungeriana1 d',orb4 sp4 ,oligocene-,recent4 ,vict4 ,s4,a4 ,f--,amphistegina vulgaris1 d',orb4 ,oligocene-,l4 ,pliocene4 ,vict4 ,s4,a4 ,some of the commoner ,foraminifera found in the ,cainozoic beds of ,southern ,australia are--,miliolina vulgaris1 ,textularia gibbosa1 ,nodosaria affinis1 ,polymorphina elegantissima1 ,truncatulina ungeriana and ,amphistegina lessonii 7,fig4 #fe74 ,the first-named has a chalky or porcellanous shell2 the second a sandy test2 the third and fourth glassy or hyaline shells with excessively fine tubules2 the fifth a glassy shell with numerous surface punctations due to coarser tubules than usual in the shell-walls2 whilst the last-named has a smooth1 lenticular shell1 also hyaline1 and occurring in such abundance as often to constitute a foraminiferal rock in itself4 ,pleistocene ,foraminifera4-- ,the estuarine deposits of ,pleistocene age in southern ,australia often contain innumerable shells of ,miliolina1 ,rotalia and ,polystomella4 ,one thin seam of sandy clay struck by the bores in the ,victorian ,mallee consists almost entirely of the shells of the shallow-water and estuarine species1 ,rotalia beccarii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,radiolaria3 ,their ,structure4-- ,the organisms belonging to the order ,,radiolaria are microscopic1 and they are all of marine habitat4 ,the body of a radiolarian consists of a central mass of protoplasm enclosed in a membranous capsule1 and contains the nuclei1 vacuoles1 granules and fat globules2 whilst outside is a jelly-like portion which throws off pseudopodia or thin radiating threads4 ,the skeleton of ,radiolaria is either chitinous or composed of clear1 glassy silica1 and is often of exquisitely ornamental and regular form4 ,habitat4-- ,these tiny organisms generally live in the open ocean at various depths1 and sinking to the bottom1 sometimes as deep as #b1jjj to #d1jjj fathoms1 they form an ooze or mud4 ,subdivisions4-- ,radiolaria are divided into the four legions or orders1--,acantharia1 ,spumellaria1 ,nasselaria and ,phaeodaria3 only the second and third groups are found fossil4 ,the ,spumellarians are spherical1 ellipsoidal1 or disc-shaped1 and the ,nasselarians conical or helmet-shaped4 ,cambrian ,radiolaria4-- ,certain cherts or hard1 siliceous rocks of the palaeozoic era are often crowded with the remains of ,radiolaria1 giving the rock a spotted appearance4 7,see antea1 ,fig4 #ch74 ,some of the genera thus found are identical with those living at the present day1 whilst others are peculiar to those old sediments4 ,in ,australia1 remains of their siliceous shells have been found in cherts of ,lower ,cambrian age near ,adelaide4 ,these have been provisionally referred to the genera ,carposphaera and ,cenellipsis 7,fig4 #ff74 ,ordovician ,radiolaria4-- ,radiolaria have been detected in the ,lower ,ordovician rocks of ,victoria1 in beds associated with the ,graptolite slates of this series4 ,in ,new ,south ,wales ,radiolarian remains are found in the cherts and slates of ,upper ,ordovician age at ,cooma and ,mandurama4 ,silurian ,radiolaria4-- ,the ,silurian black cherts of the ,jenolan ,caves in ,new ,south ,wales contain casts of ,radiolaria4 ,devonian ,radiolaria4-- ,the ,lower ,devonian red jaspers of ,bingera and ,barraba in ,new ,south ,wales have afforded some casts of ,radiolaria1 resembling ,carposphaera and ,cenosphaera4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--;,,fossil ,,radiolaria4 ,a--,aff4 ,carposphaera 7after ,david and ,howchin74 ,cambrian4 ,brighton1 ,s4,a4 ,b--,cenosphaera affinis1 ,hinde4 ,mid4 ,devonian4 ,tamworth1 ,n4,s4,w4 ,c--,amphibrachium truncatum1 ,hinde4 ,up4 ,cretaceous4 ,pt4 ,darwin4 ,d--,dictyomitra triangularis1 ,hinde4 ,up4 ,cretaceous4 ,pt4 ,darwin4 ,the large number of fifty-three species have been found in the radiolarian rocks of ,middle ,devonian age at ,tamworth in ,new ,south ,wales 7,fig4 #ff74 ,these have been referred to twenty-nine genera comprising amongst others1 ,cenosphaera1 ,xiphosphaera1 ,staurolonche1 ,heliosphaera1 ,acanthosphaera and ,spongodiscus4 ,cretaceous ,radiolaria4-- ,although certain silicified rocks in the ,jurassic in ,europe have furnished a large series of ,radiolaria1 the ,australian marine limestones of this age have not yielded any of their remains up to the present4 ,they have been found1 however1 in the ,lower ,cretaceous of ,queensland1 and in the 787,upper ,cretaceous of ,port ,darwin1 ,n4 ,australia4 ,the ,radiolaria from the latter locality belong to the sub-orders ,prunoidea1 ,discoidea and ,cyrtoidea 7,fig4 #ff74 ,the rock which contains these minute fossils is stated to be eaten by the natives for medicinal purposes4 ,as its composition is almost pure silica1 its efficacy in such cases must be more imaginary than real4 ,cainozoic ,radiolaria4-- ,cainozoic rocks of ,pliocene age1 composed entirely of ,radiolaria1 occur at ,barbados in the ,west ,indies4 ,no ,cainozoic ,radiolaria1 however1 have been found either in ,australia or ,new ,zealand up to the present time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,common ,,or ,,characteristic ,,fossils ,,of ,,the ,,foregoing ,,chapter4 ,,foraminifera4 ,nubecularia stephensi1 ,howchin4 ,carbopermian3 ,tasmania and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,frondicularia woodwardi1 ,howchin4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,geinitzina triangularis1 ,chapm4 ,howchin4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pulvinulina insignis1 ,chapman4 ,trias 7,wianamatta ,series73 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,marginulina solida1 ,terquem4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,flabellina dilatata1 ,wisniowski4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,vaginulina striata1 d',orbigny4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,truncatulina lobatula1 ,w4 and ,j4 sp4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,miliolina vulgaris1 d',orb4 sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,textularia gibbosa1 d',orb4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,nodosaria affinis1 d',orb4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,polymorphina elegantissima1 ,parker and ,jones4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria1 ,tasmania1 and ,s4 ,australia4 ,truncatulina ungeriana1 d',orb4 sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria1 ,king ,island1 and ,s4 ,australia4 ,amphistegina lessonii1 d',orb4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,lepidocyclina martini1 ,schlumberger4 ,cainozoic 7,balcombian and ,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,l4 tournoueri1 ,lemoine and ,douvill4 ,cainozoic 7,junjukian73 ,victoria4 ,cycloclypeus pustulosus1 ,chapman4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,fabularia howchini1 ,schlumberger4 ,cainozoic 7,kalimnan73 ,victoria4 ,hauerina intermedia1 ,howchin4 ,cainozoic 7,kalimnan73 ,victoria4 ,rotalia beccarii1 ,linn sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,polystomella striatopunctata1 ,fichtel and ,moll sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,,radiolaria4 787 ,carposphaera sp4 ,lower ,cambrian3 ,south ,australia4 787 ,cenellipsis sp4 ,lower ,cambrian3 ,south ,australia4 ,cenosphaera affinis1 ,hinde4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,staurolonche davidi1 ,hinde4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,amphibrachium truncatum1 ,hinde4 ,upper ,cretaceous3 ,northern ,territory4 ,dictyomitra triangularis1 ,hinde4 ,upper ,cretaceous3 ,northern ,territory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,literature4 ,,foraminifera4 ,carbopermian4--,howchin1 ,w4 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xix4 #ahie2 pp4 #aid-aih4 ,chapman1 ,f4 and ,howchin1 ,w4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #ad1 #aije4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,w4 ,austr41 ,no4 #bg1 #aijg1 pp4 #ae-ah4 ,trias4--,chapman1 ,f4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 #d1 #aiji1 pp4 #ccf-cci4 ,jurassic4--,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xvi4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii41 #aijd1 pp4 #ahf-aii4 ,cretaceous4--,moore1 ,c4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxvi4 #ahgj1 pp4 #bci and #bdb4 ,howchin1 ,w4 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,viii4 #ahhf1 pp4 #gi-ic4 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xix41 #ahie1 pp4 #aih-bjj4 ,idem1 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,w4 ,austr41 ,no4 #bg1 #aijg1 pp4 #ch-dc4 ,cainozoic4--,howchin1 ,w4 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xii4 #ahhi1 pp4 #a-bj4 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xiv4 #ahia1 pp4 #cej-cef4 ,jensen1 ,h4 ,i4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,xxix4 pt4 #d1 #aije1 pp4 #hbi-hca4 ,goddard1 ,e4 ,j4 and ,jensen1 ,h4 ,i4 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxxii4 pt4 #b1 #aijg1 pp4 #cjh-cah4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,journ4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,lond4 ,zool41 vol4 ,,xxx4 #aijg1 pp4 #aj-ce4 ,general4--,howchin1 ,w4 ,rep4 ,austr4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,adelaide ,meeting1 #ahic1 pp4 #cdh-cgc4 ,,radiolaria4 ,lower ,cambrian4--,david1 ,t4 ,w4 ,e4 and ,howchin1 ,w4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,xxi4 #ahig1 p4 #ega4 ,devonian4--,david1 ,t4 ,w4 ,e4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,xxi4 #ahig1 pp4 #eec-egj4 ,hinde1 ,g4 ,j4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,lv4 #ahij1 pp4 #ch-fd4 ,upper ,cretaceous4--,hinde1 ,g4 ,j4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xlix4 #ahic1 pp4 #bba-bbf4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,fossil ,,sponges1 ,,corals ,,and ,,graptolites4 ,,sponges4 ,characteristics of ,sponges4-- ,the ,sponges are sometimes placed by themselves as a separate phylum1 the ,porifera4 ,with the exception of a few freshwater genera1 they are of marine habit and to be found at all depths between low tide 7littoral7 and deep water 7abyssal74 ,sponges are either fixed or lie loosely on the sea-floor4 ,they possess no organs of locomotion1 and have no distinct axis or lateral appendages4 ,they exist by setting up currents in the water whereby the latter is circulated through the system1 carrying with it numerous food particles1 their tissues being at the same time oxygenated4 ,their framework1 in the siliceous and calcareous sponges1 is strengthened by a mineral skeleton1 wholly or partially capable of preservation as a fossil4 ,cambrian and ,ordovician ,sponges4-- ,the oldest rocks in ,australia containing the remains of ,sponges are the ,cambrian limestones of ,south ,australia1 at ,ardrossan and elsewhere4 ,some of these sponge-remains are referred to the genus ,protospongia1 a member of the ,hexactinellid group having #f-rayed skeletal elements4 ,when complete1 the ,protospongia has a cup- or funnel-shaped body1 composed of large and small modified spicules1 which form quadrate areas1 often seen in isolated or aggregated patches on the weathered surface of the rock4 ,protospongia also occurs in the ,lower ,ordovician slates and shales of ,lancefield 7,p4 oblonga71 and ,bendigo 7,p4 reticulata and ,p4 cruciformis71 in ,victoria 7,fig4 #fg ,a74 ,at ,st4 ,david's1 in ,south ,wales1 the genus is found in rocks of ,middle ,cambrian age4 ,the ,south ,australian limestones in which ,protospongia occurs are usually placed in the ,lower ,cambrian4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--,,palaeozoic ,,sponges1 c4 ,a--,protospongia reticulata1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,low4 ,ordovician4 ,bendigo4 ,b--,receptaculites fergusoni1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,wombat ,creek1 ,vict4 ,c--,r4 australis1 ,salter4 7,section of wall1 etched1 after ,eth4 ,dun7 ,mid4 ,devonian4 ,co4 ,murray1 ,n4,s4,w4 ,d--,protopharetra scoulari1 ,eth4 fil4 ,cambrian4 ,s4,a4 ,another genus of ,sponges1 ,hyalostelia1 whose affinities are not very clear1 occurs in the ,south ,australian ,cambrian at ,curramulka4 ,this type is represented by the long1 slightly bent1 rod-like spicules of the root-tuft1 and the skeletal spicules with six rays1 one of which is much elongated4 ,stephanella maccoyi is a ,monactinellid sponge1 found in the ,lower ,ordovician 7,bendigo ,series7 of ,bendigo1 ,victoria4 ,silurian ,sponges4-- ,numerous ,sponges of ,silurian age are found in the neighbourhood of ,yass1 ,new ,south ,wales1 which belong to the ,lithistid group1 having irregular1 knotty and branching spicules4 ,these sponges resemble certain fossil fruits1 generally like diminutive melons2 their peculiar spicular structure1 however1 is usually visible on the outside of the fossil1 especially in weathered specimens4 ,the commonest genus is ,carpospongia4 ,receptaculites3 ,silurian to ,carboniferous4-- ,in ,upper ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,carboniferous times the curious saucer- or funnel-shaped bodies known as ,receptaculites must have been fairly abundant in ,australia1 judging by their frequent occurrence as fossils4 ,they are found as impressions or moulds and casts in some of the mudstones and limestones of ,silurian age in ,victoria1 as at ,loyola and ,wombat ,creek1 in west and north-east ,gippsland respectively4 ,in the ,devonian limestones of ,new ,south ,wales they occur at ,fernbrook1 near ,mudgee1 at the ,goodradigbee ,river1 and at ,cavan1 near ,yass2 also in beds of the same age in ,victoria1 at ,bindi1 and ,buchan 7,fig4 #fg1 ,b4,c474 ,receptaculites also occur in the ,star ,beds of ,upper ,devonian or ,lower ,carboniferous age in ,queensland1 at ,mount ,wyatt4 ,it will thus be seen that this genus has an extensive geological range4 ,carbopermian ,sponges4-- ,a ,monactinellid ,sponge1 provisionally referred to ,lasiocladia1 has been described from the ,gympie beds of the ,rockhampton ,district1 ,queensland4 ,lasiocladia1 as well as the ,hexactinellid ,sponge ,hyalostelia1 occurs in the ,carbopermian of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,cretaceous ,sponges4-- ,no sponge-remains seem to occur above the ,carbopermian in ,australia until we reach the ,cretaceous rocks4 ,in the ,lower ,cretaceous series in ,queensland a doubtful member of the ,hexactinellid group is found1 namely1 ,purisiphonia clarkei4 ,in the ,upper ,cretaceous of the ,darling ,downs ,district pyritized ,sponges occur which have been referred to the genus ,siphonia1 a member of the ,lithistid group1 well known in the ,cretaceous of ,europe4 ,cainozoic ,sponges4-- ,a white siliceous clay1 supposed to be from a ,deep ,lead1 in the ,norseman district in ,western ,australia1 has proved to consist almost entirely of siliceous sponge-spicules1 belonging to the ,monactinellid1 the ,tetractinellid1 the ,lithistid1 and the ,hexactinellid groups 7,fig4 #fi ,a1 ,b74 ,the reference of the deposit to a deep lead or alluvial deposit presents a difficulty1 since these sponge-spicules represent moderately deep water marine forms4 ,this deposit resembles in some respects the spicule-bearing rock of ,oamaru1 ,new ,zealand1 which is of ,miocene age4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--;,,cainozoic ,,sponges4 ,a--,latrunculia sp4 7after ,hinde74 ,cainozoic4 ,deep ,lead1 ,norseman1 ,w4,a4 ,b--,geodia sp4 7after ,hinde74 ,cainozoic4 ,deep ,lead1 ,norseman1 ,w4,a4 ,c--,ecionema newberyi4 ,mc,coy sp4 ,cainozoic4 ,boggy ,creek1 ,gippsland1 ,vict4 ,d--,plectroninia halli1 ,hinde4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,moorabool1 ,vict4 ,e--,tretocalia pezica1 ,hinde4 ,cainozoic4 ,flinders1 ,vict4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--,,silurian ,,corals4 ,a--,cyathophyllum approximans1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,yer474 ,gippsland1 ,vict4 ,b--,favosites grandipora1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian 7,yer474 ,lilydale1 ,vict4 ,c--,favosites grandipora1 vertical section4 ,ditto4 ,d--,f4 grandipora1 transverse section4 ,ditto4 ,e--,pleurodictyum megastomum1 ,dun4 ,lilydale1 ,vict4 ,f--,halysites peristephesicus1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales4 ,g--,heliolites interstincta1 ,wahl sp ,vict4 7transv4 sect74 ,silurian44 ,in the ,cainozoic beds of southern ,australia ,sponges with calcareous skeletons are not at all uncommon4 ,the majority of these belong to the ,lithonine section of the ,calcispongiae1 in which the spicules are regular1 and not fixed together4 ,living examples of these sponges1 closely related to the fossils1 have been dredged from the ,japanese ,sea4 ,the fossils are found mainly in the ,janjukian1 at ,curlewis1 in the ,moorabool ,river limestones1 and in the polyzoal rock of ,flinders1 all in ,victoria4 ,they belong to the genera ,bactronella1 ,plectroninia and ,tretocalia 7,fig4 #fh1 ,d and ,e74 ,some diminutive forms also occur in the older series1 the ,balcombian1 at ,mornington1 namely1 ,bactronella parvula4 ,at ,boggy ,creek1 near ,sale1 in ,victoria1 a ,tetractinellid ,sponge1 ,ecionema newberyi1 is found in the ,janjukian marls2 spicules of this form have also been noted from the clays of the ,altona ,bay coal-shaft 7,fig4 #fh ,c74 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,,archaeocyathinae3 an ancient class of organisms related both to the ,sponges and the ,corals4 ,archaeocyathinae in ,cambrian ,strata4-- ,these curious remains have been lately made the subject of detailed research1 and it is now concluded that they form a group probably ancestral both to the sponges and the corals4 ,they are calcareous1 and generally cup-shaped or conical1 often furnished at the pointed base with roots or strands for attachment to the surrounding reef4 ,they have two walls1 both the inner and the outer being perforated like sponges4 ,as in the corals1 they are divided by transverse septa and these are also perforated4 ,certain of the genera as ,protopharetra 7,fig4 #fg ,d71 ,coscinocyathus1 and ,archaeocyathina1 are common to the ,cambrian of ,sardinia and ,south ,australia1 whilst other genera of the class are also found in ,siberia1 ,china1 ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,a species of ,protopharetra was recently detected in a pebble derived from the ,cambrian limestone in the ,antarctic1 as far south as #he deg4 ,an ,archaeocyathina limestone has also been found in situ from ,shackleton's farthest south4 ,,corals 7,class ,anthozoa74 ,rugose ,corals4-- ,many of the older types of ,corals from the ,palaeozoic rocks belong to the ,tetracoralla 7septa in multiples of four71 or ,rugosa 7i4e41 with wrinkled exterior74 ,ordovician ,corals4-- ,in ,great ,britain and ,north ,america ,rugose ,corals are found as early as ,ordovician times1 represented by ,streptelasma1 ,petraia1 etc4 ,in ,australia they seem to first make their appearance in the ,silurian period4 ,silurian ,corals4-- ,in rocks of ,silurian age in ,australia we find genera like ,cyathophyllum 7with single cups or compound coralla71 ,diphyphyllum1 ,tryplasma and ,rhizophyllum1 the first-named often being very abundant4 ,the compound corallum of ,cyathophyllum approximans presents a very handsome appearance when cut transversely and polished4 ,this coral is found in the ,newer ,silurian limestone in ,victoria2 it shows an alliance with ,c4 mitchelli of the ,middle ,devonian of the ,murrumbidgee ,river1 ,new ,south ,wales 7,fig4 #fi ,a74 ,silurian ,hexacoralla4-- ,it is1 however1 to the next group1 the ,hexacoralla1 with septa in multiples of six1 twelve1 and twenty-four1 that we turn for the most varied and abundant types of ,corals in ,silurian times4 ,the genus ,favosites 7,honey-comb ,coral7 is extremely abundant in ,australian limestones 7,fig4 #fi ,b1 ,c71 such as those of ,lilydale1 ,walhalla1 and ,waratah ,bay in ,victoria1 and of ,hatton's ,corner and other localities near ,yass1 in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pleurodictyum is also a familiar type in the ,australian ,silurian1 being one of the commonest corals in the ,yeringian stage2 although1 strange to say1 in ,germany and ,n4 ,america1 it is typical of ,devonian strata 7,fig4 #fi ,e74 ,pleurodictyum had a curious habit of growing1 barnacle fashion1 on the side of the column of the crinoids or sea-lilies which flourished in those times4 ,syringopora1 with its funnel-shaped tabulae or floor partitions1 is typical of many ,australian limestones1 as those from ,lilydale1 ,victoria1 and the ,delegate ,river1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,halysites 7,chain ,coral71 with its neat strings of tubular and tabulated corallites joined together by their edges1 is another striking ,coral of the ,silurian period 7,fig4 #fi ,f74 ,this and the earlier mentioned ,syringopora1 is by some authors regarded as belonging to the ,alcyonarian ,corals 7typically with eight tentacles74 ,halysites is known from the limestones of the ,mitta ,mitta ,river1 ,n4,e4 ,gippsland1 ,victoria2 from the ,molong and ,canobolas districts in ,new ,south ,wales2 from the ,gordon ,river limestone in ,tasmania2 and from ,chillagoe in ,queensland4 ,abroad it is a well known type of ,coral in the ,wenlockian of ,gotland in ,scandinavia1 and ,shropshire in ,england1 as well as in the ,niagara ,limestone of the ,united ,states4 ,silurian ,octocoralla4-- ,perhaps the most important of the ,octocoralla is ,heliolites 7,sunstone71 which is closely allied to the ,blue ,coral1 ,heliopora1 a frequent constituent of our modern coral reefs4 ,the genus ,heliolites has a massive1 calcareous corallum1 bearing two kinds of pores or tubes1 large 7autopores7 containing complete polyps1 and small 7siphonopores7 containing the coenosarc or flesh of the colony4 ,both kinds of tubes are closely divided by tabulae1 whilst the former are septate4 ,heliolites is of frequent occurrence in the ,silurian limestones of ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria 7,fig4 #fi ,g74 ,devonian ,corals4-- ,the ,middle ,devonian beds of ,australia are chiefly limestones1 such as the ,buchan limestone1 ,victoria2 the ,burdekin ,series1 ,queensland2 and the ,tamworth limestone of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,these rocks1 as a rule1 are very fossiliferous1 and the chief constituent fossils are the ,rugose and ,perforate ,corals4 ,campophyllum gregorii is a common form in the ,buchan limestone 7,fig4 #gj ,a71 as well as some large mushroom-shaped ,favosites1 as ,f4 gothlandica and ,f4 multitabulata4 ,other genera which may be mentioned as common to the ,australian ,middle ,devonian rocks are1 ,cyathophyllum1 ,sanidophyllum and ,spongophyllum1 ,heliolites is also found in limestones of this age in ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,,upper ,,palaeozic ,,corals4 ,a--,campophyllum gregorii1 ,eth4 fil4 ,mid4 ,devonian4 ,buchan1 ,vict4 ,b--,pachypora meridionalis1 ,nich4 ,eth4 fil4 ,mid ,devonian4 ,queens4 ,c--,aulopora repens1 ,kn4 ,w4 7after ,hinde74 ,devonian4 ,kimberley district1 ,w4,a4 ,d--,zaphrentis culleni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carboniferous4 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,e--,trachypora wilkinsoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian 7,up4 ,marine ,ser47 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,f--,stenopora crinita1 ,lonsdale4 ,carbopermian 7,up4 ,mar4 ,ser47 ,n4,s4,w4 ,in the ,burdekin ,series 7,middle ,devonian7 in ,queensland we also find ,cystiphyllum1 ,favosites gothlandica1 and ,pachypora meridionalis 7,fig4 #gj ,b71 whilst in beds of the same age at ,rough ,range in ,western ,australia are found ,aulopora repens 7,fig4 #gj ,c71 and another species of ,pachypora1 namely1 ,p4 tumida4 ,carbopermian ,corals4-- ,the only true ,carboniferous marine fauna occurring in ,australia1 appears to be that of the ,star ,beds in ,queensland1 but so far no corals have been found4 ,the so-called ,carboniferous of ,western ,australia may be regarded as ,carbopermian or even of ,permian age4 ,the marine ,carbopermian beds of ,new ,south ,wales contain several genera of ,corals belonging to the group ,rugosa1 as ,zaphrentis 7,fig4 #gj ,d71 ,lophophyllum1 and ,campophyllum4 ,of the ,tabulate corals may be mentioned ,trachypora wilkinsoni1 very typical of the ,upper ,marine ,series 7,fig4 #gj ,e7 and ,cladochonus4 ,in the ,gympie beds of the same system in ,queensland occur the following rugose corals1 ,zaphrentis profunda and a species of ,cyathophyllum4 ,in the ,carbopermian of ,western ,australia the rugose corals are represented by ,amplexus1 ,cyathophyllum1 and ,plerophyllum1 which occur in rocks on the ,gascoyne ,river4 ,the imperfectly understood group of the ,monticuliporoids1 by some authors placed with the ,polyzoa 7,order ,trepostomata71 are well represented in ,australia by the genus ,stenopora 7,fig4 #gj ,f74 ,the corallum is a massive colony of long tubes set side by side and turned outwards1 the polyp moving upwards in growth and cutting off the lower part of the tube by platforms like those in the tabulate corals4 ,some of the species of ,stenopora1 like ,s4 tasmaniensis1 of ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania1 are found alike in the ,lower and ,upper ,marine ,series4 ,s4 australis is confined to the ,bowen ,river ,coal-field of ,queensland4 ,stenopora often attains a large size1 the corallum reaching over a foot in length4 ,neither ,jurassic or ,cretaceous ,corals have been found in ,australasia1 although elsewhere as in ,europe and ,india1 the representatives of modern corals are found in some abundance4 ,cainozoic ,corals4-- ,in ,tertiary times the marine areas of southern ,australia were the home of many typical solitary ,corals of the group of the ,hexacoralla4 ,in the ,balcombian beds of ,mornington1 ,victoria1 for instance1 we have genera such as ,flabellum1 ,placotrochus1 ,sphenotrochus1 ,ceratotrochus1 ,conosmilia1 ,trematotrochus1 ,notophyllia and ,balanophyllia 7,fig4 #ga74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--;,,cainozoic ,,corals4 ,a--,flabellum victoriae1 ,duncan4 ,balcombian4 ,mornington1 ,vict4 ,b--,placotrochus deltoideus1 ,dunc4 ,balcombian4 ,muddy ,creek1 ,hamilton1 ,vic4 ,c--,balanophyllia seminuda1 ,dunc4 ,balcombian4 ,muddy ,creek1 ,hamilton1 ,vic4 ,d--,stephanotrochus tatei1 ,dennant4 ,janjukian4 ,torquay1 near ,geelong1 ,vict4 ,e--,thamnastraea sera1 ,duncan4 ,janjukian4 ,table ,cape1 ,tas4 ,f--,graphularia senescens4 ,tate sp4 ,janjukian4 ,waurn ,ponds1 near ,geelong1 ,vic4 ,g--,trematotrochus clarkii1 ,dennant4 ,kalimnan4 ,gippsland ,lakes1 ,vic4 ,corals especially characteristic of the ,janjukian ,series are ,paracyathus tasmanicus1 ,stephanotrochus tatei1 ,montlivaltia variformis1 ,thamnastraea sera and ,dendrophyllia epithecata4 ,the stony axis of the ,sea-pen1 ,graphularia senescens1 a member of the ,octocoralla1 is also typical of this stage1 and are called square-bones by the quarrymen at ,waurn ,ponds1 near ,geelong1 where these fossils occur4 ,the ,kalimnan ,corals are not so abundantly represented as in the foregoing stages1 but certain species of ,flabellum and ,trematotrochus1 as ,f4 curtum and ,t4 clarkii1 are peculiar to those beds4 ,several of the ,janjukian ,corals persist into ,kalimnan times1 some dating as far back as the ,balcombian1 as ,sphenotrochus emarciatus4 ,the ,sea-pen1 ,graphularia senescens is again found at this higher horizon1 at ,beaumaris2 it probably represents a varietal form1 the axis being smaller and more slender4 ,other examples of the ,octocoralla are seen in ,mopsea1 two species of which are found in the ,janjukian at ,cape ,otway2 the deeper beds of the ,mallee2 and the ,mount ,gambier ,series4 ,a species of the ,astraeidae 7,star-corals7 of the reef-forming section1 ,plesiastraea st4vincenti1 is found in the ,kalimnan of ,hallett's ,cove1 ,south ,australia4 ,,hydrozoa4 ,the few animals of this group met with in fossil faunas are represented by the living ,millepora 7abundant as a coral reef organism71 ,hydractinia 7parasitic on shells1 etc471 and ,sertularia 7,sea-firs74 ,milleporids and ,stylasterids4-- ,although so abundant at the present time1 the genus ,millepora does not date back beyond the ,pleistocene4 ,the ,eocene genus ,axopora is supposed to belong here1 but is not ,australian4 ,of the ,stylasterids one example is seen in ,deontopora1 represented by the branchlets of ,d4 mooraboolensis1 from the ,janjukian limestone of the ,moorabool ,valley1 near ,geelong4 ,hydractinia4-- ,hydractinia dates from the ,upper ,cretaceous rocks in ,england1 and in ,australia its encrusting polypidom is found attached to shells in the polyzoal limestone of ,mount ,gambier 7,miocene74 ,stromatoporoids4 ,an important group of reef-builders in ,palaeozoic times was the organism known as ,stromatopora1 and its allies4 ,the structures of these hydroid polyps resemble successional and repetitional stages of a form like ,hydractinia4 ,as in that genus it always commenced to grow upon a base of attachment such as a shell1 increasing by successive layers1 until the organic colony often reached an enormous size1 and formed great mounds and reefs 7see antea1 ,fig4 #cb74 ,the stromatoporoid structure was formed by a layer of polyp cells separated by vertical partitions1 upon which layer after layer was added until a great vertical thickness was attained4 ,this limestone-making group first appeared in the ,silurian1 and probably reached its maximum development in ,middle ,devonian times1 when it almost disappeared1 except to be represented in ,carbopermian strata by a few diminutive forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,,stromatoporoidea and ,,cladophora4 ,a--,actinostroma clathratum1 ,nich4 ,devonian4 ,rough ,range1 ,w4,a4 ,b--,actinostroma clathratum1 ,nich4 ,devonian4 ,rough ,range1 ,w4,a4 ,vertical section4 7,after ,g4 ,j4 ,hinde74 ,c--,callograptus sp4 ,up4 ,ordovician4 ,san ,remo1 ,vict4 7,after ,t4 ,s4 ,hall74 ,d--,ptilograptus sp4 ,up4 ,ordovician4 ,san ,remo1 ,vict4 7,after ,t4 ,s4 ,hall74 ,e--,dictyonema pulchellum1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordov4 ,lancefield1 ,vict4 ,f--,dictyonema macgillivrayi1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordov4 ,lancefield1 ,vict4 ,silurian ,stromatoporoids4-- ,in the ,silurian limestones of ,victoria 7,lilydale1 ,waratah ,bay1 ,walhalla and ,loyola71 and ,new ,south ,wales 7near ,yass71 ,stromatoporoids belonging to the genera ,clathrodictyon 7probably ,c4 regulare71 ,stromatopora and ,idiostroma occur4 ,stromatoporella has been recorded from the ,silurian rocks of the ,jenolan ,caves1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,devonian ,stromatoporids4-- ,the ,middle ,devonian strata of ,bindi1 ,victoria1 yield large1 massive examples of ,actinostroma4 ,this genus is distinguished from the closely allied ,clathrodictyon by its vertical pillars passing through several laminae in succession4 ,rocks of the same age in ,queensland contain ,stromatopora1 whilst in ,western ,australia the ,rough ,range ,limestone has been shown to contain ,actinostroma clathratum 7,fig4 #gb ,a1 ,b7 and ,stromatoporella eifeliensis4 ,cladophora4 ,palaeozoic ,cladophora4-- ,some branching and dendroid forms of ,hydrozoa probably related to the modern ,calyptoblastea 7covered buds71 such as ,sertularia and ,campanularia1 are included in the ,cladophora 7,branch bearers74 ,they existed from ,cambrian to ,devonian times1 and consist of slender1 forking branches sometimes connected by transverse processes or dissepiments1 the branches bearing on one or both sides little cups or hydrothecae which evidently contained the polyps1 and others of modified form1 perhaps for the purpose of reproduction4 ,the outer layer1 called the periderm was of chitinous material4 ,they were probably attached to the sea-floor like the ,sertularians 7,sea-firs74 ,dictyonema and ,allies4-- ,remains of the above group are represented in the ,australian rocks by several species of ,dictyonema 7,fig4 #gb ,e1 ,f7 occurring in the ,lower ,ordovician of ,lancefield1 and in similar or older shales near ,mansfield4 ,some of these species are of large size1 ,d4 grande measuring nearly a foot in width4 ,the genera ,callograptus1 ,ptilograptus 7,fig4 #gb ,c1 ,d7 and ,dendrograptus are also sparsely represented in the ,upper ,ordovician of ,victoria1 the two former from ,san ,remo1 the latter from ,bulla4 ,graptolites 7,graptolitoidea74-- ,value of ,graptolites to ,stratigraphist4-- ,the ,graptolites were so named by ,linnaeus from their resemblances to writing on the slates in which their compressed remains are found4 ,they form a very important group of ,palaeozoic fossils in all parts of the world where these rocks occur1 and are well represented in ,australasia4 ,the species of the various ,graptolite genera are often restricted to particular beds1 and hence they are of great value as indicators of certain horizons or layers in the black1 grey or variously coloured slates and shales of ,lower ,ordovician to ,silurian times4 ,by their aid a stratum or set of strata can be traced across country for long distances1 and the typical species can be correlated even with those in the older slates and shales of ,great ,britain and ,north ,america4 ,nature of ,graptolites4-- ,the ,graptolites were compound animals1 consisting of a number of polyps inserted in cups or thecae which budded out in a line from the primary sicula or conical chamber1 which chamber was probably attached to floating sea-weed1 either by a fine thread 7nema71 or a disc-like expansion4 ,this budding of the polyp-bearing thecae gives to the polypary or colony the appearance of a fret-saw1 with the teeth directed away from the sicula4 ,the habit of the earlier graptolites was to branch repeatedly1 as in ,clonograptus1 or to show a compound leaf-like structure as in ,phyllograptus4 ,later on the many-branched forms had their branches reduced until1 as in ,didymograptus1 there were only two branches4 ,sometimes the branches opened out to direct the thecae upwards1 the better to procure their food supply4 ,in ,diplograptus the thecae turned upwards and acquired a support by the formation of a medium rod 7virgula71 often ending in a disc or float4 ,in ,silurian times ,monograptus prevailed1 a genus having only a single row of thecae supported by a straight or curved virgula4 ,in ,retiolites the polypary opened out by means of a net-work of fine strands1 rendering it better able to float1 at the same time retaining its original strength4 ,lower ,ordovician ,graptolites1 ,victoria4-- ,the ,lower ,ordovician slates and shales of ,victoria have been successfully divided into several distinct series by means of the ,graptolites4 ,these1 commencing at the oldest1 are3-- 7#a7 ,lancefield ,series4 ,characterised by ,bryograptus clarki1 ,b4 victoriae1 ,didymograptus pritchardi1 ,d4 taylori and ,tetragraptus decipiens4 ,other forms less restricted are1 ,clonograptus magnificus 7measuring over a yard in breadth71 ,c4 flexilis1 ,c4 rigidus1 ,leptograptus antiquus and ,tetragraptus approximatus 7,fig4 #gc74 7#b7 ,bendigo ,series4 ,characterised by ,tetragraptus fruticosus1 ,t4 pendens1 ,trichograptus fergusoni and ,goniograptus thureaui4 ,this series also contains ,tetragraptus serra 7ranging into ,darriwill ,series71 ,t4 bryonoides1 ,t4 quadribrachiatus1 ,t4 approximatus 7base of the series71 ,phyllograptus typus1 ,dichograptus octobrachiatus1 ,goniograptus macer and many ,didymograpti1 including ,d4 bifidus 7,fig4 #gd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,,lower ,,ordovician ,,graptolites4 ,a--,bryograptus clarki1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,lancefield1 ,vict4 ,b--,tetragraptus fruticosus1 ,j4 ,hall sp4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,lancefield4 ,c--,phyllograptus typus1 ,j4 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,lancefield4 ,d--,goniograptus macer1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,lancefield4 ,e--,didymograptus caduceus1 ,salter4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,lancefield4 ,f--,trigonograptus wilkinsoni1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordov4 ,darriwill1 ,vict4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,,lower ,,ordovician ,,graptolites4 ,a--,loganograptus logani1 ,j4 ,hall sp4 ,l4 ,ordov4 ,newham1 ,vict4 ,b--,tetragraptus approximatus1 ,nich4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,canada and ,victoria4 7,after ,nicholson7 ,c--,tetragraptus serra1 ,brongn4 sp4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,lancefield1 ,vict4 ,d--,didymograptus bifidus1 ,j4 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,guildford1 ,vict4 7#c7 ,castlemaine ,series4 ,characterised by ,didymograptus bifidus1 ,d4 caduceus and ,loganograptus logani4 ,phyllograptus persists from the ,bendigo ,series4 ,it also contains ,tetragraptus serra1 ,t4 bryonoides1 ,t4 quadribrachiatus1 ,goniograptus macer and several ,didymograpti4 7#d7 ,darriwill ,series4 ,characterised by ,trigonograptus wilkinsoni4 ,also contain ,diplograptus1 ,glossograptus and ,lasiograptus1 whilst ,didymograptus is rare4 ,lower ,ordovician ,graptolites1 ,new ,zealand4-- ,in ,new ,zealand ,lower ,ordovician ,graptolites are found in the ,kakanui ,series1 at ,nelson1 north-west of ,south ,island4 ,some of the commoner forms are ,didymograptus extensus1 ,d4 caduceus1 ,loganograptus logani1 ,phyllograptus typus1 ,tetragraptus similis and ,t4 quadribrachiatus4 ,graptolites agreeing closely with those of the ,lancefield ,series of ,victoria occur near ,preservation ,inlet in the extreme ,south-west1 and have been identified as ,clonograptus rigidus1 ,bryograptus victoriae and ,tetragraptus decipiens4 ,upper ,ordovician ,graptolites1 ,victoria4-- ,the ,upper ,ordovician rocks of ,victoria1 as at ,wombat ,creek and ,mount ,wellington in ,gippsland1 and at ,diggers' ,rest near ,sunbury1 contain the double branched forms like ,dicranograptus ramosus1 ,dicellograptus elegans and ,d4 sextans2 the sigmoidal form ,stephanograptus gracilis2 and the diprionidian 7biserial7 forms as ,diplograptus tardus1 ,climacograptus bicornis1 ,cryptograptus tricornis1 ,glossograptus hermani and ,lasiograptus margaritatus 7,fig4 #ge74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,,upper ,,ordovician and ,,silurian ,,graptolites4 ,a--,dicranograptus ramosus1 ,j4 ,hall sp4 ,up4 ,ordovician4 ,victoria4 ,b--,dicellograptus elegans1 ,carruthers sp4 ,up4 ,ordovician4 ,victoria4 ,c--,diplograptus carnei1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,up4 ,ordovician4 ,n4 ,s4 ,wales4 ,d--,climacograptus bicornis1 ,j4 ,hall4 ,up4 ,ordovician4 ,victoria4 ,e--,glossograptus hermani1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,up4 ,ordovician4 ,victoria4 ,f--,retiolites australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian4 ,keilor1 ,victoria4 ,g--,monograptus dubius1 ,suess4 ,silurian4 ,wood's ,point1 ,victoria4 ,upper ,ordovician ,graptolites1 ,new ,south ,wales4-- ,in ,new ,south ,wales1 at ,tallong1 the ,upper ,ordovician ,graptolites are well represented by such forms as ,dicellograptus elegans1 ,dicranograptus nicholsoni1 ,diplograptus carnei1 ,d4 foliaceus1 ,cryptograptus tricornis and ,glossograptus quadrimucronatus1 etc4 ,other localities in ,new ,south ,wales for this ,graptolite fauna are ,stockyard ,creek1 ,currowang1 ,tingaringi1 ,lawson1 and ,mandurama4 ,tasmania4-- ,from ,tasmania a ,diplograptus has been recorded1 but the particular horizon and locality are uncertain4 ,silurian ,graptolites1 ,victoria4-- ,in the ,silurian shales at ,keilor1 in ,victoria1 ,monograptus is a common genus1 and ,cyrtograptus and ,retiolites australis 7,fig4 #ge ,f7 also occur4 ,several species of ,monograptus have also been found at ,south ,yarra and ,studley ,park4 ,at the latter place and ,walhalla ,monograptus dubius1 which is a ,wenlock and ,ludlow fossil in ,britain1 has been found in some abundance 7,fig4 #ge ,g74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,common ,,or ,,characteristic ,,fossils ,,of ,,the ,,foregoing ,,chapter4 ,,sponges4 ,protospongia sp4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,hyalostelia sp4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,protospongia oblonga1 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,stephanella maccoyi1 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,carpospongia sp4 ,silurian3 ,yass1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,receptaculites fergusoni1 ,chapman4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,receptaculites australis1 ,salter sp4 ,devonian3 ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,carboniferous3 ,queensland4 787 ,lasiocladia hindei1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,queensland4 ,purisiphonia clarkei1 ,bowerbank4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,geodia sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,tethya sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,ecionema newberyi1 ,mc,coy sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,plectroninia halli1 ,hinde4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,tretocalia pezica1 ,hinde4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,,archaeocyathinae4 ,protopharetra scoulari1 ,etheridge1 fil4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,coscinocyathus australis1 ,taylor4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,archaeocyathina ajax1 ,taylor4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,,corals4 ,cyathophyllum approximans1 ,chapman4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,tryplasma liliiformis1 ,etheridge1 fil4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,favosites grandipora1 ,etheridge fil4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,pleurodictyum megastomum1 ,dun4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,halysites peristephicus1 ,etheridge1 fil4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,heliolites interstincta1 ,linn sp4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,campophyllum gregorii1 ,eth4 fil4 ,middle ,devonian3 ,victoria and ,queensland4 ,cystiphyllum australasicum1 ,eth4 fil4 ,middle ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland4 ,favosites multitabulata1 ,eth4 fil4 ,middle ,devonian3 ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pachypora meridionalis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,middle ,devonian3 ,queensland4 ,zaphrentis culleni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carboniferous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,lophophyllum corniculum1 de ,koninck4 ,carboniferous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,zaphrentis profunda1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,queensland4 ,campophyllum columnare1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,trachypora wilkinsoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,stenopora tasmaniensis1 ,lonsdale4 ,carbopermian3 ,tasmania and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,flabellum gambierense1 ,duncan4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria1 ,s4 ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,placotrochus deltoideus1 ,duncan4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria1 ,s4 ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,sphenotrochus emarciatus1 ,duncan4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria1 ,s4 ,australia1 and ,tasmania4 ,ceratotrochus exilis1 ,dennant4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,conosmilia elegans1 ,duncan4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,balanophyllia armata1 ,duncan4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,thamnastraea sera1 ,duncan4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria and ,tasmania4 ,graphularia senescens1 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,,hydrozoa4 ,clathrodictyon 787 regulare1 ,rosen sp4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,actinostroma clathratum1 ,nicholson4 ,devonian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,stromatoporella eifeliensis1 ,nich4 ,devonian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,dictyonema pulchella1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,lower ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,ptilograptus sp4 ,l4 ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,callograptus sp4 ,lower ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,,graptolites4 ,bryograptus victoriae1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,lower ,ordovician 7,lancefield ,series73 ,victoria4 ,tetragraptus fruticosus1 ,j4 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordovician 7,bendigo ,series73 ,victoria4 ,didymograptus caduceus1 ,salter4 ,l4 ,ordovician 7,castlemaine ,series73 ,victoria4 ,also ,new ,zealand4 ,didymograptus bifidus1 ,j4 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordovician 7,castlemaine ,series73 ,victoria4 ,also ,new ,zealand4 ,trigonograptus wilkinsoni1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,l4 ,ordovician 7,darriwill ,series73 ,victoria4 ,dicranograptus ramosus1 ,j4 ,hall sp4 ,upper ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,monograptus dubius1 ,suess4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,retiolites australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,literature4 ,,sponges4 ,cambrian4--,tate1 ,r4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xv4 7,n4,s471 #ahib1 p4 #ahh4 ,ordovician4--,hall1 ,t4 ,s4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,i4 pt4 ,i4 #ahhi1 pp4 #fj1 #fa 7,protospongia74 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xi4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #ahii1 pp4 #aeb-aee 7,protospongia and ,stephanella74 ,silurian to ,carboniferous4--,salter1 ,j4 ,w4 ,canad4 ,org4 ,rem4 ,dec4 ,i4 #ahei1 p4 #dg4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 and ,dun1 ,w4 ,s4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,vi4 #ahih1 pp4 #fb-ge4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict4 vol4 ,,xviii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 #a1 #aije1 pp4 #e-ae4 ,carbopermian4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr41 in ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,q41 #ahib1 p4 #aii4 ,cretaceous4--,bowerbank1 ,j4 ,s4 ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc4 ,lond41 #ahfi1 p4 #cdb4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 in ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #dch1 #dci 7,purisiphonia74 ,cainozoic4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,v4 #ahgg4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xx4 7,n4,s471 pt4 #b1 #aijh1 pp4 #baj-bab 7,ecionema74 ,hinde1 ,g4 ,j4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,lvi41 #aijj1 pp4 #ej-ef 7calcisponges74 ,idem1 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,w4 ,austr41 ,no4 #cf1 #aiaj1 pp4 #g-ba 7sponge-spicules74 ,,archaeocyathinae4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr41 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xiii4 #ahij1 pp4 #aj-bb4 ,taylor1 ,t4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,ii41 pt4 #b1 #aiaj 7a monograph74 ,,corals4 ,silurian4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,ii4 pt4 #a1 #ahij1 pp4 #ae-ba 7,silurian and ,devonian74 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,ii4 pt4 #d1 #ahib1 pp4 #afe-agd 7,silurian and ,devonian74 ,idem1 in ,pal4 and ,geol4 ,queensland1 #ahib4 ,idem1 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,i41 ,no4 #aj1 #ahia1 pp4 #bja-bje 7,rhizophyllum74 ,id41 ibid41 vol4 ,,iii4 ,no4 #b1 #ahig1 pp4 #cj-cc 7,columnaria74 ,id41 ,prog4 ,rep4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 ,no4 #aa1 #ahii1 pp4 #cj-cf4 ,idem1 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,no4 #ac1 pt4 ,i41 #aijd 7,halysites74 ,id41 ibid41 ,no4 #ac1 pt4 #b1 #aijg 7,tryplasma74 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ibid41 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih4 ,shearsby1 ,a4 ,j4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,v41 vol4 ,,iii4 #aijf1 pp4 #edg-eeb4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,ii4 pt4 #a1 #aijg1 pp4 #fg-hj4 ,devonian4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 and ,foord1 ,a4 ,h4 ,ann4 ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist41 ser4 ,v41 vol4 ,,xiv41 #ahhd1 pp4 #age-agi 7,alveolites and ,amplexopora ,litophyllum74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr41 in ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib4 ,idem1 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,ix4 #ahie1 pp4 #eah-eci4 ,id41 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,vi4 pt4 #c1 #ahii1 pp4 #aeb-ahb 7,tamworth ,district74 ,id41 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,,iv4 ,no4 #g1 #aijb1 pp4 #bec-bfj4 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,iii1 pt4 #b1 #aiab1 pp4 #bae-bbb4 ,carbopermian4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #e1 #ahia4 ,idem1 in ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib4 ,id41 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,surv41 ,w4 ,austr41 ,no4 #aj1 #aijc1 pp4 #h-aj4 ,cainozoic4--,duncan1 ,p4 ,m4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxvi4 #ahgj1 pp4 #bhd-cah2 vol4 ,,xxxi4 #ahge1 pp4 #fgc-fgh2 vol4 ,,xxxii4 #ahgf1 pp4 #cda-cea4 ,woods1 ,t4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,xi41 #ahgh1 pp4 #ahc-aie2 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxx4 #ahgi1 pp4 #eg-fa4 ,idem1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,i41 #ahgh1 pp4 #ajd-aai4 ,dennant1 ,j4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vols4 ,,xxiii4 7#ahii7 to ,,xxviii4 7#aijd74 ,,stromatoporoids4 ,hinde1 ,g4 ,j4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,vii1 #ahij1 p4 #aic4 ,,graptolites4 ,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,decades ,i4 7#ahgd73 ,,ii4 7#ahge73 ,v4 7#ahgg74 ,hall1 ,t4 ,s4 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,iv4 p4 ,i4 #ahib1 pp4 #g1 #h 7,dictyonema74 ,idem1 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iv4 vol4 ,,vi4 #ahii1 pp4 #dch-dea2 ,id41 ,rep4 ,austr4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,brisbane1 #aiji1 pp4 #cah-cbj4 ,id41 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 vol4 ,i4 pt4 #d1 #aijf1 pp4 #bff-bgh4 ,id41 ibid41 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 #b1 #aiab1 pp4 #ahh-baa4 ,idem1 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,vii4 part #a1 #aiaj1 pp4 #af1 #ag4 ,ibid41 pp4 #di-ei4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,fossil ,,sea-,,lilies1 ,,starfishes1 ,,brittle-,,stars ,,and ,,sea-,,urchins4 ,divisions of ,echinodermata4-- ,the sub-kingdom of ,,echinodermata includes the above groups comprised in the ,classes ,crinoidea1 ,asteroidea1 ,ophiuroidea and ,echinoidea4 ,besides these are the less important classes of the ,cystidea or sac-shaped echinoderms 7of which no definite remains are recorded from ,australian rocks72 the ,blastoidea or bud-shaped echinoderms 7of which four genera are known from ,australia72 the ,edrioasteroidea or sessile starfishes 7unknown in ,australia72 and the ,holothuroidea or sea-cucumbers 7represented as fossils by the skin spicules and plates1 an example of which has been recorded from ,australia74 ,,crinoidea1 or ,sea-lilies4 ,crinoidea1 their ,general ,structure4-- ,these often beautiful and graceful animals resemble a starfish mounted on a stalk4 ,they are composed of calcareous joints and plates1 and are therefore important as rock-formers4 ,the stalk or column may be either short or long1 and is generally rooted1 in the adult stage1 in the mud of the sea-floor4 ,fossil ,crinoids were sometimes furnished with a coiled termination1 which could be entwined around such objects as the stems of sea-weeds4 ,the crinoid column is composed of numerous plates1 and is round or pentagonal4 ,upon this is fixed the calyx or cup1 with its attached arms1 which serve to bring food to the mouth1 situated on the upper part of the cup4 ,the arms are grooved1 and the water1 being charged with food particles 7animalcula71 pours down these channels into the mouth4 ,the stem elevates the animal above the mud or silt of the sea-floor1 thus making it more easy for it to obtain its food supply4 ,the stalks of fossil ,crinoids sometimes reached the enormous length of #ej feet4 ,their calcareous skeleton is built upon a plan having five planes of symmetry2 this pentamerism is found throughout the crinoids1 the blastoids and the free-moving echinoderma4 ,crinoids range from moderately shallow- to deep-water1 and at the present day are almost restricted to abyssal conditions4 ,the more ancient types usually found their habitats amongst reefs or in comparatively clear water1 where there was a marked freedom from sediment1 although that was not an essential1 as seen by their numerous remains in the ,australian mudstones and sandstones4 ,cambrian ,crinoids4-- ,the group of the ,crinoidea first appears in the ,upper ,cambrian1 and persists to the present time4 ,in ,north ,america the genus ,dendrocrinus occurs in the ,cambrian and ,ordovician2 and some stem-joints from the ,upper ,cambrian limestone of the ,mount ,wellington district1 ,victoria1 may be provisionally referred to this genus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--;,,fossil ,,crinoids4 ,a--787 ,pisocrinus yassensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,side of calyx4 ,silurian4 ,yass1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,b--787 ,pisocrinus yassensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,dorsal ,surface4 ,silurian4 ,n4 ,s4 ,w4 ,c--,botryocrinus longibrachiatus1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,flemington1 ,vict4 ,d--,helicocrinus plumosus1 ,chapm4 ,stem1 distal end4 ,brunswick1 ,victoria4 ,e--,phialocrinus konincki1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian 7,up4 ,mar4 ,ser47 ,nowra1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,f--,isocrinus australis1 ,moore sp4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,wollumbilla1 ,q'ld4 ,ordovician ,crinoids4-- ,no undoubted ,crinoid remains have been found in the ,australian ,ordovician2 although many genera are found elsewhere in that system1 chiefly in ,n4 ,america1 as ,reteocrinus1 ,hybocrinus1 ,heterocrinus and ,dendrocrinus1 and in ,europe and ,north ,america1 as ,rhodocrinus and ,taxocrinus4 ,silurian ,crinoids4-- ,the ,silurian ,crinoidea of ,australia are largely represented by the remains of the columns or stalks1 which are often found in such abundance as to constitute large masses of sub-crystalline limestone1 as that of ,toongabbie1 ,victoria4 ,the columns of the ,crinoids do not usually possess sufficient characters to enable the forms to be identified4 ,there are1 however1 more perfect and identifiable remains of several very interesting generic types in the ,silurian faunas as follows3-- ,in ,new ,south ,wales ,pisocrinus is represented with some reservation by 787 ,p4 yassensis1 found at ,limestone ,creek1 near ,yass 7,fig4 #gf ,a1 ,b74 ,in ,victoria1 ,helicocrinus plumosus and ,botryocrinus longibrachiatus occur at ,brunswick and ,flemington1 respectively 7,fig4 #gf74 ,the former is a delicate and handsome species1 having a small cup with finely pinnate arms1 which are forked once1 and with a pentagonal stem coiled at the distal end 7see ,frontispiece74 ,the genus ,botryocrinus is found in rocks of a similar age in ,north ,america and ,england4 ,hapalocrinus victoriae1 a member of the ,platycrinidae1 has been described from the mudstone of ,south ,yarra1 near ,melbourne4 ,the species above mentioned are of ,melbournian age1 belonging to the lower stage of the ,silurian system4 ,devonian ,crinoids4-- ,in the ,middle ,devonian of ,queensland1 fragmentary crinoid stems are found interbedded with the limestone of the ,broken ,river4 ,thin slices of the limestone of the same age from ,buchan1 ,victoria1 show numerous ossicles and stem-joints of ,crinoids4 ,similar remains have also been recorded from the ,devonian of the ,kimberley district and the ,gascoyne ,river in ,western ,australia4 ,carboniferous ,crinoids4-- ,the ,carboniferous 7,star ,beds7 of ,queensland has yielded remains of ,actinocrinus4 ,the ,matai ,series of ,new ,zealand1 which may be regarded as almost certainly of ,carboniferous age1 contains remains of a ,cyathocrinus1 found in the limestone of the ,wairoa ,gorge4 ,carbopermian ,crinoids4-- ,the ,carbopermian 7,upper ,marine ,series7 of ,new ,south ,wales yields the interesting ,crinoid having a large1 globular cup1 known as ,phialocrinus2 the best known species of this genus are ,p4 konincki 7,fig4 #gf ,e7 and ,p4 princeps4 ,beds of the same age in ,new ,south ,wales1 also in the ,upper ,marine ,series1 contain the aberrant ,crinoid with strongly sculptured plates of the calyx in the decorticated condition1 ,tribrachiocrinus clarkei4 ,poteriocrinus and ,platycrinus are1 with some reservation1 recorded from the ,gympie ,series at ,stanwell and the marine beds of the ,bowen ,river ,coal-field respectively1 both in ,queensland4 ,in ,western ,australia the ,carbopermian rocks of the ,gascoyne ,river are known to contain crinoid stems1 tentatively referred to either the ,rhodocrinidae or the ,actinocrinidae4 ,there is also a species of ,platycrinus known from the ,gascoyne and ,irwin ,rivers1 and from the ,kimberley ,district4 ,triassic ,crinoids4-- ,the ,kaihiku ,series of ,nelson1 ,new ,zealand1 has yielded some crinoid stems1 but the genus has not yet been determined4 ,cretaceous ,crinoids4-- ,in the ,lower ,cretaceous ,limestone of ,queensland1 at ,mitchell ,downs and ,wollumbilla1 a typical ,crinoid1 closely allied to the living ,pentacrinus is found1 namely1 ,isocrinus australis 7,fig4 #gf ,f74 ,the ,upper ,cretaceous opal deposits of ,white ,cliffs in ,wilcannia1 ,new ,south ,wales1 contain many opalised fossil remains1 amongst them being ,isocrinus australis1 already noticed as occurring in the ,lower ,cretaceous of ,queensland4 ,cainozoic ,crinoids4-- ,pentacrinus stellatus is a species founded on some deeply indented pentagonal stem-joints found in the ,oamaru ,series 7,miocene7 at ,curiosity ,shop1 ,south ,canterbury1 ,new ,zealand1 and also occurring in the ,chatham ,islands4 ,this species has been identified in the ,aire ,coastal beds in ,victoria1 of the same age4 ,another generic type1 ,antedon1 the beautiful ,feather ,star1 is frequently met with in ,janjukian strata in ,victoria and ,south ,australia1 as at ,batesford and ,mount ,gambier1 represented by the denuded crown and the ossicles of the arms of a comparatively large species2 whilst another and smaller form has been described from beds of the same age from borings in the ,victorian ,mallee1 under the name of ,a4 protomacronema4 ,,blastoidea--,bud-shaped ,echinoderms4 ,distribution and ,characters of ,blastoidea4-- ,this forms a small class which has a few representatives in the rocks of ,australia4 ,elsewhere they are chiefly of ,devonian and ,carboniferous ages4 ,in ,australia they are confined1 so far as known1 to sediments of the ,carboniferous ,system4 ,the animal was rooted to the sea-floor and a jointed stem was usually present4 ,the cup or theca1 as before noted1 is bud-shaped1 and consists of basal1 radial and deltoid plates1 the edges of which are folded inwards into the thecal cavity1 and thus the internal organs came into contact with the incurrent water4 ,the cup bears five food grooves1 bordered by numerous arms or brachioles1 which directed the incurrent particles into the thecal cavity4 ,carbopermian ,blastoids4-- ,three genera of blastoids have been recorded from the ,gympie ,beds1 or ,carbopermian1 of the ,rockhampton ,district of ,queensland4 ,they are1 ,mesoblastus1 ,granatocrinus and ,tricoelocrinus4 ,a similar fossil in beds of like age1 and provisionally referred to the genus ,metablastus1 has been lately recorded from ,glenwilliam1 ,clarence ,town1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,,asteroidea1 or ,starfishes4 ,characters of ,true ,starfishes4-- ,these free-moving echinoderms are usually five-sided1 though sometimes star-shaped1 with numerous arms surrounding a central disc4 ,the mouth is central on the under side of the disc1 and the anus above and near the centre 7excentric71 the latter being covered by a porous plate called the madreporite4 ,the hydraulic system of starfishes consists of tubes extending along the grooved arms and giving off side branches which end in processes called podia and terminating in suckers4 ,the podia pass through pores in the floor plates of the grooves1 and communicate within the body with distensions called ampulla4 ,by this means the podia serve as feet1 and can be withdrawn by the expulsion of the water in them into the ampulla4 ,the stout flexible covering of the starfish is strengthened by calcareous plates and bars1 owing to the presence of which they are often preserved as fossils4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--;,,fossil ,,starfish4 ,a--,palaeaster smythi4 ,mc,coy sp4 ,silurian4 ,flemington1 ,victoria4 ,b--,urasterella selwyni1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian4 ,kilmore1 ,victoria4 ,c--,palaeaster giganteus1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian4 ,near ,farley1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,d--,pentagonaster sp4 ,tertiary 7,janjukian74 ,bore in ,mallee1 ,victoria4 ,silurian ,starfishes4-- ,the oldest ,australian fossil ,starfishes are found in the ,silurian4 ,in ,victoria they occur in some abundance in the lower1 ,melbournian1 series1 but appear to be absent or at all events very scarce in the upper1 or ,yeringian series4 ,the commonest genus is ,palaeaster1 of which there are two species1 ,p4 smythi 7,fig4 #gg ,a7 and ,p4 meridionalis1 found alike in the sandy and argillaceous strata near ,melbourne4 ,urasterella is another genus found in the ,silurian rocks near ,melbourne1 in which the marginal series of plates seen in ,palaeaster are wanting1 giving to the starfish a slender1 long-armed aspect 7,fig4 #gg ,b74 ,carbopermian ,starfishes4-- ,in the ,lower ,marine ,series of the ,carbopermian of ,new ,south ,wales a very large species of ,palaeaster occurs 7,p4 giganteus71 measuring #g inches from point to point across the disc 7,fig4 #gg ,c74 ,two other species of the same genus occur in this series 7,p4 stutchburii and ,p4 clarkei7 the latter also ranging into the ,upper ,marine ,series4 ,cainozoic ,starfishes4-- ,no remains of true ,starfishes have been recorded from ,australia between the ,carbopermian and the ,tertiary systems4 ,in the ,janjukian ,series of ,victoria the marginal plates of a species of ,pentagonaster are typical fossils4 ,they have been recorded from ,waurn ,ponds1 ,spring ,creek near ,torquay1 and ,batesford 7,fig4 #gg ,d74 ,in the ,mallee ,bores1 both marginal and abactinal plates of this genus are found in polyzoal limestone 7,miocene74 ,pentagonaster also occurs in the ,lower ,muddy ,creek beds 7,oligocene71 and the ,upper beds of the same locality 7,lower ,pliocene74 ,a species of ,astropecten has been described from the ,waikari ,river1 ,new ,zealand 7,oamaru ,series74 ,,ophiuroidea1 or ,brittle-stars4 ,characters of ,brittle-,stars4-- ,the ,brittle-stars are frequently found at the present day cast up on the fine sandy beaches of the coast4 ,they are easily distinguished from true starfishes by having a definite central disc1 to which the arms are attached4 ,the arms are used for locomotion and prehension1 and have their grooves covered over with plates4 ,the ossicles of the arms are moveable and controlled by muscles which enable them to be used as feet4 ,the lower surface of the disc has a central arrangement of five rhomboidal sets of jaws1 formed of modified ossicles1 called the mouth frame1 whilst the upper surface bears1 between one set of arms1 the madreporite or covering plate to the water vascular system1 as in starfishes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,protaster brisingoides1 ,gregory4 ,negative cast of the calcareous skeleton4 ,nat4 size4 ,silurian ,sandstone1 ,flemington1 ,victoria4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,silurian ,brittle-,stars4-- ,the ,brittle-stars in ,australia first appear in the ,silurian1 but in ,england and ,bohemia date back to the ,ordovician4 ,protaster is the commonest genus1 and is represented by ,p4 brisingoides of the ,melbournian stage of ,silurian strata at ,flemington 7,fig4 #gh74 ,it also occurs rarely in the ,yeringian beds at ,yering1 both ,victorian localities4 ,a very ornamental form1 ,gregoriura spryi1 occurs in the same division of the ,silurian at ,south ,yarra4 ,in this fossil the delicate spines attached to the adambulacral ossicles are well preserved and form a marginal fringe to the arm 7,fig4 #gi74 ,sturtzura is another ,silurian genus1 found in the ,wenlock of ,england and in the ,melbournian of ,flemington1 ,victoria4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--;,a ,brittle-,star4 7,gregoriura spryi1 ,chapm47 ,nat4 size4 ,from the ,silurian ,mudstone of ,south ,yarra1 ,victoria4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,cainozoic ,brittle-,stars4-- ,from the ,victorian ,cainozoic beds1 in the ,lower ,pliocene of ,grange ,burn1 ,hamilton1 a vertebral ossicle of an ophiurian has been obtained1 which has been provisionally referred to the genus ,sigsbeia4 ,,echinoidea1 or ,sea-urchins4 ,this group is an important one amongst ,australian fossils1 especially those of ,cainozoic age4 ,characters of ,sea-urchins4-- ,echinoids are animals enclosed in a spheroidal box or test composed of numerous calcareous plates1 disposed geometrically as in the ,starfishes1 along five principal lines4 ,the test in the living condition is more or less densely covered with spines4 ,the mouth is on the under surface4 ,the anus is either on the top of the test 7dorso-central71 or somewhere in the median line between the two lower ambulacra4 ,the ambulacra 7a garden path7 are the rows of perforated plates on the upper 7abactinal7 surface sometimes extending to the lower surface1 through which protrude the podia1 which in ,starfishes are situated in grooves on the lower surface4 ,silurian ,palaeechinoids4-- ,the ,palaeechinoids are represented in the ,silurian of ,australia by occasional plates1 as at ,bowning1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and near ,kilmore1 ,victoria1 whilst spines are not uncommon in certain ,silurian limestones at ,tyer's ,river1 ,gippsland4 ,carbopermian ,palaeechinoids4-- ,in the ,carbopermian of ,new ,south ,wales1 tests of ,archaeocidaris have been recorded1 and also a plate of the same genus in the ,gympie ,beds of ,rockhampton1 ,queensland4 ,regular ,echinoids4-- ,the regular ,echinoids date from ,permian times4 ,they have two vertical rows of plates for each ambulacrum and inter-ambulacrum4 ,the mouth is on the underside1 and the anus abactinal 7on the upper side7 and near the centre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--;,,cainozoic ,,sea-,,urchins4 ,a--,cidaris 7,leiocidaris7 australiae1 ,duncan sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,cape ,otway1 ,victoria ,b--,psammechinus woodsi1 ,laube4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,murray ,river ,cliffs1 ,s4 ,australia ,c--,fibularia gregata1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,aldinga1 ,s4,a4 ,d--,echinocyamus 7,scutellina7 patella1 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,torquay1 ,victoria ,e--,clypeaster gippslandicus1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,bairnsdale1 ,victoria ,f--,studeria elegans1 ,laube4 sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,murray ,river ,cliffs1 ,s4 ,australia4 ,cainozoic ,regular ,echinoids4-- ,in ,australasia they make their first appearance in strata of ,tertiary age1 and some species1 as ,paradoxechinus novus1 range through ,balcombian strata to ,kalimnan in ,victoria1 or ,oligocene to ,lower ,pliocene1 but are more typically ,janjukian4 ,echinus 7,psammechinus7 woodsi 7,fig4 #hj ,b7 is common in ,janjukian strata in ,victoria and ,south ,australia and occurs sparingly in the ,kalimnan4 ,another common form of the regular ,echinoids in ,southern ,australia is ,cidaris australiae 7,fig4 #hj ,a71 ranging from ,janjukian to ,kalimnan1 occurring more frequently in the older series4 ,in ,new ,zealand a species of ,cidaris 7,c4 striata71 is known from the ,oamaru ,series at ,brighton4 ,an ,echinus occurs in the ,oamaru ,series of ,broken ,river1 and two species of that genus in the ,wanganui formation of ,shakespeare ,cliff4 ,temnechinus macleayana has been recorded from the ,cainozoic 7,miocene or ,pliocene7 of ,yule ,island1 ,papua4 ,irregular ,echinoids4-- ,the irregular ,echinoids are not known before the ,upper ,cretaceous in ,australia1 and are very common in the ,tertiaries4 ,they are distinguished by the anus 7periproct7 passing backward from the apex1 as compared with the regular forms1 and by the elongation of the test and the loss of the strong solid spines1 which are replaced by thin1 slender hair-like spines4 ,the animal is thus better fitted to burrow through the ooze on which it feeds4 ,cretaceous ,irregular ,echinoids4-- ,an interesting form1 ,micraster sweeti1 is found in the ,upper ,cretaceous or ,desert ,sandstone of ,maryborough in ,queensland1 which reminds one of typical ,european species of this genus4 ,cainozoic ,irregular ,echinoids4-- ,amongst the ,australian ,cainozoic ,echinoids of the irregular type the following may be mentioned4 ,the little subglobular test of ,fibularia gregata1 and ,echinocyamus 7,scutellina7 patella 7,fig4 #hj ,c1 ,d7 are ,janjukian in age4 ,the large ,clypeaster1 ,c4 gippslandicus 7,fig4 #hj ,e71 ranges from the ,oligocene to ,lower ,pliocene in ,victoria 7,balcombian to ,kalimnan71 and vies in size1 especially in the ,janjukian1 with some large species like those from ,malta and ,egypt4 ,this genus includes some of the largest known sea-urchins4 ,the biscuit urchin1 ,arachnoides 7,monostychia7 australis1 is commonest in the ,janjukian1 but ranges from ,balcombian to ,kalimnan4 ,a common urchin from the polyzoal rock of ,mt4 ,gambier is ,echinolampas gambierensis1 which is also found in the ,lower beds of ,muddy ,creek4 ,a typical ,janjukian fossil is ,duncaniaster australiae1 formerly thought to belong to the ,cretaceous genus ,holaster4 ,although found living1 the genus ,linthia attained its maximum development both in size and abundance1 in ,janjukian or ,miocene times1 as seen in ,l4 gigas 7having a length of #g-a_/b inches7 and ,l4 mooraboolensis4 ,echinoneus dennanti is restricted to the ,janjukian4 ,several species of ,eupatagus occur in the ,cainozoic or ,tertiary beds of ,south ,australia1 ,victoria and ,new ,zealand2 ,lovenia forbesi 7,fig4 #ha ,c7 is common in the ,janjukian to ,kalimnan1 both in ,victoria and ,south ,australia4 ,in the latter ,state also occur the following genera3--,studeria1 ,cassidulus1 ,echinolampas1 ,plesiolampas1 ,linthia1 ,schizaster and ,brissopsis4 ,in ,new ,zealand the following ,cainozoic genera1 amongst others of the irregular sea-urchins1 may be cited3--,hemipatagus1 ,brissopsis1 ,hemiaster1 and ,schizaster 7,fig4 #ha74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha--;,,cainozoic ,,sea-,,urchins4 ,a--,hemiaster planedeclivis1 ,gregory4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,morgan1 ,s4 ,australia ,b--,schizaster sphenoides1 ,t4 ,s4 ,hall4 ,cainozoic 7,barwonian74 ,sherbrooke ,river1 ,victoria ,c--,lovenia forbesi1 ,t4 ,woods sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,murray ,river ,cliffs1 ,s4 ,australia ,a clypeastroid1 ,peronella decagonalis has been described from the 787 ,lower ,pliocene of ,papua4 ,cainozoic ,holothuroidea4-- ,the ,,holothuroidea 7,sea-,cucumbers7 are represented in ,australian deposits by a unique example of a dermal spicule of wheel-like form1 referred to ,chiridota1 obtained from the ,cainozoic 7,janjukian7 beds of ,torquay4 ,this genus is also known from the calcaire grossier or ,middle ,eocene of the ,paris ,basin1 and is found living in all parts of the world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,common ,,or ,,characteristic ,,fossils ,,of ,,the ,,foregoing ,,chapter4 ,,crinoids4 787 ,pisocrinus yassensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,helicocrinus plumosus1 ,chapman4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,botryocrinus longibrachiatus1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,hapalocrinus victoriae1 ,bather4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,actinocrinus sp4 ,carboniferous3 ,queensland4 ,cyathocrinus sp4 ,carboniferous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,phialocrinus konincki1 ,clarke sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,phialocrinus princeps1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,tribrachiocrinus clarkei1 ,mc,coy4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 787 ,platycrinus sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,queensland4 ,platycrinus sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,isocrinus australis1 ,moore sp4 ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,pentacrinus stellatus1 ,hutton4 ,miocene3 ,new ,zealand1 ,chatham ,ids4 and ,victoria4 ,antedon protomacronema1 ,chapman4 ,miocene3 ,victoria 7deep borings74 ,,blastoids4 787 ,mesoblastus australis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,queensland4 ,,starfishes4 ,palaeaster smythi1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,palaeaster meridionalis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,urasterella selwyni1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,palaeaster giganteus1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian 7,l4 ,mar4 ,ser473 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,palaeaster clarkei1 de ,koninck4 ,carbopermian 7,l4 and ,up4 ,mar4 ,ser473 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pentagonaster sp4 ,miocene3 ,victoria4 ,astropecten sp4 ,miocene3 ,new ,zealand4 ,,brittle-,,stars4 ,protaster brisingoides1 ,gregory4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,gregoriura spryi1 ,chapman4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,sturtzura leptosomoides1 ,chapman4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 787 ,sigsbeia sp4 ,lower ,pliocene3 ,victoria4 ,,echinoids4 ,palaeechinus sp4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 787 ,archaeocidaris selwyni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,micraster sweeti1 ,eth4 fil4 ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,cidaris 7,leiocidaris7 australiae1 ,duncan4 ,miocene and ,lower ,pliocene3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,cidaris striata1 ,hutton4 ,miocene3 ,new ,zealand4 ,echinus 7,psammechinus7 woodsi1 ,laube sp4 ,miocene and ,l4 ,pliocene3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,temnechinus macleayana1 ,t4 ,woods4 ,cainozoic 78 ,lower ,pliocene73 ,papua4 ,fibularia gregata1 ,tate4 ,miocene3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,echinocyamus 7,scutellina7 patella1 ,tate sp4 ,oligocene to ,miocene3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,clypeaster gippslandicus1 ,mc,coy4 ,oligocene to ,l4 ,pliocene3 ,victoria4 ,arachnoides 7,monostychia7 australis1 ,laube sp4 ,oligocene to ,l4 ,pliocene3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,echinoneus dennanti1 ,hall4 ,miocene3 ,victoria4 ,duncaniaster australiae1 ,duncan sp4 ,miocene3 ,victoria4 ,lovenia forbesi1 ,t4 ,woods sp4 ,miocene and ,l4 ,pliocene3 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,hemiaster planedeclivis1 ,gregory4 ,miocene3 ,victoria4 ,,holothurian4 ,chiridota sp4 ,miocene3 ,victoria4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,literature4 ,,crinoids4 ,silurian4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,v4 ,no4 #e1 #aijd1 pp4 #bhg-bib 7,pisocrinus74 ,bather1 ,f4 ,a4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,xv4 vol4 ,,iv4 #ahig1 pp4 #ccg-cde 7,hapalocrinus74 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xv4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijc1 pp4 #ajg-aji 7,helicocrinus and ,botryocrinus74 ,bather1 ,f4 ,a4 ,ottawa ,nat41 vol4 ,,xx4 ,no4 #e1 #aijf1 pp4 #ig1 #ih4 ,carboniferous and ,carbopermian4--,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 pp4 #aba-abf4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr41 in ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #bjg-bai4 ,idem1 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #e1 #ahib1 pp4 #ge-aai4 ,cretaceous4--,moore1 ,c4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxvi4 #ahgj1 p4 #bdc4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr41 in ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 p4 #dci 7,isocrinus74 ,cainozoic4--,hutton1 ,f4 ,w4 ,cat4 ,tert4 ,moll4 and ,ech4 of ,new ,zealand1 #ahgc1 p4 #ch4 ,,blastoids4 ,carbopermian4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr41 in ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #baj-bac4 ,taylor1 ,t4 ,g4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 #aijh1 pp4 #ed-ei 78 ,metablastus74 ,,starfishes4 ,silurian4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,i41 #ahgd1 pp4 #da-dc4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,i41 ,no4 #aj1 #ahia1 pp4 #aii1 #bjj4 ,carboniferous and ,carbopermian4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #e1 pt4 #b1 #ahib1 pp4 #gj-ge4 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,ibid41 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 p4 #abg4 ,cainozoic4--,hall1 ,t4 ,s4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc41 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xv4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #aijb1 pp4 #ha1 #hb 7,pentagonaster74 ,hutton1 ,f4 ,w4 ,cat4 ,tert4 ,moll1 and ,ech4 ,new ,zealand1 #ahgc1 p4 #ch4 ,,brittle-,,stars4 ,silurian4--,gregory1 ,j4 ,w4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,vi4 #ahhi1 pp4 #bd-bg4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xix4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijg1 pp4 #ba-bg4 ,cainozoic4--,hall1 ,t4 ,s4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xv4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #aijb1 p4 #hb 7cf4 ,sigsbeia74 ,,echinoids4 ,silurian4--,chapman1 ,f4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,ii4 pt4 #a1 #aijg1 pp4 #gg1 #gh4 ,carbopermian4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #e1 pt4 #b1 #ahib1 pp4 #fg-fi4 ,cretaceous4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr41 in ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #eei1 #efj4 ,cainozoic4--,t4 ,woods4 ,trans4 ,adelaide ,phil4 ,soc41 #ahfg4 ,laube1 ,g4 ,c4 ,sitz1 k4 k4 ,ak4 ,wiss4 ,wien1 vol4 ,,lix4 #ahfi1 pp4 #ahc-aih4 ,hutton1 ,f4 ,w4 ,cat4 ,tert4 ,moll1 and ,ech4 ,new ,zealand1 #ahgc1 pp4 #ch-dc4 ,duncan1 ,p4 ,m4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxxiii4 #ahgg1 pp4 #db-gc4 ,tate1 ,r4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxxiii4 #ahgg1 pp4 #bef-beh4 ,idem1 ,southern ,science ,record1 #ahhe1 p4 #d4 ,idem1 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xiv4 pt4 #b1 #ahia1 pp4 #bgj-bhb4 ,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 #ahgi1 #ahhc4 ,gregory1 ,j4 ,w4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahij1 pp4 #dha-dib4 ,ibid41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,ix4 #ahib1 pp4 #dcc-dcg4 ,cotteau1 ,g4 ,h4 ,mem4 ,zool4 ,france1 vol4 ,,ii4 ,no4 #d1 #ahhi1 p4 #bbh2 vol4 ,,iii4 ,no4 #e1 #ahij1 pp4 #ecg-eej2 vol4 ,,iv4 ,no4 #e1 #ahia1 pp4 #fbj-fcc4 ,bittner1 ,a4 ,sitz4 k4k4 ,ak4 ,wiss4 ,wien1 #ahib1 vol4 #aja1 pp4 #cca-cga4 ,hall1 ,t4 ,s4 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,vic41 vol4 ,,xix4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijf1 pp4 #dh1 #ec4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xx4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijh1 pp4 #bad-bah4 ,pritchard1 ,g4 ,b4 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxi4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #aijh1 pp4 #cib-djj4 ,,holothurian4 ,cainozoic4--,hall1 ,t4 ,s4 ,proc1 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,x4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #aijb1 pp4 #hb1 #hc4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,fossil ,,worms1 ,,sea-,,mats and ,,lamp-,,shells4 ,the first-named group1 the ringed worms1 belong to the phylum ,annelida1 so-called because of the ring-like structure of their bodies4 ,the two remaining groups1 the ,polyzoa or ,sea-mats and the ,brachiopods or ,lamp-shells1 are comprised in the phylum ,molluscoidea1 or mollusc-like animals4 ,,worms 7,annelida74 ,annelida and their ,fossil ,representatives4-- ,these animals1 owing to the scarcity of hard parts within their bodies1 play a rather insignificant role as a fossil group4 ,worms are laterally symmetrical animals1 with a dorsal and a ventral surface4 ,they are segmented1 the body being formed of numerous rings4 ,only those of the ,class ,chaetopoda 7bristle-feet7 are represented by identifiable fossil remains4 ,fossil worms1 moreover1 chiefly belong to the ,order ,polychaeta 7many bristles74 ,the horny jaws of these worms are sometimes found in the older rocks and are known as conodonts4 ,silurian ,conodonts4-- ,conodonts belonging to three genera are known from ,australia4 ,they are all from the ,silurian of the ,bowning ,district1 near ,yass1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and are referred to the genera ,eunicites1 ,oenonites and ,arabellites4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb--;,,fossil ,,worms4 ,a--,trachyderma crassituba1 ,chapm1 ,silurian4 ,south ,yarra1 ,vict4 ,b--,cornulites tasmanicus1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian4 ,heazlewood1 ,tas4 ,c--,spirorbis ammonius1 ,m4 ,edwards1 var4 truncata1 ,mid4 ,devonian4 ,buchan1 ,victoria ,d--,torlessia mackayi1 ,bather4 8 ,trias4 ,mt4 ,torlesse1 ,n4 ,zealand4 ,palaeozoic ,errant ,worms4-- ,the wandering ,worms 7,polychaeta errantia7 are also recognised by their impressions1 trails1 borings and castings4 ,burrows formed by these worms are seen in ,arenicolites1 found in the ,silurian sandstone of ,new ,south ,wales1 near ,yass1 and in the ,carbopermian 7,gympie ,series7 near ,rockhampton1 ,queensland4 ,the membranous-lined burrows of ,trachyderma 7,t4 crassituba71 occur in some abundance in the ,silurian mudstones in the neighbourhood of ,melbourne1 ,victoria 7,fig4 #hb ,a74 ,the genus ,trachyderma is common also to ,great ,britain and ,burmah1 in beds of the same age4 ,worm ,tracks4-- ,some of the curious markings on the ,carboniferous sandstone of ,mansfield1 ,victoria1 may be due to worm trails and castings1 especially since they are associated with sun-cracks and ripple-marks4 ,sedentary ,worms4-- ,the sedentary or tube-making ,worms 7,polychaeta tubicola7 are represented by numerous forms4 ,the long conical tube of ,cornulites tasmanicus is recorded from the ,silurian of ,zeehan1 ,tasmania 7,fig4 #hb ,b74 ,spirorbis occurs in the ,middle ,devonian of ,victoria 7,fig4 #hb ,c71 and ,w4 ,australia1 and also in the ,carbopermian of ,w4 ,australia4 ,torlessia is found in the ,trias or ,lower ,jurassic of the province of ,canterbury1 ,new ,zealand 7,fig4 #hb ,d74 ,the genus ,serpula is widely distributed1 occurring in the ,carbopermian 7,upper ,jurassic ,series71 near ,east ,maitland1 ,new ,south ,wales 7,s4 testatrix71 in the ,jurassic of ,w4 ,australia 7,s4 conformis71 in the ,lower ,cretaceous of ,wollumbilla1 ,queensland 7,s4 intestinalis71 and the ,darling ,river1 north west of ,new ,south ,wales1 7,s4 subtrachinus71 as well as in ,cainozoic deposits in ,victoria 7,s4 ouyenensis74 ,ditrupa is very abundant in some shelly deposits of ,janjukian age in ,victoria4 ,,molluscoidea4 ,the ,sea-mats 7,polyzoa7 and the ,lamp-shells 7,brachiopoda7 constitute a natural group1 the ,,molluscoidea1 which1 although unlike in outward form1 have several physiological structures in common4 ,the respiratory organs lie in front of the mouth1 and are in the form of fleshy tentacles or spiral appendages4 ,these animals are more nearly allied to the worms than to the molluscs4 ,,polyzoa4 ,characters of ,polyzoa4-- ,these are almost exclusively marine forms1 and are important as fossils4 ,they form colonies 7polypary or zoarium71 and by their branching1 foliaceous or tufty growth resemble sea-weeds4 ,the cells in which the separate zoids lived have peculiar characters of their own1 which serve to distinguish the different genera4 ,subdivisions of ,polyzoa4-- ,polyzoa are divided into the ,sub-classes ,phylactolaemata1 in which the mouth of the zoid has a lip1 and the series of tentacles is horse-shoe shaped2 and the ,gymnolaemata1 in which there is no lip to the mouth1 and the tentacles form a complete circle4 ,the first group forms its polypary of soft or horny material1 which is not preserved fossil4 ,the latter has a calcareous polypary1 and is of much importance as a fossil group4 ,this latter sub-class is further subdivided into the following ,orders1 viz43--,trepostomata 7turned mouths71 ,cryptostomata 7hidden mouths71 ,cyclostomata 7round mouths71 and ,cheilostomata 7lip mouths furnished with a moveable operculum74 ,trepostomata 7,palaeozoic74-- ,the ,order ,trepostomata may include some genera as ,monticulipora and ,fistulipora1 previously referred to under the corals4 ,they become extinct after ,permian times4 ,fistulipora occurs in certain ,gippsland limestones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc--,,palaeozoic ,,polyzoa4 ,a--,fenestella margaritifera1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,near ,yering1 ,vict4 ,b--,polypora australis1 ,hinde4 ,carbopermian4 ,gascoyne ,river1 ,western ,australia ,c--,rhombopora tenuis1 ,hinde4 ,carbopermian4 ,gascoyne ,river1 ,western ,australia ,d--,protoretepora ampla1 ,lonsdale sp4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4,w4 ,cryptostomata 7,palaeozoic74-- ,in the order ,cryptostomata we have the genus ,rhombopora with its long1 slender branches1 which occurs in the ,silurian of ,victoria and the ,carbopermian of ,queensland and ,w4 ,australia 7,fig4 #hc ,c74 ,of this order a very important ,australian genus is ,fenestella1 the funnel-shaped zoaria of which are found in the ,silurian of ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales1 and also in the ,carboniferous of the latter ,state4 ,fenestella also occurs in the ,carbopermian of ,w4 ,australia and ,tasmania 7,fig4 #hc ,a74 ,accompanying the remains of ,fenestella in the ,carbopermian rocks1 and closely related to it1 are found the genera ,protoretepora and ,polypora 7,fig4 #hc ,b1 ,d74 ,polyzoa have been noticed in ,jurassic rocks in ,w4 ,australia1 but no species have been described4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd--;,,cainozoic ,,polyzoa4 ,a--,lichenopora australis1 ,mac,gillivray4 ,balcombian4 ,hamilton1 ,victoria ,b--,heteropora pisiformis1 ,mac,gillivray4 ,janjukian4 ,moorabool1 ,victoria ,c--,cellaria australis1 ,mac,gillivray4 ,balcombian4 ,hamilton1 ,vict4 ,d--,selenaria cupola1 ,t4 ,woods sp4 ,balcombian4 ,hamilton1 ,vict4 ,e--,lepralia elongata1 ,mac,gill4 ,balcombian4 ,hamilton1 ,victoria ,cheilostomata 7,cretaceous74-- ,species of the genera 787 ,membranipora and 787 ,lepralia1 belonging to the ,cheilostomata1 have been described from the ,lower ,cretaceous of the ,darling ,river1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,wollumbilla1 ,queensland1 respectively4 ,cainozoic ,polyzoa4-- ,a very large number of genera of the ,polyzoa have been described from the ,tertiary strata of ,south ,australia and ,victoria4 ,some of the principal of these are ,crisia1 ,idmonea1 ,stomatopora1 ,lichenopora1 ,hornera1 ,entalophora and ,heteropora of the order ,cyclostomata2 and ,catenicella1 ,cellaria1 ,membranipora1 ,lunulites1 ,selenaria1 ,macropora1 ,tessarodoma1 ,adeona1 ,lepralia1 ,bipora1 ,smittia1 ,porina1 ,cellepora and ,retepora of the order ,cheilostomata4 ,many of these genera1 and not a few ,australian species1 are found also in the ,cainozoic or ,tertiary beds of ,orakei ,bay1 ,new ,zealand 7,fig4 #hd74 ,,brachiopoda 7,lamp-shells74 ,brachiopods3 ,their ,structure4-- ,these are marine animals1 and are enclosed in a bivalved shell4 ,they differ1 however1 from true bivalves 7,pelecypoda7 in having the shell on the back and front of the body1 instead of on each side as in the bivalved mollusca4 ,each valve is equilateral1 but the valves differ from one another in that one is larger and generally serves to attach the animal to rocks and other objects of support by a stalk or pedicle4 ,thus the larger valve is called the pedicle valve and the smaller1 on account of its bearing the calcareous supports for the brachia or arms1 the brachial valve4 ,generally speaking1 the shell of the valve is penetrated by numerous canals1 which give the shell a punctate appearance4 ,some brachiopod shells1 as ,atrypa and ,rhynchonella1 are1 however1 devoid of these4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he--,,lower ,,palaeozoic ,,brachiopods4 ,a--,orthis 787 lenticularis1 ,wahlenberg4 ,up4 ,cambrian4 ,florentine ,valley1 ,tasmania ,b--,siphonotreta maccoyi1 ,chapm4 ,up4 ,ordovician4 ,bulla1 ,vict4 ,c--,lingula yarraensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,south ,yarra1 ,victoria ,d--,orbiculoidea selwyni1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,merri ,creek1 ,victoria ,e--,chonetes melbournensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,south ,yarra1 ,vict4 ,f--,stropheodonta alata1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,near ,lilydale1 ,vict4 ,cambrian ,brachiopods4-- ,brachiopods are very important fossils in ,australasian rocks4 ,they first appear in ,cambrian strata1 as for example1 in the ,florentine ,valley1 in ,tasmania1 where we find ,orthis lenticularis 7,fig4 #he ,a74 ,in ,victoria1 near ,mount ,wellington1 in the mountainous region of ,n4,e4 ,gippsland1 ,orthis platystrophioides is found in a grey limestone4 ,in ,south ,australia the grey ,cambrian limestone of ,wirrialpa contains the genus ,huenella 7,h4 etheridgei74 ,this genus is also found in the ,middle and ,upper ,cambrian of ,n4 ,america4 ,ordovician ,brachiopods4-- ,coming to ,ordovician rocks1 the limestones of the ,upper ,finke ,basin in ,south ,australia contain ,orthis leviensis and ,o4 dichotomalis4 ,the ,victorian mudstone at ,heathcote may be of ,ordovician age or even older2 it has afforded a limited fauna of brachiopods and trilobites1 amongst the former being various species of ,orthis1 ,chonetes1 and ,siphonotreta4 ,the latter genus is represented in both the ,lower and ,upper ,ordovician rocks of slaty character in ,victoria 7,fig4 #he ,b74 ,silurian ,brachiopods4-- ,the ,silurian system in ,australasia as in ,europe1 ,n4 ,america and elsewhere1 is very rich in brachiopod life4 ,it is impossible to enumerate even all the genera in a limited work like the present1 the most typical only being mentioned4 ,in ,new ,zealand the palaeozoic fauna is at present imperfectly worked out1 but the following genera from the ,wangapekian 7,silurian7 have been identified1 viz41 ,chonetes1 ,stricklandinia1 ,orthis1 ,wilsonia1 ,atrypa1 and ,spirifer4 ,the specific identification of these forms with ,european types is still open to question1 but the species are undoubtedly closely allied to some of those from ,great ,britain and ,scandinavia4 ,the ,victorian ,silurian ,brachiopods are represented by the horny-shelled ,lingula1 the conical ,orbiculoidea1 a large species of ,siphonotreta1 ,stropheodonta 7with toothed hinge-line71 ,strophonella1 ,chonetes 7with hollow spines projecting from the ventral valve1 one of the species ,c4 melbournensis being characteristic of the ,melbournian division of ,silurian rocks71 ,orthis1 ,pentamerus1 ,camarotoechia1 ,rhynchotrema1 ,wilsonia1 ,atrypa 7represented by the world-wide ,a4 reticularis71 ,spirifer and ,nucleospira 7,figs4 #he1 #hf74 ,new ,south ,wales has a very similar assemblage of genera2 whilst ,tasmania possesses ,camarotoechia1 ,stropheodonta and ,orthis4 ,devonian ,brachiopods4-- ,the ,devonian limestones and associated strata are fairly rich in ,brachiopods4 ,the ,victorian rocks of this age at ,bindi and ,buchan contain genera such as ,chonetes 7,c4 australis71 ,spirifer 7,s4 yassensis and ,s4 howitti7 and ,athyris4 ,in ,new ,south ,wales we again meet with ,spirifer yassensis1 veritable shell-banks of this species occurring in the neighbourhood of ,yass1 associated with a species of ,chonetes 7,c4 culleni7 7,fig4 #hf ,d1 ,e74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf--,,silurian and ,,devonian ,,brachiopods4 ,a--,camarotoechia decemplicata1 ,sow4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,b--,nucleospira australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,c--,atrypa reticularis1 ,l4 sp4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,d--,chonetes culleni1 ,dun4 ,mid4 ,devonian4 ,new ,south ,wales ,e--,spirifer yassensis1 de ,koninck4 ,devonian4 ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria ,in the ,upper ,devonian of ,new ,south ,wales abundant remains occur of both ,spirifer disjunctus and ,camarotoechia pleurodon 7var474 ,the ,upper ,devonian ,series at ,nyrang ,creek near ,canowindra1 ,new ,south ,wales1 contains a ,lingula 7,l4 gregaria7 associated with the ,lepidodendron plant beds of that locality4 ,queensland ,devonian rocks contain ,pentamerus1 ,atrypa and ,spirifer4 ,in ,western ,australia the ,devonian species are ,atrypa reticularis1 ,spirifer cf verneuili1 ,s4 musakheylensis and ,uncinulus cf4 timorensis4 ,carboniferous ,brachiopods4-- ,the ,carboniferous ,brachiopod fauna is represented in ,new ,south ,wales at ,clarence ,town and other localities by a species which has an extensive time-range1 ,leptaena rhomboidalis var4 analoga1 and the following1 a few of which extend upwards into the ,carbopermian3--,chonetes papilionacea1 ,productus semireticulatus1 ,p4 punctatus1 ,p4 cora1 ,orthothetes crenistria1 ,orthis 7,rhipidomella7 australis1 ,o4 7,schizophoria7 resupinata1 ,spirifer striatus1 ,s4 bisulcatus1 ,cyrtina carbonaria and ,athyris planosulcatus4 ,in ,new ,zealand the ,matai series1 referred to the ,jurassic by ,hutton1 as formerly regarded by ,hector1 and latterly by ,park1 as of ,carboniferous age1 on the ground of a supposed discovery of ,spirifer subradiatus 7,s4 glaber7 and ,productus brachythaerus in the ,wairoa ,gorge4 ,although these species may not occur1 the genera ,spirifer and ,productus are present1 which1 according to ,dr4 ,thomson1 are distinctly of pre-,triassic types4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg--;,,carbopermian ,,brachiopods4 ,a--,productus brachythaerus1 ,sow4 ,carbopermian4 ,new ,south ,wales1 c4 ,b--,strophalosia clarkei1 ,eth4 sp4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4,w41 c4 ,c--,spirifer convolutus1 ,phillips4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4,w41 c4 ,d--,spirifer 7,martiniopsis7 subradiatus1 ,sow4 ,carbopermian4 ,new ,south ,wales1 c4 ,carbopermian ,brachiopods4-- ,the ,brachiopod fauna of ,carbopermian age in ,new ,south ,wales is rich in species of ,productus and ,spirifer4 ,amongst the former are ,p4 cora 7also found in ,western ,australia1 ,queensland and ,tasmania71 ,p4 brachythaerus 7also found in ,western ,australia and ,queensland71 7,fig4 #hg ,a71 ,p4 semireticulatus 7also found in ,western ,australia1 ,queensland and the ,island of ,timor1 and a common species in ,europe71 and ,p4 undatus 7also found in ,western ,australia and ,queensland1 as well as in ,great ,britain and ,russia74 ,strophalosia is an allied genus to ,productus4 ,it is a common form in beds of the same age in ,w4 ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the best known species is ,s4 clarkei 7,fig4 #hg ,b74 ,this type of shell is distinguished from ,productus in being cemented by the umbo of the ventral valve1 which valve is also generally less spinose than the dorsal4 ,when weathered the shells present a peculiar silky or fibrous appearance4 ,the genus ,spirifer is represented in ,w4 ,australia by such forms as ,s4 vespertilio1 ,s4 convolutus1 ,s4 hardmani1 ,s4 musakheylensis1 and ,s4 striatus2 whilst ,s4 vespertilio and ,s4 convolutus are common also to ,new ,south ,wales 7,fig4 #hg ,c71 and the latter only to ,tasmania4 ,s4 vespertilio is found in the ,gympie beds near ,rockhampton1 ,queensland2 and ,s4 tasmaniensis in ,queensland 7,bowen ,river ,coal-field1 ,marine ,series71 ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania4 ,of the smoother1 stout forms1 referred to the sub-genus ,martiniopsis1 we may mention ,s4 7,m47 subradiatus1 which occurs in ,w4 ,australia1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,tasmania 7,fig4 #hg ,d74 ,in the ,queensland fauna1 the ,gympie series contains1 amongst other ,brachiopods ,productus cora1 ,leptaena rhomboidalis var41 analoga1 ,spirifer vespertilio and ,s4 strzeleckii4 ,other ,carbopermian ,brachiopod genera found in ,australian faunas are ,cleiothyris1 ,dielasma1 ,hypothyris1 ,reticularia1 ,seminula1 ,cyrtina1 and ,syringothyris4 ,triassic ,brachiopods4-- ,the ,kaihiku ,series of ,new ,zealand 7,hokonui ,hills and ,nelson7 are probably referable to the ,trias4 ,the supposed basal beds contain plants such as ,taeniopteris1 ,cladophlebis1 ,palissya and ,baiera4 ,above these are marine beds containing ,brachiopods belonging to ,spiriferina1 ,rhynchonella1 ,dielasma and ,athyris4 ,the succession of these beds presents some palaeontological anomalies still to be explained1 for the flora has a decided leaning towards a ,jurassic facies4 ,next in order of succession the ,wairoa ,series1 in the ,hokonui ,hills and ,nelson1 ,new ,zealand1 contains ,dielasma and ,athyris wreyi4 ,the succeeding series in ,new ,zealand1 the ,otapiri1 or ,upper ,triassic contains the ,brachiopod genera ,athyris#c and ,spiriferina1 found at ,well's ,creek1 ,nelson4 ,footnote #c3 ,referred by ,hector to a new sub-genus ,clavigera1 which name1 however1 is preoccupied4 ,jurassic ,brachiopods4-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh--,,mesozoic ,,brachiopods4 ,a--,rhynchonella variabilis ,schloth4 sp4 ,jurassic4 ,w4 ,australia ,b--,terebratella davidsoni1 ,moore4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,c--,lingula subovalis1 ,davidson4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,s4 ,australia ,d--,rhynchonella croydonensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,up4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,the marine ,jurassic beds of ,w4 ,australia1 as at ,shark ,bay and ,greenough ,river1 contain certain ,rhynchonellae allied to ,european species1 as ,r4 variabilis 7,fig4 #hh ,a71 and ,r4 cf4 solitaria4 ,lower ,cretaceous ,brachiopods4-- ,the ,lower ,cretaceous or ,rolling ,downs ,formation of ,queensland has yielded a fair number of ,brachiopods1 principally from ,wollumbilla1--as ,terebratella davidsoni 7,fig4 #hh ,b71 787 ,argiope wollumbillensis1 787 ,a4 punctata1 ,rhynchonella rustica1 ,r4 solitaria1 ,discina apicalis and ,lingula subovalis4 ,from beds of similar age in ,central ,south ,australia and the ,lake ,eyre ,basin ,lingula subovalis 7,fig4 #hh ,c71 and ,rhynchonella eyrei have been recorded2 the latter has been compared with a species 7,r4 walkeri7 from the ,middle ,neocomian of ,tealby in ,yorkshire4 ,upper ,cretaceous ,brachiopod4-- ,a solitary species of the ,brachiopoda occurs in the ,upper ,cretaceous of ,australia1 namely1 ,rhynchonella croydonensis 7,fig4 #hh ,d7 of the ,desert ,sandstone of the ,croydon ,gold-fields and ,mount ,angas1 ,queensland4 ,cainozoic ,brachiopods4-- ,the ,brachiopoda of the ,cainozoic or ,tertiary strata of ,australia and ,new ,zealand are well represented by the genera ,terebratula1 ,magellania1 ,terebratulina1 ,terebratella1 ,magasella and ,acanthothyris4 ,in the ,balcombian or ,oligocene of southern ,australia occur the following3--,terebratula tateana1 ,magellania corioensis1 ,m4 garibaldiana and ,magasella compta 7,figs4 #hi ,a1 ,d72 and most of these range into the next stage1 the ,janjukian1 whilst some extend even to the ,kalimnan4 ,terebratulina suessi1 ,hutton sp4 7 ,t4 scoulari1 ,tate7 ranges through the ,balcombian and ,janjukian1 but is most typical of the ,janjukian beds in ,victoria3 it also occurs in the ,oamaru ,series of ,new ,zealand 7 ,janjukian74 ,acanthothyris squamosa 7,fig4 #hi ,f7 is typical of the ,janjukian of southern ,australia1 and it occurs also in the ,pareora beds of the ,broken ,river1 ,new ,zealand4 ,the latter are green1 sandy1 fossiliferous strata immediately succeeding the ,oamaru stone of the ,hutchinson ,quarry beds4 ,a4 squamosa is said to be still living south of ,kerguelen ,island4 ,magellania insolita is a ,victorian species which is also found in the ,oamaru ,series of ,new ,zealand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi--;,,cainozoic ,,brachiopods4 ,a--,terebratula tateana1 ,t4 ,woods4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria ,b--,magellania corioensis1 ,mc,coy1 sp4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria ,c--,magellania garibaldiana1 ,dav4 sp4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria ,d--,magasella compta1 ,sow4 sp4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria ,e--,terebratulina catinuliformis1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic4 ,s4 ,australia ,f--,acanthothyris squamosa1 ,hutton sp4 ,cainozoic4 ,tasmania ,whilst many of the older ,tertiary brachiopods range into the next succeeding stage of the ,kalimnan in ,victoria1 such as ,magellania insolita1 ,terebratulina catinuliformis 7,fig4 #hi ,e7 and ,magasella compta1 one species1 ,terebratella pumila1 is restricted to the ,kalimnan1 occurring at the ,gippsland ,lakes4 ,the next stage1 the ,werrikooian1 typical in upraised marine beds on the banks of the ,glenelg ,river in western ,victoria1 contains ,magellania flavescens1 a species still living 7see antea1 ,fig4 #bc71 and ,m4 insolita1 having the extraordinarily wide range of the whole of the ,cainozoic stages in southern ,australia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,common ,,or ,,characteristic ,,fossils ,,of ,,the ,,foregoing ,,chapter4 ,,worms4 ,eunicites mitchelli1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,oenonites hebes1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,arabellites bowningensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,arenicolites sp4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,trachyderma crassituba1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,cornulites tasmanicus1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian3 ,tasmania4 ,spirorbis ammonius1 ,m4 ,edw4 var4 truncata1 ,chapm4 ,mid4 ,devonian3 ,victoria4 ,spirorbis omphalodes1 ,goldfuss4 ,devonian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,serpula testatrix1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,torlessia mackayi1 ,bather4 ,lower ,mesozoic3 ,new ,zealand4 ,serpula conformis1 ,goldfuss4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,serpula intestinalis1 ,phillips4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,serpula subtrachinus1 ,eth4 fil4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,serpula ouyenensis1 ,chapm4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,ditrupa cornea1 ,l4 sp4 var4 wormbetiensis1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,,polyzoa4 ,rhombopora gippslandica1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,fenestella australis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,protoretepora ampla1 ,lonsdale4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland1 and ,tasmania4 ,polypora australis1 ,hinde4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,rhombopora tenuis1 ,hinde4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,rhombopora laxa1 ,etheridge sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,queensland4 ,membranipora wilsonensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 787 ,lepralia oolitica1 ,moore4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,lichenopora australis1 ,mac,gillivray4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,heteropora pisiformis1 ,mac,gillivray4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,cellaria australis1 ,mac,gillivray4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,membranipora macrostoma1 ,reuss4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria 7also living74 ,selenaria marginata1 ,t4 ,woods4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria 7also living74 ,macropora clarkei1 ,t4 ,woods sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,adeona obliqua1 ,mac,gill4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,lepralia burlingtoniensis1 ,waters4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria4 ,bipora philippinensis1 ,busk sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria 7also living74 ,porina gracilis1 ,m4 ,edwards sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria 7also living74 ,cellepora fossa1 ,haswell1 sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria 7also living74 ,retepora fissa1 ,mac,gill4 sp4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria 7also living74 ,,brachiopoda4 ,orthis lenticularis1 ,wahlenberg sp4 ,cambrian3 ,tasmania4 ,orthis platystrophioides1 ,chapm4 ,cambrian3 ,victoria4 ,huenella etheridgei1 ,walcott4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,orthis leviensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,ordovician3 ,s4 ,australia1 787 ,victoria4 ,siphonotreta discoidalis1 ,chapm4 ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,siphonotreta maccoyi1 ,chapm4 ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,lingula yarraensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,orbiculoidea selwyni1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,chonetes melbournensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,stropheodonta alata1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,orthis elegantula1 ,dalman4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,pentamerus australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian3 ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,conchidium knightii1 ,sow4 sp4 ,silurian3 ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,camarotoechia decemplicata1 ,sow4 sp4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,rhynchotrema liopleura1 ,mc,coy sp4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,atrypa reticularis1 ,l4 sp4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,w4 ,australia and ,queensland4 ,spirifer sulcatus1 ,hisinger sp4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,nucleospira australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,chonetes australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,mid4 ,devonian3 ,victoria4 ,chonetes culleni1 ,dun4 ,mid4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,spirifer yassensis1 de ,koninck4 ,mid4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria4 ,spirifer cf4 verneuili1 de ,kon4 ,mid4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,w4 ,australia4 ,lingula gregaria1 ,eth4 fil4 ,upper ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,spirifer disjunctus1 ,sow4 ,up4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,productus cora1 d',orb4 ,carboniferous3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland4 ,orthothetes crenistria1 ,sow4 sp4 ,carboniferous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,spirifer striatus1 ,sow4 ,carboniferous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,productus brachythaerus1 ,sow4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland1 ,w4 ,australia4 ,strophalosia clarkei1 ,eth4 sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,tasmania and ,w4 ,australia4 ,spirifer 7,martiniopsis7 subradiatus1 ,sow4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,tasmania and ,w4 ,australia4 ,spirifer convolutus1 ,phillips4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,tasmania and ,w4 ,australia4 ,cleiothyris macleayana1 ,eth4 fil4 sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,dielasma elongata1 ,schlotheim sp4 ,trias 7,kaihiku ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,athyris wreyi1 ,suess sp4 ,trias 7,wairoa ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,athyris sp4 ,trias 7,otapiri ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,rhynchonella variabilis1 ,schlotheim sp4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,terebratella davidsoni1 ,moore4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,rhynchonella solitaria1 ,moore4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,lingula subovalis1 ,davidson4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland and ,s4 ,australia4 ,rhynchonella croydonensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,upper ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,terebratula tateana1 ,t4 ,woods4 ,cainozoic 7,balcombian and ,janjukian73 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,magellania corioensis1 ,mc,coy1 sp4 ,cainozoic 7,balcombian and ,janjukian73 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,magellania garibaldiana1 ,davidson sp4 ,cainozoic 7,balcombian and ,janjukian73 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,magasella compta1 ,sow4 sp4 ,cainozoic 7,balcombian to ,kalimnan73 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,terebratula suessi1 ,hutton sp4 ,cainozoic 7,balcombian and ,janjukian73 ,victoria1 ,s4 ,australia1 and ,new ,zealand 7,oamaru ,series47 ,acanthothyris squamosa1 ,hutton sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia1 ,new ,zealand 7,oamaru ,series7 7also living74 ,terebratella pumila1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,kalimnan73 ,victoria4 ,magellania flavescens1 ,lam4 sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,victoria 7also living74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,literature4 ,,worms4 ,silurian4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahij1 pp4 #cci1 #cdj4 ,idem1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,tas4 7for #ahif71 #ahig1 p4 #cg4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xxii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aiaj1 pp4 #ajb-aje4 ,devonian4--,hinde1 ,g4 ,j4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,ii4 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahij1 p4 #aii4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 #b1 #aiab1 p4 #bbj4 ,carboniferous4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,w4 ,australia1 ,no4 #aj1 #aijc1 p4 #aj4 ,carbopermian4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pal4 ,no4 #e1 #ahib1 pp4 #aai-aba4 ,lower ,mesozoic4--,bather1 ,f4 ,a4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,v4 vol4 ,,ii4 #aije1 pp4 #ecb-eda4 ,lower ,cretaceous4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,mem4 ,soc4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #aa4 #aijb1 pp4 #ab1 #ac4 ,cainozoic4--,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xxvi4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,i4 #aiac1 pp4 #ahb-ahd4 ,,polyzoa4 ,silurian4--,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xvi4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #aijc1 pp4 #fa-fc4 ,idem1 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vic41 vol4 ,,ii41 pt4 #a1 #aijg1 p4 #gh4 ,carboniferous4--,hinde1 ,g4 ,j4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahij1 pp4 #aii-bjc4 ,carbopermian4--,de ,koninck ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 pp4 #abh-adj4 ,cainozoic4--,stolicka1 ,f4 ,novara ,exped41 ,geol4 ,theil41 vol4 ,i4 pt4 #b1 pp4 #hg-aeh4 ,waters1 ,a4 ,w4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxxvii4 #ahha1 pp4 #cji-cdg2 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxxviii4 #ahhb1 pp4 #beg-bgf and pp4 #ejb-eac2 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxxix4 #ahhc1 pp4 #dbc-ddc2 ibid41 vol4 ,,xl4 #ahhd1 pp4 #fgd-fig2 ibid41 vol4 ,,xli4 #ahhe1 pp4 #bgi-caj2 ibid41 vol4 ,,xliii4 #ahhg1 pp4 #dj-gb and #ccg-cej4 ,mac,gillivray1 ,p4 ,h4 ,mon4 ,tert4 ,polyzoa ,vict41 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,vict41 ,vol4 ,,iv4 #ahie4 ,maplestone1 ,c4 ,m4 ,further ,descr4 ,polyzoa ,vict41 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xi4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #ahih1 pp4 #ad-ba1 et seqq4 ,,brachiopoda4 ,cambrian4--,tate1 ,r4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xv4 #ahib1 pp4 #ahe1 #ahf4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,v4 pt4 #b1 #aijd1 p4 #aja4 ,walcott1 ,c4 ,d4 ,smiths4 ,misc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,liii4 #aijh1 p4 #aji4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vic41 vol4 ,,xxiii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #aiaa1 pp4 #caj-cac4 ,ordovician4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,parl4 ,papers1 ,s4 ,aust41 ,no4 #aeh1 #ahia1 pp4 #ac1 #ad4 ,tate1 ,r4 ,rep4 ,horn ,exped41 pt4 #c1 #ahif1 pp4 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 vol4 ,i4 pt4 #c1 #aijd1 pp4 #bbb-bbd4 ,silurian4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vic4 ,dec4 ,v4 #ahgg1 pp4 #ai-bi4 ,eth41 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 #c1 pt4 #b1 #ahib1 pp4 #di-fj 7,silurian and ,devonian ,pentameridae74 ,idem1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,tas41 7for #ahif71 #ahig1 pp4 #ch-da4 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 pp4 #bj-bi4 ,dun1 ,w4 ,s4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,vii4 pt4 #d1 #aijd1 pp4 #cah-cbe 7,silurian to ,carboniferous74 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 #c1 #aijg1 pp4 #bfe-bfi4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xvi4 7,n4,s471 pt4 #a1 #aijc1 pp4 #fd-gi4 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,xxi4 7,n4,s471 pt4 #a1 #aijh1 pp4 #bbb1 #bbc4 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,xxvi4 7,n4,s47 pt4 #a4 #aiac1 pp4 #ii-aac4 ,devonian4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,,iv41 #ahgf1 pp4 #af-ah4 ,foord1 ,a4 ,h4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahij1 pp4 #ajj-ajb4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #fd-fh4 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal41 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 pp4 #fd-he4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xviii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 #a1 #aije1 pp4 #af-ai4 ,carboniferous4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,,iv4 ,no4 #c1 #aija1 pp4 #aai1 #abj4 ,idem1 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,w4 ,austr41 ,bull4 ,no4 #aj1 #aijc1 pp4 #ab-bc4 ,dun1 ,w4 ,s4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,vii41 pt4 #b1 #aijb1 pp4 #gb-hh and #ia-ic4 ,carbopermian4--,sowerby1 ,g4 ,b41 in ,strzelecki's ,phys4 ,descr4 of ,new ,south ,wales1 etc41 #ahde1 pp4 #bge-bhe4 ,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,ann4 ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist41 vol4 ,,xx4 #ahdg1 pp4 #bca-bcf4 ,foord1 ,a4 ,h4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahij1 pp4 #aje and #ade-aed4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #bbe-bfd4 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal41 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 pp4 #adj-bjc4 ,dun1 ,w4 ,s4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 #d1 #aiji1 pp4 #bic-cjd4 ,lower ,cretaceous4--,moore1 ,c4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxvi4 #ahgj1 pp4 #bdc-bde4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,mem4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,ii4 pt4 #a1 #aijb1 pp4 #h1 #i4 ,upper ,cretaceous4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 p4 #efj4 ,cainozoic4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,v4 #ahgg1 pp4 #aa-ac4 ,tate1 ,r4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,iii4 #ahhj1 pp4 #adj-agj4 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxiii4 #ahii1 pp4 #bej-bei4 ,hutton1 ,f4 ,w4 ,trans4 ,n4,z4 ,inst41 vol4 ,,xxxvii4 #aije1 pp4 #dgd-dha 7,revn4 ,tert4 ,brach474 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,fossil ,,shell-,,fish 7,,mollusca74 ,molluscan ,characters4-- ,the phylum or sub-kingdom ,mollusca is a group of soft-bodied animals 7mollis1 soft71 which1 although having no external skeleton1 usually possess the protective covering of a shell4 ,this shell is secreted from the outer skin or mantle1 and is composed of carbonate of lime 7calcareous7 with a varying proportion of organic material4 ,hard ,parts4-- ,fossil molluscan remains consist practically of the shells1 but the calcareous apertural lid 7operculum7 of some kinds is often preserved1 as in ,turbo and ,hyolithes2 or the horny lids of others1 as ,bithynia of the ,european ,pleistocene brick earths4 ,the cuttle-fishes have hard1 horny beaks and internal bones1 and the latter are frequently found fossil in ,australia4 ,characters of ,pelecypoda4-- ,the class for first consideration is the important one of the ,bivalved ,mollusca1 the ,,lamellibranchiata 7plate-gills7 or ,,pelecypoda 7hatchet foot74 ,the shells are double1 hinged dorsally and placed on either side of the animal1 that is1 they are left and right4 ,the height is measured on a vertical line drawn from the beaks or umbones to the ventral margin4 ,the length is the greatest distance between the margins parallel with a line drawn through the mouth and posterior adductor impression4 ,the thickness is measured by a line at right angles to the line of height4 ,the shell being placed mouth forward1 the valves are thus left and right4 ,the anterior is usually shorter1 excepting in some cases1 as in ,donax and ,nucula4 ,hinge ,structure4-- ,in the absence of the animal1 the character of the hinge-structure is very important4 ,some are without teeth 7edentulous74 ,the oldest forms have been grouped as the ,palaeoconcha1 and it has been shown that here1 although well-developed teeth were absent1 the radial ribs of the surface and ventral areas were carried over to the dorsal margin and became a fixed character in the form of crenulations or primitive teeth4 ,the taxodont type of hinge teeth shows alternating teeth and sockets1 as in ,nucula4 ,the schizodont type is seen in the heavy1 variable teeth of ,trigonia and ,schizodus4 ,the isodont type of hingement is a modification of the taxodont1 represented by two ridges originally divergent below the beak1 and forming an interlocking series of two pairs of teeth and sockets as in ,spondylus2 or where the primitive hinge disappears as in ,pecten1 the divergent ridge-teeth 7crura7 may only partially develop4 ,the dysodonts have a feeble hinge-structure derived from the external sculpture impinging on the hinge-line1 as in ,crenella4 ,the pantodonta are an ancient palaeozoic group which seems allied to the modern teleodont or long toothed shells1 but the laterals may exceed a pair in a single group1 as in ,allodesma4 ,the diogenodonta have lateral and cardinal teeth upon a hinge-plate1 but never more than two laterals and three cardinals in any one group1 as in ,crassatellites4 ,the cyclodonta have extremely arched teeth1 which curve out from under the beaks1 as in ,cardium4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij--,,lower ,,palaeozoic ,,bivalves4 ,a--,ambonychia macroptera1 ,tate4 ,cambrian4 ,s4 ,australia ,b--,grammysia cuneiformis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,c--,panenka gippslandica1 ,mc,coy sp4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,d--,nucula melbournensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,e--,nuculites maccoyianus4 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,f--,palaeoneilo victoriae1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,the teleodonts include the more highly developed types of hinge1 with attenuated teeth and sockets4 ,common shells of our coast1 and from ,cainozoic beds1 belonging to this group are ,venus1 ,mactra and ,meretrix4 ,the asthenodonta are boring and burrowing molluscs that have lost the hinge dentition from disuse as ,corbula and ,pholas4 ,cambrian ,bivalve4-- ,the earliest example of a bivalved shell in ,australian rocks is ,ambonychia macroptera 7,fig4 #ij ,a71 which occurs in the ,cambrian ,limestone of ,curramulka1 ,s4 ,australia4 ,it is quite a small form1 being less than a quarter of an inch in length4 ,ordovician ,bivalve4-- ,in the basal ,ordovician mudstone of ,heathcote1 ,victoria1 there is a bivalve which in some respects resembles a ,modiolopsis 78,m4 knowsleyensis71 but the exact relationship is still doubtful4 ,silurian ,bivalves4-- ,the ,silurian sandstones1 mudstones1 slates and limestones of ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 unlike the older rocks just mentioned1 contain a rich assemblage of bivalve fossils4 ,in ,victoria the lower division or ,melbournian stage contains the following principal genera3--,orthonota1 ,grammysia1 ,leptodomus1 ,edmondia1 ,cardiola1 ,ctenodonta1 ,nuculites1 ,nucula1 ,palaeoneilo1 ,conocardium1 ,modiolopsis and ,paracyclas4 ,the upper division or ,yeringian stage contains other species of similar genera to those in the ,melbournian1 as ,grammysia1 ,palaeoneilo and ,conocardium2 whilst ,panenka1 ,mytilarca1 ,sphenotus1 ,actinodesma1 ,lunulicardium1 ,actinopteria and ,cypricardinia are1 so far as known1 peculiar to this and a still higher stage4 ,cardiola is a widely distributed genus1 occurring as well in ,tasmania2 whilst in ,europe it is found both in ,bohemia and ,great ,britain4 ,its time-range in the northern hemisphere is very extensive1 being found in beds ranging from ,upper ,ordovician to ,devonian4 ,actinopteria is found also in ,new ,south ,wales and ,new ,zealand1 and ,pterinea and ,actinodesma in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the molluscs with a taxodont hinge-line 7beset with numerous little teeth and sockets7 are quite plentiful in the ,australian ,silurian2 such as ,nucula1 a form common around ,melbourne 7,n4 melbournensis 7,fig4 #ij ,d772 ,nuculites1 which has an internal radial buttress or clavicle separating the anterior muscle-scar from the shell-cavity1 and which is found likewise in the ,melbourne shales 7,n4 maccoyianus 7,fig4 #ij ,e772 ,ctenodonta1 represented in both the ,melbournian and ,yeringian stages 7,c4 portlocki72 and ,palaeoneilo1 a handsome1 subrostrate generic type with concentric lamellae or striae1 commonest in the ,melbournian1 but occasionally found in the younger stage 7,p4 victoriae ,fig4 #ij ,f1 ,melbournian2--,p4 raricostae1 ,yeringian74 ,conocardium is represented by two species in ,victoria 7,c4 bellulum and ,c4 costatum72 whilst in ,new ,south ,wales ,c4 davidis is found at ,oakey ,creek4 ,in ,new ,zealand ,actinopteria and ,pterinea occur in the ,wangapeka series 7,silurian74 ,devonian ,bivalves4-- ,the compact limestone and some shales of ,middle ,devonian age in the ,n4,e4 ,gippsland area in ,victoria1 contain several as yet undescribed species belonging to the genera ,sphenotus1 ,actinodesma and ,paracyclas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia--,,palaeozoic ,,bivalves4 ,a--,mytilarca acutirostris1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,b--,modiolopsis melbournensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,c--,goniophora australis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,d--,paracyclas siluricus1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,e--,actinopteria australis1 ,dun4 ,devonian4 ,new ,south ,wales ,f--,lyriopecten gracilis1 ,dun4 ,devonian4 ,new ,south ,wales ,the genera ,paracyclas1 ,aviculopecten and ,pterinea have been recorded from ,new ,south ,wales1 chiefly from the ,yass district4 ,the derived boulders found in the ,upper ,cretaceous beds forming the opal-fields at ,white ,cliffs1 ,new ,south ,wales1 have been determined as of ,devonian age4 ,they contain1 amongst other genera1 examples of ,actinopteria 7,a4 australis71 ,lyriopecten 7,l4 gracilis7 7,fig4 #ia ,f71 and ,leptodesma 7,l4 inflatum and ,l4 obesum74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib--;,,carbopermian ,,bivalves4 ,a--,stutchburia farleyensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,b--,deltopecten limaeformis1 ,morris sp4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,c--,aviculopecten sprenti1 ,johnston4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,d--,chaenomya etheridgei1 de ,kon4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,e--,pachydomus globosus ,j4 de ,c4 ,sow4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,carbopermian ,bivalves4-- ,one of the most prolific palaeozoic series for bivalved mollusca is the ,carbopermian4 ,to select from the numerous genera and species we may mention ,stutchburia farleyensis 7,fig4 #ib ,a7 and ,edmondia nobilissima from ,farley1 ,new ,south ,wales2 and ,deltopecten limaeformis 7,fig4 #ib ,b71 found in the ,lower ,marine ,series at ,ravensfield1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and in the ,upper ,marine ,series at ,burragorang and ,pokolbin in the same ,state1 in ,queensland at the ,mount ,britton ,gold-field1 and in ,maria ,id41 ,tasmania4 ,deltopecten fittoni occurs in both series in ,new ,south ,wales1 and in the ,upper ,marine ,series associated with ,tasmanite shale in ,tasmania4 ,aviculopecten squamuliferus is a handsome species found alike in ,tasmania and ,new ,south ,wales2 whilst ,a4 tenuicollis is common to ,w4 ,australia and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,other characteristic bivalves of the ,carbopermian of ,new ,south ,wales are ,chaenomya etheridgei 7,fig4 #ib ,d7 and ,pachydomus globosus 7,fig4 #ib ,e74 ,the gigantic ,eurydesma cordatum is especially characteristic of the ,new ,south ,wales ,lower ,marine ,series1 and is also found in ,tasmania4 ,all three species are found in ,queensland4 ,triassic ,bivalves4-- ,the ,triassic rocks of ,new ,south ,wales were accumulated under either terrestrial1 lacustrine1 or brackish 7estuarine7 conditions4 ,hence the only bivalved mollusca found are referred to the freshwater genera ,unio 7,u4 dunstani7 and ,unionella 7,u4 bowralensis and ,u4 carnei 7,fig4 #ic ,a774 ,the latter genus differs from ,unio in the structure of the adductor muscle-impressions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic--,,lower ,,mesozoic ,,bivalves4 ,a--,unionella carnei1 ,eth4 fil4 ,triassic4 ,new ,south ,wales ,b--,mytilus problematicus1 ,zittel4 ,triassic4 ,new ,zealand ,c--,monotis salinaria1 ,zittel4 ,triassic4 ,new ,zealand ,d--,trigonia moorei1 ,lycett4 ,jurassic4 ,w4 ,australia ,e--,astarte cliftoni1 ,moore4 ,jurassic4 ,w4 ,australia ,the ,queensland ,trias 7,burrum ,formation7 contains a solitary species of bivalved mollusca1 ,corbicula burrumensis4 ,this genus is generally found associated with freshwater or brackish conditions4 ,in ,new ,zealand marine ,triassic beds occur1 containing1 amongst other genera1 a species of ,leda4 ,in the succeeding ,wairoa ,series the interesting fossil1 ,daonella lommeli occurs4 ,this shell is typical of the ,norian 7,upper ,trias7 of the ,southern ,tyrol4 ,above the ,daonella bed occurs the ,trigonia bed1 with that genus and ,edmondia4 ,in the next younger stage1 the ,otapiri ,series1 near ,nelson1 there are fine-grained sandstones packed full of the remains of ,mytilus problematicus 7,fig4 #ic ,b7 and ,monotis salinaria 7,fig4 #ic ,c71 the latter also a ,norian fossil4 ,jurassic ,bivalves4-- ,jurassic bivalved molluscs are plentiful in the ,w4 ,australian limestones1 as at ,greenough ,river4 ,amongst others may be mentioned ,cucullaea semistriata1 ,ostrea1 ,gryphaea1 ,trigonia moorei 7,fig4 #ic ,d71 ,pecten cinctus1 ,ctenostreon pectiniforme and ,astarte cliftoni 7,fig4 #ic ,e74 ,several of the species found are identical with ,european ,jurassic fossils4 ,jurassic strata in ,victoria1 being of a freshwater and lacustrine nature1 yield only species of ,unio1 as ,u4 dacombei1 and ,u4 stirlingi4 ,the ,jurassic beds of ,s4 ,australia contain a species of ,unio named ,u4 eyrensis4 ,in the same strata which contains this shell1 plant remains are found1 as ,cladophlebis and ,thinnfeldia1 two well-known types of ,jurassic ferns4 ,lower ,cretaceous ,bivalves4-- ,in ,queensland the ,lower ,cretaceous limestones and marls contain a large assemblage of bivalves1 the more important of which are ,nucula truncata 7,fig4 #id ,a71 ,maccoyella reflecta 7,fig4 #id ,b71 ,m4 barkleyi1 ,pecten socialis and ,fissilunula clarkei 7,fig4 #id ,c71 from ,wollumbilla2 and ,inoceramus pernoides1 ,i4 carsoni and ,aucella hughendenensis from the ,flinders ,river 7the latter also from ,new ,south ,wales74 ,in the ,lake ,eyre ,district of ,s4 ,australia we find ,maccoyella barkleyi1 which also occurs in ,queensland and ,new ,south ,wales 7at ,white ,cliffs71 ,trigonia cinctuta1 ,mytilus rugocostatus and ,modiola eyrensis4 ,the handsome bivalve1 ,pleuromya plana occurs near ,broome in ,w4 ,australia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id--;,,cretaceous ,,bivalves4 ,a--,nucula truncata1 ,moore4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,south ,australia ,b--,maccoyella reflecta1 ,moore sp4 ,up4 and ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,q'land4 ,c--,fissilunula clarkei1 ,moore sp4 ,up4 and ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,q'land4 ,d--,inoceramus carsoni1 ,mc,coy4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,e--,cyrenopsis opallites1 ,eth4 fil4 ,up4 ,cretaceous4 ,new ,south ,wales ,f--,conchothyra parasitica1 ,hutton4 ,cretaceous4 ,new ,zealand ,upper ,cretaceous ,bivalves4-- ,the ,upper ,cretaceous or ,desert ,sandstone at ,maryborough1 ,queensland1 has yielded amongst others1 the following shells3--7,nucula gigantea1 ,maccoyella reflecta also found in the ,lower ,cretaceous of ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,s4 ,australia71 and ,fissilunula clarkei 7also found in the ,l4 ,cretaceous of ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland and ,s4 ,australia74 ,some of these beds1 however1 which were hitherto believed to belong to the ,upper and ,lower ,series respectively may yet prove to be on one horizon--the ,lower ,cretaceous4 ,cyrenopsis opallites 7,fig4 #id ,e7 of ,white ,cliffs1 ,new ,south ,wales1 appears to be a truly restricted ,upper ,cretaceous species4 ,the ,cretaceous of ,new ,zealand 7,amuri ,system7 contains ,trigonia sulcata1 ,inoceramus sp4 and the curious1 contorted shell1 ,conchothyra parasitica 7,fig4 #id ,f7 which is related to ,pugnellus1 a form usually considered as a sub-genus of ,strombus4 ,from ,papua an ,inoceramus has been recorded from probable ,cretaceous beds4 ,cainozoic ,bivalves4-- ,in ,victoria1 ,south ,australia1 and the ,n4,w4 of ,tasmania1 as well as in ,new ,zealand1 ,cainozoic marine beds are well developed1 and contain an extensive bivalved molluscan fauna4 ,of these fossils only a few common and striking examples can here be noticed1 on account of the limits of the present work4 ,the commonest genera are3--,ostrea1 ,placunanomia1 ,dimya1 ,spondylus1 ,lima1 ,pecten1 ,arca1 ,barbatia1 ,plagiarca1 ,cucullaea1 ,glycimeris1 ,limopsis1 ,nucula1 ,leda1 ,trigonia1 ,cardita1 ,cuna1 ,crassatellites1 ,cardium1 ,protocardium1 ,chama1 ,meretrix1 ,venus 7,chione71 ,dosinea1 ,gari1 ,mactra1 ,corbula1 ,lucina1 ,tellina1 ,semele and ,myodora4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie--;,,cainozoic ,,bivalves4 ,a--,dimya dissimilis1 ,tate4 ,balcombian4 ,victoria ,b--,spondylus pseudoradula1 ,mc,coy4 ,balcombian4 ,victoria ,c--,pecten polymorphoides1 ,zittel4 ,janjukian4 ,south ,australia ,d--,leda vagans1 ,tate4 ,janjukian4 ,south ,australia ,e--,modiola praerupta1 ,pritchard4 ,balcombian4 ,victoria ,persistent ,species4-- ,to mention a few species of persistent range1 from ,balcombian to ,kalimnan1 we may cite the following from the ,cainozoic of southern ,australia3--,dimya dissimilis 7,fig4 #ie ,a71 ,spondylus pseudoradula 7,fig4 #ie ,b71 ,lima 7,limatula7 jeffreysiana1 ,pecten polymorphoides 7found also in the ,oamaru ,series1 ,new ,zealand7 7,fig4 #ie ,c71 ,amusium zitteli 7found also in both the ,waimangaroa and ,oamaru ,series of ,new ,zealand71 ,barbatia celleporacea1 ,cucullaea corioensis1 ,limopsis maccoyi1 ,nucula tenisoni1 ,leda vagans 7,fig4 #ie ,d71 ,corbula ephamilla and ,myodora tenuilirata4 ,balcombian ,bivalves4-- ,on the other hand1 many species have a restricted range1 and these are invaluable for purposes of stratigraphical correlation4 ,for example1 in the ,balcombian we have ,modiola praerupta 7,fig4 #ie ,e71 ,modiolaria balcombei1 ,cuna regularis1 ,cardium cuculloides1 ,cryptodon mactraeformis1 ,verticordia pectinata and ,v4 excavata4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if--;,,cainozoic ,,bivalves4 ,a--,modiola pueblensis1 ,pritchard4 ,janjukian4 ,victoria ,b--,cardita tasmanica1 ,tate4 ,janjukian4 ,tasmania ,c--,lucina planatella1 ,tate4 ,janjukian4 ,tasmania ,d--,ostrea manubriata1 ,tate4 ,kalimnan4 ,victoria ,e--,limopsis beaumariensis1 ,chap4 ,kalimnan4 ,victoria ,f--,venus 7,chione7 subroborata1 ,tate sp4 ,kalimnan4 ,victoria ,janjukian ,bivalves4-- ,in the ,janjukian ,series restricted forms of bivalves are exceptionally numerous1 amongst them being3--,dimya sigillata1 ,plicatula ramulosa1 ,lima polynema1 ,pecten praecursor1 ,p4 eyrei1 ,p4 gambierensis1 ,pinna cordata1 ,modiola pueblensis 7,fig4 #if ,a71 ,arca dissimilis1 ,limopsis multiradiata1 ,l4 insolita1 ,leda leptorhyncha1 ,l4 crebrecostata1 ,cardita maudensis1 ,c4 tasmanica 7,fig4 #if ,b71 ,cuna radiata1 ,lepton crassum1 ,cardium pseudomagnum1 ,venus 7,chione7 multitaeniata1 ,solenocurtus legrandi1 ,lucina planatella 7,fig4 #if ,c71 ,tellina porrecta and ,myodora lamellata4 ,in ,papua a ,pecten 7,p4 novaeguineae7 has been recorded from the 8 ,lower ,pliocene of ,yule ,island4 ,kalimnan ,bivalves4-- ,the ,kalimnan beds contain the following restricted or upward ranging species3--,ostrea arenicola1 ,o4 manubriata 7,fig4 #if ,d71 ,pecten antiaustralis 7also in the ,werrikooian ,series71 ,perna percrassa1 ,mytilus hamiltonensis1 ,glycimeris halli1 ,limopsis beaumariensis 7also ,werrikooian7 7,fig4 #if ,e71 ,leda crassa 7also living71 ,trigonia howitti1 ,cardita solida1 ,c4 calva 7also living71 ,erycina micans1 ,meretrix paucirugata1 ,sunetta gibberula1 ,venus 7,chione7 subroborata 7,fig4 #if ,f71 ,donax depressa1 ,corbula scaphoides 7also living71 ,barnea tiara1 ,lucina affinis1 ,tellina albinelloides and ,myodora corrugata4 ,werrikooian ,bivalves4-- ,the next stage1 the ,werrikooian 7,upper ,pliocene71 contains a large percentage of living species1 as ,ostrea angasi1 ,placunanomia ione 7ranging down into ,janjukian71 ,glycimeris radians1 ,leda crassa 7also a common ,kalimnan fossil71 various species of ,venus 7,chione71 as ,v4 strigosa and ,v4 placida1 and ,barnea australasiae4 ,pleistocene ,bivalves4-- ,the bivalved shells of the ,pleistocene are similar to those now found living round the ,australian coast1 as ,pecten asperrimus1 ,mytilus latus1 ,leda crassa1 ,soletellina biradiata and ,spisula parva4 ,pleistocene shells of bivalved genera occur in the coastal hills of ,papua1 including the following3--,cultellus1 ,corbula1 ,mactra1 ,tellina1 ,venus 7,chione71 ,dione1 ,dosinea1 ,leda and ,arca4 ,the ,,scaphopods 7digger foot7 or the ,elephant-tusk shells are adapted1 by their well-developed foot1 to burrow into the mud and sand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig--;,,fossil ,,scaphopods and ,,chitons4 ,a--,dentalium huttoni1 ,bather4 ,jurassic4 ,new ,zealand ,b--,dentalium mantelli1 ,zittel4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria ,c--,chelodes calceoloides1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian4 ,new ,south ,wales ,d--,ischnochiton granulosus1 ,ashby and ,torr sp4 ,cainozoic 7,balc74 ,victoria ,e--,cryptoplax pritchardi1 ,hall4 ,cainozoic 7,kalimnan74 ,victoria ,devonian ,scaphopods4-- ,this group of mollusca makes its first appearance in ,australasian sediments in the ,middle ,devonian 7,murrumbidgee beds7 of ,new ,south ,wales1 represented by ,dentalium tenuissimum4 ,jurassic ,scaphopods4-- ,in the ,jurassic strata of the ,mataura ,series of ,new ,zealand1 ,dentalium huttoni 7,fig4 #ig ,a7 occurs at the ,kowhai ,river and ,wilberforce4 ,cretaceous ,scaphopods4-- ,dentalium wollumbillensis occurs in the drab and dark-coloured limestones of the ,lower ,cretaceous of the ,lake ,eyre ,basin in ,s4 ,australia1 and the same species is also found in the ,lower ,cretaceous 7,rolling ,downs ,formation7 of ,wollumbilla1 ,queensland4 ,cainozoic ,scaphopods4-- ,the ,cainozoic beds both of ,new ,zealand and southern ,australia yield many species of ,dentalium1 the commonest and most widely distributed being the longitudinally ribbed ,d4 mantelli 7,fig4 #ig ,b71 which ranges from the ,balcombian to the ,werrikooian stages in ,australia1 and is also typical of the ,oamaru ,series in ,new ,zealand1 where it is accompanied by the ponderous species1 ,d4 giganteum1 which attained a length of over six inches4 ,another form common in our ,cainozoics is the smooth-shelled ,d4 subfissura2 this also has a wide range1 namely ,balcombian to ,kalimnan4 ,palaeozoic ,chitons4-- ,the ,,polyplacophora or ,chitons 7,mail-shells71 first appeared in the ,ordovician4 ,in ,australia ,chelodes calceoloides 7,fig4 #ig ,c7 is found in the ,silurian of ,derrengullen ,creek1 ,yass1 ,new ,south ,wales2 and another species of the genus is found in beds of the same age at ,lilydale1 ,victoria4 ,between that period and the ,cainozoic or ,tertiary there is a gap in their history in ,australia4 ,cainozoic ,chitons4-- ,ischnochiton granulosus 7,fig4 #ig ,d7 is a ,balcombian species of the modern type of mail-shell1 occurring not infrequently in the clays of ,balcombe's ,bay1 ,port ,phillip1 ,victoria4 ,cryptoplax pritchardi 7,fig4 #ig ,e7 is a curious form belonging to the attenuated1 worm-like group of the ,cryptoplacidae1 until lately unknown in the fossil state2 it is found in the ,kalimnan ,series near ,hamilton1 ,victoria4 ,several other genera of the chitons are found fossil in the ,australian ,cainozoics which still live on our coasts1 as ,lorica1 ,plaxiphora and ,chiton4 ,the first-named genus is represented fossil by ,lorica duniana from the ,turritella bed 7,janjukian7 of ,table ,cape1 ,tasmania4 ,characters of ,gasteropoda4-- ,the ,,gasteropoda 7belly-foot7 or univalve shells possess a muscular foot placed beneath the stomach and viscera4 ,in the ,heteropoda this foot is modified as a vertical fin1 and in the ,pteropoda as two wing-like swimming membranes close to the head4 ,the mantle lobe is elevated along the back like a hood1 and its surfaces and edges secrete the shell which contains the animal4 ,the shell is typically a cone 7example1 ,patella or ,limpet7 which is often spirally coiled either in a plane 7ex4 ,planorbis71 conically turbinoid 7ex4 ,trochus71 or turreted 7ex4 ,turritella74 ,the body and shell are attached by muscles1 the spiral forms being attached to the columella or axial pillar1 and the bowl-shaped forms to the inner surface of the shell4 ,gasteropod shells are normally right-handed 7dextral71 but a few genera as ,clausilia1 ,bulinus and ,physa1 are left-handed 7sinistral74 ,the height or length of the shell is measured from the apex to the lower margin of the mouth4 ,in coiled shells we may regard them as a more or less elongated cone wound round a central pillar1 the columella1 or around a central tube4 ,a turn or coil of the shell is a whorl1 and together1 with the exception of the last1 form the spire4 ,the line between two adjacent whorls is the suture4 ,when the columella is solid the shell is said to be imperforate1 and when a central tube is left by the imperfect fusion of the whorls1 it is perforate4 ,the opening of the tubular columella is termed the umbilicus1 and this is sometimes contracted by the encroachment of shell matter termed the callus4 ,the aperture is entire when the rim is uninterrupted2 and channelled when there is a basal notch1 where the siphon which conducts water to the gills is lodged4 ,as a rule the large heavy gasteropods inhabit shallow water4 ,the following living genera are characteristic of rocky shore-lines2 ,risella1 ,buccinum1 ,purpura and ,patella4 ,genera typical of sandy shores are ,nassa1 ,natica1 ,cypraea1 ,turritella and ,scala4 ,cambrian ,gasteropods4-- ,from the ,cambrian of ,south ,australia ,prof4 ,tate described some minute ,gasteropods which he referred to the genera ,stenotheca 7,s4 rugosa1 var4 paupera71 ,ophileta 7,o4 subangulata7 7,fig4 #ih ,a71 and ,platyceras 7,p4 etheridgei74 ,in these beds at ,curramulka the following ,pteropods were found by the same authority1 viz41 ,salterella planoconvexa1 ,hyolithes communis 7,fig4 #ih ,c7 and ,h4 conularioides4 ,the ,cambrian ,limestone of the ,kimberley ,district1 ,w4 ,australia1 contains the characteristic ,pteropod ,salterella hardmani 7,fig4 #ih ,b74 ,the shell is a conical tube1 straight or slightly curved1 and measuring scarcely an inch in length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih--,,lower ,,palaeozoic ,,gasteropoda4 ,a--,ophileta subangulata1 ,tate4 ,cambrian4 ,south ,australia ,b--,salterella hardmani1 ,foord4 ,cambrian4 ,west ,australia ,c--,hyolithes communis1 ,billings4 ,cambrian4 ,south ,australia ,d--,scenella tenuistriata1 ,chapm4 ,cambrian4 ,victoria ,e--,raphistoma browni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,ordovician4 ,south ,australia ,f--,helicotoma johnstoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian4 ,tasmania ,the ,upper ,cambrian of the ,mersey ,river ,district in ,tasmania has afforded some doubtful examples of the genus ,ophileta4 ,in the ,upper ,cambrian ,limestones of the ,dolodrook ,valley1 near ,mt4 ,wellington1 ,victoria1 a minute limpet shaped ,gasteropod occurs1 named ,scenella tenuistriata 7,fig4 #ih ,d74 ,ordovician ,gasteropods4-- ,ordovician limestones with fossil shells occur in the ,leigh's ,creek ,district in ,south ,australia1 and also at ,tempe ,downs and ,petermann and ,laurie's ,creeks1 ,w4 of ,alice ,springs4 ,the euomphaloid shell ,ophileta gilesi was described from ,laurie's ,creek1 and ,eunema larapinta from the ,tempe ,downs4 ,a pleurotomarid1 ,raphistoma browni 7,fig4 #ih7 occurs near ,leigh's ,creek1 and at ,laurie's and ,petermann ,creeks4 ,a ,pteropod1 ,hyolithes leptus1 has been described from the ,lower ,ordovician of ,coole ,barghurk ,creek1 near ,meredith1 ,victoria4 ,silurian ,gasteropods4-- ,the ,silurian ,gasteropods are fairly well represented1 especially in the upper stage1 and are widely distributed throughout the ,australian fossiliferous localities4 ,moreover1 some of the species are identical with those found as far off as ,north ,america and ,europe4 ,in ,victoria the shales and sandstones of the lower stage 7,melbournian7 contain the genera ,bellerophon1 ,cyrtolites and ,loxonema4 ,the ,pteropoda include ,tentaculites1 ,coleolus1 ,hyolithes and ,conularia 7,c4 sowerbii 7,fig4 #ii ,f71 a species also found in ,great ,britain74 ,the ,victorian limestones and mudstones of the upper stage 7,yeringian7 are somewhat rich in ,gasteropods1 such genera occurring as ,pleurotomaria1 ,phanerotrema 7with cancellated shell and large slit-band71 ,murchisonia1 ,gyrodoma1 ,bellerophon1 ,trematonotus 7a spiral shell with a large trumpet-shaped mouth and a dorsal row of perforations in place of a slit-band71 ,euomphalus1 ,cyclonema1 ,trochus 7,scalaetrochus71 ,niso 7,vetotuba71 ,loxonema1 ,platyceras and ,capulus4 ,the section ,pteropoda contains ,tentaculites1 ,hyolithes and ,conularia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii--,,silurian ,,gasteropoda4 ,a--,hyolithes spryi1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melb47 ,victoria ,b--,gyrodoma etheridgei1 ,cressw4 sp4 ,silurian 7,yeringian74 ,vict4 ,c--,bellerophon cresswelli4 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian 7,yeringian74 ,victoria ,d--,euomphalus northi1 ,eth4 fil4 sp4 ,silurian 7,yeringian74 ,victoria ,e--,trochonema montgomerii4 ,eth4 fil4 sp4 ,silurian4 ,tasmania ,f--,conularia sowerbii1 ,defr4 ,silurian 7,yeringian74 ,victoria ,in the ,silurian of ,new ,south ,wales the chief ,gasteropod genera are ,bellerophon 7,b4 jukesi71 ,euomphalus1 ,omphalotrochus1 and ,conularia 7,c4 sowerbii474 ,in ,tasmania are found ,raphistoma1 ,murchisonia1 ,bellerophon1 ,helicotoma1 ,trochonema and ,tentaculites4 ,devonian ,gasteropods4-- ,the derived boulders of the ,white ,cliffs opal field have been referred to the ,devonian system1 but of this there is some doubt1 as the ,gasteropods noted from these boulders closely resemble those of the ,silurian fauna3 they are ,murchisonia ,euomphalus 7,e4 culleni71 and ,loxonema4 ,the genus ,murchisonia has also been recorded from the ,baton ,river1 ,new ,zealand 7,wangepeka ,series7 by ,mac,kay4 ,the ,middle ,devonian ,gasteropod fauna in ,victoria1 as found in the ,buchan and ,bindi ,limestones1 comprises ,murchisonia1 ,trochus1 and ,platyceras4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj--,,upper ,,palaeozoic ,,gasteropoda4 ,a--,gosseletina australis1 ,eth4 fil4 sp4 ,carboniferous4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,b--,yvania konincki1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carboniferous4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,c--,loxonema babbindoonensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carboniferous4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,d--,pleurotomaria 7,ptychomphalina7 morrisiana1 ,mc,coy4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,e--,platyschisma oculum1 ,sow4 sp4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,f--,murchisonia carinata1 ,eth4 ,carbopermian4 ,queensland ,in ,new ,south ,wales the best known genera are ,pleurotomaria1 ,murchisonia1 ,bellerophon1 ,euomphalus and ,loxonema4 ,the two latter genera have also been obtained at ,barker ,gorge1 ,western ,australia4 ,carboniferous ,gasteropods4-- ,carboniferous ,gasteropoda have been found in ,new ,south ,wales1 belonging to the genera ,gosseletina 7,g4 australis7 7,fig4 #ajj ,a7 and ,yvania 7,y4 konincki7 7,fig4 #ajj ,b71 both of which have their countertypes in the ,carboniferous of ,belgium4 ,y4 konincki is also found in the ,carbopermian 7,gympie beds7 of ,rockhampton1 ,queensland1 while ,y4 levellii is found in the ,carbopermian of ,western ,australia4 ,carbopermian ,gasteropods4-- ,the ,carbopermian gasteropods of ,new ,south ,wales are ,pleurotomaria 7,mourlonia71 ,keeneia platyschismoides1 ,murchisonia1 ,euomphalus1 ,platyschisma 7,p4 oculum7 7,fig4 #ajj ,e71 ,loxonema and ,macrocheilus4 ,examples of the genus ,conularia are sometimes found1 probably attaining a length1 when complete1 of #dj centimetres4 ,in ,tasmania we find ,conularia tasmanica1 a handsome ,pteropod1 also of large dimensions4 ,platyschisma1 ,pleurotomaria 7,mourlonia71 ,bellerophon and ,porcellia are amongst the ,carbopermian ,gasteropods of ,queensland4 ,in ,western ,australia ,pleurotomaria 7,mourlonia71 ,bellerophon1 ,euomphalus1 ,euphemus1 ,platyceras1 and ,loxonema occur in the ,carbopermian4 ,jurassic ,gasteropods4-- ,jurassic gasteropods are found sparingly in the limestone of the ,geraldton ,district and other localities in ,western ,australia4 ,the more important of these are ,pleurotomaria 7,p4 greenoughiensis71 ,turbo 7,t4 australis7 7,fig4 #aja ,a7 and ,rissoina 7,r4 australis7 7,fig4 #aja ,b74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja--,,mesozoic ,,gasteropoda4 ,a--,turbo australis1 ,moore4 ,jurassic4 ,west ,australia ,b--,rissoina australis1 ,moore4 ,jurassic4 ,west ,australia ,c--,natica ornatissima1 ,moore4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,d--,pseudamaura variabilis1 ,moore sp4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,e--,rostellaria waiparensis1 ,hector4--,cretaceous4 ,new ,zealand ,cretaceous ,gasteropods4-- ,the ,queensland gasteropod fauna comprises ,cinulia a typical ,cretaceous genus1 ,actaeon and ,natica4 ,these occur in the ,lower ,cretaceous or ,rolling ,downs ,formation4 ,cinulia is also found in ,south ,australia at ,lake ,eyre with ,natica 7,n4 ornatissima7 7,fig4 #aja ,c74 ,pseudamaura variabilis 7,fig4 #aja ,d7 is found in ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland and ,south ,australia2 whilst ,anchura wilkinsoni occurs in ,queensland and ,south ,australia4 ,in ,new ,zealand the ,waipara ,greensands 7,cretaceous7 contain a species of ,rostellaria 7,r4 waiparensis7 7,fig4 #aja ,e74 ,cainozoic ,gasteropods4-- ,cainozoic ,gasteropods are exceedingly abundant in beds of that system in ,australasia4 ,the ,cainozoic marine fauna in ,australia is practically restricted to the ,states of ,victoria1 ,south ,australia1 and ,tasmania2 whilst ,new ,zealand has many species in common with ,australia4 ,genera4-- ,the commonest genera of the marine ,cainozoic or ,tertiary deposits are3--,haliotis1 ,fissurellidea1 ,emarginula1 ,subemarginula1 ,astralium1 ,liotia1 ,gibbula1 ,eulima1 ,niso1 ,odostomia1 ,scala1 ,solarium1 ,crepidula1 ,calyptraea1 ,natica1 ,rissoa1 ,turritella1 ,siliquaria1 ,cerithium1 ,newtoniella1 ,tylospira1 ,cypraea1 ,trivia1 ,morio1 ,semicassis1 ,lotorium1 ,murex1 ,typhis1 ,columbella1 ,phos1 ,nassa1 ,siphonalia1 ,euthria 7,dennantia71 ,fusus1 ,columbarium1 ,fasciolaria1 ,latirus1 ,marginella1 ,mitra1 ,volutilithes1 ,voluta1 ,harpa1 ,ancilla1 ,cancellaria1 ,terebra1 ,pleurotoma1 ,drillia1 ,conus1 ,bullinella and ,vaginella4 ,persistent ,species4-- ,amongst the ,cainozoic ,gasteropoda of southern ,australia which have a persistent range through ,balcombian to ,kalimnan times1 we find3--,niso psila1 ,crepidula unguiformis 7also ,werrikooian and ,recent71 ,natica perspectiva1 ,n4 hamiltonensis1 ,turritella murrayana1 ,cerithium apheles1 ,cypraea leptorhyncha1 ,lotorium gibbum1 ,volutilithes antiscalaris 7also in ,werrikooian71 ,marginella propinqua1 ,ancilla pseudaustralis1 ,conus ligatus and ,bullinella exigua4 ,balcombian ,gasteropods4-- ,species restricted to the ,balcombian stage include ,scala dolicho1 ,seguenzia radialis1 ,dissocheilus eburneus1 ,trivia erugata1 ,cypraea ampullacea 7,fig4 #ajb ,a71 ,c4 gastroplax1 ,colubraria leptoskeles1 ,murex didymus 7,fig4 #ajb ,b71 ,eburnopsis aulacoessa 7,fig4 #ajb ,c71 ,fasciolaria concinna1 ,mitra uniplica1 ,harpa abbreviata1 ,ancilla lanceolata1 ,cancellaria calvulata 7,fig4 #ajb ,d71 ,buchozia oblongula1 ,pleurotoma optata1 ,terebra leptospira and ,vaginella eligmostoma 7,fig4 #ajb ,e71 7also found at ,gellibrand ,river74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb--;,,cainozoic ,,gasteropoda4 ,a--,cypraea ampullacea1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc47 ,victoria ,b--,murex didymus1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc47 ,victoria ,c--,eburnopsis aulacoessa1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc47 ,victoria ,d--,cancellaria calvulata1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc47 ,victoria ,e--,vaginella eligmostoma1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc47 ,victoria ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc--;,,cainozoic ,,gasteropoda4 ,a--,eutrochus fontinalis1 ,pritchard4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,vict4 ,b--,morio wilsoni1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,victoria ,c--,scala lampra1 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,south ,australia ,d--,natica gibbosa1 ,hutton4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,south ,australia ,e--,volutilithes anticingulatus1 ,mc,coy sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,victoria ,f--,struthiolaria sulcata1 ,hutton4 ,cainozoic 7,awatere series74 ,new ,zealand ,janjukian ,gasteropods4-- ,species of ,gasteropods restricted to the ,janjukian stage include3--,pleurotomaria tertiaria1 ,haliotis mooraboolensis1 ,liotia lamellosa1 ,thalotia alternata1 ,eutrochus fontinalis 7,fig4 #ajc ,a71 ,astralium hudsonianum1 ,turbo atkinsoni1 ,odostomia polita1 ,scala lampra 7,fig4 #ajc ,c71 ,natica gibbosa 7,fig4 #ajc ,d7 7also found in the ,pareora ,series of the ,oamaru system and in the ,wanganui beds of ,new ,zealand71 ,calyptraea subtabulata1 ,turritella aldingae1 ,cerithiopsis mulderi1 ,cerithium flemingtonense1 ,cypraea platyrhyncha1 ,c4 consobrina1 ,morio wilsoni 7,fig4 #ajc ,b71 ,lotorium abbotti1 ,murex otwayensis1 ,eburnopsis tesselatus1 ,tudicla costata1 ,latirus semiundulatus1 ,fusus meredithae1 ,columbarium spiniferum1 ,voluta pueblensis1 ,v4 heptagonalis1 ,v4 macroptera 7also recorded from ,hall's ,sound1 ,papua7 7,fig4 #ajc ,e71 ,volutilithes anticingulatus 7also from ,papua71 ,harpa clathrata1 ,bela woodsi1 ,bathytoma paracantha and ,volvulella inflatior4 ,dolium costatum1 allied to the ,fig-,shell has been noted from the ,cainozoic clays 78 ,lower ,pliocene71 ,yule ,island1 ,papua4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd--,,late ,,cainozoic and ,,pleistocene ,,gasteropoda ,a--,bankivia howitti1 ,pritchard4 ,cainozoic 7,kal47 ,victoria ,b--,eglisia triplicata1 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic 7,kal47 ,victoria ,c--,voluta masoni1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,kal47 ,victoria ,d--,ancilla papillata4 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic 7,kal47 ,victoria ,e--,terebra geniculata1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,kal47 ,victoria ,f--,helix simsoniana1 ,johnston4 ,pleistocene4 ,tasmania ,kalimnan ,gasteropods4-- ,species of ,gasteropods restricted to the ,kalimnan ,stage1 or only passing upwards include3--,bankivia howitti 7,fig4 #ajd ,a71 ,liopyrga quadricingulata1 ,calyptraea corrugata1 ,natica subvarians1 ,turritella pagodula1 ,eglisia triplicata 7,fig4 #ajd ,b71 ,tylospira clathrata1 ,cypraea jonesiana1 ,lotorium ovoideum1 ,sistrum subreticulatum1 ,voluta masoni 7,fig4 #ajd ,c71 ,ancilla papillata 7,fig4 #ajd ,d71 ,cancellaria wannonensis1 ,drillia wanganuiensis 7also in the ,petane ,series of ,new ,zealand71 ,terebra catenifera1 ,t4 geniculata 7,fig4 #ajd ,e7 and ,ringicula tatei4 ,new ,zealand ,cainozoic ,gasteropods4-- ,characteristic ,gasteropoda of the ,oamaru ,series in ,new ,zealand are ,pleurotomaria tertiaria 7also in the ,australian ,janjukian71 ,scala lyrata1 ,natica darwinii1 ,turritella cavershamensis1 ,ancilla hebera 7also in the ,australian ,balcombian and ,janjukian7 and ,pleurotoma hamiltoni4 ,gasteropods of the ,awatere ,series in ,new ,zealand are ,natica ovata1 ,struthiolaria sulcata 7,fig4 #ajc ,f71 and ,scaphella corrugata 7found also in the ,oamaru ,series74 ,the ,putiki beds of the ,petane ,series in ,new ,zealand contain ,trophon expansus1 ,pisania drewi and ,pleurotoma wanganuiensis4 ,werrikooian ,gasteropods4-- ,the marine gasteropods of the ,werrikooian of southern ,australia1 as found at ,limestone ,creek1 ,glenelg ,river1 ,western ,victoria1 and the ,moorabool ,viaduct near ,geelong1 are nearly all living at the present time1 with the exception of a few older ,cainozoic species4 ,amongst these latter are ,conus ralphi1 ,pleurotoma murndaliana1 ,volutilithes antiscalaris and ,columbarium craspedotum4 ,pleistocene ,gasteropoda4-- ,the ,pleistocene land mollusca1 and especially the gasteropods of ,australia1 present some striking points of interest1 for whilst most of the species are still living1 some appear to be extinct4 ,the travertine deposits of ,geilston1 near ,hobart1 ,tasmania contain ,helix geilstonensis and ,h4 stanleyana1 the latter still living4 ,the calcareous ,helix sandstone of the islands in ,bass ,strait are largely composed of shells of that genus and generally represent consolidated sand-dunes which have undergone a certain amount of elevation4 ,one of the prevalent species is ,helix simsoniana 7,fig4 #ajd ,f71 a handsome keeled form1 somewhat related to the living ,h4 launcestonensis4 ,it is found in some abundance in the ,kent's ,group and in the adjacent islands4 ,the large ovoid land-shells1 ,panda atomata1 although still existing1 are found associated with extinct marsupials1 as ,thylacoleo1 in the stalagmitic floor of the ,buchan ,caves1 ,gippsland4 ,the ,diprotodon-breccias of ,queensland have afforded several species of ,helix and other land-shells1 as well as the brackish-water genus ,melania4 ,the ,raised ,beaches of ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria1 and ,tasmania all contain species of land and freshwater shells identical with those now found living in the same localities4 ,the ,raised ,beaches of ,new ,zealand contain numerous marine shells all having living representatives4 ,some of these elevated beaches occur as high as #aej feet above sea-level at ,taranaki1 and at #bjj feet near ,cape ,palliser in ,cook ,strait4 ,many species of ,pleistocene ,mollusca identical with those now living in ,torres ,strait1 the ,china ,sea and the ,philippine ,islands are found in ,papua4 ,they occur in the greenish sandy clay of the hills near the present coast line and comprise the following genera of ,gasteropods3--,ranella1 ,nassa1 ,mitra1 ,oliva1 ,terebra1 ,conus1 ,strombus1 ,bulla and ,atys4 ,characters of ,cephalopoda4-- ,the highest class of the mollusca is the ,,cephalopoda 7head-feet74 ,in these shell-fish the extremity of the body or foot is modified1 and furnished with eyes1 a funnel and tentacles4 ,it has also strong horny beaks or jaws which make it a formidable enemy to the surrounding life in the sea4 ,in the chambered forms of this group the animal partitions off its shell at regular intervals1 like the ,pearly ,nautilus and the ,ammonite1 inhabiting only the last chamber cavity1 but still communicating with the earlier series by a continuous spiral tube 7siphuncle74 ,in some forms like the living squid and the extinct ,belemnite1 the shell is internal and either spoon-shaped1 or dart-shaped1 that is1 subcylindrical and pointed4 ,characters of ,cephalopod ,shells4--,nautiloidea4-- ,in geological times the nautiloid forms were the first to appear 7in the ,ordovician71 and they were either straight shells1 as ,orthoceras1 or only slightly curved1 as ,cyrtoceras4 ,later on they became more closely coiled1 and as they were thus less likely to be damaged1 they gradually replaced the straight forms4 ,the ,ammonites have the siphuncle close to the outside of the shell1 whilst in the ,nautilus it is more or less median4 ,the sutures or edges of the septa in ,nautilus and its allies are curved or wavy1 but not so sharply flexed or foliaceous as in ,ammonites4 ,the ,nautiloidea range from the ,ordovician and are still found living4 ,ammonoidea4-- ,the ,ammonoidea appear in ,devonian times and die out in the ,cretaceous4 ,they were very abundant in ,jurassic times1 especially in ,europe4 ,belemnoidea4-- ,the ,belemnoidea1 ranging from the ,trias to ,eocene1 comprise the extinct ,belemnites1 the interesting genus ,spirulirostra of ,miocene times1 and the living ,spirula4 ,sepioidea4-- ,the ,sepioidea or true ,cuttle-fishes 7pen-and-ink fish7 range from the ,trias to the present day4 ,octopoda4-- ,the ,octopoda1 with ,octopus and ,argonauta 7the paper ,nautilus7 are present-day modifications4 ,the male of the latter is without a shell1 the female only being provided with a delicate boat-shaped shell secreted by the mantle and the two fin-like expansions of the dorsal arms4 ,ordovician ,cephalopods4-- ,the ,ordovician cephalopods of ,australasia are not numerous1 and are1 so far as known1 practically restricted to the limestones of the ,larapintine series at ,laurie's ,creek and ,tempe ,downs1 in ,central ,south ,australia4 ,amongst them may be mentioned ,endoceras warburtoni 7,fig4 #aje ,a71 7a straight form in which the siphuncle is partially filled with organic deposits72 ,orthoceras gossei2 ,o4 ibiciforme2 ,trochoceras reticostatum 7a coiled form72 and ,actinoceras tatei 7a genus characterised by swollen siphuncular beads between the septa74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje--,,palaeozoic ,,cephalopoda4 ,a--,endoceras warburtoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,ordovician4 ,south ,australia ,b--,orthoceras lineare1 ,mnster sp4 ,silurian 7,yer47 ,victoria ,c--,cycloceras ibex1 ,sow4 sp4 ,silurian 7,melb47 ,victoria ,d--,phragmoceras subtrigorium1 ,mc,coy4 ,mid ,devonian4 ,victoria ,e--,gastrioceras jacksoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian4 ,w4 ,australia ,f--,agathiceras micromphalum1 ,morris sp4 ,carbopermian4 ,n4,s4,w4 ,silurian ,cephalopods4-- ,silurian cephalopods are more generally distributed1 and in ,victoria constitute an important factor in the molluscan fauna of that system4 ,orthoceras and ,cycloceras are the best known genera1 represented by ,orthoceras capillosum1 found near ,kilmore1 ,victoria2 ,o4 lineare 7,fig4 #aje ,b71 from the ,upper ,yarra2 ,cycloceras bullatum1 from the ,melbournian of ,collingwood and ,whittlesea2 and ,c4 ibex 7,fig4 #aje ,c7 from ,south ,yarra and ,flemington1 in both ,melbournian shale and sandstone4 ,the latter species occurs also at ,rock ,flat ,greek1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,other ,victorian species are ,kionoceras striatopunctatum1 a well-known ,european fossil with a reticulated and beaded ornament1 found near ,warburton and at ,mc,mahon's ,creek1 ,upper ,yarra4 ,orthoceras is also recorded from ,tasmania and from the ,wangapeka beds of ,baton ,river1 ,new ,zealand4 ,cyclolituites1 a partially coiled nautilian is recorded from ,bowning1 near ,yass1 ,new ,south ,wales2 whilst the closely related ,lituites is noted from the ,silurian of ,tasmania4 ,devonian ,cephalopods4-- ,the only genus of cephalopoda at present recorded from the ,devonian of ,victoria is ,phragmoceras 7,p4 subtrigonum7 7,fig4 #aje ,d71 which occurs in the ,middle ,devonian ,limestone of ,buchan1 ,e4 ,gippsland4 ,from beds of similar age in ,new ,south ,wales ,orthoceras1 ,cyrtoceras and ,goniatites have been noted2 whilst the latter genus also occurs near ,kimberley1 ,western ,australia4 ,in ,queensland ,gyroceras philpi is a characteristic shell1 found in the ,fanning and ,reid ,gap ,limestones of the ,burdekin ,formation 7,middle ,devonian74 ,carbopermian ,cephalopods4-- ,the ,carbopermian rocks of ,new ,south ,wales have yielded ,orthoceras striatum1 ,cameroceras1 ,nautilus and ,agathiceras micromphalum 7,fig4 #aje ,f74 ,in ,queensland the ,gympie ,formation contains ,orthoceras1 ,gyroceras1 ,nautilus1 ,agathiceras micromphalum and ,a4 planorbiforme4 ,in ,western ,australia the ,kimberley rocks contain ,orthoceras1 ,glyphioceras sphaericum and ,agathiceras micromphalum2 whilst the largest known ,australian goniatite1 ,gastrioceras jacksoni 7,fig4 #aje ,e7 is found in the ,irwin ,river ,district4 ,actinoceras hardmani is an interesting fossil from the ,carbopermian of ,lennard ,river1 ,n4,w4 ,australia4 ,in ,tasmania the genera ,orthoceras and ,goniatites have been recorded from beds of similar age4 ,triassic ,cephalopods4-- ,for ,triassic cephalopoda we look to ,new ,zealand1 where1 in the ,mount ,potts ,spiriferina ,beds of the ,kaihiku ,series a species of ,orthoceras has been recorded4 ,the ,wairoa ,series next in succession contains ,orthoceras and an ,ammonite4 ,jurassic ,cephalopods4-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf--,,mesozoic and ,,cainozoic ,,cephalopoda4 ,a--,perisphinctes championensis1 ,crick4 ,jurassic4 ,west ,australia ,b--,nautilus hendersoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,c--,haploceras daintreei1 ,eth4 sp4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,d--,crioceras australe1 ,moore4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,e--,aturia australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria ,f--,spirulirostra curta1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian74 ,victoria ,the ,jurassic of ,western ,australia yields a rich cephalopod fauna1 from which may be selected as typical examples the ,nautilus1 ,n4 perornatus and the following ,ammonites3 ,dorsetensia clarkei2 ,normanites australis2 and ,perisphinctes championensis 7,fig4 #ajf ,a74 ,these all occur in the ,greenough ,river ,district1 and at several other ,jurassic localities in ,western ,australia4 ,the ,jurassic system of ,new ,zealand 7,putataka ,series7 contains ,ammonites aucklandicus and ,belemnites aucklandicus1 both from the upper marine horizon of that series4 ,upper ,jurassic ,ammonites belonging to the genera ,macrocephalites 7,m4 cf4 calloviensis7 and ,erymnoceras 7,e4 cf4 coronatum7 have been recorded from ,papua4 ,lower ,cretaceous ,cephalopods4-- ,remains of ,cephalopoda are fairly abundant in the ,lower ,cretaceous of ,australasia4 ,from amongst them may be selected the following--,nautilus hendersoni 7,fig4 #ajf ,b7 7,q472 ,haploceras daintreei 7,fig4 #ajf ,c7 7,q4 and ,n4,s4,w472 ,desmoceras flindersi 7,q4 and ,n4,s4,w472 ,schloenbachia inflatus 7,q472 ,scaphites cruciformis 7,n4 ,terr472 ,ancyloceras flindersi 7,q4 and ,n4,s4,w472 ,crioceras australe 7,fig4 #ajf ,d7 7,q4 and ,s4,a472 ,belemites australis 7,q472 ,b4 oxys 7,q41 ,n4,s4,w41 and ,s4,a472 ,b4 sellheimi 7,q4 and ,s4,a472 ,b4 diptycha1 canhami1 ,tate1 7,q41 ,n4,s4,w41 and ,s4,a472 and ,b4 eremos 7,centr4 ,s4,a474 ,upper ,cretaceous ,cephalopods4-- ,in the ,upper ,cretaceous 7,desert ,sandstone7 of ,queensland there occurs a ,belemnite somewhat resembling ,belemnites diptycha1 but with a very pointed apex4 ,cretaceous ,cephalopods1 ,new ,zealand4-- ,in ,new ,zealand the ,amuri ,system 7,cretaceous7 contains fossils which have been referred to the genera ,ammonites1 ,baculites1 ,hamites1 ,ancyloceras and ,belemnites1 but probably these determinations require some further revision4 ,a species of ,belemnite has also been noted from probable ,cretaceous beds in ,papua4 ,the ,cainozoic ,system in ,victoria contains a true ,nautilus1 ,n4 geelongensis2 and ,aturia australis 7,fig4 #ajf ,e71 a nautiloid shell having zig-zag suture lines and septal necks enclosing the siphuncle4 ,a4 australis is also found in the ,oamaru ,series of ,new ,zealand2 in ,victoria it has an extensive vertical range1 from ,balcombian to ,kalimnan 7,oligocene to ,lower ,pliocene74 ,species of ,nautilus are also found in the ,janjukian of the ,murray ,river ,cliffs2 where1 in some cases the shell has been infilled with clear gypsum or selenite1 through which can be seen the tubular siphuncle in its original position4 ,spirulirostra curta 7,fig4 #ajf ,f7 is an interesting cuttle-bone of rare occurrence4 ,the genus is represented by two other species only1 occurring in the ,miocene of ,italy and ,germany4 ,in ,victoria it is occasionally found in the ,janjukian marly limestone at ,bird ,rock near ,torquay4 ,,common ,,or ,,characteristic ,,fossils ,,of ,,the ,,foregoing ,,chapter4 ,,pelecypoda4 ,ambonychia1 macroptera1 ,tate4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 787 ,modiolopsis knowsleyensis1 ,chapm4 ,l4 ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,orthonota australis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,grammysia cuneiformis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,leptodomus maccoyianus1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,edmondia perobliqua1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,cardiola cornucopiae1 ,goldfuss sp4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,panenka gippslandica1 ,mc,coy sp4 ,silurian 7,tanjilian73 ,victoria4 ,ctenodonta portlocki1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,nuculites maccoyianus1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,nucula melbournensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melb473 ,victoria4 ,palaeoneilo victoriae1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melb473 ,victoria4 ,pterinea lineata1 ,goldfuss4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,lunulicardium antistriatum1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,tanj473 ,victoria4 ,conocardium costatum1 ,cressw4 sp4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,conocardium davidis1 ,dun4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,actinopteria boydi1 ,conrad sp4 ,silurian 7,yer473 ,victoria4 ,aviculopecten spryi1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melb473 ,victoria4 ,modiolopsis complanata1 ,sowerby sp4 ,silurian 7,melb473 ,victoria4 ,goniophora australis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,yer473 ,victoria4 ,cypricardinia contexta1 ,barrande4 ,silurian 7,yer473 ,victoria4 ,paracyclas siluricus1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melb473 ,victoria4 ,actinopteria australis1 ,dun4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,lyriopecten gracilis1 ,dun4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,leptodesma inflatum1 ,dun4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,stutchburia farleyensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,edmondia nobilissima1 de ,koninck4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,deltopecten limaeformis1 ,morris sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland and ,tasmania4 ,aviculopecten squamuliferus1 ,morris sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania4 ,aviculopecten tenuicollis1 ,dana sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,w4 ,australia4 ,chaenomya etheridgei1 de ,koninck sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland4 ,maeonia elongata1 ,dana4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pachydomus globosus1 ,j4 de ,c4 ,sow4 sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,tasmania and ,queensland4 ,eurydesma cordatum1 ,morris4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland4 ,unio dunstani1 ,eth4 fil4 ,trias3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,unionella carnei1 ,eth4 fil4 ,trias3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,corbicula burrumensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,trias3 ,queensland4 ,daonella lommeli1 ,wissm4 sp4 ,trias3 ,new ,zealand4 ,mytilus problematicus1 ,zittel4 ,trias3 ,new ,zealand4 ,monotis salinaria1 ,zittel4 ,trias3 ,new ,zealand4 ,cucullaea semistriata1 ,moore4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,trigonia moorei1 ,lycett4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,ctenostreon pectiniforme1 ,schlotheim sp4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,astarte cliftoni1 ,moore4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,unio dacombei1 ,mc,coy4 ,jurassic3 ,victoria4 ,unio eyrensis1 ,tate4 ,jurassic3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,nucula truncata1 ,moore4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland and ,s4 ,australia4 ,maccoyella reflecta1 ,moore sp4 ,l4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland 7also ,u4 ,cretaceous71 and ,s4 ,australia4 ,maccoyella barkleyi1 ,moore sp4 ,l4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland and ,s4 ,australia4 ,fissilunula clarkei1 ,moore sp4 ,l4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland1 and ,s4 ,australia2 also ,up4 ,cret4 in ,queensland and ,south ,australia4 ,inoceramus carsoni1 ,mc,coy4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,trigonia cinctuta1 ,eth4 fil4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,mytilus rugocostatus1 ,moore4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland and ,s4 ,australia4 ,cyrenopsis opallites1 ,eth4 fil4 ,upper ,cretaceous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,conchothyra parasitica1 ,hutton4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,dimya dissimilis1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria and ,south ,australia4 ,spondylus pseudoradula1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria and ,south ,australia4 ,pecten polymorphoides1 ,zittel4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria and ,south ,australia2 also ,new ,zealand4 ,cucullaea corioensis1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria and ,south ,australia4 ,leda vagans1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria and ,south ,australia4 ,corbula ephamilla1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria and ,south ,australia4 ,modiola praerupta1 ,pritchard4 ,cainozoic 7,balc473 ,victoria4 ,pecten praecursor1 ,chapm4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,modiola pueblensis1 ,pritchard4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,limopsis insolita1 ,sow4 sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,also ,oamaru ,ser41 ,n4,z4 ,cardita tasmanica1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,janj473 ,tasmania4 ,lucina planatella1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,janj473 ,victoria and ,tasmania4 ,pecten novaeguineae1 ,t4 ,woods4 ,cainozoic 78,lower ,pliocene71 ,yule ,island1 ,papua4 ,ostrea manubriata1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,glycimeris halli1 ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,limopsis beaumariensis1 ,chapm4 ,cainozoic 7,kalimnan and ,werrikooian73 ,victoria4 ,trigonia howitti1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,meretrix paucirugata1 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,venus 7,chione7 subroborata1 ,tate1 sp4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria and ,south ,australia4 ,,scaphopoda4 ,dentalium tenuissimum1 de ,koninck4 ,mid4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,dentalium huttoni1 ,bather4 ,jurassic3 ,new ,zealand4 ,dentalium wollumbillensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,l4 ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,dentalium1 mantelli1 ,zittel4 ,cainozoic3 ,victoria1 ,s4 ,australia and ,new ,zealand4 ,,polyplacophora4 ,chelodes calceoloides1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,ischnochiton granulosus1 ,ashby and ,torr sp4 ,cainozoic 7,balc473 ,victoria4 ,lorica duniana1 ,hull4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,tasmania4 ,cryptoplax pritchardi1 ,hall4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,,gasteropoda4 ,ophileta subangulata1 ,tate4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,platyceras etheridgei1 ,tate4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,salterella planoconvexa1 ,tate4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,salterella hardmani1 ,foord4 ,cambrian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,hyolithes communis1 ,billings4 ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,scenella tenuistriata1 ,chapm4 ,cambrian 7,upper73 ,victoria4 ,ophileta gilesi1 ,tate4 ,ordovician3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,raphistoma browni1 ,tate4 ,ordovician3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,hyolithes leptus1 ,chapm4 ,lower ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,helicotoma johnstoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,ordovician3 ,tasmania4 ,coleolus 787 aciculum1 ,j4 ,hall4 ,silurian 7,melb473 ,victoria4 ,hyolithes spryi1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melb473 ,victoria4 ,conularia ornatissima1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melb473 ,victoria4 ,phanerotrema australis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian 7,yer473 ,victoria4 ,gyrodoma etheridgei1 ,cressw4 sp4 ,silurian 7,yer473 ,victoria4 ,trematonotus pritchardi1 ,cressw4 ,silurian 7,yer473 ,victoria4 ,bellerophon cresswelli1 ,eth4 fil4 sp4 ,silurian 7,yer47 ,victoria4 ,euomphalus northi1 ,eth4 fil4 sp4 ,silurian 7,yer473 ,victoria4 ,cyclonema australis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian 7,yer473 ,victoria4 ,trochonema montgomerii1 ,eth4 fil4 sp4 ,silurian3 ,tasmania4 ,bellerophon jukesii1 de ,koninck4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,conularia sowerbii1 ,defrance4 ,silurian3 ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,euomphalus culleni1 ,dun4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,gosseletina australis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carboniferous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,yvania konincki1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carboniferous3 ,new ,south ,wales2 and ,carbopermian3 ,queensland4 ,bellerophon costatus1 ,sow4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,mourlonia humilis1 de ,koninck4 ,carbopermian3 ,west ,australia and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pleurotomaria 7,ptychomphalina7 morrisiana1 ,mc,coy4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,keeneia platyschismoides1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian 7,lower ,marine73 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,platyschisma oculum1 ,sow4 sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland4 ,macrocheilus filosus1 ,sow4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,loxonema babbindonensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,conularia tenuistriata1 ,mc,coy4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland4 ,conularia tasmanica1 ,carbopermian3 ,tasmania4 ,murchisonia carinata1 ,etheridge4 ,carbopermian3 ,queensland4 ,pleurotomaria greenoughiensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,turbo australis1 ,moore4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,rissoina australis1 ,moore4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,cinulia hochstetteri1 ,moore4 ,cretaceous3 ,queensland and ,s4 ,australia4 ,natica ornatissima1 ,moore4 ,cretaceous3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,pseudamaura variabilis1 ,moore sp4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland and ,s4 ,australia4 ,anchura wilkinsoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,cretaceous3 ,queensland and ,s4 ,australia4 ,rostellaria waiparensis1 ,hector4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,niso psila1 ,t4 ,woods4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,crepidula unguiformis1 ,lam4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,recent73 ,victoria and ,tasmania4 ,natica hamiltonensis1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,recent73 ,victoria and ,south ,australia4 ,turritella murrayana1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria1 ,s4 ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,cerithium apheles1 ,t4 ,woods4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria4 ,volutilithes antiscalaris1 ,mc,coy sp4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,werrikooian73 ,victoria4 ,ancilla pseudaustralis1 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria1 ,s4 ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,cypraea ampullacea1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc473 ,victoria4 ,murex didyma1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc473 ,victoria4 ,eburnopsis aulacoessa1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc473 ,victoria4 ,cancellaria calvulata1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc473 ,victoria4 ,vaginella eligmostoma1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc473 ,victoria4 ,eutrochus fontinalis1 ,pritchard4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,turbo atkinsoni1 ,pritchard4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,tasmania and ,victoria4 ,scala lampra1 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,s4 ,australia4 ,natica gibbosa1 ,hutton4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,also ,oamaru and ,wanganui ,series3 ,new ,zealand4 ,morio wilsoni1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,voluta heptagonalis1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,s4 ,australia4 ,volutilithes anticingulatus1 ,mc,coy sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria and ,tasmania4 ,also ,papua4 ,bathytoma paracantha1 ,t4 ,woods sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janj473 ,victoria and ,tasmania4 ,also ,papua4 ,dolium costatum1 ,deshayes4 ,cainozoic4 78 ,lower ,pliocene73 ,yule ,island1 ,papua4 ,bankivia howitti1 ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,eglisia triplicata1 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,voluta masoni1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,ancilla papillata1 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,drillia wanganuiensis1 ,hutton4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,also ,petane ,series3 ,new ,zealand4 ,terebra geniculata1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,pleurotomaria tertiaria1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,also ,oamaru ,series3 ,new ,zealand4 ,scala lyrata1 ,zittel sp4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru73 ,new ,zealand4 ,natica darwinii1 ,hutton4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru73 ,new ,zealand4 ,turritella cavershamensis1 ,harris4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru73 ,new ,zealand4 ,ancilla hebera1 ,hutton sp4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru73 ,new ,zealand4 ,also 7,balc4 and ,janj473 ,victoria1 ,south ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,pleurotoma hamiltoni1 ,hutton4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru73 ,new ,zealand4 ,natica ovata1 ,hutton4 ,cainozoic 7,awatere ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,struthiolaria sulcata1 ,hutton4 ,cainozoic 7,awatere ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,trophon expansus1 ,hutton4 ,cainozoic 7,petane ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,pisania drewi1 ,hutton4 ,cainozoic 7,petane ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,bankivia fasciata1 ,menke4 ,cainozoic 7,werrikooian-,recent73 ,victoria4 ,astralium aureum1 ,jonas sp4 ,cainozoic 7,werrikooian-,recent73 ,victoria4 ,natica subinfundibulum1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,werr473 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,nassa pauperata1 ,lam4 ,cainozoic 7,werr4-,rec473 ,victoria4 ,helix tasmaniensis1 ,sow4 ,cainozoic 7,pleistocene73 ,tasmania4 ,helix geilstonensis1 ,johnston4 ,cainozoic 7,pleistocene73 ,tasmania4 ,panda atomata1 ,gray sp4 ,cainozoic 7,pleist4-,rec473 ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,,cephalopoda4 ,endoceras warburtoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,ordovician3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,orthoceras gossei1 ,eth4 fil4 ,ordovician3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,orthoceras ibiciforme1 ,tate4 ,ordovician3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,trochoceras reticostatum1 ,tate4 ,ordovician3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,actinoceras tatei1 ,eth4 fil4 sp4 ,ordovician3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,orthoceras capillosum1 ,barrande4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,orthoceras lineare1 ,mnster sp4 ,silurian 7,yer473 ,victoria4 ,cycloceras bullatum1 ,sow4 sp4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,cycloceras ibex1 ,sow4 sp4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,kionoceras striatopunctatum1 ,mnster sp4 ,silurian 7,tanjilian73 ,victoria4 ,phragmoceras subtrigonum1 ,mc,coy4 ,mid4 ,devonian3 ,victoria4 ,gyroceras philpi1 ,eth4 fil4 ,mid4 ,devonian3 ,queensland4 ,orthoceras striatum1 ,sow4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,agathiceras micromphalum1 ,morris sp4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,w4 ,australia4 ,gastrioceras jacksoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,actinoceras hardmani1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,n4,w4 ,australia4 ,nautilus perornatus1 ,crick4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,dorsetensia clarkei1 ,crick4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,normanites australis1 ,crick sp4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,perisphinctes championensis1 ,crick4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,ammonites aucklandicus1 ,hector4 ,jurassic3 ,new ,zealand4 ,belemnites aucklandicus1 ,hector4 ,jurassic3 ,new ,zealand4 ,nautilus hendersoni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,haploceras daintreei1 ,etheridge sp4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,ancyloceras flindersi1 ,mc,coy4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,crioceras australe1 ,moore4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland and ,s4 ,australia4 ,scaphites eruciformis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,northern ,territory4 ,belemnites diptycha1 ,mc,coy4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,s4 ,australia4 ,belemnites eremos1 ,tate4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,nautilus geelongensis1 ,foord4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,aturia australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic 7,balc4-,kal473 ,victoria4 ,oamaru ,series3 ,new ,zealand4 ,spirulirostra curta1 ,tate4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,literature4 ,,mollusca4 ,cambrian4--,foord1 ,a4 ,h4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahij1 pp4 #ih1 #ii 7,pteropoda74 ,tate1 ,r4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xv4 #ahib1 pp4 #ahc-ahe 7,pelec4 and ,gastr471 pp4 #ahf1 #ahg 7,pteropoda74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xxix4 #aije1 p4 #bea 7,pteropoda74 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xxiii4 pt4 ,,ii4 #aiaj1 pp4 #cac1 #cad 7,gastr474 ,ordovician4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,parl4 ,papers1 ,leg4 ,assemb41 ,s4 ,austr41 ,no4 #aeh1 #ahia1 pp4 #i1 #aj 7,gastr4 and ,ceph474 ,tate1 ,r4 ,rep4 ,horn4 ,sci4 ,exped41 pt4 #c1 #ahif1 pp4 #ih-aaj4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vic41 vol4 ,,xv4 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijc1 pp4 #aai1 #abj 7,hyolithes74 ,silurian4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vic41 ,dec4 ,,vi4 #ahgi1 pp4 #bc-bi4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,i4 ,no4 #c1 #ahij1 pp4 #fb-fg 7,gastr474 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,i4 ,no4 #g1 #ahia1 pp4 #abf-acj 7,pelec4 and ,gastr474 ,cresswell1 ,a4 ,w4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,v4 #ahic1 pp4 #da-dd4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jun4 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,,iii4 ,no4 #d1 #ahih1 pp4 #ga-gg 7,gastr474 ,idem1 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,v4 pt4 #b1 #ahih1 pp4 #fg-gj 7,chelodes74 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geo4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 pp4 #bi-ce4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,prog4 ,rep4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 ,no4 ,,xi4 #ahii1 pp4 #cd1 #ce 7,pelec474 ,idem1 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,v4 ,no4 #b1 #aijd1 pp4 #ge-gg 7,ceph474 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc41 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xvi4 pt4 #aa4 #aijd1 pp4 #ccf-cda 7,pteropoda74 ,idem1 ,mem4 ,nat4 ,mus4 ,melbourne1 ,no4 #b1 #aijh 7,pelecypoda74 ,devonian4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal41 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,,iv4 #ahgf1 pp4 #ah1 #ai 7,ceph474 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 p4 #fi 7,gyroceras74 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 pp4 #he-aje4 ,carboniferous4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,,iii4 ,no4 #a1 #ahig1 pp4 #g-i 7,actinoceras74 ,idem1 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,w4,a41 ,bull4 ,no4 #bg1 #aijg1 pp4 #cb-cg4 ,carbopermian4--,morris1 ,j41 in ,strzelecki's ,phys4 ,descr4 of ,new ,south ,wales1 etc41 #ahde1 pp4 #bgj-bgh and #bhe-bia4 ,foord1 ,a4 ,h4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahij1 pp4 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #bfd-bif4 ,idem41 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,ix4 #ahie1 pp4 #ecj-ecg 7,pelec4 and ,gastr474 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 pp4 #bjc-bgd4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 and ,dun1 ,w4 ,s4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #e1 vol4 ,,ii4 pt4 ,i4 #aijf 7,palaeopecten74 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,ii41 pt4 #b1 #aiaj 7,eurydesma74 ,trias4--,zittel1 ,k4 ,novara ,exped41 vol4 ,i4 ,abth4 ,,ii4 ,geol4 ,theil41 #ahfd1 pp4 #bf-bi4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #a1 #ahhh1 pp4 #h-ad4 ,jurassic4--,zittel1 ,k4 ,novara ,exped41 vol4 ,i41 ,abth4 ,,ii4 ,geol4 ,theil41 #ahfd1 pp4 #bj-cd4 ,moore1 ,c4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxvi4 pp4 #bde-bfj 7,jurassic and ,cretaceous ,moll474 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxviii4 #ahgb1 pp4 #cag-cei 7,palaeozoic1 ,jur4 and ,cret4 ,moll474 ,crick1 ,g4 ,c4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iv4 vol4 ,i4 #ahid1 pp4 #che #cic and #dcc-dda 7,ceph474 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xvi4 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijd1 pp4 #cbg-ccb4 ,marshall1 ,p4 ,trans4 ,new ,zealand ,inst41 vol4 ,,xli4 #aiji1 pp4 #adc-ade 7,new ,zealand ,ceph474 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,w4,a4 ,bull4 ,no4 #cf1 #aiaj1 pp4 #cj-dj4 ,cretaceous4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #dde-ejc and #efa-egd4 ,idem1 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,queensland1 ,bull4 ,no4 #ac1 #aija1 pp4 #ac-ce4 ,idem1 ,mem4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,aust41 vol4 ,,ii4 pt4 #a1 #aijb 7,s4,a4 ,moll474 ,idem1 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #aa1 #aijb1 pp4 #af-di 7,new ,south ,wales ,moll474 ,cainozoic4--,zittel1 ,k4 ,novara ,exped4 ,geol4 ,theil41 vol4 ,i4 ,abth4 ,,ii4 #ahfd1 pp4 #cd-ee 7,pelec4 and ,gastr4 ,new ,zealand74 ,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod41 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,i4 #ahgd2 ,dec4 ,,ii4 #ahge2 ,dec4 ,,iii4 #ahgf2 ,dec4 ,v4 #ahgg2 ,dec4 ,,vi4 #ahgi4 ,woods1 ,j4 ,e4 ,t4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,tas4 7#ahge71 #ahgf1 pp4 #ac-bf 7,table ,cape ,moll474 ,idem1 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,iii4 #ahgi1 pp4 #bbb-bdj 7,muddy ,creek ,moll474 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,iv4 #ahhj1 pp4 #a-bd4 ,hutton1 ,f4 ,w4 ,trans4 ,new ,zealand ,inst4 vol4 ,,ix4 #ahgg1 pp4 #eic-eih4 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,xvii4 #ahhe1 pp4 #cac-ccb 7,new ,zealand ,pelec4 and ,gastr474 ,idem1 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,i4 #bnd ser4 7#ahhf71 #ahhg1 pp4 #bje-bcg1 7distr4 lists1 ,pareora and ,oamaru74 ,idem1 ,macleay1 ,mem4 ,vol4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 #ahic1 pp4 #ce-ib 7,pliocene ,moll4 ,new ,zealand74 ,tate1 ,r4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahhf1 pp4 #if-aeh1 and vol4 ,,ix41 #ahhg1 pp4 #adb-ahi 7,pelec472 ibid41 pp4 #aij-aid 7,scaphopoda72 ibid41 #aid-aif 7,pteropoda74 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,x4 #ahhh1 pp4 #ia-agf2 vol4 ,,xi4 #ahhi1 pp4 #aaf-agd2 vol4 ,,xiii4 #ahij1 pp4 #ahe-bce2 and vol4 ,,xvii4 #ahic1 pp4 #caf-cde 7,gastr474 ,idem1 ,journ4 ,r4 ,soc41 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,xxvii4 #ahic1 pp4 #afi-aia4 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxxi4 #ahig1 pp4 #cib-daj 7,gastr4 and ,pelec474 ,idem1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xxiii4 #ahii1 pp4 #bfj-bgg 7,revision of ,moll474 ,pritchard1 ,g4 ,b4 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,vic41 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahie1 pp4 #bbe-bca 7,pelec474 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,viii4 #ahif1 pp4 #gi-ada 7,moll4 of ,t4 ,cape74 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xi4 pt4 ,i4 #ahih1 pp4 #if-aaa 7,gastr474 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xiv4 pt4 ,i4 #aija1 pp4 #bb-ca 7,pelec474 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xvi4 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijc1 pp4 #hg-ajc 7,pelec474 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xvi4 pt4 ,i4 #aijc1 pp4 #hc-ia 7,pleurotomaria74 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xvii4 pt4 ,i4 #aijd1 pp4 #cbj-ccg 7,gastr47 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxvi4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,i4 #aiac1 pp4 #aib-bja 7,volutes74 ,hall1 ,t4 ,s4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xvii4 pt4 ,,ii4 #aije1 pp4 #cia-cic 7,chitons74 ,ashby1 ,e4 and ,torr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xxv4 #aija1 pp4 #acf-add 7,chitons74 ,thomson1 ,j4 ,a4 ,trans4 ,new ,zealand ,inst41 ,vol4 ,,xl4 #aijh1 pp4 #ajb1 #ajc 7,n4,z4 ,moll474 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict4 vol4 ,,xx4 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijh1 pp4 #bah-bbj 7,chiton74 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxv4 pt4 ,i4 #aiab1 pp4 #ahf-aib 7,gastr474 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,fossil ,,trilobites1 ,,crustacea ,,and ,,insects4 ,arthropods and their ,structure4-- ,the above-named fossil groups are included by zoologists in the sub-kingdom ,arthropoda 7joint-footed animals74 ,the ,arthropods possess a body and limbs composed of a number of jointed segments covered externally with a hard1 shelly material and separated by a softer1 flexible skin4 ,they have no internal skeleton1 and therefore the only portion which can be preserved in the fossil state is the harder part of the outer covering4 ,under exceptional conditions of fossilisation1 however1 even frail insects such as ants1 wasps and dragon-flies are sometimes found more or less wholly preserved and showing their original minute structure4 ,subdivisions of ,arthropoda4-- ,the principal representatives of the group of the ,arthropods which are found as fossils include the ,trilobites2 various ,crustacea proper1 as ,crabs1 ,lobsters1 ,shrimps1 ,pod-shrimps and ,water-fleas2 the ,insects2 and occasionally ,spiders and ,scorpions 7,arachnida74 ,the ,king-crabs and ,eurypterids 7as the extinct ,pterygotus7 form a separate sub-class1 the ,merostomata1 which are placed by some authors in the group of ,spiders and ,scorpions3 their remains date back to the time when the older ,palaeozoic strata were deposited4 ,crustacea1 an ,archaic ,group4-- ,a typical division of the ,arthropod group1 and one which was well represented from the earliest period up to the present day1 is the ,,crustacea4 ,as the name denotes1 these animals are generally invested with a strong shelly covering or crust1 usually of horny or chitinous material1 which in some forms is strengthened by deposits of phosphate of lime4 ,of the horny condition of the shell the groups of the bivalved ,crustacea 7,ostracoda7 and the water-fleas 7,entomostraca7 supply notable instances2 whilst the limy-structured shell is seen in the common crab4 ,some authorities separate the great extinct group of the ,trilobites from the rest of the ,crustacea2 but it will here be convenient1 in a preliminary study1 to consider them together4 ,development of ,crustacea4-- ,the development of the lower forms of the ,crustacea is interesting1 from the fact that the young usually escapes from the egg in a larval state known as a nauplius4 ,in this stage there are no segments to the body1 and but a solitary median eye1 such as may be seen in the common water-flea known to microscopists as ,cyclops4 ,the three pairs of appendages seen in this larval crustacean represent the two pairs of antennae and the jaws or mandibles of the full-grown form4 ,among the higher ,crustacea1 however1 there is no larval form2 the young escaping from the egg in a more or less highly developed condition resembling the adult4 ,the group of the ,crabs1 ,lobsters and ,shrimps 7or ,decapoda1 i4e41 having ten ambulatory feet7 exhibit a larval stage in which the young form 7zoea7 has a segmented abdomen and seven pairs of appendages4 ,trilobites4-- ,the first group of arthropods here described is that of the ,,trilobites4 ,these were so named on account of the three-lobed form of the body4 ,this particular feature distinguishes them from the ,crustacea proper2 which includes the ,phyllopods 7with leaf-like limbs71 as the freshwater ,estheria1 the ,ostracoda or ,bivalved ,water-fleas1 the ,barnacles or ,cirripedia and the ,higher ,crustacea 7,malacostraca71 including ,shrimps1 ,crabs1 and ,lobsters1 of which the oldest representatives are the ,pod-shrimps 7,phyllocarida74 ,habits of ,trilobites4-- ,the remains of these primitive but often strikingly ornamented crustacean-like animals1 the trilobites1 are found in comparative abundance in the limestones1 mudstones1 and even the sandstones of the older sedimentary rocks of ,australasia4 ,they were amongst the most prolific types of animal life existing in the seas of ,palaeozoic times1 and are especially characteristic of ,cambrian1 ,ordovician and ,silurian rocks4 ,trilobites1 as a group1 seem to have adapted themselves to almost all conditions of marine life3 some are found in the hardened black mud of shallow waters1 whilst others are to be looked for in the limestones and excessively fine sediments of deeper waters4 ,in all probability certain of these forms crawled over the soft1 oozy sea-bed in order to obtain their food1 and consequently their remains in the stratified rocks would be restricted to the fine black shales2 whilst the freely swimming forms could change their habitat at will1 and would be found alike in sandy or clayey deposits4 ,as some indication of their varied habits1 the eyes of trilobites differ greatly in size4 ,they are always compound like the eye of the house-fly1 though of a semi-lunar shape4 ,in some forms the eyes are very small or even absent1 whilst in others they are exceedingly large and prominent4 ,this latter feature probably indicates their frequenting moderately deep water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg--;,diagram-restoration of an ,australian ,trilobite4 7,dalmanites meridianus1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,mitch1 sp47 ,to show the sutures or joints1 and the structure of the back of the carapace4 ,about #b_/c natural size4 ,structure of ,trilobites4-- ,the complete structure and zoological relationship of the trilobites has always been open to some doubt4 ,as regards the former1 within recent years exceptionally well-preserved specimens from the ,utica ,slates and the ,cincinnati ,limestone of ,ohio1 rocks of ,ordovician age1 have been discovered and dissected1 whereby our knowledge of the organisation of this group is greatly advanced4 ,these remarkable fossil remains show that the ,trilobites bore on their under surface a number of appendages1 one pair to each segment1 except that of the anal4 ,the front pair is whip-like and served as antennae2 the others are branched1 the forward portion being a crawling limb1 and the hinder1 which was fringed with bristles or thin plates1 may have served either for swimming or breathing4 ,at the base of the four pairs of appendages attached to the head there was an arrangement for biting the food1 from whence it was passed to the mouth4 ,taking one of the commonest ,australasian trilobites1 ,dalmanites meridianus1 for an example of general structure1 and looking at the back of the shell or upper surface1 we see the trilobate 7three-lobed7 form well defined 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,the central ridge is termed the axis1 and on either side of this are arranged the pleural lobes1 each well marked transverse division of which1 in the central or thoracic region1 being a pleuron or rib4 ,the whole body is divided into three more or less distinct portions1--the head-shield or cephalon1 the thorax1 and the tail-shield or pygidium4 ,the central area of the head-shield is called the glabella or cranidium1 against which1 on either side1 are placed the free cheeks carrying the compound sessile eyes when present4 ,the appendages of the head are pediform or leglike1 arranged in five pairs1 and biramous or forked1 excepting the antennae1 which are simple and used as sensory organs4 ,in front of the mouth is the hypostoma or forelip1 and behind it is the metastoma or hind-lip4 ,the segments of the head-shield are most closely united1 and in all the trilobites are of the same number4 ,those of the thorax have flexible joints and are variable in number4 ,the segments of the abdomen are fused together and form a caudal shield or pygidium4 ,the larval stage of the trilobite was a protonauplian form 7that is more primitive than the nauplius71 the protoaspis2 the adult stage1 being attained by the addition of segments at the successive moults4 ,the earliest known trilobites in ,australia are some ,cambrian species from ,south ,australia1 ,western ,australia1 ,victoria1 and ,tasmania4 ,lower ,cambrian ,trilobites4-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh--;,,cambrian ,,trilobites4 ,a--,ptychoparia howchini1 ,eth4 fil4 ,l4 ,cambrian4 ,south ,australia ,b--,dolichometopus tatei1 ,h4 ,woodw4 ,l4 ,cambrian4 ,south ,australia ,c--,agnostus australiensis1 ,chapm4 ,up4 ,cambrian4 ,victoria ,d--,ptychoparia thielei1 ,chapm4 ,up4 ,cambrian4 ,victoria ,e--,dikellocephalus florentinensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,l4 ,cambrian4 ,tasmania ,in the ,lower ,cambrian ,limestone of ,yorke ,peninsula1 ,south ,australia1 the following trilobites occur3--a species doubtfully referred to ,olenellus 78 ,o4 pritchardi72 ,ptychoparia howchini 7,fig4 #ajh ,a72 ,p4 australis2 ,dolichometopus tatei 7,fig4 #ajh ,b72 and ,microdiscus subsagittatus4 ,the ,cambrian of the ,northern ,territory contains ,olenellus brownii4 ,in ,western ,australia ,olenellus forresti is found in similar beds4 ,upper ,cambrian ,trilobites4-- ,the ,dolodrook ,limestone 7,upper ,cambrian7 of ,gippsland1 ,victoria1 contains the remains of the primitive little trilobite ,agnostus 7,a4 australiensis1 ,fig4 #ajh ,c72 ,crepicephalus 7,c4 etheridgei72 and ,ptychoparia 7,p4 thielei 7,fig4 #ajh ,d7 and ,p4 minima74 ,the ,upper ,cambrian sandstones of ,caroline ,creek1 ,tasmania1 contain ,dikellocephalus 7,d4 tasmanicus72 a species of ,asaphus and ,ptychoparia 7,p4 stephensi74 ,beds of the same age in the ,florentine ,valley1 ,tasmania1 have yielded ,dikellocephalus 7,d4 florentinensis1 ,fig4 #ajh ,e74 ,ordovician ,trilobites4-- ,trilobites of ,lower ,ordovician age or even older1 are found in the ,knowsley beds near ,heathcote in ,victoria4 ,they are referred to two genera1 ,dinesus and ,notasaphus4 ,both forms belong to the ancient family of the ,asaphidae4 ,associated with these trilobites are some doubtful species of sea-weed1 spicules of siliceous sponges1 traces of threadlike hydrozoa1 some fragments of graptolites allied to ,bryograptus1 and several brachiopods4 ,at the ,lyndhurst ,gold-fields1 near ,mandurama1 ,new ,south ,wales1 trilobites related to the genus ,shumardia have been found associated with brachiopods 7lamp-shells71 pteropods 7sea-butterflies71 and graptolites 7hydrozoa7 of an ,upper ,ordovician facies4 ,the limestone beds at ,laurie's ,creek and other localities in ,central ,australia contain remains of ,asaphus illarensis1 ,a4 howchini and ,a4 lissopelta2 whilst in the limestone and quartzite of ,middle ,valley1 ,tempe ,downs1 ,a4 thorntoni also occurs4 ,silurian ,trilobites4-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji--,,older ,,silurian ,,trilobites4 ,a--,ampyx parvulus1 ,forbes1 var4 jikaensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melb47 ,victoria ,b--,cypaspis spryi1 ,gregory4 ,silurian 7,melb47 ,victoria ,c--,homalonotus harrisoni1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian 7,melb47 ,victoria ,d--,phacops latigenalis1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,mitch4 ,silurian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,trilobites are well-known fossils in the ,australasian ,silurian strata4 ,as they occur rather abundantly along with other fossils in rocks of this age they are extremely useful aids in separating the system into the different beds or zones4 ,in ,victoria the ,silurian is divisible into two sets of beds3 an older1 or ,melbournian stage 7the bed-rock of ,melbourne7 and a younger1 ,yeringian 7,lilydale series74 ,trilobites of ,melbournian age are found to belong to the genera ,ampyx1 ,illaenus1 ,proetus1 ,cyphaspis1 ,encrinurus 7,cromus7 and ,homalonotus4 ,the commonest species are ,cyphaspis spryi 7,fig4 #aji ,b71 and ,encrinurus 7,cromus7 spryi from the ,south ,yarra mudstones2 and ,ampyx parvulus1 var4 jikaensis 7,fig4 #aji ,a71 and ,homalonotus harrisoni 7,fig4 #aji ,c71 from the sandstone of ,moonee ,ponds ,creek4 ,the handsome ,dalmanites meridianus and ,homalonotus vomer occur at ,wandong in what appear to be passage beds between the ,melbournian and ,yeringian4 ,the ,yeringian of ,victoria is far richer in trilobites than the preceding series1 and includes the genera ,proetus1 ,cyphaspis1 ,bronteus1 ,lichas1 ,odontopleura1 ,encrinurus1 ,calymene1 ,homalonotus1 ,cheirurus1 and ,phacops4 ,the rocks in this division occur as mudstones1 limestones1 and occasionally sandstones and conglomerates4 ,the mudstones1 however1 prevail1 and these pass insensibly into impure limestones of a blue-black colour1 weathering to brown1 as at ,seville2 the change of structure indicating less turbid water4 ,at ,lilydale1 and on the ,thomson ,river1 as well as at ,loyola and ,waratah ,bay1 almost pure limestone occurs1 which represents clear water conditions1 not necessarily deep2 there1 however1 trilobites are scarce1 and the prevailing fauna is that of an ancient coral reef4 ,some described ,yeringian species are ,lichas australis 7,fig4 #aaj ,a71 ,odontopleura jenkinsi 7,fig4 #aaj ,b7 7found also in ,new ,south ,wales71 ,encrinurus punctatus 7,fig4 #aaj ,c71 ,calymene tuberculosa1 ,bronteus enormis1 ,phacops sweeti1 and ,p4 serratus 7,fig4 #aaj ,e74 ,in ,calymene 7covered up7 the joints of the thorax are facetted at the angles1 so that each pleuron could work over that immediately behind2 in consequence of this it could roll itself up like a woodlouse or slater1 hence the name of the genus4 ,this trilobite also occurs in ,england1 and is there known amongst the quarry men and fossil collectors as the ,dudley ,locust4 ,perhaps the most characteristic and common trilobite of the ,yeringian series in ,victoria is ,phacops sweeti 7,fig4 #aaj ,d71 formerly identified with ,barrande's ,p4 fecundus1 from which it differs in the longer and larger eye with more numerous lenses4 ,it is found in ,victoria in the ,upper ,yarra district near the junction of the ,woori ,yallock and the ,yarra ,rivers2 north-west of ,lilydale2 near ,seville2 at ,loyola near ,mansfield2 and at ,fraser's ,creek near ,springfield1 ,kilmore4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj--,,newer ,,silurian ,,trilobites4 ,a--,lichas australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian 7,yeringian74 ,victoria ,b--,odontopleura jenkinsi4 ,eth4 fil4 and ,mitch4 ,silurian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,c--,encrinurus punctatus1 ,brunnich sp4 ,silurian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales4 ,d--,phacops sweeti1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,mitch4 ,silurian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,e--,phacops serratus1 ,foerste4 ,silurian4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,in ,new ,south ,wales trilobites are abundant in the ,yass district1 amongst other localities1 where the upper beds1 corresponding to the ,yeringian of ,victoria1 are well developed4 ,dalmanites meridianus is common to the ,silurian of ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria1 and ,tasmania4 ,in ,victoria this handsome species is found in the hard1 brown1 sandy mudstone of ,broadhurst's and ,kilmore ,creeks1 and1 as previously noted1 in the hard1 blue mudstone of ,wandong4 ,at the latter locality specimens may be found in the railway ballast quarry1 where they are known to the workmen as fossil butterflies4 ,the species also occurs at the famous fossil locality of ,hatton's ,corner1 ,yass2 at ,bowning2 and at ,limestone ,creek1 all in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,other trilobites occurring in the ,silurian of ,new ,south ,wales are ,odontopleura jenkinsi1 ,o4 bowningensis1 ,cheirurus insignis and ,phacops latigenalis 7,fig4 #aji ,d74 ,in the ,wangapeka series of ,new ,zealand the calcareous shales and limestones of the upper division contain ,calymene blumenbachii1 ,homalonotus knightii and ,h4 expansus4 ,devonian ,trilobites4-- ,trilobites suddenly became rare in the ,australian ,devonian4 ,the only known examples of trilobite remains belong to a species of ,cheirurus occasionally found in the ,middle ,devonian limestone of ,buchan1 ,victoria2 and a species of ,proetus in the ,devonian of ,barker ,gorge1 ,napier ,range1 ,west ,australia4 ,carbopermian ,trilobites4-- ,trilobites of ,carbopermian age are found in ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland1 and ,western ,australia4 ,all the genera belong to the family ,proetidae4 ,the genera ,phillipsia 7,p4 seminifera1 ,fig4 #aaa ,a71 ,griffithides 7,g4 eichwaldi1 ,fig4 #aaa ,b71 and ,brachymetopus 7,b4 strzelecki1 ,fig4 #aaa ,c7 occur in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,griffithides eichwaldi is also found in ,queensland4 ,other ,queensland species are ,phillipsia woodwardi1 ,p4 seminifera var4 australasica and ,p4 dubia4 ,phillipsia grandis is found in the ,carbopermian of the ,gascoyne ,river1 ,western ,australia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa--;,,carboniferous ,,trilobites and a ,,phyllopod4 ,a--,phillipsia seminifera1 ,phillips4 ,carboniferous4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,b--,griffithides eichwaldi1 ,waldheim4 ,carboniferous4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,c--,brachymetopus strzelecki1 ,mc,coy4 ,carboniferous4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,d--,estheria coghlani1 ,cox4 ,triassic4 ,n4,s4 ,wales ,phyllopoda in ,carboniferous1 ,triassic and ,jurassic4 ,the ,,phyllopoda1 which belong to the ,crustacea in the strict sense of the term1 comprise the ,estheriidae and ,cladocera 7water-fleas74 ,the former group is represented by ,leaia mitchelli1 which is found in the ,upper ,carboniferous or ,carbopermian of the ,newcastle ,district1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,in the still later ,hawkesbury series 7,triassic7 of ,new ,south ,wales1 ,estheria coghlani 7,fig4 #aaa ,d7 occurs4 ,this species is a minute form1 the carapace measuring from #a4bemm4 to #bmm4 in the longer diameter of the shell4 ,in the upper part of the ,wairoa ,series 7,triassic7 of ,nelson1 ,new ,zealand1 there is found another species of ,estheria1 identified with a ,european form ,e4 minuta4 ,estheria mangaliensis is another form occurring in the ,jurassic 7,ipswich series7 of ,queensland4 ,at the present day these little ,estheriae sometimes swarm in countless numbers in freshwater lakes or salt marshes4 ,ostracoda3 ,their ,structure4-- ,passing on to the next group1 the bivalved ,,ostracoda1 we note that these have existed from the earliest geological periods to the present day4 ,they are usually of minute size1 commonly about the sixteenth of an inch in length1 although some attained a length of nearly one inch 7,leperditia74 ,their bodies are indistinctly segmented1 and are enclosed within a horny or calcareous shell4 ,this shell consists of two valves which are joined along the back by a ligament or hinge1 the ends and ventral edge remaining quite free4 ,the pairs of appendages present are the antennae 7#b71 mandibles 7#a71 maxillae 7#b71 and thoracic feet 7#b74 ,the only portion found in the fossil state is the bivalved carapace1 the two valves being frequently met with still united1 especially when these tiny animals have settled down quietly on the sea-bed and have been quickly covered with sediment4 ,features of the ,ostracod ,carapace4-- ,since the body parts of the ostracod are wanting in the fossil examples1 the generic determination is attended with some difficulty1 especially in regard to the smooth or bean-shaped forms4 ,the chief distinctive characters to note are1 the contour of the carapace seen in three directions 7top1 side and end views71 the structure of the hinge1 and the position and figure of the muscle-spots or points of adhesion of the muscular bands which hold or relax the two valves4 ,the valves in certain genera fit closely upon one another4 ,in others1 one overlaps the other1 the larger being sometimes the right 7as in ,leperditia71 sometimes the left 7as in ,leperditella74 ,the hinge-line is often simple or flange-like1 or it may consist of a groove and corresponding bar1 or there may be a series of teeth and sockets4 ,lateral eye-tubercles are sometimes seen on the surface of the valve1 whilst in the animal there was also a small eye4 ,habits of ,ostracoda4-- ,ostracoda swarmed in many of the streams1 lakes and seas of past geological times1 and they still exist in vast numbers under similar conditions4 ,like some other minute forms of life1 they played a most important part in building up the rock formations of the sedimentary series of the earth's crust2 and by the decomposition of the organism itself they are of real economic value1 seeing that in some cases their decay resulted in the subsequent production of oil or kerosene shales and bituminous limestones4 ,the ,carboniferous oil shales in the ,lothians of ,scotland1 for example1 are crowded with the carapaces of ,ostracoda associated with the remains of fishes4 ,cambrian ,ostracoda4-- ,some undescribed forms of the genus ,leperditia occur in the hard1 sub-crystalline ,cambrian ,limestone of ,curramulka1 ,south ,australia4 ,silurian ,ostracoda4-- ,in ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales the oldest rocks from which we have obtained the remains of ,ostracoda up to the present1 are the uppermost ,silurians1 in which series they occur both in the limestone and the mudstone4 ,in ,victoria their bivalved carapaces are more often found in the limestone2 but one genus1 ,beyrichia1 is also met with in abundance in the mudstone4 ,these mudstones1 by the way1 must have originally contained a large percentage of carbonate of lime1 since the casts of the shells of mollusca are often excessively abundant in the rock1 and the mudstone is cavernous1 resembling an impure1 decalcified limestone4 ,these ,yeringian mudstones of ,victoria seem1 therefore1 to be the equivalent of the calcareous shales met with in the ,wenlock and ,gotland ,series in ,europe2 a view entirely in accordance with the character of the remainder of the fauna4 ,one of the commonest of the ,silurian ostracods is ,beyrichia kloedeni1 a form having an extensive distribution in ,europe4 ,it occurs in the ,silurian mudstone of the ,upper ,yarra ,district4 ,other species of the same genus are ,b4 wooriyallockensis 7,fig4 #aab ,a71 distinguished from the former by differences in the shape of the lobes and its longer valves2 also a form with narrow lobes1 ,b4 kilmoriensis2 and the ornate ,b4 maccoyiana1 var4 australis4 ,of the smooth-valved forms1 mention may be made of ,bythocypris hollii1 ,b4 caudalis 7,fig4 #aab ,d71 and the striking form1 ,macrocypris flexuosa4 ,regarding the group of the ,primitiae1 of which as many as thirteen species and varieties have been described from the ,lilydale ,limestone1 we may mention as common forms ,p4 reticristata 7,fig4 #aab ,e7 and ,p4 punctata4 ,this genus is distinguished by the bean-shaped or purse-shaped carapace1 with its well developed marginal flange and mid-dorsal pit4 ,other genera which occur in our ,silurians and are of great interest on account of their distribution elsewhere4 are ,isochilina1 ,aparchites1 ,xestoleberis1 ,aechmina1 and ,argilloecia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab--,,silurian ,,ostracoda4 ,a--,beyrichia wooriyallockensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,yer47 ,victoria ,b--,xestoleberis lilydalensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,yer47 ,victoria ,c--,argilloecia acuta1 ,jones and ,kirkby4 ,silurian 7,yer47 ,victoria ,d--,bythocypris caudalis1 ,jones4 ,silurian 7,yer47 ,victoria ,e--,primitia reticristata1 ,jones4 ,silurian 7,yer47 ,victoria ,the largest ostracod yet described from ,australia1 measuring more than a quarter of an inch in length1 occurs in the ,upper ,silurian of ,cliftonwood1 near ,yass1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,it belongs to the genus ,leperditia 7,l4 shearsbii71 and is closely related to ,l4 marginata1 ,keyserling sp42 which occurs in strata of similar age in the ,swedish and ,russian ,baltic area4 ,a limestone at ,fifield1 ,new ,south ,wales1 probably of ,silurian age1 contains ,primitia1 ,kloedenia1 and ,beyrichia4 ,devonian ,ostracoda4-- ,the little ,primitia cuneus 7,fig4 #aac ,a7 with a bean-shaped carapace and median pit or depression occurs somewhat frequently in the ,middle ,devonian ,limestone of ,buchan1 ,victoria4 ,another species1 ,primitia yassensis1 is found in the shaly rock of ,narrengullen ,greek1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,it is probable that many other species of the group of the ostracoda remain to be described from ,australian ,devonian rocks4 ,carboniferous ,ostracoda4-- ,in ,queensland a conspicuous little ostracod is ,beyrichia varicosa from the ,star ,beds of ,corner ,creek4 ,carbopermian ,ostracoda4-- ,in the ,carbopermian of ,cessnock1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,primitia dunii occurs2 and in that of ,farley is found ,jonesina etheridgei4 ,from both these localities ,leperditia prominens was also obtained4 ,another species from ,new ,south ,wales is ,entomis jonesi 7,fig4 #aac ,b71 described from the ,muree ,sandstone by de ,koninck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac--,,upper ,,palaeozoic and ,,mesozoic ,,ostracoda4 ,a--,primitia cuneus1 ,chapm4 ,mid4 ,devonian4 ,victoria ,b--,entomis jonesi1 de ,kon4 ,carboniferous4 ,new ,south ,wales ,c--,synaphe mesozoica1 ,chapm4 sp4 ,triassic4 ,new ,south ,wales ,d--,cythere lobulata1 ,chapm4 ,jurassic4 ,west ,australia ,e--,paradoxorhyncha foveolata1 ,chapm4 ,jurassic4 ,west ,australia ,f--,loxoconcha jurassica1 ,chapm4 ,jurassic4 ,west ,australia ,g--,cytheropteron australiense1 ,chapm4 ,jurassic4 ,west ,australia ,triassic ,ostracoda4-- ,the ,triassic 7,wiannamatta ,shales7 of ,grose ,vale1 ,new ,south ,wales has afforded a few specimens of ostracoda belonging to ,synaphe 7,s4 mesozoica1 ,fig4 #aac ,c71 8 ,darwinula1 and 8 ,cytheridea4 ,jurassic ,ostracoda4-- ,the marine ,jurassic strata of ,western ,australia at ,geraldton1 have yielded a small but interesting series of ostracoda1 largely of modern generic types4 ,the genera1 which were found in a rubbly ,trigonia-,limestone1 are ,cythere1 ,paradoxorhyncha1 ,loxoconcha1 and ,cytheropteron4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad--;,,cainozoic ,,ostracoda4 ,a--,bairdia amygdaloides1 ,g4 ,s4 ,brady4 ,balcombian4 ,victoria ,b--,cythere clavigera1 ,g4 ,s4 ,brady4 ,balcombian4 ,victoria ,c--,cythere scabrocuneata1 ,g4 ,s4 ,brady4 ,balcombian4 ,victoria ,d--,cytherella punctata1 ,g4 ,s4 ,brady4 ,balcombian4 ,victoria ,cainozoic ,ostracoda4-- ,the fossiliferous clays and calcareous sands of the southern ,australian ,cainozoic beds often contain abundant remains of ostracoda4 ,the moderately shallow seas in which the fossiliferous clays1 such as those of ,balcombe's ,bay1 were laid down1 teemed with these minute bivalved ,crustacea4 ,all the forms found in these beds are microscopic4 ,they either belong to living species1 or to species closely allied to existing forms4 ,some of the more prominent of the ,balcombian species are ,cythere senticosa1 a form which is now found living at ,tenedos1 and ,c4 clavigera 7,fig4 #aad ,b71 with the young form sometimes referred to as ,c4 militaris1 a species which may still be dredged alive in ,hobson's ,bay4 ,other genera common in these clays are ,bairdia1 with its broad1 pear-shaped carapace1 represented by the still living ,b4 amygdaloides 7,fig4 #aad ,a74 ,cytherella1 with its compressed1 subquadrate carapace1 as seen in ,c4 punctata 7,fig4 #aad ,d71 a species having an elaborate series of muscle-spots1 and which1 like the previous species1 is found living in ,australian seas2 and ,macrocypris1 with its slender1 pointed1 pear-shaped outline4 ,cirripedia3 ,their ,habits and ,structure4-- ,,cirripedia ,,or ,,barnacles4--,these curious modifications of the higher group of ,crustacea 7,eucrustacea7 date back to ,ordovician times4 ,they appear to have tried every possible condition of existence2 and although they are mostly of shallow water habits1 some are found at the great depth of #b1jjj fathoms 7over two miles74 ,those which secrete lime or have calcareous shells1 attach themselves to stones1 pieces of wood1 shell-fish1 crabs1 corals and sea-weeds4 ,others are found embedded in the thick skin of whales and dolphins1 or in cavities which they have bored in corals or shells of molluscs4 ,some are found parasitic in the stomachs of crabs and lobsters1 or within other cirripedes4 ,they begin life1 after escaping from the egg1 as a free-swimming1 unsegmented larva 7nauplius stage71 and before settling down1 pass through the free-swimming1 segmented cypris stage1 which represents the pupa condition1 and in which state they explore their surroundings in search of a suitable resting place for their final change and fixed condition4 ,just before this occurs1 glands are developed in the pupa barnacle1 which open into the suckers of the first pair of appendages or antennae4 ,when a suitable place for fixation has been found1 these glands pour out a secretion which is not dissolved by water1 and thus the barnacle is fixed head downwards to its permanent position4 ,the compound eyes of the cypris stage disappear1 and henceforth the barnacle is blind4 ,the characteristic plates covering the barnacle are now developed1 and the six pairs of swimming feet become the cirri or plumes1 with which the barnacle1 by incessant waving1 procures its food4 ,in short1 as remarked by one authority1 it is a crustacean fixed by its head1 and kicking the food into its mouth with its legs4 ,cirripedes may be roughly divided into two groups1 the ,acorn ,barnacles and the ,goose ,barnacles4 ,although dissimilar in general appearance1 they pass through identical stages1 and are closely related in most of their essential characters4 ,the latter forms are affixed by a chitinous stalk or peduncle1 whilst the acorn barnacles are more or less conical and affixed by the base4 ,silurian ,cirripedes4-- ,the stalked barnacles are probably the oldest group1 being found as far back as the ,ordovician period4 ,in ,australia the genus ,turrilepas occurs in ,silurian rocks1 ,t4 mitchelli 7,fig4 #aae ,a7 being found at ,bowning in the ,yass ,district of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the isolated plume-like plates of ,t4 yeringiae 7,fig4 #aae ,b7 are not uncommon in the olive mudstone of the ,lilydale ,district in ,victoria4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae--;,,fossil ,,cirripedia4 ,a--,turrilepas mitchelli1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian4 ,new ,south ,wales ,b--,turrilepas yeringiae1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,c--787 ,pollicipes aucklandicus1 ,hector sp4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru series74 ,new ,zealand ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf--,,living ,,and ,,fossil ,,cirripedes4 ,a--,lepas anatifera1 ,l4 ,common ,goose ,barnacle4 ,living ,b--,lepas pritchardi1 ,hall4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria ,cainozoic ,lepadidae4-- ,the genus ,lepas 7the modern goose barnacles7 is represented by isolated plates in the ,cainozoic 7,janjukian7 limestones and marls of ,waurn ,ponds1 and ,torquay near ,geelong3 it also occurs in a stratum of about the same age1 the nodule bed1 at ,muddy ,creek1 near ,hamilton1 ,victoria 7,l4 pritchardi1 ,fig4 #aaf74 ,in ,new ,zealand the gigantic cirripede1 8,pollicipes aucklandicus 7,fig4 #aae ,c71 occurs in the ,motutapu beds4 ,cainozoic ,balanidae4-- ,the ,acorn ,barnacles are represented in our ,cainozoic shell marls and clays by a species of ,balanus from the ,janjukian of ,torquay2 whilst two species of the genus occur in the ,kalimnan beds at ,beaumaris1 ,port ,phillip1 in similar beds in the ,hamilton ,district1 and at the ,gippsland ,lakes4 ,phyllocarida3 ,their ,structure4-- ,a large and important group of the higher ,crustacea1 but confined to the older rocks of ,victoria1 is the order ,,phyllocarida4 ,this seems to form a link between the ,entomostraca1 including the bivalved ,ostracoda and the well-known group of the lobsters1 shrimps and crabs4 ,the body of these phyllocarids consists of five segments to the head1 eight to the thorax1 and from two to eight to the abdomen4 ,the portion usually preserved in this group is the carapace1 which covers the head and thorax1 and although often in one piece1 is sometimes hinged1 or otherwise articulated along the back4 ,in front of the carapace there is a moveable plate1 the rostrum or beak 7,fig4 #aag74 ,there are two pairs of antennae to the head1 and the animal is provided with a pair of stalked compound eyes4 ,the thoracic segments are furnished with soft leaf-like legs as in the ,phyllopods4 ,the abdomen is formed of ring-like segments1 and generally terminates in a sharp tail-piece or telson1 often furnished with lateral spines4 ,in many respects the ancient phyllocarids correspond with the living genus ,nebalia1 which is found inhabiting the shallow waters of the ,mediterranean and elsewhere4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag--;,ceratiocaris papilio1 ,salter4 ,silurian4 ,lanarkshire4 7,after ,h4 ,woodward7 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah--,,ordovician ,,phyllocarids4 ,a--,rhinopterocaris maccoyi1 ,eth4 fil4 sp4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,victoria ,b--,caryocaris angusta1 ,chapm4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,victoria ,c--,saccocaris tetragona1 ,chapm4 ,l4 ,ordovician4 ,victoria ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai--,,silurian ,,phyllocarids4 ,a--,ceratiocaris pritchardi1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,b--,ceratiocaris cf4 murchisoni1 ,agassiz sp4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,c--,ceratiocaris pinguis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian4 ,victoria ,ordovician ,phyllocarids4-- ,phyllocarids of the ,lower ,ordovician slates are referred to the genera ,rhinopterocaris1 ,caryocaris1 ,saccocaris and ,hymenocaris4 ,the first-named is the commonest type2 and is found in slates of the ,lancefield1 ,bendigo and ,castlemaine ,series at the localities named1 as well as at ,dromana4 ,rhinopterocaris 7,fig4 #aah ,a7 is readily distinguished by its long--ovate outline1 and this1 together with its wrinkled chitinous appearance makes it resemble the wing of a dipterous insect4 ,caryocaris 7,fig4 #aah ,b7 is a smaller and narrower form which occurs in the ,victorian ,lower ,ordovician slates1 as well as in ice-borne blocks derived from the ,ordovician1 at ,wynyard1 in ,n4,w4 ,tasmania4 ,silurian ,phyllocarids4-- ,the chief type of ,phyllocarid in the ,silurian is ,ceratiocaris 7,fig4 #aai74 ,the carapace is typically ovate1 straight on one edge1 the dorsal1 and convexly curved on the other1 the ventral4 ,they resemble bean-pods in outline1 hence the name pod-shrimps4 ,several species are known from the ,victorian shales1 mudstones1 and sandstones2 the forms found in ,australia if complete would seldom attain five inches in length1 whilst some ,british species are known to reach the exceptional length of two feet4 ,the long1 grooved and jointed telson is not uncommon in the sandstones of ,melbourne and ,kilmore4 ,other genera described from ,victoria are ,aptychopsis and ,dithyrocaris4 ,lower ,cretaceous ,crab4-- ,the earliest example of the ,,decapoda in the ,australian rocks1 so far recorded1 is the ,lower ,cretaceous ,prosopon etheridgei 7,fig4 #abj ,a7 from ,queensland1 which has affinities with some ,jurassic and ,neocomian crabs found in ,europe4 ,other crustacean remains of less decipherable nature occur in this same deposit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj--;,,fossil ,,crabs and ,,insects4 ,a--,prosopon etheridgei1 ,h4 ,woodw4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,b--,ommatocarcinus corioensis1 ,cressw4 sp4 ,cainozoic 7,jan47 ,vic4 ,c--,harpactocarcinus tumidus1 ,h4 ,woodw4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru74 ,new ,zealand ,d--,aeschna flindersensis1 ,h4 ,woodw4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,e--,ephemera culleni1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,olliff4 ,cainozoic 7,deep ,leads74 ,new ,south ,wales ,cainozoic ,crabs4-- ,of the ,cainozoic decapod ,crustacea there is a ,victorian species of a stalk-eyed crab1 ,ommatocarcinus corioensis 7,fig4 #abj ,b71 found in the marls of ,curlewis and ,port ,campbell1 and probably of ,janjukian age4 ,various portions of similar ,crustacea1 consisting of claws and fragmentary carapaces1 are found from time to time in the ,victorian clays and limestones of ,balcombian and ,janjukian ages1 but they are insufficient for identification4 ,a carapace of one of the ,oxystomata 7with rounded cephalo-thorax and non-salient frontal region7 has occurred in the ,kalimnan marl of the ,beaumaris ,cliffs1 ,port ,phillip4 ,it is closely allied to a crab now found in ,hobson's ,bay and generally along the ,victorian coast4 ,remains of a shore-crab 7,fam4 ,cancridae7 are found at three localities1 in the ,oamaru ,series1 in ,new ,zealand2 near ,brighton1 in ,nelson and at ,wharekuri in the ,waitaki ,valley4 ,it has been described under the name of ,harpactocarcinus tumidus 7,fig4 #abj ,c71 a genus of the ,cyclometopa or bow crabs4 ,pleistocene ,lobster4-- ,numerous remains of a lobster1 ,thalassina emerii 7see antea1 ,fig4 #bj71 supposed to be of ,pleistocene age1 occur in nodules found on ,queensland and ,north ,australian 7,port ,darwin7 beaches4 ,eurypterids in the ,silurian4-- ,the order ,,eurypterida comprises an extinct group of ,crustacea closely allied to the modern ,king-crab 7,limulus74 ,the body was covered with a thin chitinous skeleton1 ornamented with regular scale-like markings4 ,this group is represented in ,victorian rocks by the remains of ,pterygotus 7,sea-scorpions71 animals which often attained a length of six feet4 ,pterygotus 7see ,fig4 #aba ,a7 had the fore part of the body fused1 forming the cephalo-thorax1 which was furnished with anterior1 marginal facetted eyes and central ocelli or smaller simple ones4 ,to the ventral surface of the body were attached six pairs of appendages4 ,the first pair are modified antennae with pincer-like terminations1 used for prehensile purposes4 ,then come four pairs of slender walking feet4 ,the sixth pair of appendages is in the form of powerful swimming feet or paddles1 at the bases of which are the comb-like jaws4 ,the abdomen consists of thirteen joints1 the last of which1 the telson1 is spatulate and posteriorly pointed4 ,fragments of a tolerably large species of ,pterygotus occur in the ,silurian shales of ,south ,yarra1 ,melbourne1 ,victoria4 ,it was probably about #ah inches in length when complete4 ,of this form1 known as ,p4 australis 7,fig4 #aba ,b71 portions of the chelate 7clawed7 appendages1 and parts of the abdominal segments have been found from time to time1 but no complete fossil has yet been discovered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba--,,silurian ,,eurypterids4 ,a--,pterygotus osiliensis1 ,schmidt4 ,i4 of ,oesel4 7,after ,schmidt7 ,b--,pterygotus australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,part of a body-segment4 ,silurian 7,melb47 ,victoria ,jurassic ,insects4-- ,of the group of the ,,insecta1 the ,ipswich ,coal measures 7,jurassic7 of ,queensland have yielded an interesting buprestid beetle 7,mesostigmodera71 whilst beds of the same age in ,new ,south ,wales contain the remains of a probable ,cicada1 associated with leaves of the fern ,taeniopteris4 ,lower ,cretaceous ,dragon-fly4-- ,from the ,lower ,cretaceous of the ,flinders ,river district1 ,queensland1 there has been obtained a fossil dragon-fly1 ,aeschna flindersensis 7,fig4 #abj ,d74 ,cainozoic ,insects4-- ,certain ,cainozoic beds of ,new ,south ,wales1 of the age of the ,deep-leads of ,victoria1 and probably equivalent to the ,kalimnan terrestrial series1 contain a species of ,cydnus1 a bug-like insect belonging to the order ,rhynchota2 and there are in the same series a ,midge 7,chironomus71 a ,day-fly 7,ephemera1 ,fig4 #abj ,e7 and several beetles 78 ,lagria1 ,palaeolycus1 ,cyphon and ,oxytelus74 ,the occurrence of these insects of the ,deep-leads helps to complete the landscape picture of those far-off ,lower ,pliocene times1 when the old river systems brought down large contributions of vegetable waste from higher lands1 in the form of twigs with leaves and fruits2 with occasional evidences of the rich and varied fauna of insect life which was especially promoted in the damp and vegetative areas of the lower lands4 ,,common ,,or ,,characteristic ,,species ,,of ,,the ,,foregoing ,,chapter4 ,,trilobites4 ,ptychoparia howchini1 ,eth4 fil4 ,lower ,cambrian3 ,south ,australia4 ,dolichometopus tatei1 ,h4 ,woodward4 ,lower ,cambrian3 ,south ,australia4 ,olenellus browni1 ,eth4 fil4 ,lower ,cambrian3 ,northern ,territory4 ,agnostus australiensis1 ,chapm4 ,upper ,cambrian3 ,victoria4 ,ptychoparia thielei1 ,chapm4 ,upper ,cambrian3 ,victoria4 ,dikellocephalus florentinensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,upper ,cambrian3 ,tasmania4 ,dinesus ida1 ,eth4 fil4 ,lower ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,asaphus illarensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,ordovician3 ,central ,s4 ,australia4 ,ampyx parvulus1 ,forbes1 var4 jikaensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,illaenus jutsoni1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,proetus euryceps1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,cyphaspis spryi1 ,gregory4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,bronteus enormis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,lichas australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,odontopleura jenkinsi1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,encrinurus punctatus1 ,brunnich sp4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,encrinurus 7,cromus7 murchisoni1 de ,koninck4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,encrinurus 7,cromus7 spryi1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,calymene blumenbachii1 ,brongn4 ,silurian 7,wangapeka ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,homalonotus expansus1 ,hector4 ,silurian 7,wangapeka ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,homalonotus knightii1 ,knig4 ,silurian 7,wangapeka ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,homalonotus harrisoni1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,homalonotus vomer1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,cheirurus insignis1 ,beyrich4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,phacops sweeti1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,mitch4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,phacops serratus1 ,foerste4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,dalmanites meridianus1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,mitch1 sp4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria and ,tasmania4 ,cheirurus sp4 ,middle ,devonian3 ,victoria4 ,proetus sp4 ,devonian3 ,western ,australia4 ,phillipsia seminifera1 ,phillips4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,phillipsia grandis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia and ,queensland4 ,griffithides eichwaldi1 ,waldheim4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland4 ,brachymetopus strzelecki1 ,mc,coy4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,,phyllopoda4 ,leaia mitchelli1 ,eth4 fil4 ,upper ,carboniferous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,estheria coghlani1 ,cox4 ,trias3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,estheria minuta1 ,alberti sp4 ,trias3 ,new ,zealand4 ,estheria mangaliensis1 ,jones4 ,jurassic3 ,queensland4 ,,ostracoda4 ,leperditia sp4 ,lower ,cambrian3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,beyrichia kloedeni1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,beyrichia wooriyallockensis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,beyrichia maccoyiana1 ,jones1 var4 australis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,bythocypris hollii1 ,jones4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,macrocypris flexuosa1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,yeringian7 ,victoria4 ,primitia reticristata1 ,jones4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,leperditia shearsbii1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,primitia cuneus1 ,chapm4 ,middle ,devonian3 ,victoria4 ,beyrichia varicosa1 ,t4 ,r4 ,jones4 ,carboniferous3 ,queensland4 ,primitia dunii1 ,chapm4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,jonesina etheridgei1 ,chapm4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,entomis jonesi1 de ,koninck4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,synaphe mesozoica1 ,chapm4 sp4 ,trias3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,cythere lobulata1 ,chapm4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,paradoxorhyncha foveolata1 ,chapm4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,loxoconcha jurassica1 ,chapm4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,cytheropteron australiense1 ,chapm4 ,jurassic3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,bairdia amygdaloides1 ,brady4 ,cainozoic and living3 ,victoria4 ,cythere senticosa1 ,baird4 ,cainozoic4 ,also living3 ,victoria4 ,cythere clavigera1 ,g4 ,s4 ,brady4 ,cainozoic and living3 ,victoria4 ,cytherella punctata1 ,g4 ,s4 ,brady4 ,cainozoic and living3 ,victoria4 ,cytherella pulchra1 ,g4 ,s4 ,brady4 ,cainozoic and living3 ,victoria4 ,,cirripedia4 ,turrilepas mitchelli1 ,eth4 fil4 ,silurian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,turrilepas yeringiae1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,yeringian73 ,victoria4 ,lepas pritchardi1 ,hall4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 787 ,pollicipes aucklandicus1 ,hector sp4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,balanus sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian and ,kalimnan73 ,victoria4 ,,phyllocarida4 ,rhinopterocaris maccoyi1 ,eth4 fil4 sp4 ,lower ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,hymenocaris hepburnensis1 ,chapm4 ,l4 ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,caryocaris marri1 ,jones and ,woodw4 ,l4 ,ordovician3 ,victoria and ,tasmania4 ,caryocaris angusta1 ,chapm4 ,l4 ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,saccocaris tetragona1 ,chapm4 ,l4 ,ordovician3 ,victoria4 ,ceratiocaris cf4 murchisoni1 ,agassiz sp4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,ceratiocaris pinguis1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,ceratiocaris pritchardi1 ,chapm4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,aptychopsis victoriae1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,dithyrocaris praecox1 ,chapm4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,,decapoda4 ,prosopon etheridgei1 ,h4 ,woodw4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,ommatocarcinus corioensis1 ,cresswell sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,ebalia sp4 ,cainozoic 7,kalimnan73 ,victoria4 ,harpactocarcinus tumidus1 ,h4 ,woodw4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,thalassina emerii1 ,bell4 787 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland and ,northern ,territory4 ,,eurypterida4 ,pterygotus australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,silurian 7,melbournian73 ,victoria4 ,,insecta4 ,mesostigmodera typica1 ,etheridge fil4 and ,olliff4 ,jurassic3 ,queensland4 787 ,cicada lowei1 ,etheridge fil4 and ,olliff4 ,jurassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,aeschna flindersensis1 ,h4 ,woodward4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,chironomus venerabilis1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,oll4 ,cainozoic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,ephemera culleni1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,oll4 ,cainozoic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,palaeolycus problematicum1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,oll4 ,cainozoic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,literature4 ,,trilobites4 ,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 #ahgf1 pp4 #ac-bj1 pls4 ,,xxii4 and ,,xxiii4 7,silurian74 ,hector1 ,j4 ,trans4 ,n4,z4 ,inst41 vol4 ,,ix4 #ahgg1 p4 #fjb1 pl4 ,,xxvii4 7,homalonotus74 ,woodward1 ,h4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,i4 #ahhd1 pp4 #cdb-cdd1 pl4 ,,xi4 7,cambrian74 ,mitchell1 ,j4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,ii4 #ahhh1 pp4 #dce-ddj1 pl4 ,,xi4 7,silurian74 ,foerste1 ,a4 ,f4 ,bull4 ,sci4 ,lab4 ,denison ,univ41 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 ,v4 #ahhh1 pp4 #abb-abh1 pl4 ,,xiii4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,v4 pp4 #eja-ejd1 pl4 ,,xviii4 7,bronteus74 ,idem1 ,parl4 ,papers1 ,leg4 ,assemb4 ,s4,a41 vol4 ,i4 ,no4 #bc1 #ahib2 ibid41 vol4 #b1 ,no4 #eb1 #ahic 7,asaphus74 ,id41 ,geol4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #bad-baf1 pls4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 and ,,xliv4 7,carboniferous74 ,id41 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,vi4 7,n4,s471 #ahid1 pp4 #ahi-aid1 pl4 ,,xi4 7,bronteus74 ,id41 ibid1 vol4 ,,viii4 7,n4,s471 #ahif1 pp4 #ef1 #eg1 pl4 ,i4 7,dinesus74 ,id41 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,v4 ,no4 #b1 #aijd1 pp4 #ih-aja1 pl4 ,x4 7,cambrian74 ,id41 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,,xxii4 #ahih1 pp4 #a-c1 pl4 ,,iv4 7,cambrian74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 and ,mitchell1 ,j4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,vi4 #ahib1 pp4 #caa-cbj1 pl4 ,,xxv42 ibid41 vol4 ,,viii4 #ahid1 pp4 #afi-agh1 pls4 ,,vi4 ,,vii42 ibid41 vol4 ,x4 #ahif1 pp4 #dhf-eaa1 pls4 ,,xxxviii4-,,xl42 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxi4 #ahig1 pp4 #fid-gba1 pls4 ,l4-,,lv4 ,tate1 ,r4 ,rep4 ,horn ,exped41 #ahif1 ,part #c1 ,palaeontology1 pp4 #aaa1 #aab1 pl4 ,,iii4 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 pp4 #cf-dg pl4 ,i4 7,silurian72 pp4 #bgf-bha1 pl4 ,,xxiv4 7,carboniferous74 ,gregory1 ,j4 ,w4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xiii4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,,ii1 #aija1 pp4 #agi-ahb1 pl4 ,,xxii4 7,cyphaspis74 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,xv4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijc1 pp4 #aed-aef1 pl4 ,,xxvi4 7,dinesus and ,notasaphus47 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xxiii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aiaj1 pp4 #cad-cbb1 pls4 ,,lviii4 and ,,lix4 7,cambrian74 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,xxiv4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,,ii4 #aiab1 pp4 #bic-cjj1 pls4 ,,lxi4-,,lxiii4 7,silurian74 ,,phyllopoda4 ,cox1 ,j4 ,c4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,v41 pt4 #c1 #ahha1 p4 #bgf 7,estheria74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ibid41 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahic1 pp4 #cjg-caj1 text fig4 7,leaia74 ,idem1 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #a1 #ahhh1 pp4 #f-h1 pl4 ,i4 7,estheria74 ,,ostracoda4 ,brady1 ,g4 ,s4 in ,etheridge1 jnr4 ,geol4 ,mag41 #ahgf1 p4 #ccd 7,cainozoic74 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 pp4 #cc1 #cf 7,silurian72 ibid41 pp4 #bge1 #bgf1 pl4 ,,xxiv4 7,carboniferous74 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xvi4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijd1 pp4 #aii-bjd1 pl4 ,,xxiii4 7,jurassic74 ,idem1 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #aiji1 pp4 #a-e1 pl4 ,i4 7,leperditia74 ,idem1 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 #d1 #aiji1 pp4 #a-c1 pl4 ,,liv4 7,triassic74 ,idem1 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 #b1 #aiab1 p4 #bba1 pl4 ,,xxxvi4 7,primitia74 ,idem1 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xv4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijc1 pp4 #aji-aac1 pl4 ,,xvi4 7,beyrichia74 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,xvii4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,i4 #aijd1 pp4 #bii-cab1 pls4 ,,xiii4-,,xvii4 7,silurian74 ,,cirripedia4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahij1 pp4 #ccg1 #cch1 pl4 ,,xi4 7,turrilepas74 ,hall1 ,t4,s4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xv4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,i4 #aijb1 pp4 #hc1 #hd1 pl4 ,,xi4 7,lepas74 ,benham1 ,w4 ,b4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iv4 vol4 ,x4 pp4 #aaj-aai1 pls4 ,,ix4 ,x4 78 ,pollicipes74 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict4 vol4 ,,xxii4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,,ii4 #aiaj1 pp4 #aje-aig1 pls4 ,,xxviii4 ,,xxix4 7,turrilepas74 ,,phyllocarida4 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 ,i4 #ahid1 pp4 #e-h1 pl4 ,,iv4 7,ordovician74 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict4 vol4 ,,xv4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijc1 pp4 #aac-aag1 pl4 ,,xviii4 7,ordovician72 ibid41 vol4 ,,xvii4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,i4 #aijd1 pp4 #cab-cae1 pl4 ,,xvii42 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aiaj1 pp4 #ajg-aaj1 pl4 ,,xxviii4 7,silurian74 ,idem1 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 #b1 #aiab1 pp4 #bab1 #bac1 pls4 ,,xvii4 ,,xviii4 7,ordovician74 ,,decapoda4 ,bell1 ,t4 ,proc4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,lond41 vol4 ,i4 #ahde1 pp4 #ic1 #id4 ,text-fig4 7,thalassina74 ,woodward1 ,h4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxxii4 #ahgf1 pp4 #ea-ec1 pl4 ,,vii4 7,harpactocarcinus74 ,idem41 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,vii4 7#b71 pt4 #b1 #ahib1 pp4 #cja-cjd pl4 ,,iv4 7,prosopon74 ,hall1 ,t4 ,s4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xvii4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,,ii4 #aije1 pp4 #cef-cfj1 pl4 ,,xxiii4 7,ommatocarcinus74 ,,eurypterida4 ,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iv4 vol4 ,,vi4 #ahii1 pp4 #aic1 #aid1 text fig4 7,pterygotus74 ,,insecta4 ,woodward1 ,h4 ,geol4 ,mag4 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,i4 #ahhd1 pp4 #ccg-cci1 pl4 ,,xi4 7,aeschna74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 and ,olliff1 ,a4 ,s4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #g1 #ahij 7,mesozoic and ,cainozoic74 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,fossil ,,fishes1 ,,amphibians1 ,,reptiles1 ,,birds1 ,,and ,,mammals4 ,vertebrates4-- ,the above-named classes of animals are distinguished from those previously dealt with1 by the presence of a vertebral column4 ,the vertebral axis may be either cartilaginous as in some fishes1 or bony as in the greater number of animals belonging to this sub-kingdom4 ,chordata4-- ,,links ,,between ,,the ,,invertebrates ,,and ,,fishes4--,the curious little ascidians or sea-squirts1 belonging to the group ,tunicata1 are held by some authorities to be the degenerate descendants of a free-swimming animal having a complete notochord and nerve-tube1 structures which are now only seen in the tails of their tadpole-like larvae4 ,the fully developed tunicate is generally sessile and provided with a thick outer coat 7tunic7 and muscular inner lining4 ,this outer coat in some forms1 as ,leptoclinum1 is strengthened with tiny calcareous spicules1 and these are sometimes found in the fossil state in ,cainozoic clays1 as well as in some of the calcareous deep-sea oozes4 ,the little stellate spicules of ,leptoclinum are abundant in the ,balcombian clays of ,mornington1 ,victoria4 ,another primitive form with a notochord is the ,lancelet1 but this1 having no hard parts1 is not found in the fossil state4 ,primitive ,types of ,fishes4-- ,,fishes4--,the remains of fishes are naturally more abundant in the fossil condition1 owing to their aquatic habits1 than those of other vertebrates4 ,the earliest fishes were probably entirely cartilaginous1 and some have left only a mere trace or impression on the rocks in which they were embedded4 ,these primitive fishes have no lower jaw1 and are without paired limbs4 ,they are sometimes placed in a class by themselves 7,,agnatha74 ,the orders of this primitive fish series as represented in ,australasia are the ,osteostraci 7bony shells71 of which the remains of the ,cephalaspis-like head-shield of ,thyestes has been found in the ,silurian of ,n4,e4 ,gippsland1 ,victoria 7,fig4 #abb72 and the ,antiarchi1 with its many-plated cuirass1 armoured body-appendages1 internal bony tissue1 and coarsely tuberculated exterior1 as seen in ,asterolepis australis1 a fossil occasionally found in the ,middle ,devonian ,limestone of ,buchan1 ,gippsland4 ,true ,fishes4--,devonian4-- ,of the true fishes 7,pisces71 the ,elasmobranchii 7slit-gills71 a sub-class to which the modern sharks belong1 are represented in the ,devonian series by the paired spines of a form resembling ,climatius1 found both in ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,remains of ,dipnoi 7double-breather or lung-fishes7 occur in the ,devonian of ,barker ,gorge1 ,western ,australia1 represented by a new species allied to ,coccosteus 7berry-bone fish72 and in a bed of the same age at the ,murrumbidgee ,river1 ,new ,south ,wales by the cranial buckler of ,ganorhynchus sssmilchi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb--;,incomplete ,head-,shield of ,thyestes magnificus1 ,chapm4 ,from the ,silurian 7,yeringian7 of ,wombat ,creek1 ,n4,e4 ,gippsland4 #d_/e nat4 size ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc ,gyracanthides murrayi1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,l4 ,carboniferous4 ,mansfield1 ,victoria4 7,restoration74 ,about #a_/ab nat4 size ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd--,,teeth and ,,scales of ,,palaeozoic and ,,mesozoic ,,fishes4 ,a--,strepsodus decipiens1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,l4 ,carboniferous4 ,victoria ,b--,elonichthys sweeti1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,l4 ,carboniferous4 ,victoria ,c--,corax australis1 ,chapm4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,queensland ,d--,belouostomus sweeti1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,woodw4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,q4 ,carboniferous ,fishes4-- ,the ,lower ,carboniferous sandstone of ,burnt ,creek and other localities near ,mansfield1 ,victoria1 contains an abundant fish fauna1 associated with stems of ,lepidodendron4 ,the slabs of sandstone are often ripple-marked and show signs of tracks and castings of shore-living animals4 ,these deposits were probably laid down in shallow water at the shore margin or in salt lagoons or brackish areas skirting the coast1 into which at intervals the remains of the giant lycopods were drifted4 ,the more important of these fish remains are ,elasmobranchs1 as ,gyracanthides murrayi 7,fig4 #abc7 and ,acanthodes australis2 the ,dipnoan1 ,ctenodus breviceps2 a ,rhizodont or fringe-finned ganoid1 ,strepsodus decipiens 7,fig4 #abd ,a72 and a genus related to ,palaeoniscus1 ,elonichthys 7,e4 sweeti1 ,fig4 #abd ,b1 and ,e4 gibbus74 ,the defence spines of ,gyracanthides are fairly abundant in the sandstones2 whilst on some slabs the large enamelled scales of ,strepsodus are equally conspicuous4 ,from the sandstones of the same age1 ,lower ,carboniferous1 in the ,grampians of ,western ,victoria1 some small but well-preserved spines belonging to the genus ,physonemus have been found associated with a new variety of the well-known ,european ,carboniferous brachiopod1 ,lingula squamiformis 7var4 borungensis74 ,carbopermian ,fishes4-- ,in the ,carbopermian 7,gympie ,beds7 of the ,rockhampton ,district1 ,queensland1 a tooth of a ,cochliodont 7snail tooth7 occurs1 which has been doubtfully referred to the genus ,deltodus 78 ,d4 australis74 ,the ,cochliodontidae show dentition remarkably like that of the ,cestracion or ,port ,jackson ,shark4 ,another tooth having the same family relationship has been referred to ,tomodus 8 convexus1 ,agassiz2 this is from the ,carbopermian of the ,port ,stephen district of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,from the ,newcastle ,coal ,measures in ,new ,south ,wales a ,palaeoniscus-like fish1 ,urosthenes australis has been described4 ,carbopermian fish remains are rare in ,western ,australia4 ,they comprise a wrinkled tooth of ,edestus 7,e4 davisii7 from the ,gascoyne ,river1 belonging to a fish closely related to the ,port ,jackson shark2 and a cochliodont1 ,poecilodus 7,p4 jonesi1 ,ag47 from the ,kimberley district4 ,triassic ,fishes4-- ,fossil fishes are important and numerous in ,australian ,triassic beds1 especially in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,at the base of the ,hawkesbury or close of the ,narrabeen series1 the railway ballast quarry near ,gosford has yielded an extensive and extremely interesting collection4 ,near the floor of the quarry there is a band of sandy shale and laminated sandstone #e feet #i inches in thickness1 and this contains the following genera3--,a dipnoan1 ,gosfordia2 and the following ganoids or enamelled scale fishes--,myriolepis1 ,apateolepis1 ,dictyopyge1 ,belonorhynchus1 ,semionotus1 ,pristisomus 7see antea1 ,fig4 #ah71 ,cleithrolepis 7,fig4 #abe71 ,pholidophorus and 8 ,peltopleurus4 ,upper ,triassic ,fishes4-- ,in the middle of the ,wianamatta or ,upper ,trias ,series at ,st4 ,peter's1 near ,sydney1 which contains a fauna described as slightly older in aspect than that of ,gosford1 having ,carbopermian affinities1 there occur in the hard shale or clay stone the genera ,pleuracanthus 7a ,palaeozoic shark72 ,sagenodus 7a dipnoan related to ,ctenodus of the ,victorian ,carboniferous72 and the following ganoids1--,palaeoniscus1 ,elonichthys1 ,myriolepis1 ,elpisopholis1 ,platysomus and ,acentrophorus4 ,from the soft shales were obtained ,palaeoniscus1 ,semionotus1 ,cleithrolepis and ,pholidophorus2 an assemblage of genera somewhat comparable with the ,gosford fauna4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe--;,cleithrolepis granulatus1 ,egerton4 ,triassic 7,hawkesbury ,series74 ,gosford1 ,new ,south ,wales4 #c_/d nat4 size4 7,after ,smith ,woodward47 ,lower ,mesozoic ,fishes4-- ,from the ,lower ,mesozoic sandstone 78,triassic7 of ,tasmania1 two species of ,acrolepis have been described1 viz41 ,a4 hamiltoni and ,a4 tasmanicus4 ,the former occurs in the thick bed of sandstone1 of nearly #a1jjj feet1 at ,knocklofty2 the latter species in the sandstone with ,vertebraria conformably overlying the ,carbopermian at ,tinderbox ,bay4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf--,,remains of ,,jurassic and ,,other ,,vertebrates4 #a--;,ceratodus avus1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,left splenial with lower tooth4 ,cape ,paterson1 ,victoria4 ,about #a_/c nat4 size #b--;,ceratodus forsteri1 ,krefft4 ,left lower tooth4 ,living4 ,queensland4 ,about #a_/c nat4 size #c--,phalangeal of ,carnivorous ,dinosaur4 ,cape ,paterson4 ,about #a_/c nat4 size #d--,phalangeal of ,megalosaurian4 ,wealden1 ,sussex1 ,england4 #a_/d nat4 size ,jurassic ,fishes4-- ,the ,jurassic beds of ,victoria contain three genera4 ,psilichthys selwyni1 a doubtful palaeoniscid was described from ,carapook1 ,co4 ,dundas2 whilst ,leptolepis1 a genus found in the ,trias of ,new ,south ,wales and the ,lias and ,oolite of ,europe1 is represented by ,l4 crassicauda from ,casterton1 associated with the typical ,jurassic fern1 ,taeniopteris4 ,in the ,jurassic beds of ,south ,gippsland1 at ,cape ,paterson1 an interesting splenial tooth of the mudfish1 ,ceratodus1 was found1 named ,c4 avus 7,fig4 #abf74 ,since then1 in a bore-core from ,kirrak near the same place a fish scale was discovered 7,fig4 #abg7 which1 by its shape1 size and structure seems to differ in no way from the living lung-fish of ,queensland 7,fig4 #abh74 ,it is reasonable to infer that tooth and scale belong to the same species2 and in view of the close relationship of the tooth with that of the living mudfish1 rather than with that of the ,ceratodus found fossil in the ,mesozoic of ,europe1 it may be referred to ,neoceratodus1 in which genus the living species is now placed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg--,scale of ,ceratodus 7,neoceratodus7 787avus1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,jurassic4 ,kirrak1 ,s4 ,gippsland1 ,victoria4 ,about nat4 size ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh--,the ,queensland ,lung-,fish or ,barramunda 7,neoceratodus forsteri74 ,about #a_/abth4 nat4 size 7,after ,lydekker1 in ,warne's ,natural ,history7 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi--,leptolepis gregarius1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,talbragar ,series1 ,jurassic4 ,talbragar ,river1 ,new ,south ,wales #a_/b nat4 size ,from the ,jurassic beds 7,talbragar ,series7 of ,new ,south ,wales1 an interesting collection of ganoid fishes has been described1 comprising ,coccolepis australis1 ,aphnelepis australis1 ,aetheolepis mirabilis1 ,archaeomaene tenuis1 ,a4 robustus1 ,leptolepis talbragarensis1 ,l4 lowei and ,l4 gregarina 7,fig4 #abi74 ,lower ,cretaceous ,fishes4-- ,fish remains are fairly abundant in the ,lower ,cretaceous of ,queensland4 ,they comprise both the sharks and the ganoids4 ,of the sharks1 a specimen1 showing seven conjoined vertebrae has been named ,lamna daviesii1 from the ,richmond ,downs1 ,flinders ,river district2 and a tooth referred to ,lamna appendiculatus1 ,agassiz1 from ,kamileroy1 ,leichhardt ,river1 ,n4,w4 ,queensland4 ,the typical ,cretaceous genus ,corax is represented by a small tooth named ,c4 australis 7,fig4 #abd ,c71 from the ,hamilton ,river1 ,queensland1 and which closely approaches the tooth of ,corax affinis1 ,agassiz1 from the ,upper ,cretaceous of ,europe4 ,of the ganoid fishes two genera1 both members of the family ,aspidorhynchidae1 have been found in ,queensland4 ,aspidorhynchus sp4 and ,belonostomus sweeti 7,fig4 #abd ,d7 have both occurred at ,hughenden1 ,flinders ,river district4 ,the former genus has a slender body and produced rostrum2 in ,europe it is more characteristic of ,jurassic strata4 ,belonostomus ranges from the ,upper ,oolite1 ,bavaria1 to the ,upper ,cretaceous in other parts of the world4 ,remains of a species of ,portheus1 one of the predaceous fishes which lived in the ,cretaceous period1 consisting of a portion of the cranium with the anterior part of the jaws1 has been obtained from the ,rolling ,downs ,formation 7,lower ,cretaceous7 near ,hughenden1 ,queensland4 ,cretaceous ,fishes1 ,new ,zealand4-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj--;,,cretaceous and ,,cainozoic ,,fish-,,teeth4 ,a--,notidanus marginalis1 ,davis4 ,cainozoic4 ,new ,zealand ,b--,callorhynchus hectori1 ,newton4 ,cainozoic4 ,new ,zealand ,c--,oxyrhina hastalis1 ,ag4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria ,d--,lamna apiculata1 ,ag4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria ,e--,carcharodon auriculatus1 ,blainv4 sp4 ,cainozoic4 ,victoria ,f--,sargus laticonus1 ,davis4 ,cainozoic4 ,new ,zealand ,the ,cretaceous beds of ,new ,zealand are grouped in ascending order as the ,waipara ,greensands1 the ,amuri ,limestone and the ,weka ,pass ,stone4 ,in the ,waipara beds occur the teeth of ,notidanus marginalis 7,fig4 #acj ,a71 and ,n4 dentatus4 ,in the ,amuri ,limestone ,n4 dentatus is again found1 as well as the genus ,lamna1 represented by ,l4 compressa1 ,ag4 7originally described as ,l4 marginalis1 ,davis71 ,l4 carinata and ,l4 hectori4 ,two forms of ,elephant fish are represented by their dental plates1 namely ,callorhynchus hectori 7,fig4 #acj ,b7 and ,ischyodus thurmanni1 ,pictet and ,campiche 7recorded as ,i4 brevirostris1 ,ag474 ,cainozoic ,fishes4-- ,fish remains principally consisting of teeth1 are common fossils in the ,cainozoic beds of southern ,australia1 particularly in ,victoria1 and also in ,new ,zealand4 ,balcombian ,series1 ,southern ,australia4-- ,the ,balcombian beds as seen at ,mornington and in the ,lower ,beds at ,muddy ,creek1 ,hamilton1 contain the teeth of sharks as ,odontaspis contortidens1 ,lamna crassidens1 ,l4 apiculata1 ,oxyrhina hastalis 7rarely71 ,o4 minuta1 ,carcharodon megalodon1 and ,c4 robustus4 ,janjukian4-- ,the ,janjukian ,series 7,miocene71 represented at ,torquay1 ,waurn ,ponds and ,table ,cape1 contains an abundant fish fauna1 including amongst sharks1 ,cestracion cainozoicus1 ,asteracanthus eocaenicus1 ,galeocerdo davisi1 ,carcharoides totuserratus1 ,odontaspis contortidens1 ,o4 incurva1 ,o4 cuspidata1 ,lamna crassidens1 ,l4 apiculata 7,fig4 #acj ,d71 ,l4 compressa1 ,l4 bronni1 ,oxyrhina hastalis 7occasional7 7,fig4 #acj ,c71 ,o4 desori1 ,o4 retroflexa1 ,o4 minuta1 ,carcharodon auriculatus 7,fig4 #acj ,e71 ,c4 megalodon and ,c4 robustus4 ,a species of chimaeroid or ,elephant fish is represented by a left mandibular tooth named ,ischyodus mortoni1 from the ,table ,cape ,beds1 ,tasmania4 ,the ,corio ,bay series contains teeth of ,acanthias geelongensis1 ,sphyrna prisca1 ,odontaspis contortidens1 ,o4 attenuata1 ,oxyrhina minuta1 ,carcharodon megalodon1 amongst sharks2 whilst the spine of a ,porcupine ,fish1 ,diodon connewarrensis has been obtained from the clays of ,lake ,connewarre1 ,victoria4 ,kalimnan4-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca--;,,cainozoic ,,fish ,,remains4 ,a--,carcharoides tenuidens1 ,chapm4 ,cainozoic 7,janj47 ,victoria ,b--,odontaspis contortidens4 ,agassiz4 ,cainozoic 7,kal47 ,victoria ,c--,galeocerdo latidens1 ,agassiz4 ,cainozoic 7,kal47 ,victoria ,d--,myliobatis morrabbinensis1 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,kal47 ,victoria ,e--,labrodon confertidens4 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,kal47 ,vict4 ,f--,diodon formosus1 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,kal47 ,vict4 ,the ,kalimnan ,series is also prolific in the remains of fishes1 the principal localities being ,beaumaris and ,grange ,burn1 ,hamilton4 ,amongst the sharks there found are1 ,notidanus jenningsi 7related to the ,indian ,grey ,shark71 ,cestracion cainozoicus 7related to the ,port ,jackson ,shark71 ,asteracanthus eocaenicus1 ,galeocerdo davisi1 ,g4 latidens 7,fig4 #aca ,c71 ,g4 aduncus1 ,odontaspis contortidens 7,fig4 #aca ,b71 ,o4 incurva1 ,o4 cuspidata1 ,o4 attenuata1 ,lamna apiculata1 ,l4 compressa1 ,oxyrhina hastalis 7abundant71 ,o4 desori1 ,o4 retroflexa1 ,o4 eocaena1 ,o4 minuta1 ,carcharodon auriculatus and ,c4 megalodon4 ,an extinct species of ,sting ,ray1 ,myliobatis moorabbinensis 7,fig4 #aca ,d71 is found at ,beaumaris1 represented by occasional palatal teeth4 ,mandibular and palatine teeth of an extinct genus of ,elephant ,fish1 ,edaphodon 7,e4 sweeti7 are occasionally found at ,beaumaris1 and at ,grange ,burn near ,hamilton4 ,two extinct forms of the ,wrasse family1 the ,labridae1 are found in ,victoria2 the pharyngeals of ,labrodon confertidens 7,fig4 #aca ,e71 occurring at ,grange ,burn1 ,hamilton1 and those of ,l4 depressus1 at ,beaumaris4 ,the palatal jaws of a ,porcupine ,fish1 ,diodon formosus 7,fig4 #aca ,f71 are frequently met with at the base of the ,kalimnan ,series1 both at ,grange ,burn and ,beaumaris4 ,oamaru ,series1 ,new ,zealand4-- ,in ,new ,zealand the ,oamaru ,series1 which is comparable in age with the ,victorian ,janjukian1 contains numerous fish remains1 chiefly teeth of sharks4 ,these are3 ,notidanus primigenius1 ,n4 marginalis 7also occurring in the ,waipara ,series71 ,galeocerdo davisi1 ,odontaspis incurva1 ,o4 cuspidata1 ,o4 attenuata1 ,lamna apiculata1 ,l4 compressa1 ,oxyrhina retroflexa1 ,carcharodon auriculatus1 ,c4 megalodon and ,c4 robustus4 ,the teeth of a ,sting ,ray1 ,myliobatis plicatilis and of a species of ,sea-bream1 ,sargus laticonus1 also occur in this series 7,fig4 #acj ,f74 ,pleistocene4-- ,a species of fish belonging to the family of the ,perches1 ,ctenolates avus1 has been described from freshwater carbonaceous shale of ,pleistocene age from ,nimbin on the ,richmond ,river1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,amphibians3 ,their ,structure4-- ,,amphibians4--,this group includes amongst living forms the ,frogs1 ,toads1 ,newts1 and ,salamanders4 ,the remains of amphibia are rare in ,australasian rocks1 and practically limited to the group of the ,triassic ,labyrinthodonts4 ,the ,amphibia are distinguished from ,reptiles by certain changes which their young undergo after leaving the egg4 ,in this intermediate stage they breathe by external gills1 these being sometimes retained together with the internal lungs in the adult stage4 ,in the older forms of this group the vertebra is of the nature of a notochord1 the joints consisting of a thin bony ring with a gelatinous interior4 ,the ,labyrinthodontia have a long1 lizard-like body1 short pectoral limbs as compared with the pelvic1 and five-toed feet4 ,the skull is completely roofed over4 ,the teeth are pointed1 with a large pulp cavity and wall of infolded or plicated dentine 7hence the name labyrinthodont--maze-tooth74 ,the vertebrae are hollow on both sides1 sometimes imperfectly ossified1 and with a notochordal canal4 ,ventral aspect with bony thoracic plates4 ,cranial bones deeply sculptured1 and carrying mucus canals4 ,carbopermian ,labyrinthodonts4-- ,the genus ,bothriceps1 probably an ,archegosaurian1 is represented by two species1 ,b4 australis and ,b4 major from ,new ,south ,wales 7,fig4 #acb74 ,the latter species occurs in the ,oil ,shale 7,carbopermian7 of ,airly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb--;,bothriceps major1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodward4 ,carbopermian4 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,about #a_/aath4 nat4 size 7,after ,a4 ,s4 ,woodward74 ,triassic ,labyrinthodonts4-- ,from the ,hawkesbury ,series near ,gosford1 ,new ,south ,wales1 the labyrinthodont1 ,platyceps wilkinsoni has been described4 ,the skeleton is nearly complete and exposed on the ventral face2 the head is #bgmm4 long and #cbmm4 broad4 ,this specimen is associated with the remains of ganoid fishes1 as ,palaeoniscus and ,cleithrolepis1 together with the equisetum-like plant ,phyllotheca4 ,other1 somewhat doubtful remains having similar affinities to the labyrinthodonts are also recorded from the ,wianamatta beds 7,upper ,trias7 at ,bowral1 ,new ,south ,wales1 consisting of a maxilla with teeth and #aa vertebrae with ribs of the left side4 ,remains of a labyrinthodont1 ,biloela1 supposed to be related to ,mastodonsaurus1 have been recorded from the ,hawkesbury ,series of ,cockatoo ,island1 ,port ,jackson1 ,new ,south ,wales1 by ,w4 ,j4 ,stephens1 and consisting of a pectoral plate compared by that author with ,m4 robustus 7now transferred to the genus ,capitosaurus74 ,the only other recorded remains of this group in ,australasia are those noted by ,w4 ,j4 ,stephens from the ,kaihiku ,series 7,trias7 at ,nugget ,point1 ,otago2 and in the ,otapiri ,series 7,upper ,trias7 of the ,wairoa district1 ,new ,zealand4 ,reptilia3 ,their ,structure4-- ,,reptilia4--,the ,reptiles are cold-blooded1 vertebrated animals1 with a scaly skin or armour4 ,their respiration is essentially by means of lungs1 and they are terrestrial or aquatic in habit4 ,the skeleton is completely ossified 7bony74 ,reptiles1 although resembling amphibians externally1 are more differentiated in structure and of generally larger proportions4 ,they exhibit great diversity of form1 especially as regards their extremities4 ,they were even adapted for flying1 as in the ,pterosaurs 7,flying ,dragons7 with their membranous wing attached to the anterior limb4 ,the ,deinosaurs 7,terrible ,reptiles7 were often of great size1 exceeding the dimensions of any land mammals1 and their limbs were adapted for walking4 ,the marine reptiles1 as the ,ichthyosauria 7,fish-lizards7 and ,sauropterygia 7lizard-finned7 had the limbs transformed into paddles4 ,the neural spines in the vertebra of the ,turtles are laterally expanded into a carapace and united with dermal plates4 ,the vertebrae of ,reptilia show great variation of form1 being biplanate 7amphiplatyan71 biconcave 7amphicoelus71 hollow in front 7procoelus71 or hollow at the back 7opisthocoelus74 ,in the case of ,reptiles having both pairs of limbs developed1 the cervical1 dorsal1 sacral and caudal regions may be separately distinguished4 ,amongst the ,ophidia 7,snakes71 ,pythonomorpha 7,sea-lizards7 and ,ichthyosaurs 7,fish-lizards7 there is no differentiated sacral region4 ,the skull of the ,reptiles is nearer that of ,birds than ,amphibians4 ,the basiocciput 7basal bone of the skull at the back7 articulates with the atlas 7top joint of the backbone7 by means of a single condyle 7protuberance74 ,all reptiles1 with the exception of the ,chelonians 7,turtles71 and a few others1 are furnished with teeth3 these are formed chiefly of dentine with a layer of enamel4 ,dentition4-- ,some teeth have solid crowns 7pleodont72 some grow from persistent pulps 7coelodont72 socketed teeth 7thecodont7 are inserted in alveoli2 some are fused with the supporting bone along the outer rim or top 7acrodont72 whilst others are developed laterally along the flange-like inner rim of the jaw 7pleurodont74 ,permian and ,triassic ,reptiles4-- ,the history of ,reptilia commences in ,permian and ,triassic times1 when they were notably represented by the ,theromorphs1 ,pareiasaurus and ,tritylodon in ,south ,africa2 the ,proterosauria of the ,european and ,american ,permian and ,trias1 represented by the lizard-like ,palaeohatteria and the dorsally frilled ,dimetrodon1 with its formidable array of neural spines2 also the ,rhynchosauria1 with their beak-like jaws of the same formations4 ,these two groups constitute the order ,rhynchocephalia1 which is represented at the present day by the ,tuatera of ,new ,zealand4 ,triassic ,reptile1 ,new ,zealand4-- ,the earliest ,australian reptilian record is that of a vertebra of ,ichthyosaurus from the ,kaihiku ,series of ,mount ,potts1 ,new ,zealand 7,triassic74 ,this specimen was named ,i4 australis by ,hector1 but since that species name was preoccupied by ,mc,coy in #ahfg it is suggested here that the ,new ,zealand species should be distinguished as ,i4 hectori4 ,the ,new ,zealand occurrence of ,ichthyosaurus makes the geological history of the genus very ancient in this part of the world4 ,jurassic ,reptiles4-- ,at ,cape ,paterson1 ,victoria1 in the ,jurassic coal-bearing sandstone an extremely interesting discovery was made a few years ago1 of the ungual bone 7claw7 of a carnivorous ,deinosaur1 probably related to ,megalosaurus of the ,european ,jurassic and ,cretaceous beds 7,see ,fig4 #abf1 #c1 #c ,a74 ,the presence of an animal like this in ,australia points to the former existence of a concomitant terrestrial animal fauna1 upon which the deinosaur must have preyed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc--;,ichthyosaurus australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,a--,part of head1 showing eye protected by sclerotic plates ,b--,left pectoral paddle4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,flinders ,river1 ,queensland4 #a_/h nat4 size 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,lower ,cretaceous ,reptiles4-- ,the ,rolling ,downs formation 7,lower ,cretaceous7 of the ,thompson and ,flinders ,rivers in ,queensland has yielded remains of a ,tortoise1 ,notochelone costata 7see antea1 ,fig4 #ag72 and the interesting ,fish-lizard ,ichthyosaurus4 ,numerous and well preserved remains of ,i4 australis ,mc,coy come from the ,flinders ,river 7,fig4 #acc72 whilst ,i4 marathonensis is recorded from ,marathon ,station1 ,queensland4 ,the former species is typically represented by a nearly complete skeleton1 and was considered by ,mc,coy to be one of the largest examples of the genus1 since a perfect specimen would probably reach the length of #be feet4 ,its teeth resemble those of ,i4 campylodon1 ,carter1 from the ,english ,chalk4 ,of the ,sauropterygia two species of ,pliosaurus 7,p4 macrospondylus and ,p4 sutherlandi7 have been described from the ,lower ,cretaceous of the ,flinders ,river2 whilst the latter species has also occurred at ,pitchery ,creek1 ,central ,queensland and at ,marathon4 ,p4 macrospondylus is distinguished from ,p4 sutherlandi by the roughened edges of the vertebral centra4 ,another genus of the lizard-finned reptiles 7,sauropterygia71 viz41 ,cimoliosaurus1 occurs in the ,upper ,cretaceous of ,white ,cliffs1 ,new ,south ,wales 7,fig4 #acd ,b1 ,c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd--;,,fossil ,,reptiles4 ,a--,taniwhasaurus oweni4 ,hector4 7,lower jaw74 ,cretaceous4 ,new ,zealand ,b--,cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus1 ,eth4 fil4 7,teeth74 ,up4 ,cretaceous4 ,new ,south ,wales ,c--,cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus1 ,eth4 fil4 7,phalangeal74 ,up4 ,cretaceous4 ,new ,south ,wales ,d--,miolania oweni1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,pleistocene4 ,queensland ,cretaceous ,reptiles1 ,new ,zealand4-- ,the ,waipara ,series 7,cretaceous7 of ,new ,zealand contains a fairly large number of reptilian species belonging to several genera among which may be mentioned ,plesiosaurus1 ,polycotylus1 and ,cimoliosaurus among the ,sauropterygia2 and ,tylosaurus and ,taniwhasaurus 7,fig4 #acd ,a71 marine lizard-like reptiles1 belonging to the sub-order ,pythonomopha4 ,cainozoic and ,pleistocene ,reptiles4-- ,the later ,cainozoic deposits of ,queensland contain remains of ,crocodiles referred to ,pallymnarchus pollens 7from ,maryvale ,creek7 and ,crocodilus porosus 7from ,chinchilla and ,arcola1 near ,brisbane1 ,queensland74 ,the former species has also occurred at ,clunes1 whilst ,crocodilus porosus is recorded from the ,loddon ,valley1 both in ,victoria4 ,another late ,tertiary reptile is the remarkable ,horned ,turtle1 ,miolania oweni1 which is found in ,queensland in ,pleistocene deposits 7,fig4 #acd ,d71 and in the ,pliocene 7,deep ,leads7 of ,gulgong1 ,new ,south ,wales2 whilst a second species of the same genus1 ,m4 platyceps1 is found in coral sand at ,lord ,howe ,island1 #djj miles distant from ,australia4 ,this genus has a skull with large bony protuberances1 giving it a horned appearance1 and the tail is encased in a bony sheath4 ,a species of ,miolania is also described from ,patagonia4 ,the ,cave deposits of ,wellington ,valley1 ,new ,south ,wales1 as well as the fluviatile deposits of ,queensland1 have1 yielded the bones of several genera of lizards1 including the ,giant ,lizard 7,megalania71 which1 in its length of #bj feet exceeded that of most living crocodiles4 ,birds4-- ,,birds 7,,aves74--,these warm-blooded animals are closely related to ,reptiles in many essential particulars2 and are generally considered to more nearly approach the ,deinosaurs than any other group4 ,the ,ratitae 7,raft-breasted or keel-less birds7 and ,carinatae 7with keeled breast-bones71 a sub-class including most modern birds1 were probably differentiated before the ,cainozoic period4 ,jurassic ,bird4-- ,the oldest recorded bird1 the remarkable ,archaeopteryx1 of the ,upper ,jurassic of ,bavaria in ,europe1 belonging to the ,saururae 7,reptilian-tailed7 is1 so far1 restricted to the beds of that age4 ,miocene ,bird1 ,new ,zealand4-- ,the earliest known birds in ,australasia occur in the ,miocene rocks 7,oamaru ,series71 of ,new ,zealand4 ,in this series1 in the ,marawhenua ,greensands1 a ,giant ,penguin1 ,palaeeudyptes antarcticus is found at ,kakanui near ,oamaru1 at ,curiosity ,shop near ,christchurch and at ,brighton near ,nelson1 ,new ,zealand3 this interesting occurrence shows that these restricted antarctic birds had already become an established type as early as the ,miocene4 ,victorian ,cainozoic ,bird4-- ,the impression of a bird's feather1 probably of a ,wader1 has lately been described from ,western ,victoria 7see antea ,fig4 #af and ,fig4 #ace74 ,this occurs in ironstone1 on the surface of which are also impressions of ,gum 7,eucalyptus7 and ,native ,honeysuckle 7,banksia7 leaves1 of species closely related to those now growing in the same locality4 ,this ironstone is probably of ,janjukian age1 and may therefore be coincident with the ,new ,zealand occurrence of the ,palaeeudyptes in the ,oamaru ,series4 ,pliocene ,moa1 ,new ,zealand4-- ,in the ,wanganui ,system 7,pliocene7 the ,putiki ,beds have yielded bones of a small ,moa 7,dinornis71 probably the oldest example of the group of great flightless birds which later predominated in ,new ,zealand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace--;,impression of ,bird's ,feather in ,ironstone4 ,wannon ,river1 ,victoria4 7,enlarged74 ,pleistocene ,struthious ,birds1 ,australia4-- ,bones of a struthious or ,ostrich-like bird1 described by ,owen under the name of ,dromornis australis1 a bird as large as the ,moa1 have been recorded from the ,pleistocene of ,peak ,downs and the ,paroo ,river1 ,queensland4 ,indeterminate species of the same genera occur in ,phillip ,co41 ,new ,south ,wales1 and the ,mount ,gambier ,caves1 ,south ,australia2 whilst ,dromaeus patricius is known from ,king's ,creek1 ,darling ,downs1 ,queensland4 ,genyornis newtoni is an extinct bird allied to the ,emeus2 it has been found in ,pleistocene deposits at ,lake ,callabonna1 ,south ,australia1 and other fragmentary remains have been identified by ,dr4 ,stirling and ,mr4 ,zietz from ,mount ,gambier and ,queensland4 ,regarding the build and habits of ,genyornis1 those authors remark that ,its legs combine a huge femur nearly as massive1 in all but length1 as that of ,dinornis maximus1 and a tibia equalling that of ,pachyornis elephantopus with the relatively slender metatarse of ,dinornis novae-zealandiae 7ingens7 and toes which are insignificant beside those of any of the larger moas4444 ,in height it may be confidently stated to have been from #f feet to #f feet #f inches1 that is if the neck should have been of proportions similar to those of ,pachyornis elephantopus4 ,those authors also attribute a slow1 sluggish habit to the bird1 and suggest that herbage rather than roots formed its food4 ,it is very probable that the footprints of birds found in the older dune rock of ,warrnambool1 ,victoria1 associated with the doubtful human footprints may have been made by ,genyornis or a related form4 ,an extinct ,emu1 ,dromaeus minor1 has lately been described from the sub-recent deposits in ,king ,island1 ,bass ,strait4 ,pleistocene ,carinate ,birds1 ,australia4-- ,many genera of carinate birds belonging to living ,australian types have been identified by ,de ,vis from the fluviatile deposits on the ,darling ,downs1 ,queensland4 ,these include ,falcons 7,taphaetus and ,necrastur72 a ,pelican 7,pelicanus72 an ,ibis 7,palaeopelargus72 a ,spoonbill 7,platalea72 ,ducks 7,anas1 ,dendrocygna1 ,biziura and ,nyroca72 a ,darter 7,plotus72 a ,pigeon 7,lithophaps72 a ,ground-pigeon 7,progura72 a ,mound-builder 7,chosornis72 a ,rail 7,porphyrio72 ,moor-hens 7,gallinula1 ,tribonyx and ,fulica72 and a ,stork 7,xenorhynchus74 ,pleistocene and ,holocene ,birds1 ,new ,zealand4-- ,in ,new ,zealand numerous remains of birds are found1 chiefly in the ,pleistocene strata1 associated with ,moa bones3 such are ,cnemiornis1 the ,flightless ,pigeon ,goose 7,fig4 #ace72 ,harpagornis1 a predatory hawk-like bird larger than any existing eagle2 and ,aptornis1 an extinct ,rail4 ,the sand-dunes1 peat bogs1 swamps1 river alluvium1 caves and rock shelters of ,new ,zealand often contain numerous remains of the gigantic ,moa birds included in the genera ,dinornis1 ,pachyornis and ,anomalopteryx1 of which perhaps the best known are ,d4 giganteus1 ,d4 maximus 7,fig4 #acf71 ,d4 robustus1 ,p4 elephantopus 7,fig4 #acg71 and ,a4 antiqua4 ,some of the species have become so recently extinct that remains of their skin and feathers have been preserved in fissures in the rocks where they were shielded from the influence of air and moisture4 ,the remains of ,moa birds are very abundant in some of the localities as at ,hamilton in ,southland1 where1 as ,hutton estimated1 the remains of at least #djj birds were contained within a radius of #be feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf--;,cnemiornis calcitrans1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene4 ,new ,zealand4 #a_/aeth4 nat4 size 7,after ,owen74 ,illustration3,fig4 #acg--;,dinornis maximus1 ,owen4 7,great ,moa74 ,pleistocene and ,holocene4 ,new ,zealand4 ,vertical height1 #h ft4 ,measured along spine1 #aj ft4 #h in4 7,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach--,pachyornis elephantopus1 ,owen sp4 ,pleistocene4 ,new ,zealand4 ,about #a_/bfth4 nat4 size4 7,after ,owen74 ,mammalia3 ,early ,types4-- ,,mammalia4--,the history of those warm-blooded animals1 the mammals1 commences in the early part of the ,mesozoic period4 ,it was then that the skull began to assume the characters seen in the modern quadrupeds1 and their well-formed limb-bones1 and fusion of the three bones on each side of the pelvic arch to form the innominate bone1 also show relationship to the later types4 ,the earliest ancestral mammalian forms seem to be related to the theromorphic reptiles1 predominant in the ,permian and ,trias4 ,the mammals first to make their appearance were probably related to those of the ,monotreme and ,marsupial orders4 ,more nearly related to the former is the group of mammals of the ,mesozoic period1 the ,multituberculata4 ,multituberculata4-- ,this group comprises the ,triassic ,tritylodon 7,south ,africa and ,germany72 the ,upper ,jurassic ,bolodon 7,england and ,united ,states72 the ,upper ,jurassic to ,lower ,cainozoic ,plagiaulax 7,england1 ,united ,states and ,france72 and the ,lower ,eocene ,polymastodon 7,new ,mexico74 ,the molar teeth are ridged longitudinally1 and carry numerous tubercles1 hence the name of the group1 and resemble the deciduous teeth of the ,duck-billed ,platypus 7,ornithorhynchus74 ,monotremata4-- ,the ,monotremata are represented at the present day in ,australia and ,new ,guinea by the ,echidna or ,spiny ,anteater1 and by the ,ornithorhynchus or ,duck-billed ,platypus of ,eastern ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,these egg-laying mammals show relationship towards the reptiles both in structure and in methods of reproduction4 ,a ,pliocene species of ,ornithorhynchus 7,o4 maximus7 has been recorded from the ,deep-leads of ,gulgong1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and the same beds have yielded the remains of ,echidna 7,proechidna7 robusta4 ,remains of another species1 ,echidna1 7,p47 oweni1 have been described from the ,pleistocene ,cave-breccias of the ,wellington ,valley ,caves1 ,new ,south ,wales2 and ,ornithorhynchus agilis is found in deposits of similar age in ,queensland4 ,marsupials4-- ,the ,marsupials or pouched mammals belong to the sub-class ,metatheria4 ,they are divided into ,diprotodontia and ,polyprotodontia1 accordingly as they possess a single pair of incisor teeth in the lower jaw1 or many front teeth1 hence the names of the two sub-orders4 ,a later classification of the ,marsupials is that of their division into syndactyla and diadactyla4 ,the diadactyla have the second and third toes separate1 and are represented by the family ,dasyuridae or ,native ,cats4 ,these are polyprotodont4 ,they are the most archaic of the marsupial group4 ,remains of ,dasyurus1 both of extinct and still living species are found in ,pleistocene ,cave-breccias in ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the ,tasmanian ,devil 7,sarcophilus ursinus7 7,fig4 #ach1 #aci7 and the ,tasmanian ,wolf 7,thylacinus cynocephalus71 still living in ,tasmania1 have left numerous remains on the mainland1 in ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,of the latter genus an extinct species is ,t4 major from the ,pleistocene of ,queensland 7,fig4 #adj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci ,skeleton of ,sarcophilus ursinus1 ,harris sp4 7,tasmanian devil74 7,f4 ,j4 ,moore1 prep47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj ,skull of ,sarcophilus ursinus1 ,harris sp4 7,tasmanian devil74 ,pleistocene4 ,queenscliff1 ,victoria4 ,about #a_/b nat4 size 7,after ,mc,coy74 ,the syndactyla have the second and third toes enclosed in a common skin4 ,the ,peramelidae and the ,notoryctidae are polyprotodont4 ,the remainder are all diprotodont4 ,the ,peramelidae or ,bandicoot family are represented in ,pleistocene ,cave-breccias in ,new ,south ,wales by the genera ,peragale and ,perameles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada--,thylacinus major1 ,owen4 ,hind part of mandible1 outer side4 ,pleistocene4 ,queensland4 #a_/b nat4 size ,pleistocene ,diprotodonts4-- ,pleistocene remains of the diprotodont forms of this syndactylous group are ,phascolomys 7the ,wombat71 perhaps ranging as low as ,upper ,pliocene 7,p4 pliocenus7 7,fig4 #ada72 ,phascolonus 7,p4 gigas7 7,fig4 #adb ,a7#d1 a large ,wombat from ,queensland and ,new ,south ,wales and ,south ,australia2 the ,giant ,kangaroos1 as ,macropus titan 7,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria and ,south ,australia71 ,procoptodon goliah 7,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria71 ,sthenurus atlas 7,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland1 ,victoria and ,south ,australia71 ,palorchestes azael 7,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland72 also the great ,diprotodon1 the largest known marsupial1 as large as1 and rather taller than1 a rhinoceros1 found in almost every part of ,australia1 with an allied form referred to ,nototherium occurring also in ,tasmania 7,figs4 #adc1 #add1 #ade74 ,nototherium 7,queensland1 ,south ,australia and ,victoria71 was a smaller animal than ,diprotodon1 with a shorter and broader skull and similar dentition4 ,remains of the extinct ,marsupial ,lion1 ,thylacoleo carnifex1 an animal allied to the phalangers1 have been found in ,cave-deposits in ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland1 ,victoria and ,western ,australia4 ,incised bones of other animals1 which are believed to have been gnawed by ,thylacoleo1 have been found associated with its remains4 ,thylacoleo possessed a peculiar dentition1 the first pair of incisors in the upper jaw being very large and trenchant1 whilst the canine and two anterior premolars are small and functionless3 the lower jaw has also a pair of large first incisors1 behind which are two small premolars1 and an enormous chisel-edged last premolar biting against a similar tooth in the upper jaw 7,fig4 #adf74 ,footnote #d3 ,this genus was described by ,owen in #ahgb as a sub-genus of ,phascolomys founded on some cheek-teeth2 and subsequently1 in #ahhd1 the same author described some incisors under the name of ,sceparnodon ramsayi1 which are now known to belong to the same animal that bore the cheek-teeth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb--,mandible of ,phascolomys pliocenus1 ,mc,coy4 787 ,upper ,pliocene 7,gold ,cement47 ,dunolly1 ,vict4 ,about #a_/b nat4 size4 7,after ,mc,coy74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc--;,,cainozoic ,,teeth and ,,otolith4 ,a--,phascolonus gigas1 ,owen4 7,molar74 ,pleistocene4 ,queensland ,b--,parasqualodon wilkinsoni1 ,mc,coy4 7,molar74 ,cainozoic 7,janj47 ,vict4 ,c--,parasqualodon wilkinsoni1 ,mc,coy4 7,incisor74 ,cainozoic 7,janj47 ,vict4 ,d--,metasqualodon harwoodi1 ,sanger sp4 7,molar74 ,cainozoic 7,janj47 ,south ,australia ,e--,kekenodon onamata1 ,hector4 7,molar74 ,cainozoic 7,oamaruian74 ,new ,zealand ,f--,cetotolithes nelsoni1 ,mc,coy4 7,tympanic bone74 ,cainozoic 7,janj47 ,victoria ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add--;,diprotodon australis1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene4 ,south ,australia4 7,after ,stirling and ,zeitz74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade--,upper ,surface of the ,right ,hind ,foot of ,diprotodon australis4 ,a--,with the ,astragalus 7ankle-bone7 in position4 ,b-- removed4 ,cir4 #a_/h nat4 size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf--;,diprotodon australis1 ,owen4 7,restored74 ,from a sketch by ,c4 ,h4 ,angas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg--,thylacoleo carnifex1 ,owen4 ,right lateral aspect of skull and mandible4 ,pleistocene4 ,australia4 #a_/eth nat4 size4 c1 canine4 i1 incisors4 m1 molars4 pm1 premolars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh--,wynyardia bassiana1 ,spencer4 ,upper ,cainozoic 7,turritella bed74 ,table ,cape4 ,tasmania4 #b_/gth nat4 size4 7,casts in ,nat4 ,mus4 ,coll47 ,oldest ,known ,marsupial4 ,the oldest marsupial found in ,australia is probably ,wynyardia bassiana 7,fig4 #adg71 whose remains occurred in the ,turritella-bed at ,table ,cape1 which is either of ,miocene or ,lower ,pliocene age4 ,this stratum occurs above the well-known ,crassatellites-bed 7,miocene7 of that locality4 ,so far as can be gathered from its incomplete dentition1 ,wynyardia represents an annectant form between the ,diprotodonts and the ,polyprotodonts4 ,pleistocene ,genera1 also ,living4-- ,besides the genera above enumerated1 many other marsupials of well-known living species are represented by fossil remains in ,cave-deposits and on sand-blows in most of the ,australian ,states4 ,the genera thus represented in the ,pleistocene deposits of ,australia are ,bettongia 7,prehensile ,rat-,kangaroo72 ,dasyurus 7,native ,cat72 ,hypsiprymnus 7,rat-,kangaroo72 ,macropus 7,kangaroo72 ,perameles 7,bandicoot72 ,petaurus 7,flying ,phalanger72 ,phalanger 7,cuscus72 ,phascolomys 7,wombat72 ,sarcophilus 7,tasmanian ,devil72 ,thylacinus 7,tasmanian ,wolf74 ,cetacea4-- ,the order ,cetacea includes ,whales1 ,dolphins and ,porpoises4 ,the earliest known forms belong to the sub-order ,archaeoceti1 and whilst absent from ,australian deposits1 are found in the ,eocene of ,europe1 ,northern ,africa and ,north ,america4 ,odontoceti3 ,toothed ,whales4-- ,remains of ,cetacea are first met with in ,australian rocks in the ,oligocene 7,balcombian7 of ,victoria4 ,at ,muddy ,creek near ,hamilton fragments of ribs and other bones of cetacea1 not yet determined1 occur in the tenacious blue clays of the lower part of the ,clifton ,bank section4 ,in ,australia and ,new ,zealand the oldest determinable remains of this order belong to the ,odontoceti1 members of which range from ,miocene to ,pliocene4 ,teeth of the toothed whales like ,squalodon of the ,miocene of ,france and ,bavaria have been found in ,new ,zealand 7,kekenodon72 in ,south ,australia 7,metasqualodon72 and in ,victoria 7,parasqualodon74 ,in ,victoria the teeth of ,squalodontidae occur in the ,janjukian beds of ,cape ,otway1 ,waurn ,ponds and ,torquay1 represented by molars and anterior teeth of ,parasqualodon wilkinsoni 7,fig4 #adb ,b1 ,c74 ,the same species also occurs at ,table ,cape1 ,tasmania1 in beds of similar age4 ,teeth of ,metasqualodon harwoodi 7,fig4 #adb ,d7 occasionally occur in the white polyzoal rock of the ,mount ,gambier district1 ,south ,australia4 ,the gigantic toothed whale1 ,kekenodon onamata 7,fig4 #adb ,e7 occurs in the ,marawhenua ,greensands 7,oamaru ,series7 at ,waitaki ,valley1 ,waihao1 ,ngapara1 ,waikouaiti and ,milburn in ,new ,zealand4 ,the molar teeth of this striking species1 with their serrated crowns1 measure nearly five inches in length4 ,ear-bones of ,whales4-- ,the tympanic bones of whales are not uncommon in the ,janjukian beds of ,waurn ,ponds1 near ,geelong1 ,victoria2 and they are occasionally found in the basement bed of the ,kalimnan at ,beaumaris1 ,port ,phillip4 ,in the absence of any distinctive generic characters they have been referred to the quasi-genus ,cetotolithes 7,fig4 #adb ,f74 ,mc,coy has expressed the opinion that they may perhaps be referable to the ziphioid or beaked whales1 for undoubted remains of that group1 as teeth of ,ziphius geelongensis1 occur in these same beds2 as well as portions of their rostrate crania1 in the ,kalimnan basement beds at ,grange ,burn1 near ,hamilton4 ,the large curved and flattened teeth of ,ziphius 7,dolichodon7 geelongensis are occasionally found1 more or less fragmentary1 in the polyzoal rock of ,waurn ,ponds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4--,tooth of ,scaldicetus macgeei1 ,chapm4 ,an ,extinct ,sperm ,whale4 ,from the ,kalimnan beds of ,beaumaris1 ,port ,phillip1 ,victoria4 ,about #c_/d nat4 size4 ,kalimnan-,scaldicetus4-- ,from the ,kalimnan ,series 7,lower ,pliocene7 of ,beaumaris1 ,port ,phillip1 there was described a short time since1 a remarkably well preserved specimen of ,scaldicetus tooth belonging to a new form1 ,s4 macgeei 7,fig4 #adh74 ,another species of the genus1 with teeth of a slender form1 has been found in the same geological series1 at ,grange ,burn1 near ,hamilton4 ,in only one other locality besides ,australia does the genus occur1 viz41 at ,antwerp1 ,belgium1 in ,crag deposits of ,lower ,pliocene age4 ,sirenia4-- ,the order ,sirenia 7,manatees and ,dugongs7 is represented in the ,australian ,pleistocene by ,chronozon australe4 ,the remains consist of the parietal and upper part of the occipital bones of the skull1 and were discovered in the fluviatile deposits on the ,darling ,downs1 ,queensland4 ,this fossil skull1 according to ,de ,vis1 had a shallower temporal fossa and feebler masticating muscles1 as well as a less highly developed brain than the existing ,dugong4 ,carnivora4-- ,the order ,carnivora is represented in ,australia by the ,native ,dog or ,dingo 7,canis dingo74 ,it is by no means a settled question whether the ,dingo can boast of very great antiquity4 ,the evidence of its remains having been found under volcanic tuff beds in ,victoria is not very convincing1 for the original record does not indicate the precise position where the bones were found4 ,the fact of the remains of the ,dingo having been found in ,cave deposits often associated with extinct marsupials1 goes a good way to prove its antiquity4 ,mc,coy was strongly inclined to the view of its ,pleistocene age1 and points out that it shows cranial characters intermediate between the ,dogs of ,south ,america and the ,old ,world4 ,fossil remains of the ,dingo1 associated with ,pleistocene mammalian forms have been recorded from the ,wellington1 ,valley ,caves1 ,new ,south ,wales2 from the ,mount ,macedon ,cave1 near ,gisborne2 and in the neighbourhood of ,warrnambool1 ,western ,victoria4 ,pinnipedia4-- ,of the fin-footed ,carnivores or ,seals and ,walruses1 the earliest ,australasian record is that of the remains of a small seal in the ,okehu shell-beds near ,wanganui1 found in association with the bones of a small ,moa-bird 7,dinornis74 ,newer ,pliocene ,seal4-- ,this seal was referred by ,hector to ,arctocephalus cinereus1 a species synonymous1 however1 with the widely distributed living ,seal1 ,otaria forsteri1 ,lesson1 of the ,southern ,ocean4 ,another and larger species of eared seal allied to the living ,fur ,seal1 ,otaria forsteri1 occurs in ,victoria4 ,pleistocene ,seal4-- ,this fossil was named ,arctocephalus williamsi by ,mc,coy1 and was found in ,pleistocene deposits at ,queenscliff1 ,port ,phillip1 at #e feet below the surface1 in marl and sand stone overlain with limestone4 ,although referred at the time of description to the ,pliocene1 it has since been proved that at this locality there is a considerable thickness of practically sub-recent material which is more accurately classed with the ,pleistocene4 ,similar remains of eared seals are not uncommon in the ,pleistocene deposits of the ,otway ,coast4 ,subrecent ,human ,remains4 ,on turning to the occurrence of human fossils in ,australia we find the geological evidence for any great antiquity of man on this continent to be very scanty and inconclusive4 ,this does not1 however1 imply that man's existence in ,australia will not eventually be proved to date back far beyond the period of the kitchen middens of modern aspect1 such as are now exposed on the slopes behind the sea-beaches1 and on the inland camping grounds4 ,almost all the records of ,australian human remains that have been found in other than ordinary burial places1 have proved to be of comparatively recent date4 ,for example1 the partially lime-encrusted body found in the cave in the ,mosquito ,plains1 north of ,penola1 ,south ,australia1 recorded by ,tenison ,woods1 is that of an aborigine who1 in the early days of settlement1 crawled into the cave in a wounded condition4 ,other occurrences of human remains in caves1 but of fairly recent date are1 a child's skull found in a small cave at ,bungonia1 ,co4 ,argyle1 ,new ,south ,wales1 recorded by ,etheridge2 and the non-petrified limb-bones found in a cave at ,wellington1 ,new ,south ,wales1 recorded by ,krefft1 which were probably washed in from the surface in recent times4 ,as regards the former1 in ,western ,australia1 as observed by ,froggatt1 the natives at the present time seek shelter in caves1 where these occur1 instead of building mia-mias4 ,a more interesting1 because probably much older1 occurrence of human remains has been described by ,etheridge and ,trickett from one of the ,jenolan ,caves 7,skeleton ,cave72 and those authors conclude from ,the great lapse of time that must have accrued to enable the changes already outlined to have taken place since the introduction of the remains into the ,skeleton ,cave1 that these remains are ancient4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej--;,impressions of ,footprints in dune sand-rock4 ,warrnambool1 ,victoria4 #a_/i nat4 size4 7,f4 ,c4 ,photo74 7,warrnambool ,museum74 ,curious footprints supposed to resemble impressions of human feet with accompanying impress as if made by natives seated1 have been long known from the older sand-dune rock of ,warrnambool4 ,they were found at ,kellas' ,quarry1 on the ,port ,fairy ,road in #ahij and at a depth of #ed feet4 ,in ,november1 #aiab1 a further discovery of similar footprints were found at ,messrs4 ,steere ,bros4' ,quarry1 ,warrnambool1 at a depth of #aj feet1 as a block of stone was being removed for building purposes4 ,these footprints are even more obscure than those previously found1 and it would be unsafe to affirm their human origin1 although they are suggestive of such4 ,their antiquity is certainly great1 since the lavas and tuffs of the ,tower ,hill district are found overlying this old dune-rock4 ,other footprints associated with these resemble those of the ,dingo and a gigantic bird1 possibly like ,genyornis4 ,probable ,origin of ,aborigines4-- ,ethnology appears to throw more light upon the subject than does geology4 ,australia has in the past been peopled by two distinct types of man4 7#a71 the ancestors of the ,tasmanians1 now alas1 extinct1 who according to some authorities came by way of ,australia from ,papua through the ,malay ,peninsula1 passing over to ,tasmania from the mainland before the separation caused by the subsidence of the ,bass ,strait area2 and who were represented by a negroid or woolly-haired type3 7#b71 the present aboriginals of ,australia1 showing affinities with the ,dravidians of ,southern ,india1 a primitive race from whose original stock the white ,caucasian races of ,europe were derived4 ,by intermarriage with a negroid race like the ,melanesian1 it is supposed that the black ,caucasian gave rise to the present ,australian mixed aboriginal type1 with negroid features1 but possessing the long black hair and keener intellect of the melanochroi1 as the dark ,eurasian stock was termed by ,huxley4 ,aboriginal ,implements4-- ,the stone implements fashioned by the ,tasmanian aboriginals were roughly chipped and of primitive type1 of such forms as used at the present day by the ,bushmen of ,south ,africa1 and representing the eoliths and palaeoliths of early man in the south of ,england4 ,the implements of the ,australian aboriginals on the other hand include besides these both flakes and worked and polished tools1 such as were produced by the ,neolithic men of ,europe1 as contrasted with the typically rough palaeolithic tools of the ,tasmanian1 who never grooved his axes for hafting as did the ,australian aboriginal4 ,according to some authorities the ,tasmanians represent palaeolithic or even eolithic man in the character of their implements2 whilst the ,australian resembles the ,middle or ,mousterian stage of early man in certain of their ethnological characters and in the forms of their implements1 although a marked exception is seen in their manufacture of polished adzes1 of the neolithic period and in the use of bone implements such as were used in ,europe in ,upper ,palaeolithic times4 ,so far no human remains or handiwork in the form of chipped implements have been found in other than superficial deposits1 either in ,tasmania or ,australia4 ,the incised bone-fragment found near ,ballarat1 in a bed of silt beneath a sheet of basalt which flowed from ,mount ,buninyong1 is believed by some to be evidence of man's handiwork in the early ,pleistocene1 though by others thought to have been cut by the teeth of the marsupial lion 7,thylacoleo74 ,a stone axe of basalt1 grooved for the purpose of mounting in a handle1 was found in gravel at ,ballarat at a depth of #bb inches from the surface4 ,this1 however1 is no proof of man's antiquity1 for superficial deposits of much greater depth are easily accumulated within a short period4 ,another implement was found at ,maryborough in ,queensland in gravels at a depth of #d feet from the surface1 but not below the basalt of the main lead4 ,in this case it is believed that the implement may have fallen into a natural hollow or wombat-burrow4 ,a bone pointer1 such as used by native medicine men1 was some years ago found buried in the ,miocene marls of ,waurn ,ponds near ,geelong4 ,its presence in so old a rock is easily explained from the fact that in the aboriginal ceremonies the pointer was buried after the incantations4 ,seeing the difficulties in the way of discovering reliable occurrences of man's handiwork in isolated examples amongst the older superficial deposits of silt and gravels1 the ancient sand-dunes of ,victoria1 which date back at least to ,upper ,pliocene1 should afford favourable conditions for the preservation of any really ancient kitchen middens1 did such exist4 ,moreover1 these deposits would have been less liable to disturbance when once they were covered1 than the inland deposits1 for the former are now consolidated into a tolerably hard stone4 ,antiquity of ,man in ,australia4-- ,a strong argument in favour of a considerable antiquity for man in ,australia is the fact that the dialects are many1 and marriage and tribal customs more complex and intricate than would be found in a comparatively recent primitive race4 ,in any case1 it is quite possible1 if not probable1 that man was in southern ,australia before the termination of the last phase of volcanic activity1 since the tuff beds of ,koroit1 for example1 are quite modern and were laid down on a modern sea-beach strewn with shells identical in species and condition with those now found thrown up in the vicinity at high tide4 ,this view is quite compatible with the occurrence of dingo remains 7assuming this animal was introduced by man7 in cave deposits in ,australia1 associated with extinct forms of marsupials4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,common ,,or ,,characteristic ,,fossils ,,of ,,the ,,foregoing ,,chapter4 ,,fishes4 ,thyestes magnificus1 ,chapman4 ,silurian3 ,victoria4 ,asterolepis australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,middle ,devonian3 ,victoria4 ,ganorhynchus sssmilchi1 ,etheridge fil4 ,devonian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,gyracanthides murrayi1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodward4 ,lower ,carboniferous3 ,victoria4 ,acanthodes australis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodward4 ,lower ,carboniferous3 ,victoria4 ,ctenodus breviceps1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodward4 ,lower ,carboniferous3 ,victoria4 ,strepsodus decipiens1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodward4 ,lower ,carboniferous3 ,victoria4 ,elonichthys sweeti1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodward4 ,lower ,carboniferous3 ,victoria4 ,physonemus micracanthus1 ,chapman4 ,lower ,carboniferous3 ,victoria4 787 ,deltodus australis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,carbopermian3 ,queensland4 ,tomodus 787 convexus1 ,agassiz4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,edestus davisii1 ,h4 ,woodward4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,peocilodus jonesi1 ,agassiz4 ,carbopermian3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,gosfordia truncata1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,myriolepis clarkei1 ,egerton4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,apateolepis australis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,dictyopyge robusta1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,belonorhynchus gigas1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,semionotus australis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pristisomus latus1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,cleithrolepis granulatus1 ,egerton4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pholidophorus gregarius1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pleuracanthus parvidens1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,upper ,trias3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,sagenodus laticeps1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,upper ,trias3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,palaeoniscus crassus1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,upper ,trias3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,elonichthys armatus1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,upper ,trias3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,elpisopholis dunstani1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,upper ,trias3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pholidophorus australis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,upper ,trias3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,psilichthys selwyni1 ,hall4 ,jurassic3 ,victoria4 ,leptolepis crassicauda1 ,hall4 ,jurassic3 ,victoria4 ,ceratodus avus1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,jurassic3 ,victoria4 ,coccolepis australis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,jurassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,aphnelepis australis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,jurassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,aetheolepis mirabilis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,jurassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,archaeomaene tenuis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,jurassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,leptolepis talbragarensis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,jurassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,lamna daviesii1 ,eth4 fil4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,lamna appendiculatus1 ,agassiz4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,corax australis1 ,chapm4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,aspidorhynchus sp4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,belonostomus sweeti1 ,eth4 fil4 and ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,portheus australis1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,cladocyclus sweeti1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,notidanus marginalis1 ,davis4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,lamna compressa1 ,agassiz4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,callorhynchus hectori1 ,newton4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,ischyodus thurmanni1 ,pictet and ,campiche4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,odontaspis contortidens1 ,agassiz4 ,cainozoic 7,bal4 and ,janj473 ,victoria4 ,lamna apiculata1 ,ag4 sp4 ,cainozoic 7,bal4 and ,janj473 ,victoria4 ,also ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,carcharodon megalodon1 ,agassiz4 ,cainozoic 7,bal4 ,janj4 and ,kal473 ,victoria4 ,also ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,cestracion cainozoicus1 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,janj4 and ,kal473 ,victoria4 ,asteracanthus eocaenicus1 ,tate sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janj4 and ,kal473 ,victoria4 ,galeocerdo davisi1 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,janj473 ,victoria4 ,also ,cretaceous 7,waipara ,series7 and ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,carcharoides totuserratus1 ,ameghino4 ,cainozoic 7,janj473 ,victoria4 ,odontaspis incurva1 ,davis sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janj4 and ,kal473 ,victoria4 ,also ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,oxyrhina retroflexa1 ,agassiz4 ,cainozoic 7,janj473 ,victoria4 ,also ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,carcharodon auriculatus1 ,blainville sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janj4 and ,kal473 ,victoria4 ,acanthias geelongensis1 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,janj473 ,victoria4 ,ischyodus mortoni1 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,janj473 ,tasmania4 ,notidanus jenningsi1 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,galeocerdo aduncus1 ,agassiz4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,oxyrhina hastalis1 ,agassiz4 ,cainozoic 7rare in ,balc4 and ,janj41 abundant in ,kal473 ,victoria4 ,myliobatis moorabbinensis1 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,edaphodon sweeti1 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,labrodon confertidens1 ,chap4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,diodon formosus1 ,chapm4 and ,pritch4 ,cainozoic 7,kal473 ,victoria4 ,notidanus marginalis1 ,davis4 ,cretaceous 7,waipara ,series72 and ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,myliobatis plicatilis1 ,davis4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,sargus laticonus1 ,davis4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,ctenolates avus1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,pleistocene3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,neoceratodus forsteri1 ,krefft1 sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,,amphibia4 ,bothriceps australis1 ,huxley4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,bothriceps major1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,carbopermian3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,platyceps wilkinsoni1 ,stephens4 ,triassic3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,,reptilia4 ,ichthyosaurus hectori1 ,ch4 7nom4 mut474 ,triassic3 ,new ,zealand4 787 ,megalosaurus sp4 ,jurassic3 ,victoria4 ,notochelone costata1 ,owen sp4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,ichthyosaurus australis1 ,mc,coy4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,ichthyosaurus marathonensis1 ,eth4 fil4 ,lower ,cretaceous3 ,queensland4 ,cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus1 ,eth4 fil4 ,upper ,cretaceous3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,plesiosaurus australis1 ,owen4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,polycotylus tenuis1 ,hector4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,cimoliosaurus haastii1 ,hector sp4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,tylosaurus haumuriensis1 ,hector sp4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,taniwhasaurus oweni1 ,hector4 ,cretaceous3 ,new ,zealand4 ,pallymnarchus pollens1 ,de ,vis4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland and ,victoria4 ,crocodilus porosus1 ,schneider4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland and ,victoria4 ,miolania oweni1 ,a4 ,s4 ,woodw4 ,pliocene 7,deep-leads73 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland4 ,miolania platyceps1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,lord ,howe ,island4 ,megalania prisca1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland4 ,,birds4 ,palaeeudyptes antarcticus1 ,huxley4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,dinornis sp4 ,cainozoic 7,petane ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,pelecanus proavis1 ,de ,vis4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland4 ,platalea subtenuis1 ,de ,vis4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland4 ,anas elapsa1 ,de ,vis4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland4 ,gallinula strenuipes1 ,de ,vis4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland4 ,fulica prior1 ,de ,vis4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland4 ,dromornis australis1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,dromaeus patricius1 ,de ,vis4 ,pleistocene4 ,queensland4 ,dromaeus minor1 ,spencer4 ,pleistocene3 ,king ,island4 ,genyornis newtoni1 ,stirling and ,zietz4 ,pleistocene3 ,s4 ,australia4 ,cnemiornis calcitrans1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,new ,zealand4 ,harpagornis moorei1 von ,haast4 ,pleistocene3 ,new ,zealand4 ,aptornis otidiformis1 ,owen sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,new ,zealand4 ,dinornis giganteus1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene and ,holocene3 ,n4 ,id41 ,new ,zealand4 ,pachyornis elephantopus1 ,owen sp4 ,pleistocene and ,holocene3 ,s4 ,id41 ,new ,zealand4 ,anomalopteryx antiqua1 ,hutton4 ,pleistocene3 ,s4 ,id41 ,new ,zealand4 ,,mammalia4 ,ornithorhynchus maximus1 ,dun4 ,cainozoic 7,kalimnan or ,l4 ,pliocene73 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,echidna 7,proechidna7 robusta1 ,dun4 ,cainozoic 7,kalimnan73 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,ornithorhynchus agilis1 ,de ,vis4 ,pleistocene3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,echidna 7,proechidna7 oweni1 ,krefft4 ,pleistocene3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,wynyardia bassiana1 ,spencer4 ,cainozoic 7,kalimnan73 ,tasmania4 ,dasyurus maculatus1 ,kerr sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,living3 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria and ,tasmania4 ,phascolomys pliocenus1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic 7,werrikooian73 ,victoria4 ,sarcophilus ursinus1 ,harris sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,living3 ,tasmania4 ,thylacinus cynocephalus1 ,harris sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,living3 ,tasmania4 ,thylacinus spelaeus1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,thylacinus major1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland4 ,peragale lagotis1 ,reid sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,living3 ,s4 ,australia and ,w4 ,australia4 ,perameles gunni1 ,gray4 ,pleistocene3 ,victoria4 ,living3 ,queensland and ,victoria4 ,phascolomys parvus1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland4 ,phascolonus gigas1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,s4 ,australia4 ,macropus titan1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland1 ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,s4 ,australia4 ,macropus anak1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland1 ,s4 ,australia and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,procoptodon goliah1 ,owen sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria4 ,sthenurus atlas1 ,owen sp4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria1 and ,south ,australia4 ,sthenurus occidentalis1 ,glauert4 ,pleistocene3 ,w4 ,australia4 ,palorchestes azael1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria4 ,diprotodon australis1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria and ,s4 ,australia4 ,nototherium mitchelli1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland1 ,s4 ,australia and ,victoria4 ,thylacoleo carnifex1 ,owen4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria and ,w4 ,australia4 ,parasqualodon wilkinsoni1 ,mc,coy sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria and ,tasmania4 ,metasqualodon harwoodi1 ,sanger sp4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,s4 ,australia4 ,kekenodon onamata1 ,hector4 ,cainozoic 7,oamaru ,series73 ,new ,zealand4 ,cetotolithes nelsoni1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,ziphius 7,dolichodon7 geelongensis1 ,mc,coy4 ,cainozoic 7,janjukian73 ,victoria4 ,scaldicetus macgeei1 ,chapm4 ,cainozoic 7,kalimnan73 ,victoria4 ,chronozon australis1 ,de ,vis4 ,pleistocene3 ,queensland4 ,canis dingo1 ,blumenbach4 ,late ,pleistocene or ,holocene3 ,victoria4 ,otaria forsteri1 ,lesson4 ,pliocene 7,petane ,series73 ,n4 ,id41 ,new ,zealand4 ,arctocephalus williamsi1 ,mc,coy4 ,pleistocene3 ,victoria4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,literature4 ,,fishes4 ,silurian4--,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xviii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijf1 pp4 #ic-ajj1 pls4 ,,vii4 and ,,viii4 7,thyestes74 ,devonian4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,,iv4 #ahgf1 pp4 #ai1 #bj1 pl4 ,,xxxv4 figs4 #g1 #g;a1 #g;b 7,asterolepis74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,austr4 ,mus41 vol4 ,,vi4 pp4 #abi-acb1 pl4 ,,xxviii4 7,ganorhynchus74 ,carboniferous and ,carbopermian4--,woodward1 ,h4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,,iii4 vol4 ,,iii4 #ahhf1 pp4 #a-g1 pl4 ,i4 7,edestus74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 p4 #bif1 pl4 ,,xxxix4 fig4 #a 7,deltodus74 ,de ,koninck1 ,l4 ,g4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #f1 #ahih1 p4 #bha1 pl4 ,,xxiv41 fig4 #aa 7,tomodus74 ,woodward1 ,a4 ,s4 ,mem4 ,nat4 ,mus4 ,melbourne1 ,no4 #a4 #aijf 7,mansfield ,series74 ,triassic4--,johnston1 ,r4 ,m4 and ,morton1 ,a4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,tasmania 7#ahhi71 #ahij1 pp4 #ajb-ajd2 ibid4 7#ahij71 #ahia1 pp4 #aeb-aed 7,acrolepis74 ,woodward1 ,a4 ,s4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #d1 #ahij 7,gosford74 ,ibid4 ,no4 #aj1 #aijh 7,st4 ,peters74 ,jurassic4--,woodward1 ,a4 ,s4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,pal4 ,no4 #i1 #ahie4 ,id41 ,ann4 ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist41 ,ser4 ,,vii4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 #aijf1 pp4 #a-c1 pl4 ,i4 7,ceratodus74 ,hall1 ,t4 ,s4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict4 vol4 ,,xii4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijj1 pp4 #adg-aea1 pl4 ,,xiv4 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict4 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 #b1 #aiab1 pp4 #bcd-bce1 pl4 ,,xxxix4 7,ceratodus74 ,cretaceous4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,iii4 ser4 #b1 #ahhi1 pp4 #aef-afa1 pl4 ,,iv4 ,idem1 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #ejc-ejd4 ,davis1 ,j4 ,w4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,dubl4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,iv4 ser4 #b4 #ahhh1 pp4 #a-dh1 pls4 ,i4-,,vii4 7,cretaceous and ,cainozoic of ,new ,zealand74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 and ,woodward1 ,a4 ,s4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,ii4 pt4 ,,ii4 #ahib1 pp4 #a-g1 pl4 ,i4 7,belonostomus74 ,woodward1 ,a4 ,s4 ,ann4 ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist41 ser4 #f1 vol4 ,,xix4 #ahid1 pp4 #ddd-ddg1 pl4 ,x4 7,portheus and ,cladocyclus74 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xxi4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aiji1 pp4 #deb1 #dec 7,corax74 ,cainozoic4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,,ii4 #ahge1 pp4 #h-aj1 pl4 ,,xi4 7,carcharodon74 ,chapman1 ,f4 and ,pritchard1 ,g4 ,b4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xvii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #aijd1 pp4 #bfg-big1 pls4 ,v4-,,viii4 ,idem1 ibid1 vol4 ,,xx4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #aijg1 pp4 #ei-ge1 pls4 ,v4-,,viii4 ,see also ,davis1 ,j4 ,w4 7,cretaceous74 ,pleistocene4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 p4 #fdf 7,neoceratodus74 ,woodward1 ,a4 ,s4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,vii4 pt4 #b1 #aijb1 pp4 #hh-ia1 pl4 ,,xxiv4 7,ctenolates74 ,,amphibia4 ,huxley1 ,t4 ,h4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xv4 #ahei1 pp4 #fdg-fdi1 pl4 ,,xxii4 figs4 #a1 #b 7,bothriceps74 ,stephens1 ,w4 ,j4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ser4 #b4 vol4 ,i4 #ahhf1 pp4 #ica-idj4 ,ibid41 #ahhg1 pp4 #aage-aahb1 pl4 ,,xxii4 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,ii4 #ahhg1 pp4 #aef-aeh4 ,woodward1 ,a4 ,s4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 #d1 #aiji1 pp4 #cag-cai1 pl4 ,,li4 7,bothriceps74 ,,reptilia4 ,jurassic and ,cretaceous4--,hector1 ,j4 ,trans4 ,n4,z4 ,inst41 vol4 ,,vi4 #ahgd1 pp4 #ccc-ceh4 ,cretaceous4--,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vic41 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 ,i4 #ahfh1 p4 #db 7,plesiosaurus74 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,ix4 pt4 ,,ii4 #ahfi1 p4 #gg 7,ichthyosaurus74 ,owen1 ,r4 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,dec4 ,i4 vol4 ,,vii4 #ahgj1 pp4 #di-ec1 pl4 ,,iii4 7,plesiosaurus74 ,id41 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xxxviii4 #ahhb1 pp4 #agh-ahc 7,notochelys ,notochelone74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 ser4 #b1 vol4 ,,iii4 #ahhi1 pp4 #dje-dac1 pls4 ,,vii4 and ,,viii4 7,ichthyosaurus74 ,id41 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #eje-eaj4 ,hutton1 ,f4 ,w4 ,trans4 ,n4,z4 ,inst4 vol4 ,,xxvi4 #ahid1 pp4 #ced-ceh1 #a pl4 7,cimoliosaurus74 ,pleistocene4--,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,i4 pt4 #c1 #ahhi1 pp4 #adi-aeb 7,miolania74 ,id41 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #fdg-fec4 ,,aves4 ,miocene4--,huxley1 ,t4 ,h4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xv4 #ahei1 pp4 #fgj-fgg4 ,also ,hector1 ,j4 ,trans4 ,n4,z4 ,inst4 vol4 ,,iv4 #ahgb1 pp4 #cda-cdf1 #a pl4 7,palaeeudyptes74 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict4 7,n4,s47 pt4 ,i4 #aiaj1 pp4 #ba-bf1 pls4 ,,iv4 and ,v4 ,pleistocene and ,holocene4--,von ,haast1 ,j4 ,trans4 ,n4,z4 ,inst41 vol4 ,,iv41 #ahgb1 pp4 #aib-aif2 and vol4 ,,vi4 #ahgd1 pp4 #fb-ge 7,harpagornis74 ,owen1 ,r4 ,memoirs on the ,extinct ,wingless ,birds of ,new ,zealand1 ,london1 #ahgi1 #b vols4 ,de ,vis1 ,c4 ,w4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,queensland1 vol4 ,,vi4 pt4 ,i4 #ahhi1 pp4 #f-h4 ,id41 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,iii4 ser4 #b1 #ahhh1 pp4 #abgg-abib1 pls4 ,,xxxiii4-,,xxxvi4 7,carinatae74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,i4 pt4 #b1 #ahhi1 pp4 #abf-acf1 pls4 ,,xi4-,,xiii4 7,dromornis74 ,id41 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #fec-ffc4 ,hutton1 ,f4 ,w4 ,trans4 ,n4,z4 ,inst41 vol4 ,,xxiv4 #ahib1 pp4 #ic-agb 7,moas74 ,id41 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxv4 #ahic1 pp4 #ad-af1 #a pl4 7,anomalopteryx74 ,id41 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxix4 #ahig1 pp4 #dda-eeg1 figs4 7,moas74 ,id41 ibid41 vol4 ,,xxxviii4 #aijf1 pp4 #ff and #fg 7,emeus crassus74 ,hamilton1 ,a4 ,ibid1 vol4 ,,xxvi4 #ahid1 pp4 #bbg-beg 7,bibliography of ,moas74 ,ibid1 vol4 ,,xxx4 #ahih1 pp4 #dde and #ddf 7,euryapteryx74 ,stirling1 ,e4 ,c4 and ,zietz1 ,a4 ,h4 ,c4 ,mem4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,austr41 vol4 ,i4 pt4 ,,ii4 #aijj1 pp4 #da-hj1 pls4 ,,xix4-,,xxiv4 7,genyornis74 ,spencer1 ,w4 ,b4 ,vict4 ,nat4 vol4 ,,xxiii4 #aijf1 pp4 #aci and #adj2 also ,spencer1 ,w4 ,b4 and ,kershaw1 ,j4 ,a4 ,mem4 ,nat4 ,mus4 ,melbourne ,no4 #c1 #aiaj1 pp4 #e-ce1 pls4 ,i4-,,vii4 7,dromaeus minor74 ,,mammals4 ,huxley1 ,t4 ,h4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,xv4 #ahei1 pp4 #fgf-fgg 7,phocaenopsis74 ,mc,coy1 ,f4 ,prod4 ,pal4 ,vict41 ,dec4 ,i4 #ahgd1 pp4 #ba1 #bb1 pls4 ,,iii4-,v4 7,phascolomys74 ,ibid1 ,dec4 ,,ii4 #ahge1 pp4 #g-h1 pl4 ,,xi4 and ,dec4 ,,vi4 #ahgi1 pp4 #bj and #ba1 pl4 ,,lv4 7,squalodon74 ,ibid1 ,dec4 ,,iii4 #ahgf1 pp4 #g-ab1 pl4 ,,xxi4 7,thylacoleo74 ,ibid1 ,dec4 ,,iv4 #ahgf1 pp4 #g-aa1 pl4 ,,xxxi4-,,xxxiii4 7,diprotodon74 ,ibid1 ,dec4 ,v4 #ahgg1 pp4 #g-i1 pl4 ,,xli4 and ,,xlii4 7,arctocephalus74 ,ibid1 ,dec4 ,,vi4 #ahgi1 pp4 #e-g1 pl4 ,,li4 7,macropus73 pp4 #i-aa1 pl4 ,,li4-,,liii4 7,procoptodon73 pp4 #ac-ag1 pl4 ,,liv4 7,cetotolithes72 pp4 #ai and #bj1 pl4 ,,lv4 7,physetodon74 ,ibid1 ,dec4 ,,vii4 #ahhb1 pp4 #g-aj1 pl4 ,,lx4 7,canis dingo73 pp4 #aa-ac1 pl4 ,,lxxii4 and ,,lxii4 7,sarcophilus73 pp4 #bc-bf1 pl4 ,,lix4 7,ziphius74 ,owen1 ,r4 ,extinct ,mammals of ,australia1 ,london #ahgg1 #b vols4 ,hector1 ,j4 ,trans4 ,n4,z4 ,inst41 vol4 ,,xiii4 #ahha1 pp4 #dcd-dcf1 #a pl4 7,kekenodon74 ,lydekker1 ,r4 ,cat4 ,foss4 ,mammalia1 ,brit4 ,mus4 part ,v4 #ahhg4 ,id41 ,handbook to the ,marsupialia1 and ,monotremata4 ,allen's ,nat4 ,library1 #ahid1 pt4 ,,iii4 pp4 #bdi-bhf4 ,de ,vis1 ,c4 ,w4 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 #c1 #ahhc1 p4 #cie 7,sirenian74 ,id41 ibid1 vol4 ,x4 #ahie1 pp4 #ge-acc1 pls4 ,,xiv4-,,xviii4 7,macropodidae74 ,id41 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i1 #ahii1 pp4 #ajg-aa 7,marsupials74 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,geol4 and ,pal4 ,queensland1 #ahib1 pp4 #ffc-fhc 7,pleistocene ,mammals74 ,dun1 ,w4 ,s4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 #d1 #ahic1 pp4 #abj-abd1 pl4 ,,xvi4 7,palorchestes74 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,iv4 pt4 #c1 #ahie1 pp4 #aah-abf1 pls4 ,,xi4 and ,,xii4 7,monotremes74 ,stirling1 ,e4 ,c4 and ,zietz1 ,a4 ,h4 ,c4 ,mem4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,s4 ,australia1 vol4 ,i4 pt4 ,i4 #ahii 7,descr4 of ,diprotodon1 ,manus and ,pes474 ,spencer1 ,w4 ,b4 ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc4 #aijj1 pp4 #ggf-gid1 pls4 ,,xlix4 and ,l4 7,wynyardia74 ,hall1 ,t4 ,s4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict4 vol4 ,,xxiii4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,,ii4 #aiaa1 pp4 #beg-bfe1 pl4 ,,xxxvi4 7,rev4 of ,squalodontidae74 ,spencer1 ,w4 ,b4 and ,walcott1 ,r4 ,h4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,xxiv4 7,n4,s471 pt4 ,i4 #aiab1 pp4 #ib-abc1 pls4 ,,xxxvi4-,,xxix4 7,thylacoleo74 ,chapman1 ,f4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,vict41 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 #b1 #aiab1 pp4 #bcf-bch1 pl4 ,,xl4 7,scaldicetus74 ,woods1 ,j4 ,e4 ,t4 ,geol4 ,observations in ,s4 ,australia1 #ahfb1 pp4 #cbi and #ccj 7,human ,remains73 also ,krefft1 ,g4 ,australian ,vertebrata1 ,recent and ,fossil1 #ahfg1 p4 #ia2 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 #d1 #ahic1 pp4 #abh-acb2 ,etheridge1 ,r4 jnr4 and ,trickett1 ,o4 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,vii4 pt4 #d1 #aijd1 pp4 #cbe-cbh4 ,,appendix4--,,on ,,the ,,collection ,,and ,,preservation ,,of ,,fossils4 ,the tools and other paraphernalia necessary for fossil collecting are fortunately within the reach of all4 ,the principal of these is a geological hammer1 preferably with a pick at one end of the head and the opposite end square-faced4 ,the pick end is useful for digging out fossils from soft clays1 or for extracting a block of fossils entire4 ,the square end is employed for breaking up the slabs or masses containing fossils4 ,to get good results1 much will of course depend upon one's skill in striking the right face of a block4 ,if bedding planes are present on the lump from which we wish to extract our fossils1 it will be well to strike at right angles to these layers in order to split them asunder1 thus exposing a shell-layer corresponding to the original surface of the ancient sea-bed upon which the organisms accumulated4 ,in some cases the splitting of fossiliferous rocks may be best carried out with the pick end1 provided it be not too sharply curved4 ,the hammer should be faced with steel1 for many fossiliferous rocks1 especially compact limestones1 are apt to severely try the temper of an ill-made tool4 ,a chisel1 of chilled steel1 should accompany the hammer1 since this is often of the greatest use in working out large fossils1 more particularly those that are buried in a cliff or quarry face4 ,the process of extracting difficult specimens should never be hurried1 for one often gets surprisingly good results with a little extra care4 ,a strong pocket knife may be used in trimming specimens and partially cleaning shells that can be safely manipulated on the spot1 but the final cleaning should be left until the return home4 ,the knife is also useful for cleaning slates and shales1 since the chisel-edge is frequently a trifle too thick for this kind of work4 ,for the more delicate fossils1 means for careful packing should be provided2 chip-boxes and cotton-wool being indispensable for the smaller specimens4 ,a ready method of packing the fossils obtained from the friable1 sandy tertiary deposits is to store them in tins1 the contents of which can be firmly secured from rattling by filling up with sand4 ,this sand1 however1 should be taken from the same bed in which the fossils occur1 so as to get no admixture of the smaller shells from another formation or deposit2 for although we may not wish to examine the finer material ourselves1 it will yield in many cases a rich harvest to our microscopical friends1 such residues containing microzoa1 as shells of foraminifera1 polyzoa and carapaces of the ostracoda4 ,the residues referred to may be obtained from many of our marls and rubbly limestones by the simple process of washing in water1 and repeatedly pouring off the finest clayey mud1 until only a sandy deposit remains1 which can then be dried and sorted over by the aid of a lens or low power microscope4 ,hints on ,fossil ,collecting4-- ,as regards the places most suitable for collecting fossils1 the ,cainozoic beds are perhaps1 the most accessible to a beginner1 especially in ,victoria4 ,for instance1 the cliff exposures at ,beaumaris1 ,port ,phillip1 will afford a plentiful supply of the little heart-shaped sea-urchin1 ,lovenia1 and an occasional ,trigonia and ,limopsis1 as well as many other fossils of the great group of the shell-fish or mollusca4 ,the richest bed containing the sharks' teeth at the above locality is almost perpetually covered with a bed of shingle1 but can be reached by digging at the cliff-base4 ,isolated specimens1 however1 although rather the worse for wear1 may often be picked up amongst the shingle1 having been washed up from the foreshore by the tide4 ,an enticing band of large bivalve shells 7,dosinea71 can be seen halfway up the cliffs1 near the baths at this locality1 but are somewhat disappointing1 for when obtained they crumble to pieces in the hand1 since their shells are composed of the changeable form of carbonate of lime called aragonite1 which has decomposed in place in the bed1 after the shells were covered up by the deposit4 ,good collections of shells of the ,balcombian series may be easily made at ,balcombe's ,bay and ,grice's ,creek1 ,port ,phillip4 ,they can there be dug out of the grey-blue clay with a knife1 and afterwards cleaned at leisure by means of a soft tooth brush dipped in water4 ,in the cement stone at the same place there are numerous shells of pteropods or sea-butterflies 7,vaginella71 and specimens of the stone may be obtained1 showing myriads of the porcelain-like shells1 and also their internal casts in the hard greenish coloured matrix4 ,the ferruginous or ironstone beds seen in the ,flemington ,railway cutting1 ,melbourne1 is an old marine shell-bank1 resting on basalt4 ,the shells have all been dissolved away1 and only their casts and moulds remain4 ,these impressions are1 however1 so faithfully moulded that the ornamentation of each shell can often be reproduced on a squeeze taken with a piece of modelling wax or plasticine4 ,such fossil remains are easily collected by carefully breaking up the blocks of ironstone with a hammer4 ,quarries in the older limestones and mudstones in ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales and other ,states1 are often good hunting grounds for fossils4 ,the quarry at ,cave ,hill1 ,lilydale1 for example1 will be found very profitable1 for the limestone is full of corals and molluscan shells2 whilst the friable or rubbly portion is worth breaking down for the smaller fossils4 ,the bed-rock 7,silurian7 of ,melbourne is in places very fossiliferous2 the sandstones of ,moonee ,ponds ,creek generally affording a fair number of brachiopods1 and occasionally corals4 ,the mudstones of ,south ,yarra1 ,studley ,park1 ,yan ,yean1 and other places on the same geological horizon1 contain a rich fauna1 to be obtained only by the assiduous collector who will search over and break up a large number of blocks4 ,practice in this work makes a good collector2 although of course one must know something about the objects looked for1 since many apparently obscure fossil remains of great interest might easily be passed over for lack of knowledge as to what should be expected to occur at each particular locality4 ,many other good collecting grounds might here be alluded to1 but we have purposely cited only a few near ,melbourne1 since a selection from other parts of ,australasia may easily be made from the localities mentioned in connection with the various groups of fossils dealt with in the systematic portion of this work4 ,preservation of ,fossils4-- ,many of the ,cainozoic fossils from the shelly sands and clays are extremely delicate1 owing in some cases to their being imperfectly preserved1 seeing that they frequently contain in their shell-structure layers of the unstable form of carbonate of lime called aragonite4 ,fossils containing aragonite are3--,calcareous ,sponges2 ,corals2 ,bivalved shells1 except ,oysters1 ,pectens1 and the outer layer of ,spondylus1 ,pinna1 and ,mytilus2 ,gasteropods 7with a few exceptions72 and ,cephalopods4 ,in some of these1 however1 a transformation of the aragonite into calcite enables the fossil to be permanently preserved4 ,the delicate fossils referred to should be dipped in weak glue or gelatine and left to dry2 after which their final cleaning can be done with the aid of a little warm water and a soft brush4 ,certain of the clays and mudstones1 both of ,cainozoic and ,jurassic ages which show remains of plants1 such as leaves and fern fronds1 are often best treated with a thin surface layer of paper varnish1 before they lose the natural moisture of the rock2 for when they become perfectly dry the thin carbonaceous film representing the original leaf-substance peels off1 and the fossil is consequently destroyed4 ,a method of treatment for ,cainozoic leaves1 by dipping them in warm vaseline and brushing off the superfluous material1 has been described by ,mr4 ,h4 ,deane4 ,storing ,fossils for ,reference4-- ,fossils specimens are generally best displayed in cardboard trays2 or if thin wooden paper-covered tablets are used1 say of about #c-af;in4 thickness and cut to proportionate sizes1 the fossils should be held in place by pins for easy removal1 unless more than one example can be shown together1 exhibiting all aspects1 when they can be secured to the tablet by a touch of seccotine4 ,the smaller shells may be displayed in glass topped boxes1 which in turn may be stuck down to tablets or placed in trays4 ,,index4 ,aboriginal implements1 #cjc ,aborigines1 probable origin of1 #cjb ,acanthias1 #bgj ,acanthodes1 #bfa ,acanthosphaera1 #ajc ,acanthothyris1 #aff1 #afg ,acentrophorus1 #bfc ,acrolepis1 #bfc ,actaeon1 #aig ,actinoceras1 #bje1 #bjg ,actinocrinus1 #acf ,actinodesma1 #agh1 #agi ,actinopteria1 #agh1 #agi ,actinostroma1 #aba1 #abb ,adeona1 #aeh ,aechmina1 #bcg ,aeschna1 #bej ,aetheolepis1 #bfg ,agathiceras1 #bjg ,,agnatha1 #beh ,agnostus1 #bbg ,allodesma1 #agf ,ambonychia1 #agg ,ammodiscus1 #if1 #ig ,ammonites1 #bjd1 #bji1 #baj ,,ammonoidea1 #bje ,amoeba1 #cf1 #ie ,,amphibia1 structure of1 #bgb ,amphistegina1 #ajj ,amplexus1 #aag ,ampyx1 #bbi ,amusium1 #ahe ,anas1 #bhc ,anchura1 #aig ,ancilla1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjb ,ancyloceras1 #bji1 #baj ,,angiospermeae1 characters of1 #dj ,,annelida1 #aeb ,anomalina1 #ih ,anomalopteryx1 #bhc ,antedon1 #ach ,,anthozoa1 #fd1 #aac ,antiquity of man in ,australia1 #cjd ,aparchites1 #bcg ,apateolepis1 #bfb ,aphnelepis1 #bfg ,apocynophyllum1 #ia ,aptornis1 #bhc ,aptychopsis1 #bdf ,arabellites1 #aec ,arachnoides1 #adf ,araucarioxylon1 #fh ,araucarites1 #hi ,arca1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #ahh ,archaeocidaris1 #add ,archaeocyathina1 #aac ,,archaeocyathinae1 #aab ,archaeomaene1 #bfg ,archaeopteryx1 #bhj ,arctocephalus1 #bii ,arenicolites1 #aec ,argillaceous rocks1 #fi ,argilloecia1 #bcg 8,argiope1 #aff ,argonauta1 #bje ,,arthropoda1 structure and subdivisions of1 #ch1 #bbj ,asaphus1 #bbg1 #bbh ,aspidorhynchus1 #bfg ,astarte1 #ahb ,asteracanthus1 #bfi1 #bga ,,asteroidea1 #aci ,asterolepis1 #beh ,astralium1 #aih1 #bjj ,astropecten1 #ada ,athyris1 #afa1 #afb1 #afe ,atrypa1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afb ,aturia1 #baj ,atys1 #bjd ,aucella1 #ahc ,aulopora1 #aaf ,australian fossiliferous strata1 #de-dh4 ,,aves1 #bhj ,aviculopecten1 #agi1 #ahj ,axopora1 #aai ,bactronella1 #aab ,baculites1 #baj ,baiera1 #hi1 #afd ,bairdia1 #bdj ,balanophyllia1 #aah ,balanus1 #bdc ,balcombian bivalves1 #ahf gasteropods1 #aii ,bandicoot1 #bhi1 #bie ,bankivia1 #bja ,banksia1 #ia1 #bha ,barbatia1 #ahd1 #ahe ,barnacles1 #bdj ,barnea1 #ahg ,bathytoma1 #bja ,bela1 #bja ,belemnites1 #bje1 #bji1 #baj ,,belemnoidea1 #bje ,bellerophon1 #aic1 #aid1 #aie1 #aif ,belonorhynchus1 #bfb ,belonostomus1 #bfg ,bettongia1 #bie ,beyrichia1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bcg ,biloela1 #bgd ,bipora1 #aeh ,birds1 fossil1 #ec1 #bhj ,biziura1 #bhc ,,blastoidea1 distribution and characters of1 #fa1 #ach ,blue-green ,algae1 #gf1 #hb ,bog iron-ore1 #hj ,bolodon1 #bhf ,bombax1 #ia ,bone-beds1 #gh ,bone-breccias1 #gi ,bothriceps1 #bgc ,botryocrinus1 #acf ,,brachiopoda1 structure of1 #eg1 #aeh ,brachiopod limestone1 #gd ,brachymetopus1 #bcb ,brachyphyllum1 #hi ,bracken fern1 #ia ,brissopsis1 #adh ,brittle-stars1 characters of1 #fa1 #ada ,bronteus1 #bbi1 #bcj ,bryograptus1 #abd1 #abf1 #bbg ,,bryophyta1 characters of1 #ci ,buccinum1 #aia ,buchozia1 #aii ,bulimina1 #ig1 #ih ,bulinus1 #fi1 #aia ,bulla1 #bjd ,bullinella1 #aih1 #aii ,bythocypris1 #bcf ,bythotrephis1 #hb ,cainozoic ,balanidae1 #bdc bird1 ,victoria1 #bha bivalves1 #ahd brachiopods1 #aff brittle-stars1 #adc chitons1 #aij corals1 #aah crabs1 #bdg echinoids1 irregular1 #adf echinoids1 regular1 #ade fishes1 #bfi ,foraminifera1 #ii gasteropods1 #aih gasteropods1 ,new ,zealand1 #bjb ,holothuroidea1 #adh insects1 #bej ,lepadidae1 #bdc ,ostracoda1 #bci and ,pleistocene reptiles1 #bgi plants1 #hi ,polyzoa1 #aeh ,cainozoic ,radiolaria1 #ajd scaphopods1 #ahi sponges1 #aaj starfishes1 #ada strata1 #de1 #df ,calcareous rocks1 #gb sponges1 #aab ,callograptus1 #abb ,callorhynchus1 #bfi ,calymene1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bca ,,calyptoblastea1 #abb ,calyptraea1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bja ,camarotoechia1 #afj1 #afa1 #afb ,cambrian bivalves1 #agg brachiopods1 #aei crinoids1 #acd ,foraminifera1 #if gasteropods1 #aib ,ostracoda1 #bce plants1 #hb ,radiolaria1 #ajb sponges1 #ajg ,cameroceras1 #bjg ,campanularia1 #abb ,campophyllum1 #aae1 #aag ,cancellaria1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjb ,canis1 #bih ,cannel coal1 #gf ,capitosaurus1 #bgd ,capulus1 #aid ,carbonaceous rocks1 #gf ,carboniferous brachiopods1 #afb crinoids1 #acf fishes1 #bei ,foraminifera1 #if gasteropods1 #aif ,ostracoda1 #bcg plants1 #he ,carbopermian bivalves1 #agi blastoids1 #aci brachiopods1 #afc cephalopods1 #bjg corals1 #aaf crinoids1 #acg fishes1 #bfa ,foraminifera1 #ig gasteropods1 #aif labyrinthodonts1 #bgc ,ostracoda1 #bcg palaeechinoids1 #add ,phyllopoda1 #bcc plants1 #hf sponges1 #aaj starfishes1 #ada trilobites1 #bcb ,carcharodon1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #bga ,carcharoides1 #bfi ,cardiola1 #agg1 #agh ,cardita1 #ahd1 #ahg ,cardium1 #agf1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #ahg ,,carnivora1 #bih ,carposphaera1 #ajb ,carpospongia1 #aji ,caryocaris1 #bdd1 #bdf ,cassidulus1 #adh 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#cjj ,well's ,creek1 ,n4,z41 #afe ,west ,melbourne ,swamp1 ,v41 #ea ,westport1 ,n4,z41 #gh ,wharekuri1 ,n4,z41 #bdh ,white ,cliffs1 ,n4,s4,w41 #ach1 #agi1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #aie1 #bgi ,whittlesea1 ,v41 #bjf ,wilberforce1 ,n4,z41 #ahi ,wilcannia1 ,n4,s4,w41 #ach ,wirrialpa1 ,s4,a41 #aei ,wollumbilla1 ,q41 #ih1 #acg1 #aed1 #aeg1 #aff1 #ahc1 #ahi ,wombat ,creek1 ,v41 #aji1 #abf ,woori ,yallock ,creek1 ,v41 #bca ,wormbete ,creek1 ,v41 #gd ,wynyard1 ,t41 #bdf ,yan ,yean1 ,v41 #cah ,yass1 ,n4,s4,w41 #fe1 #aji1 #aad1 #aba1 #aec1 #afa1 #agi1 #aij1 #bjg1 #bca1 #bcg1 #bda ,yering1 ,v41 #adb ,yorke ,peninsula1 ,s4,a41 #bbf ,yule ,id41 ,papua1 #adf1 #ahg1 #bja ,zeehan1 ,t41 #aed 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,australia ,shewing chief fossiliferous localities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,corrigenda4 ,page #fe1 for head-line ,protozoa read ,how ,fossils are ,found4 ,page #adg1 for head-line ,characteristic ,fossils read ,sea-urchins4 ,page #bgc1 for head-line ,reptiles read ,amphibians4 ,transcriber ,note3 ,these changes were not utilized here as they only apply to the titles at the top of the printed pages4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,erratum--,page #dg4 ,in #ast column--for ,mesozoic or ,secondary 7continued74 ,read ,palaeozoic or ,primary and omit divisional line4 ,transcriber ,note3 ,these changes were applied to the text4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber ,note ,images were moved so paragraphs were not split4 ,minor typographical errors were corrected4 ,hyphenation was standardized to the most prevalent form utilized4 ,as the ligature was only used five times and ae was used more than #ej times1 the ligature was converted to ae4